■>. 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


I.I 


1.25 


|2JB     |25 

li 

2.0 


1^ 


1.4 


1.6 


^ 


/i 


7 


Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


33  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14S80 

(716)  872-4503 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHM/iCIVIH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microreproductions  /  Institut  Canadian  de  microreproductions  historiques 


Tschnical  and  Bibliographic  Notes/Notes  techniques  et  bibliographiques 


The  Institute  has  attempted  to  obtain  the  best 
original  copy  available  for  filming.  Features  of  this 
copy  which  may  be  bibliographically  unique, 
which  may  alter  any  of  the  images  in  the 
reproduction,  or  which  may  significantly  change 
the  usual  method  of  filming,  are  checked  below. 


D 


n 


D 


D 


n 


Coloured  covers/ 
Couverture  de  couleur 


n~]    Covers  damaged/ 


Couverture  endommag^e 


Covers  restored  and/or  laminated/ 
Couverture  restaurie  et/ou  pelliculie 


r~~|    Cover  title  missing/ 


Le  titre  de  couverture  manque 


I      I    Coloured  maps/ 


Cartes  giographiques  en  couleur 


Coloured  ink  (i.e.  other  than  blue  or  black)/ 
Encre  de  couleur  (i.e.  autre  que  bleue  ou  noire) 


r~~]    Coloured  plates  and/or  illustrations/ 


Planches  et/ou  illustrations  en  couleur 

Bound  with  other  material/ 
Relii  avec  d'autres  documents 

Tight  binding  may  cause  shadows  or  distortion 
along  interior  margin/ 

Lareliure  serrde  peut  causer  de  I'ombre  ou  de  la 
distortion  le  long  de  la  marge  intirieure 

Blank  leaves  added  during  restoration  may 
appear  within  the  text.  Whenever  possible,  these 
have  been  omitted  from  filming/ 
II  se  peut  que  certaines  pages  blanches  ajouties 
lors  d'une  restauration  apparaissent  dans  le  texte, 
mais,  lorsque  cela  dtait  possible,  ces  pages  n'ont 
pas  6t6  film^es. 

Additional  comments:/ 
Commentaires  suppldmentaires: 


L'Institut  a  microfilm^  le  meilleur  exemplaire 
qu'il  lui  a  dt6  possible  de  se  procurer.  Les  details 
de  cet  exemplaire  qui  sont  peut-Atre  uniques  du 
point  de  vue  bibliographique,  qui  peuvent  modifier 
une  image  reproduite,  ou  qui  peuvent  exiger  une 
modification  dans  la  m^thode  normale  de  filmage 
sont  indiquAs  ci-dessous. 

□    Coloured  pages/ 
Pages  de  couleur 

□    Pages  damaged/ 
Pages  endommagies 

n    Pages  restored  and/or  laminated/ 
Pages  restaurdes  et/ou  pelliculies 

0    Pages  discoloured,  stained  or  foxed/ 
Pages  ddcolories,  tachet^es  ou  piqu6es 

□    Pages  detached/ 
Pages  ddtachies 


\/ 


n 


Showthrough/ 
Transparence 


I      I    Quality  of  print  varies/ 


Qualitd  indgale  de  I'impression 

Includes  supplementary  material/ 
Comprend  du  materiel  supplementaire 

Only  edition  available/ 
Seule  Edition  disponible 


Pages  wholly  or  partially  obscured  by  errata 
slips,  tissues,  etc.,  have  been  refilmed  to 
ensure  the  best  possible  image/ 
Les  pages  totalement  ou  partiellement 
obscurcies  par  un  feuillet  d'errata,  une  pelure, 
etc.,  ont  6x6  filmies  A  nouveau  de  facon  6 
obtenir  la  meilleure  image  possible. 


Tl 
to 


Tl 

P< 

o 

fi 


O 
b( 

th 
si 
ot 
fii 
si 
or 


Tf 
sh 
Tl 
w 

M 
di 
en 
be 

rifi 

re( 
m( 


This  item  is  filmed  at  the  reduction  ratio  checked  below/ 

Ce  document  est  filmi  au  taux  de  reduction  indiqu6  ci-dessous. 


10X 

14X 

18X 

22X 

26X 

30X 

J 

12X 


16X 


20X 


24X 


28X 


32X 


Kl#?iig| 


The  copy  filmed  here  hes  been  reproduced  thanks 
to  the  generosity  of: 

Bibliothdque  nationale  du  Quebec 


L'exemplaire  1\\m6  fut  reproduit  grflce  d  la 
g4n6ro8lt6  de: 

Bibtiothdque  nationals  du  Quebec 


The  Images  appearing  here  are  the  best  quality 
possible  considering  the  condition  and  legibility 
of  the  original  copy  and  In  keeping  with  the 
filming  contract  specifications. 


Original  copies  in  printed  paper  covers  are  filmed 
beginning  with  the  front  cover  and  ending  on 
the  last  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  impres- 
sion, or  the  back  cover  when  appropriate.  All 
other  original  copies  are  filmed  beginning  on  the 
first  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  impres- 
sion, and  ending  on  the  last  page  with  a  printed 
or  illustrated  impression. 


The  last  recorded  frame  on  each  microfiche 
shall  contain  the  symbol  -^  (meaning  "CON- 
TINUED"), or  the  symbol  V  (meaning  "END"), 
whichever  applies. 


Les  images  suivantes  ont  6t6  reproduites  avec  le 
plus  grand  soin,  compte  tenu  de  la  condition  et 
de  la  nettetd  de  rexemplaire  film6,  at  en 
conformit6  avec  les  conditions  du  contrat  de 
filmage. 

Les  exemplaires  originaux  dont  la  couverture  en 
papier  est  imprimte  sont  fiim^s  en  commen9ant 
par  le  premier  plat  et  en  terminant  soit  par  la 
dernidre  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impression  ou  d'illustration,  soit  par  le  second 
plat,  salon  le  cas.  Tous  les  autres  exemplaires 
originaux  sont  fiim^s  en  commenpant  par  la 
premidre  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impression  ou  d'illustration  et  en  terminant  par 
la  dernldre  page  qui  comporte  une  telle 
empreinte. 

Un  des  symboles  suivants  apparaltra  sur  ia 
dernidre  image  de  cheque  microfiche,  selon  le 
cas:  le  symbols  — ►  signifie  "A  SUiVRE  ",  le 
symbols  V  signifie  "FIN". 


Maps,  plates,  charts,  etc.,  may  be  filmed  at 
different  reduction  ratios.  Those  too  large  to  be 
entirely  included  in  one  exposure  are  filmed 
beginning  in  the  upper  left  hand  corner,  left  to 
right  and  top  to  bottom,  as  many  frames  as 
required.  The  following  diagrams  illustrate  the 
method: 


Les  cartes,  planches,  tableaux,  etc.,  peuvent  dtre 
filmis  d  des  taux  de  reduction  diffdrents. 
Lorsque  le  document  est  trop  grand  pour  §tre 
reproduit  en  un  seui  clich6,  il  est  film6  d  partir 
de  I'angle  supdrieur  gauche,  de  gauche  d  droite, 
et  de  haut  en  bas,  en  prenant  ie  nombre 
d'images  nicessaire.  Les  diagrammes  suivants 
illustrent  la  mdthode. 


1 

2 

3 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

CHAMBERS'S 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


A  POPULAR  ENCYCLOPiEDIA. 


FIFTEENTH  AMERICAN  EDITION, 


WITH 


NUMEROUS  ADDITIONS  AND  MORE  THAN 
FIVE  HUNDRED  ENGRAVINGS. 


VOL.  L 


•     •    •  •  •  ■. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
PUBLISHED   BY   JAS.    B.   SMITH 
NO.  610  CHESTNUT  STBEBT 
1859. 


&   CO., 


Entered  aceontum  u>  me  hoi  it  Congrew.  m  ttie  rear  IMC.  09 

a.  B.  ZISBEB, 

Is  the  office  of  the  Clerk  of  the  District  Court  of  tbe  United  States,  in  ana  tor  the  Eastern  Dtatiiel 

of  Pennsylvania. 


Item  Dtatriflt 


PREFACE 


TO  THE  AMERICAN  EDITION. 


The  following  was  intended  by  its  accomplished  authors,  Messrs.  William  and  Robert 
Chambers,  of  Edinburgh,  to  form  a  complete  Popular  Cyclopadia,  or  book  of  general 
Information  for  the  People.  It  is  the  first  attempt  to  place  a  considerable  work  of  the 
character  of  an  encyclopaedia  within  the  reach  of  all  classes  of  the  people.  The  plan  on 
which  the  work  was  formed  was  to  select  only  the  subjects  on  which  it  is  important  for 
tlie  people  generally  to  be  informed.  The  minutiae  of  biography  and  topography,  scien< 
tific  technicalities,  and  other  matters  required  only  for  occasional  reference,  are  cftaitted  ^ 
and  thus  what  usually  fills  up  the  greater  part  of  an  encyclopaedia  is  at  once  dismissed. 
There  remains  for  the  full  accomplishment  of  the  plan,  <«  a  series  of  articles  on  the  most 
important  branches  of  science,  physical,  mathematical  and  moral,  natural  history,  political 
history,  geography  and  literature."  This  furnishes  such  a  course  of  reading,  as,  if  studied 
and  received  into  the  mind,  will  make  a  well-informed  man.  The  portions  of  a  large  and 
costly  encyclopaedia,  which  have  been  omitted,  are  such  as  do  not  form  any  part  of  the 
standing  knowledge  of  any  person  whatever,  besides  those  for  whom  it  may  have  a  tech- 
nical, professional,  or  local  interest.  «'It  will  be  understood,  then,  that  the  <  Informa- 
tion FOR  THE  People'  is  not  meant  as  an  encyclopsdia  unfailing  in  reference  for  all 
departments  of  human  knowledge,  but  as  an  encyclopaedia  including  such  knowledge  only 
as  tends  to  improve  every  mind  possessing  it — such  knowledge  as  expands,  liberates,  and 
fertilizes — with  the  addition  of  oiJy  a  very  few  articles  of  which  the  interest  and  value 
are  of  a  more  limited  nature.  The  ruling  object  has  been  to  give  what  may  be  expected 
to  prove  the  means  of  self-education  to  all  such  classes  of  society  as  are  debarred  from  th« 
receipt  of  knowledge  in  more  favourable  circumstances." 


20986 


CONTENTS. 


ASTRONOMY » 

OEOLOOY,  OR  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  EARTH M 

GEOGRAPHY— DESCRIPTIVE  AND  POLITICAL 48 

PHYSICAL  HISTORY  OP  MAN «« 

CHINA  AND  THE  TEA  TRADE 77 

OCEAN— SHU'S— NAVIGATION— MARITIME  DISCOVERY 94 

THE  WHALE— WHALE  FISHERIES lU 

CONVEYANCE— ROADS— CANALS— RAILWAYS 188 

NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY 146 

MECHANICS— MACHINERY 16» 

HYDROSTATICS— HYDRALTilCS— PNEUMATICS 179 

OPTICS— LIGHT— ACOUSTICS 196 

CHEMISTRY 218 

CHEMISTRY  APPLIED  TO  THE  ARTS 880 

ELECTRICITY— GALVANISM— ELECTRO-MAGNETISM 847 

METEOROLOGY— THE  WEATHER  864 

PHRENOLOGY 281 

PRINCIPLES  OP  CIVIL  GOVERNMENT 314 

LANGUAGE 330 

ENGLISH  GRAMMAR .347 

LOGIC 363 

EDUCATION 380 

DRAWING  AND  PERSPECTIVE 896 

ARITHMETIC— ALGEBRA 418 

GEOMETRY 429 

POPULAR  STATISTICS 446 

SOCIAL  ECONOMICS  OF  THE  INDUSTRIOUS  ORDERS 462 

AGRICULTURE 479 

IMPROVEMENT  OP  WASTE  LANDS— SPADE  HUSBANDRY 496 

THE  KITCHEN  GARDEN 618 

THE  FLOWER  GARDEN 529 

THE  FRUIT  GARDEN 646 

ARBORICL'LTURE 868 

THE  HORSE 678 

CATTLE  AND  DAIRY  HUSBANDRY 696 

SHEEP 611 

PIGS,  GOATS,  RABBITS,  POULTRY,  CAGE  BIRDS,  &c 629 

BEES 644 

THE  DOG— FIELD  SPORTS 661 

ANGLING 677 

GYMNASTIC  EXERCISES— OUT-OF-DOOR  RECREATIONS 694 

IN-DOOR  AMUSEMENTS 711 

FOREIGN  COSTUMES 726 

BRITISH  COSTUMES 743 

TIME— CHRONOLO(JY— TIME  MEASURERS 759 

KEY  TO  THE  CALENDAR 775 

PRINTING— ENGRaV^ING— LITHOGRAPHY 792 

REsornrES  of  humanity— useful  receipts— the  toilet eon 

PROVKltHS  AND  OLD  SAYINGS 83d 


CHAMBERS'S 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


ASTRONOMY. 


AnTHowoMT  (from  tho  (ireck,  aitron,  a  »tar,  nnd  nnmoi, 
J»  law)  in,  cnmprchiinHively,  that  acicncfl  v.-hich  explains 
%iw  naturo  and  motions  of  the  bodies  fllling  infinite  space, 
[[including  our  own  globe,  in  its  character  of  a  planet  or 
I  member  of  the  nolur  syittcm.     The  science  may  be  divided 
finto  two  departments — 1.  Dencriptivt  Jlslronomy,  or  an 
^  account  of  the  Nyi<tem»  of  bodies  occupying  space ;  2.  Mt- 
thanicnl  JMrononiy,  or  an  explanation  of  the  physical 
.awi  which  have  produced  and  wliich  sustain  the  arrange- 
ments of  the  heavenly  bodies,  and  of  all  the  various  results 
of  th»  arrangement  and  relations  of  these  bodies.     Vrnnu- 
grai  hy  is  a  subordinate  department  of  the  science,  [ire- 
tf  ntmg  an  account  of  the  arrangements  which  have  been 
iritle  by  astronomers  for  delineating  the  starry  heavens, 
aiid  working  the  many  mathematical  problems  of  which 
thev  are  the  subject. 


DESCRIPTIVE  ASTRONOAnr. 

The  early  ideas  of  mankind  respecting  the  objects  de- 
scrilied  by  antronomy,  proceeded  U])on  appearances  which 
ttie  uninstructcd  eye  placed  before  them,  and  were  fur 
from  being  true.  It  was  supposed  that  the  earth  was,  as 
ii  secras,  a  fixed  pliinc,  or,  at  the  most,  a  fixed  sphere,  with 
KTi  outer  sphere,  forming  the  heavens,  revolving  around 
it  once  in  the  twenty-four  hours.  Even  philosophers 
deemed  the  earth  the  central  and  most  important  object 
in  the  system,  and  regarded  the  heavenly  bodies,  the  sun, 
inooD,  planets,  and  stars,  aa  comparatively  small  objects, 
fixed  in  the  difTcrent  crystal  spheres,  each  of  which  ob- 
served its  own  laws  of  revolution,  according  to  the  apparent 
motions  of  the  bodies  fixed  in  it.  It  was  not  till  after 
much  study  and  investigation  that  even  the  most  cn- 
lighteneii  ri<'-.ds  arrived  at  a  knowledge  of  the  truth;  nor 
was  it  iur  some  time  longer  that  the  ideu  of  the  earth  not 
being  in  the  centre  of  the  system,  or  any  thing  but  a  small 
and  subordinate  part  of  it,  was  generally  admitted.  There 
is  no  room  here  to  trace  all  the  steps  by  which  the  truth 
was  ascertained,  or  to  argue  the  uninstructed  mind  out 
of  all  its  first  and  erroneous  impressions.  But  it  may  be 
hoped  that  when  the  actual  constitution  of  the  heavens 
hug  been  described,  it  will  be  possible  to  form  some  notion 
of  how  the  objects  in  their  real  character  and  real  arrange- 
ments come  to  appear  as  they  do  to  our  eyes. 

The  field  contempluted  by  the  astronomer  is  no  less 
than  iRFiMTE  sr.tcK.  So,  at  least,  he  may  well  presume 
space  to  be,  seeing  that  every  fresh  ]>ower  which  he  ailds 
to  his  telescope  allows  him  to  penetrate  into  remoter 
regions  of  it,  and  still  there  is  no  end.  In  this  space, 
ivstems,  consisting  of  suns  and  revolving  planets,  and 
'  Vol.  l.—i 


other  *ystems  again,  consisting  of  a  numberless  seriea  of 
iCitti  iesnor  syslrms,  are  suspended  b)  the  influence  ol 
g.avitation,  operating  from  one  to  another,  yet  each  botly 
at  such  a  diHtunco  from  another,  as,  though  the  miiwl  of 
rnan  can  in  some  instances  measure,  it  can  in  none 
conceive.  We  l)cgin  with  what  is  usunlly  called  th« 
Solar  System — that  is,  the  particular  solar  system  to 
which  our  earth  belongs. 

THE   SOLAR  SYSTEM. 

The  solar  system,  so  named  from  to/  (I;atin),  the  ran. 
consists  of  the  sun  in  the  centre,  twenty-nine  planets,  and 
an  unknown  number  of  bodies  named  comets.  Tha 
word  planet  is  from  the  Greek,  plnnnn,  to  wander, 
because  the  few  such  )>odics  known  to  the  ancients  were 
chiefly  remarkable  in  their  eyes  on  account  of  their  con- 
stantly shilling  their  places  with  reference  to  the  other 
luminaries  of  the  sky.  Comets  are  so  named  from  coma 
(Latin),  a  head  of  hair,  because  they  seem  to  conaii 
of  one  bright  spot,  and  a  long  brush  streaming  firom 
l>chind  it. 

I'lanelt, — Eleven  of  the  planets  are  called  primary,  be- 
cause they  move  directly  around  the  sun,  and  eighteen 
grronihiry,  because  they  move  round  primary  planets. 
The  secondary  planets  are  also  denominated  satellitei^ 
from  satcllei  (Latin),  orii;inally  signifying  a  life-guard*. 
man,  but,  by  a  wider  /plication,  one  who  follows  and 
serves  another.  Only  lour  of  the  primary  planets  have 
satellites. 

The  primary  planets  are  Mercury,  Venus,  the  Earth, 
Mars,  Vesta,  Ceres,  Pallas,  Juno,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and 
Herschel,  or  Uranus.  Most  of  these  names  are  derived 
from  the  fabulous  divinities  of  ancient  Greece.  Th* 
Earth  has  one  satellite,  the  Moon ;  Jupiter  has  four ; 
Saturn,  seven;  and  Uranus  is -supposed  to  have  six. 

The  planets  move  round  the  sun  on  nearly  one  level 
or  plane,  corresponding  with  the  centre  of  his  bo<ly,  and 
in  one  direction,  from  west  to  east.  The  secondary 
planets,  in  like  manner,  move  in  planes  round  the  centres 
of  their  primaries,  and  in  the  same  direction,  from  west 
to  east.  These  are  denominated  revolutionary  motions ; 
and  it  is  to  be  observed  that  they  arc  double  In  the  case 
of  the  sntcllites,  which  have  at  once  a  revolution  round 
the  primary,  and  a  revolution,  in  corapony  with  the 
primary,  round  tlie  sun.  The  path  described  by  a  plane 
in  its  revolution  is  called  its  orhil. 

Each  planet,  secondary  as  well  as  primary,  and  the  sun 
also,  has  a  motion  in  ita  own  body,  like  thut  of  a  boiibin 
upon  a  spindle.  An  imaginary  line,  forming,  as  it  were 
the  spindle  of  the  sun  or  planet,  is  denominated  the  axit 


INFORMATION   KOH  TIIK  PKOPLR. 


an>i  llie  two  «(tri>mltii<«  nf  Iho  axii  «rr  culU'il  llic  ;►'/<■<, 
Till'  iiti'i  of  lliK  min  uriil  plnni'lH  iiri-  ull  iii  irly  :il  «  tight 
•iikIii   Willi    lilt'    |iliuii'  of  tliii   ri'voluNiiiliiry   iiiiivi'iiiciita. 

'J'lic  iiioiMiii  nil  llic  ii\i*  IX  nillcil   till)   rotatory   moll 

Iroiii  In  II,  till'  l.iill'i  lor  u  wlim'l.  'I'lir  huh,  tliii  |iriniiiry 
|il>iiii'U,  mill  till'  •nil  Hill'*,  wllti  till)  iloulill'iil  i-x<r|ilioii  of 
two  iitli'iiiliiiK  oil  I7niiiii«,  iiiovii  on  tlii-lr  ima  in  tin'  •iiiiio 
ilirci'tioii  mt  tliu  rvvolutioniiry  iiiovumi'Ml*,  l'roi:i  went  lo 

MWt. 

Tl(t  Sun  i«  B  iiilirre  or  fflolx*,  nf  Hft'.i,OI)0  riilie*  in  ilia- 
mrtiT,  or  l,:iNl,'t7!{  tiitin.  tlin  liiilk  of  tlii'  r.irlli,  iiioviii)( 
rniiiiil  itii  axi*  in  8A  iluyit,  W'lu'ii  vii'wi'il  tlirouxli  it 
li'li'iM'o|M),  till)  Hurliii'ii  ii|i|N'iirii  iiili'iiM'ly  lirJKlit  utiil  liiiiiU 
noun,  ua  if  KiviiiK  out  IniIIi  livat  iiiid  HkIiI  to  tho  itiirrouiKl- 
111)1  |iluncl«.  liut  on  thin  mirl'uro  tlivro  wviiiiioiiiilly 
ii|>)M'ur  (liirk  ii|iolii,  ){i>iiorully  Hurroumli'd  witli  ii  liorJir 
of  loHM  iliirk  ii|>|>i'iiruiii'i> ;  muni'  of  wliirli  ii|iutH  liuvt;  bvni 
calrulutfJ  to  Im)  no  luiia  than  'lA.dUO  inllcii  in  liri'uillli,  or 
nearly  twico  a»  inui'h  aa  tho  circuinfi'rciii'u  of  tliu  uurlli. 
Th«)  region  of  tliu  aun'i  body  on  which  0:e  ii^kiU  u|i|it'.ir, 
ia  cuiitliivJ  to  u  brouil  aiiacu  ciigirtlliiiK  hia  ceiitru,  'i'hi'y 
•te  «oiiii>liini'i4  oliiHTvixl  tu  roiiiu  into  Hiylit  iit  Ilia  woiitt'rn 
iiiiin,  tu  puaa  uiToaa  hia  liudy  in  tliu  rourau  of  twt'lvi'  or 
Ihincea  iluya,  and  then  diaapiiear.     'i'huy  are  aoinuliuiua 


Knit  nf  mnrrmtnl  nf  tKt 
namtt  in  mUa  ptr  ininutt. 

Mercury 170rt 

V«nu> i:ni 

Kiirili Il'tl 

Man 90A 

V.sm 00.^ 

Junn (HI'S 

Or.'» 8U3 

ralUa 003 

JupiiBr *H) 

Saiiirn a83 

Uranut iW 

Moon Ud 


Iknsilia  of  Vlanti  mn- 
pariil  iritS  if'dffr,  which  U 
trwIrfHl  US  1. 

TheHiin.l,2-I,ltln. 
Meri-nry    0,  Mlth. 
Venu«'.fl,  ll-lSlhi. 
K^rih  •...■»,» 

Mori a  •-'-7lh«. 

Jupilor  •   -1.  l-'i!-lih. 
Saturn  '••II,  i:i-.'h!di. 
Uraima<  •U,  UV-lUUihi. 


olHurvi'il  lo  ronlrui't  with  nrrat  rnplilily,  and  nianpppai 
like  aoiiii'lliiiiK  iiii'ltrd  and  iilMorlnd  iiilii  ii  liiiriiiiiii  lliitd. 
lf|Hiii  till'  hriitlit  pill Ih  of  tlir  aiiii'a  liialy  IIhti-  jire  alao 
aoiiii'lliiira  olwrvi'd  alrruka  of  iiiiiihiiiiI  lirlKhtnriui,  aa  ii 
prodiiii'd  liy  till'  rid|{i'a  of  iiii  nuiliili'il  iiiid  liiiriinua  lluiil 
It  liiia  Ih'i'ii  MiiriniNrd,  Ihiit  Iht-  aim  la  h  dark  Ixaly,  niT* 
lo|M'd  ill  mi  iitiiiiMplicin  c-nlriilutril  for  Kiviiix  out  heat  uiid 
lli;lit,  mid  tliiit  tlin  apola  iiro  pnalui'i'd  liy  aliuiit  liruuka  ur 
o|a'iiiiiKa  ill  thiit  uliiiiwpluTr,  ahowiiiH  thu  iliirk  niaaa 
within.  TIioukIi  an  iimcli  I.ii^it  (Iiiiii  Ihu  i  urlh,  iha 
iiiulti'r  of  thu  aun  ia  of  only  iiliont  ii  third  of  llii>  diuaity 
or  coiiipni'tiiKHa  of  that  of  our  pluiiit,  or  little  iiioru  tliun 
tilt'  ili'iiHily  of  water. 

Till'  aim  ia  aurrouiidi'il  to  n  K^'i't  iliatiini'i'  liy  a  fiiini 
IlKht,  or  luiiiiiioua  iiiuttiT  of  i-.\tri'iiii<  tliiiiii<>Na,  ahii|N>d 
hku  II  li'iia  or  iiiiit(liif)iiiK-)(liiHH,  thu  lioily  of  thu  huh  iMiiig 
ill  thu  iriitru,  mid  thu  liiiiiiiioiia  iiiiillur  i'Xlni(lin){  ui  llio 
pimiu  of  ihe  pimii'tiiry  ruvolutioiiH,  lill  it  turiiiiiiutua  in  a 
[Miiiit,  At  piirticuliir  aunaona,  mid  in  fiivoiiriililu  Htaloa 
of  thu  iitiiioHphuru,  it  iiiuy  la;  olwurvud,  U'loru  Hiiiiriae 
or  ulh'r  aiiiini'l,  in  Ihu  form  of  u  uoiiu  poinliiiK  olijitjuuly 
uliovu  lliu  pliu'u  wliuru  the  aun  ia  uilhur  ulxnit  to  ap|iuar 
or  wliiuh  liu  lioa  Juit  loft.  It  ia  turinud  tlio  /.oUtiuiu 
Ltglit. 


bulinatiom  of  (hbiu  M  IW 

Mercury, 
7"  «■  U"  1. 

Venua, 
Mara, 
Vi-iia, 

7"  /  w  a. 

JllllO, 

13-  4'  0  •  7. 
Tcrca, 

10"  :n  'JO"  t. 

I'lillne, 

Jupili'r, 
1"  is' ,'51"  a. 

Haturn, 


9"  sar ;«"'  r. 

I'mniia, 
0  ■  4(1  'Jl-'* 


Till!  Boliir  Sjiiein. 


Merniry,  the  nearuat  planet  to  the  iun,  ia  a  Riobe  of 
•hout  3110  niiica  in  diuiin'tor,  rotatini;  on  its  uxia  in  2'4 
hours  and  5^  ininutua,  and  revolvinn  round  the  central 
luminary,  ,it  a  distance  of  .37,000,000  of  miles,  in  88  daya. 
From  tho  earth  it  can  only  be  w.n  occaaionally  in  the 
morning  or  evening,  as  it  never  rises  before,  or  sctii  after 
the  sun,  at  a  greater  distance  of  time  thon  1  hour  and  .50 
minutes.  It  apjiears  to  the  naked  eye  as  a  small  and 
nrilliaiit  Hfar,  but  when  observed  through  a  telusooiie,  is 
horned  like  the  moon,  because  we  only  see  a  purt  of  the 
surfacn  whirh  the  aun  ia  illuminating.  .Mountaina  of 
great  height  have  been  ohwrved  on  the  aurface  of  this 
pkinet,  particularly  in  its  lower  or  southern  hcniiaphore. 
One  has  been  calculaU'd  at  10^  miles  in  height,  lieing 
about  i.ght  times  higher,  in  proiwtion  U>  the  bulk  of  the 
planet,  than  the  loftiott  mountains  u|i<)n  earth.  The 
m;Uter  of  Mercury  is  of  much  greater  density  than  that 
ul  the  earth,  equalling  lead  in  weight;  so  that  a  hu.nan 
hung  placed  upon  its  surface  would  be  so  strongly  drawn 
towards  the  ground  as  scarcely  to  bo  able  to  crawl. 

Veaiu  is  a  globe  of  aliout  7800  miles  in  diameter,  or 
•euly  the  size  of  tho  earth,  rotating  on  it*  axis  in  23 


hours,  21  minutes,  and  19  seconds,  and  revolving  round 
tho  aun.  at  the  distance  of  (iH, 000,000  of  miles  in  228 
days.  Like  Mercury,  it  is  visililu  to  an  olwrvur  on  tho 
earth  only  in  the  morning  and  evening,  but  for  a  greater 
space  of  time  before  sunris«'  and  iiOcr  Himset.  ll  up|H<ars 
to  us  the  most  lirilliant  and  iK-autiUil  of  ull  Ihu  |ilanutary 
and  stellar  bodies,  occuHioiially  giving  so  niurh  hglil  aa 
to  produce  a  sensible  shadow.  Olisurved  thrinigh  a  tele- 
HcoiKS,  it  apiHMra  horned,  on  account  of  our  .u'eing  onlv  a 
;iiirt  of  its  hiiniiious  surface.  The  illumiiiaird  part' of 
Venus  oocaMioiiully  presents  slight  spots.  It  has  liren 
asiiTtained  that  its  surface  is  very  uiii'iiii.il,  tlir  greatest 
mountains  lieii.g  in  the  southern  lii'MiiK|ih<Tr,  us  in  tho 
cas«!  of  both  Mercury  and  the  Earth.  Tin  liigher  moun- 
tains in  Venus  range  between  10  and  22  miles  in  iilliuido. 
The  planet  is  «No  envelo|H'd  in  an  utiirjiplicr.  like  that 
by  which  animal  and  vegetible  life  is  Kup|hirt.(!  on  earth 
and  il  has  coiise<iupntly  a  twilight.  Venus  pirfornB  iu 
revolution  round  the  sun  in  2'.'.5  dnys.  Mercury  and 
Venus  have  Isen  termed  the  Inferior  Planets,  as  U'ing 
placed  within  the  orbit  of  the  Earth. 

Tlu  Earth,  the  tliird  planet  iu  order,  and  one  of  Umi 


/ 


ASTRONOMY. 


11 


'•lll^i  mid  <it«iipjjv*i 
'■III  II  liiiriiiriK  fluid. 
'""I.v  llii'ri-  lire  ulto 
ml  lirlKhtiirM),  «n  ii 
liiiil  liiiniKiuii  fltiitl 
H  ilitrk  liiHly,  riive 
KlviliK  (lilt  heat  uiu] 
l>y  mIihIiI  liruuki  ur 
■■K  llio  ilurk  lllMi 
mil  tliti  turtli,  th* 
lliril  III  till'  ill  iMily 
ur  lililo  iiiuro  thun 

iIi»tiuico  liy  a  fiiJiil 
I'  tliiiiiM'iiH,  ii)iii|ipd 
ly  ol'llir  HUM  iN'iiig 
■  rxli'iiiliiiif  111  llu) 
it  U'rniiiniti'ii  in  « 
I  ruviiiiriilile  MtHtM 
til,  iMl'ori'  Miiiiriw 
|iiiiiiliiil{  i)lili(juely 
r  uIhiiU  to  R|i|ivu 
iiii'ti  till)  /.odiiaui 


iliom  ijf  OrWtt  M  lb 

Krliptic. 

Meroiiry. 

7"  0'  «••  i; 

Vrnun, 
3°  Xi-  liB-'  a. 

Mara, 

Vetia, 
T"  /  «••  •. 

Juno, 
13-4U'7. 

0"  in-  MA"  t. 

I'lillna. 
\    M  S3-  0. 

JlipiltT, 

Hiiiurn, 
ail-  ,■«•'  7. 

''riiiim, 
4ii  a<4 


i-volving  round 
r  inilcK  in  S25 

•wrviT  on  iho 
lit  for  0  grcntrr 
'<'(•  It  ii|i|H'ars 
I  lli«  |ilaiiulary 
iiiiii'h  liirlit  at 
:l>ri)ii(;!i  a  tele- 
'  w'.'injj  only  a 
iiialril  imrtof 

It  liaH  (icfn 
'I.  Ill''  ijrcatosl 
err,  u.t  in  the 
.'lifjIi'T  inoun- 
liiM  ill  iiililnilc. 
li«Ti  like  ihut 
rt.(!  on  I'arth 

lurliiriie  iu 
.Mcri'iny  and 
iii'tn,  aH  'n'ing 

id  onu  of  tiw 


imtlln  iIm,  thonijh  not  th«i  umallrit,  li  important  to  ui, 
•■  tha  Ihratrn  on  whirh  our  raro  Irnvn  Ufn  pincpil  to 
"  li»«,  move,  and  have  tlirir  l>rin«."  It  in  7I»(I2  iniln  In 
mian  illumnti-r,  folntinif  on  il«  aii»  in  84  limira,  at  a 
nwan  dlDtniiro  of  OA.OOO.OOO  of  iniica  from  llit*  Him,  round 
which  it  revuivoa  in  DHA  dnya,  f>  lioura.  All  nuniili'N,  and 
57  ircondi.  Aa  a  |ilanrt  vii-wpil  from  nnntlirr  of  Ihti 
[ijaiwta,  Muppoao  th«i  moon,  "it  would  pri'iw'iit  a  prrtty, 
vurii'Kiiti'd,  and  aomrtiinoi  a  mottli'd  Hp|H>aranc6.  'I'he 
diatliii'tion  iH^twi'i'ii  Ita  m'lia.  iH'tMina,  I'ontinrnlii,  and  iHlanili , 
wmild  Imi  rinirly  murkrd :  thry  would  »p|N'iir  liku  liriL(hlt>r 
and  durkrr  apola  upon  it*  iliac.  'I'lio  I'ontinriita  would 
ap|HMir  liri|{ht,  and  Ihit  iM'rnn  of  n  darker  liu«  ln'caiinn 
wiitiir  aliaorlm  llii<  Kri'nli'r  part  of  tlio  wilar  lii^ht  that  falla 
U|iiin  it.  The  li'vrl  platiia  (oxri-pliiiif,  |i*trhiip^  Hiich  re- 
({iona  na  the  Araliian  draiTta  of  aiind)  would  appi'ar  of  a 
aomiiwliat  diirkor  t'olour  than  tlio  inorfl  cU'vati'd  and 
niiiiintainuua  ri'^iona,  ni  wn  tliid  to  lin  Ihn  ram  on  tho 
•urfiico  of  tlio  moon.  The  inlniida  would  apjicnr  like 
•mall  bright  Mprka  on  ihe  darkrr  aurfara  of  thu  ori'an  ; 
and  the  lakcH  and  miMlltorraniMin  »oa»  like  darker  M|NitB<>r 
broud  atreaka  interarrlinK  the  liriKJit  parta,  or  the  Inmi. 
Uy  ita  revolution  round  ita  axia,  aurroaaive  portionaof  tlio 
aurfaco  would  Im*  brought  into  view,  and  preaent  a  dilfor- 
eiit  uap«'it  from  the  parU  which  preceded,"* 

'I'lie  form  of  the  earth,  and  probably  that  of  every  other 
planet,  ia  not  atriclly  Hpherlcal,  liut  apheroidal;  that  ia, 
fliittt'iii'd  a  little  at  the  poles,  or  extremitiea  of  the  aiia. 
'JMie  diameter  of  the  earth  at  the  uxia  ia  SO  milea  Icaa  thun 
ill  the  croaa  direction.  Thif  peculiarity  of  the  form  ia  n 
coiiae(|uenco  of  the  rotatory  motion,  ua  will  Iw  ailerwarda 
explained. 

The  earth  ia  attended  by  one  latellite,  the  Moon,  which 
U  K  ({lobe  of  SlUU  milea  in  diameter,  and  cunaequently 
about  a  4Uth  part  of  tho  bulk  of  the  earth,  revolving 
round  ita  primary  in  27  daya,  7  houra,  4:1  niinutea,  and 
11  aecoinla,  at  the  diatanco  of  !24(),UOO  milea.  The  moon 
ia  4UU  timea  nearer  the  earth  than  the  auii  ia ;  but,  ita 
diameter  beiiiK  at  tho  aume  time  4U0  timea  Icaa  than  that 
of  tho  aun,  it  up|itmra  to  ua  of  alioiit  the  aamo  aize.  'i'he 
moon  rotatea  on  her  uxia  in  exactly  the  anine  time  aa  aho 
revolvca  round  the  earth.  8ho  coiiaciiuently  preaenta  at 
all  tiinea  the  aaine  part  of  her  surface  towards  the  earth. 


yt\} 


Teleteopie  appearance  of  the  Moon. 

Inapectcd  through  a  telescope,  her  surface  appeara  of  un- 
equal briifhtncas,  nnd  extremely  riufgod.  The  dark  pnrta, 
however,  are  not  seas,  as  has  been  supposed,  but  more 
bke  the  beds  of  aeas,  or  great  alluvial  {iluiiia.     No  a|>- 


•  Dick'a  Heleitlal  iiceiiery,  13S. 


(warancr  of  water,  or  of  rli  tida,  or  of  an  itniokphrr*,  Hm 
Iwrn  dcti'CliHl,  The  aiirfiire  preaent*  numrrolia  ii.oun* 
tuina,  aiinie  of  Ihcin  about  a  mile  and  three  ipmrtrr*  in 
lieiKbt,  aa  baa  been  aMTrtaincd  Ky  iiii'uaiiri'metil  of  tho 
aliadowa  wlili'h  they  caat  on  Ibr  nciKldxinriiiK  aurfui-a. 
Tlie  to|M  of  Ihe  mminlaina  ol  llie  niiKin  are  Kenerally 
ahaiiml  like  a  cup  or  liiiain,  with  a  aniall  einineni'i'  ii^iiiK 
froin  the  i-enlre,  like  inaiiy  vuloiiiic  billa  on  the  earth.  It 
hiia  hence  iH-eii  Nuriiilnid  that  the  moon  la  In  a  viilniiiu 
iiiilr,  ua  the  earlh  ap|N'Hrs  to  have  Ihtii  for  many  »ge» 
la'fiire  the  creation  of  iiiaii,  and  that  it  la  pirbapa  uiuler- 
KoiiiK  procraiira  calculated  to  make  it  a  flt  aceiie  for  animal 
and  vegetable  life. 

The  miNin,  turniiiit  on  ila  axia  once  in  n  little  mora 
than  !i7  dnya,  prencnia  every  part  of  ita  surface  in  aua 
ccaaion  to  the  aun  In  that  time,  aa  the  earth  doea  In  24 
hours.  Th«  ilay  of  Ihe  nnHin  ia  eoiia«>i|ueiilly  nearly  ■ 
fortnight  long,  and  ita  uisliit  of  the  same  duration.  Tho 
lii(ht  of  *he  aun,  falling  upon  the  moon,  ia  partly  abaurbrd 
into  ita  iHxIy ;  but  u  aiiiull  portion  ia  retlecled  or  thrown 
back,  and  liecoineH  what  we  call  niimnliiihl.  'I'he  illu> 
minnted  part,  from  which  we  derive  moonlight,  ia  at  all 
times  increaaiiig  or  iliminlHbing  in  our  eyea,  aa  the  moon 
proceeds  in  her  revolution  around  our  gloU'.  When  tlwi 
aatellite  ia  at  tho  greatest  distance  from  the  aun,  wo,  being 
between  tlio  two,  tiee  the  whole  of  the  illaininutod  surtaca, 


■• 


Phaaaa  of  the  Moon. 

which  we  accordingly  term  full  moon.  As  tho  moon  a(k 
vnncea  in  her  course,  tho  luminous  aide  is  gradually  averted 
from  ua,  and  the  moon  is  said  to  wane.  At  length,  when 
the  satellite  has  got  between  the  earth  and  the  sun,  the 
luminous  side  ia  entirely  lost  sight  of.  The  moon  is 
then  sold  to  rhaniic  Proceeding  in  her  revolution,  she 
soon  turns  a  bright  edge  towards  us,  which  we  call  the 
new  nitx>n.  This  gradually  increases  in  breadth,  till  a 
moiety  of  the  circle  is  quite  filled  up;  it  is  then  said  to 
lie  li  'If  moon.  The  luminary,  when  on  the  increase  from 
line  til  half,  is  termed  a  crescent,  from  rresrenf,  Latin  for 
increasing ;  and  this  word  has  lieen  applied  to  other  ob- 
jects of  tho  same  Bha{)e — for  instance,  to  a  curved  line  of 
buildings. 

In  tho  early  days  of  the  new  moon,  we  usually  see  the 
dark  part  of  tho  body  faintly  illuminated,  an  ap|K'aranc8 
termed  tho  old  moon  in  Ihe  item  nionn'ii  nnni.  This  faint 
illumination  is  produced  by  the  reflection  of  the  sun'a 
light  from  the  earth,  or  what  the  inhabitants  of  the  moon, 
if  there  were  any,  might  lie  supjiosed  to  consider  as  moon- 
light. The  earth,  which  occupies  one  invariable  jilace  in 
the  sky  of  tho  moon,  with  a  surface  thirteen  times  larger 
than  the  apimrent  size  of  the  moon  in  our  eyes,  is  then 
(it  the  full,  shining  with  great  lustre  on  the  sunless  aide 
of  its  satellite,  and  receiving  back  a  small  portion  of  ita 
own  reflected  light.  The  light,  then,  which  makes  tlio 
daik  part  of  the  moon  visible  to  us,  may  be  said  to  pe» 
form  three  journeys,  first  from  the  sun  to  the  earth,  then 
from  the  earth  to  the  moon,  and  finally  from  the  raonu 
back  to  the  earth,  before  our  eyca  arc  enaMed  to  porcctw 
lliis  object. 


li 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Mart,  the  fourth  of  the  primary  planew,  in  a  globe  of 
4189  miles  in  dinmcfer,  or  little  mora  than  a  half  of  that 
of  the  earth ;  consequently,  the  bulk  of  this  planet  is  only 
•bout  a  6th  of  that  of  our  giobc.  It  performs  a  rotation 
on  its  axis  in  84  hours,  39  minutes,  and  21^  seconds,  and 
revolves  round  the  sun,  at  a  distance  of  142,00(»,000  of 
miles,  in  686  days,  22  hours,  and  18  seconds.  Mars  ap- 
pears to  the  naked  eye  of  a  red  colour ;  from  which  cir- 
cumstance it  was,  probably,  that  the  ancients  bestowed 
Bpon  it  the  name  of  the  god  of  war.  Inspected  through 
a  telescope,  it  is  found  to  be  occasionally  marked  by  large 
spots  and  duH  streaks,  of  various  for..i8,  and  by  an  un- 
usual brightness  at  the  |>ole«.  As  the  bright  polar  parts 
loraetimes  project  from  the  circular  outline  of  the  planet, 
ft  has  been  conjectured  that  these  are  masses  of  snow, 
■milar  to  those  which  beset  the  notes  of  the  earth. 

Vcnta,  Cent,  Pallan,  and  J^nu.  are  four  small  globes, 
nrolTing  between  the  orbits  of  Mars  and  Jupiter,  in  paths 
near  and  crossing  each  other,  and  which  are  not  only  much 
more  elliptical  than  the  paths  of  the  other  planets,  but  also 
rise  and  sink  much  further  from  the  plane  of  the  general 
planetary  revolutions. 

Vtsta  is  of  a  bulk  only  l-1 6,000th  part  of  the  bulk  of 
the  earth,  with  a  surface  not  exceeding  that  of  the  king- 
dom of  Spain.  It  revol/es  round  the  sun  in  3  years,  66 
i<\.yi,  and  four  hours,  at  a  mean  distance  of  22.'i,5()(),000 
mUes.  Though  the  smallest  of  all  the  planets,  it  gives  a 
»ery  brilliant  light,  insomuch  that  it  can  be  seen  by  llie 
naked  eye. 

Juno  is  142.5  miles  in  diameter,  and  presents,  when 
insjwcted  through  the  telescope,  a  white  and  wril-definod 
•pj)enranc«.  Its  orbit  is  the  most  ecrcnlric  of  all  the  pla- 
•letary  urhils,  being  25.3,0()0,0()()  of  miles  from  the  sun  at 
the  greatest,  and  only  126,00(1.000,  or  less  thim  ono-h.ilf, 
at  the  least  distance.  In  the  half  of  the  course  nearest 
%o  the  sun,  the  motion  of  the  pliinei  is,  by  virtue  of  a  na- 
tural law  afterwards  to  be  explauicd,  more  than  t%vice  as 
ropifl  as  in  the  other  part. 

Veres  has  l)een  variously  represented  as  of  1624  and 
180  miles  in  diameter.  The  astronomer  who  ciilrulatrd 
its  diameter  at  1624  miles, at  the  same  time  lH>litvcd  him- 
self to  have  ascertained  tli.it  it  has  a  dense  atmosphere, 
extending  675  miles  from  its  surfiico.  It  is  of  a  nddish 
colour,  and  appears  al>out  the  size  of  a  star  of  the  eighth 
maijnitude.  Ceres  revolves  round  the  sun,  at  a  distance 
af  260,000,000  of  miles,  in  four  years,  7  months,  and 
10  days. 

I'tillat  has  been  represented  as  of  2099  miles  in  dia- 
meter, with  an  atmosphere  extending  4G8  miles  above  its 
aurl'ure.  Another  astronorm-r  liiUi  allowed  it  a  diainetcr 
of  only  80  miles.  It  revolves  round  the  sun,  at  a  mean 
dUtonce  of  266,000,000  of  miles  in  4  years,  7  montlis, 
aiid  11  days.  However  unimportant  it  may  ap|)oar  be- 
side the  larger  planets,  it  has  a  peculiar  itit«!rcst  in  the 
eyes  of  astronomers,  on  account  of  its  orbit  having  a 
greater  inclinalioii  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic  than  thodo 
af  all  the  larger  planets  put  together. 

These  four  planets,  wliich.are  sometimes  called  unit- 
roidt,  have  only  recently  become  known  to  mankind. 
Ores  was  discovered  at  Palermo  in  Sicily,  on  l!ic  1st  of 
lanuary,  1801,  by  M.  Pia/zi,  who  cave  it  this  name  in 
nonour  of  the  tutelary  goddess  of  his  native  country. 
I'allas  was  discovered  at  Bremvn,  in  Luwer  Saxony,  on 
the  aSlh  of  March,  1802,  by  Dr.  OIIkts.  .Imio  was  (!-3- 
oovered  by  Mr.  Harding,  at  the  oliservatorj  ot  I.ilietithal, 
near  Brenieii,  on  the  1st  of  SoptemlMjr,  1804.  Vi'sta 
was  discovered  on  the  -.iiUh  of  Marcli,  180V,  by  the  same 
astronomer  who  had  discovered  I'lillas. 

Jupiter  a  the  largest  of  all  the  planets.  Its  diameter 
IS  nearly  eleven  times  that  of  the  earth,  or  89,170  miles, 
and  its  volume  or  muss  is  consequently  I'^81  times  tiiat 
of  our  g:'obe.  The  density  of  Jupiter  is  only  a  fourth  of 
mat  of  lbs  larth,  or  about  the  lightness  of  watur ;  and  a 
buman  k«iB4,  if  transferk^ed  to  it,  would  be  able  to  leap  ^ 


with  ease  over  a  pretty  large  house.  It  performs  a  rota 
tion  on  its  axis  in  9  hours,  65  minutes,  and  33  secondk) 
or  about  two-fifths  of  our  day.  It  re^-olves  round  the 
sun,  at  a  distance  of  490,000,000  of  miles,  in  4330  dayi^ 
14  hours,  and  39  minutes,  or  nearly  twelve  of  our  yeariM 
Viewed  through  a  telescope,  Jupiter  appears  surrounded 
by  dark  lines,  or  belts,  which  occasionally  shili,  melt  into 
each  other,  or  separate,  but  sometimes  are  observed  with 
little  variation  for  several  months.  These  belts  are  g»- 
nerally  near  the  equator  of  the  planet,  and  of  a  i)road  and 
straight  form ;  but  they  have  been  observed  over  his  whole 
surface,  and  of  a  lighter,  narrower,  and  more  btrcaky 
and  wavy  appearance.  It  is  supposed  that  the  dark 
parts  are  lines  of  the  body  of  the  planet,  seen  tlirough 
openings  in  a  bright  cloudy  atmosphere. 

Jupiter  is  attended  by  four  satellites,  which  revolve 
round  it,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  moon  round  our 
globe,  keeping,  like  it,  one  face  invariably  presented  to 
their  primary.  They  are  of  about  the  same  size,  or  a 
little  larger  diameter  than  our  moon;  the  first  having 
a  diameter  of  2508,  the  8<>cond  of  2068,  the  third  of 
3377,  and  the  fourth  of  2890  miles.  The  first  revolves 
round  the  primary  planet  in  1  day,  18  hours,  28  minutes; 
the  second  in  3  days,  13  hours,  14  minutes;  the  third  in 
7 days,  3  hours,  43  minutes;  and  the  fourth  in  16  days, 
16  hours,  32  minutes.  These  satellites  frequently  ecUpse 
the  sun  to  Jupiter;  they  arc  also  eclipsed  by  the  primary 
planet,  but  never  all  at  the  same  time,  so  that  his  dark 
side  is  never  altogether  without  moonlight. 

The  satellites  of  Jupiter  were  discovered  by  Galileo, 
being  among  the  first  results  of  the  invention  of  the 
trlesco]ie.  'I'hey  have  been  of  great  use  in  several  astro- 
nomical calculations  of  imjmrtanci',  particularly  in  sug- 
gesuiig  tlie  theory  of  the  gradual  propagotion  of  light. 
It  having  been  observed  thiit  their  eclipses  always  took 
place  sooner  than  was  to  be  ex|)ected  when  the  earth  was 
near  Jupiter,  and  later  when  it  was  at  the  greatest  dis- 
tance, an  astronomer  solved  the  difficulty  by  supposing 
that  light  recjuired  some  time  to  travel — a  conjecture 
wliich  was  afterwards  confirmed  by  other  observations. 

Saturn,  seen  through  a  telescope,  is  the  most  rema'k- 
able  of  all  the  planets,  lieing  surrounded  by  a  ring,  and 
attended  by  seven  satellites.  In  bulk  this  is  tlie  second 
of  the  )ilancts,  l)eing  79,042  miles  in  diameter,  or  about 
995  times  the  volume  of  the  earth.  Its  surface  appears 
sliuhtly  marked  by  belts  like  those  of  Jupiter.  It  pei> 
forms  a  rotation  on  its  axis  in  10  hours,  16  minutes,  and 
revolves  round  the  sun,  at  a  distance  of  900,000,000  of 
miles,  in  10,746  days,  19  hours,  16  minutes,  or  about  29^ 
of  our  years.  At  such  a  distance  from  the  sun,  that  lu- 
minary must  he  diminished  to  one-eightieth  of  the  size  he 
lx>ars  in  our  eyes,  and  the  heat  and  light  in  the  same 
proportion.  The  matter  of  Saturn  is  one-eighth  of  tlie 
density  of  our  earth. 

The  ring  of  Saturn  surrounds  tlie  Inxly  of  the  planei 
in  the  plane  of  its  equator.  It  is  thin  like  the  rim  of 
a  sjiiniiing-wheel,  and  is  always  seen  with  its  edge  pre- 
sented more  or  less  directly  towards  us.  It  is  luminous 
with  the  sun's  light,  and  casts  a  shadow  on  the  surface  of 
the  planet,  the  shadow  of  which  is  also  sometimes  siren 
tailing  on  part  of  the  ring.  The  distance  of  the  inner 
edge  from  the  planet  is  calculated  at  about  19,000  miles; 
its  entire  breadth  from  the  inner  to  the  oulet  edge  is 
28,5:t8;  the  thickness  is  not  more  than  100.  In  certain 
positions  of  the  planet,  we  can  see  its  surface  at  a  coii- 
siduralile  aiif;k',  and  the  o|icnings  ui  loops  which  it  I'oriiis 
on  the  sides  of  the  |ilaiiet.  At  other  limes  we  see  its 
dark  side,  or  only  its  edge.  From  observations  niuJe 
ujioii  it  ill  favourable  circumstances,  it  is  tbuiid  to  lie  a]*- 
[laroiilly  divided  near  the  outer  edge  by  a  dark  line  of 
neiirly  1800  miles  in  breadth,  as  if  it  wore  divided  into 
two  con  •entric  rings.  From  other  apix-araiices,  it  has 
been  surmised  to  have  other  divisains,  or  to  1h>  a  collec- 
tion of  several  concentric  rin)[s.     It  is  also  occasionally 


ASTRONOMY 


It 


Inu.'ked  by  small  npots.  The  ring  of  Saturn  rotate*  on 
I  ha  own  plane  in  10  houra,  33  minutea,  15  seconds,  and 
I  •  part  uf  a  second,  being  about  the  same  lime  with  the 
I  rotat^in  of  the  planet 

The  seven  satellites  of  Saturn  revolve  around  it,  on 
[the  exterior  of  the  ring,  and  almost  all  of  thorn  in  nearly 
[  the  same  plane.  They  are  ho  small  as  not  to  be  visible 
1  without  a  povrerful  telescope.  The  two  inner  ones  are 
I  very  near  to  the  outer  edge  of  the  ring,  and  can  only  be 
I  (liaoerned  when  that  object  is  presented  so  exactly  cdge- 
i  Ways  as  to  be  almost  invisible.  They  have  then  licon 
i.ton  pasi<ing  like  two  small  bright  beads  along  the  minute 
I  thread  of  light  formed  by  the  edge  of  the  ring.  The 
I  three  next  satellites  are  also  very  imall ;  the  sixth  is 
I  larger,  and  placed  at  a  groat  interval  from  the  rest.  The 
91^  seventh  is  the  largest ;  it  is  about  the  size  of  the  planet 
if  Mars,  and  is  situated  at  nearly  thrice  the  distance  of  the 
'■  sixth,  or  about  8,300,000  miles  from  the  body  of  Saturn. 
The  revolutions  of  these  satellites  range  from  I  to  79 
days ;  and  it  has  been  ascertained  of  some  of  them  that, 
according  to  the  usual  law  of  secondary  planets,  their 
.•  rotations  on  their  axes  and  their  revolutions  round  their 
primary  are  performed  in  the  same  time,  so  that,  like  our 
moon,  they  always  present  the  same  face  to  the  centre 
JUS  their  system.  The  orbit  of  the  seventh  satellite  is 
.inuch  inclined  io  the  plane  of  Saturn's  equator. 
%  Uranus,  or  Hcnchtl,  the  remotest  planet  known  in 
'  fbe  solar  system,  is  a  globe  of  35,112  miles  in  diameter, 
'lh>tating  oa  its  axis  in  7  hours,  and  performing  a  revolu- 
tion round  the  sun,  at  a  distnnce  of  1,800,000,000  of 
miles,  in  84  of  our  years.  It  was  discovered,  on  the  1 3th 
of  March,  1781,  by  Sir  William  Herechel,  at  Bath. 
The  sun  to  this  remote  planet  must  appear  only  a  400th 
part  of  the  size  \..iiuh  he  bears  in  our  eyes.  Two  satel- 
lites are  known,  c-^  other  four  are  suspected,  to  attend 
upon  Uranus  The  two  which  have  been  observed  cir- 
culate round  their  primary  in  orbits  almost  perpendicular 
to  the  ecliptic,  and  are  further  supposed  to  move  in  a  di- 
rection cuntraiy  to  that  of  all  the  other  planetary  mo- 
tions— namely,  from  east  to  west 

Some  idea  may  be  obtained  of  the  comparative  size  of 
the  principal  objects  of  the  solar  system,  by  supposing  a 
globe  of  two  feet  diameter,  placed  in  the  centre  of  a  level 
plain,  to  represent  the  sun;  a  grain  of  mustard-seed, 
placeif  on  the  circumference  of  a  circle  164  feet  in  dia- 
meter, for  Mercury ;  a  pea,  on  a  cirrle  of  384  feet,  for 
Venus ;  another  pea,  on  a  circle  of  430  feet,  for  the 
Earth ;  a  large  pin's  head,  on  a  cirrle  of  654  feet,  for 
Mars ;  four  minute  grains  of  sand,  in  circles  of  from 
1000  to  1200  feet,  for  Vesta,  Ceres,  Pallus,  and  Juno ;  a 
moderate  sized  orange,  on  a  crcle  of  nearly  half  a  raile  in 
diameter,  for  Jupiter ;  a  small  orange,  on  a  circle  four- 


Orrerv 


fifths  of  a  mile  in  diameter,  for  Satnm ;  imd  a  small  plum 
or  full-sized  cherry,  on  a  circle  of  a  mile  and  a  half  in 
diameter,  for  Uranus.  It  is  calculated  tliat  the  united 
mass  of  the  whole  of  the  planets  is  not  above  a  600th 
part  of  the  mass  of  the  sun.  The  sun  and  planets  ar* 
represented,  with  an  approximation  to  correctness,  in  phi< 
losophical  toys  termed  orreries,  of  which  the  appearance 
is  conveyed  in  the  preceding  engraving. 

00MKT8. 

Comets  are  light  vapoury  bodies,  which  move  round 
the  sun  in  orbits  much  less  circular  than  those  of  the 
planets.  Their  orbits,  in  other  words,  are  very  long 
ellipses  or  uvals,  having  the  ,:un  near  one  of  the  ends. 
Comets  usually  have  two  parts,  a  body  or  nucleus,  and  a 
tail ;  but  some  have  a  body  only.  The  body  appears  as 
a  thin  vapoury  luminous  mass,  of  globular  form  ;  it  is  so 
thin,  that,  in  some  cases,  the  stars  have  .^en  seen  through 
it  The  tail  is  a  lighter  or  thinner  luminous  va|io'at  sur- 
rounding the  body,  and  strcamii.g  far  out  from  it,  in  one 
direction,  A  vacant  space  has  been  observed  between  the 
body  and  the  enveloping  matter  of  the  tail ;  and  it  ia 
equally  remarkable  that  the  tail  has  in  some  instance* 
appeared  less  bright  along  the  middle,  immediately  be- 
hind the  nucleus,  as  if  it  were  a  stream  which  that  nu- 
cleus had  in  some  measure  parted  into  two. 

In  ignorant  agos,  the  sudden  appearance  of  a  comet  in 
the  sky  never  failed  to  occasion  great  alarm,  both  on  ac- 
count of  its  threatening  appearance,  and  beciiuRe  it  waa 
considered  as  a  sign  that  war,  pestilence,  or  famine,  wna 
about  to  afHict  mankind.  Knowledge  has  dispelled  fiU 
such  fancies;  but  yet  we  are  not  well  acquainted  with 
the  nature  of  comets. 

Out  of  the  great  multitude — certainly  not  \en  than 
1000 — which  are  supposed  to  exist,  aiiout  150  have  N-en 
made  the  subject  of  scionlific  observation,  fi.-^jtoad  of 
revolving,  like  the  planets,  nearly  on  tho  j/Iann  of  the 
sun's  equator,  it  is  found  that  they  approc^'h  hie  body 
from  all  parts  of  surrounding  space.  At  Sr?t,  thoy  are 
seen  slowly  advancing,  with  a  comparatively  faint  a|)pe»r- 
ance.  As  they  approach  the  sun,  the  motion  becomrs 
quicker,  and  at  length  they  pass  round  him  with  very 
great  rapidity,  and  at  a  comparatively  small  distance  from 
his  bo<ly.  The  coiuBt  of  1680  approached  within  one- 
sixth  of  his  diameter.  After  passing,  they  are  seen  to 
emerge  from  b.is  rays,  with  an  immense  increase  to  their 
former  brilliancy  and  to  tho  length  of  their  tails.  Their 
motion  then  becomes  gradually  slower,  and  their  bril- 
liancy diminishes,  and  at  lenijlh  they  are  lost  in  distance. 
It  has  l)cen  ascertained  that  their  movement  round  the 
sun  is  in  accordance  with  the  same  law  which  regulates 
the  planetary  movements,  being  always  the  quicker  the 
nearer  to  his  body,  and  the  slower  the  more  distant  In 
the  remote  parts  of  space  their  motions  must  be  extremely 
slow. 

Three  comets  have  l)een  observed  to  return,  and  their 
periods  of  revolution  have  been  calculated.  The  most 
remarkable  of  these  is  one  usually  denominated  Halley'a 
Comet,  from  the  astronomer  who  first  calculated  its  pe- 
riod. It  revolves  round  tlie  sun  in  about  seventy -five 
years,  its  List  appearance  being  at  the  close  of  1835. 
Another,  called  Eiike's  Comet,  from  Professor  Enke  of 
Berlin,  has  Xwen  found  to  revolve  once  in  1207  days,  of 
3 J  years;  but,  in  this  case,  the  revolving  body  is  found, 
at  each  successive  approach  to  the  sun,  to  bo  a  little  ear- 
lier than  on  the  previous  occasion,  showing  that  its  orbit 
is  gradually  lessening,  so  that  it  may  l>e  expected  ulti- 
mately to  fall  into  the  sun.  'i'his  fact  has  suggci-iej 
that  some  part  of  that  space  through  which  the  comet 
passes,  must  be  occupied  by  a  matter  presenting  some  re- 
sistance to  the  movement  of  any  denser  body  ;  and  it  i« 
Rup|iosed  that  this  matter  may  prove  to  l)o  the  same 
which  baa  been  dcscribetl  as  conatitutiiig  the  zodiacs. 


14 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


right  It  ii  called  a  renittinf;  medium  ;  and  future  observa- 
tionn  upon  it  are  expect*^  to  be  attonded  with  results  of 
a  most  important  nature,  seeing  that,  if  there  be  such  a 
matter  extending  beyond  the  orbit  of  tlie  earth,  that 
planet,  in  whose  welfare  we  are  so  mueh  interested,  will 
be  exposed  to  the  same  ultimate  fate  with  Enko's  Comet. 
The  third,  named  Bella's  Comet,  from  M.  Beila  of 
Joseplistndt,  revolves  round  the  sun  in  fi  j  yoors.  It  is 
»ery  small,  and  hns  no  tail.  In  1838,  this  comet  passed 
through  the  earth's  path  about  a  month  before  the  arri- 
val of  our  planet  at  the  same  point.  If  the  earth  had 
been  a  month  earlier  at  that  point,  or  the  comet  a  month 
later  in  crossing  it,  the  two  iMvlies  would  have  been 
brought  together,  and  the  earth,  in  all  probability,  would 
have  instantly  become  unfit  for  the  existence  of  the 
human  family.  Comets  are  often  aflcctod  in  their  mo- 
tions by  the  attraction  of  the  planets.  Jupiter,  in  parti- 
cular, has  been  described  by  an  astronomer  as  a  perpetual 
■tumbling-block  in  tlieir  way.  In  1770,  a  comet  got  en- 
tangled amidst  the  satellites  of  that  planet,  and  was 
thereby  thrown  out  of  its  usual  course,  while  the  motions 
of  the  satellites  were  not  in  the  least  affected. 

Comets  often  pass  unol)serv<"d,  in  consequence  of  the 
part  of  the  heavens  in  which  they  move  being  then  under 
daylight.  During  a  total  eclipse  of  the  sun,  which  hap. 
pened  sixty  years  before  Christ,  a  large  comet,  not  formerly 
■een,  bceanic  visible,  near  the  body  of  the  obscured  lumi- 
nary. On  many  occasions,  their  smalliiess  and  distance 
^?ndel  them  visible  only  by  the  nid  of  the  fele.-Tope.  On 
other  occaFJons,  they  are  of  vast  size.  'ITie  comet  now 
called  Halley's,  at  its  appf'arnnce  in  1456,  covered  a  sixth 
part  of  the  visible  extent  of  the  heavens,  and  was  likened 
to  a  Turkish  scytnitar.  That  of  1680,  which  was  ob. 
•erved  by  Sir  Isaac  ^'ewlon,  had  a  tail  calculated  to  be 
123,000,000  of  miles  in  length,  a  space  greater  than  the 
distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun.  There  was  a  comet 
in  1714,  which  had  six  tails,  spread  out  like  a  fan  across 
a  large  space  in  the  heavens.  The  tails  of  comets  usu- 
ally stretch  in  the  direction  opposite  to  the  sun,  both  in 
advancing  and  retiring,  and  with  a  slight  wave  at  the 
outer  extremity,  as  if  that  part  experienced  some  resist- 
ance. 

THE   STARS. 

Tht  idea  at  which  astronomers  have  arrived  respecting 
the  stars,  is,  that  they  are  all  of  them  suns,  resembling 
•ur  own,  but  diminished  to  the  api)earance  of  mere 
ipccks  of  light  by  the  great  distance  at  which  they  arc 
placed.  As  a  necessary  consequence  to  this  supposition, 
it  may  be  presumed  that  they  are  centres  of  light  and 
heat  to  systems  of  revolving  planets,  each  of  which  may 
be  further  presumed  to  be  the  theatre  of  forms  of  lieings, 
bearing  some  analogy  to  those  which  exist  upon  earth. 

The  stars,  seen  by  the  naked  eye  on  a  clear  night,  are 
not  above  a  thousand  in  number.  This,  allowing  a  like 
numbiT  for  the  half  of  the  sky  not  seen,  gives  nlwut  two 
thousand  in  all  of  visible  stars.  These  are  of  I'iflerent  de. 
grceo  of  brilliancy,  probably  in  the  main  in  proportion  to 
their  respective  distances  from  our  system,  but  also  perhaps 
in  some  measure  in  proportion  to  their  res|)cr;;v,-  &i  liini  ■., 
■ize«,  .\atronomcrs  class  the  stars  under  diiTiient  nine-n- 
tuHm,  not  w:tn  regard  to  apparent  size,  for  none  of  tliem 
present  a  meaf-'iriible  ilisc,  but  with  a  regard  to  the  various 
quantities  of  liijht  (lowing  round  theui ;  llius.  Iliere  are 
stars  of  the  first  magnitude,  the  si-cond  indir'iitude,  and 
s.)  on.  Only  six  or  seven  varieties  of  niagnlluile  are 
witliin  our  natural  vision  ;  but  with  the  telescope  vast  i 
nunilx'rs  of  more  distant  stars  are  lirought  into  view  ;  and  ' 
the  niagniiudes  are  now  extend<>d  liy  astronomers  to  at 
V.iMt  sivtei'n. 

The  slurs  are  at  a  distance  from  our  system  so  very 
gre.il,  that  the  mind  Ciiii  form  no  idea  of  it.  'J'lie  bril- 
liant one  ciilleil  Sirius  or  the  Don-'lar,  which  is  supposeil 
io  tie  lh»  acurcst,  but  merely  >iucause  it  is  tho  most  lunii-  , 


nous,  has  been  reckoned  jy  toleiably  clear  calrulaHnii  to 
give  only  1 -20,000,000th  part  of  the  lidht  of  the  sun 
hence,  supposing  it  to  )e  of  the  same  size,  and  every 
other  way  alike,  it  should  bo  distant  from  our  earth  not 
less  than  1,960,000.000,000,000,000  miles.  An  attempt 
has  been  made  to  calculate  the  distance  of  Sirijs  by  a 
trigonometrical  problem.  It  may  be  readily  supposed  thai 
tho  position  of  a  spectator  upon  the  earth  with  respect  to 
celestial  objects  must  vary  considerably  at  diflcrent  part* 
of  the  year:  for  instance,  on  the  2l8t  of  June,  he  musi 
be  in  exactly  the  opposite  part  of  the  orbit  from  what  he 
was  on  the  2l8t  of  December — indeed,  no  lew  than 
1 90,000,000  of  miles  from  it,  or  twice  the  distance  of  the 
earth  from  the  sun.  This  change  of  position  with  rela- 
tion to  celestial  objects  is  called  puraUcz.  Now,  it  haa 
been  found  that  Sirius  is  so  distant,  that  an  angle  formed 
between  it  and  the  two  extremities  of  the  earth's  orbit  is 
too  small  to  lie  aiipreciated.  Were  it  so  much  as  one 
second,  or  the  3600th  part  of  a  degree,  it  could  be  ap- 
preciated by  the  nice  instruments  we  now  possess ;  but 
it  is  not  even  this.  It  is  hence  concluded  that  Siriua 
must  be  at  loast  19.200,000,000  of  miles  distant,  how- 
ever much  more!  Supposing  this  to  belts  distance,  it* 
light  would  take  three  years  to  reach  us,  thouijh  travel- 
ling, as  it  does,  at  the  rate  of  192,000  miles  in  a  second 
of  time ! 

It  is  ascertained  beyond  doubt,  that  some  stors,  at  one 
time  visible,  and  registered  by  ancient  astronomers,  are 
not  now  to  bo  seen ;  while  many  instances  are  on  record 
of  stars  which  have  come  into  sight  for  a  time,  and  then 
gradually  vanished.  A  large  star  suddenly  became  visi- 
ble 12.'>  years  before  Christ,  and  attracted  the  attention 
of  Hipparchus,  who  was  thereby  induced  to  draw  up  a 
catalogue  of  stars,  the  first  ever  made.  In  the  year  389, 
a  star  blazed  forth  in  the  constellation  .^quilu,*  and  after 
remaining  for  three  weeks  as  bright  as  the  planet  Venus, 
disap|)eared.  A  star  appeared  in  the  region  of  the  hea. 
vens  between  Cepheus  and  (Cassiopeia,  in  the  years  94ft, 
1264,  and  lfS72,  and  is  supposed  to  be  one  which 
comes  within  our  sight  once  every  three  hundred  and 
nineteen  years,  or  thereby.  At  its  la.st  appearance,  it 
was  very  attentively  observed  by  the  celeiirnted  Danish 
astronomer  Tycho  Brahe,  who  published  a  volume  re. 
specting  it.  Its  appeornnce  was  so  sudden,  that  in  re- 
turning from  his  lalioratory  to  his  dvvelling-hou^e,  he 
found  a  group  of  country  |ie(iple  gazing  at  it,  and  was 
satisfied  it  had  not  been  in  that  quarter  of  the  sky  half 
an  hour  licfore.  It  was  then  as  bright  as  Sirius,  and 
continued  till  it  surpassed  Jupiter  when  brightest,  and 
was  visible  at  mid-duy.  It  disappeared  entirely  about 
eighteen  months  after  being  first  observed.  Another 
bright  star  appeared,  in  the  constellation  Seriientarius,  in 
OctolH'r  1604,  and  remained  for  a  year.  It  is  mentioned 
by  contemporary  writers,  that  at  the  birth  of  Charles  II. 
in  1630,  a  large  star,  never  before  observed,  apfa-arcd  in 
the  day-time,  as  if  to  mark  something  extraordinary  in 
the  fortunes  of  the  child  that  day  ushered  into  existence. 
Otlier  instances  have  been  noticed  in  still  more  recent 
times ;  but,  urwn  the  whole,  this  is  a  point  in  which  as. 
tronomical  otiservation  is  defective.  It  seems,  however, 
to  ii«!  clearly  ascertained,  tliiil  some,  if  not  all  of  the  stars, 
have  periiKlical  motions  throughout  space,  some  more 
riipiil  lliiiii  others.  In  several  of  the  instaiires  where  the 
periml  is  short,  tlicre  is  no  want  of  [Misitive  kiiowliil^'c. 
It  has  Im'iii  nsccrtuiiieil,  for  instance,  tliat  the  st;ir  diiii- 
crmi,  in  Cetus,  has  a  periodical  movement   «>ccu|)yiiig 


.1 


•  n  nmy  be  mnUM!  btriv  in  Rntiripatioiu)f  more  pnnimlBr  t-x- 
plmiatoiiH  lit  hr  K'^'*"  HlhTwiirH*  thni  iln*  «iiirr>  hiMivi-hs  nrfl 
l»y  n-itrtipo  kt-*  m:f['pril  mil  inn>  ii  ^rrion  nt"  ci»n»*if!!iiiMiii»,  nr 
n'''*''ml.i»i>:f'«  ol"  utiirt.  furlt  nl'  winch  I'CtirK  lli*»  iiiuiir  c;f  Minio 
fiyiirf  or  nlln-r  nhjcri.  da  A'piila  th«  Knt!!'-.  Crtus  ihf  W'liHle. 
Cnstm  anil  VxUu.r,  twin  (Icm.mnl*  nl'  tin-  f^rnek  iii)  ihnldtry.  Atr. 
I'licti  pnriiriilar  ftnr  m  n  f*(>iii»tt'llHt''in,  in  ilu*  ortlt-r  of  itM 
iimtrniiinlc.  \n  <liKt!n(;i>i>«}i(-inty  ti  l<-tltr  of  llx*  (ireok  itlpl;abrl 
an<l,  wlieu  tlifSf  art;  t-xnauflirt),  wiih       xiinliLT. 


ASTRONOMY 


li 


clpar  cal(ulaHmi  to 
\c  lidht  of  the  sun 
ame  size,  and  every 

from  our  earth  nol 
miles.  An  atteinpl 
unco  of  Sirijs  hy  • 
radily  supposed  thai 
'iirth  with  respect  to 
ly  at  diflca-nt  part* 
st  of  June,  he  niusi 
}  orbit  from  what  he 
leed,  no  less  than 
e  the  distance  of  the 
'  position  with  rcla- 
iilltr.  Now,  it  has 
int  an  an|;Ic  formed 
r  the  earth's  orbit  is 
I  it  so  much  as  one 
reo,  it  could  be  ap- 
!  now  possess;  but 
ncludcd  that  Sirius 
miles  distant,  how- 

0  be  its  distance,  ita 

1  us,  thou;;h  travcl- 
i  miles  in  a  second 

;  some  stars,  at  one 

it  BHtronomers,  are 

imces  are  on  record 

or  a  time,  and  then 

ildi-nly  became  visi- 

ncted  the  attention 

iiced  to  draw  up  a 

In  the  year  389, 

Aquilu,*  and  after 

I  the  planet  Venus, 

region  of  the  hea. 

,  in  the  years  945, 

to  be    one    which 

hree  hundred  and 

ast   appearance,  it 

celebrated  Danish 

bed  a  volume  re. 

udden,  that  in  re- 

welliiig-ho\ipe,  ha 

g  at  it,  and  was 

r  of  the  sky  half 

ht  as  Sirius,  and 

irn   brightest,  and 

entirely   about 

iserved.     Another 

Ser|)entariu8,  in 

It  is  mentioned 

111  of  Charles  II. 

rved,  apfH>ared  in 

extraordinary  in 

d  into  existence. 

still  more  recent 

lint  in  which  as. 

seems,  however, 

t  all  of  the  stars, 

lace,  some    more 

»M(  es  where  the 

live   kno«l(ir,'p. 

the   st:ir  Oiiii- 

iipiit    (>eeiipviiig 


ore  pnrticiiisr  fX- 
nrr\  hi'iivi'i.s  nrt" 
iiKii'IIiitKiris.  or 
III'    iiiiiiir  v.i  •inniu 

'etui    thf    W'JiHir. 

k  m>  tlioio;:)'.  Ar. 
iIm*  onltT  11?"  itM 
(inek  iilplahi't 

ir. 


•84  davs,  It  is  seen  as  bright  M  a  star  of  the  second 
^BiaRTjiude  for  about  a  fortnight:  then  gradually  dimi- 
nishes for  three  months,  till  it  becomes  invisible,  in  which 
■late  it  remains  for  five  months,  when  it  again  becomes 
»i»ible,  and  gradually  increases  till  it  regains  its  former 
brightrkcss,  more  or  less— for  it  does  not  always  reach 
the  same  degree  of  lustre.  The  star  Algol,  in  the  con- 
ateltation  Perseus,  continues  visililc  during  a  period  of 
axty-two  hours,  when  it  suddenly  loses  its  splcmlour, 
and  from  a  star  of  the  second  magnitude  is  reduced,  in 
three  hours  and  a  half,  to  the  fourth;  after  which  it 
N»gins  to  increase,  and  in  three  hours  and  a  half  resumes 
ite  former  size  There  are  eleven  other  stars  which  ex- 
hibit analogous  phenomena,  some  of  them  at  intervals  of 
five  hi:ndrcd  years,  to  which  we  may  look  forward  with- 
out any  danger  of  mistake.  Astronomers  have  not  yet 
made  sufficiently  extensive  observations  to  settle  whether 
our  own  sun  have  any  motion  through  space ;  but  that 
it  has  such  a  motion,  has  been  surmised  without  any  ap. 
parent  reference  to  this  branch  of  inquiry. 

Another  variety  in  the  nature  of  those  luminaries  is 
their  being  in  some  instances,  not  single  stars,  as  they  ap- 
pear to  the  naked  eye,  but  a  group  of  two  or  more,  cvi. 
dently,  from  their  motions,  forming   one  system.     The 
■tar  <Ja3tor,  one  of  the  twins,  is  found,  when  much  mag- 
nified, to  consist  of  two  stars,  of  between  the  third  and 
fourth   magnitude,   within   five  seconds  (a  very  small 
qjace)  of  each  other.     Sir  William  Herschcl  made  ob- 
■ervationu  upon  more  than  500  stars  of  this  kind,  where 
Ihe  diHtanco  is  not  more  than  half  a  minute  (also  a  very 
■mall  space);  and  to  this  list  a  foreign  astrmiDnier  has 
added  five  times  that  number.     Nor  is  there  reason  to 
suppose  that,  in  nil  these  instances,  one  of  the  stars  is  at 
a  jreat  distn.ice  behind  the  other,  and  that  they  are  only 
brought  together  by  the  accident  of  our  position.     Many 
of  the  doubio  stars  no  doubt  are  thus  accidentally  brought 
together ;  but  of  a  great  number  it  has  been  fully  ascer- 
tained that  they  are  each  a  system,  with  a  reciprocal  re- 
lation to  each  other.     They  are  therefore  called  Binary 
Stars,     It  is  generallv  observed  that  they  move  round 
each  other  within  a  certain  time,  and  in  elliptical  orbits ; 
the  revolution  of  Castor,  for  instance,  is  supposed  to  be 
accomplished   in  334  years ;  of  |  of  Ursa  Major,  in  58^ 
years ;  of  70  Ophiunci  in  78  years.     In  fact,  there  is  the 
same  variety  in  this  branch  of  the  starry  system  os  in  its 
othei  departments,  and  the  revolutions  of  the  few  binary 
■tars  that  have  been   accurately  surveyed    range   from 
lorty-tliree  to  twelve  hundred  years.     Several  of  fhese 
duplicate  stars  have  made  a  revolution  since  they  were  j 
irst  observed,  and  are  now  advancing  in  their  second 
period.     One,  f  Hercules,  was  seen  double,  in  1782,  by 
Sir  William  Hcrschel;  in   179.5,  it  was  hardly  dislin. 
guishuble  to  lie  double;  in  1802,  it  was  double  no  lunger, 
the  one  being  eclipsed  by  the  other,  though  a  small  part 
of  one  was  still  jutting  out  at  the  side  of  the  other ;  as- 
tronomers are  now  watching  to  observe  them  once  more 
become  separate.     Whether  one  of  these  stars  serves  to 
the  other  as  a  sun,  or  whether  both  are  suns,  or  whether 
the  orgar.Leed  life  with  which  they  are  probably  stored,  Ixj 
of  a  kind  which  can  endure  a  perpetual  light  and  heat 
thrown  from  the  one  to  the  other — or  in  wluit  other  man- 
ner tlipse   immense  worlds  are  put  to  use — it  would  bo 
vain  to  inquire.     Une  remarkable  [Niculiarity  in  them  is, 
the  variety  of  tints  apparent  in  the  light  emitted  \<y  a 
coM»idi'ralile   number  of  them;  but  no  accurate  account 
has  yet  iH'en  nivcn  of  the  reason  of  this  wonderful  liill'cr- 
ence  of  colour  in  the  stars. 

Perhaps  the  nuiat  magnificent  of  all  the  starry  pheno- 
mena is  the  Milky  W'cy.  This,  as  is  generally  known, 
ii  a  broad  belt,  of  whitish  lustre,  which  stietches  round 
(be  whole  sky,  tieing  parted  into  two  streaks  for  a  large 
part  of  the  circuit.  The  ancients  formed  the  mean  idea 
of  tliis  light,  that  it  was  the  milk  spilt  by  the  nurse  of 
Mercury,  one  of  the  deities ;  and  honco  its  name.    When 


examined  by  a  telescope,  it  is  found  to  consist  entirely 
■f  stars,  «  scattered  by  millions,"  as  Sir  .lolin  Hcm^hoi 
t)eautifully  describes  them,  "  like  glittering  dust,  on  th« 
black  ground  of  the  general  heavens."  The  averaga 
magnitude  of  these  stars  is  about  the  tenth  or  the  eleventh, 
and  hence  their  invisibility  to  the  naked  eye.  It  is  a  very 
remarkable  circumstance,  that,  though  the  stars  of  thn 
larger  magnitudes  are  scattered  with  considerable  equail'y 
over  the  whole  heavens,  there  is  a  notable  clustering  of 
the  smalliT  ones  towards  the  body  of  this  ring.  Sir  Wil^ 
liam  Herschel.  by  gauging,  as  it  were,  the  depth  of  oui 
starry  system  in  this  and  other  parts,  arrived  at  what  he 
believed  to  be  an  approximation  to  the  figure  of  the  sys- 
tem itself — namely,  an  elongated  cake-shaped  mass,  part- 
ing flat-wise  into  two  at  one  particular  part  of  the  exterior 
(where  Ihe  Milky  Way  Is  double),  and  in  which  our 
solar  system  was  p.^ced  somewhat  nearer  the  one  ex- 
tremity than  the  othei.  M'here  the  distance  between 
two  stars  is  so  great  as  we  have  seen,  and  we  can  sup- 
pose the  distance  between  all  Ihe  rest  to  be  no  less, 
what  must  lie  the  entire  extent  of  this  star-system,  com- 
posed as  it  is  of  millions  of  millions  of  distinct  bodies ! 

NKBU4.Ji. 

Within  the  bounds  of  what  has  here  been  called  the 
star-system,  great  numbers  of  bodies  have  been  discovered, 
which,  from  their  cloud-like  appearance,  are  called  Ne- 
Imlce.  There  is  one  of  magnificent  appearance  in  the 
girdle  of  the  constellation  Androrpeda,  and  another  still 
more  splendid  in  the  sword-hilt  of  Orion,  both  visible  to 
the  naked  eye.  Some  of  these  objects  are  of  most  irregu- 
lar form,  stretching  like  a  fragment  of  semi-pellucid 
membrane  over  the  sky,  with  patches  of  brighter  matter 
scattered  irregularly  throughout  their  extent.  In  othera, 
the  bright  patches  are  of  greater. intensity,  so  a.s  to  have 
the  decided  appearance  of  gatherings  of  the  matter 
towards  a  particular  point.  Others  there  tre,  in  which 
these  bright  parts  seem  nearly  dieengaged  from  the  sur- 
rounding thin  matter,  or  only  bed'Jcu  u-i  a  slight  back- 
ground composed  of  it.  In  a  fourth  class,  we  see  detached 
masses,  approaching  more  or  less  to  a  s[>herii'al  form,  and 
with  various  measures  of  comparative  tj/ightuess  towards 
the  centre,  until  they  resemble  a  star  vMth  only  a  slight 
bur  around  it.  It  is  a  new  and  startling  surmise  of 
astronomers,  that  these  are  examples  of  u  :jeries  of  states 
in  which  nebulous  matter  exists,  during  a  process  form- 
ing it  into  solar  systems  more  or  less  analogous  to  our 
own — belated  portions,  so  to  speak,  of  the  same  soft  and 
diflused  material,  which,  countless  ages  ago,  was  con- 
densed into  the  defined  bodies  forming  the  remainder  of 
our  star-system ! 

There  is  much,  it  must  be  owned,  to  support  this 
hypothesis,  startling  as  it  is.  The  physical  laws  known 
to  operate  in  our  own  solar  system  are  in  {wrfect  harmony 
with  it  It  has  beeti  shown  that  such  matter,  in  agglom- 
erating, would  necessarily  assume  a  spherical  form,  just 
as  a  drop  of  dew  takes  that  shape  on  the  ))oint  of  a  thorn, 
namely,  by  the  law  of  attraction.  Particles  of  any  fluid 
matter,  flowing  towards  a  centre,  will,  unless  in  the  ex- 
traordinary circumstances  of  their  meeting  in  a  direct 
line  (circumstances  which  scarcely  ever  occur),  form  a 
whirl  or  vortex.  The  meeting  of  two  currents  of  the 
ocean  forming  a  whirlpool,  or  of  two  currents  of  ail 
forming  a  whirlwind,  or  even  such  a  trivial  and  familial 
phenomenon  as  the  sinking  of  water  through  a  fuiinei, 
are  examples  of  the  working  of  tliis  law  of  matter.  Henoti 
then,  a  rotatory  motion  would  be  an  almost  unavoidaM* 
result  of  the  agglomeration  of  a  muss  of  nehnloua  mai 
ter.  In  this  we  can,  of  course,  see  the  origin  of  auch  a 
motion  as  that  which  our  sun  is  known  to  have  upon  bit 
axis. 

And  not  only  are  the  formation  and  mov»m>>nt«  ot 
suns  to  lie  thus  accounted  tor,  but  it  has  been  sHoa'ii  tuat 
the  same  laws  will  explain  how  a  whole  f 'unHary  By# 


16 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


tem  may  hove  been  ma&e  up.  A»  the  process  of  c ondenia- 
tion  in  a  nebular  mass  proceeds,  the  whirling  motion 
must  always  liccome  more  rapid,  just  as  a  sling,  when 
the  string  Is  allowed  to  wind  up  round  our  finger,  flies 
always  the  faster  as  the  string  shortens.     While   the 
rotatory  motion  is  thus  increasing,  the  centrifugal  force 
nay  become  too  great  to  permit  the  outer  and  probably 
softer  portion  to  adhere  to  the  mass ;  and  this  outer  and 
softer  portion  will  therefore  be  left  off  as  a  ring  surround- 
ing the  principal  mass  at  a  little  distance.     Other  por- 
tions may  thus  be  successively  detached,  till  a  consider- 
able number  of  rings  will  be  left  encircling  the  central 
mass.     Only  if  the  matter  of  these  rings  be  of  a  uniform 
character,  can  it  be  exj«cted  that  they  should  continue 
as  rings.     Almost  necessarily,  there  will  be  inequalities 
in   their  composition,  causing  them   to  brriik  up  into 
pieces,  each  of  which,  by  virtue  of  gravity,  will  then  col- 
lapse into  a  sphere.     A  sphere,  thus  formed,  must  needs 
retain  the  same  revolutionary  motion  as  the  ring  of  which 
it  once  formed  a  part,  and  at  the  same  time  it  nmst  acquire  a 
rotatory  motion  in  the  same  direction.     Thus  we  have  a 
set  of  primary  planets,  tlie  bodies  of  which  have  only  to 
undergo  the  same  processes  as  the  central  mass,  in  order 
to  throw  off  satellites.     The  two  rings  which  surround 
Saturn  appear  an  example  of  two  exterior  portions  of  tliut 
planet  as  yet  not  advanced  from  the  intermediate  state, 
but  which  may  in  time  become  additions  to  the  number 
of  his  satellites.     The  zodiacal  light  may  also  Iw  a  resi- 
due, of  extreme  thinness,  of  the  matter  of  wliich  our  sys- 
itm  was  formed. 

It  might  be  sii[>posed  that  this  hypothesis,  ingenious  ns 
it  is,  could  scarcely  be  stretched  to  account  for  the  forma- 
tion of  solar  systems  in  which  there  are  two  suns  re- 
volving round  each  other.  But  this  ditliculty  is  easily 
jvercome.  It  has  been  shown  that  the  nebulous  matter, 
in  certain  cases,  may  assume  that  arrangement  On  the 
surface  of  a  flowing  stream,  in  which  slight  repulsions  of 
water  from  Ihe  bunks  produce  little  eddies,  how  common 
is  it  to  see  two  of  those  miniature  whirljiools  come  within 
each  other's  influence,  and  then  go  on  wheeling  round 
each  other :  precisely  in  that  ninnner  do  the  two  suns  of 
■  binary  star  cai^v  on  their  revolutions,  and  from  circum- 
stances of  a  similar  nature,  though  u|>on  so  much  greater 
a  acale,  may  these  revolutions  have  originated. 

RKMOTC    STAR-SrSTEMS. 

Our  own  star-system,  inconceivably  vast  as  it  is,  is  but 
an  item  of  the  heavenly  inventory.  Far  beyond  its 
bounds,  the  tclciico|>e  of  Hcrschcl  has  descried  similar 
systems  in  great  numbers,  each  hanging  in  some  tolerulily 
dcfinod  shape  in  the  vast  empyrean,  and  each  caj)able  of 
being  resolved,  not  exactly  into  stars,  tliough  thcNU  arc  in 
•ume  instances  visible,  but  into  what  has  been  expressly 
called  iiai-diiel,  a  collection  of  small  brilliant  particles, 
each   of  which  would   probably  appear  a  distinct   sun 


'i.V  i^im 


X  Jr 


Remote  Star  System. 

inder  a  strongtrr  power  of  artificial  vision.  Olwcrvations 
nava  been  made  u|>on  these  star-systems  chi<>fly  in  the 
'Xrectioi:  o"  the  thinner  pattt  of  our  own  system,  wherw 


the  sky  is  clearest  of  our  own  stntu,  and  where  of  eourw 
they  are  most  distinct  from  other  and  nearer  objoctii 
But  even  in  these  limited  fields  of  the  sky  very  great 
numliers  have  been  seen — between  1000  and  SOOUin  th« 
northern  hemisphere  alone — a  number,  we  must  reeolleet, 
exceeding  that  of  all  the  ordinarily  visible  stars  in  tba 
same  moiety  of  the  heavens. 

They  are  of  various  forms,  but  in  general,  as  has  been 
said,  tolerably  well  defined,  and  therefore  differing  en- 
tirely from  the  irregularly  diffused  matter  of  our  nebula. 
Many  appear  as  spherical  cltislers,  with  a  crowding  of 
the  star-ilust  towards  the  centre :  of  this  kind  there  is  a 
brilliant  example  in  the  constellation  Hercules.  It  haa 
been  remarked,  that  in  the  worlds  about  the  centre  of 
stich  clusters,  the  visible  heavens  must  bo  inconceivably 
brilliant,  though  they  will  have  no  appearances  resembling 
our  milky  way.  There  is  another  spherical  class,  in 
which  the  external  parts  are  the  most  brilliant :  in  thcae 
cases,  the  visible  heavens  of  a  world  neor  the  centre  wUI 
probably  be  almost  entirely  coni|)osed  of  milky  way. 
From  our  earth  these  annular  clusters  are  presented  in 
various  points  of  view,  some  so  nearly  edgewise,  that  wt 
can  barely  see  the  long  line  of  thin  nmtler  in  the  centre, 
There  is  one  of  most  peculiar  form,  namely,  an  oval,  with 
a  regularly  formed  space  of  more  brilliunt  matter  extend- 
ing across  it  in  something  like  the  foriii  of  a  dunib-liell  I ! 
Hurprising  to  relate,  there  are  more  than  one  t)earing  a 
stronjf  resemblance  to  the  form  which  has  been  jiresumed 
us  that  of  our  own  star-system,  namely,  a  flattened  mass, 
with  a  brilliant  annular  exterior,  parting  flatwise  into  two 
at  one  part !  In  the  Maffcllavir  doudf,  a  nebulous  object 
in  the  southern  hemisphere,  there  is  one  remote  star-sys- 
tem (.SO  Doradds),  described  by  Sir  John  Herschel  a* 
"consisting  of  a  number  of  loops  united  in  a  kind  of  un- 
clear centre  or  knot,  tike  a  bunch  of  rihlmis  disposed  in 
whiU  is  allied  a  true  lover't  knot !"  "  We  are,"  says  an 
astronomer  who  possesses  eloquence  worthy  of  his  noble 
science,  •>  lost  in  mute  astonishment  at  these  endlesa 
diversities  of  character  and  form.  But  in  the  apparent 
aim  of  things  near  and  around  us,  we  may  perhaps  diik 
ccrn  some  purpose  which  such  variety  will  also  serve. 
It  seems  tlie  object  or  result  of  known  material  arrange- 
ments, to  evoke  every  variety  of  creature,  the  condition 
of  whose  being  can  lie  made  pro<luclive  of  a  degree  of 
durability ;  and  perhaps  it  is  one  end  of  this  wonderfiil 
evolution  of  firmaments  of  all  orders,  that  there  too  th 
law  of  variety  may  prevail,  and  room  lie  found  for  unfold 
ingthe  whole  riches  of  the  Almighty."* 

The  vast  general  distance  of  these  clusters,  their  di»- 
tinotne.ss  from  our  own  system,  and  their  relative  dia- 
tiuices,  have  licen  determined  by  the  comiiarative  powers 
of  the  telescopes  employed  in  ol)serving..them.  Some  of 
them  are  distant  from  us  many  thousands  of  times  th< 
distance  of  Sirius,  the  nearest  of  our  own  stars.  The 
astronomer  last  quoted  sjieaks  of  the  teIesco|ie  represent- 
ing us  as  in  the  centre  of  a  sphere,  whose  circumference 
is  ;).5,()00  times  as  far  from  us  as  that  star,  "  and  beyond 
whose  circuit,  infinity,  boundless  infinity,  stretches  un- 
fathomed  for  ever." 

URANUORAPHY. 

Under  this  tcnn  (delineation  of  the  heavens)  may  be 
comprehended  all  those  arrungenients  uliiih  have  lieen 
made  by  astronomers  for  artificial  representutiim  of  tha 
heavens,  and  fur  the  working  of  the  many  iiiutheniatical 
problems  of  wliii  li  the  heuvenly  biHlies  are  the  subject. 

'l"he  stars,  as  they  apjM'ar  in  their  places  on  the  appa- 
rent concave  sphere  of  the  heavens,  ure  reprcsnited  in 
JiToix-r  urraiigenient  on  the  itteslttil  i^lul/e,  whi-h  is  ex- 
pressly designed  as  a  miniature  of  that  splierc,  but  bem 
ing  also  the  lanciful  figures  assigned  to  tlie  cunstellationt 


•nd 
■em 
brie 
turo 
A 

Bltpp 

glob( 
and 


•  View«  of  the  Arehiieclurr  of  the  Heavens,  by  J.  1'.  Nioha'^ 
LI..U.    mn. 


ASTRONOMY. 


If 


,  and  where  of  couth 
r  and  nearer  objnrl& 
of  the  Bky  very  great 
inOO  andSnOUin  th« 
ber,  we  must  recolleet, 
ly  visible  itora  in  Um» 

t  Reneral,  as  has  been 
liercfore  differing  en- 
mattcr  of  our  nehulte. 
»,  with  a  crowding  of 
if  this  kind  there  is  a 
;on  HiTculcs.  It  has 
about  tlie  centre  of 
must  be  inconceivably 
|i[)oarn!ircg  rcfirmbling 
;r  Hphrricnl  class,  in 
wt  lirilliiint:  in  these 
d  nonr  the  centre  will 
|)oscd  of  milky  way. 
itcts  are  pri'scnted  in 
irly  pdRcwisK,  that  w» 
1  nmtlcr  ill  the  centre, 
namely,  an  oval,  with 
rilliunt  matter  extcnd- 
form  of  a  dunilvbell ! ! 
B  than  one  tearing  a 
rh  has  Ix'cn  iiresumed 
iiely,  a  flattened  mass, 
rtiuR  flatwise  into  two 
iitdf,  a  nebulous  object 
is  one  remote  star-sya. 
iir  John  Hcrschel  aa 
nited  in  a  kind  of  un- 
(if  rihiions  dinjmsrd  in 
"  We  are,"  says  an 
e  worthy  of  his  noble 
lent  at  those  endless 
But  in  the  apparent 
we  may  perhaps  dia- 
riety  will  also  serve, 
n  material  arrange- 
eature,  the  condition 
irlive  of  a  degree  of 
nd  of  this  wunderiiii 
I,  that  there  too  th 
I)e  found  for  unfold 

clusters,  their  dia- 
id  their  relative  dia- 
comparative  powers 
ing.them.  Some  of 
usands  of  times  th« 
ur  own  stars.  The 
telescope  represent- 
hose  circumference 
t  star,  "  and  beyond 
finity,  stretches  un* 


nc  heavens)  may  be 

which  have  (>eeD 

hircHcntution  of  tha 

liuHiiy  niuthematical 

l«  are  the  subject. 

[)la('<'s  un  the  appa- 

,  arc  represented  in 

i;li,lit,  whi''h  is  ex* 

lit  sphere,  but  beai 

'  tlie  constellations 


M  um)  iu  lines  necessary  for  the  working  of  various  prob- 
"''^'  *mt      It  is  required  that,  in  the  first  place,  we  give  a 
■   brief  description  of  the  terrestrial  globe,  or  similar  minia- 
ture representation  of  the  earth. 

Astronomers,  for  the  convenience  of  their  science,  have 
■npposed  certain  lines  to  pass  through  and  around  the 
globe.     One,  passing  through  the  centre,  between  north 
and  south,  is  called  the  axii  of  the  globe,  from  a  Greek 
word  signifying  axle.     The  two  extremities  are  called  the 
.,  pules,  from  the  Greek  word  paint,  signifying  a  pivot.     A 
kline  girding  the  globe  in  the  middle  is  styled  the  ecjuntor; 
fall  to  the  north  and  south  of  which  are  rcsjioctivcly  called 
I  the  northern  and  southern  heminphores.     The  circuit  of 
.  );■  tlio  earth,  both  in  its  girth  lietwcen  east  and  west,  and 
.fy  between  north  and  south,  is  divided  into  300  parts,  called 
■■^degrees.     At   the  distance   of  twenty-three   and  a  half 
inearly  of  these  degrees  from  the  equator,  in  both  direc- 
.  .ftions,  are  two  parallel  lines  called  the  tropin,  and  at  the 
'^Ibame  distancc^  from  each  polo  is  a  parallel  circle,  styled 
l)n  the  one  case  the  arclir,  and  in  the  other  the  ini'nrclic 
'jcircle.      The  apace  between  the   tropics   is   called    the 
^rrid  zone,  because  the  sun,  being  always  vertical  in 
<9onie  part  of  that  space,  produces  a  greater  degicc  of  heat 
^an  what  is  felt  elsewhere.     The  spaces  between  the 
'iropi'4  and  the  arctic  and  antarctic  circles  are  called  the 
'^ttnperaU;  and  the  spaces  within  these  latter  circles  the 
"^Hifirf  zones.     Lastly,  p.  line  which  cuts  the  equator  ob- 
liquely, toucliing  upon  opposite  points  of  the  tropics,  is 
' Mlied  the  elliptic.     The  ecliptic  and  equator  are  called 
'greater  circles,  because  they  cut  the  earth  at  the  thickest 
'  <)part8 ;  the  others  are  called  lesser  circles. 

North  PoU. 


East. 


kilt,  bv  J-  1'.  Nicho', 


South  Pok. 

A  series  of  lines  drawn  from  pole  to  pole  over  the 
1  earth's  surface  (like  the  division  lines  of  a  peeled  orange), 
'  and  cutting  the  equator  at  right  angles,  are  called  mc- 

Hiant  (from  the  Ijatin  word  meridies,  mid-day)  or  lines 
I  of  longitude.  Every  place  upon  the  earth  is  supposed 
'  to  have  one  of  these  passing  through  it,  although  only 

24  are  descril)ed  upon  the  terrestrial  glolie.     When  any 

one  of  these  is  opposite  the  sun,  it  is  then  mid-day  or 
i  twelve  o'clock  with  all  the  places  situated  on  that  me- 
1  ridian,  and,  consequently,  midnight  with  those  on  the 

opposite  meridian  on  the  other  side  of  the  earth.  The 
1  exact  situation  of  a  place  upon  the  earth's  surface,  or  its 

latitude  and  lori.'3;itndo,  is  determine<l  by  means  of  these 
I  circles.  They  are  all  divided,  as  already  hinted,  into  360 
i  parts,  which  parts  arc  called  degrees :  those  degrees  again 
I  into  60  equal  parts,  called  minules ;  the  minute  into  60 
1  otiiers,  called  sccn.i'/s,  and  so  on.  They  are  all  indicated 
1  by  certain  signs  placed  iK'hiiid  the  figure,  and  near  the 

top  of  it — thus,  H°  5'  7"  is  8  degrees,  5  minutes,  7  se- 
I  cimds.     A  degree  is  00  geographical  miles,  or  about  fi!) 

English  statiit"  miles;  a  miiuito  is  the  60lh  part  of  that; 

anil  so  on.     'i'ho  latnuilc  of  a  place  is  its  distance  mea. 

•urcd  in  that  manner  from  the  equator.  If  it  lies  north 
[  of  that  line,  it  is  in  no.iU  latitude;  if  south  of  it,  in  south 
I  latitude.  There  beini-  only  360  degrees  in  the  circuiii- 
^  frrence  of  the  earth,  ami  the  distance  from  the  equator  to 
1  lither  of  the  pcles  beiog  only  •  fourth  part  of  it,  a  place 
'     Vot.  I.— a 


can  never  have  more  than  00  degreea  of  north  cr  Mxjtk 
latitude.  The  longitude  of  a  place  is  the  dislince  ol 
its  meridian  from  another,  which  is  called  the  first  in» 
ridian.  The  first  meridian  is  quite  aroiirary,  and  it 
is  a  matter  of  indifference  through  what  point  we  draw 
it,  provided  it  be  settled  and  well  known  which  one  wa 
adopt,  so  08  to  prevent  mistakes.  Foreigners  fixed  upon 
the  principal  observatories  of  their  respective  countries. 
In  Germany,  the  island  of  Ferro  is  generally  adopted ;  in 
France,  the  observatory  of  Paris;  and  in  England,  that 
of  Greenwich.  Longitude  is  reckoned  either  east  or  west 
of  the  first  meridian;  and  180  is  therefore  the  utmost 
degree  of  longitude.  Some  geographers,  however,  reckon 
longitude  all  the  way  round  the  globe.  From  the  shape 
of  the  earth,  which  is  flat  at  the  jioles,  tht^  degrees  of  lon- 
gitude decrease  as  we  approach  these  in  cither  direction.  In 
order  to  measure  latitude,  each  globe  is  furnished  with  a  brast 
meridian  circle,  on  which  the  degrees  arc  marked.  Loih 
gitude  is  measured  by  a  similarly  graduated  circle,  termed 
the  artificial  horizon,  in  which  the  globe  is  suspended. 

The  other  great  circle,  called  the  Ecliptic,  is  divided 
into  twelve  parts,  cabled  signs,  which  bear  the  name  of 
the  constellations  through  which  this  circle  passes  in  the 
heavens,  as  shall  be  afterwards  explained.  There  aro 
other  smaller  circles  which  run  round  the  earth,  parallel 
to  the  equator;  these  are  called  paralleh  of  laliltide,  b*-- 
cause,  lieing  everywhere  at  the  same  distance  from  the 
equator,  the  latitude  of  every  point  contained  in  any  on* 
of  them  is  the  same. 

The  celestial  globe,  representing  that  apparent  outer 
sphere,  the  sky,  in  the  centre  of  which  the  earth  seems 
suspended,  is  marked  by  lines  similar  to  those  upon  the 
terrestrial  globe,  each  line  upon  the  latter  ncing  supposed 
to  have  a  corresponding  line  opposite  to  it  in  the  heavens. 
Thus,  the  celestial  sphere  is  divided  into  tlie  same  num- 
ber of  ^degrees  as  the  terrestrial.  The  celestial  polca 
correspond  to  those  parts  of  the  heavens  to  which  the 
terrestrial  poles  always  point.  The  celestial  equator  cor>. 
responds  also  to  the  terrestrial,  and  is,  like  it,  everywhere 
90  degrees  distant  from  the  poles.  The  equator  of  the 
earth  thus  lies  directly  under  that  of  the  heavens :  the 
ecliptic  docs  exactly  the  same,  and  cuts  the  former  al»« 
at  an  angle  of  23  degrees,  28  minutes. 

The  place  where  the  ecliptic  cuts  the  equal  ir  at  the 
vernal  equinox,  is  called  the  first  point  of  Aries;  and 
from  this  point  the  distance  of  all  celestial  bodies  east- 
ward and  westward  of  it  is  measured.  This  is  called 
their  right  nsreusion,  and  corresponds  to  the  terrestrial 
longitude.  Their  latitude  is  determined  by  their  distance 
from  the  equator,  and  is  called  their  declination.  Tlie 
declination  of  the  sun  or  other  heavenly  body  is  therefore 
called  north  or  south  declination,  according  to  its  proxi- 
mity to  the  north  or  south  pole  of  the  heavens.  Hence 
it  follows,  that  when  the  sun's  dcclinatiun  is  10  degrees 
north,  he  is  vertical  at  a  place  whose  latitude  is  10  degrees 
north.  But  the  right  ascensions  do  not  so  correspond 
with  the  longitudes,  simply  because  the  first  point  of  the 
constellation  Aries  does  not  correspond  to  the  first  me- 
ridian (Greenwich)  ;  and  because  the  longitudes  are  not 
measured  quite  round  as  tlie  right  ascensions  are. 

The  sun,  which  is  always  in  the  ecliptic,  has,  of  course, 
no  latitude,  but  he  passes  through  all  the  degrees  of  loi>. 
gitude  in  a  year.  When  any  other  celestial  object  hM 
the  same  longitude  as  the  sun,  it  is  said  to  be  in  c(»i;unc 
linn  with  him;  and  when  tiie  difTiTence  of  longitude 
amounts  to  180  degrees,  half  the  circle  of  the  heavens,  it 
is  sail!  to  be  in  opposition  to  him.  Botn  these  terms  are 
coinpreheiiiled  in  that  of  syzyi;!/,  which,  when  applied  to 
any  celestial  object,  means  that  it  is  eithrr  in  conjuncUon 
or  ojiposition  to  him.  What  is  called  an  eiiuinoctinl 
colure,  is  a  great  circle  supposed  to  be  drawn  through  the 
pole  of  the  ecliptic  and  the  points  where  it  inter«i<>ct5  the 
equator.  The  sohtilidl  colure  is  a.  similar  circle,  wliiclr 
passes  through  the  solstitial  points  at  righ\  aiiglea  to  it 
■  S 


u 


Hi 

The  foriMT  colure  !■  •  iecondary  to  the  ecliptic,  and  the 
latter  a  accondaiy  to  both  it  and  the  equator.  The  equi- 
noctial points  are  Ariea  and  Libra,  whore  tlie  ecliptic 
cuU  the  equator.  The  solstitial  pointa  are  Cancer  and 
Capricorn ;  and  when  the  sun  is  in  cither  of  them,  he  is 
al  his  farthest  distance  above  or  below  the  cquutor. 

Allusion  has  alrra»ly  been  made  to  the  constellations, 
or  fanciful  figures,  marked  on  celestial  globes,  to  aid  in 
distinguishing  the  position  of  the  stars.  The  earliest 
astronomers  seem  to  have  adopted  the  idea  of  thus  map- 
ping out  the  jtarry  heavens,  being  no  doubt  at  first  led  to 
do  so  by  the  slight  resemblances  borne  by  various  groups 
of  stars  to  familiar  terrestrial  objects.  Thus,  a  group  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  sky  bears  some  rcst^mblance  to 
an  ancient  v^ain,  or  to  a  plough — as  also  to  the  hinder 
part  of  an  animal,  with  its  tail  extended.  Hence,  it  has 
been  variously  called  tht  Phugh,  Ursa  Major,  or  the  Greater 
Bear,  and  Charlet's  Wain — the  last  term  being  in  honour 
of  the  illustrious  French  king  Charlemagne.  (In  ordi- 
nary globes,  Ursa  Major  is  alone  marked.)  Another 
group,  in  the  southern  heavens,  conveys  the  idea  of  u 
man's  figure,  and  has  been  called  Orion,  from  an  early 
Qreek  semi-divine  hero  of  that  name.     Some   of  the 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Conitellation  Orion. 

■ames  of  the  constellations  were  conferred  by  Chaldean 
observers  several  hundred  years  before  o  r  era:  others 
have  been  given  within  the  last  few  ages.  Particular 
stars  of  large  magnitude  also  bear  particular  names,  gcne- 
nlly  Arabic,  having  been  affixed  by  Arabian  nstronomcrs, 
as  Aldebaran,  Dubbe,  Alioth,  &c.  Arcturus  and  the 
group  of  small  stars  called  the  Pleiades,  are  alluded  to  in 
the  book  of  Job,  which  is  well  known  to  be  one  of  the 
curliest  of  the  scriptural  compositions,  and  probably  not 
loaa  than  3000  years  old. 

Twelve  of  the  constellations  f  3  placed  in  that  part  of 
the  heavens  which  is  opposite  to  the  ecliptic  in  the  terres- 
trial globe ;  that  is  to  say,  the  plane  of  the  planetary  mo- 
tions, if  extended  to  the  stars,  would  strike  the  part  00 
eupicd  by  these  constrllatinns.  This  part  of  the  celestial 
gl  ibe  is  called  the  Zodhc,  and  these  are  named  the  Zo- 
diacal Constellations,  or,  more  commonly,  the  Signs  of  the 
'/.friiai.  The  zodiac  is  a  zone  or  bolt,  extending  eight  or 
Inn  degrees  on  each  side  of  the  ecliptic.  It  is  divided 
k\to  twelve  part«,  each  of  thirty  degrees,  called  the  signs 
tt  the  zodiac.  1'lic  names  of  the  signs,  and  the  days  in 
vluch  the  sun  enters  thctn,  arc  as  follow: — Spring  signs— 


Aries,  the  Ram,  Slst  of  March;  Taurus,  the  Bull,  IVtb 
of  April;  Gemini,  the  Twins,  SOth  of  May.  Summer 
sifzns — Cancer,  the  Crab,  Slst  of  Junu;  Leo,  the  Lion, 
28d  of  July  ;  Virgo,  the  Virgin,  22d  of  August.  The» 
are  called  northern  signs,  being  north  of  the  equator 
Mtumnal  signs — Libra,  the  Balance,  23d  of  September, 
Scorpio,  the  Scorpion,  S3d  of  October ;  Siii^ittarius,  th« 
Archer,  82d  of  November.  Winter  Siifni — Capricomus 
the  Goat,  2 1st  of  December ;  Aquarius,  the  Water-beoTM 
20th  of  January;  Pisces,  the  Fishes,  lOth  of  February 
Those  are  called  southern  signs.  Within  the  zodiac  aie 
performed  the  revolutions  of  all  the  principal  planets. 


MECHANICAL    ASTRONOMY. 

It  is  the  province  of  Mechanical  Astronomy  to  expiate 
the  physical  laws  which  have  produced,  and  which  sustain, 
the  arrangements  of  the  bodies  occupying  space,  as  well 
OS  all  the  various  results  of  tlie  arrangement  and  relation* 
of  those  l>odies. 

It  may  in  the  first  place  be  proper  to  explain  what  ia 
meant  by  a  physical  law.  In  the  operations  of  nature, 
certain  results  are  invariably  oluicrved  to  take  place  as  a 
consequence  of  certain  circumstances.  This  has  sug' 
gestcj  to  the  mind  of  man,  that  there  is  an  order  in  aU 
things,  by  virtue  of  which  they  are  regulated  to  the  best 
general  purposes,  the  authorship  of  the  order  lioing  no 
doubt  the  same  as  the  authorship  of  matter  itself,  that  is 
to  say,  referable  to  the  Divine  Being.  Any  particular 
regulation  which  we  find  imposed  upon  matter,  we  term 
a  law  of  matter,  or  a  physical  law. 

LAWS  or  ATTRACTION   AND    MOTION. 

We  have  first  to  consider  the  laws  by  virtue  of  which 
particles  and  masses  0/ matter  attract  each  other,  aaht 
as  these  are  concerned  in  tlie  province  of  Mechanical 
Astronomy. 

Particles  of  matter,  when  brought  close  together,  oi 
within  iiisensible  distances,  have  a  tendency  to  cohere, 
or  stick  together,  and  this  operates  in  all  cases,  unleaa 
there  be  opposing  influences  of  superior  force.  It  is 
termed  the  attraction  of  colusion. 

PaMiclcs  of  matter  have  also  a  tendency  to  move  or  b« 
drawn  towards  each  other.  This  is  called  the  attraction 
of  gravitation,  because  it  is  what  the  weight  or  gr«vitj 
of  an  object  de|)ends  upon. 

Under  the  influence  of  tlie  attraction  of  cohesion,  pu. 
tides  of  fluid  matter,  when  susiionded  at  a  proi)cr  distance 
from  other  objects,  arrange  themselves  round  n  centre,  and 
take  a  globular  form.  The  dew-drop,  suspended  from  the 
point  of  a  thorn  or  blade  of  grass,  is  a  familiar  example 
of  matter  thus  acting.  If  two  such  drops  are  brought 
close  together,  they  will  unite ;  a  new  and  common  centre 
will  be  instantly  established  for  Iwth,  and  they  will  resoha 
themselves  into  a  new  mass  equally  globular  as  before. 

Under  the  influence  of  the  law  of  gravitation,  wiien 
any  two  masses  of  matter  arc  brought  to  a  proper  dia. 
tancc  from  each  other,  they  will,  if  there  be  no  sufRcienI 
olistacle,  rush  together,  and  then  remain  in  union. 

We  may  see  this  low  oi)erating  if  we  take  two  fVag- 
mrnts  of  cork,  no  matter  how  small,  and  set  them  afloaf 
on  the  surface  of  a  cup  of  water.  If  kept  a  considerable 
way  apart,  tlic  impediments  to  their  mutuiil  attraction  are 
too  strong,  and  they  therefore  do  not  meet.  But,  if 
brought  within  a  short  distance  of  each  other,  we  shall 
observe  them  begin  mutually  to  exercise  an  influence  over 
each  other,  and  immediately  they  will  rush  together,  aiii 
so  remain. 

Material  laws  are  equally  ready  to  act  on  a  large  as  • 
small  scale,  and  on  a  small  as  upon  a  large  one.  The 
same  attraction  of  cohesion,  which  causes  the  tear  drawc 
from  our  eye  by  sympathetic  feeling  to  b<i  round,  producco 
the  spherical  form  of  the  vast  orlis  which  [M'ople  space. 
These,  being  originally  fluid  masses,  gathered  IhemMtvM 


ASTRONOMY. 


It 


c  Dull,  l«lb 
,y.  SttmmtT 
!0,  the  Lion, 
^nt.  ThMB 
the  equator 
r  September, 
i;ittariu8,  tho 
Copricomu* 
A'ater-beortr 
of  February 
:ho  zodiac  SM 
il  planetii 


my  to  explain 
which  sustain, 
space,  as  well 
:  and  relation* 

t  plain  what  is 
ins  of  nature, 
ake  place  as  a 
'his  has  sug- 
ui  order  in  all 
ted  to  the  beat 
ariler  l)cing  no 
er  itself,  that  is 
\ny  particular 
latter,  we  term 


ITION. 

rirtuc  of  which 

ich  other,  as  fu 

of  Mechanical 

together,  oi 
ncy  to  cohere, 
cases,  unleM 
or  force.    It  i* 


to  mcve  or  he 

the  allraclion 

ight  or  gravity 

f  cohcsiiin,  p«i' 
proper  distance 
nd  n  centre,  and 
pendcd  from  the 
miiiliar  example 
ips  arc  brought 
coniinoii  centre 
thfy  will  resoUa 

ar  as  before, 
■uvitation,  wl»en 
to  a  proper  di* 
bo  no  soflicient 
in  union, 
take  two  frag- 
»et  tlicm  afloat 
)l  n  considerable 
ml  attraction  aie 
mi'i't.    But,  il 
other,  we  shall 
n  iiiflucnf*  over 
sh  together,  luii 

t  on  a  large  as  i 
arge  one  The 
d  the  tear  drawc 
I  round,  produced 
ch  jn'ople  space, 
hered  themaelvet 


wund  t  centre,  by  the  irre<i«tible  force  of  the  law  of  the 
■Mractien  of  cohesion.  so  are  the  planets  restrained 

In  their  position  regard.  the  central  luminary,  by  the 
force  of  the  same  taw  ui  gravitation  which  causes  an 
apple  dropping  from  a  tree  to  fall  upon  the  ground,  or 
two  teanstalks  floating  in  our  evening  cup  to  go  together, 
and  range  themselves  as  closely  side  by  side  as  possible. 

We  have  next  to  consider  the  laws  which  regulate  the 
motion  of  masses  of  matter. 

A  mass  of  matter  set  in  motion  upon  tho  surface  of 
the  earth,  or  within  the  compass  of  the  atmosphere,  in- 
Tariably  comes  sooner  or  later  to  u  stop.  If  we  roll  a 
ball  along  the  surface,  it  goes  briskly  for  a  while,  then 
•lowly,  and  Anally  it  stops  and  remains  at  rest.  What 
causes  it  to  stop  is  the  resistance  it  meets  witk  from  the 
roughness  of  the  ground,  and  the  opposing  fluid  (atmo- 
sphcie)  in  which  it  moves.  It  is  precisely  when  as  much 
force  has  acted  in  opposition  to  its  motion,  as  was  exerted 
in  setting  it  agoing,  that  it  comes  to  a  pause.  Were  it 
not,  however,  for  this  opposing  force,  the  ball,  once  set 
in  motion,  would  travel  on  and  on  for  ever. 

Just  so  tlie  orbs  of  space,  once  set  in  motion,  go  on  i 
and  on  perpetually,  there  being  nothing  whatever  to  op-  I 
pose  their  progress.    This  applies  as  well  to  their  spinning 
or  rotatory  motion  on  their  axes,  as  to  their  progress  along 
their  orbits.     If  a  top  were  set  a^pinning  on  a  smooth 
marble  tablet,  underneath  the  exhausted  receiver  of  an 
air-pump,  it  would  be  found  to  keep  in  motion  for  a  far 
longer  space  of  time  than  in  any  ordinary  circumstances, 
for  then  there  would  be  comparatively  little  air  to  give 
resistance  to  its  rotation,  and  the  chief  opposition  would  j 
lie  in  its  friction  against  the  tablet     Gould  the  air  be  entire-  > 
ly  drawn  away,  and  the  top  be  made  to  spin  in  a  state  of  | 
suspension,  it  would  be  in  precisely  the  same   circum-  j 
stance  as  an  orb  revolving  on  its  axis  in  space,  and  in 
that  case  it  would  never  stop  as  long  as  all  the  circum-  i 
stances  remained  unaltered. 

But  the  orbitual  revolutions  of  planets  are  circular — 
why  should  they  be  so  1  Because  these  orbs  are  under 
tlie  influence  of  both  the  law  of  attraction  and  the  laws 
of  motion.  Assuming  tho  nebular  hypothesis  to  be  true, 
tho  impulse  which  they  originally  obtained  tended  to 
throw  them  oir  in  a  direct  lin<i  into  space,  in  the  plane 
of  tho  ecliptic  But  the  law  of  attraction  prevented  this 
result,  and  caused  them  tu  assume  a  circular  course  round 
Ihe  parent  orb.  They  were  propelled  by  tho  one  cause 
(the  centrifugal  or  centre-quitting  force),  but  restrained 
by  another  (the  centripetal  or  centre-seeking  force,  that 
IS  to  say,  attraction),  and  they  therefore  settled  into  paths 
irbcre  the  two  forces  balanced  each  other. 

To  explain.  If  we  take  any  circular  body,  say  a 
common  grinding-stone,  and,  having  flrst  put  a  few  pieces 
of  clay  upon  its  rim,  cause  it  to  revolve  quickly  in  a 
horizontoJ  manner,  it  will  be  found  that  the  pieces  of  clay, 
one  ailer  another,  fly  off  in  straight  lines  from  the  rim. 
The  cause  of  this  is,  that  each  particular  part  of  the  rim 
of  tho  ip-inding-stone,  at  every  instant  of  its  revolution, 
is  describing  a  straight-forward  movement,  and  has  itself, 
from  the  revolutionary  motion,  a  tendency  to  go  straight  on, 
and  is  only  kept  in  its  place  by  being  fixed  to  the  rest  of 
the  stone.  Every  bit  of  clay  that  flies  off  receives,  at  the 
instant  of  its  parting,  tlie  force  of  the  straight-forward 
impulse  which  at  that  moment  aflccted  the  part  of  the 
rim  where  it  rested ;  and  hence  its  going  olT  in  a  straight 
line.  It  is  to  be  observed,  however,  that  the  earth  imme- 
diately begins  to  act  upon  the  flying  piece  of  clay,  and 
draws  il  downwards  to  itself  in  a  l)ending  line,  its  last 
movements  being  in  fact  a  part  of  a  circle.  This  is  the 
power  of  attraction,  wliich,  in  tliis  case,  is  exercised  in 
much  greater  force  by  the  earth  than  by  the  grinding- 
stniiu ;  were  (he  grinding-stone  the  sole  mass  of  mutter 
near  by,  and  the  opposing  force  of  the  atmoB|>hero  with- 
drawn, we  should  see  the  clay  begin  to  fly  round  the  stone 
in  »  circular  course. 


And  this  naturally  brin^  us  to  consider  Ihe  c«inp«m 
tivo  powers  of  attraction  exercised  by  diflbrent  ohjecta, 
A  large  mass  has  a  much  greater  power  of  attraction  than 
a  small  one.  When  two  of  unequal  bulk  are  brought 
near  each  other,  we  shall  only  Iw  sensible,  ]>erhaps,  of  the 
large  one  drawing  the  small  one  to  it,  and  see  no  attractive 
power  in  the  small  one  whatever.  In  reality,  each  mass, 
however  small  in  comparison,  exercises  a  certain  degree 
of  attractive  power;  and  this  power  will  de])end  expressly 
upon  its  relative  bulk  and  density,  according  to  fixed  rn 
gulations  of  the  nicest  kind. 

One  great  and  important  law  presides  over  the  attrao* 
tion  which  one  mass  exorcises  over  another.  Tliis  relate* 
to  tho  dittance  between  the  two  masses.  We  shall  sup> 
pose  two  globes  of  unequal  size.  When  the  small  one 
is  removed  to  as  great  a  distance  fi-om  the  large  one  a* 
there  is  space  between  the  surface  of  the  large  one  and 
its  centre  (that  is  to  say,  the  distance  of  a  semi-diameter 
of  tho  large  one),  the  attractive  force  i*  diminished  on» 
half.  When  it  is  removed  to  twice  that  distance,  or  two 
semi-diameters,  the  attraction  is  diminished  to  a  fourth. 
When  it  is  removed  to  the  distance  of  three  semi-diame> 
ters,  the  force  is  lessened  to  a  ninth ;  to  four  semi-diame- 
ters, vl  sixteenth ;  to  five,  a  twenty-fifth,  and  so  on ;  the 
diminution  being  always  as  the  squares  of  the  amount  of 
semi-diameters  of  distance,  or  these  sums  multiplied  by 
themselves.  The  moon  is  distant  from  the  earth  sixty 
of  the  earth's  semi-diameters ;  consequently,  the  attractive 
power  exercised  by  the  earth  over  the  moon  is  oidy  a 
3C00th  part  of  what  it  would  exercise  at  its  surface. 

In  the  revolution,  then,  of  a  planet  round  the  sun,  and 
of  a  satellite  round  a  planet,  there  are  various  forces  at 
work,  all  of  them  in  the  nicest  proportion  to  each  other, 
and  to  tho  mass  of  each  body.  There  is  first  the  amount 
of  motion  resulting  from  the  original  impulse ;  then  the 
amount  of  attraction  exercised  by  the  central  and  large* 
over  the  smaller  orb— the  one  pulling  outwards  and  the 
other  pulling  inwards,  but  both  in  union  attended  with 
the  result  of  a  circular  or  revolutionary  motion. 

Gravity  has  not  the  same  force  at  all  parts  of  the 
earth's  surface.  At  the  equator,  the  centrifugal  force  pro 
duced  by  the  rotating  motion  is  greatest ;  it  declines  in 
both  directions  towards  the  poles.  In  proportion  as  tha 
centrifugal  force  is  greater,  the  attractive  power  of  th* 
mass  of  the  earth  is  less,  for  the  first  of  these  forces  i* 
directly  counteractive  of  the  other.  There  is  of  course 
least  attractive  power  at  the  equator;  and  bodies  are  there 
drawn  with  less  force  towards  the  centre  of  the  earth  than 
would  be  found  to  be  the  case  elsewhere.  Yet  this  dit 
ference  is  not  great,  for  even  at  the  equator  the  attractive 
force  is  288  times  that  of  the  centrifugal.  Neither  does 
the  ditTercnce  tell  in  the  weighing  of  objects,  for  in  that 
case  two  equivalents  are  used,  and  if  a  certain  object  i* 
lighter,  so  also  is  the  weight  put  into  the  opposite  scaler 
The  diiference  was  first  detected,  in  consequence  of  pen- 
dulum clocks  being  found  to  go  slower  as  they  were 
brought  towards  tropical  latitudes.  It  was  ascertained 
that  the  pendulum  of  a  clock  which  went  right  at  London, 
required  to  bo  one-eighth  of  an  inch  shorter  (by  which 
means  its  motion  was  accelerated)  when  it  was  placed 
upon  the  equator.  This  eflect,  however,  is  not  alt^cthet 
owing  to  the  increase  of  centrifugal  force,  but  partly  also 
to  the  greater  distance  of  the  equator  from  the  centrei. 
And  it  was  from  a  speculation  as  to  the  slower  mov^ 
ments  of  pendulums  at  the  equator,  that  Sir  Isaai  >a>wton 
first  conceived  the  idea  of  the  spheroidal  foru  ••'  tha 
earth,  which  he  ascertained  to  be  of  less  diiuneter  at  the 
poles  than  at  the  equator,  as  239  is  to  230,  of  by  twenty- 
six  miles. 

The  orbits  of  the  planets,  it  has  been  alioady  seen,  are 
not  strictly  circles,  but  rather  ellipses,  the  sun  being  in 
each  case  placed  in  one  of  the  fon,  that  is,  the  centre  of 
one  end  of  the  ellipse.  How  should  this  circumstanoe 
ailect  the  ivvolutionary  motion  '*     It  might  be  suppv^sed 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


tfint,  when  the  planet  ome  to  the  pert  of  itn  couree  whore 
it  M  noanwt  to  tho  «un,  tlio  altructive  force  would  be 
greater,  and  that  aome  dorangeineiit  might  take  ploce. 
Out  thia  ia  not  the  caw.  At  that  part  of  the  courae  tho 
planet  movea  faster  than  elaewhoro,  and  thug  battlei  tho 
greater  attructiTe  force.  'I'hia  phcnomono  is  particulnrly 
apparent  in  comota,  which  have  «o  eccentric  an  orbit. 
'ilieae  bodies  move  with  inconceivably  greater  speed 
when  near  the  aun  than  in  the  rera"te  parU  of  their 
wbita. 

It  was  a  discovery  of  the  German  astronomer  Kepler, 
In  the  seventeenth  century,  that,  nolwithstantling  tho  in- 
{reaae«l  speed,  a  revolving  orb  goes  over  exactly  the  same 
amount  of  it»  circuit  as  when  it  moves  more  slowly. 
Suppose  a  multitude  of  lines  rudiutiiig  from  the  sun,  at 
rqual  distances  from  each  other,  the  orb  would  be  found 
to  cross  from  one  to  another  of  these,  in  exactly  the  same 
time  when  it  was  Jarthtat  from  tliu  sun  as  when  it  was 
ntartit.  In  sdcutifio  language,  it  describes  equal  areas 
in  equal  times. 

Another  discovery  of  Kepler  established  that  there  is  a 
relation  between  the  times  respcitively  required  by  the 
planets  for  their  revolutions,  and  their  various  distances 
from  the  sun.  At  a  first  glance,  wo  are  struck  by  the 
fact  that  the  periods  of  revolution  increase  more  than  in 
proportion  to  the  distances.  For  example,  tlin  period  of 
Mercury  is  about  88  days,  and  that  of  the  Earth  365, 
being  in  proportion  as  I  to  4.15  (or  at)out  4  l-7tli),  while 
their  distances,  resi>ectively  37,0UU,UUU  and  9A,0U0,UUU 
of  miles,  are  ia  the  less  proportion  of  1  to  2.66  (or  a  little 
more  tlian  2^);  and  a  similar  remark  holds  good  in  every 
instance.  If  we  take  the  squares  of  the  distances,  we  ar- 
rive at  nothing  satislactory,  for  it  considerably  cxcoe«ls 
the  proportion  of  the  periods.  If,  however,  we  take  the 
•quares  of  the  periods  of  two  planets,  we  fnid  they  are 
in  exactly  the  same  proportion  to  eacli  otlier  as  tlic  ruOei 
of  the  mean  distances.  Some  may  find  a  difliculty  in 
understanding  the  nature  of  tliis  calculation ;  but  its  in- 
genuity and  its  results  form  one  of  ttie  highest  boasts  of 
astronomical  science.  "  When  we  contemplate,"  says 
Sir  John  Herscbel,  «tbe  constituents  of  the  planetary 
system  from  the  point  of  view  which  tliis  relation  allbrds 
us,  it  ia  no  longer  mere  analogy  which  strikes  us — no 
longer  a  general  resemblance  among  thcra,  as  uidividuals 
independent  of  each  other,  and  circulating  about  the  sun, 
each  according  to  its  own  pecuUar  nature,  and  connected 
with  it  by  its  own  peculiar  tie.  The  resemblance  is  now 
perceived  to  be  a  true  family  likeness ;  ttivy  ore  bound 
up  in  one  chain — interwoven  in  one  web  of  mutual  re- 
lation and  harmonious  agreement — subjected  to  one  |)«r- 
vading  influence,  which  extends  from  the  centre  to  tlie 
farthest  limits  of  that  great  system,  of  which  all  of  them, 
the  eartit  included,  must  henceforth  be  regarded  as  mem- 
bera."' 

Tho  solar  system,  though  composed  of  many  diSerent 
masses  distant  from  each  other,  is  to  be  considered  with 
respect  to  other  masses  as  ont  man,  having  a  centre  of 
gravity,  by  which  its  position  with  respect  to  other  masses 
ia  regulated.  The  nearest  stars  no  doubt  exercise  the 
force  of  gravitation  upon  it,  so  as  to  keep  it  in  its  position ; 
and  it  also  acts  in  the  same  way  upon  them.  It  is  tlierc- 
fore  not  strictly  correct  to  8|)eak  of  the  solar  systeni  or 
any  part  of  it  as  iutpended  in  space,  for  tliut  term  implies 
a  banging  from  a  fixed  point.  It  is  in  reality  kept  at  its 
place  by  altructive  uifiuences  exerted  all  round  it  by  other 
musses.  In  like  manner,  we  arc  to  suppose  our  star- 
duster  as  poised  by  the  same  forces  in  the  midst  of  other 
posters;  and  these  again  poised  by  others — an  idea  which 
leads  us  on  and  on  through  the  fields  of  nifiiiity,  till  the 
mind  lose*  itself  in  an  ellbrt  beyond  its  finite  powers,  and 
pauses  contented  to  wonder  and  adore  ! 


•  Trnaiise  on  Astronomy,  IsX: 


DIURNAL  AND  ANNUAL   MOTION   OF  THE   BA»Yli. 

The  earth  is  to  bo  considered  as  a  glolie  of  nearly  SOUC 
miles  in  diameter,  performing  a  rotatory  moticm  on  It^ 
axis  once  every  twenty-four  hours.  This  motion  it 
the  rale  of  1043  miles  an  hour  to  places  at  the  equai  <v, 
but  only  644  miles  at  London,  anil  a  gradually  diminish- 
ing amount  in  places  nearer  to  tlie  poles. 

From  the  situation  of  the  earth  with  respert  to  tho  sun, 
it  necessarily  follows  that  only  one-half  of  its  surface 
should  be  exposed  at  a  time  to  tho  lirfht  and  hoatdilfusej 
from  that  body.  This  is  the  case  with  all  the  planets. 
When  any  one  part  of  the  oarth  is  preseiiti'd  to  the  sun, 
it  is  day  at  that  part,  and  all  the  other  hraveidy  objects 
are  lost  ic  the  blaze  of  the  great  luminary.  When,  on 
the  contrary,  any  part  is  averted  from  the  sun,  it  is  dark 
at  that  part,  and  the  light  of  the  stars  is  allowed  to  tell 
upon  our  organs.  Each  part  is  thus  broui;ht  once  every 
twenty-four  hours  towards  the  sun  ;  in  short,  this  ia  tli« 
cause  of  what  wo  familiarly  know  as  day  and  night 

There  is  a  minute  dill'erence  between  tho  riiit  or  legal 
day  and  what  is  cjilled  the  udertal  day.  The  entire  orb 
of  the  earth  in  reaUty  revolves  in  23  hours,  66  minutes, 
4  seconds,  or  3  minut«>s,  56  seconds,  less  than  24  hours. 
This  is  called  a  sidereal  day,  because  the  earth  is  then  in 
the  same  relation  to  the  stars  as  it  was  the  day  before, 
'i'he  fixed  stars  are  so  immensely  distant  from  our  earth, 
that  its  whole  orbit  is  in  respect  to  them  but  a  point ;  so 
that  no  sensible  difference  is  produced  by  its  revolving 
round  the  sun.  But  the  sun  being  much  nearer  us,  any 
movement  made  by  tho  earth  can  bo  appreciated.  The 
time  which  elapses  from  the  sun's  being  on  the  meridian 
of  any  place  to  its  returning  to  the  same  siiot  next  day, 
is  exactly  24  hours,  and  is  called  an  astronimiical  day. 
The  natural  day  would  always  be  the  same  as  the  sidereal 
day,  if  the  earth  had  no  other  motion  than  that  upon  its 
axis.  Out  in  the  same  time  that  it  has  (jcrformcd  one  of 
ita  daily  revolutions  eastward,  it  has  also  advp.-ced  aliout 
a  degreee  westward,  or  in  the  opiKwite  direction,  which 
is  tho  course  it  takes  round  tho  sun ;  so  that,  before  tho 
sun  can  shine  exactly  upon  the  same  meridian,  the  earth 
must  make  up  as  it  were  its  lee-way,  and  this  it  does  in 
3  minutes,  56  seconds,  the  difference  of  time  between  a 
natural  and  sidereal  day.  If  tho  earth,  then,  had  no 
other  than  its  diurnal  motion,  we  should  have  366  days 
in  the  year. 

When  any  spot  on  earth  comes  directly  opposite  to  tho 
sun,  it  is  noon  at  that  spot,  and  at  every  place  in  the 
same  longitude.  At  the  same  moment,  it  is  an  hour  be- 
fore noon  at  the  meridian  of  longitude  fifteen  degrees  to 
the  west  of  the  same  B|K)t,  and  an  hour  eurlior  for  every 
fifteen  degrees  farther  to  the  west ;  because,  as  the  corth 
moves  from  weat  to  oast,  it  requires  so  much  time  to  bring 
those  places  to  tlie  same  point,  namely,  opposite  to  the 
sun.  In  like  manner,  it  is  an  hour  alter  noon  for  every 
fiflcen  degrees  to  tlie  eastward  of  the  sfiot  where  it  is 
noon,  because*  at  those  pli;ces  the  sun  has  already  been 
for  so  many  hours  post  meridian.  Thus  the  hour  of  the 
day  varies  in  every  part  of  the  globe  where  the  longitude 
or  meridian  line  is  different.  When  it  is  twelve  o'clock 
noon  with  us  in  any  particular  part  in  Britain,  it  will  be 
twelve  o'clock  at  midnight  in  a  corresponding  point  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  globe,  near  New  South  Wales; 
and  the  intermediate  hours,  sooner  or  later,  will  all  lie  in 
the  countries  Iwtwcen  these  two  points,  exactly  according 
to  their  position  or  degieea  of  longitude. 

The  earth  is  at  a  mean  distance  of  95,000,000  of  miles 
from  tho  sun,  and  [lerforins  its  revolution  round  him  in  » 
sidereal  year,  which  is  305  days,  6  honrx,  U  minutes,  1 1 
seconds,  mean  solar  time,  'i'he  earth  travels  at  the  rata 
of  68,000  miles  \Kt  hour.  Its  orbit  is,  as  already  8tat<<d, 
not  a  circle,  but  an  ellipse,  tlie  sun  being  situated  in  one 
of  the  foci,  that  is,  not  in  the  centre,  but  near  one  of  tt;e 
ends  of  the  oval-shaped  figure.     IVeither  does  the  eartb 


fo  round  thi 
lu  axis  is  I 
if' 33  degre 
ecliptic  ruts 
lime  at  whic 
lying  equal  i 
equal  length 


Let  8  rcpre 

various  places 

B  or  D,  these 

line  of  tho  equ 

the  ecliptic. 

illuminated  froi 

earth  an  equal 

the  earth  has  [ 

ing  the  same  p< 

in  the  starry  he 

the  sun ;  a  grc 

any  particular  i 

the  period  of  d 

ness  by  the  pro 

the  circle  of  tl 

within  tho  circi 

continually  as  tl 

to  tho  inhabitiin 

never  set  for  se\ 

eeeded  on  to  D, 

or  this  is  the  s 

At  C,  again,  th< 

summer,  when 

regions  around  i 

period,  while  da 

will  be  seen,  too. 

revolve  in  perpct 

region,  the  sun  r 

one  continued  ar 

south  polo,  the  sii 

reversed— there  i 

the  winter  of  the 

In  the  middle  rejg 

tor,  tho  sun's  pla- 

uid,  accordingly, 

intensity  all  the  ; 

daj3  and  nights  i' 

llie  periixis  of  the 

earth  travels  rotn 

M  wo  have  aires 

is  placed  near  om 

letter  8.     In  cons 

is  much  nearer  us 

«nd  this  hap|ieni 

•ppears  about  on 

in  June.     But  in 


^M 


ASTRONOMY. 


W 


iktm. 

nrly  80UC 
on  on  itr 
tion  ii 
ft  cquai  •', 
diminwti* 

to  the  ran, 
iM  Hurthca 
lot  (liiruwd 
iR  plitnctii. 
,0  thu  Bun, 
Illy  object* 
When,  on 
,  it  is  dark 
vcd  to  tell 
oiico  every 
tlli8  18  tlM 
iiiKht 

ti(7  or  /fifoi 
;  entire  orb 
56  minute*, 
n  S4  hour*, 
h  i*  then  in 
day  before. 
1  our  earth, 
a  point ;  ao 
ilH  revolving 
Mor  u«,  any 
iutcd.    The 
he  meridian 
)t  next  day, 
umiicttl  day. 
9  the  sidereal 
liut  opon  it* 
^nncd  one  of 
(prced  alwut 
ilion,  which 
it,  licforc  the 
nil,  the  earth 
i*  it  does  in 
|o  between  a 
hen,  had  no 
vo  366  day* 

jposito  to  the 
[place  in  the 
ail  hour  be- 
In  degree*  to 
Tier  for  every 
las  the  earth 
time  to  bring 
l|)08itu  to  the 
)on  for  every 
It  where  it  it 
1  already  been 
.  hour  of  the 
the  longitude 
/elve  o'clock 
lin,  it  will  be 
lug  point  on 
[outh  Wales; 
iwill  all  lie  in 
Itly  according 

(,nOO  of  mile* 
uiid  him  in  a 
niiiiutcs,  1 1 
Ih  tit  the  rat* 
|ready  mated, 
bated  in  on* 
|ir  one  of  tt;* 
4!tt  the  euih 


|0  round  the  lun  in  an  upright  or  perpendicular  poaition; 
11*  ail*  i*  iluiiting  or  obliiiue.  The  (l«greo  of  obliquity 
i*>33  degree*  28  minute*.  The  pouita  at  which'the 
ecliptic  rut*  the  equator,  are  called  twdei :  the  period  of 
lime  at  which  it  doe*  thiit,  ti/uiiioxet  (a  Latin  term,  aigni- 
lying  equal  night*,  for  the  day*  and  night*  are  then  of 
equal  length  all  over  the  world).    In  coiuvquoncb  of  tliia 


obliquity,  during  one  part  of  the  earth'*  conr*e,  the  corth 
pole  is  turned  toward*  the  *un,  and  the  *outh  i*  daik| 
and  during  another  part  of  it*  courae,  the  loulh  pole  !■ 
turned  to  the  *un,  and  the  north  i*  dark :  and  tlii*  i*  tli« 
cause  of  the  dilferoiice  of  leasona,  which  will  be  belUt 
underatood  by  referring  to  the  annexed  figure. 


niuitration  orihe  Seasons. 


THE   SEASONS. 


Let  S  represent  the  sun,  and  A  H  C  D  the  earth  at 
various  places  of  its  annual  circuit ;  when  the  earth  is  at 
B  or  D,  these  are  the  periods  of  the  equinox,  when  the 
line  of  the  equator  intersects  or  cuts  through  the  line  of 
the  ecliptic.  At  thi*  period,  one-holf  "of  the  globe  is 
illuminated  from  pole  to  pole,  or  there  is  over  all  the 
earth  an  equal  day  and  night  of  twelve  hours.  But  when 
the  earth  has  proceeded  to  A,  the  pole  or  axis  still  keep- 
ing the  same  position,  or  pointing  to  one  particular  place 
in  the  starry  heavens,  it  will  be  turned  more  directly  froJn 
the  sun ;  a  greater  proportion  of  his  mys  will  shine  on 
any  particular  spot  of  the  southern  half  of  the  glolie,  and 
the  period  of  day,  or  sunlight,  will  exceed  that  of  dark- 
ness by  the  proportion  of  the  light  and  shade  parted  in 
the  circle  of  the  earth.  It  will  be  observed,  also,  that 
within  the  circle  of  the  south  pole,  the  sun  will  shine 
continually  an  the  earth  revolves  on  its  axis,  or,  in  short, 
to  the  inhabitants  of  that  part  of  the  globe  the  sun  will 
never  set  for  several  months.  When  the  earth  has  pro- 
ceeded on  to  D,  one-half  of  its  annual  course  is  finished, 
or  this  is  the  spring  equinox,  or  equal  day  and  night 
At  C,  again,  the  earth  has  arrived  at  our  longest  day  in 
summer,  when' the  axis  is  turned  to  the  sun,  and  the 
regions  around  the  pole  are  in  the  light  for  a  greater 
period,  while  darkness,  or  night,  prevails  for  a  less.  It 
will  be  seen,  too,  that  now  the  pole  and  circle  around  it 
revolve  in  perpetual  light ;  or  to  the  inhabitants  of  that 
region,  the  sun  never  sets  for  some  months,  but  they  have 
one  continued  and  uninterrupted  day.  At  the  other,  or 
south  |>olo,  the  same  changes  take  place,  only  matters  are 
reversed — there  it  is  summer  while  we  have  winter,  and 
the  winter  of  the  north  pole  is  the  summer  of  the  south. 
In  the  middle  regions  of  the  earth,  or  around  the  ecjua- 
tor,  the  sun's  place  docs  not  suflcr  a  very  great  change ; 
and,  accordingly,  there  the  heat  is  nearly  of  the  same 
intensity  all  the  year  through ;  and  the  length  of  their 
da)  3  and  nights  is  nearly  e()ual,  or  nearly  the  same  as  at 
till'  peri(Mls  of  the  equinoxes.  But  the  orbit  in  which  the 
earth  travels  round  the  sun  is  not  an  exact  circle  ;  it  is, 
88  we  have  already  mentioned,  an  ellipse,  and  the  sun 
is  placed  near  one  end  of  it,  as  at  the  small  circle  and 
letter  8.  In  conai-quence  of  this  circumstance,  the  sun 
it  much  nearer  us  at  one  period  of  the  year  than  another, 
tod  this  hn|i|iens  in  our  winter ;  accordingly,  the  sun 
ippears  about  nne-thirtieth  part  larger  in  January  than 
in  June.     But  in  proportion  as  the  earth  approaches  in 


her  orbit  to  the  sun,  her  motion  is  quickened,  and  aha 
passes  over  the  winter  half  year  in  nearly  eight  day*' 
less  time  than  the  summer.  It  is  principally  from  thi* 
circumstance,  as  well  as  the  shorter  period  of  the  day, 
that  although  the  sun  be  nearer  us  in  winter,  and  conse- 
quently his  power  of  imparting  heat  greater,  yet  the 
actual  quantity  imparted  is,  on  the  whole,  much  lest 
in  the  one  season  than  the  other.  We  have  said  that 
the  north  polo  of  the  earth  always  points  to  a  particular 
spot  in  the  heavens ;  this  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  cor- 
rect ;  the  pole  or  axis  makes  a  circle  round  the  centra 
of  the  axis  of  the  ecliptic  in  a  long  period  of  years,  and 
it  is  this  motion  that  gives  rise  to  the  precession  of  the 
equinoxes,  which  will  be  afler^ards  described  under  that 
title. 

ABERRATION   OP  LIOHT. 

Although  the  most  convincing  proof  of  the  earth'* 
orbitunl  motion  is  not  to  l>o  found  in  any  circumstance 
of  which  the  senses  can  take  inimeuiate  cognisance,  but 
is  afforded  by  the  full  development  of  the  planetary  sys- 
tem, there  is,  however,  one  direct  proof  of  it  in  a  pheno- 
menon discovered  by  Bradley,  an  illustrious  astronomer. 
It  is  called  the  aberration  of  light,  and  is  manifested  by  ■ 
small  diflerencc  between  the  apparent  and  true  places  ol' 
a  star,  occasioned  by  ihe  motion  of  light  combined  with 
that  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit.  Vision,  it  is  well  known, 
arises  fi-om  rays  of  light  proceeding  from  any  object,  and 
entering  the  eye ;  and  we  see  the  object  in  the  direction 
in  which  the  rays  have  come.  If  both  the  body  giving 
forth  light  and  that  one  which  receives  it  be  at  rest,  the 
former  will  be  seen  in  its  true  place,  at  least  in  so  far  aa 
aberration  is  concerned ;  but  let  cither  of  the  bodies  move, 
and  this  will  not  be  the  case.  In  order  to  render  this 
plain,  suppose  a  shower  of  hail  to  fall  perpendicularly 
upon  a  number  of  tube»r-Hay  the  pipes  of  an  organ ;  if 
the  organ  remain  stationary,  the  hailstones  will  descend 
sheer  from  the  top  to  the  bottom,  without  any  deviation 
right  or  left ;  but  move  the  organ  in  any  direction,  and 
they  will  strike  the  side  opposite  to  the  direction  in  wliiuli 
the  motion  is  made.  Now,  it  is  just  in  this  way  that  the 
eye  misses  the  jH-rpcndicular  ray,  and,  moeting  an  obHqua 
one,  receives  an  impression  that  the  star  lies  in  that 
direction.  The  object  thus  appears  displaced,  and  the 
amount  of  disphtceinent  is  aberrulwH.  'The  earth  travel* 
at  the  rate  of  itlmut  nineteen  miles  per  sitondjund  there- 
fore is  every  iiititant  changing  its  direction    Time  ie  olsii 


INFORMAIION  FOR  THE  PEOPLB. 


Wrapl«lt7  light  In  truwrdnn  »y>acti,  which  it  doe*  at  the 
amatinK  rito  of  192,000  milM  jht  wrnnd;  to  thot  iil»i) 
l«<)uirei  to  bo  cnlculatiHl  for  by  aMtniiiDmeni.  Tlio  rlXwi 
of  aliernition  U  to  make  a  «tHr  iippurciilly  donrilw  a 
mall  pllipB*  in  the  hcuvrna,  in  tlio  rciitre  of  which  it 
would  U)  wen  if  thn  oarlh  wore  niotionloM.  Tlit'  reader 
nuit  eareftilly  iliiitinRuii<h  iHtween  nlierralioM  and  refrac- 
tion !  llieir  elHcU  are  the  mime— niiniely,  to  dinplBce  the 
my  iirojectint?  oliiect— but  they  proceed  from  very  dil&r- 
«nt  CBUaea.  IleiiuleH  ibeiw  cor'  I'ctiona  which  untronomera 
na«e  to  miike  in  llicir  culculalionM,  there  ia  another,  re- 
■ulting  from  whiit  in  ciilliil  (mrallux,  which  may  bo  aa 
well  introduced  ui  thia  place. 

PARALLAX. 
The  word  parallax,  in  it»  general  aigiiification,  denotca 
change  of  place ;  but  in  anlronomicnl  Uioka  it  haa  a  con- 
tenlional  meaning,  nn.l  inipliea  the  dilference  of  apparent 
poaitinna  of  any  heavenly  luminary  when  viewed  from 
the  iurface  of  the  earth  and  from  ita  centre.  The  centre 
of  tlic  earth  i»  the  general  iitalion  to  which  all  antrono- 
tnical  obaervaliona  are  referred ;  the  aituation  of  a  heavenly 
body,  obaerved  from  the  aurface  of  the  earth,  ia  called  the 
apparent  place ;  and  that  at  which  it  would  Iw  aeen  from 
the  imaginary  place  of  obaervation  at  the  amtre  of  thn 
earth,  tiio  true  or  mean  place.  Hence  the  altitude*  of 
the  heavenly  iHNliea  are  depreiiaed  by  |)arallax,  which  ia 
greateat  at  tlio  horizon,  and  decreaaea  aa  the  altitude  of 
Ihe  object  increawa.  Thia  may  !«  rendered  very  plain, 
by  auppoaing  that  two  pcraona  placed  individually  at  the 
and  of  a  atruight  line,  look  at  u  candle  removed  at.  aay, 
100  yarda  distant  from  them.  It  ia  eviilcnt  that  the  burn- 
ing bmly  will  ap|H-ar  to  Im;  projecunl  upon  the  wall  of  an 
apartment,  or  any  other  background,  at  very  diilerent 
poaitioim  to  each  of  the  apectutom.  The  angle  which 
Ihia  dilTerenco  of  {MMition  makea  ia  aimilar  to  (larallax. 
The  farther  they  remove  from  tho  light,  allowing  tliem 
•till  to  remain  at  tho  aan)e  diatanco  from  each  other,  the 
more  obtuae  tlio  angle  would  become,  and  the  leaa  the 
parallax.  Thua,  the  fixei^  atara,  lioing  ao  far  removed 
from  ja,  when  viewed  (torn  any  two  poaitiona  u|>on  tho 
^rth  a  aurface,  are  aeen  at  tho  aame  place  upon  the 
'wieatial  aphere,  and  hence  have  no  perceptible  parallax. 
It  ia  ditlerent,  however,  with  the  luminariea  belonging  to 
our  ayatem ;  and  by  thia  meana  aatronomera  have  been 
enabled  to  eatimato  the  quantity  of  apace  which  aeparatca 
na  from  them.  For  a  complete  account  of  the  meana 
by  which  tliia  ia  accompliahed,  we  muHt  refer  tho  reailer 
to  more  elaborate  troatiaea  than  the  preaent.  A  gene- 
ral and  correct  enough  idea  of  it  may  be  formed  trom  tho 
fiuniliar  example  we  have  given.  In  the  aame  manner, 
iU])po8e  two  ob9!.*vera,  one  in  tho  northern  tlio  other  in 
the  aoutliom  hemisphere,  at  itationa  on  the  anme  mtiri- 
dian,  obaerve  on  tiM  same  day  the  meridian  altitudtta  of 
the  Bun'a  centre.  '•  Having  thenco  derived  the  apparent 
lenith  diatancea,"  xaya  Hir  J.  Herachel,  whose  language 
would  be  deprived  of  cleameaa  were  it  abridged,  "  and 
cleared  ttiern  of  the  etrecta  of  refraction,  if  the  distance 
of  the  aun  wero  ei]ual  to  that  of  tlie  fixed  atara,  the  sum 
of  the  zenith  diitances  thua  found  would  be  precisely 
equ-il  to  the  sum  of  the  latitudes  north  and  south  of  tho 
places  of  observation  ;  for  the  sum  in  question  would  then 
no  equal  to  the  meridional  distance  of  tho  stations  acroaa 
tho  equator.  Uut  the  ellect  of  flie  parallax  bring  in  Itoth 
cases  to  increase  the  apparent  zenith  distances,  their  ob- 
aerved sum  will  be  greater  tlian  tho  sum  of  the  latitudes 
ey  the  whole  amount  of  tho  two  parallaxes.  Thin  angle, 
then,  is  obtainrd  by  suUlucting  the  sum  of  the  latitudes 
trom  that  of  the  zenith  distance ;  and  this  once  deter- 
mined, tlio  horizontal  parallax  is  easily  found,  by  dividing 
the  angle  ao  determined  by  the  sum  of  tho  signs  of  tho 
two  latitudes."  It  may  bo  ol)served,  that  the  s'igles  are 
determined  by  means  of  very  nice  instruments,  'i'ho 
|Mrallax  thua  obtained  ia  called  the  daily  or  geocentric,  in 


cor.tradiatinction  to  the  annual  or  hrlinrrntric,  by  whielw 
in  general,  is  un.leratootl  the  dilference  of  place  of  a 
heavenly  boily,  as  seen  from  tho  earth  and  from  the  aun  | 
in  particular,  however,  it  dcnotea  the  angle  formed  by 
two  linea  (Vom  the  ends  of  the  diameter  of  Ihe  earth's 
orbit  to  f  fixnl  star,  which,  a*  we  have  otrrady  ohaervnl, 
from  Ihe  inmiense  distance  of  the  latter,  is  inappreaiable. 
Some  idea  of  the  importiinco  of  parallax  iniiy  Ih'  obtained 
from  tho  fact,  that  iH'lore  the  sun's  was  determined,  tha 
distance  of  that  luminary  from  us  wns  not  cHtimuted  at 
within  13,000,000  of  miles  of  its  true  amount.  Its  paral 
lax  ia,  of  course,  a  very  nntiute  quantity,  only  N"  Vl 

or  aOLAR,  BIDCHCAL,  AND  ANUMALIHTIO  VRAR8 
There  are  threti  dilli'rent  (n'riods  at  which  the  sun  may, 
in  dilferent  senses,  lie  said  tc  return  to  the  snme  position 
— when  he  returns  to  the  sumo  equinox  at  which  he  woa 
lirfnro;  when  he  returns  to  the  aat;ie  point  in  his  orbit,  or 
the  ecliptic;  and  when,  lieing  in  (lerlgi'e  (li'u«t  diNtimre 
from  the  earth),  or  apogee  (liirtheMt  distincc  from  the 
earth),  ho  comes  bark  to  either  again  ;  or,  witicli  is  tlu) 
same  thing,  when,  having  ta'cn  at  a  given  liiirtisnce  from 
any  of  Iheao  pointa,  ho  returns  to  the  sainu  (loLiit  with  re- 
spect to  them.  Each  of  these  may  lie  said  to  I*  a  com- 
pletion of  the  revolution  of  the  snn  (strictly  H|)ettking,  it 
is  a  revolution  oi  our  own  earth  round  him),  and  a  revo- 
lution thus  |)crformcd  ia  called  a  ynir.  'llui  first  and 
ahortcst  is  the  equituM-tial,  solar,  or  tropical  year;  for  hit 
time  of  returning  from  tropic  to  tropic,  they  Uii.K  situa- 
tions holding  tho  same  relation  to  the  equinox  kr  tha 
time  being,  ia  obviously  the  same  us  that  from  ei\tiinox  to 
equinox.  The  value  of  this  year  is  'Mft  days,  fi  hours, 
49  minutes,  nearly.  Dut  ulthouah  the  earth  haa  thua 
returned  to  the  sumo  equinox,  it  has  not  made  the  cntira 
circuit  of  its  orbit,  but  must  travel  a  little  further  to  arriva 
at  the  same  |)oint  it  was  in  a  year  iM^I'ore.  This  arisei 
from  u  backward  movement  of  the  equinoctial  jKiint.  (iiiea 
"  Precession  of  tho  Equinoxes.")  The  second  is  the 
sidereal  year,  whi<'h  consists,  aa  wo  said  before,  of  369 
days,  0  houra,  9  miiiutea,  9  seconds,  (i,  reckoned  in  mean 
Bolar  time,  or  a  tluy  iiimc,  reckoned  in  sidereal  time.  Plero, 
then,  there  i*  a  lemarkable  ditlerence  iH-twceli  a<dar  an(,^ 
sidereal  time,  which  requires  oxplanatioii.  If  the  reader 
will  recollect  what  was  said  with  regard  to  a  solar  and 
siderr  il  ihiy,  tho  discrepancy  lN:twcen  tho  times  of  Ihe 
years  will  become  apparent.  In  the  course  of  twelve 
months,  all  the  little  daily  deficiencies,  ax  it  were,  amount 
to  twenty-four  hours,  which  constitutes  the  dilU'rcnco  be- 
tween the  two  years.  The  sun's  ap|iurent  anuuitl  motion 
among  tho  stars  is  |)erfornied  contrary  to  thc^upparent 
diurnal  motion  of  the  aun  and  stars ;  hence  tlio  star* 
gain  every  day  three  minutes,  titty-six  seconds  on  the 
sun,  which  makes  them  t'we  that  portion  of  time  rarliei 
every  day.  In  tlie  course  of  u  year,  the  sun  will  full  be- 
hind tho  stars  a  whole  circumterenco  of  tho  heavena,  or 
one  revolution,  which  deficiency  ho  must  moke  up  to 
complete  tho  number  of  days  in  a  year.  It  is  evident, 
then,  that  the  aun  apparently,  or  the  earth  really,  turua 
3li(>  timea  round  upon  ita  axis;  and  had  it  no  othei 
motion,  there  would  Im  aa  many  days  in  u  year.  Altei 
tho  earth  or  san  haa  complct4>d  a  sidcri'ul  year,  liefore  il 
can  finish  an  anomalistic  year,  it  must  descrilic  a  farther 
arc  of  1 1"  8  to  arrive  at  its  original  position  in  fieriho* 
lion,  the  latter  having  moved  forward  to  thut  amount.  In 
ao  doing  it  occupies  4'  39"  7,  which  must  be  added  to  tiie 
sidereal  period,  making  Ihe  aiiomulistic  year  3fi.')  days,  6 
hour>i,  13  minutes,  4<J  sccondK,  3,  in  length.  All  the^ 
|irrio<lB  have  their  Uiics  in  astronomy ;  but  the  one  iu 
which  mankind  are  most  particularly  interesti'd  ia  thn 
tropical  year,  or  that  on  which  the  seasons  depend,  and 
which  is  a  compound  |ihenomuntin,dc|ivnclingcliii'lly  uiitl 
directly  on  t'le  an:iuul  revolution  of  the  earth  round  Ui« 
sun,  but  sulHirdiiiatcly  also,  and  indirectly,  on  its  lolaUuB 
round  its  own  axis. 


ASTRONOMY. 


MIASUMMRNT  or  TIME. 

Althnuffk  ihe  liilprenl  diiy,  from  it*  unifnrmity,  la  writ 
•dapti<d  for  Hutronuniirnl  purpniwii,  ypt  it  in  ■''urrrly  aufn- 
flMntly  mnrkiHl  for  iho  onliiiury  want*  of  liti'.  No  pt-r- 
■on  but  an  aitroiiomrr  <'vi>r  attctuli  to  thn  ciiliiiiniilion  of 
•  itar;  on  tliii*  nrrotint  thn  iliurnnl  return  of  tlif  ■uii  to 
the  mme  mfriiliun  hii*  lnMin  univrraiilly  niloptri)  a*  tho 
mraaure  of  tinix ;  and  lliii  i»  rnlli-il  a  I'irtV  /lay.  Miwt 
nation!  rvi'lton  tint  iH'giniiing  of  their  dny  from  niidniiilit, 
but  iMtronurncm  count  from  noon  to  noon.  Thudny  thus 
dttterraiiii'd  i«  cullcJ  thr  aiitronomlrnl  or  aolar  day,  and, 
beiug  rc-i(ulntiHl  liy  tlip  Irun  motion  nf  the  aun,  tliu  time 
whii'h  in  nicBnurod  liy  it  i»  rullcd  truo  or  appiircnt  tinio. 
Two  diUHi'M  fonnpirc  to  rrndcr  iiHtronoinii-ul  diiyii  uni'i|u>d; 
Amt,  the  viirialilo  velocity  of  tho  kuu  in  hiit  orliit,  und, 
•erond,  thn  olilii|uity  of  thu  pcliptic.  A  nicnn  imtrono 
micpl  duy,  which  in  indi-|N*ndi'nt  of  any  cuumcs  of  in- 
ei)Unlity,  hiH  Iwon  ohtaincd  by  aHtronorncrii  intrn<lucin;{ 
hito  tho  avKtcni  two  iiniiL^limry  mumh.  TIichc  (wn  llctiliuuM 
bodim  lire  xuppoMvl  to  move  unilorndy,  tho  lirst  in  the 
ecliptic,  the  m'coiiil  in  the  eipiiitor  ,  and  uk  the  circleH  are 
both  equal,  the  uctiml  motion  of  each  of  the  hodien  is 
equal.  To  thow  dcKirouD  of  studyini;  thin  part  of  the 
■ubject.  wu  would  recommend  u  |N<ruHal  of  ine  nrticlo 
jjstronomy  in  tho  revcnth  edition  of  the  Encyclopivdia 
Britannicii,  pn^n  77H,  where  it  ia  well  illuRtruled.  The 
eorrection  or  equation,  hy  which  apparent  time  is  reduced 
to  mean  time,  ia  technically  called  the  etjunliun  of  lime. 
There  ore  only  four  days  in  tho  year  when  the  apparent 
and  mean  time  are  tho  flame,  and  the  p.|uutor  of  time 
nothing.  In  tho  interval  between  the  lirMt  and  Hecond 
of  thcHo,  that  in,  Dt^ccmher  '.24th  and  April  15th,  and, 
attain,  in  that  between  the  third  and  fourth,  that  ia,  June 
19th  and  8epteml<or  Int,  the  apparent  ia  ulwaya  later 
than  the  mean  time,  or  the  clock  ia  lM>foro  the  xun  ;  in 
tho  other  intervals  which  complete  tho  year,  the  revcriie 
b  tho  case,  and  tho  clock  ia  allcr  tho  sun.  Tho  greutest 
dilTercncn  iHitwecn  aolar  and  true  time  amounta  to  be- 
tireon  Aftecn  and  aixteeii  minutes.  Tables  of  equation 
■ra  constructed  fur  the  purpose  of  correcting  the  ditrercnccs. 

THE   MOON. 

Next  to  the  sun,  the  moon  ia  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Mrth  the  most  remarkable  and  important  of  all  the  heavenly 
bo<iie«.  The  mean  horizontal  parallax  of  the  moon  is 
67'  48'';  and  her  mean  distance  from  the  earth  236,847 
miles.  Like  tho  sun,  the  moon  advances  in  the  heavens 
in  a  motion  contrary  to  that  of  tho  stars.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  vast  distance  she  is  from  ua,  it  is  little  more  than 
one-fourth  of  tho  sun's  diameter,  and  the  glot)o  of  that 
magnificent  luminary  would  nearly  twice  include  the 
whole  orbit  of  tho  moon !  It  has  varioua  motions ;  as  a 
secondary  planut,  it  revolves  round  the  enrth,  which  is 
ila  primary.  Along  with  the  latter,  it  revolver  round  tho 
tun,  and  it  has  a  rotatory  motion  upon  ita  own  axis. 
Owing  to  the  sun's  apparent  movement  in  the  heavens 
being  in  thir  same  direction  with  that  of  the  moon,  only 
dower,  the  latter  has  to  make  up  for  that  slowness  in  the 
mtat  way  as  we  have  mentioned  with  regard  to  the 
tu*h.  and  the  time  it  takes  constitutes  the  dillercnce  be- 
tweo.  the  sidereal  and  synodic  month  or  lunation.  Tho 
■dercal  month  is  27  days,  7  hours,  43  minutes,  1 1  seconds, 
6,  in  which  time  the  moon  performs  a  complete  revolu- 
tion round  her  primary;  and  the  other  ia  29  days,  12 
hours,  44  minutes,  2  seconds,  87,  the  time  which  ebpaen 
between  two  new  moons,  or  two  conjunctions  of  the  sun 
with  the  miMin.  It  happens  that  its  revolution  uimiii  its 
axis  is  performed  in  he  Kiniie  time  as  its  revolution  round 
the  earth,  so  that  the  same  Hide  of  her  orb  is  always  pre- 
wiittxl  to  the  latter  planet.  Although  the  moon's  rotation 
on  her  axis  is  uiiitbrm,  her  motion  in  her  orbit  is  not  so, 
int.  we  are  by  this  means  enabled  at  times  to  obtain  a 
(•ep  of  the  equatorial  portion*  of  her  OMUiin  and  western 


aides.  Her  axiis  alao,  ia  )  ot  |ierpenilicu)ar  to  her  nrbi^ 
and  a  imall  part  nf  each  cf  her  poles  alternately  l<ecom« 
visible.  These  phenomena  arc  known  by  the  name  of 
Utinttimn  of  the  moon,  and  they  are  of  two  ilistinct  kinds, 
the  result  of  dilTerent  cauavs. 

The  wiwioni  and  beneflcoiice  of  the  Iteity  are  striking- 
ly dinplaycd  in  the  economy  of  inoonliKht,  as  dlatriliuted 
to  our  glolK)  during  various  w-osoni  of  the  year.  The 
remarkable  phenomenon  of  the  hi.n-eit  moon  is  familiar 
to  every  one.  During  the  time  that  our  satellite  is  full, 
and  fur  u  few  days  U'lbro  and  alter,  in  all  about  u  wet  a, 
tl^ere  ia  less  dilfereiice  lietweeii  the  time  of  her  rising  op 
any  two  succesuivo  nights,  than  when  she  is  full  in  any 
other  month  of  the  year,  liy  this  means,  an  iinniediute 
supply  of  light  IS  obtained  niter  suiiwt,  so  bencHclul  I'ui 
gathering  in  tho  fruits  of  the  seasoiiH.  To  conceive  of 
this  phenomenon,  it  must  \ic  rccollect<'d  that  thu  moon  it 
always  opiiosite  to  the  sun  when  she  is  full ;  that  she  ia 
full  in  the  signs  Pisces  and  Aries,  these  Ujiig  the  sigiu 
op|MiHitn  to  Virgo  and  Libra,  which  the  sun  pasH«-s  through 
in  September  and  OcloU-r,  our  harvest  months.  Thus, 
although,  whenever  the  moon  enters  the  two  fon.ier  signs 
(and  she  do«<H  so  twelve  limes  in  a  year),  tho  sL'iie  cir- 
ciMnstance  takes  place  with  regard  to  the  timo  of  h  ;r  ris- 
ing; yet  it  is  not  observed  on  these  other  occasions,  juat 
ts'cuumi  she  is  not  /u//  at  the  time.  The  reason  of  lliere 
l>eing  little  ditrerence  in  the  timo  at  which  she  rieeu  on 
several  consecutive  nights,  is,  tliat  at  these  peri>]s  hor 
orbit  is  nearly  parallel  with  the  horizon.  Thu  harvest 
moons  are  as  regular  in  south  latitude  as  with  us  in  north 
latitude,  only  they  happen  at  diircrcnt  iieriuds  of  the  year. 

ECLIPSES. 

Eclii>scB  are  caused  by  the  positions  of  the  earth  and 
moon  with  respct  to  each  other  and  to  the  sun.  An 
eclipse  of  the  sun  takes  place  when  the  moon  is  between 
the  sun  and  earth;  and  an  ecli]j8e  of  the  moon  is  the 
result  of  the  earth  being  tietwucn  tho  sun  and  moon.  In 
other  terms,  the  shadow  of  the  earth  cost  u|)on  the  moon 
causes  a  lunar  eclipse,  and  that  of  the  moon  upon  tlw 
earth  causes  a  solar  eclipse. 

The  following  figure  explains  an  eclipse  of  the  sun 
A  B  ia  the  sun,  M  the  moon,  ond  C  D  the  earth.    Tb« 


shadow  of  the  moon  falls  upon  a  part  of  the  earth's  sut 
face ;  and  there,  accordingly,  the  sun  apiiears  in  eclipse,  th 
body  of  the  moon  being  placed  between.     Another  dia 
gram  represents  an  eclipse  of  the  moon.    In  this  instance, 
A  D  ia  the  sun,  C  D  the  earth,  while  the  moon  appcart 


M 


as  a  small  circle  M  involved  in  the  shadow  thrown  bf 
the  earth. 

Ttie  places  of  tho  earth's  orbit  and  the  moon's  do  no« 
exactly  coincide,  but  cross  or  intersect  each  other ;  and 
the  consequence  is,  that,  in  general,  the  moon,  when  she 
is  in  conjunction  with  the  sun,  either  passes  on  one  side 
or  tho  other,  and  therefore  does  not  intercept  the  sun's 
rays,  or  prrKluce  an  eclipse.  An  eclipse  of  this  kind  can 
only  take  place  when  the  earth  and  moon  are  in  conjuno 
tion  in  that  part  of  their  orbits  which  «rosfl  each  othw 


INFORM ATION    FOR  THK   PKOI'LK. 


((•n^l  th.  n.*!r«V  l»f»il«.  II  I-  thrn  only  th.l  tl.ry  »,e  I  !..«  Ih.lr  ftr.|..rnl  rrllp-.,  fW  Ihr  »rMt.Y  wl.1, 
koth  In  •  ritfl.i  III.-  with  llic  «.in.     If  Uk'  "'I'''  "f  ••"•  I  ''«'"  ''«"'"  '"""  ,""'  '"••V"  >  '"""''•  *"  "^  *" 


hlHi 
•■rth  bat 


Im'n  bruughl  witliiii  our  i-nlciiluliori. 


moon  wrrn  |«riillrl  t  J  llml  of  tll<'  ••»'<l>.  »"  •'<li|'«'  <»">'''' 
bapppii  rvrry  moiilh.  Pmiiul  crli|wp«,  ■ffsin.  •«<  imi""-!! 
when  thj  iiUMMi,  ill  paHiiiK  llw  mrili.  U  not  <lirrilly  in  • 
line  with  rh.-  miii.  Ixit  a  lillln  on  filhi-r  niilr;  the  eimm" 

Juenri-  of  whiili  in,  llir  cdtfi- of  one  niiio  of  llw  nio«>ii  only 
i|«  into  the  .iin'ii  .liw.  Whrn  the  kiiii  in  r.ll|»M.I,  tin- 
l<it«l  (liirkn.'iiii  !■  ronflned  to  oin'  |mrti<iiliir  purl  of  the 
tiirth,  but  thr  liiimr  <ilipiM'«  lun  Ih  h. .n  from  rv.ry  part 
of  the  I'lirlh,  wlirn  the  iiiimui  ia  aUivn  (he  horiion;  ami 
both  cinuiiii.taii<<ii  prove  that  the  earth  I*  u  koimI  ilnil 
•nrier  than  the  mmm.  The  moon  arrive*  vt-ry  luiirlv  at 
the  Mine  niliiiilicin  with  rrii|MTi  to  the  earth,  alVr  iiiukiiiK 
83.1  revolutions,  whiih  are  |M'rforini<l  in  eiKhl" n  yeara, 
•f  306  cluya,  16  hoiira,  7  mimilea,  am!  4.1  aeioriila,  emh; 
•n  tbat,  after  a  |Hri.Ml  of  alniut  einhUrn  yeara,  the  aeriea 
of  ecliiwea  rin'omnioncea  nearly  in  the  aaim'  onler,  a  eir- 
cumitani-e  olMH-rveil  liy  tlie  anrienln.  The  mean  riuinlkT 
•f  ecliixMi  whieh  occur  in  a  year  ia  alwut  four,  ami  there 
•re  aometimea  w  many  ■<  aeven.  Thcro  nmat  iiccewia- 
ri\j  be  two  aolnr  wlipwa,  hut  it  ia  [Kx-Mlle  that  there  may 
not  be  even  one  lunar.  A  rcmarkahle  ecli|i«<',  ralleil  lyi 
•nnular  (or  circular)  aolar  eclijiae,  hap|M'na  when  the 
moon  Ihuiik  in  conjunction  with  the  aun,  the  eilne  of  the 
Utter  ap|ifara  fur  n  few  miiiuti-a  an  a  nnrniw  ring  ci  IIkIi' 
•nrirclini(  all  round  the  dark  iliac  of  the  iiiiM>n.  A  Knot 
•olar  ecli|Me,  viaiMe  in  England,  will  take  place  in  March 
IS,  IH.'>N,  unil  a  atill  more  remarkahle  one,  when  the 
whole  diac  will  ho  nearly  covered,  in  Auguat  lU,  1887. 

TRI  8ATKLLITM. 
The  earth,  we  have  aeeii,  ia  attj-niln!  in  her  annual 
circuit  round  the  aun  by  one  aatellitc,  the  moon,  which 
lovolvea  round  her  aa  a  centre.  Strictly  afirlkkinK.  I«>th 
OMve  round  a  coinmon  centre  of  Rravity  in  an  elliptic 
orbit,  the  regularity  of  which  ia  diMurlied  hy  their  mutual 
attractiona,  ao  that  it  ia  undulale<l  ur  waved,  thus,  — — . 
Th«  nuinlHT  of  undulationa  in  a  whole  rcvnlutum  ia, 
however,  only  thirteen,  ao  that  the  deviation  fruni  the 
rllipae  ia  exceediiiKly  trilling.  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  I'm- 
nu(,  are  all  iittcnded  by  aatrllitca,  h«  wo  have  aeen  ;  and 
they  form,  aa  it  were,  each  of  the  primnriea  with  ita  attend- 
ant miMMiH,  a  aort  of  miniature  avhtrni,  entirely  aiinilur  in 
the  Ihwit  t-y  which  they  are  jrov  -n.  to  the  (jrcat  ayali-m 
to  which  lliey  all  In'Ioiik,  wher<  'lie  aun  may  be  termed 
the  primary  planet,  and  thi  ju  unary  phinela  the  aiitcllitei. 
Their  orbita  are  circlea  o  llipaea  (-1  amall  eccentricity, 
tlie  primary  o<'iiipyiii(j  one  focut.     Of  theae   ayatema, 

that  iif  which  Jupiter  forma  the  head,  hua  la-en  atudied  '  either  aup|>ow>  th?t  the  whole  tlrmameiit  hua  moved  hi 
with  thr  )creati'at  utti-ntion.  The  di-icovery  uf  Jupiter'a  the  order  of  the  zo<liacal  aiRna,  or  elae  that  the  eijuinoc- 
■atcllitca  by  (ialileo,  wan  one  of  the  firat  fruita  of  the  in-  tiul  (i-jintu  have  gone  Imckwanla, or  ritroKruded  weatward ; 
vention  of  the  tvlearupo,  ajid  forma  a  remarkable  era  in  i  aince  theae  pointi  dejiend  entirely  ti|K)n  the  motion  of 
the  hiatory  of  aatronomy.  From  it  reaulted  a  solution  j  tlie  earth,  whirh  waa  far  more  liktly  to  lie  diaturhed  by 
of  the  gteai  problem  of  the  loinotudo,  and  the  grand  liia-  I  aoiiui  raum^  or  other,  than  that  the  countlcaa  multitude  of 
cuvery  of  the   alicrration   of  lifiht     It   alio   eatabliahca  |  atiira  ahoulil  have  a  motiur.  relative  to  thca<<  |>ointa.     Ac- 


PKNTl/RRATION*. 
TJie  name  of  pttiurlainiKB  baa  been  applied  to  thoM 
inci|ualiiiea  in  the  lunar  and  pljinetnry  niolKma,  whirb 
an<M>  from  the  univeranlity  of  ailniction.  'I'bua.  not  only 
dia'a  ihe  aun  attract  the  earth,  and  the  earth  the  nMMin, 
hut  Ihe  latter  altracia  the  pn'ceilinit,  and  both  are  aKaia 
iiilluenceil  in  their  niovemenla  by  the  iireat  centre  of  tbo 
ayaleni  to  which  they  beloiiK.  Not  only  ia  thia  the  caaOi 
but  evi'ry  individual  planet  in  ihe  ayatem  altracta,  and  ia 
ullructeii  by,  all  the  ••kI,  allbouvh  certainly  in  a  very 
trilliiiK  dcKrw  when  >  im|inred  wnti  that  ejcrciaed  by  tho 
aun  over  the  whole  '.<f  them.  Iliil  in  thoMi  niiniatura 
ayHlenia,  audi  aa  Ihe  iihkiii  and  earth.  Jupiter  and  hia  ak 
tellilea,  Ac,  the  |M'rturbntioiia  tliua  ariaing.  IhoiiRh  ina<-n- 
aible  in  ahorl  inlervula,  become  apparent  when  arcumu- 
hileil,  and  deraiiKe  tho  elliptic  motioiia  and  relation* 
The  calculiition  of  Ihe  elfecta  of  theae  iliaturbinK  forrea 
ia  famoiia  in  the  hiatory  of  analyaia,  under  the  name  of 
77ii'  I'roliirm  uf  the  Thrrr  I'mlirt,  It  ia  ao  fkordc  ',  bo» 
caiiae  Ihe  Mun,  Miain,  and  Kartli,  and  ll'.e  Hnn,  .t  ii'"*, 
and  Saturn,  form  each  aeparately  a  ayatem  litli  .  I  ii>ii<il 
by  till-  real.  Any  thiiiK  like  an  allenipt  '  >  t^hi'itt  I'li 
methial  by  which  theae  nice  calculalii  .  ire  'ivl(,  M 
ini|hiaKilil<'  in  thia  place:  of  ita  illiricilty.  roe  '''-a  may 
Ih)  formed,  when  we  eonaider,  wl  ia  app  ,re,  >  very 
one,  that  the  bixliei  und  r  invi  •  '  ;  on  are  roni  nually 
ahiniiiK  tlieir  relative  dialaiicea ''    i  ti  other,  and  alter, 

ing  the  intenaity  of  the  diaimiih  '  Mice,  which  evidently 
niuat  materially  inrnn"  the  abalruaeneaa  of  th  ciiltul** 
tion.  Une  of  the  principal  clfeela  proiluc<'d  on  our  glob* 
by  thia  play  of  f":>  citation  ia  called 

THE    PIICCCS8I0N   OP  THE    IdVINOXM. 

The  cquinoclial  {HMiita,  we  have  ulrendy  explained, 
are  Ariea  and  Libra,  where  th'  ecliptic  ciila  the  e<|uator. 
They  are  alao  termed  nodea,  and  the  line  w  hich  joiiia  tba 
two  ia  called  the  line  of  the  nodea,  'I"he  lonuitiidea  of 
the  gtani,  aa  hai  lieen  alao  uliMorved,  are  coiinti'd  on  the 
ecliptic  from  llui  vernal  c<|uinot  Ariea,  Now,  if  the  line 
of  the  niKlea  ia  invariable,  the  lonuilude  of  tlie  at.ira  will 
of  counu)  remain  tho  aamo  from  ui^e  to  ngt.  Uut,  on 
comparinir  the  actual  otatu  of  the  licuvcna  with  Ihe  n 
corded  obaervationa  of  ancient  aatronomera,  it  ia  |H'rceived 
that  the  longitudea  of  the  atara  have  conauU'rubly  in- 
cn-aatnl ;  ao  that,  to  explain  the  circumatance,  wo  muit 


completely  the  (yO|H>rnican  ayatem,  and  confirmeil  tlie  laws 
ct  Kepler.  Tho  aatellit<>a  of  Jupiter  revolve  from  weat 
to  east  like  our  moon,  but  they  arc  much  leaa  in  com- 


cordinely,  the  phenomenon  hoa  Iwen  explained,  by  at- 
tributiuK  to  them  a  retrograde  motion  from  r(i.<f  to  irnl, 
in  conrcijuence  of  which  the  aun  urrivea  at  them  aooner 


pariaon  with  tlicir  primary  than  it,  whilal  their  orbita  arc  >  thari  I  lev  \  it\  remained  at  real.  }|ence  the  ei|uinoxi?a, 
of  amaller  dimcmiiona,  and  less  inilined  to  the  ecliptic  of  aprmt)  **  '''  ''  <t<('>iii,  and  the  other  aciaoiia,  h'  p,  ,i  liefora 
their  primary  than  that  of  our  au     .lU-.     The  lurgeat  of  |  he  '.ic  c  <:   ■  .  •  entire  cir  Thia  motion,  how- 

thom  ia  about  :)^77  milca,  and  the  leaft  about  8U(i8  miles  I  e<  '  1 1  :  'tn  u.cl,  mow,  amo^Bnn^  only  to  a  degree  in 
in  diameter.  Tho  a.itellilea  uf  .Saturn  have  been  much  aU.ul  .^.  .eiityniix  years;  so  that  the  ei|uiniaiial  pi>inta 
leas  studied,  and  have  fewer  |ieculiaritiea.  Those  of  will  take  nearly  '.iO.UOU  year*  to  make  an  entire  rcvulu* 
(7ranuri,  however,  are  remarkable,  inaomuch  aa  their  orbits  lion  of  the  heuvena.  Thia  moticui  was  known  in  very 
arc  nearly  |ierfiendicnlar  to  the  ecliptic,  and  in  theae  orbita  ancient  tiinea,  and  ita  diac^overy  ia  uacriU-d  to  tlipgiarchuis 
they  are  suppoaed  to  have  a  retrograde  'notion — that  is,  who  lived  ab.)ut  140  years  In-fore  (-'hriat.  The  conaOi 
from  ^aft  to  nvrl,  lnatca<l  of  from  wftt  to  tan,  like  the  quenco  of  thia  retrugnulo  movement  ia,  that  the  lun'a 
'♦!>er  planetary  Ixxliea.  No  satisfactory  cause  for  this  place  amoiigat  the  zodiacil  ainna,  at  any  atiostin  of  the 
■  ..ii-i.ure  ("fit  lie  one)  from  the  general  rule  can  l«  year,  ia  greatly  ditTerent  from  what  it  tormerly  was.  'I'he 
;  -n.  V.  is  by  accurate  olaiervation  of  the  sateUites  that  vernal  equinox  now  happens  ii  the  cimstellution  I'iscea; 
tV  W  iit^-.-s  of  the  phi.ietr  or  their  weight  as  proportioned  i  ttie  summer  aolatice  inUemiiu;  the  autumn  equinox  ip 
ir.  liKrir  |)ullu,  havo  hetv  iiMvrtainedi  aa  alao,  by  watch- j  Virgo;  aiul  the  winter  aoUtico  iii  Sugiiiarius.     Astro 


ASTRONOMY.     • 


oxplainM), 

IP  equator. 

h  JniiiR  th» 

uiliitli'R  of 

till  on  the 

r  tlio  line 

nl.irii  will 

Uut,  on 

itii  tlir  re 

l«'rrfivfd 

rulily   in- 

wo  niuit 

niovrd  ill 

rtiuincx;- 

wt'Htwari) ; 

motion  of 

Hturhed  tiy 

Ititude  (4 

ita.     Ac- 

I,  by  at- 

t  to  tmt, 

II  Hoiiner 

i|uinoxi>a, 

I  lirl'ore 

tion,  how- 

rgrco  in 

iai  |>(>inla 

re  rcvolu- 

n  in  very 

(■[>ur('hua, 

h<'  conae. 

the  lun'a 

in  of  the 

at.     The 

n  Pisrea; 

ijuinoi  in 

Aalre 


a,  >iow-Tff,  (rtlll  rnnnl  the   aljina  ftom   thn  vrriml 
Miulnot.  w)  '  '   nlwavK  I'urrraiionilii  to  tlm  inlfrMiotion  n( 
,iie  prliptir    ''  •<  llin  •■<;.iiitiir;  aiiil  on  lliia  aiTount  it  ia 
IMffmary  riiri'liilly  In  ilinlini^iiiah  U'twi'i'n  tlioni. 

The  raiiM'  o(  iiri-cciiniiin  iit  to  lie  foiiml  in  the  roniliinrd 
•rtinn  of  thf  aim  ami  moon  ii|ion  the  |iriil(ilM<rant  ninna 
nf  mattrr  Hr('iiiiiiili<lr>'  iit  thn  rnrth'a  ei|iinlor,  lli«  nllriir- 
tlon  of  th<<  iiliitii'ir  '■  '  ai'iirrply  arnailili'.  Thi'  ntlrin'l. 
ing  force  of  tin-  »iin  a  .1  mmin  upon  lhi»  ulirll  of  matter 
la  of  a  twoliilil  rliariii  <•  r ;  <iiie  i*  pariillrl  to  the  <'<|u>ilur, 
anil  the  other  perjn  n  iiciiliir  to  '  Tlir  d-ndeiiry  oC  the 
laltnr  fiirre  ia  l.i  illu  i-'\i  the  niiuli  hIimIi  the  plana  of 
the  m|ualor  innkea  wiiii  tin  ''(-liptlo)  and  wi  re  it  not  for 
the  mtiitory  niii'inn  i\f  the  rarlh,  (he  pinnea  would  anon 
eniiicide;  hut  hv  llii-  motion  the  pl,u,  n-main  cnnalant 
to  earh  other.  The  ,  li  il  proilueetl  hy  the  ai  tion  of  the 
(brce  in  qiiealion  ia.  hiiwever,  tli.it  the  plane  of  the  r-  >  ■ 
lor  ia  conatniitly,  tliiiui(h  aluvvly,  ahifliriK  ■t'  place  iu  tiie 
manner  we  have  dcaerilied. 

KttTATIOIf. 
The  artion  of  the  aiin  and  moon  in  prn<lueinit  pre- 
ceaaion  ia  viirioiia,  nt  ditrerent  periiMJa  of  thn  year,  ar- 
sordini  to  the  relative  liiatnnre  of  the  curth  from  them. 
Twire  a  yeiir,  the  elffet  of  the  aun  in  priMlurinK  it  ia 
nothinK ;  and  twice  i  year,  namely,  at  the  aolaticea,  it  ia 
•t  manimuiii.  On  no  two  aurreaaivn  daya  ia  it  alike, 
■nd,  eonae(|uenlly,the  |.','c-e>taion  of  the  equinoetial  poinla 
muat  lie  uiie<|uid,  and  tlie  nhliquity  of  the  erli|itie  aulijeel 
til  a  half-yeurly  vnriiilioii ;  for  tho  aiin'a  fori-e,  which 
ehanitea  the  nliliiniiiy,  ia  vnriahle,  while  the  rotation  of 
the  citrth,  which  comiterartii  it,  ia  eoni'l'int.  Dy  thia 
meana,  the  pliiiie  of  the  eijurttor  ia  anliject  to  an  irre(;ular 
motion,  which  ia  tcchiiicnlly  onlled  tho  nthir  nululmn, 
Ita  amount,  however,  ia  ao  exceedintfly  amall,  aa  not  to 
be  apprerinhle  liy  .ilwerviition.  That  rcaulting  from  tl»e 
moon'a  ncticm,  however,  ia  sulfiriently  ao,  na  to  have  lieon 
diaeovered  by  llrndlcy  lieforo  theory  hiid  indirated  it  ■  en- 
iatence,  Itn  period  ile|K'iidH  upon  tho  revolution  of  the 
moon'a  nodea,  which  ii  |ierforined  in  IH}  years,  and  in 
about  that  period  of  time  the  axia  of  tho  world  deacritiea 
•  amall  circle  in  tlie  heavena,  aliout  rii;htcon  aeconda  in 
diameter,  rontrnry  to  the  order  of  the  aiKni.  Thin  appa- 
rent viliralory  motiim  ia  denominated  the  nulAtinn  of  the 
carth'a  axia.  The  two  phenomena  of  preceaaion  and 
nutation  are  intimiitely  connected,  or  rather  arc  conati- 
tucnt  partH  of  the  aaine  phenomenon,  and  de|iendent  ujion 
the  i«me  caiiw,  aa  noticed  above  under  Prcreiwion.  It  ia 
impoaaible  here  to  enter  more  minutely  into  tho  aubject, 
or  explain  it  more  in  detail.  F'or  an  admirnble  account 
of  it,  we  refer  the  render  to  Herw-hera  Treatiao  on  Aa- 
tronomy,  p.  :)a:i.  We  :il.ao  would  direct  the  inquirer  to 
tho  aaine  ndmirn'ile  work,  for  further  information  uixin  the 
aubject  of  iMTturbntioiia,  compriainff  all  the  complicute<l 
varietiea  of  motinri.  In  Kenerul,  they  may  be  eaid  to 
■riao  from  the  pluy  of  nttractiona  kept  up  by  the  whole 
of  the  planeta  amoiiirnt  themaelvca,  they  with  the  aun, 
nd  the  aun  with  tlicm ;  tho  diktancea  of  the  hodiea  from 
rjrh  other,  which  are  nivvnya  varying;  and  the  moaaea  of 
matter,  and  the  ahajie  of  the  hodiea,  which  are  invariable. 


(n  enncliidlnir  thia  pari  nf  r  tr  aunjert,  we  may  remark, 
that  it  ia  hy  niruna  iif  the  |«  rturbationa  of  thuan  planet* 
which  have  no  aaleMiten,  that  ■alronomera  h>i«e  arrived  at 
•  Vnowleilf(ii  of  their  maawa.  Every  plniii't  irmlurea  an 
amount  of  |ierturbation  in  the  niotioiia  of  uny  oihcr,  pi(>> 
IMirlionril  to  ita  mow,  and  to  the  degree  of  advaiilaKe  or 
liiiriHiiir  which  ita  aituatinn  in  tita  ayateiu  gives  it  over 
ttkalr  movwnMilA 


Of  th**  varioua  'reatiaea  on  Aatninomy,  which  may  ha 
read  will\  pleasure  liy  thoae  who  wiah  to  pivraue  the  atudy 
in  detail,  we  ahall  mcn'ion  a  few  which  iire  eaaily  ohlain- 
aliiv-  iri  thia  country,  Pho  two  book"  <rf  l>t.  iKck.  en> 
tilled,  "Cltllml  Srtntry"  and  •' Thi  Sitli  ml  Ihivmi," 
are  written  in  a  drliKhtiliil  atyle,  ami  im'  ''  'm<  reeent 
diaroveriea  in  thia  iiitereMin^  and  impcrtan  •-.     Tha 

■vrirk  nf  Whewell  on  Aatronomy  atui  fiemriil  nice,  it 
of  the  anmc  opular character.  Profeiwir  Keiuln,  -work, 
entitled,  "  .  riinonii'l'hy:  or,Jl  I >rHiiinl !<■■''  a/  the  ll.  mt, 
ilffiiitied  fnr  Silnntts  and  ^cadrnurr,  '«■(■'  'imniVii  (:,  h 
^lliin  (if  tht  Heavtnt,  thim-iiiK  thf  f'^tiin  u,  'if  jtrim.,  >l 
Sinn,  Cluflerd,  unil  ythulrt,"  ia  ai>  excelUihi  manual  ti0 
practical  pur|ioM>a.  It  waa  prepareiC  particular!)  'he  UM 
ofthe  Ftiidentjiiit  tho ObiA'rvatorv  nt' tin  riiiliiili  m  High 
Scli(M)l,  where  tho  author  ia  a  proli  ■  It  i       liiedy  a 

tranalation  froni  the  admirable  fieri     n  origiiii.      I  J.  J. 
von   I.ittrow,   Director  of  the   Viein       OliHcrvai.    y    uid 
the  mil,  1  which   accompany  it  are  i  .ipied  from  Lmtow'a 
"Jthm    '  the  Sliiriii  llcufrnn."      By  adding  the  JHnftA'     •'» 
ofStnn      iiid  Modlor,  the  new  utlaa  ia  greatly  ini 
Hy  the      (41  of  thia  atiaa,  tho  atudent   may  eaaily 
hinmelf    unilinr  with  the  namoa  ami  poaitioTm  ol 
vera!  con    I'llntiona;  and  a  proper  degree  of  utlc- 
the  rompii  ixoii   of  tho  utliu  with  the  atara  tin  ^ 

will  enable  >ne  who  wiahea  to  make  a  particular  atu  y 
of  thia  Hcici  c,  to  fu  in  hia  mind  the  map  of  the  heave  « 
aa  firmly  uh  ibiinat  every  intelligent  poraon  haa  in  ■■<■ 
mind  the  gen  ';d  figure  of  the  eorth'a  •'urliice.  AUhonin. 
few  peraoiia  iiiinke  a  atudy  of  iiatronomy  la  iim(ilrur»,t\'  n 
ore  many  wh.  would  he  delighted  wif  so  much  kniiv 
ledge  of  theaul  irt  gleaned  from  the  atlii> ,  aa  would  oimlile 
'hem  to  recogni~<'  thu  moat  romarkiible  and  conapicuoui 
of  the  heavenls  liodiea.  To  auch  p<-raona  thu  atlaa  it 
iiiviilunlile. 

Among  the  ol  t  treatisea  of  Astronomy,  that  of  Pcr- 
giiKon  liaa  alwnv  -  l>cen  moat  popular,  on  account  of  that 
plain,  H."i<<'>|e,  Fr  iiiklin-likc  style  which  diatinguiahea  the 
Hcif-toug'it  author  Dr,  Gregory's 'v/.i/rtiiioHij/,"  and  the 
'•.'/«/ roil wir  nl  Lin  rf,"  of  Dr.  John  Keill,  are  excellent 
for  tlir  rtleiii.'ntar\  oarta,  though  sujicraeded  in  a  great 
meaaiire  by  iu<  ent  iaoovcrica  and  improvomciita.  Tha 
great  worUh  of  i^aln:  'le,  Delambre,  Newton,  and  Laplace, 
are  of  course  iatein  d  only  for  the  uao  of  the  msat  to 
compliahoti  i,i:itheniK  ciana,  who  make  ulronomy  tbait 
lavourite  pursuit— .i  -  Ed.] 


rai.L--4 


n 


GEOLOGY. 


Ba»alt.— Tho  Gianls'  Causew»>- 


9k:tioi«  I.-EXPLANATIONS-ORDKR  OF  ROCKS. 

Okoioot  (from  the  Gropk,  fff/  the  enrth.  and  hen>. 
discourse)  may  he  dofincii  a,s  the  wionrc  which  descril)cs 
tho  solid  miitprials  of  the  earth,  the  order  in  which  they 
we  arranged,  the  causes  which  have  etTected  that  arrange- 
ment, and  the  orutanic  remains  which  are  found  in  tliem. 
The  investigations  of  the  science  are,  in  present  circum- 
■tances,  limited  to  the  external  crust  of  the  earth. 

The  solid  parts  of  tliis  crust  consist  of  a  variety  of 
■uhstances,  to  which,  whether  they  be  hard  or  soft,  the 
terra  rock  is  applied.  Rocks  are  distinguished  botii  l)y 
peculiarities  in  their  constitution,  and  peculiarities  in  their 
form  and  arrangement. 

At  some  |)lace8  tlie  surface  of  tho  earth  is  found  to 
consist  of  a  hard  rock  of  crystalline  or  glassy  texture, 
generally  called  granite,  though  subject  to  a  considerable 
number  of  varieties.  Granite  is  never,  except  in  ()eculiar 
circumstances,  found  in  the  form  of  a  layer,  whether  thick 
or  thin,  but  generally  in  large  irregular-8ha|)ed  masses ; 
and  no  other  kind  of  rock,  except  in  equally  rare  and 
peculiar  circumstances,  is  ever  found  l)encath  it 

At  other  places  tho  earth's  immediate  surface  is  found 
oomposcd  of  some  one  of  certain  kinds  of  rock  not  less 
hard  in  texture  than  granite,  and  also  of  a  crystalline 
consistence,  but  always  found  in  layers  or  beds,  generally 
of  great  thickness. 

At  other  places  we  find,  near  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
rocks  of  a  comparatively  soft,  and  not  of  a  crystalline 
consistence,  forming  also  layers  or  beds,  of  greater  or 
less  thickness. 

in  some  places,  rock  of  a  very  hard  kind  is  found,  not 
exactly  like  any  of  the  alwve,  deposiljHl  in  irregular  forms, 
and  often  with  the  ap|)earancc  of  having  pcnetratc<l 
through  gaps  forcibly  made  in  other  rocks. 

Finally,  throughout  the  first  three  classes  of  rix;ks,  but 
particularly  the  first  two,  there  aie  thin  i'fi««  of  diverse 
•ubstances,  including  minerals. 

Hocks  of  the  first  class  arc  denominated  Pli'Tomc 
^froin  Pluto,  the  gixl  of  the  infernal  regions  amongst  the 
mcieiits),  us  Huppuscd  to  have  tven  forniid  at  grciit 
Hepths  in  the  larlli,  the  matter  having  lieen  originally  in 
a  hot  and  nod  state,  and  afterwards  cuo'i'd  and  rrysliiljizi'il 
■lowly,  under  such  enonnoiis  pressure  as  prevented  the 
cont.iineil  gases  Irom  expaniiiig.  The  ti-rm  umtruhjuil 
is  also  a|i|ilieil  to  this  class  of  r<K'ks. 

Rocks  of  (he  M<'cc)iid  and  third  classes  are  called  Aui'K- 
•Dt,  as  composed  uf  matter  depositril  l)y  water.     Those 


•  Tbf  «  ii  pionoukceU  ..ard,  and  Uic  <  as  in  (on. 


of  the  second  class  .^re  more  specially  named  Milantor>' 
phorif  (from  tho  (Jreek,  mtldninriihofh,  a  transformation), 
as  supposed  to  have  undergone  a  remarkable  change  in 
the  course  of  their  formation.  ''  is  supposed  that  tha 
matter  of  these  rot-ks,  derived  In  .  ro<ks  of  the  groiiitio 
kind,  and  susfx^nded  in  vast  m'cuns,  was,  when  depositctl, 
subjected  to  a  great  heat  from  below,  which  gave  it  in  itn 
reconsolidation  much  of  that  cryslallnie  tuxturo  which  it 
had  in  its  plutonic  form. 

Rocks  of  the  fourth  class  are  denominated  Volcahir,  a* 
being  evidently  compos«'d  of  lavas,  or  massi's  of  fire-melted 
rocky  matter,  which  have  In-en  sent  uiwurds  by  volcanoiu. 
Rocks  of  the  second  and  third  classt^s  are  likewise 
called  Slrulifkil  Roika,  as  In'iiig  invariably  found  in  strata 
or  layers.  Rocks  of  the  first  and  fourth  classes,  as  want* 
ing  this  peculiarity,  arc  distinguished  as  I  nm ratified  l\oik». 
The  plutonic,  and  some  of  the  lower  metamorphoric 
rwks,  have  been  also  called  Primnrj/,  or  PnmUive  J\0(ks, 
as  either  the  first  formed  of  all,  or  formed  very  early. 
'I'lie  upper  metamorphoric  rocks  have  in  Uke  manner 
been  cabled  the  Transition  Sines,  as  torming  a  kind  of 
link  lietwcen  the  primary  ond  those  which  follow,  and 
partakipg  of  the  characters  of  both.  Of  the  remainder 
of  the  aqueous  rocks,  a  considerable  number,  being  the 
lower  portion,  are  sometimes  called  the  Semailary  liockx, 
while  the  upper  arc  imined  Tcrlinnj.  Igneous  Rock  ia 
also  a  various  name  for  the  volcanic  kind. 

When  rocks  of  various  classes  are  seen  at  or  near  the 
same  place,  it  is  found  that  those  of  the  s<>cond  (exce|>t 
in  the  extraordinary  circumstances  alliiilcd  to)  lie  abo%'e 
those  of  the  first;  and  those  of  the  third  al)Ove  those  of 
the  second  and  first  classes.  SiK'cial  kinds  of  aqueous 
rock  arc  also  found  in  a  certain  order  above  one  another 
— much  in  tho  same  way  os  if  we  were  to  place  a  book 
of  many  volumes  on  its  side,  having  previously  arrangetl 
the  N-olumes  according  to  their  numbers,  in  which  case  the 
second  would  he  above  the  first,  the  third  above  tho  second, 
and  so  on.  Rocks  are  thus  said  to  observe  an  order  of  si«- 
priiposiiion — the  volcanic  kind  alone  obs«"rving  no  order. 
In  some  of  the  upper  metamorphoric  rcnks,  and  in  ail 
those  of  the  secondary  and  tertiary  series,  remains  of 
plants  and  animals  are  found,  showing  that  when  these 
ro<'ks  were  formed,  the  earth  hail  ls>coine  a  scene  of  vcg«»> 
table  and  animal  life.  The  rocks  coMtaining  these  ot^i'iu 
reinatm,  or  fotfiti,  arc  called  Fossii.iiKitoiis;  and  tha 
remaining  rocks,  from  their  containing  no  such  telict, 
arc  called  NoM-KossiLiik;HorH. 

.\bovc  the  harder  rocks,  there  are  generally  layers  of 
clayey  and  earthy  matter,  tojiped  by  what  is  cAiled  the 
vegetable  soil. 

The  principal  rocks,  exclusive  of  the  volcanic,  are 
ranged  in  the  order  indicated  in  the  talile  at  tho  end  of 
this  siN'tion,  ('.esceniling  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest 

Whatever  rock,  then,  appears  on  or  near  tho  surfacn, 
if  it  lie  not  of  the  volcanic  kind,  we  may  form  from  it 
some  notion  of  what  rocks  are,  and  are  not,  1h>1ow.  It, 
for  instance,  we  anywhere  fin, I  one  of  tlie  rocks  of  tlie 
tertiary  series,  we  may  deem  it  almost  certain  that  rocka 
of  the  secoi-lriry,  transition,  and  primary  scries,  would 
Im'  found  in  succession  downwanls.  if  we  could  dig  to  the 
pro|)cr  depth.  If  we  find  nx'ks  of  the  si'i-ond;iry  seriea, 
it  is  ecjually  likely  that  transition  and  primary  rtx'ks  «r" 
Ih'Iow,  and  so  on.  The  same  concluKions  may  1*  formed 
res|K'cting  s|srial  kinds  of  rock  of  the  various  ciasstKi 
if  for  instanic,  we  find  at  tlie  surl'ace  a  particular  nienv 
ber  of  the  secondary  series,  we  may  know  that  ccituin 
others  of  the  same  series  ere  below.  What  alone  pre- 
vents this  rule  from  being  of  constant  applicati  >n,  is  the 
act,  tliat  in  no  place  docs  eveiy  nienilicr  of  the  whole 


ntles  of  knon 
wanting,  in  F 
many  places  wi 
with  respect  to 
The  order  of 
ftrootor  cortaint; 
tho  list  than  th 
find  secondary 
that  none  of  tl 
of  the  secondai 
transition,  secoii 


I 
I 


Aqueoui 


•S 


c 
o 

is, 


Plutonic. 


SK<-rin<i  II 

The  whole  m'ii 
bws.  which  are  > 
in  constant  operu 
equally  powerful 
Into  what  have 
Ciiusei. 

The  degrading 
•iilving  ai:tl  wea 
enrlh  «  surface,  ai 
•ower  levels.     Tl 


GEOLOGY. 


r 


HiIm  of  known  rocks  exist.  Everywhere  mim  are 
wanting ,  in  Frnnce,  for  example,  transition  rocks  are  in 
many  places  wanting.  The  rule,  nevertheless,  is  certain 
with  respect  to  the  rocks  which  do  exist  at  any  place. 

The  onler  of  supraposition  enables  us  to  conclude  with 
%t(iiAoT  certainty  as  to  the  absence  of  all  rocks  higher  in 
the  list  than  that  which  we  find  at  the  surface.  If  wo 
find  secondary  rocks  at  the  surface,  we  may  be  certain 
that  none  of  the  tertiary  ate  there ;  if  transition,  none 
of  the  secondary  or  tertiary;  if  primary, ^one  of  tlie 
tranxition,  secondary,  or  tertiary. 

SDPKRFICIAIi 

'Vegetable  Soil. 
Peat. 

Gravel  Beds. 
Blue  Clay  Beds. 

TEHTIAHT. 

Marl  Beds. 
Shelly  Millstone. 
Gypsum. 

Coarse  Limestone. 
Plastic  Clay. 

BKCONDART. 

(Chalk  Group.) 
Chalk. 
Greensand. 
Weald  Clays. 

(Oolitic  Group.) 
Oolite. 
Sandstones. 
Lias. 

(Aeit)  Red  Sur.ff atone  Group.) 
Variegated  Maria. 
Muschclkalk. 
Variegated  Sandstones. 
Zcchatein. 
Red  Con'jiomerate. 
Rock  Salt 

(Carboniferous  Group.) 
Coal. 

Sandstone. 
Shale. 

Mountain  Limestone. 
Old  Red  Sandstone. 

TRAXSITION. 

(Grauiearke  Group.) 
Grauwacke. 

Clayey  and  Sandy  Slates,  or 
Lowest  Possiliferous. 

FIIIMAUT. 

(Infeniir  Stratified  Series.) 
';iay  Slate. 
j^       Mica  Slate. 
c  ^  Piiinltive  Limestone. 
■§       Protogino. 
_^    LGneiss. 

(Graniles.) 
.    .    Granite,  in  varietiea. 


Aqueous.     .^ 


1 
§ 


■i 


Plutonic. 


Hbctioi  II  -CAUSF.S  OF  ARK.WGF.MKNT. 

The  whole  wicnce  of  geology  rests  on  certain  natural 
hwH.  whicli  are  sup]H>«ed,  or  have  Imtu  awrrtaiiiod,  Id  be 
in  eoMstiint  operalioti,  thonuh  nut  alwayx,  pcrliups,  willi 
equally  pnwcrlul  oirecln.  i'liey  rliielly  resolve  tlu'insi'lvi's 
Into  what  have  been  called  Dtgnuitug  and  Elcvuluig 
Cuitati. 

DKOnADINO    CAUSFS. 

Tlie  degriiding  oaases  are  those  which  refer  to  the  dis- 
•iilvini;  a;;:!  weuring  away  of  llie  elevated  parts  of  the 
enrlh  s  surface,  aii<l  the  carrying  of  these  parts  down  into 
lower  level*.     The  dissolving  is  brought  about  by  certain 


chemical  end  mechanical  laws,  and  the  ''(irr,t>i^  aoum 
into  low  Itiels  is,  in  the  main,  a  result  of  the  law  of  gran 
tation.  Considering  that  the  solid  parts  of  the  earth  are  in 
their  very  nature  lialile  to  the  operation  of  thcRO  laws,  it 
appears  quite  unavoidable  that  land  should  be  degraded. 
It  is  only,  however,  of  late  years  that  the  degradation  of 
land  has  attracted  any  attention.  The  immense  scale  on 
which  it  is  constantly  taking  place  was  first  explained  in 
a  satisfactory  manner  by  Mr.  Charles  Lyell,  in  his  "  Prin- 
ciples of  Geology,"  published  in  1830. 

The  causes  of  the  degradation  of  elevated  land  may  be 
con8iderc<l  under  three  heads — meteoric,  or  those  con- 
nected with  the  atmosphere;  yZuviri<i7c',  or  those  depend 
ing  on  rivers;  and  oceanic,  or  those  in  which  the  sea  it 
the  immediate  agent. 

The  operation  of  the  atmosphere  and  its  vapoury  con 
tents  upon  the  land  proceeds  in  two  ways,  chemical  and 
mechanical.  There  is  a  tendency  in  the  hardest  rock  to 
absorb  oxygen  and  carbonic  acid  from  the  atmosphere, 
and  to  be  by  that  union  dissolved.  And  this  is  a  union 
which  is  always  taking  place,  though  in  some  places  with 
more  conspicuous  elTocts  than  elsewhere.  If  the  soil  on 
any  hill  of  volcanic  rock  be  examined,  we  shall  first  find 
a  fine  powdery  earth,  then  a  mixture  of  earth  and  splin- 
ters of  rock ;  next  splinters  alone,  graduating  into  tlia 
hard  rock  below :  such  may  bo  considered  as  an  exhibi- 
tion of  the  gradual  process  by  which  a  hard  rock  is  dis- 
solved into  powder  or  earth  under  the  action  of  lite 
atmosphere.  In  Jamaica,  tiiis  dissolution  of  volcanic 
rock  has  taken  place  to  a  great  depth.  In  granite,  which 
is  considered  the  hardest  of  all  rocks,  one  of  the  compo 
nent  substances  (felspar)  has  a  great  tendency  to  be  de- 
composed, and  hence  even  this  rock  is  sometimes  found 
to  have  been  reduced  to  gravel  or  powder  to  a  considera- 
ble depth.  A  hollow  way,  blasted  through  granite,  was 
found  by  a  geologist  to  have  been  in  six  years  pulverized 
to  the  depth  of  three  inches.  These  are  solely  chemical 
phenomena.  Again,  water  perforates  into  minute  fissures 
in  rocks.  When  a  frost  arrives,  the  water  swells,  and 
dislodges  parts  of  the  rock,  which  are  precipitated  into 
the  lower  le>el.  Or  it  may  meet  some  clayey  veins  or 
strata,  hitherto  sufRcient  to  keep  various  masses  together. 
These  veins  or  strata,  bcirg  gradually  softened  by  the 
water,  lose  their  power  of  cementing  the  masses.  The 
upper  then  fall  away  or  slide  into  a  lower  level.  A  slide 
of  rock  from  the  Rulliberg,  in  Switzerland,  in  1806,  filled 
the  bottom  of  the  vale  below,  destroying  many  villages, 
and  causing  the  loss  of  800  lives.  The  impulse  of  wind 
and  rain  on  the  surface  of  rock  is  also  of  great  efficacy 
in  pulverizing  and  wearing  it  down,  sharp  parts  being 
rounded,  and  soft  parts  hollowed.  In  Sweden  there  are 
some  large  detached  masses  of  granite,  containing  perfora- 
tions produced  by  this  cause,  some  so  very  large  as  to 
admit  of  a  horse  and  cart  passing  through  them.  Those 
elfects  may  bo  considered  as  chiefly  mechanical.  As 
surely,  then,  as  any  part  of  the  earth's  crust  is  elevated 
into  the  atmosplierc,  just  as  certainly  is  it  liable  to  be 
worn  down  and  carried  into  a  lower  level. 

When  water  collects  into  channels  and  follows  its  welL 
known  tendency  t  find  the  lowest  level  to  which  it  has 
access,  it  iH'conies  a  mechanical  instruuient  of  still  greater 
force  for  wearing  down  the  land.  In  its  siuallcst  rills,  as 
it  descends  the  mountain  side,  it  cuts  into  tlio  soil,  and 
carries  oH"  whatever  particles  it  can  disengage.  When 
fjiitliered  into  brooks,  its  o|M'ratioii»  are  still  more  power- 
ful. When  one  of  these  is  placed  anioiinst  mountains, 
every  heavy  shower  swells  it  into  an  impetuous  river,  bv 
which  lari;e  (piuntities  of  detached  rock  and  soil  ant 
brou;;ht  down.  In  the  \ipper  parts  of  ilie  cours.'»  of  al- 
most all  rivers,  the  yreater  speed  of  discenl  makes  up  lor 
the  Rmallt:r  volume  of  water,  as  far  as  the  power  of  bring, 
ing  down  stones  and  soil  is  coneerneil.  .\gain  in  thu 
lower  part  of  the  course,  the  smaller  s|K'e(l  is  soU'etimen 
,  compensated  by  the  unovcnness  of  tlie  coureu ;  iu  whicb 


98 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


«ue,  the  water  is  incessantly  driven  from  one  projection 
if  the  banks  iiBainst  another,  and  by  that  means  wears 
•way  •  preat  quantity  of  solid  matter.  Many  facts  have 
been  collected  to  prove  the  great  efficacy  of  rivers  in 
wearing  down  the  land.  The  Norbuddah,  a  river  of  In- 
dia, has  loixipcd  out  a  channel  iti  basaltic  rock,  100  feet 
deep  Tlic  river  Moselle  has  worn  a  channel  in  solid 
reck  to  the  depth  of  600  feet  Messrs.  Sedgwicl  and 
Murchison  give  nn  account  of  gorges  Hcoopcd  ou»  i.:  beds 
of  the  rock  called  conglomerate,  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Eastern  Alps,  600  or  700  feet  deep.  A  stream  of  luva, 
which  was  vomited  from  ifitna  in  1603,  happened  to 
flow  across  the  channel  of  the  river  Slmeto.  Since  tliat 
time  the  stream  has  cut  a  passage  through  the  compact 
rock  to  the  dipth  of  between  40  and  50  feet,  and  to  the 
breadth  of  Mwccn  50  and  several  hundred  feet.  The 
cataract  of  Niagara,  in  North  America,  has  receded 
nearly  50  yards  during  the  last  forty  years.  Below  the 
Falls,  the  river  flows  in  a  channel  upwards  of  150  feet 
deep,  and  160  yards  wide,  for  a  distance  of  seven  miles ; 
and  this  channel  has  manifestly  been  produced  by  the 
action  of  the  river, 

Sometimes,  during  floods,  rivers  produce  great  changes 
in  very  short  pti  «ls.  A  flood  caused  by  the  bursting 
of  the  barrier  of  r.  lake  in  the  valley  of  Bagneas,  Swit- 
terland,  moved  ai  lirst  with  the  trcmendcss  velocity  of  .33 
feet  per  second.  From  the  barrier  burst  by  the  waters  to 
Lake  Geneva,  tlu-rc  is  a  fall  of  4187  Paris  feet;  the  dis- 
tance is  45  mil's;  and  the  water  flowed  over  all  this 
•pace  in  five  hcura  and  a  half.  It  carried  along  hous<>8, 
bridges,  and  trees ;  and  masses  of  rock  equal  in  size  to 
houses  were  transported  a  quarter  of  a  mile  down  the 
valley. 

The  maftei  carried  down  by  rivers  is  often  dejiorlted 
at  their  sides,  when  it  constitutes  what  is  crillcd  allwial 
land,  Somelimes  it  is  deposited  at  the  liottom  of  lakes, 
when  it  ferns  wlmt  are  termed  Innistriitt  depusilf.  In 
many  instaices  it  has  been  deposited  in  large  quantities 
at  the  mou'  hs  of  rivers,  giving  rise  to  what  are  denomi- 
nated dcltiit.  Delhis  arc  so  called  on  aceount  of  their 
resembling  the  fourth  letter  of  the  Greek  alphabet.  The 
triangular  form  of  a  delta  is  prixluccd  by  tlie  river,  at  a 
certain  point  inland,  dividing  itself  into  two  streams 
which  gradually  diverge  till  they  reach  the  ocean,  en- 
Josing  the  spare  which  constitutes  the  delta.  As  an  in- 
stance of  the  great  amount  of  new  land  formed  at  the 
mouths  of  rivers,  the  delta  of  the  Ganges  is  220  miles  in 
one  direction  by  200  in  another.  The  lower  part  of  this 
delta,  a  wilderness  inhabited  by  tigers  and  crocodiles,  is 
as  large  as  the  principality  of  Wales ! 

'ITie  mattiT  carried  down  by  rivers,  and  thus  depogite<1, 
is  nothing  in  amount  compared  to  that  transported  to  the 
ocean.  The  quantity  of  sand  and  mud  brought  down 
by  the  Gangen  to  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  is  in  the  floorl  wa- 
8on  BO  great  that  the  aea  is  discoloured  with  it  60  miles 
from  the  river's  mouth.  According  to  Mr.  Lyell,  the 
quantity  of  solid  matter  brought  down  by  this  river  every 
day.  is  equal  in  hulk  to  the  greatest  of  the  Eg\-[itiaii 
pyramids.  According  to  (Captain  Sabine,  the  muddy 
wnters  of  the  Ariiaron  river  may  be  distinguished  300 
miles  from  its  mouth. 

The  constant  arii  .n  of  the  sea  upon  the  land  is  strik- 
ingly apparent  to  tlie  inhnhitants  of  coasts.  Whole 
■lands  have  been  destroyed  by  the  action  of  tides  and 
jccanic  currents,  while  the  remains  of  others  rise  aliove 
the  surfarc  of  the  water,  like  tlie  ruins  o'^some  desolated 
city.  Many  inslanees  of  the  encroachment  of  the  sea 
apon  the  hind  have  been  recorded.  An  inn  on  the  coast 
af  Norfolk,  built  in  IH05,  then  70  yards  from  the  sea, 
wa»,  in  1H29,  separcted  fmrn  the  coast  by  oidy  a  small 
garden.  A  cimrrh  on  the  coast  of  Kent,  which  in  the 
'eign  of  Henry  VIIl.  was  a  mile  inland,  is  now  oidy 
•Oout  60  yards  from  the  water's  edge.     The   island  of 


teenth  century,  50  miles  long  and  35  broad.  AK  ut  tha 
end  of  the  sixteenth  c«ntuiy,  it  was  reduced  to  an  area 
of  only  30  miles  in  circumference.  The  inhabitants 
erected  lofty  dykes  for  the  purpose  of  saving  their  terri- 
tories; but  in  the  year  1684  a  storm  devistated  the 
whole  island,  by  which  1 340  human  beings,  and  50,000 
head  of  cattle  perished.  Three  very  small  islets  are  all 
that  now  remain  to  point  out  the  place  where  once  floo 
rished  the  fertile  and  populous  island  of  Nordstrand.  It 
is  an  old  notion  that  Great  Britain  was  once  united  to 
the  continent  of  Europe ;  and  the  identity  in  structure 
of  the  opposite  coasts  of  the  strait  of  Dover  seems  to  fa- 
vour the  supposition.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that 
the  Island  of  Ceylon  was  at  one  period  united  to  Hin- 
dostan.  Humboldt  is  of  opinion  that  the  West  India 
islands  once  constituted  a  circuit  of  land  which  enclosed 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

It  thus  appears  that  there  are  causes  in  continual  op<y 
ration,  for  the  wearing  down  of  the  elcvatctl  parts  of  tlie 
earth's  crust,  and  taking  the  component  particles  into 
lower  levels.  The  effects  of  these  causes  may  l)c  easily 
traced  in  the  aijucous  rocks,  many  of  which  are  simply 
deposits  of  sediment  carried  by  water  from  hinli  into 
low  places,  and  suI)soquently  hardened,  probably  by  heat 
from  below  and  pressure  from  supetincumlicnt  materials. 
Were  such  causes  not  in  some  way  counteracted,  d-y 
land  could  not  long  exist :  all  would  Ih;  taken  down  anil 
buried  in  the  sea.  We  find  the  counteraction  in  what 
are  termed  the  Elevalxng  Caiuei, 

Elevating  Cauu$. 

As  Degrading  Causes  are  chiefly  owing  to  wotcr,  El^ 
vating  Causes  arc  chiefly  owing  to  Are.  They  are  there- 
fore sometimes  comprehended  under  the  term  IgneiMi 
jjgrncy. 

The  manifestations  of  igneous  agency  at  present  oN 
servable,  may  l)e  considered  under  three  hends — namely 
rolriinoci,  enrlhijunkci,  and  urmluiiUy  (Icvalini;  forres. 
These  i]henonieiia  may  be  viewed  as  the  clTects  of  suh. 
terranean  heat,  operating  under  dilFerent  circumstances^ 
\  volcano  may  l>e  descril>ed  as  an  ofx'iiing  in  the  earth's 
surface,  iK^aring  the  gi'neral  appearance  of  a  vent  of  sub- 
terraneous  fire,  and  through  which  sn)oke,  cimh-ra  hhJ 
ashes,  are  almost  continually  issuing,  bat  which  somt 
times  discharges  great  fragments  ot  rock,  anil  vast  quan- 
tities of  melted  rocky  matter.  The  general  eflect  is  a 
throwing  u]>  of  earthy  material  from  a  low  to  a  high 
level. 

Geographers  at  present  reckon  about  200  volcanic 
vents  in  activitj-  throughout  the  earth.  The  greater 
number  of  the  whole  are  in  a  line  along  the  west  coast 
of  South  and  North  America.  Tl>ere  are  many  in  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans,  and  in  the  cen 
tre  of  Asia.  In  Eurojic,  there  are  only  three  in  great 
activity — .fitna  in  Sicily,  Vesuvius  in  Italy,  and  Hecia 
in  Ireland.  But  a  vast  numlM-r  of  hills  throughout 
France,  Britain,  and  other  countries,  Iw-ar  the  apjM'arancA 
of  havii\g  once  been  active  volcano<"B.  As  volcanic  so 
tion  often  tidies  place  in  the  sea,  and  as  there  are  pro. 
balily  many  on  land  not  yet  dcscrilH'd  by  geographers,  tha 
number  of  such  vents  throughout  the  earth  must  !«  cotv 
siderably  more  than  200. 

Of  the  |K«ver  of  volcanoes  to  tlirow  up  large  quantities 
of  solid  matter,  we  have  many  examples.  During  ao 
erupliiin  of  ^^Atm,  a  space  around  the  moinituin,  150 
miles  in  cirrnnifercnce,  was  covered  with  a  layer  of  sand 
and  asluB,  generally  al«)nt  twelve  feet  thick.  In  the  first 
century,  the  cities  of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii  were 
buried  beneath  such  a  layer  of  matter  by  Vesuvius.  In 
IHliO,  the  Philosopher  Kircher,  after  anuralely  examm 
ing  jEtna,  and  the  ground  adjoining  its  base,  calculated 
tliat  the  whole  matter  ttirowii  out  by  it  at  its  various  ac 
tive  periotls  would  form  a  mass  twenty  titnes  as  largt  as 


ordstrand,  op  th^  coast  of  8chlcswi|{,  was,  in  the  thir-    the  mountain  itself,  which  is  10,870  fott  high,  and  dO 


GEOLOGY. 


29 


BiilLii  in  liameter  at  the  base.  From  this  mountain,  in 
1776,  thtre  issued  a  stream  of  lava  a  mile  and  a  half  in 
krcadth,  twelve  miles  lung,  and  200  feet  thick.  At  an 
•arlier  period,  there  was  a  stream  which  covered  eighty- 
four  square  miles.  In  1S38,  a  large  hill,  since  named 
Mante  Nuovo,  was  thrown  up  in  the  neighl«urhood  of 
Naples  in  one  night;  and  in  1759,  in  a  district  of  Mex- 
ico, previously  covered  by  smiling  plantations,  a  sudden 
outburst  of  volcanic  action,  which  lasted  several  months, 
lerrainatcd  in  leaving  six  hills,  varying  from  300  to  1600 
feet  in  heiifht  above  the  old  plain. 

Of  the  cflixt  of  submarine  volcanoes,  some  interesting 
observations  have  been  made  in  recent  times.  In  June 
1811,  an  island  was  thrown  up  by  volcanic  agency,  near 
St.  Michael's,  in  the  Az-ores.  Columns  of  cinders  rose 
700  or  800  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  sea,  with  a  noiiio 
resembling  that  of  distant  artillery.  In  the  course  of  a 
few  days,  the  island  was  a  mile  in  circumference,  and 
about  300  feet  in  height,  having  a  crater  in  the  centre, 
full  of  hot  water.  Some  time  afterwards,  it  disappeared. 
In  July  1831,  a  similar  island  was  thrown  up,  under  pre- 
cisely similar  circumstances,  in  latitude  37°  II'  N.,  and 
longitude  12°  44'  E.,  off  the  coast  of  Sicily.  It  con- 
sisted of  stones,  mud,  and  cinderfi,  and  was  of  a  circular 
form,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  in  oir>^umference,  with  a 
crater  of  hot  water  in  the  centre,  400  yards  in  diameter. 
This  islautl,  named  Sciacca,  or  Grahora's  island,  existed  so 
Iciig  above  the  sea,  as  to  allow  of  many  persons  landing 
upon  it.  The  Buy  of  Santorin,  in  the  Greek  archipelago, 
which  is  about  six  miles  long  ond  four  bread,  contained, 
a  few  years  ago,  three  volcanii-  isles,  the  first  of  which 
Tttec  al>out  the  year  200,  the  second  in  1650,  and  the  third 
in  170'J.  In  a  part  of  the  bay,  where  the  woter  is  •gene- 
rally several  hundred  feet  deep,  a  shool  has  for  Mveia! 
years  been  grailually  rising:  about  1816,  there  w*r«  fif- 
teen fnthoins  water  upon  it;  in  1830,  there  were  only 
three  or  four ;  the  later  accounts  ri"d\iced  it  to  two  and  a 
half.  This  rising  mass  was  ascertained  to  be  of  solid 
rock,  about  half  a  mile  in  length,  by  opc-third  of  a  mile 
in  breadth :  the  water  deet)cning  8ud''ienly  all  round  it. 
In  1825,  a  new  island  was  observed  to  rise  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  about  300  miles  north  of  New  Zealand.  It  con- 
sisted of  solid  rock,  had  n  pool  in  the  middle,  and  st^nt 
forth  smoke  from  several  chinks. 

.Many  islands  which  have  long  been  inhabited  by  man, 
bear  all  the  appearance  of  having  risen,  in  like  manner, 
from  the  bosom  of  the  deep.  The  islands  of  St.  Helena 
and  Asn-nsion,  the  Azores,  the  West  India  islands,  Ice- 
land, and  many  of  the  islands  in  the  Pacific  are  evidently 
the  produce  of  volcanic  action.  "  Owhyhee,"  says  M. 
de  la  Bccho,  "is  a  magnificent  example  of  such  an 
isLmd  :  the  whole  mass,  estimated  as  exiwsing  a  surface 
3f  4000  8<iuare  miles,  is  comjioscd  of  lava,  and  other 
volcanic  matter,  which  rises  in  the  peaks  of  Mouna  Koa 
and  Mouna  Kaa,  to  the  height  of  l)etween  15,000  and 
16,000  feet  alwve  the  level  of  the  sea." 

The  causes  of  Karlluiuakes  have  not  as  yet  l)een  satis- 
factorily explainctl,  but  they  are  now  generally  allowed 
to  be  conne(te<l  with  volcanic  agency.  They  occur  less 
frequently,  and  generally  with  less  tremendous  ellect,  in 
Kuro(ie,  than  in  sonw  other  parts  of  the  world,  those 
|isrts  where  volcanic  agency  is  most  active  being  also  the 
parts  where  earthquakes  arc  most  fretjuent  and  most 
Ireailt'id.  Though  their  etfect  is  sometimes  to  cause 
s  sulking  of  tlu!  ground,  they  may,  upon  the  whole, 
b<  coii-sideretl  as  among  elevating  causes.  It  is  con- 
ceived tlmt  they  are  pnxluced  by  gases  confined  in  the 
iiiulten  interior  of  the  earth,  similar  to  those  which  find 
vent  by  volcanin's.  Such  gaaes,  prevented  by  li>cal  cir. 
cuinstunces  from  escaping,  may,  it  is  thought,  thus  shake 
tlie  solid  ground  over  a  largo  tract,  and  even  cause  it  to 
rise  to  a  certain  extent  above  its  former  level.  The  mo«t 
itriking  |iroof  which  has  been  adduced  in  support  of 
this  doctrine,  ia  the  ellect  of  the  earthquake  which  UV)k 


place  in  Chili  in  1822.  This  is  part  of  that  continent 
in  which  volcanoes  are  most  numerous  and  active.  0& 
the  occasion  referred  to,  a  shock  was  felt  along  the  coati 
for  more  than  1000  miles.  The  land  for  100  miles  along 
the  coast,  and  backward  to  the  line  of  the  Andes,  wa* 
raised  above  its  former  level.  At  the  shore,  and  for 
some  distance  along  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  the  rise  waa 
three  or  four  feet,  so  l*iat  rocks  formerly  submerged,  and 
covered  with  shell-fish,  were  now  exposed  above  the  sea. 
Old  beaches,  similar  to  that  now  raised,  were  also  ob> 
served  in  parallel  lines  along  the  land,  the  highest  being 
about  fifty  feet  above  the  ocean. 

It  has  since  been  observed  that  old  beaches,  similar  to 
those  in  Chill,  exist  in  the  neighbourhood  of  many  seas. 
Along  the  Frith  of  Forth,  in  Scotland,  there  is  one  about 
forty  feei  above  the  present  level  of  the  sea,  and  which 
generally  apjwars  as  a  kind  of  bank  a  few  hunilred  yards 
back  from  the  present  shore.  In  the  firths  of  Clyde  and 
Cromarty,  similar  beaches  are  traced.  They  may  always 
be  detected  by  their  terrace-like  level,  and  the  presence 
of  sea-shells,  rounded  pebbles,  gravel,  and  sand,  such  aa 
usually  compose  bcuchcs  at  the  present  day.  In  some 
places,  old  beaches  have  been  conspicuous  eiiough  to  he- 
come  objects  of  popular  wonder.  In  the  vale  of  Glenroy, 
in  Inverness-shire,  as  also  in  some  neighbouring  vale* 
connected  with  Glenroy,  there  are  three  tennces  along 
the  sides  of  the  hills,  at  various  heights,  which  the  igno- 
rent  people  of  the  district  firmly  believe  to  have  been 
roads  formed  by  the  hero  Fingnl  for  hunting,  but  which 
ait)  now  shown  pretty  clearly  to  have  been  the  shores  of 
quiet  estuaries  or  arms  of  the  sea,  similar  to  many  which 
still  exist  in  the  Scottish  Highlands — three  successive 
e!ev?.»ions,  probably  the  ellect  of  earth(iuakcs,  having 
elevated  the  land  6!x)vc  the  water,  so  as  to  leave  as  many 
ttrraces.  Among  the  Alps,  and  in  South  America,  there 
are  vals?  markeii  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  Glenroy. 

The  existence  of  a  force  which  grddiidllii  ekvniet  the 
l?.nd  in  many  places  out  of  the  water,  was  discovered  by 
Mr.  Lyeil.  His  chief  observations  were  made  upon  the 
shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  which  he  ascertained  to 
have  risen  stiveral  feet  in  the  course  of  the  lust  century, 
and  a  few  inches  even  since  1820. 

Besides  the  girater  elevating  causes  arising  fi'om  8ub» 
terrancan  fires,  there  a.e  some  lesser  ones  of  less  mys- 
terious origin.  The  sands  deposited  on  beaches  are 
sometimes  blown  by  winds  in  upon  the  land,  covering  the 
vegetable  soil  throughout  a  large  space,  and  in  some  in- 
stances forming  hills  of  considerable  height  and  magni- 
tude. Some  parts  of  the  coast  of  Holland  are  thus 
fenced  with  ranges  of  sand-hills,  the  whole  mass  of  which 
has  liecnublown  back  from  the  sea.  On  some  parts  of 
the  French  coast,  large  tracts,  once  smiling  with  cultiva- 
tion, ire  thus  buried  under  a  sterile  layer  of  sand,  which 
is  continually  advancing,  notwithstanding  every  cflbrt  of 
man.  On  the  coast  of  Moray,  in  the  north  of  Sjo»'and, 
a  tract  once  forming  the  barony  of  ('ulbleen,  has  been 
transformed  into  a  sandy  tract  since  the  fifteenth  century. 
Such  san(l-l)eds  readily  become  converted  into  strata  of 
sandstone,  if  saturated  with  water  containing  a  limy 
infusion. 

In  various  parts  of  the  world,  land  is  raised,  out  of  the 
sea  by  the  cllbrts  of  coral  insects.  'I'he  works  of  these 
creatures  are  seen  ujion  a  vast  scale  in  the  Pacific,  where 
whole  ranges  of  islands  are  formed  by  them-  On  the 
coast  of  i\ew  Holland,  there  is  a  coral  reef  which  stretches 
out  to  a  thousand  miles  in  length.  The  insects  do  not 
eoinmence  their  lalMirious  oiierations  at  a  great  depth  be- 
low water;  froir.  60  to  100  feet  is  conside*  .il  I  he  utmost 
extent  to  which  the  islands  extend  downwinls.  They 
arc  generally  of  a  circular  or  oval  shape ;  ami  Mr.  Lyell 
is  of  opinion  that  corals  build  u|x>n  the  rims  and  in  the 
craters  of  submarine  volcanoes.  The  outer  wall  of  the 
building  emerges  first  above  the  waves,  enclosing  a  pool  of 
,  tranquil  water.  The  seeds  of  vegetables  arc  either  brough* 
«.  o 


M 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


there  by  sea-birds,  or  wafted  by  the  ocoan,  and  the  islands 
■oon  become  clothed  with  n  mantle  of  giwn.  The  sub- 
stance of  which  these  islands  and  reefs  are  composed,  is 
lime,  which  the  insects  secrete  from  the  sea-water,  and 
cement  together  with  a  glutinous  matter  contained  in 
fhetr  bodies.  Mr.  Lyell,  while  suneying  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama,  detached  a  quantity  of  these  animals,  and  placed 
them  on  some  rocks  in  a  shallow  pool  of  water.  On  re- 
turning to  remove  them  a  few  days  afterwards,  he  found 
Ihey  hod  secreted  stony  matter,  and  had  firmly  glued 
Ittrmselves  to  the  bottom. 

If  we  consider  the  operation  of  the  elevating  causes, 
■w  oaD  be  at  no  losa  to  understand  how  we  should  now 


see,  as  composing  dry  land,  and  sometime*  in  "er^  lolkj 
situations,  strata  which  were  once  at  the  Iwttoms  of  mm( 
neither  will  it  be  surprising,  if  the  irregular  nature  of 
volcanic  forces  is  considered,  that  the  strata,  so  elevated, 
rarely  are  found  in  their  originally  level  position,  but  la 
all  degrees  of  inclination,  sometimes  quite  un  edge,  and 
even  in  certain  rare  instances  folded  backwards,  so  aa  IS 
bo  upside  down. 

The  changes  produced  by  the  united  operation*  «| 
aqueous  and  igneous  agency  are  in  part  re|>resented  ia 
the  subjoined  engraving  of  a  supposed  section  of  par 
of  the  earth's  crust 


•  Primary  Rotk.  whieh  has  been  thrown  ap.  lo  s>  to  disttirb  and  mil  itself  with  thr  SpponJary  Rocks. 

I  Seeondary  Rr.eks.  thrown  into  incliiiation*  and  curves  by  ihi'  ri«in?  of  the  I'rimary  Rock 

»  Tertiary  Formation,  deposited  in  a  hoiiow  formed  liy  the  distuilance  of  the  Secondary  Rocks. 

i  Basaltic  Columns.  <  A  faiill  or  hitch  in  the  strata. 

The  Circles  are  IJoulders  or  deiached  sioiies.  rounded  by  travelling  in  water,  and  depobiiea  .n  tollows  formed  by  water. 

The  dots  indicate  beds  of  gravel,  iinmediaicly  beneath  the  soil. 


Batmo!!  Ill— DESCRIPTION  OF  ROCKS   AND  ORGANIC 
RKMAINS. 

PRIMART. 

Granile, 

Geologists  have  been  accustomed  to  describe  this  as 
the  lowest  and  oldest  of  all  rocks.  Certainly,  no  other 
rock  ia  ever  found  beneath  it,  except  in  peculiar  circum- 
■tances  afterwards  to  be  dcscrilied :  if  the  mass  of  the 
eartn,  therefore,  were  to  be  judi;cd  of  from  the  small 
■upcriicial  crust  with  which  Wr  are  acquainted,  granite 
might  ap|)ear  to  constitute  the  hulk  of  our  planet — a  vast 
nucleus  on  which  ail  the  stratified  rocks  rested.  Geolo- 
gists are  now  disjiosed,  under  a  sense  of  their  limited 
knowledc;e,  to  s|)<'ak  of  granite,  not  as  the  lowest  and 
oldest  of  all  riKks,  but  as  the  lowest  as  yet  discovered, 
and  as  one  which,  though  in  most  of  its  forms  old,  is  yet 
BometimcH  found  of  recent  formation.  Granite,  in  fact, 
often  appears  as  a  volcanic  rock,  which  has  lieen  thrown 
up  in  a  state  of  fusion  through  suix-rincumbent  strata  of 
all  kinds,  |ient'trating  into  their  rhiiika,  and  s|ireading 
over  ihein  on  the  surface.  Even  tertiary  rocks  arc  found 
permeated  and  covered  hy  it — a  proof  that  it  has  tieen 
formed  since  the  dcjKwition  of  those  rocks,  which  is  one 
of  the  most  recent  events  in  geoloinical  chroiiolo^.  These  i 
are  the  |)efuliar  circumstances  in  which  it  may  be  said 
that  ojier  rocks  soineliines  lie  lieneuth  granite. 

Granite,  then,  may  lie  dewrilwd  as  generally  forming 
•  basis  or  bed  for  all  the  other  rocks — as  rising  in  some 
places  from  its  uniiitmsured  depths  into  chains  of  lofty 
OiU»— ami  OS  in  other  places  [jeiirtrating  in  veins  through 
•uperinciii.ilient  rocks,  and  partially  covering  them  at  the 
lop.  It  composes  some  part  of  (he  m'mnttiin  ranges  of 
Cornwall.  CutiiU.TluJk(J,  and  the  Scottish  Highlands,  and 


veins  of  it  are  found  upon  or  near  the  surface  in  man^ 
other  parts  of  England  and  Scotland. 

Three  substances  usually  enter  into  the  composition 
of  gronitc;  namely,  (1)  quartz,  a  gray  glassy  siihsfance, 
composed  of  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  in  union 
with  one  of  the  newly  discovered  metallic  bases  (silicium^ ; 
(2)  fdtpar,  also  a  crystalline  substance,  but  usually 
opaque  and  coloured  pink  or  yellow,  composed  of  sandy 
and  clayey  matter,  with  a  small  mixture  of  lime  and 
(wtash ;  (S)  mira,  a  silvery  glittering  substance,  which 
divides  readily  into  thin  leaves  or  flukes,  and  consisting 
principally  of  flint  and  clay,  with  a  little  magnesia  and 
oxide  of  iron.  In  some  granites,  instead  of  intrn,  we  find 
hornidendt,  a  dork  crystalline  substance,  composed  of 
alumina,  silex  or  flint,  and  magnesia,  with  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  black  oxide  of  iron.  Such  granites  are 
called  Syenilc,  from  having  been  first  found  in  the  island 
of  Hyeno.  Other  varieties  arc — SerjitKline,  in  which 
there  ore  <lark  spots  like  those  on  the  skin  of  the  snake 
(hence  the  name),  and  Porphyry,  of  which  the  distin- 
guishing peculiarity  is  its  containing  little  angular  pieces 
of  felspar  emlosod  in  the  mass. 

In  man's  economy,  cranite  is  a  rock  of  great  import 
ance.  Its  uncommon  hanlncss  makes  it  very  sniliiblc  foi 
the  erection  of  Imildiiigs  where  great  duraliility  is  desired. 
Hence,  the  docks  of  I.iverfKKjl,  Waterloo  IJridgc  in 
London,  and  many  other  buildings  of  •  similar  nature  in 
England,  have  lieen  composed  of  it,  notwithstanding  thai 
it  had  to  l)e  brought  from  a  great  distance.  Nearly  the 
whole  city  of  Abenlcen  is  built  of  the  granite  found  in 
the  neighbourhood;  and  the  houses  have  consequently  • 
glittering  appearance  when  tue  sun  is  shining  upon  them. 
This  stone  Is  also  the  component  material  of  Menmon't 
Head  and  Pompey'K  Pillar,  two  ancient  structures  in  EgypL 


„ 


GEOLOGY. 


'-'«1 


\ 


■\ 


!  m  many 

mpomtion 
iifisfance, 
in  union 

(Rilicium) ; 
usuBlly 
of  sniuly 
ime  and 

ice,  which 

conHixting 
iiciiia  and 
,  wo  finil 
posed   of 

)iHiili<rabl» 
united  are 
tlie  iftland 
in  which 
the  Hnnke 
ic  (Udtin- 
lar  piccca 

at  import- 
lilubic  foi 
is  (h'Bircd. 
Dridi^e  in 
nature  in 
icling  thai 
se;itly  the 
found  in 
<i]Liently  ■ 
pon  them. 
Monmon't 
.in  Egypt 


Inferun  Stratified  Series. 

4banre  the  granite,  in  its  ordinary  position,  liei  the  in- 
Vrior  itratificd  scries,  conaistinf;  mainly  of  two  kinds  of 
rui'lc,  gneiss  and  mica-slato,  with  altcrnuting  strata  of  horn- 
blende rock,  quartz  rock,  curito,  talcosc  slates,  chlorite 
rlulea,  and  aritillaccous  slates ;  of  all  of  which  it  may  he 
•aid  that  they  follow  no  determinate  order.  These  rocks 
are  of  the  same  materials  as  granite,  in  a  very. slightly 
m<Klified  form,  and  they  are  nearly  as  crystalline  in  their 
texture.  Geologists  also  find  in  many  places  that  the 
granite  poaHrs  into  them — a  term  expressing  a  blending 
»f  the  characterii  of  rocks  at  the  line  of  their  juncture. 
These  two  t'ucts  have  led  to  the  supposition  that  the  inferior 
stratified  rocks  were  formed  from  the  materials  of  the  gra- 
nite, disintegrated  by  mechanical  or  chemical  means,  and 
washed  into  the  l)cds  of  vast  oceans,  where,  on  their  de- 
position, they  were  reached  by  the  high  temperature  of 
ttie  interior,  and  thereby  rcconsolidated  in  a  crystalline 
form.  To  account  for  the  rocks  composed  exclusively  of 
one  of  the  materials  of  the  granite,  wo  may  suppose  a 
diemical  separation  of  those  materials. 

The  most  prevalent  rock  of  the  series  is  gneisi,  a  com- 
pound, like  granite,  of  quartz,  felspar,  mica,  and  horn- 
blende, and  so  lu)i(ldy  crystalline  as  to  be  sometimes 
scarcely  distinguishable  from  granite,  A  great  portion 
3f  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  is  composed  of  strata  of 
gneiss,  of  vast  thickness,  ft  is  remarkable  for  its  rich- 
ness in  veins  of  the  metals.  Mica-slalc,  or  «c/ii>^,  the 
next  most  prevalent  rock  of  the  scries,  is  composed  of  mica 
and  quartz.  It  is  tho  surface  rock  of  many  extensive 
tracts  of  country.  Qiairtz  mck,  which  wo  may  suppose 
to  have  been  formed  by  a  chemical  separation  of  that 
component  of  granite,  is  also  a  prevalent  rock.  Hum- 
boldt takes  notice  of  a  mass  of  it  in  South  America,  more 
tliar.  9500  feet  in  thicunoss.  The  round  white  pebbles, 
or  candy  stones,  so  often  found  on  sea-beaches,  and  in  the 
beds  of  rivers,  are  pieces  of  quartz  rock.  Eurite,  of 
which  felspar  is  the  main  ingredient,  and  hornblende  rock, 
Uio  chief  element  of  which  is  signified  by  its  name,  may 
also  he  accounted  for  by  a  chemical  origin. 

Clay-slate  is  the  geological  term  for  the  well-known 
stone  with  which  houses  are  roofed.  It  is,  as  its  name 
iin|)orts,  composed  mainly  of  clay — a  substance  too  lilic- 
rally  diffused  amongst  the  ingredients  of  granite,  to  admit 
of  any  wonder  as  to  its  being  found  in  a  nearly  distinct 
state  in  this  rock.  Mioa-slato  and  clay-slate  aie  fissile  in 
llieir  structure — that  is,  capable  of  being  split  into  very 
thin  plates :  hence  the  utility  of  slate,  as  a  material  for 
covering  houses.  But  a  curious  diversity  exists  in  ♦his 
respect  between  mica-slato  and  roofing  slate.  In  the 
forin(!r,  the  rleavnee,  or  direction  in  which  it  splits,  is  in 
the  same  line  as  the  stratification ;  but  in  roofing  slate,  the 
cleavage  is  always  more  or  less  transverse.  What  makes 
the  latter  circumstance  the  more  remarkable— when  strata 
of  roofing  slate  are  found,  as  often  happens,  contorted  or 
wavy,  the  direction  of  the  cleavage  is  in  one  straight  line 
tiirough  them  all,  indicating  that  the  influence  which  pro- 
duced the  cleavage  in  that  rock  took  etfect  after  the  whole 
had  been  laid  down,  and  after,  by  some  subsequent  acci- 
dent of  pressure,  they  had  been  forced  into  a  wavy  direc- 
tion. Probably  this  phenmnenon  ii  of  an  electric  nature. 
Clay-slates  are  found  in  great  abundance  in  Cornwall  and 
in  the  Scottish  Highlands.  A  fine  kind  makes  the  slates 
\x^^•i\  at  school,  and  from  a  kind  still  finer  are  cut  tho 
P"n»  u»e<l  for  writing  on  school-slates. 

Ill  the  inferior  stratified  series,  there  occur  a  few  small 
fieds  of  limestone,  souietirnes  -ulled  Sarcharine  I.imeslone, 
fiiiin  its  reseniblancc  to  refined  sugar,  and  sometimes 
PmiiitU'e  J.DU^'slime,  from  the  |K>riod  of  its  occurrence  in 
the  series.  In  Greece  and  Italy  this  rock  has  been  sub- 
•I'lvient  to  the  development  of  national  talents,  the 
Lljibest  liut  have  ever  tieen  known  of  their  class,  for  it 
y  Uu.  tiurbie  IVoin  wliicli  the  works  of  tlie  Greek  lOid 


Italian  sculptors  have  been  formed.  In  the  geolcgieal 
history  of  our  globe,  its  first  appearance  in  the  ascending 
series  of  rocks  is  an  event  of  no  small  consequence,  for 
limestone  strata  form  a  lar^'.'  proportion  of  the  superior 
formations,  and  tho  manner  in  which  they  have'  been 
formed  has  engaged  much  attention.  Limestone  is  th« 
cnrhonate  of  lime,  that  is,  a  combination  of  the  earth  lims 
(itself  a  union  of  the  metal  calcium  and  oxygen)  with 
carbonic  acid  (this  being,  again,  a  union  of  oxygen  with 
tho  elementary  substance  carbon).  Carbon  is  the  largest 
clement  in  the  composition  of  vegetable  and  animal  sub- 
stances, and  this  its  first  appearance  in  the  structure  of 
rocks  is  of  course  a  point  of  much  interest,  more  espe- 
cially  as  it  is  generally  concluded  that  many  of  tho  su- 
pcrior  limestone  strata  have  been  entirely  formed  of  animal 
remains.  We  are  thus  tempted  to  surmise  that  the  for- 
mation of  the  limestone  beds  of  the  inferior  stratified 
series  marks  some  early  and  obscure  stage  of  organic  ex* 
istencc  on  the  surface  of  our  planet  No  distinct  remains 
of  plants  or  animals  have,  indeed,  been  found  in  thia 
scries ;  and  it  is  customary  to  point  to  the  next  upper 
series,  in  which  both  do  occur,  as  the  era  of  organic  life. 
Yet  many  geologists  are  of  opinion  that  the  infi;rior  stra- 
tified rocks  might  have  contamed  such  remains,  though 
the  heat  under  which  the  rocks  seem  to  have  been  formed 
may  have  obliterated  all  trace  of  such  substancei. 

TRANSITION. 

Grauwncke  Group, 

All  the  rocks  hitherto  described  are  of  crystalline  tex- 
ture, and,  apparently,  chemical  phenomena  have  attended 
their  formation.  In  the  g^oup  we  have  now  arrived  at 
traces  of  mechanical  origin  and  deposition  become  appa> 
rent ;  but  still  a  few  strata  resembling  the  preceding  occur 
throughout  the  lower  parts  of  this  scries,  as  if  the  circum* 
stances  under  which  the  earlier  rocks  were  formed  had 
not  entirely  ceased.  Hence  the  term  transilinn  for  tha 
scne^,  as  implying  a  passing  from  one  state  of  things  to 
another. 

The  rocks  forming  the  lower  part  of  this  group,  ind 
which  are  sometimes  separately  classed  as  the  Louvtt 
Fossili/erous  Grovp,  are  an  alternation  of  beds  of  chlorite, 
talcose,  and  other  slates,  resembling  those  of  the  inferior 
stratified  series,  with  beds  of  clayey  and  sandy  slate,  of 
apparently  mechanical  origin,  and  in  which  a  few  fossilt 
are  found.  It  thus  appears  that  the  cessation  of  the  che- 
mical origin  of  rocks,  and  the  commencement  of  organic 
life,  are  events  nearly  connected ;  and  it  has  thence  been 
surmise<l  that  the  temperature  of  the  earth's  surface  wai 
now  for  the  first  time  suitable  to  the  production  and 
maintenance  of  organic  things.  At  the  same  time,  the 
alternation  of  the  rocks  teaches  us  the  instructive  fact 
tl>at  the  change  was  not  direct  or  uniform,  but  that,  for 
some  time,  the  two  conditions  of  the  surface  superseded 
each  other.  This  is  conformable  with  a  general  obser- 
vation, which  has  been  made  by  an  eminent  <;eologisl,» 
namely,  that,  however  sudden  changes  may  have  taken 
place  in  particular  situations,  a  general  change  of  circum- 
stances attending  rock  formations  is  usually  seen  to  ha*e 
been  more  or  less  gradual.  The  few  fossils  found  in  Mi* 
part  of  the  scries  are,  as  far  as  ascertained,  the  same  *■ 
those  of  the  next  higher  rocks. 

These  are  a  si'ries  of  arenaceous  and  slaty  rocks,  of 
evidently  mechanical  origin,  intermixed  with  small  l<et)a 
of  limestone,  in  which  that  peculiarity  is  less  distinct,  the 
whole  being  termed  more  particularly  tho  (iiduitnist 
group.  Tho  general  composition  of  the  grauwacke  indi- 
cates its  havjng  been  formed  of  a  fine  dclniut  (nialtet 
washed  from  other  rocks),  and  its  having  been  aepusileti 
slowly ;  but  it  sometimes  has  fragments  of  rock,  of  various 
sizes  under  that  of  a  man's  head,  imbedded  in  it,  and  it 
occasionally  pastei  into  conglomerates.     The  limestones 

•  M.  de  la  U«i:L'<— Maiiuul,  474 


» 


INFORMATION  It  OR  THE  PEOPLE. 


mixri]  with  the  Rrauwacke  bods  am  larjror  and  more 
liuinerous  than  in  the  preceding  irroup,  indicating  an 
increase  of  the  causes  wliich  produced  carbonic  acid. 
Fomils  are  also  more  numerous  in  them  than  in  some  of 
the  other  beds. 

The  giauwackc  forms  the  immediate  surface  in  many 
lariw  districts  in  Scotland,  England,  France,  Germany, 
'.nd  North  America,  showing  that,  at  the  time  of  its  forma- 
tion, «  some  general  causes  were  in  operation  over  a  large 
portion  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  that  the  result 
was  the  production  of  a  thick  and  ext<^nsive  dcponit  en- 
veloping animiilH  of  similar  organic  structure  over  a  con- 
■iderftble  surface."* 

Fottilt  of  the  Grameacke  Group, 
The  fossils  of  the  grauwacke  (■  few  of  which  extend 
to  the  clayey  and  sandy  slates  immediately  Im'Iow)  arc  of 
00th  plants  and  animals.  .\monc;st  the  plants  are  nlf{iB, 
or  sea-weeds,  showing  that  sous  like  the  present  now  ex- 
isted. 8omo  land  plants  are  also  tbund,  but  of  tlio  sim- 
pler structures;  as  /i/ucs, or  ferns;  eijuiselurcrr,  a  class  of 
plants  of  the  character  of  the  mare's  tailf  of  our  common 
marshes ;  and  lycopniliacerr,  a  class  of  iho  character  of 
our  club  mossc8.t  All  of  these  land  plants  arc  woiwro- 
(yWont,  that  is,  produced  from  si-eils  of  a  single  lolio,  and 
therefore  emlof^oioits,  that  is,  growing  from  within — tim- 
ber plants  being,  on  the  contrarj-,  the  produce  of  f./o-lobed 
fee(]s,  and  growing  by  exterior  layers.  The  yioivi  of  this 
era  thus  appears  of  a  very  simple  kind,  indicating  the 
existence  only  of  marshy  and  damp  grounds. 

The  animals  are  also,  in  general,  of  an  humble  and 
•irnplc  kind.  There  is  abundance  of  thow?  creatures 
(Polypi)  resoml)ling  plants,  which  fix  themselves  on  the 
tH>ttom  of  the  sea  by  stalks,  and  send  forth  branch-like 
arras  for  the  put  pose  of  catching  prey,  which  they  convey 
into  an  internal  sac,  and  digest.  At  present  these  crea- 
'urea  aliound  in  the  bottoms  of  tro[)ical  S4'as,  where  they 
live  by  devouring  minute  impurities  which  have  escaped 
other  marine  trilies,  and  thus  perform  a  f,ervice  analogous 
to  that  of  earth-worms  and  <>ther  land  tribes,  the  business 
of  which  is  to  clear  off  all  decaying  animal  and  vegetable 
matter.  But  the  class  of  creatures  found  in  greatest 
numl>ers  in  the  grauwacke  series  of  rocks  are  slirll-Jish, 
possibly  l)ecausc  the  remains  of  those  creatures  are  [H'CU- 
liarly  well  calculated  for  preservation.  All  over  the 
earth,  whorever  grauwacke  rocks  arc  found,  sholl-fish  arc 
found  irabedilod  in  vast  quantities,  proving  that  shell-fish 
were  universal  at  the  time  when  that  class  of  rocks  were 
fornv^t.  In  a  work  euNtlod  •'  Remarks  on  the  (ieology 
and  Mineralii'^y  of  Nova  Scotia,"  by  Abraham  (Icsner,^ 
it  is  itjited  that  they  abound  to  a  surprising  degree  in  the 
fatunble  iron  ores  which  in  that  province  accompany  or 
form  part  of  the  grauwacke  nx-ks.  In  refen  iice  to  the 
bj-d«  at  Nictau,  the  author  says,  "  The  impressions  made 
by  marine  orijanic  remains  in  the  ore  and  slate  arc  ex- 
tremely l«cautiful  and  distinct.  Millions  of  sh-'ll-fish,  of 
the  molluscous  and  cruslac^'ous  tribes,  which  once  en- 
joyed a  pcffect  animal  existence,  have  been  swallowed  up 
by  this  ore,  where  their  remains  and  perfect  likeness<'s  are 
yet  to  be  seen  in  the  same  natural  and  symmetrical  Iteautv 
they  possessed  when  alive."J  At  New  Oajiaan,  another  of 


»  De  la  Boclm 

♦  The  innrc'^  toil  is  an  elejrant  pinm.  liovinR  a  suceiilcnt 
•P^cl  joinleil  «iem.  with  Bttcnuateil  loliaifi.  jfrowmir  in  whorls 
round  lJiejoiiit».  the  iRiier  b_-iii)j  proitcted  by  adisimci  »iiiBitil 
il.L'Bili  ;  the  purls  of  rnifliruMiiioii  cojuliluti;  u  acui>  culk.u  at 
the  apex  of  the  fteni— AfanO/i 

t  tlerbaceouii  probtrate  nlaiiia  foiind  in  damp  woods  and  liog^, 
j»ViiH{  llitir  JLavca  a.mpie  uiid  iniljrica.eJ,  Uiut  i»,  lyiiiit  over 
»^;h  other.  ->  '     o 

4  Hnlirax.  Nova  Scotia.    Oosnip  and  Coade.  IfWl. 

|"'Jliey  are  aliikxl  ull  Ijivulvus."  lie  adds,  ••  of  the  ((rniis 
mnnmia.  alilioiiiih  wiinc-  were  ohiaiiii-d  reieinhlinjf  the  nniuUtts 
rf««M  and  p/nnnr'.M  r</i/<jto.''  He  I'IsfWhcre  mentions  Ihnt  the 
encTinAK  nml  triloliitc  which  in  Gcrmiuiy  are  laid  not  lo  hav« 
bteii  luund  in  roeli.* 
■n'lnd  'p  tl;»'  iroM 


:k»  i;arlier  than  ihi;  inounta.n  liiuenono,  are 
nrr.  and  olttv-ilalc  of  Nova  Seotir. 


the  placcK  where  thoBO  rock*  are  dug,  the  /i/y  ettmnUi, 
a  remarkable  example  of  the  radiated  trilM-s,  is  ftiund.  It 
is  so  called  from  itii  resemblance  to  a  lily  resting  on  it« 
stalk  ;  "  it  is  sup}X)»ed,"  says  Mr.  tiesner,  "that  the  ani- 
mal resided  in  the  bottom  of  the  (lower ;  and  those  por- 
tions of  it  which  were  movable,  stood  stn^tched  out  likti 
arms  to  seize  its  prey.  In  the  grauwacke  at  Now  Canaan, 
this  animal  appears  like  the  lily  with  its  capsule  and  petals 
closed.  It  is  often  of  large  dimensions ;  some  were  pr(V 
cured  during  our  last  visit  to  their  stony  graves,  ai  largo 
as  water-melons,  although  in  general  they  are  much  com- 
pressed,  and  have  been  llattened  by  the  weight  of  the  rock 
resting  above  them  when  in  a  soil  stale.  This  speeioji 
of  ratliated  animals  is  now  allogothor  extinct,  and  many 
ages  have  passed  since  a  living  sjiecies  could  be  produceiL 
It  has  never  been  discovered  in  any  of  the  strata  placed 
alH)ve  the  new  red  fnindstone ;  and  ns  it  does  not  ap]H>nr 
but  in  a  few  of  the  older  strata,  the  whole  race  must  have 
enjoyed  but  a  short  existence." 

Among  the  shell-fish  of  the  early  seas,  a  few  of  the 
most  remarkable  kinds  are  descriU'd  by  geologists  as 
ammoniles  and  naulili.  These  fishes  have  boon  found 
in  groat  varieties  of  size;  but  one  peculiarity  pcrvadea 
them  all,  that  the  greater  part  of  the  shell  is  a  curve  con- 
taining air-colls,  while  the  animal  il-^iolf  resided  in  the 
outer  portion,  as  if  a  human  iH'ing  were  to  have  a  house 
consisting  of  a  long  row  of  chambers,  and  live  only  in  the 
front  room.  The  ammonite  receives  its  name  troni  its 
resemblance  ta  the  curved  hoiii  on  the  head  of  the  statue 
of  Jupiter  Ammnn.  It  has  Ixieii  an  animal  of  wonderful 
character  and  habits.  Some  of  them  have  been  of  a 
minutenesB  scarcely  visible,  and  others  four  feet  wide. 
They  are  found  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth. 
The  economy  of  this  animal  destined  it  to  live  in  general 
at  the  bottoms  of  deep  seas,  but  to  Ite  able  to  rise  occa- 
sionally to  the  surface.  While  it  lived  in  Iho  outer  part 
of  its  wreathed  shell,  the  interior  curls  were  hollow,  con- 
taining air,  so  as  to  make  it  c''  nearly  the  same  weight 
with  the  element  in  which  it  lived.  As  the  pressure  of 
the  water  at  the  bottom  of  a  deep  sea  would  break  in  the 
plates  of  any  ordinary  shell,  as  it  does  a  bottle  when  one 
is  lowered  tc  a  considerable  depth,  the  shell  of  the  am- 
monite has  been  strengthened  by  a  curious  kind  of  inter- 
nal arch-work,  so  as  to  Im;  able  to  resist  tlie  weight  of  the 
incumlKMit  fluid.  Tliia  arch-work  so  completely  mccta 
all  human  ideas  of  ingenious  contrivance  for  the  purpose 
which  it  was  deslined  to  serve,  as  to  form  one  of  the 
most  striking  examples  of  that  adapUitiori  of  means  to 
ends  which  is  universal  in  the  works  of  nature,  and  which 
is  so  well  fitted  to  impress  the  conviction  of  a  great  dc^ 
signing  First  (.'ause.  The  weight  of  the  ammonito  was 
so  nicely  adju.sted  to  on  equality  with  the  water,  that  it* 
filling  with  air  or  water  a  small  central  pipe  which  runs 
through  the  whole  extent  of  the  curve,  was  sufficient  to 
make  it  rise  as  high  or  sink  as  low  as  might  suit  its  in- 
clination. 

The  Trihhilet  arc  another  of  the  early  sjiocios  which 
deserve  (larticular  notice.  Their  reiiiiins,  like  those  of 
the  ammonites,  are  universal  over  the  earth.  It  is  curious 
that,  while  they  have  long  coa.sod  to  live,  other  genera  or 
kinds  of  the  same  class  of  creatures  (t  uiitaa,:)  still  exist, 
and  serve  to  afford  some  knowledge  of  their  liiibits.  The 
trilobite  had  a  head  and  eyes,  below  \\  liich  there  was  a 
body  of  no  great  length,  covered  with  ;-litH\  plates  in  tho 
manner  of  a  lobster's  tail,  and  termiiialitiy  in  a  narrow 
rounded  point.  It  is  suppo.-ed  that  It  h.id  solt  paddles  to 
make  way  through  the  water,  wliicli  lia\e  not  of  course 
been  preserved.  But  the  most  iiitore.-,liiig  lealure  in  the 
trilobite  was  its  eyes,  of  which  several  speeitiiens  have 
l)een  obtained  in  a  nearly  entire  state.  'I'lie  eye  of  the 
trilobite  has  lieen  formed  with  KKI  spheiiial  lenses  ill 
s4-paratc  compartments  on  the  surface  of  a  cornea  pro- 
jecting  conically  upwards,  so  that  the  animal,  in  its  usuai 
place  at  tl;e  bottoms  of  waters,  could  see  evcrv  tliuig  around 


At  there  i 
have  U'vn 
the  vision 
'  no  lenses, 
riple  olisrr 
is  found  tb 
rhe  eyes  ar 
exiepi  thai 
dillcreiii'c,  i 
less  ob^tnl( 
that  in  all  I 
sumo. 

Thi.s  littl 

ing  man  tl 

b«'fore  his  ri 

by  which  In 

the  sea  imis 

the  water  li 

lure  desliiii'i 

dad  no  use 

•.nird  to  tho 

tliat.  had  it  i 

might  liaM' SI 

iiig  diirrreiic 

liavelieen  foi 

such  rays  w 

idso,  we  tear 

organization.' 

of  I,i!,dit  tl.  I 

ftime  at  the 

(acuity  of  vi.' 

val  seas,  as  a 

\  few  lion 

wui'ke ;  but 

•rally  have   1 

111.'  said  to  inc 

the  auimal  k 

ti'lirated  anint 

li'brata 


This  is  a 
otily  the  coal  i 
and  others  al( 
.m  which  the ) 
in  a  state  of 
Limestone,  an 
The  01,1  He 
sand,  cemente 
as  common  ir 
sirala  arc  .sonii 
of  several  thoi 
Mounliiin  J 
surface  of  a  vai 
C^uick-limi',  fo 
tion  of  the  nn 
iain  limestone 
building  stone. 
Iieiiig  probubh 
its  formation.  " 
comprehends  j). 
liincKlone   is  fi 
calcareous  spar 
[x)scd  of  organ 
thi'w  can  lie  di 
liiit  mostly  gray 
situations  it  uit 
a  con.sideralile 
It  is  likewise   1 
the  breakwater 
valuable  veins 
'I'lie   Kiiperio 
i/>'(itn,  and  var 
Voi  L~u 


GEOLOGY. 


pcics  which 
ke  those  of 
X  isruriouf 
r  ^•enera  Of 
)  still  exist, 
l)it».    The 
icrc  wus  a 
iiti's  in  tho 
II  a  narrow 
paililles  to 
1  111  coumo 
tun?  in  the 
iiifns  have 
rye  of  lh« 
1  iciiBC*  in 
■oriicii  [iro» 
III  its  Udusu 
luiK  aiound 


Ai  Ihorc  arc  two  eyt's,  one  of  tho  mdn  of  each  would 
hiivo  IxM-n  usolesH,  na  it  could  only  look  acrosd  to  meet 
Ihi)  viiiinn  of  the  other ;  but  on  tho  initer  sidcH  there  are 
no  lenses,  that  nothing  nniy,  in  aceordanre  \vitl>  a  prin- 
riple  oliservalile  tliroUi{hout  nature,  he  thrown  away.  It 
Is  found  that  in  tho  serolia,  a  survivinB  kindred  genus, 
the  eyes  arc  constructed  on  exaetly  the  same  principle, 
except  that  they  are  not  no  high,  which  seems  a  projior 
dilli'rcni'c,  as  the  back  of  the  serolis  is  lower,  and  presents 
less  oll^tlll(•ti(nl  to  the  creature's  vision.  It  is  also  found 
that  in  all  the  trilohitea  of  the  later  rocks,  tho  eyes  are  the 
same. 

This  little  organ  of  a  trivial  little  animal  carries  to  liv- 
ing niaa  the  certain  knowledge,  that,  millions  of  years 
ix'fore  his  race  existed,  tho  air  he  hreuthes,  and  the  light 
hy  which  he  sees,  were  the  same  as  at  this  hour,  and  that 
the  sea  must  have  been  in  general  as  pure  as  it  is  now.  If 
the  water  had  been  constatilly  turbid  or  chaotic,  a  cjca- 
tare  desliricd  to  live  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  would  have 
liiid  no  use  for  such  delicate  visual  organs.  "  With  re- 
Tiird  to  tlio  atmosphere,"  says  Dr.  Hucklaud,  "  we  infer 
that,  had  it  dill'cred  materially  from  its  actual  condition,  it 
might  lia\  e  so  lar  atfected  the  rays  of  light,  that  a  corrcspond- 
i;ig  dill'crence  from  the  eyes  of  existing  I'rustaccans  would 
have  been  fouiul  in  the  organs  on  which  the  impressions  of 
such  rays  were  then  received.  Kegaiding  Light  itself, 
i'lso,  we  learn,  from  thi!  resemblance  of  these  most  ancient 
organizations  to  existing  eyes,  that  the  nmtual  relaliona 
of  I-ight  to  the  Kye,  and  of  the  Kye  to  Light,  wore  the 
same  at  the  time  when  crustaceans  endowed  with  the 
I'.iculty  of  vision  were  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  priuio- 
M\\  seas,  as  at  the  prcsi-nt  moment." 

\  fi'W  bones  of  fishes  have  been  found  in  the  grau- 
wai'ke ;  but  some  obscurity  rests  on  the  point.  If  s-.ich 
'tally  have  lieen  the  case,  the  remains  of  this  era  may 
lie  said  to  include  sjiccimens  of  all  the  four  divisions  of 
the  nuimal  kingdom — radiated,  jointed,  pulpy,  and  vcr- 
ti-lirated  animals,  or  radiuta,  articuluta,  mullusca,  andvur- 
ti'brata 

SECONDARY. 

Carboniferous  Group, 

This  is  a  very  comprehensive  group,  embracing  not 
only  the  coal  strata,  and  the  beds  of  sandstone,  limestone, 
itnd  others  alternating  with  thtic,  hut  two  great  formations 
,in  which  the  proi)er  coal  group  may  be  said  to  rest  (though 
In  a  state  of  intimate  connection),  named  tho  Mountain 
Limestone',  and  the  Old  Ked  8andstoi\r. 

The  on  l^eil  Saiiilslvtie'u  a  riK'k  com()oscd  of  grains  of 
sniul,  cenxMited  hy  the  oxide  of  iron  (tho  same  substance 
lUi  common  iron  rust),  which  gives  it  its  red  colour.  Its 
strata  arc  sometimes  thin,  and  sometimes  of  the  thickness 
of  several  thousand  feet. 

filiiiinliiin  Limentonr  is  an  abundant  rock.  It  forms  the 
surface  of  a  vast  portion  of  the  central  counties  of  Ireland, 
(juick-lime,  for  the  improvement  of  soil,  and  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  mortar  used  in  building,  is  maile  from  moun- 
tain limestone.  It  is  also  used  in  many  countries  as  a 
building  stone,  (ireat  caverns  often  occur  in  this  rock, 
Iwing  prol'ably  owing  to  some  chemical  phenomenon  in 
its  formation.  One  of  these  at  Mitchelston,  in  Ireland, 
comprehei'.'ispasM.xgcs  several  miles  in  extent.  Mountain 
limestone  is  freciuently  traversed  by  beautiful  veins  of 
calcareous  spar,  at  times  apiH'aring  to  \k  principally  com- 
()Owd  of  organic  remains,  while  at  others  not  a  trace  of 
thi^'  can  Ih'  detected.  This  rock  is  of  various  colours, 
but  mostly  gray,  varying  in  intensity  of  shade.  In  some 
iiitu.itions  it  atlords  good  marble,  which  is  susceptible  of 
ft  considerable  degree  of  polish.  From  its  durable  nature, 
It  is  likewise  used  in  building,  'i'hat  stupendous  work, 
the  breakwater  at  I'lymouth,  is  compost^  of  it.  Many 
Taluable  veins  of  lead  ore  o<"cur  in  this  rock. 

The  KU|M'rior  group  more  particularly  called  Carhon- 
ifiroi'f,  anil  viuiously  termed  the  Coat  Measures,  is  com- 

Vol  1.— fi 


poBcd  of  beds  of  that  mineral,  often  very  numerous,  alter 
nating  with  beds  of  sandstone,  rhalc,  limestone,  ironitone, 
and  some  other  substances.  As  many  as  forty  beds  of 
coal  exist  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  town  of  Newcastle. 
The  great  utility  of  this  mincrni  as  a  domestic  fuel,  and 
in  the  arts,  gives  it  a  high  importance,  and  happy  is  th« 
countrv'  in  which  it  exists  in  any  considerable  quantity. 
In  a  merely  geological  point  of  view,  it  is  equally  im- 
portant. This  rock  is  entirely  a  mass  of  vegetable  mat- 
ter, which  has  accumulated  in  certain  situations,  and 
afterwards  bi'cn  covered  over  and  pressed  into  a  hard  con- 
sistence under  other  strata. 

Two  8np|)ositions  have  been  formed  respecting  the  cir- 
cumstances under  which  coal  was  formed.  According  to 
one,  the  vegetable  matter  must  have  grown  in  a  dunse 
forest  l()r  many  years  j  then  the  land  must  have  sunk,  and 
become  the  basin  of  a  lake  or  estuary,  in  which  situation 
rivers  would  wash  into  it  mud  and  sand,  which  would 
cover  over  the  vegetable  mass,  and  form  superincumbent 
beds  of  shale  and  sandstone  respecfively.  Then,  tho 
ground  would  be  once  more  elevated,  or  suflicicntly  shoale<l 
up,  to  beconic  agaui  a  scene  of  luxuriant  vegetation. 
When  the  vegetation  had  again  become  accumulated,  th« 
land  would  be  again  sunk,  and  Iwcome  once  more  ttie 
,  basin  of  a  lake,  in  which  case  the  beds  of  mud  and  sand 
I  might  again  be  formed  by  rivers.  And  this  alternating 
I  |)rocess  is  su|iposed  to  have  taken  place  as  often  as  there 
I  are  beds  of  coal  to  be  accounted  for.  The  other  ihecry 
is,  that,  i:,to  some  great  estuary  or  lake,  rivers  coming  from 
diirerent  quarters  would  bring  the  various  matters  forn- 
ing  tho  strata  of  the  carboniferous  group,  a  river  from  one 
direction  bringing  the  mud  which  would  form  shale, 
anotlier  from  another  direction  the  vegetable  matter  which 
would  form  coal,  and  so  on,  each  de|)osit  perhaps  taking 
place  through  the  eflicacy  of  some  local  circumstancea, 
while  the  causes  for  the  other  deposits  were  temporarily 
8usi>;nded.  At  present  great  diificulties  beset  both  th»> 
ries. 

Fossils  of  the  Carboniferous  Group, 
In  this  group  of  rocks,  about  300  species  of  plants  hay* 
been  discovered,  all  of  them  now  extinct.  About  two- 
thirds  of  them  arc  ferns ;  the  others  consist  of  large  cont- 
/(•»(P  (allied  to  the  pine),  of  gigantic  lyrupodiaceir,  of 
8|)ceies  allied  to  the  ractea  and  cupliorbiacece,  and  of  paimi. 
Most  of  these  i)lants  probably  exist  in  the  coal  beds,  form* 
ing  in  fact  their  sole  composition;  hut  the  peculiar naturs 
of  this  mineral  renders  it  dilllcult  to  detect  them  by  eji- 
aminotion.'  Thin  slices,  however,  have  been  examined 
by  the  microscope,  and  the  vegetable  structure  has  then 
l)een  detected,  wliere  no  external  trace  of  it  was  visible.  In 
cannel  coal,  a  kind  [x-culiarly  hard,  the  vegetable  «true- 
ture  is  observed  throughout  the  whole  mass,  while  the 
line  coal  retains  it  only  in  small  patches,  v/hich  appear  at 
it  were  mechanically  entangled.  Slate  and  cannel  coal 
often  bear  distinct  impressions  of  ])lant8.  The  plants  are 
such  as  grow  in  hot  moist  situations;  and  it  is  therefore 
presumed,  that  a  climate  of  that  nature  existed  at  nn  early 
period  where  coal  is  now  found,  even  in  Melville's  Island, 
which  is  within  the  polar  circle.  Ur.  Hutton  thought 
that  the  vegeftdiles  must  have  been  carbonized  (or  charred) 
by  heat;  but  Dr.  Macculloeh  contends,  on  good  grounds, 
that  the  change  has  been  elli'cled  solely  by  water  and 
pressure,  and  that  by  these  agents  peat  is  capable  of  being 
converted  into  coal. 

Large  fragments  of  trees  are  often  found  in  the  shale 
and  sand.stone  beds  ol  the  carbonilerous  group,  more  frc- 
(|uently  in  the  former  than  in  tlu'  l.itii'r.  .Vs  usual  with 
fossil  su'.staiues,  lliey  are  converted  into  the  material  in 
whii  h  they  are  indiedded,  but  preserve  all  their  original 
hneainents,  exeejit  that  Uiey  are  generally  changed  Iroir 
llteir  original  round  tu  a  llatlened  form,  the  result  )f  xn* 


*  MacIuriM>°>  Gco!og)'  of  Fife  nnil  the  LotliiiiAk 


fXrORMATlON    Foil    TIM-:    PKOri.R. 


\ 


prr-isiiro  tliry  have  atintninoil.  In  most  initttnccii,  thcie 
fruKinrnU  of  trees  ap|)car  to  Imvo  l)ccn  trunHportcil  from  a 
distance,  and  laid  down  horizontally  in  tlicir  prcwnt  silii- 
•tion ;  but  Bomo  hnvo  been  found  with  their  um\»  still 
planted  in  tlieir  native  noil  of  mud,  and  the  Btem.s  sliootintf 
-j(>ward8  through  icveml  sujicrior  ImmIs  of  variout  sul)- 
•tanccd.  Even  in  some  eoul  liods,  there  arc  foinid  Htems 
of  trees  in  tlieir  original  vertical  position  ;  tho  roots  being 
iralMHldcd  in  shale  beneath.  In  these  instances,  wo  must 
•uppose  the  fossil  to  Im  on  tho  spot  where  the  living  tree 
was  planted,  grew,  and  died.  In  the  Ucnsham  coal  scam, 
in  tho  Jurrow  coal-fiehl,  a  few  years  ago,  there  wan  found 
an  upright  tree  of  tho  kind  called  lepidodendra,  thirteen 
and  a  half  feet  wide  ot  the  base,  and  thirty-nine  foet  high, 
tho  branches  at  tho  top  U'ing  also  entire ;  tlio  lepidoden- 
dron,  a  common  plant  in  this  grouji,  is  so  called  from  the 
•caly  ap|iearance  of  its  stem,  the  scales  U'ing  the  roots  of 
the  leaf  stalks.  Various  fossil  trees  have  Iwen  discovered 
in  tho  sandstone  beds  of  tho  carboniferous  group,  at 
Craigleith  and  Gr:inton,  in  tho  county  of  Edinhurgh.  One 
found  in  Craiglcith  quarry  was  twenty  feet  long,  three 
feet  in  diameter,  with  scars  where  tho  branches  had  lieen 
torn  off,  and  was  ascertained,  by  microscopic  inspection  of 
slices  of  the  trunk,  to  have  been  a  conifera  of  tho  gonu<! 
Jraucaria,  of  which  living  species  enist  in  New  Holland. 
The  animal  remains  of  the  carlionil'erous  group  arc 
much  the  same  as  those  of  tlio  grauwacke — xouphytes, 
moUusca,  Crustacea,  and  a  few  t'lshes. 

NEW  BED  8AMDST0NE  OROUP. 

This  group  of  strata,  lying  above  tho  carboniferous 
group,  coMii)rehends  rocks  called — 

Tho  licil  Cniii(tumerali;  formed  of  pieces  of  earlier 
rocks,  some  rough,  some  smoothed  by  rolling,  all  caked 
together ; 

/.erhstcin,  a  kind  of  limestone,  abounding  in  Germany ; 

Jitd  or  rurie^aleil  SdtiihUmeii,  a  grouj)  of  many  va- 
rieties of  colour,  and   principally  of  argillaceous  and  sili- 


in  the  scale  of  creation  to  fish.  Inif  jet  below  etie  righrf 
class  of  animuls  which  bring  forth  their  young  alivi'  and 
nourish  them  by  suck  (mammalia).  'I'hn  earth  was  an 
yot  only  tit  to  lio  a  partial  habitation  to  creatures  breath' 
ing  its  atmoHphere  and  living  u|)nn  its  productions.  It  u 
suppom-d  to  have  been  under  so  high  a  temper .iture  as  to 
Ihi  unnuitable  for  mammalia:  tho  lands  which  cxistetl 
were  probably  low  and  marshy,  with  a  hot,  moist  atmo- 
sphere, so  as  to  present  an  appropriate  field  of  existence 
oidy  for  li/ards,  crocodiles,  and  ( reatures  of  similar  cha- 
racter. It  is  also  to  Ihi  supposed  that  the  hind  was  at 
this  pcriixl  undergoing  freipient  changes  and  convulsions, 
so  that  only  a  class  of  creatures  to  which  submersions 
and  th'luges  were  matters  of  inditli'renee,  could  reside 
upon  it  without  a  greater  waste  of  life  than  was  part  of 
the  (ireat  (ieneral  Design.  Tho  Keptiles,  which  first 
begin  to  appear  in  the  Muschelkalk,  conliniied  to  llourish 
while  a  great  succeasion  of  other  rocks  was  fornung: 
throughout  tho  whole  of  the  Secondary  Tormation,  there 
were  few  other  land  animals.  In  fact,  the  world  must 
have  been  in  the  poswssion  of  reptiles  for  a  many  thou- 
sand times  longer  period  than  it  apj)oars  to  have  yet 
iM-en  in  (he  possession  of  man.  "When  we  see,"  says 
Dr.  Uuckland,  "  that  so  large  and  important  a  ran^o  has 
l>een  nssiijned  to  reptiles  among  the  fonner  population  of 
our  planet,  wr  cannot  but  regard  with  feelings  of  new 
and  unusual  interest,  the  comparatively  diminutive  ex- 
isting orders  of  that  most  anciiiit  family  ot  (|uadrnj)ed8, 
with  the  very  name  of  which  we  usually  associate  a  senti- 
ment of  disgust.  We  shall  view  them  with  les^  contempt, 
when  we  learn,  from  the  records  of  geological  history, 
that  there  was  a  time  when  reptiles  not  only  coiislitutejl 
tho  chief  tenants  and  most  powerful  possessors  of  the 
earth,  but  exii'iided  their  dominion  also  over  tlie  waters 
of  the  seas ;  and  that  the  annals  of  their  history  may  be 
traced  hack  through  thousands  of  years  antecedent  to 
that  latest  point  in  the  progressive  stages  of  animal  crea- 
tion, when  the  first  parents  of  the  human  race  were 


ceous  consistence,  much  used  for  building  in  England    called  into  existence."* 
and  other  countries;  The  Reptiles  of  this  early  ago  were  peculiar  both  in 

Muuhelkalk;  a  limestone  varying  in  texture,  but  most  !  size  and  in  structure.     Sonu),  which  inhabited  the  Bcaa. 


resemlili'd   lizards,  but  were  of  gigantic  size ;  others,  do- 
signed   for  land  as  well  as  sea,  resembled  the  croco<lilci 


frequently  gray  and  compact;  not  found  in  Britain  or 
I'rance,  but  occurring  in  (iermany  and  Poland ; 

I'liriegiUtd  Mdrh — l«'ds  of  rock  of  dilferent  colours,  j  which  still  exist  in  warm  climates. 

red,  blue,  and  gray,  composed  of  the  remains  of  shell-lish.         One  of  tlie  most   rcmarkalile   kind   (genera)   has  ro- 

To  this  group  also  belong  beds  of  roik  sull,  of  which  •  ccived  the  name  of  Irtlii/iinaurus  (Kish  Lizard),  <if  which 

mat.y  exist  in   England,  particularly  in   the  county  of  l  scv.mi   specii-s  or  varieties   have   I'cen  discovered.     The 

Chester.     Rock  salt  is  a  crystalline  mass,  forming  regu-  i  head   is  like  that  of  the  crocodile,  composed  of  two  long 

il  lar  strata,  sometimes  of  the  thickness  of  many  feet.    The    slender  jaws,  provided  with  a  great  nunilnr  of  tei-tli  ( ni 

3  substance   is  rarely   pure,  but  generally  contains   souic    some  cases  1  HO),  and  eyes  of  great  size  (in  one  instance, 

portion  of  oxide  of  iron,  which  gives  it  a  red  colour,    the  cavity  tor  the  eye  has  been  found   to  measure  fiur- 

it  is  dug  like  coal  and  other  minerals,  and  when  melted    ti'en  inclies),  while  the  nostril,  instead  of  lu-ing  near  the 

and  subjected  to  proper  purification,  is  sold  for  domestic  ,  snout,  as  in  the  croi'iuhlc,  was  near  the  anterior  angle  of 

purposes.  the  eye.     Tlie  body  was  fish-like,  arranged  upon  a  long 

spinal  column,  which  consisteil  of  more  than  a  ImndriHl 
FOSSILS  or  THE  NEW  RED  8ANDST0.VE  OROUP.  joints,  and  to  which  a  «ries  of  .;Iender  ribs  was  attaclnxl 

The  vegetable  remains  of  this  group  arc  much  the  an.l  terminating  m  a  long  and  broad  tail,  which  nui.il 
•ame  as  those  of  the  preceding;  hut  in  tlie  de|iartment  have  possessed  great  strength.  The  whole  length  of 
ot  animal  life,  when  we  arrive  at  the  Muschelkalk,  or  some  s|iecimens  o.  the  Icthyosanrus  was  iili.mt  thirty 
Shell  Limestone,  we  find  a  great  dillercnce,  leading  to  a  feet.  Instead  of  tho  feet,  with  which  the  lizard  and 
supposition  that,  at  this  era  of  geological  chronology,  criK-odile  arc  furnished,  the  Icthyosaurus  had  lour  pad- 
« circumstances    had    arisen  cliangiiig   the  charai'tcr  of    dies   like  those  of  tiie    whale   tribes,  titling   it   to   move 

thnnuli  till'  waters  in  the  manner  of  those  animals.  It 
had  also  a  con?lraelion  id'  the  sleriium  or  brcast-arch, 
and  ot'  the  fore  pailillcs,  similar  to  that  I'oiini!  in  the  Onii- 
llioryiiclms,  an  ac|Uatic  ipi.tiirniH-d  of  New  llull.uid,  and 
evidriitiy  <lcsigii>d,  ns  in  the  case  of  that  aniui.il,  to  ena- 
,  bir  it  to  descend  to  the   bottoms  of  waters  in  starch  of 


marine  lil'e  over  certain  portions  of  Europe;  that  certain 
miinals  abounding  previously,  and  for  a  great  length  of 
tirot,  disapjieared  never  to  reappear,  at  least  us  far  a.t  we 
feiii  judge  from  our  knowledge  of  0,%' uiic  remains;"* 
Slid  that  certain  new  forms  of  a  very  remarkable  kind 
e.-ere  added. 


The  new  creatures  were  of  such  a  c\a.tn  as  we  might  :  fooil.  While  the  Icthyosaurus,  then,  is  mainly  allied  to 
fxpect  to  be  the  first  added  to  the  few  .specimens  of  lish  tiie  lizard  tribes,  it  comliineil  in  itself  the  adililional  chi>- 
which  had  hitherto  existed :  they  were  of  the  cla.a  of  raclers  of  the  fish,  the  whale,  and  the  Ornithorjncbus. 
iU'ptiles,  creatures  whoso  organization  places  them  next  \  "As  llie  form  of  the  vertebras  by  which  it  is  aewsociated 


•  D«  Il  Beche'*  .Manual,  iui 


•  Uridgcwuter  Trealine, ..  10" 


OKOLOtiY. 


irttli  the  rmmi  of  finhos  «c«m«  to  hnvn  lioon  iiilrodiiOpH 
fi>r  the  pur[)i)»c  of  |{ivini(  rnpid  motion  in  tlio  vviitrr  to  a 
Ijtiird  inhnliitini;  tho  rlrtnciit  ot  fiKlion,  ho  tlic  further 
ndoption  of  a  tttructuro  in  Ihn  Ir^fl,  rfficmliliiiif  the  piul- 
ille»  of  n  wimir,  wu  sujicriiddcil,  in  order  to  convert  tli«so 
extrcmitica  into  powi^rful  finii.  Tho  still  further  addition 
of  a  fnrrula  and  cliiviclon,  liko  thniio  of  tho  Ornithoryn- 
chuK,  oIKth  a  third  and  not  Ii-hs  striking  cxninpio  of  hi-Icc- 
tion  of  rontrivniiroH,  to  i>nnblo  nnimitla  of  one  clam  to 
live  in  the  olenicnl  of  another  cIiihs,"*  Such  dcvintionsi 
cannot  be  conHidercd  as  niDiistrositiea;  tlu'y  are  perfect 
adaptations  of  a  creatnrc  to  itn  piirpnsea  in  the  theatre 
of  beinsf.  Only  tiio  Hpino  of  the  IcthyoManrus  as  yet 
existed  in  other  animals.  Its  bend,  its  paddles,  anil  itr, 
hrcast-nrch,  were  all  detached  parts  of  future  animals, 
HdW  strangle  to  reflect,  that  sotno  of  those  contrivances 
were  allowed  to  become  extinct,  and,  as  it  were,  lost  to 
nature,  and  ultimately,  al^er  a  loni»  interval,  were  revived 
in  connection  with  new  crenturcs ! 

The  internal  structure  and  tho  modes  of  living  of  the 
fcthyosaurus,  have  Iwen  in  a  most  unexpected  manner 
made  idear  by  tho  discovery  of  tho  half-digested  remains 
of  animals  found  within  them  or  in  their  neighbourhood. 
It  appears  that  the  creature  posseased  a  largo  stomal  h,  cx- 
tt^ndiuR  tbrouahout  nearly  its  wliole  body,  and  that  it  lived 
upon  fish  and  other  reptiles,  includini?  its  own  kind.  It 
must  have  occasionally  devoured  creatures  several  feet  in 
length.  Masses  of  the  refuse  of  the  Ictliyosaurus,  petri- 
fied as  bard  as  tho  lincHt  marble,  and  well  known  to 
freoloirisis  under  tlio  name  of  mprnliles,  aro  found  to  be 
marked  spirally,  like  tho  refuso  of  certain  species  of 
iiharks  and  do!?-fish,  the  intestinal  put  of  which  winils 
jjreatly,  in  order  that  it  may  take  up  tiie  least  possible 
room.  Wc  thus  obtain  a  distinct  idea  of  tho  nature  of  a 
very  important  part  of  the  bixlily  economy  of  this  lonij 
extinct  race  of  animals.  Tho  stomach  occupied  so  larije 
a  space  in  their  bodies,  for  the  reception  of  largo  ipianti- 
*ies  of  foo(!,  and  it  was  at  the  same  time  so  necessary 
Jint  the  speed  of  tho  animal  in  pursuit  of  prey  should 
not  be  clogged  by  a  very  large  or  long  body,  that  the 
imiiller  intestines  had  been,  by  a  wise  arrangement  of 
nature,  reluceil  nearly  to  the  state  of  a  flattt-ned  tuUi, 
•oiled  like  a  cork-screw  around  itself;  "  their  bulk  being 
llius  diininished,"  says  Ruekland,  "while  tho  amount  of 
ahsorbing  surface  remained  nearly  the  same  as  if  they 
had  been  circular," 

The  n-imc  /7i'.<iosn»n(j  is  applied  to  another  higltly 
reMi:vri;.il)le  reptile  of  gigantic  size,  which  inhabited  the 
world  before  the  days  of  mammalia.  A  particular  spe- 
cies has  been  described  as  having  a  botly  and  ])adciles 
which  bore  some  resemblance  to  those  of  the  Ictliyosau- 
rus, the  former  being  more  bulky,  and  the  latter  longer 
and  more  powerful.  At  the  end  of  a  long  neck,  liko  the 
bmly  of  a  serjicnt,  was  a  head  resembling  that  of  a  li/.ard, 
but  also  partaking  of  the  characters  of  the  head  of  the 
crociKlilo  and  Ictliyosaurus.  Tiie  tail  was  short.  The 
backbone  of  this  creature,  and  the  neck  and  fail  continu- 
ing it,  co!itained  in  all  about  ninety  vertebral  jiieccs, 
thirty-three  of  which  composed  tho  neck;  and  the  verte- 
bra* ari'  found  to  lie  of  a  less  fish-like  structure  tlian  those 
of  the  letbyosaurus,  and  not  nearly  so  w.'ll  calculated  for 
ra[iid  motion.  The  ribs  describe  a  large  circle,  and,  being 
formed  in  four  parts,  seem  to  have  l)een  designed  to  con- 
tiiii  a  caoacious  set  of  lungs,  and  to  rise  and  fall  as  the 
lungs  were  intlated  or  emptied:  in  this  rcs|)cct  they  re- 
senilile  tile  ribs  of  the  eli:imclion,  whose  cbanges-of  colour 
ore  now  known  to  lie  occasioned  by  the  varied  depth  of 
its  inspirations.  It  is  iheretore  surmised,  though  with 
/iltli^  eonlideuee,  that  tlio  Plesiosaurus  was  also  capable 
of  changing  its  colour — a  power  which  must  have  liccn 
highly  necessary  to  a  creature  of  its  unwieldy  charactor, 
both  to  enable  it  to  elude  the  quicker  and  equally  vora- 


•  Bridgevrater  Troalite,  t.  ll». 


ciouj  Icthyosnuri.  and  that  it  might  more  readily  »i 
snare  and  Hei/.n  the  crenturcs  designed  to  l)0  ita  prry. 
The  Plcsiosnunis  probably  lived  chiefly  on  or  near  tha 
surface  of  tho  water,  breathing  tho  air,  and  dabblini(  for 
prey  like  a  duck  or  swan,  but  might  also  lie  able  to  de- 
scend to  the  bottom,  and  even  to  move,  thouith  awk- 
wardly, upon  liuid.  Ono  part  of  its  organization  i* 
|)ecnliarly  striking,  as  Ibrcshadowing  n  structure  of  a 
more  iiiqiortint  kind.  The  piddles,  which  may  bo  con- 
sidered an  aiico  or  iiiiprovenu'iit  uiion  the  fins  of 
fishes,  are  a.  mmc  time  the  type  of  llic  legs  of  qutnl- 

rupeds  and  oi  the  arms  and  liiiibs  of  man.  The  fore 
paddle  consists  of  scapula  Cshoiilder  blado),  humerut 
(shoulder),  ulna  (upper  bone),  iind  radius  (lower  bone), 
succeeded  by  tho  bones  of  the  carpus  and  inctacarpua, 
and  the  phalanges,  eipiivalent  to  those  which  compose 
tho  palm  and  fingers  of  a  human  being.  The  hind- 
paddle  presents  femur,  tibia,  and  fibula,  succeeded  by  tho 
bones  of  the  tarsus  and  metatarsus,  and  five  toes.  Thus 
"  even  our  own  bodies,  and  some  of  their  most  important 
oiTjans,  are  brought  into  close  and  direct  comparison  with 
those  of  reptiles,  whicli  at  first  sight  appear  tho  most 
monstrous  productions  of  creation ;  and  in  the  very 
hands  and  fingers  with  which  we  write  their  history,  we 
recognise  the  typo  of  tho  paddles  in  the  Icthyosaurua 
and  Plesiosaurus."* 

Of  the  Crocodile  family  found  in  abundance  in  thii 
class  of  rocks,  the  Ii;iiaimliiii.  of  which  remains  have 
been  found  it»  tho  fresh-water  formation  at  Welden  in 
England,  may  be  cited  as  a  specimen.     It  was  a  huge 
animal,  resembling  the  present   Iguana  of  South  Ame- 
rica, which  chiefly   lives  upon  plants  and  seeds.     The 
smallest  part  of  the   thigh-bone  of  an  Iguanodon  waa 
found  to  be  twenty-two  inches  in  circumference,  and  much 
larger  than  that  of  any  evicting  elephant.     Species  re- 
sembling tho  present  (Javial  of  the  Ganges  have  also 
been  found.     It  may  fairly  be  infeii<\l  from  the  present 
haliits  of  the  tiavial  and  other  kinds  of  Crocodiles,  that 
at  the  time  when  the  extinct  species  flourished,  the  world 
must  have  contained  many  low  shores  and  savannahs, 
fitted  for  the  rcsidc>nce  of  such  creatures.     Some  parts 
of  England  are  thus  proved  to  have  had  nt  one  timo 
shores  of  lakes  and  estuaries  resembling  thost;  of  tho 
Ganges,  tho  Nile,  and  other  wafers  in  hot  countries,  and 
consequently  a  much  higher  tcinperaturo  than  at  present. 
But  perhaps  the  atreatest  wonder  of  the  Reptile  Ago„ 
was  the  creature  called  the  Ptiroihic'ijk.     Mainly  a  rep- 
tile of  the  lizard  kind,  its  body  possessed   gome  of  the 
characteristics  of  the   mammalia ;  it  had  the  wings  of  a 
bat,  the  neck  of  a  bird,  and  a  head  furnished  with  long 
jaws  full  of  teeth,  so  that  in  this  last  part  of  its  organi- 
zation it  bore  some  resemblance  to  the  crocodile.     Eight 
sjiecics  of  the  Pterotlactyle  which  have  been  found,  vary 
from  tho  size  of  a  snipe  to  that  of  a  cormorant.     Tho 
eyes  were  of  enormous  size,  apparently  enabling  it  to  fly 
by  night.     From  the  wings  ])rojected  fingers  terminated 
by  long  hooks,  like  the  curved  claw  on  the  thumb  of  tho 
,  bat.     These  must  have  formed  a  powerful  paw,  where- 
with the  animal  was  enabled  to  creep  or  climb,  or  sus- 
pend itself  from  trees.     It  has  lioen  conjectured  that  the 
Pterodactylc  would  chiefly  live  on  flying  insects,  of  which, 
it  is  important  to  notice,  several  varieties  existed  at  th(» 
same  time,  their  remains  being  found  in  the  same  rock* 
.\iid  if  is  likely,  from  the  size  of  tlio  eyes,  that  it  searched 
for  prey  by  iii:;lit  as  well  as  by  day.     Hut  it   has  also 
been  aruued,  from  the  great  length  and  strength  of  the 
jaws,  and  the  length  of  the  nee  k.  that  the  Pter oiUictyle 
did  not  live  solely  upon  flies.  Iiut  likewise  sought  for  fish 
in  the  manner  of  our  own  present  sea-birds. 

Tiir'oisc.i  also  existed  during  this  age,  as  is  proved  by 
the  marks  of  their  feet  on  sheets  of  sandstone,  and  by 
their  remains.     But  as  yet  no  animals  of  a  higher  ciaaa 

•  Bucklaiid'B  Treatise,  i.  813 


IXFOHM.VTION   FOR   THE   PEOPLK. 


n«J  ijipcnrrtJ  upon  mrth  for  lh«  romnin*  of  rertain 
rrpnlirrn  of  the  0|io(wntn  fnmily,  foiinil  in  the  oolitP  at 
rttoii'uflrM,  noiir  Oxfonl,  ntnml  «»  yrt  no  »oliliiry,  ihnt  wf 
pntiiiot  ron«i(lpr  tliom  nn  provitiR  «hBt  ninnuimlia  wen' 
milled  to  riplilon.  Willi,  tht-n,  llocltn  of  Pu-nHluctylp* 
flyind  in  Ihn  nir  in  piirii\iit  of  hufff  (Imnon-tlirii ;  itiKiititir^ 
croro<lilpii  «nil  tortoiwn  rrawilng  «mi«l»t  the  jiinfflrn  of 
low,  moiiit,  ami  wnrm  nhon'ii,  and  »iirh  inonntprK  ii»  the 
kfhyi-wiHurui  ami  Plenio^nunia  awnnninn  on  the  mirfnce 
of  the  Hca.  while  its  deptha  were  peopled  hy  infinite  vario- 
tioi  of  finh,  ahelled  and  vertehraled ;  wc  can  li)rni  nonie 
faint  idea  of  what  aort  of  world  it  waa  while  the  atratn 
lielwcen  the  eoal  and  the  chalk  were  in  the  courao  of 
hcing  dejHwited. 

Olilir  Grniip, 

tirit  in  order  ia  a  RToup  whieh  derives  ita  name  from 
1  kind  of  limestone  ronspieiious  in  it,  railed  oolite. 
Oolite,  ajfnin,  ia  mitroil  from  ita  rescniMiiig  the  en^s 
3T  roe  of  tiah.  The  oolite  proiip  comprehends,  liesides 
ooiitfl  itself,  varioua  alternuting  cliiys,  anndstones,  marls, 
■nd  Iime,1ones. 

Oolite  ia  a  rnrhnnnte  of  limf ,  intermixed  with  other 
hunnlients.  The  oolilea  fonml  at  Huth.,  I'ortliind,  and 
Piirheck,  nro  much  ecteenieil  in  bnildinir.  In  the  nolifr 
which  occnra  over  n  consideriiMe  part  of  western  Enro|ie. 
there  is  a  eeneral  uniformity  of  strucfnre.  Fn  other  purls 
of  the  world  it  differs  very  ronsidernhly,  espeeiiilly  in  its 
m'-'"nlosicaI  chnrncler;  and  when  this  is  the  case,  in 
order  to  determine  whether  certain  recks  lielon^j  to  the 
group  or  not,  recourse  has  been  had  to  the  orijiinic  re- 
mains contained  in  them.  In  some  parts  of  Europe 
tl>e»e  are  very  abundant,  and  in  other  places  the  roverwe. 
To  account  for  this  dilTerence,  it  has  been  sup|)os<>d  tlmt 
in  those  parts  of  western  Europe  where  they  are  almn- 
dant,  shallow  seas  existed;  while  in  those  pliice.i.  such  ns 
Italy  and  Greece,  where  few  remuins  are  found  in  the 
f  >rmation,  the  waters  were  deep. 

With  rp«pect  to  the  deposition  of  the  oolitic  ffroiip, 
nothing  very  aatisfactory  can  !>e  said.  Whence  came 
the  immense  quantity  of  cai'^jnate  of  lime,  is  a  ([uestion 
not  easily  answere<I.  To  account  for  it  by  sprini^s,  simi- 
I'lr  in  size  and  salin'  contents  to  these  we  now  see,  ap- 
[icnra  to  lie  unphilosophical.  Many  limestones  are  nea'v  | 
ultoarether  composed  of  organic  remains ;  and  this  K  >; 
led  to  a  theory,  that  thes<!  nnimals  cxirncteil  lime  fro^.i 
the  water,  leaving  their  shells,  produced  through  millions 
,  of  generations,  to  be  gradually  converted  into  limestone. 
Notwithstanding  all  that  we  can  suppose  was  deposited 
from  springs  and  organic  bodies,  "  there  remains,"  says 
l)o  la  Heche,"  a  mass  of  limestone  tol)o  accounted  for,  dis- 
tributed generally  over  a  very  large  surface,  w hich  requires 
■  very  general  pro<lu(tion,  or  rathor  deposit,  of  carl)onnte 
of  lime  contemporaneously,  or  nearly  so,  over  a  great 
area." 

In  the  oolitic  group  is  comprehended  by  some  geolo- 
gists an  important  subordinate  group,  named  the  Ikik, 
which  may  be  generally  descrilied  as  an  argillaceous  and 
cnlcareous  deposit,  sometimes  the  clayey  material  predo- 
minating, and  sometimes  the  limey. 

Fotfili  of  the  Oolitic  Grmip, 
In  this  group  are  found,  as  in  some  of  the  preceding, 
nl^/r  (sea-weeds),  tquisclarecr  (marcs'  tails),  yi/iccj  (ftrns), 
•nd  cnnifirrr  (allied  to  the  pine).  The  animal  remains 
ire  nearly  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  gr  Mip,  but  of  u 
greater  variety  of  species. 

Cretaftmu  nr  Chalk  Group, 
This  prroup,  the  uppermost  of  the  secmulary  series  of 
nvks,  is  so  named  from  the  beds  of  chalk  of  which  it  is 
nainly  formed.  Chalk  ia  a  carbonate  of  lime.  It  is 
»Bry  plentiful  in  England  ;  and  at  Dover  and  other  places 
C  runs  along  the  coast  in  clitTs  and  mountains  of  con- 


siderable atxp.  Nodules  or  small  masm**  ot  flint,  icni* 
times  containing  reniains  of  shells  and  animals,  ara 
abundant  in  rhnlk.and  it  is  extreiiirly  dilllcult  to  arcii\inl 
for  their  presence  there.  In  the  lowi-r  parts  of  the  Er.g- 
liih  chalk  depoNils,  the  Hints  disappear,  beniming  gradu- 
ally morn  rare  in  the  passage  dimiiwards.  Kniin  this 
circumstance,  the  gnmp  has  iM'cn  »()metinies  divided  into 
upper,  or  rhillf  vtih  ftiiit»,  and  Imrn;  or  ihnll.-  icilhniit 
flinif.  Hut  this  characteristic  doea  not  universally  prevaiL 
Heneaththe  chalk  there  is  a  roik  called  crrninmd,  whirh 
in  Normandy  is  useil  as  a  building  stone.  .\n  nrgillit- 
ceoiis  deposit  called  niiitll  also  oeiiirs ;  it  is  of  a  bluish- 
Kray  colour,  and  is  fr.'ijuetilly  composed  of  clay  in  tlio 
upper,  and  marls  in  the  lower  part. 

The  cretucoous  group,  liiken  as  a  mass,  may,  in  Eng- 
land, and  over  a  eoiiMidrraMe  portion  of  Krance  and 
(iermany,  be  considered  ns  crrlareo\is  in  its  up|K"r  part, 
and  sandy  ami  clayey  in  il--  lnwer  part.  The  group  is 
extensively  distributed  over  Europe;  and  M.  tie  la  Heche 
makes  the  folloving  obs,'rv.itiims  upon  its  miMendogieal 
character  in  general: — "Througliouf  the  Hritish  islands, 
a  large  part  of  France,  many  parts  of  (terniauy,  in  I'o- 
laiid,  Sweden,  and  in  various  parts  of  Knssia,  there  would 
apjM'ar  to  have  \ven  certain  causes  in  operation,  at  a 
giv.ri  periisl,  which  produceil  nearly,  or  very  nearly,  the 
same  effcrfs.  The  variation  in  the  lower  portion  of  the 
deposit  seems  merely  to  consist  in  the  absence  or  prewnco 
of  a  greater  or  less  alunitlance  of  clays  or  sands,  sub- 
Btanres  which  wo  may  consider  as  produced  by  the  dts 
str\iction  of  previously  existing  land,  and  as  deposited 
from  waters  which  held  such  detriius  in  mechanical  sua- 
pension.  '1  he  i.Mcqiml  deposit  of  the  two  kinds  of  mat- 
ter in  difTerent  «ituatior\s  would  be  in  accordance  with 
such  a  8upii>«l.ii,  1.  Hjt  when  we  turn  to  the  highei 
part  of  the  groi.p,  into  which  the  lower  portion  gradu- 
ates, the  theory  of  mere  transport  appt'ora  opposed  to  the 
phenomena  observe.!,  which  seem  rather  to  have  been 
produceil  by  deposition,  f^-imi  a  chemical  aolutioii  of  car- 
bonate of  lime  and  silcx,  covering  a  considerable  area.' 
M.  de  la  Heche  goes  on  to  Mtate,  that  no  springs,  or  act 
of  springs,  couhl  have  produced  the  great  deposits  of 
chalk  which  cover  immense  surfaces.  "  Hut,"  says  he, 
"  although  springs,  in  our  acceptation  of  liie  term,  could 
scarcely  have  caused  the  efJects  re(|uired,  we  may  jicr- 
haps  look  to  a  great<;r  exertion  of  the  |K)wer  which  now 
proi'uces  thermal  waters  for  a  possible  explanation  of  the 
observed  phenomena."  Mr.  I.yell  states,  that  chalk  must 
have  originated  in  the  sea,  in  the  form  of  sediment,  from 
traiii]uil  wati-r;  and  that,  before  the  existence  of  the 
rocks  uIhjvc  it,  inust  luivo  been  raised  in  Iari;e  portionn 
above  the  water,  and  ox{M)i<cd  to  the  destroying  power  of 
the  elements. 

Fnmlt  of  the  Crelnceout  Group. 

In  this  group,  rnnfriTrr  and  nniiku  were  added  to  the 
vegetables;  to  the  animal  remains  Kdiiic  fishes  are  addetL 
but  the  numlier  of  the  saurian  reptiles  is  iliminished. 

A  siJocies  of  rocks,  called  the  irc'//r/cii  i<i<,V.<,  occui 
beneath  the  lower  gn'cn  sand  of  the  KiiL;lish  wries,  nn<l 
arc  characterized  by  the  pres«'iice  of  terrestrial  and  fresh- 
water remains  in  abundance. 

TKRTIAItr. 

The  cretaceous  group  was  at  one  time  tliou;;h'  to  :# 
the  upjMTinost ;  but  it  was  in  timi-  discovereil  that,  in  bc- 
verul  places,  and  jiarticiiUrly  uiiiUr  tlie  sites  .if  the  riticd 
of  I,iindon  aiul  I'aris,  tluTC  existed  a  still  hi'^jher  grouf 
or  series,  to  which  the  name  sujira-cretaceous  was  lliere- 
foio  at  first  given,  afterwards  changed  to  the  Tertiary 
Formation  or  Tertiary  Scries. 

The  tertiary  rocks  a|>|H>ar  as  if  they  had  l)een  formed 
in  great  hollows  or  hasiiiH  in  the  firmer  surface :  h«i>c« 
it  is  customary  to  speak  of  the  Unutun  liunin,  the  i'uru 
Uasin,  &c     The   Paris  basin  has  been  well  cxplorud 


t  Kreih-wale 
f.  Marina  Ibrii 


OEOLOCY. 


rt 


Frtih-wiler  Ibrmalion, 

Mtrine  forinaiion, 

Si-r.m<l  freih-w»ier  for- 
maiiuii, 


i  Bceniul  marine  Torma- 
lion, 


fcTliinl  frcih-WBler 
matioti, 


fnr- 


tivl  !■  iupimiiwl  to  prficnt  h  (roo«l  example  of  the  T«!ri 
iry  Furttintidii.  It  r<)n»i«t«  of  flvo  milHinlinate  Hroiipa  m 
ifrion,  wliettof  the  (lr«t,  third,  nnd  fifth,  nppour,  I'rorii  the 
oruiinic  ri'mainii  fouiiil  in  Ihrin,  to  have  Im-oii  (orincd  in 
rroKh  wntcr,  niid  the  MTiind  iinti  I'ourlh  in  ara  water. 
I'hvy  huvo  U'L'n  tliui  arninKi'd  i»  i^n  unconding  order : — 

[  IMiiiiiie  clity. 

I.iKiiiie. 
'  Firat  •■iidilnna. 

I'nlruireKro'tier. 

IHiliiTiiiii  liniemnnA. 
(i)  ixiitii.  with  Ijiiiienor  animali. 
rr<'«h-wBier  inBrla. 
[(typurnii*  marini'  iniirla' 
.  ll|i|)i-r  iimririi'  niiniU  nnd  niintUtone. 
:  IJpiicr  miiriiiu  iiinrU  anil  limcalonu. 

'  Millaioni'  wiilinut  iholli. 
shelly  iiiilUloni'. 
,  t'ppir  frr»li-w«ter  mnrlt. 

Pliittic  Clay, — ThiH  Milmtanre  Imi  been  ao  nnmed 
from  its  oiidily  rereivinn  nnd  jm-servinn  the  forms  Riven 
to  it,  mid,  friiin  iioHHOHHiiiif  thin  pnipHrty,  it  ia  umd  in  the 
pottcricH.  It  rests  upon  a  Rurfiieo  of  rhiilk,  which  is  very 
irre^iilitr, mill  furrowed  nut  son*  to  prearnt  un  nlternntion 
of  hills  and  vnlleys.  This  clay  is  of  varioua  colnura; 
and  above  it,  and  separated  by  a  layer  of  aund,  there  fre- 
quently oci-urs  aaiithiT  lied  of  oiny,  which  scarcely  ran 
he  railed  iilaxtic.  It  is  li|ar|<,  nnndy,  und  aonK'tiines  con- 
tains orKanie  remains.  In  this  deposit,  considered  as  n 
mass,  it  is  stated  that  or(;anic  remains  do  not  occur  in  the 
lower  parts.  In  the  rcnlrnl  portion,  fresh-water  animals 
commonly  occur,  und  in  the  u]^ict  part  there  is  a  mix- 
ture, sonietimra  on  alternation,  of  marine  and  firehh-watcr 
remainn. 

Ctilniirt  Groasier,  as  its  name  implies,  is  composed  of 
a  coarse  limestone,  which  ia  employed  for  architectural 
purposes.  It  ia  freiiuenlly  separated  from  the  plastic  clay 
iienenth  by  n  bed  of  sand,  and  it  nlternatcS  with  arf;illa- 
eaouB  or  clayey  IhhIs.  The  animal  and  VLf^elablo  remains 
enclosed  in  it  are  numerous,  and  f^enerally  the  same  in 
torrespondinij  Is-ds,  presentinR  considcrahlo  diflcrenccs 
when  the  beilti  are  not  identical. 

Silireniit  Limtslone  is  sometimes  white  and  soft,  some- 
times gray  and  compact,  and  [M-netrated  by  silcx.  It  is 
often  full  of  cells,  which  are  oceasioniilly  large,  and  com- 
municate with  ceh  other  in  all  directions. 

(lypnuin  nnd  Miirb. — Gypsum  is  a  crystalline  sub- 
stance composed  of  lime,  in  union  with  sulphuric  acid 
anil  water.  Its-colours  ore  gray,  white,  and  yellow ;  but 
diflerent  varieties  of  it  have  dilferent  hues.  It  was  used 
in  ancient  limes  for  window  glass.  The  gy[i8eous  rocks 
consist  of  an  alternation  of  i<ypsum  nnd  limey  and  clayey 
marls;  these  marls  are  also  found  in  thirk  beds  above 
this  alternation.  These  beds  arc  considered  as  having 
1  cen  deposited  in  fresh  water,  and  above  them  are  others, 
which,  from  their  organic  remains,  are  believed  to  have 
been  de|M)8ited  in  the  sea. 

I'lUHV  Miiri'te  Sawh  and  Sa>idilonei, — These  consist 
of  irregular  l)edg  of  siliceous  sandstone  and  sand.  The 
iiuiiial  remains  in  the  lower  portion  of  these  beds  are 
broken  and  very  rare.  In  some  situations,  however,  mil- 
lions of  small  lH)dic»  have  Is'en  found.  These  l)eds  are 
occasionally  covered  with  a  8{)eeies  of  rock  wiiich  is  filled 
with  murino  shells. 

I'li/nr  Frrfh-ll'iilrr  Foniidtion. — This  rock  sometimes 
consists  of  white  calcareous  marls,  at  others  of  ilill'crent 
ili.'cous  coiiipi)uii(ls  ;  from  one  of  these,  millstones  of  a 
tclebrated  kind  ire  iDrnied.  They  are  soiuelinies  charged 
with  shells  and  in'trilUd  wood. 

Tlic  .siiprax'.retaceous  rocks  of  England  are  rommonly 
known  l)v  the  names  of  plastic  cluy.  London  clay,  Hag- 
ihcit  saiiilN,  tie  iVesh-water  fminutions  of  tho  Idle  of 
VViLilil,  and  the  erai>  of  IS'orliilk. 

Pttt:i(:  CI  ly. — This  dejiosit,  tliough  it  occasionally 
contains   an   abimdaiico   of  clay,  employed    for    various 


tfulu,       ;E•^m•^'   .  wiih  n^niB  and  citjr. 
(Von  )f  I    iris,  but 


It  thus  (hncr* 

•grer*  with   it  so  far  •»  ik 

rfaM  of  chalk.    Tho  orgMde 

irtn«,  but  lli"sc  of  fresh'Wf''^ 

Willi  theai. 

(lupunit  **■    „■ 
liiMi  <his  «»•*« 

il   flMMilM «      ^f 
■HlMMlie   tr*       •«• 

J'hk  clay  vi  <■* 
'111  srventy-w  ven 
-ni    I:    of  n     rr»i 


n'jxHii  11  1,      iiiii  VI 

niniir        ,,<■   princi|mlly 
aii<;  il  iiniitmls  I       inlerniiiiKl< 

7,i>  11  y. —  The         at  uri(illui 

underlies  tin  London  uistrict,  hat 
It  ia  of  a  bluish  or  blackish  colour 
tion  of  calcareiiiiM  matter ;  beds  oi 
■aid  to  lie  oecaHi.inally  present  in  ■■ 
coiiHiderubly  in  thickness,  soinetiiiK  >. 
to  seven  hundred  feet.  Uesidea  tliK 
variety  of  shell-fiHh,  those  of  a  crocodile  ii,..l  turtle  ha\e 
been  found ;  masses  of  wood  have  also  occurred  in  this 
stratum. 

Iliif-nhot  Siindf, — These  rest  upon  the  London  clay, 
and  consist  of  layers  of  various  kinds  of  sands  and  marln 
cuntaiiiiiiK  fossil  shells. 

Tho  Isle  of  Wijiht  and  London  formations,  elthouch 
diirering  considerably  in  the  nature  of  their  deposits 
from  those  of  Paris,  prestMit  siioli  an  analogy  in  tho  or- 
ganic remains  of  some  parts  of  the  grou|i,  that  we  ore 
justified  in  referring  the  dejiosit  to  the  same  epoch,  locnl 
circumstonccH  and  accidents  having  determined  their  cha- 
racters. 

It  may  be  olwcrved,  that  volcanic  agency  has  been 
very  active  during  the  formation  of  this  group.  -'Ctna, 
it  would  upiH'or,  has  for  ii  long  series  of  oges  given  forth 
itu  igneous  |jriMlucts,  and  a  considerable  portion  of  these 
rest  \)\x>n  supra-cretaceous  rocks.  In  central  France, 
where  extinct  volcanoes  arc  numerous,  this  is  still  more 
evident;  u  volcanic  mass,  called  tho  Plomb  du  Cantnl, 
appears  to  have  burst  through  ond  fractured  the  fresh- 
water limestones  of  the  Cantal,  which,  according  to  Mr. 
Lyell,  are  equivalent  to  the  fresh-wuter  deposits  of  Paris, 
and  some  of  those  in  England. 

Fossils  of  I  he  Tcrlinry  Scries. 
.\i  yet,  no  distinct  traces  of  the  higher  forms  of  oi. 
gaiiization  have  opjienred.  No  vestige  of  the  mamnii- 
ferous  or  sucking  animals,  either  terrestrial  or  aquatic, 
which  form  so  large  a  portion  of  the  existing  animal 
kingdom — no  marks  of  the  bird  class,  now  go  extensive 
and  important — nnd  scarcely  ony  token  of  such  marine 
and  fresh-water  shells  and  other  productions  na  oliound 
in  the  present  time — have  been  discovered  cither  in  tho 
earlier  or  later  secondary  strata  of  the  globe.  The  rare 
and  indeed  almost  unique,  cases  of  supposed  exception 
to  this  statement,  have  all  been  found  capable  of  such 
explanations  as  leave  tho  general  truth  unshaken. 

In  the  Tertiary  Formation  wo  find  a  striking  and 
wonderful  change  of  appearances.  These  strata  are  rich 
beyond  all  that  go  before  them  in  animal  remains.  At 
the  time  of  their  formation,  the  njititude  of  the  earth  for 
the  maintenance  of  organic  lilb  has  vastly  increased,  and 
woa  continually  increasing,  as  the  period  approached 
when  man  himself  and  the  higher  orders  of  being  were 
to  ln'come  its  inhubitnnts.  The  way  was  paved,  it  will 
bv  seen,  for  this  consummation,  by  the  same  regular  and 
progressive  ste[)s  which  characterized  the  organic  change* 
of  the  geological  eras  already  described. 

From  their  relative  position,  and  from  the  organic  re- 
mains contained  in  them,  geologists  have  been  enabled 
lo  distiiinuish,  in  the  tertiary  series  of  strata,  four  great 
eras  of  fonnatioii.  One  of  tho  most  striking  and  novel 
features  of  these  formations  consists,  us  already  men- 
tioned, in  the  repeated  alternations  of  fnsh-iriitcr  depo- 
sits with  iniirine  ones;  a  circumstance  established  be- 
yond ((uestion  by  the  character  of  the  fossil  shells  and 
bones  found  respectively  in  these  deposits.  To  the  oldest 
of  the  tertiary  eras,  the  tcTin  Eocene  is  applied ;  tho 
second  is  called  the  Miocene  period  ;  the  third  the  Oldui 
Pliocene  ;  nnd  the  fourth  and  lalcbt,  the  Newer  Pliocene  : 


luelul  puiposes,  is  also  mixed  with  beds  of  pebble,  irre-  ,  nauies  founded  ou  the  respective  proportions  which  \htu 


J8 


INPORMATION    FOR  THK   I'KOi'LK. 


foMil  ihirlli  lK««r  lo  iliflli  of  ncintliiR  •imcir^  In  rtrli 
of  thrM  |i««ri(>.li«  it  irirliHli'il  ■  (jtrat  (Vr«h-WBliT,  »«  wrll 
i«  a  iii«riii<«,  liirniiiticiii  or  <li'|HMiL  ())'  lli«  liviiiK  li<'iiiK» 
which  floiiri«li«l  in  r«<li  nC  iIii'M  ("rioln,  we  nhnll  rii- 
(litavoiir  10  H>*"  *"'"''  «'<'<»»>ti  coiiiriK'nriiiK  wiUi  llif 
moot  lUM'ii'iit,  ihi'  KiMTiiii. 

Aft4T  tlie  <lmlky  forrimtion.  •  prriwi  of  eonp«iilrr«hl«< 
rApo»<  HCiMiiii  to  Imvo  i'ii«ui'<l,  tliirinij  which  n  liirijfl  iM>r- 
lion  of  tho  i'iii«lin?  r.inlitii'iilK,  unci  in  r«lM'»iiil  Ihr  hoi- 
liwa  mid  lin»iii>i  on  Ihrir  mirlUrr,  ii|i|w>iir  to  huvi-  Imth  thf 
oite  of  v««l  liikc'H,  rivcm  nnil  i'»tUHrii«p«.  From  Ihi-w  wiw 
ilf|)OHit<'il  Ihfl  llrnt  urcul  fn'«h-w»trr  forMinlion  of  thi- 
I'm-i'iio  |KTioil.  Wliili-  lhir«  ilfi|K>»il  wiw  itoiiii;  on,  tlii> 
i;IoIm',  no  loiiKiT  iin  rutin'  Miiunant  nmrHh,  Imt  im  yrt  in- 
Cii|iulilo  of  all'irdinif  niiich  Htipiioil  lo  tirri'nlriiil  uni'nulu, 
wuK  tt'riiinli'il  only  hv  »iiih  (iimilruiMiln  hh  livp  U-niili' 
rivcru   anil   I  ik<'«.     Ni'iirly  lllly  iMliiicl   H|M'i'ii n  of  iniun- 


li'l  of  lhi<  FiOCfnf  niiliiiiilij,  Inniia  (miv»  Dr.  Mqi'lrtMliI) 
'•II  riMiiHrkuMi"  |ihmoiiirniin  in  ih*"  hmN'ry  M  iimnl^ 
n-muiiin."  Till*  niinvU-r  of  forwil  >>hrll«  tixind  in  tlw 
Koi-iMiK  forinnlionn  in  raliiinili'il  ''  Mr.  I.yi  II  lit  I3,'l% 
An  in  Ihr  riiiM"  of  thi'  tiTrcnlriul  i-ri'iiliiri'K,  frw  of  Ihtix 
*lirll'lUh  lira  of  nvi'iit  or  rtnttinn  ii|M'i'ii'ii,  not  inorp,  a> 
till-  liliiioiit,  thiiii  ;lj  in  rvi-ry  hiliiiliril.  V\'i'  ilo  not, 
iMiirroviT,  ri'roKiiiM'  in  thi>  ulnilu  now  iinili-r  rnniiiiN'rii- 
lion,  thiff  |iriHlii;ioii«  iici'iiMiiilnlion'  n(  ii:iirii"i>iiir  alirlla, 
n*  lliry  tire  nilli'il  from  tlirir  rxtiriiin  niiiiiitnii'M,  ihtil 
iliiitiiiKiii!ili  thn  foniiiitiotiK  of  till'  rri'onilnry  or  (irfcrilini) 
uixi'K.  Oiir  miiull  |iin'i>  of  no'k,  of  the  nKm  in  i|Ui'«lb>ii 
h'H  Im'cii  foiiiiil  lo  nintiiin  nixivi'  trii  iIhmiiiiiiiiI  iliiiiiiliiri  J 
■hi'lN,  thoiiifh  the  wliolr  wri^licil  only  un  oiiiii'x  miil  n 
half.  In  furl,  itrral  lirdH  of  m-rondiiry  limmt  inp  kitiii 
to  Ih'  aliiio«l  wholly  ri>iii|>iiHt'il  of  inii'roKi'ii|iir  nIii'IId, 
Hufli   idii'iioiui'tm   an-   iiol   |)ri'»rnlril   in   llii-    Koci'iio  oi 


inaliii,  cliii'llv  of  thin  rharai-tiT,  witi>  di»C(i\crcil   by  Cu- I  r'.j!~ri|iUMit    ti>rli:iry    fortiinlioim.      Tho    nliclU    of    tlii'nf 
vii<r   ill   tlio   firKt    Kihtmc  IrcHh-walrr    furTii.ition.      Tho  '  periods,  an  lm«  Imm'h  iilriMuiy  olmrrviMl,  H|>|>roiiiiiHlii  inori 


nuMt  of  llii'im  hclomjmj  lr>  llir  rlaxn  I'aclivilirmnla  (thuk- 
ikiitiiiil  ui'iliiiilH),  of  wliicli  lli<<  <'lr|>liHiil.  till'  rhiiioiTrot, 
Ihu  h,)i;,  tlie  ta|>ir,  and  tin*  liono*.  nrr  n-ni  irkalilc  cxiittinu 
«xnni|il('«.  'I'liiit  rl.iM  of  I'lirhydnnniilMiiK  aiiirnaU,  it 
may  Imi  olimTvcd,  only  iiicliidi-a  miili  lliiik-Mkiiiiu'd  i-ri'a- 
luri>'<  ai<  liavi-  no  inori*  |iroininriit  mark  lo  ilinliiiKiii'<li 
them  tlian  tlioir  fkiii>.    'I'lir  wal  and  ihii  rivordiornr,  for 


lo  till'  cliaracli-r  of  roniit  or  rxittlnn  n|H(irii 

In  the  KiH'i'nr  |ii'rio.l,  IliiMi  -tlir  carliful  of  the  Ter- 
tiary era-. — wr  (lereiivr,  for  llii-  tir"t  tiiiie,  llii'  exiHlencB 
in  the  aiiiiniil  kinuilum  of  n  Nimilnr  order  lo  that  wliieh 
now  pri'vaih,  iiidiialiiiL;  that  the  earth  and  iu  aliniM|iheru 
were  ill  a  certain  diijree  afciniilatid  lo  llii  ir  [■ri'«eiil  eon- 
dilioii,      II   mcjiH  ini|N>'<Hil1e,  howeviT,  lo  aitree  with  Mr. 


BXBinole,  are  tliick-nkinned,  hilt  tluMi  lliey  are  iim/i/ii''i'>m,  I  I.vill  in  the  Hiilijiiini'il  remark  on  the  Koi-eiie  era; — 
■lid  that  ii<  11  more  |iromiiie:it  disliiir'tl.m.  Tlio  extinet  "  VVInn  we  rilhet  (Kay*  that  writer)  on  the  Irani|iii1 
■iiiinalx  to  which  we  now  reliT  roMMiilile  the  tapir  more  ,  mate  of  the  earth,  implied  hy  Rome  of  the  liike-liiunrd 
than  ttiiv  of  llio  other  I'achydcrinata.  Aniom;  iliciie  ex-  ami  WM-lonned  ilepo-iti  of  thin  ui;e,  and  eonnider  tlio 
tiiict  creuUireM,  the  mont  worthy  of  notice  are  the  I'alno-  ;  IiiImcmi  of  all  ihp  ilitrrent  ela»icii  of  the  iinimal  kini{- 
tlieriiiiii,  the  Anoplolheriiim,  the  LnpliiiHlon,  .\iilliraco-  doiii,  a<  deduced  fr.'in  the  iilnily  of  tSo  found  remainH, 
theriuni,  C'herapolainiM,  and  one  or  two  other  familicii,  we  are  nnlorally  led  to  roncliide  laitt  llie  earth  wan  at 
ilirlii<lin:(,  nomii  of  them,  not  le»<  Ihnii  eleven  or  twelve  that  period  in  a  |,cifeclly  witleil  Hl^ite,  ami  already  tilted 
diiitinct  iiircieii.  Thcw  mainmitcriMH  fimllicK  liad  Home  ,  for  the  haliitalion  of  iiiaii."  Several  RtroiiK  nrKiinieiitii 
J{cnerul  traiu  of  rriwinlilaMee,  and  the  dcHcriplion  of  the  nii'.;ht  Ih>  adiliieed  aKiiiiivit  thin  eonehiiiioii,  liut  wn  Khali 
jreat  I'nlmilhniuni  may  alFonl  an  idea  of  the  miilii  fea-  ,  only  refer  lo  one  ohjeclioii — the  temiHM:.tiire.  Krom  Ihn 
lurpK  of  all.  This  animal  whh  of  the  nlze  of  the  horse,  freipniu-y  of  the  rooiaiim  of  enn'odilcH  and  olhi'r  Irnpiral 
or  about  four  feet  and  a  half  in  hcii;ht  lo  tlie  wither.  It  replilcM  in  the  KiH-ene  formalioiirt,  and  from  the  frcijiiency 
WaH  moro  mpiat  and  cliinmy  in  ilH  proportioiiH  than  the  '  of  palm-leavcK  imil  Iriinks,  aH  well  ax  fioiii   other  rvi< 


horiu' ;  the  head  waa  more  massive,  ami  the  extreinilieit 
thicker  and  uliorler.  On  each  loot  wep'  three  l;ir.'e  loen, 
rounde<l,  and  unprovided  with  elawn;  the  upper  Jaw  waa 
much  lunger  than  tho  under.  Tlie  tapir,  ami  partly, 
also,  tho  111)?,  if  larije  enoimli,  would  eloiM-ly  resemble 
Ihe  izreat  I'alieolherium.     "The  I'ala'otheria  (nays  llucK- 


deiicen,  the  almonphere  may  Im-  regarded  as  li»vini{  l)een 
Htill  at  too  hiiih  a  leniia-Mliire  li>r  human  eomfort.  Vol 
canic  netion,  moreover,  aplieani  to  have  hei'ii  of  very 
eojiimon  iK'iiirrence. 

The    Kceoiid,    or    MiiM'rno    jirricHl,    however,   of    tho 
Tertiary  aixes,  lirinirs    lis    a    step    nearer   to    the   oxisliiiu 


lan.l)  proliahly  lived  and  died   U|h)ii  iIii-   margins  of  l!;e    eondilioii   of  lliinjfs.     A  Htronn   proof  o|'  this  is  drrivcii 

Uieii   oxisliiiat  lakes   and  rivers,  and  their  ilead  carcas.-s 

may  have  lieen  drifted  lo  the  Itottom  in  masons  of  (hnxl." 

Tlie  other   inammiferoiis  fainllies  of  the  firit  KiM-eno  for- 

ni.ition,  were  all,  like  the   I'aheotherla,  herbivorous,  ami 

bad.  it  is  prolmhle,  simil.ir  haliits. 


from  the  shells  alone  of  the  stralu  of  this  |M-riiul, 
Whereas  (Oily  three  in  the  liuiidred  lloeene  tiwsils  were 
of  recent  species,  of  the  Mio,ene  shells  we  lliid  cinhteen 
in  till'  hundred  to  have  exisliiiK  representatives.  Aloim 
with  the  muiniiialia,  also,  of  the  KiX'ciie   iMriisI,  we  find 


The  nunilier  of  nnimals,  uipialic  ami  terrestrial,  vhose  that  the    MiiM'eiie  di'|H>sits   prtwiit  us  with   the  eurlieM 

Teinaiiia  are  found  in  tliu  other  depoKJts  of  the  Kmeiie  forms  of  uiiimals  rxistiii);  at  the   present  time.     In  l)r, 

period,  is  immense.     In  some  uypsuin  (sulphate  ol  lime)  llmkland's   UridKivvater  Treatise,  a  tahle  is  (jiven,  ex- 

quarrieg   of   that  era,   srarcely   a   Mwk   can   Is-   o|)eiied  liihitiiin  the  nnimals  found  at  Darmstadt,  in  n  U-d  of  sand 

which  does  not  (hwlose  some  trannieiit  of  u  fossil  skeleton,  refcrahle  to  the  .Miocene  is'riisl.     In  this  list  are  men- 

The  following  lii.t  of  the  animals  found  ill  the  Kypsiirn  ipiar-  tinned  two  skeletons  of  the  Dinolheriuni,  a  larijc  herhi- 

rien  of   Paris  will  show  sntliiieiitly   how  viTy  dilfert'iit  voroiis    animal,  called   hy    <'u\icr   the   (ii|,'aiiiic   Tapir; 

from  the  gigantic  rej'tilcs  of  the  secomlar/  er.is  were  the  two  lar-je  Tapirn;  ('alicotherium — two  lari;e  Tapir-like 

Cn-atures  that  tciiaiiled.  and  fouMii  liiiin|>  s'lsieiiaiice  on,  animals  of  this  naiiie;  two  Hhinoceroses;  tlijipotlieriiiin, 

the   earth   diirinij   the   Koceiie   p<Tiod.      'KhuIi's  various  an  animal  allied  lo  the   horse;  three   lli)i;s;  four  lareo 

extinct   I'achydermutoiM  lamilies,  tin  ,e  were  found  ex-  Cits,  Kome  as   larue   as  a   lion;   the  creature  called   llid 

linct  s|)ecies  of  the   wolf  and   fox,  'if  the  raccoon   and  (iliitlon;  A'.'iiothcriiim,  allied   to   the  doc;  and  Maehni- 

(fenette,  amonn  the  Carhivoroiis  Irilics;  of  the  ojiossuin ;  roihis,  an  uiiimal  allied  to  the  hear.     From  llii»  list  lh« 

of  tliu   dormouse   anil   scpiirri-1 ;    nine  or   t  n   H|Kvi>«  of  reader  will  |>erciive  the  gradual  approach  in  lln^  .iliwene 

birds,   of   the    liiiz/.anl,   owl,   (juuil,   woikI-cocU,  sea-laik,  animals  lo  exislinij  s]«vics.     'J'lie  lirnest  of  the  lerrcs' 

curlew,  and  |iilicun  (.tmilics;   fresli-water  lortoises,  cjikmi-  trial  iiiumiiiilla  Net  discovered  liloniri  to  the  period   lunv 

dile-i,    and    other    ereutures    of    tlie    licplile    class;     and  uinlcr  notice;  it  is  the    Diiiutherium,  or  (iiuanlic  Tii|iir 

•cveral   upecics   of    Fishes: — all   of  these    animals,  he    it  already  ini'iilioried.      No  complete  hkelcton  Ii;ih  yet  befii 

reineinU'rcd,    Immm^   r.rliinl    »/,fnf«   of    exisiini;   families,  ilisnivcred  ;  hiil  rnmi  tie  liones  fmiml,  ('ovier  and  olhi  ii 

fxclu-iive    of    tlie     r'achydermaloiis    animals,    arid    the  im.ii;iiie   the    miimal  to  havi-  n  ached  the  I'vliaoriliiiiuy 

fislus,   whiih   Were   eMiiict  species  o(  >rii,i,t    /,i,;o/i..<,  leimlli  of  eiulitreii  ieel.     The  most  rcmark.iMc  pe<  i.Uii 

I'he  occurrence  of  the  birds  ineiitioncd  in  the  prccidiiis  tie»  of  iln  itructure  consists  in  two  enornioi     tusks  ui 


itO(JY. 


ill*  ri\.l  of  lla  Inwtr  Jnw,  iind  lh«  ■hnnlilrr-liliiilo,  whlrh  whow  ikclrtnn*  h«va  twrn  fiiunil  mmphti,  or  nmrly  k^ 
rrMiitil>l<'«  lliat  nf  •  Kiiiln.  anil  In  ritlciiliiti'il  ti>  InvD  kIvi'ii  <  lliii  MixlixliMt  in  lli«  liirurM.  Mm  h  roiifnaiou  tiM  •!• 
,  Ihii  (HiMKr  of  •limiiiiK.  or  «i(lirr  I'rro  niDvi'iiiriit,  l»  Ihii  Utixl  ri'liili««  to  (liii  iiiiiiii.iI'k  trim  I'liariirtrr,  iimiiy  imluriil 
fi>ri<-lii"l,  It  •rriiw  pnibalile  tlmt  IliM  •tii|ii'iiiliiiiii  c-rcii- 1  itl»  ri'^iinUiiii  it  nh  nil  I'xliiu't  ■|H'i'iri«  nt  ()i«  i'li'|i)iiiiil 
tiiiii  IivimI  III  Iri'Kli  w.ilfr  lakoo,  miil  tnul  tlio  liull'-lrrr«<lriiil,j  aiiil  ollinra  hi>lillni(  tlmt  il  ii|i|>r<iui'hril  nivirrr  to  llitf  hl|> 
hHir-«<|imlic  li:il>it«  of  III*  walruii  or  riv<'r-liiirw>.  'I'liii  |h>{h>Iuiiiiiii.  Ciivirr,  liiiwi>vi'r,  ili'trriiiiiii'il  It  to  lie  tli* 
■uxna  iiiiKhl  Imi  uivU  in  iIIkk>>)K  "\>  root*  iiiul  |i|iimIii,  iiikI  IiimiI  t>(  ii  <1iiilliii't  ritiiiily.  r<>in|irrliriiiliiiK  M'vrnil  oltifli 
atau  III  lUitlaiiiliiu  llin  liriul  on  liiiiikN  iliirJiiK  i<li'i'|i,  or  in  N|M-i'ii'ii,  It  In  iilioiit  one  liiinilrril  mill  twi'iily  yi'iir*  •inra 
iiMllin^  llii<  IxNiy  out  III  tint  whIit,  na  llni  wiilrii*  iini'ii  ,\  rciiniiiii)  of  llip  Miint'iiliin  wrrr  lir»t  ilHcovrrt'il  in  Aiiii'rirk, 
■imilur  I'liir  ol  tnikii.  ••  In  |Iii'm<  clinriK'li'ra  (kiivii  Murk-  iliil  v.mt  i|iiniitilli  x  of  tlicni  hiivo  Intii  niiiri'  fniniil  in  Ilia 
Imiil)  ol  llii"  uixniilii',  iKirliivoniiin,  Ni|iintii-  i|iiiiilrii|H'il,  ^  wtnii*  ri'uinii,  liiitini  rliii  lly  in  iiniriiliy  KroiiiiilH.  Una 
wf  tei'otfiii-^o  iiila|ilatiiina  to  llic  lui-iiDtrinc  (I  ikr-mvirril)  nki'li'ton  iiiMrly  roin|ilrli'  wiix  iliitt  lip  on  ||u>  Imiik*  of  tlia 
(■miililion  of  llir  I'lirlli,  iliirini{  ilml  pmliDn  of  llio  Irrliiiry  Ilmlwin  in  I  HIM,  iiml  it  in  I'nini  llii«  llmt  n  corri'i  t  know> 
|K'rii'il«,  to  mIiIi'Ii  till'  miali'iiri'  of  iIiihi'  mrnnnuly  uiio-  Irdttr  of  th«  iiininiil  Ini'*  lirrn  |irini'i|iiilly  iIi'iitimI,  In 
Dialouit  rrriililK'N  ni'i'iiiM  lo  huvo  l><><Mi  liiiiili'd,"  liciulil,  tlic  MiimIihIoii  di'iIiih  In  liiivi'   ln'rii   iiIniiiI    twrlvM 

III  llli<  MiiH nil'  (N'rioil,  thn  mun  Iii'i'iimii'  till'  Imlilliilion  ]  fi'i't.  ii  iiliiliiri>  uliii  li  llii-  linliiiii  rli'|ili;iiit  in'<  iiHinimlly 
ivriniiiilx'i'Tt  of  niiinni' iniiiiiinuliii,  >'iin-ii<liiii(  of  l)ol|i|)iiiii,  '  iill'iiim,  Hut  llic  IxMly  of  ilii*  MiiNlmlon  wiih  K^'atly 
WlialrH,  Ni'iiU,  VViilriiH,  uiiil  tlin  l.iiiiiiintiii,  or  .Miiiiiili.  i  I'loiiitiili'd  in  ('oiii|iitriHiui  willi  tlio  rli'|iliiiiit'i<,  iiiiil  Jin 
Kpw  uf  ihi'M'  iiiiiiiitijii  wrrr  (if  llii'  Hiiiiu'  K|ii'rlrH  iiJt  llioni'  liinlii  \vrrt>  lliukrr.  'I'lii' wImiIc  iirriiii!;riiii'iit  of  tlir  Ixitiy 
wliii'll  rxiKt  lit  pri'st'ut,  hut  tlip  ililli'rriii'rx  wrrii  fur  Irnin  I  Ktriicturii  ri'ii'iiilliil  lli^it  of  llii<  rl>'|iliaiit,  I'xri'plinK  in 
hc'iiiK  un-iil  or  ri'iuiirkalilc.  '1'IiIh  i  irniiiiHlnni'i',  an  wi'II  oiii' poinl,  wliirli  I'uvirr  nuiirdril  un  of  HUlliciriit  ronii!- 
■M  tlui  riiiiHidrralili'  iiiiinlHT  of  IoshII  hIii'IIh  idi'iilical  uilli  '  i|iii'iicii  lo  coiiHlituto  llii>  Miixriilnii  ii  dilli'rrnt  k*'1iuii 
vxiotinif  otii'H,  I'xiiiliitii  iin  apprnuili  in  Ilir  cliunii'liT  iind  '  Tliiii  wim  ttiti    rlii'ik-trrtli,  wliii'li  iin<  divlili'd,  on  then 


leniiiilry  of  Ilir  iMioct'iiu  hiiik  In  tlii'  priM'iit  hIuIo  of 
tliiiiKH  in  llii'Hi'  r<'"|«'cta.  Tint  iliHioviry,  alw),  of  true 
t^'rri'Hlrial  inaiiiiiialia,  us  lIu'  liiiiiKii-iro^  and  iioi{,  in  llic 
Mioi'i'iio  fnniialioiiH,  hIioivii,  that  Niini'  Ihc  itii  of  llic 
«i*(iilill<'  ii'|ililrH,  no  Hlinlit  |H)rliiill  of  llii'  curlli'M  Hurl'iici' 
hnil  uuHUiiird  llifl  coiidilioli  of  dry  land,  fit  fur  llio  Hup- 
jiurt  uf  tlin  coiiiiiion  lii'rliivoroiin  cri'uluri'H.  A I  Ilir  Nniiii' 
liini'.  III!'  iHTurri'iicn  of  hucIi  uiiiniaU  iih  llitt  Diiiollirriiiin 
in  llio  MiiK'i'iiit  HlrHlii,  pruvm,  ah  Dr.  lluiklaiid   rcniiiiki 


lipprr  mirtiico,  iiilo  ii  niinil'>T  of  muiidnl,  uliliixc  proiiii- 
iit'iii'i'ii,  iirraiii^i'd  not  liko  tliu  I'Irpliaiil's,  liiit  liko  Ihoim 
of  llii<  wild  lioai'  mid  liip|HipolaMiUH ;  wliniii'  il  Im  ron 
rludi'd,  llial,  likr  lli»  latlir  aliilnal'',  tlir  MnNliidnli  munt 
liiivi'  livid  on  li'iidiT  vi'^rliililcH,  riiolM,  mid  niiuatii-  pliintu, 
ami  I'ould  not  have  U'ln  rariilvnrouH.  'I'hn  lowrr  jaw 
of  tliii  Nkrirlon  found  on  llir  lIudHon  '{»  two  feet  ti<n 
inrlu'H  in  ii'iitlli.  and  wi'itfliH  urni-lhicr  piixniih.  Lik* 
the  riopliani,  llii'   MaHtudoii  had  two  tUHkH,  cnrvini(  u(> 


liiat   iniiny  ri'^iuiii  wiTO  Htill  covered  with  Kri'ul  luki'H  i  wardH,  und  forini-d  of  ivory,  and,  in  tin' opinion  of  (^'uvivr, 
tiiJ  cnluuru'A.  it  hnil  alno  a  trunk  of  the  numiu  kiiitl  with  tiiu  forinei 

It  now  ri'nniinH  lo  inipiirn  into  Ihi-  naliiri<  nnd  [N'riili.  aiiiniarN. 
•litieH  of  Ihr  aiiliiialH  cliaiacli'ri/iim  llie  I'liorrni'  inii', '  Alloaellu'r,  niakino;  nil  allownlico  for  wvrral  nddilional 
w^'ieli,  for  ciiiiviiniriu'c,  lian  hern  iirranui'd  iiilo  two  '  fcit  of  lrir,'lli,  Ihr  lari?iT  it|i<-i-iiiiriiK  of  tin-  I'lephint  muni 
pcriodi,  the  Older  jiid  iVewir  I'lioicne,  llio  laller  of'  In- eon»idiri'd  hh  varyiim  lillle  from  llie  (iieat  Mastodon, 
which  iiiiineili.ili'ly  precedrd  ihe  foriii.itinn  of  llic  Di-  'riioui;li  not  an  uipialic  aniniul,  the  Mahlmloii,  ax  hui 
iuvial  layer  CDiiHlitutiii);  thu  prcNcnt  xupcrlicial  iiialler  i  heeii  iiiintiniieil,  nppearH  lo  have  liviil,  like  the  hippopO' 
of  the  Kkilic.  lainiiH,  on  aipiali'    vetctalilcx.  and  tliiit  Ih  corrolinruted  hy 

I'roi'cedini^    from  the  dorpput  acntril  portioim  of  llie    the  inarrhy  KJIuaiionK  in  whiih  its  reiiiaiiiii  are  Kcncrally 
l*rrc«trial  cniHl  upwardn,  we  find  a  jiroKiesMivc  approai  h,    foiiiid  In  Ihe  jnealcst  proCiiwioii.     'i'hc  IiidiaiiH  of  Canada 


as  hiiH  already  U'cn  xlaled,  in  the  cliarai  tcr  of  llu"  aiiinial 
remains  lo  the  exiHliim  varieties  of  aniiiial  lili'.  A  rc- 
inarkalilu  proof  of  lliis  is  presi  nlrd  hy  llii'  sin  lis  ol  llie 
I'jiocciie  periods.  V\'hereas  only  eii;hleeii  in  Ihc  hundred 
ol  the  Miocene  iihells  were  of  ren'iil  s|n'rii's,  in  the  Oliler 
Pliix'elie   (roni  Ihiily-live  In  lil'ly,  and  ill  llie  .Newer  I'lio- 

erne  not  less  than  fr niinty  to  iiini*ly-five  in  the  liiiii- 

dred,  are  identical  with  hIicIIs  of  e.xisliiiK  species.  This 
great  change  is  acconipariied  hy  the  dis.i|i|Maraiice  of  llic 
PaliKotherian  family  und  others,  wliich  I'orimd  the  nio-l 
itrilkini?  aniniul  reniailiH  of  Ihe  (x^tiisls  iniincdialely  priced- 
ini?.  In  place  of  these  extinct  species  of  rutin  i  I'acliyder- 
niutiius  or  thick-skinned  families,  we  olwcrve  in  the  strata  of 
the  I'lliicene  pcriinls  a  vast  iiurnlwr  of  rcnuiins  of  i  usM^i: 
I'ucliyderinutous  liimilies,  such  as  the  elephant,  the  rlii- 


liad  oli-erMil  llies*-  hones,  und  iH'lieved  tliein  lo  belong  to 
a  peculiar  aiiiinal  which  lliey  called  the  fullier  uf  lufw. 
There  have  hecn  found  many  hones  iH'loiininR,  it  I*  roiH 
ccivcd  fioiii  Ihc  leelh  and nllicr  pcciili.i'ilies,  lo  sinallaf 
varieties  of  Ihc  .Maslodon.  An  eoniplcle  skelcloiis,  how- 
ever, haviicj  hecn  yet  dun  Up,  it  is  unneeesHiiry  lo  utlein|i( 
any  dclailed  description  of  what  these  minor  Ma.-ilmlona 
iiiiist  have  Im'cii.  From  the  imnlcn^e  luiiiilx'r  uf  .MuHto- 
ilon  hones  which  liav  '  N'en  diiu;  up  in  various  |)atti)  of 
ihe  earlh,  and  parliciilarly  in  Ihc  Aew  World,  we  must 
conclude,  that  at  no  distant  period  uf  time  Ihe  tiTrestrial 
surface  was  extensively  jieoplcd  hy  lliese  inornioua 
creatures.  How  slrani?e  would  the  spectacle  huMc  been, 
could  a  hiinian  W\\\\i,  have  lieen  set  down  in  the  inidist  of 
the  u'leal  marshes  of  the  nncient  worlil,  and  U'lield  these 


noceriM,  and  thn  hip|Hipolamus,  thoui;h  these  reni'iins  aiiinials  hrowsin:;  in  hundreds,  all  liko  moving  mountains 
belong  lo  varieties  that  are  now  exiiiicl.     'i'he  first  truces    of  liviiii;  mailer! 

bIm)  now  npiH'nr  of  Kuminant  animals — of  oxen,  deer,  j  Anollicr  creature,  bolontjinc;  to  Iho  later  Pliocene  nppH, 
ciimcls,  und  other  creatures  of  the  same  class,  Itiit  if  not  indeed  to  the  era  of  the  Diluvial  fornialion,  has 
thouj^h  it  is  of  im|Mirtance  lo  notice  the  existence  of  such  been  disi-overed  in  .Vmcrica,  both  north  and  south.  'I'hia 
■iniaiiiij  in  the  I'hoccne  ui;es,  in  order  lo  exhihit  Ihc  pro-    is  the  Mindllid-min,  an  animal  niorr  wid-ly  removed  iii 


giessive  afiproach  to  the  prewnt  stale  of  thin^p  in  Ihe  ' 
animal  kini^'doni,  it  is  in  thu  hui'O  and  «.\lra<<riliiiary 
en  alures,  now  no  loiter  to  be  seen  on  Ihc  lace  of  the 
c.irth,  that  Ihe  interest  of  such  an  investigation  as  the  [ 
pii'sent  chielly  lies.  The  I'lio'ene  ai;es  are  not  h  ss  rich 
m  these  wondcm  than  the  periml.i  alre.uly  dcsirilicd,  and 
to  this  (loition  uf  thu  Huhjecl  we  shall  now  turn  our 
gtt<  iiiion. 

1  lie  enorinnua  creature  called  tlie  (Irenl  Mim'ndiin,  U'. 
loiiK^   to   llio   I'lioceiu    ura.     Uf   all   lliu   fossil   aniinalu ! 


character  from  any  exisliiiR  creature,  than  any  of  the 
other  lossil  remains  that  have  bi'cii  yd  observed.  The 
iMeualheiiuiii  was  discovered  towards  the  end  of  the  last 
century.  \  skclelon,  almost  entire,  was  found  nearly  at 
one  hundred  lect  of  dc|ilh,  in  oveavations  made  on  tl>« 
banks  of  the  rivir  l.iixan.  several  Icairiics  to  the  south- 
west of  Ituenos  Ayrcs.  The  .Mei^alhcrium  was  a  tardi- 
i;rade  (slow-niovim;)  animal,  like  llie  sloth,  and  was  hi 
least  the  size  ol"  a  common  i>x.  lis  limbs  were  Ici  niiimled 
by  tive  thick  toes,  ultachcd  to  a  ueries  of  huge,  !!at.  nuts' 


■«■.,  i 


40 


INFORAtATIOX    FOR   THE    PEOPLE. 


tarsal  honp.i,  or  those  honm  with  which  the  tocn  nrc  con- 
tinuous, as  in  tho  human  foot.     "  Soino  of  tlio  toes  (anvs 
Huckland,  in  his  notic  of  this  croaturo)  urc  terminated 
oy  InrirP  and  powerful  cinws  of  gTcat  lenRtti ;  the  hones 
tupportinf^  1  icse  claws  are  conjposed  partly  of  un  axis,  or 
pointed  core,  which  filled  the  internal  cavity  of  the  horny 
claw;  and  partly  of  a  bony  sheath,  that  formed  u  i.trong 
case  lo  receive    and   support  its   ha*'."     Thesis    claws, 
from   their  position,  were   admirably  calculated  for  the 
purjioso  of  dii;i!ini?.     Tlie  lei;*  of  this  creature  were  of 
enormous  thickness,  its  thigh  Iwrnc  being  nearly  three 
times  tlu!  thickness  of  the  same  bone  in  the  elephant 
Tho  other  bones  of  tho  Megathcriuni  were  almost  pro- 
portionably    heavy.     A    still    more    remarkable    feature, 
however,  in  the  animal's  structure,  was  the  coat  of  armour, 
of  solid  bono,  varying  from  three-fourths  of  an  inch  to  an 
inch  and  a  half  in  thickness,  which  covered  its  hide,  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  armadillo's  is  encased  by  the 
same  substance. 

The  habits  and  peculiarities  of  this  stupendous  sloth, 
for  so  tb.e  Megatherium  may  bo  termed,  are  well  des<Tilied 
and  explained  in  Ur.  Buckland's  Bridgewater  Treatise. 
After  stating  that  willi  the  head  and  shoulders  of  a  sloth, 
it  combined,  in  its  legs  and  feet,  an  adjuixturc  of  ihe  charac- 
ters of  the  ant-eater  and  the  armadillo,  and  resembled  them 
still  more  in  'icing  cased  in  a  coat  of  armour,  he  continues, 
"Its  haunches  were    more  than  five  fret  wide,  and  its 
body  twelve  feet  long  and  eight  feet  high  ;  its  feet  were  a 
yard  in  leiiglh,  and  terminatei'  by  most  gigantic  claws ; 
its  tail  was  probably  clad  in  armour,  and  much  l.vger 
than  the  tail  of  any  other  !\ast  among  living  or  extinct 
terrestrial    mammalia.     Thus    heavily    constructed,    and 
ponderously  accoutred,  it  could  neither  run,  nor  leap,  nor 
rlimb,  nor  burrow  under  the  ground,  and  in  all  its  niove- 
IMnts  must  have  lieen  necessarily  slow ;  but  what  need 
of  rapid  locomotion  to  an  animal,  whose  occupation  of 
digging  roots  for  foi>l  was  almost  stationary  ?  and  what 
need  of  s|)eed  for  flight  from  foes,  to  a  creature  whose 
giant  carcass  was  encased   in   an  impenetrable  cuirass, 
and  who  by  a  single  pat  of  his  paw,  or  lash  of  his  tail, 
could  in  an  instant  have  demolished  the  cougar  or  the 
crocodile '     Secure  within  the  panoply  of  his  bony  ar- 
mour, where  vis  the  enemy  tlni*  would  dare  encounter 
this  behemoth  of  the  Pampas  (the  South  American  re- 
gion where  it  existed),  or  in  what  more  powerful  creature 
ran  wc  find  the  cuu:<e  tiiat  has  eflected  tho  extirpation  of 
his  race  ? 

"  His  entire  frame  was  an  apparatus  of  colossal  mechan- 
ism, adapted  exactly  to  the  work  it  had  to  do ;  strong  and 
ponderous,  in  proportion  as  this  work  was  heavy,  and 
calculated  to  he  the  vehicle  of  life  an<l  enjoyment  to  a 
gigantic  race  of  (iuadru[)e<l» ;  which,  though  they  have 
ceased  to  lie  counted  among  the  living  inhabitants  of  our 
planet,  have,  in  their  fossil  tiones,  left  liehind  them  iin- 
perishulile  monuments  of  the  consumraato  skill  with 
which  they  were  constructed." 

Another  extinct  tardigrade  creature,  presenting  many 
of  the  characters  of  the  Megatherium,  was  discovered  in 
a  calcareous  cavorn  in  Virginia,  and  received  from  Presi- 
dent Jefti-rson,  who  Prst  dcscril-ed  some  of  its  bones,  the 
name  of  the  M' salniyr,  JelUrson  conceived  the  claw 
lo  be  that  of  an  extinct  feline  animal  of  vast  size  (that  is 
to  say,  an  animal  of  the  same  flescriplion  as  the  tiner. 


and  all  their  movements  alike.  Thedlflerence  in  vshimit 
of  body,  however,  must  have  prevented  the  habits  cf  the 
Megalonyx  from  Ix-iiig  (icrfectly  analogous  to  those  of  the 
sloth.  The  Megalonyx  could -hut  seldom  have  climbed 
up  trees,  because  it  must  rarely  have  found  ary  sufH- 
ciently  strong  to  support  its  weight.  Hut  i's  height 
would  enable  it  to  browse,  like  the  sloth,  among  tho 
leiives  of  trees,  without  iU  being  under  the  necessity  o\ 
climbing  any  but  such  tail  and  strong  ones  us  could  bear 
its  weight  It  is  even  possible  that  the  weight  ot  the 
creature  may  have  been  serviceable  in  bending  down,  ami 
perhaps  in  breaking,  the  elevated  branches  which  con- 
tained its  food. 

The  next  fossil  animal  to  which  wo  shall  refer,  is  that 
long  called  the  Maiiimnlh,  under  the  iniiiression  that  it 
was  a  distinct  genus,  but  which  is  now  universally  deno- 
minated the  Fossil  lUi/ihanl,  as  lieing  an  extinct  species 
of  that  existing  family.     Tho  Mammoth  (which  name 
we  shall  retain  for  the  sake  of  distinction)  is  rather  to  lie 
regariled  as  a  creature  of  tho   Diluvial  than  of  the  Plio-  » 
ccne  period  (that  is  to  say,  Ix^longing  to  the  age,  when, 
by  means  of  floods,  the  present  heAs  of  gravel  and  hard 
clay  so  often  found  l)ctween  the  rocks  and  vegetable  soil 
were  laiil  down  ujion  the  eiu^.h),as  some  s|H'cimens  have 
been  discovered  in  Silwria,  ivith  portions  of  tho  flesh  an<' 
hair  actually  preserved  along  with  tho  bones  among  the 
ice.     It  was  at  first  thought,  when  numlio's  of  Mammoth 
lK)nea  were  discovered  in  Italy,  and  other  southern  coun- 
tries of  Kurope,  that  they  wert*  the  remains  of  elephanta 
brought  by  the  Hotnans  and  others  from  .Asia  and  Africa; 
but  the  incalculable  quantities  of  them  uUimatcly  detected 
in  Russia  and  other  districts,  where  elephants  were  never 
brought  in  the  »\\i\\»}.  of  oriental  tribute,  us  they  were  to 
Rome,  showed  that  their  presence  was  to  be  attributed  to 
nuturtil  causes,  and  not  to  the  ca.sual  agency  of  man.    In 
truth,  the  lieds  of  the  Volga,  Don,  and  other  northern 
rivers,  are  filled  with  them,  and  this  can  Ixi  accounted  foi 
only  on  the  hypothesis,  either  of  an  alteration  in  the  ha- 
bits of  the  ele|ihunt,  or  of  a  great  change  of  climate  in 
these  parts,  or  of  some  immense  moving  torce  on  the  face 
of  the  earth,  which  has  carried  them  thither.     The  vi- 
stance  in  which  part  of  tho  flesh  was  found  along  with 
the  bones,  will  sujiply  us  with  a  general  description  of 
tho  Mannnoth.     When  the  animal,  on  this  occasion,  was 
first  seen  through   the  mass  of  ice  in  which  it  lay,  the 
soft  parts  were  nearly  entire.     After  tlie  natives  had  led 
their  dogs  for  a  long  time  with  the  niountuinous  hulk  of 
flesh,  Mr.  Adams  of  8t.  Peti'rsburgh  heard  of  it,  and  set 
out  to  H-e  it     When   he  reached  the  spot,  the  skeletoi; 
was  entire,  with  thi!  exee|)lion  of  a  fore  leg.     'J'he  spine 
of  the  buck,  a  shoulder-blade,  the   (ndvis,  and  the  rest  of 
the  extremities,  were  still  united  by  ligumenls  and  u  por- 
tion of  the  skin.     The  other  shoulder-blade  was  found  at 
some  distance.     The  head  was  covered  with  a  dry  bkin. 
One  of  Ihe  ears,  in  high  presiTvalion,  was  furnished  witli 
a  tuft  of  hair,  and  the  pupil  of  ihe  eye  was  still  discern- 
able.     The  brain  was  found  in  the  skuU,  but  in  a  dr^'  statu 
The  neck  was  furnished  with  a  hitis  mntir,  unil  the  skhi, 
generally,  was  covered  with  black  hairk  and  a  reddish  sort 
of  wool.     Of  the  (juantity  of  hair  anil  bristles  itiut  bsil 
iK'en  (in  the  IhkIv,  some  idea  may  l)e  formed  from  the  f.icX 
that  thirty  |H)unds  of  them  were  gathered  from  the  ground, 
where  the  dogs,  in  eating  the  flesh,  had  dropl  them.  Tlu* 


lion,  cat,  and  lynx,  all  of  which  are  Ik'asis  of  prey)  ;  but  \  tusks  were  more  than  nine  feet  long,  and  the  head,  witli- 
the  French  naturalists  declared  the  possessor  of  the  claw  ' 
to  have  lieen  herbivorous,  ■)r  calculated  to  live  on  herbs; 
and  this  was  triumphantly  pro\ed  by  the  discovery  of 
others  ol  its  l)one».  The  .Megalonyx  ap|>cat8  (liir  a  com- 
plete skeleton  has  not  yet  lieen  fouml)  to  have  U'cn  a 
liitle  smaller  in  siio  than  tho  Megatherium.  Itut  Ihe 
Megalonyx,  acainlirig  to  Cuvier,  was  herbivorous  after 
the  niainier  of  the  sloth,  since  its  teeth  were  conformed 
precisely  like  that  animal's.     From  the  resi'nililance  of 


out  the  tusks,  weighed  more  than  four  hundr.  J  pounds 
Altogetlur.  the  sk<  letiin  of  this  Manunoth  vva»  uliiul  tlit> 
size  of  a  lari;e  elephant's. 

Skeletons  similar  lo  this  have  lieen  found  in  abundunci 
in  the  islands  of  the  .\rctic  sea.  They  difliT  in  severul 
minute  points  of  slru(  lure  from  the  common  eh'puuiiL, 
and  on  this  circumstance  the  most  rational  expl  inultujt  oi 
their  lieing  found  in  such  cold  clirnutes  is  founiled.  This 
explanation  is,  that  the  Maninioth  Elephant  was  ot  a 
Uteir  feet,  also,  he  concludes  that  their  gait  was  siiiiilar,  1  species  fitted  tu  be  a  native  of  cold  countries ;  and  of  thu 


GEOLOGY. 


41 


roiisoninp;,  the  dilTorcnt  struoture  and  the  long  (hick  hnir, 
aro  held  to  bo  proofs.  Wh(!tlicr  this  nmy  he  the  cuso  or 
riot,  it  acenis  certain  thnt  the  Mummotli's  existence  must 
hiivii  been  very  recent,  and  must  have  approached  closely 
to  if  not  encroached  on,  the  era  of  man. 

s  SUPERFICIAL. 

Diluvium,  Mlnvinm,  Pent,  and  Vesttabk  Soil, 

In  many  parts  of  the  earth's  surface,  a  thick  bed  of 
rompail  cliiy,  containing  stones  of  various  sizes,  and 
g.iinctimcs  of  a  reil,  sometimes  of  a  l)lue  colour,  is  found 
ttbcive  the  hard  rocks:  it  is  called  Ditvviinii,  as  supposed 
to  have  l>een  deposited  by  a  deluge  which  had  swept  over 
tho  earth  after  the  most  of  the  present  rocks  had  been 
formed,  and  placed  in  their  present  arrangement.  Some 
of  the  stones  contained  in  the  diluvium  aro  rounded  as 
by  tho  act  of  rolling;  others  cuntiiin  scams  or  grooves, 
which  are  supposed  to  liave  been  occasioned  either  by 
their  rubbing  on  some  hard  substance  in  passing,  or  hav- 
ing been  rul)l«'d  against  by  smaller  stones  passing  them. 
All  over  tho  earth  large  blocks  of  stone  arc  tbund  on  or 
near  tho  surface,  which  it  is  certain  have  been  carried 
from  great  distances,  as  rocks  of  the  same  kind  in  their 
original  position  aro  not  to  be  found  near.  There  aro 
blocks  of  this  kind  in  Cumberland,  wliich  appear  to  have 
originally  belonged  to  hills  in  the  south  of  Scotland;  ami 
some  have  been  found  in  the  district  between  tho  'J'rent 
and  'J'hames,  which  geologists  suppose  to  have  biH;n 
brought  hither  from  Norway.  ^ 

The  .'Illiivinm  is  the  matter  carried  down  by  rivers,  and 
deposited  in  large  level  spaces  beside  their  banks,  or  in 
islands  at  their  mouths. 

Peal  is  an  accumulation  of  decayed  vegetable  matter 
mixed  with  water.  It  is  well  known  for  its  projMsrtius 
ts  fuel. 

The  Vta:elnhk  Soil  ia  generally  composed  of  tho  in- 
ferior aubstances  in  a  pulverized  state,  or  of  detritus  carried 
from  a  distiuice,  mingled  with  decayed  vegetable  and 
animal  matters. 

licmaint  in  the  Diluvium,  tfc. 

The  period  when  tho  diluvium  was  deposited,  being 
that  imiucdialely  preceding  the  existing  order  of  things 
on  the  earth's  surface,  is  marked  by  the  remains  of  ani- 
mals, many  of  which  still  exist,  while  others  arc  extinct. 
The  chief  evidence  on  this  point  is  derived  from  bones, 
and  fragments  of  bones,  found  in  caves  which  are  sup- 
|)oied  to  have  siTved,  about  the  time  of  the  diluvial  action, 
iis  retreats  for  Hyasnas  and  other  beasts  of  prey.  That 
af  Kirkdale,  in  Yorkshire,  discovereil  a  few  years  ago, 
was  found  to  contain  remains  of  twenty-three  spi'cies; 
uamcly,  Hyajna,  Tiger,  Bear,  Wolf.  Fox,  Weasel,  Ele- 
phant, Rhin(H'eros,  Hip[)0|>olamus,  Horse,  Ox,  throe  si«'- 
cies  of  Deer,  Hare,  Rabbity  Water-rat,  Mouse,  Pigeon, 
Raven,  Lark,  a  species  of  Duck  and  Partridge.  The 
tones,  in  all  these  cases,  were  broken  into  angular  frag- 
ment-i  or  chilis,  an<l  were  all  more  or  less  decayed,  though 
the  gelatinous  matter  yet  remained  in  some  of  them. 
They  were  covered  by  a  layer  of  nuid  about  a  foot  deep, 
Ihe  nature  of  whiih  led  to  tho  supposition  that  it  must 
liavc  been  depo:<ilcd  during  the  action  of  the  diluvium. 

Till  a  recent  jieriod,  no  trace  of  any  animal  of  a  higher 
iintcr  was  iliseovered  in  rocks.  Sonu>  reiuiins  oi  a  hu- 
nwn  skclelon  had  U'en  found  in  a  cave  in  (iuadaloupe. 
miK'dded  in  utony  matter;  but  it  was  eoueludcil,  in  that 
COM",  that  the  em  losing  matter  was  of  recent  formation, 
lUid  that  the  human  being  whose  relics  were  discovered 
ill  it,  might  have  Ix'en  alive  at  no  distant  era.  Latterly, 
However,  fossil  zoology  has  made  one  step  in  advance. 
In  18.1H,  a  fossil  jaw-lxmo  of  one  of  the  (yiKii/iiii/Ki/m 
(four-handed  or  monkey  triln's)  was  discovered  in  the 
tertiary  formation  at  the  northern  fcwt  of  the  Pyrenees, 
ui  tho  department  of  Gers,  hi  Franco,  Two  deposits 
Vut.  1.— 0 


there  are  very  rich  in  fossils,  affording  remains  of  n« 
fewer  than  thirty  mammiferous  animals.  In  the  sccoiiW 
and  newer  of  these,  which  is  lacustrine,  or  a  deposi' 
from  a  fresh-water  lake,  tlie  jaw-bone  of  the  monkey  wa» 
found,  containing,  four  incisor  teeth,  two  cai>ini,  four 
false  grinders,  and  six  true  grinders  in  a  continued  seriea. 
'i'he  motikcy  is  supposed  to  have  been  about  three  feet 
in  height.  The  bono  occurred  in  a  stratum  of  marl, 
covered  by  compact  limestone.  Another  jaw-bone  of  a 
...onkey  was  discovered  with  other  remains,  in  August, 
183!),  in  a  brick-field  at  Kingston,  near  Woodbridge,  iu 
the  county  of  SuH'olk :  the  particuhu-  bed  in  which  it  waa 
found  has  not  becti  stated.  The  bone  indicates  a  speciua 
of  the  quadrumana  not  now  existing. 

These  nmst  be  considered  as  very  interesting  disco- 
veries. The  earliest  animals  and  plants  are  of  the  simplest 
kind.  Gradually,  as  we  advance  through  tho  higher 
strata,  or,  in  otlier  w  jrds,  as  we  proceed  through  this 
record  of  progres.sive  creation,  we  (hid  animals  and  planta 
of  higher  and  higher  structure,  till  at  last  we  come  to  the 
su^icrficial  strata,  where  there  are  remains  of  kinds  ap- 
proximating to  the  highest  of  all  the  animated  tribes,  name- 
ly, man  himself.  Uut,  before  the  above  discoveries,  there 
remained  one  remarkable  gap  in  the  series.  The  qua- 
drumana, or  monkeys,  who  form  an  order  above  common 
mammalia,  but  below  the  bimana,  or  human  tribes,  were 
wanting.  Now  this  deficiency  is  supplied;  and  it  i» 
shown  that  every  one  of  the  present  forms  of  animated 
existence,  exccp'inf;  lite  liuiiian,  existed  at  tho  tim?  when 
the  sujierticial  strata  were  formed.  The  only  zoological 
event  of  an  importar'.t  nature  subsequent  to  that  period 
is  the  creation  of  man ;  for  we  may  consider  of  a  lessci 
importance  tho  cxtin.^'ion  of  many  of  tho  sjiecific  varie 
tics  which  flourished  in  the  geological  ages,  and  the  ere* 
tiuu  of  new. 

TOLCANIC. 
Rock  of  this  kir.d  owes  its  origin  to  internal  fire,  which ' 
seems  to  have  sent  it  up  in  a  state  of  fusion.  It  is  spread 
over  large  parts  of  the  surface  of  tho  earth,  particularly 
in  France,  wheie  there  are  many  extinct  volcanoes.  The 
apertures  through  which  it  has  forced  its  way  from  below, 
and  the  cmnks  and  rents  formed  at  tho  time  of  its  cru])- 
tion  in  adjacent  rocks,  are  often  found  filled  with  it 
Large  mountains  are  also  composed  of  volcanic  rock.  It 
is  remarkable  for  the  fine  soil  formed  out  oi  it. 

The  chief  varieties  of  volcanic  rock  are : — 
Trtiji,  a  term  from  the  Swedish,  expressive  of  the  ap- 
Iiearance  of  stairs  which  a  hill  of  this  rock  often  prescnta 
— a  bare  precipice  alternating  with  a  grassy  iilatforin  or 
terrace.  In  trap  rocks,  nodnles  are  often  found ;  that  is, 
little  is<ilated  masses  of  a  difterent  consistence  from  the 
including  matter :  the  rock  is  then  said  to  be  of  amigila- 
loiildl  finirliirr,  from  the  Greek  word  for  an  almond. 
This  peculiarity  is  owing  to  the  porousness  of  tho  original 
matter:  it  contained  many  small  air-cells,  which,  being 
afterwards  filled  op  with  silex,  carbonate  of  lime,  zeolite, 
and  other  iimredients,  Ix'came  nodules  of  those  sub- 
stances.* In  Plutonic  rocks,  no  such  peculiarity  is  ever 
found. 

Juifitit,  a  dark  pray  rock,  of  crystallized  form,  maaee* 
of  which  resemble  groi.p«  of  pillars,  the  various  pillars 
generally  having  regidar  sides  and  angles,  and  Ihe  whole 
joined  coinpadly  to:;cther.  The  (iiant's  Causeway,  in 
Ireland,  and  the  Island  of  Stalla,  in  the  Hebrides,  are 
notable  examples  of  bsisalt.  The  structure  of  basalt  ia 
fonnil  to  have  originated  in  tho  manner  in  which  refrigi»- 
ration,  or  cooling,  took  place  at  its  formation.  Tho  pr,.>- 
cess  has  been  iinilaled  on  a  small  scale  by  the  fusing  of 
a  few  hundred-weights  of  basalt,  and  allowing  tho  maaa 
to  cool  in  the  furnace  :  as  the  cooling  gradually  procwHliMj, 


'  1  yell's  Oeolog)-,  iv.  S7a. 


48 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


gl  (bulos  npjiearod ;  these  enlarRcd  till  tlipy  promrd  latc- 
'rtlly  [sidpwnys]  npiiirint  oncli  othor,  and  Ih'ciiiiic  converted 
into  jiolvtriinul  [many-cnrnored]  prisniH.  Thus  the  rocii 
was  repluced  in  something  lilce  its  original  form,  in  o 
common  t'urnaec. 

Greea^loiie,  a  rompact,  hard,  tennrious  rock,  of  dark 
grayish  colour,  sliuhlly  tinned  with  crrcen. 

Lava  (a  term  from  the  (lolliir,  signifying  to  run),  the 
product  of  modern  volcanic  mountains. 


PtCTW^  IV.-MINKRAI,  VKINS, 

Throughout  the  primary,  transition,  secondary,  and 
iertiary  rocks,  but  particularly  the  two  first  kinds,  there 
■occur  what  are  called  vriiif,  containini;  divers  substances, 
most  commonly  metals,  qimrtz,  and  calcareous  spar,  the 
last  beinu'  »  hanl  and  sliiiiinR  s\ibstiiiice  deposited  from 
lime.  Tile  (orm  and  direction  of  veins  may  be  b<>st  un- 
derstood from  tlic  way  in  which  they  mostly  seem  to  have 
orifrinated,  namelv.  by  chinks  or  rra(4s  formed  in  all  di- 
rections throuirhout  the  rockn,  and  which  have  subse- 
quently lieen  filled  w  :!i  various  substances. 

Those  filled  with  metals  penetrate  downwards  »o.far, 
that  their  lower  ends  are  rarely  found,  and  miners  have 
•II  idea  that  they  reach  quite  through  the  earth.  Near 
the  sar.'iico  of  the  earth,  they  are  generally  found  poorest 
in  the  metal  they  contain,  richer  at  a  certain  distance 
down,  and  then  poor  aiiain.  They  also  often  chance 
Jhtir  metal  at  dilTcrent  depths.  In  France  there  arc 
veins  which  contain  iron  almve,  then  silver,  and  next 
copper.  One  of  the  Cornwall  mines  have  zinc  above, 
and  cop|ier  in  irrcat  quantity  Ix'low.  These  veins  also 
change  their  wi<llh  at  difTerent  depths:  thus,  the  Dal- 
coath  mine  in  (.'ornwall  varies  from  forty  feet  to  six 
inches  in  width.*  Wli.it  at  first  apix'ars  extremely 
strange,  a  vein  will  sonuliines  be  rich,  or  contain  abun- 
■  dance  of  the  met'*'  a'  the  yilace  where  it  passes  through 
one  kind  of  rock,  and  poor  where  it  pass<'s  through  another, 
TTlus.  (or  instance,  a  copper  vein  will  In-  pr<Mluctive  as 
long  as  it  is  dug  through  slate,  and  become  poor  when  it 
passes  into  granite.  8iich  a  vein,  it  may  ^Iso  Ix-  rc- 
nmrkeil,  is  generally  found  richest  in  the  slate  when  it 
ajiproaches  the  granite. 

Till  a  recent  time,  two  theories  as  to  the  formation  of 
metallic  vems  were  |)reilominant — one  representing  them 
•R  the  result  of  a  forcing  of  fus<'d  matter  from  below 
into  the  rhinks,  the  other  accounting  for  them  by  sup- 
posing at.  infiltration  of  the  matter  in  water  from  above. 
These  theories,  res|)ectively  termed  lluttonian  and  Wer- 
nerian,  are  now  given  U[i:  »  many  veins  are  fissures  of 
mechanical  origin,  into  which  metalliferous  matter  lias 
been  sublimed  from  the  ciTects  of  hiijh  tem|)erature;  but 
others  have  resultej  from  an  electro-chemical  •  sci)aratimi 
or  seuregation  of  certain  mineral  and  metallic  particles 
from  the  mass  of  enveloping  rock,  while  it  was  in  a  soft 
or  fluid  state,  and  their  determination  to  particular 
icntrcs.'  "I  Within  the  last  few  years,  much  light  lias 
jocn  thrown  on  the  subject  by  electro-chemical  ex|)eri- 
Dients,  wlim-by  the  workings  of  nature,  in  this  dcpart- 
Keiit  o(  I.cr  economy,  were  imitated  on  a  small  scale. 


•  CoirKiock's  fieolo(fv,  Nrw  York.  fflO. 
t  Miiim  I'l  Wc.'iilerii  of  0«olo,r>-,  (Ul 


Ilecquerell  and  Mitcherlich,  foreign  mineralogists,  hiv« 
succeeded  ill  forming  crystals  by  eleclricily.  Our  own 
countryman,  Mr.  .Aiiilrew  Crosse,  of  Homersctshire,  liai 
in  like  inainier  forinid  calcareous  spar  out  of  water  which 
had  p<'rc(ilateil  llironuh  a  limestone  rocU,  and  which  wa* 
forming  crystals  naturally  at  tlii^  iilace  where  the  expe- 
rimentalist obtained  it.  The  same  gentleman  ]iro<hii-ed 
quart/,  crystals,  and  thus  made  the  formation  of  what  are 
called  precious  stones  no  longer  a  mystery.  'J'lie  electric 
apparatus  used  by  Mr.  (-'rosse  was  of  small  power,  but 
kept  long  in  o])cralion,  such  being  the  way  in  which  na- 
ture works  the  .same  ends. 

In  Mr.  ("rosse'scxiH'riment3,the  same  solution  produeei 
dillerent  substances  at  dilli'rent  ends  of  the  elictric  pole 
For  example,  a  ballcry  operating  for  six  monlhs  on  liuut 
of  silver,  produced  at  the  negativi;  pole  six-sided  cubes  of 
silver,  and  at  the  positive,  crystals  of  silica  aiul  chalcedony 
This  opens  up  a  most  inlercsling  field  of  speculatioji. 
The  dillireiice  of  sub.stanccs  found  in  certain  veins,  their 
comparative  richness  and  |ioorne.ss,  may  have  been  the 
con.-iecpience  of  ilillerent  electric  states  in  tlic  rocks  in 
wliich  they  were  deposited. 


t  •WORKS  ON  GKOI.OrJY. 

Oeology,  like  all  other  branches  of  natural  history,  i< 
best  studied  in  the  fields.  Accurate  and  extensive  ob- 
servations are  ab.soliitely  necessary  to  the  acquisition  of 
any  considerable  knowledge  of  this  vast  and  important 
science.  Hooks  are  useful  chietly  in  directing  attenlion 
to  the  tilings  whicli  ar(!  nccess,iry  to  be  (iliaciTed.  A 
comparison  of  the  various  theories  of  dillirent  phiL*- 
sophers,  re.s|H'cting  the  structure  of  the  earth,  with  the 
phenomena  upon  which  those  theories  arc  foumled,  will 
enable  the  careful  ami  judicious  observer  to  form  aud 
modify  his  own  theory  in  conformity  with  his  own  oli- 
HiTvctions.  'i'heoricrt  arc  chiefly  valuable  for  the  a.ssisl- 
ance  which  they  all'ord  us  in  classifyini;  facts,  and  evciv 
one  who  propuaes  to  take  up  any  subject  of  naturid 
.science  in  earnest,  will  read  the  most  noted  general 
works  on  that  subject,  (^^nvier's  Theory  of  the  Earth  is 
important  as  the  production  of  the  greatest  naturalist 
since  I.inna'us.  Lyell's  Principles  of  lltiiU'Stj  should  be 
read  for  general  information  on  this  subject,  and  his 
Travels  in  the  United  States,  as  well  as  Featherstun- 
haugh's  Excursions  in  the  ISlave  States,  and  Jameson's 
Discovery  and  Adventure  in  .\friea,  are  imiMirlant  for 
those  who  are  desirous  of  learning  the  geology  of  this 
country  and  Africa.  Brande's  Diiiiunnty  nf  Siicnt, 
Lileiiitiire,  mid  .-hi  is  a  useful  book  of  reference  wiiii 
reB|K'ct  to  the  meaning  of  terms  us«'d  in  this  as  weH  as 
the  other  sciences. 

Huckland's  llrliijuirr  Dihiriaixr,  the  Transactions  ol 
Geological  Society  o''  London,  and  Leonhard's  Vhiii'n. 
lerisliis  of  Jtoiks,  are  also  valuable.  Mineralogy,  wiiiclj 
is  a  suboidlnale  branch  of  (ieologv,  is  extremely  inte. 
rtsting,  and  throws  liuht  on  all  the  kindred  branches  nf 
science.  On  this  subject  Cleavelanifs  Tri'atise  is  one  ol 
the  Is'.st  that  has  been  written.  The  Transactions  of  ihc 
Anieri<Bn  I'hilosophical  Society,  and  the  .\cadeniy  -jt 
Natural  ,S-iences  of  I'liil.idclpbia,  contain  many  iiitire'4' 
ing  tmctii  on  Gcolo(fy  and  .Mineralogy. — Jm  JliI.] 


TllK    EuiTII  VI 

in  tlio  article  As 
mass  of  matter,  (' 
which  at  various 
centre,  and  rece 
blessings  of  light 
smaller  sized  of 
of  the  diameter  of 
tor  of  Jupiter,  a 
small  portion  of 
ence  to  tjie  stars,  ■ 
tiou. 

According  to  th 
is  7902  miles    in 
S.^OOO    miles  in 
thickness  is  greate 
in  the  contrary  dir 
explained  in  Asr 
vcrled  to.     'i'he  di 
or  imaginary'  poles 
than  the  extreini!i( 
in  a  soil   state,    li 
The  extent  of  tin 
whole  thii  kness,  or 
centre  of  the  earth, 
of  an    orange,  or 
twenty-six  miles  gr 
cquinoi'tial  line,  lli 
adjustment  of  the 
that  if  it  were  ordv 
fly  oli;  and  if  the 
whole  ma.ss  of  c:n 
l'r.i!;nicrits,  or,  in  ni 
ii'i  l.ir  as  can  be  ;is,. 
ill  :ill  its  |),irts,  ami 
aud  Water — the  la 
ores,  soils,  anil  a  v;i 
"'■•»)  ;   while  the  w; 
I'l's,  lirsh  and  silt- 
llw  latter  in  tl  c  s.'a 


GEOGIIAPIIY. 


INTRODUCTORY.  j 

TiiK  E»uTii  whic'li  wp  kihaMt,  na  has  been  explained  j 
in  tlie  article  AsTrniNOMT,  is  u  nearly  round  glolic  or  j 
iii;is>3  of  matter,  forniinR  one  of  eleven  primary  planets, 
which  at  various  distances  revolve  round  the   sun  as  a 
contio,    and    receivo    from   that  splendid    luminary   the 
blessiiiiis  of  liyht  and   heat.     The  earth   is  one  of  the 
8m;dli:r  sized  of  the  planets,  being  only  about  a  fourth  . 
of  the  diameter  of  Uranus,  and  an  eleventh  of  the  dianie-  j 
tor   of  Jupiter,   and   forms,    th'-Tcfore,  a   comparatively 
small  portion  of  the  planetary  ay-;tem,  and,  with  refer- 
ence to  tlic  stars,  only  a  speck  in  Iho  vast  extent  of  creo- 
tiuu. 

According  to  the  cakuiatinns  of  astronomers,  the  earth 
is  7902  miles  in  mean  diameter,  and  measures  anout 
S.I.OOO  miles  in  circumference.  Uut  the  diameter  or 
thickness  is  greater  at  the  middle,  or  equinoctial  line,  than 
in  the  contrary  direction.  The  cause  of  this  has  been 
explained  in  .\sthonomt,  but  may  here  be  brietly  ad- 
verted to.  'J"he  diurnal  motion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis, 
or  ima.;inary  poles,  causes  a  greater  whirl  at  the  middle 
than  the  extremities  of  the  mass,  and  the  e.irth,  originally 
in  a  soil  sUite,  has  been  there  bid.MMl  out  all  round. 
The  extent  of  this  bulging  is  twenty-six  miles  on  the 
whole  thii  kness,  or  thirteen  miles  from  the  surface  to  the 
centre  of  the  earth.  Thus,  the  form  of  the  glolu'  is  that 
of  an  orange,  or  flattened  sphere,  and  its  diameter  is 
twenty-six  miles  greater  from  one  siile  to  another,  at  the 
o<iuincictial  line,  than  betwixt  the  i)olis.  Such  is  the  nice 
adjustment  of  the  daily  motion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis. 
Iliiit  if  it  were  oidy  a  little  greater,  the  si  a  ivould  riM'  and 
fly  oiV,  and  if  the  velocity  weri'  still  more  increasi  il,  the 
wliiije  mass  of  earth  and  water  would  he  dispersed  in 
Iraixinents,  or,  in  oiIht  words,  be  <li's!roycd.  The  earth. 
as  \,\\  as  can  hi'  aHccrlaiiied.  is  a  solid  i>ody,  well  bal.niced 
in  nil  its  parts,  and  consists  of  two  kinds  of  matter,  land 
mill  Water — the  land  heiii.;  eompo-i.l  of  rocks.  m''tallic 
nrcs,  soils,  and  a  variety  of  other  snl'>laiices  (see  (ii;ni- 
(MH)  ;  while  the  water,  as  is  well  known,  is  of  two  (piali- 
Ill's,  iVesli  and  salt — the  foiini'r  in  lakes  and  rixers.  and 
llw  latter  ill  tl  c  ik-a  ur  oeeaii.     The  greater  part  jf  the 


earth  consists  of  solid  land  or  rocky  rndttet,  but  a  large 
proportion  of  it  is  covered  by  the  waters  of  the  ocean  ;  and 
therefore,  to  a[ipearance.  the  ocean  forms  the  prineip'al 
portion  of  the  globe.  It  is  so.  however,  only  in  appear 
anee,  notwithstanding  its  imposing  extent,  tlic  water  being 
merely  a  superficial  covering  to  the  land. 

The  manner  in  which  the  land  is  mixed  with  the  ocean 
is  quite  irregular,  and  the  relative  situation  and  dimen- 
sions of  each  are  constantly  shifting.  From  causes  which 
have  been  explained  in  the  article  GKoiotsv,  the  sea  is 
daily  making  encroachments  on  the  land,  while  the  land 
at  other  places  is  in  the  course  of  being  left  dry  by  the 
sea.  Thus,  in  point  of  fact,  the  external  features  of  tho 
globe  are  ever  changing ;  and  it  may  be  safely  averred, 
that  in  the  course  of  ages  there  has  been  a  thorough  aUer- 
ation  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  globe — that  -not  one 
part  now  resenihlcs  that  form  which  it  orighially  pos 
sessed. 

In  order  to  facilitate  the  operations  of  the  navigator  and 
traveller,  and  with  the  view  to  mark  the  relative  situation 
of  every  spot  on  the  earth's  surface,  the  globe  has  been 
subjected  to  divers  measurements,  by  means  of  ideal  lines 
drawn  from  north  to  south,  and  east  to  west,  as  repre- 
sented in  the  figure  which  forms  the  frontispiece.  In  the 
first  jilace,  the  whole  surface  is  repres«-nted  ns  spread  out 
in  the  form  of  two  hemispheres — the  Eastern  Hcmisphcro 
containing  tho  continents  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa, 
and  the  Western  Hemisphere  North  and  .South  .America. 
The  line  which  ajipeais  to  cut  across  the  heinisplu res  at 
the  middle  is  the  iijiiator  or  equinoctial  line,  and  from 
this  are  measurements  in  degrees  of  latitude. 

'l"he  earth's  surface  has  been  calculated  to  contain 
tOS.'.IKt.T,")!)  square  miles,  of  which  scarcely  a  third  part 
is  diy  land  ;  the  rciiiaiiiing  two-thirds  are  water,  '''ha 
land  is  ciini|posed  principally  of  two  large  masses  or  tracts, 
one  of  wl'.iili  I'oiiipiihrnds  the  continents  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  .VtVica;  the  other  coinprchenils  the  conliiieni  of 
.Vinerica.  Australia,  whii  li  lii's  in  the  ocean  in  a  southerly 
di'.i'clioii  I'roiii  Asia,  is  so  extensive  as  to  he  entitled  to  the 
name  ami  character  of  a  fihh  division.  .Ml  the  delsched 
and  smalh'r  masses  of  land,  calleil  islands,  when  taken 
together,  are  computed  to  contain  as  much  land  as  Ihr 


44 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  P?:OPLE. 


continent  >f  Europe.     In  reference  to  maps  of  the  earth, 
Europe.  Asia,  Africa,  and  Australia,  with  their  JBlands, 
are  distinguished  as  Ivinpr  in  the  eastern  hemispiiere ; 
while  America,  with  the  Wc«t  Indian  and  other  islands, 
arc  comprehended  in  tlio  western  hemisphere.     The  seas 
which   encompass   these  extensive  tracts  of  land  have 
locally  various  names ;  but  the  two  principal  expanses  of 
water  are  the  Atliuilic  and  Pacific  Oceans— the  former 
separating  Euro|>c,  Asia,  and  Africa,  from  America,  on 
the  west,  and  the  latter  lying  betwixt  the  western  shores 
of  America  and  the  eastern  shores  of  Asia.     The  exten- 
sive oceans  surrouniiing  the  north  and  south  poles  are 
called  the  Polar  Seas,  which  have  not  been  explored  suffi- 
ciently for  us  to  be  able  to  say  whether  any  largo  tracts 
of  land  lie  in  these  remote  quarters  of  the  glolie.     Great 
diversity  of  opinion  prevails  with  respect  to  the  depth  of 
the  ocean.     By  numerous  investigations,  it  docs  not  aj)- 
pear  that  the  depth  is  anywhere  much  more  than  two  or 
three  miles,  generally  it  is  a  great  deal  less;  and  it  might 
be  argued,  that  notwithstanding  the  large  surface  of  the 
ocean,  the  Inxly  of  its  waters  can  only  lie  considered  as 
lying  like  lakes  in  the  hollows  of  the  land  ;  for  the  earth, 
as  already  noticed,  is  eight  thousand   miles  in  diameter, 
and  to  that  huge  mass  of  dense  matter  the  sea  bears  no 
proportion  in  its  depth.     While  the  surface  of  the  land 
exhibits  a  variety  of  mountain  ranges,  hills,  vales,  and 
plains,  HO  also  is  the  bottom  of  the  s<'a  varied  in  its  con- 
figuration, abounding  in  sandbanks,  hills,  rocks,  and  reefs, 
dangerous  to  the  mariner ;  and   tlie   islands  which  rear 
their  lieads  above   the  surface  are  only  the  tops  of  the 
highest  hilts  and  mountains  in  the  sea. 

The  waters  of  the  ocean,  as  every  one  knows,  are  salt 
to  ■  greater  or  lesser  degree — a  quality  which  is  considered 
necessary  to  preserve  them  from  putridity.  How  they 
should  possess  this  saline  proi«'rty,  no  one  has  yet  been 
able  to  explain  satisfactorily.  Sonic  have  imagined  that 
the  saltnebs  is  caused  by  riK'ks  of  salt  at  the  iHittom  of  the 
■ea,  but  this  is  obviously  incorrect,  for  rocks  of  salt  do  not 
abound  to  such  an  extent  as  would  be  required  for  per- 
forming this  imj)ortant  office.  It  is  more  probable  that 
the  saltness  is  an  inherent  property  in  the  water  itself ; 
there  is  at  any  rate  nothing  more  strange  in  this  than  in 
the  circumstance  of  the  atmosphere  lieing  in  ill  nature 
composed  of  divers  kinds  of  air  or  gases.  For  an  ex- 
amination of  this  point, however, and  for  a  regular  aciount 
of  the  ocean  and  its  tides,  wc  refer  to  the  article  The 

OcKAIf. 

According  to  the  beautiful  harmony  of  design  mani- 
fested in  all  departments  of  creation,  th«  earth,  with  its 
ocean,  its  atmoNphere,  its  rivers,  and  its  varj-ing  climates, 
forms  an  afipropriate  tield  for  animal  and  vegetable  ex- 
istence. The  manner  in  which  animals  and  plants  are 
thus  distributed  in  situations  and  circumstunces  exactly 
suited  tu  their  character,  is  a  matti>r  of  deeply  interesting 
observation.  Nature — by  which,  as  a  phrase  of  conve- 
nience, we  denote  the  great  Creating  and  Disposing 
Power — has  appointed  very  few  forms  of  animal  or  vege- 
table life  to  bo  localized  in  any  portion  of  the  glolw  ap- 
proaching to  its  entire  terrestrial  surface.  Most  of  them 
are  calculated  for  certain  degrees  of  heat  and  cold,  drj'noss, 
and  moisture  ;  and,  accordingly,  arc  to  U;  found  distriliuttxl 
in  rit  gs  or  zones  around  the  glolie,  or  at  certain  eleva- 
tions, with  a  direct  reference,  in  nil  cases,  to  the  tem- 
{x'rature  and  other  conditions  of  the  situation.  I 

It  appears,  from  the  researches  of  geologists,  that  the 
distribution  of  animal  and  vegeUible  loriiw  has,  in  the 
course    of  ages,    undergone    variations    conl'orrnalile    to 
alterations  of  condition  in  soil,  climati',  and  other  circum-  : 
stances.     Kaccs  of  animals  hi.ve  thus  cntir<'ly  disap|«'ared 
from  the  surlijcc  of  tin;  i-drth,  while  insular  tracts  of  land, 
which  have  rist-a  from  the  Iwsom  of  the  deep,  have  lie-  I 
coiue  clothed  with  vegetation,  and  are  now  llie  appropriate 
Ihoatre  of  existence'  of  various  kinds   of  animals.     The  ; 
*ispcrsiutj  power  of  winds  and  currents,  not  to  N|jeak  of  i 


the  active  interference  of  man,  is  supposcfi  to  bo  capabb 
of  accounting  for  the  distribution  of  many  plants ;  bu*  it 
is  clear,  that  without  the  ever-vigilant  superintendence  of 
an  all-wise  Providence,  tje  earth,  taken  in  its  whole  ex- 
tent, could  not  exhibit  those  remarkable  forms  of  aninm 
and  vegetable  life  which  are  so  nicely  suited  to  the  locali 
ties  in  which  they  are  placed.  In  Europe,  and  nearly 
all  other  temperate  regicns,  we  find  the  horse,  the  cow 
the  ilop,  the  cat,  the  crow,  the  sparrow,  the  house-fly,  and 
other  creatures  with  which  we  arc  familiar,  because  the 
nature  of  these  animals  is  suited  to  climates  of  inoderutu 
heat  and  cold.  In  the  warm  and  dry  regions  of  Asia  aiKl 
Africa,  other  forms  of  animal  life  prevail — as  the  lion, 
tiger,  and  camel ;  the  latter  Iving  suited  to  traverse  wide 
sandy  deserts,  and  to  endure  privations  of  drought  for  a 
greater  length  of  time  than  any  other  beasts  of  burden. 
America  has  the  condor,  the  Washington  eagle,  the  llama, 
and  other  great  birds  and  beasts  of  prey  peculiar  to  it- 
self. A  reniarkiiii)le  distinction  in  animal  forms  is  thnt 
found  in  Australia.  There,  as  will  Iw  afterwards  men- 
tioned, the  <|uudruped  races  arc  furnished  with  pouchcji 
for  their  young,  and  move  forwards  by  leaping,  peculiari 
ties  cnnformablo  to  the  locality  in  which  tliey  hapjien  to 
be  placed. 

EUROPE. 

Europe  is  the  smallest  of  the  great  divisior.s  of  our 
glol)e,  but  distinguished  above  the  rest  by  the  character 
of  its  population,  the  superior  cultivation  of  the  soil,  and 
the  flourishing  ccnilition  of  arts,  s<'iences,  industry,  and 
commerce,  the  multitude  of  large  luid  well-built  cities, 
and  its  power  and  intlurnco  over  the  other  parts  of  tlic 
world. 

It  is  washed  on  three  sides  by  the  sea,  which  is  called 
by  different  names,  and  belongs  either  to  the  IVorthem 
Arctic  or  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  A  narrow  strait  of  the 
Mediterranean  separates  it  from  Africa.  On  the  east 
alone  it  joins  the  mainland,  being  tliere  separated 
from  Asia  by  an  imaginary  line.  Europe  is  situated  in 
the  northern  frozen  and  the  northern  tenijiorate  zone:;, 
Iwtween  10"  and  73°  cast  longitude,  and  36°  and  71=" 
north  latitude.  Including  the  islands,  which  contain 
alK)ut  317,000  square  miles,  the  whole  extent  of  Eurojio 
amounts  to  about  3,".')0,000  square  miles,  of  which  Ru.s- 
sia  comprises  nearly  one-half.  The  greatest  length,  from 
Cape  St.  Vincent,  in  Portugal,  to  the  northern  extremity 
of  the  eastern  boundary,  at  Waygatt's,  is  alfout  3.')(i0 
miles.  The  greatest  bre.ullh,  from  ('a|)e  Mataptm  i:i 
the  Morea,  to  the  North  CajK!  in  Norway,  is  about  2500 
miles. 

Europe  is  remarkably  well  watered,  although  its  riven 
have  not  so  long  a  course  nor  such  large  cataracts  us  those 
in  other  parts  of  the  globe,  particularly  in  America.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Ebro,  the  Rhone,  and  the  Po, 
running  into  the  Mediterranean;  the  Uanulic,  the  Dnei- 
[)er,  and  the  Dneister,  into  the  Black  Sen ;  the  Don,  into 
the  St-a  of  ,\zoph ;  the  Wolga,  into  the  Casjiian ;  the 
Dwina,  into  the  Arctic  Ocean  ;  another  Dwina  or  Duna, 
the  Vistula,  and  the  Oder,  into  the  Baltic ;  the  Elbe, 
Weser,  and  Hliine,  into  the  North  Sea ;  the  Seine  into 
the  En;;lish  ('hannel;  the  Thames  into  the  German 
Ocean;  the  Loire  and  (iaronne,  the  Douro  and '1  au'us, 
the  (iaudiaiii  and  Gaudalquiver,  into  the  Atlantic,  The 
Wolga  and  Uanuln!  ate  'he  longest.  By  the  Diiniiln", 
which  |ieiietr:>les  the  continent  on  its  southern,  and  the 
Hliine  which  iK'netrates  it  on  its  north-western  side.  Hiiro;  ■e 
is  almost  cut  in  two  by  water-coursi'S.  'J'ho  Hliiae  '.t 
celeliraled  for  the  romantic  beauty  of  its  banks,  on  tlie 
middle  and  higher  part  of  its  course.  At  the  distance  i,f 
20U  mdi'S  fium  the  sea,  it  iv  as  broad  us  the  Thunii'ii  at 
Westtiiinsler,  and  suitable  for  navigation  with  steaiiiljuiill 
anil  HMull  vessels. 

Europe  possesses  innnerous  large  lakes,  tut  none  an 
exten^%e  as  th»M)  in  N>rlh  Amoiica.     The  larL'ejt  ii 


GEOGIIAI'HV. 


4& 


uts;  tiu»  it 
;iulrni'i-  of 
whole  »*X' 
of  aiiinm 
i  tlic  locali 
iii'l  nearly 
c,  thf!  cow 
u8C-fly,  ftiiJ 
locauoe  iho 
if  moderalu 
of  Asia  aiiJ 
,s  tlic  lion, 
uvorso  wide 
•oimht  for  a 
i  of  liiirilcn. 
,c,  lliellanm, 
Miliar  to  it- 
jrnis  is  timt 
warJs  nit-n- 
ith  pouchtJ 
ijT.  pcculinri 
7  hapjien  to 


sior.a  of  owl 
Llic  characttT 
the  soil,  and 
industry,  and 
ll-built  citic*, 
parts  of  the 

hich  is  called 

the  Northern 

strait  of  the 

On   the   east 

re    separated 

is  situated  in 

Hieratc  zonc;-,, 

36°  and  71° 

hich   contain 

lit  of  Eurojio 

which  Ru* 

nyih.  from 

•rii  extreniily 

about  3500 

Matapan   in 

is  about  3500 

Rh  its  riven 
tracts  as  those 
inerica.  'I'he 
and  the  Po, 
il)c,  the  Dnei- 
\e  Don,  into 
Caspian ;  the 
ina  or  Puna, 
ic;  the  EU'c, 
ic  Seino  into 
the  ticmian 
o  and  '1  uiTUi), 
tluntic.     Tho 
the  Daniibi', 
tiern,  and  llio 
aside,  Kuroi -e 
le  Khiue  ;» 
liaiiks,  on  taP 
le  distance  I'f 
10  'J'lianicii  at 
th  Bleaiiil)oa« 


s,  tut  none  f 
lie  laiy.'it   i* 


liakc  Ladoga  in  Russia.  The  lakes  celebrated  for  their 
beauty  and  extent  are  Lake  (Constance  and  Lake  Leraan 
m  Switzerland,  or  on  the  borders  of  that  country. 

A  great  part  of  Euro|)o  is  mountainoua ;  the  southern 
more  so  than  the  northern.  The  most  elevated  region 
is  Switzerland,  from  which  there  ia  a  descent,  which  ter- 
minates on  the  aide  of  the  North  Sea  and  the  Baltic,  in  low 
plains.  The  lowest  and  most  level  parts  arc  Holland 
and  Northern  Germany,  Denmark,  Russia,  and  Prussia. 
I'ho  highest  mountains  are  the  Alps,  in  Switzerland  and 
Italy,  which  spread  from  those  countries  in  various  di- 
rections, extend  wcstwardly  into  France,  and  are  con- 
nected by  the  Coveniies  with  the  Pyrenees,  which  sepa- 
rate France  from  Spain.  One  chain  of  the  Alps  stretches 
»outh  towards  the  Mediterranean ;  then,  taking  an  east- 
erly course,  runs  through  Italy,  under  the  name  of  the 
Apennines.  Several  branches  run  eastward  from  the 
Alps,  through  the  south  of  Germany,  as  far  as  the  Turk- 
ish provinces.  Another  chain,  the  Jura,  runs  to  the 
north,  and  separates  Switzerland  from  France.  In  the 
cast  of  Europe  arc  the  Carpathian  mountains,  which  on 
one  side  meet  the  Sudetic  range,  and  on  the  other  the 
mountains  of  Turkey  in  Europe.  The  highest  mountain 
m  Europe  is  Mont  Blanc,  in  Savoy,  one  of  the  Alps, 
which  is  said  to  be  15,766  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
lea. 

Several  of  the  European  mountains  are  volcanoes ;  as 
iEtna,  \esiivius,  and  Hecla.  It  is  a  fact  worthy  of  no- 
tice, that  none  of  the  volcanoes  of  Europe  are  to  be 
found  in  any  of  the  great  chains  of  mountains  which 
have  just  been  enumerated.  The  only  one  on  the  con- 
tinent is  Vesuvius,  and  this  is  too  much  detached  to  lie 
considered  as  properly  forming  one  of  the  Apennines. 
iEtna,  in  the  Island  of  Sicily,  rising  to  the  height  of  ten 
or  eleven  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  is  the 
largest  European  volcano.  The  Lapari  Islands,  anciently 
calletl  the  JEolian,  a  few  miles  to  the  north  of  Sicily, 
bear  evident  marks  of  a  volcanic  origin  ;  and  in  several 
of  them,  subterranean  fires  are  still  in  operation.  Ice- 
land, too,  presents  the  most  abundant  tokens  of  the  pre- 
sence of  volcanic  fire,  and  has  often  sullered  under  its 
devastations;  Mount  Hecla  is  the  most  noted,  although 
not  the  only  source  of  the  eruptions  on  this  island.  To 
the  possession  of  many  inland  seas,  and,  consequently, 
of  a  line  of  coast  very  extensive  in  proportion  to  its  area, 
Europe  is  greatly  indebted  for  the  great  advancement  of 
its  inhabitants  in  civilization ;  these  circumstances  being 
favourable  to  that  intercourse  without  which  nations  never 
make  great  advances. 

The  chief  Lslands  belonging  to  Europe  are — Icel  d, 
in  the  north  sea,  lying  in  the  C5th  degree  of  north  I  i- 
tuile;  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  and  other  British  Islaii 
in  the  Atlantic  and  German  Oceans  ;  Majorca,  Minorci 
Sardinia,  Sicily,  Corsica,  Elba,  the  Ionian  Isles,  Malta. 
("anJia,  and  Cyprus,  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The 
European  peninsulas  are  six  in  number :  Scandinavia, 
Jutland,  Crimea,  Italy,  Spain,  and  Greece.  The  soil  of 
Kurope,  though  not  equal  in  luxuriance  to  that  of  the 
tropics,  is  almost  throughout  fit  for  cultivation.  The 
tracts  in  the  northern  zone  are  almost  the  only  exception. 
With  respect  to  climate,  Europe  may  lie  divided  into 
three  parts — the  warm  region,  where  the  Icmoii-frees 
i;row  wild,  as  far  as  48°  north  lat.,  having  a  pleasant 
•pring,  a  hot  summer,  and  a  short  winter;  the  temperate, 
us  far  as  ti.i'  N.,  in  which  grain  rijicns ;  and  the  cold  re- 
linn.  to  the  extreme  north,  where  nothing  will  grow  but 
rttuJeer  moss,  and  i,o  domestic  animal  can  live  except 
'111'  reindeer.  The  products  are  not  so  various  as  in 
o'lipr  parts  of  the  world,  and  many  of  them  wi-re  origi- 
nally brought  from  foreign  countries  anil  naturalized ;  but, 
i  on  the  other  hand,  Euro|X!  can  Iwast  of  a  more  perfect 
lullivation.  Among  tho  animals  are  horses,  some  of 
which  are  of  tho  nobler  brcedi* ;  horned  cattle ;  sheep  in 
S[iain,  Sitiony,  and  EuKland,  of  the  finest  wool ;  asses. 


goats,  swinp,  dogs ;  reindeer;  wild  beasts  of  diflbrent  kinds 
valuable  for  their  flesh  or  fur ;  vhales ;  sea-cows,  sea-dogi  \ 
abundance  of  wild  and  tame  fowl ;  large  quantities  o' 
fish  in  the  seas,  lakes,  and  rivers,  among  which  the  her 
ring,  in  particular,  aH-irds  sustenance  to  many  of  the  in 
habitants  ;  useful  insects,  such  as  liees,  silkworms,  kermeii, 
gall-flies,  and  Spanish-flies.  Oysters  and  pearl  mussel* 
also  abound.  It  produces  all  kinds  of  grain,  and  sufH 
cient  for  its  consumption;  beautiful  garden  plants;  abun- 
dance of  fruits,  including  those  of  southern  climates,  such 
as  figs,  almonds,  chestnuts,  lemons,  oranges,  olives, 
pomegranates,  dates ;  also  flax,  hemp,  cotton,  madder, 
tobacco :  the  best  kinds  of  wine ;  and  a  great  variety  of 
wood  for  fuel,  and  for  house  and  ship  building.  The 
birch  and  the  willow  best  endure  the  cold  of  the  northern 
polar  circle.  Europe  produces  all  the  varieties  of  metals 
and  minerals  in  great  excellence  and  abundance.  In  gold 
and  silver,  Hungary  and  Transylvania  arc  the  richest; 
in  iron,  the  northern  countries,  Sweden,  Norway,  and 
Russia.  Salt  of  all  kinds,  rock,  sea,  and  spring  salt,  ia 
also  abundant  in  Europe. 

The  inhabitants,  estimated  by  Malte-Brun  at  200  mil- 
lions at  least,  are  unequally  distributed ;  in.  Russia  and 
Sweden  there  are  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  to  a  square 
mile ;  in  the  Netherlands,  where  the  population  is  most 
dense,  Italy,  France,  Great  Britain,  and  Germany,  Iho 
same  extent  supports  from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two 
hundred  and  fifty  persons.  The  inhabitants  consist  of 
several  dilferent  races,  speaking  distinct  languages.  The 
stocks  to  which  the  principal  languages  lielong,  are — the 
Teutonic,  which  is  the  mother  of  the  German,  Dutcli, 
English,  Swedish,  and  Danish;  the  Latin,  or  Roman, 
now  spoken  only  by  the  learned,  but  the  mother  of  the 
Italian,  French,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  Wallachian ; 
the  Slavonic,  to  which  belong  the  Russian,  Polish,  Bo 
hemian,  Bulgarian,  Vandal,  and  the  Servian,  or  Illyrian. 
Besides  these,  there  are  the  modern  Greek ;  the  Turco- 
Tartaric;  tho  Finnish  and  Hungarian;  the  Cehic  in 
Wales  and  the  north-west  part  of  France  (Bretagne); 
the  Highlands  of  Scotland  and  Ireland ;  the  Basque, 
among  the  Pyrenees.  The  most  widely  spoken  is  the 
Gei  nan,  with  its  kindred  languages,  formed  by  a  union 
of  the  Roman  with  the  Teutonic. 

Tho  prevailing  religion  is  the  Christian,  which  in 
eludes  several  churches,  viz.,  the  Roman  Catholic,  which 
is  the  most  numerous;  the  Protestant  (Lutheran,  Calvl 
ntstic,  and  Anglician),  consisting  of  luimerous  sects- 
Anabaptists,  Mennonites,  Quakers,  Unitarians,  Metho 
dista,  Moravians,  and  the  Greek  church.  A  part  of  the 
inhabitants  profess  the  Jewish,  a  part  tho  Mohammedan 
religion.  Among  tho  Laplanders  and  Sanioeides,  there 
are  also  some  heathens,  but  their  numlx-r  is  small. 

Agriculture  lias  made  great  advances  in  Europe,  and  is 
laily  improving.  In  this  respect,  those  countries  are  par- 
ticularly distinguished  where  the  Teutonic  languages  art) 
spoken,  as  also  are  France  and  a  part  of  Italy.  In  no 
part  of  the  world  are  manufactures  carried  to  such  per- 
fection as  in  several  of  the  European  countries,  es|iecially 
in  (Jreat  Britain,  France,  the  Netherlands,  and  Germany. 
The  inhabitants  work  up  not  only  native  European,  but 
also  foreign  products,  and  supply  all  the  wants  and  luxu 
ries  of  life.  Commerce  is  not  less  active,  and  is  promoteA 
by  well-constructed  ro-ads  and  canals,  by  well-organizet 
posts,  banks,  insurance  companies,  commercial  companies 
and  fairs.  The  commerce  of  Europe  extends  to  all  qaai 
ters  of  tho  world,  and  every  sea  is  filled  with  Europear. 
ships.  In  this  resjieet,  (ireat  Britain  is  most  distin- 
guished. Europe  is  the  seat  of  art  and  science;  to  her 
belongs  the  hoiUiur  of  discovering  the  most  important 
truths,  of  giving  birth  to  the  most  useful  inventions  and 
the  finest  productions  of  genius,  and  the  improvement  of 
all  the  sciences.  In  intellectual  progress,  the  Teutonic 
races,  and  those  who  gjM'ak  the  languages  derived  from 
^  the  Latin,  have  surpassed  the  Slavonic  natic^nt.    'i'li# 


4« 


I.VFOiniATlON    FOR   THK    PKOPLE. 


Turks  have  remained  s(rangt!r?,  in  many  rwpocta,  ti>  tiie 
literary  and  scientific  improvement  wliieli  has  marked  the 
other  Enropc'in  nations.  Ei^hly-five  universities  provide 
for  the  higher  hranehes  of  ediiratlon  ;  numerous  Rymna- 
lia  and  academics  for  the  prepanitory  studies,  and  a  great 
number  of  lower  schools,  particularly  in  Oermany,  arc 
employed  in  educating  the  common  people.  In  many 
places  there  are  academies  of  si'lence,  and  societies  of  all 
kinds,  for  the  cultivation  of  the  arts  and  sciences. 

By  its  physical  situation,  Euro|)e  is  divided  into  East 
and  West  E\irope.  West  Euro|)0  comprises  the  Pyre- 
nean  peninsula  (Spain  and  Portugal),  the  country  west 
of  the  Alps  (France),  the  countries  north  of  the  Alps 
(Switzerland,  Germany,  and  the  Metherlands),  the  coun- 
\rj  south  of  the  .\lps  (Italy),  the  Islands  of  the  North 
>iea  (Orcat  Britain,  Ireland,  and  Iceland),  and  the  coun- 
tries on  the  Baltic  (Denmark,  Norway,  Sweden,  and 
Prussia).  East  Europe  cnntains  the  countries  north  of 
tlie  Carpathian  mountains  (Russia  and  Gallicia),  and  the 
countries  south  of  the  Carpathian  nioinitains  (Hungary, 
in  its  more  coinprehensivo  sense,  and  Turkey). 

The  following  are  the  political  states  of  Europe : — 
rhe  three  emi)lres  of  Austria,  Russia,  and  Turkey;  seven- 
teen kingdoms,  viz.,  Portugal,  Spain,  France,  Great  Bri- 
tiin,  Holland,  Belgium,  Denmark,  Sweden,  (Including 
Norway),  Sal;^llnia,  the  Two  Si<'ilie3,  Greece,  Prussia,  Ba- 
varia, Saxony,  Hanover,  and  Wiirtemberg;  one  ccclesi- 
isticai  state,  the  papal  dominions  ;  eight  republics,  namely, 
Switzerland,  the  Ionian  Islands,  San  Marino,  Hamburg, 
Lubtick,  Bremen,  Cracow,  and  Frankfort;  one  electorate, 
Hesse;  six  grand-duchies, Baden,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  Saxe- 
Weimar,  Meeklei.burg-Schwerin,  Mecklenlmrg-Strolitz, 
and  Tuscany ;  "twelve  duchies,  viz.,  Oldenburg,  Gotha, 
Meiningen,  .Mtenhurg,  Brunswick,  Nassau,  Dessau,  Bern- 
burg,  Ciithcn,  Modena,  Parma,  and  Lucca;  one  land- 
graviate,  viz.,  Hesse-Homl)urg;  twelve  principalities, 
viz.,  Hohenzollern-Hechini;en,  Holienzollcrn-Zigmarin- 
gcn,  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadl,  Schwarzburg  Sondershau- 
«en.  Waldeck,  LipiH--DctinoId,  Schaumburg-Llppe,  I.icht- 
enstein,  l{euss-Grelz,  Rmi^s-Schleiz,  Reuss-Lobenstcin, 
and  Reuss-Ebersdorf. 

Austria,  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Hanover,  Wurtcm- 
burg,  Hamburg,  Lubeck,  Bremen,  Frankfort,  Hesse,  and 
the  above  grand-duchies  and  duchies,  compofie  the  region 
which  we  call  Germany,  but  the  proper  name  of  which, 
OS  given  by  the  natives,  is  DmitKchLuid — the  land  of  the 
Teutoncs,  an  ancient  people  of  central  Europe. 

THE  BRITISH   ISLANDS. 

These  islands,  the  most  import.int  belonging  to  Europe, 
lie  at  a  short  distance  fr  <m  the  north-west  coast  of  France, 
betwixt  the  .\tlantic  Ocean  on  the  west  and  the  German 
Ocean  on  the  eo-st.  From  their  southernmost  boundary 
upon  the  British  Channel  to  the  most  northerly  of  llie 
Shetland  group,  is  a  distance  of  very  nearly  eleven  de- 
grees, measuring  from  the  ."JOth  to  the  01st  degree  of 
north  latitude.  The  main  island,  which  since  the  Union 
hat  been  called  Great  Britain,  is  composed  of  two  por- 
tions, with  considerably  distinctive  features,  under  the 
names  of  England  and  Scotland.  England  forms  the 
larger,  the  mast  southerly,  and  much  the  finest  portion 
of  the  island,  and  IIl-s  betwixt  the  .OOlh  and  ."iSth  degree. 
Scotland  lies  on  the  north  of  this  division,  and  reaches 
tho  58th  degree.  Ireland  is  a  lar:je  ami  beautiful  island 
lying  to  th-j  nrest  of  England,  from  wliicli  it  is  separated 
only  by  a  c'.aniiel  half  a  day's  lail  in  breadth,  and  ex- 
teds  i.i  'cr.gth  from  ■'il°  10'  to  hit''  20'  north  latitude. 
Its  gre:i'.-i'.  length,  measuring  fronj  N  E.  to  8  W.,  is  about 
300  mil,s;  the  greatest  breadth  about  60  miles.  The 
rhiel  of  the  minor  islands  arc  the  14c  of  Msn,  lying  in 
die  Irish  Channel ;  Anglesea,  on  the  coast  of  Wales  ;  the 
Kelitides,  a  series  of  large  and  small  isles  on  the  west 
eoasl  of  Scotland;  the  Orkney  Islands,  separated  from 
the  nirth  point  of  Scotland  by  the  Pontland  F-'h;  and 


tho  Shetland  Islands,  lying  conriderably  north  of  thf 
Orkneys.  Besides  these,  there  arc  some  islands  in  th« 
British  ("hannel,  near  the  coast  of  France,  called  Guem 
scy,  .Ier««'y,  Alderney,  Sic.  Reckoning  largo  and  small, 
tho  Britisli  islands  amount  to  some  hundreds  in  numbct 
but  many  of  the  smallest  are  not  inhabited. 

In  IH.'H,  tho  population  of  England  and  V/ales  wai 
I3,S94,.'>(!9,  of  Scotland  2,30.^,807,  and  of  Ireland 
7,731  ,.30.');  adding  the  number  of  individuals  in  the 
army  and  navy,  277,017,  the  total  population  amounted 
to  24.271, 7.')8.  Reckoning  tho  iidiabitants  of  foreign 
countries  subject  to  Great  Britain,  the  entire  population 
of  the  British  empire  amounts  to  about  118,000,000. 

[It  is  considered  unnecessary  hero  to  say  any  thing 
further  of  the  British  Islands,  as  they  form  tho  suliject  oi 
various  other  articles,  cnti'led  Histoht  of  Giik.it  Bin 

TAIX,     DhSCIllPTloy     OF     E.NIILANU,     DkBCHI  PTIOJT     0» 

SroTi.AMn,  Dkschiptiox  op  Iiiklanp,  Co.nstiti-tiok 
Asn  Rksouhcf.s  of  thk  British  E.mpihk,  not  to  speak 
of  the  accounts  of  Canada,  West  Indies,  East  Indies,  and 
other  foreign  possessions,  each  forming  distinct  numberi 
of  the  present  work.] 

FRANCE. 

After  Great  Britain,  France  is  usually  reckoned  the 
most  powerful  and  influential  coiiiilry  in  Europe.  In 
point  of  territorial  extent  and  amount  of  population,  it 
stands  much  higher  than  Great  Britain,  which  Is  but  a 
small  country,  and  it  likewise  possesses  a  finer  climate; 
nevertheless,  such  have  been  its  unfortunate  pcJitical  and 
religious  dissensions  and  inisarrangeincnts,  that  it  has 
|)crmitted  itself  to  be  outstripped  in  the  race  of  iniprovo- 
munt  by  England.  Yet  under  all  its  backwardness,  in 
many  points  France  forms  u  great  nation,  well  deserving 
of  the  sympathy  and  respect  of  its  neighbours ;  and  it  if 
greatly  to  be  desired  that  in  future  a  good  understanding 
should  subsist  Ix-tween  It  and  Great  Britain. 

France  is  situated  Intween  latitude  42'^  20'  and  .'51°  5 
N.,  and  longitude  3°  61'  E.  and  0°  27'  W.,  comprisini; 
an  extent  of  213.800  square  miles,  with  a  population, 
according  to  ofliclal  returns,  in  1827,  of  31,8.51,51!}.  It 
is  bordered  on  the  north-east  by  the  Low  Countries,  the 
Prussian  province  of  tho  Lower  Rhine,  and  Kbenish 
Bavaria ;  on  the  cast.  It  ia  separated  from  Baden  bv  the 
Rhine,  and  touches  Switzerland  and  Sardinia;  on  the 
south,  its  Iwunilirles  are  the  Mediterranean,  the  Pyre- 
nees, anil  the  Uidaesoa;  the  ocean  bounds  the  rest.  'J'hc 
island  of  Corsica,  and  tlio  Hieres,  in  the  Mediterranean, 
and  the  Isles  of  Oleron,  Re  Noirmoutier,  Belle-Isle,  Dieu, 
and  Ushaiit  in  the  .Athint'C,  lielong  to  France,  'i'lir 
foreign  possessions  ore  of  li'ilo  value.  They  are  in  Asia, 
Pondicherry  and  Karica!  on  thfi  Coromandel  coast,  Ya- 
naon  in  the  Northern  Circars,  Chindcrnagore  in  Bengnl, 
Mahe  on  the  Malabar  co.ut,  a  faetcry  at  Surat,  and  some 
factories  in  .Arabia,  ccntsijirig  in  all  179,000  inhabitants, 
in  Africa,  Senegal,  Goreo,  the  Isle  of  Bourbon,  and  some 
factories,  containing  !,'y,U0O  inhabitants;  in  America, 
Martinique,  and  Gaudaiou|)e  with  its  dependencies,  (Jul- 
ana,  and  the  small  islands  of  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon, 
near  Newfoundland,  containing  225,000  inhabitants.  The 
territory  is  divided  into  8fi  departmentii,  which  generally 
derive  their  names  from  the  rivers,  'i'hey  are  sulxllvidcd 
into  303  arrondissements,  2844  cantons,  and  38,;)3il 
conuniines.  Esch  department  is  governed  by  a  prefect 
and  each  arrondiNscnient  by  a  subprefect.  The  cantons 
have  no  admiijistrativo  powers.  The  communes  aru 
under  a  mayor.  The  provincial  olficerfl  generally  are 
appointed  by  the  home  minister,  only  those  of  towiii 
under  5000  inhabitants  l>i>lng  appointed  by  the  prefect. 

The  principal  mountains  of  France  are — 1.  The  \oii|:ei 
on  the  nortli-cast.  They  are  of  a  rounded  outline,  with 
gentle  8lo|)es,  ami  Rdbrd  iiuch  o[)on  ims'.iiruge.  Thf 
highest  summit  is  not  -..o-e  than  4500  leei  nign.  2.  The 
Jura  mountains  lie  1 1  the  south  of  these,  and  their  (IUD- 


GEO  OR  A  PHY. 


of  IrchiiJ 
iluals  ill  the 
ion  nmounlcd 
lU  of  forriRn 
iro  poiiulatiou 
J,000,000. 
say  any  thing 
the  subject  ot 

,  GllKAT  UllI 
ifUlVTIOX  Of 
loSHTlTl-TION 

K,  not  to  spouk 
last  Indies,  and 
slinct  numben 


n  Euroin".     In 
if  iio|)viliilion.  il 
which  is  liut  a 
a  finer  climate; 
nto  iiciliti<;il  and 
nU,  that  it  ha» 
race  of  iniprovo' 
jackvvardness,  in 
ri,  well  deserving 
ihours ;  and  it  i< 
;«1  understanding 
tain. 

><'  20'  and  51°  5 
'  W.,  coniprii-ing 
Uli  a  popvilatioii, 
•  31,8f)l,r>»5.     Il 
iw  C'ountrics,  the 
[lo,  and   Khcni^h 
iin  15adcn  bv  the 
irdinia;  on  tlic 
ruicaii,  tlie  I'yrc- 
Lis  the  rest.    The 
\w  Mediterranciin, 
licUe-Islo,  Dicu, 
JO   Trance.     The 
Tliey  are  in  Asiii, 
iiandel  coant,  Ya- 
iiaifore  in  15en?al, 
tSurat,  and  some 
J.OOO  inhabitants, 
lourb'in,  and  boiik 
Its;    in   America, 
.•pendencies,  Ciui- 
ro  and  Miquelon, 
I  inhabitants.  The 
1,  wliicli  Keiieroll; 
Ley  arc  sulnUvidcJ 
;ons,   and   •.i8,33SI 
•ned  by  a  prefect 
■ct.     'n>e  cantons 
le   communes  a^^ 
•era  Rcncrally  n™ 
|y  those  of  towni 
il  by  the  pr<>l'oct 
le_l.TheVo*SM 
[nded  outline,  wit 
ims'.urttge.     The 
|lecl  nip:n.    3.  Tl« 
se.  and  their  •un*' 


mud  nun  t>  Iho  heicrht  of  (iOOO  f'ct.  3.  Many  Alpine 
,l)fanche»  intersect  Uauphiny  and  Provence.  In  tho 
centre  of  tho  kini^lom  arc — 4.  The  mo\intaing  of  An- 
fer)?nn,  of  volcanic  oritjin,  of  which  the  Pny  do  Dome, 
Ihe  MonU  d'Or,  and  the  Cnntal,  are  tho  moat  conspicu- 
ous. 6.  The  Cevennes  Iin  to  tho  south-east  of  the  ranc[0 
last  mentioned.  Their  hiithest  summit  is  Mont  T,o/.ere 
(qlKJut  f'lolO  feet).  6.  The  Pyrenees  form  ^he  principal 
part  of  the  boundary  between  Franco  and  Spain.  These 
mountains  divide  Iho  country  into  four  a;reat  basins,  tho 
form  and  exposure  of  which  necessarily  have  a  ureat 
Influence  on  their  climato  and  productions.  The  narrow 
valley  of  the  Khone  runs  from  north  to  south,  while  tho 
open  basins  of  the  Seine,  tho  Loire,  and  tho  Garonne, 
Btrctch  in  a  north-western  direction.  The  .\donr  rises  in 
tlio  Pyrenees,  and  washes  the  walls  of  Bayonnc.  The 
other  rivers  are  principally  tributaries.  The  Marne  and 
the  Oiso  fall  into  tho  Seine ;  the  Allier,  the  Loire,  tho 
Sartho,  and  the  Mayenne,  into  the  Loire;  tho  Rhone 
receives  tho  Sanne,  the  Is»':re,  the  Durance,  the  Ain,  and 
the  Sorgiio ;  the  Tarn  and  the  Dordoctne  join  tho  Ga- 
ronne. Tho  nutnerous  branches  of  these  rivers  arc 
joined  by  canals,  which  form  an  extensive  internal  water 
coinmunicatioil. 

In  respect  to  soil,  the  richest  part  of  France  is  the 
northern  ilivis-  ■  ,,  comprehendinq;  the  provinces  of  Flan- 
ilcrs,  Artois,  Pi-  rdy,  Norman<ly,  and  the  Isle  of  France, 
where  there  is  a  deep  rich  loam;  about  18,179,590  acres 
in  extent.  The  valley  of  the  Garonne  is  composed  of  a 
friable  sandy  loam,  with  a  calcareous  mixture,  and  mois- 
ture sufTicient  for  every  purpose.  This  district  contains 
7,6.')4.5IU  acres.  The  great  valley  of  Lanijuedoc  is  ex- 
Ircmcly  prolil'ie,  thonp[h  the  soil  is  not  so  fine  as  that  of 
the  precediuK  districts.  Tho  Limacne,  a  valley  of  Au- 
vergne,  is  considered  to  have  one  of  the  finest  soils  in  the 
Will  Id.  It  consists  of  beds  of  earth,  said  to  l)e  twenty 
feet  deep,  formed  from  the  decomposition  of  soft  basalt. 
The  calcareous  and  chalk  formations  are  extensive.  The 
cliilk  ])rovince3  are  unfruitful  in  (jrain,  hut  the  irenial 
influence  of  the  sun  allows  them  other  riches.  The  cal- 
c.ircous  loam  on  the  borders  of  the  chalk  formation  is 
more  productive.  Tlie  Drctaffne,  Anjou,  and  Maine,  are 
immense  heaths.  The  Inudes  are  extensive  tracts  of 
landy  deserts,  producing  nothinc  but  broom,  heath,  and 
juiiif>«r.  The  most  extensive  are  the  landes  of  Bordeaux, 
tw(  nty  leagues  in  length  by  twelve  in  breadth.  In  the 
irinaoun!;  provinces,  gravel,  or  a  cravelly  sand,  is  the 
prcilominatina;  soil.  The  woods  and  fiirests  are  estimated 
1(1  cover  a  space  of  lH,795,t)00  acres.  The  principal 
arc  Iho-.e  of  Ardennes,  OrleanR  and  Fontainebleau.  The 
no'thern  and  western  coasts  are  formed  in  a  great  pro- 
|xirtion  by  immense 'JoxTs  ami  sandbanks;  aiitl  where 
ill'  shores  are  formed  by  clilfs,  they  are  seldom  bold 
enough  to  be  approached  with  safety.  The  harbcO*  m 
th'-refore  few.  On  tho  Mediterranean,  the  coast  of  Lan- 
cuodoc  is  very  dangerous,  but  Provence  al>ounda  in  good 
hurlmurs.  Tho  culture  throughout  the  northern  half  of 
tlic  kirigdom,  consists  of  wheat,  barley,  oats,  pulse,  and, 
of  late  muck  more  than  formerly,  of  potatoes ;  in  the 
siiithern  half,  corn  (particularly  maize),  vines,  miilher- 
riis,  and  olives.  Tho  eastern  parts,  being  more  elevated 
lli.in  the  western,  have  more  rigorous  winters  and  more 
arlciit  summers.  Coal  and  iron  are  found  in  abundance. 
The  riMst  common  fuel  is  wood. 

The  superficial  extent  of  France  has  Iven  recently 
c>iimRted  by  Uariin  Diipin  at  .'):l,r)3;?,42()  hectares,  or 
irj.lifl  1,000  English  acres.  The  amount  of  capital 
iiivcstcil  in  agricultural  pursuits  is  estimated  at 
37.,Vi2.nfi  1 ,470  francs;  tho  gross  annual  (iroduce  at 
4,07H,7I)H,«S5  francs;  the  expenses  of  cultivation  at 
3,3111, 005,')  1.5;  leaving  a  profit  of  .1^-  per  cent,  on  tho 
capital.  The  produce  of  wheat  in  the  best  cultivated  dis- 
Ihcts,  and  on  the  liest  soil,  hardly  exceeds  eighteen  bush- 
fii  per  acre :  an  English  liirincr  expects  tw  tnty-five  on  the 


tame  extent.  In  1818,  tho  number  of  horics  in  Fi  lo- 1 
was  2,17(1,000;  but  in  1819,  the  horses  and  mules  togethoi 
amounted  only  to  1,057,671 ;  at  present  the  number  l» 
estimated  at  2,500,000.  Tho  number  of  horned  cattk 
is  6,97:J,000;  of  sheep,  about  4.5,000,000.  The  total 
number  of  all  kinds  of  poultry  is  about  51,000,000 
The  French  are  the  best  wine-makers  iu  the  world.  The 
Ohampagne,  Burgundy,  Claret,  Hermitage,  arc  univer- 
sally ci'Icl  rated.  For  a  long  lime,  the  choisest  growths 
were  in  the  hands  of  the  church;  and  in  the  frequent 
changes  of  property  which  havo  taken  place  since  the 
Revolution,  many  vineyards  have  deteriorated  in  conse- 
quence of  bad  management.  The  brandies  of  France 
are  believed  to  bo  unrivalled.  The  value  of  the  whole 
produce  of  wine  and  brandy  is  about  800,000,000  francs. 
The  culture  of  the  vino  is  suiiposed  to  have  increased 
nearly  one-fourth  since  the  Revolution,  o'ving  princi- 
pally to  the  small  proprietors,  each  of  whom  endeavour* 
to  supply  his  own  consumption  by  a  little  patch  of  vine- 
yard. M.  Dupin  says  that  many  hectares  of  French 
territory  are  yet  uncultivated,  merely  for  want  of  cattle 
to  stock  and  manure  them ;  that  two-thirds  of  the  inhabit- 
ants are  without  animal  food ;  that  more  than  one-third 
subsist  entirely  on  oats,  buckwheat,  rye.  chestnuts,  or  po- 
tatoes, and  that  the  agricultural  population  is  too  great 
for  tho  prosperity  of  France.  Two-thirds  of  the  popula. 
ticm  is  agricultural. 

France  possesses  a  soil  and.  climato  capable  of  fur- 
nishing her  with  all  the  raw  materials  of  manufacture 
except  cotton.  The  maiuifacturc  of  fine  woollen  cloths 
at  Sedan  was  introduced  under  the  auspices  of  (,'olbcrt. 
Tho  machinery  used  was  very  defective  until  M.  ('hapfal 
engaged  an  English  machinist  to  instruct  tho  French  arti- 
sans. Steam-engines  are  rare ;  the  spimiing-niills  being 
worked  chiefly  by  water  or  by  horses.  The  quantity 
of  native  wool  manufactured  in  1819  was  .18,000,000 
kilogrammes  (of  aliout  2J  lbs.  each),  and,  in  182fi 
42,000,000,  with  8,000,000  of  imported  wool ;  the  value 
of  the  manufactured  articles  was  205,000,000  francs ;  of 
the  raw  wool,  105,000,000:  tho  quantity  exported  wa» 
about  one-thirteenth  of  the  whole  quantity  manufactured. 
By  the  exertions  of  Henry  IV.,  the  mulberry-tree  'vas  culti- 
vated in  all  the  southern  provinces.  At  Tours,  silk  stutlii 
for  furniture  are  chiclly  manufactured ;  at  Ganges,  and 
other  places  in  tho  Cevennes,  silk  stockings.  Lyons  is 
the  principal  place  for  silk  manufactures  of  all  kinds. 
Paris  LMiks  next  after  Iiyons.  In  1812,  the  value  of  the 
r.aw  mat.  rial  amounted  to  45,500,000  francs,  of  which 
22,000,000  were  the  price  of  imported  silk.  The  value  of 
manufactured  goods,  at  the  same  periml,  was  1 07.500,000 
Irancs,  of  which  less  than  one-third  was  exported.  Forty 
years  ago,  the  spinning  of  cotton  by  machinery  wa» 
hardly  practised  in  France,  (^^otton  mills  have  been 
vtablished  within  that  period,  and  the  manulactures  of 
Alsace  are  now  superior  to  those  of  England  in  the  bril- 
liancy, of  their  colours.  In  1812,10,302,000  kilogram- 
mes of  cotton  were  spun  by  machinery  ;  and  in  1826, 
28,000,000  of  greater  fineness.  The  cambrics,  gauze, 
and  lawn  of  St.  Quentin,  Valenciennes,  and  Cambray 
arc  among  the  most  valuable  products  of  Fr.mch  indus- 
try.    Lace  is  made  in  great  quantities. 

The  whole  produce  of  the  linen  and  hemp  manufac 
tures   is   estimated    at   200,000,000   francs.     In   1814. 
100,000,000  kilogrammes  of  cast-iron  were  proiluccd;  iri 
1825,  160,000,0(10.     Gilding  and  watch-making  are  car- 
ried on,  chiclly  in  Paris,  to  the  annual  value  of  about 
I  ."38,000,000  francs  each.     Printing  also  employs  a  great 
j  number  of  persons  at  Paris.     In  1814,  the  number  of 
I  printed    sheets  was  45,675,039;  in   1820,  80.921,302; 
laud   in   1820,   141,501,094.     Notwithstanding  the  low 
price  of  labour  in   France,  the  industry  of  that  country 
cannot  enter   into  competition  with   that  of  England. 
One  of  the  circumstances  which  depress  it  is  the  wa.'4 
of  internal  communication  by  roads  and  canals.    The 


M 


INFOIJMATION    FOR   THK   PKOPLM. 


(irarticable  roadu  of  Frnnrfl  srn  not  more  thin  one-third 
of  the  extont  of  fhosi-  of  Rnglnnd.  Tho  cro»«-roiiil<  nrn 
fow,  and  fho  urnit  rondu  arc  ncldotn  ki'pt  in  civwl  onlcr. 
Tl^c  Ipnijth  of  the  rannU  in  Frnnrc  U  nut  more  thnri  onr- 
elevcntli  of  tliose  of  Englnnd.  Another  point  in  whi.di 
Franre  is  infi-rior  is  in  tho  use  of  stoiiin-ciittinpH,  uitrilm- 
tiililc  in  pnit  to  tho  dcfifii-'nry  of  coal,  or  the  dillicnlty  of 
trannportini?  it.  The  total  force  of  stcam-cnijiircs  in 
France  !»  reckoned  to  lie  equal  to  that  of  ftOO.noO  men ; 
tlinl  of  EnRlnnd  is  ecinal  to  n  power  of  8,(t00,()0l)  men. 
All  the  power  drriveil  from  machinery  of  every  sort,  or 
from  constructive  ingenuity,  and  applied  to  piirposes  of 
Midustry  in  France,  is  only  one-fourth  of  the  giinilar 
power  employed  in  England. 

The  comnieree  of  Franco  has  l)een  very  much  diini- 
niahed  by  the  loss  of  her  colonies.  The  value  of  the  colo- 
nial imports,  in  1788,  was  287,000,000  francs;  in  1821, 
it  was  only  50,000,000.  The  exports  for  1788  amounted 
to  119,000,000;  in  1824,  to  44,000,000.  The  total  value 
of  exports  from  France  in  1824  was  140,.^)42,000  fiunca; 
of'which  163,0.')r>,000  vrcre  Tmxluctions  of  the  country, 
and  277,4ft(!,000  manufactured  articles.  The  amount 
exported  to  tho  United  States  was  ."i.^.OOO.OOO,  iH-iiiR 
more  than  that  to  any  other  country.  The  imports  for 
the  same  year  were  of  the  value  of  4.^4,861,000  francs; 
of  which  272,87.1,000  francs  were  raw  nr.iterials  for 
manufacture,  121,f),'>7.000  natural  protluctions  for  con- 
sumption, and  00,030,000  manufactured  articles. 

The  French  are  descendants  of  the  Roman  provincials 
and  ancient  Oauls,  and  hence  their  lanRuajre  is  a  mixture 
of  mo»lified  Tatin  and  the  tongue  of  the  original  inlmhit- 
nnts,  but  much  altered  in  orthography  and   in  tone  of 
•peech  in  modern  times.     The  kingdom  was  for  many 
centuries  governed   in  a  desjwtic  manner   by  a  line  of 
sovereigns  of  dilTerent  dyni^ities.  from  Clovis.  in  the  year 
481,  to  tlint  of  the  Bourbons  in  the  jH'rson  of  Iiouis  XVI., 
1793.    One  of  these  monarchs,  Louis  XI \'.,  who  reigned 
during:  the   latter  half  of  the   seventeenth  century,  ex- 
hausted the  resources  of  the  nation  in  foreign  wars  and 
personal  extravagance,  and,  In-sides,  greatly  corrupti'd  the 
manners  of  Ihc  people.     'J'his  laid  the  foundation  of  n 
course  of  events  which  terminated  in  the  national  ruin 
and  fearful  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  in   1789.     This  j 
revolution  deluged  the  country  in  blood,  and  ended  with  [ 
Ihc  establishment  of  a  republic;  but  this  was  s|H'edily  ; 
succeeded  by  the  elevation  of  Napoleon  Bonii|iarte,  fust  j 
as  consul,  and  ne»t  as  em|ieror.    The  eaieer  of  Napoleon 
clused    in    181.5,  with  the   battle  of  M'aterloo,  and   the 
Bourbons  were  restored  by  the  arms  of  Britain  and  other 
nations.     The   Bourbons  were  expelled   in    1830,  nineo  j 
which    period    the    reigning    monarch    Iuls    U'cn    Louis  I 
Philippe,  a  descendant  of  the  brother  of  Louis  XIV.,  and 
in  whose  male  descendants  tho  monarchy  is  hereu.larj-.  | 
On  the  establishment  of  the  |)rpseii'.  limited  inoi  archy 
in  1830,  the  national  constitution  was  reorganiwil  .in  the. 
following  footing : — The  king  is  the  supreme  hca    of  the  ■ 
state ;  he  commands  the   land   and  sea   forces,  declares 
war,  makes   treaties  of  peace,  alliance,  and   C3:iimerce ; 
a|ipoints  to  all  ofTlces  of  the  public  administration,  and  i 
makes  all  the  regulations  and  ordinances  necessary  for  ; 
the  execution  of  the  laws  und-r  the  responsible  advice  of  i 
his  ministers.     Any  of  the  three  branches  of  the  legisla- 
ture can  propose  laws  j  tho  Chamber  of  Peers  may  sit  | 
without  that  of  the  Deputies  only  as  a  court  of  justice;  i 
peers  may  speak  in  the  house  at  the  age  o;'  twenty-five  i 
years;  princes  of  the  blood  may  lit  in  the  Housf  oi  t'cers  , 
without  a  sfwcial  summons  from  the  king;  the  deliliera- 1 
Sions  of  the  peers  are  public;  tlie  renewal  of  onc-fil'th  of  ! 
the  deputies  every  year  is  abolished ;  persons  ar"  eligible  j 
H8  deputies  at  the  age  of  twenty-five  years ;  the  deputies  ! 
elect  their  president  without  the  concurrence  of  t'le  kins; ' 
and  the  electors  thooso  tho  olTicers  of  the  electoral  col- ! 
lege*  without  the  interference  of  the  king,  articles  40 
and  47  of  the  old   (barter,  respecting  amendments,  and  , 


the  adoption  of  the  tax  acts  by  the  deputies,  previous!) 
to  being  sent  to  the  peers,  are  re|Hmled ;  as  is  also  artich 
aa,  exejnptiiig  the  niinislers  from  imiH'achment,  except 
for  treason  or  extortion;  llie  prtv&inl  courts  are  abolished; 
the  king  takes  the  conslitntionul  oath,  not  at  (he  time  ol 
tho  cornnation,  but  on  his  accession,  as  in  Kngliind.  Bo 
sides  this,  provision  is  to  be  made,  by  separate  laws, 
for — 1.  The  trial  of  otrcnees  of  the  jiress  by  a  jury, 
2.  'i'ho  responsibility  of  ministers,  and  other  agents  of 
power;  3.  For  the  re-election  of  deputies  proniotp<l  to 
otlices  with  salaries;  4.  The  annual  vot<'  of  supplies  for  the 
army;  i).  The  organization  of  the  national  guard;  fi.  The 
settling  the  rank  of  all  naval  and  military  ollieers;  7.  I)o 
|)artniental  and  mnniei|)al  governments  founded  on  the 
elective  system;  8.  I'ublic  instruction  provided  for;  liberty 
of  ti-aching  allowed  to  all-  9.  The  abolition  of  the  double 
vote,  and  of  the  electoral  candidates  and  their  eligibility. 
The  charter  is  inlru.-led  to  the  protection  of  Ibe  imtinnol 
guard,  and  the  patriotism  of  the  nation.  The  charter, 
with  the  "changes  anil  niodilicalions  expre-'wd  in  tlie 
declaration  of  the  Cbainber  of  Deputies,"  was  presented 
to  Louis  Philippe,  who,  on  the  »tli  of  August,  IS.tO,  took 
the  constitutional  oath;  and  thus  the  imtshlu'iim  luti'^y^t 
was  changed  into  a  real  contract  lietween  the  ruler  and 
the  people. 

By  the  letter  of  these  provisions,  Frnnep  possesses  a 
free  constitutional  government;  but  such  is  the  inllucnce 
of  tlic^  executive,  Ibat,  [iraetically,  the  iM'0|i|e  enjoy  much 
less  liln-rly  tlian  the  Ilriti.sli.  So  unsettled,  likewise,  is 
the  system  of  things,  that  a  large  statnling  arjny  and  mi- 
litia force  (.N'ational  (inard)  has  to  be  maintained,  at  a 
heavy  ('X|iens»!  and  inconvenience  to  the  nation.  In 
1837,  the  army  amounlerl  to  .TOO.OOO  men.  The  na- 
tional ex|H'niliture  in  1838  was  ulh)Ut  i;i4. 000,000,  to 
which  the  revenue  was  inadecinate:  the  national  debt  at 
tho  same  time  amounted  to  2.'J4,5fiG,49f!  francs.  The 
French  navy,  in  lH3(i,  consisted  of  49  pbips  of  the  line, 
02  frigates,  31  corvettes,  49  brigs,  and  with  other  vessels 
amounted  to  a  total  of  321. 

Previously  to  the  revolution  of  1789,  the  Roman  Ca- 
tholic Wits  [he  est.dili.shed  religion,  and  the  country  con- 
tained a  vast  numls'r  of  monasteries  and  convents.  Lat- 
terly, since  1830,  there  has  been  no  establisbed  church, 
but  the  Roman  Calbolic  worship  predoniinales,  and  i» 
adhered  to  by  the  reigning  family.  In  IS30  there  w-^rs 
14  archbishojis,  fUi  bishops,  174  vicars-general,  OtiO  canons, 
3401  cures,  27,770  desservnns,  and  0184  vicaries — tota 
of  clergy,  37,27.5.  Tb.e  bishops  have  each  about  XtiOO 
ayear  of  salary,  and  the  working  clergy  from  i.20  toiOO 
each.  There  are  about  1,000,000  of  Protestants  in  France 
The  entire  cost  to  the  state  of  religious  cstalilishmenln. 
Roman^Calholic,  Protestant,  and  Jewish,  amounted  in 
1.^38  to  3.'5,443,.')00  francs.  With  Tesp»-et  to  education, 
France  at  present  possesses  2fi  universitii's,  303  liii;!i. 
m-hools,  or  academies,  in  the  li;rge  towns  ami  ilii-tricts,  73 
normal  scIkmiIs  for  tr.ii'iing  teachers,  873  boanliii),'- 
schools,  30,000  elementary  seliools  for  boys,  and  11,0(K) 
elementary  schools  for  girls.  The  whole  are  under  tiic 
supreme  direction  of  thi?  minister  of  [lublic  instruction; 
and  the  total  cost  in  1838  was,  19,00,i,()73  francs,  ot 
nearly  X800,(IOO. 

France  J)<ib.><-sscs  a  considerable  number  of  towns,  with 
ponulaiions  of  from  live  to  thirty  thousand,  and  more 
particularly  aboo*.  twelve  thousand,  but  not  many  of  anv 
consequence  with  a  larger  amount  of  inhabitants.  Paris, 
the  capital,  in  1827,  had  a  jxipulation  of  HUU..'^)!,  whirli 
is  about  half  the  amount  of  the  population  of  London. 
'i'iic  other  chief  towns  are  Lisle,  with  a  |")))ulali(in  ol 
69,860;  Rouen,  90,000;  Strasburg,  49,7(1S;  Nanlc^ 
71,739;  Boulogne,  19,314;  Havre,  21,049;  Rheims 
34,862;  Brest,  20,055;  Cambruy,  17,031 ;  Lyons,  with 
suburbs,  170,875;  Marseilles,  115,943;  Toulon,  30,171 
Aix,  2.3,132;  Orenoble,  22.149  ;  Clermont,  30,010;  Ikv 
Sanson,  28,795;  St.  Etieniie,  30,015;  Dunkirk,  24,£  17, 


Amiens,  < 

in  the  not 

nel,  ami  i' 

rni  the  soii 

Fninco  is 

good   harli 

•ess  consei 

which  is  ai 

Paris,  tl 

sandstone, 

river  Seine 

|)lislied  mei 

the  palace 

Versailles,  i 

tiy  Louis  .\ 

has  lieen  li 

literary  and 

is  tho  pinci 

l»M)ks  in  all 

brated  as  a  ( 

engraving,  a 

resjiects  to  I 

pie  has  usua 

liu*  in  this  tl 

certain  that 

anxious  desii 

a  settled  fom 


Spain,  or  I 
an  extensive 
tromity  of  En 
Is  8urrounde( 
innean  Sea,  e 
i'yrenean  cht 
France.     In 
miles  in  leng 
850,000  sqiiiK 
li.mel,  lies  lik 
lacing  the  At 
into  two  uncq 
tho  central   r 
■Spain  is  essen 
extensive  plai 
hi!i;;ht  of  froii 
ThcPB  are  co; 
the  air  being 
I'he  principal 
and  Guadalqui 
tlioy  are  not  | 
trade.     On  the 
ft«at,  the  dim 
plains  tho  luia 
Jiiercing  in  win 
and  vari)us. 
every  valuable 
are  also  a  nnin 
finest  quality  is 
other  princijiai 
maize,  rice,  oil, 
•ilk,  and  barilla 
•uperior  quulitj 
fi?s,  oranges,  j 
animal  producti 
on  the  .Mediierr 
Ihe  titiest  in  ilio 
Ix'f ;  and  the  sci 
The  coimtrv 
B  follows : — .\. 
^rraifon;  Catnl 
Estrcniadura; 
!  '''•ville,  and  (Jra 
1»  Mediu-rranci 
M  parliament, 
Vui.  I 7 


I 


V 


OKOGliAFIIV 


49 


'«,  previoiiilj 
in  iiIho  artirlc 
MiiMit,  rxcopi 
iri'  uhnliahed  I 
it  llu!  time  ol 

<'|iiimtc  laws, 
,  by  a  jury, 
ipr  nuciits  of 

|ironioUMl  to 
u|'|ili('s  for  the 
;iiar<l;  fi.  The 
Wn-vrx ;  7.  Do- 
niridfd  on  the 
1.-.1  for ;  hbcrty 
1  c)f  the  tloubUi 
luir  cliKilnlily. 
[if  llii^  luUiotiol 
'rhi>  charter, 
jiro-'st'il  ill  ttic 

w»i<  |>reKPnt('tl 
rust,  18:10,  took 
iiiii'iiin  ii."()'>i/«!t 
\  i\w  ruler  ami 

ice  ponscMcs  • 
iH  the  iiillucnco 
jilr  (Mijciy  much 
tliil,  lilicwisc,  19 
n  iirmy  and  mi- 
maintained,  at  a 
ihe  niitiiin.  In 
men.  The  n»- 
jL».J.00tl,00O,  to 
national  debt  at 
If)  friim-s.  Thf 
'hi|in  <if  the  line, 
^ith  other  vesscU 

the  Horoan  C»- 

tlie  country  con- 

onventii.     Lat- 

!ili!ishcd  church. 

uniniites,  and  i» 

1  Slid  there  wie 

lenil.lltiO  canons, 

1  viraricH — tota 

■nch  about  XtJlKi 

roni  .t20toi«0 

.stant.tin  France 

i-stablislinu'iits. 

ih,  ninounlcd  in 

•t  to  education, 

•sii'ii's,  :u'i;)  liii;ii- 

aiKi  dii-trictH,  73 

K73    boanlinn- 

boys,  and  U.miO 

I  arc  under  llic 

iihlie  instruction; 

5,b73  francH,  ot 

icr  of  towns,  with 
usand,  and  more 
not  many  of  any 
hnbilants.  Pan*, 
I  H'JO,.'!;)!,  wlaill 
lation  of  Loiulim. 
a  population  ol 
■l!),7(i;-<;  Nallli's. 
2 1, 019;  Rlicim* 
)3 1 ;  I-yons,  with 
Toulon,  :i(i,l7l 
lont.  :t(>,(>U);  llO' 
Dunkirk,  •J'l,!:  17, 


Amienii.  42  032;  and  Orlennn,  40,340.  The  chwf  port 
in  the  north  of  Franco  io  Havre,  or>  the  EnRli*h  Chan- 
nel, and  IVIiirBeillen  rtn<l  Toulf  n  are  the  principal  outlet* 
nn  the  aonth.  In  point  ot  capability  for  maritime  trade, 
Franco  is  far  inferior  to  Orcat  Britain,  from  ita  want  of 
jood  harlmurH,  though  perhaps  that  circumHtnnrc  is  of 
,esR  cnnseijuence  than  the  peculiar  geniui  of  the  people, 
which  is  adverse  to  naval  adventure. 

Paris,  the  capital,  is  a  beautiful  city,  built  of  white 
•andstnne,  situated  nn  a  flat  pp-ound,  on  both  bi>nl<s  of  the 
river  Seine.  Here  reside  the  most  learned  and  accom- 
|iliHhed  men  in  France,  r""'  also  the  court  of  the  king  in 
ihe  palace  of  the  Tui'i  At  o  few  miles'  distance  is 

Versailles,  a  royal  residence  of  extraordinary  extent,  built 
tiy  Louis  XIV.,  and  since  consi(ierably  improved.  I'aris 
hiu  heen  lon(?  diHlinptuish?d  as  a  place  of  residence  of 
literary  and  scientific  characters,  and  in  the  present  day 
in  the  place  of  publication  of  an  immense  (juantity  of 
liooks  in  all  departments  of  literature ;  it  is  likewise  celo- 
brated  as  n  depAt  for  works  in  the  fine  arts,  as  paintinur, 
cngnivinff,  and  sculpture,  in  which  it  is  superior  in  many 
re8))ei'ts  to  London.  The  character  of  the  French  peo- 
ple has  usually  been  roprescnti'd  as  exceedingly  frivolous, 
liut  in  this  there  has  been  much  exaggeration ;  and  it  is 
certain  that  in  recent  times  thev  have  demonstrntcd  nn 
inxiaus  desire  for  improvement  ui  the  useful  arts,  and  fur 
I  settled  form  of  government. 

MPAIN    ANO    PORTUOAL. 

Spain,  or  the  Peninsula,  as  it  is  frequently  called,  is 
an  extensive  country,  occupying  the  south-western  ex- 
tromity  of  Europe  Iietween  latitude  36°  and  44"  N.,  and 
u  surrounded  by  the  A4lantic  Ocean  and  the  Meditcr- 
innean  Sea,  e  :cept  on  the  north-eaat,  where  part  of  the 
I'yrenean  chain  of  mountains  form  itt>  boundary  with 
France.  In  its  dimensions,  this  country  extends  700 
miles  in  length  by  500  in  breadth,  forming  an  nrca  of 
850,000  square  miles.  Portugal,  afterwards  to  lie  men- 
li.mr  1,  lies  like  a  patch  on  the  side  of  the  Peninsula, 
lacing  the  Atlantic.  Spain,  proper,  is  divided  naturally 
into  two  unequal  compartments,  one  of  which  includes 
the  central  region,  and  the  other  that  of  the  coast 
■Spain  is  essentially  mountainous.  It  conaistfi  chiefly  of 
extensive  plains  traversed  by  lofty  ridges,  towering  to  a 
hiii^ht  of  from  eighteen  hundred  to  two  thousand  feet. 
Thcpe  are  comparatively  few  trees  in  the  country,  and 
the  air  being  dry,  the  number  of  rivers  is  not  ^reat. 
The  princij)al  are  the  Ebro,  Douro,  Tagus,  Gaudiona, 
and  tiuadalquiver ;  but  from  the  bad  system  of  thini^s, 
dii>y  are  not  put  to  their  full  uses  for  navigation  and 
trade.  On  the  lower  parts  of  Spain,  particularly  on  the 
A^t,  the  climate  is  delightful,  but  in  the  high  central 
plains  the  hout  is  as  intense  in  summer  as  the  cold  is 
|)iercing  in  winter.  The  productions  of  Spain  are  rich 
iBui  vari)us.  Iron,  tin,  copper,  quicksilver,  and  indeed 
every  valuable  mineral,  abound  in  the  Peninsula.  There 
are  also  a  numlH'r  of  coal  and  salt  mines.  Wheat  of  the 
finest  quality  is  produced  in  most  of  the  provinces.  The 
other  principal  productions  of  the  soil  are  oats,  barley, 
maize,  rice,  oil,  honey,  sugar,  hemp,  flax,  cork,  cotton, 
alk,  and  barilla ;  the  wool,  as  is  well  known,  is  of  a  very 
•upcrior  quality.  There  arc  many  fine  fruits  grown,  as 
fiifs,  oranges,  pomegranates,  lemons,  &c.  Among  the 
uiimal  productioi.s,  the  horse  of  Andalusia,  a  province 
on  the  Me<literranpan,  opposite  Africa,  is  esteemed  among 
the  finest  in  ihe  world.  'I'he  sheep  are  millions  in  num- 
lit'r:  and  the  sea-coast  supplies  ai>undanco  of  fish. 

The  country  is  divided  into  14  provinces  or  districts, 
B follows: — S'avarre;  Iliscay;  the  Austuriali;  Galicia; 
\na150n;  f'atalonia;  L«"on ;  Old  Castile;  New  Castile; 
Estremadura;  Valencia;  Andalusia,  including  Cordova, 
Sfvillp,  and  (iranada;  Mureia;  and  the  Balearic  Isles  in 
the  Mediterranean.  'J'hc  capital,  and  scat  of  the  cortea 
or  parliament,  is  Madrid,  in  the  piovinco  of  New  Castile, 
Vol.  L— 7 


at  the  centre  of  the   kingdom.     Population  in  183S^ 
201,344.     1'ho  principal  seaport  is  Cadiz. 

AlKiut  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  the  popo* 
lation  of  Spain  amounted  to  10,40d,i.l79  individuals, 
among  whom  were  the  following  clasatis: — Beginning 
with  the  religious  bodies,  there  were  148,342  clergy  and 
monks,  and  32,000  nuns,  exclusive  of  about  a  fourth  of 
the  population  living  on  their  property  without  doing 
any  thing;  there  were  100,000  individuals  existing  as 
smugglers,  robbers,  pirates,  and  assassins,  escaped  from 
prisons  and  garrisons;  about  40,000  olficials  appointed 
to  capture  these,  and  having  an  understanding  with  them; 
nearly  300,000  servants,  of  whom  more  than  100,000 
were  unemployed  and  leil  to  their  shifts ;  60,000  students, 
most  of  whom  begged,  or  rather  extorted,  charity  it 
night;  and  if  to  this  melancholy  list  we  add  100,000 
beggars,  fed  at  the  doors  of  monasteries  and  convents, 
we  shall  find  that  there  existed  in  Spain  nearly  600,000 
persons  who  wore  of  no  use  in  agriculture  or  the  me- 
chanical artd,  and  who  were  oidy  calculated  to  prove 
dangerous  to  society.  Having  made  these,  we  find  there 
then  remained  064,571  day-labourers,  017,197  peasants, 
310,739  crtisuns  and  manufacturers,  and  34,339  mer- 
chants, to  sustain  by  their  exertions  upwards  of  ten  mil- 
lions of  inhabitants.  These  results,  which  are  as  ap- 
plicable at  the  present  day,  when  the  population  has 
increased  to  about  14,000,000,  as  at  the  time  when  they 
were  deduced,  exhibit  a  stole  of  society  so  radically  cor* 
rupt  and  debased,  as  to  render  all  hopes  for  its  regenera- 
tion very  nearly  desperate.  Lately,  on  the  death  of 
Ferdinand,  the  reigning  monarch,  the  queen,  in  the 
capacity  of  regent,  made  a  powerful  attempt  to  establish 
constitutional  government,  which  was  the  first  step  t(v 
wards  practical  reform  of  abuses.  Her  daughter  Isabella, 
according  to  the  will  of  Ferdinand,  was  proclaimed  queen 
whereupon  ensued  a  civil  war  betwixt  her  forces  and 
those  of  her  uncle  Don  Carlos,  who  wished  to  assum* 
the  sovereignty.  This  war  has  greatly  injured  Spain 
and  what  its  results  may  be  no  one  can  foretell. 

Portugal,  which  lies  on  the  western  frontier  of  Spain, 
facing  the  .Atlantic,  and  measures  41,500  square  miles  in 
extent,  is  an  ancient  small  kingdom,  intimately  resembling 
Spain  in  almost  every  particular,  and  at  present  in  much 
the  same  unsettled  condition.  The  country  possessoe 
two  fine  rivers,  the  Douro,  which  forms  the  great  mari- 
time emporium  of  Oporto,  and  the  Tagus,  which  is  that 
of  Lisbon,  the  capital.  Portugal  is  rich  in  natural  pro- 
ductions, but  wants  the  cultivation  of  industrious  hioids. 
The  rich  mines  of  precious  metak  are  now  neglected,  on 
account  of  want  of  hands  and  fuel.  The  chief  source  ot 
profit  is  in  the  fruits,  which  are  exported  in  abundance, 
particularly  the  orange  and  grape.  Wines  of  several 
sorts,  port  and  sherry  in  particular,  are  produced,  and 
exported  chiefly  to  England.  Agriculture,  commerce, 
the  arts,  every  thing  in  short,  is  neglected  in  Portugal, 
which  in  the  present  day  is  a  miserable  poverty-sfnick 
country.  Like  Spain,  it  is  eaten  up  by  clergy,  sci  ular 
and  regular ;  and  these  classes  have  moreover  rendered 
at  least  a  third  part  of  the  year  holidays,  greatly  Io  the 
loss  of  the  nation.  The  late  Don  Pedro,  father  of  the 
present  queen  Maria,  had  the  address  to  abolish  the  mo- 
nastic institutions,  and  to  sequestrate  the  property  to  the 
state,  wliich  was  an  important  measure  of  national  reg<^ 
nc  ration. 

The  assumption  of  sovereignty  by  Maria  led  to  a  civil 
war  or  contest  Ix-twixt  her  forces  and  th6te  of  her  uncle 
Don  Miguel,  which  was  most  injurious  to  the  country 
Miguel  was  ultimately  defeated  and  expelled.  The  po- 
pulation of  Portugal  was  stated  in  1826,  »•  3,214.000. 

ITALY. 

Italy,  once  the  seat  of  the  Roman  empire,  hut  which, 

since  the  overthrow  of  that  power,  has  never  formed  an 

I  independent  whole,  is  a  nnnow  peninsula,  extending  froia 


M 


INFt)H.\IAlI()N    I'OU   TIIK    I'MOPLB 


ItM  Alt>«(48"  10  38°  N.l»t.)  into  the  MriliWrraii.-aii  ««ii, 
whirh  .ih  the  I'lWt  niilo  of  Italy  in  callnl  llio  Ailriiilir,  on 
tlx)  wwl,  Iho  'J'uK-an  Boa.  The  AiK-nnincii.  riiiinn  lUMf 
Uio  m*ri:iino  AI(m,  uro  the  principal  chain  of  iiiountiilnM, 
«ikI  kln-lch  throuRh  Iho  country,  •lividin«  I.omliarily  tVoiii 
tlie  (icnoi'iio  torritorioi  iind  TuitQny,  and  'I'lwiiiiy  Ironi 
U<>tn(i«nii,  uilomectinn  the  ataU-a  of  the  Church,  anil 
runniii»{  through  the  kinndoiH  of  NaplM  to  thn  Wruit  of 
Vlciwiim.  l.'piHT  luly  (Lomliarily)  i«  rcmarkiihly  well 
watered.     'I'ho   To,  which   rcceiven  a  (Trent  nmnlxr  of 


an.l  l>CRt  Rovrrned  part  of  lluly  l»  Tua<-iuiy  wliicli  <til>in 
very  niateriully  frixn  Iho  ndjaccnl  NtalcH.  1 1  Ihii  prei-rii 
diiy,  Italy  ia  only  celeliriited  for  ita  niuaic,  and  ila  collve 
lioMH  of  worltH  in  the  linn  artn.  'I'hu  fnllowinK  akelrh 
Rivea  a  view  of  the  amount  of  population  in  tliu  five  groal 
division*  into  which  Italy  ia  partitioned: — 

The  population  of  the  aliit<'H  uf  the  ('liureh  ia  about 
!i.(i(l(l.(MIII.  The  capital  ia  Rome,  the  a<'ut  of  empiro  ol 
the  iineient  Koniuna,  hut  now  Kreatly  altered  in  flfiurc 
and  iip|M>arance,  and  eoinpletely  chiinKed  in  character; 


rivern  from  the  lurife  lakea  at  tho  foot  of  the  Al]*  (I.ano  tlij^  veneriihle  city  (xiiiiM'aHeH  a  population  of  l.'id.OOO 
Mauiiiiire,  di  laiKiino,  di  Como,  d'laeo,  and  di  (lardn),  'I'he  other  chief  towim  art — lloloKna.  with  a  [xipuiatiuii 
and  the  .VdiRc,  uro  Iho  principal  rivcra.  Tliey  Injlh  rixe  I  of  (i.'i.OOO ;  Ancona.  .'lO.OdO;  I'eruxiu.  Iltl.ODO ;  Ferrara, 
in  the  Alpa.  and  (low  into  the  Ailriatic  Sea.  In  Middle  |  Bl.OOO;  nnd  Kavenna,  24,000.  There  are  other  ei({hl 
llidy  (Tuacany  and  the  atutca  of  the  Church)  are  tho  i  townn,  with  n  |K>pulution  of  from  7000  to  M.OOO. 
Ariio  nnd  the  Tilier.  which  riw  in  the  A|)enninra,  and  '      ""       '     '  -    '• '■• 


(low  into  the  Tuwan  Sea.  In  Lower  Italy  (NaplcH) 
there  are  no  larne  rivers,  on  account  of  tho  ahortncHH  of 
the  courati  of  the  atreoina  from  the  niountaina  to  tho  ai-a : 
the  (iarigliano  ia  the  principal.  Tho  climate  ia  warm, 
without  exccaaive  heat,  and  ijenerHlly  aaluhtioua.  The 
winter,  even  in  Upper  Itidy,  ia  very  mild:  in  Naplea  it 
hanlly  ever  snowa.  The  ahmulnnce  and  excellence  of 
tho  productions  of  tho  soil  corre«i)ond  with  the  heauty  of 
iJie  cli:nale.  In  many  places  hoth  of  the  north  and 
Douth  there  are  two,  and  even  three,  crops  a  year,  The 
volcanic  character  of  the  eoaata  of  Lower  Italy  is  pnrti- 


The  dnchy  of  Tuscany,  in  IH'JIJ,  huil  u  population  of 
l."7.'j,000  irdialiilanta.  'I'he  cupitid  of  IIiIh  state  ia  Flo 
rence,  the  population  of  which  amoinits  to  NO.OOO.  The 
other  chief  towns  are — LeKhorn.  fiti.OilO;  I'isa,  20,0(l(l| 
.Sienna.  IH.OOO;  Troto,  10,000;  Tistira,  90UO ;  Avczui, 
7000 ;  and  tJrotona,  6000. 

Austrian  Italy,  or  the  Lomhnrdo-Venciian  kin^dotn, 
which  consists  of  the  (treat  plain  of  the  I'o,  is  sulsJivided 
into  the  (tovernmenis  of  Milmi,  Venice,  I'arnia,  ond  Mo. 
dcnu.  The  chief  towns  ot  the  slate  of  Milan  are — Milan, 
l.'il.miO;  llrescie,  Ml.OOO;  Creniima,  Vitl.OOO;  Mantua, 
2r),000;   I'avin,  21.000;   I.isli.  IH.OOO;  and  t^omo,  760tt 


;ulurly  renmrkaMe  in  atjeolocicul  Jioint  of  view,  esiH'ciully  I  The  chief  lowna  in  the  stirfe  of  Venice  are — Venice, 
in  the  repiion  of  Pu/.zuoli  and  Vesuvius.  The  nii«hl)our- |  101,000;  Verona,  4fl.OOO;  I'adua,  D.'i.Oi)!) ;  Vicenia, 
itifT  islands  of  the  .Vleilitcrrancun  are  distinKuisheil  liy  tho  ID.OOO;  IMinn,  IH.OOO;  '''reviso,  I.'i.OOO;  Uclluno,  8000, 
same  cliiir.icter.  Tho  present  nunilier  of  inhuliitanta  is  i  and  Koviifo,  7000.  The  state  of  Parma  has  the  town 
luuch  inferior  to  the  former  population  of  this  delightful  j  of  I'arma,  30,000 ;  I'laccntia,  "JH.OOO ;  und  (•uaslalla, 
country,  the  t<iliil  amount  iH'inij  21,  ,97,.')0O.  ."iOOO.     The  stale  of  Mmiena  [Missesses  the  town  of  M» 


The  national  character  of  tho  Italians,  naturally  cheer- 
ful, hut  nlwiys  marked  liy  strong  passions,  has  lieen  ren- 


deirn,  27.1/00 ;  Retrijio,  IH.OOO;  and  Mirand.)la,  6000. 
The  Sardinian  States  are  composed  of  Piedmont,  G«. 


dercd.  hy  cojitinued  oppression,  di«senihhn({  ond  sclliiih.  ;  non,  Savoy,  ond  the  Island  of  Sanliina,  the  whole  of  thru 
The  Italian,  moreover,  possessi'S  u  certain  acutiiiess  on>l  divisions  having  a  |H)pulation  of  .S.H  J I  .ll.OO.  The  prin 
rersalility,  as  well  as  n  love  of  money,  which  stump  him  cipal  town  und  sea-port  in  tiiis  district  is  (ienoa,  which 
for  a  merchant  In  tho  middle  aijea,  Venice,  (ieiiou,  !  possesses  n  population  of  80.000  iidiahilants. 
Florence,  and  Pisa,  were  iho  chief  marts  of  the  Euro|M'an  ,  Tho  lifth  illvision  of  Italy  is  composed  of  the  statn 
commerce  with  the  East  Indies;  and  Italians  (then  called  ;  now  included  in  the  kin((dotn  of  the  'I'wo  Sicilies.  Thii 
Lomhards,  without  distinction,  in  (lermany,  F  rancc,  and  forms  the  s<<uthern,  and  [lerhaps  the  finest  portion  of  tlie 
Enijland)  weic  scattered  all  over  Euro[s'  for  the  purposes  Ilnlian  penitisida,  and  hranches  out  into  the  two  amallpT 
of  trade.  Tho  discovery  of  a  pa-ssage  hy  s«'a  dejirived  |H'iMnsulas  of  Olranto  andtadalina.  Maples  is  the  chief 
Ji:!m  of  the  India  trade,  and  the  pros|K'rity  of  those  re-  town,  with  a  population  of  35  l.OOO  inhahilants,  heing 
publi:»  declined.  The  Italian,  restricltid  almost  solely  to  ,  thus  the  larj^est  city  in  Italy.  Naples  is  lamed  for  tli« 
Irull'ic  ir.  the  productions  of  his  own  country,  has  never-  '  heuuty  of  it«  environs,  porticidarly  the  hay  on  which  it  ii 
iholcsa  always  remained  an  ahlc  and  active  merchant,  situated,  and  lor  the  exceiHlini;  fineness  of  its  cliniiitc. 
Before  Koine  had  (2100  ycara  a(;u)  almorhed  oil  the  vital  <  i^ieily,  an  island  l)eloni;ini;  to  tho  kiiii;ilom  of  Naplm, 
power  of  It;dy,  this  country  wu»  thickly  inhabited,  und  |  measures  180  miles  lon(j  hy  iM  in  breadth,  and  is  one 
for  the  most  part  hy  civilir^d  nations.  In  the  north  of  I  of  the  most  beautiful  islands  of  Europe.  It  is  chicll; 
Italy  alone,  which  olFered  the  lonnesl  resistance  to  the  j  distinguished  for  its  cclebrale<l  volcano,  Mount  Etna, 
iioinnna,  dwelt  a  barbarous  people,  the  (iauls.  Farther  i  Malta,  on  islet  in  the  Mediterranean,  about  fif\y-fout 
south,  on  tlio  Arno  and  tho  Titter,  a  nuinlicr  of  small  j  miles  to  Iho  south  of  iSicily,  now  belongs  to  the  Uritish 
tribca,  such  as  the  Etrusci,  the  Sanmitei*,  nnd  Latins,  en-  i  goveriunonL 
dcavoured  to  find  safety  by  forming  confederacies.     Lcsa 


closely  united,  and  often  hostile  to  each  other,  were  the 
Greek  colonies   of  Lower  Itulv,  called  Mai;na  Grecia. 


RUSSIA. 

The  Rusaian  empire  stretches  over  tlie  half  of  Europe, 


The  story  of  tlie  subjection  of  these  nations  to  the  Roman     and  the  whole  of  Northern  Asia,  lioiii  tlie   llallic  to  the 

ambition,  belongs  t«)  tlie  history  of  Rome.     Italy,  in  the 

middle  ao;eg,  was  divided  into  I'pper,  Middle,  and  Lower 

Italy.     The  first   division   compreliemled   all    the   states 

sttualed  in  Ihe  basin  of  the  Po ;  the  second  extendi'd  !»■- 

:ween  the  former  and  the   kingdom  of  Na|ilcs,  which 

funned  tlio  third. 

Italy  is  in  modem  timea  cut  up  into  a  nunilicr  of  dis-     China.  'I'he  total  sii|«Tlicial  urea  h  e^liiiiated  at  8,000.(1(10 


Pacific,  ami  includes  vast  territories  on  t^ie  iiorth-westirn 
coast  of  North  America.  It  lies  lietweeii  lot.  38°  iinJ 
7it^  N.  It  is  bounded  on  the  iiDrtti  iiy  Ihe  Norlhorii  ot 
ley  Dceun,  west  by  Norway,  Sweden,  thi"  Ualtic  Sea, 
.•\iistritt.  and  Prussia,  ami  south  by  'I'urkey.  the  Dlaik 
Si^a,  Persia,  the  Caspian   .S'u,  Indeis'iidcnt    Tartary,  and 


:inct  states,  partly  irdepcndent,  with  native  princi-s,  partly 
lilidur  the  rulo  of  Auatria,  and  a  |>ortion  uiiiler  the  civil 
iway  of  thu  head  of  the  Romish  church.  ThroUi'liout 
-.le  i(TvaU't  [<art  of  this  fine  country  the  system  of  |Miliie 
J  wretcluHl.  nnd  rob'.>ery  is  exceeilin(;ly  cihiimioii  ;  com- 
nerce,  agricullnre,  and  tho  useful  arts,  are  in  a  low  c<hi- 


si|u:>re  miles,  of  which  ulsiut  1,.'>(M),000  are  silualeil  in 
Eurogie,  and  .'i.liOO.OOO  in  Asia,  'i'he  Russian  dominioiii 
ciiiiipiise  about  one-scvenlh  of  Ihe  haliilatile  (.'loU'.  'I'lii; 
siirl'ai'c  of  Russia  is  ({Oiierally  level,  and  some  tracts  i>i 
land  of  this  fiat  nature,  frequciilly  bleak  and  barret,,  art 
called  step|M-H.     Tlu^  country   also  possesses  choiiii  ol 


Ulioii ;    bii;otry   prevails,  and  the    national    character  is    lofty  niountains  in  dilferent  ijuarters.     Russia  ruiaei  via 
educed  1 0  tti<- lowest  moral  standard.     The  moat  civilized  ,  quantities  of  corn,  which  it  exporUi   and  it  ptotlucM 


OROGRAPHY. 


SI 


orhirli  .litV» 
I  thii  pinrn 
[\(|  iu  nollor 
iwiiiK  iketfti 
liu  Ave  grMl 

roh  U  ntioat 
of  rmpiro  ol 
ri'd  ill  flRur* 
ill  rhumc'teri 
of  irid.OOO 
H  |>«piiiatioii 
1(1(1;  FiTrara, 
I!  other  <'i)(ht 
4,000. 

|io|iiili>tion  of 
I  Htuti"  in  Klo 
KO.OOO.  The 
I'iKa,  20,0(l(lt 
000;  AvcziOk 

,inn  kiniiitein, 
I,  in  sutKlividrd 
iriim,  oiiJ  Mo- 
ll) arc — Milan, 
000;  Mantut, 
(I  I'oino,  760a 

nri' — Venice, 
»<)0  ;  Vironia, 
Uilluno,  8000, 

hiw  the  town 
mul  Guostalhi, 
,c  town  of  M(v 
n(l,.U,  6000. 

I'ipilmont,  Ge- 

wholo  of  the* 
■)0.     The  prin 

(icnua,  which 
nt». 
(I  of  the  BtatM 

SiiiUt's.  Thii 
.  |iortion  of  tlie 
[he  two  gmnllci 

ili-M  is  the  rliicf 

ttl'ilniitx,  being 
lamed  for  tU 
on  whirli  it  it 
of  ilH  rlinmti'- 

loiii  of  N«lpll■^ 

Itli,  and  iH  nna 

It  iB  cliielly 

Mount   Ktna, 

lihout  fifty-fout 
to  the  Uritiiih 


ulf  of  Europe, 

\v  Ualtic  t'l  tlw 

norlh-wcfittrn 

hn   hit.  38°  ami 

(ic  Northern  oi 

Hallic  Sfj, 

Ikiy,  tlie   Diacll 

lit    Tartary,  anJ 

li'd  at  8,Ot')(),0tHI 

lure  situati'il  in 

lisi.iii  domiiuiMit 

L|..  |.1()Ik'.    The 

1  Koiiif  iractn  I'l 

l:iii>t  liarri'i,,  sre 

IxM^M  i-hniii*  '>l 

liHHiit  raiwi  v«« 

aid  it  jiioilucw 


fruiw  and  wind  in  ahundanre.     The  forcrt  aIno  yields 
I  iniivMtrttit  artit-iei  of  I'xport.     Ciitthi  of  nil  kiiiiU,  horiw-it, 

■nd  iiruiop,  art)  likewimi  bred  in  i iimi  niiinlicrK,  rhielly 

for  tht.  .ixiMirlalion  of  their  akin*.  'I'he  iiiincu  of  the 
rountry  are  prmlm'tive  of  phitiiin,  xine,  cop|ier,  <|ni(k- 
■ilvor,  alum,  and  Halt,  nil  of  whieli  ure  eoiiliiiiial  miurcrH 
ol'  rovcnue,  ItuHma  poiweNiwa  vuriiMiH  riverit  of  the  lirHt 
iiiiiKiiitude,  and  raiiala  are  in  tho  courNV  of  oHtaliiiHliment 
uii  a  eonnideralile  ai-ale. 

Tho  population  of  KuMia,  including  Poland  and  Kin< 
lani,  i«  67,000,000,  of  nine  dilTercnt  racea  . —  1.  Hlnvo- 
iiiaiia  44,000,000,  iiicluiliiii;  the  ItiUMiana  (42,000,000, 
aiiionK  whom  are  the  ('oHaacka,  aNiut  (100,000  capable  of 
.H'ariniX  ariii»)  ami  tho  I'olea  ;  2.  FiiiiiH,  who  are  waltered 
over  tho  I'ountry,  from  Tornia  oiiil  the  Nieiiien  to  the  ( )l)i 
(;),000,000)  ;  I).  Tartam,  from  tho  DiiieHter  to  tho  Cau- 
caHua  (2,000,000),  moHtly  under  their  own  Kcweiiiment, 
without  aKiiculturu  or  liro-arma;  4.  Ueori^fiuni  or  CircaH- 
■iaiia  (8,000,000)  ;  fi.  !;4amoied(!«  ;  6.  Mantchooa  ;  7.  Mon- 
eola,  to  whom  Ih'Ioiik  the  Cnlmueks;  H.  EaHtern  tribex 
(iiu-ludiiiK  TcluitM-hea,  Kurilea,  and  Aleutiana) ;  i).  Juwh, 
piirticulnrly  in  the  Polish  provineea.  Ueaidea  these  racea, 
there  ure  nativea  of  nhnoat  all  countries  of  Euro|ia  and 
Asia. as  Urueka,  Arabs,  Miiidous,  (iipaies,  Prenrh,  Eimlish, 
and  Uanes.  Theru  aro  ainonK  these  Russian  subjects 
?ii;lity  trilioH,  dilVt:ring  in  laiiKUu^;e,  religion,  and  manners 
Iriim  the  riidext  statu  of  barbarism  tu  tlie  hi){heHt  dei;rre 
of  Kuropeuii  eivili/ation.  Tho  population  is  divided  into 
four  eluMses,  the  nobility,  clergy,  cummoii  pi'oplc  or  frce- 
niiMi,  and  )M'asants  or  serfs.  In  1811,  tho  numlicr  of 
[xrwins  suiijert  to  do  military  duty  was  aa  follows : — 
(iK),l3.'i  persons  cii(;ai;ed  in  trade;  ti,:iH'J,2tiO  crown 
peasanti);  10,1 1 3, 1'  T  )MMsaiit8  beloiil;iii|;  to  indiviiluals; 
1,077,6;)6  appanage  peasants;  112,453  freemen  ;  in  all, 
18,335,730  men.  We  find  manufacturers  of  leather, 
tidlow,  candles,  soap,  felt,  coarse  linen,  matii  of  tho  Inirk 
of  tho  linden  tree,  hardware  and  the  art  of  dyeing,  among 
the  Russians,  before  the  tiiiio  uf  Peter  tho  lireat ;  but 
siiico  his  reign  these  have  U'en  carried  to  much  ,^rcator 
p,-rtcction,  and  many  now  manufacturos  have  been  intro- 
duced. In  1815,  Russia  contained  3253  manuliicturing 
establishments ;  twenty-three  of  these  deliver  to  the 
government  annually  cloth  of  700,000  roubles  in  value, 
tiid  there  are,  besides,  one  hundred  and  eighty-one  pri- 
vate establishments.  Druids  are  prepared  in  forty-live 
lulioratories ;  and  there  are  distillcricsof  brandy,  of  which 
120,000,000  gallons  are  consumed  in  the  country.  !!lhi|>- 
buildlng  is  carried  on  in  tho  largo  villages  on  the  Wolga 
and  in  the  sea-ports. 

The  government  is  nn  unlimited  monarchy ;  the  em- 
peror is  autoi-rat  of  all  the  Kiiasins;  the  state  is  indivisi- 
ble ;  tho  ruler  cannot  Imi,  at  tho  same  time,  ruler  of  any 
other  country  (since  1H15,  however,  he  has  lieeii  king  of 
Piilaiid),  anil  must  be  of  the  Greek  religion.  In  1797, 
the  succession  was  settled  in  tho  male  tine,  by  the  rules 
of  primogeniture,  and,  in  failure  of  males,  in  the  female 
line.  All  the  princes  of  the  blood  are  called  grand- 
princes,  by  tlie  ukttse  of  March  20,  1820,  it  was  de- 
clared that  only  tlie  children  of  a  marriage  acknowledged 
by  the  eiii[H,'ror  are  ca|>id)le  of  succeeding  to  tho  throne. 
The  highest  councils  are,  I,  tho  imperial  council,  under 
the  presidency  of  tho  emiH'ror,  erected  January  1,  1810, 
with  four  departments — that  of  legislation  (the  supreme 
tribunal  in  civil  and  ecclesiastical  suits),  that  of  wai, 
that  of  civil  and  ecclesiastical  atVuirs,  and  that  of  finance ; 
2.  the  senate,  tor  home  ull'airs  (a  deliberative  body,  con- 
sUlini.'  of  eight  ilo|iartiiii'nls,  three  of  which  have  their 
m\d  in  Moscow) ;  3,  the  noly  synotl ;  4,  the  ininiHtry  of 
Bt.ite.  The  ministers  have  a  seat  and  voice  in  tlie  im- 
(HTiil  couiicil  and  in  the  senate.  The  ministry  is  divided 
into  three  sections — that  of  foreign  atliiira,  war,  the 
marine,  the  home  department,  ecclesiastical  aliuirs,  educa- 
tion, and  finance ;  that  of  the  imperial  treasury ;  and  that 
of  tlie  public  accuunttf,  roads  oiiJ  cunuU,  and  justice.    The 


whole  state  la  dhldod  Into  ftfty-«n«  (tnyemmenta  and 
several  provinces  ;  of  these  forVy  are  in  Kiiroiw,  exelusivr 
of  the  Oossacks  nf  (he  Don,  the  (^issarks  lif  the  lllark 
Hen,  and  the  kiiittdoin  of  Poland.     The  military  force  of 
KiiHsia  is  rxceedini;ly  great,  yet   nothing  to  excite   any 
dread.      Hy  some  ai'coiinis  it  is  stated  as  having  totnllv 
aiiioiinted   to  870.(100   men  ;    but   a   vast  proportion   of 
this  force  is  composed  of  irregular  militia,  or  armed  sinvea. 
It  is  considered  bv  recent  writers  on  the  sobjeet,  that  the 
utmost  ninoiint  of  regnl-ir  force  which  RiiKsin  ran  brini{ 
into  the  lielil  is  150,001)  men,  infantry,  cavalry,  and  artil- 
lery.    It  is  indisputable  that  Russia  has  no  is'cnninry  re- 
siiuries  to  support  a  large  army    long  in   the  field,  and 
therel'orc  ony  tear  expressed  hy  KurojH'an  powers  on  this 
score  is  ridiculous.     The  principal  dependence  of  Russia 
is  upon  KiiglaiKl,  and  u  quarrel  with  the  Ilritish  govern- 
ment would  most  likely  lead  to  a  serious  commotion  in 
the  sl.ite.     The  prevailing  religion  is  that  of  the  Greek 
elinrch,  with  a  full  toleration  of  all  religions.     The  state 
of  society  is  a  strange  mixture  of  refinement  and  barbar* 
ism.  The  population  is  composed  of  four  ditlerent  classoe, 
as  has  already  Imnii  mentioned.     The  boors  or  {leusanti 
aro  the  projx^rty  of  tho  crown  or  of  individuals;  they 
amount  tu  aiiout  35,000,000,  and  arc  in  a  state  of  great 
I'overty.      Tney    are   sometimes  emancipated   by  their 
owners,  and  are  sometimes  |iorniitted  to  purchase  their 
freedom.     The   noble  families  aro  about  150,000,  con> 
ppsing  750,000  individuals,  and  enjoy  some  privileget 
and  exeniptio!'«      The  freemen,  not  nobles  or  clergymen, 
ai<,  divided  into  sir  classes — the  inhabitants  of  cities,  the 
three  guihis  (capitilists,  acccrrding  to  their  income  ta7.), 
the  trades,  foreigners  or  strangers,  the  notable  citizcne 
(niM'iiiM,  artists,  bankers),  and  the  colonists.    In  regard  to 
rank,  these  classes  form  fourti^en  gradations ;  and  all  who 
can  claim  either  of  the  eight  highest  are  considered  ae 
noble.     Distinction  of  any  kind,  however,  is  only  gained 
by  the  possession  of  a  supi-rior  military  roiik. 

Uebased  as  Russia  is,  it  has  recently  made  great  od* 
vances  in  civilized  usages.  (Science,  literature,  and  the  > 
arts,  are  highly  cultivated,  and  liberally  endowed.  The 
Russians,  it  seems,  have  not  much  original  genius,  but 
they  are  the  best  imitators  in  the  world,  and  i|uickly 
adopt  foreign  manners,  language,  and  impro-'enienta. 
'I'ho  wretched  system  of  territorial  slavery  is  gradual!} 
disap|>earing,  and  the  peasants  are  now  more  protected 
by  the  laws  than  formerly.  The  punishment  of  criminula 
is  also  liecoining  more  lenient.  Russia  possesses  a  num- 
berof  towns  of  from  10,000  to  30,000  iidvibitants.  Petert 
burg,  tho  capital,  lius  a  |>opulation  of  425,000,  and  .Moa- 
cow  240,000.  Petersburg,  which  )»  built  upon  the  flat 
banks  of  the  Neva,  is  considered  to  be  in  apjiearaucc  the 
most  splendid  city  in  the  world. 

OERMANT. 

Germany  as  it  is  called  hy  the  English,  I'AIlcniagne 
by  the  French,  and  Deutschland  by  the  natives  them- 
selves, is  u  large  territory  extending  from  the  Baltic  Sea 
on  the  north  to  the  Gulf  of  Venice  on  the  south,  having 
Hungary  and  Russia  on  the  east,  and  France  and  the 
Netherlands  on  the  west.  At  its  south-west  corner  it  ia 
touched  by  Switzerland.  This  immensely  large  territoiy 
occupies  the  bulk  of  the  centre  of  Europe,  and  consists  ot 
an  area  of  250,000  sijuare  niites.  The  most  remarkable 
circumstance  about  Germany  is  it«  being  composed  of  a 
considerable  number  of  states,  each  less  or  more  inde- 
ix'iulent  within  its  own  nouiids,  but  externally  dependent 
on  the  other  states  of  tho  confederation,  as  is  mentioned 
already  under  the  head  CoNSTiTiiTH.NALGovKnNMKHTB. 
.^together,  tlu'ro  are  lliirty-four  moi  nrchical  states,  aiid 
four  free  cities,  which  enter  intr  a  cnnlederation  as  c(]ual 
soven'igns.  For  mutual  safety  mey  compose  a  diet  of 
congress,  at  which  each  statu  bus  a  certain  number  of 
votes.  The  principal  states  of  Germany  are  Prussia  and 
Austria ;  ijaxony,  Bavaria,  and  Hanover,  are  of  leaser 


1-^i 


09 


TNFOHMATIOIV   FOR   THK    PKOI'LK. 


dinwnainni  «nH  iinpoTt»nre.     Th«  other*  ilo  not  reijuir* 
tay  noliiv. 

In  Itui  iUy«  of  Korn«n  ([Triilnnw,  (lumttny,  o«C)rrmii- 
■ia,  M  it  WM  thrn  mllml,  Win  inh«liil«Ml  by  ■  Iwrlwrou* 
but  powi-rlul  peoplw,  r»cklri>i  ot'eontriil,  »rnl  inibitiou*  of 
WcurinK  the  <poili  of  rii-hrr  nitiona.     They  br<ike  loow 
•t  diffi<rviit  [MTloiU,  overrunninn  Italy  •iicl  other  fair  |)or-  ' 
lioni  of  Europ«>,  ami,  uniler  the  general  apjicllation  of  ' 
Ooth»,  finally  proatrated  the  empire  of  Home.     'I'he  term  I 
Oolh  in  now  uwil  in  a  rontemptuoua  »en»o,  but  it  haa  U> 
be  remarkiNl  that  inmlern  Eiiro|n)  ilaniU  itidobtrd  for  ill  j 
liliertiiM  ••■  the  Ooth*.     The  free  inntitutiona  of  Oeniinny 
were  rurrietl  into   KriKland   anil   other  rouiitrira,  where  I 
tliey  have  lince  grown  ami  lloiirliihiMl ;  and  in  latrr  tiinoa 
the  world  ha*  rcceiveil  variou*  uiw'fiil  arte  from  the  aame  | 
•ource,  in  partirulnr  the  art  of  printing,  whioh  tranarendi  i 
til  other  iiiventioni.    In  the  eighth  ci-ntury,  (-'harli-niiigne  ! 
anitod  the  Koinan  imperial  crown  (a  thing  mi-rely  *o  In  I 
name)  with  the  Oennan  empire,  and  the  great  territory  | 
we  are  aiieakiilg  of  wait  thenceforwani  i-alleil  the  Holy  ! 
Koman  empire  of  Uennany.     Tliia  empire  laated  till  iUi 
diaaolution  in  1HU6;  but  long  liefore  that  era  (ifmiany 
had  been  broken  up  into  atat4<ii,  by  the  eiiterpriw  of  it*  i 
native  dukea  and  prlnrca,  and  the  name  empire  wna  lillle  | 
elae  tliaii  nominal.     In  1816,  the  atati'n  entereil  into  the 
confederation  whirh  now  bindi  them. 

This  large  ronfcderated  country  ia  watered  by  WW 
riven,  of  which  the  principal  are  the  Kliine,  the  Duiiube, 
the  VVeiicr,  the  Elbe,  and  the  Oder.  The  moat  aouthern 
chain  of  German  niountaina  ii  formeil  by  the  Tyroleae 
Alpa,  the  Alpa  of  Algau,  and  the  Carnian  and  Julian 
AljM,  running  from  mat  to  weat  'I'o  the  aouth^eaxt  are 
the  Carpathian  mountain*,  to  the  north-wrHt  the  Uohi-mian 
ibreat.  There  are  aiNo  alpine  region*  on  the  I  Tpper  Khine. 
In  Northern  CSermany  there  are  liuuly  hriithu  and  moora, 
and  many  diatricta  contain  fertile  atrip*  only  along  the 
Urg«  river*.  On  the  whole,  the  aoil  i*  fertile,  and  the 
climate  m  general  i*  temperate  and  healthy.  'I'he  num- 
ber of  inhabitanta  ia  estimated  at  nearly  40,000,000,  in 
S390  town*,  of  which  lUO  have  over  NUOO  inhabitant*; 
2340  market  village*;  104,000  village*,  and  numeroua 
■mall  aettlementa.  Of  the  inhabitanta,  there  were  in 
1825,  German*,  37,706,855;  peraon*  of  HIavonic  origin, 
6,33:>,000;  Willoona  and  French,  309,000;  Jew*, 
202,500;  Italian*,  IHH.OOO;  Gip*ie*,  900;  and  Arme- 
nian* and  (ireeka,  900.  In  the  *ame  year,  the  number 
of  ponton*  of  different  retigioua  penuusion*  wa*  a*  fol- 
,  low*  :  —  Roman  Oatholica,  18,376,:<00  ;  Protestanla, 
15,150,600;  Jew*,  303,.500 ;  (ireeka  and  Arminiana, 
|M)0.  It  *hould,  however,  be  atated.  that  in  thia  c-nuiiii'- 
ra':ion  there  are  in  all  likelilu.iod  many  rcligioniata  who  urn 
altogether  unacttled  in  beliei.  although  oatiMiaibly  iM'long- 
ing  to  aoroe  communion;  for  in  no  country  in  the  world 
is  there  luch  latitude  in  thinking  u]M)n  poinix  of  faith. 
Germany  contain*  24  uiuver«Uett.  which  ate  attended  by 
about  30,001)  student* — •  do**  of  wild  you>'tg  men,  hav- 
ing habita  atid  an  ap|icarance  very  ditVere'iii  ironi  what 
usually  charwterizi;  attendant*  at  collvgea  in  Great 
Uritain.  The  pu))li«hing  and  reading  of  book*  prevail  to 
a  great  extent  in  (j'ermaiiy,  which  ia  eaarntially  literary 
tn  its  tastes.  TIitc  are  public  libraries  in  150  places, 
with  about  ait  millions  of  volume*.  'I'en  thoiuand  au- 
thor* produce  innually  from  aliuut  3:)0  to  6000  new 
book*.  There  are  about  one  hundred  politic«l  journals, 
two  hundred  and  twenty  other  journals,  and  at  least  one 
hundred  and  Atty  periodical  puliiH-alions.  Most  of  the  lieat 
English  productions  are  regularl\  tranalateil  and  printed  in 
(ieruiany.  It  is  curious  that,  w  ith  all  this  abundance  of 
literature,  and  the  prevalence  of  education,  with  al*o  free- 
dom ot  religious  opinion,  Germany  ia  far  from  being  a  free 
uiuntiy  It  i*  despotically  nile<l  by  great  or  petty  aove- 
rei^s,  baa  only  here  and  there  the  mockery  of  represen- 
lative  government,  and  the  peoplt?  iii  the  maaa  are  desti- 
«ale  of  the  power  to  better  their  condition.     Germany, 


from  which  all  our  freedom  apring,  i*  itself  ranked  amoni 
the  Icaat  free  of  the  nntinna  iit  ('hri>tciidi)in. 

One  of  Ibe  chief  ol  the  aniall  (••■riniin  kingdom*  U 
Hatony,  lyiiii?  m  llii<  centre  of  Eur(>|ie,  and  conaiatinq 
principnily  of  the  plain  of  the  river  EIIn',  in  its  iip|>er 
part,  with  a  |Hipiilatii)ii  of  t,7<)0.<H>0  inhiiliilantii.  It  i* 
rich  in  agriciiltiirHl  priolnce,  and  li'i'ila  about  a  million  and 
a  half  of  aheep,  the  wimiI  of  which  ia  rfiiiiirkaMy  line  and 
valuable.  Niixony  haa  vnti.itia  Hiiuriahiiiu  niiiiiiiliii'lurra. 
linen  and  winiIIcii  giNxIa  U'liig  the  alapli-.  It  niaonirrie* 
on  a  lirlak  trade  with  varimia  piiria  of  the  world.  The 
grand  oeiitn-  of  its  ciimnierce,  and  iiidi-ed  that  of  nil  (ter- 
ninny,  is  iit  l.ei|isic,  one  of  ilachirf  lowiia.  Hire  a  gri'sl 
fair  is  niiiiunlly  held,  whii'h  is  ntti'mled  by  inerehnnl) 
from  nil  |>urt*  of  Euri>|ie,  and  nt  which,  in  purlirulnr,  the 
sale  of  iMMika  is  very  greut.  The  nioxt  elei.Miit  town  In 
.Snxony  ia  Dreaden,  ailiinled  tlpon  llie  bnnkaof  Ibe  Elbe. 

Gcniinny  |>oaaea«es  lour  free  litiea,  iirlini;  na  lnde|ien- 
dent  atnlea  within  their  own  boiinda,  and  indlvldiinlly  eii. 
titled  to  vole  In  the  Gerniaiiic  diet ;  namely,  llmiiliiirg, 
LiiU'ck,  llreiiien,  and  Krunkrort-oii-llie-Mniiie.  The  in- 
de|ien(leiice  of  iheae  towna  ia  a  reiiiniint  ol  ii  eonfeilerncy 
of  citiea,  which  was  eatablialied  in  the  thirteenlli  century, 
under  the  name  of  the  llanatmlic  I.eiigue.  lieaide*  theM 
four  free  citi<<«  in  (icriiiany,  the  i'oliali  city  of  ('racow 
wiu  declared  a  free  city  by  the  geiierul  net  of  lh'  ('on< 
greM  of  Vienna,  and  i»  under  the  pnitertiim  of  Kuaaia, 
Austria,  and  I'ruaaiu.  H'linburg,  aitunted  U|Min  the  Elbe, 
which  llowa  into  the  North  Men,  la  one  of  the  chief 
commercial  ami  inaritinie  citiea  of  Eiiro|M<.  It  posseiae* 
a  population  within  its  territory  of  1 60,000  inhabitaiita. 

AUSTRIA. 

Auatria  i*  a  monarchy  now  forming  one  of  the  leading 
powers  of  FiUro|i<<,  and  i*  iiHimlly  cate<'ined  the  principal 
of  the  German  state*.  Oii  y  a  portion  of  the  territory, 
however,  liclong*  to  (icrmuiiy.  A*  s  government,  it  in- 
cludes a  numlier  of  ancient  aLitea,  which  have  lieen  ao 
(juiretl  and  added  in  the  course  of  time  by  a  series  of 
ambitious  aovereigns.  These  are  (in  addition  to  Austria 
I'ni|N-r,  coin|)oiicd  of  L'p|ier  and  Lower  Auatria),  Uohe- 
mia,  .Moravia,  with  the  alpine  regions  of  .Styria,  ('arin- 
tliia,  and  the  Tyrol ;  several  of  the  I'oliah  provincea,  now 
called  (inllicia;  the  kingdom  of  Hungary,  and  the  I.cm- 
bardo-Venetian  kingdom  in  Italy.  This  great  country  ii 
governed  by  an  alimilute  |)riiice,  who  takes  the  title  of  eni- 
}N'ror.  It  compriaes  more  than  256,.'I90  s<juarc  iiiilc<, 
and  upwnnla  of  tliirty-two  millions  of  inhiibitanta.  Of 
tlieae  it  ia  ri-ekoned  that  there  are  twenty-two  millions  of 
Koman  Onlhollca,  thrt!0  millions  of  the  fireek  church, 
two  niillioiia  of  I'roteatanta,  and  half  a  million  of  Jews, 
Tht^  military  force  of  the  monarchy  in  IHI'J  uiiiountcd  to 
270,000  iiieii,  inde[icndent  of  niilitin.  Auatrin  nuinl)cr« 
777  citiea,  2*^24  market  towns,  and  f>9,l()6  viJIuKea.  The 
most  {Mipnliiua  cities  are  Vienna,  Milnn,  Venice,  Leni- 
berg,  and  I'adua.  The  principiil  aei»-p<irU  are  Triei.tf, 
Venice,  and  F'iuinc ;  other  places  of  triiile  arc  Vieima, 
Prague,  Peath,  Lemliorg,  Hrody,  and  (irutz. 

The  capital  of  Auatria  is  Vienna,  which  is  a  city  of  gre«l 
extent,  situated  on  the  DuniilH*.  and  grently  improved  in 
modern  times.  Latterly,  much  haa  been  done  in  Atisitni 
to  ustabliah  schools  uiid  educate  the  p<<op|e,  by  which  they 
may  ultimately  be  prepared  for  the  enjoyment  of  poljticil 
freedom.  Meanwhile  great  iiiiprovcmenta  are  taking 
plac*  ill  the  condition  of  the  mitinii  by  the  cilen'^ioii  o( 
trade  and  commerce  .-teani-iiaviijutiun,  luuda,  &c. 

PRt;88IA. 
Prussia  ia  one  of  the  moat  remarkable  kincdoma  in 
Europe.  It  has  riatni  from  nothing  »t  the  iH'giniiiii);  of 
laat  century  to  be  one  of  the  principal  continental  nationa 
The  increase  of  iu  size  from  its  original  dimenainni.  m 
the  Duchy  of  brandenburp,  to  the  condition  of  u  tirst-isl* 
Kingdom,  has  been  etli-cted  by  the  intrepidity  of  it*  peopb 


and  the  military 

■  i>f  Frederick  II., 

lilted,  lies  in  ths 

Baltic  Haa  on  the 

prises  the  diatricti 

•is,  PiMcn,  Piiniei 

and  the  Kbeniah 

poition  of  Poland 

tition   of  that    in 

extent  of   these   t 

niilea,  with  a  |iopii 

milllun*  of  which 

lie  greatly  weaken 

tent   of  territory. 

jiarts,  towards   Hi 

situution  i*  de|M!ni: 

milituiy  liirco,  com 

*o  liirije  an  uddili 

nearly  half  ii  inillii 

an  sliMiilute  nionur 

freedom  which  iiim 

of  the  moat  strikiii) 

which  it  IM-Rtows  Ol 

are  nowhere  fiwlen 

countries  in  which 

fu*ed.     (Heo  our  i 

on  aomu  murillnie 

inland  trade  is  pron 

and  t^iiale,  the  Uhini 

Hprce,  WeatT,  Mo* 

Prussia,  or  belong  t 

inhnliitiinta  of  Priia 

four  and  a  half  mill 


Switxerland  i*  t 
(he  alpine  region* 
having  Itidr  on  the 
country  has,  from  I 
a  hardy  and  indep 
attached  to  republic 
ready  to  defend  tJie 
ig^resaion  of  the  ( 
Switzerland  mcaaur 
in  breadth,  and  ia 
miles.  Politic;,!' 
two  imail  .  o 

each  ollu'i 
lecliuii  s 
governin,  ,i 
to  t .»,.  ani) 
h*."  are  IVotestaiitr 
t1*kolics  and  Jews, 
neat  cantons. 

Geneva  ia  the  in 

proportion  to  its  tiu 

town  of  Geneva,  u\ 

milea  in  length  and  i 

••t  mountains  of  !Sw 

of  I'ri.  Hern*,   Cud 

sixty  Swiaa  mountui 

lughest  is  Monte  |{ 

Chalet,  ia  3000   fee 

limits  of  Savoy,  is 

being  l.^drts  feet  hif. 

are  pa.«toriil  in  their 

covered  at  lop  witb  ] 

ing  hero  churiicUTist 

liniiul  alternation  of  I 

ing  natural   scenes  i 

«omc  jilacca,  within 

Ihe  same  lime  ull  the 

possible  to  stand  (k  tv 

wUect  snow  with  out 


lit  conf 
•ne  atat 

iiiUl  oil: 
a  half 


UROGRAPHY. 


M 


Unhe- 
('•rin- 
ncvn,  now 
the  I.cm- 
ounlry  ii 
tic  of  rni- 
ire  iiiili'«, 

lIltH.       Of 

illiinis  »f 
clmri'li, 
of  Jcw\ 
uiiti'd  to 
uiiil>orii 
».  The 
V,  Litii- 
Trirste, 
Vicnca, 

ly  of  Kre»t 
provoil  in 
II  Aiixtrii 
hirh  they 
I  pnliticil 
re  Ukini 
tiMi!«ioii  (A 


icdonui  ui 

liiiniiiK  of 

1  lutiant 

Miiion*.  M 

;  firat-nM 

iUpeopW 


ttfiH  ih»  mHII«ry  r harwtor  of  lu  ao'ttMgnt,  imrtlcuUrly 
of  rr«l»rirk  ir.,  or  thn  Ort«t.  Truinln.  a«  now  conMi- 
liilixl,  lii«»  in  the  nortlirrn  i|imrtrr  of  Kiir<>|M',  with  th« 
Bullic  H«»  on  thn  iiortli,  inJ  HuKi*  on  tlw  iiwt.  Ilroni- 
iiritra  the  ili«triiU  or  pro>iiire«  of  Kmti  •ml  Wcit  l*ru»- 
■ia,  l'o««"n,  l'onioraiii«,  HrumlriiliurK.BilrnU,  We«li>h«li», 
nn'l  llin  Hti'-iiiuli  |iroviii«c» ;  wliiih  ilivinioii*  iiiilude  tlin 
mition  of  PoluiiJ  which  wan  luki'ii  hy  Piiimiia  at  thn  par- 
lilion  of  that  iiiifortiiiiato  kinnilom.  Thn  BRKr<'K«lo 
rxUMil  of  tlio«i  Irrriloriua  aiiiDiiiita  to  lOtl.HB'i  H.|imro 
niil.'ii,  witli  a  iHipiihilioti  of  I  I.OOO.OOO,  upwunla  of  rlcvcn 
million"  of  whii'li  iiro  (JiTimuiii.  I'ruHnia  \»  I'oimidorril  to 
l«  Kreally  wrakuiu'd  aa  a  power  hy  jU  lartri"  m-iitlcri'd  cx- 
tiMit  of  ti!rriU)ry.  Tho  kiiiudom  liaa  thrt>«  viilticrahUi 
iiurlii,  toward*  UunHJa,  Austria,  and  Franco  ;  honce  ill 
«iliiulion  i*  de|a'iidi'iit.  It  ia  <oni|H'Mid  to  koip  up  a  lar«e 
mihtaiy  force,  coniUKlinn  of  IHO.OOO  r<>Kiilar  troopa,  with 
M  hirito  an  uddilion  of  iiri-|{ular»,  a«  make  up  in  all 
nearly  half  n  million  of  aoldicra.  The  king  of  I'maaia  ii 
an  aliHolute  monarch,  yet  ho  ia  aurroundcd  hy  a  apirit  of 
freedom  which  iiecoHMHrily  inniicncea  hia  actioiiH.  One 
of  Ihc  moat  atrikiiig  fitaturca  of  tiiia  inoiuirchy  ia  the  rare 
which  it  l)eRlovva  on  a<'ifnro  and  education.  'I'lio  aciencui 
are  nowhere  foNlered  with  more  rare,  and  there  are  few 
rountriea  in  which  coiiinioii  achoola  are  more  widely  dif- 
fuaed.  (^'0  our  articlu  EntcATioN.)  i'ruMiia  carriea 
on  Home  maritime  trade  hy  meuna  of  the  Ualtir,  and  it« 
inlunil  trade  ia  promoted  hy  the  rivera  Udcr,  Viatula,  Klla', 
andSuale,  the  Khinc,  Mcmel,  Pregel,  Warta,  Netze.Hanel, 
Hpren,  Weaer,  Moat'llu,  &c.,  which  either  flow  throuxli 
PruMia,  or  hcIotiK  to  it.  Nine  and  a  half  niilliona  of  th» 
inhaliiianla  of  I'ruaaia  are  of  the  KeforineJ  Church,  and 
four  and  a  half  niilliona  are  Calholica. 

■WITZERLAUD. 

Switicrlaml  ia  a  inountainoua  territory,  occupying 
the  alpine  regiona  iMStwixt  France  and  (Jernuiny,  and 
havini;  Italy  on  the  south.  Thia  iMviutiful  and  romantic 
country  haa,  from  time  immemorial,  U-on  occupied  hy 
•  hardy  and  independent  race  of  inhahltanta,  moatly 
attached  to  republican  forma  of  government,  and  alwaya 
ready  to  defend  tiieir  ri^fhta  and  their  country  from  the 
ag^eaaiun  of  the  great  [xiwera  in  the  neighbourhood. 
SwitzerlnuJ  mcaaurea  al>out  3U0  milea  in  length  hy  140 
in  hreailth,  and  in  -unpoacd  to  contain  19,000  atjunre 
milea.  Politii  '  ii(,  .luntry  ia  divided  into  twenty- 
two  amall  ■  or  catitona,  generally  independent  of 
each  othi'i  at  confederated  for  purpoiM^a  of  mutual  pro- 
'  n\e  atatca  are  more  free  in  their  forma  of 
,in  olliera.  The  total  population  amount* 
1.1  ■  UI'  .1  half  milliona,  of  which  upwarda  of  one- 
h  i  are  l^oteatantr,  and  the  remainder  chiefly  Komai) 
.  ..  ^'dirt  and  Jews.  The  German  language  is  uaed  in 
motit  cantons. 

Geneva  is  the  smallest  but  most  populous  state  in 
proportion  to  its  size,  and  in  this  canton  is  .lituati'd  the 
town  of  Ueneva,  upon  a  beautiful  lake  of  abcmi  fitly 
roilei)  in  lenf^h  and  eight  or  ten  in  breadth.  The  hieh- 
«st  mountains  of  8witzerlind  are  found  in  the  rir  '  .<■ 
of  Hri,  Derne,  (Inderwalden,  and  Cirinons.  Of  .uiout 
•iity  Swiss  mountains  which  have  Ikhmi  ineasureii  the 
highest  is  Monte  Rosa,  16,53.")  feet  hi^h ;  the  In  ^  est, 
Chalet,  is  .3000  feet  high.  Mont  Blanc  withii  the 
limita  of  Savoy,  is  the  bi«he»t  mountain  in  Kuropo, 
being  l.'),(itl8  feet  high.  The  mountains  of  Hwitzerland 
arc  pastoral  in  thoir  lower  parts,  and  in  many  iimtances 
covered  at  top  with  pcrpi^tual  ice,  the  icy  coverings  be- 
iog  here  cliaruct^'ristically  named  atiirieif.  The  con- 
tinual alterimtion  of  hill  and  dale  atTords  the  moat  atrik- 
ing  natural  sruries  in  every  |iart  of  Switicrland.  In 
lOfflc  jilaccB,  witliin  a  short  dutanre,  one  may  see  at 
the  same  lime  all  the  acowiiit  of  the  year ;  and  it  is  often 
possiMc  to  stflnil  b'jtwcon  aprinir  and  mimmer,  so  ai4  to 
toUect  snow  with  one  hand,  and  to  pluck  flowers  from 


lecUip 

gOVii 


tlia  soil  with  the  other.  Every  miwntaln  haa  lu  walrf 
falls;  anil  as  tlieir  sourrvs  ara  sonuitiines  lost  in  ih« 
clouds,  tha  ealararta  «<riti  to  descend  frugi)  t>is  skiaa. 
Hwitxorlan<l  aliounda  in  lakes  and  rivers,  the  liiherira 
of  which  ain  valuable,  and  which  serve  to  •nibellish 
thn  landaca|Nt ,  but  iioiio  of  the  rivera  are  navigable. 
Nmall  Nt4Miin-vesw^la  now  ply  on  the  lakes  of  (ionova, 
/urii'h,  ('otistance,  and  Neufrhattd,  and  are  a  great 
conveiiienee  to  travellera.  The  chief  rivera  are  the 
Kliiiie,  the  Id^UHB,  the  Klione,  and  thn  Teaaino.  The 
cultivation  of  the  vino  ia  carrieil  on  to  a  consideraldn 
extent  in  Hwitxerlaiid ;  the  breeding  of  rattle  is,  how- 
ever, the  chief  employ itient  of  the  iiihabitunta.  Nwis* 
cheeses  are  imported  in  great  numbers  into  Ueruiauy, 
France,  and  Italy. 

Maiiiifacturea  of  silk,  cotton,  and  linen,  have  of  latfl 
yrara  greatly  iiicreaned  in  i^witxerland,  wlinh  ia  riva'ling 
lOngtand  in  some  kinds  of  go<Mla,  particularly  printed 
calicoes.  Uecenlly  great  improvoiiientii  have  Ih-cii  made 
upon  the  roada  through  this  attractive  territory,  and 
travellers  are  now  well  accommodated  on  all  the  main 
routea. 

'I'he  people  of  Switzerland  form  one  of  the  best  edu- 
cati'd,  inoMt  indualrioiia,  and  beat  licliaved  nations  in  the 
world ;  and  coiiHcqucntly  they  are  generally  happy  and 
in  good  circumatnnres.  Although  the  country  does  not 
anywhere  touch  the  aeu,  and  all  gixxls  have  to  t)0  caf> 
ried  many  miles  by  land  Journey  through  other  states, 
the  Swiss  poaseaa  a  thriving  syatem  of  trade  and  com- 
merce, and  are  rapidly  lulvaiiriiig  in  a  career  of  national 
prosperity,  thus  proving  Uiut  nothing  is  denied  to  good 
conduct  and  industry. 

NORWAY)  8WIDCN,  AND  DKNMARK. 

Thcs«-,  with  the  province  of  Finland,  form  the  north- 
western frontier  of  Europe,  facing  the  North  Sea  oi 
German  Ocean,  and  reaching  to  thn  ahore  of  the  Baltic 
on  the  south.  Norway  lira  on  the  shore  of  the  North 
Sea,  Sweden  is  liehiiid  it  with  its  umthern  extremity 
to  the  Baltic,  and  Denmark  ia  formed  by  the  peninsula 
of  Jutland,  projected  northwards  from  the  Netherlands 
and  Kingdom  of  Hanover  into  the  mouth  of  the  Baltic^ 
Norway  and  Sweden  are  now  erected  into  a  kingdom, 
under  one  H<'\ercign,  much  in  the  same  manner  as 
England  an  'Scotland  are  united.  Bernudotto,  one  of 
Uonapart4''<i  commanders,  has  for  a  numlntr  of  years 
been  the  reigning  monarch.  The  united  kingdom  mea- 
sures 16ri0  milea  in  length  by  aliout  3.50  in  breadth. 
The  country  ia  mostly  mountainous  and  (matoral,  and 
covered  with  dense  forests,  pro<lucing  the  finest  timber 
in  the  vorld.  'i'he  climate  is  dry  and  cold,  but  that  of 
Sweden  ia  warmer  than  that  of  Norway.  The  mineral 
kingdom  is  rich,  particularly  in  iron,  copper,  and  silver. 
The  mhuliitanta  of  these  coimtrics  arc  of  the  ancient 
Scandinavian  races;  hardy,  honest,  industrious,  and 
kind-hearted.  In  the  sciences,  the  Swedes  have  shown 
a  Hound  and  penetrating  mind.  The  two  kingdoms, 
Norway  and  Sweden,  had,  in  1825,  a  imputation  of 
nearly  four  millions  of  inhabitants.  Stockholm,  the 
capital,  had  a  population  o*'  nearly  80,000 ;  Gottenburg, 
the  principal  commercial  city,  hsd  24,000 ;  Christiana, 
the  capital  of  the  Nor  "gian  division,  hod  20,600;  and 
Bergen,  the  chief  com.oe.cial  city  in  Norway,  20,800. 
Few  towns,  however,  nuin'oer  more  than  4000  inhabit- 
anta,  and  many  have  ocarrely  500. 

The  DaniMJi  monarchy  is  rom[K)»rd  of  tl>e  peninsula 
already  mentioned,  with  wiiiie  islands  and  detached  por 
tions.  The  principal  of  the  attached  territories  are  thd 
duchies  of  HoUtein  and  Laueidierg ;  likewise  the  Ferofl 
Islands,  in  the  North  Sea ;  Iceland ;  the  western  coast 
of  (treenland ;  soine  places  in  (luinea  ;  and  the  city  anil 
tCTTitory  of  Tran(|uebar,  in  the  Las  Indies.  The  exact 
measurement  of  so  scattered  a  territory  is  of  little  mo- 
ment ;  and  it  is  sufficient  to  state,  that  Denmark  I^oper 

Bit 


M 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Mil  llie  duchy  of  Sclcswick  contain  17.37fi  square  miles. 
Ucnmarli  Proper  ii  estiraatcil  to  contain  1,230,000  in- 
habitanU;  Holstein  and  Lauenlmrn,  370,000 ;  ami  tlio 
total  population  under  the  monarchy  amounts  to  sonii"- 
tliing  under  two  millions.  I'he  people  are  partly  Danes 
and  partly  Germans.  Dcnmarlt  is  a  level  country.  'I'he 
coasts  are  low,  and  protected  from  the  sea  by  dykes. 
The  soil  consists  partly  of  marshcH  and  hcnthx,  and  is 
on  the  whole  but  moderately  fruitful.  By  the  improvi- 
dent extirpation  of  the  woala  which  protected  the  north 
rnd  nortli-wcstcm  coasts  of  Jutland  against  the  sea,  vost 
ertents  of  fruitful  territory  have  become  barren  and 
•andy  deserts.  The  staple  prwiuclions  iire  Rrain,  rape- 
MMd,  and  tobacco  j  and  tlie  breeding  of  cattle  forms  a 
principal  source  of  profit.  Denmark  now  contains, 
without  including  Iceland  and  the  Feroe  Ifllands,  100 
cities,  73  boroughs,  8305  parishes,  and  6.')00  villases. 
The  government  is  an  abaolute  monarchy.  Copenhagen, 
<ituated  on  the  east  coast  of  tlie  island  of  Zealand,  is 
the  capital,  and  contains  a  population  of  10.'),000  inha- 
bitanu. 

HOLLAND  AND  BEI.0II;M> 

These  countries,  under  the  general  appellation  of 
Nethcrliuids,  occupy  a  large  flat  territory  stretcliincf 
southward  from  the  confines  of  Denmark  on  the  north, 
to  France  on  the  south  ;  having  Prussia  and  the  small 
kingdom  of  Hanover  on  the  cast,  and  the  North  Sea  or 
German  Ocean  on  the  west  They  therefore  form  that 
part  of  the  continent  of  Eurcpe  which  lies  opposite  the 
east  coasts  of  Scotland  and  England.  'J'hc  entire  extent 
of  the  Netherlands  amounts  to  84,870  square  miles. 
Phroui^h  the  centre,  fronj  east  to  west,  flows  the  Hliine, 
one  of  the  finest  rivers  in  Euro|)e,  and  which  parts  into 
a  number  of  channels  l)cforc  pouring  its  waters  into  the 
ocean.  On  the  lower  part  of  oni-  of  these  channels 
•tands  Rotterdam,  a  large  and  flourishing  commercial 
city.  The  surface  of  the  Netherlands  is  flat,  and  rich 
in  the  luxuriance  of  vegetation.  So  low  is  the  land,  that 
it  has  to  be  protected  from  the  sea  by  dykes  or  embank- 
ments. The  country  in  everywhere  intersected  with 
canals,  wnirh  are  of  prodigious  use  for  commercial  and 
general  intercourse.  Locally,  the  Netherlands  arc 
divided  into  a  number  of  districts,  among  which  the  old 
Flemish  or  Flanilers  provinces  find  a  place.  The  whole 
territory  is  nearly  equally  divided  into  the  two  distinct 
■tates  of  Holland  and  Beler'um. 

Holland  is  that  part  of  tb.e  Netherlands  which  lies  on 
the  north-east  side  of  the  Rhine,  while  Delirium  is  upon 
the  south-western  side,  or  nearer  to  France.  Holland 
is  comjHJsed  of  the  following  provinces:  North  Brabant, 
Guelderland,  North  Holland,  South  Hollaml,  Zealand, 
Utrecht,  Friesland,  Overyssel,  Groningen,  and  Drenthc, 
being  ten  in  number,  contai.iing,  in  1 833,  a  ptipulation 
of  8,4  44,550.  Of  these  there  are  1 ,64 1 ,74  8  Protestants, 
836,920  Roman  Catholics,  and  45,493  Jews,  besides  a 
few  thousands  of  other  sects.  The  country,  however, 
■  essentially  Protestant,  notwithstanding  that  all  sects 
are  freely  tolerated,  and  their  clergy  paid  cm  a  nearly 
equal  principle  by  the  state.  The  established  church  is 
Presbyterian,  resembUng  that  of  Scotland  both  in  disci- 
pline and  doctrmc. 

Holland  has  lieon  for  ages  a  commercial  country,  its 
()oople  chiefly  subsisting  in  some  way  coimrctcd  wilb 
ships  and  maritime  trallic.  It  is,  however,  not  at  pre- 
sent ailvKiicing  very  nensit-.ly,  owing  to  the  iH-oplc's  want 
of  enterprise,  and  their  hatred  of  inoilcrii  inventions  ami 
improvements.  Since  IH.'jO,  when  the  kingdom  of  the 
Netherlands  wiis  divided  by  a  revolution  into  HollanrI 
And  Helgiiim.  the  cnnntry  has  l)eeii  governed  s<'paratelv 
by  a  constitutiiiiial  monarchy.  'I'br  Hiirue  is  the  cnpi- 
IbI  of  Holland,  where  the  government  is  coiKliicted,  but 
Amsterdim  is  the  chief  town,  both  for  commerce  and 
•moun'    >f  pojiulatiop  —its  po|iulation  was  some  years 


since  upwards  of  200,000.  The  language  of  i1o1la.a]  is 
a  species  of  German,  spoken  nowhere  else  in  Europe. 

The  districts  or  provinces  of  Luxembourg  and  Lim- 
burg  are  now  considered  to  behmg  to  Holland,  Liixeirt- 
bourg  lies  on  the  soutli  of  Belgium,  and  Limburg  in  tlie 
lower  valley  of  the  Mouse,  on  the  Belgian  side  ol  the 
Rhine. 

Belgium,  thb  country  of  the  ancient  Belgis,  <iitd  in 
later  times  the  country  of  the  Flemings,  now  consists 
of  the  [irovinces  of  Brabant,  Antwerp,  East  and  West 
Flanders,  Hainault.  Namur,  and  Liege,  the  whole  mea 
suring  18,000  English  square  miles,  and  containing 
4,000,000  of  inhabitants.  The  people  of  Belgium  are 
from  the  same  original  stock  as  the  Dutch,  but  circum- 
stances have  made  them  widely  dilfereiit  in  manners. 
Belgium  was  long  held  in  subjection  by  Spain  and 
Austria,  and  aflerwards  was  attached  to  France,  and 
partly  from  this  cause  the  prevalent  religion  is  Roman 
Catholic,  and  the  language  chiefly  French.  These  two 
peculiarities  give  a  turn  to  the  national  feelings.  The 
Belgians,  though  as  industrious  as  their  neighbours,  the 
Dutch,  arc  less  steady  of  piir])Os«,  ami  more  enteri>rising. 
NeverthoJess,  they  are  now  a  thrivinir  jicdple,  under  a 
constitutional  monarchy,  with  Leopold  as  their  king, 
and  many  improvements  are  at  present  in  operation  in 
the  country.  Brussels,  a  beautiful  large  town  in  Bra- 
bant, is  the  capitiil  —  piipuUition  about  80,000.  The 
manufactures,  intitrnal  trallic,  and  commerces  of  Belgium, 
are  umlergoing  a  n\])i<l  extension,  'i'he  towns  next  Ui 
Brussels  in  size  and  importance  are  Antwerp,  a  sea-port 
on  the  Seheldt,  Ghent,  Bruges,  Louvain,  and  Liege. 
The  two  main  rivers  are  the  Meuso,  which  falls  into  the 
Rhine,  and  the  Scheldt. 

TURKKY. 

Turkey  is  a  territory  partly  in  Europe  and  partly  in 
Asia,  and  is  inhabited  by  an  Asiatic-Tartar  race,  called 
Turks,  who  in  the  year  1453  conquer<>d  that  portion 
lying  within  the  confines  of  Euroi)c,  formerly  the  metro- 
politan part  of  the  western  emjiirc  of  the  Romans,  and 
have  there  ever  since,  at  Constantinople,  held  a  barba. 
rous  sway  of  this  l)eautiful  district  of  Plurope.  Turkey 
in  Europe  is  separated  on  the  south-west  from  Asia 
only  by  a  long  range  of  straits  called  the  Dardanelles, 
and  by  the  Black  Sea,  and  is  bounded  on  the  northern 
side  by  the  dominions  of  .\ustria  and  Russia.  On  the 
west  it  has  the  Adriatic  Sea,  which  in  part  separates  it 
from  tireece,  till  lately  ajiortion  of  itself.  The  Turkish 
monarchy  nominally  possesses  Egy]>t  and  some  other 
possessions  in  Africa ;  but.  not  computing  these  distant 
te'-rilorics,  it  may  tie  estimated  that  Turkey  in  the  pre- 
sent day  laensures  in  Kuroiie  178,028  sipiare  miles  (but 
including  the  insecure  provinces  of  .Moldavia,  Wallachin, 
and  i^ervia),  with  a  population  of  upwards  of  nine  mil- 
lions of  inhabitants ;  and  in  Asia  485,000  sijuare  miles, 
with  a  population  of  above  ten  millions.  The  bulk  of 
the  population  in  both  regions  is  Mohammedmi,  and 
uncivilized.  The  climate  of  Turkey  is  among  the  most 
ilelicious  in  the  world ;  its  soil  is  p-enerally  productive 
ami  its  natural  apiiearance  is  tieautiful. 

('onstantinople,  the  capital  (called  Htambnul  by  the 
Turks),  situated  on  the  Bosphorus,  a  stroi<  l>et\vixt  the 
Meiliterrariean  anil  Black  Sea,  is  a  large  and  populous, 
though  crowded  and  iiic'invenicnt  city,  exceMeiitly  situ- 
ated for  tnlfle,  comjuunicatioiis  l)eing  carried  on  with  it 
by  the  Mi'ditsrriinran  on  the  west,  and  the  Black  '*'ea  on 
the  cast.  Every  region  in  Turkey  yields  its  prodnctioni 
in  abundance.  The  slnple  articles  of  export  an-  wlipst, 
rice,  cotton,  tobacco,  silk,  figs,  and  other  fruits;  hair, 
Wi)  )1,  and  opium.  Mining  is  totally  neglected  ;  and  tlierc 
is  in  general  little  maiinfacturing  industry  in  the  country 
The  irdiabitants  arc  at  once  I'vtrernely  ignorant,  prouil, 
anil  slothful,  and  the  iummerce  carried  on  is  chiefly  in 
the  hands  of  Jews  and  Christiaiii.   The  spread  of  know- 


GEOGRAPHY. 


86 


^ge  ha«  bpcn  Bedulously  prevented ;  printing,  till  lately, 
I  «•■  carried  on  oi;ly  by  Armenians,  Jews,  or  Greeks;  and 
banscribing  books  with  the  pen  is  pursued  as  a  com- 
mon employment  Painting  and  sculpture  are  neglected, 
because  the  Koran,  or  Bible  of  the  Mohammedans,  for- 
bids tlio  imitation  of  the  human  form.  A  great  effort 
was  lat^y  made  by  the  sultan  Mahmoud  to  introduce 
some  civilized  usages,  and,  among  other  improvements, 
he  established  a  newspaper  at  Constantinople,  in  French 
and  Turkish. 

The  sultan,  as  caliph,  or  successor  of  the  prophet  Mo- 
hammed, enjoys  the  character  of  Pope  to  the  Moham- 
medan world,  and  luiites  the  highest  spiritual  dignity  with 
die  supreme  secular  power.  He  has  unlimited  control  over 
the  jjropeity  anil  lives  of  his  subjects,  e8[)ecially  of  the 
highest  oflicers  of  state,  whom  ho  can  remove  or  put  to 
death  at  will.  The  people  have  no  rights.  Merit,  or 
favour,  or  intrigue,  can  raise  the  lowest  to  tho  highest 
stations.  There  is  no  hereditary  nobility.  Tho  suc- 
cession to  the  throne  is  hereditary  in  the  family  of  ()s- 
man ;  the  will  of  tho  people  and  of  the  janizaries  has 
often  decided  upon  the  individual.  Women  are  ex- 
cluded from  the  succession.  The  padishnh  or  sultan  is 
not  crowned ;  he  is  merely  girded  with  the  sword  of 
Osman,  after  he  has  sworn  to  uphold  the  religion  of 
Mohammed.  The  women  of  his  harem  are  for  the  most 
part  Circassians  or  Georgians,  wlu)  have  been  purcliuscd 
as  sloves.  On  account  of  this  plurality  of  wives,  and 
die  numlior  of  male  descendants,  there  is  grnc  rally  a 
rxMitest  fo  the  throne  at  the  decease  o(  every  monarch. 
Latterly  there  has  been  some  improvement  in  this  re- 
spect ,  still  tlie.  vhole  arrangements  for  a  regular  succes- 
idon  are  en  a  precarious  footing. 

The  most  remarkable  thing  ahout  the  Turkish  system 
of  government  is,  that  the  Koran,  or  Book  of  Mohammed, 
is  tho  source  of  all  civil,  political,  or  criminal  law.  In 
addition  to  the  code  of  laws,  tho  interpretations  of  the 
ulema,  or  priesthood,  have  great  weight  in  tho  tribunals. 
The  mufti  is  not  only  the  eliief  of  the  priests,  but  the 
highest  interpreter  of  the  laws.  His  decisions  are  col- 
lected. The  highest  tribunal,  the  divan  chaneb,  is  held 
four  times  a-wcck  by  the  grand  vizier,  in  his  palace,  or  in 
his  absence  by  the  tchuush-baschi.  In  the  lower  tri- 
Imnids  of  tho  large  cities,  the  mollas  sit;  in  those  of 
snail  towns,  the  cadis.  The  nioslems  are,  under  them, 
the  evecutors  of  the  sentences.  The  udministration  of 
justice  is  as  simple  as  it  is  prompt  and  encrcetic.  'J"ho 
common  punishments  arc  the  hasliiiado,  hanging,  drown- 
ing, fitraii:,'ling,  and  impaling.  Tho  court  or  govern- 
meni  i.r  the  sultan  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  Porte, 
Sublime  Porte,  or  Divan,  and  the  sukan  has  received 
from  Eurojieans  the  title  of  (irand  Seignior.  In  Con- 
atantinoplc  and  other  (iiirts  of  Turkey,  English,  French, 
and  other  foreigners  from  western  Euroiw,  are  generally 
termed  Franks. 

The  land  forces  were  un.il  recently  organized  on  a 
miserable  Asiatic  system.  'I'hey  are  now  inotlelled, 
armed,  and  disc'iplined,  on  the  common  Euro|>ean  prin- 
ciple, and  partly  dressed  on  tho  same  plan.  The  navy 
of  Turkey  has  lieen  also  organized  according  to  the 
Euro)ican  system.  In  civil  life  many  reforms  have 
likewise  liei-n  effected  by  orders  of  tho  late  Sultan 
Mahmoud  (deceased  18:i9),  and  altogether  the  Turkish 
empire  may  now  Iw  desi-rihud  as  in  a  transitive  state 
towards  civilization. 

GRKKCE. 

The  north-eastern  part  of  the  Mediterranean  is  di>idcd 
into  two  larn'  bays  or  i^ull's,  wliicli  run  I'ur  up  into  the 
EiHo|»'iUi  contiiii'iil ;  tint  towards  the  west  U'iiig  called 
the  A  Irialir,  and  the  other  the  .iliiean  Sea.  The  peii- 
•nsulu,  or  tongue  of  land  which  lies  between  the  two, 
u  llie  original  roun  ry  of  the  (■  reeks.  Colonics  of  the 
iimc  nation  have,  t-im  time  beyond  the  reach  of  history. 


occupic<]  the  whole  cnastii  and  islands  of  both  tsese  gulfs 
from  ijicily  almost  to  Cyprus ;  but  the  parent  states  ni 
the  mltldle  peninsula  are  those  to  which  tho  Grecian 
name  is  indebted  for  all  its  splendour;  and  it  is  thi» 
country  only  which  is  properly  called  Greece.  From  the 
situation  of  the  Greeks  in  a  region  whoso  bays,  head- 
lands, and  islands,  present  a  great  extent  of  sea-coast, 
habits  of  adventure  and  mutual  intercourse  were  pro- 
duced among  them  in  the  earliest  times,  which  had  the 
greatest  influence  In  cherishing  a  national  activity  of 
character,  and  making  each  community  eager  to  rival  the 
prosperity  of  the  others.  The  people  were  early  nccua- 
tonied  to  make  voyages,  sometimes  for  trallic,  sometime* 
for  war,  Iwlwixt  the  opposite  coast  of  their  gulfs,  guiding 
themselves  by  the  stars  from  island  to  island.  From  this 
and  other  circumstances,  Greece  in  early  times  attained 
the  first  rank  as  a  state,  or  confederacy  of  states.  (See 
article  Anciknt  Histoht.)  After  being  con(|uercd  liy 
the  liomans,  it  fell  a  i)rey  to  the  Turks,  from  whom  it 
was  in  part  only  recently  wrested  by  a  skilful  rebellion  or 
revolution. 

In  the  present  day,  Greece  comprises  in  its  northern 
parts  the  districts  of  Albania  and  iMacedonia;  next,  in  a 
southerly  direction,  Epirus  and  Thcssaly ;  the  Morea 
(anciently  Peloponnesus)  is  an  islanil-like  peninsula, 
almost  cut  oft'  from  the  latter  divisions  by  a  strait  called 
the  Gulf  of  Lepanto.  Altogether,  modern  Greece  mea- 
sures about  400  miles  in  length,  and  little  more  than  100 
in  general  breadth.  Greece  is  a  mountainous  and  ro- 
mantic region,  with  several  beautiful  rivers.  Its  agri- 
culture is  in  a  very  rude  condition,  but  its  commerce  is 
increasing;  and  the  long-exhausted  nation  is  gradually 
assuming  a  settled  powerful  characttir.  A  constitutional 
monarchy,  not  very  well  organized,  has  been  imposed  on 
the  newly  erected  nation  by  the  European  powers,  with 
Diho,  a  Bavarian  prince,  as  king.  Athens,  the  cViei 
town  or  capital,  is  now  undergoing  improvements,  and 
frequently  visited  by  strangers.  The  population  of  the 
continental  part  of  Greece  is  stated  at  tliree  millions,  and 
nearly  half  a  million  for  the  islands  adjacent. 

ASIA. 

Asia,  which  forms  the  eastern  and  northern  porton  ol 
the  great  tract  of  land  in.  the  eastern  lieinis(ihere,  is  tho 
oldest  known  portion  of  the  globe,  and  is  usually  called 
ihe  cradle  of  the  human  race,  of  nations,  and  of  arts. 
It  is  separated  from  Australia  by  the  Indian  and  Pacific 
Oceans;  from  America  on  tlie  north-cast  by  Hehring's 
Straits,  and  on  the  east  by  the  great  Eastern  or  Pacific 
Ocean ;  from  .\IHca  by  the  Arabian  Sea  (with  which  ii 
connectcil  the  Persian  Gulf),  a. id  by  the  Arabian  Gulf, 
or  Red  Sea,  with  the  straits  of  Bubelmanilel ;  from 
Euro|>e  by  the  Sea  of  Azopli,  with  the  Straits  of  CafTa, 
by  the  Black  Sea  with  the  Bosphorus,  by  the  Sea  of 
Marmora  and  the  Dardanelles,  and  by  the  Grecian  Archi- 
pelago. On  the  other  hand,  it  is  united  with  Africa  by 
the  desert  Isthmus  of  Suez,  and  with  Europe  by  the 
waters  of  the  Wolga,  which  rises  near  the  Baltic,  and 
falls  with  the  Ural  into  the  Casjiian  Sea. 

The  area  of  Asia  is  alxjut  16,17,^,000  wjuare  milea. 
It  exU'nds  from  2P°  to  190°  E.  longitude,  and  from  2° 
to  7S°  N.  latitude.  Jts  greatest  breadth,  from  north  to 
south,  is  4140  miles,  and  its  greatest  length  about  8000. 
It  is  four  times  larger  than  Europe.  It  is  di\i(1ed  into 
1.  Southern  Asia,  comprehending  Natolia,  Armenia, 
('urilislan.  Syria,  Arabin,  Persia,  Hindostan,  Farther 
India,  Siam,  Mahicco,  Annain,  Tonquin,  Cochin  China, 
Laos,  Cambodia,  China,  .lapan ;  2.  Middle  or  Cppct 
Asia,  contaiiiiiii;  Caucasus,  Tartary,  liucharia,  Mongoli;i 
Tinmoiisia ;  '.i.  Xortlierii  or  Kussian  Asia,  from  44°  N. 
latitude,  contuinini,'  Kassan,  Astrai'han,  Orenburgh,  Ku 
liaii,  Kaliania,  Georgia,  Imireta,  Silwria,  with  the  alpini 
legions  of  Dauria  and  Kamsclnitka. 

The  large  portion  of  Asia  coiniHising  the  irxlhcrn  »»>> 


^3 


J.VrORMATlON   FOR    THE   PEOPLE. 


oiddle  diviiioiis,  inh«bi»cJ  by  wnnderinif  Tartar  races, 
fommea  little  interest,  and  is  Rcncrally  viewed  as  little 
abe  thaii  ■  ffrcat  wilderness.  The  parts  which  are  im- 
portant, either  from  their  historical  interest  or  their  pre- 
wnt  condition,  are  the  three  lolies  or  masses  of  land, 
partially  juttinir  out  from  the  continent  on  iUi  southern 
■de;  the  first,  on  the  west,  comprehending  Arabia,  Syria, 
and  Persia,  the  second,  or  mid  part,  Hindostan  or  India; 
and  the  eastern  part,  China  and  Japan  Arabia  is  a  fine 
large  peninsular  tract  lyinR  betwixt  the  Persian  Gulf  on 
the  east,  and  thj  Red  Sea  on  the  west.  It  contains  about 
1.000,000  square  miles,  and  is  siluatj-d  between  the  12th 
and  30th  degrees  of  north  latitude.  Its  chief  towns  are 
Mecca  and  Medina,  near  the  shore  of  the  Ri-d  Sea.  The 
wuthern  portion  is  entitled  Arabia  Felix,  or  the  Happy, 
and  its  northern  part  Arabia  Petrsa,  or  the  Rocky.  Ad- 
jacent to  this  northern  division,  and  stretching  alonif  the 
border  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  is  Syria  or  Palestine, 
the  ar.cient  country  of  the  Jews,  but,  alon?  with  the  sur- 
rounding country,  now  held  in  subjection  by  the  Turkish 
power,  and  in  a  state  of  borburism.  A  description  of 
Paiks-iink  is  elsewhere  given  in  the  presi-nt  work. 

The  district  of  country  anciently  termed  Asia  Minor, 
btit  now  forming  part  of  Turkey  in  Asia,  and  called 
Natolia  or  Anatolia,  is  a  territory  650  miles  long,  and 
400  broud,  having  Armenia  on  the  east,  and  a  part  of  the 
Mediterranean  on  the  west  and  south.  It  is  a  fruitful 
and  delightful  part  of  Asia ;  its  principal  town  and  sea- 
port is  Smyrna,  with  which  a  considerable  traffic  is  car- 
ried on  with  western  Europe. 

Persia  lies  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Persian  Gulf, 
between  the  ihlU  and  4Uth  degree  of  north  latitude.  It 
has  the  Caspian  Sea,  or  l  great  inland  lake,  on  the  north, 
and  the  Arabian  Sea  on  the  south.  It  comprises  about 
390,000  square  miles,  with  a  jwpulation  of  about  6,600,000. 
The  people  are  Mohammedans,  and  in  a  semi-barbarous 
condition,  governed  by  a  shah  or  despotic  sovereign. 
Ispahan  is  the  capital.  Within  a  portion  of  country 
anciently  called  Meso|)otamia,  and  now  generally  entitled 
Turkey  in  Asia,  and  lying  at  tlie  head  of  the  Persian 
Gulf,  between  Persia  and  .\rabia,  are  the  rivers  Euphrates 
CLid  Tigris,  also  the  towns  of  llagilad  and  Das^ora.  It 
was  by  these  channels,  the  Persian  Gulf,  the  Euphriiti^, 
and  also  the  Red  Sea,  tluit  a  great  trade  was  otice  carried 
on  betwixt  India  and  the  shores  of  the  .Mediterranean 
Sea;  now  this  traffic  is  at  an  end,  in  consequence  of  the 
barbarous  state  of  the  whole  region  round  aluiut,  and  the 
opening  of  a  cammunication  betwixt  India  and  England. 
Uf  Iniiia,  and  also  Chi.ii,  no  account  need  here  l>e 
given,  as  they  are  fully  descriM  in  other  parts  of  the 
present  work. 

In  ail  parts  of  Asia,  excepting  the  mid  and  northern 
regions,  the  climate  is  delightful,  and  Nature  has  spreail 
her  most  bounteous  gitU.  "  'TU  the  clime  of  the  East, 
the  land  of  the  sun,"  but  sunk  in  false  religion,  su|icr- 
itition,  and  iti  a  state  of  moral  and  intellectual  torpur — 
••all  but  the  spirit  of  man  is  divine"— and  when  or  how 
it  u  to  be  rescued  from  such  a  conilitinn,  no  one  can 
foretell.  In  tlic  southern  divisions  within  the  torrid 
lone,  whuac  genial  warmth  converti,  the  Juices  of  pluiils 
to  spices,  balsams,  sugar,  and  culFee,  with  which  .Asia 
baa  enriched  the  West  Indies,  lhe.[Mlins  (sago,  cocoa, 
late,  and  umbrella-pHlnis)  reach  a  beluht  of  'HW  Icet, 
and  the  white  elcjihant  attains  n  size  surpassing  that  of 
all  other  quadrupeds.  From  hence  the  silk-worm  »as 
brought  to  Euro|ie.  This  re^'ion  conoi-uls  in  its  Imsoin 
the  moMt  l«uutil'ul  diamonds,  the  tiiicsl  gold,  the  lust  tin, 
&c,  whilst  the  waves  (low  over  the  purest  iH-arU  and 
corals.  The  teni|M'rate  rxine  has  given  to  Euro(H;  the 
melon,  the  vine,  the  orange,  and  many  uf  itK  must  agiee- 
ablc  garden  fruits,  us  well  as  the  most  productive  liiri- 
nacaous  grasses,  and  the  must  charming  tluwera;  and 
•••''tos,  i»  its  pfoOuclions,  symmetry  with  richness,  par- 
ticular^ iu  Iha  weitturu  regions.    Hera  th«  ulderf  tradi- 


tions place  Paradise;  here  lie  the  enchanting  Caikmen 
and  the  Garden  of  Damascus ;  here  blossoms  the  rose  of 
Jericho,  near  the  cedars  of  Lebanon.  The  eastern  coiji* 
tries  in  the  same  latitude  possess  the  ten-shrub  and  th( 
genuine  rhubarb.  The  camel,  the  Angora  goat,  the 
Thibetan  sheep,  the  pheasant,  and  the  horse,  are  natives 
of  this  zone.  In  the  north  blosson)"  the  Alpinu  flora  ot 
Dauria,  and  from  the  icy  soil  grows  the  dwarf-like  Si- 
lierian  cedar,  till,  at  70°,  vegetation  mostly  ceases.  Hero 
live  the  smallest  of  quadrupeds — the  shrew-mouse  of  the 
Yenisey.  Sables,  ermine*  foxes,  otters,  &c.,  afford  the 
finest  fur.  The  minerr..  kingdom  furnishes  rich  ores, 
rnro  precious  stones,  and  remarkable  foss'!  '"mains  of  the 
mammoth,  in  high  northern  latitudes. 

The  inhabitants  of  Asia  (amounting  to  390,000,000; 
according  to  some,  to  680,000,000)  are  divided  into  three 
great  branches: — The  Tartar-(jaucasian,  in  Western 
Asia,  exhibits  the  finest  features  of  our  race  in  the  Cir- 
cassian form ;  the  Mongolian  race  is  spread  through 
Eastern  Asia;  the  Malay  in  Southern  Asia  and  the 
islands.  The  north  is  inhabited  by  tlie  Samoiedes, 
Tthooktches,  and  others.  Twenty-four  tribes,  of  different 
language  and  origin,  may  be  distinguished,  some  of 
which  are  the  relics  of  scattered  trilx-s  of  Nomades: 
Kaintschadales,  Ostiacs,  Samoiedes,  Koriacks,  Kurilians, 
Aleutians,  Coreans,  Mongols,  and  Kalmucks,  Mantchnos 
(Tungoos,  Daurians,  and  Mantchoos  Proper),  Finns, 
Circassians,  Georgians,  Greeks,  Syrians  and  .'Vrmenians, 
Turtiira  and  Turks,  Persians  and  Afghans,  Thibetans, 
Hindoos,  Siamese,  Malays,  .\nnainites  (in  Cochin  t-'hina 
and  Tonquin),  Burmese,  (-hinese  and  Japanese,  benidcs 
the  indigenous  inhabitants  of  the  East  Indiau  islands, 
Jews  and  Euroficans.  The  principal  languages  are  the 
.Arabian,  Persian,  Armenian,  Turkish,  Tartar,  Hii..Ion, 
Malayan,  Mongol,  Mantchoo,  Chinese,  and  Sanscrit 
The  principal  reli.i^ons  which  prevail  are  Mohanf'O'Ian- 
ism  in  the  western  parts,  the  worship  of  the  \i.:  < 
Thi!>et  in  the  central  region,  lludhism  in  the  b>-  ;..  , 
territory,  and  Hindooism  or  Brahniinism  in  '•■  • 
These  and  other  religions  of  the  .Asiatics  are  distended 
in  the  article  Pauan  anu  M011A.M.MKUAN  RKLiniost. 

ArRICA. 

Africa  is  a  vast  peninsula  of  a  triangular  form,  with  ict 
narrowest  point  towards  the  south,  contaiiiii.g  12,2,'if),000 
square  miles;  situated  In-tween  18°  W,  and  ."il"  E.  lon^ 
and  from  34°  S.  to  37°  30'  N.  lat.;  Iwunded  on  the 
north  by  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  east  by  Asia,  the 
Red  Sea,  and  Indian  Ocean,  and  on  the  south  and  west 
by  the  Southern  and  Atlantic  Oceans.  It  has  a  great 
breadth  from  eaxt  to  west.  The  northern  j»ortion  iii 
much  larger  than  the  southern ;  the  great,  st  breadth, 
from  west  to  cant,  from  Ca|>e  Negio  to  Vh\k'  (iuardahiL, 
is  69°.  Under  the  equator,  the  breadth  is  'l.'iOO  geo- 
graphical miles.  The  internal  structure  of  Africa  ii 
marked  by  many  peculiarities.  It  |>ossess<<s  deserts  or 
arid  sandy  tracts  of  imineiise  extent,  uninhabituble  by  ■ 
Bi'tlled  population,  and  only  traversed  by  troops  of  wild 
.Arabs,  and  caravans  or  companies  of  travellers  on  the 
backs  of  camels.  In  these  awliil  Militndes,  lions,  tigen, 
and  other  wild  aninnis,  Innit  ti)r  u  prey,  and  dispute 
possession  with  the  savages  wlii>  intrude  upon  their 
domain.  Africa  also  poHsesM's  iminerisely  lung  chuinn 
of  inountdiiis  nsing  to  an  eiiornioos  height.  Such  ate 
the  .Atlas  riiouiituins,  the  .Mnuiitdins  of  the  Moon,  and 
others.  Tlie  hijjlicst  |ie.ik  of  the  ('niiieroiies  is  Ill.dOt) 
ti'et  aliove  the  level  of  the  sea.  Atrica  has  few  riverf 
suitable  lor  navigation,  and  hence  its  liii|H'net ruble  cha- 
racter. 'I'he  principal  river  is  the  Niger  or  Jullba,  which 
flows  some  hundreds  of  miles  I'rrtin  the  ititrrli>r,  to  th* 
Atlantic  on  the  wist  coiuit.  In  this  quartt<r  also  are  the 
Gambia,  the  (.'ongo,  and  the  Henegal.  The  Nile  has  hern 
the  longest  and  best  known ;  it  flows  from  Abyanoit 
through  Egypt  to  the  MMliterrar.cuii. 


GEOGRAPHY. 


67 


BKcepting  in  some  «mall  «poto  on  the  fsca-coast  in- 
'  aabited  by  European  colonists,  the  whole  of  Africa  is  .  i 
(he  posROuion  of  races  of  men,  black  and  fiercely  savage, 
or  very  slit^htly  civilized,  and  of  a  copper  complexion. 
Of  the  latter  variety  are  the  Moors  of  the  extensive  re- 
gion of  Barbary  on  the  north,  and  also  the  modern  in- 
habitants of  Egypt  Egypt,  which  is  little  else  than  the 
▼alley  of  the  Nile,  and  lying  adjacent  to  Arabia  Pctrtea, 
gnd  Syria  in  Asia,  is  the  only  country  of  Africa  in  which 
we  can  find  any  interest  from  historical  recollections.  It 
is  described  at  length  in  a  separate  number  of  the  present 
work.  West  from  Egypt  is  Barbary,  a  country  in  part 
nominally  subject  to  Tartary,  and  containing  the  districts 
of  Tripoli  and  Tunis,  also  Algiers,  which  has  lately  In-er 
conquered  and  appropriated  by  the  French.  The  empire 
of  Morocco  is  likewise  in  this  northern  division,  in  the 
^gle  of  territory  between  the  Mcditerraneaiu  and  At- 
lantic Central  Africa  comprises  a  number  of  savage 
states,  among  the  rest  Guinea  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 
Along  this  coast  are  certain  British,  French,  Portuguese, 
and  Dutch  possessions.  Southern  Africa  comprises  the 
countries  inhabited  by  the  Hottentots  and  Caffrcs,  and  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  which  is  at  the  extreme  southern 
promontory,  and  now  forms  a  flourishing  British  colony. 

The  islands  considorod  to  belong  to  Africa  are  the 
Madeiras,  the  Canaries,  ('a{)e  Verd,  and  Azore  islands, 
also  St.  Helena  and  Ascension,  all  in  the  Atlantic ;  and 
tfie  largo  isle  of  Madagascar,  with  a  few  of  smaller  size, 
in  the  ocean  to  the  east  of  the  continent 

Madeira  is  the  fmest  and  most  accessible  of  the 
African  islonds.  It  ext<nds  to  about  37  miles  in  length 
by  11  in  breadth,  and  lies  at  the  distanc:  of  a'x)ut  five 
hundred  miles  from  the  coast  of  Barbai  y,  in  the  route 
of  vessels  proceeding  from  Europe  to  the  Cape  of  Goo<l 
Hope  or  India.  Lying  at  about  the  31st  degree  of  north 
latitude,  it  enjoys  a  delightful  climate,  suitable  for  the 
tender  constitution  of  i.ivallds.  Vegct.ition  is  luriiriant 
and  the  grape  trrows  to  great  perfection,  and  yif'.is  a  fine 
wine,  usually  called  Madeira.  The  island  >•,  in  posses- 
lion  of  Portugal,  but  many  English  reside  upon  it,  both 
for  the  sake  of  commerce  and  health. 

The  African  races  of  men  ofler  many  points  of  interest 
to  the  inquirer.  The  majority  of  them  are  distinguished 
from  the  rect  of  the  human  family,  not  only  by  thoir 
black  complexion  and  curly  hair,  but  also  by  peculiarities 
in  the  construction  of  the  bones  of  the  head  and  even 
of  the  nerves.  This  seems  to  imply  that  the  negro  is 
originally  a  distinct  race.  It  is  thought  that  traces  of 
this  primitive  race  may  still  be  detected  here  and  there ; 
lor  example,  of  the  original  Egyptians  in  the  Copts,  and 
of  the  Guanches  (the  original  inhabitants  of  the  Cana- 
ries) in  the  natives  of  Burbary.  The  population  is  pro- 
ba'ily  lietween  a  hundred  and  a  hundred  and  ten  mil- 
lions. The  interior  of  the  country  must  be  very  populous, 
gincc,  within  two  centuries  and  a  half,  it  has  <-iintributed 
forty  millions  of  vigorous  men  to  the  slave-trade,  and, 
notwitlistanding,  is  any  thing  but  depopulated.  Even 
(he  countries  along  the  coast  are  thickly  i)oopled.  Jack- 
son computed  the  population  of  Morocco  alone  at  sevcii- 
tuen  milHons,  and  the  Barbary  states,  with  Egypt,  which 
constitute  hut  an  eighth  part  of  the  continent,  contain 
twenty  millionB.  The  torrid  Guinea  has,  on  the  whole, 
*  numerous  population  ;  and  largo  cities  are  situated  on 
the  Jolilia,  of  which  we  hardly  know  the  names.  The 
inhabitants  belong  to  two  brunches  of  the  human  family  ; 
to  the  black  or  Ethio|iiun  race,  which  extends  from  the 
Joliba  to  the  southern  extremity,  comprising,  notwith- 
•ianding  their  tawny  complexions,  the  Hottentots;  and 
(0  the  Caucasian  race,  which  includes  the  natives  of  Bar- 
bary, Copts,  the  Arabs  or  Moors,  the  Agaziones  or  Abys- 
iinians,  and  the  nations  of  Nubia,  The  Arabs  are  not 
to  be  regarded  as  alM)rigine8  of  Africa,  but  they  have 
icstteml  themselves  and  iHx-ome  occupants  of  the  greater 
nirt  uf  the  north  and  west. 
Vol.  I.— tt 


The  prevailing  religions  are  Mohammedanism,  and  dit 
fcrent  kinds  of  Paganism.  The  arts  are  exercised  only 
on  the  northern  coasts,  where  the  Moors  manufacture 
much  silk,  cotton,  leather,  and  linen;  an  active  com- 
merce is  carried  on  by  them  with  the  maritinte  nations 
of  Europe,  and,  by  means  of  caravans,  a  'aflic  fully  as 
important  with  the  interior,  to  which  they  convey  their 
own  products  and  those  of  Europe.  The  wants  of  the 
savage  races  are  exceedingly  simple,  and  every  article 
used  by  them  is  prepared  by  themselves ;  the  cloth  whicli 
sunounds  their  loins,  the  hut  which  protects  them  from 
the  weather,  the  bow  and  arro,v  necessary  for  the  chase 
and  self-defence,  as  well  as  all  their  household  furniture, 
are  manufactured  by  themselv.-s ;  the  gold  which  they 
collect  from  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  wrought  by  them 
into  ornaments,  and  iron  into  arms.  Commerce,  how- 
ever, with  Europeans  has  taught  them  many  wants,  and 
increased  their  list  of  necessaries ;  among  which  may 
now  he  reckoned  fire-arms,  p<  wder,  brandy,  tobacco,  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  cloth,  glass  bimds,  coral,  &c. :  for  which 
they  barter  slaves,  ivory,  golJ,  and  gums,  the  staples  of 
Africa.  The  most  odious  branch  of  troflic  is  .nat  carried 
on  in  the  sale  and  export  of  slaves ;  although  in  soiue 
respect  limited  in  recent  times,  it  is  calculated  that  still 
50,000  negroes  are  carried  off  annually  for  the  South 
American  market  Of  all  the  ota.c3  of  Africa,  Barbary 
alone  uses  coin  ;  \\\  the  rest  not  frequented  by  Europeans, 
money  rarely  serves  as  a  medium  of  exchange ;  in  some^ 
on  the  western  coast,  cowries  (small  shells)  are  made  to 
answer  the  purpose  of  coin ;  in  others,  pieces  of  salt 

AUSTRALASIA, 

Which  now  ranks  as  one  of  the  great  divisions  of  the 
earth,  consists  of  a  number  of  large  and  sn)all  islands 
in  the  Indian  or  South  Pacific  Ocean,  between  the  10th 
and  45th  degrees  of  south  latitude,  in  n  south-easterly 
direction  from  China,  which  is  the  nearest  part  of  the 
Asiatic  continent  These  islands  also  lie  in  a  south- 
easterly direction  from  India,  or  Hindo^tan.  The  chief 
island  in  the  group  is  Australia  or  New  Holland,  which 
measures  2000  miles  from  east  to  west,  and  1700  in 
breadth  from  north  to  south.  The  physical  character  of 
Australia  is  very  peculiar.  With  the  exception  of  some 
mountain  ranges,  it  is  generally  flat,  and  in  many  plac(!s 
the  inclination  is  inwards,  instead  of  outwards,  to  the 
sea.  There  being  a  general  absence  of  hills,  clouds  are 
not  attracted  over  the  land,  and  hence  there  is  a  defi- 
ciency of  rain  in  the  country  ;  '.he  climate  is  nevertheless 
one  of  the  finest  in  the  world,  and  no  country  on  the 
globe  seems  so  suitable  for  sheep  pasturing.  The  chief 
native  quadrupeds  of  Australia  are  pouched  animals, 
such  as  kangaroos,  of  which  there  are  several  varietie& 
The  native  human  licings  are  of  the  Malay  race,  and  in 
a  low  state  of  barbarism. 

.Australia  now  posisesses  thiec  distinct  British  settle- 
ments— New  South  Wales,  which  stretches  about  1500 
miles  along  its  eastern  coast,  and  some  hundreds  of  miles 
inland;  South  .Australia,  on  its  southern  shore, which  has 
lieen  but  recently  opened  for  emigration ;  and  Western 
Auclralia,  or  Swan  River  Settlement.  Van  Diemen's 
Land  is  another  British  settlement.  New  South  Wales, 
which  is  the  oldest  and  most  populous  of  the  Australian 
colonies,  lies  at  the  distance  of  1  fi.OOO  miles  from  Great 
Britain,  and  its  capital,  Sydney,  to  which  most  vessels 
proceed,  is  reached  in  from  100  to  120  days'  sailing. 
Lying  on  the  opposite  side  from  us,  its  seasons  are  re- 
versed in  relation  to  ours;  its  winter  is  in  May,  June, 
and  July,  and  its  summer  in  November,  Deceml)er,  and 
January,  Sydney,  which  is  agreeably  situated  on  a  fine 
bay  of  the  sea,  called  Port  Jackson,  now  possesses  a 
population  of  25,000  souls.  The  whole  population  of 
New  South  Wales,  free  and  convict,  is  understood  to  Iw 
about  1 10,000,  but  the  number  of  inhabitants  iii  rapidly 
increasing. 


M 


INFORMATION  FOR   THT3  PEOPLE 


Routh  Austmlia,  to  which  no  convicts  are  allowed  to 
M  fsnt  from  Enjjianil,  is  at  present  a  thriving  colony  ; 
Ibe  town  of  Ade.nide  is  its  cupital. 

Van  Dicmen's  Land  is  an  inland  of  about  the  siic  of 
E  igland,  Ivinif  at  a  short  distance  south  Irom  Aiistraiia, 
•nd  possessinR  many  excellent  harbours.  Van  Dicmen's 
Luti  is  more  hilly  and  licUer  walTPil  than  Australia, 
Mid  therefore  bettor  ndaiitcil  for  agriculture.  lU  cnpitnl 
ia  Hobart  Town,  on  iti  southern  jiid.\  On  its  norlhcrn 
i<hoi«,  'opposite  Australia,  is  Launccston,  the  sccnnii 
largest  lown  in  the  island,  and  a  busy  seat  of  trade. 
The  jiopulation  of  the  iHland  rvas  lately  estimated  at 
96,000,  alHJut  one-hiilf  of  which  were  convicts. 

The  Newr  Zealand  Islands,  which  liclonpr  to  the  Aus- 
tralcsian  group,  are  situated  at  a  greater  distance  to  the 
east  of  Australia. 

For  a  complete  description  of  the  whole  of  these  inte- 
resting territories,  wo  refer  to  the  articles  on  the  subject, 
in  the  present  work. 

«  AMERICA. 

The  continent  of  America  lies  in  the  western  hemi- 
■phere,  in  a  situation  altofrether  aloof  from  the  continents 
of  the  Old  World — as  Europe,  Asia,  rind  Africa,  arc 
termed.  America,  or  the  New  World,  was  first  disco- 
vered by  Columbus,  in  the  yeor  1492,  but  its  coasts  were 
not  fully  known  to  Kuroiieans  for  nearly  a  century  after 
that  period.  It  was  long  a  matter  of  doubt  whether 
America  was  connected  at  its  northern  extremity  with 
Asia,  and  many  rxp<'dition8  were  fitted  out  to  discover 
if  such  were  really  the  case :  it  is  now  ascertained  that 
it  is  not  connected  with  Asia,  but  is  a  detached  continent. 
Although  Uolumbua  is  entitled  to  be  considered  the  first 
discoverer  of  America,  it  happened  that  he  was  roWx-d 
of  the  honour  of  giving  it  his  name  by  the  superior  ad- 
dress of  Americus  Vespucius,  one  of  hir*  adventurous 
•occessors.  America  consists  of  f'vo  Urge  portions,  very 
nearly  separaied  by  the  intervening  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and 
only  connected  by  a  reck  of  land  called  the  Isthmus 
of  Darien.  The  northern  portion  is  named  North  Ame- 
rica ;  that  in  the  south.  South  America.  From  its  nortii- 
am  boundaries  to  the  Gul.  of  >fcxico.  North  America 
extends  about  4.376  miles  ip  length,  and  3000  miles  wide 
at  the  bro.idest  part  South  America  commences  at  the 
ninth  dc^~ee  of  north  latitude,  reaching  to  the  Sfith  de- 
gree sou'ui  latitude,  being  a  length  of  4550  miles,  by  a 
breadth,  at  wideat,  of  nearly  3000  miles.  On  this  vast 
double  c.mtinent,  iho  work»<  of  nature  are  found  on  a 
.arge  scale,  calculated  t.)  excite  our  wonder.  Mountain 
mngcs,  plains  and  riven?,  are  all  larger  and  more  magni- 
ficent in  their  proportion?  and  appearance  than  those  in 
the  eastern  hemis|)here.  The  soil  is  also  very  generally 
fertile,  and  cgvered  with  the  most  lofty  timber  and  luxu- 
riant vegetation. 

At  the  period  of  the  discovery  of  America,  it  was 
(bund  to  be  thinly  inhabited  by  a  numl)er  of  trities  of 
aboriginal  [leople,  generally  of  a  copper  colour,  and  more 
or  less  savage  in  charactiT  and  habits.  The  subseijuent 
aettlcment  of  colonists  from  Spain,  Portii.'  il  Holland, 
England.  F'runce,  ami  otiier  Euro|>ean  nu:  had  the 

eirect  of  either  extirpaiin;;  tllo^v  races,  or  ol  >ing  Ihcm 
westward  towards  llic*;!i()re-i  uf  ti'.e  Pacific  Ocean.  Tliey 
are  now  comparitivi  ly  few  in  number.  While  they 
have  decreawd,  the  colonists  have  vastly  increased  in 
numlicr  by  eminnjiiori,  and  the  natural  incrc^asc  of  popu- 
Jation.  In  a  ir(  ncral  seiise.  North  Aniericu  has  fiilen  to 
tne  sliure  of  Uriti.sli  coloniHts,  while  South  America  has 
U'como  tlu"  portion  of  the  Npuni-li  and  other  bii,'oted  and 
bad-mana,'iim  Europeans.  In  the  couim-  of  time,  the 
ColoiiislM  in  nearly  all  parln  have  emancipated  themselves 
froMi  the  ibii:>inion  of  the  uMther  eountiies,  and  set  up 
M  indepeM'l<-Mt  iialii>n8.  In  duiiii{  so.  they  have  embraced 
tJic  oppi>'iuiiiiy  I'f  tryiiiij  to  cHtiiblish  democratic  insliui- 
tious,  Willi  ail  abm-iice  of  sriNtucrutii:  distinction.     Th>) 


greatest  of  the  re))iiblics  thus  establistied  is  that  of  lh« 
'Jnitcd  .States  of  North  America.  A  thin'  race,  the  de- 
scendants of  negroes  irn[iorted  as  slaves,  is  riling  into  a 
large  amount  of  popnlatiim  over  the  whole  continent, 
partly  emancipated,  and  still  partly  us  slaves ;  and  beiii;) 
most  unfortunately  or  inhumanely  kept  as  a  despiso<l 
j  caste,  their  increasing  nunilH-n,  and  condition  are  at  pre 
.  jciit  exciting  the  attention  of  the  civilized  world.  It  hoi 
I  been  computed  that  the  whites  and  their  deiicendai  ts  in 
all  parts  of  America  amount  in  number  to  15,C  ').(J(<0; 
Indians,  10,000,000;  negroes,  8,000,000 ;  mixed  brmis, 
as  mulnttoes,  incstezos,  -Vc,  8,000  000  ;  total,  4 1,000,000 ; 
but  the  nundier  of  Indians  is  declining  so  rapidly,  that 
in  all  likelihiKxI  they  do  not  at  }  resent  amount  tc  more 
than  from  six  to  seven  millions,  whiio  the  whites  have 
increased  in  an  equal  [iroportion.  It  is  reckoned  that 
there  are  space  and  fertile  soil  on  the  American  continent 
for  at  least  800,000,000. 

South  America  comprises  the  states  or  independent  re- 
publics of  Colombia,  Guiana,  Brazil,  Peru,  Polivia,  Chili, 
Ur.enos  A;  res.  or  the  united  provinces  of  I,a  Plata  and 
Patagonia.  The  principal  range  of  mouiitai'is  ii  the 
Ai'des,  nnd  betwixt  these  and  the  Atlantic  are  many 
great  flat  plains,  receiving  the  name  of  Pampas.  The 
rivers  ill  South  America  arc  among  the  largest  in  tlie 
world;  the  principal  are  the  Amazon,  La  Plata,  Ori- 
noco, Pr.iiainn,  Paraguay,  St.  Francisco,  and  Mngda- 
lena.  The  principal  isiuiids  are  the  Falkland  Islands, 
Terra  del  Fuego,  off  the  southernmost  ixiint  of  land, 
Juan  Fernandez,  and  tlio  Gallajiagos.  For  u  complete 
account  of  South  Amkiiica,  wc  refer  to  tlio  article  on 
that  subject. 

North  America  compreliends  the  fo'lowing  political 
divisions : — On  the  North,  the  country  of  the  Esqui- 
maux, who  form  independent  tribes;  also  Greenland,  a 
large  insular  or  {wniiiEular  tract,  str"tching  towards  the 
north  polo ;  next  these,  to  the  south,  T.abrador,  a  country 
heloiiging  to  Great  Britain,  and  chiefty  appropriated  by 
huntera  and  natives ;  on  the  north-east  coast  the  island 
of  Newfoundland,  a  Dritish  |H)SB«'ssioii ;  Canada,  Nova 
.Scotia,  and  New  Brunswick,  likewise  Dritish  imsscssions ; 
thus  the  larger  portion  of  territory  in  the  nonhern  [mrt 
of  the  continent  lielongs  to  Great  Britain.  Ailjaccnt  to 
Canada,  anil  occupying  the  whole  front,age  to  the  Atlar). 
tic,  are  the  United  States.  Behind  them,  on  the  west 
coast,  are  the  united  states  of  Mexico,  and  in  the  nortli- 
westcrn  part  a  territory  claimed  by  Pusiaa.  The  ex- 
trenie  sontbem  part  of  North  .Xmerica,  occupying  a  d^ 
vision  of  the  ifthmus  of  Panama,  is  the  state  of  Guate- 
mala, which  now  claims  to  lie  inde|)cndent.  Except  in 
■Mexico,  the  lorger  pro|)ortion  of  tho  western  side  of  the 
continent  is  still  in  possowiion  of  native  Indian  tribes, 
but  these  are  quickly  disapis-aring  before  the  advances  of 
civilized  man.  To  this  eontinent  Iwiongs  a  series  of 
islands  on  the  Atlantii^  side,  in  the  seas  tH;tWf>en  North 
and  "  uth  .America,  now  Ih-aring  the  name  of  Wkst 
1  Nines,  .\moiig  these  are  St.  Domingo,  Jamaica,  and 
other  islands  of  im|)ortance,  chiefly  devoted  to  the  cut 
tore  of  the  sugar-cane,  colfee,  and  other  tropical  pr> 
iluctions,     (See  article  Wi.sr  Imiiks.) 

North  .America  abounds  in  fine  large  rivers,  suscep- 
tible of  navigation  for  s«'veral  hnndre<ls,  ond,  in  i  few 
iiistiinces,  thon^ands  of  miles.  The  principal  river  in  tlia 
north  is  the  .St.  I.awiencc,  which  issues  from  a  series  of 
large  fresh-waler  lakes,  the  most  exti  iisivi!  on  the  glolie; 
these  arc  Lakes  Sii|«-riiir,  Huron,  Michigan,  Erie,  Oiv. 
tario,  and  others.  They  in  general  ili\iile  (.'anadu  t'nmi 
the  Iiii'ed  States.  jMext  in  "i/e  to  the  St.  Lawretiiv, 
on  the  nortli-east  coast,  is  the  nudsi>n  river,  which  eiilir* 
the  Atliiiilie  at  .Niw  Vink.  The  other  chief  rivers  arf 
the  Missi.sHi|,|ii.  and  its  tiibutarics  the  Dbio  and  the  .Mi» 
souri.  'J'hese-  (low  througli  the  eenti.il  parts  of  tin  cnuii 
try,  and  t«'rniiiia!c,  on  'be  soiilh,  a'  tl.c  d'li'f  of  Mi>\u'> 
'J  he  valley  of  the  .Missiiuiippi  is  stparuted  fr>iu  the  slolxj 


•v-r 


GEOGRAPHY. 


m  the  Allanlic,  by  the  /  Ueghany  range  of  mountains, 
.n  the  wcsti^rn  part  of  the  continent  is  a  similar  range 
callfid  the  Kocky  Mountains,  which  arc  the  boundary 
adjacrnt  to  the  slopes  on  the  Pacific.  By  moans  of  these 
and  i/thiM  wjitcr-courses,  personal  and  commcrcia'  intcr- 
rsjurso  ran  iio  carried  on  to  a  boundless  extent,  and,  with 
'.he  incxhiUHtilile  furtilit  '  of  the  soil,  will  in  time  render 
\orth  AmiTJca  the  most  populous  and  wealthy  region  in 
the  earth.  Already,  within  the  [jcroil  of  two  hundred 
years,  or  more  pro|ierly  since  the  epoch  of  the  American 
revolution  in  1770-80,  the  Anglo-Saxon  race,  originally 
planted  M  settlers  by  Britain,  has  spread  over  a  large 
portion  of  the  country,  and  founded  an  immense  number 
of  towns  aTid  cities,  and  otherwise  effected  the  most  extra- 
ordiniiry  improvements  in  all  the  art',  of  civilized  life. 
The  TJiiiled  States  were  lately  tv  -nty-eiffiit  in  number, 
gg  follow: — Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massa- 
chusetts, Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  all  which  are  known 
as  the  New  England  states;  New  York,  New  Jerney, 
Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Columbia,  Maryland,  Vir^mia, 
North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Alabama, 
Mis«i8iiip|>i,  Florida,  Louisiana,  Tennessee,  Kentucky, 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Missouri,  Michigan,  and  Arkan- 
sas. The  number  is  constantly  increasing,  by  the  acqui- 
gitlon  of  new  territories.  The  principal  cities  are  Wasli- 
ington  the  capital.  Now  York,  Philadelphia,  Bostor, 
Baltimore,  and  New  Orleans. 

The  printupal  cities  or  towns  in  the  British  posses- 
lions  are  Toronto,  .Montreal,  Quebec,  Halifax,  and  St. 
JohnJ.  For  an  account  of  the  Ujcited  States,  Ca- 
KAD.i  and  M.tvA  Scotia,  we  refer  to  tlio  separate  ar- 
ticies  on  lilCi-e  subject-M.  • 

POLYNESIA. 

Polynesia — a  word  si^nifyinif  "many  isles" — is  the 
BS-ne  now  given  to  the  numerous  groups  of  small  islands 
iratteri'd  over  the  Pacific  Ocean,  but  principally  lying  in 
an  easterlv  and  north-easterly  direction  from  Australia, 
within  cliiiut  lliirty  degrees  on  both  sides  of  the  equator. 
Thev  are  pcrh.ips  bettor  known  under  their  titles  of  the 
Saiidwicii,  Friendly,  Society,  and  Queen  Charlotte's 
Iiiiinds,  <<tc.  They  are  many  thousands  in  nuintior,  and 
ue  inhaliiten  liy  races  of  men  who  have  generally  been 
found  much  more  tractable  than  the  barbarous  tribes  of 
the  other  parts  of  the  world.  Mast  of  the  islands  are 
fruitful  and  l)e«utiful;  some  are  exceedingly  high  and 
romantic,  and  tlicir  climate  is  reckoned  the  most  deli- 
cious oi\  the  glolK!.  Otaheito  is  one  of  the  principal  of 
the  isocioiy  Islands.    i>wbyh»e,  or  Hawai,  ia  the  largeit 


of  the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  measures  eighty-four  mflea 
in  length  by  seventy  in  breadth.  Hero  Capt4>in  Cook, 
in  1779,  fell  a  victim  to  a  sudden  resentment  of  the  n*> 
tives  with  whom  his  party  unfortunaxiy  liid  a  d'spute> 
The  islands  are  in  the  course  of  being  Chribiianizcd  and 
improved. 


[WORKS  ON  OrOGRAPHY. 

A  general  knowledge  of  gco-jraphy  hns  now  beconM 
one  of  the  elements  of  common  school  instruction.  But 
the  subject  is  sulficiently  extensive  and  interesting  to 
form  a  study  for  the  riper  years  of  those  who  lirive  leisure 
for  it.  Among  the  school  geographies,  Mor.se's  is  pr©« 
ferred,  on  account  of  the  great  number  and  minutcneM 
of  the  maps,  which,  in  fact,  are  the  princi|)nl  thing  in 
this  study.  .Murray's  Encyclopirdia  of  (Geography  is  a 
very  extensive  and  interesting  work  abounding  with 
maps  and  pictures,  and  going  minutely  mto  every  branch 
of  the  subject.  Malte-Brun's  is  another  of  thp  »?.'»i« 
class,  and  is  greatly  prized  by  scholars.  The  inost  con- 
venient books  of  reference  on  this  subject,  of  course,  are 
Gazetteers,  and  of  these  Maccidloch's  is  the  most  recent 
and  extensive.  The  most  agreeable  mode  of  studying 
geography,  however,  is  by  reading  books  of  travels,  writ- 
ten by  lively  and  interesting  writers,  like  Stephens,  81i« 
dell,  Darwin.  Dana.  Fisk,  Mrs.  Haight,  Humboldt,  Ken" 
dall,  Kay,  Kohl,  Mackenzie,  Dr.  Olin.  Captains  Parry, 
Reynolds,  Sedgwick,  Cheevcr,  and  others  of  the  same 
class.  By  reading  their  delightful  books,  with  the  map 
before  ns  for  reference,  we  have  the  features  of  the  coun> 
tries  which  they  visited  indelibly  fixed  in  our  minds,  in 
associatiim  with  the  manners,  customs,  and  history  of 
the  places. 

For  the  purpose  of  rendering  our  knowledge  of  geo. 
graphy  still  more  minute  and  availaldc,  it  is  an  excellent 
practice  to  draw  maps,  and  however  imperfectly  or  un. 
scientifically  this  task  may  l)e  executed,  its  effect  in  as- 
sisting the  memory  is  acknowledged  by  all  who  have 
made  the  experiment.  It  is  worth  oiie's  while,  also,  to 
embrace  any  opportunity  which  may  present  itself  of  ex- 
amining the  maps  which  have  recently  come  into  fashion, 
in  which  the  mountains  are  represented  in  relief,  being 
actual!  '  raised  above  the  surface  of  the  paper  or  card  of 
which  the  map  is  made.  Such  maps  arc  common  in 
EufO|K! ;  but  few  have  reached  this  country,  and  we  aM 
not  aware  that  the  making  of  them  has  i>een  atteiu(  ted 
heie. — Jim,  Ed.] 


PHYSICAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN. 


Tii  Phygioi  History  of  Man  is  a  sciencn  which  pro- 
poM*  to  investigate  the  charactera  of  the  diflercnt  races 
af  the  human  family,  as  they  exist  in  different  regions 
of  the  earth.  The  great  distinctions  between  the  vari- 
<HU  races  must  have  been  marl(ed  with  wonder  at  an 
caily  period ;  but  no  serious  effort  was  made  to  ascer- 
tain the  nature  and  causes  of  those  varieties  till  the 
present  century,  when  the  subject  has  been  illustrated 
by  the  researches  of  Cuvier,  Blumenbach,  Pfitchard,  and 
tome  other  writers.  As  yet  the  science  is  far  from 
having  arrived  at  distinct  or  satisfactory  results;  but 
much  of  what  has  lieen  ascertained  is  nevertheless  of  a 
mott  interesting  nature,  and  well  deserving  of  general 
attention. 

1  POPULATION  or  THr  OLOBE — RACES— THBIB 
GENERAL  FEATURES. 
Amidst  the  almost  infinite  variBtioa  observable  in  the 
nations  of  the  earth,  naturalists  have  anxiously  sought 
for  well-marked  characteristics,  which  might  enable  them 
to  claw  the  whole  under  a  few  comprehensive  appella- 
lions.  They  have  arrived  at  very  different  result* ;  Malte- 
Brun,  for  example,  describing  sixteen  races  which  he 
considers  as  broadly  distinguished  from  each  other,  while 
others  reduce  these  to  five,  and  even  three.  The  arrange- 
ment now  most  generally  approved,  and  the  one  which 
we  desig.n  to  follow,  is  that  of  Blumenbach,  which  divides 
mankind  into  five  leading  classes  or  races,  each  distin- 
guished by  such  peculiarities  in  the  skin,  hair,  eyes,  and 
dupe  of  the  head,  as  to  stand  considerably  apart  from 
the  rest.  They  are  named  the  Caucasian,  Monooliah, 
BTRioric,  Amkricax,  and  Malat; 


Cuucaaian  Rbce. 

1.  The  Cavcastan  race  is  one  widely  spread  on  the 
face  of  the  globe,  and,  in  addition  to  physical  bcauvy  of 
the  high(>t.t  order,  is  distinguished  fur  intellectual  cm' 
nence.  The  skin  of  this  rare  m»y  be  generally  described 
M  fair ;  but  it  is  susceptible  of  every  tint,  and  in  aorae 
nations  iis  almuiit  black.  The  hair  is  fine,  long,  curling, 
•nd  of  various  colours.  The  skull  is  a  large  rounded 
oval,  and  the  brow  full  and  flevatcd.  The  face  is  com- 
paratively small,  oval  in  form,  and  weli  pro[)^'<ioned. 
iTie  n(fce  is  arched,  the  chin  full,  and  the  teeth  vertical. 
The  chief  families  of  tlie  Caucasian  variety  arc  the  Cau- 
taiiiin*  proper,  the  Germnnic  branch,  the  Ctlnr,  tlje  Ara- 
bian, the  Lthy.m,  the  Niliilic,  and  the  Ilimlottamc. 

The  race  of  Caxuatiani  proper  are  traceable  to  the  con- 
fines of  the  mountainous  range  of  Caucasus,  l>etween  the 
Black  Sea  and  the  '''a'-r>ian— a  region  not  far  distant  from 
the  apparent  birtb-p.^ce  of  mankind.  The  Caucasian* 
ttiti  duelling  there  form  at  this  hour  the  physical  type 
6(i 


of  thia  great  variety  of  human  beings.  The  CircaMdam 
and  Georgians  are  very  perfectly  formed,  approiiching 
closiily  in  shapij  and  features  to  the  cognate  race  of  Pe> 
lasgi  or  Greekr,  who,  emanating  from  tliis  region,  spread 
early  over  Grjece  and  parts  of  Italy,  and  there  founded 
Caucasian  nations.  At  this  day  a  great  part  of  the  peo- 
ple of  Persia;  and  especially  the  upper  classes,  are  of  Cau- 
casian descent,  the  remainder  being  Mongol  Tartars,  a 
n.ce  equally  distinguishable  when  pure.  The  Persian 
rnen  and  women  have,  generally  speakmg,  fi.ie  persons, 
iind  they  are,  Uke  the  whole  of  the  pure  Caucasian  va 
riety,  highly  imaginative,  and  fond  of  music  and  poetry. 
The  tribes  of  Affghanistan  and  Koordistan  belong  in  part 
to  the  same  variety,  and  exhibit  its  wonted  physical  per- 
fection. 

A  small  body  of  pure  Caucasians  fv^unded  the  Roratu 
nation.  The  personal  differences  between  them  and  tbs 
Greeks  arose,  doubtless,  from  the  extensi<.  admixture  of 
the  early  Romads  with  the  Sabines  and  other  ourrouud- 
ing  tribes. 

The  GtrmanU  family,  a  great  branch  of  the  Cauca- 
sian variety,  ibrmed  one  of  the  mighty  waves  of  popula- 
tion, which,  emanating  from  the  original  seats  of  the 
race,  passed  over  a  great  part  of  central  and  northern 
Europe,  filling  Germany  and  Scandinavia,  and  partly, 
also,  Russia  and  Poland.  In  the  latter  regions,  how- 
ever, they  met  with  Tartars  from  Asiatic  Scythia,  aiul 
the  mixture  of  these  races  produced  the  Slavonic  sub- 
variety,  and  originated  the  Slavonic  tongues.  The  de- 
clind  of  the  Roman  power  brought  out  the  Gennanie 
tribes  from  their  northern  settlements,  and,  under  Tarioui 
names,  they  formed  new  locstions  in  the  south-west  of 
Europe.  Among  others,  they  founded  the  languages  of 
England,  Holland,  Denmark,  and  Sweden,  though  at  Jif. 
fercnt  periods.  Robuxt  forms,  light  hair,  blue  eyes,  florid 
complexions,  and  large,  broad-fronted  heads,  constitute 
the  chief  physical  characteristics  of  the  pure  Germanic 
family;  while,  morally  and  intellectually,  they  stand  pro- 
P4iiinent  aliove  all  the  other  tribes  of  mankind,  'i'hey  ai* 
conspicuous,  in  particular,  for  what  may  be  called  the  indt^ 
trial  virtuet,  exhibiting  a  degree  of  indomitable  persever 
ancu  in  all  improving  pursuits,  which  has  rendered  them 
the  great  inver.'ors  of  the  human  race.  The  admixture 
of  (trrman  and  I'artar  blood  in  the  north-eastern  nations 
of  Europe,  has  given  to  tliese  darker  hair  and  complex 
ions  than  the  preceding  section,  and  has  also  lessened 
their  pra|K'nsity  to  intellectual  cultivation.  The  cfiecti 
of  the  Tartar  conquest  of  RussL  in  the  twelllh  century 
by  Zenghis  Khan,  whose  successors  '  eld  the  country  for 
300  years,  will  probably  be  observable  i  career  of  thit 

people  for  ages  to  come,  and,  indeed,  p«..  .laps  as  long  u 
the  race  exists. 

Tile  Cellic  branch  of  the  Caucasians  formed  extensive 
settlements,  at  a  very  early  period,  in  Western  Europe. 
The  whole,  it  may  be  said,  of  Italy,  Spain,  France  callcil 
Gallia  Celtica),  and  Britain,  was  {leopled  by  them.  Tiie 
successive  commingling  of  races,  caused  by  inrursioiii 
of  the  (i  reeks,  Itoinaiis,  and  Germans,  did  much  to  oW 
literate  the  traces  of  this  variety  in  its  pure  state;  yd  the 
race,  language,  anu  Maine,  still  remain  in  their  primiUu; 
condition  on  tlie  or  skirts  of  tlie  original  Celtic  duuik 
nions.  We  allude  liefly  to  parts  o*'  Gotland  and  lr» 
land:  In  Brittany,  G  scony.and  B  ,ay,  the  traces  of  the 
[icuple  arc  also  distil  'tly  obaerv  '.le.  These  pure  Cellji 
show  us  what  ttie  pi    sical  d    .acteristics  of  their  sioss 


PHYSICAT.  HISTORY  .JF  MAN. 


fl 


tnvr-re.  ''Iii'ir  frnme*  nm  athletic,  gpare,  and  wiry; 
their  forehe  «<rrow,  and  the  head  itaelf  elunf^ated ;  the 
DOW  and  mou  orge,  and  the  cheek-bonei  high ;  in  all, 
Ibfir  feature!  are  rbther  harsh.  In  chKracler,  they  are  hot 
and  hery,  but  gcnnroua  and  brave :  and  they  s'e  reranilca' 
oly  patient  of  fatigue.  Intellectually  considored,  they  arc 
■cute  and  ingenioua  in  the  highest  degree,  but  are  defi- 
oent  in  that  breadth  and  solidity  of  understanding  which 
difltinguisheg  the  Germanic  family. 

The  present  population  of  France  partakes  largely  of 
tie  Celtic  blocJ,  notwithstanding  various  invasions  of  the 
Germanic  tribes,  from  one  of  which,  the  Franks,  came 
the  modern  name  cf  the  country.  From  the  Colts,  the 
French  people  derive  their  proverbial  vivacity  of  temper, 
their  quickness  of  perception,  their  dashing  bravery,  and, 
moat  probably,  their  undeniable  inconstancy  and  flighti- 
ness  of  disposition.  Britain,  again,  has  retained  cum- 
p&ratively  slight  trace*  of  her  early  Celtic  inhabitants. 
A  brancn  of  the  Germans  had  visited  the  island  even 
Dcforc  the  invasion  of  the  Romans ;  and  after  the  lutter 
came  Dane,  and  l^azon,  and  Norman,  in  such  numbers, 
that  the  pure  aboriginal  stoc'.:  were  left  but  in  the  High- 
lands of  Scotland,  and  partly  in  Wales.  The  Scottish 
Lowlands  had  early  been  colonized  by  the  Picta,  a  people, 
there  is  every  reason  to  think,  of  Germanic  origin ;  and 
subsequent  intcrmiAturea  with  the  southern  inhabitants 
•f  the  island  speedily  gave  the  population  still  more  of 
the  Germanic  character.  In  this  manner  was  formed  the 
root  of  the  existing  British  nation,  one  of  the  most  re- 
mnrkahle  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  Inferior  to  no  one  of 
'Jt\i  Caucasian  families  in  intellectual  endowments,  and 
possessed  of  indomitable  courage  and  unbounded  enter- 
prise, it  has  scattered  its  colonies  over  a  large  portion  of 
±e  globe,  Kiving  to  new  regions  its  language,  its  genius, 
and  its  arts.  Above"  all,  it  has  given  frigin  to  the  great 
Anglo-American  nation — a  nation,  if  inferior  at  all,  info- 
nor  only  to  the  parent  stock,  in  those  attributes  that  enno- 
ble the  race.  Much  of  the  excellence  that  belongs  to  the 
British  character  certainly  arose  from  the  preponderating 
iniuaion  of  Germanic  bl(;oJ,  resulting  from  the  incursions 
of  the  Norsemen  upon  the  aboriginal  Celts.  But  the 
sprinkling  left  of  Celtic  blood  seems  to  have  had  its  use 
also,  in  giving  a  share  of  vivacity  to  the  comparatively 
heavy,  massive  temperament  of  the  pure  Germans.  We 
may  judge  so  from  looking  at  the  character  of  the  un 
mixed  Germanic  families.  The  Dutch,  for  example, 
would  evidently  have  been  an  impro\  t  race  bad  their 
specific  gravity  of  character  been  '  iind  by  a  little 
infusion  of  'Jsltic  mercurialism.  '1  ,,c  Belgians  have  a 
pretty  equal  share  of  Celtic  and  Germanic  blood  in  their 
veins ;  and  consequently,  while  they  display  the  indus- 
trial virtues  of  the  latter  race,  they  also  show  no  slight 
admixture  uf  Celtic  flightiness. 

There  may  appear  some  fancifiilness  in  this  mode  of 
malysii),  but  we  believe  that  an  accurate  examination  of 
the  pronnrUons  in  which  the  Germanic  and  Celtic  blujd 
are  mingled  in  all  the  countries  of  Europe,  would  fully 
OUT  out  the  views  now  taken.  In  Italy,  Spain,  and  Por- 
tui^ai,  infuBums  of  Germanic  blood  took  placi\  but  to  a 
comparatively  slight  extent  The  alMriginal  Celts  of 
Spain  were  extensively  mingled  with  Roman  immigrants: 
and  it  may  be  said  that,  at  this  day,  Romaniacd  Celts, 
m&.  a  sprinkling  of  Gothic  ^Germanic)  and  Saracenic 
ilood  in  their  veins,  form  the  existing  population.  In 
them,  the  faults  of  the  Roman  character,  as  well  as  itx 
liiughty  virtues,  are  even  yet  distinctly  traceable.  Ro- 
manizi-d  Celts  constitute  the  basis  also  of  the  Portumicse 
and  Italian  nation,  and  the  preceding  remark  applies  to 
their  character  as  much  as  to  that  of  the  Spaniards.  The 
languages  ol  the  three  countries  bear  out  these  observa- 
tions. 

The  subject  of  the  Germanic  and  Celtic  branches  of 
the  Caucasiaa  variety  of  mankind,  aa  well  as  of  the  Cau- 
«astant  propar  hu  be«n  treated  of  at  some  length,  tiOcaiMe 


these  tribes  have  been  the  gre^t  eivilizf  n  of  Ihr  «urlj. 
The  Egyptian  or  A'i/u'tr  branch  forms  alnjost  the  only 
•zoaption  to  this  statement  Most  of  the  existing  nations 
of  Europe  can  distinctly  trace  their  origin  to  these  Ca» 
casian  tribes.  Dr.  Pritchard  traces  a  chain  of  connection 
between  the  roots  of  the  Sanscrit,  Greek,  Laiin,  and  Gar* 
man  languages,  which  leads  him  to  imagine  them  to  hav« 
•II  sprung  from  a  common  orig'i.al.  A  remarkable  simi> 
larity  has  been  traced  between  the  Celtic  and  Phcenicion 
languages.  These  and  othc?  circumstance*,  to  a  certain 
•xtont,  point  to  a  common  origin  and  place  of  origin;  but 
the  aiTiliation  of  nations,  as  Humboldt  justly  observei^ 
cannot  be  distinctly  made  out  in  this  way,  Coaqucsi 
•nd  colonizationv  must  confuse  all  such  attemptK. 

After  treating  of  the  three  great  influxes  of  popuiatiou 
which  founded  the  past  and  existing  nations  of  the  £«!• 
ropean  continent,  the  Arabian  and  J.ibyau  branches  of  tha 
Caucasian  family  fall  to  be  noticed.  Spare  but  activn 
fersons,  skins  of  a  light  brown,  sallowed  sometimes  by 
■nusual  exposure,  high  foreheads,  lac^e  dark  eyes,  oval 
features,  with  aquiline  noses  and  small  thin-lipped  mouth*, 
form  the  personal  characteristics  of  the  Arabs.  They 
have  occupied  tlie  confines  of  the  present  Arubia  from 
time  immemorial,  and  their  natural  habits  have  uver  been 
pastoral  and  migratory.  The  Bedouin  Arabs  claim  de> 
■cent  from  Ishmael,  and,  however  this  may  be,  it  is  plain^ 
from  physical  characteristics  alone,  that  they  ore  a  cog* 
Bate  race  with  the  Jews.  The  latter  were  originally 
derived  from  the  Chaldeans,  an  elder  branch  cf  the  Arab 
nee  settled  in  Babylonia,  and  they  were  a  pastoral  and 
wandering  people  like  their  congeners,  until  they  settled 
in  the  cities  of  Palestine.  A  body  of  Canaanitc  Arab% 
apelled  by  the  Jews  under  Joshua,  are  understood  to 
hftve  settled  in  Africa,  and  become  the  nation  of  ttw 
Mauri  or  Moors,  Governed  by  Mohammed  and  bia  auo* 
MMors,  the  Arab  race  rose  to  high  consequence,  and, 
■nder  the  name  of  Saracens,  made  great  conquests  of 
iMrritory  in  Asia  Minor,  Africa,  and  in  Spain.  They 
were  afterwards  deprived  of  superiority  in  some  of  thes* 
eoimtries,  but  left  extensive  tribes  in  tlie  African  continent 
and  Asia  Minor.  The  Berbers  (or  Libyans)  ore  a  rac* 
who  seem  of  Arab  descent,  but  who  probably  settled  in 
Africa  at  a  far  distant  date.  They  resemble  the  Arab*- 
in  person,  but  aie  more  darkened  in  complexion.  Undn 
llie  name  of  Tuariks,  they  range  both  to  the  north  and 
■outh  of  Mount  Atlas.  They  are  wilder  in  habits  thoA 
the  Arabs,  but  may  be  spoken  of  as  the  same  race,  and 
with  the  same  capabilities.  They  form  a  large  part  of 
tho  existing  population  of  the  north  of  Africa,  occupy-' 
ing,  with  the  Arabs,  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Mediterra* 
Bean  shores  of  the  continent,  from  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar 
to  Egypt ;  and,  cither  under  the  name  of  Moors,  of  Aiaba, 
of  Tuariks,  or  of  Fclatahs,  they  are  rapidly  insinuating 
themselves  within  tiic  tropics,  obtaining  everywhere  that 
■uperioi'ity  over  the  Negro  race,  which  the  Caucasiah 
family  seldom  fail  '  ^  acquire  wherever  they  plant  the  foot 
It  seems  more  tha.  probable  that  the  Arab  race  will  blti> 
matcly  push  the  Negroes  from  Africa ;  and  indeed  may 
imniliilate  them,  as  tho  European  whites  have  done,  oi 
ue  doing,  in  the  case  of  the  Red  Indians  of  America.  In 
the  latter  instance,  but  a  few  centuries  have  been  necea- 
■ary  to  accoiiiplish  the  change  of  population,  and  large  at 
tho  African  continent  is,  many  centuries  may  not  paaa 
•way  ere  it  rnst  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Caucasian 
nee.*     The  Negroes  have  indeed  lost  more  than  half  of 


•  The  Aralu  «re  likely  to  lie  dislodgi^d  in  liirn  liv  a  mote 
eultivaied  pi'ojile.  While  they  lire  pushing  lliemsilves  iiiu. 
power  niiiiil  ilie  ncgroi'S  of  ihu  iiilerior.  n  I'aucnfliaii  race,  (' 
niglier  civili/Rtion.  ha8  set  it^  liaot  on  the  Mediterranean  shores 
o(  Africa,  and  liugim  to  piiah  then)  out  of  their  previous  coi>- 
ouesis.  We  refer  to  the  occupation  of  the  Algeriiie  const  '  ' 
ue  French  Slrnnge  how  ceaaelenRJy  the  round  of  substiK 
Uons  seems  to  go  on  ■  From  the  imnienso  extent  to  which  the'* 
•ra  spreading,  one  would  say  ihiit  the  Caucasians  seem  ds> 
Unad  to  fill  trie  earth.  Certain  it  is,  ihnt  they  appsar  w  li«% 
Msuliar  capabil  ties  for  su'-caiaful  col-'vuation. 
F 


INFORMATION    FOR  THK   PEOPLE. 


(I  nlmadv,  for  there  w.  be  little  doubt  lh«  the?  once 
•trrtrhed  to  the  MMlitcrraiK-Hn.  bt-ncvolerx*  at  firiit 
•hrinki  from  t\\e  iden  of  a  ronsumjimtioii  lil;n  th'i;  but  ro- 
flertion  fooii  rcconcilt'ii  un  to  it.  The  •upplaiitir.-B  of  one 
niro  by  snotlier  ilo<«  not  imply  the  extensive  .Untructlon 
of  individual*  which  it  at  flretappenrs  to  do.  It  cnly,  in 
tiie  medn,  dciiotiw  a  ntronRcr  principle  of  [lopnlation  in 
Uie  one  race  than  the  other.  The  dovclopnionl  of  num. 
bent  in  the  one  ii  repressed,  in  the  other  encouraged,  tii" 
at  lenRth  the  first  may  be  said  to  die  out,  leaving  the  in- 
truding race  in  po«8ciMi:=.-  c(  the  soil,  (ienerally,  where 
•ucti  chauRea  take  place,  the  soil  becomes  the  mcana  of 
■upportinK  far  (freater  numl>er«  than  formerly. 

Th-  Wahaliees  in  modern  times,  and-in  past  days  the 
l»ho  .ians  and  Idumeans,  whoae  respective  capitals  were 
1'vre  and  Pctra,  arc  fuither  s|iecimen»  of  Arab  trib's. 
1  he  laat  two  triU-s  sprung,  it  is  probable,  from  tiie  pri- 
mitive Chaldean  branch,  settled  at  Babel  or  Babylon. 
Whatever  be  iu  ultimate  destiny,  wc  may  anticipate  that 
L'le  Arab  race  will  yet  play  a  (greater  part  on  the  scene 
of  earthly  aflaira  than  it  ha*  Jiithcrto  done.  The  capo- 
Mty  of  the  race  ia  high,  and  under  favourable  circum- 
itancea,  as  when  settled  in  the  cities  of  Spain,  their  native 
l.dinta  for  poetry,  music,  and  the  fine  arU,  developed 
Uieraaelvcs  in  no  ordinary  degree.  Planted  in  cities  on 
Die  fertile  banka  of  the  Niger,  of  which  they  are  rii|iidly 
lasuming  the  mastery,  they  might  in  time  renew  there 
all  the  aplendoura  of  the  Caliphate. 

The  kilotic  (Coptic  or  Egyptiant  branch  of  the  Cau- 
casian family,  is  chiefly  remarkable  on  account  of  its  high 
distinction  in  past  times,  when  the  tribe  foimded  tin  civi- 
lization of  the  world.    The  Nilotic  branch  consisted  of 
the  Egyptians,  Nubians,  and  Abyssinians;  and,  though 
these  nations  have  long  been  commingled  with  the  Arab*, 
producing  the  mixed  race  of  Fellahs,  yet  the  pure  Nilotic 
ibaractoristica  can  still  Iw  traced  among  tlum.     Slender 
p«r»on«,  long   limbs,  and   delicate   feet,  narrow  oblong 
(oreheails,  eyes   elongated   in  a   peculiar   manner,  Umg 
uoeee,  with  swarthy  brown   complexions,  seem  to  have 
been  the  main  personal  tcaturen  of  the  old  Egyr^iana. 
The  pure  Copts  now-a-days  exhibit  various  shadea  of 
colour,  from  a  paK  olive  to  a  deep  brown.     The  flat  fea- 
'turea  and  bushy  hi''  of  the   S|)hinx  led  the   traveliei 
Volney  to  form  the  hypothesis  that  the  old  Eg>ptiana 
were  Ni.gro<'» ;  but  his  desire  to  arrive  at  a  liberal  con- 
dusion  carried  him  too  far.     The  numlierlcss  piintinga 
fince  discovered,  in  many  of  which  negroes  ap()car  aa 
captives,  exhibiting  features  perfectly  distinct  from  those 
of  their  Egyptian  captors,  prove  inconlcstably  that  the 
Nilotic  race  were  of  the  Cnuctisian  variety  of  mankind. 
Even  at  this  day,  the  Nubians,  certainly  the  purest  de- 
scendants, as  a  nation,  of  the  old  Egyptians,  have  in  no 
case  the  woolly  hair,  flat  features,  or  lonji  heels  of  the 
Negro  race,  though  sometimes  nearly  jet  black  in  com- 
plexion.    They  have  the  Caucasian   heads   and  forma 
most  undeniably.     At  what  time  the  banka  of  the  Nile 
from  the  .\l)yssinian  mountains  to  the  seven-streamed 
Delta,  were  peopled  by  the  Nilotic  race,  it  would  be  vain 
to  conjecture.     It  is  only  in  the  case  of  countries  far 
more  distant  from  the  cradle  of  the  rare,  that  we  can  form . 
any  rational  conclusions  upon  the  date  of  immigration. 
It  ia  scarcely  necessary  to  add,  that  history  proves  the 
Coptic  race   to   have  possessed  the  highest  intellectual 
capabilities. 

The  Hinilmtnnie  branch  of  the  Caucasians  presenta 
an  extraordinary  variety  of  conipleiicms,  from  a  drcpish 
blafk  to  a  beautiful  brunette.  Shades  of  olive,  however, 
are  the  preduminaiit  hues.  Small,  elongated,  and  narrow 
heaJs,  oval  faces,  no9(>s  slightly  aquiline,  bright  black  eyca, 
and  dark  pli«sy  hair,  with  v.-r)  short  slender  [lersons, 
mark  the  pure  Hindoo  race.  I'ussing  by  the  claims  which 
they  themselves  prefer  to  immense  anti()uity,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  they  have  been  longer  settled  as  a  natior 
ban  aJinoHt  any  on  the  earth.     Tbey  early  attuiuud  to 


diatinction  in  the  science*,  and  particularly  'li  mathein» 
tica,  poetry,  and  the  drama.  What  was  the  precise  plan 
of  their  origin  has  In-en  long  a  matter  of  dirpute.  Kroa 
the  great  reverence  liome  by  them  for  the  n  >rth.  and  from 
the  uiiijiiestionable  intercourse  existing  lietween  them  and 
the  Egyptians  in  the  very  earliest  times,  as  well  as  from 
the  numerous  (loints  of  similarity  lictween  ihe  two  na 
tions  in  many  imfH)rtant  res|M'cts,  e  common  and  inter 
meiliate  spot  might  be  regarded  as  likelj  .)  have  prodncni 
both.     But  conjecture  on  this  point  would  In   fruitless. 

»Ve  have  now  gone  over  the  various  prominent  branrhea 
of  the  great  ('aucasian  family.  To  tbeni  we  owe  nearly 
all  that  dignifies  the  name,  and  enhances  ttm  happinesa 
of  the  human  U<ing.  All  that  we  posMp»»  of  written 
literature — from  the  po<'tic,  historical,  and  |iliiloRophic 
treasures  of  Greece  and  Rome,  and  the  roiminlio  creationi 
of  Arabian  fancy,  to  the  pro<luctions  of  Ihe  modem  presa 
— has  emanated  from  th  ('u.icasian  variety  ol  mankind. 
The  Polasgian  branch  in  .ancient  times,  and  the  Teutonic 
or  Oermanic  in  modern  ages,  have  lieen  most  dibtinguishcd 
for  their  institutions,  and  the  various  productiuns  of  tb« 
higher  intellectual  powers. 

The  Germans,  in  an  early  ago  of  their  history,  wera 
the  firet  who  raised  woman  from  the  condilion  of  a  slave 
to  that  of  an  eijual  with  man.  and  made  her  n  parlnr'  m 
his  powers  and  rights.  The  importance  of  ibis  change 
is  best  shown  by  the  fact,  that,  to  womim's  condition 
among  them  at  thia  hour,  the  Mongols  and  other  \'ari» 
ties  of  men  certainly  owe  much  of  their  inferioritv, 
Vxce  political  institutions,  elective  senates,  and  jury  triali, 
came  from  the  Germanic  race.  They  were  Ihe  disco- 
veroni  of  printing,  of  the  compass,  of  the  steam-t^i^ne, 
of  gunpowder  (a  great  invention,  however  abused),  and 
of  accurate  timc-measurerB.  To  these  disrovcriM  luime- 
rous  others  might  l>e  added;  but'when  wo  tliink  how 
much  the  happiness  of  man  now  depends  even  on  these 
few,  we  feel  I't  unnecessary  to  extend  the  list.  The  Cau- 
casiana  projwr,  and  the  Celtic  family,  have  shown  sur- 
prising genius  in  many  departments  of  inlellectual  exer- 
tion,  but,  in  all  tho  industrial  arts  that  lieur  practically 
on  human  comfort,  they  must  yield  the  palm  of  merit  * 
the  Gcrmunis  liimily. 


Mongolian  Race. 

2.  TTio  MoxnoiiAX  variety,  as  regards  numbfts,  ii « 
family  of  vast  importance ;  the  trilws  of  the  Mongol- 
Tartars,  the  Turks,  the  Chinese,  the  ludo-t'hinese.  and 
the  Polar  races,  being  included  in  it.  These  triN'S  cover 
an  immense  portion  of  Asia,  from  the  line  of  Ihe  rral 
and  Himmnleh  mountains  to  Behring's  fStraits;  and  fh*j 
are  spread  over  more  than  one-hall  of  North  Anierici, 
towards  the  .Arctic  Circle.  'I'hey  also  ()rcut)y  (irecniand 
and  a  portion  of  the  north  of  Buro|ie,  coniprismi;  tli« 
Finland  and  l,a|iland  coasts. 

The  physical  characters  of  the  Moneolian  race  van 
considerably,  hut  tho  following  general  description  will 
be  found  to  apply  extensively.  The  skin  is  roininoiily 
of  a  sallow  or  olive  tint,  and  in  some  cases  nearly  yel'otr 
the  hair  is  black,  long,  and  straight,  seldom  curlins ;  th 
beard  usually  scanty;  the  iris  blacli;  the  note  w  luiU 


PHYSICAL   HISTORY   OF  MAN. 


tiul  •hcrtt,  ttud  (ho  chonk-lionod  broad  and  flat,  with  laliont 
ivi^inatio  nrrh<i»;  tlin  akull  is  nlilonff,  bu.  flntti^nnl  nt 
Oil!  iiiloii.iio  lut  to  (jivo  an  app<^nmnco  of  (i(|uarrnflHii ;  and 
(!ifi  (brohend  in  low.  In  iiittjllcrtual  chararter,  ihe  Mon- 
ijciliana  are  by  no  im'aiiH  detrotivn,  btit  thoy  a  e  more  dia- 
tiiii^uishetl  lor  imitiilive  than  inventivo  KeniuH.  Thia 
faculty  at  the  (mine  limo  rciiilnrH  them  bitjhly  auscrptiblo 
of  cultivation.  In  many  caHcH,  howovor,  tribea  of  thia 
Tariftv  have  arrived  at  eoiidiilerablo  prollcietKiy  in  litera- 
ture and  the  arts.  Tlieir  moral  character  is  decidedly 
low.  Chiiiu,  inpaii,  Thib<<t,  Houtan,  and  Indo-China, 
niav  l"*  mentioned  aa  loeationa  where  the  best-marked 
iixM'imons  of  the  MonRolian  variety  are  to  be  obMorved. 
The  Turkish  and  Mongol-Tartar  trills  have  l)oen  great 
oonquororH  in  pant  times,  and  have  ol\en  even  vanquished 
the  Caucasians ;  but,  in  most  eases,  they  have  afkenvards 
been  re|iclli'd  from  liieir  acquixitions  by  the  Caucasians, 
iuccutnbing  to  the  apparent  law  of  nature  which  gives 
these  the  ultimate  superiority  in  all  struggles  with  the 
other  varieties  of  men.  The  Fins  and  Laiilanderf  appear 
tu  be  a  remnant  of  some  prnnitive  Mongolian  ]ieople, 
whom  the  Caurusians  originally  pushed  to  the  extreme 
verge  of  the  Arctic  seas,  and  were  content  to  leave  there. 
The  Esquimaux,  as  well  as  the  people  of  Finland  and 
Lapland,  have  some  physical  peculiarities  distinguishing 
tlicm  from  other  Monjzolians,  but  these  seem  to  be  the 
effect  chiefly  of  local  position,  which  undoubtedly  exor- 
.^ea  a  degret  of  influence  on  the  human  frame. 


spnct.  1'hia  may  ue  in  part  Maeri))ed  to  want  of  cultiva- 
tion, and  op|)ortunitiea  for  cultivation ;  but  even  whiln 
adopting  this  lenient  view  of  the  matter,  it  is  impoi«ibli> 
to  shut  our  eyes  to  the  fact,  that  the  race  have  shown  no 
inventive  genius.  They  would  otherwise  have  long  ago 
originated  the  arts  of  civilization  for  themselves,  ai  otb«T 
varieties  of  men  certainly  did.  At  the  same  tinid,  many 
of  the  Negro  race  have  shown  no  mean  degree  of  talent, 
and  some  of  tl'em  have  exhibited  such  address  in  th« 
arts  of  politics  and  war,  as  indicated  the  capability  of 
attaining  to  u  high  state  of  intellectual  advancement,  bad 
their  powers  been  projterly  fostered  and  directed. 


(Uliioiilc,  or  niack  Race. 

3.  Tho  Etiiiopic  or  Rtack  variety  of  mankind  are 
fharacterreed  by  complexions  of  jetty  hue,  black  woolly 
hair,  eyes  large  and  prominent,  nose  broad  and  Hat,  thick 
li|)s,  and  wi(k;  month ;  tho  head  is  long  and  narrow,  the 
fofehoad  low,  the  cheek-bones  prominent,  tho  jaws  pro- 
jecting, and  the   chin   small.     A  long   protruded  heel, 
al«i,  and  a  flat  shin-bone,  often  distinguish  this  variety. 
The  principal  Bthiopic  families  are  the  Negroes  of  central 
Africa,  the  CalFres,  the  Hottentots,  the  natives  of  Australia, 
iiid  some  of  tho  IslaniK'rs  of  the  Indian  Archipelago  and 
the  Pacific  Ocean.     The  lands  ofer  which  this  variety  is 
spread  (nuinliors  Ijeing  left  out  of  the  question),  arc  pro- 
pKrtionally  of  somer<hat  smaller  extent  than  those  occu- 
liied  bv  any  of  rho  other  varieties  of  mankind,  with  tho 
exception  of  tho  Malays.     Tho  Mongolians,  to  l)c  more 
cx|i'ii(.it,  occupy  tho  largest  share  of  the  glolie;  the  Cau- 
c.nians  (their  various  colonial  settlements  being  included) 
•land  second  in   this  respect;  tho    Americans  occupy  a 
(union  slightly  less  than  that  of  the  Caucasians;  tho 
I'tluopic  variety  stand  next  in  the  list;  and  tho  Malays 
nr.'  lowest  of  all    in   the   s<'ale.     Tho  following  ''ijures 
will  t'urlhcr  show  the  proportions  of  these  territorial  hold-  , 
i  1,'s  in  a  rough  manner : — Vongolians.  4  ;  Caucjisians,  3  ;  ' 
I'll'  Arucri'aiiH,  '2j  ;  the  Ethiopians,  2;  and  the  Malays,  [ 
0  l-''Oth.     The  chief  locations  of  tho  Ethioi)ic  race  are — 
MVica  soutli  of  tho   desert  of  Sahara;    New   Holland; 
Ni'w Guinea;  New  (Jeorgia  ;  and  a  few  other  Polynesian  i 
^l.lll(l».     jMost  Island  Negroes  are  of  a  diniry  brown  hue.  \ 
III  ilispnsitiiiii,  this  variety  of  mankind  are  easy,  indolent,  \ 
•nil  cheerl'ul;  in  intt'llect,  the  race  varies  much,  tliough  ! 
-irutiiily  the  majority  of  its  tribes  stand  low  in  tliis  re-  \ 


Americ«n  Race. 

4.  ThoAMEiiiC4X  variety  of  manlind  occupy  well-d». 
fined  territorial  limits.  They  were  originally  spread  ovet 
nearly  the  whide  of  the  Americas,  south  of  tho  sixtieth 
degree  of  north  latituile,  though  their  numbers  are  now 
thinned,  and  their  tcnitorial  possessions  curtailed,  oy  ttai 
colonial  incursions  of  the  Caucasians.  A  reddish  browv 
complexion,  long  black  lank  liMir,  deficient  board,  eyei 
black  and  deep  sol,  receding  brow  ('sometimes  from  arti- 
hcial  compression),  high  cheek-bones,  oromincnt  aquiline 
nose,  small  skull,  with  the  apex  high  and  i\w  back  part 
flat,  large  mouth  ind  tumid  lips,  with  fine  symmetrical 
frames  of  middle  neight,  form  the  chief  physical  chara^ 
teristica  of  this  race.  "  In  their  mental  character,"  sayi 
Professor  Morton,  by  whom  they  have  bceu  thoroughly 
studied,  "the  Americans  arc  averse  to  cultivation,  and 
slow  in  acquiring  knowledge;  restless,  revengeful,  fond 
of  war,  and  wholly  destitute  of  niwitinie  adventure." 
The  same  writer  divides  the  Americans  into  two  great 
classes,  one  of  v.hich  (Tollecans)  embraces  certain  semi- 
civilized  nations,  as  the  Mexicans,  IVrnvians,  and  Bogo- 
tese,  while  tho  other  includes  all  the  hunting  tribes  of 
North  America,  the  Hraziliann,  the  Putagonians,  the 
Fuegians,  and  other  minor  tribes,  none  of  whom  have 
exhibited  the  same  capacities  for  cultivation  as  the  tirst- 
mentioned  nations.  The  Americans  ditler  much  in  colour 
of  skin  and  stature.  Some  of  them  are  not  brown,  but 
of  a  (lerfect  copper  tint.  'ITie  Patagonians  are  of  almost 
gigantic  size,  while  the  Fuegians  are  very  short  in  stature. 
Yet  there  are  characters  common  to  all,  which  have  led 
accurate  inquirers  to  set  them  down  as  l)cing  throughout 
one  and  the  f-me  jxioplc.  Their  languages  have  certain 
peculiarities  found  to  bo  of  universal  occurrence  among 
them,  from  ('ajKi  Horn  to  tho  far  north.  By  those  who^ 
like  Cuvicr,  have  not  viewed  the  Americans  as  an  indv 
genous  race,  the  mode  in  which  the  New  World  waf 
peopled  has  lieen  curiously  inquired  into,  and  it  has  beCn 
conjectured  that  they  either  came  by  Behring's  Straiti 
from  Asia,  or  that  some  small  party,  in  ages  long  pa»s 
was  wafted  accidentally  across  the  seas  to  these  vast  shorea. 
Such  an  occurreneo  as  the  latter  has  l)een  proved  to  be 
not  impossible,  io  say  tho  least  of  it.  But  assuredly  the 
wcit-ht  of  evidence  is  in  favour  of  the  opinion  that  the 
Americans  are,  not  a  casual  oiishoot  from  some  other 
human  family,  but  a  people  so  far  indigenous,  ot  eaat, 
and  primitive,  os  to  bo  derived  from  a  common  root,  eo- 
dowed  with  specific  and  unique  physical  cluiractors.  The 
maimer  in  which  they  were  planted  in  their  de^tintsl 


«4 


INFORMATION  FOR  TFFK  PROPI-K. 


ttotiM,  Mid  rercjvnl  Iheie  p<>culinr  charartfra  fltting  them 
lur  iu  inhabiution,  muit  remain,  according  to  thia  view 
of  thinga,  among  the  myiterioa  which  the  Creator  hn« 
a«en  At  to  leave  in  darkneae.  It  ia  undeninble,  it  may  l>e 
obaerrad  in  conduaion,  that  the  American  tacr  ia  tending 
10  aitinciinn 


Malay  Race. 

S.  The  Maiat  Tariety  of  mankind  are  charnctrrixnl  liy 
lawny  or  dark  brown  akinn,  nrnme  black  hair,  Urge  mouth, 
ahort  broad  none*,  ierming  an  if  broken  at  the  root,  flat  ex- 
panded faces,  with  projecting  upiK-r  jawa,  and  inlicnt  locth. 
The  akull  in  this  race  ia  high,  and  aquarr  or  roiitKtid, 
and  the  forehead  low  and  broad.  The  moral  character 
of  the  Malays,  generally  speakini;,  is  of  an  inferior  order. 
They  are  a  race  difTcring  murh,  in  some  respects,  from 
the  Negro  and  Red  Indian,  being  of  peculiarly  active 
temperaments,  and  fond  of  maritime  enterprise.  They 
exhibit  considerable  intellectual  capacity,  and  am  un  in- 
genioua  people.  Horneo,  Java,  Humatra,  the  Philli|)inr 
Islands,  New  Zealand,  part  of  Madagascar,  ami  various 
Polynesian  islands,  are  inhabited  liy  this  variety  of  men. 
It  is  extremely  probable,  fi-ora  the  fact  of  their  lieinij  found 
in  islands  surrounded  by  others  in  the  hands  of  the  Ktbiopic 
race,  that  the  Mal.iys  have  pushed  out  the  less  active 
variety  from  these  isles,  and,  in  short,  annihilated  them. 
It  is  but  too  likeiy,  moreover,  that  the  Vlalays  will  in  turn 
iuffer  extinctijn  at  the  hands  of  a  super  i,)r  vurirty,  or  a 
fariety  rendered  superior  by  civilization,  if  not  natur:illy 
ao.  Safely,  indeed,  may  one  prophesy  that,  in  New  Zea- 
land, ere  many  years  pass  away,  the  natives  will  hove 
disappeared  Iwfore  the  European  colonists.  Not  many 
months  ago,  the  last  native  thus  disappeared  from  Van 
Ulemen's  Land.  So  will  it  be  ere  long  with  New  Hol- 
land, large  as  that  continent  is.  Amalgamation  of  races 
is  in  these  cases  next  to  impossible,  and  no  other  pre- 
ventive, ai  already  stated,  could  be  found. 

DisTmiBirnoif  or  thb  races— cHA:«ac8  atcd  amal- 

OAMATIOI<ril< 

This  point,  really  one  of  the  most  curious  and  im- 
portant connected  with  man's  physical  history,  may  be 
illustrated  by  further  refcr^'nees  to  the  changes  in  geo;;ra- 
phical  position,  undergone  by  the  five  great  varieties  of 
mankind  now  descrilied,  from  the  earliest  [leriods.  Very 
few  portions  of  the  earth  have  retaineil  the  inhabitHnts  by 
whom  they  are  known  to  have  been  first  peopleil.  With 
respect  to  Europe,  it  seems  extremely  pro)>able,  as  Dr. 
Prichard  and  others  admit,  that  the  Celtic  and  Germanic 
raoea  were  not  the  earliest  aettlert  upon  this  territory. 
They  pushed  out,  from  some  parts  at  least,  a  previous 
race,  of  which  the  Fins  and  Laplanders  may  perhaps  be 
held  to  give  us  some  idea.  The  Oltic  population  of 
theaouth  of  Europe  were  in  a  great  meature  overwhelmed 
by  the  Germanic  tide  from  the  north,  and,  though  cen- 
tnriea  of  confuaion  followed  the  collision,  the  good  ulti- 
mately eflected  by  the  intermixture  was  immense.  It 
appeared,  indeed,  aa  if  •  savage  people  there  crushed  a 
fivilixed  one,  but  the  reault,  in  reality,  consisted  in  the 
tnfaaion  of  healthy  blood  into  a  Tttiated  frame.     At  this 


day  there  is  but  one  important  part  of  Evu  ie  in  tnv  Hands 
nf  the  pure  Mongolian  race,  namely,  Turkey.  Dnt  can 
we  doubt  that  at  thia  very  hour  the  once  fornihlnbia  powtt 
of  the  DitoMiana  is  verging  to  extinction  !  The  Cau- 
casian states  around  it  have  gradually  seiutl  proviiir* 
after  province,  and  jealousy  of  each  other  ul»no  prevents 
them  from  at  this  moment  annihilating  the  p«'tly  remnani 
of  the  .Mongols  lell  in  Europe.  The  |>ower  of  the  env 
piro  is  not  only  going  to  decay,  but,  as  M.  Lamartlna 
has  lately  shown,  llie  'I'urks  are  in  reality  iHtoniing  ex- 
tinct as  a  people.  Tliey  are  sinking  iH'nentti  the  preasura 
of  the  superior  or  BUlMiriorly  cullivatt^l  nations  around  theia 
In  Afrira,  as  has  been  salt],  the  Negroes  have  already 
Iwen  atri|i|ied  of  onc-bilf  of  their  conlineiit  by  the  ('aiv 
CQsian  .\ralM,  and  are  likely  to  be  ultimately  extinguishei 
by  them.  If  the  climate  mI  the  same  great  country  had 
been  more  favourable  to  the  pure  Cnuraslan  whiles  than 
it  is,  they  would  UHsiiredly  have  taken  a  larger  share  in 
the  occiiiation  of  it  than  they  have  done.  .'\s  the  ca<« 
stand'  (heir  aggresniitns  have  lM<en  coniiiderable.  Not  to 
s|i<-ak  of  their  coast  stations,  tliey  have  rolonized  the 
amithern  extremity  of  Africa,  and  the  Catfres  and  Hotten- 
tots ire  fulling  U'l'oro  tlicm,  or  are  receding  to  the  int» 
rior,  to  lie  finally  crushed  U'lween  the  uppoHing  forces  of 
the  Arabs  and  Enro|HMms.  The  Arabs  themselves  an 
licginniiig  to  feel  the  retributive  presnuro  of  the  French 
on  the  .Metliterraiiean  coast  In  Egypt,  again,  wo  may 
truce  striking  proofs  of  the  siime  grand  movement.  Alto, 
getlier,  what  with  the  Arabs  and  the  whites  of  Europe, 
Africa  may  l>e  ex|)erted,  ore  many  ages  puss,  to  be  in  th* 
hands  of  the  ('uucusiaiis. 

In  .'Xsia,  t'lo  conquering  Mongols  long  held  extensivt 
rule,  but  the  semi-Caucasian  power  of  KuHsia  in  the 
north,  and  the  Dritish  in  the  south,  have  torn  from  them 
immense  territories,  and  every  few  years  iH'hoid  additional 
losses  on  their  part.  Even  at  t!iis  time  the  great  Mon- 
gol power  of  (/hina,  whicli,  by  a  policy  cautious  to  an 
extraordinary  degree,  niuintniiied  tiir  ages  its  inilcpend- 
ence,  htw  forgot  itself  so  far  as  to  provoke  u  struggle  not 
likely  to  terminate  until  Cliiiiu  liocomes  little  else  than  t 
Caucasian  colony.  The  .\ii»lralian  continent,  and  the 
I'lilynesian  islands,  are  also  on  the  direct  way  to  th« 
suine  consummation. 

The  truth  of  tlio  view  now  taken  is  mot<!  remarkably 
borne  out  by  the  history  of  the  TraiiHHtlantic  Continent, 
than  by  that  of  any  other  country.  Kupidly,  indeed,  huvs 
the  rod  men  of  North  America  fallen  U'fore  the  niaroh 
of  O.ucasiun  colonization.  'J'he  numerous  islands  of  tht 
.Mexican  (iulf  have  \x-cn  so  comjiletely  cleared  of  all  traces 
of  native  |iopulation,  that  it  has  lieconiu  a  mutter  of  doubl 
whether,  on  several  of  these  islands,  any  native  [lopulaliob 
ever  existed.  iSouth  America  has  U'en  larc;ely  subjected  tq 
the  same  influences,  and  would  have  suffered  more  from 
them,  hud  the  Caucanians  who  went  thither  been  a  branch 
specially  adapted  fur  the  business  of  colonixts,  and  had  not 
3  consideruMo  admixture  of  riices  pcculiurized  that  colo- 
nization. As  it  is,  the  natives  have  lieen  thinned,  though 
the  amalgamation  alluded  to,  arising  from  the  ronipunitm 
similarity  Ix-twcen  the  rjces,  renders  the  truth  difficult  of 
discovery.  In  short,  if  we  look  at  the  whole  course  of 
the  past  history  of  inai-kind,  wc  shall  find  the  Caucuxian 
race  everywhere  gaining  the  asccnduncv,  and  slowly  hut 
surely  renovating  the  jiopulatio.i  uf  the  world. 

In  those  instuitces  where  an  utnalgninutiun  of  varietin 
of  men  has  taken  place  to  a  eonsideruble  extent  (»nil 
there  are  a  few  prominent  cas<>s  of  the  kind  to  be  ob- 
served at  present  on  tlie  face  of  the  globe),  a  |xi;iulaliun 
of  a  most  extraurtlinary  and  heterogeneous  kind  has  Icen 
the  result.  In  parts  of  South  America  and  Mexico,  ni^ 
only  Europeans  and  native  .Americans,  tjut  also  Negrnri 
and  Malaya,  transported  thither  chiefly  aa  slaves,  htn 
contributed  to  form  tlte  existing  population.  Euro{i<'ant 
and  Negroes  produce  a  ructi  called  Muluttoes;  ilio  chil- 
dren of  Europeaua  and  native  hidiaiu  ara  termed  Mnti 


ii«m;  and  tl 

tiaca.     Of  C(i 

iliiiosi  niimli 

(lure  Tercerti 

Eurn[>eaii  arc 

of  (jiiadrrioiu 

ijua<lriN)n,  lit 

in  luoil  (Munl 

right*  of  pure 

loron.     Mexif 

Niuth  .^inerie 

Hrujil,  with  lli 

arc  the  chief 

(Jlidoulitedly   I 

nous.    The  wl 

towards  the  da 

1^  mile  ore  ue 

Whether,  out  t 

of  s|)eries  lliore 

hiiniogeneoiiH  n 

fill  by  the  undii 

nhii'h  the  pnrili 

liiiiied.     If  Wc  I 

ilillerent    variiii- 

hijipier  con-^eiin 

rjiic'dlioii  whether 

["•ridients  of  mm 

Ik'  said  to  have 

American  < Diitim 

llip  issue  in  (he  ri 

niiiat  ere  long  fii 

[luce  of  horde.1  o: 

mA  warring  .'ifji  | 

rial,  will  lie  found 

llii"  arts  of  |ir  ijcr',  ( 

(ntpitrJi,  and  exir 

W"»ings  with  whi 

■t,  and  which  he  ci 

The  geuer  il  chi 

'''  3)en,  the  mode  < 

tlie  cause's  which 

10  affect,  their  futu 

I  tion;  and  our  nex 

J  nl'ie  features  of  ( 

I  human  fuuiily. 


!if 


TARIETI 

It  has  lic<'n  iilrea 
j  rally  distinguifhed 
I  Bolians  ore  yellow, 
i  'Oiu  red  or  co/ijx-r- 
In  former  timen, 
I  Mjck,  yxerr  recogni, 
runplexion  was  sin 
Imys.    This  idea  wi 
Imtved  that  expiwun 
Iwhilescclii-cion  tend 
Itlie  bl'ick  iiulioiiH  Wl 
lliical  countries,  whil 
■[•rate  zone.     'I'ho 
IwiTi-  the  jH-rteitioii 
|wh.)  entertained  e- 
lAfriian  sun,  wen-  ,, 
fllif  iVegro  naiioiiH 
ffn  changed  into  hi 
tays-    This  notion  , 
l"i;l.v  liy  natiirah.-il.s  , 
j'llie  U'liel'of  the 
The  vicwx  of  naiii 
wn  C(;nsi<ler,ili|y 
'l'>ureii«  conrerning 
P'°-'    The  white, 

J 'Onihs  .N'atiiral  Hi 
luijii  .W  l'l„iotophic 
'  *ut.  I 9 


PHYSICAL    IIISTOUY    OF   MAN. 


[IN  ntntk 
But  call 
ilapowti 

proviiiM 

pTOTenti 

rrmnuU 

'  tho  en> 

.■mBTtilM 

miiiiil  •>»• 
c  priiMun 
iiind  thriik 
ve  ftlreadj 
,  the  Cat> 
tiiigui»h« 
luntry  hail 
Uitef  tlian 
T  Mhure  in 
■  the  ca^ 
W.     Not  to 
lonixfd  the 
111(1  Hotim" 
to  the  inl» 
1 1  If  forrca  of 
iiHvtvoa  an 
tho  French 
lin,  wo  maj 
inpnt.   Alto 

I  of  Kutope, 
,  tu  be  in  th* 

>1(1  entpnaiva 
lussia  in  th« 

II  from  them 
oUI  aililitiniial 
L>  ujroat  Mon- 
ivitiouR  to  an 
its  inilepend- 

HlrugKle  not 
lu  rUc  than  a 
Kill,  and  Ilia 
■t  way  to  th« 

remsrValily 
lir  Continent, 
iiulocd,  hava 
irii  tho  niari-h 
islands  of  the 
rd  of  all  tracei 
luttcT  of  diiubl 
live  populatiou 
■ly  Hulijiirti'd  In 
[n'-d  more  from 
been  a  branch 
[t8,  nixl  had  nut 
[i/.ed  that  colo 
binned,  though 
he  forti|)jiriili« 
[uth  ditricnlt  »l 
Hole  courw  ot 
thi'  CaucuHian 
and  alowly  hut 
irld. 

;ion  of  variolic 
|le  extent  (anil 
,.ind  to  be  ub- 
).  a  iK>i)ulaUon 
kiiiil  lia"  '*•■" 
liid  Mexico.  "1"' 
It  aliw  Ne|?r"<~« 
aa  alavea,  ha« 
lu.     Euro{v»M 
|lU)ca;  iho  chil- 
ler incd  MfJ 


iA<m  i  and  thnvo  of  !Vpfiro<!<  and  Indiana  aro  itylod  /nm- 
li«ea.  Of  nmrne,  the  nutvvarietieit  are  niimefoiin — indeed, 
ilmoot  iinnibetlriw.  The  Kiiropenn  aiiil  the  Muhilln  pto- 
(lure  Tercen)iia ;  the  ehildron  of  tho  Tereeroii  and  (he 
FiUrn|<ean  areenlli'd  Qniirleronanr  CjuudrcHiiiii;  niid  Ihoiwi 
elf  Qiiadrnciiiit  und  Kuto|ienna  are  Ijuinteruna.  In  tlie 
(JuiidrcKin,  little  or  no  ve»tineof  dark  blood  \»  vinllile  ;  but 
111  luoil  e.iiinlri'-a  wliere  theae  admixturei  tiike  pbiee,  the 
riiihui  of  pure  white  blood  are  only  iiHHiKiied  to  the  l^uin- 
loron.  Mexiro,  and  the  greater  part  id'  the  Htiitea  of  Ibe 
South  Ainericiin  rontineiit,  ineluhnif  Peru,  ('liili,  iiiid 
Hraril,  with  the  eolonieii  and  iHJiindH  of  the  Went  fiidien, 
are  the  rhirf  iweiiea  of  these  iirnala;amalioiia  of  IiIoinI. 
(Jlidoubledly  then  iniinediitte  con>«'i|Ueiieea  are  periii- 
rioun.  The  white  blood  la  everywhere  hiiiiKhtily  dinponed 
towurda  the  dark,  and  nil  the  jeiilouKioa  ami  oppreHHJoim 
i)f  raitf  are  lU'eordiiik'ly  dJHplayed  to  n  dreadful  extent. 
Whether,  out  of  the  niiiin'roUH  vnrietieH  iiiiil  8ub-varietieH 
iif  iiieciea  tliero  ut  pn>Beiit  to  lie  lieheld,  one  perfect  and 
hnnu>neneoun  ruee  Hhiill  e>er  l)e  foriiH'd,  in  remlered doubt- 
ful bv  the  iiiiiliniiiili«hei1,  if  not  iiiereii'M'd,  iHi;erneiiN  with 
nhii'ii  the  iHirilv  of  the  wbilu  bloixi  continue*  to  be  niuiii- 
biined.  If  wi  eoiild  Hii|i|H>He  that  the  anml);ainationH  of 
iliirerenl  varielieM  of  niurtkilid  we^.  never  to  priHluee 
hipiiier  coiiM'(|uences  tliiiii  in  these  instaiirea,  we  iiiiftbt 
imenlioii  whether  Hiieh  adriiixtureH  be  desirable.  The  ex- 
(M'rimentM  of  ainal^tiimntion  and  iion-aniali;iinintion  may 
Ik'  »aid  to  have  U'en  tried,  on  great  scales,  in  the  two 
American  'oiitinentH,  and  it  is  uf  im|Mirlan<'c  to  notice 
ihf  iiwuo  in  the  respective!  cases.  In  N'orth  Anieriea,  wo 
riuiit  ere  lonj;  liiwl  the  iiliori);iiies  extinct;  and  in  the 
rlncc  of  hordes  of  suvajjes,  slationarily  pursuiiiR  the  wild 
jnd  warrinji  life  led  by  thr  I'  fathers  from  time  iinniemo- 
rul,will  l>e  f'>und  n  great  a  ,1  improving  race,  ciiltivatinc 
llif  arts  of  |i<  a(  r,  carrying  luiiiian  civilizati"n  to  the  bi^h- 
(pit  pitcii,  ttii<l  exiracliiig  from  tlieir  vast  continent  all  the 
hi'winifs  with  which  the  Creator  basso  liberally  endowed 
•t,  and  which  he  certainly  meant  not  to  lie  unused. 

The  general  characteis  of  the  great  varieties  or  families 
r^'aen,  the  mode  of  their  distribution  over  the  earth,  ami 
tilt)  cauii's  which  have  alli'cted,  and  are  likely  herealler 
U)  affect,  their  future  fate,  have  now  oi-cupicd  our  atten- 
tion; and  our  next  duty  is  to  advert  to  the  most  renmrk- 
tl'le  features  of  dilli'ience  in  tlie  various  branches  of  the 
huiuui  family. 

TARIKTIES   or  SKIN  IK   MANKIND. 

It  has  tieen  already  seen,  that  the  Cnncasinii'-  ire  genc- 

I  rally  distinguiflied  by  a  while  or  fair  skin,  while  the  Mon- 

;;i)lian8  are  yellow,  the  I'ltbiopiium  black,  and  the  Anieri- 

•aw  red  or  cop|M>r-coloured. 

In  former  times,  when  only  twovarietics,  the  white  and 

hiUik,  were  rccognisi'd  or  thoui;ht  if,  it  waasnpposi'd  that 

Ipirapleiion  was  simply  n  '•esult  of  tho  action  of  tho  sun's 

Irnvs.    This  idea  would  naturally  arise  from  its  lH>ing  oli- 

Imfved  that  exposure  to  the  sun  darkened  n  wli    •■  ])erBon, 

Iwli'.le  acclusion  temhul  to  bleach  or  whiten  him  ;  and  that 

Itlie  bWck  nations  were  those  which  chielly  occupied  tro- 

lliioal  countries,  while  t'lc  whiles  were  placed  in   the  tein- 

Ip'ratt!  lone.     Tho  (■  recks,  who  never  doiibteil  that  tiiey 

Iwcrf  the  ]H'rteclion  and  Ktandanl  of  linmnii  imtiare,  and 

Iwhi) entcrtiiined  e\aif)4erutcd  notions  of  the  beat  of  the 

|Afriian  sun,  were  stroiiHly  impressed  with  the  idea  that 

Uic  Negro  nations  liad   U'en   originally  white,  and   had 

I'll  changed  into  black  purely  by  the  iiition  of  the  solar 

Javs,    This  notion  conliiuied  to  be  set  t'orward  undonbt- 

lni;!v  liy  naturalists  down  to  the  time  of  llutliai,  and  it  is 

plilltliu  U'llef  of  the  ignorant  in  mo»t  countries. 

The  views  id'  naturalists  on  this  subject  have  recently 

»n  considerably    allt'cted   by   the  investigations  of  M. 

fUureiw  concerniug  the  actual  stru.  'ore  of  the  coloured 

i\h.'    The  whi*o,  us  is  well  known,  has  a  skin  com- 


I  •On  ih«  Naiiiral  Miitury  of  Man.    By  M.  Flourcna 
lurati.Niw  I'hilofophical  jourual,  July,  IKfi). 
fot.  I.— 9 


Kdin- 


|MMod  nf  three  intOKumenla.  Firat,  la  Ihn  oultr  or  itarf 
»lini,  a  thin  transparent  |H>llicle,  leemiiiHly  M'cretad  by 
the  parts  below,  and  devoid  of  rceogiiinil)li;  vrascls  ul 
liervcii.  Next  Is'low  is  the  rtit  miidniim,  u  soft,  pulpy 
net-work.  Next,  or  undermosi,  i»  thu  'n'l.i  or  true  akin, 
a  strong  layer,  abundantly  vaiM'ular,  and  very  seiisibla. 
It  was  forme  rly  HuppoM'd  that  tho  coloiirtng  matter  of  th« 
dirk  races  lay  in  the  relt  uiurumiii,  and  that  the  only  diA 
fereiice  between  the  two  races,  in  that  rcs|ii'ct,  lay  in  ths 
one  having  a  miieouH  integunient  charged  with  globules  of 
colouring  matter,  and  the  other  a  nincoiis  iuli'giiment  in 
which  there  Were  no  such  globules.  If  the  iiiNCHtigations  at 
Flonrens  be  eotrect,  tho  dilfuronce  is  louHideralily  greater. 
He  states  that,  in  a  sulllcient  variety  oreX|ieriiiii'ntM  U|ion 
the  skins  of  Negroes  and  red  Americans,  he  has  found, 
beneath  the  nle  vtutnuum,  two  distinct  additional  layers 
capable  of  being  detached,  and  tho  outer  of  vvliich  ia  the 
true  seat  of  the  colour  of  those  races.  M.  Klourens  con- 
siders this  ns  u  dilVerence  much  more  important  than  any 
depending  on  form.  Being  a  slrnclural  dilli'rence,  lid 
thinks  it  should  bo  held  as  one  of  the  first  class,  whiU 
dillerencis  of  sb.ipo  ought  only  to  be  considered  M 
secondary.  Without  following  him  in  lliese  s|H'i'iilutiani, 
we  may  readily  allow  the  importunce  of  a  |>eculiarily 
whi<'h  con-axis  in  a  distinct  and  additional  fiarl,  M. 
l-'loiirens,  it  may  Is^  remarked,  has  found  the  two  layers  alto 
ill  MiilattiH's.  He  had  not  had  an  ojiporlunity  of  ex|)erl. 
nieiiling  u|>oii  Mongolians  or  Malayans;  but  lie  inferi, 
from  the  olln  r  cases,  that  in  them  also  the  extra  integu* 
meiits  would  lie  found. 

M.  Floiiri-ns  adds,  that,  in  thcpasoofKiirnpe^ins  tinged 
by  exposure  to  the  sun's  rays,  the  mui'oiis  web  is  what 
is  adieted,  liecoming,  ns  it  were,  slightly  dyed.  No  de- 
gree of  exposure  can,  he  thinks,  confer  the  colouring 
layeiH  of  the  Negro  and  other  dark  races.  Hi-  remark*, 
that  the  African  .\Ioors,  who  have  lived  Is'side  tlie  Ncgrooi 
lor  centuries,  have  never  acquired  tho  colouring  appa- 
ratus of  that  race;  and  it  has  licen  observed  by  travellers 
(Captain  Lyon  among  others)  that  the  Tuariks,  a  race 
of  African  Caucasians,  of  a  dark-brown  co;ii|ilexii3n,  are 
nearly  as  white  on  those  parts  of  tlieir  boiliis  covered  up 
from  the  niiii,  ox  most  Eurojicans.  It  is  also  well  known 
that  the  progeny  of  all  European,  however  much  ho  may 
have  been  tinged  by  the  sun,  is  invatiuhly  us  whito  as  he 
liiinstdf  was  at  first. 

The  I'laik  races  arc  localized  in  the  warmest  rogiona 
of  the  globe,  and  llii'ir  skin  and  general  constitution  seem 
to  is'  titted  for  their  ullotnient.  A  black  man  can  lie 
naked,  exposed  to  the  hottest  sun,  without  injury,  while 
the  skin  of  the  while  man,  if  exposed  to  similar  heat, 
breaks  out  in  blisters.  The  black  man  can  hiliour  unde^ 
a  burning  sun  with  im|iunity ;  but  the  while  man  sinks 
under  exertion  made  in  such  circumstances,  und  this  ia 
well  known  to  1«  the  cause  why  slaves  were  inlr(Hlucc«( 
from  Africa  iiilo  the  seitlcnients  of  Eurojieims  in  tropical 
America.  Sir  Everard  Home,  who  made  some  laborious 
investigations  into  this  subjevt,  was  piiz/led  by  the  obvi- 
ous pliysii  :il  fact  that  the  Hack  skin  iiiu.-i  alworb  more 
heat  than  the  white.  Dut  it  has  since  been  suggested  by 
l)r  Jiilm  Uavy  that  the  black  ('er,spires  most  readily. 
'•  In  the  Negro,"  he  says,  "the  Mi.  id  (lows  more  readily 
througb  the  vessels,  so  as  to  pr  uiiole  (lerspiralion,  uiid  by 
that  means  contributing  to  the  cooling  ol  the  sairfuce,  it 
contributes  again,  when  it  (lows  back  to  the  heart,  to  the 
co.iling  of  Ibe  internal  parU. "  AfU-r  ipiotiiig  this  rrniaik, 
Dr.  (ilovei  III  Newcastle  savs — '  W  I'e  the  iidiabitunt  of 
the  tropic  nut  puswssi'd  of  this  oigu.,  /atii  ;',  hi.*  system 
could  not  resjmiid  to  the  .stiir.nliis  o(  li'al,  by  a  deter 
niination  of  lluid  to  the  surlaieuf  the  t>.>dy  ;  and  the  heal 
alisorlu'd  by  ihe  skin  being  pievelited  ..uiii  ii.lering  th« 
system  by  the  perspiratory  priH-ess,  &.u  greate.  ruuiatiaf 
power  of  a  dark  skin  musi !  e  beiicficiul  in  cooling.  Again, 
the  dark  skin  phues  the  Negro  in  the  coiidi'.inna  uf  bit 
climate,  by  causing  him  to  radiate  iicat  ut  night,  aod  k» 


INFORMATION    FOR  TUh   I'KOPLK. 


tnrae  •!  liwi  time  roaltt  lh«n  *  whiU'  iiiiilffr  the  Miina 
.•tr,-.jra»<«n«.."  H»nre  the  lo»«  of  Uie  Ni'ijriMW  fur 
(ii;:lit  iliyiriiiK  anil  rirrcJM. 

M.  KUmrrii*  ili-eiiw  llu-  JiffiTrm*  of  frtnictiini  iM'twwn 
llic  wliilo  .mil  folnur..!  mcr*  »»  "udliinit  I"  |>r..v«  timt 
iJiey  nrr  of  dilUrfUt  »I.Hk»,  »liil  he  iicronliiiKlv  niH-iik*  "f 
llicin  UK  ".■i.wiilmlly  ilwlim-i  m.T.."  Iliil  Ihcri'  arc  •onio 
conmiliriiliiitm  whifli  unully  coiidiinul  nil  iiKh  romlii- 
■lonH,  II*  ilnnvn  fiirni  .lirti'n'iici'nif  i»l<»iir  bIiiih>.  «'oloiini, 
it  b  ti)  Imi  iilwrvfil,  »ri!  not  iiiviiriulili-  cliiirnclrriHlic*  "f 
iwrlii-iiliir  riii'fii.  MiMt  ('uiiciihliiri«,  it  ih  |i.,i',  nii'  wlillx; 
iHit  then  tliori-  iiru  nlno  liliu-k  ('uuciihiiiiih.  TIw  IIim.Iimw 
»re  iitiiloiilili'ilCoiu-iiiiimiii,lM'iiiK|iri>v<'il  In  l»  «>  liy  iiiiiiiy 
JuriiitiTu  iif  form.  Yot  llm  IIi'iikiiIi'm'  uihI  Mnliilmrt, 
«ari«tii'«  of  tin'  llimlcH)*,  tie  nlleri  u  liliuk  ii«  tin-  ki'Iii'- 
rility  of  NcKrot'i.  CuufUMiHtin  i>f  niMiiiiir  colour  urn  BpriMiil 
thruuKli  P'Tniii  und  NVmU'rii  A«i«,  into  Norll»Tii  Alricii. 
U  ha*  iiiilt'i'd  t>ccn  uniil  thnt  the  Hindoo  liruiicli  of  tlir 
Cauciiiiinn*  nlonc  iiicludoimvcry  varii-ty  of  colour,  fioiii  llu' 
tlwiiTHt  lilmk  lo  ik>iiM-lkiiig  vrrv  murly  wliili'.  'I'Iuti' 
•re  Kiinlliir  variationi  in  at  Icuat  onu  of  (lie  otiwr  four 
net*.  "  Allhouiijll  tlio  Amprii'«ri»,"  unyn  Ur,  Morion, 
•  poam-M  n  iicrradiiig  niiil  rhiirart4-riHtic  rotnpli-xion 
[wbifh  ho  dencriboi  aa  moro  lirowii  or  riuininion-ooloun-d 
ttian  red]  there  are  oeciixioniil  tiiid  very  reiimrkuMe  devi- 
•tioim,  iiu'ludini;  all  the  tiiitH from  n  iltf  ulrd uUiU  in  an  eii- 
•7«ieo'fi//y  lilailc  $h>i."  The  white  triln-n  hiive  Ikvii  found 
■iiurfly  ill  the  hiijh  rri-ioii*  in  the  iiorltiern  liirt  of  f^.iuth 
Amerieii.'  With  »ueh  fiielit  iK-fore  u«,  we  raniiot  udmil 
thiit  the  eolomhin  .ipiiiiratiu  »(  M.  FloiirciM  deeidiyi  that 
tiw  rucva  urc  diatinct 

DirricRCNrER  in  hair  and  ires. 

Dr.  Prirhnrd  hiia  endeavoured  lo  rliia*  mankir.d,  with 
■  reganl  to  thi!  colour  of  their  hair,  into  tliree  viirietiri, 
L;«  MtUuiu,  the  Xnnihuut,  ami  tlie  .7//.i;iii.  The  .Melii- 
nlc,  or  Mark  elafw,  comprineH  nil  iiiilivi.luaU  or  race*  who 
have  iilac-k  hair;  the  -Vnnthoun  iiiilii  lea  all  wlii  luive 
brown,  auliurn.  or  red  hair;  and  the  Alliino  all  \\\u>  are 
liatiuKni-ihed  liy  white  hiiir  and  re<l  vyvf.  With  nP 
Jue  deference  for  the  aide  wriu-r  who  |iro|>oRed  iIiih  ar- 
mn;t:enieiil,  it  aeema  one  from  which  no  dinlinct  or  une- 
Ail  ciiucluHiona  are  dediicihic.  The  hiiir,  however,  is 
ocrtainlv  a  atronif  individual  chamclcrintie  in  man.  Ita 
colouring  principle  ia  evidently  the  aame,  «i><>akinx  rom- 
prchennivi'ly,  with  that  of  the  akin.  The  liuira  iaaiie 
from  hulba  or  roota  lieneath  Ihe  true  nkin,  wliere  ve^m-la 
•up|ily  them  with  nourichment.  An  external  horny 
toverinn,  and  an  internal  pith,  conatilule  the  txxly  of 
eufli  hiiir,  and  the  pith  ia  to  aome  extent  vaacular,  lie- 
cnuae  liable  lo  diaeane.  It  is,  douhllesa,  in  thi^  vawular 
pith  thnt  Ihe  colourini?  |)rinciple  lies.  The  fact  of  the 
pith  la'ini{  aupplied  both  with  veswla  and  nerveH,  i»  fur- 
ther proved  by  the  elTcct  which  preat  irricf  can  proilnce 
upon  the  colour  of  the  hair.  Ur.  Pri<'h;ird  h;id  jxTson- 
tlly  observed  one  cane  in  which  ihe  hair  jrrew  white  in 
a  ainKle  ni){ht  throuRh  grief,  and  many  sinnbir  eawa  arc 
an  record.  One  dintinnuiahed  French  anatiuiiist  wc.tit 
•o  far  aa  to  aaaert,  that  in  the  bullm  of  the  Imir  lay  the 
whole  coloiirinx  matter  of  the  akin  ;  but,  adinidini;  that 
minute  hairs  exist  on  the  cencral  fnime,  we  could  not 
tJiua  explain  the  bl.ick  hue  of  the  iiiKide  of  the  Negro's 
lip,  which  i.s  <|uitc  free  from  hair.  However,  when  we 
consider  that  the  wiviUy  hair  secnis  to  In'  inseparable 
frrm  the  jelly  akin  of  the  Neifro,  and  the  liink  MraiKht 
hMr  from  Ihe  red  akin  of  the  Imliiui,  we  nui-^t  Wlievc  in 
tlic  existence  of  stJinc  stront;  bond  between  Uiesc  physi- 
cal charactoriatica. 

In  like  mariner  do  we  trace  a  cencral  corrcHponderice 
lirtween  the  colour  of  the  eye  and  the  skin  ami  h;iir. 
Tlte  hue  of  the  eye  depends  on  a  p!?mcut  or  ilye,  linini; 
•he  choroid  roat  or  membrane.  .Xciordiii'j;  to  ihe  lint  of 
'Ilia  pigment,  is  the  eye  blue,  crny,  brown,  ha/.cl,  or  black. 
'•■iietaJly   sfioakini;,  liglit-coloured  eyes  are  conjoined 


with  fair  conijilriion  and  liKht  hair,  and  Iho  eor,tp-M« 
hulila  aa  nmimonly  k.-hI.  To  thia  rule,  it  U  w..| 
known,  there  are  excepuons;  yet  MoiikoU,  H(hlopiaii>. 
.Malaya,  and  Americana,  in  iiineiy-iiiiie  ciim's  in  th« 
hundred,  ahow  llie  extent  of  its  upplicaliilily.  'Hia  Cau. 
cam.in*  diapUy,  in  tin*  resjaTt,  nrealer  variation*. 

The  Albinoe*  are  M-arcely  to  Im<  called  a  variety  of 
mankind,  Immiik  a  race  wIiom'  |H-culiaritie*  ile|ien«]  on 
ilrfieli,  Ked  eye*  and  while  hair  are  their  chief  in, 
lure*,  thoiiKh  these  feature*  vary  a  little  according  to 
Ihe  race  to  which  the  imlixiiliml  lieloiiKs;  and  iheiv 
are  .Albinoe*  to  be  foiiml  in  aliiio«t  nil  counlrie*.  'I'he 
rednesM  of  the  eye  de|M<nd*  on  Ibc  ahM-nce  of  piKiiM'iil 
on  the  choroid  coal,  |iermilliii)(  the  ml  bloiMbve**<'ls  ki 
\w  M-en.  From  a  detlriency  In  ibe  power  of  almorbinii 
the  raya  of  liKht,  which  pnrpo*'  i*  served  by  the  pigmt-iii, 
the  eyes  of  Albinoe*  are  weak.  The  AlbiiKa's  of  the 
black  race  are  called  while  iieKrocK,  from  the  colour  of 
their  skin,  and  they  have  while  »<i<>lly  hair.  Amonn 
Ihe  cop|M'r-<'oloured  native*  of  tlie  Daricn  isthinui, 
AlhiniM'a  are  common.  Their  biMliis  are  of  a  milk-whitr 
lint,  covered  with  a  short  ilown ;  anil  Ihey  have  whilo 
hair,  with  red  eye*.  They  loye  such  liKlit  us  Ihe  nii^in 
Kives,  and  by  nii(ht  are  all  life  ami  activity,  while  by  day 
Ihey  are  miserable,  the  rays  of  the  sun  making  Ihrlr 
weak  eyea  stream  with  water.  Il  is  niedliss  lo  dwell 
on  this  aubject,  however,  a«  (he  .Mbino  iM'culiaritiea  are, 
in  Ihe  main,  much  Ihe  smni'  iMry where.  Kuro|H'uni 
of  this  (lem'riplioii  are  sometinii''  exhibilid  in  publir. 
The  cormeilion  U'twcen  skin.  Imir,  and  eyes,  and  lli« 
unity  of  the  source  of  lolour  for  all  tl''»e  |iart*,  i*  very 
iitcikin^ly  exeinplitie^l  by  the  |H-ciiliiiritiea  of  tbu  Albino 
race.  . 

■Kiri.I.S  or   MAKKIND. 

.\mh.iirst  the  external  dislinilion*  of  raeea,  Ihe  Ibna 
of  the  skull  calls  for  particular  attention.  In  describinii 
tlii^se  varieliea,  the  Hha|ie  of  the  skull  of  each  was  noticed 
in  a  general  maniirr,  luid  it  would  Ik-  observed  thnt  ureal 
ditrereiices  existed  Willi  r('K|iect  lo  this  feature.  Frwr 
olixirvatioii  of  un  InimenHc  nuinl>er  of  heads,  Illunici)- 
bach  nrraiiKed  the  skulls  of  men  into  three  great  iliri. 
sioiis,  the  faucnaian,  Moni;olian.  and  Kibiopic,  holding 
these  to  aland  at  extremes  frnin  oi<e  another.  Tin 
skulls  of  the  American  and  Mal.iy  aeenicl  to  him  to 
sliind  inlermcdiati  ly  N'tweeii  tlierie,  Aa,  la'yond  all 
dimbl  (without  carrying  our  Isdlef  to  extremes,  as  some 
have  |H'rhaps  done),  we  ought  to  coiiHidei  the  form  of 
the  skull  as  indicative  of  the  inlellerlual  powers,  the  di*. 
tiiiiiions  in  this  orcan  necessarily  U-come  of  great  im- 
(lOtUiiice.  The  nioHl  |H'rfecl  ly|a^  of  the  ('iuicasian  skull 
is  found,  aa  nii|{lit  be  anticipated,  in  the  modern  ('alio 
siaii-proper,  such  as  as  the  (uoruiuiis.  ••  Tlio  head  [of 
a  feniiile  (ieorgian,  descrilK'd  by  liliimenbach]  is  of  tin 
most  symmetrical  sliaja-,  almost  round  ;  the  forehead  of 
moilernte  ext4Mit;  the  cheek-bones  rather  narrow,  villi, 
out  any  projection,  but  having  ii  direction  downwariln, 
from  the  malar  process  of  Ihe  frontal  Ihiiic  ;  the  alvcolai 
edge  well  rounded ;  the  front  t«ctli  of  eurb  jaw  placcil 
IM^rpndicularly." 

'i"he  head  of  the  (perfect  Mongoliiin  tyiK-  is,  says  Illi). 
menliach,  "almost  square;  the  cliei'k-lioiics  prnjei'linK 
ouLvarils;  the  nose  flat ;  the  nasal  bones,  and  the  s|'aof  | 
between  the  eyebrows,  nearly  on   the  same   horiziMil^il 
plane    with   the    dm  k-boncH;    the    su|K'r>iliary    anhfi  | 
aeurcely    lo    lie    pen  rived;     Ihe    nostrils    narrow;  thf 
maxillary    pit   slifblly    marked;    ibe    alvcliir    edge  in  I 
some  degree  rounded  forwards;  the  chin  slightly  piunii- 
neiil." 

In  the  Kthiopic  variety  of  men,  "  ihe  head  ii  narrow,  I 
and  compriwscd  at  the  sides  ;  the  forel  ead  very  coavei,  I 
vaulted;  the  cheek-bones  projecting  Jitrunnh-  theiM»[ 
trils  wide;  the  maxillary  pits  deejily  :nark(d  at  p.«iiti 
the  jaws  lengthened;  the  alveolar  edge  narrow,  lofli  I 


PIIYSICAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN. 


tn 


1.  wl 
hiiipiiiii' 

»   in  th« 

I'Ua  (;>u- 

IID. 

arirty  ol 
i'|>riul  00 
chifif  (Np 
orilinR  to 
tiid  tlx-n' 
ir«.  'I'ho 
f  (tlKiiviit 
•vruM't*  ki 

almiirlnnn 
i.  iiinim-iil, 
iH'ii  of  thf 
I  rolour  cif 
Aiming 
I)   iithniui, 
milW-whitr 
Imvr  wliilK 
rt  thf  moon 
,l,iU<  by  (lay 
nikiiig  llirir 
HK  to  tlwfll 
ilinriliri  nrr, 

FairojM'iini 
il  in  pulilir. 
t'OH,  and  tht 
iiirtu,  in  vcrj 
if  Ibo  Albino 


irM,  the  fbrm 
In  tlr»crit)in(i 
|i  wan  notifoJ 
et\  that  grottl 
It  lire.  Fruip 
mill,  Dluntcn- 

urottt  i\Wv 
iopic,  lioUlirj 
iiitlier.      Th» 

ID  him  to 
a,  |H>yoiiii  all 
•iiii'«,  HI*  •""1* 
1  tlio  form  of 
iwiTH,  the  ili» 
iif  uriMit  iiiv 
iiu''ii«ian  skull 
liiHirrn  <'a\ii> 
'I'lio  homl  [of 
i;i,-hl  i«  of  lh« 
lie  forehcail  of 

iarri)\»,  villi- 

II  (linviiwanU, 

;  till'  alv("lu 

■li  jaw  I'laioJ 

•  is,  fiay»  HI* 
Incs  |iri'jci'linii 
1  ami  the  Kl'aif 
Lii'  hiiri/"iii:il 
Voiliary  arihw 
narrow ;  thf 
Ic.ilar  ciIri!  ra 
iBli^Utly  j'lunii- 

luail  IS  narrow. 

III  very  con'Mi 
,!,(/«,  theno» 

IrVid  »t  P-M" 
narrow,  lont 


tnil  flliptlr*!  i  th*  ftiiKl  ««K>lh  of  thu  up|>»r  jaw  lurnnl 
<l>lii|U»'y  forwuriU;  lh<'  lowi-r  JHW  utronn  uml  tarue." 

In  thr  Aim-ri(-«n  akiill  thrrx  I*  an   npiiroai  li  In  iiha|M 
til  that  of  the  MiiiiHol,  with  Ihi*  ilitrcri'nrr,  that  th««  tcip 
it  mirr  ronmlrd,  anil  the  •iilrit  I>-m  anKuhir,     'I'lin  anrn- 
lint  of  lh«   Malay  licail   U  nnrniw,  thr   forrhcail   ■  lilllr 
ii'hi'il.  ami  Iho   U|i|irr  jaw  |mahi'il  aiinH'what  furwanl. 
It  would  Iw  iii|i<'rlluoiii4  to  rnumrrali'  hcri'  thi'  partiru-  ' 
t\t  IrilM'it   inarkt'd   liy   thcM-   varit'tloa  of  akullx,  aa  thia 
liaa  Im'i'II  iIimii'  with  aiitllt'ii'nt  iliHiinrlni'Ka  In  lhi<  Konrrnl  I 
(lawiini'ation  of  thu  riior".      Of  cniiriM',  anionK  ('aura-  ' 
nl.ina,  M<ink(nla,  and  Ni-i{rora,  Ihrrr  art<  fonxidcralilo  in- ' 
(livliliml  lilTcriMU'ea  in  Iho  form  of  tlio  In-ad,  tuit  tlin  prc- 
riilinft  drwriptiiinH  ((ivr  the  lyfa;  of  i-arh  diviiiiiin. 

Nil  niixlK  of  iMiMiination  pxhililta  ao  atrikitiKly  the 
Jill'iTiMii*'*  in  !<ha|M-  lii'twi'en  the!  Mkiill.t  (if  dlirrrcnl  rarca, 
|4  thai  called  hy  IHuiniMiliai'h  thr  vulinil  niPthod,  in 
tthirh  the  varioua  Kkulla  urn  plarcd  in  a  row,  rcaliiiif 
upon  thu  lower  jawa,  and  »ro  then  viewed  from  aliovc 
liiil  la-hind.  Kxaniiixvl  from  aliovr,  the  facial  hone:*  of 
ihf  CaiicaHian  nkiill  aro  acnreely  vinililo,  hoth  fnini  their 
i'iim|>iiriitive  aiiiallncaa  of  aize,  and  liecaiiiia  they  are 
liiilcliMi  tiy  the  rounih'd  and  well  developed  forehead.  A 
iM'qiciidii'iilar  line,  I'ldlinK  from  the  middle  of  the  hnivv, 
«,iulil  Imrely  touch  the  front  of  the  upper  jaw.  The 
.\r,;ro  head,  in  the  aame  poailioii,  preMrnta  u  Htronif  eon- 
Inst  to  the  preceding  one.  'I'he  narrow  Hlanlimf  fore- 
hriil  licro  perinitu  the  icWc  fiire  to  conic  into  \lcw,  the 
rhci'ki*  and  jawH  lieini;  aomewhat  roinpreHHcd  laterally, 
ami  ureally  I'lonKated  in  front.  In  the  case  of  the 
Min;{ol.  axain,  wo  find  a  rontraat  not  leaa  remarkalde. 
Tlid  lionea  of  the  noar,  cheeka,  and  jawa,  are  alinoHt 
I'.jually  viaihlc  oa  in  thu  lu-Kro,  hut  aro  expanded  on 
I'luh  »ide.  "ol  puahed  anijfularty  forwanl.  The  aipi.ire- 
II. «  of  (he  Monnol  head  ariscH  in  a  ureal  decree  from 
t|;ii  lateral  expanaion  of  the  facial  lionea.  Dr.  I'ri  hard 
(tivca  to  theao  vsrietiea  of  the  akull  the  reapcclive  niiiiefi 
ulpiuWircifi'i'i'i',  ii.'(ii(iArfi;m(i^',undy)/(i?y//r(i{mii(t — worda 
r.proiiBive  of  lln?  character!  which  have  here  boon  b»- 
(i.'iieil  to  them. 

Thin  remarkalile  contratit  in  the  prominency  of  the 
faiiil  lioncH,  conjoined,  a.s  it  coinmoidy  ia,  with  an 
i;uully  Htrikin({  diircrence  in  the  anterior  dcvelnpnienl 
III  ihc  xkull,  hiia  U'en  deemed  by  aomo  |ihyHioloi;lMta  a 
f.,iture  of  the  highest  importance.  Camper  founded  on 
i!u*'  |ihynical  charactera  a  aclieme  for  cHtiuiating  the 
il^Tccii  of  intellect  and  Hagacily  iK-atowed  by  nature  on 
tl^i'  whole  memliera  uf  the  animal  kingdom  poHKrauin)r 
a  >kull  and  brain.  The /iri/i/ ((iii;/(,  aa  he  termed  the 
iI,,T('e  of  prominency  in  the  facial  boiu-a,  .van  ..■.caHiired 
■A  him  in  the  following  way.  One  atraight  lliui  waa 
Jrawn  from  the  ear  to  the  base  of  the  noae,  and  another 
from  llio  prominent  centre  of  the  foreheiul  to  the  ni  • 
ilviuicing  part  of  tlie  ujiia-r  jaw-bone,  the  head  beiii  • 
tifwctl  in  profile.  "  In  the  angle  prtnluced  by  iIk  , 
Wo  lines,"  aaya  the  phyiiiologist,  "  may  lie  aaid  to  eon- 
]<l,  not  only  the  diHtinction  between  the  skulla  of  the 
hvcral  BjH'cies  of  animala,  but  also  thoae  which  are 
|l»unil  to  exist  between  ditferent  nationa ;  and  '  might 
iln'  oonrluded  that  nature  has  availed  herse"',  at  the 
lame  time,  of  thia  angle,  to  mark  out  the  livcrMitiea  of 
the  animal  kingdom,  and  to  catAbliah  a  aort  of  acale 
frim  the  inferior  liilies  up  to  the  moat  beautiful  forms 
tluch  are  founil  in  the  human  ajieciea.  Thua  it  will 
Ikf  found  that  the  heads  of  birds  display  the  smalleHt 
lic.'lc,  and  that  it  always  U'comes  of  h. filter  extent  in 
iwrtiou  as  the  aiiim  il  approacluw  moat  nearly  to  the 
jtiiiuin  figure.  Thus  there  ia  one  ajH'cies  of  the  ape 
Ifiv,  in  which  the  head  has  a  facial  angle  of  forty-twii 
jits;  in  another  animal  of  the  same  family,  which 
one  uf  those  Mnii<r  a|ipruaching  moat  cloacly  to  the 
biiian  figure,  the  facial  angle  contains  exactly  fifty 
wees.  .\cxl  to  t'is  i<  the  head  of  the  .\frican  Negro, 
'Lich.  aa  well  aa  that  of  the  Kalmuc,  forms  an  angle 


of  aoventy  drgrrea,  whil*  the  aniilit  diamvrrrd  l.i  th« 
hrada  of  Kiiro|M*ana  r  intalna  eighty  (Ugrrra.  (Jn  thia 
ditTen'nce  of  len  degremi  in  the  facial  angle  the  iHl|N<rioi 
la'auty  of  (he  Kiirii|ienn  de|M>nda  |  while  that  liinh  rh»- 
nicli'r  of  atililimo  iM'uuty,  which  ia  ao  atrikiiig  in  aom* 
Wiirka  of  ■nejeiit  atatuary,  w  in  the  head  nf  the  Apollo, 
and  in  llie  .Meiluaa  of  TiN(M'lea,  ia  given  by  an  angia 
which  ainoiinta  to  inu  humlrtd  degrrea." 

Dr.  I'richard,  in  (pinllng  thia  puaaagn,  r.jtnarki,  that 
"(he  faculliea  of  each  race  of  anhiiala  aeein  lo  lie  |)er. 
feet  in  relulion  to  the  sphere  of  cilatence  for  which 
they  are  denlined  ;"  and  heiire,  in  na  far  as  the  meaaure- 
inen(  of  the  facial  angle  ia  applied  to  the  determinatlnn 
of  the  eom|>arutive  intellectual  eharaetrra  of  diirerrnl 
trihea  of  the  lower  animala,  he  holds  ('ai-ipi'r'a  achem* 
to  lie  imjierfect  and  ineH'ective.  Aa  a  metlwal  of  diatin- 
gniahing  varietiea  in  (he  aha|Hi  of  the  arltial  eerehral 
case,  moreoviv,  the  mensurement  of  the  facial  angle  ta° 
not  alwaya  a  safe  guard.  ••  I  have  now  before  me," 
anya  niuinenliach,  ■•  the  skulla  of  a  Lithuanian  I'olo  and 
a  Negro,  in  which  the  facial  anglea  are  n(  arly  e(|ual,  ht)* 
(he  diHerenoe  Iw-tween  the  ahape  of  the  two  crania  la 
otherwise  pr(Nli|^ioua."  Nevertheleaa,  aa  a  general  (<<at 
of  (he  inen(al  capacity  of  individuals,  "  I  think,"  aaya 
I'-'ichard,  "we  inuat  allow  that  exiierience  ia  in  favour 
r  the  position  aasuined  liy  Camjier.  It  ia  certain  thot 
every  man  ia  atrm '.  with  the  expression  of  dignity  ot 
elevation  of  mind  and  character  in  (he  ancient  busta, 
which  have  a  grea  facial  angle,  and  that  this  expreaalop 
woiiM  la>  lost  If  tfi.i  facial  ani.rle  were  '■oiitractni.  'ITie 
fact  .  .'ems,  ind  ,  to  lie  a  gr  ,al  one,  that  men  of  great 
intellect  have  fully  ilevelo|  '  brains,  »a  indicated  by 
eleviiled  and  rapacious  f  '-.  i-.ula."  Since  (he  time  of 
('am|a"r,  it  ia  scarcely  n  -Crary  lo  tell  the  reader,  th« 
Huliject  of  eraidology  haa  neen  amply  in  ■■'tiigatcd  by  Dl. 
(inll  and  his  i  era,  who  have  fou  '  d  upon  thcif 
inipiiriea  a  k\  <i<  oi  i  *°  mental  pliiloao|ihy  in  i  great  meof 
sure  new  to  le  world,  and  of  which  the  fundamental 
principle  ia,  that  the  size  and  form  of  (he  skull,  aa  do 
pending  on  (he  ai/e  and  form  of  (he  brain  within,  denote 
the  intellectual  and  moral  character. 

Whatever  may  Im  thmight  of  the  phrenological  doo- 
(riue  ill  \U  details,  it  is  at  leaat  ararcely  possilile  to  di*- 
sent  from  the  moderate  c(mclusion  of  Dr.  I'richard, 
that  "  fully  dl  veloped  brains  indicate  great  intellect." 
Hence,  leaving  out  of  the  (juestion  the  connccticm  of 
the  development  of  the  skull  with  that  of  the  facial 
b.iues,  the  simple  nipnrity  of  the  cerebral  c.»se  become* 
in  itwlf  a  matter  of  the  highest  con8e(|Ufncc.  We 
happily  have  it  in  our  power,  from  the  c»])erimenta  of  a 
most  accurate  imiuirer,  Profeaaor  Morton,  to  determine 
the  comparative  capacity  of  the  skulls  of  all  the  varie- 
fii^B  of  mankind.  The  following  are  Professor  Morlon'f 
.•  orlnsions : — 

Having  obtained  a  conaiderahlo  number  of  the  skull* 
of  the  various  races  of  men.  Dr.  Morton  measured  thiir 
internal  capacity  by  means  of  white  pepper  seed,  aa<] 
found  the  following  results : — 


Mean 

RAcn. 

No.  or 

Inlcrnal 

Largest   in 

Smallflst  in 

skulls. 

rnpacity 
ill  oiiblo 
inches. 

the  series. 

the  aeries 

1,  Caucasian, 

."is 

87 

109 

76 

2.  Mongolian, 

10 

83 

93 

6» 

.3.  Malay, 

18 

81 

69 

64 

4.  Aboriginal 

American, 

147 

80 

100 

6(« 

5.  Ethiopian, 

29 

78 

94 

65 

m^"^^ 


;  It  tluis  appears  that  the  aboriginal  American*  ran* 
fo\irth  with  rcajicct  to  the  size  of  their  brain*.  th» 
Ethiopians  being  lowest  and  the  Caucasians  highest. 


«A 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


This  result  is  certainly  the  precise  one  to  bo  ex|)ectod, 
<  onridering  the  capacity  of  the  ciaaium  ua  an  index  of 
Intellectual  power.     The  Caucaaian  race,  which  standa 
tli^heat  in  the  scale,  is  that  which  has  produced  the 
most  civilized  nations;  wliile  the  Mongolian,  the  next 
in  order  of  capacity  of  cnuiium,  has  proiluced  a  number 
of  nations  which  remain  at  a  fixed  point  in  semi-civili- 
sation.    The  Malay  is  a  degree  more  oarbarous,  and 
the  American  and  Ethiopian  the  most  barbarous  of  all. 
Though  thus  compelled,  both  according  to  the  views 
of  Camper  and  those  of  other  physiologista,  to  admit 
an  inferiority  of  organization,  accompanied  by  an  inferior- 
i.  V  of  faculties,  in  certain  m  'os  as  they  at  present  exist, 
there  is  yet  an  encouraging  ]  rospcct  to  cheer  us.     Rea- 
sons exist  for  the  bel...f,  that  cultivation,  in  the  cbac  of 
both  races  and  individualo  i^  capable  of  modifying  even 
the  shape  of  the  skull ;  and  hence,  whate-.-er  be  the  pe- 
ntliarities  attending  this  physical  charurtoristic  in  any 
existing  race,  we  are  not  left,  in  this  viow  of  things,  to 
despair  of  the  possibility   of  irnprovcmvnt      'Aithout 
some  such  compensating  prospect,  it  w(uld  be  painful 
to  admit  that  the  protruded  bonrs  of  ih\)  face,  iha  pro- 
portiunably  small   cerebrum,  and  tlie   niniost   sinuous 
lawness  of  forehead  in  the  Negro,  indicated  a  natural 
inferiority  in  tlie  race.     Many  writers  will  not,  indeed, 
countenance  this  conclusion.    "  I  have  not  met  with  an 
individual,  out  of  a  great  number  of  intelligent  West 
Indian  planters  and   medical   practitioners,"    says   Dr. 
I'richerd,  "who  has  not  given  a  most  positive  testi- 
mony as  t;>  the  natural  equality  of  the  African  Negro 
and  the  European."     The  same  writer  also  points  to 
instances  in  which  Negroes  became  excellent  scholars, 
and  wrote  elegant  Latin  verses.      But,  on  the  other 
hand,  Mr.  Lawrence,  with  many  able  phymologistfVjivcs 
countenance  to  tl)e  supposition  of  a  decided  inferiority 
of  cerebral  organization  in  the  Negro,  attended  with  a 
corresponding  inferiority  of  faculties.     It  in  certainly  one 
remarkable  circumstance,  that,  in  the  majority,  at  least, 
of  those  cases  in  which  Negroes  exhibit  striking  talent, 
Uteir  heads  are  found  to  approach  the  Caucasian  forma- 
tion in  respect  of  shape.    PhilUs  Wheatley,  for  example, 
•  coloured  girl,  who  wrote  very  pretty  verses  at  an  early 
age,  is  represented,  in  the  plate  attached  to  her  little 
book,  as  having  not  only  a  Caucasian  brow  and  head, 
but  these  of  the  finest  order. 

The  physical  characteristic  now  nnder  consideration 
varies  considerably  among  the  white  nations  of  Euro- 
'  peans.  The  Turks,  who,  thouf;h  criirinnlly  a  Mongol 
race,  have  had  their  primitivr  physicp]  attributes  molli- 
fied by  continual  intermixtures  witl>  Greeks,  Georgians, 
and  Circassians,  present  a  form  of  ekull  combining,  ap- 
parently, the  mingled  characters  of  the  two  varieties, 
'i'he  square  Mongolian  head  has  been  rnui\ded  otT  in 
their  case,  and  we  find  it  to  lie  now  almost  a  perfect 
globe.  The  Greek  head  approaches  the  same  shaiJC.  It 
was  long  asserted  that  tiiis  globularity  of  the  Turkish 
'lead  resulted  from  artificial  compression  in  infancy,  but 
modern  physiologists  discredit  this  notion.  "A  single 
piance  at  the  Turkish  head,"  says  Mr.  Lawrence,  "  at 
l!ie  symmetrical  and  eleftant  formation  of  the  whole  fa- 
bric, li.e  nice  corrc«i)ondenre  and  adjustment  of  all  parts, 
the  perfect  harmony  between  the  cranium  and  face,  in 
all  the  details  of  pach.  dcinnnstriite  moHt  imc<iuivor,ilIy 
<liat  it  is  a  natural  formation,  and  o  very  fine  work  of 
mture,  too."  The  writer  now  quoted  proceeds  also  to 
remark,  that,  although  no  suffiiiently  extensive  exnmins- 
li  )ni  have  yet  been  made,  the  proliability  is,  that  iM-twron 
l!ie  European  nations,  such  as  the  Germans.  Swiss, 
Swe-les,  French,  and  others,  distinct  dilferiMices  in  the 
•liape  of  the  skv.II  would  certainly  be  found  to  exist  on 
inqmtj.  Mr.  George  Lewi*  observed  in  travelling  on 
tlie  continent,  that  the  French  have  tbo  lower  and  ante- 
rior parts  of  the  cranium  litrge,  while  the  up|>er  and  an- 
•er  )r  ntcon  is  more  prominent  in  the  (termana.     I'he 


Itp.lian  head,  though  comparatively  amkll  for  Ine  n.or. 
part,  is  marked  by  groat  elegance.  The  Jews  have  long 
been  noted  for  the  fine  Caucasian  shape  ot  their  heads. 

It  is  worthy  ot  remark,  that,  though  the  globularity 
of  the  Turkish  skull  is  not  lo  be  deemed  the  result  of 
art,  there  are  certainly  races  of  people  who  modify  the 
shape  of  the  head  by  compression  in  childhood  ,  and  the 
views  of  Camper,  as  well  as  of  the  phrenologists,  must 
be  applied  with  some  reservation  to  the  skulls  of  one 
great  variety  of  Mankind.     Many,  very  many,  of   the 
trilMis  of  North  and  South  America  are  so  partial  to  low 
and  retreating  foreheads,  that  they  have  long  been  in  the 
habit  of  assisting  nature  in  producing  that  form  of  bead. 
The  comparative  softness  of  the  osseous  texture  «t  birth, 
and  the  partially  mobile  state  of  the  cranial  sutures,  en- 
able them  to  effect  this   object.    •'  The  Caribbs,"  says 
Labat,  in  his  account  of  a  voyage  to  the  isles  of  the  Ca- 
ribbean Sea,  "  are  all  well  made  and  proportioned  ;  thcii 
features  are  sufficiently  agreeable,  exce|)ting  their  fore, 
head,  which  appears  rather  extraordinary,  Iwing  very  flat, 
and   as  it  were  depressed.     These  people  are  not  born 
so,  but   they  force   the   head  tu  assume   that   forni,  by 
placing  on  the  forehead  of  the  newly-liorn  child  a  small 
plate,  which  they  tie  firmly  Ixihind.     This  remains  until 
the  bones  have  acquired  their  consistence;  so  that  th« 
forehead  is  flattened  to  that  degree,  that  they  con  see  al- 
most perpendicularly  al>ove  them  without  elevating  th« 
head."      'I'he  conK'quenco  is,  that  the  heads  of  these 
people,   naturally  somewhat  depressed  in  front,  become 
hideously  so;  and  unnatural  bulges  behind  show  that 
the  cerebnd  mailer  has  been  forced  into  new  positions. 
I'he  possibility  of  changing  the  form  of  the  skull  hu 
been  doul>ted  by  some  physiologists,  but  the  clrcumstanra 
is  authenticated  beyond  all  question.     In  Morton's  Cm- 
via  jinierirann  are  delineated  many  s|M-cimens  of  skulli 
thus  altered  in  form,  some  so  greatly  changed  by  a  pres- 
sure which  has  been  applied  both  before  and  behind,  ai 
to  resemble  half-moons.     It  is  not  necessarily  to  l)e  in- 
ferred that  injury  results  either  to  the  mental  constitution, 
or  the  general  health,  of  those  who  submit  to  this  pro- 
cess.    Supposing  the  pressure  to  Iw  slow  and  gentle,  ihi" 
doetile  organs  will  easily  accommmlute  themselves  to  it, 
and  it  is  nrubablo  that  the  brain,  as  far  as  its  size  or  vo. 
lume  is  concerned,  will  remain  uiialfected.     A  skull  in 
Dr.  Leach's  possession,  bearing  the  marks  of  extraordi- 
nary compression,  in  known  to  have  been  that  of  a  Ci- 
ribb  chief  distinguished  for  intelligence  and  prudence. 

TEB7H    OF    MANKIND. 

The  genend  dlirerciiccs  of  featuicK,  nccompnnying  these 
variations  in  the  shnfic  of  the  skull,  were  pointe<l  out  in 
going  over  the  great  divisions  of  the  huiiiitii  race.  Tht 
teeth  of  mankind  differ  very  little  in  sliaj*  or  position. 
"The  oblique  position,"  says  Mr.  Lawrence,  "of  ihe 
anterior  ineisom  in  the  Negroes,  and  some  other  trilv. 
who  h.ive  prominent  jaws,  is  the  only  iinhinutl  diff-reiife 
I  know  of  in  teeth.  Their  size  and  form  exblliit  merely  in- 
dividual diftereiices."  One  of  the  most  remarkalilc  iiiJi- 
vidual  varieties  in  the  teeth,  it  may  l>c  olwerveil,  consis'j 
in  the  phenomenon  of  a  double  set  in  the  wmie  ini)UiL 
This  is  of  rather  rare  oecurrenee,  but  ibe  vvriti-r  is  aw«rc 
of  one  insthiiee,  in  which  l<i)ih  u|i|>ei  niid  under  jaw  are 
eniircled  by  a  double  row  of  eviraordinarj'  l«'aiity.  In 
cusi-  of  a  coloiiiid  settlement  biiiig  fminded  by  siieh  sn 
individual,  and  the  dental  duplieily  Iwini?  iierpetiiiiled  in 
nuiiierous  dewendunts,  would  we  not  \v  a\A,  seeing  i  i 
(MMMiliarity  so  ntrikiiiK,  '>>  eiilertuiii  doulits  of  the  de^iriil 
of  the  parliert  from  the  ordinarily  jawed  race  of  iiion ! 

riOURE — PROPORTIona— WEIOHT    AND   STRUNOTH 

The  differenecs  which  exist  among  the  raees  of  in^n 

kiud,  with  rt'H(iect  to  Figure,  Pro|x>rtions,  and  Streni,';li,  I 

form  a  branch  of  the  present  subject  not  less  interrttin^  I 

than  any  yet  noticed.     It  has  long  been  att«!iuptv(l.  ic  [ 


liM  civilizi 

■tankard  o 

there  certt 

proach  to  \ 

with  the  I 

power  and 

model-flgur 

words,  to  til 

possible  pn 

of  man  vai 

extent  his 

kind  allude( 

and  except! 

itandard  of 

would  be  81 

possess  phyi 

Hottentot  ai 

animals,  and 

nate  Hindoo 

horse  for  day 

at  homo  in  tb 

or  vessel.    Y 

fiflm  the  Grec 

power  is  at  Ic; 

Grecian  artist 

duals  so  moul 

tioncd,  with  ci 


DiflTerent  roi 
of  stature,  tho 
Jiflierent  nation 
occur  in  the  sa 
thcnticnily  kno 
occupying  the 
do  la  Plato  and 
occupied  by  th 
probably  migra 
grc6  of  discrep 
different  writen 
Patagonians  to 
in  height,  Eng 
uid  conversed  \ 
that  few  were  t 
liderably  above 
could  barely  to 
•landing  on  tip- 
lably  examined 
of  the  Patagoiiii 
Ifn  to  six  feet,  t 
»ii  feet  seven. 
made  by  tlic  8j 
lie  at  least  Pataj 
of  from  six  and 
wiaewhat  less, 
of  men  existing 
klmit  them  to  I 
their  height 

A  people  situ 
itand  nearly  at  tl 
ilature.  The  Eh 
Iff  for  the  most  | 
•nd  their  congei 
riiey  are  of  the 
Elhiopic  variety 
»<i  in  partreidai 
"!>■  rotniiKinly 
lions,  there  arc  al 
Bilives  of  'J'crra 
{iniians. 

There  nations 
\^  huninn  race,  ; 
''.wf  much  mor 
%lilv  intcrestirg, 


PHYSICAL  HISTORY  OP  MAN. 


f9 


for  Ine  n.or. 
W8  have  long 
their  hewli- 
le  glohularit; 
the  result  of 
o  modify  the 
iuo<l ,  and  the 
lologists,  must 
gkulli)  of  one 
niaiiy,  of  the 
partial  to  low 
ng  been  in  the 
form  of  head. 
BXture  »t  birth, 
ial  auturcs,  en- 
Caribba,"  aajn 
iglea  of  the  C». 
lorlioned ;  theii 
ting  their  for* 
,  being  very  flat, 
e  are  not  bom 
,  that  fornij  by 
rn  child  a  amall 
18  remains  until 
icc;  so  that  the 
they  can  see  al- 
ut  elevating  th« 
heads  of  theae 
In  front,  become 
>hind  show  that 
to  new  positions, 
of  the  akuU  hat 
the  circumstance 
In  MorUin'a  Cm- 
ecimens  of  skulU 
langed  by  a  ptes- 
re  and  behind,  m 
ccssarily  to  lie  in- 
ental  constitution, 
ubmit  to  this  pro- 
)W  and  gentle,  lh» 
.  thcinselves  to  it, 
■  as  its  size  or  vo- 
■cted.  A  skull  in 
arks  of  extraonli- 
fcn  that  of  a  Cl- 
aud prudence. 

ironipnnying  these 
•rt'  poinlcil  out  in 
liuiiuiii  race.     The 
shaiie  or  position. 
jiiwrcnce,  "of  lh< 
some  other  trilv. 
iinuoiiiil  diff'Ti'me 
|i  exhibit  iiierol.v  in- 
Ist  renmrkiiblc  inili- 
observed,  cunsi-'J 
[i  the  same  mouit.. 
Ithr  wriu-r  is  awrc 
niul  under  jaw  »ie 
|linar>-  iH'nuty.    In 
iiiii<!fd  hy  xiK'h  a" 
I'ini?  |ii'rpelvn>tt'il  in 
lot  U-  ul.t,  HCfin?  > 
Hi!it»  of  the  ileKPiii 
L'J  race  of  nu'ii  \ 

AND   STHUNnTH 
\n  the  races  of  inin 
lions,  and  Strerpli, 
not  less  intcrfrt"n« 
been  atUnuptcil,  ir 


the  civilized  regions  of  the  world,  to  ascertain  and  fix  a 
standard  of  physical  perfection  for  the  human  body  ;  and 
there  certainly  dnea  seem  to  be  a  model,  the  closest  ap- 
proach to  which  combines  the  quality  of  pleasing  the  eye 
(rith  the  possession  of  the  greatest  degree  of  corporeal 
power  and  activity.  Artists  have  usually  looked  to  the 
oiodel-figurea  of  the  Caucasians  of  Greece,  or,  in  other 
words,  to  their  ancient  statues,  is  exemplifying  the  finest 
possiblo  proportions  of  the  human  frame.  But  the  taste 
of  man  varies  so  much,  and  habit  modifies  to  such  an 
extent  his  physical  powers,  that  any  standard  of  the 
kind  alluded  to  must  bo  open  to  numberless  objections 
and  exceptions.  If  judged  of  by  the  common  artisiical 
itandard  of  the  civilized  world,  certain  ruces  of  men 
would  be  set  down  as  out  of  proportion,  and  yet  they 
possess  physical  powers  of  the  most  perfect  kind.  The 
Hottentot  and  the  American  savage  will  outrun  wild 
animals,  and  hunt  down  the  deer;  the  slim  and  "effemi- 
nate Hindoo,"  aa  we  call  him,  will  keep  up  with  the 
horse  for  days ;  and  the  South  Sea  islander  feels  himself 
at  homo  in  the  raging  surf,  which  would  whelm  a  boat 
or  vessel.  Yet  these  races  depart  widely,  in  many  cases, 
from  the  Grecian  model.  Such  facta  show  that  physical 
power  is  at  least  not  confined  to  men  moulded  after  the 
Grecian  artistical  standard,  though  it  may  be  that  inc'ivi- 
iluols  so  moulded  would  surpass  in  the  exercises  men- 
tioned, with  equal  training,  those  otherwise  fashioned. 

STATtniK.  r 

Different  races  of  men  exhibit  considerable  diversities 
of  stature,  though  there  are  no  varintirg  of  stature  in 
iliflerent  nations  so  remiukable  as  tho^  which  frequently 
occur  in  the  same  family.  The  tallest  race  of  men,  au- 
thentically known  to  exist,  arc  the  Patagonians,  a  tribe 
occupying  the  coast  of  South  America,  between  the  Ilio 
do  la  Plata  and  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  The  territory 
occupied  by  them  is  of  immense  extent,  and  they  are 
probably  migratory  in  habits ;  hence  a  considerable  de- 
gree of  discrepancy  in  the  accounts  given  of  them  by 
different  writers.  Magellan's  companions  declared  the 
Patagonians  to  be  commonly  about  seven  feet  four  inches 
in  height,  English  measure.  Commodore  Byron  saw 
tnd  conversed  with  many  companies  of  them,  and  states 
that  few  were  under  seven  feet,  while  others  were  con- 
siderably above  it  Nearly  six  feet  high  himself,  ho 
could  barely  touch  the  top  of  a  chief's  head,  though 
rtanding  on  tip-foo.  Captain  Wallis,  again,  having  pro- 
bably examined  a  dilTercnt  tribe,  says  that  tlie  majority 
of  the  Patagonians  seen  by  him  avcrage<l  from  five  feet 
I  ten  to  six  feet,  and  that  ho  only  saw  one  man  so  tall  as 
lii  feet  seven.  By  later  and  accurate  measurements, 
i  made  by  tlio  Spaniards,  we  learn  positively,  that  there 
ue  at  least  Patagonian  trilics,  reaching  the  average  height 
of  from  six  and  a  half  to  seven  feet.  Were  they  even 
nmewhat  less,  they  would  be  decidedly  the  tallest  race 
of  men  existing  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  All  voyagers 
idmit  them  to  !«  large  and  muscular  in  proportion  to 
I  iheir  height 

A  people  situated  in  the  polar  circles  of  the  north, 
I  itand  nearly  at  the  other  extreme  of  the  scale  as  respects 
I  itature.  The  Esquimaux,  or  at  least  some  trills  of  tlicm, 
lire  for  the  most  part  lietwoen  four  and  five  feet  in  hcij^hf, 
liml  their  congeners  the  Laps  are  al«o  a  dwnrfiKh  race. 
I  They  are  of  the  Mongolian  variety  of  mankind.  The 
lEthinpic  variety  also  nunil.'rs  some  very  smnll  trilK-s, 
lind  in  particular  ttv  Bosjesmnns,  a  race  said  to  l)0  also 
rm'  ronuiionly  deformed.  Among  the  American  na- 
llions,  there  iire  alsp  dwarfish  tril)e«,  and  in  particular  tho 
liutives  of  Terra  del  Fuego,  near  neighliours  of  the  Pata- 
[(onians. 

Thcfc  nations  oiily  present  us  with  tho  extremes  of 
llhe  hiinmn  race,  as  reH|HH-ts  stature.  The  subject  is  wor- 
llhv  if  much  inorc  minute  investigation.  It  would  be 
llii|hlv  intcrestir  g,  and  indeed  instructive,  to  know  >he 


comparative  average  stature  of  each  of  the  ordinary  va- 
rieties and  sub -varieties  of  mankind.  Unfortunately,  tb^ 
observations  of  naturalists  respecting  stature  bave  nut 
been  carried  far.  Quetelet  and  others  have  attentively 
examined  the  relative  heights  of  individuals  of  tingle  na* 
tions,  at  diflerent  ages,  with  a  view  to  determine  the  ge- 
ne ral  phenomena  of  man's  growth ;  but  few  observations 
have  been  made  upon  the  respective  heights  of  differ- 
ent races  or  nations.  The  stature  of  the  Caucasian 
has  not  been  fully  compared  with  that  of  the  Mongol,  ot 
tho  Negro,  or  the  Red  Indian ;  nor  have  single  nations, 
belonging  to  any  of  these  great  varieties,  been  satisfacto- 
rily contrasted  with  one  another,  as  respects  height  No 
accurate  comparisons,  for  example,  have  yet  been  made 
of  German  with  Spaniard,  of  Briton  with  Frenchman, 
or,  in  fact,  of  any  one  European  nation  with  another. 
The  following  table,  exhibiting  the  comparative  height* 
of  a  small  number  of  Englishmen  and  Negroes,  is  given 
in  the  work  of  Mr.  Tjaurence,  upon  the  Natural  History 
of  Man.    The  Negroes  were  firom  various  regions. 


SMture. 

Stature. 

Feet.    In. 

Feet.    In. 

An  Englishman,      6    4^ 

A  Negro, 

•        5     10^ 

Ditto,    -.61 

Ditto,      - 

.     5       5i 

Ditto,       •        6    0 

Ditto, 

6       8 

Ditto,    -     -    6    9J 

Ditto,      ■ 

-     5       0 

Ditto,       -       6     7 

Ditto, 

5       7) 

Ditto,    .     -     5    4i 

Ditto,       •       6    0 

The  Caucasian  here  has  considerably  the  advantage  of 
the  Negro,  the  average  height  of  the  former  class  being 
nearly  5  feet  9  niches,  while  the  black  averages  litt'e 
above  5  feet  6  inches ;  and  the  advantage  would  still !« 
on  the  same  side,  were  we  to  leave  the  first  Englishman, 
certainly  a  man  of  uncommon  height,  entirely  out  of  tlin 
reckoning.  But  it  must  be  admitted,  that  from  such  an 
insignificant  amount  of  examples,  no  satisfactory  con- 
clusions can  be  drawn.  The  accounts  of  recent  travel- 
lers in  Africa  would  lead  one  to  imagine  that  the  major- 
ity of  the  Negro  nations,  excepting  in  the  case  of  a  few 
particular  tribes,  such  as  the  Bosjesmans,  are  not  below 
tho  Europeans  in  average  height  The  Caucasians 
have  indeed  the  advantage  in  one  respect ;  no  tribe  oi 
section  of  them  sinks  so  low  in  the  scale  of  altitude  as 
some  of  the  other  races  do. 

The  stature  of  the  Chinese,  who  must  be  regarded  a* 
amongst  the  purest  specimens  of  the  Mongol  variety, 
was  accurately  and  extensively  measured  by  Mr.  Rollin, 
the  surgeon  who  accompanied  La  Perouse.  He  found 
the  ordinary  height  of  the  natives  of  the  great  I«le  of 
Tch^ka,  on  the  cast  coast  of  China,  to  be  five  French 
feet.*  Tho  natives  of  the  mainland,  near  the  same  re- 
gion, measured  4  feet  10  inches  (French).  This  exami- 
nation places  the  pure  Chinese  liclow  the  average  height 
of  Europeans,  and,  we  believe,  correctly.  Other  Mongol 
races  have  not  been  accurately  examined,  with  u  view  to 
the  point  under  consideration.  In  that  variety  of  man- 
kind, however,  as  in  tho  Ethiopic  division,  there  are  in- 
dividual races  which  stand  much  lower  in  the  scale  of 
height  than  any  Caucasian  tribe.  The  Esquimaux  and 
Fins  prove  this  astvrtion. 

The  Americans  also  ;:re.8ent  great  differences  in  height; 
so  much  so,  that  it  would  be  Vbtn  to  attempt  to  discover  or 
strike  au  average  for  the  whole  variety — a  variety  which 
comprises  the  giant  Patagonians  and  the  dwarfs  of  Terra  del 
Fue(;o.  For  determining  the  heights  of  individual  tribes 
of  Aincricanu,  we  have  at  present  no  better  authority 
than  the  loose  reports  of  travellers.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  the  Malays;  and,  such  l)eing  the  case,  it  would  be  i 
waste  of  time  to  attem(it  any  comparative  estimate,  hav-in 
reference  to  theoe  races.     One  conclusion  may  be  drkwu 


•Ths  Frrnch  foot  slightly  <ixceei1i  that  of  Enrlnna,  th«.  pin 
portions  of  Iho  formor  to  tha  latter  b«iig  as  l-Oiji/  lo  1  IWO. 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


from  the  little  which  we  do  know,  and  that  is,  that  civi- 
liiation  equaliwM  the  stature  of  mankind,  and  keeps  it 
near  a  steady  mean.  All  the  less  cultivated  roccs 
preMnt  extremei  not  to  bo  observed  among  the  Cau- 
caiiana. 

Professor  Forbes  of  Edinburgh  (the  able  successor  of 
r^slie,  in  the  chair  of  Natural  Philosophy)  has  recently 
made  •  scries  of  eiperimenta  upon  the  physical  dilTer- 
ences  between  English,  Scotch,  Irish,  and  Belgians,  the 
results  of  which  constitute  the  most  interesting  informa- 
tion we  are  able  to  lay  before  the  reader,  with  resjiect  to 
the  comparative  heights  of  sub-varieties  of  the  Cauca- 
sians. The  following  is  a  table  drawn  up  by  Professor 
Forbes,  to  exhibit  the  relative  heights,  at  different  ages, 
of  the  students  attending  his  class,  during  a  scries  of 
years,  and  belonging  respectively  to  England,  Scotland, 
and  Ireland.  The  Belgian  measurements  were  probably 
derived  from  other  sources.  The  number  of  individuals 
subjected  to  examination  was  very  considerable,  so  many 
aa  eighty  Scotch  and  thirty  English  being  occasionally 
measured  at  once. 

Htightt — Full  (Nmtntiofu  trith  thoet.' 


Agt. 

English. 

Scotch. 

Irish. 

Belgians. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

16 

64-4 

64-7 

.  ■ . 

C1.8 

16 

66-5 

66.8 

... 

64-2 

17 

67-5 

07-9 

. . . 

6G-1 

18 

68-1 

68-5 

68-7 

67-2 

19 

68-5 

68-9 

69-4 

07-7 

20 

68-7 

691 

n9.8 

C7-9 

SI 

68-8 

69-2 

70-0 

68-0 

22 

68-9 

69-2 

70.1 

fi>!.l 

23 

68.9 

69-3 

70-3 

68.2 

24 

C8'9 

69-3 

70.2 

ns-s 

25 

68-9 

69-3 

70-2 

68-3 

This  table  places  the  Irishman  uppermost  in  the  scale 
of  stature,  the  Scotsman  second,  the  Englishman  next, 
and  the  Belgian  lowest  The  comparison  seems  to  be 
&ir  as  regards  the  parties  taken,  for,  if  there  were  any 
peculiarity  in  their  condition  as  students,  it  must  have 
been  common  to  all.  As  a  comparison  of  r  -'i'/n  •' 
heights,  therefore,  the  table  perhaps  exhibits  cnnc|.iMi>r  ? 
pretty  generally  applicable,  and  we  shall  find  it  borne  ciu 
by  similar  comparisons  of  tr^ght  and  ttrenglh.  Profes- 
■or  Forbes's  observations  are  confirmed,  in  one  point  at 
least,  by  the  following  passage  in  Quetclet's  work  u|)oii 
Man  : — "  When  in  England,  we  chose  the  terms  of  com- 
parison from  rather  higher  classes  of  society  [he  has  be«'n 
speaking  of  English  factory  rhitdrfn];  we  find  the  stature 
of  man  rather  higher  than  in  I'rance  or  the  Low  Coun- 
tries, at  least  for  young  persons  between  eighteen  and 
twenty-three  years  of  age."  Quetelet  then  alludes  to 
eighty  different  measurements  of  Cambridge  students, 
taken  in  groups  of  ten  each.  The  average  height  of 
ere-  ten  was  5S  feet,  or  5  fiK^t  9  inches  and  3-5th8  to 
eacii  man.  This  is  above  Profesior  Forbes's  average ; 
but,  as  the  English  universities  are  only  attended  by  the 
•ristocracy,  who  are  undeniably  a  section  of  the  people 
above  the  average  national  stature,  it  is  probable  tli.it,  a* 
a  national  comparison,  Profes.tor  ForlM-s's  table  a[>- 
proaches  nearest  to  the  truth. 

The  toble  alluilcd  to  inilicates  the  ress.ilion  of  growth 
to  take  place  at  twenty-two,  the  cj«'  of  theTTeli-ians  Ix-hi'^ 
tho  only  exception.  Tliis  exception  may  lie  arcidentHi, 
Slit  it  is  remark:ihle  that  (juet<'let,  a  Belgian  writer,  and 
cvliiise  ob:*rvat ions  were  chietly  drawn  from  BrUfwelH  ami 
Hratiant,  lays  down  the  following  as  one  of  hiii  conrlu- 
siont: — -It  docs  not  appear  that  tlie  growth  nf  man  is 


*  lltir  an  inch  may  be  reckoiicil  u  equivtUeal  lu  ibc  slin* 


i  entirely  completed  at  jwenty-five  years  of  ago."     Oni 
can  scarcely  doubt  the  accuracy  of  this  conclusion,  whirl 
was  founded  on  an  examination  of  900  individuals  at  tlir 
ages  of  nineteen,  twenty-five,  and  thirty.     It  is  perfectly 
possible,  however,  th»t  climate  and  other  circumstanni 
I  may  cause  a  difference  in  this  respect  between  the  Bel- 
I  gians  and  British.     We  learn  from  another  of  tho  valu. 
I  able  inferences  made  by  Quetelet  from  his  investigntionn, 
;  that  tho  stature  is  mnteriully  influenced  by  residence  in 
!  town  or  country.     "  The  stature  of  the  inhabitants  ot 
towns,  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  is  greater  than  that  of  tju 
country  resident  by  2  or  3  centirnclers."     An  examina- 
tion, accompanied  with  vost  labour,  of  not  less  than  3500 
individuals  living  in   towns,  and   6000  residing  in  the 
country,  brought  Quetelet  to  this  conclusion,  which  is 
therefore  in  all  probability  correct,  and  will  Ihi  fouiKl  tc 
hold  good  in  all  situations.     It  was  only  at  the  age  of 
nineteen,  however,  that  the  stature  of  the  townsman  iviu 
found  by  Quetelet  to  exceed  thol  of  the  ru.slic ;  and  he 
conceives  it  possible,  though  it  was  not  in  his  power  to 
obtain  full  proof  on  tho  subject,  that,  "  the  inhabitant  of 
the  country  may  attain  to  a  greater  height  than  the  in- 
habitant of  the  town,  before  the  completion  of  the  full 
growth."     Tho  truth  is,  that  circumstances  greatly  mo- 
dify the  rate  at  which  the  growth  is  devcloi^d.     The  Ian 
of  nature  on  the  subject  is  thus  stated  by  Quetelet:— 
"  The  growth  of  the  human  being,  from  several  monihg 
l)efore  birth  up  till  the  period  of  cou>pIetc  developmcn, 
follows  such  a  b»w  of  continuity,  that  the  accessions  ol 
growth  diminish  regularly  in  amount,  in  proportion  to  tho 
age."     Here,  of  course,  each  succes-sive  addition  of  growth 
is  considered  relatively  to  the  growth  previously  acquired. 
"  We  shall  find,"  he  says,  "  that  the  child  increases  in 
size  2.5th»  from  birth  to  the  end  of  the  first  year;   l-Tlh 
during  the  second  year;  l-Ilth  during  the  third  year; 
l-14th  during  the  fourth  year;   l-l.'ith  during  the  Slih 
year;  l-18th  during  the  sixth  year,  and  so  on;  \he  rela- 
tive growth  always  decreasing  from  the  time  of  birth." 
This  simple  law  of  nature,  however,  is  liable  to  be  greatly 
affected  in  its  operation  by  circumstances.     "  Dr.  Vill'?rnif 
remarks,"  says  Quetelet,  "that  the  height  of  man  l)econM 
greater,  and  the  growth  takes  place  more  rapidly,  otlier  | 
circumstances  being  equal,  in  proportion  as  the  coiintr; 
inhabited  is   richer,  the   comfort  more  general,  houses, 
clothes,  and  nourishment  better,  and  labour,  fatigue,  and  j 
privations  less  during  infancy  and  youtii ;  or,  in  otht: 
words,  tho  circuinstanees  acconii)anying  iiils<'ry  jiut  rtf  I 
the  period  of  tiie  complete  development  of  the  Ixxly,  ari.i  | 
stint  human  stature.     There  ran  be  no  doubt  of  the  ai- 
curacy  of  these  remarks.    The  simple  exposure  to  t\\r 
action  of  cold,  not  to  8|)eak  of  toil,  materially  infliicnrej 
the  growth  of  man  ;  and  we  see  this  proved,  conversf  !t 
as  well  as  otherwise,  in  all  the  extreme  climates  of  the 
world.     The  warmth  and  luxury  of  cities  develop  miiiJly 
the  growth  of  all  but  the  lowest  classes.     Our  llriti<hl 
gentry  bear  out  fully  the  conclusion  of  Quetelet,  itiall 
"  individuals  who  enjoy  affluence  generally  excetd  the  | 
mean  height;  hard  labour  ap^icars  to  be  an  obstacle  to  I 
growth." 

Two  other  conclusions,  of  those  ■         \  Quetelet  pviij 
as  the  result  of  his  patient  and  cauii  ii.-<  investigation.*. f 
are  as  follow: — "The  limits  of  growth  in  the  sens  arel 
unequal ;  first,  bucauu;  woman  is  born  smaHer  than  man:! 
secondly,  liccause  she  sooner  reaches  her  complete  (l('vi'-| 
lopment;  thirdly,  liecaus*;  the    annual  increase  of  liu!k| 
which  her  frame  rec4'ives  k.  smaller  than  that  of  man." 
The  s»;venth  and  lust  deduction  is,  that,  "ti-oni  the  lll'ticlil 
year,   the  human   body  undergoes  a  diniiiiiilion  <il 
ture,  which  becomes  more  an<l  more  marked  towards  !!.i 
close  of  life."     The  writer  diH-s  nM  assert  that  the  i 
cicnsion  is  more  than  in  appearance,  and  it  prohuW;  i 
nothing  more,  tboU'.;h  not  less  palpable  to  niiasumiM.| 
than  if  real.     On  the  other  points  it  is  unnecessary 'J 
make  any  rvuiork.     The  present  treatise  cannot  be  cm 


ried  beyond 
particulars, 
title  of  man 

V 

The  statu 

form  but  ps 

these  propel 

is  at  least  ( 

object  hero  i 

beiisive  rathe 

weight  of  the 

been  inquire 

But,  as  in  tin 

only  to  a  ver 

amincd  the  I 

different  ages, 

single  nation 

tormine  the  c 

sian,  or  Amer 

would  bo  atti 

some   may  th 

however,  is  nc 

takings  that  re 

more  particula 

dearly  shown, 

ever  the  superi 

cess,  other  cir 

tend.     An  obsi 

on  the  field  ol 

been  found  to  s 

Professor  Fi 

students,  Engli 

adding  examiiiii 

ol  Belgians,    'j 

r/eig, 


Age. 

Engli 

ibs 

15 

114. 

16 

127 

17 

1.33. 

18 

138 

19 

141 

20 

144 

SI 

146 

22 

H7-. 

23 

149 

24 

150 

25 

151 

Here,  again,  . 
others  holding  tl 
of  stature.     The 
case  the  weight 
ingly  low— 134 
it  in  our  jmwer, 
of  Professor  For 
f»i  as  the  Engl 
eighty  students  o 
in  groups  of  ten, 
Quetelet,  of  151 
•erved,  of  the   ]), 
weighed  by  Prcifi 
however,  weri'  h 
olu.  and  theretnrr 
than  that  ol   I'roi 
of  Maiu,'«.     Will 
»»  oxuniined  liv 
rf  the  Caln!.ri("l^,• 
much  exceeds  th 
neariy  the  iiuine 
the  other  depart:) 


PHYSICAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN. 


n 


ige."    Oni 

ision,  wliicl 
duals  at  tlif 
IB  perfectly 
rcumstanrii 
?cn  the  Bol- 
of  the  valu. 
\-cstigntioiii>, 
resilience  in 
habitants  ol 
II  that  of  till 
\u  oxaniina. 
rts  than  S5(in 
iiling  in  the 
on,  whi<h  is 
I  l)c  found  tc 
,t  tlie  age  of 
jwnsman  wus 
usiic ;  and  he 
his  power  to 
inhabitant  of 
t  than  the  in- 
on  of  the  full 
-s  greatly  mi> 
x;d.     The  Ian 
)y  Cjueteli't:— 
levcral  nwntlis 
.  clevelopmci.l, 
\  accessions  ol 
roportion  to  llio 
iition  of  growth 
ionsly  ftcquiral 
\ild  increases  in 
rst  year;  l-7th 
the  third  year; 
during  the  tilth 
80  on ;  Ac  tela- 
B  time  of  birth." 
ble  to  be  greatly 
"  Dr.  VilloriM 
of  manlH-'conifj 
rapidly,  oUitr 
.  as  the  coiiulrT 
general,  hoiisfs, 
our,  fatigue,  auJ 
ith;  or,  in  otlur 
nii'M-ry  put  ilT 
of  the  ijody,  an,! 
loubt  of  tlie  ac 
xposure  to  ik'' 
rially  infliH'iim 
o\i-il,  eonvcwh-  i 
climates  of  the 
develop  niiiiJlv 
Our  British] 
of  Quetelct,  thill 
crally  excetd  the  I 
an  obstacle  tol 

Quetelct  givnj 
investigations, 
in  the  ff-iis  atel 
nialUr  than  man;! 
eomplott'  ilcvf-l 
inc.ri'»8«!  of  huikl 
an  that  of  manT 
troni  the  fiftid!i| 
^miiniition  ol  »taT 
jrkod  towards  tlii 
ssert  lliat  the  i!e^ 
iiid  it  proliaWy  i 
to  nil  asuriMiiiii' 
is  unnecessary ' 
,se  cannot  bo  cii 


Ked  blByond  generalities,  and  we  muni  be  content,  in  many 
particulars,  to  regard  the  aexea  only  under  the  common 
title  of  mankind. 

WRIGHT  OP  THE   HV^AN   BEING. 

The  stature,  weight,  and  strength  of  the  human  body, 
form  but  parts  of  one  and  the  same  subject.  Each  of 
these  properties  or  cliaractcristics,  if  not  dependent  on, 
is  nt  least  closely  related  to,  both  the  others.  As  the 
object  hero  is  to  make  the  view  of  the  species  compre- 
hensive rather  than  minute,  it  were  to  be  wislied  that  the 
uieight  of  the  body,  among  the  various  races  of  men,  had 
been  inquired  into  with  some  attention  by  naturalists. 
But,  OS  in  the  case  of  tlio  stature,  this  has  yet  l)cen  done 
only  to  a  very  imperfect  extent.  Quetelct  has  fully  ex- 
amined the  comparative  weight  of  the  human  body  at 
diflerent  ages,  and  of  differently  placed  individuals  in  a 
angle  nation ;  but  no  attempts  have  been  made  to  dc- 
tormine  the  comparative  weights  of  Mongol  and  Cuuca- 
aian,  or  American  and  Negro.  The  endeavour  to  do  so 
would  bo  attended  undeniably  with  vast  troi^ble,  and 
lome  may  think  the  matter  not  worthy  of  it.  Tliis, 
however,  is  not  a  correct  view  of  things.  In  all  under- 
takings that  reijuire  the  exertion  of  physical  energy,  and 
more  particularly  in  war,  bodily  weight,  it  has  now  l>ecn 
clearly  shown,  is  a  moat  important  clement ;  and,  wher- 
ever the  superiority  in  this  respect  lies,  thither  will  suc- 
cess, other  circumstances  being  equal,  almost  infallibly 
tend.  An  observation  of  the  various  collisions  of  troops 
on  the  field  of  Waterloo,  whether  of  horse  or  foot,  has 
been  found  to  substantiate  this  proposition. 

Professor  Forbes  extended  his  inquiries  among  his 
students,  English,  Scotch,  and  Irish,  to  bodily  weight, 
adding  examinations  of  similar,  and  also  of  mixed  classes 
rf  Belgians.     The  results  were  as  follow : — 

iVeight  in  Powidi,  iitcluding  Clothei. 


AS»- 

English. 

Scotch. 

Iriih- 

Uclgians 

(not  mixed 

classes.) 

15 

lbs. 
1145 

IhB. 
112 

Ibs. 

lbs. 
'02 

16 

127 

12.5.5 

129 

11 7.5 

17 

1335 

133-5 

136 

127 

18 

138 

139 

141-5 

134 

19 

141 

143 

145-5 

139-5 

SO 

144 

146-5 

142 

143 

81 

146 

142-5 

151 

145-5 

22 

147-5 

150 

153 

147 

23 

149 

151 

154 

148-5 

24 

150 

153 

155 

149.5 

25 

151 

152-5 

155 

150 

Here,  again,  the  superiority  lies  with  the  Irisli,  the 
glhers  holding  the  same  relative  positions  as  in  the  case 
of  stature.  The  mixed  classes  of  Belgians,  in  whose 
caae  the  weight  of  clothes  was  deduet^nl,  ranked  exceed- 
ingly low — 134  llw.  l)eing  about  the  average.  We  have 
it  in  our  [Kiwer,  fortunately,  to  compare  the  conclusions 
of  Professor  Forlxw  with  tlioso  of  other  inquirers,  in  as 
fti  08  the  English  and  Belgians  ore  concerned.  The 
tigbty  students  of  Cambridge,  weighed  (with  the  clothes) 
in  groups  of  ten,  gave  an  average,  as  we  are  informed  by 
(Juctelet,  of  151  lbs. — the  precise  mean,  it  will  Ik:  olv 
served,  of  the  Knglishmen  of  twenty-five  years  of  age 
wrigbed  by  Professor  ForU'S.  The  Cambridge  students, 
however,  were  Iwtween  eighteen  and  twenty-three  years 
olu,  and  therefore  the  Cambridge  estimate  is  a  little  higher 
than  that  ut  Professor  FoiIm'S,  as  it  also  was  in  the  case 
of  aiaiu.'*.  With  res|iecl  to  the  weight  of  the  Belgians, 
It  oxamiiied  by  Qnetelet,  he  stales  that  the  mean  weight 
of  the  Caiiiliridgc  sludeiits  of  eighteen  and  twenty-three 
much  exceeds  that  of  Belgian-  of  tile  same  age,  being 
DrtHy  th<!  Ruine  as  that  of  men  of  thirty  in  Brabant  and 
th*  othvr  departments  of  Flaidera. 


The  superiority  of  the  Irisl.  in  poin  of  stature  and 
weight  is  remarkable.  We  shall  find  it  borne  out  by  ■ 
corresponding  superiority  in  physical  power,  as  shown  in 
the  table  of  Professor  Foibes  having  reference  t*  'iial 
characteristic. 

Quetelet's  conclusions  respecting  the  weight  of  the 
human  being  ot  various  ages,  and  the  general  laws  regu- 
lav-.ig  his  growth  in  this  particular,  are  ntnrly  as  follow*- 
— The  mean  weight  of  male  children  at  birth  is  3-20  kilo- 
grammes-* The  weight  of  female  infants  is  less,  being 
2-91  k.  A  child  loses  weight  for  the  first  three  di:ys  afler 
birth,  and  does  not  make  any  decided  increase  until  about 
the  seventh  day.  Ages  being  equal,  man  generally  weighs 
more  than  woman;  but  at  the  age  of  twelve  tin  is  not 
the  case.  The  sexes  are  then  nearly  equal  in  this  re- 
spect. The  period  of  complete  development  in  man,  as 
respects  weight,  is  the  age  of  forty.  Woman  again  does 
not  attain  her  maximum  till  the  age  of  fifty.  According  to 
observations  made  on  the  most  extensive  scale  in  Belgium, 
the  mean  weight  of  man  at  twenty-five  is  62-93  k. ;  at 
the  age  of  forty  (the  maximum  period),  it  is  63-7  k.  The 
mean  weight  of  woman  at  twenty-five  is  53-2  k. ;  at  fifty 
(the  maximum  perio<I),  it  is  56-16  k.'j-  The  maximum 
weight  of  the  human  being  is  nearly  twenty  times  the 
sum  of  his  weight  at  birth.  The  mean  weight  of  the 
human  being,  neither  sex  nor  age  being  taken  into  ac- 
count, is  45-7  k.  From  the  ages  of  forty  and  fifty,  men 
and  women  begin  respectively  to  sustaii.  a  decrease  of 
weight,  from  six  to  seven  kilogrammes  being  the  usual 
loss  before  the  close  of  Ufe. 

STRENGTH   OF   MAN.  ^ 

The  strength  of  the  human  frame  is  a  subject  whicb 
has  received  much  more  attention  than  has  been  paid 
either  to  its  weight  or  proportions.  It  is  obviously,  in- 
deed, a  subject  of  the  utmost  moment,  whether  we  view 
it  with  reference  to  the  comparative  physical  powers  of 
diflerent  races,  or  simply  as  a  question  interesting  to 
civilized  man  from  its  bearing  on  practical  mechanics. 
Various  methods  have  been  proposed  for  determining  ac- 
curately the  strcngthi  resident  in  the  loins  and  aims  of 
the  human  frame ;  and  the  instrument  called  the  dytia 
moineter,  invented  by  Regnicr,  is  that  most  generally  ap. 
proved  of  and  ciuployed  foi  -he  purpose.  The  dynamo- 
meter, however,  though  used  by  Quetelct,  Professor 
Forbes,  and  others,  in  tlieir  experiments,  is  allowed  to  be 
far  from  [lerfect,  and  it  i.i  nuly  by  uneonimun  care  and 
caution,  that  results  can  lie  ohtaiiied  from  it  worthy  of 
being  dei)ended  on.  It  is  an  instiuinent  nhicli  cannot 
well  be  described  in  mere  words,  and  nil  tl'  il  may  I>e  said 
of  it  here  is,  that  it  is  so  contrived  as  to  iiniiculi'  to  the 
experimenter,  on  a  dial-plate,  the  phy'ic;d  (lower  resident 
in  the  loiiic  and  arms  of  the  partie.-*  auiiieet.^t  to  In.il- 

Observing  the  extraordinary  dispia;,s  ol  physical  power 
and  energy  frequently  made  by  F:iviii.;es,  sicientific  men 
were  long  of  opinion  that  civilizatiun  Jiminished  the 
strength  of  the  human  frame.  Other  circumstance* 
tended  to  fo.'iter  this  belief.  The  Negro  is  possessed  of 
lungei  arms,  or  at  least  forearms,  than  the  Caucasian, 
holding  in  this  respect,  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  a  middle 
place  between  the  white  and  the  ape,  \\  inch  latter  crea- 
ture lias  arms  of  great  length.  "  t  measured,"  says  Mr. 
\Miitt,  "the  arms  of  about  fifty  Negroes,  men,  women, 
and  children,  born  in  very  difVeient  climes,  and  found  tlie 
lower  arm  longer  than  in  Euro|H.>uns,  in  proportion  to  the 
upper  arm  and  height  of  the  body."  The  same  writci 
siiys  that  whites  of  0  ti'et  4  inches,  whom  he  measured 
hud  shorter  arms  than  Negroes  of  middle  size.  Similar 
sources  of  physical  sU|)eriority  appeared  to  voyagers  to 
be  jKissessed  I  y  the  Pacific  Islanders,  the  Malays,  and 
many  other  uncultivated  races.     But  more  attentivt,  oS 


•  A  kiliiuriiiiinii!  is  as  iienrl)  as  possilile  2  1-6  lbs.  Kn(fii>h. 

t  'I'lii'  riiciiii  wi.-iKbt,  lliiTeiori-.  ol  iiinii  in  l'i'i(,'iuii  m  he  niiti 
mum  prriuil.  is  liitlii  iiiorii  ilinn  ltd  lbs.  lOnglitii.  T'ii<  :«nra(t 
bsluw  iliu  uvcruge  ol'  man  in  Uriuin. 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


••TvtUon  has  di^tprovcd  the  supposiUon.  The  voyager 
Poron  took  with  him  to  the  southern  hemisphere  a  dyna- 
mometer, with  which  he  experimented  on  tiie  following 
■umber  of  individuals:  twelve  natives  of  Van  Diomcn's 
Land,  seventeen  of  New  Holland,  fifty-six  of  the  island 
of  Timor  (a  fine  race  of  men),  seventeen  Frenchmen, 
Mid  fourteen  Englishmen.  The  following  nural.:!rs  ex- 
press the  moan  result  in  each  case,  the  strength  of  the 
arms  and  loins  being  respectively  put  to  the  tost.  It  is 
by  lifting  a  weight  that  the  strength  of  the  loins  U  tistod 
nrith  the  dynamometer. 

Mean  $trength. 


Arms.  I,oiii9, 
Xllogramines.  Myriograinines. 

50-6 

•     50-8  10-3 

58-7  ll-O 

-    69-2  15-2 

71-4  16.3* 


I.  Van  Dieiiien  nativea, 

5.  New  HoUandcrii, 

3.  Timoriiins, 

4.  Frenchmen, 

6.  Englitihnicn,  • 

The  highest  power  of  arm  shown  by  any  of  the  Van 
Diemen  natives,  was  60 ;  by  the  New  Hollanders,  62 ; 
while  the  lowitst  in  th3  English  trials  was  63,  anil  the 
highest  83.  In  lumbnr  power,  or  that  of  the  loin.'i,  the 
highest  point  reached  by  a  New  Hollander  was  '.3;  the 
lowest  of  the  English  was  lS-7,  and  the  highest  21  3. 

«  These  reNiilts,"  soys  Mr.  Lawrence,  "  ofler  the  lest  an- 
swer to  the  ileclaniations  on  the  degeneracy  of  man.  The 
attribute  of  superior  strength,  so  boldly  assumed  by  the 
eulogists  of  the  savage  state,  has  never  licen  questioned 
or  doubted.  .Mthough  we  have  been  consoled  for  this 
inferiority  bv  an  enumeration  of  the  many  precious 
beneiits  derived  from  eivilizjition,  it  has  always  been  telt 
as  a  somewhat  degrading  disadvantage.  Bodily  sfp'iigth 
is  a  concomitant  of  good  health,  which  is  produced  and 
■upported  by  a  recular  supply  of  wholesome  »nd  nutritiou-i 
ftxjd,  and  by  active  occupation.  The  industrious  and 
wril-fed  middle  clusscs  of  a  civilized  community,  may  Iw 
reasonably  expected  to  surpass,  in  this  endowment,  the 
miserable  savajes,  who  are  never  well-led,  and  loo  fre- 
quently depri'sseil  by  absolute  want  and  all  other  priva- 
tions." Such  is  the  case,  as  Peron's  experiments  show. 
But  indeed  the  Han)c  thing  is  shown  by  a  hundred  histo- 
rical facts.  'I'he  Spaniards,  on  their  first  visits  to  the 
New  World,  found  the  natives  much  weaker  than  them- 
selves, and  this  was  proved  not  only  by  hand  to  Iiand 
■trugples,  but  by  the  labour  of  the  mines,  in  which  the 
Indians  were  far  deficient.  The  backwoodsmen  of  the 
States  have  always  shown  themselves  stronger,  in  single 
oombatji,  than  ihe  Indians.  The  Russians  of  Europe, 
also,  are  said  by  Pullas  to  excel  the  Mongol  tribes  of  the 
empire,  to  a  remarkable  extent,  in  phyiTo!  power. 

Proper  and  extended  comparisons  are  yet  to  be  made 
of  the  relative  physical  power  of  the  variour  Caucasian 
nations.  The  following  table  of  Professt';  f'orlws  gives 
ss  at  least  a  glimps«>  at  the  comparative  strengths  of  Eng- 
Nnh,  ikotch,  Irish,  and  Belgians ; — 

Lumbar  Strength  in  Pounds, 


Age. 

English. 

Scotcn 
280 

Irith. 

IklgiRm. 

15 

>•* 

204 

16 

33" 

314 

.*• 

230 

17 

ar>i 

.140 

3fi9 

260 

18 

aiH 

3(;o 

3S9 

2H0 

19 

378 

378 

404 

296 

80 

a,s5 

392 

'\n 

310 

21 

3112 

402 

423 

322 

22 

3U7 

410 

41;  7 

3.10 

23 

4111 

417 

430 

33.^) 

2t 

4(12 

421 

431 

337 

U6 

403 

423 

432 

339 

•  Peron- 

-CorrfPi-J 

Mition  ol   Ui 

t  Voyife*. 

(The  injrrio- 

The  same  relations  are  here  preserved  as  in  the  pre. 
vious  tables,  and  as,  with  respect  to  weight  and  height  a« 
least, -there  could  be  no  mistake,  the  probability  that  tlie 
lust  table  is  correct  is  much  strengthened  by  the  con' 
formily  iri  question.  The  difference  between  the  Irish 
p.iid  Bolgiar"  is  immense,  '.he  former  exceeding  the  latter 
in  strength  jy  nearly  one-fourth ;  while  l)ctwi!en  the 
English  and  Be'gians  there  is  also  a  great  difTorence, 
amounting  to  62  Tiounds.  The  English,  in  Peron's  table, 
showed  tt  lumbar  strength  equal  to'alwut  376  lbs,,  a  point 
considerably  below  that  of  the  English  in  Professor 
Forbcs's  table.  But  wo  might  expect  such  a  diflerenco 
between  students  and  sailors,  or  stout  colonists,  whick 
latter  classes  were  those  examined  by  Peron.  Bctweca 
the  Scotch  and  Irish  the  dini!tcnco  is  small  cumparatively. 
It  is  much  to  be  wished  that  the  example  of  the  Edui- 
burgh  professor  w?rc  extensively  followed,  both  abroad  and 
at  home,  so  as  to  give  us  salisl'actory  views  of  tlie  rela- 
tive physical  powers  of  the  different  European  nations. 
Such  questions,  as  alrei'.dy  hi:ited,  will  be  found  to  bear 
more  uircotly  on  the  prosperity  of  nations  than  has  hitti- 
erto  been  commonly  imagined.* 

Hegnier,  the  inventor  of  the  common  dynaiuometcr, 
was  led  to  the  conclusion,  after  many  eXperimentn,  that, 
between  the  oges  of  twenty-five  and  thirty,  man  is  at  the 
maximum  of  his  strength,  and  that  ho  is  tlien  able,  by 
pressing  strongly  with  both  hands,  to  make  an  cflbrt  equal 
to  ."iO  kilof.'ammes,  and  to  raise  a  weight  of  13  myri.> 
grammes.  Man  preserves  fsayi  the  same  observer)  much 
of  his  physical  j'ower  nearly  till  the  age  of  fifty,  when  it 
rainiiiishes  progntsively.  The  exiieriments  of  anothii 
Frenchman,  M.  Kansounet,  made  upon  345  of  his  coun- 
trymen, sailors  of  ti\'-  jrart  of  Havre,  give  results  some- 
what different  fnin.  trv3.«  of  Kegiiier.  Kansonriet  fouiid 
the  mean  manual  y^-',T  of  thcso  men  to  equal  46'3  kilo- 
grammes; atuJ  the  I  ndiar  power,  or  that  of  the  loins,  lo 
amount  to  I4>2  myrieg  iimmes.  Th,^re  is  every  reason 
to  believe,  however,  th»t  Ihe  particular  mode  of  using  tlie 
instrument  employed  ry  each  experimenter,  is  the  cause 
of  such  differences  in  its  results.  Quetelet's  o/jservationi 
led  to  the  following  conclusiwns : — 

Lumbar  Poteer  of  Men  and  Women. 

Men.  Women. 

Age,  Mvr'ogrunmet.    Mynngrammet 

9    •  ■         •        •         4.0  30 

15  .         •         •         -    8-8  M 

20    •  ■         •        •       13-8  6-8 

25  ...        .15..')  7-7 

30    ..  .         -        .       U.4 

50  -         .         .         -lO-l  6.9 

The  highest  point  which  the  dynamometer  here  gave, 
for  the  power  of  the  loins  in  Belgian  men,  was  IS-S, 
twenty-five  iM-iiig  the  age  when  the  |)ower  reached  thii 
maximum  ]>oint.  The  conclusion  agrees  very  closely 
with  those  made  by  Peron  on  the  French  wiilors  of  hii 
party,  who  exhibilivl  i  lumbar  power  equivalent  to  16  2 
myriogrammes,  falling  below  that  of  the  English,  which 
was  16.3.  O'her  observations,  however,  would  lead  at 
to  suppose  that  she  <lifferencc  is  more  in  favour  of  the 
Brifisli,  when  compared  with  th(!  Belgians,  than  this  cul- 
tivation wpuld  indicate ;  and  this  would  prolmbly  have 
apjieared,  had  Britons  bee,!  tested  under  (juetelcl's  own 
eye,  ami  by  his  vlirections. 

The  difierence  in  lumbar  strrngth  lietwren  men  anu 
women  is  remarkable,  os  shown  in  QuetcletV.  table.  At 
the  age  of  twenty-five,  when  both  attain  ihi;  ma'iinuni 
of  lumbar  strength,  the  woman  is  delirient  by  more  tlsaii 
one-half.  "  The  difference,"  sayn  Quetelet,  « is  com 
mon!y  less  in  early  youth  than  at  tie  perioO  of  compleu 


giaiome  ic  nearly  Zi  Ibi.  Eoglish.) 


•  We  liHVe  hp«n  inftirircd  <>iM  theinire  |iny«i»«l  newer  of 
tlis  (liirerent  companici  cf  lup  i  to  wl;oin  (,e  F.  iikn  of  \V  p.lir^- 
ton  WM  n|i|»  Kid  in  IiIh  ?Htiip  i  H"*!  was  Uwayi  vtitli  hiu  u 
object  of  serioi!!  coniiuertuuo. 


PHYSICAL  H1ST0R\  OF  MAN. 


73 


•8  in  the  pr*. 
^t  and  height  m 
lability  that  tli« 
led  by  the  con' 
:wecn  the  Iri«h 
ceding  the  latter 
lo   l)clwiicn   the 
great  difforenre, 
in  Poron'B  table, 
376  IbH.,  a  point 
ah   in   Profesaot 
luch  a  difference 
colonisU,  whick 
•eron.     Between 
U  cumparatively. 
iplo  of  the  Edin- 
I,  both  abroad  and 
liows  of  tlio  rclii- 
luroiH-an  nations, 
be  found  lo  bear 
ns  than  haa  hitli- 

on  dynaiaoiPfter, 
ejtpcrimentfl,  that, 
irty,  man  is  at  the 
)  is  then  able,  ly 
ake  an  effort  c(iiial 
ight  of  13  niyri..>- 
ne  observer)  much 
re  of  fifty,  when  it 
iments  of  anothn 
n  345  of  his  coun- 
give  rcRulls  somo- 
Kansonnct  fouiid 

to  c(iuiil  46'3  kilo- 
hat  of  the  loins,  to 
^re  is  every  reason 

mode  of  using  tJic 
icntcr,  is  the  cause 
itclet's  ofjservationi 


Womtn. 

Women. 

ie».    Myriogramn>e» 

30 

6^ 

6-8 

7-7 

•  •  • 

5-9 

^lometcr  here  gave, 
m  men,  was  16-.% 
l)owcr  reached  tbii 
Igrees  very  closely 
Icnch  bailors  of  hii 
I  equivalent  lo  15  2 
Vhe  English,  which 
Iver,  would  lead  U! 
le  in  favour  of  the 
lians.  than  this  cul- 
luld  jirolml'ly  have 
Ider  Quetelcl's  own 

ll)ctw(en  men  ami 
IicIcIcI'k  table.  Ai 
jiin  Ihi  ma-iinuro 
Lieut  \>y  more  thaii 
bvictolet,  "is  com 
Ppt-rioi.'  of  lompltu 

te  pi\y«i<«l  newer  o( 
Le  I.nk«  of  \Vf.liH- 
|»lw»YSMilU  hiu  u 


iiiT«lopin«nt,  the  ratio  being  at  first  as  3  lo  2,  and  becom- 
Inj  afterwards  an  9  to  6.  The  power  of  the  right  hand, 
v'hen  tried  separately  from  that  of  the  left,  exceeds  that  of 
the  latter  by  nearly  a  sixth.  If  the  resultA  which  I  have 
ittairod  he  compare^  with  those  of  MM.  Regnicr  and 
Ranionnct,  diflerenccs  of  a  remarkable  kind  will  bo  olv 
jtirved,  which  (  ascribe  to  the  manner  in  which  the  hands 
tvere  laid  upon  the  instrument,  and  to  the  distance  left 
between  them.  According  to  the  researches,  however, 
tif  the  gentlemen  mentioned,  the  mean  strength  of  man 
is  estimated  at  about  46.3  and  f>0  kilogrammes,  a  weight 
n<t  equalling  that  of  man  himself.  ,  Hence  a  man. should 
nJt  bo  capable  of  supporting  himself  with  his  hands.  Now, 
experience  tolls  us  the  very  oppositi  of  this.  Among  the 
sailors  examined  by  Ransrnnct, there  ivould  not  probably 
hive  been  found  a  single  man  who  could  not  sustain 
himself  for  some  instants  at  the  end  of  a  rope.  Pcron, 
who  estimates  the  manual  force  at  69>2  kilogrammes,  ap- 
proaches nearer  to  the  truth,  but  my  own  experiments 
carry  the  estimate  considerably  higher." 

These  conflicliug  results  cannot  but  lead  us  to  look 
with  suspicion  on  the  dynamometer,  when  in  the  hands 
of  different  experimenters.  But  the  conclusions  of  single 
experimenters,  who  have  <!oinpared  a  variety  of  individu- 
als, are  still  to  bo  held  of  viihie,  since  they  would  cause 
the  different  subjects  of  experiment  to  operate  on  the  in- 
Btrument  in  tlie  s:une  way.  The  conclusions  of  Peron 
respecting  civili7.i'(l  and  uncivilized  men,  as  well  as  Eng- 
lishmen and  Frcnclinicn,  are  by  no  means  to  be  deemed 
unworthy  of  credit,  because  Quctclet  arrived  at  different 
general  conclusions ;  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the 
observations  of  Quctelct  upon  the  comparative  strength 
of  man  and  woman  at  different  ages.  To  the  observa- 
tions of  Profes.ior  Forties  thn  siime  remark  applies,  and 
we  believe,  with  reference  to  them,  that  the  conclusions 
which  they  indicnto  will  hold  extensively  good.  The 
Belgians  partake  largely  of  the  Celtic  blood,  and  the  Celtic 
race  will  probably  be  found  inferior  to  the  Germanic,  in 
almost  all  cases,  in  height,  weight,  and  strength  of  frame. 
The  superiority  of  the  Irish,  it  may  be  thought,  docs  not 
countenance  this  view  ot  things,  as  they  are  in  the  main 
a  Celtic  j)eople.  But  it  is  the  English  portion  of  the 
Irish  population,  chiefly,  who  are  in  circumstances  to  quit 
their  country  iti  quest  of  academical  education,  and  such 
was,  in  all  likelihood,  the  characU^r  of  the  majority  of 
those  who  l)ccame  Ihe  subjects  of  experiment  to  Professor 
Forbes.  The  iieasantry,  in  some  of  the  more  retired  dis- 
tricts of  Ireland,  present  characters  very  different  from 
those  of  the  parties  settled  within  what  was  called  the 
English  "  pale."  They  are  pure  Celts,  unquestionably, 
witli  short,  spare,  wiry  frames,  and  features  strikingly 
Celtic.  Not  to  these,  but  to  the  English  portion  of  the 
nation,  must  the  conclusions  of  Professor  Forlics  be  held 
chiefly  to  apply;  and  the  jwople  of  the  Scottish  Low* 
lands,  who  encircle  and  attend  the  Edinburgh  University, 
are,  in  like  manner,  a  Germanized  race.  It  is  in  this  li^lit 
that  English,  Scotch,  and  Irish,  are  to  bo  ranked  together, 
and  collectively  , cntristed,  as  being  all  of  them  branches 
.)!'  a  Germanizeij  i)o[)nlation,  with  the  continental  Celta. 
In  height,  weight,  and  stature,  the  superiority,  wo  rejieat, 
wems  to  lie  with  the  former,  and  their  national  career  may 
have  been  more  affected  by  the  circumstances  than  has 
hitherto  been  dreamed  of.  F"?i,  inquiries  are  likely  to 
give  to  such  physical  characui istica  a  degree  of  wci:hl 
not  ascribed  to  them  in  time  past. 

Leaving  the  question  of  comparative  degrees  of  strengtti, 
whether  m  varieties  or  sub-varieties  of  mankind,  a  word 
may  be  said  resjiecting  the  extraordinary  physical  powers 
which  individwit  men,  of  various  nations,  have  occasion- 
ally evinced.  Wo  learn  from  history,  that  Milo,  a  Greek, 
could  fell  an  ox  with  his  fist,  and  afterwards  carry  it 
home  on  his  shoulders.  Firmus,  a  man  who  lived  in 
later  times,  Iwing  born  in  Seleucia  about  the  reign  of  the 
Emiieror  .\uri'li;ui,  could  suffer  iron  lo  bo  .'orged  on  an 
Vol.  I.— 10 


anvil  placed  on  his  breast,  hi;  ixidy  tieing  then  in  the  po 
sition  of  an  arch,  with  only  the  tVo  extremities  resting  on 
supports.  He  exhibited  other  feats  of  muscular  strength, 
nearly  all  of  which  were  successfully  imitated,  during  the 
past  centuiy,  by  a  German  named  Vaii  Eckeburg.  Thii 
man  sat  down  on  an  inclined  board,  with  his  feet  stretched 
out  against  a  fixed  support,  and  two  strong  horses  were 
unable  to  move  him  from  his  position.  In  imitation  of 
Firmus,  he  lay  down,  with  his  body  in  the  form  of  an 
arch,  and  allowed  a  stone,  one  foot  and  a  half  long  and 
one  foot  broad,  to  bo  broken  on  his  alidomcn  with  a 
sledge  hammer.  He  ako  stood  on  an  elevated  platform, 
and,  by  means  of  a  rope  round  his  waist,  sustained  the 
weight  of  a  largo  cannon,  a  burden  f<  '  several  horses. 
A  flat  piece  of  iron  was  likewise  twisted  by  him  into  the 
form  of  a  screw. 

Dr.  Desigulicrs,  a  scientific  gentleman  who  witnessed 
the  German's  feats,  showed,  however,  that  skill  was  more 
concerned  in  the  matter  than  mere  strength.  With  the 
aid  of  some  friends,  the  doctor  actually  performed  many 
of  the  same  feats,  on  the  very  night  on  which  he  wit. 
nessed  them.  The  simple  uustaining  of  the  stone,  it 
seems,  was  the  chief  difficulty  in  the  most  striking  of  the 
experiments,  as  the  breaking  of  it  caused  little  additional  ' 
annoyance ;  and,  in  place  of  increasing,  the  arched  posi- 
tion of  the  body  greatly  diminished  the  shock  of  the 
blows.  In  the  case  of  many  of  the  other  feats,  in  like 
manner,  a  skilful  application  of  ordinary  physical  powers 
was  found  competent  to  their  accomplishment  There 
appeared,  nevertheless,  about  the  same  time  with  the 
German,  an  Englishman,  named  Topham,who  perfonned 
equally  wonderful  feats  by  sheer  strength,  unaided  by 
skill.  He  out-pulled  a  strong  horse  by  main  force, 
(hough  in  attempting  to  pull  against  two,  he  ultimately 
got  himself  hurt,  being  totally  ignorant  of  the  contri- 
vances which  his  German  predecessor  used  in  aidan"  j  of 
his  muscular  powers.  Topham  rolled  up  pewter  plates 
with  ease,  and  u'-rollcd  them ;  he  struck  an  iron  poker, 
three  inches  in  circumference  and  three  feet  long,  against 
his  bare  right  arm,  ^11  he  bent  it  to  a  right  angle ;  he 
placed  a  similar  poker  against  the  back  of  his  neck,  and, 
with  a  hand  on  each  end,  twisted  it  round,  till  the  points 
met  in  front;  after  which  he  pulled  it  nearly  straight 
again,  his  arms  acting  in  a  most  unfavourable  condition 
while  he  did  so;  and,  finally,  among  other  feats,  he  liftcc 
with  his  teeth,  and  held  out  for  a  time,  a  strong  table  six 
feet  long,  with  half  a  hundred  weight  hanging  at  thi 
farther  extremity. 

We  have  accounts  of  men  performing  more  wonderful 
feats  than  these  of  Topham,  but  they  are  either  ill  au- 
thenticated, or  seem  to  have  msultrd  as  much  firora  skill 
as  strength,  as  in  the  case  of  ''le  German.  Topham  ap- 
pears, on  the  whole,  to  have  been  gifted  with  physical 
powers  as  remarkable  as  any  that  we  can  believe  any  hu- 
man Iwing  ever  to  have  naturally  possessed,  judging  from 
Ihi  •'   .  jils  on  such  matters  given  in  merely  secular  history. 

MBNTAL  CHARACTER. 

It  is  only  a  recapitulation  of  much  which  has  been 
stated  in  the  earlier  sections  of  this  treatise,  that  great 
difli'rences  of  mental  character  are  exhibited  by  the  vari- 
ous races  of  mankind.  The  black  intertropical  nations, 
generally,  aro  decidedly  the  lowest  in  the  intellectual 
scale.  They  aro  generally  characterized  by  great  indo- 
lence, as  well  as  by  g  a  .arbarism  and  superstition. 
j  The  idea  of  a  social  co;.  i  r  .ity  has  made  lut  a  mnaW 
advance  among  them,  Ihoii'ii  more  ainoiij.,  ■^me  tribes 
than  others.  The  lowest  of  the  class  ire  to  be  found  ir. 
Australia  and  some  of  the  Lslaiuls  ,i  •'■lo  Pacific.  Yet 
there  's  scarcely  any  tribe  of  blac.ki'  ■■'  nean,  but  Uiey 
possess  certain  traits  of  mind  calculated  to  produce  rr>. 
spcci,  being  in  some  instances  surprisingly  ingenious  ii< 
fabricating  particular  articles,  or  ui  the  management  of 
canoes  and  tlic  use  of  warlike  iinplciiicnts. 


'  ...  •  .  .   ». 


I  vW-^i-.^t 


INFORMA'nON    FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


Tb*  red  nccs  of  North  America  are  a  conHiderubly 
jnperior  race  to  the  Negroes.  Their  aMOciations  for  wur 
find  oilier  pu/ixxieB  are  upon  a  more  couipiicatud  scale ; 
tljey  ihow  many  ,  inutkable  traiu  of  ingenuity  ;  and  in 
D  iny  tribes  ve  fi  li  kiiulncHH  and  courtesy  approaching 
to  our  ideaM  of  tlie    •avalric  character. 

The  Mongoliani!,  »nd  the  Indian  branch  of  the  Cau- 
uaaiana,  must  Ik;  cor.^  ijorcd  next  in  the  scale.  Tliey  have 
formed  great  states,  ami  made  advances  in  the  arts  and 
in  adence ;  but  a  ftntionary  character  appears  to  bn  im- 
pressed on  them  all,  and  ascs  pass  without  their  mani- 
festing the  Hiichteat  moral  or  physical  improvement.  The 
Mtlayan  variety  exhibits  r.  somewhat  inferior  character 
h,  the  Mongolians,  '.nU  not  so  dillercnt  as  to  call  for  spe- 
cial notice. 

The  Caucasian    -ricly,  as  a  w!iole,  stands  greatly  al)ove 
all  the  re.it.     It  is  cliiractenzed  by  superior  sagacity  -nd 
sentimer,!.  ind,  abo\"  all,  by  a  progressive  character  which 
other  raci.-i  have  only  shown  in  a  very  limited  'l/gioe. 
The  wcial  arrangcro^  ats  formed  by  lome  ))ranchci  '■•.I  this 
race,  lU-e  the  most  cal 'uiated  to  insure  tlii;  i.cneral  iMjipi- 
neas  which  have  ever  (•■  en  known.    Tin'ir  indu8tr>   :;id 
p?r8everancp, aided  by  ih;^-  !.>,'hts which  ''.  <  v  have deduc.d 
■    from  science,  have  led  to  ('":  productiu.  '.   -i;:  amount  of  i 
wealth  beyond  the  drijiii.-i  of  Orientals,     i'heir  benevo-  j 
lence  has  led  then;  not  only  to  found  inetitiitionr,  o-ileu-  j 
•attJ  to  succour  fne  poor  and  .'fflicted  in  th  ';■  owjr  .  uun- 
try,biit  to  •  si-n  themselves  lo'  ,he  benefit  oi  otiicr  nations 
in  every  ic;  i'^n  of  the  glolie.    Wherever  this  race  ads  >t 
fvxsl.  it  mak-     itself  master — a  result  dirc-tly  flowiir,  froii;  , 
iw  ('i;pi  rim-  I'licrgy,  skill,  and  jMrscverance.    Among  t  tln'  | 
Iranciwt  ■^1"  lh«  Cauci.sai;,  variety,  considerable  difli^rdiccn  i 
{•rcvait.     i'ixt:  r;iiiinii  l)iaiuh  approaches  to  the  Mongolian 
Tjiriety,  ai.d  ;t  's  in  t;;c  jVlasgian  branch  in  ancient,  and 
ii  B  f,  'tonii;  ot  Orman  in  moderr.  times,  that  we  find  j 
tli>>  u  riotit  devc'opment  of  the  finest  fiicultiea  of  Un-  ; 

peRMAKENCT  or  TTPIS.  ! 

This  subjeci  haw  been  already  touched  upon;  but  it 
wils  for  g'niie  special  ccnsideratitjn.    We  tind  some  inte-  , 
resting  light  thrown  uixin  it  in  a  work  entitled  "The' 
Physioiofiical  Characters  of  the  Races  of  Mankind  eoii- 
■idered   in   their    Helations   to  History,"  by  Dr.  W.  F. 
Edwara  i. 

This  writei-  citca  the  Jews  as  an  example  of  a  race  ; 
who,  for  nearly  tw^)  thousand  yesrs,  have  been  spread  ' 
throughout  a  variety  o('(!iiiu"<,  yet  have  everywhere  pre- 
served their  I'l'ginai  ftsitures.     In  Leonardo  da  Vinci's 
|>icture  of  the  iist  Supper,  paintod  three  hundred  years 
•go,  the  figures  oic  rciiroseiited  with  counteniuices  ex- 
actly fes<!ml)!ing  thoso  i-f  the  Jews  of  the  present  day. 
That  the  pre*'nt  well-known  type  of  this  peo|ile  has  un- 
dcifgoiie  noclianpe  at  any  timn,  is  proved  by  the  paintings 
Ibund  by  Uelzoni  in  the  tomb  of  an  Egyptian  king,  pro- 
ioably  nat  less  than  three  thousand  years  old.     These 
painting!"  repr<^sf^t  four  diHon  iit  races  in  pnx^rssioii — i 
1.  The  nctivps,  of  a  dark-brown  tint;  2.  NegroiM.  with  | 
olack  skins,   thick   lips,   and   woolly   hair ;   3.  Pcrsiaijs ;  ' 
4.  Ifiraciitis, distingui.shtJ  by  their  complexion  and  physi- 1 
Ofjnomy.    The  piiintingii  were  exhibited  in  London,  vdiere  ■ 
Dr.Edvards  particularly  examinrj  llicm;  he  says,  "I  had  ^ 
•oeu,  on  (he  previous  day,  Jews  in  the  xlreets  of  London; 
I  thought  that  I  now  saw  their  portraits." 

Dr.  Eduiirds  shows  that  tiirre  is  much  error  in  our 
ordinary  iiicas  lospiiiiti.;  the   (Feet of  conquesLs  in  cbanf- 
iiig  popiii.iiitin.     'i'liiT"  i.M  I  tindr:icy  in  savage  racci 
(ink   uiiii  r  a  sniK-rior  intruding   rire,  as  the  GuancI 
h  PC  doiii-  in  till'  Caii.iry  Isiaiiils,  llie  Caribbs  in  the  W. 
Indie  '  a  parti  ular  Indian   ram   in  Ne-.        ,;dla 

but  »'        Me  ori;^);ii'l  |<Mplc  a'e  lo  a  certain  e/.   ■  .  ,• 
iie'  •  ieref.ro  nuinrriiuj  in  propurlion  !■ '      >u,  '...i 

law  secnw   lo  li'-,  that  they  -onlinue   to  hrv     '.       t\!i!»| 
ol  Uu  population,  while  tlie  cou4uerara  U.com'-   i  :   'ro- 1 


g'"nitorn  of  an  aristocratic  class.  Even  when  the  rrwl 
Genghis  Khan  dcUlH<rated  as  to  the  jirnpriety  of  mai»<a 
cring  the  pi^oplo  whom  he  had  sund'.ied  in  the  north  of 
China,  it  was  shown  to  him,  and  he  yielded  to  the  (ug 
gcstion,  that  they  were  lieltcr  spared,  as  being  useful  for 
proilucing  victual  and  paying  taxes.  We  see  the  Hin- 
doos continuing  to  occupy  their  country  im  Ibis  principle, 
j  utU-r  iH-ing  subjugated ;  and  the  British,  though  they  have 
externiinnted  the  intractable  savages  of  Van  Uiemen's 
Land,  seem  to  contemplate  encouraging  into  their  8«'rvice 
the  nior"  docile  races  of  New  Zealand.  Heason  is  shown 
by  Dr.  Edwards  for  concluding  that,  in  several  European 
cour-tri;  H  iVti.  1)  hi",  'passid  through  the  hiiiids  of  varioui 
mast  -m,  Uh-  bidk  jf  I'm  people  are  still  the  same  as  in 
1-1  ri  rciiiolc  times.  K  y,.:e,  aiii  I'le  Papal  states,  yet  show 
u  jcopio  V  f  'Mictly  (lo  somi  *y(>p  of  visage  with  the  an- 
ci^iii  IiDir  :  1  as  repie.icnted  in  I'  i-i's  and  upon  bas-rcliefsv 
A  |«>oj'lc  uf  one  typt,  Buppr*.'i'.  (  ■  lie  that  of  the  ancient 
G 'ill,  Mere  dr.  iic'I^'  -ace.i  h'-  h.  Edwanls  in  eastt-rn 
F<  111,0  ami  .11  n>)r»hti:i  ItaW.  .<;  uiso  uilduces  reasons 
for  bi''icving  that  ilie  earl)  feriiuns  still  form  a  large  |ioi^ 
tion  i^(  h'<  present  jiopulation  of  England.  History  itself, 
'iglitly  read,  bears  out  these  proposiiioim.  The  Franks, 
who  acquired  the  mastery  in  (iraul  in  the  .'ith  century, 
were  atfier  an  anny  than  a  ;'ni>,'r'itory  nation.  The 
Lo'nliards,  who  ovc ''i.ii  o  d  stiz,  i  the  northern  half  of 
Lilly,  arc  supposed  to  iidve  only  been  about  100.000  in 
nuni'inT.  The  immign.Vc.i  of  the  Saxons  into  England 
bti  ms  tr.  have  1- ,"  ujKm  ;;  greater  scale;  but  the  Nor- 
mans, !c!  by  tho  '  riquerur,  v/ere  only  60,000  soldiera, 
The  tti  vi  ijity  of  thi:  people  on  their  original  ground, 
and  tlie  i>i'i  inanency  of  their  original  character,  are  both 
shown  in  a  striking  manner  by  the  description  which 
Tacitus  gives  of  tlie  (Jau'.s,  Britons,  and  Germans.  The 
Gauls  he  sjieaks  of  as  "  g-.y,  volatile,  and  precipitate, 
prone  to  rush  to  action,  but  without  the  power  of  sus 
taining  adversity  and  the  tug  of  strife ;  and  this  is  the  cha 
racter  of  the  Celtic  portion  of  the  French  [leoplo  down 
to  the  prt'sent  day.  He  reprcKcnts  the  Britons  as  cool, 
•'onsiderate,  and  sedate,  pOKscswed  of  intellectual  talent, 
Slid  says  that  he  prefers  iheir  aptitude  to  the  livelier  man- 
ners of  the  Gauls.  The  same  mental  ((ualities  charac- 
!i!'ze  the  English  of  the  ninet<'enth  century,  and  thcjr 
and  the  FVench  may  still  be  contrasted  in  similar  terms. 
Hi'  uescrilies  the  Germans,  allowing  for  the  state  of  tlieii 
civilization,  as  a  bold,  p.'udent,  self-denying,  and  virtuoua 
people,  possessed  of  great  force  of  ciuirai'ter ;  and  the 
sanu'  features  distinguish  them  still."*  It  is  scarcely 
necessary  to  rrniark,  that  the  blue  eyes  and  fair  hair 
which  llie  Roman  historian  attributes  to  the  Germann, 
arc  still  widely-prevailing  features  of  their  external  phy- 
siognomy. 

The  iierseverance  of  national  tyin's  is  supported  by 
circumstances  favouring  the  same  conclusion  with  re- 
gard to  individual  families.  It  has  been  rcpeate'ly  ob- 
jervod,  in  galleriea  of  family  [lortraits,  that  a  particulai 
style  of  face,  or  some  shape  of  feature,  is  handed  down 
from  one  generation  to  m  otlu  r,  or,  passing  perhaps  eve 
one  or  two  genera?/  uu  revives  in  a  third.  A  certain 
thickness  in  the  under  lip  has  l>een  thus  hereditary  in 
the  royal  family  of  .Au;<lria  for  si^veral  i^enturiea.  Th« 
face  of  the  British  roy.il  fiitnily  iias  exiH'rienccd  nothini^ 
but  minor  changes  sinci;  tlio  Electress  Hophia,  if  not 
fi-om  earlier  geru-riitions.      Mr.  William  Howitt,  in  h'- 

irk  entitled  •' '.i-ils  to  lieinarkaMi'  Places,  '  j;iv,  ? 
for  'ait  ol  a  school-boy  who  was  pointed  out  to  '••  '  ,i 
■"'■j'ford-upon-.Xvon  as  a  descendai  •    f  iSlmks'    «       .m.1 

.    uiKiuestlonable  that  the  face  has  a  consider  .    .•  rcgcii* 

ire  to  tlj.it  of  the  great  drani.ilist.     The  ;  n   .'nt  wrili't 

liiay  Iw  allowed  to  sla'.»'.  tliat  he  has  seen  a  cUini;mt  of 

the  Wiiitoini   [leerige  in  hunitile  lile,  bearing  pieciwl; 

the  p»!culiar  physiognomy  of  two  <>:  tliree  of  the  chilJreL 


*  Ciuy  by  Mr.  Combn,  in  Morton's  Crania  Atimuan*. 


J,. 


PHYSICAL  HISTORY   OF   MAN. 


en  the  rrwil 
ity  of  mil*'* 
tho  nortli  of 
il  to  the  lun 
i)g  u»cful  f'>» 
we  tho  Hin- 
this  princ-iple, 
jj;h  they  have 
'liii  Dii'mon's 
(,  their  (wrvire 
iiHoii  is  »ho\vti 
iTiil  Euroiican 
uuls  of  variout 
;io  came  as  in 
liiti'8,  yet  show 
;(.  wilh  the  aiv 
pon  bafl-rclicfsi 
of  the  ancient 
irds  in  eastern 
ilduccs  reasons 
,riii  a  Urge  pot^ 

HiHtory  itself 

Tho  Franks, 
le  Slh  century, 
y  nation.     The 
lortliern  half  of 
bout  100,000  in 
ns  into  EnglanJ 
c;  but  the  Nor- 
60,000  soUiiers. 
original  grcunil, 
.aractcr,  arc  both 
ascription  which 
d  (Jerniuns.  The 
and  proeipitata, 
lie  power  of  auf 
nd  this  U  the  cha 
Muh  i>eople  down 
.  Britons  as  cool, 
iitcllcctual  talent, 
>  the  livelier  miin- 
l  nualiticB  charac- 
•cntury,  and  llicy 

in  similar  teriiia, 
.  the  state  of  thei! 
yiii«.  ftndvirtuoui 
hiiraclcr ;  and  the 
'•     It  is  scarcely 

yes  and  fair  hait 
."  to  the  Germans, 

heir  external  phy- 

is  supported  by 
_)uclu«ion  with  i«- 
een  repeatfMy  ob- 

that  u  purticulai 
J,  is  handed  down 
.s'sins;  perhaps  ove 

third.  A  ceriM 
thus  hereditary  in 
a\  centuries,     'flw 

jH^ricnced  nothinn 

es«  Sophia,  if  not 

;,m  Howitt,  in  h" 

^(<  I'lnccs,'  >;iV'    ^ 

lilted   out  to  *•■  '    ■' 

f  Shnkf  ■  »  ■'•'"' 
bmiudcr.    .rcsfm. 

The  ;.:i  ^nt  wriU't 
Isi'iMi  -.1  cUiniiintof 
1  bcarin«  pieri«lj 
lirce  of  the  cbiUrec 


•f  th*  baron  ot  Quneu  Mary's  time,  as  represented  in  a 
family  group  painted  by  Antony  More,  and  engraved  in 
Pinkci'toii's  Scottish  Gallery.  The  likencM  in  this  case 
was  an  great  as  is  over  seen  between  brothers.  Another 
circuuiHtiincc,  in  which  tho  writer  was  personally  con- 
cerned, will  perhaps  bu  considered  as  a  r  urious  illustra- 
tion of  tlio  naiiie  point.  Ho  was  one  day,  wliih  walking 
ill  the  country,  struck  by  the  appearance  of  a  miJdlc- 
ogcd  geiitleiiiun  who  passed  in  a  carriage,  and  who 
itroii^Iy  reiiiiMdcd  him  of  the  common  portrait  of  Sir 
William  Wallace.  He  had  previously,  as  might  be 
sujipoHi'il,  no  inclinat;  in  to  attach  any  credit  to  that  por- 
trait, but  he  could  not  help  being  greatly  surprised  when, 
upon  imiuiry,  ho  learned  that  the  gentleman  who  had 
just  passed  was  General  Dunlop  of  Dunlop,  whose  mother 
he  well  knew  to  have  hetn  the  daughter  of  Sir  Thomas 
Wallace,  of  Craigie,  the  last  lineal  descendant  of  a 
branch  of  the  family  of  the  Scottish  hero.  It  may  bo 
added  that  the  rencontre  took  place  sixty  mile^  from  the 
seat  of  (icneral  Dunlop.  As  Wallace  is  now  known  to 
have  viiited  France,  it  is  not  impossible  that  bis  visage 
may  have  licen  painted ;  or,  supposing  tho  portrait  not 
his,  it  is  likely  to  lie  that  of  some  early  member  of  the 
W'allacc-Uraigie  family,  in  which  case  tho  anecdote 
would  be  not  much  less  valuable  as  a  proof  of  the  long 
descent  of  a  family  face. 

■rrECTU    OF    LOCAL    CIRCUMSTANCES    IN    PilODUClNO 
CHANOES. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  proofs  of  considerable 
fcltcrations  having  been  i>roilui'cd  in  the  extcriiul  features 
of  I  aces  liy  pi'diliar  local  circumstances.  Tho  descend- 
ants of  tlie  Jinijlish  settlers  in  the  American  states  dis- 
play a  considerable  variation,  in  general  form  and  aspect, 
from  the  parent  iiatiim.  The  children  of  I'luropean 
■eltlers  in  A'ew  Houth  Wale-  are  tall,  thin,  and  weaker 
than  their  progenitors.  In  tho  West  Indies,  some  dis- 
tinct new  peculiarities  of  structure  have  been  observed 
in  the  descendants  of  English  settlers.  Their  cheek- 
bones are  higher,  and  their  eyes  deeper  set  in  the  head, 
tJian  those  of  the  Enc;lish  nation  generally.  In  these 
resjiects.  they  approximate  to  the  form  of  the  aboriginal 
races  of  the  American  continent  and  islands;  and  it  has 
been  pointed  out  that  such  a  form  in  useful  in  protecting 
the  eye-siu;lit  from  the  glare  of  the  tropical  sun.  The 
Creoles  have  also  cooler  skinn,  and  are  keener  of  sight, 
■nd  mon^  supple  in  the  joints,  than  the  English.  It  lias 
been  remarked  of  the  descendants  of  Africans  in  the 
United  States,  that,  after  tliree  or  four  generations,  their 
features  lose  much  of  the  native  African  cast,  and  ap- 
proximate tr)  those  of  tho  white  people,  tho  mouth  be- 
coming smaller,  the  eyes  lively  and  sparkling,  the  nose 
higher  in  tho  ridge,  and  the  hair  considerably  longer  and 
lf;3  crisp. 

.Vnalogous  circumstances  are  observed  among  the 
lower  nnimals.  For  examp'e,  tho  woolly  sheep,  brought 
intt'  a  trojiical  climate,  loses  its  fleece,  and  retains  only 
a  thin  coat  of  hair.  Tho  hogs  of  Cuba,  all  of  which  are 
descended  from  a  European  gto<'k,  are  twice  as  large 
as  modern  European  hogs.  The  horses  which  run  wild 
in  Paraguay,  though  all  descended  from  variegated 
EurojH'an  raics,  are  nc.v  of  one  [loculiar  colour,  which 
we  caii'iii*  ■hnibt  is  the  elVect  of  some  peculiar  local  cir- 
cMiiislnnccs. 

I)'-.  Vri.hard  says — "  On  considering  these  and  ana- 
loginii.  iilii'.nniena,  wr  can  hardly  avoid  concluding  that 
tlio  variat,  .ii-  of  animals  procec<l  urcording  to  cer- 
tain laws,  liy  which  the  stru  'ure  .s  adapted  to  the  ne- 
ces-'lv  of  local  circumstance.  '  If  such  be  the  case,  it 
must  Im"  held  ns  a  circumslance  favourable  tn  the  siip- 
potilioii  that  all  the  races  are  sprung  I'rom  one  stock, 
llic  VHnatioris  mi'^^ht,  in  that  case,  l)c  resarded  ns  alto- 
gether jiroduced  by  local  circumstances  operating  dur- 
bg  a  long  course  f  f  time. 


It  is  certain  tliat  the  Negro  skin,  and,  indeed,  the 
whole  Negro  constitution,  are  better  adapted  lor  a  tropi- 
cal climate  than  those  of  the  white  num.  It  is  also  true 
that  intertropical  countries  all  round  the  globe  are  in- 
habited  by  black  races,  excepting  only  those  in  tropical 
.\incrica,  which  are  so  much  elevated  as  to  enjoy  a 
temperate  climate.  Wo  hero  sec  much  reason  for 
believing  that  tho  Negro  is  a  being  adapted,  in  a  special 
manner,  to  live  in  a  high  temperature ;  and  this  sccmi 
the  more  likely,  when  wo  consider  that  blacks,  on  set- 
tling in  northern  latitudes,  Iwcome  the  victims  of  several 
severe  ailments,  which  seem  to  forbid  that  they  should 
ever  multiply  in  such  countries.  Blacks,  indeed,  and 
whites,  ap]iear  to  be  respectively  ailapled  to  tropical  and 
to  temperate  latitudes ;  and  their  attempts  to  interchange 
their  proper  situations  aru  not  in  general  attended  with 
good  effects,  although,  as  we  have  seen,  there  is  reason 
to  liclicve  that  nature  makes  an  eflbrt,  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, to  accommodate  tbein  to  tho  changed  circiuii- 
stances. 

00NCLV8I0N. 

From  all  that  has  Iieen  written  or  learned  on  the  sub. 
ject  of  man's  physical  and  social  history,  it  a|. pears  evi- 
dent that  the  constitutional  character  of  the  human  being 
admits  of  a  very  high  degree  of  culture  and  improve- 
mcnt.     Nature  ushers  him  into  existence  more  weak 
and  helpless  than  any  of  the  lower  animals,  and,  left 
uncultivated,  he  grows  up  an  ignorant  savage.     In  the 
most  debased  condition,  however,  in  which  he  can  !« 
found,  he  possesses  the  rude  elements  of  intelligence, 
and  aspires  to  a  destiny  altogether  beyond  the  reach  of 
the  creatures  over  which  he  has  acquired  dominion.    Hi« 
pre-eminence  in  the  scale  of  being  may  l)e  proximately 
traced  to  the  stAicture  of  his  brain,  or  organ  of  thought, 
which  greatly  exceeds  in  relative  magnitude  thatof  any  of 
the  lower  animals ;  hkewise  to  the  capacity  for  speech,  and 
to  his  upright  posture ;  his  superior  mental  development, 
when  operated  upon  by  a  combination  of  happy  circum- 
stances,  usually  classed  under  the  name  of  education, 
enables  him  to  trace  cfltjcts  to  causes, 
to  convey  an  account  of  his  experi- 
ence to  his  fellows,  and,  above  all, 
to  put  not  only  this  experience,  but 
his  numerous  and  varied  thcughtcs 
on  record  for  the  benefit  of  future 
genarations.      In  this  manner,  the 
savage,  which  man  originally  is,  is 
gradually   improved.       Each  nm 
generation  enjoys  the  benefit  of  an 
accumulated  experience; and  at  last, 
as  cultivation  advances,  man  is  founJ 
to  be    a  highly  intellectual  being, 
with  a  frame  more  elegant  and  pow- 
erful than  he  possessed  when  his  race 
was  in  a  'itate  of  heathen  darkness. 
Under  an  all-wise  Provident  ,  man  has  assuredly  been 
placed  on  this  earthly  scene  to  \  ^rforra  a  part  immeasu- 
rably more  dignified  than   that     ssigned  to  tho  lower 
orders  of  animals,  each  of  whose  e  lerations  is  in  no  re- 
spect advanced,  and  cannot  po  ..miy  advance  lieyond  the 
precise  and  humble  station  which  was  first  occupied  by 
its  race.     "  In  this  point  of  view."  U\  use  thrf  language 
I  of  liawrence,  "  man  stands  alone :  his  faculties,  and  what 
1  he  has  effected  by  them,  place  liim  at  a  wide  interval 
from  all  other  animals — at  an  interval  which  no  animal 
hitherto  known  to  us  can  fill  up.  The  man-like  monkey, 
the  e''n.ist  ronsonable  elephant,  the  docile  dog,  the  saga- 
cious heaver,  the  industrious  l>ee,  cannot  be  compared 
to  him.     In  none  of  these  instances  is  there  any  pro- 
gress either  in  the  individuals  or  the  species  " 

Elevated,  however,  as  is  the  meanest  among  human 

beings  above  the  h'ther  of  the  animal  tribes,  it  is  evi- 

[  dent  that  for  the  proper  performance  of  his  part  he  mual 


Indian  Savage. 


"*.■ 


;» 


INFORMATION   FOR   THE  PEOPLE. 


mnpliy  means  for  mlvancBinpnt,  else  he  re»U  in  a  con- 
dition of  ignoruncp  and  borbarinm  mo»t  deplorable  to  con- 
template. I'laci'd  in  11  larRP  and  boautiful  world,  abound- 
ing with  animal  and  vrffetablo  cjiHtcnres  at  hia  com- 
mand, and  accountnbio  for  his  conduct,  it  Iwliovea  him 
to  puraue  such  a  course  of  activity  aa  will  cniiblo  him  to 
enjoy  the  full  bonctlts  of  hi«  situation.  By  pursuing 
that  line  of  policy  v'-'-'h  leads  to  social  melioration,  he 
naes  step  by  sU-p  to  a  hi^,'  'eifroo  of  civiliiotion,  and 
bequeaths  to  posterity  al.v.oit  imperishable  monuments 
of  his  greatness.  Attaining  this  enviable  height,  should 
he  pursue  or  lie  the  victim  of  a  contrary  line  of  policy, 
he  sinks  in  the  same  ratio,  and  perhaps  with  grcoter 
speed,  down  to  the  original  and  humble  level  from  which 
ba  had  formerly  arisen. 

To  bo  assured  that  these  are  not  merely  conjectural 
speculations,  we  have  only  to  direct  our  attention  to 
history,  wherein  examjiles  are  offered  of  the  gradual 
ris*,  the  eminence,  the  decline,  and  the  ultimate  extinc- 
tion, of  civilization.  Again,  like  the  growth  of  a  new 
oriler  of  ]>lants  on  the  soil  of  an  cxteriiilnated  forest. 
We  find  on  the  spot  once  consecrated  by  deeds  of  human 
greatness,  a  dirtcrent  branch  of  the  family  of  mankind, 
pursuing  hr  toilsome  steps  a  similai  rise  from  barbarism, 
and  asserting,  in  their  turn,  the  exalted  capocity  for 
improvement  common  to  all  varieties  of  our  race. 

Although  it  is  estiiblished  Iwth  by  8<Tiptural  record 
and  geological  <liHcoveries,  that  mon  was  placed  on  earth 
last  in  the  series  of  animal  existences,  his  race  possesses 
a  sufficient  anticpiity  to  embrace  various  instances  of 
the  rise  and  decay  of  nations  at  a  period  so  remote  as 
to  bo  l)eyond  the  reach  of  ordinary  record,  and  only 
known  by  the  wrecks  of  mon's  inventive  genius.  Thus, 
in  the  cast,  are  found  remainf.  of  fuchitecture  ond 
sculpture,  of  tlic  origin  or  meaning  of  which  the  oUnst 
known  nations  were  altogether  ig-.iorant,  and  which 
are  a  puzzle  to  nioilern  archaeologists.*  Thus,  also, 
throughout  North  and  Central  America,  there  are 
found  va.st  monuments  of  antiquity  and  objects  of  art, 
of  a  date  long  anterior  to  that  of  the  earliest  recorded 
nations,  and  which  these  nations  looked  uikhi  with  awe 
and  wonder.  The  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  in  particu- 
lar, abounds  in  an  immense  quantity  of  artificial  mounds 
of  various  8ha|>es  and  RiwB,  and  forts  of  different  kinds, 
the  origin  of  which  is  altogether  unknown,  but  which 
are  doubtless  the  remains  of  an  extinct  civilized  race. 
This  country,  as  is  well  known,  wan  found,  in  the  earlier 
periods  of  American  discovery,  in  the  possession  of  those 
red  races  usually  called  Indians,  who  are  now  retiring 
before  the  advance  of  the  whites.  These  red  races 
manifest  no  symptom  of  possessing,  or  of  ever  having 
possessed,  either  the  power  or  the  inclination  to  erect 
such  works :  they  disclaim  having  erected  them,  and  in 
their  tradlti/iis  speak  of  tliern  as  the  productions  c.f  a 
Deople  whc  were  their  predecessors  in  the  country,  and 
nave  i?ng  oeen  extinct. 

*  Sec  aruele,  AtLAUA  Pbksa. 


To  close  thisimiK-rfect  sketch  of  man's  physical  Uatory 
we  have  only  1 1  add,  that  from  all  thu 
existing  remains  of  antiquity,  both  in 
the  pastern  and  western  hemisphere;, 
and  from  all  written  history,  it  cor.- 
clusively  appears  that  rnunKind, 
taken  in  the  muss,  have  in  no  re. 
siK'ct  degenerated  in  physical  struc- 
ture, but  that  individually  they  are 
OS  tall,  bulky,  and  powerful,  as  they 
were  in  the  earliest  periixls  of  theil 
progress,  while,  as  reniK-cts  mental 
quulificutiiinH,  they  now,  in  all  en 
lightened  societies,  occupy  a  .ttation 
in  the  scole  of  lu'ing  which  it  is  rea- 
sonable to  conclude  was  never  before 
enjoyed. 


Enlightened    English 
man. 


i 


[BOOKS  ON  THE  PHYSICAI.  HISTORY  OK  MAN 

It  ii  surprising  that,  when  ho  much  has  been  writtAt. 
on  the  natural  history  of  all  the  inferior  animals,  so  littlo 
has  been  written  on  that  of  Man.  There  arc  i)r(ibably 
at  this  moment  twenty  books  extant  on  the  varieties  of 
butterflies,  for  every  one  on  the  varieties  of  the  human 
race.  With  respect  to  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of 
man,  there  arc  abundance  of  books,  IxH-ause  the  medi- 
cal profession  demands  them ;  but  his  uxternal  appear- 
ance in  different  parts  of  the  world,  and  the  influence 
of  "limate,  customs,  ftc,  on  his  contiguration,  have  bieii 
little  studied  by  scientific  men.  The  most  complete 
general  work  on  the  natural  history  of  man  is  that  of 
Dr.  Prichard,  with  coloured  plates,  of  which  a  now 
(idition  was  recently  issued. 

X>  Mortoii's  (riinin  Jlmerirana  and  Crania  Egyp- 
tiacu  are  by  far  the  most  accurate  scientific  and  import- 
ant works  connected  with  this  subject  wliich  have  ever 
apix-arcd,  as  they  not  only  discuss  the  prestmt  state, 
but  the  past  history  of  the  races  to  which  they  rolate. 

It  is  understood  to  be  the  intention  of  the  United 
Stages  government  to  publish  a  complete  natural  history 
of  man,  as  a  portion  of  the  scientific  result  of  the  late 
Exploring  Expedition ;  and  a  gentleman  of  profound 
m'icncc,  who  accompanied  th  expedition,  has,  since  its 
return,  visited  .Asia  and  .\frica,  in  order  to  render  the 
observations  and  researches  reijuired  by  so  extensive  an 
undertaking  complete.  Whenever  this  work  shall  ap- 
pear, a  most  important  addition  will  be  made  to  the 
stock  c."  'nformation  on  natural  science  at  present  within 
the  stc  I  silt's  reach. 

It  begins  to  bo  understooil  that  the  distinctions  of 
nirc  have  a  most  important  bearing  on  national  charac 
ter  and  history ;  and  under  this  impression  inquiries  intt. 
this  branch  of  science  will  hereaftier  be  proaecuted  nitb 
great  vigour  and  edect. — ./jm.  Ed."^  ' 


I 


■Ihlatorji 
roin  all  thu 
ity.bothin 
oininphcK, 
)ry,  it  tor^ 
iimnkind, 
ill  no  re- 
gioal  htruiv 
\y  thoy  aru 
fill,  iiH  they 
„1k  of  thcil 
>ctH  incntol 
,  in  all  en 
|)y  a  station 
ell  it  is  rcu- 
ni!ver  before 


OF  MAN 

)(M'n  writW 
nals,  so  litlki 
lire  prcbBbly 
!  varieties  of 
f  the  human 
iliyuiolopy  of 
Hi<  the  racdi- 
L'rnnl  uppcar- 
tl\e  influence 
on,  have  b«.cii 
lOBt  completr 
t\an  is  that  of 
which  a  now 

?rania  Egyp- 
c.  nn<l  import- 
lich  have  ever 
present  state, 
they  rwlatc. 
)f  the   [Jniteil 
iat\irnl  history 
lit  of  the  late 
of  profound 
lias,  sinee  its 
to  reniler  the 
extensive  an 
work  shall  ap- 
niado  to  the 
present  within 

distinetiona  of 
lioiial  charac 
iiKiuiries  int<. 

rosecuted  with 


CHINA  AND  THE  TEA  TRADE. 


Th*  Chincie  Uoodh. 


0»:OGRAPllICAri 


PO«ITiO\-BOUNPAitli:S  AND 
DIVISIONS. 

rHiJii— called  by  then, habitants Tchong-Kouo,OT  the 
Middle  Kingdom,  from  an  idea  that  it  is  the  centre  or 
heart  of  the  univerHc,  around  which  all  tho  other  nations 
of  tiiC  world  lie  scattered  like  minor  provinces — is  an  im- 
mense country  of  Asia,  extending  from  the  18th  to  the 
4lRt  parallel  ot  north  latitude,  and  from  ttie  9Sth  to  the 
123d  degree  of  east  longitude.  The  length  has  been 
estimated  at  3(IU0  miles,  and  the  breadth  at  1600;  and, 
iccordiui;  to  M.  OutzJafT,  it  contains  an  area  of  1,298,000 
»|uaTo  miles.  It  is  conterminous  with  Aaiatic  Russia 
nil  the  north-west ;  bounded  on  the  soath  and  cast  by 
llic  Pucilic  Oi-ean  (that  part  of  it  beinr  .  imonly  called 
the  Chinese  Sea)  ;  on  the  west  by  hu^c  mountains  and 
aterile  desertt^  separating  it  from  the  great  body  of  Asia ; 
tuil  on  tho  north  by  tlio  regions  of  T^rtaiy,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  the  stupendous  erection  known  by  the 
name  nf  the  Chinese  WuU,  which  extends  1500  miles  in 
length.  The  Tartars  call  China,  Catay  and  Nicancarou  ; 
tlic  Japanese,  Tliuu ;  and  tho  iiati\  o ;  c  3iam  and  Cochin- 
Cliina,  Cin  (pronounced  Chin  or  T;  ia).  From  the  lat- 
ter countries,  lying  nearest  (nautically)  to  the  Hirdoston 
Joiuinions,  it  is  conjectured,  with  much  probabiUiy,  that 
tlie  last-named  apiiellation  first  gave  rise  to  the  European 
name  of  China.  Some  theorists,  however,  set  down  its 
derivation  from  the  patronymic  of  the  irrat  i:n|A^rial  family 
Tain,  or  'I'ai-Uin.  The  country  is  divided  into  eighteen 
provinces  according  to  M.  GutzIaiT;  but  other  geographers 
I'lmraeratc  only  fillcen,  and  some  fourteen.  These  pro- 
vinces, as  given  by  M..  UutzlalF,  are — Chih-lo,  Slian-tung, 
Shan-se,  and  Ho-nan  on  tho  north;  Keang-soo,  Gan- 
hwjy,  Che-ki^aiig.  and  Fuh-ketn  on  the  east;  Shen-so, 
Kan-suh,  and  iS/e-chuen  on  the  west ;  Kwang-tung, 
Kw;ini{-«c,  Yuii-iiun,aud  Kwei-chowon  the  soulh;  Hoo- 
|>ih,  Hoo-nan,  itml  K^ang-so  in  the  centre.  These  are 
Again  sululividi  .1  ii /)  portions  corresponding  to  our 
counties,  sliires,  and  districts.  Of  these  provinces,  ii  sur- 
vey was  made  by  sonic  luit  missionaries,  ainployetl  by 
it  e  Chinese  governinen',  nearly  a  century  ago,  tho  exe- 
cution of  which  occupied  ;ibout  ten  years.  A  man  i~  ript 
111  ^3  a  Chinese,  conxiructed  according  to  this  survey, 
it  ni>(V  preserved  among  tho  archive sof  tho  Royal  Library 
of  H.'itain.    Po-cbeli  in  now  the  prlacipal  province  :n  tlie 


empire,  from  its  capital  Pekui  licing  the  residcnee  of  tha 
emperor,  and  the  scat  of  government.  Its  name  lignifle* 
tho  northern  court,  in  contradistinction  »o  Nunkin,  or  the 
southern  court,  where  the  emperor  formerly  resided. 

INTERNAL   APPEARANCB   AND   CLIMATE. 

From  its  immenM  extent,  it  may  easily  he  imagined 
that  China  presents  almost  every  variety  of  scenery.  It 
is  intersected  by  three  large  rivers,  one  of  wliich,  the  Yang- 
tsze-roang,  is  descril«d  as  perhaps  the  largest  in  tho  world, 
nnd  is  connected  with  al!  the  others  by  rinals.  There 
ore  also  many  other  streams,  and  several  largo  lakes  in 
the  interior ;  but  nothing  is  known  as  to  their  actual  ex- 
tent "  In  tho  long  lino  of  internal  navigatioi^"  saya 
Mr.  Barrow,  "  between  the  capital  (Pekiii)  and  Canton, 
of  1300  miles,  with  but  one  short  interruption,  the  travel- 
ler will  observe  every  variety  of  surface,  but  disposed  in 
a  very  remarkable  manner,  in  great  masses.  For  many 
days  he  will  see  nothing  but  one  uniform  extended  plain, 
without  the  smallest  variety;  again,  for  as  rnniiy  days,  he 
will  be  hemmed  in  lietwcen  precipitous  mountains  of  the 
same  naked  character,  and  as  unvaried  in  tiieir  appear- 
ance as  the  plains ;  an  J,  lastly,  ten  or  twelve  days'  aai) 
among  lakes,  swamps,  and  morasses,  will  complete  tlie 
catalogue  of  monotonous  uniformity.  There  is  a  constant 
Kuccession  of  large  'illnges,  towns,  and  cities,  with  high 
walls,  lofty  gates,  or.d  more  lofty  pagodas ;  large  navigi^ 
ble  livers,  communicating  by  ortificiul  canals,  both  crowded 
with  barges  for  passengers  and  barks  for  burden,  as  dif- 
ferent from  each  other,  in  every  river  and  every  cnnal,  oa 
they  are  all  dinbrent  from  any  thing  of  tho  kind  in  the  rest 
ot  llie  world."  One  general  feature,  however,  pervadei 
the  empire — the  utter  nakedness  of  the  country  as  respecta 
trees  and  hedf^.s. 

The  ci'ma,  u  China  embraces  almost  evciy  degree  of 
the  thormumctci  In  Canton  it  ranges  from  80  to  90 
degrees  during  the  ""ir  r,  but  tV  winter  months  are  ao 
cool  that  many  of  the  in!-  ;  ants  use  fires.  There  can 
'.<:  (lU  more  certain  ci  ^ti<  n  if  the  climate  of  any  country 
than  its  vegetable  productions,  and  we  may  thcicfore  men- 
tion here  generally,  that  within  the  bounds  uf  China  are 
all  the  varieties  of  tree,  shrub,  flower,  n'ul  herb,  to  be 
found  growing  in  every  other  country  of  the  world.  The 
temperature,  however,  may  be  generally  described  aa 
rather  warm  than  cold ;  but  it  is  much  afl'ected  by  the 
direction  of  Uio  winds,  which  may  bo  literally  said  to 
"box  the  compass,"  with  uniform  regularity,  during  the 
various  seasons  of  the  year.  Ttiey  bloiv  from  the  north 
and  north-east  in  October,  November,  becenibor,  January, 
February,  and  Maich,  during  which  months  tho  weather 
is  rather  col<1 :  in  April  nnd  May,  from  east  and  soutiv- 
east,  when  ;'.  .  .  ■'  '.,  Hit  still  cool;  in  June  and  July, 
from  the  ^01  Li  h  \.  uuuth-west,  when  it  is  hot:  and 
in  August  end  September,  from  the  west,  when  the 
temperature  is  oppressively  sultry  and  hot.  Speaking 
Buininnrily,  the  coldest  months  are  November,  December, 
and  January ;  the  warmest,  July,  Auguut,  and  Septem- 
ber. Canton,  although  situated  in  the  same  parallel  of 
latitude  as  Calcutta,  is  so  much  cooler  during  the  winter 
months,  that  fires  arc  generally  used ;  nay,  ice  has  fr*" 
(juently  been  found  at  Canton  of  the  tliicknoss  of  n  dollar, 
but  snow  is  never  or  rarely  seen.  The  uir  is  generally 
dry  during  the  north,  moist  during  the  soi-'ii,  and  clear 
during  the  west  winds.  The  north  wind.s  are  the  most 
violent,  and  the  south  the  most  feeble.  In  tho  months  o* 
July,  August,  and  September,  the  hurricanes,  called  b» 
««  77 


78 


INFORMATION    FOR  THK    PKOI'LK. 


Jl^  inlml>ltnnt»  Tuy-fun,  iminlly  ocrur,  whirh,  •Ithough 
ixlrvmely  violitit,  hik)  coiiiiiin  in  umldi'M  x""*"-  wl'loni 
jrruion  nui'-h  iliHnnicr,  owinn  to  the  uihiiliilniiln  lu'init 
prrpand  for  llioiii.  Tlii! iliniiito  of  Chiiwi  i»,  on  (ho  whole, 
hiiflily  raluhriouH  ;  and  iiiiinv  of  th«»  ronii'lBinl"  i  oninion 
to  the  wholu  of  Euro|H<  iirr  ifuTi'  unknown.  Th«  ChinriH' 
profeu  to  I*  frt'o  from  hIoiic,  Root,  anil  gravol  comiilriintH; 
and  they  «ro  iil  all  I'vcnt*  dcldoni  afliTtcd  with  fiitnnt'ona 
diNPsarR.  Miuh,  iluulitli-aa,  i*  owinj?  to  thrir  unrommonly 
limperatB  mmlc  of  living,  of  which  we  will  ha»i"  iH-i-a«inn 
U>  lay  more  hr.<vi(U>r.  Kpidi'mic  fcvcrt,  however,  are  very 
frequent  and  fulil,  ariaing  from  the  rrowdcil  atale  of  the 
lowna  and  nninero''  '.•iihihi.  The  mnall-pox,  too,  waa 
formerly  very  !•  'fi  ■  >e.  Tiiri-  Ihi'  rlmr«''tcriittic  prrjudire 
of  the  rhii  M'  agni,  .!  ■  i  loniKn  innovation*,  however 
orncflt!,!  'II  'hi'  niiv  •'  irentme.il.  Their  phyairiana 
pretenlfd  n>  dia'i  .Ktii«h  /'""'y  ditriront  kinda  of  amal!-|)ox  ; 
and  'A  111  II  a  favonrHhlo  aort  appeared,  they  endeavoured 
to  propaK*te  it,  not  by  inoculation  in  the  uaual  mode  of 
liiciiion,  hut  hy  inarrtinp  into  the  nuntrila  n  little  cotton 
wool  dipjied  in  the  nVtiJi,  or  puttin;;  on  the  riothca  of  the 
infectei!  Of  late  yrura,  however,  the  European  mode  of 
vaccination  has  generally  been  adopt<'d,  V  ■'  nreaent 
moment  haa  entirely  auperaciU  1  ;  .i  .•.  itiii  iir«eticf 
Kore  eyea.  and  even  total  Mindnsaa,  arc  very  common, 
and  are  unJoulitodly  to  he  aarribed  to  their  low,  crowded, 
and  amoky  habitations,  conjoined  with  their  practice  of 
biithiiig  the  face  in  warm  watet  even  in  the  hottest  of  the 
aummer  months. 

Several  parts  of  China  have  suffered  much  from  earth- 
quakea ;  but  there  is  no  appearance  of  volcanic  eniptiona 
throughout  the  country,  thoiiijh  varioua  substancea  of  that 
Jeacription  arc  found  in  some  of  the  ialanda  along  the 
wcatern  and  aoutliern  coufctx. 

HiaTORY' 

Prom  the  grossly  fabulous  and  exaggerated  nature  of 
l!ie  Chinese  records,  an  iiir  of  doubt  ha*  been  thrown 
iver  all  their  early  nnnals.  Protending,  iis  they  do,  to 
t/acfc  the  foundation  of  their  cmpin'  not  only  as  far  back 
a«  the  time  of  the  Deluge  (of  which,  it  is  well  worthy 
of  remark,  their  traditions  bear  alt<"atation),  but  even  to  a 
period  long  antecedent  to  it,  it  can  scarcely  lie  wondered 
tt  that  a  disposition  should  prevail  to  reject  the  whole  as 
purely  fictitious.  There  may  lie  as  much  error  in  too 
gn'*t  diKlielief,  however,  as  in  too  ready  acceptance.  The 
ecrly  annaU  of  every  nation  are  mingled  up  with  much 
that  ia  aliuurd,  an'l  obscured  by  the  suggestions  of  igno- 
rance anil  Huperstition.  Nor  are  those  Chinese  historians, 
who  trace  the  orijin  if  thrr  kingdom  back  through 
ninety  millions  of  years  before  the  Christian  era,  a  whit 
more  deserving  of  ridicule  than  the  Itomans  themoelvra, 
who,  wii"  ,!!  their  eii'i/htenment,  '•  'leved  that  th  '  gods 
o*  their  barli.irous  mythology  look  an  immediate  and  act've 
(hare  in  sublunary  matters.  Thetnly  substantial  ground 
or  wonder,  in  regard  to  China,  is,  that  many  modem 
writers,  some  ovi  -.  of  our  own  <  .luntry,  ahould  have  given 
ill  their  adhi^ion  ij  the  faliulous  ro-ords  of  the  native 
historians,  and  pretended  to  have  estahlisheil  beyond 
dotibt  that  the  Chinese  era|iirc  was  founded  more  tlian 
2(MX)  years  before  tho  Christian  ern  !  The  following 
may  bo  given  as  an  abstract  of  'he  res'  of  their  veracious 
lh»>»rie«: — They  suppose  th'  Moaea,  hv  Mount  Ararat, 
doea  not  mean  to  |>articu!  ri  r\y  in''  vjdual  mountain, 
but  merely  the  first  land  v  ^how.      itself  u|ion  the 

subfiding  of  the  deluge,  which  thry  cun  -ctured  to  be  tlie 
dovnfcd  pans  of  Asia  :  That  Noah  followe<!  the  track  of 
tlie  lirgf  riv  Ts  of  China  vhich  flow  Moiilhward,  as  Icad- 
ng  to  a  liriilc  and  ojien  country,  and  liocamc  the  founder 
jf  the  Chinese  nion.trchy — identifying  'lim  with  tho  Fo- 
ae«  or  roo-ahee  of  their  history :  That,  liecoming  offended 
wik  I  the  iinpif 'V  of  his  rebel  offspring,  he  separated  him- 
«eli  from  t'lei"  shortly  before  their  presumptuous  erection 
•flk*  Tower ol  Babel:  and, steerinK hit  vurse eastward. 


afler  200  years'  peregrination,  settled  him»«ll  in  on*  ol 
the  northeni  proviiicea  of  China  (8114  years  befoni 
('hrist).  Here,  having  settled  hia  colony,  and  rstablisheil 
the  religion,  lawa,  and  government,  which  lj)<  liinl  received 
fioni  his  ante<liluvian  anc<'slors,  he  died  in  the  11Mb 
year  of  his  reign,  and  OftOth  of  his  life  (I9!»U  years  liefbra 
Christ).  He  was  succeeded  by  Hhiu-nong  or  Zing-nung, 
who  reigned  140  years,  and  at  his  deiilh  (IHi'iB  yeart 
In-fore  Christ)  left  (he  crown  to  Whang-tee  or  lloang-le« 
the  inventor  of  Chinemi  arithmetic  and  other  arts.  Who 
reigned  100  years;  and  at  his  death  lell  the  crown  to 
8hau-hau  (17ft9  yenrs  before  Christ). 

But  it  were  a  mere  waste  of  room  to  complete  the 
enumeration  of  this  genealogical  succesHion  of  firincea. 
Mutlice  it  to  say.  that  these  theoretical  historians  trace  it, 
with  painful  accuracy,  down  to  tho  reign  of  Vau  (U.W 
years  before  Christ),  in  thefiTth  year  of  who«e  monarchy 
I  ippened  tho  remarkable  solstice  mentioned  in  the  book 
of  Joshua,  and  which  is  actually  notirtnl  in  the  njil  Chinese 
annals,  although  without  tho  s|>ecification  of  any  year. 
From  this  time  downward,  the  national  records  have  un- 
doubtedly some  apiicarance  of  veracity,  lieing  principally 
contained  in  the  Slino-Kinft  (or  history)  written  by  Con- 
fucius, who  lived  aliout  ftOO  years  befoie  the  birth  of 
Chriau  Mr.  Barrow,  to  whose  reacarchea  the  present 
age  is  chiefly  indebted  for  the  inlunnation  most  deserving 
of  Udief  res|iecting  this  singular  nation,  siigijeHls  a  much 
more  m<x1erate  and  rational  supposilii  ii,  of  uhich  the  fol- 
lowing is  the  substance : — He  observes,  that  iilthough  the 
Chineac  may  be  admitted  to  have  been  aiiioiii?  the  first 
nations  of  the  world,  after  the  F'lood,  yet  they  do  not  ap- 
pear to  have  made  such  progress  in  arts  and  learning  as 
the  Chaldeans  or  Assyrians ;  that  it  is  only  from  the  lime 
of  Confucius  that  they  seem  to  have  advanceil  in  civiliia- 
tion  ;  that  provifnis  to  his  time,  the  coumry  was  divided 
into  a  numtier  of  petty  kingdoms,  under  sepirate  chiefs, 
with  a  recital  of  whose  reciprocal  wars  and  strugorles  for 
suiwriority  the  ('hinese  nnnals  are  ctiielly  filled ;  that 
their  historical  records  are  sufficiently  abiinduiit  ami  com- 
plete iluring  the  last  2000  yenrs,  and  the  transactions 
of  each  rei'.i'  'illy  detailed  without  iii''"rriiplion,  down 
to  the  present  lime;  and  that,  c-uring  i!r  time,  the  em- 
pire of  China  has  been  less  distorlied  1  reiun  wars  or 
intestine  commotions  than  any  other  po.  of  tho  world 
of  which  we  possess  any  accounts. 

Even  from  this  view  of  the  subject  Tery^crreat  dfiduc- 
tions  must  be  made.  We  are,  however,  ■  o;i.'lled  to 
walk  according  to  our  lights,  and  to  offer  'he  to  'owin« 
summary  of  tho  Chinese  dynasties,  fror  the  pericxl 
when  their  chronicles  begin  to  assume  an  air  of  prola- 
bility : — 

From  the  reign  of  Yau  (mentioned  above)  until  the 
final  succession  of  the  present  royal  family  of  'I'chiiig, 
or  Tai-tHJn,  in  1644  (a.  d.),  the  Chinese  annals  enuimy 
rate  twenty-two  imperial  dyniisfies.  Three  royal  fami- 
lies are  mentioned  as  having  possessed  the  throne  ft  iin 
1767  till  25H  before  Christ— Kia,  Hhang,  and  Chew. 
About  the  latter  year  appeared  a  Chinese  hero,  Chi- 
hoang-ti,  who  overran  tho  empire,  extirpating  all  the 
petty  chiefs  aii  I  rulers,  and  uniting  the  whole  of  China. 
Ho  also  built  the  great  Tartar  or  Mongolian  wall,  and 
reigned  up'il  the  year  207  liefore  Christ.  'I'hia  prince 
was  the  first  of  the  present  family  of  Tai-tsin,  who  of 
cours*'  are  justly  proud  of  their  great  cliiiiiis  to  anti- 
quity. 

The  empire  was,  however,  again  dismrnibered,  after 
his  death,  under  his  son  Ul-shi,  but  was  re-unile.l,  ten 
years  later,  by  Iiieu-pang.  He  a(lopt4'iI  the  new  nam* 
of  //'Hip,  and  founded  the  dynasty  of  Hang.  Th» 
princea  of  this  dynasty  extended  their  conquests  con- 
siderably to  the  west,  orid  took  ]iart  in  the  affairs  of 
Central  Asia.  The  religion  of  'I'ao-tse  prevailed  during 
their  ascendency ;  and  in  the  same  jM-riiwI  .ludai^m  wsi 
introduced   into   China.     In   the    course   of    time,  tlw 


pririre*    d 
iliviilmj  in 
united  bv 
Eiirojie  wi 
two  eropii 
M  the  dyn 
other  in  I 
by  inli  rnal 
•eparafe  ri 
Wiao-l^iiaii 
dynasty   Hi 
iiniiie<liale  i 
frfnd   conali 
Under  Yin- 
Uibulo   to 
tlirew  th«  ei 
(HiHsesai'd  th 
(I'c-cheli), 
reigned  ovei 
emperor  Nir 
(lenghis-Khi 
great  conqui 
turned  their 
iccle«l  them, 
(1200).     Vt 
lliiurishcd   in 
aclvck  were  ji 
Mongolian  il 
J-'Jfi«),andK 
was  the  first  I 
by  foreign  prii 
•fives  entirely 
manners,  and 
•f  tho  cmpero; 
the  death  of  1 
I3J7,  and  still 
T«i-fing  (131 
qucntly  occasi 
•Ireiigth  of  tlj 
anna  against 
*ni\  tiie   Mon 
Lliemseivos.    '1 
where  he  diei 
residence  in  tl 
uid  waf  the 
northern  Yuen 
tiut.  oi>er  the 
timnr  its  own  k 
of  which,  thi'v 
kejit  in  suhjocti 
wukU  called  'l\ 
<*  tlie  tnriine, ;' 
Jiiil  founded  th 
five  the  em|)in 
men  of  merit, 
mains  of  tho 
still  existed, 
lands  in  tho  pro 
was  made  soon 
fully,  under  the. 
of  I»eao-t«ing,  ui 
il  emperor.     H 
»<  the  Chinese 
tii'  death.     Hi, 
l^rng.  a  gooil  l,u 
i«oiig  on  tlu'  tlir 
"lO  Tartars  di.i 
'li«contiuued  tin 
111  insurrection, 
t"  liis  life  ( 1  ti 44 
Maiitchoos  to  tli 
I'eliin,  and  of 
'''i(fn.     Under  . 
conquest  of  Clii 


tl 
'f 


CHINA 


79 


one  ol 

I     tM>foT« 

rrrri»e«l 
e  1 1Mb 
m  liefore 
i(l-iiung, 
r)9  y^■«n 
onnR-IM 
iirU,  who 
crown  to 

ipHc  the 
I"  (ninc»"». 
H  trnce  it, 
'Hu(l4ft9 
iiioimrrhy 
1  Ihe  I'ook 
\(l  Cliinpw 

any  yoar. 
■  have  un- 
priiiri  pally 
n  by  Ton- 
10  birth  of 
;lio  jircnent 
it  (lenorviiig 
■Kin  u  nnu'h 
lic-h  the  t'ol- 
ilthoiiKh  the 
,11  n  llw  tirKt 
,•  do  not  up- 
Icnrnins!  a» 
om  the  limo 
(I  in  civiliM- 
was  ilivitled 
urate  rhi«'l«> 
Htruutrle*  for 
•  fillpil;  that 
lilt  and  rom- 

trannRCtioni 
ijitinn,  down 
linip,  the  em- 
Ticn  watK  or 
if  the  world 

i^n-at  dedac- 
.i.nfH'lled  to 

'he  to  'owinK 

the    period 

air  cf  proba- 

^  until  the 
||y  of  Tchinj?, 
linnls  enumc- 

royal  fi""*- 

throne  fr  im 
[,  ntid  Chew. 
Ue  hero,  Chi- 
Uiinp!  all  the 
lolf  of  China, 
[litin  wall,  anil 

Thia  prinoc 
li-t«in,  who  of 
Vaima  to  anii- 

l>mbereil,  after 
J  re-uniti'd,  ten 
llie  new  name 
Hanij.  Th» 
iiiwuientK  con 
Ithc  ofTiiirM  ot 
lovttiled  (luring 
|l  .Iudai'<m  wm 
of    time,  il>f 


f,rliieM  do^i'neraled,  uiid,  under  Hien-ti,  China  wu 
dividml  Into  three  kiiigtliMiiH  (3^0),  which  wrri<  anaiii 
united  by  Wu-ti  (aW)),  Whilnt  the  whole  «iiiM<i't  of 
Enrol*  wiiK  cliiMiKed  by  the  ei-iicral  migration  of  nationn, 
two  empire*  wore  fDrrnrd  ii  'hina,  with  the  extinction 
,it  the  dyniiity  of  Tuin— om  'he  north  (HHH),  and  llin 
other  in  the  Hoiilh  ('ISO),  r  thia,  China  whh  lorn 

by  inti  rnal  coniniiitioim,  and  n   noxt  every  province  hail  a 
•eparute  rnler,  when,  iji  !IUO,  ilio  peopln  elected  the  able 
Hhao-Cjiiani{-Yu  eiii|ieri)r.     He   wnH  the  founder  of  tlie 
dyna«ty   Nim;,  or  Hon)!;,  whii  b   reiKned  till    1270.     Hih 
iniinetliate  Huci-esitorH  rewniblcd  him,  yet  the  country  »iif- 
f(r(«l   connideriibly   by  the  devaittationa  of   the  Tartars. 
Under  Yin-lnonn  (lOlS),  the  (Jhiueao  were  forced  to  pay 
•jibuto    to    the  Tarl.»r    (.eno-tHung.     Whey-taong    over- 
tlirew  tha  empire  of  Leao-tMunf;  (ItOI)  ;  but  the  TarlarH 
|hit<M->»H'd  theinKelvpH  of  the  bvholo  of  the  north  of  ('hina 
(I'o-cheli),  ll'ifi.     Kao't-Hong  l(.  waa  their  tributary,  and 
rn^ned  «ver  the  aoutlierii  provinces  only.     Under  the 
("inperor  Niiiu-'Hong,  the  Chineno  formed  an  alliance  with 
(ien^hiif-Kh:!!!,  and    tlio    Niu<heng   aiibmitted    to   thia 
(;rcat  comjueror   (llHl).     Hut  the  Mongula  thcmHelve* 
turned  their  anna  against  China,  and  Kuhlai-Kliiin  huI>. 
ieole»l  them,  after  the  death  of  the  last  cmiicror,  'J'i-ping 
(1260).     Under  Iho  Tang  dynaaty,  arta   and  sciencen 
fjiiuriahed  in   ('hina ;    several   of   the   cm|>erora   thcm- 
jclvck  were  learned  men.     The  Chinese  authors  cull  the 
Mongolian  dyiittfty  of  emjwrurs  Vuen   (from   1279  till 
1308),  and  Kublai-Khiin  is  by  them  called  Shi-lsu.     This 
was  the  first  time  that  the  whole  of  China  was  subjected 
by  foreign  princes.     But  the  conquerors  conformed  tliem- 
rives  entirely  to  the  Chinese  customs,  n.id  left  the  laws, 
manners,  and  religion  of  the  country  unchanged.     Most 
tf  the  emperors  of  this  line  were  able  princes.     But  alter 
the  death  of  Timur-Khan,  or  Tsing-Tsung  (Tamerlane), 
1307,  and  still  more  after  thot  of  yeson-Timur-Khan,  or 
Tti-ting  (13 1  A),  divisions  in  the   imperial  family  t'rc- 
qui'iitly  occasioned  internal  wars,  which  weakened  the 
ilrcngth  of  the  Mongols.     The  (Jhineso  Chu    took  up 
inns  against  the  voluptuous  Toka-mur-Khan  or  Shunti, 
^nil   the    Mon^'oliun   grandees   became    divided   among 
liiemscivos.    Toka-mur-Khan  fled  into  Mongolia  (1368), 
where  he  died    (1379).     His   son    Bisurdar   fixed   his 
[esidence  in  the  ancient  Mongolian  capital  Karakoruni, 
uid  waf  the  founder  of  the  empire  of  the  Kalkas,  or 
northern  Yuen.     This  state  did  not  remain  long  united ; 
liut.  a'*er  the  death  of  Tokoz-Timur  (14601,  each  horde, 
timer  its  own  khan,  became  inde|>endent ;  in  consc()uence 
of  which,  they  were,  with    few    exceptions,  constantly 
kqit  in  subjection  to  ('hina  after  this  period.     Chu,  after- 
wards faWotl  Tai-tsoo  IV.,  a  private  individual,  but  worthy 
M  llie  tnrone,  ;!"!iv,re<l  his  country  from  the  foreign  yoki-, 
niil  founded  the  dynasty  of  .Ming  (1368  till  1644),  which 
five  the  empire  sixteen  sovereigns,  most  of  whom  were 
lui'n  of  merit.     On  the  frontiers  of  the  empire,  the  re- 
mains of  the  Niudshee  Tartars,  n(/,v  called  Mantchnos, 
still  existed.     The   emperor  8hin-t>>ong  II.  govo  them 
lands  in  the  province  of  Lcao-tong ;  and  when  on  attempt 
was  matie  soon  after  to  expel  them,  they  rtjsisted  auccesti- 
fully,  under  their  prince  Tai-tsu,  and  obtained  possession 
of  t^ao-tong,  u|>on  which  their  chief  assumed  the  title 
y  emperor.     He  continued  the  war  during  the  reigns 
of  the  Chinese  emperors  Hum-tsong  and  Hi-tsong,  until 
hi<  death.      His  son  Tu-tsong  succeeded  him,  and  Hoai- 
lining,  a  good  but  weak  piince,  wiuj  the  successor  of  lii- 
tsoiii'  on  tlu>  throne  of  China.     On  the  death  of  Tu-tsong, 
ilic  Tartars  did  not  ap[ioint  any  one  to  succeed  him,  and 
ilisconlinueil  the  war.     But  in  China,  Li-tching  excited 
dn  insurrection,  during  which  Hong-I'uan  put  un  end 
111  Ills  life  (1644).     Li-lching's -opiionents  called  in  the 
.Maiilchooa  to  their  assistance.     They  got  possession  of 
I'ekin,  and  of  the  wlrole  empire,  over  which  they  still 
r.ijtn.     Under  Thura-chi,  a  child  of  six  years  old,  the 
conquest  of  China  was  completed  (1646-17),  and  tJio 


present  dynasty  of  Ts'jig  woa  finally  •stablisht'O.  Ilr 
was  succeeded,  in  1668,  by  his  son  Kang  hi,  who  suoduru 
the  khan  of  the  Mongo*,  took  Formosa,  aiel  inuiln  Mveral 
other  ail  lions  to  hi*  empire.  During  tliii  reign  of  Ibis 
prince  tbt-  ('liristian  religion  was  tolerated,  but  his  san 
Vong-<-hing  prohibited  it  in  1724  The  »«in  of  the  latter, 
Kicn-I.ung,  continued  tbe  iMTHeitilion  agiinisl  the  Chri*- 
tians  (1746-78).  He  ci>iii|tiered  Cushgiir,  Yarkand,  the 
greatest  part  of  Honguriu,  the  north-eastern  part  of  Thibet 
and  I.assa,  the  empires  of  Miuo-tni'  and  Hjuo-Kin-tshuen, 
and  extended  his  territories  to  Hindostun  and  liuchariA. 
He  [leopled  the  Culmiiek  country,  wliicli  the  expulsion 
of  the  Hon^arians  had  rendered  almost  a  desert,  with  tha 
fugitive  Torgots  and  Hongiiriuns  from  KiiMiii.  In  1768, 
he  was  totidly  del'eateil  by  the  Hurniem-  of  Avu:  never- 
tlieles*,  the  ('hinesc  took  |Hissession  of  a  toWR  in  Ava  in 
1770,  and  lotunied  b>  their  country  with  the  loss  of  half 
their  ormy.  They  were  more  succehsful  against  tha 
Miao-tse  (mountaineers).  Towards  the  end  of  his  reign, 
hi*  minister,  favourite,  and  son-in-law,  Ilo-'I'ching-toa, 
ahfised  bis  influrnco  over  him.  Kien-Lung  waa  sue 
ceeded,  in  1709,  by  his  Ifith  son,  Kiu-King.  His  reign 
was  frequently  disturls'd  by  internal  commotions.  Tha 
Catholics,  whom  he  favoured,  have  lost  most  of  their 
privileges  by  their  inconsiderate  zeal ;  and  at  PckiD,  tha 
preaching  of  the  Christian  religion  has  been  strictly  prft» 
iiibit4<d.  Kia-King  was  succeeded,  in  IHSO,  by  hU  ■ecooi 
son,  Tarn-Kwung,  whom  the  Kussians  call  Diinifunu, 

Surli  is  a  brief  summary  of  the  historical  annals  ct 
this  singular  people.  Throughout  their  i  onicles  occui 
many  pcrio<1s  which  are  completely  blank,  and  thesa 
chasms  having  lieen  filled  up,  as  usual,  with  gross  fable% 
which  throw  an  air  of  doubt  over  the  whole ;  but  it  ii 
worthy  of  remark,  that  many  of  the  lending  facts  i^ 
corded  in  their  more  veritable  histories,  have  been  coiik 
firmed  by  contemporary  travellers  and  hisloriuiis  of  othei 
na'lons. 

On  the  whole,  however,  it  appears,  that,  instead  of 
having  existed  as  a  great  and  united  nation  from  a  period 
of  3000  years  before  ('hrist,  as  the  natives  pretend,  China 
was  not  fnrined  into  one  state  until  lietween  200  and 
300  years  lieforo  ('hrist,  Since  the  establishment  of  the 
Mogul  dynasty,  the  empire  has  not  lieen  again  divided, 
but  has  experienced  two  great  revolutions,  at  the  acces- 
sion of  the  ('hinesc  dviiusly  of  Miiiijr,  and  tlie  re-accession 
of  the  Mantchoo  Tartar  tlynaaty  (Tsing)  in  1644;  and 
has  scarcely  in  any  reign  been  free  from  revolts,  wars, 
and  domestic  seditions.  Instead,  therefore,  of  having  a 
right  to  bo  regarded  as  a  privileged  country,  governed 
from  time  inunemorial  by  the  same  constitution,  exempt 
from  foreign  conquest  and  intestine  conmiolions,  the  only 
peculiarity  it  possesses,  distuict  from  the  other  empirea 
which  have  lieen  swept  from  the  larth,  is — that  owing 
(jcrhups  to  its  peninsular  situation,  at  the  extremity  of 
the  habitable  world,  and  its  consequent  exemptions  trora 
the  iVstnictive  sweep  of  those  conipiering  nations  wlio 
BuppLuu'd  those  whom  they  overthrew,  it  has  preserved 
its  usagt.4  ;<.id  manners  in  a  great  measure  unaltered, 
anvd  the  nirmy  internol  revolutions  it' has  undergone. 
Sti'i,  Va'  fict  of  this,  the  greatest  mass  of  population 
which  was  ever  united  under  one  government,  lieing  kept 
together  in  one  Ixind  of  iniion  for  a  pericKl  of  time  far 
exceeding  that  at  which  the  earliest  Eurojwan  nation 
may  lie  said  to  commence,  presents  a  moral  phenomenon 
of  the  greatest  interest,  and  seems  altogether  inexplicable 
by  any  of  the  usual  principles  which  are  supposed  to 
bind  society  together.  That  it  has  neither  been  owing 
to  the  nature  of  the  government,  nor  the  virtue  of  the 
princes,  nor  the  morality  and  iHMiceable  difjuisilitm  of  thn 
jicople,  is  certain ;  and  wo  can  only  conjeoturo  that  th« 
system  of  strict  exclusion  from  all  communication  with 
foreign  nations,  and  the  national  habit  of  upiiealing  !• 
aiicient  usage  as  the  universal  rule  of  conduct  m  all  mat- 
ters of  life,  have  served  to  preserve  their  iiriiiiili»r-  ha^^tl 


M 


INFORMATION    FOR   TMK    I'KOIM.F. 


cii!  iJitM  In  ■  Bf*'  mcMiini  iinrhimuiMl,  iinil  It'ft  iin- 
•tiintiUtml  thmm  rnrritii'i  invsrinlily  cuIIihI  int»  actinii  liy 
.lie  free  iiititrroumc  i>(  niankiiul. 

onrriiNMiNT. 
Th«   goTrmmpnt  of  China  U  not  ao  murh  what  U 
uaualljr  umlrnitiHtil   liy  an  "alxolulr    monarchy,"  a«  a 
■peclmrn  of  what  wn  li-arn  from  hi«fory  to  have  iMvn 
the    aiKJal  aminKi'mciil  of  a  |H»triari-haI   family.     The 
wnperor,  like  the  "  hcrul  of  a  houae"  in  ihone  tirnea,  i« 
perfectly    iinlimilcil   in   hin   i>owrr    over   all  niiiirr   him. 
lie  fan  dinpoee  of  the  Uvea  of  hia  auhjccta  at  plcaaurr ; 
ran   make  or   nliroKute  whatever   lawa   he  chixiM-a ;    all 
oAicoa  anil  einoliiiiuMiti   einiinnie    from  him  alone ;    in 
ahort,  he  in  e<|unlly  the  aource  of  nil  |><)wer,  honour,  nnd 
mercy  in  the  Ktnto.      Me  can  even  appoint  hia  own  muc- 
oeaaor  to  the  throne,  cither  from  hi«  own  fiimily,  or  what- 
ever claaa  of  hi*  iiihjccta  he  plcnae*.     One  i>(  the  leading 
principloa  in  tho  rhiiieM<  conatiliilion  ia  to  place  aa  grral 
ailiatance  aa  portxiMe  lietween  thin  iiniverHal  autiK'rat  and 
hia  auhjecta,  and  to  hold  him  up  iw  a  deniii{iid,  a  Hort  of 
f/raifomrin  lietwixt  heaven  and  mortal*,  alleniali'ly  com-  [ 
munleating  the  do'reea  of  the  (me  and  the  |H'tilion«  of 
the  other.     He  ia  altoi^ether  exalted  aU^ve  the  common 
KTOM  sphere  of  humnnily.     He  ia  atyled  the  ••  Holy  Hon  ; 
of  Heaven,  aolc  guardian  of  the  earth,  and  futlier  and 
mother  of  hia  iH>o|>le,"     In  fact,  he  ia  litltrvrd  to  Ik-  t.f  , 
heavenly  origin ;  nnd  Ihia  au|M<nititioua  notion  appeared 
•ufficiently  ohvioua  by  the  olmtnclra  opiMwd  to  the  aui'-  ^ 
(vaaion  of  the  prcMMit  Mantchoo  dynaxty,  on  account  of 
tlieir  bmiiy  not  being  nlile  to  trnrc  ita  deacent  through  ' 
more  than  eight  gcncraliona.     The  new  nion.irrh,  n«iire 
of  the  d^inger  of  thi*  Hiigmu  to  the  alnhility  of  hia  throne, 
cnuaed  hia   genealogy  t»  Iw  drawn  out  ami  pulilinhed, 
wherein  it  waa  given  out  that  the  daughter  of  lu'aven, 
deacending  on  the  l>oriler»  of  the  lake  Poulkouri.  at  the 
foot  of  the  White  Mountain,  and  I'ating  aome   tiA  fruit, 
conceived  and  K>re  a  aon,  partiiking  of  her  nature,  ami 
endowed  with  wiMlom,  atren^th,  ntnl  lienuty ;   that  the 
people  of  thiit  nation  choiie  him  for  their  sovereign,  and 
that  from  him  was  descended  the  jiresent  Hon  of  Heaven,  ' 
who  filled  the  throne  of  China.     Thia  explanation  at 
once  aatinricd   all  the  scruples  of  hia  celestiid  suhjects.  ! 
Oflerings  are  maile  to  his  [MTSon  and   throne,  Dud  he  is  ' 
worahipped  hy  prostration,  not  merely  in  liin   presence,  I 
but  in  places  where  he  ia  lu/i/wic/  lo  he  prrti-nl — as  our  ^ 
■ailon  lift  their  lints  on  coming  upon  the  ipinrtenleck  of 
a  man-of-wnr.     When  Lord  .Vniherat,  in  his  ill-starred 
miasion  to  Pekin  in   IHIO,  stof>|)ed  at  one  of  the  singes 
towards  that  capital,   a   rr-pant  was    found   prepared   Ity  ' 
orders  of  the  emj)eror,  and  he  and  his  suite  were  ordered  j 
to  p'  tstrate  themselves  nine  times  before  the  UiliU,  aa  if  , 
the  descendant  of  the  red  fruit  of  Lake  Poulkouri  had  \ 
been  peraonally  present.     It  is,  of  course,  only  in  keeping  ' 
with  such  su|X>rstitious  notions,  that  the  emperor  should 
be  reckoned  not  only  the  sovereign  of  China,  but  of  all  j 
thi*    world    th'sidis,   the   other    royal    iH'rsinnge*   U-ing 
merely  his  viussaU.     "  Heaven  has  not  two  sons ;  earth  ; 
boa  not  two  kitigs ;  a  fanuly  has  not  two  masters ;  sovc- 1 
reign  power  has  not  two  directors:  oidy  one  (lod  and  j 
one  erajieror."     8uch  were  the  precepta  of  the  learned 
('onfucius,  ."iOO  years  lieforo  Christ;  and  auch  is  the  doo- 
Iriue  of  the  Chinese  at  this  hour. 

Thia  inesponsililc  autx-rat  bears  two  distinct  charac- 
ters :  first,  that  of  high  priest ;  and,  secondly,  that  of  the 
■overcign  of  the  empire,  or  »  father  and  mother  of  the  , 
people."     In  the  first  character,  he  is  sole  mediator  with  ] 
Heaven  for  the  sins  of  the  nation ;  the  solo  oirieiator  at : 
•II  Bolemn  rites  and  aacrificca  for  propitiating  the  favour 
of  Ood.     He  haa  thus  the  exclusive    creilit  of  all  the  ' 
bleaaings    the    people    enjoy — such   aa    plentiful    crops, 
favourable  weather,  iu. ;  und  although  occasions  of  pub. 
lie  calamity,  atorms,  inundations,  and  auch  matters,  are  ' 
•!«..>  laid  to  hia  charge,  yet  such  ia  the  infutuatiun  of  tliu  I 


|ieopl#.  that  they  forgive  his  faults  in  consideration  of  tht 
priMif  thus  alForded  of  the  attention  of  Heaven  to  hn 
conduct!  Hut  rare  ia  always  liiki'ti  to  prewnt  hia  cha- 
racter ill  iitt)  ijioal  amiable  .iit,ht  iMBi>.iMe  to  hia  aubjerta, 
who  only  he-^'  i-f  bin-  aa  practislig  all  the  I'topian  vir- 
tiiea  of  his  ilatiou— remitting  t.ixea  and  puiiishineiilat 
proleetii>H  f'li  le,  ,  <<  lUhliig  oppression,  relieving  the 
|H>or.  So  1.  .1  h  Si  the  head  of  the  eierutive,  What 
may  tw  called  (iie  a<lminiatrative  government,  consists  of 
the  emperor'a  council  nnd  the  great  public  tributiala. 
The  council  is  composed  of  the  ininislers  of  stnte,  taken 
from  the  first  onler  of  mamlnrins,  and  president*  of  the 
supreme  tribunals,  but  ia  never  asaemlili'd  except  U|Nm 
oecn*ioii*  of  extreme  public  im|Nirtaiice ;  every  thing 
Is'ing  in  general  directed  by  tin  iniiir  council,  where  llie 
einpi'ror  sits  in  pres«>nc'e.  There  are  six  sti|a'rii)r  Iri- 
biinnls  at  Pi'kin.  The  lir^it,  named  l,ii~p<Hi,  watehea  over 
the  training  of  mandarins,  or  ihtkhiis  lo  fill  otHcial  situa- 
tions. IIS  well  ns  over  their  conduct  afier  Is'iiig  i^i|Miiiited 
to  oH'iee ;  re|Hirta  their  proceedings  and  eharacter  to  the 
emperor,  and,  in  short,  has  them  entinly  under  ila  su^ 
veillnnce.  The  seccmd  tribunal,  called  Ho-|>oo,  may  he 
desigimled  the  court  of  finance,  where  nil  the  revenues 
of  the  empire,  the  royal  tn'aHiires  nnd  doinaina,  and 
every  bramh  of  public  expeiidiliire,  are  managed.  The 
third  tribunal,  Iiee-fxio,  or  tlii'  court  of  ceri'inonie*,  su|ier- 
intends  the  observance  of  ancient  cUHtiiiiis  and  religious 
ceremonies;  examines  the  public  schools,  and  re|H>rts  the 
progress  of  the  sciences ;  receives  foreign  embusaiea ;  (a 
gre'it  tax  on  their  time  !)  and  regulates  nil  matters  of 
eti(piette  nlsmt  llie  court,  Tlie  fourth  Iriliiinal,  Ping-poo, 
is  something  akin  lo  our  war-iiirice,  in  having  the  man- 
agement of  all  the  military  eoiicetiis  of  ihe  empire, 
Fit\li,  Hcmg-jHio  is  the  |M)lice  department,  directing  every 
thing  relating  to  the  detection  iiikI  pniiiMliment  of  crimes, 
The  sixth  tribunal,  Kong-|Hio,  is  the  trilmnal  of  public 
works,  having  charge  of  the  palaces,  public  buildings, 
canals,  mines,  inanufaetorieH,  fit.'.  .All  these  tribunal! 
have  under  them  n  great  numtn'r  of  siibordinale  tribunah 
s<"illercd  throughout  Ihe  empire,  siilnervient  to  their 
various  objects  of  iiiHtitution.  Each  of  the  six  supreme 
trlbuimls  has  two  [ircsideiits,  one  of  whom  nmst  lie  a 
Tartar  by  birth,  ami  the  other  u  Chinese.  'J'hey  have, 
also,  twenty-four  assessors,  who  arc  half  Cbineie,  half 
Tartars. 

There  is  also  another  tribunal,  Ihe  nature  of  which 
sufTicienlly  demoniitrales  of  itself  the  grand  principle 
U|Hiii  which  the  f  hiiiese  government  is  based — namely, 
of  making  every  thing  de|iend  upon  the  em|XTor.  This 
is  a  board  of  irnnnit,  who  send  an  inspector  to  waUh 
over  thn  pro<'eedings  of  each  of  the  tribunals — both  the 
supreme  and  subonlinnte.  Then*'  fumlioiiaries  lake  no 
part  ill  the  proceedings  of  the  tribunals,  but  merely  ill 
and  nltend  to  nil  the  procee<lings,  which  they  rejHirl  to 
their  prineijials,  und  these  again  lo  the  emperor,  ThcM 
agents  are,  in  short,  his  spies;  and  by  them  be  indireclly 
governs  his  empire.  The  mHiidariiii,  are  changed  'Vom 
one  situation  to  another  every  three  years,  to  prcvcui 
their  acquiring  too  much  infiuciioe  with  the  jMople,  m 
which  times  they  are  oblij;ed  to  np|><Mr  regularly  al 
court — to  resign  the  seals  of  olDce,  we  hujipose,  und  kiw 
tlic  gioi((i(/,  uisrn  entering  on  a  new  one. 

The  lieaulifully  complicated  machinery  of  govemniciil 
just  descrilied,  might  Is;  aupimsed,  if  pro|«'rly  regu- 
lated, well  adapted  for  accomplishing  its  object ;  but  il  l« 
only  by  that  very  elaborateness  of  coiiHlrnclion  remlcnd 
the  more  liable  to  lie  abused.  The  emperor  being  llic- 
prime  source  of  all  power,  it  woufd  Ik'  reipii.iitc  for  him 
to  manage  the  whole  machinery  with  his  own  liaiidH,  ii 
under  hia  own  insueclion  at  leu.st — u  laKk  which  wouU 
require  him  to  pos.  is  as  mony  hands,  heads,  and  ivcn 
as  Briareua  and  Argui.  hud  U-lwj'en  them.  The  nfoi- 
sity,  therefore,  of  relying  ujion  the  fidelity  of  so  maiij 
thousand  agents  for  his  inloriiialiun  ond  the  execution  n: 


nia  will,  ia  ill  every  i 
sdvantnge  of;  a,„|  || 
M  a  'irilfiirm   ■yslein 
mon.  from  the  primxt 
*)rs  (or   .pies)  visit 
ivsif.ll  upon  by  ilm  i 
llieir  favour  with   rie 
if  eounie   Ix-eii    f^ise 
from   the   |i,i„r   i,||,|,| 
wrilli  any  I'-mjsirary  Ii 
innkes  all  he  can  of  i 
iiid,  by  firiliinif  Ihe  h 
Inwed  to  sit  ilnwii  in  i 
coniplninis  iniisl  puss 
lers,  of  course  no  reii 
Situilist  such    oppressii 
'iii|i|K«n  of  a  guilty  III 
<med,  mill  his  riches 
well  known  that  ihi'si 
'Cigirinle  in   motives  „ 
M.  lie  Oiiiifries,  one  n) 
■Imi  tnivcllers,   »  make 
'[HHiije,  to  suck  up  thi 
'he  sponge  is  full,  he  m 
'1  111  fili'cd    anew,"     ( 
l.iird  .Macnrfnev,  was  i 
Mvcrniiieiit  of  '(iuang-t 
liiwing  olwrrvntion  ;— .. 
in-  many  Furopi-an  cur 
ii  ever  sent  to  me."     'I'| 
'criiig  on  his  governmen 
iiWi'  to  oblnin  nn  ainliem 
-f  1.^00()  or  ao.doo  pj,„ 
I  ing  lime  in  China,"  obi 
I'lversi'd  that  va.^f  einpiri 
nfierc  s<ien  the  strimg  o| 
nlii)  possessed  any  |H)rti,) 
M  burden,  and   to  crush 
I  uiiy  and  suapirinn  whir 
!«'ri  of  the  government, 
of  the  magistrates,  sullicii 
liclween   themselves  to  th 
influence  of  which  they  p, 
llii-  happiness  of  the  fioo/i 
The  great  bnsis  of  the  ( 
inculcation  of  the  sacred  r 
hesrts  of  Ihe  young.     The 
unlimited  fiower  over  his 
1  maxim  which  has  Ihwi  / 
■iirliest  feelings  and  idens. 
"lation  lo  the  fuiher  o«  tl, 
.>«  wickedness  or  unnatur 
relieve  a  son  from  his  ,,u 
ciwil  action  [H-rfomi.'d  l.y  Ij 
Init  tlie  son  In-nrs  his  „wn 
ilready  mentioned,   the  so 
if  Ihecomitry's  proM|K.rity 
rairfortun.H,     To  Iw  consisi 
iml  vigorous  at  the  mercy 
rwr  sets  an  example,  by  ,, 
I  mfncemenl  of  every  year 
bffore  leaiivin^  the  prostra't 
J«it».    This  name  principle 
luthonty;  the  governor  of 
J»the  father  of  all  u,Hi,.r  hi 
lUw  slate-morality  i»,  while 
l^thecauwof  ,1,0  long  g,. 
jHenorate  tl„,  principles  an 
IJ«troy  all  genuine  sentiniei: 
Jf^Vlfar  upwards  to  the  sovei 
■"•jve  of  him  immiHliately  a 

IaT*'  *"  ^^  ''*^"''*  "*"  ">o  i> 
I*    1.*^  no  other  bonda  to 
i™  chains  of  tyraimr 
Vol  |_  I 


CHINA. 


■1 


^tint'lv, 
Th'n 

w  aUh 

>th  the 

[ki-  no 

\A\  «u 
iirt  to 
'riii'M! 

jiri'i'tly 

||   'roin 

|)ri'vt'iil 
ijilr,  il 
Illy  ai 
ml  kiM 

nnM'iil 

lut  it  a 

llllllTl'tl 

jjll};  lilt 
jur  him 
Inila,  >'t 

WOlllJ 

Id  lycs. 

nuii.J 
Ition  o: 


nil  will,  ia  ill  nii'ry  ili<|«rtni<<iil  of  hU  K»vi>mm*nt  Uliiin  I 

mlvKiitiitfi'  '•I':  oiiil  iIk'  wholii  may  hn  K''ii'''i>lly  ili'wrihnl  I 

t»  It  'inifiirin  iyiiirm  of  nirriiplion,  pliiiiilpr,  mil  i)|i|iri>»- 1 

ti.m.  from  llir  priiicv  to  llio  Ix'tfuar.     \»  mioii  iiii  tho  rrn> 

«)ra  (»r   Kplm)  vinit    lh<i    provinrra,  tlii'y    »m    iiiatnnlly 

waidil  ii|Hin  liy  llie  miiiiilnrinii,  who  iitlcinpt  to  piirrlmmi  | 

thrir  fiivniir  with   rirh    pn-M-ntii,  Ihn  vahin  of  wliicli  haa 

i)f  I'ounii'  l)r<<ii    rniM'<l  hy  th<>  tiuMt   ({rimliiiK   nxiii'tinn* 

Trxm  tho   (loor  inhnliiliiiilit.     Rvrry   inumliiriii  liilriialnil 

witli  any  t''inporiiry  Imrtilivr  roiiiiiiitiiidii  rrniii  the  roiirt, 

iRnkri)  tfll  hn  ran  of  it  hy  the  moat  iinnrriipiiloiDi  ini-una; 

.Mill,  hy  lirihiiiif  tim  higher  ofUdTa  almul  Iho  i-oiirt,  iit  nl- 

Inwpil  ti>  nit  down  in  ipiii'l  with  hiit  ill-Kot  KninX'      An  oil 

iMinpliiiiili*  inilKl  piiM  thriiiiKh  Ihi*    hiimla  of  thcxo  oIH- 

I'dTii,  of  roiirmn  no  riMnonHtrnni'p  ever  rnichca  the  Ihroni' 

nitninDt  aurh   opprrHNioiiK.      It  ia  trui',  frri|iii'iit  I'XiitnpIra 

'mpiien  of  ■  Knilty  ninmliirin,  who  ia  aomrtinioH  inipri- 

^mi'il,  unit  Ilia  rii'hi'a  ronliM-iitrd  to  tho  atntr ;  hut  it  ia 

wi'll  known   that  Ihrii'  oiiini|ilca  of  piiniHhnifnt  do  not 

iiininiiti'   in   niotivca  of  juatici'.     "  'I'lii'  finprror,"  aaya 

M.  lie  (lnit(nt*a,  onr  of  tint  Mnwl  inlrlliK't'nt  of  our  mo- 

ilcfii  tnivi'llrra,  "  innkra    Ma»!  of  hia    (jnindn'a,  ux  of   a 

•jmiiur,  to  Mii.'k   up  thn  richra  of  hia  auhjccta.      When 

ihi!  a|)OMkr<'  i^  full,  hti  a<|uiTZ<<a  it,  lUiil  nrndx  it  rlN(<\\hi'rr 

t.i  h«i  fllli'd    Biirw."     One    miindniin,  conipliiincd   of  liy 

l.iird  Miii'nrtncy,  wiia  diamiMaod  hy  tho  trnpc-nr  to  the 

jovornniont  of  (juiuiK-ton  and  tJnnni;-«H',  with  the  fnj- 

Ijwinn  olwrrviition  : — "  I  pinre  you  in  n  rity  whf  ro  thon- 

irc  many  F'lirop'nn  curioaitii'?),  hut  from  whirh  nothing 

In  «vpr  afut  to  uir."     Tin- hint  \v«a  not  loat.     U|>on  rn- 

tcring  on  hia  Kovrrnmont,  tho  inhiihilunta  found  it  iinpoa- 

mW''  to  oMnin  an  midiriioo  of  him  for  loan  than  a  prr»riit 

„f  l.'S.OOO  or  aO.OOO  piaxlri'H  (jLMSOO).     "  I  hnvo  liv<-d  ii 

liHR  timo  in  China,"  ohaorvoa   M.  lio  (luii^ira:  "  I  have 

fivcraed  thutvii.st  empire  in  nil  ita  extent.    I  have  every- 

ntiero  a<'eii  tho  KironR  opprea!<  the  weak,  nnd  every  miin 

ivho  poaaeBHod  any  (Hirtion  of  wealth,  employ  it  to  luirnna, 

1.1  burden,  and   to  eruah  tho  i>foplo."     In  fart  tho  j»-a- 

liuny  and  anapirion  which  prevail  la'twcen  all  tho  niem- 

i«'r»  of  tho  Rovernment.  from  tho  enijieror  to  the  loweat 

nl'  the  rasKiatrotea,  auinrionllv  evinee  how  little  they  trnat 

Mween  themaelvea  to  their  fmo  moral   maxima,  hy  the 

iiifliieni'o  of  whirh  they  protend  the  throne  ia  ujiheld,  and 

llio  hii[ipineMK  of  the  [)coi)|o  aorurcd. 

Tho  ureiit  haai.iof  tho  t'hincao  Rovemment  ia  the  atriet 
'iiculention  of  the  aiiered  nature  of  lillal  uhedienrn  into  tho 
hi-arta  of  tho  young.     The  parent  ia  uiideratoud  to  poaseaa 
unlimited  (lower  over  hia  offapring  aa  long  aa  they  live — 
1  niatini  whieh  haa  la-en  for  ages  interwoven  with  their 
.'iirli<-at  fcelinga  nnd  ideaa.     Tho  ehild  atanda  in  the  aamo 
irbtion  to  tho  father  aa  tlic  father  doea  to  tho  aovereign. 
Na  wii'kediK'Ha  or  unnatural  treatment  liy  the  father  can 
relieve  a  aon  from   hia  auhjeetion.     The   merit  of  every 
!m\  artion  |H>rformed  by  the  aon  ia  aaeribcti  to  tho  father, 
liut  tlui  aon  la-ara  hia  own  diagraoe.     In  like  manner,  aa 
ilreaJy  meiuioned,   the  aovereign  receivea  all  tho  merit 
I  nf  the  poiiiitry'a  proH|>erity,  hut  ineura  no  diagraco  for  ita 
I  fflisfnrtum'a.     To  l)c  conaiatent,  in  thua  placing  the  young 
iiul  vigorous  at  the  mercy  of  the  old  and  feehle,  tho  em- 
(vror  acta  an  example,  hy  proatrating  himaelf,  at  the  com- 
mencement of  every   year,   liefore  tho  emprcaa-dowager, 
I  belbre  leauving  the  proatrationa  of  hia  ofTieers  and  ath  nd- 
1  inlt.    Thia  aamo  principln  perviulea  all  the  hranchea  of 
I  wthority  ;  tho  governor  of  a  province  or  city  heing  held 
iMthc  father  uf  all  under  hia  juriadietion.     'I'he  ctlt'ct  of 
llliiii  Ktate-morality  ia,  while  it  muat  certainly  Ihi  viewed 
I  lithe  caust^  of  the  long  atahility  of  the  government,  to 
I'leteriorate  tlio  principlea  and  feelings  of  the  {K'ople,  and 
liieatroy  all  gnmino  aentiment  ainung   them.      From  tho 
li*Ki!*r  upwanla  to  tho  aovereign,  each  individual  ia  tho 
Uive  of  him  imme<liately  above  himaelf;  and,  what  ia 
|w««,  all  are  aware  of  the  hy(X)cri8y  of  each  other,  and 
Idine  am  no  otiier  bonda  to  bold  tocicty  together  save 
Ittcchiina  of  tyruinr 
Vol  I-  I 


I.*W«. 

Tim  luwa  of  thi*  (in'tular  nation  may  lie  leaenhatl  aa 
Ihoae  of  the  haintKai,  tho  loril,  and  Ihn  acimilar,  "Thia 
great  nation,"  aaya  Mr.  Harrow,  •' iiiny  ho  aptly  »<  .(."h 
i-ompareil  to  n  great  aehool,  of  whii  h  the  nia^ittr  li  n  ■■• 
the  muHtera  and  tho  people  the  arholara.  Thi'  tuiboo 
la  the  ferula,  and  care  ia  taki  n  that  the  child  nh  '  n<it  ut 
ajHiiled  for  apnring  the  nal.  Tho  hniiiUio,  In  v  >tir,  it 
not  uae.l  merely  aa  an  inatrument  for  dogging  Ine  pro- 
plo.  In  tho  lundanientnl  lawa  of  the  empire,  it  fon:)* 
tho  acule  hy  which  all  puniahniei.ta  are  aup|nm  d  to  h« 
prnportioneil  to  the  Crimea  committed,  ami  whii  h  arn 
carefully  dealt  out  hy  weight  nnd  mcaauro,  I'liniah- 
ment,  aa  an  example  to  dolor  othera  from  Iho  coniiiii.'iaion 
of  Crimea,  would  aeem,  indeed,  o  he  li'aa  the  olijcct  of 
Chinoan  legialntion,  than  that  of  HaliHlyiiig  the  daima  of 
rigid  juatice — to  wi|Hi  ofl"  a  certain  lUgree  of  erimo  by 
tho  iiilliction  of  a  pro|Mirtionnto  decree  of  autliiing." 

The  lawa  are  emhraced  in  a  cihIc  called  the  l,rii-Icc, 
whirh  haa  generally  undergone  aomo  modifliiitioiiH  under 
each  new  dyuunty,  hut  haa  continued  runiliimeiilally  the 
aame  fri  ni  time  immemorial.  It  ia  om*  of  the  dutiea  of 
the  maiiilariiii  to  inatriict  tho  people  in  tho  proviaiona  of 
ihrHo  lawa,  unil  they  are  likevviae  promulgated  in  all  the 
HchiMila  nnd  piihlic  aeminariea.  The  coile  of  thr  preaent 
family,  culled  Tai-taiii  I.eu-lee,  coriMitdaof  aix  gnat  heada, 
to  coiTc.'<poiid  to  tho  functiona  of  tho  aix  aupunie  trihu- 
nala,  and  rmhracea  an  epitome  of  the  whole  ayatcm  of 
governimiit.  (lur  rendera  would  not,  wo  ladieve,  thank 
ua  for  an  rxpoaitinn  of  thia  inatituto  of  Aaiatic  juriapru- 
deiiee ;  hut  the  fiAh  diviaion,  relative  to  Crimea  and  pun 
ishmenlH,  roiilaina  matter  amTiciently  eurioua  and  into- 
roHtiiig,  Treaaon — which,  la-aides  tho  crime  of  rehcllion, 
rompn'heiida  nine  other  apcLioa  of  ofl'ence,  among 
whicli  are  parricide,  impiety,  and  desertion  to  n  foreign 
power — ia  invariahly  puniahed  with  death,  in  the  former 
caae  with  the  moat  lingering  torturea.  Hut  it  ia  not 
merely  upon  the  criminal  himaelf  thbt  the  penalty  for 
treaaon  falla.  All  tho  male  relationa  of  auch  peraons  are 
iiuliacriminalely  heheaded,  tho  femalca  aold  into  a'avcry, 
and  all  their  eonnectiona  rclentlesaly  put  to  donlh.  And 
it  ia  well  did  tho  vengeance  of  the  law  always  teiminalu 
here  ;  hut  it  too  frequently  happens  that  whole  villages, 
nay,  aometimea  entire  diatricta,  ar'  liacriminately 
alaughtered  for  the  crime  of  one  indiv  "o  intrude 

into  the  lino  of  the  imperial  rctinui   vtiilt    .  «ror  is 

travelling,  auhjecls  the  otfendcr  to  li  i 'i.  ir  of  the 
most  extraordinnry  decrees  is,  that  i'~  if  tnij'  -t  phy- 
sician ia  diacovcred  compoundini^  .!»•  miuirine  .  .  .  ■to- 
ner not  aanclioned  by  eatabli  '  :  -ai:r.  he  ua  lauii-.ti'l 
with  100  blows.  If  any  d  •  'tuid  iiiiii.-ig  (,•'  rt<w> 
jeaty'a  food,  the  couk  receive,  ci^i.l)  olouc;  n  '  if  flt 
mixes  nnyunx.ual  ingredient  or  i  i-  ■• '  ■)  la  ma- 
jeaty's  palate  does  not  agree  with,  he  rci'  '  ,.  uc  blows, 
and  is  compelled  to  swallow  tho  article  hi  .laolf!  All 
cases  of  deliberate  murder  are  punishable  by  Jeuth  ;  and 
death,  with  the  most  lingering  torture,  '  denounced 
against  parricides.  Tho  pen.ilty  of  death  is  abo  awarded 
against  a  slave  who  shall  strike  his  master ;  a  son  who 
shall  strike  hia  father  or  mother ;  a  grandson  who  shall 
strike  hia  grandfather  or  grandmother ;  n  wife  who  shall 
strike  her  huabund's  father,  mother,  grandfather,  or  grand 
mother.  But  if  a  father  kill  a  son,  grandson,  or  slave, 
even  designedly,  the  puniahment  is  no  moro  than  sixty 
blows  of  the  bamboo,  and  n  year's  imprisonment  Even 
thia  lenient  punishment  ia  generally  remitted  for  a  fine,  aa 
the  law  presumes  the  cause  of  the  act  to  la?  the  disobo- 
ilienic  of  the  child,  which  is  held  aa  a  crime  of  the  deepest 
dye,  as  airecling  the  principle  of  the  whole  system  of  go- 
vernment. The  jealousy  of  the  Chines"  law  on  this  import- 
ant point  is  further  illustrated  by  tho  following  decrcu— 
"That  a  ehild  or  grandchild,  who  is  guilty  of  aadie«iiiA 
abusive  language  to  Itis  or  her  father  or  mother,  palcnal 


ti 


99 


INFORMATION   FOR   TIIK  PEOPLK. 


srsindfatlier  or  grandmother;  a  wife  who  is  guilty  of  the 
hiiiiio  to  hoi  husband's  frther  or  mother,  paternal  grand- 
fiifner  or  grandmother — shall  ui  every  case  iiiJFer  dtath 
ill  bring  tlrongled  !" 

There  arc  five  degrees  of  punishment  for  ofTenders : — 
T  he  first  is  inflicted  by  the  lesser  bamboo,*  and  is  said 
merely  to  be  in  the  way  of  reproof  and  admonition.  The 
correction  extends  from  four  to  twenty  blows.  The  second 
degree  extends  from  twenty  to  forty  of  the  larger  liam- 
b(io.  Th«  third  is  temporary  banishment  to  the  distance 
of  150  miles,  extending  from  one  to  three  years.  The 
Puirth  degree  is  pcri)etunl  banishment,  with  one  hundred 
b!aws  of  the  bamboo.  The  fifth  and  ultimate  punish- 
ment is  death,  either  l>y  strangulation  or  decollation. 
7'hero  are  also  various  kinds  of  torture  to  extort  confcs- 
«ion  and  evidence.  The  punishment  by  the  bamboo, 
however,  is,  in  the  case  of  oflcnces  committed  by  the  of- 
ficers of  government,  commuted  to  fine  or  degradation, 
and,  under  peculiar  circumstances,  the  benefit  of  com- 
mutation by  fine  is  extended  also  to  private  individuals. 
In  fact,  there  is  a  regular  scaL  of  charges  for  those  not 
legally  exclud(Hl  from  the  degradation  of  flogging,  of 
which  all  who  arc  rich  enough  may  avail  themselves. 
The  motive  of  this  regulation  is  evidently  to  fill  iho  cof- 
fers of  the  royal  treasury. 

RKVERCKS. 

So  correct  estimate,  for  want  of  the  necessary  data, 
has  ever  Iwen  ascertained  of  the  actual  amount  of  the 
revenues  of  this  immctisc  empire,  and  the  most  dilTerent 
statements  have  been  put  forth  on  the  sulijecl  by  various 
writers  and  travellers.  Tlic  Chinese  tlieniselves,  of 
course,  attempt  to  impress  foreigners  with  a  most  exag- 
gerated Idea  of  its  raai-'nitude.  A  Chinese  niini.ttcr  re- 
presented it  to  Lord  Macartney  0.-4  amounting  to  a  sum 
exceeding  sixty  millions  sterling,  of  wliieli,  allrr  defray- 
ing all  the  civil  and  military  ex|)en8es,  about  twoive  mil- 
lions were  supiiosed  to  remain  for  the  empcioi's  pri- 
vate support  Mr.  B.irrow  reckuns  "that  fifty  millions, 
M  an  economical  government  like  this,  where  the  oftlceri 
and  magistrates  arc  so  slmmefnlly  paid  that  they  could 
not  live  without  robbing  the  people,  may  be  considered 
as  an  ample  revenue  for  alt  the  necessities  of  tlie  state." 
Some  late  writers  have  reduced  the  cslimalc  as  low  as 
iWt^lve  millions;  but  such  a  calculation  is  evidently  ab- 
nird.  PcrhHi)8  the  nearest  to  the  truth  is  that  of  the 
intelligent  M.  do  Gi,nes,  who  accompanied  the  Duti-h 
embassy  in  IVOd.  He  drew  up  a  minute  sninniary  of 
cuoh  individual  tax  and  branch  of  ex[XMuliture,  and  their 
amount,  and  tlie  resulr.  was  as  follows : — 

Revenues,  -        -         -  X31,.'j.5.'>,5.')4 

Expenditure,  ...        22,222,2M 


Surplus.  X9,:f33..333 
—the  surplus,  afler  the  ejuiMiror  lakes  what  he  immedi- 
ately requires,  being  deposited  in  the  pulilic  treasury.  If 
this  calculation  \>c  correct,  it  is  evident  that  ennnjious 
sums  must  thus  sometimes  Ix;  -.ucuniulaled.  Mr.  Bar- 
row, it  is  true,  says,  •<  that  the  immense  treasure*  said  to 
havB  been  amassed  by  the  reigning  dynasty,  exist  onb, 
in  the  imagination  of  the  Chinese."  Unt  he  s»>eniB  to 
hcve  forgotten  what  he  himsilf  states  in  another  plate, 
where,  speaking  of  the  various  means  a(!ii|iti(l  to  prc- 
•orve  thvj  em|M'ror'H  popularity,  h,-  tells  u'l  tli.it  the  sov?- 
reign  sometimes  limits  a  wliole  year's  I, ".es  to  his  [joo- 
•ple — a  proceeding  whicii  couLI  not  ea.sily  lie  put  in  prac- 
tice with  an  emjity  exchequer.     T!ie  emix-ror  has  also 


•Tins  mttnimrnt,  which  mnlcrs  ao  enntpipiimin  a  fiifiirc  m 
he  I  hinne  code,  is  of  iw,  ii/os  :  ihr  larnir  i»  flv..  fi-,.|  ,■  .r|,i 
■ichei  lone,  and  iwo  and  ihrri-.iburili  Inihi-n  l.rou.l.  and  iwo 

iclirs  thick,  wrjthuiif  IWO  and  tw.,-iii:r.t  iHiuniln  .  tl.e  mmiiII,.| 

•  ih«  same  Iminh.  two  inchi-n  broad.  <iiip  and  oiii-.|ifth  llmk 
».id  wnifhi  one  and  fiTe-siiihs  of  ■  poiiad.     fhe    Minirtciii 

•  upi.!  rd  in  ojieu   court,  immolmteljr  uiua   •ciuoncc   Uinir 


private  domains,  the  revenue  of  which  was  estimated  tn 
M.  do  Guignes  at  upwards  of  four  millioiu). 

The  revenue  is  raised  from  a  land-tax,  amounting  u> 
about  a  tcntli  of  its  produce,  one  half  of  whicli  is  poM 
in  money,  and  the  other  half  in  kind,  'i'hcrc  is,  besidei 
this,  a  tax  on  salt,  coals,  and  inanufactures;  and  a  capi. 
tation-tax  upon  merchants,  artit  ins.  &c.,  who  arc  held 
lowest  in  the  scale  of  society.  It  is  a  curious  fact,  thai 
the  regulations  for  collecting  the  duties  on  nianufaeturo^ 
and  preventing  smuggling,  resemble  exactly  the  British 
system  of  permits,  excise-officers,  licenses,  &c.  In  addi. 
tion  to  these  revenues  i.s  the  large  amount  raised  by  (he 
duties  on  foreign  shipping  and  merchandise,  of  which  we 
will  have  further  to  speak  when  we  come  to  treat  of  ths 
trade  of  China. 

ROYAIi  FAMILT — COURT  DPE8S  AND  CEREMONIAIA 
As  may  be  imagined,  the  cmj)cror  is  domiciliated  in  a 
style  suited  to  his  immense  wealth,  high  rui.k,  and  pre. 
tensions  to  uidimited  sway.  His  train  of  courtiers,  olR 
cers  of  state,  and  other  attendants,  when  he  appears  is 
public,  which  is  exceedingly  seldom,  is  inconceivably  nu- 
merous ;  and  iK-ing  all  apparelled  in  gorgeous  silks  anJ 
satins  of  the  brightest  dyes,  garnished  witli  gold  and  si|. 
vor,  thcii-  appearance  is  inexpressibly  magnificent.  But 
it  is  only  while  going  through  this  j)iil)lic  exhibition 
that  all  this  show  of  wealth  and  magnifuencc  has  any 
reality.  When  relea.sed  from  duty,  they  retire  to  tlicir 
mean  and  solitary  relU  in  the  ouukirts  of  the  palace, 
where  they  devour  their  rice  out  of  woixien  bowls  with 
their  choi)-stick.s,  and  then  lie  down  on  their  mats  on  the 
uncovered  floor,  to  slumlier  away  the  hours  till  their  Be^ 
vices  arc  again  required  ;  for  to  enter  into  convcrration 
with  his  fellow-slaves,  would,  us  Iwing  so  etrange  a  de- 
parture from  the  national  taciturnity,  subject  the  partiei 
to  the  suspicion  of  I'onspiracy. 

The  emperor  has  three  elo-sses  of  wives.  The  firs 
consists  of  one  who  has  the  rank  of  empress;  the  sc'-ind 
of  Iwo  rjueens  und  their  attendants ;  and  the  thir^.,  ol 
six  queens  and  their  atU-ndanU,  The  emperor's  wivei 
ond  womi'n  ure  doomed  to  reside  for  ever  within  th< 
walls  of  the  palace,  and  are,  after  his  deatli,  inin  joined 
for  life  in  a  prison  called  the  "  Palace  of  Cha«tity  ' 

The  princes  of  the  Mood  who  are  descended  in  a  direct 
line  from  the  reigning  liiniily,  have  their  names  and  data 
of  birth  registered  in  a  yellow  l)ook,  unit  have  the  prir> 
leire  of  wearing  a  yellow  girdle ;  but  th<>^e  who  are  onlj 
of  collateral   des<Tnt,  have  their   names  enrolled  in  a  red 
book,  and  we.;-  a  red  girdle.     So  inimical  is  the  spirit  of 
the   government,   however,  to   a   multitudinous   ;  oliiliiy, 
that  even  the  princes  of  the  blood  licyonil  the  third  gcnfr 
ration,  unless  they  h-i^-e  talents  and  learning  to   recom- 
mend  them  to  some  hono;:rable  einploynienl  to  which 
rank  is  attached,  gradually  merge  into  the  coinini.n  man 
The    pr.'nres  have  the   privilege  of  Ix-liig  itieil  only  bj 
theii  |K'ers,  and  may  pr(>,-ure  exemption  from  a;;y  corpo 
real    punishment  by  a  fine.     The   [H-rsons  of  those  vvlu 
wear  the  yellow  girdle  are  held  so  saered,  that   any  ow 
insulting  tliem  incurs  death.     Those  who  hold  no  olfiCf, 
only  receive   a   salary  eijual  to  the  pay  of  a  cjjnniion  sol- 
dier in  the  Tartar  bands,  and  receive  100  taels  (about  30 
guineas   sterling)  at  their   marriage.     'I'he   emperor  ad 
his   children  wear   rols-s  of  satin  of  a   briKlit   vcllov»  r» 
lofir,  while  all   the   other  branches  of  the  roy.d  f:>mil;, 
like  the   nmndariiis.  wear  roN-s  of  a  violet  eoiour.    Th« 
emperor,  his  sons,  anil   those  of  the   fwst   rank,  are  alx 
disliiiKviished  by  figures  of  dragons  with    five  claws  rii). 
broidered  on  their  vi-dinents;  princes  of  the  second  raii 
have  dn^ons  with   four  cl.iws:  tho»«M,f  the  thin;  i;<iiii 
as  well  as  the   ma  ilarins,  have,  instead  of  dragons,  w 
p«'nts  with  four  claws.     The  iullaii  of  imminy  on  tin 
head-dress  of  tlie  emperor  consists  of  three  dragons  (i( 
gold,  placed  one  above  the  other,  cncirdid  and  stuiMi^ 
wHii  pearU.     His  upjx-r  roln;  has  four  cirrles  einbroiJeni 


*ith  dragont. 
composed  of  p 
naiucnts  of  nil 
ti  a  b'ight  yel 
niliies,  sapphir 
eiTipcror,  called 
his  father,  only 
coral,  and  he  I 
but  unadorned, 
aiiparent  have 
•oris  of   the  er 
tiisihinn  as  the 
•hose  distinction 
di'id  the  appari 
sxpressly  regulo 
The  pi!!>lic  e 
the  pomp  and  ei 
to  certain  fixed 
his  birth,  beginr 
former  occasion 
otlicors  of  the  g 
princes,  being  ii 
nerved  on  such  ot 
— flovcr  vary,  fhi 
friven  by  Lord  M 
faithful  account  c 
•'I'hn  17th  Septc 
«■•  out  for  the  cc 
^Vc  reposed  ours 
•ho  entrance  of  tl 
warm  milk,  nnd  o 
.\t  Inst,  notice  wa 
iK'giii,  and  wc  ini; 
where  wo  found  i 
tliPir  rolics  of  stafi 
lii'ii.    The  empen 
nmcoalcd  behind  i 
could  sec  nnd  enj( 
PHce  or  intcrruptio 
where  his  majesty 
•eoincd  to  express 
.It"  the  day.     Slow 
(!.'0[)-toned   bells, 
Piiilden  the  sound  t 
were  renewed,  and 
iliiring  which, '.sever 
ivards  in  the  /oov,-,- 
^^[aged  in  prepari 
I'  Mgth  Iho  Treat  bn 
»iih  all  their  pow 
"hole  court  fell  flat 
-Vnbuehadnozzar. 
sort  of  birth-<lay  . 
which  was,  <  Bow  d 
the  Earth!    Howdf 
long!  the  great  Kie 
u|n)n  Chinu-earth  ti 
iiDwn  their  heads,  i 
ground,  at  every  rer 
rpliifion,  either  nneic 
^cen  addressed,  I  l„ 
Jf  worship  and  ndo 
^'  the  phantom  of 
mode  of  ce.'ebratinir 
•fooiiling  to  the  eoi 
t'lc  whole  day  ;  nor  . 
«;'Kfl:»eh  him,  for  th 
ni  iment  wo  did." 

•'.II  who  are  adni 
"fliis  ••  relestial  niaj. 
f'To/aony  of  prostrii 
pw.rating  theius<.Iv 
I'liiiig  it  as  often  wi 
'"{  cciemnny  is  exii 


.  I*  ..>■ 


CHINA. 


.  t.;,  h 


timatcd  *n 

lounting  U> 
licli  is  paid 
>  iH,  bemilM 
and  a  capi- 
o  arc  heM 
la  fact,  that 
inufacturo^ 
the  Diitiah 
c.     In  adili- 
aixnd  by  Uk 
:)f  which  w« 
treat  of  the 


lEMONIAIA 
ciliated  in  • 
i.k,  and  pre- 
ourtiors,  oflv 
c  appears  in 
iceivubly  nu- 
MS  silks  and 
gold  and  nil- 
lificcnt.     Bui 
ic   cxhiliilion 
cncc  has  anj 
retire  to  tlicir 
if  the  palace, 
I'll  howls  with 
ir  mats  on  the 
B  till  their  »e^ 
o  convcrfatwi) 
.  ctrange  a  de- 
ject the  panki 

08.    The  fim 

iss;  the  W'-'TkI 
Id  the  thir^,  ol 
peror's  wiva 
■r  witiiin  tlie 
itii,  iin[i  jKincd 
liaHtity  ' 
led  in  a  diiivl 
MI'S  niid  (latot 
livi^  the  prirV 
who  are  onlj 
rolli'd  in  a  rfii 
Is  the  Bpirit  of 
mus   ;  oliilily, 
the  third  gti* 
lini;  to  rocora- 
iiient  to  which 
'oiniiK'n  ma» 
tticcl  only  bj 
roia  any  corpo 
of  those  whi) 
thill  any  one 
liolil  no  olfiCf, 
a  common  sol- 
tiii-ls  (uliout  30 
■in|H'ror  ad 
;iht   yollow  c» 
roy.il  i:\fni\)i 
■t  colour.    Tin 
imk,  arc  b1«c 
five  diiwi  CIO- 
Si'corid  ra'ii 
the  th'.r;!  i^'iiV 
)!'  druKOiii,  l«^  1 
niiiniy  on  tin  I 
iiii;  ilra|{i'i)»ul 
,a  Ulid  xtUiMl 
Its  eiiibroiJaei 


;h 


xith  AragonR.  His  neckisco,  wK  j  In  his  rase  alone  Is 
imposed  of  pearls,  consi>>i8  of  1  ^2  (learls,  and  other  oi^ 
niiiiicnts  of  rubies,  sapphires,  and  «Tnli«r.  His  girdle  is 
■)t  a  bHght  yellow,  with  four  (rrcUis  of  gold,  studded  with 
niliies,  sapphires,  and  {learls.  The  oldest  son  of  the 
omperur,  called  Hoang-tay-tso  iias  a  similar  button  with 
his  father,  only  with  fewer  ^arls.  His  necklace  is  of 
roral,  and  he  has  a  bright  yellow  girdle  like  his  father, 
but  unadorned.  The  bonnets  of  the  sovereign  and  heir- 
apparent  have  also  a  figik<«  of  the  idol  Fo.  The  other 
WHS  of  the  eiiijXTor  ni«  adorned  in  much  the  same 
fusihion  as  the  eldest,  bit  with  fewer  ornaments.  All 
•licse  distinctions  of  dress  in  the  royal  household — as  in- 
(Joid  the  apparel  of  every  class  in  the  kingdom — are 
expressly  regulated  by  law. 

The  pi:!'lic  exhibitions  of  the  royal  person,  amid  all 

the  pomp  and  circumstance  of  his  household,  are  limited 

to  certain  fixed  festivals,  such  as  the  anniversary  of 

his  birth,  beginning  of  the  year.  Sec.     "  Those  on  the 

former  occasion  nro  the  most  splendid,  all  the  principal 

officers  of  the  government,  tributary  chiefs,  and  Tartar 

princes,  being  in  attendance.     As  the  ceremonies  oIh 

.lervcd  on  such  occasions — like  every  thing  else  in  China 

— never  vary,  the  following  dcHcription  of  one  in  1793, 

ffivon  by  Lord  Macartney,  may  be  taken  as  an  equally 

faithful  account  of  the  exhibitions  of  the  present  day  : — 

•  The  17th  September  being  the  emperor's  birthday,  we 

«•;  out  for  the  court  at  three  o'clock  in  the  morning. 

We  repo»rd  ourselves  about  two  hours  in  a  saloon,  at 

the  entrance  of  the  palace  enclosure,  where  fruit,  tea, 

warm  milk,  and  other  refreshments,  were  brought  to  us. 

At  last,  notice  was  given  that  the  festival  was  about  to 

Ix'ipn,  and  we  immediately  descended  into  the  garden, 

where  wo  found  tvll  the  great  men  and  mandarins  in 

tlieir  rolws  of  state,  drawn  up  I  rforc  the  im(>erisl  pavi- 

lii'ii.    T've  emperor  did  not  show  himself,  but  remained 

concealed  behind  a  screen,  IVom  whence,  I  presume,  he 

foiild  see  and  enjoy  the  ceremonies  without  inconveni- 

piire  or  interruption.     All  eyes  were  turned  to  the  place 

whore  his  majesty  was  imagined  to  be  enthroned,  and 

ncomcd  to  express  an  impatience  to  liegin  the  devotions 

of  the  day.     Slow,  solemn  music,  muffled  drums,  and 

i!,'c|)-toncd  bolls,  were  hoard   in  the  distance.     On  a 

fiuiilcn  the  sound  ceased,  r.nd  all  wiis  still.     Again  they 

n  ere  renewed,  and  then  intermitted,  with  short  paust'S ; 

iluring  which,'several  persons  passed  backwards  and  for- 

\v:irds  in  the  prnf:rrniiini,  or  foreground  of  the  tent,  as  if 

pri2;jii;ed  in  preparing  some  gran<l  crnip  tic  Ihcatir.     At 

li;ii;th  the  Treat  band,  vocal  and  inHrumental,  struck  uj) 

with  all  their  powers  of  harmony ;  and  instantly  the 

whole  court  fell  Hat  uimn  their  faces  lieforo  this  invisible 

Nehuchadnczzar.     The  nuiMic  might  lie  considered  as  a 

sort  of  birth-<lay  ikIc  or  stute-anthem,  the  burden  of 

which  was,  '  Bow  down  your  heads,  all  ye  dwellers  on 

the  Earth  !    How  down  your  heads  before  the  gieat  Kien- 

l.iiig!  the  great  Kien-long!'     And  then  aJI  tlie  dwellers 

UjKin  Chimwarth  there  present,  except  ourselves,  bowed 

down  their  heads,  and  prostrated  themselves  upon  the 

ground,  at  every  renewal  of  the  chonis.     Indeed,  in  no 

j  reliirion,  either  ancient  or  moilern,  has  the  Divinity  ever 

boen  addressed,  I  believe,  with  stronger  exterior  marks 

1  jf  worship  and  adoration  Ihap  were  this  morning  jiaid 

li)  the  phantom  of  his  Chinese  maj<  sty.     Such   is  the 

moilp  of  ceiebrating  the  emperor's  anniversary  festival, 

ircoiding  to  the  court  ritual.     Wo  saw  nothing  of  !iim 

Oil"  whole  day  ;  nor  di<!  any  of  his  niiiiistors,  I  ))resuinc, 

i:i|.ro;»ih  hitn,  for  they  all  seemed  to  retire  at  the  same 

I  m  unent  we  did." 

All  who  arc  admitted  to  the  honour  of  an  audience 

I  of  his  "celosliiil  majesty,"  are  compelled  to  perforin  the 

cifciiiony  of  prostratii.n,  or  knulmi,  which  consists  in 

[irwi'.rating  themselves  lune  times  on  the  ground,  and 

I  U'llitig  it  as  often  with  their  foreheads.     Tl\is  humiliat- 

llnj  cciomin*   is  exacted  from  foreign  ambassadors  as 


well  as  natives,  aa  typical  of  the  emperor's  d  jminion 
over  all  the  earth,  and  has  been  hitheito  complied  with 
by  all  the  European  plenipotentiaries  who  have  visited 
the  Chinese  court,  with  the  exception  of  the  British;  of 
which  more  hereafter.  Of  the  other  internal  regulations 
of  the  royal  household.,  nothing  is  known. 

CLA88B8   Of   POPULATION— OCCUPATIONS. 

The  population  of  China,  under  the  emperor  hintself 
and  his  family,  may  he  divided  into  eight  distinct  classes. 
And  one  of  Ae  most  striking  circumstances  in  the  social 
sytem  in  this  great  despotism  is,  the  want  of  that  which 
has  almost  universally  been  reckoned  indispensable  to 
the  stability  of  a  monarchy — o  nobility.  With  the  ex» 
ecption  of  the  princes  of  the  blood,  whose  peraons  are  in 
some  degree  held  sacred,  there  is  no  rank  but  what  it 
deiived  from  the  holding  of  some  office  in  the  stare.  But 
although  those  thus  favoured  are,  by  courtesy,  esteemed 
noble,  and  even  some  families  are,  by  the  emperor's  fa- 
vour (such  as  the  descendants  of  (>oi\fuciua),  allowed  to 
retain  a  title  of  honour,  they  derive  no  power,  privilege, 
or  emolument  therefrom.  The  sons  of  the  highest  man- 
darins derive  no  digr.ity  or  advantage  from  the  rank  of 
♦heir  fathers.  As  the  possessions  of  the  parent,  too,  are 
all  equally  divided  among  his  sons,  the  riches  of  the 
greatest  families  diminish  in  proportion  to  the  number 
of  heirs ;  and  if  these  are  no  way  distinguished  by  taleot, 
they  soon  sink  back  into  the  common  mass  of  the  people. 

"The  great  body  of  the  people  may  be  divide!  into  th« 
following  classes: — The  MANnAiiiNs,  the  Miiitaut, 
the  Ijitkhati,  the  Bomzks  (or  priests),  the  Husband 
MKN,  who  are   the  most  favoured  class  in  the  state,  the 
Ahtisans  and  the  Mkhcha^ts,  who  are  the  haU  lo 
spcctcd,  aperiiilly  Ihnac  vhn  triiffir  with  foreign  naliont) 
It  is  one  of  the  most  curious  features  of  this  singular 
government,  that,  being  so  essentially  despotic  in  itself 
both  in  principle  and  practice,  it  possesses  one  feature 
generally  reckoned  the  main  principle  of  a  democracy 
— namely,  that  tht  liighesi  honours  ami  ojfias  in  the  stalt 
are  alikr  open  lo  all  rlasxs  of  the  people.    The  mcaneet 
origin  is  no  bar,  and  the  proudest  rank  is  no  recom- 
mendation to  the  iiulividual.     This  system,  no  doubt, 
soothes  the  public  mind,  and  induces  the  people  to  bear 
with  greater  patience  that  insolence  of  office  and  stretch 
of  )  )wor  which  they  themselves  have  tho-prospect  of  ex- 
ercisiiijr  in  turn.     The  result,  however,  is  exactly  in  the 
inverse  ratio  to  the  plausibility  of  the  system.    "  Where 
the  offices  of  state,"  says  Mr.  Barrow,  "  are  open  to  the- 
very  lowest  of  the  people,  when  possessed  of  the  requi- 
site qualifications,  the  candida^s  for  employment  beconie 
so  numerous,  that  every  trilling  fault  is  laid  hold  of  to 
create  a  vaca;\y  ;  and  these  frequent  removals  and  de- 
gradations fall  in  precisely  with  the  system  of  govern- 
ment, which  is  to  break  down  all  connection  lictween 
the  ofllccrs  ond  the  [«?ople,  and  to  turn  the  rcrpect  and 
venerntjcn  of  the  latter  exclusively  to  the  soviTeign." 
It  is  found,  that  the  mere  mean  the  original  condition 
of  a  mandariti  has  been,  the  more  oppressive  and  extor- 
tionate is  his  coiuluct  to  those  under  him,  not  only  with 
the  view  of  making  his  origin  be  forgotten  in  his  pri-sent 
(lovRtion,  Imt,  knowing  the  insecurity  of  his  situation, 
of  making  tlio  most  of  it  while  it  is  in  his  power.     The 
people,  however,  sidmiit  patiently  fo  his  exactions,  a^ 
sured  tiiat  his  dismissal  (of  which  they  arc  certain)  will 
I  open  the  way  for  one  of  themselves  to  enjoy  the  same 
1  opportunities  of  robliory  and  oppression. 

In  accordance   with  the    national   system,  howevei, 
i  the  office  of  mandarin,  to  which  all  ranks  otigerly  aspire, 
j  is  almost  wholly  engrossed  by  individuals  soloofod  fi-om 
the  three  humblest  classes — the  husbandmen,  the  arti- 
sans, and  the  merchants.     Those  who  have  acquired 
wealth,  by  whatever  m>  ■  .is,  generally  enter  into  sonw 
1  of  these  oc-  ^(.ations  to  render  them  mo/e  eligible  for  ll;« 
I  office,  in  order  that,  by  attaining  it,  they  may  enjoy  fc<cu 


\H- 


9t-' 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


poNeitionm  in  more  security.  Others  purchase  the 
office  with  their  whole  fortune,  secure  of  finding  the 
means  of  recruiting  their  finances  during  their  three 
years'  administration. 

The  manderins  consist  of  two  classes,  the  civil  and 
the  milit*ry.  The  former,  however,  are  the  chief  ofK- 
cers  who  govern  the  empire,  although  they  are  placed 
under  such  restrictions  as  to  prevent  their  ever  becoin- 
ing  iaiigero\i8  to  the  emperor.  They  cannot  marry  in 
Uie  province  or  city  they  govern,  nor  hold  office  in  a 
province  within  fifty  leagues  of  that  where  they  were 
born,  until  they  are  sixty  years  old ;  with  many  other 
despotic  regulations  of  the  same  /i<iture.  A  mandarin 
haa  unlimited  power  in  his  district,  but  his  conduct  is 
watched  by  those  above  him,  as  it  is  the  policy  of  the 
Chinese  government  to  make  every  department  respon- 
sible for  the  one  immediately  inferior  to  it.  Notwith- 
■tanding  this  surveillance,  however,  and  although  their 
salary  is  barely  sufficient  for  simple  maintenance,  it  is 
regarded  as  a  phenomenon  by  the  Chinese  to  sec  a  man- 
dwin  leave  office  without  amassing  great  riches.  Their 
means  of  accomplishing  this  we  have  already  explained 
ander  the  head  of  Government.  Notwithstanding  their 
inlamous  exactions,  the  people  observe  towards  them 
the  greatest  reverence.  They  are  saluted  with  tlio  title 
of  "  Great  Lord,"  and  every  one  Iwiids  the  knee  while 
addressing  them.  The  two  chief  clusses  of  mandarins 
are  divided  into  nine  ditferent  orders,  who  are  all 
minutely  distinguished  by  particular  parts  of  their  dress. 
The  most  marked,  however,  is  the  button  on  the  bon- 
aet,  which,  among  those  of  the  first  order,  consists  of  a 
i»d  ruby  ;  others  of  a  meaner  order  have  a  rock  crystal ; 
and  the  most  inferior,  one  of  ({old.  The  nuintwr  of  civil 
and  military  mandarins  is  calculated  at  between  20,000 
and  30,000. 

The  liierali  form  the  most  distinguished  part  of  the 
Chinese  nation,  as  it  is  from  amongst  these  that  the 
individuals  necessary  for  discharging  all  the  liighor 
duties  in  the  state  are  recruited.  To  insure  the  ade- 
quate aceomplishment  of  thes«!  learned  statt^smen,  there 
ia,  as  before  stated  (und;r  the  head  of  Government),  a 
board  of  censors,  named  Lii-poo,  to  direct  their  studies, 
and  examine  into  the  prog^ress  of  their  erudition ;  and 
government  has  fixed  for  every  city  of  the  first,  sccoini, 
and  third  clas%  the  number  of  literati  allowed  to  qualify 
tliemselvca  annually  in  each,  by  taking  out  a  diploma, 
corresponding  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts  in  Bri- 
■  tain.  There  are,  then,  in  China,  upwards  of  24,700  in- 
dividuals aniuially  added  to  the  qualified  literati ;  and 
it  is  therefore  conjectured,  that  there  are  never  less  than 
493,000  of  tJiis  liody.  'Jllesc  are  all  exempt  from  taxes 
of  every  description ;  and  as  soon  as  they  have  taken 
out  tlieir  degrees,  their  names  arc  enrolled  in  the  lists 
of  the  Lii-pov,  who  choose  from  amongst  them  the 
iiigher  orders  of  mandarins. 

It  is,  however,  in  productive  labour  that  perhnps  two- 
Ihinls  of  the  Chines<>  ore  employed ;  the  remaining 
third,  ameunting,  after  deducting  the  civil  and  military 
officers,  students,  literati,  &r.,  to  about  ten  millions, 
being  engaged  in  trading  and  manufactures.  It  is  the 
great  raaiim  of  the  (.'hincsc  government,  that  agrieul- 
turo  is  the  true  source  of  national  prosperity  and  wealth  ; 
and  they  have  in  every  age  honoured  and  protected  the 
eultivators  of  the  soil.  This  dims,  indeed,  may  ba  con- 
■idered  mucb  tlie  happiest  ami  most  iiidejiendent  of  the 
Btition  ;  for  although  they  pay  to  the  amount  of  a  tenth 
annually  to  the  emperor,  they  have  neither  priesthood 
nor  poor  to  support — uniess  the  \nxn  of  their  own 
fsmiHos,  whom  all  classes  are  hound  to  provide  for. 
The  immarch  is  the  universal  proprietor  of  the  soil,  and 
the  tithe  exacted  from  it  is  the  whole  rent  paid  by  iLi' 
«nnf  r.  Bui  though  th-  cultivator  is  thus  in  a  manner 
a  teuaot  at  will,  he  is  aetir  disturbird  in  his  possession 
W  long  as  bi  Motinges  to  pay  his  land-tax,  and  has  ths 


power  of  letting  out  any  pan,  oi  tho  wliole,  if  he  plcams, 
to  another.  As  tliere  are  no  public  funds  in  which  tc 
vest  capital,  and  commercial  speculatijiis  are  reckoned 
degrading,  all  classes  are  eager  to  lay  out  tlieir  capita 
in  land.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  even  the  princes  and 
nobility  vie  with  each  other  in  countcnuncing  agricul. 
ture.  Yet,  notwithstanding  all  this  encouragement,  the 
amount  of  land  cultivated  is  trifling  in  comparison  to 
the  extent  of  the  empire.  By  a  report  made  to  Kien. 
long  in  1 745,  it  appeared  that  there  were  only  aliout 
6,000,000  of  acres  under  cultivation,  uut  of  ths 
fi40,000,000  calculated  to  l)c  capable  of  tillage.  From 
the  want  of  cntcr|irisc,  but  still  more  from  the  want  of 
skill  and  suitable  implements,  imnienie  tracts  of  land 
are  allowed  to  lie  waste ;  and  it  is  i  stiniatcd  that  i 
fourth  of  the  whole  country  consists  of  lakes  and 
swamps,  most  of  which  are  capable  of  being  draiinvL 
It  will  easily  be  seen  how  iiiaihquate  tin;  imxlucc  of  the 
soil  is  to  insure  a  regular  supply  of  food  to  the  inlia!)it. 
ants,  in  seasons  of  m'areity,  occasioned  by  long  droughts, 
which  frequently  occur;  and  when  it  is  coiisideie<l  llmt 
there  is  no  foreign  supply  of  grain  to  make  up  for  deii- 
eiencies,  little  wonder  need  lie  expressed  at  the  terrific 
famines  which  often  afflict  the  nation.  To  provide 
against  these  scarcities,  a  year's  produce  of  the  land  it 
always  kept  stored  up  in  public  granaries ;  but  this  pro- 
vision is  never  found  suiRcient  to  prevent  the  frcqutul 
recurrence  of  the  most  dreadful  sreni'S  of  starvation. 

We  are  somewhat  puzzled  what  to  say  regarding  th« 
amount  of  tlie  poimlation  of  China ;  for  although  ail 
accounts  agree  that  it  is  Hoinething  enormous,  there 
is  a  ditlcrence  of  millions  between  the  statements  pro- 
ceeding from  what  may  be  terme^  live  most  authentic 
sources  known.  The  mandarins  attendant  on  Lord 
Macartney,  in  the  year  1793,  gave  out  the  population 
ut  !i33  millions;  and  by  a  census  ty' en  in  181.'),  by 
order  of  the  Chinese  government,  this  enormous  maai 
is  swelled  up  to  307,821,017,  which  gives  about  268  to 
the  square  mile.  According  to  u  statement  in  a  Chineso 
official  document  which  is  (juotcd  with  approbation  by 
Dr.  Morrison,  the  population  at  present  is  3-52,8(36,01';. 
Of  the  truth  of  this  statement  nothing  can  be  said,  and, 
considering  the  small  extent  of  cultivated  land  in  the 
empire,  it  api)oars  to  lie  greatly  exaggerated.  'IV; 
supposition  it:,  that  it  not  only  ineludts  China  Proper, 
but  all  the  surrounding  states,  which  are  either  dcpeni). 
ant  uj>on,  or  imy  tribute  to  the  empire-  According  la 
Thom,  the  pop-ilation  is  181,788,103,  which  he  divide 
into  tho  following  religious  st'cts : — 

Followers  of  Confucius,  Laou-tmir, 

and  Taon,  -         -         •  l.'i9.220,16:) 

Worshippers  of  Lama,        -         •  1H,00(),0(IO 

Mohamtnedims,  ....    l,6()0,(IOll 

Konian  Catholics.       ....         88,(100 

Jews, nn.mo 

Boodhists  anu  others,  .         ■         .  2.830.IWO 

181,7887l«3 

This  table  is  perhaps  as  near   an  apiiroximation  to  ilu 
truth  as  can  be  luadc,  although  the  calculation  is  tliou^'hl 
by  some   to  lie   too  high   for   the  extent   of  cullivatoj 
ground,     ^tccordipg  to  a  [larliumentarN  jiaper  publislud 
in    1830,  the  population  of  (iiina  I'inpcr,  excliuiv,'  .if 
Tartary    and    the    other    de|aiideiu  irs,    is    MI,i;(i,IK^| 
souls.     In  the    (lenriun   ^talistital  Aliiiuiiai',  piiMi.'lhrii  i 
at  \\'eirn;ir  in  1S:)8,  the  i)0,nilaliiin  of  Chi'ia  rropiTU  j 
estimalcd  at    118,000,0(10.      From   tiio   same  aullriritv 
we  learn  that  the  army  in  lS3,"i  was  I,'^.')0,(1(I0  slniriif;  | 
comprehemling  830,000  infantry,  aiiil  420,000  cavair; 
and  the  naval  force  is  calcula'j>d  at  32,440  men. 

PRODurTioss — Aoniri-i.TUBr. — tea  rttitr. 
The  staple  productions  of  China  arc  ri<'e,  ten,  (i!k,| 
cotton,  sugar,  salt,  porcelain,  tin,  lead,  musk,  rhulaitkl 


^ticksJl*    ,  aaltpeti 
facfures. 

Ric«  is  tho  great 

•1  its  imnortnnce  re; 

at  the  commencemei 

()crform»  in  person,  t 

nrcasion  by  three  da 

forth  in  great  pomp, 

opens  a  furrow,    nd 

son.     TTie  same  is  ( 

on  the  same  day,  by 

grain  reaped  from  thi 

.ind  reserved   for   sai 

piriiln,  of  which  there 

little  or  no  labour ;  \ 

Tor  the  most  part  thi 

port  of  tho  empire. 

-uity  in  their  various 

from  the  rivers,  by  m 

buckets,  &c.     The  fii 

and  the  second  in  Jul 

fiokle  three  months  aft 

there  is  a  great  deal  ol 

besides  wheat,  maize,  pi 

op  spontaneously,  are  i 

implements  of  husban 

plough  is  held  by  one  \ 

piece  of  crooked  timbe 

[  is  armed  with  a  hook, 

hand ;  while  a  pcrpem 

the  middle  of  the  beam 

piece  is  placed  lengthw 

the  handle,  while  the  oil 

Thir  implement  does  nc 

of  more  than  six  inch( 

reached  ;  and  being  thus 

often  to  be  left  fallow  fo 

.Agricultural    iniprovi^i 

been  encouraged   and    I 

wnaidcred  an  honourabl 

ind  ranks  next  to  men 

The  soliliers  and  the  pri 

latter  generally  having  I; 

T!ic  empire,  however,  is  i 

■Vcn  asserted  by  many  tra 

Ollirely  under  cultivatio 

tracts  of  waste  ground. 

fiorticultnrists,  the  Chin... 

merit,  but  on  the  great  w 

I.)  I*  mentioned  with  ui,\ 

dudions  extend  to  every 

«c-arcely  a  gniin,  a  fruit, 

Europe,  that  they  do  not 

The  Chine.st>  excel  in  s 
lure,  and    esiH-ci„I|y   j,, 
jronnJs;  and  this  may  Iw 
olepintnrts  in  which  Ih 
I  ilyle,  indeed,  stronglv  . ,  „ 
iUKWlmagnifieent  and  exte 
ire  those  of  Yuen-min-yu 
Tartary;  the  latter  of  whir 
t'lLord  .Macartney,  who  SI 
mre-nronnds  at   I,'owlher-i 
>■  however.    ,,„    ..    .:o„„ 
Eniilish  miles  in  diamele 
"iihin  thffr  pri'cincl.i  ihii 
mperor.  ,.arh   resembling 
I.amied  propertv  is  eons 
lrai|H'nir;    the    laiid    bcini; 
m  hobler,  who   is  allowc 
julie  continues  to  pay  a  , 
|?«d  rapihle  of  vicMing 
jinijthan  his  family  can  ( 
h  "itXlicr.  on  condi  ion  , 


S( 


1  I 


CHINA. 


•S 


i|r  tuk«il*    .  saltpetre,  winea,  fruita,  and  vanous  manu- 

fiicture*. 

Rice  is  the  great  stap^'.  article  of  food  ,  a.  id  so  much 
.« its  imnortancc  regarded,  that  a  high  festival  is  held 
It  the  commencument  of  each  seed-time.  The  emperor 
j)crform»  Jn  person,  and  prepares  himself  for  the  solemn 
orcasion  by  three  days'  fast  and  prayer.  He  then  goes 
forth  in  great  pomp,  takes  the  plough  in  his  own  hands, 
opens  a  furrow,  nd  throws  in  the  first  seed  of  the  sea- 
son. The  same  is  done  in  every  part  of  the  empire, 
on  the  same  day,  by  the  viceroys  and  governors.  The 
grain  ronpcd  from  this  seed  is  preserved  in  granaries, 
and  reserved  for  sacrifices.  The  cultivation  of  this 
l^riiin,  of  which  there  are  two  crops  innually,  requires 
little  or  no  labour ;  water  supplies  every  purpose,  and 
for  the  most  part  this  element  is  abundant  in  every 
port  of  the  empire.  The  growers  display  great  inge- 
-uity  in  their  various  contrivances  for  raising  the  water 
from  the  rivers,  by  means  of  wheels,  levers,  swinging 
hu^kct.^,  &c.  The  first  crop  of  rice  is  sown  in  March, 
;in(I  the  second  in  July,  the  grain  being  ready  for  the 
sicklo  three  months  after  it  is  sown.  Exclusive  of  rice, 
there  is  a  great  deal  of  barley  grown  in  some  districts, 
besides  wheat,  maize,  peas,  and  beans.  Oats,  which  spring 
up  spontaneously,  iire  pulled  up  as  a  useless  weed.  The 
implements  of  husbandry  are  extremely  simple.  The 
plough  is  held  by  one  hand,  and  consists  but  of  a  single 
piece  of  crooked  timber,  the  lower  extremity  of  which 
is  Mined  with  a  hook,  and  the  superior  guided  by  the 
hand ;  while  a  perpendicular  piece  of  wood  rises  from 
the  middle  of  the  beam,  across  the  top  of  which  another 
piece  is  placed  lengthways,  one  end  of  which  is  fixed  to 
the  handle,  while  the  other  is  connected  with  the  traces. 
Thi?  implement  does  not  turn  up  the  earth  to  the  depth 
of  more  than  six  inches,  so  that  new  earth  is  never 
reached ;  and  bring  thus  exhausted,  the  ground  requires 
often  to  he  loft  fallow  for  want  of  manure. 

Agricultural   iinprovi'inont  in  China  has  in  all  ages 

hcen  encouraged    and    honoured.     The  husbandman   is 

considered  an  honourable  and  useful  member  of  society, 

and  ranks  next  to  men  of  letters  and  officers  of  state. 

The  soldiers  and  the  priest!  alike  cultivate  the  soil ;  the 

litter  generally  having  land  attached  to  their  convents. 

[  Tlic  empire,  however,  is  not  s    generally  cultivated  as  has 

heen  asserted  by  many  traveller.-.  •  some  districts  are  almost 

I  entirely  under  cultivation,  but  many  contain  extensive 

i  tracts  of  waste  ground.     Dr.  .\l)el  is  of  opinion,  that,  '-ns 

I  horticulturistjf,  the  Chinese  may  perhaps  t)e  allowed  'loine 

merit,  but  on  the  great  scale  of  agriculture,  they  arc  not 

t)!*  mentioned  with  any  Eur()i)oan  nation."     The  pro- 

Juclions  extend  to  every   useful  vegetable,  tuere  being 

marcely  a  gniin,  a  fruit,  a  tree,  or  a  culinary  vegetable  of 

Eiiro|)",  that  they  do  not  cultivate. 

The  Chines*'  excel  in  gardening  more  than  in  agrieul- 
I  lure,  and  osiM'cially  in  the  art  of  laying  out  garden 
I  jronnds;  and  this  may  Iw  considered  the  only  u;.,  'f  the 
I  clotfant  arts  in  which  they  display  genius  or  tusle.  'flieir 
jrtyle,  indeed,  strongly  .  semhles  that  of  England.  The 
jmait  inii(;nifieent  and  extensive  of  the  emiM-ror's  gardens 
lire  lhi)se  of  Yuen-inin-yuen,  at  Pekin,  and  of  Oeliol  in 
|Tartiiry;  the  latter  of  which  i^<  descriWd  in  gUvvinn  terms 
|iy  Lord  Macartni'V ,  who  says  it  reminded  him  of  the  plea- 
[niro-uronnds  at  Lowther-Hall  in  Westmoreland.  They 
however,  ou  .".  .:onii'wh;it  larger  .«i'ale,  bcin'.;  ten 
lEmliih  miles  in  diameter,  or  00,000  acres,  containing 
I  within  their  preiinets  thirty  separate  habitations  fur  ti\<' 
[(inpfror,  .ai-b  rescinhlini;  a  village  of  considerable  size. 
Laniied  property  is  eunsidered  the  absolnte  rit'litof  the 
Ifmik'nir;  the  bind  biiii;;  held  by  a  sub-proprietor,  or 
|Sr>t  holder,  who  is  allowi'd  to  keep  possesHion  so  long 
lulii'  roiitiiiiies  U)  pay  a  tenth  of  what  his  birm  is  sup- 
lixiscj  rapible  of  yielding.  If  one  person  holds  more 
iW  than  his  f'lniilv  can  conveniently  cullivate,  he  li  ts  it 
'1  mother,  on  eondi  ion  of  receiving  half  the  produce. 


from  which  he  pays  the  emperor's  tax.  There  are  no 
extensive  estates  or  farms  in  the  country.  The  whole 
ingenuity  of  the  inhabitants  seems  to  be  exercised  on  the 
cultivation  of  small  spots,  rather  than  in  cultivating  large 
tracts. 

The  Tcha,  Tha,  or  Tea-tree,  grows  equally  in  th« 
mountainous  and  level  districts,  but  prefers  a  lij^ht  and 
rocky  soil.  It  is  sown  by  putting  seven  or  eight  seeds 
into  a  hole,  two  or  three  of  which  only  spring  up,  and 
these  are  afterwards  transplanted  into  rows.  They  begin 
to  yield  leaves  three  years  after  being  planted,  but  require 
to  be  renewed  every  five  or  six  years,  as  the  leaves  then 
liegin  to  grow  hard  and  harsh.  The  appearance  of  the 
tea-shrub  resembles  that  of  the  broad-leafed  myrtle,  with 
a  flower  like  that  of  the  wild  white  r.Tse.  There  are  dif- 
ferent modes  of  cultivating  the  tea-crop  in  different  pro- 
vinces ;  but  there  are  in  fact  only  two  distinct  species  ef 
it,  the  green  and  the  black.  All  the  rest  are  mere  combi- 
nations of  these  two  in  diflerent  proportions,  or  are  simple 
varieties  produced  by  diflerence  of  soil,  culture,  gather- 
ing, or  curing. 

The  black  tea  is  grown  in  the  maritime  province  of 
Fo-kien,  with  the  exception  of  about  one-third  of  the 
bohea,  which  is  produced  in  the  north-east  corner  of 
Canton  province,  in  a  district  called  Wo-ping.  Green 
tea  is  all  grown  in  the  maritime  provinces  of  Kiaguan, 
Kiang-si,  and  Che-Kiang,  but  chiefly  in  the  two  fomjer. 
Some  of  the  buds  of  the  plant  in  Fokien  are  picked  in 
the  early  part  of  the  spring,  before  they  have  burst,  and  a 
small  portion  of  these  is  mixed  with  the  best  parcels  of 
congou,  to  give  them  a  flavour.  Pekoe  is  also  brought 
to  f^anton  unmixed  with  other  leaves. 

In  the  beginning  of  April,  the  leaves  are  stripped  olf 
the  plant ;  a  new  crop  is  then  thrown  out,  and  picket] 
about  six  weeks  afterwards,  and  a  third  crop  about  tlio 
end  of  May :  the  two  first  pickings  are  the  best,  and 
nearly  equal  in  quality.  The  third  crop  of  leaves  yields 
tea  of  .♦tic  strength  and  inferior  flavour:  hence  the  best 
crops  are  composed  wholly  of  the  choice  leaves  of  the 
two  first  gatlierings,  with  a  small  sprinkling  of  the  buds 
or  pekoe.  The  inferior  crops  contain  a  larger  share  of 
the  third  pickings,  and  none  of  the  pekoe.  The  black 
tea  in  Fo-kien  is  cultivated  largely  by  cottagers  in  small 
plots  of  ground  or  gardens.  The  leaves  are  picked  by 
the  family,  and  immediately  sold  to  persons  whose  busi- 
ness it  is  to  collect  quantities  of  them,  and  manufacture 
them  in  part.s,  that  is,  e.\pos.>  them  to  be  dried  by  the 
wind  under  the  shade,  and  afterwards  to  be  further  dried 
in  a  heated  warehouse.  The  tea-merchants  and  the 
agents  ot'  the  Hong  merchants  come  to  the  tea  districts, 
and  ptirehus*'  (juantitios  of  the  dried  leaves  of  the  first, 
second,  and  third  gatherings,  discriminating  the  leaves  of 
the  J  oung  and  old  plants,  and  those  grown  in  well-known 
favcui-ib'p  spots.  They  then  complete  the  drying  or  roast- 
ing process,  an<l  employ  women  an<l  children  to  select  the 
hard,  the  liest  le:ives,  with  more  or  less  discrimination, 
ai  cording  to  the  olject  of  making  very  fine,  middling,  or 
conmion  tea.  The  green  tea  is  lew  highly  dried  than  the 
black ;  and  Mr.  Burrow  supposes  that  it  is  from  the  for- 
mer thus  retai^iing  much  of  its  natural  juices,  that  ita 
nenous  properties  (generally  ascribed  to  its  lieing  dried  in 
cop|ier  V(';.«els)  are  to  lie  imputed.  The  green  tta  i« 
usually  pressed  into  chests  while  hot,  to  give  it  a  finer 
flavour.  The  tea  is  made  into  parcels  of  from  100  to  600 
chests  eaeh,  with  a  distinctive  name  to  each  parcel,  and 
conformity  if  etpialily,  where  the  tea-merchant  acts  hon- 
estly ;  hence  'hose  parcels  of  tea,  which,  under  certain 
Chinese  names,  hnve  proved,  in  a  aeries  of  years,  of  ex- 
cellent qtmlily  atid  similar  ehnraeters,  and  which  are 
greatly  sought  after  at  the  London  sales,  are  not  the  prt>. 
diice  of  luiy  particular  farm,  but  owe  their  character  it 
'  the  skill  and  goml  t'aitli  with  which  the  tea-merchant  oi 
,  the  Hong  tnerehant's  agent  have  cxcvuted  their  corouiis- 
I  sions  in  selecting  only  sujHrior  parcels  of  leaves  in  tha 
H 


M 


.NFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


I 


markaU  of  W>.o-y-iihan.  Lik«  tha  black  ten,  the  difler- 
eiit  claxses  are  formed  by  selecting  tlie  bettor  from  the 
inferini  Icavrs  after  they  have  been  c'ricd;  tlie  light  leaves 
xoparated  by  a  winnowing  machine  from  the  heavier,  the 
iatter  of  which  constitute  the  gunpowder  tea ;  the  lighter 
ate  of  inferior  quality,  and  only  used  by  the  cumtnon 
people.  The  blooming  appearance  of  hyson,  gunpowili-r, 
Ac.,  is  aaid  to  arise  from  the  cHccIs  of  carefully  roasting 
the  leaves  in  iron  vases  placed  over  a  lire,  and  by  rubbing 
thorn  against  the  sides  of  the  veswel ;  in  tliis  prm-ess,  with 
the  green  teas,  much  skill  is  requisite,  tnd  dicre  is  a  class 
of  persons  hired  by  some  of  the  tea-merchants  to  anjifrin- 
tend  their  respective  manufactories.  The  hohca  tea  is 
oorapoxcd  partly  of  the  lower  grades  of  the  Woo-y-shiin 
tea,  which  has  been  left  unsold  after  tb.u  departure  of  the 
last  ships  of  the  season,  and  p.-ctly  of  the  tea  grown  in 
the  district  of  Canton  called  Wo-ping. 

The  tca<he8ta  undergo  si'vore  scrutiny  in  Canton, 
previously  to  being  purchased ;  and  if,  when  finally  ex- 
amined at  the  period  x  their  shipment,  they  are  found 
■uperior  to  the  quality  which  has  been  attachv^d  to  theni, 
their  price  is  raised ;  if  interior,  they  u.-e  rejected,  or  their 
price  lowered.  The  scientific  mode  of  proving  the  liner 
teas  is  to  put  a  small  quantity  into  a  rup;  pour  on  it 
pure  spring  water  at  full  l)oiiing  heat ;  place  the  saucer 
a^ve  the  cup,  tilling  it  also  with  boiling  water  to  increase 
the  heat:  after  a  sufKcient  time  hasclaps«;d  for  the  leaves 
to  unlbld  themselves,  to  examine  the  a|)p«\irance,  tlavuiir, 
but  particularly  the  Cvhur  of  the  infusion.  The  latter 
quality  is  of  course  only  known  to  the  initiated. 

Tea  is  the  universal  leverage  of  ('lu.ia.  It  Ik  drunk 
at  all  meals,  and  is  almost  the  only  liquor  used  at  feasts, 
and  while  visiting  each  other.  But  it  is  a  general  rule 
•niongst  thorn  never  to  drink  tea  immediately  alter  a  long 
fikst,  it  being  apt  to  allt;ct  the  nerves,  and  create  giJJi- 
ness.  The  tea-shrub  is  cultivated  only  in  China  and 
Japan,  and  is  supposed  to  be  indigenous  to  one  or  both 
of  these  countries.  All  attempts  to  introduce  it  into 
Europe  have  iiitherto  failed. 

The  quantity  of  tea  annually  plucked  in  China,  it  is 
impossible  tj  calculate,  unless  we  also  knew  the  quantity 
consumed  by  the  natives.  About  54,000,000  of  lbs.  arc 
annually  exported  from  Canton  to  all  purls  of  the  glolKj; 
and  it  is  a  remarkable  fiHt,  that  of  Ibis  quantity  CJreat 
Britain  and  Ireland  alone  consume  nearly  :)'.i,000,000 
Iha.— being  uiMiut  10,000,000  lbs.  more  than  all  the  na- 
tions of  the  civiiiied  world  put  together ! 

As  sulwtitutes  for  tea,  tlie  Chinese  use  a  species  of  moss 
common  t?  tins  mountains  of  Sliau-tung;  an  infusion 
of  diflerent  sorts  of  terns,  and  the  leaves  of  the  common 
cammelia. 

A  plant  called  the  oil-bearing  tea,  is  icuch  cultivated 
for  i*»  seeds,  from  which  an  oU  is  expressed,  in  very 
general  usi'  in  ihe  tiuiuestic  economy  >if  China.  I'lie 
needs  are  ground  to  a  coarse  powder,  Ixiiled  in  bags,  and 
thon  pressed,  when  the  oil  is  yield>'il.  'J'liere  is  also  cul- 
(ivate<l  a  <.re<'  of  considerable  tieight,  called  the  tallow-tree, 
from  the  seeds  of  wliich  a  substance  is  prepared,  having 
all  the  properties  ot  animal  tallow.  A  species  of  wliite 
cabbage  i<  >n  very  general  use,  and  is  considered  to  '.le  to 
the  Chinese  what  the  potato  is  to  the  Irish.  Fruits  of 
every  kind  abound,  but  tliey  are  not  considered  good,  ex- 
cept the  ora>tge  and  a  species  called  lee-tchec. 

MAWUFACTURKS. 
Prom   the  invet^Tjie  adherence  of  llie  Chinese  to  an- 
cient customs  and  piactici'S  of  every  description,  they  have 
ben    left  <'ornpara!iV(  ly  b«'liiiid   by  almost  every  civilized 
nation  III  all   useful   inechunical  arts,  even   tli.i»e  which  ; 
origi'iated  with  tliemselves.     Kvery  llnng  seeiiis  lo  have  ^ 
<to<Ml  slill  in  China  but  tune.     .Nothing  can  lie  more  'llus-  i 
trative  of  this  (act  tlian  the  caw'  of  the  silk-maiinlacture,  i 
ot  which  tlwy  were   undoubtedly  the  nixentors,  and  the 
kiwMli'd^e  ol  which,  as  their  aniuU  luast,  ^ey  possesseil 


3000  years  before  Christ  The  native  reelur  and  weaver 
still  continue  to  labour  on  by  the  same  tardy  process,  anj 
with  the  very  same  materials,  at-  were  used  by  their  an 
cestors ;  while  in  England,  whore  the  manufacture  whi 
totally  unknown  until  the  fourteenth  century  of  lt.( 
Christian  e/a,  8ii  Thomas  Lonibe,  so  far  back  as  1718 
erected  at  Derby  a  machine  driven  by  a  water-wneel,  bt 
every  revolution  of  which  wheel  7:1,720  yards  of  org.ii. 
ized  silk-thiead  were  thrown  olV,  and  amounting  per  iluy 
to  318,501  •  'JO  yards!  At  this  day,  the  sdks  of  China 
will  not  licar  comparison  with  those  of  Lyons,  6pita|. 
fields,  and  Edinburgh ;  the  first  for  light  fabrics,  t||,i 
s<;coiid  for  the  more  substantial,  and  the  last  for  &haw,s, 
.'Vgain,  in  the  article  of  porcelain  (from  the  Portuguese 
piirr.lln,  a  cup,  they  Uiing  the  first  who  iiitiodiiced  it  into 
Europe),  which,  until  a  very  late  period,  continued  to  Ikj 
the  admirition  of  the  world,  wo  have  been  enaliW, 
through  the  researches  of  Ueauniur  and  other  cbeinisLs 
to  compound  earths  .natching  that  witii  which  nature 
volunturil)  furnishes  the  Chinese,  and  not  only  equal 
them  in  the  fineness  and  durability  of  the  ware,  but  iu. 
finitely  excel  them  in  elegance  of  niaiuifiicture.  For 
ne.irly  a  century,  the  clumsy  fabrics  of  tlie  Chinese,  with 
iheir  daubs  of  blue  paint,  which  formerly  were  the  priiici- 
pal  oinamenls  of  the  niunsions  of  the  wealthy,  have  been 
driven  out  of  the  market  by  the  kcautiful  wares  of  Lrc* 
den,  Stulfordshire,  and  Severs. 

The  same  reniarlis  iii;cy  be  applied  to  all  the  otiu/ 
manuf  u'tures  of  China,  the  jirincipal  of  wliich,  liesides  the 
two  above  inentioned,  arc  those  of  cloth,  luinkeen  (or  cot. 
ton),  linen,  piijier,  and  ink.  In  whatever  dcpartmont  ol 
art  the  Chinese  continue  to  nuunti...i  a  suixrioiily  over, 
or  equality  with,  the  rest  of  the  v.  rid.  the  cause  is  to  l« 
tbuiid  in  the  bounty  ol  nature,  ii.it  tneir  own  iiigenuilv, 
Thus,  the  beaiiliful  yellow  winch  dislinguislies  the  nau- 
keen  cloth,  is  a  natural  quality  of  tlie  cotton  grown  in 
the  province  of  Iviang-iiaii  (of  which  Nankin  is  the  capi. 
tal),  and  is  to  lie  found  in  no  other  district  of  i'Miwx 
The  Chinese  still  p«'riiiiaciously  adhere  to  their  aiiciini 
practice  of  fal)ricatiiig  their  pajier  from  the  bark  of  the 
bamboo  and  koo-tchoo  (by  the  latter  of  which  iiaiii.i 
they  term  it),  notwithstaniling  their  lieing  perlictly  will 
aware  of  the  sujieriorily  of  lliat  made  from  rags,  ami  the 
infinitely  greater  cheapness  and  siinphcity  of  the  nianu. 
facture. 

'J'hc  Chinese  ink  is  obtained  from  the  soot  jirodurej  bv 
the  smoke  of  phies  and  the  oil  in  lamps,  mixed  with  ilie 
isinglass  of  asses'  skin  and  iiiusk,  to  correct  the  odour  of 
tilt;  oil.  It  is  principally  made  in  the  province  of  Kiaiij- 
nan. 

ARTS  AND  8CIENCKS. 

What  we  have  said  re-jpecliiig  the  statioxary  comlitiim 
of  the  nianufactures,  applies  equally  to  the  arts  and  hi- 
ences  of  China.  The  prtx-ess  of  pnnting  continues  ihf 
same  as  when  originally  iiivt..'.'il  by  themselves  ahoui  j 
1700  years  since.  The  characters  je  first  wrillcn  on 
l)a|>er,  which  is  giU'>d  upon  Iniards  of  hard  wood,  and  liif 
engravei  carves  the  characters  U[«)ii  the  wotxl,  holliinim 
out  the  intt^rmedinte  parts.  When  an  impression  is  in  -< 
taken  oil',  the  printer  lays  on  the  ink  with  a  brush,  a(j.  I 
plies  the  sheet  of  pa(K'r,  which  he  presses  down  willu 
softer  brusn  than  the  other,  aiul  with  a  greater  r 
degree  ol  pressure,  according  to  the  quantity  of  ink  iaij  I 
on.  Such  is  the  primitive  iinxle  of  printing  still  |Kr». 
vcivd  in  tlirtmghtmt  the  interior  of  ( 'hina,  allhoi:i;!i  I 
movable  tyiu^s  an;  of  i^oursc  iiii-,-«Hary  in  printing  i:ii  I 
Koyul  (!a/.i'Uc  of  I'ekaii,  wiiicli  is  issued  daily,  and  uiU  j 
diicuiiielits. 

One  of  the  niiwt  singular  features  of  Chiu'-si'  gi'ii!u-i 
developed  in  llieir  att.'npls  at   painting.      I  ht\  .li~|!a\| 
exlraonhiiary  [Mivvers  of  niinute  iinitaluin,  and  will  . 
with  the  utiibisl  exu  •■"■««  the  iiumbtr  of  [xlals,  tiw 
spoLs,  \c,.  ol  a  flower,  a,ud  lh«'  >»  Jcs  of  a  fuh  ;  iiulliail 


■re,  utterly  unal 
every  defect  as 
Imitation.     The 
live,  considerinf 
of  distant  objccti 
«iid  they  thercfc 
foreground.     W 
a  portrait  of  his  1 
a  pity  it  should 
— meaning  the  s 
picture  of  the  en 
impious  to  repres 
tions,  and  therefe 
attendunts — the  1: 
people  consider  I 
pre-eminent  over 
the  reinonatrancei 
In  sculpture,  a 
ception  of  order, 
be  nothing  more 
which  (ir/or/i    the 
affirmed,  indeed,  I 
statue  or  column  i 
The  Chinese  ni 
simplicily  in  whii 
iwriiarous  nations, 
("les  of  tlnV  nati-jn 
tish  tunes;"  that 
Greece;"  and   thai 
considered  as  i,aliii 
Ihe  Greeks,  coiisisti 
tones;  but  thev  ue 
down  their  music,  \ 
without  any  attenif 
Thtjy  always  endea 
ofcounterjwint  or  j 
inents  are  extreme 
fcclls,  triangles,  <Scc.; 
of  Europe  are  a  apt 
«ilk,  antl  a  small  orf 
equal  reads,  struck  i 
by  a  |)ipe  for  fht 
Ihe  reeiis.     Dr.  Bui 
«  scale  to  this  instru 
taste,  ill  short,  is  in  i 
ilwtruiiieaiLs  at  o:,c(\ 
of  rank,  who.  iN'ini,' 
to  one  of  the  thisilrc 
meiiced,  he  appearei 
Willi  the  utmost  intii 
followetl,  asking  im| 
?<>iiig  to  play  aiT»:ii 
friend  w.is  puzzled  to 
upon   the  lierformen^ 
iDslrumtnIs  after  th 
clainifd,  in  ra|)turc  a 
—that's  it  now  I"     'J 
afthe  Chinese,  inilee. 
of  music.     'I'hfy  lik 
it— like  th<t  T-.irks,  . 
of  pleasure.    It  is  tolt 
he  saw,  at  a  hull  giv,. 
Ihe  n  bility  and  gen, 
lie  floor,  ht  expressc- 
*«""»'lv<«   so   mucli 
vusly.  ..  We  make  oij 
hh'\  Hnis  it  is  wilh  tl 

In  u.inost  all  the 
lies.'  iuc  wonderfully 
*  ilf|,'ree  of  jierle.li,, 
N'"  iK'opli;  have  larri- 
lilj,'  dyeing  materials 
r:;b«linn-es,  so  tar  as 
wiliicut  liiiy  sdoiiufic 


CHINA. 


«7 


I  wuavet 
ceiw.  Bill] 
their  an 
lure  w«i 
I  of  U.C 
08  1/18 
vliet'l,  bv 
)f  orgai. 

per  iluj 
of  China 
g,  bpiul- 
hrics,  tlw 
ir  fchawis, 
ortusucse 
■(.'■I  it  into 
licit  to  lie 

ciiuIiUhI, 
chemisls, 
cli  liu'.ure 
miy  uijuai 
rv,  but  iii- 
,ure.  Fur 
iicse,  wiiii 
the  priiici- 
have  Ui'Q 
!s  of  Da* 

the  otht/ 
ItesiJfs  llie 
cii  (or  col- 
lartiiu'iit  01 
ioiily  over, 
i»t'.  is  to  I* 
I  iii^joiiuily. 
irs  the  nail- 
1  grown  in 
is  tlic  capi- 
t  of  Cliins. 
lu-ir  aiKh'iil 
jbark  of  iho 
iiii'U  iiaiiKi 
rffttly  Will 
H;s,  ami  ilm 

tlie  iimim- 

irodufcJ  bv 
;J  willi  llu 
lie  odour  of 
of  Kiaiij' 


ry  cotulituni 

s  ami  Hi- 

liiuirs  ihf 

vcs  alwui 

wrilli'n  on 

00(1,  lUlJ  I'lt 

,  holloKinj 
sion  is  lu  '< 
tt  lirush,  ij)- 
lown  Willi » 
atcr  .1  li-si 
jf  iiili  luiJ 
still  IKIW 


a, 


ultlioi:i;h 
liriiiliiis  •< 

ami  'ii' <'i 


'SI-  ^rii!u-ii 
lhr\  .li-|W 
«ii;  I'Vl 
I'liils,  tliiiru 
,h;  but  till  I 


■re,  utterly  unable  to  ir.ix  nnd  soflcn  thoir  tints,  and  ropy 
every  defect  as  well  oa  excellence  in  the  object  of  their 
Imitation.  They  have  not  the  slightest  idea  of  perspec- 
tive, considering  tho  diminished  and  failed  ap[)carance 
of  distant  objects  as  the  consequence  of  a  defect  of  ^^3lon; 
«tid  they  therefore  insist  upon  placing  every  object  in  tho 
fiircground.  When  one  of  their  ministers  of  state  beheld 
a  portrait  of  his  Britannic  majesty,  he  remarked  that  it  was 
a  pity  it  should  have  been  spoiled  by  the  dirt  on  the  face 
— meaning  the  shading  of  the  nose.  When  they  draw  a 
picture  of  the  emperor,  they  consider  it  would  be  almost 
impious  to  represent  him  of  the  ordinary  human  propor- 
tions, ami  therefore  make  him  twice  an  large  as  any  of  his 
attendants — the  head  particularly.  But  this  self-conix'ited 
people  I'onsiilor  themselveji  in  this,  as  in  every  other  art, 
pre-eminent  over  all  other  nations,  and  reject  with  disdain 
the  remonstrances  of  European  artists. 

In  sculpture,  as  in  painting,  the  ('hinese  have  no  con- 
ception ol'  order,  attitude,  or  proportion ;  and  there  can 
be  nothing  more  monstrously  grotesque  than  the  figures 
vfhich  adorn  their  temples,  bridges,  and  tombs.  It  is 
afTirmed,  in<leed,  by  recent  travellers,  that  there  is  not  a 
statue  or  column  in  the  whole  empire  worth  not    c. 

The  (Chinese  music  remains  in  that  state  of  primitive 
dimplicily  in  which  it  has  been  observed  to  exis  in  all 
nariiarous  nations.  Dr.  Burney  says,  that  "  all  the  melo- 
("ies  of  thir  nation  have  a  strong  analogy  to  the  old  Scot- 
tish tuiiis;"  that  "both  resemble  the  songs  of  ancient 
Greece ;"  and  that  "  the  music  of  all  three  ought  to  be 
consiJered  as  natural  music."  Their  gamut,  like  that  of 
the  Grci'ks,  coii.xisln  of  five  natural  tones,  and  two  semi- 
tom's;  but  they  uec  neither  lines  nor  spaces  in  noting 
down  tlioir  music,  which  they  do  in  a  column  confusedly, 
without  any  attempt  at  marking  time,  key,  or  expression. 
They  always  endeavour  to  play  in  unison,  having  no  idea 
of  couiiter|joint  or  parts  in  music.  Their  musical  instru- 
ments are  extremely  rude,  consistiti'j  chiefly  of  drums, 
Ulls,  triangles,  .See;  and  the  only  kinds  res<'mbling  those 
of  Europe  are  a  species  of  lyres  or  harps,  with  strings  of 
silk,  ami  a  small  organ,  or  rather  Pan's  \n\>e,  ma'',e  of  un- 
equal re«<ls,  struck  into  a  hollow  cup  of  wood,  rnd  blown 
by  a  i<ipe  for  fh.  mouth,  which  conveys  the  A'ind  to  all 
the  reeds.  Dr.  Burney  tried  in  vain,  however,  to  adapt 
g  scale  to  this  instrument.  The  great  delight  of  (.'bines'; 
taste,  in  short,  is  in  the  commingled  sounds!  of  all  sorts  of 
ilKtumejiLs  at  o;ice.  An  anecdote  is  told  of  a  Chinese 
of  rank,  who,  Ix'ing  in  London,  was  carried  by  a  friend 
to  one  of  tile  lluMtres.  When  the  orchestra  at  I'lrst  coni- 
roericeil,  he  ajipeareil  inexpressibly  pleased,  but  listeni  d 
with  tl'.e  utmost  iiiditlcrence  to  the  beautil'id  overture  that 
followed,  asking  impatiently  if  the  musiciauf'  were  not 
going  to  play  air»,in  the  tine  air  they  did  ii*.  first?  liis 
friend  w.is  puzzled  to  imagine  wb.ai  ttie  air  could  lie  ;  until 
upon  the  ])('rformers  proceeding  to  re-tune  their  various 
iDslrumoiits  alter  the  first  ac  was  over,  the  ('hinese  .-x- 
daiiiied.  in  rajiturc  at  the  medley  of  sounds,  ■'  The.i'  it  is 
— that's  it  now !"  The  aflected  gravity  and  unsocial  life 
of  the  Chinese,  indivd,  are  unfavourable  to  the  culti-vation 
of  music.  'I'hey  like  to  see  dancing,  but  not  to  practise 
it — like  th<t  Turks,  cimsidering  it  a  s|S'cies  of  labour,  not 
of  pleasure.  It  is  told  of  a  Turkish  ambassador  that  when 
he  saw,  at  a  ball  given  by  some  nobleman  in  London,  all 
the  n  bility  and  gentry  of  both  sexes  capering  about  on 
!,!li"  floor,  hi:  exprcsned  unfeigned  wonder  at  (heir  giving 
ilii'iasi'lves  so  much  trouble,  and  observed  coiitcmplu- 
Mi\y,  "We  make  our  slaves  do  all  these  things  fo'  uk!" 
.^lul  ihns  it  is  with  the  Chinese. 

Ill  aiiiiost  all  till'  mechanical  arts,  however,  the  Chi- 
lie«i'  luc  wondertully  i'X|)ert,  and  in  .<oiiie  have  iittained 
1  ili'grec  of  perleitioii  unrivahed  by  any  other  nation. 
N"  |K'ople  have  larried  the  art  of  dyeing,  or  of  extrmt- 
mu  dyeing  materials  from  animal,  mineral,  and  vegetable 
r,i|i»liiines,  so  lar  as  the  Cliimse  have  done,  ami  this 
aiiiiuut  luiy  iicionlific  chemical  knowledge.     They  show 


particular  dexterity  in  fashioiing  ivory  fans,  baskets 
nests  of  eight  or  nine  movable  bolls  one  within  another; 
"yet  it  does  not  appeal,"  says  Mr.  Binrow,  "that  they 
practise  any  other  means  than  that  of  working  in  water 
with  small  saws.  As  little  can  Europeans  pretend  l.i 
rival  their  large  horn  lanterns,  of  several  feet  in  dia- 
meter, perfectly  transparent  in  cvei/  part,  without  an 
opaque  spot,  and  without  a  seam;  yet  a  small  portable 
stove  or  furnace,  an  iron  boiler,  and  a  pair  of  common 
pincers,  are  all  the  inols  required  for  the  manufacture  ct 
those  cxtmordinary  machines.  Their  expertncss  in  cut- 
ting tortoise-shell,  mother-of-pearl,  and  all  kinds  of  stones 
and  gems,  is  extraordinary,  and  in  all  tho  metals  they 
work  with  extreme  neatness." 

Re  -peeling  the  state  of  science  in  China,  Mr.  Barrow 
says,  "  Nothing  has  yet  appeared  in  Europe,  from  an 
authentic  source,  to  warrant  any  other  conclusion  than 
tliat  of  the  utter  ignorance  of  the  (Chinese  in  tho  pure, 
sjicculative,  and  abstract  science  of  mathematics.  Their 
knowledge  of  arithmetic  and  geometry  is  bounded  by 
mere  practical  rules.  Their  numerical  notation  is  marked 
down  by  symbols  of  the  language,  as  that  of  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  was  by  le'tcrs  of  the  alpholiet,  Tho  com- 
mon operations  of  arithmetic  are  generally  performed  by 
a  few  balls  strung  on  wires  (called  the  .suv;»i-^)(ii/),  some- 
what resembling  the  Roman  abacus,  and  sometimes  by 
joints  of  the  fingers.  The  measure  of  quantity  is  usually 
determined  by  reducing  all  surfaces  and  sides  to  the 
dimrnsions  of  squares  and  cubes;  and  with  those  few 
practical  operations  they  contrive  to  manage  all  the  com- 
mon purposes  of  life."  All  other  recent  observers  concur 
with  Mr.  Barrow  in  attesting  the  defective  knowledge  of 
the  Chinese  in  the  science  of  astronojny,  for  their  pro- 
ficiency in  which  they  have  hitherto  enjoyed  a  grea' 
i.'putation.  Their  high  pretensions  in  this  department 
turn  out  to  be  founded  fully  as  much  on  superstition  aii 
scientific  observation.  So  sensible  are  the  Chinese  mo- 
narchs  of  this  fact,  that  for  many  generations  the  con- 
struction of  their  vaunted  Imperial  Almanac  h,i3  been 
intrusted  to  foreigners,  the  native  astrononicro  only  con- 
triluiting  the  imiiortiuit  department  of  fixing  the  lueky 
ard  unlucky  days,  days  of  festivals.  A:c.  "The  Chinese 
sy.-iteni,  if  system  it  can  be  called,"  says  Mr.  Barrow, 
"  resembles  so  closely  that  which  remains  of  the  Hindoos, 
that  both  must  have  been  derived  from  the  same  source. 
The  period,  or  cycle  of  sixty  years,  by  which  their  chro- 
nology is  regulated — the  period  of  10,800  years  observed 
by  tlie  Tao-tse,  which  is  the  sum  of  the  first  three  Hindoo 
ages,  with  their  intermediate  periods — the  division  of  the 
zoiliac  into  twelve  signs,  and  iilso  into  twenty-eight  con- 
stellations, or  habitations  of  the  moon,  corresponding 
with  the  twenty-eight  Hindoo  maschatras — are  so  many 
siiins  of  a  coimnon  origin ;  and  both  may  perhaps  have 
derived  the  remains  of  this  science  from  some  third  na- 
tion, more  ancient  than  either;  as  the  little  which 
both  nations  do  possess  appears  to  lie  the  remains  rather 
than  the  elements  of  the  science."  There  is,  neverthe- 
less, a  board  of  astronomers  and  mathematicians  main- 
tained at  Pekin,  which  is,  in  fact,  one  of  the  official  de- 
partments of  government ;  and  a  committee  is  annually 
i.|)pointed  with  great  cer-  aiony  to  superintend  the  com- 
pilation of  the  national  calendar.  It  is  curious  to  s<'e 
this  ostentatious  show  of  a  love  of  learning  kept  up  by  a 
people  who  are  still  so  ignorant  as  to  reckon  that  the 
firmament  is  a  body  encircling  the  earth,  the  latter  of 
whieh  is  i<  solid  fixed  square,  iuid  round  which  the  sun 
revolves, as  well  as  the  moon;  that  all  the  s.ars  are  stuck 
into  the  sky  at  an  equal  iliRtance  from  the  earth: — wli'i 
gravely  decide,  by  the  state  of  the  planetary  system,  the 
days  proper  for  taking  medieine,  marrying  a  wife,  settiii;! 
out  on  a  j-uirii.'v,  iaying  the  foundation  of  a  house,  i*i>i- 
Their  seographieid  is  on  a  par  with  their  astiononiie:/ 
knowledge,  as  may  be  imagined  from  their  siipposiiit 
China  to  be  tho  middle  "-egioii  of  the  glot)e,  aiif*  trruiim 


'Vi 


f'K. 


M 


INPORMATIOX   rOR   THE   PEOPLE. 


h 


oo»  m  tain,  which  i»  reckonnl  fhe  centre  of  the  cmpiro, 
•i-  •<  vol  rf  (h«  Eiirlh."  The  more  rdiii-atcd  are  at 
..if  (Ids  well  arijuaintod  with  the  fnlliiry  of  such  clorlrir.iv, 
out  the/  ore  still  proirannt.-d  umoiiRMt  the  mans  of  the 
people,  SH  it  ctouIiI  lie  equally  impolitic  and  dangerous  to 
expoae  the  diliisionH  which  have  obtained  cri-deiice  amon(?M 
them  from  limo  iiiimemnrinl,  and  the  fjroiw  ignorance  of 
their  idolized  shroh.  The  fact  !h,  that  the  iiretended 
knocvh.lgr  i)f  the  literati,  and  ostentutiouo  patronage  of 
learning  by  the  government,  in  a  inire  state-trick,  fur  the 
purpom  of  exciting  the  veneration  of  the  ignorant  mul- 
titude. 

Of  natural  philoBophy.or  chemistry,  the  Chinese  know 
literally  nothing,  except  from  a  prac  cal  acquaintance 
with  tlie  result  of  certain  causes.  Of  medicine,  as  a 
science,  their  whole  stock  of  knowledge  is  a  combination 
of  quackery  and  empiricism ;  and  it  is  a  remarkable  fact, 
that  the  healing  art,  which,  in  almost  every  other  quirler 
of  the  known  world,  whether  savage  or  civilized,  justly 
obtains  for  its  professors  the  highest  respect,  hononrs,  and 
emoluments,  is  in  China  so  little  estimated,  that  all  classes 
are  allowed  to  practise  it  ad  liln'uiii.  There  are  no 
schools  for  medical  instruction;  the  theory  of  the  human 
frame  is  wholly  unknown  to  them ;  and  ihey  even  reject 
the  doctrine  of  tlie  circulation  of  the  bliMHi.  Their  re- 
medies arc  cliiclly  of  a  vegetable  nature,  and  consist  almost 
solely  of  ici)iii;is  (a  native  root,  which  they  pret«>nd  to 
prcjiaro  in  seventy-seven  difTcrent  ways),  rhubarb,  Chinn- 
root,  and  tea.  Their  surgicid  knowiedj^e  is  c(iually  Je- 
fective.  n^  inav  be  judged  by  the  fact,  that  the  pr;',iti(  e  of 
it  is  liniilrd  aiinost  entirely  to  the  honourable  fraternity 
of  Imrliers.  Their  operations  consist  in  setting  a  fracture, 
reducinif  n  dihlo'ation,  letting  blood,  by  scarifying,  cu[>- 
ping,  or  ncnpunctuation  (for  they  entertain  a  seiiliniental 
horror  of  the  lancet  and  scalping-knifc).  cutting  corns, 
clcanintr  the  ears,  tweaking  the  nose,  Inviting  the  luick, 
jmlling  the  joints  till  they  eriick  ;  in  short,  we  may  ■<um 
up  our  account  of  Chinese  knowledge  of  the  healing  art 
with  the  remark  of  the  Into  Dr.  (Jregory  of  Edirdiurgh, 
that  "the  emjH'ror  of  China  could  not  connniuid  in  all 
his  dominions  such  medical  aid  as  a  smart  boy  of  sixteen,  ! 
who  hail  iH'cn  apprentice  for  one  year  to  a  well<mployed 
Edinburgh  surge jn,  would  lie  able  to  afford." 


LANnUAGB    AND    UTCRATURI. 

The  language  of  the  Chinese  is  another  brunch  of  their 
history,  resji,  cting  which  the  rest  of  the  world  has  Ix-en 
impressed  with  the  most   preposterous  and  exat^gerated 
ideas.     It  has  Ihm'u  represented  as  consisting  of  millions 
of  chara«-tcrs — as  U-ing  (x  rfectly  unattainable  by  foreigners,  | 
and  so  forth;  and  thus  has  this  t:'j!y  barbarous  nation  ! 
iici^uired  i  reputation  for  philoloifieal  science  as  spurious 
w  that  which  they  have  enjoyed  for  fither  branches  of  I 
antique  erudition.     "  It    Is  true,"    as  Mr.  Harrow  says, 
"  tliat  their  language,  more  than  any  thing  else,  stamps  I 
them  as  an  oiigirr-.l  |M'ople.     It  has  no  resi'mblance  what-  | 
ever  to  unv  other  language    living  or  dead,  ancient  or  I 
modern.     It  lias  neither  borrowed  nor  lent  any  thing  to  I 
any  otlier  nali.m  or  pe o[)le,  exi'epting  to  those  who  are  un-  ! 
questionably  of  ('hiuese  origm.     The  written  character  ! 
IH  just   now   as  distinct   from  any  alphaU'tical   arrange-  ' 
nient  a>-  it  wx*  some   thousands  of  years  aL'o;  ami  the  ■ 
spoken  liiM^^UMgi-  has  no',  pris-eedcd  a  single  step  Is-yond  , 
ihe  original  meagre  aiid  inflexible  nionnsyllablc."     .Ml  ! 
(his  certainly  irocs  to  prove  the  I'liinese  to  Iv  n  [irimitive  ' 
[•opie,  an  I  no  far  the  cirrumstatue  is  a  moral  curiosity  ;  I 
but  at  the  (iiinie  time  it  kIiows  tlicir  inveterate  and  im-  j 
movable  olwliiiacy  in  adhering  to  a  system  of  charact<:r«  I 
»  utterly  unreducible  to  any  kind  of  intelligible  vocabu-  ! 
lary.     The   foiiiidiilion   of  the  language  in  purelv  hiero-  I 
lilypdic  and  symboliciil.  including  all  the  remarksble  ob- 
(o<:t.4  of  nature,  HUch  <•»  the  aun.  mo.r.i.  earth,  tire,  water, 
woaL  atone,  a  ho/«;,  a  cow,  a  dragou,  ice ;  the  uteiuib  I 


most  commonly  in  nsi! — n  knife,  a  spoon,  a  box,  Ac. 
tho  primary  relations  of  life — a  father,  mother,  brotfccr, 
8  in,  Ac. ;  some  of  the  most  obvious  qunlititts  of  bodies, 
as  straightnesa,  crookedness,  &c.,  ice.  To  give  a  dclnA 
of  the  history  of  tho  Chinese  language,  through  ita  various 
modifications  and  arrnngenicnts,  would  occupy  a  gpacv 
of  volumes,  and  to  no  purgiose  beyond  the  ainusenient  if 
might  .ttFord  to  thos«)  antiquarians  who  delight  in  t^n  in 
vestigatiun  of  matters  as  frivolous  as  they  nre  olwsletc. 
Suffice  it  to  say,  that  the  Chinese  language,  which  hac 
hitherto  proved  such  a  mystery  to  nil  the  rest  of  the 
world,  has  at  length  been  fatliomed  and  rendered  clear  by 
the  industry  of  British  genius.  In  fact,  the  difTicultiea  at- 
tending the  acquisition  of  it  have  proved  almost  altogcthet 
visionary.  Tho  industry  of  Mr.  Marsbalnmn  and  Dr. 
Morrison  has  suppliinl  ns  with  grammars  and  dictionarieB 
of  this  singular  language,  and  placed  within  our  reach  oil 
the  supposed  treasures  it  containwl.  "  Europeans,"  says 
Mr.  Harrow,  "hove  iht"  deceived  as  to  the  vast  mumhet 
of  characters  in  thi*  language,  which  was  ,iup|>osed  to 
create  its  difficulty.  In  the  great  Dictionary  of  Knung- 
heo  there  arc  not  more  than  40,000  iliaracters,  of  which 
about  30,000  or  ly  are  in  use.  The  Lexicon  of  Scapub 
contains  about  44,000  words,  Ainsworth's  Dictionary 
45,000,  and  .lohnson'a  about  the  came  nnmher.  The 
whole  works  of  Confucius  contain  only  about  ;3000  dif- 
ferent  characters.  The  Leu-he  may  have,  on  the  whole, 
alKiut  100,000  characters,  but  not  more  than  IHfiO  dilli'r- 
ent  ones  throughout  the  whole  work.  Where,  then,  cnn 
there  (lossibly  lie  any  dilVicully  V  The  same  wrilei 
al.so  adduces  numerous  instances  of  Knropeans  acquiring 
the  CbiMse  language  in  a  comparatively  short  time. 

From  all  that  has  yet  lieen  seen,  the  trouble  of  learn- 
ing the  Chinese  language  will  be  very  inudi  ijuatcly  com- 
periK.ited  by  the  hterary  "  treiisiires"  of  which  .Mr.  Harrow 
speaks.  There  are  no  doubt  a  profusion  of  poems  (;ai 
called),  novels,  histories,  and  dramas,  Ac:  but  of  what 
character  are  they  ?  From  ihe  translations  which  we 
havt'  yet  bi'cn  favoured  with,  tho  piH>ins,  like  some  of 
Ossian'a  sublime  passages,  consist  <if  unintelligible 
imagery;  their  novels  of  silly  and  pointless  stories;  their 
histories,  as  we  have  already  seen,  of  fables ;  and  their 
dramas,  although  for  the  most  part  true  to  nature,  yet 
exhibiting  nature  in  her  most  revolting  forms.  M.  dc 
(luignes,  .Mr,  Harrow,  and  other  visiters  of  Pedn,  assure 
us,  that  the  theatrical  exhibitions  are  U'yond  e,'--ry  thing 
abominable  and  disgusting. 

It  has  furnished  matter  of  aurprian  to  all  writers,  how 
a  government  so  desiiotic  as  that  of  ("1.  ,  should  make 
the  cultivation  of  h'tters  a  subject  of  sn<l.  -jHriul  aiixietv 
Kven  the  intelligent  Mr.  Harrow  makes  a  nmrvcl  of  th'i.1 
fai't,  notwith.-ilaiuling  that  his  own  wnitings  (had  we  no 
other  authority)  furnish  a  sullicient  explanation  of  the 
HCi'niing  anomaly.  It  is  true,  tin  re  is  u  school  to  bi> 
found  in  every  village  of  China,  and  that  the  instructieii 
of  the  pupils  forms  one  of  the  most  anxious  concerns  of 
the  government :  but  what  is  the  nature  or  puqiose  of 
their  eilucation  I  To  instruct  them  in  all  the  erroneous 
d.M-lrines  of  their  iLirenls — to  contine  tbeir  knowledge  tc 
the  native  pr(xluction«  of  Chinese  writ«rs — to  make,  in 
short,  Chinese  politicians  of  them.  'I'lie  boasted  svstem 
of  eilucation  in  China  is  ixit  for  the  purpose  of  enlight- 
ening the  |M'Ople,  but  of  keeping  them  in  darkness.  T!ry 
are  allowed  to  know  nothing  of  other  natioTis,  and  ,nn 
not  therefore  coinprehend  their  own  degraded  and  en- 
slaved condition. 

RKLinmN. 

The  religion  of  the  Chinese  is  allied  in  character  to 
the  Hocxlhism  of  the  Hirinan  empire,  Japan,  Slum,  and 
other  parts  of  Eastern  .\sia ;  and,  under  whatever  name, 
it  may  Im  defined  as  a  /(uperstition  intimately  iissoiiatt*! 
with  ceremonial  observances  in  paginlas  and  temples.  Ai- 
cording  to  Howard  Malcnm,  the  iateat  authority  on  t!> 


CTTlNi. 


box,  &c. 
pr,  brothcf, 
<  of  ho<lu'<, 
vo  a  <1clili 
I  it»  varioua 
py  n  «pnCT 
iiuHPnipnt  il 
It  in  t\n  in 
»ri>  olw:>lrtc. 
.,  which  hnc 
rent  of  the 
iml  clear  hy 
ifficulfieii  aU 
iBt  altoKClhn 
an    and  Dr. 

I  (lirtioiiarifs 
our  reach  all 
)|iran8,"  »ny« 
vaHt  niumhei 

•iiipposcd  Xo 
rv  of  Kftung- 
t-rti,  of  whi<li 
,n  of  Scapula 
's  Pii'tionary 
uinhcr.  'I'lic 
out  :«)()0  ilif- 
011  the  whole. 

II  IHOO  (lilVcr- 
icrc,  then,  cuii 

snino   writi'i 
eniiH  nciiuirins 
hort  time. 
;)iil)le  of  lenrn- 
il.  ([iiutcly  com- 
irh  Mr.  Unfrow 
of  pm'niB  {m 
:  hut  of  whnt 
ons  which  wn 
like  some  of 
uniiitclhBiUf 
IS  storicp ;  theii 
ileH-,  ami  their 
to  nature,  yrl 
forma.     M-  <!'' 
Te  ;in,  assure 
III  J  o."ry  thins 

H  writers,  how 

.  sliouUl  make 

jiiMul  anxiety 

.  iiiiirvel  of  this 

bg  (haJ  wc  no 

rnimtion   of  the 

lu  Hchool  to   N' 

Itlie  iiislructicii 

|)UH  coiiccnis  of 

or  pur{>o«c  of 

Il  the  erroneous 

|r  kiiovvleJi;(,'  tc 

-l/i  make,  in 

Jhoiixted  Kyslcm 

lose  of  ciiliuhl- 

larkiiess.    Tlry 

itioiis.  ami  inn 

Lraded  and  rn- 


I  in  rhnracter  to 
(liui,  Sium,  anil 
whatever  nanv, 
lately  aiwoiiat«'l 
jd  t<'inpU'».  Ai' 
lulhority  on  i!» 


■ihiort,*  the  Chinese  aic  divided  Into  three  sects,  namei^ 
thpue  of  Ju-Ueii-HU,  'l\iou,  iind  Uoodli. 

wTho  JukeasiiisU  aro  the  followers  of  KonR-foo-tze, 
or  as  the  JesiiitH  Iiutini/e  it,  CoiifiiriuM,  who  flourished 
about  560  years  before  Christ,  and  was  therefore  con- 
temiiorary  with  Pythngoras.  He  was  of  royal  decent, 
and  a  mandiirin,  but  early  resigned  official  life,  and  de- 
voted himself  to  literature,  morals,  and  polilieal  economy. 
Riulueuig  the  maxims  of  former  sages  fo  ordiir,  ho  added 
valuable  extracts  from  current  works,  and  prudent  sayings 
of  liis  own,  and  produeed  a  diijest  which  continues  to  he 
the  i(//iHi«  Ifiiil'  i>f  Chinese  piety.  Travelling  extensively 
an  a  popular  lecturer,  and  sustained,  not  leas  by  his  high 
birth  and  elo(|uenl  address,  than  by  the  excellence  of  his 
doctrines,  he  soon  founded  a  sect  which  iM'canie  virtually 
the  stale  religion.  It  is,  however,  much  less  intolerniilly 
maintained  than  cither  Popery  or  Protestantism,  where 
united  with  the  state.  The  other  religions  are  allowed, 
and  soinetinies  fostered.  Great  ofTicers,  and  even  the 
cin|HTor  himself,  build  and  endow  Boodhist  and  Taouist 
tciuplcs. 

"The  system  of  Confucius  is  his;hly  oxtolled  by  Euro- 
p(!in  writers,  and  most  extravagantly  by  Chinese.  As 
accounts  of  it  aro  accessible  to  aii  reader*,  I  need  not 
Btop  to  describe  it.  He;  seems  to  have  regarded  religion 
lea.''  than  politics,  and  the  burden  of  his  works  relates  to 
nocial  virtues,  civil  goverrment,  and  adherence  to  ances- 
tral habits. 

iiTlio  sort  of  Taou  (literally  irnfon)  wan  founded  by 
Laou-Kcum,  a  contemporary  and  rival  of  ('oiifuiius. 
Hi*  followers  may  he  called  the  mystics  of  China.  They 
urofcss  alch.niy,  assume  mysterious  airs,  read  destinies 
on  the  jinhns.  and  make  great  pretensions  to  deep  re- 
search and  snjierior  light.  Their  practical  works  contain, 
in  (jeneral,  tlio  same  laudable  precepts  which  distinguish 
the  system  ef  the  Ju-ki'a-su. 

"Tlie  third  s»'ct  follow  Fo-c,  sometimes  spelled  FdIu. 
Fue  is  said  to  bo  the  old  orthography  of  7'i(',  which  is 
the  Chinese  ahlireviation  of  t'lih-ln.  or  Uoodha.  The 
BooJhisin  of  China  is  the  same  as  that  of  Birmali,"  (for 
an  account  of  which  we  refer  to  the  article  Paijax  Kk- 
LiGiiiNS,  in  the  present  scries  of  papers.)  "The  system 
U  certainly  far  older  than  either  of  the  others.  It  is 
i^ricrally  suppvwul  to  have  been  introduced  about  a.  n.  70. 
Kcm|it"cr  d.iles  the  introduction  about  a.  n.  518.  when 
>Uarina,  a  great  .iiint,  came  from  the  west,  and  laid  the 
fimiiJa(ii)ii,'  ifec.  Chine.w  historians  agree  that  the  wor- 
sliip  of  Fold  was  originally  brought  from  India.  8ir 
VVillinni  Junes  says  confidently,  -Boodh  was  unques- 
tionably the  Fo-»'  of  ('lima.' 

"Tliis  sect  probably  embraces  one-third  of  the  entire 
^wpulation.  The  government  acts  with  indecision  toward^< 
it.  at  one  time  domnincing  il  us  dangerous,  and  at  another 
niiilributiiig  to  it«  support.  .M.  GutzlalT  saw  at  I'ooto 
soiiio  placards  ciilllng  on  the  jieople,  in  the  name  of  the 
miipcror,  to  repair  to  tlio  Boodhist  temple  of  that  place,  in 
ijiiler  to  pro|>itiate  Heaven  for  a  fruitful  spring.  The 
[iriosls  are  numerous,  but  not  greatly  respected.  I  saw 
ioiiie  of  tliem  in  the  street*  daily.  A  few  were  cxceed- 
i  i,'ly  well-dressed,  but  generally  '.hey  were  both  shabby 
diiJ  dirty,  80incli!iies  ipiite  ragged." 

Mr.  .Maiom  gives  the  following  account  of  a  visit  to 
II  Biwilhist  temple  at  Canton  : — "  There  are  1"1  temples 
ill  Canton,  Ihsiiles  the  numerous  public  altars  seen  in 
the  streets.  I  saw  the  principal  ones  without  the  \vulls, 
which  are  said  not  to  lie  inli'nor,  on  the  whole,  to  those 
aitiiifl.  They  strikingly  re.-<!mlile  the  moinisteriee  of 
Europe  'f'lio  handboincst  is  one  if  the  Boodhisls,  in  the 
suburb  of  Hit-nan,  on  the  opposite  »ide  of  the  river.  Being 
jccompaiiieii  by  Messrs.  Bridgman,  Parker,  and  Morrison, 
will)  were  aci(uainti'd  with  the  8U|>erior,  I  was  not  only 
I  liiown  every  part  by  his  order,  hut  had  the  pleasure  of 


•Traveln  in  lliniluaian  anil  Chink.    (I'rople'i  EUiiioiii.) 
Vol.  I— 13 


Ins  society  for  an  hour.     ■Jloistern,  corridom,  courtyardu, 
chapels,  Image-houses,  and  various  ofliccs,  are  scattoied 
with  little  regard  to  order,  over  a  space  of  five  or  six 
acres.     Priesta,  with  shaven  crowns  and  rosaries,  loitered 
about ;  but  I  never  «aw  common  [leople  come  to  worship 
cither   at   this  or  other  establishments.      Some  of  (ho 
priests  occupied  small  and  mean  apartments ;  hut  thone 
of  the  8u[)erior  arc  spacious,  and  furnished  not  only  with 
the  onlinary  conveniences,  but  with  chandeliers,  mirrors, 
pictures,  &e.,  and  with  tin  extensive  library.     The  build 
ings  ore  chiefly  of  hri(!k,  one  story  high,  the  walks  haml- 
somely  flagged,  and  the  courtyard  ornamented  with  large 
trees,  or  beautiful  parterres  of  flowers.     The  printing- 
office  contains  stereotype  plates  enough  to  load  a  small 
vessel,  so  arranged  as  that  every  work  is  readily  accessible. 
The  principa'   apartment  or  temple    is  about  100  feet 
square,  with  the  usual  images,  &c.     Wo  attended  henj 
to  witiiflbs   the   regular  evening  service.     It  seemed  to 
create  little  interest,  for  out  of  1 60  resident  priests,  there 
were  hut  fifty  present ;  and  these  uttered  their  repetitions 
with  the  most  obvious  iridiflerence.     Their  prayers  are 
in  Pali  ostensibly,  but  I  am  told  not  truly,  as  their  mode 
of  writing   renders  it  utterly  unintellii^ililc  to  any  one^ 
Thej-  keep  time  by  striking  a  wooden  drum,  and  occa- 
sionally a  hell.     At  a  certain  stage  of  the  process,  the 
whole   company   formed   into   single  file,  and  marchcil 
round  the  hall,  without  ceasing  their  repetitions.     This 
gave  us  a  ful;  view  of  their  counteiiunees;  and  so  far  as 
these  indicated,  a  more  stupid  sot  could  not  lie   picked 
out  in  all  Canton.     I  have  already  remarked  this  charac- 
teristic of  the  Boodhist  priesthood  in  other  countries,  and 
xm  confirmed   in   tlic  belief  of  its   lieing  attributable  to 
the  character  of  their  religion,  and  the  nature  of  theb 
duticsi. 

"  Instead  of  the  humble  dress  ot  Birman  and  Siam 
priests,  these  were  as  handsome  as  they  can  get,  with 
shoes  and  stockings.  What  is  worse,  some  are  in  rags, 
barefoot,  and  siiualid,  with  apparent  poverty.  They 
have,  however,  a  common  refectory,  where  I  presume  all 
fare  alike.  The  buildings  were  erected  at  difti'rent  times 
by  the  munificence  of  individuals,  and  by  the  revenues 
of  the  estublishnicnt,  which  amount  to  about  8000  dollars 
per  annum. 

"  While  wc  walked  over  the  premises,  the  superior  had 
pre[,ared  us  a  repast  of  swcetmoats  and  fruits,  to  which 
he  sat  down  with  us.  His  manners  are  easy  and  ele- 
gant, his  dress  unostentatious,  and  his  countenance  full 
of  intelligence  and  niildiiess.  His  nge  is  but  thirty-eight. 
Wc  of  course  endeavoured  to  make  the  visit  profitable  to 
him.  My  heart  yearned  over  him  ;  and  when  he  assured 
me  that  he  meant  to  visit  America  in  a  year  or  two,  I  was 
ha|)py  to  piomist'  him  a  most  cordial  reception.  Priesta 
may  leave  the  country  and  return,  without  the  restraints 
\vhich  make  it  dangerous  to  others. 

"The  whole  iiunilierof  priests  in  Canton  is  estimated  at 
2000;  of  nuns,  1000.  The  annua!  expense  of  the  124 
temjiles  is  "50,000  dollars.  An  enial  sum  is  rcquiT<  d 
for  the  poriodienl  festivals.  Half  a  million,  annually  paiil 
in  one  city  for  religion,  by  pa^a.is!  And  the  whole 
amount  which  all  Christendom  r;ives  forpagansin  a  yeut, 
is  but  six  times  as  much !" 

For  many  yeais.  Christian  niis-ioiuiries  of  different 
denominations  have  been  cst^bhslsi  d  at  Ciinfon,  Macao, 
and  other  parts  of  China  ;  but  they  make  little  progress  in 
proselyti/.ing  the  population,  on  orronnt  of  the  ilitlicultips 
of  the  langna.re  and  the  rigorous  adli'Mciiee  of  the  natives 
to  ancient  customs.  China  likewise  contains  somo 
Mohainmedans  undJews  ;  and  these,  with  the  Christiiinu, 
seem  to  be  tolerated  merely  on  account  of  the  public 
usefulness  and  learning  of  the  missioiiaries  of  thcM)  sect*. 
The  ('hrislians.for  the  same  reason,  arc  the  most  genijrally 
respected,  but  have  Iwvn  treated,  from  lime  to  lime,  with 
the  most  arbitrary  capriciousness,  being  persecuted  by  UM 
emjieror  and  encouraged  by  another.  In  the  year  1747 
■  3 


r»i< 


IN) 


INFORMA'i    )N    FOR  THE   PEOl'LK. 


B»e  miiaionarii-i  woro  beheaded  in  Fo  kicn,  ond  two  Ji-iiiit* 
«nnglcd  in  Iho  name  your  in  KiaiiK-nuiig,  all  of  which 
waa  done  '<  according  to  liiw,"  wliich  hh.vh,  ihul  thi»  c\iii'.{ 
of  any  nw.t  who  aeduci-H  the  |>eo|)le  from  their  dulica  under 
raligiouB  protcnceM,  Hhull  lie  HtruntjU'd. 

UTIIW  or   MAKKER8,   CHARACTBB,   AND   CONDITION. 

From  ull  wo  have  Hiiid,  it  will  Iw  evident  thiil  livillzu- 
tion  ha»  a«  vet  iidvunced  hut  little  U^vond  the  infniicy  of 
what  Mi«y  lie  culled  niiricultiirul  society  in  (Miiiiii.  It 
luuy  Ijc  readily  tidniitted  thiit  they  were  ninontf  the  firHt 
of  cxistiiiff  nutioMS  who  arrived  at  a  eertiiin  dnijrco  i,*" 
encellence ;  hiil  it  is  not  less  evident  that  they  have  long 
remained  stationary,  and  have  oven  in  some  points  retro- 
graded. "They  can  oidy  be  said," observes  Mr.  Harr.iw, 
•to  lie  Rreat  in  '.rifles,  whilst  they  are  really  trilling  in 
every  thinit  th«ti»(»ri'at."  The  following  asKrrtion  of  Sir 
William  Jones  may  almost  he  literally  adopted : — "Their 
.ctter»,  if  we  may  ho  call  thent,  are  merely  the  syinlKils 
of  ideas:  their  philosophy  is  in  so  rude  a  Htulc  as  hardly 
w  deserve  the  app<'lIiition  ;  Ihcy  have  no  ancient  monu- 
ments from  which  the'  origin  may  lie  traced,  even  by 
plausible  conjecture;  tht.r  sciences  are  wholly  exotic; 
and  their  mechanical  arts  have  nothing  in  them  charuc- 
teristic  oi'  a  particular  family — nothing  which  any  set  of 
Dien  in  a  country  so  hiifhly  favoured  might  not  have  dis- 
covered and  improved." 

In  their  moral  qualiticj,  the  Chinese  are  a  strange  com- 
pound of  vanity  and  meainiess,  all'ccted   gravity  and  real 
frivolity — an  utter  want  of  all  manly  judgment  and  sense, 
combined  with  the  most  insidious  art  and  cunning,  the 
oaual  accompaniments  of  vulgar  ignorance.     The  Tar- 
tar race  are  distinguished  by  a  bhmt  and  unstudied  frank- 
ness of  niaiiiier  and  openness  of  dispositioi^ ;  but  'he  true 
Chinese  U'tray  the  most  debasing  servility  of  tone   and 
manner — plausible,  sly,  and  artful.     They  have  not   the 
■lightest   regard  to  truth,  and  will  a.sm'rt  and  i!eiiy  any 
tiling  with  tlie  most   unblushing  etlVontery,  U'lng  also 
entirely  destitute  of  shame.     The  pain  intiicteil  by  the 
bamboo  is  the  only  consideration  tliey  atlarh   to   public 
aud  disgraceful  corporal  punishment     Tliey  huM'  iieitlu'r 
tense  of  honour  nor  ^elf-respect.     "  A  t'hinese  prime,  or 
powerful  mandarin,"  says  a  recent  traveller,  "  will  com- 
mit extortion  or  oppression  whenever  he  can  do  it  with 
impunity,  and  regards  it  as  a  matter  of  right  attached  to 
his  station.     .\  Chinese   trader  will    cheat  and  defraud 
whenever   it  is  in  his  power,  and  even   pi(|ues  himself 
upon   his  skill  in  overreaching,  as  u  |iroof  of  his  talent. 
A  Chinese  (leasant  will  pilfer  and  steal  whatever  ii.  within 
bis  reach,  wlienever  he  can  hope  to  esea|)e  detection  ;  and 
the  whole  nation  may  lie-illirmed  to  have  almost  iiol'.ing 
in  view  but  their  own  self-interest' and  secuiity.     Their 
general  character,  in  short,  in  point  of  morals,  compared 
with  the  minute  enforcement  of  duty  by  the  |H'nul  laws, 
alfords  an  iri-esistible  proof  of  the  utter  incoiniieu  ney  of 
legislation,  without  the  aid  of  religious  princiiis  to  reach 
beyond  the  mere  external  conduct  of  individiiiiU,  or  to 
produce  any  thing  like  real  social  virtue  among  human 
iH'ings."     In  their  feelinjis,  the  Chinese  are  cruel,  s»'n- 
sual,  and  vindictive.     Mr.  Bamw,  M.  de  Uuignes,  and 
iJ'her  travellers,  all  auree  in  their  rcpre8<'iitalioiis  of  the 
inhuman  conduct  of  those  in  authority.     One  of  the  arbi- 
Jrary  laws  of  ("hina  is  the  coinpelliiig  of  the  .latives  to 
pull  the  imperial  barges  along  the  canals;  and  .Mr.  Bar- 
row had  several  ojiportunitie:)  of  wi;nes>ing  the  mer<il(<s 
exereiK-  of  ihiii  auliority  on  the  part  of  the  mihlary.  'J'he 
impressed  laUnirers  t(s)k,  of  course,  every  opportunity  of 
deserting;  anc  >»h  never  there  was  a  delieit  ney  of  hands, 
the  despotic  odi,  iais  set  olf  to  the  nearest  haudet,  roused 
Ine  iLilives  oul  oi   lied  wiiU   the  whip,  made   them  ju'iip 
into  the  water   In   asui-l   the  towing    o|N'ralioiis,  lashing 
4>eni  with  long  curt-wliips  all  the  while  with  the   most 
ruiidcrs    bar'i.irity.       Mr.    liarrow    also    relates   another 
■peciuutu  of  Chinese  iudillerfiiai  to  huiuim  life,  which  be 


witne8.'>  '  in  passing  down  the  great  ranalliUt'wixK^anloii 
and   •'    .  Hfveral   persons  who  had  crowded  to  lh« 

briiit  n,  Jw  canal,  hail  [Kisted  themselves  upon  the  niuh 
proje.  tiiiH  stern  of  an  oM  vessel,  which  broke  <lowii  wiiji 
their  weight,  and  precipitated  the  whole  group  into  the 
water.  Although  numlM<rs  of  bouts  were  plying  about  m 
the  very  spol,  not  one  was  obst'rvvd  to  (o  to  ihe  assistance 
of  the  ilrovviiing  wretches,  whose  ihrieks  and  cries  wen 
totally  disregarded. 

ISothing  is  so  significant  of  the  moral  condition  of  j 
people  as  their  treatment  of  the  female  sex,  and  nowhemj 
ar<)  Ihe  women  si  i^diumaidy  used  as  in  China.  Tin  v 
are  not  |(ermitled  to  stir  out  of  donrs,  exeepting  tho 
wives  of  the  lower  orders,  who  are  to  1h^  seen  toiling  at 
all  kimls  of  laborious  tasks,  while  their  indolent  hus- 
bands are  sitting  ijuietly  smoking  iIk  ir  pjjies.  In  tli* 
country  they  are  even  to  be  seen  drav  ing  the  plough  ond 
harrow,  while  their  hi/.y  helpmate  <lrives  them  on. 

The  practice  of  deforming  the  feet  of   fi  nudes  of  the 
belter  ehmses  has  long  licen  prevalent.     While  still  chii- 
dren,  the  feet  are  bound  or  eoiiipres.seil  in  sneh  a  maiimi 
as    completely    to  previiit   their    grow  lli.       <•  At  five,  liie 
rich  man's  daughter  has  her  foot  so  firmly  boiuid,  that,  in 
the  native  phrase,  the  vvluile  is  /,i//r(/.     The   foot  Ih'Iow 
the  instep  is  pressed  into  a  line  with  Ihe    leg,  to  add  to 
the  height  of  ihe  littlr  siilVercr,  vvhili'  two  of  the  tws  ure 
iM'nt  under  the  sole,  that  its  breadth  may  be  only  o(  the 
least  dimensions.     The  agony  of  such  a  process  it  vvoiilj 
be  haril  to  estimate;  but  it  is  saiti  to  last  about  six  week:i, 
when  I  sup|H>se  the  v\usllng  of  ull  the  parts,  and  the  to 
satlon  of  m;Miy  of  the  functions,  have  rendered  the  vvhwiu 
insensible    Ir.    pain.     The  development   of   the   musi ! 
which  foriii  the  calf  of  the  leg   being  checked,  the   Ii'  ^ 
coiisen'.ieiilly   tajHTs    from   its  socket  <!owii  to   the   fo„i, 
witiiout  any  risings  or  inncctions.     This  is  regarded  ai 
the  jH-rfect;on  of  lieauty  by  the  Chinese,  who  say  that  the 
knee  of  the  female  is  not  protulHTunt,  like  the  knee  of  t!  q 
male,  and  is  so  well  covered,  that  she  can  remain  kiic^j. 
ing  a  long  time  witiiout  ineoiiveiiienee.     It  is  jierliapj 
less  tliroughout  its  length  than  when  the  foot  is  ullow.i] 
to  retain  its  natural  size;  but  whether   this   be  from  the 
want  of  exercise,  which  ever  acts  as  a  stimnliis  to  iiiiimu. 
lar  ileformity,   or  from   the   laik   of  nutriment  throui^h 
functional  disturlunee,  I  cannot  take  njion   me  to  s.iv; 
but  I  sus[HCt  the  former  is  the  real  cause  ;  otherwise  ihe 
matter  would  grow  from  bad  to  worse,  till  the  wholewa 
deiilroyed  by  atrophy.    A  li«)t  two  inches  in  length  k  i!u 
idiil  of  a  ('hiiiamitn,  on  whieh  he  lavishe     the  naM  |j['w 
ciiius  epilliets  which  nature  and   hingiiuue   can   su|)|lv, 
Unt  its  beauties  are  altogetlier  ideal;  for  wlieii  slriipj 
of  its  gay  investments,  it  is  a  piteous  mass  of  lifeKss  in. 
teguiu'iii,  which  resembles  the  skin  of  a  wnsherwoiiiai.'i 
hand  aller  it   has  iiiulergone  u  long  maceration  in  mnf 
and  water.     The  siyht  of  it  is  vvi  !l  filled   to  excite  our 
compassion,    not    our    commendation- -a    licautiful  Ur.t 
crushed  into  a  heap  of  deformity  !     It  wa>.  the  etistom  ni 
former  ages  for   the  dames   to   »(  ar    long  robes,  whiih 
swept  up.;n  Ihe  ground,  ainl  kept  the  dv'  out  ofhi;;ht:il 
would  I*'  ail  ingenious  device  for   llu'   ladies  to  rei«A,« 
them  again  to  use,  and  allow  the  iiis^iunanls  of  proeri't. 
sion  to  retain  their  natural  size  in   the  asylum  of  u  l<i} 
train.     I'uets  might  iilill  celebrate  the  lillli'  '  golden  lili. -.' 
in  confoimity  with  hoary   custom;  uml  it  would  k'  .  • 
di:Verei)l  as  lo  the  morality  of  the  thing,  whether  li>  .mJ  | 
a  foot  was  only  two  iiw  lies  hing,  whieh  was  Ihii.r  I'. 
length;  or  called  that  tlie  |H.'rfeelion   of  beauty  which  ;.\ 
in  truth,  only  a  mass  of  deformity."* 

.\moiiKst  tlie  iilher  moral  iniijiiities  of  the  Cbincp.  ii 
the  crime  ui'  iiir»ii!iride  ;  and  Irom  liie  < citempt  in  »hi  b 
females  are  ^'eiier:illy  held,  pan  n's  expose  their  t'liult 
children  vvitliout  the  i-lightest  remorse.  It  is  a  |  j:t  ol 
tlie  duty  of  the  J'ekin  police  to  gu  their  rounds  willi  ciiu,  I 

•  L»)  '•  "  Climese  ••  ihcy  are." 


•  1  early  hoi 

of  Ihe  infante  I 

ill  the  euurse  i 

<;uiry,  lo  o  coj 

they  are  throwi 

laled  that  there 

inf lilts  thus  yen 

In  eomparisd 

Ihe  coirililion  u 

was  lb  It  of  pri 

furnilure,  beside 

eui'theiiwiiie,  a  I, 

•love.     'I'hoy  us 

all  the  fainiiv  sit 

a  bowl  in  en-'     | 

tiio  pot  ,vi,;.  Ii  fc 

which  consist  of 

of  porcupines'  ,ji; 

lingers  of  the  rigl 

throw  their  food 

pedilion.     Boiled 

lion  of  millet  or  b, 

■nimal  and  vegetu 

hogs  thrown  ovurl 

are  greeilily  jiick,, 

market,  dogs,  cats, 

most  degrading  soc 

nmoking,  the  elli'ct 

from  Ull  indulgenci 

I.NTEncOL'HSE    H 

The   systematic 
government  oUi'rs  t 
e.vphiiiis  the   tri/hny 
a  country   adapted" 
lor  its  iiroseculioii, 
eilualion,  its  prislu 
The    innuincralilc 
coimlry  is  iii(er.s,.,(, 
limiiieatioii  possess, 
DO  regular  system  ol 
solely  of  barter,  th.  . 
ccpii;ig  a  small  cojn 
too  minute  lor  ealci; 
grand  I'ekin  canal  i| 
barges  of  various  des 
iiilerehange   of  nati, 
capaiiiiities  oi'  Chin^ 
Jhc  immense  numlx 
The.s*-  are  divided  [,y 
cording  to  the  numlH 
of  the  (irst  clas.s  aloi 
Uiein— Ihe  natives  c 
is  much  exaggcrutioi- 
uig  tin;  nunilier  of  so 
«  fourtli,  of  what  is 
enormous  roymcc  of 
of  life  is  here  shown 
kinds  of  British  man 
the  removal  of  the  , 
nief '0  !     -J'hat  the  p, 
free  iiuercoiirs*'  willi 
•lioivn;  u,.|  i„  fa,., 
11)11  suilirii.iii.'v  guar; 
would  engage'  i;i  f,„ 
ci'iistraiotsoftl,..  jj„^., 
lil'ir  neelvs.      U'j,.,,,., 

llus«.'S,   tluifc  IS  II,,    w 

"ve,  which  is  conscio, 
li-ld  t.i  Ihe  breaking  i 
"il'liu.  'I'b,,r  j..alou 
'^oildered  :.l,  eo„.  i.I,., 
^  It*  of  Uic  Ufjus), 


Ii 


CHINA. 


tl 


'•1  earty  hour  of  ih»  momitiit,  to  pic!  .p  the  bodiei 
of  t!ie  iiituiits  thnt  linve  tKcn  thrown  on'  ito  tlie  utrectii 
ju  thf  rourtie  >f  tho  night,  uiid  to  carry  tl  >i,  without  in- 
(juiry,  to  o  coniiiuni  pit  without  tho  cit  walU,  whoro 
thpy  Bf"  thrown  in  pr,niiiK"'0U8ly.  It  h  i  Ix-cn  calcu- 
Uti'd  tliat  thiri!  arc  U'twcen  iO.OOO  and  30,000  lunialo 
iiit'anlif  thiiH  yt'arly  iinrrifni'd  in  Chiim! 

In  coJiipariHon  with  tliu  lower  t/  .era  of  the  Chineao, 
the  cDiiiUtion  uf  thti  HliivtH  in  our  West  India  rolonica 
Willi  111  il  of  prinocH.  'I'licy  havi'  aooni'ly  an  artielo  of 
fuiiiili"''''  lit'Hiilos  two  or  tlirci^  jars,  a  few  haains  of  coarne 
eui'tlicnwiiro,  a  large  iron  pot,  a  fryinf(-pan,and  a  portablo 
•love.  'I'hey  uxo  neillu'r  tablcH  nor  chaira,  hut  at  niraU 
all  the  family  ait  upon  their  hccli  round  a  large  pot,  with 
B  bowl  in  cu'"  '  their  hiiiuli).  After  talang  the  rico  from 
Uio  pot  .VI. ^  '.  iMinn,  they  then  take  their  ehop-atiekis 
whicii  consist  oi  wo  s.-nall  pieces  of  wood,  or  generally 
of  poreupinea  .(i  .ila,  iiiul  are  held  Ixtween  tho  two  firat 
finders  of  the  right  hand.  With  this  atrange  utenail  they 
tluow  their  fiH>il  into  their  moutha  with  reniarkalile  ex- 
pedition. Uoiled  rice  in  iheir  ataplo  food,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  millet  or  liarl'7  ;  but  they  likcwixe  eat  all  aorta  of 
(iiiinal  .111(1  vegetable  putreaecnt  Hubstancea.  The  dead 
boga  thrown  overUianl  the  (ships  in  mo  river  at  Canton, 
are  greedily  picked  up  by  the  nu  .v.-i ;  .  ,i  the  public 
market,  iUif;n,  ciitH,  uiul  rats,  are  exhibited  i<t  sale,  'i'hc 
lUoHt  ili'i;riulingH<K'ial  Mce  of  the  Chinese  is  thatof  opiuni- 
yiuokiiig.  the  elVeets  ol  which  are  i"  u-h  wtso  than  those 
fruiu  an  indulgence  in  intoxicati.  „■   iquon. 

INTERCOURSE    WITH    FORKION    NATIONS BRITISH 

TKA-TR*DE. 

Tho    systematic   discouragement  \>nich   the   Cluneso 
gtivi'iniiient  ollt'rs  to  all  intercouric  with  foreign  nations, 
c\|il.iins  the  trifling  amount  of  c.immercu   carrieil  on  in 
a  country   adapted  better  than   any  ether  in  the  world 
lor  its  (iros<'CUlion,  whether  we.  consider  its  gcogriiphical 
tituatioii,  its  productions,  or  the   genius  of  the   people. 
The    innumerable    rivers   and   canals  with   which    the 
oouiitry  is  inlers<'cteil,  present  facilities  for  internal  com- 
munication possesa«'d  by  no  other  countrv  ;  yet  there  is 
no  regular  system  of  trade  among  then>r  't  consists  almost 
solely  of  barter,  there  ln'ing  no  circuIatiMg  medium,  ex- 
ccpiiiiit  a  small  cop|ier  coin,  the  value  o',  wliich  is  almost 
too  niiiuite  for  calculation.     It  iii  reckoned,  that  on  the 
grand  IVkin  canal  there  are  upwards  of  10,0U0lH)ats  and 
barges  of  various  descriptions  continually  employ  .'d  in  the 
interchange    of  national    prmluco,      Of  th'i   commercial 
capaliiiilies  oi"  China,  indeed,  wn  have  a     mIo  evidence  in 
the   immense   numlM'r  and   crowded   strt-    jf  tho  cities. 
These  are  divided  by  the  (.'hinese  into  ti...'i    -lasses,  nc- 
cording  to  the  munlier  of  leagues  which  l' ly  occupy  ;  and 
of  the  first  class  alone — or  im/xiiiu'  cil   ■.-,  as  they  term 
Ihcm — the  natives  enumerate  upwards  of  4000.     There 
ia  much  exaggeration  here,  no  doubt;  but  even  estiniat- 
uig  the  numtier  of  social  communiiies  at  a  third,  or  even 
t  fourtii.  of  what   is   set  down   by  a  Chinese,  what  an 
enormous  fi/jurce  of  consumption  for  all  the  necessaries 
of  life  is  here  shown  !     What  an  unbou:  deu  mart  for  all 
kinds  of  British  manufactures  would  he  thi»wii  open  by 
the  removal  of  the  government  restricti;.  >s  u]K)i;  com- 
Dicr;-o  !     That  the  people  of  (Miina  r\ro  anxious  for  this 
free  intercourse  with  other  nations,  has  been  abundantly 
■liuwn ;  ai  d  in  fact  their  greedy  and  perulatory  disposi- 
U)ii  sutruiemly  guaranties  the  readiness  with  which  they 
would   engage  i.'i  foreii^n  tnillic.     Uut  tlu    t^'l-powcrful 
cutislraiiits  of  the  gtivernment  hang  like  ainii.'itoneiouiid 
tlliir  necks.     Whatever  W  the  iu'iiorance  of  the   lower 
ilasses,  tlierc  is  no  want  of  enlighteninent  in  the  execu- 
tive, which  is  consciiiii^  th.il  a  free  trade  w<>uld  inevital'ly 
k'4d  to  the  bre.iking  up  of  the   whole  des^iotic  system  t<f 
rulnig.     Their  jealousy,  indeeil,  is   not   so  much  to  Iw 
^vjiul.red   it,  con.  idciin^  the  precedent  ta't'ore  them   in 
Uui  iisv  of  tlic   UntisU  power  it  t't-i  .    ii'Minuriug  {a'ain- 


■ula  of  India;  the  only  wonder  is,  that  amii  :  the  tnr 
moils  of  war  which  have  disturbed  the  worin  during  ao 
many  ages,  this  country,  so  fertile  in  every  thing  which 
can  make  a  country  desirable,  should  have  remaiued  com- 
paratively unmolested. 

It  is  well  known  that  tho  foreign  trade  of  China  te 
confined  exclusively  to  one  port — thot  of  Canton.  The 
overlai;d  trade  with  Russia  and  India  has  now  alinont 
entirely  ceased.  So  great  is  their  jealousy  of  tho  Uu» 
sians,  indeed,  that  the  latter  are  tho  only  people  niter* 
dieted  from  even  visiting  Canton. 

Tea  diM*  not  appear  to  have  been  known  in  Britain 
previous  to  1050;  and  it  is  evident,  from  tlic  following 
note  in  Mr.  Pepys'  Diary,  that  many  years  ilapted  pre- 
viously to  its  coming  into  general  u.hc  : — "  September  25, 
l(!fil.  I  sent  for  a  cup  of  tea  (a  China  drink),  of  which 
I  had  never  drunk  Ix^fore."'  And  in  ItilJ'l,  there  is  incn- 
tioi.  made  of  the  Kast  India  Com|iany  commissioning 
their  foreign  agent  to  purchase  2  llm,  2  oz.  of  lea  aa  • 
present  to  his  majesty  !  From  this  time  forward,  how- 
ever, tho  consumption  of  tea  increased  with  a  rapidity 
scorccly  Icsa  wonderful  than  the  progress  of  tho  Uritish 
cotton  manufacture. 

Canton,  at  which  the  principal  foreign  commerce  ia 
carried  on  by  the  ('liineco,  and  at  which  all  the  cxjiorta 
of  tea  take  place,  is  situated  on  the  eastern  bank  of  tha 
river  I'ekiang,  a  beautiful   placid  stream,  as  wide  aa  ttui 
Thames  at  London.     This  great  outlet  of  Chinese  trade 
is  about  400  miles  in  length,  and  Canton  stands  at  the 
di.stance  of  80  miles  from  its  mouth.     Canton  consist* 
of  two  descriptions  of  towns — that  which  is  enclosed  by 
walls,  and  the  suburbs;  both  !0R?thcr,  they  are  said  to 
contain  from  seven  to  eight  hundred  thousand  inlmbitantab 
'I'lie  circuit  of  the  walls,  which  are  of  a  nuKlerate  height, 
and  furiiished  with  a  few  cannon,  is  estimated  by  some 
at  five,  and  by  others  at  nine  miles.     Only  about  a  third 
part,  however,  of  the   space   enclosed  is  covered  with 
buildings;    tho  rest  is   occupied   with  plcasure-grounda 
and   lish-ponds.     The    neighbouring    country   is   very 
charming — hilly  towards  the  east,  and  presenting  in  that 
(piartor  a  beautiful  prospect.     Tho  streets  are  long  and 
narrow;  the  houses  generally  low,  ond  towering  abov« 
th(!m  may  lx(  seen  temples  and  pagmlas.     At  night  the 
gates  are  closed,  and  bars  thrown  across  the  entrance  'o 
the  streets.     From  this  enclosed  city,  as  well  as  from 
every  other  town  in  China,  all  foreigners  are  rigorously 
excluded ;    and  these,   if  ihey  obtain    [icrmission,  muat 
lake  up  their  abode  in  the  suburbs,  which  contain  a  vciy 
miscellaneous  po|iulation,  though  not  therefore  inferior 
hi  point  of  accommixlation'or  appearance.     But  the  most 
curious  particular  regarding  Canton  is  the  existence  of  a 
floating  town  on  the  river,  consisting  of  jierhapa  forty  or 
fifty  thousand  butks,  junks,  and  vessels  of  various  kinds, 
arranged  close  to  each  other  in  regular  rows,  with  pas- 
sages between  them  to  allow  other  vcsst-ls  to  pass.     This 
Hoating  town  extends  several  miles  in  length.     For  what 
reason  we  know  not,  the  owners  of  these  vessels  and 
their  families  are  not  allowed  to  come  ashoru,  and  eo 
they  spend  the  whole  of  their  lives  on  the  water. 

Foreigners  are  not  [icrinitted  to  go  asiiore  and  reside 
at  pleasure  at  Canton.  Their  only  land  establishment 
consists  of  /i(>»i^.«  or  factories,  which  extend  in  a  line 
along  the  banks  of  the  river,  from  which  they  are  distant 
alwut  a  hundred  yards.  Tiny  are  built  on  a  broad 
ipiiy,  with  u  spacious  promenade  in  front  Thi!  hrnga 
or  liictories  individually  consist  of  courts  or  lanes,  ad- 
mitting of  no  thoroughfare,  and  solely  dedicated  to  the 
aecominixlalion  of  the  foreign  residents.  Large  war^ 
houses  for  the  reception  of  goods  are  adjacent,  'i'h* 
:''".ce  of  tho  Chines*'  suburbs  which  is  most  frequented 
by  foreigners,  is  termed  China  Street,  consisting  entirely 
of  shops,  in  whii'li  the  native  dealers  are  to  lie  Been 
se;ited  t'roni  morning  till  nii;lit.  Their  triiks  in  enlruiv 
[  ping  Uritish  seamen  into  putchauiug  iheii    coimtioditie^ 


M 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLK. 


iuve  lonR  henn  matter  of  notorirlv.  Tlicir  ugm  unl- 
formly  exhibit  an  Kngliih  name  an  wril  aa  a  Ulimeao 
one;  and  liavin<{  pirked  up  an  arqiiaintanre  with  tho 
moat  familiar  of  Jark'a  expreaaiona,  their  mmlf  of  aiHreaa- 
ing  their  rnuijh  cualoim'ra  evince*  at  once  the  crafty  and 
tinaerupuloua  diaiHjuition  i>f  th»  nativea. 

The  manner  in  which  foreipicra  have  heretofore  con- 
iticU."\  huaineaa  at  Canton  i«  aa  followa : — When  •  nhip 
arr<ve«,  it  in  <"rpiruy  immetliately  to  get  a  native  mer- 
chant (or,  '  i»  cj1!i"'  a  honj,  marchant)  tr.  U-conic 
aecurity  Jbr  ,.  .i|H)-t  i;nd  export  duca,  aa  well  ;  '  for 
the  ("'od  hell  MDur  of  the  crew.  In  thir  there  ia  i.i  ver 
. jund  ine  hIi.  itcut  ditficully,  there  being:,  on  the  contrary, 
alwaya  a  cuni|>otilinn  amongat  the  nativea  for  the  honour 
of  a  condnnnjent  The  import  dutiea  onnaiat  of  a  tax 
upon  the  iliffen'Hf  uperica  of  gooda,  aa  well  aa  a  tonnaRe 
upon  the  vefwl.  In  addition  to  tho  lonnago  and  cargo 
charges,  there  ia  elan  jrvii-d  what  ia  called  a  kunuhaw,  or 
preaent  to  government,  exi;[ible  from  nhijia  of  every 
burden  alike.  It  hna  been  eatimiilod  that  all  thcae  vari- 
oua  port-chargea,  including  the  expenaa  of  victujdiing 
■  ahip,  dec,  amount  to  about  7000  dollara  on  a  ahip  of 
400  tons  register. 

The  foreign  merchanta  of  ('anion  conaist  of  Dritisli. 
American,  French,  liiiich.  Daniah.  Swetli^h,  Spaniah, 
Portuguaae,  anil  Indian  Hritiah  aubjcctH,  who  in  IH.IS 
■mounted  to  110.  There  are  eight  Uritiah  eatabliah- 
menta,  leven  American,  and  one  joint  Dutch  and  French 
PHtabliHhment.  Two  Kngli»h  newKpajK-ra  are  puliliahed 
In  Canton :  the  Canton  KegislJ'r  once  a  fortnight,  and 
the  Chineac  Courier  once  a  week. 

The  peraonal  intercourac  of  EuroiH>ana  with  the  Chi- 
iMiae  at  Canton  m  chiefly  carrietl  on  by  meana  of  a  gihlier- 
ikh  (for  it  cannot  be  i-alled  a  language)  compowd  of 
Engliah,  Portugucae,  Cliineae,  ami  other  word«,  but  the 
whole  greatly  liroken  or  altered  in  aound,  and  |HMaeaaing 
no  aort  of  gnimmHtical  cnnstrurtion. 

At  tho  inlrani-e  to  an  estuary  of  tho  river  on  which 
Canton  ia  situated,  is  tho  iaiand  of  Macao,  containing  a 
t<(wn  of  the  same  name,  part  of  which  forma  a  aettlemerit 
or  te  .4t:  y  of  the  Portuj^ueae,  an('.  here  also  the  funiilieJi 
of  i^ii  J,."  in  merchanta  at  Canton  have  been  sulU-red  to 
rwid*.  t'i  3  Portuguese  privileges  have  been  latterly 
»;s'  '1,'  liffKnacrilwd,  and  their  trade  greatly  diminished. 
'-  {'lotr.  ?*)  xao  to  the  Boca  Tigris  or  true  entrance  of  the 
rher  i'pr:ceeding  upwards]  ia  just  forty  miles,  atlJmling 
a  vcr_  I.  fc  channel  for  the  largest  shi|is.  Ah  far  as  the 
Boca  or  Bogue,  the  whole  is  a  broa<l  estuan'  of  the  seu, 
intcrsperned  with  islands,  of  which  the  well-known  I.mtiii 
Ues  just  midway  l>etwc(>n  Macao  and  the  B'>gue.  Lintin 
ia  on  the  right  of  the  channel  for  ahips,  and  abreast  of  it 
on  the  left  is  Lunkect  Island,  forming  iM'hind  it  the  har- 
bour of  Kumsing-moon,  where  the  opium  shij)*  of  latt 
years  were  accustomed  to  lie  at  anchor  in  safely.  Tliere 
is  no  entrance  to  the  ('anton  river  to  the  eastward  of  the 
Boca  Tigris;  but  on  the  west  the  caae  is  widely  dilfrrent; 
and  it  ia  there  that  the  principal  difficulties  of  a  blockad- 
ing aquadron  exist.  Tho  nvitm  part  of  tho  river  (lows 
through  tho  Bogue ;  but  to  the  westward  there  stretches 
a  great  delta,  which  has  l)een  gradually  formed  by  di|K>- 
aitions  of  soil  from  the  turbid  waters,  and  is  crossed  in 
«ll  directions  by  shallow  channels  communicating  with 
sach  other  and  with  Canton.  Home  of  these  cliaiineU 
form  the  imur  pumagr,  by  which  the  British  traders  uiwd 
generally  to  prwied  lH-tw<^'n  Canton  and  .Macao,  pusKing 
a  town  called  Heang-ahan,  the  residence  of  the  clucf 
magiHlrate  of  the  .Macao  district  'i'hese  siuilliiw  chan- 
nel* to  the  westward,  thoufjh  they  are  inip;i»si  ble  by 
Enf^ish  shi|>s,  present  no  olistacle  to  the  flat-bultouicd 
trading  craft  of  the  Chinese,  below  the  size  of  the  larger 
junka."* 

It  bM  been  by  nteana  of  the  navigable  inlet  thus  de- 


•  Davis's  Sketches  of  Chjna :  1841. 


aer^!  ■  d,  t'  ,1  nearly  all  interroiirsc  with  (he  Chlneae  has 
txk.  .1  plair;  all  the  other  porta  which  lio  to  the  norttw 
ward  being  shut  again»t  Euro|M>an  commerce.  Th* 
greatest  poasiMe  care  has  at  least  lioen  taken  to  prevent 
any  intercnurse  by  the  river  Yaiig-l*  -Keang,  which,  by 
its  connection  with  the  preat  canal.  ''<  to  Pekin  and 
the  chief  ni>riliem  districFa. 

The  principal  traders  with  the  ■  ..lese  have  latterly 
been  the  Americana  and  British.  "The  American  inter- 
oiirao  with  China,"  any»  M'<!ulloch,  "commenced  shortly 
after  (he  tennination  of  the  revolutionary  war,  and  has 
aince  gr  >i,'  on  rapidly  increasing,  so  aa  to  constitnle  one 
of  th«  "n-i  valuable  branches  of  the  trade  of  the  United 
StatTf  ■  *'.(.  M'('ulloch  gives  a  table  showing  the  ex- 
tent  of  the  exporta  from  ('anton  to  America  from  1804 
to  1836-7.  by  which,  in  the  last-mentioned  year,  it  is 
seen  that  tlic  Americans  had  twenty-six  shifis  in  the  tea- 
trade,  and  that  the  total  value  of  exports  from  ('hina 
was  4,.3fi3,788  dollars.  "The  principal  artii'lcs,"  con- 
tiiiuea  thb  most  accurate  authority,  "carried  by  the 
Americana  to  ('hina,  are  bullion,  fura,  Turkey  opium, 
English  woollens  and  cottons,  and  ginseng.  The  com- 
modities ex|for1<Hl  by  the  Americans  from  ('hinn  arc  tea, 
nankeens,  mw  and  wroimlit  silk,  sugar,  casslii,  and  cam- 
phor, with  minor  articles."  The  Americans  are  exceed- 
ingly cnterpriNing  in  this,  as  in  every  other  trade  in 
which  they  ei.  uge. 

The  British  trade  with  Canton  waa  formerly  carrirj 
on  bv  tho  KuNt  India  (;om[)aiiy,  but  by  an  act  of  jiarlia- 
mcnt  which  came  into  operation  in  .April,  IS.'M,  tho 
trade  Was  thrown  open  to  all  classes  of  Brili^h  •iubjecl* 
From  enjoying  a  monopoly,  the  East  India  ("umpaiiy 
were  the  only  sellers  of  tea  in  this  country,  and  could 
tlicrafori!  regulate  the  price  as  they  thought  [)ro|)er.  It 
ia  but  fair  to  say,  that  the  Company  ilid  not  MlmK«>  tliii 
monopoly ;  but.  from  the  ex|MMisive  manner  in  which  the 
trad«  waa  carried  on  at  Canton,  the  price  of  tea  win 
,5rea.cr  in  thia  country  than  it  has  lieen  since  comiH'liliun 
was  allowed.  The  duly  on  t^-a,  down  to  the  22d  Aj'ril, 
1834,  waa  9r>  per  cent,  on  all  teas  sold  under  two  shil- 
lings  a  (louiid,  and  100  per  cent,  on  all  that  were  sold  at 
or  above  two  shilhngs.  A  discriminating  scale  of  duties 
was  afterwards  established,  with  a  view  to  allow  the  111- 
troductmn  of  the  cheapest  kind  of  tea  at  the  lowest  duly; 
but  it  was  found  that  merclmnts  did  not  wruple  to  intro- 
duce better  ()ualilies  ol  the  article  under  inferior  denomi- 
nutioMi;  and  to  put  an  end  to  this  ini)>roprii'ly,  as  wcL 
as  slop  all  clamour  on  the  subject,  a  stiitute  was  paswd 
(lH3fi),  enacting  that  2b.  Id.  {mt  lb.  shinild  lie  charGCil 
on  all  teas  without  exception,  entered  for  home  consumji- 
tion  in  the  I'nited  Kingdom.  In  18!J5,  the  firft  year  of 
open  trade  in  lea.  the  iiiipnrts  lo  the  United  Kingdom 
amounted  to4;J,()00,0(l()  lbs.,  U-ing  more  than  10,000,000 
above  what  had  ever  Ix'cn  imported  in  any  single  year 
by  the  East  India  Company.  In  18:i7,  the  im|Mirt4 
were  38,973,981  U.S.  (of  which  30.62.'>,206  were  retained 
for  I'ome  consuir.ption),  and  the  duties  jiroduced  t 
revejiui'  of  X.'),223,840.  In  exchange  for  the  tea 
brought  from  (^hina,  there  is  imported  into  that  country 
woollen  and  cotlun  articles,  cop[a'r,  iron,  lead,  plan, 
earthenware,  :uid  jewelry,  the  value  of  v^hich  in  1N31 
was  X,'>93,7.5ft.  BuUiim  us<<d  formerly  to  be  aent  to 
(^hinu  ;  but  of  late  years  it  h,is  been  imported  from  (^niiu 
into  England,  instead  of  the  contrary. 

The  precc.ling  details  reti-r  to  that  condition  of  alTuiii 
which  prevailed  prcMouslv  to  1838-9,  when  l)rili'<h  n- 
It'icourse  with  China  v*-us  si;dilenly  brought  to  u  iIcm 
by  events  cr-  iiu'ijuenl  on  the  forcible  sup|)rcssion  of  !l,f 
"  opium  trade."  .\»  already  mentiimed,  the  l.'hini'ne  iiv 
dulge  in  opium-siiKikiiig.  but  from  the  injiirinuH  ctrrrli 
of  the  practice,  it  ii  onli'iisibly  prohibited  and  the  iiitio 
duction  of  the  article  is  legidly  declati-d  lo  [>e  contrabir,'< 
^iotwitllslanding  tlie  illegality  of  tile  trallic,  howevir,  n 


■aa  aver  lirn-n  ext 

j|ion  manner,  by  m 

ftrances   againat  i 

eenerally  disregani 

sanctioned  it  for   1 

that    all    menace* 

'Jireats,  apparentfy 

ilfW!ncy.      I.iillcl  j, 

lliey  wem  more  enc 

rimtinued  lo  pour  ii 

outbreak,  the  whole 

leixcd  and  pitblicly 

three  millions  of  poi 

ft  is  here  necessary 

cf  tho  opium  trade 

the  stoppage  of  it  wi 

British  inlen-sta  in  I 

petty  princes  of  Hin 

poppy,  and   it  is  irr 

The  IkjsI  opium  is  pr 

From  that  ipiartcr  it 

p*e«(i;i2  IDs.)  per, 

400  to  500  rupees  (j 

on  the  Chinese  coast 

perha[)s  nuich  more. 

profit,  acts  all  plans  1 

"The  o[)ium  trade  (, 

kaleful  it  may  ar)pear 

recollected,  a  SOI. rce  of 

ment,  returning,  I  hav 

Hvo  millions  ai)d  a  li 

llione  who  are  so  eagi 

some  metlioil  of  maki 

revenue   that   must    n 

(fovemment,  whoso  exi 

income." 

The  I*!  ^11  re  and  dci 
known,  precipitate,  I  n  11 
(May,    841),  farfro.n 
the  British  ficopic  and  > 
manner  in  which  the  ( 
Ena;li  <h  as  well  as  othi 
to  aggravate  the  disput. 
grec  of  vanity,  the  (;hii 
habit  of  treating  and  s| 
riiw,  and  han  on  no  ace 
consul  or  ambassador 
The  only  chai.nel  of  co 
nfwe  commisKioner  at  ( 
envoy  from  Britain,  wht 
lo  land.     Added  to  this, 
tlie  ("hinesc  have  provrsl 
negotiation.     The  depre 
li»h  power,  having  frustn 
the  dispute,  nothing  wos 
ittenliini  to  their  claims  I 
fjr  indignities,  by   force 
rear  1840  was  destined 
flwclacle  of  a  Briliah  n 

•  8i«  Moatka  wilt 


CHINA. 


lu  *itf  !<•"»  •iit«>n«lv«ly  rnrriid  in,  t.«.  'ii  n  aecrnt,  but 
j|inn  manner,  by  •niunKl'nS-*''"''*''''  ""  'ho  idmU  Roinnii- 
itriiicr*  iiKsinat  it  by  the  (Jhirii'oo  Kovpmmont  wore 
generally  dlnrrHfanlcil.  IxTuima  the  inanilarini  anil  nthora 
Mni'tionivl  it  for  yrivntn  reaaonn;  and  it  waa  ol«onred 
that  all  tnoniirm  on  tho  mibjort  wore  nirroly  rnipty 
llircatK,  a|>|»iriMitly  |iiil  forward  for  the  iiako  of  pxti^rnal 
i1i>ron<-y.  laillcd  into  fiinricd  Nonirily,  and  fooling  Ihitt 
they  w<-n)  more  encuuraiit'd  than  diarouragml,  the  Britinh 
rnntinuod  to  pour  in  opium  from  [ndin,  till,  by  a  sudden 
outl>realc,  the  whole  atovk  in  thtt  vi'hncIs  at  (canton  waa 
•riled  and  [ncblicly  burnt,  cauiiinK  a  Iom  of  from  twn  to 
three  million*  of  poundH  atnrlini^  to  the  partina  intereHtcd. 
It  ii  here  necewuiry  to  mention,  that  tho  chief  pr^fMui^  ni 
cf  tho  opium  trade  were  the  East  India  Company,  ni\il 
thr  atoppiiitr  of  it  was  likely  to  provo  moHt  di«astrous  to 
Hritiih  intereata  in  that  f^reat  empire.  The  rnjaha  and 
petty  princes  of  Hindoatan  arc  the  rhiof  growom  of  the 
poppy,  and   it  ia  important  to  conciliate    their   favour. 


M 


ict  of  India, 
of  nr.  ru- 

.  rV         rom 

"Ma 
i  J,  ,.»d 

lari^  a 
ice. 
ver 

III- 


The  l>e«t  opium  ia  produced     ,  Malwii.  a 

From  that  ipmrter  it  pnya  at  Ooinbay 

peel  (£18  !()».)  per  chcHt,  fetrhing  in 

400  to  500  rup-'ea  (£«0  to  JL'SO).     Thia 

on  the  Chinese  coast  '  'T  700  dollara  fCI.')' 

perhaps  much  more,      I'hc  temptallo:: 

profit,  nets  nil  plana  lor  stoppinif  ihe       „i 

uThe  opium  trade   (obacrvea  Lord  .!•      ly 

hateful  it  ni:iy  atipoar  in  tho  eyes  of  many, 

recollected,  a  doi.rce  of  ({rent  benefit  to  the  Itmi.ui  ^;(i\crn- 

ment,  returning,  I  have  heard,  a  rovenuo  of  upwards  of 

two  millions  ai^d  a  lialf  yearly.     It  therefore  becomes 

tlinne  who  nro  «o  eager  for  its  supprension,  to  point  out 

loine  mrtlioti  of  making  up  thu  aerious  defalcation   of 

revenue   that   must    nrcoiwartly    accrue    to   tho    Indian 

government,  whoso  oxpensea  already  outrun  ita  prcBont 

income." 

The  riPir.ure  and  destruction  of  tho  opium,  aa  is  well 
known,  piecipiutteil  a  quarrel  with  China,  which  is  still 
(May,  S4\),  far  froin  being  settled  to  the  satisfaction  of 
thn  Briliih  f)eo(ilc  and  government.  The  contemptuous 
munner  in  which  the  Chinese  have  always  treated  the 
En«lith  a«  well  as  other  Europeans,  has  tended  greotly 
to  agrfrnvut*'  the  dispute.  PufTed  up  with  a  singular  de- 
pee  of  vanity,  the  Chinese  government  has  been  in  tho 
hibil  of  treating  and  siicaking  of  tho  English  as  bnrba- 
ri.iiM,  and  has  on  no  account  allowed  the  settlement  of  a 
consul  or  amliassador  to  wat<"h  over  Dritish  interesta. 
The  only  chat.nel  of  communication  haH  lieen  by  a  Chi- 
ne.se  commisxioner  at  Canton  and  a  commissioner  or 
envoy  from  nritain,  who  in  late  times  was  not  allowed 
to  land.  Added  to  this,  the  mean  cunning  and  deceit  of 
the  ('hinesc  have  proved  an  obstadu  to  every  kind  of  fair 
negotiation.  The  depreciatory  view  taken  of  tho  Eng- 
lish power,  having  frustrated  the  peact^ful  adjustment  of 
the  (liA|)ut<%  nothing  was  Icfl  the  Uritlih  uut  to  compel 
ittention  to  their  claims  for  comiMMisation.  and  an  apology 
for  indignities,  by  force  of  arms.  Consequently,  tlio 
year  1840  was  detitined  to  present  tlic  extraordinary 
iptctacle  uf  a  British  naval  and  military  force  on  Uid 


coast  of  Chinft.  Chusan,  an  island  nw  the  eoMt,  waa 
captured  in  thr  month  of  July,  uDer  n  I'ectilr  resistance, 
and  various  other  sureesspi  attended  the  British  arms  in 
a  few  months  al\erwards.  Up  till  tl>'  jHTind  we  writit, 
however,  owing  to  tlin  temporizing  pnlicy  of  the  British 
comrnissioner,  nothing  definite  tins  oi'-urred  m  the  war, 
and  we  therefore  leave  it  to  the  eour*  events.  Mean- 
while, the  tea-trade  liaa  suirernd  no  "  it'  riul  interruption, 
.'IS  it  \\;i*  Ikh-u  curried  on  in  a  great  .iji  ir>'  undrr  cover 
of  other  flags  than  the  British,  though  with  a  Iom  \f 
British  naval  interests. 


•  8ii  Mealki  with  tlia  Ch  d«m  Expediuoa 


WORKS  ON  CHINA. 

Among  the  recent  works  on  China,  thrro  are  ■«▼•>«> 
of  value   and   interest.     '•  The  Chine^t — A  Genriul  Dt- 
uriptimi  of  the   Empire  and  ill   InhuhilnnlK,  by  JoHJr 
Francis    Davis,  Esq.,"  published    by   the   Hiupen- 
one  of  tho  best.     It  is  founded  on  tho  authority  of 'wivLi 
travellers,  and  w  H  embellished  with  tnaps  and  enr      '  >. 
This  is  the  most  complete  account  which  hiis  '     •     .,■ 
lished  in  this   country.     M.  Puuthier,   .Mcmliti   of  ti«i 
.\siatic  Society  of  Paris,  has  published  a  volume  as  part 
of  "  Wnivert  PillorexjM."  entitled  "  Chine,  ou   Dr^n-ip' 
linn    Ili>tnrii]iie,   Geogriiph  'pie    et    I.ilternxre   i/c   ce   vii^t 
empire,  (Paprra  ile>  ilmumenlf   Chinnis,  Premiere   Partit, 
'iiinpreiianl  uit  I\i»umi  dc  I'his'nire  et  dt  In   civilizniiitn 
f'UnniHt  depuit  leu  tempi  lei  pint  iinnmi  Jiikju'i'i    nog 

rri."  In  writing  this  work,  M.  Pauthier  appears  to 
bn'  i'  exerted  the  same  spirit  of  indefntinable  research 
whic'.  actuated  M.  (  i.irnpollion  in  his  in(|uiriea  pspect- 
inn  Egypt;  ond  his  rcvelntiona  ;ire  not  le.is  inti!  sling 
iind  surprising  than  thase  of  his  illustriouH  cotempurary. 
f)iie  feels  amazed  ut  the  fact,  that  almost  every  modern 
iinproveinent  in  the  arts  of  hfe  was  anticipntetl  by  the 
Chinese  some  centuries  ago.  Their  progress  in  political 
science,  moral  science,  legislation,  and  the  ornamental 
arts,  is  not  less  surprising.  All  these  are  developed  from 
original  Chinese  aut|)oritios  by  M.  Pauthier,  in  the  course 
of  his  history.  Tho  work  is  embellishcil  by  seventy-two 
e()|)perpIato  engravings,  the  greater  part  of  which  ore 
copies  from  Chinese  originals. 

The  recent  war  l)ctween  Great  Britain  and  China  haa 
caused  a  multitude  of  hooks  to  l)o  written  respecting  the 
latt'T  country,  most  jf  which  are  worthless;  Itut  the  late 
treaties  between  China  and  England,  and  China  and  the 
United  Stotea,  will  occasion  more  inlercourao  than  hitherto 
Iwtwecn  tho  Celestial  Empire  and  the  nations  of  Europe 
and  America.  Tho  gentlemen  who  were  attached  to  the 
American  ombassiy  have  not  yet  publisheil  the  resuK  of 
their  inquiries ;  but  it  ia  to  Ik  ho|)cd  that  there  i»  some- 
thing worthy  of  notice  yet  to  proceed  from  them. 

From  what  is  already  di-iclosed  in  ll>c  work  of  M. 
Pauthier,  it  is  quite  apparent  that  there  vet  remains  an 
immense  amount  of  interesting,  historical,  antiquarian, 
and  ethnographical  infornnition  to  be  toural  m  trie  archivnt 
of  the  Celestial  Empire  and  the  numerous  works  of  ita 
literati,  to  reward  the  persevering  researches  if  future 
inquirers.— vfm.  Ed.] 


ysr<J!^i 


•0^    vv> 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


I.I 


UiUT^    125 

^  lis   lillio 


1.8 


1-25      1.4       1.6 

1 

« 6"     

M 

fliotographic 

Sciences 
Corporation 


33  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  NY    US80 

(716)  873-4503 


■"'■^_7y"'- 


THE  OCEAN-SHIPS-NAYIGATION-MARITIME 

DISCOVERY. 


THE  OCKAIf. 

Fh*  Ocean  may  be  comprehenfively  described  ai  a 
aliMt  of  water,  resting  in  the  hollows  of  the  solid  struc- 
ture of  our  planet,  and  covering  not  less,  probably,  than 
two-thirds  of  the  entire  surface.  From  calculations,  its 
grualent  depth  is  believed  to  be  about  30,000  feet,  or  be- 
tween four  and  five  miles,  which,  it  may  be  remarked,  is 
alxo  the  greatest  height  of  any  land  above  the  surface  of 
toe  ocean.  But  the  greatest  depth  which  has  been  ascer-> 
lained  by  actual  measurement  is  not  more  than  5000  feet; 
for  such  is  the  pressure  and  density  of  the  liquid  mass  at 
that  depth,  that  no  sounding-lead  or  apparatus  possessed 
by  mariners  can  possibly  be  made  to  sink  below  that 
point  from  the  sur&ce.    ,         ' 

The  quantity  of  water  composing  the  ocean,  by  the 
unalterable  laws  of  evaporation  and  condensation,  remains 
always  at  a  fixed  point,  there  being  neither  increase  nor 
dix-rease.  It  has  been  remarked  by  La  Place,  a  French 
aMtrbnomer,  that  if  the  existing  waters  of  the  ocean  were 
increased  only  one-fourth,  the  earth  would  be  drowned, 
with  the  exception  of  some  of  the  highest  mountains ; 
and  that  if^  on  the  other  hand,  the  waters  were  diminished 
in  the  same  proportion,  the  largest  rivers  would  dwindle 
to  the  capacity  of  brooks,  and  some  of  the  principal  arms 
of  the  sea  would  entirely  disappear,  while  at  the  same 
time  the  earth  would  be  deprived  of  its  due  proportion  of 
humidity,  and  the  face  of  nature  be  dried  up  and  rendered 
desolate.  Broad,  therefore,  as  are  the  limits  of  the  ocean, 
they  are  only  in  exact  agreement  with  the  wants  and 
srrangenlent*  of  nature  in  the  inhabitable  portion  of  the 
globe,  and  as  such  afford  a  convincing  testimony  of  the 
power,  wisdom,  and  goodness  of  the  Divine  Creator. 

The  bottom  or  bed  of  the  ocean  is  marked  by  the  same 
irregularities  of  surface  as  the  dry  ground.  It  consbts 
if  heights  and  hollows,  rocky  protuberances  Ind  caverns, 
nills  and  vales,  sand-banks  and  reefs,  of  every  imaginable 
form  and  extent  Like  the  land,  also,  it  bears  a  luxuri- 
ant vegetation,  consisting  of  plants  of  various  kinds,  all 
of  which  are  exactly  suited  to  their  respective  situations. 
The  sea  has  likewise  its  tribes  of  animals,  from  the  huge 
whale  down  to  ^e  minute  coral  insect,  by  whose  inces- 
sant labours  the  hardest  rocky  substances  are  constructed 
and  reared  to  the  surface  of  Uie  waters.  When  the  more 
elevated  protuberances  in  the  bed  of  the  ocean  are  raised 
above  the  surface  level,  they  assume,  as  is  well  known, 
the  character  of  islands,  and  when  of  a  large  size,  of  con- 
tinents. Thus,  the  tracts  of  dry  land  are  in  one  sense 
the  tops  of  mountains  rising  from  the  bosom  of  the  deep. 
How  islands  are  formed,  sometimes  by  the  action  of  v(d- 
canoes  bursting  upwards  in  showers  of  lava  in  the  midst 
of  the  sea,  and  sometimes  by  the  gradual  accumulation  of 
matter  deposited  by  coraline  insects;  and  also  how  tracts 
of  land  are  added  to  continents,  and  also  sometimes  taken 
from  them,  by  the  influence  of  currents,  rivers,  and  other 
natural  causes,  has  been  already  explained  in  the  article 
GcouioT. 

TIDES. 

e  waters  of  the  sea  may  exhibit  to  the  eye  a  calm, 
unruffled  surface  when  not  agitated  by  winds,  but  they  are 
nevpr  altogether  still.  Tlicir  ceaseless  motion,  which  has 
the  iniiHirtant  effect  of  preserving  them  from  stagnation, 
18  cau!u-d  by  two  great  risings  and  depressions,  or  flow- 
uiffs  and  ebbings,  of  the  waters,  in  the  course  of  twenty- 
tuur  hours,  known  by  the  name  of  fiV/ri.°  The  two  tides 
Of  flowing*  of  the  sea  are  experienced  daily  all  over  the 
globe,  though  in  some  seas,  fr  im  peculiar  local  causes, 
they  are  !•■««  powerful  than  in  ither  places.     It  is  not  a' 


little  remarkable,  that  the  condition  of  high  water,  or  fbn 
tide,  occurs  at  directly  opposite  sides  of  the  earth  at  the 
same  time.  When  it  is  high  water  at  longitude  0,  it  ■ 
also  high  water  at  longitude  180,  and  so  on  with  everr 
other  two  opposite  points  of  the  earth,  on  the  some  paraV 
lei  of  latitude. 

It  has  been  ascertained,  beyond  all  reasonable  doubt 
that  the  tides  are  caused  by  the  attractive  influence  of  tiM 
moon.  By  the  universal  law  of  attraction  or  gravitation, 
all  masses  of  matter  have  a  tendency  to  be  attracted  or 
drawn  towards  each  other.  The  moon,  therefore,  as  a 
mass  of  matter,  in  passing  round  the  earth,  has  a  ten 
dency  to  draw  the  earth  after  it,  or  out  of  its  natural  rela 
tive  position,  and  it  really  does  so  to  a  small  extent  A* 
it  passes  round,  it  draws  up  the  watera  in  a  protuberance, 
or,  in  common  language,  draws  a  huge  wave  after  it 
But  it  »\r,-)  draws  the  land  beneath  the  protuberance,  and 
so  cauues  the  opposite  side  of  the  globe  to  be  drown  away 
from  the  ocean,  leaving  the  waters  there  to  form  a  similai 
protul)erance  or  high  wave.  In  the  one  case,  the  water 
is  drawn  directly  up  or  towards  the  moon ;  in  the  other, 
the  water  is  in  some  shape  left  behind  by  the  land  being 
pulled  away  from  it  In  both  a  similar  effect  is  produced; 
two  high  tides  are  caused  at  opposite  extremities  of  the 
earth.  Where  the  higher  part  of  either  of  these  great 
billows  strikes  our  coast,  we  have  the  phenomenon  of 
high  water ;  and  when  the  lower  touches  us,  it  is  low 
water.  Each  of  the  waves  is  brought  over  any  given 
place  in  the  circumference  of  the  earth  in  twenty-four 
hours,  so  as  to  cause  high  water  twice  a  day.  The  sun 
is  also  known  to  have  a  certain  attractive  influence  on  the 
waters  of  the  ocean ;  but  from  the  great  distance  of  that 
luminary,  the  effect  is  comparatively  small.  But  when 
this  minor  influence  of  the  sur  coincides  with  that  of  the 
moon,  or  acts  in  the  same  way,  we  perceive  a  marked 
increase  in  the  tides ;  on  such  occtisions  we  have  what 
are  called  ipring  or  large  tides.  When  the  solar  and 
lunar  attractions  act  in  opposition,  we  have  neap  or  small 
tides.  The  spring  tides  happen  twice  a  month,  when  the 
moon  is  at  full  and  change ;  and  the  neap  when  the  m»B 
is  in  the  middle  of  its  orbit  between  those  two  points.  A 
tide  requires  six  hours  to  rise,  which  it  does  by  small  im. 
pul.'»!s  or  ripplings  of  the  water  on  the  shore,  and  six 
hours  to  ebb  or  fall ;  but  every  successive  high  water  is 
from  twenty  to  twenty-seven  minutes  later  than  the  pre- 
ceding, or,  on  an  average,  about  fifty  minutes  for  two 
tides,  in  consequence  of  the  earth  requiring  that  time 
above  the  twenty-'bur  hoars  to  bring  any  given  point 
again  beneath  the  moon.  The  tides  are  thus  retarded  by 
the  same  reason  that  the  moon  rises  fifty  minutes  latei 
every  day.  It  is  evident  that  the  tides  will  be  greatest  at 
that  point  of  the  earth's  surface  which  is  nearest  to  the 
moon,  or  where  the  latter  is  vertical.  She  is  so  between 
the  tropics ;  and  accordingly  the  tides  are  there  greatest, 
and  they  diminish  as  we  approoch  either  poles.  It  in  fur- 
ther to  he  remarked,  that  the  moon  docs  not  anyv^'heie 
draw  up  the  tides  immediately.  Three  hours  elapse  be- 
fore the  waters  are  raised,  in  consequence  of  the  law  of 
inertia,  or  a  disposition  which  everybody  has  to  continue 
in  the  conditinii  of  rest  or  motion  in  which  it  happens  to 
be  placed.  Tliis  stubbornness  to  resist  the  moon's  uiflu- 
encc  is  only  overcome  by  a  three  hour's  action  upon  the 
wat<'rs ;  and  thus  the  tidal  wave  is  alWays  three  houn 
Iwhind  the  moon  in  its  passage.  Twice  a  year,  nmnely, 
in  March  and  September,  the  tides  are  higher  than  at 
other  times,  because  then  the  attraction  of  the  sun  anil 
moon  is  strongest  In  some  of  the  firths  or  arms  of  the 
sea  on  the  east  coast  of  Sri^tland,  it  has  been  orrasKW 


.^..?«^'.lU:?; 


THK  OCEAN." 


vJ»"1i;fi'i 


m 


E 


'K  It*'"'. 

■'■  •v.-.i 

•1.  ;.i-t'W,. 


water,  or  liill 
e^rth  at  tha 
gitu(]e  0,  it « 
n  with  everr 
,e  same  paraV 

lonable  doubt 
ifluence  oftna 
or  gravitation. 
le  attracted  or 
therefore,  as  a 
th,  has  a  ten 
a  natural  rela 
ill  extent.    At 
I  protuberance, 
wave  after  iL 
ituberance,  and 
36  drown  away 
I  fomi  a  similai 
case,  the  walei 
I ;  in  the  other, 
the  land  being 
;ct  is  produced; 
ttemitiea  of  the 
r  of  these  great 
phenomenon  of 
ea  us,  it  is  low 
over  any  given 
in  twenty-fouT 
,  day.    The  sun 
influence  on  the 
distance  of  that 
lell.    But  when 
with  that  of  the 
•ceive  a  marked 
[g  wc  have  what 
..  the  solar  and 
ive  neap  or  small 
lonth,  when  the 
when  the  mxiB 
.,  two  points.    A 
oes  by  small  iro- 
shore,  and  six 
je  high  water  is 
tcr  than  the  pre- 
Uiinutes  for  two 
[uiring  that  time 
[any  given  point 
thus  retarded  by 
ty  minutes  latei 
,/ill  be  greatest  at 
lis  nearest  to  the 
)he  is  BO  between 
ire  there  greatest, 
poles.     It  is  fur- 
is  not  anywheie 
hours  elapse  be- 
ice  of  the  law  of 
has  to  continue 
lich  it  Viappens  to 
the  moon's  influ- 
action  upon  lh« 
rays  three  houn 
:e  9  yenr,  nwoely, 
n  higher  than  «l 
of  the  sun  am! 
.IS  or  arms  of  th« 
[as  bccu  oofSBiow 


mlv  noticed  that  there  have  been  four  high  waters  in  the 
ttr'i-iity-four  hours.  These,  however,  are  not  simple  tides. 
1'hi<  double  risings  are  caused  by  the  irregular  passage 
iif  the  tidal  wave  from  the  Atlantic  round  the  north  and 
south  points  of  the  island  of  Great  Britain.  When  that 
portion  of  the  wave  which  proceeds  by  'he  south  reaches 
tlio  east  coast  sooner  than  that  by  the  north,  or  vice  vena, 
Iheie  will  be  two  lisings  of  the  water  instead  of  one.  A 
similar  phenomenon  may  perhaps  be  observed  in  other 
iiarts  of  the  earth.  In  tfie  Mediterranean  Sea  the  tides 
•re  small,  and  in  some  places  scarcely  perceptible ;  this  is 
mused  by  the  general  confinement  of  that  inland  branch 
)f  the  ocean,  by  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  which  prevent 
tie  full  action  of  the  tidal  wave  either  in  its  rising  or 
recession. 

CDRRBim. 

Besides  being  aflected  by  the  regular  motion  of  the 
tides,  the  ocean,  in  many  parts  of  its  extended  bounds,  is 
influenced  by  currents,  which  act  continually  in  particu- 
lar directions.  Currents  are  the  result  of  various  causes, 
■uch  as  temperature,  winds,  peculiar  construction  of 
oaaHts  and  inlets,  but  chiefly,  as  is  believed,  of  the  rota- 
tory motion  of  the  earth.  The  globe  in  its  diurnal  mo- 
tion loaves,  as  it  were,  the  fluid  behind ;  and  hence  there 
If  a  perpetual  flow  of  the  sea  from  the  western  coasts  of 
Europe  and  Africa  towards  the  eastern  land-hoarit,  as  it 
is  called,  of  America,  and  from  the  west  of  America  to  the 
eastern  coast  of  Asia.  This  movement  is  chiefly  confined 
tn  the  tropics,  unless  where  the  sea  is  turned  aside  by  the 
land,  and  caused  to  diverge  towards  the  north  or  south. 
If  we  start  in  a  survey  of  this  motion  from  the  western 
coast  of  America,  we  find  it  producing  a  constant  current 
trross  the  vast  expanse  of  the  Pacific,  till  it  is  turned  ofl* 
by  Asia  and  Australia.  A  great  division  of  its  force  is 
directed  through  the  seas  on  both  sides  of  the  latter  conti> 
tiont,  and  so  on  through  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  round  the 
Cnpe  of  Good  Hope,  till  it  reaches  the  free  expanae'of 
the  Atlantic,  across  which  it  proceeds  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  acrass  the  Pacific.  The  current  of  the  Atlantic 
•trikes  the  coiut  of  Brazil,  and  breaks  at  Cape  St  .\ugus- 
tii\e  into  two  divi^^ions,  one  of  which  proceeds  round  Cape 
Horn  into  the  Pacific,  while  the  other  advances  through 
the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  so  on  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
This  latter  branch  conspires,  with  the  vast  issue  of  fresh 
waters  which  pours  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  to  raise  the 
level  of  that  sea  above  that  of  the  neighbouring  ocean ; 
and  causing  the  surplus  to  force  its  way  out  between 
Florida  and  Cuba,  produces  the  celebrated  Gulf  Stream 
which  is  perhaps  the  most  powerful  sea-current  in  tho 
world. 

It  is  obvious,  that  to  the  mariner  currents  must  be  of 
great  importance.  From  Portugal,  for  instance,  ships 
bare  sailed  to  the  Bights  of  Benin,  on  the  Guinea  coast, 
being  150  leagues,  in  two  days,  though  they  could  not 
mum  in  less  than  seven  weeks.  It  b  also  common  for 
vessels  to  descend  to  the  latitude  of  the  Canary  Islands, 
iri  order  to  get  into  the  tropical  current  across  the  Atlantic, 
wlilch  carries  them  to  America  in  a  comparatively  short 
time ;  it  was  by  this  current  that  Columbus  wa*  carried 
10  smoothly  on  in  his  first  voyage  to  the  new  continent 
The  Pacific,  it  is  said,  can  he  crossed  in  this  way  in  about 
Im  weeks,  being  at  the  rate  of  1000  miles  per  week ;  and 
loine  mariners  have  expressed  an  opinion,  that  China 
might  be  reached  by  this  route  in  less  time  than  by  the 
ihirter  course  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

For  tho  same  reason  that  the  sea  flows  from  east  to 
wpst,  the  air  has  a  tendency,  when  not  counteracted  by 
otlier  causes,  to  move  in  the  same  dir.ction.  The  earth 
ill  i's  motion  leaves  the  air,  like  the  tea,  a  little  behind  it; 
ill  other  wonts,  does  not  carry  it  so  fast  forward :  hence 
wlial  are  called  the  trade-winds,  which,  operating  in  the 
nme  diiection  with  the  sea-currents,  increase  the  facility 
of  navigation  to  the  westward  in  •  very  great  degree.    It 


is  impossible  to  avoid  rrmarhing.  that  thcw  nataral  pho 
nomena,  which,  it  is  to  he  supposed,  might  have  beer 
counteracted  or  neutralized  from  the  beginning,  miut 
have  been  designed  for  some  end  useful  and  necessary  in 
the  economy  of  the  wirld.  Perhaps,  like  the  diflusiva 
powers  given  to  the  ««eds  of  certain  plants,  they  were 
intended  to  aid  in  the  dispersion  of  the  human  race  over 
the  globe.  It  is  well  known  that  population  exists  in 
many  places,  which  appear  cut  ofl*  from  all  connection 
with  others,  by  seas  t'Aat  must  have  been  impassable  by 
navigators  in  the  earl}'  ages  of  their  art  Men  could  only 
be  drifted  to  such  places  in  early  ages  by  the  currents  of 
the  sea  and  air ;  and  thus  the  cultivation  of  large  and  im- 
portant regions  must  have  commenced  much  earlier  than 
would  have  otherwite  been  the  case. 

Besides  the  grand  equatorial  or  tropical  current,  there 
is  one  of  a  less  decided  character  from  the  poles  to  the 
equator.  The  sea  under  the  tropics  evaporates  to  a  greater 
extent  than  elsewhdre,  by  the  influence  of  a  vertical  soil 
The  vapours  are  aot  to  proceed  towards  the  north  and 
south,  where  they  descend  in  rain.  A  surplus  of  wat«r 
is  thus  produced  i.i  the  high  latitudes,  which  naturally 
flows  back  towanls  the  equator.  Hence  a  constant  hot 
comparatively  sligtit  flow  fi-om  the  north  and  south  to> 
wards  that  warmer  region  of  the  earth.  Under  the  inflo- 
ence  of  this  stream,  large  masses  of  ice  are  constaatly 
becoming  detachkl  ft'om  the  polar  store?),  and  drifted  to 
the  tropics.  In  some  of  the  bays  on  the  north  side  of 
Iceland,  this  frigid  substance  comes  in  vast  quantitiea, 
insomuch  as  to  i;hoke  them  up  to  the  depth  of  600  feet 
What  is  still  mere  strange,  these  masses  of  ice  are  som^ 
times  mixed  up  with  trees,  some  of  which  arc  known  to 
be  the  produce  of  the  torrid  zone  in  America ;  this  is  ao 
counted  for  by  the  action  of  the  northern  division  of  the 
great  current  which  parts  at  Cape  St.  Augustine.  That 
northern  division,  after  rushing  into  and  out  of  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  proceeds  northward  to  Newfoundland,  and 
thence  at  a  hi/'h  latitude  returns  athwart  the  Atlantic, 
finally  sweeping  along  the  western  coasts  of  Europe,  and 
rejoining  the  current  which  gave  it  its  first  impulse.  By 
this  current,  it  is  supposed,  American  timber  may  easily 
be  carried  to  tlie  northern  shores  of  Iceland. 

The  operation  of  the  tides  is  less  observable  in  the 
great  currentfi  wo  have  alluded  to  than  in  those  wiiieh 
prevail  in  the:  more  secluded  seas.  The  abstraction  of 
water  from  a  secluded  sea  by  the  recess  of  the  tide,  and 
the  rush  inwards  produced  by  its  flow,  are  sulhcient  of 
themselves  tci  cause  very  impetuous  currents,  more  par* 
ticularly  in  the  narrow  channels  by  which  the  inland 
seas  are  connected  with  the  ocean.  We  find  it  stated, 
in  a  pamphlet  respecting  the  condition  of  the  Orkney 
islands,  that  the  Pentland  Firth,  which  depurates  the  con- 
tinent of  Great  Britain  ftom  Ork;\ey,  "  has  no  fewer  than 
four-and-twenty  contrary  curr<>'',t3  of  the  tide  at  the  flood 
of  spring,  besides  numerous  sets  and  eddies,  which,  under 
the  local  names  of  teells,  nvtlches,  and  roottt,  boil  mora 
madly  on  the  Orcadian  shore  than  ever  did  witch's  cal- 
dron on  the  kindred  coast  of  Norway,  if  we  may  oo- 
lieve  old  traditi3n  and  Bishop  Pontoppidon.  '  The  Boar 
of  Papa,'  at  the  opposite  extreme  of  Orkney,  is  another 
terrible  tide ;  when  he  gets  a  vessel  in  his  tusks,  ha 
shakes  the  masts  out — an  operation  which,  in  the  coun- 
try phrase,  goes  by  the  name  of  hackling."  The  contra- 
riety of  influcnres  which  arc  sometimes  brought  into 
play  by  poiar  and  equatorial  currents,  and  those  produced 
by  tho  tides,  occasion  many  phenomena  extremely  per- 
plexing, and  sometimes  very  dangj'rous.  to  the  navigntoi. 
In  the  Cattegat,  by  which  the  Baltic  is  connected  n-ith 
the  German  Ocean,  one  current  always  goes  in  by  the 
side  next  Jutland,  while  another  issues  tbrth  by  that 
nearest  to  Sweden.  In  like  manner,  a  current  seems  to 
proceed  along  the  eastern  coast  of  Britain  towards  tho 
south,  while  another,  flowing  in  an  o|  posite  direction. 
i  advances  along  the  coast  of  Holland     What  is  mill 


96 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


nore  curious,  ander-eurranti  ara  sometimM  found  going 
m  •  contrary  direction  to  those  upon  the  lurface.  At 
the  Strait*  of  Gibraltar,  it  is  said  there  is  always  a  sw- 
(ace  current  going  in,  as  if  to  supply  >  want  in  the 
Mediterranean,  while,  at  a  certain  depth,  there  is  another 
foing  out.  So  strong  and  so  steady  is  this  contrariety 
in  the  Caribbean  Sea,  that  a  boat  may  be  moored  by 
dropping  a  heavy  subatanco  to  a  certain  depth ;  the  up- 
per current  impels  the  boat  one  way,  while  the  under 
one  draws  the  sunk  object  another,  and  between  the  two 
tha  boat  is  steadied. 

Two  currents  of  equal  force,  but  of  different  directions, 
meeting  in  a  narrow  passage  or  gut,  will  cause  a  whirl- 
pool, a  phenomenon  which  has  ignorantly  been  said  to 
be  produced  by  subterranean  rivers,  gulfs,  chasms,  Ac., 
but  essentially  is  only  an  eddy,  produced  by  the  contact 
of  two  currents  meeting  on  a  centre.  The  whirlpool 
named  the  Euripi.'es,  near  the  coast  of  Greece,  alter- 
nately absorbs  and  rejects  the  water  seven  times  in  twenty- 
fooi  hours.  Charybdis,  in  the  Straits  of  Sicily,  absorbs 
and  rejects  the  water  thrice  in  twenty-four  hours ;  and 
iIm  Maelstroem,  on  the  coast  of  Normandy,  which  is 
oonaiderably  the  largest,  absorbs,  every  six  hours,  water, 
ships,  whales,  in  short,  every  thing  tiiat  approaches  its 
malignant  influence,  and  the  next  six  hours  is  employed 
in  easting  them  up  again.  These  eddies  are  sometimes 
■ngmsnted  by  the  force  of  contending  tides,  or  by  the 
action  of  the  winds.  They  draw  vessels  along,  dash 
them  upon  rocks,  or  engulf  them  in  their  furious  vor- 
tices, the  wreck  not  appearing  until  some  time  after. 

WATER8POVT8. 

Marine  waterspouts  are  caused  by  the  action  of  atmo- 
spheric currents,  and  are  as  dangerous  in  their  rfTects  as 
they  are  wonderful  in  appearance.  Malte-Brun  thus  de- 
■eribes  them : — "  Underneath  a  dense  cloud,  the  sea  he- 
comes  agitated  with  violent  commotfons ;  the  waves  dart 
rapidly  towards  the  centre  of  the  agitated  mass  of  water, 
on  arriving  at  which  they  are  dispersed  into  aqueous  va- 
pours, and  rise  whirling  round  in  a  spiral  direction  to- 
wards the  cloud.  This  conical  ascending  column  is  met 
by  another  descending  column,  which  leans  towards  the 
water,  and  joins  with  it  In  many  cases  the  marine  co- 
lumn is  from  fifty  to  eighty  toiscs  (fathoms)  in  diameter 
near  its  base.  Both  columns,  however,  diminish  towanis 
the  middle,  where  they  unite ;  so  that  here  they  are  not 
more  than  three  or  four  feet  in  diameter.  The  entire 
column  presents  itself  in  the  shape  of  a  hollow  cylinder 
or  tube  of  glass,  empty  within.  It  glides  over  the  sea 
without  any  wind  being  felt ;  indeed,  several  have  been 
seen  at  once  following  diflerent  directions.  When  the 
cloud  and  the  marine  base  of  the  waterspout  move  with 
unequal  velocities,  the  lower  cone  is  often  seen  to  incline 
sideways,  or  even  to  bend,  and  finally  to  burst  in  pieces. 
A  noise  is  then  heard  like  the  noise  of  a  cataract  falling 
in  s  deep  valley.  Lightning  frequently  issucM  from  the 
very  bosom  of  the  waterspout,  particularly  when  it  breaks ; 
but  no  thunder  is  ever  heard." 

Sailors,  to  prevent  the  imminent  danger  which  their 
vessels  would  be  exposed  to  by  coming  in  contact  with 
these  tremendoiu  columns,  discharge  upon  them  a  can- 
non ball,  which,  passing  throui^h  them,  causes  them  in- 
variably to  burst,  and,  consequently,  removes  all  chance 
9f  injury  connected  with  them.  This  phenomenon  is 
•ccounted  for  in  the  following  manner: — Two  winds 
meet — a  vortex  ensues:  any  cloud  which  hap|)ens  to  lie 
between  them  is  condensed  into  a  conical  form,  and 
turned  lound  with  great  velocity  :  this  whiriing  motion 
drives  firora  the  centre  of  the  cloud  all  the  particles  con- 
fined in  it ;  a  vacuum  is  thereby  produced,  and  water 
or  any  other  body  lying  beneath  this  vacuum  is  carried 
into  it  upon  the  usual  and  well-known  principle.  The 
cannon  ball,  breaking  this  cyluider,  which  is  «lways 
pirtiy  hollow,  causes  it  to  fsll  to  pieces,  in  the  same  man- 


,  ncr  as  s  touch  upon  the  surface  of  a  soap-ball  rtduoss 
I  tho  resplendent  moss  to  a  drop  of  common  water. 

TIMPIIUTURB   or  THB   SKA. 

The  temperature  of  the  sea,  like  that  of  the  air,  is 
liable  to  be  affected  by  the  latitude  and  the  season  of  thf 
year,  but  not  to  nearly  so  (preat  an  extent  as  the  air 
Within  the  tropics,  where  the  season  has  hardly  any  in. 
flucnce,  it  is  generally  found  at  alwut  80  or  81  of  Fah 
renheit's  thermometer,  being  somewhat  more,  in  general, 
than  tho  warmth  of  the  neighbouring  air,  which  is  de- 
prived to  a  certain  extent  of  its  heat,  in  order  to  carry  on 
the  process  of  evaporation.  Taking  the  month  of  March 
as  one  of  those  during  which  the  heat  of  the  sun  must 
be  equally  determined  in  lx>th  directions  by  latitude,  we 
find  that  in  that  month  the  sea  has  been  found,  at  11^ 
.32'  south,  of  80-6  Fahrenheit;  at  .31°  34'  south,  of 
76-7 ;  at  40°  SW  south,  of  69.0 ;  though  in  some  in- 
stances it  has  been  found  several  degrees  more  or  less  a| 
the  same  season,  and  under  nearly  the  same  latitude. 
The  chief  cause  of  the  variation  is  the  pcr))etual  Cow 
of  water  from  the  poles  to  the  e(|uator,  which  has  been 
already  explained.  It  has  been  pretty  nearly  ascertained, 
that,  in  the  tropi<:al  seas,  it  ranges  aliout  9  degrees  of 
Fahrenheit ;  in  the  middle  of  the  temperate  zone  about 
12  ;  and  after  that,  decreases  with  a  more  rapid  and  mora 
equable  gradation.  The  temperature  of  the  sea  is  alw 
afloctcd  by  its  depth.  In  deep  seas  bctwce.i  the  tropics, 
tho  hc«it  diminishes  towards  the  bottom  ;  while,  in  mors 
frigid  latitudes,  it  is  sometimes  observed  to  becoms 
warmer.  The  sea  is  a  bad  conductor  of  heat ;  the  solu 
rays  can  only  penetrate  about  three  hundred  feet  below 
the  surface,  nor  docs  the  light  descend  any  farther.  A 
small  diffprrnce  is  discovered  between  the  observationi 
on  temperature  in  the  two  hemispheres.  For  the  firrt 
2iS°  towards  the  south,  the  decrease  of  heat  is  slower, 
and  after  that  more  rapid,  than  towards  the  north. 

It  must  be  evident  to  every  one  who  considers  the 
great  mass  of  waters  composing  the  ocean,  and  tho  in- 
terchange of  position  which  must  always  ho  taking  place, 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  between  the  upper  ond  warmer 
parts  and  the  lower  and  colder,  that  this  comparatife 
equability  of  temperature  is  unavoidable,  even  if  then 
were  no  other  causes  to  account  for  it.  Tho  uses  cf  thil 
equability  are  still  more  obvious,  and  must  add  greatly  te 
the  wonder  we  always  experience  when  the  economy  of 
nature  is  minutely  traced.  By  this  equability,  the  natural 
result  of  high  latitude  i*  mc-  **!sa  corrected,  for  tliC 
advantage  of  the  human  bi^  .lo  hapi)pn  to  be  eo 

placed.     A  milder  air  breatn  n  the  sea  softens  the 

climate  all  over  the  adjacent  (ami,  and  produces  a  frc^b- 
nesB  which  is  of  the  greatest  service  to  vegetation.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  those  torrid  regions  where  both  animated 
and  vegetable  nature  is  apt  to  sink  lieneath  the  vertical 
rays  of  the  sun,  tlie  cooling  breath  of  the  ocean  conx^ 
generally  s.'.  fixed  times,  reviving  the  parchetl  soil,  ami 
communicating  to  man  sensations  of  relief  and  plea.ture, 
which  are  haidly  to  be  imagined  by  those  who  have  not 
experienced  them. 

■ALINC  PROPrRTV  OP  TRK  8IA. 
Tlio  saline  property  of  the  sea  has  never  been  scrni 
lifically  accounted  for  ;  it  l>afflrs  all  human  investigation. 
Some  have  alleged  that  it  is  caused  by  fossil  or  rock  uh 
at  the  bottom,  but  for  this  there  is  neither  proof  nor  pro. 
bability.  The  most  reasonable  conclusion  is,  that  the  sn 
is  a  homogeneous  salt  body  ;  that  its  waters  were  crcat<«i, 
and  have  continued,  and  ever  wiU  continue,  in  this  mllne 
condition,  in  the  same  manner  that  the  atmosphere  hu 
been  created  and  exists  ss  a  compound  body.  'I'he  In- 
quiry, therefore,  why  the  sea  is  salt,  is  just  as  needlni 
as  why  the  stroosphere  is  composed  of  two  or  thrre 
gases.  The  two  questions  are  equally  shrouded  in  my* 
tery.    « Tbs  prcportion  which  tb«  salino  matters  l«ai 


islbf  wal 
isniie  Oc 
iwenty-fou 
rom  the 
at  the  surf 
cularly  fur 
acting  the 
<n,  must  1> 
saline  mati 
tho  water, 
ration,  the 
water  supp 
tho  salt  mn 
TTicre  ore  c 
contained  ii 
glaubcr  salt 
and  niuriiite 
water;  and 
of  two  siinpli 
and  bromine, 
except  the  fo 
Atlantic  Oc< 
itated  as  fo 
^ns 

"  Wat 
Miiri 
.''iilpl 
Atiiri 
Muri 

Thu«.  it  is  I 
ie  the  ptincipai 
dnd  that  muri 
Sea-water  is  to 
iporific  gravity 
not,  »a  ship  d 
Ihirty-fifth,  in  t 
fresh  water  of  i 
iwiniming  supj 
in  8  river."     f 
thermometer, 
fqually  in  its  v 
say,  it  expands 
Of  by  a  dimini 
iximmon  frcczin 
Of  icy  form.     T 
jfamullest  volu 
pcriments  of  ch< 
trpand  by  a  tli 
I  because  it  ig  re 
md  when  it  doe; 
Wn?  full  of  po 
jreat  degree  of  t 
rtfong  hriny  liqu 
I     Sea-water,  on 
I  liliM  to  the  sun's 
I  of  common  salt ; 
Jmeanaofpans  an 
I  of  almost  every 
jfifeii  the  attempt 
I  nent  of  food  or  d 
jsiter  on  6lii;,b,5a 
joriweet  waU-r  l)e( 
jliccauso  the  siilin. 
I  united  with  it,  niK 
Iraechinical.     The 
Itet  adviuitiige  en 
Iniliored  and  ooiidi 
Iwt entirely  fresh,) 
luiif  rertain  gnm-oui 
|j«i'  'he  liquid  slioi 
^  action  of  tlio 
'fif  is  iKwuible  ,) 

•Ci'-miilr,-  of  Na 
Voul.— 13 


THE  OCEAN. 


1/t 


mU  rtdiMM 
Iter. 


r  the  air,  ii 
)aMn  of  thf 
;  as  the  air 

irdly  any  in- 
r  81  of  Fah 
e,  in  general, 
which  id  de- 
ir  to  carry  on 
nth  of  March 
he  Bun  muit 
f  latitude,  we 
fonnd,  at  11" 
M'  south,  of 
in   some  in- 
nore  or  less  at 
4nnio   latitude, 
ficriietual  ti(m 
rhich  has  beea 
rly  ascertained, 
t  9  degrees  of 
rate  zone  about 
rapid  and  mors 
the  sea  is  alao 
K;i  the  tropics, 
wliile,  in  mots 
vcd   to  beconM 
heat;  the  solai 
ndred  feet  bekw 
any  farther.    A 
the  observation! 
•8.    For  the  fir4 
■  heat  is  slower, 
Iho  north. 
10  considers  the 
cran,  and  the  in- 
be  taking  place, 
pper  and  wann« 
this  comparative 
t>,  even  if  thert 
The  uses  of  thsl 
ist  add  greatly  to 
the  economy  of 
ibility,  the  natural 
corrected,  for  tl< 
liapix-n  to  be  eo 
le  sea  softens  the 
iroduces  a  frcr-h- 
igetation.   On  the 
re  both  animated 
cath  the  vcTiKal 
he  ocean  comM, 
pnrcheil  soil,  anJ 
iff  and  plessure, 
who  hove  not 


SIA. 

jiever  been  wiea 
Lian  investigation. 
I foMsil  or  rock  mK 
lor  proof  nor  pro- 
Ion  is,  that  the  sei 
Iters  were  crcstiJ. 
|nuc,  in  this  iwline 
atmosphere  hu 
ll  body.    The  in- 
1  just  as  neeilli* 
[of  two  or  thtM 
I  shroudinl  in  my* 
Vne  roaturs  l«ai 


la  tb«  water  varies  considerably,  llie  water  of  the  At- 
untie  Ocean,  within  the  tropics,  contains  about  one 
twenty-fourth  of  its  weight  of  saline  matters.  There, 
rem  the  great  heat,  very  groat  evaporation  must  go  on 
itt  the  surface  ;  and  from  the  great  mass  of  water,  parti- 
cularly far  out  at  sea,  the  inlluence  of  rivers  in  countcr- 
sctlng  the  elTcct  of  the  evaporation,  by  adding  fresh  wa- 
)(r,  must  be  less  than  usual.  In  the  Firth  of  Forth,  the 
■aline  mattctH  form  only  one-thirtieth  of  the  weight  of 
tho  water.  There  loss  fresh-water  is  removed  by  evepo- 
rotion,  the!  climate  being  much  colder ;  and  the  fresh 
water  supplied  by  rivers  is  greater  in  proportion,  so  that 
the  salt  matters  hear  a  smaller  proportion  to  the  whole. 
There  are  chiefly  four  matters  (continues  our  authority*) 
contained  in  sea-water,  common  salt  (muriate  of  soda), 
dauber  salt  (sulphate  of  soda),  muriate  of  magnesia, 
and  muriiitc  of  lime.  Potash  has  been  detected  in  st'a- 
watcr;  and  it  also  contains  extremely  small  quantities 
of  two  simple  substances  lately  discovered,  namely,  iodine 
and  bromine,  in  union  with  hydrogen.  Disregarding  all 
except  the  four  first,  the  composition  of  the  water  of  the 
Atlnntic  Ocean,  as  analysed  by  Ur.  Marcct,  may  be 
italed  as  follows.  The  quantity  examined  was  600 
(Trains 

"Water,  .  .  .       47rt-4aO 

Miiriiilc  of  »0(1«,       -  .  13. a 

Siilphaic  of  noila,  -  •  a-m 

Miirinte  of  lime,  •  O-OnS 

Muriate  of  magnesia,    -  •  4.0.'i> 

SnOnrnins." 
Thu»,  it  is  seen  that  muriate  of  soda  or  common  salt 
in  the  piincipal  solid  ingredient  in  the  waters  of  tho  ocean, 
and  that  muriate  of  magnesia  is  the  next  in  importance, 
tfloa-watcr  is  to  a  certain  deq;rec  more  dense,  or  of  greater 
uporific  gravity,  than  pure  water.  According  to  Dr.  Ar- 
not, "  a  ship  draws  less  water,  or  swims  lighter,  by  one 
thirly-fiilh,  in  tho  dense  salt  w.tter  of  the  sea,  than  in  the 
ftcsli  wntcr  of  a  river :  and  for  the  same  reason,  a  man 
iwimming  supports  himself  more  easily  in  the  sea  than 
in  a  river."  Sea-water  freezes  at  28°  of  Fahrenheit's 
thermometer.  Fresh  water,  as  is  well  known,  expands 
rquslly  in  its  volume,  8°  above  or  below  40°,  that  is  to 
siy,  it  expands  by  an  increase  of  temperature  up  to  48°, 
or  by  u  diminution  of  temperature  down  to  32°,  the 
(vnnmon  freezing  point,  when  it  assumes  tho  crystallized 
jr  icy  form.  Thus  40°  is  the  point  of  mean  density,  or 
,if  sinullcst  volume,  in  fresh  water.  By  the  recent  ex- 
periments of  chemists,  it  is  found  that  sea-water  docs  not 
cipand  by  a  diminution  of  temperature  down  to  32°, 
because  it  is  reluctant  to  assume  the  crystallized  form, 
dnd  when  it  does  freeze  at  28°,  its  ice  is  very  imperfect, 
I  being  full  of  pores  and  interstices,  and  composed  in  a 
I  i^tt  degree  of  thin  spicular  fltkes,  enclosing  drops  of  a 
itrong  hriny  liquid  which  cannot  be  crystallized. 

Sea-water,  on  being  boiled,  or  exposed  in  small  quan- 
I  titles  to  the  sun's  rays,  evaporates,  and  leaves  a  residuum 
of  common  salt ;  and  the  manufacture  of  this  article,  by 
I  means  of  pans  and  furnaces,  is  carried  on  upon  the  shores 
I  of  almost  every  civilized  country.  Innumerable  have 
I  been  the  attempts  to  render  sea-water  useful  as  an  ele- 
I  nent  of  food  or  drink,  in  cases  of  great  scarcity  of  fresh 
1  siter  on  ehipboard,  but  in  no  case  has  a  |)erfectly  pure 
lorwect  water  been  procured.  Filtration  has  no  efli-ct, 
Ibcouse  the  siiline  niattt'rs  in  the  water  are  ehcinicnlly 
limited  with  it,  and  cannot  be  removed  by  means  merely 
Imechanical.  The  process  of  purifying  the  water  to  tho 
Ihcit  adviuitnge  consists  in  distilling  it,  the  vnpour  being 
In'.hered  and  condensed  into  a  liquid.  Hut  this  lii]nid  is 
|m< entirely  fresh  or  sweet,  in  consi'iiuence  of  its  contain- 
lillijrertiiin  finseous  motters  :  and  tln'refore,  after  <li(itilbi- 
llion,  the  liquid  should  for  n  lensth  of  time  W  oxiiiwcd  to 
\  action  uf  the  atinoHphcre,  so  ns  to  allow  the  esca|ie 

I  \a  as  (lossiblo  of  the  ga.s(>s  with  which  it  is  churgtxl. 


•fnrmiiiry  of  Nature,  by  Hu({x>  Reid.    EUiiiburgli,  1.S37. 
Vuul.— 13 


A  imall  quantity  of  potash  or  toap  put  mto  the  watni 
previous  to  distillation,  is  said  to  be  useful  in  purifyinf 
it  and  rendering  it  more  palatable.  The  following  plan 
for  procuring  fresh  water  at  sea,  in  a  casa  of  emergency, 
was  pursued  by  a  Captain  Chapman,  when  sailing  off 
the  north  coast  of  Finland.  By  accident  he  lost  nearly 
all  his  water ;  and  while  thus  circumstanced,  a  gale  of 
wind  arose,  which  blew  hard  for  three  weeks,  and  drove 
him  far  out  to  sea.  I'he  Captain  was  in  great  anxiety. 
The  water  in  the  ship  would  last  but  a  short  time,  and 
he  had  no  still  on  boai^.  But  necessity,  the  mother  of 
invention,  aided  him  in  contriving  one.  By  means  of 
an  old  pitch-pot,  with  a  wooden  cover,  and  a  pipe  made 
of  a  pewter  plate,  and  a  cask  for  a  receiver,  he  com- 
menced operations.  He  put  seven  quarts  of  sea-water 
and  an  ounce  of  soap  into  the  pot,  and  placed  it  on  the 
fire.  As  soon  as  the  pot  boiled,  the  condensed  vapour 
began  to  flow  through  the  pipe  into  the  receiver.  In 
half  an  hour  be  obtained  a  quart  of  fresh  water.  This 
water,  though  not  very  palatable,  answered  for  all  neces- 
sary purposes.  He  kept  the  still  constantly  at  work,  and 
got  a  gallon  of  water  every  two  hours.  And  thus  the 
crow  was  saved  from  great  suffering,  if  not  from  actual 
death. 

PHO8PH0RB8CINCI  OF  THE    SEA. 

Every  one  who  has  been  at  sea,  and  observed  the  ac- 
tion of  the  waters  at  night,  must  have  less  or  more  re- 
marked certain  luminous  appearances  in  the  wavea. 
Accounts  of  the  phosphorescence  of  the  sea  may  be 
foimd  in  the  narrative  of  almost  every  voyager.  The 
following  description  is  given  by  Mr.  Stewart,  in  his 
Journal  of  a  Residence  in  the  Sandwich  Islands: — "The 
exhibitions  of  the  day  have  been  followed  at  night  by  a 
phosphoretic  scene  of  unrivalled  splendour  and  sublimity, 
Wo  had  often  before  observed  luminous  points,  like 
sparks  of  fire,  floating  here  and  there  in  the  furrow  of 
our  vessel,  but  now  the  whole  ocean  was  literally  be- 
spangled with  them.  Notwithstanding  the  smoothnew 
of  tho  surface,  there  is  a  considerable  swell  of  the  sea ; 
end  sparkling  as  it  did  on  every  part  as  with  fire,  the 
mighty  heavings  of  its  bosom  were  indescribably  magni- 
ficent. It  seemed  as  if  the  aky  had  fall»n  to  a  level 
with  tho  ship,  and  all  its  stars,  ct  isnfold  numbers  and 
brilliancy,  were  rolling  about  with  the  undulations  of 
the  billows. 

"  The  horizon  in  every  direction  presented  a  line  of  un- 
interrupted light,  while  the  wide  space  intervening  was 
one  extent  of  apparent  fire.  -The  sides  of  our  vessel 
appeared  kindling  to  a  blaze,  and  as  our  bows  occasioiy. 
tdly  dashed  against  a  wave,  the  flash  of  the  concussion 
gleamed  half  way  up  the  rigging,  and  illuminated  every 
object  along  the  whole  length  of  the  ship.  By  throwing 
any  article  overboard,  a  display  of  light  and  colours  took 
place,  surpassing  in  brilliancy  and  beauty  the  finest  exhi- 
bition of  fire-works.  A  charming  effect  was  produced 
by  a  line  coiled  to  some  length,  and  then  cast  into  the 
water  at  a  distance,  and  also  by  a  bucket  of  water 
dashed  from  the  side  of  a  vessel.  The  rudder,  too,  by 
its  motions,  created  splendid  coruscations  at  the  stem> 
and  a  flood  of  light,  by  whicit  our  track  was  marked  far 
liehind  us.  The  smaller  fish  were  distinctly  traceable  by 
ruiming  lines  showing  their  rapid  course,  while  now  and 
then  broad  gloamings,  extending  many  yards  in  every 
direction,  made  known  the  movements  of  some  monster 
of  the  <leop.  But  minuteness  will  only  weary  without 
conveying  any  adequate  impression  of  tlie  scene ;  if 
would  have  l)ecn  wise,  jM^rhaps,  only  to  have  said  that  it 
wa^^  nmnng  tlic  most  sublime  nature  herself  ever  pre- 
sents. 

"  The  cause  of  this  phenomenon  was  iong  a  subject  irf 

I  s|)eculiitiun  among  men  ol  science,  but  is  now  satisfac* 

I  torily  as4-ertained  to  be  a  sea  animalcule  of  the  luminou* 

[  trilie.  pariii'ularly   the  species  Meduia,    The  Meduta 

I 


INFORMATION  FOR  TIIR  PEOPLE. 


fttlunta  of  Sir  JoMph  Bank»,  and  the  Medtua  icintil- 
luHi  of  Mr.  M«cartney,  emit  the  most  iplendid  light 
'riiV  degree  tnd  brillioncy  of  the  exhibition  are  auppnscd 
lo  <lv|>cnd  on  th«  state  of  the  atmosphere  and  sea.  A 
more  grand  display  than  that  which  we  have  witnessed 
wobahly  seldom  il'  ever  takes  place." 

This  phenomenon  has  been  ascribed  to  various  causes, 
Mt  the  explanation  presented  by  Mr.  Stewart  is  the  one 
now  most  generally  admitted.  The  little  animal  by 
which  this  light  is  produced  is  sometimes  railed  Itie 
glow-worm  of  iht  sea.  This  animal  is  exceedingly  small, 
thin,  and  transparent,  and,  like  the  flre-fly,  with  which 
we  are  well  acquainted,  emits  a  brilliant  light.  The  sea 
contains  many  animals  of  this  nature,  of  dilTrrcnt  spe- 
cies. The  Altdiua  have  little  antenna)  or  horns,  from 
which  they  dart  a  strong  light,  while  the  rest  of  their 
JKidy  remains  in  obscurity.  All  the  zoophytes  appear 
to  be  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  phosphorescent.  Some 
accurate  observers  have  also  thought,  that  in  addition 
ja  this  iflowieorm  light,  there  is  a  luminous  appearance 
originating  from  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  and 
animal  substances,  similar  to  the  phosphorescence  of 
rotten  wood. 

THE  COLOUR  OF  THE  SEA. 
The  water  of  the  soa  is  colourless  when  examined  in 
small  quantities,  but  when  viewed  in  the  muss  in  the 
wide  ocean,  it  appears  to  be  of  an  azure  or  blue  tint. 
The  cause  of  this  generally  blue  colour  of  the  deep  sea 
has  not  been  as  yet  clearly  explained ;  but  it  seems  to 
be  in  some  degree  accounted  for  by  reference  to  ccrtoin 
principles  connected  with  the  science  of  optics.  Pro- 
bably most  are  aware  that  li;;lit  consists  of  the  set  of 
colours  which  we  see  so  l)c»utifully  displayed  in  the 
rainbow.  Now,  it  is  a  law  of  liglit,  that  when  it  enters 
any  body,  and  is  either  reflected  or  transiiiiltoil  to  the 
«yo,  a  certain  portion  o£  it,  consisting  of  more  or  less  of 
ita  colours,  is  lost  in  the  Inxly.  The  rvinaiiider,  l)eing 
raflected,  strikes  our  visual  scnec,  and  whatever  colour 
that  may  lie,  the  object  seems  of  that  colour.  Now,  it 
chances  that  tlie  portion  of  light  most  apt  to  lie  reflected 
Crouk  masses  of  transparent  fluid  is  the  blue ;  and  hence 
it  is,  or  supposed  to  Iw,  that  the  air  and  sea  both  appear 
of  this  colour. 

While  fhere  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  ocean  is  gene- 
rally of  a  blue  colour,  it  is  equally  certain  that  there 
i.rc  maay  portions  of  sea  in  which  a  diflerent  hue  ap- 
pears. Tlie  causes  of  these  exceptions  from  the  rule 
seem  to  bo  of  various  kinds.  Frequently,  the  ordinary 
colour  of  the  sea  is  aflccted  by  the  admixture  of  foreign 
substances,  these  being  sometimes  of  a  living  and  orga- 
nic nature,  and  sometimes  the  reverse.  'ITie  most 
-simple  example  of  the  latter  class  of  canoH  is  the  com- 
mon flooding  of  any  stream,  when  quantities  of  mud 
and  earthy  particles  are  introduced  into  the  river,  and 
emptied  into  the  sea.  What  is  thus  strikingly  seen  on 
•very  coast,  on  a  small  scale,  will  readily  l)e  conceived 
to  be  of  infinitely  wider  extent  in  the  mighty  rivers  of 
the  principal  continents  of  the  plolie.  Sumc  seas  are 
coloured  yrltoie  from  a  similar  caiiw.  Vcgrtalile  matter 
is  known  to  have  a  colouring  etrpct;  hut  Miore  iisuully 
fte  peculiar  tint  of  the  sea  results  from  an  infusion 
of  animals  of  the  infusoria  tribes.  Aunthor  class  of 
cases  in  which  the  ocean  appears  to  l>e  tiiii;c>l  with  a 

'  peculiar  colour,  is  referable  to  the  rcrti^ction  of  rays  of 
light  from  the  bed  nr  bottom ;  a'ul   hciicc,  in  shallow 

•and  clear  seas,  the  colour  of  the  irround  is  a  nmin  cans*- 
liir  any  particular  lint  which  tliu  water  asjumcs  to  the 

WINDS TRADE-WIN  bS. 

A  change  in  the  temperature,  a  diininutinn  of  the 
'apotir,  or  any  other  cause  that  may  <K-casion  a  portion 
.»'  the  surrounding  atmosphere  to  contract  or  expand. 


will  give  rise  to  the  atirial  currents  dcniiminidiit  niruk 
which,  indeed,  bear  a  strong  aiiulofy  to  tlie  currcm, 
which  occur  in  the  ocean.  When  the  air  by  whitih  Wf 
are  surrounded  becomes  heated,  it  exp'uids,  and  beconiM 
speciflcally  lighter,  in  consequence  of  which  it  mount* 
upwards,  and  the  colder  and  denser  air  which  lor. 
rounds  the  mass  thus  rarifled  rusher'  in  to  supply  it« 
l)lace.  When,  also,  a  condensation  of  vapour  in  the 
atmosphere  suddenly  takes  place,  giving  rise  to  clondu 
which  speedily  dissolve  in  rain,  the  temperature  of  the 
surrounding  air  is  sensibly  altered,  and  the  colder  rush- 
ing in  upon  the  wanner,  gives  rise  to  a  sudden  guai 
of  wind.  For  this  reason,  a  cold  heavy  shower  passing 
over  head,  with  a  hasty  fall  of  xnow  or  hail,  is  often 
attended  with  a  violent  and  sudden  gust  of  wind,  which 
ceases  when  the  cloud  disappears,  but  is  renewed  when 
another  cloud,  sweeping  along  in  the  same  dircctioo, 
brings  with  it  a  fresh  blast,  Accordingly,  a  whistling, 
or  howling,  or  noise  of  the  wind,  is  universally  conii. 
dcred  to  be  a  prognostic  of  rain,  Iwcause  it  indicate! 
that  a  change  is  taking  place  in  the  temperature  of  th« 
atmosphere,  owing  to  the  vapour  in  its  higher  regioni 
being  condensed  into  rain-clouds. — (See  article  Metio- 

RULOOT.) 

The  most  remarkable  winils  are  those  which  travern 
the  ocean  steadily  in  one  direction,  and  are  called 
"  trade-winds,"  from  their  use  in  mercantile  navigalioa 
An  explanation  of  their  cause  is  given  in  the  artick 
METKonoLonT.  The  external  limits  of  the  tradc-windi 
arc  30  degrees  north  and  'M  degrees  south  of  the  equa- 
tor; but  each  limit  diminishes  as  the  sun  advances  to 
the  opposite  tropic.  The  larger  the  expanse  of  ocesn 
over  which  they  sweep,  the  more  steadily  do  they  blow; 
accordingly,  they  are  more  steady  in  the  Pacific  tliia 
in  the  Atlantic,  and  in  the  South  than  in  tlio  Nortk 
Atlantic  Ocean. 

Sen  anil  Lund  Jireezct. — In  most  countries  near  th« 
shores  of  the  sea,  but  particularly  in  tropical  cliinatea, 
there  arc  jmriodical  winds  called  sea  and  lind  breeiei, 
of  which  the  navigator  takes  ailvantage.  The  cause  of 
the  occurrence  of  these  winds  is  described  in  the  artick 

Mf.TROROI.O(!T. 

Hurrirnncf. — The  most  dangerous  -sruids  to  the  ns>i 
gator  are  those  which  occur  in  sudden  gusts,  or  s<|ualli, 
and  for  the  approach  of  which  the  nb'-rpest  outlook  ii 
required.     When  the  squall  is  in  the  form  of  a  violeu 
tempest,  accompanied  by  rain,  aghtning,  and  thunder, 
it  receives  the  name  of  a  hurricane.     Hurricanes  occoi 
most  frequently  and  witl>  the  greatest  violence  in  tropi- 
cal climates ;  liecause,  in  conseciucnce  of  the  very  grm 
heat  which  there  prevails,  the  rarefaction  of  the  air.  and 
also  the  condensation  of  the  vapour  it  contains  into  rain-  | 
drops,  take  place  more  suddenly  and  completely  than  la 
more  tcmjierate  regions.     Hy  this  means  the  clcctricil; 
of  the  atmosphere — that  subtle  fluid  which  »ccm»  lo  I 
pervade  all  bodies,  and  which  univer.sally  seeks  its  owd 
equilibrium — is  disturbed,  and  no  loneer  maintains  u 
equal  distribution  through  the  aerial  vapour.     It  arc» 
mulates  in  vast  quantities  in  one  mass  of  vapour  o( 
clouil,  while  in  another  it  is  deficient ;  and  coii-scquentlr. 
to  regain  its  equilibrium,  it  flashes  in  the  form  of  lichl.  I 
niiig  from  the  surcharged  cloud  lo  the  cloud  that  It  I 
undercharged,  or  to  the  earth  itself.     Hence  luirrir»no| 
are    always    attended    with    electrical     niariitcstuliins,  I 
which   add   greatly   to    the    horrors   of  the   speclacif. 
Hurricani's    commence    in    various    ways:    somelini«| 
from  a  sincle  and  smnll  cloud,  which  suddenly  ex|)«nJik| 
overspreading,  as  with  a  dense  slirouil,  tlic  whole  hfi-l 
vens;  and  Hoiuetimes  from  a  slowly  gathering  ma.<i('| 
clouds  wliirh   appear  to  lie  irradiated  with  elcrtnc  lirt I 
The  West  Indies,  the  IbIc  of  France,  and  the  kin^dcMl 
of  Sinm  and  China,  are  the  countries  which  are  ;iimi| 
subjecl4'd  to  the  ravages  of  hurricanes.     In  lh»  MrtI 
Indies  they  most   fre<j|uently  occur  in  the  nioDib  i\ 


«  fr..'i-f   vir  SHIPS. 


•!'f 


minuliit  «\-n,il» 
to  the  curri'iii* 
lir  by  whieh  wf 
lis,  and  bticome* 
vhich  it  HMunu 
ail  which   lur 
in  to  supply  iu 
'  vapour  in  the 
ig  ridc  to  clondu 
nprrature  of  the 
the  colder  ruah- 

0  a  Ruddon  gun 
V  shower  patHing 

or  hail,  i»  often 
it  of  wind,  which 
iR  renewed  when 
)  same  direction, 
ugly,  a  whistling, 
universally  conn- 
•ausfl  it  indiratet 
cniperaturc  of  tin 
its  higher  regioni 
lee  article  Metio- 

ohe  which  travetw 
J,  and  are  calW 
rcantilo  navigation, 
ven  in  the  article 

1  of  the  trade-winJi 
south  of  the  equ* 

^e  sun  advances  to 
0  expanse  of  ocean 
iadily  do  they  blow; 
n  the  Pacific  thin 
than  in  the  Nortk 


t  countries  near  th» 

\n  tropical  climatei, 

a  and  lind  breewi, 

The  cause  of 


OR""- 

crtbcd  m  the  artick 

,g  v^iiids  to  the  nv> 
en  RUsts,  or  8<iualli, 
rtb'.rppst  outlook  t 
lie  form  of  a  violeM 
tning,  and  thundtr, 
Hurricanes  occai 
■si  violence  in  Iropi- 
icc  of  the  very  grm 
fiction  of  the  air,  and 
lit  contains  into  rain- 
rompletcly  than  in 
[iiri\n«  the  clcctricil; 
iiul  whicli  seems  to 
rsally  seeks  its  o« 
lloiicer  maintain!  u 
jal  vapour.     It  arf* 
mans  of  vapour  01 
;  and  coiisci]uently, 
lin  the  form  of  lict^^ 
lo  the  cloud  that* 
Hence  hiirriraiw 
Ileal     mauit'eslaliins, 
of   the    specucl*. 
WBVs :    Slime limM 
|h  smUlenly  (•x\itnk 
i>ud.  tlie  whole  hf* 
.y  gatherim?  masi  of 
ied  with  eliTtric  fiit 
l-e,  and  the  kingdoon 
Iries  which  are  .i»* 
anes.     In  th»  ^VHl 
in  the  moDtb  * 


Au(rwt>  Mxl  tite  Indians,  from  their  experience,  origi> 
nnlly  taught  our  planters  the  sign*  by  which  their  ap- 
nrnuch  may  be  prognosticated.  All  ordinary  signs, 
however,  may  prove  delusive ;  and  the  best  of  all  prog- 
noKticators  of  storms  is  the  marine  barometer,  an  instru- 
aient  whose  services  are  of  incalculable  value. 

Calmi — Hrefzf.K — "  After  a  storm  comes  a  calm,"  is 
<in  old  proverbial  expression.  The  fury  of  the  tempest 
iixpends  itself,  and  in  all  likelihood  there  shortly  after 
■msues  a  state  of  tranquillity,  though  several  days  may 
elapse  before  the  "  swell,"  or  heaving  agitation  of  the 
lea,  subsides.  When  both  the  atmosphere  and  the 
testers  are  tranquil,  the  surface  of  the  ocean  is  beauti- 
fully calm,  and  almost  as  smooth  as  the  glassy  surface 
of  a  lake.  But  a  perfect  or  dead  calm,  if  of  any  conti- 
nuance, is  almost  as  disagreeable  to  the  navigator  as 
a  driving  tempest.  The  ship  makes  no  progress  in  its 
course ;  the  sails  are  useless ;  and  there  are  no  means 
of  removing  from  the  dull  and  distressing  scene.  For- 
tunately, dead  calms  are  not  generally  of  that  continu- 
ance which  leads  to  any  serious  result,  A  gentle  breeze 
begins  to  steal  upon  the  extended  face  of  the  deep,  and 
the  hitherto  unruffled  surface  of  the  waters  begins  to 
(how  a  slight  tremulous  ruffling,  technically  called  the 
rrnw'ifool,  Sailorn  have  a  superstitious,  and  of  course 
foolish  belief,  that  whistling  in  a  calm  will  bring  up  a 
b'ocM,  and  this  they  do  with  a  drawling  and  beseeching 
intonation  on  some  prominent  part  of  the  vessel. 

THE  ARCTIC  BIAB. 
The  seas  within  the  arctic .  circle,  at  the  north  or 
(outli  pole,  exhibit  some  remarkable  appearances.  In 
the  coldest  seaiton,  the  air  deposits  its  moisture  in  the 
I'urm  of  a  fog,  which  fi-eczes  into  a  fine  gossamer  netting, 
or  slender  icicles,  dispersed  through  tho  atmosphere, 
lud  so  extremely  minute  that  they  seem  to  pierce  and 
excoriate  the  skin.  The  hoar-frost  settles  profusely  in 
Cmtastic  clusters  on  every  prominence.  The  whole 
surface  of  the  sea  steams  like  a  lime-kiln,  an  appearance 
nlled  the  fmst-smoke,  caused,  as  in  other  instances  of 
the  production  of  vapours,  by  the  waters  being  still 
relatively  wanner  than  the  incumbent  air.  At  length 
i!ic  disiiersion  of  the  mist,  and  tho  consequent  clearness 
of  the  atmosphere,  announce  that  the  upper  stratum  of 
I  the  sea  itself  has  become  cooled  to  the  same  standard ; 
t  sheet  of  ice  quickly  spreads,  and  often  gains  the 
I  thickness  of  an  inch  in  a  single  night 

'ITic  most  appalling  phenomenon  of  these  dreory  re- 
^.ons  is  the  floating  of  huge  masses  of  icc,  called  ice- 
bergs, which  are  fi)rmcd  from  the  water  of  tho  melted 
siDWonthc  nearest  coasts;  little  by  little  the  incrus- 
tations on  the  shores  and  clifiTs  increase  to  the  size  of 
I  mountains,  and  these  being  torn  from  their  fastenings 
by  winds  or  their  own  great  weight,  arc  swept  ofT  into 
I  the  ocean,  where  they  accumulate  by  the  falling  of 
1  mow,  and  finally  resemble  great  islands.     These  float 
Iwuthwards,  and   are  the  terror  of  navigators.      Not 
Innfrequcntly  do  the  regular  packets  from  Liverpool  to 
I  the  United  States  fall  in  with  these  floating  islands,  and 
JTeijels  in  the  night  have  been  dashed  to  pieces  by  driv- 
lio;  against  them.     They  are  carried  towards  the  Atlan- 
Itic  by  the  current,  which  generally  flows  from  the  north- 
Ititt;  and  after  they  reach  the  warmer  water  of  the 
■lower  latitudes,  they  rapidly  dissolve,  and  finally  disap- 
Ipcar  probably  in  tho  space  of  a  few  months. 

WAVE8. 

Tie  waves  of  the  ocean  arc  various  in  figure  and 
|d:!iKnsion8,  according  to  the  force  and  direction  of  the 
itirals,  contending  currents,  and  other  causes.  The 
|if»l  account  wo  have  of  the  theory  of  waves,  is  that 
jitcn  by  tho  learned  Dr.  Arnot,  in  his  work,  "  Tho 
KleniciiU  of  Physics,"  from  which  we  may  quote  a  few 
es.    <•  The  common  cause  of  waves  is  the  fric- 


tion of  the  wind  upon  the  surfare  of  the  water.  Littln 
ridges  or  elevations  first  appear,  which,  by  contii:uance 
of  the  force,  gradually  increase,  until  they  become  tlu> 
rolling  mountains  seen  where  tho  winds  swoop  over  a 
great  extent  of  water.  In  rounding  the  Capo  of  Good 
Hope,  waves  are  met  with,  or  rather  a  swell,  so  vast, 
that  a  few  ridges  and  a  few  depressions  occupy  the 
extent  of  a  mile.  But  these  are  not  so  dan;{erous  to 
ships  as  a  tlwrter  sea,  as  it  is  termed,  with  more  per- 
pendicular waves.  The  slope  in  tho  former  is  so  gentle, 
that  the  rising  and  falling  are  scarcely  felt ;  while  the 
latter,  by  the  sudden  tossing  of  the  vessel,  is  often  do> 
structive.  When  a  ship  is  sailing  before  the  wind,  and 
riding  over  the  long  swell,  she  advances  as  if  by  leaps ; 
for  while  each  wave  passes,  she  is  first  descending 
headlong  on  its  front,  acquiring  a  velocity  so  wild  that 
she  can  scarcely  be  steered ;  and  soon  after,  when  the 
wave  has  glided  under  her,  she  is  climbing  on  its  back, 
and  her  motion  is  slackened  almost  to  rest  before  the 
following  wave  arrives. 

"  'Ilie  velocity  of  waves  has  relation  to  their  magni- 
tude. The  large  waves,  just  spoken  of,  proceed  at  the 
rate  of  from  thirty  to  forty  miles  an  hour.  It  is  a  vulgar 
belief  that  the  water  itself  advances  with  the  speed  of 
the  wave,  buX  in  fact  the  form  only  advances,  while  the 
sulislance,  except  a  little  spray  above,  remains  rising 
and  falling  in  the  same  place,  with  the.  regularity  of  a 
pendulum.  A  wave  of  water,  in  this  respect,  is  exactly 
imitated  by  the  wave  running  along  a  stretched  r«pe 
when  one  end  is  shaken ;  or  by  the  mimic  waves  of 
our  theatres,  which  are  generally  undulations  of  long 
pieces  of  carpet,  moved  by  attendants.  But  when  a 
wave  reaches  a  shallow  bank  or  beach,  the  water  be- 
comes really  progressive,  for  then,  as  it  cannot  sink 
directly  diwnwards,  it  falls  over  and  forwards,  seeking 
the  level.  So  awful  is  the  spectacle  of  a  storm  at  scu, 
that  it  is  generally  viewed  through  a  medium  which 
biasses  the  judgment ;  and  lofty  as  waves  really  are, 
imagination  pictureb  them  loftier  still.  Now,  no  wave 
rises  more  than  ten  feet  above  the  ordinary  sea-level, 
which,  with  the  ten  feet  that  its  surface  afterwards  de- 
scends below  this,  give  twenty  feet  for  the  whole  height, 
fi-om  the  bottom  of  any  water- valley  to  an  adjoining 
summit." 


SHU'S. 


Ships  are  vessels  of  a  certain  size  adapted  for  sailing 
on  the  ocean,  and  the  ingenuity  of  their  construction  is 
one  of  the  proudest  triumphs  of  human  skill.  Of  the 
early  history  of  ship  architecture  little  can  be  said  of 
any  importance.  The  buoyant  property  of  water,  pai^ 
ticularly  that  of  the  sea,  must  have  been  soon  observed 
by  mankind ;  and,  therefore,  beginning  with  rude  skiflb 
and  canoes,  they  would  in  time  acquire  sufficient  expe- 
rience and  skill  to  form  vessels  of  a  larger  size,  and  to 
guide  them  in  the  required  direction  by  means  of 
rudder  and  sails.  The  cultivated  nations  of  antiquity, 
Egyptians,  Carthaginians,  Phoenicians,  and  others,  poe* 
sessed  ships  for  commerce  and  war,  some  of  which 
were  of  large  dimensions,  and  moved  either  by  rowers 
or  by  the  action  of  the  wind  on  the  sails.  But  of  these 
early  ships  it  is  unnecessary  hero  to  speak,  and  we  pro* 
ceed  to  notice  the  construction  and  character  of  vesseli 
formed  according  to  the  principles  of  modern  and  in»- 
proved  science. 

The  nicest  and  most  difficult  operation  in  ship-build- 
ing consists  in  first  forming  a  draught  or  model  uf  the 
proposed  vessel,  or,  as  we  may  call  it,  the  plati,  which, 
the  mechanics  are  to  adopt  and  follow  out  In  forming 
this  plan,  the  designer  is  govented  by  a  consideration 
of  the  precise  object  to  be  attained.  .  There  are  two 
classes  of  vessels — ships  of  war  and  merchantmen — and 
each  must  possess  certain  qualifications.     In  a  ship  of 


MO 


INFORMATION  POR  THE  PEOPLE. 


War  the  grant  oliject  in  iprnd,  with  caio  of  movemcnta,  |  top^ther,  and  tho  whole  i«  finally  covered  with  the  |ilan|. 
and  capacit)-  to  arcoiniiiu<1atfl  her  rrew,  and  rarry  a  '  ing  in  evrn  linra  from  bow  to  item.  When  it  i«  riec**. 
•'j'ficient  weight  of  gunri,  itoreit,  and  provirioni.  One  '  lary  to  licnd  a  plank  for  either  the  Imw  or  itern,  It  y 
point,  mnreoTor,  ia  eiiperinlly  to  he  looked  to ;  thin  in,  |  heated  hy  utrnni,  and  then  forced  into  ill  pluoe  by  Mrrwi 


that  the  ship  float  high  enough  above  water  to  nin  no 
riik  of  receiving  wave*  or  soaii  in  her  lower  port*  during 
action,  when  theiie  holo»  inimt  be  nercRRarily  open.  In 
order  to  he  iccure  of  thii,  the  conxtrurtor  niakri  an 
•Mtimate  of  tho  whole  weight  of  the  Rhip,  including  body, 
•para,  armament,  men,  and  munitions,  and  must  eo 
model  tho  bottom  that  it  will  have  diiiplnrod  an  equal 
weight  of  water  when  arrived  at  the  denired  depth.  In 
ttie  caie  of  morrhanlmcn,  the  primary  ronitiilcnition  ii 
to  attain  the  greatest  capacity  to  carry  inrgo,  com- 
bined, a*  fiur  ai  pomihle,  with  lafe  and  cany  niovementii 
uid  rapid  nailing. 

The  English  ctccI  in  nhip-building,  but  In  some  re- 
•peets  they  are  outdone  hy  the  Amrricnna,  whose  packet 
ahip*  carry  enormous  weights,  while  thoy  are  noted  for 
their  extreme  speed.     Among   the   admitted  and  well- 
established  principles  of  construction  is  the  leading  one, 
that  the  greatest  breadth  must  always  be  before  the  centre, 
and  consequently  the  bow  or  front  be  more  blunt  than 
th«  stem  or  hinder  part    Abatractly,  it  would  seem  most 
important  that  the  bow  should  be  the  sharpest,  so  as  to 
cleave  the  water  with  the  least  possible  resistance ;  hut 
•xperience  has  proved  that  it  is  far  more  essential  to 
beilitato  the  escape  of  the  displ«ce<1  water  along  the  side 
ot  Ue  vessel ;  for  when  once  a  passage  is  opened  for  the 
■hip,  the  fluid  lends  to  reunite  behind  the  point  of  great- 
est breadth,  where,  instead  of  oflrring  resistance,  it  presses 
the  ship  fbrword,  and  fills  up  the  space  constantly  open- 
ing behind  her.     The  principle  is  evident  in  the  form  of 
the  duck  and  other  aquatic  animals,  which  are  uniformly 
broadest  in  front,  and  gradually  diminish  to  the  tail.     As 
it  is,  than,  less  essential  that  a  ship  should  be  sharp  for- 
ward than  aft,  there  is  a  further  advantage  in  having  the 
bow  full  towards  the  edge,  that  it  may  chock  her  in  de- 
•oending  into  the  waves,  not  abruptly,  but  gently  ;  pitch- 
ing, or  rising  and  falling  endwise,  being  the  most  danger- 
oua  to  hull  and  spars  of  all  a  vessel's  movements.    Though 
abarpnesa  towards  the  stem-post  is  vitally  essential  to  (att 
•ailing,  ytt  care  must  be  taken  to  leave  the  buttock  full 
towards  the  surface,  in  order  to  check  the  stern  gently  in 
descending,  and  when  scudding  before  a  gale,  to  lift  it  in 
timely  season,  on  the  arrival  of  a  sea.     To  hit  the  exact 
mean  in  these  respects,  so  as  not  to  retard  the  8ailin^  on 
-  the  one  hand,  nor  to  endanger  the  ship  on  the  other, 
requires  all  the  skill  of  the  architect 

There  muit  likewise  be  a  due  correspondence  l)etwecn 
the  general  bulk  of  the  vessel  and  its  k>ngth  and  breadth ; 
the  whole  must  be  properly  proportion>Hl.  If  unduly 
long,  speed  may  be  gained,  but  there  is  a  difficulty  of 
tumiog,  and  aim  of  rising  to  escape  the  breakings  of  tiic 
•ea ;  long  ships,  therefore,  are  apt  to  roll  Mid  go  through 
wavea  instead  of  breaating  them,  by  which  their  safety  is 
|)erilled.  When  a  ship  is  unduly  short  for  its  general 
bulk,  it  is  apt  to  pitch,  which  is  equally  dangerous,  and 
hence  the  greatest  care  is  required  to  proportion  the  va- 
hona  dimensions. 

All  eaaential  preliminaries  being  settled,  the  ship  is 
begun  to  be  constructed ;  and  this  is  always  done  in  the 
yard  of  a  ship-builder,  close  by  the  water's  edge.  The 
wood  considered  to  lie  best  adapted  for  ship-building 
is  oak,  pine,  teak,  elm,  or  beech,  and  whichever  is  em- 
idoyed,  it  requires  to  bo  strong,  well-seasened,  and  dry  ; 
Ihe  greater  part,  likewise,  should  be  bent  or  crocked,  to 
a  lit  the  curves  and  angularities  in  tho  structure ;  and  for 


this  end  growing  timber  is  often  constrained  to  assume 
particular  forms.  The  keel,  which  is  tho  lowt st  part  of 
tlie  vesael,  and  corresponds  to  the  back-lxine  of  an  ani- 
■ul,  from  which  the  ribs  spring,  is  formed  and  Inid  first 
on  a  ^p  and  blocks  rst  f»r  the  purpose.  As  the  frarac- 
«ork  oroeeeds,  all  part*  are  firmly  soltod  and  i-i*«ted 


and  levers.     The   planks   are   faatrned  to  the   ritw  by 
wooden  pins,  and  the  plan  is  followed  of  allowing;  a  wtaia 
or  space  lietween  eiich  plunk,  which  i*  filled  up  i"  calked 
with  oakum,  and  the  whole  is  smeared  with  pilch.    In 
some  instances,  the  bottom  is  further  secured  by  sheathing 
it  in  sheets  of  copper.     Meanwhile,  tha  interior  lieama 
and  partitions  have  been   placed ;  and  when  duly  ()re. 
pared,  Ihe  vessel  is  lauurhtd,  or  shot  by  an  easy  move- 
ment down  the  inclined  plane  on  which  it  refts  inta  Ibo 
water.     After  launching,  the  rudder,  or  helm,  is  sliipped, 
The  rudder  is  a  wooilen  apparatus  placed  at  the  stern  of 
the  ship,  a  large  portion  being  in  the  water,  a:id  by  nii'ani 
of  it  the  vessel  is  sl«-ercd  and  turned  alK>ut  ut  pleuaure; 
the  steering  |)art  of  tho  apparatus  is  on  deck,  and  ronajati 
of  a  wheel  placed  perpendicularly  and  connecting  rhaiiu 
and  pulleys.     The  principle  on  which  the  rudder  acli  jj 
very  simple :  the  object  is  to  turn  the  vess(<l,  and  to  what. 
ever  side  tlie  inclination  i*  *"  be  made,  tlie  ruddi-r  is  cuumhI 
to  present  an  obstacle  to  the  water  in  that  direction,  'j'hi 
masts  of  the  vessel  are  now  set ;  and  the  spurs,  conipre. 
bending  the  Imwsprit  and  yards,  and  also  tlie  rigging  art 
attached.     The  spars  of  a  ship  are  not   abandoned  to 
their  own  unsupported  strength,  but  are   sustained  by 
what  is  called  Ihe  tlamlitii;  n'uffiii^.     Besides  thin,  there 
is  Ihe  runiiiu^  riasi'ie:,  which  consists  of  the  tacks  and 
sheets  that  serve  to  spread  the  sails,  the  halyanlH,  trocca, 
Ijfls,  clewlines,  in<l  all  other  ropes  used  in  making,  taking 
in,  or  manaiuvring  tho  sails. 

The  sails  of  a  ship  are  square  sheets  of  canvas  bent 
to  the  yards,  and  fore  and  aft  sails  traversing  on  staya  oi 
bent  to  gafls.     Let  us  proceed  to  describe  an  entire  euil 
of  sails,  beginning  forward.     On  Ihe  extremity  of  the 
bowsprit  is  the  flying-jib,  a  tliree-cornenJ  sail,  which  goet 
from  the  end  of  its  boom  upward  along  its  stay,  leading 
to   Ihe   fore-lopgallant-mast-head,  and   conliqed   to  the 
stay  by  rings  of  wood  or  iron,  called  tlie  haiikii.    It  \i 
hoisted  by  means  of  the  halyard;   hauled  down  by  i 
downhaul ;  and  when  up,  is  trimmed  to  hold  the  winii 
by  a  sheet  or  rope  leading  to  tho  forecastle.     The  jil\ 
which  leads  from  its  boom  to  tlie  fore-top-mast-head,  ii 
of  similar  form,  and  so  is  tho  forc-top-niost-stuy-sail,  run. 
ning  from  the  bowsprit  end  towards  the  mast-head.    On 
the  foremast  we  have  the  fore-sail,  bent  to  the  toreyard, 
and  spread  at  tho  foot  by  means  of  tacks  and  sheelt; 
Above  it,  tho  fbre-tup-.sail,  bent  to  tho  top-sail-yard,  bv 
means  of  which  it  is  hoisted  aloft,  while  its  lower  corner* 
are  spread  to  tho  extremities  of  Ihe  fore-yard ;  next,  Ihi 
topgallnnt-sail,  bent  to  ila  yard,  and  sheeting  honie  l<i 
the  top-sail-yard;  and  so  with  the  royal  and  sky  sail 
All  these  sails  m*  turned  at  pleasure,  to  l)e  prcaenlcd  to 
the  wind,  by  means  of  brua's  altuchrd  to  their  ynrd-arm, 
and  leading  to  tho  niain-nmst     The  main-maxt  ia  Iw- 
nished  with  a  similar  suit  of  sails,  somewhat  larecr;  tb( 
mizzcn-mast,  also,  though  snialler  than  either,  inatcadof 
a  square-sail  on  the  lower  part  of  the  most,  ha.i  a  pi 
■ail,  hoisting  up  or  down  ubuft  the  must     Some  shipi 
have  similar  gulf-sails  on  the  lore  and  niuiii-muats,  whict 
are  found  of  great  use  in  gales  of  wind,  as  a  Kulistituli 
for  storm  stay-sails.     Moat  carry,  ul»o,  liRlit  utay-suili  be. 
tween  the  iiiasts ;  but  they  are  vcrj'  troiibli-soiiie.    StuJ' 
dini<-snils,  spread  Ijoyond  the  s(iniirc  hiuIs  like  wini;ii. an 
found  usi?rul  when  i;o;m?  ln'fnrc  tin-  wiiicj.     'i'hi'  iHrtlt- 
tion  of  equipping   a   ship  with  H|mrH,  rigifiiii;,  uinl  «aiij 
conmsls  in  so  didposiiig  tlicni,  that,  in  a  wlii>U'-Kiiil  brera 


ima  insii 

oiually  mi 

•uile  of  a 

largest,  ar 

u  Two  bo 

fioutr,  so  ti 

itrtum  and 

three  last  a 

to  place  in 

by  a  strong 

of  the  wind 

Ihe  water,  a 

>how  where 

lime,  or  in  a 

limes  left,  w 

point  out  w 

anchor  is  sa 

cular  betwec 

mmihcnne  wl 

be/(W  wher 

iRiiHnu  at  tin 

or  fixed  by  tl 

letting  it  ilow 

it  from  the  bo 

principal  kind 

At  the  head 
with  threo  ma 
mails,  and  wl 
aquare  sails.  ' 
iine-of-battle  si 
canyiag  120  ^ 
magnificent  floa 
'i'be  decks  are  e( 


the  centre  of  effort  of  all  Ihe  sails  will  Ik;  in  the  saiul 
line  with  the  ship's  centre  of  rotation ;  or  tlmt  the  rirnrtil 
of  the  forward  and'  olU•r-^ "Js  to  turn  Ihe  shiji  will  lal 
exactly  balanced,  as  not  to  require  any  continued  aMi*| 
ance  from  the  rudder  in  either  direction. 
The  retarding  apparatus  of  the  vessel  consisitj.  if  bMn| 


oppennost,  extent 
fortroftle.  ond  ne 
miin-inast,  are 
iMin  and  mizzen 
if,  towards  the  stei 
A  normw  passage 
in?  from  the  quart 
meway,  and  in 
nocJw  are  slowed 
The  forecastle  if 
finien,  the  (piarti 
nfficers,  and  in  Ihi.' 
jilarter-dcck  is  a  ji 
•)vcrei|»n  is  suf)p„i, 
rJiis  deck  must  sa 
K^^nt  return   the 
li'wise.    He.ieath 
apiwii.  and  some 
■wp:  of  decks,  we 


NH1P8. 


Mf 


ith  the  plank' 
i-n  it  U  iieoMi 
nr  ttvrn,  it  b 
ace  by  •crcwi 
I  the   rilw  bj 
lowing  •  H.iam 
(1  up  <"  oall(e<l 
rith  jiilch.    In 
>il  by  ihcathing 
interior  Iwaim 
ibon  tluly  I're- 
an  ca«y  move. 
L  rcftit  inta  tbo 
elm,  is  rfiippeJ- 
1  at  t)ic  !>tern  of 
ir,  anil  by  nu-ani 
)Ut  ut  pleuBure; 
Dcli,  and  ronaiaU 
Htni-ctint;  rhoini 
ic  rudili^r  acliii 
me\,  nnil  to  what- 
I  rudder  '\b  caudcj 
it  direction.  Tlw 
le  Bimrs,  rompre. 
o  tiic  rig^ing  an 
ot   abiindoned  to 
jro   sustained  by 
IcHideg  tliii,  thcie 
of  the  tttcks  anJ 
c  halyards,  tracc^ 
ill  making,  taking 

U  of  canvas  beni 
ersing  on  stayi  oi 
ribe  an  entire  suit 
.  extremity  of  the 
nJ  sail, which goe* 
ng  its  slay,  leading 


imn  in(l*uinenta  called  anchora,  of  which  each  veiael  haa 
Mually  more  than  one.     Large  ahipa  carry  the  fallowing 
luita  of  anchora: — 1.  llie  $hftt  anchor,  which  it  the 
lorgesti  and  only  used  in  the  case  of  violent  itormi. 
y  Two  bower  anchon,  namely,  the  hiit  b^ity  and  imiiU 
Mutr,  so  called  from  their  situation  at  the  bows.    3.  The 
itrtam  anchor,  the  ktJgr,  and  p-tijipling,  or  ifrapnel.    The 
ihnte  last  are  often  used  for  moving  the  ahi|i  from  place 
to  place  in  a  harbour  or  river.     Each  anchor  is  let  down 
by  a  strong  cable  of  iron  or  rope,  and  is  lifted  by  moans 
of  the  windlass  placed  on  deck.     To  the  cable,  when  in 
the  water,  a  Imoy  or  floating  object  may  be  attached,  to 
>how  where  the  anchor  has  licen  let  down ;  and  to  save 
time,  or  in  an  emergency,  the  anchor  and  cable  are  some- 
times left,  while  the  vessel  proceeds,  the  buoy  serving  to 
point  out  where  the  anchor  may  be  recovered.    The 
inchor  is  said  to  be  a-ptnk  when  the  cable  is  perpendi- 
cular betwot^n  the  hawse  and  the  anchor;  it  is  said  to 
fQmt  heme  when  it  does  not  hold  the  ship ;  it  is  said  to 
be/oW  when  the  cable  gets  hitched  about  the  flukes. 
^Rvlinn:  at  iinrhor  is  the  state  of  the  vessel  when  moored 
or  fixed  by  the  anchor.     Propping  or  raiting  anchor  is 
letting  it  down  into  the  sea.      Weighing  anchor  is  raising 
it  from  the  bottom.     We  shall  proceed  now  to  notice  the 
principal  kinds  of  vessels, 

tVst  Vesiels. 
At  the  head  of  the  list  stands  the  ship  proper,  a  vessel 
with  three  masts,  called  the  fore,  the  main,  and  mizzcn- 
maits,  and  which  is  square-rigged,  or  carrying  large 
iquare  sails.  The  largest  ships  are  vessels  of  war,  named 
'iine.or-battle  ships,  having  three  complete  decks,  and 
carrying  120  g^ns.  A  representation  is  given  of  such  a 
magnificent  floating  apparatus  in  the  accompanying  flgure. 
The  decks  are  equivalent  to  diflerent  floors.    On  the  flrat  or 


l''iri»i-riiti^  wiir-vt»sel. 

gppermost,  extending  on  each  side  of  the  fore-most,  is  the 

fortcMlte.  and  next  to  it,  between  the  fore-mast  and  the 

mtin-mast,  are  the  waist   and  gangway ;    between  the 

Duin  and  mizzcn  masts  in  the  quarler-deck ;  and  next  to 

I  it,  towards  the  stern,  is  an  elevated  part  called  the  /(oop. 

I A  larrow  passage  on  each  side  of  the  vcsoel,  communicat- 

I  in;  from  the  quarter-deck  to  the  forecastle,  is  railed  the 

l^iiiicimy,  and  in  nettings  a)M>vc  it  the  seamen's  ham- 

Inoriis  are  stowed  as  a  protection  during  action. 

The  forecastle  is  appro))riiited  to  the  l)o«t  or  able-bodied 
Immon,  thi^  (luartor-deck  is  tlie  proper  situation  for  the 
I  officers,  and  in  the  poop  are  stationed  the  marines.  The 
iqaartiTKleck  is  a  privilepeH  Hpot,  and  as,  by  o  fiction,  the 
|ioTcreii;n  is  supposed  to  bo  present,  every  one  who  enters 
I'liis  (Ifrk  must  salute  it  by  toiirliing  hit  hut,  and  all 
Ipmcnt  return  the  cnmpllmcnt  by  touching  their  hats 
llikewiiie.  Heneath  the  ()Oup  are  the  apailments  of  the 
Iciptaiii,  and  some  otherr.  Desrcnding  from  the  upper 
lungi:  of  decks,  we  arrive  at  the  muin^tck,  at  the  fore 


part  of  which  is  the  sick-ward,  and  next  to  it  Ue  g<ilU\ 
or  cook's  room ;  at  the  after  part,  beneath  the  captain's 
cabin,  is  the  admiral's  cabin.  The  next,  or  third  range 
of  deck  is  the  middlt-deck,  nt  the  fore  part  of  which  is  the 
ward-room,  or  general  apartment  for  the  oflir«rs.  The 
fourth  range  is  the  lowtr-dtrk,  where  the  sailors  sleep  and 
mess,  and  on  which,  also,  is  the  guii-iiMmi,  for  inferior 
oHicera.  On  all  the  decks  m<«itioned,  cannon  or  large 
guns  are  ranged,  each  having  its  appropriate  port-hole ; 
and  by  these  holes,  on  which  temporary  windows  arc  faiU 
ened,  light  is  admitted  to  the  intt^rior.  We  now  descend 
to  a  floor  beneatli  the  surface  of  the  water,  which  is  called 
the  orlop-deck,  on  which,  between  the  main  and  miizen- 
masts,  is  the  cock-pit,  or  surgeon's  room ;  the  purser'k, 
boatswain's,  and  carpenter's  berths,  and  midshipman's 
mess-room.  Beneath  the  orlop-deck  is  ihe  hold,  a  species 
of  cellar  in  divisions,  containing  the  boatswain's  and 
carpenter's  stores,  the  powder  magasino,  shot,  the  water- 
casks,  and  provision  stores. 

War  vessels  receive  their  designations  from  the  num- 
ber of  their  decks,  or  of  the  guns  which  they  carry, 
liine-of-battle  ships  are  of  various  ralti.  The  yfrsZ-ratca 
include  all  carrying  100  guns  and  upwards,  with  a 
company  of  81)0  men  and  upwards;  lecond-raUm  catty 
90  to  100  guns,  and  from  660  to  700  men;  and  thinl. 
rates  carry  from  60  to  80  guns,  and  from  600  to  650  men 
The  rates  thus  diminish  in  bulk  and  complement  of  mco 
down  to  sixth-rates.  A  common  rate  is  a  74  gun-ship, 
which  carries  600  men.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the 
titles  and  number  of  the  crew  of  a  first-rate  ship,  clasaetl 
in  the  order  ef  their  amoiut  of  pay; 

Captain,    -       -       •       .  1 

Lieutenants,                 -  8 

Master,     -                .       .  1 

Chaplain,      >       .       -  1 

Surgeon,  -               .       .  1 

Purser,  -       .       .       -  1 

Second  Maitsr,       .       .  1 

Aatisiant  Suigeoni,     •  3 

Gunner,    •       .       .       •  1 

Boatswain,           -       -  1 

Carpenter,        ...  1 

Mate,     -               .       .  1 

Midshipmen.    -       -       •  S3 

Masters  Assistants,    -  0 

Sehoolmaiter,  ...  1 

Clerk,    ....  1 

Masier-ut-Arms,      .       .  1 

Ship's  (k>rpoFals  -       •  2 

Captain's  Coxswain,      -  1 

Launch  ditto.       -       .  1 

Quartermaaters,      •       •  12 

Gunner's  Mutes,  -       -  S 

Boatswain's  Mates,         -  6 

Captains  of  Forecaiile,  3 

Captain  of  Hold,      -       .  1 

Ship's  Cook,.       •       -  1 

Sail  Maker,     .       -       -  1 

Rope  Maker,       -       •  1 

Carpenter's  Mates, .       •  3 

Caulker,       ...  1 

Annourer,                .       .  1 

Captains  of  Maintop,  -  3 

CnpluinB  of  Foretop,       -  3 

Caplainn  ol  Mast,        .  3 

Captains  of  Aner-Guard,  .1 

Yeoman  o(  Signals,     -  1 

106 

A  number  of  the  above  officers  and  subalterns  are  not 
appointed  to  third  or  inferior  rates.  Latterly,  engineers 
have  l)ocn  added  to  the  list  of  men  in  the  royal  navy, 
intended  for  service  in  tlie  steam  marine ;  they  take  rank 
below  car[>cntcrs. 

The  burden  of  a  first-rate  is  from  2700  to  2800  tons; 
the  leiiuth  of  the  lower  gun-tleck  is  20.'i  feet  6  inches, 
and  length  of  keel  for  tonnage  170  feet  6  inches,  the 
upper  decks  being  longer  in  projmrlion ;  the  height 
from  keel  to  midshipM  from  50  to  60  feet.  The  guns 
are  generally  distributed  as  follows : — Forecastle,  twc 
IB-poumlers  and  two  34  carronadcs;  qunrter-deck,  two 
1 8- pounders  and  fourteen  32  carronndcs ;  main-deck,  thirty- 
four  32-pouudcrs;  middle-deck,  thirty -four  32-pounder»: 
i9 


Brought  forwurd,  - 

IM 

Coxswain  of  Pinnace, 

Sailmaker's  Mate,  - 

Caulker's  Mate,    - 

Armourer's  Mates, . 

Cooper,  -        .       -        . 

Volunteers      ... 

1« 

Gunner's  Crew,    - 

sa 

Carpenter's  ditto,     - 

\i 

Sailmaker's  ditto, 

Cooper's  ditto,  -       .        . 

Yeoman  of  Store-room, 

Able  Seamen,    > 
Ordinary  ditto,  J 
Cooks'  Mate, 

479 

Barber,     .... 

Purser's  Steward, 

Captain's  ditto, 

Cuptnin's  Cook,    - 

Wardroom  ditto. 

Wardroom  Steward,    - 

Steward's  Mate,      - 

Landsman,   -       -       . 

Boys,       .... 

31 

Total  ScaiFC:     - 

6M 

Captain  of  Mar.i.!.. 

1 

Lieutenaate,    - 

3 

Seijeants,      ... 

4 

Corporals,        .       .       . 

4 

Drummers,    ... 

9 

Privates,  .... 

146 

Total  war  complement 

of  officers,  seamen. 

and  marines, 

8N 

lOi 


INFORMATION  POR  TlIE  PEOPI.F. 


•nd  low^r  dork,  thirty  SS-pouiulan  mm!  two  68  curon- 
■dwh     Total,  l!iO  niini. 

tDhip*  of  !«>«  than  44  kum  •n  t»nn«d  frignitt.     A 
M«ati,  of  which  tha  foUowing  enrmving  ia  ■  ikiitoh,  haa 


Krigmii. 

3n\t  one  (rnn-dpck  beneath  the  qual«r-deck,  and  beneath 
that  hi;hlcd  and  ventilated  partly  hy  akyliithta  and  partly 
by  amall  hole*  in  the  aidea,  ia  a  deck  appropriated  to  the 
man,  offlrera,  &c. 

Tne  followinif  ncrount  of  the  orKanizatinn  and  arranf^ 
■wnta  on  hoard  of  war-*c«*fln  ia  ahridf^ed  from  a  work 
antitled,  "  Two  Yeara  and  a  Half  in  tlie  American  Navy." 
by  E.  C.  Winra,  1833.  ThouRh  atrictly  applyinpt  to  an 
American  frlRnte,  it  ia  RcnGrally  applicable  lo  a  similar 
TCoael  in  the  British  navy.  "Time  on  shipboard  ia  di- 
vided into  watches,  and  reckoned  by  Im-IIn.  Hence  you 
■ever  hear  the  question,  <  What's  o'clock  T  but  •  How 
many  bells  ia  it  t'  The  twrnly-fniir  hours  are  divided 
into  aix  equal  portion^  called  watchea.  At  the  end  of 
the  first  half  hour  of  one  of  these  portions,  the  bell  ia 
olnick  one ;  at  the  end  of  the  aecond,  two ;  and  so  on, 
till  the  aeries  reachea  eight,  when  it  commences  a^^ain. 
In  tha  ahip's  joumils,  the  datea  are  put  down  accordini; 
lo  the  common  mode  of  reckoningc  time.  The  division 
«f  time  into  watches  differa  somewhat  at  sea  and  in 
port 

<<  Order  is  the  first  great  rule  on  board  a  man-of-war,  and 
(hat  to  which  all  othera  must  bend.  From  day  to  day, 
from  week  to  week,  from  month  to  month,  and  from  year 
to  year,  the  same  stroke  of  the  hell  is  followed  by  the 
aame  whistle,  the  same  coll,  and  the  recurrence  of  the 
same  duties.  Every  thing  baa  its  place,  too,  and  must 
he  kept  in  it  So  true  is  this,  that  a  person  acquainted 
•nth  the  detoila  of  a  ship,  can  lay  his  hand  on  a  given 
abject  in  any  part  of  her  aa  well  in  the  dark  as  if  a  thou- 
sand suns  were  shining  en  it.  To  the  aame  g^rand  prin- 
dpla— nanKR — are  to  be  attributed  the  numerous  divi- 
■ons  and  aubdiviaiona  of  the  officers  and  crew. 

<•  At  the  head  of  the  list  of  officers  stands  the  captain, 
whose  will  ia  supreme ;  and  from  his  decisions,  for  the 
time  being,  there  ia  no  appeal.  Ho  has  a  general  super- 
intendence over  the  aiToirs  of  the  ship,  and  every  order  of 
a  general  nature  must  oriirinate  in  him.  No  important 
alteration  can  he  made  without  his  knowIc<lB;e  and  con 
aent  It  is  his  duty  to  take  a  general  oversight  nf  the 
officers'  conduct ;  to  see  that  they  are  guilty  of  no  impro- 
prieties, and  to  punish  such  as  are.  He  is  rraponsihie  for 
Ihn  eafety  of  the  ship,  both  at  sea  and  in  port.  If  any 
'jufrineas  of  a  publin  nature  is  lo  lie  franencted  with  a 
treign  power,  it  falls  of  course  into  his  hunils.  TbeH* 
are  his  duties  in  time  of  peace  ;  in  war  he  has  still 
higher  resfjonsibilities. 

"  Next  in  rank  come  the  wardroom  officers,  consisting, 
on  }yr«rd  of  a  frigate,  of  six  lieutenants,  a  purser,  sur^ifron, 
chaplain,  sailing-master,  and  lieutenant  of  marines.  The 
liist  iieu(«.  Jill  is  next  in  oowcr  to  the  captain ;  and  though 


hia  station  is  less  respimsible,  his  duties  are  more  |«^ 
rious.     He  has  a  goneral  KUjiervisiim  over  the  slilp  ni,^ 
is  to  sen  that  she  is  k<'[it  ricnn  and  in  pro|)er  order,     'J',, 
this  end  he  is  oliligiHl  to  ins|i<'i'l  every  part  of  tier  ut  Inxi 
once  a  day,  and  re|iort  her  condition  to  the  ciiplain.  When 
the  ship  is  put  in  commission,  it  devolves  cbieHy  upon 
him  to  station  the  men,  a  business  of  the  most  laliorinim 
and  difficult  nature,  requiring  great  patienee,  a  diMriniJ. 
naling  judgment,  and  drep  insight  into  the  human  lirirt. 
It  is  his  duty  to  have  the  men  frei|uently  rxerdsed  at  lh( 
guns;  lo   regtilato   the   expenditures   of  certain    piiMii 
stores;  lo  take  care  that  the  men  keep  tbeins<<lves  r[t»n 
and  decently  clad ;  to  su|ierinlend  the  walerinsr  and  vir. 
tualing  of  the  ship ;  and,  in  short,  to  see  thiit  all  lirr  mul- 
lifurious  and  coniplieated  concerns  move  on  n>gulnrlv  and 
harmoniously.     In   coming   to  an   anchor   and   getting 
under  weigh,  and  when  all  hands  are  called  to  rert  tun. 
sails,  or  for  other  purjiom^s,  he  takes  the  trum|iel.    On 
him,  more  than  on  the  captain  himself,  de|H-nds  the  cnm. 
fort  of  the  officers.     In  port,  it  Udongs  to  lilni  to  gram  of 
withhold  permission  to  go  sHhore  ;  and  there  are  n  lliou- 
sand  other  ways  in  which,  if  he  is  a  muii  of  cnpriciom 
or  malignant  dis|)osilion,  he  can  gratify  his  whims  or  hj, 
spleen  at  the  exponas  of  the  comfort  and  Ittelings  ol'  hit 
fellow-officers. 

•'  The  other  lieutenants  are  divided  into  watches,  and  tain 
turns  in  performing  the  duties  licloMgiiig  to  tlieir  Htation. 
The  lieutenant  on  duty  is  styled  in  writing  (lie  officer  ol 
the  watch,  but  is  funiilinrly  culled  the  olVner  of  the  drcic 
Some  of  his  duties  are  comiiiun  at  sea  and  in  port,  amj 
others  are  peculiar  to  each  of  IhcHn  situiUiims.     In  bulb 
he  is  rrsjionsible  for  the  ileck  while  he  Imii  cliargo  of  it, 
and  has  also  to  take  a  general  oversight  of  the  ship.    Hi 
must  8<'e  that  the  men's  rations  are  projM-rly  cooked,  ami 
that  they  have  their  nieuls  at  proper  huurH,     The  wrvL'/j 
of  the  grog  is  also  under  his  control.     At  sea,  his  diilyii 
to  sail  the  ship,  kce|)iiig  her  on  the  course  given  lipr  iit 
the  captain,  and  reporting  to  him  any  change  in  thowinil, 
the  discovery  of  land  or  strange  sails,  and  uny  cxtruortli- 
nary  occurrences.     At  night,  ho  has  the  cuptuin  waknl 
at  stated  periods,  and  the  statti  of  the  weather  rcpurttd  i« 
him.    On  receiving  the  trumpet,  the  first  thing  the  (iHirn 
of  the  deck  does  is  to  glance  at  the  com[)uHH,  the  saiU,  th< 
dog-vane,  the  sky,  and  the  wiiUt,  to  discover  the  sbilr  of 
the  ship,  the  wind,  and  the  weather ;  and  at  the  end  u| 
the  watch,  h«  must  have  a  general  account  of  the  wrathtr. 
and  other  matters  which  he  may  deem  projiar,  iiis<rtrdiD 
the  ship's  log-book.     The  duty  of  the  officer  of  the  docl 
in  port  ia  to  receive  any  supplies  of  water  or  proviiioru 
which   may  cotne  alongside,  to    regulate   the   sending 
away  of  boats,  to  keep  a  look-out  as  to  what  is  going  on 
in  the  harbour,  to  report  the  arrival  of  ships,  and  m 
important  occurrences  to  the  captain,  &c.      'J'lie  liru, 
tenants  are  also  officers  of  divisions,  and  frequently  havi 
to  exercise  the  men  at  the  gims,  besides  su|>eriiitendiii| 
the  monthly  issues  of  slops  to  their  respective  diviaioni, 
<'  Next  in  rank  to  the  lieutenants  comes  the  sailing 
master,  whoso  duties  are  more  comprehensive  aiiil  ardu- 
ous than  those  of  any  other  officer.      His  suiierviniot 
and  responsibility  extends  to  almost  all  the  public  atnra 
in  the  ship,  but  particularly  lo  the  water,  spirits,  caK<^ 
and  anchors.     Ho  reports  the  daily  expenditures  of  waw 
to  the  captain.     It  is  his  business  to   keep  the  ihiN  | 
(ilace,  and  report  it  at  least  twice  a  day  to  the  cnininandff, 
toiPther  with  the  lieurings  and   distance  of  the  |>ort  lo  | 
which  she  is  bound,  or  the  nearest   land  desired  lo  N' 
made.      Some  commanders  leave  this  entirely  to  tfanij 
sailing-mash  rs.  ' 

"  'I'liere  is  no  berth  on  Itoard  a  man-ol-\vur  more  mif  j 
than  that  of  purser.      He  holdn  the  keys  of  the  Kl!ont- 
box;  and    though   his  re(;ular  Siilnry  is   lu'   much,  hnl 
emoluments,  arising  from  other  sources,  arc  coii.sidtfriiilf. 
All  the  provisions  on  iMinrd  are  coniinitti<d  Ui  hin  i:\ms>\ 
and  the  ship's  accounts  are  all  kept  by  him.    His  re«|M  | 


•bflltk 

justly  I 

"Th 

•UlTof 

elais  oi 

and  mil 

mess  ir 

•teerag) 

oaro  of 

may  be 

nuik,  dii 

loard,  a 

Frjm  II 

llio  lurgi 

discuses 

from  the 

lilt,  coiit 

for  the  u 

cuic  eithi 

df  his  lie 

view  jf  t 

fut.     On 

onppers  c 

eolloct  up 

k)  attend 

Nch  prec 

prevent  >li 

officers  an 

ia  a  chapl 

adininiKtcr 

tKhuolniii 

"  The  m 

ihey  rcquii 

are  also  uhi 

the  deck  tt 

charge  of  e 

while  at  at 

quadranlK,  i 

out  the  \as 

made  good, 

captain,     'i 

at  night. 

the  cruiite, 

log.    This 

oianding  ofl 

when  calli' 

by  a  curtaih 

the  oldiMt 

duties  arc  in 

the  others. 

«  The  hoal 
s  distinct  ch 
boatswain  is 
port  attends 
him  by  his  s 
the  ruddy  hu( 
that  iKsue  fro 
the  military 
main  rigginir, 
belongiiier  t,, 
ing  of  the  si 
alterns.    'I'ht 
■Docks,  and  gi 
h"  is  obliged  to 
llie  condition 
tenant  every  i 
"The  tfrarii: 
*ainoii,  (inliiii 
•ion  has  re  fere  I 
COiisi.lcralioiH 
Wililarv  (livisi, 
Ooard-wutc-hes, 
'"('men,  after;; 
"'/"In;  petty  i 


'  '."i 


SHIPS. 


I  arc  morr  Ubo 
vrr  thr  «lii|>  iitHi 
ro|»r  oriliT.    'I'l, 
urt  cil'  lnT  III  Icioi 
lO  rnplain.  VVhni 
Ivri  rliiffly  upon 
)<t  tiinut  lnl'nrlniii 
joiici',  ■  "liixrinvi. 
Ihi<  litimon  lit'irt 
ly  rxrnriiM'il  kt  Iht 
n(  rvrtnin    pulillt 
Ohmhx'Ko*  rlran 
wntrrinir  rniil  vir. 
«  that  hII  liprinul< 
p  tin  rt'milnrly  ami 
irhor    and   RiHUin 
rullril  III  "■<••'  lop- 
tliK  truiniwt.    On 
',  (U'Ih'IhIh  llie  com. 
tn  lilni  to  Kraiitoi 
il  thcri!  urn  n  Uiou. 
iniin  of  cnpricioui 
ly  hia  whim»  or  hii 
ant)  li^rliiiii*  o*  hit 

InwRlrl"'!'.  aniilnki 
int;  lu  thrir  Mtation, 
riling  tlu"  olTu'cr  o| 
olViiiT  lit'  tlip  Jpck 
'tt  and  in  I""'''  "'"i 
iiituiUioiiit.     In  bulb 
he  lmi<  clmrm)  of  il, 
;llt  i.f  ili<^  »tl'l>'     H« 
;)rii|H'rly  cooked,  aihl 
hoiira.     'I'lif  fWTvwj 
At  neo,  his  duly  II 
cour»o  given  liPtlij 
iT  rhanne  in  the  winii, 
K,  and  any  cxlruonli- 
I  the  cujitain  wakej 
weather  rciiorted  M 
first  thing  the  officfi 
oMi|m«s,lli«  sails,  th( 
liwoMer  ihc  ututf  of 
and  at  the  enilul 
rount  of  the  wealhn, 
proper,  iiiMrtfJiD 
officer  of  the  ilick 
atcr  or  proviiiom 
'gulato   the   neiiJiiij 
lo  what  i»  going  on 
of  ships,  and  «ni 
&e.      The  lie* 
and  fro<iucntly  had 
Hides  suiicrinU-nJioi 
ospeelive  divi»ioni. 
;8  comes  the  Bailing 
irehensivo  niiil  arJ* 
His  HUiiervisiot 
all  the  pulilic  «;™  I 
aler,  spiriti,  c«bH 
xpenditures  of  waW 
to    keep   the  shili'l 
ay  to  the  eoninian(i«,  | 
lanec  of  ihe  l«)rt  w  | 
land  desired  lo  W 
his  entirely  to  ilifli  I 

Un-of-war  more  mn  | 

I  keys  of  the  "t'one-r 
|V  is  111"  niu^'l'-  '"'I 
I'-es,  are  considi^miili.  I 
InitU-d  U>  hin  tUnff  I 
ly  him.     His  te»l«  I 


in, 


aMtitUi  ar*  ▼*<7  gf'*U  •"<!  heavy  bond*  are  therefore 
iuatly  exacted  from  him. 

xThn  suri^eon  and  Ids  two  aaeistanti  form  the  mediral 
lUff  of  a  frlgalo.  The  asaistant-surgeons  form  a  distinul 
f^ggt  of  oincerH,  ranking  lietwoon  the  wardroom  offieeni 
Hid  midshipmen.  In  frigates  and  ships  of  the  lino  they 
iDMt  in  the  oK-kpit,  hut  in  all  other  puhlie  vessels  in  iho 
steerage.  The  business  of  the  stalf  is  of  course  lo  take 
oarn  of  the  sick,  and  perform  such  surgical  operations  as 
nay  be  necessary.  A  daily  journal  is  kept  of  the  mimes, 
nuik.  diseases,  and  eonstitutional  hahils  of  all  the  sick  on 
toard,  anil  also  of  thn  medicines  adniiiiislered  to  them. 
Prjm  the  journal  a  ru|iort  is  made  out  and  signed  hy 
Iho  surgeon  every  morning,  stating  the  names,  rank,  and 
diseases  of  the  sick,  and  the  numlier  added  lo  and  taken 
from  the  lint.  This  is  hiindod  lo  the  captain.  Another 
list,  containing  only  the  names,  is  placed  in  the  liinnaclu 
for  the  u«j  of  the  officer  of  the  deck.  Nothing  will  ex- 
cuse either  an  officer  or  a  man  from  duty,  but  the  fact 
of  his  lieing  registered  on  the  sick  list  A  general  re- 
view jf  the  sick  takes  place  every  morning  after  hreiik- 
fast.  Olio  of  thu  asstjttant-surgeons  inspects  tho  ship's 
onppera  every  day,  to  see  that  no  verdigris  is  allowed  to 
collect  u|H>n  them.  It  is  thu  duty  of  the  sun;onn  not  only 
to  attend  to  the  sick,  hut  also  lb  recomtncn.l  and  enforce 
•ttch  precautionary  measures  as  will  have  a  tendency  to 
prevent  disease,  and  thus  secure  tho  general  licullh  of  the 
officers  anil  crew.  On  Imard  of  every  war-vessel  there 
it  a  chaplain,  who  conducts  the  Sunday  services,  and 
administers  spiritual  consolation  to  tho  dy;ng.  Of  late, 
I  ichoolniastcr  has  been  added  to  the  list  of  functionaries. 

"The  iniilBliipmen  may  lie  called  apprentice  officers,  and 
they  recjuire  to  learn  certain  duties  of  seamen.  They 
are  also  useful  hy  carrying  moaaugea  from  tho  officer  of 
the  deck  to  tho  captain,  and  in  port  one  of  them  tukea 
charge  of  every  boat  timtleavea  the  ship.  Towards  noon, 
while  at  sea,  they  are  ohiigod  to  go  on  deck  wilh  their 
()uadranU,  and  take  an  obaervation.  They  have  to  work 
out  tho  lasit  day's  run,  and  report  tho  course,  distance 
made  good,  and  ship's  place  at  noon  each  day,  to  the 
ca|itain.  They  muator  the  crew  when  the  watch  is  called 
at  night  They  are  alao  required  to  keep  n  journal  of 
the  cruiiM',  which  is,  however,  only  a  copy  of  the  ship's 
log.  This  is  examined  every  few  week"  bj  vhe  com- 
manding officer ;  ar.J  If  il  happens  not  to  bo  writtiMi  up 
when  called  for,  tho  delinquent  is  generally  punished 
by  a  curtailinenl  of  some  of  his  indulgences.  Five  of 
the  olile;it  midshipmen  are  master's  mates;  and  their 
duties  are  more  important  and  responsible  than  those  of 
the  olhcrs. 

«  The  boatswain,  gunner,  carpenter,  and  sailniid<cr,  form 
I  distinct  class  of  officers,  called  warrant-officers.  The 
boatswain  is  charged  with  the  rigging  of  the  ship,  and  in 
port  Blti'uds  to  squaring  tho  yards.  You  may  know 
him  by  his  silver  whistle,  rattan  cane,  and,  above  all,  l>y 
the  ruddy  hues  of  his  countenance,  and  the  odious  va|iovii  s 
that  issue  from  his  mouth.  The  gunner  has  charge  of 
the  military  stores,  and,  when  all  hands  are  called,  of  Ihe 
main  rigging.  Thu  carpenter  is  responsible  for  the  stores 
belonging  to  his  department  and  8U|>erintcnds  tho  caulk- 
ing of  Ihe  ship,  and  other  work  performed  hy  his  siili- 
alterns.  'I'he  sailmaker  is  charged  with  the  sails,  ham- 
mocks, and  generally  all  thn  canvas  in  the  ship.  At  sea, 
h"  is  obliged  to  g  aloft  on  each  of  the  three  masts,  examine 
llie  coiiilitioii  01  tho  sails,  and  re[iort  it  tu  the  first  livu- 
teiianl  every  mornini;  betoro  breakfast. 

"  The  grand  divisiuns  of  tlic  crew  are  into  petty  officers, 
Kainrn,  ordinary  seamen,  landsmen,  and  boys.  Thisilivi- 
iioii  lids  ri'terence  to  rank  ;  but  there  are  others,  into  which 
COiisi.lcrations  of  this  kind  do  not  enter.  Kuch  are  tile 
raililsrv  iiivixioiis,  and  the  divisions  into  liirboard  and  i<tar- 
ooiird-watclies,  inio  forca.stlemen,  fore,  main  and  ini'/.7.en- 
t"i|iinen,  aflcrgiiard,  waisters,  &c. 

"The  petty  or  wan  ant  officers  arc  appointed  by  tho  com- 
\ 


miindor,  and  may  he  degraded  by  him  without  the  formalW 
ties  of  a  court-martial.  They  are  selectrd  from  among  the 
most  experienced  and  trnstworthy  of  the  seamen.  I'hcT 
consist,  on  board  of  a  frigate,  of  a  mn*iler-al-arms,  eight 
quarler-maHters,  fdur  boatswain's  mates,  eight  qunrl^-r- 
gunners,  a  boatswain's  and  gunner's  yeoinnn,  a  car|)en- 
ter  and  sailniaker's  mate,  an  armourer,  a  cooper,  couiu 
and  ciM'kswuin. 

"  The  highest  and  most  responsible  of  the  potty  offierra 
is  the  master-at-arms,  who  may  Imi  called  the  principal 
police-officer  of  Ihe  hbip.  He  has  charge  of  all  the  prifoii- 
ers,  ami  every  nioining  makes  out  and  haiitis  to  thn  com- 
mander a  list  of  their  iianies,  with  a  H|iccificatioii  of  the 
crime  for  which  each  is  confined,  and  the  lime  when  he 
was  put  in  conllnetnent.  He  has  charge  also  of  the 
iH'rth-dcck,  and  it  is  his  duty  to  see  thiit  il  is  kept  in  good 
order.  All  projierty  that  falls  in  his  way  for  which  hi 
cannot  find  an  owner,  is  thrown  into  the  '  lucky-bag, 
the  contents  of  which,  if  nut  finally  claimeil,  ore  aold  at 
auction. 

'<  The  office  of  quartermaster  is  one  of  some  dignity  and 
considerable  im|Mirtance.  It  is  his  duty  to  keep  a  look- 
out with  his  spy-;;Iass  for  signals  from  other  ships,  and 
to  report  them  to  the  olPicer  of  the  deck  and  also  to  re- 
[Kirt  to  him  all  boats  that  i^omo  along-side,  and  all  olhci 
movements  and  wcurrences  in  the  harbour,  which  he  may 
deem  of  sutficient  importance.  One  quarter-master  is 
stationed  at  tho  wheel  tn  steer  thn  ship,  and  the  others 
keep  a  look-out,  as  in  port.  When  the  log  is  thrown,  they 
hold  tho  minute-glass.  All  the  colours  and  signals  are 
under  their  charge. 

>•  boatswain's  mates  arc  an  indispensable  class  of  men 
on  board  of  a  man-of-war,  but  their  office  is  tho  most 
invidious  and  least  desirable  of  all.  They  have  tn  per- 
form oil  tho  flogging,  and  thu  men  accordingly  hold  them 
in  Bome  degree  of  detestation.  Each  of  the  boolswain'i 
mates  has  a  silver  whistle  suspended  from  his  neck,  wilh 
which  ho  echoes  tho  orders  of  his  superiors.  The  ar- 
mourer is  tho  ship's  blacksmith.  The  cooper  opens  the 
provision  barrels  when  their  contents  arc  wanted,  and 
performs  other  matters  in  his  lino  of  business,  wlien 
necessary.  Tho  duties  yf  tho  cook  are  somewhat  ardu- 
ous, and  it  requires  a  good  deal  of  patience  and  care  to 
perform  them  occeiitatiy  !o  the  crew.  The  meals  must 
always  Ikj  reported  •  rtt.iy,'  n.orning,  noon,  and  night 
.M  noon,  who::  dinner  is  refiorlcd  ready,  the  cook  takes  a 
s|>ecimen  to  the  officer  of  the  deck,  who  inspects  it,  to  aee 
that  it  is  pro|H'rly  cooked. 

"  The  above  are  the  principal  petty  nfficc.-s ;  and  we  now 
come  to  the  rest  of  the  crew,  or  seomen,  who  arc  of  dif- 
ferent cloKses.  The  first  class  consists  of  seamen,  or  able- 
boilied  men,  who  are  expected  to  lie  finished  sailors;  the 
next  class  are  onlinary  seamen ;  and  after  these  arc  boys, 
who  perform  various  useful  offices,  but  chiefly  as  ser- 
vants. The  boys,  and  all  others  on  shipboard,  who  do 
lot  '.eep  watch,  are  called  idlers, 

"  On  liourd  of  a  frigate  there  arc  six  military  division* , 
oni'  on  tho  quarterdeck,  one  on  the  forecastle,  three  on  the 
pundeek,  and  one  on  the  bcrthdcck.  The  last  is  com- 
mander by  Ihe  purser,  ond  each  of  tho  others  by  a  lieu- 
tenant. It  is  the  business  of  those  who  conqiosc  the 
purser's  division  lo  pass  up  powder  to  the  combatants. 
Kvery  olVicer  and  man  ia  included  in  one  or  the  other  ol 
i  these  divisions,  and  is  stationed  in  a  particular  part  of  the 
I  Hlii|i.  These  are  the  stations  for  action,  and  arc  callid 
genfial  quarters.  The  crew  is  mustered  and  inspected 
'  at  quarters  always  once,  ond  on  Kmrd  many  of  our  ships- 
twice  a  day.  There  are  ten  or  twelve  men  to  each  ot 
the  i;iins  in  a  broadside,  calleil  first  and  second  captains, 
spiingers,  loaders,  powdcr-lioys,  Ac.  On  the  intimation 
being  given,  the  Imardera  run  for  their  caps,  and  everv 
man  seiy.es  a  cutlass.  At  the  first  lap  of  the  drum,  ther. 
is  a  general  rush  throughout  the  ship,  and  bcl'oiv  lli< 
music  has  ceased,  you  may  hear  the  niidshipmcn  ol^  ih. 


I«4 


INFORMATIOV  rt)R  THE  PKOPLK. 


JWinoni  mlling  over  iho  niroM,  (It'orffp  Il<'ll— (lr«t  ri>\>- 
Uin,  iir— JariiOT  Atnlrrwin— ■rrniid  r»|itain,  iir— Wil- 
liam  Hiokfi— |)<)wd.TlM>y,  ilr— aiKl  it  on.  H»vinK  rBllnl 
lh«  ii«me«,  the  rniilihi|)ni«n  rrporl  to  tin-  ciiniir*  .>f  llirir 
diWiion*,  Ihc  itfflcrr*  of  lh«  <liviiiion«  to  lln>  flfNt  linit.imtil, 
•nd  h«  itgiiin  lo  thn  ranUiii.  Hlmulil  lli«  onlir  l<r  ifi\t'n 
to  retlw,  unotlipr  runh  lake*  plm-r,  lh«i  i  iiiliiii«'«  jiikI 
iKMirdiiin-i'iipit  uro  r<'lurn«l  to  tlirir  \>Ucfn,  iiml  llir  turn, 
■■  the  raw  niny  lir,  procnril  to  tJiflr  lUily  lalMiiim  or  lluir 
•vnning  ilivcmionik  All  ihia  U  liiit  llui  woik  of  ii  iiioiiifhU 
Rometiinra  tlui  rail  to  qiiarttira  u  liratt'n  in  thr  iload  of 
niglil,  anil  thrn  tin-  men  am  ol)li((etl  lo  get  up,  IhbIi  llirjr 
liamroorkt,  lake  them  on  ilock.niiil  »tow  thrni  in  ihi-  ni'U 
linga,  and  l>e  rrady  to  anawcr  to  ihi-ir  nainrn  in  thn  apiiro 
uf  alKiut  eight  or  ten  nilnulea.  The  luklahipinrn  have  to 
do  the  aaine. 

••  In  adilition  to  thrir  gcnrral  (jiinrtrni,  the  nirnaro  ulao 
•tatiomd  for  griting  undrr  wny,  nnd  coming  lo  an  iiiK'hor, 
for  larking  and  veering,  and  for  other  general  cvolutionn. 
I  biivr  aoinrtiiiM'i  been  aitoninhcd  lo  iicu  how  ipiirk,  in 
the  darkrHt  night,  it  ii  dinroverrd  that  a  man  i«  niiiuing 
from  hia  pout,  nnd  how  «(N'cdily  ho  ia  w-urrhrd  out  and 
brought  to  iu  But  not, only  d'lea  every  man  know  hii 
station;  ho  haa  a  .tperiflrduty  to  perform  at  every  onh'r, 
and  a  failure  on  hi*  part  might  diaronrert  the  whole  ope- 
ration. Thu*,  it  will  be  aecn  that,  nutwithitanding  the 
eompliratcd  nature  of  naval  cvoliiliumi,  and  the  apparent 
confuaion  whirh  niUHt  neccMuirily  prevail  when  all  handa 
are  called,  there  ia  in  fart  the  grvaleat  poiwilile  order, 
cfRciency,  and  harmony  of  action." 

The  nmrinea  act  a*  a  bixly  of  aoMiera,  and  do  duty 
both  aa  M>ntrio4  at  dilferent  part*  of  the  vcmoI,  and  aa 
niarkanien,  both  Mow  and  aloft,  during  anion.  Dring 
in  acme  reiipecta  an  armed  |)olico  over  the  aailora,  there  la 
often  a  leeling  of  jcalouay  between  Ihe  marinea  and 
other  memlH-ra  of  the  crew. 

The  following  i»  Ihe  gradation  of  ofTirrn  in  conner- 
tion  with  tlio  royal  navy  : — Midiihipman  ;  lieulrnant ; 
maator  and  commuiider  (uaually  cuIUmI  riiptuin) ;  |H>iit- 
raptoin ;  rrar  admiral  (uf  which  there  are  Hevcnif  grudn- 
tiona,  atylcd  red,  while,  and  blue) ;  and  udinirul.  The 
arnior  captain  of  a  aquadron,  whirh  conHiHU  of  a  few 
veaaela  arnt  u|ion  an  oi{icdition,  ia  atyled  commodore,  nnd 
he  is  the  general  commander  for  Ihc  time  iH'ing.  A  fleet 
!a  ■  large  nutiil>er  of  vesavU  commanded  by  an  admiral. 
The  afTuira  of  the  royal  navy  are  managed  by  a  depart- 
ment of  government  called  the  Admiralty,  whence  the 
eammiwiionii  of  the  olFicera  are  iaaued.  Lutterly,  the 
condition  of  hAh  ofTicrrs  and  men  in  the  royul  nuvv  liai* 
been  grrnlly  improved,  and  rendered  much  more  com- 
fortable tlian  formerly. 

Merchant  VcimIi. 
Veaaeli  employed  in  trade,  or  merrhantmen,  are  of 
hinumcrable  tiwu.     The  largest  is  of  the  »hip-propcr, 


aa  repreM-nleil  In  the  preceding  llgiirr,  with  ttlTM  maan 
atid  wpmra  naik  but  having  only  an  up|<er  d«ek,  the 
aidea  of  whirh  are  Uiuially  pierced  to  carry  guns.  Ve». 
aels  of  thia  kind  po«ae«a  hoida  of  very  large  dimensiotia 
tut  Ktowing  good*,  and  their  burden  is  from  1000  ie 
lliOO  tons. 


Merctiaiii  tihif 


Noxt  beneath  tie  riaa*  of  ithipa  is  that  of  briii,  A 
biig,  of  whirh  we  hero  ullt'r  a  Mket<-h,  bus  only  twu 
miikta,  but  it  ponatftaes  square  riggitig,  like  u  ahip.  Urivi 
are  handsome  and  roomy  veaaeU,  currying  from  700  id 
HUO  tona. 

With  brigs,  square  rigging  terminatoa,  and  we  now 
cotne  to  classes  of  vessels  in  which  the  rigging  is  ol  § 


Hctioniitir 
difTerent  character.      At  the   heatl  of  thew>  atands  th« 
Kliiiiiiii-r,  a  vessel  with  Iwo  mauls,  and  capable  of  carr;<l 
ing  u  large  press  of  canvaa,  but  their  rigging  is  various. 
Vessi'U  possessing  only  one  ma>>t,  are  cither  ilmpi  of 
ruittii,  Uth  distinguished   by  tlieir  tail  must   and  «i- 


5!oop. 
Iretnely  larcc  mainsail,  which  projects  towanla  the  iwrti 
f  IdiipH  !ire  chl  fly  engaged  as  couHling  tradcrH,  atid  an 
of  all  buuli  n<.  firm  100  to  600  tons.  Thu  clum  of 
Bloops  employed  to  carry  gootls  atid  puHNengers  belweni 
I.ondiin  and  I.eith  arc  ordinarily  slyled  fm.irki.  ITifii 
are  srhooners  and  sloops  of  war  carrying  from  ten  tc 
twenty  guns;  they  are  generally  employed  in  the  cu» 
tom-hoiue  service,  and  adapted  for  quick  sailing. 


•<    IMl  t  .1  '< 


"  KAVIOATION. 


Ih  ihrM 
|i)M>r  iWrk,  ih« 
ty  (juni.  V»»i 
r^n  ilimfiwkNM 
from   1000  to 


that  of  6ri,'«.     A 
I,  hill  only   twu 

^iiig  IVuin  700  U) 

icit,  and  we  nam 
10  rit(K''>8  i*  ol  • 


S9^ 


thcHp  »tanU  lh« 
rn))Hl)Ifi  of  carrJ 

uri-  cilluT  f/'H>pi  or 
all  maul   Mwl  ex- 


ItowanU  thi'  """^ 
|r  tradcrH,  and  an 
Tho  clam  of 
Usfng«r»  bflwefo 
||  ,mMki.  ITxn 
-jiiig  from  ten  Ic 
poypd  in  tlie  «u» 
L  sailing. 


A  thsetr  !•  •  •mnll  kind  nt  ^fmr\,  hut  rarrvinK  thrre 
A(«l*  and  a  riitiiiinK  howaprit,  with  •alU  of  Ihrt  form 
(•IM  liiB-*""*-  A  Anf-m/mr  la  a  »>rig  which  ran  I* 
4\hft  lailrd  nr  niwrd.  A  xrhrr  la  •  liKhl  awirt-aailinR 
ftme\,  nf  thrrc  mnala,  and  •  liinK  prnw,  |Mtnillar  to  thf> 
piirta  of  till  Mrilifrrranpan.  A  gull"/  U  amrthrr  viwwl 
paeiiliar  to  tho  |Hini  nf  Ihn  Mrditprrancaii  t  it  ia  Inw 
built,  and  rarriro  two  maala,  hut  ilf*|H<nda  chlrfly  on  hrinK 
niwi'd  with  olira ;  ronch<iiiM(«l  rriminala  are  nfVnn  acnt  n« 
t  |)uni«hmi>nt  li>  row  thi'M<<  gallrya.  A  •/iiihl  in  a  anwil 
«eaael  dmiitnod  rithrr  for  atale  nr  ploaaurr.  All  tho  prr- 
nnlinK  rliiAM'N  of  vrww'la  immiwim  dpt'k*.  Hmull  open  vr«> 
kU,  not  piMarMinn  the  acrnmniiMlation  nf  a  divk,  are  nf 
(he  f la"  of  hihilf,  of  which  there  are  many  varictica — aa 
the  lonn-hoiit,  pinnace,  wherry,  g\^,  hurue,  and  ao  forth. 
Bnata  are  moatly  hiiill  with  the  aide  plnnka  lappinff  over 
one  another;  and  thia, which  ia  called  lieinn r/in^rr  hmll, 
irivoa  thcni  Krciiter  huoyancy  and  atrength  tk>an  if  huilt 
lu  tho  miiimcr  of  ahipa. 

In  every  cIhhh  nf  m4'rchant  veaaela,  the  prime  object  la 
li)  ircominiHlntc  aa  Inr^o  a  quantity  nf  Honda  aa  poaaihlo, 
ind  therefore  comparnlively  little  apace  ia  nccupied  with 
accoinmndalion  for  either  the  cuptnin  nr  hia  crew.  If 
the  car^o  bo  lii;ht,  axirh  aa  cotton,  hnllntt  ia  requirpil 
to  b«  put  <m  board  ;  thia  cnnaiala  nf  annd  nr  any  other 
heavy  mulcrial,  which  ia  placed  lnwc«t  in  tho  hold,  In 
order  to  lialiince  the  ventel,  and  f(ive  it  duo  hold  of  the 
water.  In  atowinif  carf(o,  care  ia  taken  to  preeervo  the 
trim  of  tho  vchhcI — that  ia,  to  keep  it  upright,  and  alao 
equally  balanced  fore  and  alt. 

Latterly,  ve«acli4  pro|iell(>d  by  aleam  power  have  been 
Introilucwl  and  larnely  employed  in  the  commercial  ma- 
nne,  tiao  in  the  royal  navy.  Hteam  veiwela  carry  nnly  a 
limited  qiiontity  nf  rii;f(inK  and  canviia,  the  pro|)uli<ion 
hy  the  pa^ldlca  beinif  aufficient  in  nil  ordinary  circ\mi- 
lUnrea.  Much  aail,  in  the  cna<!  of  atifl*  breezea,  would 
drive  the  veaael  fatter  than  the  ntcom,  and  thon-hy  cauae 
the  pnddli-a  to  dni|{  throui^h  the  water :  aa  thia  would 
rrlanl  the  motion,  Haila  arc  mnunird  only  to  i^ive  a  amall 
iilditinn  to  ;lui  iiniietua,  and  to  fteady  ihe  veaaul.  (Sen 
Article  Co!ivntA!ici,)  ■ 


NAVIOATION. 
Navigation  ia  the  art  of  conductini^  veaaela  at  aea  in 
the  direction  in  which  they  aro  deaiijned  to  proceed  :  the 
term  ii  derived  from  the  Latin  word  nnvin,  a  ahip,  and 
ugo,  to  manuffp  or  ijovern.  From  ntivis,  alao,  ia  derived 
the  term  nnvij,  which  aiguifiea  a  collection  of  ahipa.  The 
term*  mnrint,  muriltmi,  and  mariner,  arc  likewiae  from  n 
Latin  root,  to  wit,  mnre,  the  aea. 

Veaaela  advance  in  their  courae  by  meana  of  tidoa, 
cnnenta,  and  winda;  tho  winda  are  in  moat  inataneea  the 
principal  moving  aj^ent,  and  the  art  of  the  mariner  con- 
liiiti  in  rendering  almoat  every  breath  of  wind  which 
Nowa  auliaervicnt  to  the  purpoao  of  the  intended  voyaRe. 
The  win<l:<  ino.(t  favourable  for  propollini^  the  veaael  are 
Ihoae  which  blow  on  the  quarter,  or  alantingly  on  the 
ihip'a  course.  The  reaaon  for  thia  ia  very  ohvioua: 
when  the  wiml  blow*  directly  aatern,  it  can  affect  one  or 
Terhape  two  Hiiila  with  commenaurati-  force  ;  but  when  it 
C'lmca  oblitnicly,  every  aail  may  be  trimmed  to  meet  it, 
inJ  receive  a  aharo  of  the  impulaive  fon-e.  The  variety 
in  the  rigufinjf  of  vos8«'Ia  cauw-a  much  dilTcrence  in  aailiuR 
iiowera :  some  will  anil  cloae  to  the  wind,  as  it  ia  called, 
»•'  with  n  very  amall  angle  to  the  direction  of  the  breeze, 
while  others  reiiuire  winda  much  more  fair.  When  the 
wind  becomes  too  |)owerful,  certain  aaila  ore  taken  in, 
md  others  are  reefeil,  a  portion  lieing  bound  to  their  ro- 
ipeclive  yurds,  so  as  to  reduce  the  aurface  of  canvas. 
Keeling  and  bracing  the  yarda  are  among  the  nicest 
(flinti  of  Bcamanship. 

8hi|w  are  navigated,  ••  nearly  ••  poaaible,  by  the 

Voul— 14 


path  which  ia  the  ahnrteat  distance  between  Ih*  pirt 
whence  they  de|>art  and  that  for  which  they  are  de» 
tined  t  but  (Vom  contrary  winds  and  intervening  land, 
it  ia  generally  neceaaary  to  aail  in  a  track  of  a  *iR-«ai| 
form.  When  a  veaael  ia  obliged  to  aail  to  the  right  or 
left  of  the  direction  of  the  int«nde<l  port,  it  is  aaid  to 
link  when  the  ahip  Is  tacking  towarda  the  left,  anil  the 
wind  cniiaei|uently  on  the  right,  it  ia  aaid  to  lie  on  the 
itiirhiiinil  tack ;  and  when  it  ia  tacking  towanls  the 
right,  it  ia  aaid  to  be  on  the  lurlminl  tack.  A  ship  does 
not  sail  eiactly  in  tho  direction  of  her  keel,  hut  deviates 
towards  the  side  that  is  opposite  to  the  wind ;  and  tlie 
angle  contained  Iwtween  the  apparent  and  real  direction 
ia  called  Ite-wiiy. 

The  tacking  or  changing  nf  ilireetinns,  in  order  to 
present  the  saila  at  a  pro|ier  angle  to  the  wind,  ia  a  pnv 
ccsa  requiring  considerable  aeuMmnship.  The  ship 
being  alreoily  close  to  tho  wind,  the  helm  is  gradually 
eaaed  down,  ao  that  the  rudder  may  not  exert  ita  full 
force  until  she  Ix^gina  to  turn,  nor  act  B\idilenly  to  check 
the  hcailway,  so  essential  to  the  success  of  the  evolu- 
tion; at  tho  same  time  tho  head  sheets  are  flown,  so  •• 
to  cause  the  sails  before  the  centre  of  rotation  to  i  naka, 
and  loae  their  poorer  of  balancing  the  nfler  ones.  At 
tho  ship  approaches  the  wind,  the  spanker  is  drawn  gT»> 
dually  from  the  Ice  side  towards  the  centre,  that  it  may 
keep  full,  and,  by  its  action  so  near  the  stern,  cnntiniM 
promoting  the  rotation.  As  soon  aa  the  sails  reach  tha 
direction  of  tho  wind,  and  cease  to  draw,  the  enrnen 
nf  the  cours4>s  are  drawn  up,  and  tho  tacks  and  sheets 
overhauled,  ready  to  awing  the  yards.  After  a  while, 
the  sails  catch  aback,  and  tho  fore-nails,  soon  masking 
the  after  ones,  act  with  a  powerful  lever  to  turn  the  liow. 
At  length,  having  come  head  to  wind,  without  loss  (,! 
headway,  and  the  evolution  Iwing  -ertnin,  the  afWr 
yarda  are  awung  round,  ready  to  receive  the  wind  on 
the  opposite  side ;  which  operation  is  then  more  easily 
performed,  fi-nm  the  aaila  being  becalmed  by  the  fora 
ones.  Lastly,  when  the  after  sails  are  filled  by  the  wind, 
the  heail  yards  are  also  braced  round  to  receive  its  int- 
pulse,  and  the  ship  at  once  recovers  headway,  and  pro* 
ceeda  on  her  now  tack. 

Thus  easily  is  a  ship  manoeuvred  in  fine  weather. 
Not  unfrequently,  however,  a  gale  comea  to  disturb  the 
peaceful  course  of  the  mariner,  and  call  forth  all  his 
exertions.  Let  us  suppose  that,  whilst  our  ship  is  con- 
teiuling  against  tho  head  wind,  the  misfortune  ia  aug 
mented  by  its  gradual  inrrcn-ie.  Shortening  aail  b». 
comes  necessary,  and  it  is  determined  by  two  leading 
considerations — tho  stability  of  tho  sliip,  and  the 
strength  of  her  masts;  it  is  to  diminish  ttic  careening 
of  the  one,  and  avoid  endangering  the  other,  that  the 
surt'aco  spread  to  the  wind  ia  reduced.  In  shortening 
sail,  we  nlwaya  begin  with  tho  highest  and  lightest  aaila, 
descending  gradually,  and  keeping  pace,  with  an  inveraa 
ratio,  with  the  increaae  of  wind.  The  sails  do  not, 
however,  come  in  uniformly  in  the  direction  of  the 
leni^th;  but  the  after  sails  most  rapidly;  l)ecauBe,  as  the 
wind  increases,  the  energy  which  it  exerts  in  a  forward 
direction  upon  the  masts  tends,  with  a  powerful  lever, 
to  depress  tho  bow  and  raise  the  stern  ;  hence  the  lattM 
drifts  more  easily  to  lecwanl,  thpjeby  bringing  the  low 
towards  the  wind  ;  this  effort  is  also  promoted  by  the 
»ctii>n  of  the  sails  passing  larlhor  to  leeward,  and 
by  tho  ship  ceasing  to  sail  on  an  even  keel.  From  ah 
these  reasons,  the  more  tho  wind  increases,  the  more 
she  tends  to  cniiie  to;  so,  to  avoid  a  constant  recurrence 
to  the  actiou  of  tho  rudder,  it  becomes  neces.sarv  to 
shorten  sail  faster  aft  than  forward,  taking  in  tlic  mizzen- 
top[jallant-sail,  and  oven  the  spanker,  licfoie  the  forr 
and  mnin-topgallant-aails ;  for  the  same  reason,  when  il 
becomes  necessary  to  reef,  it  ia  not  unusual  to  begin 
with  the  mizzcn-topaail.  Reefing  consists  in  binding  a 
portion  of  the  sails  to  their  respective  yarda,  so  aa  in 


106 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


reduce  tne  surtace ;  end  in  the  ewe  of  a  heavy  galp,  it 
becomes  necesnary  to  rt^cf  or  take  in  the  whole  from 
Rtum  to  Btern ;  the  hrlm  being  at  the  Bamo  time  kept 
constantly  hard  down,  the  vessel  is  said  to  lie  to. 
Hhonld  the  gale  abate,  the  reefs  are  shaken  out,  sail  is 
added,  and  tlie  vessel  bounds  actively  on  iu  course. 

THK  COMP»68. 
'  'Fhe  roost  important  instiuracnt  for  the  guidance  of 
Ihe  mariner  is  the  compass.  There  are  diflcrent  kinds 
rf  compasses,  to  suit  peculiar  purposes;  bjt  thut  which 
is  commonly  in  use  on  shipboard  is  of  th^.  following 
construction : — The  most  cs-tontial  part  is  a  magnetized 
bar  of  steel,  called  the  needle,  which  is  supported  hori- 
Bontally  on  a  central  pivot,  round  which  it  is  free  to 
move  and  to  point  in  any  direction.  The  pivot  of  the 
needle  rises  from  a  circular  card,  ro8eml)ling  the  dial- 
plate  of  a  time-piece,  and  round  the  circumference  of 
which  are  makked  thirty-two  points.  'I'he  adjoining 
•Igure  represents  Ihe  card  of  a  compass.  North,  South, 
East,  and  West,  are  the  main  or  cardinal  points,  and 
are  indicated  by  their  initial  letters  respectively,  while 
tlte  Bul)ordinate  points  are  also  marked  by  letters,  as 
N6E  for  north-by-east,  NNE  north-north-east,  and  so 
on.  To  be  able  to  recite  the  various  j)oints  is  said  to 
«  box  the  compass."  The  north  is  usually  indicated  by 
an  omamentc;'.  figure,  or  arrow  head,  as  in  the  sketch 
of  a  compass  card  here  presented. 

The  card  and  needle  are  fixed  in  a  round  box,  en- 
doeed  by  a  sheet  of  glass,  to  secure  it  both  from  tlie 
agitation  of  the  atmosphere,  as  well  as  to  exclude  dust, 
moisture,  and  other  things  which  might  iiitei.ore  with 
the  correetncss  of  the  indications.  The  whole  is  en- 
closed in  another  box,  suspended  by  two  concentric 
brass  circles,  or  gimbals,  as  they  are  technically  called. 
and  in  such  a  manner,  that  thr  compass  hangs  as  it 
were  on  points  like  a  swivel,  by  which,  during  the  lurch- 
ing or  heaving  up  and  down,  or  motion  from  side  to 
aide,  of  the  ship,  the  needle  and  its  card  remain  in  a 
horizontal  position,  and  under  all  circumstances  indicate 
the  various  points  correctly.  The  compass,  thus  en- 
caaed,  is  placed  upon  the  deck  in  a  covered  stand  called 
the  bintmde,  in  front  of  the  man  at  the  helm,  so  that 
the  direction  in  which  the  needle  points  can  be  con- 
stantly seen  in  guiding  the  vessel.  The  p.iint  of  the 
needle,  which,  for  distinction,  is  some  way  orn^^menlcd, 
is  understood  to  point  towards  the  north,  but  properly, 


Naj 


It  [loints  a  little  to  th  '  west  of  due  north  ;  and  this,  as 
well  a"*  (ilhrr  virliitioris  to  which  it  is  siibjccl  in  oirta.n 
latitud  •»,  must  be  tliorounhly  unib-rstood  by  the  navi- 
gator. In  (he  whole  of  llic  norlliern  hcinispherc  of  the 
globe,  the  pniiit  or  nortlicrn  [i.-ik'  of  the  riec(llc  is  the  nc 
Itrs  agent  in  pointing  the  directii>n  of  the  compass.     In 


the  southern  hemisphere,  the  soutliem  pole  of  tne  nteJIi 
assumes  the  active  management  of  the  instrumriif 
and,  by  pointing  towards  the  south  ]>oln  of  the  ea:l|i, 
keeps  the  point  of  the  needle  pointing  towards  the  nonli 
as  liofore.  Practically,  it  is  of  no  conNC(|ucnce  to  the 
mariner  which  point  of  the  needle  is  most  aHcctrd  |iy 
the  polarity  of  the  earth,  fur  in  all  places  and  conditions 
(slight  variations  excepted)  the  needle  kerj)8  its  north. 
em  ornamented  point  towards  the  north  pole  of  the 
globe. 

'I'he  needle  being  liable  to  be  aflbctcd  by  the  proxi- 
mity of  iron,  no  piece  i  ''that  metal  is  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  binnacle,  or  is  allowed  to  be  near  it.  In  tlie 
case  of  iron  ships,  or  ships  having  much  iron  on  h<)hTi\. 
means  are  adopted  to  counteract  the  tendency  which 
the  needle  has  to  point  in  a  wrong  direction.  From 
want  of  attention  to  this  important  point,  serious  disas- 
ters at  sea  have  ensued. 

THE  LOO — SEXTANT. 

Provided  with  a  compass,  the  next  object  of  iraport- 
:  alloc  is  the  hi;,  an  instruincnl  for  measuring  the  rate 
I  at  which  the  vessel  proceeds  through  the  water,  in  t 
[  given  space  of  time.     I'hc  log  is  a  very  simple  contriv. 
:  ancc.     It  consists  of  a  long  cord,  having  u  piece  of 
I  wood  attached  to  one  end,  and  called  the  chip.    This  is 
j  of  a  quadrantal  form,  and  being  Nlung  at  the  conicn 
I  with  line,  and  loaded  at  tho  circumference,  when  thrown 
j  overboard  it  remains  erect  and  stationary',  and  drags 
'  the  line  off  as  fast  as  the  ship  passes  through  the  water. 
The  line  is  divided  into  knots  and  half  knots,  represent- 
ing miles  and  half  miles,  or  iniiiutcs  of  a  degree,  ti 
which  they  bear  tho  same  proportion  os  the  log-glass 
docs  to  an  hour.     Thus  'he  log-glass  \mng  filled  with 
sand  to  run  through  in  30",  the  length  of  a  knot  must 
be  .^1   feet,  the  first  bring  the  same  proportion  of  an 
hour  that  the  last  is  of  a  mile.     As,  however,  the  log  is 
found  to  come  home  a  'ittlc  in  tho  eiTort  to  draw  the 
line  out,  it  is  customary  to  mark  the  knot  a  foot  or  tw 
less  than  the  true  length.     The  mode  of  heaving  the 
log  to  measure  a  ship's  rate  is  as  follows :  The  log-reel, 
upon  which  the  line  is  wound,  lM<iiig  held  by  one  of  the 
sailors,  the  officer  places  himsi^lf  on  the  rail  to  leeward, 
and  a  third  person  holding  the  glass,  he  proceeds  tii 
prepare  the  chjp,  so  that  the  peg  of  one  of  the  liucj 
holding  the  chip  in  a  perpendicular  direction  will  drtw 
out,  by   the  force  of  the  water,  when    the  wheel  is 
stopped,  and  allow  it  to  haul  in  easily.     Then,  havinij 
gathered  a  sutacient  quantity  of  line  into  his  hand,  he 
throws  it  f'j  to  leeward,  that  it  may  not  !«  aflcctej  bj 
the  eddius  which  follow  in  the  wake.     The  stray  lino, 
which  allows  the  chip  to  get  ast4!rn,  now  runs  of,  ai.J 
the  instant  that  the  white  rag,  which  marks  its  termina- 
tion, passes  through  the  hand  of  the  oHicer,  he  ain 
"  Turn  !"  and  continues  to  veer  out  line  until  the  gha 
runs  out,    and   tho  person  holding  it   cries   "  Stop  1" 
Then  the  line  is  grasped,  and  the  num'.ier  of  knots  lluil 
have  passed  off  mark  tho   sjieed  of  the  ship.     Whfn 
this  exceeds  five  miles,  it  is  usual  to  uw  a  glass  of  U 
instead  of  30",  counting  the  knots  double.     The  rate  of 
sailing,  per  hour,  multiplied  by  the  hours,  thus  gives 
the  mariner  the  measure  of  his  mil. 

In  addition  to  tliese  essential  instruments  for  dirci-i. 
ing  the  course  and  as<'crlaiiiing  the  distniice,  tl.e  na^i• 
Ciitor  must  l)c  proviiled  willi  oitaiils  of  doulilo  relloctinn, 
to  measure  the  altitude  of  I'li'  beavciily  bodies,  anil  4 
circle,  or  sextant,  more  nictly  gvadiiated,  to  nieasua' 
distances  bi'lweeii  Ihe  ino!'n  tir.d  starj.  He  should  alwi 
have  with  liiiii  a  lioi>k  eoiitaiiiiiii^  the  loi(.iritliias  of 
niiiiibers,  siiii's,  taiii;eiit.4,  oad  soaiils,  to  lacilllate  tr!- 
goiioinetri<'al  calcuiations;  fables  lor  correi'tiii„' allitiulis 
for  dip.  parallax,  aii<l  rcfiactioii ;  also  lists  of  Iiiiiluilit 
and  longitudes  for  every  part  of  the  world ;  and  of  Uir.« 


^AVIGATION. 


Wl 


lole  of  tno  nc«JI« 
Ihe  instrumriu- 
oln  of  the  euMli, 
.owania  the  nonti 
nHcqucnce  to  the 
ruOHt  alicctrd  by 
CH  and  conilitioi^a 
!  kecpH  its  nortlw 
orth  pole  of  the 

teil  hy  the  proxi. 
•d  in  the  construo 
le  near  it.  In  the 
oh  iron  on  hosnL 
!  tcndt-ncy  which 
direction.  From 
lint,  serious  disa*- 


,  object  of  import, 
easuring  the  rate 
;h  the  water,  in  « 
•ry  simple  contriv. 
luving  u  piece  of 
I  the  chip.    This  is 
ng  at  the  cornen 
BHce,  when  thrown 
lionary,  and  draga 
througii  the  water, 
ilf  knots,  represent- 
IcB  of  a  degree,  ti 
on  ns  the  log-glass 
M  l)eing  filled  with 
igth  of  a  knot  must 
le  proportion  of  an 
however,  the  log  is 
effort  to  draw  the 
I  knot  a  foot  or  two 
le  of  heaving  the 
[lows :  The  log-reel, 
,  hold  hy  one  of  the 
the  rail  to  leeward, 
inss,  he  proceeds  to 
if  one  of  the  lines 
direction  will  draw 
fhen    the  wheel  is 
lily.     Then,  havini! 
10  into  his  hand,  he 
not  lie  affected  by 
■.     The  stray  line, 
\\,  now  runs  of,  ai.J 
marks  its  termina- 
he  officer,  he  crios 
lline  until  the  pluss 
it   cries   "  Slop  1' 
in'.ier  of  knots  tluU 
the  ship.     When 
)  use  a  glass  of  13 
mlile.     The  rate  of 
hours,  thus  gives 

Irumonts  for  direi-l» 
I  distance,  ll'.e  naM- 
lif  iliiulilo  rellccliiM:. 
(Mily  lioilics,  anil  a 
|\i;lti'd,  to  nicasuru 
111'  rthmilil  alwi 
I  the  liiniiilhinK  of 
llrf,  to  f.iiilil.ilf  Ir- 
Icorri'Cliiu'  iillitiiiV* 
Id  li-it'i  Ilf  hililuiii* 
IvorU;  aikd  ofUinl 


«rf  high  water  at  every  port,  at  the  period  of  full  and 
change  of  the  moon,  from  which,  at  all  timea,  to  he  able  to 
find  the  tide ;  and  a  variety  of  tables  to  facilitate  the 
Tarious  problems  of  navigation.  Ho  shouli  also  have 
with  him  the  Nautical  Almanac,  containitig  the  places 
and  declinations  of  the  fixed  stars  and  planets,  and  espe- 
cially the  distances  of  the  moon  from  the  sun  and  other 
stars,  unci  nil  that  relates  to  that  body,  with  a  view  to  cal- 
culate the  longitude  by  observation.  Finally,  he  must  bo 
provided  with  the  general  and  local  charts  applicable 
to  his  contemplated  voyage.  Thus  furnished,  die  mari- 
ner may  set  sail  with  confidence ;  many  do  so  with  no 
otlier  aids  than  their  compass,  log,  quadrant,  a  single 
chart,  and  hook  of  navigation,  and  arrive  in  safety.  But 
it  is  less  our  business  to  show  with  how  little  care  a 
ship  may  be  navigated,  than  to  show  how  she  may  be 
carried  from  port  to  port  with  the  greatest  possible  cer- 
tainty. Having  taken  leave  of  the  pott,  and,  when  the 
last  land  is  about  to  disappear  from  view,  either  from 
the  growing  distance  or  the  intervention  of  night,  the 
mariner  selects  some  conspicuous  headland,  of  which 
the  latitude  and  longitude  are  noted  in  his  tables,  and 
placing  a  compass  in  some  elevated  position,  remote 
fi-om  any  iron  object  to  disturb  its  polarity,  proceeds  to 
dett.rminc  its  bearing,  and  estimate  his  distance  from  it, 
either  by  the  progress  made  from  it,  or  by  the  ready 
estimate  of  a  practised  eye.  Or,  taking  the  simultane- 
ous bearings  of  two  distinct  jioints  of  qoast,  he  has  still 
surer  data  for  deducing  his  position.  This  is  called 
taking  the  departure,  and  is  carefully  noted  or  the  log- 
slate,  witli  the  time  of  making  the  observation.  Thence- 
forth the  log  is  thrown  every  hour,  and  the  course  and 
distance  are  entered  upon  the  slate,  to  be  copied  into 
the  log-book  at  the  end  of  the  day. 

WORKINa   A  RECKONING. 

At  the  first  noon  succeeding  the  time  of  taking  his 
departure,  the  mariner  works  up  his  reckoning.  Noon 
is  on  epoch  fixed  by  nature,  being  determined  by  the 
passage  of  the  sun  over  the  meridian,  and  is  therefore 
well  chosen  as  the  beginning  of  the  day.  The  log-slate 
being  marked,  he  copies  the  courses  and  distances,  if 
from  heud-winds  or  other  causes  they  have  been  various; 
the  departure  from  the  land  is  also  converted  into  a 
oourse,  as  is  also  the  current,  if  there  be  any  known 
one.  He  next  proceeds  to  find  the  difference  of  latitude 
and  ucpartiirc  from  the  meridian  corresponding  to  each 
course,  either  by  geometrical  calculation,  or,  more  ex- 
peditiously, by  reference  to  tables ;  then  he  adds  the 
several  dilVerences  of  latitude  and  departure,  and,  if 
they  be  of  different  names,  as  some  north  and  some 
south,  some  cast  and  others  west,  deducts  the  less  from 
the  greater.  With  the  remaining  difference  of  latitude 
and  departure,  he  nut  only  finds  the  course  and  distance 
made  good,  but  also  the  latitude  and  longitude  in ;  the 
difference  of  latitude  l)eing  applied  to  the  latitude  left, 
by  adding  or  subtracting,  in  sailing  from  or  towards 
tlie  equator,  at  once  gives  the  latitude  of  the  ship.  But 
before  the  departure  can  be  thus  applied  to  find  the 
longitvidi',  it  is  necessary  to  reduce  it  for  the  converging 
of  the  nierlillans  towards  the  poles ;  for.  though  all  de- 
grees of  longitude  arc  divided,  like  those  of  latitude, 
into  CO  minutes  or  miles,  yet  they  decrease  in  length, 
from  being  e<|ual  to  a  degree  of  latitude  at  the  equator, 
until  tlii\v  become  nothing  at  the  poles.  There  are 
mimy  ways,  more  or  less  accurate,  of  deducing  the  dif- 
feioncr  of  longitude  from  the  di'nnrttiro,  the  latitude 
iH'inii  known  ;  they  are  fminded,  upon  this  princi  ilc : 
tlip  circumference  of  the  earth  at  the  equator  is  to  its 
ciroiiniforciice  at  any  given  parallel  of  latitude,  as  the 
dcpiutiirc  if.  to  the  diflerence  cf  longitude.  The  most 
easy  and  correct  way  of  ol)t;iitiiiig  the  .lifferencc  of 
longitude,  on  an  oblique  courbe,  is  hy  the  aid  of  a  table 


of  meridional  parts  -,  for,  naving  taken  out  the  meridional 
difference  of  latitude,  the  mariner  has  this  simple  pro- 
portion :  the  proper  difference  of  latitude  is  to  the  nieri* 
dional  difference  of  latitude,  as  the  departure  to  tho 
difference  of  longitude.  The  difference  of  longitude 
thus  obtained,  is  applied  to  the  longitude  left,  adding  or 
subtracting,  in  sailing  to  or  from  the  first  meridian,  and 
the  result  will  be  the  ship's  longitude ;  which,  with  the 
latitude  previously  ascertaiaed,  determines  her  position 
on  the  chart.  The  method  of  navigating  thus  described 
is  called  dend  rerkomiig.  It  is  far  from  infnllilile,  and 
leaves  much  to  desire.  It  will,  indeeil,  do  pretty  well 
in  short  runs ;  but  as  errors  daily  creep  in  from  many 
causes  escaping'  calculation,  such  as  bad  steerage,  lee> 
way,  heave  of  the  sea,  unknown  currents,  and  as  these 
accumulate,  and  become  considerable  at  the  end  of 
long  voyage,  it  becomes  necessary  for  the  mariner,  re> 
moved  horn  all  reference  to  terrestrial  objectt.,  to  resort 
to  the  immovable  guides  in  the  heavens.  All  the  hea- 
venly bodies  are,  by  the  revolution  of  the  earth,  daily 
brought  to  the  meridian,  at  which  time,  if  their  altitude 
is  measured,  their  declination  or  distance  from  the  equi- 
nox being  known,  the  latitude  is  readily  deduced ;  it 
may  also  be  deduced  firom  single  or  double  altitudes  of 
bodies  not  in  the  meridian,  the  times  being  accurately 
known.  But  the  meridian  altitude  of  the  sun  is  what 
furnishes  at  once  the  easiest  and  most  correct  method 
of  finding  the  latitude.  So  great,  indeed,  ore  the  ad- 
vantages offered  by  the  meridian  altitude  of  the  sun, 
that  no  other  means  of  finding  the  latitude  are  used, 
except  when  these  have  failed  from  a  clouded  at- 
mosphere, or  when  the  momentary  expectation  of  mak- 
ing the  land  quickens  the  mariner's  anxiety.  We  shall, 
j  tlverefore,  now  explain  the  method  of  deducing  the  lati- 
tude from  the  sun's  meridian  altitude. 

TAKING  AN   OBSERVATION. 

Furnished  with  a  sextant,  circle,  or  octant  of  refleo 
tion,  the  observer  goes  upon  deck,  and  having  examined 
the  adjustment  of  his  instrument,  proceeds  to  bring 
down  the  image  of  the  sun  reflected  by  its  mirror,  until 
the  lower  limb  just  sweeps  tlie  horizon.  He  continue* 
to  follow  and  measure  its  ascent,  until  it  ceases  to  rise ; 
the  moment  that  it  begins  to  fall,  and  the  lower  liml 
dips  in  the  horizon,  the  sun  has  passd  the  meridian. 
The  altitude  marked  by  the  index  beL>5  read  of,  it  is 
next  corrected.  And  first,  the  observer  adds  the  semi- 
diameter,  in  order  to  make  the  altitude  apply  to  the 
centre  of  the  object;  next,  he  subtracts  the  dip,  to  meet 
the  error  caused  by  the  extension  of  the  horizon,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  rotundity  of  the  earth,  and  the  elevation 
of  his  eye  above  its  surface ;  also  the  rcfir«ction  of  the 
atmosphere,  by  which  the  object,  when  not  vertical,  ia 
made  to  appear  higher  than  its  true  place ;  lastly,  he  adda 
the  parallax  (a  small  correction,  inconsideiable  from  the 
sun's  distance),  in  order  to  reduce  the  calculation  for 
the  centre  of  the  earth ;  firom  which  point  all  calculation* 
are  made,  and  which  is  ever  supposed  to  be  the  station 
of  an  observer.  Having  made  all  these  correctiona, 
which  many  mariners  despatch  summarily,  by  an  addi- 
tion of  12  minutes,  he  ha.*  the  true  moridinn  altitude 
of  the  sun.  Taking  this  from  a  quadrant,  or  90°,  gives 
its  zenith  distance,  or  distance  from  that  point  in  the 
I  heavens  which  is  immediately  over  the  observer,  and 
I  would  bo  met  hy  a  straight  line  passing  from  the  centre 
1  of  the  earth  through  his  position.  Now,  if  the  sun 
'.  were  for  ever  on  the  equinoctial,  the  zenith  distance 
would  always  lie  the  latitude;  for,  whilst  the  zenith  is  the 
observer's  position,  referred  to  the  heavens,  t!io  oquatot 
is  there,  in  like  manner,  represented  by  the  equinoctial- 
and  we  have  already  seen  that  latitude  is  the  distance 
from  the  equator.  But  as  the  sun  is  only  twice  a  year 
upon  tlie  equinoctial,  and  as  his  distuiice  firom  it  at 


1« 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


ImiM  Lncrenae*  to  more  than  20°,  it  becomei  neceMsty 
to  take  thia  distance  (called  his  dtclination)  into  the 
estimate.  Ths  sun's  declination  is  given  in  the  almanac, 
for  the  noon  of  each  day  ;  by  correcting  it  for  the  time 
anticipated  or  elapsed,  according  as  the  sun  comes  first 
to  him  or  to  the  first  meridian,  by  his  position  east  ot 
west  of  east  of  it,  the  observer  obtains  the  declination 
for  noon  at  his  own  position.  This  declination  applied 
to  the  zenith  distance,  by  adding  when  the  sun  is  on 
the  same  side  of  the  equator,  by  subtracting  when  on 
the  opposite  side,  gives  the  true  latitude.  A  daily  and 
accurate  knowledge  of  .'lis  latitude  is,  then,  to  the  ma- 
riner of  our  day,  a  desideratum  of  easy  attainment  By 
its  aid,  nothing  is  easier  than  to  sail  clear  of  any  rock 
or  shoal  that  crosses  his  track,  either  by  a  watchfiil 
look-out  at  the  moment  of  passing  its  latitude,  or  else 
by  avoiding  its  parallel  entirely,  until  it  be  surely  passed. 
Moreover,  this  is  his  best  and  surest  (fuide  in  aiming  at 
his  destined  port ;  for  he  has  but  to  attain  the  exact 
latitude  it  lies  in,  and  then  sail  directly  upon  it,  east  or 
west,  to  be  sure  of  success.  And  here  nature  is  again 
his  friend :  by  a  singular  coincidence,  discoverable  in 
glancing  at  the  map  of  the  world,  most  coasts  and  con- 
tinents lie  in  a  northern  and  southern  direction.  Hence 
the  value  attached  by  seamen  to  an  accurate  know- 
ledge of  the  latitude ;  and  hence  the  saying  of  "  Lati- 
tude, lead,  and  look-out" 

^J.'    .  -.  TO  riND  THI  LONOITUDB. 

'  Various  ways  have  been  devised  to  find  the  longitude. 
In  all  of  which  the  great  element  is  time.    The  earth 
performs  her  diurnal  revolution  in  24  hours,  or,  in  other 
words,  each  part  of  the  circumference   of  the  globe, 
which  is  divided  into  360  degrees,  is  brought  under 
the  sun  once  a  day.     Hence,  each  part  of  the  circu.-n- 
ference  (reckoning  firom  east  to  west)  has  its  own  pe- 
culiar time  of  day.     When  it  is  noon  at  one  place,  it  is 
one  o'clock  afternoon  at  another  place,  two  at  another, 
and  so  on  ;  the  time  diflcrs  all  round  the  globe.     Divid- 
ing the  360  degrees  by  84,  we  find  that  15  is  the  result; 
for  every    16  degrees,  therefore,  along  the  circumfe- 
rence, going  westward,  there  is  an  hour  of  difference, 
in  advance ;  and,  going  eastwards,  an  hour  behind.  If  it 
be  noon  at  Greenwich,  it  will  be  one  o'clock  at  a  point 
15  degrees  cast  from  it  (that  is,  the  sun  has  passed 
over  it  an  hour  ago),  and  eleven  o'clock  forenoon  at  a 
point  15  degrees  west  from  it  (that  is,  the  sun  will  lie  an 
tionr  in  getting  up  to  >u)     Dividing  the  60  minutes  of 
an  hour  by  15,  the  result  is  4 ;  the  earth,  therefore, 
moves  under  the  sun  at  the  rate  of  a  degree,  or  60  geo- 
graphical miles  in  four  minutes,  or  16  miles  in  the 
minute,  or  one  mile  in  the  four  seconds,  or  a  quarter  of 
a  mile  in  the  second.     Here,  then,  the  element  of  time 
Is  brought  at  once,  and  in  the  most  satisfactory  manner, 
to  bear  upon  the  distance  of  any  given  place,  east  or 
west  from  any  other  pven  place.    The  measuring  of 
•nch  a  distance  is  called  finding  the  longitude.   Different 
places  on  the  globe  have  been  established  as  starting 
points  in  making  these  measurements.    The   French 
reckon  from  Paris,  and  the  English  from  Greenwich,  a 
village  near  London,  where  an  astronomical  observatory 
has  been 'long  established  and  supported  at  the  public 
expense.     In  all  Rnglish  vorks  of  geotfraphy,  the  lon- 
gitude is  reckoned  from  O.eenwich,  although  not  ex- 
pressly mentioned.     Navigators  determine  their  longi- 
tude by  watches  or  chronometers,  whose  rnovcmcntx 
are  as  exact  as  can  possibly  be  obtained  from  tnerhan- 
Hm.     In  setting  nut  on  a  voyage,  the  chronometer  is 
set  to  London  time,  and  kept  going  at  that  time.     At 
the  hour  of  noon  of  each  <Iay,  as  determined  by  an  ol)- 
■ervation  with  the  sextant,  the  difference  is  CKtimateil 
between  that    lour  and  the  hour  f.ndicated  by  the  chro- 
nometer, aiiil   that  difference  is  the  longitude  east  or 
treat  of  Greenwich,  aa  the  case  may  be.     Home  mari- 


ners, for  aecnrity,  take  several  ch/onometers  m»  sea  with 
them,  as  one  only  is  by  no  means  a  safe  guide.  In 
general,  however,  the  masters  of  coasting  trader*,  oi 
those  who  pursue  short  voyages  by  regular  line*  of 
route,  depend  on  books  containing  lists  of  longitudes  aa 
well  as  of  latitudea. 

\    . 

MARINE   BAROMETERS — LOO-BOOK. 

The  last  great  requisite  in  navigation  is  a  good  baro. 
meter  to  indicate  the  approach  of  foul  weather.     The 
most  delicate  instrument  of  this  kind  is  the  sympeso- 
meter  of  Adie,  by  which  the  earliest  and  most  certain 
indications  are  presented  of  coming  storms.     In  tre&ting 
of  the  nature  and  value  of  instruments  of  this  nature, 
Dr.  Arnott  makes  the  following  observations: — <<Th4 
watchful  captain  of  the  present  day,  trusting  to  this  ex. 
traordinary  monitor,  is  frequently  enabled  to  take  in  sail 
and  to  make  ready  for  the  storm,  when  in  former  times 
the  dreadful  visitation  would  have  fallen  upon  him  an. 
prepared.    'J'he  marine  barometer  has  not  been  in  general 
use  for  many  years,  and  the  author  was  one  of  a  nume. 
rous  crew  who  probably  owed  their  preservation  to  its 
almost  miraculous  warning.    It  was  in  a  southern  lati- 
tude.    The  sun  had  just   set  with  placid  api)earance, 
closing  a  beautiful  afternoon,  and  the  usual  mirth  of  the 
evening  watch  was  proceeding,  when  the  captain's  order 
came  to  prepare  with  all  haste  for  a  storm.     The  baro- 
meter had  begun  to  fall  with  appalling  rapidity.     As  yet, 
the  oldest  sailors  had  not  perceived  even  a  threatening  in 
the  sky,  and  were  surprised  at  the  extent  and  huny  of 
the  preparations:  but  the  required  measures  were  not 
completed,  when  a  more  awful  hurricane  burst  upon  them 
than  the  most  experienced  had  ever  braved.     Nothing 
could  withstand  it ;  the  sails,  already  furled  and  closely 
bound  to  the  yards,  were  riven  away  in  tatters ;  even  tne 
bare  yards  and  masU  were  in  great  part  disabled ;  and 
at  one  time  the  whole  rigging  had  nearly  fallen  by  the 
board.    Such,  for  a  few  hours,  was  the  mingled  roai  of 
the  hurricane  above,  of  the  waves  around,  and  of  the 
incessant  peals  of  thunder,  that  no  human  voice  could  be 
heard,  and  amidst  the  general  consternation  even  the 
trumpet  sounded  in  vain.    In  that  awRil  night,  but  for 
the  Uttle  tube  of  mercury  which  had  given  the  warning, 
neither  the  strength  of  the  noble  ship,  nor  the  skill  and 
energies  of  the  commander,  could  have  saved  one  man  to 
tell  the  tale.     On  the  following  morning  the  wind  was 
agoin  at  rest,  but  the  ship  lay  upon  the  yet  heaving  wave* 
an  unsightly  wreck." 

A  journal  of  events  and  observations  on  board  ship  is 
usually  kept  in  what  is  calletl  the  log-board,  and  trans- 
ferred thence  into  the  log-book.  The  log-lioard  consists 
of  two  boards  shutting  together  like  a  book,  and  divided 
into  several  columns,  containing  the  hours  of  the  day  and 
night,  the  direction  of  the  winds,  and  the  course  of  the 
ship,  with  all  the  material  occurrences  that  happen  during 
the  twenty -four  hours,  or  from  noon  to  noon,  together  with 
the  latitude  of  obHcrvation.  From  this  table,  which  is 
written  in  chalk,  and  daily  effaced,  the  oflicers  work  the 
ship's  way,  and  compile  their  journals.  From  it  tln^ 
entries  are  carried  to  the  log-Umk,  in  an  expanded  form, 
with  any  otwervations  and  additional  particulars  supposed 
to  lie  necessary.  The  log-tx>ok  is  thus  the  journal  of  the 
ship,  and  is  preB<;rved  with  great  care  for  exhibition,  if 
required,  at  the  termination  of  the  voyage.* 

Tlius,  thcn»  by  the  use  of  various  instruments  md 
jirnrtieni  ex|HTienee  in  navigation,  a  ship  is  condiioted 
from  port  to  |)ort.  dangers  avoideil,  and  difficulties  over- 
come. ThiiURJi  they  who  trnverHe  the  vast  ocean  leave 
no  tract  for  the  guidance  of  those  who  follow,  it  k  thiu 
converted  into  a  plain  and  convenient  highway,  extend 
ing  to  the  extremities  of  tlio  earth. 


•  Kor  much  of  ilia  mailer  in  the  present  •heet  on  ahipi  lui 
nav.Kui  on.  w  have  been  inJi-hted  lo  >ovcral  artirlea  i  Um 
'■  Enryclopa'dia  Americaaa"  ((kinverwliuns  L.-<xie.»i  . 


•«       MARITIME  DISCOVERY. 


109 


■  M»  Mtm  with 
'e  guide*  In 
g  traden,  m 
alar  linet  of 
longitude*  u 


OK. 

a  a  good  baTO> 

Tcathcr.     The 

the  gympew- 

I  most  certuD 

9.     In  treating 

of  this  nature, 

tiona:— "Th* 

ting  to  this  ej- 

I  to  take  in  tail 

in  former  timet 

upon  him  niv 

,  been  in  general 

one  of  a  nunie> 

•gervation  to  its 

a  southern  lati- 

icid  apiiearance, 

ual  mirth  of  the 

e  captain's  order 

)rm.    The  baro- 

apidity.     As  yet, 

I  a  threatening  in 

ent  and  hurry  of 

iasuTCB  were  not 

I  burst  upon  them 

hraved.    Nothing 

iirled  and  closely 

tatters ;  even  me 

part  disablwl ;  and 

early  fallen  by  the 

)  mingled  roar  of 

ound,  and  of  the 

lan  voice  could  be 

•rnation  even  the 

fill  night,  but  for 

[ivcn  the  warning, 

nor  the  skill  and 

[saved  one  man  to 

ling  the  wind  w»« 

et  heaving  waves 

^  on  board  ship  is 
Lboard,  and  trans- 
llog-lwjard  consists 
Ibook,  and  divided 
[irs  of  the  day  and 
he  course  of  the 
[at  happen  during 
on,  together  with 
\»  table,  which  is 
1  officers  work  the 
From  it,  Un, 
J  expanded  fonn, 
Wiculars  supposed 
llhe  journal  of  the 
Ifor  exhibition,  if 

1  instruments  inil 
Ihip  is  roiicUiclnl 
1  diffioullit's  ovor- 
I  vast  OTfnn  leave 
J  follow,  it  iithiw 
Ihighway,  extenil 


Lhe«l  on  ihipi  iii> 
|rsl  artirle*    ^  Ok 
I  Li'ixi<>«>'i  ' 


<**V    '  MARITIMG  DISCOVERY.       '. 

'  No  people  of  antiquity  possessed  the  courage  or  skill 
to  navigate  their  vesaeli  out  of  sight  of  land,  or,  at  least, 
to  push  into  the  open  Atlantic  or  other  great  oceans. 
Maritime  intercourse,  for  the  sake  of  traffic,  was  carried 
on  only  along  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  or  down 
the  Red  Sec,  and  along  the  coast  to  India,  or  along  the 
western  shore  of  Europe  to  Biit' 'n.  The  Romans 
thought  they  performed  a  wonderf'i '"  ■  id  feat  when  they 
tailed  a  ship  as  far  as  the  nori^^:  mds  of  Scotland. 

In  these  times  there  was  no  cthei  ..  >«i'n  guide,  with  re- 
apect  to  the  cardinal  points,  than  :k«  4iars  by  night  and 
the  sun  by  day ;  and,  therefore,  when  clouds  covered  the 
visible  horizon,  or  when  total  darkness  ensued  at  night, 
the  ship  was  necessarily 'brought  to  a  pause,  or  placed  in 
the  most  imminent  danger  of  being  wrecked  on  jome 
onkncwn  shore.  This,  however,  was  not  the  only  diffi- 
ealty.  The  nations  of  antiquity,  with  all  their  learning, 
were  utterly  ignorant  of  the  foim  and  size  of  the  globe. 
They  believed  that  the  world  was  a  great  flat  plain,  with 
the '  habitable  earth  placed  in  the  midst  of  the  ocean ; 
that  this  ocean  was  of  interminable  breadth ;  and  that,  at 
a  certain  distance  fi^m  land,  the  waters  were  shrouded 
in  eternal  darkness.  With  such  notions  prevailing  among 
mankind  for  thousands  of  years,  it  is  not  surj^  rising  that 
Ifaey  should  have  made  so  slow  advances  in  the  art  of 
navigation,  or  done  so  little  for  maritime  discovery. 

During  the  middle  ages  (fourth  to  the  fourttcnth  cen- 
tury), ship-building  was  considerably  improved  by  the 
Itahans,  who  then  conducted  a  large  maritime  tr&ffv:  on 
the  Mediterranean;  but  the  art  of  navigation,  in  the 
praper  sense  of  the  term,  was  still  in  its  infancy,  and  its 
history  cannot  be  said  to  commence  till  the  bep-ir.nii<<^  cf 
the  fourteenth  century,  when  that  wonderful  iiistrurui^t, 
the  mariner's  compass,  was  discovered,  or  came  first  into 
observation  in  Europe.  Of  the  polarity  of  the  magnet, 
or  its  tendency  to  point  to  the  poles,  a  sufficient  explai.a- 
lion  is  given  in  the  article  Elkctricitt  Ann  Mao« 
KETisM ;  and  it  ia  here  only  necessary  to  describe  how 
lUs  polarity  is  rendered  subservient  to  the  purposes  of 
the  navigator.  The  mariner's  compass,  which  consists 
of  a  magnetized  sUp  of  metal,  or  needle,  as  it  is  called, 
poised  on  its  centre,  and  free  to  point  to  the  poles,  was 
first  made  known,  as  far  as  it  can  be  ascertained,  by  one 
Flavio  Uioja,  an  Italian,  in  the  year  1302.  As  with  all 
great  discoveries,  its  advantages  were  not  at  once  recog- 
nised— it  had  to  contend  against  a  variety  of  prejudices ; 
Dut  these  in  time  vanished,  and  about  the  middle  of  the 
fourteenth  century  its  important  uses  were  allowed  and 
established. 

Navigation  now  asstuned  a  much  bolder  character  than 
formerly.  The  English,  Portuguese,  Italiani,  and  Spa- 
niards, pushed  their  vessels  into  districts  of  ocean  never 
previously  traversed,  and  thus  the  way  was  fairly  opened 
for  maritime  discovery.  The  first  great  discoverer  who 
isde  use  of  the  compass,  a:id  partly  improved  its  eon- 
itruction,  was  Prince  Henry,  a  son  of  the  king  of  Portu- 
pi,  and  who  is  known  in  history  by  the  name  of  Hrnry  tht 
Navigator.  This  intelligent  and  enterprising  prince  (born 
1394,  died  1461),  with  the  concurrence  of  tho  Portuguese 
jo»emraent,  set  on  foot  a  t<eries  of  maritime  enterprises, 
with  the  view  of  discovering  a  route  to  India  by  way  of 
thii  Atlantic.  These  voyages  ultimately  proved  success- 
ful ;  the  islands  of  Puerto  Santo,  Madeira,  and  the  Cana- 
lie^  ^ere  smxessivcly  discovered,  and  annexed  to  the 
crowi  of  )  ortugal.  In  143;J,  the  Portuguese  navicators 
{ft'netratcd  lit-yond  Ca()o  Dojador,  on  the  coast  of  Africa, 
which  was  considered  an  extraordinary  performance ;  an- 
other expedition  afterwards  went  as  far  as  Cape  Blanco, 
Slid  discovered  the  island  of  Arguin  and  tho  Cape  de 
Vcrd  Isles;  and  in  1448,  the  Azores  were  reached  and 
mtde  known.  Henry  the  Navigator  thus  struck  a  spark 
whiiJi  kindled  to  a  flame  all  over  Europe.     Not  long 


after  his  death,  the  Guinea  eoast  was  added  to  the  Por- 
tuguese  discoveries.  In  1484,  the  Congo  was  reached  by 
Diego  Cam;  in  1487,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  wai 
doubled  by  Bartholomew  Diaz;  and  in  1498,  Vaaco  da 
Gama  touched  the  shores  of  Hindostan.  The  PorlugucM 
having  received  an  assignment  from  the  pope  of  all  land* 
that  could  be  discovered  on  the  African  coasts,  the  Sp»- 
nish  government,  burning  with  anxiety  to  emulate  the 
late  proceedings  of  its  neighbours,  was  compelled  to  seek 
out  new  countries  in  a  different  direction.  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,  the  sovereigns  of  Spain,  listened,  therefore, 
to  the  speculations  of  Columbus  regarding  a  route  to  In- 
dia across  the  Atlantic,  and  sent  him  otf  on  a  mission. 
In  this  his  hold  attempt  to  reach  Hindostan  by  pursuing 
a  direction  across  the  Atlantic,  ho  landed  on  one  of  the 
American  islands,  now  called  the  Bahamas,  on  the  12tb 
October,  1498.  About  the  year  1499,  Amerigo  Vespuc 
di,  under  an  appointment  from  the  Spanish  government, 
discovered  the  coast  of  the  South  American  continent, 
and  hence  the  name  of  .^merira  was  given  to  the  New. 
World,  although,  as  is  well  known,  Columbus  had  pre- 
viously discovered  and  landed  on  South  America,  without 
being  aware  that  it  was  the  continent  which  be  had 
leached. 

Several  subsequent  voyages  by  Spanish  navigator* 
disclosed  the  extent  of  the  east  coust  of  South  America ; 
and  in  1513,  Nunez  de  Balboa  crossed  the  isthmus  of 
Panama  with  an  exploring  party  of  his  sailors,  and  road« 
the  discovery  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  on  the  west  coast  of 
that  continent  It  was  now  seen  that  America  was  not, 
as  had  been  at  first  believed,  a  portion  of  Asia  or  India, 
but  was  a  separate  territory  of  vast  extern,  lying  between 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific.  There  was  yet  a  doubt  with 
respect  to  the  southern  extremity  of  America,  but  in 
1520,  Megellan  made  the  passage  from  tlie  Atlantic  to 
the  Pacific  by  the  straits  which  separate  America  from 
tho  ^island  of  Terra  del  Fuego,  at  about  the  53d  degree 
of  south  latitude,  and  so  removed  all  doubt  upon  the 
su'jject.  This  navigator  extended  his  voyage  aci'oss  the 
Pscihc  to  the  Philippine  islands,  where,  unfortunately, 
ho  was  killed ;  but  his  companion?  proceeded  in  the  route 
homewtrds  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  thus,  by 
circumnavigating  the  globe,  settled  the  long-disputed 
pn>blem  with  respect  to  the  sphericity  of  our  planeL 
Tlds  most  important  voyage  waa  mode  between  the 
years  1520  and  1523. 

In  the  meanwhile,  several  maritime  discoveries  were 
made  by  the  English  nation.  In  1495,  John  Cabot,  a 
Venetian  pilot, settled  at  Bristol,  obtained  from  Henry  VIIL 
letters  patent,  empowering  him  and  his  three  sons,  Lewi*, 
Sebastian,  and  Sanctius,  to  discover  unknown  lands,  and 
conquer  and  settle  them.  In  consequence  of  this  per> 
mission,  the  king  supplied  one  ship,  and  the  merchants  of 
London  and  Bristol  a  few  smaller  ones,  and  in  1496, 
John  and  Sebastian  8aile<l  to  the  ncrth-wcst  In  July 
of  the  same  year,  they  discovered  Newfoundland,  and 
explored  it  up  to  latitude  67°.  In  a  subsequent  voyage, 
the  father  and  son  sailed  as  far  as  Cupc  Florida,  and  are 
believed  to  have  been  the  first  who  saw  the  main  land 
of  America.  By  these  and  succeeding  voyages  of  dis- 
covery in  the  roinns  of  Henry  VIII.,  Edward  VI,,  and 
Elizalictli,  the  English  became  possessed  of  ihe  eastern 
coast  of  North  America  and  some  of  its  islands.  Be- 
tween the  years  1740  and  1744,  Anson  was  employed 
in  circumnavigating  the  glotw,  and  visiting  ditliTciit  part* 
of  tho  Pacific,  but  this  extensive  oik!  protracted  voyage 
added  little  to  the  existing  knowleilgo  ol  gcosr;\[ihy.  At 
a  later  pcricxl,  in  the  reign  of  George  III.,  (-"oiik  explored 
the  groups  of  islands  in  the  Pacific,  making  various  inte- 
resting discoveries,  in  which  was  included  a  .survey  of  the 
eastern  coasts  of  Australia  and  Van  Dionira's  Lund,  also 
a  visit  to  tho  New  Zealand  islands.  Aller  the  voyage* 
of  this  enterprising  navigator,  little  was  \ei\  to  perform 
I  in  the  way  of  maritime  discovery,  except  in  oxplormy 


lift 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


lue  northern  extremitien  of  the  Americ«n  continent  A 
•eriee  of  voyages  for  thii  purpose  wee  begun  in  1818, 
cr)mlnctod  by  Ro<«,  Perry,  and  others,  and  which  lately 
terminated  by  esublishing  the  fitct,  that  a  pi.uage  for 
«hipa  exiato  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific,  round  the 
northern  promontoriee  of  America,  but  that,  from  the 
oKicking  of  ice.  such  a  paaiage  can  only  on  rare  oocasiona 
be  open  to  navigaton,  and  is  therefore  of  no  practical 
value. 

The  great  maritime  diacoteriee  made  in  the  courae 
of  the  fifteenth  -lentury,  which  at  once  opened  up  a 
new  riew  of  the  globe,  led  to  varioua  improvemenU  in 
navigation.  The  log,  for  meaiuring  the  ahip's  progrcaa, 
•l<o  charts  on  Mercator's  projection,  were  introduced.  In 
1614,  Napier  discovered  the  calculation  of  numerical 
]iiantitie8  by  logarithms;  and  about  the  year  1620, 
Gunler  invented  a  scale,  by  the  help  of  which,  and  a  pair 
of  compasses,  every  question  in  trigonometry  might  easily 
be  calculated  by  the  mariner.  In  1731,  the  art  of  navi- 
pation  was  greatly  advanced  by  the  invention,  or  rather 
improvement,  by  Hadley,  of  the  quadrant,  an  instrument 
fi)r  ascertaining,  by  an  observation  of  the  sun,  the  true 
latitude  of  a  ship  at  sea.  Till  nearly  this  period,  an  in- 
Ktrument  called  an  aitrolabt,  a  species  of  sun  ring,  had 
bi'en  employed  for  this  purpose,  and  was  very  imperfect 
ill  its  operation.  Between  the  years  1765  and  1774, 
Harrison  invented  a  chronometer,  or  time  measurer,  by 
which  the  longitude  could  be  ascertained  at  sea  with 
nearly  perfect  accuracy ;  and  thus  tne  art  of  navigation 
may  be  said  to  have  been  completed.  In  the  course  of 
tlie  eighteenth  century,  the  true  figure  of  the  earth  was 
fully  made  known  by  the  voyages  of  Anson,  Cook,  and 
others ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  discoveries  were  made  of 
almost  every  accessible  island  and  tract  of  land  over  the 
globe.  Thus,  in  the  short  space  of  four  centuries  from 
tlie  time  when  the  iirst  impulse  was  given  by  the  Por- 
tuguese, the  civilized  part  of  mankind  had  acquired  • 
nearly  complete  knowledge  of  the  features  of  our  globe, 
a«  well  as  of  its  true  figure  and  dimensions. 

DOMINION  or  THE   SEAS. 

f t  b  ■  common  law  of  nations  that  the  ocean  is  a  free 
and  universal  highway,  which  no  state  can  appropriate  to 
its  own  special  use.  While  this  exists  as  a  principle 
generally  reugnised  by  all  civilized  powers,  Great  Britain 
has  for  a  considerable  period  of  time  claimed  the  dominion 
of  the  seat,  as  a  right  acquired  by  its  extensive  conquests, 
and  the  skill  and  valour  of  its  seamen.  By  this  claim, 
it  is  not  aiisuraed  that  Great  Britain  poescsoea  a  legal 
right  of  property  in  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  or  the  lands 
which  they  may  cover.  The  claim  resolves  itself  into 
what  is  termed  in  law  "  a  miUtary  sovereignty,"  which  it 
would  be  exceedingly  difficult  tu  define,  and  is  practically 
an  empty  and  vain-glorious  boost  Within  the  last 
twenty  years,  during  which  a  large  maritime  force  haa 
frown  up  m  France,  RuMia,  and  tbe  Uniiad  States  of 


America,  the  claim  of  the  British  to  tLe  dominion  nf  thr 
seas  has  been  little  heard  of,  and  is  perhaps  now  a  dead 
letter  in  maritime  law,  as  it  is  in  fact  Each  nation  re- 
tains a  judicial  control  over  its  vessels  and  their  crews,  in 
whatever  part  of  the  ocean  they  may  be ;  a'l  crimes  and 
misdcmeanoura  committed  on  board  of  a  ship  are  punislv. 
able  by  law,  aa  soon  as  the  vessel  reaches  tbe  couatiy  la 
which  it  belong*. 


[BOOKS  ON  THE  OCEAN,  MARITIME  DISCOVERY. 
AND  NAVIGATION. 

The  Encyclopttdia  of  Gtogrc^phy  by  Murray,  already 
referred  to,  contains  an  excellent  treatise  on  the  Ocean, 
in  its  introduction.  Malte-Brun  has  another  in  his  Geo- 
graphy. The  subject  of  Maritime  Discovery  has  seldom 
been  treated  in  a  general  way ;  but  there  is  a  muhitude  of 
books  in  illustration  of  it  Among  these  are,  Ty tier's 
»  Discoveries  on  the  Northern  Coasts  of  America,"  "Cir- 
ntmnavigaiion  of  the  Globe,"  from  Magellan  to  Cook; 
Ellis's  « Polynesian  Besearches,"  Leslie's  "  Discoveria 
and  Adventwii  in  Polar  Seas,"  "  Cool/s  Voyages  round 
the  World,"  «  Lives  and  Voyages  of  Drake,  CuveiiJith, 
and  Dampier,"  Humboldt's  «  Travels,"  "  Lives  of  tlu 
Early  Navigators,"  8t  John's  «  Lives  of  Ceh hated  Tra- 
vellers." These  are  comprehensive  worku,  not  being 
confined  to  the  explorations  of  single  travellers.  Dr. 
Robertson's  "  Hittony  of  the  Discovery  and  Conquest  of 
Jlmeriea"  is  full  of  information,  and  has  the  additional 
advantage  of  his  delightftil  and  faultless  style  of  writing. 
His  "  History  of  India"  is  not  less  interesting  and  valua- 
ble. Mr.  AVheaton's  •<  History  of  the  Northmen,"  and 
Crichton  and  Wheaton's  "  History  of  Norway,  Sweden,  and 
Denmark,"  abound  with  information  respecting  the  bold, 
extensive,  and  successful  enterpriws  of  tlie  early  Scandi- 
navian voyagers.  One  of  the  books  in  Lardner's  Cabinet 
Cyclopedia,  entitled  "  Maritime  and  Inland  Discovery,'' 
is,  on  the  whole,  the  most  general  nnd  syHti-matic  work 
oh  this  subject,  which  has  been  pub'tisbcd  in  a  cliea|> 
form. 

The  best  and  meet  comprehensive  work  on  Navigatioo 
is  Dr.  Bowditch's  «  Practical  Navigator."  Although  it  wu 
written  expressly  for  the  use  of  mariners,  it  is  rendered 
perfectly  intelligible  to  the  general  reader,  miiI  it  is  so  iiill 
and  complete  that  it  fully  answers  tho  purpose  of  making 
the  reader  as  fiimiiiar  with  "  all  the  r.'pus  in  the  ship"  u 
it  is  possible  to  become  by  the  use  jf  books  alone.  For 
the  purpose  of  learning  the  history  of  the  progress  of 
marine  architecture,  the  French  have  a  higtUy  embellished 
popular  compend,  entitled  "  La  Marine,"  by  M.  Eugene 
Pacini.  The  same  species  of  information  may  be  ob- 
tained by  consulting  the  several  ciiaptcrs  in  the  Pictoriil 
History  of  England,  in  which  the  useful  arts  are  trnated 
Ed.] 


1 


ominion  uf  thr 
|)a  now  •  dead 
iach  nation  re- 
their  crewt,  in 
a'l  crime*  and 
hip  are  f  uniil^ 
I  the  couMtiy  t* 


DISCOVERY. 

Murray,  alread) 
e  on  the  Ocean, 
jther  in  his  Geo- 
•very  has  seldom 
is  a  multitude  of 
sse  are,  Tytler's 
Jimerkn,"  "Cir- 
igellan  to  Cook; 
ie'§  "  DUcovmit 
'$  Voyitsfes  round 
trake,  CuvtnJuh, 
,"   » Live$  of  tlu 
f  Cchlraled  Tra- 
vorkH,   not  being 
;   travellers.    Dr. 
and  Conqvtit  of 
as  the  additional 
»  style  of  writing, 
resting  and  valua- 
'  Northmen"  and 
>ru)ay,  Siveden,  and 
2Hpccting  the  bold, 
■  the  early  Standi- 
I  Lardner's  Cabinet 
nland  Discovery," 
A  syslomatic  work 
Ushcd  in  a  cheap 

)rk  on  Na\-igaticm 

"  Although  it  wai 

ers,  it  is  rendered 

er,  and  it  is  so  full 

mrpose  of  making 

i!8  in  the  ship"  a« 

ooks  alone.    For 

r  the  progress  of 

lighly  embellished 

•,"  by  M.  Eugene 

tion  may  be  ol> 

8  in  the  Pictorial 

1  arts  are  trnatel 


'i»w>,v!'^    -i* it?H    Mtv-f     ■rt\<-i  i V> ii «''••<•> s 


TTIE  AVIIAI.E,  ANT)  WHALE  FISHERIES. 


DESCRIPTION  OP  THE  WHALE. 

Th»  cet-ic^ous  order  of  animals,  of  which  the  whale 
,<  the  rnont  remarkable  and  important  member,  is  dis- 
tinguished by  various  peculiarities  which  render  it  a  link, 
an  it  were,  between  the  creature  of  the  land  and  the  sea. 
\^hile  living  in  part  or  wholly  in  the  ocean,  and  so 
fiirtned  as  to  make  their  way  through  its  waters  with 
ease  and  velocity,  the  cctacea  differ  fVom  the  true  fish- 
tribes  in  being  mammiilian  or  suck-giving  animals,  in 
being  warm-blooded,  and  in  having  organs  for  respiring 
the  atmospheric  air,  like  the  ordinary  inhabitants  of  the 
land.  TheM  striking  distinctive  features  would  be  suffi- 
cient in  themselves  to  render  this  order  of  animals  an 
oJ^fct  of  interesting  study,  but  the 'cctacea  have  also 
itrong  claims  upon  attention,  as  bemg  of  very  great 
consequence  to  the  wants  and  comforts  of  man.  This  is 
especially  the  case  as  regards  the  whale  and  its  varieties, 
which  will  form  the  subject  of  notice  in  the  present  sec- 
tion. In  the  general  account  given  of  the  animal  king- 
dom, the  dolphin,  porpoise,  and  others  of  the  cetacea,  are 
individuidly  Jescrilied. 

The  whale,  or  balcmn,  as  naturalists  term  it,  is  the 
lar)^st  of  all  known  animals.  The  polar  seas,  if  not  its 
(xclusive  dwelling-place,  are  at  all  events  the  region 
which  it  peculiarly  frequents,  and  where  it  herds  in  the 
greatest  numbers.  There,  also,  are  found  the  varieties 
which  attain  to  the  greatest  bulk.  The  three  principal 
of  these  are  the  balana  mysticelua,  the  common  Grcen- 
UnJ  whale,  and  whot  British  sailors  call  the  "right" 
one,  from  its  being  the  most  valued  and  valuable  object 
of  their  pursuit;  the  batana  physalit,  or  tlie  great 
northern  rorqual,  a  variety  which  exceeds  all  others  in 
bulk,  and  •«  termed  the  "razorback"  or  "finner,"'  by 
fishers;  and,  thirdly,  the  cachalot,  or  spermaceti  whale. 
With  the  exception  of  some  few  points,  which  will  be 
aotlced  afterwards,  the  characters  of  the  Greenland 
Khale  are  identical  with  those  of  the  whole  trilie,  and 
Sv  calling  attention  to  the  peculiarities  of  structure  in 
lliis  species,  in  the  first  instance,  much  repetition  may 
uliimitely  l>c  spared. 

Tlie  sill"  of  the  common  wlmle  was  the  subject  of  very 
exa?i;prali'(l  notions,  until  within  a  very  recent  [icrioil. 
Aliout  fifty  years  ago,  a  standard  writer  in  natural  history 
K^ertwl  that  whale.s  were  froquoiitly  "  to  tie  seen  above 
t,i  hundred  and  sixty  feet  long;"  and  that,  even  at  this 
n.indard,  the  uniinal  wiui  much  smaller  than  it  had  been 
U'lore  man  liegan  to  disturb  ond  destroy  the  race.  That 
nhalfs  "two  hundred  and  filly  feet  in  length"  were  ollen 
r>'n  previously,  is  represented  as  a  tiling  l)eyond  nil 
ijucstion.  Mr.  Scoreshy,  however,  a  very  hiijh  authority 
oil  die  liiibjert,  d;'clarcs  that  the  common  whulc  soIdiMU 


or  never  exceeds  seventy  feet  in  length,  and  is  muck 
more  frequently  under  sixty.  Out  of  three  hundred  and 
twenty-two  whales  which  he  had  personally  aided  in  ca|^ 
turing,  not  one  exceeded  fifly-cight  feet;  and  the  larg«<M 
ever  taken,  of  which  he  knew  the  reported  measurement 
to  be  authentic,  came  up  only  to  sixty-seven  feet.  Trie 
body  of  a  large  individual  of  this  family  measures  frcna 
thirty  to  forty  feet  round  the  body  at  the  thickest  [O&t, 
or  a  short  way  behind  the  head,  which  is  of  great  yro- 
portionate  size,  and  occupies  about  one-third  of  the  whole 
extent  from  snout  to  tail.  When  the  mouth  is  open,  it 
is  sufficiently  large  and  long  to  admit  a  whaler's  jolly- 
boat  with  its  full  compliment  of  men.  The  bulk  of  the 
head,  which  is  somewhat  conical  in  form,  and  has  a  sort 
of  round  eminence  above  and  posteriorly,  renders  the 
aspect  of  the  mysticetus  clumsy  and  unshapely.  A  very 
slight  diminution  of  the  circumference  indicates  the  po- 
sition of  the  neck,  and  behind  this,  the  body  swells  to  its 
greatest  calibre,  whence  it  tapers  sharply  oway  again 
towards  the  tail.  The  animal  has  no  back  or  dorsal 
fin.  The  two  side  or  pectoral  fins  are  placed  about  two 
feet  Iwhind  the  angles  of  the  mouth,  and  are  nearly  five 
feet  broad  by  nine  feet  in  length.  The  tail  is  something 
in  the  shajKi  of  a  crescent,  with  an  indentation  in  the 
middle  of  the  concavity,  the  convex  side  l)cing  united 
to  the  body.  This  appendage  is  placed  horizontally,  and 
is  about  twenty-four  feet  broad.  It  is  an  instrument  of 
immense  power,  and  the  whale  has  sometimes  given  a 
stroke  with  it  which  has  sent  large  Iwats  high  into  the 
air  in  a  thousand  splinters.  The  colour  of  the  body  is 
mainly  a  velvety  black ;  the  under  part  of  the  head  and 
abdomen,  and  the  junction  of  the  tail,  being  partly  white 
and  partly  of  a  freckled  gray.  In  old  whales,  much 
more  of  the  body  assumes  the  latter  tint,  and  the  streaki 
sometimes  resemble  a  beautiful  landscape  of  trees.  On 
the  tail,  in  one  instance,  noticed  by  Ray,  nature,  in  a 
freakish  mood,  had  set  down  the  number  122,  in  largt 
and  very  distinct  characters.  The  eyes  of  the  whole  are 
about  a  foot  behind  the  angle  of  the  nieuth,  and  arc  not 
much  larger  than  those  of  the  ox.  The  iris  is  of  a  white 
colour,  and  the  organs  arc  guarded  by  lids  and  iashes  as 
in  quadru])eds.  The  two  blow-holes  of  the  whale, 
situiited  on  the  summit  of  the  head,  and  descending 
perpendicularly  tlirough  it  for  a  length  of  twelve  inches 
or  so  into  the  top  of  the  windpipe,  are  the  only  other 
features  worthy  of  notice  in  the  esterior  asjiect  of  the 
Greenland  whale. 

The  mouth  of  the  common  whale  is  an  organ  of  very 
wonderful  construction.  In  a  largo  s()ecimen  of  the  laoe, 
it  may  nipusure,  when  fully  optiied,  about  sixteen  feel 
loiij;,  twelve  foct  high,  and  ten  feet  wide — un  apartment, 
in  truth,  of  very  goivlly  dimensions.     It  ronti''      ■  '  'rrth 


iia 


INFOHMATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


•nd  «normoua  aa  the  bulk  of  the  creature  ii,  its  throat  is 
•o  narrow  that  it  would  choke  upon  a  morael  fitted  for 
the  degUitition  of  an  ox.  An  inch  and  a  half  is  stated 
to  be  the  diameter  of  the  ffullct  in  the  very  larRcM  wimles. 
From  this  peculiarity  of  formation,  it  may  be  anticipated 
that  the  food  of  the  animal  is  of  a  very  minute  nature, 
notwithstandinp;  tho  vastneas  of  the  cavity  which  i<  pre- 
pared for  ita  primary  reception.  The  onimal  ia  indeed 
■upportetl  upon  a  multitude  of  amoller  inhahitanta  of  the 
deep,  and,  to  permit  this,  its  mouth  is  provided  with  a 
remarkable  apparatus,  composed  of  what  ia  culled  the 
balttn,  or  the  well-known  whnlthom  of  commerce.  Tho 
baleen  ia  arranged  into  two  rowa  of  lamina  or  thin  plates, 
projecting  literally  from  a  Une  in  the  centre  of  the  arch 
of  the  palate,  aomewhat  Uke  the  laraino  of  a  feather. 
Towards  the  point  of  origin,  they  ure  comparatively  few 
in  number  and  strong,  while  towards  the  lipa  they  divide 
and  taper  away  into  mere  briatlea,  forming  a  looae  hang- 
ing fiinge  or  border.  There  are  about  three  hundred  of 
theae  plates  on  each  side,  and,  when  dried,  they  weigh 
usually  above  a  ton.  In  the  rorqual  whale  they  are 
more  numerous,  and  we  find  from  the  description  given 
by  Mr.  Frederick  J.  Knox,  of  the  skeleton  prepared  and 
eshibited  at  Edinburgh,  that  three  hundred  and  fourteen 
•xtemal  plates  were  counted  on  each  aide  in  the  mouth 
of  that  animal.  The  whole  number  of  platca  which  cmiid 
be  counted,  not  including  the  more  minute  bristly  termi- 
nationa,  was  3768.  The  longest  plate  of  baleen,  which 
is  always  placed  about  the  centre  of  the  scries  on  each 
tide,  measured  two  feet  two  inches  in  length  by  fifteen 
inches  in  breadth.  "  The  substance  when  recent  (anys 
Mr.  Knox^  is  highly  elaatic." 

The  uae  of  these  platea,  with  their  penduloua  extremi- 
ties and  fringes,  is  to  retain,  as  in  a  net,  the  multitude  of 
■mall  animals  which  are  floated  into  the  mouth  of  the 
whale  whenever  it  ia  opened.  Were  it  not  for  auch  a 
drainer,  formed  by  theae  fringea  with  the  aid  of  the  tongue, 
which  is  merely  a  great  mass  of  fat  tied  down  to  tho 
lower  jaw,  the  emission  of  the  water  would  be  attended 
by  the  escape  of  all  the  objects  which  entered  with  it 
As  it  is,  the  most  minute  matters  are  retained ;  and 
•hrirops,  sea-snails,  small  crabs,  medusa),  &c.,  are  thus 
•ntrapped  to  support  the  great  monater  of  the  deep. 

I'he  remaining  featurea  in  the  atructure  of  the  whale 
need  not  bo  individually  described  at  the  same  length. 
The  skin  consists,  first  of  the  scarf-skin,  or  epidermis, 
which  is  moistened  by  an  oily  fluid,  enabling  it  to  resist 
the  action  of  water;  secondly,  of  tho  rtte  mwotum,  a 
byer  usually  held  to  contain  the  colouring  matter  of  all 
inimai  surfaces ;  and,  thirdly,  of  the  true  akin,  which,  for 
particular  purpoaes,  is  open  in  tpxture,  so  as  to  contain 
oil,  or  blubber  as  it  is  called,  in  great  quantities.  This 
nasa  of  oil,  surrounding  the  whole  animal,  and  some- 
imes  weighing  more  than  thirty  tons  in  all,  serves  the 
mportant  end  of  keeping  the  animal  warm  by  its  weak 
onducting  powers,  amid  the  coldest  recesses  of  the  polar 
ocean,  and  is  also  calculated  to  resist  the  enormous  pres- 
sure to  which  the  body  of  the  creature  roust  lie  sulijected 
■t  the  depths  to  which  it  often  descends.  Whales  have 
been  known  to  take  a  line  perpendicularly  down  to  the 
full  extent  of  a  mile;  and  had  not  this  ample  layer  of  fut, 
between  one  and  two  feet  thick,  been  wrappi'd  around 
tbem,  possessing  a  resisting  power  like  that  of  caoutchouc, 
it  is  difficult  to  imagine  how,  in  auch  a  cast;,  they  could 
endure  the  immense  weight  of  superincumbent  water. 
Moreover,  being  inferior  in  specific  gravity  to  the  water, 
it  is  obvious  that  all  this  body  of  oil  must  bo  of  incalculable 
uae  in  augmenting  tho  buoyancy  of  the  animal's  frame. 
Below  the  skin  are  situated  the  muaclea  or  Hesli,  and  the 
character  of  this  structure  is  much  the  same  in  the  whale 
OS  in  the  ox  or  horse.  With  the  exception  of  tho  tail, 
the  arrangemept  of  the  various  muaclea  of  the  whale 
d<i«a  not  differ  very  much  from  that  of  quodrupeda;  and 
till*  samv  remark  applies  to  the  osseous  structure.    The 


fina  ore  merely  rudimontal  arma,  contaming  nearly  tha 
aamo  bonea  aa  in  man,  and  the  cheat  stroni^ly  resemlik« 
that  of  ordinary  quadrupetls.  The  vertebral  column  of 
the  rorqual  whale  containa  sixty-three  bones,  those  of  Iht 
Greenland  whale  are  not  quite  so  numerous.  The  skull 
consists  of  the  crown-bone,  from  which  tho  facial  bonea 
and  upper  jaw  project  forward,  while  the  lower  jsw  b 
composed  of  two  long  curved  bonea,  that  meet  at  the 
point  or  fore-part  of  the  mouth.  Theae  are  often  put  up 
over  gales,  and  make  a  handaomo  archway.  The  whole 
of  these  bones  are  hanl  and  porous,  and  some  of  thetn, 
as  the  lower  jaw-bones,  contain  oil,  but  they  are  said  to 
have  no  proper  medulla  or  marrow.  The  total  weig'ii 
of  Dr.  Knox's  rorqual  skeleton,  was  twenty -eight  tons. 

The  organs  of  reapiration  in  the  whnle  are  formed 
upon  the  aame  principle  ■■  thoao  of  land  animals,  bul 
with  modifications  to  suit  the  peculiar  clement  in  which 
the  creature  lives.  It  is  plain  that  some  provision  wai 
required  to  permit  the  whale  to  breathe  without  tho  riak 
of  having  the  lungs  filled  with  water.  This  is  accot» 
plished  by  the  extension  of  the  top  of  the  windpipe  into 
the  nostrils  or  blowholes,  or  rather  into  the  panaage  which 
terminates  in  these  in  the  common  whale.  By  this  con. 
trivance,  the  creature  can  inhale  air  while  it  is  feeding  or 
has  its  mouth  full  of  water.  As  with  terrestrial  animals, 
the  air  gives  a  red  colour  to  the  blond,  or,  in  other  words, 
oxygenates  i!,  and  sustains  tho  animal  heat.  The  whale 
has  frequently  to  come  to  the  surface,  accordingly,  to  get 
its  air;  but  this  operation  is  rendered  less  frequently 
necessary  by  tho  provision  of  a  reservoir  of  oxygenated 
blood,  which  can  be  drawn  upon  when  required.  This 
is  the  cause  why  the  animal  has  such  a  vast  proportionate 
quantity  of  blood  in  its  frame.  The  brain  of  the  whale 
is  held  by  Cuvier  to  bo  largo  in  relation  to  the  animal, 
but  no  determinate  conclusions  have  been  reached  on  tha 
subject  The  arrangements  of  the  whole  nervous  system 
are  equally  little  understood.  It  is  known  that  whalea 
possess  pretty  acitte  vision,  but  there  is  a  doubt  whether 
or  not  they  have  ony  external  ear.  Their  sense  of  smell 
seems  to  lie  in  the  blowholes,  yet  the  strongest  reason  for 
ascribing  such  a  faculty  to  them  at  all  is  founded  upon 
the  half-traditionary  notion  of  sailors,  that  if  certain 
strong-smelling  substances  arc  thrown  overboard,  whatn 
will  fly  from  the  spot  at  once.  The  mummo!  or  dugs  of 
the  common  whale  ore  two  in  number,  and  attached  to 
the  abdomen ;  in  tho  case  of  some  other  varieties,  the? 
are  placed  on  the  breast  In  both  cases  they  are  situated 
inferiorly.  The  milk  of  tho  animal  is  said  to  be  rich  and 
creamy. 

Such  are  the  general  characters  of  atructure  in  the 
whale  tribe,  and,  on  regarding  them  attentiv<'|y,  one  can- 
not but  feel  amazed  at  the  seeming  simplicity  of  the  whole 
supplementary  contrivances  by  which  a  mammalian 
animal,  so  thoroughly  terrestrial,  one  would  say,  in  iti 
general  formxtiun,  is  fitted  to  live  in  the  deep  The 
Greenland  whale,  or  myaticctus,  to  which,  more  |articu- 
larly,  the  preceding  description  applies,  ia  aaid  by  8corp«liy 
ntvtr  to  be  found  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Arctic  oraa. 
There  is  an  excellent  reasim  for  this  loializatioii.  Within 
the  polar  latitudes,  vast  pasture-fields  art.  spread  out  for 
the  animal  which  warmer  climes  have  never  JH'en  known 
to  provide.  These  feeding  grounds,  it  they  may  lie  calltJ 
m-j,  consist  of  large  tracts  of  ^reen  w  itir,  covering  in  nil 
not  less  than  twenty  thousand  mjuaro  miles  nl' the  Green- 
land seas.  This  prwii  waltr  is  of  a  deep  olive  hue,  nnd 
remarkably  o|)aque.  Mr.  Scoresby  discovercii  its  |K'culiai 
appearance  to  arise  from  the  presence  of  iriiiuiiieiiible 
animalcules  of  the  me<lusa  I'anilly,  one  coiiiiiion  npcein 
of  which  ia  known  by  the  name  of  sra-blulilet.  To  give 
aomo  idea  of  the  numbers  of  theae  creatures,  Mr.  £<curc>- 
by  calculated  that  two  square  miles  wo\dd  contain 
23.888,000,000,000,000 ;  and  that  80,000  persont.  mutt 
have  entered  on  the  task  at  the  creation  of  mnn  in  ordri 
to  complete  thr  enumeration  at  the  present  time,    'i'bcat 


rHE  WHALE. 


in 


itf\y  reaemlilm 
al  column  o( 
«,  those  of  th( 
«.    The  ikun 

0  facial  bonea 

1  lower  jaw  n 
t  meet  at  tht 
■e  ollrn  put  up 
I.     The  whol« 
some  of  them, 
hry  are  said  to 
he  total  wcig'.d 
y-eiiiht  tons, 
iilo  are  formed 
ul  animala,  bul 
emcnt  in  which 
5  provision  was 
nthout  the  risk 
Tliis  is  accom- 
c  winilpipe  into 
c  pnriaage  which 
>,     By  this  con- 
e  it  is  feeding  or 
rrostriul  animals, 
,  in  other  words, 
cat.    The  whale 
;cordingly,  to  gel 
1  less  frequently 
ir  of  oxygenated 

required.    This 
last  proportionate 
Bin  of  the  whale 
n  to  the  animal, 
;ii  reached  on  the 
le  nervous  system 
lown  that  whales 
|i  a  doubt  whether 
cir  sense  of  smell 
rongest  reason  fot 
is  founded  upon 
that  if  certain 
overboard,  whaUi 
amma;  or  dugs  of 
,  and  attached  to 
!»er  varieties,  they 
they  are  situatej 
aid  to  be  rich  anil 

structure  in  the 
^ntivcly,  one  can- 
licity  of  the  whole 
;i    a    mammalisn 
would  say,  in  iU 
the  dc(!p     Ths 
ich,  more  )  artiou- 
said  by  Scoresby 
the  Arctic  sei* 
ali/Jilioii.  Wilhin 
irt  spread  out  for 
■lever  lK<en  known 
ley  may  be  called 
.;■,  covering  in  nil 
lilcs  of  the  (Jrccn- 
,'p  olive  hue,  and 
iveri'il  '\l»  iieculiat 
of  irinumcroblc 
coimuoii  epcrien 
l.luliboJ.    Toi-ivo 
[tures,  Mr.  Scores- 
would    contain 
100  pcruoni.  laurt 
of  man  in  onlfi 
tilt  time.   Thcsi 


■iigiitures,  many  of  which  are  visible  only  through  the 
•nicroscopc,  do  not  nil  directly  serve  n»  alimrnt  to  the 
whale,  bul  they  feed  myriads  of  tho,sninller  fishes  upon 
which  the  whale  doea  live.  When  feeding,  it  swims 
with  open  mouth  under  the  water,  and  all  tho  objects 
Ihiit  lie  iri  tho  way  of  tliot  vast  moving  cavern  are  caught 
by  the  baleen,  and  make  their  egress  no  more.  "  This  is 
the  simple  food  (says  an  old  writer)  of  the  great  Green- 
land whule;  it  pursuRH  no  other  animal,  leads  an  innlfen- 
■livo  life  in  itn  element,  and  is  hnmiless  in  proportion  to 
iu  strength  to  do  mischief."  It  i.s  gregarious  in  its  habits, 
being  found  in  shoals,  and  migrating  in  this  manner 
^according  to  moat  writiTs)  from  one  ocean  to  another. 
When  a  herd  of  large  ones  is  seen  gambolling  together, 
the  sight  is  as  magnificent  as  the  range  of  nature  pre- 
wmts.  One  whnje  of  sixty  feet  in  length,  and  seventy  tons 
weight  (nearly  equal  to  that  of  three  hundred  fat  oxen),  is 
t  grand  enough  object  of  itself,  and  how  much  more  so 
mast  a  great  herd  be  when  seen  sporting  in  their  native 
clement !  Let  the  reader  imngine  what  an  efTeot  on  the 
eve  must  be  produced  by  the  sight  of  one  of  these  enor- 
mous living  masses  leaping  right  into  tho  air,  clear 
altogelher  out  of  tho  water.  This  is  a  feat  which  they 
frequently  perform,  to  the  high  admiration  of  all  who  nre 
tt  a  safe  distance.  They  efl'ert  it  by  means  of  their  tail, 
which  is  the  great  instrument  of  motion,  and  which  de- 
rives its  priKligious  power  Irom  tho  tcriiiiiiation  and  con- 
i-entration  in  it  of  all  the  muscles  and  tendons  of  the 
jpinal  column.  In  some  of  the  larger  species,  the  tail 
r/wnprises  a  surface  of  not  less  than  from  eighty  to  one 
hundred  square  I'ect.  Sometimes  u  whale  will  turn  its 
head  downwards,  and,  moving  its  tremendous  tail  high 
iu  the  air,  will  lash  the  water  with  violence,  raising  a 
rioid  of  vapour,  and  sending  a  loud  report  to  the  dia- 
tjnce  of  two  or  three  miles.  This  is  culled  '•  lob-tailing" 
liv  the  mariners.  .With  the  aid  of  the  sHme  great  in- 
simment,  they  can  travel  through  tho  water,  horizon- 
lilly  or  downwards,  at  the  rate  of  eight  miles  an  hour ; 
but  their  usual  mode  of  travelling  does  not  exceed  four 
aules  in  that  space.  Considering  their  bulk,  their  ease 
of  motion  and  buoyancy  are  altogether  wonderful,  and 
iniiat  be  mainly  ascribed  to  the  masses  of  oil  they  con- 
idia. 

Vben  the  Greenland  whale  ascends  to  the  surface, 
which  it  does  usually  once  in  ten  minutes,  or  at  the  most 
111  twenty,  it  breathes  nine  or  ten  times,  and  a  loud  noise 
iccompanies  the  act,  along  with  an  em'^sion  of  light 
va|iour,  in  a  straight  column.  This  is  callal  the  blotving 
,ir  spoutini;  of  the  whale.  When  alarmed,  it  snorts  much 
more  loudly  than  usual.  It  is  believed  that  some  whales 
liuve  other  vocal  organs,  but  the  mysticetus  seems  to  have 
111)  jiower  of  making  noise  but  by  the  blow-holes.  The 
ajioutings  of  the  whale  consist  of  the  ejection  of  jets  of 
water  to  the  height  of  twenty  or  thirty  feet  through  the 
simc  apertures,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  act  is  both 
ieen  and  heard  at  the  distance  of  several  miles.  There 
Is  a  doubt  among  naturalists,  whether  this  be  an  ejection 
c)f  mucus  secreted  in  the  blow-holea,  or  of  wafer  merely 
from  the  mouth.  Tho  quantity  emitted  would  lead  one 
at  once  to  say  that  it  must  be  water,  were  there  not  a 
doubt  as  to  the  possibility  of  water  entering  the  blow- 
holes in  this  way.  The  moat  proliable  explanation  is, 
that  tlic  animal,  acting  beneath  the  water,  forces  up  the 
lluid  by  means  of  the  uir  from  the  lungs.  Howe/er  ll'is 
auy  be,  the  spouting  phenomenon  is  a  beautiful  one,  ac- 
lorJing  to  the  accounts  of  all  observers. 

No  |)oint  relative  to  tlie  habits  of  the  Greenland  whale 
•ITi'Cts  one  so  much  as  the  creature's  love  and  care  for 
lU  olTipriiig.  The  i)eriod  of  gestation  is  supposed  to  l)e 
\!MUt  ten  months,  and  scarcely  any  dam  has  ever  been 
olwrved  to  have  more  than  one  young  one  in  attend- 
iiue.  In  Buckliiii;,  the  mother  throws  herself  on  her 
liile  fur  the  convenience  of  her  otispring,  and  this  usually 
i«kea  plac£  on  the  surface  ul  the  water,  to  permit,  no 
Vol.  I.— 15 


doubt,  of  free  breathing.  At  birth,  tht^  vounR  whuf 
measures  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet,  and  continues  a  nurseling 
for  about  a  year.  It  attains  to  its  full  growth  very 
slowly ;  not  sooner,  according  to  most  nnturalista,  thou 
in  twenty  years.  The  whale-fishers  turn  the  strong  afleOi 
tioii  of  the  whale  for  its  olfspring  to  most  fatal  account 
They  try  to  strike  the  young  one  with  the  harpoon,  and 
if  they  eflect  this,  are  sure  of  tho  old  one,  for  she  will 
not  leuvo  it.  Mr.  Scoresby  mentions  a  case  where  a 
young  whale  was  struck  beside  its  dam.  She  seized  it 
and  darted  off,  but  the  fatal  line  was  fixed  in  its  body. 
Regardless  of  all  that  could  be  done  to  her,  she  remained 
l)cside  her  dying  ofTapring,  without  moving,  until  she 
was  struck  again  and  again,  and  finally  perislicd.  Some- 
times, however,  she  becomes  furious  on  these  occasions, 
and  extremely  dangerous.  A  naval  of]ic«r  gives  the  fol- 
lowing account  of  a  case  which  he  witnessed  in  the  Atlan- 
tic Being  out  with  fishing  boats,  <<  wo  saw  (auys  he)  ■ 
whale,  with  her  calf,  playing  around  the  coral  rocks; 
the  attention  which  the  dam  showed  to  its  young,  and 
the  care  which  she  took  to  warn  it  of  danger,  were  truly 
alfecting.  She  led  it  away  from  the  boats,  swam  round 
it,  and  sometimes  she  would  embrace  it  with  her  fms,  and 
roll  over  with  it  in  the  waves.  We  contrived  to  get  the 
'  vantage  ground'  by  going  to  seaward  of  her,  and  by  that 
means  drove  her  into  shoal  water  among  the  rocks.  Aware 
of  the  danger  and  impending  fate  of  her  inexpcriencea 
ofTapring,  she  swam  rapidly  round  it,  in  decreasing  circles, 
evincing  tho  utmost  uneasiness  and  anxiety  ;  but  hci 
parental  admonitions  were  unheeded,  and  it  met  its  fate." 
The  young  one  was  struck  and  killed,  and  a  harpour. 
fixed  in  the  mother.  Roused  to  reckless  fury,  she  flew 
upon  one  of  the  boats,  and  made  <>  her  tail  descend  (sayt 
the  writer)  with  irresistible  force  upon  tho  very  centre 
of  our  boat,  cutting  it  in  two,  and  killing  two  of  the  men ; 
the  survivors  took  to  swimming  for  their  lives  in  all 
directions."  Her  subsequent  motions  were  alarmingly 
furious,  but,  subsequently,  <<  exhausted  by  the  fountain 
of  black  blood  which  she  threw  up,  she  drew  near  to  bei 
calf,  and  died  by  its  side,  evidently,  in  her  last  momeuts, 
more  occupied  with  the  preservation  of  her  young  than  ot 
herself." 

The  Greenland  whale  is  captured,  it  is  scarcely  neoM- 
sary  to  say,  chiefly  for  its  oil,  about  thirty  tons  of  which 
are  procured  from  the  body  of  a  large  individual,  being 
nearly  the  half  of  its  whole  weight.  The  flesh  and  hlutv 
ber,  also,  when  recently  procured,  and  pickled  and  boiled, 
are  not  unpalatable,  and  the  Esquimaux,  in  particular, 
hold  them  to  bo  superb  feeding.  But  it  is  for  the  oil  thai 
mariners  from  all  quarters  of  the  civilized  world  expose 
themselves  to  the  dangers  and  privations  attending  the 
pursuit  of  the  animal  in  the  Polar  seas.  If  recent  state- 
ments be  correct,  however,  tliese  suflerings  and  riske 
may  be  greatly  diminished,  by  the  adoption  of  new  fish- 
ing routes.  Scoresby,  as  has  been  mentioned,  says  that 
the  Greenland  whale  is  to  be  found  only  within  the  Arc- 
tic circle,  but  other  observers  aver,  that  the  mysticetus,  as 
well  as  other  varieties,  migrate  southwards  every  year, 
and  in  reality  make  an  annual  tour  round  Cape  Horn, 
beginning  their  travel  about  March  or  April.  Many  per- 
sona represent  themselves  as  having  been  eye-witnesses 
of  their  course;  and,  among  others,  the  naval  officer 
lately  quoted,  declares  that  he  has  repcotedly  seen  them 
f  as.sing  Bermuda  in  shoals.  The  main  objection  to  this 
statiMiicnt  is,  that  the  gre>n  water  exists  only  near  the 
p-ilcH,  and  that,  at  the  very  time  when  these  jouineyinga 
ar(  sail',  tn  lie  in  progress,  our  fishers  are  finding  and 
killing  whales  by  hundreds  in  the  north.  At  the  same 
time,  n  is  undeniable  that  tho  whole  is  migratory  in  its 
liiiliitw,  i\:J  the  mutter  is  worthy  of  a  thorough  investiga- 
tion, as  (he  establishment  of  fishing  stations  in  warm 
latitudes  would  prevent  much  suffering  at  present  mi- 
(lurcd  in  the  North  Sea  fishing.  The  female  alone,  how 
ever,  is  said  to  take  tlie  ci.':u'.t  mentioned,  and  tlic  reasm 
k2 


114 


INFORMATION   FOtt   THR   r'KOri.K. 


m  uiiJprstiKid  to  be  the  instinctive  Joire  of  the  animal  to 
give  itrenfth  to  her  young  by  taking  them  to  a  genial 
(liniu. 

Being  by  far  the  moat  valuable  and  frequent  object  of 
the  fialicriea,  the  Greenland  whale  hiw  received  much 
mor«!  attention  here  than  it  ia  neccMary  to  bestow  on  the 
great  rorqual,  though  that  variety  exeeeda  all  others  in 
magnitude,  and  is  indeed  the  lurgrat  of  all  the  living 
rreaturea  of  the  earth.     Two  apeciincna  have  ken  ol>- 
aerved  which  nieaaured  the  enormous  length  uf  one  hun- 
dred and  five  feet     One  of  theae,  it  is  stated  by  Hcoresby, 
was  found  floating   Ufelesa  in  Davis's  Straits,  and   the 
nkeleton  of  the  other  was  observed  by  Captain  (>larke  on 
Columbia  River.     This  lust  individual,  when  alive,  muxt 
have  measured  nearly  one  hundred  and  twelve  fret,  al- 
lowing six  or  seven  for  the  tail,  and  it  may  therefore  l)e 
regarded  as  the  largest  creature  of  which  we  have  the 
authentic  measurement  Other  specimens  have  measured 
a  hundred,  and  others  from  ninety  to  eighty  feet     The 
rorqual  cast  ashore  at  North  Berwick,  and  preserved  by 
Dr.  Knox,  was  eighty-three  feet  in  length.     The  colour 
of  the  rorqual  is  a  pale  bluish  black,  with  the  uI)dominal 
regions  of  a  grayish  tint     In  shape,   the  t)ody  is  not 
nearly  so  cylindrical  as  that  of  the  mysticetus,  but  is  com- 
pressed on  the  sides,  and  angular  on  the  buck.     Hence 
the  common  name  of  •<  razorback  j"  and  from  the  dorsal 
fin,  which  is  low  down,  and  of  a  small  size,  sjirings  the 
equally  familiar  name  of  "finner."     'i'he  blublwr  of  the 
rorqual  is  less  abundant  *han  that  of  the  Cireenland  whale, 
ariil  is  seldom  more  than  half  a  foot  in  dc|)th,  and  eight 
or  ten  tons  in  weight ;  while  its  buleen,  also,  is  much 
•borter,  coarsti-,  and  every  way  less  valuable.     This  lut- 
ler  circumstance  arises  partly  from  the  up[)er  jaw  being 
loss  aiched  than  in  the  connuon  wliale.    There  is  another 
eauat  for  the  inferior  fineness  of  the  buleen  in  the  rorqual, 
which  is  the  greater  size  of  the  objects  wliiclj  it  employs 
as  food.     In  the  stomach  of  one  individual,  six  hundred 
freat  cod,  and  immense  quantities  of  other  lurgu  lish, 
were  found.     The   gullet,   accAirdingly,  is  nmch  wider 
than  in  the  mysticetus.     Another  striking  feature  in  the 
rorqual,  and  the  one  from  which  the  name  is  <k  rived, 
is  ail  inmicnse  sort  of  fold  or  pouch  along  the  under 
jaw.     This  was  thought  to  be  nn  air-hag  or  swimming 
bladder,  till  the  observations  of  Dr.  Knox  satisfied  every 
one  that  it  waa  merely  a  great  water-reservoir,  for  aug- 
luenting  the  capacity  of  the  raouth,  otherwise  so  much 
diminished  in  this  creature  by  the  want  of  curve  in  the 
upper  jaw. 

The  great  rorqual  has  two  blow-holes,  through  which 
it  blows  violently  and  very  loudly ;  and  it  swims  with 
much  speed,  its  rate  of  motion  varying  from  fi\e  to  twelve 
milca  an  houi.  The  species  is  very  numerous  in  the 
Arctic  seas,  and  particularly  about  Spitzliergen  and  Nova 
Zembhi.  It  is  a  much  bolder  animal  than  the  mysticetus, 
and  having  so  little  oil  in  its  frame,  fisliem  seldom  meddle 
with  it,  and  dislike,  indee<l,  to  see  it,  as  it  is  supposed  to 
be  avoided  by  the  mor^aluubln  varieties  of  its  race.  If 
•truck  by  the  harpoon,  it  is  excited  to  most  danj^'roiis 
energy  ;  and  on  one  occasion,  an  individual  drew  u  whole 
whaling-vessel,  with  its  crew,  with  such  violence  on  a 
bank  of  ice,  that  every  iniin  on  board  [x  rislied.  A  ror- 
qual struck  by  Mr.  Scoresby  dived  with  so  much  velo<-ity, 
that  it  ran  out  S8S0  feet  of  line  in  one  minute,  and  ulti- 
mately snapped  the  cord.  Though  thus  daiifirouH,  how- 
cvf,  as  well  as  comparatively  valueless,  the  Laplanders 
»i»i  Greenlanderi  wize  every  o<Tasion  of  att:iiki:i^'  it  in 
then  small  bouts.  They  usually  send  as  inajiy  liarpoons 
uito  it  aa  possible,  and  get  out  of  the  way,  leaviiitc  it  to 
he  alone,  aa  it  usually  docs,  and  is  then  cost  or  iiauled 
■uiiurc. 

A  Icsaer  species  of  the  rorqual  is  found  in  the  Green- 
land teas,  having,  like  the  great<'r  one,  a  ibirsid  I'm.  and 
ineofuriiig  usually  t)etween twenty  and  thirty  feet  in  lt«ii;lb. 
t'bKt  this  was  a  distinct  s|iecirs  of  rorijuai  was  proveil  by 


Ur.  Knox,  who  got  possesdou  of  a  specimen  i.  ai  »«, 
cast  ashore  at  l]ueensferry,  and  found  it  lo  iiavo  only  lurit 
eight  liones  in  the-  vertebral  column,  wnereas  the  otlai 
hud  sixty-three.  This  was  decisive  of  its  individuality  i, 
a  genus.  It  has  a  fine  blue  tint  in  the  skin,  and  its  oil  u 
considered  us  highly  delical<i  and  medicinal  by  the  ice. 
landers,  but  otherwise  the  species  is  one  i'  no  general  im. 
portuncc. 

Not  so  with  tlio  cachalot,  physetcr  macroeephalus,  or 
spermaceti  whale,  of  which  there  are  several  varieti<>«, 
.\11  of  them  are  distinguished  by  teeth  in  the  lower  jat«, 
by  one  blow-hole,  and  by  the  want  of  buleen.  The  IcaJ. 
ing  distinctions  lictwcen  the  various  kinds  of  the  Hperm 
whale  he  in  the  {xisscssion  of  two  fins  oi  three  fiiu;  gf 
a  s(M)ut  in  the  neck  or  in  the  snout ;  of  Hutted  teeth  oi 
sharp  teeth;  and  finally  of  a  bluek,  a  blue,  or  a  whitiah 
back.  But,  generally  s|M>uking,  the  characters  n.jw  to  tie 
noticed  are  proper  to  all.  'i'he  s|x>rm  whale  uttuins  toi 
great  size,  varying  between  sixty  and  eighty  feet  The 
head  is  enormous  in  bulk,  being  fully  more  than  a  thin! 
of  the  whole  body,  and  it  ends  like  an  abrupt  and  elctp 
promontory  in  front  On  the  upper  part  of  the  snout  ii 
placed  the  blow-hole,  often  verging  a  little  to  one  side 
and  it  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  this  is  but  one  of  the 
various  deformities,  whether  congenital  or  acquired  in  the 
terrible  battles  waged  by  the  ereutures  with  one  another, 
which  are  commonly  'bund  in  the  body  of  this  whale,  lu 
eyes  are  unequal,  and  the  left  fretjueiitly  useless.  Tlie 
back  has  a  greenlsh-giay  tint,  ami  U'low,  much  of  the 
creature  is  white.  On  the  back,  there  are  in  most  of  the 
sjH-cies  Olio  or  two  small  fins,  with  lurge  protukratim; 
the  aiile  fins  are  cbo  of  small  m/.c,  but  the  tail  is  an  iiistri^ 
ment  of  amazing  power.  TIh!  teeth  are  usually  about 
forty-two  in  number,  and  fit  into  depressions  in  the  upjjei 
jaw.  In  this  whale  the  gullet  is  wide  enough  to  admit i 
man,  and  the  animal  feeds  on  large  fish.  A  molluFcoui 
animal  (sepia  octoiius),  called  tquut  by  the  sailors,  is  jii 
chief  food  in  deep  seas. 

The  size  of  head  in  the  sperm  whale  haa  a  very  eitr*. 
ordinary  pur]H)sc  to  serve.     To  assist  in  floating  the  wii 
mal,  a  great  cavity  in  the  int4!rior  of  the  skull  is  fijloj 
with  a  fine  oil,  which  l)ecoine8  concrete  on  cooling,  and 
forms  the  8|H-rmuceti  of  commerce.     Some  of  this  oil  ii 
also  found  along  the  vertebral  column ;  and  in  a  Img  ir 
the  intestines  hiiother  valuable  substance   lies,  the  a:i> 
bergris  of  traders.     Some  authors,  it  is  proper  to  »lal(^ 
assert  that  the  ambergris  is  merely  the  unimal's  fsce^ 
These  are  the  princijial  objects  of  the  siierin  whale  fishfry, 
the  blublier  procured  from  this  variety  of  tlie  cetacea  not 
being  nearly  so  abundant  as  in  tlic  case  of  the  my»ti(»la 
At  the  same  time,  the  blubl)er  of  the  si^rm  wlulo  '» 
valuable,  and  is  usually  called  s|H'rni  oil.     'I'he  sailon 
know  this  whale  at  a  great  distance  by  the  act  of  blowing, 
which  it  performs  with  great  regularity,  at  intervals  of  ten 
minutes  or  so.     The  spout  stuit  up  is  visible  at  the  (li» 
tuncc  of  two  or  three  miles,  and  has  the  uppearaiieo  of  i 
misty  cloud  or  bush.     Having  thus  blown,  or  eijuwl, 
sixty  or  seventy  times,  and  made  inspirations  us  uftcn, 
the  animal  descends,  and  can  remain  uiuKt  water  more 
than  un  hour,  sul»>isting  on  the  store  of  liIoo<l  which  it  li« 
oxygenated,  and  kcoiw  in  the  reservoirs  already  ilescrilia). 
This  alternatiiiii  of   appearances  and  disa|ipTar.iiices  u 
gone  through  by  the  animal  witli  undevjatiiig  ri  i^ulurilv, 
unless  it  lie  distiirlii  (i.     The  8i)oini  whale  is  liiiiui  bofon 
man,  yet  it  fights   tiereely  wilti   those   ol'  it.s    own  raci 
Fights  UKUiilly  lake  pi  u'c  when  ni.ilc  whales,  or  ••  hulls," 
as  tliey  are  eall;'il,  and  one  or  two  of  which  alwayMilltui 
a  particular  herd  of  h'niale.s,  meet  with  rivals  desirniisof 
entering  their  company.  Thev  Unkjaws  witli  one  aiintUr,  I 
and  exert  a  dreadful  di'gree  of  power  at  one  aaoiiier'sait,  [ 
When  alarmed,  or  hurpo(med,  tiny  soini times  rollo»«| 
and  over  on  the  surface  of  the  water  in  an  aiiiaiLnig  irju-l 
ncr.     Still  they  are  not  furious  or  dangeroui  iunBnlill»[ 
muriner,  hut  are  commonly  killed  with  ease.     Tlie  Mil<«i  I 


THE  WHALE. 


Ill 


lun  I.  ■(  »M 

ive  only  lurii 
!«■  the  oUii'i 
luivtduality  M 
,  and  itii  oil  u 
i  by  tlio  lev- 
10  general  iio- 

rocrphdlua,  ot 
(iTiil  varidlici. 
ihe  lowpr  jaw, 
>n.     'I'lio  luuV 

of  llui  Hpcnn 

lliron  fiitt;  of 
lluttrd  teeth  oi 
If,  or  u  whitiih 
rlcru  njw  to  be 
iiilf  uUuina  to  i 
jlity  feet  The 
ire  thun  a  thin! 
)ruj)t  and  steep 

of  the  enout  ii 
le  to  one  Bide; 

but  one  of  the 

•  iinniired  in  the 
illi  one  unollier, 
.f  tlilH  wliule.  lu 
ly  uxelcss,  Tl* 
iw,  nuich  of  the 
re  in  nioHt  of  the 

•  protuberance!  i 
B  tail  ix  no  instr» 
Tu  usually  abottt 
ionu  in  the  upi>ei 
uoukIi  to  admit  i 
;i.     A  nioUuscow 

the  sailors,  it  ib 


rail  4  hell  •  "nchool,  and  the  old  bulla  Ihe  "arhool- 
oinirtera."  The  femalea  arc  aaid  to  be  amaller  than  the 
nmlea  by  ■  fourth.  They  are,  like  the  niVHtii  elua,  very 
fond  of  Iheir  yiiuP''  ■  d  alao  of  one  niioiher;  ao  murh 
»),  that,  hy  cautio.  ,m  .(mn<''''ent,  a  whole  herd  nuiy  l>o 
J.ntroyed,  as  they  h'.II  scarcely  quit  a  woniuled  eoni- 
tinnion. 

It  has  been  noi"*d,  however,  by  the  sperm-whaleoi, 
lliiil  the  males  do  not  exhibit  any  nuch  Birectionatencsa 
„f  tetni)crament,  but,  oti  ti.e  contrnry,  make  an  iminedi- 
nie  and  unpiallant  retreat  on  the  approach  of  danger, 
li'sving  the  females  to  Hliill  for  themsi'lvea,  and  to  show 
the  gentler  conHtitutinn  of  their  nature  by  hcl|)ini{  and 
i;u»r<linfi[  tlieir  wounded  conipunioui.    Thouifh  exposinij 
lliemselvca  to  risk  on  thene  occasions  with  so  much  j 
simplicity,  the  sjierm  whales  are  nevertheles*  very  cau- 
ti.im,  and  careful  to  avoid   peril  in  the  first  instance. 
They  have  the  power  of  raising  their  heads  perpendicu- 
liirly  out  of  the  water  to  a  very  considerable  height,  and 
when  in  this  attitude,  which  seems  to  lie  aosumed  for 
iho  purpose  of  viewing  tho  surrounding  expanse,  they 
nrment  the  apjx-arance  of  huge  black  rcM-ka.     They  are 
juicl  to  have  the  ability,  also,  on  noticing  any  object,  to 
cniniiiunicate  the  intelligence  to  their  companions,  though 
tiic  manner  in  which  this  is  done  remains  a  secret.   .Mr. 
Ill  ale,  from  whose  excellent  work  on  tho  Pacific  whule- 
tbhcry  wo   shall    immediately    make  some   interesting 
cit:itions,  jxives  it  as  his  o[iinion  that  the  sperm-whale 
Ciiii  coinnmnicatc  signals  to  a  diiitance  of  fi>ur,  five,  and 
I'vcn  seven  miles.     This  cannot  1)0  etl(?cted  by  sounds, 
hr,  above  water  at  least,  the  animal   utters  no  noise 
ivliatcvcr,  if  we  except  tho  hissing  woimd  accompanying 
the  act  of  respiration.     Baron  (Juvier  and   others  aver, 
indeed,  thot  the  cachalot  s<"nds  forth  loud  gi-oans  when 
siruffgi'ns  •"  'ho  inortol  agony,  but  this  statement  is 
fimlradictcd  by  all  practical  whalers.     With  regard  to 
ill  other  habits,  the  sperm-whale  much  resembles  the 
(ireenland  whale.     It  is  oflen  seen,  like  its  northern 
I'.'n^cner,  to  leap  directly  out  of  the  water,  or  to  hreiirh, 
a«  the  sailors  call  the  action.     Its  purpose  is  to  get  rid 
ii!'  various  sucking-fish  atid  crabs,  which  are  fond  of  ef- 
fiptini?  a  lodgment  upon  its  mountainous  body,  and 
f  'lifh  ofti  n  remain  there  till  plucked  from  ofT  the  cnp- 
1  iirrd  animal  by  the  whalers.     The  sperin-whide  has 
en  erroneously  represented  by  many  writers  as  a  vo- 
riious  creature,  pursuing  and  destroying  all  the  lesser 
I'Aen  tliat  come  in  ita  way.     I.ea\'ing  out  of  sight  the 
:i|imcficaliility  of  such  a  thing,  arising  from  its  un- 
I  iviohly  liulk,  the  truth  of  the  mutter  really  is,  that  the 
trpat  whale  of  the  South  Seas  is  peculiarly  hamdess 
mil  inofTensivc  with  regard  to  the  smaller  tribes  of  the 
ji^p.    As  in  the  case  of  the  elephant,  nature  seems  to 
hive  gifVed  this  mighty  creature  with  a  degree  of  gen- 
tleness proportioned  to  its  size  and  strength,  with  a  be- 
I  r.fvolcnt  view  to  the  comforts  of  other  oceonic  races. 
I  Inilced,  the  sperm-whale  is  more  sinned  against  in  this 
I  way  than  sinning.     The  sword-fish  and  other  animals 
I  have  been  observed  to  attack  it  with  the  utiAost  auda- 
Irity,  and  to  throw  it  into  a  state  of  prodigious  alarm. 

It  has  been  mentioned  thot  tho  principal  fooil  of  the 
Ifsrhilot  is  the  sepia  octopus,  or  8ea-s<]utd.  This  is  an 
I  animal  of  so  curious  an  order  as  to  merit  a  word  of  spe- 
Icial  notice.  The  common  sepia  it  well  known  by  the 
Inv.ne  of  the  cuttle-fish.  The  principal  peculiarity  of 
llliis  molluscous  trilic  is  the  possession  of  powerful  len- 
Itinila,  or  arms,  ranged  round  the  mouth,  and  provided 
lifith  suckers  which  give  them  the  power  of  adhering 
111  ru;ks  or  any  other  substances  with  surprisim;  tenacity. 
i;iie  of  the  tribe  attain  to  o  great  size,  and,  targe  as 
|(>  whale  '.s,  will  furnish  it  with  no  contemptible  mouth- 
Ifiil.  Ill  the  gullet  of  one  spermaceti  whale,  an  arm  or 
|li'nl.ieulum  of  a  sea-squid  was  found,  measuring  nearly 
|i',fonty-«pven  feet  long  The  native  divers  of  the  South 
l^'u  havo  a  mortal  dread  of  these  squids,  and  no  won- 


der, seeing  that  the  strength  of  man  la  totally  ineflflcie nl 
to  tear  away  their  tentaeula  when  they  arn  once  flxc<L 
A  naval  captain,  wo  are  informed  by  Hir  (irenvilla 
Temple,  onco  came  in  contact  with  a  large  sepia  when 
b;iihing.  The  animal  attached  itself  to  one  foot ;  he  feH 
this,  and  strove  to  disengage  the  creature  with  the  othei 
foot,  but  it  fixed  upon  that  too.  Ho  seemed  then  to 
have  made  an  attenifit  to  (nv  himself  with  his  hands. 
These  also  were  llrndy  grasped,  and  the  poor  man  wa4 
soon  after  found  bminil  band  and  foot,  and  drowned  past 
recovery  !  Mr.  Heale  relates  an  adventure  which  he 
himself  had  with  one  of  these  creatures.  He  saw  it 
near  the  surf  on  one  of  the  Bonin  islands,  and  made 
some  half  sportive  attempts  to  capture  it,  not  antici])atinK 
any  possible  harm  from  a  creature  which  had  a  blubbery 
body  not  above  the  size  of  a  clenched  fist,  though  ita 
tentacles  apjicarerl  about  two  feet  in  length.  He  took 
hold  of  one  of  them,  and  wos  endeavouring  to  pull  the 
creature  from  the  rock,  when  suddenly  it  turned  round 
and  sprang  upon  his  Am,  which  had  been  bored  for  tho 
purpose  of  seeking  shells.  It  fastened  its  cold  slimy 
body  upon  him  so  firmly  that  he  was  in  great  alarm, 
especially  as  it  endeavoured  to  fix  its  mouth  next.  He 
ran  to  the  boat  to  his  friends,  ond  the  animal  was  dis- 
engaged, but  only  by  rutting  it  in  pieces.  These  squid* 
are  very  numerous  in  the  Pacific  seas,  and  the  Bperm» 
whale  has  abundant  feeding  upon  them  and  other  small 
fishes. 

Tho  cachalot  is  seldom  or  ntver  seen  in  the  (ireen- 
land  seas,  at  least  by  modern  navigators.  It  is  spread, 
however,  over  an  immense  expanse  of  the  ocean,  having 
been  captured,  at  some  time  or  other,  almost  everywhere 
between  tho  latitude  of  00°  south  ond  60°  north.  The 
coasts  of  New  (tninen  and  the  adjacent  archipelagoes, 
the  shores  of  New  Holland,  Mitchell's  Group,  New 
Zealand,  Navigator  Isles,  Ellis's  Group,  the  shores  of 
Peru,  Chili,  California,  Japan,  the  Persian  Gulf,  the 
Chinese  seas,  the  Molluccas,  and  many  other  parts  of 
the  ocean,  abound  more  or  less  with  this  valuable  ceta- 
ceous tribe. 

In  the  Naturalist's  Library,  an  able  periodical,  under 
the  conduct  of  Sir  William  Jordine,  we  find  the  follow- 
ing minor  genera  of  whales  enumerated,  after  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  mysticctus,  the  rorquals,  ond  the  cachalot, 
the  three  varieties  of  greatest  use  to  man.  1st,  the  nor 
whol,  or  sea-unicorn,  an  nnimnl  from  sixteen  to  twenty 
feet  long,  and  provided  with  a  straight  tusk  or  horn 
(sometimes  two),  about  four  or  five  fret  in  length,  and 
projecting  from  the  snout.  The  animal  has  a  spotted, 
grayish  bo<ly,  handsomely  rounded  off,  and  containing 
usually  near  a  ton  of  oil,  much  prized  by  the  Green- 
landers,  on  whose  coosta  the  narwhal  is  often  seen.  The 
horn  yields  beautiful  ivory,  ond  is  greotly  sought  on  that 
account.  2d,  The  diodons,  or  two-teethed  whales. 
These  ore  of  o  size  similar  to  the  preceding,  and  are  o 
variety  of  little  or  no  value.  3d,  The  hyperoodona, 
animals  of  a  dark  colour,  about  twenty  feet  long,  and 
distinguished  by  knobs  in  place  of  teeth.  4th  and  5th, 
The  oodons  and  the  ziphins,  two  classes  of  small  tooth- 
less whales.  6tli,  The  beluga,  or  white  whole,  a  crea- 
ture of  pure  white  colour,  exceedingly  rounded  and 
symmetrical  in  form,  ond  from  twelve  to  twenty  feel 
long.  It  abounds  on  the  northern  coasts  of  Asia  and 
America.  In  I  SI, 5,  a  licautiful  sjiecimen  of  the  race 
haunted  tho  Forth  for  three  months,  and  was  finally 
killed,  and  placed  in  the  Eilinburgh  Museum.  7th, 
The  delphinapteruR,  a  South-sea  whale,  is  obout  six  feel 
long,  and  remarkable  only  for  being  lieaked  somewhat 
like  a  bird.  Pth,  Tho  dednctor  is  an  Arctic  animal, 
black  in  colour,  and  twenty  or  twenty-four  feet  long. 
It  h;is  scorccly  any  snout,  and  is  most  noted  for  its 
power  of  uttering  loud  cries  when  in  distresi,  which 
circumstance  has  obtainctl  for  it  the  name  of  the  rn'iwj 
(calling)  whale.     WhctluT  other  species  can  cry  or  n* 


116 


INFOHMATION   FOR  THE   PKOPLK. 


wu  already  iiokicrd  a*  a  mutter  of  doubt  TIicm  are 
tlie  mo»t  iini>ortant  of  IIidm  minor  wietiea  of  the  ceta- 
ceouii  family,  which  are  ranked  among  the  whaloa.  The 
dolphin,  porpoi«e,  and  grampua,  on  the  other  hand,  have 
Iwen  iaolnted  by  naturaliiU,  and  are  uaually  coniidored 
bjr  theiiwehea. 


•• THK  WIIAI-K  FISHERY. 

Vhale-flahing  ii  a  practice  of  long  Htanding  in  thn 
world.     It  ii  natural  to  auppoM)  that  thoM  nation)  dwell- 
ing on  tlic  dhoreit  of  the  Arctic  icnit  would  l>c  iIib  par- 
tirf  carlifHt  engaged  in  (uch  purnuita ;  and  acconlingly 
we  dnd,  that  not  only  did  the   NorwcgianH  and  other 
Northmen  precede  all  the  other  nations  of  Europe  in 
tiki*  perilous  but  profilaMo  line  of  cntcrprine,  but  thry 
•Im  wero  the  lirat  intrixluci-rH  of  it  among  the  southern 
nations.     The  shores  of  the  Bay  of  Dincay,  where  the 
Normans   forme<l    early    settle  nieilts,    liccame    famous 
through  them  for  the  whalr-flshing  there  carried  on. 
!n  the  same  region  was  it  first  made  a  regular  com- 
Qiercial  pursuit,  and  as  whalea  then  visited  the  Day  in 
irreat  quantities,  the  tratlic  wan  convenient  and  easy. 
The  Biscay ans  maintained  it  with  great  vigour  and  suc- 
cess in  the  twolllh,  vUirteenth,  and  fourteenth  centuries. 
We  find  from  the  work  of  Noel,  '<  Upon  the  Anticjuity 
of  Whiilc-fishing,"  that,  in  12(il,  n  tithe  woh  laid  upon 
the  tongues  of  whales  import(>d  into  Uayonnc,  they  being 
then  a  highly  esteemed  Hi)ccies  of  food.     In  I'MS,  Ed- 
ward III.  relinquished  to  Peter  do  Puyannc   n  duty  of 
Jt6  sterling  e.ich  whale,  Inid  on  those  brought  into  the 
port  of  Biarritz,  to  indemnify  him  for  the  extraordinary 
expenses  be  had  incurre^l  in  fitting  out  a  fleet  for  the 
■ervice  of  his  majesty.     The  Biscayans,  however,  soon 
gave  up  the  whale-fishing,  from  tlic  want  of  fish,  which 
ceased  to  come  southward,  no  longer  leaving  the  icy 
•eaa.    The  voyages  of  the  Dutch  and  English  to  the 
Northern  Ocean,  in  order  to  discover  a  passage  through 
it  to  India,  though  they  failed  in  their  primary  object, 
laid  open  the  remote  haunts  of  the  whale.     The  British 
Muscovy  Company  obtained  a  royal  charter  prohibiting 
all  vessels  but  theirs  from  fishing  in  the  seas  round 
Spitzborgen,  under  pretence  that  it  was  discovered  by 
Sir  Hugh  Willoughby.     The  fact,  however,  was,  that 
Barentz,  a  merchant-seaman  of  Amsterdam,  had  disco- 
vered it  in  1596;  and  neither  Dutch,  Spaniards,  nor 
•  Frenchmen,  were  at  all  dispoaed  to  admit  the  justice  or 
propriety  of  the  claim  inoiic  by  the  English.     An  ex- 
traordinary scene  succeedi'd  in  the  northern  send.     The 
Muscovy  company  sent  out  six  or  seven  ntrongly  armed 
veaaels,  which  took  up  a  {Hxsition  near  ^^pitzt>ergen,  and 
commenced  an  attack  on  all  foreign  shi^m  that  refused 
either  to  quit  tlie  region  at  once,  or  pay  tlie  very  mode- 
rate toll  of  one-half  the  proceeds  of  their  fishing.     The 
English  succeeded  so  far  as  to  annoy  everylnxly  else, 
and  to  prevent  thcmsrlves  from  taking  almost  a  uingle 
tlih,  so  busy  were  they  in  looking  afler  others.     All  the 
nitions  of  Europe  remonstrated   loudly  through   their 
envoys  against  these  proceedings,  hut  the  Dutch,  ever 
tisarlcRs  at  sea,  sent  out  a  strong  fleet,  which  eflcctually 
guarded  their  own  fishinj      At  length,  in  lfil8,  n  gene- 
rul  engage.-nent  took  place,  in  wliicli  the  EiiRlish  were 
Worsted.     Hitherto,  ttie  two  govoniinont?*  hiid  allowed 
lae  fiihing  adventurers  to  hi;hl  out  their  own  battlr.s ; 
I'lit  in  consequence  of  tlie  event  mentioned,  it  was  con- 
ai.lered  prudent  to  divide  the  WpitzlH'rgen  hay  and  wiw 
iiilo  fishing  stations,  where  the  conipanleH  might  not 
trouble  each  other.     After  this  period,  the  Dutch  quickly 
gained  a  superiority  over  their  rivals.     While  the  Eng- 
lixh  prosecuted  the  traile  slugifishly  and  with  incompe- 
tent means,  the  Dutcli  turned  their  fisheries  to  great  ac- 
count, and  in  1680  had  about  360  shiiM  and  14,0i0 
aailu/a  •mp^.tjtd  is  them. 


Though  there  have  been,  in  English  history,  one  en 
two  magnificent  instances  of  the  hiiccchh  of  great  coin, 
panics,  posr'eHMed  of  monopolies  and  exclusive  privile^oi, 
there  can  Ih'  little  doubt  that  the  alleinpt  to  prowjcui^ 
the  whale-fishing  at  this  era  failed  from  its  nut  Ix-inii 
opened  up  to  private  enterpriiie.  Af\er  the  ceHsiiticin  of 
the  Muscovy  (^impany,  a  (Sreeiiland  C"om|Hiny,  with  «c 
actual  capital  of  X't5,00(),  rnt«'red  on  the  Uude,  ami  ig 
nine  years  came  to  a  ruinous  close.  In  ITHt,  th« 
South  Sea  Company  took  up  the  adventure,  niiil  in 
eight  years,  alter  the  oulla)  of  a  vast  amount  of  nioiiry, 
they  also  were  coin|ielled  to  submit  to  u  dead  losn  of 
their  capital,  ond  throw  up  the  attempt. 

The  legislature  now  tried  a  ni!W  sclit^ne,  being  nin. 
cercly  desirous  to  ericmirai;e  hiuI  establiHh  tlio  trade,  ui 
well  as  to  make  it  a  nursery  for  seamen.  In  1733.  a 
bounty  of  yOs.  a  ton  was  Kriiiited  to  every  Kliip  of  Sdo 
tons  burden  that  engaged  in  llio  fishing.  In  1749,  ji 
was  thought  necessary  to  ruiw  the  bounty  to  4t)H.,  whcii, 
as  Mr.  M'Culioi'h  oliscrves.  as  many  ships  seem  lo  have 
btt>n  fitted  out  for  catching  the  bounty  us  for  cntiliing 
fish.  But  a  trade  supported  on  any  other  principle  ilmn 
that  of  direct  licnetit  rereived  from  it  by  the  parties  .'h. 
gaged  therein,  can  never  be  of  an  om'uruig  iiiiture,  anj 
this  truth  soon  appeared  in  the  present  cose.  In  1777, 
the  Imunty  was  reduced  to  DOs.,  the  conseiiuein'o  of 
which  was,  that  during  the  next  five  years  the  nuiiihtr 
of  ships  employed  in  the  trade  wos  reduced  from  105  t« 
thirty-nine!  In  1781,  the  bounty  was  raised  ugujn  to 
its  old  level,  and  an  indiicenieiit  was  thus  held  out  for 
the  revival  of  the  spirit  of  trade.  But,  alter  all,  wlmi  i 
million  and  a  half  of  money,  expended  in  succcsnivo 
donatioiiK  under  the  name  of  bounty,  waf  totally  ini'lK. 
cicnt  to  do,  the  spirit  of  private  enterprise,  once  fairly 
awakened,  speedily  iiccomplished.  The  British  whale. 
fisheries  throve  rapidly  between  1781  and  179.5,  and  the 
legislature  found  themselves  justified  in  reducing  the 
bounty,  at  intervals,  from  40s.  to  20s.  'Ilic  long  con- 
tinental troubles  consequent  on  tlio  French  revolution 
put  a  complete  |H<riod  almost  to  the  Dutch  fmhini!, 
while  in  the  same  space  of  time  the  British  fiMlicriej 
were  continually  improving,  tiic  conduct  of  them  beinj 
left  entirely  to  the  private  spirit  of  the  nation.  A  small 
bounty,  inileed,  wos  given  even  down  till  1824,  bulii 
was  uninfluential,  and  was  then  withdrawn  altoi^etliK. 
Of  the  change  which  has  of  late  yea;s  come  over  ih« 
whaling  traffic  of  Britain,  a  few  words  will  lie  said  be. 
fore  bringing  the  general  subject  to  u  clo^e. 

No  species  of  fishery,  pro.secuted  anywhere  on  the 
face  of  the  ocean,  can  compare  in  intensity  of  inlfrtsi 
with  the  whale-fishery.  The  magnitude  of  the  »]jn\ 
of  the  chas*?,  and  the  |)erilous  churucli'r  of  the  s»'bh  winch 
it  peculiarly  frequents,  are  features  which  proniiiicnllv 
distiii;;uiHh  the  profession  of  the  whale-fisher  from  all 
similar  pursuits,  and  which  invest  the  details  of  lis  hi* 
tory  with  the  strong  charm  inseparable  from  piilurn 
of  stirring  exertion,  privation,  and  danger.  Smli  Ul^ 
the  case,  we  shall  present,  chiefly  from  the  writii^oi 
Captiin  Scoresby,  the  highest  authority  on  the  suljict,  I 
a  full  descriptiim  of  the  proceedings  connected  with  •}.( 
British  whale-fishery.  Long  a  whaleman  himself,  tap. 
lain  Si'oresby  had  smpic  opportunities  of  personal  on- 
BcrvMtion,  and  ho  was  gitli'il,  fortunately,  with  fwh  | 
poiveis  as  enabled  him  to  describe  the  scenes  wlii'h  Mi 
under  his  notice  with  clearness,  accuracy,  and  lorio. 

The  ships  designed  for  the  whalc-fislKMy  are  ukuiiiI'  | 

from  HOO  to  400  tons  in  burden,  and  require  to  Ijt  verj 

substantially  built,  in  order  to  resist  the  pressure  of  the 

,  ice.     With   the  view  of  increasing  their  streniitli,  nuisl  | 

roftliein  have  additional  planks  and  timbers,  ami  ol'icn, 

also,  iron-plates  and   Hlaiicheoiis,   introduced   iiitollipul 

:  structure,  both  internally  and  externally.     Such  appur-f 

j  tenances  and  provisions  are  technically  known  by  'it  I 

UAiiies  of  Joublingt,  titblmgi,  ff^ttjyingt,  puinUri,aii  I 


THE  WHAI.B. 


117 


ilntory,  oiM  « 
of  tiroiil  com-  ' 
dive  i)rivi|pni^ 
|it  lo  pronocuiij 
I  iti  nut  lirinn 
lie  rcHKHtion  of 
nimny,  with  »c 

0  truili',  mill  in 
III    172.1,  th, 

ruturi',   mill  in 

iiuiiil  of  iiiiincy, 

u  dead  tuM  uf 

icme,  Wing  ««• 
iHh  tho  truilr,  ui 
rii.     In  lT.n.» 
(cry  Hliiji  of  SUO 
IK.     In   1749,  It 
ity  to  tt'H-,  wliPli, 
ipH  wciii  to  \uvc 
;y  ii«  fof  oatrhing 
HIT  priiu'iiili'  lliiin 
ly  tlie  partif  8  jii. 
ur'uiB  miluri',  and 
it  cam'.      '»  1177, 
)  conwiHii'iu'c  of 
yen"  tliti  iiuiiilitf 
JuiTil  from  105  t« 
LtM  raiBfil  ugiiinlo 
thus  lii'l'l  out  for 
[t,  after  nil,  wliali 
ulc>l  in  gurccmite 
,  wttf  totally  iiifll). 
prvriw,  once  fairly 
riic  llritish  whale- 

1  ami  nSlft,  and  the 
•d  in   reducing  lh« 
IB.    Tlic  long  con- 
French   revolution 

ilio  Dutch  fishing, 
[he  British  finhcriia 
iduct  of  iheni  bcini! 
fo  nation-  A  uniall 
nn  till  1824,  hut  il 
li.lniwn  •Uogi'lh«. 
•a  ^  conio  over  the 
fils  will  I)C  said  lie- 

anywhere  on  the 
IntenHity  of  iiitcresi 
liliuli!  of  the  ii'.'jfii 
r  of  the  wax  winch 
Iwhirh  proniiiii'iilly 
imle-fi»hrr  from  all 
10  iletaiU  of  >'"  'i* 
iMc  from  iiiiiu:ti 
linger.     Such  Wn.\ 
nm  the  writiiesol 
irity  on  the  suljic; 
(oimcctcd  with '.'.f 
jmaii  himw'lf.  t-'up- 
lies  of  jiertmnal  uS 
iniitely,   with  nirh 
Hccni's  wlii'-h  Ml 
Irucv,  :iiid  force. 
I'lsiiciy  arc  ll»uall' 
require  to  If  veil 
Ithc  jircHstin-  of  t"^^* 
Ihcir  Htrcnu'th,  rM 
timl'crH,  and  oIKn, 
roduccd   into  llifu 
ttlly.     Such  apinif 
■ally  known  hj  'i* 


iMfM,  4U>  Of  co^rM,  the  whale-ahip  ii  alio  fumiihiHl 
•rilh  tn  ampla  itock  of  th«  appnratiit  and  inittrumenta 
uard  in  ihi  flihinff,  «•  well  a*  with  the  peculiar  boata 
wnirh  n"  pmploymi  in  capture  and  purauit. 

The  whale-boat  i«  from  twenty  to  twenty-eight  feel 
in  length,  and  provided  with  from  four  to  lix  pair  of 
,„u«.     It  ihould  flont  lightly  on  the  water,  and  Ihs  ao 
fnrmrd  aa  to  move  with  ii|M<ed,  and  to  turn  eaiiily  round. 
I'her  *ro  "carver-huilt,"  a»  it  la  called,  anil  the   \v»t 
made  one*  Ar«  compowvl  of  Rtrnight  oak   planka,  iiu|>- 
Ii1(m1  and  iH'nt  to  the  required  Klia|iu,  by  which  moann  their 
elanticily  i>*  greatly  increaHed.     'I'he  rapid  and  danger- 
n\i*  movemenlH  of  the  whale  render  thcHo  vnrioii*  quali- 
lie«  iniliHi>cnHahli .     The  principal  weapons  with  which 
\vhnlc-ll'*hcr<i  are  nupplied,  are  the  hnrinxm  and  the  tnme. 
The  harpoon  in  an  iron  inHtriimcnt  aliout  three  feet 
|oni(,  ""'l  conaiata  of  three  conjoined  parta,  the  "  aocket," 
M  ihttiik,"  «i"l  "  withera"  or  hnrha.     The  aocket  ii  about 
<ix  inchca  in  length  ;  the  ahank,  which  ia  between  the 
witlicn  and  lockot,  ia  nearly  eighteen  inches  long ;  and 
(he  withers  are  eight  inches  long  by  aix  in  breadth. 
The  united  withers  are  triangular  in  shape,  and  the 
thank  is  llxed  lietwcen  them.     The  shank  of  the  har- 
poon i«  the  most  important  part  of  the  weapon.     It  is 
formed  of  the  most  pliable  iron,  old  horse-ahoe  nails 
tving  noiially  preferred  for  the  purpose ;  and  it  is  {lot 
more  than   four-sixteenths   of  an    inch   in    diameter. 
Much  attetition  ia  paid  to  the  manufacture  of  the  shank, 
tieoauio  on  its  flexibility  the  retention  of  a  harpooned 
whale  depends.     If  the  shank  should  break  during  the 
|ilu[i{;cA  of  the  whale,  th(>  animal  is  lost  to  the  fishers. 
1  jileBs  the  shank  will  bear  to  be  wound  round  an  inch 
liar  of  iron,  in  the  form  of  a  close  spiral,  ond  to  bo 
again  unwound,  it  is  held  to  be  of  imperfect  materials. 
The  socket  is  hollow  and  strong,  and  swells,  from  the 
mint  of  its  junction  with  the  shank,  to  a  diameter  of 
two  inches.     It  Is  only  necCiSHary  to  add  to  this  descrip- 
tion of  the  harpoon,  that  each  of  the  withers  has  at  its 
point  0  smaller  and  reversed  barb,  like  the  beard  of  a 
fiih-hook.    The  use  of  this  provision  is  obviotia. 

The  lance  is  a  more  simple  instrument.  It  is  nearly 
Un  feet  long,  and  consists  of  a  hollow  socket  into  which 
I  fir  stock  is  inserted,  of  a  shank  of  iron  about  half  an 
inch  in  diameter,  and  of  a  sharp,  flat  point  or  tongue  of 
il£fli  seven  inches  long  by  two  in  breadth.  This  instru- 
ment and  the  harpoon,  together  with  lines  and  boats, 
ire  all  the  apparatus  absolutely  necessary  for  capturing 
ihe  whale.  Some  ships  have  a  harpoon-gtin,  or  a  gun 
which  projects  the  harpoon ;  but  this  weapon  hoa  been 
found  extremely  uncertain  when  put  to  use. 

The  ships  destined  for  the  Greenland  fishery  put  to  sea 
in  March,  or  during  the  first  days  of  April.  The  crew 
of  one  of  these  vessels  usually  consists  of  from  forty  to 
fiftr  men,  comprising  various  classes  of  inferior  oflTicers, 
Inioh  as  harpooncrs,  boat-steerers,  line-managers,  carpen- 
ters, landsmen,  and  others.  8t<^ering  from  the  direction 
of  Shetland,  on  a  course  to  the  east  of  north,  the  whal- 
ers commonly  rcoch  and  pass  the  west  side  of  Spitzber- 
gen  in  the  end  of  the  month  of  May.  From  this  point 
Ithev  continue  their  course  till  they  arrive  at  the  latitude 
)f78''or78i°  (the  best  parallel  for  fish),  or  till  they 
]i-ft  wi'h  whales.  There  is  a  remarkable  indentaiian 
in  the  iiT,  lying  between  lon^tude  ^°  and  10°,  which 
whalers  for  the  most  part  strive  to  enter ;  but  their 
:oiirw  iiuHt  be  reijulated  greatly  by  the  state  of  the  Ice. 
)!i  reaching  a  ll.'liing  station  where  whales  are  sj-en, 
pnpariili.iiiH  are  iiiiinediately  made  for  eominenring  the 
ksiiH'S!!  of  capture.  Two  or  three  boat'  at  the  least 
re  al\v;iyH  kept  suspended  from  craMf  s  by  the  side  of 
IP  «hip,  in  such  a  position  that  they  cuii  Iw  lowerc^d 
ilii  the  water,  with  their  coMi[)Ieiiients  of  men,  and  the 
wle  necessary  apparatuii.  in  the  sjiaee  of  one  minute. 
'fviously  to  this  time,  the  hariKions  and  lines  have 
•n  go*,  in  order.  'J'he  si>ekel  of  the  harpoon  has  been 


f^imishetl  with  a  atock  or  handle,  six  oi  seven  feet  long, 
and  foitoned  In  ila  place  by  mean*  of  a  splice  of  strnrin 
rope,  called  tforrgangtr,  the  rye  of  whiih  is  kept  firmly 
flxe<I  to  the  iron  of  the  harpotn  by  the  twtllinn  of  the 
socket  To  the  looao  end  uf  the  foreganger  are  attached 
five  or  aix  fathomk  of  line,  calleil  the  stray  line,  and  this 
again  i«  connected  with  the  otlii^  lines  of  th«  bout.  In 
each  iMiat  there  are  almut  4320  feet  of  ro[>r,  neatly 
though  loosely  coiled  up  in  aix  aeparate  portions,  and 
laid  down  in  |)laces  appointed  for  the  purpose.  The 
lino  or  rojie  is  made  of  the  U^at  hemp,  and  is  about  3J| 
inchea  in  cireiniiference.  An  axe,  to  cut  the  lines  If 
necessary,  a  bucket  to  lave  the  lines  and  keep  them  from 
being  overheated  by  friction,  and  a  few  other  articles, 
aro  also  laid  down  in  the  boata  for  use. 

MODE    or   riBHINO. 
Whenever  there  is  a  probability  of  seeing  whalci,  tht 
master,  or  some  experienced  oflfieer,  keeps  a  cIoho  look* 
out  from  the  crow't-ne^t,  a  station  at  the  mast-head  so 
called.     With  the  assistance  of  a  tclcsco|)e  he  scans  the 
surface  of  the  waters  around,  ready,  at  the  first  glimpse 
of  a  fish,  to  give  notice  to  the  watch  on  dock.     In  fine 
weather,  a  boat  is  kept  afloat,  manned,  and  engaged  aNn 
in  the  look-out.     The  short  time  during  which  whalei 
usually  remain  above  water  to  breathe  (being  only  two 
minutes),  renders  the  discovery  of  them  less  easy  than 
might  be  anticipated  from  their  great  bulk.   Uesides,  whilo 
l)elow  water,  the  animal  frequently  traverses  a  spue*  of 
half  a  mile  in  the  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  intervening  be- 
tweon  the  respirations ;  and  hence  the  spot  at  which  it 
may  again  rise,  after  being  once  seen  and  again  disap- 
pearing, is  left  in  a  great  measure  a  subject  of  conjcctiue. 
The  previous  direction  of  the  whale's  movements,  oiul 
occasionally  a  sort  of  eddy  on  the  surface,  aro  the  only 
guides  to  the  boatmen   in  this  particular.     When  the 
whale  does  come  up  within  reach  of  a  harpoon-cost,  aiid 
liei  unconscious  of  the  approach  of  its  enemies,  "  then 
(says  Captain  Scorcsby)  the  hardy  fisher  rows  directly 
upon  it,  and  an  instant  Iicfore  the  boat  touches  it,  buries 
his  harpoon  in  its  back.     But  if,  while  the  boat  ia  yet 
at  a  little  distance,  the  whale  should  indicate  his  inten- 
tion of  diving,  by  lifting  his  head  above  the  common 
level,  and  then  plunging  it  under  water,  and  raising  its 
hcxly  until  it  appear  like  the  large  segment  of  a  sphere, 
the  harpoon  is  thrown  from  the  hand,  or  fired  from  a 
gun,  the  former  of  which,  when  skiliiilly  practis<!d,  ia 
efTicient  at  the  distance  of  eight  or  ten  yards,  and  the 
latter  at  the  distance  of  thirty  yards  or  upwards.     The 
wounde<I  whale,  in  the  surprise  and  agony  of  the  mo- 
ment, makes  a  convulsive  effort  to  escape.     Then  is  the 
moment  of  danger.     The  boat  is  subjected  to  the  most 
violent  blows  from  its  head  or  its  fins,  hut  particularly 
from  its  ponderous  tail,  which   sometimes  sweeps  the 
air  with  such  tremendous  fury,  that  both  boat  and  men 
arc  exposed  to  one  common  destruction. 

"  The  head  of  the  whale  is  avoided,  because  it  cannot 
be  penetrated  with  the  harpoon  ;  but  any  part  of  the 
body  between  the  head  and  tail  will  admit  of  the  full 
length  of  the  inHtrument,  without  danger  of  obstruction. 
The  harpoon,  therefore,  is  always  struck  into  the  back, 
and  generally  well  forward  towards  the  fins,  thus  alTo'd- 
inir  the  chance,  when  it  happens  to  drag  and  plough 
along  Ihe  back,  of  retaining  its  hold  during  a  longer 
time  than  when  struck  in  closer  to  the  tail. 

"The  moment  that  the  wounded  whale  disappears, ui 
leaves  llie  boat,  a  jack  or  flag,  elevated  on  a  stafT,  is  dis- 
played, on  night  of  which,  those  on  watch  in  the  slip 
give  the  alarm,  by  stamping  on  the  deck,  accomjianied 
by   a  simultaneous  and  continued  shout  of  <a  full!" 


■'  •  Thi>  woril '  lull.'  n»  well  a»  many  olliers  ii.'»il  in  the  T.h. 
ery.  inderiveil  frnrn  ihe  Diitoli  Inniriiiige.  In  the  onginul  it  .r 
written  vnt,  intptyiitfr  jump,  ilrop.  full,  antl  is  eci  i^i  iereil  expres 
S'Ve  of  till!  eomliict  of  llie  siiilorn  wlnMi  niaiii..ng  ilie  lioau  or 
an  Dccaaion  rcquinni;  exinine  Uespaicli. 


I  If 


INFORMATION  FOR  THK   PKOPI.B 


11m  ila^pinR  rraw,  rouwxl  by  the  aouiid,  jump  from 
OmU  tmla,  riwli  u|wii  Orck,  wilh  their  iWtliK*  Unl  li>  • 
■litOR  in  llwlr  baiwl*.  •n«l  rri>»»il  into  tlir  IhhUi.  al  • 
UiniwrBiura  ol'  uinu  Tliry  griiemlly  i«uilrivo  Ui  ilrrrw 
thamMlvea,  in  part  at   litut,  M   the   boau  »r«  luwcrni 


iilanl.  It  noiiivtinu'i  ilmwi  tli*  luint  umlrr  Mnlrr;  ,ni 
whii'li,  if  nil  kutiliary  Uml  or  loiivriiiriit  yterr  „l  y^ 
Ini  at  liaiiil,  lilt'  rrcw  irfi  |iIiiiiki'<I  Into  thr  •<•«,  an,!  „„ 
olillttiil  til  Iriint  to  tlir  liiioyaiiry  of  tlicir  onn*,  or  lo  ih,  „ 
akill    ill  awiiniiiiiitf,  for   iiii|i|Mirtiii|i   tlirinwlvi'i  nii  ih. 


down  ;  hut  loiuetiniea  they  piialiotl'in  tiM  italo  in  wliK-li     iiirfai'v.     'I'o   |iro\|cli<   aKi^i""' ""''h  an  aii'jilnil,  «■  w^ll 

they  riia  iVom  thrir  iMHla,  row  away    tuwanla  thr  'fitiit    «■  tu  |i<i  rtaily  to  furiiiah  an  nildilioniil   «ii|i|iIy  nf  |,nrii^ 

boat,'  that  i«,  th«  Umt  altachfil  hy  it*  harpoon  ami  Ijiu-,     it  i«  iimml,  whrn  lioalit  arc  mmiI  in  puraiiil,  for  tMo  to  g.^ 

lo  the  wbaln.  anil  have  no  o|i|K)rtunily  lo  rlothi>  Ihciii-    out  in  coiiipniiy,  and  vvId'II  a  whitlc  tiiu  Imtii  Hlnirli,  ti,r 

wWea  for  a  lenKth  of  unie  alii'rwarili.     Tho   ahiriii  of     tli<>  llrat  mwintinK  liont  wliirh  niiprnachra  to  join  ih).  |„„| 

•a  fall' has  a  aiiiKular  nfferton  the  ferhnRi  of  a  ■lro{iinK    ImhiI,  ami   Ui  utoy  hy  it  until   the  lUh  mt|ip<'ar«.    '||„ 

peraon,  unarcuitonied  to  the  whalo-lUhinK  liuaim-iM.     It    olhi-r  iKiniM,  likrwiiw,  niukr  towanla  the  :>iii'  nirrNJuj , 

lia*  olleii  Ixten  iniataken  for  a  rry  of  <lialri'Mi.      A  Inmln-    llai{,  iiml  nurrouiul  il  at  varioUH  ilintaiim,  awiutiii^  ||„ 

man  in  a  Hull  aliip,  aeeiuR  the  rrew,  on  th«  ix-cMion  of     ap|M>nrnn(-t'  of  tlin  woiiiulcd  ulialr. 

a  fall,  rur.h  upon  deck,  with  their  riollir*  in  lh«'ir  huiida,         "On   my  l)ri.l   voyiini'   lo  lliii  whiile  I1«hi>ry,  muh  m 

when    llirrr  win  no  ap|M'urnni'(*  of  diiiiKiT,  tlioui{hl   Ihr     acridi'iit,  ii>t  uhovc   idliidnl   to,  occurrnl.     A    iIiouhiuhI 

men  niMi<    nil    mnd.     lint  with   anotliir   iiidiviiUml   the     fiitlioiiiH  ol   lino  wrrr  Hlrratly  out,  and  the  faitt  l>i„u  wai 

rflrct  win  totally  diffi-rrnt.     Alurini'd  with  the   I'llriior- 

dlnarv    noi-w,  ami   Ntill   more  *o,  whrn   he   rrnchrd  the 

ili'ck,  with  the  Hpiienrnni'o  of  nil  tin"  rrrw  M'liled  in  the 

Uiala  in  thrir  Nhirla,  he  iiiiiiKiiied  tho  ahiii  waa  ainkinif. 

He  thrrotorc   rndnivourril   lo  gvt   into  a  Itoiit    himwlf, 

but  evury  one  of  ihnn  Iwi'm  fully  inunned,  he  waa  al- 

waya   n-pulacd.     After  wvitiiI   fruitlraa  pndenvnura  to 

gain   n    plare   amoni{   hia   coinrRdca,  h<>  rried   nut,  with 

feelinux  of  evident   dintri'M,  •  What   ahull   I   du  1 — will 

none  of  you  take  me  in  t' 

"The  firat  elfort  of  a  '  fiiat  fiah,'  or  whale  that  haa 
lieen  atriirk,  ia  lo  eara|ie  from  the  boat,  hy  ainkiiiR  un- 
der water.     Alter   Ihia,   it  piirxuea    ila   courHp  tlirorlly 


forcilily  pri'Kited  UKainat  the  aide  of  a  pn-ro  of  Ice,  '!'{,, 
hnriHHiiirr,  in  hia  anxiety  to  ri'taril  th^  lli|{lit  nf  t|„ 
whale,  applied  too  many  lurna  to  the  line  round  th* 
liallard,  wliieh,  KeltiiiK  eiituiiKleil,  drew  the  IhiiiI  lienioih 
the  iee.  Another  Imal,  provideiillHlly,  wan  at  lim,,!, 
into  wliirh  tlie  rrrw,  iniliidliiK  mynelf,  who  liappi  ruil 
tu  Im<  prewMit,  ha<l  jiiat  time  to  cM'a|i«. 

"'I'lie  whale,  with  nearly  two  niilea'  lenijlh  of  lijif, 
waa  in  eoiia<'i|uenep  of  the  ar<  Ideiit  IohI,  but  llie  lioit 
waa  reeovered.  On  a  tiuliKei|urnt  octuaioii  I  nnilrrwi'ia 
a  aimilur  iiiiHadventiire,  hut  with  a  happier  rraiilt;  »« 
eaeapeil  with  n  little  wetliiiK  into  an  aeroiiipmuin^ 
lN)nt,  and  the  wluile  waa  alterwarda  ruptured,  am'  i\w 


downwitrda,  or  reapiirnra  at  a  little  diatanee,  and  awima  i  boat  with  ilH  linea  reeovered. 


"When  linh  have  been  atrurk  by  inyM'lf,  I  I  ivi 

ditlereiit  iM-canioiiH  eatimalid  their  rule  of  den  i  i  t.  Kii 
the  lirat  :I0U  fathoma,  the  avciaito  velix'lty  waa  umiuHv 
after  the  rat*'  of  eiulit  lo  U'U  inllea  [H-r  b'lir.  In  i\,, 
iniitunee,  the  third  line  of  130  fulhoina  wit  run  out  in 
aixly-one  aeetmda  ;  that  la,  at  the  raU<  of  eit(hl  ami  lln^ 
aixth  Kn^liiih  milea,  or  aeven  and  one-ri|{lilh  imutlral 
inilea,  per  hour.  Ily  the  muiiona  nf  the  I'uhI  boat,  the 
•imullauenua  inovementa  of  the  whalu  are  eHtiinatril 
The  auxiliary  boata,  aerordiiiKly,  take  their  )italiiir.i 
alMUt  the  ailuation  where  the  whale,  from  theae  niotiuni, 
may  reaaonably  lie  m|a'rteil  to  ap|M'nr. 

••The  averanc  atay  under  wat4'r  of  n  wounded  whale, 
<l:  -ti  ateadily  deHoenda  ufter  la-iiiR  atruek,  Brenr(liiii.Mo 
'lie  nioat  umuiiI  eondiiet  <if  the  animal,  in  aluiiit  lliirii 
minulea.  The  Ioiihi'mI  I  ever  uliwrved  wa<  lil)v-iii  I 
miniiiea;  but  in  ahullow  water,  I  have  U'eii  intoriiu'l, 
il  haa  anmeliinea  Imm-ii  known  lo  renia'ii  an  hour  aiiili 
half  at  the  liollom  after  beiiiK  alrufk,  and  yet  liai  tf 


with  (freat  eelerily,  near  the  aurfuee  of  the   water,  to- 

warda  any  neii;hliourinK  iee,  nmonx  whieh  it  may  at- 
tain an  imnifinary  alieller ;  or  il  relurna  inaianlly  lo  the 

•urfaee,  and  ifivea   evidence  of  ila   aitony  by    the   moat 

convulaive   throe«,  in  whieh   ila   Hiia  ami  tail  are  nlu>r- 

nately  diHplayed  in  the  air,  and  daahed  into  the  water  with 

tremendoua  violence.     The  former  liehaviniir,  however, 

that  ia,  to  dive  towarda  the  liotlom  of  the  aea,  ia  ao  fre- 
quent in  romparimm  of  any  other,  that  it  may  be  con- 

aidere<l  aa  the  KPneral  conduct  of  a  faal  fiNh. 

•'  A  whale  atruek  near  the  nli^e  nf  any  large  ahei't  of 

iee,  and  pnaainii  underneath  it,  will  aometimea  run  the 

whole  of  the  hnra  out  of  the  iHiat,  in  tlie  apaee  of  eight 

or  ten  minutea  nf  time.     Thia  being  the  eaa<-,  when  the 

•faat  b<iat'  ia  at  a  diatiinre,  laiih  from  the  ahip  and  from 

•ny  other  ImmiI,  it  frmiuenlly  Imppena  that  tiie  lines  aru 

•It  withdrawn  before  aaaialanee  arrivea,  and,  with   liio 

liah,  entirely  loat     In   aome  cnaea,   however,   tliry  are 

Tecovered.     To  relanl,  therefore,  aa   much   aa    poaaible, 

the  flight  of  the  whale,  it  ia  uaiial   for  the   harijooner    turned  to  the  aurface  alive.     The   greater  the  viliMin, 

whi)  alrikea  it,  to  raat,  one,  two,  or  more   tunia  of  line     the  more eonaiderable  the  diatunce  to  which  it  di'scfn:', 

louml  a  kind  nf  poat,  ralleii   a  ballard,  which   ia   fixed     and   the  longer   the    lime   it  reniaina   under   wairr.  m 

witnin  ten  or  twelve  incliea  of  the  atern  of  the  boat  for    much  greater  in  pro)>orlion  ia  the  extent  of  ita  cxhaui. 

the  purpuufl.     Much  ia  the  friction  of  the   line,  whrn    tion   and  the  conaequrnt  facility  of  accomjiliHhiiii;  lU 

running  <ii<inii  the  ballard,  that  it  frequently  eiiveliqiea    rupture.     Immediately  on  ila  reappearing,  llie  aHujiiini 

the  harpooner  in  amoke;  and  if  the  wood  were   not  re-     laiata  make  for  the   I'laeo  wilh  iheir  uIiiuihI  «|a^cj,  «nd 

peate<lly  welted,  would    prolmbly   ai^t   fire   lo   the   IkibI. 

During  the  capture  of  one  whale,  a  gnvive  ia  a<imetiines 

nit  in  the  ballard,  near  an  inch  in   depth ;  niiil  were  it 

uot  for  4  plate  of  braoa,  iron,  or  a  block  of  lignum  vitfe, 

which  roTera  the  lop  of  the  atern  vhere  the  line  paaaea 
over,  it  ia  apprehende<l  that  the  action  of  the  line  on 
th«  material  of  the  boat  would  cut  il  down  U)  the 
water'n  eilifc,  in  thi'  rourae  of  one  wn-win  of  aiiccewfnl 

flahing.  'I'he  appro^rbini;  distress  of  a  Imat.  lor  want  budy.  aiming  at  ila  viUila.  \l  length,  when  e»limn!d 
of  linf,  ia  init>CHleil  hy  the  ele  'alion  of  an  i>:ir,  in  the  by  nuineroLiit  wiiumis  and  tlie  Iosh  of  bloorl  \vlii,h  i]n 
way  of  a  inaal.  U)  '  irh  ia  ad. led  a  necond,  a  third,  or  from  the  liiii;e  nniiiial  in  ropitina  aireaiiis,  it  iinlia'ji 
evn  a  fourth,  in  p-  rtion  to  ''le  nature  of  the  exi-  the  a|)proarli  of  iu  diM.solnli.in  by  discli.irKinic  l>ipi.i!i 
rencr-  The  utf-i-wt  i  i.  ti  1  ntteniion  arc  rpi|uisile,on  •  bluwlioles'  a  mixture  of  Mooil  along  with  tlie  nir  jik' 
the  fiarl  ol  every  |«vr,:  ,  lh'»  liont.  u'hen  the  jmea  are  ,  mucus  which  it  u.-iiially  expires,  and  liiiully  jel'of  i  !.»1| 
running  out:  fatal  '0i;it.')iie  ,->■■■  ...vi.ig  been  Homeliines  '  nione.  The  aru,  to  a  great  extent  arnuiid,  is  ilvcci  m'j 
nrialnretl  by  the  nvM  tnnii.j  n-^'irrt  When  ■.!<•■  line  iu  MoimI,  and  the  ii^e,  bouU,  and  men,  nie  «iiiiii'li:iw| 
hap)ien«  -to  nin  f( ui,'  and  •(kurot  be  cleared   in  the  in-  i  dreiichod  with  the  aaiiie.     Ita  track  ia  Ukcwiae  mvi* 


aa  they  reach   it,  each  har|>o<iiier   plungea  hia  LuriKiK  I 

into  ita  back,  to  the  amount  of  three,  four,  or  iiiurc,  «•■  [ 

cording  to  the  aite  of  the  w'    U-  av  ' 

•  f'lation.     MoHl  frei|uently,  liow-ve 

ii   »•  mlnnti^H   after   receivii.      i<  ii   , 

olilii<c»  the  other  boalti  lo 

bef<iri'  any  further  attack  ran  Im  made.    It  ia  ufternuiil 

actively   plied    with   laiicea,   which   are   ihruHl   inii  ili| 


'he  nature  ol'  i.VI 

it  iiea<Tnili<  fori  I 

'  piHiii,  mill 

.'i.  .  'J  the  Hurlaftl 


THE  WIIAI.R. 


Ill 


unilrr  «in\n  \  iw 
iriil  liirrr  ot  'ri 
i>  tlip  •)■•,  aiiil  mil 
ir  oiini,  nr  lo  tlini 
iiriiiwlvi-a  nn  lli« 
I  HI  t'lilriit,  im  Wi'li 
il  mipiily  of  liiif,, 
miil,  t'lir  t^\«  to  til 
lU  Ih'i'ii  alriirk,  tur 
III'*  to  jniti  till'  I'lmi 
»  rrit|i|M>ar«.  1  h* 
.ha  :>ni-  riirr\  in,;  i 
mr*.  ■wiutiiiK  lli< 

r  fl«h«>r>,  mi<h  m 
rwl.  A  iIioumhiiI 
I  tht>  Ikxt  hi.at  w,ii 
|inr«>  of  i«'i>.  'I'lif 
I  lll^  lllKlit  of  th, 
\w  liiir  riMiiiil  tlii> 
w  Ihi'  lioiil  lii'iuaih 
tlly,  ^viiM  lit  liiihi!, 
«'lf,  wliii  ti»iiiii  iiiM 
r. 

ilcM*  li'nKlli  of  liiif, 
t  loNl,  liut  tlir  Ihiii 

rt'»«i«ll  I  lllllllTWlMll 

hit|>|iii'r  rcaiilt ;  we 
all  n<'<'oiii|>;iii\ini 
nipturrd,  hik'  ilir 

y  myiclf,  I  f  ivc  .n 

utr  of  (l(-H'Ti  t.  For 
clorilv  wiw  UKuall» 


|)..r 


}>■ 


In 


KiinH  wu    run  out  m 

it4<  of  rii(lit  mill  I1n^ 

oiii--rii;lith  nuutir<il 

|of  the  funt  Ixwt.  ilic 

h«lu  nr<>  I'dtiiiitilfi 

tiike   thrir  utallDr.i 

from  thi'Hv  niotiuiii, 


a  wounded  whale, 
Htruck,  «i'cor(liiii;t« 
lal,  ix  aliont  ihiiii 
rvi'il   win   filty-iiu 
vc   In't'ti  infonnni,  | 
ia>ii  ail  lioiir  aiiJi 
k,  and  Vi't  linn  re  j 
rt'iitcr  the  mIikiIi, 
wliich  it  dfsoen:-, 
r4    under   watir.  m  I 
t«-iil  of  it»  e.xh»ut 
if  ari'oiniihidiiiii;  lU  I 
ariiii?,  the  HH*hii:ii  I 
utiiioKt  ft|H'ei),  mi 
duii^e^  hi«  Larji'Mi  I 
,  four,  or  iiiorf,  v-  [ 
'he  nature  of  iVJ 
-     '  ueHccnii*  fwil 
'  '-  pooii,  and  I 
jiur  .  'otlie  iiurlaf(,[ 
dr.    It  \H  uftornujl 
are   ihrunl   inii  lul 
th,  when  exhaintfJI 
f  lilood  which  llml 
HireiiiiiH,  it  iiiiliawl 
ilisoUariiiiik'  ft"i'.ili| 
i;  with  the  nirA'l 
1  rinully  jel<»fiy| 
iirouiid,  '\!i  A\n\  m'il 
iiicii,  an-  Homi'iisKil 
I  i*  likcwibe  UL'i'l 


^  I  b  i>*<l  fKlllelK  of  nil,  whieh  f  ludm  (Vom  Itx  wound*, 
fjn  in)\)tmn  on  Ihn  lurfae*  of  ihK  «>«. 

"Iti  tliinl  eapturn  in  •oniKliineii  {ireiedrH  It.  x  '-nnvul- 
(ivt  atruKKle.  ui  whieh  it»  tail,  reared,  whirled,  and  vio- 
lently jerked  in  the  air,  reMiiiiuU  to  the  dialnner  of  inileii. 
In  dyinif,  it  tlirim  on  itM  haek  or  nn  ita  aide,  whieh  joy- 
ftd  cireuniatanen  U  aiinouneeil  hy  the  eujitiirera  with 
lh«  alrikint(  of  Iheir  flaK«,  aeeompanied  hy  three  |j>'<-! 
hui«aa !" 

The  writer  of  thi«  nniiniited  deaeriplinn  |inint»  out 
how  reiiiarkalily  iiiiture  Meeina  to  iiHaiat  niiiti  in  the  rup- 
ture of  the  wliiile.  Ily  no  eirnrta  of  ita  huiluiii  iiaaiill 
ant*  eoiilil  Ihi'  alreiiKth  of  the  ereatiirelie  ao  far  rediieer 
a.4  to  perinil  of  ita  deatruelion,  were  it  not  thuf  iIh  iI,  . 
ireiit,  lliroiii{h  IViKhl,  to  n  di'pth  of '/DO  or  HOO  liithiin  -, 
inu^t  auhjii't  ita  liialy  to  the  eihiiuatiiiK  preaaiire  o, 
more  lliiiii  '-JOO.OOO  toiia  of  au|M'riiirumlient  waU'rl  It 
ii  throiii;li  thia  eiiiiae  rather  than  from  the  wouiida  the 
whale  liaa  reeeived,  that  it  eoiiiea  to  the  Hurfii<-e  in  an 
belpleaa  a  atiile  of  exhiiuation.  The  apare  of  time  in 
whii'h  dilfereiit  individiiul*  are  captured  and  killed, 
rarii'i  I'onaidernMy,  and,  in  part,  for  the  aaine  reamii. 
Ltr([e  whalea  'lUive  'K-er  aomeliniea  killed  in  twenty 
minutPi  whil'  '<i  ol'irr  InNtaneea,  the  aniiiml  coata  lila 
Mwilan*'  0  '  ,le  '  '   aixteen  luuira'  duration,  and  in 

lome  "mr  ".  .  ■  n<  •,  and  may  eHrupr  from  tlirm 
tftf  Ml  Til.'  RVeni  1'  time,  under  fiivoiirHlde  rireiiin- 
»l«ili''  in  '""'  hour,  liiil  two  nr  three  hoiira  are  no  iiii> 
ruin.,.  I  ,  1  "  I  for  tho  ronteat  to  laat,  even  in  favoiir- 
Mc  circniiih'  incea.     Two  harpoona  uaually  deapatch  a 

lale  of  middling  aize,  and  itj«  movementa  may  coin, 
inoiily  Ih'  r<  trained  within  the  limitu  of  «()()  falhoma 
at  line.  •  C'l  I'.e  eareer  or  fliffht  of  a  llrat-aiT.e  whale, 
no  cheek  ran  lie  placed,  until  ita  own  cxertiona  exhauat 
Hi  puwori. 

The  eaae  with  whieh  acme  whalea  are  auUliied,  and 
the  aliRlitneHM  of  the  entanglement  hy  which  they  are 
taken,  have  onen  Iwen  the  cause  of  iiKreeiilile  aurpriae  to 
lUliera.  'I'lie  fojlowinn  cane  would  almoat  incline  one  to 
iiffuac  the  whale  of  a  dei^ree  of  atupidity  unknnwn  amoiiR 
the  loweat  of  the  hruto  creation  : — "  A  whnle  waa  atruck 
from  one  of  the  Imata  of  tho  ahip  Nautilua  in  Davia' 
Slraita.  Ft  wan  killed,  and,  aa  ia  uaual  after  the  capture, 
it  waa  diNcntiiiiifleil  of  the  lino  connected  with  tho  first 
'fiut-lHiat.'  by  dividing  it  within  ei^ht  or  nine  yarda  of 
the  hjrpxin.  The  crew  of  the  Ixiat  from  which  the  fiali 
wai  first  atruck,  in  tlie  mean  time,  were  employed  in  heav- 
ing in  ihe  linen,  liy  mciiia  of  a  crank  fixed  in  the  boat  for 
the  purpoae,  which  tiny  pro^rcaaivcly  ellcclid  for  some 
lime.  On  a  aiidden,  however,  to  their  (jrent  iistonish- 
meiit,  the  lines  were  pulled  awiy  from  them,  with  tho 
nme  force  anil  violence  as  hy  a  whale  when  flritt  atruck. 
They  repented  their  Hi){nal,  indicative  of  a  whalo  Ikmii;; 
rtruck;  their  ahipmatea  lliM'ked  towarda  them;  and  while 
every  one  expriiaaed  a  aimilar  degree  of  natimiahment 
with  Ihcmmdvei,  they  all  agreed  that  a  fwh  waa  fast  to 
the  line.  In  a  few  ininutea  they  were  agreeably  con- 
6rined  in  their  n|iinion,  and  relievi  t  from  au.<ip<MiA«\  hy 
the  rixiiii;  of  a  large  whale  cloao  bv  .Mem,  exhauated  with 
fatigue,  and  having  every  np|>euriuice  of  a  foat-llNh.  It 
Drimitted  it  .  "■  to  Ih>  atruck  by  ac^'  ral  har|X>ona  at  once, 

1  waa  8;H>cdily  kilM.  On  e\;iiiuniiig  it  niter  diiitli, 
ui(lis(ovi'r  the  Cf.  laii  of  auch  an  iiiteresling  aciiilent,  tlvv 
iHiiid  the  line  bi>lon;ring  to  the  ab.ive-mi'ntioned  biiit  in  ita 
mouth,  where  it  waa  .still  lirmK  llxed  by  the  compreasioii 
Jl  itM  lip>i.  Tlio  occasi  ii.  <>>  this  happy  and  puzzlin£! 
arci  h-nt  w.ia  llicreforo  solvci!  The  eud  of  tlic  line,  nfUr 
beiii.;  cut  from  the  whi  le  lir.sl  kiUed,  was  in  the  act  of 
tiiikiii.;  ill  llie  water;  the  fisl  in  .|uc»ii  >ii,  engaged  in 
feciliii;.',  waa  advainiiin  with  it^  rii.n,lh  vide  open,  und 
ac  iilcntally  caught  the  line  b.'twe.  it^i  ex  ten, led  jaws — 
•  *'iisalii)ii  so  utli'rly  unu-  d  la  th  it  pioducixl  by  the 
liiii',  had  induced  il  to  aliui  lU  mouth  and  giasp  the  line, 
*;iii.li  waa  the  cauao  of  ito  alarm,  au  liruily  bctweea  ila 


I.-. 


lipa,  aa  to  produce  the  elTert  jiial  itated.     ThU  rlrrum 
ainnce  tmik  plare  many  year*  aRO,  but  a  aimilar  on*  nu 

ciirred  in  the  year  IN  14." 

Another  caae  of  raay  rapture,  thouoh  one  not  <niite  «r 
diaparaging  to  the  intellect  of  Ihe  whale,  hua  livan  rrconlcil 
by  Hcoreahy  : — "  A  harpooner,  lirhitiiiiiig  to  Ihe  I'riiii-a 
of  l)ra/il,  of  Hull,  had  atruck  a  aninll  llah.  Il  deaaendnl. 
and  remiiined  for  amne  time  quiet,  and  i.t  leimtli  a|>|n'arpil 
to  he  dinwiied.  The  atrain  on  the  line  iMiing  lh<n  con- 
sldcrahle.  It  waa  taken  tn  the  ahip,  with  a  view  of  heaving 
the  flah  op.  The  force  recpii  ale  for  perliimiing  Ihia  oi*-. 
ration  waa  rtlnoirlv  varioua ;  aotnetiineii  the  line  cniiie 
^^  r  eaae.at  niheni.  u  ipinntity  waa  wilhdrawn  with  iricni 
three  and  rapidity,  Ai  auch.  It  np|ieilird  evnlent  linn  Ihe 
flah  waa  yi  i  .'"•e.  The  heaving,  however,  waa  (a'rvi'lisl 
in,  and  al\er  the  iireatt  r  pirt  of  Ihe  linea  had  Ixn  ii  drawn 
on  Niaid,  a  dead  (lah  apiM-ar  .1  «>  l^"  »urtiice,  aecur»-d  by 
Hcvenil  liiriia  of  the  line  round  il  ~  i  .'x  It  waa  diaeii- 
tangled  \N  ih  diiriciilly,  and  waa  contiil.  ir.iv  la  jievetl  la 
be  the  wbiile  tin  v  had  stMick,  Hut  wlii-ii  the  lim;  waa 
clearcil  from  the  fiah,  It  proved  to  lie  merely  Ihe  ■  biahl,' 
for  the  end  alill  hung  |>erpendicnl'i  ly  downward  \%  hut 
waa,  then,  their  aurpriae  to  find  that  it  Waa  '.  ^U  pudli'd 
away  with  cnnaiilerable  force !  The  cn|mtaii  waa  again 
rcHiirted  In,  and  ahorlly  niterwania  they  hove  up.  alio 
deail,  the  fiah  nriginallv  atrurk,  with  tli><  liarpooit  aiiil 
fast.  Hence  it  appeared,  that  the  lixh  t>t»t  drawn  up 
bad  got  accidentady  entanuleil  with  the  line,  ami  in  ita 
alriiuglca  to  eiira|N>  had  atill  farther  involved  iljudl',  by 
winding  the  line  re|ieatedly  round  ita  liody.  The  firat 
tiah  entangled,  aa  waa  aua|ierteil.  had  long  la'eii  dead; 
and  it  waa  this  lucky  interhijier  that  oecasioned  tho  jiika 
and  nther  ainglllnr  ilfecla  obaervnl  on  tin     ine." 

The  whale-tiahing  la  apt  to  lie  iin|H'deil.  la  may  rieadily 
bo  imagined,  hy  tho  great  iiiaaaea  of  n  everywhere 
abounding  in  the  northern  aea*.  .The  u  al  couri*  irf 
proceedinga  in  o|ion  water  hiia  licen  dearri,  d ;  in  dilii'iv 
rnt  eircumatancea,  dilFeient  plana  imiMt  c  ailupleii 
Viirk-finlnnu  ia  the  name  given  to  the  rh,«ao  oi  ilii'  while 
nn  the  hordera  of  eloae  packs  of  diitl-ice.  'i  ic  animal 
hives  to  shelter  liiava.at  bulk  under  the  Ice  of  II  »»■  trozen 
innaiH's,  and,  when  atruck.  iisimlly  (lies  to  them  i  ■■  n  fuite, 
thus  endangering  the  lines  and  lives  of  the  w,  ilemin. 
The  rommon  method  of  providing  against  such  coniin. 
genries,  is^ither  tn  strike  the  fish  with  two  li.  i;iooim 
from  dirtcrent  boats  at  the  same  moment,  or  to  m'ix  the 
line  of  a  second  boat  tn  that  of  the  one  from  win  '\  the 
whale  has  been  liarponned,  so  that  the  strength  <  two 
lilies  is  brou'_'ht  into  play  against  the  fish.  801111-  :in>«, 
when  the  flsli  gets  enti'Ugled  in  tho  drill-ice,  the  »  en- 
tii'ous  seamen  climb  over  it,  and  lance  tho  animal  iom 
that  perilous  ;.ic.".inn.  Altogether,  park-lishing  is  trouide- 
soiiii'  and  dangiTOUs,  and  were  it  not  that  the  lai:  t 
whi  les  oOen  resort  to  such  situatiuiis,  whalers  wo^  id 
so'l  >m  attempt  to  fish  there. 

On  tlie  other  hand,  yi(7(/-//<AiHg,  as  it  is  caned,  or  fisii- 
ing  on  the  edges  of  those  wide  connected  plums  of  io- 
termed  ti"ld.i,  is  one  of  the  most  productive  of  all  the  mode 
of  fishing  prosucuted  in  tho  (iret'iiland  seas.  \V  hen  tin 
weather  ia  tolerably  mild,  it  is  also  a  pretty  aecuiu  mode. 
The  most  marked  of  the  advantages  held  out  by  ficld- 
fishiiig,  ia  llio  ctirtailment  of  th>'  rangu  of  the  whale's 
moveineiita.  When  harpooned,  it  cuininonly  dewenda 
oblii|iiely  Is'iieuth  Ihe  field,  and,  being  unable  to  ris< 
through  llie  ice,  is  forced  to  return  to  the  edge,  or  nearly 
to  ttie  spot  where  it  made  Ihe  plunge.  Thus,  the  .diipV 
b'inls.  if  stationed  along  the  margin  of  the  field,  can  u' 
once  harpoon  it  11  second  time,  and  despatch  it.  In  open 
water,  tho  » liale.  by  rising  at  a  spot  liir  apart  Ironi  when 
It  div.-d,  ginis  tune  to  breathe  freely  and  recruit  il>- 
atreii'^lh,  and  so  either  hroiiks  away  altogether,  or  great!) 
protracts  the  struggle.  For  this  reason,  sin  boats  at  a  lieli' 
will  do  toe  Work  of  twelve  in  o|H'Ii  sea.  I'wo  or  iiion 
iah  are  fteijuently  taken  iit  a  tie'.d  at  one  time,  and  on  r 


20 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


purticular  occaiion  six  fish  were  nrtually  cnpturoJ  nt  otre 
by  tho  seven  bouts  of  n  sini»Io  ship.     Kvcii  in  Hiich  woa- 
Uier  as  rehdera  fisiiing  impractio.ablo  elsowhoro,  ficlil-fish- 
ing  can  be  jiroscciiUxl  with  snocess.     But  there  arc  dis- 
sdvantttires  also  att,!:,!ant  on  this  mode.     The  luovetnents 
of  fields  of  ieo  -iro  so  ra[)id,  varioim,  and  unaa-ounttible, 
and  their  [wwcrs  of  doing  mischief  so  unlimited,  that  the 
utmost  prudence  and  skill  cannot  entirely  secure  veswils 
lying  in  their  vicinity  from  the  risk  of  severe  damage  or 
total  destruction.     Small  fields   or   floes   are   cs|H'(;ially 
dangerous,  particularly  if  they  contain  small  cracks  or 
noles  in  the  centre  of  them.     The  chance  of  a  sudden 
movement  in  such  floes  is  much  greater  that  in  the  case 
of  the  large  fields,  and,  moreover,  after  bcinR  struck,  the 
whale  generally  makes  for  the  apertures  in  the  ice,  and  there 
breathes  freely,  rendering  it  necessary  for  the  men  to  cross 
the  field  on  foot,  and  despatch  their  prey  with  l\w  lance. 
Even  when  they  succeed  in  doing  this,  there  is  no  way 
of  getting  out  tho  whale  but  by  sinking  it,  and  dragging 
it  from  below  the  ice,  at  the  great  risk  of  pulling  out  the 
harpoon  altogt.thcr;  or  by  cutting  the  blubber  away,  and 
transporting  it  over  the  surface  of  the  floe,  piece  by  piece. 
Thew  operations  are  attended  with  vast  lalxiur  and  loss 
of  time.     ".Vs  connectetl  with  this  subject  (says  Captain 
Scoresby),  I  cannot  pa.ss  over  a  circunisiani-e  which  oc- 
cu.red  within  my  own   ol)icrval!(>n,  and  which  excited 
my  highest  admiration.     On  the  8th  of  July,  1811),  tho 
sliip  Esk  lay  by  the  ed^'e  of  a  sheet  of  ice,  iji   which 
were  several  thin  parts,  and  sojue  holes.     Here  a  fish  be- 
ing heard  blowing,  a  harpoon,  with  a  line  connected  to  it, 
was  com  eyed  across  the  ice  from  a  boat  on  gu.ird,  and 
the  harpooner  succeeded  in  -jtrikiiig  the  whale  at  a  dis- 
tance of  ;!o()  yanls  fri)m  the  verge.     It  dragged  out  ten 
lines  (2  too  yanis).  and  was  sujijioscd  to  b<'  seen  blowing 
in  dilfercnt  ho.e:;  in  the  ice.     .\fter  some  time  it  hap- 
pened to  make  its  apjH'arance  on   the  exterior,  when  a 
harpoon  was  struck   at  the  moment  it  was   proceeding 
a^din  iK-noath.     About  100  yards  I'roin  the  edye,  it  broke 
the  ice  where  it  wius  a  f(M)l  in  thickness  with  its  crown, 
and  resp'red  through  theo|)ening.     It  IJien  determinatcly 
pushed  forward,  breaking  tlie  ice  as  it  advanced,  in  spite 
of  the  lances  constantly  dircctcil  against  it.     It  reached, 
at  Iciigth,  a  kind  of  basin  in  the  field,  where  it  floateil  on 
the  surface  of  llie  water  without  any  encumbrance  from 
ice.     Its  back  being  fairly  exposed,  the  har|MX)n,  struck 
from    the?    U)at  on    the  oul^ide,  was  ob8erve<l  to  be  so 
ilightly  entangled  that  it  was  ready  to  drop  out     Some 
of  the  ollicers  lamented  this  circuinstaiiee,  and  expressed 
a  wish  that  the  harpiKin  were  U'tler  fast;  observing,  at 
the  saiiic  lime,  that  if  it  should  slip  out,  the  whale  would 
either  Ix?   lost  or  they  would  Ix'   under  the  necessity  of 
cutting  it  up  where  it  lay,  and  of  ilragging  the  pieces  of 
blubber  over  tlie  ice  to  the  shi]! — a  kind  and  degree  of 
!,.lK)ur  wliiili  every  one  was  anxious  to  avoid.     No  sooner 
\»as  llie  wish  expressed,  and  its  im|iortunce  made  known, 
than  one  of  the  sailors,  a  smart  and  enterprising  fellow, 
flepjH'd  forward  and   voliintcere.l   his  S4rvice8  to  strike 
it   lielter    in.     Not    at   all    intimidated   by  the   surprise 
\Thich  was   uianilesled  in   eiery  countenance   by  ^uch   a 
bold  proposal,  he  (allied  on'  his  pocket-knife,  leaiK'd  U[)on 
the  back   of  the  living  whale,  and  immediately  cut  the 
liorpiwn  ouU     Stimnlate.l   by  this  conragi  ous  exainpli', 
one  of  liLs  companions  proceeded  to  his  assist.nKC.     While 
file  of  them  hauled  upon  tUv  hue  and  held  it  in  his  hands, 
the   otlnr  s«-t   his  shoulder  auainst  the   extremity  of  the 
h»r|)OLin,  and  though  it  was  willmut  a  stock,  he  contrived 
Uj  Ktrike   It  again  into  the  fish  more  elleeliially  than  it 
woM  at  first ;  the  fish  was  in  motion  bt'fore  tbey  finished. 
Alter  they   got  olf  itj>  Imck,  it   ailvanced  a  coiisicU'rable 
dixUnce,  breaking  tlic  ice  all  the  way,  and  survive  d  this 
unconniioi.  tri'alment  ten  or  fifteen   niiiiules.     'I'los  ad- 
■uuable  art  was  an  essential  benefit.     The  fish  fortunately 
•rink  apontaneouily  after  lieing  killed,  on  which   it  was 
OttuW  out  to  the  edge  of  the  ice  by  the  line,  and  HeeurcJ 


without  further  trouble.     It  provet  a  stout  whale,  and  m 
acceptable  priie." 

If  whalers  could  choose  their  own  ground  for  fishing, 
many  of  them  would  probably  prefer  a  position  amonq 
open,  navigable  drift-ice,  where  the  force  of  the  Bea  ia 
broken,  and  lieavy  swells  prevented  froir.  alTecting  tbj 
vessel.  This  kind  of  fishing  is  called  o/jo.  pnik-Jisinni^ 
and  is  held  to  he  advanfngeons  for  the  capt  jr(!  of  whale*, 
Where  the  ice  is  crowded,  however,  and  alfords  rooii\ 
for  boats  to  pass  through  it,  the  chase  Inicomes  difficult 
and  hazardous.  Still,  as  the  fishers  must  take  the  seas 
as  they  find  them,  fishing  is  often  conducted  in  this  situa- 
tion  of  tliirurs.  Success  di'i>ends  on  the  boats  lieing  spread 
widely,  on  the  incessant  watchfulness  of  the  harpooncrs, 
and  on  their  occasionally  taking  the  benefit  of  a  niassof 
ice,  from  the  elevation  of  which  the  fish  may  sometimri 
be  seen  blowing  in  the  interspaces.  (Vlerily  in  rowing, 
and  the  hijihest  degree  of  activity  in  all  the  proceedings, 
can  alone  give  a  chance  of  success  in  open  pack-fishing. 

Whalers  must  also  1h!  prepared  to  meet  and  combat  all 
the  dilliculties  attemling  the  prosecution  of  their  employ, 
meiit  in  storms  and  /'gs.  When  a  gale  occurs  during  a 
chase,  and  after  a  fish  has  In-en  harpooned,  fishers  are  ofler, 
obliged  to  cut  the  lines  and  let  the  prize  go.  Sometimes 
this  takes  place  even  when  the  fish  is  killed,  and  it  is 
worthy  of  remark  that  a  whale  so  aliandoned  becomes  the 
lawful  prize  of  the  ship  that  first  gets  hold  of  it,  thoiij;h 
this  may  occur  in  the  face  of  the  original  captors.  But 
it  is  common  enough  for  whalers  during  a  stonn  to  keep 
a  fish  secured  by  a  hawser  to  the  ship,  and  to  retain  it 
thus  till  tho  return  of  niodeiate  weather.  Few  wh.dors 
venture  to  commence  fishing  while  a  storm  exists,  and  it 
is  a  matter  of  equal  ditTiculty  and  uncertainty  to  fish 
during  a  fog.  The  mist  on  such  occasions  is  so  thick 
that  it  is  impossible  to  sec  objects,  however  large,  al>o\o 
100  or  LW  yards  otT;  and  when  a  boat  is  led  away  by 
the  chase  to  such  a  distance  that  a  Ik'U  or  a  horn  cniinul 
be  heard,  its  situation  becomes  very  perilous.  The  only 
rule  in  these  cases  is  to  make  every  possible  exertion  frti 
the  rapid  despatch  of  the  whale,  and  if  this  be  iniprao- 
ticable,  to  leave  it. 

Captain  Scoresby  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the 
plan  pursued  by  himself  in  buy-id  fi^ltinn.  Being  lock(\i 
up  with  his  ship  in  a  field  of  thin  bay-ice  that  was  unfit 
in  niatiy  plaws  to  licar  a  man's  weight,  he  placed  a  num- 
l)er  of  boats  in  various  o|H'nings  which  existed  a  Awi 
way  from  the  vessel.  When  a  whale  came  to  these 
a|H'rtures  to  breathe,  it  was  struck,  and  the  men  endea- 
voured to  drown  it,  when  it  darted  below  the  ice^by  keej>. 
ing  a  steady  straui  on  the  line.  If  this  plan  failed,  Ca|>- 
tain  Scoresby  planted  his  feet  in  a  pair  of  ice-shoes,  fornirj 
simply  of  thin  deal-boards,  to  the  centre  of  which  the  fc( ' 
were  tied,  and  then  he  Isddly  crossed  the  thin  ice  to  the 
|>oint  whet<;,  by  the  direction  of  tlw  line,  he  knew  the  (\A\ 
would  rise.  In  three  instances  he  was  fortunate  enough  to 
•ee  the  wiiale  through  the  ice  ami  to  plunge  his  harp^ioii 
into  its  b>Mly,  alter  which  he  used  his  lance,  till  in  each 
cas»'  the  fish  was  killed.  The  fish  actually  row  once  i\ 
twice  U'liealh  the  very  spot  where  he  sloiul,  and  linkc 
through  the  ice  with  its  head.  He  v,.is  lucky  eiiouuh  to 
eK<M|H'  all  injury,  however,  though  the  ice  in  mo.vt  pl.icfs 
could  not  have  Uirne  the  weight  of  a  boy  staiulini:  in 
common  shoes.  This  kiml  of  bayice  fi>.hing,  thoiigli 
successful,  will  be  regarded  by  most  |  ersoim  a^  someulial 
daring  and  iiazardous. 

Of  course,  in  all  these  various  ways  of  fishing,  rir- 
cu^M^lancl•s  now  and  tin  n  (Hcur  which  set  at  dcliaine  all 
oriliiiaiy  rules.  The  whale,  for  example,  when  sirucli 
near  the  margin  uf  a  sm  ill  floe,  is  usiuilly  held  in  restrain, 
ami  killed  by  the  use  of  the  lines  from  at  most  /no  Ihi:iI  . 
On  the  'itA\\  of  June,  181'.J,  howi'ver,  a  harpooiier  1h- 
longing  t.i  the  Kesolulion  of  Whitby,  struck  a  fish  cle,u> 
by  a  suiall  Ibx",  under  which  it  disap|N'ared.  Assisluiuf 
was  ijuickly  given,  and  asi'cond  isiat's  lines  wore  attaibn' 


THE  WHALE. 


1B1 


tie,  and  ht 

Foi  fishinH, 
on  umonq 
the  sea  is 
reclinjr  the 

nrk-jU'iinc;, 

of  wh;il(-«, 
fords  rootn 
ins  diifiruU 
kc  tlio  seu 
I  this  situa- 
ting spread 
harpooncrs,  ' 
f  a  muss  of 
r  somctimrs 

in  rowing, 
proceedings, 
nrk-fishing. 
1  combat  all 
>eir  employ- 
urs  during  a 
ers  arc  often 
Sometimes 
ed,  and  it  is 
becomes  the 
of  it,  thoui^h 
aplors.     Bill 
tonn  to  keep 
I  to  retain  it 
Few  wli.ilors 
exists,  and  it 
auity  to  fish 
8  is  so  thick 
r  large,  sil>o\c 

led  away  by 
L  horn  cnnnut 
,K.     The  only 

•  exertion  frti 
be  imprao- 

'count  of  the 
Being  Kx-k<\i 
:it  was  unfit 
■ed  a  num- 
li'd  u  short 
to  these 
men  eiiJca- 
ii'Cfby  keei>- 
failed,  Ca|>- 
dioes,  fornirj 
liieh  the  fc<' 
in  ice  to  the 
new  the  fifh 
ite  enough  to 
his  hariwoii 
till  in  each 
r(i«'  once  n 
d,  and  hvrkc 
y  eiioui;h  to 

^IO^I  |i|,icf9 

standinir  in 
ing,  thiiiigli 
,1-i  HOintwlial 

fishing,  cir- 
dcfiaii'C  uli 
l\lien  struck 
J  in  restraiht, 
1st  lull  Imal  . 
Irjiooner  Ik^ 
1  H  fish  citut 

AH^istUIUf 

l«ru  uttatk'i' 


M  thoie  of  tl  >  fast-boot  (or  boat  attacnrd  to  fine  whalo), 
iflrfr  which  it  was  left  by  the  other  boatmen,  who  spread 
not  for  a  second  stroke.  But  in  a  short  time  distress 
ninialB  were  made  by  the  fast-boat,  and  before  aid  could 
be  afforde<l,  the  men  wore  soon  to  throw  themselvea  into 
Uie  SI'S.  Immediately  afterwarda  the  bow  of  the  boat 
mnk  n  -ho  water,  the  stem  roso  in  the  air,  and  the 
whole  majesticolly  disappeared.  An  accidental  cireum- 
itance  had  prevented  tho  cutting  of  the  linos.  The  men 
were  picked  up,  uiul  a  search  commenced  for  the  whale. 
It  wa»  ere  long  seen,  and  no  less  than  three  harpoons, 
each  having  a  boat  and  its  lines  attached  to  it,  were  buried 
in  the  animal's  body.  E\cry  one  imagined  that  all  was 
•  now  secure  iM-yonil  risk.  Not  bo,  however;  the  whale 
pushed  impetuously  forward,  and  soon  the  men  of  one 
boat  found  their  lines  run  out,  and  were  obliged  to  cut 
them.  'l"he  hariwon  of  another  boot  wo»  drawn  out 
(rom  the  body  of  tho  fish,  and  now  one  boat  only  re- 
mained in  connection  with  the  animal.  The  creature 
itill  darted  forword  with  the  velocity  of  light,  anil  not 
only  pulled  out  the  lines  of  the  remaining  boot,  but  made 
It  fly  along  like  on  arrow.  At  length  tho  line  snopt,  ond 
the  whale  went  olV  free,  with  a  boat  and  6720  yards,  or 
ibout  3^  English  miles,  of  line  behind  it.  The  obstruc- 
lion  to  its  progress,  caused  by  the  sunken  boat,  and  by 
the  lines  also,  which  weighed  35  ewt.,  must  have  been 
immense,  yet  the  whale  pushed  on  with  imaliated  vigour. 
It  was  pursued,  and  about  tnt  iiiilm  from  the  spot  where 
it  Wis  first  siruek,  it  was  again  struck  by  four  harpoons, 
tnd  yielded  at  length  toils  fate.  (Calculating  the  addi- 
tional lines  used  at  the  death,  this  tish  ran  out  nearly  six 
miles  of  lines.  The  boat  ond  31,'J()0  yards  of  line  were  lost. 
Afl*r  all,  the  whale  proved  to  lie  one  but  of  the  sf  cond  or 
third  size.  But  the  largest  are  by  no  means  the  most 
difficult,  in  general,  to  kill. 

The  harpoon  does  not  always  prmlucc  a  fatal  loss  of 
Mood,  even  alfer  the  lapse  of  a  considerable  period.  .An 
Aberdeen  whaler  struck  a  fish,  which  got  olf  in  conse- 
Quencc  of  a  storm  m-curring,  and  rendering  it  necessary 
to  cut  the  lines.  Next  day  the  same  fish  was  struck, 
uid  again  got  off;  and  on  the  third  day  the  identical 
whale  was  f.  third  time  harpooned,  and  captured.  A 
Irfith  whaler,  in  1817,  pursued  a  fish  which  survived 
forty  hours  after  being  first  harpooned,  although  in  the 
interval  four  other  hnrpoons  were  launched  into  its  body. 
This  animal  continued,  through  tho  greater  part  of  the 
long  periml  mentioned,  to  fly  at  great  sjiced,  dragging  six 
liotts  through  the  water.  Finding  that  nothing  done  by 
Ijie  .HJatnieii  could  arrest  its  course,  the  lines  were  taken 
on  board  the  ship,  which  had  fidlnwcd  the  boats.  Strange 
lo  say,  the  strength  of  the  creature  was  so  great,  even 
nAeT  its  wounds,  and  its  long  and  most  exhausting  run, 
that  it  dragged  the  shi;)  in  the  teeth  of  a  brisk  wind  tor 
in  hour  aad  a  half,  at  the  rate  of  two  knots  an  hour, 
thmigh  the  sails  were  arranged  so  as  to  make  every  pos- 
dible  resistance,  ond  to  the  best  advantage.  Tho  whale 
proved  to  be  of  a  size  proportioned  to  the  immense 
ftrfngth  which  it  displayed. 

Whales  on  being  struck  are  sometimes  able  to  eject  the 
liariioon,  by  a  sudden  swelling  out  or  hea'ing  of  the 
l«xly.  A  curious  case  is  on  record,  where  a  whale  dist'n- 
W^ed  the  harpoon  in  this  manner,  and  caused  it  to  spin 
hish  up  in  the  air.  Hut  the  poor  fish  did  not  save  itself. 
Having  got  rid  of  the  weapcin,  it  turni'd  suddenly  over 
U|K)r  its  back,  anil  the  falling  harpoon  entered  the  under 
jiart  of  its  body,  and  sank  so  deeply  into  it  os  to  cause  its 
(jM^cdy  caiilnre. 

Having  killi-1  a  fish,  tie  first  openition  performed  by 
the  sailors  is  t<i  pierce  two  holes  in  its  tail  anil  to  lash  it 
10  a  lioiit,  The  fins  are  also  roped  to  the  luxly,  and  then 
she  whole  of  die  boats,  joined  in  a  line,  unite  their  ellbrts 
111  towing  it  to  the  ship.  Here  it  is  placed  with  its  side 
|in»llcl  to  that  i/  the  vessi'l.  and  is  airangei!  for  the  ojw- 
noioii  of  flrrii iig     In  conseijuencu  of  its  eiiorinoua  weight, 

v«L.i.— 1« 


it  cannot  bo  ra  sed  altogether  out  of  tho  water.  Only 
about  one-fif\h  part  of  its  body  is  brought  abov<«  the  Bnr» 
face,  and  here  it  is  firmly  secured  by  ro[)es,  wit),  the  abdo. 
men  uppermost  Men,  armed  with  spurs  on  their  feet  to 
prevent  slipping,  then  leap  on  the  body,  and  begin  to 
divide  the  fat  and  akin  into  separate  pieces  or  compart- 
ments, by  means  of  blubber  knives  or  spades.  A  hook 
called  a  spec-tackle,  which  hongs  from  a  capstern  or  win"h 
on  deck,  is  attached  to  each  piece  of  fat,  and  draws  it 
upwards  as  it  is  flayed  oflT.  Pieces  weighing  from  half  a 
ton  to  a  ton  arc  taken  up  at  a  time  in  this  manner,  and 
are  cut  on  deck  into  smollcr  pie<-es,  which  are  then  cast 
down  into  the  main  hatches  ami  stowed  away.  On  the 
blubber  being  removed  from  one  part,  the  whole  is  turned 
partially  round  by  the  roiws  and  windlass,  ond  this  cut- 
ting and  turning  are  repeated  until  the  whalebone  and 
blubber  have  all  been  reinovrd.  The  stripped  carcass  ii 
then  ollowed  to  sink.  Sharks  and  filmars  often  help 
themselves  to  the  refuse  blubber,  but  they  not  unfre- 
quenlly  pay  for  their  audacity  with  their  lives.  A  British 
whaling-crew  will  usually  flense  a  common-sijed  whale 
in  four  or  five  hours.  The  o))erution  is  fi)llowed,  when 
the  flens-gut,  or  blubber-box,  under  hatches  is  filled  with 
blubber,  by  another  process  which  is  termed  mnking-ojf, 
from  its  being  the  finishing  process.  The  blubber  is  brought 
on  deck,  separated  from  the  skin  and  fibrous  or  musculnt 
structure,  cut  into  pieces  of  a  few  inches  in  siie,  ar.il 
finally  introduced  into  casks,  through  the  bung-hole. 

The  instinctive  fear  of  being  eniloscd  in  tho  ice  during 
the  cold  seasons,  ond  of  finding  no  apertures  for  respira- 
tion, appears  to  be  the  reason  for  the  descent  of  .the 
whales  into  the  open  and  more  southerly  seas.  In  the 
month  of  July,  when  the  ice  becomes  broken,  the  ceta- 
ceous tribes  again  enter  the  .'\retic  waters,  and  are  unas- 
sailable by  fishers.  The  whalers,  with  a  lesser  or  greater 
amount  of  cargo,  or  perhaps,  if  they  have  been  very  un- 
lucky, with  what  is  emphatically  colled  a  clmn  ship,  are 
then  obliged  to  return  home  to  their  respective  ports, 
where  the  blublicr  is  scparateil  from  its  refuse  and  con- 
verted into  oil  by  boiling,  and  the  whalebone  scraped, 
cleansed,  and  dried  for  sale.  These  operations  require  no 
siM'cial  description,  the  names  of  the  proces.scs  suthciently 
indicating  their  charocter.  The  greatest  cargo  ever  borne 
to  the  shores  of  Britain  by  a  whaling  vessel,  was  that 
brought  from  Spitzbergen  by  Captain  Souter  of  the  Reso- 
lution of  Peterhead,  in  the  year  1814.  It  consisted  of 
44  whales,  which  pioiluced  299  tons  of  oil,  value,  reck- 
oned at  £32  |)er  ton,  the  average  price  of  that  ycai, 
X9,.')68 ;  and  when  to  this  sum  is  added  the  value  of  the 
whalebone,  and  the  bounty,  the  freight  would  appear  to 
have  reached  £11,000.  When  oil  rose  to  £60  per  ton, 
smaller  cargoes,  in  several  instances,  amounted  to  an  equal 
value.  Ill  1813,  the  Scoresbys,  father  and  son,  respec- 
tively brought  home  cargoes  which  prixluced  the  sum 
of  £11,000.  Captain  Scorcsby,  senior,  in  the  course 
of  28  voyages,  captured  the  immense  niimlwr  of  498 
whales,  the  oil  and  wlialelione  of  which  amounted  in 
value  to  above  £1.')0,000  But  few  single  cargoes  pro- 
duce such  sums,  it  must  W.  allowed,  os  £  1 1 ,000,  and  few 
inilividnal  men  have  such  a  career  of  activity  to  look 
back  upon  as  Captain  Sc6rcsby. 

PRKSKNT    CONDITION   OK   THE    WHALE-FISHERY. 

In  the  years  1814,  ISI."),  1816,  and  1817,392  vessels 
sailed  rrom  England,  and  194  from  Scotland,  for  tin." 
whale-fishery.  Of  these,  tho  port  of  Hull,  which  has 
hing  taken  the  precedence  in  this  trade,  sent  out  not  less 
than  229  vessels,  while  London,  .Mierdeen,  I.eith,  and 
Whitby,  the  next  in  proportion,  sent  out  respectively  77, 
fi.'),  40.  and  39.  The  total  number  of  whales  killed  by 
British  ships  in  the  same  years,  was  51130.  They  yielded 
.')4,.')()8  tons  of  oil,  ond  2()97  tons  of  whalebone.  The 
average  to  each  ship  was  8.6  whales,  93  tons  of  oil 
and  4.G  tuns  of  whalebone.     By  coinpurisoii  with  UM 


199 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


following  more  recent  years,  tlie  pro(fre»8ive  condition  of 
the  trade  will  be  seen.  In  1880,  140  vesmls  were  wnt 
from  Great  Britain  to  the  liahety.  In  IHai.when  the 
number  was  greatest,  there  wore  142  ships,  of  44,864 
Ions,  and  with  6074  men  engaged  in  the  service;  in 
1824,  120  shipp,  of  35,194  tons,  and  4867  men.  In 
1829,  a  great  falling  off  hod  taken  place,  the  ships  num- 
bering only  89,  of  28,812  tons.  During  tlio  years  conse- 
quent uiwn  that  period,  a  still  greater  decline  took  place 
in  the  number  of  employed  whale-ships.  In  1832,  there 
were  only  81  engaged  in  the  trade.  In  1837,  the  num- 
ber was  reduced  to  59.  In  1838,  Aberdeen,  which, 
twenty  years  before,  had  sent  out  55  shipx,  sent  only  five 
X  six  from  its  port  The  decline  has  been  similar  witliii) 
ite  last  two  years  in  other  quarters  of  the  island.  This 
unfortunate  change — for  every  declension  in  commerce, 
generally  speaking,  must  be  held  a  misfortune — merits 
mimo  attention. 

The  decline  of  the  British  northern  whale-fisheries  ap- 
pears to  be  owing  to  tlirre  principal  causes.  In  the  first 
place,  the  introduction  of  gas  into  univprsal  use  of  late 
years  in  the  Island,  has  materially  lessened  the  demand  for 
whale-oil,  and  the  necessity  for  its  supply.  In  the  second 
place,  the  former  fishing-lields  around  8pitzl)on<oii  have 
been  greatly  exhausted, and  whalers  have  been  under  the 
necessity  of  venturing  into  more  perilous  lulitudis  for  the 
objects  of  their  pursuit.  The  third  cau^c  is  in  a  incnsure 
a  corollary  of  the  preceding  one.  In  consequence  of  en- 
tering tlic  broken  ice  of  Davis'  Straits  and  other  similar 
aeas,  a  loss  of  life  and  property  has  taken  place  of  lute 
years,  so  extensive  and  alarming,  that  mercantile  men 
have  become  unwilling  to  risk  their  capital,  and  seamen 
their  existence,  in  such  ill-fated  expeditioiin.  The  great 
increase  of  danger  is  shown  by  the  fate  of  the  fi»hing- 
veasela  during  the  last  few  years,  as  caniporvd  with  the 
results  of  former  ones.  Of  586  ships  sent  out  in  1814, 
16,  16,  17,  only  8  were  lost.  In  1819,  out  of  63  ships 
■ent  to  Duvii  Slrails,  10  were  lost;  in  1821,  out  of  79, 
1 1  were  lost ;  in  1 822,  out  of  60,  7  were  lost ;  and  in 
1830,  not  less  than  18  out  of  87  were  lost.  The  mis- 
chief has  progressively  increased.  In  1837,  the  Davis' 
Straits  whale-fleet  lost  neveral  of  its  numlier,  and  many 
Teasels  were  locked  up  in  the  ice  through  tlie  winter,  ti^ 
the  loss  of  the  great"r  part  of  tlieir  crews,  and  at  the  cost 
of  almost  unpartillcled  sufferings  to  the  petty  renmanta 
of  them  which  escu|)ed  with  hfe.  And  wliile  the  perils 
of  the  trade  have  thus  largely  increased,  the  profits,  ow- 
ing to  the  greater  ditficulty  of  finding  whales,  have  suf- 
fered a  corre8()ondiiig  decrease.  In  1830,  24  out  of  the 
87  vessels  sent  out  to  Davin'  Straits,  returned  dean.  Not 
a  fish  was  taken  by  them.  In  the  most  of  tlic  years  that 
have  followed,  the  majority  of  the  whalers  have  returned 
with  comparatively  paltry  freights,  and  many  without  a 
pound  of  lilubber. 

The  declension,  and  ap|iarent  approaching  extinction 
of  the  iiArtherii  whale-lishiiig,  which  has  so  long  lieen  an 
important  pillar  of  our  commercial  greatness,  could  not 
but  excite  uneiuiness  and  regret  in  ihe  minds  of  inanv 
persons  who  have  opportunities  of  making  obsiTvutions 
on  the  subject.  Accordingly,  wo  find  that  various  plans 
have  U'eii  pr()iK>8<'d  for  tlie  revival  of  this  branch  of  the 
trade  of  Britain.  .^Ithounh  we  rimcoive  that  tin  substi- 
tution of  gas  for  oil  is  one  iiniiorlaiit  cuus<>  ol  the  de- 
rroased  anlnur  for  whding  rntiTpriscs,  and  a  cause, 
bmides,  ncillier  to  U"  deplored  nor  cajniblc  of  reincdy, 
and  although  it  also  ai>)«'ars  to  us  that  the  exhausliuii  of 
the  old  wh.ilini;  fields  is  anotlier  source  of  the  evils  coni- 
plaiiir-d  111,  nji,l  ()i„.  oiily  to  be  airci-li'd  by  time,  yet  there 
mi^iil,  we  1(1  Iieve,  U'  pljiis  ailoplrd  which  would  hcl,!  at 
Biice  to  rolore  the  lu<Tati\c  charaitcr  of  the  \vh.ilc--lishe- 
•J.  an  I  to  alli-viate  or  entirely  prevent  the  uusl'ortiiin's 
»Iiicli  ha»e  aileiui.il  lU  jiroiM'culioii  of  laU'  yiars.  The 
RkMl  rational  Kclienic  which  we  have  yet  chanced  to  »ec 


proposod,  ia  contained  in  the  following  extract  froni  llu 
,  Aberdeen  Herald  : — 

"  The  plan  i  i  simply  to  oitablish  a  settlement  of  activr 
and  enterprising  whale  tishers  on  some  favourable  spot  in 
the  vicinity  of  Davis'  Straits,  and  to  employ  only  « 
I  many  large  vessels  as  may  bo  nect-jisary  to  carry  out  pro. 
j  visions  to  the  colony,  and  fetch  home  the  oil,  blulibcr, 
whalebone,  anil  other   articles  which  may  lie  thouglu  ' 
worth  importing.     From  all  the  information  tliat  we  nj 
present  possess,  wo  should  think  that  the  most  eligiblf 
position  for  the  settlement  would  lie  at  Pond's  Bay,  or 
,  somewhere  between  that  and  Lancastitr  Hound,  on  the 
;  west  coast  of  Baffin's  Bay.     There  are  some  situatioi'i 
on   the  north-east  shore   (Prince  Kegent's  Bay,  for  ex- 
ample) that  might  lie  found  suitable;  but  of  late  yearK^ 
:  the  (i.sliers  assert  that  the  whales  have  been  most  pleiiti. 
I  ful  towards  the  other  t;!iorc." 

The  practicability  of  carrying  such  a  plan  into  otfect, 
and  the  advantages  likely  to  result  from  it,  are  the  oiilv 
two  points  that  fall  to  l)e  noticed  here.  The  testimony 
of  recent  travellers,  as  well  as  of  Heumcn  who  have  liein 
compelled  to  winter  in  the  high  latitudes,  goes  to  prove 
the  practicability  of  establishing  and  maintaining  an  etii. 
cicnt  colony,  even  as  far  north  as  the  place  we  have 
pointed  out.  Captain  Ross's  remark,  that '  the  tempera, 
ture  of  sensation  is  more  relative  than  is  imagined,  the 
body  soon  contriving  to  tind  a  new  and  much  lower  acalc 
of  comfortable  or  endurable  heat,'  has  been  complelplv 
verilied  by  all  who  have  visited  the  Polar  regions.  Tli 
attention  now  paid  to  the  quality  of  ship  provisions,  gmi 
the  improved  methods  of  preserving  tliein,  have  not  only 
put  a  stop  to  the  inroads  of  scurvy,  but  have  tended  iiia. 
terially  to  increase  the  I'onifort  of  those  who  choose  lo 
lengthen  their  stay  in  cold  countries.  In  East  Greenland 
there  are  several  Danish  settlements.  Holsti'inbcrg,  within 
the  Arctic  circle,  is  a  small  town,  with  a  church  and  g 
clergyman ;  and  still  higher  up,  at  Lievely,  in  Disco 
Island,  the  chief  Danish  governor  resides.  With  an 
ample  store  of  food  and  clothing,  and  materials  for  col^ 
Ntructing  houses,  there  can  be  no  doulit  that  a  colony  of 
hardy  whalers  would  contrive  to  pass  the  winter  agrepa. 
biy  and  in  comfort.  IVor  would  they  be  de|M;ndent  alio. 
gether  on  the  supplies  carried  with  tlieni,  or  procunj 
Iroin  the  mother  country.  The  musk  ox,  the  reuiditr, 
the  white  bear,  the  hare,  and  a  nu(#ber  of  other  quaiiru- 
|H>ds,  would  aflUrd  them  at  once  sport  and  a  valuablu  ail- 
dition  to  their  means  of  sustiMiunce.  Birds,  too,  and 
fresh  tish  of  various  kinds,  would  not  lie  waiitii>g  to  gwt 
variety  to  their  repasts;  while  lobsters,  mussels,  auJ 
other  shi'll-fi->h,  could  l<e  had  as  abundantly  as  at  home. 
To  avoid  all  risks  of  famine,  it  wimid  Ik'  projter  to  li.no 
always  in  tin;  settlement  provisions  fortwoyears;  allhoujii 
it  could  hardly  ever  hupis'n  that  the  s«'ttlers  would  W  .■« 
coinplelely  shut  up  as  to  lie  iiisccessible  during  the  whoii! 
of  the  summer  months. 

The  advantages  of  hnving  a  numerous  Isnly  of  fishpn 
on  the  s|Mjt,  instead  of  sending  them  out  annually,  un 
easily  1m'  made  apparent,  hit.  There  would  be  a  siiviii,' 
of  outlaid  capital.  For  some  time  past,  the  shijis  mux 
from  (ireat  Britain  to  Davis'  Str.iits  may  have  averatij 
100  each  year;  and  we  believe  we  sptak  within  liiHiU 
when  we  assert,  tliut  the  oil  and  whalelioiie  which  tli' . 
have  lirough'  home  might  easily  have  been  carricj  Iv 
oiii'-filili  of  the  nuiiiltt'r.  !^up|M)se  a  (K'nuanent  colonv  n( 
101)0  fishers  were  established  at  Davis'  !^tr;iit.s,  and  ":' 
of  the  1(10  vessels  eiiijiloyed  in  the  carrying  Iriidi',  i:y 
other  ><0  vessels  inii;ht  at  once  l)e  willuiriiwn,  ni,ik.i,.' 
a  saving  of  outlaid  capital  to  the  extent  of  at  lii-: 
il)*0.00().  Ill  this  lal.'ulation,  we  tai.e  inerely  llu'  iwi 
of  the  slii|is.  as  llie  lio,il.i,  liarpiions,  la-^Us,  auil  ntiirr  .i[> 
pantos,  u.'iil  I'u'  priivi>ions  iii<  luil-d  in  the  nullit.  ui'i,l„ 
all  \h:  leipiireil  in  Ibe  seltli'ioeiil.  '^1,  I'lie  li  lieiv  M.j.ilJ 
have  a  livlter  chance  of  being  succcmIuI,     At  piewui  ii 


THE  WHALE. 


1« 


(tract  fioni  till 

ement  of  krtivf 
;oural)le  ipnt  in 
niploy  only  m 

0  carry  out  pro. 
he  oil,  blubber, 
my  I>e  lUouglu  ' 
ition  tliat  we  al 
ic  most  cligibld 
Pond's  Bay,  or 
'  Sound,  on  the 

Homo  situatiupi 
l'»  lliiy,  for  c\. 
ut  of  lato  years, 
eon  moat  p'euli. 

plan  into  oQecl, 

1  it,  arc  the  onlv 
The  testininny 

[1  who  have  beiii 
li's,  RiH!s  to  provo 
iint4iining  an  elli- 
!  place  we  have 
ittt '  the  tempera, 
is  imagined,  the 
much  lower  scale 
been  completfly 
lar  ronions.    TIk 
ip  provisions,  and 
;in,  have  not  only 
have  tended  iiia. 
iC  who  choose  to 
in  EaHt  Greenland 
olstcinbcrg,  within 
1  a  church  and  a 
Lievely,  in  Disco 
enidca.     With  an 
materials  for  con- 
It  that  a  colony  of 
ithf  winter  agreoa- 
be  dependent  alto. 
Iieni,  or  prix;urij 
ox,  the  reindeer, 
of  other  quadru- 
lid  a  valuable  ail- 
Birds,  too,  and 
|)e  wanlii>i?  to  give 
L>rH,   iuusih>1h,  and 
aiitly  as  at  home. 
Ik'  pr<)|H!r  to  liavp 
oyears;  allhou,;-! 
tiers  would  lie  m 
during  thcwhiiid 

luH  body  of  fishpri! 
lout  aiiuu.dly,  (Jii 
Lvould  l«  a  N:iviii.' 

list,  tllC  Hlli|M  SCil 

lay  have  avetauiJ 
leak  within  hii«u 
i'boiie  which  tit . 
been  carried  ly 
linuiienl  colony  of 
Is'  Straits,  und  ■;:' 
Irryiiin  trade,  i:'f 
ItUdravvn,  iii.ik.u: 
liteiil  of  ut  l.K 
•  iiierrly  the  lu-l 
iiti,  and  oI;mt  .if 
llir  i.ulfil.  w.'!..u 
'he  tMiety  a,i.;;; 
■1.      At  plewiil  11 


■onM.timcs  happens  that  vessels  cannot  get  into  the  proper 
fiabing  station  till  tlie  season  is  so  far  advanced  that  they 
are  under  the  necessity  of  returning  borne  without  lower- 
ing their  boatH,  and  this  difficulty  arises  not  from  the  want 
of  open  sea  within  the  Straits,  but  from  accumulations 
of  ice  urifted  from  the  north  extremity  of  Baffin's  Bay  to 
the  Labrador  coast  A  settlement  of  fishers  wintering 
in«idc,  would  in  most  cases  make  a  good  fishing  before 
the  British  ships  had  penetrated  far  up  the  straits." 

SPERM-WHAI.IC    FI3HBRT. 

It  is  now  our  purpose  to  devote  some  space  to  the  pro- 
ccedinijs  in  the  sperm-whale  fishery,  a  branch  of  maritime 
enterprise  only  inferior  in  importance  to  the  northern 
fishery.  There  is  no  occasion  for  describing  the  vessels 
or  apparatus  employed,  these  being  similar  in  every  essen- 
tial point  to  those  already  described.  Timid  as  it  is,  the 
cachalot  often  causes  such  peril  by  its  convulsive  etforts 
to  escape,  as  render  its  capture  not  less  exciting  than  that 
of  the  iiiysticetus.  Young  bulls,  in  particular,  frequently 
give  a  worbl  of  trouble  to  their  pursuers,  and  sometimes 
turn  ujion  them  with  unlwundcd  fury,  intent  on  mischief, 
and  elfccting  it  both  with  teeth  and  tail.  The  South 
8ca  whalers,  like  their  northern  brethren,  have  their  par- 
ticular cries  and  watchwords  in  the  jnosccution  of  the 
chase.  When  a  whale  is  seen  by  the  man  at  the  look-out, 
tlic  cry  bursts  from  his  lips,  "  There  she  spouts !"  In- 
stantly the  captain  starts  on  .deck,  with  the  responsive 
oxcbination,  "  Where  away  ?"  An  answer  is  scarcely 
needed,  for  all  on  board  soon  jwrceive  the  huge  animal,  blow- 
in?  re;;iiliirly  at  intervals  of  ten  seconds,  if  within  a  mo- 
derate distance.  For  a  half  minute  the  men  stand  gazing, 
anil  at  every  spout  the  spirited  cry  breaks  forth  from  them 
giinultaneously,  "  There  aijain !"  But  idleness  is  not  long 
llio  order  of  the  day.  The  boats  are  lowered,  the  men 
ruih  into  them,  and  soon  are  pulling  towards  the  mon- 
ster, e\£ty  boat  eager  to  reach  him  first  As  they  ap- 
proach, they  see  him  spouting  more  slowly.  "  Ah,  he  is 
going  down  ! — he  will  lie  lost  I" — is  the  exclamation.  But 
one  bo:>t  nears  Iiirn.  "  One  more  spout  (says  Mr.  Beale's 
sniinnled  narrative)  is  seen  slowly  curling  forth — it  is  his 
last  for  this  rising — his  back  is  lient  his  enonnous  tail  is 
expi'i'led  to  appear  every  instant,  but  the  boat  shoots 
rapidly  alongside  of  the  gigantic  creature.  '  Peak  your 
oers!'  exrhiiins  the  mate,  and  directly  they  are  flourished 
in  the  air;  the  gUstening  harpoon  is  seen  above  the 
h«ad  of  the  harpooncr ;  in  an  instant  it  is  darted  with 
unerring  force  and  aim,  and  is  buried  deeply  in  the  side 
of  the  huge  animal.  •  It  is  socket  up ;'  that  is,  it  is  buried 
in  hi<  (lesli  up  to  tlie  socket,  which  admits  the  handle  of 
the  harpoon.  A  cheer  from  those  in  the  boats,  and  from 
tlio  s<'aiuen  on  lioard,  reverlierates  along  the  still  deep  at 
the  same  moment"  Now  the  pained  whale  plunges  vio- 
lently, and  lashes  the  sea  with  his  tail,  so  that  the  noise 
can  lie  hea  I  for  miles.  Suddenly  he  throws  up  liis  tail 
io  the  air,  and  disap|icars.  Out  fly  the  lines,  and  those 
d  another  liout  arc  attached.  Bight  hundred  fathoms  are 
tun  out,  and  at  last  the  whale  re-a]i(>ears  at  the  surface, 
lomewhere  in  thi!  vicinity,  s|iouting  hurriedly  and  agita- 
tedly. By  coiling  their  lines,  the  iHiatnien  run  rapidly  up 
to  hlin,  and  then  the  headsman  buries  his  lance  in  the 
vitals  of  the  trembling  monster.  "  Sti'rn  all !"  is  at  the 
lame  inoMient  vociferated,  and  the  lioat  backs  away  from 
the  siile  of  the  whale.  He  now  lieroines  infuriated,  and 
imlies  al  the  boats,  citleii  upsetling  them.  The  laiuc  is 
t;;ain  driven  into  his  siilcs;  his  motions  licconie  wild  and 
irrejrdar;  and  alter  what  is  ealUd  the  mi>rtal  flurry,  he 
lurM>  .iNcr  oil  his  side,  siiirocated  most  eoinmoiily  by  tho 
ijileri..d  llux  of  IiIihxI  fnun  his  wounds. 

'I'liiH  IS  til  •  geiieial  roi:tine  of  the  speriii-wliiile  capture, 
but  aiiuliiits  occur  to  vary  the  asp«'ct  of  t'.w  allair.  The 
following  whale-chast-  adventures  are  from  the  work  of 
Mr.  IJeali-  :— 

•'On  the  morniii)?  of  tlie  Ibtb  of  Juno,  1832,  while  wo 


were  still  fishing  in  the  '  ofT-shore  ground'  of  Japiui,  we 
fell  in  with  an  immense  sperm  whale,  which  happened  to 
be  just  the  sort  of  one  we  required  to  complete  our  cargo. 
Three  boats  wore  immediately  lowered  to  give  him  chase; 
but  the  whale,  from  some  cause  or  other,  appeared  wild 
in  its  actions  long  before  it  liad  seen  any  of  our  boats, 
although  it  might  have  been  chased  the  day  before  by 
some  other  ship.     It  was  greatly  different  in  its  actiona 
to  most  other  large  whales,  because  it  never  went  steadily 
upon  one   course.     If  he  '  peaked  his  flukes,'  or  went 
down,  going  to  the  southward,  we  expected  he  would 
continue   that  course  under  water,  but  when  lie  again 
rose,  perhaps  he  was  two  or  three  miles  away  from  tho 
lioats  to  the  northward ;  in  this  sort  of  manner  he  dodged 
us  about  till  near  four  p.  m.,  at  which  time  the  men  were 
dreadfully  exhausted  from  their  exertions  in  the  cha»e,which 
had  been  conducted  under  a  broiling  sun,  with  the  ther* 
mometcr  standing  in  the  shade  at  93°.     About  half-past 
four,  however.  Captain  Swain  contrived,  by  the   most 
subtle  management  and  great  physical  exertions,  to  get 
near  tho  monster,  when  be  immediately  struck  him  with 
the  harpoon  with  his  own  hands;  and   liefore  he  had 
time  to  recover  from  the  blow,  he  managed,  with  his  usual 
dexterity,  to  give  him  two  fatal  wounds  with  the  lance, 
which  caused  the  blood   to  flo*-  from  the  blow-hole  in 
ohundance.     The  whale,  after  ihe  last  lance,  immediately 
descended  below  the  surface,  und  the  captain  felt  certain 
that  he  was  going  to  <  sound  ;'  but  in  this  he  was  much 
mistaken,  for  a  few  minutes  after  his  descent,  he  again 
rose  to  the  surface  with  great  velocity,  and,  striking  the 
boat  with  the  front  part  of  his  head,  threw  it  high  into 
the  air,  with  the  men  and  every  thing  contained  therein, 
fracturing   it  to  atoms,  and  scattering  its  crew  widely 
about.     While  the  men  were  endeavouring  to  save  thenw 
selves  from  drowning  by  clinging  to  their  oars  and  piece* 
of  the  wreck  of  the  boat,  the  enormous  animal  was  stxsn 
swimming  round  and  round  them,  appearing  as  if  medi- 
tating an  attack  witli  his  flukes,  which,  if  he  had  thought 
proper  to  do,  in  return  for  the  grievous  wounds  that  he 
had  himself  received,  a  few  strokes  of  his  ponderous  tail 
would  soon  have  destroyed  his  enemies ;  but  this  was  not 
attempted.     They  had  now  nothing  to  hope  for  but  the 
arrival  of  the  other  boats  to  relieve  them  from  their  dan- 
gerous situation,  rendered  more  so  by  the  appearance  of 
s»'veral  large  sharks,  attracted  by  the  blood  which  flowed 
from  the  whale,  which  were  sometimes  only  a  few  feet 
from  them;   and  also  from  the  inability  of  one  of  the 
boat's  crew  to  swim,  by  which  three  or  four  of  his  mates 
were  much  exhausted  in  their  efforts  to  save  him,  which 
they  succeeded  in  doing  alter  having  lashed  two  or  three 
iirs  across  the  sti'rn  of  the  boat,  which  happened  to  bo 
not  much  fractured,  on  which  they  placed  their  help- 
less fellow-adventurer.     After  they  had  ren;ained  in  the 
water  about  three  quarters  of  on  hour,  assisting  them 
selves  by  clinging  to  pieces  of  the  wreck,  one  of  the  other 
boats  arrived  and  took  tlicm  in,  no  doubt  greatly  to  their 
relief  und  satisfaction.     But  although  these  brave  whale- 
fishermen  had  been  so  defeated,  they  were  not  subdued: 
the  moment  they  entered  the  boat  which  took  them  from 
the  ocean,  their  immediate  determination  was  for  another 
attack  upon  the  immense  crealnre,  which  remained  close 
by,  while  the  other  Iwat,  which  was  pulling  towards  them 
with  all  the  strength  of  its  rowers,  would  blill  lie  a  quarter 
of  an  hour  before  it  could  arrive. 

"  Captain  Swain,  with  twelve  men  in  one  boat  tber^ 
fore  made  another  attack  upon  the  whale  with  the  lancb, 
which  caused  it  to  throw  up  blood  from  the  blow-hole 
in  increased  quantities.  We,  who  weie  on  board  tlie 
ship,  and  had  oUservcd,  from  a  grcit  distar.ce,  by  meaiut 
of  the  tclescoiie,  the  whole  i4'  the  occurrence,  were  cm 
ployed  in  tieating  the  .ship  towards  then!,  but  they  were 
far  to  windward,  and  the  wind  being  rat  cr  light,  we  had 
even  our  royal-sails  .set.  Soon  alter  the  arrival  of  the 
third  lioat,  the  whale  went  into  its  flurry  and  so.fi  diod 


Ill 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


whca  tj  the  digmay  of  the  boats'  crews,  who  had  en- 
dured w  much  danger  and  hardship  in  it»  capture,  it  sank, 
and  never  rose  again — an  occurrence  which  is  not  very 
anfrequent,  owing  of  course  to  the  greater  specific  gravity 
of  the  individual,  jxrhaps  from  a  greater  development  o( 
bony  and  muscular  structures.  Such  were  the  adven- 
tures of  that  day,  in  the  evening  of  which  the  crews  re- 
turned to  the  ship,  worn  out  and  dispirited,  having  lost  a 
favourite  boat  with  the  whole  of  her  instruments,  besides 
the  last  wlinlc  wanted  to  complete  the  cargo,  and  worth 
at  least  x'SOO. 

"At  daybreak,  one  fine  morning  in  August,  as  our  first 
mate  was  goinf^  aloft  to  look  out  for  whales,  he  discovered 
no  less  than  three  ships  within  a  mile  of  us ;  but  they 
were  situated  in  various  directions.    We  soon  discovered 
them   to  be  whulor.s,  who  like  ourselves  were  cruising 
after  the  spermaceti  whale,  and  therefore  their  appearance 
only  had  the  effect  uf  redoubling  our  vigilance  in  the 
'  look-out,'  so  that  we  might,  if  possible,  be  the  first  to  olv 
tain  the  bc:<t  chance  if  one  of  those  creatures  '  hate  in 
sight'     And  it  was  not  long  before  a  very  large  whale 
made  his  ap{>carance  right  in  among  the  shi[)s.   The  wate< 
was  smooth  at  the  time,  for  we  had  but  a  light  air  of  wind 
rtirring,  so  that  our  boats  were  instantly  lowered  without 
the  loss  of  tiini.'  of  bringing  the  •  ship  to.'    But  although  we 
managed  matters  as  quietly  and  secretly  as  possible,  we 
found,  the  moment  our  lx>at8  cleared  the  ship's  side,  that 
all  the  otherx  had  lH-en  as  vigilant  ns  ourselves,  and  had 
also  lowered  their  boats  after  the  whale.     The  whole  of 
them  immediately  began  the  chase — nine  boats  in  all, 
being  three  from  each  ship.     They  all  exerted  themselves 
to  their  utmost,  and,  as  we  expected,  in  vain ;  for  bcfoTo 
•ny  of  the  boats  had  got  even  near  him,  the  enormous 
animal  lifted  his  widely  expanded  flukes,  and  descended 
perpendicularly  into  the  depths  of  the  ocean  to  feed. 
Those  in  the  boat,  however,  having  noticed  his  course, 
proceeded   onwards,  thinking  the  whale  would  continue 
to  pursue  the  same  direction  under  water ;  but  as  he  was 
going  dowly  at  the  time  he  was  up,  they  did  not  proceed 
more  than  a  mile  from  the  place  at  which  he  descended, 
before  they  separated  about  a  hundred  yards  from  each 
other,  and  then  <  peaking'  their   oars,  all   the   men  in 
each  boat  stood  up,  looliing  in  difll-rent  directions,  so  as 
to  catch  the  first  appearance  of  the  spout  when  the  whale 
•gain  rose  to  breathe :  when,  an  hour  after  his  descent 
had  expired,  the  excitement  among  lis  who  were  on  board 
the  ship  twcame  wound  np  to  its  highest  pitch.     The 
captain,  who  had  remained  on  board,  ascended  to  the 
fore-topgallant-yard  to  watch  the  manojuvrea  of  the  boats, 
and  for  the  purpose  of  the  better  ordering  the  signals  to 
them,  or  working  of  the  ship.     All  those  who  were  down 
after  the  whale  appeared  as  feverish  with  anxiety  as  our- 
selves, for   every  now  and  then  they  were  to  be  seen 
shifting  tlieir  positions  a  little,  thinking  to  do  so  with  ad- 
vantage ;  then  they  would  ce&sc  rowing,  and  stand  upon 
the  sests  of  the  boats,  and  look  all  around  over  tlie  smooth  ! 
lurface  of  the  ocean  with  ardent  gaze.    But  one  hour  and  ! 
icn  minuU'H  expired  before  the  monster  of  the  deep  thouijht  ' 
proper  to  break  cover;  and  when  he  did,  then  a  rattling  ' 
tiiasc  commenced  with  the  whole  of  the  boats,  and  they  ! 
really  flew  along  in  fine  style,  some  of  them  actually  ap- 
p-armg  to  oe  lifted  quite  on   the  surface  of  the  water,  ' 
from  the  great  power  of  the  rowers ;  and  we   had  the  ' 
satisfaction  of  observini;,  that  our  boats  were  quite  equal 
to  the  others  in  the  s|K"e(l  witli  which  they  were  pro|ielle(l. 
But  it  waa  aK.iin  a  usi'less  jisk,  as  the  old  '  selioolinaster' 
had  outwitted  those  in  the  l>oats,  liy  havi'ig  gone — wlijle 
under  water — much  farther  than  any  of  his  pursuers  lial 
anticipated,  and  they  again  hatl  the  mortification  of  wit- 
nessing the  turiving  of  his  flukes  as  he  once   nx-rc  de- 
scended into  the  depths  of  his  vast  domain.     We  now  ' 
knew  to  u  minute  the  time  tliat  he  would  re  main  l>elow, 
while  tlie  [x-ople  in  the  Iwats  continued  to  row  slowly  '. 
oDwardtf  .he  whole  time.     A  fine  breeze  now  sprung  up,  [ 


■0  that  we  were  enabled  to  keep  company  wltn  tne  boat% 
keeping  a  little  to  windward  of  them,  as  the  whale  wit 
going  '  on  a  wind,'  as  a  seaman  would  say,  meaning  that 
it  was  blowing  across  him. 

'<  Vi  hen  the  hour  and  ten  minutes  had  again  nearly 
passed,  the  nine  boats  were  nearly  abreast  of  each  other, 
and  not  much  separated,  so  that  the  success  of  first  strik- 
ing the  whale  depended  very  much  upon  the  sv.'iftest 
lioat,  especiolly  if  the  whale  came  up  ahead.  We  hod 
now  all  the  boats  on  our  •  lee-beam,'  while  the  ships  were 
all  astern  of  us,  the  most  distant  not  being  more  than  hulf 
a  mile,  so  that  wo  enjoyed  an  excellent  view  of  this  most 
exciting  and  animated  scene.  True  to  his  time,  the 
leviat'iian  at  length  arose  right  ahead  of  the  boats,  and  at 
not  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  distant  from  them. 
The  excitement  among  the  crews  of  the  various  boats 
when  they  saw  his  first  spout  was  tremendous;  they  did 
not  shout,  but  we  could  hear  an  agitated  murmur  fi-oin 
their  united  voices  rcverbcroting  along  the  surface  of  the 
deep.  They  flew  over  the  limpid  waves  at  a  rapid  ralo ; 
the  mates  of  the  various  boats  cheered  their  re«pective 
crews  by  various  urgent  exclamations,  '  Swing  on  your 
oars,  my  boys,  for  the  honour  of  the  Henrietta,'  cried  one; 
'  Spring  away,  hearties,'  shouted  another,  and  yet  scarcely 
able  to  breathe  from  anxiety  and  exertion.  '  It's  our  fi«h, 
vociferated  a  third,  as  he  passed  the  rest  of  his  opponents 
but  a  trifling  distance.  <  Lay  on,  my  boys,  cried  younij 
Clark,  our  first  mate,  as  he  steered  the  boat  with  one  hand, 
and  pressed  down  the  after  oar  with  the  other.  '  She'll  lie 
ours  yet ;  let's  have  a  strong  pull,  a  long  pull,  and  a  pull 
altogether,'  he  exclaimed,  as  he  panted  from  his  exertions 
at  the  after  oar,  which  soon  brought  up  his  boat  quite 
abreast  of  the  foremost 

"  But  the  giant  of  the  ocean,  who  was  only  a  short  di^ 
tancc  before  them,  now  appeared  rather  •  gallied,'  or  fright- 
ened, having  probably  seen  or  heard  the  boats  ;  and  as  ha 
pulled  up  his  spout  to  a  great  height,  and  reared  hit 
enormous  head,  he  increased  his  speetl,  and  went  alonu 
quite  as  fast  as  the  boats,  but  fur  only  two  or  thre« 
minutes,  when  he  appeared  to  get  perfectly  quiet  again, 
while  the  boats  gained  rapidly  upon  him,  and  were  soon 
close  in  his  <  wake.'  '  Stand  U]),'  cried  young  t'lark  to 
the  harpooner,  who  is  also  the  bow-oarsmnn,  while  the 
same  order  was  instantly  given  by  his  opponent,  whose 
boat  was  abreast  of  our  mate's,  with  the  rest  close  to  their 
sterns.  The  orders  were  instantly  obeyed,  for  in  n  seccnj 
of  time  both  boat-steerers  stood  in  the  bows  of  their  re- 
spective boats,  with  their  harpoons  held  above  their  heads, 
ready  for  the  dart ;  but  they  l)oth  panted  to  l)c  a  lew 
yards  nearer  to  tlie  whale,  to  do  so  with  Buecess.  The 
monster  ploughed  through  the  main  quickly,  but  the  bouta 
gained  ujwn  him  every  moment,  when  the  agitation  of 
all  parlies  became  intense,  and  a  general  ery  of  'dart! 
dart!'  broke  from  the  liindmust  boats,  who  each  urged 
their  friends,  fearful  of  delay.  The  uproar  iH-canie  es- 
cessive  ;  and  when  the  tumult  of  voices,  and  the  work- 
ing and  splashing  of  the  oars,  rolled  along  the  surface  of 
the  deep,  both  the  harpooners  darted  their  wea|K)ns  t> 
gether,  which,  if  they  had  Imth  struck  the  whale,  woulii 
have  originated  a  contention  In'tween  them  reyardiiig 
their  claims.  But,  as  it  happened,  neither  of  them  h.iii 
that  good  fortune;  for  at  the  moment  of  their  (hirtinifthe 
liur()oons,  the  whale  descended  like  a  shot,  and  avnldul 
their  inflirlioii,  leavmg  nothing  but  a  white-aiiil-).'ier:.. 
looking  vortex  hi  the  disturlx'd  blue  ocean,  to  iiiiiik  V.d' 
spot  where  lits  monstrous  form  so  lately  flo;iled.  A 
general  huzza  hurst  from  the  sterninoht  boats  when  l)i<  v 
saw  the  issue  uf  this  chase,  thinking  now  llmt  atioll.it 
chance  awaited  them  on  the  next  rising  of  llie  vxtiale.iin.l 
they  soon  began  to  st'parate  theins<'lves  a  little,  iirul  Ui 
row  onwards  a^faiu  hi  the  course  which  they  lli()iii;l:t  li« 
had  taken.  Our  captain,  feeling  irritated  at  the  ill  suc- 
cess of  the  mate,  now  ordered  bis  own  bout  to  lie  liwena 
Lntendin^'  to  make  one  in  the  chase  hiiiiscll ;  hut  >ii>l  :ii 


ne  had  ['< 
wai'd,  a  ti 
awa  boat 
of  the  boa 
>spoutingi 
was  comi 
our  ship, 
moment,  s 
stood  to  w 
ing  bis  en 
ho  was  no 
a  sight  of 
aoimal  roll 
course ;  bu 
with  exccll 
near  the  fit 
<<  As  the 
froui  the  b 
showing  till 
from  those  i 
ship,  accom 
not  of  the  ii 
But  onward 
assistance  to 
(lone,  howcv 
continuing  I 
got  nearly  w 
ertioii  in  this 
now  engagetl 
one  of  them 
iaune;  he  to 
lime,  taking  ( 
>  boat  drew 
which  render 
iijjy,  even  w] 
part  of  his  •  i 
from  these  woi 
titios,  and  as  i 
bojts,  he  left  1 
Iml,  becoming 
he  l)ccauie  Ics 
an  opportunity 
Dreadful   was 
leviathan  c\]h 
energies  of  his 
tiiick  through  I 
his 'flurry'  wit 
sU'rned-otr,  yvlii 
sions  with  u  foi 
lion  of  ttic  occa 


THE  WHALE. 


Ittft 


n  tne  boti^ 
I  whale  wu 
leaning  thai 

igain  nearly 
Fenoh  other, 
of  first  strik- 
the  swiftest 
i.     We  had 
le  ships  were 
]rc  thiin  half 
of  this  most 
liis  time,  the 
boats,  and  at 
t  from  them, 
various  boats 
Dua;  they  did 
uurmur  from 
mrfaco  of  the 
a  rapid  rate ; 
cir  reipcctive 
(ving  on  your 
ttn,'  cried  one; 
id  yet  scarcely 
'  It's  our  fish, 
his  opponent! 
B,  cried  youn!? 
with  ono  hand, 
cr.     'She'll  lie 
)ull,  and  a  pull 
n  his  exertions 
his  boat  quite 


no  had  parted  from  the  ship,  going  down  a  little  to  lee- 
waiUi  •  tremendous  shout  arose  from  the  people  in  our 
own  boats,  joined  with  a  loud  murmuring  from  the  rest 
of  the  boats'  crews ;  for  the  whale,  not  having  had  all  its 
•  spoutings  out,'  had  now  risen  again  to  finish  them,  and 
was  coming  to  windward  at  a  quick  rate,  right  towards 
our  ship-  The  captain  saw  his  favourable  situation  in  • 
moment,  and,  passing  quickly  to  the  l>owa  of  the  boat,  he 
utood  to  waylay  him  as  ho  came  careering  along,  throw- 
ing his  enormous  bead  completely  out  of  the  water,  for 
ho  was  now  quite  '  gallied.'  He  soon  came,  and  caught 
a  sight  of  tho  boat  just  as  he  got  within  dart ;  tho  vast 
aalinal  rolled  itself  over  in  an  agony  of  fear,  to  alter  its 
course ;  but  it  was  too  late ;  the  harpoon  was  hurled 
with  excellent  aim,  and  was  plunged  deeply  into  his  side 
near  the  fin. 

II  As  the  immense  creature  almost  flew  out  of  the  water 
from  the  blow,  throwing  tons  of  spray  high  into  the  air, 
showing  that  ho  was  '  fast,'  a  triumphant  cheering  arose 
from  tliosc  in  our  own  boats,  as  well  as  from  those  in  the 
ship,  accompanied  by  exclamations  loud  and  deep,  and 
not  of  the  must  favourable  kind  to  us,  from  all  tho  rest. 
But  onwards  they  all  came,  and  soon  cheerfully  rendered 
assistance  to  complete  its  destruction ;  but  which  was  not 
done,  however,  without  considerable  diffict!ly,  the  whalo 
continuing  to  descend  the  moment  either  of  the  boats 
got  nearly  within  dart  of  him.  But  after  an  hour's  cx- 
ertlou  in  this  way,  six  out  of  tho  ten  boats  which  were 
now  engaged,  got  fast  to  him  by  their  hRrpooas,  but  not 
one  of  tliem  could  get  near  enough  to  givo  hLTi  a  fatal 
lanne;  he  tuwcd  them  all  in  various  directions  for  some 
lirac,  taking  care  to  descend  below  the  surface  tho  moment 
a  boat  drew  up  over  his  flukes,  or  other\vise  drew  near, 
which  rendered  it  almost  impossible  to  strike  him  in  the 
itiy,  even  when  the  lance  was  darted,  although  the  after 
part  of  his  •  small'  was  perforated  in  a  hundred  places : 
from  these  wounds  the  blood  gushed  in  considerable  quan- 
lilios,  and  as  the  poor  animal  moved  alon.;,  towing  the 
bojts,  he  lefl  a  long  ensanguined  stain  in  the  ocean.  At 
liut,bcconiing  weak  from  his  numerous  and  deep  wounds, 
lie  liccanic  less  capable  of  avoiding  his  foes,  which  gave 
an  opportunity  for  ono  of  them  to  pierce  him  to  the  life. 
Dreadful  was  that  moment  the  acute  pain  which  the 
leviathan  cxfierienced,  and  which  roused  the  dormant 
energies  of  his  gigantic  frame.  As  the  life's  blood  gurgled 
thick  through  the  nostrils,  the  immense  creature  went  into 
bis 'flurry'  with  excessive  fury  ;  tho  boats  were  speedily 
slenicd-oir,  .while  he  beat  the  water  in  his  dying  convul- 
sions with  u  force  that  appeared  to  shake  the  firm  founda- 
tion of  tlie  ocean !" 

CONCLUDING  ANECDOTES  AND  OBSERVATIONS. 
Mr.  Bcalc  continues  to  remark,  in  his  narrative,  that 
"  numberless  atories  are  told  of  fighting  whales,  many  of 
wliich,  however,  are  probably  much  exaggerated  accounts 
of  the  real  occurrences.  A  large  whale,  called  '  Timor 
Jjck,'  is  the  hero  of  many  strange  stories,  such  as  of  his 
destroying  every  boat  which  was  sent  out  against  him, 
untd  a  contrivance  was  made  by  lashing  a  barrel  to  the 
CI. J  of  the  harpoon  with  which  he  was  struck,  and 
whilst  his  attention  was  directed  and  divided  among 
several  boats,  moons  were  found  of  giving  bim  his  dealli- 
wound. 

''In  the  year  1804,  the  ship  <  Adonis,'  being  in  company 
with  si'vcrul  others,  struck  a  large  whale  off  the  coast  of 
New  Zeiland,  which  '  stovo'  or  destroyed  nine  boats  before 
D'l'akl'ast,  and  the  chase  cunsequi-ntly  was  necessarily 
>;'.voii  up.  After  destroying  boats  belonging  to  many  ships, 
liui  wliale  was  at  lust  captured,  and  many  har{K>ons  of 
the  various  ships  that  had  from  time  to  time  been  sent 
out  against  him  were  found  sticking  in  bis  body.  This 
whale  was  called  <  Now  Zealand  Tom,'  and  tlio  tradition 
it  carefully  proaervcd  by  whalers. 

"  Accidents  of  the  most  fearful  nature  have  frequently 


occurred  in  this  hazardous  pursuit,  which  to  enumerate 
would  fill  the  space  of  volumes;  for  not  only  boats,  bu' 
sometimes  even  ships,  have  been  destroyed  by  these  power 
ful  creatures.  It  is  a  well  authenticated  fact,  that  an 
American  whale-ship  called  the  <  Essex'  was  destroyed  in 
the  South  Pacific  Ocean  by  an  enormous  sperm  whaleb 
While  the  greater  part  of  the  crew  were  away  in  the 
boats  pursuing  whales,  the  few  people  remaining  on  board 
saw  an  immense  sperm  whale  come  up  close  to  the  ship, 
and  when  very  near,  he  appeared  to  go  down  for  the 
purpose  of  avoiding  the  vessel,  and  in  doing  so  he  struck 
his  iKxly  against  some  part  of  tho  keel,  w  hich  was  broken 
off  by  the  force  of  the  blow,  and  floated  to  the  surface ; 
the  whale  was  then  obseived  to  rise  a  short  distance  from 
the  ship,  and  come  with  apparently  great  fury  towards  it, 
striking  against  one  of  tho  bows  with  his  head,  and  com- 
pletely '  staving'  it  in.  The  ship  of  course  innnediateiy 
filled,  and  fell  over  en  her  side,  in  which  dreadful  position 
the  poor  fellows  in  the  bo&ts  boon  espied  their  only  home, 
being  distant  from  the  nearest  land  many  hundred  miles; 
on  returning  to  the  wreck,  they  found  the  few  who  hod 
been  left  on  board  hastily  congregated  in  a  remaining 
whale-boat,  into  which -they  had  scarcely  time  to  take 
refuge  before  tho  vessel  capsized.  They  with  much  diffi- 
culty obtained  a  scanty  supply  of  provisions  from  the 
wreck,  their  only  support  on  the  long  uiid  dreary  pas- 
sage before  them  to  the  coast  of  Peru,  to  which  they  en- 
deavoured to  make  the  best  of  their  way.  One  boat  was 
fortunately  found  by  a  vessel  not  far  from  the  coast ;  in 
it  were  the  only  survivors  of  the  unfortunate  crew,  three 
in  number,  the  remainder  having  perished  under  unheard- 
of  sulTcring  and  privation.  These  three  men  were  in  a 
state  of  stupefaction,  allowing  their  boat  to  drift  about 
where  the  winds  and  waves  listed  ;  one  of  these  sur- 
vivors was  the  master;  by  kind  and  careful  attention 
on  the  part  of  their  deliverers,  they  were  eventually 
rescued  ftom  the  jaws  of  death  to  relate  the  melancholy 
tale." 

Not  being  attended  with  the  dangers  to  which  a  north 
ern  climate  exposes  the  hunters  of  the  mysticetus,  the 
sperm-whalers  of  Britain  have  greatly  increased  in  num- 
bers of  late  years,  and  at  this  day  the  fishing  is  prose- 
cuted with  great  success.  As  in  the  case  of  the  Green- 
land fishery,  bounties  were  given  up  to  1821,  when  the 
trade  was  fairly  left  to  private  enterprise.  In  1791,  the 
siKsrm  oil  imported  into  Britain  amounted  to  1258  tons; 
in  1827,  5552  tons  were  imported;  and  in  1836,  the 
amount  was  7001  tons.  One  good  whale  will  yield  forty 
barrels  of  oil,  and  ten  barrels  of  spermaceti  arc  frequently 
taken  from  one  head.  About  to  Urge  barrels  make  a 
ton.  Both  sperm-eil  and  spermaceti  bear  a  high  price 
in  the  market,  ond  are  of  great  utility  in  various  respects. 
There  is  little  chance  of  a  decline  in  the  sperm-whale 
branch  of  our  maritime  trallic,  not  only  because  the  fish- 
ing latitudes  are  comparatively  free  from  dangers,  but  be- 
cause tho  invention  of  gas  does  not  trench  on  the  use  of 
8|K'rm-oil  as  it  did  on  that  of  the  Greenland  oil,  and  be- 
cause spcrmaeeti  and  sperin-uil  aro  likely  to  be  more 
and  more  employed  as  the  country  progreuics  in  civihza 
iion. 

rOREION    WKALE-FI8HERIBS. 

The  whale-fisheries  of  other  civilized  nations  have 
undergone  as  great  vicissitudes  as  those  of  Britain. 
Altout  the  year  1680,  the  Dutch  sent  out  not  less  than 
260  ships,  uianned  by  14,(100  men.  to  the  northern 
fishory.  In  IHiH,  only  one  whali'-ahip  saihul  from 
Holland!  France  has  never  pros«'cuted  this  brain Jl 
of  commerco  with  much  activity  or  success,  yet  the  litllu 
that  was  once  done  in  this  way  has  become  still  lens 
In  1790,  40  French  ships  were  emi'loyed  in  the  Green- 
land seas.  The  revolution  put  a  stop  to  the  fishing,  and 
though  of  lute  years  the  government  has  made  an  ntlcmO' 
to  revive  it,  very  Uttlc  success  has  resulted. 
I.  it 


IM 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLE 


The  people  of  the  tJnitcd  States  have  been  more  active 
■nd  iuccesiiful  in  wimli'-ftshing  than  almont  any  other 
nation  in  recent  dayu.     While  dependent  colonista,  they 
embarked  in  it  vvith  great  apirit     From   1771  to  1775, 
MaHsachuactts  employed  annually  183  veaaeli,  of  13,820 
tona,  in  tlio  northern  fishery;  and  121  vcaacls,  of  14,026 
to(i8,  in  the  fisheries  of  the  south.     They  were  the  first 
to  prnsecuto  the  trade  in  the  southern  Atlantic,  on  the 
cowta  of  Africa  and  Brazil ;  and  they,  too,  led  the  way 
into  tlio  Pacific  seas: — "Look   at  the   manner,"  says 
Burke  ( 1774),  "in  which  the  New  Englan<l  people  carry 
on  the  whale-fwhery.      Wliile  wo  follow  them  among 
tlie  tumbling  mountains  of  ice,  and  behold  them  pene- 
trating into  the  deepest  frozen  recesses  of  Hudson's  Bay 
and  Davis'  Straits  j  while  we  are  looking  for  them  1)6- 
ni'.ith  the  Arctic  circle,  we  hear  that  they- have  pierced 
into  the  opposite  region  of  polar  cold ;  that  they  are  at 
the  antipodes,  and  engaged  under  the  frozen  serpent  of 
tlio   south.     Falkland   Island,  which  seems  too  remote 
and  too  romantic  an  object  for  the  grasp  of  national 
aaibition,  is  but  a  stage  and  resting-place  for  their  vic- 
torious industry.      Nor   is   the   equinoctial   heat   more 
discouraging  to  them  than  the  accumulated  winter  of 
both  tlie  poles.     We  learn  that,  while  some  of  them 
draw  the  lino  or  strike  the  harpoon  on  the  coast  of 
Africa,  others  run  the  longitude,  and  pursue  their  gigantic 
game  along  the  coast  of  Brazil."     These  are  the  seas 
that  are  still  vexed  by  the  Amejncan  fisheries,  which  have 
been  pushed,  however,  into  higher   southern   latitudes 
than  had  ever  before  been  visited,  ai.d  ere  carried  on 
from  tlie  shores  of  Japan  to  the  icy  rocks  of  New  South 
Shetland.     They  have  been  principally  carried  on  from 
Nantucket   and  New  Bedford,  and  have   proved   very 
hicrative.     At   present   tliey   are   also   prosecuted   with 
great  success  from  several  other  places.     One  class  of 
ships  is  fitted  out  for  the  Pacific  in  pursuit  of  the  sperma- 
ceti whale.     These  are  from  300  to  500  tons  burden, 
carrying  from  25  to  30  men,  and  are  absent  about  30  to 
36  months.     Their  number  is  about  170,  of  about  62,000 
tons,  and  carrying  nearly  5000  men.     Another  class  sai! 
to  the  coasts  of  Africa  and  Brazil,  in  search  of  tlic  com- 
mon or  right  whale.     They  average  about  325  tons  each, 
carry  about  25  men,  and  are  absent  8  to  12  months. 
The  whole  amount  of  tonnage  of  this  class  is  about 
4<'..')00 ;  number  of  seamen  engaged,  3000.    The  quantity 
cf  rperm  oil  brought  home  in   ISI.'i,  was  3944  barrcli.; 
m  1820,  34,700 ;  in  1825,  62,240 ;  and,  in  1830,  106,800. 
rhe  quantity  of  whale  or  black  oil  brought  in  in  1 830, 
*a»aliout  115,000  barrels;  of  whalclwne,  about  120,000 
pounds.     The  sperm  oil  is  chiefly  used  at  home;  and 
9,000  pounds  of  sperm  candles  are  made,  employing 
Ebut  30  manufactories.     The  whale  oil  and  whalebone 
■re  cbiefiy  exporti'd  to  Europe.     From  the  report  of  the 
•ecrctary  of  the  trcasurj-,  May  4,  1832,  it  ap[)ears  that 
for   tlio   jear   ending   iSepteraber  30,  1831,  there  were 
exported  wliale  and  ntluT  fjsh  oil  to  the  value  of  554,440 
dollars;  Kporniaceti  oil  to  the  value  of  53,626  dollars; 
w!ialelM)ni>  to  tlie  value  of  133,842  dollars;  and  sperma- 
ceti candles  to  the  value  of  217,830  dollars. 


Of  the  extent  of  the  sulferings  sometimes  cx[)erienrod 
by  the  whalers,  a  single  exuni(ilc  may  l>e  given.  The 
Dee,  an  Aberdeen  whaler,  sailcil  for  D:>vi«'  Straits  in 
April,  ly36,  and,  after  many  difliiullies,  wiis  ultimately 
f*.t  locked  up  in  the  ici-,  in  Oclobir  of  tin-  same  year, 
in:iT  the  mouth  of  Balliii's  Buy.  ••  From  this  date,  the 
IKHuliiir  KullcTingH  of  llio  crew  of  the  Die,  wliirh  nuni- 
Deii'il  tliirty-lhrce  persons,  may  ht  said  to  have  rom- 
mciiced.  'i'luir  allowance  remained  the  same,  but,  from 
the  Fcarrity  of  fuel,  their  beds  k-canie  wreichedly  damp. 
At  firot,  to  preserve  the  health  of  the  men,  and  to  keep 
Jieir  sliivering  bodies  in  heat,  the  most  praiseworthy 
•n-cfautions  were  taken.  A  variety  of  exercLw  waa 
■II  itt!>(l  to  thrm  such  as  the  unbtmding  of  the  nails,  ui 


shipping  the  rudder,  and  otncr  tils,  of  nt  utility  now 
unhappily,  to  the  shi^      But  the  crow  of  the  De«  hau 
not  long  to  resort  to  unprofitable  labours  to  maintain  thr 
vital  warmth  of  their  frames.     Notwithstanding  the  ir»- 
creasing  hardness  of  the  frost,  the  ice  still  remained  in  i 
loose  state,  and  a  fatal  crush  on  the  sliip  became  tho 
subject  of  continual  alarm.     On  the   I6th,  the  latitude 
was  73°  50',  win<l  strong,  and  large  icebergs  flouting  past 
The  ice  began  to  press  hard,  and  on  the  night  of  the  16th, 
the  vessel  was  crushed  up  until  it  hung  by  the  quarter, 
the  ice  squeezing  all  along  as  high  as  the  gunrd-boardft 
At  daylight,  all  hands  were  called  up  to  get  out  tho  pro- 
visions.    At  8  p.  M.,  tK.!  wind   fell  off,  but  the  ship  still 
hung  by  the  quarter.     The  ice,  however,  was  ul  rest  till 
11  P.M.,  when  there  was  another  dreadful  crush,  which 
passed  off  with  less  harm  than  coulil  have  l)con  antici- 
pated.    On  the  18th,  the  iie  gave  way  in  several  places, 
and  opened  up  so  far  that  a  warp  had  to  be  got  out  to 
secure  tho  Dee.     The  other  vessils,  meanwhile,  lay  com- 
paratively  undisturbed.     On   the   20lh,  the   ire   closed 
again,  with  some  severe  squeezes,  around  the  Dec.     To 
strengthen  the  ship,  its  casks  were  placed  in  a  peculiar 
way,  and  ten  strong  beams  put  in  aft.     This  was  done 
most  seasonably,  for  shortly  after  two  successive  shocks 
took  place,  within  half  an  hour  of  each  other,  of  such 
tremendous  severity,  that  the  crew  fled  to  tlio  ice  with 
their  bags,  chests,  and  every  thing  that  could  be  lifted, 
under  the  impression  that  all  was  over  with  the  timbers 
of  tlie  Dee.     The  sufferings  of  the  night  that  followed 
were   awful.     Without  fire,  or  shelter  from  the  biting 
elements,  the  crew  lay  on  the  ire,  gazing  on  their  reeling 
and  groaning  vessel,  while  around  them  were  extended 
vast  fields  of  ire,  8tu<lded  with  icebergs  towering  to  the 
clouds,  and  threatening  destrurtinn  to  all  that  came  in  the 
way  of  tlieir  motions.     Miserable  as  their  position  was, 
the  crew  could  not  go  on  l)oni#  for  two  days,  during 
which  time  the  ship  experienced  cnishcs  still  more  severe 
than  formerly.     On  the  22d,  the  men  went  on  board  to 
take  out  the  remaining  provisions,  but  had  again  to  fly 
for  their  lives,'    The  ice,  however,  fell  quiet  on  the  same 
night,  and  they  again  took  back  their  provisiotis  to  the 
ship.     On  the  23d,  a  good  many  lanes  ojuHied  up  in  the 
water — a  most  discouraging  prosptx-t,  for  this  was  always 
the  time  of  greatest  peril.     Onto  more  the  crew  took  to 
the   ice,  and,  by  cutting  the   nearest  parts   into   smail 
pieces,  cleared   tlie  ve8s«>I  a  few  feet     The  men  thra 
went  for  a  few  hours  to  rest,  but  were  rou!«"d  by  ac  c  ;hst 
crush — the   signal  that  their  labours  had  been  in  vaiiv 
On  the  21lh,  the   ice  broke  up  to  a  considerable  extent, 
and  the  crew  managed  to  heave  the  Deo  backwards  for  a 
hundred  yards,  to  a  point  where  the  ice  n'enieil  to  )« 
thinner.     Great  difficulties  were  ex[>erieMced  in  convey- 
ing the  chests  and  other  articles  left  in  the  ship,  but  at 
length  every  thing  was  again  on  l)oard." 

Placed  uj)on  the  most  scanty  allowance  of  food,  and 
kept  in  such  a  state  of  continual  alarm  from  tlie  ice  ai 
compelled  them  to  spend  days  and  nights  out  of  the  shin, 
notwithstanding  tho  dreadful  severity  of  the  weather,  the 
crew  of  the  Dee  began  to  suffer  greatly  in  their  health 
liefore  the  end  of  the  year.  "  Coughs,  swelled  limbs., 
and  general  debility,  with  small  red  discolorations  on 
the  skin,  sharp  pains  and  Ktilfness,  were  the  common 
symptoms,  and  the  cold  and  wet  to  which  the  seamen 
were  exjiosed,  laid  the  seeils  of  a  worse  diseasti  wliirb 
now  ln'gan  ti)  show  its  fatal  power.  This  disease  wai 
scurvy,  and  it  was  marked  chirfly  by  an  exrruiiiitiiiK 
pain  in  the  UMUth,  and  swelleil  gums,  rendering  rating  t 
torture.  On  the  IHth  of  DccenilH-r,  twenly-ime  men 
were  uflcctrd  with  scurvy.  To  add  lo  their  distress,  the 
ice  again  gave  way,  and  threutrncd  to  cru»h  the  niiscrabi* 
vesBcl."  Before  the  Ist  of  Februar)',  six  drains  hid 
token  place,  and  among  tho  victims  was  thr  lamented 
commander,  Captain  Uamblin.  'I'he  fol'it/wing  \>*tMft 
descriliea  the  deplorable   cunditiun  of  the  cri'W  of  llif 


.>e«  in  Prbi 

Wen  in  :— 

"  Though 

degrees  fartl 

more  severe 

while  the  ai 

the  iriclei  w 

;anre  of  six 

mlh  solid  ire 

(he  head  lay, 

stiff  with  CO 

liegan  to  swai 

their  way  thri 

And  the  mei 

■ickncss,  and 

lelves !     So  8( 

used  for  tho  n 

we  wonder  thi 

the  crew  sank 

end  27th,  six 

7lh  uf  March 

mates.    So  nv 

lo  enjoy  full  a 

wrre  able  at  tl 

peat  danger  of 

wliirh  was  loos 

«  Between  ih 

crew  died,  and 

I  lie  ice,  which  v 

the  Kith,  after  I 

(lavs,  the  Dee  ei 

taken  on  board  t 

during  the  same 

of  both  vessels  i 

But,  alas !  tnanj 

their  native   she 

breezes  attended 

homewards,  othe 

Ciiuld  ever  Imve 

s-i  fearfully  on  h 

and  the  S2d  of 

men  had  fdlcii  v 

ivas  hailed,  and  i 

tlic  Butt  of  Lewi 

icfused  to  give  nn 

it  is  supposed. 

DariicU  roaster,  1 

the  miserable  wh 

and  inquired  if  o 

iiilbrmed  of  the 

hiiiids  of  tho   Dr 

instantly  sent  four 

i-iurying  with   hir 

He  then  took  the 

to  anchor,  on  the  ! 

noss.    Every  attei 

Uie  crew ;  and  on 

'K'nt  effective  bam 

cirried  into  the  hi 

of  thirtwn   month 

R-rne  took  place  o 

"le  relatives  of   t 

widows,  rhildrrn,  a 

o:i  boanl  tin;  IVo,  n 

1  iJiindre.      Foiirt 

"«n  r()iii|i|iiiiriit." 

"!  the  rnnv  of  on,. 

'"'if",  in  th..  sami 

•"■■ider  may  form  an 

"i'xlcrn  Arcti  •  whal 

'■li-'-'ing  that  the  p 

l^l-ely  soon  t|  put  ai 


THE  WHAIE. 


Itl 


litf  noli 
Une  hau 
itain  thf 
(  the  iiv- 
Aned  in  a 
rnme  tho 
f,  latituda 
iting  paKk 
•  the  lOlh, 

0  quarter, 
T(1-boBrd& 
t  tho  pro- 

Hhip  etill 

111  rest  till 
ish,  which 
jon  antici- 
Tol  places, 
);ot  out  to 
e,  lay  com- 

ire   closed 

1  Dee.     To 
a  peculiar 

n  wa«  done 

sive  shocks 

ipr,  of  such 

lio  ice  with 

Id  be  lifted, 

the  timbers 

lat  followed 

1  the  biting 

their  reeling 

?re  extended 

ering  to  the 

;  oume  in  the 

position  WM, 

days,  during 

I  more  severe 

[  on  board  to 
again  to  fly 
on  the  same 
lions  to  the 
•d  up  in  the 
was  alwayi 
rew  took  to 
into   small 
men  thea 
1  by  arthfll 
leen  in  vain, 
able  extent, 
:kwards  for  a 
•enial  to  l« 
■d  in  convey- 
ship,  but  at 

of  food,  and 
n  the  ice  as 
It  of  the  ship, 
weather,  the 
their  health 
vi'lled  limK 
olorations  on 
the  common 
tlir  seamen 
Bi«ea>»i  wliirh 
disease  was 
cxcruciatinn 
Irint;  >  ating  a 
|nty-one   men 
ilisiress,  the 
|tlu'  niiscrablt 
diatns  liKJ 
|the  iumentnl 

crew  of  tiw 


.lee  in  February,  1837,  at  fihich  tim«  the  ihip  was  still 
Irozen  in  :— 

«  Thounh  the  whalers  were  nt  this  time  three  or  four 
degrees  farther  south  than  at  first,  the  ftost  was  even 
nioTO  severe  than  ever.  Every  liquid  was  frozen ;  and 
while  the  snow  was  being  melted  to  cook  the  victuals, 
the  iciclea  were  hanging  on  the  water-cask,  at  tho  dis- 
tance of  six  feet  from  the  fire.  Tho  beds  were  covered 
with  solid  ice —  the  pillows  frozen  in  every  part  but  where 
the  head  lay,  the  very  hairs  of  which  were  in  some  cases 
stiff  with  cold — and  vermin  of  a  more  raparious  kind 
Iwgan  to  swarm  among  the  blankets:  creatures  that  ate 
their  way  through  tho  skin,  and  fed  on  the  row  flesh. 
And  the  men  all  tho  while  bowed  down  with  mortal 
sickness,  and  incapable  of  defending  or  cleaning  them- 
iclves !  So  scarce  was  fuel  besides,  that  it  could  only  be 
used  for  tho  melting  of  ice  and  cookini^  of  victuals.  Can 
we  wonder  that  ere  tho  12lh  of  Frlirunry,  six  others  of 
the  crew  sank  under  their  distresses  1  Hotween  the  23d 
and  27th,  six  additional  deaths  took  place,  and,  by  the 
7lh  of  March,  other  five  had  followed  their  departed 
mates.  So  many  deaths  as  these  enabled  the  remainder 
10  enjoy  full  allowance  of  provisions.  Six  hands  only 
were  able  at  this  time  to  do  duty,  and  tho  ship  was  in 
jTreat  danger  of  a  fatal  squeeze  from  the  state  of  the  ice, 
which  was  loose,  ond  rapidly  breaking  up. 

"Between  the  11th  and  15th,  three  more  of  the  Dee's 
crew  died,  and  they  were  the  last  that  were  buried  below 
l!ie  ice,  which  was  now  broken  up  in  all  directions.  On 
the  Ifith,  after  Iwing  locked  up  lor  five  months  and  eight 
(lays,  the  Dee  entered  Into  o]ien  water."  The  ship  had 
taken  on  board  the  crew  of  the  Thomas,  a  whaler  wrecked 
(luring  the  same  winter  in  tho  ice,  and  all  tho  survivors 
of  both  vessels  now  turned  their  eager  eyes  homewards. 
But,  alas!  many  of  them  "were  destined  never  to  see 
their  native  shores.  Fortunately,  light  and  favourable 
breews  attended,  in  general,  the  passage  of  the  ship 
liomcward.^,  otherwise  not  one  man  of  the  Dee's  crew 
cmid  ever  have  reached  his  home.  The  scurvy  raged 
»i  fearfully  on  board,  that,  between  the  1 6lh  of  March 
and  the  22d  of  April,  twenty  more  of  the  unfortunate 
men  had  fdlen  victims  to  it.  On  the  25tli  a  iishing-bcat 
was  hailed,  and  it  was  found  that  the  Dee  was  then  off 
tlie  Butt  of  Lewis.  The  fishermen  in  the  boat  cruelly 
icfused  to  give  any  assistance,  suspecting  a  case  of  plague, 
it  is  supposed.  The  barque  Washington  of  Dundee, 
Unrnelt  roaster,  liound  for  New  York,  bore  down  upon 
the  miserable  whaler  on  the  evening  of  the  same  day, 
and  inquired  if  any  assistance  was  wanted.  On  being 
informed  of  the  state  of  matters,  and  that  only  three 
hands  of  the  Dee  were  able  to  go  aloft,  Mr.  Barnett 
instantly  sent  four  men  on  board,  and  followed  in  person, 
nirrying  with  him  wine,  porter,  and  other  provisions. 
He  then  took  the  Dec  in  tow,  and  enabled  her  to  come 
to  anchor,  on  the  27th  of  April,  in  the  harliour  of  Strom- 
ncfis.  Every  attention  was  here  paid  to  the  survivors  of 
liie  crew ;  and  on  the  5th  of  May,  the  owners  having 
sent  effective  hands,  the  Deo  was  again  put  to  sea  and 
carried  into  tho  harbour  of  Alx,'rdeen,  aftt>r  an  absence 
of  thirteen  months  and  three  days.  A  heart-rending 
Kcnc  took  place  on  the  quay,  which  was  crowded  with 
(lie  relatives  of  the  deceased  seamen — with  weeping 
niilows,  cliiUren,  and  parents.  F'orty-six  men  had  died 
nil  JKianl  tlie  Deo,  nine  of  whom  Iwlonged  to  the  Thomas 
t'  Dimdce.  F'ourteen  men  only  survived  of  the  Dee's 
own  compliment."  From  this  picture  of  tlie  siitleriii^s 
o!  the  crew  of  orio  vessel,  who  endured  no  more  than 
mliers,  in  the  same  as  well  as  preceding  seasons,  the 
n.iiler  may  form  an  iili"a  of  the  general  hardships  of  the 
Miixlcrn  Arcli- whalc-fishing.  It  cannot  but  l)0  felt  as  a 
Messing  that  the  progress  of  lighting  with  coal-gas  is 
liely  soon  t<  put  an  end  to  this  dangerous  traflic 


New  Detlford  ...     94 

Falmouth     ... 

Nantucket    ....  63 

Newport    .     .     .     .    . 

Fairhaven ....      14 

Sagharbour  .... 

Bristol     .*  -     .     .    .13 

Salem   ...... 

New  London  ...     10 

Ncwburyport    ... 

Hudson                  .    .     9 

Poughkeepsie .    -     .    . 

Warren     ....       7 

Portsmouth  .    .    .    - 

Edgarton     ....    6 

Dartmouth.     .    .    .     . 

[WORKS  ON  THE  WHALE-nSllERY. 

Sctresby's  "  Vvynge  to  the  Northern  Whule  Fithery," 
and  his  "Jlrctic  Ihgioni,"  are  considered  the  best  authority 
on  this  subject.  A  book  published  anonymously  sonM 
years  since,  entitled  "  Talcs  of  an  Arctic  Voyager,"  con. 
tains  exceedingly  lively  and  graphic  sketches  of  the 
scenes  which  present  themselves  to  the  whale  fisher.  A 
work  entitled  "Incidents  of  a  Whaling  Voyage,"  to 
which  are  added  observations  on  tho  scenery,  manners 
and  customs,  and  Missionary  Stations  of  tho  Sandwich 
and  Society  Islands,  accompanied  by  numerous  litho- 
graphic prints,  by  Francis  Allyn  Olinsted  ;New  York, 
.^ppleton,  1841),  is  full  of  interesting  details  on  this 
subject.  In  the  Foreign  Quarterly  Ueview,  No.  14,  is  an 
article  of  value  and  authority,  by  J.  R.  M'Culloch.  In 
the  same  writer's  ••  Commercial  Du-tionary,"  is  another, 
with  full  statistical  details  and  tables.  From  the  lattef 
we  extract  the  following  account : — 

8TATI   or  THE   AMERICAN   WHALE-riBHBRT. 

Wo  borrow  from  a  Nantucket  journal  the  following 
details  with  respect  to  this  fishery  in  1834 : — 

8(icrmaceti  Whale-Fishery. — Tho  whole  number  of 
ships  engaged  in  this  valuable  branch  of  the  fisheries  )• 
273,  of  which  357  are  now  absent,  viz. :  from 

6 
< 
S 

s 
a 
a 

3 

s 

And  one  from  each  of  the  following  ports,  viz. : — Boston, 
Plymouth,  Wareham,  Rochester,  Portland,  Wiscasset, 
Fall  River,  Providence,  Stonington,  Newbury,  New  York, 
and  Wilmington,  Delaware.  Sixteen  ships  only  are  in 
port,  belonging  as  follows:  to  New  Bedford,  7;  Nan- 
tucket, 5 ;  Fairhaven,  Plymouth,  Sagharbour,  and  Edgar- 
town,  each  1. 

The  aggregate  tonnage  of  the  257  absent  ships  is 
nearly  100,000  tons.  Of  these,  only  61  had  each,  at  last 
dates,  obtained  1000  bris.  of  oil  and  upwards;  and  about 
the  same  numlwr  arc  not  yet  reported  with  any  oil.  The 
number  of  seamen  and  navigators  employed  on  board 
these  vessels,  is  not  far  from  9000.  The  cost  of  the  en- 
tire fleet,  as  fitted  for  these  voyages  of  three  years'  dura- 
tion, probably  exceeds  6,000,000  dollars. 

A  document  before  us  furnishes  a  very  careful  estimate 
of  the  spermaceti  oil  imported  into  the  United  State* 
during  the  year  1834.  Since  Jan.  1,  there  have  arrived 
from  the  Pocific  Ocean  55  ships,  viz. :  into  this  port,  1 1 ; 
New  Bedford,  25 ;  Plymouth,  2 ;  Fairhaven,  6 ;  New 
London,  2 ;  Edgartown,  2 ;  Sagharbour,  2 ;  Wanen,  3 ; 
Falmouth,  Bristol,  and  Hudson,  1  each.  The  cargoes 
of  these  ships,  including  that  of  the  Levant  and  Spartan 
(just  arrived,  and  presumed  to  amount  to  5000  brls.), 
average  little  more  than  2000  brls.  each ;  being  in  the 
whole  111,881  bris.  Add  to  this  quontity  16,000  brla. 
estiinate.1  to  have  l)ecn  brought  from  the  South  Atlantic 
Ocean,  making  about  128,000  brls.,  and  we  have  the  entire 
(Iiiaiitity  of  spermaceti  oil  imported  in  the  course  of  the  last 
year.  Of  this  quantity,  70,577  brls.  were  received  at  j\»  a 
Bi'<lford,  and  the  residue  nt  Nantucket  and  other  jKJrts. 

We  deduce  frtin  this  valuable  document  one  fact, 
which  we  repeat  with  some  feeling  of  pride.  It  is,  tlial 
more  than  half  of  tho  ships  now  engaged  in  the  sperui 
whalc-fishory  are  commanded  by  Nantucket  men  though 
less  than  one-fourth  of  the  whole  fleet  it  owned  iti  tiiii 
place     Jlrii.  Ed.] 


nt 


'•»  i     H  II     U 


CONVEY  ANCE-ROAPS-CANALS-IIAILWAYS. 


PRIMITITI   MODS!  Of  OONTlTAIfOB. 

Thk  mr«n»  ailoptcil  in  early  times  for  the  arlifirini 
transport  of  cither  person  or  property,  were,  as  may  1mi 
aupposed,  of  the  ruJest  kind,  as  is  still  the  cnw  in  tliiwe 
countries  which  are  little  advanced  iti  the  useful  iirts. 
The  most  do)^adin)(  s|)ecic»  of  artificial  convcyanre 
that  seems  to  have  h«icn  practised,  was  the  enipli)yiiicnt 
of  human  liihour,  in  bearing  litters  or  palnni|uinM,  8|>e- 
cimens  of  which,  on  u  scale  of  barbarous  splendour,  arc 
now  seen  in  India,  Durmah,  and  China. 

The  first  am'  nwst  obvious  improvomunt  in  modes 
of  transport  was  the  substitution  of  brute  for  human 
labour  ;  a'ld  it  is  reasonable  to  conclude,  that  the  value 
of  this  practice  could  not  have  Iwen  lont;  in  lieinij 
pressed  on  the  attention  of  mankind.  Wo  find  the 
term  "beasts  of  burden"  used  in  the  most  ancient  re- 
cords, the  animals  meant  being  the  ass,  the  horse,  or 
the  camel.  No  trace,  however,  exists  of  the  pro(»rci»s 
fi-om  hurtlen  to  ilraught,  though  it  also  must  have  been 
In  very  early  times.  The  ass  and  horse  are  cijuiilly 
adapted  for  cnrryinij  or  drawing,  but  the  camel  exerts 
its  power  only  by  carrying;  draught  is  alone  suitiOilc 
for  the  reindeer  and  ox,  the  backs  of  these  animuU  not 
being  adapted  by  nature  for  bearing  burdens. 

The  draught  of  the  reindeer  is  emi)loyod1n  I.apliind 
•s  the  chief  means  of  artificial  locomotion,  and  is  always 
exerted  on  a  sp«>cics  of  sledge,  wliich,  by  its  form,  is 
■uitable  for  gliding  easily  over  the  fri>zen  ground  or 
•now.  'I'hc  i<ha|ic  of  the  sledge  somewhat  resembles 
a  small  boat,  with  a  sharp  prow,  and  flat  in  the  rear, 
against  which  the  inmate  of  the  vehicle  rests.  The 
traveller  is  swathed  in  his  carriage  like  an  infant  in  a 
cradle,  with  a  stick  in  his  hand  to  steer  the  vessel,  and 
disengage  it  from  pieces  of  rock  or  stumps  of  trees  that 
It  may  chance  to  encounter  in  the  route.  He  must  also 
balance  the  sledge  with  his  Ixxly,  otherwise  he  will  be 
in  danger  of  being  overturned.  Tlio  traces,  by  wliiih 
this  carriage  is  fasteticd  to  the  reindeer,  are  fixed  to  a 
collar  about  the  nnimal's  neck,  and  run  down  over  the 
breast,  between  the  fore  and  hind  legs,  to  lie  coniiectoil 
with  the  prow  of  the  sledge ;  the  reins,  managed  by  the 
traveller,  are  tied  to  the  horns;  and  the  trap|)ings  arc 
usually  furnished  with  little  bells,  the  sound  of  which 
is  agreeable  to  the  animal.  With  this  draught,  the 
reindeer,  if  pressed,  will  travel  from  sixty  to  eighty 
miles  in  a  day  ;  but  more  frecjuently  he  does  not  travel 
more  than  forty  or  fifty,  which  is  a  good  day's  journey. 
Oc<'i.sionalIy  he  halts  to  moisten  his  mouth  with  snow. 
Before  he  sets  out,  the  Laplander  \vhi»p<-ra  in  his  ear 
the  way  he  has  to  go,  and  the  place  at  which  he  has  to 
halt,  firmly  pcnuiadnd  that  the  \w.-il  understands  his 
meaning.  In  the  beginning  of  winter,  tlip  Laplanders 
mark  the  most  freiiucnted  paths,  by  strewing  llicm  with 
fir  houghs  ;  whii-h,  lieing  frecjuently  covererl  with  new 
*now,  alternately  pressed  by  the  sleighs,  bar  lens  them 
into  a  kiml  of  causeway,  which  is  the  more  hmooth,  if 
the  surface  has  felt  a  partial  thaw,  and  been  crusted  by 
•  subseiiucnt  frost  It  requires  great  caution  to  follow 
these  tracks ;  for,  if  the  carriage  deviates  to  the  right  or 
leil,  the  traveller  is  plunged  into  an  abyss  of  snow.  In 
less  freijuented  parts,  where  there  is  no  such  beaten 
road,  the  Laplander  directs  hi»  course  Ijy  certain  marks 
made  on  the  trees. 

In  Russia,  and  also  in  Canada,  sleighs  arc  used  in 
winter  for  conveyance  from  place  to  place,  the  beast  of 
draoght  being  the  horse.  As  the  roads  in  many  parts 
of  Canada  are  very  unsuitable  for  any  sjwcies  of  tra- 
velling, if  happens  tha*  sleighing  over  the  hardened 
ISM 


surface  of  the  mow  in  winter,  ii  by  far  tlie  boat  inotl« 
of  communication  in  that  country.  It  is  almost  unn». 
ccssury  to  add,  that  the  sledge  or  sleigh,  which  ia  tNi 
rudest  kind  of  carriage  for  draught,  has  disappeared  in 
all  countries  which  havo  advanced  considerably  in  in^ 
provcment. 

From  the  rude  sledge,  drawn  with  an  incalculable 
dcgice  of  laliour  over  the  rough  ground,  the  next  im- 
portant st<>p  in  mechanical  construction  is  to  appU 
wheels,  for  the  purpose  of  lessening  the  friction  of  tU 
moving  body.  The  first  application  of  wheels  to  car 
riagi's  is  beyond  the  reach  of  record.  Wagons  an 
spoken  of  in  the  book  of  (icni'sis,  from  which  it  mat 
be  inferred  that  a  knowledge  of  wheels  whs  common  in 
a  very  curly  age.  It  is  further  Unown,  that  the  mitking 
of  wheels  formed  a  distinct  trade  aiming  the  citizciia  of 
Thebes  in  ancient  Kgypt,  tlirec  or  four  thousand  yeuri 
ago. 

^Iniirnl  Fgypliiin  Carriiiceii. — The  most  elegant  of 
the  Egyptian  carriages  w:is  a  kind  of  gig,  or  light  open 
chariot,  on  two  wheels,  called  the  pinisliuiii,  which  a 
thus  dcsi'ribcd  by  Mr.  Wilkinson,  in  his  work  on  the 


In.  an  abrir: 
flirures  in  i 
which  Ihey 
seventy-two 


Maniierb  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Kxvptians:— 
"The  plaiMtruiii  was  very  similar  to  the  war-cliariot  and 
the  curricle,  but  the  sides  apjx'iir  to  have  been  closed, 
and  it  won  drawn  by  a  [lair  ol  oxen  iii-tcud  of  liursoi 
The  harness  was  much  the  saino,  mid  the  whpcia  had 
six  spokes.  In  a  journey,  it  was  iKTa.sioiially  furniJied 
with  a  sort  of  umljrella,  fixed  upon  a  roil  rising  from 
the  centre  or  back  of  the  car  ;  the  reins  were  the  sana 
as  those  used  for  horses,  and  apparciilly  furiiishcj  with 
a  bit ;  and  liesides  the  driver,  a  groom  sometimes  ut- 
tended  on  foot,  at  the  head  of  the  animals,  |icrha|« 
feeding  them  as  tliey  went.  The  aniicxed  wood  rn- 
graving  represt'nts  nn  Kthiojiiuu  princess,  who  is  nn 
her  j.)urney  through  I'pjM'r  Kgypt  to  Thebes,  where  the 
court  then  resiiled.  The  pluiistra  are  called  in  (iciicsJ! 
iviin'iiii  they  were  commonly  used  in  Kgypt  for  tiivp|. 
ling.  Desides  the  plaustriiin,  tlii^y  hail  a  sort  <  '  luUn 
Huin,  ond  a  caiii)|iy  or  framework  answering  the  pii'- 
(Miw  of  a  sedan  chair,  in  vvliiih  they  somrtiiiics  nut  or 
stooil,  in  their  open  pleasiire-lioats,  or  in  situations  where 
they  wished  to  avoid  the  sun." 

From  the  rewaichcs  uf  .Mr.  Wilkinson,  we  are  en- 
abled to  form  some  estimate  of  tlii;  enormous  troiilile  in- 
curred by  the  ancient  Kgyptiaiis  in  tln'  transport  of  iV 
heavy  stones  which  they  employed  in  b'lildm!;  thri' 
temples.  Some  of  tlicst'  stones  weighed  .'iUDll  tims,  ana 
were  usually  conveyeil  from  the  ijuarries  I'mm  whiifc 
they  were  cut,  in  flat-bottomed  boats,  on  caiiuls  mult 
for  the  purpose.  Occasionally,  however,  when  thii 
mode  of  transport  was  unsuitable,  the  stone  was  ilranii 
on  sledges,  perhaps  some  hundreds  of  miles,  by  oifnm 
by  human  labour,     'i'he  following  woodcut  repre«enli, 


rrtiresent  onl' 

ropes  attache! 

probably  grna 

■taniling  on  tli 

liliite  Its  prog 

was  probably  < 

in>  not  indicut 

fiiiployed  in  tl: 

tliii  others  are 

luine  of  their 

vases  of  the  lii 

workmen,  and 

transport  of  thi 

their  wands  of 

to  include],     t 

who  claps  his  h 

to  mark  the  tiim 

'i'he  height  of 

tnenty-four  feet 

to  the  sledge  by 

of  |>egs,  insertet 

til  completely   1 

frii'tion  of  the  n 

llier  or  other  sul 

they  touched  th 

representation  is 

pi'r8|iective,  whi< 

Egyptian  deline 

[wrsons  employe 

customary  for  a 

•ttcnd,  [wrhaps  f 

and  compelling  o 

degrading  means 

imjiossible  to  reji 

(^onvei/anrf  hy 

camel,  in  its  fwc 

has  |)con  employ 

beast  of  burden ; 

this  respect,  thesi 

haliitable.     In  th( 

tireji  of  the  camel 

pott     The  brethr 

pit,  "  they  sat  do^ 

their  eyes  and  |o 

tnaeliles  came  fro 

•picery,  and  I nlm, 

f:;,7pt."     Thus  th 

among  the  mcrcha 

iiicts  of  India  acr 

"ealthy  land  of  E 


•Tlie  only  enoniii 
htl  'he  ciiiiifl  linj  i 
tiiri!  ar*  in  xi  .i  brte 

Vim    '..-17 


CONVEYANCE. 


ill.  ui  ahrirlged  form,  the  mmie  of  ronvcying  rnlnnal 
rtirum  in  iitone  frnm  thn  quurricii  to  tho  trmplRi  in 
which  they  were  to  ho  imt  up.  "Ono  hiindroil  and 
wventy-lwo  men,  in  four  rowi  of  forty-thrco  mich  [wo 


boat  motU 
lost  unn»- 
lirh  IB  th» 
ppcarcd  in 
ilily  in  inh 

nc.alculuble 
e  next  im- 
«  to  appt) 
'tion  of  tU 
!«lii  to  cat 
^'aaoii»  are 
ich  it  may 
couiinnn  in 
thn  miikinn 
3  oitixoiu  of 
iiHund  you:a 

t  o1po;ant  of 
It  lii^ht  open 
III,  whirh  it 
s'urk.  on  tht 


jyi'lluns:— 
-chariot  imd 
lici'ii  clnMod, 
of  liurso*. 
wlievis  had 
lUv  furnii:lied 
I'ls'iMg  Iron 
•re  the  »ara« 
jriiislicj  with 
luint'tiinrs  \A- 
nals,  |icrha|ii 
•d  wood  rn- 
H,  wlio  is  on 
if»,  where  ihe 
d  ill  (icntsH 
ypl  for  liavfl. 
Mi>rt  <. '  |mUn 
riiiR  llic  I'll'- 
rtiiiM's  nut  01 
iiiilions  wlure 

we  nrf  en- 
UH  Iroulilo  ;> 
JISJXHI  ol  thf 
iMildin!{  ttii'i' 
UOO  tons,  aiii 
from  wliifti 

caiml^  iii>d( 
Ir,  when  ihi» 
lie  wiw  dra»T 
I's,  hv  ojen  01 
|ut  reiiro*eill», 


rrpreaent  only  as  fur  as  twenty  each  row],  pull  the 
ropes  attached  to  tlie  front  of  tho  Hiedgo ;  and  a  liquid, 
prohahly  grnaKO,  in  (lOurcd  from  a  vase  liy  a  person 
•tandinK  on  the  jwdestal  of  the  statuo,  in  order  to  faci- 
litate it.i  proi^ri'ss  as  it  slides  over  the  ground,  which 
was  prohnlily  covered  with  a  hcd  of  planks,  though  they 
are  nut  indicated  in  tho  painting.  Homo  of  tho  jierHons 
finployed  in  this  lahorious  duty  appear  to  he  EgyptinnR, 
the  others  arc  foreign  slaves,  who  are  clad  in  the  eos- 
luine  of  their  country.  Below  arc  persons  carrying 
Viises  of  the  lii|uid,  or  |>erhap8  water,  for  tho  use  of  the 
workmen,  and  some  implements  connected  with  the 
triinsport  of  the  statue,  followed  hy  taskmast^^rs  with 
their  wands  of  oflico  [hut  which  we  have  not  had  space 
to  include].  On  tiie  knee  of  the  future  stands  a  man 
nho  claps  his  hands  to  tho  measured  cadence  of  a  song, 
to  mark  the  time,  and  insure  their  simultaneous  draught. 
'I'tie  height  of  the  statuo  appears  to  have  hocn  ahout 
twenty-four  feet,  including  the  [Midestal.  It  was  hound 
to  the  sledge  hy  rojics,  which  were  tightened  hy  means 
of  [logs,  inserted  In'tween  them,  and  twisted  round  un- 
til completely  braced  ;  and  to  prevent  injury  from  the 
friction  of  the  ro|)cs  upon  the  stone,  a  compress  of  lea- 
tlier  or  other  substance  was  introduced  at  the  part  where 
thoy  touched  the  statue."  It  may  bo  a<ldcd,  that  the 
representation  is  constructed  without  any  reference  to 
pi'rs|ieclive,  which  was  not  understood  hy  the  ancient 
Egyptian  delineators.  UeHides  the  great  numlM?r  of 
persons  employed  in  drawing  these  huge  blocks,  it  was 
customary  for  a  band  of  some  hundreds  of  soldiers  to 
attend,  j^rhiips  for  the  purpose  of  overawing  the  slaves, 
and  compelling  oliedienco  in  their  odious  tank.  A  more 
degrailing  means  of  mechanical  conveyance  it  would  be 
impossible  to  represent 

Convey anre  by  Cnnieh. — From  the  earliest  times,  the 
camel,  in  its  two  varieties  of  camel  and  dromedary,* 
has  licen  employed  in  the  sandy  regions  of  Asia,  M  a 
beast  of  burden ;  and  without  its  invaluable  services  in 
this  respect,  these  countries  could  scarcely  have  been 
habitable.  In  tho  sacred  writings,  wc  find  frequent  no- 
tices of  the  camel  in  connection  with  commercial  trans- 
port 'I'he  brethren  of  Joseph  having  cast  him  into  a 
pit.  "they  sat  down  to  eat  bread;  and  they  lifted  up 
their  eyes  and  looked,  an<l  liehold  a  company  of  Ish- 
maetites  came  from  (lilend,  with  their  camels  liearing 
ipicery.  and  laltn,  and  myrrh,  going  to  carry  it  down  into 
n;:\'pt."  Thus  the  camel  formed  the  engine  of  carriage 
among  the  merchants  of  Arabia,  and  conveyed  the  pro- 
iiicto  of  India  across  tho  deserts  to  the  populous  and 
Kealthy  land  of  Egypt 


•Tie  only  es'i-niial  ditTerence  between  iha  two  ▼■rlelins.  is 
hit  'he  rniiiel  lins  iwn  liiiiiclii-a  nnd  the  dromedary  one  ;  but 
iicn  ar'  mix*  i  breeds  b(  tweeii  them 
Vni    '.-17 


The  camel  is  expressly  suited  hy  naturn  for  inhabiu 
ing  and  traversing  sandy  and  parched  deserts,  in  whicn 
there  are  |  luces  of  rest  and  refreshment  only  at  remote 
distances.  •<  It  is  tho  most  temperate  of  all  animals, 
and  can  enntinne  to  travel  several  days  without  drink- 
ing. In  lhos<i  vast  deserts,  whore  the  earth  is  every- 
where dry  and  sandy — where  there  are  neither  birds 
nor  beasts,  neither  insects  nor  vegetables — whore  no- 
thing is  to  be  seen  but  hills  of  sand  and  he  if  bonea, 
there  tho  camel  travels,  posting  forward,  wii  .  requir- 
ing either  drink  or  pasture,  and  is  often  found  six  or 
seven  days  without  any  sustenanco  wliiitsoovcr.  Its 
feet  are  formed  for  travelling  upon  sanil,  and  utterly  un- 
fit for  moist  or  marKhy  places ;  the  iiihnliitants,  there- 
fore, find  a  most  useful  assistant  in  this  iiiiimal,  where 
no  other  could  subsist,  and  by  its  means,  cross  those 
deserts  with  safety,  which  would  ho  inipassablo  by  any 
other  method  of  conveyance. 

"  An  animal  thus  formed  for  a  sandy  and  desert  re- 
gion, cannot  Ixi  propagated  in  one  of  a  ditferent  nature. 
Many  vain  efforts  have  been  tried  to  propagate  th* 
camel  in  Spain  and  America,  but  they  have  multiplied 
in  neither  of  these  countries.  It  is  true,  indeed,  that 
they  may  lie  brought  into  both  countries,  and  may  per- 
haps be  found  to  produce  there ;  hut  the  cavo  of  keep- 
ing them  is  so  great,  and  the  accidents  to  which  they 
are  exposeil  from  the  changeableness  of  the  climate,  are 
so  many,  that  they  do  not  reward  the  care  of  keeping. 
In  a  few  years,  also,  thoy  arc  seen  to  degenerate ;  their 
strength  and  patience  forsake  them,  and,  iiuntead  of 
making  the  riches,  they  become  tho  burden  of  their 
keepers. 

"  The  camel  is  easily  instructed  in  the  methods  of 
taking  up  and  supporting  his  burden ;  their  legs,  a  few 
days  after  they  are  produced,  are  bent  under  their  belly ; 
they  are  in  this  manner  loaded,  and  taught  to  rise ;  their 
burden  is  every  day  thus  increased,  by  insensible  de- 
grees, till  tho  animal  is  capable  of  supporting  a  weight 
ade(iuate  to  its  force.  The  same  care  is  taken  in  making 
them  patient  of  hunger  and  thirst :  while  other  animals 
receive  their  food  at  stated  times,  tho  camel  is  restrained 
for  days  together,  and  these  intervals  of  famine  are  in- 
creased in  proportion  as  the  animal  seems  capable  of 
sustaining  them.  By  this  method  of  education,  they 
live  five  or  six  days  without  food  or  water;  and  their 
stomach  is  formed  most  admirably  by  nature  to  fit  them 
for  long  abstinence.  Besides  the  four  stomachs  which 
all  animals  have  that  chew  the  cud  (and  the  camel  is 
of  tho  number),  it  has  a  fifth  stomach,  which  serves  a* 
tt  reservoir  to  hold  a  greater  quantity  of  water  than  the 
animal  has  an  immediate  occasion  for.  It  is  of  a  suffi- 
cient capacity  to  contain  a  large  quantity  of  water, 
where  the  fluid  remains  without  corrupting,  or  without 
l)eing  adulterated  by  tho  other  aliments :  when  the 
camel  finds  itself  pressed  with  thirst,  it  has  here  an 
easy  resource  for  quenching  it ;  it  throws  up  a  quantity 
of  this  water,  by  a  simple  contraction  of  the  muscle*, 
into  the  other  stomachs,  and  this  serves  to  macerate  ita 
dry  and  simple  food.  In  this  manner,  as  it  drink* 
hut  seldom,  it  takes  in  a  largo  quantity  at  a  time;  and 
travellers,  when  straitened  for  water,  have  been  often 
known  to  kill  their  camels  for  that  which  they  expected 
to  find  within  them. 

"  In  Turkey,  Persia.  Arabia,  Barhary,  and  Egypt,  the 
whole  commerce  is  carried  on  by  means  of  camels; 
and  no  carriage  is  more  speedy  or  less  expensive  in 
these  countries.  Merchants  and  travellers  unitg  them- 
selves into  a  body,  furnished  with  camels,  to  secure 
themselves  from  the  insults  of  the  robbers  that  infest 
the  countries  in  which  they  live.  This  assemblage  ia 
called  a  airavan,  in  which  the  numbers  are  sometimeu 
known  to  amount  to  above  ten  thousand,  and  the  nun>- 
her  of  camels  is  oflen  greater  than  that  of  the  men. 
Each  of  tlicse  animals  is  loaded  according  to  hia  strength. 


ISO 


INronMATION   FOR   THK   PROPLK. 


trill  he  li  lo  wnirihld  of  it  himnrlf.  thtt  whfn  lii»  bunion 
hi  loii  ttrvat,  he  remain*  «till  upon  hi*  hnlly,  the  picture 
»n  whirh  he  ii  lowleil,  ret'uiing  to  ri»e  till  hi«  Imnlon  Iw 
tiHMtsneil  or  tnken  •wiy.  Fn  (roner*!,  the  l»n{0  camel* 
»rerH|w»)le  ofrtrryinn  a  thouwind  poniid*'  *ei((ht,  aiiil 
vnietime*  twelve  himiltfil ;  the  dromedary  from  nil  to 
■even.  In  lhe««  tradinR  journey*,  they  travel  but  »lov»ly; 
»heir  aUfre*  are  Renorally  reK«lat«-d,  aiid  they  aelilom  go 
alM)»o  thirty,  or  at  moat  about  thirty-five  mile*  a  day. 
Krery  evening,  when  they  arrive  at  a  alase,  which  i* 
usually  doine  »j»ot  of  verdure  where  water  and  shrub*  are 
in  plenty,  they  are  permitted  to  feed  at  lilwrty  ;  they 
are  then  aeen  to  rnt  ax  much  in  an  hour  a*  will  anpply 
thoin  for  twenty-four  ;  they  iceni  to  prefer  the  coarReat 
weed*  to  the  softegt  pn*ture — the  thiMtIo,  the  nettle,  the 
rn*(i*,  and  other  prickly  vc<{*'»''lc»,  nrc  their  favourite 
food;  hut  their  driver*  take  care  to  Hiipply  them  with  a 
kind  of  jmMe  compimitiun,  which  aervc*  lu  a  more  |H'r- 
mauent  nourishment.  A*  thenc  animal*  have  often 
irono  the  «nme  track,  they  are  *aiil  to  know  thi^ir  way 
precisely,  and  to  pur*uo  their  paiiiiaK<^  when  their  guide* 
are  utterly  antray.  WIten  they  come  within  a  few  mile* 
of  their  baiting  place  in  the  evening,  they  *agaciou*ly 
•cent  it  at  a  diitance,  and,  increaning  their  speed,  are 
often  aeen  to  trot  with  vivacity  to  their  Mlage. 

The  patience  of  lliis  animal  i*  most  extraordinary; 
and  it  i*  probable  that  its  suflering*  are  great,  fur 
when  it  i*  loaded,  it  aend*  forth  most  lamentable  cries, 
but  never  ofTera  to  re*i*t  the  tyrant  that  oppresses  it. 
At  the  slightest  sign,  it  bends  its  knee*  and  lies  upon 
it*  belly,  sulTcring  itHcIf  to  be  londcd  in  this  position  ; 
by  thi*  practice  the  burden  i*  more  eaHJIy  laid  upon  it 
than  if  lifted  up  while  standing.  At  another  sign  it 
rise*  with  it*  load,  and  the  driver  getting  upon  ita  back, 
between  the  two  panniers,  which,  like  ham|>ers,  are 
placed  upon  each  side,  he  encourages  the  camel  to  pro- 
ceed, with  hi*  voice  and  with  a  song.  In  thi*  manner, 
tha  creature  proceeds  contentedly  forward,  with  a  slow 
uneasy  walk  of  about  four  mite*  an  hour,  and  when  it 
come*  to  its  stage,  lie*  down  to  lie  unloadeil,  as  bcfora"* 
From  Major  Skinner'*  aceount  of  his  "Journey  to 
India,"  in  the  courae  of  which  he  travelled  twenty  day* 
with  a  numerou*  caravan  from  Diiniawu*  to  Bagd'.J. 
we  have  tlie  following  lively  picture  of  the  mode  of  con- 
Tryanoe  by  camels : — 

"  I  must  give  a  description  of  our  equipage,  now  that 
we  are  fairly  launched  on  the  great  waste.  I  ride  a 
whit«  camel,  with  my  saildle-bagH  under  me,  and  a  pair 
of  water-skins,  quite  full,  IxMirath  thitn :  over  the  *ad- 
d'e  i*  my  bed.  A  thick  cherry-slick,  with  a  cros*  at 
the  end  of  it,  aerve*  to  guide  the  niiiinal ;  a  gentle  tap 
on  the  side  of  his  neck  sends  him  to  the  left,  and  one 
0:1  the  opposite  makes  hini  turn  Imck  again  to  the  right; 
a  knock  on  the  back  of  his  heail  KtopH  him,  and  a  few 
blows  between  the  ear*  bring  him  to  his  knees,  if  ac- 
companied by  a  guttural  sound,  rcKembling,  a*  the 
Arab*  say,  the  pronunciation  of  their  letter  nhe.  To 
rr.ike  him  move  quickly,  it  is  necesrary  to  prick  him, 
with  the  |H>int  of  the  stick,  on  the  shoulders. 

"  To  tlie  north  there  is  a  range  of  bare  hilla,  and  at 
their  base*  are  patches  of  green  ;  the  rude  tents  of  a 
tribe  of  Bedouins  are  pitched,  and  their  cattle  enliven 
the  scene.  We  panHed  over  a  iK-rfeot  level  tliis  morn- 
ii  a,  strewed  with  flowers,  and  thick  with  pasture  for 
tl;e  camels,  where  wc  arc  now  resting.  It  is  not  usual 
hfte,  as  in  many  parts  of  the  cast,  for  the  camels  ic 
uiiid  in  long  strings,  one  after  the  other.  Our  nuMihcm, 
a;;iounting  to  fifteen  hundred,  are  scattered  over  the 
Hi:rface  in  all  directions,  as  far  as  the  eye  can  trace. 

•'  In  travelling,  the  sheik*  or  chiefii  of  the  caravan, 
attended  by  the  military  part  c  T  their  equipage,  mounted 
un  drootedariea,  move  in  a<^  ranee,  while  the    loaded 


•CMdtmilh'i  Aniia«  4  Ni 


camels  follow  at  some  dijitnnce,  in  parallel  maawA 
opening  out,  or  changing  the  form,  as  the  g-as*  renders 
it  necessary.  'I'hey  lull  so  naturally  inti  rpilitary 
figures,  that  it  is  dilficult  to  conceive  their  doing  ii 
without  direction. 

"  We  have  several  tent*  in  the  caravan.  They  are 
pitched  so  a*  to  {lermit  the  ciunels  U-longing  to  each  to 
lie  in  the  intervals,  vthere  they  are  plucril  in  tnjViuU  Un 
the  night.  'J'hey  are  by  no  mciniN  agreiablo  nrixh 
hour* :  for,  although  they  are  not  able  to  move  Iron 
their  place,  they  make  a  mi>st  unplensniit  gurgling  noisi', 
the  Iwles  of  the  merchants  always  form  the  wimlwnnl 
defence,  for  the  tents  have  no  siilvs  to  them,  and  l.iil 
fiutter  over  the  giHMis  to  keep  the  sun  from  their 
owners. 

At  the  usual  hour*  of  prayer,  a  loud  cnll  is  hcanl 
throughout  the   camp,  and    [lartics  llock  to  where  tlir 
I  niiiezr'H  take*  his   stand.      At   suiisi't,   us   the   cami'N 
I  draw  in  from   the   pasture,  all  the  Arabs  ore   on   thiir 
;  knees,  in  a  line  of  two  or  three  hundred,  in  two  ranks, 
'I'he   priest,   like  a  fugleman,   in  front,  gives  the   tiin* 
for  bowing   their  heniU,  and   |H<rfi)rmiiig  the  rent  of  llie 
I  enjoined  ceremonies.     Ah  they  rise  on  the  signal,  Ihcy 
.  sink  again   to  their  knees,  iind   press   their  fo.-i'heiids  lo 
I  the  earth  with  the  utmost  devotion :   the  scene  i*  sin- 
gularly impressive. 
I       "  The  rale  at  which  a  loaded  camel  travels  is  estimatnl 
j  at  two  mile*  and  a  half  an  hour  by  almost  every  tra- 
veller.    Our  caravan   has   not,  I   think,  exceeded    this; 
but  the  variety  of  its  movements  has  been  very  liresonie, 
I  The  Arob  drivers,  who  walk  in   Tront  of  the  aniinnln. 
I  never  miss  an   opportunity  of  a  )>iece  of  j)OHtu  i  •  hut, 
I  however  distant  it  may  Ik-  from  the  proper  co  ir„!',  loaJ 
them  towards   it,  and,  with  the   short  slicks  tliey  (  irr)', 
beat  them  into  the  thickcHl  part  of  it.     'i'he  camels  art 
anxious  enough  for  the  matter  theniRclvcs,  an.1  huddle 
so  together  that  their  riders'  legs  are  in  tolerable  daiii^ar 
of  Ix'ing  crushed  in  the  contact. 

"  There  ia  *o  strong  a  resemblance  to  a  toyage  at  ■•« 
in  a  passage  across  the  desert,  that  I  cannot  divest  my- 
self of  the  Iw'lief  that  the  moving  mass  is  but  a  colle<> 
iion  of  small  vrssi'ls,  carried  into  a  heap  by  the  tide. 
Every  man  is  rcaily  with  his  .itick  to  fend  oft"  the  ani- 
mal that  approaches  him  ;  on"  oijsh  separates  the  cainoli 
as  it  would  separate  a  coupK  ^C  iioats ;  and  the  cameli 
move  away,  quite  unconscious  of  th '  circumstance,  lili 
anutlier  movement  swings  them  togethiT  again." 

TRAVei.LINO  IN  PAST  TIMM  IN  BRITAIN. 
Tlic  modes  of  travelling,  and  conveyance  generally, 
were  of  a  coinparntivcly  ruilc  and  priniilive  kind  in 
Uritain  till  the  letter  port  of  the  sevenloonth  century; 
and  ojiy  thing  like  comfortible  and  ipiick  traiclliiig 
cannot  lie  said  to  have  lieen  known  till  a  century  later, 
when  mail-couching  was  iiitroiluced.  In  old  tinios 
jieople  of  an  humble  rank  travelled  only  on  foot,  uiij 
those  of  a  higher  Htation  on  horscliack.  Noblemen  and 
gentlemen,  as  much  for  ostentation  as  use,  kept  run- 
ning footmen — a  class  of  s<Tvanl«  active  in  liuib,  wlu' 
ran  Itefore  them  on  a  journey,  or  went  U|)on  erranil-i  of 
8|>ecial  iniport,  The  |(edestrian  powers  of  thcHc  footmen 
were  often  surjirising.  For  instance,  in  the  Duke  of 
Lauderdale's  house  at  Tliir'stanc,  near  Lauder,  on  the 
table-cloth  lieing  one  morning  laiil  for  a  large  dinrii^r- 
party,  it  wa*  disi-overod  that  there  was  a  drficieniv  of 
silver  s])oons.  Instantly  the  footman  was  sent  oil  to  \\\t 
duke's  other  seat  of  Lelhiriglon,  near  Ifltddington,  t'ullv 
m<venleen  miles  olf,  and  across  hills  and  moors,  for  1 
supply  of  the  necessary  article;  he  returned  »ilh  a  l-un- 
die  of  spoons,  in  time  for  dinner.  Again,  at  Htiinr 
Castle,  in  IJerwicksliire,  the  Earl  of  Home  had  udc 
night  given  his  footman  a  commission  to  priM-ced  ui 
Edinburgh  (thirty-fi\e  miles  off),  in  o  dcr  to  deliver  t 
message  of  high  political  consequence.     Next  momint 


CONVKYANCE. 


1^ 


I  rpniicn 
niilitanr 
(liiinK  ii 

I'lipy  i>r« 
1  eooh  Id 

IjMlllh  fell 

lo  nrii{li 
ovr    IVdii 

llll(  IKIIHI', 

iviiiilwnril 
,  aiiil  lilt 
'Din    tht'ir 

I  it  hciril 
whore  tilt 
ho  cuiurl^ 
>  on  Oii'ir 
two  riinkti. 
I  tho  tiin* 
ri'xt  of  the 
ip[iittl,  thoy 
)ri'hoiuln  lo 
iMie  ill  Bin- 
in  Of  titiintcil 
I  cvory  Ira- 
I'odoil  thin; 
ry  tiri'Bomi'. 
ho  aiii'.nnls. 
jKtu  I  ■  h'll, 
en  ir»i',  U'aJ 
I  tiu'>  tirry, 
0  camclH  UN 
,  an.!  hiidill* 
rablo  (taiiiFoi 

oyBRO  at  M» 
,t  <live»l  my- 
but  a  collco 
by  tlie  tiJe. 

o(T  the  ani- 
ls the  caincli 
i)  the  cainrli 
mislnnoc,  till 

;mii>." 

to  gonorallv, 
Vivo  kiini  in 
Litli  coiitury ; 
tk  travcUinj 
lontiiry  latrr, 
li  oUl   tinios 
Ion  foDt,  uiiJ 
loliU'nion  and 
f,  kept  run- 
In  liiiil',  who 
In  orraiuln  of 
lioKO  fiiotinen 
Iho  Diiko  of 
luilor,  on  the 
Jlar>?o  iliiiiipr- 
Ili-ricion'V  of 

I'llt  otV  to  (llf 

IniRton,  fully 

linoors,  fi)r  i 

willi  a  t'Un- 

In,  ul  Hunif 

lino  hml  one 

priM'coJ  w 

It)  deliver  t 

toit  monunf 


Mily,  wh  n  hi*  brilahip  •nl«ml  the  hall,  he  aaw  th« 
man  iloepinK  on  a  hunch,  and  conceiving  that  ho  hml 
lioglo('l«d  JiIm  duty,  wan  about  to  commit  aomo  raith  art, 
when  tho  poor  follow  awuko,  and  informed  Lord  Homo 
Ihiit  Ilia  coinmiaaion  had  Nron  exvoutoil,  and  that,  hav- 
ing rotnrnod  Iwforo  hia  lordahip  waa  itlrring,  ho  hiid 
only  tnkon  Icuvo  to  roat  hiinaelf  a  little,  'J'ho  oiirl, 
eijuiilly  antoniahod  and  griitificd  hy  tho  activity  of  hi* 
fiithful  vaamal,  rewarded  him,  with  a  little  piece  of 
);round,  which  to  thia  day  iMtara  the  niimr  of  the  Vk'I 
Itii — a  torm  oquivnient  to  tho  |)OHtman'»  Hold,  ami  nn 
un>|nr.atiunablo  proof,  aa  all  tho  villagori  at  Hiiino  ilo- 
vDUlly  Miovo,  of  tho  truth  of  the  anocdoto.  The  ciih- 
loiii  of  kooping  a  running  footniiui  did  not  roa.se  amongHt 
imIiIc  fainlliea  in  Hrotlitn<l  till  tho  miihllo  of  the  hint 
century.  The  Earl  of  March,  father  to  tho  late  Duke 
I'f  liuccnahorry,  and  who  lived  at  Noidpath  Ciisllo, 
near  reoliioH,  had  ono  niinied  John  Munn,  who  iiNod  to 
iiin  in  front  of  tho  carriage,  with  •  long  hIuII'.  In  the 
lifud  of  the  ataff  there  wbh  a  recess  fur  a  hard-boiled 
t'^'g,  Ruch  Iwiiig  the  only  food  taken  hy  Mann  during  a 
long  journey. 

When  the  mutter  of  communication  wna  of  particular 
ini|)orlanco,  or  ri'<niirod  to  l.a  deHpatchcd  to  a  coiiHidcr- 
iililo  (lintuiico,  horsemen  were  employed ;  and  thew,  by 
nioaili  of  reliiyH  of  freiih  animnU  and  great  toil  of  body, 
ujuld  prmoeil  journoya  of  Homo  huiulretla  of  miles  to 
aecoinpliitli  what  would  now  lie  much  liotter  done  by  n 
pout-letter.  iSjino  journeys  performed  on  horHobuck  in 
I  )i'mi'r  daya  woulil  lie  considered  wonderful  oven  in 
modern  tiinea  with  good  roiulH.  Cjiioen  Elizabeth  dieil 
;it  one  o'clock  of  thi;  morning  of  Thursday,  tho  Sltli 
i.i"  March,  l(10!<.  Between  nine  and  ten,  Sir  Kobort 
( '.ircy  left  London  (utU'r  having  lieeii  up  all  night),  for 
i!ii>  purp«-«  of  convoying  the  intelligence  to  her  anc- 
iv.'isor  JamoH,  at  Udiiiliuri;h.  Thut  iiiirht  ho  rode  to 
D.incoHtcr,  a  hundred  and  lilty-livc  milvs.  Next  night 
111'  reached  Willicrington,  near  Morpeth.  Early  on 
.Saturday  morning  ho  proceeded  by  Norham  acro.ss  the 
liordor;  end  that  evening,  at  no  late  hour,  kneeled  be- 
side tlie  king'i  I)ed  ut  Uolyrood,  and  aaluteil  him  aa 
King  of  England,  France,  and  Ireland.  He  had  thua  tra- 
velled four  hundred  milea  in  throe  daya,  rnating  during 
Ihe  two  intormcdiuto  nighta.  But  it  must  not  be  aup- 
\i  iKcd  that  u|H'ed  like  thia  waa  attained  on  all  occaxiona. 
At  the  cominoncomont  of  the  religioiia  trouhloa  in  the 
rrign  of  Charles  I.,  when  muttera  of  the  utmoat  import- 
:>ucc  were  debated  U-lween  the  king  and  hia  northern 
sulijccta,  it  uniformly  np(H'ara  that  a  communication 
I'roin  Edinburgh  to  liOi.'ion,  however  preaaing  might  be 
ihc  occauion,  waa  not  aimwered  in  loan  than  a  fortnight. 
Ilic  crowds  of  nobles,  clergymen,  gi;ntliMnen,  and  burgh- 
ers, who  at  that  time  aHseinblcd  in  Edinburgh  to  coii- 
lert  measuroB  for  oppoKing  the  dosigiia  of  the  court, 
always  dis(H'rH«'d  buck  to  their  hoinoa  after  dcKpatchiiig 
a  message  to  King  ('liarlcs,  and  aaaeinblcd  again  a  fort- 
night ihereufter,  in  order  to  receive  the  reply,  and  take 
■uch  measures  ar  it  might  call  for.  And  even  till  the  last 
century  was  pretty  far  advanced,  tho  ordinary  riding 
|xist  lietwoen  London  and  Edinburgh  regularly  took  a 
week  to  the  journey. 

In  conaeipif  nco  of  the  in'attention  of  our  ancestors  to 
romis,  and  the  wretcheil  stale  in  which  these  were  usu- 
ilW  kept,  it  was  hmg  Ix'fore  coaching  of  any  kind  came 
much  into  fashion.  Though  wheeled  vehicles  of  vari- 
ous kinds  were  in  use  luiumg  tlie  ancii'nis,  tho  clo.se 
ciirriagc  or  coach  i«  of  miHlern  invention.  The  word 
iiiii/i  is  Hungarian,  and  the  vehiilo  itself  is  supjiosed  to 
have  originated  in  Hiin.,'»ry.  (ieriimny  certainly  ap- 
(M'ars  to  have  taken  the  preeedeiue  of  the  nations  of 
We.Hlcrn  Euro|>c  in  UKiiig  coaches,  'i'liey  were  intro- 
Juced  then<'o  into  England  some  time  in  the  sixteenth 
jcntury,  hut  were,  aftc  all,  so  little  in  vogue  through- 
out the  whole  reign  of  Er.iibeth,  that  tliure   i.i  uo  trace 


of  her  having  ever  uaed  c  Lot 

who  died  in  I!i03,  introduced    k  cott 
llrat  over  us<'d   in  that   country.     0> 
into  Hcotlnnd — we  rather  think  liuui 
yeur  l.*)?!.     It  liclongod  to  the  fini 


iny    ••  Wiltan 

«  wes  inlr<)<lu< 
tnco-^ahiMil  i 
■'"■rotory  Mn 


land  of  Leihington,  who,  during  the  Imrnd  civil  wir 
iH-tweeii  the  adherent*  of  Mary  and  those  of  her  *on 
James,  made  a  journey  in  that  vehicle  from  Edinburgh 
( 'asth',  which  ho  waa  holding  out  fur  tho  (|uoen,  to  Niil- 
dry  in  West  Lothian,  for  tho  piiri>oM  of  holding  •  con- 
imitation  with  aomo  otiier*  of  her  friendu — tho  llrat  time, 
it  is  bellevi'd,  that  a  cloae  carriage  was  ever  used  in 
Neotland.  Kynoa  Morison,  who  wrote  in  tho  yeur  K117, 
speaks  of  cuachoa  a*  recently  intrraluccd,  and  still  rare 
in  .Scotland.  For  a  long  time,  thoae  convenience*  were 
only  used  hy  old  people,  who  could  not  well  boar  riding. 
The  young  and  active  deapiBcd  them,  a*  t4v(iding  lo 
elVominacy,  and  oa  not  being  bo  quick  of  movement  at 
the  horae.  The  Duke  of  Buckingham,  in  1010,  first 
used  a  conrh  with  six  homo* — a  iiieco  of  pomp  which 
tho  Duke  of  Northumlierlind  thought  proper  to  ridicule 
by  setting  up  one  with  eight.  Charles  I.  wiia  the  first 
liritish  aovereitfn  who  had  a  atatc  carriage.  Although 
Henry  IV.  was  killed  in  a  coach — tho  only  one,  by  tho 
way,  he  posseshod — his  ordinary  way  of  appearing  in 
tho  streets  of  I'aris  was  on  horseb.ick,  with  u  largo  clonk 
strapped  on  la-hind,  to  be  used  in  ease  of  rain.  In  Scot- 
land, previous  to  tho  time  of  the  civil  war,  coacheii  woro 
only  used  by  persona  high  in  the  state.  It  is  very  curi- 
ous to  find  that  tho  aamo  sort  of  compHints  now  made 
by  persons  interested  in  coaching  rcK|M'Cting  the  intro- 
dui'tion  of  steam  locomotives,  were  made  when  coaches 
were  introiluceil.  Taylor,  tho  wnter-poot,  complain*,  in 
the  reign  of  (Jharloa  I.,  that  large  retinues  of  men  were 
now  given  up  !.y  tho  groat,  aince  they  had  liegun  to  use 
coacho*.  Ten,  twenty,  thirty,  fifty,  yea,  a  hundred  pro- 
per serving  men,  were  transformed,  he  Bays,  into  two  or 
throe  animals,  llie  old-wifical  thinkeia  of  tliat  day 
were  as  much  concerned  about  the  fate  of  tho  discharged 
mon-servanta,  aa  the  twaddler*  of  the  present  are  dis- 
tressed about  tho  needless  horsos.  It  is  further  very 
amusing  to  find  Taylor,  in  hia  antipathy  to  coaches, 
complaining  thai  their  drivers  wore  all  of  them  hard 
drinkers. 

In  a  pamphlet  called  the  "  Grand  Concern  of  England 
Exjilaincd,"  published  in  1673,  the  writer  very  gravely 
attempts  to  make  out  that  the  introduction  of  coaches 
was  ruining  the  trade  of  England.  The  following  is  an 
example  of  his  mcxle  of  reasoning: — "Before  the  coaches 
were  set  up,  travellers  rode  on  horseback,  and  men  hatl 
bootA,  spurs,  saddles,  bridles,  Maddlc-cloths,  and  good 
riiling-suits,  coats  and  cloaks,  stockings  and  hats,  where- 
by the  wool  and  leather  of  the  kingdom  were  consumed. 
Besides,  most  gontleinen  when  they  travelled  on  horse- 
back used  to  ride  with  swords,  belts,  pistols,  holsters, 
portinanteaMs,  and  hat-cases,  which  in  these  coaches 
they  have  little  or  no  occasion  for.  For  whf  n  they  rode 
on  hon«'back  they  rode  in  one  suit,  and  carried  another 
to  wear  when  they  came  to  their  journey's  end,  or  lay 
by  the  way  ;  but  in  coaches  thoy  rido  in  a  silk  suit, 
with  an  Inillan  gown,  with  a  sash,  silk  stockings,  and 
the  beaver  hats  men  ride  in,  and  carry  no  other  with 
them.  This  is  liecause  thoy  escapo  the  wet  and  dirt 
which  on  horst'back  they  cannot  avoid ;  whereas  in  two 
or  three  Joiinieys  on  horseback,  these  clothes  and  hats 
were  wont  to  be  spoiled  ;  which  done,  tlicy  were  forced 
to  have  now  \ery  often,  and  that  increased  the  consump- 
tion of  niaimfacture.  If  they  wcro  women  that  tra- 
velled, they  used  to  hnvo  safcpnurds  and  hoods,  side- 
saddles and  pillions,  with  strappings,  saddle  or  pillion 
clullis,  whiih,  for  the  most  jiart,  were  laced  and  em- 
broidered ;  to  the  making  of  which  there  wont  man> 
several  trades,  now  ruined."  But  the  writer  has  other 
reuMJus  to  urgu  ugaiiul  ciMch  travcUiug.     "Thoie  whe 


tn 


INKOIIMATION  FOR  TIIK  I'KOPI.K. 


tni»rl  ill  Ihi*  mannrr,"  h<<  oYmene*,  "  (♦mrin'  wmry  tiiil 
lUtli'im  nlifii  Ihry  rtilr  •  frw  niilrii,  niiwilliiiK  to  get  nii 
liorm-lini-k,  ami  unid  'n  to  rnilurn  fnwt,  kiiow,  or  ruin,  i>r 
lu  lixlfjf  ill  till-  rteliU."     IlfKiili'K,  lir  hiiIiii  "  what  ■ilvaii- 
Uge  it  run  U-  to  a  inan'a  lii-ollh  to  Iw  nillcil  out  of  ImmI 
liilo  thi'«i  i-im(-ht'«  an  hour  or  two  U'fori)   ilnv  in   tliti 
iii'iriilng'>-l<i  Im  hiirrifil  in  thriii  from  plure  to  |iIii<t  till 
niir,  two,  or  thri'o   hoiim  witliiii  iiiKtit ;  iiiMMniirh   lliut, 
aftrr  niUiiiK  nil   ilny,  in  tlu<  miniiiicT  liiiii*,  Htillod  willi 
hoat    uiiil   choki'il    with    iliwt — or    In    tin'    wiiiti-r-liiiif, 
rlarvin^  or  (rmiim  with  rolil,   or  r|ici|(i>i|   with   llllhy 
f>g».  they  Bn>  ofh-ii   liroimlil  into  tlipir   inuM   hy  lunli- 
liifht,  when  it  in  too  hitt'  to  Hit  ii|i  to  t(t't  Hii|i|K'r,  snrl 
iieit  morning  thi-y  aro  forci-i!   into  tho  fcmch  «>  curly 
tliat  they  run  Ki-t  no  hrriikfiiNt  ?      VN'hiit  liilililion  Ih  it  to 
mi'ii'M  hrnlth  or  lniHiiicKH  to  riilr   all  diiy  with  Htruiit{rr«, 
nflfnlimi'«  "ii'k,   an<-iriit,   (IIhoiim'iI    \h-t*o\\h,    or    youiiK 
(hililri'ii  rryiiiKi  all  whow^  liuinoirrH  lii>  in  olilJKt'il  to  |iiit 
up  wl!h,  mill  in  oflrn   poiiionpil  with  their  nimty   urciita, 
uml  rripplrtl  with  lioxrN  nn>l  hunillt'it !    N  it  for  n  ninn'ii 
health  In  lit  liiul /ml  in  llit/iiul  iccyn,  anil  furred  In  uuiilr 
u/i  Id  Ihe  kntm  in  mirt ;  afifrwiirilt  lit  in  the  rolil  till 
teamit  of  horKm  ran  ho  Hrnt  in  pnll  tlio  roorh  out?      In 
it  for  thoir  hi-allh  to  travel  in  rotlPii  roaehi'H,  anil  to  have 
their  tarkic,  or  |>ereh,  or  iixic-tree  liroken  ;   ami  then  to 
wait  tlireu  or  four  hoiiDi  (iioinrtiniei  h.iif  the  ihiy],  anil 
afU'rwartU  to  Iravrl  all  iil|{ht  to  make  koinI  their  uta^e?" 
These,  however,  ilo  not  exhniiHt  the  palriulic  rlaniount 
of  Ihe  writer  ni^Hiniit  the  ihIiouh  innoviilion  of  HtaKi'-eoarh- 
\i\%.     lie  navH   that  the   praelii-e  •■  ilim'ournKeH  (lie  liriiil 
of  liorM'g,"  nil  Hri(iinieiit  whieh,  it  in  iiiiinxin^^  to  olinervp, 
liaa  hIho  U-en  UM-d  in  oppiMition   to  the  intrixluetion   of 
rnilwiiyg  in  reoriit  timeH.     In  certain  very  (leculiar  cir- 
cumilaiireii,  lie  allowi,  Htnf{e-coacliini(  nii^ht  l>u  tolerated, 
hut  in  no  other.     "  If  Koine  few  ulaije-coarlieH  were  con- 
tinuetl,  to  wil,  one  to  every  Hhire-town  in  KiiKland,  to  f{o 
once  a  week  hackwurd  and   forward,  and   to  ko  throii);h 
with  the  name  horiu-ii  they  act  forth  with,  and  not  travel 
above  thirty  niili'n  a  day  in  tlio  vurniner,  anil  twenty-five 
in  Uie  winter,  and  to  «liifl  iniia  every  journey,  that   ho 
trade   nii^ht  Iw   dilTum-d — tliCHO  would   Im!    Hiiiricient    to 
c«rry  the  aick   and   the  lunie,  that   they  pretend  cannot 
travel   on   horieliack;    and,   U'liii;    thus    reirulated,   they 
would  do  little  or  no  hnrin;  e8|M'clally  if  all  Im-  nuppreHMt'd 
ivithin   liliy    niilea  of  London,    where   they  are  no  way 
necoawtry,  and  yet  no  highly  destructive." 

Wr  have  thought  fit  to  intriHlucc  llieiw  eitrarta  hcrr, 
not  HO  much  fur  the  purposi'  of  amusing  our  rradem  with 
their  abaunlity,  aa  to  afford  a  ciiiition  to  the  K<''«'''al  o|>- 
ponentH  of  iniproveinenl.  ArKiiineiitii  of  a  Hiiiiilur  illo- 
gical nature  arc  now  used  in  reference  to  aInioHt  every 
propoocd  tDcJiuration  in  our  Hocial  condition,  and  will 
douhtlesM,  iri  •.  c<>ntury  hence,  lie  ipioted  for  their  ahort- 
lighted  folly,  tiioui^h  at  prcM-nt  meeting;  with  countenance 
from  a  large  claaa  iu  the  community. 

Notwithstanding  the  iiitroiluction  of  stage-coacheH  in 
the  Heventitnth  century,  they  were  placed  only  on  Ihe 
principal  roadH.  and  UHe<l  almost  exduKively  l<y  ppraona 
of  refimnl  laiite  and  wealth.  'I'he  popular  iiunIi-  ot  con- 
veyance continued  for  at  leant  a  cenlury  arter\-.4iril(i  to  lie 
by  atage-wugoiiH ;  theae  were  very  lar;!i'  niui  ruiiilHrsonie 
marhineH,  drawn  by  nix  or  eight  hiirses.  ami  devoted 
chiffly  to  the  carriage  of  gixMln  to  ai:'  from  the  nietro- 
polia.  'I'he  only  part  of  the  vehicle  vvliich  airordnl  nc- 
coniraodution  to  pasaengerH,  wuh  the  'ail  of  the  wa^jon, 
■*»  it  was  called,  a  reaervcd  afiacr  with  a  hooiK'd-up  cover 
iX  the  hinder  part  of  the  machine;  aiid  lure,  sitting  U|M)n 
^•raw  aH  they  best  could,  Home  half  dozen  piiss<'ngers  were 
tlowly  convoyed  on  their  journey.  The  ;  hancc  nllacks 
■if  highwaymen,  and  other  iieidents  which  o<curred  to 
the  occu|rants  of  ttie  wagon,  alwi  their  adventures  at  the 
iiins  where  they  slept  for  llie  night,  are  gnijihically  de- 
•cribed  by  Hmollett  in  hbi  story  of  Kislerick  Haiidom,  and 
will  he  ui  the  leculletlion  ul   must  of  our  readers.  i 


I  'I  he  wa||on«  tbtis  i  niplo/rd  ill  the  do  il.le  i  fPirt  i(  imis 
rying  Uilh  gomU  and  puMcngurs,  wne,  a»  we  huM'  ,ui,| 
roiillned  chiefly  to  Ihe  great  lines  of  road  in  Knglaiul 
On  all  the  leH  important  routes,  and  purtn  ulfi'ly  in  Heol 
land,  the  only  niruns  of  conveyance  lor  giMxIs  was  by  pack 
hurB<-s.     'I'hiw*  uniniula  were  luuded  wiLh  sacks  throw* 


■rroaa  Ihe  hack;  ancl,  if  not  ton  heavy,  piletl  to  •  roa 
siderablo  height  A  numlier  together  were  generally 
conducted  in  a  line  along  Ihe  narrow  and  badly  rnnstructeil 
paths,  that  which  went  U'foie  carrying  a  Im>II.  by  Ihe  link 
hng  sound  of  which  the  cavalende  waH  kept  from  slrait- 
gling  after  nightfall.  This  eiceedingly  rude  moile  ol 
coiiveynneo  continued  in  o|HTiition  in  some  parts  of  the 
country  till  the  year  l7N0,or  tlierenliouU,  when  une-horiw 
carts  came  into  use. 

The  old-fashioned  waiions  still  remain  in  use  in  Klig- 
land,  nolwitliHtiiiiiltng  the  nninerons  improvements  in 
niiNles  of  conveyance  and  lociwiiolion.  They  are  chiefly 
employed  for  the  carriai;c  of  gomlH  lietwern  the  metro|Hv 
lis  and  country  lownH  which  are  at  a  dislaiicc  from  any 
line  of  canal  or  railroad.  A  wagon  of  tluH  kind  is  pro 
viiled  with  tinir  broad  and  huge  wheels,  and  is  drawn  b; 
six  large  horrea,  the  driver  usually  riding  on  •  ac|ianili 


small  pony.  The  wagons  employe<1  in  London  to  convey 
coal  from  the  wharfs  to  the  houses  of  consumers,  or  beer 
from  brewers,  are  of  llie  same  unwirldly  form,  and  are 
drawn  with  a  needlewi  expenditure  of  jMiwer. 

The  length  of  time  consumed  in  journeys  by  even  the 
best  kind  of  carriages  of  past  tinies,  is  now  matter  for 
surj)ris<>.  The  stnge-coach  which  went  iMtween  London 
ami  Oxford  in  the  reign  of  ("liarlcH  II.  required  two  days, 
though  the  space  is  only  fifty-eight  miles.  That  to  Ex- 
eler  (IfiHj  miles^  rei|iiire<l  four  days.  In  1703,  when 
Prince  fleorge  o(^  ncnniork  went  from  Windsor  to  IVt- 
worth  to  meet  CharlcH  III.  of  Spain,  the  distance  N'tng 
about  forty  milcH,  he  rei|uired  fourteen  hours  for  the 
journey,  Ihe  last  nine  miles  taking  six.  The  [x-rson  who 
reconis  this  fact,  saya,  that  the  long  time  was  the  more  siir- 
prisinii.  an.cj'rpl  xrheii  orrr'io  iici/,  or  when  stuck  fast  in  Iho 
mire,  his  royal  highness  made  ro  stop  during  the  jouriiev 

In  1742.  stige-coarhes  nni't  have  Is'cn  more  nuiiie- 
roils  in  f'nglMTid  than  in  Ctuiiles  II.'s  time;  but  it  does 
not  ap|K'ar  that  they  moved  any  faster.  The  journey 
from  London  to  Ilirniinghnm  (I  Hi  miles)  then  occii|iii\l 
nearly  three  da\  s,  as  appears  ftum  the  liillowiiig  adverlise- 
ment : — "The  Litchfield  aiil  Hirmiiiiiliam  Hlagc-coarh 
wt  out  this  morning  CMomlay.  .\pril  12.  1712),  from  the 
KoM-  Inn,  Holborn  Uridge,  London,  and  will  tie  at  lf.c 
Angel,  and  Ihe  lien  and  t'liickens.  in  the  High  Town, 
Uirminghain,  on  Wednesday  next,  to  dinner;  and  goet 
ttie  same  atleriioun  to  1  it^hlield      It  luturim  to  l)imiijig> 


kam  Ol 

ion  •»n 

(v;j«lar 

the  wh( 

Lllchfie 

not  mo 

an  aven 

Of  It 

learn  so 

Mr.  Kail 

'foils. 

is  rrpuli 

while  ac 

•|M'iit  on 

app.ircnl 

there  wai 

hiirgh;  a 

present  a 

to  pnx 

glad  to  h 

tlio  exp«Mi 

17.^1   thci 

capitals. 

advertised 

lictter  occr 

new  geiite 

springs,  ex 

summer,  ai 

day  in  .Ma 

(he  Couch 

and  from  .li 

every  other 

lurday  nigl 

ing,  and  ge 

winlcr,  to 

other  [alteri 

bridge  on  H; 

Monday  mo 

Saturday  nit 

if  Ood   jHTII 
OATK."       Hi 

•ix  days  in  y 

thiity-three  r 

century,  the 

(jla<gow   (lii 

passengers   n 

'idercd  a  grei 

marled  Willi  1 

»ix  hours.     'I 

hours.     It  ia 

Ihe  niail-coacl 

and  a  half  nii 

The   length 

whether  with 

porlioiiully  gri' 

lections  oi"  pas 

olwrvos,  "thai 

hurgh,  thirfy-ei 

make  out  his  j( 

"•turning,  with 

fatigued  horse, 

««  hundredwe 

originally  was 

country ;  n  con 

•hat  district  ca 

principal  Htrenir 

not  flooded,  was 

•nd  easiest  to  Ik 

much  ui>.arid-<lo 

of  this  adventiii 

7»y-going.  Uirni 

tun  a  safe  returi 

•lit 


ROAnn. 


lit 


Itmtn  on  'f*hiim'ty  tmtrniiis  tii  hrrakfiurt,  iinil  grlM  (o  him- 
ion  Dm  8alt.riUy  night  i  mul  »n  will  mntinuc  rvccy  wrrk 
rf^lmrly,  wjlli  ■  rmkI  coarh  hikI  ■lile  hunu'ii."  Thtm 
tho  whiiU'  wrrk  wiin  (vi'ii|iii'<l  in  n  jinirncy  to  iiiil  from 
MtchflvM  by  IlirminKliiiin.  nii  onrire  ii\mre  of  protmhly 
not  mom  lh«n  two  hiimlrpil  arul  forty  milcs^lhal  m,  at 
III  avnraiti^  of  forty  iiiilpn  a  >t;iv 

Of  the  uliinK-riwrh  Journi'v  to  lUlh,  bImiuI  171R,  wn 
Umrn  aome  iwrlirularx  from  JSovilli  il'ii  rclft)r.itril  novfl. 
Mr.  Kanilom  riitrr*  llin  coa<-li  fn-fiirr  iliiyliKbt.  It  pro- 
»i<«ila.  A  hixliWiiyman  allarkn  it  licfori'  lirrakfuat,  iitiil 
in  r<<|iuiw'il  liy  tl  ••  f{iillaiilr>  of  tlu'  lii-ro.  Htrii|)  mciui- 
wlilli'  arromiiaiili'a  tho  rnarli  on  liorwliock.  A  niulit  la 
•iN'iit  on  till'  roiiil,  ami  thn  joiirniy  in  fliiiitliril  iipxt  iliiy, 
ii|i|iarpnl!y  towiuila  ev^nliut  -Kl**  niili-ii !  At  llmt  llmo 
lliori-  wan  no  rr^uliir  iitai{<'-i'"  i'  from  lionilon  In  Kilin- 
hiiculi;  anil  lht>  rn'wn|iii|Mirii  of  im'  liillrr  rity  o<TiiMiiiiiiilly 
(iri'Mcnt  HdviTtiixMncnta,  iit'ilii>K  that  nn  Iniliviiliml  iilioiit 
Ui  priM'i'i'ii  to  tho  melrn|)olj(i  liy  a  |ioiil-i'lini»<>,  woiiM  I* 
Ulail  to  hrnr  of  a  ft  How  iidvi'iitiirrr,  or  inorr,  to  li'aacn 
the  pxpenwe  foi  niutuni  roiivniirnd'.  flowcvrr,  iH'fore 
nft'l  lliiTti  wiia  n  atiiKP-i'cmih  1h-Iwi'«'ii  tlir  two  llrilli.li 
cii|iila!*.  Fii  (III)  Eilinliiiruli  ('oiirnnt  for  thnt  ynir,  it  la 
ailvKrtiai'il  lliiil — "  Thii  Kilml)iirt(l\  iiliixi'-i'oncli,  for  tht- 
td'tter  niTotniiKHlntiod  of  |iiiHni'nncni,  will  Iki  nltrrfil  to  a 
ni'w  nenli'i'l  twiM'iiil  kIihh  roiiili  nindiiiip,  hunR  on  kIitI- 
<i|iriin(>i,  I'Xirriliiv;;  lji(ht  iiiiil  I'lisy,  to  ro  in  tni  iIuvh  In 
nuinmrr,  iiml  twrlvi-  in  winlrr ;  to  net  out  tho  firHt  Tiirn- 
<Uy  in  Manh,  nml  ronliniii'  it,  from  Hohimi  KiiHlRiiti'H, 
the  Coach  iiml  lIorHoa  in  Drsn  Hlroot,  Hoho,  l.onilon, 
iind  from  John  Hiuiifrvillr'x  in  tin'  ('iiii<>ni{iitr,  K(linlinr;;h, 
I'vrry  othor  'I'uc.  Huy,  unit  nirol  iit  l)iirrowhriilf{o  on  Hii- 
timlny  nii^ht,  iinil  Hrt  out  iVoin  thriiro  on  Monilny  niorn- 
iiiir,  ami  ^i^t  to  I.oikIoii  iiihI  Kilinliiiri;li  on  Friilny.  In 
winter,  to  »vt  nut  from  Iiondon  nml  KilinhnrKh  rvrry 
other  [alti'mntr]  Momliiy  niornino;,  iiiiil  In  (^o  to  Ihirrow- 
briJue  on  Hutunliiy  niu'ht;  inul  to  net  onl  from  thi-nro  on 
Monilny  moriiiiiK,  nml  gi't  to  I.omlon  nml  Kilinlinri^h  on 
Saturdny  nii?ht.  I'lisHrni^iTs  to  pny  an  iisiiiil.  I'l-rfornii'il, 
if  (toil  jiflrmitu,  hy  your  iliitil'nl  wrvniit.  Husk*  Kaht- 
ovrn."  Hero  tho  iliHtniin-  of  two  huiiilrnl  miifa  r(>i|uirpa 
aix  ilnya  in  vvintor,  hritiR  nt  tho  rnto  of  little  more  timii 
thiily -three  mileit  a  iliiy.  So  Intcly  nn  the  eiul  of  the  laMt 
o'nlury,  tho  journey  hy  the  stnRe  N-tween  Kilinliurif h  nml 
(iln<i;inv  (forty-two  milri)  oorupied  a  whole  day,  the 
[lasiu' libera  Ktoppiiii^  to  dine  on  tho  roi\d.  It  wns  ron- 
(iili-red  II  ("rent  improvement  when,  in  17!(!),  n  conch  wiii 
atarli'd  with  four  horwii,  which  performed  the  jonrtiey  in 
six  hours.  The  UMiinl  time  now  Inken  in  four  nnd  n  hiilf 
hours.  It  i«  not  unworlliy  of  ln-inn  noticed,  that,  when 
(he  iMiid-coiicheM  were  Htiirlcd  hy  Mr.  I'aiker,  in  178H,  kIx 
ami  n  half  mileit  nn  hour  via*  the  utmost  Hpeed  nttniiied. 

The  lem^h  of  time  H|ient  hy  rnrrient  on  the  roads, 
whether  with  pack-horses  or  carts,  won  of  course  pro- 
^■irtiDiially  nn'ater.  An  n(»e(l  i;entleinnn  wrilini;  hia  recnl- 
lectiniis  of  past  times  (1770  to  1780)  in  Scotlnnd,  drolly 
olwcrves,  "that  the  common  carrier  from  Si-lkirk  to  Kdin- 
hurgh,  thirty-eiifht  miles  di^lant,  required  two  weeks  to 
make  out  his  journey  hetweeii  the  two  towns,  goini^  and 
returnini;,  with  a  suitable  restimr-timc  nt  each  to  his  jMi-^r 
fatinued  horsei,  which  had  p»'rhnps  not  leas  than  five  or 
lil  hundredweight  of  noixls  to  drag  nlonn.  'J'he  road 
orininally  wns  aimmif  the  most  perilous  in  the  whole 
country ;  a  considernlile  extent  of  it  lay  in  the  Imttoni  of 
that  district  called  (Sniii  Water,  from  the  name  of  the 
principal  stream.  The  chiint«"l  of  the  water  itself,  when 
not  flooded,  was  the  track  chosi'n,  ns  being  the  most  level, 
and  easiest  to  Ih'  travelled  on.  'I'he  rest  of  the  way,  very 
much  u|Mind-down-hill,  was  far  worse.  The  townsmen 
of  this  ndventiiroiis  individual,  on  the  moiniiic;  of  hii 
way-i;uin!;.  turned  out  lo  take  leave  of  him,  nnd  to  wish 
Ikim  a  safe  return  from  his  |)erilous  undcrtuking."* 


*  Kobd  lon'i  Rural  Reeoilectiuai 


RnADA 

It  will  appear  firom  th»  prrfrdlnti  nnlirra  r#siK'r«l"» 
ttKvplliiig  and  iiKHtra  nf  rarriauf  for  koinIs,  thnt  llttln  oi 
no  improvement  eoubl  lie  ex|s'el«il  in  either  ease,  idl  c 
Krent  rhani;e  for  the  Is'ller  wns  miide  on  thr<  state  ol  thr 
ronils.  In  no  brnnch  of  art  do  our  uncentors  seem  to  l.nvr 
l>«N'n  mine  delhienl  or  heedless  than  in  that  of  mnkiii.! 
ronds  and  keeping  Ihem  in  eonslaiil  repair.  In  this  re- 
spect, indeed,  ihey  were  In  a  conilition  of  ^renter  in'") 
rniii*  than  the  uieient  Romans,  whiwi'  roads  were  on  tl.t 
most  etlensive  and  elVicient  scale,  suitable  lo  Ihe  nei  es- 
aillea  of  ihc  isiiml,  ainl  niny  here  1h'  shortly  de-'cribed. 

ANriRNT  ROMAN  ROAnn, 
It  is.  we  lu'liete,  generally  allowed  thnt  th^  Kntl  <ns 
gnlned  a  eerlain  deuree  of  knnwleili{e  on  the  subjei„  of 
roml-m  ikiii!?  fnmi  (!reecc  aniH'arlha^c,  nnd  also  perhaps 
from  Kuypt;  but  whatever  they  learned  Ihey  ({really  Im- 
proved ii|H)n,  and  iherel'ore  they  arc  entilled  lo  be  called 
the  first  and  best  roadmukers  of  whom  history  has  pre- 
Kerved  any  necoiml.  One  Rrent  leadiiiK  principle  iietunled 
Ihe  lioninn  niithcirities  in  estnblishine  roniln :  itwnsth.it 
of  maiiilaiiiinK  their  military  coni|uests.  On  vani)uish- 
init  a  barbarous  country,  their  first  elTortJi  conHi><ted  in 
|s'iietrntiim  it  with  nood  ronds,  which  were  innintnir'<l 
with  jcnbnis  care,  and  were  connected  ns  fnr  as  poHsible 
in  unbroken  lines  with  the  seat  of  Kovermnent  at  Hnne. 
Ihi-i,  iiiili'ed.  formed  one  of  their  );rundest  eiiKines  of  s,ib- 
jui;alion,  nnd  airords  us  a  striking  proof  of  their  sagacious 
and  active  character, 

Hpeahini;  of  the  subordinate  Roman  cnpitnis  in  Asia 
Minor,  Hyria,  nnd  Ki^ypt.  (libboii  descrilies  as  follows 
the  manner  in  which  they  were  connected  hy  roads: — 
"  .Ml  these  cities  were  connected  will)  encii  other  nnd 
with  the  capital  by  thu  public  highways,  which,  issuinn 
from  the  Forum  nt  Rome,  trnversed  Italy,  [lerviided  the 
provinces,  und  were  terminated  only  hy  the  frontiers  of 
the  empire.  If  we  curefnlly  trace  the  distance  from  the 
wall  of  Antoninus  [in  Hootland]  to  Rome,  nnd  from  ihenro 
lo  .Icriisalom,  it  will  l>e  found  that  the  great  cli.iin  of 
commiiiiication,  from  tho  irorth-west  to  the  south-east 
point  of  the  empire,  wns  drawn  out  to  the  length  of  4080 
Romnn  for  :1710  Knglishl  miles.  The  public  ronds  were 
nccuiately  divided  by  mile-stones,  and  ran  in  a  direct  lino 
from  one  city  to  nnother,  with  very  little  reB|iect  for  the 
olntacles  either  of  nature  or  private  property.  .Mountaint 
were  |ierforated,  nnd  bold  nrches  th'own  over  the  liroadesi 
iind  most  rapid  ctreams.  Tho  n:''ldl«  pnrt  of  the  road 
was  laiseil  into  a  terrace  which  oomrfl'»n'led  the  adjacent 
country,  ciaip-istini;  of  several  strata  of  sand,  gravel,  and 
cement,  and  was  |>aved  with  largo  g'ones,  or  in  some 
places  near  Ihe  capital,  with  granite.  Such  wns  the  solid 
construction  of  the  Roman  highways,  whose  firmness  has 
not  entirely  yielded  to  the  effect  of  fifteen  centuries. 
They  united  the  subjects  of  the  most  distant  provinces  hy 
an  easy  and  familiar  intercourse ;  but  their  primary  ob- 
ject had  Is-en  to  fncilitnto  the  niurches  of  tho  legions; 
nor  was  nny  country  considered  as  completely  sulidued, 
till  it  had  been  rendered  in  nil  i's  parta  pervious  to  the 
arm*  nnd  authority  of  the  connueror.  The  advantage 
of  receiving  tho  earliest  intelligence,  and  of  conveying 
their  orders  with  celerity,  induced  the  emperors  to  esta- 
blish, throughout  their  extensive  dominions,  the  regular 
institutions  of  p>st8.  Houses  wore  everywhere  erected, 
at  the  distance  of  only  five  or  six  miles ;  each  of  them 
was  constantly  provided  with  forty  horses;  and,  by  tht 
help  of  these  relays,   it  was  eauy  to   travel   a  hundred 

1  miles  in  a  day  along  the  Roman  roads,  'i'he  use  ol  the 
posts  was  allowed  to  those  who  claimed  it  by  an  imperiu, 
mnndate ;  but  though  originally  intended  for  the  publu 
service,  it  was  sometimes  indulged  to  tlie  business  ui 

I  convenieiicy  of  privute  citizens," 

I       From  other  accounts,  we  learn  that  the  Roman  road. 

I  varietl  in  importance  and  uses.     The  great  litnH  wnrt 
M 


\:^'im 


194 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE   PKOPLE. 


enllcd  p'-(P'nr\  h  ir  lys,  nn  being  uniler  the  dirortion  of 
'     the  priBt.  ra;  iin;l  thrso  formed  the  roHds  for  military  in- 
tercourse.     Other    Hnes    were   exclusively    ndiiptcd    for 
eomniereo,  oi  eivil  intcrcoumo,  and  were  under  the  direr- 
tion  of  coiisuiii.     Both  kinds  were  formed  in  n  siniilur 
manner.     The  plan  on  which  thi-y  were  made  was  more 
cAlculated  for  diiruhilily  than  case  to  the  traveller;  and 
for    our  modern   wheel  carriagi>8  they  would  1)C    found 
particularly  objeetionahle.     Whatever  was    their   entire 
oreadth,  the  centre  constituted  the  iK-aten   track,  and  was 
made  of  lurifO  ilklrcssed  stones,  laid  side  by  side  to  form 
a  compact  ma^s.  of  from  twelve  to  twenty  feet  broad  ; 
and,  therefore,  in  their  external  asfH'ct.  they  resoiiililed  the 
coarac  stone  causeways  which  are  still  in  use  in  towns 
and  in  the  highways  of  France.     Some  of  the  roiids  had 
double  lines  of  this  solid  pavement,  of  this  nature,  with 
a  smooth  briik  p;ith  for  I'oot  pnssenp;ers;  and  at  intervals 
along  the  sides,  there  were  elevated  stones  on  which  tra- 
vellers  could   rest,  or  from  which  cavalry  could  easily 
mount  their  hor^^i-s.     One  important  feature  in  the  con- 
(tniction  ot  all  the  Roman  roails,  was  the  bottoming  of 
them  with  solid   materials.     Tlieir  first  operation  seems 
to  have  been  the  removal  of  all  loose  earlli  or  soft  matter 
which  miirht  work  upwards  to  the  surface,  .ind  then  they 
laid  courses  t,f  small  stones,  or  broken  tiles  and  earthen- 
ware, with  a  cours<'  of  cement  above,  and  uiMin  that  were 
placed  the  heavy  stones  for  the  ca\is<'way.     'I'hus,  a  mo.<t 
substantial   and   durable   pavenient  was  formed,  the   ex- 
pense beinn  defraved  from  the  public  treasury.     Varioun 
remaitis  of  R  iinan  roads  of  this  kiii<l  still  exist  in  France, 
and  also  in  dilfcrent  parts  of  Uritain.     One  of  the  chief 
Roman  thoronjlifires,  in  an  obli()Ue  direction  across  the 
country  from   London   to  the  western  jiart  of  Scotland, 
was  long  known  by  the  name  of  Wntlini;  Street,  which 
has  Ix'en   perpetuated   in   the  ap|M<llaUun  of  one  of  the 
itreeta  in  the  metropolis. 

MonKlt.V  MACADAMIZRn  ROADS. 
We  now  proceed  to  olfer  some  account  of  the  intro- 
duction of  a  projK'r  kind  of  roads  in  mo.lern  times.     M- 
temptu  to  impro.e  the  roads  formirif?  the  leadini;  lliorouRli- 
farea  in   Kni;Iari.l.  were  niaile  at   the   bc);innin^  of  the 
eighteenth  ceptnry;  and  for  that  piirpime  turnpike  acts 
'.or  various  dislrids  were  passed  by  parliament.     ':   is  a 
very   remarkable   fact,  that  some  of  the  counties  in   the 
neighliourliiMxl  of  London  politioned   Parliament  anainst 
the  extension  of  lurn])ike  roads  into  the  remoter  parts  of 
the  country.     Those  r^'tnoter  counties,  it  was  pretended, 
from  the  cheapmsis  of  labour,  woulil  Im'  able  to  sell  their 
com  at  a  lower  rate  in   the   London   niarket  than  tliein- 
selven,  and  would   thereby   reduce  their  rents   and   ruin  j 
their  cultivation.     In  spite  of  these  remonstrances,  turn-  i 
pike  roads  were  extended  into  the  n  .>::  iter  counties,  ami,  I 
a«  ouRht  to  have  U-im  ex[)ected.  so  far  from  injiirinjr  the  ! 
neighlH)urho(xl  of  the  metropolis,  they  greatly   increas«'d 
its  value — for  a   free  and   easy  interchange  of  conmioili- 
lie«  ia  always  utnversally  1mm  eficial. 

It  ia  of  little  moment  to  ascerliiin  the  exact  period 
when  these  ifn(irovemenls  were  effected  on  the  roads  of 
Eiifrlaiid ;  for.  njion  the  whole,  they  were  only  partial, 
and  aa  yet  the  proper  mmle  of  road-making  was  hot  un- 
derstooil.  The  plan  consisteil  in  making  the  paths  some- 
what more  level  than  formerly,  and  of  tilling  up  the  rntu 
and  holes  with  stones  gathered  from  the  adjacent  fields. 
By  this  means  the  holes,  ruts,  and  sloughs  were  conside- 
•al)ly  limiti'd  in  both  breadth  end  di'pth  ;  but  as  peitect 
('evcln»!g«  waa  not  attained,  carriages  were  dreadfully 
jolted  over  the  rougher  parts,  arnl  the  wheels  sunk  jar- 
rmgly  into  the  softer  ground  l>eyond.  As  also  no  pains 
*ere  taken  to  lay  down  stones  of  equal  bulk,  but  small 
uid  largo  mixetl.  it  hap|)ene<l  that  the  larger  ones  in  time 
»'rougbt  to  the  surface,  and  ao  created  additional  jolting 
to  vehick**  and  .lamage  to  the  ruada.  The  defects  in  thia 
ifwriM  of  unoroved  ruada  were  ao  conapicuoua,  that  vari- 


ous engineers  of  eminence,  and  other  indi^idutla,  turncvi 
their  attention  to  the  subject;  and  among  these  m  to  lie 
numlicred  Mr.  M'Adnm,  whose  plans  surpassed  all  others, 
and,  as  is  well  known,  arc  now  generally  adopted.  TI.e 
name  of  this  gentleman  has  become  so  completely  asso- 
ciated with  the  idea  of  good  roads,  that  a  slight  sketch  ol 
his  history  may  here  be  acceptable. 

John  Loudoun  M'Adam  was  the  representative  of  on 
old  and  respectable  landed  family — the  M'Adams  of  \Va- 
terliead,  in  the  Stewartry  of  Kirkcudbright,  and  was  born, 
Septemlirr  81,  IT.'iG,  in  the  town  of  Ayr.  liy  the  death 
of  his  elder  brother,  ho  tiecame,  in  infancy,  the  only  son 
of  his  father,  and  entitled  to  inherit  the  distinction — con- 
sidered in  Scotland,  in  such  cases,  a  matter  of  some  con- 
sequence— of  lieing  tho  representative  of  the  family,  and 
chief  man  of  his  name.  In  consciMience  of  the  destruc- 
tion, by  fire,  of  a  house  which  he  had  built  for  his  reti 
dence  at  Lagwyne,  hi  the  niiHirland  parish  of  Carsphairn, 
his  father  removed,  about  this  time,  to  Uluircpihan,  in 
Ayrshire,  which  he  rented  from  Sir  John  Whitefoord 
The  family  estate  was  now  sol  I  to  the  Earl  of  Stair, 
from  whom  it  was  afterwards  jiurcliased  by  a  junior 
branch  of  the  M'Adam  family,  who  still  possesses  it.  .Mr. 
M'Adam  received  his  education  at  the  sciiool  of  .Maybole, 
under  a  teacher  named  Doick.  who  jiosseswd  considerable 
local  reputation.  On  the  death  of  his  father  in  1770, 
when  he  was  only  fourteen  years  of  age,  he  was  sent  to 
.New  Yoik,  where  his  uncle  William,  a  younger  brother 
of  his  fatliur,  had  been  settled  for  some  years  as  a  mer- 
chant. Here  he  remained  fourteen  years,  during  which 
the  war  of  Indejiendence  look  place.  Under  the  protec- 
tion of  the  British  forces,  who  possessed  the  city,  he  real- 
ia-il  a  considerable  fortune,  as  an  agent  for  the  sale  of 
prizes.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  war,  he  returned,  with 
the  loss  of  nearly  the  wliole  of  his  property,  to  his  native 
country,  and  resided  for  some  time  at  Dnmcried",  a  beauti- 
ful place  in  the  ncii'hbourhoiHl  of  MolTat,  subsequently 
the  seat  of  Dr.  Currie,  the  biographer  of  Burns.  Ho 
afterwards  lived  for  thirteen  years  at  Sauchrie  in  A\  r- 
shjre,  where  he  was  in  the  commission  of  the  jK'.-ice  and  a 
deputy  lieutenant.  During  this  i>eriod,  he  enjoyed  tiie 
society  of  hit.  first  wifie — a  iady  named  Nichol,  whom  he 
had  married  at  New  York,  and  who  brought  him  three 
sons  aud  three  daughl4'rs,  most  of  whom  survive  him. 
He  married,  secondly,  in  1827,  .Miss  de  Lancey,  who  sur- 
vives him,  but  has  no  fiimily. 

In  the  year  179S,  .Mr.  M'Adam  received  the  govern- 
Mient  appointment  of  agent  for  viitualling  the  navy  in  tliB 
western  parts  of  (ireat  Britain,  and  accordingly  removed 
to  Falmouth.  He  subsequently  residinl  for  many  years  iit 
Bristol,  and  latterly  at  Hixldesdon  in  Hertfi.idshire.  It 
was  while  acting  as  one  of  the  trustees  upon  certain 
roads  in  Ayrshire,  that  he  first  turned  his  attentiiii 
seriously  to  the  mechanical  principles  involved  in  tlul 
branch  of  national  economy.  While  engaged  in  BngliuiJ 
in  duties  of  an  entirely  ditrennt  kind,  ho  continued 
silently  to  study  the  process  of  road-making  in  all  its  de- 
tails, keeping  particularly  in  view  the  great  desiderata  of 
a  compact  and  duralile  substuiiee  and  a  Hinuuth  surface. 
By  tie  exertio:!8  of  various  able  engineers,  who  had 
turned  their  attentiim  to  road-ioaking.  (he  highways  of 
Ureat  Britain  were  already  in  the  coiirs«'  of  u  rapid  im- 
provenicnt ;  but  Mr.  .MAdam  was  the  first  to  |ioint  out 
anil  prove,  in  practical  o|N>ratioii.  that  a  Wi\.  of  a  fen 
inches  in  depth,  lorined  of  fragmi'iits  of  primitive  rock — 
granite,  greenstone,  or  basalt — small  enough  to  pasii 
tlirough  a  ring  not  larger  than  two  incheH  and  a  half  in 
■liameter,  was  the  iH'st  material  lor  oidinary  roads.  Hit 
system,  in  its  leading  features,  is  so  conspicuously  dis 
played  in  the  public  eye.  that  any  niinute  account  of  i' 
would  Im-  su|M-rt1uous.  It  was  not  till  1 8 1.5,  when  on  the 
borders  of  sixty,  that  he  iM-gaii  to  devote  his  whole  ii'inJ 
to  the  buMiiess  of  road-makiiig.  Being  then  appointed 
surveyor-general  of  the  Bristol  roads,  he  hud  at  leiigit 


full  c<ppor 
fortl  with 
general  ati 
Ihroughoul 
ivus  cxami 
mons  rcspi 
granite  cai 
smooth  pav 
formed  on 
as  Jccidedb 
made :  •'  I  ( 
t<e  material  I 
the  surface  i 
the  leading 
put  upon  th( 
Ultinitely  lea 
of  road-maki 
don,  Edinbui 
of  street,  wl 
solidity  of  pa 
rtient  had  cot 
fvery  ear — M 
In  introdui 
Mr.  M'Adttir, 
his  own  rcscu 
liefore  a  coinir 
equivalent  sui 
friliute  of  two 
public  benefits 
quucy  of  this 
impossible  to  a 
spirit,  with  the 
(lencficial  kind.s 
tenant,  in  beiu) 
display  of  perse 
a  reward  as  tha 
ing  into  operati( 
quences  of  whi 
commercial  intt 
quiet,  and  pleas 
the  remuneratio 
been  infonne<l,  . 
the  last  to  comj 
ol'ject,  but,  on  il 
o{';'orlnnitieg  ot 
•ujMime.ident 
of '^7  no  means  I 
*"i;W  havi)  tnk( 
pn-r,  but,  88  he 
»':  honest  man. 
-Vjvemlier  26,  IS 
of  his  gge. 

According   to 

iovin  ond  consist 

ought  to  bo  an  a 

Icrel  and  dry  sur 

nc  must  in  the  fir 

If  the  ground  lie 

of  turf  and  earthy 

off.  and  as  muci.  e 

l'^*'-    In  some  ii 

»»te,  and  fill  up  i 

DUtcriids;  but  sho 

aiusi  on  no  acco>m 

wise  unequal  in  tli, 

mul  should  Iw  ina< 

— '■  Uoadg  can   ,„., 

ilip  following  priiii-i 

"led  upon:  nnnii 

n'ally  supports  the 

s«'"''<l  in   a  dry  sti 

"inking,  and  it  .I,m>h 

'^'iii;  lliut  this  nati\ 

i'y,  and  a  covering. 


ROADS 


136 


full  opportunitiea  of  exemplifying  his  syBtcm,  which  he 
forlk  with  proretxlcd  to  do  in  a  mnnner  that  attracted 
ctneral  attention,  and  caused  it  to  be  quickly  followed 
throughout  the  whole  kingdom.  In  1823,  Mr.  M'Adam 
ivus  examined  before  a  committee  of  the  H9U8C  of  Com- 
mons respecting  the  propriety  of  converting  the  ruble 
granite  causeway  of  the  principal  thoroughfares  into  a 
smooth  jiavemcnt,  resembling  those  which  he  hod  already 
formed  on  the  principal  roods.  He  expressed  himself 
as  decidedly  of  opinion  that  such  a  change  should  be 
made:  "I  consider,"  said  he,  "that  the  expenses  would 
[ic  materially  reduced ;  the  convenience  of  passing  over 
llie  surface  would  be  gcnernlly  facilitated,  particularly  in 
the  leading  streets ;  and  the  same  weight  of  stone,  now 
pet  upon  those  streets  as  pavement,  would  be  obtained  at 
infinitely  less  cx[)ensc,  in  u  different  form,  for  the  purpose 
of  road-making."  The  consequence  was,  that,  in  Lon- 
don, Edinburgh,  and  Dublin,  Aime  of  the  principal  lines 
of  street,  which  had  previously  been  remarkable  for 
solidity  of  pavement,  as  well  as  the  largo  sums  that  pave- 
ilient  bad  cost,  were — to  use  a  phrase  already  familiar  to 
every  ear — Slacudamized, 

In  introducing  this  improvement  into  British  roads, 
Mr.  M'Adair.  had  spent  several  thousand  pounds  from 
his  own  resources.  In  182.5,  he  proved  this  expenditure 
hcfore  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons,  when  an 
equivalent  sum  was  voted  to  him,  besides  an  honorary 
tribute  of  two  thousand  pounds,  in  consideration  of  the 
public  benefits  resulting  from  his  labours.  The  inade- 
quacy of  this  renmneration  is  very  striking ;  and  it  is 
impossible  to  avoid  contrasting  it,  in  some  bitterness  of 
(ipirit,  vvith  the  ratio  in  which  services  of  other  and  less 
beneficial  kinils  are  usually  acknowledged.  Many  a  lieu- 
tenant, in  being  promoted  to  a  captaincy  for  some  little 
display  of  pt'rsonal  bravery,  has  reiijied  nearly  as  valuable 
a  reward  as  that  bestowed  upon  Mr.  M'Adam  for  bring- 
ing into  operation  a  mechanical  inqirovemcnt,  the  conse- 
quences of  which,  in  saving  animal  labour,  facilitating 
commercial  intercourse,  and  rcmloring  travelling  easy, 
quiet,  and  pleasant,  are  l)eyond  all  ealculation.  Though 
the  remuneration  was  thus  small,  and  never,  as  wo  have 
been  informed,  fully  paid,  Mr.  M'Adam  would  have  been 
the  lart  to  comj)lain  of  it.  He  never  made  money  an 
uJ'jcct,  but,  on  the  contrary,  rejected  on  principle  many 
oji;'ortimitie8  ot  gathering  wealth,  which  his  office  as  a 
«uj«.iiiiiendcnt  opened  up  Ui  him,  and  which  many  men 
of  by  no  mrans  blunt  feelings  as  to  professional  propriety 
vtouW  !;avu  taken  advantage  of  He  therefore  died  a 
px-r,  but,  as  he  frequently  cxpresstid  himself,  "  at  least 
v.  Iionr&t  man."  Mr.  M'Adam's  decease  took  place, 
.Nwemlier  26,  1836,  at  Moffat.  He  was  in  the  81st  year 
of  his  age. 

According  to  the  principles  of  road-making,  as  laid 
down  and  consistently  actetl  upon  by  Mr.  M'Adam,  a  road 
ought  to  bo  an  artificial  and  hard  flooring,  plac-J  on  a 
level  and  dry  surface.  To  make  a  good  road,  ■hcrefore, 
Bc  must  in  the  first  place  level  and  prepare  the  ground. 
If  the  ground  be  soil,  us,  fiw  instance,  have  a  covering 
of  turf  and  earthy  matter  beneath,  the  top  must  be  pared 
oil",  and  as  muci.  earth  removed  as  will  produce  a  hardish 
lane.  In  some  iiistaiices,  it  may  l«"  necessary  to  exca- 
vate, and  fill  up  the  cap  with  cninpiict  and  substantial 
DWlcrinlH;  but  should  this  tie  the  case,  the  iiiatcrials  usi'd 
must  on  no  acionnt  imbide  any  lar^e  stones,  or  be  otlnr- 
wise  unequal  in  their  nature:  'I'he  principles  on  wliieh  the 
mail  shiiuld  lie  iiiailo  arc  thus  nlliuUd  to  liy  Mr.  M'Adam ; 
— ••  Uoails  can  never  be  rendered  pcrfi'etly  secure,  until 
iho  following  principles  Ix-  fully  uiulerslmHl,  adniiltiil,  and 
.ii'tcd  upon:  iinmely,  that  it  is  the  natur;il  soil  which 
irally  supports  the  weight  of  travel ;  that  while  it  is  pre- 
served ill  a  dry  slate,  it  will  carrv  any  weight  without 
ninkinn,  and  it  dix's,  in  fact,  carry  the  road  and  carrinates 
iIko;  that  this  native  Noil  must  previously  be  made  quite 
dry,  and  a  covering,  as  inui-h  iiuptmclrablu  to  raiu  at  pos- 


sible, must  then  be  placed  over  it,  to  preserve  it  in  that 
dry  state ;  that  the  thickness  of  a  road  should  only  bu 
regulated  by  the  quantity  of  material  necessary  to  form 
such  impervious  covering,  and  never  by  any  reference  ic 
its  own  power  of  carrying  weight." 

To  put  these  principles  in  practice — after  the  base  of 
the  road  has  been  prepared,  it  should  be  laid  with  a  layet 
of  small  stones,  made  by  breaking  larger  stones  into 
pieces  weighing  about  three  ounces.  No  round  pcbbUa 
or  channel  stones  must  be  emp'.  _'ed  ;  all  must  lie  angu- 
lar or  irregularly  shaped  pieces.  The  covering  of  this 
kind  of  material,  technically  called  roatl  metal,  should  le 
spread  to  a  depth  of  from  six  to  ten  inches,  as  may  le 
found  necessary,  and  raked  level  on  the  surface.  The 
sides  of  the  road  must  possess  wet  ditches  or  gutters,  into 
which  all  water  may  be  readily  conveyed  and  run  olC 
For  this  purpose,  culverts,  drains,  and  gratings  may  be 
necessary. 

In  certain  cases  it  may  be  expedient  to  carry  a  line  of 
road  across  a  bog  or  peat  morass ;  and  this  may  be  done 
with  perfect  security  by  laying  a  bottom  of  shrubs,  fuiie, 
or  small  branches  of  trees,  on  the  sofl  understratum,  and 
covering  it  over  with  gravel,  and  the  ordinary  stone  ma- 
terial above.  The  road  so  formed  may  perhaps  yield  ex 
bend  a  little  when  travelled  by  a  heavily  loaded  vehicle, 
but  will  sustain  as  much  tear  and  wear  as  any  other  por- 
tion of  the  highway. 

The  width  of  the  road  i.-  a  matter  of  taste  and  conve- 
nience, but  it  should  not  be  less  than  thirty-three  feet,  to 
allow  a  free  passage  of  vehicles  in  different  directions. 
On  all  the  good  roads  in  Britain,  near  towns,  a  side  foot- 
path, protected  by  a  curb-stone,  is  added  to  the  ordinary 
breadth.  "With  respect  to  the  shape  of  the  surface  if 
the  road,  when  completed,  there  is  also  some  ditTereni  e 
of  opinion ;  but  all  agree  that  it  should  be  convex,  tli» 
only  dilTercnce  being  in  the  (juantity.  The  degree  of  con- 
vexity should  be  governed  in  a  great  degree  by  tlm 
locality.  A  road  formed  of  soft  materials  should  have  a 
greater  convexity  than  one  formed  of  hard  matemli^;  f.« 
the  obvious  reason  that  water  will  injure  a  soft  road 
quicker  than  a  hard  one.  A  road  upon  uner::n  ground 
should  have  a  greater  convexity  than  one  upon  levej 
ground,  to  prevent  the  descent  of  rain-water  along  tha 
face  of  the  road,  which  is  there  caught  by  the  slightest 
impressions  of  wheels;  and  thus  wear  channels,  as  maj 
too  often  be  seen,  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  hill 
A  wide  road  also  requires  to  be  more  crowning  than  a 
narrower  one ;  which  more  readily  frees  itself  from  rain- 
water, inasmuch  as  the  distance  the  water  has  to  run  i> 
less.  But  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  that  the  freeing  of  a 
road  from  rain-water  is  not  the  only  object  to  be  kept  in 
view  in  making  a  road  crowning.  The  ease  and  safety  uf 
carriages,  and  particularly  those  with  heavy  burdens  i>» 
with  high  loads,  must  be  consulted.  A  carriage  moves 
most  freely,  or  with  tho  least  resistance,  when  the  load 
lies  evenly  upon  the  wheels.  Just  in  proportion  as  the 
weight  or  load  is  thrown  on  one  side  or  the  other,  tha 
resistance  is  increased.  Hence  the  inconveniency  of  u 
veiy  crowning  road  on  a  steep;  and  hence  the  utility  of 
bars  or  breaks  in  long  ascents.  It  is  plain  that  a  road 
should  be  equally  and  duly  convex  in  every  part  of  it; 
otherwise  it  iK^coines  more  partially  worn  ;  tlie  more  level 
parts  being  must  used.  • 

When  a  road  is  carried  round  a  hill  instead  of  gaini 
directly  over  it,  or  when  a  road  is  made  on  a  side-hi]^ 
it  should  not  lie  made  convex  from  the  middle,  but  H 
should  be  Conned  like  half  of  u  common  road,  with  the 
hifihe^t  part  on  the  upper  side,  thus  giving  the  water  a 
tendency  to  run  oil'  on  the  hiwer  side.  Mr.«  Walker 
recommends  the  least  possible  convexity  consistent  with 
a  proper  drainage  of  the  road.  In  most  localities  this 
will  rarely  exceed  four  inches;  that  is,  the  middle  should 
Lie  four  inches  higher  Ibiiii  the  siiles.  An  idea  of  a  per- 
fect ruad  may  bu  formed  from  a  frozen  ciu.al.  where  flat- 


wSppwipewSBW^S^^^wi 


SM 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


nen,  inioothness,  and  hardness  are  combined ;  in  imita- 
tion of  such  a  surface,  railways  were  invented,  and  fully 
illustraU)  the  principles  assumed.  Roads  cannot  be  made 
witli  all  of  these  perfections,  but  they  should  always  be 
kept  in  view ;  for  the  nearer  wo  approach  to  this  stan- 
dard, the  greater  will  be  the  draught.  M'Adam  says, 
roads  should  be  made  as  flat  as  possible.  '  Where  a  road 
u  made  flat,'  he  says,  'people  will  not  follow  the  middle 
of  It,  as  they  do  when  it  is  made  quite  convex,  which  is 
the  only  place  where  carriages  can  run  upright,  by  which 
means  three  furrows  are  made  by  the  horses  and  the 
wheels,  and  the  wafer  continually  stands  there ;  and  I 
think  that  more  water  actually  stands  ujjon  a  very  convex 
road,  than  on  one  which  is  reasonably  flat.' 

•'  In  laying  out  a  new  road,  it  is  of  some  importance 
that  the  rises  and  falls  be  not  too  great  The  most  a\>- 
proved  angles  of  ascents  and  descents  in  England  are 
about  on<!  inch  in  a  foot — from  this  to  one  inch  in  a 
yard.  In  order  to  obtain  ascents  not  exceeding  thest;, 
it  is  necessary  in  our  uneven  country  to  wind  up  a  hill 
instead  of  going  directly  over  it.  In  such  chkts  the 
road  is  to  he  built  upon  the  side  of  a  hill,  and  thin  is 
considered  the  most  advantagcouii  ground  upon  wiiii  h 
a  road  con  be  built,  provided  tlio  hill  has  not  too  greu: 
■n  as(-«nt ;  because  what  is  taken  from  the  upper  aide 
servos  to  form  the  embankment  on  the  lower  side. 
While  we  are  speaking  of  enibankmcnU,  we  may  men- 
tion the  English  method  of  fonning  them,  which  is  so 
manifestly  suficrior  to  our  own,  that  it  deserves  to  be 
imitated.  '  The  natural  «o<l,  which  would  be  covered  by 
the  base  of  the  embankment,  having  been  cut  off  and 
■et  aside,  the  earth  is  then  wheeled  or  carted  on  to  form 
the  two  outsides,  which  are  raised  to  the  required  heigh*, 
leaving  the  middle  o])en.  The  sods  are  then  placed  on 
one  another,  the  grassy  surface  at  right  angles  to  the 
(ace  of  the  outer  slopes,  forming  ax  it  were  a  battering 
wall  of  sods  a^nst  the  embankment.'  This  method  is 
found  eflfectual  in  preventing  the  banks  from  washing 
•way  and  gullying.  While  the  outsides  are  forming, 
the  lumps  of  earth,  stone,  &c ,  run  downward  to  tne 
middle  ;  and  in  this  way  the  whole  is  finished.  When 
the  work  settles,  it  is  found  to  tend  towards  the  centre, 
thus  preventing  the  outside  slopes  from  giving  way."* 

The  following  judicious  observations  are  made  by  the 
Mine  authority  on  the  subject  of  fences,  and  junctions 
of  different  roads: — "Fences  are  necessary  along  the 
aides  of  a  road  in  all  enclosed  countries ;  but  they  should 
never  be  allowed  to  rise  higher  than  four  feet  on  com- 
mon roads.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  air  and 
Bun  have  free  admission  to  a  road  ;  besides,  where  the 
fences  are  high,  it  gives  a  sweeping  power  to  the  wind, 
which  is  not  beneficial.  Mr.  Telford  thinks  thot  fences 
■hould  never  be  more  than  four  feet  high,  and  that  all 
trees  within  twenty  feet  of  the  sides  of  the  road  should 
be  removed.  He  also- thinks  that  twenty  per  cent  of 
the  expenae  of  repairing  or  improving  roads  is  incurred 
by  the  improper  state  of  the  fences  and  trees  along  the 
■ides,  particularly  on  the  sunny  side ;  this  will  he  ma- 
nifest to  any  person  who  will  take  the  trouble  to  ex- 
amine the  condition  of  that  part  of  a  road  which  is 
much  shaded,  compared  to  the  other  parts  which  are 
•xposed  to  the  s«n  and  air. 

*  "The  junction  of  one  rood  with  another  requires  a 
little  attention :  it  should  always  Im»  made  at  right 
angles,  and  on  the  same  level,  if  possible.  All  engineers 
afree  that  plantations  of  trees  should  not  he  made  close 
to  rowls ;  but  what  the  distance  should  l>e  de])en(l8  nn 
the  elevation  of  the  country,  the  soil,  the  breadth  of  thi- 
niad,  as 'well  as  its  direrlion,  Ac.  fii\  An  elevated 
situation  is  always  more  ex|K)sed  to  win-Is  than  a  level 
or  hollow.  A  broail  winding  road  has  chiiiices  of  the 
ivttt  influence  of  the  sun  and  wind,  according  U)  the 


•  S.'iei  i«t  Irr  •  t.    Boston  :  1831 


obliquity  of  its  angles;  a  road  runniiig  north  and  south, 
though  planted  closely  on  both  sides,  will  enjoy  the  sun 
during  a  part  of  every  day  in  the  year;  one  running 
east  and  west,  planted  on  the  south  side  with  trees  foriy 
feet  high,  or  more,  will  enjoy  no  sun  during  the  wintei 
months.  The  least  injurious  trues  are  single  rowi 
trained  to  high  stems,  properly  pruned." 

For  some  time  atler  a  road  has  been  laid  with  ftesh 
muti-rials,  it  presents  a  rough  surface,  unpleasant  to  the 
feelings  of  those  who  are  conveyed  over  it :  but  tliii 
roughness  is  gradually  abated,  the  small  stones  are 
crushed  into  a  compact  mass,  and  finally,  the  mad  it 
smooth,  hanl,  and  level.  The  length  of  time  tha  my 
elapse  before  any  new  repair  is  required,  depends  ot.  the 
amount  and  kind  of  traflic,  ca  well  as  the  weather 
Rain  is  a  great  enemy  to  macadamized  roads,  and  par- 
ticularly so  when  accompanied  with  much  traffic.  The 
water  lies  on  the  surface,  and  sollening  the  mutcrial,  the 
action  of  the  horses'  feet  and  of  the  wheels  causes  a 
certain  depth  of  thin  liquid  mud.  This  mud  should,  by 
all  means,  be  scraped  off  to  a  side,  for  the  longer  it  lio<i, 
the  stratum  beneoth  is  the  more  lialiic  to  be  cut  up  and 
damaged.  The  scraping  of  the  roaus,  llicrofore,  lie- 
comes  an  essential  duty  of  oil  who  are  interested  in  pre- 
serving the  highways  economically  in  repair.  When 
the  mud  which  is  scraped  aside  tliickens  by  exposure, 
it  should  be  carted  off,  and  may  be  eniploycd  on  many 
soils  as  a  useful  manure.  Besides  containing  a  propor- 
tion of  refuse  from  horses,  it  is  loaded  with  i)nrticles 
of  iron  froi.i  wheels  and  horwi  shoes;  and  lH;ing  sub- 
Btantially  silica  or  ground  stone,  it  may  he  administered 
with  special  advantage  to  heavy  clay  grounds. 

Roads  expost^d  to  much  traffic  require  to  be  renewed 
in  surface  ot  least  once  a  year.  The  first  indications 
of  decay  are  oliM-rvftilc  in  the  form  of  slight  hollows, 
and  ruts  next  make  their  appearance.  In  some  ca-ses, 
where  the  decay  is  only  partial,  a  small  quantity  of 
metal  may  he  scattered  in  the  hollows,  bringing  thcin 
up  to  a  level  with  all  around.  However,  this  is  not 
usually  done  on  well-kept  roads  near  large  towns. 
There  the  road  undergoes  a  thorough  repair  once  a  year, 
which  is  preferable  to  partial  mendings.  The  liest  time 
for  repairing  roads  is  about  Noveml)er,  or  before  the 
winter  frost  and  snow  set  in.  In  commencing  the  re- 
pair the  road  should  be  picked  across,  at  intervals  of 
twelve  or  fifteen  inches.  This  is  done  by  men,  each 
having  a  pick  by  which  he  iitdcnts  the  hard  Ixjttom,  or 
forms  scores  an  inch  deep  in  the  road.  The  use  of 
such  u  preliminary  process,  is  to  cause  a  ready  union 
Iwtween  the  new  and  old  materials.  If  the  fresh  iiieta. 
were  scattered  over  the  old  road,  without  any  prepare 
tion,  it  would  with  difficulty  unite  to  the  substrutum, 
and  at  best  form  an  upper  crust,  which  would  l)c  too 
easily  damaged. 

With  respect  to  the  keeping  of  roads  in  efficient  re- 
pair,  the  most  advantageous  plan  consists  in  assigning 
the  entire  duty  to  a  contractor.  This  person,  by  under- 
taking to  keep  all  the  roads  in  a  county  or  distrirt  n 
constant  or  uniform  repair,  is  able  to  execute  his  func- 
tions much  i7iore  economically  than  the  private  gentle- 
men  who  act  as  trustees  of  the  hiijhways  and  turnjHkpn 
The  trustees  oppointed  by  local  acts  of  parliament  to 
sii|)erintend  highways,  now  generally  employ  eontrai-tora 
to  keep  the  roads  in  rejwiir  at  a  specified  jjrice  per  mile, 
the  payment  being  made  from  funds  collected  from  the 
lessees  of  the  toll-bars. 

The  ag^n'egHte  lenith  of  the  turnjiike  mods  of  finit 
Diitain  "J  now  calculated  to  lie '-.'j,l)l)0  mies,  at  a  ;•;^ 
ral  breadth   of  from  fifty   to  sixty  feet,*     The  cost  cf 

•  Tvjrnpikf*  wer«  mi  ralkil  Iroin  jyoles  or  linri*.  hwungoni 
pivoi.  tiav.ntf  t>frn  plucnt  on  ttioii.  and  turned  ciilicr  wav 
wht-n  dor*  wer*'  |>H;d.  (tau-n  iiri-  now  liolthntuied  fcr  (hfiis 
pol.'n  ill  <!rc«i  Urimin.  In  (iiTimuiy.  i!n'  \(i\<'  it  »iill  iiii^d.oM 
emi  lieing  deprcitsed  lo  raise  the  other  uid  so  perm/  iftM 
pattafe. 


keeping  thesi 

ft-rent  counti 

snnual  cost  i 

jb'RO,  and  in 

Nearly  all   th 

money.    It  '- 

of  £320  per  n 

Law  of   Ih 

jjftty,  drivers 

I  roail.  are  ex 

proi'tii'c  is  no 

proper,  as  to  I 

The  law  of  th 

Ji/rerent  direct 

wall  or  footpatl 

jnothcr,  and  w 

hand  to  the  vj 

either  meeting 

half  of  the  roa 

these  rcgulatioi 

the  law  is  alwB 

own  proper  sidi 

»r.    The  trusti 

damages  for  any 

the  carelessness 

(lie  roiid  grossly 

.According  to 

pavements  or  sitl 

riglit  hand  to  th( 

10  those  whom 

tuslom  prevents 

but  is  not  a  matt 


-r(.-i. 


CANALS. 


v:/'.'n*;' 


y  the  HUH 
!  running 
Irees  forly 
the  wint«i 
ngle   Towi 

with  ftenh 
Kitnt  to  the 
;:  but  tliii 
stones   nre 
lie  Ti^ai  i« 
I'  tha    nuy 
Midx  01.  till 
^c  wcftthcr 
is,  and  piLr> 
alfic.     The 
iiutcrial,  the 
la  causes  a 
il  shouUl,  by 
jngcr  it  lies, 
'  rut  up  and 
icrolbre,  lic- 
cstcd  in  prc- 
inir.     When 
by  exposure, 
cil  on  many 
ing  a  propor- 
ith    panicles 
[1  being  sub- 
aJniuiistcred 
ide. 

0  be  rcnewcu 
st  indicationi 
light  hollows, 
n  some  cases, 

1  quantity  of 
irinKing  them 
>r,  this  is  not 

large    towns, 
r  once  a  year. 
The  liest  tima 
or  before  the 
ncing  the  re- 
X  intervals  of 
by  men,  each 
,rd  l)otlnin,  or 
The  use  of 
ready  union 
le  fresh  nieta. 
any  prepara- 
le  substratum, 
would  l)C  too 

fcn  eflirient  re- 
Is  in  assignini; 
on,  by  under- 
I  or  district  in 
Lite  his  funo- 
Irivatc  geiillo- 
lind  turnpikn 
Iparlianieiit  to 
loy  contraiton 
liricr  per  mile, 
l-cted  from  lh« 

loadft  of  (irt«t 

|lcs,  at  a    "•(■ 

The   cost  cf 

|ir«.  hwimgoni 

•(I   ciilicr  w»y 

|tiiie<l  fcr  ihfM 

tiill  mcd.oM 


keeping  these  roads  in  repair  diflerR  considerably  in  dif- 
ferent eountics.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  London,  the 
tnnual  eost  is  about  £500  per  mile,  in  Yorkshire  it  is 
jb'fiO,  an<l  in  Wales  £20.  The  average  is  about  £60. 
Nearly  all  the  road  trusts  are  in  debt  for  borrowed 
moneV'  I'  '■•  'upposed  that  the  debt  is  on  an  average 
jf  £320  per  mile,  or  probably  £0,000,000  for  the  whole. 

/.(/ic  '■/  llie  lloail. — For  general  convenience  and 
afcty,  drivers  of  vehicles  and  riders,  in  travelling  along 
I  road.  A>'e  expected  to  take  a  particular  side  ;  and  this 
pnii'ticc  is  now  so  well  understood,  and  is  in  itself  so 
nioper,  as  to  have  become  a  part  of  the  common  law. 
The  law  of  the  road  is,  that  when  drivers  meet  from 
ililferent  directions,  each  shall  keep  his  left  hand  to  the 
wall  or  footpath.  Secondly,  when  one  driver  overtakes 
mother,  and  wishes  to  pass  him,  he  must  keep  his  left 
liaml  to  the  vehicle  which  he  passes.  In  the  case  of 
cither  meeting  or  passing,  eaph  party  is  entitled  to  the 
half  of  the  road.  The  same  rules  apply  to  riders.  If 
these  regulations  be  neglected,  and  an  accident  occur, 
ihP  law  is  always  in  favour  of  the  party  who  kept  his 
own  proper  side,  and  no  excuse  can  shelter  the  aggres- 
jor.  The  trustees  of  the  road  are  liable  in  an  action  of 
damages  for  any  injury  that  may  be  sustained  through 
Ihc  carelessness  of  themselves  or  servants,  in  leaving 
llie  road  prossly  out  of  repair. 

According  to  a  well-known  rule,  foot-passengers  on 
pavements  or  side-paths  are  expected  to  walk  with  their 
right  hand  to  the  wall — that  is,  they  keep  their  left  hand 
to  those  whom  they  are  meeting  and  passing.  This 
custom  prevents  confusion  in  the  streets  of  large  towns, 
but  ii  not  a  matter  of  law. 


pvr 


tf(M 


CANALS. 

A  canal  is  an  artificial   channel  of  water,  and   is 
j  usually  constructed  for  inland  navigation.     Where  na- 
tural rivers  can  be  resorted  to  for  purposes  of  this  kind, 
Ihfj'  are  preferable  to  canals,  because  little  expense  may 
br  required  to  suit  them  for  navigation,  and  they  may 
lif  easily  kept  in   repair.     But   few   rivers,    generally 
fofakini,',  are  sufficiently  level,  straight,  or  deep,  to  ad- 
I  rait  of  being  profitably  navigated  by  barges,  and  there- 
I  fire  artificial  channels  require  to  lie  cut    (Canals  are  c:;- 
ItTfrnely  suitable  in  level  countries,  possessing  rivers  or 
(I'ooks  which  can  afford  a  duo  supply   of  water.     In 
I  China,  from  a  very  early  age,  certain   large  rivers  have 
j  foraieJ  natural  canals  longitudinally  through  the  coun- 
I  in  from  west  to  east,  while  artificial  canals  have  been 
limile  lo  proceed  in  a  cross  direction  from  north  to  south, 
Ithuscirecling  a  universal  water  communication  through- 
leul  the  empire.     Canals  existed  in  ancient  Egypt  in 
Iciiiiiiection  with  the  Nile,  on  a  similar  plan  towhat  n*w 
Iprrvails  in  ChiniL     Notwithstanding  that  canals  were 
Ibown  to  have  existat  from  a  remote  antfquity  in  the 
leist,  it  was  long  before  they  were  introduced  into  west- 
lira  Euro|)«.     In  modem  times,  they  were  first  used  by 
Itlie  iftlialiitanta  of  the  Netherlands,  in  consequence  of 
llhe  extreme  flatness  of  their  country,  and  the  numerous 
|c!iiriiiel.<  of  water  which  intersect  it  in  all  directions, 
lir.  oounectioii  with  the  lower  branches  of  the  Rhine. 
Iiiiil  rtllier  rivers.     In  Holland  and  I3elgi«m,  therefore, 
InniU  III  a  grc-.it  measure  exist  as  an  essential  recjuisite 
111)  the  general  arrangemenls^f  the  country,  and  are,  in 
of  fiii-t.  so  many  wet  ditches  or  drains  to  receive 
llhr  siiiieilluiiii:!  w.jters. 

Muiitries  difFcrcntly  constituted,  canals  are  con- 
lu'Uil  mily  with  rcfiTence  t<.  the  profit,  in  the  form  of 
smimciei.d  speculation.  The  great  question,  accord- 
bijlv,  in  forming  the  project  of  a  canal,  is,  whether  the 
biiapateil  amount  of  traffic  will  raise  tolls  sufficient  to 
tomiit'iisaU'  the  outlay  of  the  undertaking  and  subso- 
V„i,  I.— IH 


quent  charges  for  repair  and  superintendence.  It  mi» 
plifies  such  an  inquiry  to  know  the  following  truths  in 
reference  to  cost  of  conveyance. .  The  cheapest  mod* 
of  conveyance  is  by  sloops,  smacks,  brip;s,  pockets, 
teamboats,  &c.,  and  these  will  at  all  times  be  employed 
'>r  heavy  and  bulky  goods,  such  as  coal,  barrels  of 
liquids,  iron,  and  other  cumbrous  mati-rials  proceeding 
coastwise.  The  next  cheapest  mode  of  conveyance  it 
by  barges  on  rivers ;  and  the  next  is  by  means  of  ca- 
nals. After  this  are  ranked,  in  point  of  economy,  con- 
veyance by  land,  on  railways  and  roads,  the  last  being 
the  dearest,  though  often  the  only  ineiins  of  transport 
which  can  be  obtained.  According  to  thi.s  view,  canals 
can  never  answer  as  profitable  speculations,  when  they 
have  to  compete  with  coasting  vessels  of  any  description, 
or  with  any  species  of  conveyance  by  rivers.  They 
cannot  even  in  certain  circumstances  compete  succes- 
fully  with  railways,  on  account  of  the  slowness  of 
speed  at  which  barges  or  boats  are  drawn  along  them; 
and  as  speed  is  becoming  daily  a  matter  of  greater  mo- 
ment in  traffic,  canals  are  gradually  losing  the  convey- 
ance of  1  scry  kind  of  goods  for  which  quickness  of 
transit  is  desirable.  For  the  sake  of  economy  in  na- 
tional resources,  it  is  very  desirable  that  these  truthi  in 
statistics  should  be  generally  understood  and  remem- 
bered. 

When  the  undertaking  appears  warrantable,  from  • 
careful  consideration  of  circumstances,  the  next  thing 
to  be  taken  into  account  is  the  obtainin'^of  an  adequafi 
supply  of  water,  and  the  fixin.,  in  the  best — that  is,  the 
most  level  and  unexpensivc — line  of  route.  In  some 
parts  of  England,  where  an  enormous  traffic  could  be 
reckoned  upon,  canals  have  been  projected  and  executed 
on  a  stupendous  scale ;  mountains  have  been  perforated 
to  admit  channels  of  water  through  them,  valleys  raised 
by  embankments,  and  bridges  built  in  the  form  of  aque- 
ducts across  rivers;  in  short,  no  expense  has  been 
spared  to  render  the  inland  navigation  complete. 

The  supply  of  water  necessary  for  a  canal  which  :• 
level  throughout  its  course,  is  small  in  comparison  with 
that  of  one  pursuing  an  uneven  line.  When  there  is  a 
common  level  of  surface,  the  only  expenditure  of  water 
is  by  evaporation  ;  but  when  the  level  is  various,  a  large 
loss  is  incurred  at  the  locks  in  raising  or  lowering  ves- 
sels. A  lock  is  a  portion  of  the  canal  enclosed  by  fold- 
ing doors,  and  must  at  least  measure  the  length  of  • 
vessel.  If  a  vessel  is  to  be  raised  from  one  level  to  an- 
other, it  is  drawn  up  to  the  doors  of  the  lock,  and  these 
are  opened  to  admit  it  Having  sailed  into  the  lock, 
the  doors  are  closed  behind  it,  and  it  is  now  in  a  liind 
of  prison  from  which  there  is  no  apparent  escape. 
While  in  this  situation,  the  doors  at  the  opposite  end 
of  the  lock,  which  retain  the  water  at  a  higher  level, 
are  slowly  opened,  and  admit  a  rush  of  the  liquid  mass, 
which  speedily  buoys  up  the  vessel,  and  allows  it  to 
sail  off  along  the  higher  level.  The  lock  is  not  imme- 
diately emptied,  but  remains  full  of  water,  end  is  ther^ 
fore  renily  to  be  employed  in  letting  a  vessel  down. 
When  the  vessel  approaches,  and  is  fairly  within  tha  * 
lock,  the  upper  doors  are  shut,  and  then  the  lower  doon 
are  opened  ;  by  this  means  the  vessel  is  carried  into  tha 
lower  level  along  with  the  rush  of  liquid,  and  is  drawn 
')n  iM  course.  A  lockful  of  water  has  now  evidently 
bet«u  ihot  from  a  higher  to  a  lower  level  on  the  canal, 
and  is  lost,  unless  required  for  lower  hx-ks.  To  prevent 
inundation  of  the  banks  from  the  issuing  of  'vater  from 
I  be  iiK'ks,  wa.'fte  outlets  require  to  be  provided  at  ceitain 
diiliinces,  particularly  at  the  lower  termination  of  tha 
line  of  canal.  The  provision  of  water  to  supply  the 
locks  is  ordinarily  from  an  artificial  lake,  which  is  esta- 
blished near  the  highest  ground  in  the  line. 

The  breadth  of  most  canals  varies  from  twenty  la 
thirty  feet,  and  the  depth  from  four  to  six  feet  If  tta 
<le|.th  of  water  be  suihcient  to  keen  the  vesacia  Irons 

M8 


IM 


INFOPMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


touening  the  bottom,  no  greater  volume  U  necessary, 
for  lesfi  power  is  required  to  pull  a  boat  upon  a  shallow 
than  a  deep  water,  there  being  less  liquid  agitated  or 
displaced.     A»  one  side  of  the  canal  a  narrow  road, 
called  the  towing-path,  is  constructed,  and   upon  this 
the  horses,  which  drag  the  vessel,  proceed.     There  is  a 
difference  in  the  manner  in  which  the  dragging  rope  is 
attached  to  the  vessel.     In  Holland  it  is  the  practice  to 
attach  the  rope  to  near  the  bow  of  the  boat,  and  to 
cause  it  to  proceed  ovor  the  outer  extremity  of  a  pole 
or  species  of  must,  so  sjb  to  keep  it  considerably  above 
the  water,  and  prevent  its  friction  on  the  banks.     This 
is  not  attended  to  in  England,  where  the  rope  proceeds 
lirect  from  the  bow  to  the  horse,  and,  except  when  in 
a  state  of  great  tension,  it  trails  along   the  bank  and 
surface  of  the  water.     In  either  case,  the  draught  of  the 
horse  is  exerted  with  a  loss  of  power,  for  instead  of 
being  a  fau  dra  ight  l)chind,  it  is  oblique,  or  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  rope  slanting  to  the  vessel.     The  ten- 
dency of  the  draught  is  to  bring  the  boat  to  the  shore, 
which  is  counteracted  by  the  helm,  and  this  again  as- 
sists in  diminishing  the  general  amount  of  available 
power. 

Throughout  the  canals  of  Kngland  and  Scotland, 
only  one  horse  is  employed  to  drag  a  boat,  loaded  to 
the  extent  of  from  fifty  to  seventy  tons ;  and  with  this 
weight  drait^Hiig  after  it  in  a  manner  most  disadvanta- 
geous, it  will  travel  at  the  rate  of  two  miles  and  a  half 
or  three  miles  an  liour.  That  one  horse  should  be  ca- 
pable of  drawing  fifty  tons  of  goods  in  this  unexpen- 
•ive  manner  gives  an  apparently  favourable  view  of 
canal  conveyance  ;  but  laying  all  charges  out  of  the 
question,  the  slowness  of  the  motion,  and  consequently 
the  detention  of  goods  by  the  way,  is  a  drawback  of  the 
most  serious  nature,  and  in  reality  renders  canals  al- 
,  most  useless  for  the  transport  of  any  but  heavy  and 
raw  materials.  Latterly,  on  a  few  canals,  attempts 
have  been  successfully  made  to  run  "swift  boats"  for 
passengers,  drawn  by  two  horses,  at  a  rate  of  seven  or 
eight  miles  per  hour ;  but  as  these  vessels  are  run  at  a 
great  expense  for  horse  power,  and  at  the  utmost  speed 
are  not  quicker  in  their  transit  than  stage-coaches,  it 
may  be  expected  that  they  will  utterly  faii  in  competing 
wiUi  railways. 

It  may  not  be  generally  known  that  the  principel  ob- 
stacle to  the  use  of  steam-engines  on  board  canal-l)oata, 
b  the  injury  done  to  the  banks  by  the  action  of  the  water 
from  the  paddles.  How  far  this  obstacle  might  be  over- 
come by  ihe  use  of  the  .\rchimedian  screw  propeller,  it 
would  be  premature  to  say.  Meanwhile,  an  attempt  has 
lately  been  made  in  Scotland  to  introduce  the  use  of 
■team-power  for  iidand  navigation,  by  means  of  a  railway 
and  locomotive  tug,  along  the  line  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde 
Canal.  The  following  account  of  an  experiment  is  from 
the  Edinburgh  newspapers  of  November,  1830: — 

"The  experiment,  which  was  of  a  novel  nature,  was 
conducted  by  Mr.  John  Macneil,  civil  engineer,  and  con- 
■ulting  engineer  to  the  Canal  Company.  It  is  well  known 
that  the  haulage  of  l)oats  on  this  canal  has  hitherto  been 
performed  by  horses ;  the  rat«s  of  speed  being,  for  the 
heavy  sloops,  brigs.  &c^  in  the  London,  Dundee,  and 
other  trailes,  about  IJ  to  2  miles  per  hour,  when  drawn 
by  two  or  five  horses,  according  to  the  state  of  the  weather ; 
and  fir  the  swift  or  passenger  boats  between  8  and  9  miles 
per  hour,  on  an  avera^'e,  when  drawn  by  two  hors«'s. 
The  object  of  the  ex|)eriment  was  to  ascertain  the  possi- 
jility  of  using  locomotive  steam  (wwer  to  draw  the  boats, 
instead  of  horses.  Accordingly,  a  single  line  of  rails, 
apou  blo<'k.s,  like  an  ordinary  railway,  was  laid  down  for 
a  considerable  space  along  the  canal  bank.-i,  near  Lock 
Ifi;  and  a  locomotive  engine  and  tender,  built  by  Mr. 
William  Dodds,  having  been  brought  down  the  canal  and 
•et  (n  the  rails  on  the  morning  of  the  2Ist,  Mr.  Macneil, 
Mr.  Johnston,  the  canal  director,  and  several  engineer* 


and  gentlemen,  being  present,  the  experiment  conuntiMfj 
by  attaching  to  the  engine  the  towing-line  of  the  Dm 
passenger-boat  that  made  its  appearance,  and  which  coi>. 
tained  upwards  of  ninety  passengers,  with  their  luggin, 
There  was  a  trifling  delay  in  disengaging  the  horses  and 
tying  the  line  to  the  engine ;  but  this  was  amply  coin. 
pensated  when  the  'Victoria'  briskly  set  off,  and  alm(M| 
immediately  gained  a  speed  of  17j  miles  per  hour,whl(|| 
she  kept  up  round  two  curves,  and  until  the  terminatinn 
of  the  rails  made  it  necessary  to  stop,  amid  the  cheers  jf 
the  delighted  passengers.     This  experiment  was  rcpeatcj, 
during  the  course  of  the  day,  with  each  passenger  ,)oat  at 
it  came  on  the  railed  space,  and  with  equal  success  each 
time.     On  one  occasion  a  towing-rope,  which  was  niurh 
decayed,  got  foul  of  a  curl)-stone  and  broke,  but  withoui 
causing  the  slightest  inconvenience,  except  about  one  mi. 
nute's  delay.     The  engine  employed  being  intended  only 
for  a  slow  trade,  was   not  calculated  to  go  at  greator 
speed  than  18  miles  per  hour;  but  it  was  the  opinion  of 
all  present,  that,  with   proper   passenger  locomolivea,  s 
speed  might  be  obtained  equal  to  that  upon  the  best  rail. 
ways,  few  of  the  latter  possessing  the  advantage  secured 
by  the  canal  bank  of  a  perfect  level  throughout    The 
nature  of  the   motion  was  highly  gratifying  to  all  ihi; 
passengers,  being  more  uniform,  steady,  and  smooth,  than 
when  the  boats  were  drawn  by  horses.     Several  of  the 
heavy  (masted)  vessels  were  also  taken  in  tow  duritii' 
the  two  days  of  trial,  at  the  rates  of  3,  3J,  4,  nnd  5  diIIcs 
per  hour ;  and  on  one  occasion,  two  loaded  sloops,  and  i 
large  wagon-boat,  were  together  attached  to  tho  engine 
and  hauled  with  ease  at  the  rate  of  2J  miles  per  huur, 
whilst  only  one-fourth  of  the  steam  was  allowed  to  pasi 
the   throttle  valve.      Tho   foregoing   statements  render 
palpably  apparent  the  immense  advantages  which  migtii 
be  gained  by  this  new  adaptation  of  steam  power— j 
great  economy  of  haulage  expenses,  as  one  engine  ai^hi 
draw  at  least  six  sloops,  which  now  would  require  from 
eighteen   to   twenty-four   horses,  and,   if  necessary,  :| 
double  the  present  speed  ;  and  a  proportionol  increase  of 
the  present  traffic  on  the  canal,  which  might  be  rcasonablj 
expected.     Passengers  would  increase  in  a  great  frofot- 
tion,  when  attracted  by  economy  and  speed  of  transport,  i 
Tho  Union  Canal  from  Edinburgh  to  Falkirk  might  be  j 
traversed  in  2  hours,  and  the  Forth  and   (^lyde  Canil 
from  Falkirk  to  Glasgow  in  IJ  instead  of  4  hours  and  | 
3},  as  at  present,  and  this  by  only  assuming  IB  miles  |in  j 
hour,  though  more  might  easily  he  perfonned,  as  the  ex- 
periments have  shown." 

Fully  more  satisfactory  results  ensued  from  suh!>rqii«iii  I 
experiments,  but  as  the  mode  of  draught  has  not  com 
practically  in  o|)cration,  it  is  unnecessary  to  narrate  theia  | 
here. 

One  of  the  largest  canals  in  Europe  is  that  which  n.  I 
tends  from  the  (Icrman  Ocean  to  the  river  Ai,  at  AmBte^  [ 
dam,  by  which  vessels  ate  enabled  to  reach  that  city  |iy  I 
a  direct  channel,  instead  of  sailing  round  by  the  Zuvder  I 
Zee.  This  sbip  canal  was  licguD  in  1819,  and  finisMI 
in  1 825,  at  an  expense  of  £850,000.  lU  length  is  near!;  I 
52  English  miles;  its  breadth  125  feet  at  the  surface. ud  I 
38  feet  at  the  bottom ;  and  its  depth  20  feet  9  inrhn  i 
Traversing  a  perfectly  flat  country,  it  has  no  locks  ei«|<  I 
at  its  extremities,  and  is  of  such  magnitude,  that  tit«| 
frigates  or  the  largest  merchant  vessals  can  pass  eirbl 
other.  There  is  a  towing-path  for  horses  on  each  side 
and  about  ei£;hteen  hours  are  required  to  perform  iIkI 
voyage  from  Anistenlatn  to  the  ocean.  As  a  comnm-l 
cial  speculation  the  canal  yields  no  profit,  but  its  sinirtl 
to  the  shipfiing  of  Amst'Tdam  is  incalculable,  and  wiib-l 
ou*  it  the  town  must  have  sunk  into  comparative  ins^-l 
nificani'c. 

France  posacssea  about  fifty  dif&rent  canals,  same  oil 
which  are  of  great  importance  for  general  trvtric,  'rtnl 
chief  canal  is  allowed  to  he  that  of  Uriure,  culled  alsl 
that  of  the  Loire  and  Seine.     It  was  completril  in  l'i4!l| 


CONVEYANCE  BY  STEAM  POWER. 


139 


lenteominMiMt 
ine  of  the  llni 
and  which  con. 
Ii  their  luggiga, 
;  the  horeca  and 
ivBB  amply  coiit. 
otr,  and  almciKt 
per  hour,  whii  h 
the  tcrminBtinii 
lid  the  cheers  jf 
nt  was  rcpeattj, 
laHsrngrr-.ioat  ei 
ual  Hurcess  rarh 
vhich  was  much 
okc,  but  without 
pt  about  one  mi. 
ng  intended  only 
to  go  at  greatei 
ts  the  opinion  tif 
•r  locomotiveii,  a 
pon  llic  best  rail. 
dvantage  secured 
uroughout    The 
lifying  to  all  the 
and  smooth,  than 
.     Several  of  the 
n  in  tow  durini; 
3^,  4,  and  b  milca 
idcd  sloops,  and  a 
cd  to  tho  engine, 
J  miles  per  hour, 
as  allowed  to  past 
statements  rendrt 
ages  which  might 
■  steam  power— a 
one  engine  laigh 
;ould  require  from 
,   if  necessary,  at 
irtional  increase  of 
light  be  reasonably 
in  a  great  propo^ 
speed  of  transpotl 
Falkirk  might  be 
and  ('lyde  Canil 
[id  of  4  hours  anJ  | 
ming  16  miles  ]« 
fonncd,  as  the  ei- 

d  from  subsequeiil  I 
ght  has  not  coim 
to  nanate  tbeci 

is  that  which  «• 
vcr  Ai,  at  AmsteN 
reach  that  city  hj  I 
ind  by  the  Zuydn  I 
1819,  and  finiihti]] 
its  length  is  nearly  I 
at  the  surface,  uii  I 

20  feet9inrh« 

as  no  locks  eicf[<  I 

gnitutie,  that  t«tl 

Is  can  pass  p«fb| 
•Bcs  on  each  sidf 
ed  to  perform  ibel 
As  a  coin!r«.P 
(fit,  but  its  ttmrtl 
k-ulable,  and  niih-l 
comparative  iiia?.| 

t  caiialfl,  wnw  o(| 
rieral  tralVic  Thij 
Uriare,  calli-ii  «1«| 
•ompleled  in  l'i<M 


Lifi«i:r««  n4}  miles  in  length  and  has  40  or  42  locks. 
1]^,  width 'is  25  feet  at  bottom.  By  tliia  canal  Paris  re- 
Irites  largo  supplies  of  inland  produce.  The  Canal  du 
Hidi,  of  Languedoc  Canal,  makes  a  communication  be- 
IfeeB  the  Mediterranean  at  the  city  of  Cetle  and  the  At- 
I  itntic  Ocean  at  the  mouth  of  the  Garonne,  passing  through 
I, HP  proTince  of  Languedoc.  AKogether,  there  are  9()0 
Inilosof  canals  in  France. 

The  United  Ktatea  of  North  America  possess  upwards 

Ji(f  J500  miles  of  canals,  the  whole  of  which  have  been 

Ifljniittu'-''*''  within  the  last  thirty  year*.     The  principal 

I  undertaking  of  this  kind  is  the  Erie  Canal,  which  unites 

I  ihc  river  Hudson  at  Albany  with  Lake  Erie  at  Bufliilo, 

Ldistinee  of  3G3  miles.     The  Miami  Canal,  from  (.Jin- 

l.innati  to  Lake  Erie,  which  extends  265  miles,  is  another 

l,rtil  undertaking ;   and  there   arc  a  numlwr  of  other 

1  Mials  scarcely  less  important  for  the  general  traflic  of  the 

Icountry.    The  Rideau  Canal  in  Canada,  extending  a 

(stance  of  160  miles,  from  the  Ottawa  (a  tributary  of 

llbi!  St.  Lawrence)  to  Lake   Superior,  ia   a   stupendous 

lindettaliing,  and  will  ultimately  be  of  great  service  to 

■till'  trade  of  British  America. 

The  canals  of  Great  Britain  are  believed  to  extend  to 

I  aggregate  length  of  2400  miles.     The  greater  part 

L^  in  the  midland  districts  of  England,  including  Lan- 

Jpihire,  and  have  for  their  object  flic  connection  of  the 

■jrac  seats  of  manufacture  with  the  sea  on  both  sides  of 

llie island  and  with  the  Thames  at  London.    The  (irand 

[Trunk  Canal,  connecting  the  Mersey  with  the  Trent  and 

jumbcr,  extends   93J   miles.     The   Birmingham    and 

PVorcester  connects  the  Grand  Trunk  Canal  with  the 

The  Grond  Junction  connects  the  Grand  Trunk 

jitti  the  Thames.     Thus,  the  four  great  ports  of  the 

liiedora,  London,  Bristol,  Liverpool,  and  Hull,  arc  con- 

lecicd  by  canals.     So   generally   are   these   and   other 

LaUsprend  over  En£;land,  that  it  is  supposed  there  is 

lot  a  place  south  of  Durham  more  than  fifteen  miles 

1  water  communication.     The  trade  on  some  of  the 

let  of  canal,  since  the  introduction  of  railways,  has 

Uk  in  an  extraordinary  degree,  greatly  to  the  loss  of 

:  proprietors.     Ireland  has  about  300  miles  of  canals, 

lottly  government   undertakings,  and  in  genera)  they 

gisi'ss  littli'  trade. 

I  Scotlaml  has  a  number  of  canals,  but  they  are  chiefly 
a:iiieil  to  the  western  niid  middle  district  of  the  coun- 
That  which  possesses  the  largest  traflic  is  the  Forth 
i  Clyde  Canal,  reaching  f-om  the  ('lyde,  a  short  way 
liotc  Dumbarton,  to  the  Forth,  at  Giangemouth.  This 
inal.  which  was  opened  in  1790,  and  alTords  a  ready 
tmrnunicntion  for  small  vessels  between  the  east  and 
l«l coast,  extends  39  miles  in  length;  its  highest  level 
^160  feet,  with  20  locks  on  the  eastern  acclivity  and 
S  on  the  western.  The  canal  is  connecte<l  with  Glas- 
r  by  a  side  (;ut ;  and  it  is  now  joined  by  the  Union 
liiul,  which  extends  from  near  its  eastern  extremity  to 
inburgh.  This  latter  canal  has  proved  a  p(H  r  com- 
ktrcial  six-culalion,  but  has  been  of  great  service  to 
Jinburgh,  liy  iiitri)diicing  coal  at  a  cheap  'ate  to  the 
ly,and  allbrding  an  exceedingly  convenient  means  of  con- 
Ijuice  for  goods  to  and  from  ( ilasgow.  The  Caledonian 
linal  ii  fonncd  in  a  great  measure  by  a  chain  of  lakes, 
Irlrhing  across  the  country  from  Inverness  on  the  east 
I  Loch  F'il  on  the  west  coast,  a  distance  of  59}  miles. 
Ike  canal  part  is  20  feet  deep,  50  feet  wide  at  Inittom, 
1 110  feet  at  top,  which  alTords  a  passage  to  frigates 
f  32  guns,  or  merchant  vessels  of  a  similar  size,  'i'hia 
itt  canal  was  undertaken  utt  a  public  work  by  govcrn- 
nt;  and  nfler  a  labour  of  eighteen  years  was  opened 
1 1 S22,  having  then  cost  £800,000.  It  possesses  13 
on  the  east  and  12  locks  on  the  west  coast,  the 
level  being  94  feet.  By  this  canal  the  dangers 
[rounding  the  northern  extremity  of  the  island,  by  the 
ntland  Firth,  may  be  avoided  ;  but  from  the  prejudices 
iKunon  it  has  never  beer,  much  used,  and  ia  now 


abandoned  by  government  to   a  private  coirpany.     A»- 
a  means  of  allowing  steam-boats  to   run  between   tb» 
Clyde  and  Livorneas,  the  canal  haa  been  of  great  public 


CONVEYANCE  BY  STEAM  POWER. 


STEAM-BOATS. 

Until  thfe  year  1807,  the  only  means  ot  commaniea- 
ti(m  by  sea  was  by  sailing  veasels  affected  by  the  winder 
and  on  the  land  by  the  power  of  draught  in  animals,  both 
of  which  were  exceedingly  defective.  In  1807,  Fulton 
introduced  the  use  of  steam-propelled  vessels  on  the 
Hudson,  between  New  York  and  Albany.  In  1812, 
Bell  introduced  a  similar  mode  of  steam  navigation  on 
the  Clyde  at  Glasgow ;  and  in  two  or  three  years  after- 
wards, steam-boats  were  common  on  British  rivers  and  on 
the  sea  around  the  coasts.  We  do  not  consider  it  of  the 
leant  moment  to  mention  how  or  by  whom  steam  pro- 
pulsion was  first  discovered ;  the  merit  of  this  and  every 
other  great  invention  is  alone  due  to  the  person  who 
brought  it  into  practical  use.  and  in  the  present  instance 
it  is  clear  that  that  person  was  Fulton. 

Leaving  all  account  of  the  merhaniijue  of  steam  power, 
as  applicable  to  propulsion,  to  be  given  in  our  article  on 
the  Steam-Rnoixe,  we  need  here  only  allude  to  the  ex- 
traordinary changes  which  have  been  effected  upon  ecu 
veyance  by  sea  and  land  by  this  newly  applied  motive 
force. 

f"team  navigation  has  hitherto  been  chiefly  applied  to 
coasting  and  voyaging  on  rivers  and  estiMries,  and  in 
these  resficcts  it  has  greatly  altered  the  system  of  transit 
In  1810  there  were  in  the  United  Kingdom  and  colonies 
630  steam-veswls,  posacssiiig  an  aggregate  burden  of 
71,000  tons.  The  rivers  on  which  they  principally  plied 
were  the  Thames,  the  Mersey,  the  Clyde,  the  Forth,  the 
Tync,  and  the  SJe*ern.  The  Clyde  alone  owned  76 
steamers,  having  nearly  8000  tons.  Besides  those  which 
were  devoted  to  making  trips  up  d  down  these  rivers, 
a  large  proportion  plied  regularly  t«  een  different  coasts 
in  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  betweei  liffereiit  ports  and 
the  Thames.  From  the  Thames,  o,  steamers  pro- 
ceeded to  many  different  ports  on  i  continent.  In 
short,  steamers  are  now  found  traversing  the  whole  line 
of  coast,  steering  up  and  down  rivers,  and  holding  com- 
munication with  ports  in  distant  parts  of  the  globe. 

One  of  the  finest  lines  of  large  steamers  now  in  ope- 
ration in  Britain  is  that  lietween  Edinburgh  and  London , 
it  has  for  several  years  consisted  of  from  six  to  eight 
vessels  of  altout  800  tons  each,  and  these  sail  regularly 
twice  a  week.  Formerly,  the  passage  by  sailing  smacks 
occupied,  on  an  average,  six  or  seven  days,  but  some- 
times it  was  three  weeks ;  now  the  voyage  l)y  steam  is 
|)erformed  with  raniiirkuble  precision  in  from  48  to  54 
hours,  the  distance  lieing  400  miles.  The  lines  of  steam- 
I)ackets  between  Glasgow  and  Liverpo(d,  Glasgow  and 
Belfast,  Liverpool  and  Uublin.  Bristol  and  Cork,  .Aber- 
deen and  London,  Uundee  and  London,  London  anil 
Rotterdam,  London  and  Hull,  London  and  Newcastle. 
Southampton  and  Havre,  Dover  and  Calais,  are  all  upon 
a  great  scale,  and  effect  an  amount  of  communication  foi 
passengers  and  transit  for  goods,  of  which  no  deacriDtioa 
of  ours  could  convey  anv  just  idea. 


J  Sim 


TbJ  alHJvo  may,  howpvor,  lie  ronHiJoreJ  only  to  in- 
rl«lile  llio«^  vessels  which  procrfil  on  voyoRos  of  not  more 
than  two  dBys'  duration.  I.iilterly  there  have  been  added 
«teaniers  which  pro<-erd  In'tweon  England  and  Lisbon, 
ind  tlience  to  Madeira ;  also  steainera  to  India  by  the 
VJape  of  Gootl  Hope;  and  more  lately  still,  stenmcrs 
whirh  make  the  voyaf^o  across  the  Atlantic,  ami  form  a 
means  of  rcifular  coninmiiication  between  Britain  and 
North  America.  The  Great  Western,  a  steimier  of  1340 
tons  burden,  was  ttio  firnt  larRe  vessel  which  plied  roRU- 
larly  on  this  station.  Tliis  vcsoel  departed  from  Uristol 
on  the  7th  of  April,  1838,  and  reached  New  Yorlc  on  the 
23d  of  the  same  monlti ;  hut  the  clear  days  occupied  on 
ihe  pasMRe  were  only  14.  This  voyage  establislied  the 
practicability  of  steam-vessels  crossing  the  Atlantic,  and 
now  there  are  several  which  «ail  at  regular  intervals. 
BetideH  crosmng  from  London,  Bristol,  and  Liverpool,  to 
New  York,  and  returning,  there  is  also  a  line  of  largi; 
steamers  which  sail  1>otween  Liverpool  and  Halifax  in 
Nova  .Scotia.  The  largoft  of  the  Atlantic  stcamlwats  is 
the  British  Queen,  which  measures  in  entirt  length  275 
feet.     Her  two  engines  arc  of  "50  homo  powfer  each,  and 


INFORMATION   FOK   THE   PEOPLE. 

that  amount  is  not  economics  . 


Allowing,  however,  ih,,  I 
all  hors<>s  can  draw  a  ton  tvci^dit,  that  is  a  small  am.'urtl 
of  draught  in  reU'l.in  to  great  ])\irpose8  of  commerof 
nnd  the  sjieer'  at  which  the  fleetest  horse  can  travel,  wh^,!  ■ 
drawing  a  weight  after  it,  though  perhn|is  ten  milci 
hour,  is  unsuitable  for  the  rapid  transit  of  pasHi^ngcn  g. ■ 
bmg  journeys  To  drag  a  mail-coach  from  London  tol 
Bdiid>urgh,  a  distance  of  about  400  miles,  in  43  hounl 
which  was  reckoned  a  good  sfwcd,  it  was  necessarv  lol 
employ  four  horses,  and  to  change  these  every  eight  tnilial 
on  an  average ;  thus  200  horws  were  required  for  ,yM 
|>erformance  of  the  whole  journey.  Having  utluined  ihiil 
rale  of  locomotion  by  iniprovements  on  roads,  rnrriiiTp.l 
and  in  the  breed  of  horst's,  nothing  more  could  be  don&l 
8omelhing  new  required  to  Im;  devised.  I 

The  iilea  of  employing  steam-ixiwcr  to  drng  cnniacf,! 
over  common  roads,  and  thus  save  u  large  outlay  fnJ 
horses,  In-sidcs  accomplishing  a  greater  s|H'ed,  was  g\i. 
gested  by  various  enterprising  minds,  but  to  its  praclin. 
application  there  were  and  are  many  serious  olijcclionj 
LuleiH'ndently  of  the  ordinary  and  unavoidable  rougiinfJ 
of  connnon  roads,  all  highwoys  are  less  or  more  unevfnl 


■he  is   calculated  to   carrj    1862  tons.      The    outward  I  Iw-eause  to  construct  them  upon  a  perfect  level  through.] 


voyage  of  18  days  of  this  magnificent  steam-veswl  rc- 
quir.:s  a  consumption  of  540  tons  of  coal,  and  her  home- 
fard  voyage  of  12  days  3(iO  tons.  Larger  and  more 
powerful  vessels  are  now  in  preparation. 

On  the  cjjasfs  and  rivers  of  North  America,  steam 
navig:.tion  has  been  carried  on  to  a  much  greater  extent 
than  in  Great  Britain  or  any  other  country.  In  1834, 
there  were  234  steatn-vessels  on  the  Ohio,  Mississippi, 
and  other  western  waters  ;  but  now  the  numtier  is  aluivc 
600.  Some  of  the  American  fcleam-vcssels  are  larger 
than  any  in  Britain,  and  alsq  more  splendid  in  decoration  ; 
but  they  are  much  more  liublu  to  accidents,  from  the  eni- 
ployracnt  cf  steam  at  a  very  high  pressure,  and  a  general 
carelessness  in  the  mode  of  managemcnL 

The  Rhine,  the  Seine,  the  Danube,  and  other  large 
rivers  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  arc  now  navigated  by 
steara-vessels,  elm  lly  for  conveying  passengers.  The 
engines  used  arc  mostly  made  in  England. 

RAILWAYS. 

Before  the  practice  of  steam  navigation  had  attained 
that  degree  of  improvement  which  it  now  possesses,  a 
not  less  wonderful  mode  of  travelling  by  steam  power  on 
land  had  come  into  use;  wherefore,  during  the  first  thirty 
years  of  the  nineteenth  century,  infinitely  greater  im- 
provements in  the  means  of  locomotion  have  been  dis- 
covered and  brought  into  (iractical  operation  for  the  benefit 
of  mankind,  than  had  ever  previously  been  known.  To 
Ullderstiiiid  and  value  the  application  of  steam-power  to 
land-travelling,  wo  must  advert  to  the  subject  of  draug!:t 
on  common  roads. 

There  exist  three  obstacles  to  the  rapid  motion  of  car- 
nsges — terrestrial  attraction,  the  atnioapherc,  and  friction. 
By  no  human  power  can  Ihe  two  former  be  removed ; 
but  the  latter  can  lie  so  far  modified  as  to  form  little  or 
no  oppodition.  On  all  common  roads,  no  matter  how 
well  they  may  be  constructwl,  there  is  a  certain  degree 
of  roughness  wliich  it  is  im[)OKsiblc  to  remove,  and  this 
eauaes  so  great  a  friction,  that  to  overcome  it  much  of  the 
drawing  |M>wer  is  consumed  without  advancing  the  car- 
riage. On  some  roads,  the  plan  of  laying  down  con- 
tinuous lines  or  (riinwciys  of  smooth  |>avemerU  for  the 
whtvis  to  roll  over,  has  In'en  resorti-d  to,  bu*  has  never 
been  found  grnerally  answeralilr,  not  only  in  consequence 
ol  the  great  expens«>  of  coiiKtructiim,  but  Iiecausc  drivers 
will  not  take  llic  trouble  to  keep  thi'ir  vehicles  u|M)n  it. 

The  (l.'auglit  of  a  horse  iipnti  a  inacadamiu'il  road  may 
he  estiiMuted  at  lilu-en  hundn'dweight,  walking  at  an 
iirdinary  pace  and  for  several  hours  continuously.  Par- 
llculsrly  Ktro-i?  horses  may  habitually  draw  twenty  or 
iweuly-lwo  I   'nd'^i-J^fri^hL  b'lt  lo  ruiixj  them  to  pull  to 


would  l)e  attended  with  an  cximmiso  which  the  tolls  froj 
no  traflic   could  sustain.     'I'he   general    unevennets  c 
roads,  therefore,  causes  u  great  loss  of  drawing  pnwfJ 
In  these  .-ircumstances,  it  is  evident  that,  for  the  avoiJ 
ance  of  friction  and  economizing  of  forces,  an  entirfS 
new  s|)ccies  of  road  required  to  Is-  contrived.     Thij  j 
portant  desideratupi  is  found  in  Ihe  invention  of  rci/im  J 
The  design  of  a  railway  is  to  furnish  a  hard,  smooii 
and   unchanging  surface  for  wheels  to  roll  u|wn.   .\1 
provision,   as  resp»"cts   smoothness,   is  required  for  bbi 
part  of  the  path,  except  the  narrow  lines  which  are  i 
mediately  to  come  under  the  rim  of  the  wheels.    AwoiJ 
ingly,  it  is  sufficient  to  provide   two   rows  or  linn  t 
strong  and  straight  iron  rails,  that  is,  long  slips  of  irJ 
almut  an  inch  in  thickne8.s,  and  four  or  six  inches  dm 
These  rails,  laid  in  two  parallel  lines,  to  suit  the  wijl 
of  a  carriage,  are  raised  a  little  above  the  general  jpJ 
of   the    ground,  lieing    placed    neatly   end  to  end,  aj 
secured  by  fastenings  to  blocks  of  wood  or  stone  at  sin 
intervals.     Such  is  the  very  simple  contrivance  jf  aril 
way,  or  chrmin  (It  fer  (road  of  iron),  us  it  is  calli^d  1 
our  French  neighbours.     By  the  establishment  of  r 
ways,  a  way  was  opened  (ytt  the  adaptation  uf  sidj 
power  to  locomotion,  and  now,  a»  is  well  known,  ili( 
lias  come  generally  into  use. 

The  earliest  railway  of  which  there  is  any  accom 
was  one  constructc<l  near  Newcastlc-uiinn-Tyne.  I 
Roger  North's  Life  of  Lord  Kee|HV  North,  he  says  I 
at  this  pla<-e,  in  1676,  the  coals  were  conveyed  fromil 
mines  to  the  banks  of  the  river,  "by  laying  rails  uf  llnilJ 
exactly  straight  and  parallel ;  and  tiulky  carts  were  m 
with  four  rollers  fitting  those  rails,  whereby  the  canisJ 
was  made  so  easy,  that  (me  horse  could  draw  four  or  S 
chaldrons  of  coal."  One  hundred  years  aft-rwirj 
ulxnit  1776,  Mr.  Curr  constructed  an  iron  railroad  at l| 
ShelKeld  colliery.  The  rails  wore  8Up|HUtcd  by  w* 
sle«'})ers,  to  which  they  were  nailed.  In  17i)7,  .Mr.  Bu 
adopted  stone  supports  in  a  railroad  leading  from  thcl.( 
R<m  main  colliery  to  the  'J'yne,  near  Newcastle;  anil 
1800,  Mr.  Outram  made  um^  of  them  in  a  railroad  at  111 
Eaton  in  Derbyshire.  Twenty-ll'e  years  altcrwards,!! 
s|H-cieB  of  road  was  successliilly  adiqited  on  a  \'m 
thorougblure  for  the  lrans|K)rtalii)n  of  iruiclmndiw 
passengers,  nami\ty,the  Stockton  and  I)arlinj;lon  rjii»J 
which  was  completed  in  18'J.'),  and  was  the  first  onwhl 
Ibis  eX|M>riiiient  was  made  wilii  success.  From 
time,  accordingly,  a  new  era  commenced  in  tlic  liiMi 
of  inland  conveyance. 

It  is  a  remarkable  circomataiice.  that  the  early  \A 
tisers  of  rail'A  ay  conveyance  could  not  ini.itjiiio  Ihil 
earria;;e,  moved  by  steam-power,  could  proceed  aloi{f 


RAII-WAYS. 


M" 


•I,  nithoiit  thn  nid  nf  toothrd  whrelii  and  «  rack ;  and 
^,ovrrrnmc  this  imaginnry  diflioulty,  no  small  decree  of 
„i#n»e  an"^  labour  wns  fruitlessly  inrurrcd.  About  the 
^j,  1815,  Mr.  niiickott,  of  Wylam,  near  Newcastle, 
(jf^cloally  pfo**"'!.  by  repeated  cxperimentii,  that  tho^ad- 
jpiirt  power  of  the  wheels  on  the  rails  was  at  all  times 
§cient  to  cause  a  progressive  motion  in  an  engine, 
^,1,  g  train  of  loaded  cnrriaRcs,  uj^n  a  railway  either 
kni  or  with  a  cinall  acclivity.  Important  as  was  this 
fafovcry.  fil^ccii  yi'iirs  elapsed  before  steam  locomotives 
^^  eslid'lished.  This  great  triumph  of  art  occurred  in 
(ooofction  with  the  ojieninn  of  the  Liverpool  and  Man- 
[diKitfr  railvKV,  on  the  l.'ith  of  September,  1R30,  since 
lihirh  period  uilwnys  have  spread  to  all  populous  parts 
ihc  country. 

Simple  as  is  vhe  idea  of  a  railway,  a  protliRious  expense 
iKjeosarily  incurred  in  bringing  it  into  practical  opera- 
All  incquulities  of  surface  in  the  ground  must  he 
ued,  I9W  parts  must  lie  fdled  up  by  embankments, 
Hth  parts  must  lo  reduced,  eminence;',  which  it  would 
impolitic  to  lei  «1,  must  he  jjerforated  by  tunnels — the 
lolc  route  being  bro\ight  as  nearly  as  possible  to  a  level. 
lea,  the  land  over  which  it  is  to  proceed  must  be 
itchascd.  frequently  at  an  exorbitant  cost;  and  the  pre- 
iniry  expense  of  overcoming  petty  opposition  and 
lining  an  act  of  parliament  to  establish  the  line,  some- 
jmounts  to  as  much  as  JC2000  per  mile.  An  entire 
of  X30,000  per  mile  is  considered  a  moderate 
'y  in  the  construction  of  railways  in  Brittin. 
Jio  long  line  of  railway  that  has  yet  been  termed  is 
itly  level  throughout,  but  the  acclivity  is  seldom 
tiian  one  foot  per  mile,  and  this  does  not  produce 
ij  rtanlntiiin,  which  it  would  be  al)solutcly  necessary 
obviate  by  an  excess  of  expenditure.  Every  line,  also, 
bueJ,  or  bent  from  a  tndy  straight  direction,  at  various 
in  its  course ;  and  this  is  another  evil  which  it  is 
to  tolerate  to  a  certain  extent,  rather  than 
by  jneconomica!  outlay.  For  the  reasons  now 
I,  nearly  all  railways  arc  neither  perfectly  straight 
perfectly  level ;  and  bo  far  as  such  is  the  case,  there 
lots  of  power  in  drawing  vehicles  along  them.  Yet, 
most  disadvantageous  known  circumstances,  the 
lys  arc  so  comparatively  smooth  and  suitable  for 
illhat  they  allow  the  nearest  approach  to  a  total 
of  friction.  It  is  deserving  of  notice,  that  the 
of  friction  in  railroads  is  advantageous  not  only 
laving  of  power,  Kjt  the  saving  of  painful  sensa- 
1/ the  traveller.  The  sutlering  usually  endured  in 
in  mo<U's  of  land-conTcyance  is  that  which  chiefly 
ftom  friction.  Friction  is  the  grand  evil  to  bie 
le.  Were  friction  altogether  removed,  we  should 
10  aensation  in  moving ;  as,  for  example,  wo  ex- 
no  sensation  of  motion  in  being  carri-d  along 
ihe  earth  in  its  ceaseless  rotations,  although  pro- 
I  it  an  inconceivable  velocity.  It  may  be  argued 
tliese  premises,  that  no  one  need  fear  to  be  carried 
il  any  rate  of  speed — even  ■  hundred  miles  an 
ividfd  the  motion  be  perfectly  smooth  or  free 
Hclion,  and  that  there  is  a  protection  from  the 
re.  Practically,  in  locomotion  upon  railways,  a 
dfuroc  of  friction  is  required  bct'^  ^en  the  wheels 
rails,  to  cause  adh,>8ion,  and  this  is  accomplished 
ordinary  roui»hnes8  of  the  iron. 
—  The  experience  of  ten  years  has  intro<luced  a 
■oTemcnts  in  the  coni<truction  and  management 
of  railroad.  At  first,  malleable  iron  rails  were 
to  Ih'  preferable  to  those  of  cast-metal ;  but  now 
rirtcHxl  that  C4\!it  rails,  if  pnijjcrly  made,  will  en- 
ihe  tear  and  wear  to  which  they  can  be  fairly 
To  lie  of  the  stroni^est  and  best  form,  each 
ill  rail  should  Ix!  at  least  twelve  feet  in  length, 
Ihat  the  early  F^Wm  in  depth  at  the  two  ends,  and  thence  gradually 
liot  iiiia;;ino  tli3^Bi^  ben  lalh  in  the  fish-belly  form  to  the  centre, 
[1  protccJaloufP'^Dcn  shocdd  Iw  fully  one  inch,  and  the  upper 


,  however,  ih,i 
small  am.'uiii  I 
of  comnnrrf;! 
m  travel,  wWr,  I 
s  U-n  milei  ai,| 
■  pasHeMRern  ofll 
rom  London  lol 
s,  in  43  houn  I 
•as  necessarv  lol 
very  eight  milnl 
required  for  ilifl 
ing  attained  thiil 
roads,  carri;i^ts,| 
e  could  be  done,! 

to  drag  cnniajul 
large  outlay  f( 
siK-ed,  was 
\it  to  its  practii 
erious  olijccliom 
aidalile  rouglini 
or  more  uneven 
■i  level  through, 
ich  the  tolls  froi 
id    uni'vcnneM 
if  drawing  pnwi 
lat,  for  the  avoj 
forces,  an  cnlirel 
nlrivcd.    This  ii 
rention  nf  riii/iroji 
h  a  hard,  smooll 
to  roll  upon.    Ni 
1   required  for  ei 
ines  which  are  ii 
c  wheels.    Accoi 
}   rows  or  linen 
i,  long  slips  of  ifi 
,or  six  inches  i!. 
),  to  suit  the  Willi 
the  general  Ici 
end  to  end, 
od  or  stone  at  shi 
iitrivance  ii  ani 
as  It  IS  called 
abrishiiiont  of 
laptntion  of  steti 
well  known,  tl 


IS  any  accoi 
llc-upnii-Tyne. 
uirlli,  he  says 
conveyed  from 
lying  rails  of  liml 
liy  carls  were  mi 
her»'liy  the  rami 
Id  draw  finir  or 
vcari'   atl-TOii 
iron  rnilroadal 
ipimrtcd  liv  W3 
fin  1707,  Mr.  Di 
iding  from  the  I 
I  Newcastle;  anJ 
III  a  railroad  at  lit 
Mrs  altiTWards,ll 
iqitcd   on  a  jiul 
If  imrcliandiw 
lv)arruii;ton  i"* 
Is  Ihe  first  on* 
V'i-c.<s.    Krom 
d   III  the  lii'li 


surface,  on  which  the  wheel  is  to  run,  should  be  «n  iricb 
and  three-quarters  or  two  inches,  so  as  to  project  laterally 
like  the  cross  top  of  the  letter  T.  The  rails  are  to  bs 
supported  at  their  joint  extremities,  where  they  are  pinned 
together,  and  also  at  intervals  of  every  three  feet.  The 
supporters  should  consist  of  transverse  bars  of  wood, 
sunk  ift  the  ground  ;  by  lieing  thus  crossing  from  the  ona 
track  to  the  other,  both  lines  of  rail  are  kept  from  *sep^ 
rating  or  shifling,  and  if  there  is  any  tendency  to  subsidy 
both  arc  equally  lowered.  On  many  lines  of  railroa«l 
stone  sleepers  arc  preferred  to  wood,  but,  as  it  seems 
with  no  adequate  advantage.  Stone  sleepers  present  tot 
unyielding  a  base  to  the  rolling  of  the  wheels,  and  cau» 
a  jolting  most  injurious  to  the  mechanism  of  the  car 
riages.  In  several  instances,  lines  with  stone  steepen 
have  lieen  taken  up,  and  wood  substituted.  The  rail 
wnys  in  Belgium  are  laid  on  wooil.  To  attain  the  high 
est  perfection  in  the  mode  of  laying  rails,  a  plan  has  bees 
followed  on  tho  Newcastle  and  Shields  line,  and  also  on 
that  of  tho  Great  Western  lietween  London  and  Bristol, 
of  placing  rails  having  an  even  under  side  uiion  longW 
tudinal  beams  of  timber,  which  arc  united  at  certain  inter- 
vals by  transverse  bars :  thus  the  whole  substructure  is  a 
handsome  framework  laid  on  the  ground,  and  present* 
the  best  species  of  support  In  general,  this  will  be  found 
00  expensive  a  kind  of  railway ;  and  it  may  be  anticipated 
..int  the  method  of  fixing  rails  upiin  cross-bars  of  wood, 
at  intervals  of  threo  feet,  will  ulUiiiately  come  into  uni- 
versal use. 

Tvrn-oiitii. — If  all  the  wagons  upon  a  railroad,  whether 
for  the  transportation  of  passengers  or  merchandise,  wera 
to  travel  at  the  same  time,  and  at  the  same  speed,  two 
sets  of  tracks  would  be  suiTicient  to  accommodate  the 
whole,  as  there  would  be  no  necessity  of  their  turning 
out  to  pass  each  other.  But  in  the  transportation  of 
passengers,  greater  speed  is  desirable  than  in  the  trans* 
portation  of  merchitndise ;  for  the  transportation  of  mer 
chandise,  whether  by  hors-'-power  or  steam-power,  can 
be  done  more  economically,  and  with  less  injury  to  the 
road,  at  a  low  than  a  very  high  rate  of  speed.  It  is,, 
therefore,  a  very  considernblo  object,  in  railroads  upon 
lines  of  public  travel,  to  allow  wagons  to  pass  others 
travelling  in  the  same  direction.  Provision  must  b« 
made,  accordingly,  for  turning  out.  This  provision  is 
particularly  necessary  in  case  of  a  road  with  a  single  set 
of  tracks,  on  which  the  carriages  must  meet.  These 
turn-ouLs  arc  made  by^eans  of  a  movable  or  switch-rail 
at  the  angle  where  the  turn-out  track  branches  from  the 
main  one.  This  rail  is  two  or  three  feet,  more  or  less, 
in  length,  and  one  end  may  lie  moved  over  that  angle, 
and  laid  so  as  to  form  a  part  of  the  main  track,  or  the 
turn-out  track.  The  switch-rail  is  usually  moved  by  the 
hand,  so  as  to  form  a  part  of  that  track  on  which  the 
wagon  is  to  move. 

Carria^et — IVIieels. — The  principal  consideration,  in 
regard  to  the  construction  of  carriages,  relates  to  their 
Ixiarings  on  the  axle  and  the  rim  of  the  wheel.  The  rule 
given  by  Mr.  Wood,  u  to  tlic  bearing  on  the  axle,  is,  that 
in  order  to  produce  the  least  friction,  the  breadth  of  the 
bearing  should  be  equal  to  the  diameter  of  tho  axle  at  the 
place  of  bearing.  This  diameter  must  be  determined  by 
the  weight  to  Ite  carried ;  anil  the  breadth  of  the  bearing 
will  accordingly  vary  with  it.  In  order  to  keep  the  wheeh 
fairly  on  the  rails,  they  are  furnished  with  thin  edge* 
which  dip  on  tho  outside;  these /nnges  are  about  an 
iiioh  and  a  half  in  depth.  The  mid-wheels  of  locomotive* 
are  now  made  without  flanges,  but  the  fore  and  hind  pail 
require  flanges  of  rather  more  than  usual  depth.  Wheels 
of  large  diameter  move  with  greater  ease  over  the  rails 
than  those  which  are  small,  liecausc  tho  large  ones,  in 
this  as  in  all  similar  cases,  have  more  ]x>wcr  in  overcoat 
ing  obstacles.  Yet  there  is  a  proper  medium  in  tlx 
dimensions  of  wheels.  Largo  wheels  are  inconveniriil 
in  point  of  height,  and  are  apt  to  produce  »  rocking  liio 


iM 


INFORMATION    FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


dim.  It  would  appoar  that  the  moat  auitahlo  iliamrtir 
lor  »h«  wagon  or  carriage  whepja  ia  from  two  and  n  half 
to  three  feet,  which  ia  the  iiiual  aiie.  The  wheeU  of  tli» 
locomotivo  have  a  diamntcr  of  about  four  feet ;  to  iiiako 
them  browlnr  ia  conaidcred  injudicious. 

Curvulurta  in  Iht  Itoail. — The  curvaturoa  of  the  rail- 
*o«i  preacnt  some  olwtrurtiona,  aince  the  axica  of  thp  riir 
•nd  wr.^ona  being  uaually  fixed  firmly  to  the  franira, 
every  bend  of  the  trarka  muat  evidently  cnuae  aonio 
Ateral  rubbing,  or  proasure  of  the  whcela  upon  the  rniln, 
which  will  orraaion  an  iiicreoacd  friction.  If  the  whcrla 
■re  fixed  to  the  axlea,  ao  that  both  muat  revolve  together, 
According  to  the  'mode  of  conatruction  hitherto  inoiit 
usually  adopted  in  pitsiiing  a  curve,  the  wheel  that  niovoa 
on  the  outaide  or  loiigeat  mil  muat  be  alided  over  whutuvor 
distance  it  exceeds  the  length  of  the  other  roil,  in  rnsu 
both  wheels  roll  on  rims  of  the  same  diameter.  This  ia 
Ml  obstruction  preaentcd  by  almost  every  railroad,  since 
it  is  rarely  practicable  to  make  such  a  road  straight.  The 
imalleat  curvature  that  is  allowable  should  not  be  Ivmh 
than  a  radius  of  300  feet.  In  going  round  a  height,  llio 
radius  ahodid  on  no  account  be  ao  amall  aa  thia,  in  crdcr 
that  the  engine  drivers  may  have  a  clear  look-out  ahead, 
•nd  80  prevent  collisions  and  overtakinga  on  the  road. 

Iiu-lintd  Planet, — Where  the  inclination  of  the  road 
is  greater  than  that  for  which  the  ordinary  {x>wer  is 
calculated,  the  ascent  must  \te  effected  by  means  of  an 
tdditional  power,  the  amount  of  which  can  be  readily 
computed,  since  in  those  ^<art9  no  additional  friction  of 
the  cars  or  wheels  ia  to  be  provided  for,  and  only  the  ad- 
ditional rexititance  arining  from  gravity  is  to  tie  overcome. 
If,  for  instance,  tlie  additional  inclination  is  one  in  ninety- 
six,  or  fitly-five  feet  in  a  mile,  the  additional  power  must 
be  to  the  weight  as  one  to  ninety-six,  or  as  fifty-fivo  to 
the  number  of  feet  in  a  mile,  namely,  5280,  In  descend- 
ing planes,  ho  much  inclined  that  the  gravity  would  move 
the  ca^ria^t<s  too  rapidly  for  safety,  the  velocity  is  checked 
by  means  of  a  break,  which  consists  of  a  pieco  of  wood 
af  the  samo  curvature  as  the  rim  of  a  set  of  the  wheels, 
upon  which  the  break  is  pressed  by  means  of  a  levur,  so 
adjusted  as  to  lie  within  reach  of  the  conductor,  in  his 
position  on  the  carriage. 

Lnromutive  Engines. — Within  the  last  few  years,  very 
eonaiderable  improvements  have  been  made  in  the  con- 
•tructioo  of  the  locor  otives  by  which  the  draught  of 
die  trams  of  carriages  is  effected.  Originally  ihu  loco- 
motive was  placed  upon  four  wheels,  the  two  front  ones 
l>eing  smaUer  than  those  behind.  Now,  six  wheels  are 
employed,  the  fra-it  and  hind  pair  being  smaller  than 
those  in  the  middle,  these  middle  ones  being  the  wheels 
upon  which,  by  the  action  of  cranks  from  the  engine,  the 
wiiale  mass  is  propelled.  As  may  be  seen  by  the  smull 
annexed  engraving,  which  represents  a  railway  train,  the  i 


locomotive  consists  of  a  long  iron  barrel  or  cyllndcriuh 
ported  by  six  wheels,  with  a  chinmcy  rising  in  front,  uli 
atforiling  standing  space  liehind  for  the   engineer  wKc 
conducts  und  regulates  the  machine.     It  is  unnecetun 
to  tonfuse  the  mind  of  the  unscientific  reader  with  i  ni 
nute  account  of  thia  wonderful  apparatus  ;  it  will  kjOu,  ' 
to  sny,  that  the  end  of  the  barrel-like  object  next  tls 
engineer,  consists  of  a  furnace  or  fire-box,  and  th«  hni 
generated  in  it  by  the  consumption  of  coke,  is  conduciad 
thence  through  a  great  number  of  tulies  in  the  cyliixj«  i 
and  finally  escapes  at  the   chimney.     The  cylinder  it 
which  the  water  is  boiled  and  steam  generated,  ii>  aheltetai 
from  the  external  air  by  a  case  j  and  by  receivini  ^ 
action  of  heat  from  so  many  tubes  passing  throuih  ii  I 
the  steam  is  rapidly  generated  for  the  use  of  the  engia*  I 
The  engine  lies  horizontally  beneath  the  chimney,  mj  I 
in  such  a  iwsition  as  to  permit  the  working  of  the  piitog  I 
upon  the  crank  of  the  axle  of  the  middle  set  of  whecli,! 
By  means  of  lever  handles  affecting  the  niecliunism,  ij^l 
engineer  can  at  pleasure  prmiuce  or  slop  the  motion  ul 
eti'cctually  and  nmch  more  readily  than  a  courlidnwl 
conld  set  off  or  arrest  the   progrcHs  of  his  Imrsci.    \jA 
mediately  iH'hind  the  l(K'omotive  is  a  carriage  called  tbtl 
tender,  which  is  loaded  with  u  supply  of  fui'l  and  a  uikl 
rouii<l  its  hides  containing  water.     The  weight  of  a  ioa>| 
motive,  supplied  with  its  jirojier  quantity  of  water  injl 
fuel,  is  aliout  twelve  tons.     'J'lie  lender,  when  filled  wiill 
water  and  fuel,  weighs  seven  tons :  it  can  carry  700  n;l 
lon!<  of  wut«-r,  and  eight  hundredweight  of  coke  rormiil 
sutficient  supply  for  a  trip  of  from  thirty  to  forty  mi^ 
with  an   ordinary  load.     Tlie  cost  of  u  Iwoinolive  i 
about  X'1700,  und  it  seldom  wears  longer  tliim  twovru 
without   undergoing  a  very  extensive    repair,    Oii  l^ 
Great  Western  Railway,  which  is  of  unusual  breadlli  a 
track,  the  locomotives  are  much  larger  and  more  poir 
ful.     Ordinary  locomotives  evaporate  wnenly-scvcn  ciil 
feet  of  water  per  hour,  but  those  on  the  (ireut  \i\ 
evaporate  al)out  300  cubic  feet     It  is  cidciilulcd  Ibalil 
evaporation  of  one  cubic  foot  )ier  hour,  produced  as 
meclianicul   force  of  nearly  two   horse   power;  coi« 
quently,  to  ascertain  the  power  of  u  locomotive,  we  g 
multiply  by  two  the  numU^r  of  cubic  feet  which  it  eiu 
rates  per  hour.     In  common  circumstances,  an  ordiiii 
sized  locomotive  exerts  a  power  of   150  horscn,  tod] 
larger  one  exerts  a  power  of  400  horses.    To  etlii 
this  degree  of  force,  it  is  necessary  to  recollect  ihill 
horse  upon  a  uimuion  road  cannot  draw  for  any  leni 
of  time  more  than  fifteen  hundredweight,  while  on  an 
way  it  will  pull  with  equal  case  ten  tons,  being  tbiit 
limes  the  amount.     \Vc  may  now,  therefore,  cbni|4 
that  the  |iowcr  of  a  I'Kumotive,  such  as  is  usuiiljc 
ployed,  is  equal  to  n  uiraught  of  1500  tons.    Wiihil 
weight  to  drag,  hnw.ver,  only  a  slow  motion  it  i 


Mf^'P.i^^Sif'iffi'iiwi?' 


•We ;  and  to  procure  the  necessary  speed  of  from  twenty 
io  twenty-five  miles  per  hour,  the  load  must  be  propor- 
tlunally  diminished.  Something  must  also  be  allowed 
fcj  the  difiiculty  of  ascending  inclined  planes.  A  weight 
of  fi"om  100  to  150  tons  is  considered  a  fair  load  for  a 
locomotive  to  draw ;  but  it  is  seldom  more  than  sixty  to 
•ereuty  tons.  The  following  experiments  on  the  power 
■«f  draught  were  made  by  Dr,  Lardner  on  tlie  Liverpool 
•nd  Manchestir  Railway  in  1432: — 

« On  Saturduy,  the  5th  of  May,  the  engine  called  the 
Victory  took  20  wagcna  of  merchandise,  weighing  gross 
*t  ton*,  19  cwt,  1  qi ,  together  with  the  tender  contain- 
ing fuel  and  water,  of  the  weight  of  which  I  have  no 
•ri'ount,  from  Liverpool  to  Manchester  (30  mile*),  in  1 
l™ir  ?4  minutea    45  aeconda.     The  tjrain  stopped  to 


take  in  water  half-way  for  10  minutes,  not  includdij 
the  above-mentioned  time.  On  the  inclined  |)laneri 
1  in  06,  and  extending  Ij  miles,  tho  eugii'c  wasasisi 
by  another  engine  called  the  iSamson,  ami  the  i 
was  pcrforipi"'.  in  9  minutes.  At  starting,  the  f 
place  was  welled  with  coka,  ^nd  the  coke  «u|)pli(d| 
the  tender  accurately  weighed.  On  arrivini;  at) 
cheater,  the  fire-place  was  Hgnin  lille<l,  uiul  the  ( 
remaining  in  the  tv-nder  weighed.  The  cniisuiti|« 
was  found  to  ai'-.ount  to  l>2&  poui:ds  net  weight,!) 
at  the  rate  of  one-third  of  a  pound  per  ton  pet  i 
Speed  on  the  level  was  eighteen  miles  an  hour;  i 
fall  of  4  feet  in  c  mile,  21  j  miles  an  hour;  fall  of(f 
in  a  mile,  25 j  miles  un  hour;  on  the  rlic  overt 
ico.v,  8  feet  in  a  mile,  17 j  miles  an  hur;  out 


H  moans  carriages 
IfliMging  passcnp 
"ft  passengers  take  t 
[■"^"on— that  is, 
"lie  cxtraordina 
a««  ha*  enable* 


RAILWAYS 


l«l 


or  rylinder  ntf- 
iiK  in  front,  uhI 
I  engineer  «hc 
I  in  unneccMir; 
caAai  with  •  ni 
H  ;  it  will  niffict 

ol)jert  next  tit 
[>x,  anil  the  heil 
(ikr,  ID  ronducltd 
!R  in  the  cyliixiet, 
The  cylinder  ig 
crated,  if  ahelleieil 

by  receiving  lix 
iMini;  through  it, 
]iie  of  tl>o  engint. 
the  chimney,  ud 

kiiiK  "I  '''°  pi'lo' 
Jdlo  wt  of  vfhwli. 
he  mechanism,  tht 
lot>  the  motion,  ii 
van  a  coacliilnw 
if  hiH  homca.   Iii^ 
cnrri»KC  called  tk' 
of  fuel  and  a  tiik 
le  weight  of  a  loco 
uiitity  of  water  td\ 
er,  when  filled  wiik 
t  con  carry  100  gi^j 
^ht  of  coke  forau 
thirty  to  forty  mi' 
of   a  UH'omoti»e  'a 
)ngcr  than  two  yi 
ive   rcj)air.    On 
f  unusual  breadth 
rer  and  more  poi 
c  m^venty-scvcn 
in  the  tiircat  W 
1  is  c>»kidated  thit 
lour,  prwluccsapi 
iiorse   power;  ci 
loconiotivc,  we 
Iccl  whiih  it  cvi 
iistunces,  an  ordiui 
150  horses,  vi 
horses,    To  e«ti 
U)  recollect  Ik 
draw  for  any  lei 
iglil,  while  on  a 
tons,  being  thi 
therefore,  com 
til  a»  i»  u'U'") 
500  tons.    Wilt 
low  motion  i»  ol'ti 


<Wr<innJ  Hhrlfernl  fi^rn  the  wind,  80  mile*  an  hour.  The 
wind  was  modemtei  hut  direct  ahead.  The  working 
wh'wls  sli|  ped  three  times  on  Chntmosa,  and  the  train 
WIS  returilcd  from  two  to  three  minutes.  The  engine, 
•n  this  occanion,  was  not  examined  before  or  after  the 
iiiurncy,  hut  was  prosuinod  to  bo  in  good  working  order. 


On  the  29th  of  May,  the  engine  called  the  Siimiion 
riTpii{hiiig  to  tons  2  cwt,  with  14  inch  cylinders,  and 
V)  inch  stroke;  wheels  4  feet  0  inches  diameter,  both 
niirs  being  worked  by  the  engine;  steam  60  lbs.  pres- 
,nro,  130  tulies)  was  attached  to  50  wagons  kidon  with 
nicrchandiao  ;  not  weight  about  150  tons  ;  gross  weight, 
including  wngona,  2S3  tons  6  cwU  The  tender  weighed 
7  WM,  making  a  gross  load  (including  the  engine)  of 
140  land  3  cwt.  The  engine  with  this  load  travelled 
from  Liverpool  to  Manchester  (30  miles)  in  2  hours 
tnJ  40  minutes,  exclusive  of  delays  upon  the  road  for 
wttering,  &c. :  being  at  the  rate  of  nearly  1 2  mile*  an 
hour.  The  speed  varied  according  to  the  inclinations 
gt'  the  road.     Upon  a  level,  it  was   12  miles  an  hour; 


open 


a  descent  rf  6  tiiet  in  a  mile,  it  was  16  miles  an 


fi< 


hour ;  upon  a  rise  of  8  fu<-t  in  a  mile,  it  was  about  9 
miles  an  hour.     The  weather  was  calm,  tho  rails  very 
net;  but  the  wheels  did  not  slip,  even  in  the  slowest 
lined,  except  at  starting,  tho  rails  being  at  that  place 
lolled  and  greasy  with  tho  slime  and  dirt  to  which  they 
ire  always  exposed  at  the  stations.  Tho  coke  consumed  . 
In  this  journey,  cxcluvive  of  what  was  raised  in  getting  i 
qp  the  steam,  was   1 762  lbs.,  Iteing  at  the  rate  of  a 
fluarter  of  a  pound  per  ton  per  mile." 
Goiniil  Jlppcarance  and  Miimtgemenl. — In  America 
id  Belgium,  most  lines  consist  of  but  one  track ',  in 
(iri'at  Britain  all  possess  two  tracks,  suitablo  for  trains 
lioing  in  opposite  directions,  besides  which  there  are 
im'ofls  at  which  quick-going  trains  may  pass  those  of 
lower  motion.     At  certain  convenient  points  along  ttie 
there  arc  station-houses,  at  which  the  trains  stop  tn 
t  up  and  set  down  passengers,  and  there  is  no  stop- 
ige  at  any  other  place.     On  most  of  the  lines  there  are 
low  trains,  taking  goods  and  second-class,  or  an  infe- 
ior  kind  of  carriages,  and  fast  trains,  taking  only  first 
lid  lecond-class  carriages ;  some  lines  also  have  mail 
lu,  which  prot-eed  at  more  than  usual  speed,  and 
ing  only  first-clas*  carriages,  stop  at  fewer  places  by 
le  way.    The  first-class   carriages  are  covered,  and 
inble  three  coach  bodies  united,  but  of  more  com- 
lodioua  dimensions ;  second-claas  carriages  are  open  at 
« tides,  and  not  lined  with  any  stuffing ;    third-class 
iagcs  are  entirely  open;  goods  carriages  are  open 
icks,  on  which  the  articles  are  piled  and  fastened ; 
III  for  cattin  are   open  with   a  railing  round  the 
in.    All  the  carriages  in  a  train  are  linked  one  to 
le  other  by  strong  iron  hooks ;  and  to  prevent  them 
shocks  against  each  other,  the  various  carriages 
provided  with  projecting  rods  on  springs,  cushioned 
the  -"jler  extremities.     Generally,  the  fares  charged 
transmission  are  higher  than  they  need  be  ;  a  coin- 
charge  is  at  the  rate  of  3d.  per  mile  for  each  pas- 
r  in  a  first-rlass  carriage ;  and  it  is  under8too<l  that 
'er  rales  would  create   more  than  a  compensatory 
lunt  of  traffic 

There  arc  certain  excellences  in  the  arrangements  of 

the  railways  which  deserve  to  be  mentioned.     Each 

licini;  the  property  of  a  private  association,  is  se- 

I  the  coke  nuppW^BiW  from  one  end  to  tho  other  from  the  intrusion  of 

I  On  arrivini!  at  ^'i^V  pullic ;  and  therefore  no  jostling  or  confusion  takes 

tilled,  ami  tht  ci^Hice,  either  upon  entering  or  leaving  tho  ciwrriages. 

II  'I'he  ('nnsuiii|*i^Be  rails  of  one  line,  likewise,  join  those  of  another,  by 
li-ds  net  wei);h'i'''^B>'li  means  carriages  generally  proceed  onwards  with- 
lind  per  >on  P"  "^B".  ''''•"R'ni?  passenger*  or  luggage.     A  carriage  in 

I  miles  an  hou'i  '^V^''  passengers  take  their  seats  at  London  goes  straight 
an  hour;  fall  of  i^H  to  Preston — that  is,  along  the  Hnes  of  ^ree  compa- 

bn  the  rl  ic  o^er  ^^B*  The  extraordinary  magnitude  of  the  railway  un- 
U  on  h'  ui ;  '>!>  I^Btiiuogi  haa  enabled  th»  director*  to  organize  rule* 


liuU's,  not  incluiW 

incliiieil  iilane 
[ifl  ciigii'i'^^'*''*"* 
mson,  and  the  t« 


IAI  slnrlins,', 


the 


which  could  never  be  enforced  in  the  trrpgulnr  scramb 
of  stage-coaching.  It  is  rnstomary  to  dress  the  subor 
dinate  functionaries  on  all  the  lines  in  a  uniform  resem 
bling  that  of  tho  London  police^-eurh  man  havtng  hi« 
numlioT  inscribed  in  figures  on  some  part  of  his  dross;  ao 
timt,  if  any  one  lie  guilty  of  incivility  or  iniitteiitiun,  he 
can  be  easily  reported  to  his  superior.  There  is  one 
pleasing  peculiarity  in  the  arrangcmeiils,  which  is  enti- 
tled to  the  highest  commendation  :  it  is  tho  rule  that  no 
otricp"  shall  on  any  n-eount  take  n  fee  from  passengers, 
o"  .1  of  inttant  dismissal.  Those  who  imagine  that 
fees  to  guards,  coachmen,  or  waiters,  are  r)-i|uisite  to 
ensure  civility,  will  he  surprised  to  find  that  railway 
Btteni'ants  are  infinitely  more  polite  and  attentive  than 
their  brethren  of  tho  coach  conveyanci-N.  'J'liis,  in  itself, 
gives  travelling  by  railway  a  groat  superiority  over  all 
other  modes  of  public  conveyance. 

The  London  and  Birmingham  line,  which  was  the 
first  completed  after  that  of  Manchester  and  Liverpool, 
has  alv/ays  appeared  to  us  to  bu  among  tho  best  ma- 
nigcd  of  tho  various  railways,  as  well  as  the  moot  com- 
plete in  all  its  arrangements.  There  are  accommoda- 
tions on  this  line  which  are  to  be  Hcen  on  no  other.  On 
all  the  lines  there  nro  waiting-rooms  both  for  ladies  and 
gentlemen  at  the  diflerent  stations;  but  exclusively  tt 
those  on  this  lino,  there  is  a  large  and  commodioua 
house  of  entertainment  at  the  l)irmiiii;hain  terminus, 
where  meals  stand  ready  prepared  for  the  passenger*. 
At  Wolverton,  a  place  half  way  from  the  metropolii, 
and  where  the  train  stops  ten  minutes,  there  is  lik(!wise  a 
large  establishment  in  tho  form  of  an  open  booth  or  shop 
where  tea,  coflfee,  or  vian  Is  of  a  more  substantial  kind, 
with  dilTerent  liquors,  are  sold  on  tho  instant  to  those 
who  require  refreshment. 

Passengers  who  make  the  journey  for  the  first  time 
by  tho  mail-train,  will  be  amused  by  observing  a  tra- 
velling post-office  in  the  string  of  carriages.  Thia 
'•  Grand  Northern  Railway  Post-Officc,"  as  the  inscrip- 
tion on  its  side  denotes,  is  a  carriage  consisting  of  two 
small  apartments,  one  of  which  is  appropriated  to  the 
guard,  whoso  duty  is  to  exchange  the  bags,  and  the 
other  is  fitted  up  with  a  table  for  sorting  letters,  and 
holes  round  the  walls  for  their  reception.  The  manner 
in  which  the  duties  of  the  clerk  and  guard  are  per- 
formed in  this  flying-office,  is  strikingly  significant  olt 
the  new  order  of  things  introduced  by  the  railway  sys- 
tem. Outside  the  vehicle  a  species  of  net  is  extended 
by  a  hoop,  and  into  thia  the  letter-bags  are  dropped  a* 
the  train  sweeps  onward  in  its  'course,  the  bags  which 
are  to  be  left  being  at  the  same  time  tossed  from  the 
window  by  the  g^ard.  The  fresh  bag  of  letters  being 
received,  it  is  specdiily  opened,  its  contents  re-arranged, 
and  a  new  bag  for  next  town  being  made  up,  it  is  pro- 
jected OS  before  at  the  place  of  its  destination.  By  thi* 
means  a  letter  may  be  written,  sent  through  the  post* 
office,  and  delivered  at  the  distance  of  twenty  mile*,  in 
the  spaco  of  a  single  hour. 

The  number  of  railway  companies  incorporated  by 
act  of  parliament  up  till  January  1839,  in  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  was  107,  and  the  cniiital  which  they  were 
allowed  to  raise  by  shares  was  .C41,filO,81'f ;  they  were 
besides  allowed  to  raise  by  loan  jEI6,177,G30.  A  con- 
siderable number  of  these  railways  being  jobbing,  or  at 
least  crude  sjicculntions,  have  rvever  commenced,  end 
the  numljcr  oi  railways  actually  liegun  to  be  prepared 
or  finished  at  the  Wginning  of  1840,  in  the  united  king- 
dom, was  only  about  fifty,  'i'he  princiiial  lines  are— 
the  Liverpool  and  Mnnchesicr  IJailway,  about  thirty 
two  miles  long,  and  uniting  these  populous  towns; 
the  London  and  Birmingham  Rail-vav,  about  one 
hundred  and  twelve  miles  long,  connecting  me  meiro 
poll*  with  the  centre  of  England ;  the  (Jrnnd  Junction 
Railway,  continuing  the  London  and  Birmingham  line 
to  that  of  Liverpool  and  Manchester,  and  aUa  M  a 


f«4 


INFORMATION    FOR  THE   PnOHl.B. 


(^ininca  to  the  Railwity  TommI,  Liverpool. 

railway  proceeding  northward  to  Lancuter,  and  thni 
forining  a  moat  important  thoroughfare  obli<|iirly  arroBi 
the  country  ;  the  Midland  Countica,  North  Midland,  and 
(Jreat  North  of  England  railwayn,  connecting  the  great 
leata  of  trade  in  Northumberland,  Durham,  Yorkshire, 
and  Derhyflhirn,  with  the  London  and  Uirmingham 
line;  tlie  New  Coatlo  and  CarligJe  Railway,  connecting 
llieiie  towns;  the  Great  Western  Railway,  about  one 
hundred  and  scTenleen  miles  long,  connecting  London 
with  Bristol,  and  with  smaller  tributary  lines  opening  up 
tlie  weat  of  England;  the  South- Wcatcm.  Railway,  about 
seventy-seven  miles  long,  connecting  London  with 
Southampton ;  the  Manchester  and  Leeds  Railway,  con- 
necting these  populous  towni.  In  Scotland,  the  Edin- 
burgh and  Glasgow  Railway,  and  the  Glasgow  and  Ayr 
Railway,  are  the  principal  lines.  The  greatest  of  the 
whole  of  these  iindcrtakingM  is  the  Grand  Western. 
This  line  has  two  tracks,  each  of  seven  feet  wide,  while 
on  all  other  railways  in  this  country  the  width  is  be- 
tween four  and  five  feet ;  the  carriages,  therefore,  which 
nm  on  the  Grand  Western,  must  be  necessarily  confined 
to  itself.  The  most  prosperous  of  all  the  lines  is  that 
of  the  London  and  Birmingham,  the  weekly  revenue 
of  which  is  upwards  of  £16,000:  the  weekly  revenue 
of  the  Grand  Junction,  which  joins  it,  is  £9C  )0. 

The  speed  at  which  railway  trains  usually  proceed  is 
Crom  twenty  to  twenty-flvo  miles  per  hour,  though 
rometimes  it  is  much  more.  At  the  ordinary  rate  of 
i  peed,  a  journey  from  London  to  Liverpool  by  the  mail 
train  is  performed  in  about  nine  hours;  and  when  rail- 
ways are  extende<l  north  to  Edinburgh,  the  journey 
from  London  to  that  city  will  be  performed  in  eighteen 
houra,  or  perhaps  lesa.  Travelling  by  railway  at  any 
of  the  common  rates  of  speed  is  atteniled  with  less  per- 
sonal danger  than  stage<oaching,  because  the  locomo- 
tives are  perfectly  under  control.  Any  deaths  or  per- 
sonal injuries  which  have  occurred  on  railways,  are, 
with  scarcely  an  exception,  attributable  to  the  carelcso- 
iieaa  of  the  engina-dnTers,  and  by  the  employnient  of  • 


superior  class  of  men  to  ilire<-t  tne  motions  of  the  trinu 
this  fruitful  cause  of  mischief  is  in  the  course  of  Iiei„, 
obviated.  With  this  improvement,  conveyance  by  rtlL 
ways  will  bo  ranktil  among  the  most  useful  siid  11,^ 
|iendoua  inventions  of  art. 


[RKCK.NT  OPKRATION8  IN  RAIIAVAYS. 

Since  the  first  publication  of  the  precediiiii  silirlr 
the  subject  of  transportation  and  travelling  by  ntjlwuyj 
has  received  increaHcd  atloiiliim  in  Grout  Hritiiin  anl 
on  the  continent  of  Europe,  csiwoially  in  F'rancp,  I,i|„ 
all  other  subjects  which  are  iliscunscd  in  couiitrion  no*. 
sessing  an  active  and  widely  dilfuiied  system  uf  11,,^^ 
papers,  it  attracted  the  universal  attention  of  the  trailiiw 
and  business  community  ;  and  speedily  led  to  nn  rxtcn- 
sive  system  of  speculations.  An  imincnso  nuinlirr  of 
companies  were  formed  and  routes  were  surveyed  mj 
laid  out  for  railways  in  every  part  of  the  United  Kini. 
dom.  Parliament  was  beset  with  innumernlili>  gnpij. 
cations  for  charters ;  and  the  whole  trading  cornmuml) 
became  infected  with  the  rage  for  speculation  In  rail. 
way  shares.  The  same  scene  was  exhibited  in  Frmn 
and  Belgium  on  a  smaller  scale.  At  length  ccrtiiin  «ta- 
tistical  calculations  were  made  and  publiHhod,  by  whirh 
it  became  apparent  that  more  capital  would  lie  reimind 
to  complete  all  these  railways  within  the  time  prniuisoil 
than  could  possibly  I*  raised  for  the  purpose ;  niui  ih^i 
the  amount  of  travelling  required  to  enable  tlic  ronv 
panics  to  pay  their  current  ex|>enses  and  the  intiTpit  nii 
the  capitel  invested,  was  much  greater  than  cduM  evrr 
Itccome  I  ecessary  ; — in  short,  that  the  greater  iiiimbn 
of  the  projected  railways  would  ultimately  turn  om  ■ 
dead  loss.  The  consequence  wos,  as  usual  in  iiuch 
cases,  a  general  explosion  of  these  scheiripx,  nnd  ibe 
ruin  of  the  large  holders  of  stock.  Nnvorthclesii,  1  rmi 
siderable  number  of  railways,  which  had  tirpii  jn/a- 
ciously  planned  and  Were  sustained  by  heavy  ciiiijialistj, 
are  either  completed  or  in  a  course  of  completion. 

In  the  United  States,  many  extended  and  iiwful  rail. 
ways  have  lieen  comjdeted  within  a  few  years,  Thj 
most  important  and  profl'able  of  these  is  tlie  (ir,'ii 
Western  Railroad  from  lloston  to  Albany,  which  li 
opening  a  direct  commuiication  l)elween  New  Eng- 
land and  tho  Western  States,  has  wonderfully  benffiiei) 
the  manufactures  and  trade  of  New  Englanil,  mid  < 
pecially  of  its  capital,  Boston.  A  similar  uii<lcruliin)| 
with  reference  to  Philadelphia  h  now  proposed,  iIk 
Central  Railroad  from  Philadelphia  to  Pittshure;  uii 
its  completion  is  expected  to  prove  of  immense  impoi 
ance  to  the  industry  and  trade  of  Philadelphia. 

In  every  part  of  the  United  States  the  railway  pynta 
is  making  steady  and  rapid  progress,  thereby  inrreatini 
the  facilities  for  internal  commorfe  and  natiunal 
katm^-Jlm.  Ed.] 


.^ATiraAi 

K.U  4  referei 

which   treat 

iiiutuiil  conn 

lhi<  enliirgtH] 

istriinoiny,  n 

rlirinistry,  op 

koDwIrit^'o,  u 

diiidej   into 

limited  and  c 

inurijanie  auhi 

riiiiiiuetidii   wi 

cliuriieler;  nn< 

itdfe,  which  ii 

ss  now  pro|)(i( 

o»plieit  (lefinili 

Of  twiilir,  it   In 

iluoJ. 


MA' 

Matter — or  I 
uliosfl  existence 
H'nics  or  by  th< 
•  ised  of  variou 
I"  iU  oxistetirc, 
li'iffiit.  The  VI 
uMily,  Exteii, 
Altrsetion. 

Iiitiniictnihihti, 

»'iii'li  each  (xjtu 

eludes  other  bodi« 

mme  inataiit.     In 

»uch  OS  a  stone, 

iiiir  efforu  to  picJ 

lophicslly  (allhou, 

ilwgicatcr  iiunilH 

ifaWo,  because 

liuding  other  sul 

'vcupy.     'I'hjg,  i„ 

tilings  cannot  lie 

♦  Ifevident  truth,  \ 

ft  matter  or  a  lari; 

^I'^ry  b(Hly,  or 
a  certain  exu-nsioi 
'""D  a  ronception  ^ 
article,  without  co 
"•fftain  bulk,  oiid 
winiiiun  phruseolii 
iwhe  word  «i>?  or 
'J"!!*  next   profH^ 
fim  of  liodies. 
"""•  'jr  we  cannot 
Nth  and   breadth 
S?ure,  however  irre, 
'fliuon  to  lis  lijiuro. 
IV  possess   very 
tee  the  same  volun 
not,  two  masses  01 
"IWioUKh  the  one  lie 
Matter  i,^  divisible 
kpnuWivi,!,.,!  it„of,, 
"'''V  or  wpurabiiity 
:jll<T  lliiTe  seems  t 
II  lii»  iiWanees  of  it 
'  ""tsiiLMlionk  nil 
Pwl  of  a  Huup-bi 
I  matter  of  got 

W.OOOpartofan 
ui.v  flrjltinc-  cxajup 
tui..  l,_|o 


i>f  the  triUM 
irM  of  twiDI 
ancc  by  mit 
el'ul  and  m» 


.VAY9. 

rodiiitt  attirWi, 

If;  liy  r«il\«ayt 

lit  liriuin  w\ 
Friviii'i".  I,il(t 
rouiitrim  ]km- 

(BtOIIl  of   I1C«». 

1  of  ttip  tnulinij 
cd  to  iin  f  jten- 
nue  miinlicr  nf 
e  aurvrycd  and 
le  United  Kln(- 
umtirtttili"  i\<\i\v 
ilinn  coinmumt) 
ruUtion  in  ml- 
liliitcd  in  Franft 
•nRtli  rortuin  »ta- 
)li«lHHl,  liy  wliich 
vomW  1'<"  rcnuirfd 
he  time  iiropimfil 
lurpiwe ;  i>'id  ihil 

cnnlile  tl'e  conv 
nd  the  intPTMl  ™ 
t  than  CDuld  evfi 
10  urenter  niimbn 
matcly  turn  o«(  i 
aa  UHunl  in  auch 

goheiiieH,  nnd  ihe  | 
[dVcrthelPM,  a  con 
ph  Uad  lieen  jmli- 


NATURAL  PTTILOSOPHY. 


NiTiiNiL  PiiiMisopni  U  a  tomi  of  wide  ini|i(irt,  and 
ri.1*  a  roferaneo  to  all  tl\o«>  hnineliva  of  plijBiial  wienro 
wliirh  treat  of  rxJHtiiiK  HiiliHtiiiiren,  their  MiutiiinH,  tlieir 
niuluiil  eoniieclion,  and  tlicir  inllueiieu  on  eaoli  other.  In 
llii<  enhirucd  M'nite  it  may  Iw  oohHiderrd  an  emhraeiiiK 
gulroiioiny,  niatlieiniitim,  dynamics,  liydroHtnticH,  t<eolu|{y, 
rhrniiiilry,  optira,  Imtuny,  in  abort,  a  viiitt  run){f  of  human 
kni'wIedKi',  whii'h  for  the  buIhi  of  convniiciice  i«  UMunlly 
'liviJed  into  diiitinet  brunehoa  uf  leifnec.  In  iU  more 
limited  and  ordinary  meunini^,  tii«  torn)  applira  only  to 
inoriianie  unlmtaneeH,  and  thu  luwa  which  re^nlatn  their 
(imnoction  with  oarh  other,  but  witlnuit  alteration  of 
clmnu'ter;  nnd  it  Ih  Ihia  niont  important  braneh  of  know- 
li'dfte,  which  in  reulity  ia  the  liaaiH  of  all  others,  of  which 
as  now  pro|)<)fi«  trciitiiik?.  Wc  ahall  conunencu  with  an 
csplicit  dorinilion  of  thu  mcinini;  of  thu  term  mitlni.rrt 
or  ni'i'd''.  it  being  nvcvHwiry  that  thia  bo  cluatly  under- 
tUiod. 

MATTRR   AMD   ITS   PROnRTira. 

Matter— or  that  of  which  all  Ixxlies  are  compoaed 
*\\<m  cxisteneu  ia  made  known  to  ua  by  means  of  the 
ic'iiwa  or  by  the  lest  of  philosophic  exp<!riment — is  pos- 
«'iMxl  of  v,iriouH  properties,  some  of  whioh  are  cat'cntial 
lii  iti  oxinli'iice,  whil(!  others  arc  only  arridentid  or  con- 
iiiijfcnt.  The  esnential  properties  of  matter  are  Imiwnc- 
iiil'ilily.  Extension,  Figure,  Divisibility,  Inertia,  and 
.Utraotion. 

Imptiictraliilily  is  that  quality  of  bodies,  in  virtue  of 
which  each  <x;<u|iie8  u  certain  portion  of  space,  and  ex- 
cludes other  bodies  from  exiiilirig  in  the  name  pbice  at  the 
Mime  instant.  In  the  usual  sense,  wo  cull  any  hard  body, 
aucK  OS  a  stone,  impenetrable,  because  it  firmly  resist* 
our  elfurts  to  pierce  it.  But  ok  it  is  understood  philo- 
uphicilly  (although  we  can  condmae,  pierce,  and  remove 
ibegicatcr  number  of  them),  all  bodieaare  alike  inipenc- 
UaMe,  because  they  equally  poaaeao  the  property  of  ex- 
liuding  other  substances  from  the  spaces  which  they 
i>'cupy.  This,  in  fact,  is  saying  no  more  than  that  two 
ilunijs  cannot  l)e  in  the  same  place  at  once,  which  is  a 
t'lf-tvident  truth,  whether  we  apply  it  to  a  single  particle 
[if  natter  or  a  lurt;e  mass. 

Every  btuly,  or  portion  or  particle  of  matter,  potwcaaea 

I  ii  certain  ext<>nsion  or  magnitude.     It  ia  impossible  to 

liKio  a  conception  of  matter,  however  minute  may  be  the 

article,  without  connecting  with  it  the  idea  of  its  having 

rertain  bulk,  and  tilling  a  certain  extent  of  space.  In 
I  tumiiiun  phraseology,  we  express  this  property  of  bodies 
1  b)  Ihe  word  tize  or  v.ilume. 

The  next  properly  demanding  our  attention  is  the 
I  fiuu  of  bodies.  Figure  or  form  ia  the  result  of  exten- 
I  ion,  fjr  we  cuimot  have  the  idea  of  a  body  possessing 
|l(iii{th  and  breadth,  without  ita  having  some  kind  of 
jijure,  bowever  irregular.  The  volume  of  a  bo<ly  h«s  no 
ItridUun  to  its  figure.  Bodies  which  have  the  same  figure 
liiay  possens  very  dillerciit  volumes;  and  bodies  may 
jtue  the  same  volume,  but  ptmse.-is  very  dilferont  tigurrs. 
iThiw,  two  masses  of  matter  may  have  the  iionie  volume, 
|ililiou<h  the  one  lie  round  and  the  other  be  square. 

Mutter  l^  divisible  into  paiU,  and  these  parts  may  again 
kbo  suMivulcd  into  Cither  parts.  Uy  this  is  meant  i/iri.*!- 
lii/i  y  or  K'parability.  To  Ihe  practical  sulHlivision  of 
liiulter  llieri'  seems  to  be  no  assignable  limit;  and  many 
111  lli«  iiiitlaiices  of  it  wliich  may  Ik^  found  in  pliilo.iophi- 
invci<Ui.Mlioiik  nliniMt  exceed  creilibility.  'I'lie  thin- 
I  part  uf  a  soup-bubble,  which  M  a  thin  shell  of  wuter 

C'l  the  matter  of  soap,  does  not  exceed  in  thickness  the 
M.UOO  part  of  an  inch.  The  useful  arts,  also,  furnish 
Jiy  ttrikini;  examples;  but  it  is  ill  the  organized  world 
Ui.  l.-ltt 


that  the  most  astonishing  proofs  of  the  extrenHt  di«M 
bility  of  gliibules,  or  iwrticles  of  matter,  are  to  hn  found. 
Animalcules — thai- is,  animals  which  are  so  small  as  t* 
be  invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  and  whieli,  by  meolu  of 
niicrosco|M's,  are  si-eii  Moating  in  water — ar  >  in  some 
cases  so  niiiiule.  that  it  would  re(|uire  a  (Million  of  them 
to  form  the  bulk  of  a  grain  of  sand.  .\»  tliese  animal- 
cules ponsess,  in  every  case,  a  |icrfcet  organi/Alion  to 
enable  them  to  perform  all  the  functions  of  life,  tha 
smallnesa  of  their  ditferent  parts,  and  the  extreme  minute 
ness  of  Ihe  particles  of  m  itter  which  compose  them,  are 
too  exquisite  to  lie  made  the  subject  of  calculation  :  tha 
imagination  is  lost  in  the  contemplation  of  their  wonder- 
ful economy.  The  etlluvium  or  odour  which  excites  the 
sensation  of  nmtll,  consists  of  an  inculciilable  iiiimbt.  of 
particles  of  matter  floating  in  the  atMiosplierc,  and  so  mi- 
nute as  to  lie  altogether  invisible  to  the  eye.  These 
porlicl'.'s  are  not  more  remarkable  for  their  inconceivably 
small  size  than  fur  the  lirngth  of  time  which  they  will  re- 
main in  suH|K>iHii)ii  in  the  atmosphere,  or  in  connection 
with  Home  pniticiilur  place.  The  elHuvium  given  forth 
by  a  simple  grain  of  musk  has  been  known  to  perfume  a 
large  apartment  for  twenty  years,  and  jet  »t  thecxpicy  of 
that  )ieri(Ml  there  was  no  sensible  diminution  uf  the  little 
mass  of  matter  from  which  the  smell  lind  proceeded. 

The  ditrusion  of  particles  of  matter  invisible  to  the 
naked  eye,  is  also  obvious  in  the  case  of  the  melting  of 
a  piece  of  sugar  in  our  tea  ;  Ihe  solid  mass  of  the  sugar 
disappears,  and  the  particles  of  which  it  was  composed 
are  difluscd  in  the  liquid.  There  is  a  similar  diffusion  of 
particles  of  salt  in  the  ocean.  When  we  look  througil  a 
glass  full  of  sea  water,  we  perceive  that  it  is  pure  and 
limpid ;  but  if  wo  |)our  the  water  into  a  vessel  on  the 
fire,  and  bull  it,  we  shall  at  length  discover  that,  wliile 
the  liquid  has  escaped  in  the  form  of  vapour,  the  pai^ 
tides  of  salt  it  held  in  solution  remain  incruated  on  the 
vessel. 

Particles  of  matter  are  never  destroyed  or  lost,  although 
they  may  disappear  from  our  immediate  ol)8ervation 
Under  certain  circumstances,  the  particles  may  again  be 
rollcctcd  into  a  body  without  change  of  form.  Mercury, 
water,  and  many  other  substajices,  may  be  converted 
into  vapour,  or  distilled  in  close  vessels,  without  any  of 
their  particles  lieing  lost.  In  such  cases,  there  is  no  de- 
composition of  the  substances,  but  only  a  change  of  form 
by  the  heat;  and  hence  the  mercury  and  water  assume 
their  original  stale  again  on  cooling.  When  bodies  suf- 
fer decomposition  or  decay,  their  elementary  particles,  ia 
like  manner,  are  neither  destroyed  nor  lost,  but  only  enter 
into  new  arrangements  or  combinations  with  other  bodies. 
When  a  piece  of  wood  is  heated  in  a  close  vessel,  such 
as  a  retort,  we  obtain  water,  an  acid,  several  kinds  of  gas, 
and  there  remains  a  black,  porous  substance,  called  char- 
coal. The  womi  is  thus  decomposed,  or  destroyed,  awl 
its  particles  take  a  new  arrangement,  and  assume  new 
forms;  but  that  nothing  is  lost  is  proved  by  the  fact,  that 
if  the  water,  acid,  gases,  and  charcoal,  be  collected  and 
weighed,  they  will  be  found  exactly  as  heavy  as  the  wood 
was,  liefore  distillation.  In  the  same  manner,  the  sub- 
stanrc  of  the  coal  burnt  in  our  fires  is  not  nnnihilnted ;  it 
is  only  dispersed  in  the  form  of  smoke,  or  particles  of 
culm,  gus,  and  a»he8  or  dust.  Bones,  flesh,  or  any  ani- 
niul  substance,  may  in  the  same  manner  (t  muile  to  ns 
Kume  new  forms,  without  losing  a  particle  of  the  mattci 
which  they  originally  contained,  'i'he  decay  of  animal  or 
vcjtelabit!  Inxlies  in  tlie  open  nir,  or  in  the  grouiiil,  is  oiilv 
u  process  by  ttliich  the  particles  of  which  they  were  coin- 
po«"d  ehungc  their  places  nnd  assume  new  forms. 

The  decay  luid  decompo-'iiion  of  animals  and  »cgcl«- 
l«  145 


141 


INFOKMA'nON    FOR  THK   Pf'OPI.K. 


Vk^  hi>nei»lh  lh«  oirfiirr  of  the  nirlh,  fiTtili»j<  Iho  ioil, 
whirh  riDiiriahii  Ihn  amwth  of  |>l»iil«  iiid  cilhcr  vi'ijrla. 
hlc«;  anil  thcitr,  in  itu'ir  liini,  form  ttia  nutrinifnt  of 
■niiniil».  Thnii  ir<  thrrp  n  |N-r|irtuiil  rlmiii(it  from  ili'nth 
to  life,  anil  from  lifn  l<>  <li-ath,  miil  »»  conatiint  a  niiri-rMinn 
in  tho  form*  nnil  iihroa  which  thr  imrtiric*  of  iniitlrr 
•Muma  Nothing  ia  loat,  anil  not  a  partii-ln  of  iiinltcr  i» 
•trurk  jnl  1)1"  rxintrnrti,  Tlu'  »iiini>  mntlor  iif  whirh  pvcry 
lirinK  animal  ami  rvrry  vpKi>(ahl«  waa  fiirriinl  In  llm 
rarlii-at  aipta,  la  alii!  in  riiaUMirr.  Aa  nothinif  ia  ItMt  iT 
iinnihiliteil,  ao  it  ia  proliuMv  lliiit  nolhinif  hua  Ix-i'ii  mlili-il, 
and  ll.i.t  WB  iiiirwIviMi  an*  i-iimpuwil  of  |Hirlirlra  of  iimtliT 
iia  olil  an  the  i-rratinn.  In  liiiii',  wi-  imiat  in  iiiir  turn 
aulTiT  iln'»tii|MMiticin,  aa  all  forma  have  iloiiii  ht'forn  iia, 
anil  thiu  n-xiitn  iIik  tnattcr  of  which  we  arv  i;oni|HM«J,  to 
form  new  exiati'mra. 

Incr:ui  mrana  p«a«ivciic««  or  inactivity.  Thiia,  nwttrr 
la  pert'cctly  pu'wivr  in  aubniittinK  to  any  condition  in 
which  it  ia  pliicnl,  whether  of  rent  or  motion.  When  at 
rcat,  it  ahowa  an  inaliility  or  reliictnncy  to  move;  ami 
when  in  motion,  it  ahowa  an  ei|iiiil  innliility  or  rehictuncy 
to  comn  to  u  atate  of  re«t.  It  ia  olivioua  that  a  ruck  on 
the  aurfiice  of  the  earth  never  cliiuiKea  ita  ponilion  in  re- 
aprct  to  other  thint^t  on  the  earth.  It  hna  of  ilaelf  no  power 
to  laove,  and  wnnid  thereK>re  for  ever  lie  atill,  unlvaa 
roored  by  aomi-  external  force.  Xow  it  i»  jiiat  aa  true 
that  inert  matter  haa  no  |M)wer  to  lirin^  itaelf  to  reat  wiien 
ance  put  in  motion,  aa  that  it  ninnut  put  itaelf  in  motion 
when  at  reat;  for  hnvini^  no  life,  it  ia  |N-rfivtly  piiKaivo 
both  to  motion  iind  rrat,  iind  therefore  either  atate  depenJa 
entirely  ujHin  exter.iiil  circum  liincen. 

Many  inatuncea  minht  1m>  ^iven  of  the  temlcney  which 
matter  haa  to  rcinuin  in  the  conililion  in  which  it  hap|H>iia 
to  have  Ih-cii  alrendy  pliicivl.  The  following;  are  umoii^ 
tho  niiMt  inatructive : — When  the  auila  of  a  uhip  are 
Lxnened  to  the  I>ree74*,  alowly  ami  heavily  at  firat  the 
«<«ael  Ri'l/i  into  motion,  hnt  Kraduidly  its  api-eil  increaaea, 
wt  the  force  by  which  it  is  irn|HHc>l  oven  .iiti|.|t  the  inertia 
o(  ita  maiH  A  ftreiit  force  ia  ncceaaiiry  ii  tirat  to  act  a 
vehicle  in  motion ;  but  vhen  once  thia  ia  f/rected,  it  Koea 
onward  with  cotnpanilive  euae,  ao  that,  in  fuct,  •  atruii); 
odbrt  ia  neceaaiiry  iH'fore  it  can  be  atop|H-d.  If  a  |M'r»on 
'be  *tanJini(  in  it  when  it  \*  auildenly  aet  a  Ifoing,  hia  feet 
am  pulled  forward,  whiliit  hia  body,  oU-yiiik;  tlio  law  of 
inertia,  remuina  when-  it  wan,  and  ho  accordingly  fulla 
backwarda.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  vehicle  bo  aud- 
lienly  atopped,  and  the  indiviiluul  tw  atandin^  in  the  game 
poaition  ua  formerly,  the  tendency  which  hia  liuily  haa  to 
move  forward — fur  it  ac(|uired  the  a«me  motion  aa  the 
earrioKe  by  which  it  waa  borne  along — will  cauae  him  to 
iail  in  the  op[>Mito  direct! m. 

The  followini;  ia  a  familiar  example  of  the  inertia  of 
matter: — Upon  the  tip  of  the  finder  let  a  card  lie  balanced,  I 
•nd  ■  piece  of  money — nay  a  ahilling — laid  upon  it.  Let  i 
the  eani  then  Iw  amartly  -itruck,  find  it  will  fly  from  lie- 
nealh  the  coin,  leavinif  it  aupportcd  U(>im  the  fin^or.  I 
Thia  arima  from  the  inerti.i  of  the  metal  b-  iur  u;re«ler 
than  the  friction  of  the  curd  wliiih  paswa  from  l~  iieulh  ii. 
Counting,  or  liare-huntine,  aJVord«  a  alrikini;  ilbi»>lratiiMi 
of  inertia.  In  that  ft:-ld  apurt,  the  hnre  neetHK  to  jumut-** 
•n  inrtinctive  conaciouaneaH  of  the  exixlenre  of  thia  Uw 
of  matter.  When  pursued  by  the  greyhound,  it  Joea 
not  run  in  a  atrai^tit  line  to  the  cover,  but  in  a  i.xgan 
one.  It  dintlilix,  that  'a,  luddenly  chiiiinea  the  din-ction 
of  ita  cuurae,  and  turn<  buck  at  an  a -uti^  nn',;le  willi  the 
Jiroction  in  which  it  had  lieen  ruiniiii,^'.  Thr  creyhuund. 
leing  unpre|iaccj  to  imiko  the  turn,  and  thcnf.irc  uimblc 
o  mmt  the  tendency  to  peraeven;  in  the  rapid  motioii 
fhich  it  haa  acquired,  ia  nnpelled  a  conaideruble  dL.itinii'u 
forward  before  it  can  check  it»i  »|>eed  and  leturn  to  the 
purauil.  Bu^  in  the  mean  time.  liie  hare  ha*  liern  ena- 
'jlcd  to  ahoot  far  ahead  in  the  oil.cr  direction;  and 
ilthouKh  a  hare  b  much  leaa  flre't  thiiu  a  irreyhouiid,  by 
.Itii  artentifi'j  manouTrinf;  il  ulWn  ew-aiHt  ita  purtucr.  \ 


'  Thoai'  who  have  wilnraio'd  h.irp'e.rai'iiiK,  niav  hn«/  4, 
I  avrved  that  the  horara  ahoot  lur  paat  thii  Wltlnll|^.  „, 
I  tieforn  their  ap^eil  can  In<  arrrated,  Thia  ia  alao  nwinii  to 
I  the  Inertia  of  their  iHNllea. 

I  We  have  now  arrived  at  a  mon!  importaiit  proiierty 
I  altrdilion,  which  it  la  ileairable  abouid  laMurehilly  atuiliixl 
It  ia  a  fundumental  law  of  naliiri',  »Hrerlaliied  by  Hti 
'  laanc  Newton,  that  every  atom  or  particle  of  nialti^r  haai 
temlency  to  approach  or  to  lie  atlrncted  tuwunla  anothoi 
at'iin  or  particle.  Thia  forma  one  of  the  leudiiiK  |>rinri. 
plea  in  iniMlern  naluial  philomiphy.  KxiNrlencn  anj 
olnM-rvation  demonnlratn  that  thia  |H)wer  of  imitiial  atlnr. 
tioii  |N<rviidea  all  material  thiiiga,  and,  thiiiiuh  unaeen 
except  in  ita  reaulta,  i»  ever  preaent  with  ua — ia  tl.e  riu„ 
of  particlea  of  nmtler  ailhering  to  each  other,  and  foriniiiii 
aolid  miiiwea— of  thi'Mi  niaa«e.i  aaaumiiitf  in  many  m, 
aluncea  a  round  or  RWbulur  form— of  the  fulling  of  Imllet 
to,  and  their  atnbility  on,  the  earth — and  ia  one  of  iIk 
ciiuaea  of  tho  whole  of  the  planetary  Ualiea  inoving  in 
their  patha  in  tho  heavena. 

Attraction  ia  of  dlflTerent  kinda,  althoui(h  aomo  of  tlinr 
may  lie  merely  mmlillcationa  of  olheia,  and  haa  receiKwi 
diirerent  nainea  aicorilitiK  to  the  ciicuiiiilunreH  unjrt 
which  it  acta.  The  force  which  kee|i«  the  piirticjra  of 
mutter  together,  to  form  iHvliea,  or  niai-ea,  ia  cullrd  dttrnr, 
tiiin  iif  riihttiuii.  Tlwit  which  incliliim  dllli'reiit  inuHfi 
towarda  eiich  other,  ia  called  >,"-„i'i/i//ii>ii,  or  ulinnliondf 
firdviiiilioii.  That  which  iaii««'«  lii)uidn  to  riw  in  iu|^ 
or  in  very  confined  aituuliona,  ia  called  '  'iinliiiy  utlrurtrnx 
That  which  forcca  the  particlea  of  dilli'rvnt  kinda  of  nul. 
ter  to  unite,  ia  called  ihtininil  nllruciKni.  That  which 
cauaea  the  muimetic  neeille  to  paint  cunatantly  towinji 
the  (loli'B  of  the  earth,  i»  innnnrtir  iillrmHuit.  And  tbu 
which  ia  excited  by  triction  in  certain  aubatuncci,  ii 
known  by  tho  name  of  c/iv/ckk/  aUnirtwn. 

Attraction  of  coheaion  acta  only  at  iiiM'iiNible  diatuncta, 
ua  when  tho  particlea  of  biNlica  apparently  touch  rtcli 
other.  Thia  kind  of  attraction  may  Im^  dcm-rilwd  aa  ttx 
quality  in  nature  which  caurea  mutter  to  cohere  nr  atick 
together.  It  ia  much  atroiigcr  in  aomu  iNxliea  than  Ig 
others.  It  ii  atronger  in  the  inctaU  th;ui  in  nioat  Dihrr 
aubatancos,  and  in  mine  of  the  mctulri  it  ia  utr^mv/r  than 
in  othera.  In  general,  it  ia  most  |M)werriil  among  the 
particlea  of  aolid  Iwnllca,  weaker  among  Ihotw  of  fluiJi, 
and  leaat  of  all,  or  almoHt  cntinly  Nvunliiig,  uinon^  el.ulw 
fluida,  auch  aa  air  and  tho  guaea.  'i'hus,  a  aiiiajl  img 
wire  will  hold  a  aua|i<'nileil  weight  of  many  pounda,  wlii). 
out  having  ita  particlea  aepurated  ;  the  particU's  uf  wilct 
are  divided  by  a  verk-  amall  force,  while  thoHc  ^f  air  an 
atill  more  raaily  moved  anioUK  each  other.  Theae  di/. 
ferent  pro|iertiei>  ile])eiid  on  the  force  of  cohesion  witli 
wliii"h  the  aevoral  particlea  uf  llieao  IhkUch  ure  united. 

When  tho  particlea  of  a  boily  can  Ix)  aiisi.cnded  it 
the  air  in  a  fluid  alnfe.  they  will,  if  not  under  tho  tU]» 
tive  influence  of  aonie  other  body,  iirrunge  tiicnmelvM, 
by  virtur  of  the  aarrm-  law,  around  a  ceiitn-,  ami  taliei 
aphericnl  or  round   form.     Thus,  a  amall  iiiianliiy  of 
dew  auapeiided  on  the  point  of  a  thorn  or  li  at,  beromn 
a   globule,   N'eanac   in   that   cbjio    the   ultraiti.in  of  thf 
particlea  towarda  their  own  centre  irt  greater  than  lh( 
ailniition  of  any  neighliuuring  body.     Tiirn  running 
down  the  cheoka,  dropa  of  rain,  and  Iiiil  ure  all  cj. 
am)>lcM  of  thia  tendency  in  inaiilateil  fluid  bihlica  toa* 
KU10C  the  globular  form.     When  two  |»ili'ci  glohuW  j 
of   mercury   are   brought    into   contiut.   tliey  iintiiitli 
unite  tovrether,  and  torni  one  nplii  riciil  diip.     The  na 
niifactufe  of  ahot  ia  also  a  atrikiiig  illualritMn.    Thi  j 
lea.1  ia  ;iiclti>d  and   [Hiured  into  a  sieve,  at  ttic  height  of  , 
about  two  huiiilred  feet  from  tho  ground,    lla.  h  strrai 
of  le:id,   immediately  afler  leaving  the  Kievi'.  aepinii 
into  little  globulcM,  which,  before  they  reach  tlie  nmuuJ,  I 
are  ciKiled   and  Ix'come   aoliil :   thus  h  foriiint  the  shot  I 
uaed  by  «ix>rtj(mcn.     To  account  for  the  clobulw  feral 
in  all  thcMo  cases,  wu  huvu  unly  to  cuii.^iliT  that  ilxl 


fur^i  If  of  r 

riimmon  eentr 

arrange    them 

ihln  law  of  ni 

|.lanetnry  luNlii 

a  (liiid   atate — 

ime  a  aphrrl 

ififir  pn-aent  ci 

'llie  force  by 

riiMt  llqiiida  ah 

iiiin,  front  'n/n/ 

in-iip,  or  othr 

r..|»n  the    liqiiji 

ihut  "f  the   otli( 

^l•  attraction.     I 

fii'h  other,  ao  a 

in  iilmnat  miitim 

dipped  into  n  vf 

|wiTnll;e  plntei 

V  iffcnler  the  nr 

mlfr  rinea  very 

llil«  iittraclinn   ia 

ifntnncea.     If  a 

IT  rn|)illiiry  Imre, 

in  the  interior  of 

the  higher  does  || 

A  great  variety 

llii<  kind  of  nttrar 

of  "mar  be  placi 

I  c  water,  the  fluii 

Ii  the  aniiie  inanr 

I'll-  nil  to  aiipply  t 

"hfi  nhove  the  |i 

h[))ieiui  to  lie  left 

"Kin  of  ita  conteni 

Iry  wedge  of  w 

•k.  and  uflerwan 

-im  hlU  upon  it, 

«meliinea  aplit  IhJ 

It  ia  thiH  kind  n 

("•f  of  the  cniHe^ 

niilcr  crecpa  up  by 

•"■Isof   and,  mnall 

i :  (hit  manner  renc 

Tho  lower  parts  of  1 

of  r-ottiigea,  nro   in 

li.imp.  by  the  aftrnc 

'-\e  pound.     Henci 

i»il Pirthy  mntler  fi 

BMiiles  thp<e  vn 

lilmdy  aaid,  chemi 

Il  'n,  hut  aa  these  ar 

hi-aiN  ("heniiMtry  an 

')f  tn-alisei,  they  do 

ni!  we  proceed  to  c. 

wmj  to  unite  all  or 

llfr.    Reference  ia  hi 

ilii'im. 

•W  the  Attraction 
Imilter  into  mnaai>a  oi 
[tiiion  tenda  to  force 
If™  othera  of  atill  pr 
|lrj'tion  incrcaaes  in 
othiT,  anil  by  the  antr 
■in  IK  thry  recede  fr. 
ni-a!  Ittiigiiairi.,  i„  i„ 
|iTP«!)etwee,i  the  ti- 
■  'luareof  the  di. 
■'■'m  attraction  ,1^,- 
T  the  ili«tani'e  of 
■"'«.  at  the  diatanc 
''le  'qiiare  of  8 
t'!ih  Is  4  times  the 
allractior.  at  the 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 


147 


••>  owlnn  lA 

It  property, 
ully  atudird 
iiipil  by  Bh 
iimttor  hu  • 
iriU  (m>(h*i 
xltntt  prinri- 
xrirnrn   tnil 
uiliml  attrir- 
mull   unw«ti 
-i«  ll.n  rtUM 
,  mill  fonninii 
in  initny  \t>. 
liiiK  nf  Imliei 
w  onr  of  ih( 
!»  moving  in 

■omo  of  thnr 
hail  rfco|v(y^ 
■(luiiri'H  uuikt 
[Id  |iiirticlei  of 
H  fiilli'il  (il/riift 

iVlTlMlt    IDdMrt 

ir  ulinidiun  1)1 
to  rim-  in  tuliM, 
llnry  iillriirti(ir\. 
I  kiiulii  nf  mil. 
I,  'I'liiit  wbici) 
■Untlv  towtnJi 
luii.  Ami  thu 
1   aulitlitnrci,  ii 


Mftiiit*  of  maltrr  am  rniitiinlly  nltrnrlnl  tnwiiriU  • 
rnmmnn  rpntm.  iinil  in  lii]iiiili<,  Iwiim  frrn  to  movp,  tlii-y 
grTiiiiK''  llifni"*'!'"'"'  «cciiriliii({ly.  Jn  ronnrinirncB  of 
ihio  liiw  of  nntiirr,  it  in  ronaiiliTi-il  pniliiihlo  tlint  thn 
i.lMirliK'y  iKxIii'K,  inrliiilinir  nnr  rnrth,  with  iiriKtnnlly  in 
g  Aulil  •(■'*' — ^hi*t,  in  that  itntn,  they  uiiiiviitilnlily  ■« 
.,inip  *  uphrrieiil  form,  iiml  w«>ro  then  hnnlrnnl  into 
thfir  pn'wnt  cinmintcnry. 

'Hu-  forrp  hy  whii'h  mimll  tiih<<«,  or  pnrnii*  miliiilKnro*, 
jiisd  lii|iii<U  iihovr  thvlr  Irvi'la,  in  rnllnl  nipilliiry  altrar- 
iKin,  fr"ni  'n/ii/Ai,  iho  [.ntin  woril  for  n  hiiir.  In  n  wet 
,.,i-(Mip,  or  nllirr  vr«iM>l  contnininit  li<pilil,  yon  miiy  per- 
,,.i»o  iKp  li'l"'''  "'  ''"'  "i'l''»  riitinn  iiIhivp  the  Irvrl  of 
ihut  if  ihfl  othiir  pfirl«  of  th«  mirfnrr ;  thin  ii  raUHril 
hv  ntlrnclion.  If  two  Kinm  plulm  Im  hronjjht  very  nmr 
fii-h  olhrr,  no  an  to  nt^iMit  piirnllrl  with  thrir  flat  diiloii 
in  iilmn«t  niiitniil  rontiirt,  nnil  Ihrn  thrir  lowrr  i-nil  hi' 
ijjppcci  into  B  v<>miol  of  wiitrr,  the  fluid  will  ri»«i  up  lx>- 
iwirn  ll'i'  plntm.  and  thn  height  to  whirh  it  rinon  will 
V  uronifr  the  nonror  the  platon  nrr  to  i-arh  othrr.  Tho 
w:itfr  rim"*  vrry  little  on  th«  nutiiiilpii  of  tho  platri,  for 
iliji  nttniction  i»  inni'niiihli'  nt  rvon  moderately  unmll 
ilHliinfPK.  If  ft  rUm  tnlip,  with  an  oxrcoilinnly  auinll 
ff  npilliiry  l>orc,  lir  dipprd  in  wntor,  the  fluid  will  Hho 
in  thn  inti'rior  of  tho  tulio  ;  and  tho  mnallrr  tho  bore, 
Ihr  hi;?hpr  doo»  thn  wntc    nwrnd. 

A  ifrcnt  vnrii'ty  of  porous  MiilmtiincrH  aro  rnpiihip  nf 

llii«  kind  of  attriiction.     If  a  |)it'ro  of  nponno  or  ii  lump 

of  fiuu.ir  '"<"  plni'i'd,  no  thnt  iti  lowoiit  rorricr  tonrhoa 

I i'l-  water,  the  (liiid  will  riHo  up  and  wet  the  whole  mnM. 

Ii  the  Kiuni"  milliner,  the  wick  of  a  lump  will  earry  "p 

I'll-  nil  to  mipply  the  flame,  though  the  fl;ime  in  Hevernl 

■  'hoi  above  the  level  of  the  oil.     If  the  end  of  a  towel 

hip^ieiw  to  bo  left  in  n  baxin  of  water,  it  will  empty  the 

M<in  of  it«  eontenfa;  and,  on  the  name  prinriple,  when 

,|ry  wedife  of  wood  in  driven  info  the  erevire  of  a 

.'li.  and  aflerwariN  tiiointened  with  water,  aa  when  the 

•jin  failK  "pon  if,  it  will  abwirb  the  water,  awell,  and 

«  Mtiinen  H|)lit  the  roek. 

Il  in  fhii)  kind  of  aftnietion  whirh  la  auppoited  to  lie 
I  n'l"  of  th'"  eaiiHo^  of  Hprinija  of  water  in  the  earth.  The 
unlrr  creepH  np  by  eiipillnry  aftraetion  throuuh  porous 
[  VUof  .  iind,  Minall  Htones.  and  crevirea  of  roek b,  and 
i  lhi<  miinner  reaeheH  the  surfiiee  even  at  preat  heiphta. 
Tho  lower  parts  of  tho  walls,  and  also  tho  earthen  floora 
I  of  coltiiijes,  arc  in  tho  aame  manner  apt  to  lieroie^' 
lijinji.  by  the  aftraetion  of  tho  moisture  upwards  ' 
!>  IToiuid.  Henee  tho  neeeaaity  for  elearinir  aw^  all 
I  Hit  earthy  matter  from  the  foundations  of  Ium      - 

BmIiIps  thosp  varieties  of  attrn''tion,  thrrv  u-  iw 
lilrftily  said,  rhemieal,  maptnefie,  and  elevtnc  al.trar- 
llpn.  but  as  these  iire  respectively  allude<1  ■  umVer  tho 
|hf«il«  ("homislry  and  Electrieity  in  the  p:vH<'nt  aeries 
Jof  frfalises,  they  do  not  require  partis- -.lar  notice  here. 
linil  we  prooeed  to  consider  the  kind  of  attraction  which 
|(foms  to  unite  all  ordinary  masses  and  particles  of  mat- 
\\n.  Reference  ia  here  miule  to  tho  ntlntction  of  gratri- 
Ita'm. 

An  the  attraction  of  cohesion  \init«i  tho  particlea  of 
Inuttcr  info  masses  or  bodies,  so  the  attraction  of  gravi- 
Ittlion  tends  to  force  thoae  masses  towards  each  other  to 
Ifirm  others  of  still  j^eafer  dimensions.  The  force  of  nt- 
Itrrtion  increases  in  proportion  iis  liodies  approach  each 
cihrr,  and  by  tho  same  law  it  must  diminish  in  propor- 
tiin  \*  they  recede  from  each  other,  .\tfracfion.  in  tech- 
li!''al  lanjinu'e,  is  inverselv  as  tbe  sipiares  of  the  dia- 
l;vf<!)ctwee,i  the  two  bodies  ;  ihat  is,  in  proportion  as 
"quare  of  the  diMfaiiee  increases,  in  tho  s-iine  pro- 
i  riion  attraction  decreases,  and  so  the  contrary.  Thus, 
iMhc  ili«fani-e  of  2  feet,  tho  attraction  he  equal  to  4 
•III*,  at  the  distance  of -t  feet  it  will  lie  only  I  pound  ; 
ilie  square  of  2  ia  4,  and  the  square  of  4  ia  IB, 
||i'!rh  19  4  times  the  s<piare  of  2.  On  the  contrary,  if 
'  atttacfioi.  at  the  distance  of  6  fee   be  3  [Munds,  at 


I  the  distance  of  S  fitrt  il  will  Iw  S  time*  an  much,  or  It* 
I  pounds.  Iiecaiise  DA,  the  atpiare  »f  H,  ia  equal  to  U  timei 
I  4,  the  a<|uare  of  2.  The  intenkity  of  lit^ht  i<  found  to 
increase  and  dlmiii  hh  in  the  Mine  proportiot.  'I'hus. 
if  a  board  a  fmit  si|iinro  Ih>  plaeeu  at  the  distance  of  mm 
foot  fiiim  a  candle,  it  will  Is'  found  to  hide  the  linhl 
from  another  board  of  two  feet  square,  at  the  distance 
of  two  feet  from  the  candle.  Now,  a  Isianl  of  two  feel 
squ.ire  is  just  four  limes  as  larue  as  ime  of  one  fool 
si|nare,  ami  therefore  the  lipht  at  double  the  distance 
beinn  spread  over  four  times  the  surface,  hiia  only  oni> 
fourth  the  inlensity. 

The  xrudiial  diminution  of  attraction  aa  the  diatanre 
increases,  la  exemplifled  in  the  following  table.  In  the 
up|H'r  line,  the  distance  U  expressed  by  proKressive 
niimliers  ;  in  the  lower  correapondinir  aquarea  the  dimi* 
niition  of  attraction  ii  indicatied  by  the  common  arith> 
niMical  fractions. 


Dittanca 

I 

3 

a 

4 

s 

0 

7 

8 

and 
•ooa 

AUraction 

1 

* 

i 

iV 

,V 

iV 

and 
soon 

It  ia  here  leen,  that  at  tho  diitance  of  8,  tho  attrartire 
force  ia  diminished  to  a  04th  part  of  what  it  wsa  at  1. 

The  attractive  force  of  matter  ia  also  in  proportion  t« 
the  nuin()ora  of  tho  atoini  of  matter  which  a  body  con- 
tains :  tho  attraction,  therrforo,  does  not  proceed  from 
the  more  surface  of  a  body,  but  from  all  tho  particlea 
which  individually  compose  it.  Home  bodies  of  the 
same  bulk  contain  a  much  greater  quantity  of  matter 
than  othera  :  thus,  a  [lieco  of  lead  contains  about  twelve 
times  as  much  matter  as  a  piece  of  cork  of  thu  same 
dimensiona;  and  therefore  a  piece  of  lead  of  any  K'ven 
size,  and  a  piece  of  cork  twelve  times  aa  large,  will  aU 
tract  each  other  eipially.  Tho  attractivo  power  of  any 
iiiiHs  nc  ta  from  the  centre.  At  all  equal  distances  from 
the  centre,  the  attractive  power  ia  equal ;  for  instance, 
in  a  body  perfectly  spherical,  the  attraction  to  the  cen- 
tre would  be  file  same  at  all  parts  of  the  surface.  The 
distance  of  tho  centre  of  a  sphere  from  its  surface  i» 
called  tho  'tnii-'liamelfr  of  that  sphere — that  is,  the  half 
of  its  thickness.  At  a  imint  as  far  from  tho  surface  if 
a  sphere  as  its  semi-tliameter,  its  attractivo  power  •.  di- 
imiHiM'ied  to  a  fourth.  At  three  distances,  the  atlr-.iction 
is  a  ninth  ;  at  four  distances,  a  aixteenth  j  and  so  on. 
When  wn  wiah,  therefore,  to  ascertain  the  relative 
amount  of  the  attraction  which  any  mass  of  matter  ex- 
ercises over  another,  the  nilo  is,  to  inquire  how  many 
semi-<!inmefers  of  the  one  the  other  is  distant  from  it, 
and  then  to  multiply  that  number  by  itself.  The  result 
shows  how  many  times  the  attraction  at  this  ilistance  it 
less  thari  at  the  surface  of  the  former.  The  moon,  for  in- 
stance, is  distant  240,000  miles  from  the  earth,  or  as  much 
as  sixty  semi-<lianicters  of  tho  earth ;  60  multiplied  by  60 
gives  SfiOO ;  consequently,  the  attraction  exercised  by 
the  earth  upon  the  moon  is  a  Sfi'Hiih  part  of  what  it 
would  f  xerciao  upon  the  same  i  at  ita  own  surface. 

If  the  earth  were  a  (lerfectly  spherical  hotly,  its  attrac- 
tion w  ould  bo  equal  everywhere  >-  tho  level  of  tho  sea. 
.\s  tho  surface  at  the  pole  is  thif  .'en  miles  nearer  the 
centre  than  the  surface  at  the  eqvMtor,  the  attraction  ia 
stronuor  nt  the  former  than  at  the  latter  place ;  it  gete 
priiportioniiUy  weaker  as  we  advance  towards  the  equa 
tor,  on  account  of  the  increase  of  distance  from  the  cen 
t'o.  Hence,  a  mass  of  iron  which  is  considered  a 
pound  woicht  in  Britain,  would  bo  less  than  a  pound  on 
the  coast  of  ftuiiiea,  and  more  than  a  pound  in  Green- 
land, for  wriRhf  is  only  n  rcault  of  attraction.  If  w« 
ascend  a  mountain,  the  effect  is  the  same  as  if  we  jiro- 
eecd  towards  the  eiiuafor:  wc  are  always  getting  far- 
ther from  the  centre  of  attrvcti  >n,  ard  consequentif 
weights  become  lighter.      Oi.   the  toj   of  »  hill  fowl 


lit 


INFORM \TION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


miles   high,  a  ball  of  four   thousniid   pounds'  weight 
would  be  found  to  be  two  pounds  lighter. 

Pressure  downwards,  or  weight,  is  in  philosophical 
language  termed  obaviti,  and  under  that  head  it  is 
hereaiter  treated,  in  connection  with  the  phenomena  of 
falling  bo<lies. 

The  attraction  of  bodies  is  mutual,  and  in  proportion 
to  the  quantity  of  matter  they  contain.  Therefore,  any 
body,  however  small,  exerts  some  degree  of  attraction 
Upon  the  mass  of  the  earth.  Any  body  which  comes 
immediately  under  our  observation,  is  so  small  in  com- 
parison to  the  earth,  that  its  attractive  force  is  altogether 
imappreciable ;  but  if  the  bo<ly  weie  of  great  density, 
and  of  dimensions  approaching  to  those  of  the  earth, 
■  then  we  should  sec  the  earth  rise  to  meet  the  body,  or 
fall  towards  the  body.  The  heavenly  bodies,  when  they 
approach  each  other,  are  drawn  out  of  the  line  of  their 
paths  or  orbits,  by  mutual  attraction.  It  is  found  by 
experiment,  that  a  plumb-line  suspended  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  a  mountain,  is  sensibly  attracted  towards 
the  mountain  from  the  true  vertical  line.  The  mutual 
attraction  of  matter  is  exemplified  by  the  diminution  of 
the  weight  of  bodies  as  we  penetrate  into  the  earth.  At 
tlie  depth  of  a  mile,  a  body  weighing  a  pound  would  be 
found  to  be  lighter  than  at  the  surface.  This  is  in  con- 
scijuence  of  the  attraction  of  the  matter  of  the  shell  of 
the  earth,  which  is  exterior  to  the  point,  being  nothing, 
in  consequence  of  the  attractions  of  its  particles  on  this 
point  counteracting  each  other  ;  and  hence  the  only  ef- 
ficient attraction  on  ii  arises  merely  from  the  smaller 
sphere  below  the  point ;  and,  therefore,  the  nearer  the 
|>oint  is  to  the  centre,  the  less  is  this  internal  sphere, 
and  the  less  therefore  is  its  attraction  on  the  point 
Were  we  to  proceed  to  the  centre  of  the  earth,  we 
should  there  find  that  weight  altogether  ceased,  because 
the  attractive  power  would  be  equal  on  all  sides.  Were 
there  a  canity  at  the  earth's  centre,  the  body  would 
bang  suspended  in  space. 

The  attraction  of  the  earth's  mass  performs  an  im- 
portant function,  in  binding  the  atmosphere,  which  is 
au  elastic  fluid,  around  the  surface  of  our  planet,  and  in 
causing  the  air  to  perforate  every  open  crcivice  and  pore 
in  the  suiwrficial  substances  of  the  globe.  The  attrac- 
tive force,  in  this  respect,  produces  what  is  called  atmii- 
tfherv  pramie,  the  air  being  pulled  or  pressed  down 
by  a  forrc  equivalent  to  about  1.^  H>8.  on  the  square 
inch,  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  diminishes  in  propor- 
•  tion  to  the  distance  above  that  common  level. 

THC    RKPVbSIVB   qVkUTY    IS    MATTER — HEAT. 

Whik'  attraction  tends  to  unite  and  compress  the  par- 
ticles of  mutter,  there  is  another  and  equally  universal 
principle  known  in  familiar  language  by  the  ap|iellation 
of  heat,  the  tendency  of  which  is  to  keep  the  particles 
<^  matter  at  a  certain  degree  of  expansion.  Heat  is 
often,  in  scientific  works,  named  riilonr,  from  the  Latin 
word  for  heat  Heat  pervades  alt  things,  but  some  in 
greater  degrees  than  others.  Even  ice  has  been  found 
t<>  contain  a  certain  portion  of  beat.  In  fact,  there  is 
'u>  such  th'ni?  in  nature  as  positive  cold.  The  things 
which  seem  coU  to  iii,  are  only  under  a  low  degree  of 
best 

The  absolute  nature  of  this  tmivcrsal  principle  is  un- 
ki  ■)wn.  M'c  only  know  it  by  its  clli-cts,  and  the  sciisa- 
t'  >ns  it  produces.  Rone  have  conjectured  that  it  is  a 
Snid ;  others  think  it  is  a  quality  or  affection  of  matter, 
re-iulting  from  electrical  action.  From  its  producing  no 
mti-'ibic  dilfcri-nce  in  the  weight  of  any  substance,  it  has 
U'<-n  callcil  an  mtfionifcrnhte  bmlij.  When  the  lieat  of 
I*  J  particular  substance,  as  ice,  stone,  or  wood,  is  not 
•ciisililc  to  us,  it  is  called  latent  (that  is  concealeil)  heat 
V\'e  may  »ery  readily  di-tect  its  prcsenc*  in  a  jaece  of 
wood  or  metal  liy  nibbing  or  friction.  If  a  button,  for 
■u'.a<ice,  be  rubbad  on  a  (i^lo,  it  will  soon  become  too 


hot  to  be  held  by  the  fingers.  In  like  manner,  ihe  bii« 
of  any  carriage-wheel  soon  becomes  hot,  unless  the  fhc- 
tion  is  prevented  by  greajo. 

Heat,  in  its  extreme  form,  becomes  fire.  Tliut,  if  u 
ungreased  wheel  be  rapidly  turned  for  a  long  time  on  itt 
axle,  so  much  heat  will  be  excited  that  both  wheel  inj 
axle  will  burst  into  a  flame.  The  elfcein  of  powertiil 
friction  are  known  to  savage  nations,  among  whom  it  ji 
common  to  produce  fire  by  rubbing  two  sticks  together. 
Two  pieces  of  flint  struck  together,  or  a  flint  struck  hard 
upon  a  piece  of  iron,  evolve  sparks  of  fire.  By  such 
means,  many  important  purposes  are  ser>'ed ;  for  inslann 
the  discharge  of  fire-arms.  Fire  can  also  be  evolved  fron 
the  common  atmosphere,  by  compressing  a  quantity  of  it 
suddenly  in  a  tube,  at  the  bottom  of  which  a  piece  of  tin- 
der bus  been  placed.  The  evolution  of  beat  by  thene 
means,  and  other  circumstances,  lead  to  the  concli-sinn 
that  heat  is  an  clement  mixed  up  with  the  atoms  of  mat- 
ter, which  it  nerves  to  keep  i\t  a  lesser  or  greater  distance 
from  each  other.  Thus,  as  we  S(]ueo7.e  the  pores  of  a 
sponge  together,  and  disengage  the  liquid  which  they 
held  in  cohesion,  so.  when  squeezing  or  rubbing  a  portion 
of  mailer,  do  we  di>.i>ngage  the  heat  which  it  retainej 
amongst  its  compor.'-nt  atoms.  In  all  cases  of  the  de. 
velopment  of  hf  it  by  pressure,  hammering,  and  friction, 
the  cause  is  the  sqi'oczing  together  of  atoms  which  had 
been  kept  asunder  by  tho  Intent  fluid,  and  which  fluid 
must,  as  a  matter  of  necessity,  come  forth  and  make  itself 
sensibly  felt  or  seen. 

Heat,  then,  is  a  principle  of  repttUinn  in  nature,  and 
in  th'^  capacity  its  uses  are  as  obvious  as  those  of  ter- 
restrial gravitation,  to  which  it  apparently  acts  as  i 
counterpoise.  The  force  of  attraction  is  so  powerful 
that,  unless  for  a  counteracting  principle  of  repulsion. 
all  bodies  would  hasten  into  close  contact ;  there  would 
be  no  air,  no  water,  no  vegetable  or  animal  life;  all 
would  be  a  uniform  dead  solid  mass,  and  the  earth  iLielf 
might  perhaps  be  reduced  to  a  small  portion  of  its  pretent 
bulk. 

Heat,  by  pervading  all  things,  modifies  attraction,  and, 
according  to  circumstances,  regulates  the  density  or  so- 
lidity of  bodies.  Hence  we  possess  in  nature  a  beaulifiil 
variety  of  substances,  some  solid  and  hard,  like  stone  and 
marble ;  others  soft,  or  of  the  jelly  form ;  a  third  clasi 
liquid,  like  water ;  and  a  fourth  kind  ai'riform,  or  goscouf. 
Heat  expands  most  bodies  in  proportion  as  it  is  increasrd 
in  quantity,  and  they  become  solid  in  proportion  as  jl  is 
withdrawn.  Water  may  thus  be  either  cxjianded  into  llie 
form  of  vapour  or  steam,  or  hardened  into  ice.  When 
withdrawn,  the  process  of  rooHn/T  \n  said  to  take  place; 
mid  Ixuiig  simply  a  state  of  abstraction  or  compurative 
absence  of  heat 

Heat  is  ditfused  or  communicated  by  roniluriion  anH 
railiation.     When  it  passes  slowly  from  one  portion  of 
matter  to  another  in  contact  witli  it.  it  is  said  to  be  ron- 
ducted  ;  and  the  process,  in  scientific  language,  is  tcrnii  J 
the  conduction  of  caloric.     Metals  are  the  liest  conducton, 
then  liquids,  and  lastly,  gsses.     Gold,  silver,  and  ro,'ji<'r, 
are  the  ticst  conductors  among  solids ;  ghiss,  brirk«,  ar<l 
many  atony  suliatanccs,,  are  very  bad  conductors;  siij  I 
porous  spongy  substaiiccs,  as  charcoal,  li  lir,  and  fur,  are  | 
the  worst     Clothing  is  genenilly  made  of  biul  conduc- 
tors, that  the  heat  of  the  iKKly   may  not  be  coniludnll 
quickly  to  the  sunrnunding  air,     Furnaces,  when' tifal  I 
heat  is  required,  arc  built  with   porous  In ick^,  which  are! 
very  clliictuul  in  preventing   the  e«<-:i|)e  of  heat,  ard  uo  I 
not  retdily  communicute  Ihe  fire  to  adjucciu  luxlioK 

Heiit  is  said  to  radiate  when  it  is  emitted  l'rotna6'(| 
or  from  the  rays  of  tlie  sun,  and  ullects  tin-  uluio.'pli^rtl 
or  substances  at  a  distunce  from  its  somre.  Railurill 
heat  is  abtorlicd  when  it  falls  upon  IxidieK  having  p«iiilii| 
or  rough  surfaces,  such  as  are  presented  by  brlcki  ai>ill 
other  porous  solids,  by  many  kinds  of  stony  n  atti;r,  w^l 
numerous  animal  and  vegetable  substances,  and  niaitil 


Aria  warme 
malollie  surf 
back  again, 
into  action  i 
birig.    It  is 
inflammable 
manner  its 
efikted.    Bu 
lun;  though 
throwing  off 
M  (iroduces  I 
operation,  is  a 
duccd  by  tlie 
bustion  of  ina 
action,  a  famili 
n!>^nlation.     It 
in  connection  < 
ia  lesiJent  an( 
atoppsge  of  th 
knows,  leads  t 
conaiderable  dei 
circulation  of  tl 
well  as  rubbing, 
■od  rubbing,  thi 
evolved  by  the  i 
Heat  is  uneqi 
near  Ihe  equator 
the  greatest  deg 
nils.     In  the  j 
and  south  poles, 
have  little  power 
of  a  genial  mildn 
'Jie  colder  it  becoM 
ire  always  cover 
twdy  of  the  earth 
becomes  greater  i 
lerior  of  Ihe  glob 
eierated  degree  c 
On  the  surface,  g 
and  temper  tho  di 
bourhood,  and  gre 
The  degrees  ol 
iphere  are  called  i 
laining  tliis  correct 
a  very  ingenious  ii 
This  is  called  the 
inj:  heat-measurer 
kull)  at  the   botto 
quicksilver  is  put, 
liie  tube  to  mark 
Ilia  instrument  di 
w  much  as  the  qi 
from  the  air.    -The 
ifi'cts  the  metallic 
cording  to  iu  warn 
w  in  the  tube. 
« indicated  by  the  f 
Our  common  the 
fern  No.  1,  near  tl 
Irfboat  of  boiling  wii 
>^  ia  marked  sw  thi 
•f.when  tho  merci 
mr  freeft'g;  an,] 
^'mt,  tJie   more   ini 
kkoiiiHl  Mioderiite   1 
fB  (ircat  BritHiii ;   <)H 
if  average  of  living 
The  risitii;  of  merr 
'fa  familiiir  exam 
i-Jpai.diiig  or   ili|,i 
"J»  many  gu.-h  ej 
thicker  when  bol 
"^  «  wheel  8Ji|,<,  , 
'P"  »  bind*  fam  »v|, 


,..^,->v     y^ 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 


It§ 


iteK  the  fnc< 

Thus,  if  an 
ig  time  oi\  iu 
Ih  wheel  »im1 
I  of  poweniil 
ig  whom  it  ii 
ickB  together, 
nt  Rtrurk  hard 
re.    By  such 

;  for  instant* 
3  cvolvej  frort 

quantity  of  it 

n  piece  of  tin- 
heat  by  ihcw 
the  concl"8icm 

atoms  of  mat- 
rreater  (listimce 
llie  pores  of  a 
liil  which  they 
il)l)inB  a  portion 
lich  it  retained 
cases  of  the  de- 
ng,  and  friction, 
;om9  which  liad 
111(1  which  fluid 

and  make  itself 

I  in  nature,  and 
s  as  those  of  tcr- 
•cntly  acts  aa  i 

i«  BO  powerful, 
pie  of  repulsion, 
;uct ;  there  would 

animal  life,  all 
i(]  the  earth  il«lf 
rtion  of  its  present 

a  attraction,  and, 
ihe  density  or  so- 
inttture  a  bcautifiil 
ird,  like  stone  and 
•m ;  a  third  clasi 
ilorm,  or  gaseouj. 
as  it  is  increased 
Iproportion  as  it  ii 
exjinnded  into  tlie 
into  ice.    When 
,id  to  take  place; 
in  or  comparative 

iiy  coiulwlion  and 
Im  one  portion  ot 
lis  said  to  be  con- 
InRUUge,  is  ternif  J 
Le  iiest  coniluctors, 
\i\veT,  and  00,1;*:, 
gliifw,  bricks,  arjl 
conductors;  inJ 
J  h  lir,  and  fur,  are 
lie  of  bad  coniluc- 
Inol  be  coniludfJ 
li;iccs,  wlicrc  pTil 
liiick»<,  which  i:t 
!  of  heat,  and  Jo 
Inceni  liixlics. 
liiiiltod  Iroinafa 
tlie  atmosiilut 
Bource.     Raili"" 
lies  havini;  P"!'"'' 
Ited  by  brick*  awl 
]  stony  natter, d 
lance*,  and  m^ 


jirm  waniMr  m  it  is  taken  up.  But  brilliant  and  polished 
nalalUe  ■urfaccs  absorb  little  heat ;  they  reflect  or  turn  it 
back  again.  Heat,  as  already  mentioned,  ran  be  brought 
Into  action  in  most  substantM,  by  percussion  and  rub- 
bing- It  is  also  produced  by  the  burning  of  certain 
inflammable  substanccH,  as  coal  and  wood ;  and  in  this 
manner  its  chief  purposes  in  domestic  economy  are 
eSected.  But  the  most  remarkable  source  of  heat  is  the 
lun ;  though  whether  this  luminary  is  a  burning  mass, 
throwing  off  warmth  like  a  common  fire  or  red-hot  ball, 
Of  produces  the  efTect  by  some  peculiar  and  unknown 
ojwration,  is  as  yet  uncertain.  Heat,  besides  being  pro- 
duced by  the  sun's  rays,  and  by  the  friction  and  com- 
bustion of  inanimate  substances,  is  evolved  by  chemical 
action,  a  familiar  example  of  which  is  observable  in  fer- 
mentation. It  is  by  means  of  a  natural  chemical  action 
in  connection  with  the  circulation  of  the  blocd,  that  heat 
ii  resident  and  sustained  in  most  living  animals.  A 
itoppitge  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  as  every  one 
knows,  leads  to  an  absence  of  animal  heat,  or  a  very 
(oniiderable  degree  of  coldness.  On  the  contrary,  quick 
circulation  of  the  blood,  and  active  muscular  motion,  as 
well  as  rubbing,  produce  heat  In  these  cases  of  motion 
ind  rubbing,  the  heat  seems  to  be  in  a  great  measure 
wulved  by  the  momentary  compression  of  the  parts. 

Heat  is  unequally  distributed  over  the  globe.  At  and 
near  the  equator,  where  the  rays  of  the  sun  are  sent  in 
the  greatest  degree  of  directness,  the  greatest  heat  pre- 
nils.  In  the  parts  of  the  earth  adjacent  tu  the  north 
and  south  poles,  he  transmits  his  rays  su  slantingly  as  to 
liave  little  power;  and  there,  accordingly,  the  air  is  seldom 
of  a  genial  mildness.  The  higher  we  ascend  in  the  air, 
'lie  colder  it  becomes;  the  summits  of  very  high  mountains 
ire  always  covered  with  snow.  In  penetrating  into  the 
body  of  the  earth,  after  gaining  a  certain  depth,  the  heat 
becomes  greater  in  proportion  as  we  descend.  The  in- 
Itrior  of  the  globe  is  by  many  believed  to  bo  at  a  very 
derated  degree  of  heat,  if  not  in  a  state  of  ignition. 
On  the  surface,  great  expanses  of  sea  tend  to  equalize 
ind  temper  the  degrees  of  heat  and  cold  in  their  neigh- 
bourhood, and  great  continents  have  the  contrary  cfTccU 

The  degrees  of  heat  and  cold  in  the  atmo-  .^ 
ipbere  art;  called  its  temperature  ;  and  for  ascer- 
taining tliis  correctly ,  with  reference  to  a  standard, 
I  very  ingenious  instrument  has  t)cen  invented. 
This  is  called  the  Ihmnomtler  (a  word  signify- 
ing heat-measurer).  It  is  a  gloss  tube  with  a 
bulb  at  the  bottom,  into  which  mercury  or 
i)uicksilver  is  put,  with  a  scale  of  figures  along 
the  tube  to  mark  the  rising  of  the  quicksilver. 
This  instrument  difTers  from  the  baronnter,  in 
u  much  as  the  quicksilver  is  sealed  up  close 
bm  Ihe  air.  'The  atmospheric  heat,  however, 
ifects  the  metallic  fluid  in  the  bulb,  and,  ac- 
ootding  to  its  warmth,  causes  it  to  expand  and 
jriie  in  the  tube.  The  degree  of  temperature 
I  a  indicated  by  the  figures  to  which  it  ascends. 

Our  common  thrrmonitter  has  a  graduation 
jbm  No.  1,  near  the  bulb,  to  213,  the  degree 
tf  beat  of  boiling  water.  In  the  scale  of  figures, 
K  ii  marked  as  the  freezing-point — that  is  to 
Uy,  nhen  the  mercury  is  at  the  height  of  Z1, 
Ifiii'  freezes;  and  the  more  it  is  liclow  that 
m\,  tlie  mure  intense  is  the  frost :  f>b  ia 
|itfkunnl  moilcrntc  heat,  and  76  sunmier  hcut, 
(Inat  Britain  :  98  is  the  heat  of  tl  e  blood  in  Fig- 1- 
if  avcraifo  of  living  men. 

The  risiiiK  of  mercury  in  the  fable  of  the  thermometer 
fcraa  faniiliiir  ••xaiiiple  of  the  repulsive  power  of  heal 
I  eipai.diiig  or  dihitiiiL;  liodies.  Coniiiion  ex|>oricnco 
hit  many  such  cxumples.  A  bar  of  iron  is  longer 
I  Ihitkor  when  hut  than  when  it  iH  cold.  The  iron 
lof  a  wheel  slips  easily  into  its  place  wheti  hot,  and 
pjiM  yt  bindk  fast  when  it  becuuies  cool.     When  heated 


lit 


■tu 

m 


v3/ 


iirom  32  to  212,  air  expands  3-6ths  of  its  volume,  a!c  thol 
l-9th,  water  t-22d,  and  hammered  iron  l-273d.  In 
these,  and  all  similar  instances,  the  expansion  arises  from 
the  fluid  of  heat  lodged  among  the  atoms  of  matter 
pressing  outwards  on  all  sides,  according  as  it  is  excited. 

When  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  falls  below 
the  freezing-point  (32),  which  it  does  principally  from' 
the  weakness  of  the-  sun's  rays  in  winter,  the  pheno- 
menon of  frost,  or  freezing,  ensues.  Freezing  is  a  pro- 
cess of  congelation,  or  properly  crystallization,  produced 
by  the  withdrawal  of  heat,  and  by  which  water  assume 
the  form  of  ice.  When  the  temperature  of  the  atmo 
sphere  rises  above  the  freezing-point,  the  ice  melts,  and 
is  resolved  into  its  original  elements.  When  the  tem- 
perature of  the  atmosphere  is  below  the  freezing-point, 
the  particles  of  water  which  are  upheld  in  the  cloutia 
are  frozen  in  their  descent,  and  reach  the  earth  in  the 
form  of  flakes  of  snow.  If  this  freezing  take  place  aAi-r 
the  particles  have  become  united  into  rain-drops,  wo 
have  hail  instead  of  snow.  When  the  descending  flakes 
of  snow  come  into  a  temperature  above  the  freezing-point 
as  they  approach  the  earth,  they  are  apt  to  melt,  and  in 
such  a  case  fall  in  the  shape  of  sleet,  which  is  balf-meked 
snow  or  hail. 

Heat  has  a  constant  tendency  to  preserve  an  equili- 
brium in  all  aituations ;  and  hence  its  difTusiun  through 
nature,  and  many  of  the  ordinary  phenomena  in  relation 
to  temperature.  When  we  touch  a  cold  substance  with 
our  hand,  a  portion  of  the  heat  of  the  hand  rushes  into 
the  substance,  and  lecves  the  hand  so  much  deficient  of 
its  former  heaL  On  the  same  principle,  when  we  touch 
a  substance  which  is  warmer  than  the  hand,  (oino  of  the 
heat  rushes  into  the  hand,  and  renders  it  hot  When 
we  pour  a  quantity  of  hot  water  into  that  which  is  cold, 
an  equalization  of  the  two  temperatures  immediately 
ensues.  When  the  air  at  any  particular  place  becomes 
heated  or  rarefied,  it  ascends  by  virtue  of  its  greater 
lightness,  leaving  a  vacancy  which  the  neighbouring  air 
rushes  in  to  supply.  This  is  one  of  the  chief  causes  of 
winds.  The  same  principle  is  observable  in  the  case  of 
heated  apartments.  If  the  door  of  a  heated  ro  m  he 
thrown  open,  a  current  of  ccld  air  immediately  rushes  in 
to  supply  the  deficiency  in  the  rarefied  atmosphere. 

Evaporation  is  always  accompanied  by  the  withdrawal 
of  heat,  or  production  of  cold,  when  no  heat  is  directly 
applied  ;  the  heat  necessary  for  the  production  of  tho 
vapour  is  then  derived  or  radiated  firom  surrounding  olv- 
jects,  as  is  mentioned  above  in  the  case  of  dew  forming 
on  plants. 

In  tho  great  operations  of  nature,  the  withdrawal  of 
heat  to  produce  intense  cold,  and  the  application  of  heat 
to  produce  great  warmth,  ordinarily  take  place  gradually. 
Thus,  although  water  freezes  at  a  temperature  of  32,  it 
is  some  time  before  frost  is  completely  efTectual  in  chang- 
ing the  asi'^ct  and  condition  of  liquid  bodies;  and  when 
the  temperature  rises  a  few  degrees  above  32,  after  a  frost, 
the  ice  and  snow  which  have  been  formed  do  not  vanii<h 
immediately ;  indeed,  ice  will  remain  unthawcd  for  seve- 
ral days  afler  the  temjicrature  has  risen  some  degrees 
al)ovc  the  freezing-point  By  this  slow  process,  either 
in  the  absorption  or  evolution  of  heat  the  animal  and 
vegetable  worlds  arc  not  liable  to  the  injury  which  wouM 
ensue  from  instantaneous  changes  in  the  condition  of  theil 
elemc'itary  fluids. 

Water  is  iiicroased  in  volume  by  freezing,  which  cir- 
ruinstuncc  explains  the  ordinary  phenomena  of  the  buret- 
iiig  uf  water-pipes,  and  other  similar  occurrences,  during 
frost  When  u  vessel  of  nioilerale  strength  is  filled  with 
water,  its  expansion,  when  it  is  converted  into  iiv,  tiy 
exposure  to  a  freezing  tcni|)erature,  causes  the  vessel  ti 
burst  If  the  vessel  is  not  brittle,  but  possessed  of  con 
sideruble  tenacity,  as  a  leaden  wuter-pi|)e,  the  rupti:.e 
will  seldom  l)c  observed  during  the  continuance  of  t!u> 
frost  while  the  water  remains  in  a  aoiit'  state,  but  il 
H  2 


■■T    (,1^jl*^4J>?f 


'.'"i«f«^'y'^7r-  • 


150 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


eadily  appears  when  thaw  take*  place,  as  the  water  is 
hen  forced  out  with  a  velocity  corresponding  to  the  ver- 
Seal  height  of  the  column  of  water  in  the  pipe,  I'ho 
iMures  of  rocks,  too,  are  widened  by  the  freezing  of  the 
water  which  may  happen  to  lodge  in  them  before  frost; 
and  this  process,  therefore,  is  a  powerful  agent  in  the 
diaintegration  of  rocks.  Portions  of  steep  banks,  also, 
from  #  similar  cause,  tumble  down  after  thaw ;  for  the 
moisture  in  them  expands  when  frozen,  and  thus  rends 
them  to  pieces,  which,  however,  during  the  frost,  ore 
bound  together  as  by  cement,  and  fall  down  whenever 
thaw  dissolves  the  moisture. 

Heat  has  a  powerful  effect  in  causing  certain  bodies  to 
shrink  and  diminish  in  volume.  This  happens  with  those 
substances  which  do  not  liquefy,  such  as  wood  and  clay. 
The  contraction  arises  from  the  heat  carrying  off  the 
watery  particles  from  the  bodies,  and  thus  allowing  the 
constituent  atoms. to  come  more  closely  together.  As 
wood  becomes  dri«,  its  fibres  are  sometimes  split  asunder, 
•o  as  to  emit  loud  cracking  noises,  which,  in  the  case  of 
household  furniture,  are  ascribed  by  the  ignorant  to  su- 
pernatural causes. 

Heat  is  further  treated  of  under  the  articles  Chemistry, 
Pneumatics,  and  Meteorology. 

ACCIDBNTAL  PR0PKRTII8  OP   MATTER. 

Having  shown  how  the  l)eautirul  and  extensive  variety 
of  form  in  bodies — solid,  liquid,  gaseous,  and  the  diHerent 
modifications  of  them — are  to  be  traced  to  the  operation 
of  chiefly  two  great  leading  principles  in  nature,  attrac- 
tion and  repulsion,  we  have  now  to  mention  the  peculiar 
forms  or  characters  which  bodies  assume  from  the  in- 
fluence of  thei«c  and  other  causes,  and  which  are  usually 
classed  under  the  term  accidental  proprrties  of  mailer. 
The  following  are  these  properties: — Density,  Porosity 
OT  Rarity,  Compressibility,  Eliisticity,  Dilatation,  Hard- 
ness, Brittleness,  Malleability,  Ductility,  and  Tenacity. 

Density  signifies  closeness  of  texture,  or  comp-ictness. 
Bodies  are  most  dense  when  in  the  solid  state,  less  dense 
when  in  the  condition  of  liquids,  and  least  dense  of  all 
when  gaseous  or  aeriform.  In  this  manner  the  degree 
of  density  is  in  agreement  with  the  closeness  of  the  atoms 
to  each  other.  The  density  of  bodies  may  generally  be 
altered  by  artificial  means,  rs  is  afterwards  mentioned. 
The  metals,  in  particular,  may  have  the  quality  of  den- 
•ity  increased  by  hammering,  by  which  their  pores  are 
made  smaller,  and  their  constituent  particles  are  brought 
nearer  to  each  other. 

The  more  dense  in  8ub8tHr?c  that  a  bmly  is,  it  is  the 
more  heavy  or  weighty.  In  speaking  of  the  density  of 
dit&rent  solid  and  liquid  bodies,  the  term  specific  grovi'ij 
is  used  tu  denote  the  compariNon  which  is  mpdc.  Thus, 
the  specific  gravity  of  a  lump  of  lead  is  greater  than  an 
equal  bulk  of  cork ;  or  the  specific  gravity  of  water  is 
greater  than  that  of  an  equal  quantity  of  spirituous  fluid. 
For  the  sake  of  convenience,  pure  diittilled  water,  at  a 
temperature  of  62°,  has  t)een  established  as  a  standard 
oy  which  to  compare  the  specific  gravity  or  relative 
weights  of  bodies.  Water,  as  the  standard,  is  thus  said 
lu  oe  1.  When,  therefore,  any  bmly,  hulk  for  hulk,  is 
double  the  s|)e<'ific  gravity  of  water,  it  is  ralli'd  JJ,  and  so 
on  to  3  and  4  times,  up  to  'i'i  limes,  which  in  the  sijccific 
gravity  of  platinum,  the  heavlcHl  known  sulwlance.  In 
almost  every  cAnf  of  coiiijiiirisoti  lliere  are  fractional 
parts,  and  thest;  are  usially  written  in  figures,  according 
to  the  fillowing  arrniiijcnii'nt :  Krurtioiial  p.iit«  are  di- 
vided inlu  tenn,  huiidrcilt.  IboUKiiiuls,  ami  so  on.  If,  in 
•JJition  to  tht  figure  e  .pres.,,iiis{  tlic  main  (mrt  of  ih'' 
■perific  gravity,  there  be  iMie  other  figure,  with  ii  d.il  or 
|Miit  bi'twecK  Ihein — thus  'Z-Ct — the  adilititiiial  figure 
Wgnities  tenths,  and  the  lH>dy  is  two  tiincx  and  fivi'-imth 
parts  of  a  time  more  deii/M'  or  heavy  than  watiT.  If  two 
lu'iires  occur — thus,  IO-4(» — tiundri'dths  are  signified, and 
■Jttv  liody  ia  ten  tunes   aiul  forly-hundn!Ul)i   parts   of  a 


time  heavier  than  water.  If  theie  be  three  Ism;^ 
thousandths  of  parts  of  a  time  are  meant;  if  four  fi^'uien, 
ten  thousandth  parts ;  and  so  on.  Common  air  ih  soino 
times  taken  as  a  standard  with  which  to  compare  gaseii 
being  a  more  simple  mode  of  comparing  the  relative 
weights  of  aerial  substances.  But  all  the  solids  anj 
li()uids  are  estimated  with  reference  to  water  as  the 
standard. 

Any  hotly  of  greater  specific  gravity  than  water,  will 
sink  on  being  thrown  into  water;  but  it  will  float  on  the 
surface,  if  its  specific  gravity  be  less  than  that  of  water, 
A  iHxiy,  such  as  a  piece  of  wood,  after  floating  a  ccrtpin 
length  of  time  on  water,  will  imbil*  such  a  quantity  of 
liquid  that  its  specific  gravity  will  be  gradually  increased, 
and  in  the  course  of  time  it  may  sink  to  the  bottom. 

Porviily  is  the  quality  opposite  to  i^^nsity,  and  meiyij 
that  the  substance  to  whi-h  it  is  applied  is  ixirous ;  that 
is,  full  of  small  pores  or  empty  spaces  between  the  par- 
tides,  and  that  the  body  is  comparatively  light  The 
instances  of  porosity  are  numerous  in  every  department 
of  the  material  world,  but  those  which  are  connected 
with  animal  and  vegetable  bodies  are  the  most  remark- 
able. Bone  is  a  tissue  of  pores  or  cells,  and,  when  seeo 
through  a  microscoiie,  may  be  said  to  resemble  a  honey, 
comb.  Wood  is  also  a  tissue  of  cells  or  tulies.  If  ihj 
end  of  a  cylinder  of  straiRht  wood  be  immersed  in  water, 
whilst  the  other  is  forcibly  blown  into,  tlm  air  will  be 
found  to  pass  through  the  jiores  of  the  wood,  and  rise  in 
bubbles  through  the  wafer.  When  a  gas  is  compara. 
tively  light,  it  is  said  to  Iw  rare,  0{  to  possess  rarity. 

By  iviiipiefsihilily  is  meant  that  quality  in  virtue  of 
which  a  body  allows  its  volume  to  he  diminished,  wiih. 
out  the  quantity  or  mass  of  molter  Ix'ing  diminished,    h 
arises,  of  course,  from   the   constituent  particles  being 
brought  nearer  to  each  other,  and  is  eirected  in  varioui 
ways.     All   botlics  arc  less  or  more  capable  of  being! 
diminished  in  bulk,  which  is  a  conclusive  proof  of  their 
porosity.     Liquids  arc  less  easily  compressed  than  eolij  i 
bodies;  nevertheless  they,  to  a  small  extent,  yield,  and  go 
into  smaller  bulk  by  great  pressure.     The  water  at  the  | 
liottom  of  the  sea,  by  being  pressed  down  by  the  superin, 
cumlKMit  water,  is  more  dense  or  compact  than  it  wouiil  1 
be  at  the  surface.     Atmospheric  air  and  gases  are  much 
more  easily  compressed  than  liquids,  or  even  than  man;  [ 
solids.     Air  may  be  compressed  into  a  hundredth  part 
of  its  ordinary   volume.     When  at  this  slate  of  cora- 1 
prcssion,  it  has  a  great  tendency  to  expand  and  burst  the  ( 
vessel  in  which  it  is  confined. 

Some  botlies  have  the  power  of  resuming  their  former  I 
volume  or  shape  when  the  force  which  diminished  it  ii  I 
withdrawn.  This  quahty  is  termed  e/u»/i(iVy,  Steel  u  I 
one  of  the  most  elastic  of  metallic  tiodies,  but  its  clastiouT  I 
is  not  nearly  so  great  as  that  of  India-rubber,  wliirii,! 
though  twisted*  drawn  out,  or  compressed  in  djfffrenil 
ways,  always  resumes  its  original  fonn.  The  atrilnmil 
fluids,  such  as  atmospheric  air,  and  the  gases,  are  allei,| 
cecdingly  elastic;  and  so  are  liquids,  such  as  water, ht| 
to  a  smeller  extent 

DxlalahilUy  is  that  quality  of  bodies  by  which  theyartl 
enabled  to  be  expanded  or  enlarged  in  their  dinicnsioiM,! 
without  any  addition  tN-ing  made  to  their  sul»(;iiiff.| 
lliirdiiest  is  the  quality  which  is  the  opposite  of  Sllftnes^| 
and  does  not  depend  so  much  on  the  density  of  the  t 
stance,  us  the  force  with  which  the  particles  of  a  l*xA 
cohere,  or  keep  their  places.  For  instance,  glau  u  lenl 
dense  than  most  of  the  metals,  but  it  is  sti  hard  thtlit  J 
capable  of  scratching  them.  Home  of  the  inctaU  arel 
capable  of  tM>ing  made  either  hard  or  soft,  tjletl,  »!fal 
heated  to  a  white  lient  and  then  suddenly  cooled,  as  IffI 
immersion  in  water,  l>ecomrs  harder  than  ii,\at»,  m 
when  cooled  hluwiy,  it  U'comes  soil  and  llexiblc.  l:n::, 
fiem  is  tliat  quality  by  which  IkhIics  arc  capable  of  btia 
easily  broken  into  irregular  fragments,  and  it  bclin 
chiefly  to  hard  bodies.     Irou,  steel,  brass,  and  tof^at 


mhen  heafa 

UabUity  is 

Ming  extei 

metals  are 

of  boih'nt;  ^ 

the  metals 

(jold  i  i  the 

hammered  i 

light     By  , 

metals  may 

tals  are  not 

into  thin  le 

most  ductile 

wire  as  niu 

quality  by  ' 

Steel  is  the  i 

this  metal,  t 

support  a  we 

ofplatina  w 

only  2  lbs. 

MOTION  A 
Motion  is 
rest 

Matter,  act 
given  of  its  j 
volition,  and 
has  been  dear 
and  in  this  re. 
or  reluctance 
rativc,  and  ai 
forcible  idea  c 
also,  in  consei 
•iveness  to  su 
jected,  that  a 
to  move  contii 
nine  direction 
cause. 

Any  instanc 

vation,  is  only 

that  is,  it  is  rei 

relates  to  the  u 

to  the  ground  Ii 

in  motion,  and 

ihi'n  the  inacci 

rest     Hence,  ii 

to  a  slate  of  re 

only  relative,  n( 

posed  that  tlioi 

creation.     All  t| 

and  the  sun  ilse 

also  l)elieved  by 

onward  or  progr 

lory  movement ; 

distant  centre,  w 

Common  expr 

fsst  is  more  na 

conviction  is  fou 

cumstanccs.    Tt 

bodies  coming  U 

ping  after  ha»ing 

ping  after  rolling 

the  earth  after  lie 

•ooner  or  later  ni 

ittraction  or  Ihci 

hing  against  snini 

•i'Dlcd  to  them  I 

Uiree  prevailing  c 

binlirs  set  in  mo 

Taking  thiN  expiin 

trroneoiis  impress 

I"  our  limited  exp 

nwie  remarkable 


NATURAL   PHILOSOPHY. 


lAl 


if  four  fii^uien, 
)n  air  »  Konic.-- 
lompate  gaaei«, 
g  the  relative 
the  aoliils  anj 
water  as  th« 

lan  water,  will 
trill  float  on  the 
I  that  of  water, 
mating  a  ecrtrin 
h  a  quantity  of 
lually  iiicrcaned, 
the  bottom, 
aity,  and  niei\ii9 
is  ]ioroua;  that 
etween  the  par- 
ely  light    Tin 
very  dcparlmenl 
1  are  connected 
10  most  remark- 
ami,  when  seen 
jsenible  a  honey- 
ar  tulics.    If  the 
imerwtl  in  water, 
),  thr  air  will  be 
wood'  and  rite  in 
gas  is  comparv 
OBSTBS  riirity, 
ality  in  virtue  of 
diminished,  with- 
ig  diminished,    k 
nt  partirles  being 
clTected  in  varioui 
capable  of  being 
jivo  proof  of  theit 
ppreracd  than  eoliJ 
tent,  yifld,  and  go 
The  water  at  th<  | 
(vn  by  the  superiii' 
)ai-t  than  it  would 
id  gases  arc  much 
even  than  man;  I 
a  hundredth  part  I 
:hiB  Blatc  of  cnm.  I 
laiid  and  bui^t  ilie 


lining  their  forrot  I 
h  diininislu'd  it  is  I 
(i.»(ici'y.  i^teelul 
but  \i»  ciasticiiv  I 
dia-rubber,  which,  I 
rsiied  in  dilfeiciill 
:n.  The  ai'rili)nii| 
e  gancN,  are  all  n- 1 
such  as  wat'T,  hl| 

by  which  they  sni 

their  dinicnsioinl 

their  Bul»t«iKT.[ 

Ippositc  of  «iftnf*| 

Tlcimity  of  'lie  8ub,| 

fcarticlefl  of  >  taF 

itaiice,  glau  \>  >«| 

|B  B«i  hard  tint  il  :il 

lof  the  indiil»  ml 

\mt\.     Steel,  wleJ 

lelily  cooled,  i'  ^f 

than  nlii««,  IM 

Id  flexible.    J:ri;* 

le  cjipablc  of  hm 

,  and  it  beta 

wul  co|;f«| 


ifhen  heated  and  luddenly  cooled,  become  brittle.  Mai- 
Uability  IB  the  quality  by  which  bodies  are  capable  of 
^ng  extended  by  hammering.  Some  of  the  malleable 
metalB  are  gold,  silver,  copper,  zinc  at  the  temperature 
of  boiling  water,  lead,  iron,  and  some  others.  Some  of 
the  metals  possess  the  opposite  quality  of  brittleness. 
Uold  i'l  the  most  malleable  of  all  metals,  and  it  may  bo 
hammered  so  thin  as  to  be  translucent,  or  permeable  to 
light.  By  ductilily  is  understood  that  property  by  which 
metals  may  be  drawn  to  wire.  The  most  malleable  me- 
tals are  not  the  most  ductile.  Tin  and  lead  may  he  rolled 
into  thin  leavr.s,  but  cannot  be  drawn  into  wire.  The 
most  ductile  metal  it  platina,  which  can  be  drawn  into 
wire  as  tli '  ,-  the  threads  of  a  cobweb.  Tenai-ily  is  the 
quality  by  v  hich  bixlics  are  not  easily  torn  asunder. 
Steel  is  the  moat  tenacious  of  all  substances;  a  wire  of 
this  metal,  the  hundredth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  will 
lupport  a  wcii;ht  of  134  lbs. ;  while  one  of  the  same  size 
of  platina  will  sustain  only  16  lbs.,  and  one  of  lead 
only  2  lbs. 

MOTION  AND   FORCES— GENERAL  EXPLANATIONS. 

Motion  b  the  changing  of  place,  or  the  opposite  of 
rwL 

Matter,  according  to  the  definitions  which  have  been 
given  of  itB  properties,  is  substance  devoid  of  life  and 
volition,  and  which  is  perfectly  passive,  or  inert.  It 
has  been  described  as  possessing  the  property  of  inertia, 
aad  in  this  rcsijcct  it  is  said  to  ]>osses8  an  unwillingness 
(II  reluctance  to  move,  nut  theso  phrases  are  only  figu- 
rative, and  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  conveying  a 
forcible  idea  of  the  passivoness  of  its  character.  It  is 
also,  in  conse(|uciice  of  thxs  pror^rty  of  inertia,  or  pas- 
•ivcness  to  submit  to  rny  condition  to  which  it  is  sul)- 
lecled,  that  a  body,  when  once  in  motion,  will  continue 
to  move  continually  wuh  the  same  velocity  and  in  the 
tunc  direction,  ti'l  .  l  .'  iturbed  by   some   external 

cause. 

Any  instance  of  •  ■■'■  •  •it',  comes  under  our  obser- 
vation, is  only  rest  ii.  »  •■tMtive,  not  an  absolute,  sense; 
that  is,  it  is  rest  as  relates  to  the  earth,  but  not  rest  as 
relates  to  the  universe ;  for  though  the  stone  which  falls 
to  the  ground  lies  et  rest  on  the  earth,  the  earth  is  always 
in  motion,  and  therefore  the  stone  is  no  more  at  rest 
thi-n  the  insect  which  sits  upon  a  moving  wheel  is  at 
rest.  Heme,  in  Rpeakin^  of  bcHlies  coming  apparently 
to  a  state  of  rest,  we  must  always  recollect,  that  it  is 
only  relative,  not  positive  or  absolute  rest.  It  is  su|>- 
posed  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  absolute  rest  in 
creation.  All  the  planets  nrc  in  motion  round  the  sun  ; 
and  the  sun  itself  has  a  mrtion  on  its  own  axis ;  it  is 
alao  believed  by  .'nnny  astronomers  that  the  sun  has  an 
onward  or  progressive  motion  in  space,  besides  its  rota- 
tory movement ;  and  thus,  perhaps,  revolves  round  some 
diatant  centre,  with  all  its  planets  in  its  train. 

Common  cxiierience  would  lead  to  the  conviction  that 
rast  is  more  natural  for  matter  than  motion ;  but  this 
conviction  is  founded  on  a  limited  consideration  of  cir- 
cumitances.  The  reason  why  wc  see  ordinary  moving 
bodies  coining  to  a  state  of  rest — Buch  as  a  wheel  stop- 
ping after  ha*ing  been  whirled  on  its  axle,  a  ball  stop- 
ping after  rolling  on  the  ground,  or  an  object  falling  to 
(h«  earth  after  lieing  thrown  upwards — i«,  that  they  are 
woner  or  later  arrested  in  their  progress  by  the  earth's 
lUraction  or  their  own  gravity,  by  the  friction  or  rub- 
bing aeaiiist  some  other  body,  or  by  the  opposition  prc- 
fc'Dlcd  to  them  by  the  atmosphere.  Except  for  these 
Uiree  prevailing  cau.ses  of  impediment  and  stoppni;e,  nil 
biJini  tci  in  motion  would  go  on  moving  for  ever. 
Taking  this  expanded  view  of  things,  and  disniis-sing  the 
•rroneous  iinpre.>*sions  arisini;  from  what  is  obvious  only 
t")  our  limite<i  experience,  we  find  that  there  is  nothing 

nwie  remorkablu  in  perpetual  motion  tlian  in  perpetual 


It  is  only,  however,  in  the  ^at  works  >/  creation,  ik 
the  heavenly  bodies,  that  pcrpe!  lal  motion  is  obscrviblA 
The  planetary  bodies  are  under  the  ever-acting  impulse/ 
of  centrifugal  and  centri])ctal  forces,  and  are  not  im- 
peded by  friction,  or  by  the  atmosphere,  for  they  mov« 
in  space,  or  in  a  compnrotive  vacuum.  Many  ingonioua 
attempts  have  been  made  to  produce  poriietual  motion 
on  mechanical  principles  in  terrestrial  objects,  but  they 
have  all  necessarily  failed,  as  no  human  clVort  can  de- 
stroy gtavity  in  bodies,  or  altogether  prevent  friction  in 
movement 

In  regard  to  bodies  on  the  earth,  of  which  a  state  ol 
rest  is  the  ordinary  condition,  motion  is  produced  by 
certain  agencies,  or  impelling  causes,  either  belonging 
to  the  phenomena  of  nature  or  to  art.  The  property  cf 
capillary  attraction  causes  a  motion  in  liquids  under 
certain  circumstances ;  the  winds  blow,  and  cause  mo- 
tion ;  rivers,  in  flowing  down  their  channels,  and  the 
action  of  the  tides,  likewise  produce  motion ;  thus,  there 
exist  many  natural  causes  of  motion,  which  aic  taken 
advantage  of  by  man  in  the  economy  of  arts  and  manu- 
factures. Motion  in  the  animal  economy  is  produced 
by  a  princijile  of  life  ;  but  of  the  nature  of  this  kind  of 
motion  mankind  are  ignorant,  and  nothing  here  require* 
to  be  said  regarding  it  The  causes  of  motion  which 
have  to  engage  our  attention  are  those  which  consist  of 
foires,  whether  natural  or  nrtificial,  and  which  forces 
have  the  property  of  impelling  inanimate  objects  from 
a  state  of  rest  to  a  state  of  motion,  of  stopping  them 
when  in  motion,  or  of  altering  the  character  of  their 
motion.     These  foi  -es  are  also  called  powers. 

Motion,  accordin  ;  to  i.ie  mcxlc  in  which  the  force 
acts,  is  susceptible  of  innumerable  variations.  Accord- 
ing as  the  moving  body  is  afTected,  it  may  move  rapidly 
or  slowly ;  proceed  in  a  straight  line,  turn  in  a  circle, 
or  curve  ;  it  may  move  with  uniform  or  irregular  speed, 
or  be  retarded  or  accelerate^.  The  body  may  also  move 
upon  or  in  respect  of  s. other  body  which  is  also  mov- 
ing. Some  of  these  iHiculiaritics  in  motion  will  imme- 
diately engage  ovr  ittention;  meanwhile,  it  has  to  bo 
explained,  that  foi  che  sake  of  convenience  in  language, 
and  accuracy  in  the  application  of  terms,  certain  words 
are  nso^l  to  define  the  nature  of  motion  in  bodies,  and 
the  forces  affecting  them. 

.Motion  is  said  to  be  coiiimrm  to  two  or  more  bodies 
when  they  move  in  contact  or  together ;  or  when,  though 
not  ill  contact,  they  are  carried  along  in  a  similar  man- 
ner, ami  with  the  same  velocity  ;  that  is,  when  they  have 
n  motion  in  common,  or  participate  in  the  same  motion. 
Motion  is  said  to  be  uhsoliUe,  when  a  body  actually 
moves  from  one  point  of  space  to  another,  or  when  il 
moves  towards,  or  when  it  passes,  another  which  is  at  rest 
Therefore,  setting  aside  the  idea  of  the  earth  moving, 
we  should  say  that  a  vessel  moving  on  the  sea  has  an 
absolute  motion,  while  the  land  is  fixed  or  stationary. 
Motion  is  said  to  be  relalivc,  when  the  motion  of  one 
moving  body  is  considered  in  reference  to  that  of  an- 
other moving  body.  Thus,  if  two  bodies  move  in  the 
same  direction,  their  relative  motion  is  the  difference 
of  their  motions ;  if  they  move  in  opposite  directions,  il 
is  the  Bum  of  their  separate  motions. 

When  a  force,  applied  to  any  material  object,  ia  !•• 
sisted  or  coii'iteracted,  so  that  no  motion  ensues,  it  ia 
called  a  iirefsurt .  and  forces  so  counteracted  are  said  it 
hill  litre  each  other,  or  to  be  in  eiiwltliiiiini. 

The  degree  of  speed  in  the  motion  of  bodies  is  calM 
i(7i» i'v.  Velocity  is  measured  by  the  space  or  distaiiM 
passed  over,  u  ith  an  invariable  motion,  and  in  a  given 
time,  08  one  second.  Thus,  if  a  body,  in  one  second, 
with  an  invariable  motion,  pass  over  twenty  feet,  it*; 
velocity  is  said  to  lie  twenty  feet  per  second. 

When  a  motion  is  invariable,  it  is  saiil  to  be  uniform  . 
if  it  l)c  irradually  increasing,  it  is  said  to  lie  nur'trnletl 
and  if  it  gradually  decrease,  it  is  said   to  le  nuinhJ 


IM 


INFORMATION    FOK  THE   PEOPLE. 


K  force  is  wid  to  l>e  »n  acrtltraUng  or  rtlariling  force, 
•ceor  ling  aa  it  protlucci  an  •ccelerated  or  retarded  mo- 
tion. 

Porceii  are  either  imtanlatifout  or  conlinued.  The 
brmer  i»  an  inipulse,  like  a  stroke  ;  the  latter  acts  willi- 
out  interniisaion.  When  a  continued  force  remains 
always  of  the  siime  intensity,  it  is  called  a  ronslant  force. 
Other  continued  forces  are  said  to  I*  vitridble. 

A  body,  in  moving,  possesses  a  force  which  is  called 
its  momtHlutii,  or  nwinl  June.  Mon.entum  is  very  dif- 
ferent from  velocity.  A  light  bo<Iy  and  a  heavy  body 
may  move  nt  the  snmc  velocity,  but  the  nionicntuT  of 
the  light  body  will  be  small  in  comparison  with  that  of 
the  heavy  one.  'I'he  light  one,  on  coming  to  a  state  of 
i«st,  will  jierhaps  full  harmlessly  on  the  ground,  while 
the  other,  by  its  momentum,  will  strike  fortiUy  on  the 
earth,  or  destroy  any  object  which  opposes  it.  Momen- 
tum is  proportionate  to  the  i  ■  ■■■  and  velocity  of  bodies, 
and,  by  multiplying  the  w.,  ..  by  the  numlier  of  feet 
moved  over  per  second,  we  lind  that  the  momentum  is 
the  proiluct  Thus,  if  a  l)ody  of  twelve  ounces  move 
*ith  a  velocity  of  twenty  feet  per  second,  its  momentum 
is  (twelve  times  twenty)  twi>  hundred  an<l  forty.  In 
ordinary  langiingi',  the  term  ■  i/itius  is  used  to  signify 
the  violent  tendency  of  a  moving  Inidy  to  any  point. 

Before  eutcrina;  upon  a  consideration  of  motion  as 
produced  by  ordinary  forces,  it  will  l)c  appropriate  to 
descrilie  the  elii'cls  protluced  upon  Iwdies  when  simply 
falling — that  is,  moving  downwards  towards  the  car'h. 
when  the  supports  which  upheld  them  are  withdmwri. 

THE  PHC.VCMENA   OF   FALLINO    BODIES — WEIGHT. 

Attraction,  as  already  explained,  is  a  force  inherent 
i^  nature,  by  which  particles  and  masses  of  matter  are 
drawn  towards  each  other.  This  force,  it  has  also  b»en 
■U.ted,  increases  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  matter 
which  the  attracting  body  contains,  and  it  also  in.'reascs 
u  the  bodies  approach  each  otlier.  Further,  it  has 
baen  mentioned  that  this  powerful  and  subtile  qualiky  in 
inattor  is  the  cause  of  the  falling  or  drawing  of  bodies 
Jowiisvards  towards  the  earth,  and  thus  protluces  what 
it  termed  ivnf;lil  or  firia-ity.  (iravity,  then,  is  simply 
tha  tendency  which  any  substance  has  to  press  down- 
wards in  oliediciice  to  the  law  of  attraction,  as  exem- 
plified in  the  pbenotiiena  of  b<Hlies  f.il'ing  frot :  heights 
to  the  ground,  when  the  .'upporta  which  upweld  them 
•re  removed. 

All  falling  Imdies  tend  directly  towards  the  centre  of 
rhe  earth,  in  a  straight  line  froin  the  point  whore  they 
are  let  fall.  If.  then,  a  bmly  be  lot  fall  in  any  jmrt  of 
.he  world,  the  line  of  its  direction  will  lie  (H-rjiendirular 
to  the  earth's  centre.  Consequently,  two  bo<lier  falling 
on  opposite  siiles  of  the  earth,  fall  towards  e&;'h  other. 
f*uppose  any  body  to  lie  diseiiurage.l  from  a  height  oj)- 
posite  to  us,  on  the  other  siilr  of  the  earth,  its  motion 
in  res|;)ect  to  u<  would  be  upward,  while  the  downward 
motion  from  where  we  stand,  would  l)e  upward  in  re- 
spect to  thoiie  who  stand  opposite  to  us,  on  the  other 
side  of  the  eaith.  In  li'.e  manner,  if  the  fallitig  lio<ly 
be  a  quarter,  instead  of  half  the  distance  round  the 
earth  from  os.  its  line  of  ilircrtion  would  lie  direiilv 
acroHs  or  sidev.i-'e,  that  is,  nt  right  angles  with  tlic  lines 
already  supposed. 

It  will  be  obvious,  therefore,  that  what  wo  call  up 
and  dino.i  are  merely  relative  terms,  and  th.tt  what  is 
down  in  resi>eit  to  us,  is  up  in  respect  to  thosp  who  livr 
on  the  opiHwite  side  of  the  globe,  ("otiscinjcntlv,  ifnu-n 
^Tcrywhere  means  towanls  the  centre  of  the  earth,  and 
up  signifies  frorn  '!«•  centre  of  the  earth.  The  vpjocitv 
••  rapidity  of  every  falling  body  is  uniformly  accelerated, 
nr  increased,  in  its  approach  towards  the  earth,  from 
whatever  h?ii/ht  it  falls,  if  the  resistance  of  the  atmo- 
spims  '*  M{  reckoiuMl      It  •  rock  be  rolled  from  ita 


summit  of  a  steep  mountain,  Its  motion  is  at  first  kIi.w 
and  gentle,  but  as  it  proceeds  downwards,  it  moves  wiih 
perpetually  increased  velocity,  seeriing  to  gather  frc«|, 
sjieed  every  moment,  until  its  force  is  such  thai  every 
obstacle  is  overcome  ;  trees  and  rocks  are  daahul  from 
its  path,  and  its  motion  dues  not  cease  until  it  has  rolled 
to  a  great  distance  on  the  plain. 

The  same  principle  of  increased  velocity  in  bodies  m 
they  descend  from  a  height,  is  illustrated  by  pouring 
treacle,  honey,  or  any  thick  syrup,  from  an  elevated  ves. 
sel.  The  bulky  stream,  which  is  perhaps  two  inches  ia 
diameter  where  it  leaves  the  vessel,  is  reduced  to  tlit 
size  of  a  straw  or  thread  on  reaching  its  destination 
but  what  it  wants  in  bulk  is  made  up  in  velocity,  for 
the  small  thread-like  rtream  at  the  bottom  will  fill  a 
vessel  just  as  soon  as  the  large  and  slow  moving  stre^in 
at  the  outlet ;  the  velocity  is  indeed  so  great,  that  the 
stream  has  not  time  to  sink  at  once  into  the  mass  below, 
but  falls  in  overlaying  folds. 

From  the  same  principle,  a- person  may  leap  from  i 
chair  without  danger ;  but  if  he  jump  from  the  housetop, 
his  velocity  l)ecomes  so  much  increased,  liefore  he  rcachcii 
the  ground,  as  to  endanger  his  life  by  the  fall. 

It  is  found  by  exp.^riment,  that  the  motion  uf  a  falling 
body  is  increased,  or  accelerated,  in  regular  urithmeli- 
cal  progression.  In  other  words,  in  every  second  of 
time  during  its  descent,  it  acquires  an  additions)  rata 
of  s))eed,  the  rate  regularly  increasing  by  the  accumu- 
lation of  the  preceding  additions. 

It  IT  ascertained  that  a  dense  or  compact  body,  when 
falling  freely,  passes  through  a  space  of  16  feet  1  iiirh 
during  the  first  second  of  time.  Leaving  out  the  odd 
inch  for  the  sake  of  even  numliers,  we  find  that  the 
space  fallen  through  in  a  given  time  is  dcttrmined  liy 
the  following  arithmetical  computation. 

Ascertain  the  numl)er  of  seconds  which  a  liody  octu- 
pies  whc  I  falling.  Take  llie  6<iuare  of  that  numhot 
(that  is,  the  number  miltipliei!  by  itwdf),  and  nudtiply 
the  square  by  16,  which  is  the  number  of  feet  fallen 
during  the  first  second,  and  the  result  is  the  amount  of 
feet  which  the  bcdy  altogether  falls.  For  example,  ifs 
ball  occupy  3  seconds  in  falling,  we  take  the  square  of 
3,  wl.i -h  i-i  9;  then  we  multiply  9  by  16,  which  gives 
144  a  •  the  result,  and  that  is  the  numlier  of  feet  fallen, 
.\gain,  if  we  find  that  the  ball  occupies  4  seconds  in 
failing,  we  take  the  square  of  4,  which  is  Ifi,  a;;d  mul- 
tiplying 16  by  16,  the  result  is  2.56,  which  is  the  num- 
lier ol  fcot  fallen.  .\nd  so  on,  always  following  the 
same  rule  of  computation. 

It  is  not  always  easy,  by  the  above  mode  of  calcu- 
lati.in,  to  arrive  at  a  correct  result  as  to  the  height  fallen 
by  Iwlies,  and  nil  that  can  be  expected  is  an  approxi- 
mation to  a  true  result.  This  arises  from  Ixidies  heint; 
of  different  bulks,  and  receiving  difl'erent  degrees  uf 
opposition  from  the  atmos|ihere  in  tlu  ir  descent.  It  u 
a  common  supposition  that  largo  ami  hca\  y  bodies  fall 
more  quickly  than  small  and  light  ones.  This  opinioi:, 
which  was  niaiNtiiined  even  by  philoso|)hera,  until 
Oalileo  rccliTuMl  the  mistake,  [lerha.is  originates  in  tlie 
error  of  ccmfounding  >  ,i  nliim  \\it\i  vrliuity.  Bo  thin 
as  it  may,  it  is  now  on  .-rtaincd  truth  in  science,  tlial 
all  bodies,  of  whatever  uonsity,  fall  with  the  name  velo 
city.  ThtiM,  a  ball  containing  a  poiiml  of  loud  fulle 
with  the  sHuie  velocity  as  a  ball  containing  an  ounct 
This  c(|Mality  In  the  rate  ttf  fallin;;  i",  however,  disturlw 
by  the  i|ualiiy  of  figure  aifd  bulk  of  bmlies,  A  solid  Iml! 
of  gold  will  I'all  tnurc  i|uirkly  than  the  same  ipiaiitit)' 
of  gold  boivt  out  into  a  thin  leaf,  lierause  in  the  case  of 
the  leaf  the  rosislance  from  the  atmosphere  on  a  larnr 
surface  ini|M'do8  the  deK<'ent.  Thus  the  iilinos|ihere 
prevents  bulky  and  porous  substances  from  faJlifig  witli 
the  same  velocity  as  thow  which  are  compact. 

If  the  atmosphere  were  removd,  all  liodie.i,  whethei 
light  or  heavy,  large  or  small,  would  descend  with  tU 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 


1&9 


it  firit  i.l(.v« 
moves  wiih 
[athct  frcKli 
that  evcpf 
lashul  from 
it  hM  rolW 

in  bodiei  m 
by  poohnf 
slevatej  Te^ 
vo  inchei  ia 
uced  to  the 
destination ; 
velocity,  for 
m  will  fill  a 
aving  streini 
rest,  that  the 
mass  Movi, 

r  leap  from  a 
Ihc  housetop, 
ire  he  rcachi'H 
'all. 

in  uf  a  fallini; 
lar  urithmcti> 
ty  se.'ond  of 
dilitionfi!  rat« 
the  accumu- 

•t  hoily,  when 
16  feet  1  iiirh 
g  out  the  mid 
find  that  the 
let«.Tmined  liy 


itiif  mlorlty.  Thip  fact  is  ascertained  by  experiments 
iierfoimed  with  the  air-pump. 

When  a  piece  of  coin,  for  instance  a  fniinea,  and  a 
ftather,  are  let  fall  at  the  same  instant  of  time,  from  a 
hook  which  has  held  them  at  the  top  of  the  exhausted 
receiver  of  an  air-pump,  they  arc  observed  to  fall  at  an 
equa.  rate,  and  to  strike  the  bottom  at  the  same  moment. 
Hence  it  is  demonstrated,  that  were  it  not  for  the  resist- 
ance of  the  atmosphiTc,  a  bug  full  of  fer  thors,  and  ono 
of  coins,  would  f.  tVc  m  a  fi^ivon  height  with  the  same 
velocity,  and  in  the  same  spare  of  time. 

It  has  been  stntr^d  that  the  attraction  of  gravitation 
increases  in  proportion  to  tho  quantity  of  matter  which 
the  attracting  liody  .contains.  Thus,  the  mass  of  our 
planet,  the  earth,  cxcrta  a  ()rce  of  attraction  which  pro- 
duces the  phenomena  of  weight,  and  the  falling  of  bodies 
with  a  certain  velocity. 

In  conse(iuence  of  the  different  size  and  density  of 
the ,  sun  and  planetary  bodies,  attraction  is  much 
stronger  in  some  of  them  than  others,  and  consequently 
the  weight  of  bodies  differs  in  each.  On  tha  surface  of 
the  sun,  our  pound  weight  would  weigh  upwards  of  27 
pounds,  and  a  body  would  tiill  upon  it  434  feet  the  first 
iccond.  On  tlio  surface  of  .lupitor,  our  pound  would 
weigh  about  2  pounds  4  ounces.  And  on  the  surface 
of  the  moon,  our  pound  would  weigh  only  the  fifth  part 
of  a  pound. 

As  a  l)ody  in  descending  to  the  earth  receives  increas- 
ing p-cccasions  to  its  velocity  during  every  successive 
iwond,  so  when  a  IxKly  is  projected  upwards  from  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  its  velocity  decreases  in  the  same 
proportion,  till  it  comes  to  a  state  of  momcnt.xry  rest, 
when  it  instantly  begins  to  descend  with  a  gradually  in- 
creating  velocity,  which  at  any  point  in  the  descent  is 
equal  to  its  velocity  at  the  same  point  when  ascending. 
In  this  calculation,  however,  we  omit  the  influence  of  ttie 
atmosphere,  which  would  cause  the  final  velocity  in  Iho. 
descent  to  lie  less  than  the  orii;inal  velocity  with  which 
the  body  was  projected  upwards. 

THE    CBKTRE   OF   GRAVITY. 

Terrestrial  gravitation,  as  already  explained,  does  not 
art  on  the  mere  surface  of  bodies,  or  according  to  their 
bulk,  but  ia  exerted  in  reference  to  all  the  particles  or 
jtoHM  individually  which  comiMJse  the  mass  of  a  body. 
As  the  earth  is  nearly  of  a  spherical  form,  its  attmction  is 
llic  same  nearly  as  if  il  proceeded  entirely  from  the  centre. 
On  accouc;  of  the  great  size  of  the  earth,  compared  with 
that  of  any  ordinary  bo<)y  at  its  surface,  its  attractive 
forre  acts  in  strainl'.t  lines,  seiiaibly  parallel,  proceeding 
fruin  the  earth's  centre.  In  the  case  of  liquids,  in  which 
the  atoms  slightly  cohere,  the  atoms  have  lil)crty  to  spread 
Oicmselves  o^'ci  liu  earth,  and  to  seek  tlic  lowest  situation 
for  repose.  In  the  case  of  solids,  a  ditTerent  o|)eration  is 
oliservable.  In  them,  the  particles  of  n\atter  stick  so 
closely  together,  thut  they  are  not  at  liberty  to  obey  the 
law  of  gravitation  individually,  but  rally,  as  it  were, 
lounJ  a  common  centre,  upon  which  the  force  of  attmc- 
tion  may  be  cisnsidered  to  act  for  the  general  b;'hoof. 
This  centre  is  called  the  crnlre  of  gravity,  the  centre  of 
incrlia,  or  the  tfulf  of  piira  Id  Jforict. 

Every  solid  l)o<ly  or  ileiise  mass  jwssesses  a  centre  of 
gravity,  which  Ik  the  point  upon  or  about  which  the  body 
Ikilanres  itself,  and  remains  in  iv  state  of  rest,  or  equi- 
librium, in  any  position.  The  centre  of  gravity  may  lie 
Jiscrilied  as  a  point  in  solids  which  always  seeks  its  lowest 
level,  in  the  kiiiiic  manner  that  the  lowest  level  is  sought 
lor  by  water ;  Ibr  it  is  only  by  propping  up  the  body,  that 
Ihc  centre  of  gravity  is  prevented  from  displaying  the 
erne  mode  of  aclinn.  The  centre  of  gravity  in  round, 
•|uare,  or  other  icgular  Hhai)cd  bodies,  of  uniform  density 
'a  all  their  parts,  is  the  centre  of  these  bodies.  When  a 
body  is  shajiod  irr('e;ularly,  or  when  there  ate  two  or 
Vol.  I.— 2C 


u 

Fig.  i. 
An  object  of  this  form,  and  ac 


mort  bodies  connected,  the  centre  of  gravity  is  Uie  point 
about  which  they  will  balance  each  other. 

Any  square  or  angular  body  which  we  may  pU»  w 
the  ground,  will  remain  station- 
ary, or  safely  at  rest,  provided 
an  ideal  line,  drawn  from  its 
cen./e  of  gravity,  and  passing 
to  the  ground  in  .a  direction 
perpendicular  to  the  earth's  sur- 
face, fall  within  its  base,  as  in 
fig.  2.  A  point  below  A  is  the 
centre  of  gravity ;  and  from  that 
point  the  line  of  direction  goes 
downward  to  B,  which  is  witliin 
the  edges  of  the  base, 
placed,  will  stand. 

If  the  line  of  direction  from  tlie  centre  of  gravity  falj 
without  the  outer  edge  of  the 
base,  as  in  fig.  3,  from  A  to  r,, 
then  the  object  will  not  remain 
balanced  on  its  base ;  it  will  fall 
over,  and  attain  some  position  in 
which  the  line  of  direction  falls 
within  the  boundary  of  the  base 
on  which  it  stands.  By  keeping 
this  simple  principle  in  view, 
r'tability  and  safety  will  generally 
be  secured  in  the  erection  of  ob- 
jects of  art,  such  as  houses, 
monumental  edifices,  spires,  and  obelisks,  as  weli  as  in 
tho  lading  of  coaches,  carts,  and  other  vehicles,  and  the 
pding  of  timber  or  any  kind  of  goods  in  heaps.  In  every 
instance,  the  base  ought  to  be  suthciently  broad  to  admit 
of  the  line  of  direction  from  tho  centre  of  gravity  falling 
within  it. 

A  small  degree  of  experience  seems  to  point  out  the 
propriety  of  erecting  all  kinds  of  structures  with  a  base 
wide  enough  to  secure  stability  ;  nevertheless,  in  opp<v 
sition  both  to  experience  and  the  simple  principles  of 
science,  we  often  find  tliat  stage-coaches  are  laden  in  such 
a  manner  that  their  centre  of  gravity  is  liable  to  too  greit 
a  change  of  position,  and  that  they  are  overturned,  to 
tho  personal  injurj,  and  even  loss  of  life,  of  the  passen- 
gers. The  error  in  these  instances  consists  in  raising  the 
centre  of  gravity  too  high.  At  fust,  perhaps,  tiie  centi* 
of  gravity  is  so  comparatively  low,  that,  in  the  case  of 
swaying  to  a  side,  the  line  of  direction  would  fall  within 
the  rd^e  of  the  wheel,  and  no  danger  would  ensue ;  but 
it  is  commoti  to  go  on  piling  nmsses  of  goods  or  luggage, 
or  placing  a  numlier  of  passengers  on  the  roof  of  tlio 
vehicle,  so  that  the  centre  of  gravity  becomes  considerably 
elev  aled ;  so  high,  indeed,  that  when  the  carriage  ia 
swayed,  or  jolts  to  one 
side,  the  lino  of  jirec- 
tion  is  thrown  beyond 
the  wheel,  »n\\  the  ve- 
hicle will  consequently 
fall  over.  In  the  an-- 
ncxed  cut,  fig.  4,  a 
loaded  vehicle  is  repre- 
sented crossing  an  in- 
clined plane,  or  we  may 
supfiosc  that  its  wheel 
on  one  side  has  come  Fg.  4. 

in  contact  with  a  stone  S,  which  has  raised  it  above  tho 
level  of  the  other  wheel,  so  as  to  incline  the  body  of  tlis 
vehicle  very  considerably  from  tho  horizontal.  Tht, 
centre  of  gravity  is  represented  in  two  dilferent  poaitiens. 
a  lower  with  the  line  of  direction  I.  C,  and  a  higher  wiih 
the  line  of  direction  U  C.  Had  the  vehicle  not  ueen 
high  laden,  the  line  of  direction  would  have  remained  as 
L  C,  and  as  it  falls  within  the  wheel  or  base,  the  vehicle 
would  have  maintained  its  balance ;  but  benig  now  laden 
j  to  a  considerable  height,  the  line  has  ricen  to  at  out  thf 


,i>ii^j|p|j^!«iin^ii  M,mi»».'^5  ■ 


IM 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


place  where  it  it  tnorketl  doncendinK  from  C  to  U,  beyond 
the  bwe ;  consequently  the  vehicle  must  overturn. 

There  are  instances  in  which  bodies  will  not  \w  over- 
turned, although  the  line  of  direction  falls  considerably 
beyond  the  base.  Tlirse  exceptions  to  a  common  rule 
are  observable  in  the  case  of  rapidly  and  smoothly  mov- 
ing bodieH,  in  which  cenfnfu^ul  force  seta  as  a  counter- 
poise to  the  weight  of  the  bo«ly.  A  familiar  example  of 
thb  kind  or -ura  in  the  case  of  skaters,  in  making  their 
circular  turn  <  on  the  ice,  in  which  thoy  Nind  or  lean 
greatly  beyc.il  the  per|)endirular  position  without  fulling. 
A  notice  uf  tliia  peculiarity  in  moving  bodies  will  engage 
our  attention,  under  ♦he  head  Centrifugal  Force. 

The  tendency  which  leaning  bodies  have  to  fall,  may 
also  oe  counteracted  in,  some  measure  by  the  cohesion  of 
{larta.  Thus,  there  are  many  inHtancea  of  vralls,  steeples, 
and  tuwers,  inclining  sensibly  from  the  vertical  line,  and 
yet,  by  tlie  strength  of  tlio  cement  which  binds  them, 
they  have  stood  for  ages. 

Whatever  raises  the  centra  of  gravity,  or  narrows  the 
base,  allows  the  hne  of  direction  to  pass  more  easily 
without  it,  and  diminishes  the  stability.  Hence  the 
imprudence  of  rising  up  in  carriages  or  br«its,  when  in 
danger  of  being  upset ;  and  hence,  as  we  have  just  men- 
tioned, the  danger  of  high-loading  of  vehicles.  Lately 
sn  improvement  has  been  effected  in  stage-coach  building, 
by  wtuch  a  chief  part  of  the  load  is  placed  as  low  as  the 
•xle  of  the  wheels;  and  by  this  means  the  danger  of 
overturning  is  almost  entirely  averted. 

The  centre  cf  gravity  of  a  body  is  not  always  in  the 
substance  of  the  body.  Thus,  the  centre  of  gravity  of  a 
ctrcular  ring  is  in  the  centre  uf  tlie  circle ;  of  an  elliptic 
or  oval  ring,  in  the  centre  uf  the  eUi|ieo ;  and  of  a  hollow 
cyiindric  tube,  it  is  in  the  imaginary  axis  of  the  tube. 
In  a  drum,  for  iiiBtancc,  the  centre  of  gravity  is  a  point 
ill  the  centre  of  the  drum,  where  there  is  nothing  but  uir. 

When  a  circular  object  is  placed  on  level  ground,  or  a 
horizontal  plane,  it  remains  at  rest  on  a  point  of  its  sur- 
face, because  the  line  of  direction  from  its  centre,  which 
is  its  centre  of  gravity,  falls  perpendicularly  downwards 
to  the  point  on  which  it  is  in  contact  with  the  earth  and 
at  rest ;  .  mil  becuuRC  it  could  not  possibly  get  its  centre 
of  gravity  nearer  the  earth  by  changing  its  position. 
When  a  similar  circular  object  is  placed  on  an  inclined 
plane,  it  will  net  remain  at  rest,  but  roll  over,  liecauae  the 
line  of  direction  from  its  centre  of  gravity  falls  per]x;n- 
dicularly  downwards  in  front  of  the  point  on  its  surface 
which  touches  the  plane.  On  this  account  it  rolls  over, 
•8  if  it  were  seekini;  a  sjKjt  on  which  it  might  have  the 
line  of  direction  from  its  centre  of  gravity  pussing  through 
its  point  of  contu'-t  with  the  earth.  Hence  a  circular 
body  continues  rulling  down  an  inclined  pis::?  till  it  tind 
■  level  sfiot  on  which  tiie  line  of  direction  passes  through 
its  point  of  rest. 

In  a  bar  uf  iron,  six  feet  long  and  of  e<;ual  breadth 
and  thickness,  the  centre  of  gravity  is  just  three  feet 
from  each  end,  or  exactly  in  the  middle.  If  the  bar  be 
supported  at  this  point,  it  will  balance  itself,  Iwcause  there 
•re  equal  weighs  on  l>oth  ends.  This  {)oint,  therefore, 
is  the  centre  of  gravity.  If  a  bar  of  iron  lie  loaded  at 
one  end  with  a  bull  of  a  certain  weit^ht,  then  the  centre 
of  gravity  will  not  l>e  at  the  rnidille,  but  situute('  near  the 
heavy  end  of  the  bar.  Uut  if  wu  uttuch  a  l>all  of  tlic 
same  weig.'it  to  both  ends,  the  centre  uf  gravity  is  again 
ui  the  miiitlio  uf  thr  bar.  | 

A  rcnmrkalilc  illuHtialion  of  the  principles  now  detailed,  ; 
is  exhiliitt  li  in  the  citKe  uf  the  earth  and  moon.     The 
earth  revi  Ives  round  the  sun,  in  cunsei|uence  of  a  cause 
already  ex^luinid,  nainely,  the  huii's  atlracliun ;  hut  in-  : 
slead  of  till'   centre  of  the   earth  descrihin.^   the  oval  or  ! 
elliptic   orim  round  the  nun,  it  is  the  centre  of  gravity  of  ' 
Uie  earth  and  moon  thut  duiU-ribes  it.     Wo  shall  brielly 
eip^uiii  the  re«<i>n  for  this.     The  eartii,  in  its  counH>,  is 
eoriimbereU  with  the  ui<«>u  i  body  of  about  the  seventieth  , 


of  'ts  mass ;  in  other  words,  the  moon  is  like  a  small  Dtii 
stuck  Bt  one  end  of  a  bnr,  having  the  ea  ih  or  a  largei 
ball  at  the  other  end — the  bar  Iwtween  Iwing  the  muiuuj 
attraction  oi"  the  earth  and  moon.  On  this  account,  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  the  earth  and  moon  is  at  a  poim 
somewhere  lietween  the  centres  of  the  earth  and  moou. 
This  point  lies  not  far  l)ek)w  the  earth's  surface.  Tliero- 
fore,  if  the  earth  were  to  foil  towards  the  sun,  it  would 
be  this  puini;  which  woulii  prtweed  uiohI  directly  towardu  it 
In  suspending  an  irregularly  HhnjK'd  body  from  dilTcr. 
ent  points  successively,  wo  may  learn  where  the  centre 
of  gravity  of  the  IkkIv  is  placed,  by  obs-'rviiig  t!iat  tin. 
line  of  direction  in  each  cane  pusses  through  the  «uuii 
|)oint,  which  point  is  the  centre  a 

of  gravity.  For  example,  let 
a  painter's  palette,  which  is  an 
irreguluriy  sIiujrmI  body,  Iw 
>.us|)cnded  from  the  thuml>- 
hole,  as  in  the  aimexed  cut, 
fig.  5,  and  the  line  of  direction 
will  necessarily  be  from  A  to 
B.  Next  suspend  it  from  a 
point  at  D,  and  a  new  line  of  . 
direction  will  be  obtained, 
crossing  the  line  A  I).  The 
place  where  the  two  lines  in- 
tersect, is  thus  the  centre  of 
gravity.  The  point  of  susiiensinn,  on  Iwing  removed  lu 
0,  will  give  the  same  place  of  intersection  in  the  origin,!' 


line  of  direction ;  and  a  similar  result  will  follow 


any 


other  chanije  of  the  suspension  point, 

In  the  various  natural  structures  displayed  in  the 
animal  and  vcgetuhlo  kingdoms,  the  centre  of  gravity  u 
always  so  situated,  as  to  produce  a  just  equilibrium  ami  a 
harmony  of  parts.  Every  animal  is  projierly  balanrej 
on  its  limbs,  and  every  tree  has  a  tendency  tu  grow  in  a 
direction  |)erptM)dicular  to  its  base,  whether  it  grow  fr,ini 
a  level  or  an  uiclined  plane.  !Some  animals  are  cnahloj 
to  move  in  opjiosilion  to  the  law  of  gravity,  as,  for  in. 
stance,  flies  creeping  on  the  ceiling  of  an  apnrtnient;  bul 
in  such  cases,  other  powers  in  nature  arc  exerted  to  pre- 
serve the  secure  footing  of  the  animals. 

THB    PENDULUM. 

Gravity,  which  causes  liodies  to  fall,  also  causes  thra 
to  swing  backivanls  and  forwards,  when  susjiendej  fr.^clv 
by  i  string  or  rod  from  a  puin*,  and  when  once  niovej  ti 
a  aide,  to  give  them  an  occasion  of  falling.  A  body  siU' 
pended  in  this  manner  in  callid  a  IViidiilum. 

Penilulums  usually  consist  of  u  rod  or  wire  of  nipul, 
at  the  lower  end  of  which  a  heavy  piec;  or  hall  of  liri< 
or  other  metal  is  attucluHl.  When  a  pendiduni  swini*, 
it  is  said  to  oscillate  or  vibrate ;  and  tl:u  path  whiih  lu 
ball  pursues  in  swinging,  from  it«  rt  semtilaiice  in  diw 
to  an  inverted  arch  or  l>ow,  is  callc<d  its  arc.  Jr.  tiw 
accompanying  cut,  fig.  6,  a  |K'ndu- 
lum  of  the  most  common  construc- 
tion is  represented.  A  is  the  axis 
or  point  of  8us|)ension.  B  is  the 
roil.  (I  is  the  ball,  or  u  roun 
flnttish  piece  of  metal,  which  is  r^ 
fastened  to  the  rod  by  a  B<'rew  lie-  ' 
hind,  and  by  which  screw  it  can 
lie  raised  or  lowered  on  the  rinl. 
U  ])  is  the  path  or  arc  which  the 
ball  traverses  in  swinaii..  When  the  [icmluluni  isf, 
rest,  it  hangs  iMrjx'ndicularly, as  hero  ri'|ireM'fileil. anJ  ik 
place  which  the  bull  is  seen  to  occupy  is  cnlhid  the  |ioini 
of  rest. 

The  Jiendulum  rcmiiins  at  rest   till   its  ball  m  ilnwn 
aside  to  allow  it  an  opportunity  ol  swiii^iii^  on  ii<  Wf.  |i' 
Being  raised  to  any  height  on  one  side,  and  set  nt  I'larly, 
the  hall,  by  tiie  force  of  gravity,  has  a  tendency  u  iIlK 
tlie  ground ;  but  being  cunlined  by  the  suipouUnf  ml 


B 


-4 

V,g.  fl. 


it  is  onmp 

was  forme 

point  of  St 

acquired  a 

ascending  ( 

■do  ap  thfl 

cord,  it  aira 

to  near  thi 

continues  t 

length  of  ti 

comes  to  a 

under  the  p 

At  every 

with,  or  assi 

path  or  arc 

diiuiiiished. 

tion  ollered  I 

or  point  of  f 

3r.  later,  brii 

external  fore 

urge  it  to  Rui 

'I'he  b«ll 

mentioned,  d 

certiin  porti 

depends  on  ti 

motion,  or  in 

log  divided  '■ 

the  ball  may 

tny  other  nui 

circle.     The  ( 

circamstuncea 

A  pcndiiluj 

with  a  short 

however,  in  ej 

vibration,  it  n 

llie  failing  of 

body  in  I,  2,  ; 

2,  3,  4,  and  si 

2!>,  and   so  or 

tailing.     In  th 

lengths  are  ai 

Thus,  if  the 

pendulums  be 

of  the  pendulu 

one  vibration  o 

jentfths  are  us 

The  vihratic 

terrestrial  gravi 

if  the  force  of  j 

cncy  of  tin?  bal 

weakened.    Th 

parts  of  the  eui 

mentioned,  hnl)j 

diaiiicu.-r,  or  13 

ind  as  the  atti 

centre,  the  forc« 

at  the  surface  a 

the  po.'fs.     At 

equator  an,' 

gravity.     Ue . 

tance  of  the  surf 

fugal  force,  wl.i< 

weakening  tht  a 

III  ci)nse)ueni 

«< »  i;iven  lengtl 

H  tlie  poles.    In 

(if  the  earth  Ironi 

Itio  poiiduUiin  n\\ 

therefore,  to  pi? 

"  diirereut  parti 

miy  all  vilira'    . 

luted  accor''  .,jr 

•quaior.      I'hns  ( 

^pc'^JJra. 


■\T1  •■ 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 


ISft 


ih  or  t  largci 
ig  the  mutuul 
B  account,  th» 
i»  at  ■  point 
th  and  mooh. 
•face.    Tlioro- 

Run,  it  would 
ctly  towariU  ii 
ily  IVoni  diflVr- 
iTO  Ihc  cnnlrc 
rviiig  that  iha 
ugh  tlie  iiuiui 

A 


II 

Fig.  5. 

[jinR  removed  u, 
II  in  the  originii! 
will  follow  uny 

liaplaycd  in  liie 
\trc  of  (jravily  \> 
equilibrium  andg 
iroixrly  balaiuiJ 
ncy  to  grow  in  a 
lier  it  grow  from 
fnuU  are  cnRiiliM 
Tttvity,  88,  for  in- 
imrtinrnt;  liul 
exerted  to  ^rc- 


Isn  causes  then 
8UK])ondfd  frpfly 
once  moved  lo 
A  body  8u» 
I  urn. 

or  wire  uf  nioial, 

or  ball  of  hn^ 

Mididum  Hw'nw, 

path  wliui.  it.< 

itilaiice  ill  dim 

it8  arc.     Ir.  tlie 

fA 


9 


Fill.  fl. 

{vndulum  '»'■  I 
irt'i-ciiti'd.  Bliil  l> 
cnllctl  the  \mn 

its  ball  n  iln««  i 
I;»iiiR  on  it*  «*  I 
Innd  net  m bl*'!), 

Tendency  U  ill  K  ] 
•uipc'Hnii  lol 


II U  oompelled  to  make  a  iweep  to  that  point  where  it 
tra*  formerly  hanging  at  real,  immediately  beneath  the 
point  of  suapenRion.  But  it  doea  not  atop  here ;  it  haa 
acquired  a  velocity  aufiicient  to  carry  it  onward  in  an 
afceiiding  courae  to  nearly  aa  high  a  poir.t  on  the  oprvsite 
■ido  ap  tlint  from  which  it  waa  let  fall.  Of  ita  o'  ac- 
cord, it  ni;ain  fulls  downwarda  in  the  same  arc,  a  daea 
10  near  the  point  where  it  aet  ofT;  and  thus,  (  itself, 
continues  to  swing  to  and  fro,  oi  vibrate,  for  a  certain 
Icnjjth  of  time,  till  ita  force  ia  expended,  and  it  finally 
comes  to  a  state  of  rest  in  its  original  dependent  situation 
under  the  point  of  suspcnaion. 

At  every  sweep  of  the  pendulum  (when  not  meddled 
with,  or  assisted  liy  any  external  force),  the  length  ol  the 
path  or  arc  traversed  by  the  bull  ia  in  a  small  ddgreu 
diniiiiisbed.  This  arises  from  two  causes — the  obstruc- 
tion oirered  by  the  atmosphere,  and  tho  friction  on  its  axis 
or  point  of  su?ponuinii.  These  cauaes,  therefore,  sooner 
jr. later,  bring  the  pendulum  to  a  ntate  of  rest,  unless 
txternal  force  of  soma  kind  continues  to  be  applied  to 
urge  it  to  sustain  its  action. 

The  bftll  of  a  pendulum  in  swinging,  as  has  been 
mentioned,  descrilies  the  fi^jure  of  an  arc.  This  arc  is  a 
cerliin  portion  of  a  ci'cle.  T!  e  extent  of  this  portion 
depends  on  the  force  exerted  in  setting  the  jiendulum  in 
motion,  or  in  drawing  it  aside  to  let  it  fall.  A  circle  be- 
ing divided  '"  mathematicians  into  360  deg^rees  or  parts, 
llie  ball  may  be  made  to  swing  over  five,  ten,  twenty,  or 
any  other  number  of  degrees  un".'«i'  )R0,  which  is  half  a 
circle.  'I'he  extent  of  the  arc  traversed  under  ordinary 
circomstanccs,  is  from  ten  to  twenty  tic.jrecs. 

A  pendulum  with  a  long  rod  vi.irates  slower  than  one 
with  a  short  rod.  The  tiipi  does  not  become  longer, 
however,  in  exact  proportion  ai  ve  extend  the  rod.  The 
riliralioii,  it  must  always  be  r>v:ollccted,  is  analoQrous  to 
llio  falliiis  of  bodies.  The  spaces  fallen  through  by  a 
body  in  1,  2,  3,  or  4  si^conds,  are  not  in  proportion  to  1, 
2,  3,  4,  and  so  on,  but  in  the  proportion  of  1,  4,  9,  16, 
25,  and  so  on,  or  the  squares  of  the  tima  occupied  in 
tiilUng.  In  the  case  uf  pendulums,  it  is  found  that  their 
lengths  are  as  the  squares  of  the  times  of  vibration. 
Thus,  if  the  times  occupied  by  one  vibration  of  two 
pendulums  be  1  and  'i  seconds  respectively,  the  lengths 
of  the  pendulums  will  be  as  1  and  4  ;  so  if  the  time  of 
one  vibration  of  several  pendulums  be  as  1,  2,  3,  4,  their 
^ngths  are  as  1,  4,  9,  and  16. 

The  vibrations  of  the  pendulum  l>cing  produced  by 
terrestrial  gravitation,  it  follows,  as  n  natural  result,  that, 
if  the  force  of  graviution  be  weakened,  no  will  tho  tend- 
ency of  the  ball  of  tho  pendulum  to  fall  or  .swing  be 
weakened.  This  result  is  distinctly  observable  in  dillereiit 
parts  of  the  earth.  At  the  equator,  the  earth,  as  already 
nirntioiicd,  bulges  out  to  a  thickness  of  26  miles  on  the 
diameter,  or  1 3  miles  from  the  surface  to  the  centre ; 
tad  as  the  attraction  of  gravitation  priKccds  from  the 
centre,  the  force  of  this  attraction  is  consequently  weaker 
at  the  surface  at  tho  equator  than  it  is  at  the  surface  at 
the  poles.  At  every  part  of  the  surface  between  the 
equator  an>'  '  s,  there  is  a  proportionate  increase  of 
pavity.  Be .  i  the  cflect  proiluced  by  tlie  greater  dis- 
tance of  the  surface  from  the  centre  at  the  equator,  centri- 
fugal force,  wt.ich  is  stnirigest  at  tho  equator,  assists  in 
weakening  tht  attractive  l<>rce  at  that  pliK  <-. 

In  coiisc  juence  of  the>>'  combined  causes,  a  pendulum 
of  a  i;iven  length  vibrate--  more  slowly  at  the  e<|uator  than 
il  tlie  jHiles.  In  proportion  as  we  advance  on  the  surfijco 
of  the  earth  from  the  e<ii.ator  towards  the  poles,  so  does 
ihc  pcnduUiiu  swing  or  vibrate  more  quickly.  In  order, 
therefore,  to  piewrve  uniforiiiiiy  of  s|K'ed  in  |)eniluluni8 
at  dillcrent  pnrti  of  the  globe,  that  is,  in  order  that  they 
m-ay  all  vilira'  .n  one  second,  their  length  must  be  rei^u- 
lated  accor'  ,ig  to  the  distance  of  the  places  from  the 
aquaior.  I'hui  each  degree  uf  latitude  has  its  own  length 
sl'pei'  .ajm. 


From  a  knowledge  of  these  laws  we  are  M.abM,  b) 
this  instrument,  not  only  to  dettct  certain  variations  in 
that  attraction  in  various  parts  of  the  earth,  but  also  to 
discover  the  actual  amount  of  the  attraction  at  any  given 
place. 

To  compare  the  force  of  gravity  in  different  parts  of  iha 
cnrlh,  it  is  only  necessary  to  s.viiig  the  same  pendulum 
in  the  places  under  consideration,  and  to  observe  the 
rapidity  of  its  vibrations.  The  projiortion  of  the  force  of 
gravity  in  the  several  places,  will  be  that  of  tlie  squares 
of  the  velocity  of  tho  vibration.  Olseivatioiis  to  this  ef- 
fect have  lieen  made  Ht  'several  places,  by  Biot,  Kater, 
Sahino,  and  others. 

'l"ho  uniform  vibration  of  the  pendulum  has  rendered 
it  useful  in  regulating  the  motion  of  clocks  for  mcusuring 
time.  In  the  common  clock,  a  jiendulum,  connected 
with  the  wheel-work,  and  imjiclled  by  weights,  or  a  spring, 
vegulntes  the  motions  of  tho  minute  and  hour  hands  on 
the  dial-piate,  by  which  tho  time  of  day  is  pointed  out. 
If  no  pendulum  were  employed,  the  wheels  would  go 
very  irregularly.  The  pendulum  is  regulated  in  length, 
so  as  Zo  vibrate  sixty  times,  each  time  being  a  second,  in 
the  space  of  a  minute.  At  each  vibration,  it  acts  upon 
the  tooth  of  a  wheel,  which  turns  tho  rest  of  tho  machinery. 
In  order  that  tho  pendulum  may  vibrato  neither  quicker 
nor  slower  than  sixty  times  in  a  minute,  in  the  latitude 
of  London  it  must  measure  39  inches  and  aliout  the  7th 
of  an  inch  from  the  point  of  suspension  to  tho  centre  of 
oscillation.  A  pendulum  at  Edinburgh  would  require  to 
be  a  small  degree  longer.  The  greatest  possible  nicety 
is  required  in  the  adjustment  of  the  length,  for  a  difibr- 
cnce  in  extent  amounting  to  the  lUiJUth  part  of  an  inch, 
would  cause  an  error  of  about  one  second  in  e  day.  There- 
fore, to  moke  a  pendulum  go  slower  by  one  second  a  day, 
it  must  1)0  lengthened  by  the  lOOOthpart  of  an  inch;  and 
to  make  it  go  quicker,  it  must  be  shortened  in  the  sanM 
pro|iortion. 

It  is  possible  to  cause  short  pendulums  to  regulate  the 
movement  of  clocks  the  same  as  long  pendulums ;  and 
thi<i  is  done  in  cases  where  long  pendulums  would  be  in- 
convenient, or  inelegant  in  appearvuce.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  shortening  the  pendulum  to  a  fourth  of  ita 
ordinary  length,  by  which  it  bents  or  vibrates  twice  instead 
of  oneo  in  a  second.  The  wheel-work  is  constructed  to 
suit  lliis  arrangement, 

miE    LAWS   or  MOTION. 

Motion,  as  :  y  mentioned,  is  the  chaii^g  of  plaee, 

or  the  opiMisitr  ,  i  rest.  According  to  tht*  general  explana- 
tions which  have  been  given,  il  appears  that  motion  in 
bodies  is  as  natural  us  rest,  and  that  matter  passively 
submits  to  remain  in  either  of  these  states  in  which  il 
may  be  placed,  provided  no  external  force  <,r  obstacle  in- 
terfere to  cause  an  alteration  of  condition.  These  and 
other  fundamental  laws  of  nature,  in  relation  to  rest  and 
motion  of  matter,  are  laid  down  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton  '.i 
the  following  three  propasitions  : — 

1st.  Every  body  must  persevere  in  its  state  of  rest, 
or  of  uniform  motion  in  a  strai<j;ht  line,  unless  it  be 
compelled  to  change  that  state  by  forces  impressed  upon  it 

2d.  Every  change  of  motion  must  be  proportional  to  the 
impressed  force,  and  must  Ih-  in  the  dirt-clion  of  that  straight 
line  in  which  the  force  is  iiiipres:ie(l. 

3d.  Action  must  always  be  e((oal  and  contrary  to  re- 
action ;  or  the  actions  of  two  bodies  upon  each  other  must 
be  equal,  and  their  directions  must  Ik;  ojipositc. 

These  pro[x>8itions  we  shall  treat  separately.     In  the 
first  of  the  series  there  ere  three  points  requiring  coaside' 
ation,  namely,  tho  pi'rmaiu-ncy.  the  imil'ormity,  and  tlui 
straight  line  of  direction  of  motion  in  bodies. 

As  was  formerly  observed,  it  is  impossible  to  show 
either  pcriiianeiicy  or  uniformity  of  motion  in  Inidies  ttjiiw. 
or  near  the  earth ;  for  all  moving'  Ixxlies  ure  sooner  o 
later  brought  to  a  state  of  re ^t  by  the  '( ice  of  attrtrtioa, 


IM 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Motion,  and  tlie  oppoiition  of  the  Btmoaphere.  It  it  only, 
therefore,  in  tho  ciue  of  the  great  worka  of  nature,  or 
planetary  botliea,  that  the  lawa  of  motion  are  moat  clearly 
tlid  fully  illuatrotoil. 

The  tendency  of  a  body  to  move  in  a  atraight  line  from 
the  point  whoiice  it  wt  out,  i*  aa  much  a  property  of  mat- 
ter aa  tho  uniformity  of  notion.  If  we  conceive  the  idea 
of  a  body  impelled  into  a  aUte  of  motion  by  any  given 
force,  and  at  the  »nme  time  conceive  the  idea  that 
there  ia  no  obfftacle  to  interrupt  it,  no  attractive  force 
to  bend  it  aHidc,  wo  ahnll  th-^n  fully  underitand  that  a 
moving  body  must,  as  a  matter  if  neceiwity,  from  ita  pro- 
perty of  inertiii,  orocecd  in  p  ^itraight  line  of  direction— it 
ffitiat  go  on  in  0  I  oven  path  for  ever. 

CNTRirvb  ih  roRci  and  circvlak  motion. 

E.Jiea  in  flying  round  a  centre  ha.  a  tendency  to 
proceed  in  a  straight  line,  and  this  principle  of  motion,  aa 
already  menlioneil,  ia  termed  rtntnfugal  forrr.  Exam- 
plea  of  thia  tendency  are  very  familiar  to  our  obaervation. 
When  we  whirl  rapidly  a  aling  with  a  atone  in  it,  and 
tuddenly  allow  the  atone  to  fly  ofT,  it  proceeda  at  firHt 
aenaibly  in  a  straight  line,  but  is  gradually  pulled  to  the 
earth  by  attraction.  In  turning  a  circular  grindatone 
rapidly  with  water  in  contact  with  it,  we  perceive  a  rim 
of  water  fir'it  rising  on  the  stone  and  next  flying  off;  and 
the  more  rapidly  we  turn  the  atone,  so  does  the  water  fly 
off  with  the  greater  force.  In  grinding  corn  by  two 
rapidly  turning  stones  playing  on  each  other,  the  grain 
poured  in  at  an  opening  at  tho  centre  ia  quickly  shuffled 
toward*  the  edges  of  tho  stones,  and  expelled  in  the  con- 
dition of  meal  or  flower.  If  we  put  some  water  in  a  vca- 
«e!,  and  rs'iidly  turn  it  in  one  direction,  we  shall  find  that 
the  water  endeavours  to  escape,  and  rises  up  to  the  edges 
of  the  vessel,  leaving  a  deep  hollow  in  the  middle.  Tho 
tendency  to  fly  ulf  from  a  centre  is  made  use  of  in  tho 
manufacture  of  pottery :  Soft  clay  being  placed  on  a  re- 
rolving  wheel,  it  quickly  spreads  towards  the  circumfe- 
t  ice  of  the  machine,  and  ia  guided  or  moulded  by  the 
band  of  the  potter  into  the  required  form.  In  forming 
common  crown  or  window-glass,  advantage  is  also  taken 
of  the  principle  of  centrifugal  force.  A  thick  round  mass 
of  glaas,  soflencd  by  heat  and  fixed  at  the  middle  on  an 
iron  rod,  being  mode  to  turn  rapidly  round,  first  in  o.  •> 
direction,  and  then  in  the  opposite,  and  continuing  thik 
alternating  rotary  motion  till  the  glass  beromes  cool, 
ia  found  to  spread  out  into  a  large,  thin,  circular  plate. 
From  this  plate,  square  panes  of  glass  are  afterwards  cut. 

In  the  same  manner  as  solid  bodies  laid  on  a  whirling 
table  are  thrown  off,  so  water  in  a  vessel  which  is  caused 
to  apin  round  in  any  way,  aa  on  the  centre  of  a  horizontal 
wheel,  instead  of  lying  at  the  bottom,  is  raised  ull  round 
•gainst  the  sides  of  the  vessel. 

Equestrians,  in  performing  their  feats  of  horsemaniihip, 
alwaya  incline  their  Ixxlies  inwards  when  standing  on  a 
horse  which  ia  running  round  a  circle.  Centrifugal 
force  having  a  tendency  to  impel  them  outwards,  is  tlitss 
counteracted  by  the  inward  leaning,  and  forms  a  species 
of  support  to  their  overhanging  IkmIIcs.  A  horse  running 
in  a  circle,  or  quickly  turning  a  comer,  naturally  adopts 
the  tune  counteracting  posture,  and  leans  inward*.  A 
ikater,  in  moving  in  a  circular  or  curvilinear  path  on 
smooth  ice,  also  leans  inwrtrds,  so  much  so,  that  if  he 
were  to  stand  still  in  this  posture,  he  would  inevitably 
Call  on  his  side ;  but  centrifugal  force,  which  has  a  ten- 
dency to  irn|)el  his  body  outwards  from  the  curve,  or  in  a 
straight  line  of  motion,  sustains  him,  as  it  does  the  eques- 
trian, and  ho  therefore  moves  gracefully  anJ  safely  in 
the  circular  path  which  his  fancy  directs.  In  this  and 
»ther  instances,  we  find  the  force  of  gravity  overcome  by 
centrifugal  tbrce.  It  is  in  obedience  to  tills  principlu,  that 
the  earth  bulges  out  to  tho  thiduies*  of  26  miles  upon 
Uie  circumference  at  the  equator,  where  the  whirling  mo- 
liob  i*  moa*  ra^ad 


Thus,  centrifugal  force  is  the  tendency  It  tlv  off  In  » 
*tr^.:«at  lino,  or  at  a  tangent,  from  motion  rounu  a  ecu. 
tTo;  and  the  power  which  prcventa  bodie*  from  flying  ol^ 
and  drrwt  them  towards  tho  centre,  is,  aa  already  men. 
tinned,  called  ctniriptlal,  or  itntrt-Mtking  force.  All 
bodie*  moving  in  circles  are  constantly  acted  upon  liv 
these  opposite  force*,  as  may 
be  exemplified  by  tho  an- 
nexed cut.  Pig.  7.  A  is  a 
point  to  which  a  string  with 
a  ball  at  the  end  of  it,  B,  is 
attached.  On  forcing  the 
uui!  D  into  motion,  it  will 
dcscrilKs  a  circle  round  tho 
point  A,  in  which  case  the 
string  Lb  tho  centripetal  force. 
The  ball  in  whirling,  how- 
ever, having  a  continual  ten- 
dency to  fly  off,  if  it  be  dis- 
engaged from  tho  string  at  C,  will  go  in  a  ktraight  Ihie, 
CD;  if  at  E,  it  will  go  in  tho  line  E  F ;  if  at  O,  in  the 
Une  (i  H  ;  and  so  on,  at  every  point  in  tho  circle. 

The  mutual  action  of  centrifugal  and  ccntrii)otal  fjrces, 
in  the  case  of  circular  motion,  proceeds  according  to  a 
certain  ratio.  If  the  mass  of  the  revolving  body  l)e  in- 
creased, its  distance  from  the  centre  and  velocity  remaiiy 
ing  the  same,  ita  centrifugal  force  will  be  increased  in  the 
same  proportion.  If  the  distance  from  the  centre  Ik-  in- 
creosed,w),i'B  the  macs  and  the  time  of  revolution  rcmoin 
tho  same,  the  centrifugal  force  will  also  be  increased  in 
the  same  proportion.  If  the  number  of  revolutions  per- 
formed in  a  given  time  be  twice  as  many,  the  distance 
and  mass  being  unchanged,  the  centrifugal  force  will  I* 
four  times  as  great ;  if  three  times  as  many,  the  force 
will  be  nine  timea  as  gtvat ;  if  four  times  us  many,  it 
will  be  sixteen  times  as  great ;  and  so  on  in  the  same  pro- 
portion. Tho  masses  of  the  planets,  and  their  distances 
from  the  sun,  being  various,  tho  forces  which  aflcct  theiii 
arc  alsOj  similarly  varied. 

The  line  round  which  a  bo<ly  performs  a  motion  of 
'otation,  is  called  an  uris.  This  axis  may  lie  only  ima 
ginary,  Ukc  that  of  tlio  earth  ;  or  real,  as  ilie  axle  of  a 
wheel.  The  bo«ly  may  revolve  about  two  projecting 
pins  or  pivots  resting  in  sockets,  in  which  cimc  its  aiik 
is  a  straight  line  joining  the  pivots;  or  it  may  turn  on 
a  cylindrical  rot!  of  small  diameter,  passing  through  the 
body,  like  a  wheel  on  its  axle.  It  is  evident  thut  every 
jioint  of  tho  b(Hly,  during  its  revolution,  will  descrilx'  a 
circle,  the  centre  of  which  in  s  point  in  the  axis  of  the 
body. 

In  the  turning  of  a  wheel  on  ita  axis,  that  part  vfhich 
is  at  the  greatest  distance  from 
the  centre,  has  the  greatest  ve- 
locity ;  and  at  this  extremity  of 
tho  circumference  the  centri- 
fugol  force  is  greatest  For  ex- 
ample, in  the  representation  of 
a  wheel  with  orms  radiating 
from  a  centre.  Fig.  8,  the  velo- 
city is  greater  at  the  extremity 
of  the  arm,  at  A,  than  it  is  at  D, 
half  the  distance  from  the  cen-  '"'*'■  ^■ 

tre.     But  the  point  U  goes  round  as  often  aa  tlio  point  A, 
having  a  smaller  circle  to  traverse. 

In  tliis  manner,  the  velocity  of  revolving  Ixxlies  must 
always,  oa  a  matter  of  neccs.ity,  increase  in  prnporti'n 
to  the  distance  from  the  centie  of  motion.  Hence  a 
comparatively  small  centrifugal  force  near  the  centre 
is  prodigiously  increased  towards  the  circumfcrenco. 
By  increasing  the  force,  and  adding  to  the  vtlocily  of 
a  revolving  body,  the  centrifugal  Ibrco  becomes  so  (irf«t 
that  it  will  in  some  cases  overcome  the  cuhcsivcncM  in 
the  material  in  the  body,  and  causes  it  to  brtak  and  ll\ 
off  in  pieces.     When  grinding-stunes  are  thus  wliirld 


NATURAL   PHILOSOPHY. 


m 


oJ 


motion  of 

only  ima 

lie  axle  of  a 

jirojccling 

lino  iU  axu 

;iy  tuni  nc 
innigli  ihf 
tlmt  evi'ry 
ili'scrilH'  a 

11X18  of  llie 

putt  which 


llic  point  A, 

IkhVios  mual 
In  prnporti'n 
li.  Ht'iicf  a 
the  lonire 
irrnml'erfnct). 
\c  vflm'ity  of 
lines  80  nrful 
liortivrneM  in 
Jirtak  iiiul  fl> 
IthUB  wliiiM 


fHtli  gn'xt  Tiipitlity,  thry  are  npl  to  bo  deitroyed,  flying 
'n  pietioi,  to  the  extreme  danger  of  thoae  who  are  uiing 
them. 

Ba<liof  movaMo  on  an  axii  of  rotation  are  lubmittod 
to  ditTcrcnt  kinili  of  forcei.  They  are  generally  di»- 
tinguiiihod  by  the  duration  of  their  action  into  inHtan- 
taneouR  and  i-ontinued  forces.  If  the  body  which  audnina  ' 
an  action  of  the  Ibrmcr  kind  he  quieaccnt  and  free,  it 
will  move  in  the  direction  in  which  the  impulae  ia  given 
witi  uniform  motion.  It,  however,  t^  e  force  improued 
uiion  it  l>o  incapable  of  iiHting  it  in  motion,  then  it 
rcccivos  a  ohork,  the  cflbct  of  which  ia  called  peri-ustimu 
A  continufd  force  produces  a  continued  eflbct  If  the 
body  be  free  and  previously  quiescent,  this  effect  is  a 
continual  incrcaao  of  velooity.  If  the  body  be  go  re- 
strained that  the  applied  force  cannot  put  it  in  motion, 
the  etfci't  Im  a  continued  pressure  on  the  points  or  lines 
which  sustain  it 

A  solid  bo<ly  which  is  movable  upon  ■  Axed  axis,  is 
•usccptiblo  of  no  motion,  except  one  of  rotation  upon  the 
axis.  If  it  be  submitted  to  the  action  of  instantaneous 
forces,  one  or  other  of  the  following  ctfcuts  must  ensue : — 
1.  The  axis  may  resist  the  forces,  and  prevent  any 
■notion.  8.  The  axis  may  mo<Iify  the  effect  of  the  forces, 
sustaining  a  corresponding  neruussinn,  and  the  body  re- 
ceiving a  motion  of  -station,  .i.  The  forces  applied 
may  bo  such  as  woulu  cause  the  bixly  to  spin  round  the 
tx'u  even  were  it  not  fixed,  in  which  case  the  body  will 
receive  a  motion  of  rotation,  but  tho  axis  will  suflcr  no 
percussion. 

What  lias  been  just  observed  of  the  effect  of  '-.-.stan- 
taneous  forces,  is  likewise  applVable  to  continued  ones. 
I,  The  axis  may  cnl.'rcly  resist  the  effect  of  c-ch  forces, 
in  which  cas<>  it  will  suffer  a  prcBs,:ro  which  may  be  esti- 
msted  by  the  rules  for  the  composition  of  force.  2.  It 
Diay  modify  tho  effect  of  the  applied  forces,  in  which  case 
it  must  also  sustain  a  pressure,  and  tho  body  roust  re- 
c«ivc  a  motion  of  rotation  which  is  subject  to  constant 
vaiiation.  owing  to  the  incessant  action  of  the  forces. 
3.  The  forces  may  be  such  as  would  communicate  to  tho 
body  the  same  rotatory  motion  if  the  axis  wore  not  fixed. 
In  this  case  the  forces  will  produce  no  pressdre  on  the 
axis. 

The  power  of  centrifugal  force  in  rapidly  whirling 
bodies,  may  be  rendered  so  great  as  to  overcome  the 
t'lirce  of  gravity.  In  whirling  a  aling  with  a  stone  in  it, 
the  stone  ilocs  not  fall  out  of  its  place  in  the  sling.  The 
following  is  a  more  striking  example  : — Place  a  jug  of 
nrator  on  the  inside  uf  tho  rim  of  a  wheel  a  few  feet  in 
diiimoter ;  then,  beginning  gradually,  set  the  wheel  in 
rapid  motion,  and  it  will  bo  oliservetl  that  the  jug  retains 
ili  place,  whirling  round  in  a  perfectly  stable  manner, 
and  that  even  the  water  in  it  is  not  spilled.  Thus, 
gravity,  or  the  tendency  to  fall  downwards,  is  overcome 
by  centrifugal  force.  If  t'.ie  jug  were  placed  in  a  situation 
in  tiio  wheel,  near  the  centre  of  motion,  whore  the  cen- 
tifugal  force  is  weak,  it  would  at  once  fall  to  the  groiii'.d. 

LAWS  or   PROJECTILES. 

Bodies,  on  being  projected  by  any  impulsive  forces,  are 
called /jn.ycc.'iVcj,  and  are  observed  to  pursue  a  curvilinear 
0'  hcnt  line  of  direction  in  their  motion.  The  liending 
fiiim  the  8traii;ht  line  is  produced  by  the  force  of  gravity, 
uiil  ■'  the  cliiiiige  is  proportional  to  tho  iinpres.<icd  force." 
X  Mi  projected  fi.>m  a  cannon,  a  stone  thrown  by  the 
kind,  and  water  spouted  from  a  conHned  vessel,  furnish 
iVniliar  examples  of  curvilinear  motior. 

It  is  a  remarkable  law  of  motion,  that  whether  the 
f)'Cf  wl.ich  projects  a  lioily  lie  great  or  small,  the  body, 
it  iL'owii  horizontally,  will  reach  the  surface  of  the  earth 
(run  the  same  height,  in  the  same  spaue  of  time,  not  cal- 
eubtjng  resistance  of  the  air.  For  example,  if  two  guns 
iro  fired  from  the  same  spot,  at  tho  same  instant,  and  in 
a  Iturixontal  direUion,  one  of  tho  balls  falling  half  a  mile, 


and  the  other  •  mile  distant,  it  will  be  found  l\,at  the  ball 
which  proceeds  the  greatest  distance  tnkes  |irecisrly  tha 
same  time  to  reach  *he  ground  which  the  other  doe*. 
The  time  of  flight,  as  it  is  called,  of  two  balls  will  be  the 
same  in  whatever  direction*  and  with  whatever  velocitiq* 
they  are  flred,  providij  they  reach  the  same  height  Th« 
reason  for  the  same  length  of  time  being  occupied  in 
falling  by  both  balls,  is,  that  they  are  both  curried  down- 
ward at  tho  saine  rate  by  gravity.  Hence,  a  ball  d  opfted 
lierfiendirularly  from  the  top  of  a  high  tower,  does  not 
reach  the  ground  sooner  than  a  ball  shot  from  the  same 
height  to  the  distance  of  one  or  more  miles  in  a  horizontal 
direction. 

In  projecting  bodies  th.ough  tho  atmosphere,  great  ad' 
vantage,  in  point  of  distance,  is  gained  by  iin)N-lling  them 
from  heights,  because  a  ball  thrown  from  a  high  situation 
to  a  lower,  reckoning  its  whole  course,  is  more  aided  than 
retarded  by  gravity.  When  tho  bull  is  projected  from  a 
lower  situation  to  a  higher,  it  is  in  the  first  place  retarded 
by  gravity  in  its  ascent,  and  the  uccWeration  afterward* 
by  gravity  being  less  tiian  this  previous  retardation,  it 
consequently  dors  not  go  so  far,  or  has  not  such  a  wid* 
range,  as  if  projected  from  a  height  Skilful  generals,  in 
bombarding  towns  at  a  safe  distance,  take  advantage  of 
this  law  of  projectiles. 

We  are  now  prepared  for  the  consideration  of  one  of 
the  most  important  principles  in  dynamics,  namely,  the 
law  of  motion  which  governs  a  body  afXur  receiving  a  pro 
jectilc  impulse. 

A  projectile  exhibits  a  composition  of  motion,  namely, 
a  horizontal  motion  forward,  when  thrown  in  that  direo 
tion,  produced  by  the  iniprcKsed  force ;  mid  a  descend* 
ini;  motion,  produced  by  gravity,  or  the  earth's  attraction. 
Tliese  two  motions  i"  :  unequal ;  they  are  not  at  the  same 
vi'lucity.  The  hon/.ontal  motion  is  uniform,  while  the 
descending  motion,  according  to  the  law  uf  gravitation  in 
relation  to  falling  bodies,  ia  accelerated.  The  consequence 
is,  that  the  projectile,  as  already  mentioned,  pursues  • 
curved  line  of  direction,  the  convex  side  of  the  Cliive 
being  uppermost 

The  degree  of  curvature  of  the  line  of  motion  depends 
on  the  amount  of  the  original  projectile  force.  The  law 
is,  the  greater  the  projectile  force,  or  the  grualcr  tho  origi- 
nal velocity  of  the  object,  so  is  the  sweep  of  the  curre 
proportionally  greater. 

Let  us  suppose  that  the  projectile  force  is  sufficient  to 
cirry  a  cannon  ball  ten  miles;  this  will  give  a  very  wide 
curve,  allowing  tlmt  the  ball  is  shot  from  a  lol\y  situation 
But  lot  us  add  to  the  projectile  force,  and  send  the  ball 
double  the  distance,  and  the  curve  iij  now  exceedingly 
wide.  If  we  in  this  manner  go  on  adding  to  the  pro- 
jectile force,  we  at  length  give  the  ball  such  a  motal 
force,  that  it  will  go  quite  round  the  world  ;  instead  of 
describing'  portions  of  curves,  it  will  dcscribt;  a  whole  circle. 
This  conducts  us  to  a  most  extensive  result.  We  have 
at  once  placed  licfore  us  a  rea.son  why  the  planetary 
luMlies  should  have  assumed  curvilinear  paths  in  relation 
to  the  sun.  The  original  pi-ujeclile  force  which  they  re- 
ceived in  connection  with  tho  force  of  gravitation,  ha* 
obliged  them  to  pursue  curved  lines  in  their  motion ;  and 
once  being  disengaged,  they  have,  by  a  balance  of  centri- 
fugal and  centripetal  forces,  continued  to  travel  in  circu- 
lar, or,  properly  speaking,  elliptical  orbits — the  cllipticity 
being  caused  by  n  want  of  ovact  uniformity  lietwcen  the 
forces  which  atlect  them. 

ACTION   AND    REACTION. 

We  proceed  to  a  consideration  of  the  first  clause  n  the 
■  third  proposition  of  Newton — "  Action  must  always  be 
equal  and  contrary  to  reaction." 

Action  is  the  impression  of  force.  A  blow  is  action ; 
pressure  is  action.  Reaction  is  resistance ;  but  the  word 
resistance  dues  not  fully  convey  the  meaning  of  reactioiL 
which  properly  signifies  tho  action  of  striking  or  preisinj 


IM 


INFORMATION   FOR  TIIK  PKOPLB. 


bick,  *»Mi  allbouKh  tno  body  atrurk  or  prc«>H  upon  Ho 
noi  more.  Whi-ii  «  man  utrikci  ■  humnuT  upon  ■  flxnl 
■tone,  the  etonfl  itrikrii  ihn  hammer  «t  Iho  mom«'nl  of 
onlact  u  miwh  •■■  thn  hamriHsr  utrikmi  it  Dut  if  the 
itgne  be  not  fiinl,  «n<l  I*  littlilr  to  be  riuily  upwt,  then 
itM  reu-tion  i"  U-m,  Hnd  it  noqiiirei  ■  momentum.  When 
■  N)y  thrown  Um  t>ull  n«iiinit  the  w«ll  of  «  houxe,  the  wall 
ri'a<-t«  on  the  ball,  nml  i-auie*  it  t<i  rcliound  ;  but  if  the 
K)y  throw  hi*  ball  at  n  pane  of  rIbiib  with  the  mime  force, 
the  RJaae,  having  the  p<iwer  to  roaiat  only  a  |>ortion  of  'he 
furre,  give*  way  before  it.  In  thia  raae,  if  wo  luppoae  the 
boll  to  poaaeiM  the  artion  or  force  of  4,  and  the  glaaa  to 
ixiKaeaa  the  n-a<-ti»ii  of  3,  the  ball  paininK  thrniiKh  the 
glaM  kiaea  i  in  ita  force,  and  retain*  the  remaining  3. 
[f  it  then  came  aifaiimt  another  pane  poaaeaainK  a  reactive 
power  of  3,  it  would  not  break  the  glaaa,  and,  ita  force 
being  now  H|><'nt,  it  would  fall  to  the  ground.  Thua, 
"action  and  reaction  are  equal." 

A  ttory  ia  told  of  a  pcrion  who,  fVom  hia  knowledge 
of  tha  law  of  action  and  reaction,  betted  that  h«  would 
lie  down  on  the  ^ound  and  allow  an  anvil  to  \m  placed 
upon  hia  brcnat,  and  that  any  one  roiKht  atrike  the  anvil 
with  aa  much  force  a«  he  waa  pleaaed  to  exert  In  thia 
cnae,  the  peraon  who  made  the  oflcr  waa  quite  aafe,  pro- 
viiled  he  could  Rupp<irt  the  weiKht  of  the  anvil;  for  if  ■ 
blow  were  ijivon  with  the  utnioat  force  by  a  compara- 
tively light  bo<ly,  as  a  hammer,  though  it  would  com- 
municate nearly  double  ita  momentum  to  the  anvil,  yet 
tlio  anvil,  being  «o  heavy,  would  acquire  ao  amull  a  ve- 
I  )rity  that  the  ahock  given  to  the  peraon  wouM  he  inaenai- 
ble.  AVerc  a  freestone  of  the  aame  weight  oa  the  anvil 
uaed,  it  would  give  a  still  Iraa  ahock,  for  the  action  and 
roaction  of  perfectly  elaatic  bocliea  ia  twice  aa  great  aa  that 
of  inelaatic  bradiea.  Iron  baa  more  elasticity  than  stone. 
It  ia  by  reaction  acting  contrary  or  in  opposition  to 
iu:tion,  that  the  movements  of  living  objecta  are  rendered 
eifcctual.  When  we  walk  on  the  ground,  the  ground 
rraiata  the  preskure,  aiid  we  feel  ouraelvea  ateadicd.  A 
bird  in  flying  pushes  itself  onward  by  the  flapping  of  ita 
wings  against  the  partially  reaisting  medium  of  the  at- 
raoaphero.  The  partially  reaisting  force  of  water,  in  the 
tame  manner,  allows  a  fiah  to  propel  itself  by  ita  tail  and 
Ana.  A  sailor  in  rowing  a  boat  cauaea  the  oara  to  ptish 
against  the  water,  and,  the  water  partially  reaiati.ig  the 
force,  motion  is  communicati-d  to  the  boat  la  pushing 
t  boBt  from  the  shore,  the  firm  ground  has  such  a  power 
of  reaction,  that  we  are  able  to  give  the  boat  much  greater 
momentum  than  if  wo  pushed  only  against  water.  If  we 
go  into  the  boat  and  try  to  move  it,  by  merely  preaaing 
■gainat  some  part  of  its  fabric,  no  motion  whatever  ia 
produced,  for  the  action  and  reaction  are  equal.  The 
whole  force  employed  must  be  rendered  greater  than  the 
reaction,  otluTwist)  no  motion  can  be  communicated  to 
the  body. 

When  two  bodies  come  into  coiliaion  with  each  other, 
as  in  the  case  of  two  bodioi  moving  in  a  straight  line,  bat 
oppoaito  course,  to  each  other,  the  law  of  action  and  re- 
action being  equal,  will  not  bo  clearly  illustrated,  unleaa 
the  collision  be  in  the  direction  of  the  centre  of  gravity 
or  inertia  of  the  two— in  common  language,  unless  the 
blow  be  fair.  Tlie  centre  of  gravity  in  cases  of  thia 
kind,  is  called  the  rttUrt  of  action,  or  perruuion.  For  ex- 
ample, when  we  strike  a  ball  with  a  club,  fairly  against 
'ts  side  opposite  to  its  centre  of  gravity,  it  ia  impelled  to 
CJiisiderable  distance- ;  but  if  wo  strike  it  above  this  cen- 
tra! point,  a  part  of  the  force  is  ex|>cnded  in  vain,  or  lost, 
vA  the  ball  moves  but  a  comparatively  short  distance. 
Er.periencc  has  dc'monstrate<l  that  the  centre  of  action  in 
hammers  should  lie  in  the  head  or  striking  part;  and, 
Ihcrcfore,  in  striking  with  these  instruments,  the  blow 
may  be  given  with  every  advantage.  But  when  an  at- 
tempt is  made  to  strike  with  an  object  in  which  the  centre 
of  action  is  at  a  pla<«  short  of  its  extreme  point,  for 
•istanra,  a  nommoa  iror.  poker,  a  part  of  the  action  ia 


ex(iendeil  towards  the  hand  of  the  person  who  atrfk*^ 
and  be  feels  a  disagreeable  jiirring  aensntion  in  his  arok 
Tills  <l<-niiition  of  the  cetilre  of  nctloi  nppljrs  only  |g 
the  !iu)tit>n  of  bodies  in  a  straight  line.  In  the  case  of 
revolving  hcdiea,  the  centre  of  Bclinn  or  |M>n"iMion  ia  i 
point  in  it,  to  which  if  an  immovable  olMacle  bf  npp|i«i«l 
the  bo<ly  will  remain  at  rest  without  aiy  tendency  in 
move  in  any  diroctiim,  and  the  axis  will  rfccive  no  ahork 
III  straight  rods,  or  bodies  of  any  form,  s(iH|M>ndrd  i* 
pendulums,  the  centre  of  oocillstiim  ia  the  aanio  as  tha 
centre  of  action  in  revolving  liotliea. 

MOTION    IN    n.ANTIO    ■ODICt. 

In  reference  to  the  efl'rcts  of  collision,  Imilies  are  d). 
vided  into  three  clasxea — hani,  wiR,  hikI  eliixlic,  A  hard 
bmly  is  one  that  suffers  no  chniige  of  form  l>y  the  sctioo 
'>f  any  force.  A  soft  body  is  one  that  undergoes  a  chsni^ 
uf  form  by  this  means,  ^n  elastic  body  sulTcrs  a  nxv 
mentary  change  of  form  by  the  action  of  any  force  im. 
preaaed  u|Km  it,  and  imm4>diat<'ly  springs  back,  or  recnvrn 
itH  original  form.  The  first  two  cIushos  are  yled  iHtlonit 
btKlies. 

If  two  equal  inelastic  bodies  be  moving  with  equal 
velocities  in  opposite  directions,  aiid  come  in  collision, 
each  will  destroy  the  onwanl  motion  of  the  other,  iinj^ 
consequently,  liolh  will  lie  retluced  to  a  ntnte  of  rcBt.  |f 
there  be  any  ela«ticily  in  tJic  UxlirH,  they  will,  iiccorillnu 
to  their  degree  of  elasticity,  rrlMUmd  from  each  other,  and 
a  positive  process  uf  reaction  will  he  exhibited.  I)y  ihii 
means  there  will  lie  at  once  a  counteraction  and  trans- 
mission of  force.  Aa  aliove  stateil,  when  the  InMlini  ore 
perfectly  elastic,  the  action  and  reaction  are  double  that 
of  inelastic  liodies. 

An  example  of  the  transmission  of  force  or  motion 
from  one  body  to  another,  while  the  trimnmitliiig  bnlipi 
remain  at  rest  from  their  mutual  eounternction  oi  tlu 
force  CAmmunicateil,  may  be  seen  in  the  ciise  of  «  r,,^ 
of  bilhard  balls,  which  possess  a  certain  elunticity.  pjare 
six  billiunl  balls  in  a  row  on  n  smooth  plane,  ami  |(.t 
them  all  be  pretty  close  to  each  other,  or  even  in  contart 
Then  give  a  smart  blow  to  the  first  ball,  or,  as  wo  mai 
call  it.  No.  1 ;  it  will  inatuntly  strike  against  No.  3,  whick 
will  communicate  the  force  to  No.  3,  and 
from  a  it  will  lie  given  to  4,  and  from  4  to 
5,  and  from  6  to  6.  None  of  the  bulls,  how- 
ever, will  sensibly  move  from  the  sjxit  in 
which  it  rests,  except  the  last  of  the  row, 
which,  having  no  ball  to  impinge  upon,  will 
roll  away,  and  thus  ex[iend  the  force  com- 
municatee] by  the  blow  upon  No.  1.  An 
ex|ieriment  of  this  kind  is  generally  per- 
formed up<in  a  number  of  elastic  balls  of 
a  small  size,  susfiended  in  a  row  by  threads,  as  in  fig.  9,  in 
which  case  there  is  no  friction  to  interrujit  the  proceN  of 
action  and  reaction. 

MrLICTID   MOTION. 

A  bo<ly  projected  by  n  single  force  proceed*  tn  a 
straight  line  till  a  new  force  act  upon  it,  and  wnd  it  on  a 
now  line  of  direction.  When  a  moving  bmly  is  thus  im- 
pelled into  a  new  line  by  striking  against  some  body,  iti 
motion  is  said  to  lie  rtftcclnt. 

Examples  of  reflected  motion  are  very  common— m. 
for  instance,  whe:.  a  rolling  bull  encounters  an  opiKxin? 
atone  in  ita  path,  in  which  cose  it  flics  off  obliiiiiely  in  j 
new  direction ;  when  we  throw  n  thin  piece  of  slate  alonj 
the  suridce  of  a  river,  and  miike  it  skip  from  luint  ic 
point;  or  when  on  apple,  in  falling  from  a  tree,  Inurhti 
a  lower  branch  in  its  descent,  and  rebounds  in  a  Hlantinii 
direction  to  the  ground. 

It  is  found  by  experimenta,  that  moving  boilieii  nlxicm 
certain  laws  in  rea|»ect  to  the  line  of  direction  they  pur- 
sue in  rebounding  or  l>eing  reflected  from  any  impeil  innl 
with  which  they  happen  to  come  in  coi  t  ict.    Ii  ihi 


yviini|iaTiyii 

Mtb.    I    M  m 

wliich  hi  ing 

u  inis   the  I 

ilireelion  of  I 

ili'Oted  in  th 

K  D.    Thui 

iimles  F  nnd 

•ctly equal;  ii 

hall  Linking  ■ 

In  leaving  th 

proaching  it. 

Whatever 

amooth  fixed 

be  followed. 

beilropfiedperi 

Isriy  from   I.  I 

will  rebound  i 

turn  to  f,.     If 

the  Jine  H  K, 

Tvliound  or  lie  n 

111  I,  The  angle 

I  hall  makes  w 

|*rpendieular   I 

,(uing  from  H  t 

fslliil  the  iinntr  i 

III  rebouniliiig  fr 

of  rtjleiiiiiii,     'I' 

A  calculation 

romary  in  the  ci 

111  ward  off  n  ni 

uncle  lie  too  acui 

the  aliielding  oh 

tirnyed;  while  il 

jivea  the  blow  w, 

If  a  billianl-pli 

Ihe  cushion,  it  wi 

'TIT,  he  strike  the 

uMc,  it  will  relioii 

[auc  a  ball  to  be  | 

Uhle,  and  to  reeel 

would  make  il  hi 

Ihp  ball  will  fly  0 

of  the  table  oppo^ 

motion.    By  a  kiio 

I'tcn  makes  a  ball 

of  the  table,  and 

sfiirh  il  was  Htruc 

h  those  who  hutic 


NATURAL  rHILOSOPIIY. 


IM       « 


hii  unu 

«  nulj  to 
in  rsM  tt 
Minn  U  I 
■<•  npplird, 
ridenry  In 
no  khork 
|M>n<lr()  M 
niti  u  tht 


lii'n  •re  (li- 
I-,  A  hwd 
r  tlio  artion 
OK  a  I'hiing* 
itTcr*  a  RKV 
ly  fott*  im- 
,  or  recovfii 
i|cd  XHttiwit 

with  rquil 
in  rolliiion, 
>  iilhcr.  nii(), 
.  of  rest.  If 
ill,  lii'icmling 
ell  othiT,  and 
Inl.  By  thii 
n  anil  treni- 
ho  IkhUch  are 
0  (li)ulilo  thil 

rce  or  motion 
nittinK  I'fdifi 
rftctiim  ot  th» 
onuo  of  K  row 
iHtioity.  I'lace 
pliiiio,  and  1ft 
on  in  contart. 
[or,  B«  we  maj 
It  No.  2,whick 


O  id. 

Vig.  0. 

,  an  in  fie.  9.  in 
[  the  prowM  of 


1  proooo«l«  in  « 

liul  wn<]  it  on  i 

§oily  i"  thviiim- 

Bonic  tHxiy.  itt 

rommon — »i. 
[tk  iin  niHKwin? 

oMiiinely  in  i 
|-P  of  slatP  nlon" 

from   I'oiiit  10 

-.1  ttoo,  tourhe* 
|iU  iu  II  Hluntinft 

bmlioa  olncW 
J-ction  they  put- 
lany  impnl  ir/nl 
|oi  t  irt.    ll   tM 


,<riini|>*oyini|  rut,  flg  1 1),  the  IliM  A  B  M  *  level  mvble 
4i(b.  i  M  vi  ivofy  hall, 
«|,irh  N  ing  thrown  to- 
rt aril*  th«  vlnb  ill  the 
.tirrrtlon  of  C  K,  i«  re- 
iliottd  in  the  ilirortion" 
).;  I).  Thua  the  two 
aiigloa  F  nnil  (i  uro  ox- 

artiv  riiiiiil ;  unil  it  in  lioinonatrnliMl,  that  a  perfectly  eliiatic 
halli'lrikinK  ■>  anKMith  wall  or  floor  makca  the  aame  anifle 
In  IravtMK  thr  point  whnre  it  atriko*  that  it  doea  in  a|>- 
proarhinn  it. 

Whatovor  be  the  angle  at  whirh  the  ball  itrikea  the 
ttnoolh  Hxoil  aurfare,  tho  aaiiio  riilo  will  li«>  olMcrvi'il  to 
he  tollowoil,     Tliia  ia  extni|ilifl<Hl  in  llg.  1 1.     If  the  ball 


y  ilrop|HHl  por|H'iiilicu 
Itrly  from  Ii  to  K,  it 
will  robounil  and  re- 
turn t"  I'-  If  "»'"'  in 
ihe  4ine  H  K,  it  will 
rrliound  or  Ixi  roflorloti 
10  I.  The  anoflfl  which 
,  ball  makoa  with  the 
iifrpendii'uiar  lino  in 
^mg  from  H  to  K, 


I. 
A 


/ 


k. 


K 

Vig-  11. 
•alliii  the  iinic/f  o/  inciitrnrt :  and  tho  angle  whicli  it  makoa 
ill  rebounding  from  tho  point  at  K  to  I,  ia  called  tho  an^U 
ol  rtflcrl Kill.     'I'heae  anglea  arc  alwnya  eipial. 

A  calculation  of  the  angloa  of  roflocted  motion  ia  ne- 
rrnMry  in  tho  caao  of  proaonting  a  shield  or  other  object 
to  ward  off  a  niiaailo  or  blow  from  tho  person  If  the 
aiifjle  1)0  too  ariilo,  that  is,  if  tho  blow  lie  too  point-blank, 
ilio  ahielding  object  may  be  damaged,  or  perhapa  do- 
(iroyfil;  while  if  the  angle  be  obt\iao,  tho  object  which 
eivM  the  blow  will  alide  off  hannleaaly. 

If  a  billiitrd-pliiyer  atrike  a  ball  |ier|M<ndicularly  n^ainat 
the  cuahion,  it  will  ri.lurn  in  the  aame  direction.  If,  how. 
fTiT,  he  strike  the  bull  at  an  angle  against  the  aide  of  the 
uHc,  it  will  reliiiHiid  oi  fly  off  at  an  op|)osile  angle.  Sup- 
i«M-  a  ball  to  be  placetl  halfway  up  tho  side  of  an  oblong 
table,  and  lo  receive  Buflioient  force  in  auch  a  direction  as 
would  make  it  Hlriko  the  centre  of  the  end  of  the  table, 
thr  hall  will  fly  off  at  an  angle,  and  approach  tho  aide 
of  the  table  opponitc  to  thiit  from  which  it  was  put  in 
motion.  By  a  knowliHlgo  of  these  laws,  the  billiard-player 
I'irn  makes  a  ball  fly  from  one  corner,  strike  t*ic  centre 
of  the  table,  and  reach  the  corner  parallel  to  that  from 
ahich  it  was  struck.  A  similar  kind  of  skill  is  n-quired 
hv  (hose  who  handle  the  bat  at  tho  game  of  cricket. 

COMPOSITION  or  MOTION  AND  rORUBS. 
Hitherto  we  have  sjioken  onlyof  the  motion  of  a  bixly 
It  produced  by  a  single  impulsive  force,  and  turned  aside 
«r  reflected  by  another  force  acting  upon  it ;  wo  have  now 
I.I  onniider  the  subjot-t  of  compound  motion  and  force,  or 
motion  and  force  prwlucod  by  two  or  more  forces  acting 
on  t  Ixidy  in  ditferent  directions  at  the  same  time. 

If  two  or  more  forces  act  on  a  given  point  of  a  Iwtly, 

It  rertain  angles,  a  single  force  may  be  found  which 

I  itould  proiluco  the  same  otfect.     This   simple  force  is 

icrhnically  called   the  remtlant  or  n/uivdUnt.     For  in- 

1  iiiiire,  a  wind  blowing  from  tho  north-west,  and  a  c.ir- 

rriit  aetting  from  tho  north-east,  iHith  actinia  on  a  ship 

liil  tending  to  carry  it  with  eipml  velocities  in  their  own 

Xwtinna,  the  ship  will  lie  found  to  move  in  an  interme- 

li!iu>  diri(tii>n,  ni  if  it  were  acted  on  by  a  single  force, 

1  l:ki'  a  hrgow,  from  duo  north. 

ll  is  usual,  in  trenting  of  combinations  of  mechanical 
IfnTs.  to  re|Te»ent  them  by  diagrams,  the  various  lines 
lulv.hicli  are  signiflcunt  of  the  quantity  or  intensity  of 
I  i!ii' forces,  of  tho  diroi'tions  in  which  they  act,  and  of  the 
Ifl'iTta  produced  by  them.  This  expliiina  the  reason  for 
|i!la«(niting  the  action  of  forces  by  the  following  figures  :— 
L.  fig  13,  we  have  an  example  uf  motion  proilucud  by 


two  form  acting  on  a  body  from  diirvrent  direction*, 
ia  a  ImII,  which,  having  re-  u 

eeivrd  a  blow  at  B,  is  pri>- 
reeding  onward  to  C  At 
the  |ioint  A,  while  on  its  B- 
courao,  It  receives  a  blow 
equal  to  the  former,  which 
sei-onil  blow  would  have 
Is-en  alone  capable  of  car- 
rying it  to  K  ill  tho  same 
time  that  the  flrat  blow 
would  have  carrimi  it  to  C 
This  new  force,  by  chang-  fig.  la. 

ing  tho  direction  of  tho  orininul  niotion,  causes  the  bal. 
In  move  in  a  line  towurda  F,  and  tho  oirect  ia  the 
same  as  if  tho  ball  hud  been  nt  flrxt  aont  in  tho  directior 
of  A  F  by  a  aingle  force.  Practically,  it  would  bo  dillW 
cult  to  regulate  blows  with  such  nicety  oa  to  produr* 
this  line  of  motion,  but  in  tho  theory  of  forces  the  law  ii 
as  it  has  been  stateil.  The  lino  A  F  in  tho  flgure  hen 
drawn  is  termed  the  iltn^vmil  uf  Ihr  m/iiiiir, 

Hhould  the  constituent  forren  lie  of  different  magni- 
tudes, then  the  flgure  deacribed  may  be  a  parallelogram, 
or  oblong,  as  in  tho  annexed  rut,  flg.  13.  The  fore* 
here,  in  the  direction  A  B,  ia  doublo  that  of  the  cmai 
force  C  D,  l.y  which  means  the  ball  describes  a  diagonal 
lino  to  F,  and  so  forms  a 
parallelogram,  when  we 
draw  all  the  lines  con- 
nected with  the  I  I  peri- 
ment.  The  parallelogram 
thus  formed  is  called  the 
)iiirallrli)Krani  of  Jorrei, 
Til.  two  given  forces  act- 
ing 111  the  directions  E  U, 
E  U,  are  called  cKih/iniinilii,  and  the  single  force  in  Um 
direction  E  F  is  tho  rfmltanl.  'i'he  process  of  finding  a 
single  force  equivalent  to  two  or  more  forces,  is  called  the 
ronipoii' ion  nf  Jcriet. 

'I'he  process  of  flnding  forces  which  will  prodow  a 
motion  equal  to  that  of  a  siniile  fiucc,  is  called  tho  retolw 
tioH  nfjmies.     Tho  fallowing  aro  oxainjilos: — 

If  a  boat  1)  E  M  floating  on  a  river  be  prensed  down 
wards  in  the  lino  M  U  by  a  current,  two  forces,  P  and  Q, 


Fig.  13. 


Ftg.  14. 

acMng  in  tho  directions  M  P,  M  Q,  may  bo  found  that 
will  counteract  the  influence  of  the  current,  and  keep  the 
l)oat  stationary.  For,  n  ike  M  (3  to  rc|ire»ent  R,  the  force 
of  the  cunont,  and  make  M  ( "  equal  to  M  ( ",  and  find 
M  A  and  M  B  as  before,  they  will  respectively  represent 
P  and  Q.  If  two  men,  therefore,  pull  two  ropes  in  the 
directions  M  P,  M  Q,  with  forces  denoted  by  M  A,  M  B, 
they  would  keep  tho  boat  at  rest.  If  ihe  ropes  be  tied  te 
two  posts  at  P  and  Q,  the  forces  M  A,  M  B,  will  repre- 
sent their  reactions. 

Let  H  M  lie  a  canal  boat,  M  P  tho  ro|)0  by  which  ii 
is"  drawn  by  a  horse  attached  to  it  at  P.     The  fore*   '/ 


the  draught  K'ing  denoted  by  M  P,  it  may  be  r«>sol«ed 
into  M  A  and  M  B,  of  which  only  M  A  is  efVectivo  in 


INO 


INFORMATION   FOR    THR  PKoi'l.R. 


Fi«.  la. 


Imwlm  the  ho«t  (hrwurd;  th*  nlher  forr«  M  II  Irinl*  to 

mm  (h*  nrwl  of  lh««  Ixwl  in  iIik  dirorllon  M  II.     'I'liU 

U*(  forre  miixt  tlirrffoi*  1»  touiiUtbcUnI,  which  i»  rllri-lnl 

by  DMiuiit  of  Ihr  hrhn  H  K  liiriii«d  to  >n  ohli«|UP  |Miaitiori. 

VVh«iii  Ihn   ImmiI  i«  In   motion.  th«  wnler,  Ix-inR   at  rri.t, 

[iroilurra  ■  rr«iiit»nrr  or  (nvaaiire  iKninat  Ihp  hi-jni.     If 

(.'  D  ilrnritr  tlw  rp««Un<«,  it  in«y  Iw  rriolvril  into  II  I) 

■nJ  il  (<.  of  whii-h  II  I)  |)rtMlu«M  no  eirm-t  on  thn  hrlrni 

tiwnfon  ('  H  ii  tUe only  rff.ctivr  |irpwun<.     Again,  ('  II 

may  Iw  rmolvml  into  ('  K  anti  f  II,  thn  Utter  of  whirli 

tontli  to  tiini  thn  atirn  of  the  boat  in  thn  ilirprtioii  ¥  II, 

and  thua  riHintprart4  tlio  forcf  M  B,  by  trmliiii^  to  turn 

Ui«  boat  roufiil  in  an  o|)|MMiti'  diriM'tion ;  and  lli«  part  (<'  K 

Ivnda  lu  movr  thr  boat  backwarda,  and  thua,  riiiinti'rarl- 

ti(  a  part  of  tli«  forrr  M  A.  it  rvtanla  Ihi'  progroaa  of  Ihu 

Jirmei.     Thr  two  forrra  P  H,  M  11,  would  inovo  thr  bout 

■dewaya,  or  iatrrajly,  to  ihr  aide  of  thr  ranal ;  but  llila 

ran  Iw  prrvrntitl  by  KivinR  thr  lirlm  a  littlo  morn  ul)|ic|iiily, 

for,  from  th«  Irnitth  and  "hape  of  the  voaw-l,  it  ia  mm  ti 

more  eaaily  m'  v^j  m  the  direction  of  ita  Imgth  than  of 

itH  lifpadth. 

Let  T  P  be  a  ahip.  8  I,  iu  aail.  W  A  the  direction  of 
ine  wind  and  ita  prrwiirp  on  the  aail.  W  A  ran  Im>  rp- 
•oWetl  into  A  II  |M-r[M>ndi<'ular  to  the  auil,  and  II  W 
parallel  to  it,  t\\r  latter  of  which  haa  no  eflrct  in  preaainK 
an  the  aal! ;  therefore  A  U  ia  the  etFertive  prfaaurn  on  the 
■ail.  M'rre  the  vemel  round,  it  would  novo  in  the 
dirnction  11  A.  I,et  0  A 
he.  reaolvinl  into  (.'  A  and 
I'  ('.till'  former  ('  A  actniK 
III  the  dirrction  of  the  keel 
cr  length  of  the  m-moI,  or 
ill  the  direction  ('  A,  and 
Uie  Utter  (M'rpendiciilHr  to 
it,  or  in  the  direction  uf  the 
breadth.  The  former  preaaure  C  A  ia  the  only  preamre 
that  moTca  tlic  vennel  forward,  the  other  U  ('  mnkea  it 
move  aidewiira.  I'mm  the  form  of  the  veaael,  however, 
thia  latter  force  B  V  priMlurea  comparatively  little  laternl 
motion ;  any  that  it  doe*  occaxion  i«  called  /rr-imy.  I)y 
turning  the  lielm,  the  vernel  niiiy  ho  maile  to  turn  round 
ill  any  direction  by  the  prcititure  of  the  wiit4'r  U|K)n  it,  if 
tiic  vesacl  hui  aUo  at  the  aame  time  proKrciwivo  inutiuii. 

COMMON    MOTION. 

Motion,  n«  haa  Iteen  stated,  i«  called  rommon,  when 
inrticiputed  in  by  two  or  more  hoilica.  Thua,  all  thiii(;ii 
on  the  earth,  including  the  atmoaphere,  hove  a  motion  in 
roramon  with  the  earth ;  a  peraon  riding  in  a  chaiiie  liaH 
a  motion  in  common  with  the  chaiae  ;  a  [leraoii  in  a 
moving  veaael  at  aea  haa  a  motion  in  coinmon  with  the 
'•♦ael. 

For  convenience,  wo  ahall,  in  treating  of  thia  branch 
of  our  aubjcrt,  u*"  the  terma  larger  and  smaller  )>ody — 
tlie  larger  iM'iiig  uiiiit:r<tKxl  to  tie  tiie  boily  on  which  the 
force  to  prc<]uce  motion  ia  immediately  impreawd,  and 
the  amaller  lieing  the  l>ody  which  ia  carrM'<l  along  by  the 
Ifkly  which  haa  received  ttuH  imprcaaion  of  force. 

A  Urge  Uidy  ia  in  motion ;  it  ia  moving  in  •  certain 
direction,  at  a  certain  veliH'ity  ;  every  thing  on  it,  or 
•mall  liody  connected  with  it,  partake*  in  ita  motion,  and 
hiia  ■  tendency  to  proceed  in  tht;  aame  direction,  and  at 
(he  aame  velocity. 

It  appears  atrange  that  there  ahould  he  ■  communi- 
cation of  motion  from  the  larger  body  to  the  Hinnller, 
without  the  iinnie<liate  intervention  of  imprerwed  force 
on  the  amaller,  but  a  little  examination  ahowa  that  hucIi 
must  necraxarily  be  the  case.  The  Uiger  body  lua  re- 
<«ived  the  impulse  to  move,  and  thia  impulse  is  trans- 
mitted through  the  whoia  maaa  of  the  body,  including  all 
Uie  imall  objects  on  ita  aurfoce,  aiid  tlioae  which  arc  any 
way  connected  with  it  in  ita  propuUion.  When  a  man 
Ik  walking  on  the  deck  of  a  ahip  which  la  moving  at  the 
r«i<.'  of  ten  mdea  an  hour,  he  perhaps  imoguiva  that  he 


haa  no  more  motion  than  If  he  mm  walkirg  ,  n  Hm  t^ 
Kroiiiiil.  Hot  It  would  U'  incoriect  for  liiiii  ti'  think  so 
Ilia  iNMly,  ami  every  thing  alMiut  his  iierson,  liavn  receivMl 
an  iiiipuiKe  fnmi  the  vrsM'l ;  be  (HiaM-ura  u  vp|iN-i(y  ^ 
ten  Miilea  all  hour  a*  iiiiicli  as  the  planka  of  the  veaael  i|a 
and  this  onward  iiiolioii  he  cannot  divest  hiimelf  of,  ai 
long  as  tlie  nhip  coiiliniies  to  move  ut  this  mtv  of  apcaJ 
or  as  long  as  he  contiiiuea  in  coiiiiei  tioii  with  It. 

On  account  of  thia  parlici|>ntioii  ol  iiiolioii  in  all  bodias 
moving  in  ''onnect4>d  niasoes,  it  is  ol<aerve<l  that  all  olijcrti 
whatever  keep  their  pro|M>r  placea  in  or  iibout  the  |ir„ 
moving  bislies  with  which  lliey  are  in  coiituct,  and  liriini 
no  confusion  tiik.  s  place  in  the  relative  ailuution  of  uS. 
jecta  on  the  earth  by  ita  motion.  For  e«aiii|ile,  when  w« 
leap  from  the  ground,  the  earth  diH'a  not  sliji  away  fruig 
Ih'Iow  us  ;  if  we  ascend  in  a  straight  line  ut  ilirecliun,  w« 
fall  down  eiai-tly  U|Hin  the  same  s|N)t  uliiiue  we  uriisa. 
When  a  niiiii  falls  from  the  tup  of  a  mast  of  e  niiivini 
vessel,  he  falls  u|k>ii  the  deck  upon  n  s|H>t  diieclly  umlri 
the  |ioint  whence  he  fell ;  the  vcmkcI  diH'S  not  leave  \\\ni, 
When  we  are  sitting  -in  the  culiiii  ">'  a  moving  vrsarL 
and  let  a  small  object  drop  from  our  bund  to  the  Huor,  ii 
falls  on  a  point  on  the  llmir  iniiiiediutely  Ulow,  ihe  sima 
us  if  It  had  Ix-rn  dropjied  in  a  house  on  solid  ground: 
the  lloor  does  not  leave  il  Isliind.  When  we  uie  sitting 
ill  a  rapidly  moving  coach,  and  in  a  ainillar  iraiincr  let  m 
object  fall,  it  deweiids  in  the  same  nmiilier  to  the  botlom 
of  the  coach.  The  reason  lor  these  plieiioiiieiia  ia  thil 
already  nientionvd — the  small  objects  |H)sHess  a  muliun 
derived  from  the  larg«-r;  this  coinmon  niolion,  or  nuVa/ 
mrrlui,  as  aonw  authors  call  il,  is  retained  by  the  snuli 
olij.'i'U  during  their  descent,  so  that,  wh''p  ilescrntljiiii, 
they  are  alao  going  forward;  in  other  wori.'s,  they du|i|ii 
a  composition  of  motion — a  l>  >iixuntal  inotiuu  aiitl  i 
di's<'eiiiliiig  |H-r|>endicular  motion. 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  examples  of  coinmon  mo 
tioii,  is  that  which  ia  exhibited  by  uii  ei|iieHtiiuii  atsnilin; 
on  a  horse  which  ia  running  loiiiid  a  circle,  while  lie  ji 
the  same  time  throws  oranges  from  bis  hand  and  rntrliN 
them  in  then  descent.  .N  iwitlistaiuling  liis  rapid  nuitioo, 
the  oranges  which  are  tlirown  into  the  air  do  not  I  lil  \^ 
hind;  they  n'tum  regularly  to  his  hand.  To  counlrrw  i 
ccnlrifiiKal  force,  he  leaiia  greatly  inward;  but  thia  ili>n 
not  alter  the  law  of  niotul  iiiertiu,  which  cauwa  ilw 
oranges  to  leturn.  He  throws  them  alnu»<t  sidtwinr  m 
iin  inward  slanting  direition,  and  yet  (liey  coniu  rrujiljr 
back  to  liiin.  The  reason  tor  these  plienoiiienu  i»,  ihal 
the  oranges  participate  in  the  furcen  by  which  he  laiuwlt 
is  iin|M>lled  uiid  austnined. 

Mniall  ImkUcs  which  have  derived  a  mntal  inritia  ftm 
a  larger,  continue  to  posM-ss  this  niotal  inertia  alb  r  Iciii. 
iiiff  the  larger,  until  they  meet  with  home  new  iiriprt'Hi>jo 
of  force  auli'icient  to  alter  their  coiulilion.  If  iliey  wrri 
not  pulh'd  lit  the  earth  by  attraction,  and  wi're  not  o|> 
[x>s<ij  by  the  atinosphon',  they  would  (;o  oti  moving  un 
straight  lino  for  ever.  When  we  drop  a  I'all  fnun  t)^ 
window  of  a  moving  couch,  il  continues  to  K'>  lurwariL 
0*  if  it  were  otill  in  t.he  coach,  till  U  nicct  the  unui.il 
when  it  ia  atopped ;  thus,  itii  niolal  iiicrlia  is  ileniroviil 
If  wo  attempt  to  leap  Iruiii  u  iiiovimf  hoily.  xmh  as  i 
couch  or  a  lioat,  we  continue  to  poH«<>ui  the  iiii/liuii  nlm  h  j 
we  previously  had,  until  we  touih  the  earth,  when  ne 
receive  a  Miuck  by  the  destruction  of  our  moid  iiuiiii 
But  if  we  leap  from  one  iiiovini(  Uxiy  lu  ntiolher  mnviin 
l>ody  which  ia  going  near  it,  on  the  Haiiie  level,  in  i,v 
same  direction,  and  ut  the  same  vcliH'ily,  we  su.'.tuiri  no 
shock,  iM'caust-  the  Isxiy  upon  which  we  iiiip  pnhwrni 
the  same  condition  of  motion  as  that  which  we  |>oii>»v 

When  a  man,  atandiiig  on  the  ground,  hliiMlx  at  a  I>ih  I 
on  the  wing,  he  requires  to  follow  ita  iiiolioii  by  kitpu,^ 
his  {un  moving  when  iireaented  at  it ;  but  it  he  lie  eUi.il.  I 
ing  on  the  deck  of  a  Bbi|)  oailing  at  the  rule  of  ten  niiin  I 
an  hour,  and  point  hia  gun  at  u  bird  flying  in  the  ni»l 
direction  and  at  tlie  aauie  velocity  ua  the  slap,  ituuLrDl 


fiftadin  til 

raquire  la   i 

liking  aim  a 

tl  raquirea  i 

pruceeding  ti 

tntiraly  deal 

il  he  iMwvio'ii 

a  gun  whirh 

in  the  oaini)  c 

the  bird,  hera 

with  Ihe  gun. 

ilirectitm  of  tl 

Ihe  motion  of 

—  if  the  shut 

a  ^ted  imtni  | 

the  'lullel  be 

instance  a  ahi) 

than  a  certain 

inertia  of  the 

•lid  the  molal 

Olijecta  fallli 

Ijuti  to  thoao  w 

law  that  goveri 

nwrly  nientiom 

hartzoiital    and 

When  these  n 

rrilics  a  curve  i 

laing  uppermoi 

(iroilU'.'ed  by  pm 

iience,  (lowerfiil 

Jiaeii^agu  a  [lorl 

t  projectile  inipu 

In  cunsotjuenc 

raoiiun  in  all  thii 

c*o  lie  no  conai 

(«rried  aliuut   by 

MDOUtli,  and  then 

mat  rest.     Thi 

lion  in  common  \ 

•maolhiiesa,  wo  ci 

Wo,  however,  scf 

motion  in  refere 

metna,  we  know 

of  the  earlh'a  diu 

iir  planetary  nioti< 

Ufr,  H  imnon  sittii 

Hid  not  IcHiking  o 

•ensstions,  ttjl  ih,: 

It  the  shore,  whic 

t'  tiie  prograanTe 


*Mii"-V. 


NVTDUAL  PHILOSOPHY. 


ttl 


n  UMwik 
>>  think  n 
«c  rvcatvial 
vr\(H-ity  a) 
n  voMrl  c|o, 
lllH'lf  of,  M 
ti!  of  tftti, 
I  It. 

Ill  nil  IkmImi 
it  ill  olijarh 
lit  lh«  lirg« 
I,  tiiil  hcnc* 
iiitidii  iif  US' 
ill',  whrn  w« 

|l  UW*)  flUID 
ilirrrlioik,  wt 
HI'  wc  lirilM, 

i)f  r  incivini 
liirrtly  uiuWi 
lit  liuvo  liiia 
iioviiig  vnurl, 
:<i  thr  Himr,  il 
tow,  tlu-  taint 
Kdllll  K'ouK'l: 
wo  uio  aitttnn 
nminvr  let  in 

ti)  tli«  I'oUdm 

IIIIIIKMIU  i*  thil 

Mii'M  I  mutiun 
iDlion,  or  nioliil 
tl  liy  the  uiikli 
'V  ilcKC'eiidliiii, 
(la,  Ihvy  tlu|ili; 
inotiuu   uul  i 


■|ft«d  In  Iha  Mmo  mnilltlim  m  the  hint ;  hn  ilo«>«  not 
rfquim  U  nio*«  hii  viiii,  m  if  l^llowini^  ttin  liinL  In 
UkinK  •III!  at  a  hini  on  thn  wiiiK  frnin  Ihn  noIIiI  k'"""*'! 
ll  rtquirrn  roimialiTHMc  akill  In  |)n<vfiit  Ihc  ihot  friim 
pmriN-ihiig  to  ■  [loiiit  ttrhiiiil  thi<  hini,  liKciiiiw)  the  allot  i* 
cntinly  cirstitutn  of  m>Am\  inertia  on  hcini  flrmi,  unlea* 
II  he  iirevioiinly  put  in  motion,  Uul  •  bullet  on  jniviiiK 
t  Kun  whirh  is  innvinn  at  the  laina  rale  aa  the  liini,  and 
In  the  Minn  ilirectiim,  kee|M  foiiiK  on  in  the  dirertion  of 
the  bini,  lierauae  it  retain*  the  motion  It  hail  in  roinnion 
with  the  i(un.  'Vho  bullet  in  thia  caaedoea  not  k<>  in  the 
itird'tion  of  the  Kun,  but  olilii|uely,  *o  aa  to  k>wp  u|i  with 
Ibe  motion  of  tlie  bird,  ao  that  the  aame  eirwl  ia  |)roduc(Hl 
!■  II'  the  allot  had  Ihtii  flrivl  from  a  nxod  ^un  on  lami  to 
a  fxrd  (Miint  in  the  uir  in  ailvaiire  of  the  bird.  Hhould 
the  Sullut  lie  flrpd  from  a  k>>'>  '»  ■  moving  vc-uHtl,  foi 
inatanre  a  ahip  aailiiiK  weatward  to  aflxrd  |N)inl  <'ii  lami, 
then  a  crrtain  allowanon  muat  Iw  nmdo  for  the  inotal 
jnertiii  of  the  liulirt;  it  muat  lie  flreil  a  little  niatward, 
inil  tbr  niotal  iin-rtiu  will  riirry  it  woatwird  to  the  ohjerl. 
Objecta  falling  from  hotliea  nioviiiK  in  un  oiiwurd  direc- 
lioii  to  thoao  whii'h  are  at  real,  are  rfi^uUluil  by  the  aame 
jiw  Ihnt  t(ovcriia  |irojci'til(W.  'I'hn  fnlliuK  bbjecta,  aa  for- 
[Oi-rly  iiH'iitioiitHl,  nr«  iilTeoted  by  two  inoliuiia— one  in  a 
horizoiitiil  and  thx  other  in  n  doicending  direction, 
WId'II  thrao  motion*  arc  Uiip<|unl,  the  fullinK  biNly  de- 
a-rilira  a  rurve  in  ila  dcarrnt,  the  convex  aidr  of  thn  ourvo 
l«inn  up|icrinoat.  Thua  inotal  inertia  and  tho  motion 
|irai!u<:«il  by  proji'Mile  impulae  are  tho  Mine  Ihin^ ;  and 
lieiire,  |>owrrful  rciitrifuKal  forro  in  the  *un,  autticicnt  to 
JiMiiKAtfu  a  portion  of  its  niaaa,  would  bo  equivalent  to 
I  prujectile  impuliMi  from  it  a*  a  fixed  boly. 

In  conaix|uence  of  the  general  iiarticipution  of  common 
mottun  in  all  thiiiK*  ronnocted  with  a  moving  Uxly,  there 
CM  Ix*  ■">  conacioiianeaa  of  motion  in  the  living  being* 
carried  ulwut  by  it,  provide*!  the  moti<in  be  perfectly 
ADOolli,  and  there  be  no  mcaiM  of  obaerving  bodiea  which 
ire  at  real.  'I'hua,  on  account  of  our  poaoeuing  a  mo- 
Qon  in  common  with  the  earth,  which  move*  with  perfect 
imootlmeaa,  wo  ran  neither  aeo  nor  feel  the  earth  moving. 
Wo,  however,  aee  tho  lun,  which  aoemi  to  u*  to  be  in 
motion  in  reference  to  the  earth,  but  which,  by  varioui 
meana,  wc  know  to  lie  at  real;  and  hence  wo  are  OMurod 
of  the  oarth'a  diurnal  rotation  on  it*  axia,  and  it*  annual 
iir  pliiiii'tary  motion  round  the  lun.  In  the  aame  nian- 
upr,  a  iieraon  aitting  in  the  cabiii  of  a  amooth-aailing  ahip, 
mil  not  liHiking  out  at  the  window*,  cannot,  by  hi*  mere 
wntatioiia,  tell  that  the  vva«el  i*,  moving ;  but  if  ne  liMik 
It  ibe  aliore,  which  ia  at  real,  he  i*  immediately  *tMiaiblc 
14°  the  piogrooaiTe  motion  of  the  veaaeL ' 


In  limking  (Vom  a  moving  liutly,  aa  IVom  the  earth  I* 
tita  *un,  frurn  a  »hip  to  Ihe  *hof«,  or  fi'mii  a  cimh  ii  to  ot^ 
jiTla  on  the  wayalde,  a  dcliiaivn  feeling  previll><  that  it  ia 
not  the  Ualy  you  arc  U|i<iii,  but  tho  taHly  which  la  ut  r«4l, 
that  ia  ri'iilly  moviiii( — going  in  a  direction  contrary  I* 
that  of  Iht^  Inaly  you  are  connected  with.  Tliia  ia  in 
conaeipiini  u  of  our  poaaeaaion  of  motion  in  cnMiiiion  wilh 
the  moving  Inidy.  Wo  are  under  an  iMllurnce,  or  in  a 
cniulition,  that  rnndera  ua  inca|Hible  of  aceiiiK  our  own 
motion ;  and  hence  tb«  error  which  Ihe  aciia<i  of  viaion 
b'lida  ua  to  coiniiiit,  ia  left  to  bti  raclilk'd  by  oji  u^kartioo 
of  the  uiulerslanding. 


IW0KK9  0N  NATURAL  Pllir,OHOrHY. 

One  of  tho  (teat  general  view*  of  thi*  *ubject  i*  Her- 
wheU'a  adiiiirablo  •■  Dinvuru  on  Iht  Ohjtcli,  Jtilvnntogfi, 
anil  Pliiifuin  iij  tht  Sliiily  of  Ntiturnl  I'hiloiiipliy,"  origi- 
nally publinlicd  a*  a  pait  of  Lardner'a  Cabinet  Cyciopo- 
dia ;  and  reprinted  in  a  cheap  form  by  tho  Jlarpor*. 
Among  the  laiit  work*  on  the  hiatory  of  Natu'al  Philo- 
aophy  are,  Kiwhcr'a  '•  lliilury  of  "/lytira  «mf«  thi  littnviil 
of  l.eiiei$"  (in  (Jcrniun,  Uotlir  i;n,  IHOl,  0  vol*.),  and 
I'layfair'a  ••  Di»trtalurn  on  the  J'rogrtu  of  Muthtm  lititl 
II  nil  I'hysiciil  Scienit  ilnrt  tht  litviniil  of  Ijlttrt"  prefixed 
to  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  and  continued  by  ''  salie, 
Aniott'*  "  t'.Umtntt  of  Phytirt"  (A'-,  ed.  with  "iliiiUont 
by  Di.  Hay*,  Philadelphia,  1829),  lu  a  well  w/..  ..'n  and 
excellent  popular  trvatiae.  "  Tht  Srienlijic  Clius  Hook," 
edited  by  Waller  R.  Johnson,  Eiq.,  ia  an  excellent  com- 
pendium. Dr.  Keynell  Coale*'*  "  t'irit  Linti  of  Natunil 
PhiloMiphy"  (Philadolpliia,  IH46),  is  a  very  oMv  written 
popular  trratiae,  illuatriiti  .1  by  264  well  eiigr'  -  <  .ibcV 
lishniciit*.  This  book  Ima  tho  advantage  t^f  t  iiigui.' the 
Rcioiict!  down  to  its  prcHont  stuto,  and  giving  .  „■  rcauit  of 
all  its  recent  improvements  and  diacuveries.  Daiiicir* 
"  Illiiilriilioiit  nf  Natural  PhUomphy,"  und  Eulcr'«  <t  Ltt- 
trrt  on  Niilural  Pliilotophy,"  edited  hy  Drowsier,  ere 
highly  intiMcating  and  delightful  wurkn,  uniting  the  attrac- 
tions of  elegant  *tylc  and  great  felicity  of  illustration  with 
thorough  (iciciitiCic  knowledge. 

In  proitccutini;  the  study  of  Natural  Philt..ophy,  the 
Iciiriicr  will  find  hi*  progrew  greatly  fucilitatcd  by  the  tior 
of  HrniHlc'H  "  Kfnyiliiptritia  of  Nmokc  am' ./^n',"  lately 
rrprliiti'd  by  tiic  Harpert,  in  which  the  temia  of  ncicnca 
are  accurately  explained  uul  illustrated. — .1m,  La  ] 


«M.l.-«. 


•  fl 


MECHANICS-MACH  INERT. 


OENERAI.    I)EFIMTI*N8. 

TnK  a;ipIication  of  the  lawe  o/  motion  and  forces  to 
ibjocts  in  nature  or  rontrivancos  in  the  arts,  forms  the 
•iranch  of  Natural  Philosopliy  visually  treated  under  the 
head  MKCHASirs,  Mechanical  Powers,  or  Elkmkmts 
or  MAciii>KnT.' 

Machines  are,  under  all  denominations  or  oircum- 
■tances,  only  instruments  through  which  power  jiiay  be 
made  to  act  They  only  convey,  regu  ito.  or  di^^lriliute, 
the  force  or  jx'wer  which  is  comuiunicaled  to  thom  from 
come  source  of  motion,  and  never  cri'iito  or  s;orier«te 
power.  Unt  although  a  mai  i.no  does  not  crea'i«  power, 
or  give  more  power  than  it  has  received,  it  practically 
applies  the  power  which  has  been  commmiicnted  to  it, 
in  so  convenient  and  ejisy  a  manner,  that  a  result  en- 
sues almost  as  surjiri8in|.f  as  if  it  had  actually  generated 
the  whole  or  a  portion  of  the  [>ower  it  exhibits. 

The  main  purpose  required  in  mechanical  operations 
I*  to  overcome,  oppose,  or  sustain,  a  certain  r-":  istance 
or  force.  This  purpose  is  obtained  by  applying  ai.othcr 
species  of  force.  According  to  the  usual  phraseology, 
the  resistance  or  force  to  I)e  overcome  is  culled  the 
weight,  and  the  force  which  is  applied  is  called  the 
potttr. 

The  ability  of  applying  force  by  the  human  hnnds, 
without  the  aid  of  instruments  or  machines,  is  very 
limited.  In  almost  all  our  operations  of  art,  it  is  found 
necessary  to  call  in  the  aid  of  instruments  or  machines 
of  some  kind.  All  the  instruments  which  mankind 
haTe  adopted  for  their  use — from  the  piece  of  stick 
with  which  the  savage  scratches  the  ground  as  a  plough, 
to  the  most  elegantly  finished  piece  of  mechanism — act 
upon  certain  tixed  principles  in  nature,  which  a  long 
course  of  etpericnco  and  scientific  investigation  has  de- 
»eloped. 

The  mechanical  powers  which  exhibit  the  working 
of  these  principles,  are  strictly  only  three  in  number, 
namely, —  1.  the  frvrr;  2.  the  I'ul'ii/,  or  Ccrd :  3.  the 
Ltrlinnl  I'l.iiif.  These  may  lie  called  the  Primary  Me- 
chaniial  Powers ;  and  from  two  of  them,  the  Lever  and 
Inclined  Plane,  other  three  are  formed,  as  follow — 
1.  ir/ic/7  r.nd.lj-lr,  from  the  I  ever  :  2.  W'eil^r,  from  the 
Jnrlintd  lUtnc:  3.  ,*>'(Tf(r,  from  the  huhnat  VUtiie. 
These  may  be  called  the  Secondary  Mechanical  Powers. 
TTie  six  altogether  form  the  elements  of  every  species 
of  machinery,  however  complex. 

or    LETERS. 

rhe  lever  is  one  of  the  most  im|>ortant  and  exlen- 
fuely  used  01  nil  the  merhanical  powers,  and  its  opera- 
tion exhibits  some  of  the  leading  principles  in  me- 
chanica. 

A  lever  is  a  ro<l,  or  bar  of  iron.  wood,  or  any  other 
material,  which  is  movable  ujHm  or  about  a  prop  or 
fulcrum,  or  about  a  fixed  axis.  It  is  calleil  a  Uver.  fruni 
a  P'rench  word,  sii'iiifyiiig  to  riiise,  iind  lias  been  a]i|ilie(l 
to  instruments  f.ir  ruining  or  lifiing  wi'i„'bls. 

Three  elements  cuntribiile  to  thi-  ipjieratinn  of  the 
lever — tlie  iHurr,  the  iv!  ,um,  and  the  inu'lit.  The 
power  is  the  force  applied,  the  fiilcnim  is  the  prop  or 
kupport,  and  the  weight  is  the  resistance  or  Imrd.  a  to 
I*  lift*<l.  The  terms  pnnfr  and  icig/if  have  iiierelv  a 
leference  to  the  manner  in  which  the  machine  is  used  ; 


WiJ 


»  In  »eifni]fip  work>,  Ihr  iBnn  imrAarin  iiusuallv  reniric  mI 
ri  Ihr   art  on  erf'  fMi.  while  mtrhamrnl  or  mrrhantrnliy  i«  ii|i.  ' 
pMrii  in  ilii-  Heiioi    if  tflih  nolvls  arKl  flii.dn      Knr  ixiiirip'r.  Ih«  i 
» i-innir  «wiiy  nf  itoiK-  ly  iha  acMon  of  ihf  waiir,  i>  >a;>l  lo  be 
timehanieti!  ttiion,  or  lliai  UM  « Aicr  aeu  fmeAmnjaUy.  ' 

lii3 


strictly,  both  the  power  and  weight  are  forca  the  muim 
in  character  and  action. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  levers,  difiering  according 
to  the  relative  situation  of  the  power,  fulcrum,  inj 
weight.  Each  of  these  kinds  c-msists  of  a  straight  bai, 
and  in  theoretical  calculations  is  suiiposed  to  be  in  it- 
self destitute  of  any  gravity  or  degree  of  haavinoss.  In 
theory,  also,  the  forces  which  are  applied  are  supposed 
to  act  at  rifihl  angteti  to  the  fulcrum. 

In  the  first  or  most  simple  kind  of  lever,  "  the  fiiU 
crum  s  disposed  between  the  power  and  the  weight." 
In  the  second  kind,  "  the  weight  ii>  disposed  lietween 
the  ,,oweT  and  the  fulcrum."  In  the  third  kind.  "  the 
power  is  disposed  lietween  the  weight  and  the  ful- 
crum." 

In  the  first  kind  of  lever,  "  the  fulcrum  is  disposed 
between  the  power  and  the  weight."  Figure  1  is  ai> 
example.  A  to  B  is  ._ 
a   straight  bar,  rest-    JA  F/v 

ing  on  a  prop  or  ful-    Ap 
crum  F.    From  A  to 
F  is  the   long  arm  of  ^^' 

the  lever,  .md  from  F  to  B  is  the  short  arm.  P  \f.  the 
power,  or  a  certain  force  drawing  down  the  extiomjiy 
( *■  the  long  arm  at  A.  W  is  the  weight  suspended 
from  the  extremity  of  the  short  arm  at  B.  The  olijrcl 
is  ( J  crtuse  P,  which  is  rupposed  to  be  a  small  weight, 
to  balai.ce  or  overcome  W,  which  is  supposed  to  lie  a 
weight  much  heavier.  Practically,  the  force  of  a  man 
jiressing  upon  the  extremity  of  the  handle  of  the  levci 
at  A,  will  elii-ct  with  ease,  in  lifting  the  heavy  weight 
W,  what  it  woul<)  require  a  much  greater  force  to  ac- 
complish by  pre9si.".g  upon  the  long  arm  at  a  point  half 
way  betwixt  .\  pnd  the  fulcrum. 

This  is  more  clearly  exemplified  in  fig.  2,  which  re- 
presents a  lever  placed  conveniently  for  raising  a  square 
block  W,  which  is 
the  weight.  On 
pressiFl^■  down  the 
extremity  of  the 
long  arm  of  the 
lever  at  A,  the 
|)oint  of  the   short  fin-  2. 

arm  H  raises  the  block.  F  is  an  object  lying  on  Iho 
ground  to  press  against  as  the  fulcrum.  .\s  in  the  cas« 
of  fig.  1,  "the  force  of  a  man  jiressing  upon  the  ( xtrr 
mity  of  the  handle  at  .\,  will  elTcct  with  ease,  in  liftinj 
the  weight  W,  what  it  would  require  a  much  greater 
force  to  accom)>lish  by  pressing  upon  the  long  arm  at  a 
point  half  way  l)etwixt  \  and  the  fulcrum." 

The  principle  in  meehc-nics  which  produces  this  phe- 
nomenon is  very  simple,  anil  is  explained  by  what  ii 
called  liie  Law  of  Virtual  \'eli)cities,  or,  from  its  gene- 
ral application,  the  (iolden  Rule  of  Mechanics. 

This  law  or  rule  is,  'I'hnt  a  simtU  ucmhl,  ilim ending  .i 
/«Mg  u-iiij  in  liny  jjiicii  tniu'h  of  linir,  in  ei/tial  in  tff/rl  lo 
a  K'liil  iiiiiiht  (/i'5fTm/i/ig  (I  jiiojii^'iisiuilli/  shcrfrr  innj  in 
Ihe  tnnie  f/mce  i>f  twir.  In  other  wurds,  what  is  gaineil 
in  velo.'ily  or  time,  is  lost  in  e\()end!tiire  of  power. 

.Another  way  of  stating  this  iniport»Mt  law  is  as  fol- 
lows:—-/ii  Ihe  Kiff  (ij  f,  m/i'iriww,  !/  </  mutiun  lie  i^n'tn  li. 
tht  nil  rli  II  nil  III  piiuir,  tlitn  Ihe  poller  fiiiilliplirj  by  tk 
t/inrr  lUrmi'^li  irhuli  ir  tni'ii$  in  ii  Virliiid  (Hrrrlum,  mil  (( 
iijUttl  lo  the  weiiih!  ihultijihiil  liy  tlit  rpaie  ihrouffh  uliich  « 
uiinis  ill  II  viitiiiil  Jireili  111, 

This  priiicijile,  which  applies  to  ever)'  mechariifJl 
movement  in  the  rase  of  equilibrium,  has  lieeii  illus- 
trated by  a  reference  to  the  projwrty  of  atlrmtiiin  of 
gmvitaliun.     What  is  called  weight  ia  unl"  au  tSrf  M 


^rarity  on 

eveiy  aton 

line  or  cor 

falls  ten  in 

out  fi-om,  c 

to  rise  or  fi 

Thus,  bj 

may  cause 

space  of  ter 

moving  thn 

a  weight  of 

loot,  we  ma 

fpace  of  tei 

(lowers  shai 

pounds  throt 

eleven  feet; 

ipace  of  nin 

len  pounds  t 

Neither  bj 

•ny.  other  of 

ilisolute  incr 

other  words, 

great  and  insi 

the  power  wh 

that  we  can  t 

accommodate 

applied  powei 

>iew. 

'J"o  apply  tl 
a  small  force  i 
at  a  point  ha 
both  cases,  thi 
expended.     A 
continued  for  o 
Ihe  force  at  a  p 
tii-ued  for  the  s 
foie,  cun  be  ex« 
long  arm  of  th( 
ami  long  enoun 
It  may  possil 
lions  to  push  ( 
ihe  lever,  as  to 
the  fulcrum.     I 
lie  tasc  ;  but  w 
to  U  uses  I,  and 
ire  necessary,  j; 
in  working  with 
the  sweep  of  th 
son  using  it  has 
>ver  a  larger  spi 
reason,  although 
ii  great  a  weigh 
raising  weights  i 
sooner  fatigued. 
It  is  a  general 
(wascs  in  propori 
lie  fulcrum  incr 
Ihe  distance  of  tlu 
la  making  calcul 
lie  observed  betw  i 
must  be  [laid  to  tl 
«liort  arms  of  the 
Vihe  units  of  K,. 
tame  on  both  end 
'f  lenglli  of  the 
Hirth  of  the  l.ii, 
iiunces  je  made 
■unces  must  be  n 
jrin. 

/I'li/f— Multiply 

!  'ulrruin ;  th,.,,   n,",| 

ite  9ain«    (Hiint;  i 

«ii,'ht  am;  ;lie  po\ 

iuaiiijiU  Fiiti.— 


MECHANICS— MACHINERY. 


163 


the 


according 
rum,  ind 
aight  bai, 
>  be  in  it- 
anesa.  In 
supponetl 

,  "  the  fuU 
c  \yeight." 
(I  between 
kind,  "  the 
d  the  lilt- 
is  dispoRed 
uvo  1  is  ai> 


V  Bj 


n.     P  i'-.  the 
\c  extvomiiy 
t,   suspended 
The  olijpct 
mittU  weichl, 
psed  to  Ik-  a 
rce  of  a  raaii 
J  of  the  level 
heavy  weiglit 
r  force  to  w- 
.t  a  point  half 
1 

2,  which  re- 
ising  a  squart 


lyinff  on  tho 
Ah  in  the  cas« 
pon  the  ixtre 
use.  in  liftirs 
nnu-l>  greaU't 
long  arm  at  a 


uces  this  ph^ 
•d  liy  what  11 
roni  its  Rene- 
lUiies. 

/,  (U(itnili"i  '' 
mill  III  !•/>''"' '" 
shinlrr  traij  m 
vl\at  is  Rained 
of  power. 
^\\  law  i«  a"  fol' 
|/hm  III-  i;ii'f'i  I'- 
ll,/.III. t  by  thi 
lirrrtK'ti,  to'/  '^ 
ihruugh  u'hirh  U 


/ 


Iry  meclianifsi 
Itas  been  iUui" 
1,1'  attraitior.  o( 


gravity  on  the  atoms  of  matter.  In  figurative  language, 
every  atom  is  drawn  towards  the  earth  by  an  invisible 
line  or  cord  of  attraction  ;  and  when  one  atom  rises  or 
fills  ten  inches,  the  game  quantity  of  attraction  is  drawn 
out  from,  or  sent  back  to  the  earth,  as  if  ten  atoms  were 
to  rise  or  fall  only  one  inch. 

Thus,  by  a  proper  mode  of  applying  the  power,  we 
may  cause  a  weight  of  one  pound,  by  moving  through  a 
upace  of  ten  feet,  to  raise  another  weight  of  ten  pounds, 
moving  through  a  space  of  one  foot ;  or  (the  reverse)  by 
a  weight  of  ten  pounds  moving  through  the  space  of  one 
foot,  we  may  make  a  single  pound  move  through  the 
(pace  of  ten  feet.  But  by  none  of  the  mechanical 
powcrE  shall  wo  be  able,  by  moving  a  weight  of  ten 
pounds  through  one  foot,  to  move  a  single  pound  through 
eleven  feet;  nor,  by  a  single  pound  moving  through  a 
ipaco  of  nine  feet,  shall  we  be  able  to  raise  a  weight  of 
ten  pounds  through  one  foot 

Neither  by  the  power  of  the  lever,  therefore,  nor  by 
my.  other  of  the  mechanical  powers,  can  we  make  any 
jbsolute  increase  of  the  power  which  is  applied.  In 
other  words,  the  quantity  of  power  expended  in  any 
jreat  and  instantaneous  effort,  is  exactly  the  omount  of 
the  power  which  has  Ix-en  previously  accumulated.  All 
that  we  can  do  to  procure  mechanical  advantage,  is  to 
accommodate  the  velocity,  force,  or  direction  of  the 
applied  power,  to  the  purposes  which  we  may  have  in 
wow. 

To  apply  this  principle  to  the  lever :  in  figs.  1  or  2, 
a  small  force  at  A  is  equal  to  double  the  force  exerted 
at  a  point  halfway  betwixt  A  and  the  fulcrum,  yet,  in 
both  cases,  the  same  amount  of  mechanical  power  is 
expended.  A  slight  push  downwards  at  A,  by  being 
continued  for  one  mintite,  is  equal  to  a  push  of  do'iblc 
the  force  at  a  point  halfway  towards  the  fulcrum,  con- 
lii'Ued  for  the  same  time.  Any  amount  of  force,  theto- 
foie,  cun  be  exerted  with  ease  at  the  extremity  of  the 
long  arm  of  the  lever,  provided  we  choose  to  make  the 
inn  long  enough  and  strong  enough. 

It  may  possibly  be  said  that  it  would  be  as  expedi- 
tious to  push  down  the  extremity  of  the  long  arm  of 
the  lever,  as  to  push  down  the  arm  at  the  point  nearer 
the  fulcrum.  Practically,  in  small  levers  this  may  be 
ihe  tasc  ;  but  when  levers  of  considerable  length  have 
tab*  UR(vl,  and  a  succession  of  depressions  and  raisings 
are  necessary,  it  will  be  found  that  more  time  is  spent 
in  working  with  a  long  than  a  short  lever.  For' when 
tht  sweep  of  the  lovor  is  inconveniently  long,  the  per- 
son using  it  has  to  move  his  body  quickly  up  and  down 
>ver  a  larger  space,  and  is  sooner  fatigued.  For  this 
reason,  although  a  boy  with  a  long  lever  may  balance 
u  great  a  weight  as  a  man  with  a  shorter  one,  yet,  in 
memg  weights  successively  by  it,  the  boy  would  be 
sooner  fatigued.  ' 

It  it  a  general  rule  that  "  the  force  of  the  lever  in- 
creases in  proportion  as  the  distance  of  the  power  from 
the  fulcrum  increases,  and  diminishes  in  proportion  as 
the  distance  of  the  weight  from  the  fulcrum  diminishes." 
In  making  calculation^  to  ascertain  the  proportiiins  to 
be  observed  betwixt  the  power  and  the  weight,  regard 
must  lie  paid  to  the  respective  lengths  of  the  long  and 
ihort  arms  of  the  lever.  We  must  also  fix  what  are  to 
ht  the  units  of  weight  and  distance,  and  let  them  be  the 
:iine  on  both  ends.  If  we  state  inches  to  lie  the  unit 
if  lengtli  of  the  short  arm,  incbos  must  be  the  unit  of 
lfr.i!th  of  the  Itnig  arm  ;  and  in  the  same  manner,  if 
iiunces  )e  made  the  unit  of  weiuht  of  the  short  arm, 
>unoea  tnust  be  made  the  unit  of  power  of  the  long 
arm. 

Kii/f. — Multiply  the  weight  by  its  distance  from  the 
lukruin;  then   multiply  the  power  by  its  distinice  from 
ihe  sain*    |K>int;  and  if  the    products  are   equal,  the 
ieii?lit  anil  :he  power  will  balance  each  other. 
iUaiiipU  /■'iri^— 8uppo^^e  u  weight  of  100  pounds  on 


the  short  arm  of  a  lever,  at  the  distance  of  H  in.h'f 
from  the  fulcrum,  then  another  weight  or  power  of  S 
pounds  would  be  equal  to  this,  at  the  distance  of  >!'0 
inches  from  the  fulcrum.  Because  8  multiplied  by  1(0 
produces  800,  and  100  multiplied  by  8  produces  800— 
and  thus  the  weight  and  the  power  would  mutually 
counteract  each  other. 

Example  Second. — Suppose  we  wish  to  calculntn 
what  power  should  be  employed  at  the  end  of  the  loni; 
arm  of  the  lever  to  balance  a  given  weight  at  the  crJ 
of  the  short  arm.  We  multiply  the  weight  by  the 
length  of  its  orm.  This  gives  us  a  product ;  then  di- 
vide that  product  by  the  number  of  inches  in  the  Ion  j 
arm,  and  the  result  or  qi.otient  is  the  power.  Thus,  a 
weight  of  10  pounds,  multiplied  by  10  inches  as  the 
length  of  the  short  arm,  gives  a  product  of  100.  If  the 
length  of  the  long  arm  be  20,  we  find  how  many  twen- 
ties are  in  100,  and  there  being  5,  consequently  5 
pounds  is  the  power.  In  this  instance,  the  mechanic.''' 
advantage  is  two  to  one — that  is,  the  power  is  twice  as 
small  as  the  weight. 

The  common  spade  used  in  delving  in  gardens  offers 
a  similar  example  of  simple  lever  power,  when  em- 
ployed in  raising  the  earth  from  its  place  to  turn  t 
over.  Fig.  3  represents  an  equally  familiar  example, 
namely,  a  wood-sawyer  o'.  carpenter  moving  a  log  of 


Fig.  3. 

timber  firom  its  place,  by  means  of  a  long  pole  or  beam 
of  wood.  Stone  masons  use  a  lever  of  iron  of  this  de- 
scription, called  a  crow-bar. 

The  power  of  the  first  kind  of  lever  is  frequently 
seen  to  operate  in  machines  or  instruments  Laving  two 
arms.  The  most 
common  examples 
of  this  nature  are 
pincers,  scissors, 
and  similar  instru- 
ments. In  the  pair 
of  scissors  here  re- 
presented, the  two 
limbs  are  seen  to  l>e 


I'lg.  4. 


joined  together  with  a  rivet  at  the  centre,  which  is  the 
fulcrum  of  both. 

A  common  scale  l)eam  for  weighing,  used  by  sho}  • 
keepers,  is  an  example  of  the  first  kind  of  lever,  formed 
with  two  arms  of  equal  length,  and  suspended  over 
the  centre  of  gravity,  so  that  the  two  extremities  balanot 
each  other.  See  tig.  .5.  S  is  a  string  or  line  suspending 
the  heam  .\  U  at  a  central  point  F,  which  is  the  ful- 
crum, 'i'lio  ))oiut  of  susi>cnsion,  or  pivot,  is  sharpened  to 
athinedge.soasto 
allow  the  arms  to 
risi-or  fall  with  as 
lit  !e  friction  as 
possible  when  any 
thing  is  put  in  the 
scales. 

There  is  another 
kind  of  balanc4) 
called  a  firili^ard, 
which  consists  of 
a  lever  with  urnm  of  unequal  length,  and  acts  upon  i  t 


164 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOr  l.i<7. 


princiiAr  of  distance  from  the  fulcrum  on  the  long  arm 
eoii«pentiting  for  weight  on  the  iihort  arm,  as  already 
defined.  Fig.  6  is  a  representation  of  the  steelyard 
balance.  C  is  the  fulcrum  or  pivot  l)y  which  the  beam  is 
suspended,  and  freely  plays  as  on  an  axis.    A  is  the  short 


am-,  and  the  opposite  end  is  the  long  arm.  W  is  the 
scab  for  the  reception  of  the  article  to  be  weighed. 
The  long  arm  is  graduated  into  divisions  by  marks,  each 
mark  denoting  by  a  figure  a  certain  numlier  of  pounds 
or  ounces.  P  is  a  weight  of  a  certain  heaviness,  and 
being  movable  by  a  ring,  it  can  lie  slip]>ed  along  the 
bar  to  any  required  point.  The  same  weight  is  always 
used,  and  thus  constitutes  one  of  the  principal  conve- 
niences of  this  kind  of  balance.  In  proportion  us  the 
article  to  be  weighed  in  the  soalc  W  is  heavy,  so  is  the 
weight  P  slipped  along  to  a  greater  distance  from  the 
fulcrum ;  and  when  it  is  brought  to  a  point  where  it  ba- 
lances the  article,  the  figure  on  the  bar  at  that  point 
indicates  the  amount  of  the  weight.  If  P  be  one  pound, 
and  if,  when  suspended  from  the  division  at  6,  it  ba- 
lance the  weight  at  W,  it  is  evident  that  the  weight 
will  be  six  times  P,  or  6  pounds.  And  so  on  with  all 
the  other  divisions. 

The  steelyard,  though  not  so  ancient  as  the  coirimon 
balance,  is  of  considerable  antiquity.  It  was  used  by 
the  Romans,  and  has  lorg  been  in  use  among  the  Chi- 
nese. Neither  the  common  balance  nor  the  steelyard 
are  suitable  for  showing  the  varying  weight  or  heaviness 
of  an  article  at  different  latitudes  of  the  earth's  surface, 
because  the  weights  employed  are  equally  oflected  with 
the  attraction  of  gravitation  and  centrifugal  force,  as 
(he  article  to  be  weighed.  For  this  reason,  the  diiTcr- 
ence  of  weight  resulting  from  the  causes  mentioned,  can 
only  be  demonstrated  by  a  balance  formed  of  a  spring 
of  elastic  metal.  By  susiwnding  the  article  from  the 
spring,  it  pulls  it  out  to  a  certain  extent,  and  so  indi- 
cates the  weight  on  a  graduated  scale  on  the  instru- 
ment. As  the  spring  act«  the  same  in  uU  latitudes,  it 
serves  as  a  fixe<l  and  unalterable  fiower,  while  the  arti- 
cle to  he  weighed  is  liable  to  an  alteration  in  its  weight 
t>r  heaviness  according  as  it  is  brought  near  or  carried 
from  the  equator. 

In  the  lever  of  the  second  kind,  the  weight  is  placed 
between  the  power  and  the  fulcrum,  as  in  fig.  7.  The 
line  from  A  to  B  is  the 
long  arm,  B  to  F  is  the 
short  arm.  W  is  the 
freight,  and  P  is  the 
power.  The  object  re- 
quired by  lliis  lever  is  to 
lift  the  weight  W  by  rais-  Fin.  7. 

iiiir  the  extremity  of  the  lever  at  A.  In  this,  as  in  the 
case  of  (he  first  kind  of  lever,  the  power  is  increased  in 
pr<>|iortion  to  its  distance  from  the  fulcrum. 

Exaiiiplev  of  this  kind  of  lever  power  are  common, 
t  >ae  of  the  most  fami- 
liar i»  that  of  a  man  .^=^V 
pUKhing  or  lifting  for- 
ward a  bale  of  giHNls, 
*<  reprrsenled  in  fig. 

<i,   ill  which   the  l>ale 

»r  Weight  W  pre»««*  *■'        Pif.l 


Kig  9. 


against  the  lever  between  he  power  P  and  the  fil. 
crum  F. 

Another  example  of  the  second  kind  of  leve-  is  tlnit 
of  a  man  using  a  wheelbarrow,  as  represented  :n  lig  S 
A  point  in  the  wheel  of 
the  barrow  wherp  it 
presses  on  the  ground, 
is  the  fulcrum.  The 
body  of  the  barrow,  with 
its  load,  is  the  weight. 
And  the  two  handles, 
lifted  or  held  up  by  the 
man,  form   the   powet. 

In  proportion  as  the  man  shortens  or  lengthens  th* 
handles  in  holding  them,  so  does  he  increase  or  dimin- 
ish the  weight  he  has  to  sustain. 

Two  men  corryiiig  a  load  between  them  on  a  pole,  it 
also  an  example  of  the  second  kind  of  lever.  The  load 
may  either  rest  upon  or  bo  dependent  from  the  pole. 
In  the  case  of  two  porters  carrying  a  sedan  chair  liy 
means  of  two  poles,  the  loud  or  weight  is  partly  above 
and  partly  below  the  line  of  the  lever.  In  the  case  of 
porters  carrying  a 
barrel  slung  from  a 
pole,  as  in  fig.  10,  the 
weight  is  altogether 
below  the  lever.  In 
both  inKtunccs  the 
principle  is  the  same. 
Each  man  acts  as  the 
power  in  moving  the 
weight,  and    at  the  V\^.W. 

same  time  each  man  becomes  a  fulcniPi  in  respect  tc 
the  other.  If  the  weight  hang  fairly  from  the  centre 
of  the  pole,  each  man  will  bear  just  a  half  of  the  bu^ 
den ;  but  if  the  weight  be  slipped  along  to  lie  nearer 
one  end  of  the  lever  than  the  other,  then  the  man  who 
bears  the  shorter  end  of  the  pole  supports  a  greater  load 
than  the  man  who  is  at  the  long  end.  The  weight  in- 
creases precisely  in  proportion  as  it  advances  townrdi 
him.  Sometimes,  when  a  man  and  a  boy  are  carry. 
ing  a  handbarrow  between  them,  the  man,  in  order  to 
ease  the  weight  as  much  as  possible  to  the  boy,  holds 
by  the  arms  of  the  barrow  near  to  where  they  join  the 
loaded  part 

In  yoking  horses  to  the  .rxirc^ties  of  cross  bars  in 
ploughs,  coaches,  or  other  .i  i.i-  'r-?.  care  requires  to  be 
taken  to  hook  the  cross  bar  m  iie  load  at  its  centre, 
otherwise  one  horse  will  have  to  pull  more  than  the 
other. 

An  inflexible  l)eam  resting  on  supiwrts  or  fulcra  at 
its  two  extremities,  acts  similarly  as  a  lever  of  the 
second  kind.  Should  no  weight  l)c  apjiended  to  iti 
centre,  the  weight  of  the  material  itstdf,  when  the  ex- 
tension is  considerable,  will  be  enough  to  bend  it  down, 
and  even  to  break  it.  Extended  flexible  cords  or  chainn 
arc  from  this  cause  always  bent  down  in  the  middle,  no 
jMjwer  of  extension  being  able  to  overcome  the  gravity 
of  the  materials,  which  will  give  way  before  they  can  Iw 
rendered  perfectly  straight.  The  liended  string  of  ■ 
boy'>(  pa|ier  kite  is  an  example  of  this  powerful  influ 
eiice  of  gravity  of  materials. 

The  instrument  used  for  crack-  f^  •"MWs 

ing  nuts  (fig.  1 1)  is  an  example  ^^^^^grJYA 
of  the  second  kind  of  lever  with  ™CCr^^ 

two  amis  or  limbs.     The  ful-  Fig  1 1 . 

enim  is  the  joint  which  connects  the  two  limits;  the 
nut  tietween  them  is  the  weight  or  resistance ;  anil  the 
huml  which  presses  the  limbs  together,  i'l  order  to  hreak 
the  nut,  is  (he  povver.  As  each  limb  is  a  lever,  a  dou- 
ble lever  iietloa  takes  place  in  the  <i|H<ra'ion. 

The  oar  of  a  l«iat  in  rowini;  is  a  lever  of  the  wroni! 
kinil.  The  hiinds  of  tli."  sailor  who  pulls  cointituu'  i!'f 
power  J  fJie  boat  is  the  weight  to  lie  mo"  ed  ;  snJ  'If 


irater  aga 
ftiicrum. 

The  sec 

tn  instrun 

is.  for  exa 

wall,  trie  f 

extremity  i 

In  this  rud 

in  some  pa 

In  the  1< 

between  th( 

fulcrum  (fij 

crum  is  at 

of  the  short 

weight  W  is 

the  extremii 

arm  at  A ; 

power. 

In  this  ki 
able  disadvai 
vantage  is  co 
;s  frequently 
^oth  nature  i 
velocity  with 
treme  point  o 
t  crreat  space, 
or  art,  is  used 
versed  quickl 
power  must  aj 
An  exampU 
board  of  the  t 
workman    pre 
on  the  board  or 
the  end  which 
ground,   or    fu 
causes  the  opp, 
mity  of  the  boa 
in   a   downwar 
over  a  consider 
A  spring  over 
"aiik,  pulls  th« 
a;ain  by  means 
S;  the  workma; 
constant  action 
Imhe  is  easily  p 
A  man  wieldi 
instances  of  usir 
'liird  kind  of  lev, 
aMe  when   we 
liiiffers  near  the  j 
«hich  are  two  It 
«We  space. 

Before  the  po, 
''•canie  known, 
ioxxnff  Itvtr. 

The  moTement 
prixluced  by  the 
When  several 
nectod  foL'cf  ,  r 
^'"'"•"         .•hi'nel 
'"  this  m.i.  iiine,  a 
'"  the  pressure  or^ 
Ifie  jHiwer,  tlio  for, 
'"S  to  the  Miiiiihor 
Fig.  14  represei 
I'T'-f  simple  levcTi 
«nJ  each  working 
''^'jwt  of  the  mach 
'  ■  to  move  or  balm 
n;le  applien,  i„   j.,, 

f^''.  which  has  , 
'f  "•  r— nam  -ly,  ..  ^ 
'»  Ji-'tnc  I  from  ih, 
'y  no  distill  le  from 


MECHANICS— MACHINERY. 


m 


[)T  fulcra  at 
l\cT  of  the 
lidod  to  iu 
lion  the  ei- 
Li  it  (bwn, 
ftg  or  rhaini 
inuWle.  no 
I  the  Riavily 
Ithf  y  ran  \» 
Igtrinu  of  i 
k-erful  influ 


litnlw;  the 
j-e;  ami  the 
IliT  to  lireak 
lover,  a  ilou- 

the  lefoni! 

l„l«tltllU'  (''» 
ed  :  »nJ  'I ' 


irkter  againit  which  the  Mad*  oi  the  oar  pushes,  is  the 
(ulrrum. 

The  second  kind  of  lever  is  sometimes  employed  as 
tn  instrument  of  pressure.  The  point  of  the  short  arm 
18,  for  example,  pushed  into  a  crevice  or  hole  in  the 
wall,  tiio  fulcrum  is  the  object  to  be  pressed,  and  at  the 
extremity  of  the  long  arm  a  heavy  weight  is  applied. 
Id  this  rude  but  efficacious  manner  are  cheeses  pressed 
in  some  parts  of  the  country. 

In  the  lever  of  the  third  kind,  the  power  is  placed 
iK-twecn  the  weight  and  the  _ 


I 


T 

V 


w 


Fig.  la. 


Fig.  IS. 


fulcrum  (fig.  18).  The  ful 
crum  ia  at  the  extremity 
of  the  short  arm  at  F ;  the 
weight  W  isdcpendent  from 
the  extremity  of  the  long 
arm  at  A ;  and  P  is  the 
power. 

,  In  this  kind  of  lever,  the  power  acts  with  consider- 
able disadvantage,  or  with  small  effect ;  but  this  disad- 
vantage is  comi>ensated  by  an  opposite  advantage,  which 
'<»  frequently  of  great  importance  in  the  operations  of 
both  nature  and  art.  The  advantage  consists  in  the 
velocity  with  which  a  small  power  will  cause  the  ex- 
treme point  of  the  long  arm  of  the  lover  to  move  over 
t  ffroat  space.  This  lever,  therefore,  whether  in  nature 
er  art,  is  used  only  when  a  great  space  has  to  be  tra- 
versed quickly  by  the  long  arm ;  but  in  this  case  the 
power  must  always  he  greater  than  the  weight 

An  example  of  this  kind  of  lever  is  found  in  the  foot- 
board of  the  turning-lathe  (fig.  13).  The  foot  of  the 
workman  presses  lightly 
on  the  board  or  plank  near 
the  end  which  rests  on  the 
ground,  or  fulcrum,  and 
causes  the  opposite  extre- 
mity of  the  board  to  move 
in  a  downward  direction 
over  a  considerable  space. 
A  spring  over  head,  or  a 
crank,  pulls  the  board  up 
a;ain  by  means  of  a  string 
8;  the  workman  again  presses  it  downward,  and  so  a 
constant  action  of  the  string  or  cord  which  works  the 
lallic  is  easily  produced. 

.\  man  wielding  a  flail  with  two  hands,  and  similar 
^n^tancps  of  using  weapons,  are  also  examples  of  the 
i'iir<l  kind  of  lever  action.  A  similar  action  was  observ- 
al>le  when  we  use  fire-tongs;  a  small  motion  of  the 
liiizcrs  near  the  joint  of  the  instrument  causes  the  legs, 
which  are  two  levers,  to  open  or  shut  over  a  consider- 
able space. 

Ueforc  the  peculiar  advantages  of  this  kind  of  lever 
b«canM>  known,  or  were  appreciated,  it  waa  called  the 
foi!i»»^  lti<tr. 

The  movement*  in  the  limb*  of  animals  are  generally 
produced  by  the  action  of  this  kind  of  lever  power. 

When  several  levers  of  the  simple  kinds  are  con- 
necte<l  touot!,.  r,  and  are  made  to  operate  one  upon  the 
other,  til  chine  so  formed  is  called  a  compound  lever. 
In  this  m:ii  hine,  as  each  lever  acta  with  a  power  equal 
tu  the  pressure  on  it  of  the  next  lever  lietween  it  and 
thf  (wwer,  the  force  is  incrrasod  or  diminished  accord- 
ing to  the  nuinlier  or  kind  of  levers  employed. 

Fig.  14  ropri'sents  a  compound  lever,  ronsisting  of 
Ihri'c  simple  lovors  of  the  first  kind,  placed  in  a  line, 
a:ul  each  working  on  its  own  fulcrum.  The  desired 
(i'>jcct  of  the  machine  is  for  a  small  (urce  or  (Mwcr  at 
1'.  lo  move  or  balance  a  large  weight  at  W.  The  same 
Pile  applii'M,  in  calculating  the  action  of  this  combined 
Irvi'i,  which  has  already  t>een  K>v«n  for  the  simple 
levft — nam 'ly,  "  Multiply  the  weight  on  any  lever  by 
'!» iliii'snc  1  from  the  fulcrum ;  then  multiply  the  power 
ijr  its  distal  ce  from  the  same  point,  and  if  the  pro<lucta 


JU> 


s- 


F'g.  M. 


are  equal,  the  weight  and  the  power  will  balance  eaco 
other."  Or,  for  the  form  of  lever  in  the  figure,  "  Mul 
tiply  the  length  of  the  long  arm  by  moving  the  power, 
and  multiply  that  of  the  short  one  by  the  weight,  or 
resistance." 

It  is  supposed  that  the  three  levers  in  the  figure  aw 
of  the  same  length,  the  long  arms  being  six  inches  each, 
and  the  short  ones  two  inches  each;  required — the 
weight  which  a  moving  power  of  1  pound  at  P  will  ba- 
lance at  W.  In  the  first  place,  1  pound  at  P  would 
balance  3  pounds  at  E  ;  we  say  3,  because  the  long  arm 
being  six  inches,  and  the  power  1  pound,  6  multiplied 
by  I  is  6 ;  and  the  short  one  being  2  inches,  we  find 
that  there  are  3  twos  in  6,  therefore  3  is  the  weight 
The  long  arm  of  the  second  lever  being  also  6  inches, 
and  moved  with  a  power  of  3  pounds,  multiply  the  3  by 
6,  which  gives  18 ;  and  multiply  the  short  arm,  being  3 
inches,  by  a  number  which  will  give  18;  we  find  tliat 
9  will  do  so  (9  twos  are  18)  ;  therefore  9  is  the  weight 
borne  at  the  extremity  of  the  short  urm  of  the  second 
lever  at  D.  The  long  arm  of  the  third  lever  being  also 
6  inches,  and  moved  with  a  power  of  9  pounds,  multiply 
the  9  by  6,  and  we  have  Hi ;  and  mirltiply  the  short  arm, 
l)eing  2  inches,  by  a  number  which  will  give  54 ;  we 
find  that  27  will  do  so  (twice  27  is  54)  ;  therefore  27  is 
the  weight  borne  at  the  extremity  of  the  short  arm  of 
the  third  lever.  Thus  1  pound  at  P  will  balance  27 
pounds  at  W  ;  or  1  ounce  at  P  will  balance  27  ounces 
at  W — the  proportions  being  always  alike,  whatever 
denomination  of  weight  we  employ. 

In  this  instance,  the  increase  of  power  is  tompara- 
tively  small,  because  the  proportion  l>etween  the  long 
and  short  arms  is  only  as  2  to  6,  or  1  to  3.  If  we  make 
the  proportions  more  dissimilar,  as  1  to  10,  oi  I  to  20, 
the  increase  of  force  becomes  very  great  For  example, 
let  the  long  arms  he  18  inches  each,  and  the  short  ones 
1  inch  each,  and  1  pound  at  P  will  balance  18  pounds 
at  A,  and  the  second  lever  would  be  pusheil  up  with  a 
power  of  18  pounds.  This  18  being  multiplied  by  the 
length  of  the  lever  18,  gives  324  pounds  as  the  power 
which  would  press  down  the  third  lever.  Lastly,  mul- 
tiply this  324  by  the  length  of  the  lever  ?  8,  and  the 
product  is  5832  pounds,  which  would  be  the  final  weight 
at  W  which  1  pound  at  P  would  raise. 

The  following  is  a  general  rule  for  calculating  the 
advantages  of  a  compound  lever  consisting  of  any  num- 
ber of  levers,  whether  equal  or  not : — Call  the  arms  of 
the  different  levers  next  the  power  the  arms  of  pmcer, 
and  the  other  arms  the  arm$  of  iceight ;  then,  if  the 
lengths  of  the  arms  of  power  and  the  power  itself  be 
successively  multiplied  together,  the  product  will  be 
equal  to  the  continued  product  of  the  arms  of  weight 
and  the  weight,  when  the  power  and  weight  are  in 
equilibrium. 

A  similar  result  to  that  of  a  combination  't)f  levers 
miijht  be  produced  by  only  one  lever,  provided  it  werr 
long  enough,  but  the  operation  would  be  both  clums) 
and  inconvenient.  By  combining  levers,  and  making 
them  act  one  upon  another,  great  weights  may  be  ba- 
lanced within  a  small  compass,  and  with  an  exceedingly 
small  power.  On  this  account,  machines  are  con- 
structed with  combinations  of  levers,  for  weighing  loadeo 
cart*  and  other  heavy  burdens.  The  cart  is  wheeleu 
upon  a  sort  of  table  placed  level  with  the  ground,  lie- 
neath  which  the  levers  ore  arranged ;  and  a  small  weight 


T«6 


INFOR^fATION  FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


I'UcoJ  on  a  scale  attached  to  the  extreme  point  of  the 
fir«t  lover,  balance*  the  load,  which  re»U  on  the  table 
above  the  last  lever.  This  ■!)«■•  les  of  weighing-machine 
is  often  to  bo  seen  at  toll-bars. 

In  the  foregoing  examples  of  levor  powers,  the  levers 
or  bars  are  suppoecil  to  be  straight,  and  the  powers  and 
waighU,  or  forces,  are  supposed  to  act  at  right  angles  with 
them. 

lievers  are  frequently  beiit  in  their  form,  for  purposes 
of  convenience,  and  the  powers  and  woighta  often  act 
obl:<;>uly,  or  not  at  right  angles. 

In  calculating  tl>e  mechanical  advantage  of  bent  levers, 
the  chief  matter  of  consideration  is  obliquity  in  the  dirc'C- 
tion  of  the  applied  power  and  weight.  Obliquity  in  the 
action  of  the  forces  generally  diminishes  the  mechanical 
udvantage. 

Whatever  be  the  form  of  the  lever,  or  the  direction  of 
the  power  and  the  tveight,  the  mechanical  advantage  of 
the  pcwer  or  the  weight  is  always  represented  by  u  lint 
drawn  from  the  futrrum,  at  right  angtei  to  the  tiirtction  in 
ichich  the  forctt  art  reipectivcly  txattJ. 

rig.  15  is  a  bent  lever,  with  the  power  of  P  hanging 
from  A,  end  the 
weight  W  banging 
from  B.  In  this 
case,  both  the  pow- 
er and  the  weight 
art  at  right  angles 
10  an  ideal  line, 
drawn  as  fi-om  E 
to  G  across  the  ful- 
crum, which  strikes  f"'*-  "• 
tlie  lines  of  direction  of  the  forces  at  right  angles. 

or  THK    WHEEL   IND   AXLE. 

A  lever  has  been  defined  to  be  "a  rod  or  Iwir  of  iron, 
wood,  or  any  other  material  which  is  movable  upon  or 
alwut  a  prop  or  fulcrum,  or  about  a  fixed  axis."  The 
illustrations  which  have  been  given,  hIiow  the  lever  only 
in  its  character  of  a  simple  bar,  which  is  movable  in 
•ome  part  "  upon  or  about  a  prop  or  fulcrum."  It  is  now 
to  bo  shown  how  it  acts  when  movable  upon  or  about  a 
fixed  axis.  When  a  lever  is  movable  upon  an  axis, 
and  is  susceptible  of  being  turned  completely  round,  it 
assumes  the  character  of  the  diameter  of  a  wheel. 

In  fig.  IC,  the  tiiniple  ludiments  of  >  wheel  are  reprc- 
aeoted.     A  and   ^ '  are  the  two  armti  uf  a  bar  or  le'/er 

_  playing  upon  a  fixed  axis  at  P,   ^ 
and  which  axis  is  the  fulcrum. 
If  we  pu.'ih  down  A,  we  raise  B, 
or  if  we  push  down  B,  we  raise  ^'^  '  • 

A.  In  this  manner  the  situation  of  the  power  and  the 
wt'igbt  is  transferable  from  one  end  to  the  other,  an  in 
ih.i  beam  of  a  common  balance,  without  altering  the 
efjuilibrium. 

Fig.  17  is  a  representation  of  u  wheel  in  a  state  more 
advanced  to  completion.     Here   the  arras  A  B  are  con- 
nected with  the  arms  D  C,  both 
at  the  centre  F,  and  by  r..eana 
nf  'he  circumference  or  lim  of 

♦*^»     ieoL     By  reason  of  this 
..><>^i  of  p«irta,  the  central  axis 

at  F  becomes  the  commo.i  ful- 
crum for  every  portion  of  the 

jvhiwi ;  therefore,  from  tJ»e  cm- 

I  p  to  any  j>oint  of  the  circiim- 

fiTPtice  is  an  arm  of  a  lever, 

a.'tliough  the  line  of  that  lever 

Im>  not  marked  or  seen,  as  in  the 

cii>.e  of  a  distinct  spoke. 

A  line  through  the  centre  from  one  side  of  the  circum- 

fiteiice  of  a  wheel  to  the  opposite  aiile,  is  a  diameter ; 

fniin  the  centre  to  any  |iart  of  the  circumference,  is  the 

ieuiiKliaineter  or  radius.    The  aims  or  spokes  arc  said  to 


F 


B 


Fig.  IS. 


radiate  from  a  centre.    The  circumference  is  soma)inv>i 
called  the  periphery. 

Besides  wheels  with  axes  in  the  centre,  there  are  wheeli 
with  axes  not  in  the  centre,  called  eccentric  wheels.  At 
prestmt,  however,  we  are  trentir.g  only  of  wheels  hnving 
their  a\ea  in  the  centre. 

Wheels  with  a  central  axis  may  be  rendered  available 
as  levers  in  various  ways,  according  to  the  placing  ,jf  the 
weight  or  resiHtanoe.  The  plan  commonly  pursued  con. 
sists  in  giving  to  the  wheel  an  axle  which  is  fixed  to  its 
arms,  and  placing  a  weight  near  the  axle  or  fulcrum,  to 
work  agaiuLt  another  weight  at  the  circumference. 

Thus  a  machine  is  formed  called  the  M'hcel  oni!  Axle 
which  constitutes  one  of  the  simple  mechanicul  powoit 
founded  on  the  lever. 

The  machine  termed  the  wheel  and  axle  consists  of  ■ 
wheel  fixed  upon  an  axl?  or  spindle,  which  axlt  turm 
horizontally  on  its  Vwo  ends  in  upright  supports.  See 
fig.  '8.  The  fulcrum  of 
the  machine  is  common 
to  both  the  wheel  and 
the  axle,  and  is  the  cen- 
tre of  the  axie.  A  is  the 
wheel,  B  is  the  axle,  and 
H  is  n  handle  with  wh 
the  machine  may  be  turn 
ed.  By  turning  the  wheol, 
the  axle  is  also  turned, 
and  a  rope  being  fixed 
to  the  axle,  with  the 
weight  W  hanging  at 
its  extrcn>ity,  the  turning  of  the  wheel  causen  the  axle  to 
wind  up  the  ro|)e,  and  so  lill  the  weight.  If,  instead  of 
turning  the  wheel  with  the  hand,  wt  wind  a  rope  round 
the  circumfep'ncc  of  the  whcl,  in  a  contrary  direrticn 
from  that  in  which  the  axle  ro|)c  is  wound,  and  also  haiig 
a  weight  of  a  certain  heoviiiess,  P,  to  its  extremity,  th(>n 
the  draught  or  pulling  of  the  wheel  royie  in  unwinding, 
will  turn  the  axle,  and  so  wind  up  the  axle  tope  with  iti 
weight.  In  this  manner,  one  power  works  ugoin^t  an- 
other, exactly  as  in  the  case  of  the  lever.  By  properly 
ap|>ortioning  the  two  powers  in  correspondence  with  the 
diameters  of  the  wheel  and  the  axle,  the  one  powe; 
or  weight  may  be  made  to  balance  the  other  pcwer  ti 
weight,  so  as  to  produce  an  equilibrium  of  the  nis- 
chine. 

The  wheel  and  axle  form  what  is  called  a  pirprlua'. 
leva:  Common  simple  levers  act  only  for  a  short  spaci', 
or  by  reiterated  effoiU,  so  as  to  be  aduptfd  lor  lifting;  an 
object  from  one  place  to  another  on  the  gromu/.  The 
pcr[>etijal  Irvi  r  formed  by  the  wheel  and  axle,  tirn.' 
round  without  intermission,  and  is  therefore  suilslila  fi, 
lifting  weiishts  ttttiched  to  a  ro|)c,  througli  a  cor'sidcrj'jle 
sj)ace  upward  f  om  the  ground  without  stoppinjj. 

Fig.  19  is  a  rrprcHcntation  of  the  iniichine  enawisc, 
and  Hhows  how  the  lever  o|)erates.  The  line 
across  the  machine  from  A  to  B 
represents  the  line-  of  the  lever. 
A  is  the  situation  of  the  power, 
F  is  the  centre  or  fulcrum,  and 
B  is  the  situation  of  the  weight ; 
therefore,  from  A  to  F  is  the  long 
arm,  and  from  F  to  B  is  the 
short  arm  of  the  lever.  In  other 
words,  the  long  arm  is  half  the 
di«met<'r  of  the  wheel,  and  the 
short  srm  i.-<  half  the  thickness 
or  diunietc.  of  the  axle. 

I'y  widening  the  wheel,  and 
•0  lengthening  the  long  arm  of 
the  lever,  the  smaller  will  lie  the 
come  the  weight  on  the  axle  or  short  urin ;  hut  v.lial  j 
gained  by  this  mechanical  ailvntit-tge  is  iimt  liy  the  at' 
cumitaiice  tliat  the  power  must  dekoend  thi   ^gh  t  pr»  i 


goi.ij 


Fg  10 
power  necessar)'  to  o»it 


MECHANICS— MACHINERY. 


tv 


some'inwi 

are  wheels 
lieeU.  At 
cIb  hnving 

i  availabk 
icing  of  th« 
jiHUed  con- 
ftxeJ  to  it! 
fulcrum,  to 
[•nee. 

b1  and  Axle, 
licul  powcis 

consists  of  a 
h  axk  turni 
jiporls.    See 


iHcn  the  axle  to 
If,  insteail  of 
il  a  r()\ie  roimil 
ntrary  directicn 
I,  and  also  hsiig 
extremity,  thm 
I  in  unwinilini;, 
de  to\ie  with  iu 
rks  ugainst  an- 
By  properly 
Indence  with  the 
the  one  powei 
other  power  tr 
im  of  th«  mt- 

llleil  a  pn-prlua', 
(IF  a  short  space, 
-d  tor  liftiiiK  an 
grouiul.  Ilie 
and  axle,  '.'.:riii 
.■fore  suitable  f  h 
.!i  a  cot'siJcitblc 
lopiiini;. 

LicUiue  enuwiwi 
iThc   line  g>'i'ii 


-6 


F  f  1" 
J  necessary  to  o''^ 
I  arm;  Iw't  v-hai  J 

Iu  ii'»l  ''y  ^'  '^'' 
Ind  lilt  ^gh  i  it* 


pr  (tia  lally  greater  space  in  order  to  raise  the  Mm"  weight 
through  the  samo  space  in  the  same  time. 

Td  find  what  forces  will  balance  each  other,  let  the 
samo  rules  be  followed  as  those  formerly  given  for  the 
limple  lover.  Multiply  the  weight  dv  its  distance  from 
the  fulcrum  (that  distance  is  half  the  diameter  of  the 
ixle) ;  then  multiply  the  power  by  it«  distance  from  the 
same  |>oint  (that  is,  half  thi;  diameter  of  the  wheel),  and 
if  the  products  be  equal,  the  weight  and  the  power  will 
liabnco  each  other.  Thus,  a  pov/er  of  one  pound  at  or 
(lc|)ending  from  the  circumference  oJ  a  wheel  of  twelve 
Inches  in  diameter,  will  bala'ico  a  weight  of  twelve 
[Munds  at  or  dependiti;^  from  the  circumference  of  an 
ii^le  one  inch  in  diameter. 

Note, — No  allowance  is  inade  in  these  calculations  for 
ll'.c  overlaying  of  the  rope  in  winding,  which  alfects  the 

II  ni^th  of  both  the  long  and  the  short  arm ;  but  tliis  is 
n  natter  of  practical,  not  of  theoretic  import 

The  principle  of  the  wheel  and  axle,  or  perpetual  lover, 
i;  introduced  into  various  mechanical  contrivances  which 
arc  of  great  uhc  in  many  of  the  ordinary  occupations  of 
life  O.ie  of  the  simplest  machines  constructed  on  this 
principle,  is  the  cr  mmon  windlass  for  drawing  water  by  a 
rope  and  buckc!  from  wells.     Coal  is  litled  from  the  pitx  \ 

III  which  it  is  dug,  by  a  similar  contrivance,  wrought  by 
iDrse  or  steam  jMJwcr. 

The  capstan  in  general  use  on  board  of  ships  for  liaul- 
ing  or  <lrawing  up  anchors,  and  for  other  operations,  is  an 
ft  imple  of  the  wheel 
^iiJ  axle,  constructed 
in  an  upright  or  vcrti- 

I  jl,  insteod  of  a  hori- 
zontal, position.  In 
'.•.'.  »0,  one  of  these 
rapslaiis  is  ropresint- 
eu.  The  axle  is  placed 
u|>ri,'ht,  with  the  rope 
ivimting  about  it,  and 

II  iviiig  a  hend  pierced 
with  holes  for  spokes  Fig.  20. 

r>r  levers,  which  the  men  push  against  to  cause  the  axle 
II)  turn.  This  is  a  powerful  and  convenient  machine  on 
jliipboard ;  when  not  in  use,  the  spokes  arc  taken  out  and 
liiJ  aaidc. 

Ac  illustration  of  the  wheel  and  axle,  in  a  combhicd 
form,  b  afterwards  given  in  tlio  case  of  the  crane. 

or  CORDS   AND   PUIXIVS. 

The  pulley,  or  cord,  ia  one  of  the  primary  mechanical 
IK-ners.  A  pulley  is  a  wheel,  with  a  groove  in  its  circum- 
li-ronce,  aud  l.f  suspended  by  a  central  axis.  In  fixed 
pulli'ys,  a  flexible  cord,  which  is  made  to  pass  over  and 
liin'4  from  tb.e  upper  part  of  the  groove,  has  at  one  ex- 
tremity a  certain  weight  to  be  raised,  and  at  the  other 
I'xtremity  a  jniwer  is  attached  for  the  pur|)ose  of  pulling. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  pulleys,  tlie  fixed  and  movable. 

The  annexed  cut,  f'g.  21,  represents  a  fixed  pn'ky.  A 
ia  the  wheel,  B  is  the  Iwam  at  ro<).r  from  which  the  wheel 

lb  suspended.    P  is  the  power  bang- 

inif  at  one  end  of  the  rope,  and  W 
i.-  llie  weigli*.  lit  the  other  end.  This 
lunil  of  pulley  if  cuiled  a  fixed  pul- 
liT,  l)ecau«e  it  does  not  shill  fium 
M  [Hvilion. 

TIh!  fixed  (nillcy  po.isesses  no  me- 
i!iinical  adv.mt;in>'.  The  wheel  is 
merely  a  Icvit  with  ci[u.d  arms,  and 
ilioreforc  the  mrd  whiih  pauses  over 
llii'se  ariiw  giiiiis  no  ulvantage.  To 
liw  a  pnuii.l  wpi^iit  from  the  ground  at  the  one  end 
of  the  conl,  the  power  of  one  pound  must  be  exerted  ut 
the  otli'>r. 

The  ui)ject  of  the  single  fixed  pulley  is  not  to  save 
power,  but  to  give  convuiueuce  iii  pulliiiK-    For  instance, 


Fig.  88. 


Fig.-il. 


by  pulling  downwards,  a  weight  may  be  raised  Dpwutl% 
or  by  pulling  in  one  direction,  a  load  may  be  made  lo 
procerd  in  another.  The  same  object  might  be  gained 
by  drawing  a  cord  over  a  fixed  post  or  pivot,  but  in  thm 
case  the  friction  of  the  con.  would  chafe  or  injure  it;  tlie 
wheel  or  pulley  is  therefore  a  simple  contrivance  to  pre- 
vent friction,  for  it  turns  round  along  with  the  cord. 

The  movable  pulley  is  in  form  the  same  as  the  fixed 
pulley,  but  instead  of  being  placed  in  a  fixed  position 
from  n  Itoam  or  roof,  it  hangs  in  the 
cord  which  passes  under  it,  and  fi'om 
it  the  weight  is  suspended.  In  fig.  23, 
li  movable  pulley  is  represented.  A 
IS  a  hook  'n  a  beam  to  which  one  end 
of  a  cord  is  fixed.  B  is  the  movable 
pulley,  under  which  the  cord  passes 
and  proceeds  upwards  to  C,  a  fixed 
pulley,  lirom  which  it  depends  to  ?, 
the  power  or  the  hand  pulling.  The 
fixed  pulley  U  is  of  no  further  use  than 
to  chnnge  the  direction  of  the  power. 
W  is  the  weight  hanging  from  B. 

The  movable  pulley  possesses  a  mechanical  advantage. 
The  first  point  to  be  observed  is,  that  the  weight  hang* 
in  the  cord ;  8<'cond,  that  the  weight  presses  down  each 
side  of  the  cord  equally — that  is,  it  draws  as  hard  at  A  as 
at  C  or  P ;  third,  that  the  consequence  of  this  equal  pre» 
sure  is  the  halving  of  the  weight  lietween  the  two  end* 
of  the  cord.  The  halving  of  the  weight  is  therefore  the 
mechanical  advantage  given  by  the  movable  pulley. 

Ej  luuyk. — If  the  weight  W  be  ten  pounds,  five  pounda 
is  borne  by  A,  and  five  poundsbyP.  The  case  ia  precise- 
ly the  same  as  that  of  two  boys  carrying  a  basket  between 
them.  The  basket  is  the  weight,  and  each  boy,  with  hit 
hand  upholding  the  handle,  bears  only  half  the  load, 
whatever  it  may  lie.  If,  instead  of  holding  by  the  handle, 
the  boys  slip  a  cord  beneath  it,  and  each  take  rn  end  of 
the  cord,  the  case  is  the  same. 

In  order  to  save  expenditure  of  power  in  lifting  weight* 
by  pulleys,  it  is  always  contrived  to  cause  some  inani- 
mate object,  as  for  instance  a  beam  or  roof,  to  take  • 
share  of  the  weight,  leaving  only  a  portion  to  be  home  '^) 
the  person  who  pulls.  But  in  this,  as  in  all  cases  of  me 
chanical  advantage,  the  saving  of  power  is  effected  onlj 
by  a  certain  loss  of  time,  or  a  longer  continuation  ol 
laliour.  To  lift  a  weight  one  foot  from  the  ground,  bj 
the  movable  pulley,  a  roan  must  pull  up  the  cord  two 
feet ;  therefore,  to  lift  a  weight,  it  will  take  double  the 
exertion  to  draw  it  up  a  given  height  in  a  given  tima 
without  the  pulley,  than  it  would  require  with  the  inter 
vention  of  the  pulley. 

As  the  power  which  a  man  can  exert  by  his  hands,  ia 
able  to  overcome  a  weight  greater  than  the  weight  of  hi* 
own  person,  this  circumstance 
may  he  taken  oilvantagc  of  in  a 
very  peculiar  manner,  through 
the  agency  of  the  fixed  pulley. 
As  represented  in  fig.  23,  a  man 
may  scat  himself  in  a  loop  or 
seat  attached  to  one  end  of  a 
oonl,  ami  passing  the  cord  over  a 
fixeil  ;  'u'y  above,  may  pull  him- 
self i^t'Witrds  by  drawing  »•  the 
other  end  of  the  cord.  B'  aid- 
ing a  movable  pulley  and  iiiio- 
tber  fixed  pulley  to  the  apparatus, 
the  exertion  of  pulling  would  be 
diminished  one  half.  An  appa- 
ratus of  this  nature,  having  two 
fixed  pulleys  and  one  movable 
pulley,  is  used  by  house  masons 
and  other  urtib.iis,  in  making 
repairs  on  the  frjiits  of  buildings. 

The  principle  upon  which  pulleys  act,  ii  the  diitribs 


Fig.  23. 


U9 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLB. 


Hon  of  wei,i!,»  throughout  the  difTerent  portioiii  of  the 
HM«.*,  wo  t»  to  letMu  tho  powei  ,;<  .cBwry  to  be  exerted  hy 
*h«  pftttto.-.  And  BJong  with  iij»  principit)  is  the  chang- 
ing  I.  ■■  the  direction  of  tho  power  fjr  tho  take  of  conveni- 
ence in  pulliiiir. 

ApfoitJr  .jf  to  urdinary  langu^ige,  tii8  mechanical  pt  wtir 
of  which  we  art^  treating  ia  called  the  power  of  the  jui. 
ley;  hut,  in  reality,  ai  has  been  juet  shown,  the  puli'y 
has  no  power  in  itself.  The  pt  »er  of  the  machine  i*  \a 
the  cord.  //  w  in  the  equal  tenhon  of  the  cord  through  U$ 
whole  length,  by  tchich  the  toeight  u  ilistribuled  upon  inter' 
vening  j>oitit$,  that  the  machine  offers  any  merhanical  ad- 
rantage. 

In  nil  cases  in  which  conis  arc  Irawn  tightly,  so  «« 
to  hold  objects  in  clone  contact,  the  same  specie  ii  ol 
power  or  mechanical  advantage  is  exemplified.  i  nr 
instance,  in  drawing  a  ord  in  lacing,  or  a  thread  in 
■ewini;,  this  distribution  of  power  is  ob8erk.(ble.  If  ail 
the  power  which  is  diKtribiited  throughoi':  the  sewii.< 
of  !>  singki  pair  of  stroufr  shoes,  were  releajed  and  coii- 
rcntrated  in  one  main  draught,  it  w.)uld,  in  all  likf. 
lihood,  1>e  n  i>ower  suiHcit  ut  Ui  lift  one  or  two  tons  ui 
weight. 

Tochnk'f.'ly,  the  wheel  of  a  pulUy  is  called  a  theave; 
for  protect!.. M  nii(i  convt'iiifnce  this  sheave  is  ordinaiiK 
fix&l  with  pifi'lA  in  a  mans  of  wo<id  called  a  U'trk;  and  the 
roi^H  I  .(1  cunlR  avc  called  a  tccr^lc.  The  whole  machine, 
fully  mounted  'jr  working,  in  Uirmed  n  Mock  t,u:l  taclde. 
By  tai-'jnff  a  vihu**  and  ax).'  tn  vi-ind  up  icit  lOi-d  of  a 
block  and  ta  iUc,  tJ'.i'.  fnwtjr  i  :  'in  \<-  ;<.>i-  w  con'Tied  with 
that  of  the  pulley  in  \\x  uj'i'  .u./:). 

There  ia  no  aat^ign*!'!-;  liinil  '■^  t'le  pa.weT  .vhich  mav 
be  exerted  by  m«3*js  of  pullcyiv.  'S'ik-  in  j  ■tv^  nmy  l)e 
conr^ructwl  to  f  li:*!.!  v.ilh  tme.  an-'  wont*'.  "h/f:h  the 
8tten)rth  of  i:iateri'il»  ,^iil  b^tr,  f>i-o\i'i"'  !.io  cdmhiir.tiori 
is  not  c-i  comp'ex  as  U>  «.'ti;,'vuil  Uie  ji'iwi  by  tholr.ction 
pro.Uicf<i. 

'I'lic  povn  '  of  pvttiey  >  .'•■'  sncrewed  by  a  uorabinAtion  of 
wheels  or  shrnrps  ir  ont  tackle'.  'J'hore  are  dilVcrcnt 
kinds  of  combinations  ti  eyattma  uf  pullryH.  In  somo 
there  !«  only  one  fixed  pulley,  and  in  others  there  are 
Mvcral. 

T!u.  rrllowing  are  cxai>plet  of  difuTeitt  ;<>mbinations 
i,f  .,)ullry» ; — 

j\«ure  24  represents  a  >  impound  systt.m  of  pulleys, 
3/  'tl'ich  the  weight  is  distrilmtefl 
'.iiroo  j;'i  f.^u»  fulds  of  the  same  cord, 

*o  as  to  \'''itv  ooly  a  fourth  o(  the 
^'Mjht,  vi;  ..  ver  it  may  lie,  to  be 

r-  ised  hy  ttii   operator.     In  this  il- 

!•  ifralion,  ih<,-  cord  number  I  liears  U'U  1  ' 

o  i*-fonrth  of  the  weight ;  the  cord 

r  Ynber  3  l«ar*  a  second  fourth  ;  tho 

CO.;  numl)eir  3  beani  a  third  fourtli; 

on '  i '6  cord  number  4  liears  a  fourth 

W  th.    Here  the  me<'hariiral  odvan- 

tejT^  ceases.    Kor  although  the  cord 

number  4  pasmta  over  thu  topmost 

fixe<l  pulley  jIcwu  lo  the  hand  of  the 

j|ieralor,   no   tnoro    di^itriliution   of 

(lower  takes  place  ;  this  topnioxt  pul- 

k'V  being  of  use  only  to  c!ian;jr  the 

Jirec.i }    of  the  power.     The  [HTson 

who  pi-'     hus  thu.i  uidy  a  quarter  ol 

the  wcii^bt    to  draw.      If  the  weight  be  one   hundred 

[lounda,  he  hits  the  labour  of  pulling  oniy  twenty-tive 

jHiunda. 

Thus  H  m  ol««erval)le  that  the  diminution  of  weight  is 
II  proi>oition   to  the  number  of  movable   r<ulleys.     To 

'jlculate  the  expenditure  of  power   or  tiution    of 

iveJKhl,  thcretore,  we  tiave  only  to  mulv  .■  nuiiiber 

•f  movable  pulleys  K  two.  iiid  the  p.  ,hows  tlic 

iiMwer  to  tuf.  eserted.     Two  mo\able   pulleyn  multiplied 

'j\  two.  Jives  i ;  thwefore  a  fourth  of  the  wcij^ht  is  the 


m 


fD 


r'Ni 


□w 


Fig.  84. 


power  required,  and  so  on.  The  addition  of  a  tiiigh 
movable  pulley  to  any  system  of  pulleys,  at  once  'tK«.<iii 
the  apparent  weight  one-half,  or,  in  other  words,  doubk'a 
tho  eflect  of  the  power ;  but  every  such  addition  causes 
more  time  to  be  spent  in  the  operation,  there  being  at 
every  additional  fold  of  the  cord  niord  cord  to  draw  c«t, 
and  also  more  friction  to  overcome. 

In  the  .-.nnexed  system  of  pnlli  ys,  Fig.  25,  a  series  o( 
movable  pulleys,  with  different  - 
conls,  are  made  to  act  succes- 
sively on  one  another,  and  the 
effect  is  doubled  by  each  pulley. 
A',  the  extremity  of  the  first  cunl, 
a  powt'v  of  one  p<nind  de|)ends. 
This  cord,  marked  1,  by  lieitig 
drawn  below  a  movable  pulley, 
supports  two  |iouiids— that  '.i,  1 
pound  on  ?ach  side.  Tho  next 
cord,  marked  S,  in  thr>  same 
manner  siiiports  four  poi  'i.is,  or 
2  pounds  on  mh  side.  The 
next  cord,  riaitii'd  4,  suppt.  8 
P'.'inds,  or  4  iw'.tids  on  en;h 
.-iiU;.  Thus,  '  i  ..irid  at  P  supportn  S  (Munds  at  W.  If 
I'.rilhcr  movabft  pulley  were  added,  f.ie  '  pound  at  P 
would  support  10  piuuiJi:.  ^lul  na  on 

III  working  pul -vfi,  tt'-  [wnvrr  muHJ  be  a)iplie(l  in  a 
line  )>cr|>cndiculav  to,  or  oniuili:)  with,  the  w>.'if,'bt ;  tli".i 
i«,  Rtraight  above  the  weis^it,  ir.  oril.-r  to  pimluci,  '  ..il) 
ctii.-ncy  of  direct  force,  i^  ihc  i>..-.'ver  lie  n;.;.lied  o\,ii.,i^J» 
— iK-,  aot  draw  fair  Uj|>— t'n're  will  !ic  ;<  ici  of  jiower  in 
prc{H)rtion  as  the  line  of  dr&ught  ilfp.trtu  from  the  perpet). 
d:cular. 

Pulleys  are  used  chiefly  on  hoard  of  ships,  where  bloclu 
lind  tackle  tre  in  coiiHtaut  reqiiiviition  for  raising  and  lower- 
ing the  Kails,  masts,  and  yaiii  >.  They  arc  likewise  in 
coiici'lerable  use  by  hou8c-buil>li'rs  and  others,  in  con- 
nrclion  with  tlie  wheel  and  uil>  ■  for  raising  or  lowering 
heavy  massen  of  stone  and  other  articles. 

Fig.  2fi  is  a  rcprc«eiitation  oi' .;  >iyslein  of  pulleys,  conh 
monly  used  in  practical  operatiini'.. 
'i'hree  movable  pulleys  arc  endow d 
in  the  block  A,  and  three  fixed  pu - 
leys  are  eiicloMcd  in  the  Murk  11. 
Suppose,  therefore,  that  the  weight 
W,  in  this  cose,  is  six  hundred 
pounds,  the  hand  P  pulls  it  up- 
A  arils  by  exerting  a  force  of  one 
hundred  pounds.  A  cotnbination 
of  pulleys  resembling  this  iii  used  in 
tni'iiiiig  kitchen  jacks.  The  weight 
in  sinking  draws  otf  the  coni  from 
a  spindle,  by  which  motion  the  jack 
is  turned.  In  order  that  a  consider- 
able weight  falling  slowly  through  a 
conipaiativrly  small  height  muy 
keep  t'.ic  jack  in  motion  for  a  long 
time,  as  many  a&  ten  or  twelve  niovublo  and  fixed  puUni 
aie  used. 

or   THI    INCLINKU   PLANE. 

A  honxoiital  plane  ia  a  plane  coinciding  with  thai  of 
thf  'lorizuii,  'ir  (larallcl  to  it;  when  the  pluiic  is  nc4 
Ic  rl  or  horizoiilul,  but  hes 

in  a  t-mJping  dirfction,  with  ^^' 

one  ,'nd    liigbcr   than    the  _^--''''^ 

other,  it  m.  Haid   to  incline, 

or    is   culled     an     inclined     -  . 

plane.     Fig.  27  is  an  ex-  kik  t!7. 

ample. 

'I'hL  incliiuHl  plane.    <     t'        y  stated,  is  a  priimn 
nieclianical  |«iwer.     'J',       i'l.- '  "'ich  i"  nrruniplishec!  L;  i 
it  is  the  ruixing  of  wc.^;i, .    t    jnnsiderniile  clevationi.M  | 
the  overtroining  of  lerisi  ,n  \    '"'  the  dpp'icalion  of  In 


weights  and 

ewne  s  greal 

To  raise  a 

of  dfty  feet 

uut  using  an; 

must  be  a  hi 

!ifl  overcome, 

upwards,  we 

plane,  the  po' 

and  the  dimii 

rise  in  tho  inc 

in  all  other  in 

pllithed  only  h 

In  drawing 

tloiig  a  horixo 

SI  chiefly  tho 

(jtcrfl  were  no 

I  1.  'ice,  and  if 

.:  "    otoving 

;.'■  ■  r. 


nl 


MECHANICS— MACHINERY. 


I«i 


of  m  tnigh 
nee  'tBMMm 
rds,  doubk't 
ition  ckOKi 
ite  being  at 
to  draw  cit, 

I,  a  wriee  o< 


Qw 

nd«atW.   If 
1  pound  at  P 

ie  applied  in  i 
e  w«ipbt ;  lh".l 
,)iuJ\icc  "  H[ 
;.;liedo\,!i.,ioly 
i.i?  .J  of  power  in 
roni  the  perpen- 

pg,  where  bloclu 
liHint?  ar.d  lower- 
are  likewise  in 
ollicra,  in  con- 
ling  or  loweriou 

ol"pulley«,coin- 


h-.K -Jd. 
land  fixed  puUtTi 


line  with  thai  ol 
Ihe  pUn\e  is  ni< 


f,g  'ii. 

•d,  ii"  «  prills'! 


.<  !. 


J  nrronipli*!!*''  . 
Ii)l(i  i^levationi.  M 
",'icauon  of  If*" 


•rclghti  mid  renstnncca  j  or,  malting  a  small  power  over- 
eniue  a  greater. 

To  raise  a  lonl  of  a  hundred  pounds  to  an  elevation 
of  Afty  foet  by  a  direct  perpendicular  ascent,  and  with- 
out using  any  mechanical  advantage,  the  power  e^.erted 
inuKt  be  a  hundred  pounds,  or  uquid  to  the  weights  tu 
Iw  overcome.  If,  instead  of  rrising  the  load  directly 
upwirds,  we  ruiso  it  by  the  griulual  ascent  of  an  inclined 
piano,  the  power  required  is  less  than  a  hundred  pounds, 
and  the  diminution  is  in  proportion  to  *.he  smallnens  of 
rjM  in  the  iru-linud  piano.  But  this  saving  of  power,  as 
in  all  other  iiistanc  es  of  mechanical  advantage,  is  accom- 
niiifhcd  only  by  a  corresponding  Iosh  of  time. 

In  drawing  n  load,  as,  for  instance,  a  loaded  carriage, 
ilmig  a  horizontal  plane,  the  resistance  to  be  overcome 
jt  chiefly  tho  friction  of  the  load  upon  the  plane.  If 
;  'fl  were  no  fri(^tion  or  im|)cdimcnt  from  ineciualities  of 
;  I  '«e.ti,  and  if  the  load  were  once  put  in  motion,  it  would 
v  ..    atoving  with  the  smallest  possible  expenditure  of 

in  drawing  a  load  up  an  inclined  plane,  ordinary  fric- 
tiin  has  to  bo  overcome,  and  also  the  gravity  of  tho  body, 
which  (jruvity  gives  it  a  tendency  to  roll  down  to  tlio 
!on««l  level.  In  this  constant  impulse  to  descend,  it  is 
not  al  lilierty  to  pursue  the  same  lino  of  descent  as  bodies 
fil» .  {  freely  from  heights.  It  falls  or  rolls  down  as 
muih  less  speedily  than  a  free  fa'ling  body  (omitting 
'he 'o8S  by  friction)  ns  the  length  of  the  inclined  plane  is 
greater  than  its  height.  A  freely  descending  body  falls 
.!(out  16  feet  in  tho  first  second ;  and  a  body  rolling  down 
in  inclined  plane,  rolls  just  as  many  feet  the  first  second 
a»  the  number  of  feet  of  inclination  is  in  sixteen  feet.  If 
tiic  inclination  be  one  foot  in  sixteen,  the  body  rolls  down 
(lie  foot,  and  so  on. 

Any  IhxIv  in  being  drawn  up  an  inclined  plane,  by  a 
(ower  parallel  with  tho  plane,  presses  at  right  angles 
with  the  plane.  The  common  expression  is,  that  the 
reaction  of  the  plane  upon  tho  object  is  perpendicular 
tc  the  plant.  When  an  object,  as  a 
Uill,  rests  upon  a  horizontal  plane, 
iu  pressure  is  at  right  angles  with 
llie plane ;  of,  what  is  the  same  thing, 
Ihe  reaction  or  resistance  of  the  plane 
is  at  right  angles  with  it.  This  is  seen  in  Fig.  28,  in 
«liich  a  ball  is  represented  lying  on  a  !evel  plane,  with 
i!ie  line  of  pressnro  A  passing  down  to  B,  which  line  is 
il  ufht  angles  with  the  plane.  Sup- 
;><«.  then,  that  the  end  of  the  plane  at 
I  is  Aavatcd  to  D,  as  in  Fig.  29,  so  as 
10  form  a  slo[)e ;  in  this  case  the  line  of 
jirriBure  of  the  ball  on  the  plane  is  also 
mo<ed,  so  as  still  to  be  at  right  angles 
Kiih  the  inclination. 

The  power  which  is  required  to  he  su»t.iined  for  the 
jiurpose  of  overcominT  fri'  tion  or  inequalities  of  surface 
tt  level  planes,  is  for  me  purpose  of  drawing  the  load  up 
or  ever  the  inequalities. 

Ttic  amount  of  the  power  corresponding  to  different 
Tpiihts  and  inclinations  of  the  plane  has  been  correctly 
I'^ertained,  and  the  following  are  tho  rules  upon  the  sub- 
iwl:— 

Firtt. — The  quantity  of  weight  is  great  in  proportion 
'  ;he  inclination  of  tlie  plane ;  consequently,  "i  '•  •  the 
J.rioully  of  raising  grea'-cr.  and      o  rza  of  clcvaUo.    or 
I  L'tidn  (lower. 

Sti-onil. — To  overcome  *'■  r.'oii'ht  or  resiti.ince  ind 
liVslownei'i  >''  moven'  .'  corresponding  inl■^ca^c  f 
I  f>wtr  nuihl  tx-  given. 

J'nn/r — The  smnlirr  Me  inclination,  so  is  the  pressure 
I  ililie  weight  on  the  plane  tho  greater. 

F'Mrili,  1)1  S/irniil  liulc  nf  (^alittlntion. —  Whatever  is 
I  ^t  unit  of  inclination  in  a  given  lengt'u,  Ih  ■  unm'}  is  the 
I  mil  '.i  ni  ,v  that  can  he  lifted,  "ind  llie  unit  of  power 
I  0 1>«  exerted. 

V«l.  Ir-Vm 


^ 


Fig.  28. 


Fig.  39. 


If  the  inclination  of  a  road  lie  one  foot  in  ten,  ont-ttntt 
is  called  the  unit  of  inclination ;  hcnca,  ont-tenth  part  vk 
tho  nominal  weight  of  the  load  has  to  be  lifted ;  and  % 
power  to  draw  this  ono-tenth  part  of  the  load  has  to  be 
exerted.  Or,  to  put  the  case  in  other  words : — If  the  road 
rise  one  foot  in  ten,  there  is  in  the  ten  only  one  foot  of 
perpendicular  height  to  be  lillcd  through;  and  the  weight 
at  any  point  of  tho  ten  feet  is  only  a  tenth  of  what  it 
would  bo  if  it  were  to  be  lifted  through  a  perfect  perpeit- 
dicular  ascent  of  ten  feet 

The  reason  is  now  perceived  why  a  small  power  over- 
cones  a  greater  in  the  case  of  draughts  upon  inclined 
planes.  The  load  is,  as  it  were,  lifted  by  instalments* 
Partly  supported  as  it  advances,  and  always  supported 
more  completely  tho  smaller  the  inclination,  the  weight  of 
the  burden  is  apparently  lessened  by  merely  taking  the 
rise  gradually  and  slowly. 

If  we  suppose  a  case  of  two  roads,  tho  first  rising  one 
foot  in  twenty,  and  tho  second  rising  one  foot  in  fifty,  • 
loaded  carriage  will  be  found  to  go  over  the  fifty  feet  of 
the  one  with  precisely  the  same  exjienditure  of  power  that 
would  be  required  to  make  it  go  over  the  twenty  feet  of 
tho  other — that  is,  always  providing  that  friction  and  other 
circumstances  are  alike. 

Figure  UO  represents  a  supposed  case  of  two  inclined 
planes  of  the  same  height,  but  dilforent  slopes,  meeting 
together  at  tho  top,  with  a  weight  resting  on  each,  P 
and  Q,  hanging  by  a  string, 
which  passes  over  tlie  pulley 
M.  If  tho  length  of  the 
longed  plane  from  A  to  M 
be  two  feet,  and  that  of  the 
shorter  from  B  to  M  bo  one 
foot,  then  two  pounds  at  Q, 


Fig.  30. 


on  the  short  sidc^  will  balance  four  pounds  at  P,  on  tha 
long  sid'> ,  end  so  on  in  this  proportion,  whether  tba 
pianos  be  longer  or  shorter. 

In  this  manner,  weights  moving  on  two  adjoining  in- 
clined planes  may  be  adjusted  so  as  to  balance  eacL 
other,  although  the  inclinations  be  different ;  and  they 
are  so  made  to  act  on  various  sloping  railways  connected 
with  public  works,  where  one  wagon  descending  on  one 
plane  is  made  to  draw  up  another  wagon  on  another 
plane. 

An  inattention  on  the  part  of  our  forefathers  to  these 
exceedingly  simple  principles  of  mechanical  science,  led 
them  to  form  roads  over  steep  hills,  pursuing,  as  it  wa( 
imagined,thebestroutes,  because  they  were  the  straightest 
in  a  forwanl  direction.  In  mwlern  times,  this  error  has 
been  avoided  by  enlighteneil  engineers,  and  roads  are 
now  constructed  with  as  few  risings  and  fallings  as  pos- 
sible. When  roads  have  necessarily  to  be  carried  to  the 
summits  of  heights,  they  arc  very  properly  made  cither 
to  wind  round  llie  ascent,  or  to  dcscritx;  a  zig-rag  line  of 
direction. 

The  drivers  of  carts  are  aware  of  the  saving  of 
labour  to  their  horses  by  causing  them  to  wind  or 
zig-zng  up  steep  roads  instead  of  leading  them  directly 
forward. 

The  inclined  plane  is  resorted  to  for  a  saving  of 
labour  in  many  of  the  ordinary  occupations  of  life.  By 
it  loaded  wheelbarrows  are  with  comparative  case 
wheeled  to  considerable  elevations  in  house  building 
'  anil  other  works  of  art ;  hogsheads  are  rolled  out  of  or 
into  wiifTons,  and  ships  arc  launched  into  or  drawn 
from  the  water,  the  inclined  plane  being  as  useful  in 
giving  tucilities  for  letting  down  loudH  as  in  drawing 
them  up. 

It  is  aisi/  .y  inclined  planes  that  ..e  reach  the  hignei 
floors  of  a  house  from  the  giound.  or  altiiin  other  eleva 
tion/i.  For  all  such  jiuiposes,  the  inclined  plani'  is  formed 
with  steps  to  ensure  our  safe  footing.  All  stairs  or  flights 
of  steps  are  inclined  plancc.  A  ladder  torniB  a  steep  in 
clincd  plane. 


170 


INFORMATION    FOR   THE  PKOPLK. 


or  TH«  WfDO«. 
The  inrlinwl  plsiip  hn«  liecn  Jcucribed  an  bt-inn  fixed 
>r  •tatioimry,  >«*,  for  instance,  «  common  rmcj^ndinR  rond, 
»T  •  •lopiiiK  plmik,  uimn  which  the  woighU  am  inov.ul. 
ft  bM  now  U>  Iw  vicwtvl  M  a  mnvahlt  plane,  in  which 
form  it  auits  many  uivful  purpoaen. 

When  an  inclined  plane  ii  movable,  and  the  load 
w  weight  which  it  alTccta  !«  at  rent,  it  receivcn  the 
nime  of  a  wwIkp.  The  wolgo  ia,  therefore,  a  imx  v^  -.i- 
cal  power,  founded  on  the  principle  of  the  inclined  pl«.-i>-. 
The  wedge  is  an  instrument  or  simplo  machine,  con- 
aiating  of  a  solid  ho<1y  of  woo<l,  iron,  or  some 
other  hard  material,  and  is  triangular  in  form. 
See  Fig.  31.  Here  the  wedge  is  seen  to 
taper  from  a  thick  end  or  her.d  at  D  to  a  thin 
edge  or  point  at  A.  This,  however,  is  only 
the  more  common  form  of  the  wwlge.  It  is 
made  with  aides  of  varioua  angularities  or  de- 
greea  of  alope,  and,  in  some  cases,  it  potmessea 
a  flat  and  a  sloping  side.  When  it  slojics  on 
b.)th  sidea,  it  conaiats  of  two  inclined  planes  joined  together ; 
and  when  one  of  its  sides  is  flat,  it  acta  as  only  one  in- 
clined plane.  The  wedge  is  employed  as  an  instrument 
for  cleaving  solid  masses  asunder,  to  com- 
presa  hixlies  more  closely  together,  and  to 
move  great  weights  through  small  spaces. 
Fig.  32  is  a  front  view  of  a  wedge  in  the 
act  of  splitting  asunder  a  piece  of  timber. 
The  power  employed  to  force  the  wedge 
forward,  is  either  repealed  bjiws  with  a 
mullet  or  hammer,  or  the  gradual  pressure 
of  a  weight  In  general,  the  power  is  ap- 
plied by  rapid  strokes,  or  quick  applications 
of  some  kind  of  external  pressure.  Fiji.  ;pj. 

The  rules  for  calculating  the  power  of  the  wediie  are 
aimilar  to  those  for  the  inclined  plane.  In  proportion  as 
the  inclination  or  angularity  is  great,  so  is  the  rrsistaiicc 
greater,  and  the  power  must  bo  greater  to  overcome  it. 
Thus,  if  the  wedge  b.  of  short  dimensions  and  thick  at 
Its  head,  it  will  require  a  greater  power  to  move  it  than 
if  it  be  long  and  thin  in  its  form. 

The  resistance  'frered  to  the  wedge 
of  equal  sides,  when  the  pressure  ia 
equally  applied,  i.«,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  inclined  plane,  at  right  angles  with 
liie  sides.  See  fig.  .13,  in  which  the 
oblique  croas  lines  represent  the  direc- 
tion of  the  pressure  passing  at  right 
ant^ies  through  tlie  sides,  and  meeting 
at  the  centre. 

It  is  diflficult  to  calculate  the  precise  power  of  the 
wedge,  for  much  depends  on  the  force  or  the  number 
of  blows  which  may  be  given  to  it,  logrtlier  with  the 
o'lliquity  of  the  sides,  and  the  power  of  resislance  in 
the  object  to  l>c  split.  In  the  splitlin.^  of  timlwr,  for 
Instance,  the  divided  parts  uct  as  Icv:!r8,  and  luwist  in 
ojwning  a  passage  for  the  wedge. 

TTie  wedge  is  the  least  used  of  the  iimple  machines, 
bill  the  principle  upon  whiih  it  acts  is  'n  extensive  ap- 
plication. Neeilles,  awls,  bodkins,  and  driver.-;  niils, 
■re  the  most  common  examples.  Knives,  s"..'ifds,  ra- 
•ors,  the  axe,  chisel,  and  ofher  cutting  inn'riinienti), 
kito  act  on  the  principle  of  the  wedge  ;  so  likewise  does 
the  saw,  the  teeth  of  which  are  small  wedges,  and  art 
by  being  drawn  along  while  preaaed  againat  llio  oliji"ct 
vperaied  upon. 

TTie  principh  of  the  inclined  plane,  which  is  the 
bwiii  of  that  of  the  wedge,  ia  particularly  ot>acr\able  in 
the  action  of  the  raior  and  the  ecythc,  both  of  which 
cut  beat  by  lining  drawn  along  the  materials  against 
which  they  are  applied.  When  the  edge  ■'  a  scythe  or 
razor  i*  examined  with  a  microscope,  it  aceii  to  lie  a 
aeries  of  small  shaqi  angularities  of  the  nnture  of  the 
l»'i';\  uf  n  '  1^'. 


Fig.  .T>. 


Fig.  04. 


Fij.M. 


The  principle  of  the  wedge  ope- 
rates in  the  case  of  two  glass  tuin- 
blers,  one  placed  within  the  other, 
as  in  fig.  'i'l.  A  very  gentle  pres- 
sure applied  to  the  up|«'rmost  tum- 
bler would  be  autficient  to  burst  the 
lower.  At  every  little  advance  of 
the  up|ieriiiost  tumbler,  it  acta  more 
and  more  an  a  lever  power  on  the 
;-'n  of  the  lower,  and  at  last  over- 
comes the  resistance,  and  fracturca 
the  vessel. 

or  THE   8CIIEW. 

The  screw  is  the  fifth,  and  usually  the  last  mentionrj 
meehanicxl  power.  Like  the  wedge,  it  ia  founded  on 
the  principle  of  the  inclined  plane. 

The  screw  consists  of  a  projecting  ridge  windim  in 
the  form  of  an  inclined  plane,  and  in  a  spiral 
direction,  round  a  central  cylinder  or  spiiidle, 
aiioihii  to  a  spiral  rod  winding  round  a  pMM'ipi. 
tons  mountain.  Fig.  3.^  is  a  representation  of 
a  comni  >n  strong  screw  used  in  various  niechi.. 
nical  operations.  The  projecting  ridge  on  the 
spindle  is  technically  called  the  Ihrrad.  The 
thread  iri  n')t  always  made  in  this  square  pio- 
jecting  form  ;  it  is  freciuently  shar|>em'd  to  a 
single  thin  edge,  as  in  tig.  3N,  but  does  not  af- 
fect tlie  priiiriple  of  the  machine. 

One  circumvolution  or  turn  of  a  thread  uf  a  screw 
is,  in  Kciciitilic  language,  termed  a  helix  (plural  Af/ir(,( 
fr.mi  a  (ireek  word  signifying  winding  or  wreathinj 
The  spiral  winding  of  the  th.^cad  is  called  the  luiw'-i 
hue. 

The  helices  of  a  screw  do  not  necessarily  requiir  t,) 
h.ivf  u  I'Mtral  spindle.  They  may  form  a 
screw  of  theniselvei",  and  do  so  in  the  case  of 
the  cnninion  corks<'rcw  (lig.  3(5),  A  screw  ol 
this  iKiinted  or  tapi-ring  form,  in  |>enetrating  a 
»ulv.'<tance,  possesses  the  advanta;;e  of  the  in- 
clined pliine  in  three  ways — first,  by  the  gra- 
dual thickening  of  the  aubstaiice  of  the  thread 
from  a  sharp  point ;  s«"cimd,  the  gradual  widen- 
in;;  ;  .'iiiil,  third,  the  gradual  uicending,  of  the 
threiui.  F'gK 

The  screw  acts  on  the  principle  of  the  inclined  plai, 
and  this  is  obvious  from  the  consideration  of  the  nal 
of  the   threads.     If  we  were  to  cut 
tbrougli    the    turns    of    the    threads 
straight  from   top  to  bottom,  and  draw 
them  out  to  their  full  extent,  each  se- 
parate and  re'.aining  ita  own  incli.i  i-. 
tion,  we  should  find  that  they  wert  so 
many    inclined    planes.      In    the   an- 
nexed cut.  fig.  37,  one  entire  turn  of 
the  thread  is  thus  drawn  out,  reaching  from  h  toa,  n 
is  seen  to  form  an   inclined  platie.     I f  not  drawn  ca 
it  would  wind  down   to  '  ;  therefore,  while  a  ivnijhl 
raised  by  one  turn  of  the  screw  over  the  liuiiis  uf  oi 
thread,  or  from  r  to  /<,   it  has  actually  U-en  cj-ricJ 
the  inclined  plane  from  <i  to  h. 

The  screw   ha.s  no   power  by  itself.     It  can  o\^rH 
only  by  inciuis  of  prcs.iuic  against  the  threads  of  anud] 
screw  will  li  overlaps  it  and  holds 
it    This  I'xterior  screw,  which  is 
technically  called  a  Im    or  a  nti', 
con»i;»ts  of  a  blo«k  with  a  central 
tu1>e  cut  out  in  spiral   grooves  so 
aa  to  tit  with    jierfert    exactness 
to  the  screw  which  bus  to  work 
in   it.     Fig.   38   rcpreseiita  '    'h 
screws  in  combination.    M  if  ih« 
boi   or  nut   through   which  the 
screw   paasei.     L  is  a   lever  insc.'.   , 
the  screw,  for  the  purpose  of  turnnti 


t   -eq 
or   p 


The  cl'je 
jpply  force 
■fffact,  either  the 
toe  nut  or  the  scr 
||(«d  at  one  extre 
llis  out  may  lie  tur 
liottom  to  the  top  ; 
lume  solid  body,  th 
turned  round  till  ji 
llif  point  of  the  i« 
fiich  a  way  aa  to  sq 
III  thebi. 

Practical!;',  the  - 

fhinc ;  the  power  t 

Ifipr,  passing  eilhei 

through  the  nut     ' 

combined    power   o 

■nil,  in  investigating 

fount  both  thesfl  Him 

erew  now  liecomes  i 

In  the  inclined  pli 

inclined,  the  more  en 

l<  the  process  of  risi 

plvinif  the  same  pri 

that  the  greater  the  ( 

ppatcr  or  more    rap 

ijuently.  the  greater  r 

I  fivcn  weight     On 

downwards  but  slight 

Ivrof  revolutions  in 

'  lie  di-xtance  lietwixt 

S  (he  [lower  reqiiirt 

Civrn  weight     Therci 

nwrr  the  threads  to  o 

PNiiire  to  be  for  a  givi 

Suppose  a  case  of  tv 

[  ori-  inch  apart,  and  thi 

the  two  which  the  fiJ 

pvpr  at  the  lever,  wi 

iffond.     The  second 

mnv  fines  round  as 

ipn-p.    At  the  lever 

nvpij(l.t  to  a  given  he 

»hlle  ai  tht  lever  of 

If.  M,re  weight  to  the 

fJu'.i'jns. 

Ii  i*  apparent,  that 
ip  which  a  tiody  mov( 
liiiiffrcnce  of  the   sen 
*f!»pfn  the  thread, 

mild  therefore  lie " 

» 10  the  distance  lictwe 
lolhe  power."  By  th 
wuW  alone  be  found 
tliinf  was  not  affected 
*>l  is  the  ease,  the 
wtrr  end  of  the  lever 
arruinfereiicc  of  the  «ci_ 

The  rule  by  which  th 
ailnloil.  is.  by  multiply 
twdtscriliesby  thcpi 
';'"'  'y  ''«'  ri,Tuin/h(n> 
■t(  iirislil  or  renislanre 
iv  :m  rnnligumi*  thrra, 
•^w  may  l)c  increased 
l"fr  by  which  it  is  tu 
Dnfc  between    the    thr 
tnnh  of  the  lever,  the 
m-i  tl.*  weight  to  lie   n 
ftf power;  or,  the  powe 
•ffif  threa.ls,  and  the 
«"  0  weight 

^""Pl-'-se  ,i;   length  I 
^f  JuUince  of  the  thre 


o 


tl 


F'J.34. 


U-- 

roiii 

;,io 

not 

ilniv 

lilP 

n  K( 

:.■  1 

IIIIIU 

II  ran  oj^ni 
IroBiljiofanoi.i 


l^. 


n 


MKCHANICS— MACIIINEIf/ 


IVl 


The  olijo  I  •pquirril  l.y  the  um  of  tho  ivrpw  ii  to 
ipply  ''"^''  *"  prcKnurc.  To  prmluoe  the  intended 
i^t,  either  the  outer  or  innor  nrrew,  that  in,  either 
M  nut  or  the  nrrew,  m>.:Ht  Ihj  flxed.  If  the  itcrew  !« 
Died  at  one  extromUy,  nay  nt  the  top,  to  a  Holid  body, 
tilt  nut  iniiy  tte  turned  round  it  ho  a*  to  move  from  the 
liottom  to  the  top  ;  and  if  the  nut  be  fixed,  held  font  by 
i„,ni*  Kolid  hoily.  the  screw  in  the  name  mannwr  may  bo 
camfl  round  till  it  ronch  it*  extreniity.  Thua,  cither 
|i„  point  of  the  wrew,  or  the  nut,  may  bo  forred  in 
fuch  a  ^i^y  ""  '*'  ■*<lueezo  or  preia  any  object  prcientcd 
111  then- 

Prtctirally,  the  'crew  i*  never  used  as  a  simple  ma- 
chine ;  the  power  being  always  applied  by  mcann  of  a 
Ifvfr,  piisnini}  cither  through  the  head  of  the  screw,  or 
ihrouicli  the  nut.  The  screw,  therefore,  acta  with  the 
combined  power  of  the  lever  and  inclined  plane ; 
iml,  in  invoHtiirating  the  effects,  we  must  take  into  ac- 
pjunt  both  thcH«  simple  mechanical  powers,  so  that  the 
icrcw  now  liocomes  really  a  compound  machine. 

In  the  inclined  plane,  as  has  liecn  seen,  the  lesj  it  is 
inclined,  the  more  easy  is  the  ascent,  though  the  slower 
ii  the  process  of  rising  to  a  certain  elevation.  In  a{t- 
rlvinc;  the  same  principle  to  the  screw,  it  is  obvious 
ihal  the  greater  the  distance  is  betwixt  the  threads,  the 
ppnior  or  more  rapid  is  the  inclination,  and  conse- 
quently, the  grcoter  must  l>e  the  power  to  turn  it  under 
i^vpn  weight.  On  the  contrary,  if  the  thread  inclines 
downwards  but  slightly,  it  will  describe  a  greater  nuin- 
1,.'  of  revolutions  in  a  given  space,  so  as  to  diminish 
lif  distance  lictwixt  the  threads,  and  the  smaller  will 
|»  the  power  retjuircd  to  turn  the  machine  under  a 
mon  weight  Therefore,  the  finer  the  screw,  or  the 
(psrcr  the  threads  to  each  other,  the  less  the  power  will 
^uire  to  be  for  a  given  resistance. 

Sappose  a  case  of  two  screws,  one  having  the  thrcad-i 
^f  inch  ajiart,  and  the  other  half  an  inch  apart ;  then, 
ihf  fnrre  which  the  first  screw  will  give  with  the  same 
mcr  at  the  lever,  will  bo  only  half  that  given  by  the 
Kfomi.  The  second  screw  must  bo  turned  twice  as 
nunv  tines  round  as  the  first,  to  go  through  the  same 
fjrf.  At  the  lever  of  the  first,  two  men  would  raise 
iwpi|<l.t  to  a  given  height,  by  making  one  revolution  ; 
nhile  ai  tht  lever  of  the  second,  one  man  would  raise 
i.  Miir.e  weight  to  the  same  height,  by  making  two  re- 
t.Ju'.i'jns. 

It  i^  apparent,  that  the  length  of  the  inclined  plane 
ap  wliich  a  body  moves  in  one  revolution,  is  the  cir- 
■iiinftrcnce  of  the  screw,  and  its  height  the  int«i-val 
iewoeii  the  threads.  The  proportion  of  the  power 
iniU  therefore  lie  "  as  the  circumference  of  the  screw 
» to  the  distance  lietwecn  the  threads,  so  is  the  weight 
lo  the  power."  By  this  rule,  the  power  of  the  screw 
(ould  alone  be  found,  provided  the  action  of  the  ma- 
tkinc  was  not  affected  by  the  lever  which  works  it.  Ati 
Ibl  i«  the  case,  the  circumference  described  by  the 
ottrr  end  of  the  lever  employed  is  taken  instead  of  the 
mruinforcnce  of  the  screw  itself. 

The  rule  by  which  the  true  force  of  the  «crew  is  cal- 
ttliled.  is,  by  multiplying  the  circiinWereiue  which  the 
tier  dtscrilies  by  the  power.  Thus — Tht  pmver  tiiulii- 
f'r'l  /y  Hic  cirruiiifrrenre  irhirh  il  tlmrihfx,  i»  eijunl  to 
'ivtishl  or  rctislanre  nwllipticd  hy  tht  Jiftnmr  helirern 
'c-i  IP)  ii)nt'\s,WAi»  thrraih.  Hence,  the  efficocy  of  the 
ri»w  may  be  increased,  by  ii,:  reusing  the  length  of  the 
Irifr  hy  which  it  is  turned,  or  by  diMiinishing  the  dis- 
tincf  between  the  threads.  If,  thiM,  we  know  the 
Ireitlvof  the  lever,  the  diBtaucc  K  ■  ■!  the  threads, 
fti  the  weight  to  l)e  raised,  w.  ;;i  r.Mdily  calculate 
Ihf  power ;  or,  the  power  beim,  ,;.  .  ,,  .1  •'  • '  n  distance 
rflh*  threads,  and  the  length  of  i...,  lever  kuown,  we 
tun  ie  weight  which  the  screw  will  -aise. 

Suppose  tfc  J  length  of  the  lever  to  1m>  foi  !y  inches, 
lilt  diatnnce  of  the  threads  one  inch,  and  the  weight 


8000;  required — the  pow?r,  at  the  end  o  the  I'ver, 
to  raise  the  weight.  The  lover  lieing  40  inches,  'ae  d^ 
ameter  of  the  circle  which  the  lever  descrilies  i',  doubU 
that,  or  80  inches.  Reckoning  the  circumference  nl 
thrice  the  diameter  (though  it  is  a  little  more),  we  muK 
tiply  80  by  3,  which  gives  240  inches  for  the  circum* 
forence  of  the  circle.  The  distance  of  the  threads  ii 
one  inch,  and  the  weight  8000  pounds.  To  find  tha 
pow(  r,  multiply  the  weight  by  the  distance  of  the  threads, 
and  divide  by  the  circumference  of  the  circle. 
8000  weight 
1  (Ustanco 

840)8000 


33 1 

Thirty-thrtt  and  f.  third  is  the  product,  and  it  would 
require  that  power  or  nunitier  of  pounds  to  raise  the 
weight.  This,  however,  is  only  in  theor)-.  In  practice 
a  third  of  the  amount  of  power  would  require  to  be 
added  to  oveicomo  the  fiiction  of  the  machuie. 

In  the  ordinary  working  of  the  screw,  velocity  ia  in- 
compatible with  great  power.  This  is  a  truth,  hov 
ever,  wliich  applies  only  to  a  screw  with  one  thread. 
There  is  a  way  of  making  a  screw,  by  which  great  ve- 
locity and  power  niuy  be  combined.  This  is  done  by 
forming  the  screw  with  two,  three,  or  more  threads. 
To  understand  how  this  is  accomplished,  we  have  or.'.j 
to  conceive  the  ide»  cf  i  -r'o"-  with  one  thread,  vwy 
wide  Itotwixt  it''  lurns,  and  then  imagine  one  or  two 
other  tlireads  placed  so  as  to  fill  up  the  intervals  ;  thui 
coinpoting  a  fine  close  screw.  And  as  by  this  means 
nil  the  threads  descend  with  equal  rapidity,  wo  have  a 
screw  which  will  not  only  descend  with  great  velocity 
but  which  will  apply  a  very  great  degree  of  pressure 
A  screw  of  this  nature  is  used  in  the  printing  press,  by 
which  a  pressure  of  a  ton  weight  is  applied  instanta- 
neoijsly  by  a  single  pull  of  a  lever. 

The  most  common  purpose  for  which  the  screw  ia 
applied  in  mechanical  operations,  is  to  produce  great 
prciisure  accompanied  with  coi  lancy  of  action,  or  1  > 
tention  of  the  pressure;  and  this  <)uality  of  constaii.^ 
is  always  procurable  1  <„!  the  great  friction  which  takes 
place  in  the  pressure  of  the  threads  on  the  nut,  or  on 
any  substance,  such  as  wood,  through  wl.<  -h  the  screw 
penetrates. 

The  common  utani^i  ig-press  used  by  bookbinders  for 
pressing  their  books,  affords  one  of  the  best  example* 
of  the  application  of  the  screw 
to  proiluee  grciil  p'^'^'^'^ 
(fig.  39).  The  -crew  A  has  a 
thick  round  lower  extreniity 
B,  into  holes  in  which  the 
lever  is  inserted.  This  extre- 
mity B  is  attached  by  a  socVct 
joint,  to  the  preHsing-table  C, 
so  that  when  the  screw  is 
turned  in  one  direction,  the 
table  sinks,  and  when  turned 
in  another,  the  table  rises. 
The  books  D  lie  u|inn  a  fixed 
■ole  S,  and  arc  thus  between  the  toble  and  the  sole.  H 
is  a  cross  lieam  above,  in  which  is  the  Imx  or  overlap- 
ping screw  to  give  the  necessary  resiiitance. 


3&fc-.-.-'' 


Fig.  30. 


'1  micttl  action  is  applird  to  the  action  of  forces 
pi  )duce  no  change  in  the  constitution  of  bodies, 


MKCHANICAL  COMniNATlON    AND    STRUCTURE. 

Mr 
that  ■, 

and  is  therefore  distinguished  t  oin  chemical  cr  any 
other  Hjiccies  of  action,  in  which  change  of  constitution 
is  less  or  more  d'^ctcd. 

Great  chnnges  'ire  continually  taking  place  in  nattirr 
and  nr?  b)  mechanical  action.  Mechanical  action  ge- 
nerally .li^plies  movement  or  change  of  place,  rnd  m 


17» 


INFOnMATION    FOR   THR   FKOPT  K. 


noMt  CM&i  altflrallrm  of  external  fratiirM  anil  rircuin* 
riaiice*.  Tlw  whoie  of  the  pUiifUry  movoincnU  arn 
mrrhanical :  the  motiona  of  water  ami  wimU  aro  nic- 
enaniral ;  and  the  now  appearance"  priMliiccd  in  art  by 
p.aring  (lilTerent  objeoti  tcjfcther,  are  mi'ilianical. 

The  action  of  foroea  upon  ioHiIh,  or  nit'chiinicnl  ar- 
lion,  if  taken  advantage  of  by  mankini!  for  thp  pro- 
iliu^tion  of  ntiineroui  uaeful  miiltti  in  the  art«.  And 
iurceaa  in  altuininff  thcae  miiiti  drix-nd*  in  n  ((rriit 
measure  u|N)n  the  knowle<lg«  we  have  of  tli<'  prinriplr^ 
of  nieohiuiii'a,  and  the  ikill  and  core  wo  um-  in  applying 

When  Ilk  ill,  rare,  and  ingenuity,  are  I  >i  ought  fully 
into  o|>erati(m  for  theiic  reiulta,  very  great  w  '"'u  nro 
ill  many  iniituni'rii  achieved.     Out  when  .>■"■■■■ 

ran.'*  or  neKlitceme,  the  object  in  v!"  n'ay  iioi  .11/ 
he  defeated,  but  very  miachievoui>  v...nic<ji'"ncc.i  n  ly 
lake  place. 

Examiili  flmt. — If  a  tall  maat  0/  Iniani  break  through 
at  two-tliirda  of  ita  height,  and  'ho  two  fractured  ends 
he   limply  plaeed  together  and  lied  with  a  rope,   the 
upper  piec«  will,  by  the  action  of  a  amail  force,  again 
fall.      It  will   act   like  thr  arm  of  poirrr  of  a  Itvtr 
aeninal  tho  rope,  which   it  the  tirivA' ,-  and  aa 
thia  weight  ia  inoonsidiTable,  the  arm  of  power 
will   preponderate.      Hut   if    we   take    thr    two 
piece*  tti.d  Kiw  each  of  I'lem  Icngthwiae,  no  aa  to 
make  four  piecea,  and  llien,  aa  reprcacntetl  in  fig. 
40,  lay  a  short  pi  ■  •  alongside  of  a  long  piece, 
and  another  long        v  on  the  top  of  the  fimt 
abort  piece,  with  the  Htyond  short  piece  opposite 
Ut  this  second  'on^  pi^'ce,  the  whole  will  lie  ef- 
fectually «•/>/!>(      t.  ^?ether;  in  auch  a  case,  with 
the  »id  of  an  overlapping  rope,  the  beam  will  in     || 
til   likelihood  be  stronger  than  it  was  before  it 
was  fractured.     TTie  cauae  of  its  lieing  stronger, '^'K*"- 
at  least  of  its  remaining  Arm.  is.  that  the  weaker  part 
nt  one  side  is  rtiip|>ort('d  by  ■  o  .  anger  part  on  the  other 
r'iAo.  Thus  by  skilfully  taking  advanta^'e  of  certain  forces 
acting  in  connection  with  a<  lids,  we  are  able  to  rear  a 
structure  of  the  vtn\oet  poefcihle  strength. 

Kxam/ili-  sermid. — If  «  man,  in  making  repaira  upon 
the  ontside  of  a  building,  project  a  plank  from  a  window 
for  the  puq>o  '  of  standing  uj  on  it,  and  if  he  proceed 
to  place  himwif  near  the  outer  extremity  of  the  plank, 
without  having  placed  r  sufficicf  counterbalancing 
weight  at  its  inner  extremity,  he  will  assuredly  \ie  pre- 
cipitated to  the  ground,  and  perhape  killed ;  because 
the  griivtiif  at  his  body  acted  like  a  pinrrr  on  the  ar.i 
of  a  lever,  whilv  the  lever  was  without  a  sufficient  u-'ighl 
to  preaerve  tlie  apparatua  in  e<|uilibrium.  From  such 
neglects  of  the  operation  of  forces  in  nature,  dreadful 
eons«9gu(>iices  Ircijuently  ensue. 

The  study  of  the  o|)eration  of  mechi.r.n  il  forrea.  along 
with  exiKrirnie,  teaches  that  there  are  certain  bulks, 
positions,  and  forms  of  liodiea,  wliich  produce  the  greatest 
atri'tigth  for  piir{M>ies  of  art. 

The  strcnu'th  of  beams  or  masses  of  tho  "am?  kind  and 
hulk,  and  f]x('<l  in  the  same  manner,  in  resisting  a  trans-  j 
verse  forci-  which  tends  to  break  them,  is  simply  as  their 
l.re^dtli,  1-  thi!  square  of  their  depth,  and  inveisely  aa 
their  lenjj'li — that  is,  th«  ttiicker  and  shorter  they  aro,  they 
•re  the  stron^jer.  Thus,  if  a  lieam  be  twice  as  broad  as 
anotlicr,  it  will  also  lie  twice  as  strong;  for  the  increar 
of  breadth  doubles  the  numU'r  of  the  resisting  particle 
By  making  tho  beam  double  the  depth,  the  xtren^'th  is 
four  times  as  gre.it ;  U'cuusf  the  nmnU'r  of  fibres  t-. 
d  lublf  '  id  the  lever  by  which  they  act  is  ulso  increased. 
But  ,u  increase  of  strength,  by  iiici.  ising  bulk,  bus 
•  practical  limit.  It  is  found  that  in  increiising  the  di- 
mcDsicns  o(  a  body,  or  combination  of  b<x!ies,  preserving 
•11  proportions  the  same, f Ac  weight  itirieintK  mart  ro/iiJIy 
lIuiH   Ih*  itu-titu   of  itrtnglk,  ot    poirrr   of  endwance. 


Thia  la  one  of  the  most  imimilart  principles  m  merhti,,^  | 
science,  and  ought  to  prevent  undue  extension  in  it,uf 
tural  Mrraiigrmenls. 

Take  a  bliH'k  of  stone  «nd  fix  onp  end  of  |t  |nfm 
wall.  Icsving  its  other  i-ii.l  projecting.  Uy  this  arranin..  • 
mciil  of  (Nwition,  each  particle  of  matter  in  the  i,|  l 
acts  as  a  weight  pulling  downwnnls  as  with  a  levrr  th« 
fulcrum  of  tho  lever  lieliig  at  the  point  of  sup|«)it,',nl 
the  particles  of  matter  in  (lin  mass  forming  at  nno  thu 
arm  of  power  and  the  weight.  Hence,  every  ii»rtlcl(i 
we  add  to  the  I  iigth  of  the  block  beyond  u  icriain  lenith 
(whatever  may  ts"  its  constiliitional  strength),  wc  aluiii 
certainly  cause  tlic  masM  to  bn'ok,  and  full,  from  lh»  cffert 
of  ;{ravity,  upon  the  out<>r  extreinity, 

A  siiiiilnr  lever  action  takes  cU'ecl  in  tho  cuse  of  hlocl,  I 
or  lieanis  supporteil  on  both  ends,  the  only  dilTcrenfo  bp. 
ing,  that,  in  extending  them  to  an  undue  Icntrth,  ihry 
will  break  in  the  middle,  or  at  the  wcukcNt  poin'  liei«»^ 
the  two  supports. 

The  strength  of  a  beam  supported  at  both  cndi  i, 
twice  us  great  as  that  of  a  beam  of  half  tho  li  ni^h,  nh^h 
Is  fixinl  only  at  one  end  ;  and  the  strength  of  the  ^\^„^. 
K>«m  is  again  increased  «f  Inith  ends  or  fulcra  lie  flrml. 

fixcl,  Or  '.  I 

.11  dir  ciise  01  ibrou  r  gtBiiied  rnateriiiln,  m,  j;^ 
instance,  woikI,  tho  boily  sustains  the  greatest  prpusnre 
when  the  weight  is  applied  to  the  gmin  cndwi.w.  oriothe 
iK-ain  longitudinally.  The  nearer  that  the  pris^ure p,„ 
be  Applied  to  any  tieam  endwine  the  bett<T,  Tim,, , 
lieam  supfiorts  most  weight  on  its  upjicr  end.  the  oibir 
end  being  fixed  to  tho  ground,  and  its  slreneth  jn  n^,, 
gn-ntest  when  the  pressure  is  applied  to  it  IcuniniT  at  tup 
against  another  lieam.  This  is  exemplified  in  the  m. 
gular  roofs  of  houses,  in  which  two  b«>ums  lean  afraiiw 
each  other  like  tho  two  sides  of  the  letter  A.  In  armnit. 
ing  ticams  to  supimrt  great  weights,  as  in  Imiiiing  liri{lcej„ 
each  lieam  is  niiule  to  pimh  obliijuely  upw^ril  with  ontl 
end,  while  it  pushes  obliipicly  downward  with  the  niher 
anil  thus  an  extensive  combination  of  heamn  it  drM 
suppi  rted. 

In  rearing  structures  consisting  of  lieatrii,  it  Ig  an  iin. 
portant   point  to  convert,  as  fur  as  poM^:;     ,  by  modeui 
erection,  cross   or   transTcrse   strains   intu   longituiliin 
strains,  or  into  forces  acting  on  the  ends  of  lieann,  in 
direction  of  their  length. 

Nature  appears   to   have   designed  that  strength  nil 
structure  should  be  accomplished  with  the  leiist  eipn 
diture  of  material.     It  is  obvious,  that,  if  trerx  and  a 
niuls  were  made  many  times  larger  than  wc  now  i 
them,  and  of  the  same  kinds  of  substance,  thi  v  would 
'orne  down  by  their  own  weiuht     Nniall  anini;il»in,liii 
greater  comparative  violence,  and   [lerfonn  jrrcaler  (t 
of  stri  ngth,  in   pro[iiirtion  to   their  size,  than  liiree  01 
The       rgest  bulk  which  0  humf\n  In-iiig  can  |iiisk«h,  mdj 
person,   at  tho   same   time  retaining   activity  of  n.oti, 
is  rot  more  than  ia  usually   sci-n  in  well-i.Tonn 
Thua,  from  a  simiile  natural  cause,  men  of  vcr)-  j^nni 
figure  revcr  could  have  existeil  on  oureorth.     Mrn  li 
alwa;  .»  .'lave  lieen  alioui  tho  size  "-hirh  they  arc  at 
sent ;   or,  if  they  were  considerably   larger,  iln'v  am 
have  bfvn  constituted  of  much  strcingi-r  materinis  wii 
out  a  c»rreH[sjnding  increase  of  weight. 

The  same   principles  relative  to  rncchanical  rtimi 
jily  to  contrivances  in  the  arts.     As  alresdy  iitalod, 
•ngtl:      r   |>ower   of  endurance  in  a  muterial  don  ti 
ill!  ream     ;i   proportion  as  the  weight  iiicre;isi-»,    Hphi 
there  is  u  practic^il  limitation  of  the  iiiagnitucl<'  nf  martii 
and  other  -ttructiires.     For  example,  a  bridge  or  roof 
beaniH  may  1hi  veify  Mroiig  when  of  siniill  or  fiiodfi 
size,  but  if  the   diiiiensiims  Im?  extended  iieyondacti 
limit,  Ihi   Ktructure  will  fall,  by  not  bcinj;  able  to  supp: 
its  own  weight 
The  strength  or  power  of  endurance  of  presiure  a{ 


1  ittd  Iw  ly,  if  gn 

rrrlsiii  (iirin.     The 

ihit  o(  nil  iinli. 

An  srih  ia  a  sk 

I  (onvfx  "'id  concave 

fhich  llic  pressure  i 

tiiiM  li'F/n  iiirui,  a  1 

I  fitlicr  a  (lorlioii  nf  (, 

ui  fDriii.      VVhether  1 

I  jf  llif  kIicII  of  an  i 

jiosrr  of  eiiiliiruiiee 

Tim  |iriiici()|(i   „f 

I  y  llio  lirrlieil  Usly  hi 

Iwediteii,  lliu.4  rausii 

I  roiiii'i'  "ide  of  the  ci, 

I  in  rn'iroKuis  pressure 

Ifijlcr  till!  pressure  ii 

jMiillie  convexity,  s< 

jd  rf-i<la«ce  beco'iie  I 


PRAOTIi 

.Wjohines  om  usuallj 

In  other  durable  male 

l»iiln(!('  H.I   part  of  till 

l^picry  riiachino,  fo.ir 

-III,  Si, ,  ,i;th  nrdiirnl 

|«  ar'niinemcnt  (if  pm 

|ini'|).irl  to  anntlier;  m 

loimiiion.     Il  is  u  genf 

jlj.whHriic'i,  that  the  j 

llll,l  llif  iiKiif  »iiii/ilf  ,ti  , 

.Mufhines  act  from  tli, 

Jjrfirci'ciiininuni'-iited  to 

|(f|»»Tr  they  rcceve,  tli 

liriioii.    7'/iry  cannot  in 

\r.    They  can  only  I 

Humtily  (if  piiwer  w 


•he 
Tent 

'.o  te 

"I" 

I  cerlilj 

liilie 


imver  commiiiii( 
Hsounur     as,  lnm 

Mher  anim 

iT  other  acti 

ircf*  01  [lower . 
mnvr.i. 

Of  the  original 

rnarbine  uscn 

irh  f  nliTs  a  in. . 

i.thi>i  large   (juuntny 

itilir-  through  tile 
«  II'  parts,  ,.||„ 

irtli  a  fractional  part,  Ir 
! the  whole  1000  parts 
(iax,  or    sjik    Spira 

rwhecl  or  steam-eng 

Ilea;  each  spindle,  coi 

ion  of  the  originally 

HluKver  lie  the  natu 

^rally  siiiRcieiit  for  all 

initance  rot,„y  or 

ik.T2untal  (M-  vertical  dii 

afli'  that  the  power  lie 

tach  part  of  the  mac 
fe  jiower  lie  t„„  »,„„| 
e  l'ii(,-iiidly  and  inelK 
nlhir  cauw  thu  ,„.„.( 
^'vn  will  be  ,,,,„,,„, 
"'"iDuii?  fiirces,  't  ii  , 
".'ulilo  the  power 

TV. 

llf>ircularmotio„,.„„„ 
•machine,  is.  bvineaiiH 


MKCHANIOS— MACHINERY 


m 


TiMtitnidil 
H  in  itrur 

if  It  into  i 
ii«  amnii*.  • 
the  Mock 

upport,  mil 
nl  one*  ih« 
rry  \i«rtlclf 
-rtain  Icnmh 
h).  we  «)ii!l 
)m  the  effect  1 

WHO  of  Hockt  I 
lilTcronco  I*, 
length,  Ihej 
loint  bclween 

both  cndi  ii  I 
kiittih.whH 
of  the  whole 
If  ra  \v  firmlj 

rrin^  in,  feil 
ati'Kl  prewnrej 

Iwiso,  orlothe 
u  jinHKure cut) 
ttft.    Thiw,  i| 
I'lid,  the  oihfi] 
renetli  m  neiil 
Icanino;  at  topi 
ficil  in  the  an-l 
n«  U-nn  agaMl 
A.     In  armmt-l 
njil'liiij?  tiriilcfj,! 
[iwurd  with  onel 
I  with  the  nlhprj 
[H'Linis  is  firralyl 

,  it  ia  an  \mM 

,  by  mode  o(| 

loni^ituJin 

'  brunia,  in  thJ 


stionRth  i|| 

li'iist  ejprn. 

(rr(>«  andacJ 

wi"  now  fin| 

thi  V  would  b 

aiiini.ilat'n.lu!^ 

);rr;ilrr  in 

than  larsc  on 

it^i^Mii*  in  hi| 
ivilv  of  n.olioi 
rrll-CTOwn  iwa| 
of  very  Si'int^ 
rth.  Mfii  iw 
Ibry  ar>'  at  ] 

muti'riais  will^ 

bnnioal  slicnit 
ready  utatoil.i 
)ntfn;il  doos  r.J 

Ituih-  iif  machiw 
Iriilcp  uf  w'  \ 
Tiiill  nr  ^iioifn 
lU'Vi^nd  a  cttti 
iible  ID  »up?l 

of  piffwurt  ai< 


fuwil  through  thn  wholfi  orffkiilMllon,  anti  t\  trtili  IniA 
qvnty  rntireivablo  dirurtioii;  noiiie  purtM  U'lnu  i'auM<l  to 

n„,  ,  n'volvi',  othiTK  to  riw  and  fall,  a  Ihiril  kiiiil  to  ni'<''0  liort- 

An  an  li  ia  a  akilfin  lUaiKwilion  of  parta,  forniliiK  a    zoiitnlly  to  and  fm,  and  ao  forth,  in  all  pi)w<il>i     waya. 
'      ''     *'  ..:  1- 1.-;..  -  .!.-• _     'I'lio  vuriii      |iarta  limy  alau  he   made  U)  niovnwrlh  any 


ilieJ  hn  ly,  ii  Rmatly  inrroaurd  by  Hiving  the  boilv  a 
rfrtniii  Ion"'     '''ho    atrongrat   form  in  nature  or  art  ia 

^,tof  an  '"■'''■ 


Mdvri  and  t-onriun  aide,  thuconvi>x  aidn  boinK  that  upon 

1  ,|iich  tbi"  pTaHiiri)  ia  applifd.     The  arch,  whirh  taki-a  ita 

iiiTMii,  u  Latin  wonl.  Hiitnifying  u  hrnv,  may  Ix 

rircin  or  .  IlipM-,  or  tmtirrly  roundi-d 


itlilf 

lime  I""" 

,iihor  a  portion  of  a 

Ml  form.     VVIu'tlu-r  nlmped   h^o  n  bridjie,  or  round  tube, 

^  l{ii>  xlii'll   iif  an   VKi(.  the   principle  which  cuuaea  the 

u«i'r  of  iMiibirunce  of  preaauro  ia  the  auino. 

riie  (irioi'iple  of  eniluranre  conaiAtn  in  the  particlea 
J[\\e  uri'lii'il  body  licarinif  U|ion  each  otIiiT  like  a  aeriea 
'I  Kedtfi'H,  thu'<  rauain^  a  conipresHion  of  particlea  on  the 
foiHiir  Kii'''  "f  'he  circle,  which  enablca  the  nmaa  to  Iwar 
uKHiirinoua  prcaaure  on  the  convex  aide.  Indeed,  the 
.(iter  tliL-  |ireaHuro  ia  (to  a  certain  extent),  |icrp«-ndicu- 
jittotlie  convexity,  ao  alao  the  compruaaioa  and  power 
j^  rixistuNce  becoTie  the  groater. 


PRACnrAI,  MACHINERY. 

MiioHincH  are  tiauully  formed  of  wood,  iron,  atJ'el,  brnss, 
I  other  durable  matcriiiU,  with  aomctimfti  leather  and 
IdinUp'  '>''  P"f'  "f  ''"'  apparntua.  In  the  ronatruction 
l^fvory  niiii'hinc,  fo.ir  objerta  are  particularly  desirable 
,|it,Si,i  ,i;th  or  durnbility  of  mnteriala;  2cl,  .'Simplicity 
|{t  jt'fliiijcmcnt  of  parts;  3d,  Exactness  of  fittiiifl;  of 
\m  I'^r'  '"  i""''hi'r ;  and,  4th,  Kunincni  and  correctness 
Lmoii'in.  It  is  »  (?cnernl  and  wcll-reco(?niRi d  principle 
lu.ifchanii"',  that  thn  frwer  the  purls  are  in  u  maohino, 
linlllip  "I"""  »ii»lili'  i'»  loiulruilioii,  the  In'tter. 

Miifhini'S  act  from  the  iinpresxion  of  n  certain  |)ower 
|)ifmecoinmunic'\tcd  to  them.  Whatever  lie  the  amount 
Iduoffor  they  rcc^'ive,  that  amount  they  expend  in  their 
|«tioii.  Till  V  cannot  in  the  nmnllent  de);ree  increase  the 
Hir,r.  They  can  only  convey,  regulate,  and  distribute, 
filiiaiitily  of  |H)Wcr  which  has  Ix-cn  couiniunicatcd  to 


Tho  |ioHer  cnmmunicntcd  to  machine    in  derived  from 
liisounu'-     as,  human  labour,  the  ,  iwcr  of  horses 


*hc  force  of  «i  ,  I   water,  or  steam,  or 

^nt  which    may   Im>  found   suitable. 

i.o  technically  "ailed  moving  foritt,  or 

ij.rrwieil  power,  each  moving  part  of 

If  the  whole  p«iwer 

I  to  consist  of  1000 

this  lari^e  ijuantity  i:i  ill-|  '  I  in  various  small 
sonic  wheels  ta)<in); 
third  kind  1  part,  a 


tmhcr  anini 
(t  odior  ttcti 

wrcfs  oi'  |)owcr 
'  nxvfrf, 
1  Of  the  original 

(machine  uses  a  ccrtjii:.  (lortion. 

tich cntiTs  a  inii'liinc  he  siippo  , 


ir.titii  -  through  the  mechanisi 

)|«  1(1  parts,  others  i  parts 

itrth  a  fractional  part,  friction  another  part,  and  ao  on, 

iitin' whole  1000  parts  are  exi)ended.     In  some  large 

Hax,  or   silk   S|>inning   establishments,  a  single 

lei'Wheel  or  steam-engine  turiiK  several  thousands  of 

idles ;  each  spindle,  consequently,  consumes  a  minute 

ion  of  the  originally  impreaaed  power. 

I  Whatever  b«  the  nature  of  the   moving  forces,  it  is 

Knlly  sulficient  for  all  purpo<iea  that  they  prixluce  in 

li6i»l  initancc  rolury  or  riiiiilur  inoiton,  and  either  in 

Ifcruontiil  i>r  vertical  direction.     It  is,  however,  indis- 

^Bhlc  that  the  power  l)0  of  that  mugnitndc  which  will 

e  each  part  of  the  machine  to  fulfil  itjt  desiifned  olTice. 

[tiifi  ]).)wer  Iw  too  small  or  wc.ik,  the  machine  will 

m  l.i!ii;nidly   and  inclK-clually ;  and    if  too   great,   it 

ilfiihiT  cause  the  machine  to  luo  t   too  ra|)idly,  or  ut 

«ji.i\vi'i  will  be  rxpcndetl  useleKsly.     In  the  applica- 

of  moving  forces,  •(  is  always  a  mutter  of  importance 

Itt.'ulito  the  power  to  the  precise  wants  of  the  ma- 

'wv. 

■Tie circular  motion  communicated  in  the  first  instance 
li  machine,  is,  bv  meaju  of  certain  contrivuncca,  dif- 


deiCTeo  ol  )oity  j  there  Uiing  methmls  of  transforming 
ipiK'k  inli  motion,  or  slow  motion  into  quick.   Moat 

mill  lite  uni  cuiiiplcx  o|Hirationa  are  thuH  performed  by 
macluiiea  with  a  precision  which  onen  exceeiU  the  skill 
of  the  moat  expert  artisan;  but  thcso  opi  rations  are  ull 
necessarily  marked  by  the  quality  u(  uni/i'iiihly  nf  mlioii. 
As  machines  cannot  reason,  or  act  iirbitrinily  in  stopping, 
nrioving,  or  altering  their  prmM'so,  accordinu  to  eiicum- 
stwnccs,  they  proceed  in  a  blind  routine,  win  ihcr  right  or 
wrong,  'iitrlitiiiirally  as  it  ia  called,  and  in  every  case  lea* 
or  more  require  the  superintendence  of  reasoning  beings. 
This  apparent  defect,  however,  ia  really  advantageoua. 
A  machine,  by  being  com|)OHed  of  inanimate  matter, 
destitute  of  feeling  and  unsusceptible  of  fatigue,  proeeeda 
unswervingly  in  its  assigned  duty,  and  may  \ie  forced  to 
accomplish  tasks  which  it  wimld  lie  both  inhumane  and 
impolitic  to  demand  fiom  living  creatures. 

The  purpose  of  machinery,  therefore,  is  to  Utsen  and 
nil!  hunmn  lahnur.  At  an  incoimiilcruble  exjiensc,  and 
with  a  small  degree  of  trouble  in  suiicrvision,  a  machina 
may  lie  made  to  do  the  work  of  ten,  fitly,  or  |icrha|«  aa 
many  us  five  hundred  men ;  and  the  work  so  simply 
etlected  by  inanimate  mechanism,  serves  to  chea|i''!i  and 
extend  the  comforts  and  luxuries  of  lilb  to  the  great  body 
of  the  iwoplo. 

'i'lie  following  are  the  chief  elemLiitary  parta  of  dm* 
chinory : — 

WHEELS. 

A  wheel  moving  on  a  central  axis  is  a  lever  with  equal 
urma  radiating  from  the  fulcrum  at  the  centre,  and  is  thua 
culled  a  perpetual  lever. 

Wheels  may  bo  used  in  machines  simply  to  transmit 
power  fioin  one  point  to  another.  This  is  done  by  mcana 
of  toothed  wheels.  Projecting  teeth  or  mg»  are  placed 
all  round  the  circumference  of  a  wheel,  and  when  the 
wheel  is  turned,  these  teeth  work  upon  or  press  againat 
the  teeth  of  another  wheel,  and  so  cause  it  to  turn  also, 
but  in  an  opposite  direction.  Fig.  4S  repreaenta  two 
wheels  so  working 
upon  each  other.  As 
both  of  these  wheels 
are  of  the  same  size, 
and  consequently  are 
levers  with  equal  arms, 
they  do  nut  alter  the 
cSrcct  of  the  power 
coininunicatcdtotheni. 
The  motion  of  the  uxle  in 

the  motion  of  the  first  axle  in  the  wheel   A.     Thua, 
power  may  be  irammitleii  from  one  point  to  >'nother. 

A  long  and  large  oxlc,  in  wheel-work,  is  ct  Ki  .i  a  »^o/l, 
and  shafts  of  small  dimensions  are  termed  spinilis.  Tba 
terminating  |ioint  of  axles,  shafbi,  and  spitidico,  isViei* 
they  rest  and  turn  upon  supports,  are  callid  tbrir  ;>tvo(t 
or  guilgeviii.  The  toeketn  upon  which  the  gudgeoiu 
liear  in  turning,  are  sometimes  termed  6iu/ic( 

WHEELS   AND   PINIONS. 
When  power  has  to  bo  luruinululcd  or  increased  In 

its  elTcct  in  the  course  of  ita  transmission,  a  large  wheel 

is  made  to  play  upon  a  small  wheel, 

by  which  means  there  is  a  diversity 

in  the  lengths  of  the  levers.     Fig. 

■l.'J  is  a  representation   of  a  large 

wheel  W,  working  on  a  small  wheel 

or  pinion  P.  The  wheel  is  turned 
I  by  the  handle  C.  In  all  arrauge- 
I  mcnta  in  which    argo  wheels  are 


Fig.  43. 
the  wheel  B  is  the  same  u 


A|vnfl/t| 


174 


INFORMATION  FOR  THR  PEOPLR. 


no  'ed  hy  •  nail  wlir<>K  oi  iinalt  wlinU  hy  U.g«,  lh« 
mmII  whwU  urn  :«IM  ymiimt,  ami  wlirii  ihriw  pinion* 
■n  broad  in  tlioif  iliiiK-nMon".  thoy  ai«  Uinnrtl  trumlltt. 

In  thia  runiliinatioii  of  a  wliiwl  and  pinion,  a  long  fior- 
p«tuai  Uvir  worki  a«ainat  a  ahort  |N-i(Nilual  Ivvrr,  by 
which  a  <-oniiiili'rablo  inerhnnii-al  ad«anU|{«  ia  gainnl. 
TIm)  whwl  iiuy  h«  aupiKMnl  to  piwacaa  'IH  Iwlh  ami  ihc 
pinion  II  tcflli ;  lienci*,  by  mio  r>'volii(ion  of  Uu'  wbci'l, 
tha  pini>>ii  (iirua  N  liiiu-x.  which  Kivi-a  tho  ailr  of  th«< 
pinion  eight  tinH'a  lh«  vHiK-ily  of  (ho  ail<>  of  thi<  wheel ; 
and  if  wa  iiu|i|hm«  that  thu  iliuineler  of  the  wheel  ia  ten 
timaM  the  iliiiMii'U'r  uf  lh»  pinion,  thu  |H)wer  ia  incrvaaml 
in  alTi-ct  ten  tunea. 

Any  Ji-Kn-«  of  velocity  t^ti%\rt  than  that  of  tho  flnl 
rotary  nmlion,  may  Ih-  iiii|iartril  to  itip  piirtjt  of  n  ninchiiie, 
by  mnkirix  ihow  partH  no  much  anianer  than  the  primary 
inovinif  part*.  Thim,  if  a  larKc  wheel,  haviuK  a  thou- 
aand  tii'lh  in  itn  circiiiiiference,  work  upon  and  turn  a 
tinail  wheel  huviiiK  only  ten  teeth  in  it*  circumference, 
the  amall  wheel  will  ko  round  one  time  for  every  ten 
tMth  of  the  larKC  wheel  which  it  touchea;  ( "  in  other 
worda,  it  will  ko  round  one  hundred  time*  fur  one  tiino 
of  tho  larifo  wheel.  Tho  roii|M'Clive  veliM'itiea  of  wheeli 
in  a  machino  arc,  in  thia  manner,  alwaya  propurtioniitu 
to  their  diiimetera,  or  aize,  unloaa  when  aiiecially  arratiKod 
to  be  otherwiae. 

A  combination  of  wheeU  acting  aa  |ier[H'tunl  levera,  ia 
rcpreaenli-d  in  fig.  i\,  Threo  whueU  aru  placed  in  a  row 
cloat)  to  each 
other,  and  it  ia 
aiippoaeil  they 
•re  fixed  by 
three  axlea  to 
•ome  upri^lit 
object  Dii  the 
aide  of  tiit>  firal 
wheel  A,  there 
ia  attached  a 
■nail  toothed 
pinion  or  wheel 
F,  which,  by 
tile  preaaure  of 
lUlMTthonthe  "•  **• 

iMth  of  lh<'  second  whe«-l  P,  cauae*  thii  aecond  wheel  to 
turn  round.  The  power  applied  to  produce  thia  motion 
ia  at  tho  circuiiifereiice  of  the  limt  wheel  at  I>.  From  I) 
then,  to  the  centre  of  the  |>inion  F,  ia  the  long  arm  of 
•  lever,  of  which  the  centre  of  the  pinion  i»  the  fulcrum  ; 
and  from  the  centre  to  the  cndH  of  the  teeth  of  the  pinion 
i«  the  ahort  nrin.  The  accond  whe<^l  B  having  received  ita 
motion,  ttie  toollied  pinion  O,  which  i*  Hiinilarty  attached 
to  ita  aide,  pmuM-ii  a;;ain«t  the  teeth  of  llie  thinl  whtH'l  C, 
and  ao  cuuaea  it  alao  to  turn.  In  ihiKway  a  accond  lever 
ia  put  in  action.  And  tho  third  wheel,  from  ita  circum- 
ference to  the  point  from  which  the  weight  W  dependa, 
la  a  '.lird  lever.  Aa  the  power  or  amall  weight  P  falU, 
therefore,  from  the  circurafercnco  of  the  firrt  wheel,  the 
reaiatano!  W  ia  raiiu-d,  with  the  accumulated  force  of 
three  levera  actini;  (m  each  oltior.  'I'hc  line  acroaa  the 
figure  repreHciitii  the  three  levera  in  action. 

To  calculate  the  power  or  mechanical  advantage  to  be  | 
gained  by  Huch  a  machine,  aiippoao  the  nuinlier  of  teeth 
on  the  tint  wheel  to  tie  aix  timea  lexa  than  the  numlivr 
of  thoHe  III  the  circumfi'rrnce  of  the  m'coikI  wheel,  then 
the  aecond  wheel  would  turn  ro'ind  only  once,  while  the 
tiixt  wh«i<d  turne<l  six  timea.  AimI,  in  like  niuiiiicr,  if  tho 
numlier  of  teeth  on  the  circuiiiterencc  of  the  third  wheel 
be  aix  timea  greater  than  Ihudc  on  the  axle  of  the  iwcoiid 
*hecl,  then  the  third  wheel  would  turn  once,  wliilc  the 
aecoftd  wheel  turned  aix  Uiiiea.  ThuK,  tho  liritt  wheel 
;*iU  make  3(>  rev.dutions.  while  the  tliird  wheel  makea 
«>nly  one.  The  diameter  of  the  firat  wheel  lieing  thri«) 
timea  the  diameter  of  llio  nxle  of  the  third  wheel,  and  ita 
velocity  of  motion  being  36  to  1,  thrvc  timea  ;iO  will  give 


the  weight  which  a  (Miwer  of  1  poimd  at  P  will  raiaa  m 
W  Three  timea  3fl  Uiing  10«.  one  pound  at  P«a 
balance  ION  inmnda  at  W  " 


|H>uni 

wnniiiNa  ur  TOOTHED  WNEir.r. 
In  the  working  of  tiH>thr<l  wheria  one  Ui  >r.  tnnth* 
or  of  whi>ela  working  on  piniona,  it  la  ■>i'i<iiij|,|  |„    '' 
them  in  iip|Niaition  with  aiich  exact  adjii'iri.  it,  |)  ,  .l 
teeth  of  one  will  fiill  into  the  hnlluwa  b,  •  '>h  ,  \^ 

of  the  other.  When  the  teeth  of  each  do  lu.'  work  will 
thia  nicely,  they  are  apt  to  Jar  U|H>i  and  break  each  .uh  .' 
and  NO  ilamugo  the  machine.  In  aoiue  cum'i  |«,.th  tia 
made  of  a  round  or  |Miiiit(Hl 
form  at  their  extn'iniliea,  by 
which  H  very  amall  degree  of 
grinding  or  preiiaing  on  each 
other  takcN  place.  F'ig.  Mt 
ia  an  eiumple  of  a  wheel 
and  (ilnion  with  rounded 
and  |Miint<-d  teeth.  Prom 
the  n'litre  of  the  axia  of 
the  pillion  I.  to  the  centre  of 
the  wheel  (!,  a  dotted  line 
ia  marked,  called  by  me- 
chanic* the  /irt«  o/  rtnlrtu 
The  dotteti  circle  Of)  round 
tlte  pmion.  and  the  doited 

circle  P  P  round  the  wheel,  indicate  tho  true  point  of 
working  or  ;ontuct  of  the  teeth  u|ion  each  other.  ?!»«( 
two  circloa  are  Keen  to  join  witlt  extctiu-a*  at  A. 

ALTimno  THE    DIRECTION   OF   MOTION. 

Motion  often  reijuiroa  to  bo  al'tied  in  u$  itntrlionin 
the  couroo  of  it*  Iraiiiiiniaaion.  For  eiainple,  riiiarv 
horizontal  motion  require*  to  impart  rotary  vertical  no. 
lion,  or  rotary  vertical  motion  to  iinfiurt  horiiontul  motion. 
Uy  meana  of  a  |ieculiar  nio<le  of  aetting  tlio  wlierlt,  uid 
a  correM|ionding  piH'uliarity  in  tlio  ahapu  of  their  lertk 
any  altoratio  i  may  bo  liructed  in  ttio  direction  of  iln 
motion. 

Fig.  40  repreaent*  a  plan  of  changing  the  dirciio, 
of  motion,  A  ia  a  pinion  or 
trundle  working  with  ita  *hal* 
horizontally  on  a  wheel  U,  wh(» 
ahat\  ia  turning  vertically.  Aa 
the  caio  may  hap|M'n  to  be,  tlie 
horizo'itul  movement  ia  causing 
the  vertical  movement,  or  tho 
vcrticjil  movement  ia  cauaing  the  *  ''"'• 

horizontal  movement. 

BETEL  WnaELE. 

Fig.  47  rcpreaenta  a  more  common  plan  of  rhugj 
the  direction  of  motion.  The 
wheel*  in  thia  caae  are  lievellrd. 
A  hetrl  wheel  it  a  wht^l  with 
teeth  placed  in  a  iloping  or  oblique 
direction  on  itii  circumftToncc. 
When  two  Im'vcI  wheel*  arc  pluctyl 
at  right  angle*  to  each  other,  tlu-ir 
re«poctive  ti-eth  work  againat  each 
other,  and  ao  a  hannoniou*  Joint 
motion  ensues.  Thi*  i*  exempli- 
licd  in  the  figure,  in  which  u  hori- 
zontal Hliatl  with  a  bevol  wheel  i* 
aec-n  turning  u  riinaller  U^vel  wheel 
above  it,  pluieil  on  a  vertical  shaft 


!■■'(!.  47. 


TIIANSMISSION    OK   POWER   BT    Bei.Ti. 
A  coininoii  plan  of  trunriinitting  power  fiom  one; 
to  another,  when  the  int<;rval  i*  considerable,  iitbv  ill 
leather  band,  strap,  or  lirlt,  communicating  truni  t ' 
at  tlie  Hource  of  power  to  a  wheel  cuiir  icled  witii , 
luachiue. 


11l«  wheel*  upon  wh 

l^illfft.     They  have  (I, 

Itf  •oineliiiM'*  narrow 

,l>|,|iing  ii/T     Tho  rim* 

lll,'ir  nirliice,  mi  aa  lo  gi 

(««'  r  of  pulling  in  ja'rf. 

fig.  iH  reprcM'tita  the 

\i«lh«rtr»l  pulley,  whici 

btf   received    the    |iowe 

l„n  it*  source,  mill  (•  j, 

I  iiK  second  piiUey,  movei 

l,r  I  la-It,   wliicii    immin 

I  ,ntt  both  pulley*.     |„  (|,i, 

ixs,  the  million  of  A  ia 

I  i;.n»inilU'<l  by  the  la-lt  to 

■y  tdtiie  direction  a*  A. 

I  )iffci«ly  the  aame  iljaineli 

Lp,  the  lei  (111,1  pulley  woi 

J»|iicily  aa   Ihii    flrat,    lieeu 

jififKriy  of  a  tcHitheil  wh( 

l|««r(r  it  has  acquired.     / 

Jiiwlter  than  A,  it  would 

JjMiitly  than  A;  thereCire, 

lot  raude  of  increoaing  th 

I  power. 

SHATTS  At 

Whfn  power  re(|iiir..s  i, 
ignJ  thiit   which    In-IIh  cat 
MMmiMiiori   ia  eirected  hy 
xtrmry  to  clMnge  and   re 
Bjumi,  bevel   wh.-el*  are   i 
w  tikt  place  by  a  long 
i«l  4U*(I  111  travel  over  mi 
ml  the  chain  hanging  dim 
tfhiiinof  thi*  nature  i*  cm| 
■Holion  ia  odeii  required  t^ 
'Umal  machines,  „l  ilifferi, 
\vmtu    'I'liis  ia  edi-eled  |,y  „ 
ta  tho  pulley  which  n>ce 
pMl  to  u  pulley   fixed    „, 
pwrilly  hung  horizonUlly 
*"<*    Ah  the  Hhaft  turi'ia 
iui)ldoturn  pulley*  fix«i 
fan  tliese  pulley*,  |h.|u  are 
|Rl«fii»e  machine*, 

fV.49  repn^senta  an  appa 
|.(  n  the  pulley  '  ^ 

riving  motion 
the  source 
power,  and, 
mean*  of  the 
L,  turns  the 
iLVr  B  on  tJio 
i'f  the  shaft 
At  the  same 
tlie  pulley 
III  Ihe  op[)OHitc  end  of  the 
ttion  the  shaft  situated  cic 
t,  and  from  D  another 
Hu*.  in  extended   axle  or 
'liine,  and  an  extended  axlf 
''*"  raachine.    'J'he  opparal 
Misfts  with  pulley*,  workin 
"D  be  seen  at  alinust  every 
»hich  machinery  ia  empk 
of  bevel  whoela  ond  up 
upward*  from  atory  to 
ta  to  hundred*  of  wheel*, 
luemechaniam. 

CHANOINO   TE 

'mometimes  necesaary  th 
•k'ne,  should  l»prop..||edwi 
pftc,  and  .1  continually  cIiih 


MECIlANirS— MArillNKRY. 


in 


KlK.  4* 


IV  whi'ol*  ii|M)n  which  alrnp*  work  nrr  iiDiiully  mllrd 
,»//?•'•  'I'''<'y  h*""  "»•  ■'"!  ''riMiil  ririi",  miil  llu-nr  rim* 
i|T«  MiiwIiiiM'it  nirri)W  Inlifra,  In  prevent  (liit  iN'lt  (roin 
juipinK  "If'  Thn  rim*  inuHt  ■!•«  Im  rnthcr  munh  on 
.  ,,,  iurliii'i'.  Ml  UK  til  \tiyr  tiin  U'lt  a  auiririi'iit  rrirlion  or 
uwM  uf  |iulliiit(  ill  |M<rriiriniiiK  it*  rrvolutinii*. 

t\S-  ^^  ri-|>ri'M'MtN  tlir  tr«ri*ini**ion  uf  |>uwur  by  a  belt. 

In,   rrwivrii    till'    [Miwiir 

IriJdl  it*  •«"'"■"•  '""'  *'  '* 

,],,  «fimil  |iiill<7,  niovril 

,  I  Irit,   wliK'li    |>iiiw<>* 

ftt  both  pulli'.v*.     Ill  tlii* 
I  i»*,  ••>*  Miiiti'iii  »f  A  i* 

it,ii»iiiitl»'<t  l>y  Ihii  Im'U  to  V,  whirh  it  rnuar*  to  turn  in 

.y  MiiiK  (liro'lion  u*  A.  If  thi'on  two  |Millt'y*  wore  of 
1  Mi'ly  I'"'  ■*'■"■*'  iliuiix'li^ri  niiil  tl>«  ln'lt  iliil  nut  rrlax  or 
liliii. >!>*'  MH'iii'l  |iulli>y  woiilil  uiiHvoiiliilily  go  at  tlin  miinn 
lidocily  u'  tlio  flnil,  lM'cuu*n  th<t  tit'lt  ha*  exactly  tho 
Ij^Kwrty  of  *  tootlinl  wluo'l,  and  nimbly  truiiHiiiitii  thu 
Ingwrr  it  liu*  u>°<|uir(>il.  A*  (7  iip|K'itr*  to  liu  Miniowlmt 
lioiille'  thuii  A,  it  wiiulil  ronri<<(|uciitly  turn  inoro  fri-- 
Imiitly  thuii  A  ;  tliiTi'l.irK,  wu  liiivo  Utiro  an  i-xaiiipin  of 
|iu  mudc  uf  ini-ri'iuiiiig  tho  velocity  whilo  tranmiiittiiiK 
|p)*«r. 

HHArTB   AND   PUl.LIVA. 

When  power  nM|iiirf«  to  Iw  rarriivl  to  a  diHtiiiicc  lio- 
ignJ  thill  whirli  In-IIm  can  conveniently  innniiKc,  tlie 
I nnimiwioii  in  eirerteil  liy  a  loii);  Hlinlt;  and,  if  it  Iw 
Igrtraary  to  cImii^o  anil  ru-cluiiii{v  lliu  ilirectinn  of  the 
l(i)U(in.  brvel  wheel*  are  aiUlcd,  Or  thu  traiuini*Hion 
I  nil  take  place  hy  a  long  flat  chain  uctinR  like  a  Ih'U, 
Itgl  nUHcd  to  travel  over  imall  whoel*  or  pullryH,  to  pre- 
IwiUhe  chain  hantrinit  down  in  any  part  of  it*  coume. 
licbiiin  of  thi*  nuture  i«  cullril  an  tmllrm  rlmin. 

Motion  i*  often  reipiired  to  In-  coniiniiniciited  to  many 
lidrenl  macliiiiei,  nl  ilijfireni  pniiili,  from  one  wiureo  of 
|ig*(r.  'I'IiIh  in  ellected  liy  mean*  of  a  ahull  and  pulh'y*. 
Vim  the  jiulley  which  rvceivea  the  first  motion,  a  lielt 
|)«ni  to  a  pulley  fixed  u|ion  a  ahall,  which  ahall  i* 
||tn»illy  huni?  horizontally  from  the  roof  over  the  ma- 
IdiiiKii.  Ax  the  Hhall  turns  throuifh  its  whole  extent,  it 
1)  iblc  tn  turn  pulleys  flxetl  at  any  [mint  upon  it,  and 
Ibm  these  iiulleys,  Udts  are  sent  down  to  pulley*  at  the 
oitTline  iniicliiiicN. 

Fif.  49  reprcMwita  an  apparotua  of  a  shall  and  pulleys. 
|a  It  the  pulley  '< 

mving  motion  '' 

I  the  source 
[lower,  anil, 
I  mnms  of  the 

Jill  L,  turns  tho     .^,,  ..    „  ■^tiM.ofw  x 

^iW  B  on  tlio   '■''*•  ''    "  ^Ui-woj* 

i>r  the  Hhatl 
At  the  same 

,  the  pulley  f '«•  «• 

blithe  oppoxitc  end  of  the  ahafl  is  turned.     From 

alley  on  the  shall  situated  close  to  B,  a  Ih-U  descends  to 

I  C,  and  from  U  another  Ix-lt  drsceiidH  to  turn  E. 

[bill,  in  extended   axle  or  shall  from  C  will  turn  a 

vhiM,  and  un  extended  axle  or  shaA  from  E  will  turn 

^<h(r  niai'hine.  The  apparatus  can  turn  two  machine*. 

syiii  with  pulleys,  working  on  the  plan  now  stated, 

«l)bc  seen  at  nliiioKt  every  considerable   miinufiictory 

I  which  iiiacliiiiery  is  employed;   and  the  ]iowcr,  liy 

I  of  bevel  wheel*  olid  upright  connecting  shafls,  is 

I  upwards  from  story  to  atory  in  a  building,  giving 

Kian  to  huiidreilH  of  wheels,  spindles,  and  other  parts 

||  lite  mechaiiinn. 

CHANOINO   TILOCITT. 

Illuiometinies  necessary  that  a  machine,  or  part  of  a 
irbioe,  ahoi.ld  be  propi-lled  with  a  velocity  which  is  not 
kulilc,  and    i  continually  dianging  from  fast  to  slow 


Kig.  ao. 


and  slow  to  fast.  This  hapjiena  In  rolton-nillU,  where  It 
is  nei'eMary  that  the  speed  of  certain  |iarts  of  the  ma- 
chinery ahould  coiilinunlly  decrease  fVoin  the  brginniiif 
to  the  end  of  an  o|ieration.  To 
elTect  this,  an  apparatu*  I*  iiM'd, 
a*  repreaentnl  in  Dg.  AO.  Two 
cone*,  or  conically  ahaiietl  drums, 
am  u*«d,  having  their  larger 
diumrteni  in  contrary  dirrctiona. 
They  are  connected  by  a  Ih-U, 
which  is  BO  governed  by  pro|M>r 
inechaniam,  that  it  is  griiduiilly 
ahilled  along  from  one  extremity  of  tin  cone*  to  tht 
other,  thu*  acting  U[M)n  circles  of  dlllerent  dimncter, 
caiixing  a  continual  cliuiigu  of  velocity  in  the  driven  ion< 
with  relation  to  that  which  drive*  it.  'I'he  shitting  of 
blind*  from  large  to  Ninull  wheels,  and  from  small  to  largf^ 
ha*  similar  ellect*. 

PRcsiHrino  Rcnui>ARiTV  or  motion  by  a  variablb 
roRcc. 

In  some  mechanical  contrivances,  the  force  which  il 
applied  varies  in  il*  intensity,  while  the  wheels  of  the 
machinery  ri><|uire  to  lie  kept  at  a  uniform  s|HH'd.  This 
is  grnerelly  the  case  when  the  force  is  coiiiiiumicat<i<] 
from  a  steel  spring,  which, 
ulVr  iH'ing  wound  up,  is 
Hulli-rrd  to  relax.  Fig.  A I 
is  a  spring  suited  for  o|ie- 
riitions  of  thi*  kind.  It  is 
represented  in  a  state  of 
relaxation,  and  is  wound 
up  into  a  compact  form 
hy  means  of  a  spiudle  fixed  to  its  inner  extremity.  The 
coiling  of  a  strip  of  paper  round  the  finger,  and  allowing 
it  to  unwind  itself,  is  n  familiar  illustration  of  tho  action 
of  a  spring  uf  this  description. 

The  force  commuiiicutrd  by  the  relaxing  of  the  spring 
varies  in  it*  intensity.  The  force  is  greateat  when  it  be- 
gin* to  relax,  and  it  gradually  weakens  till  its  expansive 
energy  is  exhausUnl.  To  compensate  this  defect,  a  very 
ingenious  plan  is  adopted,  and  which  is  put  in  operation 
in  the  apparatus  of  tlie  common  watch. 

Fig.  fiS  repres<-nts  the  apparatus  of  motion  of  a  watch, 
somewhat  magnified.    The  spring  is  confined  in  a  bras* 

K 


Fig.  53. 

cylinder  or  barrel  B.  To  this  barrel  the  spring  is  attached 
by  a  slit  at  its  outer  extremity.  The  inner  extremity  of 
the  spring  is  fixed  hy  a  similar  slit  to  the  central  axis  oi 
spindle.  F  is  a  brass  cone,  broad  at  bottom  and  nanow 
at  top,  with  a  path  winding  spirally  round  it  as  an  in- 
clinril  plane.  This  cone  is  called  the  fum;  and  has  alao 
a  central  axis  or  lipindle  K,  to  which  it  is  fixed.  To  a 
point  on  the  lower  inclined  patli  of  the  fusee,  a  small 
steel  chain  (J  is  attached,  and  the  other  extremity  of  thi* 
chain  is  att.-jehed  to  the  top  part  of  the  barrel.  When 
the  spring  is  relaxed,  the  chain  isulmont  altogether  round 
the  barrel.  To  set  the  ap|niriitus  in  motion,  the  wttlC4j- 
key  is  made  to  turn  tlic  spindle  K,  by  which  the  chain 
is  drawn  from  tho  barrel  to  the  fusee,  filling  up  the  in- 
clined path  to  the  summit.  The  chain  in  leaving  th» 
barrel  causes  it  to  turn,  and  consequently  to  wind  up  the 
spring  inside.  Tho  process  of  unwinding  or  relaxinsj 
ensues,  and  now  the  ingenious  plan  for  regulating  thu 
motion  is  to  be  remarked.  At  first,  when  the  force  of  tha 
spring  is  grcatoit,  tlve  chain  acts  upon  u  small  round  nl 


■'*yi 


I7« 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Kig.  53. 


the  fu«ee;  in  othnr  words,  it  pulln  with  a  iinnll  lever — 
foi,  IB  already  explained  under  the  head  Wheel  and  Axle, 
a  wheel  or  round  object  on  an  azia  ia  simply  h  perfietual 
lever.  In  proportion  as  the  intensity  of  the  force  weak- 
ens, and  the  barrel  takes  off  the  chain  from  the  fusee,  and 
n-inds  it  about  itself,  so  docs  tho  chain  act  upon  a  longer 
lever,  or  so  does  it  gain  a  greater  lever  advantage,  by 
drawing  at  a  wider  part  of  a  cone.  Thus,  the  gradual 
loss  of  force  is  counterbalanced  by  a  gradual  increase  of 
lever  advantage.  (The  case  resembles  that  of  a  strong 
man  working  with  a  short  lever,  and  a  weak  man  work- 
ing with  a  long  lever;  both  aro  equal  in  effect  in  balanc- 
ing any  resistance.)  The  wheelwork  of  the  watch  is 
:iioved  by  teeth  on  the  lower  circumferenco  of  the  cone. 

.I/riRNATI    OR   RECIPROCATING    MOTION ECCENTRIC 

WHEELS. 

Alternate  or  rcriprm-ating  motion  is  applied  to  move- 
ment which  take  place  continually  backwards  and  for- 
wards in  the  same  path.  In  most  complex  machines, 
both  rotary  and  reciprocating  motion  occur,  and  these 
motions  may  lie  converted  into  each  other  by  various 
contrivances. 

A  common  contrivance  for  gradually  raising  and  de- 
pressing an  object  by  machinery,  is  that  of  an  eccentric 
wheel. 

An  eccentric  wheel  is  a  wheel  with  an  axis  not  in  its 
centre,  but  at  a  point  nearer  one  side  than  the  other. 
Fig.  63  represents  the  action  of  a  wheel 
<)t  this  kind.  W  is  the  wheel,  and  A 
the  axis  upon  which  it  is  fixed.  When 
the  axis  turns,  the  wheel  turns  with  it. 
As  the  axis  never  moves  out  of  its  place, 
the  whoel  necessarily  di"scril)cs  a  path 
of  gradual  rising  and  falling  in  its  revo- 
lutions. Suppose  an  object,  as  T,  pressing  upon  the 
upper  edge  of  tlie  wheel,  so  as  to  accommodate  itself  to 
the  motion,  it  is  obvious  that,  by  the  action  of  the  wheel, 
this  object  will  l>e  alternately  rais<>d  and  allowed  to  fall. 
Or  suppose  that  a  tmI  is  hung  from  a  point  of  the  wheel 
Qcar  where  T  rests,  it  is  similarly  obvious  that  the  roil 
would  lie  raised  or  depressed,  according  as  the  wheel 
turned.  Thus  a  rising  and  falling  motion  may  be  effected 
by  an  e«vntric  whivl. 

Eccentric  wheels  arc  made  of  different  forma.  Accord- 
ing as  they  may  l>e  reijuired  to  act,  they  are  circular, 
Dval,  heart-Hli«iH'<l.  or  pointed  at  one  end,  and  so  forth — 
the  object  ip.  each  case  being  to  produce  alternate  motion, 
by  continually  altering  the  distance  of  some  movable 
part  of  tlio  machine,  from  the  aria  about  which  they 
levolve.  Ti-chnically,  the  projecting  porta  of  eccentric 
irheels  arc  called  cambi. 

In  some  cases,  eccentric  wheels  are  not  n-quired  to 
perform  ™tire  revolutions  n  their  axis.  It  is  [lerluips 
■ufficient  for  tlie  purpose  of  the  mechanism,  if  they 
gradually  riso  to  the  height  of  tJieir  [tower,  and  then, 
without  turning  round,  gradually  deacend  by  retracing 
their  course. 

When  alternate  riling  and  falling  is  required  thrice,  by 
only  (mf  revolution  of  an  axle,  an  eccentric  wheel  is  used  | 
having  three  projecting  cambii  on  its  circumference,  and  \ 
ts  each  camb  comes  round,  it  lifts  and  lets  full  any  object 
prewnti'd   to   it.     An   ex- 
amp!*?  of  this  njiparatUK  ia 
given   in  fig.  oj.     The  ol)- 
j<-ct  reij'iirril  is  to  work  a 
beavv    bainmer     upon     an 
i:im!  for  iH'ating  irmi.      W 
••  the  whei-l  v.illi  lUe  three 
cuiuIm,     ml    it   tiinia  by  an 
axle   in    upright    hupiwrtM. 
bi  tumin;;.  encit  camii.with 
Its  rouiiiled  or  convex  siilr, 
ureatun  down  tlui  end  of  the  handle  of  lh»  haiiuuer,  so 


as  to  raise  the  heavy  head  H  at  the  opposite  end,     ,\l\, 
pressing  down  tho  handle  and  escaping,  the  head  of  il 
hammer  falls  with  a  heavy  blow  on  the  anvil  A.    The 
it  remaina  till  raised  up  and  lot  fall  by  tlie  next  camb 
and  so  on. 

OBLIQUE   ACTION. 

A  mechanical  advantage,  which  is  freqiitntly  ol  a  von 
serviceable  nature,  is  obtained  by  causing  the  points  ol 
two  straight  bars  to  meet  each  other,  but  fixed  loosely,  w 
as  to  be  (rae  to  move  from  an  oblique  to  a  straight  liker, 
tioii,  and  the  reverse.  The  jiower  consists  in  briniTii,a 
tho  burs  to  the  straitsht,  by  which  they  force  asunder  o 
press  hard  u|)on  any  object  presented  to  their  outer  ex 
trcmities.  In  the  adjoining  figure,  the  bars  are  seen  fir»i 
in  their  oblique  position,  and 
next  when  brought  towards  a 
straight.  Betwixt  the  two 
points  a  small  hollowed  piece 
of  metal  ia  inserted,  in  which 
tho  |x>int8  work,,  and  against 
which  the  power  ia  exerted 
to  produce  tho  action.  The 
straightening  and  bending  of 
the  apparatus  ri.->embles  tho 
action  of  the  knee-joint  in  ani- 
mals. The  pressure  produced 
by  the  forcing  downwards  of 


Fi(f.  55. 


W- 


II 


"M 


w 


Fig  54 


the  outer  extremity  of  the  lower  bar  (the  upper  workitis 
against  a  fixed  beam),  is  very  easily  and  rapidly  ao. 
co'nplished,  and  is  almost  unliniite<l ;  and  these  advantaers, 
as  well  as  the  extreme  simplicity  of  the  mechanism,  have 
leil  to  the  application  of  the  power  to  the  piinting-prca 
wrought  by  the  hand,  instead  of  screw  pressure. 

CRANKS. 

The  crank  affords  one  of  the  simplest  and  most  use- 
ful methods  of  changing  an  alternate  rising  and  fallinj 
motion  into  rotary  motion. 

A  crank  resembles  a  com.Ron  handle  or  winch  to: 
turning  a  machine  by  the  hand;  the  chief  differenoe 
being,  that  a  rod  or  shall  jointed  to  tlie  handle,  and 
going  up  and  down,  works  the  miuhine.  If  the  crank 
be  made  ilouble,  it  will  turn  two  wheels  or  machines. 

Fig.  60  represiMits  a  double  crank  in  action.  8  i«  the 
rod  or  shaft  aHciMiding  and 
descending,  and  attached  by 
a  joint  to  the  lower  part 
of  tho  crank  f',  which  it 
alternately  pulls  up  and 
pirahes  down,  so  as  to  cause 
the  axles  W  W  to  turn  a 
wheel  at  each  side,  'lake 
away  one  of  tho  sides  of 
the  crank  and  ita  sup)>ort, 
and  the  apparatus  becomes 
u  single  crank. 

Turning-lathes,  krife-grindcrs'  machines,  and  lirailai' 
apparatus,  aro  usually  turned  by  cranks  wrought  bv  ii){ 
alternate  pressing  and  raising  of  the  foot  of  the  open- 
toi  ;  a  rod  going  upwards  u  nn  the  foot-lmari!  to  the) 
crank,  causing  the  wheel  or  spindle  to  go  round.  Thfl 
crank  has  l>cen  hitherto  indis|)ensabl«  in  the  action  ofl 
the  steam-engine. 

ACrUIMULATION. 

Power  is  susceptible  of  aceumuliitioii — that  Is,  of  i 
creasing  little  by  little — and  of  U'iiig  e\|K'iidcil  oitte! 
gradually  or  in  one  or  more  violent  elfoits;  the  ellii'J 
beiiin  entinly  the  conceiilmted  uiiiouiit  of  llie  jiri'iiiuf 
aceuiiiubiticiii.  The  apparently  woinliyful  puwers 
plau'd  thrijugh  tlie  ai{eiiey  of  levers  and  other  Miiifia 
liiucliiiies,  are  nil  u  natuial  cunsequeiire  ol  an  aaiiJ 
latiuii  of  any    degree   uf  force   into  a  small  ii(>ai'c; 


"iLL>n 


Fig.  56. 


irliich  effects  ta 

i!oniplished  by  i 

In  consequer 

power  in  mach 

Wishing  reseniii 

mmncition  with 

A  well-known 

m  suspending  a 

of  considerable  It 

persons,  a  »wtiif;, 

s  very  small  deg, 

Id;  motion  like  a 

u  the  body  relu 

ind  greater  force 

coming  continual 

to  overcome  aluio 

me  buttering-rarai 

lilications  of  towi 

inil  the  force  of 

cannon   ball ;    ne 

never  could  ,,>xcc( 

fulees  given  to  thi 

The  forcible  ex 

ihc  swing  ap]iarnti 

in  the  cbjh'  of  a  i: 

l«nliiig  a  spriiig- 

jlluifiiig  the  Hjirin 

foil,  wliicli  ertbrt  i; 

uf  the  accumulated 

A  boy  taking  a 

!»iip,  is  another  fain 

mil  expending  it  ir 

I  g  up  power  at  eve 

leap  corresjioiuls  exi 

he  has  acijuired. 

In  tlie  same  rnai 
»  other  in.'ftrument, 
■jn  reach,  in  order  t 
sethod  we  naturally 
power. 

In  contrivances  in 
muiateil  in  order  to 
mil  etTective  blow. 
r.oriiontal   liar  or  le 
liniled  at  each  end 

Aliereomniunioating 
'H'  rotaliiiii,  it  will  p. 
M  energy  and  nii 
nlher  by  friction  in  tu 
I  ftesented  to  it. 

In  miwt  machines, 
wislance  to  lie  over( 
Imleniiitv  at  different 
wriiiiii;.     For  install, 
kuiille  nf  a  piece  of  m 
*rt«  for  an  instant 
[iMWity  to  Jtecp  hiw 
■ix»i  to  the  lalxjur  he 
liMi«  cause  an   irregulu 
j»k;ch  lire  detrimental 
Pfiformeil.     Other  mo 
[WMJanties. 

The  irregularities  in 
khitevfr  cause  they  i 
l«fh  miicliino  a  ngrmii 
Iw given  Ht  all  times  to 
miiv  It  re  (Hired. 
i»lly  ill  the  form  o' 
A  llv-Hheel  ia  go'/cr 
>  heavy  rim  o-  cirr 
liis  by  cross  iinr  or  s| 
('«'  conne  tion  wi 
Vu.       'it 


J 


MECHANICS— MACHINERY. 


ITT 


ml.  Aftfi 
lead  of  tli« 
A.  Tlierf 
next  canib 


ily  ot  a  vcr) 
le  points  o| 
il  loosely,  Ml 
ruight  dircc 
in  bringihg 
e  asunder  o, 
iir  outer  ex 
ire  Been  first 


^ 

FiR.  55. 

u]ifK^r  working 
lid  rapidly  ac- 
DSC  advant,igrs, 
I'clianism,  have 
■  jiiinting-prcs! 
L'iisure. 


I  and  most  lisp- 
ing and  fallmj 

e  or  winch  for 
chief  differenre  ' 
:\e   handle,  ami 
.     If  the  crank  | 
or  machines. 
Iction.    8  is  the  I 


r« 


50. 


Ineii,  and  limilai  J 
wrought  by  ul 
lot  of  the  oixti-I 
toot-lioard  to  the! 
l|To  round.  Thfl 
1  ill  the  action  ofl 


Jl— that  Is,  of  n-| 
lexiK'lided  rill'll 
fmt.s;  the  elTi'iuf 
I  if  the  proiiiu 
Irl'ul  l"Wers  i|| 
|iid  other  i-mifi^ 
lit  im  :u'i'i;''iJ 
luiimU  »|'.n:i:i  i 


Which  efTectx  take  place  that  could  never  have  been  ac- 
liompli.-'hcil  by  the  original  force. 

In  ron8cquenr«  of  this  convenient  accumulation  of 
power  in  maohinea,  plans  have  been  devised  for  esta- 
blishing resnToiri  of  pmcer,  aa  they  may  be  called,  in 
nmnci  tion  with  moving  machinery. 

A  well-known  method  of  accumulating  power  consists 
m  suspending  a  heavy  body  by  a  chain  or  strong  rope 
of  considerable  length — forming,  what  is  called  by  young 
persons,  a  sieiiip.  This  liody  may  bo  put  in  motion  by 
s  very  small  degree  of  power,  and  will  acquire  a  vibrat- 
iug  motion  like  a  pendulum.  By  continuing  the  inipulcc 
0,  the  botly  returns,  it  will  continually  accpiire  greater 
ind  greater  force,  the  arcs  through  which  it  moves  lic- 
coniing  continually  larger,  until  at  last  it  might  \w  made 
to  overcome  almost  any  obstacle.  Upon  this  princijilc, 
me  biittering-rams,  or  engines  for  beating  down  the  for- 
litications  of  towns  in  ancient  times,  were  constructed, 
inJ  the  force  of  their  blows  was  as  great  as  that  of  a 
cannon  ball ;  nevertheless,  the  power  of  their  blows 
never  could  oxeced  the  accumulated  power  of  the  im- 
pulses given  to  them  in  order  to  protlucc  these  blows. 

The  forcible  expenditure  of  accumulated  power  in 
ihc  swing  apparatus,  resembles  that  which  is  observable 
ill  the  ca.'H"  of  a  i)erson  occupying  several  minutes  in 
Ujnling  a  spring — that  is,  accumulating  power — and 
allowing  the  spring  to  unliend  itself  by  one  violent  cf- 
f.iit,  which  ciVort  is  nothing  more  thou  the  giving  out 
^f  the  accumulated  jiower. 

A  boy  taking  a  race  to  gain  force  before  making  a 
!onp,  is  another  familiar  example  of  accumulating  power 
inJ  exjicnding  it  instantaneously.  The  boy  is  gatlior- 
i  g  up  power  at  every  step  he  runs,  and  the  force  of  bis 
Imp  corresiionds  exactly  with  the  quantity  of  tlie  power 
tc  bus  acquired. 

In  the  saiiK!  manner,  the  lifting  of  a  hammer,  axe, 
jr  other  iiistruinrnt,  to  an  elevation  as  far  as  our  arm 
in  reach,  in  order  to  give  a  blow  with  good  effect,  is  a 
lelbod  we  naturally  pursue  to  gain  •  i  accumulation  of 
power. 

In  contrivances  in  the  arts,  power  is  sometimes  accu- 
mulated in  order  to  be  privcn  out  in  the  form  of  a  rapid 
ind  eflbitivp  blow.  This  may  be  done  by  means  of  a 
hiiriiontal  \r.\T  or  lever,  poised  on  a  central  axis,  and 
Ijtded  at  each  end  with  a  heavy  ball  of  lead  or  iron. 
\lter  ooiumunioating  to  the  machine  a  sufficient  power 
)l  rotaliiin,  it  will  p.oceed  with  an  enormous  accumu- 
litfj  energy  and  momentum,  till  it  ex|)en(l  ita  force 
I  nther  hy  friction  in  turning,  or  upon  some  fixed  obsU;  :1c 
^eaented  to  it. 

EQUALIZATION rLY-WHEBLS. 

In  most  machines,  tioth  the  moving  force  and  the 
I  Mintiuici'  to  lie  overcome  are  liable  to  fluctuations  of 
iDlimiiitv  at  different  times,  during  the  o|>cration  of 
1  workini,'.  For  instance,  when  a  man  turns  a  winch  or 
I  biniile  of  a  piece  of  machinery,  he  is  apt  to  relax  in  his 
le&irts  for  an  instan'  from  loss  of  strength,  or  from  an 
IjjjWity  to  keep  his  attention  closely  and  uniformly 
Ihedtotho  lalhinr  he  has  to  |H>rform.  These  rclaxa- 
Itonii  cause  an  irregularity  of  motion  in  the  machinery, 
lihifh  arc  detrimental  to  the  machine  and  to  the  work 
IpHfonncd.  Other  moving  forces  are  liable  to  similar 
limnilarities. 

Thp  irregularities  in  the  motion  of  machinery,  from 
lirhitevcr  cause  they  ari.se,  are  remedied  by  giving  to 
lufli  miichine  a  ntrriviruf  /iDwrr,  from  which  force  may 
|(»irivcn  at  all  times  toeiinal'?<i  the  motion  according  as 
1  mny  W  rejnirpd.     These    reservoirs  of    power    arc 

wally  111  the  form  o(  flii-whtrh. 

A  fly-wheel  is  go'ierally  made  of  iron,  and  consists 
I  >  heavy  rim  o'  circumference,  joined  to  a  central 
hli»by  cmss  iiar    or  spokes.     In  !n<ist  cases  it  is  placed 

floKi'  C'miie  tion  with   the    (iml  moving  force,   liu 


eflect  of  wltich  it  equalixes  in  its  passage  to  the  m* 
ciiine. 

rRICTIOIf. 

Moving  bodies,  as  machines  and  wheel  carriages,  ■>« 
less  or  more  retarded  in  their  velocity  by  Iriction,  ai.J 
the  resistance  of  the  atmosphere,  while  vessels  inoviLg 
on  water  arc  retarded  by  the  resistance  botn  of  the  a>- 
mosphere  and  of  the  liquid  in  which  they  are  buoyant. 

Friction  is  an  etfect  of  the  action  of  rubbing  of  bodies 
one  upon  another. 

This  elTcct  is  produced  by  ine()uaii'.Ies  of  surface.  No 
such  thing  is  found  as  perfect  smoothness  of  surface  in 
bodies.  In  every  ca-se  there  is,  to  a  lesser  or  greater 
extent,  a  roughness  or  unevcnness  of  the  parts  of  the 
surface,  arising  from  peculiar  texture,  porosity,  and 
oihcr  causes  ;  and,  therefore,  when  two  surfaces  come 
together,  the  prominent  parts  of  the  one  fall  into  the 
hollow  parts  of  the  other.  This  tends  to  prevent  or  re- 
tard motion.  In  dragging  the  one  body  over  the  other, 
an  exertion  must  be  used  to  lift  the  prominences  over 
the  parts  which  oppose  them,  and  this  exertion  is  similar 
to  that  of  lifting  or  drawing  of  bodies  up  inclined  planes 
or  over  upright  protulicrnnces. 

Friction  acts  as  a  retarding  influence  in  the  action  of 
all  incclmnical  contrivances,  and  a  due  allowance  must 
in  every  case  be  made  for  it.  In  many  instances  it  de- 
stroys more  than  half  of  the  power  employed,  and  scl- 
dora  destroys  less  than  a  third.  However  small  it  may 
be,  it  sooner  or  later  causep  the  wearing  down  and  de- 
ntruction  of  mechanism,  and  therefore  forms  an  insur- 
mountable obstacle  to  the  lasting  duration  of  bodies 
and  the  perpetuity  of  motion. 

I'riction  is  found  to  depend  on  the  following  circum- 
stances : — Ist,  The  degr>?  of  roughness  of  the  surfaces. 
2d,  The  weight  of  the  body  to  be  moved.  3d,  The  ex- 
tent of  surfaces  in  certain  bodies  presented  to  the  action 
of  rubbing.  4th,  The  nature  of  the  bodies.  5th,  The 
degree  of  velocity  of  the  motion.  6th,  The  manner  of 
the  motion. 

Rouiikncss. — It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  smooth 
the  surfaces.  An  apparently  insignificant  piece  of  mat- 
ter, or  even  particles  of  dust,  will  greatly  retard  the  mo- 
tion of  a  body.  But  there  is  a  limit  beyond  which  it 
would  be  imprudent  to  smooth  the  surfaces  of  bodies 
having  a  close  texture.  If  the  surfaces  be  highly  po- 
lished and  levelled,  the  bodies  will  adhere  by  the  effect 
of  aliraction  of  cohesion,  even  when  the  atmospheric 
air  is  not  entirely  expelled  from  betv.een  them,  and 
more  forcibly  when  the  air  is  completely  expelled. 
Practically,  roadi>,  railways,  and  simila.^:  bodies,  cannot 
be  made  too  snoiith. 

IVeitfht. — Frii-.lion  from  weight  difTors  in  different 
bodies,  and  dep«i>os  en  concurring  circumstances,  m 
nature  of  surfai^i,  and  so  forth.  Friction  always  in- 
creases in  exact  proportion  as  the  weight  increases, 
when  all  othor  circuinstanc«s  remain  the  same.  The 
parts  of  machinery,  therefore,  should  he  made  as  light 
as  possible,  consistent  with  strength  and  durability. 

Extent  of  »rir/'«ff,«. — Rough  bodies  arc  more  easily 
drawn  along  when  their  surface  of  contact  is  narrow 
than  when  thev  are  broad.  For  example,  it  is  easier  to 
draw  two  narrow  brushes  across  each  other,  than  two 
broad  ones  of  the  same  weight.  Friction  may,  tliero- 
forc  he  diminished  in  rough  bodies  by  lessening  the  e'^- 
ti'nt  of  surface.)  in  contact.  But  there  is  a  limit  to  thi» 
diminution.  If  the  moving  surfixce  be  very  thin,  and 
the  other  soft,  the  thin  surface  will  plough  a  groove  ii> 
the  soft  one,  and  tluis  the  friction  will  be  increased,  ami 
the  machine  injured. 

N^i'urr  (if  I  ml  its. — It  is  a  remarkable  truth  that  *tv« 
bodies  which  are  c'"  the  same  nature,  or  homogeneous, 
-  roduce  greater  friction  in  nicvemcnt  than  Ixhlics  whir ll 
are  difTcient  in  their  nature,  or  licteroseneoiis.     Thii 


179 


INFORMATION   FOR   THE   PKOPLE. 


ir;m  working  against  iron,  steel  against  itcel,  or  brans 
sciinst  brafts,  causes  in  each  case  greater  friction  and 
wi'iiring  of  parts,  than  when  iron  or  steel  is  made  to 
wnrk  against  brass.  This  circumstance  is  always  attended 
to  in  the  construction  of  machinery.  Frequently,  a 
•mall  piece  of  leather  is  adjusted  round  an  axle,  to  pre- 
vent the  metals  from  coming  in  contact- 

Dearee  of  Velorily. — Friction  is  a  uniformly  retarding 
force,  except  in  the  case  of  small  velocities,  when  it  is 
g/catcr  in  proportion.  The  reason  for  it  licing  greater 
in  small  velocities  is,  that  in  these  cases  time  is  allowed 
for  the  prominences  of  the  moving  boily  to  sink  deeply 
into  the  hollows  of  the  surface  on  which  it  is  moving, 
which  has  a  retarding  eficct. 

Manner  of  the  Motion. — The  least  advantageous  man- 
fter  in  which  one  bo»ly  can  be  moved  upon  another,  is 
to  cause  it  to  slide  or  drag.  The  most  advantageous 
manner  is  to  cause  it  to  roll  or  turn.  The  causing  of  a 
body  to  roll  instead  of  to  slide,  is  one  of  the  chief  means 
of  din)inishing  friction.  The  opposition  presented  by 
iiie(|unlitie8  of  surface  to  a  rolling  wheel,  is  overcome 
with  ease,  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  diameter  of 
the  wheel.  On  a  perfectly  horizontal  plane,  the  friction 
of  wheels  on  the  plane  is  very  inconsiderable  ;  the  chief 
si'at  of  friction  in  such  cases  being  in  the  axles  work- 
ing in  their  sockets. 

Friction  is  greatly  diminished  by  lubricating  the  rub- 
bing surfaces  with  an  oily  or  greasy  substance,  which 
aubstauce  forms  a  medium  of  small  soft  particles  be- 
twixt the  bixKes,  and  so  prevents  the  tendency  to  grind 
or  wear  down  the  surfaces.  Water  or  any  similar  fluid 
will  also  act  as  a  medium  to  prevent  friction,  but  the 
ertecLs  are  only  temporary,  and  would  frequently  l>e  in- 
Inrious,  as  the  substance  speedily  evaporates,  and  woulil 
corrode  metals.  Practically,  fine  pure  oil  is  found  to 
be  the  W*t  unguent  for  m.ichinery. 

One  of  the  first  considerations  on  the  part  of  con- 
trivers of  mechanism,  should  be  how  to  provide  for  and 
diaiinLsh  the  eflects  of  friction  in  their  machines.  For 
want  of  forethought  on  this  important  point,  thousands 
of  ingenious  schemes,  which  seemed  perfect  in  the  form 
of  i,io<tels  and  drawinirs  on  paper,  have  In'en  completely 
frustrated  when  attempted  to  be  brouirht  into  use. 

Whatever  may  l>e  the  retarding  ami  frequently  in- 
eonvenient  eflects  of  friction,  in  reference  to  the  action 
of  mechanism,  it  is  certain  that  friction  is  indispensable 
III  the  economy  of  !>oth  nature  and  art,  and  serves  as 
an  essential  auxiliary  to  gravitation.  It  is  a  property 
which  i«  frequently  necessary,  in  order  to  allow  one 
kind  of  matter  to  possess  a  hold  upon  another,  without 
actual  cohesion.  We  walk  and  maintain  i>ur  erect  pott- 
ture  by  means  of  gravitation  and  action  and  reaction — 
in  other  words,  we  arc  hel<l  to  the  earth  bv  gravitation, 
«nd  our  pressure  with  our  feet  rxemplifirs  action  and 
reaction ;  but  if  there  was  no  such  property  as  friction, 
we  should  cither  stick  to  th«  earth  by  attraction  of  co- 
hesion, or  slide  along  it  as  upon  the  smoothest  ice.  In 
ardor  to  keep  our  feet  from  sliding  when  on  ice.  if  wo 
received  any  impulse,  we  either  tie  rough  substances  on 
jur  shoes,  or  scatter  axhes  in  our  path  ;  and  thus  we 
-receive  the  lienefit  of  friction.  It  is  by  friction  that 
fain*  wear  down  hills,  ami  that  rivers  wear  away  their 
(«nka,  by  which  ceaseless  process  the  external  configu- 
rttion  of  the  globe  is  cons'i.iiitly  uiidcrgoinK  a  cbnmre. 
The  operation*  in  art,  of  washing,  cleaninir,  scouring, 
■>harpening.  polishing,  cutting  bniising,  iH-ating,  and  so 
•"orth.  are  all  oflected  less  or  more  by  fricium.  'ITie 
HtM  which  one  libroua  substance  has  on  another,  or 


mutual  friction,  permits  the  operations  of  wmiTif,. 
cloth,  twisting  ropes  and  threads,  and  the  tying  of  on> 
body  to  another.  Thus,  friction  ii  of  universal  service 
and  the  only  known  instance  in  nature  in  which  it  i,! 
not  required,  ond  therefore  not  present,  are  the  mo?iw 
mcnts  of  the  heavenly  bo<lie»,  which  revolve  in  «  «. 
caum,  and  are  consequently  not  impeded  in  their  lan. 
tions. 

RCsisTAirci  or  air  and  water. 

Atmospheric  air  and  water  arc  fluids  of  dilTcrent  dea. 
sities,  and  both  present  an  obstacle  to  themotitnol 
8oli<l  bmlies  through  them. 

There  is  a  rule  in  respect  to  the  resistance  presented 
in  mo<lerate  velocities,  which  applies  both  to  air  and 
water.  It  is,  that  the  resitlaiirt  i»  profnirtioiKil  to  il,f 
aijuiire  of  the  xrlority.  For  example,  a  velocity  of  twenty 
miles  an  hour  causes  a  resistance  four  times  greater 
than  a  velocity  of  ten  miles  an  hour,  for  the  square  of 
twenty  (which  is  20  times  20,  or  400)  it  four  times  tJn 
square  of  ten  (which  is  10  times  10,  or  lOO'i.  Thui 
by  increasing  the  velocity  of  bodies  through  the  air 
or  water,  we  must  increase  the  power  in  a  greater  pro. 
portion,  in  order  to  compensate  the  loss  causi'd  by  re. 
sistAnce. 

Although  the  above  rule  is  nearly  correct  for  mode. 
rate  velocities,  it  deviates  consiilernbly  from  what  ii 
observable  in  the  case  of  great  velocities,  8\ich  as  thiil 
of  a  cannon-ball.  When  the  velocity  is  upwardi  o( 
1000  feet  per  second  through  the  air,  the  quick  passin 
of  the  body  is  believed  to  cause  a  partial  vacuum  bchitnl 
it,  which  causes  a  retardation  of  its  motion. 

Resistance  to  motion  in  fluids  is  greatly  modified 
alfo,  by  the  form  of  the  moving  bmly.  'I'he  form  thii 
gives  least  resistance  is  nearly  that  of  a  parabola,  or  i 
form  somewhat  resembling  the  breast  of  a  diirk,  tin 
head  of  a  fish,  or  the  rounded  bow  of  a  ve«>(  |,  sharp. 
cned  to  cleave  the  fluid  through  which  the  body  paiaet 


HY 


[  BOOKS  ON  MECHANICS,  MACIIINRRT,  ke 

One  of  the  most  comprehensive  works  on  this  itihied 
is  Heliert's  "  Fncineer't  and  Mnhnnir's  Kniyrlopinlu^<- 
2  vols.  Hvo,  London,  with  numerous  engravin?>i.  Ha* 
well's  "  h'.nginrrr'f  and  Mfhnnir'i  i'o'Af'-'f.A-,"  is  i 
cheap  and  useful  com|M'ndium.  Mosley's  "  Illuftrniinn 
of  Mchiimri"  cilited  by  Professor  Henwick,  is  excflltnl 
on  all  the  branches  which  it  treats.  Professor  Ronwiok'i 
•'  .1i>])ltiiilion  of  Mfrhaniis  to  Praiiiral  /Vi/hm  -."  is  ntt 
of  the  most  us<-ful  books  of  its  class,  and  is  ( .nisuW  [ 
with  great  advantage  by  working  tnechaiiir«.  Th» 
><  Trralitr  on  Mcrhnnrm"  translated  from  Hoiirhirlu  | 
and  edited  by  Professor  Coiirtenay,  (Hirper?  N>w 
Vork,)  is  a  regular  scientific  view  of  the  whole  «ihjM.I 
Ewbank's  '•  Hydrnidirt  and  Mtrhanir$"  i»  intfrpslij^l 
from  its  giving  the  history  of  these  sciences,  nnj  l4epi>[ 
gressof  the  art.x  dependent  on  them,  among  the  snnenlil 
.\s  a  book  of  general  reference  Dr.  L're's  "  />i'.'imi(ifj| 
of  „1rl>,  Miinnttirtvret,  nod  Mini$,"  published  rwtndij 
by  the  Appletoiis  of  New  Vork,  is  excellent  Itclnw-I 
fiet  the  subjects  in  al])bi!ieticnl  onler;  is  very  /■itfinml 
and  eomplet4> ;  and  brings  eai-h  subject  down  to  'hi 
present  stale  of  science.  The  Ireatisi"  of  I.anliifr im) 
Kilter  is  excellent  authority,  but  not  so  refenlasOil 
lire's  Dictionary,  and  not  a  tenth  yart  so  exterisiTe.] 


OE 

MnTtn  exists 
iiitl  ga.TCDUs  or  aP 
the  variv,U8  motli 
result  of  certain 
openifing  on  the 
composed 

The  solid,  liqu 

assume  a  f.o.«ition 

heaviness  or  densil 

lowest  and  compoi 

the  solid  lies  the  lii 

rivers,  and  lakes ;  i 

Biting  of  an  expn 

the  whole  earth  roi 

to  fifty  miles  alxive 

ocean  ol  air,  loaded 

ore  from  the  liquidfl 

iiiJ  plants  grow  a 

mont 

Though  diflcring 
Ihe  liquid  and  aerifo 
oltier  in  many  of  t 
constitute  tile  class  i 
nify  bodies  which  v 
tii'lcs  are  easily  mov< 
arc  90  thick  and  vi.sc. 
fl;)V»,  as  tar,  honey,  a 
olhers  flow  with  ease 
others  are  so  1 1 --lit  an 
touch  and  invisible  I 
and  various  gases. 

It  is  common  to 
flastic  fluids  and  ela.sti 
be  compre-ssed  into  a 
iu*e[Hible  of  compn 
wjler  and  all  other  va 
n|)eriinents  prove  tha 
10  them.  It  has  U-f 
pressed  in  a  coiilined 
ol  a  very  great  preswu 
coiwideraMe  depth  in 
[Ti-ased  than  at  the  a 
cla«tic  substance ;  but 
very  great  ditficulty,  th 
gfiher  inapproprial<'. 

.Mmospheric  air  an 
irilh  little  dilliculty  h« 
rolume  than   they   or 
pressure  is  ri-inoved,  t 
Some  gases  may  bo  co 
•Munio  the  form  of  Ii 
from  the  condition  of 
ilipycaa  lie  made  to 
»l"eh  may  Iw  touclu'd 
In  treating  the  subj 
nfer  in  the  lirnt  place 
fofm.and  aflerwvdsto 
Pure  wuUt,  al   an   or. 
mj»t  suitable   einn-pli 
«ivM  the  name  of  liie 
tiuiics  the  laws  of  li.juii 
(;rerk  words  signilvnur 
■fiiht,  pressuie,  arid  o'cj 
'Ni;  and  Hydrnuhis,  fr 
''••'"  and  a  pw,  treat 
•rtilidal  means  ol  cond 
luem  by  pumps. 


HYDROSTATICS-HYDRAUT.KJS-PNEUMATICS. 


•  ki 


.  / 1 


GENKRAf.  DEFINITIONS. 

MiittB  exists  in  three  principal  forms — solid,  liquid, 
irid  gascims  or  apriform.  These  forms  respectively,  and 
(ho  varivus  modiflcniions  of  them,  are  the  immediate 
ffgaU  of  certain  principles  of  attraction  and  repulsion 
oporiiting  on  the  atoms  or  particles  of  which  matter  is 
tomposed 

The  solid,  liquid,  and  aeriform  varieties  of  matter, 
assume  a  (.o.iition  on  our  globe  corresponding  to  their 
hrarincss  or  density  in  a  given  volume.  The  solid  sinks 
lowest,  and  composes  the  chief  mass  of  the  earth ;  above 
the  solid  lies  the  liquid  variety,  in  the  form  of  the  ocean, 
livers,  and  lakes ;  and  above  all  is  the  atmosphere,  con- 
Bjting  ot  an  expanse  of  aeriform  matter,  which  wraps 
the  whole  earth  round  to  an  elevation  of  from  forty-five 
10  fifty  miles  alxjve  the  highest  mountains.  In  this  great 
ocean  ot  air,  loaded  less  or  more  with  particles  of  moist- 
ure from  the  liquids  lieneath,  we  live,  hreuthe,  and  move, 
iiiJ  plants  grow  and  receive  an  appropriate  nourish- 
moiit. 

Though  difTerino;  both  in  substance  and  appearance, 
the  liqiii<l  and  arriform  varieties  of  matter  resemble  each 
other  in  many  of  their  properties  and  tendencies,  and 
coiialitute  the  class  of  bodies  termed /mii/j.  Fluids  sig- 
nify iKxIics  which  will  flow,  or  whose  component  par- 
lii'Ics  arc  easily  moved  among  each  other.  Some  fluids 
are  so  thick  and  viscous,  or  sticky,  that  they  can  scarcely 
fl;)v»,  as  tar,  honey,  and  some  metals  in  a  state  of  fusion; 
others  flow  with  ease,  as  water  and  distilled  spirits  ;  while 
others  are  so  |i  'lit  and  volatile,  as  to  lie  impalpable  to  the 
touch  and  invisible  to  the  eye,  as  pure  atmospheric  air 
mil  >ariou8  gases. 

It  is  common  to  divide  fluids  into  two  kinds — non- 
flnslic  fluids  and  elastic  fluids;  that  is,  fluids  which  cannot 
lie  compressed  into  a  smaller  bulk,  and  those  which  lire 
!U«cc[)tible  of  compression.  'l"he  non-elastic  fluids  are 
wjter  and  all  other  varieties  of  liquid  Iwidies ;  but  recent 
fi|ieriincntj(  prove  that  the  term  is  not  strictly  appli-.mble 
to  them.  It  lias  lieen  found  that  water  may  be  com- 
pressed in  a  contined  vessel,  to  a  small  extent,  by  racans 
of  i  very  great  pressure,  and  it  is  certain  that  water  at  a 
cimiideralile  depth  in  the  ocean  is  more  dense  or  com- 
[resscd  than  at  the  surface ;  water,  consequently,  is  an 
flattie  substance ;  but  »s  it  can  lie  compressed  only  with 
vrry  great  ditficulty,  the  term  non-clastic  fluid  is  not  alto- 
gfther  inappropriate. 

.Atmospheric  air  and  all  gases  are  elastic.  They  can 
with  little  dilliculty  be  compressed  into  a  much  smaller 
lolume  than  they  ordinarily  [tositess ;  and  when  the 
pressure  is  removed,  they  return  to  their  original  bulk. 
Some  gast^s  may  bo  c^mpressetl  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
Htumii  the  form  of  liquids  and  solids ;  in  other  word^, 
from  the  condition  of  being  perfectly  invisible  to  the  eye, 
ihry  can  lie  made  to  appear  as  a  piece  of  solid  matter, 
(Inch  may  Ih<  touched  and  handled. 

In  treating  the  subject  of  fluids,  it  is  convenient  to 
I  nfiT  in  the  first  place  to  thos»>  'vhich  ure  of  ttiu  liquid 
form,  and  arti'rwwds  to  tliowi  which  are  ela-i'ic  ur  aeniuriii. 
i  Pure  water,  at  an  ordinary  tcrppciature,  furnishes  the 
nwBt  suitable  eiamp'.i  of  liquid  Inxlies.  Water  also 
Jives  the  name  of  the  drsk'tment  of  ic'.ence  which  in- 
cuiles  the  laws  of  liquids.  'J.lus  Hydrostnlxit,  from  two 
(Inek  wordi  signiiynu/  valei  arid  lo  tlmul,  treats  of  the 
wi'uht,  ptessuic,  and  oquilibilmn  of  liquids  in  a  state  of 
rent;  and  HydrnuhiH,  from  tv»'o  tireck  wortN  signifying 

ifr  Mid  a  piiie,  treats  of  li.(Ui'!»  in  motion,  and  the 
I  irtjtiual  means  oi  cuaducting  liquid*  in  pipes,  or  raking 
lucin  by  puni]». 


HYDROSTATICa  '■        I 

In  ancient  times  water  was  believed  to  be  an  element 
Qf  simple  substance  in  nature.  It  is  now  ascertained  by 
experiment  that  water  is  not  an  elementary  liody,  but  if 
a  substance  composed  chiefly  of  two  gases  in  a  state  of 
chemical  union,  and  into  these  gases  it  can  be  resolved 
by  an  artificial  process.  The  investigation  of  this  subject 
belongs  to  Chrmittry. 

As  a  liquid,  water  consists  of  exceedingly  small  par- 
ticl(-8  or  atoms  of  matter  in  mechanical  combination. 

The  exact  nature  and  form  of  the  atoms  composing 
water  arc  not  satisfactorily  known,  in  consequence  of 
their  exceeding  smallness.  They  may  be  compared  to 
very  small  particles  of  land,  cohering  slightly,  and  easily 
slipping  or  sliding  over  each  other.  Whatever  may  be 
the  nature  and  form  of  these  exquisitely  fine  atoms,  it  is 
certain  that  they  can  adhere  firmly  together  so  as  to  a» 
suinc  the  form  of  a  solid,  as  in  the  case  of  ice,  and  be 
made  to  separate  from  each  other,  and  disperse  through 
the  thinner  fluid  of  the  atmosphere,  in  the  forms  of  steam, 
cloi'.ds,  or  mist. 

Thus,  imperfect  rohrsion  of  atoms  or  particles  is  a  pro- 
perty common  to  all  fluids.  The  atoms  composing  water, 
lieing  in  closer  union  than  those  of  air,  are  observable  as 
a  mass,  and  palpable  to  the  touch.  When  the  hand  is 
dip])cd  into  them,  and  then  withdrawn,  a  certain  quantity 
of  the  atoms  is  brought  away  on  the  surface  of  the  gkiu; 
and  this  adhesion  of  the  particles  of  water  (caused  by 
attraction  of  cohesion)  is  what  we  in  ordinary  language 
call  wetness.  Certain  substances,  as  is  well  known,  al>- 
sorb  water  to  a  great  extent;  in  such  cat  s,  the  minuta 
particles  of  the  water  mereiy  penetrate  atiii  fill  up  thr 
crevices  in  the  substance. 

Solid  bodies,  as  a  stoue,  or  piece  of  metal,  or  wood, 
have  a  natural  tendency  to  press  only  in  one  direction, 
that  is,  downwards,  or  in  the  direction  of  the  earth's 
centre,  in  obedience  to  the  law  of  t'-rrestrial  attraction. 

Wat  <•  has  a  similar  natnral  tendency  to  press  dowii^ 
wards,  aul  from  the  same  cause  ;  as,  for  example,  when 
a  jug  of  water  is  sjiilled,  the  water  is  seen  to  fall  in  i 
strcttin  to  the  ground. 

Water,  however,  is  governed  by  a  law  of  pressure, 
indoiK'iidently  of  this  general  la'./  of  gravitation.  This 
peculiar  or  independent  law  consists  of  a  tendency  in 
the  particles  of  any  inaiis  of  vatcr  to  press  equally  in  all 
directions. 

Pressure  eipmlty  in  all  directions  may  Iw  considered  as 
the  first  or  great  levdiiig  law  in  referetice  to  water,  and 
generally  all  tluiJs,  liquid  and  gaseous. 

'I'he  pressure  equriiiy  .:■,  all  directions  is  a  result  of  tho 
exceeding  arnallness  of  the  individual  particles,  and  of  the 
perfect  ease  with  which  they  glide  over  or  amongst  each 
other. 

To  exemplify  ccjual  pressure,  fill  a  leathern  Lag  with 
water,  and  Uicn  sew  uj.  the  mouth  of  the  bug  so  closely 
that  none  of  the  waUr  can  escape.  No^v,  nquceze  or 
press  upon  the  hag  so  as  ulmost  to  make  it  burst.  The 
pressure  so  applied  dm'g  not  merely  act  ujion  the  water 
inmu'ilialely  uikUt  the  point  of  pressure,  but  acts  equally 
upon  every  pnrticle  of  water  in  the  mass — the  particles 
at  the  centre  U'ing  as  much  pressed  upon  its  tla.Be  at  the 
outside;  ami  it  w ill  be  observed  that  the  water  will  Euuirt 
out  with  equal  iM)|ietuosity  at  whatever  part  you  make  n 
hole  in  the  surface. 

In  this,  as  in  all  similiir  cases,  there  is  a  transmission 
of  pressure  throaghoiit  the  mass.  Each  particle  presses 
on  those  next  it ;  and  so,  by  tlic  force  communicating 
from  particle  to  particle,  tde  whols  are  equally  aflFcted. 

17B 


m^i 


m..i 


180 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPF.E. 


tn  the  r-ite  of  water  lyinij  at  rcpows  in  an  open  veasel, 
the  tendency  to  pre*,  equally  in  all  directions  ia  not  ol)- 
nerved  to  act  upwbnl,  because  tlie  gravity  of  the  mam 
keeps  the  water  down ;  but  on  pressing  upon  the  surface 
of  the  liquid,  we  observe  that  it  rises  against  the  com- 
pression, or  trios  to  escape  in  any  way  it  can.  To  lake 
another  example — if  we  plunge  our  hand  into  a  ves8«>l  of 
water,  we  displace  so  much  liquid,  and  cause  it  to  rise 
higher  up  the  sides  "f  the  vessel.  In  this  case  the  water 
is  observed  to  rise  without  any  reluctance ;  it  as  readily 
presses  upward  as  downward. 

Although  it  is  a  property  in  fluids  to  press  equally  in 
all  directions,  the  degree  of  intensity  of  pressure  in  any 
mass  of  fluid  is  cstinialcd  by  the  vertical  height  of  the 
mass,  and  its  area  at  the  base. 

Prttiure  ofumirr  in  proportinn  to  itt  vertical  height,  and 
tit  area  at  the  hnte,  is  thcreibre  a  second  leading  feature 
in  the  laws  of  water.  In  other  words,  the  pressure  of  a 
column  of  water  does  not  depend  on  the  wirlth  or  thick- 
ness of  the  column,  but  on  its  height  and  the  extent  of 
its  base  or  lower  part. 

T'.e  whole  of  any  fluid  n)ns8  may  be  imagined  to 
consist  of  a  number  of  columns  of  an  inconsiderable 
thickness,  which  stand  perjxindicularly  on  the  horizontal 
baw-  of  the  containing  vessel,  ami  press  the  base  of  the 
ve.jiel  with  their  respective  weights.  The  presiaire,  then, 
if  thr  '.1'  ight  of  the  fluid  bn  the  same  throughout,  is  as 
the  t.uraber  of  columns,  and  this  number  is  according  to 
the  area  of  the  base.  Consequently,  in  vesstls  whose 
bases  (iirfer  as  to  area,  and  which  contain  fluids  of  the 
aame  density,  but  diflerent  heights,  the  pressure  will  be  in 
the  compound  ratio  of  the  buses  and  heights. 

If  the  colu'-""  "'  .  ich  a  fluid  mass  was  supposed  to 
consist,  were  forine<l  of  particles  lying  in  perpendicular 
lines,  the  pressure  of  the  fluid  would  be  exerted  on  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel  only ;  hut  as  they  are  situated  in 
every  irregular  position,  there  must  of  consequence  be 
B  pressure  exerted  in  eveiy  (lir«'ction,  which  pressure 
must  be  equal  at  equal  di>ptbs.  For  if  any  part  of  tlie 
whole  mass  were  not  equally  pressed  on  all  sides,  it 
would  move  towards  the  direction  in  which  the  pressure 
was  least,  and  would  not  become  quiescent  till  such  ecjual 
pressure  was  obtained.  The  quiesrf  nee  of  tin'  parts  iif  fluids 
is  therefore  a  proof  that  they  art-  equally  pressed  on  all  sides. 
Several  interesting  exixrimenls  may  be  made  to  prove 
that  the  pressure  of  water  is  in  proportion  to  itn  height 
and  width  of  base. 

Figure  1  represents  a  vessel  with  a  broad  top  EE, 
tapering  to  a  narrow 
base  CD.  The  dotted 
•ndosuie  A  B  C  D  re- 
prescnt>>  an  ideal  column 
of  water  the  widtli  of  the 
base.  The  vessel  is  su(>- 
posed  to  be  filled  with 
water  to  the  surface  IJE. 
Vet  the  base  or  kiltom 
oustainr  no  more  pressure 
ttian  thiit  doscrilied  by 
tSic  ideal  column  AB('l) ;  for  the  other  parts  of  the  con- 
tained fluid  can  only  press  the  column  AUCD,  and  also 
the  sJ.iping  sides,  laterally,  «nd  Iherefore  do  not  contribute 
to  llie  increase  of  the  weight  or  pressure  on  the  bottom  ('D. 

If  we  take  a  vessel  ol 
t\ie  stinc  capacity,  but 
with  a  broad  base,  as  in 
ft.'.  2,  the  pressure  on  the 
liitUini  is  "ery  diflerent. 
In  this  case,  the  base  KF 
sutains  a  pressure  e<juiil 
lu  the  weight  of  a  column 
▼hose  base  is  EF,  snd  Ki 
ieight  equal  to  At';  for 
te  water  in  the  central 


F.K  I. 


column  AT)('D  presses  laterally  jr  sidewise,  with  tho 
same  force  as  it  docs  on  tiio  part  on  which  it  stands ;  an^ 
thus  n  uniformity  of  pressure  is  established  over  ever? 
part  of  the  bottom. 

From  these  two  cases  combined,  the  reason  is  cviileni 
why  fluids  contained  in  the  several  parts  of  vessels  rcr.iain 
everywhere  at  the  same  height ;  for  the  lowest  part  when 
they  communicate  may  l>c  regarded  as  the  common  base 
and  the  fluiils  which  rest  thereon  arc  in  equii;i)rio  tften 
only,  when  their  heights  arc  equal,  however  a,'t  quanti- 
ties  may  van;. 

We  may  prove  the  truth  of  these  |.-  ^positions  in  vh. 
ri()U.s  ways.     Let  ABCU,  fig.  3,  r.prmcnt    i  cyliiitlrical 
vessel,  to  tho  inside  of  which  is  fitted  the  cover  G,  whith 
by  means  of  lenlher  at  the  edge,  will 
easily  s!!iie  \i\i  and  down  in  the  inter- 
nal  cavity    without    |x'rniittiiig    any 
Wttte-  U,  pass  between  it  and  the  sur- 
face of  the  cylinder.     In  the  cover  is 
inserted  the  small  tulie  EF,  o|>en  at 
top,  and  communicating  with  the   in- 
side of  the  c_  Under  oelow  the  cover  at 
G.     The  cylinder  is  filled  with  water, 
and  the   cover  put  on.     Then  if  the 
cover  be  loadei^with   the  weight,  suj)- 
pose  of  a  |K)und,  it  will  be  (lepri'KS('<t, 
the  water  will  rise  in  the  tulie  to  E, 
and  the  weight  will  be  8ustiiine<l.     In 
other  words,  a  very  sinal'  quantity  ,)f 
water  in  this  narrcv  tune  will  |rress 
with  a  force  as  great  as  if  the  vessj'l 
were    of  the    dimensions  KLCD,  in- 
stead of  ABCD.     By  filling  the  tuljc 
to  F,  n  force  will  be  gained  sulTicient  to  balance  addi- 
tional  pound  weights  on   the  cover  G,  and  as  great  it. 
could   be.  conferred  by  a  vesiitl  of  equal  breadth  all  tht 
way  up  to  F. 

Water,  in  it-*  pressure  ei|'.ijlly  in  all  directions,  pre»M 
upwards  as  well  as  downwar<l».  This  is  seen  in  ,ht 
alwveexjieriments.  Take  tig.  3  as  an  example.  Thewa. 
ter  in  tho  vessel  AUCD,  when  the  tube  is  filled,  jireases, 
as  has  been  salt",  with  a  force  equal  to  that  of  u  column 
of  water  of  equal  breadth  all  the  way  up  to  F.  This  can 
only  he  in  consequence  of  the  water  in  the  vesm'l  AiiC'l) 

pressing  violently   upwards  against  tho  covf  r  (i,  tthjoli 

violence  causes  a  corresiiomling   reaction  on  the  bottiirti 

of  the  vessel.     This  reaction,  then,  is  equivalent  to  ver- 

tii-aj  height.     To  use  a  figun?  of  s|H'ecli,  tho  water  in  the 

vessel  is  in  the  condition  of  a  man  pressing  equally  ui> 

wards  with  his  shoulders  and  downwards  Willi  his  feci  ai 

the  sam<!  time ;  and  the  more  he  is  actinl  upmi  by  hcii;',i 

above,  the  more  powerfully  does  he  exert  las  pressurt  In 

both  directions. 

An  instrument  called  the  hydrostatic  bellows  has  bcfi 

constructed  to  exemplify  the  eflect  produced  by  tlie  ,.re» 

sure  of  a  small  column  of  water. 

As  re[ireaente<l  in  fig.  4,  it  consists 

of  two  circular  stout  boanls  con- 

Becleil  logellier  with  leather,  in  tlio 

form  of  a  pair  of  strong  bellows. 

\  tulie  A  communicates  with  the 

interior  betwe<'n  the  boards.    Hup- 

posing  the  instrument  to  lie  strong 

enough,  a  person  standing  on  the 

upfier  board  may  raise  himself  by 

pouring  water  into  the  tube,  and 

filling  it  alimg  with  the  liellows, 

It  is  iitnial  to  estimate  the  prrjisure 

by  means  of  weights,  W.     If  the 

tulie  hold  sn  ounce  of  water,  and 

has  an  aifa  equal  Ut  a  thouHundlh 

paH  of  ttie  an-u  of  the  lop  of  (he 

belloWH,  one  oume  of  water  in  the  tube  will  bilinn  l| 

thousand  ounces  placed  on  the  betluwa. 


lots  remailcal 

the  hydroitalir  p 

irliiofa  in  mechan 

ues.    According  I 

Jeacending  a  Ion 

equal  in  cfifcct  ia  ; 

nlly  shorter  way  ir 

applied  to  liquids, 

of  water  dcscendii 

W  a  proportionate 

volume  of  water  i 

Tho  law  of  prea 

i>  ahown  in  the  ar 

scl  with  a  uniformi 

and  fiill   of  watei 

ihedeplhintolOeq 

w  represent   feet, 

liojn  I  to  10,  it  is 

,il  the  depth  of  1, 

pfessuro  of  one  foo 

St  2,  two  feet,  and  i 

al  the  bottom,  whei 

lect  of  water.     The 

the  middle,  at  5.     ' 

fure  have  no  referi 

Ipngth  of  the  mass. 

»li.'ther  the  vessel  b 

.As  in  this  exampl 

there  is  upon  the  p 

water  iilm'e  the  inidd 

rompensated    by   a  < 

:aeii:h  the  ir-iddle ; 

olRised  over  the  side 

point  of  average  pre* 

.-uWral  vessel,  accord 

'.iUml  pressure  precisi 

ilfiidure.l  by  the  bott 

He  may  calculate 

imela  havin-j  jierpen 

N'ltoms,  by  first  fimlj, 

lip  sides  below  the  sur 

in?  that  by  the  numb.- 

liiuid;  by  which  ca!^' 

iti  number  of  solid  {c 

(ijiiaj  to  the  lateral  pre 

if  square  (i'et  in  ih,.  . 

Jlfwlin  the  circiinife. 

W  of  feet  in  the  (j,.p||| 

Ki-am/ilr. — To   timl 

ifrpendirular  sides  of 

lit  of  the  liquid,  and 

ily  the  24  by  4(1,  and 

"(■  the  Bides;  then  „i,ili 

>l  IS  12,  and  the  prod  I 

«  ilie  volume  of  liquid 

|m«ure  on  tho  sides. 

\t»n(  f(>ot.  which  is  reel 

■'-()    multiplied      |,y 

nwh  is  the  pressure  o, 

'"  '•oiitequence  of  (I, 

f  vertical  h«  iifht  and  „ 

•i"!  the  hiU-rai   pyossur, 

i.wl   s  greater  than   t 

lW'viII  Ik.  the, ■»«.«! 

[™:l»'l  with    the  liquid 

"pilliide   of   the   Ih.IIoi 

"'  l^"ml  and   prrpend 

;;i'^i''|iial  to  Ih,.  u,ii{ 

""■  nrruinstaiiie  of 

'»"  l'"le|.th,  siiu-^.,.„,„   ti 

'!>    increasing    ih,. 
W'>  aihl  eanab,  fr.„„  tli. 
iJ'ealer  Htren^ili   I 
ncreasiiig  the  si, 


iof 


I 


HYDROSTATICS. 


191. 


J  "> 


■  will  bilinn  ll 


laii  reinaiXalle  property  in  liquids,  which  is  called 
ijie  hydroitalir  paradox,  is  analogous  in  principle  to  that 
jrhioh  i"  mechanica  is  called  the  Law  of  Virtual  Vcloci- 
uei.  According  to  this  fundamental  rule,  a  small  weight 
Jescending  a  long  way,  in  any  given  length  of  time,  is 
equal  in  cflTcct  to  a  great  weight  descending  a  proportion- 
ally shorter  way  in  Uie  same  space  of  time.  The  rule,  as 
applied  to  liquids,  may  be  stated  thus : — A  small  quantity 
of  water  descending  in  a  long  column  is  equal  in  rfll-ct 

10  a  proportionately  gie«t  pressure  exerted  by  a  large 
volume  of  water  in  a  short  colunm. 

The  law  of  pressure  in  proportion  to  height  of  column 
IS  shown  in  the  annexed  representation,  fig.  5,  of  a  ves- 
5cl  with  a  uniformly  level  base, 
ind  full  of  water.  Dividing 
ihedopth  into  10  equal  sections, 
u  represent  feet,  as  marked 
horn  1  to  10,  it  is  found,  that, 
at  the  depth  of  1,  there  is  a 
pressure  of  one  foot  of  water, '"  v     r 

ii  2,  two  feet,  and  so  on  to  1 0 

11  the  bottom,  where  there  is  a  pressure  of  ten  vertical 
feet  of  water.  The  average  pressure  of  the  whole  is  at 
the  middle,  at  5.  These  degrees  of  intensity  of  pres- 
sure have  no  reference  to  the  horizontal  breadth  or 
length  of  the  mass.  The  same  pressure  is  supiainctl, 
wh-'ther  the  vessel  be  a  foot  or  a  mile  in  breadth. 

As  in  this  example,  whatever  doficicnoy  of  pressure 
there  is  upon  the  [wrpendicular  sides  of  a  vessel  of 
water  <i (""'<'  the  middle  or  point  of  average  pressure,  is 
lompensated  by  a  corresponding  excess  of  pressure 
:tnm:h  tho  iriddle ;  consequently,  the  entire  pressure 
offiised  over  the  side  is  equal  to  that  at  the  middle  or 
point  of  average  pressure.  A  perpendicular  side  of  a 
tubioal  vessel,  according  to  'his  ftatcmenf,  sustains  a 
!jleriil  pressure  precisely  equal  to  the  half  of  that  which 
iifiiiiured  by  the  bottom. 

We  mny  calculate  the  degree  of  lateral  pressure  in 
n«*l3  having  perpendicular  sides  and  flat  horizontal 
Mioms,  by  first  finding;  the  number  of  »(]uare  feet  in 
upsides  below  the  surface  of  the  liquid  ;  then  multiply- 
ing that  by  the  numb«'r  of  feet  in  half  the  depth  of  the 
lii)uid;  by  which  cabulation,  the  product  will  express 
the  number  of  solid  feet  of  the  Ii<jui<l,  whose  weiijht  is 
(ijual  to  the  lateral  i)ressure.  We  may  fmil  the  lunnl,  r 
/square  feet  in  the  sides,  by  multiplying  the  number 
)1  fwt  in  the  circumference  of  the  bottom  by  the  inim- 
lerof  iVpt  in  the  depth  of  the  liipiid. 

Example — To  find  the  decree  of  pressure  on  the 
leipendicular  sides  of  n  vat  •  1  feet  deep  from  the  sur- 
kcenf  the  hquid.  and  40  feet  in  circiunferenee. — Miilli- 
ilythc24  by  40,  and  the  jiroiluct  900  gives  the  area 
if  the  sides;  then  multiply  the  960  by  half  the  height, 
ill  i«  12,  and  the  product  is  11, 520  cubic  feet  of  water, 
u  t!ii-  volume  of  liquid  whose  weight  is  equal  to  the 
prMsurr  on  the  sides.  We  next  tir'd  the  weight  per 
Ti'ir  liK)t.  which  is  reckoned  to  l)e  1000  ounces;  then 
...jjii  multiplied  by  1000,  gives  !1.. 520,000  ounces, 
liii.h  is  the  pressure  t)f  the  water  on  the  sides. 

in  ooiiscquencc  of  the  jiressure  of  liquids  being  as 

lie  vertical  hi  iijlit  and  area  of  the  basis,  it  may  happen 

t!ut  till'  latt-ral  pressure  on  the  sides  of  a  contiiiiing 

« wl   s  jireater  than  the  whole  woi|;ht  of  the  liquid ; 

''.-will  Ik-  the  case  when   the  surface  of  the  sides  in 

'Start  with  the  lii|uiil  exceeds  the  ratio  of  (loiil'Ie  the 

Biiniliicle   of   tlie   Imltoin— at   double    the    inaiinitinle, 

itli  Uii'iiil  and   perpendii'ular  pressures  are  alike,  ami 

ll  it  equal  to  tlii^  ui'iqlil  nf  the  lli|iiiil. 

The  eirruinstance  of  pressure  iiiireasiiin  in  pi-iqior- 

lion  to  depth,  sinii;/'sts  the  valuable  practical  lesson  of 

fa'lv   iiiereasirig    tlie    breadth    of  einbaiikiiieiits    for 

liiu>  ,m\  eaiialn  friin  the  top  ilowinvanN,  so  as  to  dive 

.  Kieater  strength  to   the  base  than  llii'  siiiiiinit ; 

o!  iicreasing  the  strength  uf  tuo  lower  hi^up^i  of 


large  vats,  to  prevent  their  bursting.  It  likewise  d0< 
monstrates  the  propriety  of  making  dams,  ponds,  canals, 
and  vessels  for  liquids  generally,  as  shallow  as  is  con< 
sistent  with  convenience  or  their  required  purpose.  In 
each  case,  it  is  important  to  recollect  that  the  degree  of 
pressure  on  the  sides  is  irrespective  of  shape  or  size  of 
the  contents,  and  depends  exclusively  on  the  height 
of  the  li(|uid  from  its  upper  surface  to  its  base. 

'I'hat  pressure  in  water  is  not  according  to  volume, 
but  the  height  above  the  point  of  pressure,  is  obvious 
from  many  facts  both  in  nature  and  art.  Whether  wo 
plunge  an  object  a  foot  "deep  in  the  ocean  or  in  a  jar  of 
water,  the  pressure  upon  it  is  the  same.  The  mere  ex- 
tent of  the  volume  of  liquid  is  of  T.n  consequence. 
'J'hercfore,  a  precipitous  shore  pressed  upon  by  the  sea 
to  the  height  of  any  given  number  of  feet,  suffers  no 
more  pressure  (supposing  the  sea  to  be  at  rest)  than  the 
side  of  a  canal  of  the  same  number  of  feet  in  length. 

If  the  law  of  pressure  of  fluids  were  otherwise  than 
that  now  stated,  no  species  of  embankment,  no  strength 
of  shore,  could  withstand  the  pressure  of  the  ocean, 
particularly  in  a  high  state  i  the  tide.  In  consequence 
of  the  law  of  pressure  being  simply  as  the  vertical 
height,  we  are  enabled  by  ar.ificial  means  to  stem  the 
volume  of  a  far-spreading  ocean,  and  to  secure  the  dry 
land  from  its  invasion.  A  knowledge  of  this  important 
law  might  induce  the  attempt  to  secure  many  thousand 
acres  of  land  which  are  now  covered  by  the  tide. 

If  a  vessel,  as  for  instance  a  barrel,  be  filled  with 
water,  and  three  apertures  be  made  in  its  side  at  dit 
ferent  heights,  as  in 
fig.  (J,  the  li(iuid  will 
pour  oulwith  an  im- 
petuosity correspond- 
ing to  the  depth  ol 
the  aperture  from  the 
top.  The  jet  A  near- 
est the  top  of  the  bar- 
rel, b'lving  little  pres- 
sure above  it,  will  be 
•irojected  but  a  short 
way ;  the  jet  13,  hav-  > 
inu   a   gieater    ])res-  T-'g.  0. 

sure,  will  perhaps  go  to  double  »he  distance ;  and  the 
jet  C,  having  the  greatest  pressure  of  all,  will  go  to  a 
greater  distance  still.  Jets  of  this  kind  ol)ey  the  laws 
wliiih  govern  solid  projectiles  in  their  flight ;  they  dc- 
scrilie  a  curvilinear  motion,  the  width  of  curve  being 
proportional  to  the  impressed  force. 

Practically,  the  discharjte  of  liquids  from  apertures  is 
partly  atVected  by  the  sliajK!  and  width  of  the  aperture ; 
for  water  is  letarded  by  friction,  and  by  its  own  impetu- 
osity or  cress  etirrents  in  a  small  channel.  It  is  reck- 
oned that  the  pressure  of  water  on  atiy  body  plunged 
into  it,  or  on  the  bottom  or  sides  of  tlie  containing 
vessel,  is  about  one  pound  on  the  square  inch  for  every 
two  feet  in  the  depth. 

Pieces  of  v.-ood  sunk  to  great  depths  in  the  ocean 
become  so  saturated  with  wati'r  by  the  pressure  ( f  the 
superineiiml)ent  mass,  that  tliey  lose  their  buoyancy, 
and  reniiun  at  rest  at  the  Imttom.  The  depth  to  which 
divers  can  descend  is  limited  by  the  increased  pressure 
they  experience  in  thi'ir  descent.  If  u  bottle  be  (ir'nly 
t  corked  and  sealed,  and  sunk  to  a  great  depth  in  the 
ocean,  the  cork  will  either  Ih"  forced  in  or  the  bottle 
broken  by  the  |>re>sure.  An  air-bell  rising  from  a 
de[ilh,  expands  as  it  approiielies  the  surface,  At  the 
I  depth  of  a  thousaiiil  latlioiiis,  water  is  estimated  to  tie 
about  a  twenlieili  part  more  dense  in  the  bulk  than  al 
the  surface. 

The  ^reat  ethcts  which  may  take  place  by  the  action 
of  a  small  but  high  cnhiiiin  of  water,  are  suiiietimei 
exeiiiplilied  in  the  remling  of  mountain*.  In  llg.  7.  i 
niouiilain  or  high   rocky   knoll   is  represented,  with  a 


'.,W 


iil 


^w 


IM 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


■mall  vertical  crevice  A  rcacliing  from  the  summit  to  | 
»n  internal  iSservoir  of  water  nt-ar  the  bn»e.  If  there 
Im  no  mean*  of  outlet  to  the  hquiil,  and  if  ruin  continue 
to  keep  the  crevice  and  its  torniinating  reservoir  full, 
the  lateral  force  exerted  by  the  upright  column  will  be 
▼oxv  considerable.      Supjwsing   Uie   crevice  to  bo  an 


y,n.  7. 

inch  ill  diameter,  luid  200  fiTt  deep,  the  pressure  would 
be  equal  to  nearly  half  a  Ion  on  every  sijunre  inch; 
such  a  force  eoiitiiuially  atiing  on  the  sides  of  the 
mountain  (laying  out  of  view  the  groat  additional  force 
given  bv  expansion  of  the  liquid  in  freezine;  during 
wint  .  'I'ld  probably  in  time  overenme  the  cohesive- 
ness  (.r  '.'■.■  mass,  and  burxl  the  whole  asunder.  In  this 
property  in  water,  therefore,  we  see  one  of  the  many 
pro'  isioiiy  of  nature  for  producing  changes  on  the  snr- 
f.v<^  </  ihe  earth. 

Eiicels  of  a  similar  oharartcr,  but  im  ft  less  srale, 
, /r- ol.fi.Tvable  in  the  bursting  of  walls  Itehind  whirh 
■  ■  rtl.  has  been  piled,  and  in  whirh  no  proper  outlets 
^jr  water  have  In^en  provided ;  also  in  the  bursting 
upw;.:.'<  .  *■  drains  upon  a  declivity,  when  they  Income 
chci:i'  •, 

1'ue  easy  motion  of  the  particles  among  each  other 
causes  them  to  acx-ommodntc  themseivcs  to  the  Khap<? 
of  any  vessel.  The  force  of  gravity  also  causes  them 
to  seek  the  lowest  level  for  repose — each  particle  tries 
to  get  M  low  as  it  ran.  'i'he  result  of  this  general  ten- 
dency throughout  the  mass  is  a  (icrfect  levelnoss  of  sur- 
face— the  top  of  the  water  is  smooth, 

^  uniform  levrlnmf  of  siirfticc  takes  place  in  every 
coimected  mass  of  water,  whatever  be  its  magnitude  or 
its  shaiK-.  This  forms  the  third  leailing  feattire  in  the 
laws  of  water,  and  is  the  cause  of  many  of  the  pheno- 
mena in  nature. 

One  of  the  most  familiar  examples  of  the  ecjnal 
height  and  levelness  of  surface  of  water,  is  that  observ- 
able in  a  common  tea[K)t.  In  the  representation  of  a 
teapot,  fig.  8,  the  surfare  of  the 
liquid  in  the  pot  is  seen  to  be  at  A, 
and  also  at  the  very  same  heiuht 
at  B  in  the  sfmut.  A  straiRht  dot- 
ted hne  is  drawn  from  Ihe  one  to 
the  other,  to  show  that  both  sur- 
fiu;es  are  of  the  same  level.  It  is 
customary  to  say  that  the  Miml! 
column  of  water  in  the  spmil  ba- 
lances the  large  nir-.ss  of  Wiiier  in 
the  pot ,  hut.  in  reality,  there  is  no 
balancing  in  the  case.     The  water 

necessarily  jxissesses  the  same  surfiire  level  in  all  its 
parts;  one  portion  cannot  stand  hiijher  tlian  another; 
all  [virtions,  great  and  small,  arc  only  distributed  parts 
of  a  single  mass. 

The  tendency  which  water  has  to  stand  at  the  same 
turfice  level  in  all  jiarts  of  iu  mass,  i-,  usually  referred 
to  by  the  phrase  "  wati'r  !iiulint{  il«  Irvil." 

It  its  this  inherent  tendency  in  waUr  to  liiid  its  level 
tlist  produces  the  various  phenomena  of  the  triekliiig 
lown  of  riin  and  moisture  Into  the  ground,  the  (low  iii; 
it  all   kin<is  of  streams,  from  the  small   bruok   tu  the 


mighty  rivor,  and  the  shooting  of  rapids  and  ca'.ararii 
over  i>reripices.  In  each  case,  the  water,  in  ohcdicuri 
to  the  natural  law  or  tendency  which  governs  it.  Id  o,||, 
trying  to  And  its  level.  In  pursuit  of  this  object,  'hi 
water,  by  the  rubbing  force  which  it  exercises,  wear* 
down  all  the  solid  objects  which  present  an  obstacle  (» 
it  in  its  course.  Thus,  the  substances  of  which  hiljj 
and  plains  are  composed,  are  carried  away  by  streanii 
into  the  ocean — the  ground  of  continents  and  islamlj 
diminishes  in  bulk — new  land  rises  in  the  sea;  and  m 
by  the  cflTecls  of  a  bimpio  natural  cause,  great  ahe,.' 
ations  are  jiroduced  in  the  external  features  of  the  nhha 

There  are  two  kinds  of  levels — the  Inif  levrl  and  the 
natural  Intl.*  'I'ho  true  level  is  a  perfectly  horizontal 
plane,  as  for  instance  an  even  line,  thus  _ 

or  a  perfectly  even  surface  of  a  floor. 

The  natural  level  is  a  surface,  every  point  of  whirh 
is  at  the  same  distance  from  the  centfc  of  the  earth 
The  surface  level  of  wat*r  is  always  the  natural  Ifvii 

The  character  of  a  natural  level  is  iindersiood  hv  i 
reference  to  the  spherical  shape  of  the  earth  ami  ti^e 
pressure  of  gravitation.  The  globe  is  a  ball,  and  any 
piece  of  water  which  lies  upon  it,  lies  in  the  form  of  a 
plaster  round  the  ball.  Water,  therefore,  cannot  poj. 
sibly  have  a  true  surface  level ;  its  level  partaker,  of  tha 
sphericity  of  the  ball.  Kvcry  piece  of  water,  in  a  stale 
of  entire  or  partial  repos*-,  is  in  tiiis  manner  convex  in 
its  surface. 

The  dei^rce  of  convexity  of  the  earth  is,  as  nearly  as 
it  can  be  staled  in  fiirures,  7  inches  and  9-lOtlis  of  an 
inch,  or  nearly  8  iiirlies  in  each  mile.  Tlie  convexity 
however,  is  somewhat  less  towards  the  :iorth  and  south 
poles,  because  the  earth  is  a  spheroid,  or  a  sphere  flat, 
teiied  at  ihi'  ends. 

Fit;.  9  represents  a  segment  of  the  earth's  surface 
with  the  appearance  of  a  true  and  natural  level  mark»l 


c 

Fk  0. 

upim  it.  The  curve  ES  is  the  earth's  surfsire.  PC  ii  i 
a  perpi  ndiiiilar  line  |iointmg  to  the  centre  of  the  oartji.  I 
At  ri'^lil  angles  from  this  line,  a  line  TL  is  drsurn,! 
representing  a  true  level.  Supposing  that  the  lino  Tl  I 
is  a  mile  in  lenulh,  if  we  draw  a  line  from  J,  to  lh«J 
centre  at  ('.  it  will  cut  across  the  surface  of  lher^-tilj 
ill  a  point  a  mile  disianl  from  the  line  at  T,  which  point  I 
vill  U-  7  inches  and  'J- lOltis  depressed  lielow  tlu'])s:i| 
at  I,. 

The  convexity  of  the  earth's  surface  is  not  obicriablil 
in  snmll  quanlilics  of  water.  The  surface  nf  g  c'mj 
of  water  is  not  a  true  level,  but  xXw  dei:re<'  of  coiivviwl 
is  so  Kiiiall  that  it  cannot  be  pra<tic;dly  estiiiralpii  oil 
Mieasureil.  It  is  onl\  when  a  sheet  of  wal- r  is  stnuWl 
out  to  an  e\leiil  of  several  iiiili  s,  that  llie  coiiU'sirtl 
U'conics  c(m>.picuiius.  It  is  very  perce|itiMc  on  ilinl 
ocean  v.  hen  a  ship  is  seen  approaching  on  the  Iwrimnj 
lirst  llie  niiisis  and  sails  of  llie  ship  are  seen,  ami  l.i'tl/j 
the  hiiil.  In  order  lo  cite!'  the  tirst  Kliiii)Ke  of  >i'<sflij 
at  St  a,  llie  point  of  outlook  lor  them  is  |ilaii'il  hi\ 


•III  iiiauo-iimiiL'ii  ilic  iciin  «|'j>.if«i(  <ri</  i«  u»iil  ir»v<J« 
iruc  lun-i.  snJ  llie  lonu  '«•<"/  Irtti  .D«    «il  oi  natursi  It  ret 


sbove  the  water. 
It  tbio  to  see  o' 
Information  of  th 
lielow. 

The  convexity 

consequence  of  th 

&ce,    It  is  only  ii 

fetent  parts  of  th( 

ceived  ii  'lio  same 

In  formi,.!,'  road 

10  make  allowance 

The  first  thing  don 

by  means  of  an  im 

varieties  of  the  th 

itniul,  which  must, 

fectly  horizontal,  or 

in  iiislruiiieiit  is  ft 

by  that  it  is  regulat 

A  spirit  level  is  i 

requiring   level.ncsa 

lilts  ot  a  cylindr'r 

lube,  US  in  Fig.  lu,  ( 

ijig  a  quantity  of  sf 

ifilic  sullicient  to  fil 

cept  a  small  part,  in 

the  air  is  left.       Ti 

Kslcd,  the  small  vat. 

lir-bulililu  at  whatei 

The  lulie  being  set 

Mtoiii,  tins  case  is  |, 

or  oilier  object   to  bi 

B  seen  to  rest  in  the 

its  tliat  the  object  on 

level.    In   the   accor 

Men  at  the  middle  at 

cause  the  bubble  to  i 

other. 

.  A  true  level  being 
leyor  looks  through  t 
the  lower  end  of  whii 
In  a  perpendicular  po 
IKWo)  llie  distance  of 
Hilc  liamig  ligures  mi 
ierel  Willi  till'  eye   jy 
sre  iheii  rcckonetl  dc 
II  lliul  depth  We  have 
surveyor  makes  his  si 
were  lo  lie  made  mi  ih 
it  would   pro.      ,1    ill 
Ciirt'i's  cimve\.,y,  liki; 
teiiuiiitly,  would   read 
iras  ilestiiied   to  go. 
the  water  in  ■  canal  p 
Id  (111  so,  the   water  i 
channel  prepartxl   for 
lower  end. 

Ai  most  countries  ar 
ke,  canals  are  usuall 
10  much  of  the  length' 
on  another,  as  the  cas 
level  there  is  a  lock,  or 
to  keep  the  water  ai  tl 

:  P«««UgO  of  \M8ck      Th 

like  steps  of  u  stair,  one 
inJ  hy  tlieir  means  vcs, 
I  or  linwn  hill. 

SPEC 

The  more  dense  in  _ 
more  heavy  or  weighty 
liirlicles  to  Ih)  ojieraU.'d  i 
111  relLreiico  U.>  the  de 
i''iiUy  is  eni|  loyed  to  . 
■"•■le     'I'lius,  Uie  weigl 


HYDROSTATICei. 


183 


i-.g.  lu. 


(bore  the  crater.  By  ihii  meani  die  peraon  who  looka 
|i  ible  to  Bee  ovei  a  part  of  the  ronvexity,  and  give 
information  of  the  approach  of  veiselg  to  those  placed 

lielow. 

The  convexity  of  the  land  is  not  an  conapicuous,  in 
eanfequpnce  of  the  many  riaingH  and  fallinga  in  the  Hur- 
(gce.  It  is  only  in  some  extensive  alluvial  plains  in  dif- 
liircnt  parts  of  the  world  that  the  convexity  can  be  per- 
(eive<l  ii   '^o  same  manner  as  at  nca. 

Ill  fottnij.i;  roads,  railways,  and  canals,  it  is  nec^ssnry 
II)  make  allowance  fur  the  convexity  of  the  earth's  surt'acc. 
fhe  lirst  thing  done  in  such  cases  is  to  survey  the  land 
by  means  of  an  instrument  called  a  ihemlohle.  One  of  the 
varieties  ol  the  theodolite  is  a  small  telescope  iixed  on  u 
itaiid,  which  must,  when  looked  through,  be  placed  per- 
lectly  horizontal,  or  in  a  true  level.  To  find  a  true  level, 
jii  instrument  is  fixed  below  it,  called  a  spirit  levtl,  and 
by  tkut  it  is  regulated. 

A  iiptrit  level  is  in  universal  requcsl  in  works  of  art 
requiring  levelness  of  foundation  or  surface.  It  con- 
(iits  of  a  cylindrv-^l  glass 
tube,  H8  in  Fig.  10,  rontain- 
uif;  a  iiuantity  of  spirits  of 
(fine  suH'icieiit  to  fill  it,  ox- 
ceut  a  small  part,  in  which 
tte  air  is  Iclt.  The  tube  being  completely  closed  or 
Ktlcil,  the  small  vacancy  where  the  air  is  left  shows  an 
ur-buliblo  at  whatever  part  of  the  tube  is  upperuiuitf. 
Tbe  tul>c  being  set  in  a  small  wooilet:  case  with  a  level 
Ijottorii,  rtiis  case  is  laid  upon  the  block  of  stone,  wood, 
orotln'r  object  to  be  levelleil,  and  when  the  air-bubble 
19  seen  to  rest  in  the  middle  of  the  up|icr  side,  it  signi- 
ng tliat  the  object  on  which  the  instrument  lies  is  a  true 
level.  In  the  accompanying  figure,  the  air-bubble  is 
Men  ul  the  middle  at  /; ;  the  slightest  unevenness  would 
duse  the  bubble  to  proceed  to  a  at  one  end,  or  c  at  ttic 
odier. 

.  A  true  level  being  found  for  the  theodolite,  the  sur- 
veyor looks  through  the  gloss  or  telescope  towards  a  [wie, 
the  lower  end  of  which  rests  on  the  ground,  and  is  held 
ill  a  |ierpoiidicular  position  by  a  man  at  (wo  shall  sup- 
pose) llic  distance  of  a  niile,  previously  measured.  The 
lulc  having  figures  marked  U|ion  it,  a  certain  figure  on  a 
level  with  the  eye  is  ascertiiined ;  7  inches  and  9-lUtlis 
jre  ilit'n  reckoned  down  the  jmie  from  the  figure,  uiul 
jl  tlut  tleplh  we  have  the  natural  level  from  which  the 
turu'vor  makes  his  subsequent  eaUuilatioiis.  If  a  road 
were  to  Im  maili'  on  the  plan  of  preserving  a  true  level, 
it  u'liuiJ  pro<  I  in  its  course  at  a  tuiiijent  from  the 
carl'i's  coiivn  y,  like  llie  line  'i  I.  in  Tig.  'J,  and,  con- 
irquciUly,  would  reach  a  point  above  that  to  which  it 
ffas  ilesliiied  to  go.  It  would  be  inipossilile  to  make 
llic  water  In  a  canal  pursue  a  true  level ;  in  the  attempt 
Ul  (Jo  so,  the  water  would  not  remain  at  reist  in  the 
chauiiel  prepared  for  it,  but  would  rush  tov  ards  the 
luver  end. 

Ai  most  countries  arc  less  or  more  irregular  in  sur- 
Ike,  canals  are  usually  constructed  with  diirereiil  levels, 
u  much  of  the  length  being  on  one  level,  and  so  much 
X  another,  as  the  case  may  \w.  At  every  change  of 
level  there  is  a  lock,  or  portion  enilos«Hl  with  gateways, 
l»  keep  the  water  at  the  proiwr  level,  and  to  allow  the 
punage  of  \'e8selij>  The  locks  of  a  canal,  tberefi>ro,  are 
like  steps  of  a  stair,  one  at  a  greater  height  than  another, 
mi  by  tlieir  means  vessels  may  be  made  to  proceed  up 
or  (Iowa  hilL 

SPECII'lC    OHATITY. 

The  more  dense  in  substance  that  a  body  is,  it  is  the 
more  heavy  or  weighty,  lieeause  it  contains  the  mure 
particles  to  lie  operat<!d  u|Hin  by  attraction  of  gravitation. 
Ill  rell'rencc  'm  the  density  of  bodies,  the  term  sptnjic 
eruiuy  ii  eni|  lnyed  to  denote  the  comparison  which  is 
7uiJe     'i'hus,  llie  weight  of  a  lump  oi  lead  is  greater 


than  an  ctjual  bulk  of  cork ;  theru..  lo  its  specific  grnvitf 
is  greater ;  and  so  on  with  all  other  substances,  when 
compared  together.  For  the  sake  of  convenience,  pure 
distilled  water,  at  a  totniierature  of  02  degrees,  has  l)eer 
established  as  a  standard  by  which  to  compare  the  specifir. 
gravity  or  relative  weight  of  solid  and  liijuid  bodies. 
Every  such  body  is  said  to  be  of  either  a  greater  or  lea* 
specific  gravity  than  water,  bulk  for  bulk. 

We  have  an  example  of  a  ditfereiico  in  the  specific 
RTavities  of  liquids,  in  mercury,  water,  oil,  and  spirits. 
Mercury  is  considerably  more  dense  or  iicavy  than  any 
of  the  others ;  the  next  in  density  is  water,  then  oil,  nnd 
lastly  spirit'*.  If  we  put  a  qu.-intity  of  each  of  these  liquids 
into  a  glass  vessel,  one  after  the  other,  in  the  order  here 
nientioiieil,  we  shall  observe  that  all  keep  their  respective 
place-*  witboul  intermixture,  the  heaviest  at  the  bottom 
and  the  lii^htest  at  the  top.  Should  they  even  be  jum- 
bled together  in  the  vessel,  it  will  be  noticed  Itiat  they  in 
time  rectify  the  disturbance,  each  assuming  its  own 
position. 

.Sea  or  salt  water,  in  consequenre  of  being  loaded  with 
foreign  matter,  is  of  greater  density  or  specific  gravity 
than  ]iure  fresli  water  of  the  same  temperature.  If  we 
therefore  pour  a  (jiianlity  of  salt  water  into  a  glass  vessel, 
and  then  gently  place  some  fresh  water  above  it,  we  shall 
observe  the  same  phenomenon,  of  each  kind  of  lii|uid  re- 
tai-iing  its  position,  the  heaviest  to  the  bottom,  and  tlie 
lightest  to  the  lop.  After  lieing  jumbled  togeti;cr,  tho 
two  liquids  will,  as  far  as  possible,  return  to  tlieir  former 
relative  position. 

If  we  fill  a  bottle  with  water,  and  dip  it  with  the 
o|)en  mouth  downwards  into  a  jai  or  barrel  of  spirits, 
the  water,  in  virtue  of  its  density,  will  lie  emptied  and 
sink  into  the  spirits,  and  the  spirits  will  immediately 
rush  up  into  the  empty  bottle,  o;id  supply  the  place  of  the 
water. 

The  force  which  liquids  exert  in  opposing  each  othct 
in  a  state  of  equilibrium,  corres|)onds   to  their 
specific  gravities  ;  in  other  words,  a  small  quan-  PI         ]" 
lity   of   a    heavy    liquid   will    luilance  a  much 
greater  quantity   of  a  lighter  liquid.     For  ex-  D^ 

ample,  take  a  bent  glass  tube,  as  in  Fi;^;.  1 1,  and  ]  ^ 
pour  as  much  water  into  it  as  will  extend  from 
the  bottom  at  E  to  A.  Tliis  ipiantity  of  water 
will  lie  balanced  or  kept  to  its  summit  level  at 
.\  by  a  qir.iiitity  oi'  ir.ercury  measiirin;:  I'rom  E 
to  U,  or  by  a  {|iiaiitily  ol  oil  from  E  to  C,  or  by 
a  quantity  of  .spirits  Irum  E  io  D.  Each  of  these 
experiiiicMts  may  l>e  perliirmed  one  after  the 
(itlh'r.  The  pre.'isiire  of  liipiids  being  as  the  ver- 
ticil height,  and  imt  as  breadth,  it  would  make 
no  dillt'."eiH'e  in  the  result  of  the  experiments,  if 
the  limb  of  the  tube  for  the  mercury,  oil,  or 
s|)irils,  were  increased  to  a  loot,  a  mile,  or  any 
other  diameter. 

Hater,  at  its  ordinary  tenijieraturc  of  62  degrees, 
has  u  sjiecific  gravity  of  1000  ounces  to  the  cubic  foot. 
I'latinum  is  "2^  times  heavier,  or  'i'i^  times  tiie  s()ecific 
gravity  of  water;  gold  is  19J,  mercury  13^,  copper  8j, 
iron  8,  coi:iinon  stone  about  2^,  and  brick  2.  Alochol 
is  a  little  more  than  8- 1  Oths  of  the  heaviness  or  specifto 
gravity  of  water,  or  0.815;  and  oil  of  almonds  is  a 
little  more  than  U-lOtlw,  or  0-ill3.  Atmospheric  nil 
at  the  earth's  surface  i.s  l-800lh  part,  orO-OOl^.');  in 
other  word.s,  while  u  cubic  tiut  of  water  weighs  lOOU 
oimees,  a  cubic  foot  of  air  weighs  one  ounce  aiul  a 
quarter. 

Sea-water  genetally  ixissessos  a  specitic  gravity  ol 
l-O;)."} — thui  IS.  to  1000  parts  of  fresli  water  tliere  are  m 
addilioii  lii'i  parts  of  saline  substances.*  Sea-wuter  lieiiii!. 
therefore,  3o   pads  for  every  lOOOofwulor  more  dein* 


K 
FiK.  U. 


^y 


•i'liii  isgivi'iioiil)  IK  u general  rale    The  les  ,a iic  uni'.urnW' 
•all. 


■.J7^»  -»-|P  I  V^  ■     HW." 


184 


l^rOKMATI0N  FOR  THE  PKOPLE. 


ttwn  firah  Whlor,  it  pondciwo*  ■  (iro[iortlon«lly  urciifcr 
power  of  buoyinu  a\i  Uodits.  A  \e»ul  wliicli  will  cnrry 
1000  ton«  OH  freiih  water,  will  thui  carry  103S  tona  o  . 
ihe  wa. 

FLUID  SUPPORT. 

The  iramersion  of  Bolid  IkkHph  in  lii|uid»  dcvclopi)  »oran 
iniportiint  punoiiili-o  in  hydroKlHlii-*. 

Any  Ixjdy  of  nrfalor  six-cific  ;t  ivity  timn  wntrr.  bulk 
for  hulk,  will  sink  on  iK'inR  tliniwn  into  wnior ;  but  a 
body  will  float  if  its  8))ccific  gravity  lie  lew  than  llut  of 
wiit«r. 

Tlip  mode  of  utatinff  tho  law  in  reference  to  the  iinnior- 
■ion  Hiid  lloatin^  of  milid  bodicH  in  any  kind  of  tluids,  m 
u  follows: — 

First, — Any  solid  br ily  immersed  in  a  fluid  diKplaces 
exactly  ita  own  bulk  of  fluid,  iiml  the  force  with  which 
the  body  ia  buoye<l  up  is  equal  to  the  wciuht  of  the  lluid 
which  is  displaced  ;  therelbre,  Ihe  body  will  sink  or  swim, 
accordiuu;  as  its  own  weight  i»  (rreatrr  or  lesn  than  Ihe 
bulk  of  displaced  fluid.  'I'hia  refers  to  bodies  of  less  den- 
sity than  water. 

Sfmiiil. — Any  wlid  Ixnly  of  a  Rrealer  density  than 
water,  when  wholly  in)mrrsed  in  that  fluid,  Iom-s  ex- 
actly as  much  of  il»  weight  as  the  weitiht  of  an  eijual 
bulk  of  the  water — lliat  is,  of  the  water  which  it  dif- 
places. 

It  is  of  ^reat  importance  that  theso  propositions 
should  he  lully  compieheiidcd,  for  they  explain  imiu- 
nierablc  p.^enomeua  in  nature,  in  reference  to  the  tloal- 
ia^  or  sw  mining  of  bothis  in  water  or  in  the  atmo- 
sphere. 

Water,  as  has  been  explained,  consists  of  inminienihle 
small  pattidi'S,  pres.iin.;  in  all  dirirtions,  or  upwards  as 
well  as  downwards.  Let  us  fix  nur  attenlinn  <in  a  sup- 
IMwed  sinifk!  particle  in  Ihe  in;i-s  while  the  lupiid  is  In 
a  condition  of  repose,  W"  in;iy  imaiiine  Ihe  particle  to  Im" 
Rustaineil  lH'twer!n  coiitendin?  forces — :he  force  of  a 
colunm  of  [mrticles  above,  and  the  equally  strong  force  of 
liartjclcs  liencatli,  pushing;  to  get  upward  or  awiiy  from 
mis  column. 

Let  us  now  substitute  any  solid  object  for  the  sup- 
posed particle ;  tor  example,  the  quadrangular  object 
A  B  representeil  in  a  vessel  of  water, 
Fig.  I'i.  This  object,  KupiKised  to  l>e 
of  the  RiUiH'  density  as  water,  which 
we  se<-  is  sunk  in  a  buovant  condition 
in  the  water,  has  displaciil  a  inass  nl 
[■articles,  all  of  which  were  ofieiali  d 
U|>oii  in  the  manner  of  the  suppOM d 
single  part  iile.  This  object,  ihen,  by 
fciking  the  place  of  the  mass  of  particK»«,  ha-s  become 
subj«'el  III  the  samp  contendiiii;  fire«-s.  ami  is  conse- 
qtienlly  floated  or  suhtained  to  the  same  extent  as  they 
were. 

If  we  suppose  that  the  weight  of  Ihe  object  i«  two 
pounds,  liquid  to  the  aiimnnl  of  two  itounils  |i  displaceil, 
ai.d  tl. '  object  is  pressi'd  upwards  with  Ihe  force  of  two 
pouikls.  I)r,  to  vary  the  evaiiiple.  suppose  that  only  the 
|.)wer  half  beneath  the  line  t!  is  ihe  solid  objivl,  imd 
that  the  s|>iice  iHTopieil  by  the  U[»|><'r  half  i"!  wiite,-,  Ihe 
object  is  still  prcss.(!  upwards  with  a  forte  of  two  pounds  ; 
!/Ut  Is'iiig  Olio  fH)u;id  weight  in  ilm'lf  and  haxinir  a 
pound  of  water  above  it,  it  remains  Bus|a'niled  in  e<pii- 
litirium. 

These  examples  refer  to  IkkIics  which  are  of  tlw  same 
density  or  weight  aa  water,  bulk  fi>r  bulk  ;  wr  shiill  now 
take  411  exa'nplc  of  a  body  spi>eifically  lighter  IIihii  \  tier, 
by  winch  il  will  tie  observed  that  the  buoyancy  is  governed 
by  the  same  principle. 

Fig.  1  ;t  reprewnu  •  solid  object  A  B  half  imim  rued  in 
a  vcaael  of  watei.     lu  this,  ui  in  all  casts  in  which  there 


k 


— r«'- 

I 


I 


is  a  portion  of  the  object  above  the 

water,  tho  weight   of  that  portion  is 

homo  by,  and  tiierefore  conveyed  to, 

the  portion  which  is  immersed.    Thus, 

in  the  example  lielbro  us,  tho  (lortion 

U,  though  less  than  a  pound  weight  in 

itself  by   supporting  A   liecomes,  wo 

shall  say,  a  [lound,  and  displaces  a  (lound 

of  viaU't ;  it  is  thcreforo  buoyed  up  with  the  correspond 

ing  force  of  a  pound. 

Whether  a  body  lie  large  or  small  in  bulk,  in  prupoi. 
lion  lo  its  weight,  its  displaceu'.'nt  of  water  depends  e». 
elusively  on  its  weight,  so  long  as  it  is  not  heavier  than 
water.  A  vessel  of  cork,  wooti,  or  any  suhstanco  lightci 
than  water,  w-'ighing  a  thousand  tuns,  displaces  exactly 
tho  same  weight  of  wat.r,  or  is  buoyed  up  with  the  sunt 
degree  of  (bree. 

From  thcst;  circumstances,  it  ap^irars  that  the  entire 
weii;ht  of  any  fliuilmn  bcnly  may  Ih>  calculut4-d  by  nn)». 
suring  the  quantity  of  water  which  it  displaces. 

On  iminersing  a  stone  or  any  other  solid  object  in  wgtor 
it  is  found  to  1h>  buoyed  up  in  proimrtion  as  ils  diiecilic 

avity  is  less  than  tlial  of  water.  If  its  siH'citic 
griivity  lie  greater  than  wat«'r,  it  will  sink  lo  the  iHittoin, 
and  if  less  it  will  swim.  A*  the  water  of  the  ocean  lip. 
comes  of  greater  s|H'cille  gravity  the  greater  Ihe  depth,  it 
may  happen  that  an  object  which  sinks  at  Ihe  lop  of  ijic 
water,  will  remain  suspended  in  equilibrium  when  it  de- 
scenils  to  a  point  at  which  the  specific  gravity  of  tho  water 
is  equal  to  its  own. 

What«!v<'r  bi>  the  weight  of  any  solid  object  when 
weighed  in  air,  its  apparent  weight  is  lessen  'd  whrii 
weighed  in  water.  'J'lius  a  stone  may  lie  e.oved  wiih 
comparative  ease  in  water,  which  cannot  lie  lilb'd  witlioui 
considerable  difficulty  on  land.  The  apparent  diinniulion 
of  weiglit  ill  these  cases  is  caused  by  Ihe  supp  >rt  allbnled 
liy  the  liipiid.  Atlriiclion  of  gravitation,  which  is  tlm 
lause  of  what  we  call  weight,  is  counteracted  more  in. 
water  than  in  air,  because  the  water  has  a  teiideiiry  to 
buoy  up  the  object.  'J'lie  weight  of  any  object  in  waipr 
is  thereby  leMs«'iied  to  the  extent  of  the  weiirht  of  a  bulk 
of  liquid  equal  lo  the  sir*  of  the  object.  If  the  object 
dii-plice  a  |»ound  of  water,  it  will  weigh  a  pound  lighter 
in  water  than  in  air. 

The  circiiniKtaiice  of  any  solid  object  displacing  ils  own 
bulk  of  liipiid,  and  losing  exactly  as  much  of  ils  weigh 
as  the  weight  of  tliat  bulk  of  liipiid  which  it  dis|.|iicf8, 
has  led  lo  the  use  of  tlie  hydrostatic  or  water  balance, 
for  a-Mertainmg  the  iii- 
Irinsic  value  of  gold 
and  oilier  preciouh 
metals.  For  etaili\iU', 
by  knowing  in  the 
first  place  how  much 
water  a  |hmimI  of  pure 
gold  displaces,  and  then 
weighing  in  wuler,  as 
in  Fig.  II,  an  object 
said  to  lie  n  |)ouiid  of 
gold,  we  should  (d>- 
Horve  whel'icr  il  displ  iced  Ihe  pioper  ipinntily  of  wulcr, 
if  il  displaecd  more  than  was  proper,  then  we  shoiiM  !« 
certain  thill  il  conlaiiieil  alloy  or  some  inferior  siibslunof, 
Is'iiig  too  bulky  for  a  {Hiiiiid  of  goKI.  Huch  weights  ire 
usi'il  by  goldso  ilhs. 

Thus,  if  a  piece  of  gold  weigh  19J  ounces  in  air,  it 
v\ould  Weigh  only  Im',  ounces  in  water;  the  ouhif  of 
wi  if^bt  lliiiK  couiileraileil  iH'ing  just  the  weight  of  llir 
water  ilnit  Ihe  g.ilil  displaces.  Therefore  Ihe  weight  ul 
the  goid  Would  be  to  that  of  ile  water  as  lU^  ounces  lo  I 
ounce;  lli.il  is,  the  s|H'cilic  gravu^- of  gold  is  19},ifwllfl 
is  taken  fur  the  standard. 

We  mav  cause  an  object,  such  as     \is\iX  bullow  btil 


KiK-  14. 


HY^iiOSTATICS. 


18ft 


^,  ti|<ii()i  r,  to  dlHplace  much  more  water  than  what  ii 
rqgal  t»  >M  "wi  weight ;  but  in  doinK  ho,  wo  iiiuHt  prru 
Ihe  hall  into  the  wiitcr,  rinil  that  di^Krno  of  prvKHiiru 
gomprnaatod  the  deflciency  of  wc'ght  in  the  lutll.  Thus, 
fxtrancouH  prcsfiura  on  a  tlonting  bmly,  and  woigitt  in 
(lie  iKxIy  itnelf,  arc  the  lame  thing  aa  rpHpcctii  huoyuncy, 
Tt  '  human  body  in  a  atiite  of  heidth,  with  the  luni^i 
full  of  air,  is  apccifiailly  lighter  than  water,  and  more  ho 
in  the  nca  than  in  fresh  water.  Pemonn,  therefore,  on 
going  or  fulling  into  wator,  cannot  poasihiy  sink,  unli-  .s 
Ihey  struggle  so  ua  to  prevent  the  liquid  from  huo;  ing 
tlicni  up.  'I'he  hotly  will  float  with  a  bulk  of  a'"'  al  half 
tlie  h«ud  above  the  lurface ;  and  thua  a  prrHuu  who  can- 
not awiin  may  live  and  breathe,  until  chilled  or  othrrwiHo 
paralyu'd,  by  simply  strotchit.g  himself  on  his  '  .  .  and 
lying  'vith  his  face  above  the  water.  By  tliro,< ;.'  -  the 
trtus  ->ut  of  the  water,  the  body  does  not  dispi  ho 
much  liquid ;  its  weight  is  incrciwd,  and  it  niiturully 
links.  Ignorance  of  these  facts  in  iiydrostaiic^,  and  want 
of  revolution,  cause  many  deaths  by  drowning. 

There  lire  various  kinds  of  apparatus  for  preventing 
drowniuK,  called  life-preservers.  The  iiiost  common 
tie  lliosn  which  consist  of  pieces  of  cork  or  other  very 
li(!ht  material  attached  to  the  upper  part  of  the  body. 
But  air-tight  bags  are  preferable,  us  they  may  Iwi  said 
icarcely  to  eneuniln'r  the  iKxIy  when  cm|ity,  and,  as 
danger  ap|)roaches,  they  can  he  intlated  with  cas(!  by 
tk'ing  blown  into.  Life-boat*  have  large  quantities  of 
cork  ill  tlieit  structure,  and  also  air-tinht  vesstiis  made 
)f  thill  inetullic  plates;  so  that,  i-ven  when  the  boat  is 
Clli'd  with  water,  a  considem'-le  p..ilion  of  it  still  floats 
jboTC  tlie  general  surface.  'he  bodies  of  some  animals, 
IS  aea-t'owl,  and  many  ot,  species  of  bird.i,  arc  coii- 
(iiii^rably  lighter  than  woter.  'I'lu'  fiathers  with  which 
tliey  are  covered  add  very  mucii  to  their  buoyancy. 
Ijiliiilrupecls  swim  much  easiier  than  mei  ,  lieciviis«\  the 
natural  iimlion  cf  their  lc.',-<  in  walking  or  running  is 
tliat  \vhii'l>  best  tits  theiu  for  swimming.  Fishes  arc 
enaMi'il  to  change  theit  specific  gravity  by  means  of  an 
air-bag  witli  which  they  are  provided.  When  the  air- 
!,dg  is  distended,  they  ris«)  to  (he  surface  ;  and  when  it 
is  contracted,  they  descend  to  the  bottom. 

Tlic  liuoyant  property  of  li(|uiils  is  inilepcndent  of 
ilioir  (leptli  or  expanse,  for  if  there  tie  only  enough  of 
wuter  to  surround  an  object  plunged  into  it,  the  object 
tvill  llout  us  etli^ctuully  as  if  it  liiul  been  immersed  in  a 
lirgt!  mass  of  water.  'I'hus  a  few  pounds  of  water  may 
llout  an  object  vhich  is  a  ton  in  weight.  Wo  account 
fir  llu'se  phenomena  by  the  law  of  pressure  in  liquids 
king  as  vertical  height  not  as  width  of  column,  and 
ly  a  bcsly  being  buoyed  up  with  a  force  exactly  in  pro- 
jKirtion  to  the  weight  of  water  which  it  dl.placcs. 

These  iinporlant  truths  in  hyilrostatics  teach  the 
|irartical  lesson,  that  if  canals  >e  made  only  as  deep  or 
ffiili!  an  will  alFcird  water  to  surround  the  vessels  placed 
upon  them,  they  will  lie  sutriciently  largo  for  all  pur- 
poaea  of  buoyancy  and  navigation.  A  ship  'i'.ata  no 
bettor  on  the  tace  of  a  sheet  of  water  miles  in  width, 
than  it  would  do  on  a  mill-pond,  provided  there  lie 
aioutsh  of  water  in  the  pond  to  keep  it  olF  the  bottom. 
Every  solid  body  possess«'s  a  ifii/rc  11/  j|i(ii'i(y,  wiiich 
I'l  tlic  pciiit  upon  or  about  which  the  body  balances 
ilwlf,  and  remains  in  a  stjUe  of  rest,  or  equilibrium,  in 
iny  position,  t 

The  equilibrium  of  floating  Inxlies  is  regulated  in  thf 
wine  manner.  The  floating  boily  has  a  centre  of  gra- 
vity, about  which  tho  whole  innsa  will  balance  it.s»'lf  in 
llio  liijuid,  the  heaviest  side  will  sink  lowest,  and  the 
more  light  will  b.  up|K<riiiost. 

In  relcri  nee  to  floating  btnllea,  there  is  n  point  called 
the  ctn're  of  hwii/nnry  ,-  this  is  the  centre  of  gravity  of 
the  liquid  which  is  displaced.  If  the  floating  body  be 
d  the  siiine  sjiecilic  gravity  aa  water,  then  the  cetitre 
li  buoyancy  wiU  be  at  the  same  point  in  the  floating 


body  at  it  would  vn  been  in  the  water ;  bat  there  it 
seldom  thii  unifoi  .ty,  at  least  not  in  vessels  used  foi 
purposes  of  navig.  ion.  It  is  necessary  that  all  lucti 
vessels  iliould  be  of  a  lesa  spcciflc  gravity  than  water,  in 
order  that  a  part  ol  their  weight  may  be  composed  of 
cargo,  stores,  ^msscngera,  &.C.,  and  that  thuy  may  b* 
sufficiently  I    oyan'.. 

Heavy  mu'irhils,  called  ballast,  are  usually  pieced  in 
tho  bottom  of  tho  holds  of  vessels  to  insure  a  low  cen- 
tre of  gravity.  A  ship  of  the  largest  capocity  and 
burden,  with  its  centre  of  gravity  properly  regulated, 
rests  in  the  water  with  a  stateliness  and  stability  which 
cannot  be  destroyed  except  by  some  extraordinary 
violence. 

HYDKUMKTKitS. 

If  a  substa.nce  be  weighed  in  two  f'uids,  tho  weight! 
which  it  low^s  in  each  are  as  the  specific  gravities  of 
those  fluids.  Thus,  a  cubic  inch  of  lead  loses  363 
grains  when  weighed  in  water,  and  only  3UU  grain* 
wlicn  weighcu'  in  rectified  spirit ;  therefore,  a  cubic 
inch  of  rectified  spirit  weighs  20!)  grains,  an  equal  buli 
of  wat«:r  weiiThing  25U ;  and  so  the  specific  gravity 
of  water  i^  "boot  n  <"  .,fth  greater  tlian  that  of  the  spirit 

The  instiu.rcni  died  a  liyilrajintrr  is  constructed 
upon  this  principle.  Its  name  is  derived  from  two 
(ireek  words,  signifying  measure  aj  wnler ;  but  it  is  of 
course  use  1  for  ascertaining  the  density  of  all  kinds  of 
H(pi'i's.  '  '•re  are  various  kinds  of  hydrometers.  One 
of  liicm  cunsistH  of  a  glass  or  cop])er  ball  with  a  stem, 
on  which  is  m  rked  a  scale  of  equal  parts  or  degrees. 
When  immersi  '  in  any  fluid,  the  stem  sinks  to  a  cei^in 
depth,  which  is  indicated  by  the  graduated  scale.  The 
length  to  which  it  sinks  in  the  stamlard  of  comparison 
lieiiig  known,  we  can  thus  ensily  ascertidn  bow  much 
it  is  specifically  heavier  or  lighter  than  the  fluid. 

Much  in  the  same  manner  is  constructed  another  hy- 
drometer of  great  delicacy  and  exactness.  It  conuata 
of  a  ball  of  glass  about  three  inches 
diameter,  with  another  joined  to  it, 
and  opening  into  it,  of  one  inch  dia- 
meter, /<  r,  fiir.  ,.,/,  r.iid  a  brass  neck  il, 
into  whicli  is  sc  ev  ed  a  wire  a  e,  di- 
vided into  inchei;  and  tciitha  of  an 
inch,  abou'  ten  inches  long  and  one- 
fortieth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The 
whole  weight  of  the  instrument  is 
4000  grains  whc  loi  ded  with  small 
weights,  such  as  i<'  in  the  lower  ball 
c.  When  plumrii  nto  water  in  tho 
jar,  this  instrument  i .  /  ikI  to  sink  ah 
iiicit  if  a  single  p  in  be  laid  upon  tlie 
top  (I .  hence  a  tenth  of  a  grain  sinks 
it  a  tenth  of  an  inch.  So  great  is  the 
delicacy  of  this  hydrometer,  that  the 
diireieiicc  'ii  specific  gravity  of  one 
part  in  40,000  laii  be  detected.  Its  total  weight  of 
4000  grains  is  con  en'ent  for  comparing  water ;  but  thf 
quantity  of  shot  iii  the  lower  ball  can  be  varied  so  aa 
to  adapt  tho  instrupicnt  to  measure  the  t=|>ecific  gr^ 
vities  of  fluids  lighu".  or  heavier  than  the  standard  of 
comparison. 

There  is  another  very  simple  hydrometer,  which  con- 
sists of  a  number  of  glass  bead.->  of  diircicnt  weights, 
but  whose  proportions  are  known,  and  the  beads  marked 
accordingly.  These  it!  dn^pped  iii',o  the  fluid  under 
examination,  until  one  is  found  which  neither  sinks  10 
the  liottom  nor  swims  upon  the  svirfiue,  but  remains  at 
rest  wherever  it  is  placed  in  the  liquid  ;  and  this  bead 
Ix'ing  miinbercd,  imliiates  the  specific  gravity. 

In   making  calculations  of  the  strength  and  specifie 
gravity  of  spirits,  by  the   above  or  any  other   iiicaiis,  at- 
tention must  f  ;  pi-id  to  the  de^jrce  of  temperature  of  the 
liquid.     i\'\.  '  v.". iJi  the  liquor,  !Uid  renders  it  specifl- 
a  3 


Fig.  15. 


.'  '^-h 


m 


IMFOIIMATION  FOR   .HK  PEOPLK 


Mlly  IvRhler  i  til  ipiritu  are  ihrrrfore  more  bulky,  In 
proportion  to  tlioir  wciulit.  in  mitiimi'r  ilmii  in  winl«r, 
tad  rIbq  ajijiarenlly  itiongor,  not  really  ao. 


HYORAIII.ICS. 

Httvlnn  (Ictuileil  the  law«  and  propertied  of  wntrr  in  a 
■tate  of  rest  or  equilihriunj,  we  linvo  now  to  nirnlion 
ioine  of  the  more  im|«>rtuiit  roMiilt«  of  tlii-«e  lawn,  ami 
alao  tlio  effcctii  wiiirh  are  prmlureil  upon  i    uj  'If 

applic  I.'"   of  force*)  whether  natural  or  i  rt   ic>  il. 

WA-rn    A    MBCII..NI     ..!     AOEN ''. 

Water,  n»  already  expliii  .,.il  in  the  I.hwh  of  Motter 
tnd  Motion,  iimy  1h'  nmcle  u  UKeful  unoiit  of  [>owi'r, 
merely  hy  nllowioK  it  to  act  with  the  force  of  iln  own 
gravity,  nit  in  turning;  .1  mill;  and  in  this  miiiiniT  it  in 
extennivcly  employed  in  nil  eivilized  eouiitrie*  romM-sM- 
Ing  brook*  whieh  arc  untViriently  rapid  in  their  (lem-ent. 

But  water  may  l>o  rendered  otherwino  uHeful  iw  nn 
•gen'  of  force  in  the  artH.  Allhou|>h  nublile  111  gul>- 
■tAiice,  and  eliiilinf;  the  Rnisp  of  thoHC  who  deHire  to 
handle  ajid  hold  it,  it  can,  without  allenitiim  of  leni- 
peratnre,  l>e  made  to  art  im  n  nitihiininil  fminr,  aa  con- 
Toniently  and  UHefiilly  i..i  if  it  were  a  Bolid  Bulwlanee, 
like  iron,  utone,  or  woml.  The  lever,  the  wrew,  and 
inclined  phme,  or  any  of  the  ordinary  nieehiinieal 
powerx,  are  not  rn^'rc  remnrkalile  an  inhtrument«  of  force 
than  water,  a  single  gallon  of  which  may  Xtc  made  to 
perform  what  cani\ot  Ih>  accomplished  (except  at  enor- 
mous cost  and  Jiil'our)  by  the  stronxeHt  melai. 

To  render  water  wrvicfable  as  an  inHtrument  of  force, 
it  muKt  lie  ciinfined,  and  an  nttt'mpt  then  made  to  coni- 
prca«  it  into  lesa  than  ita  natural  bulk.  In  making  thi>i 
attempt,  the  imprcHHcd  force  is  freely  comnnniicaled 
throuiJih  the  mcwH,  and  in  the  endeavour  to  avoiil  com- 
preuion,  the  liiiuid  will  rejml  whatever  movable  object 
ia  prenented  to  it.  The  '.'<i:co  with  which  water  may  be 
•>juirted  frnin  a  boy'a  Byringe,  (fivea  but  a  feeble  idea  of 
the  power  of  liquidH  when  aubiectcd  in  a  state  of  con- 
finement to  the  impression  of  cxter  .'  ♦crce. 

The  mechiinicaj  force  of  water  i»  <•?".. iplified  by  the 
hydraulic  press.  Thia  i»  iin  eni'i  >(.  ti:ij''."ed  by  pap»!r- 
■nakers,  printers,  and  manufactrt  .  'a  li  •  j-ious  kinds  of 
gootls,  for  the  purpose  of  BiviiH;  ,4  \iijrh  'CRrce  of  prea- 
•ure  or  smoc.h  glazed  ■'^nish  to  xiw,  A'-fiective  articles. 
It  has  (generally  su|)er»eded  the  acrew  ji  csa,  on  account 
of  ita  much  preat<'r  jKiwer,  with  a  lesa  degree  of  trouble 
•od  risk  of  injury  to  the  mechanism. 


r,g.  16. 

Pig.  16  represontH  the  outline  of  a  hydraulic  prf««». 
A  B  i>  tbe  fraino,  consisting  uf  four  upright  pdlara  sup- 


portinc  a  erom  top  of  great  atie'ivth,  and  airainat  whiih 
the  pii'ssuro  lakes  place  in  m  in'  •■  an!  'f'reciion.  IJ,  ilu 
material  to  lie  pressed,  in  forred  upward  by  D,  a  inur  1 
iron  piston.  This  piston  is  very  nicely  fitted  into  m 
iron  cose,  R,  which  has  a  cavity  F,  for  receiving  tli^ 
wateV;  the  neck  of  the  case  grasps  the  piston  so  lightly 
that  no  water  can  esca]*.  A  small  injie  (<  cnnvcyj 
water  into  the  hollow  cavity  from  a  fiiriing-puiii|,  \\^ 
which  stands  in  a  tnnigh  of  water  T.  Ail  that  jiart 
of  the  apparatus  lielow  the  liase  of  the  pillars  is  siinlc 
out  of  sinlit  in  l!ie  I'riiund.  The  pump  apparatus  ii 
here  represented  as  e\i  redin^ly  simt>le,  but  in  real  niv 
chini-s  it  is  >,  ry  complex  and  of  jfi     ■'  -.'wer. 

The   p\iriip,  on   beiiiut  wrought,     r,.' .    he  water  into 

the  cavity.  There  the  water,  in  ei:  ..  avouring  In  esni|ic, 

(>|M'rales    upon    the    movable    piston,  which    it   cnimot 

I  slowly  to  ris«' with  its  burden.     The   pressure   thu^  pj. 

j  cried  by  the   li(|uid   almost   exceeds  lH''iirf;  uiiIpsh  the 

I  case,  for  the  water  he  of  enormous  strength,  it  will  (,„ 

icnt  in  an  instant  as  if  mud.     >f  I'.ie  weakeiit  niaternil. 

When  the  weight  has  lieen  raided  to  the  reipiired  height, 

a  stopcork  i,  turned  u|)on  ihe  piix",  and  the  appnmliu 

remains  at  rest.     The  oi>ening  of  the  cock  allows  the 

water  to  gush  out,  and  tin   weight  accordingly  sinks. 

The  niiMle  of  calculating  the  power  of  the  hydraulit 
press  is  analogous  to  that  for  calculating  lever  powers 
Thus,  the  proportion  is  estimated  iM-twee-  the  small 
bore  of  thr  pump  and  the  large  bore  of  the  cavity  or 
barrel  for  the  piston.  Suppose  that  the  pump  has  only 
one  thousnnillh  of  the  area  of  the  barrel,  ami  if  a  man, 
by  means  of  \U  lever  bundle,  press  its  rod  down  with  n 
force  of  five  hundreil  pounds,  the  piston  of  the  barrpl 
will  rise  with  a  force  of  one  thousand  limes  five  hun- 
dreil pounds,  or  more  than  two  hundred  tons.  A  li.iv 
working  the  pump  by  a  long  handle,  and  taking  a  suffi- 
ciency of  time,  will  raise  a  pressure  of  thousanils  of 
tuns. 

In  llie  hy<lraulic  press,  a  force-pump  is  employed  for 
the  sake  of  convenience ;  the  same  end  could  be  ni. 
tained  by  a  amall  colunni  of  water  of  a  great  elevalidn, 
on  the  principle  of  pressure  in  liquids  In-ing  as  vertical 
height. 

AQUfCnUCTS — rOUNTAlJCS. 

The  tendency  in  a  lii|uid  to  find  its  level,  has  per- 
mitted the  construction  of  ajiparatus,  consiNlmg  of  |ii[*« 
anil  cisterns,  for  supplying  towns  with  water.  .No 
species  of  hydraulic  machine  has  been  of  such  greal 
use  to  mankind  ns  this  apparatus. 

In  ancient  times,  the  fact  of  water  risiiur  to  nn  uni. 
firm  level  in  every  part  of  its  volume,  wa.i  either  not 
perfectly  understooil,  or  there  was  a  deficiency  of  mn- 
teri.ils  wherewith  to  construct  the  apparatus  required 
for  carrying  water  a  great  distance. 

From  whatever  cause,  towns  were  in  these  tinwi 
supplieil  with  water  by  means  of  n|MMi  canals,  cilhpr 
cut  in  the  level  ground,  or  support<'d  on  the  top  uf 
arches  built  for  the  purpose.  These  structures,  wilh 
their  elevated  channels,  were  called  »i|ueditc|i.  In 
Italy,  and  some  other  countries  in  the  south  of  Europe, 
the  remains  of  Ktupendnus  aipieducts,  miles  in  IcDKlh, 
still  exist. 

Uy  a  knowledge  of  Ihe  laws  of  fluids,  and  by  posse* 
iiig  an  abundance  of  lead  and  iron,  we  Are  ennMoil  In 
tlie  present  day  to  construct  apparatus  fo'  supplyin;; 
towns  with  water  in  a  manner  the  most  effcrtusl  nml 
simple ;  causing  r.  chea]>  iron  or  leaden  tiitii',  riiiiik  in 
the  ground,  to  perfonn  (he  office  of  the  most  e\[ieniivi> 
and  magniJiceiit  a']ueiluct. 

The  nielliod  of  supplying  towns  silh  wnter  ciiii<i<:i 
in  leading  a  pipe  of  "ulltcient  diameter  from  a  likr 
river,  or  fo\inlain  of  fresh  and  pure  wifter,  to  the  plmv 
where  the  »upi)!y  is  rei|liirei!.  The  ii(in  pi^'cs  ii«>il  m> 
this  purpose  aic  coinposotl  of  a  number  of  short  pirrri 


•oldi'ret,  toget 
an)  direction, 
uf  Icud  urn  iei 
water ;  and  by 
amy  l>o  carriet 
:. .  -I  than  the  < 


Fig.  17  is  a  n 
towns  with  wate 
U  uliserved  to  pi 
diiMii  into  a  vii||< 
jteil  on  the  op|ioi 
its  pas-iage  acros 
nipply  nn  ornaini 
i()iiuts  from  this  j 
lh«  height  of  the 
In  l.lwn^  not  1 
miliiiient  height, 
of  ['iiiM|is  to  nn 
pipes  arc  laid. 
wilL  Miiiild,  parti 
tiun  at  the  I'cservi; 
%mn»  of  fine  sui 

Spnr.gs  ill  the  g 
ind  urc  uccounteil 
Imra  of  fluids.  ()| 
lary  allraction,  or  m 
rine  in  small  tubei 
hoilics  closely  laid  I 
power  is  a  reiniiik 
of  mutter,  and  is 
of  gravitation,  or  I 
•tone. 

Springs  from  cap 
oorninnn  and  of  sni 
oriifiniile  from  the  ol 
Tlio  wnter  which  (i 
piiiul  111  high  situii 
cvd,  though  |ierhnp 
fore  springs  are 
ltrai)s[ilicric  action, 
tice  under  the  head 

ruiCTioM  Br 
Tlie  rtowinfj  of  y 
channels,  is  liable  t 
Water  flows  snioiilli 
ffi'lion,  when  the  ehi 
Every  liiUe  inei|uulil 
beip*  to  retard  it,  a 
aiiulo  ill  its  path.  .\ 
vi'v  more  w.iter  thnn 
J'riiiliiully,  an  allow 
piP'  s  lur  tlie  loss  of  s| 
of  llie  tiilie  is  coiisi,! 
iaj'.  it  IS  not  unusua 
tl^riliilimi. 

U*  increasing  tlie  « 


^    7 


HYDRATTUCS. 


these  tinwi 
IdaU,  cilhrr 
I  the  top  iif 
yt>\rp!i,  wi* 
lihict''.  In 
1  of  Kiirojy, 
in  Icnu'th, 

I  hv  pfw!te^ 
ennl'loii  In 
HUiil'lyii'-i 
IfiTtunl  ni'.'l 
Itii',  smik  rn 
It  ei|>ensivf 

Iter  i-iiii<isll 
■iini  «  'i'"'' 
Ito  the  (liiiii' 
Im'h  mTil  to' 
liihorl  liiff" 


197 


Mlili-ro*.  to(«''ll>or,  and  PxUimllnn  to  »iiy  length,  or  in 
in)  ilirtTtiiiii.  l''rom  thoie  mniii  pipoi  imullrr  IuIh-d 
of  Iniil  art"  l<''l  '"'"  'I"'  houitoH  rei|iiiriii)(  iho  iiu[)|)ly  of 
m*'!''  i  *<>^  ''y  "■''■'OR  of  ihcKo  minor  tulim,  the  wnlur 
niiiy  lio  cnrricil  to  miy  point  which  in  not  of  •  hiKhor 
.  'I  thiin  the  original  fountain  ull'ortiing  the  lupply. 


Kig.lT. 

Fi?.  17  i>*  ■  ropreientation  of  the  tnodc  of  HupplyiM'^ 
towM.i  with  wiiter  in  thin  convenieat  niaiiiicr.  A  |.  \iv 
[a  oliscrvecl  to  ])rorecil  froiri  a  lake  on  the  Inp  of  u  l.jll 
down  into  n  vmIIpv,  and  thenoo  to  Kupply  ii  liouse  nMu- 
(teil  on  the  oppoHito  riHini?  ij:ronnil.  From  the  pipe,  in 
ltd  p;is:<iii(e  aeroH.s  the  valley,  a  Hinall  tnlie  iii  i  nrinl  to 
nipplv  an  ornamental  fountain  or  jet  dVaii.  The  wuler 
■iKMil^  frniri  this  jet  d'ean  with  a  force  curroHpuiidinif  to 
the  lieiirht  nl   the  lako  aliove. 

Ill  |.lwn^  not  eomuiandinn  n  supply  of  water  from  a 
jullii  ii'iit  height,  the  water  is  foreeil  hy  an  appiiratiM 
of  puinpH  to  an  elevated  rpHervoir,  and  from  that  the 
niiiof  are  laid.  When  the  water  in  inipure,  or  Imuled 
wilL  inudd,  particles,  it  in  usual  to  purify  it  l>y  'illra- 
tion  at  the  renervoir ;  it  in  made  to  filter  or  ooze  lliroiiuli 
I  ni:4'<  of  lino  oaiid,  in  which  the  particlcn  of  mud  are 
i:,v.«tvl. 

Sprir.i?!!  in  the  ground  are  natural  hydmulie  op<'ratioiis, 
inJ  are  accounted  for  on  principleH  connecled  with  the 
|iiw<  of  fluids.  Ono  kind  of  springs  in  cauwd  hy  capil- 
lary attraction,  or  natural  attractive  force,  hy  which  litjuidi) 
riae  in  siiiall  tuliea,  porous  fiuhstancea,  or  liolween  Hut 
holies  c|o«ely  laid  towards  each  othc.-.  This  species  of 
power  \i>  a  reinarkahle  variety  of  the  mutual  aUraction 
of  mutter,  and  is  as  unaccountable  as  the  attructioii 
of  ){ravitation,  or  the  attraction  exercised  by  the  lodc- 
itone. 

Springs  from  capillary  atlractimi  are  Udieved  to  be  lesB 
ooininoii  and  of  smaller  iinportanrc  than  Hprin){s  which 
oriitiniitc  from  the  obvious  rausc  of  water  fiiidiiii^  its  level. 
The  water  which  falls  in  the  form  of  rain  sinks  into  the 
pound  in  hii;h  situations,  and  finds  an  outlet  at  a  lower 
evil,  thounh  |H'rha|>s  at  a  considerahlc  distance. 

Sore  «prin;{s  are  also  ac(\)unled  fcr  hy  a  refereuco  to 
itraosplicric  action,  Imt  these  will  form  a  subject  of  no- 
tice under  the  head  Pneumatics. 

rRiCTlON  BKTWKKN  thVlDa  AND  SOLIDS. 
Tile  tlowi'it;  of  water  through  p'lx's,  or  in  natural 
channels,  is  liable  to  Ixi  materially  alVectt^d  by  friction. 
Water  tl.iws  smoothly,  and  with  least  retardation  from 
friiliori.  when  the  channel  is  [HTlectly  smooth  and  straiuht. 
Fivcry  little  iiiecjuality  which  is  presented  to  the  liipiid, 
he;|n  to  returil  it,  and  so  likewi.-.e  does  every  Is'iid  or 
in^le  ill  its  path.  A  smooth  leaden  pipe  will  thus  c(ui- 
vin  ninre  water  than  u  wiiiMlen  pi|M'  of  the  same  capacity. 
Priictically,  an  allowance  is  ni.idc  in  the  niai;nitiide  of 
pipiHl'iir  tile  loss  of  s|H'>'d  by  iVulion.  Where  the  Ipie'lh 
of  till'  tiil)e  is  coiisider.ihli'.  and  there  are  s»>veral  litad- 
inxf.  it  is  not  unusual  to  allow  a  third  of  the  oap.tcity  for 
tl;irilntioii. 
Ut  iiu'rousing  tlic  capacity  of  pipe*,  a  prodigious  gain 


is  aorured  in  111)'  tranimlMif)n  ofwntpr.  The  Ion* 
frielinn  on  a  siiiall  tube  of  an  inch  diameter  of  bore  is 
so  greui,  that  one  of  twice  the  capacity  will  deliver  <lv* 
times  as  much  water. 

Ttie  rale  at  which  water  flows  from  nn  oriflcc  in  • 
reservoir,  or  conlainiiiK  vessel,  is  alTecU'd  by  the  situatiou 
and  the  sha|io  of  the  orifice. 

The  most  favoutulde  situation  for  the  oriflce  is  at  the 
Isittoni  of  the  vessel ;  but  the  velocity  of  the  cmiNHion  i* 
not  in  the  ratio  of  the  heii;lit  of  the  liipiid,  or  of  a  p«r- 
|K'iidlcular  column  of  pari  li's;  f.ir  as  llie  water  pream^a 
in  all  directions  alike,  then'  is  from  all  partn  of  the  vesait 
a  t;en>'ral  rush  as  it  v,'  ••  to  the  outlut,  thua  putting  tlw 
whole  muss  in  motion. 

Although  the  rush  of  wat«-r  ut  the  outlet  is  not  as  the 
ratio  of  the  depth,  it  depends  upon  the  ili'pth.  Thtia, 
if  a  vessel  Urn  feet  liiKh  Ui  penetrated  ul  the  side  on  a 
level  with  the  bottom,  iii.d  the  water  stand  at  two  feet 
ni  I  a  half  within,  it  will  issuu  outwards  with  a  ceitain 
deyree  of  vrl'  If  tlie  height  of  the  water  lie  quad- 

ruplet!, that  'in  *'     '.el  lie  tilled,  the  veloiii     will  be 

doul)le(^     In  or'  an  a  threefold  velocil    .  a  nine- 

fold depth  is  n  >r  a  fourfold  veloci'v.  i-nlnen 

times  the  il  lued,  and  so  on.     In  fui :,  in  what- 

ever  propor  .1  ..  ity  of  cfllux   is  increased^  the 

ijuantity  of     pii  >'d  in  a  given   time  must  be 

also  incrcas('i.l  in  proportion  ;  hence  the  quan- 

tity of  water  dis.  ,,,u"l  oonjoiiilly  with  its  degree  of 
veliH'ity  will  lie  increased  in  proportion  to  the  jiresauro. 
There  is  hero  a  striking  coincidence  between  the  descent 
of  wat«>r  and  the  relation  which  exists  In'tween  the  hei^'ht 
from  which  a  body  falls,  and  the  velocity  acquired  at  the 
end  of  the  fall. 

It  has  been  aB<'ertaiiicd  that  water  rushes  with  most 
udvaiitii|{e  from  an  orillce,  whi'ii  the  orilice  is  in  the  form 
of  a  short  round  tuliu  inserted  into  the  vessel,  and  of  ■ 
length  equal  to  twice  its  diameter. 

It  has  also  been  found,  that  if  tho  pi|ie,  instead  of 
being  flush  or  Uvel  with  the  bottom  of  the  reservoir,  en- 
tcred  into  it  to  some  distmice,  it  had  the  etlect  of  making 
the  flow  of  water  even  less  than  that  which  issued  tiiruugh 
the  simple  hole  without  any  pipe.  The  singular  fact  of 
a  pipe  and  hole  of  the  same  diameter  discharging  dilleront 
quantities  of  water  under  ditlerent  circumstances,  whilst 
tho  head  or  pressure  remains  the  same,  imiKt  be  accounted 
for  by  cross  or  opposing  currents  being  created  by  the 
rush  which  all  fluids  make  to  the  or  dice.  (.Currents  will 
thus  form  from  the  top  and  aides  of  the  containing 
vessel,  and  by  their  inertia  they  will  cross  each  other, 
and  thusimficdc  tho  duseent  of  the  pcrfiendiculur  column, 
causing  the  water  which  issues  to  run  in  a  screw-like 
form;  this,  however,  is  in  u  great  measure  obviated  by 
tho  application  of  a  short  tube  from  the  ttjierture.  That 
the  projection  of  the  tube  too  far  into  the  interior  of  the 
vessel  should  make  the  flow  less  than  if  there  were  no 
pipe  at  all,  may  be  thus  ux[>lained  : — Tho  columns  which 
descend  from  near  the  outjside  of  the  vessel,  by  turning 
up  again  to  reach  the  discharging  oriflce,  come  into  more 
direct  opposition  to  tho  motion  of  tlio  central  descending 
columns,  whilst  they  are  at  the  same  time  thcmsclvea 
com|H>lled  to  turn  suddenly  in  opposition  to  their  own 
inertia,  U'fore  they  con  enter  the  pipe.  Thus,  tho  di» 
charge  is  more  eirectuully  iinpi'ded  than  if  it  were  pro 
ceeding  from  a  mere  opening  in  the  boltuin  of  the  vesseL 
The  tube  for  the  disch.irge  of  water  should  not  only  he 
short  and  round,  but  also  trumpet-mouthed  or  funnel- 
sluqiod,  both  internally  and  externally,  that  being  the 
form  which  admits  the  flow  of  liquid  with  tlie  least  |>ob- 
silile  retardation. 

The  edicts  of  friction  between  liquids  and  solids  are 

nowhere  so  conspicuous  as  in  the  llowiiu  of  rivers.    Tho 

,  natural   tendency  in   the   water   to  desci'iid   at  a  certain 

!  s|)eed,  is  limited  by  the   roughness  of  the  bottom    bends 

in  tliu  cuaiiki  of  Ihu  stream,  and  small  pii|ectioiiH  ui*  L'lu 


m 


11 


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V 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


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20 


1.8 


Photographic 

Sciences 
Corporation 


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1.25    |U 

III  ''^ 

^ 

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23  WiST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  NY.  '.4580 

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Vi'^'-fT'i.y^^-^T: 


im 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


bttiki.  From  these  canaet,  the  water  in  •  river  flowt 
with  difTerent  velocities  at  different  part*  in  any  vertical 
■eetion  acrom  the  current,  it  flowa  at  a  slower  rate  of 
apeed  at  and  near  the  bottom  than  at  the  surface,  and 
>M  alower  at  the  sides  than  at  the  middle. 

The  resistance  which  a  body  moving  in  liquid  meet* 
with,  when  it  comes  in  contact  with  a  solid,  is  aa  the 
square  of  the  velocity  of  the  moving  body;  in  other 
won}s,  the  resistance  is  not  twice  but  four  times  with  a 
double  rate  of  speed.    This  is  easily  ei plained : — 

A  vessel  moving  at  the  rate  of  one  mile  per  hour  dia- 
places  a  certain  quantity  of  water,  and  with  a  certain 
v«locity ;  if  it  move  twice  as  fast,  it  of  course  displaces 
twice  as  many  particles  in  the  same  time,  and  requirea 
to  be  moved  by  twice  the  force  on  that  account ;  but  it 
also  displaces  every  particle  with  a  double  velocity,  and 
requires  another  doubling  of  the  power  on  this  account; 
the  power  thus  twice  doubled,  becomes  a  power  of  four. 
When  the  body  i|  moved  with  a  speed  of  three  or  four, 
a  force  of  nine  or  sixteen  is  wanted,  and  so  on.  Thus, 
the  resistance  increases  as  the  square  of  the  speed. 

This  important  law  suggests  practical  hints  of  con- 
siderable importance.  For  instance,  in  steam  navif^ation, 
if  an  engine  of  fifty  horse  power  impel  a  vessel  at  the 
rate  of  seven  miles  an  hour,  it  would  require  two  of  the 
same  power  to  drive  her  ten  miles  an  hour,  and  three  such 
to  drive  her  twelve  miles  an  hour.  Hence  the  enormous 
expense  of  fuel  attending  the  gaining  of  a  high  degree 
of  velocity. 

.;  ACTION  ON  TRI   WATER   IN   RITERa. 

tn  cases  where  it  is  desirable  to  preserve  the  banks  of 
rivers  from  injury,  either  from  the  regular  action  of  the 
current  or  from  floods,  the  water  ought  to  be  allowed  a 
free  open  channel,  with  banks  of  a  very  gradual  descent 
The  utmost  violence  of  water  in  a  state  of  motion  may 
be  rendered  comparatively  harmless,  by  allowing  the  flood 
or  torrent  to  expend  itself  on  s  sloping  or  shelving  shore. 
Inattention  to  this  simple  fact  in  hydraulics  frequently 
causes  much  destruction  to  property  on  the  banks  of 
rivers. 

A  very  small  flxed  obstacle,  such  aa  a  stone  or  pebble, 
may  partially  impede  and  turn  aside  a  brook  of  a  slow 
current.  The  water,  by  striking  on  a  stone  at  one  side, 
is  bent  aside  to  the  opposite  bank,  a  little  farther  down  ; 
there  it  strikes  upon  the  bank,  and  is  returned  to  the  side 
it  formerly  struck.  Thus,  proceeding  in  currents  from 
aide  to  side,  the  banks  become  worn  down  at  particular 
places,  and  in  time  a  new  and  serpentine  course  is  given 
to  the  stream.  In  the  case  of  rivers  flowing  with  con- 
siderable velocity,  impediments  of  this  kind  are  usually 
oivercome,  and  the  stream  pursues  its  straight  onward 
course,  dashing  down  all  obstacles  to  its  progress.  Thus, 
riven  are  generally  winding  in  their  course  in  flat  coun- 
triea,  and  straight  in  mountainous  regions. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  water  at  the  surfiice  of 
•  river  may  be  moving  in  one  direction,  while  the  water 
Bt  the  bottom  is  flowing  in  an  opposite  direction.  This 
it  an  exceedingly  interesting  phenomenon,  which  is  ob- 
•erved  to  occur  in  certain  rivers  communicating  with  the 
■ea,  and  is  caused  by  the  action  of  the  tides  and  the 
difference  of  specific  gravity  in  salt  and  fresh  water. 
When  the  tide  is  flowing  inwards,  the  salt  water  rushes 
np  the  channel  of  the  river,  but  not  in  such  a  manner  as 
tn  stem  the  current  of  fresh  water,  which,  being  lighter, 
floats  on  the  top  of  tlie  salt  water,  and  pursues  its  down- 
ward course  to  the  ocean.  In  those  instances  in  which 
tliere  is  no  great  disturbance  of  the  two  liquids,  thn  fresh 
water,  by  its  specific  lightness,  floats  on  the  surface  of 
(lie  tea  to  a  distance  of  many  miles  from  the  land. 

WATta. 

Waves  are  the  risngs  and  fallings  of  the  water,  caused 
ty  aooie  pcwer,  such  as  the  blowing  of  the  wind.    The 


power,  whatever  it  happen  to  be,  oommunlcatea  a  font 
*o  the  mass  of  liquid,  and  a  series  of  undulations  is  the 
consequence. 

These  undulations,  or  waves,  exhibit  the  transmissioa 
of  the  communicated  force.  The  force  does  not  advanc« 
or  alter  the  lateral  position  of  the  water  at  any  given 
point ;  it  only  altera  the  water  in  its  vertical  position,  oi 
in  relation  to  its  depth.  Whan,  therefore,  waves  advance, 
the  water  does  not  advance  with  them :  the  water  but 
rises  and  falls,  and  assumes  the  figure  of  undulations  on 
its  surface.  When  the  undulations  approach  the  shore 
the  water  then  acquire*  a  progressive  motion,  where  it 
is  shallow,  and  by  friction  on  the  bottom  or  impulsion 
against  the  shore,  the  communicated  force  i*  exhausted. 
The  shaking  of  a  carpet  affords  an  exact  representation 
of  the  action  of  waves  or  undulations. 

Waves  are  comparatively  superficial;  they  seldom, 
even  in  the  greatest  storms,  rise  to  a  height  of  more  than 
twelve  feet  above  the  level  of  calm  water,  and  make  an 
equal  descent  beneath,  making  altogether  an  appearance 
of  twenty-four  feet ;  at  eight  or  ten  feet  below  the  hoUow 
or  trough  of  the  waves  the  water  is  tranquil.  Wave* 
«  mountains  high"  is  only  a  figure  of  speech. 


ALTERATION  OW  TEMPERATURE. 

By  altering  the  temperature  of  liquid  bodies,  they 
become  liable  to  peculiar  laws,  and  exhibit  peculiar  phe. 
nomena. 

At  a  temperature  of  40  degrees  of  Fahrenheit's  tber^ 
mometer,  water  is  at  the  point  of  greatest  density.  When 
the  temperature  is  reduced  below  this  point,  the  liquid 
gradually  increases  in  volume  till  it  reaches  32,  when  ii 
freezes.  When  the  temperature  is  raised  above  40,  the 
volume  increases  till  it  reaches  the  boiling-point,  at  which 
it  has  expanded  to  the  extent  of  l-22d  additional  to  il* 
bulk. 

In  consequence  of  this  expansibility  in  heating,  hot 
or  warm  water  is  specifically  lighter  than  cold  water; 
therefore,  in  h'^-ating  any  mass  of  water  in  a  vessel  over 
a  fire,  the  Ughter  or  warm  particles  rise  to  the  top, 
while  the  cold  and  heavy  particles  sink  to  the  bottom,  to 
be  heated  and  to  rise  in  their  turn.  In  this  manner  the 
process  of  heating  proceeds,  until  all  the  particles  are  of 
a  uniform  temperature,  which  is  at  the  boiling-point, 
when  the  liquid  gradually  flies  off  in  steam. 

If  water  be  heated  by  the  action  of  the  fire,  or  the  sun's 
rays  on  its  upper  surface,  the  mass  is  longer  in  attaining 
the  vaporific  point  than  when  heated  below,  becnuse  wi. 
ter  is  a  bad  conductor  of  heat,  and  therefore  the  heat 
penetrates  with  difficulty  through  the  upper  stratum  of 
warmed  liquid  to  reach  that  which  is  beneath;  and  if  the 
mass  be  very  large,  as,  for  instance,  the  ocean,  no  in- 
tensity of  heat  applied  above  can  warm  it  throughout,  or 
to  any  considerable  depth. 

Certain  currents  or  sets  of  the  ocean  are  known  to  m 
produced  by  the  eflbrt  to  attain  an  equability  of  tempe- 
rature throughout  The  power  of  the  sun's  rays  at  and 
near  the  equator  heats  the  sea  in  that  part  of  its  volume, 
to  the  depth  of  two  or  three  hundred  feet  This  upper 
stratum  of  heated  water  flows  in  current*  towards  the 
north  and  south  poles,  and  there  to  a  certain  extent  t<!iii- 
pcrs  the  severity  of  the  cold.  The  watera  of  the  nortliem 
and  southern  tracts  of  ocean,  displaced  by  these  currents, 
necessarily  sink  below  them,  and  push  on  towards  the 
equator,  to  supply  the  deficiency  caused  by  tlie  di'imrture 
uf  the  waters  above.  Thus,  m  the  economy  of  natuie 
we  see  a  process  in  constant  action  precisely  the  same  iii 
principle  as  that  u])on  which  the  artificial  hot-water  ip 
paratus  has  been  established. 

Having  now  discussed  Hydrostatic*  and  Hydraulica 
we  come  to  the  kindred  subject  cf  Pneumatics,  for  wtuch, 
as  will  he  oliscrved.  we  have  reserved  a  notice  of  certiJs 
hydraulic  machine*  involving  pncumaticai  agencjr 


«-\' 


PNEUMATICS. 


v<   tA 


199 


•tM  a  foic* 
lions  it  th« 

ranamisgioB 
not  advanct 
t  any  given 
position,  01 
ves  advance. 
le  water  but 
idulationi  on 
:h  the  shore 
on,  where  it 
or  impuliioD 
■  exhausted, 
epreaentation 

they  seldom, 
of  more  than 
and  make  an 
n  appearance 
iw  ^e  hoUow 
^uil.  Waves 
h. 


IE. 

I  bodies,  they 
peculiar  phe> 

irenheit's  the^ 
insity.  When 
lint,  the  liquid 
es  32,  when  il 
I  above  40,  the 
point,  at  which 
dditional  toils 

in  heating,  hot 
n  cold  water; 
a  a  vessel  over 
le  to  the  top, 
the  bottom,  to 
lis  manner  the 
particles  are  of 
boiling-point, 
n. 

ire,  or  the  sun's 
cr  in  attaimng 
w,  because  wt- 
■efore  the  heat 
per  stratum  of 
ath ;  and  if  the 
ocean,  no  in- 
throughout, « 


Lnd  Hydraulics, 
latics,  for  which, 
lotice  of  certsll 
iigencj 


aiRBRAIi  DEFINITIONS. 

Pneumatics,  from  the  Gruek  word  pneuma,  breath  or 
sir,  is  the  name  of  the  uepartment  of  science  which  re- 
lates to  the  weight,  pressure,  or  motion  of  air,  or  of  any 
s<!riform  or  gaseous  fluids. 

It  was  anciently  oupposed  that  the  air  of  the  atmo- 
sphere was  an  element  or  sitnple  substance  in  nature. 
It  i(  now  satisfactorily  established  that  air  is  not  an 
elementary  body,  but  is  composed  of  certain  gases  in 
bitimatc  union,  and  these  gases  can  be  separated  from 
each  other  by  a  process  in  art 

Air,  in  its  common  condition,  is  a  thin  transparent 
fluid,  so  subtile  that  it  cannot  be  handled,  and  when  at 
rest  it  cannot  be  felt. 

That  It  is  a  body,  howeyer,  is  quite  obvious,  because 
we  feel  its  impression  or  force  when  agitited  as  wind, 
or  when  we  wave  our  hand  quickly  through  it.  In  the 
quick  motion  of  the  hand,  we  feel  that  it  is  partially 
opposed  by  something ;  and  in  inhaling  breath  into  the 
lungs,  we  feel  that  we  are  drawing  something  through 
the  mouth — that  lonuthing  is  air. 

Air,  like  every  other  substance,  whether  solid  or 
fluid,  possesses  a  certain  gravity  or  weight.  The  weight 
of  air  certainly,  bulk  fur  bulk,  is  much  less  than  that 
of  water ;  still  the  weight  may  be  accurately  computed. 
A  bottle  full  of  air  weighs  heavier  in  a  balance  than  a 
botde  of  the  same  capacity  firom  which  the  air  has  been 
eitractpd. 

A  cubic  foot  of  water,  as  has  been  mentioned,  weighs 
IflOO  ounces.  A  cubic  foot  of  air  weighs  only  523 
grains,  being  a  little  more  than  one  ounce;  water, 
therefore,  is  about  840  times  heavier  than  the  air  of  our 
itmosphere.  Inasmuch  as  water  is  a  standard  for  'com- 
paring the  gravities  of  liquids,  air  is  a  standard  in  the 
same  respect  for  al!  atrial  substances. 

The  specilie  gravity  of  air  being  denominated  1000, 
oxygen  gas  is  1111;  nitrogen  gas  973 ;  hydrogen  gas 
69;  and  carbonic  acid  gas  1529.  The  lightest  of  these 
kinds  of  gas,  therefore,  is  hydrogen,  and  the  heaviest 
carbonic  acid.  Hence,  if  indefinite  quantities  of  these 
t£riform  bodies  were  placed  in  a  vessel,  or  in  an  apart- 
ment, we  iihould  find,  that,  after  certain  portions  had 
gone  into  intimate  union,  according  to  the  laws  by 
which  they  combine,  the  svrplus  portions  of  each  would 
usuine  relative  positions  according  to  their  respective 
weights — the  heaviest  to  the  bottom,  and  the  lightest  to 
the  tup.  Such  an  experiment  would  resemble  that  pre- 
viously noticed,  of  the  mixture  of  mercury,  oil,  water, 
and  spirits. 

Air  and  all  kinds  of  gases  are  rendered  lighter  by  the 
ipplicatinn  of  heat,  for  then  the  particles  in  the  mass  are 
■cpelled  firom  each  other,  and  occupy  a  greater  space ;  this 
process  of  lightening  or  thinning  is  called  rarefaction. 
Rarefied  air,  being  specifically  lightest,  mounts  above  that 
of  a  common  density.  The  warmest  air  is  always  at  the 
lop  of  a  room,  and  the  coldest  at  the  bottom. 

Air  is  distinguished  fsom  water  not  only  by  its  extreme 
comparative  lightness,  but  by  the  property  of  elasticity ; 
it  is  a  compressible  and  elastic  fluid. 

Whon  any  quantity  of  air  is  compressed  into  a  smaller 
ipice  than  it  naturally  occupies,  it  will  return  to  its  natu- 
ral bulk  on  the  pressure  being  withdrawn. 

A  email  bladder  of  air  may  be  squeezed  between  the 
banos  so  as  to  be  considerably  reduced  in  size ;  and  on 
openinfT  the  hands  again,  and  withdrawing  the  pressure, 
it  will  instantly  resume  its  former  bulk.  If  a  metallic 
lube  or  barrel  be  fitted  with  a  movable  plug  or  piston, 
which  is  made  to  work  in  it  perfectly  air-tight,  the  air 
which  occupies  the  space  between  the  top  and  the  bot- 
tom of  this  barrel  when  the  piston  enters,  can  be  cnm- 
pKssed  to  •  hundredth  part,  or  even  less,  of  its  usual 
tulk.    If  dia  force,  however,  by  which  the  piston  ia 


pushed  down,  be  withdrawn,  the  air,  by  its  sUstirity.  will 
force  it  up  again  with  a  power  equal  to  that  by  whieh  iM 
descent  was  resisted. 

In  proportion  as  any  given  volume  of  air  is  diroinidied 
by  pressure,  its  elastic  force  is  increased ;  in  other  words, 
the  elastic  force  or  elasticity  of  air  is  proportional  to  its 
density. 

THE   ATMOSPHERE.  '       ' 

The  air,  as  formerly  expressed,  is  a  great  ocean  wrap- 
ped round  the  earth  to  a  depth  of  from  forty-five  to  fifty 
miles  above  the  highest  mountains,  and  forms  a  men 
struum  which  is  essential  to  the  existence  of  all  animals 
and  plants. 

This  ocean  of  air  penetrates  into  all  unoccupied  place*, 
in  the  same  manner  as  water  flows  into  all  crevices  and 
holes  beneath  the  level  of  its  surface ;  and  it  also  finds 
a  place  in  the  bodies  of  nnima'rf,  plants,  and  liquid  sulv 
stances ;  hardly  any  thing,  indeed,  that  we  see  in  nature 
or  art,  is  free  from  air,  unless  'force  has  been  employed 
to  extract  it  ' 

The  height  of  the  atmosphere,  though  usually  esti* 
mated  at  forty-five  or  fifty  miles,  is  in  reality  unknown. 
The  highest  point  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  which  has 
ever  been  reached  by  any  human  being,  is  21,000  fee^ 
which  has  been  attained  in  a  balloon. 

It  is  only  conjectured,  from  the  refraction  of  the  sun's 
rays  and  other  circumstances,  that  the  height  of  the 
atmosphere  is  about  fifty  miles.  At  and  near  the  level 
of  the  oceai'  it  is  most  dense,  in  the  same  manner  at 
water  at  the  j  'ttom  of  the  sea  is  more  dense  than  it  is 
at  the  surface,  on  account  of  the  incumbent  pressure. 
As  we  ascend  mountains,  or  in  any  other  way  penetrate 
upwards  into  the  atmosphere,  the  air  becomes  gradually 
less  dense,  and  so  thin  is  it  at  the  height  of  three  miles 
on  the  summit  of  Mont  Blanc,  that  breathing  is  thers 
performed  with  some  difficulty.  Beyond  this  limited 
height,  the  density  of  the  air  continues  to  diminish,  and 
at  the  elevation  of  about  fifty  miles,  it  is  believed  to 
terminate. 

The  extreme  height  of  the  atmosphere  is  not  observ- 
able from  the  situation  in  which  we  are  placed  on  the 
earth.  Our  eye,  on  being  cast  upwards,  perceives  only 
a  vast  expanded  vault,  tinted  with  a  deep  but  delicate 
blue  colour ;  and  this  in  common  language  is  called  the 
sky.  The  blueness  so  apparent  to  our  sense  of  sight  is 
the  action  of  the  rays  of  light  upon  the  thin  fluid  of  As 
upper  atmosphere,  and  the  brightness  is  in  proportion  to 
the  absence  of  clouds  and  other  watery  vapours.  In 
proportion  as  the  spectator  rises  above  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  has  less  air  above  him,  and  that  very  rare,  tho 
blue  tint  gradually  dinappears ;  and  if  he  could  attain  a 
height  at  which  tb  ?Te  is  no  air,  say  at  above  fifty  miles 
in  height,  the  sky  would  appear  perfectly  dark  or  black. 
Travellers  who  have  ascended  to  great  heights  on  lofty 
mountains,  describe  the  ap]iearance  of  the  sky  from  these 
elevated  stations  as  dark  or  of  a  blackish  hue. 

The  atmosphere  possesses  the  capacity  of  absorbing 
and  sustaining  moisture,  but  only  to  a  limited  extent 
When  saturated  to  a  certain  degree,  it  is  relieved  by  the 
falling  of  the  moisture  in  the  form  of  rain.  It  is  calcu* 
lated  that  the  whole  atmosphere  round  the  globe  could 
not  retain  at  one  time  more  moisture  than  would  produce 
about  six  or  seven  inches  of  rain. 

By  an  elevation  of  temperature,  the  capacity  of  the 
atmosphere  to  absorb  and  sustain  moisture  is  increase!^ 
and  by  a  lowering  of  temperature,  decreased.  Cold 
breezes,  by  lowering  the  temperature  of  the  air,  caoss 
tho  aeriform  moisture  to  assume  the  appear^ce  of  clouds^ 
and  then  to  fall  as  rain. 

LAWS  or   AIR. 

Fint — Tho  pressure  ot  the  air  is  equal  in  sU  din» 
tions:  Stcond — Its  degree  of  preasore  depends  on  tM 


■*^!»- 


IM 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


vsrtioil  hriffht  or  depth,  mcl  at  any  place  ia  proportional 
M  ft*  denrity :  Third— Ita  euTfroe  ia  level  in  all  parte 
of  ita  Tolume ;  Fourlk— It  afTorde  anpport  according  to 
Ma  denaity  and  to  the  weight  of  the  fluid  diaplaced. 

That  air  piCMea  equaUy  in  all  directiona  may  be  ren- 
dered  evident  by  illling  a  bladder  with  that  fluid,  and 
then  preaaing  upon  it  ao  «»  almort  to  make  it  burat. 
llie  pieaaura  ia  ftee'y  communicated  through  the  maaa, 
an  in  the  caae  of  the  bag  of  water,  and  it  will  be  obMrved 
that  the  confined  air  will  luah  out  with  equal  impetuo- 
aity  at  whatever  part  you  make  a  hole  in  the  aurCuie. 

The  level  of  aurface  of  air  ia  leia  perfect  than  the  uni- 
fbrm  level  of  water,  on  account  of  the  greater  elaatidty 
of  the  aubatance.  Tn  a  aeriea  of  strata  of  air  of  different 
ilrniitiea,  one  above  the  other,  a  amall  portion  of  each 
minglee  with  thoae  which  immediately  adjoin  it — the 
parlklea  of  one  commingle  to  a  certain  extent  with  those 
of  another.  There  ia  thoa,  aa  respects  atrial  bodiea,  a 
modification  of  the  law  of  uniform  levelncaa  of  surface  in 
•II  parts  of  the  volume  of  fluiiL 

pnaai7M  or  ais. 

Thb  pressure  depending  on  the  vertical  height  oi  depth 
of  air,  ia  an  important  property  in  the  atmoaphere,  and 
on  it  dependa  the  explanation  of  nuroeroua  phenomena. 

Air'  being  a  aubatance  poaaessing  gravity,  it  must  of 
neeeaaity  preaa  duwnwarda  in  the  direction  of  the  centre 
of  the  earth,  and  therefore  the  degree  of  pressure  on  any 
givan  point  vrill  be  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  column  of 
air  above  the  point,  and  proportional  to  the  density  of  the 
air  at  that  point 

The  idea  of  the  atmosphere  possessing  the  property  of 
gravity  or  pieaaure,  ia  of  comparatively  modem  date.  No 
such  notion  wu  entertained  by  the  ancients,  in  ronse- 
quenee  of  living  animala  being  obaerved  to  move  with 
perfect  ease  in  all  directiona,  and  because  there  was  no 
other  appearance  in  nature  calculated  to  auggest  it  to 
their  minds. 

It  was  however  remarked,  that,  when  the  air  waa 
•tcked  out  of  a  amall  glaas  tube,  the  lower  end  of  which 
waa  immersed  in  water,  the  water  rushed  up  into  the 
tube  and  occupied  the  situation  of  the  displaced  air. 
In  conaequence  of  this  and  similar  phenomena,  it  waa 
alleged  as  a  doctrine  in  physics,  that  «  nature  abhors  a 
vacuum." 

A  vacuum  ia  a  place  destitute  of  air  or  any  other  kind 
of  matter ;  and  the  notion  waa,  that  whenever  by  any 
dtance  such  an  empty  space  waa  found,  nature  inter- 
posed with  all  imaginable  haste  to  fill  iL  With  this  very 
mde  idea,  pumps  were  formed  to  raise  water,  the  rising 
of  the  water  in  these  instruments  being  ascribed  simply 
to  nature'a  abhorrence  of  a  vacuum.  At  length  it  was 
diacovered  that  water  could  not  be  drawn  up  by  a  pump 
above  a  height  of  about  thirty-two  feet,  and  that  a 
vacnum  above  that  elevation  remaiited  unfilled ;  wher"- 
apon  the  terms  of  the  doctrine  were  changed,  and  it  «aa 
aaid  that  nature  abhorred  a  vacuum  only  to  a  height  of 
thirty-two  feet,  but  no  farther. 

liiia  explanation  waa  aeemingly  unphilosophical,  and 
men'a  minds  being  carefully  turned  to  the  subject,  vari- 
.iUa  experiments  were  performed,  and  the  important 
Irnth  became  manifest,  that  the  atmosphere  possessed 
gravity  or  pressure ;  also,  that  that  pressure  was  the  sole 
canse  of  the  ruphing  of  liquids  into  tubes  exhausted  of 
air — the  height  of  the  ascending  liquids  being  in  every 
case  limited  by  the  degree  of  pressure  of  the  incumbent 
•tmosphere.  Thus  the  discovery  of  a  simple  truth  in 
•eience  at  once  abolished  the  fantastic  doctrine  of  nature's 
abhorrence  of  vacuum,  and  all  the  laboured  sophistry 
with  which  it  was  supported.*  Nature  has  no  dislike 
to  a  vacuum ;  a  vacuum  will  occur  in  all  situations  from 


"This  great  liiseovery  la  physical  science  wsa  made  by  Torw 
lieelll,  an  emineat  Italian  malhsmatician.  about  the  vrar  1044. 
It  was  ntawsted  br  at  inolTectual  attempt  to  raise  wvt«>  froai 


which  solids  or  fluids  are  accidentally  or  arttflcMlly  ei. 
eluded. 

The  degree  of  preaaure  imposed  by  the  atmosphere  on 
any  given  spot  on  the  earth's  anrface,  as  already  noticed, 
is  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  column  of  air  above  that 
spot,  and  is  also  proportional  to  the  density  of  the  sir  it 
the  place.  The  atmosphere  is  deepest  or  of  grestesi 
vertical  height  at  the  level  of  the  ocean,  and  there  it  rx 
erts  the  grreatest  pressure.  The  pressure  of  the  air  at  the 
level  of  the  sea  is  usually  reckoned  to  be  about  IS  pounds 
on  every  square  inch.* 

The  pressure  of  1ft  lbs.  to  the  square  inch  refers  to 
every  shape  of  surface  at  or  near  the  sea'a  level.  The 
pressure  is  sidewaya,  upwards,  oblique,  and  in  every 
other  direction,  aa  well  aa  downward,  because  fluids  press 
equally  in  all  directiona.  Thus,  in  every  crevice,  nook,  or 
vessel,  in  which  air  happena  to  be,  the  pressure  is  equally 
intense.  The  human  being,  for  example,  sustains  the  pres- 
sure  of  IS  lbs.  to  the  aquare  inch  all  over  hia  person,  and 
this  ia  a  load  under  which  he  could  not  possibly  moTe,4 
unless  the  pressure  was  also  exerted  in  the  interior  of  his 
body,  or  through  his  whole  system  of  muscles,  viscera,  ind 
bones,  by  which  means  the  external  presstue  is  counte^ 
acted,  and  he  feels  no  pressure  whatever. 

If,  however,  the  air  by  any  means  be  withdrawn  from 
the  interior  of  any  object,  that  object  becomes  immedi- 
ately susceptible  of  the  external  atmospheric  pressure. 
There  are  many  familiar  examples  of 
this  pressure  around  ua.  One  of  the 
most  common  consists  in  causing  a 
thimble  to  adhere  to  the  hand  by  suck- 
ing the  air  firom  beneath  it :  the  adhe- 
sion is  the  result  of  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  on  the  exhausted  space  on 
the  hand.  Another  consists  in  lifting 
a  stone  by  means  of  a  sucker,  formed 
of  a  string  and  a  wetted  piece  of 
leather,  as  in  the  accompanying  figure. 
The  wetted  leather  ia  in  thia  case 
pressed  down  upon  the  stone,  and  the 
string  is  then  pulled :  if  air  were  ad- 
mitted under  the  end  (f  the  string,  the  ^'S-  ^^■ 
sucker  would  come. off;  but  none  being  admitted,  the 
atmosphere  presses  on  the  sucker,  a  rigid  adhesion  of  the 
sucker  to  the  stone  is  produced,  and  the  stone,  if  uot  too 
heavy,  ia  lifted. 

The  surgic;'  -^nceas  of  cupping  is  upon  the  nuw 
principle.    A  .;laM  cup  is  held  with  its  mouth  neir 

the  part  to  *  tted  on,  and  the  air  being  consumed 

within  it  by  a  u  ;tited  taper,  it  is  instantly  applied,  and 
adheres  with  great  force.  The  part  having  been  pre> 
viously  lanced,  the  blood,  rushing  to  fill  the  vacuum, 
enters  the  cup  in  copious  small  streams.  The  feeling 
endured  in  cupping  is  that  of  considerable  weight 

The  feet  of  flies  and  some  other  insects  are  formed  og 
the  principle  of  the  sucker,  by  which  meana  they  are  en- 
abled to  walk  and  run  with  security  on  the  ceiling  of  in 
apartment,  back  dowhwarda,  or  on  an  upright  and  smooth 
pane  of  glass.  At  each  step  in  advance,  they  procure  ■ 
hold  by  the  formation  of  a  vacuum  or  air-tight  space  t» 
neath  their  feet.  The  rapidity  with  which  these  vacunni 
or  air-tightneases  are  formed  and  destroyed,  is  an  ejcttd 
ingly  interesting  phenomenon  in  the  economy  of  tht 
animal,  and  cannot  be  rivalled  by  the  utmost  eflbrti  of 
human  skill.  On  a  very  moderate  computation,  a  fly.  in 
travelling  six  feet  in  the  space  of  a  minute,  creates  ind 
destroys  as  many  aa  10,000  vacuuma.    When  depiind 

■  deep  well  nenr  Florriice,  by  meant  of  a  pump  of  a  grcilei 
heiclit  than  thirty-two  feet. 

•The  actual  preMiire  varies  from  14  lbs.  to  IS  Mil.  scconliliji 
to  circiiinmiincei.  Hy  various  antborities  it  is  stated  si  14' 
lbs.  For  ronveuienee,  we  state  it  Ihrougbout  in  the  text  M 
IS  lbs. 

t  The  body  of  a  man  has  a  surfhce  of  SOOO  square  inekta  urf 
thsrelbre  ibe  pretsura  up'-n  kis  is  sque*  to  aOMU  lbs. 


rf  the  on 

Patus  for 

apparent 

but  is  qui 

ing  any  v 

Limpet 

adhere  to 

their  shell 

smaller  b 

eflectually 

priate  plac 


Air  ma' 

!l  by" 

This  sppar 

and  consist 

mouth  dow 

brass  pum{ 

ig-  19,  rep 

the  working 

may  be  dcsc 

is  the  glasi 

standing  on 

smooth  platt 

fitting  so  ext 

no  air  can  | 

between  the 

the  receiver 

plate,    (n  tl 

88,  there  is 

nei  A  B  issu 

the  barrel  of  i 

P  is  the  pisto 

pump,  with  it 

a^ve,  which  i 

optvanis  and 

wsrdsbyanar 

winch.    The 

works  in  a  ti) 

IsrD.    At  the 

which  the  air 

ing.    On  dtp 

lained  air  is 

piston  agait)  t< 

rir  is  admitted 

npclled  in  iti 

"•e  air  in  the 

wards  more  ra 

practical  purp< 

opens  outward 

the  piston  by  e 

By  means  o 

Mperiments  ii 

example,  if  a 

at  the  neck,  be 

•lien  produced, 

the  removal  of 

nssdy  to  burst 

tion,  will  expa 

fr;ut;  and  an  e 

*ill  explode. 

I^low  the  recei' 

die,  both  from 

their  bodies. 

The  atmosph 
^f  a  iiirht  and 
««hau«te<l  rwcei 
fend  with  the  i 
pact  nature.  A 
">•  Mme  instant 
••'  exhausted  n 
••nw  moment. 
Thatatrnwoh 


PNEUMATICS.    ■■^'0^ 


191 


iflaailf  «• 

loaphere  on 
idy  noticed, 

kbove  thtt 
of  thfl  air  at 

of  grettMl 
[  there  it  «x 
he  air  at  th* 
It  15  poundi 

ich  refen  to 
level.    The 
nd   in  every 
w  fluids  preia 
vice,  nook,  or 
lure  'u  equally 
taini  the  prea- 
ia  penon,  and 
jaeibly  niove,| 
interior  of  hit 
38,  viscera,  and 
ure  is  cou^ltc^ 

ithdrawn  from 
;omc8  immedi> 
keric  preasuie. 


Fig.  18. 
ig  admitted,  th« 
adhesion  of  the 
stone,  if  aot  too 

upon  the  ian» 
Ih  its  mouth  neai 
being  consumed 
Intly  applied,  «nd 
liaving  been  pre- 
[fill  the  vacuum, 
«.    The  feeling 
pe  weight, 
cts  are  formed  on 
fans  they  are  en- 
[the  ceiling  of  »ii 
^ri^t  and  smooth 
B,  they  procure  a 
ir-tight  space  \» 
:h  these  vacumw 
^ed,  is  an  exceed 
I  economy  of  the 
utmost  efforU  of 
Iputation,  a  8y.  in 
inute,  creates  tml 
When  dcpriwd 


,1  the  omar  extnmiliM  of  iu  legs,  on  whidi  the  appa- 
ratus for  adhesion  ia  situated,  •  fly  can  walk  without  any 
apparent  diflirulty  on  a  horizontal  surface,  such  as  a  table, 
but  is  quite  inrapable  of  adhering  to  the  roof,  or  of  climb- 
ing any  upright  surface. 

Limpets,  snails,  and  some  other  crustaoeoua  animals, 
adhere  to  rocks  and  stonea,  by  causing  a  vacuum  within 
their  shells,  which  they  accomplish  by  shrinking  into  a 
smaller  bulk;  by  this  simple  contrivance,  nature  has 
eflectually  provided  for  their  safe  adhesion  to  their  appro- 
priate placea  of  residence. 

•  THE   AIR-PUMP. 

Air  may  he  artificially  withdrawn  from  a  containing 
vessel  by  meana  of  an  apparatus  called  the  air-pump. 
This  apj>aratus  is  usually  small,  for  standing  on  a  table, 
and  consists  chiefly  of  a  glass  jar  called  a  receiver,  placed 
mouth  downwards  over  a  flat  surface,  and  with  a  small 
brass  pump  to  draw  the  air  from  it.    The  annexed  out, 
fig.  19.  represents  an  outline  section  of  an  air-pump, 
the  working  of  which 
Biay  be  described.    R 
is  the  glass  receiver 
standing  on  a  flat  and 
smooth  plate  BS,  ond 
fitting  so  exactly  that 
no  air  can  penetrate 
between  the  edges  of 
the  receiver  and  the 
plate.    \n  the  plate 
88,  there  is  a  chan- 
nel A  B  isfiuing  into 
the  barrel  of  a  pump. 
P  is  the  piston  of  the 
punqi,  with  its  rod  C 
sjove,  which  is  moved 
opwards  and  down- 
wards by  a  nandle  and 
winch.    The  rod  C 
works  in  a  tight  col- 
UrD. 


sound,  in  the  absence  of  other  media,  is  also  exempli 
fied  by  the  air-pump.  If  we  place  a  small  bell  in  a  ie> 
ceiver,  in  such  a  manner  aa  to  admit  of  being  rvBg 
easily  firom  the  outside  without  admitting  air  into  the 
inside,  whilst  the  receiver  is  full  of  air  the  sound  of  the 
bell  will  be  distinctly  heard;  liut  after  the  receiver  hM 
been  exhausted,  and  although  the  bell  be  struck  with 
the  same  force,  the  sound  will  be  inaudible,  or  nearly 
so.  If  a  small  portion  of  air  be  admitted,  it  will  be 
faintly  heard,  and  it  will  gradually  increase  according  to 
the  quantity  of  air  which  is  allowed  to  enter  the  re- 
ceiver. Thus,  we  are  indebted  to  the  air  as  a  medium 
for  conveying  to  us  the  sound  of  each  other's  voioea, 
and  all  the  melodious  notes  which  constitute  music 
The  act  of  in^iring  and  expiring  air  resembles  the 

alternating  action  o#  an  air-pump.    The  air,  on  being 
drawn  in  through  the  appropriate  tubes,  fills  the  lungs, 

and  the  chest  is  expanded ;  having  performed  its  ofiBce, 

the  air  is  expelled  in  an  impure  condition,  leaving  • 

partial  vacuum  within,  until  another  inspiration  causal 

another  expansion. 

A  machine  called  a  condensing  pump  or  syringe,  ii 

formed  for  the  purpose  of  showing  experiments  wilk 

air  more  dense  Uian 

th^t  of  the  common 

atmosphere.  The  ap- 
paratus, which  is  re- 
presented in  fig.  20, 

consists  of   a    close 

glass  jar  or  receiver 

fixed  in  a  frame.    A 

wire  and  hook  serve 

to  communicate  with 

the    interior   during 

the  performance   of 

experiments.       The 

syringe  i  is  wrought 

by  the  piston  with  the 


[puinp of  »  «"»«' 

Ito  18  lbs.  sccoriiBj 
lit  is  itsi'd  »l  " 
^loul  la  ihe  »"  " 

»  sonars  inches.  •»< 

^  aaxm  u>i. 


Pig.  19. 
At  the  bottom  ot  the  pump  there  is  a  valve  V,  by 
which  the  air  escapes,  and  is  prevented  from  again  enter- 
ing. On  depressing  the  piston,  a  portion  of  the  oon- 
tuned  air  u  expelled  by  the  alve,  and  on  raising  the 
piston  again  to  its  position  at  the  top,  another  column  of 
rir  is  adcoitted  from  the  receiver  into  the  pump,  which  is 
expelled  in  its  turn.  Thus,  by  a  process  of  expulsion, 
the  air  in  tfie  receiver  becomes  at  every  stroke  down- 
wards more  rare,  till  at  length  a  vacuum  sufficient  for  all 
practical  purposes  is  established.  The  valve  V,  which 
opens  outwards,  is  kept  forcibly  shut  at  every  rising  of 
the  piston  by  external  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 

By  means  of  the  air-pump,  a  number  of  interesting 
experiments  in  pneumatics  may  be  performed.  For 
example,  if  a  blaidder  half  full  of  air,  and  tightly  tied 
It  the  neck,  he  placed  under  the  receiver,  and  a  vacuum 
then  produced,  the  air  in  the  blidder  will  expand  by 
(he  removal  of  the  external  pressure,  and  seem  as  if 
ready  to  burst  Dried  raisins,  during  a  similar  opera- 
tion, will  expand,  and  have  all  the  pulpness  of  new 
fruit ;  and  an  egg,  by  the  expansion  of  its  confined  air, 
will  explode.  Any  small  animals,  such  as  mice,  placed 
below  the  receiver  and  deprived  of  air,  will  immediately 
die,  both  from  want  of  breath  and  the  expansion  of 
their  bodies. 

The  atmosphere  oervea  to  retard  the  falling  of  bodies 
af  a  liirht  and  porous  nature;  and,  therefore,  in  the 
eihausted  receiver  of  an  air-pump,  all  such  bodies  de- 
scend with  the  same  velocity  as  bodies  of  a  heavy  com- 
pact nature.  A  piece  of  coin  and  a  feather  let  fall  at 
the  same  instant  of  time,  from  a  hook  within  the  top  of 
an  exhausted  receiver,  will  strike  the  bottom  at  the 
Nme  moment 

That  atrnMoheric  air  is  uaeiul  for  the  transmisrion  of 


Fig.ao. 

handle  k.  From  the  bottom  of  the  syringe  there  la  a 
tube  communicating  with  the  interior  of  the  receiver. 
When  the  piston  is  raised,  a  valve  beneath  opening  in- 
wards, admits  air  into  the  cylinder  of  the  syringe,  and 
when  it  is  depressed,  this  quantity  of  air  is  forced  into 
the  receiver ;  by  the  alternate  raising  and  depressing  of 
the  piston,  an  immense  quantity  of  air  is  forced  into  the 
receiver. 

The  elastic  force  of  air  so  condensed  is  very  great, 
and  is  employed  for  the  projection  of  balls  from  an  in- 
strument called  an  air-gun.  A  certain  quantity  of  com- 
pressed air  is  confined  in  a  chamber  at  the  inner  end  of 
the  barrel,  and  when  allowed  to  escape  by  touching  a 
vaWe,  a  bullet  is  projected  with  a  force  resembling  that 
of  gunpowder. 

The  explosive  force  of  gunpowder  itself  is  nothing 
else  than  the  sudden  disengagement  of  air  firom  the  pus 
tides  of  the  powder. 

PRIStURE   or   AIR  ON  SOLIDS  AHD  LIQUIDS.     >i| 

The  pressure  of  tho  atmosphere  afieets  all  liquids  aa 
well  as  solid  bodies.  The  load  of  the  incumbent  air  ia 
as  sensibly  exerted  teilhin  any  given  mass  of  water  as 
on  the  surface.  Thus  atmospheric  pressure  keeps  water 
and  other  liquids  at  the  density  they  are  usually  seen 
to  possess. 

If  a  glass  be  filled  with  water,  and  placed  under  the 
receiver  of  an  air-pump,  the  abstraction  of  the  air,  by 
the  removal  of  the  atmospheric  pressure,  will  cause  the 
water  to  expand  or  become  less  dense,  and  it  will  over- 
flow the  vessel  in  which  it  is  containad. 

Water  in  its  ordinary  condition  coutaina  a  certain 
quantity  of  particles  of  air  mixed  up  with  it.  When 
the  atmospheric  pressure  is  lightened,  th«se  particles  of 
air  expand,  and  being  of  a  less  specihc  gravity  than 
water,  they  mount  to  the  top  of  the  liqnW  '•n  the  'bnu 


199 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


«f  amall  globutea,  and  ao  fly  off.  The  aame  effect  ia 
produced  h^  expanding  water  by  meana  of  heat ;  the 
globulea  of  nir  riae  to  the  auiftce,  and  eacape  or  remain 
attached  to  the  inaide  of  the  veaael.  Cryatal  bottlea  of 
water  may  be  obaerved  to  be  covered  inaide  with  small 
•ir-bella  when  the  weather  become*  auddenly  light  or 
warm.  Water  which  haa  been  boiled  ia  comparatively 
(ne  of  air,  and  haa  an  inaipid  flavour. 

Certain  gaiea  are  generated  in  aome  liquom,  auch  aa 
h  porter,  beer,  and  champagne  wine,  and  unlesa  the 
bottlea  in  which  they  are  contained  be  of  sufficient 
itningth  to  endure  the  expansive  tendency,  they  will 
burst  Un  drawing  the  cork  from  a  bottle  of  one  of 
these  liqunra,  the  confined  gaa  or  air  is  suffered  to  ex- 
pand, and  the  contents  gush  forth,  ^mixture  of  froth, 
and  liquid.  If  the  liquid  remaii^  in  an  open  gUss  for 
a  short  time,  a  large  portion  of  the  Inng-confined  gases 
•aeapes  into  the  atmosphere,  and  the  liquor  seems  flat 
or  dead.  A  portion  of  confined  air,  however,  still  re- 
mains, in  consequence  of  the  atinoapheric  pressure.  If 
we  take  a  glasa  of  ginger-beer  which  aeems  quite  dead, 
and  place  it  under  the  exhausted  receiver  of  an  air- 
pump,  it  will  again  froth  and  appear  brisk. 

Some  mineral  waters  on  springing  from  the  ground 
sparkle  like  beer.  Those  moat  likely  rine  from  great 
deptha,  where  the  incumbent  preaaure  ia  considerable, 
and  on  attaining  the  surface  of  the  earth  they  expand, 
and  give  forth  the  air  pent  up  in  thuir  mass. 

If  •  bladder  full  of  air  be  carried  from  a  low  situa- 
fion  to  a  great  height,  the  contained  air  will  expend, 
and  die  bladder  will  burst,  the  same  aa  if  placed  under 
the  exhausted  receiver  of  an  air-pump. 

If  a  bladder  be  filled  with  air  at  a  great  height,  where 
the  fluid  ia  rare,  and  brought  to  a  low  situation,  the  con- 
tained air  will  be  compressed  by  the  more  dense  fluid 
without,  and  the  bladder  will  appear  aa  if  only  half  or 
partially  filled. 

The  fluids  in  the  nnimal  and  vegetable  system  are 
rimilarly  al&cted  by  atmospheric  pressure.  Our  bodies, 
for  instance,  would  expand,  and  our  blood-vessels  pro- 
bably be  ruptured,  if  placed  for  a  short  time  in  a  va- 
cnum.  On  the  same  principle,  any  change  in  the 
density  of  the  ntmosiihere  haa  an  effect  on  the  animal 
frame. 

The  atmospheric  pressure,  in  ordinary  conditions  of 
the  air,  and  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  as  already  stated,  ia 
equal  to  15  lbs.  to  the  square  inch.  If  by  any  means, 
•uch  as  digging  into  the  earth,  we  should  go  Iwlow  the 
aea'a  level,  the  weight  will  be  found  to  increase.  In 
deep  coal  minea,  fur  instance,  the  preaaure  of  the  at- 
moaphere  ia  aomething  more  than  16  lbs.  to  the  aquare 
inch. 

The  preaaure  diminishea  in  a  similar  degree  as  we 
aHcend  into  the  atmosphere.  At  every  step  upwards 
from  the  shore  the  burden  of  the  superincumbent  mass 
lightens.  At  the  height  of  three  miles,  one-half  of 
the  weight  is  lost ;  or,  in  other  words,  at  that  height 
the  air  ia  only  half  the  denaity  of  air  at  the  aea'a  level. 
The  breathing  apparatua  of  animala  is  auitod  to  an 
atmoapheric  density  and  preacure  auch  as  ia  found  at 
the  aea'a  level,  or  at  a  moderate  elevation  above  it  By 
■acending  in  the  atmosphere,  as  in  climbing  hills, 
we  are  deprived  of  the  quantity  of  air  to  which  we 
have  been  accustom^ ;  and  when  we  reach  a  height  of 
three  miles,  we  in  reality  inhale  only  one-half  of  the 
weight  of  air  into  the  lungs  that  we  use  at  the  aea'a 
leveL  Consequently,  thoae  who  ascend  to  great  eleva- 
tions experience  difficulty  in  breatliing,  and  feel  an  ex- 
panaion  in  their  blood-veasela  and  muaclea  by  the  i>o- 
moval  of  a  portion  of  the  ordinary  preaaure.*     All  the 


•  It  is  known  ihal  traveller*,  and  evan  their  praeiincd  guides, 
enen  fUl  down  luddcnly  aa  if  itruek  by  lightning,  when  np- 
proaehiac  lony  summiu,  on  aocouni  chiefly  o(  the  Ihinnraa  of 
-Jir  air  wbieh  tkay  ar*  bmlkiog.  and  som*  minutes  •ispi*  b*- 


joints  in  our  bodies,  particularly  those  ct  the  kne«  anj 
shoulder,  are  in  a  great  measure  held  together  by  thu 
external  pressure  of  the  atmosphere ;  and  thus  a  prin 
cipio  in  pneumatic*  compensates  for  a  loading  of  niu» 
cular  lignments. 

A  consideration  of  the  effects  of  atmospheric  pre» 
sure,  and  its  variability  at  different  elevations,  also  thf 
alterations  in  pressure  cauaed  by  the  expansiun  or  light 
ening  of  the  air  by  heat,  and  its  incMaaed  density  by 
cold  and  moisture,  tcnda  to  explain  the  remarkable  in. 
flucnce  which  change  of  climate  haa  upon  the  human 
constitution.  Thua,  the  inhabitanta  of  countries  pom 
scssing  a  light  dry  atmosphere  are  usually  more  lively 
than  those  of  countries  with  a  heavy  moist  climate, 

PRESSURE   ON    MERCVRY^-THE   BAROMETER. 

The  pressure  of  the  atmospheric  column  at  any  girtt) 
point,  may  be  weighed  with  considerable  exactness,  by 
balancing  it  against  an  opposite  column  of  mercury 
water,  or  other  liijuid. 

The  prcsfiurc  of  15  lbs.  to  the  square  inch  it  the 
ocenn'H  level  is  found  by  experiment  to  lie  equal  to  the 
weight  of  a  column  of  mercury  of  30  inches  in  height, 
a  column  of  water  33  feet  in  height,  or  a  column  of  oil 
37  feet  in  height  In  other  words,  the  burden  of  the 
whole  of  our  atmosphere  is  equivalent  to  an  ocean  of 
mercury  covering  the  earth  to  a  height  of  30  inches,  an 
ocean  of  water  to  a  height  of  33  feet,  or  an  ocean  of  oil 
to  a  height  of  37  feet 

The  fact  of  such  lieing  the  degree  of 
atmospheric  pressure  admits  of  easy 
proof,  by  means  of  a  glaaa  tube  upwarda 
of  thirty-two  inches  in  length,  and  a 
cup  half  filled  with  mercury,  as  repre- 
sented in  fig.  21.  The  tube  is  close  at 
its  upper  end  at  B,  but  o{m;ii  at  its  lower 
extremity,  which  is  iininersed  in  the 
mercury  Ix'low  the  surface  levi'l  C  P  D. 
The  tul>e  having  in  the  first  place  been 
filled  with  pure  mercury,  a  finger  is 
placed  on  its  open  end  to  prevent  the 
egress  of  the  liquid,  and  thus  held,  the 
lower  end  of  the  tul)e  is  turned  down- 
wards, and  plunged  into  the  vessel  of 
mercurj',  when  the  finger  is  removed 
from  the  orifice.  The  mercury  in  the 
tube  will  now  be  observed  to  full  to  E, 
or  the  height  of  about  thirty  inches 
above  the  surface  C  P  D,  and  there  it 
will  remain. 

The  question  now  arises.  Why  the  mercury  in  the 
tube  does  not  run  out  altogether  into  the  cup,  inAtnid 
of  standing  to  the  height  of  thirty  inches  in  the  tube* 
The  explanation  of  the  phenomenon  is,  that  from  £  to 
B  in  the  tulie  is  a  vacuum,  and  therefore  the  nicrcui; 
at  its  upper  extremity  is  entirely  free  of  atmu<inheric 
preaaure — there  is  no  superinciimlient  weight  to  push  ii 
out  The  column  of  mercury  E  P  prcAsos  with  no- 
thing but  its  own  weight  on  tlie  mercury  of  tlic  ro|x 
This  weight  of  thirty  inches  of  mercury  is  counterba. 
lanced  by  the  pressure  of  air  on  tlie  surface  of  the  met. 
cury  in  the  cup  ;  and  thus  it  is  evident  that  the  wpigbi 
of  the  atmosphere  is  e<)uivalont  to  the  weight  nf  thirt; 
inches  of  mercury.  If  by  any  means  we  remove  the 
atmospheric  pressure  from  the  mercury  in  the  cup,  the 
mercury  in  the  tube  will  immediately  sink  into  the  rup 

The  circumstance  of  the  column  of  mercury  in  the 
tube  being  narrow,  and  the  aurfsce  of  the  mercury  ic 
the  cup  being  broad,  makes  no  difference  in  the  expen' 

fore  they  recover.  In  the  elevated  plains  nf  South  AmrrirL 
the  inhabitants  have  larger  chests  than  the  inlialijisnitortlii 
lowffr  ronioiii — anoilir>r  ailinirtilN'  inninnc?  nithp  niiiinnl  rtuu 
ailapiinc  iio-ll'  to  the  circuiu<lancei  in  which  :t  is  placed.- ir 


Fig.  21. 


■4J'^-  f^t      PNEUMATICS,  '^  ■*'  * '  ''* 


*tll 


kne«  «ni 
her  by  th« 
lui  a  prin 
ng  of  inu» 

horic  pre» 
i«,  also  thf 
un  or  Ughv 

density  hy 
larkable  in- 

the  human 
untries  pon' 

more  lively 
climate. 

MBTCR. 

at  any  given 
ixactnesB,  by 
of  mercury, 

inch  at  the 
equal  to  the 
lies  in  height, 
column  of  oil 
burden  of  the 
an  ocean  of 
3U  inches,  an 
m  ocean  of  oil 


Fig.  21. 

mercury  in  the 
he  cup,  insteid 
e»  in  the  lubel 
that  from  E  to 
re  the  nicrcurj 
of  atmotinheric 
rcight  to  push  il 
■fsHes  with  no- 
tary of  the  cup. 
-V  is  counterbj. 
tUcc  of  the  m«- 
that  the  wpigbt 
weight  of  thirt) 
we  remove  the 
.  in  the  cup,  lh« 
nk  into  the  cup 
mercury  in  the 
■  the  mercury  ic 
;e  in  the  experv 

p(  Pouth  Amtrifi, 
[inhol>iuin«orih« 
|r  ihe  aaiiunl  ft»™ 
III  ;i  IS  plateil.-* 


.nent,  because  the  prewure  of  elaatic  flulda  ii  a*  their 
ilensitv,  not  aa  width  of  rolume.  The  same  result 
would'  occur  if  the  surface  of  the  mercury  presented 
to  the  atmospheric  pressure  were  only  the  width  of  the 

will'. 

The  hfliffht  at  which  itjercury  stands  in  a  tube  of  this 
kind,  always  l>ear»  reference  to  tne  incumhont  weight 
of  the  atmoHphcro  on  the  open  and  lower  extremity  of 
the  column.  If  we  increase  the  external  premmre  by 
iirtiflcial  means,  or  by  dcscendiniir  below  the  sen's  level, 
the  mercury  rises  ;  if  we  decrease  it  by  artiflcini  means, 
or  by  ascending  into  the  atmosphere,  or  if  the  atmo- 
uphere  i»  rarefied  by  heat,  the  mercury  f-ills. 

This  very  obvious  connection  between  the  rising  and 
falling  of  mercury  in  a  tube,  and  the  atmosphere,  has 
niggcstcd  the  construction  of  an  instrument  called  the 
'laronic'er  (a  word  from  the  Greek,  signifying  trright 
and  ni«'i»«''<')>  by  which  the  effects  of  atmospheric  pres- 
(ure  may  be  accurately  known. 

The  barometer  in  common  use  con- 
Mits  of  a  narrow  glass  tube  upwards  of 
thirty  inches  in  length,  and  bent  up- 
wards nt  its  lower  extremity,  as  repre- 
Hcnted  in  fig.  23.  The  mercury  is  in- 
troduced into  the  tube  with  great  care, 
so  that  a  perfect  vacuum  exists  at  the 
■ipper  extremity.  The  surface  of  the 
iiiprcury  in  the  l>cnt  part  is  open  to  the 
•  lotion  of  the  atmoBphcro,  and  buoys  up 
a  small  plummet  or  float,  F,  to  which  a 
thread  is  attached  ;  the  thread  proceeds 
upwards  to  a  smiill  pulley,  O,  over 
which  it  goes,  and  terminates  in  a  snnll 
hall,  W.  The  friction  of  the  thread  on 
the  pulley  turns  a  small  index,  H,  which 
points  to  figures  on  the  surrounding 
dial.  Commonly,  the  whole  apparatus, 
eiwpt  the  dial-plate,  is  concealed  in  an 
ornamental  frame. 

Barometers  of  this  description  arc  adjusted  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  smallest  rising  or  falling  of  the  mer- 
fury  from  atmospheric  action  affects  the  index  on  the 
dial,  and  shows  the  degree  of  pressure. 

[n  common  circumstances,  the  mercury  ranges  from 
29  to  80  inches.  It  seldom  sinks  so  low  as  28,  o<-  rises 
to  31.  When  it  falls,  an  indication  is  given  of  dimi- 
niiihod  pressure,  and  as  diminished  pressure  causes  the 
air  to  expand,  and  consequently  to  be  sensibly  cooled, 
moisture  is  liable  to  be  precipitated  in  the  form  of  rain. 
Hence  a  fall  in  the  mercury  of  the  barometer  is  con- 
iilcrcil  a  prognostic  of  rain  or  wet  weather,  and  a  rise 
he  reverse.  The  dial  of  the  barometer  ii  marked  ac- 
I  jordinily. 

The  barometer,  besides  being  a  weather-glass,  is  used 
I  ts  an  instrument  for  measuring  the  heights  of  moun. 
I  uini,  or  heights  attained  in  balloons,  above  the  level  of 
I  the  tea. 

As  the  entire  atmosphere  sustains  thirty  inches  of 
I  mercury  in  the  tube,  it  follows  that  »t  every  step  as  we 
I  ascend,  the  pressure  will  become  less,  and  a  less  body 
jof  mercury  be  sustained.  It  is  found  that  at  the  height 
lof  five  hundred  foot  the  mercury  has  sunk  half  an  inch. 
iBut  the  fall  does  not  ])rocced  in  this  ratio  as  we  go  up- 
Iwirds,  because  a  half  of  the  whole  atmosphere  is  within 
|il>out  three  miles,  and  the  other  half  expanded  to  an 
iltitudc  of  alKiut  fifty  miles.  Henre.  on  gaining  a  height 
iW  three  miles,  the  mercury  is  found  to  have  sunk  to 
llillccn  inchr!<,  or  one  half;  and  on  gaining  a  height  of 
fnnr  miles,  to  twelve  inches. 

Uaioinctcrs  for  measuring  heights   arc   constructed 

*iih  n  determined  »cale,  marked  along  the  tube  of  iner- 

ory,  and  by  consulting  it  as  we  ascend,  we  lenm  the 

iiitht  of  anv  spot  that  we  may  reach.     Perfect  exact- 

Vot.  I.— 36 


Fig.  29. 


ness,  however,  is  not  to  be  expected  in  ihia  mode  uf 
measurement,  because  the  atmospheric  pressure  is  liable 
to  variation  from  temperature,  and  the  mercury  is  liabto 
to  contraction  or  expansion  firom  the  same  cause.  To 
guard  against  error,  a  thermometer,  as  well  as  a  baro- 
meter, il  consulted  in  ascending  heights,  and  the  indl* 
cations  of  both  instruments,  according  to  a  scale  esta> 
blishcd  by  experiment,  determine  the  degree  of  clew 
tion.  Thus,  for  a  diminution  of  one  degree  of  tempe- 
rature between  0  and  32  degrees,  tho  mercury  in  th« 
barometer  falls  0-0034  of  an  inch,  and  between  32  de- 
grees and  52  degrees  it  rises  0.0033  of  an  inch 

t : 
PHE.S8UHB  ON  WATBR — PUMPS.        i, ,       ,^ 

Th  '  effect  of  atmospheric  pressure  on  water  is  ob- 
servabl's  m  various  "contrivances  in  the  arts. 

Fill  a  glass  t<5  the  brim  with  water,  and  lay  a  piece 
of  paper  over  the  whole  surface  of  tho  liiiuid  :  then  turn 
the  glass  carefully  upside  <lown,  holding  on  the  papw 
by  the  hand  ;  the  water  will  now  remain  in  the  glass, 
being  upheld  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  against 
the  paper. 

Gla.sn  fountains  of  water  for  bird-cageh,  '.nk-holden, 
and  reservoirs  of  oil  for  lamps,  are  constructed  on  the 
principle  of  the  liquid  being  upheld  by  atmospheric 
pressure. 

The  apparatus  for  lifling  water  from  wells,  lorming 
the  common  sucking-pump,  acts  on  the  principle  of  re- 
moving tho  atmospheric  pressure  from  a  column  of  the 
liquid,  thus  causing  a  vacuum  in  the  pump,  and  allow 
ing  tho  atmospheric  pressure  on  the  surface  of  the 
liquid  in  the  well  to  force  up  and  balance  the  cclumn 
of  iifluid. 

Fig.  23  represents  the  outline  of  a  common  sucking- 
pump  ;  it  consists  of  a  cylinder,  fiimished  with  a  piston 
A  made  to  fit  air-tight.    In 
this  piston  there  is  a  valve 
opening  upwards,  not  seen 
in  the  cut     When  the  pis-C 
ton    is   raised,   the   air    is 
rarefied  more  and  more  at 
each  stroke  in  that  portion 
of   the    cylinder    through 
which   it    has   moved  up- 
wards, and  the  pressure  of 
the  air  upon  the  surface  of 
the  water   on   the   outside 
of  the  tube  forces  the  fluid 
into  it.     The  valve  B  is  at 
the  same  time  opened  up- 
wards, and  the  water  after 
several    strokes   rushes    in 
above  it      When  the  up- 
ward stroke  of  tho  piston  is  Fig-  83. 
complete,   it    is    again  de- 
pressed— the  water  passes  through  the  valve  m  the  pta- 
ton,  and  on  the  next  stroke,  it  is  discharged  at  the  spout. 
It  is  evident,  that,  when  the  piston  is  sunk  downwards, 
the  water  cannot  be  again  forced  out  of  the  pump,  be- 
cause the  valve  at  the  bottom  is  pressed  down,  and  pnv 
vents  its  encapc. 

Water  may  in  this  manner  be  lifled  by  a  pump  to 
any  height,  but  in  each  case  the  lower  or  fixed  valve  in 
the  pump  must  be  less  than  34  feet  from  the  surface 
of  the  water.  It  is,  however,  disadvantageous  to  lift 
water  from  great  depths  hy  this  means.  In  such  cases 
il  is  usual  to  employ  a  succession  of  pnmps,  one  abov« 
another. 

It  is  customary  to  call  pumps  hydraulic  machines; 
properly  «i)enking,  they  arc  both  hydraulic  and   pneu- 
matic machines,  for  water  is  raised  by  them  in  a  preal 
measure  through  the  agency  of  atmospheric  pressure. 
B 


Jt« 


INFORMATION  FOR  THR  rEOPLB. 


The  rortn  ot  pump  UMsd 
'for  fiirring  wt'cr  to  a  height 
aliove  the  ground,  ni  in  the 
cn>>o  of  flr»«nginei  or  porta- 

'  U«  forcing-pumpa  for  gar- 
(loiii,  ii  (Uitcrent  from  the 
common  luction-pump.  The 

'  objrrt  in  the  forring  pump  i« 
to   lift  water    to   a  certain 

'  heiglit  by  the  formation  of  a 
vacuum,  and  then  to  inject 
It  witli  violence  into  the  air. 
I'he  action  of  the  forcini{- 
pump    apparatus    ia    rcpre- 
<ontod  in  flg.  24.  The  piaton 
A  lucka  the  water  by  its  up- 
ward   motion;   but    on   do-  —  —  --■  - 
(irewing  it,  the   vnlve  B  ii  F'R-  2''' 
clo8od,  and  the  water  ia  coniequontly  forced  through 
the  pipe  C. 

In  the  case  of  supplying  water  to  the  boiler  of  a 
<tearo-cngine,  it  is  necessary  to  employ  a  forring-purap, 
in  order  to  overcome  the  pressure  of  steam  within  the 
boiler.  The  force  with  which  the  water  is  injected 
overcomes  the  tendency  which  the  steam  has  to  rush 
out 

Cold  or  moderately  warm  water  can  only  be  lifted 
iiy  a  pump.  If  the  water  be  above  a  certain  tempera- 
ture, al>out  160  degrees  at  the  utmost,  the  sucker  can- 
not form  a  perfect  vacuum,  because,  in  the  attempt  to 
do  so,  the  water  yields  a  steam  or  vafiour  whicb  fills 
the  space ;  in  other  words,  by  removing  the  atmospheric 
pie6.sure  by  the  piston,  tbn  water  begins  to  vaporize  as 
if  about  to  boil.  When  a  pump  is  made  to  operate 
upon  hot  water,  it  labourj  in  vain  to  raise  the  liquid, 
l^is  circumetance  limits  the  heat  of  water  injected  into 
the  lioilers  of  stcam-ongincs ;  or  if  the  water  is  injected 
at  a  high  tem|wraturp,  it  must  receive  its  heat  between 
the  pump  and  the  boiler.  I'his  is  sometimes  done,  by 
causing  the  tube  from  the  pump  to  pass  through  a  vca- 
wl  of  waste  tteam. 

STPHONS. 

Atmospheri;  pressure  is  very  conspicuous  in  the  case 
of  lie  syphon. 

A  syphon  is  a  tube  bent  in  a  particular  manner,  and 
is  uswi  for  drawing  otT  liquors  from  casks,  or  water 
from  reservoirs.  One  kind  of  syphon  is  represented 
in  fig.  25,  and  consista  of  a  tube  bent 
into  two  equal  limbs,  each  open  at 
the  extremity.  If  such  a  syphon  be 
filled  with  water  and  inverted,  so  as 
to  turn  the  two  orifices  downwards, 
the  liquid  will  not  run  out,  but  re- 
main iiuspended  in  the  tube,  because 
Fir.  25.  ^c  pressure  of  the  column  of  water 

^thin  is  not  so  great  as  the  pre9«ure  of  the  air  without, 
And  thua  its  escape  outwards  is  prevented.  If  one  end 
oe  put  into  a  vessel  of  water,  the  veseel  will  be  emptied 
JoWii  ia  a  level  with  the  orifice.  It  is  evident  that,  when 
one  end  of  the  syphon  is  inserte<l  in  water,  the  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere  upon  the  surfoce  of  the  water  impels 
(he  liquid  through  the  tube,  and  it  could  be  forced  up- 
wards to  an  elevation  of  above  thirty  fret,  or  the  height 
to  which  water  rise*  in  a  vacuum.  The  diagram  rcpm- 
•enta  an  instrument  of  this  kind  fnrniKhod  with  two 
rupa,  firmly  attached  to  the  ends,  which,  by  retaining 
n  l>ortion  of  the  liquid,  keeps  the  syphon  always  full 
ind  ready  for  use. 

Syphons  are  more  commonly  made  with  a  long  and 
«hort  limb,  as  in  fig.  36.  On  insrrtini;  the  short  limb 
into  a  vessel  of  liquid,  and  drawing  the  air  out  of  the 
nihe  at  the  mouth  A,  the  liquid  will  rush  out  in  a 
•l.rHin,  a..d  continue  flowing  till  the  vessel  is  emptied. 


Fiir.  SB. 


The  pressure  upwards  into  the  tulie  at  V  is  tne  *  ii>.^ 
of  the  atmospheric  pressure  above  the  vertical  iirn*. 
sore  of  the  column  of  fluid  \  B ;  and  the  similar  pre*, 
■ure  at  C  is  the  excess  of  the  atmospheric  preason 
above  the  vertical  pressure  of  "/  "^ 
the  column  of  fluid  B  C ;  but 
the  latter  excess  is  evidently 
the  greater,  and  hence  the 
liquid  in  the  vessel  is  necea- 
aarily  forced  upwards  through 
the  tube  from  C  to  B  ;  and 
thus  the  vessel  is  drained  of 
its  contents.  By  placing  a 
stopcock  on  the  tube  above 
A,  the  stream  can  lie  chocked, 
and  permitted  to  flow  at  plea- 
sure. 1'hcre  are  instances  of 
towns  being  supplied  with  water  by  means  of  [tnm 
syphons  of  this  kind.  In  these  cases  the  syphon  it 
brought  over  a  rising  ground  from  a  lake  or  fountain  at 
some  distance.  Certain  kinds  of  springs  are  accountsr 
for  on  the  principle  of  the  syphon  ;  they  net  from  the 
combined  eflCjcts  of  a  vacuum  and  atmospheric  fm 
sure. 

ArrLICATlON  OP   HEAT  TO   WATER. 

The  prriisure  of  the  atmosphere  olVects  the  boilint  of 
water.  At  tlie  common  pressure  of  obout  15  lbs.  to 
the  squaru  inch,  water  will  boil,  or  attain  the  vaporiiic 
point,  at  212  degrees  Fahrenheit  If  we  remove  the 
atmospheric  prexsure  by  an  air-pump,  as  is  done  in  the 
boiling  of  sugar,  we  can  produce  the  phenomenon  of 
boiling  at  a  much  lower  temperature.  At  the  summit 
of  Mont  Blanc,  where  the  atmospheric  pressure  is  light, 
water  is  fouml  to  boil  at  187  degrees. 

Steam  produced  from  boihng  water  is  a  trar.jparent, 
colourless,  ai>d  invisible  substance,  like  air.  If  we  couU 
look  into  the  boiler  of  a  steam-engine,  we  should  Kt 
nothing  but  the  water  in  a  state  of  ebullition.  The 
white  cloudy-looking  matter  which  is  emitted  in  the 
form  of  vapour,  is  moisture  produced  by  the  pmid 
condensation  of  the  steam  in  the  atmosphere — takini 
the  form  of  vapour  is  a  stop  towards  becoming  liquid 
again. 

A  cubic  inch  of  water  produces  exactly  a  cubic  fool, 
or  1728  cubic  inches,  of  steam,  at  212  degrees  of  tnni 
perature ;  in  other  words,  when  water  is  transfomu-j 
into  steam,  it  occupies  1728  times  its  former  bulk,  in 
this  expanded  condition  steam  is  of  a  less  8|iccilic  gn. 
vity  than  air.  Its  denaity  is  expressed  by  ()-623,  ihit  j 
of  air  being  1. 

The  elastic  force  of  steam  in  the  process  of  beaihiii  { 
— that  ia,  the  force  with  which  it  seeks  to  expand— if. 
fers  at  difTcrent  temperatures ;  at  first  the  force  is  inonn- 
siderable,  but  it  rapiiUy  increases  as  the  teinpenturc  ii  I 
raised.     At  a  temperature  of  212  degrees,  the  elailje 
force  is  15  Ihs.  on  the  square  inch  of  the  contuniif 
vessel,  or  equal  to  the  external  pressure  of  ihe,  itmo  | 
sphere ;  at  25U  deg^-ecs,  it  ia  30  lbs. ;  at  272  degree),  it  | 
is  45  lbs. ;  at  290  degrees,  it  is  66  lbs. 

BUOYANT   PROPBRTT    OP   AERIFORM   PLUID8. 

The  atmosphere,  as  has  lieen  atated,  possrsset  lh(| 
property  of  buoying  up  bodies  which,  bulk  for  bulk,  ml 
lighter  than  ittielf.  The  law  governing  buoyancji  inl 
liquids  is  precisely  the  same  as  that  governing  buojrinc;! 
in  arriform  fluids,  and  may  here  be  repeated  in  refereiwl 
to  air. 

Ist.  Any  solid  body  immersed  in  a  fluid  diRplMol 
exactly  its  own  bulk  of  fluid,  and  the  force  with  vhidl 
the  body  ia  buoyed  up  is  equal  to  the  weigh  of  ihil 
fluid  which  is  displaced.    Thia  refers  to  bodiea  of  k 
density  than  air.     2d.  Any  solid  body  of  a  gitaterd 
sity  than  air,  when  wholly  immersed  in  that  fluid,  kMil 


(TBC'ly  as  ni 
?uik  of  air— 
I'he  supp 
iluid  by  its 
jx'araiiccs  in 
tha  rising  of 
Hying  of  birdi 
a  boy's  pape 
tiuoyant  prop* 
The  flight 
the  buoyant  j 
port  themselv< 
through  which 
with  the  prop* 
Uins  them  at 
ascend.     Birdi 
in  height,  and 
considerable  el 
to  be  unsuitat 
ride  to  the  higl 
fiance  the  eagh 
enable  them  to 
Ihin  fluid  in  wl 
The  light  he 
crnda,  and  is  hi 
Hydrogen,  or  a 
llian  air,  in  the 
alinoaphere  at  tl 
ipcriHc  gravity, 
or  any  light  gas 
tvand  in  the   a 
which  is  incapnb 
enclosing  worm  i 
8|iartment.    If  tl 
will  sink  instead 
A  balloon  is  a 
of  such  a  magn 
"eight  of  its  con 
luHicient  to  supp] 
parta  of  the  appa 
to  rile  by  being 
beneath  them;  L 
practice  was  in  co 
hydrogen  gas,  on( 
pared.    Hydrogei 
carbnreted  hydrog 
ea«iiy  obtained,  lie 
(Tcnerally  lighted. 
liuht  gas,  the  cont 
wfigh  only  an  eig 
bulk  for  bulk ;  an 
for  weight  of  app 
«-cighths;  in  ot 
wigh  two  pounds 
« weight  of  other  i 
lulloon  will  ascer 
"•wiring  iu  caj 
lie  result  with  an 
liifference  of  weigl 
Of  aerostation, , 
ia  balloons,  great 
•"!«<«;  hut  the  exi 


ijpi^gpjjspiiiMii'i"  J1.IMM1,  iir- 


PNEUMATICS. 


IM 


'crtiral  |i>«t> 
mmilu  pm*- 
Drlc  prMran 


neani  of  higt 
the  Hyphon  ii 
)  or  fountain  at 
«  are  nccountcr 
iry  net  from  the 
mosphcric  pret 


ATER. 

ts  tho  boiling  of 
about  l&  lbs.  to 
ttiii  the  vaporific 

we  remove  the 
08  in  done  in  the 

phenomenon  of 
At  the  summit 

prcMure  ii  light, 

is  a  trar.jpaient, 
e  air.  If  we  couW 
ie,  we  should  are 

ebullition.  The 
in  emitted  in  the 

J  by  the  psrtiil 

moBphcre— tailing 

becoming  liqnij 

lactly  a  cubic  foot, 
12  degrees  of  tfi» 
tcr  is  transfonnisl 
g  former  bulk.  Id 
a  lcH8  sjiccific  g* 
sed  by  0-625,  thil 

process  of  heairai 

iUh  to  expand— dif- 1 

the  force  is  incon- 1 

the  teinperatutc  ii  I 

leRrccs,  the  ela«iel 

of  the  conlsinim  I 

mre  of  ihe  atmoj 

at  272  degrees, ill 


roRM  ri.UlD8. 
ated,  possesses  ll* 
1,  bulk  for  hulk,  w 
■rning  buoyancj  in 
-governing  huoywcjl 
epcated  in  refcreiiotl 

in  a  fluid  displtwl 
he  force  with  "tail 
0  the  weigh  rftktl 
era  to  bodies  of  lw| 
Ay  of  aKi»ateril»l 
Hi  in  thatauid,l«| 


etacMy  u  much  of  Ita  weight  •■  the  weight  of  an  equal 
'.<ulk  of  air— that  i»,  of  the  air  which  it  diiplacea. 

riio  support  afforded  to  bodio*  in  the  atmonphoric, 
diiid  by  iU  reiistance  ia  very  evident  from  many  ap- 
nearaiicci  in  nature,  a*  the  support  of  vapours  or  clouds, 
the  rising  of  amoke  and  fine  particloi  of  duit,  and  the 
Hying  of  birda;  in  art,  it  ia  exenipiifiod  l>y  the  flying  of 
t  boy's  paper  kite,  the  rising  of  soap-bubblea,  and  ita 
buoyant  property  by  the  floating  of  balloons. 

The  flight  of  birds  ia  not  accomplished  altogether  by 
the  buoyant  property  in  tho  air.  These  animal*  lup- 
nort  themselvea  by  striking  their  winga  against  tho  fluid 
through  which  they  are  paaaing ;  and  this  friction,  along 
with  the  property  of  buoyancy  in  the  atmosphere,  sua- 
t;iins  tiiom  at  any  height  to  which  they  are  pleased  to 
vcend.  Birda  do  not  generally  fly  above  half  a  mile 
In  height,  and  seldom  above  a  few  hundred  yards.  At 
considerable  elevations  the  air  is  so  specifically  light  aa 
to  be  unsuitable  for  their  easy  support.  Those  which 
Hm  to  the  higher  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  aa  for  in- 
itanco  the  oaglo,  are  provided  with  large  winga,  which 
enable  them  to  support  themselves  in  the  comparatively 
thin  fluid  in  which  they  move. 

The  light  heated  air  which  escapes  from  a  Are,  as- 
cends, and  Ik  buoyed  up  by  the  more  denae  air  beneath. 
Hydrogen,  or  any  other  gas  of  a  less  apecific  gravity 
llim  air,  in  tho  sume  manner  ascends  and  floats  in  the 
atmosphere  at  the  height  at  which  it  flnda  air  of  its  own 
ipeoiflc  gravity.  On  the  same  principle,  if  heated  nir 
or  any  light  gas  be  enclosed  in  a  Urge  «ilk  bag,  it  will 
ucend  in  the  atmosphere  till  it  reach  a  region  of  air 
which  is  incapable  of  supporting  it.  Thus,  a  soap-bubble 
enclosing  warm  air  readily  ascends  to  tho  ceiling  of  an 
apartment.  If  the  bubble  be  made  with  cold  water,  it 
will  sink  instead  of  rising. 

A  balloon  is  a  bag  made  of  fine  varnished  silk,  and 
of  such  a  magnitude  that  the  diflference  betwixt  the 
Height  of  its  contents  and  that  of  the  displaced  air  is 
lulllcient  to  support  the  weight  of  the  silk  and  the  other 
part)  of  the  apparatus.  Balloons  were  originally  mode 
to  rise  by  being  filled  with  heated  air  from  a  fire  hung 
beneath  them;  but  this  dangerous  and  inconvenient 
practice  was  in  course  of  time  superseded  by  the  use  of 
hvdrogen  gas,  one  of  the  lightest  airs  which  can  be  pre- 
pired.  Hydrogen  gas  haa  latterly  been  succeeded  by 
rarbiireted  hydrogen,  which,  though  not  so  light,  is  more 
eiuily  obtained,  Itcing  the  goa  with  which  towns  are  now 
itrnerally  lighted.  Employing  a  moderately  pure  and 
lli,'ht  gas,  the  contents  of  a  balloon  may  be  estimated  to 
weigh  only  an  eighth  of  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere, 
bulk  for  bulk ;  and  hence,  after  adding  another  eighth 
for  weight  of  apparatus,  it  will  ascend  with  a  force  of 
lixHiighths ;  in  other  words,  if  the  gaa  and  apparatus 
weigh  two  pounds,  the  balloon  will  lift  iirom  the  ground 
a  weight  of  other  six  pounds.  The  force  with  which  a 
balloon  will  aacend  ia  therefore  to  be  calculated  by 
neuuring  its  capacity  in  cubic  feet,  and  comparing 
the  result  with  an  equal  balk  of  atmospheric  air :  the 
I  difference  of  weight  is  the  buoyant  forco  of  the  balloon. 
Of  aerostation,  or  the  art  of  moving  through  the  air 
I  la  btlloons,  great  expectations  were  originally  enter- 
liiuidi  but  the  experience  of  half  a  centtuy  hai  proved 


that  it  is  of  no  practical  value.  Its  only  use  is  the  •«• 
hibition  of  an  interesting  principle  in  pneumatics.  A 
balloon  cnnstructcil  in  the  best  known  manner,  and 
moving  iipwanU  with  a  powerful  force,  ia  subject  to  the 
following  drawbacks : — as  the  balloon  ascends,  its  con 
tents  expand  in  coiisuijucnce  of  the  increasing  rarefar* 
tion  of  the  atmoHphnre;  if,  therefore,  it  haa  been  en< 
tirely  filled  when  on  the  ground,  a  portion  of  the  gaa 
must  lie  allowed  to  CMcnpo  as  it  rises,  otherwise  it  will 
burst  Discharges  of  bultut  are  also  required  in  con- 
sequence of  the  absorption  of  moisture  from  clouds; 
and  there  being  no  mcHiis  of  recovering  the  lost  ballast, 
the  balloon,  on  the  return  of  heat,  rapidly  rises  in  tha 
air,  its  contents  expanding  in  the  ascent,  and  rendering 
further  liberations  of  gas  necessary  to  prevent  explosion. 
These  alternations  continuing  to  operate  more  or  leaa 
frequently,  it  ia  evident  that  they  must  soon  put  an  en4 
to  the  buoyant  power,  however  great  originally,  and, 
along  with  the  contending  eflecta  of  winds,  forcibly  teN 
minate  the  excursion  through  the  air. 


(WORKS  ON  HYDROSTATICS,  HYDRAULICS,  AND 
PNEUMATICS. 

Thk  writera  we  shall  refer  to,  independently  of  thoM 
who  treat  on  every  branch  of  natural  philosophy  in  con 
junction,  are  as  follows ; 

"  Hydrostatical  and  Pneumatical  Lectures,  by  Rogei 
Cotes,  A.  M."  This  work  was  pifblished  after  the  death 
of  the  author,  by  Dr.  Smith ;  it  possesses  great  merit, 
and  will,  so  long  aa  science  lasts,  bo  esteemed  very  highly 
by  its  votaries.  The  early  death  of  Mr.  Cotes,  at  th« 
age  of  thirty-three,  was  deplored  by  mathematicians  aa 
a  public  calamity.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  assorted  that,  had 
his  life  been  spared,  he  would  have  proved  one  of  the 
greatest  men  that  ever  lived.  •'  If  Mr.  Cotes  had  lived," 
said  this  illustrious  philosopher, "  we  should  have  known 
something." 

"  The  Principles  of  Hydrostatics,  for  the  use  of  the 
Students  in  the  University  of  Cambridge,  by  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Vince,"  includes  the  fundamental  principles  of  Pneu- 
matics and  Acoustics;  and,  independently  of  an  ac- 
count of  the  instruments  illustrative  of  Hydrostatics,  ha 
has  given  full  doBcriptions  of  the  air-pump  and  con- 
denser ;  the  thermometer,  hygrometer,  and  pyrometer. 
There  is  also  a  section  devoted  to  the  subjects  of  winda, 
vapours,  and  the  formation  of  springs. 

Ewbank'a  "  Mtchanics  and  Hydraulic*"  ia  most  tho- 
rough and  satisfactory  on  the  history  of  Hydraulics, 
with  the  application  of  it.  science  to  the  common  arts 
of  life.  It  is  very  richt  f 'tollishej  with  engravings 
illustrating  hydraulic  mach  lery  and  implements  both 
ancient  and  modem. 

Adams's  "  Lectures  on  Natural  Philosophy"  contains 
a  great  number  of  experiments  in  pneumatics,  with 
numerous  engravings  illustrating  the  apparatus  em> 
ployed  in  the  experiments. 

The  apparatua  employed  in  Pneumatics  is  mannfae 
ttired  in  great  perfection  by  Mason,  of  PhiladelpUt,  and 
Claxton,  of  Boston.-^tN.  £<tj 


mi 


*•&«.'.«  ua/'*! 


OrTICS-LIGIIT-ACOUSTICS. 


oPTirs— i.inirr. 

Tim  term  Dptifn  i»  ilerivril  from  n  (Jrwk  wonl  which 
■igniflpf  ueing,  aiul  applion  to  thnt  hrniirh  of  nntiirni 
philiMophy  which  treata  of  tli«  phpiioiiirna  of  liifhl  and 
ruioti.  Of  thepreciie  chamcter  of  li^ht,  thnre  arc  vnrinu* 
theoriet,  but  none  which  ailmitu  of  actual  (Icinoniitratlon 
•r  proof.  Uy  aome  it  haa  h<H>n  dencrihed  ai  conniiitinK 
of  very  minuto  particica,  which  are  thrown  otT  from 
what  are  called  luiniiiou*  hodicH  in  nil  dircctioiia,  and 
with  immenne  velocity  ;  while  olhcra  conxidcr  it  aa  the 
efli^ct  of  an  undulation  or  vihrntion  priMlucod  by  liiiiii- 
noui  hu<lioa  in  the  thin  and  elimtlc  medium  which  ia 
interpoaed  between  them  and  tlic  neat  of  our  vinion  ; 
ihia  vibration  producing  an  rlFect  upon  our  oritann,  which 
we  recognine  aa  light,  i!.  a  manner  analoRoua  to  the 
impreaaion  of  aound  on  tlin  var,  cuunnd  l>y  vilirationa  of 
the  atmoxphoro.  'I'hia  theory  i«  cullcil  the  umlulnlory 
theory  of  light ;  and  the  former  theory,  in  which  light  U 
•uppoaod  to  conaiat  of  nmlrrial  |)articlea,  ia  called  the 
theory  of  tmumon.  Whatever  may  ho  the  cause  or 
alMolute  nature  of  light,  we  know  it  in  n  remarkable 
property  of  luminous  Imilieii,  that  it  eniiblea  ua  to  arc  the 
luminoua  objrrta  themaolvea,  aa  well  aa  othera,  and  that 
its  aliM-nce  pro<luceH  durknetM. 

All  vinible  bodies  may  l)c  divided  into  two  ciaaaea — 
$rl/-luminnin  and  nnn-luminnui.  Under  the  flrHt  head 
are  comprised  all  thoM  bodies  which  possess  in  them- 
•elvca  the  property  of  etciting  the  sensotion  of  light 
or  vision,  such  aa  the  heavenly  luminaries,  terrestrial 
flames  of  all  kinds,  phosphorescent  bodies,  and  those 
bodies  which  shine  by  l)cing  heiitcd  or  hy  friction, 
irnder  tho  second  class  we  recognise  such  bodies  as 
have  not  of  themselves  tho  power  of  throwing  off  par- 
ticles or  undulations  of  light,  but  which  possess  the 
property  of  reflecting  the  light  which  is  cast  upon  them 
from  self-luminous  bodies.  A  non-luminous  ImxIv  mfiy 
thus,  by  reflection,  receive  light  from  another  non- 
luminous  body,  and  communicate  it  to  a  third,  and  so 
on.  All  reflected  light,  however,  is  inferior  in  point  of 
brilliancy  to  that  which  comes  direct  from  a  self-lumi- 
nous bo<ly. 

Anciently,  it  was  l>elievod  that  light  waa  propagated 
from  the  sun,  and  other  luminous  lM«ltes,  instantane- 
'  oukIv  ;  but  the  observations  of  modern  inquirers  have 
shown  that  this  was  an  erroneous  hypothesis,  and  thnt 
li:;ht,  like  sound,  requires  a  certain  time  to  pass  from 
one  part  of  space  to  another,  though  the  velocity  of  its 
motion  is  truly  astonishing,  as  has  Im'cu  manifested  in 
various  ways.  Astronomers  have  proved,  by  observ- 
ing the  ecli()acs  of  Jupiter's  satellites,  when  thnt  planet 
IS  nearest  and  when  it  is  farthest  from  the  earth,  thnt 
light  moves  from  the  sun  to  the  earth,  a  distance  of 
U5,00fl,(K)Oof  miles,  in  seven  and  a  half  minutes,  or  about 
S  lO.UOU  miles  during  a  single  vibration  of  the  pendu- 
him.  So  prodigiously  great  is  this  velocity,  that,  as  far 
a»  any  common  observation  is  ron>  jmed,  light  may  be 
said  to  be  perfectly  instantaneoua  in  its  universal  ac- 
tion. 

Light  proceeds  in  a  straight  direction  from  the  lumi- 
ni'is  body  whicli  produces  it,  towan's  the  part  or  situa- 
tion Rgairat  which  it  is  permitted  to  act  In  conxc- 
q'Ji-nce  of  tliis  directness,  a  shadow  or  darkencl  spot  i* 
iil'servable  iK'hlnd  any  oparjuo  object  presented  to  the 
liirlit.  During  niglit,  we  arc  in  the  earth's  shadow, 
nriii  this  shadow  reaches  so  far  lieyond  us  into  space, 
tliat  when  the  moon  pluiii^es  into  it  in  her  course,  she 
vinilorgoes  an  ecliiwe.  The  direct  shining  of  the  sun,  or 
uiiy  citlier  luminous  body,  ia  in  the  form  of  nii/K,  or  thin 
rthcccal  lines,  each  acting  independently  of  the  other;  no 


such  separation  of  parts,  however,  ia  observal  le,  in  rotn 
mon  circumstances,  in  consequence  of  tliL  diffimlve  pro 
pertiea  of  our  atmosphere.  Heeing  is  simply  the  rrrr> 
tion  of  the  direct  or  reflected  ray  from  an  obji-ct  )^y  q^ 
eye.  Until  the  rays  of  the  aun  reach  the  s|>ot  on  which 
we  are  placed,  we  arc  neither  conscious  of  light  nor  of 
the  presence  of  the  sun  as  an  object.  In  the  same  man- 
ner, a  candle  U'ing  light<>d  and  eximsed  in  the  open  cnun. 
try  in  a  dark  night,  all  who  arc  able  to  see  it  are  withir, 
the  influence  of  its  rays  ;  but  lieyond  a  given  li»t»nct 
these  rnys  are  too  weak  to  produce  vision,  and  all  whn 
nre  in  this  remote  situation  cannot  see  the  sinal:f<it  up. 
penrnncc  of  the  candle.  It  will  therefore  bo  undemtouii 
tiint  the  seeing  of  any  luminous  object  ia  equivnlent  to 
t>eing  within  the  influence  of  rnys  of  suflicicnt  intfn. 
sity  proceeding  from  it.  The  numlier  of  rnys  whirh 
|>rocerd  from  even  a  common  candle  is  mo  vast  as  to 
he  l>eyond  our  imagination  to  conceive  ;  for  if  mirh  * 
light  is  viitible  within  a  sphere  of  four  miles,  it  follows, 
thnt  if  the  whole  of  thnt  space  were  surrounded  with 
eyes,  euch  eye  would  receive  the  impression  of  a  ruy  of 
light. 

In  proportion  as  light  advances  from  its  scat  of  pro 
ductinn,  it  diminishes  in  intensity.  Tho  ratio  of  diminu. 
tion  is  agreeable  to  thnt  which  governs  physical  forrfi, 
that  is,  the  intensity  of  the  light  will  diminish  aa  the 
squnre  of  the  ilistnnce  increases,  or  at  tho  rate  of  I,  4, 
1 H,  Ac.  But  in  proportion  ns  we  lose  in  intensity  we 
gain  in  volume  ;  the  light  is  the  weaker  the  farther  it  ii 
from  the  candle,  but  it  is  tilling  a  wider  space. 

Preliminary  to  any  further  exposition  of  the  nature 
and  action  of  light,  wo  ofler  the  following  detinitlona  ol 
terms.  Any  parcel  of  rays,  passing  from  a  jioint,  ii 
called  a  ;)frtri7  of  rays.  By  an  optical  mtiiium  is  meant 
any  pellucid  or  transparent  Viody,  as,  for  example,  air, 
water,  or  glass,  which  suli'vrs  light  to  pass  through  it. 
Parallel  rnyt  nre  such  as  move  always  at  the  same  dis- 
tance from  ench  other.  If  rnys  continually  recede  from 
each  other,  they  ore  said  to  dwfr<ii :  if  they  continually 
approach  each  other,  they  are  anid  to  eonvtri;e.  The 
point  at  which  converging  rays  meet  ia  called  the /ixiw, 
the  point  towards  which  they  t»'iid,  but  which  they  are 
prevented  from  coining  to  by  some  obstacle,  is  called  the 
imnginnry  font.  When  ri\ys,  after  passing  throuijli 
one  medium,  on  entering  another  medium  of  dilFcrenl 
density,  nre  lieiit  out  of  their  former  course,  iini)  raaJe 
tn  change  their  direction,  they  are  said  to  be  rt/mcrit: 
when  they  strike  against  a  surface,  and  nro  sent  batk 
ngnin  from  the  surface,  they  nre  said  to  be  rrjlrrird,  \ 
leni  is  a  glass  ground  intu  such  a  form  as  to  collrct  ot 
dis|ierse  the  rays  of  light  which  puss  through  it.  Thfue 
arc  of  diU'crent  shnjies,  mid  thence  receive  difli^renl 
nnines.  The  following  figures  individually  reprewnl 
uoctions  of  tho  variously  shnfied  lenses  and  other  glasnw 
used  in  optica. 

D    i;     F     O     II 


FiR.  1. 

A  is  a  triangular  stalk  of  pure  glaxs,  of  which  wr  ha't  I 
here  a  cross  sectional  or  end  view,  and  which  is  nlh\»  [ 
priitv.  Ench  side  of  the  prism  is  smooth.  1)  is  a  sc- 1 
tion  of  a  piece  of  pinne  glass,  with  sidcH  parallel  to  wb  I 
other.  C  is  a  sphere  or  ball  of  glass,  and  conse(iuoiiil»  I 
is  convex  on  nil  parts  of  its  surface.  U  is  a  pieocif  I 
glass  convex  or  bulging  on  its  two  sides,  and  ia  calini  1 1 


Imbh  am<nx 

hi  mngnifyi 

oilier  inftruni 

•id*  ano  cont 

CI  glass  hidl( 

Iriii,  or  planet 

II  is  a  iiitiiuii 

cave  on  the  ol 

we  bav*  an  ex 

of  the  riiiicavo' 

or  do  not  me 

an  imaginary 

ihruugli  the  ce 

Thus,  the  lino 

IciM,  in  a  diroc 

iu  axis. 

In  trcntises 
iubject  into  twi 
Csloptrics.  'J'l 
Orei'k  words  si| 
Uanaiiiission  of 
u  well  as  the  li 
Irici  ia  a  term  ii 
from  or  (iifaiimt 
(urfuccs,  and  th( 
rora  and  other  o 


Roftttction,  as 
raya  of  light  fr( 
If  the  rays,  after  j 
ol  a  difl'erent  dci 
are  not  refracted, 
their  original  dire 
were  to  strike  u 
aiiglca,  or  jH-rpe 
gaatraight  to  tin 
in  tlie  air  would 
ihcy  enter  obliqiil 


deniior  or  more 
(hey  arc  made 
through  that  inc 
Iracled. 

Tlie  mode  of  tl 
live  density  or  rii 
meJium  which  tl 
Jirougli  it  in  a 
Irawn  to  its  Kur 
passca  out  of  a  i 
iiiircclion  furthi 
lion  ia  greater  or  . 
bent,  or  turned  as 
medium  through 
than  the  first.     T( 
M  ijpright  empty 
admits  but  a  sing) 
I  hole  in  a  window. 
on  the  floor,  a  few 
aJmita  the  light, 
litm  of  light  lies, 
oi'or  the  top  of  ih. 
Iwiatrikjs  the  hot 
I 'I™-    '.3tthespo 
■u'linij;  llie  vessel  w 
■'f  '>ri;;ina|  spot, 
Inwards  til.,  windo 
J  111  the  vessel  of  »■ 
I'cilit  Hhere  l|i(.  , 
jliMror  to  tlie  wind 
[ihe  salt  Hater,  lui 
l^am  uf  li;r|it  „i|| 
I'ilwill  ret; act  yet 
'I'lie  property  ot 
U  111'  following  c) 


^^,,^    OPTICS— LIGHT  r, 


m 


bI  !«•,  in  CDtn 
lifTunlve  pn> 
ly  the  rrffjv 
>l>jiTt  hy  out 
ml  on  which 

liftlu  nor  of 
ir  name  man< 
ir  mien  rouiv 

it  are  wilhit, 
Ivi-n  ,li<l«nf« 
,  and  all  whn 
0  mn»l!(iit  nfh 
lio  unilpmtood, 

p(|uivii|pnt  to 
irtk'icnt  Inlfn- 
of  rays  whirh 

HI)  voHt  an  to 

for  if  «ufh  t 
liU's.  it  fnllown, 
irroundcd  with 
lion  of  a  ray  of 

its  Rcat  of  pro 
ratio  of  diininu- 
physiral  forrpn, 
ilimiiiiiiii  aa  the 
the  rate  of  1, 4, 
in  intennity  w« 
■  the  farther  it  ii 
'  apare. 

n  of  the  nature 
n\f  dflinitiona  ol 
from  a  (Mint,  ii 
ntfilium  is  mean* 
for  example,  air, 
paM  through  iL 
at  the  aame  (lis- 
lally  recede  from 
they  continually 
ronvtriic.    The 
called  the  /ocw , 
which  they  are 
larlc,  i«  called  At 
pRHsing  through 
iliiini  of  different 
'ourtie,  and  made 
_  10  be  rtfritfttd: 
:d  arc  sent  back 
:o  Iw  rejlrrtni.    A 
m  as  to  collfct  ot 
through  it.  'I'hwe 
receive  diffetenl 
vidually  iciircsenl 
and  other  gla»»» 

O      11    I 


D^lt  mmx  Un$.  It  li  thU  kind  of  lent  which  U  uiirj 
for  magnifying  obJcctJi,  in  upectaclea,  ti>le*cop«*,  and 
oilier  inatruraents.  G  i«  a  plum>-cimvtj:  Itni,  flat  on  one 
tide  and  coit«ex  on  the  other.  F  ii  a  ilouhlt  mnravt  Inn, 
^1  glaii  hollowed  on  each  aide.  0  ia  »  iilano^imcure 
Inii,  '<r  pinned  on  one  aide  and  concave  on  the  other. 
\l  it  %  iiieiiitiut,  or  lona  convex  on  one  aide  and  con-' 
cave  on  the  ot)ier,  both  lurfticea  iiieoting,  rnd  of  which 
fit  bav»  an  example  in  watch-glaiiaea.  I  ia  an  example 
of  the  rimrai'u-'uiii'tx  lona,  in  which  the  aiirfacca  diaagreo, 
or  do  not  meet  when  continued.  In  all  thuae  IciiHes, 
an  imaginary  lino,  rcpreaented  liy  M  U  N,  and  paaaing 
ihrougli  the  contrva  of  the  aurfncoa,  ia  culled  the  a.ui. 
Xhua.  the  lino  auid  to  paaa  through  the  c«ntre  of  'any 
Iciia,  in  a  directiun  p<<r|Miiidiculur  to  ita  aurfuco,  ia  culled 
lu  axia. 

In  treatiiH'a  on  optica,  it  ia  cuatoinary  to  divide  the 
luhjrct  into  two  aectioiia,  under  the  lieada  Dioplrica  and 
Catoptrica.  'i'he  term  iliaplnrs  ia  corapounded  of  two 
Orevk  worda  Hignifying  to  irt  through,  and  refera  to  the 
tiiui'Miiaaion  of  riiya  of  light  through  trunaparoiit  bodivH, 
u  well  na  the  luwa  by  which  tliey  are  produced.  C'li/u/v 
li-irt  ii  a  term  alao  from  the  Orcek,  and  aignilica  to  itf 
from  or  nifiiintt ;  it  refera  to  the  reflection  of  light  from 
lurfacca,  and  the  formattun  of  image*  by  mouna  of  niir- 
r«n  and  other  objccta. 

RErRACTION   or   LIOHT. 

Rofiraction,  na  alreiidy  mentioned,  ia  -  the  bending  of 
rtyi  of  light  from  the  cuurao  they  formerly  puraucd. 
Ifthe  rava,  nllcr  piuaing  through  a  medium,  enter  unotlicr 
ol  a  different  dciiHity,  (ierpendiculiir  to  its  aurfuce,  tliey 
ijc  not  refracted,  but  proceed  through  this  medium  in 
their  original  direction.  For  inatuiicc,  if  the  aun's  raya 
were  to  strike  upmi  the  aurfuio  of  a  river  at  right 
ii>ji;lrx.  or  pcrpeiiciiculuily,  to  ita  aurfuce,  they  would 
go  straight  to  the  bottom,  and  the  line  they  observed 
in  the  air  would  be  continued  in  the  water.  But  if 
they  enter  obliquely  to  the  surface  of  a  medium  cither 
denser  or  more  rare  than  what  they  moved  in  before, 
they  arc  made  to  change  their  diroctioii  in  paaaing 
through  that  medium ;  in  other  worda,  they  are  re- 
acted. 

Tlie  mode  of  tho  refraction  depoiida  on  the  compara- 
tive density  or  rarity  of  the  reapectivc  media.  If  tho 
meJiuin  which  the  raya  enti;r  be  denser,  they  move 
irough  it  in  a  direction  nearer  to  the  perpendicular 
Irawn  to  its  surface.  On  the  contrary,  when  light 
pasaea  out  of  a  denser  into  a  rarer  medium,  it  moves  in 
(direction  further  from  the  p<;r|H>ndiculur.  7'his  refrac- 
tion is  greater  or  less,  that  is,  the  rays  arc  more  or  leas 


figure  repnaent  a  veml  h...     'Illed  with  water,  and  R 
the  ray  of  light  which  nmy  U  expected  to  poaa  through 


/ 

s,  of  which  wfh«»e 
id  which  iscalWi 
nooth.     n  in  a  »(• " 
dcH  parnlld  to  rwh  I 

,  and  consfqud''!'  | 
•e.     D  is  a  piefi' 

idea,  and  is  called  1 1 


it  to  the  bottom  at  li.  I'he  direction  of  tho  ray  ia  per 
fcctly  straight  until  it  enters  the  water  at  7',  when,  instead 
of  proccediug  in  a  straight  line  to  (/,  it  ia  bent  from  itn 
courao  and  compiled  to  atriko  tho  bottom  of  the  vesool 
at  f.  If  oil  instead  of  water  had  1)oen  uaed,  tho  ray 
would  havo  been  atill  more  Iwnt,  and  have  rouchod  thfl 
bottom  at  /.  If  the  ray  had  been  aont  directly  down- 
ward*, aa  ifrom  i  to  tho  aurfacx)  of  tho  water  at^,  it  would 
not  have  been  refracted,  but  have  proceeded  atraight  to 
tho  bottom  at  k. 

The  following  simple  experiment  is  well  known  :— 
Take  an  empty  basin  and  place  it  on  a  table,  then  lay 
a  shilling  at  the  bottom  of  the  basin,  in  auch  a  poaition 
that  tho  eye  of  the  obaervor  will  not  ace  it.  Now,  fill 
the  baain  with  water,  and  the  ahiUing,  though  lying  un- 
moved, will  come  completely  into  aight.  The  oxplana* 
tion  of  thia  phenomenon  is,  that  the  ray  of  light  produo- 
ing  viaion  in  the  eye  ia  bent  on  emerging  from  the  water, 
and  haa  all  the  effect  of  conveying  our  aight  round  • 
corner. 

Tho  refractive  power  of  water  ia  alao  obacrvabla 
when  wc  thrust  a  straight  stick  or  instrument  into  it, 
on  aiming  at  any  object.  We  see  that  the  stick  acema 
to  be  bent,  and  fails  in  reaching  the  point  which  wa 
desired  it  should.  On  thia  account,  tho  aim  by  a  per- 
son not  directly  over  a  fish  must  be  made  at  a  point 
apparently  below  it,  otherwiae  tlie  weapon  will  miss  by 
flying  too  high.  I'eraona  who  8|>ear  salmon  in  rivers 
require  to  calculate  upon  tliia  refractive  power  in  taking 
their  aim. 

With  regard  to  the  refractive  power  of  transparent 
Hubstancea  or  media,  the  general  rule,  with  certain 
limitutiona,  ia,  that  it  ia  in  proportion  to  the  dcnaitiea 
of  the  bodiea.  It  increases,  for  inatance,  from  the 
most  fM'rfect  vacuum  which  can  be  formed,  through 
air,  fresh  water,  salt  water,  glass,  and  so  on.  But 
those  aubstancoa  which  contain  the  moat  inflammaMi; 
matter,    have   the   greatest  refrartive  power.      It  waa 


bent,  or  turned  aaide  from  their  course,  as  the  second  I  from  tho  great  refractive  powers  of  the  diamond  and 


medium  through  which  tliey  pass  is  more  or  leaa  dense 

than  the  first.     To  prove  thia  in  a  satiafactory  way,  take 

in  upright  empty  vessel  into  a  darkened  room,  which 

idmita  but  a  single  licam  of  light  obli;juoly  through  a 

hole  in  a  window-shutter.     Let  theeii^iV.  vessel  stand 

on  the  floor,  a  few  feet  in  advance  of  the  window  which 

I  admits  the  light,  and  let  it  Ins  so  arranged  thai,  aa  the 

I  beam  of  light  descends  towards  the  floor,  it  just  pusses 

I  o^•fr  the  top  of  the  side  of  the  vessel  next  the  window, 

I  ui<l  strikes  the  bottom  nn  the  side  farthest  from  the  win- 

I.3t  the  spot  where  it  fallK  U-  marked.     \ow,  on 

lillinij  the  vessel  with  water,  the  ray,  instead  of  strikini; 

lil.e  ori){inid  jjjot,  will  full   roiisideralily   nearer  the  side 

IlimarJs  tlic^  winc'ow.     And  if  we  add  a  quantity  of  salt 

|li  the  vessel  of  vv.iter,  so  as  to  form  u  dense  solution,  the 

oint  where  the  rav  stiikrs  tlie   liottoiii  will   move   still 

liioiircr  to  the  window.      In  like  inaiiiier,  if  we  draw  oli' 

llhe  salt   water,  itiul   sii|i)ily  Us   place  with   alcohol,  the 

jKam  of  lii,'lit  will  be  still  mure   highly  refracted  ;  and 

|iil  will  rclViict  yet  mori'  than  alcohol 

"he  property   of  rdVui  tion   may   also  lie   observable 
llB  lie  following  expriiineiit.     Let  the  annexed  oblong 


water,  that  Newton,  with  admirable  sagacity,  predicted 
that  they  contained  inflammable  principles.  Thia  fact 
future  diacovoriea  in  chemistry  verified.  Tables  of  tho 
refractive  powera  of  aubatances  moat  intereating  in 
optics  will  be  found  in  Brewster's  Optics.  From  these 
it  would  appear  that  substances  which  contain  fluoric 
acid  havo  the  least  refractive  power,  aa  inflammablo 
ones  have  the  greatest.  With  regard  to  the  cause  of 
refraction,  on  the  theory  of  emission,  the  refracting 
medium  would  attract  the  particles  of  light,  and  increase 
their  velocity  during  tlicir  transmission,  and  would  alter 
the  direction  of  their  motion,  thus  causing  refraction 
but  the  intensity  of  the  attractive  force  would  require  to 
Im?  dilVerent  for  light  of  diflcrent  colours;  and  on  the  un- 
dulatory  theory,  the  ether  within  tho  refracting  medium 
would  Ik!  condensed  by  the  attraction  of  ita  particles  011 
the  ether,  and  the  velocity  of  transmission  of  the  wave 
of  light  through  this  condensed  ether  would  be  less  than 
in  free  space,  and,  from  Ibis  muse,  the  direction  of  the 
motion  would  be  altered,  or  refraction  would  take  phce- 
diid  from  the  diflcrent  leimths  of  the  waves  of  dilTeren' 
colours,  the  velocity  of  their  transmission  would  be  dil 
r3 


IM 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLK. 


(trrnt,  thui  onminii  tlifliTi-nt  iloipeog  i.f  tttrmntpHUij 
•cpnrdinn  to  the  iliflTrrpiioe  of  colour. 

Th«  rafrtrtion  of  rayi  of  lii|)it  in  ohMr»«l)Ii'  in  the  ram- 
of  ooinmon  win.low-dUM.  Tli<'  iwo  aiilfi  of  ■  pmir  not 
IwiiiK  IM-VliHlljr  parallel  to  rarh  other,  Uxlira  ait  ii  lliroiiKh 
It  a|i|war  aa  If  dialnrted ;  nnil  oa  thfl  oli|i<|iiilira  in  llio 
Klaaa  are  very  varioua,  the  diitortiona  are  r(|uaily  ifriw 
(cwjiin  anil  nuintiruua.  Home  wiiiJowa  are  |iur|N>M'ly 
grouml  on  the  aurface,  to  priMluco  univrmal  mtu\  niinuto 
refrartion;  and'thua  ao  Krrat  a  confuainn  ia  intrcNlwri-d 
amonK  the  raya,  thnt  olijpcta  are  not  dialinituikliiiMo 
through  the  glam.  When  the  ol>li(|uitipa  on  the  mirfuni 
•f  one  aide  of  a  pii'rc  of  )(la«  atniid  diatiiirt  rruni  each 
other,  ao  aa  to  lulmit  of  rrfrartion  in  n  rlrnr  and  di*- 
liliguiiliahle  manner,  then  each  ohli(|uily  alforda  a  iir|>n- 
(ate  view  of  an  ohject  on  (he  op|io«i(ii  nidr,  and  IIiiih  nn 
ohject  aeema  to  be  inulliplimi  oa  many  tiinca  oa  there  arc 
obliqiiitiea. 

The  refrartion  of  liiiht  i*  obtiervnhle  on  ■  great  arule 
in  relation  to  our  atmoephere.  The  rnya  of  Ihn  aun,  on 
reaehing  the  eonfinea  of  the  almiMphrrio  fluid  whirh 
envelope  the  earth,  enter  a  medium  of  greater  denaity 
than  that  whirh  they  have  previoualy  liern  purauing, 
and  conaequently  are  refrarlrd  or  bent.  One  obviou* 
eflerl  of  thia  ia,  that  we  never  ae«i  the  aun  in  the  artual 
poaition  whirh  he  orcupiea.  He  ia  alwnya,  Iraa  or  more, 
in  relation  to  our  ryoa,  whnt  the  ahiliing  ia  anid  to  Im-  in 
the  alaivc  rx|irriMient  wilh  the  bnain  of  water.  Thia  ia 
|)eculiarly  the  roue  in  the  morning,  when  hia  earlirat  ruya 
reach  our  eyra;  entering  a  dcnaor  metlium,  thea<<  raya 
bend  round  to  meet  our  viaion,  and  we  artunlly  aee  the 
body  of  the  aim  a  few  minuica  before  he  hiia  risen  above 
the  horizon — like  the  ahililrig  in  the  lniHJn,  we  ae4<  him 
round  arornrr.  In  prnpnrtion  iia  the  aun  npproarhea  the 
lenilh,  the  refrartion  diniinialiea;  and  aa  he  recedes 
towurda  oetting,  it  inrreaaea.  Ho  ronaiderahle  ia  it  in  the 
hazy  atinoaphcre  vf  the  evening,  that  wo  retain  a  aight 
of  the  aun 'a  diak  after  it  haa  aiink.  The  aame  phenomena 
occur  in  relntiott  lo  the  other  heavenly  luminarica. 

From  theac  explanutionH  it  will  ap|)eur  that  the  direct. 
lieaa  of  our  viaion  in  at  all  timea  liable  to  be  diHturl)ed  by 
•tinoapheric  condiliona.  80  long  m  the  atmoaphero  be- 
twixt our  poraon  and  the  objert  we  are  looking  at  ia  of 
the  anme  denaity,  we  mny  lie  aaid  to  see  in  a  atraight  line 
to  the  object.  But  if  by  any  cauae  a  portion  of  that 
atmiwphere  ia  rendered  leaa  or  more  dciiae,  the  lino  of 
vision  ia  at  once  refracted  or  bent  from  its  courae.  A 
thorough  comprehrn.iion  of  tlila  aimple  tnilh  in  arienre 
has  baniahed  a  maaa  of  au|H'riilitioii.  It  hna  Ix-rn  found 
that,  by  means  of  |>oworful  n^fructioti,  objerta  nt  a  great 
diatitnre,  iind  round  the  back  of  a  hill,  or  considerably 
beneath  the  horizon,  are  brought  into  aight.  In  anmo 
touiitries,  this  phenomenon  ia  called  the  inirnne.  The 
billowing  is  one  of  the  moat  intereating  and  lieat  authen- 
ticated coses  of  mirage.  In  a  voyage  (lerformed  by  Cap- 
tain Scorcsby  in  1822,  he  was  able  to  recogniso  hia  father's 
ahip,  when  Ih-Iow  the  horizon,  from  the  inverted  image 
of  it  which  ap|)eared  in  the  air.  '•  It  was,"  says  he,  "  so 
well  defined,  that  I  could  distinguish  by  a  teleacope  every 
•ail,  the  general  rig  of  the  ship,  and  its  particular  oha- 
tBctcr;  insomuch  that  I  confidently  pronounced  it  to  be 
my  fatlier'a  ship  the  Faint,  which  it  afterwards  proved 
to  l)e ;  though,  on  coinjiaring  notes  wilh  my  father,  I 
found  that  our  relative  poaitinn  at  (lie  time  gnve  uur  ilis- 
lani«  from  one  another  very  nearly  ihirly  inilcH,  tieiiig 
alMut  seventeen  miles  b<>yond  the  horizon,  and  some 
leagues  lieyond  the  limit  of  <Hrect  vision.  I  was  ao 
Htruck  by  the  |M-culi:irity  of  the  cirriiinstanre,  that  I 
mi'ntiimed  it  to  the  uiricer  of  the  wulcli,  ntatiiig  my  full 
cuiivirlioii  that  the  t'limr  was  then  crui'iing  in  tlie  neigh- 
bjuring  inlet." 

A  curious  phenomenon  of  this  kind  was  seen  by  Dr. 
\'iiice,  on  tlie  filh  of  August,  IHOli,  at  7  r.  m.  To  nn 
observer  at  Ranisgate,  the  tops  of  the  four  turret*  of 


Dover  Caatle  are  usually  seen  ov«»  a  hill  Ix'fwcpii  Rund 
g«t4i  atxl  Dover.  Dr.  Vince,  however,  when  at  Ranianin 
Biiw  the  whole  of  Dover  Caatle,  aa  if  it  had  lieen  brniikrhi 
over  and  placed  on  (be  Ilnniagate  aide  of  the  hill.  The 
image  of  the  caalle  waa  so  atrimg  and  well  ileflnnl  ihm 
the  hill  itself  iliil  not  ap|>ear  (brough  the  image. 

In  l^n  aandy  plaina  of  Egypt,  the  mirage  la  aren  to 
great  advantage.  Theae  plaina  are  often  interru|it<it  h* 
small  eminences,  u|Hin  which  the  inhabilanla  have  duih 
their  villages,  in  order  to  earape  the  inumlationa  nt  th« 
Nile.  In  the  morning  and  evening,  objecta  are  aeen  in 
their  natural  form  ami  |ioaition ;  but  when  the  aurfure  of 
(be  aandy  ground  ia  heated  by  the  aim,  the  land  irpn.i 
termiiiBled  at  a  particular  dintunco  by  a  general  inun. 
dntiim :  (he  villngea  which  are  beyond  it  ap|>eut  |i|in  ag 
many  iainiida  in  a  great  lake,  and  between  each  villaut 
an  inverted  image  of  it  ia  aeen. 

That  the  phenomena  of  the  mirage  are  prn<lurril  h« 
variations  in  the  refractive  (Kiwer  of  the  atmnapherr,  run 
be  proved  by  experiment.  If  the  variation  of  the  rcfrsc. 
tive  |K)wer  of  the  air  takea  place  in  a  horizonlnl  Ijnd 
|M'r|iendicuIar  to  the  line  of  viaion — that  ia,  from  rlitht  tu 
left — then  we  have  the  Intend  mirage  •  'hat  ia,  an  inmi^i 
of  a  ahip  may  l>o  seen  on  the  right  ••  left  hnitd  nf  the 
real  ship,  or  on  lioth,  if  the  variation  ot  refractive  powrr 
ia  the  aame  on  each  aide  of  the  liiic  of  vixion.  If  ihrrs 
should  hap|H-ii  ut  the  huii^  time  both  a  vertical  und  t 
lateral  variation  of  refractive  |H>wer  in  the  air,  and  if  ili^ 
variation  ahould  lie  audi  aa  to  expand  or  elon;;atr  tho 
objert  in  both  directiona,  tlien  the  object  would  lie  nmism. 
iie<l  aa  if  ohaerved  through  a  teleaco|ie,  and  niii;bt  lie  neon 
and  recogiiiaed  nt  a  diataiice  at  which  it  would  not  oIIi.t. 
wiae  have  Iwen  viadile.  If  the  refractive  power,  nn  the 
contrary,  varied  ao  as  to  conlrtt<'l  the  obj^'cl  is  both  dine 
tiona,  the  image  of  it  would  lie  diminished  iia  if  uvn 
through  a  concave  lena. 

In  order  to  represent  artificially  the  efTects  of  the  niir. 
age.  Dr.  Wollaaton  suggested  the  viewing  of  an  olijn-i 
through  a  stratum  of  spirit  of  wine  lying  above  water  in 
a  cryatal  jar,  or  a  stratum  of  water  lying  above  o!ie  of 
syrup.  Theae  sulistances,  by  their  gradual  incorp.iruiion, 
produce  a  refractive  (lower  diminishing  from  the  s|iiril  of 
wine  to  the  water,  or  from  the  syrup  to  the  water;  so 
that,  by  looking  through  the  mixed  or  iiitermedinle  atrnluin 
at  a  woril  or  object  held  liehind  the  b<itlle  which  roiilaii.ii 
the  fluiils,  an  inverted  image  will  lie  seen.  The  m\f 
effect,  it  has  liecn  shown,  may  lie  produced  by  lnoliin^ 
along  the  side  of  a  red-hot  poker  at  a  word  or  olijecl  ton 
or  twelve  feet  diHtiint.  At  a  dialnnce  leas  than  lhm>. 
eighths  of  an  inch  from  the  lino  of  the  poker,  an  invrrt'J 
image  is  seen,  and  within  and  without  that  an  ern-l 
image. 

The  method  employed  by  Sir  David  Brewster  to  illui. 
trati-  these  phenomena,  consiats  in  holding  a  heati'd  inn 
above  a  mass  of  water  bounde<l  by  parallel  plates  of  ila«; 
as  the  heat  descends  slowly  through  the  fluid,  wr  have  1 
regular  variation  of  density,  which  grailuully  dlmininhii 
from  the  liottom  to  the  surface.  If  we  now  withdraw  iIk 
heated  iron,  and  put  a  cold  body  in  its  place,  or  rvrn 
allow  the  air  to  act  alone,  the  su|ierfirial  stratum  of  *m 
will  give  out  its  heat,  so  as  to  protlucc  a  decreuac  of  deiiiii* 
from  the  surface  to  a  certain  depth  liclow  it.  Thro.ijli 
the  medium  thus  constituted,  the  phenomena  of  the  mir- 
age may  lie  seen  in  the  finest  manner. 

Doiihle  Htfruclion  of  I.iehi. — In  the  precedinn  part  of 
this  s<>ction,  we  have  conaidere<l  a  aingle  ray  of  li^ht, 
rellectcd  or  tranamitted  through  the  sulMtancc  of  a  Innii- 
p.ireiit  body,  as  leaving  it  in  the  same  way  in  vshiihil 
came  into  contact  with  it,  namely,  in  a  sinfjle  |K'nril  01 
ray.  But  there  are  u  j^reat  many  bodies  which  have  ihf 
power  of  breaking  the  pencil  of  light  inciilcnt  upon  ihtii 
surfaces  into  two  separate  parts  or  jH-ncils,  more  or  Im 
inclined  to  one  another,  nccoriling  to  the  nature  uiiJ  *\%\t 
of  the  Uidy,  and  according  to  the  direction  of  th*  uiiidig 


(woHI.  Th 
which  proili 
wysuls.  T 
and  cryalalli 
ul  the  riilie, 
Jialerabedro 
or  rhuinboiili 
ireatest  certi 
it  has  hc'-n  g 

|«Ct.       Its    IP 

acute  solid  ni 
light  is  einp 
hnuaea;  and 
proiN'rties  mi 
iiiliject. 

With  reapi 
Kparalioii  of 
pru|iertiea  (rn 
that  nf  priKlu 
tLo  original  ri 
llsu  refer  to  w 


One  of  till 

refraclioii  ia,  tl 
be  white,  may 
It  will  be  obvii 
colours,  where 
tile  glancing  ai 
ice,  or  oilier  rr 
The  pro|ier 
discovering  iiiti 
procure  a  prist 
in  a  darkened 


N 


ln>hfo 

mm 

Urtnt 

Itrangt  (' 


mu.  o  I 

darkened  room 
idiiiit  a  Iwaiu  o 
ia  iiitcipiised,  w 
lonii  a  luiiiiiKii 
prism  U  .\  (;,  w 
hcuin  of  light  II 
tile  suiiie  angle 
tion  mVt,  and 
opposit*!  wall, 
expect,"  says  i 
already  laid  dov 
feU  U)ioi)  F  wot 
uid  fall  somo\^ 
white  spot  exac 
the  case.     Inste 
upon  tiie  81  reel 
containing  sevei 
blue,  indigo,  am 
ing  from  its  emi 
bounded  by  the 
of  the  sun  is  ct 
•p-nlrum.     If  t| 
f  (•  consiJerabltf 
Waht.     'I'he  ._ 
This  red  shadJ 
oraiye,  tlie  oraij 
(rvvu  into  bli 


te  ■■.»?.,■ 


0PT!08— LinHT 


in 


Offu  nun*, 
t  RaiimintK. 
«^ii  liri>uiihi 
I'hIII.  Thf 
ilcflnnl,  thill 
i|{p. 

i>  ia  M-rn  to 
itrrrujiUil  hj 
»  havf  liiiili 
ntioiii  nt  tho 
M  «rc  arm  in 
hi>  mirfarf  of 
'  Uiiil  •prni 
K<'ii>'ml  inuii. 
i|>|M'ui  likn  M) 
I  each  villug« 

I  pro<)u(Til  hj 
inonphi'rr,  run 

of  lhi<  n'fnK- 
lori/niilnl  liii« 

from  rinht  to 
it  i*,  nn  im>i(t 
'ft  hntid  of  Ihe 
friii'tivp  jinwft 
Kioii.     If  there 

vrrticul  iiml  t 

uir,  niut  if  Iho 
ir  ricuisatp  iho 
oiiM  Ih-  maijiih 
)  nii^ht  U"  wen 
foiild  not  other. 

powor,  iin  llio 
rt  ia  liotli  (line 
•hftl  iiH  if  Din 


BrewBtor  to  illu* 
iiig  a  heateil  irnn 
el  jilatps  of  (tlais; 
'.  fliiiJ,  wc  have  I 
iluiilly  (limini»h(i 
low  witliilraw  the 
t«  place,  or  even 
Htralimiof  wnti'i 
ccrcimc  of  ileii'rti 
low  it.  Thro,i;b 
)ini-na  of  the  mii- 


nnril.  Thli  !■  rtIM  ilmihln  rttriM\nn,  anil  iHk  iMxIir* 
whii'h  prtHlmw  it  arc  oallwl  Hoiihly  ri'rrnrtiuff  iMxIira  or 
m»u\»-  Thry  ara  vrry  nuiiM<roiia,  ami  >nrliiil«  all  aalta 
anil  cryalalliwt  miiierala  not  liavinn  ilia  prlniitivo  forma 
ui  the  riilio,  ihr  ri'ifiiliir  iirtt/hrilroii,  ami  tlia  rliomUiiilul 
JiMlitralii'ilroil.  Of  all  known  IxNlioa,  tlir  frrliiml  a|iur, 
or  rliuiiil'oi'l*!  carlHinata  of  linwi,  aluiwa  tlin  fiirt  with  Ilia 
greatt'at  ci'rtiiiiity  ;  and  aa  it  la  a  niiiii-rnl  eaaily  prm'urxil, 
it  haa  h<'"i  Ki'iu'rully  uaol  in  cxprrimi'Tila  u|i<>n  Ihia  aiilv 
jart.  It"  I  rvatnia  are  of  a  rhnnilHiiilnl  form,  Imvinif  aix 
acute  aoliti  niinh'N.  and  two  obtiiM,  Doubin  n'frarlion  of 
lililit  ia  «mployr<l  to  ailvanta^a  in  aonio  kiiwla  of  li|{lit- 
hnuaoa;  ami  tiioac  who  wiah  to  invratlKale  itx  natiiri<  anil 
uri)iH<rtiiw  imiy  tie  ruferrsd  to  advanctHl  truatiara  on  the 

atiliji'i't. 

Willi  r«>»|M'i't  to  the  jHihiritation  of  light — which  ia  the 
arpnriiti"'!  of  n  ray  of  light  into  two  raya,  having  ilifrrnuit 
pru|iortioa  from  I'lich  othur,  amoiifi  which  properlica  ia 
that  of  prixlui'inK  roloiir  In  a  vnrirty  of  waya,  ullhotigh 
tlie  oriKinal  ray  may  lie  common  or  wliiln  li^rht — wo  muat 
ilio  ri'litr  to  wurka  of  higher  aro|)e  than  the  prcat^nU 

COLOUR   ir   RKmACTlON. 

One  of  tlin  moat  reMinrkiiMn  plicnomrnn  attoiuling 
rtfrai'tion  ia,  tliitt  the  riiya  of  light  which  aucm  to  ua  to 
be  wliil)'.  niay  Ih;  ai'piiratuil  into  riiya  of  viirioiia  colourM. 
It  will  Ix'  ohvioiia  thiit  light  haa  the  elFcct  of  rcprcacnting 
coloura,  where  no  colour  aubatuntijilly  exiatM,  by  noticing 
thf  ){lanciiik(  ami  vurioJ  huea  on  irregular  aurlacea  of  glaaa, 
Ice,  or  otlier  rryatiillizoil  aubatnncoa. 

The  pro|HT  inethoil  of  analyzing  the  rnya  of  hght,  anil 
liiKOveriiig  into  what  coloura  tlioy  may  lie  rcaolveJ,  ia  to 
prix-uro  a  priam,  anil  perform  the  folluwlng  ex|H'riment 
io  a  darkened  chainlier: — In  the  wiiidow-ahulter  E  of  a 


.^-' 


ir»i/,  o  I' 


Plf.3. 


darkeiii'd  room,  make  a  amiill  hole  H,  thrnui;h  which 
ailiiiit  n  lieaui  of  the  huii'm  light  M,  wlilcli,  when  tiutliing 
ia  interposed,  will  proceed  in  ii  Hlrui^'ht  line  to  I',  miJ 
lorni  u  lumiiiouH  white  apot.  If  we  now  interiio.ie  u 
lirinm  1)  .^  L;,  whoae  refracting  angle  id  I)  a  C,  ho  that  the 
bcuin  of  light  may  fall  on  ita  Hurface  C  A,  and  emerge  at 
the  auiiie  angle  from  it^  oecoiid  aurfuco  B  A  in  the  direc- 
tion i,'(i,  and  if  wo  receive  the  refracted  lieain  on  the 
uppoaiU!  wall,  or  on  a  white  acrecii  M  \,  "  wc  should 
upect,"  aaya  Sir  David  Brewster,  "  from  the  principlea 
already  laid  down,  that  the  white  beam  which  previously 
fell  uiioii  P  would  aufler  only  a  change  in  ita  direction, 
lud  fall  somewhere  upon  M  N,  forming  there  a  round 
white  apot  exactly  similar  to  that  at  P.  But  this  is  not 
the  case.  Instead  of  a  white  ajiot,  there  will  be  formed 
upon  tlie  acre«r.  M  N  an  oblong  image  K  L  of  the  sun, 
containing  aoven  colours,  viz.:  red,  orange,  yellow,  green, 
biui',  indigo,  and  violet,  tlie  whole  tienm  of  light  diverg- 
ing from  ita  emergence  out  of  the  prism  at  g,  and  being 
bounded  by  the  lines  i(  K,  ,^  L.  This  lengthened  imago 
of  the  sun  is  called  the  solur  spectrum,  or  the  prinniutic 
•P'ntrum.  If  the  apiuture  H  is  small,  and  the  diHtuncc 
gCi  conaiderable,  the  colours  of  the  s{icotruin  will  lie  very 
bri;!lit.  The  lowest  portion  of  it  at  L  is  u  biilliiint  red. 
This  red  shudos  olT  by  imperceptible  gradaiions  into 
orange,  the  orungo  in'o  yellow,  the  yellow  into  green,  the 
grueu  iutu  blue,  the  blue  iuto  a  pure  indi(;o,  and  the 


imligo  Into  a  violet.  Nn  llnea  ani  a«m  aiToaa  the  *\>rr 
Iruni  lliUB  proihiced  I  and  It  la  pxtrrmrly  ilin\riilt  fur  lh< 
Bhnr|irat  eye  to  point  out  the  boundary  of  the  ililli-ii'iti 
ciiliiurs.  Mir  laaur  Newton,  however,  by  many  trials, 
found  the  lengllia  of  the  colour*  to  be  aa  follow,  in  llie 
kind  1)1  glaaa  of  which  hia  priaii)  wna  iMiide ; — Red.  IA  , 
orange,  'it  \  yelh.w,  111;  green,  flO;  blue,  BO  (  indigo,  48; 
violet,  HO— Total  length,  MOO." 

These  colour*  are  not  ei|ii.illy  brilliant.  At  the  lowai 
end  Ii  of  the  «|ieetriini,  the  red  ia  ronipuralivcly  tiiinl. 
but  grow*  brighler  as  it  iipproacbe*  the  orange.  Th« 
light  iiicrrases  gradually  to  the  middle  of  Ihe  yellow, 
where  it  is  brighlcMt;  and  from  Ihia  it  gradually  declinna 
to  the  up|M-r  or  violet  end  K  of  Ihe  s|iectruni,  where  it  ia 
extremely  faint 

From  the  piaenoniena  which  we  have  now  desi'rilird, 
Hir  laaac  Newton  cimi'ludcd  Ihnt  the  lieum  of  white  light 
is  com|M)uniled  of  light  of  aeven  dilTen'iit  colours,  and 
Hint  for  each  of  thear  difTerent  kinds  of  light,  the  glaaa 
of  which  his  prism  was  mndu  hud  diirerent  indices,  that 
is,  nieiiHures  of  refraction ;  the  index  of  refriiclion  for 
the  red  light  being  the  least,  and  that  of  the  violet  the 
greiiteal. 

lly  means  of  o  second  priam  (iloecd  liehind  a  hole  in 
the  screen  M  N,  oppusile  the  centre  of  each  coloured 
space,  Mir  Isaac  Newton  refracted  the  light  a  a4'cond 
time.  In  this  case  it  was  not  drawn  out  into  an  oblung 
iiniign  UH  iHifore,  and  was  not  refracted  into  any  olher 
colour  than  that  which  formerly  belonged  to  each  par> 
ticuliir  ray.  Hence  this  great  philosopher  concluded 
that  the  light  of  each  particular  colour  possesHed  the 
same  index  of  refriiclion;  and  he  termed  such  liglit 
lioniogcnoous,  that  ia,  of  the  auine  kind,  or  simple ;  while 
light  lieing  regarded  aa  hcterogencoua,  that  is,  of  dilTcreiit 
kinds,  or  comjiound. 

By  various  exiM'rimrnts,  Sir  Isaui.  proved  that  ull  the 
colours,  when  again  combined,  formed  or  rerom)K)sed 
while  light.     Indeed,  the  doctrine  may  1h)  illuMlrated  by 
mixing  together  in  pro|ier  proportloiiM  seven  colours  as 
like  those  of  the  spectrum  as  can  poxsibly  be  got.     By 
their  union  a  grayiHli  white  is  formed,  for  powders  of  the 
exact  tint  as  Ihosn  of  the  spectrum  cannot  bo  obtained. 
It  may  also  be  proved  in  tliis  inannor ; — Let  a  circle  of 
pu|H'r  be  divided  into  sections  of   the  same  size,  and 
coloured  like  the  spaces  in  the  spectrum,  and  placed 
upon  a  hiimiiiliig-top,  which  is  made  tu  revolve  rapidly; 
the  eirect  of  all  Ihe  colours  when  combined  is  to  pro- 
diicr  a  grayish  white. 
I      •■  \||  transparent  substances,  in  bending  light,"  ob- 
I  serves   I)r.  A  molt,  "produce  more  or  less  of  the  sepa- 
j  ration  of  colour ;  but  it  is  an  important  fact,  that  the 
quality  of  merely  bending  a  beam,  or  of  refrii:iwii,  and 
that  of  dividing  it  into  col  nred  beams,  or  of  (lisperiion, 
ore  distinct  ({uiilities,  and  nut  having  the  same  propor- 
tion to  each  other  in  ditVerent   substances.     Newton, 
I  from  not  discovering  this,  concluded  that  a  perfect  tele- 
scojie  of  refraction  could  never  be  made ;  ho  supposed 
I  that  the  bent  light  would  always  become  coloured,  and 
j  so  render  the  object  indistinct.     Wc  now  know,  how- 
I  ever,  that,  by  combining  two  or  more  media,  we  may 
I  obtain  licnding  of   light  without  dispersion — thus,  by 
opposing  a  glass  which  bends  live  degrees  and  disperses 
one  degree,  to  another  glass  which  licnds  three  degrees 
I  and  dis|M<rses  one,  the  opposing  dispersions  will  just 
j  counterbalance  or  neutralize  each  other,  while  the  two 
degrees  of  excess  of  bending  will  remain  to  be  applied 
,  to  use.'' 

!      It  having  been  found,  by  the  experiments  of  Newton 
■  and  others,  that  none  of  the  seven  colours  of  the  solar 
hpectruiii   could  he  broken  by  the  prism  intc   new  co- 
lours, the  theory  was  in  some  measure  established  thai 
\  there  were  mven  primitive  colours.     In  time,  howiver 
practical  men  discovered  that  there  were  only  llntv  aim 
,  pie  or  homogeneous  colours,  and  that  all  others  resultei* 


"",4,'-.';/\yT?.'»,''" 


i.iO 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


from  thorn.  Thepc  three  primitive  colour*  were  rtJ, 
Hue,  and  yiixni'.  That  this  was  the  true  doctrine  of 
•■oIoH'i),  hag  been  completely  set  at  rest  by  the  experi- 
menU  of  Mr.  D.  R.  Hay  (Edinburgh),  author  of  a  trea- 
tiM  on  the  Laws  of  Harmonious  Colouring.  We  ex- 
tract the  following  account  of  Mr.  Hay's  cxporimcnU 
from  the  work  in  question,  and  the  principle  of  which 
•eems  uftcrwards  to  have  been  adopted  by  Sir  D.  Brew- 
ster:— 

"Although  this  theory  (that  of  there  being  only 
three  primitive  colours)  was  not  sot  up  in  opposition 
to  that  of  thr  niitural  philosophers,  but  seemed  only  to 
he  established  in  a  practical  point  of  view,  neither  was 
It  supported  by  any  scientific  experiments;  yet  it  ap- 
peared to  mc  more  consistent  v.itli  the  general  sinipli- 
rity  of  nature,  and  I  could  not  lielieve  that  she  requin^l 
seven  homogeneous  parts  to  produce  what  nrt  coidd  do 
by  three.  For  instance,  an  artist  can  make  all  the 
icilours,  and  indeed  a  correct  representation  of  the  pris 
niatic  siM'ctrum  (so  far  as  the  purity  of  the  materials 
will  allow),  with  three  colours  only;  while,  according 
to  the  theory  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  seven  simple  or 
homoiieneous  colours  were  employed  to  produce  the 
real  one. 

"The  following  discovery,  made  by  UulTbn,  and  illus- 
trated by  succeeiling  philosophers,  helped  to  strengthen 
me  in  the  conviction,  that  the  scientific  theory  might, 
like  iliat  of  the  practical  artist,  be  reducible  to  three 
simple  or  homosjfnoous  parts.  If  we  look  steadily  for 
a  considcriible  time  upon  a  spot  of  any  piven  colour, 
placed  on  a  white  or  black  ground,  it  will  apjiear  sur- 
rounded by  a  border  of  ant  her  colour.  And  tiiis 
colour  will  uniformly  be  fotind  to  be  that  which  makes 
up  the  triad  ;  for  if  the  spot  be  red,  the  border  will  be 
green,  which  is  composed  of  blue  and  yellow  ;  if  blue, 
the  liordk'r  will  Im'  orange,  compos«"d  of  yellow  and  red; 
and  if  yellow,  the  liorder  will  lie  purjilo — making  in  all 
sases  a  Iri-unity  of  the  three  colours  called  by  ortiiits 
horn  iTcneous. 

«'  With  a  view  to  thrnv  such  light  u|Hin  the  subject  as 
my  limited  opporfuiiities  would  permit,  I  went  over  the 
rxperiiiiriits  by  which  (Sir  Isanc  Newton  est^ililishcd 
his  tlieory,  and  the  saiiie  results  m-curred  :  I  could  not 
separate  any  one  colour  of  the  solar  s|iectruni  into  two. 
The  impcrccplible  manner  in  which  the  colours  were 
blended  logother  upon  the  s[h— truin,  however,  and  the 
rircumstiiiice  of  the  colours  which  p;;u-ticHl  people  call 
com|niuii(l.  being  always  placed  at  the  adjunct  of  the 
two  of  which  ihey  say  it  is  composed,  with  my  previous 
Ct-T-viction.  induced  me  to  conliniic  my  exi)eriincnls: 
and  although  I  could  not,  by  aimlysJH.  prove  that  there 
were  only  three  colours,  I  succeciled  in  proving  it  to 
my  own  satisfaction,  synthetically,  in  the  following 
manner : — 

"After  having  tried  every  colour  in  succession,  and 
finding  lliat  none  of  them  ccmid  lie  sepanited  into  two, 
I  next  made  a  hole  in  the  first  screen  in  the  crntre  of 
tlic  blue  uf  the  siieclruni,  and  another  in  that  of  the  red. 
I  ha»l  thereby  a  s|iot  of  e«ch  of  these  culours  u|ion  a 
second  Kcrcen.  I  then,  by  means  of  another  f)risiii,  di- 
rected 'he  blue  siK)t  to  the  same  pan  of  the  «econd 
screen  on  which  the  r€'<l  apjieareil.  where  they  united 
and  |iro«luced  a  violet  as  pure  and  iiitcnHC  as  that  upon 
Uic  sitectruin.  I  did  the  same  with  the  blue  and  yel- 
low, and  protliiceil  the  prismalie  ifreen  ;  as  also  with 
tiie  red  and  yellow,  and  orange  was  ihe  n  -idl.  I  tried, 
in  the  same  manner,  to  mix  a  siniiilc  with  what  I 
lliougbt  a  com|K>uiiil  .■oloiir.  but  tliey  did  not  unite;  for 
D.I  »»ion«r  was  Ihe  red  sjiot  ihniwn  upon  the  ureen  than 
It  disapiN'ured. 

•'I  tried  the  same  ex|)eriinent  with  two  spectra,  the 
one  iH'hind,  and  of  course  u  little  aliove  the  other,  and 
|.«iMcd  a  sjMit  III  ^ai'h  colour  succesaivrly  over  the  s|iec- 
Uum  wluvk  WM  farthest  from  the  wiuduw,  and   the 


same  result  occurred.  It  therefore  ap]icared  to  me  thM 
tliesc  three  colours  had  an  affinity  to  one  another  thai 
did  not  exist  in  the  others,  and  that  tlicy  could  not  be 
the  same  in  every  respect,  except  colour  and  nfirangtbi 
lity,  as  had  hitlierto  been  taught. 

"These  opinions,  the  result  of  my  experiments,  I 
publi^ed  in  1B28,  as  being  n  necessary  part  of  a  trea- 
tise of  this  nature ;  and  I  did  so  with  great  diihdence 
well  knowing  that  I  was  soaring  far  above  my  own  ele- 
ment in  making  an  attempt  to  throw  light  upon  such  a 
subject.  I  had,  however,  the  gratification  to  learn  that 
these  ."eta  were  afterwards  proved  in  a  communication 
read  to  tlie  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh  by  Sir  DnHd 
Brewster,  on  the  3Ut  of  March,  1831,  in  which  he  also 
showed  that  white  light  consists  of  the  three  primary 
colours,  reil,  yellow,  and  blue ;  and  that  the  other  coloura 
shown  by  the  prism  are  composed  of  these. 

"  The  three  homogeneous  colours,  yellow,  red,  and 
blue,  have  been  proved  by  Field,  in  the  most  satisfactory 
manner,  to  lie  in  numerical  proportional  power  as  fob 
,lows — yellow  three,  red  five,  and  blue  eight 

"When  these  three  colours  are  reflected  from  any 
opaciue  body  in  these  proportions,  white  is  produced. 
They  are  then  in  an  active  state,  but  each  is  neutralized 
by  the  relative  etfect  that  the  others  have  upon  it. 
When  they  are  absorbed  in  the  same  proportions,  thov 
are  in  a  passive  state,  and  black  is  the  result.  When 
transmitted  through  any  trans])arent  lK)dy,  the  effect  in 
the  same  ;  but  in  the  first  case  they  are  material  or  in- 
herent, and  in  the  second  impaljiable  or  trnnsiont. 
Colour,  therefore,  deiicnds  entirely  on  the  reflective  oi 
refractive  |)ower  of  bodies,  as  the  transmission  or  reflec- 
tion of  soiHid  does  upon  their  vibratory  powers." 

To  persons  jiractically  engaged  in  colours,  we  have 
.•iiiieh  pleasure  in  recommending  Mr.  Hay's  work,  as 
containing  a  variety  of  useful  information. 

THR   RAINBOW. 

Every  one  knows  that  the  rainbow  is  that  brilliant 
and  mnny-eoloured  arch  which  is  occasionally  seen 
spanning  the  sky  opposite  to  the  sun.  In  f'rancc  and 
elsewhere,  it  is  called  the  arc  of  the  sky ;  and  whilst  to 
poets  and  other  admirers  of  nature  it  is  an  object  tj. 
most  worshipped  for  its  beauty,  to  tlie  philosopher  it  ig 
no  less  interesting  ond  attractive.  Rainbows  arc  onlv 
visible  when  rain  is  falling  between  the  spectator  anj 
that  part  of  the  sky  which  is  opposite  to  Ihe  sun  whirh 
is  in  its  centre,  as  if  at  the  end  of  a  straight  line  drawn 
from  the  sun  through  the  eye  of  the  siwclator  toward? 
the  op|)osile  horizon ;  and  lx"ing  always  tnder  the  hori- 
zon, the  bow  is  less  than  a  semicircle.  It  c<>nsiKl«  of 
two  bows  or  arches,  the  one  iimcr  or  |>rimary,  the  olhe. 
outer  or  secondary ;  and  within  the  primary  rain!)ow, 
and  in  contact  with  it,  and  without  the  secondary  one, 
there  have  been  seen  supernumerary  bows. 

The  primary  or  inner  rainbow,  which  is  commonly 
seen  ahme.  is  part  ef  a  circle,  whose  radius  is  41".  I| 
consists  of  seven  diirerently-colotired  bows,  namolv, 
violet,  which  is  the  innermost,  indigo,  blue,  green,  vcl- 
low,  orange,  and  red,  which  is  the  outermost.  Tlus* 
colours  have  the  same  jiroportional  breadth  as  the 
s|7aces  in  Ihe  prismalie  siwctrum.  This  bow  i.<  thrre- 
fore  only  an  infinite  nuniN'r  of  prismatic  sjicctra,  ar- 
ranged in  the  ciiruinteienee  of  a  circle  ;  and  .t  would 
1h'  easy,  by  a  circular  arrnngement  of  prisms,  or  by 
covering  np  all  the  central  part  of  «  large  lens,  to  pn,- 
iUicf!  a  sniall  arch  of  exiiclly  the  sume  colouis.  All 
that  we  reipiire,  therefore,  to  form  a  rainbow,  is  a  (rrc»l 
niimlier  of  trans|)ttrent  bodies  capable  of  formini;  i 
great  numlicr  of  prismatic  spectra  frtm  the  light  of  th» 
sun. 

81;  David  Brewster  thus  explains  fht  tause  of  'Ik 
arc  of  :he  sky  : — .\s  the  rainbow  is  never  s.'cn  unifni 
when  lain  is  actually  falling  between  the  spectator  uul 


,he  sky  oppi 

the  tianspori 

«ra  know  to 

of  glass  or  n 

the  sun,  we 

Heeled  from 

spectrum,  thi 

spectrum  ver 

a  level  with  t 

in  a  horizoni 

truu,  with  th 

if  wo  hold  a 

these  two,  so 

plane  incline 

spectrum  inc 

innermost    J 

drops  in  all  { 

receive  spccti 

that  when  co 

plectrum  whii 

To  explain 

of  rain  expos 

in  the  direct! 

light  whii'h  fa 

through  or  m 

to  a  focus  bch 

lido  of  the  dro 


iiiifif/ 


mm 

lli/'l  % 


(lilliliilliill 


mii! 


he  violet  most 

with  such  sufl 

be  reflected,  as 

bo  again  refrat 

will  perceive  a 

with  the  red 

most     If  the  E 

in  the  same  v 

.\  B  will  form 

liow,  as  in  the 

b«  near  tho  hoi 

sun  are  in  a  ph 

Kim's  light  will 

.\  B,  with  this 

lion  will  be  incl 

of  the  bowdista 

fest  that  the  ilr 

joining  the  eye, 

in  the  plane  pa 

form  the  up[M'r 

right  and  Icll 

line  joining  tht 

will  form  the 

Not  a  single  <lr( 

vpace  within  th 

10  that,  if  a  sh.i 
the  rainbow  wo 
ttad  reached  the 

If  we  conipiit 
violet  ray  to  the 

11  to  be  4a° 
Vot.  I.— 36 


'  fij 


OPTICS—LIGHT. 


201 


>he  Ay  opposite  to  tho  nun,  vfti  are  led  to  believe  that 
(lie  tianapareut  boUieg  retiuired  are  drops  of  rain,  which 
we  know  to  be  small  spheres.  If  we  look  into  a  globe 
of  glass  or  water  held  above  the  head,  and  opposite  to 
the  sun,  we  shall  actually  see  a  prismatic  spectrum  ro- 
llMtcd  from  the  farther  side  of  the  globe.  In  this 
<uectrum,  the  violet  rays  will  bt  innermost,  and  the 
■peetrum  vertical.  If  we  hold  the  globe  horizontal,  on 
a  level  with  the  ey> ,  so  as  to  see  the  pun's  light  reflected 
in  a  horizontal  p'.tne,  we  shall  see  a  horizontal  spec- 
truui  with  the  v'  )let  rays  innermost.  In  like  manner, 
if  we  hold  a  gluUo  in  a  position  intermediate  between 
these  two,  so  as  to  see  the  sun's  light  reflected  in  a 
plane  inclined  45°  to  the  horizon,  we  shall  perceive  a 
gpectrum  inclined  46°  to  the  horizon,  with  the  violet 
mnermost.  Now,  since  in  a  shower  of  rain  there  are 
drops  in  nil  positions  relative  to  the  eye,  the  eye  will 
receive  spectra  inclined  at  all  angles  to  the  horizon,  so 
that  when  combircd,  they  will  form  tho  large  circular 
mectrum  which  constitutes  the  rainbow. 

To  explain  this  more  clearly,  let  A  B,  flg.  4,  be  drops 
of  rain  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays,  incident  upon  them 
in  the  direction  T  A,  T  B,  out  of  the  whole  beam  of 
light  which  falls  upon  the  drop;  those  rays  which  pass 
through  or  near  tho  axis  of  the  Jiop  will  be  refracted 
to  a  focus  behind  it ;  but  those  which  fall  on  the  upper 
liilo  of  the  drop  will  be  refracted,  the  red  rays  least,  and 


iliiim 


i!  ii/ 


llll/l'/  /r.. 

\liiHfM 
mil  //.<': 


Fig.  4. 


he  violet  moat,  and  will  fall  upon  the  back  of  the  drop 
with  such  sufficient  obliquity  that  many  of  them  will 
be  reflected,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  These  rays  will 
bo  again  refracted,  and  will  meet  the  eye  at  O,  which 
will  perceive  a  8i>ectrum  or  prismatic  image  of  the  sun, 
OTlh  the  red  space  uppcnnost,  and  the  violot  under- 
most. If  the  sun,  the  eye,  and  the  droiJs  .\  B,  are  all 
in  the  same  vertical  plane,  the  spectrum  proiUu-cd  by 
A  B  will  form  the  colours  at  the  very  summit  of  the 
how,  OS  in  the  figure.  Let  us  now  8U)>pu8e  a  drop  to 
he  near  the  horizon,  so  that  the  eye,  the  drop,  and  the 
BUD  are  in  a  plane  inclined  to  the  horizon,  a  ray  of  the 
Kitn's  light  will  be  reflected  in  tho  same  manner  as  at 
A  B,  with  this  diflcrcnce  only,  that  the  plane  of  reflec- 
tion will  tie  inclined  to  the  horizon,  and  will  form  part 
of  the  bow  distant  fi-om  the  summit.  Hence  it  is  mani- 
fost  that  the  drops  of  rain  immediately  above  the  line 
joining  the  eye,  and  the  upper  part  of  tlio  rainbow,  and 
in  the  plai'.c  passing  through  the  eye  and  the  sun,  will 
form  the  upper  part  of  the  Iww ;  and  the  drops  to  the 
right  and  lell  hand  of  the  observer,  and  without  the 
line  joining  the  eye  and  the  lowest  part  of  the  bow, 
will  form  the  lowest  part  of  tho  bow  on  each  hanil. 
Not  a  single  drop,  therefore,  between  the  eye  aitd  the 
ipace  within  the  bow,  is  concerned  in  its  production ; 
<o  that,  if  a  shower  were  to  fall  regularly  from  a  cloud, 
the  rainbow  would  appear  before  a  single  drop  of  rain 
Bad  reached  the  ground. 

If  we  compute  the  inclination  of  the  red  ray  and  the 
»iolet  ray  to  the  incident  rays  T  A,  T  B,  wo  shall  find 
It  to  be  4«°  2'  for  the  rod,  »nd  40°  17'  for  tho  violet,  so 

Vol.  I.— 26 


that  tho  breadth  of  the  rainbow  will  be  the  difTerence 
of  those  numbers,  or  1°  46',  or  nearly  three  times  and 
a  half  the  sun's  diameter.  These  results  comcido  so 
accurately  with  observation,  as  to  leave  no  doubt  that 
the  primary  rainbow  is  produced  by  two  refractions  and 
one  intermediate  reflection  of  the  rays  that  fall  on  the 
upper  sides  of  the  drops  of  rain. 

It  is  obvious  that  some  of  the  rays  will  suflcr  a  second 
reflection  at  the  points  where  they  are  represented  as 
quitting  the  drop ;  but  these  reflected  rays  will  go  up 
into  the  sky,  and  cannot  possHily  reach  the  eye  at  O. 
But  though  this  is  tho  cose  with  wys  that  enter  the 
upper  sidb  of  the  drop,  as  at  A  B,  or  the  side  farthest 
from  the  eye,  yet  those  which  enter  it  on  tho  under  side, 
CT  the  side  nearest  tho  eye,  may  after  two  reflections 
reach  the  eye,  as  shown  in  tl»e  drops  D  C,  where  the 
rays  T  T  enter  the  drops  below.  The  red  and  violet 
rays  will  lie  refi-acted  in  different  directions,  and,  after 
being  twice  reflected,  will  lie  finally  refracted  to  the  eye 
at  O ;  the  violet  forming  the  upper  part,  and  the  ried 
the  under  part  of  tho  spectrum.  If  we  now  compute 
the  inclination  of  these  rays  to  the  incident  rays  T  T, 
we  shall  find  them  to  be  50°  £8'  for  the  red  ray,  and 
54°  10'  for  the  violet  ray ;  tho  diflercnce  of  which,  or 
3°  12',  will  be  the  breadth  of  the  bow,  and  the  distance 
between  the  bows  will  be  8°  15'.  Hence  it  is  clear  that 
a  secondary  bow  will  be  formed  without  tho  primary 
bow,  and  with  its  colours  reversed,  in  consequence  of 
their  being  produced  by  two  reflections  and  two  refrac- 
tions. The  breaiUh  of  the  secondary  Ikjw  is  nearly 
twice  as  great  as  that  of  the  primary  one,  and  its  co- 
lours must  be  much  fainter,  because  it  consists  of  light 
that  has  suficred  two  reflections  in  place  of  one. 

Many  peculiar  kinds  of  rainbows  have  been  observed, 
such  as  lunar  ones,  in  which,  however,  the  colours  are 
faint  and  barely  perceptible.  Supernumerary  rainbowi 
are  sometimes  seen.  "On  the  5th  of  July,  1828,"  saya 
Sir  D.  Brewster,  "  I  observed  three  supernumerary  bow* 
within  the  primary  bow,  each  consisting  of  green  and 
red  arches,  and  in  contact  with  tlic  violet  arch  of  the 
primary  bow.  On  the  outside  of  the  outer  or  secondary 
bow,  I  isaw  distinctly  a  red  arch,  and  beyond  it  a  very 
faint  green  one,  consisting  of  a  supernumerary  bow, 
analogous  to  those  within  the  primary  rainbow." 

Red  rainbows,  distortsd  rainbows,  and  inverted  rain- 
bows on  the  grass  have  been  observed.  T'le  latter  are 
formed  by  the  drops  of  rain  ausiioiidcd  or.  the  spiders' 
webs  in  the  fields.  It  is  only  necessary  to  mention  that  the 
iris,  so  frequently  seen  overarching  ih.,  catariict,  is  pro- 
duced by  the  retraction  of  light  in  passing  through  the 
misty  vapour  generated  by  the  fall  of  the  column  of  water. 

REFLECTION    OF    LIGHT. 

Light,  as  has  been  mentioned,  is  diffused  around  us 
by  tho  refractive  power  of  the  atmosphere,  and  there- 
fore objects  arc  (juile  visible  though  the  rays  of  the  sun 
do  not  strike  directly  ui)on  them ;  in  plainer  terms,  the 
atmosphere  may  be  compared  to  the  thick  piece  of  glasfc 
called  a  IntU'ii  rye  fixed  in  the  deck  of  a  shiji,  by  which 
rays  of  light  are  collected  and  dispersed  into  all  cor- 
ners of  the  a[)artn\rnt  beneath.  Tlic  atmosphere  being 
thus  a  vehicle  of  light,  it  may  be  supposed  tliat,  if  we 
were  to  ascend  to  a  great  height  above  the  level  of  tho 
earth,  or  Iwyoiid  tho  sphere  of  the  atmosiihere,  we 
should  be  almost  in  darkness,  although  we  were  in  ro 
ality  nearer  llie  sun.  There  is  reason  to  lielieve  that 
such  would  be  the  case  ;  for  travellers  who  have  as- 
cended to  the  8\unmit  of  Mont^Blanc,  or  about  15,000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  mention,  that  at  that 
height  the  sky  appears  to  bo  of  an  exceedingly  daik 
blue  colour,  or  almost  black,  and  the  light  so  faint  thai 
the  stars  are  visible.  We  may  understand  from  thin 
tliat  tho  rays  of  tho  sun  travel  through  immense  m- 
gious  of  darkness  before  they  reueh  our   atuiospbora. 


-,  -">■%■**'' 


900 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


and  are  difluiicil  into  Jiat  univorsal  soft  light  which  we 
obaorve  around  us. 

But,  besidei.  being  diffused  by  a  pure  atmospheric 
uedium,  light  is  greatly  increased  in  brilliancy  by  re- 
fiectiim.  If  ail  the  objects  on  the  surface  of  our  planet 
were  to  be  black,  which  is  a  negation  of  all  colour,  the 
tun's  light  would  be  absorbed,  or  at  least  return  no  part 
of  the  rays  which  fell  upon  them;  and  we  should,  even 
while  the  sun  shone,  possess  much  less  light  than  we 
now  enjoy.  Nature  has  avoided  this  calamity,  and,  by 
producing  all  varieties  of  colours  in  objects,  the  sun's 
rays  which  full  upon  them  arc  less  or  more  reflected, 
or  sent  back  into  the  general  mass  of  light  We  now, 
then,  understand,  that  every  object  we  sec  reflects  rays 
at  light,  and  that  those  rays  travel  from  the  object  to 
our  eye,  as  soon  as  we  bend  our  vision  upon  it :  inas- 
much, however,  aa  a  thousand  or  more  individuals  may 
■ee  the  same  object  at  the  same  instant  of  time,  it  is 
evident  that  the  rays  proceed  at  all  points,  and  fall  upon 
eyea  at  every  variety  of  angle. 

If  the  object  be  cloar  or  polished  in  its  surface,  it  will 
possess  the  power  of  reprcseutins;  the  image  of  any 
object  within  reach  of  its  rays.  Thus,  the  surface  of  a 
smooth  lake  will  represent  the  image  of  the  sky  above, 
or  the  neighbouring  hills,  or  of  any  o'.tject  floating  on 
ita  surface.  This  natural  property  in  clear  surfaces  has 
tuggestcd  tlie  formation  of  mirrors  or  looking-glasses. 
A  mirror,  or  speculum,  aa  it  is  scientifically  called,  is  any 
instrument  of  a  regular  form,  employed  for  the  purpose 
of  reflecting  light  or  forming  images  of  objects.  Mirrors 
uaually  consist  of  mi>tal  or  gkiss,  having  a  highly  polished 
■urfacc.  Those  which  are  constructed  of  glass  are  coated 
upon  the  back  witli  quicksilver,  or  rather  with  tin-foil 
mixed  with  a  little  mercury,  for  the  purpose  of  reflecting 
more  light ;  were  this  not  the  case,  so  little  light  would 
be  thrown  back,  on  account  of  glass  transmitting  it  to  a 
considrralile  extent,  that  a  very  indistinct  image  would 
be  formed.  The  word  speculum  is  generally  confined 
to  metallic  mirrors,  and  they  are  cither  plane,  concave, 
or  convex.  The  plane  ones  are  perfectly  flat  Nke  a 
looking-glass;  and  a  common  watch-glass  conveys  a 
very  good  idea  cf  the  other  two  species  of  mirrors. 
Coat  the  hollow  surface  with  mercury,  and  place  it  be- 
fore a  candle,  it  forms  a  convex  mirror;  coat  it  upon  the 
other  side,  and  employ  it  as  before,  it  becomes  a  concave 
mirror. 

If  a  plar.e  mirror  AD  be  placcil  exactly  in  a  hori- 
inntal  (KKition,  a  ray  of  light  c  darting  downwards  in 
•n  exactly  (>erpendicular  di-  t 

rectiuii,  and  striking  it  at  (/, 
will  l)e  thrown  back  in  the 
exact  path  which  it  traversed 
in  ita  descent,  without  any 
deviation.  If,  however,  it  de- 
■cends  in  an  oblique  manner, 
■•  is  shown  at  (,  a  i>oint  mid- 
way between  the  |)erpenilicular  r  and  the  horizontal  AH, 
it  will  not  return,  as  in  the  former  instunce,  to  the  place 
whence  it  came,  but  will  !«  reflected  from  the  mirror  at 
•U  angle  exactly  equal  to  that  at  which  it  des<-ended 
upon  .  'i'he  ruy  ed  is  called  the  inridenl  my,  and  the 
ray  d li  is  termed  the  reflected  ruy.  In  the  figure  edc  \» 
called  the  niinU  o/  in/Wi-n't,  and  bdr  the  iinfitt  of  ><v 
fliriwii  .  and  tliry  are  both,  as  we  ha%e  olim-rved,  exactly  ; 
equal  (II  each  oilier.  This  being  the  fact,  we  have  airurded  . 
us  a  Uit'lhikl  o!  universal  u|i|ilirution,  liy  which,  when 
once  the  umuIi-  oI  iiiridcnrc,  or  lliat  at  wliiih  the  ray  fails 
upon  a  IhkIv,  m  I'oui.d,  tliat  of  rrflcilion  ia  riisily  obtained. 
This  holdit  true  whalcver  sha|H."  llie  mirror  may  lie  of, 
plane,  iiiiii-ave,  or  convex,  and  whatever  number  of  rays 
may  fall  uiioii  it. 

Let  us  a|i|ii>  the  principle  hen;  mcntional  to  the  simjile 
{liliuouieuou  of  seeing  ouiaelvua  in  a  plane  iookiug-glaa*.  i 


When  we  stand  directly  in  front  of  a  mirror,  we  sue  om 

I  image  represented  in  it ;  and  as  we  move,  so  does  ibc 

I  image  ap|)ear  to  move  also,  but  with  a  peculiarity  in  it( 

I  motion :  if,  for  example,  we  walk  towards  the  mirror,  the 

i  image  is  seen  to  aiiproach  in  a  similar  manner,  but  the 

approach   is  with  double  the  veliK-ity,  because  the  two 

motions   are   equal   and   contrary.     Suppose,   however 

while  we  stand  at  the  glass,  another  person  walks  up  bo! 

hind  us,  his  image  will  appear  to  us  to  move  nt  the  same 

rate  as  he  walks,  though  to  him  the  velocity  will  seem 

double,  because,  with  regard  to  us,  there  will  lie  but  one 

motion,  and  with  regard  to  him  there  will  be  two  equal 

and  contrary  motions. 

In  tbs  case  of  standing  directly  in  front  of  the  mirror 
the  image  is  necessarily  Iwfore  us,  for  the  rays  procecdinir 
from  our  eye  to  the  mirror  are  sent  back  from  the  surface 
without  any  angle  of  incidence.  The  case  is  otherwise 
when  we  stsjid  so  far  at  a  side  that  we  cannot  see  our- 
selves in  the  glass,  though  we  can  see  tho  imai^e  of  an- 
other (lerson  equally  far  off  on  tlie  oppoHite  side.  Two 
persons  so  situated  will  see  each  oth.?r  though  they 
cannot  see  themselves,  because  the  rays  from  the  lir«t 
person  striking  on  the  glass  form  un  angle  of  reflection 
and  dart  off  in  the  direction  of  tho  second  person,  while 
the  rays  from  the  second  person  arc  similarly  reflected 
towards  the  first.  Such  ia  a  practical  exemplification  of 
the  angle  of  reflection  in  mirrors. 

The  principle  of  reflection   may   be    more   minutolv 
explained  as  follows: — We  suppose  RR  to  Iks  the  sur- 
face of  a  plane  mirror,  the 
arrow  MN  any  object  placed 
in  front  of  it,  and  E  the  eye 
of  an  observer  placed  at  i  k. 
Of  the  rays  which  shoot  in  a 
rectilinear  direction  from  the 
points  MN  of  the  object,  and 
are  reflected  from  the  mir- 
ror, those   which  enter  the 
eye  are  few  in  number,  and 
must  be  reflected  from  portions  DF  and  GH  of  the  mir- 
ror, 80  situated  with  reference  to  the  eye  and  the  oljcct, 
that  the  angles  of  incidence  of  the  rays  which  fall  on 
these  portions  must  be  equal  to  the  aiit^ics  of  the  retlet'- 
tion  of  those  which  enter  the  eye  between  i  nnd  k.    For 
instance,  the  ray  MD  is  reflected  in  the  direction  D  i,  and 
the  ray  MF  in  the  direction  V  k.     In  tho  same  inannor, 
the  rays  NG  and  NH  will  Iw  reflected  severally  in  lb 
directions  G  i  and  H  k.     If  the  rays  i  U  nnd  k  V  he  con- 
tinued iMckwards,  they  jviil  meet  at  a  ])oint  i.i,  wlicnro 
they  will  ap|>eur  to  have  come  to  the  eye.     For  tho 
same  reason,  the  rays  G  i  and  H  k,  if  cuiitiiuied  in  tKe 
same  manner,  will  Hcem  to  meet  at  the  point  n  as  thrir 
focus,  and  in  n  will  be  the  virtual  imago  of  the  olijcri 
MN,     It  is  called  virluul,  liecause  it  is  not  foriuod  liyllif 
actual  union  of  rays  in  a  focus,  and  cannot  Ih'  received 
ujion  pa[)er.     The  virtual  image  m  n  is  as  far  licliind  the 
mirror  as  the  object  MN  is  before   it;  conscijuciilly.  if 
we  join  rri  ti,  it  will  lie  of  the  same  dintrn»i>iils  as  M\ 
and  have  the  same  position  Ix'hind  the  niirn>r  as  the 
object  has  l>cforo  it.     If  we  join  the  points  M  hi  and  Nn, 
the  lines  M  m  and  N  n  will  l)e  |>er|H'n(Ii(  ular  In  the  niiP' 
ror  KR,  and  con»'qucntly  parallel.     In  cn'ry  position  il 
tho  eye,  the  iinngc  is  seen  in  the  snnie  spot ;  its  ab^iliiK 
size  is  always  the  same,  and  its  apparent  size  is  also  tht 
same  when  seen  at  equal  distances  from  the  eye.    If  tht 
object   M  \  is  an  iiulividual  surveying  hiiiisell'  in  iht 
mirror,  he  will  see  his  perfect  image  us  if  at  ki  n. 

The  manner  in  which  rays  arc  relleeteil  from  a  (*oii- 
cave  mirriir,  next  deserves  one  atteiilien.  It  will  ha\( 
l)een  frequently  observed  by  the  reader,  llmt  when  U 
looked  ut  hiiiisel!"  in  the  hollow  of  u  polii.!ied  miUi 
«|M)on,  his  face  and  bust  appeared  l>  be  iiiv.  rln!,  .-:  Lf 
aide  down.     We  ej.plain  this  by  retuiring  to  the  actoui 


panymg 
distance 


/ 


■nd  whiMT 

diverging 

m  (a  little 

m  image  < 

preseiitatio 

that  a  com; 

formed ;  ai 

though  smi 

centrated,  a 

The  size  ol 

distance  of 

large,  and  I 

eiperiinentf 

object,  and  i 

of  the  imag 

the  [licturo 

■iio. 

If  we  cor 
prcsoiitition 
viewed  by  a 
scribed,  cons 
a  small  conn 
ima:;e,  and  n 
larifc  mirror 
nified  still  n 
constitutes  aj 
from  the  inve 
fave  we  cini)i 
E  and  n  m,  i 
wise  have  rai 
this  case  also 
•8  in  the  forn 
An  image 
magnified  wh 
[lasses  that  p( 
gradu.nlly  dvi 
object  when 
the  object  is 
mirror,  the 
iK'hind  the 
the  substance 
rots,  from  the 
may  be  used 
this  shape  art 
reflect  them. 
The  lumps  o 
witli  these  ref 
With  resp< 
images   of  a 
form  them  1m>( 
of  llie  spcetat 
Jcct  proceed 
nirror,  and  th 
to  he   refleete 
rcllectioii  froii 
rep'cseiited  is 
if  we  could  se 
niensii)iis  ot  til 
II  is  |)erha|[ 
lie  formed  upl 
hole  bttwecr. 


l 


M.iiui. 


OPTICS— LIGHT 


903 


we  Die  out 
)  does  ih( 
iarity  in  iu 
mirror,  the 
>er,  but  the 
BO  the  two 
'.,  however, 
mlk«  up  b^ 
nt  the  same 
:y  will  seem 
,  lie  but  Olio 
0  two  equal 

f  the  mirror, 
8  proceeding 
11  the  Hurt'ace 

18  otherwine 
inot  8ee  our- 
mage  of  an- 
s  side.  Two 
though  they 
roiii  the  tirat 

of  reflection, 
person,  while 
ilarly  reflected 
iipliiicatiun  of 

loro  minutely 
to  tjc  the  6ur- 
El 

M 


panying  diagram,  fig  7.     MN  ia  an  objc  ct  placed  at  some 
distance  from  a  concave  mirror  AB,  whose  centre  is  C, 


jH  of  ttie  mir. 
iind  the  olijiil, 
8  which  fall  on 
■8  of  the  rrflw- 
n  t  ntid  A'.   For 
.rection  D  i,  and 
Buiiie  inannci, 
severally  in  llie 
ami  A;  F  be  con- 
)oiiit  I.I,  whcnfo 
cyo.     For  tho 
DMiinui'd  in  the 
point  II  as  thiir 
of  the  oliji'il 
.)t  fornii-d  liy  tlif 
iiiot  bo  received 
i.s  far  liohind  tin 
coiisnjucntly.  if 
lU'iifioiW  as  M.N, 
niirnir  as  ihs 
ts  M  (11  and  N  n, 
.  ulur  ti)  the  m> 
I'MTv  [Miiiition  if 
tt ;  its  alwilutt 
il  hi'rt'  is  also  the 

I  the  <-yo.    U  lb« 
liiiu^'lf  ill  the 

if  at  rrii. 
I'l  till  from  a  i-oik 
oil.     It  will  h"^' 
r,  that  wlicn  I"* 

II  pi.Uhhi'd  mot* 
;  iiivi  rlt  d,  .".  uf 

liiig  to  the  »cwin 


and  whiwo  principal  focus  is  E.  The  rays  from  M  fall 
diverging  upon  the  mirror,  and  are  reflected  to  a  focus  at 
in  (a  little  without  the  principal  focus),  where  they  form 
an  image  of  the  extremity  M,  In  the  some  way,  a  re- 
presentation of  the  extremity  N  will  be  painted  at  n,  so 
that  a  complete  but  inverted  image  of  NM  will  thus  be 
formed ;  and  it  is  evident  that  it  will  be  very  bright, 
though  small,  because  a  great  number  of  rays  are  con- 
centrated, and  concur  in  forming  each  point  of  the  image. 
The  size  of  the  image  thus  formed  corresponds  to  the 
dist:iMc.o  of  the  object  from  the  mirror.  If  the  latter  be 
large,  and  tho  former  very  bright,  a  series  of  beautiful 
experiments  may  be  made  by  varying  the  distance  of  the 
object,  and  observing  the  variations  in  the  size  and  place 
of  the  image.  As  the  object  recedes  from  the  mirror, 
the  picture  approaches  E,  anti  gp'adually  decreases  in 
•iie. 

If  we  consider  mn  as  a  small  nbjiirt,  a  magnifled  re- 
prcseiiUilion  of  it  will  be  formed  at  MN,  which,  when 
viewed  by  a  convex  lens,  such  as  will  be  afterwards  de- 
icribt'd,  constitutes  a  rcjlcrling  microscoiic.  If  we  place 
a  small  concave  mirror  o  p  behind  it,  so  as  to  enlarge  the 
inia;,'!',  and  reflect  tho  rays  through  an  Oi;?ning  D  in  the 
lai'^o  mirror  AB,  then  this  second  image  may  be  mag. 
nified  still  more  by  means  of  a  lens,  in  which  case  it 
constitutes  a  Gregorian  reflecting  telescope,  so  called 
from  the  inventor  James  Gregory.  If  instead  of  a  con- 
rave  « c  employ  a  convex  mirror  o  p,  and  place  it  lictwcen 
Ti  and  II  in,  so  as  to  reflect  the  rays  which  would  other- 
wise have  met  at  ii  »i,  tlien  an  enlarged  image  would  in 
this  casie  also  be  painted  at  D,  where  it  can  be  magnified 
as  in  the  former  instance. 

An  image  formed  by  a  concave  mirror  is  always  highly 
magnilied  when  the  object  is  near  the  focus,  but  as  it 
passes  that  point  and  approaches  the  mirror,  the  image 
gradually  decreases  in  size,  and  becomes  equal  to  the 
object  when  the  latter  touches  the  mirror.  Indeed,  when 
the  object  is  placed  between  the  principal  focus  and  the 
mirror,  the  image  is  a  virtual  one  apparently  formed 
behind  the  mirror,  or  would  be  so  formed  behind  it  if 
the  substance  of  the  mirror  perinitttnl.  Cuncave  mir- 
rors, from  their  projierty  of  converging  rays  into  a  focus, 
may  be  used  as  burning-glasses ;  practically,  mirrors  of 
this  shape  are  used  to  gather  the  rays  from  lainiM,  and 
reflect  tlicin,  with  increased  brilliancy,  into  the  darkness. 
The  lamps  of  coaches,  light-houses,  &c.,  arc  fitted  up 
witli  these  reflectors. 

With  res[)ect  to  convex  mirrors,  they  always  form 
images  of  a  diminished  size,  liecause  the  rays  which 
form  them  JM-coinc  convergent  in  their  passage  to  the  eye 
of  the  spectator ;  in  other  words,  the  rays  from  the  ob- 
ject proceed  to  a  virtual  or  imaginary  focus  In-hind  the 
nirror,  and  thence  the  image,  in  a  miniature  form,  seems 
to  be  reflected  to  the  eye.  In  this,  as  in  all  oases  of 
reluction  from  concave  mirrors,  the  size  of  the  image 
represented  is  exactly  wh^it  it  might  be  oxpnted  to  1h' 
if  we  could  see  through  the  gloss,  and  obsfive  tho  di- 
nii'iisiiiiis  at  the  virtual  focus. 

It  is  [lerhaiia  not  generally  known,  that  images  may 
be  formed  u[)on  a  piece  of  paper,  by  placing  a  small 
liole  bclweer.  the  objeel  and  tli6  paper,  und  excluding  all 


extraneous  light    This  itrill  m  biA  understood  by  i 
following  diagram : — 


Kg.  R 

Let  CD  be  a  window-shutter  having  a  small  aiierture 
A,  and  EF  a  piece  of  paper  placed  in  a  dark  chamber. 
Then,  if  an  illuminated  object)  RGB,  is  placed  on  the 
outside  of  the  shutter,  we  shall  observe  an  inverted 
image  of  this  object  painted  on  the  paper  aA-g  b.  In 
order  to  understand  how  this  takes  place,  let  us  suppose 
the  object  RGB  to  have  three  distinct  colours— ?'ci/  at  K, 
preen  at  G,  and  blue  at  B ;  then  it  is  plain  that  the  red 
light  from  R  will  pass  in  straight  lines  through  the 
aperture  A,  and  fall  upon  the  paper  EF  at  r.  In  like 
manner,  the  green  from  G,  and  the  blue  light  from  B, 
will  severally  fall  upon  the  paper  at  g  and  b,  and  an  in- 
verted imago  r gb  of  the  object  RGB  will  be  painted 
upon  it  Every  coloured  point  in  the  object  RGB  hav- 
ing a  coloured  point  corresponding  to  it,  and  opposite  to 
it  on  the  paper  EF,  the  image  b gr  will  be  an  accurate 
picture  of  the*  object  RGB,  provided  the  aperture  A  ia 
very  small.  If  it  be  increased  in  size,  indistinctness  in 
the  image  will  ensue ;  for,  with  a  large  aperture,  two' 
adjacent  )>oints  of  the  object  will  throw  their  light  on  the 
same  point  of  the  paper,  and  thus  create  confusion  in  the 
picture.  It  is  jierfectly  clear,  that  if  the  paper  EF  be 
moved  to  a  farther  distance  from  the  hole  A,  the  size  of 
the  image  will  be  increased ;  and  if  it  be  brought  nearer 
to  it,  it  will  be  diminished. 

IXtlBKB. 

Lenses,  as  already  mentioned,  are  of  different  forms, 
ond  consequently  possess  diAerent  refractive  powers. 
A  lens  may  be  composed  of  any  transparent  substance, 
as  glass,  diamond,  a  globule  of  water,  &c. ;  in  the  arts, 
a  lens  is  made  of  glass,  as  pure  and  colourless  as  po» 
siblc.  The  design  in  forming  lenses  is  to  procure  a 
medium  through  which  the  rays  of  light  from  any  ob- 
ject may  pass,  and  converge  to  a  corresponding  point 
lieyond.  The  manner  in  which  the  rays  proceed  through 
the  glass,  and  then  centre  in  a  focal  point,  will  depend 
on  the  foiin  of  the  lens,  its  capacity  for  refraction,  and 
the  distance  of  the  object 

If  we  take  a  piece  uf  glass,  flat  on  one  side  and  cut 
into  dilVorcnt  faces  on  the  other,  and  then  look  through 
it  from  the  flat  side  at  any  object — for  instance,  a  pea, 
we  shall  sec  as  many  peas  as  there  arc  faces  receiving 
tho  rays  from  the  single  pea.     We  may  exemplify  thi* 

at 


Fiif.O. 


,  principle  of  multiplication  by  tho  preceding  figuie,^  la 
I  which  AB  is  a  lens  flat  on  one  side,  und  cut  into  tnre« 


«M 


INFORMATION  FOR  THB  PEOPLE. 


tut  on  the  otaer,  gh.  Y  U  t^ie  eye  of  the  f pecUtur, 
■nd  P  th«  pes  lo  be  looked  at  The  eye  receive*  •  pencil 
cf  rays  dirrct  through  the  Iom  at  i,  and  mbi  the  object 
without  refraction.  A  pencil  alao  proceeds  from  P  to  the 
face  7  A,  and  another  pencil  proceeds  from  c  to  the  face 
h  B,  and  in  both  cases  the  rays  are  bent  and  refracted  to 
the  eye.  Thw  eye,  however,  does  not  recognise  the  path 
of  either  of  those  oblique  rays,  but  perceives  the  image  of 
a  pea  at  U  and  at  E ;  and  thus  three  peas  seem  to  be 
■een  in  place  of  only  one. 

In  smoothly  ground  lenses.  In  which  there  are  no  dis- 
tinct laces  to  multiply  the  images  of  an  obj^t,  the  rays 
bend,  as  we  have  said,  so  as  to  meet  in  a  corresponding 
point  beyond  them.  A  lens  may  consist  of  a  perfect 
globe  of  gloss,  or  globe  filled  with  pure  water,  in  which 
case  Uie  refractive  power  will  be  coMniJerable ;  a  double 
convex  l^s,  which  is  the  more  common  kind,  may  ba 
viewed  as  a  portion  cut  out  of  the  side  of  a  sphere,  as  seen 
m  the  annexed  figure.  Here,  as  in 
all  such  cases  of  convexity,  the 
focus  of  the  parallel  rays  passing 
through  the  lens  is  at  /,  which  is 
the  centre  of  the  sphere  of  which 
the  farther  or  anterior  side  is  a  por- 
tion, or  a  point  at  half  the  diameter 
of  the  sphere  from  it.     (Half  the  ^'g-  'O- 

diameter  is  technically  called  the  raditu.)  Should  we 
take  a  planoconvex  lens,  the  focal  point  would  be  con- 
siderably different  In  fig.  11  we  have  an  example  of 
this  bind  of  lens,  which  evidently  possesses  only  half  the 
lefiraclive  {xiwer  of  the  double 
convex  glass.  Here  the  parallel 
rays,  falling  on  the  convex  side 
of  the  lens,  are  seen  to  con- 
verge at  the  distance  of  the  whole 
diameter  of  the  sphere.  Thus, 
the  focal  point  at  which  the  rays 
ol  light  fall,  is  always  regulated  *■'*•  '*' 

by  the  degree  of  curvature  of  the  lens.  We  shall  illus- 
tnte  this  by  various  diagrams,  to  wliich  we  ank  the  read- 
er's careful  attention,  for  the  subject  is  somewhat  difficult, 
■nd  cannot  be  comprehended  by  a  superficial  glance. 

We  take  a  double  convex  lens,  rcjiresented  by  A  B  C, 
(he  axu  of  which  is  the  line  C  C  IX.    The  rsy  D'  C, 


Fig.  12. 

oemg  straight  through  the  centre,  suffers  no  refraction ; 


but  the  rays  D  A  and  D"  B  are  .«fi-acted,  so  a*  u,  metn 
at  the  focal  point  W.  We  now  observe  that  the  parallo) 
rays  E  A,  E'  U,  and  E"  B,  and  also  F  A,  F'  C,  and  F- 
U,  falling  obliquely  on  the  lens,  will  in  a  similar  niannvr 
be  refracted,  and  have  their  foci  at  U  and  G",  at  the  same 
distance  from  tlie  lens.  Those  lines  which  pass  througi) 
the  centre,  as  E'  C  G"  and  F'  C  G,  do  not  aher  theit 
direction,  not  lieing  refracted.  Thus,  in  whatever  way 
parallel  rays  pass  through  a  lens,  we  have  a  focal  poin 
beyond  it,  be  it  straight  forward  or  in  an  oblique  dj 
rection. 

The  distance  at  which  the  rays  meet  beyond  the  lens 
is  exemplified  in  the  next  diagram  (fig.  13),  given  by  Dr 
Arnott  in  his  treatise  on  Physics,  and  whose  dcfinitinii 
of  the  focal  point  we  beg  leave  to  offer : — "  Rays  falling 
from  a  on  a  comparatively  flat  or  weak  lens  at  L,  might 
meet  only  >t  d,  or  even  farther  off;  while,  with  a  stronger 
or  more  convex  lens,  they  might  meet  at  c  or  at  />.  A 
lens  weaker  still  might  only  destroy  the  divergence  of  tlie 
rays,  without  lieing  able  to  give  them  any  convergence,  or 
to  bend  them  enough  to  bring  them  to  a  point  at  all,  and 
then  they  would  proceed  all  parallel  to  each  other,  as 
seen  at  e  and  /;  and  if  the  lens  were  yet  weaker,  it  might 
only  destroy  a  part  of  the  divergence,  causing  the  rays 
from  a  to  go  to  g  and  h,  after  passing  through,  instead 
of  to,  t  and  k,  in  their  original  direction. 

•'  In  an  analagous  manner,  light  coming  to  the  lens  in 
the  contrary  direction  from  bed,  dec,  might,  according 
to  the  strength  of  the  lens,  be  all  made  to  come  to  a  focus 
at  a  or  at  /,  or  in  some  more  distant  point ;  or  the  rays 
might  become  parallel,  as  m  and  n,  and  therefore  never 
come  to  a  focus,  or  they  might  remain  divergent 

"It  may  be  observed  in  the  annexed  figure,  that  the 
farther  an  object  is  from  the  lens,  the  less  divergent  are 
the  rays  darting  from  it  towards  the  lens,  or  the  more 
nearly  do  they  approach  to  being  parallel.  If  the  dis. 
tancc  of  the  radiant  point  be  very  great,  they  really  are 
so  nearly  parallel  that  a  very  nice  test  is  required  to  de- 
tect the  non-accordance.  Rays,  for  instance,  coming  to 
the  earth  from  the  sun,  do  not  diverge  the  millionth  of 
an  inch  in  a  thousand  miles.  Hence,  when  we  wiiih  to 
make  experiments  with  parallel  rays,  we  take  those  of 
the  sun. 

"Any  two  points  so  situated  on  the  opposite  sides  of  a 
lens,  as  that  when  cither  becomes  the  radiunt  point  of 
light,  the  other  is  the  focus  of  such  light,  ure  called  imi. 
jugate  fori.  An  object  and  its  image  formed  by  a  Ions, 
must  always  be  in  conjugate  fori  ,■  and  when  the  one  is 
nearer  the  lens,  the  other  will  be  in  a  certain  proportion 
more  distant 

"  What  is  called  the  prinripal  focus  of  a  lens,  and  by 
the  distance  of  which  from  tlie  glass  we  compare  or  das. 
sity  lenses  amotig  themselves,  is  the  point  at  which  tlu 
sun's  rays,  that  is  parallel  rays,  are  made  to  meet ;  and 
thus,  by  holding  the  glass  in  the  sun,  and  noting  at  whit 
distance  U'hind  it  the  little  luminous  spot  or  image  of  tiis 
sun  is  formed,  we  can  at  once  ascertain  the  focus  of  a 
glass,  aa  at  a  for  the  rays  e  and  /." 


From  the  preceding  explanations,  it  will  be  undcrst4)od 
that  when  an  object  is  placed  at  any  distance  from  a  lens, 
an  image  of  it  will  be  formed  in  the  corresponrling  conju- 
jugate  focua;  but  to  see  this  image  distinctly,  the  eye 
tnust  acenerally  be  placed  at  least  six  inches  lN>liind  it  that 
\k  far'iMir  from  the  lens.     When,  however,  the  oiiject  ia 


placed  in  the  principal  focus,  the  rays  are  rrtractid  paral- 
lel, and  the  iinai;e  in  this  cose  is  distinct  when  wm  ul 
any  distance.  Uut  the  must  remarkable  qualilv  of  t 
double  convex  lens  remains  to  be  noticed  ;  wv  bIIuiIr  Id 
its  magnifying  |)ower.  This  q  jality  is  entirely  a  rcsiill 
of  the  refractive  powers  of  tht  gloss:  end)racvd  wiJiis 


Uie  i>phi  I 
rently  ox 
eye.  Thi 
by  a  refei 
Let  E 
RWnsn 
vision  (al 
and  let  R 
aided  eye 
hctween  t 


•hall  be  in 
image  R'  M 
ties  R'  W 
rectinns  of  tl 
W  draw  the  ( 
C  of  the  lens 
ing  from'  the 
the  lens,  are 
they  all  eme 
RCP;  but  I 
portion  entei 
Dmitcd   by  tl 
A  of  the  orr 
to  lie  in  the 
is  shown  exJ 
W  will  appei 
larged  image 
The  proporti 
be  easily  n.sco 
W,  arc  simil 
is  that  of  E 
least  distanc 
CM  of  the 
linct  vision  Ix 
quotient  will 
oned  6  inche 
M  l)e  2  inche 
quotient,  the 
one  quarter 
a  quotient,  ar 
be  24  times 
.\  more  si 
low.s  .—Turn 
faces  on  one 
•cn-ed  that  th 
from  the  obje 
fore  sees  an 
above  ca.so  of 
nianncr  travel 
srijrle  of  rcfra 
the  aelual  ob 
Uiese  points  a 
rays,  wr  of  n 
tlic  glaM  wer 
ol'jfcl  would 
plied  in  as  m 
The  inversi 
traied  by  the 
tbs  point  up 
double  conve 
power  of  the 


f.K«^;?^  OPTICS— LIGHT,  t       * ' ''' 


MS 


I  to  mcM 

0  paraltu) 
!,BndF' 
T  inannt't 

the  same 
g  through 
liter  theii 
tcvcr  way 
bcal  poin 
>bUque  lU 

d  the  lent 
vcn  by  Dr 
t  dcfiiiituin 
ayn  fulling 
it  L,  might 

1  a  Btronget 
or  at  h.  A 
fence  oi'tlie 
vcrgcnce,  ot 
t  at  til,  and 
:h  other,  ai 
lier,  it  might 
[)g  the  rays 
ugh,  instead 

)  the  lens  in 
It,  according 
me  to  a  focua 
;  or  the  rayi 
erefore  never 
genu 

ure,  that  the 
divergent  are 
,  or  the  more 
.  If  the  dii. 
hey  really  are 
>quired  to  de- 
ice,  coming  lo 


B  to  meet ;  and 
noting  at  whit 
or  image  of  tlie 
the  focus  of  « 


rctractid  [laral- 
ct  when  wi'n  ul 
|)le  qualilv  of  a 
[.J  ;  we  alluJfl  til 
entirely  a  rc«uli 
juibraced  wito 


ine  vphi  ro  of  the  rays  from  the  lens,  the  object  i«  appa- 
rently expanded  in  size,  and  «e«n_>  brought  nearer  to  the 
eye.  This  may  be  elucidated,  for  small  objects  seem  near, 
by  a  reference  to  the  diagram,  fig.  14. 

Let  E  be  the  eye,  and  m  n  the  diameter  of  its  pupil, 
R  W  t  smell  object  placed  at  the  least  distance  of  distinct 
vision  (about  six  inches  from  the  oye  for  small  objects); 
and  let  R  W  be  its  apparent  size  when  seen  by  the  un- 
aided eye.  If  ■  convex  lens  A  B  is  now  Interposed 
between  the  eye  and  the  object,  so  that  the  object  K  W 

_     .R' 
A 


at  Z,  and  form  en  image  tf  the  arrow-point  iiiTerted  | 
while  the  rays  from  C  meet  at  X,  and  form  a  similarly 
inverted  image  of  the  feather  part  of  the  arrow.  The 
rays  proceeding  from  B  unite  at  b.  Here,  only  reys  from 
A,  B,  and  C,  are  represented  for  the  sake  of  clcamess, 
but  in  point  of  fact  rays  from  all  parts  of  the  object  pro- 
ceed through  the  lens,  and  hence  an  entire  image  ia 
formed  in  an  inverted  position.    Should  the  object  ABC 

A 


Fig.  14. 

(hall  be  in  the  principal  focus  of  the  lens,  en  enlarged 
image  R'  W  of  the  arrow  will  then  bn  seen,  its  extremi- 
ties R'  W  lying  in  the  directions  E  A,  E  B.  The  di- 
rections of  these  rays  are  determined  thus : — From  R  and 
W  draw  the  central  rays  R  C  P,  W  C  Q,  through  the  centre 
C  of  the  lens ;  then  thtf  rays  of  the  conical  pencil,  proceed- 
ing from'  the  point  R  to  every  point  of  the  nearer  surface  of 
the  lens,  are  refracted  in  such  a  manner  by  the  lens,  that 
they  all  emerge  in  directions  parallel  to  the  central  ray 
R  C  P ;  but  of  the  whole  retracted  pencil  only  a  small 
portion  enters  the  eye,  namely  the  pencil  A  m  n  n, 
limited  by  the  size  of  the  pupil  m  n;  and  the  head 
A  of  the  arrow,  whence  this  pencil  proceeds,  appears 
to  lie  in  the  direction  of  the  pencil  E  A  R'  at  R'.  It 
is  shown  exactly  in  the  same  manner,  that  the  point 
W  will  appear  in  the  direction  E  B  W  at  W,  The  en- 
larged image  of  the  small  arrow  R  W  is  therefore  R'  W. 
The  proportion  in,  which  the  image  is  enlarged  will 
be  easily  ascertained  thus : — The  triangles  E  R'  W,  C  R 
W,  arc  similar,  and  therefore  the  ratio  of  R'  W  to  R  W, 
is  that  of  E  R'  to  C  R,  or  of  E  M  to  CM;  that  is,  as  the 
least  distance  E  M  of  distinct  vision,  to  the  focal  length 
C  M  of  the  lens.  If,  therefore,  the  least  distance  of  dis- 
tinct vision  be  divided  by  the  focal  length  of  the  lens,  the 
quotient  will  be  its  magnifying  power.  If  E  M  be  reck- 
oned 8  inches  for  small  objects,  and  if  the  focal  length  C 
M  l)e  2  inches ;  then,  since  6,  divided  by  2,  gives  3  for  a 
quotient,  the  magnifying  power  is  3  times.  If  C  M  were 
one  quarter  of  an  inch,  then  6,  divided  by  i,  gives  24  for 
a  quotient,  and  the  magnifying  power  would  in  this  case 
be  24  times. 

\  more  simple  explanation  may  be  attempted  as  fol- 
lows : — Turn  to  fig.  9,  representing  the  lens  with  three 
laces  on  one  side  and  flat  on  the  other.  There  it  is  ob- 
served that  the  vision  travels  in  the  direction  of  the  ray 
from  the  object,  as  it  passes  through  the  glass,  and  there- 
fore sees  an  appearance  of  three  objects.  Now,  in  the 
above  case  of  a  magnifying  Ions,  the  vision  in  the  same 
manner  travels  from  the  eye  at  E  in  the  direction  of  the 
inple  of  refraction ;  it  goes  on  to  R'  and  W,  and  thus 
the  actual  object  being  drawn  out,  as  it  were,  to  meet 
lliese  points  of  vision,  or  seemingly  expanded  by  the  licnt 
rays,  wo  of  necessity  sec  an  apparently  larger  object.  If 
tlip  glass  were  cut  in  faces,  instead  of  being  smooth,  the 
object  would  not  ap|)car  drawn  out,  but  would  be  multi- 
plied in  as  many  points  as  there  are  faces. 

The  inversion  of  the  image  by  a  lens  may  be  iltus- 
Craied  by  the  diagram,  fig.  15.  A  B  C  is  an  arrow,  with 
tb;  point  uppermost,  placed  beyond  the  focus  at  F.  of  a 
double  convex  glass  dtf.  In  virtue  of  the  refractive 
power  of  the  lens,  the  rays  which  proceed  firum  A  meet 


Fig.  IS.  C 

be  brought  nearer  the  lens,  the  image  will  bo  removed  to 
a  greater  distance,  liecause  then  the  rays  are  rendered 
more  divergent,  and  cannot  so  soon  be  collected  into  cor- 
responding points  beyond.     To  procure  a  distinct  image, 
the  object  must  be  removed  further  than  the  focal  point 
F  from   the  glass.     In   this  exemplification,  the  object 
seems  to  be  diminished ;  but  if  wo  make  the  small  arrow 
the  object,  the  larger  one  will  be  the  image  of  it  magnified. 
In  order  to  explain  the  power  of  lenses  in  magnifying 
distant  objects,  and  bringing  them  near  us,  let  us  suppose 
an  object  placed  at  one  hundred  feet  distance  from  the 
eye  of  a  spectator.     Let  us   place  a  convex  glass  of 
twenty-five  feet  focal  distance  half  way  between  the  ob- 
ject and  the  eye ;  then,  as  lias  been  previously  observed, 
an  inverted  image  of  the  object,  and  of  the  same  size, 
will  be  formed  fifty  feet  behind  the  lens.     If  this  picture 
is  looked  at  six  or  eight  inches  behind  it,  it  will  be  very 
distinctly  seen,  and  nearly  as  well  as  if  the  object  itself 
had  been  brought  to  within  six  or  eight  inches  of  the 
eye  of  the  s|X!ctator.     If,  however,  instead  of  a  lens  of 
twenty-five  feet  focal  length,  a  lens  of  a  shorter  focus  is 
made  use  of,  and  so  situated  with  respect  to  the  eye 
and  the  object  that  its  conjugate  foci  are  at  the  distance 
of  twenty  and  eighty  feet  from  the  lens — that  is,  the  ob- 
ject is  twenty  feet  before  the  lens,  and  its  image  eighty 
feet  behind  it — then  the  size  of  the  image  will  be  foui 
times  that  of  the  object.     If  the  eye,  therefore,  looks  at 
this  magnified  image  six  inches  behind  it,  it  will  be  seen 
with  great  distinctness.     In  this  case  the  image  is  mng^ 
nified  four  times  directly  by  the  lens,  and  200  times  by 
being  t)rought  200  times  nearer  the  eye ;  so  that  its  ap- 
parent mairnitude  is  800  times  larger  than  before.     At 
distances  less  than  the  preceding,  the  rule  for  finding  the 
magnifying  power  of  a  lens,  when  the  eye  views  the 
image  which  it  forms  at  six  inches'  distance,  is,  according 
to  Sir  David  Brewster,  as  follows: — "From  the  distanco 
between  the  image  and  object  in  feet,  subtract  the  focal 
distance  of  the  lens  in  foet,  and  divide  the  remainder  by 
the  same  focal  distance.     By  this  quotient  divide  twice 
the  distance  of  the  object  in  feet,  and  the  new  quotient 
will  be  the  inai;nifying  power,  or  the  number  of  times 
that  the  apparent  m:ignitude  of  the  object  is  increased. 
When  the  focal  lencth  of  the  lens  is  quite  inconsiderable, 
compared  with  the  distance  of  the  object,  as  it  is  in  most 
cases,  the  rule  becomes  this :  Divide  the  focal  length  of 
i  the  lens  by  the  distance  nt  which  the  eye  looks  at  the 
'  image  ;  or,  ns  the  eye  will  generally  look  at  it  at  the  dis- 
;  tance  of  six  inches,  in  order  to  see  it  most  distinctly, 
divide  the  t'oea!  length  l.y  six  inches,  or,  what  is  the  same 
I  thing,  doutile  the  focal  length  in  feet,  and  the  result  will 
I  be  the  magnil'ying  power." 

I  THE   KYC — VISION. 

I      Having,  in  our  Accorxx  or  the  Hcmas  Bout,  do 
I  scribed  the  anatomical  construction  of  the  eye,  we  abuU 
8 


906 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


k«rv  cor.fino  ounelvM  to  the  actual  prooea  of  virion. 
.\h  mentioned  in  the  •rticle  referred  to,  the  eye,  ir  front, 
ronaists  of  the  iria  or  variously  coloured  ring,  which  haa 
*e  property  of  contracting  or  expanding  to  regulate  the 
•diniaaion  of  light  through  the  little  dark  apot  in  the 
centre  called  the  jnipiL  Immediately  behind  the  iria  and 
pupil,  there  ia  a  transparent  Milwtance,  resembling  in 
■liape  a  double  convex  glaas,  whirh  is  thence  called  the 
ayitiilline  lent.  The  use  of  this  lens  is  to  collect  and 
icfract  the  rays  of  light,  so  that  they  may  converge  to  a 
[mint  beyond ;  in  other  words,  cause  them  to  fall  on  the 
back  part  of  the  eye,  called  the  relina.  Such  are  the  main 
IiiKtruments  of  vision ;  and  the  sense  of  seeing  ia  produced 
by  certain  nerves  which  convey  intelligence  of  the  image 
oil  the  retina  to  the  brain.  If  these  nerves  be  injured, 
the  imago  will  still  be  pictured  on  the  retina,  but  the  mind  ^ 
will  possess  no  power  of  recognising  their  presence. 

It  will  be  understood  from  these  explanations,  that  the 
miiin  instrument  of  vision  is  the  crystalline  lens,  which 
oullects  the  rays  and  brings  them  to  a  focus  on  the  retina. 
If  the  lens  be  perfectly  transparent,  and  of  the  proper  con- 
vexity, the  light  is  enabled  to  act  with  duo  effect  <m  the 
retina,  and  the  repreaentation  of  the  object  looked  at  will 
be  correctly  pictured  to  the  mind.  But  if  the  transparent 
coating  of  the  eye  be  dull,  or  the  lens  be  either  too  flat  or 
too  convex,  every  object  will  appear  dim. 

Two  kinds  of  defective  vision  are  more  common  than 
any  other,  and  they  are  known  by  the  name  of  long- 
li^httdntu  and  ihort'tighttdnttt.  Long-sightedncsa,  or 
the  power  of  seeing  objects  best  at  a  considerable  distance, 
if)  caused  by  too  great  a  flatness  in  the  crystalline  lens 
and  outer  coating  of  the  eye ;  and  the  deficiency  of  vision 
in  old  persons  is  usually  from  a  similar  cause.  To  remedy 
this  defect,  as  far  as  possible,  artificial  lenses  of  glass  are 
employed.  Theae  lenses  are  called  spectarltt,  and  may 
be  supposed  to  act  in  the  manner  we  have  now  to  de- 
scribe.   Fig.  16  represents  an  eye  in  which  the  crystal- 


line lens  is  too  flat.  C  A  is  the  cornea  or  outer  covering, 
b  ia  the  crystalline  Icna,  and  ti  is  the  retina  behind ;  B  is 
Ihe  object  looked  at.  We  may  observe,  that  in  conae- 
quence  of  the  flatneaa  of  the  lens  b,  the  rays  proceeding 
from  the  object  are  not  suiTiciently  refracted,  but  proceed 
to  a  focus  aa  far  back  as  R ;  in  other  words,  the  focus 
would  be  at  R,  if  the  retina  would  permit ;  but  as  the 
retina  is  in  the  way,  the  rays,  from  not  being  focalized 
upon  it,  cause  imperfection  in  the  vision.  To  remedy 
this,  we  interpose  an  artificial  convex  lens,  or  glaaa  of  a 
pair  of  s|)ectacles,  L  L,  and  by  its  aid  the  raya,  repreaented 
by  dotted  lines  in  the  figure,  are  brought  to  a  focus  on  the 
retina  at  d.  Thua,  by  selecting  spectaclea  of  a  proper 
focalizing  power  in  relation  to  the  eyes,  one  kind  of  im- 
perfect vision  is  very  happily  remedied. 

Short-sighledneaa  arises  from  a  cause  the  reverse  of 
bat  just  alluded  to,  being  produced  by  too  great  a  degree 


Fi».  ir. 


ef  convexity  in  tne  crystalline  lens  and  cornea.     In  this 
r«i«.  the  raya  come  to  a  focus  too  soon  within  the  eye, 


and  do  not  reach  the  retina,  unlesa  the  object  ia  brougb 
quite  close  to  the  organs  of  vision.  We  oflisr  a  repm. 
sentation  of  this  condition  in  Fig.  1 7.  In  consequence 
of  the  projecting  globularity  of  the  cornea  C  A,  and  Uia 
too  great  refracting  power  of  the  crystalline  lens,  the  rayi 
from  the  object  D  fall  short  of  the  retina  at  R.  T, 
remeily  this,  wo  interpose  a  double  concave  lens,  L  L, 
by  which  the  rays  are  rendered  more  divergent  befon 
they  reach  the  eye,  and  are  brought  to  a  focus,  where  the* 
should  be,  on  the  retina. 

We  have  said  above,  that  in  short-sighted  pcrsoni 
the  rays  do  not  reach  the  retina  unless  the  object  is  lielj 
close  to  the  eyes.  The  effect  produced  by  this  is  similar 
to  that  of  employing  concave  spectacles;  liecause  iha 
nearer  we  hold  an  object  to  our  sight,  the  angle  of  the  rays 
from  it  is  the  wider ;  the  rays  are  more  expanded  befoiv 
they  enter  the  eye— that  is,  more  divergent.  This  may 
be  illustrated  by  Fig.  18.    The  extreme   rays  from  g 


Fig.  ta 

point  to  the  pupil  of  the  eye  make  a  greater  angle  at  c 
than  those  from  a  point  of  a  more  distant  object  a  make 
at  a ;  that  is,  the  rays  from  o  are  more  divergent  on 
entering  the  eye  than  the  rays  from  a,  and  thus  neoN 
ness  of  an  object  is  equivalent  to  seeing  it  at  a  greater 
distance  through  a  concave  lena.  ,  So  when  the  olijoct  a 
is  farther  distant  than  o,  the  rays  from  a  have  a  less  divei^ 
gence,  which  is  equivalent  to  viewing  it  at  a  nearer  dis- 
tance with  a  convex  lena.  These  remarks,  however,  r» 
fer  merely  to  the  distinctness  of  the  vision,  and  not  to  iha 
apparent  size  of  the  object 

The  apparent  magnitude  of   the  same  object  when 


viewed  a*,  diflferent  distances,  depends  on  the  size  of  what 
i»  called  the  vitnal  angle — that  is,  the  angle  formed  at  the 
eye  by  the  rays  from  the  extremities  of  the  object  W« 
may  exemplify  this  by  Fig.  19.  An  eye  is  looking  at 
an  object  a  b,  and  another  object  r  d,  at  double  tlic  dj^ 
tance.  It  is  evident  that  the  rays  from  a  6  are  more  ei- 
ponded,  or  cause  a  larger  angle  in  the  eye,  than  the  rayi 
from  r  d,  Varioua  familiar  phenomena  are  explainnl 
from  the  law  of  the  visual  angle  under  which  an  object 
is  seen ;  the  apparent  size  being  less  always  in  propor- 
tion as  the  distance  of  an  object  is  greater.  Hence  the 
principles  of  perspective  in  drawing,  by  which  objecti 
are  made  to  api)car  at  a  great  distance  in  the  backgrouiKl 
of  a  picture,  although  in  reality  they  are  as  far  for- 
waM  as  the  objects  in  front. — (SeeDaAwixo  awii  Ptg. 
arncTiTC.) 

Another  important  circumstance  connected  with  viajoa 
requires  to  be  noticed.  In  consequence  of  the  refractiw 
power  of  the  crystalline  lens,  the  rays  from  an  object  fall 
upon  the  retina  in  such  a  manner  that  the  image  is  llieiv 
pictured  upside  down;  and  this  inversion  of  the  real  ap- 
pearance of  things  requires  to  lie  corrected  by  an  act  of 
the  mind  under  the  influence  of  ex|icrirnce.  M'e  beg 
leave  to  olFi'r  Dr-  Amott's  explanations  on  this  soniewbil 
puzzling  jjoint : — "  Because  the  images  formed  on  the 
retina  are  always  inverted  an  rexpect  the  true  position  of 
the  objects  producing  them — just  as  hapiiens  in  a  simple 
camera-obscura  —  persons  have  wondered  that  thingf 
should  apjieur  upright,  or  in  their  true  situations.  The 
explanation  is  not  difficult.  It  is  known  that  a  nian 
with  wry  neck  judges  as  correctly  of  the  position  of  the 
objects  around  him  as  any  other  [lerson,  never  drrnmig 
them  to  lie  inclined  or  crooked,  liecause  their  images  an 


t,  .M<s'v*.  i    i  OPTICS— LIGHT. 


ivv<» 


807 


•iiHintd  in  relation  to  the  natural  perpendicular  of  hit 
r>  tins  i  an  I  that  a  bedridden  peraon,  obliged  to  keep  hii 
he  .d  upon  hia  pillow,  icon  aequirea  the  faculty  of  the 
inrson  with  wry  neck ;  and  that  boyi  who  at  play  bend 
Linmielvei  down  to  loiik  backwards  through  their  leg*, 
although  a  little  puzzled  at  firat,  bccauM  the  usual  posi- 
tion of  the  imnges  on  the  retina  is  reversed,  soon  see  as 
well  in  that  way  as  in  any  other.  It  appears,  therefore, 
tliat  while  the  mind  studies  the  form,  colour,  dec,  of  ex- 
turtial  ohjocts  in  their  images  projected  on  the  retina,  it 
judges  of  their  position,  not  by  the  accidental  position  of 
the  iniagos  on  the  retina,  but  by  the  direction  in  which 
the  light  comes  from  *ho  object  towards  the  eye,  no  more 
deeming  an  object  to  be  placed  low  because  its  imago  is 
low  in  the  eye,  than  a  man  in  a  room  into  which  a  sun- 
k'om  enters  by  a  hole  in  the  window-shutter,  deems  the 
■un  low  because  its  image  is  on  the  floor.  A  candle 
carried  past  a  key-hole,  throws  its  light  on  the  opposite 
wall,  so  as  to  cause  the  luminous  spot  there  to  move  in  a 
direction  the  opposite  of  that  in  which  the  candle  is  car- 
niid  ;  but  a  child  is  very  young  indeed  who  has  not  learned 
10  judge  at  once  of  the  true  motion  of  the  candle  by  the 
contrary  apparent  motion  of  the  image.  A  boatman,  who, 
litiug  accustomed  to  his  oar,  can  direct  its  point  against 
any  object  with  great  certainty,  has  long  ceased  to  reflect 
that  to  move  the  point  of  his  oar  in  some  one  direction, 
hifi  hand  must  move  in  the  contrary  direction.  Now,  the 
seeing  things  upright,  by  images  which  are  inverted, 
is  a  phenomenon  akiq  to  those  which  we  have  here  re- 
viewed." 

The  same  able  writer  on  physics  proceeds  to  a  defi- 
nition of  another  peculiarity  in  visual  arrangements, 
namely,  why,  from  having  two  eyes,  the  object  does  not 
appear  to  us  to  be  double : — "  In  answer  to  this,  we 
•hall  only  date  the  simple  facta  of  the  case.  As  in  two 
cliess-boardb  there  are  corresponding  squares,  so  in  the 
two  eyes  theio  must  be  corresponding  points,  and  when 
on  these  points  a  similar  impression  is  made  at  the  same 
'inie,  the  iion>ation  or  vision  is  single;  but  if  the  impres- 
nun  be  made  on  points  which  do  not  correspond,  owing 
lo  some  distui  bance  of  the  natural  position  of  the  eyes, 
the  vision  becomes  double.  Healthy  eyes  are  so  wonder- 
fully a>80ciat<>d,  tliot,  from  earliest  infancy,  they  constantly 
move  in  [x^rfect  unison.  By  slightly  pressing  a  finger  on 
llio  ball  of  either  eye,  so  as  to  prevent  it  following  the 
niolton  of  the  other,  there  is  immediately  produced  the 
double  vision :  and  tumours  about  the  eye  often  have  the 
sume  etioct  Persons  who  squint  have  always  double 
viaion,  but  they  acquire  the  power  of  attending  to  the 
■eiisution  in  one  eye  at  a  time.  Animals  which  have  the 
eyes  placed  on  opposite  sides  of  the  head,  so  that  the  two 
can  never  be  directed  to  the  same  point,  must  have  in  a 
more  remarkable  degree  the  faculty  of  thus  attending  to 
one  eye  at  a  time. 

"  The  corresponding  points  in  the  two  eyes  are  equi- 
distant and  in  similar  directions  from  the  centres  of  the 
rctine,  whicn  centres  are  called  the  points  of  distinct 
vision,  and  at  them  the  imaginary  lines  named  the  axis 
of  the  eyes  terminate ;  but  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that 
these  points,  in  Unng  both  to  the  right  or  both  to  the 
lelt  of  tlie  ceiiiifs,  must  be  one  of  them  on  the  inside 
of  the  centre,  un  legards  the  nose,  and  the  other  on  the 
outside — that  is  to  say,  a  point  of  the  lelt  eye  between 
tlie  centre  and  nose  has  its  corresponding  point  in  the 
riiihl  eye  between  the  centre  and  the  chc<>k — .ind  from 
tins  fact  arise  consiMiuences  meriting  attention.  When 
the  two  eyes  arc  directed  to  any  object,  their  axis  meet 
U  it.  and  tlio  centres  of  the  two  retins  are  opposite  to 
it,  and  all  the  other  points  of  the  eyes  have  perfect 
niatual  correspondence  as  regards  that  object,  giving 
Uio  sensatiDn  of  single  vision;  but  the  images  formed 
at  the  same  time,  of  an  object  nearer  to  or  farther  from 
ihe  eye  tliiin  the  first  supposed,  cannot  fall  on  corre- 
tpundtng  points,  for  •]   object  nearer  than  where  tbe 


axes  meet  would  have  both  its  images  on  the  oulaidet 
of  the  centres,  and  an  object  more  distant  would  hm\t 
both  its  images  on  the  iniides  of  the  centres,  and  in 
either  case  the  vision  would  be  double.  Thus,  if  a  per- 
son hold  up  one  thumb  before  his  nose,  and  the  ether 
in  tha  same  direction,  but  farther  off*,  by  then  locking 
at  the  nearest,  the  more  distant  will  appear  double,  and 
by  looking  at  the  more  distant,  Ihe  nearest  will  appear 
double.  The  reason  for  applying  the  term  'point  of 
distinct  vision'  to  the  centre  of  the  retina,  is  felt  at  once 
by  looking  at  a  printed  page,  and  observing  that  only 
the  one  letter  to  which  the  axis  of  the  eye  is  directed, 
is  distinctly  seen ;  and,  consequently,  that  although  the 
whole  page  be  depicted  on  the  retina  at  once,  the  eye, 
in  reading,  has  to  direct  its  centre  successively  to  every 
part." 

The  retina  of  the  eye  possesses  such  exquisite  aenA 
bility,  that  it  retains  the  impression  of  the  image  of  any 
bright  object  presented  to  it,  for  the  space  of  the  sixth 
of  a  second  after  the  object  has  been  withdrawn,  or 
after  the  eye  has  been  shut  Thus,  the  burning  end  of 
a  rapidly  whirled  stick  will  appear  to  form  hoopa  of 
fire ;  and  a  fiery  meteor  or  sky-rocket  shooting  rapidly 
through  the  air,  will  appear  as  a  long  line  of  light.  The 
mind  is  in  these  and  similar  instances  deceived,  as  the 
eye  in  reality  sees  only  a  point  of  fire  at  precisely  the 
same  time.  The  retina,  for  the  same  reason,  retain! 
for  a  time  an  impression  of  any  vivid  colour.  When 
we  look  at  the  sun,  the  retina  is  so  strongly  atTected  a* 
to  be  incapable  for  a  time  of  seeing  other  objects  dia- 
tinctly.  The  most  remarkable  circumstance  connected 
with  these  phenomena  is,  that  when  the  eye  is  shut  after 
such  impressions,  a  spot  of  colour,  different  from  the 
colour  looked  at,  is  apparently  seen.  A  spot  of  thia 
nature  is  in  optics  called  a  upectrum ;  and  works  of  an 
extended  character  on  the  science  embrace  lengthened 
definitions  of  the  various  spectra  with  which  the  eye 
will  be  aflccted.  We  need  here  only  refer  to  the  expert* 
ence  of  our  readers  on  this  interesting  point,  and  mention 
generally,  that  no  satisfactory  explanation  has  ever  been 
given  of  the  reason  why  the  colours  i-i  the  spectra  diffei 
from  those  which- were  actually  seen. 

OPTICAL  INSTRUMENTS. 

Telescopes. —  Telescopes,  sometimes  called  spying- 
glasses,  are  'instruments  in  the  form  of  tubes,  fitteid  up 
with  lenses  of  different  kinds  and  powers,  and  used  for 
examining  dntant  objects.  The  word  telescope  is  from 
the  Greek,  and  signifies  afar  off,  and  lo  see,  A  tele- 
scope of  a  simple  construction,  consists  of  a  convex  lena 
placed  at  one  end  of  a  tube,  which  is  termed  the  object' 
glass  :  and  by  it  the  light  reflected  by  the  objects  in 
front  is  collected  and  formed  into  images  near  the  other 
end  of  the  tulie,  where  they  are  inspected  by  another 
lens,  of  shorter  focal  length,  called  the  eye-glass.  Thia 
lens  is  fixed  in  a  smaller  tube,  which  slides  backward* 
and  forwards,  so  as  to  admit  of  the  focal  distance  being 
adjusted  to  dilTeront  eyes,  &c.  In  telescopes  with  only 
two  lenses,  such  as  those  used  for  astronomical  purposea, 
with  a  convex  eye-glass,  the  image  is  inverted — a  cii^ 
cumstance  of  no  importance  in  viewing  the  heavenly 
bodies.     In  Fig.  20  we  have  a  representation  of  the  man- 


N  "  V 

Fig.  80. 

ner  in  which  a  simj  le  telescope  with  two  glasses  act*. 
A  E  B  is  a  double  convex  lens,  forming  the  objecl- 
glass,  and  C  D  is  a  double  concave  lens  forming  t'le  eye- 
glass. It  may  be  observed,  that  from  the  object  at  M,  • 
pencil  of  rays  go  on  divcrgmg  till  thev  roach  the  coa««i 


lent  A  E  B,  where  they  are  no  reftaoted  that  they  wonld 
converge  anil  meet  in  ihe  point  m,  JW  not  the  len»  O  D 
rofracl  them  parnlli'l.  The  pencil  of  rays  from  N,  in 
the  aamo  manner,  are  converged  to  a  point  ii.  A«  the 
raya  are  rendered  parallel  on  merging  from  the  glniM 
r  D,  they  ronvoy  a  riear  Imago  to  the  eye  at  E.  The 
teleaoojM)  mode  l>y  Galileo  wb»  of  thia  dniple  construc- 
tion. 

The  magnifying  power  of  auch  a  telescope  bcmg 
limited,  it  heramo  necessary  to  contrive  nn  instrument 
in  which  the  deficiency  would  be  remedied,  'lliis  has 
been  aox-omplished  by  the  construction  of  a  telescope 
with  a  convex  cyivglasa,  called  the  u$tronominil  telc- 
icope.  But  this  t<"le*co()c  invert*  the  image — a  defi- 
ciency which  is  removed  by  constructing  the  instru- 
ment with  four  double  convex  lenses,  as  represented  in 
Pig.  81.    The  rays  from  the  object  M  N,  are  refracted 

*        "En 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLK. 


Fig.  21. 


by  the  glass  A  E  B,  and  we  have  an  inverted  image  ti. 
The  rays  now  pass  through  C  D  and  E  F,  by  which 
transit  they  bring  the  image  upright  at  »i,  nrid  by  the 
glass  G  H  they  are  made  to  enter  the  eye  hi  E.  This, 
and  other  inatrutnents  in  which  refracting  lenses  ore 
employed,  are  called  rr/'rarling  tthsrnjm,  and  they  mag- 
nify or  bring  near  in  proportion  as  the  focal  distance  of 
the  object-glass  is  greater  than  the  focal  distance  of  the 
aye-glasM. 

Refracting  telescopes  require  to  be  of  considerable 
length  where  much  power  is  required,  and  on  that  ac- 
count rertecling  fi'lescopes  are  for  many  purposes  pre- 
fcrred.  The  rcfli'cting  telescope  was  invnitcd  by  Sir 
Isaac  Newton,  but  has  bc«ii  much  improved  since  his 
time.  A  view  of  the  improved  instrument  is  given  in 
Fig.  22.  The  peculiarity  of  this  instrument  is,  that  the 
image  of  the  object  is  reflected  from  a  concave  mirror 
within  the  tube,  and  this  image  is  again  reflected  froin 
a  small  mirror  to  the  eye.  itcl'erring  to  the  figure,  T  is 
T 


% 


Fig.  23. 


the  tube,  and  A  B  the  object  to  !»  reproscntod.  At  the 
end  opposite  from  the  object,  there  is  a  small  tulie  /  /. 
At  the  main  end  of  the  wide  tube,  there  is  n  concave 
mirror  D  F,  with  a  hole  in  the  middle  at  P.  The  |)rin- 
cipal  focus  of  this  mirror  is  at  I  K  ;  here  the  ininye  m 
is  inverted,  and  the  raya,  crossing  each  other  at  u,  go 
on  to  the  small  reflector  L.  From  this  they  are  ri'- 
flected  in  parallel  lines  through  the  hole  P.  M  P  they 
enter  the  plano-convex  lens  R,  which  causes  them  to 
converge  at  a  h;  but  here  the  image  rcijuircs  to  lie 
magnified,  which  is  done  by  means  of  the  plano-convex 
leiu  8;  in  other  wordi,  the  object  ia  seen  under  the 
tnifle  c/d.  In  order  to  accommodate  f(Val  distances, 
the  small  mirror  L  can  be  removed  to  a  greater  distanco 
or  brought  nearer,  by  the  rods  and  screws  commuiucating  ! 
from  X.  I 

Microtmpc  is  •  term  compounded  of  two  Greek  words, 
■igniiying  to  ut  what  it  tmall,  and  denotes  that  instiu-  | 
ment  employed  to  examine  minute  objects.     Those  mi- 
croKopea  of  greatest  p*wer,  and  termed  compound,  ap- 
proarii  to  the  telescope  in  their  form.    The  diflcrcnco  { 
■ies  iu  tliis.  that  whilst  in  the  tolescope  the  objcct-glusa  ^ 


forms  the  image  of  a  distant  object  just  as  much  sniinn 
than  itself  as  the  distance  of  the  image  from  the  glaw 
is  less,  in  the  microscope,  conversely,  a  small  objttri, 
placed  near  the  focus  of  the  object-glass,  prmluces  a 
more  dist-int  image,  as  much  larger  thati  itself  «■  tht 
image  is  more  distant  In  both  cases  on  upprqtriale 
eye-glass  is  employed.  The  object-glass  of  a  micro- 
scope is  in  general  very  small,  that  of  a  telescope  large. 
An  object-glass  of  a  ndcroscope  having  one-eighth  of 
an  inch  of  focal  distance,  and  so  placed  as  that  the  image 
of  the  object  is  formed  at  six  inches,  the  image  will  he 
of  a  diameter  forty-eight  times  as  greot  as  the  object; 
and  when  viewed  through  an  eye-glass  of  half  an  inch 
focus,  it  will  appear  magnified  twelve  times  more,  or 
will  appear  30,000  times  larger  than  the  objtct.  A 
single  or  one-lens  microscope,  magnifies  chiefly  by  al- 
lowing the  eye  to  see  the  object  nearer  than  it  could  do 
without  the  glass, 

A  ('anmn-()b»mra  or  Dark  Chamber  is  formed  by 
placing  a  convex  lens  in  an  aperture  made  in  the  wiii. 
dow-shutter  of  a  darkened  room.  A  glass  of  proper 
size  and  focal  distanco  is  chosen,  and  a  screen  or  the 
wall  of  the  chamber  is  properly  prejiared  to  receive  the 
light,  and  by  this  means  there  is  painted  on  it  nn  ac:u- 
rate  picture  of  all  the  objects  seen  from  the  window, 
every  tiling  l)earing  an  exact  resemblance  to  the  reality. 
Nothing  con  surpass  the  beautiful  cllccts  proiluccd  bt 
this  delightful  instrument. 

The  Citniint  I.uciila  is  an  instrument  now  frequently 
used  in  drawing  Iaiid8cap<>s,  delineating  objects  of  na. 
turnl  history,  and  copying  and  reducing  drawings.  The 
b<'st  form  of  the  instrnnicnt  consists  of  a  piece  of  thick 
parallel  glass,  at  one  end  of  which  there  is  a  metallic 
mirror  having  a  highly  polished  face.  The  rays  from 
the  object  are  made  first  to  pass  through  the  gliiss,  when 
they  ore  reflected  back  upon  one  of  it«  sidon  by  the 
mirror,  ond  from  the  gloss  they  are  again  reflected  to 
the  eye. 

The  Masrir  Lnntfrn, — When  a  small  object  is  placed 
close  to  o  lens,  and  the  image  reflected  upon  the  wall 
of  a  dark  chamber,  at  say,  one  hundred  times  farther 
from  the  lens  than  the  object  is,  there  will  be  a  grcntij 
magnified  representation  of  the  obj.^ct.  It  will  only  he 
seen,  however,  under  ordinorj  illumination ;  and  it  ii 
therefore  necessary  to  have  a  very  strong  liulit,  coiioen. 
trnted  by  a  suitable  mirror  or  gloss,  ami  diicrted  upon 
the  object.  When  artificial  light  is  employed,  as  of  a 
lamp,  the  instrument  then  l>ecomes  a  magic  lantern.  Il 
consists  of  an  argaiid  burner  placed  in  a  dark  lantern, 
on  one  side  of  which  is  a  concave  mirror,  the  vertex 
l)eing  ojiposite  the  centre  of  the  flame,  which  is  placed 
in  its  focus. 

A  representation  of  a  magic  lantern  is  olTcred  in  fig 
23.    The   lantern  is  made  of  tin  japanned;  and  tc 


'^'S. 


Fig.  93. 

carry  off  the  smoke  from  the  flame,  it  in  [iroviJcJ  with 
a  tube  T  at  the  top.  L  is  the  light,  and  M  N  .-.  concave 
mirror  to  give  strength  to  the  light,  and  send  the  rays 
through  the  tube  A  B  in  front.  At  A  in  this  tutie  i«  a 
hemispherical  illuminating  lent,  and  there  is  a  cnnve: 
lens  at  B.  Iu  the  middle  of  the  tube  there  is  a  wide 
part,  C  D,  open  at  the  sides,  for  the  reception  of  j'uVi 
These  slide*  arc  slip*  of  glosa  oa  which  pictures  stt 


Ji.lMim       ACOUSTICS.     *»"*'^'«!< 


nt 


I  nittnii 

ho    glMi 

I  objevi, 
iMlure*  It 
^f  w  th* 
iprc^rinta 
a  micro- 
!i\iti  targe. 
4-iKhth  of 
the  iinait« 
go  will  be 
he  object; 
If  HI)  inch 
1  more,  ot 
nhjt  ct.    A 
lofly  by  al- 
it  could  do 

formed  by 
ill  the  win. 
1  of  propci 
•roen  or  the 

rcreive  the 
1  it  nn  nc:u- 
\\e  window, 
)  thr  rcnlitv. 
jiroduccd  bi 

w  frequently 
bjpctt  of  n«. 
nwiiig".  The 
lircc  of  thick 
\  it)  a  metallic 
lie  rays  from 
ic  gliiss,  when 
Bidci*  by  the 
n  reflected  to    , 

ijoct  IB  placed 

ipoii  the  wall 

times  farthei 

II  bo  a  grcallj 
t  will  only  he 
on;  and  it  ii 

linht.  concrn- 
lUrcitod  upon 
iliiyi'd,  aa  of  a 
(•  luutern.  It 
diirk  lantern, 
r,  the  vortei 
■hich  is  v'*"^*^ 

i  ofTcred  in  fig 
.niied;  and  U 


Minl«  Ji  *n<l  the  principle  of  the  apparatui  eonrixlii  in 
i>>rmins  a  ropreHcntation  of  the  picture,  in  a  magnified 
lite  on  a  diiitant  white  wall  or  icreen  8.  The  ilidc 
MinK  placed  in  one  of  the  conjagate  foci  of  the  lens  D, 
iV^  -nage  is  conse({uontly  enlarged.  By  bringing  the 
,  I,  I.  nearer  the  acreen,  we  diminish  the  reprcsonta- 
t.;-.',  'jMause  we  cause  the  rays  to  strike  the  screen  at 
a  point  where  ihoy  are  less  divergent  It  is  an  improve- 
gient  in  exhibiting  the  re])resentation8  from  the  magic 
lantern,  to  cause  the  images  to  fall  on  a  piece  of  din- 
Kndod  and  wetted  muslin,  behind  which  the  syiectators 
tre  placed.  Lately,  the  mode  of  reprenenting  scenes 
hs«  been  further  improved  by  using  two  lanterns,  placed 
gt equal  distances;  in, this  case,  while  the  view  in  one 
ii  being  withdrawn,  the  view  in  another  is  coming  on, 
and  the  eye  is  charmed  with  seeing,  for  example,  a 
scene  in  winter  dissolve  and  assume  the  appenrnnce  of  n 
jiinilar  si-ene  in  siinimer.  Such  is  the  principle  of  the 
iliitolvwe  firics,  exhibited  at  the  Polytechnic  Institution 
in  London,  in  1841. 


,  provided  with 
I M  N  :i  coni'avt 
si-nd  tlie  rays 
in  thi^  lulx!  \i  a 
Tere  is  a  rontel 
[there  is  a  wide 
|eption  of  tWi> 
rh  piiture*  «« 


ACOUSTirS. 

The  term  Acors-rics  is  derived  from  two  Greek 
«ord»,  whii'h  signify  /  liiar  and  on  art,  and  is  applied 
to  that  branch  of  natural  philosophy  which  treats  of  the 
nature  of  saiiiul,  uud  the  laws  of  ita  production  and 
propagation. 

AtmoHphcric  vibration  is  allowed  to  be  the  cause  of 
lound.  For  instiince,  a  bell  is  struck  by  it*  clapper, 
ibp  baly  of  the  bell  coiifie(|uently  vibrates,  as  we  may 
wniilily  assure  ourselves  by  applying  our  nail  lightly  to 
lU  edge :  in  its  agitiition,  it  beats  or  makes  impulses 
jn  the  air,  wh'ch,  yielding  under  the  stroke  or  pressure, 
i»  compressed  or  condensed  tu  a  certain  distance  around. 
The  compressed  air  iiiBtiiritly  expands,  oiid  in  doing  so, 
rrpeats  the  pressure  on  the  nir  next  in  contact  with  it; 
inil  thus  each  oni,  A  the  original  strokes  of  the  vibrat- 
a%  metal  sends  out  a  scries  of  aliclla  of  compressed  air, 
wraewhat  like  the  waves  disiicrsed  over  a  lake  from  the 
Irnpping  of  a  stone  into  its  placid  bosom,  and  like  them 
always  lessoning  in  bulk  and  force.  These  ulicllt  are 
from  two  inches  to  thirty  feet  in  thickness.  The  air, 
thus  agitated,  linally  reaches  the  oar,  where  it  gives  a 
jjinilar  impulse  to  a  very  fine  nervous  membrane,  and 
\i\f  mind  then  receives  the  idea  or  impression  which  we 
tall  a  sound. 

With  regard  to  the  velocity  with  which  the  impulse 
of  sound  udvanccs,  it  appears,  from  the  most  accurate 
experiments  on  the  discharge  of  pieces  of  ordnance,  and 
marking  the  inti^rval  InUween  the  flash  and  the  report, 
«t  a  distance  carefully  measured,  that,  when  the  atino- 
>[)here  is  at  the  temperature  indicated  by  03°  of  Fah- 
I  rtnhcit's  thermometer,  sound  travels  at  the  rate  of  1 VZ5 
feet  per  «ccon<l,  which  is  nearly  equal  to  the  velocity 
I  of  a  cannon-ball  the  moment  it  issues  from  the  piece.' 
I  The  btll  is  very  siieedily  retarded  by  the  resistance  of 
I  the  air,  but  sound  advances  with  undiminished  velocity, 
jlhnugh  unequal  intensity.  It  will  travel  a  mile  in  little 
ImiM  than  four  seconds  and  a  half,  or  twelve  and  three- 
Jfourth  miles  |H'r  minute.  On  this  de[iends  nn  easy  me- 
IthoJ  of  determining  in  many  cases  our  distance  from 
lohjects,  and  which  may  otien  prove  useful,  particularly 
lin  thumU'r-slorms.  W'e  have  only  to  observe  in  seconds 
llho  interval  between  the  flash  and  the  report,  nnil  allow 
Ifiiur  seronih  and  a  half  to  every  mile,  or  ll'i.'j  feet  to 
[every  second.  It  is  remarkable,  also,  that  all  kinds  of 
^iimda,  Btr  mg  or  weak,  acute  or  grave,  ailvancc  with 
be  same  velocity ;  and  this  arises  from  tlie  circumstance, 

1 'The  Telocity  hero  nti'irned  to  »niiiiil,  is  ilint  pivcn  by  Sir 
lo^in  llcrnc'iil  118  ih«  mi'nn  oi  the  hcsi  fxpcriini:m«. 

Vot.  i.-a? 


that  all  the  oscillatory  movements  In  the  air,  howewi 
minute  or  however  extended,  are  performed  ooch  in  tba 
very  same  interval  of  time.  For  every  degree  of  Fah- 
renheit above  G3°,  the  velocity  of  sound  is  increased 
one  foot  and  about  a  seventh  (strictly  I  14-lOOth  foot), 
and  ^)r  every  degree  below  A2°,  it  is  'jssonod  in  the 
same  measure ;  so  that,  when  the  teinporuturo  is  at  the 
freezing  point,  the  rate  is  only  lOOU  feet  per  second. 

That  water  is  a  vehicle  of  sound  us  well  as  the  air,  ii 
proved  by  various   circumstances,    particularly  by  the 
fact,  that  a  bell  rung  under  water  can  be  hi  aid  above 
and  if  tlie  head  of  the  auditor  lie  also  under  water,  il 
will  he  still  more  distinctly  heard.     The  souikI  which 
the  sonorous  body  produces,  however,  is  graver   tbao 
that  which  it  gives  forth  in  the  air.     That  the  atmo 
sphere  is  necessary  for  the  transmission  of  sound  is  evi. 
dent  from  the  fact,  that  a  hell  rung  in  the  exhausted  re* 
ceiver  of  an  air  pump  can  scarcely  \ic  heard.     Smooth 
bn<lies  form  favourable  channels  of  sound,  as,  for  exam- 
ple, th(!  surface  of  ice,  snow,  water,  or  the  hard  ground. 
Savages,  it  is  well  known,  are  in  the  habit  of  putting 
their  ear  to  the  ground  in  order  to  diaeover  the  approach 
of  enuniies  or  l)cast8  of  prey.     Tube*  convoy  sounds 
with   groat  accuracy  and  to  great  distances,  and  this 
property  has  been  applied  to  various  useful  purposus. 
The  most  valuable  of  these  purposes  is  that  of  examin- 
ing the  chests  of  persons  supposed  to  posrcw  pulmo- 
nary aflectioiis.     This  is  done  by  moans  of  iho  siclho' 
unipr,  an  instrument  invented  by  Dr.  Luennec  of  Paris, 
and  whicli  resembles  a  small  trumpet.     The  wide  end 
of  the  instrument  is  applied  to  the  body,  and  the  other 
is  held  to  the  car  of  the  physician,  who  then  has  a  very 
clear  perception  of  the  sounds  caused  by  the  action  of 
the  lungs,  and  can  judge  whether  they  be  healthy  or 
the  reverse.     A  iwison  of  skill  can  exactly  describe  the 
condition  of  the  lungs  from  the  natiue  of  the  sounds 
which  thus  reach  his  ear. 

In  a  public  exhibition  in  London,  there  has  long  been 
shown  nn  apparatus  consisting  of  a  four-footed  stand 
and  several  trumpet-mouthed  tubes,  from  any  one  ot 
which  a  spectator  will  receive  a  ready  answer  to  a  ques- 
tion. The  answer  is  said  to  come  from  "  the  invisible 
girl,"  and  the  true  explanation  of  the  puzzle  is,  that  a 
secret  tube  in  the  legs  of  the  apparatus  communicates 
the  sounds  to  a  girl  placed  in  a  neighbouring  apart- 
ment. 

In  consequence  of  sound  requiring  a  certain  length 
of  time  to  travel,  it  is  impossible  for  two  sound*  at  any 
distance  from  each  other,  to  be  heard  at  the  san^e  mo- 
ment by  persons  who  are  not  nt  equal  distances  firom 
both.     "If  two  persons,  A  and  13,"  snys  an  Am.t'can 
writer,  "  are  standing  at  the  distance  of  one  mile  Aom 
each  other,  and  each  fires  a  gun  at  the  same  mom>nt, 
A  will  not  hear  B's  gun  until  several  seconds  after  he 
hears  his  own,  because  the  sound  will  require  that  time 
to  pass  through  the  distance  between  them.     And  the 
same  will  be  the  case  with  B.     One  might  at  first  sup- 
pose that  if  A  should  wait  and  fire  at  the  moment  he 
hears  the  report  from  B,  the  two  sounds  would  then  be 
heard  together.     A  would  hear  them  together,  but  the 
time  that  must  elapse  after  B  had  fired,  before  the  sound 
from  A  would  come  to  hint,  would  be  greater  than  if 
thoy  fired  nt  the  same  moment.     For  ho  must  wait  till 
the  sound  of  his  own  gun  hod  gone  to  A,  and  then  un- 
']  til  the  sound  of  A's  discharge  should  return  to  him.     It 
is  thus  eviJontly  impossible   for  two  persons,  standing 
at  a  distanoo  from  each  other,  to  produce  a  sound  which 
,  shall  he  heard  by  both  at  the  same  time. 
!      It  is  oil  account  of  this  principle,  that  in  long  ranks 
I  of  soldiers,  where  (wo  bands  of  music  arc  placed  at  a 
i  consiilcrablp  interv'nl  front  each  .ither,  it  is  imposslole 
1  in  the  two  bands  to  keep  time  with  each  other.     They 

may  indeed  piny  together, but  lach  soldier  will  hoar  the 
1  nearest  sounds  quickest,  and  thus  they  will  seem  to  Ik 


aio 


INFORMATION   FOR  TMK  PEOPLE. 


out  nf  time.  It  ii  often  noticed  too,  that  If  from  an 
«min«nr«  wo  look  upon  •  long  rolumn  whiih  ia  march- 
\nn  to  a  band  of  niuiic  in  front,  the  variou*  r«iiW»  do 
not  lU'p  eiactly  together.  Thow  in  the  rear  are  in 
tuvh  itep  a  little  Inter  than  thoM  before  them.  Thii 
priiducr*  a  iiort  of  undulation  in  the  whole  column, 
which  ii  diflicult  to  describe,  but  whirh  all  who*  have 
uoticcd  it  will  underitand.  Rarh  rank  stcpM,  not  when 
the  sound  in  majc,  but  when,  in  it«  progreiw  down  the 
column  at  the  rate  of  1126  foct  pt^r  ■crond,  it  renchei 
their  can.  Thorie  who  are  nr^ar  the  niUHic  hour  it  aa 
» >on  ai  it  ii  produced,  while  the  others  must  wait  till 
s'lltlrient  time  ihali  have  olapHod  fur  it  to  have  poaied 
tlkruugh  the  air  to  them. 

••Should  a  commander  stand  at  the  distance  of  a  fifth 
of  a  mile  from  his  army,  and  command  them  to  lire, 
llicy  might  all  obey  at  tho  moment  when  the  word  of 
command  reaches  them;  but  the  ofTiccr  will  hear  the 
ri'port  of  the  guns  from  those  at  tho  side  nearest  him 
llrst,  then  thoM  a  little  farther  off,  and  so  on  to  tho  most 
remote.  Thus,  though  all  might  obey  with  equal  alac- 
rity, the  sound*  will  not  and  cannot  appear  simulln- 
neou.1,  for  the  reports  of  the  distant  guns  must  lie  de- 
layed long  enough  for  the  command  to  pass  from  the 
ufHcer  to  tho  men,  and  then  for  tho  sound  to  return. 
All  attempts,  therefore,  to  make  their  firing  apfienr  ex- 
Bi-tly  simultaneous  from  a  long  line  must  Im?  in  vuin." 

An  ('All,  or  duplication  of  sound,  is  one  of  the  most 
interesting  phenomena  in  acoustics.  The  cause  of  it  is 
precisely  analogous  to  the  reaction  of  a  wave  of  water. 
When  a  wave  of  water  strikes  the  precipitous  hank  of 
a  river,  it  is  thrown  back  in  a  diagonal  direction  to  the 
tide  whence  it  came,  and  there  again  strikes  on  the 
iMuik.  In  the  same  manner,  the  pulses  or  wavca  of 
sound  are  reflected  or  thrown  back  from  flat  surfaces 
which  interrupt  them,  and,  thus  returning,  produce 
what  we  call  an  echo.  It  is  evident  tluit  tho  smoother 
the  surface  which  reflects  the  sound,  the  more  perfect 
will  bo  the  reverberation.  An  irregular  surface,  by 
tiirowing  hack  the  wave  of  sound  at  irregular  intervals, 
will  so  confound  and  distract  it,  that  no  distinct  or  au- 
ilitilo  echo  will  be  reflected.  On  the  contrary,  a  regular 
concave  surface  will  reflect  sound  in  such  a  manner, 
tl'.nt  at  a  certdin  point  the  reflections  from  each  part  of 
tint  concave  surface  will  be  concentrated  into  a  focus 
capable  of  prinlucing  a  very  powerful  eflcct.  The  ve- 
locity with  which  an  echo  returns  to  tho  spot  where  the 
•niind  originates,  depends,  of  course,  upon  the  distance 
el'  the  reflecting  surface  ;  and  since  sound  travels  at  the 
rate  of  1125  feet  in  a  second,  a  rock  situated  at  half 
that  distance  will  return  an  echo  in  exactly  one  second. 
The  numlicr  of  syllablca  which  we  pronounce  in  a 
second  will  in  such  a  cose  be  repeated  distinctly,  while 
llic  end  of  a  long  sentence  would  blend  with  the  com- 
nicncenKnt  of  the  echo. 

An  echo  may  bo  double,  triple,  or  even  quadruple, 
iccording  *o  the  nature  and  number  of  the  projecting 
'iurfiu^s  from  ami  to  which  the  sound  is  allowed  to  play. 
Distinctly  marked  echoes  of  this  combined  and  planned 
order  may  sometimes  be  heard  in  the  vaults  of  cathe- 
Jrals,  in  which  case  the  waves  of  sound  are  driven  from 
«i»lc  to  side  of  a  deeply  groined  arch,  and  reverlicrate  in 
iritracted  peals.  One  of  the  most  interesting  echoes 
M  this  kind  in  nature,  is  that  which  occurs  on  the 
cfinks  of  the  Rhine  at  Lurley.  If  the  weather  lie  fa- 
.-ourable,  the  rejtort  of  a  musket,  fire<l  on  one  side,  is 
r.'peated  from  crag  to  crag,  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
'iver  alternately,  as  represented  in  fig.  34.  P  is  con- 
•i  lered  as  the  primary  point  of  radiation  for  the  sound, 
ind  crossing  the  river  it  strikes  at  1,  thcp  is  sent  off  to 
i.  and  so  on  to  3  and  suWqucnt  iwiniM,  stopping  or 
uintly  dying  away  opposite  B. 

There  are   some   remarkable  echoea  in  ecclesiastical 
»tr<icturcs  irisinfT  frmn  peculiarities  in  the  construction. 


In  erecting  the  baptistry  of  tho  church  of  Pisa,  the  trchi- 
tcct,  Uiovanni  Pisano,  disposed  the  concavity  of  tho  cupoli 
in  such  a  manner,  that  any  noise  from  below  is  followed 
with  a  very  loud  and  long  double  echo.  Two  pertoni 
whisjiering,  and  standing  opposite  to  each  other,  with 
their  faces  near  the  wall,  can  converse  together  without 
being  overheard  by  the  company  between.  This  ariwi 
from  tho  elliptical  form  of  the  cu|iola,  each  person  lieing 
ploced  in  the  focus  of  the  ellipse.  In  the  cathedral  church 
of  Gloucester,  there  is,  or  was  lately,  a  whis[iering  gallery 
bImivc  tho  castorn  extremity  of  the  choir,  which  extendi 
from  one  end  of  the  church  to  tho  other.  If  two  pernojii, 
placed  at  considerably  distant  points.  s|)eak  to  one  another 
in  the  lowest  voice,  it  is  distinctly  heard.  A  sliniju 
eflfect  is  pro<luced  in  the  vestibule  of  the  Observatory  of 
Paris,  and  in  the  cupola  of  8t.  Paul's,  in  London.  A 
tourist  bus  mentioned,  that  in  Italy,  on  the  way  to  Naples, 
and  two  days'  journey  from  Rome,  he  saw  in  an  inn  i 
square  vault,  where  a  whis|ivr  could  easily  he  heard  it 
the  opposite  corner,  but  not  at  all  on  the  side  comm  thil 
W08  near  to  you.  This  property  was  common  to  «ich 
corner  of  tho  room.  He  saw  another  An  the  way  from 
Paris  to  Lyons,  in  the  porch  of  a  common  inn,  which 
had  a  round  vault  When  any  perlon  held  his  mouth  to 
the  side  of  the  wall,  several  persons  could  hear  his  wbiipei 
on  the  opposite'side. 

The  whispering  gallery  in  8t  Paul's,  London,  ia  i 
great  curiosity.  It  ia  140  yards  in  circumference,  ind  ii 
just  below  tho  dome,  which  is  430  feet  in  circumference. 
A  stone  scat  runs  round  the  gallery  along  tho  front  of  the 
wall.  On  tho  side  directly  opposite  the  door  by  which 
visitors  enter,  seven!  yards  of  the  seat  are  covcrt!d  with 
matting,  on  which  the  visitor  being  sealed,  the  man  nho 
showr  the  gallery  whisjiers  with  the  mouth  near  the  will, 
at  the  distance  of  140  feet  from  tho  visitor,  who  hcan 
hi*  v^urdii  in  a  loud  voice,  seemingly  at  his  ear.  The  | 
mere  shutting  of  the  door  produces  a  sound  like  a  pnj 
of  thunder  rolling  among  the  mountains.  TIte  elli^ct  it 
not  so  perfect  if  the  visitor  sils  down  half  woy  between 
tho  door  and  malted  scat,  and  much  less  if  he  aUndi 
near  the  man  who  speaks,  but  on  the  other  side  of  Itie 
door. 

It  is  of  great  importance  that  buildinga  designed  in 
large  auditories  should  be  constructed  in  such  a  mtnnn 
that  the  voice  of  the  speaker  will  neither  eelio  from  Iht  I 
walls  nor  be  lost  to  the  hearers.     The  best  known  form 
of  apartment  for  the  proper  distribution  of  souml,  ii  tbil 
in  which  the  length  ia  from  a  third  to  a  half  more  lluo 
the  bremlth,  the  height  somewhat  greater  than  the  breiillh,  I 
and  huviiig  a  roof  U'velled  ofl*  all  round  the  sides.    Thii  I 
siMTifs  of  ceiling,  called  techniciilly  a  coved  or  roarA  «»/,  I 
from  its  Ik'ing  lower  at  the  sides  than  centre,  is  in  ill  I 
cases  l>eHt  suited  for  conveying  sounds  clearly  lu  the  em  I 
of  auditors, 

MUSICAL  BOUNDS. 

There  is  a  peculiar  character  in  sounds,  dependirjja  j 
the  character  of  the  sounding  ho<ty.     A  blow  with 
l.ammer,  or  tho  report  of  a  pistol,  produces  only  a  iioi»| 
But  if  a  boily  be  of  such  a  thinness  and  tightneaa  nil  I 
produce  a  succession  of  impulses  of  a  sufiicieat  dcgnl 


ft  nuletm 

pnnnl  of  a 

(•(her,  lliat 

o/id  ftringi 

branes,  am 

sr'  the  ma 

kind.    Hue 

'I'he  stut 

jihiloaophy, 

sure  to  a  m 

Ihnse  who 

The  natural 

Ii)  each  othe 

the  whole  to 

of  the  most 

tho  entire  cir 

The  princi 

•even  In  nun 

prnduceil  by  i 

voice,  in  an  u 

The  notes  arc 

iliove  anoihe 

niiihing  of  mi 

play,  and  havi 

be  ready  to  sn 

htil  there   are 

various.     The 

dlicr  notes;  h 

leipii,  and  iden 

except  ahrillncr 

Ico't  six  repetit 

most  keys  are  r 

llip  lowpflt  rumi 

The  seven  n 

Si,  or  by  tho  flr 

culiararrangeme 


w 


.ji.F.i  «'        ACOUSTICS. 


IlVt  -fAf 


iM,  the  trchl- 
r  of  thii  cupolt 
)W  M  followrd 
Two  penoDi 
:h  other,  with 
jciher  without 
.    Thif  trim 
h  p«rHon  Iwing 
ithrdrol  church 
iHlicrini;  gsllery 
which  extendi 
If  two  perMiii, 
.  to  one  another 
ird.     A  mmilu 
Obwrvatory  o( 
in  London.    A 
e  way  to  Naplet, 
mw  in  an  inn  > 
tily.  be  hctnl  it 
■ido  cornel  thit 
common  to  nch 
dn  the  way  from 
nmon  inn,  which 
held  hi«  mouth  to 
I  hoar  his  whiiptt 

r«,  London,  ii  i 

umfercnce,  tnd  ii 

in  circumference. 

:ii;  tho  firontofthe 

he  door  by  which 

are  covered  with 

itcd,  tlic  nwn  who 

(Vith  near  tie  will, 

viHilor,  who  hrui 

at  hia  ear.   Tlie 

wiund  like  i  pcil 

in*.     Tlieeliectii 

half  way  between 

lem  if  he  itaixli 

other  »ido  of  the 

dtnR«  dcni^ncd  br 
I  in  auch  a  rauinn 
iher  cebo  from  it 
,  best  known  foim 
on  of  Bouml,  i«  lli«t 
to  a  half  more  Itm 
icr  than  the  bre«iili, 
ind  the  iideii.   Thii 
coved  or  cuac* 'W/,  I 
lan  centre,  is  in  ill 
clearly  to  the  wn  I 


oundmdepeniliniil| 
ly.  A  blow  with  I 
oducea  only«M»l 
and  tighine«"H| 
■  a  sufficient  dtgwl 


(I  qalecMMi  •  toHi  it  the  reiult,  namely,  a  lounJ  com- 
iKMcd  <^  t  RTrat  number  of  noiioi,  all  to  clote  upon  each 
irfher,  that  they  bring  but  one  reaullf  to  the  ear.  Wiret 
mid  itrinita  of  metal  tnd  catgut,  ilipt  of  metal,  flne  mem- 
liranea,  and  rolumnt  of  tho  air  itaclf  encloeod  in  tulwa, 
gr-  tho  mo«t  familiar  meani  of  producing  tounda  of  lliia 
Unit.    Rueh  aounda  are  aaid  to  bo  mutical. 

'11)0  atudy  of  muiictl  lounda,  ta  a  branch  of  natural 
iihiloiophy,  ia  calculated,  perhapo,  to  give  aa  much  plea- 
■ure  to  a  man  of  acience  ta  muaio  itaelf  can  convey  to 
llinno  who  are  gifted  with  what  are  called  good  eara. 
The  natural  character  of  them  loundx,  and  their  relations 
(0  each  other,  are  very  remarkable ;  while  the  relation  of 
iho  whole  to  the  human  mind  muat  be  regarded  aa  one 
of  the  moat  interoating  proof*  of  creative  dcaign  which 
the  entire  circle  of  nature  proaonta. 

The  principal  aounda  of  mutic  may  be  aaid  to  be  only 
leven  In  numlM-r.  There  are  other  five,  which  may  be 
prndured  by  the  voice  with  aome  little  dilFiculty  ;  but  the 
voire,  in  an  untutored  condition,  givea  forth  only  aeven. 
The  notca  are  of  diflerent  dcgreea  of  ahrillneia,  one  rising 
ilxivo  another  in  aucccaaion.  A  pcraon  who  knowa 
nothing  of  muaic  beyond  having  heard  another  aing  or 
play,  and  having  seen  the  key-boanl  of  a  piano-furte,  will 
be  ready  to  any  that  Ihero  are  more  notoa  than  aeven ; 
lint  there  are  only  aeven  that  arc,  atrictly  apcaking, 
v.iriouD.  The  voice  or  an  inatrument  may  run  up  into 
other  notea;  hut  all  of  thcHo  are  repetitiona  of  tho  flrst 
ipvcn,  and  identical  rcapectivoly  with  them,  in  all  reapecta 
rxrept  ahrillneiia.  In  ordinary  piano-fortea,  there  are  at 
Ifort  dix  repetitiona  of  tho  seven  notea,  ao  that  the  upper- 
most keya  are  more  peepy  than  tho  voice  of  a  child,  while 
the  loweBt  rumble  like  a  drum. 

The  seven  notes  are  named  Do,  Re,  Mi,  Pa,  Sol,  La, 
Si,  or  by  the  first  seven  letters  of  the  alphabet  in  a  pe- 
culiar arrangement,  namely,  0,  D,  E,  F, O,  A, B.  They  are 
thus  represented  '\Tt  the  well-known  language  which 
musicians  present  to  the  eye  (using  tho  Irtblt  dtf)  : 

A        B 

^  C        P        K        F        Q         .  I 

l*t  an  ordinary  piece  of  catgut  or  violin-string  be 
ntemled  between  two  points  on  a  lioard,  and  screwed 
sp.  It  may  be  made,  according  to  its  length  and  degree 
of  tension,  to  vibrato,  when  sirurk,  exactly  two  hundred 
tnd  forty  times  in  a  second.  Tho  note  which  it  thus 
produces  is  C,  or  Do ;  and  a  man,  on  trial,  will  find  that 
thia  is  the  note  with  which  he  ia  most  apt  to  begin  a  song, 
when  he  attcmpta  to  sing.  The  note  in  hia  voice  will  be 
perfectly  in  unison  witli  the  note  produced  by  the  string; 
thnt  is  to  say,  they  will  melt  into  and  agree  with  each 
other,  and  the  eflect  will  be  pleaaant.  This  is  because 
the  membrane  at  the  top  of  the  singer's  windpipe  (the 
instrument  of  his  voice)  vibrates  exactly  the  same  number 
of  times  in  a  seijKid,  producing  that  note,  oa  the  string 
I  does.  The  equality  in  the  numl)or  of  vibrations  ia  what 
I  makes  the  notea  the  tame,  and  the  eflect  hannonioua 
I  ind  agreeable. 

We  shall  suppose  the  string  to  bo  forty-five  inches  long 

I  that  produces  the  note  C  of  240  vibrations  in  a  second. 

Being  extended  between  two  pegs  near  the  surface  of  a 

board,  the  experimenter   may  place  hia  finger  upon  it 

ri^ht  in  the  centre,  and  twang  or  atrike  either  half,  when 

ho  will  find  a  much  shriller  note  produced,  being,  in 

reality,  the  first  C,  or  Do,  of  a  new  aeries  of  the  seven 

I  noteM,    In  thia  case,  the  vibrations  are  exactly  double, 

I  namely,  480  in  a  second,  these  being  always  the  more 

I  rapid  the  riiorter  the  string  or  the  greater  its  tightness. 

I  The  wcond  or  u|iper  C  is  called  the  octav*  uf  the  firit, 

I  Hung  the  eighth  note  above  ik 


^ 


"■l    •  # 

.M.' 

,  •*.. 

•■^-M 

111.;. -.- 

.«.,.«'i 

■••..  ^I' 

r;i  --: 

J      > 

■  -''Kt 

IWi'.. 

.-.  ¥>■ 

i.'i. 

1  •  ■>,( 

,» 

\. 

^ 

...,)  M 

. 

•    >  •! 

t    ' 

r      '%> 

C  or  Do  ( net ),  Ml  in.  4M}  vitb 
B  or  Si,  'J*  in.  UO  vibratiuna.   , 

A  or  La,  37  in.  400  vlbrai4>Da. 

G  or  Sol,  30  in.  3110  vibrallou. 

F  or  Fa,  33|  in.  330  vibrniloaa. 
E  or  Mi,  36  in.  300  vibratioaa. 

D  or  Re,  40  in.  370  vlbiatioM 
C  or  Do,  45  in.  940  vibrationa. 


We  ihall  now  auppote-.- 
that  th«  string  is  ahortrned 
only  so  far  aa  to  leavo  thirty 
inches,  or  two-third*  of  ita 
length,  free  for  twanging. 
This  ahorter  string  will 
sound  the  note  U,  or  Mol, 
In  this  case,  aa  the  length 
of  string  is  twivthirds,  so 
are  tho  vibrationa  tliree- 
halvea,  or  one  tnd  a  half 
timea  those  in  the  former  i 
instance,  namely,  3G0.  All 
the  other  notea  are  pro- 
duced by  difierent  propor- 
tions of  string  and  num- 
bers of  vibrations,  aa  shown 
in  the  adjoining  scale : — 

What  ia  remarkable  hero 
is  the  curioua  matliematical 
proportiona  on  which  tho 
various  notes  depend.  Tak- 
ing the  first  C  as  one,  and 
ita  octave  aa  one-half,  wo 
have  varioua  lengths  of 
string  for  tl)c  intermediate 
notes,  in  the  fullnwing  pro- 
portions :  namely — for  D- 
eight-ninths,  for  £  four-fifths,  for  F  three-fourths,  for  O 
two-thirds,  for  A  three-fifths,  and  for  B  cight-fiftecntht; 
all  of  which  proportions  arc  exactly  reversed  with  regard 
to  the  numbera  of  vibrationa,  these  being  in  aucceasion 
nine-oighths,  four-fifths,  &e.  The  proportions,  at  clearly 
appeara  to  the  eye  from  tho  above  scale,  are  iv>t  regular  ( 
the  string  is  first  shortened  five  inches,  then  four,  then 
two  and  a  quarter,  next  tliree  and  three-quarters,  and  to 
on.  Nevorthcless,  these  are  the  musical  notes  which  tha 
voice  naturally  gives  forth,  and  which  the  mind  recog* 
nises  as  beautiful.  The  string  twanged  at  lengtha  of 
what  would  appear  more  regular  proportion,  would  give 
forth  musical  sounds,  but  not  tho  i«vcn  notes  of  musio— 
not  those  peculiar  sounds  which  all  nations  recognise  at 
such,  and  which  nature  hoa  manifeatly  appointed  to  aerve 
in  that  character. 

Irregular  aa  the  proi)ortion'j  appear,  there  are  aomo  of 
tho  aeven  notea  which  ard  more  proportioned  to  each 
other  than  the  rest.  They  are  aaid  to  be  more  in  har- 
mony with  each  other ;  aiHl  the  eflect,  when  they  are 
struck  together,  is  pleasing.  It  it  to  be  observed  in  the 
first  place,  that  a  note  alwaya  harmonizes  well  with  ita 
octave,  or  the  eighth  or  repeating  note  above  it  Thit  it 
supposed  to  be  because  the  vibrations  of  the  one  note  in 
that  case  are  exactly  two  for  one  of  the  other.  The  first 
Do  also  harmonizca  well  with  Sol  (G),  which  is  called 
ita  fifth,  being  the  fifth  note  above  it ;  and  this  is,  on  the 
some  supposition,  because  the  vibrations  are  in  that  caae 
as  three  to  two,  which  is  also  a  symmetrical  proportion. 
Harmony  ia  also  produced  when  some  other  notes  are 
sounded  at  the  aame  moment  with  those  which  are  third 
above  them  (their  thirds) ;  and  this  may  be  accounted 
for  in  a  similar  way.  Thirda,  fifths,  and  octaves,  art 
tlierefore  pleasing  or  harmonious  sounds,  while  second^ 
fourths,  sixths,  and  sevenths  are  less  ao.  Experimentt 
of  a  very  curious  nature  have  been  made  on  this  subject 
It  may  readily  be  observed  by  the  naked  eye,  that  when 
one  of  the  longer  strings  of  the  harp  or  pian>>-forte  ia 
struck,  there  is  not  only  a  vibration  along  the  whole 
length,  giving  it  an  elliptical  appearance,  but  there  are 
also  vibrations  of  shorter  lengths  of  the  aame  string  going 
on  at  the  same  time.  It  baa  been  found,  when  light 
pieces  of  paper  are  hung  across  tho  string,  that  th«y  settle 
at  certain  places,  showing  thut  the  principal  aubordiiiata 
vibration  correapoiiJ  with  octaves,  fifths,  and  thirda.     A 


flII 


INFORMATION   FOR  THK    PKOPLK. 


iriim,  m  a  Mnnnxia  hmint,  nrtr  whirh  m  «!  hiii  h«««n 
•trewii.  will,  if  Im'hI,  tlirnw  the  ■inil  into  rutiniw  (Ikikm 
Jf  •detrriniiille  ■ml  rvfuMy  rrrurriin  rh«r«cler.  Thi« 
in  the  rrmilt  n(  iiiiniUr  ■ulHiriliiiaiti  vihratioiM  aloiin  tha 
txtKiit  of  Ihp  wiiiiicliiim  Uxly. 

Tlii-rp  «nt  eren  morn  rurioii*  fcrt«  ronnrctml  with  thn 
liitrmoiiioiii  tiotni.  Th"  m>»  of  n  rity — tliKt  in,  tli«! 
■rarcrly  •rlii'iilulc,  lint  oftnii  vrry  miiiiritl,  miuikIh  iitUrml 
hv  jwriMm*  •••lliin  tliinifx  on  Ihn  *ln>(<tii — Kmirnilly  rim* 
on  thinia  or  AAlia,  aorn«-liin<>a  nn  ortavra;  iimI  thia  ulthoilKh 
few  of  thrae  (xxir  |H'opli>  Imve  ewr  been  taui{ht  iniiair. 
I'he  rnr  of  ovatera  liy  woniPii  in  Eilinhuri(h  ia  alwaya  nn 
■n  Oflavp,  TrarliiTa  of  rlocullon  «re  iliio  nwnre  that 
human  brinff*  in  K<'n<'nil  nialo'  aui'h  Imnajiiona  of  vniro 
nituniily,  under  lh«  intliirnir  of  rrrtnin  fe<<liiii(a.  For 
•iam|il<',  ■  peraon  inililli'ri'ntly  aur|iriafil  at  hcnrinff  a 
friend  any  "  1  waa  tlm  {irr'Uin  who  did  ao  and  ao,"  will 
My,  "  Waa  it  you  ?"  riainu:  only  n  lliird  at  thn  liiat  wonl. 
If  greatly  aur|iriat>d,  the  riat-  will  lie  n  flfth.  'I'lirre  niiiy 
even  Iw  an  ip'cnt  a  dpRree  of  >«atmiialimi>ni,  that  llio  word 
"you"  wilt  lie^pii  on  one  note  and  terminate  on  ita  octave. 
TJic  anawera,  "  Vea,  it  waa  I,"  will  ahow  rorr(>a|inndinir 
declrnaiona  or  falla  of  voire.  We  thua  we  how  truly 
muaie  ii  a  a|iei'ii-a  of  nnturid  lanKUntfe.  lj'n<|UPationahly, 
•vary  ahade  of  human  li'elinR  ran  Iw  reprraentnl  liy  auc 
oeaainna  of  it*  aounda,  apart  nltnnether  from  worila. 

With  reapoct  to  the  anumla  produced  by  winil  inatni- 
menta,  the  rffirt  ia  raua<Ml  liy  thn  vihratinna  of  a  rnliimn 
of  air  oonflne<l  at  one  rnd,  and  either  open  or  ahut  at  thn 
other.  The  length  of  the  aoundini^  rolnmn  determine* 
the  nature  of  the  vihratinna;  hut  alonir  with  the  funda- 
mental lone,  there  are  interior  and  auliordinate  vihrntioni. 
Tho  whole  column  dividea  itaolf  into  rei^ular  portinna, 
•qual  to  the  half,  the  thin),  and  no  on,  of  the  Innititiidirial 
extent,  in  the  aame  manner  aa  we  ahnwed  waa  thn  raae 
in  ■tringe<l  inatrumenlM.  We  may  ohaerve  aomethin); 
■imilar  to  theao  vihratlona  in  the  contrartion  and  cipnn- 
akm  of  a  lon^^  and  very  elaatir  atrinv,  to  one  eilri'niily 
of  whirh  a  ball  ia  altarhiHl.  A  apirni  anririK  hIko  ahnwa, 
and  perhajia  more  clearly,  tlie  repeated  atretchinu  and 
recoil.  If  luddenly  atruck  at  one  end,  it  will  exhibit  not 
only  a  vibration  throughout  ita  whole  extent,  but  like- 
wiae  partial  onoa,  whirh  wind  vermiciiliirly  alonif  the 
chain  of  elaatic  ringa.  If  the  air  he  >'r>  k  with  ereat ' 
force,  the  auliordinate  vihrntioni  aom'-'i'iea  predominate, 
and  yield  the  clearest  and  loudr<t  lu.ira.  Thia  may  be 
ohaervrd  in  the  dyin|{  aounda  of  i  iioll.  whi'  ii  riae  one  or 
two  octavea,  and  expire  in  the  aruteat  note.  Upon  the 
'  dei^rra  of  force  with  whirh  the  inatruinent  ia  blown.  d(>- 
penda  the  performance  of  the  buirlc-hom.  whoae  conipaaa 
ia  Tery  vmall,  cnnaiatini^  only  of  the  aimpli'at  nntra.  In 
other  wind  inatrumenta,  the  nature  of  aeveral  note*  pro- 
duced de|H'nda  upon  the  Irnijth  and  aiz«  of  the  tulie,  or 
the  poaitiona  of  the  holes  in  its  aides.  In  the  or^an, 
there  ia  a  pipe  for  each  note,  and  wind  ia  admitted  from 
the  bellows  to  the  pipe*  by  the  action  of  keys  similar  to 
those  of  a  piano-forte.  The  on^in  may  be  played  also 
by  a  barrel  made  to  turn  slowly  under  the  keys,  and  to 
lift  tliem  in  passini;,  by  means  of  pins  prujectiiiK  at  tur- 
t:iin  determinate  inlerrnla  from  the  a>!'t  ice  of  the  barrel. 
In  wind  instruments  whirh  are  fiimiain  i  with  rreds,  tho 
tone  depends  on  tho  atilfnraa,  wrii;ht,  lenii;th,  Ac,  of  the 
vtt.ratini;  plate  or  tonu'ur  of  the  n-nl,  as  wril  aa  on  the 
dimenaiona  of  the  tube  or  space  with  which  it  is  ron- 
tiectrrl. 

With  a  view  to  impart  some  inatnirtion  in  the  iirartice 
■A  theorj-  of  music,  wo  have,  in  a  aiibwqui'iit  (lart  ol' 
U.     Tork,  ofil<red  a  complete  treatise  on  the  aubji'L-t. 


f'VCRKh  O.N  OmCF,  I  'IIIT,  AND  ACOUSTICS. 

'f^  ■ju^'jaet  of  OpHcs  ^nd  Light  hM  attracted  more 
ttteniioii  of  late  years  than  a  y  other  branch  of  natural 


philnaophy.      Tha    researrhea    and    diarovrriM   r.f    \)f 
lirswater  nf  RdiiiburKll,   piililiabml  in   vuriona   arirniill, 
jtiuniiila,  have  HiiiiKtl  for  him  inuoli  rr|<iiliition.     Many 
<if  hia  a|irrulalinna   ami  i'«|M'riineiila,  howi-vnr,  are  tmiia 
rurioua  thun  iiai-ful.    'I'h<'  Fren>-li  aavnna  havf  |i««||  (,,y^ 
more   aiicreaalul  than    Hri'watiT;    and   the  iliarnvi>ry  of 
DiiKiierre,  by  which  the  liKlit  of  the  nun  ia  mailt-  dirprtly 
inatiuniciitid  in  priHlnciiiK  acrtinite  rcprrnciitatiniianf  u|^ 
jecta  on  nu'tallir  plulo,  ia  the  iiioat  iiii|Mirtniit  Ihat  hai 
liecn  made  since  the  time  of  Newton.     It  would  eircnj 
our  limita  In  notice  all  the  wnrka  oit  LiKlit   niid  ita  rmi. 
iirctiori  with  hi'nt,  electricity,  m.ii{n«tiam,  'ind  iialvaiiiiiin 
which  ha«e  npfa-iired  even  duriuK  the  recent  [tfricid  in 
which   phlloNophera  have  lirrn   <<o  rarneatly  riii^a>{i'd  jn 
eiaininiiiH   theao   aiibjeeta.     Aoonit    the    uuny  K<*nerii| 
wiirka  on  Dplica,  nmy  be  menti.irn  '*  li>«  foliowiiiK.  adaiitr,) 
to  (N'rwina  of  iliircreiit  ruiincities  und  altninmenla  in  wj. 
enre: — Joycr'a  "  .S'linid/ic   l)\iil>ttiii,  vol.  v.,"  iiiteinKJ 
for  lh<Mie  who  have  a  taale  for  the  acicnce  without  linvlnn 
I'ntered  much  into  the  eininenta  of  it.     "  Tht  F.lcnit ,it i  „f 
Dlitui,  by  Jmiiea  Wood,  II.  U."    Thia  treati-^'  entera  liirKrIv 
upon   the  nberrationa   pnMlured   by   the  iine.|unl    rel'mii. 
Mfiliility  of  diirerent  kinds  of  niya.  niid  by  ihn   H|i|ii-ii'ii| 
form  nf  redectinK  and  refrHctim(  KiirriiceH.     It  i»  milipr 
abntniae,  rrijuirinK  ronaiderulilc  niiitlieiimtiral  kiidwleii 
".//  Tiriilirr  im  (tiiliii,  loit'iiiDiiiK  FJniitiil'iif  llit  >     nn 
in  ,'i(ii  hmikt,  liy  Jntrfili  Hiirrm,"  a  more  euay  and      \  i||f 
work.     Ill  tha  flrnt  botik  the  eleiiieiilary  part  of  «'  '  i-,  j, 
explained;  in  the  arconil.  the  auliject  of  t ,  :on.    \1    id 
latter  aiibject  Dr.  I'orti-rtield'a  7 1  hIim  <  i     '     F.ijt  '\»  nnt 
of  the  IK-Ht  HUthiintiea  extiuit.    "./.Vc.     i      i     nii'tiuluiut 
Syltm  nf'  O/itii;  hi/  litiijnmin   Mum        ».    a  lio|)ulai 
trestiae,  illuatruted  with  rv|i"- monts  and  exampUo^ 
the  hitler  many  are  worked  by  common  ariliunctio. 

".-/  ComfiUle  SyUri,  nf  (tjtiicii,  in  Jour  Imiki,  Im 
IMirrI  Smith,  LI.,  f).,  Vnifetmr  nf  ^flrumimy  mid  Er. 
pmrni-iiliil  I'liiliini/ihy,  at  Citmhriilift,  S  vols.  4to."  'i'he 
firat  part  of  this  elulior;ite  work  ia  dcai^nvd  for  th« 
iwe  of  tho8e  who  would  know  aomi  ihiiic  of  ojiticg,  but 
who  want  the  preparatory  lenrniliK  tliut  ia  necennury  foi 
a  thoroiii{h  aci|uiiiiitancc  with  the  aubject.  With  thia 
view  the  author  hua  avoided  all  ceonietriral  detiiomtra. 
tiona.  and  auliMtitnteil  the  more  entertaining  aort  of  prmf; 
drawn  from  ex|N'riiiieiila  that  may  Ih>  repeated  wlili  |iti!t 
trouble  or  a|ipiiraliia.  Uy  thia  means  any  one  wiili 
motlerate  application  may  make  hiinaelf  master  of  no 
inronaideralile  port  of  the  doctrine  ot  optica.  The  aeconj 
bonk  ia  a  roni|  'I'te  mathematical  trentiae  of  the  wienco; 
and  will  requiri',  in  the  reader,  a  laruu  portion  uf  kco 
metrical  and  algebraical  knuwledKC.  In  the  tliini  buuk 
ia  Kiven  a  denrriptinn  of  a  complete  aet  of  optieiil  in«tru. 
nx^nts,  with  explanationa  of  the  various  um^s  to  wlmli 
they  ni.iy  I*  applietl,  in  Astronomy,  tieonruphy,  N'bmw. 
tion,  licvellinij.  \e.  A  hiatory  of  the  tcleaco(iic  dii 
coveriea  in  the  licuvena,  ia  tho  auliject  of  the  fourth  'luui, 
which  modern  diarovcriea  have,  uf  courw',  rendered  iiii. 
perfect 

»  The  elementary  parts"  of  Dr.  Smith's  Opllcn,  wore 
publiaheil  'iv  l>r.  Kiplimt,  in  177H,  who  added,  in  iiie 
form  of  .  ■'.  "I  «  e-planulory  propo^iitiiina  Iroin  otUt 
authors,  chi.  I'v  i  i n  Dr.  Harrow  und  D'acartca. 

To    ';■     le ..  I.   .        .orks  on  .cnce  of  opiiri 

Keiii-i  ue     <,icd  ttie  foUoMiiig  on  a  [larticuU; 

branch  ol  it. 

"  tV/'  Miiirciiro})f»,  niiii  the  DircmericM  mink  Ihinli); 
illtiitifitiil  villi  many  fUiltf,  liy  Ikmy  l.nkei,  I'.li.S.' 
This  work,  which  coiiaiatH  of  two  volumes  oil:ivo,  lun 
tnins  much  uxcliil  kliiiwled((e,  exliili.tid  in  u  iiiiii|'li.  ii.J 
perapicuoiia  iiiclhoil,  lor  the  aakc  of  pei-sonn  wlio  l.aie 
not  had  tlin  ndvriutaire  of  a  learned  educulinii.  'Hit 
rrllertions  whi<-h  Mr.  liaker  draws  from  the  vaitou<  |>ai>> 
of  these  volumes,  all  ti  nd  to  iinpreaa  the  reader  wil'i  jiut  j 
ideas  of  the  wiadoui,  power,  and  goodness  ol  Sir  f^ 
Creator. 


v 


TiiK  nmteriiil 

tion,  incliiilin)(  au 

siplorcd,  the  pin 

'lie  atiiioaplicro  v 

lirty-fiiur  aiiiij 

V     ih  cniii|)OHe  i 

I    '  TlicHo  a 

i    leavoura  to  di 

iri    termed    thn 

Krom  the  earliest 

Ii)  liavo  JH-en  in  a 

they  are  scarcely  t 

.Matter  has  eve 

petual   deconipoait 

which  take  place 

the  ro({idar  functir 

othera  are  etlt'cted 

tho  purjiowa  of  hia 

nimjiln  Hiiliatancr.1, 

ore  jieriiMnently  jfu 

remainintf  bodies 

The  invealif^tion  ol 

elementary  Ixiijios  I, 

•ulaitanoea  which  wl 

which  roinpound  hi 

oripnsi  eleinent.s  oif 

tha  iihjccts  of  the  wJ 

The  term  i/ir 

leema  to  have  been  L 
methods  of  meltiiifrl 
lified  with  tho  viaiol 
feaaed  to  he  tho  ur_ 
hiue  metals  into  gol] 
laat  aixiy  or  sevontj 
Ihe  rank  of  a  sciorj 
•dvsnced    towards 
wlloled  in  the  hiator, 
of  chemistry  am  unil 
mediately  romlm   vel 
•rt  or  many  fact  1    ,«  J 
it  bis  cither  U-.,.,, 
•ome  of  its  irr.  .,tes| 
•heet,  it  in  our  oiijectf 
"•w  of  the   prinrir 
icicnre,  with  a   des. 
iwiies,  and  ihnir  mJ 
nhall  coiti'  H'oce  witlj 
cipiVsofi    ,)iiih  the 

ch«m| 

When   [•iirtic|,.g 
brouKht  hiio  c..Mtaei 
new  auUunce-.   ,|i|; 
from  tli,,^.  |,y   whofl 
I'hii  is  called  dianl 


Vf''; 


1 1*     xtWf^ 


.^ 


CHEMISTRY. 


.«.    h»< 


Thic  ninliriiil  world  iininriliiitoly  uiiilpr  our  ol'  rvH- 
tlon,im'lii<liiiK  •ucli  piirlH  of  tlm  rurlli'n  oruMt  iiit  Imvo  lit'j'ii 
»(pliirpil,  tlio  |iIhiiU  mill  niiiiiiiilii  ii|ioii  itii  Niirfai'o,  and 
•tie  aliiioii|)li«r«  wlilrh  riiV('lo|>u«  it,  jit  found  to  conRiiit 
«l  lll^y-fiiur  ainiplo  milMtiirii'CR,  jumI  im  nil  tlio  wordH 
v!i:i'h  coin|)OMi  a  liui)(uau;ii  nro  r<<iM>lvnlil«  Into  a  few 
I    '  Tlit'HO  ■ulmtuiic'cii,  huviMK  hitherto  reHiiilcd  hII 

,  itnvourii  to  ilivido  or  reMolvo  theni  into  any  otherM, 
»rt  ti'rini'd  the  rtmirnt*  of  mailer,  or  mmfitt  hmlirD. 
From  tho  earlieHt  »tau!e  of  ereution  inoBt  of  them  a|)|M>nr 
to  have  Ik'cii  in  a  Htiite  of  eoinliinntion  with  each  other; 
tliev  are  Kciiroely  ever  found  otherwine. 

Mutter  h««  ever  heen,  and  in  now,  underKnlni{  per- 
netuid  (Iri'ompoHitionx  ind  reeoinbiiiiitionH,  Homo  of 
which  tnki!  (ilaeu  upon  an  eAtennive  ariile,  aa  part  of 
the  rcKiilar  fiinetiona  and  nperutioiia  of  nature,  while 
olherf)  lire  rlFeited  hy  llie  ingenuity  of  nmn,  to  Hcrvc 
the  purpoMoii  of  liin  ordinary  oeononiy.  Of  the  fifty-four 
(iniple  milmlancei*,  nix  nro  (fanes,  (three  of  which  only 
are  pcrin.inently  naneoun),  forty-one  are  inetitU,  and  the 
remaininif  liodieH  are  reduoililo  under  no  llxed  claaa. 
The  invenliRBtion  of  the  laws  under  which  theie  varioua 
(iementary  boiliea  have  formed  the  nuineroua  compound 
iuhdtanceii  which  wo  lee  in  nature,  and  tho  ineana  hy 
which  pompouiid  subHtanced  can  lie  resolved  into  their 
oritpnal  cleineiita  or  thrown  into  new  conibinatiunH,  arc 
th«  object*  of  tho  Bcionco  of  ('heinislry. 

The  term  ihfinislry  Ik  of  doubtful  derivation  ;  hut  it 
Menu  to  have  heen  applied  at  an  curly  (loriiNl  to  vnrioua 
methodn  of  meltini;  or  preparing  inolalH,  and  wan  iden- 
tified with  the  vinioiiary  wience  of  alchemy,  which  pro- 
feaied  to  be  tho  art  of  trananiutinii;  copper  and  other 
blue  metals  into  gold  and  ailvcr.  It  ia  only  within  the 
last  sixty  or  seventy  years  that  chemistry  has  risen  to 
the  rank  of  a  science ;  hut  during  that  period  it  has 
idvinced  towards  perfection  with  a  rapidity  unpa- 
ralleled in  the  hiHtory  of  philosophy.  The  applications 
of  chemistry  are  universal.  There  is  no  s«Mencc  so  im- 
mediately condiic  vo  to  human  comfort.  To  whatever 
art  or  manufucli  .'  wo  turn  our  attention,  wo  find  that 
it  has  either  Iknmi  created  hy  chemistry,  or  owes  to  it 
lome  of  its  l"-  itest  improvements.  In  the  present 
•heet,  it  is  our  iiiject  to  present  a  simple  and  infelliniblo 
riew  of  the  principles  of  this  excci-dinuly  important 
science,  with  a  description  of  the  various  elemental 
iiodics,  nn'l  their  more  immeiliate  combinations.  We 
shall  com!  I'lice  willi  a  view  of  the  ;;eneral  leading  priii- 
ciplifs  on  which  the  acicnre  proceeds. 

CHKMICAI,    ATTRACTION. 

When  pirtiiU'ij  ot  dillercnt  kinds  of  matter  are 
brought  ttitu  ("Htact,  they  fre<)ucntly  unite  and  form 
new  Hu'~t.ince-  dilfi  liiiK  widely  in  many  instances 
from  111  .^-  by  whose  union  they  have  lieen  formed. 
I'hii  it  cailad  clumical  aliraciton,  or  clumxcal  m/iuny, 


because  It  Is  said  that  the  ptrticlm  of  cartaln  hodlcii, 

having  an  allliiily  for  each  iither,  will  unite,  while  olhei* 
hiving  no  alllnily,  do  not  reailily  enter  into  uiii<iii.  li 
iiiiKbt  aliiiont  be  supposed  that  there  are  such  >iiigs  m 
preferences  and  iliHllkes  smong  the  (Htrticli-    ii  mailer 

Thus,  if  a  pii'ce  of  marble  Ui  thrown  iiil"  mihoI  or  miK 
!>)iiirie  acid,  their  |Hirticles  will  unite  with  great  ra|s*ilii 
an.  i  I'liinniotiiin,  and  tlierr  will  reiiiiil  si  I'liiipoiind  vVMin-. 
ilig  in  all  res|iectM  from  the  acid  <>r  the  marble.     Tim  i* 

It  once  an  instance  of  affMitty  lH't\v<<eii  two  •uhakuucs, 
anil  (tti  exhibition  of  stronger  mid  weaker  attinity.  Tho 
commotion  n  <'ll"frve«cence  in  the  ox|>eriinent.  re<iult« 
from  the  disengaMinri  nt  of  a  giuieous  carlKinw)  aclil 
in  combination  with  ib>;  ~<ti*\n  of  tho  marble,  in  conse- 
ipiencfl  ul  the  vitriolic  acid  having  a  stronger  atllnity 
for  it.  When  a  piece  of  caustic  magnesia  is  thrown 
into  vitriol,  we  i  ive  a  ens*;  i>!  simple  allinity,  with  a 
complete  chitiige,  also,  of  i>  >|Mirtiii^H.  Dut  the  vitriol 
and  iiiagiiesia  aro  emineniiv  hurtl\il  to  life.  All  their 
elements  cninliine,  without  aii>  diseiigngement,  and  the 
result  is  the  priKluction  of  Epsom  suits,  a  compound 
with  properties  entirely  new.  Neither  ingredient  has 
lieen  destroyed;  they  ciin  again  he  extracted  pure  from 
the  compound  ;  but  they  have  changed  their  charu.'tera 
through  the  force  of  allinity.  liut  if  a  pieco  of  gl 
(piariz,  or  gold  >>«  thrown  into  tho  acid,  no  changi  la 
prodiict^d  in  eiltier,  bi-causu  their  particles  have  no 
alfinity.  This  process  -  termed  in  chemical  language 
rimihiHiitinn,       It    is    i|ii  :u    distiwct   from    angreniilwu. 


which  is  tho  union  of 
ing  a  mass  which  has  tin  ;■ 
tides  of  which  it  is  ci>i,  .. 
structure  or  form.  It  ca  n  - 
inirlurr,  in  which  tlie  parli 
intimately  blended,  arc  iik 
with  each  other  so  as  to  Ioni 


les  of  a  similar  kind,  form- 
iieral  properties  of  tho  par- 
sed, whatever  may  be  its 
II  to  \ni  distinguished  from 
'ri,  although  they  may  lie 
iiH  it  wore  amalgumnted 
their  own  individual  pro- 


perties. The  dilTeronco  bctw  >'n  combination  and  mix- 
ture will  be  clearly  seen  from  the  following  example 
— if  into  a  crystal  bottle  wo  \»  ur  a  quantity  of  oil  and 
a  ((uantity  of  water,  and  shake  them  well  together,  the 
two  Hiibstunces  can  never  lie  nia..'e  to  unite  permanently 
together.  Although  they  appen'  to  do  so  for  a  short 
while  after  the  experiment  is  ma  'c,  yet  if  tho  vessel  bo 
allowed  to  stand  for  a  sufficient  !■  nglh  of  time,  tho  par- 
ticles of  water,  being  lieavier  thai  those  of  oil,  will  de- 
scend to  the  bottom,  whilst  thoi-'  of  the  oil  will  settle 
ujMin  the  top.  Hero  it  is  evident  that  no  chemical  ot- 
trrfctiiin  huM  been  exerted  bctweeii  '.lie  particles  of  the 
two  biHlies,  because  no  chemical  '■hangc  haa  taken 
place.  In  a  word,  there  has  been  a  aechanical  mixture 
without  any  chemical  combination.  Dut  if  with  the 
Wftt<;r  in  this  experiment  we  mix  a  uantity  of  potaah, 
so  as  to  form  a  pretty  strong  soluti.  .  tho  results  will 
lie  very  diirerent.  The  partii  lea  of  e  bodies  will  ij>- 
timately  combino  with  each  other,  iid  a  compound 
will  be  formed  having  properties  entir  ly  diflerent  froa 
either  the  oil  or  the  jiotiish.  The  bk  .stance  thus  ol^ 
taiiicd  is  the  iiHeful  article  soap ;  and  if  the  water  be 
evaporated  by  the  application  of  heat,  i'  assumes  a  solii, 
ciiiisistency,  as  in  the  form  in  which  t  is  ccinmonly 
used  for  domestic  purposes. 

It  Bometiiiies  happens  that  two  bodies  will  readily 
condiine  with  each  otb.er,  but  if  a  third  ody  be  added, 
the  combination  will  be  destroyed;  the  :  rsl  of  the  two 
bodies  having  a  stronger  allinity  for  the  third  than  it 
had  for  the  second.  Thus,  if  magnesia  1  dissolved  in 
nitric  acid,  a  complete  unioii  takes  place;  rut  if  lime  b« 
added  to  the  compound,  the  nitriu  acid  unites  with  the 

'^la 


914 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


limo,  and  liie  magnesia,  which  was  formerly  invisible, 
will  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  vc«8cl. 

dulphiir  and  quicksilver,  when  heated  together,  will 
form  a  buautiful  red  compound,  known  under  the  name 
of  vermilion,  and  which  has  none  of  the  qualities  cither 
of  sniphur  or  quicksilver.  Suspend  a  piece  of  aqueous 
sulphate  of  copper  (common  blue  vitriol),  by  a  thread, 
ill  a  glassful  of  water.  The  particles  of  both  combine 
and  form  a  stream  of  blue  fluid,  which  descends  from 
ttie  points  where  they  are  in  contact.  The  solid  is  said 
to  be  dinokcd,  that  is,  the  cohesion  of  its  particles  is 
destroyed,  and  the  compound  is  called  a  lohilion  of  the 
•olid. 

The  restoration  of  cohe«ion  to  a  bo<ly  after  it  has 
been  deprived  of  it,  is  exhibited  in  a  great  variety  of 
instances.  For  example,  if  a  quantity  of  suffar  be  dis- 
solved in  water,  ami  the  solution  lie  allowed  to  stand 
till  the  water  has  evaporated,  the  attraction  of  cohesion 
will  take  cflfect  between  the  particles  of  the  sugar,  which 
will  again  resume  the  solid  form.  Hce,  however,  a 
reniarkoblo  circumstance  has  occurred.  Whotever  the 
state  of  the  sugar  may  have  been  originally,  it  invari- 
•bly,  in  rcauinirig  its  solidity,  assumes  a  particular  form, 
one  of  great  regularity  and  beauty.  It  was  formerly 
opaque,  it  is  now  transparent;  originally  a  shapeless 
mass,  it  is  now  a  prism  of  six  sides,  surpassing  in  lustre 
and  symmclry  the  protlucts  of  the  lapidary's  wheel. 
This  solid  spontaneous  production  is  called  a  crystal ; 
and  the  process  by  which  it  is  produced  is  entitled 

Cryiiiilliziition. — Bodies,  whether  solid,  fluid,  or  va- 
porous, are  susce])tible  of  assuming  the  crj'stalline  form, 
and  the  substances  which  do  so  arc  nuiulierlcivi.  The 
»haj)08  which  the  crystals  take,  and  the  facility  with 
which  they  assume  them,  are  various.  Instances  of 
crystnllization,  such  as  sea-salt,  R])som  salts,  saltpetre, 
arc  familiar  to  every  one.  Water,  it  is  well  known, 
when  cooled  to  a  certain  degree,  assumes  the  form  of 
ice,  which  is  crystalline.  There  are  three  methods  of 
proilucing  artificial  crystals :  first,  by  dissolving  the 
substance  in  a  hot  liquid,  and  either  allowing  the  solu- 
tion to  cool,  or  evaporating  it  by  a  continued  heat ;  se- 
cond, by  making  the  substance  assume  the  a<.'rial  form ; 
and,  third,  by  melting  it  by  fire  without  the  presence 
of  a  liquid,  and  allowing  it  to  cool  slowly.  The  two 
first  are  the  most  common  methods  of  forming  crystals, 
and  by  the  third,  sulphur,  spermaceti,  bismuth,  Ac, 
may  be  made  to  assume  the  crystalline  state.  If  as 
much  alum  be  put  into  lM)iling  water  as  the  water  will 
readily  dissolve,  crystals  will  Iw  de|)osited  as  soon  as  the 
liquid  cools.  The  presence  of  the  atmosphere  has  con- 
■iJerable  influence  upon  the  formation  of  crystals.  If 
as  great  a  quantity  of  Glaulicr  salt  be  dissolved  in  a  (\fifik 
half  filled  with  boiling  water  as  the  waUT  will  hold  in 
■olution,  and  the  flask  l>c  corked,  no  crystals  will  lie 
formed  as  the  liquid  cools.  Remove  the  cork,  however, 
ai^d  crystallization  commences  as  the  air  enters,  a  solid 
crystalline  mass  being  almost  inst;int.ineously  formed. 
If  the  weather  is  warm,  crystallization  will  not  {jcrhups 
lake  place  even  after  the  solution  is  cool.  In  this  cose, 
the  introduction  of  a  small  crystal  into  the  flask  will 
cause  the  liquid  to  cr)'stallizc. 

The  same  Iwdy  does  not  invariably  exhibit  the  same 
form  of  crystals;  there  may  lie  wvcral  forms  of  crystals 
belonging  to  one  l)o<ly,  Imt  in  one  or  oilier  of  these  it 
is  sure  to  crystiillize,  and  not  according  to  any  other 
form.  It  is  also  to  lie  observed,  th-it  very  diflerent  kinds 
of  milder  may  crystallize  after  the  same  model. 

The  general  name  for  the  substance  furmed  by  che- 
mical attraction  is  a  r,  pnuml :  ihe  sulistaiices  of  which 
it  is  composed  are  called  its  comiKinent  or  ciinsliineiit 
parts  or  principles.  The  sepHratinn  of  tlnse  is  termed 
rinoiiiiiuiiiKDi  and  when  decomposition  is  performed 
for  the  purpose  of  asi'erluiiiing  the  composition  of  a 
body,  it  is  named  iiirinuiit  'inulyiis.     The  reunion  of 


the  constituent  parts  is  denominattj  chemical  lymhet^t 
Integrant  particles  of  a  body  diflTcr  from  the  con«ticueni 
particles  thus  : — The  latter  are  the  most  minute  partu 
into  which  a  compound  body  can  be  resolved  by  decom. 
position,  and  are  hence  of  a  different  nature,  both  ulili 
regard  to  each  other  and  the  substance  itself  which  their 
mutual  union  gives  rise  to.  The  integrant  particles  ore 
the  most  minute  parts  into  which  any  body  can  be  re- 
solved without  decomposition. 

LAWS  or  CUIMICAL  COMBINATION  AND  DECOMPOSITION, 
There  are  various  laws  connected  with,  and  pheno- 
mena attendant  upon,  chemical  attraction.  While,  of 
couriio,  it  can  operate  only  between  bodies  of  a  diflerent 
nature,  the  qualities  which  characterize  these  liodica 
when  separate,  arc  changed  or  annihilated  by  their  com- 
bination, and  it  takes  place  only  between  the  atoms  or 
most  minute  particles  of  bodies.  Chemical  attraction 
can  take  place  between  two,  three,  or  even  a  greater 
number  of  bodies.  A  change  of  temperature  is  almost 
always  observable  at  the  moment  of  combination.  The 
force  of  chemical  atrmity  between  tlic  constituents  of  a 
body,  is  estimated  by  that  which  is  requisite  for  their 
separation.  It  has  been  already  remarked  that  the  de- 
gree of  attraction  varies  very  considerably  in  diirerent  ho- 
dies ;  and  it  is  evident  that  from  this  variation  ull  chemical 
compositions  and  decompositions  take  place.  The  pre. 
ference  of  uniting  with  another  Bubstance  which  any 
given  body  is  found  to  exercise,  is  metaphorically 
termed  tlcrtivt  atlrarlwn,  or  iijjinily.  It  is  of  two  kinds. 
each  of  which  derives  its  apjiellation  from  the  numhet 
and  the  powers  of  the  principles  which  may  lie  brought 
into  contact  with  each  other.  When  a  simple  luli. 
stance  is  presented  to  a  compound  one,  and  unites  with 
one  of  the  constituents  of  the  latter,  so  as  to  se|>aratc  it 
from  that  with  which  it  is  combined,  and  by  this  mcani 
producing  a  decomposition,  it  is  said  to  lie  cflccted  br 
tiinple  clerlive  nttrailiun.  Some  substances,  however, 
will  not  be  thus  easily  decom|<OBed ;  anil  it  is  found 
necessary  to  intro<luce  two  or  more  principles,  in  order 
to  eflect  the  end  in  view.  When  two  principles,  there, 
fore,  are  presented  to  a  comjjound  bo»ly,  and  when  the 
principles  unite  each  with  one  of  those  of  the  compound 
substance,  two  new  substances  are  formed ;  and  all  in- 
stances of  decomposition  in  this  manner  are  said  to  Ik 
cflccted  by  doulile  eleiiirt  atlraclion.  It  is  to  lie  ol)ser^ed 
that  all  changes  effected  in  this  manner  arc  permanenl 
and  that  the  new  compound  thus  formed  cannot  tie  de- 
composed, until  a  Hulmtanco  having  a  more  powerful 
attraction  for  one  of  its  constituents  than  they  have  foi 
each  other,  is  brought  into  contact  with  them. 

To  Sir  Isaac  Newton  we  are  indebted  for  the  first 
attempt  at  a  rational  explanation  of  chemical  combina- 
tion. He  was  of  opinion  that  the  minute  atoms  of  cer- 
tain bodies  attract  each  other  with  an  unknown  but 
enormous  force,  which  liegins  to  exert  itself  only  when 
the  particles  are  at  very  small  distances  from  each  other 
and  that,  accordingly,  this  force  exerts  itself,  and  the 
bodies  unite,  when  they  are  brought  within  the  requi- 
site distance.  These  views  slowly  made  their  way  into 
tlie  science ;  biK  towo'ds  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  they  seem  to  have  been  almost  universallr 
adopted.  The  term  chemical  afllnity  was  suliBtilutfd 
for  that  of  attnu'liun,  and  the  strength  of  the  afllniiT 
existing  in  IxHlies  came  to  lie  measured  according  ui 
the  oriler  in  wliich  they  were  deco.niposed.  It  is  un- 
necessary to  mention  the  various  tables  of  nttiiiity  which 
were  published  previously  to  that  of  Dergmnii.  who  ii: 
\nh  gave  to  the  world  a  copious  table  of  aflinitioii.  ani 
appi-ars  to  have  fixeil  the  o|iiiiioiis  of  chi^mist;:  in  Ronr 
ral  to  his  own  views  of  Ihe  subject.  AcccmliiiR  tn  Ihi: 
philosopher,  the  afliiiity  of  eacii  of  \.\\v  bodies,  any  n, ' 
<,  (/,  for  X.  differs  in  intensity  in  such  a  iniinnor,  llii' | 
the  degree   of  allinity   in  each  nia<y  be  eijirciiwd  li 


minibara,    x 

•aqnence  of  \ 
b,ila  be  pn 
don  will  em 
pound  a  -r  wi 


This  theory 

mediately  ack 

brought  to  ligl 

philosophers,  i 

ble  to  exhibit  i 

are  indchted  fc 

3f  the  fact,  Ihii 

}f  which  wo  I 

nitb  as  clear  a 

^gcd  in  deten 

:alled  severally 

Dalton  discovei 

juire  ilijfcrent  I 

A  volume*  of  c 

whilst  a  volume 

axygen  gas. 

The  conclus 

that  bodies  conn 

nution  or  divit 

is  these  ultimal 

the  case  above  n 

inflammable  gas 

of  one  atom   o 

while  oicfiant  gi 

gen  and  lim  aton 

u  spheres,  and, 

t  circle  with  a  d< 

diameter,  and  the 

of  a  number  of  t 

by  bim,  and  the 

WLitjle  bodies  infi 

hii  experiments  t 

aydrogen  one,  a 

eoraposed   of,  hy 

is  the  former  gas 

one  atom  of  carbJ 

to  each  other  in  tl 

at'  tile  atom  of  l| 

nnc,  that  of  earli 

latios  of  the  wj 

bodies  may    Ik; 

Ihe  cumpouiuls 

oodieg. 

The  conibiimtil 
lome  other  bodief 
its  first  compouniL 
Ibc  atmosphere  is  I 
two  parts  of  niercl 
the  metal  be  subjJ 
tt  wUl  be  converU-I 
•  compound  of  thel 
•ixleeu  pans  of  ol 
dred  and  *wo  par| 
tbi*  is,  thdt  eight 
•nd  two  hundred 
•  »e  compound  wl| 
i  multiple  of  thesL^ 
biw,  in  like  maiinl 
eompouiids  the 
•tancca  of  this  mij 
to  prove  the  rem  J 


•  Volume,  in  cheJ 
quanliiyiii  bulk  of  J 
»»«>;•■  Thui,  one  vi 
ysrii.  or  RD)'  oiliL-r  ul 
luiKloiiUo  Ik;  ciibiJ 
prwiomijr  ibsntioacl 


l^i  tV.'Tt^y.     .^:i  -^r  1|!  -'TJX-v-"  ■     i'l-.  -■  ■    L    t  '^i.  .-'^F^.-yr,  k  ■',  : 


■:*■■  ■;--^r'r--v^"'.;-  .1 


^^^m:'^ 


CHEMISTRY. 


i'.^  ■U/t./.t 


m 


nnmben.  He  (uppoiied  affinity  to  be  elective,  in  con- 
■eqaence  of  which,  if  u  have  a  greater  affinity  for  x  than 
i  if  a  be  presented  to  the  compound  b  x,a  decomposi- 
tion will  ensue,  h  will  be  set  at  liberty,  and  the  com- 
pound a  X  will  bo  formed. 

THE   ATOMIC   THBORY. 

This  theory  was  not  discovered  all  at  once,  and  im- 
mediately acknowledged  by  chemists;  it  was  gradually 
brought  to  light  by  the  rep<!ated  experiments  of  succeBsive 
philosophers,  whoso  latxiurs,  however,  it  will  be  impossi- 
ble to  exhibit  a  view  of  in  this  place.  To  Mr.  Dalton  we 
•re  indolitcd  for  the  first  development  and  demonstration 
3f  the  fact,  that  bodies  unite  in  definite  proportions ;  and 
}f  which  we  shall  now  attempt  to  present  the  reader 
with  as  clear  and  simple  a  view  as  possible.  Whilst  en- 
raged in  determining  the  composition  of  the  two  gases 
ailed  severally  carbureted  hydrogen  and  olefiant  gas,  Mr. 
Dalton  discovered  that  for  complete  combustion  they  re- 
luiro  iliffcnnt  but  delermintile  quantities  of  oxygen  gas. 
K  volume*  of  carbureted  hydrogen  requires  two  volumes, 
whilst  a  volume  of  olefiant  gas  requires  three  volumes  of 
oxygen  gns. 

The  conclusions  at  which  Mr.  Dalton  arrived  are, 
that  bodies  consist  of  atoms  incapable  of  further  dimi- 
nution or  division;  that  in  chemical  combinations  it 
i*  these  ultimate  particles  which  unite ;  and  that,  in 
the  case  above  mentioned  of  the  combustion  of  the  two 
inflammable  gasca,  carbureted  hydrogen  is  a  compound 
of  one  atom  of  hydrogen  and  one  atom  of  carbon ; 
while  oletiant  gas  is  a  compound  of  one  atom  of  hydro- 
gen and  lim  atoms  of  carbon.  The  atoms  he  considered 
at  spheres,  and ,  rcprciientcu  them  by  such  symbols  as 
a  circle  with  a  dot  in  the  centre,  a  circle  with  a  vertical 
diameter,  and  the  like.  In  this  manner  the  composition 
of  a  number  of  the  best  known  bodies  was  represented 
br  biin,  and  the  ratios  of  the  weights  of  the  atoms  of  the 
HUiile  boiliea  inferred.  For  instance,  he  concluded  from 
hi*  experimonts  that  carbureted  hydrogen  is  composed  of, 
Dydrogen  one,  and  carbon  five ;  while  olefiant  gas  is 
tomposcd  of,  hydrogen  one,  and  carbon  ten.  iVow, 
u  the  former  gas  consiiits  of  one  atom  of  hydrogen  and 
one  atom  of  carbon,  then  the  weights  of  these  atoms  are 
to  each  other  in  the  relation  of  one  to  five.  If  the  weight 
ol"  the  atom  of  hydrogen,  therefore,  Ik-  represented  by 
nnc,  that  of  carl>ou  will  be  five.  In  this  manner,  the 
latios  of  the  weight  of  the  atoms  of  all  the  simple 
bodies  iiiuy  be  uscertained  by  a  careful  analysis  of 
the  cuinpounds  formed  by  the  uiiiuii  of  the  simple 
bodies. 

The  combinations  of  mercury  or  quickdilver  with 
lome  other  bodies,  atliird  an  illustration  of  the  theory. 
Its  first  compound  with  oxygen,  one  of  the  gases  of  which 
the  atnionphere  is  composed,  consists  of  two  hundred  and 
two  parts  of  mercury  and  eight  of  oxygen.  If,  however, 
the  metal  be  subjected  to  a  considerable  degree  of  heat, 
(t  will  be  convertt^'d  into  a  red  shining  mass,  which  is  also 
•  compound  of  the  metal  with  oxygen ;  but  in  the  latter  case, 
dxteeu  pans  of  oxygen  have  united  with  the  two  hun- 
dred and  'wo  part^  of  the  nietul.  The  explar.atioii  of 
this  is,  thdt  eight  is  tlie  chemical  equivalent  of  oxygen, 
ind  two  hundred  and  two  of  mercury.  In  evry  succcs- 
ive  compound  which  they  make,  their  proportions  fwm 
I  multiple  of  these  equivalents.  Every  other  simple  Ixxly 
has,  in  like  manner,  its  equivalent  number,  and  to  its 
compounds  the  same  rule  up|>lic8.  Iniiumeralile  in- 
itanccs  of  this  might  be  adduced,  but  these  arc  siitlicirnt 
to  prove  the  remarkable  truth,  that  when  dilli'rent  sub- 


•  Volume,  in  chemimry.  ia  a  lerin  employeil  lo  ilcnole  any 
quantity  in  biilll  of  ii  stilittniio'.  It  ia  iiaiiully  iippliiMl  tu  tliu 
gatra.  Tliua.  one  vuIuiik^  ol'liydroKin  Ki>«  ia,  any,  ii  I'liliic  loot, 
yart).  or  any  oiIkt  tjiiontily  ;  tlirii  two  voluriifa  are  oi'  conra« 
tun  iliiiiUii  tk:  oubii:  loot,  yard,  otwiiamver  other  quantity  w»a 
pi<:viouily  ib!imoBi;U 


Stances  combine  with  chemical  attraction,  the  proportioiif 
of  the  ingredients  are  always  uniform ;  that  for  every 
atom  present  of  one  substance,  there  is  exactly  one,  or 
two,  or  three,  &c.,  of  the  other.  If,  for  instance,  any 
quantity  of  sulphur,  intermediate  between  the  two  com- 
binations of  that  substance  with  mercury,  be  added,  it 
will  not  combine  with  it,  but  remain  as  a  foreign  ingre- 
dient  in  the  sulphurnt  of  mercury,  as  the  compound  v 
termed.  All  bodies,  however,  do  not  unite  in  several 
proportions,  thus  giving  rise  to  several  distinct  com- 
pounds from  two  elements ;  there  are  many  elementary 
bodies  which  will  only  unite  with  each  other  in  one  pro- 
portion, so  that  any  two  of  such  substances  can  only  form 
one  compotijid.  This  law,  however,  is  not  universal  as 
it  is  well  known  that  water  and  alcohol,  and  water  and 
sulphuric  acid,  will  unite  in  any  proportions.  Water 
will  also  unite  in  any  proportion  with  soluble  salt,  until 
it  becomes  completely  saturated.  Bodies  which  unite 
in  any  proportions  form  an  infinite  variety  of  com- 
pounds, and  are  distinguished  by  their  being  united  by  a 
weak  affinity,  and  also  by  the  compounds  formed  difler- 
ing  little  from  their  simple  constituents  or  from  each 
other. 

These  remarks  must  be  neld  as  applying  to  inorganic 
chemistry  chiefly  ;  vegetable,  or  organic  chemistry,  pre- 
sents many  exceptions  to  the  principles  of  combination 
now  laid  down. 

KQUITALENT   RATIOS. 

Tlie  result  of  these  investigations  has  been  the  forma- 
tion of  scales  exhibiting  the  equivalent  ratios  of  chemical 
bodies,  and  which  are  expressed  by  numbers.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  aime  body  must  be  fixed  upon,  and  expressed 
by  unity.  Hydrogen  gas,  being  the  lightest  known  body 
in  nature,  and  combining  in  the  smallest  proportion  by 
weight  with  the  other  simple  substances,  has  been  tukeii 
as  a  standard  of  comparison  for  the  combining  propor- 
tions, or  eiiuivalent  iiumbers,  of  all  other  bodies;  and 
which,  in  all  likelihood,  are  simple  multiples  of  its  num- 
lier.  Oxygen  has  olso,  by  some  chemists,  been  taken  as 
the  standard  of  comparison,  and  represented  by  ten. 
Water  is  a  compound  of  eight  parts  by  weight  of  oxygen, 
with  one  part  by  weight  of  hydrogen ;  which  two  gaseou6 
bodies  wo  shall  afterwards  describe.  Whenever  hydro- 
gen and  oxygen  gases  are  burnt  in  any  proportion  what- 
soever, they  invariably  form  water ;  and  they  cannot  be 
made  to  combine  directly  in  any  other  proportion.  From 
this,  IJulton  concluded  that  wotcr  is  a  compound  of  one 
atom  of  hydrogen  and  one  atom  of  oxygen.  But  the 
weight  of  the  latter  gas  being  eight  times  that  of  the  for- 
mer, then  it  followed  that  the  atom  uf  oxygen  was  jusV 
eight  times  heavier  than  the  atom  of  hyilrogrn.  Hence, 
if  the  latter  be  represented  by  one,  then  will  the  former 
lie  represented  by  eight,  occording  to  those  who  take 
hydrogen  as  the  standard.  Those  who  take  oxygen  aa 
the  standard,  and  represent  it  by  10,  make  the  equivalent 
for  hydrogen  1-25:  the  result  is  of  course  the  same,  the 
proportion  of  1-25  to  10,  being  exactly  the  same  as  that 
of  I  to  8. 

These  observations  relative  to  water  lead  us  to  speak 
of  the  doctrine  of  volumes,  so  generally  embraced  by 
chemists  upon  the  Continent.  The  union  of  gases  is 
alwiiys  elTccted  in  simple  proportions  of  their  volumes  ; 
and  a  volume  of  one  gas  combines  with  an  equal  volume, 
or  two  or  three  times  the  volume,  of  another  gas ;  and 
in  no  intermediate  proportion. 

BLBMCNTAI.  BODIES. 

With  regard  to  the  elements  of  matter,  chemists  have 
agreed  among  themselves  to  consider  all  those  bodiea 
as  simple  which  have  not  yet  lieen  decomposed.  A* 
already  mentioned,  the  simple  bodies  are  filty-four  in 
numlicr,  and  tor  the  convenience  of  study  they  have 
been  arranged  into  classes.     One  system  of  classiticutios 


S18 


INFORMATION   FOR   THE  PEOPLE. 


in  icpondent  upon  tho  clomonta  being  metallic  or  non- 
nu^titllic. 

Tlie  non-meta'.Iic  element*  are  dividrd  into  gaznhjUs, 
or  bodies  which  are  permanently  gnHoous ;  meluUmih,  or 
l<odieg  which  resemble  the  metals  in  llicir  chemical  re- 
liitiona;  and  halivenn,  or  hothes  which  produce  saltg 
when  in  union  with  the  metals.  The  non-metallic  cle- 
monU  are  thirteen  in  numl)cr;  namely,  oxygen,  hydro- 
gen, nitrogen,  chlorine,  iodine,  bromine,  fluorine,  car- 
bon, boron,  silicon,  sulphur,  solrnium,  and  phos|)horus. 
The  three  first  are  tlie  gazolytcs,  the  next  four  the 
halogens,  nn<l  the  remaining  six  the  metalloids.  The 
metallic  elements  are  forty-one  in  number,  namely, 
potassium,  sodium,  lithium,  calcium,  barium,  strontium, 
magnesium,  aluminum,  thorium,  glucimim,  zirconium, 
vttrium,  manj;auose,  zinc,  iron,  tin,  cadmium,  cobalt, 
nickel,  arsenic,  chromium,  vanadium,  molylulcnum,  tung- 
sten, columbium,  antimony,  uran'um,  cerium,  bismuth, 
titanium,  tellurium,  copper,  lead,  mcrcur)',  silver,  gold, 
platinum,  puladium,  rhiKlium,  c-sjiiiuni,  iriilium.  These 
metallic  elements  are  again  divided  into  three  orders,  the 
first  twelve  being  the  bases  of  llic  alkalies  and  earths ; 
tl\e  next  twenty -one  being  metals  whn-;e  oxides  are  not 
reduced  by  heal  alone;  anfl  I' ■•  remaining  eight,  metals 
whose  oxides  sre  reiluceil  by  a  red  heat.  From  these 
fifty-four  ulementary  substances  is  formed  all  the  bcauti- 
ftd  variety  of  Icrri'strial  objects.  Mor  is  there  any  thing 
either  verv  wonderful  or  niyslerious  in  this  fact,  since,  as 
we  have  s<>eii,  any  given  two  of  them,  if  made  to  unite 
in  diflercnt  proportions,  can  be  made  to  produce  the  most 
opposite  substances.  These,  again,  vuiited  with  each 
other,  give  rise  to  new  compounds,  which  are  susceptible 
of  being  combined,  and  so  on  tiiroui^h  an  almost  infinite 
rotation  of  chemical  union.* 

HEAT    OR    CALORIC. 

fn  our  investigati(ms  of  the  phenomena  of  the  mate- 
rial universe,  we  perceive  two  kinds  of  motion,  which 
result  (rom  the  two  principles  atirariioi)  and  rejiuhinn. 
Of  the  former  we  have  already  s|H>keii,  and  it  oidy  re- 
mains to  say  a  few  words  upon  the  latter.  Repulsion, 
like  attraction,  lakes  place  Iwrth  at  seiisibli'  and  insensibie 
distances.  The  (iinner  is  exemplified  liy  the  flying  olT 
of  the  same  light  bo<lies  which  have  Is'en  first  attracted, 
jfter  they  have  liecn  some  time  in  contact  with  a  |)ieco 
of  excited  resin  or  glass,  and  also  by  the  recession  from 
each  other  of  the  two  similar  ends  of  two  magnetized 
needl'-s.  Kepidsiim  at  iusci.sible  distanci-s,  which  is 
chiefly  excited  by  heat,  or,  as  it  is  called  in  chemical 
language,  caloric,  is  exhibited  in  a  great  variety  of  pheno- 
mena. 

The  principal  eflects  of  heat  are  expansion,  liquefae- 
lion,  vaiMirirMitioii,  evajwatioii,  and  ignition.      Willi  few 
exceptions,  bodies  are  cajiahle  of  expansion  by  means  of 
beat;  the    gases  being  the  most    e\|iansive,  fluids  less 
•.'),  and  solids  least  of  all.      When  the  iron  rim  of  a 
coach  or  cart  wheel  in  to  U-  put  on,  it   must  first  !« 
heated  to  u  considerable  degree.     The  reason  of  this  is  j 
obvious;  when   hot,  the  circle  is  larger  than  when   cold,! 
and  iJius   slips  easily   upon  the  wheel ;  as   it   cools,  the 
circle    decreases,    and   thus   finrdy   binds  the  wo(slwork 
together.     The  expansion  of  n.    ifonn  suhslaiicrs  is  illiis-  , 
trated  by  a  bladder  In-ing  |>arll\   lillcd  with  cidd  air,  and  | 
hi  Id  befori'  the  fire.     The  air  will  swell  out  w  ith  the  heat, 
and  U-i'i'me  in  some  instances  so  «X|idnded   as  to  burst 
t)ic  blarldir.      .As  regards  fluid   iKxIien,  the  nnmr  fact   is 
il!ustrate<l  in  the  ca»es  of  the  thermoiix  ler  aud  U.ronieler, ! 
By  the  accession  or  loss  of  heat,  the  alcohol  or  iiicicury 
tfxpaiids  or  contracts,  as  sliown   by  the   index  attache 


•  From  recfim  fxprrimrnu  In  ehrmittry.  Ihrrr  is  rranon  to 
briieve  that  •11  •iiliiMiiecs  wliatsorwr  arr  Imt  nuxt'licuiifinKiir 
(Hie  primitive  auliaiui!! f.  Thr  aKioluie  irulh  of  llii*  >lurlliiit( 
kterv  remoina  to  be  practically  drmunsirt'ed 


The  general  law,  therefore,  is,  that  the  expansion  tiiil 
contraction  of  matter  are,  with  a  few  exceptions,  depend- 
ent upon  the  increase  and  diminution  of  heat  Thr 
quantity  or  condition  of  heat  that  is  discoverable  by  the 
thermorootcr,  or  by  the  organs  of  sensation,  is  called  lent 
jieratuif.  Wc  arc  unacquainted  with  the  extremes  ot 
temperature  relative  either  to  heat  or  cold.  It  has  been 
compared  to  a  chain,  tho  extremities  of  whir  \\  are  con- 
cealed fi-om  view,  whilst  only  a  few  of  tho  middlti  Bnkn 
are  exposed  to  observatioii.  Although  the  universal  re- 
suit  nf  an  increase  of  temperature  is  an  increnso  of  bulk 
to  tho  body  thus  subjected  to  heat,  yet  all  bodies  are  no! 
alike  expanded  by  the  appliciition  of  the  same  quantity 
of  heat.  It  of  course  follows  as  a  general  law,  that  dit 
ferent  bodies  at  equal  tem|)eratures  do  not  contain  the  same 
quantities  of  caloric.  This  quality  of  matter  is  called  th« 
capacity  of  bmlies  for  heat,  and  the  quantity  of  heal 
which  is  neccRsory  to  raise  any  j  articular  body  to  a  cer- 
tain temperature,  is  called  its  spniftc  caloric.  Heat, 
however,  in  some  cases  causes  contraction  imtead  of 
expansion.  Thus  water  is  of  greater  bulk  at  a  tern- 
peiature  of  .S2°  (the  freezing  point)  than  if  is  at  80^° 
Some  solids,  also,  as  iron,  antimony,  bismuth,  and  many 
siiItH,  contract  when  melted  and  expand  as  they  become 
solid. 

Vapmizalinn  is  the  rapid  prodr.cfion  of  a  thin  vapour, 
as  when  water  is  converted  into  rteam.  The  boiling  point 
of  water,  in  a  vessel  exposed  to  the  ordinary  atmospheric 
pressure,  is  212°,  and  although  more  heat  lie  ajiplicd  to 
the  vessel  in  which  it  is  contained,  the  tem|)eraturc  of 
the  water  is  not  increased.  If  this  degree  of  heat  be 
continued,  the  watery  particles  separate  from  each  other 
and  become  steam  or  vapour.  Steam  is  colourless,  trans- 
parent, and  invisible,  resembling  the  atmosphere,  and  ia 
l(i9()  times  greater  in  bulk  than  water.  Steam  may  lie 
condensed,  or  its  particles  brought  nearer  to  each  other, 
either  by  removing  the  heat  which  is  the  cause  of  the 
repulsion,  or  by  mechanical  pressure,  and  the  result  is  its 
return  to  the  form  of  wafer. 

Wat<'r  can  be  made  to  boil  at  a  lower  temperati.'f 
than  212°  by  removing  the  pressure  of  the  air.  If  a 
flask  Ih-  half  filled  with  water,  the  water  made  to  bnil,  and 
as  the  steam  esca|>es,  a  cork  be  put  into  the  mouth  of  the 
flask,  upon  the  heat  being  removed,  the  water  will  con- 
tinue to  boil,  the  heat  in  it  being  sufficient  for  tluit  pur- 
|)Ose  when  there  is  no  pressure  from  the  air.  If  the  flatk 
Is-  put  into  cold  water,  the  boiling  will  increase,  from  the 
steam  's^ng  more  eflectually  condensed ;  whereas,  if 
the  flask  be  put  into  bniliiiK  water,  «>  as  to  prevent  Ihf 
condensation  of  the  steam,  the  eliiillition  will  immedi- 
ately cease.  Steam,  as  is  well  known,  from  its  grpjl 
force,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  can  1m'  a|)plied  to  pro 
(wiling  machinery,  is  of  tho  greatest  usefulness  in  manu- 
factures. 

Dixitlhilinn  is  the  converting  of  a  liijuid  into  vapour, 
whiih  is  nfienvards  carried  olV  through  a  \n\tc  and  con- 
denw-d  in  what  is  called  a  refrigerator.  This  is  a  vessel 
filled  with  cold  water,  round  tin-  inside  of  which  the  pipe 
is  wound  ;  and  as  the  vapour  passes  thr(Uii;h  the  pi()o,  it 
is  comlensed  by  the  lower  tenii«'rature  of  the  water  in  the 
vessel. 

Liquid  substances  give  oflT  vapour  from  their  surface 
at  tcnqs'ratures  below  the  boiling-point,  which  is  termed 
rfi>iii'!iil\"ii.  It  is  culled  s|Nintarie<>us  eviiporation  when 
Ibis  lakes  place  at  the  ordinary  teinperalure  of  the  atnio 
sphere.  \  large  (|uaiilily  of  vapour  is  given  oflttom  the 
surface  of  the  earth  and  s«'a,  which  eventually  fo'iiiseloudi, 
or  is  condensed  into  rain  and  dew.  Evaporation  ulwayi 
pioduccs  cold  when  bent  is  not  applied;  the  bi'at  niros- 
ssiry  for  it  being  derived  from  surrounding  objects.  Acut- 
renl  of  air  or  a  higher  ti'in|K'ruture  tends  greatly  to  (jiiickfn 
evn|K>rulion,  os  may  l>c  oliserved  in  the  rapidity  with 
which  the  stitfacc  of  tlu*  earth  dries  when  a  hriitk  wiii> 
passes  over  it 


,,^>,v,'  <4  CHEMISTRY. 


■'  vri.'! 


«»"■ 


Ml  nubManrcfi  broome  luminniiR  whrn  hcntod  to  800° 
In  tlie  dark  and  1000"  in  daylight,  unless  they  are  con- 
vertfd  into  vnpour  nt  a  Icbs  elevated  temperature.  The 
light  \»  red  at  firHt,  and  in  this  state  a  body  is  said  to  he 
in  a  state  of  igiiitinn.  If  more  heat  ii  applied,  the  body 
becomes  wliitc,  when  it  is  said  to  be  inrnndcsceiil. 

When  a  body  rlmngcs  from  the  solid  to  the  fluid  state, 
there  is  a  qu:mtity  of  licnt  absorbed,  which  has  no  effect 
in  raising  the  temperature.  This  has  been  called  I'llent 
heat,  a  dincovery  elTocted  by  Dr.  Black,  and  which  we 
■hall  Xiortly  explain.  For  a  demonstration  of  this  doc- 
trine, we  may  have  recourse  to  water.  If  ice  at  a  tcni- 
ncraturc  below  32°  be  exposed  to  a  warmer  atmosphere, 
it  receives  enloric,  and  ^raduiilly  rises  to  that  point  of  the 
thcrmomctrical  sciile.  Dut  as  soon  as  it  reaches  it,  the 
rise  of  teinperaturo  ceases,  the  ice  begins  to  melt,  and 
during  the  whole  period  of  its  liquefaction,  its  tempera- 
ture, as  also  that  of  the  watt-r  flowing  from  it,  remains 
itationary  at  32°.  It  is  evident  that,  as  caloric  has  con- 
tinued to  be  communicated,  a  quantity  of  it  h.is  disap- 
iiearcd,  and  become  alworlwd  during  the  fusion.  The 
lame  phenomenon  takes  place  when  a  liqviid  is  con- 
verted intova|)our;  and  the  inference  drawn  from  it  is, 
that  when  a  boily  jiasHes  from  one  slate  into  another,  a 
quantity  of  heat  nr  caloric  is  lost,  becomes  latent,  or 
passes  into  the  body  .vitliout  raising  its  tcm(X!rature.  D.-. 
Black  was  ■>(  opiniciii  that  this  latent  hcut  bncamc  chemi- 
cally combined  with  the  solid,  and  wan  the  cause  of  flu- 
iilitv.  Pi.  Irvine,  his  pupil,  took  a  dillerent  view  of  the 
BubjccL  He  suppo^icd  that  the  absorption  of  heat  into 
the  latent  state  is  not  the  cause  of  lii|Ucfactioii  and  vapo- 
riiatioi>,  but  the  elVect.  'I'lie  absorption  he  attributed  to 
what  >«  called  cliiinf^e  of  capacity  for  heat,  or  that  quality 
of  matter  which  causes  one  kind  to  be  more  or  less  heated 
tiian  another,  by  the  adilition  of  the  same  quantity  of 
heat.  He  concluded,  as  a  geniTal  law,  that  the  capacity 
of  all  solids  for  heat  i-i  incrcsA-vd  by  fusion,  and  that  of 
all  fluids  by  evapori.'.alion.  It  is  impossible  to  enter 
further  into  this  inlenstiiiir  subject  at  present;  but,  before 
quitting  it,  we  may  mi'iition  an  exception  to  the  law  of 
expansion  by  heat  in  the  case  of  water.  It  is  well  known 
that  water  freezes  at  '.Vi".  but  it  dcx's  not  increase  in  den- 
sity below  39i°.  It  is  then  at  this  maximum,  and  above 
or  bi'Imv  that  point  its  diusity  diminishes.  Hence  ice  is 
upocilically  lii-'hter.  The  eartli  alumina,  which  will  be 
«fterwards  descrilx'd.  also  possesses  the  remarkable  pro- 
perty of  being  coiitnicted  by  hcaU 

LIOHT. 

The  nature  of  liHht.likr  that  of  he.at,  is  still  unknown 
to  us.  There  are  two  theories  respecting  it:  the  first  is, 
tiiat  light  is  a  snbslaiM'e  enianuling  trom  the  sun  and 
from  all  luminous  bmlies.  from  which  it  is  projected  in 
riijht  lines  with  preat  velocity ;  the  second  is,  that  the 
Boiisation  of  light  is  produced  by  the  vibration  of  a  subtile 
fluid  filling  spare — and  is  hence  called  the  undnlatory 
llieory.  Luininiuis  IkmIIcs,  ai'cording  to  this  view  of 
things,  are  merely  stimuli,  which  excite  these  vibrations. 
An  examination  of  tlie^c  theories,  however,  cannot  U- 
here  entered  into.  The  connei'lion  between  light  and 
heat  is  so  obvious,  that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  examine 
tJie  one  indi'pciidciiily  of  the  other.  If  a  mass  of  iron 
be  put  into  a  fire  for  some  time,  no  change  is  produced 
except  the  expainioii  of  the  niet.il  and  the  elevatiim  of 
its  lem[H'rature.  (inulnally,  however,  as  the  heat  is  com- 
niuni<'ateil,  a  remarkalile  ixrurrence  will  be  observed. 
The  iron  Ismmuics  ignited  or  red  hot;  in  other  words,  it 
emits  light,  anil  renders  objects  visible.  The  original 
sources  of  light  ire,  first,  the  celestial  Ixxiies,  as  the  sun 
and  stars;  ami,  secondly,  terrestrial  Ixxiies,  as  a  common 
file  or  candle.  Light  passes  freely  through  the  atino- 
Iphere,  and,  striking  ui«)n  objects,  is  n'fiectcd  or  thrown 


into  seven  colours,  which  are  violet,  iiidig.i,  blue,  green, 
yellow,  orange,  and  red.  But  it  is  only  with  the  chemi* 
cal  agency  of  light  that  we  have  to  do.  Its  influence  in 
this  way  is  conspicuous  in  a  variety  of  natural  and  artifi- 
cial processes.  In  vegetation  it  is  indispensable,  as  without 
it  plants  do  not  acquire  their  due  elementary  constitution. 
They  are  weakly,  inodorous,  and  fail  to  exhibit  their 
natural  colour.  Vegetables  which  grow  in  the  dark  have 
a  blanched  appearance.  The  power  of  light  to  dispel 
vegetable  colours  is  manifest  in  bleaching,  where  a  dingy 
web  becomes  pure  and  white  by  exi)08uro  to  the  sun's 
rays.  Its  energy  is  still  more  decisively  seen  in  the  influ- 
ence which  it  exerts  in  promoting  chemical  combination 
and  decomposition,  and  the  latter  cflcct  has  been  made 
use  of  as  u  measure  of  its  power.  Light  enters  into  a 
kind  of  transitory  union  with  certain  substances,  render- 
ing them  visible  in  the  dark.  Bodies  which  possess  this 
property  are  called  phosphorescent ;  such  are  the  shell* 
of  fish,  the  bones  of  land  animals,  marble,  limestone, 
and  the  like.  The  glow-worm  is  a  remarkable  instance 
of  phosphorescence  in  living  animals. 

A  remarkable  recent  invention,  the  Daguerreotype,  is 
wholly  dependent  for  success  upon  the  action  of  light 
It  consists  in  having  a  thin  plate  of  silver,  prepared  with 
iodine,  so  placed  that  the  rays  of  light  reflected  from  an 
object  to  be  sketched  will  fall  upon  it-  'I'his  is  done  by 
putting  the  plate  in  a  camera-lucida,  and  the  action  of 
the  light  upon  the  iodine  and  silver  is  such,  that  when 
the  plate  is  subjected  to  the  vapour  of  mercury  a  com- 
plete representation  of  the  object  is  given.  A  beautiful 
illustration  of  the  action  of  light  may  also  be  seen  in 
photogenic  drawing.  Paper  lor  this  purpose  is  prepared 
by  steeping  it  in  a  weak  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  or 
biehromcte  of  potassa.  The  paper  must  be  kept  from  the 
light  during  the  preparation ;  and  if  it  is  now  exposed  to 
the  sun's  rays  with  a  leaf  or  other  object  upon  it,  a  com- 
plete representation  of  the  object  will  be  obtained.  The 
part  exposed  to  tlie  sun  bccoinus  darkened,  while  that 
covered  by  the  leaf  reinains  of  a  light  colour. 

For  a  further  definition  of  the  principles  of  light,  we 
refer  to  the  article  Optics. 

COMBUSTION. 
Combustion  is  a  process  not  yet  perfectly  understood. 
It  is  usually  described  as  the  union  of  a  lombustible  body 
with  a  supi>ort%  of  contbtistioii,  attended  with  the  evolu- 
tion of  lifiht  and  heal.  The  combustible  bo<iy  is  that 
which  burns,  but,  in  general,  will  neither  support  com- 
bustion, nor  burn  except  in  llie  presence  of  a  supporter 
of  combustion.  The  supporter,  again,  docs  not  itself 
I)nrn,  though  necessary  to  the  burning  of  a  combustible. 
Oxygen  gas,  the  ingredient  which  enables  the  air  to  sup- 
port combustion,  possesses,  when  pure,  a  high  degree  of 
the  supporting  quality.  If  a  lighted  tapt^r,  a  combusti- 
ble body,  be  plunged  into  this  gas,  the  taper  bums 
vividly,  but  the  gas  itself  is  not  ignited.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  taper  bo  plunged  into  a  •.•ombustible  gas,  such 
as  pure  coal  gas,  the  gas  is  insttnitly  ignited,  but  the 
tajwr  is  extinguished.  These  are  general  rules,  relating 
to  supporters  of  combustion  and  combustible  bodies.  By 
examining  the  elfects  of  combustion,  in  tlie  case  of  a 
candle  burning  in  the  air  of  the  ntniosphere,  it  has  been 
proved  pretty  clearly  that  a  chemical  action  of  the  fol- 
lowing kind  takes  place : — The  combustible  matter  of  the 
cimlle  consists  chiefly  of  two  simple  bo(li<js,  hydrogen 
gas  and  carbon,  while  oxygen  is  the  supporter  of  combu* 
tiou  in  the  air.  On  burning  a  candle  under  a  bell-shaped 
glass,  filled  with  common  air,  a  fluid  i;athcrs  on  the  glass, 
which  proves,  on  examination,  to  bo  pure  water.  The 
hydriigen  of  the  burning  body  has  here  entered  into 
coniliiiialion  with  part  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  form* 
ing  water,  a  compound  of  the  two.     The  carbon  ot  the 


back  by  them;  and  thus  they  liecoino  visible.    By  means  j  burning  body  also  enters  into  uiiion  with  a  portion  of 
of  a  wed;rc  of  ylass  called  u  prism,  light  can  be  separated    the  atjuospheric  oxygen,  forming  i  arbiinic  ai  id  gas,  v  "lich 
Vot.  I.— 28  T 


fllS 


INrORMATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


i|  left  floating  in  place  of  tlie  original  quantity  of  oxygen. 
The  pretence  of  these  ran  be  provrd,  and  the  itanie  pro- 
eeaa  taliea  place  in  the  case  of  coal,  wood,  Sic.  Thus  it 
w  leen  that  combustion  only  changes  the  fonns  of  the 
tnimed  bodies,  and  does  not  annihilate  thera.  Plants, 
moreover,  will'  aoon  extract  the  carbon  again  from  the 
carbonic  acid,  and  the  hydrogen  from  the  water,  leaving 
the  oxygen  once  more  in  the  atmosphere  to  support  com- 
bustion, and  fulfil  its  other  uses ;  while  the  other  princi- 
|de*  render  wood  combuBtiblo  anew.  This  round  of 
changes  goes  on  unceasingly,  without  any  ingredient 
being  destroyed. 

The  phenomena  of  combustion  are  thus  so  far  explica- 
ble, but  unfortunately  the  source  of  the  li^ht  and  lical  yet 
remains  a  mystery.  It  is  unknown  whether  the  chemical 
action  is  the  cause  of  the  light  and  heat  t)cing  evolved,  or 
the  evolution  of  these  the  cause  of  the  chemical  action. 
Where  all  is  doubt,  it  would  bo  vain  to  dwell  on  this 
point.  The  laws  stated  respecting  combustible  bodies, 
and  supporters  of  combustion,  only  apply  generally,  it  is 
also  to  be  obsen'ed,  and  under  onlinary  circumstances. 
Under  the  oxy-hydrogen  blowpipe,  the  most  incombusti- 
ble bodies  can  be  made  combustible ;  and  combustion  can 
be  shown  to  take  pjac^;  under  an  exhausted  receiver,  witli- 
out  the  presence  of  any  supporter,  at  least  of  a  gaseous 
kiml.  We  must  wait  in  patience  for  a  solution  of  these 
difliculties,  until  the  genius  of  man  has  discovered  more 
delicate  instruments  of  philosophical  investigation  tlian 
any  with  which  we  arc  as  yet  acquainted. 

AIR   AND   WATER. 

Mr. — By  the  examinations  of  mmlcm  chemists,  it  has 
been  shown  that  air  is  not  an  element,  but  is  a  compound 
body,  consisting  chiefly  of  two  gases,  oxygen  and  nitro- 
gen. It  also  appears  that  the  oxygen  is  the  really  active 
agent  in  relation  to  animal  respiration,  and  that  the  nitro- 
gen is  a  mere  diluent  in  the  mass,  on  the  same  princi- 
ple as  water  may  l)e  made  a  diluent  of  spirits.  We 
Bubjoin  the  exposition  of  Mr.  Hugo  Reid  (^Chctnistry  of 
Science  and  Jirt)  on  this  subject: — "The  air  consists 
mainly  of  nitrogen  and  oxygen,  in  the  proportion,  if 
Iheae  ingredients  are  alone  regarded,  of 

Uy  mnssure.  By  wpighL 

Oxygen,        •        -  210  231 

Nitrogen,  •        •        790  760 

1000  looe 

It  alio  contains,  as  constant  ingredients  in  every  situa- 
tion, a  little  carlwnic  arid  gas  and  vafwur  of  water.  In 
volume,  the  carJKinic  acid  forms  alxjut  1 -2000th  part;  or 
0>5  parts  in  1000  by  measure;  which  is  equal  to  0'7.^ 
peits  in  1000  by  weight  In  some  situations  the  car- 
bonic acid  is  so  much  as  0-02  volumes  in  1000 — at  other 
places,  only  0-37  volumes  in  1000.  Its  proportion  is 
greater  in  summer  than  in  winter,  during  night  than  in 
the  day  time,  in  elevated  situations  than  on  the  plains. 
The  watery  vapour  is  more  variable  in  proportion.  The 
mean  is  supposed  to  be  altout  10  parts  in  1000  by  weight, 
15  by  volume.  The  quantity  js  determined  by  the  t»'ni- 
Derature,  heat  Iteing  the  sole  cauxe  which  sustains  the 
vapour  in  the  aerial  state.  The  various  methods  of  ana- 
lyzing atmospheric  air  proceed  upon  the  princi[)le  of 
withdrawing  the  oxygen.  This  may  bo  done  by  a  stick 
of  jihosphorus  suspended  over  wati-r  or  mercury  in  a  jar 
of  air;  or,  whid;  is  the  In'st  motle,  by  the  combustion  of 
hydrogen  mixwi  with  llie  air  to  be  examined.  The  pre- 
•ence  of  carlnmir  acid  iras  is  shnwii  by  auitaling  a  quantity 
nf*sir  witli  lime-waler.  7'he  ciiiboiiir  arid  and  lime 
unite,  ntul  torn)  the  itis<  'ulile  rarlH)nate  of  lime,  which, 
dillusi'il  through  the  liquid,  renders  it  milky  and  opaqiie. 
tin  eipojiiiig  to  the  air  a  saucer  of  lime-water,  a  thin 
enjst  or  [H  llicie  of  cnrlxiiiate  of  lltne  will  be  Ko<m  found 
on  ttie  Hurfiii  e  of  the  liquid,  tiirmed  in  the  same  manner. 
Th>-  </uajility  of  curluiiic  acid  may  be  judged  of  by  pass- 


ing a  little  solution  Af  caustic  potash  into  a  vessel  of  iJi 
over  mercury,  and  observing  how  much  of  the  gas  b 
withdrawn,  this  substance  removing  the  carbonic  ocid 
or,  by  adding  water  of  baryta  gradually  to  a  large  quanlili 
of  air  in  a  bottle,  and  agitating,  'i'hc  carlionic  acid  rieii. 
tralizos  the  baryta;  and  the  liquid  is  added  until  there  if 
a  slight  excess  of  baryta,  as  indicated  by  a  slip  of  turtncrn 
pap«'r  lieing  now  rendered  brown  by  it.  The  liijuld 
added  previously  has  exactly  neutralized  the  carboijic 
acid ;  and  in  doing  so  has  combined  with  an  equiv.> 
lent  proportion  of  that  substance,  the  quantity  of  whiclj 
is  thus  indicated.  The  presence  of  watery  vapour  in  tlio 
air  may  l)e  demonstrated  by  exposing  chloride  of  calcium 
or  caustic  potash.  It  absorbs  the  moisture,  melts,  and  is 
found  to  have  increased  in  weight.  Strong  sulphuric 
acid  abstracts  the  moisture  from  air,  increasing  in  bulk 
and  becoming  weaker.  The  dcwpoint  hygrometer  aluc 
indicates  the  presence  of  moisture  in  air,  and  points  out 
the  precise  quantity.  The  four  bodies  which  enter  into 
the  composition  of  the  air  are  regarded  as  mechanically 
mixed,  not  chemically  combined  with  each  other.  It  in 
known  from  the  nature  of  aerial  bo<lie8  that  they  wquIJ 
mix  thus,  though  rot  combined — that  they  would  not 
separate  and  arrange  themselves  according  to  their  respec- 
tive s|H>cifie  gravities — but  would  each  be  difTused  through 
the  whole  space  to  which  it  had  access.  The  only  two 
likely  to  bo  chemically  combined  are  the  nitrogen  and 
oxygen ;  and  the  great  facility  with  which  the  oxygen  is 
separated  from  the  nitrogen,  oswell  as  not  being  in  cquiva. 
lent  proportions,  shows  that  they  are  not  in  close  cheniicul 
union.  The  oxygen  is  the  chief  agent  in  the  imporlaiii 
o|>eration  of  breathing  or  respiration  of  animals.  Each 
individual  is  supposed,  on  an  average,  to  breathe  about 
twenty  times  every  minute — to  take  in  about  sixteen  cubic 
inches  of  air  (12-8  nitrogen  -(-  3-2  oxygon)  at  each  inspj. 
ration — to  return  nearly  the  whole  of  the  nitrogen  (12.8 
cubic  inches),  and  4'5ths  of  the  oxygen  (2-56  cubic  inches), 
and  to  replace  the  remaining  5th  of  oxygen  by  an  equal 
volume  of  carl>onic  acid  ('64  cubic  inch)."  The  oxy;,-™ 
of  the  air  is  the  great  means  of  procuring  heat  and  light, 
by  its  action  with  combustible  bodies. 

Wattr. — Water  was  also  at  one  period  believed  to  be 
a  simple  clement  in  nature;  but  this  supposition  has 
given  way  before  the  examination  of  chemists.  Watt-r 
is  now  known  to  be  composed  of  oxygen  with  hydroi;rii 
gas,  in  the  relative  proportions  of  8  of  oxygen  to  1  of 
hydrogen.  Into  these  substances  can  it  be  resolved  liy 
the  action  of  electricity  or  fire,  but  at  such  a  cost  as  to 
render  the  process  unsuitable  for  economic  purpose* 
Pure  water,  in  chemistry,  is  called  un  oxide  of  hydrogori. 
It  may  be  formed  by  exploding  a  mixture  i)f  oxygen  anJ 
hydrogen  in  a  tulw  by  the  energy  of  eli  tricity.  Sea- 
water  (si>e  article  Ockaji)  contains,  in  1000  parts,  about 
4f)  of  foreign  mattiTs,  chiefly  chloride  of  sodium.  Its  i\v- 
cific  gravity  is  1'027.*  Mineral  waters,  in  a  similar 
manner,  contain  various  foreign  bodies ;  as,  for  exampte. 


•  Sfxrifie  Gravity  is  the  relative  gravity  or  weight  of  any  boilf 
or  suhRtnnce,  compared  with  Ijial  of  some  other  body  whicn 
him  lieen  fixed  upon  as  a  siniidard.  Ily  uiiivernnl  roimeal,  pure 
clialilled  water  has  lieen  asuumi'd  ns  r  Biundnrd  ;  Slid  it  foriiv 
nntely  happens  that  a  cubic  fool  of  pure  wuler  wui)ihi  emctly 
llXHIonncef  avoirdujiois.  Water  i«  indicated  by  unily— Ihiis, 
1.  When,  therefore,  11  ia  expressed  thai  any  body  ha*  n  ipecitc 
(frnvily  of  a.  then,  bulk  for  bulk,  it  is  junt  twice  Ihe  weight  of 
wuliT.  If  there  be  more  fignren  ihiin  one,  and  there  t«  a  kl 
or  point  helvveeri  them— thus.  25— Ihe  unit  is  here  divined  inlc 
ten  parts,  and  the  body  ia  twice  and  five-tenili  linien.  or  iwomid 
n  half  limes,  heavier  thun  wilier.  If  two  fi|rnris  ocnTr— !lio!, 
1(1  ,((1 — ilie  unit  is  mpposed  to  be  divided  into  u  huiiilnd  par'!. 
and  Ihe  b<«lv  is  ten  and  foriy-linndredili  pan  l;ine«  heavier  ilian 
wilier.  If  ihere  are  lliree  (inures,  ihe  unit  is  aupiKiX'd  to Ic 
divided  inio  a  lliounaml  parii';  if  four,  into  ten  llioiisnnd  piirn. 
End  »o  on  ;  ihe  nninler  iind  viiliir  of  llir  (iuureii  iilwnyi  iiid- 
eaiiiiK  Ihe  exact  specfic  (,'riivily  of  ihe  body  nreoriliiig  lo  ili« 
above  principle,  roinnion  air  i"  •onieiinna  taken  as  n  aiBiKlurd 
Willi  whirh  lo  eonipure  frnnes.  n*  in  Ihi  instaiiei'n  nieniioiied  i. 
the  lexl.  Il  is  a  siinpler  nnd  more  inielliijible  way  of  eonip»ri< 
Ihe  relniive  \ve;)fhi«  or  deim  lie»  of  iit'fiul  siibiliiiieev.  Iluui 
tlie  aolidt  and  fluids  are  csiinialcd  wilh  re);nid  I    wHUt 


eaifwaMed ' 
reous  watei 
chalybeate  ' 
«if  iron.  M 
onion  of  tht 
dianical  mis 
be  removed 
distillation  ai 
pure  liquid. 
When  it  con 
to  lie  haril,  a 
which  is  em{ 


Acids  are 

pojnds  and  I 

—The  great! 

ire  very  corri 

vegetable  blui 

and  they  uni 

oxides,  formin 

of  the  highest 

Some  acids  an 

for  the  three  c 

choracteristic. 

of  them  have  i 

8  numlier  of  \ 

rfinll  be  imiiied 

The  acid  is  di 

its  degree  of  o] 

contains,  by  fhi 

the  prefix  In/pn 

ation  is  marked 

the  salt  which  i 

ate:  the  next  b 

which  is  formed 

the  lowest  by  Ai 

oxygen  combin 

•ble  radicals,  in 

pcroxygenated. 

various  degrees 

only  one.     Tht 

and  the  numlier 

of  new  ones ; 

and  these  we 

bases. 


Tin's  term  „. 
com()ound,  in  di 
alkali,  earth,  or 
of  the  constituer 
stance  does  not 
red  cabbage,  it 
peculiar  powers 
ccaled;  they  an 
bodies  combine 
affinities,  they  i 
the  predominanc 
infusions,  the  sa 
tvpcr  or  III,  is  us 
the  contrary,  the 
quantity  necessa 
basic,  the  salt  is  t 
the  prefix  tub  is 
nnderstood.  how- 
excejitions  to  be 
compounds  form 
or  a  metallic  ox 
certain   suit   font 
•ciil  lie  perfectly 
•  salt  formed  by 
of  an  alkali,  in 
(loublc  proportior 


CHEMISTRY. 


m- 


tarimBkied  waten,  whi:h  contain  carbonic  acid;  snlphu- 
reoux  vratera,  whicli  Jioid  lulphureted  hydrogen ;  and 
chalybeate  waters,  which  contain  sulphate  or  carbonate 
(if  iron.  'W'aior  may  be  impure,  either  by  the  chemical 
qnion  of  these  and  other  foreign  bodies,  or  by  the  mc- 
diani<'Hl  mixture  of  substances.  The  latter  may  generally 
be  removed  by  filtration,  but  when  the  union  is  chcmioul, 
distillutinn  and  other  processes  are  requisite  to  produce  a 
pure  li(|uid.  In  nature,  water  is  never  altogether  pure. 
When  it  contains  a  chemical  compound  of  lime,  it  is  said 
to  \k  hnrd,  and  in  this  condition  it  decomposes  the  soap 
which  is  employed  with  it. 

ACID8. 
Acids  are  a  most  important  class  of  chemical  com- 
po  in.ls  and  have  the  following  characteristic  properties : 
—The  greater  number  of  them  have  a  sour  taste,  and 
tre  very  corrosive.  With  few  exceptions,  they  change 
TCgclablo  blues  to  red,  they  are  mostly  soluble  in  water, 
and  tlioy  unite  with  the  alkalies,  earths,  and  metallic 
oxides,  forming  what  are  called  salts — an  order  of  bodies 
of  the  highest  importance  in  the  arts,  manufactures,  &c. 
Some  nrids  are  destitute  of  a  sour  taste,  but  their  aflinlty 
for  the  three  classes  of  bodies  above  named  is  a  universal 
characteristic.  Acids  are  all  compound  bodies,  and  some 
of  thi-m  have  more  than  one  basis  or  radicdl.  There  arc 
a  nunil)cr  of  acidifying  principles,  but  oxygen  (which 
dinll  1)0  immediately  described)  is  the  most  extensive  one. 
The  acid  is  distinguished  by  the  name  of  its  base,  and 
its  degree  of  oxidation,  that  is,  the  quantity  of  oxygen  it 
contains,  by  the  termination  of  that  name  in  mis  or  I'c,  or 
Ihe  prefix  lii/p"  (under).  The  highest  degree  of  oxygcn- 
Btion  is  markril  by  the  termination  ic,  as  nitric  arid,  and 
the  sail  which  is  formed  from  it  is  made  to  terminate  in 
cite:  the  next  by  that  of  oti»,  as  nitrons  acid,  and  the  salt 
which  is  formed  from  it  is  mode  to  terminate  in  ile ;  and 
(be  lowest  by  hypo,  as  the  hyponitrous  acid.  Sometimes 
oxygon  combines  in  a  greater  quantity  with  the  aoidifi- 
»ble  radicals,  in  which  case  the  product  is  said  to  be  su- 
pcroxvgenated.  All  acids  are  not  susceptible  of  these 
various  degrees  of  oxygenation,  some  being  limited  to 
only  one.  There  are  a  considerable  number  of  acids, 
and  the  numlwr  is  continually  increasing  by  the  discovery 
of  now  ones ;  but  of  the  most  important  there  are  few, 
and  these  we  shall  notice  as  we  come  to  treat  of  their 
bases. 

SALTS. 

This  term  has  been  usually  employed  to  denote  a 
com|)ound,  in  definite  proportions,  of  acid  matter  with  on 
alkali,  earth,  or  metallic  oxide.  When  the  proportions 
of  the  constituents  are  so  adjusted  that  the  resulting  sul>- 
stanco  does  not  alToct  the  colour  of  infusion  of  litmus  or 
red  cabbage,  it  is  then  called  a  neutral  salt,  because  the 
peculiar  powers  of  both  bodies  are  suspended  and  con- 
cealed; they  are  rendered  neutral  or  inactive.  When 
bodies  combine  in  such  a  way  as  to  satisfy  their  mutual 
affinities,  they  are  said  to  lalurale  each  other.  When 
the  predominance  of  acid  is  evinced  by  the  red  of  these 
infusions,  the  salt  is  said  to  Iw  acidulous,  and  the  prefix 
iti;)cr  or  In,  is  used  to  indicate  this  excess  of  acid.  If,  on 
the  cDiitrary,  the  acid  matter  is  deficient,  or  short  of  the 
quantity  necessary  for  neutraliwng  the  alkalinity  of  the 
baiic,  the  salt  is  then  said  to  be  with  excess  of  base,  and 
the  prefix  sub  is  attached  to  its  name.  Those  must !« 
niidiTstoinl,  however,  only  as  general  rules.  There  are 
exccfitions  to  be  found  in  the  case  of  some  salts,  as  the 
com|'ound!<  formed  by  an  acid  and  an  alkali,  an  earth, 
or  a  metallio  oxide,  are  denominated.  For  example,  a 
certain  salt  formed  by  nitric  aeid  and  lead,  though  the 
acid  tie  iK'rfootly  neutrnlized,  reddens  vegeliible  blues;  and 
a  salt  formed  by  boraeic  aeld  with  »x!a  retains  the  powers 
of  an  alkali,  in  the  resjX'ct  in  qui.stion,  though  with  a 
double  proportion  of  acid  in  it 


MCTALS,  OXIDES,    BAKTnS,   AND  ALCALIXB. 

We  arrange  these  classes  of  substances  together,  fa*, 
cause,  although  they  ore  to  a  certain  extent  distinct,  ynl 
they  have  all  a  very  remarkable  relationship  as  we  aliall 
shortly  see.  ♦■ 

Many  of  the  metals,  such  as  iron,  lead,  Ac,  are  fami- 
liarly known  to  every  one,  but  there  arc  a  great  many 
others  which  are  very  rarely  to  bo  met  with.  The  fol- 
lowing are  some  of  the  characters  which  distinguish  me- 
tals from  other  bodies : — ITiey  ore,  for  the  most  part,  hard 
and  heavy,  and  are  all  opaque ;  insoluble  in  water ;  they 
possess  a  peculiar  lustre ;  admit  of  being  so  highly  po- 
lished as  to  reflect  light ;  are  capable  of  being  melted  by 
heat,  and  recovering  their  solidity  by  cooling;  most  of 
them  may  be  extended  by  hammering,  and  all  are  rapid 
conductors  of  electricity.  They  arc  of  various  colours, 
and  require  different  degrees  of  ^eat  to  fuse  or  melt  them. 
They  generally  occur  in  the  earth  in  what  are  called 
veins,  and  are  seldom  found  in  the  pure  metallic  itim, 
but  generally  in  combination  with  some  other  substance, 
in  which  state  they  are  called  ores.  The  metals,  which 
are  all  simple  bodies,  will  be  individually  described  after- 
wards. 

Most  metals,  when  subjected  to  heat  until  they  become 
melted,  combine  with  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere,  and 
form  what  are  called  nridcs.  Oxides  are  destitute  of  those 
properties  which  distinguish  the  metal  from  which  they 
are  formed.  Instead  of  being  bright,  shining,  elastic,  and 
ductile  substances,  they  are  generally  a  dry,  earthy-look- 
ing powder.  Other  substances  besides  metals,  however, 
arc  capable  of  being  converted  into  oxides ;  and  it  must 
be  kept  distinctly  in  view,  that  in  every  case  there  is  not 
so  much  oxygen  imparted  as  will  produce  aridificatiov. 
Oxygen  frequently  combines  in  various  proportions  with 
a  substance,  rendering  it  an  oxide,  but  without  advancing 
it  to  the  state  of  an  acid.  In  order  to  distinguish  each 
compound  thus  formed,  the  language  of  chemistry  is  very 
systematic.  The  first  is  called  a  protoxide ;  the  second, 
a  deutoxide ;  and  a  third,  a  paroxide. 

The  term  Earths  was  fonnerly,  and  is  still,  but  in  a 
modified  sense,  applied  to  several  substances  which  com- 
pose all  the  various  rocks,  stones,  gems,  mountains,  and 
soils,  covering  the  surface  of  the  globe.  They  are  taste- 
less, inodorous,  dry,  uninflammable,  sparingly  soluble, 
difficult  of  fusion,  and  of  moderate  specific  gravity. 
These  bodies  will  be  more  particularly  described  when 
we  come  to  treat  of  their  metallic  bases.  Mkalies  may 
be  defined  as  lioilies  which  combine  with  acids  so  as  to 
impair  or  neutralize  their  activity,  and  pro<1uce  what  are 
called  spUs  They  are  distinguished  by  properties  the 
reverse  of  acids,  and  the  two  classes  are  generally  lookeu 
upon  as  antagonist  substances.  Besides  the  power  of 
neutralizing  acids,  there  arc  four  alkalies,  namely,  potash, 
soda,  ammonia,  and  lilhia,  which  possess  the  following 
properties  in  a  high  degree: — They  change  vegetable 
blue  to  green,  red  lo  purple,  and  yellow  to  a  reddish 
brown ;  they  have  an  acrid  and  urinous  taste ;  they  are 
powerful  corrosives  of  animal  matter,  with  which  they 
combine  so  as  to  produce  neutrality ;  they  also  unite 
with  oils  and  fats,  forming  the  well-known  substance  soap ; 
they  combine  with  water  and  alcohol  in  any  proportion. 
Four  of  the  earths,  namely,  lime,  baryta,  strontia,  and 
magnesia,  possess  alkaline  properties  to  a  considen.hle 
extent,  and  are  hence  called  alkaline  earths.  These  bo- 
dies ditler  from  the  pure  alkalies,  inasmuch  as  they  b»- 
cimie  insoluble  in  water  when  nontralized  by  carbonic 
lu'id.  Miireovcr,  alkalies  ijos-m'ss  the  power  of  changing 
vegetable  colours  iiflcr  being  saturated  with  oarbonic  Kciil, 
and  by  this  criterion  they  are  distinguished  from  tk« 
alkaline  earths. 

It  was  long  observed  that  the  properties  of  earths  ve"y 

nearly  re«enible  those  of  the  compounds  of  oxygon  and 

I  metals  called  DiCtallic  oxides;  but  it  remain  d  fot   tn* 


INFORMATION  TOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


brilliant  ucnirjs  of  Sir  Humphry  Davy  to  show  that  Doth 
the  earthH  and  alkalies  are  metallic  oxide*  It  thua  ap- 
pears, then,  that  the  globe  ii  one  vast  rcasa  of  various 
Kinds  of  mi'tals,  disKuised  by  various  substances,  but 
chiefly  by  oxygen.  Earths  and  alkalies  are  simply  me- 
tallic oxides ;  whilst  a  farther  impregnation  of  these  sub- 
stances with  oxygon  produces  an  acid ;  and,  lastly,  the 
uuion  of  acids  with  alkalies,  ice.,  gives  rise  to  that  very 
numerous  and  important  class  of  substances  called  salts. 
Of  the  elemental  substances  at  present  known,  six 
■cem  capable  of  combining  with  all  the  others.  When 
combined  with  a  certain  portion  of  the  other  simple  bo- 
dies, they  form  ariih ;  and  when  with  the  rest,  they  con- 
stitute bdief  or  alkiiliiie  boilxtt,  which  are  cajiable  of 
uniting  with  and  neutralizing  the  acids,  as  wo  have 
formerly  observed.  To  these  six  bodies  the  name  of 
Mupporlers  of  comhutiiun  has  been  given.  The  eighteen 
bodies,  which,  when  combined  with  the  supporters,  \ie- 
Mme  acids,  have  been  distinguished  by  the  name  of  ari- 
thjjabk  basif.  The  tliirty-onc  bodies,  which,  when  united 
with  the  supporters,  become  alkalies,  have  been  called 
alkalifiiMc  lianeii.  The  timpte  supporters  of  combus- 
tion are  as  follow : — Oxygen,  chlorine,  bromine,  iodine, 
fluorine,  and  sulphur. 

OXYOfX. 
Oxygen  gas  is  a  permanently  elastic  fluid,  that  is,  one 
which  no  compressing  force,  or  degree  of  cold,  hitlicrto 
tpplied,  has  ever  beer-,  able  to  reduce  to  a  liquid  or  solid 
form.  It  forms,  as  wj  have  already  observed,  one  of  the 
constituents  of  the  atmosphere,  is  colourless,  and  destitute 
of  taste  and  smell.  Its  specific  gravity  is  l-l  111,  that  of 
common  air  being  reckoned  unity.  Combustible  l>ouies 
burn  in  it  with  more  brilliancy,  and  more  light  and  heat 
U  evolved,  tlian  when  combustion  takes  place  in  Die  at- 
mosphere. If  a  candle,  the  wick  of  which  is  red-hot,  be 
introduced  into  a  vessel  containing  oxygen,  the  candle 
will  instantly  be  lighted.  Oxygen  has  the  power  of 
combining  with  every  other  simple  bot'y ;  the  multifarious 
compounds  which  it  thus  forms,  such  as  oxides,  acids, 
and  bases  or  alkalies,  wo  have  already  adverted  to.  In 
the  act  of  respiration,  oxygen,  in  the  nice  economy  of 
the  human  Ixxly,  is  made  to  unite  witli,  and  becomes  a 
portion  of  the  human  frame.  Vegetables  also  inhale  and 
exliale  it  at  certain  seasons,  so  as  admirably  to  supply 
what  is  absorl<od  by  animals.  It  is  tlio  intensely  nipid 
chemical  union  of  oxygen  with  the  coml>ustiblc  luxly, 
which  gives  rise  to  the  light  and  heat  in  our  common 
fires,  candles,  &c.  It  may  be  readily  procured  from  a 
variety  of  substances,  as,  for  instance,  from  saltpetre  or 
the  black  oxide  of  manganese.  These  may  be  intro- 
duced into  a  gun-barrel,  with  the  touch-hole  plugged  up. 
From  th/B  orilice  of  the  barrel  let  a  tul)e  be  conducted 
into  ail  inverted  glass  jar,  filled  with  water.  When  the 
ether  extremity  of  the  apparatus  is  subjccti'd  tu  heat,  tlic 
oxygen  gus  is  ex|>ollod  from  the  manganese,  and  enter- 
ing the  glass  jar,  displaces  the  water  and  fills  the  vessel. 
This  is  a  cheap  and  easy  metliud  of  obtaining  thin  re- 
lOarkable  aerifurm  l)ody. 

Oxygen  can  lie  prt'|>are<l  by  putting  10()0  grains  cf 
oinoxide  of  manganese  into  a  retort  with  an  equal  weight 
of  aqueous  sulphuric  acid.  This  ie  done  by  means  o( 
•  retort  fixed  over  a  spirit-lamp.  The  betit  tube  of  tlie 
retort  enters  a  pneumatic  trough,  in  which  jars  are 
placed  for  rvtxiving  the  gas  as  it  pai«es  from  the  nccJi  of 
Ibe  retort 

HYDROOEfl. 

Hydrogen  gas  is  a  (lerinanently  elastic  fluid,  trons- 
ptreut  and  colourlcm,  and  when  /mre,  destitute  of  taste 
or  smell.  It  can  scarcely  bo  said  to  exist  in  an  isolated 
Hale,  but  it  forms  one  of  the  constituents  of  water,  trom 
which  it  can  l*e  disengaged  by  various  simple  processes. 
k  i*  the  lightest  body  with  which  we  are  acquainted, 


and  is  employed  in  combination  with  other  gaser  lo  in> 
flate  balloons.  A  bladder  filled  with  this  gas  will  ascend 
in  the  atmosphere,  in  the  same-  manner  as  a  piece  of 
cork  or  wood  plunged  by  force  to  the  bottom  of  a  vessel 
of  water.  Hydrogen  will  not  support  combustion,  but 
is  itself  remarkably  combustible.  When  one  volume  oi 
oxygen  is  mixed  with  two  of  hydrogen,  it  burns  with  a 
loud  explosion,  by  an  electric  spark,  or  the  contact  of  a 
red-hot  fire.  The  product  of  this  experiment  is  water 
It  is  said  that  a  few  cautious  draughts  of  this  gas  msy 
bo  taken,  but  it  cannot  be  inspired  for  any  length  of 
time  without  occasioning  death.  Frogs  live  in  it  for  a 
long  time,  showing  these  animals  to  lie  very  tenacious 
of  life.  By  fur  the  most  important  compound  of  hy- 
drogen  with  any  other  substonco  is  that  with  oxygen, 
forming  the  indispensable  fluid  which  covers  nearly  two- 
thirds  of  our  glolie,  water.  It  unites  with  the  other 
supporters  of  combustion;  but  the  compounds,  exceot 
muriatic  acid,  already  mentioned,  are  not  of  any  great 
importance. 

Hydrogen  may  be  prepared  by  putting  .SOO  grains  of 
zinc  into  a  common  beer  bottle,  and  pouring  upon  the 
zinc  three  ounces  of  water  ond  five  drachms  of  aqucoui 
sulphuric  acid.  The  hydrogen  is  disengaged,  as  the 
acid,  the  oxygen  in  the  water,  and  the  metal  combine. 
By  means  of  a  bent  tube  from  the  bottle,  the  gas  can  b 
conveyed  into  jars  placed  in  a  trough. 

AZOTE,   OR  NITROOEN. 

This  gas  is  permanently  clastic,  transparent,  colour 
less,  and  inodorous.    It  is  a  very  little  lighter  than  oxygen. 
I  When  breathed,  it  destroys  animal  life ;  and  a  burning 
i  body,  if  immersed  in  a  jur  containing  it,  is  instantly  px- 
i  tinguished.     It  is  not  combustible ;  it  enters  extensively 
into  combination ;  it  is  an  abundant  el>^inent  in  animal 
matter;  and  its  existence  in  such  large  quantity  is  t 
i  clMcf  distinction  between  the  constitution  of  animai  aad 
vegetable  life.     Its  existence  in  the  atmosphere  we  hafa 
already  adverted  to.     Whether  i^is  chemically  united 
with  oxygen  in  thot  compound,  or  only  mixed  with  it, 
is  not  precisely  known.     That  it  has  the  property  of 
combining  with  all  the  supporters  of  combustion,  tliere 
can  bo   little  doub'.;  but  the  subject  has  not  ytt  been 
thoroughly  investigated.     With  oxygen  it  unites  in  nn 
fewer  tlian  five  proj;>ortions ;  by  fur  tlio  most  iinportut 
being 
;       Ailrir  Jicid,  nr  ^1(jiinf(irli». — This  virulent  substance 
is  a  compound  of  one  volume  azotic,  and  two  uiul  a  half 
I  volunies  of  oxygen  gns.     Common  nitric  acid  is  of  on 
I  orange  colour,  on  account  of  its  containing  a  little  niuri- 
I  atic  acid,  as  also  a  little  sulphuric  acid  and  water.     Light 
has  likewise  an  ellect  upon  it.     The  8[)ecific  gravity  of 
the  strongest  procurable  nitric  acid  is  1-55,  and  then  it 
coiitauis  one-scvcnlh  of  its  weight  of  water;   that  of 
commerce  is  about  1-423,  and  contains  two-fifths  of  it< 
weight  of  water.     Nitric  acid  has  very  remarkal)le  cffccti 
upon  water  with  regard  to  the   production  of  heat.    If 
diluted  with  half  it.s   weight  of  water,  heat  is  evolved; 
but  if  the  water  be  in  the  state  of  snow,  intense  cold  in 
the  result.     Hence,  this  compound  is  employed  to  pro 
duco  great  degrees  of  cold.     If  nitric  acid  hii;lily  con> 
centrated  lie  thrown  uinm  pliosphorus,  cliarcunl,  or  oil 
of  tiir{M'ntine,  it  inflames  thorn.     It  is  very  extensively 
UM'd  in  the  arts,  and  forms  a  numerous  and  iiiijwilaiit 
cliuis  of  suits,  liuving  the  generic  naiiio  of  A'l/ri.ix,  such 
as  nitrate  of  silv<'r,  nitratu    of   Jiotash,  &c,     Smiii'  ol' 
tiiesi!  we  sIluII  notice  atbrwards.     I^'id uu»  (unl  is  u  com- 
pound of  the  siinie   kiml,  but  with  a  lesser  quantity  of 
oxygen.     Amongst   the  otiier  compounds  of  laolc  ai;il 
oxygen,  that  entitled  the  prultixiik  ol  azii!e,  or,  as  it  «a( 
formerly   culleil,   iiUniui  uuidi;  is  tbc   most  rcniaikuble. 
Davy  discovered  that  we  may  breattic  it  for  a  i^hurt  whili 
without  any  ctfi'ct  U'lng  produced,  except  an  c.vliilar» 
tiuu  uf  the  mind.    Combuiitibles  burn  in  it  more  brilliu  J) 


tkm  in  com 

•nd  a  hyponi 

detail.     Azo 

bromine.    N 

retort  about  > 

sulphuric  aci 

subjected  to  \ 

condensed,  is 

^mmoniti, 

t  farmed  by 

and  is  obtaine 

called  >nl  amt 

acid  and  amra( 

into  a  retort,  a 

beat.    Ammoi 

to  be  collected 

moniacal  gas  L 

an  acrid  canst 

lungs.     Its  spe 

780  times  its  \ 

employed  for  ch 

nith  chlorine,  a 

place.    The  ch 

ammonia,  and  I 

disengaged  in  th 

coiTiuincs  with  a 

moniec.    Ainm( 

pertics  distingui 

decided  manner. 

salts  which  it  fc 

importance. 


This  is  a  gasci 
I  strung  suflbcati 
jent  taste.     Reel 
is  2-5.    If  breath 
hewever,  it  not  o 
the  remarkable  < 
metals,  even  nt 
when  beaten  ouj 
it.    The  combinal 
CIdoridcs.  Clilorii 
all  vegetable  (-olol 
txposed  to  its  aJ 
sioned  the  introif 
if  unbleached  liiil 
which  gives  theil 
'iie  substance  assi 
however,  must  1  _ 
pure  and  not  sul 
fil)re  of  the  clothl 
four  difli-rcnt  proiT 
Mygcn  lis  to  forj 
perchloric  acid  ; 
any  acid  j)ropertiil 
anil  arc  called  p| 
clilorine.     Besidel 
liiiics  with  hydrol 
called 

Muriiitic  Jcid.- 
togethcr  in  equal 
ilaylight  in  a  glasl 
'line  and  even  e.\/ 
light  or  ilio  light  ■ 
i?i«  rc.iult.     It.s  ,s 

Sl.ltC    tllis    g;l.s    is 

under  vi  -y  .strongi 
W'ater  a.isorbs  tlf 
»t  69^  absorbs  411 
produced,  and,  wh 
creased  to  1  3433  J 
»dd.  With  thoa.^ 
«ficgravi^y  It  M! 


,,,. 


M  (r-;/ 


^r 

CHEMISTRY. 


':f'  :  -.1  /  I 


m^ 


ttitii  in  common  air.  Tliere  is  also  a  dcutoxide  of  azote 
ind  a  hyponitroua  arid ;  but  those  do  not  require  minute 
detail.  Azote  combine*  lilcewige  with  chlorine  and 
bromine.  Nitric  acid  can  be  procured  by  filling  a  glass 
retort  about  one-third  full  of  equal  weights  of  aqueous 
Bulphuric  acid  and  common  nitre.  The  retort  is  then 
auhjcclcd  to  heat,  and  a  vapour  is  distilled  over,  which, 
conilonsod,  is  nitric  acid. 

Jmiiioniii,  or  Ilarlahorn. — This  important  substance 
t  formed  by  the  combination  of  azote  with  hydrogen, 
nnd  is  obtained  in  the  state  of  gas,  by  means  of  the  salt 
called  i<tl  ammoniac,  which  is  a  compound  of  muriatic 
acid  and  ammonia.  This  substance  i*  to  be  introduced 
into  a  retort,  along  with  quicklime,  and  then  subjected  to 
heat.  Ammonia  is  driven  ofT  in  the  form  of  gas,  and  is 
to  be  collected  in  glass  jars  standing  over  mercury.  Am- 
moniacal  gas  is  colourless,  has  a  strong  pungent  smell, 
an  acrid  caustic  taste,  and  cannot  be  drawn  into  the 
lungs.  Its  specific  gravity  is  0-50027.  Water  absorbs 
780  times  its  volume  of  this  gas,  and  in  this  state  it  is 
employed  for  chemical  purpoxcs.  When  the  gas  is  mixed 
nith  chlorine,  a  sudden  combustion  and  detonation  take 
place.  The  chlorine  unites  with  the  hydrogen  of  the 
ammonia,  and  forms  muriiitic  acid,  whilst  the  azote  is 
disciigagcil  in  the  state  of  gna.  The  muriatic  acid  formed, 
Uiinuincij  with  a  portion  of  ammonia,  nnd  forms  sal  am- 
moniac. Ammonia  is  an  alkali,  and  possesses  the  pro- 
perties distinguishing  this  class  of  substances  in  a  very 
decided  manner.  It  of  course  neutralizes  acid^,  and  the 
salts  which  it  forms  are  numerous,  and  of  considerable 
importance. 

CHLORINE. 

This  is  a  gaseous  body,  of  a  yellowish-green  colour, 
•  strong  sudbcatiug  smell,  and  of  a  pretty  strong  astrin- 
gent taste.  Reckoning  air  us  unity,  its  specific  gravity 
it  2-5.  If  breathed  undiluted,  it  destroys  animal  life ; 
hcwever,  it  not  only  supports  combustion,  but  possesses 
the  remarkable  quality  of  setting  fire  to  many  of  the 
metals,  even  at  the  common  temperature  of  lUo  air, 
when  beaten  out  into  thin  leaves,  and  introduced  into 
it.  The  combinations  of  metals  vith  chlorine  are  called 
Chlorida.  Chlorine  possesses  the  property  of  destroying 
all  vegetable  colours,  and  of  rendering  vegetable  bodies, 
•xposed  to  its  action,  white.  This  property  has  occa- 
sioned the  introduction  of  chlorine  into  bleaching;  for 
if  unbleached  linens  be  exposed  to  its  action,  the  matter 
which  gives  thein  their  gray  colour  is  destroyed,  and 
'iie  substance  assumes  a  brilliant  whiteness.  Chlorine, 
liowcvcr,  must  be  used  cautiously,  for  if  applied  in  its 
pure  and  not  suflficiently  diluted  state,  it  destroys  the 
fibre  of  the  cloth.  Chlorine  combines  with  oxygen  in 
four  different  proportions;  two  of  them  contain  so  much 
aij-gcn  lis  to  form  acids ;  these  are,  chloric  acid  and 
perchloric  acid ;  but  as  the  other  two  do  not  manifest 
any  acid  properties,  they  arc  to  be  considered  as  oxides, 
and  are  called  protoxide  of  chlorine  and  peroxide  of 
clilorino.  Besides  uniting  with  oxygen,  chlorine  coin- 
liiiies  with  hydrogen,  and  forms  the  well-known  acid 
called 

Muriiitic  Acid. — If  chlorine  and  hydrogen  be  mixed 
together  in  equal  volumes,  and  exposed  to  common 
daylight  in  a  glass  flask,  they  will  in  a  little  time  com- 
liiiie  and  even  explode  in  combining,  if  cxposol  to  sun- 
li^iit  or  the  lii;ht  of  a  candle ;  two  volumes  of  muriatic 
i<M  ro:iull.  It.s  si>eciric  gravity  is  l-82'll;  in  its  pure 
state  this  gas  is  transparent,  colourless,  and  elastic  : 
iiiiJur  v«  -y  strong  pressure  it  condenses  into  a  li(iuid. 
Water  a.isorbs  this  gas  with  avidity.  One  cu!)ic  inch 
at  69^  absorbs  4 17,S~3  cul)ic  inches  of  the  gas ;  heat  is 
produced,  and,  when  cold,  the  bulk  of  the  water  is  in- 
creased to  1-3'133  cubic  inches.  This  is  liquid  muriatic 
icid.  With  these  proportions  of  constituents,  its  spe- 
cific gravity  Li  1-1958  ;  cii«  hundred  grains  of  it  consist 


I  of  40.39  of  real  acid,  and  S9-61  of  wnte>.     It  is  a  rn- 
I  lourlesfl  liquid,  and,  when  exposed  to  the  air,  it  smoke*. 
.  because  the  gas  exhaled  condenses  the  moisture  of  the 
I  atmosphere.    It  extinguishes  both  flame  and  life,  and 
j  is  not  inflammable.     It  is  of  a  pungent,  suObcating,  and 
somewhat  aromatic  smell.     It  powerfully  reddens  vcge- 
j  table   blues.    The   best  method  of -obtaining  it  is  by 
'  pouring  sulphuric  acid  upon  an  equal  weight  of  sea-salt, 
and  collecting  the  gas  which  is  given  ofl',  over  mercury. 
An  immense  ninnber  of  salts  are  formed  from  the  com- 
bination of  muriatic  acid  with  oxides ;  such  as  common 
t  sea-salt,  which  is  a  muriate  of  soda.     These  ore  very 
'  extensively  used,  both  in  the  arts  and  medicine.     Chlo 
rine  combines  with  azote,  and  forma  what  is  called 

Chloride  of  Nitrogen. — This  is  an  oily  liquid,  and  the 
most  powerfully  explosive  compound  known.  In  thi* 
respect  it  is  one  of  the  most  dangerous  substances  of 
nature ;  it  consists  of  four  volumes  of  chlorine  combined 
with  one  of  azote.  Chlorine  combines  with  carbon,  but 
the  compounds  are  unimportant. 

BROMINE. 

The  term  bromine  is  from  a  Greek  word,  signifying 
"a  strong  disagreeable  odour."  This  substance  wa« 
discovered  only  so  lately  as  the  year  1826  ;  it  resemble* 
chlorine  in  many  of  its  habitudes.  It  is  of  a  brownish- 
red  colour,  very  disagi«eal)lo  smell,  sharp  strong  taste, 
powerfully  corrosive  of  organic  bodies,  and,  when  taken 
internally,  a  violent  poison.  Its  specilic  gravity  is  2-96; 
it  destroys  vegetable  colours  almost  as  powerfully  a* 
chlorine.  Like  chlorine,  it  sets  fire  to  certain  metal* 
when  brought  into  contact  with  it;  it  is  not  combustible, 
and  it  extinguishes  combustion ;  it  becomes  solid  at  a 
little  below  zero ;  but  if  combined  with  water,  so  as  to 
form  a  hydrate,  it  affords  fine  red  crystals  nt  32°.  An 
acid,ia  formed  by  the  combination  of  bromine  with 
oxygen,  and  is  called  bromic  acid ;  another  with  hydro- 
gen is  called  hydrobromic  acid.  C'hlorine  also  combine* 
with  it,  and  forma  a  chloride.  There  are  numerou* 
other  combination*  of  bromine,  but  the  compounds  aure 
unimportant. 

IODINE. 

This  substance  was  first  discovered  in  1811,  by  a  salt- 
petre manufacturer  of  Paris.  It  is  derivable  from  se^* 
plants,  and  in  some  of  its  properties  much  rcuembl* 
chlorine,  which  is  also  a  marine  production.  If  com 
mon  sea-weed  be  powdered  dry,  and  treated  with  sul- 
phuric acid  whilst  subjected  to  heat,  a  violet-coloured 
vapour  is  expelled,  which,  if  collected  in  a  vessel,  con- 
denses into  scaly  dark-gray  crystals,  with  somewhat  of 
a  metallic  lustre.  These  are  iodine,  so  called  from  the 
violet-colour  of  its  vapour ;  iodine  being  a  Greek  word, 
and  signifying  "violet-coloured."  Its  specific  gravity 
is  3-0844.  Its  smell  is  disagreeable,  its  tnste  acrid  and 
hot,  and  it  possesses  poisonous  properties.  It  is  a 
powerful  stimulant,  and  has  of  late  been  niueh  employed 
as  a  medicine.  It  destroys  vegetable  colours,  but  not 
so  completely  as  chlorine.  It  melts  when  heated  to 
224i°,  and  volatilizes  at  3514°.  It  forms  a  beautiful 
blue  colour  when  mingled  with  water  holding  starch  in 
solution ;  it  is  itself  slightly  soluble  in  water,  but  more 
so  in  aleohol  and  ether.  Iodine  combines  with  oxygen 
in  three  proportions,  forming  iodic  acid,  iodous  acid,  and 
oxide  of  ioiline;  with  chlorine,  forming  chloriodie  acid; 
with  bromine  in  two  proportions,  forming  bromides ; 
anil  also  with  azote  and  hydrogen.  A  com^ioiind  of 
iodine  and  azote  is  exceedingly  explosive.  But  a  par 
ticular  account  of  these  substances  do  nc  require  to  lie 
given  in  this  place. 

IXnOBINE. 
The  existence  of  this  substance,  strange  fn  say,  1« 
conjectural ;  yet  its  separate  i  lentity  is  iupi>orted  br 


m 


na 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


the  ■trongeit  analogiot.  It  exUU,  or  rather  ii  fuppoMd 
•o  Clint,  in  fluor  or  Derbyshire  ipar,  and  i»  Ihue  provi- 
lionally  called  ilcorino.  (f  fome  of  thii  mineral  in 
IKnvder  bo  diitillod  with  atrong  sulphuric  acid,  iirotn  a 
leaden  retort  (a  vesiel  lomowhat  of  the  ihajie  of  corn* 
men  Rupert  drops)  into  a  leaden  receiver  kept  cold 
with  ice,  an  intensely  active  fluid  is  pro<luced.  "  It  has," 
says  Davy,  "the  appearance  of  sulphuric  aciJ,  but  it  is 
much  more  volatile.  When  applied  to  the  skin,  it  in- 
stantly disorganizes  it,  and  produces  very  painful  wounds. 
When  it  is  dropped  into  water,  a  hissing  noise  is  pro- 
duced, with  much  heat,  and  an  acid  fluid  is  fonnod." 
This  substance  has  been  called  hydrofluoric  add,  because 
it  is  conjectured  to  have  fluorine  as  a  base,  combined 
with  hydrogen,  to  form  an  acid,  upon  the  principle 
which  wo  have  tormcrly  describmj  fMher  views  have 
been  adopted  with  respect  to  tnis  substance,  but  tlie 
above  is  the  one  now  generally  admitted. 

CARBOH. 

Carbon  or  charcoal  is  found  in  many  diflcrcnt  forms, 
and  can  be  prepared  by  burning  woo<I,  coal,  Ac,  in 
cJose  vessels.  Tho  diamond  is  pure  carbon,  and  plum- 
ba;;o  or  bjack-lcad  is  principally  composed  of  this  sut)- 
stance  with  a  little  iron.  It  bums  in  oxygen  with  con- 
siderable brilliancy,  althongh  in  common  air  it  emits 
but  a  feeble  light  If  carbon  be  burned  in  a  close  vessel, 
filled  with  oxygen,  the  carbon  will  be  entirely  con- 
sumed, and  the  oxygen  so  much  changed,  that  if  a 
lighted  taper  be  put  into  it  the  light  will  he  extinguished. 
Carbon  combines  with  all  the  supporters  of  combustion, 
and  with  oxygen  forms  carbonic  acid.  This  acid  may 
be  prepared  in  the  pneumatic  trough,  by  putting  into 
tho  retort  an  ounce  of  hydrochloric  acid,  previously 
mixed  with  two  ounces  of  water,  along  with  a  table- 
s)K)onful  of  the  carbonate  of  lime.  An  eflcrvcsccnre 
tukes  place  between  tho  acid  and  the  lime,  carbonic  'arid 
gas  being  given  oflf,  which  can  be  collected  in  the  jars 
and  condensed  in  water.  Carbonic  acid  is  fatal  to  ani- 
mal life,  and  the  gaa  will  extinguish  a  candle  intro- 
duced into  it. 

Oxalic  Jcid. — This  sulwitance,  which  is  also  a  combi- 
nation of  carbon  with  oxygen,  may  be  formed  by  digest- 
ing sugar  along  with  nitric  acid.  The  acid  is  deposited 
in  small  crystals,  wlilrh  hcve  an  intensely  acid  taste, 
and.  when  taken  internally  even  in  amall  quantities,  de- 
stroys life.  It  combines  with  bases,  and  forms  a  genus 
of  salts  called  oxalules.  Carbon  is  capable  of  uniting 
with  chlorine  in  three  difli-rent  proportions,  with  bro- 
mine in  one  or  two,  and  with  iodine  in  two.  But  we 
must  pass  from  these  comjHiunda  to  those  of  far  greater 
moment  which  it  forms  with  hydrogen. 

There  are  many  combinations  of  carbon  with  hydro- 
gen, and  much  uncertainty  prevails  both  with  regard  to 
their  number  and  nature  ;  they  are  all  designated  by  the 
name  hydrocarbons,  or  more  properly  hydrocarburtti. 

COAL  OAS. 

Carbureted  and  hicarburetcd  hydrogen  bear  Tcry  dif- 
ferent relations  to  the  well-being  of  man :  the  former, 
when  a  spontaneous  production  of  nature  in  mines,  is 
one  of  the  most  terrific  instruments  of  destruction,  and 
a  great  obstacle  to  human  industry ;  for,  by  mixing  with 
a  ceitain  quantity  of  common  air,  it  acquires  the  pro- 
perty of  exploding  when  accidentally  kindled,  and  thou- 
sands of  human  lives  have  fallen  sarrifircs  to  its  vio- 
Iriicc,  until  Hir  Humphry  Uuvy's  iiivrntiun  of  tho 
tafrty-lamp  divested  it  of  its  terrors. 

Davy's  safety-lamp  consists  of  a  common  lamp  sur- 
rounded with  wire-gauze.  On  atialyzing  the  carbu- 
r^d  hyJrogei  or  fire-damp,  Sir  Humphry  Davy  found 
lliat  it  would  L  Jt  explode  when  mixed  with  less  than  six 
timea,  or  with  more  than  fourteen  times,  its  volume  of 
lUiiiMpheric  air ,  that  vr  rendered  impure  by  the  com- 


bustion of  a  candle  will  not  oxplutle  flre-damf ,  tnoagk 
the  candle  will  still  bum  for  a  lime ;  and  that,  if  «  can- 
dle be  burnt  in  a  close  vessel,  with  small  apertures  onlt 
above  and  below  tho  flame,  no  explosion  will  ensua 
Tho  flame  within  will  lie  enlarged,  but  no  explosion 
take  place ;  and  it  was  found  that  tho  gaa  from  minea 
win  not  explode  in  a  tube  less  than  one-eighth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter. 

Bicarburetcd  hydrogen  is  tho  chiof,  although  not  tha 
most  abundant  ingredient  in  coal  Km,  now  so  ;tenerall* 
ilsed  for  illumination ;  the  other  ingredients  ore  carbu- 
reted hydrogen,  hydrogen,  and  carbonic  oxide.     Coal 
gas  is   made  by  introducing  a  quantity  of  bituminous 
cosi  into  a  largo  iron  cylinder  called  a  retort,  close  at 
one  end,  and  furnished  with  a  mouth-piece  at  the  other, 
for  closing  or  opening  it ;  there  is  also  a  tube  for  carry- 
ing olT  the  gas  and  other  products  as  they  form.     A 
quick  strong  heat  is  applied  round  the  cylinder,  and  a 
vast  quantity  of  gas,  composed  of  the  four  ingredients 
just  mentioned,  is  thus  extricated,  with  tar  and  an  am- 
moniacal  liquor,  both  of  which  are  condensed  by  passing 
through    pipes   immersed  in  cold  water.      'Ilicre  is  a 
great  diflcrcnco  in  tho  relative  proportions  of  the  gases 
in  the  mixture,  as  also  in  the  quantity  of  tar,  acconling 
to  tho  quality  of  the  coal  and  the  mode  of  applying  the 
heat.     The  more  tar  the  gas  holds  dissolved,  the  more 
dense  will  bo  the  flomo  when  the  gas  is  mndc  to  burn, 
and  the  more  disagreeable  will  be  tho  smell  when  it  is 
not  burning.     A  slow  heat  gives  much  tar  and  Utile 
gas,  and  that  little  of  a  poor  quality  ;  a  quick  hrnt  gives 
much  gas,  of  goad  quality,  and  less  tar.     Owing  to 
these  and  other  causes,  the  illuminating  power  of  coal 
gas  varies  much.     Before  it  is  let  through  the  conduct- 
ing tulies  for  public  consumption,  it  is  well  agitated  in 
contact  with  a  mixture  of  lime  and  water,  or  passed 
through  strata  of  loosely  strewed  hydrate  of  lime ;  it  is 
thus  deprived  of  mudi  of  its  smell,  and  also  of  soine 
of  Its  illuminating  power.     On  an  average,  a  chaldron 
of  good  Newcastle  coal,  weighing  25  cwt,  will  affnrj 
12,000  cubic  feet  of  gas,  ])rovided  that  the  retorts  ara 
new.     After  being  used  a  few  months,  the  product  will 
not  exceed  11,000  feet,  or  even  10,000.     An  illuminat- 
ing gas  of  this  kind  is  sometimes  presented  ready  formed 
by  nature.     A  village  of  Fredcnia,  in  the  western  part 
of  the  state  of  New  York,  is  lighted  with  this  gas  as  it 
naturally  issues  from  a  rock ;  the  flame  is  Inrjii-,  hut  not 
quite  so  brilliant  as  thatof  cnni  gas.*     A  srhotnc  wnsrp. 
cently  in  agitation  for  lighting  the  towna  of  Newcastle  and 
Gateshead  with  a  natural  gas  which  issues  from  the  Wall- 
send  coal-pits.     This  gas  is  diluted  with  about  10  per 
cent  of  atmospheric  air,  but  is  otherwise  romnrkalily 
puu.     Oil  gai  being  of  a  similar  nature,  it  need  not  b« 
particularly  described.     There  are  other  less  important 
compounds  of  carlton  and  hydrogen,  and  the  whole  cor. 
respond  with  the  law  of  multiple  combination  already 
descriWd.     Nnptha  ond  nnpthnlint  are  hydrocarburcls; 
the  former  is  a  tranK])arent  volatile  fluid,  the  other  is  i 
transparent  volatile  solid,  which   assumes  the  form  of 
crystalline  plates :  both  are  uotained  from  coal  tar  bj 
distillation. 

Cyannf-rn. — This  sul)sfance  is  a  gaseous  compound 
of  azote  and  carlion.  It  burns  with  a  purple  flame, 
and  destroys  life  on  being  breathed.  Cyanogen  iinitu 
with  a  variety  of  bodies,  and  forms  many  important 
compounds. 

BORON. 

The  norot  of  commerce  is  a  compound  of  Ixirscic 
acid  and  the  alkali  called  smla.  Boracic  acid  is  a  com- 
pound of  oxygen  and  Imroii,  in  the  proportion,  it  i« 
supjrased,  of  one  atom  of  the  latt"r  to  three  of  the  for' 
mer.    Pure  boron  is  an  opaijue  brownish-olivi   powdt , 


•  Donovan's  Chemistry,  p.  117. 


iiifusiblu,  an 

It  has  yet  h 

seta  upon  \ 

combines  wi 

Horaric  A 

perties  of  an 

nary  temper 

it  dinplaccs  I 

rcedingly  use 

nobler.     Wh 

vitriol  being 

itself  in  seal; 

and,  if  the  so 

flame.    Bora) 

clear  glass,  w 

of  conuiderabi 

fusible  nature 

flux.    Flux  i 

any  substance 

of  minerals. 

bodies;  tho   a 

Boracic  acid 

with  oxygen, 

vered  of  boron 

Wncs  with  e\\l 

the  name  of  be 

iritb  fluorine,  f 

Fluolmric  Ac 

is  colourless,  hi 

•imilar  to  murii 

•esses  a  powerf 

iccount  someti 

DuiKiure  in  ga»i 

seems  to  consist 

line.    The  com 

Mid  carbon,  are 


Quartz,  or  rn(\ 
able  a  portion  ol 
lislly  of  a  pecul 
arid.    This  siibj 
base  which  has 
deep  brotyn  coloJ 
ance  and  in  iu  rel 
ger3,andadher('<i| 
it.    It  ciffl  be  ex£ 
licinff  fused ;  aftl 
1-8S7.     It  disHol 
acids  with  greatf 
hy  them  singly.! 
potash  or  soda, 
vividly  at  the  el 
oxide  is  disengaJ 
i:arl)on  being  deJ 
vorfed  into  silieiT 
silicon  and  one 
with  chlorine,  fcj 
colmirless  volatij 
end  probably  al 
unites  and  forms! 

tlmsilirir  Jtr 
l-nrent,  eolourlesi] 
It  smokes  when 
•liH)rbed  by  wutJ 
nines  with  carbol 


Sulphur,  or  bil 
anre  is  too  famill 
scription.  In  ml 
««te  of  great  pu 
fountries.  and  i^ 
Oimcrala.     I>  d  , 


.If    \r 


■7  ■•.*!' 


CHEMISTRY. 


•t¥f 


m 


,„fuiiibIo,  and  not  volatile  at  any  temperature  to  which 
ji  liat  yet  been  lubjocted.  It  neither  diuolve*  in  nor 
(ctii  upon  water.  At  about  600°,  it  takea  fire,  and 
combines  with  oxygen,  forming 

liornrir  Acid. — This  Hubatance  evincea  the  uiual  pro- 
iicrtiea  of  an  arid,  but  it  ii  not  a  powerful  one  at  ordi- 
nary tempomturoR.  At  high  temperatures,  however, 
it  dinplacf!*  the  atronKCst  of  the  other  acida,  and  ia  ex- 
ceedingly useful  in  fluxing  out  the  baser  metals  from  the 
itoblrr.  When  the  acid  is  detached  from  borax,  by 
vitriol  being  poured  upon  that  compound,  it  exhibits 
iueir  in  scaly  crystals.  It  dissolves  in  rectified  spirits, 
and,  if  the  solution  be  set  on  Are,  it  burns  with  a  green 
flame.  Borax  itself,  when  heated,  melta  into  a  perfectly 
clear  glass,  which  is  the  basis  of  some  artificial  gems 
of  conitiderable  beauty.  Borax  communicates  its  own 
fusible  nature  to  other  bodies,  and  hence  is  used  as  a 
flux.  Flux  is  a  general  term  made  use  of  to  denote 
toy  substance  or  mixture  employed  to  assist  the  fusion 
of  minerals.  1'here  is  a  considerable  numl)er  of  such 
bodies ;  the  alkalies  are  those  most  generally  used. 
Boracic  acid  is  the  only  known  compound  of  boron 
with  oxygen.  There  has  been  no  compound  yet  disco- 
vered of  boron  with  either  bromine  or  iodine,  but  it  roni- 
hincs  with  chlorine,  funning  a  gaseous  acid,  to  which 
the  name  of  boiochhric  acid  haa  been  given ;  and  also 
with  fluorine,  forming 

Fluohnric  Arid,  which  exists  in  the  gaseous  state.  It 
is  colourless,  has  an  exceedingly  acid  taste,  and  a  tmell 
•imilar  to  muriatic  acid.  It  contains  no  water,  but  pos- 
•psaos  a  powerful  afl'inity  for  that  fluid,  and  is  on  that 
ircount  sometimes  used  as  a  test  of  the  presence  of 
Dinhture  in  eof^-k.  Itt  specific  gravity  is  2-362 ;  and  it 
icems  to  consist  of  one  atom  of  boron  and  three  of  fluo- 
rine. I'he  combinations  of  boron  with  hydrogen,  azote, 
aud  carbon,  are  still  unknown. 

nucoN. 

Quartz,  or  rock-cryt!al,  which  constitutea  so  consider- 
able a  portion  of  the  crust  of  the  earth,  consists  essen- 
tially of  a  peculiar  acid  substance,  called  tilica  or  >i7tric 
arid.  This  substance  is  a  compound  of  oxygen  with  a 
base  which  has  been  entitled  silicon.  It  is  a  powder  of  a 
deep  bro\Yn  colour,  and  very  similar  to  boron  in  its  appear- 
ance and  in  its  relations  to  other  matter.  It  stains  the  fin- 
gers, and  adheres  to  every  thing  that  comes  in  contact  with 
it.  It  cim  be  exposed  to  a  very  high  temperature  without 
Iwing  fused ;  after  ignition,  the  specific  gravity  is  about 
1.837.  It  dissolves  in  a  mixture  of  fluoric  and  nitric 
iicids  with  great  facility,  although  it  is  not  acted  upon 
by  them  sinRly.  When  mixed  with  dry  cjirbonate  of 
potash  or  soda,  and  heated  far  below  redness,  it  burns 
vividly  at  the  expense  of  the  carbonic  acid  ;  carbonic 
oxide  is  disengaufed,  and  the  residue  is  tinged  black  by 
carl>on  being  dopositeil.  By  this  process  silicon  is  con- 
verted into  silica,  which  is  a  compound  of  one  atom  of 
silicon  and  one  atom  of  oxygen.  Silicon  combines 
with  chlorine,  forming  a  chloride  of  iilicon.  This  is  a 
culniirlrss  volatile  liquid,  having  a  suffocating  smell, 
tnd  probably  acid  properties.  With  fluorine,  silicon 
unites  and  forms 

Flmtilicir  Arid. — This  is  a  gaseous  substance,  trans- 
juront,  colourli'SH.  nnd  having  a  smell  like  nuiriiitie  arid. 
It  smokes  when  mixed  with  moist  air,  and  it  is  rapidly 
•bsorbed  by  wattr.  Its  spccitic  gravity  is  3-H,  It  com- 
oitics  with  carbon,  but  no  other  compounds  are  known. 

SULPHUR. 

Sulphur,  or  brimstone,  is  a  substance  whose  appear- 
aiii-e  is  too  familiarly  known  to  require  a  particular  de- 
scription. In  many  parts  of  the  world  it  is  found  in  a 
Hate  of  great  purity.  It  occurs  plentifully  in  volcanic 
rountries,  and  ia  an  abundant  Ingredient  in  various 
Djinctals.     It  is  a  non-conductor  of  electricity,  and  when 


rubbed,  bocomea  highly  electric.  It  haa  •  ipeciAc  gra- 
vity of  2.0333.  When  heated  to  17U°,  it  ia  volatilixMl, 
and  the  result  is  a  fine  powder  called  flowtri  of  $ulphur 
It  melu  at  218°,  but  at  340°  it  becomes  thick,  and  from 
482°  to  its  boiling  point,  about  760°,  it  geta  thionei; 
When  suddenly  cooled,  it  remains  soft,  in  which  stala 
it  is  used  for  taking  impressions.  It  is  extensively 
used  in  the  arts ;  for  instance,  in  the  nianut'acture  of 
gunpowder.  With  oxygon  it  combines  in  four  propor- 
tions,  forming  four  corop'  'uds,  all  of  which  posauaa 
acid  properties. 

Stilphuroui  Arid. — Whc  sulphur  is  heated  to  800' 
in  the  open  air,  it  takes  fire,  and  burns  with  a  pale  blue 
flame,  at  the  same  time  emitting  abundance  of  fume* 
of  a  suflbcating  nature,  which  are  sulphurous  acid.  It 
is  colourless,  extinguishes  flame,  is  not  inflammable, 
converts  vegetable  blues  to  red,  forms  a  class  of  salts 
called  Sulfihilm,  and  has  a  specific  gravity  of  2<2223. 
This  gas  bleaches  various  textures,  as  those  of  silk, 
wool,  and  straw ;  the  liquid  acid  bleaches  sponge.  Sul- 
phurous acid  is  supposed  to  consist  of  equal  bulks  of 
oxygen  and  sulphur.  Its  proportions  are  one  part  of 
sulphur  to  two  of  oxygen.  ^ 

Sulphuric  Acid,  or  Oil  of  Vitriol. — This  acid  is  madi 
in  great  quantities  for  the  use  of  bloachcrs,  and  other 
manufacturers,  by  burning  sulphur  in  leaden  chambeit' 
At  the  same  time,  a  quantity  of  nitric  acid  from  the 
decomposition  of  saltpetre  is  a<linittcd  into  the  chamber. 
The  sulphur  is  converted  into  sulphurous  acid.  Five 
atoms  of  this  acid  unite  with  one  atom  of  nitric  acid, 
and  two  atoms  of  water,  and  form  a  white  solid  salt, 
which  falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  chamber  into  a  quan- 
tity of  water  placed  to  receive  it.  As  soon  as  it  comei 
in  contact  with  the  water,  a  strong  effervescence  takea 
place :  the  nitric  acid  is  decomposed,  and  converts  the 
sulphurous  into  sulphuric  acid,  while  at  the  same  tiine 
a  quantity  of  doutoxide  of  azote  is  disengaged.  Thie 
gas,  coming  into  contact  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  ia 
converted  into  nitric  acid,  which  combines  with  an  ad- 
ditional dose  of  sulphurous  acid,  and  is  decomposed  a* 
before.  Thus  the  process  goes  on  as  long  as  sulphurou* 
acid  and  oxygen  gas  exist  in  the  leaden  chamber.*  Sul- 
phuric acid  thus  obtained  is  a  colourless  liquid,  possess- 
ing some  viscidity ;  and  when  as  much  concentrated  a* 
possible,  its  specific  gravity  is  1.837.  Sulphuric  acid  ia 
one  of  the  most  powerfully  corrosive  bodies  known  to  us. 
The  following  are  some  of  its  principal  properties.  When 
mixed  with  water,  to  which  it  has  a  very  powerful  at- 
traction, a  decrease  of  volume  occurs,  and  a  consider^ 
able  degice  of  heat  is  generated.  It  freezes  when  suffi 
ciently  cooled,  and  the  crystols  are  sometimes  large,  dis 
tinct,  and  hard.  When  exposed  to  the  air,  this  acid 
discharges  whitish  gray  vapours,  which  are  sulphuric 
acid  in  a  dry  state.  Acid  of  specific  gravity  1'896, 
contains  about  one-tenth  of  water,  and  ia  so  volatile  that 
it  boils  at  120°.  The  constitution  of  sulphuric  acid  is, 
sulphur  one  part,  and  oxygen  three  parts.  It  forms  a 
very  numerous  and  important  class  of  salts  called  SttU 
phaiet.  The  other  two  compounds  of  sulphur  and 
oygen,  namely,  the  hyposulphurous  and  hyposulphurie 
acids,  it  is  unnecesnary  to  notice.  Sulphur  unites  with 
chjorine  in  two  proportionn.  It  also  combines  with  bro- 
mine, iodine,  and  fluorine,  but  its  next  most  important 
combinations  arc  those  with  hydrogen. 

Sulphuicled  Hydrogen,  or  Ilydroaulphwic  Acid. — This 
is  a  colourless  gas,  having  a  strong  fa-lid  smell,  some- 
thing like  rotten  eggs,  and  a  sweetish  taste.  It  is  • 
non-supporter  of  combustion,  and,  when  breathed,  de- 
stroys animal  life.  lu  sjiecilic  gravity  is  M80.5.  It 
is  combustible,  and  burns  with  a  bluish  red  flame.  Watei 
absorbs  3-66  times  its  bulk  of  this  gas ;  and  if  it  be 
passed  through  water  tinged  with  a  vegetable  blue,  U 

•  Thoniscn. 


Hi 


INFORMAllON   FOR   THK   PEOPLE. 


will  channc  the  rolour  to  trA.     A  fnw  ilrof*  of  nitrio 
•rid  IM  Ihll  into  a  vrMiiol  fillrd  with  iiilphurotfil  hyilro-  ; 
Uen,  wt  lirfl  to  it.  Tliin  huh  lilarkmi  iilvor,  and  ikiknii 
the  wood-work  of  roomd  piiintod  with  white  load,  froiii 
human  ethnlationn  contniiiinff  a  portion  of  it.     IIk  iiIo- 
mio  conatitucnts  are  naid   to  bn  one  atom  of  aiilphiir 
•nd  one  atom  of  hydmifrn.     Doutilo  the  iiiianlity  of  j 
■niphur  to  the  name  proportion  of  liydroffrn  fornix  w  lint 
ia  called  thn  h\nili>hiirel  I'f  hi/ilrn/frii.     No  ••ompoiinil  of  j 
nilphur  and   n/oto  i«  known,  I'lit  with  carlxin  tliiTo  Ih 
more  than  one.     With  lioron  and  liticun,  aulphur  forma 
wiphurcta. 

V  HII.RNIVM. 

'  Thia  in  a  anhatnnro  nearly  allipd  to  aitlphur  in  ita 
nature,  althoinrh  it  in  aomc  rrapcrta  partnkoH  nlito  of  tlir 
character  of  a  mctnl.  It  mrlla  at  about  213^,  nnil  on 
cooling  hoi'onioH  aolid,  in  whirh  itato  it  haa  a  iiietnllic 
luatre,  and  a  dorp  brown  colour.  It  ia  Noft  nnJ  endlly 
reduced  to  powder,  whii'h  ia  of  a  deep  red.  Ita  npecitic 
gravitY  ia  l-S.  It  ia  a  bad  conductor  of  heiit,  n  non- 
conductor of  electricity,  and  ia  alao  non-elrctric.  I.iko 
■ulphur,  it  aMbiinicH  into  (lowera.  It  comblnra  wit'i 
•rcTgen  in  three  proportiona,  formini;  omle  «/  tiUnimn, 
a  i^aaeoua  body ;  ftlrnmii  nriil,  which  haa  an  acid  and 
■rrimonioua  taato ;  ami,  laatly,  ttitmr  ariti,  which  roHom- 
blca  aulphuric  ocid  in  its  conaiHtenco  and  in  many  of 
ita  propertiea.  It  is  to  be  renmrkril,  that  the  cornpoiinda 
of  aelcnium  and  oxygen  bear  a  atroni;  annlojjy  to  aomc 
of  those  of  oxyiren  with  Rulphur.  Selenium  combinea 
alao  with  aulphur,  chlorine,  and  carbon. 

PHOHPIIORUB. 

TTiia  well-known  aubstance  ia  commonly  prepared 
'from  bonea,  wliie.h  consiat  chiefly  of  the  pliospliato  of 
lime.  This  Halt  is  deroniposed  by  aulphuric  acid,  nnd  after 
goini^  through  a  diiriciilt  procesa,  the  phosphoruK  is  dis- 
tilled into  a  receiver  in  the  shape  of  melteil  drops.  It  is 
an  amlier-eoloured  and  aeini-tranapnrent  soi'd.  Its  spe- 
cific gra\-ity  is  1-74S.  It  is  »o  very  coir'.iustiblo  that  it 
takea  fire  in  the  air,  rmiltini;  a  white  ..moke  havini;  tbo 
ttnell  of  garlic,  and  appears  hlm-.ioua  in  the  dark.  At 
the  temi)cratHre  of  MS°,  it  burna  with  a  large  rcsjilen- 
dent  flame,  giving  out  a  white  smoke,  which  is — 

Photphiirtc  .Ind. — This  substanco  can  lie  obtained  by 
other  processes,  in  which  coitu  it  exhibits  itself  as  a 
tranifmrent  solid  iHxIy  like  glass.  It  has  no  smell,  but 
Kn  exceedingly  sour  taste  ;  it  is  not  corrosive.  Its  atomic 
constituents  are  suppi)s<'d  to  Iw  two  otoms  of  jjliosphorus 
to  five  atoms  of  oxygen.  Phosphorus  also  produces 
another  acid  called  /•Lnffihrnmit  nnd,  containing  a  sniiillor 
proportional  quantity  of  oxygen ;  and  a  third,  called 
hypophosphnront,  containing  still  less  of  the  gas. 

Photphureird  Hyilrn-^fit. — This  gns  is  colourless,  haa  a 
•mell  like  garlic,  ami  a  very  bitter  taste ;  its  specific 
fravity  ia  1'770S.  It  burns  spontaneously.  When 
mixed  with  oxygen,  mreftictum  causes  them  to  exploilo, 
M  roniltntdtinti  prfMlu''es  explosion  in  other  gases — a 
rery  retnarkable  proix-rty  of  this  sutwtance.  This  gna 
may  be  detonated,  also,  with  protoxide  and  dcutoiide 
•f  Bzote.  When  mixed  with  chlorine  gus,  it  burns  with 
a  greenish-yellow  flame.  It  is  com)M>scd  of  equal  vo- 
lumes  of  hydrogen  gas  and  j.bosphorus  vapour.  There 
are  other  com{>ounds  formed  of  these  two  substances; 
and  phosphorus  condiines  also  with  chlorine,  bromine, 
•nd  iodine,  in  two  proportions  each.  It  likewise  unites 
with  fluorine,  carbon,  sulphur,  aad  selenium. 

AR8KNI0. 

1  he  White  ^senic  of  commerce  ia  a  comhination  of 
arsenic  and  oxygen.  When  mixed  with  I'Liik  fiux 
(which  is  composed  of  cream  of  tartar  and  about  half 
its  weight  of  nitre,  heated  to  redness  in  a  covered  cru- 
ti'.ile),  and  iubjected  to  heat,  it  if  reduced  to  the  me- 


tallic state.  It  haa  a  bluish-white  colour,  ia  aoft,  bnttia 
and  easily  reduced  to  fine  poHiler.  Ita  speciflc  graviif 
is  ft'078.  When  mo<leratidy  healed,  it  evap(iratea,cuR^ 
billing  with  oxygen,  and  forming  the  arsenic  of  com. 
mi'rce,  so  well  known  for  its  denlructiveiiess  tii  animal 
life.  With  oxygon,  arsenic  forms  two  acids,  the  am. 
unlit  and  iirttmi,  Jlrunimi  mul  ia  u  white,  brittle,  cuiiw 
pact  substance,  having  a  weak,  ucrid  taste,  which  at 
last  leaves  an  impression  of  sweetness.  It  is  one  of  the 
inoHt  virulent  poisons  known,  jlnenic  uriii  ia  quil« 
Hiiiiilar  in  ita  constitution  to  phusphoric  acid.  Arsenic 
coiiibliios  with  chlorine,  bromine,  iodine,  fluorine,  by 
drogen,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  and  selenium. 

ANTIMONY. 
This  is  a  metal  which,  when  pure,  jiossesses  a  silver, 
white  colour.  Its  roinpouiids  an;  well  Known,  hcinv 
much  used  as  a  medicine.  Its  tcxinre  is  liliruus,  and 
it  is  easily  reduced  to  imwder  by  being  |)ouii(led  In  « 
mortar.  Its  sjiecillc  gravity  is  fi-IHOfi.  It  melts  wlicn 
heated  nearly  to  redness,  and  at  a  hi^lier  hent  it  is  sub- 
limated in  white  fumes.  It  coinlilnes  with  oxygen  in 
three  proportions,  and  forms  three  eonipunnds,  two 
of  which  possess  acid  properties.  The  oilier  is  un  oxide, 
which  constitutes  the  lijise  of  all  the  active  iiiedicinuj 
preparations  of  this  metal.  Will;  eliloriiie  it  coiiilpjiicsin 
two  proportions,  forming  two  chlorides,  which  iiro  ana 
logons  to  two  of  the  eoinpouiids  foir.icd  with  oxygen 
It  ,dso  combines  with  broiiilne,  i<Hlliie,  lluoiine,  Hul|ihiir, 
si-lcniuin,  phosphorus,  and  rsenic.  Aiitiiimny  i.s  ex* 
lensively  used  in  the  art),  juirticulurly  in  type-founding 
and  stereotyping. 

Tn,i,:'-t'"M. 

Thia  substance  is  a  me.i.l,  having  a  ailver-whit« 
colour,  and  coiisideruble  b-iiliancy.  It  lias  a  laminated 
texture,  is  briltle,  miiy  easily  be  reduced  to  powder,  and 
has  a  specific  gravity  of  6- 1. '179.  It  (uses  at  n  tem|ipra. 
tnre  rather  higher  than  that  whiel;  is  neccRsury  to  mdl 
lead.  It  combinea  with  oxygen,  nnd  forms  o.nV/r  nf  i,l. 
luiitim.  This  com|iound  possesses  at  once  arid  and 
alkaline  prn|ierties.  When  tellurium  is  heated  Wfnrt 
the  blow}.i]ie,  it  bums  with  n  blue  flame,  emitting  !•. 
white  t.ioke,  which  is  the  oxide.  Tellurium  Imrni 
spontnni.  I  j.dy  mi  chlorine  gas,  nnd  forms  n  chlitrult  of 
telturiuni.  It  riso  unites  with  iodine,  hydro'jen,  ami 
cailion.  The  other  combinations  of  this  metal  are  still 
unknown. 

CHROMIU.V. 

This  is  a  metal  of  a  \vhilish  colour  and  a  brittle  con* 
sistency.  Ita  s|H-cific  gravity  is  5d).  It  renuires  a  very 
high  degree  ttf  heat  to  melt  it,  nnd  is  only  obtained  pure 
in  small  grains.  Ito  acid  readily  dissolves  ii,  except  the 
fluoric,  (-hiomiuin  coiiil  iiies  with  two  pniporlioiis  of 
oxygen,  forming  two  coinpouiuls,  which  have  reicivfd 
the  names  of  uciyh  hxiiIi-  and  ihidntir  mid.  t'liroiiiium 
imites  with  chlorino,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  mid  prolia  ly 
fluorine.  It  is  u<«.l  in  colouied  glass  making,  and  nUm 
and  [lorceluin  painting.  It  i.s  u)so  used  in  cnaiiullin;;, 
and  as  a  rich,  strong,  nnd  duiable  pigment,  'i'o  g!ii<:) 
and  enamel  it  communicates  u  grccii  colour,  but  to  l!ie 
painter  it  aflurda  one  of  his  prettiest  yellows, 

TANADll'M. 
This  ia  a  raetal  which  was  only  discovered  a  few  ycnn 
ago.  It  is  white,  resembling  silver,  briltle,  a  u'di!  con- 
ductor of  electricity,  and  is  easily  diusolvtd  in  n'ric  iiciJ 
and  aqua  regia.  When  heated  rather  under  ri'dncrts,  u 
takea  fire,  bums  with  a  dull  flame,  ami  U  converted  into 
a  black-colourod  oxide.  It  comliines  with  oxygen  in 
three  proj)ortiona,  forming,  first,  blmk  odV.V  oi  protoxide, 
the  binoiide,  and  vtnadii:  arid.  It  combines  also  with 
chlorine,  aulphur,  and  phosphorus,  but  its  other  con 
pounds  are  unknown. 


rlANIVM,  MO 


\'' 


CHEMI8TRV. 


■m 


pUNIVM,  MOLrancKDM,  Ttrifnirrtiv,  ooldmrium,  and 

TITANIUM. 
'rhoM  mihitflnrri  ara  all  niotalu,  but  on  arrount  of 
ihfir  Kcorcily,  or  fiom  tlin  ditni'ulty  of  rnliirintf  thi-m  to 
■lirir  inrtallic  itiilo  Irom  thrir  oron,  they  nro  liiit  im[ier- 
feclly  knoivn,  ami  hnvn  nut  hvcn  applird  to  any  u»r(\i\ 
puriH>Mt.  f/riitiii(m  him  un  iron-p^rny  colour,  of  ronHulor- 
uhlfl  lunlrB,  ami,  wlirn  hciilcd  to  rc<lti«'H«,  tiilu'a  firi*.  It 
nroiiuroi  a  iIr('|>  Krcnn  protoxidn,  which  kivch  n  lilnrk 
iroiour  to  porcelain,  and  a fuwn-coloiirod  poroxiilo,  whiih 
(^tninuniciitra  to  pnrn-lnin  an  oranito  colour.  ItH  nprciflc 
uravity  in  9.  M'llyliilenuin  hiui  a  Hilvcr-whito  colour,  ii 
brittle,  ami  lm»  n  Hprrlfic  gravity  of  8-B.1fi.  Tu'wUn 
it  of  a  (friiyinh-whito  col(Uir,  in  very  hard  and  heavy, 
h«viin  a  »|M"ci(\c  gruvlly  of  17'4.  dilii milium,  when 
tmrni«hi'<l,  a»<uinc«  n  ycllowi^h-white  colour  and  a  mc- 
ullic  lustre.  Ti'iriiiiiin  has  a  copper-red  colour,  and 
I'oiwidorulilo  brilliancy.  It  crvHtalli/.eii  in  cubeii,  i«  hard 
i-nou^h  to  Hcriitch  r(H'k-cryHta|,  and  ha*  a  Hpecific  ijravity 
of  6'3.  All  thcHc  nielalu  combine  with  oxygen  and  Bonie 
nf  the  otiier  oupportorM;  but  tho  oxideii  anil  acids  ho 
fiirmed  aiu  not  dcavrvinK  of  particular  mention. 

ALKALINE    BASES. 

Polaifiiim  is  the  b;iHc  of  that  well-known  and  very 
uiiefui  article  potnHh.  The  properties  of  potassium 
wfre  firnt  determitu-d  by  Sir  H.  Davy,  to  whom  wo  arc 
.ndi'liled  for  the  dinoovery  of  the  composition  of  the  alka- 
line bodies.  It  !•«  a  white  metal,  like  silver.  At  30°  it 
nh&rd  iitid  brittle,  at  ."iO"  is  sotY  and  malleable,  at  132J° 
melts,  and  at  a  low  red  heat  evaporates.  Its  R[>ecilic 
Ijravity  at  <i()°  is  O'SliS,  beimr  Hijhtcr  than  water.  When 
nxpoHcd  to  tho  air,  it  rai>iilly  abiiorbs  oxygfcn,  and  forms 
notasli.  Thin  latter  body,  as  found  in  comnu^rce,  is 
always  combined  with  water,  which  cannot  be  ex|)elled 
bv  heat.  When  potassiuin  is  thrown  on  the  surface  of 
»atcr,  which  it  swims  upon,  it  decomposes  that  fluid 
with  Buch  rapidity,  that  the  metal  takes  fire,  and  burns 
with  a  red  flame.  Potassium  combines  with  two  pro- 
portions of  oxyKen;  it  also  unites  with  chlorine,  bromine, 
iodine,  hydrogen,  sulphur,  and  stweral  other  bo<lieg. 

Si:  hum  is  a  metal  so  similar  in  most  reH])ect8  to  tho 
foregoing,  as  to  stand  in  no  need  of  parti-ular  descrip- 
tion. It  is  the  base  of  the  alkali  called  so<la,  which  is 
fanned  when  tho  tnetal  is  broui^ht  into  contact  with 
water,  or  when  it  is  heated  in  oxygen.  It  decomposes 
water,  and  in  its  relations  to  other  bodies,  bears  a  strong 
ri'scinhlance  to  (KitaHsium. 

iiv^iiitii. — This  metal  is  the  base  of  the  alkali  called 
lilhia,  which  is  of  a  white  colour,  and  has  a  taste  fully 
,is  caustic  aa  that  of  potash  itself.  It  is  of  course  an 
oxide  of  Lithium.  Lithium  likewise  unites  with  chlo- 
rine, but  its  other  combinations  are  unknown. 

Knrium. — This  metal  is  the  basis  of  barytas,  an  alka- 
line earth.  It  is  of  a  whito  silvery  appearance,  absor?)- 
In^  oxygen  rapidly  by  exposure  to  the  air,  thus  forming 
Iwrytes;  and  it  also  rapidly  decomposes  water.  Barium 
combines  also  with  sulphur  and  phosphorus,  and  forms 
rompounds  with  chlorine,  bromine,  and  iodine. 

Strontium, — This  metal  is  the  base  of  strontia,  an  earth 
viTy  similar  to  tho  foregoing.  Strontium  and  barium  re- 
jcmblc  each  other  very  much  in  most  of  their  properties, 
iinJ  their  combinations  with  oxygen  have  also  a  very 
itrnng  resemblance.  Htrontium  also  unit<;swilh  chlorine, 
[ilioiphorus,  and  sulphur. 

Calriuiii. — Tills  metal  is  the  base  of  the  well-known  [ 
and  indispensable  coiuaiodity  lime.  Lime  has  In-en  known  | 
Irom  the  remotest  ages,  and  appears  always  in  combiiia- 
nation  with  an  acid,  most  commonly  with  tho  carbonic, 
I'onatituting  limrittnne,  miirtile,  catriinnnt  spin,  chalk,  and 
Ih'iiucntly  with  sulphuric  acid,  constituting  nypiiim, 
itlenilt,  and  tulphale  nf  lime.  It  combines  also  with 
various  other  acids.  Calcium  is  white,  like  silver,  solid, 
ind  much  heavier  than  water.     When   heated  iu  tite 

Vol.  l.-au 


ojien  air,  il  b    -n« 
Calcium  UTiii       n. 
limn  and  prm     le  irf  < 
taste,  and   is  ■psriiifl'^ 
readily  abxirh*  water  i 
ducing  at  the  saini  lii 
tho  water  becomes  wii 


111 

<<tk 
iibli 


'  lulfk'Hm*'  Is  rrnduoadi 

'  prnpoi  Hins,  forming 

I'ura  Imx     iM  an  nciM 


in  wst' 


>uma  upon  it, 
1  great  hemt. 
I   and  of  CI! 


It,  however, 
IM  htt  k,  ttmt 

>«  gt«M  0U<    t 

>t  the  riiM  of . 

l-tllW 


great  quantity  of  heat,  whir  li  uccouul 
temiM'ratnre.  This  priH-ess  is  called  slacking  lime, 
combines  with  chlorine,  and  forms  ildmiitt  of  tim,\  a  V 
stance  which  has  become  an  important  artii  !■  i 
inerco  under  tho  nniwiaf  hlrm  hiiif;  piiinht;  It  is  :.  i» 
|«)wiler,  with  a  hot  liiste,  having  tho  power  of  ilc  ..iviiu' 
vegetable  colours.  Calcium  combines  with  sulphur  ait«l 
phosphiiruH. 

Maunisiiim. — This  metal  is  the  basis  of  magneiia,  • 
substance  universally  known  from  its  I'rcijucnt  employ- 
ment in  medicine.  Magnesium  is  obtained  in  brown 
scales,  which,  when  rnbl)ed  against  agate,  leave  a  metallic 
stiiiii,  of  a  leiidcii  colour.  It  burns  with  a  red  light,  and, 
by  thus  coiiibining  with  oxygen,  beiomes  mngiitMin. 
This  is  a  soft,  elastic,  taslcleMS  powder,  not  s<-nsibly 
soluble  in  water,  and  slowly  changing  vegetable  blues  to 
green.  Magnesium  forms  lalta  with  chlorine,  bromine, 
and  iodine. 

CARTHT    BASES. 

This  family  comprehetids  five  substances,  the  oxide* 
of  which  are  white  tasteless  powders,  distinguished  by  the 
name  of  eiirllm, 

Jllumiiium. — Alumina,  which,  when  pure,  ia  a  fine 
light  powder  of  brilliant  whiteness,  is  an  essential  con- 
stituent in  every  kind  of  clay,  and  constilutes  tho  base 
of  alum,  from  which  substance  it  may  easily  lie  obtained. 
It  is  a  compound  of  oxygen  and  aluminum,  consisting 
of  two  parts  of  the  former  to  three  of  the  latter.  This 
metal,  when  hnmished,  assumes  a  metallic  lustre  resem- 
bling that  of  tin.  It  is  not  easily  fused,  but  at  a  red  heat 
it  burns  with  great  splendour,  and  is  converted  into 
alumina.  This  substance,  so  useful  in  the  manufacture 
of  every  species  of  pottery,  is  tho  only  compound  known 
of  oxygon  with  aluminum.  Alumina  possesses  the  re- 
markable property  of  shrinking  into  less  bulk  according 
to  the  intensity  of  the  heat  which  is  applied  to  it; 
hence,  it  was  formerly  employed  as  a  kind  of  thermo- 
meter or  rather  pyrometer,  for  measuring  very  high  de- 
grees of  temperature,  in  furnaces  for  instance.  A  gaugv 
is  used  for  measuring  the  amount  of  the  contraction. 
Aluminum  combines  with  chlorine,  phosphorus,  sulphur, 
and  sclcniura. 

Glurinum. — Glucina,  which  is  the  oxide  of  glucinum, 
exists  to  about  fourteen  jicr  cent,  in  the  beryl  or  emerald, 
from  which  it  can  bo  extracted.  Glucinum  iit  a  dark- 
gray  powder,  which,  when  burnished,  acquires  the  metal- 
lic lustre.  It  is  very  difficult  of  fusion.  When  heated 
in  air  or  oxygen,  it  burns  brilliantly,  and  aflbrds  tho 
oxide  glucina — the  only  compound  which  it  forma  with 
oxygen.  Glucina,  which  consists  of  100  metal  and 
44.44  oxygen,  is  a  soft,  tasteless,  white  powder,  which, 
when  wet,  is  somewhat  plastic,  like  alumina.  It  neither 
dissolves  in  water  nor  molts  in  the  fire.  Its  saita  have  a 
sweetish  taste,  like  those  of  alumina ;  and  both  of  these 
earths  are  in  this  respect  opposed  to  magnesia,  which  with 
acids  aflbrds  salts  of  a  bitterish  taste.  Glucinum  com- 
bines with  chlorine,  phosphorus,  sulphur,  selenium,  iodiiio, 
and  bromine. 

I'^niiHi.— Vttria,  which  constitutes  tho  oxide  of  thi« 
metal,  is  obtained  from  a  scarcu  mineral  called  gndolinito 
Yttrium  is  procured  from  it  in  iron-gray  scales.  If  heated 
in  common  nir  or  oxygen,  it  burns  brilliantly,  forimug 
the  earth  yttria ;  and  aa  far  as  is  known,  this  is  the  oiilv 
compound  I'ormed  by  tho  union  of  oxygen  and  ytlnum 
The  latter  substance  combines  with  ctilorine  and  tiM 
conibustibk^a. 


tM 


INFORMATION    FOK   TlIK   PF.OPLR. 


'^•.fi».«ii,— ThU  iMtJ  »il«<«  ill  •  ri>Mi.li-<-<)l'>iiriil  miit)^ 
ml  fouiiil  III  HwB.Iril,  r»ll««l  irritr.  ( Vriiiiii  U  «  iliirk- 
gny  |>owi|pr,  haviin  ■  inrlnllir  liiitio.  I'lil  lt»  \<rn\yrrHen 
HUTU  not  yrl  t».>ii  pro|wrly  .IrlcrniiiKil.  h,  hnwrvrr, 
rrniiMiiM  with  otygvn,  rhlorlne,  rtrlxM,  Julphur,  •ml 
ph-Mphoni* 

'/.moniUM.  —  ThK  Mrth  c«lln1  lirtrtnln  In  »  hiirnh 
whitish  powilor,  ilprtitula  of  li>«t''  or  «inrll.  '1  tn<  Imw 
tirrniiium  in  oolnp'oMHl  of  hrillmnt  m-nWt,  wliirh  nro  pro- 
bfllily  inrtktlii-,  alllioUKh  llin  militlnnro  liim  not  a*  yot 
rviiii-pil  Iho  iiirtiilllo  liinlrr.  Whmi  hfiili'il  in  ronimon 
•ir,  it  tuliM  i\rr,  Hiiil  I*  runTcrtisI  into  tirroiiiii,  which  in 
|N-rf<<<'lly  whit*'.  Thia  iii  thf  only  rninpoiinil  which  it 
(oimn  with  otynen.  It  unili'a  witli  I'hluriius  carhon,  anil 
•ulphur. 

Tluirium. — Thin  ii  a  newly  ilinrovrrpd  mrtal.  of  n 
Iradrn-flray  roloiir,  heory,  •ml  umlrr  the  linrninhiT 
ahowa  iiii'lallic  luatrn.  If  it  Ui  hratml  in  o|M'|i  air,  it 
burn*  with  nilirh  ii|ilpiiilnur,  ami  thu  rrauiliiiK  aiunv- 
f  hild  OKi<le  ia  thr  piirth  rnlleil  thoriiiu.  'I'hiii  ia  tlir  only 
^Oinpoiinil  of  thorium  with  oxyni'ii,  ami  thf  n-aiiltiiipt 
•ul>Htnrii'0  ia  iliHtiiiKniahrii  from  llii<  other  nirllia  l>y 
vnridiia  proprrtioa.  Thoriiim,  wlii-n  hi'nlcd  in  vii(Miur  of 
•(il|>luir,  hurna,  •»!  it  alao  unitra  with  chloriiio  •iiU 
phuMphorua. 

nirrinTt.Ti.T  rvninj.r.  iiA«r^. 

Iron. — Thia  well-known  aulmlamo  ia  oiip  of  the  apvcn 
mctola  with  which  the  •nricnta  were  iicipiuintcil ;  thcac 
Were  golil,  ailver,  copi><>r,  iron,  tin,  lead,  and  nicrcnry. 
Iron  ia  n  mclnl  of  great  iitilily,  and  it  ia  rnrtiiniilcly  round 
jimnd.intly.  Alniiwt  every  ininrriil  conluiiiH  it.  The 
ore  from  which  the  iron  of  (Jreat  Hril.iin  ia  uMiiined,  ia  a 
c  'rhiiiinlf  of  iron.  Iron,  after  pnaainu  throuRli  a  fiery 
ordeal,  haa  •  grnyiah  colour,  a  metHllic  liiatre,  and,  when 
huriii>>heil,  n  good  deal  of  lirillinncy.  Ita  hiirdiioaa  ex- 
eoeila  that  of  moat  nictnia,  and,  when  in  the  atite  »  ativl, 
i'  may  bi<  rendered  harder  than  moat  liodiea,  Ila  «|«'cific 
gravity  ia  7-8i.1  after  hunimering.  It  is  attriieled  hy  the 
maifnel,  and  may  itaelf  ho  converted  into  n  pt-rmnnent 
magnet  It  ia  malleable  at  every  temjM-rnture.  very  duc- 
tile, and  very  coinhuatihle,  for  we  ace  a  thin  wire  hum  in 
the  llaniA  nf  a  common  candle.  It  hurna  hrilliunlly  in 
exynen,  with  which  il  coinhinea  in  two  proiNirtiima, 
forming  oxidea.  It  combine*  alao  with  chlorine,  bro- 
mine, iixliiie,  boion,  lulphur,  aelenium,  phoaphorua,  arae- 
nic,  chromium,  and  antimony  ;  hut  the  moat  iinimrtant 
of  its  comliinationa  with  aimple  iuliatoncea  are  thoae  with 
charcoal,  which  form  the  imfiortant  compounda  nnl-iron 
nnd  n'l'f/.  Iron  forma  with  tlio  acida  a  nutneroua  •nd 
valuable  claaa  of  twlta. 

Manganese. — When  thia  auhatance  ia  pure,  which  i* 
rarely  the  caae,  it  ia  rather  whiter  than  caat-iron,  of  a 
grsuiulur  texture,  ami  may  he  reduced  to  |wwder  by 
pounding.  Ita  ajiecific  gravity  ia  H.()13.  It  ia  attracted 
by  the  maitnet  only  at  a  very  low  temperature.  It  grndu- 
illy  ali'iorlKi  oxygen  from  the  atmoaphere,  and  decompoaea 
water,  a  pro|KSrty  which  it  loaea  when  alloyed  with  iron. 
It  ia  mui'h  in  uae.  Cilasvnmkera  uao  it  for  two  pur- 
poaea ;  fir»t,  for  communicating  a  purple  or  violet  colour, 
or  for  destroying  all  colour,  and  rendering  the  gliiaa 
colourleia.  M»nsine<c  hita  a  atrong  affinity  for  oxygen, 
with  whirh  it  comliinca  in  aeven  pro|>orti(ma,  forming 
acids  anil  oxide -1.  It  unites  alao  with  chlorine,  fluorine, 
i.orboii  nnd  siilphur. 

tfirkti. — Thia  metal,  when  pure,  has  a  white  colour, 
r.keailvcr;  ia  rather  aoftcr  than  iron;  is  malleaMe  both 
hot  and  cold  ;  ia  altracte<l  by  the  magnet ;  ami,  like  iron, 
r.m  !«  converted  int.)  one.  Ila  ajHTlfic  gravity  ia  8-3H0 
after  fuaion.  The  preparationa  of  thia  met4il  contain 
I'liannoua  quililiea.  Nickel  rorabinca  readily  « ith  oxygen, 
•orming  tw  >  oxidea.  It  alao  unites  witli  chiorine,  carlion, 
aiilphur,  phoaphorua,  and  araenic 

('  ''-a't. — 'I*iia  metoi   haa  a  gray  colour  with  a  shade 


of  r«<l,  and  ia  not  brilliant.  Ila  tffitura  la  unaiiiiipt  k 
is  rather  soft  '«ml  brillle  ,  ita  a|i>irilli-  privily  is  l^f,  ^ 
U  uaml  for  giving  a  blue  roliHjr  to  glaw  and  ih^nvtalu 
thn  tint  is  ta'ailtifiil,  and  heiu-e  the  rixMiil  \«nn  ,■  j,jaij 
price.  It  uiiiti's  with  niygni.  and  I'lnna  two  oii4|Mi, 
Iheae  are  the  preparationa  of  cobalt  uaed  ni  llu>  arts.  || 
alao  combimia  with  chlorine,  sulphur,  srlenium,  and  phn,^ 
phurus. 

■AilLT    rtiaULK    ■••■«. 

Of  the  right  metalacom|Hiaing  thia  family,  all  aremilkk 
ablfl  except  biainulh,  which  ia  not  very  brittle.  Tlin 
melt  at  a  comparatively  low  heal.  A  ru<l  of  zine  thrnwi 
down  theae  metals  from  thuiruiid  solutions  in  the  inetallir 
stale. 

y.ini: — Tills  metal  is  of  •  hluiah-white  colour,  ami 
is  com|»iaed  of  pliites  sdhering  together.  It  ia  a  hanl 
metal,  la'ing  acted  on  ,  v  the  file  with  ditriciilty ;  ^,^^\ 
after  fiiaion,  itM  s|iecinc  ir  iiy  ii  (bH()6.  Il  liecomra 
malleable  at  313°,  and  iiielU  at  77.1°,  or  lafore  it  ia  (juitf 
red.  When  heat<'d  red-hot  witli  acceaa  of  air,  it  takcii 
fire,  hurna  with  an  exceediiiuU  la'autilul  greeiiinh  oi 
bhiiah-white  flume,  and  is  at  the  aaiiut  time  coii\ert4y| 
into  the  only  oxide  of  zinc  with  which  we  are  tc- 
quainti'il.  It  ia  of  ■  snow-white  C(d(iur,  ia  liinteleaa,  nml 
inaobiblo  in  water.  With  co|i|a'r,  zinc  forma  that  will. 
known  and  ua<-ful  alloy  cntlnl  hniBr.  Ziiie  coinhinft 
with,  and  is  act  on  fire  by,  chlorine ;  it  enters  inlti  union 
with  phoaphnrus,  sulphur,  selenium,  iodine,  and  variooi 
metals. 

Ciidniivm. — 'Hiia  metal,  which  ia  commonly  aiwori. 
aled  with  the  ores  of  zinc,  hna  a  white  cohmr  with  i 
ahade  of  bluiah-gray,  and  reaemblea  tin  in  ita  app)•||^ 
once.  It  ia  very  malleable,  ami  haa  u  ajH-cific  gT»»it» 
after  fuaion  of  8-(1()'ll).  It  unites  with  oxygen,  chlorine, 
and  aome  other  aupportcrs,  but  the  comiiuunda  are  unin 
portanL 

I.rnil. — Thia  ia  one  of  the  moat  abundant  nf  all  th« 
metala,  and  one  of  the  softeat  and  moat  fuaible.  Lnd 
has  a  bluiiih-whitc  colour,  and  a  giaal  di  al  of  liiatre,  but 
it  aoon  tarniahea.  Il»  ap<-cilic  gravity  after  fusion,  which 
tokea  ploce  at  600°,  is  ll-3.'il.  Lead  ia  very  malleablf, 
it  ia  alao  ductile,  but  ita  wire  poaaeaaea  little  Itniacity.  Bt 
ex|K>auru  to  a  very  atrong  heat,  it  ia  vnlutiliz<>d,aiiil  at  the 
heat  of  burning  hydrogen,  urged  by  oxygen,  it  burnnwiib 
a  bluiah  flame.  While  cx|)oaed  to  the  ntnioaph-rc  during 
fusion,  it  imbilica  oxygen,  and  is  converted  into  an  njjde, 
Then^  are  three  oxidea  of  leail — the  protoxide,  which  ii 
known  in  commerci;  and  the  artaaa  n  yellow  paint.  mJit 
the  name  matiirot,  or  if  it  be  aemi-vitrilied,  liih(iri;i ,  lb« 
deutoxide  is  alao  a  paint  nf  a  brilliant  red  colour,  incli> 
ing  to  orange  ;  it  obtaina  the  name  of  i;u»ii«rn,  or  trrf  ttivi; 
and  the  peroxide,  which  ia  of  a  dee(>  puce  /nut™  colour. 
When  heatetl  with  sulphur,  apontancous  eiimliuntinn 
takea  place.  I^ead  alao  coml'ines  with  chlorine,  bromine, 
iodine,  sulphur,  selenium,  ar«<Miie,  Ac.  It  ia  rpndprcj 
hard  by  antimony,  and  the  alloy,  mixed  with  a  little  tin, 
conalitutca  the  material  from  which  printer's  tvjipf  w 
elaborated.  The  siilta  of  lend  are  numerous  anil  vprr 
im|>ortanl.  li'hitt  It'nl  or  nrusi;  the  only  white  uacd in 
all  nil  paintings,  ia  made  by  aiibjecting  thin  pliitcH  oriciil,^ 
rolled  i!ii  apirally,  to  the  fumes  of  vinegar.  The  lead 
soon  beeirnea  corrcHled,  and  assnincs  a  while  a)i]iparam* 
and  a  brillle  consistency.  If  this  Hubataiire  be  ilisnolveii 
in  ncelie  acid  or  viiipi;ar,  it  beeomia  jimnr  nj  Ini'l.  I^aJ 
ia  never  lound  native:  by  f.ir  llie  most  comnion  atatp  in 
which  it  iM-cura  in  nature,  i»  mirierali/.ed  by  aulpliur.  Tin 
common  name  for  aulphuretof  lead  'MguUita,  Ilis  ubund 
ant  in  all  quarters  of  the  gloU'. 

Tin. — This  metal  rewmblea  load  in  many  of  ill  pro 
(lerties.  It  poaaeaaea  a  fine  white  colour,  with  a  ulii.'bl 
ahade  of  blue,  ami  has  a  good  deal  of  brillimfv.  In 
•|)ecif!c  gravity  al\er  fuaion  is  7-2H.5.  It  is  vi  rj-  raall^ 
able.    Tin  leal,  or  tiiiM,  as  il  ia  caUimI.  is  ui<out  iht 


CTTRMISTRY. 


,n«.lhflitMnitth  pint  of  an  inch  thlrk,  »ni1  It  might  Im 
B)wli<  niiirh  tliliinnr,  if  rci|iiiiii(i>.  It  ia  (liirillr,  liut  of 
infrmw  l«>iim'ily.  It  U  very  flpnililp,  iitkI  nnn'iioci  « 
ftmtrkMi  crarkling  ni)iMi  whrii  iNMiilnl.  r  im^lti  nt 
44?°,  but  •  »«fy  violi-nt  IipbI  ia  rriiuirwl  t'«|,>rn  it  will 
evii|)nr>t4>.  It  aliiwly  tarriiahra  with  th«  air,  nrxl,  when 
jntriiM'ly  hratad,  oxyi|«n  being  aiipplipd,  it  luini*  with 
ifTi-iit  lirilhiiiK'V  Tin  comliilii'*  with  imyKi'li  in  thcrn 
|ir«[i»rtiiHi«i  fiirtiiiiiK  thn  prntoxiilr,  whii'h  i*  hlark,  the 
iir«iuimi<l«',  **hii  h  I  ifriii/i»h,  and  llm  |«'riixi(lo,  which 
ia  yrlliii;  It  al*'  uiiiica  wilh  rhloriim,  hroininK,  imlini', 
<ul|>liiir,  M'lriiiuiu,  phnapliorua,  niiil  fliioriiii'.  It  ulloya 
with  viirioua  rnrtnia.  It  ia  uaril  in  I'liiitiiiK  vi<aiu>la,  i<itiii'r 
in  It  pore  "lain  or  nlloynl.  I'vwirr  ia  riiin|)<wiMl  i>f  Irail 
(11(1  till ;  Ih)'  Intt4'r  ri'iiili<riii|{  thn  fi)riiii>r,  a  iKiiaoiioiiM 
mi'tiil,  i|uiti<  'nniM-unua,  RiiKliah  tin  ia  tho  lirat  of  all, 
■ml  it  ia  nlliriiK  \  that  it  wua  uxportvd  from  thia  iaiiiiid 
S'iOO  yi'uia  ano 

i'oi\fitr. — Thia  metal,  in  point  of  grnornl  utility,  mnka 
n«xl  to  iron.  It  poaaraHOH  a  ruai'-rpd  rolnur,  and  a  ifriMit 
JiH'fi'"  of  hrillinnry.  Ita  apwiflr  (fruvity,  after  |ifin({ 
r,>||r'l  out  into  phitea,  ia  N.Orin.  It  hiiaKrriitiimllt'iiliility, 
ind  very  ronaidoriiMB  ductility.  A  liar  of  cnat  copprr, 
oni'  ipmrtiT  of  on  inrh  thick,  rnpiirca  1 198  Ilia,  to  lirciik 
it,  wliilat  hiiinmcrcd  cop|H>r  ri-ipiirca  nearly  lOUO  IIm. 
nio'd  to  Ivrcnk  it.  It  mi'lta  nt  10<I()°;  nnd  if  thn  lirat  liu 
iiuwisnd,  it  ovnporuli'H  in  fuinca,  which  «r«  vioililn. 
When  ruhhnd,  it  cinita  n  amcll.  When  hciiU'd  in  a 
hvilroBen  (lunio  urm'd  hy  oxyRcn,  it  hurna  hrilliaiitly, 
fml!tiiil{  n  da7.7.lin({  ^rccn  li);ht ;  n  piccu  uf  ci)|ipor  in  a 
tiiiil  Sro  tiiiKCH  tho  Miizo  ^rl•on.  When  nx|X)Hcd  to  air, 
it  niiiltttea  into  a  green  carlianiito  of  copiwr,  alowly, 
anil  when  in  contiict  with  nioiHturn.  With  oxygen  it 
foinliiiiea  in  Ihrco  proportiona,  forming  tlirco  oxidca, 
two  of  which  occur  uHtivo  ;  the  other  i«  not  iv  pcrina- 
niiit  coin|>ound.  Uoppor  coinliinca  alau  wilh  chlorine, 
iixlino,  aulphur,  ]ih(ifiplioruH,  iiraenic,  and  tin.  Ita  alloya 
with  (he  lullcr  niclal  ore  very  important.  From  eight  to 
twt'lvc  parta  of  tin,  conihineit  wilh  one  hundred  parta  of 
copiior,  compoKcd  Inoiize,  nnd  tho  nit!(il  of  r,innoni. 
Four  parla  of  copper  and  one  of  tin  compoao  Ml-mttal, 
The  alloy  uaod  for  the  niirrora  of  telrHCopna  wua  em- 
ployed liy  till'  niicicnia  for  tho  coinpuailion  of  their  mir- 
roni.  It  coimiata  of  almut  two  parts  of  copjior  united  to 
one  part  of  tin. 

hismulL — Thia  molnl  haa  a  reilditih-white  colour,  and 
is  compiled  of  hroad  plateM  aillurlng  to  each  other.  It  ia 
one  of  llie  moat  fiiaililo  ot  the  metals,  and  commimlcntea 
iu  (uniliility  to  other  melalH.  lu  apocilic  gravity  is 
9.S33.  Although  not  very  luiltle,  it  is  not  innlleahlo, 
unless  when  heated,  nor  cun  it  lie  drawn  into  wire.  A 
mixture  of  tin,  lead,  and  blHinuth,  ia  mo  fuaililo,  that  it 
nielu  when  thrown  into  boiling  \\ater.  A  toy  of  thia 
Lind  ia  well  known ;  it  is  a  spoon,  which,  when  im- 
mersed in  a  very  liot  liipiid,  iiuniediately  nielta.  Dia- 
mulh  comhlnos  with  oxygen,  chlorine,  bromine,  iodine, 
sulphur,  and  aeleniuin.  M'hat  ia  called  Newton's 
fusible  metal,  is  a  com|ioand  of  eight  porta  by  weight 
of  bismuth,  five  of  lead,  and  throo  of  tin.  It  melts 
at  212°. 

Miicury  or  Quirktihcr. — This  metal  has  b  silver-white 
colour,  poaseaaes  great  brilliancy,  and  remains  fluid  at 
tlic  common  temperature  of  the  atnuMphcre.  Ita  ajiecific 
gravity,  ut  fiO°,  ia  13.50846;  at  :!0°  lielow  lero,  when 
it  assuiMca  the  solid  form,  it  ia  15'012°.  When  solid,  it 
may  lie  lieaten  out  wilh  a  liainmer.  or  cut  wilh  a  knife. 
When  healed  to  CJO^,  it  boils;  and  when  heated  in  the 
(i|M'n  air,  it  oxidizes.  The  oxides  and  chlorides  of  mer- 
cury all'ord  nn  admirable  proof  of  the  truth  of  tho  atomic 
theory.  It  combines  also  with  bromine,  iodine,  sulphur, 
aeleiiium,  and  phoajiliorua.  The  comi>ounds  which  mer- 
cery forma  with  the  other  inetala  are  usually  termed  amul- 
paiiis.  riii.4  melal  occura  in  South  America  and  in  Spain, 
ill  |{[<ut  abundance.     Out  tlie  uiine'of  Idria,  in  Car- 


niola,  an  Aiiatrtnn  prnvinc*,  la  ffrhnpa  'ha  frrateat  io 
thn  world,  and  ha*  hum  wraughl  for  mora  than  thra* 
renturiea, 

Silifi. — Till*  m#t«l  ia  of  a  flna  whitB  colo«ir,  with  a 
aliKht  ahade  of  yellow.  When  |Kiliahed,  it  diapUya  t 
Hreat  deal  of  lirilliaiiry  ami  la'nuty.  It  ia  very  malleabU, 
and  may  Iw  lH'iit4'n  out  into  len\ea  ao  thin  aa  |.(IO(l,0<l()th 
of  nn  inch.  It  ia  aofter  than  eopiwr,  and  harder  than 
Kold ;  but  ita  tenncily  ia  inferior  to  the  formor  mnlaL 
When  melti'd  and  cooled  xlowly,  ita  aiMcifle  gravity  !■ 
l().:tU40;  when  hanimeriKl  and  roMed  it  ia  a  little  higher. 
Ila  iiiellinR-lioint  ia  IN:I0°;  and  if  it  Im>  kept  iiielle<t  for  • 
long  time,  it  nbaorba  oxygen  ;  but  it  poaat'aaea  thn  very 
aingiilar  pro|H-rly  of  parting  with  iho  iixvi4en  nn  aolidify* 
ing.  (iay  Luaaac,  a  great  French  chemial,  aaya  that  tht 
preannro  of  a  littlo  cop|ier  deprives  it  of  Ihia  pro|Mirty. 
Nilver  forma  with  oxygen  only  oiui  well-known  oxide.  It 
alan  uiiitea  with  chlorine,  bromine,  iixliiie,  aiilphur,  wile- 
niiim,  phoaphorua,  and  ars<«iic.  There  are  numeroua 
alloys  of  silver,  but  few  of  much  cona<M|uene<i.  One 
|iound  of  standard  ailver  ia  coined  into  sixty-six  ahillingai 
the  mint  price  of  silver,  thi-refore,  ia  5a.  (Id.  \n'r  ounce  al 
preaent.  Silver  ia  found  in  all  parla  of  the  world,  aom»> 
timea  alloyed  wilh  a  variety  of  other  metala  and  substancM, 
and  aometime*  in  the  native  state. 

NORLB    METALS. 
Some  might  include  silver,  and  even  mercury,  in  tkii 
liat,  but  it  is  more  common  to  say  that  the  family  eoiD- 
prehi'iida  aix  metala,  which  all  reipiire  a  violent  heat  to 
I  i'liMe  them.     The  name  noble  metals  haa  been  given  to 
I  the   family,  lH-caua<<  it  contains  gold  and  platinum,  the 
moat  esteemed  of  all  the  metals ;  and  U'cnuao  the  other 
four  metala  iH'longing  to  it  are  usually  axaociuted  with 
native  platiiium.     'I'heir  oxides  are  reducible  to  tho  me- 
tallic al.ite  by  the  n[iplica.ion  uf  heat  alone. 

(will. — This  ia  thi^  moat  valuable  of  all  the  mrtala.  ft 
always  occura  in  nature  in  the  metallic  stale,  allhough 
aeldom  pure.  It  has  a  beautiful  yellow  colour,  and  con- 
aideruble  lustre,  which  it  retains,  not  lioisg  liable  to  De 
tnrniahed  by  exposure  to  the  air.  It  ia  rather  aofter  than 
ailver,  and  after  fuaion  it  has  a  sja'cific  gravity  of  1U.2. 
It  ia  the  moHt  niulleable  of  metala,  and  may  lie  beaten 
out  into  leaves  no  thicker  than  l-2H2,0U(lth  of  un  inch, 
and  the  gold  leaf  with  which  silver  wire  is  covered  ia 
only  l-12lh  of  that  thicknesa.  Its  tenacity  ia  considera- 
ble, but  inferior  to  that  of  silver.  It  melts  at  20\r,'.  It 
is  insoluble  in  sulphuric,  nilric,  and  muriatic  acid ;  but  it 
readily  diaj^olvea  in  nipia  regia,  which  is  a  compound  of 
the  two  latter.  It  is  ditFicult  to  oxidize  gold,  and  still 
more  to  burn  it;  but  both  can  be  accomplished.  Oxygen 
combines  with  gold  in  two  proportions,  |ioMsibly  in  tbr(«, 
forming  oxides,  (iuld  also  unites  wita  chlorine,  bromine, 
imline,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  and  arsenic.  There  are  a 
number  of  alloys  of  gold ;  the  standard  gold  coin  of  the 
realm  is  an  alloy  of  twelve  parts  of  gold  to  one  of  cop- 
per or  silver,  or  sometimes  both.  Gold  occura  in  almosk 
all  parts  of  the  world  ;  but  Africa  and  America  supply 
the  chief  Euro|K-an  conaumpliun. 

Plalinum. — This  metal  is  white,  like  silver ;  its  ape- 
cific  gravity  is  21*47,  so  that  it  ia  heavier  than  gold.  ltd 
hardness  is  intermediate  between  copper  and  iron.  Tf  is 
very  ductile  and  malleable,  though  much  Ie«s  so  than 
gold.  Its  tenacity  is  considerable.  It  will  nut  melt  in 
the  heat  of  our  most  powerful  fuinaces,  but  it  may  lie 
fuaod  by  the  uxyhydrogen  blowjiipe,  ItB  property  of  re- 
aialing  high  temperatures  v^ithout  fusion  is  a  most  i.n- 
(Mutunt  one;  and  on  this  account,  us  well  us  its  prope\ty 
of  resisting  the  action  of  most  chemical  agents,  it  hi» 
been  employed  in  the  formation  of  vessels  \v  liich  it  ii" 
necessary  to  subject  to  an  extraordinary  decree  of  hent. 
Like  gold,  it  resists  the  action  of  all  the  sini,'li:  acids,  I  ui 
dissolves  in  aijua  regia.  It  combines  with  .:vgen  la 
probably   four   propumona,   form'ng   cxijM      i     uniMK 


■/! 


SS8 


INFORMATION  FOR   THE   PEOPLE. 


•loo,  with  cnlorint,  bromine,  io<1ine,  silicon,  sulphur,  sele- 
nium,  and  phosphorus.  There  are  numerous  alloys  of 
platinum,  but  they  are  not  of  much  importance.  There 
is  a  form  of  this  metal  which  possesses  extraordinary 
properties ;  it  is  called  upmtfiy  phliiium.  It  is  prepared 
by  dissolving  platinum  in  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  muri- 
atic acids  by  heat ;  muriate  of  ammonia  is  added,  when 
a  pncipitale  falls,  which  must  be  filtered  and  dried.  If 
a  small  quantity  of  this  powder  be  heated  by  a  candle, 
it  will  become  incandescent,  as  if  it  took  fire.  It  is,  when 
cold,  fit  for  use.  If  a  jet  of  hydrogen,  from  a  tube  of  a 
very  slender  bore,  be  directed  on  it  from  a  little  distance, 
tlie"  metal  immediately  becomes  red-hot,  and  it  sets  fire  to 
the  hydrogen.  This  may  \k  repeated  a  great  number 
of  times ;  hut  the  sponge  at  last  losj-s  its  power ;  the 
smaller  the  quantity,  the  sooner  its  power  is  lost. 

Paltniliwn,  RIvxIium,  Iriitium,  and  Oimiiim. — These 
four  metals  occur  in  the  platinum  of  commerce.  They 
are  prociirnble  in  very  siiudl  quantities ;  they  have  not 
been  applied  to  any  uae  of  moment;  they  pt>sses8  no 
very  temarkable  qualitiea,  »nd  therefore  do  not  require 
to  be  minutely  descrilied.  They  all  unite  with  oxyRen 
tnd  chlorine,  and  some  of  them  with  the  other  sup- 
porters. 

Such  is  a  brief  sketch  of  the  fifty-four  simple  sub- 
stances, whose  numerous  rombinalioiis  give  rise  to  the 
infinite  variety  of  objects  which  are  found  ready  formed 
in  the  laboratory  of  nature,  or  have  been  discovered  in 
Uiat  of  tlie  philosopher. 

OROAMZED  STRUCTURES. 

The  mibslanres  constituting  the  subjects  of  this  branch 
of  chemistry  are  those  of  which  vegetables  and  animals 
are  coni|)oseil.  In  veeetables,  for  example,  we  have 
sugar,  Ktarch,  gums,  refin,  &c. ;  and  in  animal  bodies, 
albumen,  nmscle,  l>one,  «Stc. 

Vtgtt'ibk*. — Notwithstanding  the  infinite  diveinity  of 
form  which  vegetable  sulwtances  assume,  it  has  been 
proved  that  they  are  all  composed  of  the  same  ultimate 
elements,  and  these  are  only  four  in  number ;  namely, 
oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon,  and  azote.  These,  again,  by 
uniting  amongst  themselves,  form  the  compounds  which 
constitute  the  vegetable  structure ;  and  lieing  the  more 
immediate  objects  of  sense,  in  the  investigation  of  any 
organization,  theso  are  called  their  jimximale  prinripUf. 
Existing  ready  formed  in  woods,  roots,  6tc.,  we  find  a 
coiisiderulile  number  of  proximate  principles,  in  the  form 
of  acidri,  alkalies,  sweet  principles,  bitter  principles,  oils, 
exudations;  some  poisonous,  others  wholesome;  some 
spontaneously  separating,  others  remaining  obstinately 
t*onibined.     We  shall  give  a  brief  o\itline  of  these. 

Citric  .li-iit. — This  acid  exists  in  the  juice  of  lemons, 
■;ii3;  when  crystallized,  one  hundred  grains  consist  of — 
water  3I<^,  and  pure  acid  7A),  which  is  a  com|Hiund  of 
43'!  oxyi^cn,  31-58  carbon,  and  2-C3  hydrogen.  .^>r/>i> 
rrid  is  the  sour  principle  of  apples,  sorbus  l)erries,  and 
other  fruitx.  It  consist*  of  the  same  ingredients  as  the 
former.  Tarlarir  and  is  the  sour  principle  of  grapes; 
when  a  larze  quantity  of  them  are  left  to  ferment,  the 
result,  it  is  well  known,  is  wine.  On  the  aide  of  the 
vi'.Hsel  containing  this  liquor,  crystals  of  the  acid  com- 
rined  with  |K>tash  are  formed,  and  these,  when  purified, 
are  rrtam  of  tartar.  Twelve  parts  in  the  100  are  water; 
iiid  the  remaining  88  consist  of  oxygen,  52.97  ;  carbon, 
•!'i>39 ;  and  hydrogen,  8-fi4  parts.  Oxalir  a-id. — The 
pl.inl  called  sorrel  is  valued  for  it.i  acidulous  tnste,  which 
1/4  conterrt'd  u|>on  it  by  this  arid.  It  hut  no  hydrogen  in 
it^  com|K>sition,  consisting  merely  of  oxygen  and  carlion. 
It  is  an  active  (wison,  and  from  resembling  Kl>xoni  salts 
III  appearance,  many  persons  have  fallen  victims  to  its 
virulence.  The  antidote  is  j>owdered  chalk,  (jatlu-  acid 
IS  obtained  from  nut-galls.  Its  moMt  reniarkaiile  property 
ix  that  of  changing  Ihe  colour  of  solution*  containing 
.-'HI  t>  an  intense  bluo-black  colour,  an  in  the  case  i4' 


common  writing-ink.  One  hundred  grains  consiat  nt 
66.26  carbon,  37-6  oxygen,  and  f)'25  hydrogen,  Pruau 
or  Hydrocyanic  arid  found  in  various  fruits  and  flowers, 
is  a  most  [lowerful  poison.  It  is  formed  of  hydrogen  and 
cyanogen,  a  noxious  inflammable  gas.  I'horo  are  a 
numlier  of  other  acids,  which,  l)eing  of  little  use,  arc  not 
worth  naming.  Those  just  descrilied  exist  ready  formed 
in  fruits,  &c. ;  they  are  simple  tdwtt.  But  there  are 
otheis  formed  by  chemical  changes  produced  on  certain 
elements  containinl  in  vegetoblcs,  which  aflord  the  bas« 
of  tiie  acid ;  these  are  acid  products :  some  are  produced 
by  the  agency  of  fire,  others  by  the  action  of  nitnc  acid 
Several  acids,  when  distilled  at  a  high  temperature,  un. 
dergo  decomposition,  and  new  acids  are  formed  Their 
names  remain  the  same,  with  the  word  pyro  as  a  prefix. 
Thus  we  have  pyrocitric  acid,  &c.  There  are  other  acids 
gencroted  by  similar  means,  hoving  simple  names  without 
I  any  prefis. 

I  f'cKi-idlile  .Alkalies. —  It  has  licon  ascertained  that  alka. 
I  lies,  ns  well  as  acids,  exist  ready  formed  in  plants  as  ons 
of  their  constituent  parts.  Those  which  evince  alkaline 
properties  of  a  weak  choractcr  are  entitled  aUidoida. 
The  alkalies  ore  ipiinina  and  chi>ic!iotiin,  which  resemWe 
each  other,  have  a  bitter  tnste,  and  neutralize  mis. 
Mnrphin,  which  is  obtained  from  opium,  is  a  white  cty». 
talline  powder ;  strychnia,  one  of  the  most  powerful 
bitters  and  |)oisons,  which  has  of  late  been  much  used  in 
medicine;  /iitinVi,  also  a  violent  poison;  rfigidi/io,  which 
is  procured  from  the  leaves  of  foxglove;  hyosciannn, 
ntrnpia,  rrralrin,  emelina,  &c,  which  are  derived  fioni 
heniiane,  deadly  nightshade,  &c.  Of  the  other  proximate 
vegetable  principles,  the  first  deserving  of  notice  is  the 
woody  fibre  which  conutifutes  the  solid  basis  of  all  vegi. 
table  strnctureii.  It  is  called /I'^nm,  from /lyiit/ni,  woon  • 
and  consists  of  52  carbon,  and  48  of  oxygen  and  hy 
drogrn,  in  the  ratio  which  forms  water.  M'ith  lignin  are 
associated  various  other  bodies,  such  as  resins,  which  are 
various  and  abundant.  In  the  different  species  of  the 
pine-tree,  we  discover  that  peculiar  liquid  resin  called 
turpetitinc.  From  resins  are  obtained  what  are  called 
essentiiil  nils  :  because,  after  the  resin  has  been  heated  irj 
a  distilling  apparatus,  an  odoriferous  oil  distils  over,  aid 
I  leaves  the  resin  hard,  dark,  and  odourless.  The  tssemi 
I  of  the  substance  is  suppns»'d  to  have  passed  away  in  tlie 
I  af  riform  state,  hence  the  name.  From  its  speedily  eva- 
I  poritting  on  being  exposed  to  the  air,  it  is  also  called 
i  vnliililc  nil.  The  seeds  of  plants  yield  another  oil,  which 
!  not  evajwrating,  is  called  fi^^'l  "''•  To  these  two  oils 
there  are  two  substances  liearing  some  analogy,  tci/r  and 
•  camphor.  The  former,  when  melted,  possesses  some  of 
the  properties  of  a  fixed  oil,  and  the  latter  seiMiis  to  fnis- 
sess  the  pro])ertie8  of  a  concrete  volatile  oil,  althouch  it 
:  possesses  qualities  distinct  from  those  of  all  other  bodies. 
fi'um,  for  instance  gum-arabic,  has  the  following  proper- 
l''s:  namely,  transparency,  lastelessness,  pcrti-ct  wilu. 
bility  in  water,  viscidity  of  the  solution,  capability  of 
I  cementing  fragments  and  of  alTording  a  vnrnish,  ami 
total  insolubility  in  spirit  of  wine.  Tnere  is  a  class  of 
boilies  called  ^im  rtsitis,  whose  properties  are  interne- 
diale  U'tween  those  of  gum  and  rrsiii;  and  nomewhal 
allied  to  resins,  althongh  essenlinlly  dill'erciit  in  most  ol 
its  pro|ierties,  is  the  substaiiri;  called  ciuiulrh>:uc,  (ir  Indmn 
ruhlier.  It  is  the  exuded  juice  of  a  pcciili:ir  tree,  ami  it 
coin|><med  of  carbon  and  hydrogen.  From  wbrnleii  fliur 
a  suliNtance  is  obtiiined,  called  (t/m/oi,  from  its  clotinoui 
nnlure.  There  are  two  jirinciplrs  in  Ibis  subsliim-e— the 
one  is  called  nlnulin,  and  the  other  ziiii'  mm.  A  »ub- 
stance  called  lYCf'ii/i'c  "'/'""Ki  mtiiiS  to  Is-  the  basis  of 
all  emulsive  grains  in  [ilace  of  starch,  aiiil  ^really  rfr 
sernbles  it.  Slurrh  is  a  fine  white  stilimeiit,  pr(ii|iit;ilixl 
from  the  white  and  brittle  parts  of  veaetubles,  partirularl) 
the  tuberosi-  roots,  ami  the  st-eds  of  the  graminooiis  plant*. 
One  of  the  most  remarkable  pro|H'rties  of  starch,  or, « 
it  is  calli-d,  fccxild,  is  that  of  Ikmiiu  convertible  int  i  ui|S 


aamimm 


CHEMISTRY 


9-i9 


by  the  action  of  diluted  sulphuric  acid.  Mtarch  is  not 
nn'v  aflfurded  from  various  grains,  but  from  potatoes; 
iniii  al  extracted  from  this  vegetable,  it  is  much  in  de- 
mand »s  an  article  of  food.  Jrrouroot,  which  ir  obtained 
from  the  roots  of  a  West  India  plant,  is  the  same  kind 
of  gubstancc. 

Sugar. — Every  one,  we  suppose,  should  know  what 
lUj-ir  is;  iK'iiig  in  particular  n  sweetener  of  the  kindly 
iKvemCfS  ten  and  cofrro.  It  is  derived  from  miuiy 
fourccj — from  the  smjar-caiie,  niaple-troe,  licct-root,  and 
Uiapea.  Nothing  is  eusior  thiin  its  formation  from  grnpcs: 
CTope  juice  i"  to  be  siituratcd  willi  ciialk,  clarified  with 
nhite  of  iggs,  or  blood,  and  cvapuratcd  ;  after  a  few  days 
it  nssuincs  the  form  of  a  crystiilliiie  muss.  'J'liniii,!. — 
FiPin  onk  bark,  or  nut-galls,  a  peculiar  subalaiice  is  oli- 
laiiicd,  rallt'd  tannin — s,)  named  from  being  the  material 
employed  in  tanning  leatlier.  It  is  inodorous,  colour- 
lew,  and  potisesses  a  rough,  astringent,  bitter  taste. 

THE   ANIMAL  COMPOUNDS. 

The  chief  substances  which  enter  into  the  composition 
n(  animal  matter,  arc  oxygen,  hydrogen,  azote,  carbon, 
phosphorus,  and  lime.  Wo  also  find  some  other  kinds 
of  matter,  as  certain  acids  and  metaU,  but  in  quantity  so 
final!  as  not  to  alfect  the  truth  of  the  above  statement, 
that  the  foregoing  six  ingredients  constitute  the  great 
talk  of  t'le  animal  fabric. 

Bone  consists  of  phosphate  and  carbonate  of  lime,  and 
two  other  ingretlients,  cartilage  and  gelnlitie.  The  latter 
is  the  coagulating,  or  rather  elastic,  principle  in  all  ani- 
mal jdlics.  When  bones  are  burned  in  a  close  vessel, 
ihey  form  ivory  hli)rk.  Fibrin  is  obtained  from  the  ves- 
fols;  when  recently  obtained,  it  is  elastic;  but  when  pcr- 
ft'clly  dry,  it  is  somewhat  horny  and  transparent.  There 
Is  an  impoitant  substance  called  osmazomc,  which  com- 
municates to  soups  and  broths  their  peculiar  taste  and 
fmoli,  and  the  greater  the  quantity  present,  the  better  is 
the  sonp.  The  teiuhns,  hsittnenls,  and  mcnibrnne-,  are 
nearly  allied  to  gelatine  in  their  nature. 

Of  the  fluids  of  the  animal  body,  blood,  one  of  the  most 
important,  is  viscid,  of  a  red  colour,  exhaling  a  vapour 
of  a  jieculiar  odour.  When  left  at  rest  a  few  hours,  its 
appearance  is  very  much  altered,  having  separated  into 
two  parts — one  quite  liquid,  of  a  greenish  whey-like 
colour,  and  called  serum  ;  the  other  an  clastic  firm  jelly, 
of  a  crimson  red  colour  and  thick  consistence,  resembling 
1  deposit,  which  is  called  the  rnissnincnt.tin,  or  liot. 

If  the  clot  of  blood  lie  repeatedly  washed  with  cold 
water,  it  parts  with  its  red  colour  to  the  water,  tiecomes 
while,  and  a  fibrous  matter  remains,  which,  when  sub- 
jreled  to  analysis,  proves  to  he  fibrin.  Serum  coagulates 
when  heated  to  pbout  160°,  nearly  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  white  of  an  egg,  but  the  colour  is  not  pure  white. 
If  the  M^rum  thus  coagulated  be  cut  in  slices,  a  fluid  will 
eiuilo,  which  is  called  the  lerosily  of  blood ;  it  consists 
rhictly  of  water,  holding  a  little  altered  albumen  and  a 
little  common  salt  in  solution.  Serum  is  composed  of 
water,  albumeii,  soda,  and  sumo  salts  of  soda.  Clot  is 
romposed  of  fibrin,  albumen,  red  colouring  matter,  a 
little  iron,  and  carbonic  acid. 

During  the  conversion  of  arterial  into  venous  blood, 
nitrogen,  hydronen,  and  other  elements,  arc  spent  in  the 
formation  of  new  products,  while  the  proximate  prin- 
[iples  of  the  blood  remain,  with  an  increased  proptirtion 
'1  carlwii.  In  this  state  it  is  exposed  to  the  atmospheric 
air  in  thb  lungs,  the  oxygen  of  which  abstract-s  its  excess 
)t'  carbon,  and  forms  the  carbonic  acid  expired ;  and  this 
constitutes  the  conversion  of  venous  into  arterial  blood. 

Fdliy  substances,  as  lard  and  oils,  are  formed  chiefly 
if  carlKin,  with  a  little  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  one  or 
both,    .llbuimn  is  a  sutjttanc«  very  abundant  in  animal 


matter.  It  occurs  nearly  pure  in  the  white  of  eggs.  Of 
this  substance  in  the  coagulated  state,  along  with  gelatine 
are  horns,  nails,  and  hoof$  composed.  The  braiti,  the 
thinking  organ  of  man,  consists  of  water  80,  white  fal 
4-53,  red  fat  0-7,  osmaznine  1-12,  albumen  7,  phosphorus 
1-5,  sulphur  and  various  salts  6-15  parts  in  the  hundred. 


[WORKS  ON  CHEMISTRY. 

The  numerous  applications  of  chemistry  to  industria. 
and  commercial  purposes,  have  served  to  multiply  books 
on  the  subject  to  an  almost  unlimited  extent  Among 
the  general  treatises  on  cheniistry  are  the  well-knowu 
work  of  Turner,  which  is  very  extensively  used  in 
schools  and  colleges  in  this  country  ;  Kane's  "  Element,, 
of  Chemistry"  edited  by  Draper,  and  recently  published 
by  the  Harpers,  esteemed  one  of  the  best  ami  most  com- 
plete ;  "  First  Principles  of  Chemistry,  utilh  Questions,  by 
Professor  Henwirk,"  intended  for  beginners,  and  much 
used  in  schools ;  '<  Conversations  on  Cliemielry,"  admirable 
for  its  familiar  explanations,  and  fonnerly  used  exclusively 
for  schools;  and  Liebig's  "  Chemirul  Letters'' entertaining 
essays  for  the  general  reader.  For  reference.  Dr.  Ure'^ 
"  Dictionary  of  .Arts,  Manvfactures,  and  Mines,"  already 
referred  to,  and  Brande's  "  Encyclopedia  of  Science  ana 
Jlrt,''  (Harpers,  New  York,)  are  indispensable  to  tha 
student  who  desires  to  bo  thoroughly  versed  in  che- 
mistry. 

Of  the  larger  works,  adapted  to  those  who  have  madi 
some  progress  in  the  science,  we  may  mention,  and  re- 
commend to  general  notice :  "  Jin  Epitome  of  Chemistry, ' 
by  William  Henry,  which,  from  a  very  small  volume,  has 
grown  to  two  largo  and  closely  printed  octavos,  illustrated 
with  numerous  plates.  "  .i  l<ystem  of  Chemistry,"  in 
5  vols.  8vo.,  by  Thomas  Thomson,  M.  D.  The  ob'ecl 
of  the  author  of  this  work  has  been  to  facilitate  the  pro- 
gress of  the  science,  by  collecting  into  one  body  the  nu- 
merous facts  which  lay  scattered  through  a  multiplicity 
of  writings,  by  blending  with  them  the  history  of  their  gra- 
dual development,  ai;d  by  accompanying  the  whole  with 
exact  references  to  the  original  worlc  in  which  the  disco- 
veries have  been  registered.  "  «i  SysHm  of  Chemistry," 
by  J.  Murray,  in  4  vols.  8vo.,  to  which  there  is  added 
a  very  valuable  supplement  containing  a  view  of  the 
recent  discoveries  in  the  science;  also  "  Elements  of  Che- 
mistry,"  by  J.  Murray,  in  2  vols.  8vo.,  3d  edition,  which 
contiuns  a  very  able  and  luminous  statement  of  the  ge- 
neral doctrines  of  the  science,  and  forms  one  of  the  best 
intrixluctions  to  chemistry  ever  given  to  the  public. 
"  Chemistry  applied  to  th'  Jrts,"  by  M.  T.  A.  Chaptal,  in 
4  vols.  8vo. ;  a  very  useful  *  ^  entertauiing  work.  "-4 
Manual  of  Chemistry,"  conth  iing  the  principal  facts  a' 
the  science,  arranged  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  di» 
cussed  and  illustrated  in  the  lectures  of  the  Royal  Institu* 
tion ;  a  new  edition,  in  3  vols.  8vo.,  by  W.  T.  Drande, 
is  a  very  useful,  practical  introduction  to  the  science. 
"Jl  Diciioniiry  of  Chemistry,"  on  the  basis  of  Mr.  Nichol« 
son's,  in  which  the  principles  of  the  science  are  investi- 
gated anew,  and  its  applications  to  the  phenomena  of 
nature,  medicine,  mineralogy,  agriculture,  and  manufac- 
tures, detailed,  by  Andrew  Ure,  M.  D.,  piofessor  of  tha 
!  Andersonian  Institution,  at  Glasgow.  "  Elements  of 
ChcmMry,"  &c.,  by  M.  Lavoisier,  translated  ino  English 
:  by  Mr.  Kerr.  Notwithslnntling  the  various  improvements 
j  and  important  discoveries  which  have  been  made  sincH 
I  the  death  of  the  illustrious  author  ot  tliese  element!., 
his  work  will  stil.  att'ord  mueii  satisfaction  to  every  poi> 
I  son  who  makes  this  science  his  pursuit.— j7»i.  Ed,] 


'.I 


CHEmSTRY  APPLIED  TO  THE  AllTS. 


Ciir.i«STHT,  or  that  depnrtment  of  physical  arience 
which  recognises  the  nature  nnd  compoBition  of  bodies, 
Bnd  the  changes  which  they  undergo,  is  now  indispensa- 
ol*  to  the  proper  carrying  on  of  nhnost  every  useful  art. 
Agriculture,  which  may  be  considered  the  most  important 
of  all  the  arts,  is  radically  dependent  on  chemistry  ;  for, 
without  a  knowledge  of  that  science,  the  hu!<bnndman 
remains  ignorant  of  the  nature  of  his  soils,  the  action  of 
the  atmosphere  and  sun's  light,  or  the  properties  of  those 
materials  which  are  required   to  enrich   his  exhausted 
fields.     Baking,  brewing,  distilling,  and,  indeed,  all  the 
operations  by  which  food  is  prepared  from  the  condition 
xi  which  it  is  furnished  by  nature,  are  all  tn  general  a 
series  of  chemical  processes.     So  likewise  is  the  manu- 
facture of  pottery-ware,  porcelain,  glass,  psper,  the  opera- 
tions of  bleaching,  dyeing,  and  calico  printing,  the  prepa- 
ration of  sonp,  gunpowder,  ink,  salt,  drugs,  paints,  per- 
fumery, and  vorious  other  articles  daily  required.     The 
applications  of  chemistry  to  the  arts  are  in  reality  so 
numerous,  that,  to  do   the   subject  justice,  we   should 
require  to  take  in  nearly  the  whole  circle  of  manufnc- 
luring   industry.     To  do   so,  however,  is  Itcyond   our 
limited  means,  even  were  it  desirable ;  and  our  object  in 
the  present  sheet  is  to  give  a  short  account  of  the  manner 
in  which  chemistry  is  practically  upplied   in  those  pro- 
cesses of  art  which  we   have  not  elsewhere   alluded   to. 
The  design  in  view  is  not  to  tench  any  one  art,  but  to 
incite  to  a  general  tttuly  nf  rhrminlry  among  those  classes 
of  the  pcoplo  who  are  engaged  in  such  branches  of  manu- 
facture as  invoNe  an  elementary  change  in  substance. 
We  commence  with  a  brief  description  of  the  apparatus 
requisite  to  carry  on  practical  ex|H>riincnt8  in  the  science. 

THE    CHKMIST's    LABORATORY. 

A  laboratory  is  a  chemist's  workshop.     It  is  the  place 
in  which  he  performs  his  experiinenis,  and  requires  to  Ih! 
airy  and  spacious,  to  have  a  command  of  water,  to  l)e 
provided  with  suitable  tables  and  shelves,  mortars,  filters, 
and  other  apparatus.    Correct  weighing  being  indispensa- 
ble to  every  chemical  eTperimcnt,  an  exact  and  very  deli- 
cate balance  is  an  essential  recjuisite.     There  should  be 
at  least  two  balances ;  one  for  weighing  heavy  matters, 
and  another  for  very  minute  quantities.    The  last  Instru- 
ment should  be  sufficiently  delicate  to  weigh  from  600  to 
1000  grains,  and  downwards,  iiidicjiting,  distinctly  and  I 
Certainly,  diflerences  of  an  exceedingly  minute  amount.  \ 
At  it  is  by  carefully  weighing  sulistances,  both  before  and  ! 
after  being  experimented  u[>on,  that  the  exact  comtlituent  I 
parts  of  bodies  are  determined,  and  the  must  important  i 
chemical   truths   ascertainixi,   the   balance   and   weights  | 
ihould  bo  carefully  examined  at  intervals,  and  their  accu- 1 
racy  tested.     Measures  are  necessary  for  ascertaining  the 
bulk  of  liquids  or  gases,  and  two  integers  are  suflicient, 
the  pint  and  the  cubic  inch.     Measures  should  lie  made 
of  glaas,  and  have  a  graduated  scale  marked  on  both  ' 
sidea.     They  arc  commonly  of  a  cylindrical  8hap<>,  like  a  I 
phial  bottle,  and  possess  a  small  spout  at  the  orifice.    The 
graduations  on  these  inatrutnents  are  Homelinies  very  mi- 
nute, and  indicate  excce<lingly   small  quantities  of  the  \ 
bodies  put  into  tiiem.    The  mcnsures  nhould  be  verified  by 
weighing  into  them  sucrcssivcly  i^irtions  of  merrury  and 
water.     .\  cubic  inch  of  the  former,  at  a  teuip«Tutun'  of 
62°,  weighs  3'i'2.')'35  graiiH,  nii<l  llie  same  ipiantily  of  the 
latter,  at  the   same  tenijM-rature,  wciiilis  2.Vi-l!)8  grams. 
Wale'  answers  well  enough   for  r-iimiatiiiM  down   to  the 
cubic  inch,  but  for  the  t<'nths  and  the  hundredths  of  iin 
inch,  inerc<iry  is  liuth  more  exact  and   more  rxpcdiliinis. 

Pi'H'iAi  i:s,  Hlowi'ipi'.h,  RKTimrs,  Ac. — Heut  is  one 
of  the  mnat  powerful  and  extensively  umiIUI  ugeiits  eui-  \ 


ployed  by  the  chemist  for  ascertaining  the  prope  tlei  rii 
bmlies,  and  the  methods  of  its  production  become  c  f  grvm 
moment  to  him.  One  of  the  most  convenient  furtnji  |„ 
which  heat  can  be  applied  to  any  chemical  operation,  u 
that  of  placing  a  spirit-lamp,  as  in  fig.  1,  under  a  glasa 
retort,  fixed  to  a  simple  kind  of  stand.   The  lamp  ia  triin. 

med  with  cotton  wick 
and  fed  by  alcohol,  which 
gives  a  pure  flame,  and 
the  heat  which  it  gcrio. 
rates  is  very  intense. 

Operations  on  a  moro 
extended  scale  are  car. 
ried  on  by  furnaces.  Dr. 
Black's  portable  furnace 
which  is  much  nscd,  con- 
sists of  a  stout  iron  case 
like  a  round  stove  in 
shape.  Al>ove  is  an 
aperture  for  an  iron  pot, 
to  contain    sond ;   and 


Fig.  1. 


other  openings  may  also  be  observed,  for  iiitroducinc 
tubes  and  dificrent  kinds  of  apparatus.  The  pipe  carr\'. 
ing  away  tho  smoke  must  be  prolonged  or  connected  wiih 
a  chimney.  Furnoces  upon  n  large  scale  are  coiiatriictcd 
in  various  ways  of  fire-brick,  which  resists  an  intense 
heat  without  fusion.  This  degree  of  heat  can  Ix'  pro. . 
duced  either  by  pro|)elling  air  upon  tho  combustible  nut. 
tcr  by  means  of  bellows,  in  which  case  the  furnjce  t 
called  a  html-furnare,  or  by  ("orming  long  flues  and  rais- 
ing a  high  chimney.  The  higher  the  chimney  is  raised, 
the  more  powerful  is  the  draught  V\x>n  the  top  of  a 
furnace  of  this  open  kind,  and  also  upon  the  Hues,  close 
by  the  fire,  vessels  containing  sand,  anil  hence  called 
sand-baths,  are  ])laced.  In  these,  bodies  can  be  rai:icd  to 
a  high  degree  of  tem|ierature.  Charcoal  is  the  substanc* 
most  commonly  used  in  furnaces.  It  produces  an  inlenif 
heat  without  smoke,  but  very  soon  consumes.  Coke,  oi 
charred  coal,  produces  a  strong  and  lusting  heat. 

'i'he  blowpipe  is  an  indispensable  article  in  the  lak'a 
tory  of  the  practical  chemist.     The  principle  on  which  i! 
operates,  is  that  of  a  blast-furnace,  on  so  mimite  a  seal) 
as  to  bo  capable  of  being  held  in  the  hand.     The  pipe, 
which  is  made  of  tin  or  brass,  of  a  shape  reseinldini;  ilial 
represented  in  fig.  3,  is  u-^ually  eight  or  ten  inches  \n 
length.     M  is  the  mouth  or  upper  end,        -M 
through  which  the  breath  is  im|)elled,  and 
O  is  the  small  orifice,  at  the  point  of  the 
side  tulie,  from  which  the  blast  comes. 
By  placing  the  upper  end  of  the  instru- 
ment in  the  mouth,  and  urging  a  stream 
of  air  upon  the  flame  of  a  lamp  or  candle, 
an   intense  degree  of  heat  is  produced, 
which  may  be  brought  tr>  bear  upon  any 
substanc  e  placed  in  a  small  spixinof  pure 
gold  or  platina.     If  the  body  to  be  fused 
lie  not  of  such  a  nature  as  to  sink  into 
the  pores  of  charcoal,  that  substani-e  is 
coMunonly  ns<!d.     A  great  many  inip<irt- 
ttiit  nnd   iH'autilul   exjieriments  may  Jw 
|ierformed  by  'his  cheap  and  convenient 
instrunient,  but   the   projior  way  of  blowing  it  require 
practice.     If  the   two   nas«<s,  oxygen   aiid  hydrogen,!* 
mixed  togillier  in  the  pro|iortjonH  wliicli  (iirm  walw,  an- 
coiMprewH>d  to  the  aniiiunl  of  many  atriinspherc.'t  in  a  me 
tulllc  Ikix  provided  vvitli  a  small  tulH<,  wliut  is  rnlKii  tt 
oxy-hydrogcn   bUnvpi|'«'  is  foriiieil.     I(y  this  upparal.:> 
wliicli  is  quite  sale  when  |>ro|ierly  conslriicted,  an  uliuui 
inorcilible  degree  of  heat  can  Ih>  prodiiceJ. 


K.g.2. 


CHEMISTRY  APPLIED  TO  THE  ARTS. 


231 


CrucibiM  are  open  veuela,  which  resist  very  high  ! 
umporatures.  They  are  made  of  various  shapes,  triiuigu-  | 
Itr  or  circular,  and  of  diiferent  Icinds  of  matrrials,  but  by  { 
Ur  the  greater  number  are  formed  of  earthenware.  To 
promote  chemical  action,  what  ar  ■  called  fliurei  (which 
mil  be  afterwards  described)  art;  uployed.  Now,  it  is 
important  that  the  crucible  be  muu  i)f  a  substance  which 
K  not  rendered  more  fusible  by  a  flux.  WcdgcwoiMl's 
crucibles  are  made  of  a  close  white  ware ;  and  although 
tbiii.  tliey  I're  not  easily  dissolved  ;  and  they  retain  tkixcs 
It  ronderato  temperatures  longer  than  otlwr  crucibles. 
Those  made  of  a  mixture  of  coarse  plumbago  and  clay 
are  also  excellent  in  the89  respects.  But  the  most  valua- 
ble in  the  labonitory  are  the  Hessian  and  the  Uornish 
(^ciblcs.  Charcoal  and  metallic  ones  are  likevnse  used  ; 
thoM  formed  of  platina  being  the  most  generally  useful, 
jlthough  they  are  at  first  very  expensive. 

Retorts  are  vessels  employed  for  many  distillations, 
and  most  frequently  for  those  which  require  a  degree  of 
heat  higher  than  that  of  boiUng  water.  This  vessel  is 
a  species  of  buttle  with  a  long  neck,  so  lient  that  it  makes 
vrith  the  globular  belly  of  the  retort  an  an  ;le  of  about 
sixty  degrees.  One  of  a  common  form  i-^  < .  presented  in 
fij,  1.  The  most  capacious  part  of  th,-  retort  is  called 
iu  belly,  its  upper  part  the  arch  or  ro(^f,  and  the  bent 
part  '  "  neck.  They  are  composed  of  ilitrerent  kinds 
of  materials,  those  of  glass  being  by  far  tlir  most  com- 
uion.  They  answer  for  all  operations  conducted  at 
temperatures  less  than  that  at  which  glass  sotlens ;  and 
from  their  transjiarency,  they  admit  of  constant  observa- 
lion  of  the  materials  within :  they  are,  beiiides,  acted 
upon  or  injured  by  few  substances,  and  may  be  easily 
cloaned.  To  the  benf  neck  of  the  retort  various  tulws 
can  be  fitted,  and  the  evaporated  substance  conducted 
into  a  refrigerator.  For  distillations  or  sublimations  ic- 
quiring  high  degrees  of  temperature,  metallic  and  earthen- 
waie  retorts  are  had  recourse  to. 

A  pneumatic  trough  is  a  vessel  constructed  so  as  to 
retain  water,  and  largo  enough  to  admit  of  jars  being 
filled  in  it.  Shelves  and  supports  are  fixed  in  it  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  water;  on  these,  ves-selg  may  be  llrinly 
Tilaced.  If  now  a  large  open-mouthed  glass  jar  be  lillod 
li»;th  water,  inverted  beneath  the  surface  of  the  water  in 
the  trough,  and  put  upon  one  of  these  stands,  n  tuU? 
from  a  retort  or  other  distilling  vessel,  introduced  into 
the  inverted  mouth  of  the  jar,  will  convey  the  gaseous 
matter,  which,  displacing  tue  water  occupying  the  jir, 
can  thus  easily  Im  collected  in  it.  In  this  manner  gases 
are  obtained.  If  the  jar  l)e  provided  with  a  stopcork, 
llicy  can  easily  lie  withdrawn  into  vessels  fitted  to  retain 
them.  Instead  of  water,  mercury,  which  is  fluid  at  ordi- 
nary tem|K'ratures,  is  used  in  experiments  where  water 
would  absorb  the  gases,  or  where  exceeding  nicety  is 
required. 

A  great  variety  of  other  apparatus  besides  those  enu- 
merated are  eith<!r  necessary  or  useful  in  a  lal)oratory. 
Electrifying  machines,  galvanic  batteries,  air-pumps, 
ivringcs,  tubes  l>ent  into  various  forms  and  of  dillerent 
■izes  Ibr  fitting  into  the  necks  of  retorts,  &c.,  dishes  for 
holding  both  solids  and  fluids,  as  well  as  other  materials 
which  it  is  unnecessary  to  name,  are  frequently  required ; 
but  a  very  convenient  small  laboratory,  where  a  vast 
Qumber  of  interesting  experiments  can  be  performed, 
may  be  furnished  at  very  little  exi>ense. 

PoaTAULK  McsKUMs. — With  tt  few  glass  retorts,  jars, 
a  spirit-lamp,  blowpipe,  trough,  crucible,  several  slips 
of  gloss,  and  other  simple  apparatus,  many  hi  ;hly  inte- 
resting experiments  may  be  performed  in  chemistry  ;  and 
tliosG  requiring  instructions  in  this  |iractieal  meUnxl  of 
itudying  the  science,  arc  recommended  to  peruse  the 
•mail  work  of  Dr.  U.  B.  llcid,  entitled  "  Kiuiiinents  of 
Uhoinistry,"  published  in  cuimeetion  with  Cluimbiis's 
Kiiucu/iniiu/  Count.    In  connection  with  the  course  of 


experiments  pointed  out  by  13r.  Reid,  there  ha«  been 
prepared  by  Mr.  Macfarlane,  druggist  in  Eilinburgh,  ami 
Mr.  Midgely,  chemist,  Strand,  London,  portable  mu- 
seums of  different  sizes  and  prices  (from  £1  to  JEIO), 
which  will  be  found  extremely  useful,  because  they  con- 
tain a  neat  assortment  of  every  elementary  substance  in 
separate  phials,  with  some  of  the  smaller  parts  i  f  a  cho- 
mieal  apparatus. 

Tlsts,  Flvxbs,  Lutks. — Acids  and  alkalies  in  a  free 
state  possess  the  power,  even  in  very  small  quantities, 
of  eticeting  certain  general  and  regulaj'  changes  in  the 
tints  of  some  vegetable  colours.  Accordingly,  colours  of 
this  description  are  used  for  ascertaining  the  presence 
of  these  bodies  when  in  excess  or  uncombined,  and  arc 
called  tests.  Litmus  and  turmeric  papers  are  most  gene- 
rally used.  They  are  prepared  by  dipping  unsized  and 
bibulous  paper  in  concentrated  infusions  of  these  sub- 
stances. The  litnms  imparts  a  fine  blue  tinge  to  the 
paper,  the  turmeric  a  yellow  one.  In  using  these  test- 
papers  with  a  fluid  suspected  to  contain  free  acid  or 
alkali,  or  knowing  that  one  of  these  substances  is  pre- 
do.^iinant,  in  order  to  ascertain  which  is  so,  all  that  is 
neceft'iary  is  to  moisten  the  papers  with  the  liquid,  and 
observe  the  change  which  is  ellected ;  if  the  fluid  Ijc  acid, 
the  blue  colour  of  the  litmus  will  iimnediately  become 
red ;  if  alkaline,  the  yellow  colour  of  the  turmeric  will 
be  changed  to  brown. 

A  Jtiix  is  a  substance  made  use  of  to  assist  the  fusion 
and  union  of  minerals  or  metals.     It  acts  by  protecting 
the  substance  from  the  air  by  dissolving  impurities  wliich 
woul     iitherwise  be  infusible,  and  by  convey!   4  active 
agenLs,  such  as  charcoal  and  reducing  matter,  into  con- 
tact with  the  substance  operated  upon.     Upon  a  large 
scale,  limestone  and   fusible  spar   are   used   as   fluxeb 
What  is  called  crude  flux,  is  a  mixture  of  nitre  and 
cream  of  tartar,  put  into  the  vessel  along  with  the  sub- 
stance to  be  fused.     White  flux  consists  of  the  same 
ingredients,  in  equal  quantities,  but  they  are  £rst  defla- 
grated in  an  earthen  crucible  heated  red-hot  at  the  bot- 
tom.   Black  flux  has  the  same  constituents  as  the  preced- 
ing, but  the  weight  of  the  tartar  is  double  that  of  the  nitre. 
Lutes  are  soft  adhesive  mixtures,  principally  earthy, 
used  either  for  closing  apertures  exiiUing  at  the  junction 
of  diticrent  pieces  of  apparatus,  or  for  coating  the  exte- 
rior of  vessels  which  have  to  be  subjected  to  very  high 
temperatures.     The  lutes  employed   for  junctions  pass 
into  the  nature  of  cements,  which  are  substances  used 
fur  uniting  or  joining  together  things  of  the  same  or  dif- 
ferent kinds,  so  as  to  form  a  whole.     The  best  lute  used 
for  coating  a  vessel  is  made  of  Stourbridge  clay.     It  is 
formed  into  a  paste,  which  should    be  beaten  until  il 
becomes   perfectly  ductile  and   uniform,  flattened   into 
a  cake,  and  then  applied  to  the  vessel  which  it  is  wished 
to  coat.     What  is  called  fat  lute  is  prepared  by  beating 
dried  and    finely  pulverized  clay  (pipeclay  or  Cornish 
clay)  with  drying  linseed  oil,  until  the  mixture  he  soft 
and  ductile.     Caustic  lime,  when   mixed  with  various 
mineral  and  vegetable  substances  in  solution,  affords  nu- 
merous cements  and  lutes,  which  become  hard  when  dry, 
and  are  inqiervious  to  vapours.     One  of  the  best  is  that 
obtained  by  using  white  of  egg  diluted  with  its  bulk  of 
water.     The  fluids  arc  to  be  beaten  together  until  the 
mixture   pours  witii   perfect   liquidity.     There  is   then 
added  a  quantity  of  dry  slaked  luue  in  powder,  until  tha 
mixture  assumes  the  consistency  of  thin  paste.     A  solu- 
tion of  glue  or  the  scrum  of  blood  is  sometimes  substi- 
tuted for  the  whit4}  of  egg.    White  lead  ground  with  oil 
also  makes  a  very  useful  lute  or  cement.    Soft  cement  con- 
sists of  yellow  wax  (which  alone  is  sometimes  used  ns  a 
cement)  melted  with  its  weight  of  turpentine,  and  a  little 
Venetian  red  to  give  it  a  colour.     When  cold,  it  is  hard 
like  soap ;  but  when  pressed  by  the  hand,  the  heat  tviuiei* 
it  pliant 


i239 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


PROCESSES    IN    CCNNKCTtON    WITH   THE    ARTS. 

TuiTi-HATiiiy. — Asa  genoml  principle,  the  more  mi- 
nutely matter  is  (iiviilctl,  the  more  rapid  will  he  the 
chemical  action  exerted  between  the  [mrticles.  This 
division  of  matter  is  elTneted  in  vario'is  ways.  First,  by 
trituration,  or  the  reduction  of  substances  to  a  state  of 
|)0wder,  which  is  a  mechanical  action  not  atfecting  the 
physical  state  of  the  boily,  and  only  relating  to  solids. 
In  accomplishini?  this,  the  pestle  and  mortar  are  gene- 
rally used.  Externally,  mortars  arc  usually  shaped  like 
a  flower-pot,  the  inside,  at  the  bottom,  Ixmur  curved  like 
the  thick  end  of  an  rcg.  They  arc  niiide  of  varioiM 
materials,  such  as  metal,  porphyry,  acute,  and  so  on, 
according  to  the  purposes  to  which  they  are  applied. 
ITie  }H^stle  is  generally  of  the  sime  material  as  the 
mortar,  and  is  a  solid  rod  having  a  rounded  bulb  at  one 
rnd  for  pulverizing  the  substance  in  the  mortar.  Tri- 
turation answers  very  well  the  purpose  of  promoting 
chemical  action  in  a  number  of  experiments,  but  by 
fusion  and  solution  it  is  rendered  more  complete. 

Fusion. — Bodies  are  said  to  be  in  a  state  of  fusion, 
when,  heat  being  applied  to  them,  they  assume  the 
liquid  form,  a  state  in  which  all  the  particles  of  a  sub- 
stance move  easily  among  themselves.  When  a  solid 
body,  s\ich  as  a  piece  of  sugar,  is  put  into  water,  it  is 
gradually  dissolved ;  and  when  the  lump  of  saccharine 
matter  has  disapix-ared,  and  liecome  mixed  with  the 
water,  and  remains  so,  it  is  said  to  l)e  held  in  solution 
t)y  it.  Heat  crreatly  promotes  the  rapidity  of  solution  ; 
and  glass  vessels  having  a  rounded  bottom,  such  as  a 
Florence  flask,  and  placed  upon  a  spirit-lamp,  are  very 
commonly  employed.  In  processes  connected  with  the 
subdivision  of  matter,  when  hot  water  is  merely  poured 
upon  the  sulwtancc,  the  process  is  called  infwutn  :  and 
when  the  substance  is  boiled,  the  result  is  called  a  (If- 
eoction.  There  is  a  process  of  solution  called  /i.cin',/'ii)?i, 
which  consists  in  the  tepuration  of  a  soluble  bmly  from 
Ml  insoluble  one  by  means  of  washing.  Metals,  as  is 
well  known,  may  be  reduced  to  a  liquid  comlition  by 
melting  or  fusing  them  in  a  crucible  over  a  sharp  heat, 
or  in  a  furnace.  For  the  degree  of  hcnt  at  which  most 
metals  fuse,  we  refer  to  the  previous  article. 

ViTBiFACTioN  IS  a  peculiar  kind  of  funion,  by  which 
certain  materials,  when  exposed  to  an  intense  heat, 
melt,  and  form  that  transparent  substaiu'e  called  glass 
or  crystal.  The  materials  employed  to  form  common 
glass  are  silicA  or  sea-sand,  and  alkali,  such  as  c4irl)onate 
jf  potassa,  and  a  metallic  oxide.  (,See  (il'ifs-ntdknig.  in 
article  jMisctLi.iXKois  MiNiFACTUHBH.)  It  is  less 
generally  understood  that  a  kind  of  glass,  soluble  in 
water,  may  be  made  from  silica  and  cartmnate  of  po- 
tAssa.  "  Mix  ilitimately  200  grains  of  fine  sand,  aii'1 
600  of  fine  cailKinate  of  |iotassa;  fiise  the  mixture  in  a 
crucible  capable  of  containing  four  times  as  much.  Car- 
bonic acid  esca|)e»,  the  silica  and  potassa  combine  and 
produce  glass.  Pour  out  the  gloss,  whiih  is  ronmionly 
termed  iilu-aUd  fmlmta,  on  an  iron  pliite,  and  dissolve  it 
in  water,  the  large  quantity  of  alksli  remicring  it  snlu- 
ble  in  this  fluid.  The  coin))ound  formed  in  this  manner 
constitutes  pure  n/icn  map,  having  all  the  detergent 
properties  of  common  soap ;  it  is  more  active  limn  or- 
dinary soap,  and  leaves  i  harsh  feeling  u|kmi  the  bund. 
Common  silica  soap  is  mixed  with  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  common  soap,  and  occasionally  with  sand." — 
Heid'i  liudinwixtt  of  Clifmiilry, 

D«sircATio!». — The  drying  of  substjinces,  or  desicca- 
tion, as  it  is  usually  called  in  scientific  works,  may  Ix' 
tarried  on  without  exhaustion  by  means  of  what  are 
»IIed  desiccators  or  dryers.  This  is  t>et)er  edi-cted  in 
lose  vessels  than  in  the  o|)en  air,  unless  a  current  be 
laken  advanta^  oC  In  these  proresses,  sulphuric  acid, 
•Ji.orido  ot  c.ilciii.ii.  carlionate  of  potash,  quicklime, 
•ud  similar  absorlrintK,  iiuty  be  used.     A  bajtiin  i>(  com- 


mon quicklime,  with  a  moiit  ]  recipitate  placed  ahote  ii 
the  whole  being  covered  with  a  jar  or  receiver,  will  soon 
dry  the  precipitate. 

Filtration  consists  in  putting  mixed  substances  into 
vossels  which  are  porous  enough  to  adm't  of  the  pass- 
age of  one  substance  through  them,  but  close  enough 
to  retain  another.  Unsized  paper,  cloth,  flannel,  tow, 
sponge,  sand,  pulverized  glass,  flints,  porous  stones, 
earthenware,  and  many  other  substances,  are  used  on 
dilFcreut  occasions;  but  the  first  is  almost  exclusively 
used  in  a  laboratory,  a  few  of  the  others  now  and  then 
being  resorted  to  only  on  particular  occasions.  Evajio- 
ration  is  a  process  so  simple  as  scarcely  to  require  de- 
scription; it  is  merely  the  assumption  of  the  gaseuis 
form  by  bodies  either  at  ordinary  temperatures,  or  when 
heat  is  applied  to  them.  In  thi>.  general  characteristic 
it  resembles  distillation  and  suMiuiution,  but  it  dilTcrs 
from  these  processes  in  this  resi>cct,  that  the  substance 
evaporated  is  generally  allowed  to  pass  off  uncollected  by 
a  refrigerator,  not  being  that  part  of  the  mixture  which 
is  required. 

Distillation  and  Sublimation  mean  nearly  the 
same  thing;  both  consist  in  the  conversion  of  a  body 
into  va|>our,  its  transference  in  that  state,  and  consequent 
separation  from  other  substjinees,  and  its  ultimate  con- 
densation. The  dilference  generally  consists  in  the 
state  assumed  by  the  vapours  when  condensed ;  if  the 
product  be  solid,  the  process  is  called  sublimation ;  if 
liquid,  distillation.  The  substance  is  exposed  to  such  a 
temperature  as  causes  it  to  assume  the  gaseous  statf ,  in 
which  state  it  is  conducted  into  a  v(;ssel  containing 
water  of  a  low  temperature,  where  it  is  condensed  into 

a  fluid  or  solid  state. 
A  common  still  con- 
sists  of  a  metal  boiler 
for  containing  the  sub- 
stance to  bo  distilled ; 
a  head  terminating  in 
a  peak  is  adafitcd  to 
it ;  the  latter  is  made 
to  fit  into  the  com- 
mencement of  a  spi- 
ral  tube,  called  a 
worm,  fixed  in  a  tub 
— the  whole  of  this 
part  of  the  apparatus 
being  called  the  n*. 
'■'"•■'■  frigerator.       A    worm 

wending  through  a  tub  of  cold  water  is  represented  in 
fie.  3.  The  substance  is  raised  into  vapour  in  the  still, 
and  being  condensed  in  the  worm,  runs  out  at  its  lower 
extremity.  Distillations  aro  usually  eflected  in  the  labo- 
ratory by  means  of  glass  retorts  and  flasks;  for  sub- 
stances, however,  which  re<iuire  a  greater  degree  of 
lemi)erature  to  eflect  their  distillation,  metallic  ni 
earthenware  retorts  att  riiployed.  Umlies  which  aie 
very  volatile  arc  distilled  or  Aublimed  in  an  alenilio, 
which  consists  of  a  globular  bottom  and  conical-shaiM-d 
head,  whence  a  nose  or  lieak  passes  oil"  in  a  downward 
direction  into  a  receiver. 

A  great  improvement  in    evajioration   hns   recently 

been  introduced  into  the  refining  of  sugar,  namely,  its 

l>eing  boiled  in  vacuum  pans.     It  is  well   known  thut 

there  are  few  articles  of  vegetable  proiluctiim  which  are 

not  injured  by  being  boiled  at  a  leni]ierature  of  212°; 

but  to  boil  them  tt  a  lower  teni|)eralure,  it  is  necessary 

to  remove  the  pressure  of  the  almiispliere.     This  is  now 

aecoui|)lishe(l   by   using  close   copi)er  vessels  of  a  flat 

tened  spherical  form.     On  the  top  is  a  raised  part,  from 

which   a   pi|ie   proceeds,  attached  U)  an  air-pump.     At 

j  the  siile  of  this  [ii|M?  another  enters  the   vai'uum  pnn, 

1  from  which  fresh  syrup  can  \ie  made  to  enter  at  [ilea- 

I  sure  by  means  of  a  stop-cock.     At  the  bolI()ni  of  the 

I  pan  ii  another   stop-cock,  through   which   the   boiled 


CHEMISTRY  AfPLIED  TO  THE  ARTS. 


S33 


i\rup  can  be  taken  out  when  sufficiently  conccntratud, 
the  pan  is  heated  by  moans  of  steum  pipes  which  sur- 
roui  i  it ;  and  the  liquid  boils  at,  or  even  below,  160°. 
The  air-pump  for  removing  the  atmospheric  presuurc, 
in  large  sugar-refining  cstablishmonts,  is  worked  by  a 
iteam-engiiie.  By  tliis  process  the  quality  of  any  sul)- 
itance,  particularly  scents  and  medicinal  extracts,  from 
which  liquid  is  to  be  evaporated,  is  greatly  improved, 
3ui «  saving  effected  by  catching  the  vapour  as  it  passes 
out. 

FsninKNTATioN  IS  thc  term  which  expresses  the 
changes  which  animal  and  vegetable  mutter  undergoes 
upontaneouHly  when  thc  principle  of  life  is  extinct ;  and 
iti  one  of  the  means  which  nature  adopts  to  destroy 
useless  substances,  and  reduce  them  to  their  elementary 
properties.  Chemists  reckon  up  five  distinct  species  of 
fermentation — namely,  the  saccharine  fermentation,  in 
which  gum  and  starch  are  changed  into  sugar ;  the 
vuiiius  fermentation,  in  which  sugar  is  converted  into 
alcohol ;  tlie  acetous  fermentation,  in  which  alcohol 
and  other  substances  are  converted  into  vinegar ;  the 
murilaginous  fermentation,  in  which  slime  is  produced 
instead  of  alcohol  from  sugar ;  and  the  putrid  fermen- 
tation, which  is  the  decomposition  of  animal  and  vege- 
table bodies. 

The  change  of  the  substance  of  barley  into  sugar,  or 
»  material  possessing  the  qualities  of  sugar,  takes  place 
on  a  large  scale  in  making  mall.  Malt  is  dried  barley, 
which  has  ]>reviously  been  caused  to  sprout  and  par- 
tially grow  by  steeping  in  water ;  in  the  course  of  ger- 
mination or  malting,  a  chemical  union  is  cfTectcd  be- 
tween a  portion  of  the  water  and  thc  starch  of  the  bar- 
ley, and  the  saccharine  matter  is  the  result.  A  saccharine 
mateiial  can  on  similar  principles  be  produced  by  boiling 
one  part  of  starch  in  twelve  parts  of  water,  and  allowing 
the  compound  to  stand  for  a  month  or  so.  At  the  end 
of  this  time  about  one-half  thc  quantity  of  starch  is  eon- 
verted  into  Hugar,  a  fifth  into  gum,  and  thc  remainder 
is  found  to  be  a  Htarch  paste  somewhat  •\ltercd. 

Fermentation,  whether  of  an  infusion  of  malted  grain 
or  any  other  vegetable  substance,  is  a  necessary  preli- 
minar)',  in  order  to  rhange  the  material  into  an  alco- 
holic beverage.  The  actual  process  of  fermentation, 
for  example,  in  reference  to  wine,  is  as  follows : — Ripe 
(jTii[)e  juice  is  put  into  a  vessel,  and  allowed  to  stand 
for  some  time,  exposed  to  the  ordinary  temperature  of 
summer.  At  the  end  of  a  certain  period,  the  liijuor 
becomes  muddy ;  an  internal  motion  takes  place,  and 
sometimes  the  temiierature  is  found  to  he  elevated ;  air- 
hubbles  rise  to  the  surfare,  occasioning  a  bubbling  noise 
when  they  break  ;  and  the  bulk  of  thc  liquid  being  in- 
creased, it  has  a  tendency  to  boil  over.  From  this  cir- 
cumstance, the  process  is  called  fermentation,  from  the 
Latin  word  ffiwrf,  to  boil.  The  bubbles  created  rise 
to  thf  •'iiffare,  involved  in  a  viscid  matter,  the  whole  re- 
sembling froth,  which,  parting  with  thc  air,  subsides  to 
the  bottom,  and  the  liquor  becomes  tranquil  and  trans- 
parent. Thin  viscid  matter  is  well  known  under  thc 
name  of  yeitst  or  huriti,  and  it  has  the  property  of  ex- 
dting  fermentation  in  bmlies  not  otherwise  at  the  mo-, 
ment  predisposed  to  it.  Thc  grape  juice  has  now  Wen 
entirely  changed  into  an  intoxicating  li<|uor,  the  base, 
of  which  is  olcohol.  ond  this  process  is  termed  rimnm 
frrmtnliilii'n.  A  crent  qutntity  of  carbonic  acid  is 
fnvfn  out  durinir  this  kind  ol  fermentation,  and  the  vari- 
ous chemical  changes  which  take  place  have  Iwen  thus 
briefly  described : — t^dme  of  the  carbon  and  some  of  thc 
oxygen  combine  to  form  carbonic  acid ;  while  the  re- 
mainder of  thc  carbon,  the  remainder  of  the  oxygen, 
and  the  whole  of  the  liydrogen,  combFne  to  form  alco- 
hol: and  we  may  totally  neglect  the  decomposition  of 
tlie  yeast  it  amounting  to  almost  nothing.  Thtis  is  this 
inert,  solid,  fixed,  sweet  matter,  resohed  by  a  new  ar- 
ruuBfrnent  of  its  principles  into  substances  which  pos- 

Vji.  1— 30 


sens  none  of  these  properties,  and  one  of  vvhich  excr 
a  control  of  so  singular  a  nature  over  the  animal  eco> 
nomy. 

Liquor,  vinously  fermented,  is  subject  to  a  new  serie* 
of  phenomena.  On  being  put  aside  for  some  time,  a 
fresh  commotion  is  observable,  accompanied  with  the 
disengagement  of  a  small  quantity  of  gas  ;  and  floating 
filaments  or  shreds  begin  to  thicken  in  tlie  liquid,  col- 
lecting into  a  gelatinous  cake.  This  is  indicative  of 
another  change.  The  vinous  flavour  and  the  alcoholic 
or  intoxicating  quality  have  disappeared,  whilst  thc 
liquid  has  become  at  once  sour  and  transparent.  In 
short,  the  wine  has  become  viiu'gar,  called  in  Latin  ace 
turn ;  and  the  process  is  called  the  acetous  fermentation. 
Let  this  vinegar  l)e  kept  for  a  length  of  time,  and  an« 
other,  and  from  the  previous  quality  of  the  liquor,  un- 
expected, change  takes  place.  It  becomes  mantled  with 
a  green  mould ;  the  acidity  and  pungent  acid  smell  dia- 
a])pcar,  and  a  foetid  odour  becomes  perceptible. 

The  most  remarkable  feature  in  the  product  of  fet' 
mentation,  is  the  intoxicating  quality.  This  quality 
arises  from  the  chemical  change  into  alcohol,  a  concen- 
trated spirit  or  essence,  which,  in  one  of  its  purest  forma, 
obtained  from  distillation,  is  called  spirit  of  wine.  Al- 
cohol exists  to  a  lesser  or  greater  extent  in  all  fermented 
liquors,  such  as  ale,  porter,  or  beer  ;  but  it  is  more  con- 
centrated, or  free  of  watery  fluids,  in  the  form  of  brandy, 
whisky,  gin,  rum,  and  similar  intoxicating  liquids.  The 
amount  of  alcohol  in  stout  porter  is  about  6  per  cent., 
and  in  strong  ale  8  per  cent.  The  alcoholic  part  of 
such  U(|uids  stimulates  but  gives  no  actual  nutrition; 
the  only  nutritive  part  is  the  undecomposcd  starch  and 
gum  not  changed  into  saccharine  material.  Alcohol 
dissolves  the  greater  number  of  acids,  the  volatile  oils, 
the  resins,  tar,  and  extractive  matter,  and  many  of  the 
soaps ;  while  dissolving  pure  soda  and  potassa,  it  does 
not  act  on  their  carbonates.  The  composition  of  wXco- 
hoi  has  l)een  investigated  by  eminent  chemists,  and  the 
result  is,  that  of  100  parts  there  are  13-70  of  hydrogen, 
51-98  of  carbon,  and  of  oxygen  34-32.  When  alcohol 
is  distilled  along  with  certain  acids,  a  peculiar  com- 
pound is  formed,  called  ether,  an  exceedingly  volatile 
fluid,  used  in  iicdicine. 

While  the  various  phenomena  of  fermentation,  as 
above  briefly  noticed,  are  well  understood  by  practical 
chemists,  of  the  actual  cause  of  the  ferment  little  has 
yet  been  discovered.  It  is  only  known  in  a  genera) 
sense,  that  feruientation  is  the  rapid  growth  of  micro- 
scopic vegetation  (see  article  Veoetadlk  Phtbio- 
l()i;y),  and  that  in  the  alteration  of  the  liquor  to  vine- 
gar. Mother  wonder  is  performed — the  change  to  mi- 
cros! lie  animal  life  (see  article  Zooloqt,  Rodiati,  cla.«3 
xix.)  When  this  end  has  been  accomplished,  nature 
makes  iie  pther  effort,  by  producing  putrefaction,  in 
which  i:  material  is  resolved  into  invisible  but  odorous 
gases. 

PnKSEBVTNOv— Animal  and  vegetable  bodies  may  be 
saved  from  putrefaction,  or  the  last  process  of  dissolu- 
tion, by  putting  them  in  a  substance  which  will  coagu- 
late the  albumen,  that  being  the  first  port  which  suffers 
(Irciiinposilion,  This  may  be  effected  by  steeping  the 
bodies  in  alcohol,  oil  of  turpentine,  or  other  volatile  oils. 
Pyroligtieous  acid,  from  containing  a  small  proportion 
of  creosote,  has  a  strong  power  of  preserving  animal 
mutter  from  decay.  The  earthy  salts  are  also  antiseptics; 
but  common  suit,  salfpi'tre,  and  sal  ammoniac,  are  the  a> 
tides  most  generally  used  for  the  purpose  of  preservation. 
For  the  pur))o»e  of  extinguishing  the  odour  of  oflcnsivo 
pases,  nrising  from  the  decay  of  animal  substances,  none 
of  the  chemical  products  is  so  useful  or  so  readily  avail- 
able as  chloride  of  lime;  by  sprinkling  a  small  quantity 
in  an  apartment  containing  an  unwholesome  putrefac- 
tive o<lour,  the  air  is  instantly  deprived  of  its  noxioui 
proiH'rtics,  and  is  sweetened.  Putrefaction  goe*  oc 
u  2 


334 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


t 
s 


;n 


»o«t  rap'dly  at  n  temperature  of  from  70°  to  80°,  but 
U  tltogelher  stopped  at  the  frroziiiff-point.  Thus  fnh 
*nd  flesh  may  \>e  kept  fresh  for  any  loiiRth  of  time 
when  embedded  in  ice.  The  abstraction  of  the  oxygen 
gas  will  also  preserve  meat:  the  simplest  manner  in 
which  this  can  be  done  is  to  enclose  the  meat  in  tin 
cues,  leavini;  only  a  small  hole  in  the  closely  soldered 
lid.  The  air  may  then  bo  expelled  by  dip))inK  tho  cases 
tnt  a  minute  into  steam;  c>n  litling  Ihem  out,  a  drop  of 
■older,  (juickly  placed  on  the  hole,  prevents  the  rush  of 
•ir  back  into  the  vessel.  On  this  principle  of  exclu<lint; 
the  air,  coses  of  prcsei'ved  meats  are  now  manufactured 
to  a  great  extent  for  exiiortation.  The  profxfr  drying 
of  an  animal  substance  is  likewise  an  invariable  pre- 
ventive of  putrescence.  Animal  matter  should  Ihj 
dried  at  a  temperature  of  from  120°  to  t40°;  but  even 
when  drie<l,  the  addition  of  a  little  salt  will  be  necos- 
Miy.  The  salt  is  supposed  to  absorb  the  water  from 
the  albumen,  anu  alcohol,  sugar,  &c.,  act  in  the  same 
way. 

Tajtjuno. — Animal  substances  may  l>e  preserved  for 
any  length  of  time  by  being  saturated  with  a  vegetable 
extract,  known  in  chemistry  by  the  name  of  lauvin:  and 
this  has  given  rise  to  the  common  process  of  tanning 
the  skins  of  animals,  and  so  making  tlirm  into  leather. 
Tannin  exists  in  all  vegetables  possessing  an  astringent 
taste  and  quality,  but  is  found  in  greatest  perfec.ion  in 
oak-bark  and  nut-giills.  It  exists  to  a  considi^rable  extent 
in  the  fibrous  substance  of  |)eat ;  bodies  of  men  and  of 
the  lower  animaln,  as  also  trunks  of  trees,  impregnated 
with  tannin,  have  been  discovered  in  a  perfect  state  of 
preservation  in  peat-bogs,  ai>er  having  lain  for  centuries. 
The  pnnciple  upon  which  tannin  acts,  is  the  imbibing  of 
an  astringent  and  hardening  cpiality  by  the  muss  of  the 
■ubstance,  by  which  it  is  constitutionally  altered.  When 
the  properties  of  tannin  are  present  in  a  soil,  the  ground 
ii  taid  to  have  an  antiseptic  quality,  and  bodies  buried  in 
b  are  not  apt  to  decay. 

KrAifisi.No. — All  kinds  of  timlicr  are  liable  to  undergo 
a  change  of  substance  destructive  of  their  useful  proper- 
ties, by  the  action  of  damp,  seclusion  from  the  atmosphere, 
and  which  may  also  be  promoted  by  the  subacid  state  of 
the  wood — in  common  language,  the  timber  rots.  There 
is  a  peculiar  kind  of  rottenness,  called  dry-rot,  in  which 
the  decaying  timber  af]<)rd8  nourishment  to  the  growth 
of  fungi,  which  sometimes  ap|)rar  Uke  a  fibrous  vegeta- 
tion, but  more  ordinarily  as  tuudstools.  To  avert  the 
occuraMice  of  dry-rot,  which  is  a  rapidly  and  insidiously 
•preading  evil  in  the  timbers  of  houses  or  ships,  the  only 
real  metliod  consists  in  steeping  tho  timbers,  previous  to 
being  usetl,  in  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate.  This 
chemical  substance  may  be  prepared  by  dissolving  red 
oxide  of  mercury  in  muriatic  acid,  and  evaporating  the 
lolution  to  dryness;  but  there  are  other  modes  of  procur- 
ing it  trom  its  basis  of  mercury. 

The  corrosive  sublimate  Iniing  procured,  it  is  dissolved 
M  a  st«>ep  in  water,  in  the  proportion  of  one  pound  to 
five  gallons  of  water.  8uch  at  least  is  the  metliod  of 
preparing  steeps  in  tanks  according  to  ttie  plan  suggested 
by  Kyan,  and  for  which  a  patent  has  been  obtained. 
Tho  process  of  kyamttnii,  as  this  is  termed,  is  very  simple. 
Tile  timber  lieing  immersed  in  the  hquid,  it  becomes  after 
a  time  sulurated,  and  when  t»ken  out,  the  vegetative 
principie  .)f  dry-rot  is  completely  destroyi'd.  Only  one 
day  is  required  for  each  inch,  in  thicl^ue:,;!,  of  twurds  and 
small  tiinber.4,  conimcnciuf;  with  two  duvs  fur  the  first 
imh.  Oil  iem<)val,  the  timliers  reijuire  u  lew  weeks  to 
ilry,  ill  iirder  to  be  seasoned  for  use.  Ueiiig  tile  subject 
of  u  (lati'iit,  a  license  requiriv  tj  be  procured  tor  liberty 
of  sUi'piiig. 

MBOICINAI^    PREPARATIONS. 

Me>licines  are  thone  drugs  which  in  some  form  are 
applied  to  the  alleviation  or  cure  of  liodily  uilmetits ;  and  | 


they  consist,  fiir  tho  greater  part,  tf  suUwnces  pniarmi 
from  vegetable  and  mineral  basex,  by  pinctical  chernints 
Retailers  of  medicines  are  usually  spoken  of  as  chemials 
but  few  are  actually  -jngaged  in  the  elaUtrate  procesae, 
of  drying,  distilling,  calcining,  or  chemically  compoundint 
the  various  drugs  with  which  they  supply  their  custom 
ers.  The  medicinal  preparations  of  the  ancient»  wrr« 
principally  vegetable,  but  lieing  constantly  liable  to  dry 
up  and  lose  their  virtues,  no  depifidenco  could  be  placid 
on  them,  and  they  went  greatly  out  of  repute,  till  thj 
method  of  obtaining  extracts  by  distillation  came  into 
use.  Since  that  was  eflecled,  the  value  of  vegetjiiilo 
medicines  has  revived,  though  medical  practice  still  relii-s 
chiefly  on  mineral  products,  which  are  generally  mnro 
ccrtoin  in  their  operation.  A  few  medical  preparation! 
are  from  animal  substances. 

Some  substances  employed  in  the  cure  of  disease,  act 
mechanically,  and  others  chemically,  in  tho  system;  biii 
by  far  the  greater  propcrtion  of  them  act  vitally.     A  meilj. 
cine  is  said  to  act  mechanically,  when  its  etlcct  on  the 
bmly  is  the  same  as  that  which  it  exerts  over  inanimate 
matter.     Demulcents,  for  instance,  or  remedies  taken  to 
remove  the  acrid  elTccts  of  some  other  substance,  o|)crato 
simply  by  coating  the  stomach  with  a  gummy  fluid,  an 
action  which  is  entirely  mechanical.     Tho  chemical  oiic. 
ration  of  medicines  may  be  thus  explained.     When  an 
acid  and  an  alkali  are  mixed  in  a  glass  of  water,  tliuy 
unite  together  ond  form  a  third  substance,  a  salt,  having 
new  pro|)erties  altogether.     The  same  chemical  process 
takes  place  when  sourness,  or  an   acid,  is  neutralized  in 
the  stomach  by  soila,  or  any  alkali.     The  vital  action  of 
medicines  differs  totally  from  the  two  former.     In  this 
case  the  substances  are  absorbed  into  tho  blood,  and  are 
conveyed  by  the  vessels  of  the  heart  to  the  quarter  whither 
their  nature  determines  them.     Diuretics,  or  medicines 
which  stimulate  the  urinary  organs,  may  form  an  exampls 
of  vital  action.     From  the  stomach  the  diuretic  is  u!). 
s.-irbed  into  the  blood-vesstds,  and  carried  to  the  kidneys, 
stimulating  them  to  the  secretion  of  urine,  though  hy 
what  process  of  separation  from  tho  rest  of  the  blood  ne 
know  not    In  tliese  three  divisions,  mechanical,  chemical, 
and  vital  agents,  all  the  articles  Uded  in  medical  practice 
may  be  comprehended;  and  aflcr  this  general  explanation, 
we  may  examine  the  particular  classes  of  each  diviiiion, 
commencing  with  the  most  important,  the  vital  agents, 
The  class  of  purgatives  (the  strongest  called  lalhuitica, 
tho  weakest  luxaiivei)  is  the  best  known  and  must  com- 
monly used  of  any  description  of  medicines,     'i'liey  may 
be  arranged  under  three  heads :  those  of  an  oily  or  sue- 
cliarine  liature;  those  which  are  derived  from  vcgctablea, 
such  as  resins  and  extracts ;  and  those  formed  by  a  com- 
biimtion  of  acids  with  earths,  alkalies,  and  metals,  termrj 
neutral  and   nietullic  salts.     'J'lic  operation  of  all  tliew 
three  is  of  the  character  of  an  irritation  upon  the  mucoui 
or  inner  membrane  of  tho  Uiwels,  though  in  their  etlerti 
they   difler  considerably  from   each   otiier.     The  firsv 
mentioned   seem   simply  to   discharge   the  contents  of 
the  liowels ;  the  second  apiioar  to  increase  tho  quantity 
of  matter  evacuated,  by  stimulating  tho  raucous  mco). 
brane,  and  increasing  the  natural  flow  of  mucus;  the 
third  produce  evacuations  of  a  watery  consistence.    The 
principal  purgatives  of  tlio  oily  or  saccliarine  kind  are, 
castor-oil,   olive-oil    (seldom    used),   manna,  tamarinds 
honey,  and  so  forth ;  croton-oil,  an  essential  oil  (that  is 
to  say,  procured  by  distillation,  not  by  expression,  as  tlie 
castur-oU  is),  is  scarcely  to  be  included  in  the  class  of  oils, 
as  its  great  strength  prevents  its  being   used  except  in 
dcsperutu  cases,     Tho  medium  dose  of  the  castor-oil  i< 
one  ounce,  of  the  croton-oil  a  fraction  of  one  drop.    I'he 
former  is  imported  in  imniense  quaiilitics  into  this  coun 
try   annually.     It  is  one  uf  tho  nioHt  useful  and  lalit 
medicines  of  the  purgative  class.     The   rest  neiitiunej 
are  exceedingly  mild  in  their  operation,  and  are  genera!!; 
employed   merely   to  palliate  the   bad  flavour  uf  seine 


:-^--.-  ■■  V 


CHEMISTRY  APPLIED  TO  THE  ARTS. 


935 


itrongor  drui;.  7  he  second  kind  of  purcntiven  includeii 
iloea,  icaminony,  jalap,  colcx-ynth,  aennn,  and  rhubarb. 
The  gcnrral  character  of  all  thcM  has  been  Riven  aliove, 
tnough  the  rhubarb  pogaeBScs  one  remarkable  distinction 
from  the  others.  It  ia  supposed  to  act  on  the  muscular 
mcmlirane  of  the  bowels,  producing  a  natural  discharge 
■imply,  without  alterini;  the  character  of  the  faicos.  The 
priiicipid  neutral  and  metallic  salts,  which  form  the  third 
onlcr  of  purgatives,  are  sulphate  of  soda,  Epsom  salts 
(julplmte  of  ma'jnrsia),  cream  of  tartar  (supcr-tartarate 
of  notiish),  phosplmte  of  soda,  and  calomel  (submuriate 
of  inorrury).  The  latter  ia  the  most  universal  in  its 
application  of  all  medicinal  preparations.  By  proper 
rrgulittion  of  the  dose,  and  in  conjunction  with  other 
drugs,  it  can  bo  employed  with  bcnef>.  in  almost  every 
(Jiseuxe  to  which  man  is  subject  But  in  proportion  to 
its  usefulness,  so  is  its  danger  when  misapplied.  The 
ioae  should  bo  very  small  at  first,  and  cold  ought  always 
to  be  guarded  against  during  its  use.  With  respect  to 
the  others,  little  can  be  added  to  the  general  description 
gheaily  given,  though  it  may  be  mentioned,  that  the 
pleoxantcst,  though  not  the  cheapest  of  all  medicines,  is 
the  phosphate  of  soda,  or  tastelcsi  tails. 

Sudorifiei,  or  nedirines  which  increase  the  cutaneous 
perspiration,  form  another  important  class  of  vital  reme- 
dies. Certain  wibstanccs  received  through  the  stomach 
ijito  the  blood,  excito  throu'^h  it  the  vessels  of  the  skin  to 
action,  and  increase  the  ■  tural  discharge.  The  mode 
in  which  this  result  is  efTecii'd  is  not  well  known ;  all  we 
kaovv  is,  that,  during  the  operation,  the  heart,  and  the 
blood-vessels  which  terminate  on  the  surface  of  the  skin, 
are  rou.'^cd  to  unusual  action.  Among  the  most  active 
BuJorifics  may  be  enumerated  warm  drinks;  the  warm 
lath;  the  preparations  of  antimony,  including  James's 
powder ;  Dover's  powder  (compound  ipccacuan  powder) ; 
the  preparations  of  ammonia ;  and  all  medicines  generally 
which  nauseate  the  stomach.  Probably  of  all  these, 
Dover's  powder  is  the  best.  Sudorifics,  in  almost  all 
cases,  when  early  used,  prevent  the  eHects  of  colds, 
which,  when  neglected,  prove  so  often  fatal  in  their 
conse(iuences. 

Eimtics  are  another  class  of  remedies,  acting  through 
the  blood,  and  of  very  general  use.  It  may  be  supposed, 
tliat,  as  they  are  received  into  the  stomach,  and  act 
directly  and  speedily  upon  it,  there  is  no  absorption  into 
the  blood  necessary.  Tobacco,  for  instance,  taken  into 
the  stomach,  excites  vomiting ;  but  it  is  from  its  rccep- 
tioii  into  the  circulation ;  because,  if  the  tobacco  be  laid 
on  tlio  arm,  the  same  •fleet  will  \\e  produced.  Some 
emetics,  indeed,  appear  to  act  principally  on  the  muscular 
covering  of  the  stomach,  exciting  it  to  contraction,  and 
tliereby  causing  the  expulsion  of  the  contents.  Most  of 
them,  however,  simply  produce  nausea,  which  causes  the 
inversion  of  the  receptacle  of  the  food.  The  most  active 
emetics  employed  in  medicine  are  tartar-emetic,  ipecacuan 
root,  chamomile  flowers,  mustard,  and  blue  or  white 
vitriol.  The  two  fu^t  of  these  are  most  commonly  used ; 
the  latter  being  the  gentlest,  and  perhaps  on  that  account 
the  safest  in  ordinary  cases. 

Diurelin  are  those  medicines  which  operate  'n  pro- 
moting the  flow  of  urine,  by  stimulating  the  action  of  the 
ti''  leys,  the  organs  which  secrete  it  This  class  is  very 
numerous,  though  the  manner  of  tlieir  operation,  like 
that  of  ull  the  other  vital  agents,  is  not  thoroughly  under- 
itood.  Those  chirtly  eni|)luyed  hi  practice  are  scpiills, 
fiiiglovc,  j ini(K'rl>orrie8,  potash,  cream  of  tartar,  acetate 
of  auiinoniii,  nitric  ether,  uiid  i^poiiish  flies.  All  these 
Bol  powerfully  on  the  urinary  organs,  those  in  highest 
reimie  lieit.g  sipiills,  foxylove,  juniper,  and  cream  of  lurtar. 
The  rirst  and  the  last  of  these  are  the  most  eflicicnt,  being 
more  ceituin  ui  their  action  tlian  the  others.  Warm 
fomentations  ajc  useful  acconipaninients  in  all  cases. 

tjfierloranit  are  used  to  promote  the  expulsion  from 
Ibc  lungs  ol  thjM  fluids  which  &ru  secreted  during  colds, 


and  lodge  there,  causing  difficult  bToathing,  and  somelimM 
ending  in  injury  of  their  structure.  Thus,  those  reinedlM 
which  promote  expectoratioti  are  of  groat  conseiinonoe  to 
health,  though  often  neglected.  The  principal  mmlicine* 
of  this  class  are  antimony,  squills,  ipecaeuan,  and  gum- 
ammoniac.  Syrup  of  squills  is  the  preparation  in  great- 
est use. 

Cnrminnlivti  are  those  medicines  which  produce  the 
discharge  of  flatulence  from  the^  alimentary  canal.  Thii 
malady  is  more  annoying  than  dangerous,  though  it  risea 
occasionally  to  a  most  painful  height  The  warm  e». 
sential  oils,  such  as  caraway,  anise,  or  peppermint,  and 
some  aromatic  stimulants,  as  cinnamon  and  ginger,  are 
the  best  carminatives, 

All  those  classes  of  medicines  which  we  have  hitherto 
mentioned,  are  called  evacuants,  from  the  nature  of  their 
operation;  and  we  may  now  describe  another  order  of 
medicinal  preparations,  acting,  like  the  former,  through 
the  medium  of  the  circulation,  but  repressing  instead  of 
stimulating  the  powers  of  the  system.  There  are  only 
two  distinct  classes  of  medicines  of  this  kind,  narcotic* 
and  antispasmodics,  though  the  first  of  th.ese  has  some- 
times been  divided  into  two,  narcotics  and  sedatives. 

Nnrrolici  are  those  substances  which  diminish  the 
natural  degree  of  action  in  the  body,  and  tend  to  remove 
irritation  or  pain,  inducing  in  general  a  state  of  repose. 
Before  this  quieting  eflect  is  produced,  however,  there  it 
a  primary  excitement  of  short  duration,  which  is  well 
exemplified  in  the  case  of  opium.  Sedatives,  viewed  as 
a  separate  class,  are  believed  to  allay  pain  and  promote 
sleep,  without  possessing  any  stimulating  qualities;  but 
it  is  far  from  being  clear  that  we  have  any  simple  seda- 
tive medicines  at  all.  Opium,  which  is  almost  exclusively 
employed  as  a  sedative,  is  universally  admitted  to  have  a 
primary  exciting  (piality.  Unless  where  excessive  pain 
is  present,  narcotics  may  be  regarded  as  a  class  of  medi- 
cines only  to  be  used  with  great  caution,  and  never  fi»e 
from  danger.  Opium  and  its  preparations,  lettuce  extract, 
henbane,  foxglove,  hemlock,  end  tobacco,  are  some  of  the 
strongest  narcotics.  It  is  difficult  to  say  which  of  these 
is  the  safest  when  a  sedative  is  requhred,  though  probably 
the  preparation  from  lettuce  has  the  slightest  stimulating 
powers.  Morphia,  a  drug  procured  from  opium,  is  said 
to  possess  the  sedative  without  the  exciting  elfect 

Jinlispasmodics  are  used  to  remove  spasms  or  convul- 
sive contractions  of  the  muscular  fibre  in  the  body,  and 
are  so  similar  in  their  action  to  the  last-mentioned  class, 
as  scarcely  to  require  a  separate  notice.  Opium,  camphor, 
ammonia,  valerian,  and  assafoetida,  with  most  of  the  nar- 
cotics, are  the  antispasmodics  generally  in  use. 

Stumachtri. — There  is  another  class  of  medicines,  act> 
ing  by  absorption  into  the  blood,  or  as  vital  agents,  whicli 
cannot  be  ranked  either  amongst  those  which  excite  ac- 
tion, or  those  which  repress  it     These  are  stomachics 

I  and  tonics;  the  former  increasing  the  digestive  powerfl 

I  of  the  stomach,  the  lotter  renovating  the  tone,  or  con- 

1  tractile  energies,  of  the  muscular  fibre.  They  are  slow 
in  their  operation,  and  augment  the  strength  of  the  body 
without  materially  exciting  its  actions.  As  these  two 
kinds  of  medicines  are  not  very  distinctly  separable,  it 
may  be  better  to  enumerate  them  together.  Good  nutri- 
ment is  the  most  natural  and  best  supporter  of  the  bodily 
powers,  but  to  eft'ect  this  purpose,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
function  of  digestion  should  !«  in  a  proper  ex>nditiun. 

'  Gentian  root,  quassia,  chamomile,  coluinba,  and  canclla, 
assist  powerfully  this  object.  .Amongst  the  tonics,  P^ 
ruvian  and  cascHrilln  barks,  the  preparations  of  iron,  the 
sulphuric  and  nitric  acids,  are  in  greatest  repute. 

With  respect  to  the  two  kinds  of  medicinal  agents, 

'  which  act  chemically  and  mechanically  on  the  system, 
they  are   generally   ranged   into   five   classed— caustics, 

I  astringents,  antiseptics,  antacids,  and  demulcents. 

Canities  are  a  class  of  substances  employed  to  creaus 

;  artificial  sores  or  ulcers,  for  the  purpose  of  rclieviug  sons 


996 


IXFORMAllON  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


iiiop-Mited  mnlnily.  The  operation  of  eau«lic«  if  con- 
■idored  chemical,  beinpr  the  reBiilt  of  iorae  attraction 
lietwern  the  animal  body  and  the  luImUnce  employed. 
'JTie  same  action  takea  place  on  the  application  of  caua- 
tin  to  a  portion  of  the  dead  mihjoct  Where  suppuration 
ia  going  on  in  any  internal  part,  they  are  oxceedinnly 
uaeful  in  creating  a  drain  on  the  nurface  of  the  Ixxly. 
The  principal  c*uatica  employed  in  medicine,  are  potaaa, 
lilue  vitriol,  nitrate  of  ailver,  araenic,  and  iome  prcpara- 
tiona  of  mercury.  The  nitrate  of  iiilver,  or  lunar  caustic, 
is  the  lubstanco  in  moat  rommon  use. 

Jlstringenti. — The  action  of  this  class  of  medicinea  ia 
rather  obscure.  Their  power  appears  to  depend  in  a 
great  measure  on  the  presence  of  tlic  principle  called 
tannin,  and  they  produce  their  effect  by  bringing  into 
closer  contact  the  particles  of  the  iKKly  to  which  they  are 
applied,  without,  in  other  respects,  ailecting  its  mechanical 
structure.  They  are  believed  to  be  often  of  service  in 
restoring  tone  to  tne  stomach,  and  it  is  evident  that  their 
astringency  will  Ite  of  great  advantage  when  any  laxity 
of  the  surface  of  that  organ  exists.  All  the  vegetable 
astringents  contain  tannin,  and  those  most  gcncrHJly  em- 
ployed are  gall-nuts,  catechu,  kino,  oak-bark,  and  logwood. 
A  number  of  the  acids,  and  some  of  the  salts,  those  par- 
ticularly in  which  the  acid  preponderates  over  its  base,  as 
in  alum,  which  is  a  compound  of  vitriol  and  the  earth 
alumina,  possess  astringent  properties,  although  they 
c«ntain  no  tannin.  Some  of  the  metallic  salts,  as  suiter- 
acetate  of  lead  (sugar  of  lead),  and  sulphate  of  zinc 
(white  vitriol),  are  ranked  in  this  class.  Cold  is  also  a 
direct  astringent,  and  is  often  employed  in  thia  character 
with  great  advantage  in  checking  bleedings. 

Anlittptki,  though  still  ranked  as  a  distinct  class  of 
medicines,  are  very  little  trusted  to  in  the  present  day. 
They  were  great  favourites  with  tlie  ancients,  and  were 
supposed  to  possess  the  property  of  resisting  putrefac- 
tion, or  that  tendency  to  mortification  which  sometimes 
appears  towards  the  termination  of  fevers  and  other 
complaints.  Peruvian  bark  is  commonly  believml  to 
have  antiseptic  qualttiea,  and,  with  the  exception  of  alco- 
hol and  vinegar,  ia  the  only  drug  of  this  class  worthy  of 
notice. 

jliUaridi. — The  stomach  of  many  individuals  is  liable 
to  a  continued  conversion  of  their  food,  particularly 
vegetable  food,  into  a  species  of  acid,  which  produces  the 
annoying  feeling  called  heartburn,  'i'liis  acid  may  be 
neutralizri  by  any  of  the  earths  or  alkalies,  and  the 
process  ai'  relief  is  as  purely  chemical  as  if  it  were  |)cr- 
formed  in  a  glass  of  water  for  experiment.  The  three 
alkalies,  potass,  soda,  and  ammonia,  the  alkaline  earth 
siagnesia,  and  carbonate  of  Ume  (chalk),  are  the  moNt 
useful  medicines  of  this  descriptioi:.  'J'he  relief  obtained 
from  them  is,  as  might  be  expected,  merely  temporary, 
since  they  do  not  prevent  the  generation  of  the  acid 
•new. 

Dtmulctnti  are  a  class  of  medicinal  agents,  the  opera- 
lion  of  which  seems  entirely  mechanical.  A  poultice  is 
applied  oxteniaily  to  soften  an  inflamed  or  irritatcil  part, 
and  with  exactly  the  same  viewa  are  demulcents  used  to 
soothe  any  irritation  of  the  alimentary  canal.  Solutions 
of  gum,  and  syrups,  with  barley  water,  and  other  farina- 
ceous drinks,  are  employed  for  this  purpose.  Iceland 
ma^«  (lichen  Islandicus),  hquorice  root,  ahnonds,  sugar, 
marshmallow,  and  others,  are  included  in  the  close  of 
li.'^mulceiits. 

These  are  all  the  classes  of  medicines  that  can  lie  said 
to  have  a  'bt^mical  or  mechanical  action  on  the  stomach;  , 
Slid  to  complete  tliis  brief  view  uf  the  princi[>al  articlea  j 
used  in  medical  practice,  of  the  order  in  which  tliry  are  ! 
arranged,  and  the  nature  of  tlieir  action,  some  account  j 
n^y  be  given  of  rubefacients,  as  they  are  called,  from  ^ 
leddenmg  or  inflaming  the  skin,  and  of  blisters.  I 

Counifr-lrrUantt. — The  extremities  of  the  vessels 
whirb  convey  the  blood  from  tl.e  heart  over  the  body,  j 


are  supposed,  when  they  terminate  on  tlie  skin,  to  divldt 
into  minute  tubes,  one  kind  of  which  carries  the  rf<4 
globules,  and  another  the  colourlesa  serum  of  the  blowL 
When  strong  stimulants,  such  as  mnstanl  or  Spanuh 
flies,  are  applied  to  the  skin,  they  are  supposed  to  excite 
these  minute  vcsstUs  so  powerfully,  that  those  which 
contain  scrum  become  filhul  with  red  globules.  Thin 
can  only  lie  produced  during  an  extraordinary  flow  of 
blood  to  the  port,  and  is  the  cause  of  the  redness  conm<. 
quent  on  the  application  of  inuHtard  catnplnsms  or  blisters. 
A  blister  is  simply  a  rubcfainciit  allowed  to  remain  on  the 
skin  until  a  dee|)or  layer  of  it  lieconies  afTcctcd,  and  pim 
or  serum  exudes.  Like  cauHtics,  bliHtrrs  are  excci'dingly 
useful  in  substituting  a  su|it'rlii'iiil  inflammatory  action 
for  one  existing  in  some  deeper  niwl  more  dungirous  scat, 
anil  they  are  therefore  colled  counter-irritants.  The  pnii. 
cipal  substances  employcil  in  exciting  cutaneous  inflani 
motion  are  Hponish  flics,  muHtard,  tartarized  anlimonv 
ammonia,  turiwutipe,  and  a  few  other  drugs  of  a  stimu- 
lant nature.  The  Spanish  Ihes  are  almost  exclusively 
used  in  blistering,  ami  mustard,  as  a  rubefacient,  is  holj 
in  a  similar  degree  of  csiiinntion.  Latterly  a  new  and 
improved  methwl  of  employing  Sponish  flies,  or  cartha- 
rides,  hus  been  introduced  into  practice.  It  consists  in 
applying  an  extract,  which  contains  the  essential  |iower» 
of  the  material  to  tho  skin,  by  spreading  it  on  paper. 
The  blister  so  formed,  which  bears  the  name  of  Ida 
vtiirutoria  (blistering  tissue),  produces  a  much  more 
rapid  eflect  than  the  common  fly  blister,  and  does  not 
give  the  same  pain  to  the  patient. 

The  principal  medicitics  employed  ct  the  present  day 
for  the  alleviation  or  cure  of  disease,  hove  been  now 
enumerated  in  an  arrangement  which  may  show  their 
several  properties  and  modes  of  opi-rntion.  Each  uni- 
versity of  im|H>rtance  has  h  list  of  tiiedicitiul  pre|ia: ations 
drawn  up  for  the  guidnnce  of  its  own  meiiiliers  and  pii|iil« 
and  this  list  is  termed  its  Vhnrmnniifiii :  with  the  enu- 
meration is  given  i  full  account  of  the  processes  by  which 
the  various  substances  ore  prepared  for  use.  This  pa|ifr, 
which  gives  a  phurmaco|M'in  of  a  simple  and  (xjpular 
kind,  will  have  the  eflect,  we  humbly  imagine,  of  dissi. 
pating  some  |iortion  of  that  veil  uf  mysticism  which  et>- 
vclii|ied  the  art  of  medicine,  and  of  showing  what  are  the 
rntiduul  objects  to  lie  exjM-rtcd  from  the  action  of  dru^s 
U|ion  the  animal  frame.  In  regard  to  the  <iuantilies  of 
medicine  to  lie  employed  as  doses,  that  is  a  liraneh  of  the 
subject  which  we  leave  entirely  in  the  hands  of  tlie  me- 
dical practitioners  projicrly  cin|i<)wered  to  administer  liiem. 
It  may  here,  however,  lie  mentioned,  as  on  interesting 
foct,  that  the  action  of  the  dow  by  no  means  correfpondg 
with  the  quantity.  The  general  rule  seems  to  be,  thai 
when  a  too  large  dose  of  medicine  is  taken,  nature  makes 
an  eflbrt  to  expel  it,  and  it  is  acconlingly  vomited  without 
doing  tl,T  intended  good.  A  dose  of  a  moderxle  size 
pushes  ts  way  to  the  bowels,  which  it  irritates  and  causes 
to  act  *ith  a  degree  of  violence.  A  dose  of  a  smaller 
size  w  d  act  only  on  the  stomach.  Tho  action  of  medi- 
cines  in  tho  stomach  is  by  alisoiption  into  the  system; 
and  dis  the  stomach  ia  always  less  or  moT»  filled  with 
fluid  materials,  it  follows  thot  the  medicines  received  are 
diluted,  and  have  a  correspondingly  weak  or  at  least  slow 
influence  on  the  almorhents.  Thus  it  has  lictn  ftund 
that  a  few  dro[M  of  certain  medicaments  dropjied  on  the 
tongue,  by  v  liich  they  are  alworlied  at  once  into  the 
system,  have  as  [loworful  an  effect  as  twenty  times  the 
quantiiy  poured  into  the  stomach. 

Miiicntt  M'a'fra. — These  waters,  which  are  cxfielliil 
fron.  the  earth  iis  springs,  form  a  ilistinct  order  of  medi- 
csments,  prepured  in  the  great  laboratory  of  nature,  and 
dep<!nding  fur  Iheir  character  on  circumstances  over 
which  mankind  have  no  control.  Mineral  waters  are 
geiienilly  divided  into  four  classes — acidulated  or  cur- 
bona'ed,  saline,  cholylieotc  or  ferruginous  (that  tx,  con 
taining  iron),  and  sulphureous.     Some  are  tlwmi*! 


^_ 


CHEMISTRY  APPLIED  TO  THE  ARTS. 


m 


lii)t  othrra  nre  cold.  ••  Tho  lubRtancei  which  have  been 
found  in  mineral  waters  are  extremely  numeroua,  but 
ihoM  which  moat  Irnqurntly  occur  are  oxygen,  nitrogen, 
carbon,  and  Hulphur,  in  difTurent  combinrtiona ;  lime,  iron, 
inagiioHia,  fee.  Tho  aulino  apring*  conaiit  in  general  of 
«|U  of  loda  and  lime,  or  of  magnesia  and  lime,  with 
arbonic  acid  ar.  i  oxide  of  iron.  The  prirwipul  are  those 
of  Pyrmoiit,  Seidlitz,  Epsom,  Ac.  The  ferruginous  wa- 
■gn  have  a  decided  styptic  tasto,  and  are  turned  black  by 
in  infusion  of  gall-nuta.  1'ho  iron  is  someiiiiies  in  the 
•tate  of  an  oxide,  held  in  solution  by  carbonic  acid, 
lomctimes  exists  as  a  sulphnte,  and  sometimes  both  as  a 
nilphate  and  rarbonnto.  The  waters  of  Spa,  Cheltenham, 
Tunbriilge,  Pittsburg,  Ac,  are  among  fb'^ni.  Tho  acidu- 
lous waters  are  characterized  by  an  i'  -.sto,  and  by  the 
disengagement  of  fixed  air.  They  contain  five  or  six 
times  their  volume  of  carlionic  acid  gas ;  tho  suits  which 
they  contain  are  muriates  and  carbonrtes  of  lime  and 
magnesia,  carl>onato  and  sulphate  of  iron,  &c.  The 
waters  of  Bath,  Buxton,  Bristol,  Seltz,  &c.,  arc  acidulous. 
The  sulphureous  waters  are  easily  recognised  by  their 
Jisagreeablc  odour,  and  their  property  of  tarnishing  silver 
mil  copper.  The  springs  at  Saratoga  and  Ballston, 
Harrowgote,  Moflat,  Aix-la-Chapcllc,  and  numerous 
ijtliers,  arc  of  this  clasn." — Convrriilionii  I.mmn. 

The  thermal  or  hot  springs  most  frequented  m  Europe 
ire  those  of  Buth,  and  in  the  grand-duchies  of  Nassau 
ind  Baden  (there  called  bninnetii).  In  the  town  of 
Badcn-Ba'len,  there  is  a  saline  spring,  called  tho  (V- 
»;)ruiig,  which  gushes  out  at  a  temperature  of  153^  de- 
grees of  our  Fahrenheit  ttu'tmometcr,  which  is  too  hot  to 
lie  either  immediately  drunk  or  bathed  in.  The  quantity 
ejected  by  the  spring  is  enormous.  For  two  thousand 
]i(ars,  which  is  as  far  back  as  any  thing  is  known  of  the 
place,  there  have  been  thrown  up,  by  the  Ursprung  alone, 
at  tho  rate  of  three  mil'lons  of  cubic  inches  of  water 
every  twenty-four  hours,  and  always,  night  and  day,  of 
eiactiy  the  same  steaming  heat  and  the  same  taste  and 
composition.  According  to  the  analysis  of  Dr.  Kalruter, 
ijuoted  by  Granville,  a  pint  of  water,  weighing  7398 
grains,  contains  23  3-20thE  grains  of  solid  matter,  the 
principal  ingredient  of  which  is  common  sea-salt,  there 
bring  not  less  than  sixteen  grains  of  that  substance  present. 
Next  in  importance  arc  tho  sulphate,  muriate,  and  car- 
bonate of  lime,  which  altogether  amount  to  six  and  a 
half  grains.  Tho  remainder  consists  of  a  small  portion 
of  magnesia  and  traces  of  iron,  with  about  half  a  cubic 
inch  of  carbonic  acid  gns  in  addition. 

Artificial  mineral  waters  are  now  prepared  of  diflcrcnt 
kinds  by  chemists,  for  by  analyzing  tliesc  waters,  their 
properties  can  l>e  imitated.  The  article  called  tuila-water, 
<i!iually  sold  in  bottles,  is  well  known.  Its  chief  ingre- 
dients are  carbonate  of  soda  and  tartaric  acid. 

CREMICAt  AICALT8IS. 

The  art  of  analyzing  the  compouiiils  of  matter,  or,  in 
other  words,  of  resolving  them  into  tho  various  elements 
of  whii'h  they  arc  framed,  constitutes  one  of  the  most 
difficult  yet  important  branches  of  chemical  science. 
More  particularly  is  it  important  in  relation  to  number- 
less practical  jiurposcs  of  life.  Thoro  are  few  trades 
which  do  not  owe  much  of  tho  success  with  which  they 
ire  coiiducx«,  in  an  advanced  state  of  society,  to  the 
liglr  which  chemistry  has  thrown  on  the  nature  of  the 
iubntances  employed  in  them,  and  the  consequent  im- 
provements therein  introduced.  To  the  highest  moral 
interest,  even,  of  the  social  body,  chemical  analysis  is  of 
vital  moment.  It  is  the  basis  of  medical  jurisprudence. 
Without  the  knowledge  of  iioi^ions  posse »8i'd  by  the  pro- 
I'ensors  of  that  science,  and  their  ability  to  separate  by 
tiialysis  the  most  minute  portions  of  these  from  any 
(•orapoands  with  which  they  may  have  been  mixed,  inno- 
cence might  often  perish  under  the  erring  severity  of  the 
Uws,  and  guilt  escape  the  penalty  justly  incurred. 


The  mode  h  which  chemical  analyiis,  ao  important  in 
every  respect,  is  conducted,  may  lieat  be  explained  by  iit* 
dividual  examples ;  but  a  few  general  observations  will 
not  be  out  of  place.  As  reapecta  the  apparatus  necessary 
for  tho  chemical  analyst  in  his  laboratory,  notice  ho* 
already  been  taken  of  it ;  and  it  is  only  necessary  to  add, 
that  in  performing  analyses,  the  principal  testa  and  pre- 
parations are  also  required.  The  latter  articles  amount 
in  number  to  about  sixty  or  seventy.  They  consist 
chiefly  of  the  sulphuric,  nitric,  and  hydrochloric  acida; 
sulphur,  phosphorus,  iodine;  the  principal  alkalies  and 
earths,  with  their  most  important  compounds ;  mercury, 
iron,  lead,  tin,  cobalt,  antimony,  gold,  silver,  and  a  few 
other  metals,  pure  or  in  a  compound  state ;  with  a  few 
of  tho  vegetable  acids,  such  as  the  tartaric,  and  oxalic. 
Tests  and  test-papers,  most  important  matters  in  chemical 
experiments,  are  also  to  be  procured.  By  Irailing  red 
cabbage,  one  blue  solution  of  this  character  is  obtained, 
which  detects  acids  and  alkalies,  uncomhined  or  in  excesa, 
the  former  turning  the  blue  to  a  red,  and  latter  to  a  green.' 
Boiled  litmus  gives  another  solution,  which  acids  redden; 
and  turmeric  in  solution  is  changed  from  yellow  nearly 
to  red  by  alkalies.  Slips  of  paper,  soaked  in  these  aolu- 
tions,  and  then  dried  in  the  dark,  require  only  to  be 
touched  by  the  dissolved  alkali  or  acid,  to  show  the 
change  of  colour  at  once.  Iron,  again,  is  instantly  de- 
tected by  infusion  of  galla.  The  presence  of  acids  and 
alkalies,  in  almost  every  compound  in  nature,  rendeii 
these  tests  of  vast  consequence  in  anolytic  chemistry. 

In  taking  up  ony  body  of  unknown  composition  for 
analysis,  very  mitiute  <iuanlities  only,  finely  divided,  and 
weighed,  are  used.  The  body  is  then,  if  possible  din- 
solved,  commonly  in  water,  that  the  particles  may  be 
further  separated  as  widely  as  possible,  which  is  the  moat 
favourable  condition  for  the  action  of  other  bodies  upon 
it,  ind  display  of  chemical  oiTmities.  It  is  possilile  that 
the  body  may  be  insoluble,  or  but  partially  soluble  in 
water  at  a  common  temperature.  In  these  coses,  tlie 
processes  of  infusion,  digestion,  or  decoction,  will  be 
tried  by  the  analyst,  heat  adding  powerfully  to  the  solvent 
powers  of  water.  Lixiviation  and  maceration  are  alao 
resources  of  the  chemist  Sometimes  alcohol  or  other 
solvents  must  be  employed,  and  at  times  several  solvent* 
require  to  be  used  in  succession,  each  having  the  power 
to  take  up  something  insoluble  in  the  others.  Once  dis- 
solved, the  boily,  or  portions  of  it  separately,  can  be 
treated  with  tests ;  and,  happily,  there  is  not  one  sub- 
stance in  nature  which  has  not  such  affinities  for  one  or 
more  substances,  in  preference  to  all  others,  as  readily  to 
betray  its  own  nature.  The  common  results  of  adding 
one  body  as  a  test  to  another  in  solution,  are  either  altera- 
tion of  colour,  precipitation,  or  gasefaction.  In  the  fira* 
case,  tho  two  bodies  may  form  a  compound,  soluble,  bu 
of  new  colour ;  in  the  second  place,  an  insoluble  auk 
stance  may  be  thrown  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  solutior. 
and,  in  the  third,  a  gas  may  be  set  free.  All  of  these 
results  may  be  combined  in  some  cases.  The  experi 
reenter  may,  moreover,  va,^orize  and  crystallyze :  fusiisA 
and  condensation  are  processes  also  at  his  commanu. 
When  simple  solution  can  be  efiTccted  in  no  way,  apd  » 
no  temperature,  the  experimenter  may  then  have  recourse 
to  other  agents.  Chemical  action  may  be  induced  by 
pressure,  by  electricity,  and  sometimes  by  light 

These  are  the  general  ways  and  means  Ly  which  the 
chemical  analyst  prosecutes  his  invesligiitions.  By  way 
of  particular  example,  let  us  take  a  ease  in  the  deparl- 
I  ment  of  medical  jurisprudence.  Let  bu  suppose  a  ine- 
I  dical  man  called  upon  to  examine  a  case  of  poisoning, 
where  the  only  cau.^c  of  death  that  can  bo  suspecte<l  is 
the  use  of  copper  vessels  when  corroded  by  articles  of 
food.  The  object,  then,  is  to  analyze  the  vegetable  or 
animal  fluids  remaining  on  the  stomach,  or  preserved 
otherwise,  in  order  to  detect  the  copper,  if  it  eiists.  Be- 
ing boiled,  the  fluid  in  question  is  trvate.!  ur  mixed  wi^b 


8S8 


INFORMATION   FOR   THK   PEOPLE. 


JilutiMl  arctic  acid  or  vlnPKar,  whirh  diMoI»M  out  the 
Copper  from  among  the  other  matlpr*  prcwnt.  Well 
•ware  that  lulphur  ha*  to  atrong  an  affinity  for  copper 
M  to  unite  with  it  whenever  they  meet  favourably  in  »o- 
lution,  forming  a  comjiounJ  of  Imtli,  cnlled  a  aulphurct 
01  copper,  Profeaaor  (Jhrintiiion  tlien  direcU  the  inlrodiir- 
tion  of  aulphur,  in  the  ihapc  of  «ul|)hurelpd  hydrogen 
gai,  after  the  following  pivparstiona  have  flr«t  l)oen  made : 
— "  The  iuxpcrtod  raixturr  having  l«en  prepared  by  the 
•ilvlition  of  aretic  arid,  i«  to  lie  lubjcctcd  to  filtration,  and 
any  matter  left  on  the  filter  i»  to  Im  wn»he<l,  colloetcd, 
and  dried,  the  wa«hin(rt  lieing,  of  couriie,  added  to  the 
fluid  which  firet  paaaed  through.  The  process  here  di- 
vidci  ituclf  into  two;  for  the  oxide  of  rop[>er  may  be  left 
en  the  filter  in  the  form  of  an  insoluble  salt,  or  it  may 
have  pasaed  through  in  solution.  Dut  it  may  lie  ob- 
served in  paiming,  that  very  few  of  the  salts  of  copjior 
■re  insoluble  in  diluted  arctic  acid,  so  that  if  copper  is 
present  at  all  in  a  suspected  mixture,  there  are  many 
chances  in  favour  of  ita  being  found  by  tlin  first  branch 
01  the  analysis. 

«  Firit  branch. — TTie  solution  is  to  lie  examined  first, 
both  because  it  is  the  more  likely  quarter  in  which  to 
find  the  copper,  and  because  the  nnalyxis  is  more  easy 
than  that  of  the  solid  matter.  The  solution,  then,  is  to 
3e  treated  in  fhe  usual  way  with  a  stream  of  sulphureted 
hydrogen,  and  immediately  boiled  to  cx|iel  tho  excess  of 
gas.  If  a  brownish-black,  or  even  pale-brown  precipitate 
is  then  thrown  down,  there  is  a  presumption  in  favo4ir 
9f  the  existence  of  copper :  if  there  is  no  precipitate  or 
lirown  colouration,  there  is  no  copper  in  tho  fluid.  In 
order  to  ascertain  precisely  the  nature  of  the  precipitate, 
which  is  some  metallic  sulphuret,  the  superincumbent 
fluid,  after  ebullition  and  sulmidcnce  of  the  precipi'alp,  is 
to  be  cautiously  withdrawn,  and  its  place  supplie  1  with 
water ;  and  when  the  washing  has  beon  several  times 
repeated  in  the  same  manner,  the  precipitate  is  to  be 
transferred  into  a  watch-glass,  or,  still  better,  into  a  white 
porcelain  cup,  and  dried.  It  is  next  to  be  collected,  and 
incinerated  in  a  glass  tulw,  to  destroy  any  adhering  vege- 
table or  animal  matter.  Tho  last  step  \n  tbia  branch  of 
tlio  process  is  to  convert  the  sulphuret  Into  the  sul- 
phate by  the  action  of  a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid,  aided 
by  a  gentle  heat ;  and  the  to  add  to  an  excess  of  am- 
monia, either  without  or  with  previous  filtration,  accord- 
ing to  tho  deforce  of  muildiness  in  the  nitrous  liolution.  If 
copper  is  present,  the  usual  deep  violet-blue  tint  will  bo 
ftnick. 

"  Strond  branch, — If  copper  is  not  detected  in  the  fil- 
tered part  of  the  suspcctetl  matter,  it  will  bo  necessary 
lo  examine  also  what  remained  on  the  filter.  This 
proceeding,  which  constitutes  the  second  branch  of  the 
analysis,  will  he  seldom  required  in  ordinary  medico- 
legal researches,  being  rendered  necessary  only  by  the 
possibility  of  the  oxido  of  copper  having,  either  originally 
or  after  mixture  with  the  suspected  matter,  assumed 
the  form  of  dn  inorganic  salt,  insotublo  in  water  or  acetic 
acid. 

"  The  matter  on  the  filter  is  first  to  be  well  dried,  and 
then  heated  to  redness  in  a  crucible  till  it  bo  complet<>ty 
chorretl.  The  copper  which  is  thus  reduced  to  the  metallic 
state,  is  next  to  be  treated  with  nitric  acid,  diluted  with 
its  weight  of  water,  uid  sided  in  its  action  by  gentle 
heat  A  solution  is  then  [irocurcd,  which  is  to  bo  re- 
moved by  filti«tion,  and  tested  with  ammonia,  and  the 
other  liquid  testa."  Ammonia,  or  hartshorn,  has  a  strong 
ainiiity  for  copper,  and  when  aJdeti  to  a  saline  solution 
of  the  latter,  throws  down  a  deep  blue  powder,  called  the 
ammoniuret  of  copper. 

Tho  analysis  of  mineral  waters,  where  the  nature  and 
•mount  of  tho  whole  ingredients,  and  not  of  one  only, 
form  the  subject  of  inquiry,  is  a  tusk  of  very  great  diifi- 
nilty.  (jcueraliy,  however,  non-profesiional  experi- 
menters upon   liquids  of  this  description,  are  anxious 


merely  to  ascertain  the  existence  or  non 'existence  oi  Mr. 
tain  ingredients,  without  entering  into  miiiute  prniHit 
tional  quantities,  or  the  like  details.  Tho  report  of  « 
case  where  a  clergyman,  tho  Rev.  W.  Robertson,  junior, 
of  Inverkeithing,  examined  a  mineral  spring  at  Fordei, 
now  lies  lirfore  us,  having  been  communicated  to  the 
Phihiirphiral  Journulof  Professor  Jameson.  It  may  giv^j 
■  fair  idea  of  the  way  of  going  to  work  -under  surli  cIn 
cumstancea. 

A  gas  bubbled  up  through  tho  spring,  which  Mr, 
Robertson  first  examined.  The  elementary  as  well  ai 
compound  gases  have  pro|)erties  and  afllnities  us  well 
marked  as  those  of  fluids  or  solids,  and  can  be  nx  reailiiy 
dctecteil.  For  example,  the  gas  called  carlmnic  arid,  pre. 
sent  so  largely  in  naturu,  has  hiicIi  an  aflinity  fur  lime 
that,  on  contact,  it  is  at  once  alMorlied  by  lime-wtitcr,  and 
renders  that  liquid  turbid.  Uy  trials  with  a  gmduated 
glass  tube,  where  the  gas  or  air  containing  carUmic  srii] 
is  brought  into  contact  with  lime-water,  the  Iohs  of  the 
acid  gas  by  absorption  may  be  measured,  and  the  pr(v 
portion  of  it  present  in  the  examined  air  at  once  deter- 
mined. 8o  with  other  gases,  when  teHti«l  in  relisiioii  to 
their  respective  affinities.  Having HatiHfied  liiniMlf  ahoul 
the  gases  present  in  the  spring  of  Fordel,  Mr.  Kiilierlion 
then  tried  tho  following  preliminary  ex|x>rimcnt.s  in  drier. 
mine  the  sutwtances  contained  : — "  Even  when  recent,  It 
did  not  p4iccptibly  redden  tincture  of  litniUN,  thiMi|;h  the 
tint  was  compared  with  the  colour  of  tho  tineturc  diluted 
to  a  similar  extent. 

••  It  did  not  afTect  the  colour  of  Brazil  wood  or  tiirme 
ric  test-paper.  With  tincture  of  galls  it  gave  a  slii^U 
tinge  of  purple,  and  ultimately  a  scanty  pur|ilish-brnwr. 
flocculent  precipitate,  showing  the  presence  of  ir.in,  and 
by  the  purplish  tinge,  also,  the  presence  of  earthy  or  alka- 
lino  salts. 

"  The  water,  next  day,  gave  no  tinge  with  the  tincturt^ 
showing  the  iron  to  be  principally  in  the  state  of  a  cu- 
bunate. 

"  When  tho  water  was  evaporated  by  a  gentle  heat, 
flocculi  of  oxide  of  iron  were  deposited. 

"  The  wafer,  upon  being  lioilcd,  gave  a  considerable 
yellowish-white  precipitate,  imlirating  carlionafes.  Thia 
precipitate  was  soluble,  with  considerable  eflervescnce, 
in  nitric  acid. 

"  Tho  water  decanted  ofT  from  this  precipitate  gave  ro 
tinge  wil  h  tincture  of  galls,  but,  on  tioiling  it  with  a  fcir 
drops  of  nitric  acid,  to  pcroxidisc  tho  iron  which  it  mighl 
contain,  the  excess  of  acid  being  afterwards  neutriilizcd 
by  ammonia,  it  gave  unequivm-al  traces  of  iron,  lij;  a 
darkish  tinge  with  tlie  tincture.  From  this  it  wuh  infcrrod 
that  tho  iron  in  it  waa  in  the  state  of  protoxide.  A  por- 
tion of  this  water,  aAer  being  thus  treated,  also  gave  a  red 
tinge,  with  sulpho-cyanato  of  potash. 

"  With  ferro-cyanatc  of  i)ota«h,  and  a  drop  of  muriatic 
acid,  tho  water,  when  recent,  gave  a  whitish  precipitate, 
becoming  blue  by  exposure  to  the  air,  indicating  iron  in 
the  state  of  protoxide. 

"  With  lime-water,  the  recent  water  gave  a  copioui 
flocculent  precipitate,  the  lime  uniting  with  the  exrctuor 
the  carbonic  acid,  and  the  whole  of  the  carbonates  fallin) 
down  together.  Thia  precipitate  was  redissolved,  on  add 
ing  more  of  the  mineral  water,  which  showeil  a  consiiior 
able  excess  of  carbonic  acid  ;  and  it  was  also  soluble  will 
cfTcrveHccnco  in  dilute  acc^tic  acid. 

"  With  the  bicarbonate  of  potash  there  was  no  precipi- 
tate, the  whole  being  kept  dissolved  by  the  excess  of  car- 
bonic acid. 

"  With  ammonia,  and  also  with  potash,  a  flocculen! 
white  precipitate  took  place,  partly  owing  to  the  ahutrao- 
tion  of  free  carbonic  acid.  With  tho  carltonatei  of 
potash,  soda,  and  ammonia,  there  were  similar  prerii>itatet, 
but  more  scanty  ;  they  were  all  soluble  in  a  dilute  icetk 
acid. 

••  With  a  aolution  of  soap  in  alcohol,  •  great  milkinni 


CHEMISTRY  APPI.IKD  TO  THE  A.IITS 


9)9 


•  U  M  trrta  c  or  li>4(1,  a  cnn»iili>ralile  inilkincM,  and  • 
prei'ipitaki  inNoluhln  in  acetic  aciil. 

«  Witn  oxalate  of  ammonia,  a  coniiderable  precipitutn, 
iniiicatinn  lime. 

■•  With  carbonate  of  ammonia  and  phoaphato  of  nxla, 
in  immcdiato  milltincRn,  anil  a  precipitate,  after  itamlinK, 
inilicatiriK  maKfimia  s  the  precipitate  aululilo  in  acetic 
u'iil.  With  carlionate  of  ammonia  or  phoaphate  of  wxla, 
ni'parntely,  no  milkinvM,  after  itanding  for  the  aaroe  length 
ol'tiinf. 

»  With  murinte  of  baryta,  a  Rliifht  precipitate,  iniolublu 
in  inuriiilic  acid,  indicating  lulpliuric  acid. 

•I  With  nitrate  of  lilver,  a  co|)ioui  precipitate,  white 
n'hiio  aecluded  from  the  light,  becoming  rapidly  purple 
on  cx|<oiiure  to  liuht,  indicating  muriatic  acid. 

i>  Two  ounces  of  the  water,  cvaporateil  to  dryncM,  gave, 
with  nitro-muriute  of  phitinum,  olight  tracea  of  pola*ih. 

"  The  water,  very  much  concentrated  by  evnpr  ration, 
ggvo,  wit!i  Htarch  nud  Hulphuric  acii',  no  traco  of  iodine. 

u  From  the  hIhivo  indication!, it  wai  concluded  that  the 
wnlcr  contained  sulphuric,  muriatic,  and  carlx>nic  acidH, 
ttii;etlicr  with  protoxido  of  iron,  lime,  magnesia,  and  a 
little  potaxh.  The  prcnenco  of  alumina  was  inferred  to 
(w  incompiitible  with  that  of  the  onrthy  carltonntes, 
iioillier  could  any  be  subsequently  detected."  'I'ho  de- 
termination of  the  quantities  of  each  substance  present 
nas  the  next  object  with  Mr.  RolicrUon;  but  it  is  not 
necessary  here  to  carry  our  notice  of  the  subject  beyond 
generalities. 

'I'lio  agricultural  chemist  proceeds  in  a  similar  way  and 
nitli  siniilnr  instruincnts.  He  has  the  advantc;^,  gene- 
rjjly,  of  knowing  Ix'forehnnd  the  probable  character  of  the 
uiittern  on  which  he  operates,  and  the  point  is  to  deter- 
iiiliie  in  what  proportions  they  exist  in  the  particular  soil 
underexamination.  Whore  a  Icj  exact  analysis  will  suit 
llic  pur|igiie-j  of  the  aii^culturibi,  the  following  simple  plan 
of  ascertaining  tlie  qualities  of  soils  may  be  adopted.  We 
quote,  with  some  slight  alterations,  from  Mr.  Young's 
"  I,etl«rH  of  Agricola." 

» In  the  field  to  bu  examined,  take  earth  a  little  below 
tlie  I  rface,  from  four  separate  places,  about  a  quarter 
of  a  ('  und  from  each.  Mix  them  together,  and  again 
leparato  thcni  into  four  quantities  of  a  quarter  of  a 
|»uiid  euch.  Then  take  ono  quantity  and  ex|>OKe  it  to 
tJio  »iin,  or  l>ofi)rt!  the  fire,  till  completely  dry  ;  and  turn 
It  ovtT  frequently,  that  it  may  lie  well  mixal  together, 
living  thus  powdered,  pass  it  through  a  fine  sieve,  which 
H  rll  ullow  all  the  particles  of  sand  und  gravel  to  escape, 
but  which  will  hold  hack  stones  small  fibrous  roots, 
ai:d  decayed  wood.  Weigh  the  two  parts — the  line  aiul 
llio  rough — Boparately,  and  tako  a  note  of  each.  The 
stones  and  other  bulky  muterialh  arc  then  to  be  ex- 
amined apart  from  the  roots  and  wood.  If  they  are 
hard  and  rou^h  to  the  touch,  and  scratch  glass  easily, 
tliey  are  stiieious  and  flinty  ;  if  they  are  without  much 
dilFiculty  broken  to  pieces  by  the  fingers,  and  can  bo 
•craped  by  a  knife  to  powder,  they  aie  aluminous  or 
daycy  ;  or  if,  when  put  in  a  wine-glass,  and  common 
vinegar  poured  upon  them,  small  aK-bubblea  ascend 
tu  tlic  top  of  the  liquid,  they  are  calcareous.  The  finely 
divided  matter  which  ran  through  the  sieve,  must  next 
undergo  the  test  of  cx|>eriment.  After  b«>iiig  weighed, 
iintiite  the  whole  in  water,  till  th<»  earth  lie  taken  up 
lrt)in  the  butt  >ni  and  mechanically  su!i|icnded,  adding 
wjtor  till  thia  effect  bo  produced.  Allow  the  mass  then 
1-1  settle  for  two  or  three  minutes,  and  in  that  time  the 
ii'iiiiiy  particles  will  sink  to  the  bottom.  Four  off  the 
Wd'.cr,  which  will  then  contain  the  clay  in  suspension, 
and  the  inwlublc  earth  arising  from  animal  end  vegeta- 
lvl>'  ilecoiiipoHition.  The  sand  should  bo  first  atti'nded  to, 
an;l  if  from  inspection  it  \m  thought  cither  silicioiis  or 
c-ilcareous  in  its  nature,  the  requisite  tests  may  bo  in- 
•t:intly  applied.  By  this  time  tlie  mixture  in  the  poure<I- 
tttt  tvatrr  will  leave  deposited  at  the  bottom  if  the  vessel 


the  clay  and  other  rarths,  with  the  insoluble  animal  and 
vegetable  matter.  After  pouting  oft  the  water,  dry  th» 
WHiiment,  and  apply  a  strong  heat  by  placing  it  on  th« 
Ixittoin  of  a  pot  ignited  to  riHliiewt.  and  the  animal  and 
vogotablo  niattcr  will  fly  ofT  in  a/'riforin  priKlucts.  Tha 
ret.'iiiinder  lying  in  the  bottom  will  be  found  tu  consist  ol 
clay,  lime,  or  magnesia. 

"To  obtain  accuracy,  another  quarter  of  a  pound  may 
be  taken,  and  the  whole  process  gone  over  a  second, 
a  third,  or  even  a  fourth  time,  so  that  the  o|)eratoT 
may  rectify  any  blunders  he  had  previously  committed, 
and  ho  catisfted  as  to  the  remiltH  of  the  exprrimenb 
Ho  should  provide  himself  with  a  pair  of  fine  scale*, 
and  a  m't  of  weights  d'.  vided  at  least  into  half  and  qua^ 
ter  ounces  and  dr.tchma,  Although  vinegar  will  detect 
lime  by  oirervescenee,  it  docs  not  dissolve  it  so  eiTcCtt^ 
ally  as  the  nitric  or  muriatic  acids,  small  quantities  of 
which  may  be  obtained  from  the  druggists  at  a  small 
expense." 

Having  ascertained  by  these,  or  ony  othc~  inquiriea, 
vhat  is  the  composition  of  the  soil,  a  pretty  accural* 
notion,  other  things  considnred,  may  Im>  olituined  respect 
ing  its  capacity  for  productive  husbandry.  If  it  bo  necea- 
sary  to  enter  on  a  course  of  improvement,  the  defect  in 
compoHitiun  may  be  remedied  by  the  applietition  of  mate- 
rials of  an  opposite  quality — an  excess  of  calcareous  mat- 
ter being  cour.teracU'd  by  mind  and  clay,  an  excosa  of 
clay  by  the  almixturo  of  sand,  or  un  excess  of  sand 
by  the  application  of  clay,  pcot,  &c.  An  excellent 
soil  for  liearing  wheat  has  l)een  found  to  contain  in  100 
parts— carbonate  of  lime,  28 ;  silica,  32 ;  alumina,  29  : 
and  of  animal  end  vegefablo  matter,  with  moisture,  1 1. 
Oxide  of  iron,  to  the  extent  ot  ?.  or  J  in  the  100  porta,  ia 
not  unusual  in  good  soils. 

COMBUSTIBLES. 

The  classof  combustibles  in  the  manufacture  of  which 
a  knowledge  of  chemistry  is  more  particularly  required, 
includes  gunpowder,  fulminating  powders,  the  material 
of  Congreve  and  sky  rockets,  boii.h-shells,  i)ereus8ion- 
caps,  rapidly  igniting  matches,  and  cf  fire-works  gene- 
rally. The  term  Pyrolcrhny  (from  j>ur,  fire,  and  ttchnt, 
art)  has  been  applied  to  the  art  of  making  and  compound- 
ing these  sulwtances.  Of  each  of  them  wc  shall  present 
a  short  account,  with  an  explanation  of  the  principles  on 
which  they  fulminate  and  explode. 

The  leading  ingredients  in  most  explosive  corobus- 
tibles  arc  charcoal,  saltpetre  or  nitre,  and  sulphur.  In 
making  fireworks  of  a  varied  kind,  however,  numerous 
other  substances  arc  employed.  The  chief  are  ch'orate 
of  potass,  fulminating  silver,  and  mercury,  preparationa 
of  steel,  copper,  and  other  metals,  with  varicus  oila, 
spirits,  and  resins.  Charcoal,  as  is  mentionru  in  the 
preceding  sheet,  is  simply  wood  reduced  to  a  charred 
condition  (pure  carbon),  by  being  burnt  to  a  kind  of 
blackeiic<l  cinder  in  a  vessel  closed  from  the  atmosphere. 
For  making  gunpowder,  light  woods,  such  as  the  willow 
and  alder,  are  the  best,  and  the  pieces  are  stripped  flf 
thi-ir  bark  before  being  used.  In  preparing  this  kind 
of  charcoal,  it  is  important  that  the  vapours  be  allowed 
freely  to  escopc,  otherwise  its  combustibility  will  be  im- 
paired. The  preparation  is  usually  elFected  by  iron  re- 
torts over  furnaces ;  and  by  a  connecting  tube  the  vapour 
cscajies,  and  is  condensed  into  a  tarry  acid,  Irom  which 
pyroligiieouR  acid  is  afterwards  distilled.  Alter  being  thus 
prepared,  the  charcoal  is  ground  to  a  fine  powder.  It  has 
i>een  properly  charred  if  it  burns  without  leaving  any 
residuum. 

8alt[ictre,  nitre,  or  nitrate  of  potass,  is  abundant  in 
nature,  but  may  also  lie  compounded  by  the  artificial 
union  of  its  two  ingredients,  nitric  acid  and  potass.  It 
is  procured  largely  fti  -a  India,  and  also  from  Egypt, 
Spain,  and  other  countriiv  wnere  it  is  found  on  the  nu 
fuco  of  limostonea,  marls,  and  chalky  strata,  being  spia 


«40 


INFORMATION    FOR   THK   PROPLK. 


Nilro. 

CbRrnml.  Siilrhur 

^^ 

III 

.  73 

lis 

1!J5 

7i 

III 

.  M 

S<) 

77 

0 

-  H) 

s 

oiipoiiiiIt  (frnrmtwl  «nil  rrproiliiTil  Ihnrc  hy  •ome  •fim*- 
iplirrii-  infliifiirr  not  wril  iiniltTitiMKl.  Thn  ulighl  «ilky 
Hift«  of  lli«  nilrii  irx  nwrpl  up  with  ■  broom,  (iml  iiri« 
li&iviatril,  dllownl  to  wltic.  rvuporati-.!,  miil  .Tyiilnlliinl. 
In  thin  uliilc  il  in  fxiwrlrcl ;  hut  Ihfl  iiiipnriti.-it  wliirh  it 
rontninn  rniinrc  it*  miliji'rtion  to  «ir(in»ivp  iioliitionii  iinil 
mutalli/iilion*.  ire  it  <i«ii  Ih>  forrnfil  into  Riiiipowilrr 
The  U«t  priwrmi  in  thnt  of  fiinion,  in  i'on  pot«  nt  a  ri'Kii- 
lat«Ml  hcnt.  Nolhind  ran  ii»rpa»«,  in  tli<'«n  rr«iir(l>i.  (lit' 
nilrn  pri'pari'il  in  llui  Hovernnirnt  (Miwilpr-Wtirku  nt  Wiil- 
Iham  AIiIh'V.  It  in  trntril  )<y  aililinK  Ut  '\l»  nolutlon  in  ilin- 
lllfil  wiitiT  nitrnte  of  lilvrr,  with  which  it  on-aiiioiii  no 
perrrplilili'  opali-nrpriri". 

Hulpliiir  ia  prooumi  in  many  volranic  roiinlrira,  ami 
th'  (ireot  fm|>orium  for  it  in  Sirily.  At  lhi<  ki>»P"""'''' 
work*,  il  in  puriniMl  for  iiai-  rithrr  by  iliiitilliition  or  liy  fiiaiori. 
In  the  flrat  inRtnnrp,  thr  purr  part  ia  iliHtillt-d  ovrr,  niiil, 
in  the  arronil,  akiinmcil  otT,  the  impiirilica  lirini;  loll  lii-biml. 

Uunpinnlrr. — The  Ihri-p  inKri'iliriitx,  rharcoul,  nitro,  mid 
ralphur,  iN-ing  duly  prrparril  by  trituriition,  nnd  pnwM'd 
throuRh  fuir  airvoa,  thry  arc  rrady  to  Im-  niixrd.  Tlwro 
apprara  to  )w  a  Rrrat  diiri-rrni'f  of  opinion  and  prni'licu 
in  drlrnnlninK  thr  ri*lnliv<>  proportiona  of  tlin  inxrrilli'nt.i. 
The  fi>llowiii)(  ia  a  arale  of  proportiona  in  I  DO  parta, 
•ilopted  by  dilfcrent  gunpowder  niakoni : — 

Rnjral  milla  nl  Wnltham  Atihey 
French,  lor  war 

"      for  iip<iri«men 

"      Inr  iniiMiK 
Chaplal'i  proportiona 
Mr.  Napier'a  iliiio       .       .        • 

Tlie  minelml  inRTpdirntii  are  now  rarriod  to  n  mill,  to  l» 
properly  birndi'd  by  lhi>  prrsnutt-  of  a  n'volvinn  atoiip  on 
cdi;p;  the  alonr  ix  of  a  I'lilriircoiia  qunlity,  nnd  k"**"  round 
on  a  bod»tonp  of  the  Kninc  iinlurr ;  no  nirlnl  or  muiiiIhIoiic 
0  cmployid  piihrr  nbont  the  mnchinrry  or  llii-  null-houw", 
in  order  to  avi-id  the  daniter  of  apnrka.  "On  Ibia  lird- 
•tune,"  aay-t  Dr.  tlie,  in  hia  hintory  of  the  niiiniifartiire, 
H  the  compiMitioh  ia  xprrad,  nnil  inoiHtened  with  na  aniidl 
■  quantity  of  water  iit  will,  in  ronjuiirlion  with  the  weiijlit 
of  the  revolvinij  atonea,  brinR  it  into  a  pro|>er  IhkIv  of 
riikr,  but  not  of  /imj'c  'l"he  line  of  ronlact  of  llie  edne- 
atone  ia  ronHtanllv  preoedrd  by  a  arraiHT,  which  Rixa 
round  with  tlu>  wheel,  rontinunily  arrapini^  up  the  eake, 
and  tuminif  it  into  the  erark  of  the  atone.  From  fdly  to 
aixty  (xiunds  are  uaunlly  worke<l  at  onrp  in  eiirh  mill- 
wheel.  When  the  eake  haa  liei-n  thorongbly  inrorpiv 
rated,  it  ia  aent  In  the  rominu-houae,  when-  u  wpnrate 
mill  ia  employed  to  form  the  riike  into  eruina  or  rnriiH. 
Here  it  i«  lirat  prea«ed  into  a  hiiril  lirm  niaaa,  then  broken 
into  imnll  lumpn;  nfter  whieh  the  praininn  ia  exeeiiled, 
by  plaeinn  theac  Iiimpa  in  aieiea,  on  "-si'h  of  whirh  ia 
laid  a  dink  of  licrniiin  vita-.  The  aievi-a  are  nmdo  of 
parrhment  akina.  perforated  with  a  miiltitudn  of  round 
hole*.  Heveral  aiieh  aievea  are  filed  in  a  iVanie,  wliieh  by 
proper  miieliinery  hiia  aneh  ii  motion  ktiveii  to  it  h»  to  mwUe 
the  liKniiin  vilx  runner  in  eaeh  aeivn  move  round  willi 
cuiuidcralile  veloeity,  m>  ^a  to  break  the  luiii|>s  of  lb»; 
cake,  and  forre  the  aul>xtan<-e  throuith  the  lievex,  formiiii( 
Ijraina  of  aeveral  ai74'».  Vhvue  ((rainiiar  partirlea  arc 
afterwanJa  aeparatetl  iVuin  the  finer  dual,  by  pro|NT  aievea 
and  reela.  The  corned  |)u»()rr  ii  nrxt  hardened,  and  the 
rougher  edgea  taken  otf,  by  being  revolved  in  a  eloac  reel 
or  caak,  turning  rapidly  on  it*  axia.  Thia  veawl  aome- 
what  rraemblea  a  Imrrel-chum ;  it  ahnuid  lie  only  half 
full  at  each  operation,  and  haa  frequently  Kiuam  Iwra 
inside,  parnllel  to  ita  axia,  to  aid  the  poiiiti  by  attrition. 
The  guii|>owder  la  now  dried,  which  ia  done  i^nerally  by 
•  ateam-heat,  or  by  tranamiltin»(  a  bo>iy  ot  air,  ali);htly 
heate<l  in  another  chamber,  over  canvaa  ahelvca  covered 
with  the  dump  gunpowder." 

tiocktis —  tirrimrkt. — The  common  modern  rockets, 
which  are  (;e>ie  rally  employed  aa  aignala  or  tnkena  of 
reiotcing,  may  be  deacrihed  aa  tubular  cartriJi^a  uf  paper. 


paateboani,  wn<Nl,  or  metal,  filled  with  enmhiiatili|«  «,,,. 
aliiii'-ea,  wbirb,  on  iffnition,  cauae  the  eartriilitn  to  thn<> 
rnpidiv  IhrouKh  the  air.  The  movement  mny  tie  irrrmi 
lar.  pnriilKilit.  or  p«>r|iendicularly  iipwiinla,  ncconlinc  a*  n 
amall  atick  or  guide  ia  altache<l,  or  iitbrrwliu',  lo  t|ii<  r,^ 
Iridire,  to  direct  ila  movementa.  The  prim-iple  o,i  whirh 
rocketa  riae  in  the  air  ia  ainiple,  and  mny  lie  rxplainnj 
here,  once  for  all,  aa  it  appliea  to  nil  vnrietiea  of  flytna 
Drr-worka.  A  veanel  conluining  a  tliiid  which  lemla  to 
expiind,  will  Iw  molionleaa  ao  long  na  the  vcnhcI  ia  cIihciI 
on  all  aidea,  liecauae  the  preaaure  ia  Ibcti  erpml  pvi^iy. 
where;  but  if  an  o|M'ning  exiat,  the  pre«»ure  will  nut  U 
ei|iii»l,  nnd  the  vi-aael  will  then  lend  to  move  in  the  dirfc 
lion  in  which  the  preaaure  exiala.  It  the'  o|Htiing  |« 
Im'Ihw,  Ihe  tendency  will  lie  to  riae;  and  if  the  expnimivit 
force  lie  «rent  enough,  nnd  iho  veaix-l  anH'iricntlv  liuhl,  tlin 
veaael  will  oN-y  tJie  preaaure  iiivl  nxcciid.  When  the 
expniiaivc  force  ia  exhuuated,  it  will  nxiuti  deHt'cnd.  by  ihg 
ordinnry  intlucnce  of  grnvilution,  In  llie  cnw  of  tl^ 
rr»ckel,  the  eombiialion,  comniencinif  (n'Iow,  crinlea  iln 
expniiaivc  gna,  and  the  preaaure  forcca  tlu'  rmkot  up. 
wnrda.  Were  there  no  o|H'niiiii,  the  prc'taiin'  would  In 
eqiinl,  nnd,  if  Iho  force  were  aullicient,  it  would  linply 
liurat  the  rocket. 

"  The  rocketa  which  riae  into  the  air  with  prntlisioni 
velocity,"  aaya  Dr.  IJre,  "are  among  lln-  mimt  common 
but  not  lenat  interealing  lire-worka."  The  ciirlridge  or 
tnlie,  commonly  of  piiatelionrd  or  pnaled  piipcr,  mu«t  ng 
very  a!ri>Mgly  formed,  if  Inrge,  and  iiitcndid  lo  aacend 
high.  Inaide  of  it  ia  a  aeeond  tula',  cidlcil  the  mul  or 
/ii.vc  of  Ihe  rcn'ket,  the  piirpiMC  of  which  ia  lo  lenvf  i 
viicnni  apnce  round  tim  nxia,  thnt  Ihe  volume  of  elamic 
gna  which  the  ignition  prixlucea  miiy  net  on  a  vacant 
Hpiicc.  On  nccount  of  ita  aomewhiit  conicul  form,  hollow 
roda.  ndjimlnble  to  dilferent  brnnclua  or  akewcra,  iire  imol 
in  |>ackiiiK  Ihe  chnrge.  Ihe  curtridge  la'ing  Muitlnincd  by  a 
co|i|)er  mould  or  cylinder  nt  the  lime.  The  ilinrgc  of 
aky-rockcta  vnriea  according  to  the  bi>i>  of  the  curtridi^i^ 
.Nitre  Hi,  aulpliiir  4,  and  cliurconl  7,  nri  Ihe  contenta  anil 
proportiona  of  the  charge  when  tb"  bore  ia  thrce-foiirtlu 
of  nn  inch ;  and  the  clmrcoul  ia  merely  increnwd  a  very 
lillle  when  the  Uiro  ia  eiilnrged.  Thia  ia  the  common 
rocket,  with  the  uaual  liuht  of  gunpowder.  When  a 
riM'kct  with  a  lintliniU  light  ia  wuiitid,  :)  pnrta  of  tine 
nieel-filiiiga  nre  added ;  and  when  the  light  culled  th« 
C/iiiirtr-jirc  ia  deaired,  .3  paria  of  fine  iHiniiita  oi  caat-irnn 
form  the  addition  to  Ihe  three  ingredienta  firHt-mentionpiL 
Tbcne  are  the  common  ro<'ket»;  the  aourcca  of  olhtT 
kinda  nnd  coloura  of  light  will  lie  noticed  iiiimediulcly. 

The  Kiriiiliire  of  a  ro"ket,  na  the  crni  kera,  almwers  of 
fin*,  Htiita,  KrriKMita,  Ac,  are  culled,  which  are  coininiiiilv 
uttncbed  to  it,  with  what  ia  termed  the  pnl,  are  ol  mu'* 
added  Irt'liirc  igniting  the  churgo  in  the  central  tulie  or 
fiia*  e.  "  'I'he  [Hit  ia  a  |mHlelKinrd  tube,  wider  than  tlw 
UmIv  of  the  rix-ket,  nml  one-lhird  of  ita  length.  Allrr 
iM'ing  Ktrnnt;leil  at  Ihe  iHittom  like  the  mouth  of  a  plilil, 
it  is  ntlachtNl  to  Ihe  eiiil  of  the  fu»<"c  liy  mraii.s  of  twine 
and  pnate.  Theac  nre  atVerwarda  covered  wilti  (ia|rrr, 
The  gnrniture  ia  introduced  by  the  neck,  and  a  pajxi 
plug  ia  litid  over  il.  The  whole  (for  atill  grcuter  Ktreiiijlh- 
eniiig)  iaencUmNJ  within  a  tuU-  of  pnalebourd  tcrininuting 
in  a  cone,  which  ia  iRiidy  paated  lo  the  pot.  'I'he  quirk- 
nintch  ia  now  final^  inaerted  into  the  soul  of  Ihe  nx-kd. 
and  a  light  nxl  or  atick  attached  to  the  end  uf  the  wliolf, 
tu  kivp  it  in  a  pcr|irndiculnr  aaoenl." 

The  lieauly  of  tlie  rocket  de|ieiid8  much  on  thciit\li' 
of  the  gHrniture.  i'hette,  whether  Htara  or  iier|ii'nlii,  arc 
charged  fuaeea,  stronger  or  weaker,  formed  iiiti>  the  shajKi 
wanted,  and  giving  kinda  uf  light  modified  by  l.'ie  iiinrnii 
enta,  Stara  which  give  golden  aliuwcm  are  loniivd  of 
nitre,  10;  aulphur,  10;  charcoal,  4;  gunjiowiler,  16: 
lamp-black,  2.  I'ctarda  are  aealed  cartridges,  which  bunl 
in  tho  air,  and  crackera  are  a<]Uttre  lioxea  of  pasteboard, 
hoo{>cd,  and  charged  with  gunpowder,     liut  the  fineil 


krompanlmeni  oi 
w  a  l\iaee  an  fornv 
ronilitiatliin    reach 
ani  amall  cylindr 
imwiler,  ittieiied 
riX'kela  of  coiirae 
garniture.     'I'hia 
4itix\  lo  apply   Ir 
<|iii<'ialchiirai'ler  H 
ihua  deacrilN'a  Ihm 
III  the  attiick  of 
«i>na,  anil  are  dill 
die  lleld  or   for   I 
(•arry  aliell"  or   cu 
lery  combualibin 
riieir  form  ia  cylii 
UMlallic  cnaea.     'I' 
iighl  are  of  diirurr 
lockfl.     'Iho  cnrci 
I'linioal  lie  nil,  piei 
•lance  a»  hiiid  and 
inllaiiii'd.  la    inexl 
(larliclea  in  every  i 
turned,  the  bull  ei 
l>rojcrlcd    horizont 
il.niugh  the  air. 
i-laMP) — heavy,  m< 
ill  alMiVfl  forty-two 
,wo  to  twenty-four 
»x  pounda  incluaii 
jt  Ij«i|wic  and  Co 
:,. Ml  tu  lie  much  I 
ir.i,  keHiuca,   Iho 
known  everywhere 
'I'u  return  to  nrl 
We  have  only  mil 
nnd  lire-worka.  or 
ijinl,  can  lui  mode 
tola,  wbeela,  auna, 
.liMible  or  C'alhuri 
volving  (ip|X>aito  w 
I'lDCM,  have  btien 
two  Ruggieria,  re 
jiteven  diaplaye 
irrpent  chnaiiig  a 
'lirir  motiiiiiH  beini 
ill  prcparatioiiK 
iharcoal,  and  gun 
ineoni  uf  apirila, 
iluration  of  the  lii; 
Ol  that  dcacripli 
lior,  wni.  lurpc 
colour  of  the  tit. 
rnita,  ia  modifn 
tiling)  and  -■<'• 
tine  a  fine  i 
low;  laiii|>-'.,,i  k 
and  a  pink  with 
wLite;  IvrojioiUu 
•troiitia  a  iH-uutifu 
*n  at  the  cumniai 
tieo<iliful  vHrintiun 

Initanldtifinn 
known  aa  Luri/n 
the  chlorate  or  o 
niay  be  made  by 
ol  curbonat*'  of  |h 
precipitated;  or  ii 
neic,  common  aal 
jwculiar  way.  Uu 
!ur  akctch  a  proci 
nmie  but  the  qu 
white  cryataU  D 
•^  .K  I'ollowa  t — Tl 
Vol.  t.— ;n 


n 


1 


CHKMISTHV  APPI.IKD  TO  TUB  ARTS. 


•41 


w(Oinp<inlm<>Mt  nf  thn  rix-kxt  in  the  Riiman  riniHo,  wliii  h  { 
w  1  Aim*  <«•  i'lrnii'il  nn  to  tlirow  nut  in  ■urrvMiion,  ■«  lli«  | 
f«iiliii"tiori   n>»rhf««  (lirm,  very   ftim  Ulan,     'I'hftt  utiir* 
ifM  •mall  I'vliiiilricul  innmiKn  of  iiitro,  nuliihiir,  inil  cnin- 1 
iKiwilor,  •tiwprd    in    ■piiitii    ami    num.     T\w  vntidy  of 
rorkrta  of  roiirm  ilfprriilii  on  tlin  ilitrnrpn'-K  of  aixn  miil 
gtriiilun'.     Thi*  ri'innrli,  howevrr,  niu«t  not  tw  unilcr- 
4lnnil  to  npply   l<>  tl"'  t'onktrrvn   rnrknta,  wliich  havo  n  | 
«n(t'lalrhiirii<'N'r  nml  puriMNw,    Thn  I'lt/tiihr  Uti'i/rlo/ifilui 
ihu»  lie*'"''"'*  tli"in  ; — "'I'ho  tlotmrnve  rorkcta,  flrtit  imcd 
III  th«  iilliit'k  of  lloiiliiKiie,  IHllfl,  nro  of  vsrinu*  i!imKii-  i 
•on',  mil  arx  (lilfiTiMitly  nrmi'il  im  thry  arc  intrmli-il  fur  i 
(hfi  floiil  or   for  iKimlmnlinont.     'V\\rme  nf  iImi  Ariit  aorl  | 
,]irry  •Iu'IIk  or  ruMi  nlnit;  lliii  oiIht*  nnt  arm<><l  with  ii  < 
(try  roaibuNtitilo  mnU-rial,  ami  ai<<  calird  nirmit  rnrk-rlr, 
rhpir  form  in  fylliiilrirul,  und  tliny  nrn  rompowil  of  «trnnK 
UMlallic  I'Hwa.     Tho  tttirka  i>inployi'il  for  rrKulatiMu;  llirir  | 
|i)(hl  arc  of  iliirurrnt  li-nt(tliit,  niH-oriliiii{  to  tl)i<  u'lie  of  the 
liirkrl>      'hx  ''uroHM  rorkcti*  iiro  ^irimvl  with  ntninif  iron  { 
iMKiical  h<' iil<,  pirrcflil  with  IioImh,  niiil  containiiii;  ii  mili-  I 
*tinr«  i»  liiuil  and  (ohd  aa  iron  ilwlf,  which,  wIhmi  nncr  | 
infliiwd.  II    ini<xtini(ui«hahla,  nnd   acatttira   ila    hiiniiiiK 
partii'lei  In  rvpry  diriH-tion.    Whon  thia  aulmtanco  ia  coii'  | 
mined,  tlio  ImH  uxpliMica  likn  a  Kroniula.     The  rm^kot  in  ' 
projoctfd    hnrixontiilly,   and    whi/.ztta    loudly    aH    it    flicn 
iLnrngh  the  air.     The  ainniunilion  ia  divided  into  thrrr 
AuuKi — hi'itvy,  mt'diuin,  and  lii(ht ;  the  himvy  inrludin^ 
ill  aliovfl  forty-two  pouiida,  the  mi*dtiim,  thou*  from  forty- 
.vro  to  twi'iity-ltuir  |H)Uiidx,  and  the  li)(ht,  from  oii^hlvcn  to 
nx  |ioun<N  ini'lunivc."    Tho  Connriive  ro^'ket*  were  uacd 
n  iitiiyMc  and  CopcnlmKen,  hut  i<x|>crienr«  haa  provrd 
:,. Ill  tu  tir  much  lean  cllu-acioiiit  lliiiii  common  artillery, 
u.i,  bcHidcH,  tho  »««'rul  of  their    luanufiicluro   ia   now 
kiiown  evcrywhiire. 

To  ri'turii  to  iirtiliciHl  firc-worka,  made  for  amuacment. 
We  have  only  noticed  the  _/Jyi»i/r-ro<'ket«  or  fiiHeea,  hiil 
hail  lire-works,  or  thow  wliow  motion  ia  conMnrd  to  ii 
i|Hit,  can  tut  mode  n(  a  much  more  nplendid  nppeainnce. 
lula,  wberlH,  auna,  treea,  Iniicea,  H|iiriilH,  revolving;  huiih, 
iMible  nr  Catharine  wlirela,  (two  auna  in  one  axia,  re- 
volvinK  op|)oalto  way  a),  and  miiiiy  other  beautiful  rontri- 
vancei,  havo  h<<en  ut  timea  exhihited,  and  chielly  by  the 
two  RuKvieria,  renowned  pyrotechniHta.  Thoae  individu- 
al! even  diaplayed  in  public  the  H|H'ctacle  of  a  luminoua 
irrpent  chatiiiK  a  butterliy  round  and  round  a  large  apace, 
'lii'ir  moliiina  l>cinK  governed  by  unseen  machinery.  In 
til  prcparutiona  of  u  pyrotechnic  nnture,  nitre,  aulphur, 
iliwcoal,  and  Run^Kiwdcr,  lu-c  ilic  f  InRrcdienta.  Hy 
iiirani  uf  Hpirtta,  Kuma,  ri  ,,„i  ,.ih,  the  quiility  and 

ilurationuf  tho  light  ia  i<         ..d, and  the  principal  article) 
Ol  that  dvacriptioii    '<>      ~e   arc   uloohol,  bitumen,  cam- 
hor,  will,  turpeiiti  '     and    the   like.     AKain,  the 

colour  of  the  flic  ML  »  ,,  h  «o  much  of  the  aplendour 
rnrtt,  la  modilii  i<v  eiiiij>!oying  other  articlea.  Cop|)er- 
lilingi  and  "''I  -  noniac  give  a  greeniah  tint  to  flame; 
unc  a  fine  i  -  miiltcr  and  very  dry  common  aalt  a  yel- 
low; lain|>-'  :.i!'k  produced  a  deep  red  with  gunpowder, 
and  a  pink  with  nitre  in  exceaa ;  raraphor  gives  a  fine 
wLite;  Iv.njioihum  gives  a  rose  colour;  and  sulphate  of 
(tmiitia  a  iH-uutiful  purple  light.  Many  other  subatunces 
tre  at  the  command  of  the  pyrotechnist,  which  produce 
ben'itlliil  viirintiona  of  colour. 

Iniliinldnfottg  Mnlilies. — These  matchca,  cotiinionly 
known  as  Lurifna, arc  nearly  all  ma<lo  of  one  auliotunce, 
'Ki*  chlorate  or  oxy-niurinto  of  iiotaas.  'I'his  substance 
ni*y  be  made  by  piixHini>  chloriin?  ;<;,ih  through  a  solutiui' 
ol  curbonate  of  [H)tiiHH,  when  the  chlorjtu  ia  fonnod  uiul 
|>rpclpitated ;  or  in  a  >lry  way,  by  mixing  oxide  of  ni:uigii- 
nc*c,  common  salt,  carlwnate  of  |H)tush,  and  vitriol,  in  a 
;ieculiar  way.  But  it  is  suimtIIuous  to  descril)?  in  u  popu- 
lar Hkcti'h  a  prn<-.e8M  which  can  lie  itafcly  nttoniptiul  by 
imiie  but  the  ijualilied.  The  chloruto  uf  potu.si)  is  in 
nhitr  crystals.  Dr.  Urc's  formula  for  making  the  ntatchek 
k«  .i«  follows? — Thirty  parts  of  tjie  chlorate,  in  fine  povv- 

Vol.  I.— hi 


iler,  am  to  ha  mixod  g<>ntly  with  «  knifn  upon  jNipri  with 
ten  parts  of  very  fine  sulphur,  eii^ht  of  sugiir,  llvn  ol 
pirwdnrml  gumiiralNC,  and  ttnongh  of  |(<>wderrd  vrrniilion 
to  give  •  riHM  tint  to  the  whole.  The  chlorulr,  gum, 
sugar,  and  vt>rniilion  am  then  gently  but  well-mixed, 
•Itor  which  aa  much  water  as  will  ninke  n  thin  |Mial«  is 
nddeil ;  and  then  the  sulphur  is  thoroughly  mixed  with 
tlin  whole.  A  great,  iinprovrmeni,  however,  has  lately 
taken  place  in  the  um<.  The  matches  were  di|i|M-il  for 
nierly  in  sulphuric  acid ;  but  by  adding  a  Utile  morn  of 
the  cldoriite  and  sulphur  tlian  is  In  Dr.  I /'re's  ruci|ie,  they 
are  lighted  hy  frictinn  on  sand-pii|M-r  or  any  roiiKh  sulv 
stance,  such  as  a  stone  floor.  I'he  convmieiice  of 
matt'hes  is  thus  doubly  heighteiieil.  No  other  fulminats 
has  Is'en  so  eirectually  useil  for  matches  as  eliloriite  of 
|K)tiiss.  Neat,  but  comparatively  dear  and  inctlicicnt 
Inmps  havo  Immmi  nisdo  with  spongy  |ilatiniiin,  which 
kindles  on  receiving  a  stream  of  hydrogen. 

Fiitmiiiiiliiii(  I'du'ilrrii, — 'I'hero  are  a  number  of  these 
explosive  compounds  known  to  chemista,  of  which  the 
principiil   lire   fiilininntiiig  golil,  ineiciiry,  platinum,   an<i 
silver;  ami  one  longer  known   than  I'illicr,  a  iiiixtiirn  of 
nitre,   sulphur,   nnd    potass.     None  of   these   have   any 
practical  ini|H>rtiuice,  comparatively  spenking,  excepting 
the  fubiiiimle  of  mercury,  which  is  used   for  //(Ti-iwiiion. 
/"<<■«.      We  Is'lieve  that  a  report  to  the  government  of 
(treat   liritain  in  1831,  made  by  L)r.  lire,  had  the  efleel 
of  introducing  the  improvement  nf  jiercussion-lm'ks  intr 
the  public  service.     The  formula  which  that  report  give* 
for  the  innnufucture  of  the  fulminate  is  ai  follows: — Dia- 
solve  lOOO  piirts  of  mercury  in  IIIOO  parts  of  nitric  acid, 
and    add   the  solution  to  H.10  parts  of  alcohol,  a   larg* 
vessel  IsMiig  used.     A  gas  rises,  which  must  Iw  allowed 
to  eHcn|Hi,  and   nt  a  distonce  from  flame.     When  the 
ellervest'cnce  ceases,  the  contents  of  the  vessel  are  to  bo 
poured  out  on  a  largo  double  paper  filter  in  a  (Tl»sa  fun- 
nel, and  cold  water  thrown  over  it  till  the  draining*  no 
longer  redden  litmus  paper.     The  powder  adhering  to 
the  vessel  is  also  to  be  placed  on  a  filter,  with  a  little 
water.     The  superfluous    icid   thus  washed  away,  the 
powder  of  fulminate  of  mercury,  adhering  to  the  filter, 
is  lifUnl  away  and  opened  out  on  plated  copper  or  gtoio- 
waro  heated  by  steam.     'I'he  powder,  when  dried,  is  in 
tho  form  of  small  gray  crystals,  and  is  then  to  \k  packed 
in  small  parcels,  and  kept  close  from  the  air  in  bottljs 
or   boxes.     Dr.  lire  examines  several  other  moiles  of 
making  the  fulminate,  but  ^miiits  out  defects  in  all ;  and 
hia  own,  though  not  free  ''    in  them,  win  the  one  adopt«4 
most  generally,  we  U>lic\<'.     Two  and  a  half  pounds  of 
the  fulminate,  when  prepared  for  the  purpose,  will  charg* 
40,000  pcrcuHsion<a[M,  according  to  the  calculation  ot 
French    manufacturers.     The    preparation   consist*    in 
grinding  the  fulbiinate  u()on  marble  with  80  per  cent  of 
I  water,  adding  six  parts  of  gunjiowder  fur-ivi  ly  ton  of  tha 
{  fulminate.     A  dough  is  obtaine<l,  which,  when  dried  ia 
the  Hir,  is  introduced  in  small  fixed  |iorti«>ns  into  the  bot- 
tom of  line  poicuRsioiwiips.     Tho  guns  on  which  theaa 
cnpa  uro  placed   have,  it  ia  well-known,  no  pans  on  the 
I  lu<'k.     In  place  of  thejii  a  small  open  lul«  project*  hon- 
>  zuiiially,  on  which  another  small  tube  stand*  perpendicu- 
larly.    The  cock  is  a  hollow  hammer,  fitted  to  descend 
I  on  i\,        V  mentioned,  though  largo  enough  alra  to  grasp 
'  the  pi  ri'iixKion-cn|i — a  thin  cone,  when  placed  on  the  tube  < 
'  The  Inlminatc  was  formerly  placed  dry  iii  tho  liottom  of  the 
cap ;    lit  of  Inte  a  most  important  improvement  has  taken 
plocc   III  as  for  as  an  alloy  of  copj)Of  is  nado  for  the  pur- 
|M>!<c,  which  contains  the  fulminute  wil'.iin  itself,  so  that 
all  chance  of  injury  by  wet,  or  danger  from  the  mixture, 
is  put  entirely  out  of  the  reach  of  possibility. 

Ii'inli-ilnll-i. — This  species  of  explosive  combustible 
|ioss«<s»tis  little  interest,  as  regards  its  »tructurc  or  maiiu- 
fiiclure.  In  their  various  shapes,  shells  are  merely  a 
nicdilicilion  of  one  arrangement — that  of  a  circulai  case 
of  metal,  fitted  to  be  diM-harged  by  cannon,  and  cor. 
.\ 


M9 


INFORMATION   FOR   THE   PEOPLE. 


Minir^  a  central  charge  of  gunpowder,  with  an  extcn»ivo 
rhargo  of  ■ub«tance»  fitted  to  sprriid  and  inflict  injury  on 
the  explosion  of  the  powder.  The  bomlw  also  spread 
rombustion  where  they  alight.  The  experience  of  the 
late  sieges  of  Antwerp  by  the  French  and  Acre  by  the 
British,  has  shown  that  this  species  of  warlike  machine 
is  calculated  to  rise  into  greater  importance  than  it  has 
hitherto  done,  rendering  forts  and  cities  untenable,  when 
it  is  well  used. 

Explosion  of  Comfnutibln, — When  gunpowder  and 
similar  combustibles  are  fired,  they  explodo  with  a  loud 
noise,  and  with  an  extraordinary  degree  of  force.  The 
explosive  sound  is  caused  by  the  rapid  disoiiiraGfomrnt  of 
ur  in  the  roii  bustibles,  and  the  shock  of  striking  upon 
the  Toluine  of  the  external  atmosphere.  The  explosion 
•s,  indeed,  a  chemical  process,  in  which  a  tangible  mate- 
rial suddenly  vanishes  into  air,  and  is  no  more  seen.  The 
velocity  of  movement  in  the  flame  of  ignited  powder,  as 
it  rushes  through  the  tube  of  a  gun,  is  an  immediate 
consequence  of  the  sudden  disengagement  of  the  confined 
air,  and  is  calculated  to  be  at  the  rate  of  7000  feet  in  a 
second,  or  little  less  than  seventy  miles  i>e>'  minute.  A 
cannon-b.-ill,  however,  though  projivted  wit.i  thu  velocity, 
immediately  encounters  a  retardation  from  the  atmosphere 
as  well  as  its  own  gravity,  and  does  not  );ener:illy  pro- 
ceed at  a  greater  rate  than  2400  feet  per  scL-ond,  or 
Uttle  more  than  twenty-seven  miles  p«<r  minute.  The 
•egree  of  force  with  which  it  is  im|ic!lod,  of  course,  de- 
I'M'nds  on  the  strength  of  the  charge,  or  the  quantity  of 
*iastic  fluid  to  be  expended. 

80AP   AND   CANDLE    MAKING. 

Both  tlicse  arts  depend  on  chemistry  for  the  perfec- 
tion to  which  they  have  lieen  hrouifht  That  exceed- 
ingly useful  article,  soap,  of  which  the  ancients  were 
entirely  ignorant,  is  a  compound  of  certain  principles  in 
uils,  fats,  or  resin,  with  a  salifiable  bane.  If  this  base  bo 
potash  '>r  soda,  the  compound  is  used  as  a  determent  in 
washing  clothes.  When  on  alkaline  earth  or  oxide  of  a 
common  metal,  such  a*  lead,  which  form?  litharge,  Ac, 
is  the  base,  the  compound  is  insoluble  in  water.  The 
insoluble  compounds,  however,  arc  very  little  used,  ex- 
cept in  some  few  cases  of  surgery.  .Animal  fat,  im'ase, 
or  tallow,  as  it  is  variously  termed,  is  a  compound  of  a 
solid  substance  called,  in  chemistry,  stenrine,  and  of  an 
oil  called  oleine,  the  basis  of  which  is  carbon,  with  a  little 
hydrog«'n  and  oxygen.  On  subjecting  tallow  to  a  hot 
ley  of  potash  or  soda,  a  chemical  change  takes  place  in 
the  constituents,  and  we  have  the  material  named  mar- 
^(iric  acid,  and  a  fluid,  oltic  acid,  and  together  they  (titer 
into  a  saline  combination  with  the  alkali.  The  result,  a 
•oapy  sulmtance,  is  thus  said  to  be  a  union  of  an  alkaline 
margarato  with  oleale.  Saponification'  also  takes  place 
with  oiU. 

The  commonest  hard  aoap  is  that  made  chiefly  from 
kelp  and  tallow.  Kelp  itself  is  a  result  of  chemical 
action.  It  is  made  by  reducing  c<'rtain  kinds  of  sea- 
•vecd  to  ashcj  by  burning ;  the  renult  in  soluble  mate- 
rial is  a  crude  alkali,  consisting  of  sulphate  of  soda,  soda 
in  carbonate  and  sulphuret,  and  muriate  of  rihU  and 
potash.  It  was  at  one  time  manufactured  in  lurt;c  quan- 
tities on  tlie  shores  of  the  Western  Isles  of  Hcotland, 
but  has  latterly  been  disused,  in  coniie<|uencc  of  the  sub- 
stitution of  barilla,  and  soda-ush  from  the  decomposition 
ofaea-salt.  Supposing  kelp  to  be  employed  in  nuiking 
•oap;  to  every  ton  of  kelp,  about  oiic-sixtli  of  now- 
kf.iked  lime  is  added.  The  whole,  after  mixture,  is  put 
into  a  largo  tub  cailed  o  cave,  having  a  perforation  at 
the  bottom,  shut  with  a  wotxlcn  plug.  I'pon  the  mate- 
rials water  is  very  slowly  iiourcil.  The  liquid,  after 
digestion,  is  suflcred  to  run  slowly  off  into  a  reservoir 
ttink  in  thu  ground.  The  first  portion,  or  ley  No.  1,  is 
of  course  the  strongest,  and  is  reserved  for  the  last  ope- 
ration in  soa(>-b(iilina      Six  days  aie  required  to  make 


one  boiling  of  soap,  in  which  avo  totu  or  jpwsrus  of 
tallow  may  be  employed.  The  leys  2  and  a,  muod 
are  used  at  the  beginning,  diluted  with  water,  on  account 
of  the  excess  of  sea-salt  in  the  kelp.  A  quantity  of  ley 
not  well  defined,  is  poured  on  the  melted  tallow,  and 
the  mixture  is  boiled,  a  workman  agitating  the  materiair 
to  facilitate  the  combination.  The  fire  lieing  withdrawn 
and  the  aqueous  liquid  having  subsided,  it  is  pumped 
olT,  and  a  ne\v  portion  is  thrown  in.  A  second  boil  j, 
given,  and  so  on,  in  succession.  Two  or  three  boils  art 
performed  every  twolve  hours,  for  six  days,  constitutine 
twelve  or  eighteen  operations  in  the  whole.  Towards 
the  last,  the  stronger  ley  is  brought  into  play.  When- 
ever the  workman  perceives  the  saponification  perfect, 
the  process  is  stopped,  and  the  soap  is  lifted  out  and 
poured  into  the  moulds. 

The  compounds  of  tallow  or  oils  with  potash,  remain 
of  a  soft  consistency,  and  form  what  are  termed  soft 
soaps,  useful  in  scouring.  We  can  only  aflbrd  space 
for  an  account  of  the  process  of  manufacturing  one  of 
the  common  kinds  of  soft  soap,  as  lately  practised  by  an 
eminent  soap-boiler  near  Glasgow.  Whale  or  cod  oil 
to  the  amount  of  273  gallons,  is  put  into  a  boiler  along 
witli  four  hundred  weight  of  tallow  and  2.'i2  gallons  of 
potash  ley.  On  heat  being  apjilied,  the  mixture  frotht 
up  very  much,  but  means  are  adopted  to  prevent  it. 
boiling  over.  There  are  then  added  at  intervals  four 
teen  measures  of  stronger  ley,  each  measure  holding 
twenty-one  gallons.  After  suitable  boiling  without 
agitation,  the  soap  is  formed,  amounting  in  all  to  one 
hundred  firkins  of  sixty-four  pounds  each,  from  the 
above  quantity  of  materials. 

What  are  called  toilet  soajM  are  made  from  purified 
hogs'  lard,  with  the  addition  of  olive,  almond,  or  pain 
oils.  These,  when  prepared,  are  perfumed  with  varioQ. 
scents.  The  soap  is  cut  into  thin  shavings  with  a  plane, 
and  melted  in  a  pan  placed  within  a  hot  water  or  steun 
bath.  When  melted,  the  colouring  matter  and  perfiime 
are  added,  which  generally  consist  of  vermilion,  ochre, 
brrganiot,  musk,  essence  of  orange-blossom,  cinnamon, 
&c.  Although  the  French  excel  in  practical  chemistry, 
thry  make  very  inferior  soaps,  either  fine  or  common. 
The  English,  on  the  contrary,  manufacture  soaps  cf  a 
su|)erior  quality ;  and  so  well  is  this  known,  that  the 
greater  number  of  English  tourists  on  tlie  continent  take 
soap  as  a  necessary  with  them. 

CniulUf. — The  process  of  making  candles  by  simply 
melting  tallow,  and  pouring  it  in  a  liquid  state  into 
moulds  containing  wicks,  requires  no  particular  notice. 
It  is  of  the  improved  nuxle  of  making  tallow-candlca  to 
resemble  those  of  wax,  and  involving  an  intimate  know. 
ledge  of  chemistry,  that  we  wish  to  speak. 

Some  years  ago,  M.  (Jhovreul,  a  French  cherairt, 
undertook  an  investigation  into  the  nature  of  fatty  sub- 
stances, which  he  fitund  to  lie  composed  of  what  we 
now  know  them  to  he — two  materials,  flenrint  and  oUint. 
He  ascertained  that  the  oil  iloes  not  combine  directly 
with  the  alkali,  but  that  its  two  com()onc.nt9  are  coif 
verted  by  it  into  two  corresponding  acids,  the  slearif 
and  oleic,  which  then  combine  with  the  alkali,  like  the 
mineral  acids.  He  found,  indeed,  the  atinloi^y  prrfrct 
between  them  in  every  respect  'i'hcy  uii::c  with  nil 
the  bases,  forming  coiii|>ounds  which  diiTcr  in  the  de- 
gree of  their  solubility  :  with  iiota.'h,  for  instance,  a  vcrj 
soluble  compound  is  formed  (soil  soap)  ;  with  8<)<la. 
hard  soap,  which  is  dissolv>-d  with  more  dilliculty;  whil« 
its  combination  with  lime  gives  rise  to  a  pcrl'i'dly  inso- 
luble com|iound.  These  facts  have  l)ecn  most  import- 
ant to  the  soa|>-maker,  in  enabling  him  lo  reduce  hit 
art  to  scientific  [irinciplcs  ;  they  explain  why  a  solutioi 
of  soap  may  be  used  as  a  test  for  the  purity  of  water 
why  rain  wat«'r  is  preferred  to  that  firom  the  spring  for 
washing;  and  why  we  add  soda  to  hard  waicr  befntt 
using  it  with  soap,  for  soda  separates  tlie  liiiir  ivhich  tbi 


:■;  Y^.A 


CHEMISTRY  APPLIED  TO  THE  ARTS. 


84S 


hird  water  contains,  and  thus  enables  us  to  dissolve  the 
^p  without  producing  the  curdy  prnripitate  which 
ik'iitroys  the  cleansing  properties  of  the  soap. 

M.  Chevreul  separated  these  acids  irum  their  com- 
iKiunds,  and  found  them  poi<sessed  of  the  following  pro- 
perties : — Oleid  acid  is  a  liquid,  clear  lyhen  pure,  and 
rloscly  resembling  oil ;  stearic  acid  is  solid,  and  resem- 
liloa  wax  in  so  striking  a  manner  as  to  be  with  difficulty 
distinguished  from  it.     On  finding  he  could  manufac- 
ture it  at  a  price  much  inferior  to  that  at  which  wax 
Is  sold,  he,  in  conjunction  with  M.  Gay-Lussac,  another 
distinguished  chemist,  took  out  a  <<  brevet  d'invention" 
for  the  preparation  and  sale  of  <<  chandelles  steariques," 
from  which  they  never  derived  any  benefit,  solely  on 
tccount  of  the  name,  which,  merely  implying  candles 
prepared  from  tallow,  attracted  no  attention ;  whereas 
Dianufactuiers,  who  took  uo  the  trade  after  the  expira- 
tion of  the  patent,   and  who  announced,  with  less 
rci.'ard  to  truth,  their  productions  as  "  bougies,"  or  wax 
ciindles,  speedily  made  large  fortunes.     If  the  reader 
wislies  to    prepare   and   examine   the    artificial   wax 
himself,  it  may  hi  easily  accomplished.     Let  him  dis- 
solve a  little  hard  white  soap  in  hot  rain  or  distilled 
witter,  and  to  the  clear  solution,  whilo  hot,  odd  some 
vinegar  or  other  acid.     The  Stearic  being  a  weak  acid, 
i«  easily  separated  from  its  combination  with  soda,  as  it 
exists  in  soap.     Acetate  of  soda  is  formed,  and  the 
stearic  acid  rises  to  the  top  of  the  liquid  ns  an  oily  sub- 
stance, which,  on  cooling,  solidifies  into  a  cake  of  arti- 
lioial  wax,  mixed  with  a  certain  portion  of  oleic  and 
impurities,  which  render  it  softer  than  if  this  fluid  had 
lieen  expelled  by  pressure.  A  similar  process  is  pursued 
on  a  lar^e  scale,  but  reghrd  must  be  had  for  economy. 
The  tallow  is  saponified,  not  by  soda  or  potash,  as  in 
the  preparation  of  soap,  but  by  quick-lime.     It  is  only 
necessary  to  boil  the  lime,  tallow,  and  water,  in  a  large 
vessel  for  some  hours,  when  these  ingredients  are  con- 
verted into  a  kind  of  hard  soap.     From  this  substance, 
stearate  and  olcate  of  lime,  also  the  stearic  and  oleic 
arids,  are  separated  by  the  addition  of  oil  of  vitriol. 
They  are  melted  like  tallow,  run  into  cakes,  and  sub- 
jected to  the   powerful  action  of  a   hydraulic   press, 
nhich  separates  all  impurities,  and  leaves  the  stearic 
acid  as  pure   and  white  as  the  finest  bleached  wax, 
which  niay  lie  used  immediately  for  the  formation  of 
nndles.    In  Franco,  besides  plaiting  the  wicks,  they 
ire  dipped  in  a  solution  of  borax,  and  then  dried.     The 
borax  fuses  during  the  coml>u»tion,  and  forming  a  globule 
on  the  summit  of  the  wick,  assists  by  its  weight  to  bring 
it  out  of  the  flame  in  contact  with  the  atmosphere,  and 
thus  ensures  perfect  combustion,  and  obviates  the  neces- 
(ity  of  snuiRng. 

It  was  found  that  the  artificial  wax  generally  crys- 
inlliied  in  tli'  moulds,  a  circumstance  which  prevents 
the  formation  of  a  solid  candle.  In  England  this  diffi- 
culty was  overcome  in  some  cases  by  the  addition  of 
arsenic.  The  French,  more  scientific  than  we,  had  re- 
course to  their  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  "rystallir.ation 
for  the  remedy.  It  is  known  that  regular  crystalliza- 
tion only  takes  place  when  the  transition  of  the  mass 
from  a  fluid  to  a  solid  state  is  so  gradual  as  to  allow 
time  for  its  molecules  to  arrange  themselves  in  those 
(ieterminate  forms  called  ciTsfals ;  this  condition  was 
fulfilled  in  the  cooling  of  the  moulds  and  their  contents, 
but  hy  plunging  them  in  cold  water  as  soon  as  the 
melted  stearic  acid  had  been  poured  in,  crystallization 
\v;ui  prevented,  anil  a  jierfcclly  solid  candle  procured. 
Stearic  candles,  which  can  with  difficulty  be  distin- 
P'lished  fi'om  wax  canilles,  are  now  manufactured  on  n 
larirc  scale  in  England,  and,  from  their  comparative 
cheapness.  »re  cominir  universally  into  use  in  the  houses 
of  the  miilille  and  higher  classes  of  society.  So  much 
(or  the  value  of  a  knowledge  of  practical  chemistry  in 
mif  iif  tt  e  rnmmoncst  of  the  useful  arts. 


COLOURS — DTBIRO. 


There  are,  as  is  well  known,  two  modes  of  imparting 
colours — dyeing  and  painting;  the  former  applied  to 
articles  coloured  by  a  liquid  infusion,  and  the  latter  ap* 
plied  to  the  laying  of  a  colouring  substance  on  the  suiw 
face.  We  liye  cloth,  and  paint  a  house.  The  materials 
employed  in  dyeing  are  usually  drugs,  salts  of  some 
kind,  or  vegetable  fluids ;  but  in  painting,  the  prepared 
colours  are  chiefly  pigments.  The  preparation  of  dye- 
stufTs  and  pigments  is  one  of  the  chief  departments  of 
practical  chemistry. 

According  to  the  definitions  of  men  of  science,  there 
is  no  such  thing  as  material  colour.    The  colour  is  not 
in  the  substance ;  it  is  only  a  result  of  the  operation  of 
rays  of  light  on  the  peculiarly  formed  particles  in  the 
mass.     It  is  stated  that  when  the  rays  strike  upon  the 
surface  of  a  body,  they  are  decomposed  into  their  ele- 
mentary  tints,  and  some  substances  reflecting  one  colour 
and  some  another,  the  impression  is  made  on  the  eye 
accordingly.     When  the  particles  of  the  body  do  not 
reflect  any  of  the  rays,  the  body  appears  Mack;  and  when 
they  reflect  them  all  equally,  it  appears  white.    A  piece 
of  blue  silk,  for  instance,  absorbs  six  rays  and  reflects 
one,  the  blue,  by  which  a  blue  appearance  aflfects  our 
eye.     What  is  the  precise  constitution  or  figure  of  the 
particles  in  a  substance  which  produces  the  phenomena 
of  colours,  has  never  been  ascertained.     It  is  certain, 
however,  as  we  have  just  mentioned,  that  colouring  lesa 
or  more  depends  on  the  well-known  principle  of  the  re- 
frnngibility  of  light.     (See  Optics.)     Both  dyers  and 
painters  require  to  bo  more  conversant  with  chemical 
than  optical  science ;  yet  there  are  cases  in  which  a 
knowledge  of  the  laws  of  light  are  of  importance.     It  i» 
o  well-known  truth,  that  the  common  white  ray  of  light 
can  be  refracted  into  three  primitive  colours — red,  blue, 
and  yellow — and  that  these  can  be  recombined  into  the 
white  ray.     A  dyer  could  not  expect  to  dye  white  by 
employing  an  infusion  of  red,  blue,  and  yellow  drug*, 
but  it  is  certain  that  the  application  of  a  little  blue  im> 
proves  a  white  colour ;  and  tliis  is  perfectly  understood 
by  paper-makers.    Mixtures  of  Prussian  blue  and  coc'\i» 
ncal  pink  are  likewise  used  to  improve  the  whitening 
of  silks.     The  colours  resulting  from  a  mixture  of  two 
primitive  colours,  as  gp  -n  from  blue  and  yellow,  are 
only  a  delusion  of  the  eye.  Both  the  component  coloura 
are  present  and  distinct,  but  they  are  so  blended  that  we 
cannot  separate  them  by  the  naked  sight.  For  instance, 
a  gray  hair,  when  seen  by  a  microscope,  is  not  actually 
gray,  but  a  comjiosition  of  small  black  poir  ts  on  a  whit- 
ish ground. 

Paihts. — The  colouring  substances  used  as  'paints 
are  partly  artificial  and  partly  natural  productions. 
They  are  derived  chiefly  from  the  minerals  by  certain 
chemical  processes;  and  even  when  animal  or  vegetable 
substances  are  used  for  colouring,  they  are  always  united 
with  a  mineral  substance  (an  earth  or  an  oxide),  be- 
cause by  themselves  they  have  no  body,  which  they  ac- 
quire only  by  a  mixture  with  a  mineral.  In  painting, 
the  colours  are  ground  to  a  great  degree  of  fineness, 
and  applied  by  means  of  some  liquid  with  a  brush  or 
camel-hair  pencil,  DifTerent  fluids  arc  employed  for 
this  purpose ;  and  the  difference  and  the  material  used, 
with  the  method  of  employing  it,  haus  given  rise  to  the 
modes  of  pointino;  in  woter-colours,  oil-colours,  in  distem- 
per, and  in  fresco  (painting  on  damp  plaster  as  an  absorK 
ent).  Oil-paints  are  usually  prcparp<l  with  boiled  linsieed 
oil,  which  is  drying  in  its  nature ;  the  colours  employed 
all  consist  of  motaliic  oxides,  or  salts,  or  of  combinations 
of  sulphur.  Among  the  metallic  oxides  usnl  as  piK- 
ments  are  minium  and  masticot,  firom  lead  ;  the  ochre*, 
burnt  sienna,  umber,  from  iron;  smnit,  from  cunsli. 
Airiong  the  salts,  or  saline  metallic  comnnuinons,  am 
white  lead,  cmnnitz  white,  from  leal;  Prtissitn  blue, 


944 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


fiom  iron;  Tenligrk,  mineral  srreen,  Brun»wick  green, 
fiom  copper.  Metallic  combinations  containing  aulphur 
are  cinnabar,  from  quicluilvur,  and  orpiraent,  from 
eisonic.  The  lake  colours  have  tin  or  alum  for  thcix 
hases,  and  owe  thoir  tint  to  animal  or  vegetable  colour- 
ing subatonoes.  Among  these  are  the  red  or  pinkish 
lakes  prepared  from  cochineal,  madder,  and  Brazil 
wood;  the  yellow,  fit>m  fustic,  &c;  the  brown,  from 
several  other  colouring  barks;  finally,  indigo,  which, 
however,  is  entirely  vegetable.  In  staining  porcelain 
and  glass,  the  metallic  colours  which  are  not  driven  off 
by  heat,  and  are  not  easily  changeable,  are  used.  Gold 
containing  tin  gives  a  purple,  nickel  green,  cobalt  blue, 
iron  and  manganese  black,  uranium  yellow,  chrome 
green.  From  the  chromatj  of  iron,  or  rather  ferrugi- 
nous oxide  of  chrome,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  yellow 
pigments  is  now  prepared  for  the  use  of  painters. 

The  material  principally  employed  by  respectable 
house  painters  to  give  consistency  to  their  paints,  is 
white-lead  or  ceruse.  This  substance  is  an  oxide  of 
lead  saturated  with  carbonic  acid.  It  is  prepared  by 
exposing  thin  plates  of  lead  in  a  closed  vessel  to  the 
vn|>ours  arising  from  hot  vinegar.  The  vapours  of  the 
acetic  acid  become  saturated  with  the  metal,  and  change 
the  latter  into  a  whitish  substance,  which  is  scraped 
from  time  to  time  off  the  plates.  The  whitish  substance 
is  afterwards  pulverized,  and  mixed  with  properly  pre- 
pared oil.  Much  of  the  white-lead  in  common  use  is 
adulterated  with  whiting,  that  is,  purified  and  ground 
chalk,  which  is  much  less  durable,  and  may  be  easily 
washed  olT  by  an  alkaline  solution. 

Oil  or  spirit  of  turpentine  is  also  largely  used  by 
house-painters,  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  imparting  a 
drying  quality,  or  of  deadening  the  glitter  of  the  paint 
Turpentine  is  a  fluid  extract  from  certain  kinds  of  fir 
trees,  from  which  it  exudes,  and  being  distilled,  the  oil 
or  spirit  of  turpentine  is  obtained;  the  residuum  is  resin. 
Turpentine  is  of  a  powerful  acrid  quality,  and  is  now 
•mploye^l  for  c«rtain  purposes  in  medicine.  All  the 
Tarnishes  used  by  painters  are  of  the  class  of  gums  or 
resins,  pro)ierly  prepared,  such  aa  copal,  mastic,  san- 
darac,  lac,  gum-lac,  dragon's  blood,  &c.  All  are  ex- 
tremely tnflsmmable,  and  great  caution  is  necessary  both 
in  their  preparation  and  general  use. 

Imks,  either  for  writing  or  printing,  are  as  much  the 
result  of  chemical  operations  as  paints  or  dyes.     Black  ' 
ink  is  a  decoction  of  partly  vegetable  and  partly  metallic  ; 
sulistances,  the  basis  of  the  latter  licing  iron.     The  in-  ' 
grcdien**  commonly  used  are  Aleppo  galls  in  powder,  i 
logwood,  gum-arabic,  and  sulphate  of  iron,  in  certain  i 
P'oportions ;  but,  latterly,  the  art  of  manufacturing  the 
article  has  been  greatly  improved,  chiefly  with  the  view 
of  giving  great  fluidity  as  wel!  aa  colour.     Printing-ink 
is  quite  a  different  sultstance,  being  a  thick  vinoid  hoilj, 
ri'sembling  a  blnck  paint     Ita  ingredients  are  boiled 
linseed  or  nut  oil  and  lampblack,  in  the  proportion  of 
two  and  a  half  ounces  of  black  to  sixteen  ounces  of  oil. 
The  preparation  of  the  oil  is  one  of  the  most  dangerous 
processes  in  the  arts,  and  great  care  is  required  to  pre- 
vrnt  conflagration  of  the  oleaginous  material.     There 
are  various  qualities  of  ink  to  suit  dilTerent  kinds  of 
work.      I'he  prime  object   of  attainment   in    making 
I  rir  ing-ink,  is  to  give  it  a  deep  black  colour,  which 
will  endure   afler   exposure  on  the  pages  of  a  book. 
I'nless  very  great  trouble  be  taken   in  grinding   and 
mingling  (he  materials  in  exact  proportinns,  the  ink,  on 


the  addition  of  perfumes  or  other  stiMtai  res  not  4sf  niiii. 
to  its  quality  as  an  ink.  The  fine  soot  from  the  liam» 
of  a  lamp  or  candle,  received  by  holding  a  plite  ovei 
n  mixed  with  clean  size  from  shreds  of  parchment  a 
K  >ve-leather  not  dyed,  will  make  an  ink  equal  to  tha 
imported. 

Dtiiko.— A  remarkable  circumstance  conncc'ted  wji) 
dyeing,  is  the  different  degrees  of  facility  with  which 
animal  and  vegetable  substances  imbibe  the  colouring 
matters  applied  to  them.  Tissues  composed  of  the  for. 
mer,  aa  silk  and  wool,  receive  more  brilliant  coloun 
than  those  composed  of  the  latter,  as  cotton  and  linen. 
The  cause  of  this  difference  has  not  hitherto  been  dig. 
covered. 

Although  in  the  most  numerous  class  of  cases  it  i, 
easy  to  impart  colour  to  various  tissues,  yet  when  i>i.  sr 
become  exposed  to  moisture,  the  dye-stuff  is  remnviii 
It  had  therefore  been  found  necessary  to  employ  certain 
chemical  substances,  which  shall  have  the  property  of 
permanently  fixing  the  colour  upon  the  body  which  is 
dyed.  These  substances  have  obtained  the  name  of 
mordanti  (from  the  Latin  word  mordcrt,  to  bite),  because 
they  were  sup|)osod  at  first,  figuratively  speaking,  to  bite 
the  dye  into  the  cloth.  The  same  name  has  also  been 
applied  to  those  preparations  which  possess  the  propeny 
of  altering  the  shade  or  of  heightening  the  colour,  as  it  it 
called.  The  latter,  at  the  suggestion  of  Berthoiiet,  art 
sorrxtimes  termed  alterantn.  The  principal  mordants  arc 
alumina,  employed  universally,  we  beUeve,  in  the  form 
of  a  salt,  as  that  of  alum  ;  the  oxides  of  tin,  employed 
like  the  former  in  the  shape  of  salts,  which  are  pre- 
pared by  dissolving  tin  in  muriatic  acid.  Silk  and 
woollen  dyers,  however,  employ  nitric  acid  or  auua- 
fortis  for  forming  the  salts  of  tin  which  they  use.  Tht 
salts  of  lead  and  copper  are  likewise  had  recourse  to  as 
mordants;  and  the  nut-gall,  which  contains  two  voir 
peculiar  vegetable  substances,  tannin  and  gallic  acid  is 
not  only  employed  as  a  mordant,  but  also  as  a  powerful 
dye-stuff. 

By  varying  the  mordant,  •  great  variety  of  shades 
may  be  derived  from  the  same  colouring  matter.  Indeed, 
the  mordant  itself,  in  many  instances,  supplies  a  colour, 
For  example,  in  dyeing  with  cochineal,  when  the  alumi- 
nous mordant  is  employed,  the  colour  produced  is  crim- 
son ;  but  when  oxide  of  iron  is  substituted  for  the  alu- 
mina, a  black  colour  is  the  result  The  whole  phenomena 
arc  accounted  for  on  the  principle  of  chemical  affinity  or 
attraction.  The  mordant  employed  should  have  an  at- 
traction both  for  the  stuff  to  be  dyed  and  the  colouring 
matter,  and  act  as  it  were  like  a  third  party  in  reconcd- 
ing  two  inimicals.  The  way  in  which  it  is  used  must 
dc|)end  entirely  upon  the  degree  of  affinity  exerted  be- 
tween the  stuH'  and  the  colouring  matter.  Where  tlial 
is  slight  (he  former  should  be  saturated  with  tlic  mor- 
dant before  the  latter  is  communicated.  A  knowlod^'e 
of  the  nature  and  chemical  aflinities  of  the  substances 
used  is  necessary,  before  mordants  can  be  had  recourse  to 
aa  a  medium  oi  union  in  imparting  colour  tu  cloths  nr 
other  stufis  which  we  wish  to  dye  ;  for  by  an  imliscrimi- 
nate  use  of  them,  results  the  very  opposite  of  those  antici- 
pated may  take  place. 

Cnliro-PrindiK. — In  impressing  the  representation  of 
figures  on  calico  goo<ls,  the  oliject  generally  liclil  in  view 
is  the  fixing  of  mordants  on  the  clotli,  which  is  alUinardt 
dyed  in  the  usual  way,  those  piirts  which  have  ri'crivid 
the  mordant  only  retaming  the  colour,  the  rest  reniaiiiir^ 
white.     In  some  cases  the  colour  is  rcmnvciU'ron)  mU.a 


bi-ing  used,  will  gradually  become  brown,  by  the  spread- 
in?  of  the  oil.     The  French  printing-inks  are  much  '  portions  of  cloth  alicaily  dyed,  so  timt  thc-y  in.iy  ciilin 
superior  to  those  made  in  Britain.  remain  white,  or  receive  some  new  colDiir  alWrwards. 

Mian  Ink. — This  article  is  used  in  China  for  writing  j  Bometimes  it  is  applii'd  to  cloth  bcfon;  it  is  dyed  blur,  iii 
with  a  brush,  and  for  painting  upon  the  soft  flexible  pa|ier 
of  (/hinesa  manufacture.     It  is  ascertained,  as  well  from 
experiment  as  from  information,  that  the  cakes  ot  this 
Ilk  are  mad*  of  lampblack  and  suei  or  animal  glue,  with 


order  to  prevent  the  indigo  from  being  fi'-cd  un  thoat 
parts  to  which  it  is  applied,  that  they  may  remain  wink 
or  receive  other  colours  afterwards  KulMtancvs  pta- 
sensed  of  this  property  are  called  resist-pastcs.    Lutly,  i' 


CHEMISTRY  APPLIED  TO  THE  ARTS. 


Sl» 


^^ 


II  (requently  employed  to  communicate  mordants  and 
•oloaring  matter  at  once  to  cloth.  The  thickening  of 
ilie  mordants  is  of  considerable  importance  towards  the 
fuccessful  practice  of  the  art  The  application,  or  the 
bringing  out  of  the  colours,  is  an  ingenious  chemical 
nroceu-  Madder  in  the  substance  commonly  used  for 
red  by  the  calico-printers,  and  the  addition  of  mimach, 
fiiitic,  or  quercitron  hark,  will  produce  a  variety  of  tints 
iritb  the  various  mordants  at  one  operation.  "  Suppose 
icenisl.  to  produce  flowers  or  figures  of  any  kind,  con- 
taining red,  purple,  and  black  colours,  we  may  apply  the 
ihtee  motilants  at  once  by  the  three-colour  cylinder- 
.'gacliine,  putting  into  the  first  trough  acetate  of  alumina 
thickened ;  into  the  second  acetate  of  iron ;  and  into  the 
third  a  mixture  of  tlie  two  ;  then  drying  in  the  air  for  a 
few  days  to  fix  the  iron,  dunging,  and  dyeing  up  in  a 
iDth  of  madder  and  sumach.  If  we  wish  to  procure  the 
^Mt  madder  reds  and  pinks,  besides  the  purple  and 
black,  we  must  apply  at  first  only  the  acetate  of  alumina 
«( two  densities,  by  two  cylinders ;  dry,  dung,  and  dye 
up  in  a  madder  bath.  The  mordants  of  iron  liquor  for 
the  black,  and  of  iron  liquor  mixed  with  aluminous  for 
the  purple,  must  be  now  grounded  in  by  blocks,  taking 
(are  to  insert  these  mordants  into  their  precise  spots ;  the 
mid«  then  being  dryed  with  airing  for  several  days,  and 
next  dunged,  are  dyed  up  in  a  bath  of  madder  and 
(umach.  They  must  be  afterwards  cleared  by  branning." 
— [/re'i  Dictionary  of  Jrtt, 

After  the  cloth  is  dyed,  it  is  washed  either  with  soda, 
potash,  soap,  or  iresh  water,  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  ingredients  used  in  the  dyeing  process.  Great  care 
■i  necessary  in  this  department ;  for  if  the  washing 
i^nor  be  too  strong,  the  mordant  may  be  injured.  Cow- 
dung  d'tTused  through  hot  water,  is  applied  to  calico 
goods  vH  a  particular  stage  of  the  manufacture.  This 
I  lone  in  oit^er  to  dissolve  and  carry  off  from  the 
cloth  a  portion  of  the  thickening  matter,  and  also  to 
i;;event  any  undissolved  mordant  or  acetic  acid  from 
,  the  blank  parts  of  the  piece.  The  dunging, 
called,  is  performed  several  times,  generally 
V  "<  he  washings.  The  piece  should  be  immersed, 
ii  po.»iiDle,  without  folds,  and  to  secure  this  it  is  made 
to  pass  through  rollers.  As  soon  as  it  comes  out  of  the 
dung-bath,  it  is  washed  in  the  dash-wheel  as  in  bleach- 
ing. The  cloth  is  then  finished  by  being  passed  through 
a  calender,  which  greatly  improves  its  appearance. 
The  action  of  the  solution  of  cow-dung  in  cleansing 
from  impurities  is  both  mechanical  and  chemical;  as 
!«$pecti  the  chemical  part  of  the  operation,  it  will  be 
understood  when  we  mention,  that  cow-dung  contains 
muriate  of  soda,  sulphate  of  potash,  sulphate  of  Ume, 
otboiiate  of  Ume,  and  other  matters  useful  in  de- 
terging. 

BU.iching  is  the  art  by  which  various  articles  may 
be  deprived  of  the  colours  which  they  naturally  possess, 
ind  so  rendered  white.  Formerly,  it  was  the  custom 
to  submit  textile  fabrics  in  a  moist  condition  to  the 
free  action  of  the  atmosphere  and  sun's  light ;  but  this 
process  uf  bleaching  was  not  only  imperfect  but  tedious, 
and  the  substitution  of  a  chemical  ctfect,  as  suggested  by 
the  celebrated  chemist  Berthollet  (1787),  was  a  great 
imp.Mvcmcnt,  such  as  the  state  of  inaimfaoturing  indimtry 
required.  Bcrthollet's  plan  coiiHisted  in  employing 
chlorine,  which  posnesses  a  wonderful  |>ower  of  removing 
it'gctable  colours.  The  bleaching-powder,  or  chloride 
uf  lime,  as  it  is  usually  called,  is  mauufuclured  by  ex- 
posing alakod  lime  to  *he  uction  of  chlorine  gas,  till  as 
Quch  of  the  luttor  is  absorbed  as  the  lime  is  capable  of 
cambiningwitii  under  these  (.'ircumstiiiiees.   The  chlorine 

III  the  bleaching  powder,  which  is  not  applied  till  uth;r 
sundry  preparatory  washings  of  the  cloth,  acts  upon 
vcgctuhio  substances  by  dissolving  their  hydrogen,  which 
ii  the  colouring  agent ;  the  air  would  have  the  same 
etbct,  but  would  rctjuire  a  much  longer  time  than  can 


be  allowed.  The  cloth  is  left  in  a  cold  solution  of  ths 
bleaching-powder  for  about  six  hours,  and  is  then  taken 
out  and  washed  with  water.  The  next  part  of  the  pro 
cess  is  called  viuring,  which  is  immersing  the  cloth  in  r 
solution  of  Bul,'.^  uric  acid,  so  diluted  that  it  does  not  in 
jure  the  texture  of  the  goods,  whilst  it  improves  theu 
colour.  The  sulphuric  acid  dissolves  and  removes  tlir 
oxide  of  iron  with  which  the  cloth  is  always  contami 
nated ;  it  also  removes  the  lime  which  may  have  attache< 
itself  to  the  cloth  during  its  previous  treatment  with  tha' 
substance.  It  is  again  washed,  boiled  in  an  alkaline 
ley,  and  once  more  carefully  washed  in  cold  water. 
Another  solution  of  bleaching-powder,  two-thirds  the 
strength  of  the  former,  is  then  prepared,  in  which  the 
cloth  is  immersed,  and  left  for  five  or  six  hcurs;  it 
finally  undergoes  another  process  of  souring,  by  which 
means  it  is  rendered  perfectly  wjiite.  The  acid  is  care- 
fully removed  by  washing ;  and  after  each  piece  ul  cloth 
has  been  stretched  to  its  full  length,  it  undergoes  a  pro- 
cess of  mangling,  by  being  passed  successively  between 
cylinders  forced  towards  each  other  by  levers,  to  which  a 
considerable  weight  is  attached.  The  cloth  being  thus 
stretched,  smoothed,  and  wound  upon  a  roller,  is  ren- 
dered fit  for  starching.  The  starch  is  that  of  flour,  de- 
prived of  its  gluten  by  remaining  for  twenty-four  hours 
in  water,  and  then  passed  through  a  sieve,  which  retains 
the  bran,  and  allows  the  starch  to  pass,  A  little  indigu 
is  mixed  with  it,  and  sometimes  porcelain  clay.  The 
starch  is  applied  in  the  state  of  a  pretty  thick  pasu>  ■-■  ^ilst 
the  cloth  is  passing  between  a  pair  of  rollers,  llio 
goods  are  then  dried  and  passed  through  a  calender  fur 
the  purpose  of  giving  them  a  gloss  and  texture. 

Such  is  the  process  of  bleaching  as  practised  in  the 
large  bleaching  establishments  on  the  common  class  of 
goods.  The  number  of  processes  which  the  cloth  un- 
dergoes amounts  to  about  twenty-five,  but  some  of  the 
earlier  ones  are  occasionally  omitted.  The  expense  t\{ 
bleaching  and  finishing  a  yard  of  cotton  cloth  is  about 
one  halfpenny,  and  the  time  required  is  trifling.  A 
bleacher  in  Lancashire,  we  are  told,  received  fourteen 
hundred  pieces  of  gray  muslin  on  a  Tuesday,  which  on 
the  Thursday  following  were  returned  bleached  to  the 
manufacturers,  at  the  distance  of  sixteen  miles ;  and  on 
the  same  day  they  were  packed  up  and  sent  to  a  foreign 
market. 

CONDIMENTS. 

Sugar — Salt. — Two  of  the  most  important  condiments 
in  domestic  use  are,  as  is  well  known,  sugar  and  salt ; 
both  of  which  substances  are  the  crystallization  of  liquids 
loaded  with  their  respective  properties ;  each  i"  produced 
by  an  evaporation  of  the  watery  particles,  1>  iving  the 
solid  crystals  behind.  Thus,  sugar  is  a  crystallization  of 
the  juice  of  the  sugar-cane,  beet-root,  or  other  vegetables 
containing  saccharine  matter;  the  residuum  or  unciystal- 
lizablo  material  being  that  viscid  and  sweet  fluid  called 
liiiicte. 

Salt,  called  by  the  chemists  the  muriate  of  soda,  or 
chloride  of  sodium,  is  found  to  exist  in  a  natural  state  in 
various  quarters  of  the  globe,  among  others,  in  the  county 
of  Cheshire  in  England,  where  it  is  dug  from  a  mine, 
and  purified  by  being  mixed  with  water  and  subjected  to 
evaporation.  The  principal  source  of  salt,  however,  is 
the  water  of  the  ocean,  which  is  boiled  for  a  certain 
length  of  time,  to  drive  off  the  watery  particles.  Sev 
water  differs  in  strength ;  that  which  contains  the  largest 
quantity  of  salt  iMMiig  in  the  middle  of  the  ocean,  far 
from  the  mouths  of  rivers.  From  38  to  43  per  cent,  is 
the  quantity  commonly  found  in  the  seas  round  our 
coasts. 

The  method  of  making  salt  is  siaple ;  but  from  the 

length  of  time  reiiuircd  in  lx>iling,  it  is  not  economically 

|)rrf<>rined    unless  near  mines  from  whirh  coal  can  b« 

cheaply  procured.    The  plan  pursued  is  to  erect  a  rerer 

xS 


S46 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


loir  new  fl.e  m«,  into  which  at  high  water  lupplie*  are 
taken  by  moani  of  a  pipe  extending  u  good  way  down 
tlio  beach.  The  pipe  ia  generally  placed  near  the  low- 
water  mark,  in  ordir  to  get  the  water  from  a  point  aa  far 
lion)  the  surface  aa  poarible,  to  that  it  may  be  the  more 
impregnated  with  aalt,  and  require  ><!m  boiling.  The 
pan*  are  built  on  a  range  on  both  «ide«  of  the  reservoir, 
ifrom  which  the  water  ia  pumped  into  them  after  the  im- 
puritiaa  have  settled.  The  pans  are  shallow  vessels, 
made  of  sheet  iron,  about  twenty  feet  long  and  twelve 
broad,  with  a  furnace  below.  Theso  are  contiuntd  in  a 
■mall  low>roofpd  house,  the  covering  of  which  is  of  deals, 
with  an  opening  at  the  meetibg  of  the  roof  and  the  wall, 
to  allow  the  vapour  to  escape.  When  the  wnter  ia  boil- 
ing, a  little  bullock's  blood  is  put  into  the  pan,  which 
brings  the  impuritiea  to  the  surface  and  allows  of  their 
beinp  skunmed  off.  As  the  water  boils  down,  more  is 
pumpe  *  in ;  and  this  procetis  is  repeated  before  the  salt 
ia  fii<;  drawn.  From  a  pan  of  1300  gallons  fifteen  or 
twenty  bushels,  of  filty-six  pounds  each,  are  obtained  in 
this  manner,  the  process  requiring  al)out  twenty-four 
hours.  The  salt  is  at  fimt  very  light  and  floury  in 
proportion  to  its  bulk,  and  in  this  state  is  most  appre- 
ciated. \  still  finer  article,  reHolving  into  large  crystals, 
ia  mado  with  a  low  fire,  and  when  a  longer  time  is  allowe-1 
in  the  evaporation.  For  use  at  table,  the  salt  is  refined, 
•nd  usually  run  into  large  lumps. 

The  water  which  remains  after  the  xalt  is  crystalliniJ, 
called  the  motlier-toater,  contains  a  coiisideruble  quantity 
of  the  chloride  of  magnesium  or  bittern,  '■hloride  of  sodium, 
and  sul|>hate  of  magnesia.  If  the  motjcr-water  is  ex- 
posed in  tanks  during  winter,  it  will  atford  tluree  succes- 
sive crystalline  deposits,  the  last  of  which  is  sulphate  of 
soda  nearly  in  a  pure  state.  The  chloride  of  magnesium 
deteriorate*  the  salt  very  much,  but  may  be  removed  by 
the  following  simple  expedient,  mentiuni-d  by  Dr.  Ure : — 
"Let  quicklime  be  intrmluced  in  equivalent  quantity  to 
the  magnesia  present,  and  it  will  precipitate  this  eanh, 
•nd  form  chloride  of  ca!  i>im,  which  will  immv.  !iately  re- 
act upon  the  sulphate  of  soda  in  the  mother-water,  pro- 
ducing sulphate  of  lime  and  chloride  of  iKxiium.  The 
former  being  nearly  inaoluble,  is  easily  separated.  Lime, 
moreover,  decomposes  directly  the  chloride  of  nragnesium, 
but  with  the  elfe<-t  of  merely  substitu'ing  chloride  of 
calcium  in  its  stead.  But  in  general  tLere  ia  abundance 
of  sulphate  of  soda  in  brine  springs  to  dfcompose  the 
chloride  of  calcium.  '.  still  better  mode  of  proceeding 
wi'Ji  sea-water  would  bo  to  advl  to  it  in  the  rattling  tank 
the  quantity  at  liroe  equivalent  to  the  magnoeia,  whereby 
•n  svailabb  defwrat  of  this  euth  would  be  ubtoinwl,  at 


the  same  time  that  the  brine  would  be  sweetened    VVita 
thus  purified  may  be  safely  ciystailijxtd  by  rapid  uvauork. 


tion." 


The  finest  table  salt  ia  made  in  the  western  parts  ot 
England,  from  the  produce  of  the  salt  mines ;  and,  aloni 
with  salt  of  a  common  quality,  is  exported  in  immenM 
quantities.  In  1836,  240,560  tons  of  salt  were  exported 
from  the  United  Kingdom,  the  greater  part  of  which  went 
to  the  United  States,  Russia,  Bel^um,  the  British  North 
American  Colonies,  the  West  Indies,  &c.  M.  DesomiM 
calculates  that  the  iiitomal  consumption  of  salt  in  Prance 
is  rather  more  than  200,000  tons  annually ,  which  is  alxjui 
fourteen  pounds  for  each  individual.  In  this  country  it 
is  thought  to  he  about  240,000  tor.^  annually,  which  ii 
upwards  of  twenty  pounds  for  each  individual. 


[BOOKS  ON  THE  APPLICATION  OF  CHEMISTRY  TO 
THE  ARTS. 

Amojto  the  works  partially  or  wholly  devoted  to  thii 
subject  the  following  v  ,11  he  found  worthy  of  the  student's 
attention.  "  Jlpplied  ChtmUtry  in  Jlrtt,  Miinufatturtt 
and  Domalic  Ecoiumiy.  By  E.  A.  Parnpll."  "Rural 
Eronomy  in  il$  Relation  with  Cliemisiry,  Pliyniri,  a,„i 
Me!eorolus;y.  By  Bouissangault.  Trunjiated  by  G.  Law." 
"  Dr.  Freseniut'i  Ehnicnts  of  Chemirul  Jliitilyih.  EdjtcJ 
by  Bullock."  «  Fu^/mer  on  JUnnurea  and  ./Igriruliuiiil 
Clifmiilry,"  "  Chaplal't  Jifrindlural  Chemistry."  ■•  jr,,. 
big'$  ^Ji^cultttral  Chemistry."  "  Draper  on  the  Chemical 
Organization  of  Plmxtf."  "  Enryiiitperilin  of  C'hemitlry, 
By  Professor  Booth."     "  Fnnuci'r  Evryrlopadi  ■." 

Of  all  the  practical  applications  of  chemistry  mhich 
havo  l)fcn  prosecuted  of  latn  years,  the  most  imports  it  i» 
undoul)lcdly  that  which  brings  the  sciciirc  to  bear  t<pan 
practical  agriculture.  The  relplion  of  soils  and  manurei 
to  cereal  productions,  ami  t!ie  aUen.ation  of  crapi!,  has  re. 
cently  been  invcsti(>ied  with  persovcritii?  zeal  by  the  most 
enlightened  chemistx  of  Europe  and  America,  and  dLi- 
coveries  of  very  great  practical  importance  have  been 
made.  The  work  of  the  German  cheniist  Licbii;  on  thii 
subject  is  one  of  very  special  interest.  It  has  lieen  trans- 
lated and  publislied  in  the  cheap  pamphlet  form  in  thii 
country.  It  still  rcmaiiiH  for  some  American,  who  under- 
stands both  chemistry  and  agriculture,  to  apply  Mebig'i 
science  to  the  soil  and  productions  of  our  owe  country 
and  to  reduce  his  principles  to  the  form  of  axioms,  and 
publish  them  in  a  cheap  manual  for  tbe  daily  use  of  list 
American  fanner<-^m.  Ed.] 


nCITATION  or 


ELECTRlCITY-OALyANISM-ELECTKO-MAGNETISM 


'         ■•"        ELECTRICITT.  ' 

IT  vaa  observed  in  ancient  times,  that,  when  am1)cr 
vtji  rublipd,  it  acquired  a  power  of  attracti.ig  and  roppl- 
I  iig  fuch  light  bixlieH  as  hair  and  feathers ;  and  this 
iio'ver  afterwards  carae  to  bo  called  EncTniciTT,  from 
tUeiron,  the  Greek  wonl  for  amber.  Although  the  an- 
cients were  thus  acquainted  with  some  of  the  more  ob- 
rious  phenomena  of  electricity,  they  did  not  investi- 
gnte  the  subject  methodically,  or  attempt  any  gencra- 
liiatior.  of  fiicts  into  a  scientific  theory.  It  was  only  in 
modem  tiroes,  when  close  reasoning  from  truths  e'.ta- 
bliabed  by  the  evidence  of  the  senses  began  to  be  prac- 
tifled  by  philosophers,  that  the  phenomena  connected 
with  electricity  assumed  the  dignity  of  a  science.  Dr. 
Gilbert,  an  English  physician,  made  the  first  step  to- 
wards generalization,  in  the  year  1600.  He  published 
(Taluable  treatise,  in  which  he  observed,  that  not  only 
aml)cr,  but  various  other  substances,  can  by  friction  'le 
mtde  to  draw  light  bodies  to  them.  Boyle,  Guericke, 
^fewton,  and  some  other  philosophers  of  tliat  period, 
contributed  to  extend  human  knowledge  upon  this  in- 
teresting subject ;  but  the  real  science  of  electricity  took 
iU  rise  in  a  latter  age.  About  the  middle  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  several  very  remarkable  facts  were  as- 
certained, particularly  by  Benjamin  Franklin,  which 
identified  lightning  with  cloctricity ;  but  the  extensive 
relations  which  connect  it  with  so  many  other  depart- 
ments of  physical  sj-icnct  were  not  discovered  until  the 
present  century,  nor  was  their  importance  until  then 
ippreciatcd.  In  this  short  era  a  new  science  has  arisen, 
(bunded  on  that  modification  of  oleciricity  which  is 
known  by  the  name  of  Galvaxism.  The  galvanic 
battery  (which  will  be  afterwards  described),  as  an  in- 
itrument  for  analyzing  or  decomposing  chemical  sub- 
itances,  has  connected  it  with  chemistry  in  the  most  in- 
timate manner.  Henc3  bos  sprung  B'-rctho-Ciikmis- 
TRT,  otib  of  the  .'Connecting  branches  between  remote 
dinsions  of  the  philosophy  of  nat\irp.  ELEcrno-MAr.- 
KiTrsM  is  a  still  more  recently  discovered  province  of 
iciencc,  anil  which  identilies  as  one,  two  powers  which 
were  previously  regarded  as  distinct. 

As  the  best  method  cf  convrying  a  clear,  and,  at  the 
nme  time,  philosophic.l  view  of  this  interesting  science, 
we  shall,  in  the  first  place,  indepcn>lently  of  all  theory, 
itate  tlie  most  genentl  and  rcinarkaMc  facts  connected 
with  it.  After  these  have  been  enumeraUul,  the  reader 
will  then  be  prepared  for  a  rcvif>w  of  the  theories  which 
have  been  advanced  for  the  purpose  of  explaining  phe- 
nomena, and  for  connecting  the  various  facts  in  the 
mind.  The  general  facts  relating  to  this  subject  we 
think  may  lie  classed  under  two  heads — 1st,  The  Fr.-i- 
lalion  of  Electricity  ;  and  2d,  The  Ditlrihii'ion  of  Elec- 
tricity. Connected  with  each  of  *bes»^  heads  are  vari- 
oua  phenomena,  which  we  shall  notice  as  they  occur, 
during  the  gradual  development  of  the  subject. 

nciTATioir  or  iLEC-rniniTY,  ahd  resultino  phe- 
nomena. 
If  a  piece  of  sealing-wax,  amber,  the  glass  of  a 
watch,  or  any  othf^r  smooth  piece  of  glass,  l>o  rubbed 
apon  a  piece  of  ilry  flannel  or  woollen  cloth,  or  even 
Hic  sleeve  of  a  cloth  coat,  it  will  fx"  found  to  have  ac- 
quired a  new  and  very  singular  phvitical  property.  This 
property  is  exhibited  bv  holding  the  body  which  has 
been  subjected  to  fric'.on,  over  small  and  light  sub- 
nancuE,  such  as  shieds  of  paper,  gold  leaf,  feathers, 
•iraw,  cork,  Ac.  These  will  lie  first  instantly  allrnrted 
to  I'  sonio  of  them  adhering  to  its  surface;  others  fall- 


Fig.  1. 


ing  back  to  the  place  whence  they  were  withdrawn 
whilst  others  are  thrown  off  from  the  body  as  if  the) 
were  repelled  from  it.  Here,  then,  is  a  distinct  pheno- 
menon— a  process  of  attraction  and  repulsion  at  thr 
same  instant  of  time,  which  requires  caretvl  examina 
tion.  It  is  observed,  as  above  stated,  that  only  cettaiii 
substances  will  become  endowed  with  these  remarkable 
properties,  and  for  convenience  such  are  called  elerlno , 
those  which  cannot  bo  excited  in  the  same  manner  are 
said  to  be  non-ekclric$;  for  example,  stone  is  a  non- 
electric. 

The  phenomena  of  attraction  and  repulsion  may  b« 
exemplified  in  a  striking  manner  by  a  small  apparatus, 
of  which  we  present  a  representation,  fig.  1.  A  is  a 
stand  bent  at  its  upp^r  extremity,  and 
having  a  '.ook  to  which  a  fine  silk 
thread  is  attached,  with  a  very  small 
pith  ball  at  its  end,  B.  Rub  an  elec- 
tric— for  instance,  a  dry  rod  of  glasF — 
and,  on  presenting  it  to  the  ball,  B, 
the  ball  will  be  immediately  attracted 
to  the  glass,  and  will  remain  in  con- 
tact with  it.  After  they  remain  in 
contact  for  a  few  seconds,  if  the  glass 
hu  withdrawn  without  being  touched 
by  the  fingers,  and  again  presented  to 
the  ball,  the  latter  will  be  repelled  instead  of  being  at- 
tracted,  as  in  the  first  instance.  By  being  touched  with 
the  finger,  the  ball  can  be  deprived  of  its. electricity ; 
and  if,  after  this  has  been  done,  we  present  a  piece  of 
sealing-wax  in  place  of  the  glass  formerly  employed, 
the  very  pame  phenomena  will  take  place.  On  the 
first  application,  the  ball  will  be  attracted  ;  and,  on  the 
second,  repelled.  It  is  clear,  then,  in  the  first  place, 
that  both  these  electrics  have  the  power  of  attracting 
another  body  before  they  have  communciatcd  to  it  any 
of  their  own  electricity ;  and,  secondly,  that  they  repel 
the  body  after  they  have  commuQicated  to  it  a  portion 
of  their  own  electricity. 

But  a  very  remarkable  circumstance  takes  place,  il 
we,  after  having  conveyed  electricity  to  the  ball,  B,  by 
means  of  excited  glam,  which  was  for  a  moment  or  two 
in  contact  with  it,  should  present  to  it,  afttr  the  former 
was  withdrawn,  excited  sealing-wax :  the  ball,  instead 
of  being  repelled,  as  it  would  have  been  were  the  glasa 
again  applied,  is  attracted  by  the  wax.  If  the  experi- 
ment be  reversed,  and  the  excited  wax  first  presented 
to  the  ball,  and  then  the  excited  glass,  the  latter  will  be 
found  to  repel  the  ball.  «  Hence  it  follows,"  says  Sir 
Davi<\  Brewster,*  "  that  excited  glass  repels  a  ball  elec- 
trified by  excited  glass.  Excited  wax  repels  a  ball  elec- 
trified by  excited  wax.  Excited  gloss  attracts  a  ball 
electrified  by  excited  wax.  Excited  wax  attracts  a  ball 
olctrified  by  excited  glass.  From  which  we  conclade, 
that  there  are  two  opposite  electricities ;  namely,  tJiat 
protluced  by  e^^ited  glass,  to  which  the  name  of  tn'fre- 
orij  or  positive  electricity  has  been  given  ;  and  that  pro. 
duccd  by  excited  wax,  to  which  the  name  of  resiiioui 
or  negative  electricity  has  been  given. 

"If,  when  the  pith  bul ,  B,  is  electrified  either  with 
excited  glass  or  wax,  we  touch  it  with  a  rod  of  glass, 
its  proiwrty  of  being  subsequently  attracted  or  repelled 
by  the  excited  glass  or  wax  will  suflcr  no  change  ;  but 
if  we  touch  it  with  a  rod  of  metal,  it  will  lose  the  eleu 
tricity  which  it  had  received,  and  will  be  attrsited  evthei 

•  Arlicle  Kleclricity  in  llic  Bneyelojxrdia  BntannUx.  um 
iiuiit  coniprebentive,  philoso|ihical.  complete,  and  intelligibto 
iri'ntisr  upon  this  inleresliiig  icience  which  we  have  ev>ir]re 
mei  will) 


«19 


INFORMATION    FOR  THK   PKOPLK. 


by  the  exrited  rIbm  or  wax,  as  it  wb<  when  thoy  were 
Grat  applifMl  to  it.  Henre,  the  rod  ol  fflass  and  the  rod 
»f  metal  po»«-iM  different  propertiei,  the  former  being 
incapable,  and  the  latter  capable,  of  carrying  oiT  the 
electricity  of  the  pith  ball.  The  metal  is  therefore  said 
to  be  a  cviidtHlor,  and  the  glass  a  non-cotiductor,  of  elec- 
tricity." 

In  these  experiments,  electricity  has  been  pro<1nrod 
by  friction  ;  but  there  are  other  methods  of  obtaining 
it,  which,  however,  will  be  afterwards  explained. 

AVith  regard  to  attraction  and  repulsion,  a  few  facts 
lemain  to  Iw  stated.  Some  substances  remain  longer  in 
'"^ntact  with  the  electric  than  others,  and  two  bo<1ios 
which  have  both  been  in  conduct  with  the  same  electric, 
mutually  repel  each  other.  If  electrics  of  considerable 
kixe  are  employed,  the  phenomena  of  course  arc  best 
observed  ;  and  if  th?  expcrintciit  be  iierfbrnied  in  a 
darkened  chamlier,  flashes  of  bluish  li;Thl  will  be  seen 
to  extend  over  the  surface  of  the  electric  submitted  to 
friction,  and  which  we  shall  suppose  is  a  cylinder  of 
sealing-wax,  sulphur,  or  glass.  Sparks,  accompanied 
also  with  a  sharp  snapping  sound,  will  be  setn  to  dart 
round  it  in  various  directions.  If  a  round  body,  as  a 
metallic  ball,  be  presented  to  it,  and  moved  from  one 
<nd  to  the  other,  a  succession  of  sparks  will  he  obtained 
mi  the  ball  passes  along  the  surfa(>e  ;  and  if  the  knuckle 
be  presented  instead  of  the  metallic  ball,  each  spark 
will  be  accompanied  by  a  pricking  sensation.  If  the 
cylinder  be  brought  near  to  the  face,  an  unpleasant  sen- 
sation of  tickling  is  felt  in  the  skin,  as  if  it  were  co- 
vered with  a  cobweb.  If  a  metallic  gloln;  lie  gus|icnded 
in  the  air  by  silk  threads,  and  in  that  situation  rubbed 
by  an  electric,  it  will  also  liecomc  electrical,  and  exhibit 
the  same  pioperties  as  an  electric.  It  is  essential  to 
the  success  of  this  experiment  that  it  be  inmlultd :  that 
Uv  n  t  oflf  by  means  of  an  electric  from  all  communica- 
tion with  any  substance,  except  the  air  and  the  electric 
which  sustains  it.  The  instruments  employed  in  ex- 
periments similar  to  those  altove  described  are  termed 
tUdrotwpes.  Besides  that  one,  of  which  a  representa- 
tion has  oeen  given,  there  are  various  others,  all  of  which 
are  formed  upon  the  same  principles. 

It  ii  now  proper  to  mention  the  principal  electrical 
nbstances  in  nature.  TTiey  are,  amber,  gum-lack,  n-sin, 
•ulphui,  glass,  talc,  the  precious  stones,  silk,  the  fur  ot 
most  quadrupeds,  and  almost  all  vegetable  sulwtances 
(excepting  charcoal)  which  have  been  thoroughly  de- 
prived of  moisture,  as,  for  instance,  baked  wood,  and  very 
dry  pajier. 

DISTBlBtrrlOM    AND   TRANHPERENCE. 

We  have  noticed  that  when  the  excited  electric  was 
brought  near  the  pith  ball,  B,  the  latter  was  flrst  at- 
tracted and  then  repelled.  If  we  now  remove  the  elec- 
tric and  present  to  the  t)all  which  has  thus  ti)uch«'d  it, 

•  second  ball  which  has  had  no  pn  vions  cnnmuinica- 
lion  with  an  electric,  we  l^nd  that  tlu-ne  two  balis  utttact 
one  another,  and  come  into  contact-  The  same  actiiins 
•re  rejicated  lirtween  this  second  ball  and  n  third  which 
may  be  presented  to  it ;  hud  so  on  in  surcession.  but 
with  a  6.'  ntinued  diminution  of  intensity.  This  diminu- 
tion plamly  indicates  a  diinininhed  f»ower,  in  conse- 
quence, as  it  would  seem,  of  its  Iwing  distributed  among 

•  number  of  bodies.  It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  the  un- 
known p->wer  which  wc  have  called  eleclricily,  can,  like 
heat,  l>c  transferred  or  communicated  from  one  bo<ly  to 
uiother,  and  th,it  its  intensity,  like  that  of  heat,  is 
wcakf  ned  by  l)oing  diffused  among  a  numlx'r  of  IxNlies. 
An  elictrifipil  ball  can  be  ilcpriveil  of  its  clectriritv  by 
being ^uchrd  with  a  rod  of  metal  of  any  kind  ;  but  if 
we  touch  it  with  glass  or  wax,  it  will  not  \ye  carried  off". 
Hence,  met«lH  wre  aaid  to  Iw  romliulori,  and  glass  and 
m»x  nc^t-frmrluriini,  of  electricity.  Bodies  greatlv  vary 
iri  Uieii  powei  of  conduction,  and  tnany  of  them  owe  it 


to  the  wr.ter  which  inty  contain.  ITie  tonductini 
power  of  any  substance  de|)endi  on  the  state  of  ihe  at- 
mosphere at  the  time  with  regard  to  humidity,  and  oi, 
the  intensity  of  the  electricity  employed.  The  follon. 
ing  lists  of  conductors  and  non-conductors  are  by  6ii 
David  Brewster,  and  hove  been  collected  by  him  fron, 
various  authors,  with  great  care.  The  bodies  are  placed 
in  the  order  of  their  conducting  or  non-conductins 
power ;  "  but  it  ia  probable,"  says  Sir  David,  "  that  thi« 
order  would  be  greatly  changed,  if  the  bodies  were  all 
submitted  to  a  new  and  uniform  examinaticn." 

Lift  of  Coiiditrtom, — Silver  copper,  lead,  gold,  brass, 
line,  tin,  platina,  palladiimi,  iron  heated,  iron  cold,  char, 
coal  well  burned,  plumbago,  concentrated  oeids,  pow. 
dered  charcoal,  diluted  acid'/,  salini  solutions,  metallic 
ores,  animal  fluids,  hot  water,  sea-water,  spring-water 
river-<Vater,  ice  above  iH  degrees  Fahr.,  snow,  livina 
vei^ctablcs,  living  -.iiimals,  flame,  smoke,  steam,  soluble 
salts,  rarefied  ai.-,  vajiour  of  ulrohol,  vapour  of  ether, 
moist  earths,  tnthmcitc,  powdered  glass,  flowers  of 
sulphur,  resins  rendered  fluid  by  heat,  glass  heated  to 
redneaa. 

Lilt  of  Non-amduclort. —  Shell-lack,  amber,  resinis, 
sulp'.iur,  wax,  jet,  glass,  vitrifications,  mica,  diamoiij, 
transparent  geras,  various  minerals,  raw  silk,  bleached 
silk,  dyed  silk,  wool,  hair,  feathers,  dry  paper,  pu'rh- 
ment,  leather,  air  and  all  dry  gasj-s,  baked  wood,  drv 
vegetable  bodies,  porcelain,  dry  marble,  and  siliceouc  Wd 
argillaceous  stones,  camphor,  caoutchouc,  lyeopodimn, 
dry  chalk,  lime,  phosphoriis,  ico  lielow  13  degrees 
Fahr.,  ashes  of  animal  bodies^  ashes  of  vegetable  bodies 
oils  (the  heavicsl  being  the  best  conductors),  dry  mo 
tallic  oxides. 

The  two  qualities  of  a  capability  of  excitation,  and 
a  power  of  conducting  electricity,  appear  to  be  incoin. 
patible  with  each  other,  for  the  one  always  diminishes 
in  proportion  as  the  other  increases.  Hence  it  follows, 
as  an  invariable  law,  that  eleclrin  arc  nuiMonilurlws, 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  that  conductors  are  nnn-tlectrirt. 
'J'he  most  perfect  nnn-ioiuhiclors  of  electricity  are  also 
called  infulnlrrrt,  from  their  power  of  insulating  an  elec- 
trified body,  or  preventing  any  of  its  electricity  from 
escaping  along  its  suj/port.  The  insulating  power  of 
atmospheric  air  de|)ends  upon  two  circuniKtances — iu 
density  and  its  dryness.  .\ir  of  the  ordinary  density 
of  the  atmosphere,  if  perfectly  dry,  is  a  reinarknb!y 
good  insulator,  and  no  change  of  temjierr-ture  appears 
to  afff'ct  its  insulating  power ;  but  rareloction  dimi- 
iiisbf.4  its  power  of  confining  eli'ctricity,  and,  when 
greatly  rarefied,  it  may  I>e  cla.ssed  among  conductors. 
The  conducting  power  of  air  of  the  ordinary  densilv 
dejh'nds  upon  the  quantity  of  moisture  which  it  con- 
tains, water  being  a  very  goo<l  conductor  of  elcotriritv, 
Chimges  of  tenijH'ratuie  and  also  of  form  affect  the 
ron<lucting  powers  of  most  bodii's.  Thus,  thougli 
water,  in  its  ordinary  liquid  state,  is  an  excellent  con- 
ductor, yet,  when  it  api>ear»  in  the  solid  form  of  ice,  it« 
conducting  ])Owcr  is  much  impaired,  and  at  ,''  very  low 
lein|iera,ure  it  ceases  entirely,  (ilass,  when  coli'  is  a 
noii-condui-fir,  but  when  hi'ated  to  redness  it  eon<.. 
tolerably  well.  Hence,  although  some  Iniilies  are  iXk. 
to  lie  perfect  non-condiirt<)rs,yet  this  is  not  strictly  true. 
In  Dr.  Faraday's  interesting  researi'hes  on  this  subject, 
lie  gives  the  following  suniniary  of  ccmdition.i  of  con- 
diictiiin  in  bodies,  which,  although  they  apply  chiefly  to 
vdltr-  electricity,  arc  yet  true  within  certain  limits  of 
ordinary  electricity  : — 

1.  All  bodies  conduct  electricity  in  the  same  mannrr. 
from  metals  to  lac  and  gases,  but  in  difTerent  degrees. 

2.  ('onducting  jwwcr  is  in  sonv  IkkUos  powerfully  in- 
cn-ased  by  heat,  and  in  others  dirni  isluO,  yet  without  or; 
perceiving  any  acconi(>unying  es*  ntial  electrical  d'  r- 
ence,  either  in  tlie  bodies  oi  in  tl  •  changes  otv  ,OD(d 
by  the  electricity  conducted. 


•Riiyrt'flj*   KLECTRKUTY.     rwis^^*^*. 


349 


9.  A  number  of  bodies  iniulating  clertricity  of  low 
(Dtenttty  when  Milid,  conduct  it  vei'y  freely  when  fluid, 
lod  ve  then  decomposed  by  it 

i.  There  are  many  fluid  bodies  which  do  not  sernbly 
coadact  electricity  of  this  low  intensity  ;  there  are  some 
which  coitduct  it  and  ore  not  decomposed,  nor  is  fluidity 
essential  to  decomposition. 

6.  There  is  but  one  body  yc  ^covered  (periodide  of 
mercury),  which,  insulatinfr  a  *  mc  current  when  solid 
ind  conducting  it  when  fluid,  .a  not  decomposed  in  the 
latter  cane. 

6.  There  is  no  strict  electrical  distinction  of  conductors 
which  can  as  yet  be  drawn  between  bodies  supposed  to 
be  elementary,  nnd  those  known  to  be  compounds. 

There  are  various  other  circumslancos  upon  which  the 
conducting  power  of  bodies  depends.  That  of  silk,  for 
instance,  is  affected  by  the  colour  of  the  thread,  or  father 
by  fhe  nature  of  the  dye-stufl*  by  which  it  has  been 
tin^.  When  of  a  brilliant  white,  or  a  black,  its  con- 
itucting  power  is  the  greatest ;  and  a  higlk  golden  yellow 
or  ,1  nut-brown  vtnders  it  tho  best  insula'or.  Mv.  Cou- 
lomb, who  has  invcttigiitcd  the  subject  with  great  ability, 
taygns  three  causes  as  chiefly  operating  in  dcpnving  a 
body  in  a  slate  cf  imperfect  insulation  of  its  e'.3ctricity — 
firet,  the  imperfection  of  the  insulating  property  in  the 
luliib  by  which  it  is  supported;  secondly,  the  contact  of 
successive  portions  of  atmospheric  air,  every  particle  of 
which  deprives  tho  body  of  a  portion  of  its  electricity  ; 
thirdly,  the  deposition  of  moisture  upon  the  surfar«  of 
the  insulating  body,  which  establishes  communications 
nilh  its  remote  ends,  thus  virtually  increasing  its  con- 
ducting power.  There  is  another  very  remarkable  cir- 
cumstance relating  to  the  dissipation  of  electricity,  namely, 
the  shape  of  the  body  which  holds  the  electricity.  Its 
retaining  TX'wer  is  materially  afl'ccted  by  the  form  which 
it  possessei'  The  spherical  shape  is  that  most  favourable 
to  its  retenUon  ;  wlvilst,  from  bodies  of  a  pointed  figure, 
especially  if  the  point  projects  to  a  distance  from  the 
surface,  electricity  escapes  most  readily.  On  the  otlier 
band,  these  bodies  receive  electricity  more  readily  than 
Ihoso  of  any  other  form. 

or  THI   TWO    KINDS  Or   2I.BCTRICITT. 

It  will  be  understood,  from  the  preceding  explanations, 
that  there  are  two  kinds  of  electricity — namely,  a  vilrroui 
or  ■y'Otiltvt  electricity,  and  a  resinoui  or  negative  electricity. 
Although  we  have  thus  two  electricities,  there  does  not 
ippear  to  be  the  smallest  ditference  between  them  when 
they  are  taken  individually.  The  distinction  is  only  "H- 
lervable  when  brought  in  contact ;  they  then  diflpl 
marked  a  contrariety,  or  inotually  opposive  forci  uit 
they  may  be  viewed  as  agents  having  opposite  qualities, 
which  completely  neutrnlivLe  one  another  by  combination, 
juit  like  an  acid  and  an  alkali.  It  is  remarkable  that  the 
eicitation  of  one  species  of  electricity  is  always  accom- 
panied by  tho  presence  of  the  other,  and  botli  are  pro- 
doced  to  an  equal  extent.  Thus,  when  a  piece  of  )^lass 
ii  rubbed  by  silk,  just  as  much  resinous  electricity  is 
produced  in  the  silk  as  there  is  vitreous  electricity  produced 
ill  the  glass ;  and  whatever  electrified  bodies  are  repelled 
by  the  one,  are  attracted  by  the  other.  0(  course,  these 
;wo  surfaces,  havii.g  acquired  opposite  electricities,  inva- 
riably attract  each  other.  A  wliite  and  a  black  ribtion 
rubbed  against  each  otlier  between  the  finger  and  thumb, 
*;hibit  electrical  {ihenomcna  in  a  very  marked  manner. 
I'be  black  is  lesiiiuusly  and  the  white  vitreously  elec- 
trified ;  of  course,  they  attract  each  other ;  and,  if  sepa- 
rated, the  ono  attracts  the  light  bodies  which  the  other 
repels.  Whun  two  pieces  of  the  sante  ribbon  of  the 
ia:ue  IcriKtIi  are  rubbed,  the  one  being  drawn  length- 
ways and  at  right  angles  over  a  part  of  the  other,  the  one 
which  has  been  subjected  to  friction  in  its  whole  length, 
tr^uires  '•itreous  and  tho  other  resinous  electricity.  In 
liiis  manner,  when  tlie  whole  length  of  the  bow  of  ■ 

VuL.  1.— 3a 


violin  is  drawn  over  a  limited  part  of  tho  string,  tb«  bain 
of  the  former  exhibit  a  vitreous,  and  the  latter  a  leainoua 
electricity.  It  is  to  he  observed,  that  the  body  whoM 
excited  portion  is  of  the  .east  extent,  is  generally  found 
to  bo  rcsinously  electrified. 

To  know  the  species  of  electricity  evolved,  it  is  merely 
necessary  to  oimmunicate  beforehand,  to  the  slips  of  gold 
leaf,  a  known  electricity,  either  from  excited  glass  or 
sealing-wax.  If  they  be  divergent  with  the  former,  then 
the  approach  of  a  body  similarly  electrified  will  augment 
the  divergence,  but  that  of  one  oppositely  electrified  will 
cause  their  collapse. 

No  visible  relation  can  be  pointed  out  between  the 
nature  or  constitution  of  substances,  and  the  species  of 
electricity  developed  by  their  mutual  friction.  The  only 
general  law  among  the  phenomena  is,  that  the  rubbing 
and  tho  rubbed  body  always  require  opposite  electricities. 
Sulphur  is  vitreously  electrifietl  when  rubbed  with  every 
mettti  except  lead,  and  resinously  with  lead  and  every 
other  kind  of  rubber.  Resinous  bodies  rubbed  against 
each  other  acquire  alternately  the  vitreous  and  resinous 
electricity ;  but  nibbed  against  all  other  bodies,  they  be- 
come resinously  electrical.  White  silk  acquires  vitreous 
electricity  with  black  silk,  metals,  and  black  cloth ;  and 
resinous  \\ith  paper,  the  human  hand,  hair,  and  weasel's 
i.kin.  Black  silk  becomes  vitreously  electrical  with  seal- 
ing-wax, but  resinously  with  hares',  weasels',  and  ferrets' 
skins;  with  brass,  silver,  iron,  the  human  hand,  and 
white  silk.  Woollen  cloth  is  strongly  vitreous  with  zinc 
and  bismuth ;  moderately  so  with  silver,  copper,  lead, 
and  specular  iron.  It  is  resinous  with  platina,  gold,  tin, 
antimony,  gray  copper,  sulphuret  of  copper,  bisulphurel 
of  copper,  snlphurets  of  silver,  antimony  and  iron.  Dry 
air  impelled  on  glass  becomes  resuiously  electrical,  and 
leaves  the  glass  in  tlie  opposite  state.  Silk  stuffii  agitated 
in  the  atmosphere  witl.  a  rapid  motion,  always  take  the 
resinous  electricity,  while  the  air  becomes  vitreously 
electrified. 

Numerous  experiments  have  been  made  with  the  view 
of  ascertaining  the  conditions  that  determine  the  species 
of  electricity  exerted  in  the  respective  bodies  of  which 
the  surtaces  are  made  to  rub  against  each  other,  but  they 
have  led  to  no  satisfactory  conclusions.  The  mechanical 
configuration  of  the  surface  appears  to  have  a  greater 
influence  in  the  result  than  tlie  peculiar  nature  of  the 
substance  itself.  If  a  plate  of  glass  with  a  polished  sur 
face  be  rubbed  against  ono  which  is  roughened,  the  former 
always  acquires  the  vitreous  and  the  latter  the  resinous 
electricity.  Various  substances,  if  rubbed  when  polished, 
exhibit  a  diflerent  kind  of  electricity  than  that  with  which 
they  are  excited,  if  rublied  when  roughened  or  scratched. 
No  purely  scientific  explanation  has  ever  yet  been  given 
of  these  remarkable  jihenomena. 

If  a  body  is  charged  with  electricity,  and  insulated 
so  perfectly  as  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  electricity 
which  it  contains,  it  ncverthelesa  tends  to  produce  an 
electrical  state  of  the  opposite  kind  in  all  the  bodies 
around  it  Thus  the  vitreous  induces  the  resinous,  and 
the  resinous  the  vitreous  elect.'  ity  in  a  body  that  i* 
situated  in  the  vicinity  of  eithei  uf  them,  and  this  to  • 
degree  proportioned  to  the  smallness  of  the  distance 
which  separates  the  bodies.  The  electricity  is  in  this 
cose  said  to  be  induced,  and  the  phenomenon  is  callei) 
ileiirical  iiulurtion.  The  operation  of  this  law  is  a  key 
tn  the  principal  phenomena  of  electricity.  In  illustration 
of  it,  we  shall  quote  an  able  writer  upon  the  subject  ■ 
"  If  an  electrified  body,  charged  with  either  species  of 
electricity,  be  presented  to  an  unelectrified  or  neutral 
body,  its  tendency,  in  consequence  of  the  law  of  induc- 
tion, is  to  disturb  the  electrical  condition  of  the  ^Terent 
parts  of  the  neutral  body.  The  electrified  body  TBdui-.e» 
a  state  if  electricity  contrary  to  its  own  in  that  part  o) 
the  neutral  body  which  is  nearest  to  it;  and,  consequen* 
i".  a  state  of  electricity  similar  to  its  own  m  the  remota 


'>m 


850 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE   FEO.»LR 


p«rt  Hcnpo,  fhp  npiitrality  of  the  mTomI  body  ii  (f«^ 
■troywl  hy  the  nctinn  of  the  firnt ;  and  thr  ailjnrciU  parta 
of  the  two  lioilica,  huvinft  now  oppoail'  plertricitioi,  will 
attract  enrh  other.  It  thu^  appfa'j  that  the  attraction 
which  ii  obflcrvril  u>  tnko  pln<^  bc-tween  eleclrifled  liodifs, 
and  those  that  ore  unclpctrifli-d,  ia  merely  a  conaequonco 
of  the  altorrd  itate  of  fhoae  bodica.  n-HUllin^  dirrrtly  from 
Ihr  law  of  induclion;  and  that  it  ia  hy  no  meana  itarif 
tM  oripnal  law  or  primary  fact  in  the  K-irncn. 

The  effect  of  induction  will  lie  in  proportion  to  the 
(bcility  N  ilh  which  ehanffea  in  the  difitribution  of  elec- 
tricity amcnR  the  different  parts  of  a  body  can  l)o  effected, 
t  fiicility  wl  ich  corrcaponda  with  the  condiirtin)^  ix>wer 
»f  the  biH'.'.  Hence,  tlio  attraction  pxcrte<l  by  an  clec- 
trilled  body  upon  another  Imdy  previoualy  neutral,  will 
be  mach  more  energetic  if  the  latter  be  a  conductor  than 
if  it  be  an  electric,  '  .^hich  thcae  changea  can  take  place 
only  to  a  very  aman  extent.  Thia  ia  confirmed  by  the 
following  experiment: — "Suapcnd, by  fine  ailk  threiida  of 
equal  length,  two  amall  bnlla  of  equal  dimenainna,  both 
made  of  gum-lac,  but  one  having  ita  surface  covered  with 
gold  leaf,  riacc  theac  two  penduluma,  aa  they  may  l)0 
cabled,  at  n  little  diatnnce  from  one  another,  ao  aa  to  admit 
of  a  compariaon  of  tl>cir  motiona ;  and  then  [ireaent  to 
them  an  excited  electric,  which  may  bo  either  a  tube  of 
glaaa  or  a  cylinder  of  sealing-wax.  It  will  at  once  be 
oeen  that  the  ball  with  the  metallic  covering,  which 
readily  adniita  of  the  tranafcr  of  electricity  from  one  aide 
to  the  other,  will  bo  much  more  readily  and  powerfully 
attracted  than  the  other  hall,  which  allowa  of  nu  niution 
in  iti  electricity.  The  l,iller  ball  will,  by  slow  degreea 
however,  aaaunic  electrical  atatea  of  the  aunic  kind  aa  the 
gilt  ball,  and  uill  bo  fully  attracted.  As  this  change  is 
very  alowly  eflcctcd,  ao  it  is  more  permanent  when  once 
produced ;  and  the  plain  ball  adherea  for  a  coiiKiderable 
time  to  tha  electric  which  has  otti^cted  it  'I'he  gilt  ball, 
on  the  contrary,  ia  sooner  rej»cllcd,  by  ita  readily  receiv- 
ing the  charge  of  electricity  imparted  to  it  by  the  electric. 
A  degree  of  |>erinanent  electricity,  however,  is  also  in- 
duced on  thia  ball,  in  consequence  of  ita  gradual  penetra- 
tion into  the  aubatance  of  tiie  gum-lac." 


Electrical  phenomena  are  generally  accounted  for  hy 
•uppoaing  that  there  ia  an  ex ti^mely- subtile  and  highly 
elastic  fluid,  which  pervades  all  i.  atcrial  substances,  but 
ia  itself  devoid  of  any  aet)sible  gra>ity.  It  is  supposed 
to  move  with  various  d  frevi  of  fiicility  through  the  pores 
or  actual  sutistance  of  varinua  kinds  of  matter.  Hence, 
in  pro|>ortian  as  they  admit  of  the  fluid  paaxing  through 
them  with  ease  or  difficulty,  bodies  have  l)een  divided  into 
conductors  and  non-conductors.  According  to  the  doc- 
trine of  then-  Innng  but  one  spociea  of  fluid,  it  is  supposed 
that  the  electrical  equilibrium  which  constitutes  the  natu- 
ral state  of  matter  is  disturlied  by  friction,  and  that  one 
of  the  two  bodies  brought  near  to  each  other,  attracts  to 
itaelf  a  surcharge  of  the  fluid,  and  is  ovrr-taturattd,  whilst 
the  other  is  lef\  in  a  dcflcient  state,  and  is  undrr-$nturi;ieil. 
For  this  view  of  the  subject  we  are  indebted  to  Franklin ; 
and  hence,  the  terina  of  positive  or  plus,  and  negative  or 
minus,  have  arisen.  Uut  aa  some  of  the  appt-arancea 
cannot  easily  be  reconciled  to  tlie  hyjiotheaia  of  a  mere 
Cicess  or  deficiency  of  one  fluid,  tliere  is  another  theory 
which  supposes  the  fluid  to  Ik-  a  lompounil,  susc»'i)tible 
of  decnmjKwition  by  friction  and  other  moans;  and 
bonce  the  on^iu  of'  the  terina  vitrcouH  and  resinous  clec- 
Iricitio*.  With  rcii[)cct  to  the  iiili  nsity  of  the  electric 
force,  it  resembles  that  of  gravitntioti,  by  being  inversely 
lUi  iJic  xquaro  of  the  dislan<.e.  Like  (travitiition,  also,  it 
act')  at  all  distances,  ami  it  is  not  iMi|K-dcd  by  any  inter- 
veiiii^i^  body,  provide«l  it  be  not  in  an  active  electrical 
•talc.  Dut  whilst  the  particles  of  each  fluid  re(M'l  those 
irt  the  same  kind,  they  exert,  aa  we  have  frtii,  a  high 
altroclivf;  power  over  those  of  an  op|)osite  kind.  The 
in'Miaiiv  of  this  attraction,  also,  like  that  of  gravitation, 


increases  with  a  diminution  of  distane.  It  m  ovidf  1 1 
therefore,  that  from  the  powerful  altractioti  which  liny 
have  for  each  other,  they  would  always  flow  tjwanii 
each  other  and  coalesce,  were  it  not  that  the  n»n-ri>ii 
ducting  properties  of  electrics  offer  an  impediiront  u 
their  motion.  When  these  olistacles  arc  remove.1,  thfv 
iiiimediutely  rush  into  union,  and  give  rise  to  the  ro 
niarkable  phenomena  already  noticetl. 

■LBCTRICAL   MArHINCS. 

liiibbing  or  friction,  it  will  Ix-  prrreived,  is  alv.,  , 
requisite  to  produce  an  aititicial  dinplay  of  eleclriin, 
phenomena,  'i'hus,  in  rnbliiiig  iho  buck  of  a  col,  in 
rapidly  drawing  off  a  silk  from  a  woollen  atocking,  or  in 
performing  any  similar  action  with  suitable,  and  in  nij 
coses  dry,  sulMtanies,  we  evolve  electric  aparki),  of  lesKpt 
or  greater  intensity.  For  the  puri>ose  of  produrim. 
powerful  electrical  results,  the  aid  of  iiicchaniHm  Imii 
l>eeii  found  essential.  There  are  various  kinda  of  clec 
trical  machines,  but  all  constructed  or-  siTr'lar  principles. 
We  here  oftcr  a  representation  of  that  *  'hich  is  most  com. 
monly  used,  in  our  description  of  which,  the  essontiul 
parts  constituting  such  instruments  will  appear. 


Kig.a. 

A  B,  fig.  2,  ia  a  hollow  cylinder  of  polished  glan 
which  revolves  upon  a  horizontal  axis,  and  is  from  eight 
to  sixteen  inches  in  dinmeter,  and  from  one  to  two  lin 
lon,'^.  For  the  p*irposc  of  insulation,  it  i.t  suiiported  oa 
two  upright  pillars  of  glass,  which  are  fixed  in  a  wooden 
stand.  Two  hollow  metallic  condiirtorK,  equal  in  length 
to  the  cylinder,  and  alH)ut  one-fourth  of  its  iliuuicler,  arr 
placed  parallel  to  it,  one  on  each  side,  upon  two  insulat- 
ing pillars  of  glass,  which  are  ceniented  into  two  8r|ia. 
ratu  pieces  of  wood,  that  sliilc  across  the  buse,  h.  is  \c 
allow  of  being  brought  within  different  distances  ol  the 
cylinder.  To  one  or  these  cotiductors  the  cuxhion  is 
attached,  which  is  of  the  same  length  with  the  coiv 
ductor  C.  The  cushion  is  usually  made  of  sbft  ahoniDiy 
leather,  stuflcd  with  hair  or  wool,  so  as  to  bo  as  hard  oi 
the  bottom  of  a  chair,  but  yet  sufficiently  yicMing  to 
a<tnMnmodatc  itiielf|  without  much  pressure,  to  the  itur- 
face  of  the  glass  to  which  it  is  applied.  The  pri'ne 
conductor  is  a  cylindrical  tube,  each  end  terminatinf;  in 
a  hemiaphcro.  As  the  electricity  is  only  contained  at  ilw 
surfaces,  it  is  made  hollow,  generally  of  thin  sheet  brass, 
copper,  tin,  or  past«'board  covered  with  gold  leaf  or  tin- 
foil. It  must  1)0  Cterefully  freed  from  all  (loints  and  a«|io- 
ritiea ;  and  if  perforations  arc  made  in  it  for  the  purpose 
of  attaching  wirca  and  other  kinds  of  fixtures  for  the 
purpoaca  of  experiment,  they  should  Ut  made  about  llir 
tiin  of  n  quill,  and  should  have  their  edges  well  rounded 
and  smoothed  off.  The  pressure  of  the  cushion  againix 
the  cylinder  ia  regulated  by  an  adjusting  screw,  itdajili'O 
to  tlie  wu<xleti  base  at  E,  on  which  tlw  glasi  nil|ar  ihl 


wpports  tno  eon 
/  the  cushion  th( 
which  ia  sewed  on 
(roni  its  U|ipcr  edg 
of  the  glass  cyhm 
tallic  points,  proco 
horizontal  rml,  wh 
upjiosilu  ciinductoi 
Is  given  by  a  sing 
must  alvays  be  | 
That  part  of  the 
tbo  glass  cylindei 
eoniposed  of  a  litt 
paste  by  nnana  of 
placed  unitli.'inly  ( 
line  formed  by  the 
faco  of  the  cushion 
this  line,  nor  on  tl 
«i[ie  the  silk  flap 
of  the  machine  sht 
amalgam  on  ita  aui 

'i'his  machine  ai 
the  cylinder  is  dri' 
of  the  cushion  ui)o 
fluid  from  the  latte 
becomes  negatively 
R;  uie  rovuluuon  i 
the  glass  is  curried 
rented  by  the  silk 
it  arrives  near  to  tl 
of  the  electricity,  a 
This  being  lositive 
with  tile  cushion 
^•gatively  i-lectriHi 
llireada   at   V,  l)cii 
each  other.     Aftei 
the  cushion  and  i 
their  elei:tricity ;  sc 
lirom  the  earth,  the 
easily  done,  by 
:hi!  cushion  and 
chain  or  wire, 
positive  electricity 
live  electricity  is  i 
which  the  cushion 
conductor  with  the 
oollccted  from  the 
tlie  machine  he 
legs,  and  connrcte 
metallic  rod,  or  if  I 
la  be  in  the  same 
a>n  standing  upoi 
him  by  presenting 

By  using  the  eh 
Wfl  are  enabled  to 
tncity,  and  thus 
Kale.    A  pith  ha 
itrongly  and  imme 
ductor ,  and,  the 
witli  it,  it  is  Tepc 
other  bodies  in  it 
nii.iites  ita  own  ele 
Se  iiifluenci'd  by  t 
td;  and  this  alteri 
%3  the  conductor  i 
attraotiDiis  and  re[ 
electricity  by  niov 
Ibe  motions  of  a 


•  III  o^.-iain  rond 
Mf  cvrt.veil  III  abi 
«v|  luliTi  in  llie  pap 
niairriui  on  pans  of 
01  the  pheiioiiieim. 
•d  10  colled  lliene 
Iwdiij'  perl'urmeJ  \ 


MJ^*^^^.    ELECTRICITY.  ^.Sf''M.t*ifJ 


MI 


wpporti  tno  conductor  li  flx«il.  From  the  upper  edge 
/  Uie  ruiihiaa  there  pror«cdH  a  llnp  of  thin  oiled  eilk  D, 
which  ii  Mwed  on  the  cushion  about  a  quortcr  of  an  inch 
from  its  upiwr  edge.  It  extend*  over  tho  upper  iurface 
of  tlie  gliiM  cylindor  to  within  un  inch  of  a  row  of  me- 
ullic  points,  prucoodini{,  lilce  the  teeth  of  a  ral(i>,  from  a 
horizontal  rcxi,  which  is  Axed  to  the  adjacent  side  of  the 
opiioditu  roiuluctur.  The  motion  of  the  cylinder,  which 
ia  ifircii  by  a  ningle  handle,  or  by  a  multiplying  wheel, 
muit  alv'iiyH  Im;  given  in  the  direction  of  the  silk  flap, 
rhitt  purl  1)1'  the  cushion  which  cornea  in  contact  with 
Ibo  giniui  cylinder  should  be  coaled  with  an  amalgam 
eomposed  of  a  little  tin-foil  and  mercury,  mixed  like  a 
nuU)  by  iii^ans  of  hogs'  lard.  The  amalgam  should  be 
placc-d  unit'o.'tnly  over  the  cushion,  until  level  with  the 
line  formed  by  the  seam  which  joins  the  silk  flap  to  the 
laco  of  tho  cushion.  No  amalgam  should  be  placed  over 
this  line,  nor  on  the  silk  flap ;  and  it  ia  even  requisite  to 
wi|H)  the  silk  flap  clean  whenever  the  continued  motion 
of  the  machine  shall  have  soiled  it,  by  depositing  dust  or 
tmalgam  on  its  surface. 

This  machine  acta  in  the  following  manner : — When 
the  cylinder  is  driven  round  by  tho  handle,  the  friction 
oir  the  cushion  upon  it  produces  a  transfer  of  tho  electric 
fluid  from  tho  latter  to  the  former ;  that  is,  the  cushion 
bccomcK  ncKatively,  and  tho  gla-ss  positively,  electrified, 
n-  uie  rovultiuon  of  tho  cylinder,  the  fluid  adhering  to 
the  gli>><s  is  carried  round,  and  its  escape  is  at  first  pre- 
rriited  by  the  silk  flap  which  covers  the  cylinder,  until 
it  arrives  near  to  the  metallic  points,  which  absorb  most 
of  the  electricity,  and  convey  it  to  the  prime  conductor. 
This  being  losilivcly  elcctritied,  the  conductor  connected 
with  tile  cashion  being  deiJ.'vcd  of  this  electricity,  is 
.i.'gatively  <'lectrifiod ;  so  that  light  balls,  suspended  by 
tlireada  at  b',  being  or;iositely  electrified,  will  attract 
each  other.  Aflei  the  action  has  gone  on  for  some  time, 
'.he  cuxhion  and  ita  conductor  become  exhausted  of 
thoir  electricity ;  so  that  a  new  supply  must  bo  brought 
from  the  earth,  the  great  reservoir  of  tho  fluid.  This  is 
Easily  done,  by  establishing  a  coimnunication  between 
Jic  cushion  and  tlie  ground  by  means  of  a  metallic 
chain  or  wire.  In  this  manner,  a  constant  stream  of 
positive  electricity  flows  to  the  prime  conductor.  Nega- 
tive electricity  is  obtained  by  insulating  the  conductor  to 
ffhidi  the  cushion  is  attached,  and  connecting  the  prime 
conductor  with  the  ground,  so  as  to  carry  off  the  fluid 
collected  from  the  cylinder.  If  the  person  who  works 
tlie  machine  bo  supported  U|)on  a  stoul  having  gloss 
legs,  and  connected  with  the  conductor  by  means  of  a 
metallic  rod,  or  if  he  touch  it  with  his  hand,  he  is  found 
to  be  in  tho  same  state  of  electricity  ;  and  another  per- 
■on  standing  upon  the  ground  can  draw  sparks  from 
him  by  pr(!senting  his  knuckles  to  hia  body.* 

By  using  the  electrical  machine  in  the  above  manner, 
w«  are  enabled  to  collect  a  considerable  quantity  of  clec- 
tncity,  and  thus  perform  experiments  upon  an  ample 
scale.  A  pith  ball,  or  a  fragment  of  gold  leaf,  is  very 
itrongly  niid  immediately  attractcV.  by  the  electrified  con- 
ductor ,  and,  the  instant  pice  it  iiaa  come  into  contact 
srilli  it,  it  is  re|)elled ;  but  i{  is  now  attracted  by  the 
other  Inxlies  in  its  ncighl)ourhood,  to  which  it  commu- 
nicates its  own  electricity,  and  then  is  again  in  a  state  to 
he  influenci'd  by  tho  conductor,  and  to  !»•  again  attract- 
td;  and  this  alternation  of  eirccts  will  continue  as  long 
%>  the  conductor  remains  charged.  This  alternation  of 
attrartioiis  and  repulsions  aco<)m|)anying  the  transferring 
electricity  by  movable  conductors,  is  also  illustrated  by 
the  motions  of  a  ball  susiM-nded  by  a  silk  thread,  and 

*li>  c^.'iiim  roniliiinns  of  ihr  aimotphrre,  electrical  sparks 
titi  cvrt.'ied  111  abiiiiiluiid'.  froiii  |>apur  a*  il  issues  I'roiii  ilii> 
•vLiiiliri  111  the  pspcrinskiiii;  mncliiiiu,  the  friciiiin  ot'  the  dry 
aiairriui  on  pitria  ol'  the  apparatus  bcinc  Iha  nppHrciit  came 
01' the  phciiiiiiieiitt.  If  a  battery  of  I<«yaenjurs  »erc  uinploy- 
•d  to  ollecl  thene  uparkt,  •leouiou  >.zperinieut»  uiiglil  be 
niit.Iy  perfurine J  wiih  ibcn. 


placed  between  two  bella,  of  which  tne  one  la  e IcctriA*^ 
and  the  other  communicLtoa  with  the  groui  d.  Tha 
alternate  motion  of  the  ball  between  the  two  nclla  will 
keep  up  a  continual  ringing.  This  amusing  experiment 
has  tieen  applied  to  givn  notice  of  changes  taking  ploo* 
in  thq  electrical  state  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  mutual  repulsion  of  liodieH  that  are  similarly 
elec  rifled  gives  riao  to  many  intt^reKling  expcriinenta. 
A  small  figure  in  the  shape  of  a  liiiniiiii  head,  covered 
with  hair,  when  placed  upon  the  conductor,  and  electri- 
fied, will  exhibit  the  appearar-'-o  of  terror,  from  tha 
bristlin;^  up  and  divergence  of  tho  hair. 

The  intensity  of  tho  electricity  which  bo<lies  may  con> 
tain,  is  measured  by  a  delicate  instrument,  called  an 
Ekrtromettr,  of  which  there  are  several  invented  by 
various  distinguished  individuals.  Our  limits,  however, 
will  not  admit  of  our  giving  a  minute  account  of  thenk 
They  all  depend  upon  the  repulsive  jiropcrty  of  electrified 
bodies,  and  the  distance  to  which  the  one  is  repelled  by 
the  other  is  indicated  by  an  index  of  one  kind  or  •!>• 
other. 

We  have  all  l  idy  observed,  that  upon  the  extent  of  the 
Burfaci!  of  a  body,  ita  capacity  for  receiving  electricity 
principally  depends.  Electricity  is  therefore  supposed 
not  t(>  spread  throughout  the  whole  masH  of  a  body,  at 
Idst  equally,  but  to  remain  principally,  if  not  altogether, 
at  the  surface.  I'his  has  been  proved  by  cxporimonta 
for  trying  the  distance  to  which  the  electric)  iy  extended 
beyond  the  coating  of  tho  Leydon  jar. 

Hcvcral  remarkable  phenomena  occur  when  electricity 
is  drawn  ofi'  by  means  of  a  conductor  from  those  bodies 
in  which  the  electrical  equilibrium  has  been  destroyed. 
A  sharp  snapping  sound  ia  heard,  accompanied  by  ■ 
vivid  spark,  whilst  intense  heat  is  evolved  in  tho  path 
which  the  electric  fluid  takes.  A  perfect  conductor 
"  fering  no  impediment  to  ita  courm;,  it  is  unattended 
with  light  during  ita  passage  through  such  a  body,  light 
only  appearing  when  there  arc  obstacles  in  ita  path, 
such  aa  imperfect  conductors.  Of  the  velocity  with 
which  it  is  transmitted,  we  have  already  spoken.  It  ia 
so  great,  that  in  ex|>eriinent8  ,>erforuied  with  a  chain 
of  considerable  length,  each  link  becomes  apparently  in- 
stanti^neously  luminous.  There  are  various  uiethoda  of 
showing  the  intensity  and  colour  of  electrical  light- 
Conductors  having  a  rounded  form  give  the  longest  and 
most  vivid  sparks,  which  are  sometimes  seen  to  take  a 
zig-zag  course,  similar  to  tliat  of  a  flash  of  lightning. 
This  deviation  in  its  course  is  supposed  to  l>e  occasioned 
by  this  fluid  darting  to  minute  conducting  partirles,  such 
as  those  of  moisture  floating  in  the  air.  Electrical  light 
is  similar  to  light  obtained  from  other  sources,  and  its 
brilliancy  depends  upon  its  intensity.  Sir  David  Brew- 
ster found  that  it  was  capable  of  polarization.  It  dispiaya 
every  shade  of  colour,  that  quality  being  dependent 
upon  tho  nature  of  tlie  substance  tlirough  which  the  fluid 
posses. 

An  interesting  question  arises — Whence  comes  the 
light — is  it  tho  electric  fluid  which  thus  renders  itself 
visible  ?  This  was  really  supposed  to  be  the  case  by  the 
early  electricians,  but  later  philosophers  have  substituted 
other  theories  to  account  for  the  phenomena.  That  of 
M.  Uiot,  a  celebrated  French  philosopher,  is,  that  electric 
light  has  the  same  origin  oA  the  liglit  disengaged  from 
air  by  mcehunicnl  preoaure ;  ■>  and  that  it  is  purely  the 
cfTect  of  the  comprctwion  produced  on  the  air  by  the  ex- 
plo"'3n  of  electricity."  This  hypothesis  has  been  oh 
jeeied  to,  however,  on  the  ground  that  electrical  light  in 
liriKluced  in  the  liest  vacuum  that  can  be  formed;  and 
although  he  has  replied  to  the  objection,  that  no  perfect 
vaeuuiii  can  exist,  yet  his  irguments,  though  they  cany 
weight,  do  not  bring  conviction  to  the  ir.inj. 

We  have  already  observed,  that  various  aoimds  ae- 

company  the  variims  modes  of  transference  of  the  eiac- 

l  trie  fluid ;  a  peculiar  odour  haa  also  sometimca  been  fell 


INFORMATION    FOR  THB   PEOPLE. 


•  machino  which  hat  been  iharply  wrought  (  but 
whence  it<  oridiii,  i«  unknown.  All  aharp-pointed  Ixxliea, 
w«  have  aaiJ,  i'<mr«ntrate  nioirt  of  the  rlttctiic  fluid  at 
their  apex,  from  whnnce  it  haa  a  powrrful  diapoaitiun  to 
••eape ;  and  every  diichargv  ii  acconipwiii-d  by  currenla 
of  air.  V\mn  ttiia  prinoiiiln  many  iiifienioua  experi- 
meiita  are  founded.  An  uppuratua,  coniiating  of  wirea 
tarmim^g  in  poinU,  and  having  bolla  annexed  to  thorn 
to  reprcarnt  the  plaiwt*.  may  bo  cuniitructed  ao  aa  to 
NTolva  when  i-lc-rtritird,  and  thur  to  imitate  the  plane- 
tary rootiona.  VVm  cannot  enter  further  into  thia  aub- 
ject,  but  may  »tato  in  general  temva,  that  the  appear- 
anoaa  of  the  cit-rtric  ■{■ark  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the 
aurfcee  from  whciiro  it  iaauna,  and  toward*  vrhich  it  ia 
directed.  When  it  racapea  from  a  pointed  liudy,  the  lu- 
ininou«ap()eanincoiathat  of  diverging  atrrama,  rearnibling 
the  filamentii  of  a  bruah,  and  funning  what  ia  lenno<l  a 
ptncd  of  light ,  but  when  the  fluid  gtM-a  lo  a  point,  the 
light  conc«ntralea  at  the  point  itaelf^  and  aaauniea  the 
■pDMraiice  of  a  atar. 

The  moat  convenient  moile  of  obtaining  an  accurou* 
lation  of  electricity  ariaing  lirom  induction,  ia  by  the  em- 
ployment of  cuatod  glasa ;  that  ia,  uf  a  plate  of  gluaa  on 
earh  aide  uf  whi<:h  ia  piuted  a  ahert  or  coating  of  tin-foil. 
Care  muat  be  taken  t«i  leave  a  aulTicient  margin  of  glaaa 
ancoverod  with  the  metal,  for  preventing  the  tranafer  uf 
electricity  frum  one  cuatin^  to  the  other,  round  the  cdgo 
of  tlta  glaaa ;  and  all  aharp  anglea  or  ragged  rdgea  in  the 
coatings  ahould  In<  avoided,  aa  they  have  a  great  tendency 
to  diaaipato  the  charge. 

The  form  uf  coated  glaaa  beat  adapted  to  experimrrita 
k  that  of  a  cylindric  jar;  thia  ia  coated,  vkithin  iiikI 
without,  nearly  to  the  top.  The  cover  conaista  of  baked 
wood,  and  la  inaerted  with  acalmg-wax,  lo  exclude  muia- 
lure  and  duat.  A  metallic  rod,  riaing  two  or  three  inchea 
•bore  the  jai,  and  terminating  at  the  top  in  a  bnus  knob, 
ia  otade  to  dcacend  through  the  cover  till  it  touchea  the 
interior  coating.  The  name  of  the  Ltyden  phial,  ot  jur, 
ia  applied  to  thia  inatrument  It  ia  uaed  in  the  following 
manner : — The  outer  coating  being  made  to  communi- 
cate with  the  ground,  by  holding  it  in  the  hand,  the  knob 
of  the  jar  ia  presented  to  the  prime  conductor  when  the 
madiine  ia  in  motion :  a  *ucc:'<r>ion  of  sparka  will  [Nua 
between  tliem,  while,  at  the  same  time,  nearly  an  equal 
foantity  of  electricity  will  be  passing  out  from  the  ex- 
larior  coating,  through  the  body  of  the  peraoii  who  halda 
it,  to  the  ground.  The  jar,  un  being  removed,  ia  aaid  to 
be  charged ;  and  if  a  communication  ia  made  between 
the  two  coatings,  by  a  metallic  wir«  extending  from  the 
•xtemal  one  to  the  knob,  the  electric  fluid  which  was 
aocumulatml  in  the  poaitive  coating,  ruahes.  with  a  aud- 
dan  and  violent  impetus,  along  tlie  conductor,  and  paaaea 
into  tha  negative  coating;  thua  at  once  reatoring  an 


Fi»-  3. 

airooat  complete  equilibrium.  Thia  sudden  transfer  of  a 
hxft  quantity  of  accuinulat4-d  electricity  ia  a  real  explo- 
«on ;  ani  it  gives  riae  lo  a  vivid  flash  of  light,  curre- 
in  intensity  14  the  magnitude  uf  tji«  cbargo. 


Tba  eflsot  of  Ita  Iransmiaaion  is  much  greater  than  that 
of  the  simple  charge  of  ho  prime  cunductur  of  ihu  nvt 
chine ;  and  it  imfiarts  a  aensation,  when  pasaing  tlirouB; 
any  part  of  the  body,  uf  a  peculiar  kind,  which  ia  rallnl 
the  tltclnc  thmk.  'llie  arrangement  of  the  parts  in  a 
Leyden  jar  is  shown  in  the  foregoing  figure,  in  which 
the  simple  bent  iliuharnxnfi,  rod,  for  eatabliahiitK  ■  direr) 
(Communication  Iwtwecn  the  inner  and  outer  rontiiig  ol 
ajar  or  battery,  and  reatoring  the  electrical  eqinlibriuni, 
without  tha  oiwralor  receiving  the  charge  of  the  jar,  it 
exhibited.  B  reprratinta  the  inaulating  handle,  and 
A  the  bent  rod  of  braas  reaching  fiinn  the  bull  (o  Uie 
external  coating.  When  opened  t4i  a  pro|M'r  degrt<f 
one  of  the  balla  is  made  to  touch  the  exlcri.ir  coaling, 
and  the  other  ball  ia  then  quickly  brought  into  contact 
with  the  knob  uf  the  jar,  and  thua  a  discharge  is  cflerted. 
By  uniting  together  a  aufficient  iiuiiiImt  of  jara,  wg 
are  aide  to  accumulate  an  enormous  quaiiiity  of  elertri- 
city.    For  this  purpose,  all  the  interior  coalings  if  tha 


Jara  muat  be  made  to  communicate  by  metallic  rod),  tnl 
a  aimilar  union  muat  be  cstabliHhed  among  the  eitrriot 
coatings.  When  thus  arranged,  the  whole  aoriea  may 
be  charged,  as  if  they  formed  but  one  jar ;  nnd  the  whole 
of  the  accunmlated  electricity  may  be  tranHli'rrrd  from 
one  aystem  of  coating*  to  the  other,  byu  genera]  and 
simultaneous  discharge.  8uch  a  combinution  of  jari  u 
called  an  eltilruul  baluiy.  An  arrangement  of  this dc. 
acription  ia  here  repreaentcd,  ia  which  twelve  jara  arc 
united  in  ono  liox,  and  the  whole  aerica  coinirctcd  to- 
gether by  wirea  and  balls. 

If  we  wish  to  aend  the  whole  charge  uf  electricity 
through  any  particular  aubatanco  which  may  Im'  the  nubk 
ject  of  ex]M)riment,  we  tnust  so  arrange  the  Cdrinectin; 
conductors  as  that  the  aubatanco  shall  form  a  necessary 
part  of  the  circuit  of  the  tleclriiily,  aa  it  is  tt-rmed.  With 
thia  view,  we  miut  place  it  between  two  good  coniluctor^ 
one  of  which  is  in  communication  with  the  outer  cuatini^; 
and  the  circuit  may  then  be  completed  by  connecting  the 
other  conductur  with  the  iimcr  coating  by  nieana  of  a 
discharging  rod,  lo  one  branch  of  which,  if  iteceasarj,  t 
flexible  chain  may  be  added. 

In  forming  arrangements  for  directing  the  paiwage  of 
accumulated  electricity,  it  should  be  borne  iti  mliid  thai 
th<  electric  fluid  will,  on  these  occasions,  always  p«« 
through  the  beat  conductora,  a'though  they  may  lie  more 
circuitous,  in  preference  to  thuae  which  arc  mure  direct, 
but  have  inferior  coiKhicting  power;  and  it  niufl  sluo 
1)0  recollected,  that,  when  different  paths  are  op«'n  for  in 
transmission  aluiig  conductora  of  e<]ual  |iowit,  the  cleo 
tricity  will  alwaya  take  that  which  is  the  ahurlext.  'i'lius 
if  a  person  holding  a  wire  l>elween  hia  hand:*  diKrharKi'' 
a  jar  by  means  uf  it,  the  whole  of  the  fluid  will  [uhi 
through  the  wire  witliuut  aiC-ctiiig  him ;  but  if  a  pircn 
of  dry  wood  bo  aubstitutcd  for  the  wire,  he  will  feel  i 
shock ;  for  tlie  wood  lieing  a  worse  conductor  tliiui  bii 
own  body,  the  charge  will  paaa  through  the  l:itte:,  a* 
being  easier,  although  liie  longer   citcuiu     Durioti  iu 


irun  through  th 
abock  la  tell  only  ii 
of  communication ; 
u'lrough  a  number 
ttie  hand,  and  form 
Hid  outer  coatinga 
•hock  in  the  same  i 
Mnsntion  reaching 
lhi<  breast  Dy  vai 
tlio  shock  may  be 
may  cither  be  confl 
made  to  traverse  thi 
10  foot. 

Dy  accurate  expt 
lU  electric  shock  is  < 
by  eiaploying  a  con 
liiicharge.  A  relai 
iliw  takes  place  if 
liie;  and  when  thii 
itonces  where  the  < 
charge  will  not  be  c 
pletely.  It  has  also 
tine  of  its  course,  bei 
whirh  may  attract  it 
perfect  conductors  ii 
tion  in  the  mechanic 
provided  they  be  of 
electric  fluid  tranan 
liderahle  efl(<cts  are 
«nt  through  a  wire  \ 
quantity  to  pa-is  will 
perfect  conductor,  th 
I  tree  ia  atruck  by  li| 

lUCTRICITT    APFl 

• 

The  effects  of  ele. 
aancrs  arc  both  of  I 
The  former  rescmblt 
1  material  agent  dri 
lubstance  of  the  bod 
ilnced  by  electricity 
chtnical    agency, 
nature.     Some  of 
been  noticed.     Dr 
tndiea.     This  ia  prr 
Ihrough  a  capillary 
oury ;  the  latter  will 
the  glaMa  to  shivers 
course  be  greater  as 
nhich  transmits  it 
of  the  nature  of  ele 
•rnienl  lo  S()eak  of 
nhich  either  ol)struc 
Mi^,  renders  its  an 
the  laws  of  its  equil 
•hie  fluid.     Solid  b 
into  vapour  by  |>as 
ihown  by  the  follow 
of  window-glass,  ea( 
wide,  and  having  p 
or  leaf  brass  betwee 
k-af  project  a  Jiftlp 
.il'  «  large  Leyden  j 
l"il  will  lio  found  t 
ir|i'  the  surface  of 
t'o  gei.rridly  broke 
line,  which  frequun 
mi'tallic  atiiin  upon 
oliviously  the  metall 
IKires  of  the  glass, 

The  metallic  cola 
far  impressing  om 
In  order  lo  do  this 


*!fi:^^        ELECTRICITY       1<^»'***t 


irtaM  tlirnotth  thn  human  timiy,  in  Itka  mannar,  the 
Aack  i«  t<^lt  only  in  th^  psrla  fitiiBi<*<l  in  lh«  direct  lin« 
of  communiciitinn ;  and  if  Ihn  Charon  be  made  to  paia 
ulrougH  a  number  of  |ienioni,  who  take  one  another  by 
i)ia  hand,  and  form  part  of  the  circuit  l)etwoen  the  inner 
tiid  outer  roatinK*  of  the  Jar,  each  will  feel  the  electric 
ihock  in  the  name  manner  and  at  the  lame  initant ;  the 
lenMtion  rcarhing  from  hand  to  hand,  directly  acroM 
Ihii  brpaiit.  By  varying  the  point*  of  contact,  however, 
llio  ihock  may  be  made  to  paM  in  other  itirectiona,  and 
nuT  cither  be  conflncd  to  a  imall  part  of  a  limb,  or  be 
gitde  to  travorae  the  whole  length  of  the  body  from  head 
10  foot 

By  accurate  experimcnti,  it  ippeari  that  the  force  of 
lU  electric  shock  in  weakened,  or  iti  pflpctR  are  diminiahed, 
br  eiaployin^  a  conductor  of  great  length  for  making  the 
iJiichirge.  A  retardation  in  the  pasaage  of  electricity 
ilM  takra  place  if  the  conductor  ia  not  uf  a  aufficient 
liie;  and  when  thia  ia  the  caae,  as  well  aa  in  thoae  in- 
itancea  where  the  conductor  is  not  a  good  one,  the  dia- 
charge  will  not  be  eflec.ted  an  inatantancouKly  or  ao  com- 
pletely. It  haa  alao  a  tendency  to  diverge  (rum  the  direct 
line  of  ita  course,  being  drawn  towards  conducting  (jodiea 
whirh  may  attract  it  The  motinn  of  electricity  through 
perfect  conductora  is  attendfi)  with  no  perceptible  altera- 
tion in  the  mechanical  properties  of  the  conducting  bodies, 
provided  they  be  of  aufficient  size  for  the  charge  of  the 
electric  flui(l  transmitted.  On  the  contrary,  very  con- 
ilcleruble  rflbcts  are  produced  when  a  powerful  charge  ia 
lent  through  n  wire  whji'h  ia  too  amall  to  allow  the  whole 
quantity  to  paia  with  perfect  freedom,  or  through  an  im- 
perfect conductor,  though  u(  largo  size,  as  ia  prove<1  when 
I  tree  is  struck  by  lightning. 

ILCCTRIOITT   APPLIED  TO   INOROANI'     BODIIB   AND 
*  ANIMALS. 

The  etfccta  of  electricity  passing  through  various  auh 
ttncen  are  both  of  a  mechanical  and  chemical  nature. 
The  former  reHcmbJe  thoae  which  would  be  produced  by 
I  material  agent  driven  with  great  velocity  through  the 
wbstniice  of  the  body.  But  there  are  many  changes  in- 
duced by  electricity,  such  as  cannot  Iw  attributed  to  me- 
chanical agency,  and  are  undoubtedly  of  ■  chemical 
nature.  Some  of  the  mechanical  eflt'cts  have  already 
been  noticed.  Dr.  Priestley  discovered  that  it  expanded 
bodieH.  Thia  is  proved  by  paming  a  stream  of  the  fluid 
ihrough  a  capillary  or  thermometer  tube  tilled  with  mer- 
cury ;  the  latter  will  bo  so  much  expanded  aa  to  break 
the  nla»s  to  shivers.  The  tendency  to  expand  will  of 
course  be  greater  aa  the  ronductiiii;  power  of  the  body 
vrhich  transmits  it  to  lean.  Althoui^h  we  know  nothing 
of  the  nature  of  electricity,  yet  it  lias  been  found  con- 
trnient  to  apeak  of  it  as  a  fluid.  Its  action  ii{>on  bodies 
which  either  ot>8truct  ita  motion  or  afford  it  ii  ready  pas- 
ta^, renders  its  analogy  with  a  fluid  very  striking,  and 
the  laws  of  its  equilibrium  are  just  those  of  an  imponder- 
ulile  fluid.  Solid  bodies  are  capable  of  being  diflTused 
uilo  vapour  by  passing  electricity  through  them,  as  ia 
ahown  by  the  following  experiment : — Take  throe  strips 
cf  window-glass,  each  about  throe  inches  long  and  one 
wide,  aiid  having  placed  two  narrow  strips  of  gold  leaf 
or  leaf  brass  between  them,  so  that  the  ends  of  the  gold 
M'  project  a  little  beyond  th.'  glass,  transmit  the  charge 
.if  a  luri^  Leyden  j<ir  through  tiie  gold  leaf.  The  gold 
lrv»(  will  lie  found  to  he  melted  by  the  shock,  and  driven 
in''  the  Hurfaco  of  the  glaaa.  The  outer  platea  of  glass 
t'r>  gci.cnilly  broken  in  this  experiment,  and  the  middle 
one,  whicti  frequently  remains  entire,  haa  an  indclibli; 
mi'lallic  stiiin  upon  each  of  its  surfaces,  Thia  stain  is 
olivioualy  the  metallic  vapour  of  the  gold  Jrivon  into  the 
(liireK  of  the  gUss. 

The  metallic  colours  thus  obtained  have  be<rn  employed 
for  impreaslng  ornamental  figures  upon  pa|>«-r  or  silk. 
In  order  to  do  tJhis,  trace  the  outline  of  the  figures  on 


thick  drawing-paper,  and  having  cat  It  nut  aa  in  atbid 
platea,  place  it  on  the  silk  or  paper  intende<t  In  li«  oni»> 
mented.  When  a  gold  leaf  ia  laid  iip«n  it,  and  a  eaal 
altove  the  gold  leaf,  the  whole  is  placeil  in  a  press  or  }»• 
neath  a  weight,  and  an  electrical  cha^^  sent  throngh  It  | 
the  metallic  stain  is  limited  to  the  portion  of  the  drawin|- 
paper  that  ia  cut  away,  and,  conKe<|uently,  any  outliiM 
(tgure  may  be  readily  impressed  upon  the  grotind  eiiH 
ployed  to  receive  it. 

omMICAl,  ORANOICB  OP  ILKCTtlOITr. 
The  effects  of  electricity  aa  a  chemical  agent  art 
strikingly  displayed  in  its  power  of  evolving  heat,  and, 
consequently,  of  inflaming  and  fusing  bodiea,  and  its 
power  of  promoting  chemical  composition  and  decompo- 
aition.  (yombuatihie  bodira,  such  aa  a  common  earvilr, 
can  be  lighted  in  various  ways,  by  p.-saing  the  electric 
fluid  through  them.  The  heat  evolved  by  electricity, 
like  most  other  of  ita  effects,  ia  in  proportion  to  th« 
resistances  opposed  to  its  passage.  Nor  is  its  heating 
power  in  the  smallest  degree  diminished  by  its  being  con* 
ducted  through  any  numl>er  of  (reeling  mixtures  which 
are  rapidly  alworbing  heat  from  surrounding  bodies. 
Sparks  tnkon  from  a  piece  of  lr<'  are  aa  capable  of  inflanv 
ing  bo«lips  as  those  from  a  piece  of  a  red-hot  Iroit. 
Among  the  more  atriking  chemical  effects  of  electricity, 
or  electro-chemistry,  are  the  decomposition  of  water,  the 
oxidation  of  metals,  and  the  restoration  of  the  oxidea  to 
their  metallic  state. 

Many  experiments  hove  been  made  for  the  purpose 
of  ascertaining  the  changes  elliwteil  in  phnfjihnrtirtm 
bodies  by  electricity,  and  the  results  are  not  without  im- 
portance. It  has  been  discovered,  for  instance,  that  sub 
stances  not  naturally  phosphnresrent,  such  an  ataluary 
marble  in  ita  natural  or  calcined  state,  were  not  only 
rendered  phosphorescent  by  heat  after  being  strongly 
electrified,  but  acquired  this  property  with  a  beauty,  • 
variety,  and  an  intensity  of  colour,  superior  to  thoae  which 
oocnr  in  specimens  that  posseaa  natural  phuephoreNcence. 
It  haa  alao  very  recently  been  discovered,  that  electricity 
exercises  a  curious  influence  upon  odoriferous  bodiea. 
When  a  current  of  the  fluid  is  made  to  traverse  camphor, 
the  odour  gradually  disappears.  After  being  withdrawn 
from  electrical  influence,  it  remains  odourless  for  some 
time,  and  then  slowly  resumes  ita  former  properties. 

There  are  certain  mineral  fyjdies,  which,  from  being  ia 
a  neutral  state  at  ordinary  temperatures,  acquire  electricity 
simply  by  being  heated  or  cooled.  This  property  is  poa- 
Hessed  only  by  regularly  crystallized  minerals;  and  of 
ilicne  the  most  remarkable  is  the  tunrmalin.  It  is  a  stone 
of  considerable  hardness,  and  the  form  of  ifs  crystal*  ia 
generally  that  of  a  nine-sided  prism,  terminated  by  a 
thrce-!«ided  pyramid  at  one  end,  and  by  a  six-sided  pyrwnid 
at  the  other.  When  heated  to  lietwecn  100  degreea  and 
212  degrees,  the  latter  extremity  becomes  charged  with 
positive  electricity,  whilst  the  former  remains  negative. 
On  cooling,  the  electric  states  are  generally  reversed,  that 
c'ld  becoming  positive  which  was  formerly  negative. 
Other  gems  possess  similar  properties,  such  as  the  topaz, 
some  species  of  diamonds,  &c.  Thetv  are  a  great  many 
sulntnnces  which  become  electrified  by  passing  from  tna 
liquid  to  the  solid  form,  such  as  sulphur,  gura-Iac,  and  in 
general  all  resinous  bodies.  The  convcrsi,  ;n  of  a  body 
into  the  aeriform  slate,  is  also  generally  attended  by  some 
change  in  its  electrical  condition. 

There  ara  some  bodies  which  are  rendered  efectrical 
by  preR.surc.  The  subalnnce  which  iwascsses  this  pro- 
perly in  the  moat  remarkable  degree,  is  that  variety  of 
the  carbonate  of  lime  known  by  the  name  f  Iceland 
spar.  Cork,  bark,  hairs,  paper,  and  wood  also  posaeaa 
the  projierty  of  producing  electricity  by  compreasion.  A 
number  of  substances,  when  reduced  to  powder,  exhibit 
electricity,  if  they  are  made  to  fall  U|X)n  an  insalated  me* 
tallic  pi'ite.  The  relation  subsisting  between  eleotiiriti 
Y 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE  PKOIM.K. 


■mi  the  i'h«nilc«!  pTopcnM*  of  multor,  U  thn  iikkI  Im- 
portant l>r«mh  of  lltM  iiKjuiry.  It  »  oUrrvml  by  Mir 
Humphry  Diivy,  llul  iiirwa  of  lh«  •ulMiUiir««  th»t  act 
Jiitinctly  u|Miii  r«ili  ntliar  rlrctric«lly,  Me  aba  luch  M 
•rl  cbitmically  whoii  tlirir  (Mirtirlr*  liav*  frrmlom  of  mo- 
tion t  itila  i*  Ihr  •  luo  with  the  dilfrrrrit  mrtalu,  with  ■ul- 
phur  and  thr  melal*.  with  arid  and  alkaUne  aulwlniirr*. 
Of  two  metaU  in  roiilact.  thtf  una  which  hiu  Ilia  HrraU-iit 
chrmiral  attrarlioii  for  otynrri  ar<|iiiri<ii  |><witivc  clwlririty, 
and  tho  olhrr  lh<'  m-KHlive.  Thrrc  i*  httle  <li>'ilit,  in- 
H<  t>d,  tlut  plertricity  ii  no!  only  rliritrd  hy,  hut  ih  inti- 
niairly  comirrtvd  with,  all  rhemiral  artiun ;  and  tlipm  ii 
•very  reaMin  to  lirlicvo  that  rliTtricity  ia  eaaenlially  run- 
Mrnad  in  tho  prmiriHwa  that  are  rarrird  on  in  the  living 
rjrilam  l><>th  of  aninutla  nnd  vPKi-lalih'a. 

Tha  iiifliu^nre  of  rltftririty  u\mn  the  human  frame, 
whetitar  it  i«  admiiiiHtrrfd  in  »mall  ({uantiliea  lo  aa  to 
•xrita  and  aiiriiriiin  u«,  or  in  Iho  luoro  |>ow«rful  and 
awful  tbrm  of  a  atroko  of  lightning,  must  he  well  known 
to  every  one.  Whrn  Ihu  human  frame  forma  part  of  the 
elpctric  cirruit,  or  whrn  tiif  charge  of  a  Lrydrn  phial  ia 
mddfl  to  enter  tho  Iwdy  at  one  hand  and  paaa  out  of  it  at 
the  other,  a  violent  conruaaion  or  aho<-k  ii  felt  aloni(  the 
tluu  o(  its  paaaaite  arroas  the  brrut  and  through  tlui  arms, 
This  shock,  and  tlu*  motion  which  arromiianies  it,  no 
doubt  result  from  the  liudy  being  composed  of  varioua 
substanres  of  dilittri'nt  degrees  of  roiiducting  power,  thus 
presenting  varioua  uhatacloa  to  the  free  pnasage  of  the 
lluid.  If  the  <-harKP  ia  iiirreaard,  the  (laticnt  falls  down 
imralyied,  sutrering  a  tcm|iorary  reasation  of  vital  aclion; 
and  if  it  be  inrrcaxrd  to  a  atill  greater  extent,  it  produres 
instantaneous  dratli.  This  ia  frequently  cxempliflcd  in 
the  cases  of  individuals  who  are  killed  j)y  the  iightning 
stroke.  It  is  u|k>ii  the  nervous  system  that  electricity 
produces  the  inoat  powerful  influence.  A  strong  charge 
paaaod  through  the  head,  gives  the  sensation  of  a  violent 
but  universal  blow,  and  is  followed  by  a  transient  loss  of 
mcmor)  and  indintinrtncss  of  vision.  If  a  charge  l>e 
passed  through  tlie  spine,  the  person  who  receives  it  loses 
his  power  over  the  muscles  to  such  a  degree,  tli.it  he 
either  dro|w  on  his  kneea,  or  falls  prostrate  on  the  ground. 
I>(inall  animola,  such  as  mice  and  sparrows,  are  instantly 
killed  by  a  ahook  from  thirty  inrhri  of  square  glass. 
If  a  shock  be  sent  through  the  wholn  l)ody  of  ar.  eei,  it 
is  irrecoverably  deprived  of  life;  but  if  only  through  a 
put  of  the  body,  the  destruction  of  irritability  ia  confined 
to  that  particular  part,  whiUt  the  rest  rctaina  the  pdwcrs 
of  motion.  DilTcrent  pcraona  are  aflbctcd  in  very  dillcr- 
ent  degrees  by  electricity,  according  to  their  |ieculiar 
constitutional  Huaceptibility. 

M.  Koussenu,  as  we  learn  from  a  paragraph  in  the 
vl!heiuzum,  No.  6.17,  has  suggeHtcd  a  means  of  "  ascer- 
taining the  purity  of  certain  sulwtances,  and  of  detecting 
any  adulterations  in  thetn,  by  measuring  their  conducting 
power  fur  electricity.  Home  years  ago,  he  described  a 
simple  apparatus  by  means  of  which  Uie  pur|fy  of  olive- 
oil  might  l>e  tested  on  similar  principles.  He  now  states 
that,  by  these  means,  any  adulterations  in  chocolate  or 
roAee  may  lie  readily  detected :  he  finds  that  pure  choco- 
late is  a  non-conductor  or  insulator  pf  electricity,  but 
that  in  pro|)ortiun  to  the  quantity  of  farina  or  fccular 
matter  with  which  it  is  adulterated,  the  more  eaj<ily  does 
It  conduct  electricity ;  and  in  tlic  same  way,  he  states 
that  coflee  is  an  insulatoi,  whilst  chicory,  with  which  it 
is  0^011  ntixed,  is  a  i  excellent  conductor,  and  hence  tho 
presence  of  only  a  small  quantity  of  that  aubstance  is 
e.isily  detected  in  coffee  by  its  increatcil  conducting 
(lawcr.  M.  Rousseau  also  considen  that  this  teat  may 
l>e  upplicd  with  advantage  to  tlic  exaininalion  of  phnr- 
mac4-uticHl  oslracts  and  preparationx,  bocauxe  tlu-y  very 
much  diller  in  conducting  power,  and  thrn!for>>  any  mix- 
ture or  aduUerntion  will  be  readily  discovered." 

Electricity  ia  exhibited  in  a  remarkat>le  degree  in 
vinous  living  •nimaisi  fur  example,  wc  find  in  certain 


I  fishes  a  regular  system  ,if  elartrieat  organs,  Ky  m\:tt% 
I  they  either  defend  tlu'iimelvc*  from  the  atlarka  cf  |na|| 
j  riiemlea,  or  aeite  the  prey  nature  has  provided  for  then 
uaa.  Among  the  most  remarkable  of  thrae  ia  ths  raw 
liirptilu,  which  is  ca|mble  iii  giving  a  great  many  ati^irk* 
to  a  number  of  individuuU  connected  togrtlicr,  in  ths 
fame  manner  as  in  tho  ex|M'riiiieiil  with  the  l.cydnn  Jar, 
Another  is  the  elertiic  eel,  which,  when  provoked,  ^ 
charges  its  electricity,  and  tho  shock  is  e<|)erii'iic«dif  tla 
hand  Im)  dip|H'd  in  the  water  containing  the  lUli. 

Although  many  ingenious  electrical  ex|N'rinicMts  have 
been  made  U|H>n  rtntlalilrt,  sunto  of  which  acerii  l<i  jniii 
rale  that  the  fluitf  exrrciwa  conaidrrable  influence  'nnf 
vegi^table  life,  yet  tho  subjert  ia  still  involved  in  too  grm 
obscurity  to  admit  of  our  treating  it  as  a  branch  of  rlro 
tricity.  Planta,  of  courae,  are  drstroyeil  like  iinitnali, 
when  a  powerful  charge  is  sent  through  them;  Uitfrehl* 
electricity  exerts  no  influence  on  eithsr  animal  or  vege- 
table life,  as  far  as  ran  l)e  |H>rceivod, 

TH«   lUtnTRtCITV   or   THE   ATMOAPHRRC. 

We  have  now  arriveil  at  that  part  of  our  Hubject 
which  is  perhafia  the  moat  generally  inlcrenting  of  jH, 
The  resemblance  lietwern  llio  electric  spark,  uiid  moi« 
ra^wcially  tho  exploaive  diacharge  of  the  I.cyilcn  jur,  snd 
atmospheric  lightning  and  thunder,  struck  tin'  mind  uf 
Dr.  Franklin  with  ao  much  force,  that  he  wmh  iblcrniiticd, 
if  pcMHUble,  to  verify  their  identity  by  expcriiiiciit. 

Having  constructed  a  kite,  by  stretching  n  Inrge  nilk 
haitdkcrchief  over  two  slicks  in  the  form  of  ii  cross,  on 
the  appearance  of  an  approaching  storm  he  mciii  into  i 
field  in  tho  vicinity  of  I'liila,l<>lphia,  and  raiiieil  it,  taking 
care  to  inmilato  it  hy  a  nilken  coid  attached  to  a  key 
with  which  the  hem|>en  firing  trrniiiiatcd.  No  imonrr 
hiid  a  denat  cloud,  appnnntly  charged  with  lii;htning, 
puaaed  over  the  H|iot  on  which  he  bIoimI,  tluin  bia  altt-n. 
lion  was  arrentod  by  tho  bristling  ii[i  of  koine  lixwe  fihrci 
on  the  hempen  string:  he  immediately  preaentrd  hu 
knuckle  lo  t!ie  key,  and  received  an  electric  npurk. 
Ovei  ■ime  with  the  emotions  vhirh  hi»  diacovery  ovinred, 
he  heaved  a  deep  sigh,  us  if  he  felt  conacioiiH  of  having 
achieved  immortal  fame.  The  ruin  now  fi'll  in  turrcntu, 
and,  wetting  thi'  string,  rendered  it  a  cimductiir  tlirau;|||. 
out  its  whole  length ;  so  that  I'lectric  spurka  were  now 
collecie<l  from  it  in  great  ubundunce.  The  ili-<covery  of 
Krankliii  aoon  engaged  the  altrntion  of  all  the  philoao 
phcrs  of  Kuroiie,  and  the  truth  of  the  theory,  that  li:<ht 
■ling  and  electricity  arc  tho  xume  fluid,  was  put  beyunj 
all  queation. 

The  atmosphere  is  very  Rcnorally  in  an  elcctrlrni  Ktnla 
This  is  BHcertaiiKHl  by  empl'iying  a  metallic  rod,  InHulutfd 
at  its  lower  end,  elevated  nt  some  height  atM>vu  the  ground, 
and  communicating  with  an  electroscope.  In  order  U) 
collect  the  electricity  of  the  higher  regions  of  the  air,  a 
kite  may  bo  raised,  in  the  siring  of  which  a  nlcndet 
metallic  wire  should  lie  interwoven.  The  atinoaphcre  it 
almost  invariably  found  to  be  positively  eleetritif  J ;  and 
ila  electricity  ia  stronger  in  tho  winter  than  in  tho  sum- 
mer, and  during  the  day  than  in  the  night.  From  th« 
time  of  sunrise,  it  increases  for  two  or  three  hiiur»,  and 
then  decreases  towsrds  the  middle  of  the  day,  bring 
generally  the  weakest  between  noon  and  four  o'clock. 
As  the  sun  dechnes,  its  intensity  is  again  aui(iiicn(cJ,  till 
about  the  time  of  sunset,  ailer  which  it  diioiiiisheii,  and 
ciHitinues  fieble  during  the  night. 

In  cloudy  weather,  the  electrical  state  of  the  atmo- 
sphere is  much  more  um-crlain ;  nnd  when  there  are 
several  strata  of  clouds,  moving  in  ditlerent  ilirectiuiu.  it 
is  subject  to  great  and  rapid  variations,  chaiiKlii^  back- 
wards and  forwards  in  the  courae  of  a  very  lew  ininutei. 
On  tho  flnit  ap|)earance  of  fog,  rain,  snow,  bail,  ur  alect, 
tiie  electricity  of  the  air  is  generally  negative,  and  olleo 
highly  ao ;  but  it  afterwards  andergoea  frequent  trnniitiooa 
to  opiiusite  states.     Un  the  approach  of  a  tlmiukr-atonu 


ineac  altamal  ma  o 
rrrd  one  another 
•pstka  are  sent  out 
iliK'tor,  siul  it  tieco 
nirnts  with  it  in  its 

The  protection 
fireets  of  llghtnini 
ii|i|ilicstion  of  the  ll 
(ur  this  piir|Hiar,  « 
pointed  at  the  upjie 
\fci  a  faw  feet  alio 
they  are  intended  t 
irjtiiuut  interruptioi 
In'Iow  the  rouiidatio 
ui  iron  na  the  niatei 
listile  to  deatructioi 
ilao  a  greater  condi 
•hould  Iw  from  half 
llic  point  ahoiilil  Im 
be  mure  elTectually 

An  iinportani  eoi 
iJitt  no  interruption 
up  to  bottom ;  and 
togrtlier  by  atripH  ol 
olber  conaiderabic  ii 
iiii(,  so  as  to  form  n 
r.ir  carrying  the  el 
pround.  The  lowi'i 
rii-d  down  into  llie  c 
till)  Iciut  a  moist  stri 

For  the  protectii 
of  iron  hhIs  linked  I 
rount  of  their  flexib 
li;;;h,i't  point  of  the 
liiwrr  (uirt  ahould  b 
iiilf  of  the  ship,  by 

Une  of  tho  main 
tniuiiilion  of  that  d 
mHtlfrmn  n4jnrtliti( 
ihart  phfimiiienn  ivhi 
itudy  of  electrical  «( 
ihmc  ic»|H'ct».    We 
mm  are  a  natural  el 
the  utinuspliere,  ami 
currcnco  of  clouds 
lliat  the   meteoric 
balJH,  atreainerH,  will 
ii'n|ily  electric  phcii 
al.irin  uhulxocvcr. 
(rtlfle  MBTtoi.oi.o 
l!iovariouK  other  a|' 
on  the  principles  of 


Tru  branch  of  i 
Iho  rioao  of  tho 
circumstance  wliicb 
vani,  an  Italian  p 
hiving  been  ncciilc 
blade  of  a  knife  w 
•ificrimenting  w'tl 
diatrly  throwr.  int 
n  It  prexent  when  tl 
niiimstaiic'c,  lie  lot 
mil  extemltng  IiIh 
He  found  that  oti 
knife  nnswered  lb 
'hit  •hiy  owed  tlii 
irarlions  to  their  In 

lialvani  proc.rei! 
Or  means  of  metal 
nasioii,  that  the  di 


^wl«^>^ 


VAI.VANI8M 


!%«*«  M^^*^ 


tM 


inrM  titarniil  mi  of  tli*  rlrrlrie  rontliUon  of  th«  sir  aue- 
irni  »nn  anulhrr  with  rrmarkiihia  rapidity.  HtrnnR 
■pii(k»  Kro  Kilt  out  ill  K"**'  nliuiuUnro  from  ihn  roii- 
.liirtor,  kiul  it  beronim  ilmigproui  to  proaacuta  aiperi- 
nii>nt*  with  it  in  it*  inaulati'il  »t«t«. 

Thii  prcilcrliun  of  liiiildiiiKa  from  thn  Juatruclivx 
fl1r«lii  of  liiflitiiinK,  ia  tlio  raoat  im|>ort«nt  prm'tiral 
npiiliratioii  of  thn  tlimiry  of  rln'tridty.  The  roivUictora, 
(:ir  thii  piir|ioar,  nhould  bo  formed  of  nirtullic  rodii, 
uMiited  at  the  up|)<>r  eilromity.  and  placed  ao  w  tn  pri>- 
Ml  a  f«v«  fret  hIiovii  Uhi  hiifhiat  part  of  the  huildiiiK 
they  tra  intended  to  Mi-iiro ;  thxy  ihoiild  lie  ('oiitiiiiicii 
wllhout  interruption  till  they  dciicaiid  into  the  kii  uml 
Ik'Iiiw  the  I'ouiidiilion  of  the  Iioiim,  Coppor  i«  preferiililii 
1.1  iron  M  the  nmliriiil  lor  their  roiiatruction,  lietiig  lemt 
jjiitile  to  ilentriietioii  liy  rimt  or  hy  fiiMion,  and  pomteaaintf 
■Im>  a  fp'eiiter  romliirtinR  power.  The  aico  of  thn  riKlii 
(hould  1)0  from  hull'  iiii  iiirli  to  nil  inch  in  diiwneter,  and 
llic  point  nhoiild  )m>  ((iU  or  iimdu  of  plutina,  thiit  it  miiy 
be  more  elTcctually  pre»  rved  Irom  corroaion. 

An  iniportiini  coiiditioi  in  the  protceting  conductor  ia, 
llitt  no  interruption  Mliould  exint  in  ita  continuity  from 
tjp  to  bottom ;  hihI  ndvuntMK;e  will  reault  from  coniioetiiig 
tii)(rther  liy  Ktripn  of  metal  all  thn  leudcn  water-pi[)ca,  or 
oibcr  connidcriililc  huim<'«  of  metal  in  or  about  the  builil- 
in^,  io  aa  to  form  one  eoiitinuoua  ayatein  of  condiictora, 
for  earryinn  the  electrieity  by  diflercnt  channela  <x>  the 
l^rnunil.  The  lower  end  of  the  conductor  ahould  be  car- 
rinl  down  into  llio  earth,  till  it  reaches  eillier  water,  or  at 
L'li)  ieiut  a  inoiat  atrutum. 

For  the  protectiiin  of  ahipa,  chaina,  mode  of  a  aeriea 
of  iron  hhU  linked  lofjethcr,  t.re  moat  convenient,  on  nc- 
rouiit  of  their  tiexibility.  They  ahould  extend  from  the 
hi;;h>i<t  point  of  the  rnaat  aorjM  way  into  the  aeu,  and  the 
luwrr  piirt  ahould  bo  removed  to  some  diHiancc  from  the 
«,!(■  of  the  ship,  by  a  womlen  apar  or  outrivt«er. 

Uiie  of  the  main  odvantngea  of  acienttfic  atiidy,  it  the 
jr^iui/ion  of  thul  iki;rit  of  kfuwledgt  which  Mitralti  tht 
mmlfrtim  tupifililin,),  anil  crpliiim  the  niiluriil  fdiijM  of 
thft  phtiiuiiieiKt  ifhiih  fill  the  inuorant  iin'A  alnrnu  The 
ituily  of  electrical  science  han  boon  of  peculiar  aorvlce  in 
ihnic  rc«peet».  We  lenrn  from  it,  that  thunder  and  light- 
liiiiK  are  n  natural  eleetriiiil  rcHult  of  certain  coiiditionH  in 
llic  utinonpliere,  uiid  are  no  more  wonderful  than  the  (X-- 
curriiico  of  clouds  or  rniii.  We  learn  from  it,  also, 
lli«l  the  lueteorie  apixnrancea  culled  falling-stara,  tire- 
ball*,  slreainerH,  will-o'-the-wisps,  aiii-nt  lightning,  &e.,  are 
ti'njily  elerlrii-  phcnoniviiii,  wl'.ich  need  give  no  cause  of 
ilinn  uhittsocver.  That  such  is  th^  case,  wo  refer  to  our 
irtirlc  Mktilouoi.oot,  in  which  the  aurora  Uirealia,  and 
llio  various  other  uppeariuices  just  mentioned, are  explained 
on  the  principles  of  inleUigible  science. 


GALVANISM. 

This  branch  of  elpptricnl  science  took  its  origin,  about 
(ho  close  of  the  last  century,  from  a  trivial  ai'cidentui 
circumstance  which  occurred  in  the  house  of  Signor  'lol- 
vaiii,  an  Italian  philoHnpher.  A  recently  killed  frog, 
hiving  b(cn  accideiilally  touched  in  the  limb  with  the 
Wade  of  u  knii'i!  which  was  held  by  a  pcrwon  who  w- 
"([icriineiiling  w'th  an  electrical  machine,  was  iiiiini'- 
dialely  throwr.  into  violent  convulsions.  (lalvai  i  was 
nil  (irescnt  when  this  occurred,  hut  being  informed  of  the 
niiimstaiioe,  lie  lost  no  litne  in  rep«'atiiig  the  c\|M'riment, 
mill  extemling  his  observntions  upon  the  phenomenon. 
Hr  found  that  other  metals  t>osidcs  tlint  com|iosing  a 
knife  answered  the  puriMXio,  and  very  jui  y  inferred 
'hit  'Juv  owed  this  properly  of  exciting  musculiii  con- 
Iriicliona  to  their  Inini;  (;oo<l  conductorH  of  efectricity. 

(iiilvani  prwx-eiled  with  his  experiments  upon  nniinair, 
W  means  nl  metiillic  sutmtances,  and  arrived  at  the  coii- 
nasion,  that  the  ditlerent  parts  of  an  animal  tire  in  op^io- 


aits  alatea  of  electrieity,  and  that  Ihu  efTecl  of  lh«  mrfal 
ia  merely  ta  reatom  the  ei|ullil>riuin  Hut  thia  theory  wa> 
proved  to  lie  prroneoiia  by  Volln,  a  ci  lebrated  philoaophei 
of  I'avia,  who,  about  the  year  IHDI,  diwovered  the  (lul- 
xitmr  or  ynlliiir  fiilt.  He  was  led  to  il  hy  nieditatinK  on 
the  development  of  electrieity  at  the  surface  of  contwt  nl 
twoiliiren'iit  metals,  lie  tried  theefTecl  of  hia  comfiound 
plates  of  metal  ii|>on  nniinals,  and  waa  led  to  infer  thai 
<he  electricity  ia  deriveil,  not  from  the  living  ayalem,  but 
from  the  action  excited  lietween  the  melnl  and  Iho  hnmid 
niiimal  fibre ;  that  the  animal  mutter  nets  merely  sa  a 
medium  conducting  this  electricilv ;  and  that  Ihe  efTecta 
priHiiiccd  are  to  tin  ascrilied  to  the  sliinuhis  of  the  electric 
Huiil  passing  along  the  nerves  and  tlliies,  as  in  a  shixk 
from  a  Iicydeii  jar.  Volla  further  diw  overed,  that  the 
metallic  plates  wiijih  he  used,  such  as  silver  and  line,  are 
excited,  the  former  negatively,  niul  llie  litter  positively; 
and  also  that  tlie  galvanic  energy  could  lie  greatly  aug* 
meiited  by  em|iloyiiig  several  |iairs  of  plutes,  connecting 
them  in  such  a  manner  that  the  electricity  excited  by 
each  pair  should  be  ililTused  through  Ihe  whole;  and  thia 
I'onstituted  the  voltaic  pih^  From  these,  and  numerru^ 
other  exjierinicnts,  it  became  apparent  that  electricity 
couhl  Im  proiliii  .'il  from  the  action  of  twodiirereiit  inetala 
iniinersed  in  n  suitable  menstruum,  and  in  some  niannei 
connected  with  each  other.  On  this  elementary  trutil 
the  slriictur''  of  galvanic  s<Menca  w  ,s  reared. 

In  order  to  form  a  galvanic  circle  on  the  principle  \i:w 
mentioned  ipparulus  of  the  most  inipio  kind  ia  suffl- 
cient.  For  instance,  if  a  sm  dl  slip  of  zinc  he  I  lid  upon, 
and  a  piece  of  silver  undtr,  tje  tongue,  we  have  iwn  per- 
fect conductors  in  liie  metab  with  one  imiH<rl'ect  one,  the 
tongue,  or  the.  fluids  whi< ..  surround  it;  and  by  this 
apparatus,  i;."pIo  as  it  galvanic  action  ia  j  itxluced. 
In  oil  action  of  this  iiaturc,  and  partii  .i.ly  when  power- 
fid  acids  arc  employed,  the  metals,  nf  lutter  of  course, 
nil'  eaten  awuy  or  decomposed,  ;  ■  •■  j>recipi  ited  in  the 
liquid.  The  knowledge  of  Ibis  ii.-t  has  explained  the 
'  luso  of  the  grtduiil  '!  .  '('"aruuce  of  nielnls,  w'  -n  two 
11  an  opposite  cli'clrit  ,(ji  'y  were  adjoining  e;!  •  other 
Thus,  in  the  sh"iillii  ;  of  'dps,  it  i>i  .lece.ssary  to  ii«e 
Inills  of  the  same  metal  which  forms  the  plate;  for  if  tnc 
different  nii'lals  lie  employed,  one  of  llicni  oxidates  very 
siM-edily,  in  ionFe(|iience  of  their  forming,  with  the  water 
of  the  ocean,  u  siinplr  .;iilvanic  circle. 

Compound  (»nlvnnic  circles,  or  gnlvnnic  batteries,  are 
formed  by  multiplying  those  orrangenieutH  which  com- 
pose simple  circles,  ''"htis,  if  plate  i  of  zinc  and  of  silver 
(or  of  zinc  and  copjier;,  and  pieces  of  woollen  cloth  of  the 
same  Mie  a«  the  plates,  and  moistened  with  water,  or, 
what  is  iH'ttcr,  with  diluted  acid,  be  piled  upon  each  other 
in  the  order  of  zinc,  silver,  cloth ;  zinc,  silver,  cloth ;  and 
so  on,  for  twenty  or  more  repetiti'ins,  we  have  the  voltaic 
pile.  Thn  |>ower  of  such  a  combination  is  sutficient  to 
give  a  smart  shot-k,  a»  may  tie  fidt  by  grasping  in  the 
hands,  previously  moistened,  the  wires  connecting  the 
upj .  r  ,d  Idwcr  cxtremitie.i  of  thn  pile.  The  shock 
n  ,■  -  '•  ;«ncwed  at  pleasure,  until,  after  a  few  hours,  the 
aetiv.iy  of  the  pile  begins  to  abate,  ond  finally  ceases 
altogether,  till  the  plates  ara  cleaned  and  new  diluted  acid 
•idded. 

After  various  improvements  in  the  mode  of  eliciting 
galvanic  action,  the  ii|i^iaratus  found  to  be  best  adapted 
for  experiments,  is  that  of  a  troui;h  or  open  box  of  wood, 
well  joined  together  and  secured  from  leakage  by  lieing 
lined  with  some  kiml  of  resinous  material  or  pitch.  Inlo 
a  trough  of  this  kind  plates  of  zinc  and  copper  arc  put 
vertically,  like  so  many  cross  divisions,  the  supiMirts  being 
grooves  cut  in  the  side* ;  a  wire  ia  led  from  each  extro 
mity  of  Ihe  row  of  plates,  to  act  as  coiuluctors  in  any 
exiieriment  to  bo  [lerformcd.  One  wire  represents  the 
positive,  and  the  other  tlie  negative  (wlc  of  the  electricity 
The  liiiuid  in  the  trough  occupies  the  cells  between  the 
plates.     Figure  5  is  a  reprcsentutiun  uf  a  trui:gh  of  tliie 


m 

liS 


i 


■,(i'i(v.-ritjY;« 


ff56 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


kind.    The  plates  are  unially  about  eight  inchea  long,  by 


five  or  nx  inches  broad ;  and  in  all  arrangements,  whether 
one  or  many  troughs  are  em[4loyed,  care  must  be  taken 
v>  place  the  plates  in  one  unvarying  order,  the  zinc  and 
copper  succeeding  each  other  alternately  throughout  the 
■eriea.  When  several  troughs  are  connct  'ed  together,  as 
ic  figare  6,  the  apparatus  is  calif  '<  a  baiii  ry.    The  ceils 


Fig.e. 

are  unally  charged  with  acids  diluted  with  wster  to  a 
curtain  extent;   muriatic   acid   \icy  ~  diluted  with   five 
parts,  and  sulphuric  acid  with  fifty  parts  of  water.     By 
ezpeiiments,  it  has  been  asccrtaine.l   that   increase  of 
galvanic  power  is  not  in  the  ratio  of  an  incrr.isec'  size  of 
platea,  but  in  the  ratio  of  an  increotiod  numbtrr.     Several 
troughs  of  small   plates  will  thus  hnvc  greater  power 
than  one  trough  with  a  greater  Bupcrficles  of  metal.     It 
may  be  farther  mentioned,  that  if  a  battery  is  to  consist  i 
of  a  certain  number  of  square  feet  of  plates,  then,  lor  ; 
producing  calorific  effects,  or  thn  ignition  of  metallic  leaves 
and  other  combustiblcfi,  the  plates  ouf ht  to  l)o  large ;  fir  | 
chemical  eflectx,  the  size  ouitht  to  be  small,  and  the  plates  i 
numerous;  and  for  physiological  effects,  that  is,  for  ope- ; 
rating  on  the  animal  system,  they  ought  to  be  made  of 
an  intermediate  side.  I 

The  chemical  changes  effected  by  the  electricity  of  ] 
galvanic  action,  are  among  the  most  remarkable  pheno-  ! 
mena  in  physical  science.     Wo  shall  instance  a  few  of  . 
these  facts,  gathered  from  the  best  authorities.    If  a  plate 
of  zinc,  and  another  of  copper,  he  immersed  in  very  dilute  ■ 
sulphuric  arid,  without  touching  or  communicating  with  i 
each  other,  (he  zinc  will  be  acted  upon  by  the  a'  id ;  part . 
of  the  water  will  be  decompo8e«l.  its  oxygen  combining  , 
with  the  zinc,  and  forming  oxide  of  zinc,  and  its  hydro- 
gen will  Ix"  disengaged  in  the  form  of  gas  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  xinc  plate.     The  copper  i»  not  acted  upon. : 
If  the  melals  l>e  brought  into  contact,  the  oxidation  goj-s  ' 
on  with  greater  rapidity  and  energy,  although  without 
the  »  volution  of  the  same  quantity  of  hydrogen  gw  from  ' 
the  oxidating  surface,     But.  from  the  whole  fluid,  hydro- 
gen is  disengaged  in  quantity  exactly  corresponding  to  ' 
that   of  the  oxygen  derived   from   the  water,  and   the ; 
greater  portion  of  it  rises  in  a  copious  stream  of  bubbles 
from   the  sijrfacc  of  the  copper   plate,  which  remains 
unacted  uixm  tis  liefore.  | 

If,  however,  an  acid,  such  is  nitric  acid,  capable  of  act- 
ing U()f«n  the  copper  as  well  as  upon  the  zinc,  l>e  employed  ' 
instead  of  the  sulphuric  r.'id,  similar  phenomena  ^vill 
take  place,  with  this  additional  circumstance,  that  the  ac<- 
tion  of  the  acid  upon  the  cop|)er  will  cease  the  instant 
the  galvanic  circuit  is  completetl ;  and  instead  of  nitrous 
gan  being  formed  on  the  surface  of  the  copper,  which 
bafipens  l^fore  tlie  circuit  U  fonred,  only  bubbles  of  pure 
ovdiogen  will  make  their  appearance;  and  the  copfier  is 


protectisl  from  all  further  action,  the  zinc  being,  ■«  ui  the 
former  case,  oxidated  and  disaolved  with  additional  enenrv 
It  is  on  this  principle  that  Sir  Humphry  Davy  effected  the 
protection  of  the  copper  sheathing  of  ships  from  the  cor 
rosion  of  sea-water,  by  placing  in  contact  with  it  pieces 
of  zinc  or  iron,  on  which  sea-water  exerts  a  greater  che. 
mica!  action  than  on  copper.  Among  the  simplest  edccu 
of  galvanism  upon  fluid  conductors,  is  the  resolution  of 
water  into  its  two  gaseous  elements,  oxygen  and  hydro 
gen.  If  the  water  employed  be  not  perfectly  pure,  othei 
substances  besides  the  two  components  of  water  maltj 
•leir  appearance  at  the  two  wires  employed  in  the  ex. 
periment  The  apparent  formation  of  these  substancei 
greatly  puzzled  the  early  experimentalists ;  but  Sir  Hum- 
phry Davy  proved  that,  when  the  water  is  perfectly  fnt 
from  any  foreign  ingredient,  only  the  two  simple  giwi 
of  which  it  is  composed  are  obtained.  He  also  discovered, 
that,  under  the  influence  of  voltaic  electricity,  neutral 
salts  existing  in  any  solution  were  decomposetl,  the  acid 
portion  lH>ing  cccumulated  around  the  [msitive  wire  on 
the  same  points  where  oxygen  was  disengaged;  while 
the  basis,  whether  earthy,  alkaline,  or  metallic,  were  al 
the  same  moment  transferred,  along  w'  Ji  tlie  hydrogen 
to  the  negative  wire. 

Phenomena  of  a  still  more  extr  ordinary  nature  m 
sented  themselves  to  Sir  Humphry  Davy  in  the  furthe 
prosecution  of  these  inquiries.  It  was  discovered  thai 
the  elements  of  compound  Ixidies  were  actually  convevcd 
by  the  influence  of  the  electric  current,  through  solutions 
of  sulwtances,  on  which,  under  other  circumstances,  they 
would  have  exerted  an  immediate  and  powerful  c'jemipal 
action,  without  any  such  effect  being  produced.  Acids, 
for  example,  may  be  transmitted  from  one  cup,  connected 
with  the  negative  pole,  to  another  on  the  opposite  or  posj. 
tiw  side,  through  a  portion  of  fluid  in  an  intermediate 
cup,  tinged  with  any  of  the  vegetable-coloured  infusions, 
which  arc  instantly  reddened  by  the  presence  of  an  acid, 
without  occasioning  the  slightest  change  of  colour.  The 
same  happens  also  with  alkalies.  If  three  cups  be 
arranged,  and  connected  with  each  other  in  a  scries  by 
moistened  cotton,  the  middle  cup,  and  also  the  one  next 
to  the  positive  side  of  the  battery,  being  tilled  with  blue 
infusion  of  cabbage  or  of  litmus,  and  the  cup  next  to  the 
negative  side  containing  a  solution  of  Milphate  of  soda 
on  the  scries  being  placed  in  the  voltaic  circuit,  a  wl 
tinge  will  soon  !»  perceived  in  the  water  of  llie  poiitivi 
cup.  which  will  become  strongly  acid.  It  is  evident  tlia 
the  sulphuric  acid  so  translerred  must  have  passed  tbrougl 
the  fluid  in  the  middle  vessel,  but  without  affecting  th> 
coloured  solution  in  its  passage.  By  reversing  the  con- 
nections with  the  poles  of  the  battery,  a  siniils;  transfc 
of  the  alkali  will  be  ma'tc :  it  will  lie  collected  in  the 
tilled  water  of  the  negative  cup,  which  it  will  rend»i 
green;  but  the  intermediate  |H}rtion  of  fluid  will  m  , 
?ither  in  this  or  in  the  former  cane,  exhibit  any  trace  of 
the  substance  which  Is  carried  through  it  by  the  influence 
ef  electricity.  Cohesion,  however,  where  powerful,  as 
might  have  been  expected,  iiiti<rcepts  the  transmission  of 
tlie  substance.  So  powerful  is  this  mysterious  a|n>nt, 
that  the  minutest  portions  of  a  substance,  acted  upon  by 
either  of  the  wires,  is  collected  around  it. 

"  An  interesting  class  of  ex|x;riments  are  due  to  .Mr. 
Cfossc,  on  the  employment  of  electricity,  in  a  state  of 
high  tension,  to  form  mineral  and  other  sulwtniirtA 
There  is  a  cavern  near  Broomfield,  of  which  the  vault  ii 
covered  with  arragonite,  and  cailioiiate  of  lime,  and  fine 
crystals.  The  water  which  ilrips  from  this  vault  hohU  Id 
solution  ten  grains  of  carlmnatc  of  lime,  aiid  a  little 
sulphate  of  the  same  to  each  pint  A  glass  filled  with 
this  water  was  submitted  to  the  action  of  a  battery  con 
sisting  of  200  (lairs  of  plates,  and  at  thn  expiration  of 
ten  days  the  negau'e  pole  was  found  to  have  fortnnl 
rhomboidal  crystals  of  ,-arbonate  of  lime,  accompanied  bt 
some  gas-bubbles,  and  iii  leas  than  a  uiunth  atler.  ttu 


wira  wa«  covered 
ivheiice  it  follows 
tit'  carbonate  ani 
•*aler  drop  on  a  pi 
100  five-inch  plate 
nel  which  conduct 
lour  or  Ave  month 
battery  was  covon 
the  positive  pole  w 
^nito;  and  the  s 
lluusilicic  acid,  regi 
reipects  to  quartz, 
in  a  dry  place  ac 
glaaa;  the  others  h 
their  transparency, 
uture,  he  has  sue 
ijaivanic  battery,  tl 
limo,  arragonite,  qu 
copper,  and  its  bli 
of  copper,  carbon  at 
Cijclopa</ia. 

Why  coinpoundi 
sm  decomposed,  ar 
round  the  positive 
i)f  the  battery,  arc 
latisfactorily  solved, 
u'lcory  that   all  boi 
ijifg,  which  arc  inht 
slate  of  combinatior 
md  acids,  according 
jrej  while  inflami 
mi  metals,  arc  na 
combinations  of  the 
^ranic  influence, 
,'Jcctric  state  natural 
irieity  that  bodies  ir 
Ihe  oxygen,  being  n 
the  positive  wire,  wlj 
iicing  naturally  po^ 
irire.    In  this  way 
bodies  at  their  partic 
if  hydrogen  is  natu 
negative,  according 
iltract  each  other 
deotly  elevated  to 
l)  Ihe  power  of 
combine;  and,  in 
ticlei  are  in  differc 
united  together, 
exceeds  that  of  one 
lo  act  upon  these, 
its  place ;  and  this 
decomposition  from 
The  agency  of  th 
mi;  decomposition, 
wire*  placed  in  cont 
of  electricity  more 
•tales  of  tho  two 
these  two  highly  cle 
ing  between  these 
iiiiracdiately  drawn 
(onitituont  to  the 
which  is  naturally 
With  respect  "to 
Ktion,  it  m.iy  Ito  ob 
huinan  body  from 
iulting   from   a   la; 
fharged.    Twenty 
to  give  a  Hluiek  w 
With  a  huiitlre<l  pn 
»ntin'jed  flow  of  th 
paniej  ty  a  coiitii 
iMds  upon  some  o 
fe™  part  of  the  ci 
Vol.  I  —33 


SB 


If 


ur^vl        GALVANISM. 


I  r  i(  •>  V 


M"* 


win  wu  covered  with  regular  and  irregular  ciyEtals; 
ik'hituce  it  follows  that  the  bicarbonate  waa  decomposed 
lit'  carbonate  and  carbonic  acid  gas.  He  also  let  the 
^aler  drop  on  a  piece  of  brick  subjected  to  a  current  from 
100  five-inch  plates,  the  brick  being  supported  by  a  fun- 
pgl  which  conducted  the  water  into  a  vessel  below ;  after 
laar  or  five  montlia  the  brick  near  the  negative  pole  ol 
battery  was  covered  with  carbonate  of  lime,  while  near 
(lie  positive  pole  were  disposed  prismatic  crystals  of  arra- 
imnito;  and  the  snine  experiment  being  repeated  with 
lluasilicic  acid,  regular  hexahedral  pyramids,  ".imilar  in  all 
reipects  to  quartz,  were  obtained ;  those  which  were  left 
in  a  dry  place  acquired  sufficient  hardness  to  scratch 
•Iwa;  the  others  had  not  that  power,  and  gradually  lost 
their  transparency.  In  his  varied  experiments  of  this 
oature,  he  has  succeeded  in  forming,  by  moans  of  the 
(galvanic  battery,  the  following  minerals: — carbonate  of 
limo,  arragonite,  quartz,  protoxide  of  copper,  arsoniate  of 
copper,  and  its  blue  and  green  carbonates,  phosphate 
of  copper,  carbonate  of  lead,  chalcedony,  &c." — Penny 

Why  compounds,  when  placed  in  a  galvanic  circuit, 
jn;  decomposed,  and  why  their  elements  collect,  some 
iround  the  positive  and  others  around  the  negative  polo 
jf  the  battery,  are  questions  which  have  never  been 
latiifactorily  solved.  Sir  Humphry  Davy  suggested  the 
theory  that  all  bodies  possess  natural  electrical  ener- 
•rirs,  which  arc  inherent  in  them,  whether  they  are  in  a 
itate  of  combination  or  not.  Oxygen,  chlorine,  iodine, 
md  acids,  according  to  the  theory,  arc  naturally  nrga- 
jTe;  while  inflammables,  as  hydrogen,  sulphur,  &c., 
lud  metaU,  arc  naturally  positive.  Hence,  when  the 
i^mbinations  of  these  substances  are  subverted  by  the 
galvanic  influence,  Uio  substances  are  evolved  in  the 
dcctric  state  natural  to  them ;  and  as  it  is  a  law  <  olec- 
irieity  that  bodies  in  opposite  states  attract  each  other, 
tlie  oxyRcn,  being  negative,  is  immediately  attracted  by 
the  positive  wire,  while  the  inflammable  or  metallic  base, 
being  naturally  positive,  is  attracted  by  tlie  negative 
mre.  In  this  way,  the  uniform  appearance  of  these 
Ixxliei  at  their  particular  poles  arc  accounted  for.  Thus, 
if  hydrogen  is  naturally  positive,  and  oxygen  naturally 
negative,  according  to  the  laws  of  electricity,  they  must 
attnct  each  other ;  and  if  these  opposite  states  are  sutfi- 
deatly  elevated  to  give  them  an  attractive  force  superior 
to  the  power  of  aggregation,  they  may  be  expected  to 
combine ;  and,  in  like  manner,  other  bodies,  whose  par- 
ticles are  in  ditfcrcnt  states,  may  from  this  cause  be 
united  together.  If  a  body,  also,  whose  electrical  energy 
exceeds  that  of  one  of  the  substances  combined,  be  brought 
tout  upon  these,  it  may  expel  that  ingredient,  and  take 
ill  place ;  and  this  may  be  the  cause  of  what  is  called 
deiimposition  from  elective  atrmiiy. 

The  agency  of  the  galvanic  apparatus,  then,  in  produc- 
ini;  decomposition,  it  is  conceived,  is  this— that  the  two 
wirei  placed  in  contact  with  the  compound  are  in  states 
of  electricity  more  intensely  elevated  than  the  natural 
itites  of  the  two  ingredients ;  hence  the  attraction  of 
ibew  two  highly  elcctrilied  points  overcomes  that  subsist- 
ing between  those  ingrediontsi:  they  arc  separated,  and 
imracdiatfly  drawn  to  the  rcHiii-ctivo  poles — the  positive 
coDitituont  to  the  negative  wire,  and  the  ingredient 
which  is  naturally  negative  to  the  positive  wire. 

With  respect  to  the  physiological  cflccti  of  galvanic 
action,  it  may  l)e  observed  that  the  shiH;k  received  l\v  the 
human  body  from  tt»3  vnltuic  pile  is  Bimilar  to  that  re- 
ittlting  from  a  large  electrical  battery  very  weakly 
(harged.  Twenty  pair  of  plates  are  generally  suHirient 
10  give  a  Hliook  wliieh  is  sometimes  felt  in  the  arms. 
With  a  huriilrod  puirx,  it  extends  to  the  sho\ddem.  A 
sontiirjed  flow  of  the  current  through  the  l)ody  is  accom- 
panied hy  a  contintiivl  aching  pain.  The  impression 
madt  upon  some  of  tbo  nerves  of  the  face  when  they 
Ibrm  part  of  the  circuit,  is  accompanied  by  the  sensation 

Vol.  1  —33 


of  a  vivid  flash  of  light  When  a  piece  of  zinc  and  • 
piece  of  copper  are  placed,  the  one  above  and  the  other 
below  the  tongue,  which  must  be  in  a  moist  state,  a  pe- 
culiar taste  is  experienced.  This  is  supposed  to  ariip 
from  the  saliva  of  the  mouth  having  been  decomposed  hy 
the  galvanic  action,  and  not  merely  tlie  efl'ect  of  a  direct 
impression  of  the  electric  current  on  the  nerves  of  the 
tongue.  When  the  current  of  voltaic  electricity  is  made 
to  pass  along  a  nerve  distributed  to  any  of  the  muscle* 
of  voluntary  motion,  they  are  thrown  into  violent  con- 
vulsive contractions.  The  susceptibility  of  some  animala 
is  very  great,  and  numerous  curious  experiments  may  be 
performed  with  them.  If  an  earth-worm  be  placed  upon 
a  crown  piece  which  lies  upon  a  plate  of  zinc  of  larger 
size,  it  will  suffer  no  inconvenience  as  long  as  it  remaini 
in  contact  with  the  silver  only ;  but  tht  moment  it  has 
stretched  out  its  head,  and  touched  the  ziuc,  so  as  to 
complete  the  galvanic  circle,  it  suddenly  recoils,  as  if  it 
had  felt  a  severe  shock.  If  the  battery  be  powerAll, 
small  animals  may  be  easily  killed.  Striking  effects  are 
produced  by  galvanism  in  the  muscles  of  an  animal 
after  death,  as  long  as  they  rctai:i  their  contractility. 
The  convulsions  are  so  general,  as  often  to  impress  the 
spectator  with  a  belief  that  the  animal  has  been  restored 
to  the  power  of  sensation,  and  that  it  is  suffering  the 
most  cruel  torture.  The  eyes  open  and  shut  in  tlieir 
sockets  ^spontaneously,  as  if  re-endued  with  vision ;  the 
nostrih  i^ibrate,  as  in  the  act  of  smelling ;  and  the  move- 
ments of  mastication  are  imitated  by  the  jaws.  The  ex- 
periments which  arc  calculated  to  jtroduce  the  greatest 
terror  and  astonishment  are  those  made  upon  the  bodice 
of  recently  executed  criminals ;  but  for  any  account  of 
those  operations  we  cannot  afford  room  in  our  limited 
pages. 

The  effects  of  galvanism  upon  the  functions  of  secre- 
tion are  the  most  remarkable  as  well  as  the  most  inex- 
plicable. That  it  acts  especially,  and  in  a  peculiar  man- 
ner, upon  the  gastric  juice,  a  fluid  essentially  subservient 
to  the  process  of  digestion,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
Perhaps  the  various  functional  parts  of  the  body  form  ■ 
sort  of  galvaitic  battery,  by  which  a  regular  riren2ation 
of  this  subtile  and  mysterious  fluid  is  kept  up.  On  the 
supposition  that  such  is  the  case,  galvanism  has  beea 
appUed  with  good  elTect  in  medicine,  in  the  cure  of  ner- 
vous disorders.  Tic  doloureux,  which  is  a  chronic  de- 
rangement in  the  nervous  energy,  has  been  subjected  t* 
the  influence  of  galvanic  currents,  and  these,  in  particii- 
lar  cases,  have  completely  removed  the  complaint  It  is 
perhaps  necessary,  by  way  of  precaution,  to  say  that  all 
such  applications  ought  only  to  be  made  under  the  special 
direction  of  a  skilled  medical  practitioner. 

Galvanism  has  lately  been  applied  to  the  protection  ol 
plants  from  worms  and  slugs,  as  appears  from  the  follow- 
ing notice  in  p  Liverpool  newspaper : — "  The  protector 
consists  of  a  conical  ring  of  zinc  about  four  inches  ia 
height,  the  top  end  flanked  off  about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch,  and  cut  into  numerous  vandyked  points ;  and  im- 
mediately under  is  a  ring  of  copper  neatly  flttcd.  The 
bottom  of  the  zinc  ring  is  pressed  into  the  soil  until  the 
lower  edge  of  the  copper  ring  is  an  inch  and  a  half  above 
the  surface,  care  being  taken  to  enclose  within  the  ring 
the  stems  of  stieh  plants  as  require  them,  otherwise  the 
inoliusea  will  find  a  road  to  them  by  the  stems.  The 
mollusca  may  crawl  up  the  zinc  with  impunity,  hut  on 
coining  in  contact  with  the  copper,  will  receive  a  galva- 
nic shock  and  fal  ''  'he  ground.  The  apparatus  acta 
in  v/et  or  dVy  weather,  and  ia  always  in  operation.  It« 
npin-aranco  is  like  a  flower-jiot,  and  it  is  cheap  and  du- 
rable. After  a  trial  of  twelve  months  by  Mr.  Cuthbert, 
the  inventor,  he  found  that  not  a  plant  to  which  it  waa 
applied  was  injured." 

Klcrtrn'ypini:. — In  1S39,  the  galvanic  principle,  in  re 
lation  to  the  deposition  of  metal  from  a  metallic  solution, 
I  was  applied  by  Mr.  Thomaa  SjKncer  cf  Liverpool,  ie 
T  2 


tam 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


.  the  multiplying  of  plates  of  engraved  copper,  medals, 
Jkc.  The  nature  of  this  most  inKcnious  discovery,  which 
.  was  first  brought  into  public  notice  at  a  meeting  of  the 
.  Liverpool  Polytechnic  Society,  (Sept.  13,  1839,)  will  be 
best  understood  by  describing  tlie  process  which  is  now 
•rdinarily  pursued. 

We  take  a  trough  or  box,  which  may  bo  represented 
by  Fig.  7.     This  l)ox  is  divided  lengthwise  by  a  thin 
partition  P,  composed 
of  sycamore,  that  be- 
ing a  porous  and  du- 
ntblo  material.     C  ia 
•  copper  plato   suS' 
pended  in  one  of  the 
eulls   by  a   wire  at- 
tached  to  an  upiicr 
rod  of  metal  R,  tra- 
Tersing    tlie    mouth 
part  uf  the  box.     In 
the  other  cell  is  simi- 
larly  placed   a  plate 
of  zinc,  nearly  the  size  of  the  copper.     The  zinc  is  simi- 
larly suspended  by  a  wire  from  the  traversing  rod  al)ove. 
A  wire  passing  over  direct  from  the  cop|)er  to  the  zinc, 
would  answer  the  same  puqioso  of  comrnunicalion,  but 
the  plan  of  an  intervening  rod  with  attaching  screws  is 
found  to  be  more  convenient     Into  the  cell  containing 
the  copjH'r  we  put  as  much  water  as  will  about  four- 
fiAlis  till  it ;  then  into  tliis  we  plueo  cryt^tals  of  sulphate 
of  copjter,  which  soon   dissolve  and   form  a  solution. 
Into  tile  other  cell,  containing  the  jiiecc  of  zinc,  we  place 
a  similar  (luantity  of  water,  into  which  pulverized  sal 
ainraoninc  is  |)ut,  so  as  to  form  a  solution  likewise.  Tlu^ 
preparatory  process  may  now  lie  said  to  be  complete ; 
but,  unless  tlie  copper  has  lieeu  pre\iou.sly  prepared  to 
receive  the  deiiositioii  on  one  part  oidy,  the  deposition 
would  take  pliicc  nil  over  it.     To  guard  against  this,  tlie 
oopper,  U'fore  being  placed  in  the  trough,  must  have 
been  coated  on  tlic  back  and  edges  witli  a  mixture  of 
sealing-wax  dissolved  in  spirits  of  wine.     This  mixture 
or  vaniish  may  be  of  such  ii  consistency  as  may  l>o  laid 
on  witli  a  camel-hair  jM-neil.    The  copixT  is  not  put  into 
the  trough  till  tlic  varnish  is  hard.     'I'he  wire  of  the 
copi^cr  must  likewise  lie  varnished ;  and  it  is  idno  neces- 
sary      explain,  that  the  wire  must  be  tiattened  at  t)Otli 
cxtrem    cs — one  extremity  being  soldered  to  the  back 
of  tile  copper,  and  the  other  fastened  benentli  the  screw 
to  tlie  rod.     The  wire  for  the  zinc  is  to  l>e  llattened  it 
the  extremities,  and  attached  in  the  same  manner.     No 
Tarnishing  is  neccsKary  on  the  zinc. 

We  have  now  descrilH'd  all  that  requires  to  bo  done 
in  the  tirst  instance ;  and  the  trough  may  lie  put  aside 
to  allow  the  process  time  to  o|)erat>>.  This  operation 
will  consist  of  a  galvanic  current,  commeiuiiig  with  the 
action  of  the  sal  ammoniac  u]>on  the  zinc,  pmeeeding  u|i 
the  wire,  and  through  the  rod  to  the  copjter  plate ;  poro- 
aity  ii:  flic  dividing  partition  licing  also  esseiitiul  to  tne 
4urreiit.  As  the  action  proceeds,  it  will  be  obsenfd 
that  an  efTervescencc  is  going  on  in  tlie  zinc  cell ;  and 
this  indicjttes  that  the  deposition  of  metal  from  the  siil- 
pbatc  of  copi  r  is  taking  elfect  ou  the  plate.  Tlie 
length  of  tiiiii  rcupied  in  iN'rfcetliiir  the  process  will 
Tory  from  four  to  six  days;  but  during  this  interval  it 
trill  be  nue^-ssary  to  add  fresh  iiwit/'rial.  both  of  sulphate 
of  co{ifM'r  and  sal  aniiuoiiiac.  In  sniiie  liuxes  a  small  ! 
<helf  is  put,  to  contain  the  siilphatt'  of  co[>|K'r  during  its 
Jiasolution.  The  copper  plate  may  bo  occasionally  ex- 1 
zinined,  to  ascertain  tlic  extent  of  the  depoiition ;  and 
A'hen  this  deposition  is  as  thick  as  a  shilling,  it  may  be  ; 
aoparated  from  tlic  plate.  We  have  now  procured  u  fac 
■jmilo  of  the  engravwl  copper  plate  iii  rehr; — in  point  of 
lbct,a  substantial  piece  of  cop|M'r  formed  from  a  solution, 
riic  copy  in  relief  ia  of  no  value  in  the  arts;  »nd  to  lie 
if  jm:  '{.  must  Im'  suhjectcd  tti  a  frcxh  process,  iii  which  , 


it  receives  the  ceposition.  This  second  deponitec)  m),, 
of  metal  is  a  fac  titiiilc  or  duplicate  of  the  original  xiUiv 
and  by  thus  using  the  relief  plate  again  and  again,  wJ 
may  obtain  any  number  of  engraved  copper  plates  of  the 
same  subject  tliat  we  may  think  proper.  As  engraved 
copper  plates  are  soon  worn  out  by  printing,  the  valu, 
of  the  above  simple  and  inexpensive  means  of  crcatina 
duplicates  is  very  evident.  Such  is  the  fidelity  of  \^ 
process,  that  the  slightest  scratch  on  the  original  p|at( 
will  be  shown  on  tho  duplicate  copy. 

Various  other  objects  may  be  multiplied  by  this  |u^i 
of  etectrutyping,  as  it  has  been  named;  for  example, diei 
for  seals,  medals,  plaster-casts,  &c.  Mr.  Barclay,  a  seal, 
engraver  in  Gerrard  Street,  Soho,  London,  has  oorried 
the  pnictico  of  elcctrotyping  metal  scat  stamps  to  grem 
perfection.  A  small  tract  which  he  has  pulilishod  on 
tlie  subject,  furnishes  the  following  observa'jons  on  the 
method  to  bo  pursued.  It  will  be  noticed  that  he  mul- 
tiplies the  dies  or  seals  firom  imiircssions  taken  in  teal, 
iiig-wax  : — "  The  paper  on  which  the  impressions  are  to 
be  taken  should  be  thick  and  sotY,  like  that  on  which 
music  is  printed,  dried  over  the  light,  and  spread  Jat— 
the  wax  should  not  be  put  into  the  light,  or  allowed  t» 
flame ;  when  on  tlio  paper,  it  must  be  kept  fluid,  while 
by  stirring  to  the  required  size  and  grudiiully  dimiiiishini? 
the  heat,  all  bubbles  are  removed :  when  nearly  coo], 
make  the  seal  of  the  same  tem))er8turc  as  the  wax,  ot 
sutrieiently  warm  as  to  be  bearable  on  the  back  of  the 
hiuid.  If  the  seal  lie  too  hot,  the  impression  will  be 
blackish,  and  unequal  on  the  purl'uee ;  if  much  too  hot, 
the  wax  will  adhere.  A  little  dry  vermilion,  sparingly 
powdered  over  the  seal  with  a  camel's  hair  brush,  will 
greatly  assist  in  preventing  adhesion,  and  considerably 
improve  the  a{!pcarance  of  the  impression,  without  any 
apparent  diminution  of  its  sharpness;  dry  black-lead 
will  answer  also  for  this  purpose.  After  powdering 
strike  the  side  of  the  seal  smartly  against  the  table,  in 
order  to  shake  off  the  loose  and  coarse  particles.  The 
seal  must  be  put  down  and  taken  up  pcrp<'ndicularly 
and  without  hesitation ;  before  the  wax  is  cold  a  weight 
should  Ik!  put  round  it  on  the  paper  to  keep  it  flat,  by 
means  of  a  small  Imjx,  wine-glass  or  tumbler,  occording 
to  the  size  of  the  impression.  The  facility  of  taking 
impressions,  or  casts,  in  this  or  other  non-conducting 
substances,  called  the  attention  of  Mr.  Murray,  in  Janu- 
ary, 1840,  to  the  best  means  of  obtaining  upon  thpin 
eoi;  ',!,ting  surfaces,  and  to  him  we  are  indebted  for  the 
u  :  i'  (.lumbago,  or  black-lead,  a  di  xiovery  not  the  result 
of  .ii'i.ient,  but  of  judgment,  and  without  which  the 
clectroty()e  would  be  deprived  of  half  its  advantages. 

"  III  the  application  of  black-lead,  much  misconception 
has  arisen  us  to  tlie  quantity  requisite  to  insure  a  dcpotit 
On  sealing-wax,  barely  a  tint  is  sullicient.  On  wued 
plaster,  more  is  required ;  and  it  is  liable  to  he  washed 
olV  if  dislurU'd  in  the  solution  before  it  is  covered  by 
the  di'iMisit ;  and  this  is  also  the  case  with  fruit  and 
vegetables,  with  smooth  skins.  Having  the  jar,  porous 
tube,  and  zinc,  with  copiwr  wire  Rttaehed,  take  a  wax 
impression,  make  the  end  of  the  wire  wann,  and  press 
it  against  the  side  of  the  impression  till  it  adhirrs  firmly. 
Then  take  a  soft  tooth-brush,  dip  it  into  a  liltlr  '  v 
black-lead,  ond  with  it  gi'iitly  brush  t!ie  w.i  ory 

direi'tion,  until  the  block-iead  is  eiiually  <li-ii  iited. 
8cra|>c  a  siiiull  portion  of  the  metal  !iis«'rted  into  the 
wax  clean;  and,  on  the  jioiiit  of  a  knife,  take  a  little 
damp  blaek-lead,  with  which  make  good  the  lonlacl be- 
tween the  black-Ica<li  d  surface  and  the  co)iiht  wire; 
varnish  over  the  remninder  of  llie  wire,  and  those  por- 
tions of  the  impression  where  a  deposit  is  nut  roquirrd, 
except  that  part  covered  with  the  damp  black-lead' 
place  the  whole  in  the  apparatus  as  iH'forc  the  dcpoiiil 
will  shortly  commence  on  the  damp  black-leiul,  aiidsiih- 
scquently  spread  over  tlie  whole  surface  not  cciverfdw''h 
varui^      WVon   the   deposit  has  obtainrd  guOicicni 


ihiekAeM,  hold  the ' 
jeiitly  heated,  whei 
■he  metal.  The  de 
rapidly  at  the  edg 
ihickncss  as  possihU 
!,(.  well  varnished ; 
Intend  over  the  van 
nut  and  washed  in  ' 
which  deposit  is  no 
iiished. 

"Plaster  casts  (M 
n^xt  to  seal  impress 
firctrotype  from  the 
itidtcd  white  wax,  s 
flfcctcd : — Take  a  ll 
nax,  and  hold  it  ove 
nl,  drop  in  the  plai 
the  wax  docs  not  ov 
ky  keeping  it  warm, 
ami  when  it  is  obsi 
surface,  it  must  be 
Hotling-paper,  to  ab 
will  better  ctTect  by  1 
ll  must  then  be  laid 
which  time  it  may 
and  black-leod,  withi 
f.ippcr  wire,  use  im 
eist,  having  a  bent  p 
n-iih  which  to  make  i 
surface,  or  the  wire  r 
As  in  the  cose  of  th 
■;jii  the  parts  ot  the  ( 
Having  equally  oiled 
boiId  as   follows: — 
litile  water  in  a  basi 
lh«  plaster  into  it,  p 
ihm  stir  it  gently ;  ti 
pc.rlion  of  the  plaster 
ti'.uch  as  will  make  t 
mitlals  can  \w  rendi 
impressions;  if  the 
best  attained  from  pli 
Of  gilt,  as  hereafler 
il  well  with  black-lei 
Crushing  it,     V'ariou 
tii.Js;  should  the 
MV  be  well  washed 
iirDcess  repeated, 
mjraving^  take  a 
riund  the  siiles,  can 
to  bring  it  in  coiili 
ihrn,  with  the  wire 
Ion;  enough  to  surr 
varnish  as   before. 
9oat,  unless  a  firm 
in  its  vertical  positi 
for,  if  it  incline  \t  ai 
peatest  distance  froi 
formed  in  ridges. 
be  impossible  to  obt 
copper  accumulates 
irl  the  hollows  rem 
drat  deviation  from 
tiery  kind  of  di'ixisi 
plates.     A  similar 
wlulion,  or  in  a  deej 
particles  of  cop|)er, 
reij'ular  channel  to 
ip«ce  fur  a  desru-nt  t 
containing  the  meti 
wofld-cngravings  ha' 
process  for  olilaininq 
perfect  direct  from 
wpiea  frecjuently  rci 


OALVAN'SM. 


ihiekAeM,  hold  the  wax  in  warm  water,  till  it  becomes 
gently  heated,  when  it  may  be  readily  separated  from 
he  metal.  The  deposit  will  always  accumulate  most 
nvidly  at  the  e<lf;c8;  therefore,  to  insure  as  e^eat  a 
iliickncss  as  possible  on  the  subject,  the  extremity  should 
1^  well  varnished ;  but  if  the  action  lie  violent,  it  will 
txtend  over  the  varnish ;  in  that  case  it  should  bo  taken 
out  and  washed  in  cold  water,  and  that  portion  only  on 
which  deposit  is  not  wanted,  wiped  dry,  and  again  var- 
iiulied. 

11  Plaster  casts  (Mr.  Barclay  proceeds  to  mention)  arc, 
next  to  seal  impressions,  most  easy  of  attainment.     To 
firctrolype  from  these,  it  is  necessary  to  soak  them  in 
molted  white  wax,  stcarine,  or  tallow,  which  is  thus  best 
fiTccted : — Take  a  ihallow  vessel,  in  which  put  a  little 
na%,  and  hold  it  over  the  flame  of  a  lamp ;  when  mclt- 
n\,  drup  in  the  plaster  cast,  face  upwards,  taking  caro 
the  wax  does  not  overflow  the  surface ;  in  a  short  time, 
bv  keeping  it  warm,  the  wax  will  ascend  in  the  plaster, 
jnJ  when  it  is  observed  to  have  equally  pervaded  the 
surfsce,  it  must  be  removed  and  placed  on  a  piece  of 
Molting-paper,  to  absorb  the  superfluous  wax,  which  it 
will  better  effect  by  being  kept  warm  for  a  short  period. 
!l  must  then  be  laid  by  for  twelve  hours 'at  least,  after 
uhich  time  it  may  be  well  brushed  with  a  soft  brush 
inJ  black-lead,  without  fear  of  injury.     To  attach  the 
rapper  wire,  use  melted  bees-wax  at  the  back  of  the 
tist,  having  a  bent  portion  of  the  wire  near  the  surface, 
mth  which  to  make  the  connection  with  the  blaok-leaded 
surface,  or  the  wire  may  be  made  to  surround  the  cast. 
As  in  the  case  of  the  wax  impression,  varnish  the  wire 
i:i(i  the  parts  ot  the  cast  on  which  no  deposit  is  rociuircd. 
Having  equally  oiled  the  subject,  a  plaster  cast  may  be 
mIo  as   follows: — Take  fresh  plaster,  and   having   a 
liiile  water  in  a  basin,  drop  from  between  your  finger 
lh«  plaster  into  it,  pour  off  the  superfluous  water,  and 
ihfn  stir  it  gently ;  take  a  hog-hair  brush  and  brush  a 
portion  of  the  plaster  well  into  the  s\ibject,  then  pour  as 
much  as  will  make  th:    required  thickness.     Coins  and 
miilals  can  1hi  leadily  copied  by  means  of  sealing-wax 
mpressions ;  if  the  relief  l)c  very  prominent,  they  are 
host  attained  from  plaster  casts ;  a  coin  can  bo  silvered, 
or  ^ilt,  as  hereafter  descrilied,  or  bronzed,  by  brushing 
ii  well  with  black-lead,  then  making  it  hot,  and  again 
tirushing  it.     Various  degrees  of  heat  will  give  different 
liiis;  should  the  (irst  attempt  not  give  satisfaction,  it 
rr.iv  be  well  washed  with  hot  water  and  soap,  and  the 
iirocoss  reiwatcd.     Having  well   black-leaded  a  wood- 
iniraving^  take  a  strip  of  fin-foil,  and   bind  it  close 
rmnd  the  sides,  carefully  pressing  the  edge  all  round, 
1.)  bring  it  in  contact  with  the  black-leaded  surface ; 
then,  with  the  wire  attached  to  the  zinc,  which  being 
Ions;  enough  to  surround  the  whole,  bind  it  tight,  and 
varnish  as   before.     Wood,   from   its   buoyancy,   will 
ioat,  unless  a  firm,  stout  wire  be  used  to  retain  it 
in  its  vertical  position,  which  is  essentially  requisite ; 
for,  if  it  incline  \t  an  angle,  with  the  lower  part  at  the 
jreatcst  distance  from  the  zinc,  the  new  deposit  will  be 
furmed  in  ridges.     After  this  has  once  occurred,  it  will 
be  impossible  to  obtain  an  equal  deposit :  because  the 
copper  accumulates  only  on  the  most  prominent  parts, 
ird  the  hollows  remain  proportionately  thin,  as  at  the 
trst  deviation  from  an  equal  surface.     This  applies  to 
titrj  kind  of  dc])oait,  whether  seals,  medals,  or  copper 
pUtes,    A  similar  result  will  also  tt\ke  |ilace  in  a  weak 
solution,  or  in  a  deep  trough,  from  the  liquid  losing  its 
particles  of  copjier,  and  becoining  lighter,  rising  in  a 
ro^mlar  channel  to  the  surface  ;  the  deep  trough  giving 
(pare  for  a  desr:ent  of  the  denser  portion  of  the  liquid 
containing  the  metid  in  solution.     These  copies  from 
wiifld-t'ngravings  have  an  advantage  above  the  ordinary 
proreis  for  obtaining  duplicates  for  printing,  being  made 
pcrfiTt  direct  from  the  wood,  whereas  the  stereotype 
copies  frequently  require  ro-touching  by  the  engraver, 


•rising  from  the  friability  of  the  plaat«i  from  vthich  the< 
are  cast." 

Mr.  Smee,  whoso  researches  m  electro-galvanism  ar« 
well  known  to  the  philosophical  world,  has  suggested  a 
still  more  extraordinary  kind  of  electrotyping,  namely, 
the  making  a  copperplate  engraving  without  an  engrav- 
ing in  the  first  instance.  He  describes  it  in  a  paper  in 
the  Philotophical  Magazine,  No.  J  06,  from  which  we 
extract  the  following  passage : — "  First,  draw  the  re- 
quired subject  upon  a  smooth  copper  plate,  with  any 
thick  varnish  or  pigment  insoluble  in  water,  and  then 
expose  the  plate  in  the  usual  way  to  the  influence  of 
the  current,  when  first  copper  will  bo  thrown  down 
upon  the  uncovered  parts  and  will  gradually  grow  over 
the  drawing,  and  the  electrotype,  when  removed,  will  bo 
ready  for  printing.  Very  thick  oil  paint  should  lie  used, 
else  surticient  depth  will  not  be  obtained  to  hold  the  ink. 
As  an  additional  advantage  to  its  cheapness,  this  method 
does  not  require  the  artist  to  reverse  the  design.  An 
opposite  cfllect  to  this  may  be  produced  by  placing  a 
piece  of  copper  similarly  drawn  upon  at  the  oxygen  end 
of  the  battery,  when  the  metal  will  be  acted  upon,  leav- 
ing a  drawing  in  basso-relievo." 

Electric  Telegraphs. — Galvanism,  and  its  twin-princi- 
ple electro-magnetism,  have  performed  other  wonders  in 
application  to  the  arts.     One  of  the  most  interesting  of 
their  powers  in  this  respect,  is  that  of  transmitting  tele- 
graphic signals  through  wires  to  any  assignable  distance. 
The  general  principle  on  which  such  an  operation  is 
founded,  is  that  of  causing  the  galvanic  current  to  de- 
flect or  turn  a  needle  poised  on  a  centre,  and  by  certrin 
arrangements  the  needle  is  made  to  point  to  any  lettei 
on  a  dial-plate.     The  discovery  of  this  kind  of  tele- 
graphic action  is  by  no  means  new.     From  a  passage  in 
Arthur  Young's  Travels  in  France,  published  in  178?, 
it  appears  to  have  been  at  that  period  known,  and  to 
some  extent   practised,  by   a   M.  Lomond.     But  lik* 
many  other  remarkably  ingenious  devices,  it  was  long 
in  being  heard  of  popularly  after  science  had  estiblished 
its  capabilities.     Even  now,  it  is  one  of  those  practical 
improvements  which,  to  a  certain  extent,  remain  un- 
der public  suspicion.     Twelve  years  ago.  Dr.  Ritchie 
made  some  attempts  to  complete  the  plan  of  an  electric 
telegraph  ;  Sir  Humphry  Davy  and  others  also  engaged 
in  a  similar  undertaking.     In  1837,  the  model  of  an 
apparatus  for  communicating  by  galvanic  action,  wm 
exhibited  by  Mr.  Alexander  before  the  Society  of  .\rt« 
in  Edinburgh :  and  this,  as  far  as  we  know,  was  the  fiist 
time  the  thing  was  brought  in  a  tanu'ible  form  before  the 
public.     Mr.  Alexander's  telegraph  wii-;  in  the  form  of  a 
chest,  containing  thirty  copjicr  wires,  aiit-wcring  to  the 
twenty-six  letters  of  the  alphabet,  throe  points,  and  an 
asterisk  to  denote  the  termination  of  a  word.     At  -me 
end^in  connection  with  the  wires,  were  keys  like  those 
of  a  piano-forte,  and  underneath  these  were  r.  jiair  of 
plates,  zinc  and  copper,  forming  a  galvanic  lrcu,t;!'>  *  ftt 
the  other  extremity  of  the  wires  were  thirty  steel  mag- 
nets, and,  any  one  of  these  being  aflccted  by  tlm  el-,  caric 
agency  produced  by  touching  the  key,  it  was  turned  to 
the  right  or  left,  and  unveiled  a  particular  letter.     On 
removing  the  finger  from  the  key,  the  magnet  s|  rung 
bark,  and  the  letter  was   screened   from    observation. 
Thus  any  letter  could  1k'  instantaneously  expo.cd,  or 
words  8|M>lled  letter  by  letter,  according  to  the  will  of 
the  operator.     As  galvanism  requires  a  com]ilete  circuit 
for  its  operation,  it  might  lie  supposed  that  a  duplication 
of  the  thirty  wires  would  have  lieen  necessary,  but  by 
a  hap^iy  arrangement  of  Mr.  Alexander,  with  one  return 
wire  to  starve  for  alt,  this  encumbering  of  the  apparatus 
was  avoided. 
j      Since  this  time,  considerable  improvements  have  been 
effected  on  the  mechanism  of  electric  telegraphs,  b» 
Professor  Wheotstone  and  Mr.  Cook,  one  i.iaterial  o^ 
ject  having  been  the  redu:tion  of  the  tiumlier  of  wiresk 


m 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


which  hail  h-.cn  effected  with  •  surpriiing  degree  of 
•kill.  A  writer  in  Chamhtrt't  £<iinburf(h  Journal,  (July 
W,  1840,^  thus  de«cribc»  what  he  saw  of  the  proccM  on 
tile  occasion  of  a  yiait  to  the  profeaaor'n  clasa-roora  at 
King's  College,  London : — "  The  profeMor  ahowed  two 
varieties  of  the  apparatus,  one  being  the  latest  inven- 
tion, and  the  most  deeply  interesting  from  its  simplicity. 
It  may  be  briefly  described  as  consiatinr;  of  two  small 
galvanic  troughs  or  batteries :  four  lengths  of  copper 
wire ;  an  object  resembling  a  brass  clock,  with  c.  small 
opening  or  dial  on  the  surfac43  sufficient  to  show  a  sin- 
gle letter  at  a  time ;  close  by  this  case  of  mechanism 
stood  nn  upright  pivot  of  brass  about  three  inches  high, 
having  a  circular  top  inwribcd  with  the  let'era  of  the 
alphabet  all  round,  and  from  each  letter  a  spike  pointing 
outwards  like  the  spukes  from  a  capstan.  The  whole 
stood  on  a  table,  exccjit  the  wire.^,  which,  being  four 
miles  in  length,  and  wnrpcd  in  numerous  convolutions 
through  the  vaults  of  the  college,  were  observable  only 
•t  their  extremities  in  connection  with  the  apparatus. 

"  With  respect  to  the  p'iriciple  of  the  process,  it  will 
miffieo  to  state,  that  the  cleciiicity  or  galvanic  property 
generated  in  the  batteries,  was  made  to  proceed  along 
the  wires,  and  in  its  passage  to  affect  the  mechanism  in 
the  case.  In  the  construction  of  this  mechnnism,  the 
gi  ■•at  merit  of  the  invention  consifits.  It  is  a  beautiful 
combination  of  brass  wheels,  and  other  details,  the  ob- 
ject of  which  is  to  produce  a  desired  letter  or  figure  at 
the  exterior  opening  or  dial.  'J'o  bring  any  particular 
letter  into  view,  the  capstan  is  turned  by  the  finger  till 
the  metal  point  projecting  from  a  similar  letter  upon  it 
is  made  to  touch  n  corresponding  point  near  the  side  of 
the  case.  Thus,  there  is  '\  sympathy,  as  I  may  call  it, 
between  the  letters  in  the  case  and  the  letters  on  the 
ctipstuin.  A  touch  of  the  point  opposite  L,  will  bring  L 
into  view  on  the  dial,  and  so  on  with  any  other  letter. 
Nothing  can  be  more  perfect,  or  apparently  simolc.  To 
appearance,  the  letters  can  be  exposed  at  the  rate  of  two 
in  every  moment  of  time.  A  lady,  turning  the  capstan 
witl.,  .'ler  finger,  brought  into  view  the  word  London, 
in  the  time  it  could  be  uttered  letter  by  letter,  although 
the  idea  ha<l  to  travel  through  four  miles  of  wiic. 

"  In  the  transmission  of  the  electric  inllucncc  through 
the  wires  of  this  or  any  other  apimratus,  distance  is  of 
no  consequence  as  respects  time,  for  electricity  is  sup- 
posed, with  some  degree  of  probability,  to  travel  with 
the  velocity  of  light,  or  1 93,000  miles  in  the  space  of  a 
.  second.  In  point  of  fact,  therefore,  no  longer  time 
would  be  occupied  in  tmnsniitting  intelligence  to  the 
uttermoKt  ends  of  the  earth,  than  would  be  required  for 
■ending  it  across  a  room  or  a  table.  Distance  is  a  mat- 
ter for  consideration  only  as  regards  expenditure  of  gal- 
vanic force.  The  electric  agency  has  a  tepdrp'-y  to 
weaken  in  its  progress,  acconling  to  circumatanre^  and 
this  must  necessarily  be  provided  for  by  increasing  the 
number  of  batteries  to  the  desired  amount  and  7.i.wer. 
It  has  been  suppojied  that  the  ditficilty  of  perfectly  iso- 
Uting  and  preserving  the  wires  from  injury  in  their 
course,  would  be  an  insuperable  liar  to  their  establish- 
ment on  an  effective  fiwting;  but  fears  need  be  no  lon- 
ger entertained  on  this  score.  Each  of  tlic  four  wires  in 
the  above  apparatus  is  wrapped  round  with  a  well- 
rosined  thread,  and  the  whole  arc  then  tied  together  with 
I  cord,  possessing  a  sim''ar  coating,  so  as  to  present  the 
•pftearance  of  a  tishtly-lK>uiiil  rope.  'J'his  it  is  priv 
posei!  to  place  in  a  small  iron  tulie,  like  that  used  for 
bringing  gas  into  houses,  and  the  tulies  united  to  unv 
length,  are  laid  lielow  the  ground,  or  in  n  wooden  ense 
or  the  surface,  to  preserve  them  from  injury.  Yet  an- 
other difficulty  here  presents  itself.  What  if  the  rope, 
or  any  yirticular  wire,  should  be  fractured  somewhere 
ia  its  course  t  How  would  the  precise  jKiint  of  injur)- 
be  diKO  Tflrable  ?  This  the  professor  hss  likcvinc  pro- 
vided 'it,  as  far  as  it  possibly  can  be.     He  proposes  that 


there  shall  l)e  a  signal-citse  at  an  interval  o.  evcr»  «« 
miles  along  the  whole  line,  and  therefore  should  ai  v 
injury  bo  sustained  by  the  wircn,  it  will  bo  speedily  di'i 
covered  in  what  portion  it  has  taken  place,  and  a  new 
and  complete  section  of  rope  inserted  in  connection  witl 
the  other  pieces.  To  avoid  a  very  remote  chance  of  dp! 
lay  in  'he  tranomiHion  of  intelligence  from  this  cause  ii 
would  be  easy  to  lay  two  sets  of  wires,  one  of  wlijcl- 
cnvM.  be  employed  while  the  other  was  in  course  of  bo 
ing  repaired. 

"  'ITie  capabilities  of  the  principle  have  been  fully  testpj 
in  a  practical  manner  on  the  lino  of  the  Great  Western 
Railway.  In  September,  1839,  when  the  wires  of  tha 
electric  telegraph  were  carried  as  far  as  West  Drayton 
a  distance  of  fifteen  miles,  the  following  account  wa? 
given  of  it  in  one  of  the  London  papers : — 

" '  The  space  occupied  by  the  case  containing  the  ma. 
chincry  (which  simply  stands  upon  a  table,  and  can  be 
removed  at  pleasure  to  any  part  of  the  room)  is  Ijitie 
more  than  that  required  for  a  gentleman's  riat-hoi. 
The  telegraph  is  worked  by  merely  pressing  small  brasi 
keys,  (similar  to  those  of  a  keyed  bugle,)  which,  acting 
by  means  of  galvanic  power  upon  various  hands  placed 
upon  a  dial  plate  at  the  other  end  of  Mie  tcle^„phip. 
liae,  as  far  as  now  opened,  point  not  only  to  each  letter 
of  the  alphabet,  (as  each  key  may  be  struck  or  pressed  ^ 
but  the  numerals  are  indicated  '.ly  the  same  means,  as  w(.|'| 
as  the  various  points,  from  a  comma  to  a  colon,  witii  notej 
of  interrogation  and  interjection.  There  is  likewise  a 
cross  (-f )  upon  the  dial,  which  indicates  that  where 
this  key  is  struck,  a  miiitake  has  Iwcn  committed  in  sorae 
part  of  the  sentence  telegraphed,  "^nd  that  nn  erasure  i« 
intended.  To  a  question — such,  for  ipatancc,  as  the 
following:  "How  many  passengers  started  from  Dray. 
to.i  by  the  ten  o'clock  train  1" — the  answer  could  Ir 
transmitted  from  the  tenniiius  to  Drayton  ard  back  ii; 
less  thnn  two  minutes.  This  was  j)roved  on  Saturday. 
This  mode  of  communication  is  only  conip'eted  as  far  as 
Wfiit  Drayton  station,  whis-h  is  al)out  13^  .nilea  fnrm 
Poddington.  There  arc  wires  (as  may  be  imagined) 
communicating  with  each  end,  thus  far  completed,  pass- 
ing through  a  hollow  iron  tul)e,  not  more  than  an  inch 
and  a  holf  in  diameter,  which  is  fixed  about  six  inches 
above  the  ground  parallel  with  the  railway,  and  about 
two  or  three  feet  di.<tant  from  it.  It  is  ihe  intention  of 
the  Great  Western  Railway  Compuny  to  <'any  the  tulic 
along  the  line  as  fast  as  the  completion  of  the  rails  takei 
place,  and  ultimately  throughout  the  whole  distance  to 
Bristol.  The  machinerj-,  ond  the  mode  of  workin?  it, 
arc  so  exceedingly  simple,  the.t  a  child  who  could  riad 
would,  after  an  hour  or  two's  instructicm,  be  enabled 
efficiently  to  transmit  and  r?;'oive  information.' 

<•  It  being  thus  ascertaiiuvl.  by  practical  workintj,  Ihit 
the  -'lectric  telegraph  can  jNrfonn  nil  that  its  desiCTors 
have  propo8t>d,  it  only  f^niains  that  it  sltould  be  spread 
ill  different  directions  over  the  country,  or  at  the  least 
laid  in  communication  from  London  along  the  grral 
lines  of  thoroughfire. 

"  The  method  of  working  thr  apparatus  will  tw  readily 
understood,  .^t  each  extreiriity  of  the  line  of  rope— for 
it  would  work  both  wa;,  a — there  would  lie  an  office  for 
receiving  and  comi-iunicating  inteiliirence,  at  a  prion 
confonmible  to  the  extent  of  the  mCHsaire.  Beiii^  de- 
spatched from  one  end,  the  coii'munirntion  would  I* 
instiintaneousiy  received  nt  the  other  bv  nn  ollieiatin" 
clerk,  and  forthwith  miile  known  by  a  note  to  the  pa'iv 
concenied.  Thus  Intclliirenee  of  the  rise  ami  fail  cf 
stoi^ks,  forelirn  news,  orders  for  goods,  or  niiy  nthi-t 
M(>ecies  of  communication  of  an  urueiit  nature,  inijht 
with  the  utmost  fjcility,  and  at  u  trifling  cost,  be  trani- 
mitted  to  any  imaginal)le  diatance." 

Still  mori  latelj  the  galvanic  principle  has  Ven  a[v 
plied  to  the  regulation  of  cloekr,,  with  a  view  to  preserve 
a  unii'ormity  of  motion  in  nil  tiic  clucks  ig  c  town,  ^r  in 


I  pablie  ofBco,  to  whii 
(n  which  this  is  acc( 
uubited  at  the  Poly  I 


ELEC1 

KcrouK  noticing  th; 
nry  to  pivc  a  short  c 
properties  of  the  mag 
a  Maguc-iia,  in  Asia 
ivlii''li  the  remarkable  ] 
ing  other  kiiida  of  ir 
reived  i!in  n  iiiie  of  I 
njare  in  whk-li  it  was 
ienn»'""?'c'  and  mm 
huj  been  discovered  in 
tingdom  of  Naples,  ai 
lica.  This  magnetic  i 
quality  for  making  stcc 
rally  occurs  cryst^llizei 
droiu  i  its  attractive  qu 
to  the  air.  It  has  lik 
stones,  which  are  comf 
I  strong  magnetic  virtu 
earth. 

Although  the  ancien 
tractive  property  of  th 
mode  r.i  to  discover  thi 
nicated  to  the  iron  whii 
Since  this  important 
mjgntti,  composed  of  1 
easily  constructed  ;  and 
rirlues  of  the  loadstone 
metali  are  susceptible  ( 
mbalt  and  nickel ;  but 
ariil  in  the  arts. 

Independently  of  iittr 
fstraordinary  property  ( 
netic  bar  is  poised  at  th 
in  any  direction,  one  et 
of  the  earth  and  anothc 
(here  are  variations  in 
of  the  glolie,  but  with 
Detic  neetlle,  as  it  is  cal 
nd  another  to  the  soutl 
cDrnpsss  to  navigation, 
ibat  will  lie  immediate 
rlaubting  that  the  mag 
Jirity.    When  two  ma 
iJie  north  pole  of  the 
tlher,  and  the  same  wit 
gfopixMito  names  attr 
Miia  are  evidently  ana 
pojitive  and  negative  c1 
.Artificial  but  perman 
Marly  the  form  of  a  hor 
ihe  two  poles   arc   brr 
other,  and  t :  e  connects 
lits  by  a  small  piece 
'if  keeper,  which  serve 
itrtngth  of  the  magnet 
A  mju'net  of  this  form 
Fi».  8.      M    is   the   t 
»ith  a  ring  R  at   t!ie 
my  lie   aus|)eiided. 
liiEo  which  a  hook   is 
sfighls  beneath,    ^o    ii 
rtrength  of  the  magnetic 
In  1819.  Professor  ( 
t«?cn  established   a  nu 
IjUoii  iK'tween    mugiie 
fiectricily,  thus  laying 


Oi 


ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. 


261 


nablic  office,  to  which  wires  may  be  led.  The  manner 
hi  which  thii  is  accomplished  is  nov7  (or  was  lately) 
uiubited  at  the  Polytechnic  Institution  in  London. 


ELELTRO-MAONETISM. 

TtcroiiK  noticing  this  electric  quality,  it  seems  neces- 
„ry  to  piivc  a  short  explanation  of  magnetism,  or  the 
„ri)pcrlit»  of  the  iiiHi»nct.     Anciently,  there  wan  found 


1^  Mttgiio-'ia,  m  Asia,  a  certain  kind  of  iron  ore,  in 
(vhi'"li  the  remarkable  property  was  discovered  of  attract* 
-00  other  kinds  of  iron  or  steel ;  this  ore  afterwards 
fpceivdl  tli«  n;iuic  of  loadstone,  but  from  Magnesia,  the 
place  in  whii-h  it  was  originally  found,  v/e  deriv  i  the 
icmn  me?'  c'  ai'd  vms;>ieliim.  Latterly,  loadstone  ore 
haj  been  discovered  in  Siberia,  Sweden,  Piedmont,  the 
kingilom  of  Naples,  and  various  places  in  North  Amc- 
tica.  This  magnetic  iron  ore,  which  is  of  an  excellent 
nullity  for  making  steel,  is  of  a  dark  colour,  and  genc- 
„lly  occurs  crysKtUized  in  the  form  of  regular  octahe- 
drons; its  attractive  quality  is  strengthened  by  exposure 
to  the  air.  It  has  likewise  been  found  that  meteoric 
stones,  which  are  composed  of  iron  and  nickel,  possess 
I  strong  magnetic  virtue  resembling  the  loadstone  of  the 

earth. 

Although  the  ancients  were  acquainted  with  the  at- 
tractive property  of  the  loadstone,  it  was  left  for  the 
mwic  r.i  to  discover  that  the  property  could  bo  comrnii- 
iiicat«d  to  the  iron  which  the  magnetic  stone  attracted. 
Since  this  important  di3i;overy  was  made,  artificial 
magntii)  composed  of  bars  or  slips  of  iron,  have  been 
easily  constructed  ;  and  these  possess  all  the  attractive 
virtues  of  the  loadstone  itself.  Besides  iron,  a  few  other 
oelals  are  susceptible  of  Ucing  attracted,  such  as  pure 
robalt  and  nickel ;  but  the  power  is  weak  and  of  no 
jTiil  in  the  arts. 

Independently  uf  attracting  iron,  magnets  possess  the 
extraordinary  property  of  polarity.  When  a  small  mag- 
netic bar  is  poised  at  the  centre,  so  as  to  be  free  to  move 
in  any  direction,  one  end  points  towards  the  north  pole 
w  the  earth  and  another  towards  the  south.  It  is  true, 
ihcre  are  variations  in  the  direction  at  different  parts 
of  the  globe,  but  with  these  slight  exceptions,  the  mag- 
netic needle,  as  it  is  called,  offers  one  point  to  the  north 
inJ  another  to  the  south.  Hence  the  application  of  the 
tomi)a98  to  navigation.  (See  the  .\rticle  Ocka.v.)  From 
vhat  will  he  immediately  mentioned,  no  room  is  left  for 
lioubting  that  the  magnetic  virtue  is  referable  to  elec- 
jifity.  When  two  magnets  are  brought  near  together, 
the  north  pole  of  the  one  rciiels  the  north  pole  of  the 
other,  and  the  same  with  the  two  south  poles;  but  poles 
if  opjiosito  names  attract  each  other.  These  phcno- 
n»na  are  evidently  analogous  to  the  demonstrations  of 
positive  and  negative  electricity. 

.^rtiflcial  but  permanent  magnets  are  usually  made  in 
nearly  the  form  of  a  horse-shoe,  by  which 
the  two  polos  aro  brought  near  each 
«hfr,  and  t:  I' connected  u!  'he  '>xtremi- 
lirs  by  a  small  piece  of  solt  iron  called 
'he  keeper,  which  serves  to  increase  the 
itrtngth  of  the  ningnet  when  not  in  iim. 
A  maunet  of  this  form  is  represfutrd  in 
Fij.  B.  M  is  the  mngnet,  furiiishei'. 
»ith  a  ring  R  at  the  top,  by  which  it 
may  lie  »ui|)eiuli'd.  K  is  the  keeper, 
into  which  a  hook  is  fixed  supporting 
j-eights  bciK'uth,  -o  as  to  exhibit  the 
itrtngth  of  the  magnetic  influence. 

In  1819.  Professor  Oorhted  of  (/'open- 
ti^cn  fslublished  a  most  iiifcrrstitig  re- 
litioii  k-twivn  mugnotism  and  voltaic 
electricity,  thus  laying  the  foundation  of 


electro-magnetism.  He  discovered  that  when  a  wire  cou< 
ducting  electricity  is  placed  parallel  to  a  magnetic  needlii 
properly  suspended,  the  needle  will  deviate  from  its  ori- 
ginal or  natural  direction.  This  deviation  follows  a  regu* 
lar  law. 

1.  If  the  needle  is  ahovt  the  conducting  wire,  and  th« 
positive  electricity  goes  'rom  right  to  left,  the  north  end 
of  the  needle  will  be  moved  from  the  observer.  2.  If 
the  needle  is  behw  the  wire,  and  the  positive  electrcity 
passes  as  before,  the  north  end  of  the  needle  will  btf 
moved  towardi  the  observer.  3.  If  the  needle  is  in  the 
same  horizontal  plane  with  the  wire,  and  is  between  the 
observer  and  the  wire,  the  north  end  of  it  will  be  tlf- 
vated.  4.  If  the  needle  is  similarly  placed  on  the  oppo 
site  side,  the  north  end  of  it  will  Iw  depressed.  In  thes* 
two  experiments  the  needle  must  be  very  near  the  wire. 
From  these  simple  facts,  Mr.  Oersted  concludes  that  tlia 
magnetical  action  of  the  electrical  current  has  a  circolar 
motion  round  the  wire  which  conducts  it. 

The  metallic  wire  to  be  made  use  of  in  this  experiment, 
should  be  two  or  throe  feet  in  length,  to  allow  of  its  being 
bent  in  various  directions.  It  is  called  the  conjunctive 
wire.  Ampere  and  Davy  discovered  two  very  important 
facts  soon  after  Oersted  had  made  his  experiments  public 
— namely  that  the  conjunctive  wire  itself  becomes  a  mag- 
net, and  that  magnetic  properties  might  be  communicated 
to  a  8t(«l  needle,  not  previoutily  possessing  them,  by 
placing  it  in  the  electric  current ;  and  the  degree  of  mag< 
nntic  power  thus  communicated,  Davy  showed  was 
always  proportional  to  the  quantity  of  electricity  tran»> 
mitted  through  it.  When  the  conjunotive  wires  of  two 
distinct  galvanic  batteries  are  made  to  approach  each 
other,  they  exhibit  magnetic  attractions  and  repulsions. 
Two  wires  of  copper,  silver,  or  any  other  metal,  con- 
necting the  extremities  of  two  galvanic  troughs,  being 
placed  parallel  to  each  other,  and  suspended  so  as  to 
move  freely,  immediately  attract  and  repel  each  other, 
according  as  the  directions  of  the  currents  of  electricity 
flowing  through  them  are  the  same  or  different.  Upon 
this  experiment  is  founded  the  most  plausible  theory  of 
magnetism,  namely,  that  it  arises  from  the  a*tractions  and 
repulsions  of  currents  of  electricity,  constantly  circulating 
round  every  magnet.  This  is  conceived  to  explain  the 
reason  why  the  magnetic  needle  places  itself  at  right 
angles  to  a  wire  conducting  electri'~'ty,  nameVr,  that  the 
current  pasbing  along  the  wire  may  coincide  with  that 
circulating  round  the  magnet. 

From  these  and  other  experiments,  it  seems  clearly 
proved  that  electricity  and  magnetism  are  identical.  A 
permanent  magnet  is  supposed  to  bo  thus  constituU^it  :— 
It  is  a  mass  of  iron  or  steel,  round  the  axis  of  which 
electric  currents  arc  constantly  circulating,  and  these  cur- 
rents attract  all  otiier  electric  currents  flowing  in  the 
same  direction,  and  repel  all  others  which  are  moving  in 
an  opposite  direction.  The  ekctric  currents  flow  round 
every  magnet  in  the  same  direction  in  reference  to  its 
poles.  For  instance,  if  we  place  a  magnet  with  its  north 
{lole  pointing  I  >  '  i  north,  in  the  usual  position  of  the  mag- 
netic needle,  t:  .  irrent  of  electricity  flows  round  it  from 
west  to  cast  (thui  is,  the  direction  in  which  the  earth  and 
other  planets  revolve  round  the  sun),  or,  on  the  eastern 
side  of  tile  mugnet,  it  is  nioving  downwards,  on  the 
wcsti'rn  side  upwards,  on  the  upper  side  from  west  to 
east,  and  on  the  lower  side  I'roin  -ust  to  west.  'I'his  is 
fiund  to  I*  a  uniform  law.  To  complete  the  view  of 
tills  d'>ctrine,  it  remains  only  to  explain  the  influence  of 
thoer'li  on  the  magnet,  by  whi''li  *l-'  needle  is  kepi 
always  III  one  position,  nearly  coii  '  tJ'r.-  with  the  meii- 
dittii.  It  is  conjectured  that  currein.  '•  electricity,  aiuui- 
gous  to  those  which  circulate  round  every  mngnet,  uiv 
constantly  flowing  round  the  glolie.  as  the  CU' '  lit  ol 
electricity  in  a  galvanic  ajiparatus  moves  in  ai  .  irokou 
circuit  I'roiii  the  nogutive  to  the  positive  pole,  .au  iiroai 
it,  by  the  connecting  wire,  round  again  to  the  negativ* 


IM 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  lEOPLE. 


|ole  The  fUreotlon  of  thoM  currcntg  ii  inforrwl  to  bo 
ihe  Biini»  as  Iiod  lieon  BtsU-il  with  rrganl  to  ortiflcial  mag- 
netn;  nn'  it  ia  aimply  by  the  allractiona  nnil  rcpulHiona 
of  theB(  t  t'entrial  currcntfi,  bringing  the  current*  round 
the  nrc<llf  'o  coincido  wilh  them,  that  the  latter  alwaya 
pointH  io  the  north. 

By  t,  oans  :>f  m  (faK;inic  bi'i'  ry,  iron  may  be  tempora. 
rily  niannctiw'd,  that  ifs  endui*  with  an  attractive  power, 
»o  long  as  Iho  iron  isinconnpi  ion  wilh  the  acat  of  power 
in  tlie  trough.  When  a  metal;  •  wire  of  ffm«t  length  ia 
coiloil  rt  'id  tlio  iron,  forming  iilml  is  colletl  a  helix,  the 
magnetic  power  of  the  magiot  is  correapondingly  in- 
creased. The  wire  recjuires  to  be  previously  coated  with 
(ilk  vnrnis!ie<I,  to  prevent  the  electric  current  passing 
from  surface  to  surface  of  the  metal.  A  magnet  of  this 
kind  is  usimil  ,■  forme<l  in  the  .'h  ivj  of  a  horse-shoe,  as  in 
the  case  of  llio  permanent  '  agnet  already  mentioned. 
\Vh<  n  fiuspeiided  so  as  to  pic  v  nt  the  extrimities  down- 
wavd,  and  the  gnlvariic  commuuu-ation  is  established,  the 
magnetic  power 's  .■(  .mce  cx'i'c-.l,  and  a  piece  of  iron 
held  to  the  eitremiliiM  will  instiiiitly  lie  otlructcd  and  ad- 
Ucre.  On  brcjil:ing  the  commii.iiration  with  he  trcugh 
or  luitters'.  the  ni;ignetic  virtue  i<  destroyed,  and  the  ^usco 
o/  iriUi  which  was  ottmrted  dro{*  Klectro-ma.'iift^  Isave 
fthus  liccn  m.de  of  great  power;  oi.i-  i  nving  h-cen  im  '.ed 
"ivhi^'h  would  sustoin  a  weight  of  2(iG  >  pounds,  oi  r.. :  rJy 
a  ton.  There  is,  however,  no  u.'Uiigiiable  limits  to  the 
power  oi"  the  uppnratus. 

F.lertrn-mn  ^;ie(H,  like  those  formed  r»  rmanentiy,  / 1  - 
iVM  oppHfiite  |K)io9,  or  •  attnictfng  and  i.iiother  repelling. 
From  t'i'>  }iroperty  (he  ;iU""mpt  has  been  made  to  give 
Mtjiti  ,  '.<  H  ".t'^boI,  co...-"isting  of  cross  liars  of  iron;  one 
poL'  ui"  •-■vt^c  »  bur  (>rid  another  rcjH'tiina;  it,  and  thus, 
jiy  rt  la  !  •  a'>eri)Al  Oi  M'  poles,  I'liuiiig  the  wheel  to  re- 
tolve,  Arr.th"  r  i>'.  'i  hah  coiisist:>il  in  reiterated  attrnc- 
tinns,  with  ii.mvii!i3  dc.'itii  which  ;hf  iittraction  is  dc- 
•trfned;  in  i.tii  i  wn.us,  tiio  .sttrailion  iK'irig  destroyed, 
M  i<'!,»te«  to  oil  "mr  of  t!,j  whe<'l,  that  bar  is  lib<'riit<'d 
•^nd  »11  >wed  I.'  pro  on,  whii:  the  attractioi.  is  being  exerted 
<Hi  the  njxt  b»r. 

f'Ur'rc-H[c^.itlic  Maehine$. — The  possibility  of  moving 
afiall  pieces  of  mec.hanisfh  by  electro-magnetic  action,  to 
'Ahicli  nllusioii  hiui  just  l>een  made,  has  Ikvu  known  for 
B  tiumbs'r  of  jears ;  but  as  far  as  nc  have  heard,  the 
prircipte  was  not  applied  practically  till  1837,  when  it 
w„  1  idapted  by  P'ofesjor  Jacchi  .f  SSl.  Petersburg,  to  the 
propulsion  of  a  si'iall  vessel  on  the  Neva.  Under  the 
■nspiccs  of  an  imporial  co<iHMiti«ii..n,  the  fiitrt  attempt  was 
made  on  the  25th  of  8epteml>C!',  1  HAS.  \  galley  or  lioat, 
38  feet  in  length  and  7i  .n  bremltb,  was  provided  with 
paddles  similar  to  thtwe  of  a  ste.^m-veascl,  and  the  ap)>a- 
latus  wag  put  on  board.  Tie  srtioi;  was  pro<1iiced  from 
820  paim  of  platev,  «rrange,1  alornj  tl»o  sides  of  the  bout, 
and  room  was  left  for  twelve  ()er3ons.  Owing  to  imper- 
fections in  the  arrangements,  the  attempt  to  pro|iel  the 
vessel  with  its  burden  of  apparatus  and  paimipngeni  was 
less  succ»-'*«fu!  thar.  was  expected  ;  nevertheless,  the  pro- 
fessor suicecdfd  in  making  the  iKiat  proceed  against  the 
•tream,  and  the  speed  attained  in  still  Hater  was  three 
English  miles  per  hour.  In  thif  tnd  other  pfforts  of  Pro- 
fessor Jncnbi.  his  plan  consistcti  in  rapidly  reversing  tlic 
poles  during  the  action. 

While  Jacobi  was  busy  with  his  experiments  in  Rus- 
■ia,  me<hanif'in«  in  E^n^landand  America  were  pur.ining 
•  similar  course  of  iMvenligation.  Im  ;kiiirch,  lf..17,  Mr. 
Davenport  e\biliited  at  New  York  an  electro-n»agnelic 
machine  of  consiiieiable  power;  ami  nore  lately  great 
ailvuiires  in  the  art  of  eliTtro-inagnelir  motion  were  made 
in  Cirrmany  by  Stochn-r  of  I.ejiisic  and  others,  on  the 
pnnciplis  of  Jacobi  ;  and  in  scime  instam-es  with  reiiiwl;- 
oltlc  ^n'•ceHs.  '  irihng  to  the  arcnunts  given  of  th«-ir 
•X|ieriini>nts,  i'  irs    tliat   the  jMiwer  of  the  elect;' 

Ittaii'ietic     ini*  is  increased    in   propuMion    to   tb 

MUuri'S 'il   tlu.' ..uui^cr  uf  till,  elenientif   of  the   liattcrii.- 


Wo  regret  to  say  that  this,  like  all  other  en,"ii  ciatinns  «• 
the  subject,  wants  the  confinr.ation  of  practical  men ,  am 
up  till  the  j-eriod  wo  now  Miito  (December,  1841)  f. 
trustworthy  account  has  rcacJied  us,  as  respects  eilhei  iIk 
ratio  of  tho  magnetic  power  or  the  expanse  at  which  i 
can  bo  obtained. 

Machines  constructed  on  the  principle  of  altomaft 
attraction  and  repulsion  being  liable  to  several  objectionR 
those  in  which  a  reiterated  series  of  attractions  are  em' 
ployed  are  more  likely  to  answer  the  end  of  practirnl 
working.  A  mechine  of  this  kind  was  contrived  by  M^ 
R.  Davidson,  of  Aberdeen,  in  1839,  and  brxight  into 
notice  by  the  folloiving  letter  from  Professor  Porbci,  of 
King's  College  in  that  v-ity,  to  Professor  Faraday  (Oct.  7 
1839),  wiiich  v*:i.t  j,t:!:!ib!wd  in  the  Ijondoa  and  /;,(„,.' 
Imri;h  Philoiophicni  Jintrr.'il . — "  (laving  seen  a  notice  from 
Mr.  Jacobi  ."nt  l-y  you  to  th"  t^mdvii  miH  Eiliiihu,„li 
I'hilosnphirni  Manc'  iw  ■.  legardi.ig  the  ^ijtcess  of  his  ej. 
pcritiicnts  oi;  the  j'r'  .;i!,lion  of  n  Inovi^l;  p 'vurby  eledto. 
magnetism,  I  ism  suro  it  will  give  yoi  \i'.  u  i'k  to  know 
tlii' a  counts  .nm  of  i;i'  .iw:>,  I r.  i! '.•!)<  >■  '  at-idnor,  o| 
tl  -  place,  hi  J  )  eeneniitien'-l;  dUice'trni  i',  i.^^  luhoum  in 
the  s!>me  field  tV'  discovery.  For,  in  tln>  I'lrst  place, le 
has  i,:\  arrange.;  cut  by  which,  wilh  o:i!y  two  electro- 
magnels,  ■  id  less  than  one  sijuiru  foot  of  /inc  surfnre 
(the  negative  nii  'al  lieing  copjMT),  a  lathe  is  4riven  wiih 
such  velocity  o»  in  •  capable  nf  lnri!iii;r  miuII  nrticlpa. 
>'-  •  >nil!y,  •'■  has  another  'lu.siii;!  lent  l-.,  which,  wiih 
tiic  canif  inaM  cm  tent  of  galvii<iic  p^  iW'r,  a  small  eiirriaL'e  is 
dr''en,  Hi!  which  two  pers'MiS  vcre  '■arr.ed  nloiia  a  very 
co^.'KC  ""od>  n  fioo-r  of  a  i  '  Ar>^i  he  bus  a  tliird  ar. 
ra?iieni<'.\;,  not  yc-  (omplote  '  l)_\  wbicb,  from  the  inipcr. 
feci  .^xperii'ii-nt'  li<  i  as  ninile,  he  expects  to  giiin  vprv 
conhiderable  More  force  from  the  same  extent  of  galvanic 
power  tlirn  from  either  of  •he  other  two. 

"The  first  two  of  thcso  arrangements  were  seen  in 
operation  by  Dr.  Fleming,  Professor  i-\  Niitiirul  Philoso. 
phy  in  this  University,  and  myself,  some  days  ago;  anil 
there  rciiiiiins  no  doubt  on  our  minds,  that  Mr.  DaviJ. 
son's  arr  iiigi  mentu  will,  when  finished,  be  found  avail. 
able  as  e  hi'^hly  useful,  cfl'icient,  and  excccdin^rly  simple 
moving  ,;..\ver.  He  has  been  busily  eni|iloyc(l  for  the 
last  two  Y  '  »rs  in  his  attempts  to  perfect  his  machines, 
during  uU  which  time  I  have  l><>eii  acquainted  wilh  his 
progress,  aiu!  can  l>ear  testimony  to  the  great  ingonuilv 
li''  has  shown  in  overcoming  the  nuinberles.H  diflirullii's 
he  lias  hud  to  encounter,  bo  far  as  I  know,  Im  was  the 
first  who  employed  the  electro-magnetic  power  in  pro 
ducing  mot  :'n  by  simply  suB|)eiuling  the  magnetism 
without  a  chiiiigo  of  the  poles.  This  he  accomplished 
akiut  two  years  ago.  Aiiout  tb.e  same  time,  he  also  con- 
structed galvanic  batteries  on  i'rofcssor  Dunicll's  plan,  hv 
nub.stituting  a  particular  sort  of  canvas  instead  of  f;ut, 
which  substitution  answers  [)erfcctly,  is  vcr;  durable,  and 
can  he  inrnlo  of  any  form  or  size.  .And,  lastly,  he  ha.-. 
asccrtained  the  kind  of  iron,  i;nd  the  mode  of  working  it 
into  the  liest  state  for  producing  the  strongest  magiic' 
with  certainty. 

"  The  firot  two  machines,  seen  ir  operation  by  Dr. 
Fleming,  and  mys<'lf,  are  exceed -igly  simple,  without, 
indeed,  the  least  compl''xity ,  an.!  therefore  easily  niiin- 
ageable,  snd  not  liable  tc  di  raiigement.  They  also  take 
up  very  little  room.  As  yet,  the  extent  of  power  olwl.irh 
they  are  capable  lini  nut  lieen  at  a'l  ascertained,  as  thf 
sire  of  I'B'tei-v  employed  is  so  trilling  and  the  majinets  ■ ' 
few ;  bul  from  what  can    N'  judged   by  what  is  alrei'lv 


done,  it 
no  de<'  •' 
niH!. 
less  ■ 
tai:i'  ' 


.  ins  to  l)e  probiibb-  tliiit  a  very  great  pimcr,  tn 

V  '■  infe.-ior  to  that  of  steam,  lni(  innch  ni'rf 

much  less  ex|»'ii«ivp,  ami  occu[>_.  i  .»!  eroaiN 

the  coals  lie  taken  into  account,  may  lie  oh 


(WORKS  ON 


.  ort,  the  inventions  of  Mr.  Davidson  wemtoh 

<  ■'  tling  to  railioaii  proprietors  in  particular,  iImI  ii 

b<!  iiiuih  iv  tiair  ii.^crost  to  lul>e      .  tli«  iuhiPvl 


ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. 


9(1 


Uid  be  tt  tho  expcnup  of  making  the  expcrimenl*  ncccs* 
nry  to  hriii)!;  this  power  into  operation  on  the  gront 
mile,  which,  inilccti,  would  bo  very  trifling  to  n  company, 
trhile  it  is  very  xcrioiiR  fur  an  individual  by  no  nioana 
rich,  and  who  has  already  expended  so  much  of  bin  time 
(Hid  money  for  the  inero  desire  of  perfecting  machinci 
wliich  he  expected  would  ho  ao  beneficial  to  his  country 
lOid  to  mankind.  For  it  de«crve«  to  bo  mentioned,  that 
lie  haa  niiule  ro  secret  of  his  operations,  but  bos  shown 
Did  explained  all  that  ho  has  done  to  every  one  who 
irjhed  it.  His  motives  have  iHien  quite  disinterested, 
fg^i  I  shall  deem  it  a  reproach  to  our  country  and  coun- 
trynicn  if  ho  bo  allowed  to  languish  in  obscurity,  and  not 
h»TO  an  oppi^rtunily  alliirded  him  of  perfecting  his  inven- 
tions and  bringing  them  into  operation,  when  they  pro- 
mise to  1)0  productive  of  such  incalculable  advantages." 

The  following  notice  of  Mr.  Davidson's  operations  otler- 
mrds  nppoariv)  in  tho  Jlbtrdecn  ComiUutional  newspaper, 
Noveml>i;r6,  \Mi):— 

uj/lr.  Davidson's  invaluable  invention  is  now  set  down, 
by  Lommiin  consent,  as  tho  dcnideratum  that  has  been 
wanting  to  perfect  the  power  of  locomotive  agency. 
Heveral  tliounandu  hiivo  visited  the  exhibition,  among 
(fhomw.is  Professor  Hamel,  whose  opinion  was  decidedly 
favournlile  lo  tho  iiiinciplo.  At  a  meeting  of  the  Btili.sh 
Awocidtion  of  Science,  held  ut  (JIasgow  the  other  week, 
Professor  Jacobi  read  a  paper  on  the  power  of  electro-mag- 
netism, which  seemed  to  point  to  some  great  improvement 
in  tlic  science:  but  the  principle  on  which  Mr.  Davidson's 
inaoHiiu'  proceeds  is  altogether  difll-rent  from  that  on 
which  Jacobi's  experiments  were  made.  Professor  Ja- 
cdM  produces  motion  by  changing  tho  poles  of  tho  mag- 
n?Ui,  Mr.  Davidsoii  by  cutting  oil"  the  galvanic  current  at 
riven  points — tho  (lowcr  alternating,  as  tiio  rotation  pro- 
ojtjs,  Iroin  a  neutralized  magnet  to  a  newly  charged  one. 
la  both  experimcnU,  it  has  been  clearly  demonstrated 
that  the  power  of  the  magnet  is  increased  by  increasing 
Ihc  diameter,  and  adding  to  the  length  of  the  helix.  The 
power  may  be  also  increased  by  iucroasinf;  ilis  sizes  of 
the  bars.  Ori  the  principle  of  changing  tho  jwles  of  tho 
magnet,  the  advantages  of  this  increase  of  power  could 
not  be  made  so  fully  available  as  on  the  principle  of  neu- 
tmliiiiig  the  nagnets — there  being  m  the  one  case  a  back 
action,  whicl.  retards  the  momentum  power,  while  in  the 
other  the  f  tation  is  constant,  which  tends  to  increase 
that  powe-  Acconling  to  the  proportions  assigned  by 
Jicobi,  ar  almost  indeliuite  amount  of  power  may- bo  ob- 
tained !>■  increasing  the  diameter  of  the  ro<ls,  and  the 
iiuantit'  of  wire  or  helix  ;  this,  too,  constitutes  an  iiuli-x 
of  tha*  power  so  simple  and  practicable,  that  it  may  bo 
rcguli'led  to  a  fraction." 

In  coiicUuling  the  subject  of  Electricity,  in  the  various 
raclhwlH  in  whicli  it  is  artificially  denionstrated,  it  is  nece's- 
tary  to  remind  tlio  reader  tliat  the  science,  in  all  its  de- 
partments, is  still  in  its  int'oiicy,  and  olfcra  great  scope 
<i  r  the  cr.terprV?  of  ingenious  students. 


[WORKS  ON  F.r.KOTRiniTY,  GALVANISM,  AND 

lu.ix-rno-MACJNi-rrisM. 

The  following  works  o'l  tho  subject  of  Electricity  may 
to  raenlioneil  a>i  deserving  the  reade.  s  notice. 
f'l",  Pri(">  lley's  -'/^fr  ihtrlinn  lo  thr  Sluilij  of  Elerlririty" 
■  v'!".:!  ''If  the  niiiii,  iiited;  but  it  U  out  of  print,  and 
.J  ^.,d^e»  hoiij(j  ■  >.i',  is  luit  likely  to  twt  brought  again  be- 
.ore  tlie  public  As  at  .:liKtitule  fjr  this,  the  sixth  volume 
of  the  "  Snenli/ic  !)i.:l.iL:  t"  may  be  fitly  used,  in  which 
are  accumit.'itedall  the  common  and  nv  '  iiiu  csting  ex- 
periments; which,  iH'ing  reiieated,  wi'  the  directions 
given  for  thuL  pcrforman^;,  tho  yoiuig  electrician  will 


afterwards  find  no  difTicuIty  !k:    Jie  pursuit  of  cioctrical 
knowledgo  in  all  its  branches. 

"Jin  K$f<iy  nn  JCterlririly,"  SiC,  hy  OecrgB  Adams, 
with  improvements  by  W.  Jones,  is  a  valuable  compilation 
of  all  tho  material  and  experiments  in  this  brunch  of 
science. 

"J  Compltte  Trenlite  on  Electricity,  in  Ttieory  and 
Prnrtirc"  in  3  vols.,  8vo,  by  Tiberius  Cavallo,  i»  a  very 
prr>|)or  work  for  those  who  ate  desirous  of  an  extensive 
knowli  ','0  in  every  department  of  electricity.  Tho  first 
volume  treats  of  tho  laws  and  theory  of  electricity,  and 
contains  a  full  detail  of  tho  practical  branches  of  the 
science.  In  tho  second,  tho  author  describes  a  number 
of  new  ex|ieriments,  enters  rather  at  largo  on  the  suoject 
of  medical  electricity,  which  was  in  much  more  estima- 
tion twenty  years  ago  than  it  is  at  present,  and  treats  of 
tho  electrical  projicrties  of  the  torpedo,  &c.  In  tho  third 
volume  will  Iks  found,  among  other  interesting  subjects,  a 
particular  account  of  what  was  then  deemed  animal  the- 
trinity,  but  now  denominated  galvanism. 

"  The  History  anil  I'rescnt  Slnte  of  Klertririly,"  by 
Joseph  Priestley,  I.L.D.,  F.K.S.,  &c.,  will  always  be  a 
stock  book,  valuable  as  a  work  of  reference,  and  highly 
interesting  to  those  who  would  wish  to  truce  the  progress 
of  (ho  science  to  that  advanced  period  in  which  it  waa 
when  tho  author  wrote. 

"Principles  of  Elcitricity,. containing  divert  now  Theo- 
rems iind  Experimentt,"  &c.,  by  Charles  Viscount  Mahon. 
This  work  was  published  on  the  occasion  of  tho  uispute 
which,  more  than  thirty  years  ago,  engaged  the  attention 
of  electricians,  respecting  the  iKist  mode  of  securing  build- 
ings from  the  cfTects  of  lightning. 

"  Practiml  Eleitricily  and  Ualvnnism,"  by  John  Cuth- 
bortson,  Philosophical  Instrument  Maker,  contains  an 
extensive  series  of  interesting  exp«;riment8. 

"Elemenls  of  Etectricily  and  Electro-Chemistry,"  by  G»<>. 
Singer  ; "  Misieltancotts  Experiments  and  liemnrki on Elec- 
Irifily,"  &c.,  with  a  description  of  an  electrometer  on  a 
new  construction, by  A.  Brook  ;  ond  "  New  Ejperimento  in 
Electricity,"  wherein  tho  causes  of  thunder  and  lightning 
are  explained,  &c.,  also  a  description  of  a  doubler  of  elec- 
tricity, and  the  most  sensible  electrometer,  &c.,  by  the 
Ilcv.  A.  Dennett,  F.R.S.,  are  excellent  treatises,  and  may 
l>e  consulted  with  pleasure  and  improvement  by  the  stu- 
dent in  electricity. 

The  roost  elegant  and  scientific,  and  at  the  same  time 
cflcmentary  account  of  tho  phenomena  of  electricity,  ex- 
plained on  the  simple  theory  of  Franklin,  is  that  con- 
tained in  the  Supplement  to  the  former  edition  of  the 
Encyilojiffdid  firitannica,  under  the  head  Electricity, 
which  was  drawn  up  by  the  lata  Professor  Robinson. 


GALVANISM. 

Of  the  writers  on  tliis  branch  of  science  there  is  but 
little  to  be  said  :  it  is  even  yet  too  much  in  its  infancy  to 
have  admitted  of  a  regular  elementary  treatise  ;  but  inde- 
pendently of  the  third  volume  of  Cavallo's  Electricity,  to 
which  we  have  Iteforc  referred,  thO  student  should  be  in- 
formed of  tho  following  works : 

"  Experiments  on  Jlnimal  Electricity,  with  their  Appli^ 
cation  lo  Physu)lnf;y"  &c.,  by  Eusebiua  Valli,  M.D. 

"  Experiments  and  Ubservalions  lielative  to  the.  Inftu 
ence  lately  discovered  by  M.  Galvani,  cutimionly  caludj3ni' 
mal  Eleclrinly,"  by  R.  Fowler. 

"  jin  Aieount  of  the  Laic  Improvements  in  Galvatiism, 
with  a  set  of  Curious  Exjteriments"  &c.,  by  Jolm  Aldinl. 
These  tracts  contain  many  judicious,  we.'. -conducted, and 
highly  inleresliiig  experiments;  but  they  .cla'.e  wholly  to 
Galvanism,  and  A-ero  .ill  written  prior  to  the  discoveiios 
since  made  by  means  of  V  olta's  batteries.  -  Jm  Ed.] 


f ',? 


^r,  \,t-«,.(ii*.  •<»(i;<'  '\-r.'}  ■■'•|,».'* 


METEOROLOGY-THE  WEATHER. 


MCTEOROLOOY  i"  tho 
uriocu  of  the  Weu- 
tb'<,  unJ  treuta  of  th« 
|.<i«fioniena  whirh  oc- 
cur ill  tho  atnioaphrre, 
IIkMi  .■:-nM'8aii(l  clToctii. 
Meii  ill  all  ui;vi  of  *o- 
ciety  havo  been  led,  by 
luotivGi  uf  nucciwity  or 
comfort,  to  Mtudy  tho 
iiidiratioiia  of  the  wea- 
ther in  tho  dillerent  ai>- 
{loaranroH  of  tho  itkicH. 
The  mariner,  ttie  ihcphcrd,  the  husliandinan,  and  tho 
hunter,  hav'<  '.tie  (trongoat  motives  to  examine  closely 
e»ery  varyiiin  appearance  which  may  prcrcde  more  im- 
portant cliaii);eg.  'I'ho  result  of  those  ol»icrvation8  forniH 
■  IxMiy  of  maxims,  in  which  facta  aro  often  Rtat<<d  cor- 
rectly, but  mixed. with  erroneous  deductions  and  super- 
■titious  notions,  such  as  tho  credulity  of  ignorant  |)co- 
plo  always  renderd  them  ready  to  adopt  Hence  tho 
disposition  to  refer  thfl  ordiimry  chaiii;es  of  the  weather 
to  tho  iailuencc  of  tho  moon,  ami  even  the  stars ;  and 
to  look  for  aiuns  of  approaching  convulHiuns,  even  in 
the  moral  world,  in  horrid  comets  and  strv.ngo  metcorii. 
The  pro^rcHS  of  science,  which  tends  to  separate  the 
casual  precursors  from  the  real  causes  of  phenoiiiena, 
nfutes  tliexc  false  reasonings,  di:tsipatcs  the  empty  ter- 
rors to  which  they  give  rise,  and  uimx,  by  more  patient, 
long-contiiiui'd,  and  wide-<'xtcnded  observations,  to  de- 
duce the  general  rules  by  which  tho  phcnomona  e^  tlic 
atmosphere  apjicar  to  l)e  regulated.* 

Meteorology,  therefore,  taken  as  a  distinct  bvanch  of 
knowledge,  rests  on  no  idle  coiijecturec  or  imaginary 
ieara,  but  has  iu  foundations  in  the  nscertai  led  truths 
of  physical  science.  The  phenomena  to  which  it  re- 
fers arc  accounted  for  by  natural  laws  disclosed  to  uk  in 
tl'e  study  of  chemistry,  elerlricity,  the  atmospheric  pro- 
perties, optics,  acoustics,  hent,  and  other  departments 
of  phyiiics.  Of  all  branches  of  learning,  none,  perhuiw, 
is  more  serviceable  in  clearing  the  mind  from  supersti- 
tion than  that  now  iK'fore  us;  and,  on  that  account 
alone,  indc|iendenlly  of  all  other  considerations,  we  are 
anxious  tliut  it  should  Iw  extensively  uiulcrst'xxl  among 
the  classes  whom  we  have  the  pleasure  to  address. 
That  nothing  may  lie  left  U>  doubt,  we  commence  by  r. 
recapitulali.jii  of  the  leading  facts  coiinei-li'd  with  the 
atmosjihere,  from  preceding  treatises,  along  with  some 
lew  matter  of  information. 

THF    ATMOSPHERE. 

The  atmosphere  is  an  invisible  a^Tiform  fluid,  which 
wraps  till'  whole  cart),  round  to  an  elevation  of  about 
forty-five  miles  above  the    highest   mountains.      This 
freat  ocean  of  air,  as   vc  may  call  it,  is  far  from  Ix-ing 
nf  a  uniform  density  tni<uighout  its  mats.     At  and  ricir 
the  level  of  the  sea  it  is  n;o»t  dense,  in  cons«'(|uenre  of 
the  prt'Msure  ab.ive.     As  wt-  ascemi   mountains,  or  in  j 
uny  other  way  j)enttratc  upwar<ls,  (he  air  l>ecomes     r*.  I 
du..lly  less  dense ;   ami  so  thin   is  it  at   Ibe   height   uf  j 
."hree  miles,  as,  for  instance,  on  the  summit  of  Mont-  . 
Blanc,  one  of  the  Alps,  that  breulhtiig  is  there  per-  ; 
formed  wilh  some  difficulty.   Beyond  tiiis  limited  height,  | 
the  density  of  the  air  continues  to  diminish ;   and  at  the  ' 
•l^vatioii  of  about  forty-five  miles  it  is  l)elicved  to  ter- 
minate.    Ho  dense  aro  the  lower  in  proportion  to  the  j 
bigiwr  regiims,  tlml  one-Hilf  of  tho  entire  body  of  air 

•  Coiive    tiions  Lexicon. 


I  ia  l>elow  a  height  of  three  miles,  tho  othrr  hilf  l«(g, 
expanded  iiiiu  a  volume  of  upwards  of  forty  miiu 

Tho  extreme  height  of  the  atmosphere  is  not  obwrv. 
able  from  the  situation  in  which  we  urn  placed  on  ths 
earth.  Our  eye,  on  being  cast  upwards,  perceives  only 
a  vast  expanded  vault,  tinted  <vith  u  deep  but  delicau 
blue  colour ;  and  this  in  common  language  is  called  th« 
heavens  or  the  sky.  The  blueness  so  apparent  to  nur 
sense  of  sight  is  the  action  of  the  rays  of  light  upon  th« 
thin  fluid  of  the  upix>r  atmosplicre,  and  the  brightnrii* 
is  in  proportioit  to  tlie  absenco  of  clouds  anil  other 
watery  vapours.  In  proportion  as  tho  s|;cetator  rises 
from  the  surface  of  the  cartli,  and  has  less  air  abova 
him,  and  that  very  rare,  the  blue  tint  gradually  diatp. 
pears ;  and  if  he  could  attain  a  height  at  wliich  there  ia 
no  air,  say  fifty  miles  ubove  the  level  of  the  sea,  the 
sky  would  appear  dark  !>r  black.  'I'ravellers  who  iiave 
ascended  to  great  heights  on  lofty  mountuiiis,  describe 
the  o|)pearance  of  tho  sky  from  these  elevated  stations 
OS  dark  or  of  a  blackish  hue. 

The  atmosphere  exerts  a  certain  pressure  on  all  olv 
jects,  the  degree  of  pressure  being  of  course  in  propor- 
tion ti>  the  height  of  the  atmos|)liere  iit  the  s])ot  The 
part  ut  which  the  pressure  is  greatest  is  at  the  level  of 
the  sea,  for  there  tho  otmosphere  is  highest  The 
pressure  at  the  level  is  ordinarily  couiput^vl  to  lie  8))out 
fifteen  |ioundg  on  every  Rquarc  inch.  At  every  atrp 
upward  from  the  level  of  tho  oceiiii,  the  burden  of  the 
suiH'rincumlH'iit  mass  lightens,  and  ut  the  height  of 
three  miles,  one-half  of  tho  weight  is  lost 

'the  Ritromcler. — The  pressure  of  fifteen  pounda  to 
tho  square  inch  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  is  found  by  ex. 
pcriment  to  l)c  equal  to  the  weight  of  a  coliniin  of  mer- 
cury of  thirty  inches  in  height ;  and  the  fact  of  auch 
lieing  the  case  has  suirgested  the  conHtruction  of  an  in- 
strument to  measure  the  atmoMpheric  pressure  at  differ- 
ent [loints  and  in  various  circumstances.  'J'his  iiiitru. 
ment  is  called  tho  Imromticr,  a  coi'ipound  from  t*.> 
Greek  Aiords,  signifying  weight  and  measure. 

T!ie  barometer  in  common  us<'  consists  of  a  narrow 
glass  tube  upwanls  of  thirty  inclics  in  lengtli,  un.l  l)«i4 
upwards  at  its  lower  extremity,  us  repri  rented  in  fig,  1, 
The  mercury  is  introduced  into  the  lube  with  great  rare, 
so  that  a  perfect  vacuum  exists  at  the  upper  extremity, 
Tho  surface  of  the  mercury  in  tlio  «. 
lient  part  is  open  to  the  action  of  the  "^ 
atmosphere,  and  b  inys  up  a  small  plum- 
met or  float  F,  to  viiich  a  thread  is  at- 
tached; the  thread  proceeds  upwards 
to  a  small  pulley  it,  over  which  it  g.irs, 
and  terminates  in  a  small  ball  W, 
The  friction  of  the  thread  on  the  ])iilley 
turns  a  small  index  II,  whii'h  ]N>iiits  to 
figures  on  the  Kurroundini;  dial.  Com- 
monly, the  whole  upparstus,  except 
the  dial-plate,  is  concealed  in  an  orna- 
ini'ntul  frame.  Barom  'tcrs  of  \\\\.i  de- 
scription are  adjuKted  in  such  n  inanner 
that  the  smallest  rising  ur  falling  of  tho 
mercury  from  etinosplierjo  action,  af- 
fects the  index  on  the  dial,  and  ciinse- 
quently  shoivs  the  degree  of  pressure. 

In  comnion  circiimstiinccs,  the  mer- 
cury rangvs  from  twenty-nine  to  thirty 
iiiches.  It  seldom  sinks  so  low  uh  twuiity-«ight  or  riies 
to  thirty-one  When  it  falls,  an  indication  is  given  of 
diminished  pressure  nnd  as  diminished  pressure  cauata 
the   air   to  exp  i  <1   const^iuently   to  He  aenaiblv 


^ed,  itioisture  is 
oimin      Hence  a 
ii  considered  a  pro 
a  rise  the  reverse, 
iccordinc'v". 

The  common  ni 
(he  state  of  the  weai 
ire  In  many  cases  \ 
on  the  situation  in 
dluatcil  near  the  set 
will  appear  greater 
quently,  no  genera 
rery  dissimilar.     In 
taineil  on  this  subji 
lorved  that  changes 
ictnal  height  of  the 
One  of  the  most  gei 
bic  rules  is,  that  w 
therefore  tho  at  mo? 
itonns  may  be  ex  pi 
ncrally  be  relied  uf 
Generally  the  riuip 
proiich  of  fair  weati 
proach  of  fi>ul  weal 
of  the  mercury  indie 
rise  of  the  mercury 
ffllos  thaw,  and  its 
change  of  weather 
barometer  may   be 
Thus,   if  fi.ir   weatt 
lie  mercury,  there 
Mine  way,  if  foul  ' 
eery,  it  will  last  bu 
enntinije  for   severa 
oonstantly  fulls,  a  In 
prdiably  ensue ;  am' 
ml  (lays,  while  the  r 
eenion  of  fair  wea 
Hurtliatiiig  iitid  iin 
inilicates  chan^enbl 
would  beeomo   a  m 
itcad  of  the  Wiirds 
fot  of  the  best  estat 
companied  it,  wliii 
plate  or  printed  on 
thi«  writer)  to  e\|; 
of  probability  wliic 
justified.  There  is 
will  hold  good." 

Tht    Tlirriiii»!ii;'i 
capnrify  of  reeeivjn 
isys  or  any  other  s 
proportionate  to  tin 
corJingly  varicrf  in 
•hat  the  air  is  inon 
111(1  this  is  a  ]>^(•^llil 
difference  of  denKit 
pound  wciijht  of  u 
pound  weight  ut   a 
Snd  that  each  pomi 
tity  of  heat;  but  in 
the  air  will  feel  wa 
lir  will  feel  cool. 
•  truth.     \  pound 
compact  in  substai 
imall  bulk  ;  but  fh 
1  opiiere  is  thill, 
This  explains  wh' 
■vcmingly  colder  tl 
U  as  w  .  1  It  i> 

(.rrt:  ,  .  .-.loro  \ 
pff  ■,  V  ^.  ;re'%'  '^r 
'-)i'l  ill  .  ^h  sifuii  i( 
Ibn  from  the  iiii-  il 
Vol.  1 :t4 


f'^M 


METEOROLOGY— THE   WEATHER. 


Sfli 


^ed,  moigtui*  ii  Ii«l)lo  to  be  precipitntml  in  the  form 
oimin  Hciire  a  fall  in  llwi  morcury  of  the  barometer 
li  connidcrod  a  proiftioHtir.  of  niiii  or  wet  weather,  and 
I  tiu  the  reverse.  I'liu  dial  of  the  barometer  is  marked 
iccordinc'y. 

The  cottimon  ruled,  however,  an  to  prognoatiratlngr 
(he  »tate  of  the  weather  from  the  action  of  'iio  barometer, 
irc  in  many  raBes  very  illusory,  becauw)  much  depemls 
on  th«  nitimtion  in  viihieh  the  barometer  is  placed.     If 
liluatcd  near  the  neaV  levi'l,  the  prcHsuro  on  the  nierc\iry 
will  appear  groiiler  than  if  on  a  high  ground,  and,  conse- 
quently, no  general  scnl((  nm  apply  to  conditions  so 
fery  dissimilar.     In  allii<linif  to  the  vulgar  errors  enter- 
tjined  on  this  subject,  Dr.  Liirdner  remarks — "  It  is  ob- 
(crvcd  that  changes  of  we:ither  are  indicated,  not  by  the 
B^ual  height  of  the  mercury,  but  by  its  change  of  height. 
One  of  the  most  general,  though  not  absolutely  invaria- 
ble rules  is,  that  where  the  mercury  is  very  low,  and 
(hereforo  the  atmosphere  very  light,  high   winds   and 
itonns  may  be  expected.     The  following  rules  may  ge- 
nerally be  relied  upon,  at  least  to  a  certain  extent; — 1. 
Generally  the  rising  of  l!\o  mercury  indicates  the  ap- 
nroiich  of  fair  weather ;  the  falling  of  it  shows  the  np- 
poach  of  foul  weather.     2.  In  sultry  weather  the  fall 
of  the  mercury  indicates  coming  thunder;  in  winter  llie 
rise  of  the  mercury  indicates  frost;  in  fi'ost  its  fall  inc'li- 
(stcs  thaw,  and   its  rise  indicates  simw.     3.  Whatever 
change  of  weather  suddeidy  follows,  a  change  in  the 
Wrometcr  may   be  expected  to  iast  but   a   short   time. 
Thus,  if  fi.ir   weather  follow  immediately  the  rise  of 
the  mercury,  there  will  be  ve-y  little  of  it;   and  in  ♦'•., 
«nie  way,  if  foul   weather  follow  the  fa!!  of  th(    mer- 
csiry,  it  will  last  but  a  short  time.     4.  If  fair  weather 
continue  for   several  days,  during  which  the   mercury 
constantly  fall.-i,  a  long  continuance  of  foul  weather  will 
proliahly  ensue ;  .Tiid  again,  if  foul  weather  last  for  seve- 
ral (lays,  while  the  nierciiry  eontiinmlly  rises,  a  long  suc- 
(Wision  of  fair  weather  wiil  nrnbably  succeed.      R.   A 
lluotiiating  niul  un^clllcd  state  if  the  mercurial  column 
inJicates  chan:j,cablo  weather.     The  domestic  barometer 
would  become  a  much  more  useful  instrument,  if,  in- 
itead  of  the  words  usually  "ugraved  on  the  plate,  a  short 
list  of  the  best  estatiliMlu'd  rules,  such  as  the  above,  ac- 
companied it,  which   might  be  cither  engraved  on  thi- 
plate  or  i)rinted  on  a  card.     It  would  l)e  right  (conchv  ■ 
this  writer)  to  express  the  rules  only  with  that  degiec 
of  probability  which  observation  of  past  phenomena  has 
justified.  There  is  no  rule  rciiecting  these  effects  wJiich 
will  hold  good." 

Tht  Tlicnnomi-.'rr.  —  The  atmosphere  possesses  the 
espacity  of  receiving  and  eontiining  heat  from  the  sun's 
lays  or  any  other  source  of  warmth,  but  this  capu'-i  ;.  is 
proportionate  to  the  degree  of  denitity  of  the  air  and  ac- 
ciirjiiigly  varies  in  (lilfcreiit  situations.  It  is  well  known 
that  the  air  is  more  warm  on  low  tlian  on  high  grounds, 
ind  this  U  a  peculiarity  in  its  condition  arising  from  the 
diSercnce  of  density  at  the  two  places.  If  wc  take  a 
pound  weight  of  air  near  the  sea's  level,  and  another 
pound  weight  at  a  sjiot  a  mile  above  the  sea,  wc  shall 
find  that  each  p'Mnid  c<mtains  precisely  the  same  quan- 
tity of  heat;  b\if  in  the  case  of  that  taken  near  the  sea, 
the  air  will  feel  w  irni,  and  in  the  case  of  the  other,  the 
lir  will  feel  cool.  'J'hi-i  seems  a  contradiction,  yet  it  is 
» truth.  ■\  poimd  weight  of  air  taken  near  the  sea,  is 
compact  in  substance,  and  gocii  into  a  compnrafivcly 
imall  bulk ;  but  that  taken  from  a  high  part  of  the  ,'.l- 
!  o.pacre  is  thin,  and  occupies  i  much  larger  space. 
This  expiiiins  why  the  thin  air  on  high  grounds  is 
sfi'mingly  colder  than  on  low  situatiovs.  Aloft,  the  air 
is  as  w.<  I  /  1  It  is  below,  but  thi  v.  -t  less  of  it;  the 
|.?rt;  !  ?  ..loro  widely  asunder,  anii  this  produces  the 
off  '  ;>;  .'.  jTo.er  coldness.  Prop  .y  speaking,  the 
■')lil  in  .^h  situa  ions  ariws  from  the  want  of  uif,  rather 
than  from  the  air  itself. 
Vut.  I.— :t4 


In  thn  warmest  regie  na  of  the  globe,  the  air  is  ooM 
at  the  tops  of  h<gh  mountains,  merc'.y  becaUM  the  ait 
is  there  thin,  and  .'p::u]jublo  of  forming  a  medium  for 
the  retention  of  the  sun's  rays.  In  every  country  then 
is  a  point  of  altitude  at  which  water  fircezcs  on  all  occa- 
sions, whether  summer  or  winter.  In  Europe,  this 
point — called  by  some  the  snow  line,  or  point  of  eternal 
snow — is  from  five  to  six  thousand  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea ;  in  the  hot  regions  of  Africa  and  America,  it 
is  fourteen  thousand  foot  high.  At  these  points  of  alti- 
tude resi)cctivcly,  snow  lies  constantly  unmolted  on  tha 
mountain  sides  and  summits.  In  the  warm  regions  of 
Hindostan,  the  atmosphere  is  as  cool  and  pleasant  at  • 
certain  height  on  the  Himalaya  mountains  aa  it  is  in 
the  northern  part  of  Europe.  The  plains  of  Mexico, 
under  a  burning  sun,  would  not  be  endurable  by  man, 
if  they  were  not  at  such  an  elevation  as  to  possess  an 
atmosphere  so  thin  as  to  ho  incapable  of  being  heated 
to  excess. 

Although  the  heat  of  the  atmosphere  thus  depends 
on  the  density  of  the  fluid,  it  is  proper  t(  slate  that  it 
is  likewise  influenced  by  other  circumstances.  Certain 
bodies  haVe  ths  power  of  heating  the  atmospliere  in  • 
greater  degree  than  would  otherwise  bo  the  case.  For 
example,  in  valleys  the  heat  is  thrown  off  from  the  sidea 
of  adjacent  hills,  from  forests  of  trees,  or  other  objects  ; 
and  in  those  situations  the  air  is  hotter  than  if  there 
were  no  such  radiation.  If  tho  spot  be  sheltered  from 
the  cooling  effect  of  winds,  there  is  another  cause  of  in- 
crease to  the  temperature. 

T*-"  defjrees  of  heat  and  cold  in  the  atmo- 
sphere are  called  its  temperature ;  and  for  find- 
ing this  corvectly,  with  reference  to  a  'itandard, 
an  instrument  has  been  invented,  called  the  Ihcr- 
mniiider,  a  word  signifying  hcat-mca/iure.r.  It  is 
a  glass  tube  with  a  bulb  at  the  bottom,  into 
which  mercury  or  quicksilver  is  put,  with  a 
scale  of  fiaures  along  the  tut)e  to  mark  the  rising 
of  thn  quicksilver,  This  instrument  differs  from 
the  barometer,  inasmuch  as  the  quicksilver  is 
sealed  up  close  from  the  air.  The  atmospheric 
heat,  however,  affects  the  metallic  fluid  in  the 
bulb,  and,  according  to  its  wirmth,  causes  it  to 
cxpaim  and  rise  in  tho  tr'".  The  degree  of 
temperature  is  indicated  by  tin.  figures  to  which 
it  ascends. 

Our  common  thermometer  (Fn'.<,..i''   \  of 
which  a  repre  .'Taation  is  given  in     ■.  -     >a»  a 
graduation  from  No.  1,  near  the  bulb,  to  212, 
the  degree  of  heat  of  boiling,  water.     In  the 
scale  of  figures,  "8  is  marked  as  the  fircezing- 
point — that  is  to  say,  xvhcn  the  mercury  is  at 
the  height  of  32,  umter  frcc7,cs ;  and  the  more  it 
is  l)e')w  that  point,  the  more  intense  is  the     '^~' 
frost;  .0.5  is  reckoned  mod.'rnte  heat,  and  76  ^'ff-' 
summer  heat,  in  Great  Eritain :  98  is  the  heat  of  tint 
bWod  in  the  average  of  living  men. 

Different  nations  adopt  different  graduations  it;  the 
scale  of  thcnnomctcrs,  which  is  a  fertile  source  of  error 
and  confusion  in  cstimatii'g  and  comparing  the  state- 
ments of  temperature  m;'(.'.  .'  ii  u'fic  men  in  differ- 
ent countries.  Whcrevtr  I'n  )  .,,li  ;.  language  pruvails, 
the  graduation  of  a  perb  >n  called  Fahrenheit  is  gene- 
rally preferred.  By  the  Germans,  Reaumur's  is  used ; 
and  the  French  now  adopt  what  they  term  a  centigrade 
thermometer.  In  the  French  centigrade  thermometer, 
0  is  the  freezing-point,  and  100  the  boiling-point;  in 
Reatimuv's  thermometer,  0  is  the  freezing-point,  and  80 
the  boiling-point.  Each  degree  of  Reaumur  is  equal  to 
two  and  one-fourth  of  Fahrenheit.  It  was  at  oiio  lime 
imagined  that  the  greatest  cold  could  make  the  fluid  in 
the  t;..  rmometer  fall  only  32  degrees  below  the  freezing- 
point,  the  place  to  which  it  then  fell  being  zen,  ana 
thcref'vre  the  notation  has  been  commenced  by  Fiiiiren 


.3t  1" . 


8M 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE   PE(,PLK. 


heit  it  thiit  Dlnrr.  Rut  mucli  grratcT  ilcRriws  of  rnid 
•xi<t  at  (IKFtTPiit  imiU  of  mir  kIoIhi  in  wiiiuir,  nml  inuj 
be  prmluc-iHl  iirtiliciiUly.  »i  timt  Ui«  riiiid  in  Iho  item  of 
tho  thcrnioimitcr  ol\<'ii  iIi'm'^iiiIh  twluw  that  (xiiiit,  aiul  it 
then  K«i<l  tu  1*0  nt  •(■  irmny  ilcffrrpa  beluw  wto. 

Watrr,  nil  alxivt*  mi'iitioiird,  luiU  at  819  ileKrwu.  but 
tliia  ii  only  under  the  t'oininon  promure  of  thii  ii'ino- 
sphere  nt-iir  the  wa'n  K  v<>l.  By  rcniovitiK  •  purlicm  of 
the  prvMuro  citlirr  l)V  an  air-pump  or  by  aiK-endini(  a 
heiglit,  the  vapoiic  or  boiling;  (mint  will  Iw  rrnrhcd  ror- 
reapoiidiMKly  aooncr.  On  ll>t«  account  wr  nuKht  nxci'i- 
lain  with  tolvrnlilc  ncrurary  the  hoiifht  of  inountiiinn, 
by  nolii-ioK  at  wIrU  ili-urn-  i>f  heat  by  the  lliiTnioincli'r 
watpr  liiiili'd.  A  writer  ii  the  Kniy<U)ptt<h)i  liiiliin- 
M.u,  hail  given  the  fullowin"  '  i  vetioni  on  this  sub* 
ject:— 

"Uoil  pure  wii'"'-  s  an  op  u  >  1  at  the  Wlom  of 
the  elevation,  and  .  irrse  ii  tho  tl  .>rinometer  the  point 
at  whieh  it  boitx.  <(<  il  it  uifnin  at  the  top  of  the  inoiiii- 
Uin,  and  obKi'ne  .vith  the  thermometer  tho  point  nt 
whieh  it  now  I'oilg;  the  dilferenee  of  teinporutiire,  mul- 
tiplied by  530  feet,  will  (jlve  a  rli>«c  approxwnntion  to 
the  h)'i:{ht  of  the  upper  almvo  the  lower  station.  'J'his 
will  giw  iin  npproxiniiition;  but  if  greater  aeruFaev  be 
required,  it  will  i'urtlier  Ihi  necessary  to  rorreet  ; 
difleri'nre  of  tho  teni|H'rature  of  tho  ai.  ai  Xhe  two  stv 
tions,  in  the  followinn  maimer: — Add  the  tcinporat  ires 
of  tho  dir  at  the  Ktatiom*,  and  subtrart  sixty-four  from 
their  xum ;  multiply  the  remaiiiiler  by  one-thousniulth 
,n  I  of  tlie  hei(;lil  found,  and  this  will  lio  the  eorrcetion 
t»  '  aiiiled  to  the  height  formerly  found.  The  result 
thi.  <  found  will  Ktill  require  a  hlight  rorrrction  for  the 
fiL,uri'  of  tho  earth  and  latitude  of  the  plare  ;  liut  thin 
(Vies  not  amount  to  more  in  our  latitude  tlian  an  addi- 
tion of  alMiut  two  fetit  in  •  thousand,  which  forms  a 
•ocond  rorreelion. 

"To  illustrate  the  mode  of  deducing  heights  from  the 
boihng-point.  as  we  have  given  it,  we  lake  the  folh>wing 
example : —  '  atev  bniln  on  the  top  of  Den  Nevis  at  203-8 
degrees,  whilo  at  the  side  of  the  Calctioiiinn  Cumil  it 
boils  at  2 IS  degrees,  tlie  temperature  being  JO  degrees 
on  tho  Fumiiiit  of  the  mountain,  and  36  degrees  below. 


lu  order  to  determine  the  height, 

Prom  812^ 
Tak-'."!;;^* 

There  rcnnini,     '•J* 
Multiply  uy       .110 


iMOO 
410 

4^G  tint  spprnx. 
4  first  corrt'cf. 


To  no* 
Aiiii ;«' 

ffiim   M" 
8ubt.  (M" 


iMP    •froml  spproz. 
>•  7  ■•'ronil  corriict. 


Remslii  1°  mult.  Iiy  4  n-IA 

IwtituJe  an"  ninrly 
Mull.  AJSn 

br   9 

bTfiO 


Cale.  hri)rht.  4;iV"7  ihin  spproximstlon. 
43AS,  true  mcatured  height— ilie  ditTerencs  being  lots  than  1 
fcot. 

"This  method,  however,  is  acldom  si.sceptiblo  of  so 
Wgh  a  degree  of  accur  i''y,  even  with  the  most  <-arcfully 
cofiduet^-d  experiments." 

Thi  H>/iir(,ut('fr. — One  of  the  principal  meteorologi- 
C»l. phenomena  of  tlic  atmosphere  is  its  cn|>acity  for  re- 
ceiving and  holding  moisture.  Evaporotion,  lO  i  lesser 
or  greate-  extent,  i^  in  eoni  lant  exercise  iver  the  whole 
earth,  'i'he  ocean,  lakei,  rivers,  fie' '■  •  CTer  s  ield- 
iiig  up  water  to  the  atmasplierc,  and    '  and  n    mals 

are  ilsii  at  all  times  givin.r  firth  e\l\ai\tioti«.  'J  '  o  at- 
mosphere iH  thus  a  great  recepLicle  (or  the  moisture  of 
the  earth,  and  Ux  ciipacity  in  this  rcsne.t  is  increased  by 
Ui  increase  of  teniiieratiirc.  In  a  hut  day,  much  more 
evaporation  is  produred  than  In  one  which  is  c^'h  but 
U  is  not  on  that  mrount  more  perceptible  by  tho  senses. 
The  more  warm  ami  free  the  air,  so  is  the  inointure  less 
nhsf' fable  in  its  ina  .s  :  and  it  is  ouly  when  ll>o  atiao- 


sphe  e  sinks  to  a  certain  pitch  of  c^ld,  that  we  h"gin  tt 
see  the  stis|)ended  moirlure  in  the  form  cl  niiiti  u,^ 
clouds.  Thus,  in  u  hot  d.iy,  we  do  not  see  the  breutli 
issuing  from  our  mouth,  it  bein»j' conducted  away  in  an 
ethereal  tate,  but  in  a  cold  damp  day  in  winter,  we  •«, 
it  pri>eeeiling  in  pulU  at  every  expiration. 

The  stale  of  the  alinospliere  as  respects  its  moistnru, 
is  called  its  hyunmtrhii-  miuliliiiii,  from  the  hv^rornelcr 
an  instrument  for  measuring  the  digreo  of  ilryiicsa  oi 
inoiNlness  of  tho  oir.  There  arc  various  kinds  of  hy. 
grometers,  de|ioniling  on  the  principle  of  the  shrinkinn 
anil  expanding  of  biHlies  in  relatiim  tu  the  degree  of  hu- 
midity with  which  they  aiv  nllielid.  Fibrous  vrgetshlc 
substances,  such  as  rubies,  contract  by  imbibing  moistin- 
while,  on  the  contrary,  hairs  and  catgut  (striiu»H  of  vio. 
lins),  contract  by  drought.  Hair  has  been  touiid  tu  (« 
the  must  ilelicate  in  hygromdrirul  motions.  The  cfjo. 
brated  HaiiHsme,  a  French  pbilosopber,  acconipliiili,.j 
the  coiiHtrH -tion  "f  a  hygrometer  from  a  single  loi\(f 
hair,  prevli.isly  cleaned  in  a  soda  ley.  N M  "ais  philo. 
sophlcal  toys,  as  ornamciils  f»r  manlelpieces,  have  also 
been  coiislrucled  to  indicate  the  drynesH  or  inoisUiess  of 
the  atmosphere,  nil  on  the  siinilar  principle  of  contrac- 
tiim  and   eximnsion  of  n   hair,  piece  of  catgut,  or  part 

'■  tho  lieard  of  the  wild-oat.     Ono   of  tl o»t  uscfijj 

i.istruii  I .  Is  of  this  class  is  a  Kiiiall  object  rcHembliiif)  a 
watch  in  external  npin-arance,  designed  to  provo  the 
dampness  or  dryness  of  beds:  a  movable  hand  on  tl» 
diiil-plato  points  out  very  sperdily  the  h\  ,.  .nietricil 
I'oiiiliiion  of  tlie  lied-elothes  on  which  tho  instrument 
is  laiil. 

Hygrometers  of  tho  kind  just  mentioned,  however  iiw 
genious,  fail  ns  inslrumciiU  of  H.ieiico  or  coini>ariion, 
cliiedy  from  the  circumstance  of  their  liability  to  lose 
their  contractile  and  expansive  energy,  ns  well  as  the 
diflicylty  of  making  many  of  them  (Mssessing  Biiailjr 
powers.  To  supply  the  rcjuired  instrument  of  comi/i. 
rison,  Professor  Daniel  contrived  a  very  elegant  hyur* 
meter,  which  is  now  universally  in  use.  It  con^iiitj  cf 
a  glass  tulie,  l)ent  nearly  in  tlio  form  of  l\.  supported  on 
n  st.ind,  with  a  ball  nt  each  extremitv,  and  containing 
only  some  ether.  W'i'in  one  of  the  de|)«'n.liiiii  limt^ 
a  Iherinometer  is  p^U' c  ^  The  instrument  opiiali«on 
a  little  ether  licing  droii|>rd  on  one  of  tlie  balls ;  t  tpo. 
ration  immediately  takes  place,  heat  is  abiitrart'  'nd 
the  ball  containing  the  thermometer  is  so  cioled,  l,,  n 
dew  |>erceptibly  gathers  on  iu  surface.  Tlie  degree  of 
temperature  nt  which  the  dew  is  seen  to  collect,  inml 
the  exact  hygromctric  cmidition  of  the  almosphcip 
The  principle  is  precisely  that  on  which  a  ixiltle  o|  :  ! 
liquor,  on  lieiiig  brought  i:  to  u  wariii  apartment,  i  ,■ 
lects  dew  on  its  surface.  If  no  dew  appears  on  a  liotlle 
in  such  circumstances,  the  utmusphcro  of  tlie  room  ii 
certainly  very  dry. 

CLOl'DB. 

Tho  capacity  of  the  atmosjihrrc  for  moisture,  even  in 
the  most  lavourablc  circumstances,  is  liniitrd.  The  air 
cnnnci  lie  loaded  with  water,  in  an;,  form,  beyond  a  ce^ 
tain  |siint.  Mi  l«orologists  mention,  that  if  saturatrd 
witli  vapour  even  to  its  itmost  fxteiit,  the  whole  would 
I  not  form  more  than  from  six  to  seven  inches  of  rain; 
in  other  words,  not  ;.iore  than  six  or  seven  inches  of 
water  can  l>e  maint.iined  in  solution  throughout  thcfortv- 
five  miles  of  atmosphere  above,  at  any  one  lime.  The 
capacity  for  retaining  nioi.sture  is  greatest  in  the  lower 
strata  of  the  atmosphere,  or  where  it  is  most  ilense  snJ 
wnrm.  At  gri'Ut  ticvations,  8\ich  as  eight  or  ten  milfii. 
the  air  is  too  thin  lu  hold  water  in  moIuIIou:  add  in  all 
ordinary  circumstances,  tJie  vapours  of  the  earth  do  not 
ascend  above  four  or  five  niib's  from  its  surface  at  tb' 
»<'a's  level.  Above  thesi-  luigbls.. whatever  lie  ih'  Blaif 
of  the  weather  beneath,  all  is  dear  nnd  compsnitivclj 
liry.     In  very  many  cases,  clouds  do  nut  reaih  the  uio 


METEOROLOGY— THE  WEA'niRR. 


itontte  hciRht  of  throA  milfw :  .and  th«  fl«M  of  thrir  «to- 
lutiiMiK  ill  ii'iii|iorato  rliiiicn  \»  mora  frr<)uontly  not  al)ov« 
t  inil«  <■<'  *  >»>l«  »»il  A  hull'  lijvth. 

(.'Iimilx,  it  will  Iw  prrn  ivnl,  a"*  in  rctlilv  ilopnmlent 
gn  t«ni|i>  iiitiirn,  mill  k<ii(M'rBtiir«  ia  olUin  dcpeiiUnit  on 
irinili.  Ill  a  warm  aiul  dry  HuiniiM'r  <lny.  ovapurntion 
nrorcfdii  willi  ^rnit  activity ,  nml,  in  a  mm  i  iMvixililn 
10  l|ii<  ryi>,  tliv  nioiitturo  riM'rt  ti>  tlii>  high)  >  'ioiia  of 
tht)  "II.     If  ihu  Muii  l>e  powrrful,  the   iii<  '■   may 

thii  iHcriid  Kpvornl  inili-H,  nnd  In"  (lix|>oricil  ike  n  rm, 
leaviiii;  no  cluiid  to  imlii-ato  iN  nxiiitcnco.  All,  tlu'ro- 
lorr.  «l>l)i'iiin  cU'nr,  ticrriii!  and  lM>aiitiliil,  ('urrnits  of 
told  iiir  limy  now  1k>  iitip|)oiiod  to  intrudu  thcinM-lveii  on 
dm  iKTiir  —  llii-  ifim-lika  viipour  ih  rondpnM-d  —  ond 
duuil*  i'oiiKr(|uontly  niuko  their  iippcHrimon.  A  aimilar 
ofcurrpiire  will  take  pliire  liy  the  weakening  of  the 
luii'it  rnvH,  nnd  witlulrawal  of  hent  nt  the  appronrh  of 
flight,  when  cloiidn,  aa  ii  well  known,  are  alwayi  moit 
numerous. 

CIoikU  urn  commonly  formed  hy  the  awendinir  of  the 
Inviail'lo  viipoiir  iiit»)  the  cold  resioni  of  the  air,  where 
they  tiiko  «lifipcH  oonforniiiMo  to  the  deffreo  of  tempcrn- 
turo  nnd  iirlion  of  varyiiisf  current*.  These  current* 
ind  other  cip'um»»nnco>t  alTeetinn  them  are  no  connlniitly 
dhBiitfiii  '.  tlinl  (M'Mom  for  a  hIiikIo  minute  do  they  re- 
nwin  of  line  form,  liut  ohifl  into  all  iiortji  of  posture*, 
rise,  fleet  nwny  tv,  a  diHtnnce,  conureRnte,  Rink,  dispcrne, 
ind  viinish.  While  the  aR(;rei{ittion  of  cloud*  is  cnuHed 
by  their  eomiiijf  in  contact  with  cold  current*  of  air, 
their  cviiiiiNliinR  in  nttrihufnlile  to  their  heinn  acted 
on  by  the  ciirreiit*  or  Htratn  of  air  warmer  limn  tlio*e  in 
which  lliey  have  prcvioiiHly  been  RUHtnined.  The  ili*- 
pcrxid  ami  the  evaiiinhinci\t  of  cloud*  inny  occnsionnlly 
be  Hci'ii  to  ndvantaije  in  the  neiifhliourhood  of  ranKc* 
of  liilla  tnriniiiatiii({  abruptly.  The  rioud*  re*tino(  on 
the  hill-to|it  nrc  »enn  to  lieijiii  to  move  towards  t^e  pre- 
cipitoim  declivity,  in  conHcqtionco  of  the  HprinKiiiK  up 
of  n  breeze  ill  that  direction;  nnd  when  they  arrive  nt 
the  preeipico,  they  seem  to  tiiinblo  over  and  vanish  in 
the  fall.  Dr.  Ariiott  speiik*  of  tho  beauty  of  this  phe- 
nomenon at  Tablo  Mountain,  nt  the  ('ape  of  (loml 
H()|>c ;  nnd  wc  have  observed  it  oceurrinjf  at  the  termi- 
nation of  Ibi'  rangn  of  Peiitland  Hill*  near  Edinhurfth. 
The  <si'Iai..ition  of  the  phenomenon  i*  aiinple:  the 
cloud.  <'i\  rollini;  from  tho  summit  of  the  hill,  fall*  into 
an  BtmospluTo  of  a  higher  tem)>i-rature,  and  it*  particle* 
bciiiif  iliiniTiishod  into  the  i;n*eou*  form,  disappear. 
When,  ml  llie  contrary,  a  cloud  i«  seen  to  ascend  a  hill, 
it  enters  a  reijion  of  cold,  and  lM>inij[  condenRod,  it  is  pre- 
-jpilali'd  as  a  show(>r  of  rain.  From  these  ofVobacrved 
bets,  live  old  saying  has  been  derived— 

*•  Wht'fi  the  rlonils  po  up  tiK;  hill, 
Tlii>'ll  send  ili/-.>'ii  w';;,r  to  turn  a  mill." 

Luke  Howard,  in  hi*  Essay  on  clouds,  diRtrihute* 
Ihem  into  tour  essentially  ditrerent  formation*.  These 
fc'matioiis  are — 1.  f'lVrio,  consisting  of  thready  fibre* 
divcrgini;  in  nil  directions,  or  curled  up  at  one  end; 
1  Ctiiriil'i',  or  roundish  bank  of  cloud,  increasing  from 
I  hori/.ontal  ha.se  upwards :  3.  Slintus,  layer*  vastly 
utf tided,  coniircted,  nnd  horizontal :  4.  A'iniA«.»,  the 
h«aTy  bla?k  cbiiid  diss^dving  in  rain.  There  ore  sulv 
divisions  ill  this  classificatiDn,  a*  cirro-cumulut,  cirru' 
itrniui,  fti: 

By  the  same  meteorologist,  tho  cloud*  are  generally 
wijned  to  three  atmosphirical  re-iionti — the  upper,  the 
miJille,  iim!  the  lower  one,  to  which  a  fourth,  the  lowest, 
miv  he  iiil.led.  In  the  upper  region,  the  atmosphere  is 
in  BU,!i  a  st^te.that  it  can  receive  and  sustain  only  lii;ht 
md  thill  MipiMirs  ;  nnd  to  Ibis  district  hidongs  the  rirnis, 
» rcpreseiitiition  of  which  is  given  in  fig.  '.i.  Of  all  the 
runoiis  forms  of  clr.ud  it  lias  the  least  density,  but  the 
peatest  heiirnt  and  variety  of  rIi«|h>  and  direction.  It 
la  Ihu  firit  indication  of  serene  and  acttlcd  weather,  and 


fli  •  (how*  itielf  in  •  A  w  fibiM.  spreading  tl.rotigh  tho 


Kig.  J.— Tlio  I'lrru*. 

atmosphere.  These  iihrcsby  degrees  increase  in  length, 
and  new  lilircs  utlacli  tliemselveM  to  t4iu  sides.  'I'ho 
duratiim  of  the  cirrus  is  uncerluin — I'ruiii  a  ITw  minutes 
to  several  hours.  It  lusts  longer,  it  it  appears  alone  and 
at  a  gn<at  height;  a  sIk  rtcr  time,  if  it  form*  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  other  clouds.  From  its  usually  curl- 
ing appearance,  tlie  cirru*  i*  called  in  England  tho  mare'i 
lull  cloud. 

The  rumulut  ii  a  cloud  of  a  much  more  massive  charac- 
ter. It  i*  vapour  in  the  most  compact  form,  and  URually 
move*  with  the  stream  of  air  ncarcHt  to  the  earth.  This 
region  can  receive  much  humidity,  but  not  in  perfect 
solution.  Tho  humidity  liecomes  collected,  and  shows 
itKi'lf  in  masse*  rising  couicully  and  resting  on  a  region 
of  air  capidile  of  giving  it  support.  The  annexed  en- 
graving, lig.  4,  represents  the  more  usual  forms  of  eu- 


I'ig.  4.— VuriuiiB  Ibrm*  oC  Cuinului. 
mulus,  whether  in  separate  or  congregated  Hiasset. 
The  up|)enranec,  increase,  ond  evanishing  of  cumulus, 
in  line  weather,  are  oflcn  periodical,  ond  correspondent 
to  the  degree  of  heat.  Generally,  it  forms  a  few  hours 
after  sunrise,  attain*  it*  highest  degree  in  the  hottest 
hours  of  tho  afternoon,  and  decrease*  and  vani*heB  at 
sunset,  (ircat  masses  of  cumulus,  during  high  winds, 
in  the  quarter  of  the  heavens  towards  which  tho  wind 
blows,  indicate  approaching  calm  and  rain.  If  the  cu- 
mulus does  not  disap[>ear,  but  rises,  a  thundor-storm  is 
to  be  expected  during  the  night.  If  the  upper  region, 
with  its  drying  jiowcr,  predominates,  the  upjier  part*  of 
the  cumulus  liceonio  cirrus.  But  if  the  lower  region 
predoniinates  (into  which  tho  den*est  vapours  are  at- 
tracted and  dissolved  into  drops),  the  basis  of  the  cumu- 
luR  sinkH,  and  the  cloud  liccomes  stratuR,  which  is  of 
moderate  density,  and  its  lower  surface  rests  generally 
upon  the  earth  or  tho  water. 

Tho  (in()-c««ii</i/>,  of  which  a  representation  is  given 
in  fig.  6,  consists  of  a  collection  of  small  white  clouds, 


Kig.  S. — Cirro-Cumulus.  > 

of  a  ro\indi>h  form,  which  give  to  the  sky  the^ppcai- 
ance  called  doppled,  and  nre  in  Huinmer  considered  a 
prognostic  of  settled  weather,  or  ot  leant  of  an  increase 
of  temi>erature.  Occasionally  the  cirro-cumulus  may 
lie  oliserveil  to  change  into  another  variety  of  cloud»— 
the  cirro-stratus. 

The  lirio-tlrnlui,  which  we  reproRcnt  in  its  rommoo 
forms  in  fig.  G,  exists  in  a  high  region  of  tlie  aii,  and  u 


SM 


INFORMATION    FOR  THE  PEOPLK. 


tfttii  Iho  cirru*  in  «n  kllpml  ahai)*.  It  U  Ki>n»nA\f  in 
Ihd  furni  of  lonn  horizoiiUl  •trroka,  whirJi  mti  avir  (hiftinii 
(huir  figure  mul  |HMi(i>iii.     Knnptiinai  It  ia  •  lon|  row  i>f 


y,g  fl  Var  <iu>  lormt  urOirru-'irkliii. 
■Untinx  «ltcttkii,  luul  at  "llicr  tinir«  an  apparfiilly  drawn 
out  'ikI  traiiiiliu'i'iit  I'uiiiulti*.  In  tlitt  lutlur  form,  wtirn 
ihono  u;M)n,  ut  llio  cliHw  of  Jay,  it  i«  not  unliko  a  long 
feathery  ttUvak  til'  I'lro. 

The  $lriiiut  in  tlip  proper  rveninff  f  loud,  and  i*  in  reality 
the  »opour  wliicli  cri-i'pa  along  tlio  ground  or  niounU 
into  tlie  lowcKl  ri'gion  of  lli''  air  at  nuiiM't,  allor  n  ttno 
■ummrr  day.  All  minta  and  l..g»  are  of  thia  ii|mi  icH  of 
doud,  whirh  in  it»  IJKlitrst  atate  dooa  not  wet  leuveii  or 
any  ohjertM  wilt:  which  it  cornea  in  contact.  In  calm 
•vcningK.  ih"  "tratua  may  Iw  wen  aacending  from  the 
valloya  t»)  llie  hlnhcr  grounda,  and  there,  aa  ahown  in  fig. 


Fi(.  7.— The  Siralui. 

7,  it  extend*  itaelf  in  maaaea  like  a  fleecy  mantle.  It  gene- 
rally arrivea  at  it*  (Hiint  of  greateat  dcnaily  uhuul  midnight, 
or  between  that  time  and  daylight,  and  (li!<npi)enr><  at  aun- 
riie  hy  tlie  gradual  elevation  of  tem|H?rBture  in  Iho  ulmiv 
apher«.  Moinelimea  it  remaina  quiet  and  accuniuliitca  in 
laycra,  till  the  nlmoaphere  ia  incapalile  of  Nuataining  it>i 
weight,  when  It  anaumca  the  condition  of  the  lii'iivy  and 
dark  ninil'Uf,  and  falls  in  a  ahower  of  rain.  We  have 
placed  a  rrpi  'aentalion  of  the  nimhua,  yielding  ita  Iriliute 
of  rain,  an  a  frontispiece  to  the  prem'ut  article. 

Tlio  various  circumalancea  which  concur  to  precipitate 
moisture  in  the  utmoHphere  into  the  vinihle  form  of  cl(iu<ln, 
are  aummed  up  a«  followa  by  un  intelligent  mi-teorolixjist, 
Mr. Graham  IlutchinBon,  in  hiaTrealiai'  on  Meteoroionical 
Phenomf  na  ((tlongow,  1835)  :— 1.  '•  When  a  dimitm- 
tion  of  thu  atmonpheric  tcmix>rature,  unaccompanied  hy 
atnioapheric  rurel  ution  or  trana|K)rlation,  takca  pUce. 
S.  When  a  dlminiiliun  of  the  atmoHpheric  t<'mi>eraliire, 
ariaing  frotn  atini>Bj»heric  rarefaction,  taki-a  place.  3.  When 
•  diminution  of  t!ic  atmojipheric  temperature, ariHing  from 
the  tranii|M)rtution  of  air  from  a  warm  to  a  cnid  cliinutu 
liy  the  agency  of  windu,  take*  place.  4.  When  an  inter- 
mixture, and  conaequcnt  re<!uction  to  a  moan  temi>eru- 
ture,  of  dilFerent  porliona  of  air,  of  previou.tly  dilTerrnt 
temperatureH,  tukea  place.  If  any  one,  or  any  combina- 
tion of  llicw  circuniKtancca  happena  to  occur,  when  the 
atnioapheru  u  previouMy  aaturated  with  humidity ;  or 
Buppoaing  the  atmosphere  prvviously  aomewhat  under- 
alaurat4^d,  if  they  take  place  to  auch  an  extent  a«  to 
pruklucc  over-fiatiir»tion,  a  precipitation  of  momture,  into 
the  viaiMe  form  of  cloud  or  mist,  ia  the  neceasary  coiiae- 

quenoW' 

Clouda  of  the  cuinulua  fonn  arc  frequently  "cen  to  rest 
or  hover  over  the  t(i|w  of  mountain*,  and  it  hui>  thcrefon' 
been  auppoocd  that  hllU  attract  clouda.  I'nduuhti'dly, 
from  electric  cauxea,  clouda  are  occaaionally  attracted  by 
mountain-topN,  whi-rc  they  diacharge  their  coiitentii  in  a 
lhunder-«tonn ;  bu*,  in  common  rircum«ta»C4-a,  attractiim 

not  the  cauaa  oi  cumulua  on  hilbi    'Ilie  ordinoiy  cauae 


la  a  low  tem|ieratunt  of  the  atmoaphern  at  thrar  iiutmlaa 
— a  lemiMTature  lower  thon  that  of  the  region  of  i|r  ^ 
the  aame  heigl't  away  from  the  hilla.  'i'he  iniKle  of  rlooi^ 
formation  on  mountain  rangra  aeema  'j  lie  thia:  tha 
warmer  air  of  the  vall>'y<i  o-  of  the  aea  hiaded  with  ||^ 
viaMilr  particlea  of  miLilur',  i"  '  Ijw.i  in  the  iliri  rijon  of 
the  hilla,  and  lieing  rom;  >  '..d  to  aar^ml,  the  piirdrlra  b» 
comn  viailile  when  the/  •  tMn  w>..  tuiiimii.  Hut  th« 
wnid  iloea  not  reat  there:  •  n  (tuitietea  are  blown  awa) 
iM'yond,  rikI  |irrhapa  vunlah  ill  a  warmer  region  of  nir 
but  new  particle*  are  coiiHtanlly  coml>ig  up  to  aupply 
their  place ;  and  thu*  a  ihilting  apiNMiraiK  r  i*  given  la 
the  maaaea  of  cloud*  which  we  ob*ervo  hovering  nn  the 
to(ia  of  the  hilla.  ••  Mountaina  of  IhemaelvcH,"  oliiervea 
Mr.  Ilutchinaon,  "that  ia  to  aay,  without  wind,  run  form 
no  cloud*;  mid  wind*  of  them*elvea,  that  la  In  any,  with- 
out the  aid  of  atnioapheric  rarefaction  ivhich  ai'ioinpanloi 
their  exaltation  wlillo  paaalng  over  mounlalii'*.  are,  ig 
till*  reH|iect,  equally  iiieH'icient.  In  short,  niourilnin*  in 
all  climate*  may  Im<  ri'garded  a*  paasive  iiisirujunit*  in 
the  formation  of  clouds  mily  iluring  windy  wentlier.  And 
whenever  their  heiuhl  It  ><ucli  that  the  ti'iii|H  rnlure  of 
the  lower  atmoHplierIc  Mirata,  while  (urmnunlliig  them, 
lircome*  ao  much  reduced  ■■^^  to  cause  over-«tt(urntiutj, 
the  formation  of  clouiU  iniiat  take  place,  lltnce,  tha 
higher  the  mountains,  the  more  certain  they  are,  during 
windy  weather,  to  caiis«i  the  formation  of  clniiils ;  and 
the  nearer  the  hygronittric  condition  of  the  ai-rial  strata, 
liefore  lieginning  to  ascend  the  mountain,  ia  to  the  point 
of  ■aturiilion,  the  lesii  height  will  suMicc  for  tliiit  pur- 
|Miae,  Accidental  coldiies*  on  the  to|ia  uf  iiiniiiitaina, 
lieyond  what  result*  from  their  height,  aoiui'liiiirs  nddi 
tn  their  efficiicy  in  causing  the  rormatlon  of  cloud*. 
Much  may  lie  occasioniNl  by  snow-fall*  during  the  coU 
season  remaining  uninclled,  or  only  partially  melled  (u 
freipieolly  ha|ipen:«  on  the  northern  ex|io«ure  of  moun- 
tain* in  the  northern  hemisphere),  till  long  iiUer  the 
returning  heat  of  spring  and  summer  ha*  rendered  iha 
fulling  of  snow,  at  corresponding  altitude*,  extremely  jm. 
probable." 

llaxf — Mill — Fo/;. — Miata  or  fog*,  a*  has  been  noticed 
alKive,  are  a  variety  of  clouds,  and   are  Hcicntitiinlly  de. 
s<-rili«sl  by  the  term  f/rii/ii«.     A  \\aie  i*  that   ."[aries  of 
vapour  in  which  the  wiilery  particles  are  only  part'olly 
or  iin|)erfectly  coiidensi<d,  so  as  to  pioducc  un  liidefinlla 
olwuration,  which  generally   may  lie  oliaer\i'd   in    tho 
evening,  when  the  lein|N  luturu  of  the  uir  Im-comics  dlmi- 
nlMhcd   by  the  decline  of  the  sun  toward*  llie  horliun. 
When  viewed  from  a  di»lance,  the  surtace  of  the  earth 
always  appraia  eiivelo|H'(l  in  a  liaxo  of  greatrr  or  lestei 
density  ;  and  although,  when  sailing  on  an  op('iu'X[iaiiM 
of  ocean,  the  atmospheio  may  ap|M-ar  very  clear,  yit,  on 
U'ing  viewed  from  a  high  mountuin,  the  water  will  ap. 
|»'ar  obscured   by  a  haze,  which  will  be  found  to  extend 
many  feet  aUive  its  surface.     When  the  wat4'ry  vapour 
in  the  surrounding  air  U-comes  more  condenseil,  with  i 
defined  outline  in  the  form  of  a  cloud,  either  res'ing  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth  or  a  few  feet  above  it,  then  it  ii 
termed  a  mist ;  and  when  the  whole  atnioepliire  around 
appear*  equally  obscuviHl,  then  wo  give  it  tlie  name  of  I 
fog,  which,  however,  i*  not  to  he  confounded  with  tint 
moist  and  olau-ured  stale  of  the  air  which  often  accoch 
panics  our  easterly  and  westerly  wind*. 
I       Mists,  a*  well  as  fogs,  consist  of  thin  vesicli «  of  water 
'  containing  air.     How  these  vesicle*  are  furiiied,  ii  not 
'  well   uiidersliMKi ;  )'ut  the  general  opinion  Is,  tliat  inistt 
j  and  fogs  arls«i  from  air   of  unequal  tein|H-raliires,  hold- 
ing moisture  in   Milutlon,   mingling   togctlur,     Arcunl- 
ingly,  tho   mixture  of  the   evening  »eu-bree7.e  with  tlie 
:  air  almvo  tlie  land,  often    produce*  denac   iiilslr;  fur  tlie 
J  air  shove  the  sea  is  warmer  tha.    that  above  the  land, 
and   when   they  intermix,  a  conii  'nsation  of  uijiieoui 
'  va|iour  into  mist  or  log  takes  place.     Uesidr '.  this,  tha 
I  contraction  of  the  air,  from  its  becoming  i  ildrr  tllti 


itn*et,  ntfcii  priKiiKca 
liclea  floating  in  it.  I 
110  doubt  that  a  eertal 
ffsporatCM,  from  the  e 
10  have  lieen  within 
■nd  Ihi".  having  Itecoi 
iha  ground,  in  like  ms 
the  night,  therefore,  th 
Mthua  generally  reinl 
girvetl  haniting  in  gnu 
the  nimiiiltH  of  hilU  a 
in  nntlciiig  Im  ipproa 
fj  passage  :— 

"Nidlii  wsiiBsi  the  n 
Mrli  inm  irinrn,  and 

Fogs  are  ollen,  eap 
Jfnse;  indeed,  so  inui 
denla  from  their  inter 
frfquently  hap|iens  in 
ind  arises  from  smo 
lilted  in  the  thick  fog, 
may  lie  observeil,  that  I 
ili'iu'ends  towards  the 
often  s*"!  through  flues 
(ire.  Fi>-;»  s<'ldoin  rli 
Dr.  Darwin,  in  giving 
(jireid  a  tract  of  groui 
to  ride,  states,  that  on 
quite  above  Its  level,  tl 
to  tiick  inat  he  coii 
hiSMi's  head.  In  the  t 
dfnse,  owing,  doiilitle 
Ifinperntiire  of  the  all 
ttifts  of  lie  exteiidini 
mil  that  of  the  air  whi 
of  A;]  cvi'an.  It  ia  nn 
ths  whaliTH  and  navig 
to  encoji'VT. 

Culoiir  iif  till  CIniul 
pure  watery  particles 
folour  of  any  foreign 
liir  action  of  the  rays 
miiM,  Ihcy  frequently 
lirly  red  and  orange, 
luii  and  moon  likewi 
nspoury  medium,  assi 
would  ascrllie   these 
Imt,  In  truth,  all  is  b 
bility  of  the  ray*  of  I 
jKiscd  in  shining  ihroi 
•hine  0*  if  coming  fr 
irticle  Oi-rics,  an  has 
rays  of  whirh  the  whi 
iloirrec  of  refrangibillt 
nricty  of  colours  exli 
wine — had  the  object 
David  HrewMter,  "  bei 
the  portirlcs  of  which 
frwgililllly.  and  were 
m  vUh-h  they  fall,  a 
l.'aJen  hue.   and   all 
l<yt.<,  and  all    the  fei 
would    have    exhibit 
vliich  they  pogae»9  ii 
in?.     Uut  111-  who  ha 
the  organizaiion  of 
iMte  III  the  lorme  u| 
«i.|H'ra(lded    that   etlii 
mMPe  |H'rmuiient  qui 
the  ever-varying  coloi 

In  cold  climates  tl 
pay  tinge,  even  in  Ii 

•Life  of: 


MFTTKOttOI.OaY— TIIK  WKVPHRR. 


Mn»*<>  "''''"  I"*"'""'*  •  con<l<'nmi»ii>n  f  ihii  wnUry  psr- 
liflfi  (iiiiitinn  in  it.  In  lulilition  to  wiiirn,  ihrra  e»n  Iw 
iin  iloulit  tliiit  ■  orrtnin  i|uitntily  of  vi|)oiir  riiri  up,  i>r 
^lp<)rlltl■^  from  Ihn  I'Brtli  ilwlf,  whirh  we  miiv  auiipoMt 
10  tin*"  '"<*'■"  wilhiii  B  nhorl  prrifMi  moiatrnml  liy  ruin, 
■nil  tlii'i  liiivinn  IxTonir  rlovnlnl  lo  annir  iliitanrM  ulxivx 
ill*  K""""''  '"  '■'"'  """""'f  hrniiTirn  roiulciiiMil.  DliriiiK 
lh#  ninht,  Ilicri'fciiT,  Idr  nir  hImiyh  tlin  wurfiirn  of  ihr  riirtli 
M  thux  irriH'riilly  miilcriMJ  >iii7.y,  nml  liifht  mi*t  arn  nik- 
KirviNl  hiiMKitin  in  ffiiuxy  folcU  hIoiik  t!in  liilp*  nml  arotiml 
lh«  lumiiiilH  of  liill)4  mil  moiititniim;  lirnro  lionl  Uyron, 
In  iiDtiriiiif  -Im  ipproarh  of  morninR,||ivoa  ui  thii  bcauti- 
ftj  pa«»«»,-ii : — 

»N>|il<t  wnnra:  ih«  vapnuri  rniinil  ihx  mniiniain*  ourl'd 
Mrli  iniii  morn,  anil  li^hi  awakta  llm  worltl." 

Piiga  arr  oHi-n,  eaiNrially  in  liirit<*  towna,  rpmarlcaiily 
ilfnM>;  iiiilri'il,  B<)  murh  ao  a*  to  orruaion  acrioua  arri- 
dfnta  from  lln'ir  intrrfi>rpnce  will)  iliatiiirt  viaion.  I'hia 
rrequfntly  )iiip|ionH  in  I.oniion,  nml  in  otlmr  lari;a  ritiea, 
•ml  arixi'ii  frnin  amnki',  vapoiua,  iluat,  Acr.,  hriiiHf  ataK- 
iiocrd  in  lli«  tliii-k  foK.  On  rrrtnin  ralm  winter  ilnya  it 
may  l>r  oIimtvi'iI,  thnt  ihn  amokc,  on  Irnvinn  tho  rhiinnityN, 
jcnrrmla  towiinla  thn  i^ounil,  ami  downwaril  rurrpiita 
often  ""t  lliroiinh  (\\ivf  at  tin-  lioltom  of  which  there  in  no 
fm.  F'K'*  M'lilom  rino  h'xffU  in  tho  ntmoaphero ;  hrnro 
[)r,  Darwin,  in  f[ivin((  nn  nn-oiint  of  onr  which  over- 
ijirrnd  n  trmt  of  ground  Ihroii^li  whirh  he  hnil  occnaion 
to  riiii'.  "tuli'n,  thnt  on  every  riniiin  of  the  in'ounil  ho  wnn 
quilp  ntiovp  ita  lovcl,  thoniih  in  ilpwcnilinK  nKnin  it  waa 
in  Uick  iniit  ho  rniilil  arnrri'ly  hoc  a  ynril  )H<yonil  hia 
hntno'*  hriiil.  In  tho  nortlioni  ro(|ionii,  foRn  are  oxtromoly 
ijfnw,  owluR,  iloul)tli>«a,  to  tho  ilillorrnce  hctweon  tho 
liinpornturr  of  tlio  air  whirh  Hwi't-pa  over  thn  immonpo 
tisdo  of  ico  oxti'nilini;  thro\i<rh  thono  (loRolalo  rrftiona, 
inJ  thnt  of  lhi<  nir  whii-h  paHWH  ovor  the  warmer  aurfuro 
ofl^>  tvonii.  It  ia  olio  of  tho  Rrentext  annoyniirca  which 
the  whnlrrn  nml  navigators  in  thoao  ilangcroua  aoaa  have 
lo  cnrojcVT. 

Cotimr  i>f  iht  Clnwh,  Ifc. — Clo\iila  Iieing  compoacd  of 
pure  watery  pnrtiolea,  cannot  intrinsically  pomeBa  tho 
colour  of  nny  foroip^n  Imily ;  nevertholeaa,  by  tho  pecu- 
litr  action  of  the  rnyn  of  \\f\\\.  on  ililfi^rent  porta  of  their 
maM.  they  frri|iirntly  niiMiiine  n  variety  of  tinta,  particu- 
larly rril  nml  ornnee,  at  anil  Hisortly  otter  Runaet.  Tho 
fun  anil  moon  likewiio,  when  nhiiiiitt;  through  o  (lenac 
vtpoury  ini'ilium,  niMume  n  lieep  reil  tinRc.  JHuperatition 
woulil  niirrilie  thoRO  phenomena  to  aiiprrnnturni  cauix'a  ; 
hut,  in  Irnth,  nil  ia  hut  a  simple  eflect  of  the  relranRi- 
liilily  of  the  raya  of  light.  The  white  rays  nre  decom- 
jioKcd  in  (•'-.iriiiKj  throu(;h  the  kIoIiuIch  of  vn|)our,  and  they 
ihine  na  if  rominff  from  o  priamntie  apectrum.  In  our 
irticln  OiTHS,  aa  hna  hoen  explnincd,  cnrh  of  tho  aeven 
riy«  of  whirh  tho  while  light  ia  corn|)Of>cd,  hna  o  dilTercnt 
iloifTCC  of  refrnngil)ility,  nnd  it  ia  on  thia  accotint  that  n 
nricty  of  coloura  exiat  in  nature.  •'  Had  it  N'on  other- 
wise— had  the  ohjecta  of  tho  material  world,"  aaya  Sir 
David  Hrewster,  "  boon  illuminnted  with  white  light,  oil 
the  porticlex  of  which  poaw'aaod  tho  aamo  degree  of  ro- 
frmijiWlily,  and  wore  equ.illy  acted  upon  by  the  botliea 
en  vhich  tliey  fall,  all  naturo  would  have  ahone  with  a 
li'aden  hue,  and  all  tho  coinbinationa  of  external  ol>- 
iwts.  nnd  nil  tho  featiirea  of  the  human  countenance, 
would  hiive  exhibited  no  other  v.iricty  ihnn  that 
vliifh  they  po«ae*8  in  a  pencil-akcteh  or  china-ink  drow- 
iiii;.  Uul  b>'  who  ha*  exhibili-d  such  matohleaa  Hkill  in 
(he  orgjni/.iiion  of  material  lioiiieit,  and  auch  exijuiaite 
lute  ill  the  lorma  upon  which  they  arc  moilelled,  hna 
iuiK-raddisl  that  ethereal  lienuty  which  enhunoea  their 
mori"  iM'rniaiient  ipinlitiea,  nnd  prcaonted  them  to  ua  in 
llie  ever-varying  colours  of  the  a(iectrum."* 

In  cold  cliniatca  the  aky  haa  generally  a  dull  blue  or 
pay  tinge,  even  in  One  weather,  a  eircuinatancc  uriaing 

*  Life  of  Sir  liaoe  Newton,  p  73 


from  the  prrvalenre  of  moiatur*  in  Ih*  atr,  which  foroia 
a  kind  of  game,  through  which  our  eye  ia  unable  to  petie* 
Irntr.  In  more  warm  and  genial  elinieii,  auch  aa  that  of 
Italy,  the  rolour  of  thn  aky  ia  a  bright  blue,  and  in  hoi 
wratlwr  aliiihtly  purpliah.  Thia  lintlianeti  arifca  ftum 
the  roinpnrulivn  abavnca  of  VB|M)ury  purticlea;  yot  that 
va|M>ur  doe*  eiiat  in  the  cleareat  axuro  aky  ia  indiaput- 
nlijo,  for  it  in  by  refroi'lion  of  light  that  the  colour  appekrfc 
If  moiaturo  were  entirely  alwnt,  there  would  be  no  r*> 
IVungibilily,  ar.id  rona«v|uently  no  blue  colour.  The  aky, 
na  formerly  mentioned,  would  bo  bliiik.  The  roaaon 
anaigned  for  tho  prrvnlenco  of  a  blue  colour  in  the  aky  ia, 
that  the  blue  raya  are  rallactej  iiiuru  cu(iioualy  than  lu/ 
of  the  othera, 

DIW. 

Dew  la  a  reaull  of  on  alteration  of  temperature  after 
•unwt.  No  aoonor  dooa  tho  aun  iH-^in  to  decline  to- 
wnrda  the  horizon,  than  ita  raya  full  morn  iiluntingly  on 
the  earth,  whervhy  their  inteiiaity  ia  diminiiihed,  nnJ 
a  change  of  tem|H'rntura  immediately  cnfiuci;  for  tha 
air  noon  feela  chilly  and  dump,  and  tho  groaa  l)uiie«lh 
our  footatepa  liccomea  nioiatenvd  with  a  gonial  anj  l» 
freshing  dew. 

It  hna  lieen  olaowhore  explain;:'.,  that  all  bodicaieceive 
a  certain  i)uantity  of  heut,  which  in  |inrlirulur  eircum- 
atnnrea  Ihey  again  emit;  in  doing  which  they  neceaaarily 
bi'comc  colder  than  they  prcvioufily  were,  unleas  they 
receive  in  exchange  nnothor  quantity  of  heat  autlicicnt  to 
compcnantn  for  the  Iohh  they  have  auituincil.  In  thia  caac. 
their  tem|icriituro  will  remain  alatioimry  ;  but  if  they  part 
with  more  than  returns  to  them,  their  temperuturo  nccea- 
aarily  muat  fall.  When,  then,  the  object  »o  cooled  is  en- 
compnMRi  i|  by  o  warm  luul  moint  medium,  it  condcnaes, 
by  ita  cold  contact,  vapour  on  ita  aurfui'e,  and  thereby 
bocomoa  moiatcncd.  Hence  the  oiigin  of  dew;  for  no 
looncr  doca  the  aun  aink  towards  the  horizon,  than  the 
bladea  of  graaa  whii-h  clothe  tho  aurfiico  of  tho  earth  ^va 
out  tho  heat  which  they  have  l)ccn  receiving  during  tho 
day ;  the  conaeijuencc  of  which  ia,  thnt  their  tcmpcratum 
falls  so  much  Ndow  that  of  tho  surrounding  air,  that  they 
condenae  on  their  surfaces  pert  of  the  moixture  which  im- 
mediately aurrounda  them.  Tho  temperature  of  the  body, 
iia  indicated  by  the  thermometer, nt  which  thia  dejioeition 
take*  |)lacc,  ia  culled  thu  "  dew  point,"  which,  for  the 
formation  of  dew,  must  always  lio  Imlow  the  temperature 
of  tho  aurrounding  atmosphere ;  indeed,  tho  i|unntitv  of 
dew  formed  will  always  be  in  proportion  to  the  t.ia 

of  the  gra».i  and  to  the  quantity  of  moisture  sni.  ,1;.  J  .  i 
tho  air  Ueaidea  this,  nfler'the  sun  has  art,  tU  ro  tisrarn 
which  tho  earth  haa  imbibed  durinc;  the  day,  "i''  v.'lrrn 
still  rests  below  the  grassy  surface,  ri»e»  ur  or  t.  .irRuu 
— in  doing  which,  it  riacs  up  through  .if  b.  1  <i\\  thi- 
lilades  of  grnaa,  the  cold  contact  of  w  I  . :  .  ul.  IN  'on- 
dcnsca  it.  Dew,  therefore,  on  calm  i.  .'.  1  ir  1  ig'  Is,  .•< 
more  abundant  shortly  aOcr  rain  than  Uuiini  ..  loii'^-  i'e,\- 
aim  of  dry  weather.  During  westerly  or  soud.  wiiwU 
which  nre  generally  impregnated  with  moisture,  it 's  i  .  > 
formed  mure  copiously  tlian  during  easterly  and  north- 
erly winds.  Uesides  the  quantity  of  moisture  cxis  'ng 
in  tile  air,  the  greater  or  lesser  copiousness  of  thr  .lew 
formed,  depends,  ns  wo  have  premised,  on  the  coldness 
of  tho  objects  on  w  hich  it  is  about  to  be  condensed.  If 
the  night  Im!  calm  and  clear,  the  grassy  bladrs  emit  their 
heat  freely,  and  it  is  dispersed  through  the  ntmosphera 
without  any  equivalent  return,  whereby  the  temperature 
of  tho  grnsa  soon  sinks  sufTicicntly  low  to  coiidiiise  tho 
surrounding  vapour ;  hut  if,  instead  of  this,  the  night  Im 
cloudy,  then  the  clouds  reflect,  like  mirrors,  the  raya  of 
heal  bark  again  to  tho  grassy  blades,  and  ])ri'vent  thia 
diminution,  so  thnt  less  dew  is  then  dcposiiwl.  If,  in 
addition  to  the  sky  lieing  overcast  wtli  clouds,  thu 
weather  be  windy,  no  dew  will  be  formed ;  for  the  ten>- 
perature  of  the  graaa  ia  then  prevented  jiiiKing  oy  tiM 


*?-• 


«70 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


ifniauon  of  the  air,  by  whii'ha  warmer  current  U  con- 
jiiually  brought  to  succeed  the  colder  current  by  which 
I  is  surrounded.  Hence,  if,  during  the  night,  the  weather, 
from  having  been  calni  and  serene,  become  windy  and 
sloudy,  not  only  will  dew  ct-nso  to  form,  but  that  which 
ban  lieen  already  deposited  will  disappear,  or  diminish 
considerably.  Every  kind  of  covering  or  shelter  which 
extends  above  any  object,  will  interrupt  the  radiation  or 
ewape  of  its  hent ;  for  which  reason  gardeners,  to  prevent 
plantD  being  chilled,  cover  them  over,  on  the  approach  of 
evening,  with  a  layer  of  straw  or  matting. 

For  reasons  similar  to  those  now  advanced,  the  grass 
which  is  situi'tcd  lieneath  the  boughs  of  large  and  spread- 
ing trees,  bjcomi's  only  sparingly  moist<.npd  with  dew; 
for  the  shelter  above  interrupts  the  progress  of  radiation 
from  the  substances  underneath,  and  so  preserves  their 
temperature.     Accordingly,  it  is  un  established   axiom, 
tliiit  whatever  diminishes  the  view  of  the  sky,  as  seen 
from  the  exposed  body,  will  occasion  the  quantity  of  dew 
to  lie  lees  than  would  have  been  deposited  if  the  expo- 
sure  to  the   sky   had   been   complete.     Dew   is   formed, 
tlicrefore,  more  sparingly  and  irregularly  in  cities  than 
in  the  country,  where  the  most  open  grassy  plains  are 
always  the  mo^t  abundantly  In-dewed.     In  England  it 
begins  to  up|)i>sr  in  shady  places  as  soon  as  the  heat 
of  tha   atmosphere  has  declined ;  but  though  the  grass 
an  deer  still  evenings  often  becomes  moist  s<!veral  hours 
before  sunfut,  dew  is  seldom  present  in  such  quantities 
as  to  exhioit  visible  drops  until  the  sun  reaches  the  hori- 
Mn ;  ncr  does  it  liecomc  copious  until  some  ti'ne  after 
sunset     It  continues  to  form  also  in  shaded  places  some 
time  after  sunriiM' ;  and  it  is  remarkable,  that  more  dew 
forms  a  liltlo  Iiefore,  and  in  shaded  places  a  little  after 
(unrisc,  tlmn  at  any  other  period.     It  has  also  Itoen  ol>- 
lerved,  ihut  more  dew  is  formed  lietween  midnight  and 
lunrise  than  between  sunset  and  midnight — a  circum- 
stance which  is  owing  to  the  cobl  of  the  almospluTc 
being  greater  in  alio  latter  than  in  the  former  part  of  the 
night     As  the  quantity  of  dew  deposited  thus  dejH'nds 
so  much  on  the  degree  of  coldness  which  the  body  about 
to  be   Ix'dewed  attains,  its  quantity  must  he  materially 
modified   by  the  greater  or  tlie  lesser  facility  with  whii'li 
sulwtances  part  with  their  heat.     Grass,  l)eing  a  filamen- 
tous Bubslamv,  parts  more  readily  with  its   heat  than 
garden  mould  or  gravel;  wherefore  dew  is  more  plenti- 
fully de|Kisited  on  meadow  grounds  than  on  ploughi'cl 
lands.     Thus,  cultivated  soils  are  refreched  with  abun- 
dance of  dew,  while  barren  rocks  and  sandy  deserts  do 
not  receive  tliis  congenial  mcjsture.      Indeed,  every  shrub 
and   herb,  everv'   loaf  and   blade  of  grass,  possesses,  ac- 
cording to  its  kind,  a  dilTerent  power  of  radiation,  so  that 
each  comlenses  as  much  dew  as  is  necessary  for  ita  own 
individual  and  iH'culiai   exigencies.     Thus,  not  even  a 
single  ilmv-drop  si-ems  to  have  lioen   formed  by  the  rude 
band  of  cliaiice,  but  is  adjusted  by  the  balance  of  infinite 
wisdom  to  accomplish  a  definite  and  benevolent  end. 

THE    WINDS. 
A  change  in  the  t:Mn[H'rature,  a  diminution  of  the  va- 
pour, or  any  ntliir  cause  thai  may  occiision  a  jKirlion  of 
the   surrounding   atmosphere  to  contract  or  expand,  will  ' 
give  rise  l;i  the  airiil  currenl* denominated  winds,  which,  i 
indeed,  In-ar  a  stronj;   analogy  to   the  currents   which  ' 
occur  in  the  ocean.     When  the  air  by  which  we  are  snr-  ! 
rouniled   hcco'ncs  heated,  it  expands,  uiid   iM'comes  spe 
cifically  li^ht.'r,  in  coim-quence  of  which  it  mounts  up-  . 
wards;  and  llie  cohler  and  deii-«'r  air  wlilfh  surrounds 
the    mai'H   thus   rarefied,  ruslies   in   to  sujiply   its   place. 
When  the  diKir  of  a  heated  upnrtjuent  is  tlirown  open,  a  | 
ru'n'ii'   of  air    is    therejy    immediately    pro<luced ;    the  ; 
warm  air  froi.i  the  apartment  passing  out,  and  thi-  culd  j 
tit  from  the  passaiie  rusliing  in.    Ho,  also,  in  thom>  liuilil-  ! 
ina»  where   the  manufarturc  of  glass   is  carried  on,  the 
tlc'it  of  thi  fu.nace  in  the  centre  lieing  In'ense,  a  vioUnt  ^ 


current  of  air  may  be  observed  io  force  ita  way  m  Lhruugt 
the  doors  or  crevices  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  houso. 
On  applying  these  principles  to  account  for  the  origin  of 
the  wind,  wo  find  Uiat,  when  the  rays  fiom  the  sun,  by 
their  reflection  from  the  earth's  surface,  have  heated  oi 
raroAed  a  portion  of  the  surrounding  air,  the  air  so  rare- 
fied ascends  into  the  higher  regions  of  the  atniosphero 
and  the  colder  air  by  which  it  was  surioundcd  movea 
forward  in  a  sensible  current  to  fill  the  vacuity.  When, 
also,  a  condensation  of  vapour  in  the  atmosphere  suddenly 
takes  place,  giving  rise  to  clouds  which  speedily  dissolve 
in  rain,  the  temperature  of  the  surrounding  air  is  sensibly 
altered,  and  the  colder  rushing  in  uf)on  the  wanner 
gives  rise  to  a  sudden  gust  of  wind.  For  this  reason,  a 
cold  heavy  shower  passing  overhead,  with  a  hasty  fall 
of  snow  or  hail,  is  often  attended  with  a  violent  and  sud- 
den gust  of  wind,  such  as  sailors  call  "  a  squall,"  which 
ceases  when  the  cloud  disappears,  but  is  reiuwcd  when 
another  cloud,  sweeping  along  in  the  sane  direction, 
brings  with  it  a  fresh  blast. 

The  general  nature  of  the  winds  in  this  and  in  other 
countries  depends  very  much  on  the  character  of  the 
region  whence  they  may  have  swept ;  and,  accordingly^ 
it  is  necessary  to  remendicr  that  the  gloln)  is  divided  into 
_,..'c  zones  or  belts — the  torrid,  which  is  exposed  to  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun ;  the  two  temperate  /ones,  which, 
meeting  the  rays  of  the  sun  obliquely,  enjoy  a  nioilcrato 
degree  of  haat ;  nnd  tlie  two  frigid  zones,  » liicli,  deprived 
of  the  heat  of  the  sun  for  a  great  part  of  the  year,  and 
during  the  other  part  receiving  his  rays  still  more  ol). 
liquely,  are  regions  of  ice  and  snow  which,  it  wduM  ap. 
pear,  are  destined  ever  to  remain  uninlialiit.d)le  solitudes. 
Generally,  in  the  British  islands,  a  westerly  wind  is  moist, 
because  it  comea  from  the  Atlantic,  where  a  great  qu;ui- 
tity  of  vapours  arise.  When  miiigled  wiih  lliai  of  the 
south,  which  comes  from  the  torrid  zone,  it  is  rendered 
particul!"'y  v.«Tm.  The  east  wind  is  the  driest,  liceause 
it  comes  from  the  continent  <d"  Asia,  where  there  are  lew 
seas.  The  north  wind,  however,  is  the  coldest,  IjccaunB 
it  s%vee{)s  from  the  immense  tracts  jf  ice  and  siio-.v  in  the 
frigid  zone.  The  north-easterly  winds,  tlicrefore,  U'iiig 
so  dry  nnd  cold,  are  in  this  country  proverbially  the  most 
chilly  and  hitter.  • 

\Vhile  tile  s<iulh-wefct  is  the  most  predominant  wind 
in  Euroix",  the  north-east  winds  in  spring  may  be  ns 
garded  as  periodical  in  the  climate  of  Ilrilain ;  it  is  to  !« 
rememl-ered,  however,  that  the  succession  of  the  scasciu 
of  the  year,  with  their  characteristic  changes  o(  tcriipera- 
ture,  de|H<nd  principall\  on  the  relative  posilimi  of  the 
earth  to  the  sun.  The  more  vertically  or  directly  the 
sun's  rays  reach  the  surfan;  of  the  earth,  des(  ending  in  a 
more  concentratiyl  manner,  the  greater  is  the  dcKtee  of 
heat  which  they  pnxluce;  but  the  more  oliliquely  they 
fall,  iM'ing  thereby  more  scatlered,  and  conse<nieiillv  fall- 
ing with  less  jKiwer.  the  smaller  is  the  decree  of  hi  at 
they  impart  Accordingly,  in  the  winter  season,  the  sun's 
rav'a  reach  the  surface  of  tlie  globe  in  our  i'liliule  more 
obliquely  than  tliey  do  in  the  suininer  season;  conso 
quently,  that  seawm  is  cliaracteri/.>"d  by  the  colilncM 
which  then  prevails;  therefore,  the  winds,  pmverlul  u 
their  ageno  'ertainly  is,  exercise  only  a  Mul.>iili,iry  influ- 
ence in  modifying  the  teiiijHTalure  of  the  se:i*.>ns.  Be- 
sides this,  the  physical  aspect  of  a  country.  Its  iiiniiiitaint 
and  tal'le  lands,  its  chains  of  hills  and  its  \alli'Vii,  its 
rocky  elevullons  and  it*  level  plains,  its  piotrclcd  or 
eX|MiM'd  coasts,  all  infiuencc  very  materially  the  dirertion 
of  the  wind,  which  must,  as  it  «wce|M  ali>iii.'.  coiiiriile 
with  the  elevationa  and  depressions  of  tin'  country  over 
which  it  passes.  Hence  it  Iikh  Ihcii  sbown  by  physicians, 
that  the  climate  in  certain  districts  of  England,  owing  to 
the  protection  of  surrounding  e!  vations,  nv  tis  in  i^lo- 
brity,  even  in  tlie  most  tr\ing  wosons,  many  of  the  rocwl 
favourite  and  fashionable  resorts  for  invalids  in  tlie  eoiilb 
of  France. 


0<  lidcs  the  divii 
rfction  from  the  car 
<,)Uth,  south-eabt; 
divided  by  mcteoro 
lur,  irregular,  perio 
which,  with  the  ph 
will  now  bo  consid( 
Rei;ular  Winilf— 
distinctly  understnr 
grinds,  it  is  necessi 
Jie  centre  of  its  cir 
;he  poles,  is  divided 
hemisphetes — tho 
equator,  cutting  it  ( 
rirclc  called  the  ecli 
traverses.    It  exteiK 
tooth  of  the  equato 
traverses ;  for,  wher 
lie  again  seems  to  i 
tie  very  evident  tin 
within  a  circle  draw 
if  (ho  equator — w 
portion  of  .\frica,  a 
rica,  and  many  larg 
East  and  West  Ind 
rays  in  a  direction  s 
iiLic  heat  might  th 
called  the  torrid  zoni 
stops,  and  a|)f«!ara  ti 
naae  of  tro|)ie8,  or 
raised,  and    it   bein 
revolves  daily,  "  her 
.!un  from  west  to  ei 
be  readily  understoo 
rent  motion  from  e 
heat  they  impart,  tin 
tisoj  into  the  higher 
ihis  takes  place,  the 
mlJ  zones  rushes  in 
tho  polar  regions,  m 
rents  orii^iii    'y  con 
such  would  lie  the 
lioncTcr,  north  of 
ninJs  is  from  the 
till!  south-east ;  th 
The  velocity  with 
rahic,  if  appreciable 
iikance,  and   is   at 
winds,  in  sweeping 
res|)onding  velocity 
tchiince  towards 
ilowly  than    the 
bcklics  with  the 
1)  the  observer  who 
I»'iir9  I.,  move  in 
the  earth,  namely 
wind  thus  blows 
no  doubt  that  an  o 
rarefied  air  which 
Jireelion,  at  a  great 

Tho  external  li 
north  ari<l  .'JO  det'i 
limit  diminishes  as 
pc  Tho  larger  tl 
•weep,  the  mon'  sii 
Sii.  more  st.-adv  ii 
ill  the  Snilh  than 
!he  rcijion  of  the 
.•urs,  hut  it  falls  a 
The  reason  is,  that 
tii.eofairofdilVi  re 
hut  the  constant  c 
from  the  upper  sir; 
rtat,  mainiiins  so 


til 


METEOROLOGY— THE  WEATHER. 


S71 


Dc  itdrn  the  divisinn  of  t!in  windd  founded  on  their  di- 
rftrtton  from  the  cardinal'  points — as  into  north,  north-cast ; 
«imth,  south-eatit ;  wo>tt,  south-\«e8t;  east, '&c. — they  are 
ilividcd  by  nieteorolop;ists  into  four  classes,  namely,  regu- 
lar, irregular,  periodical,  and  hot  winds ;  tho  causes  of 
which,  with  the  phenomena  by  which  they  are  attended, 
will  now  bo  considered. 

Rei;ular  IVinih — Trndc-Winds. — In  order  that  wo  may 
ilistinctly  understand  tho  oausc  and  nature  of  the  trade- 
winds,  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  earth,  in 
Jie  centre  of  its  circumference,  at  an  equal  distance  from 
;he  poles,  is  divided  by  a  line  called  tho  equator  into  two 
hemispheres — tho   northern  and  southern.     Across  the 
equator,  cutting  it  obliquely,  there  passes  another  great 
circle  called  the  ecliptic,  which  describes  the  path  the  sun 
traverses.    It  extends  23  J  degrees  north  and  28  J  degrees 
foulh  of  the  equator,  which  is  the  utmost  limit  the  sun 
traverses;  for,  when  arrived  ateithe.  of  these  boundurieu, 
he  again  seems  to  return  towards  the  equator.     It  must 
ho  very  evident  that  tho  region  of  the  earth  included 
within  a  circle  drawn  2.'3i  degrees  north  and  2.'3J  south 
if  tho  e<iuator — which  will   comprehend   the   greatest 
portion  of  Africa,  a  considerable  part  of  Asia  ond  Ame- 
rica, and  many  large,  fertile,  and  populous  islands  in  the 
East  and  West  Indies — will  receive  constantly  the  solar 
n's  in  a  direction  so  little  oblique,  that  the  most  iiitole- 
ijLlc  heiit  might  there  be  anticipated.     It  was  therefore 
called  the  torrid  zone ;  and  tho  limits  at  which  the  sun 
stops,  and  apfH'ars  to  retrace  his  course,  have  received  the 
naoe  of  tropics,  or  circUis  of  return.     This  lieing  pre- 
mised, and    it   being   njso  remembered   that   the  earth 
rovolves  daily,  "  her  silent  course  advancing,"  round  the 
jun  from  west  to  east,  the  cause  of  the  trade-winds  will 
he  readily  understood.     'J'he  rnys  of  the  sun,  in  its  appa- 
rent motion   from  east  to  west,  obviously  rarefy,  by  the 
Lent  they  imiiart.  the  air  Ix-ncath,  and  tho  air  so  rarefied 
rises  into  the  higher  regions  of  the  atmospl.ore.     While 
this  Ukes  place,  tlic  colder  air  from  the  adjoining  tempo- 
ntJ  zones  rushes  in  to  supply  its  plac«.     Hut  it  is  from 
the  polar  regions,  north  and  south,  that  these  colder  cur- 
rents oriqiu    "y  cmne;  aiul  did  the  earth  remain  at  rest, 
such  would  lie  their  obvious  direction.     Instead  of  this, 
however,  north  of  the  e(|uator  the  direction  of  the  trade- 
winds  is  from  the  north-east;  south  of  tho  equator,  from 
die  south-east ;  the  cause  of  which  is  thus  explained  : — 
The  velocity  with  which  the  earth  revolves,  is  iiicoiiside- 
rahle,  if  appreciable,  at  the   poles,  but  increivses  an  we 
iJtaiice,  and  is  at  its  niaxiiiium  at  the  ecpiator ;   the 
winds,  in  sweeping  from  the  poles,  do  not  acquire  a  cor- 
rrsponding  velocity  with  the  motion  of  the  earth,  as  they 
nlvaiice  towards  the  eijun'or;   therefore,  moving  more 
liiiwly  than    the   earth,   they   are    lell   behind,  striking 
holies  with  the  excess  of  the  earth's  velocity ;  so  that, 
lothe  observer  who  imagines  himself  at  rest,  the  iiir  ap- 
H'ars  I.,  move  in  a  direction  contrary  to  the  rotation  of 
iho  earth,  namely,  from  east  to  west.     While  the  trndi'- 
wind  thus  blows  upon  tho  surface  of  the  earth,  t'.iere  is 
no  iloubt  that  an  opposite  current,  probably  that  of  the 
fwcfied  air  which  h:is  ascended,  flows  in  the  contrary 
Jireition,  at  a  great  elevation  in  the  atmosphere. 

Tho  external  limits  of  the  tra(lo-wii\ds  are  30  degrees 
nortli  and  30  dcijrees  south  of  the  equator ;  but  each 
limit  diminishes  as  the  sun  advances  to  the  opposite  tro- 
pe Tho  largiT  the  expanse  of  ocean  over  which  they 
•weep,  t!ie  more  sliadily  <lo  they  blow;  aecon'iugly,  they 
111.  more  stiMily  in  ti'.e  Pacific  than  in  the  Atlantic,  and 
in  the  Siuth  than  in  the  N'orlh  Atlantic  Ocean.  Within 
lh«  reijion  of  the  constant  trailc-winds,  rain  Meldoin  oc- 
.'urs,  but  it  fdls  abunilantly  in  the  adjoining  latitudes. 
The  reason  is,  that  rain  is  produceil  by  the  sudden  mix- 
tu.cof air ofdillircnt  lern[)eratures charged  with  moisture; 
hut  the  constant  circulation  and  intenuixture  of  l\w  air 
from  the  upper  strata  of  the  nimosphero,  or  gfoundcur- 
'(.it,  maintains  so  equal  a  tem^icraturc  hi  these  latitudes, 


as  not  to  occasion  tho  condensation  of  vapour  which  ii 
necessary  for  the  production  of  rain.  Besides  which,  il 
is  plausibly  enough  alleged  by  Daniel,  that  tho  aqueoiu 
vapour  constantly  flows  off  in  the  current  of  the  eqM«» 
torial  wind  into  tho  adjoining  temperate  zones.  Within 
the  limits  of  the  trade-winds,  contrary  to  what  might 
have  been  anticipated  from  the  latitude,  the  atinoaphere 
is  peculiarly  cool  and  refreshing. 

Tho  agency  of  the  winds  in  clearing  the  atmosphere 
from  noxious  effluvia,  and  keeping  it  from  stagnating, 
is  so  apparent,  that  it  scarcely  requires  to  be  noticed. 
In  the  case  of  tho  regular  winds  to  and  from  the  equa- 
tor, an  interchange  of  atmosphere  is  cfTected,  beneficial 
to  both  *irrid  and  temperate  zones.  On  this  interesting 
point  m  natural  icience,  tho  following  observations  are 
niaiio  by  Liobig  in  his  work  on  Organic  Chemistry  ( 1840). 
— "  The  proper,  constant,  and  inexhaustible  sourcea  of 
oxygen  gas  are  the  tropics  and  warm  climates,  where  a 
sky  seldom  clouded  |)crmits  the  glowing  reys  of  the  sun 
to  shine  upon  an  immerfsurably  luxuriant  vegetation. 
The  temperate  ond  cold  zones,  where  artificial  warmth 
must  replace  deficient  heat  of  the  sun,  produce,  on  the 
contrary,  carbonic  acid  in  superabundance,  which  is  ex- 
pended in  the  nutrition  of  the  tropical  plants.  The  same 
stream  of  air  which  moves  by  the  revolution  of  the  Mirth 
from  the  equator  to  the  poles,  brings  to  us,  in  its  passage 
from  tho  equator,  the  oxygen  generated  tiierc,  and  carriet 
away  tho  carbonic  acid  formed  during  our  winter.  The 
experiments  of  l)e  Saussure  have  proved  that  the  upper 
strata  of  the  air  contain  more  carbonic  acid  than  the  lower, 
which  are  in  contact  with  plants;  ond  that  the  quan* 
tity  is  greater  by  niuht  than  by  day,  when  it  undergoe* 
decomnosition.  Plants  thus  improve  the  nir,  by  the  remo- 
val of  carbonic  acid,  and  by  the  renewal  of  oxygen,  which 
is  immediately  opjdied  to  the  use  of  man  and  animals* 
'I'he  horizontal  currents  of  the  atmosphere  bring  with 
them  as  much  as  they  corry  away  ;  and  the  hiterchange 
i.f  air  between  the  upper  and  lower  utrnta,  which  their 
dilVerence  of  temperature  causes,  is  extremely  trifling 
when  compared  with  the  horizontal  niovements  of  the 
winds.  Vegetable  culture  bciL;!iteiis  the  healthy  state  of 
a  country,  and  a  previously  healthy  country  would  h>) 
rendered  quite  inhabitable  by  the  eessatic:'  of  all  cultiva- 
tion." IJow  grand  tho  theory  in  these  passages  res[)Cct- 
ing  the  influence  of  winds  on  vegetation  !  Those  streams 
of  air,  which  BU[p<"rBtition  would  ascribe  to  demons,  ore 
among  the  most  beneficent  nu'ans  arranged  to  preserve 
atmospheric  suiubrity,  and  all'ord  materials  for  man's  sub- 
sislenco. 

Tlie  Mnnanon, — In  India,  n  very  remarkable  periodical 
or  half-yearly  wind  prevails,  which  is  called  the  Monsoon, 
from  a  Malay  word  moussiii,  which  siijuilies  season.  It 
blows  one  half  the  year  from  the  south-west  to  the  north- 
east, and  tl'.c  other  half  from  north-east  to  south-west. 
The  former  is  accompanied  by  rain  and  temi)est,  and 
constitutes  in  India  the  "  rainy  season ;"  the  latter, 
although  in  this  resjx'ct  admitting  of  some  modification!, 
constitutes  the  'dry  season"  of  the  year.  The  south- 
west monsoon,  in  the  soutiiern  pi.tsof  India,  commences 
about  the  beginning  of  June;  Imt  in  proceeding  north- 
wards, it  does  not  commence  until  later.  It  is  ushered 
in  by  vast  masses  of  clouds,  which  arise  from  the  Indian 
Ocein ;  and  as  tiiey  advaiu-e  towards  the  north-east, 
Katber  ami  thicken  as  they  approach  the  land.  In  a  few 
da\s  at\ervvards,  the  sky  assumes  a  more  troubled  aspect 
towards  the  evening,  and  it  is  in  llie  iiii;ht  that  the  nion- 
suon  generally  sets  in.  It  begins  vvitli  violent  blasts  of 
wind,  which  are  succeeded  by  Hoods  of  rain,  durinR 
which  the  lightning  rt:.shes  without  iiitermis.«;,in  ;  at  liral 
illuminitiiig  the  sky,  showing  the  cliuuls  near  the  hon 
zon  ;  then  discovering  the  distant  hills,  and  h'aving  them 
again  shrouded  in  darkness  ;  then,  in  an  instant,  rcaj)- 
pearing  in  vivid  and  successive  flashes,  which  exhibit 
even  the  nearest  objects  in  all  lli':  cleainew  and  diatinct' 


«T9 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


neu  of  noon-day  light.  The  thunder,  in  the  mean  time, 
continues  in  loud  peals,  and  when  it  ccaaes,  the  rain 
pours  in  large  volumes.  This  lasts  for  several  days ;  the 
•ky  then  clears,  the  air  becomes  soft  and  pure,  the  rivers 
tre  full  and  tran()uil,  and  the  whole  face  of  the  earth,  as 
if  by  enchantment,  appears  clothed  with  thick  and  luxu- 
riant verdure.  The  rain,  after  this,  falls  at  intervals  for 
about  a  month  ;  then  it  increases  in  violence,  and  attains 
its  height  in  the  month  of  July,  when  it  descends  thickly 
and  heavily  en  muxne  from  the  heavens.  Then  this  mon- 
mon,  in  August,  somewhat  diminishes;  in  Scptem^wr  it 
•bates,  or  is  entirely  suspended  until  the  end  of  the 
month,  when  it  Hi;ain  re-appears;  and  departs,  as  it 
tame,  amidst  thunder  and  lightning,  and  all  the  turmoil 
of  tempest. 

Such  is  the  south-west  monsoon,  as  it  appears  in  the 
greater  part  of  India ;  but  it  is  liable  to  conxidorabic 
variations,  caused  by  the  influence  of  the  sea  and  the 
mountainous  regions  along  which  it  may  sweep.  Near 
the  lea,  the  rain  falls  mori!  plentifully ;  because,  from 
the  more  abundant  evaporation,  the  air  is  there  more 
charged  with  moisture,  'i'he  mauntains  also  .ilTect  its 
course,  by  interrupting  and  diverting  the  pro(?ress  of 
the  winds  and  the  clouds  they  lM;ar.  Thus,  the  wind 
which  brings  the  min  to  the  north-eastern  part  of  the 
Indian  continent,  originally  blows  from  the  south-west 
over  the  Day  of  Kcni;al,  until  it  reaches  the  Himuluya 
Mountains,  and  those  which  join  them  from  the  south  ; 
these  check  its  current,  and  compel  it  to  fiillow  their 
range  towards  the  north-west;  but  when  it  has  conti- 
nued so  far  towards  the  north-west  as  to  meet  that  cliain 
of  mountains  called  the  ]{ind(H>  Coosh,  then  it  is  by 
them  turned  otf  towards  the  west,  and  sweeps  alon(5 
until  interrupted  by  the  nini;e  of  the  Solinmuti,  which 
prevents  its  proceeding  further  in  th.it  direction,  or 
compels  it  to  part  with  the  clouds  with  which  it  was 
laden.  If  the  render  will  for  a  moment  trace  im  the 
mai>  the  course  here  desorilied.  lie  will  at  oiirc  jier- 
ceive  the  influence  these  mountains  must  have  in 
motiifying  the  direction  and  general  character  of  the 
monsoon. 

Hitherto  we  hivi-  pri'icipally  noticed  the  south-west 
monsoon,  which  constrlules  the  "rainy  season"  in  India  ; 
to  this  succeeds  the  north-east  monsoon,  which,  with 
the  exception  of  the  eastern  side  of  the  ('oromandel 
roast — to  which  it  brings  the  periodical  rains  that  bcirin 
about  the  midille  of  October,  and  end  generally  in  the 
middle  of  IJecemljer  —  is  attended  with  dry  weather 
thiiughoiit  the  ix'tiiiisiija.  .\fler  setting  in,  during  the 
month  of  Sepfenibcr,  with  considerable  variations  in  its 
commencement,  the  north-east  monsoon  establishes  a 
milder  though  not  less  absolute  dominion,  which  lasts 
until  the  end  of  Februan.'  or  the  beginning  of  .March. 
From  that  jierii'wl  to  the  nioitth  of  June,  the  winds  are 
irreeular,  and  the  heat  fprv  great  all  over  the  [H-ninHula, 
In  respect  to  the  cai;a»  of  the  inonsmms,  they  are,  on 
the  authorilv  of  the  celebrated  philosopher  Halley,  to 
1h!  explained  on  tl:»  fume  principles  as  the  trade-winds; 
the  bction  of  the  rjn's  rays  inducing  a  rarefaction  of 
the  air,  and  coniAnmnt  rn'.hing  in  of  a  coliler  current 
from  the  sea  ti.ti  land  ;  anil  the  physical  a«|Mvt  of  the 
country,  its  elevations  or  |)iainR,  mislifying  the  reflcf- 
tion  and  infiuence  of  the  solar  rays :  which  causes, 
taken  conjiintly,  suftiriently  account  for  the  (H'riodical 
occurrerice  and  local  [leculiarities  of  the  monsoon. 

Sra  ar.rl  Lnnii  lirffzrr. — The  sea  and  land  breeies, 
occurring  in  warm  climates,  may  also  l>e  classified  uiidi-r 
the  heail  oV  jwriixlical  winds;  they  occur  in  the  follow- 
ing manner : — During  the  day,  the  wind  blows  for  a 
certain  number  of  hours  from  the  sen  to  the  land  ;  but 
when  evening  arrives,  it  changes  its  direction,  and  blows 
as  many  hours  from  the  land  to  the  sea.  In  this  ci>un- 
«rv  the  sea-breew  s<'ts  in  about  seven  or  eight  in  the 
mirnins,  ind  is  strongest  at  noon,  but  continues  Tcr>- 


sensible  until  three  o'clock,  when  the  surface  of  the  u 

will  be  observed  to  exhibit  ripplA  of  a  deep  blue  coloui 

After  this,  at  six  in  the  evening,  the  land-breeze  com' 

mcnces.  The  sea  now  assumes  a  greenish  hue ;  -ind  thi 

breeze  continues  until  eight  the  next  morning.  'J'he  caam 

of  this  alternation  may  he  readily  exjduined.  During  (Jib 

I  day,  the  air  over  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  more  hestcd 

I  by  the  rays  of  the  sun  than  that  over  the  surface  of  tho 

j  sea ;  because  tho  cartli,  from  its  greater  density,  comna. 

I  rativo  slate  of  rest,  and  numerous  elevations,  reflects  the 

i  sun's  rays  sooner,  and  with  more  power  then  they  an, 

reflected  from  the  sea,  which,  from  its  state  of  constan 

motion  and  transparency,  iml)il)e»  tho  warmth  very  inii. 

,  mately,  though  more  slowly.     Accordingly,  when  'he 

I  sun,  having  arisen  above  the  horizon,  has,  by  tho  reflco 

I  tion  of  its  rays,  thus  imparted  a  sutlicient  degree  ol 

I  warmth  to  rarefy  the  boily  of  air  over  the  land,  the  ait 

so  ran'licd  ascends  into  the  higher  regions  of  the  atmo. 

I  sphere,  while  that  over  tho  surface  of  the  soa,  Ijclnj 

'  scarcely  at  all  rarefied,  rushes  in  to  s\ii)ply  its  pij^^ 

Hence,  a  sea-breeze,  or  current  of  air  from  the  sea  to  the 

land,  at  this  time  prevails ;  but  when  the  sun  again  be. 

gins  to  sink  below  the  horizon,  the  body  of  nir  over  the 

surface  of  the  land  becomes  rapidly  cold,  and  the  earth 

itself,  by  radiation,  parts  \ery  ijuiekly  with  the  wanmh 

it  had  absorlied.     Then  l\\v  land   air,  being  Ixlow  the 

tem|>ernturc  of  tho  sea  nir,  rushes  in  to  supply  its  place 

and  thus  during  the  night,  a  land-breeze,  or  a  current  ol' 

air  from   the   land  to   the  sea.  is  produced.      When  the 

sea-breeze  first  sets  in,  it  coninienees  very  near  the  shore 

and  gradually  extends  itself  farther  out  to  sea,  and  as 

the  day  advances,  beconu's   ninre  or  less  hot.     Henco 

the  sails  of  shi|)S  have  been  observed  quite  becalmed  six 

or  eight  miles  out  at  sea,  while  at  the  same  time  a  fresh 

sea-breeze  has  Ikjcii  blowing  upon  the  shore.    The  cause 

of  this  is  obvious:   for  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  the 

mass  of  air  nearest  the  land  will  be   the  llriit  to  rush  in 

for  the  pur]H>st>  of  siipiilying  tlie   place  of  the  air  win  ", 

is  rarefied   immediately  above  it.     On   this  .iccouMt  the 

etfecl  of  the  sea-breeze   is  said    not  to  be   perceptible  at 

a  distjuice  of  more  than   five   or  six   leagues  from  tho 

shore,  and   tor  the  most  part   becomes  faijiter  in  proper. 

tion  to  its  distance  from  the  land.     The  distance,  on  the 

other  hand,  to  which  the  land-breeze  extends  in  lilowjiio 

.across  tho  sea,  dejM'nds  on  the  more  or  less  cxpost  J  a* 

|K'Ct  of  the  coast  from  which  it  proceeds. 

}h>t  U'liif/t — Tht  Siiiimini. — Hot  winds  of  a  very  difail. 
ful  character  occur,  in  .Arabia.  Ki!\|>l,  S>ria,  and  ailii. 
cent  countries,  tho  moving  air  Inivwig  aecpiired  a  pro. 
digious  degree  of  heat  and  aridity  in  passing  over  the 
hot  des<'rt  continents.  One  of  the  most  appallinif  of 
these  winds  has  been  cal'.il  by  the  Arabs  the  simnm 
from  a  worrl  meaning  [siison  ;  and  it  is  also  known  hy 
the  namc^  of  the  kanisin,  wbiili  sit'nifies  fifty  dnvs. 
When  the  simiKim  iM'gins  to  Mow  in  Arabia,  the  atmo- 
sphere  assumes  an  alarming  a^ix-ct.  The  sky,  at  other 
tiiiies  so  clear,  becomes  dark  and  heavy  ;  the  sun  lom 
its  splendour,  a'ld  ap|>ears  of  a  violit  colour.  The  air 
is  not  cloudy,  but  thick  from  the  subtle  dust  with  nhicii 
it  is  loaded.  Hometimes  tlie  sky  ap[Hars  y<llow  from 
the  refraction  of  light  on  the  niiinite  pieces  of  quarli 
which  are  floating  in  the  air.  Wometinus  it  has  a  |kcu. 
liar  and  frightful  blue  colour;  which  variety  of  this  wind 
comes  from  those  districts  where  the  soil  is  coin|iof!cd 
of  a  great  deal  of  blue-coloured  marl  and  linu'stone.  .\t 
first,  the  wind  is  light  and  r.ij.id,  and  not  reniarkaWy 
hot;  its  temiK-rature,  however,  soon  increases,  until  it 
ranges  at  upwards  of  I'iH  degrees  Fahreehrit.  Tho 
danger,  however,  is  most  inuninent  when  it  blows  in 
sudden  s<|ualls,  as  then  the  rapidity  of  the  wind  iP' 
crea«'«  the  heat  to  sui  h  a  degree  as  t(>  Is-  altogether  in. 
tolerable.  "When  this  wind  o<rurs."  «a,s  Volncy 
"  nil  animated  bislies  disco' cr  it  by  the  change  it  pro- 
duces in  them.     I'hc  lungs,  which  a  too  rarcfl-d  air  iia 


li  hi«  i.epii  c!;p!nined 
i...  ;.--Jj 


METEOROLOGY— THE  WEATHER. 


n» 


Volney, 


.nnpcr  expands,  are  contracted  and  become  painful. 
Kcspiration  is  short  and  difficult,  the  skin  parched  and 
ijty,  and  the  hojly  consumed  hy  an  internal  heat.  In 
viin  IS  recourse  had  to  large  draughts  of  water ;  nothing 
,.aii  restore  respiration  :  in  vain  is  coolness  soii^ltl  for ; 
,11  bodies  in  which  it  is  usual  to  find  it  deceive  the 
iuid  that  touches  them.  Marble,  iion,  water  —  not- 
withstanding the  sun  no  longer  appears — are  hot.  The 
ilrcets  are  deserted,  and  the  dead  silence  of  night  reigns 
everywhere.  The  inhabitants  of  towns  and  villages 
^ut  themselves  u)>  in  their  houses,  and  thoso  of  the 
,lp»crt  in  their  tents,  or  in  wells  dug  in  the  earth,  where 
ilifV  wait  the  tt^rmination  of  this  destructive  heat."  All 
tiaTcllcrs  bear  testimony  to  the  destructive  effects  of 
tliis  wind  ;  and  it  is  stated  that  camels  are  so  conscious 
)f  iht'ir  danger  from  its  influence,  that  they  instinctively 
iiury  their  nostrils  in  the  sand,  and  keep  them  there 
anlil  the  sciuall  is  over. 

fhe  Sir(>n(t—!he  S'lliino. — The  sirocco  Is  the  name 

jjtcn  to  the  hot  wind  which  occasioniilly  blows  in  Sicily, 

,.J  which  is  supposed  to  derive  its  origin  from  the  ex- 

^«vcly  luMloil  deserts  of  Africa.  The  solano  is  a  term 

inplied  to  a  inodilication  of  this  wind  which  is  met  with 

ii  Spain  anil  Portui^al.     The  heat  of  the  sirocco  wind  is 

Ifj-ribul  to  be  excessive,    Brydonc  observes,  that,  when 

^ceiipc"''n''pd  its  first  blast,  he  felt  as  if  his  face  had  licen 

•xposcil  lo  the  burning  stcum  from  the  mouth  of  an  oven. 

W'hcii  this  wind  occurs,  the  inhabilants  of  every  town 

.;oie  their  doors  mid  windows  against  the  admission  of 

lyextcnial  air,  ami  sprinkle  their  apartments  with  water. 

\)laper;>on  ventures  into  the  open  air.     It  lasta  from 

,^or  seven  to  thirty-six  or  forty  hours.     During  this 

;vrio<!  the  air  is  thick  and  heavy,  and  the  sun  does  not 

(ijioar.      The  thormometer,   from  70  or   72   degrees, 

■  ■Mfiily  rist^s  to  110  or  113  decrees,  or  oven  higher. 

'Xhea  this  sirocco  wind,  which  always  blows  from  the 

»«ith,  shifts,  the  north  wind,  wliich  is   called  the  Ini- 

in/nnf,  succeeds,  and  the  country  is  again  relieved  from 

l!ai(listre4sing  visitation.     The  most  remarkable  effect 

ijthe  sirocco  is  the  extreme  depression  of  animal  spirits 

nhitli  it  produces.     It  gives  a  degree  of  lassitude  both 

nthe  body  anil  mind,  which  renders  both  alike  unfit  for 

vrfiir'ninj;  their  functions  in  an  ellicient  manner.  "  The 

iitiTos  lhemselv(!S,"  says  Brydone,  "  <lo  niit  suffer  less 

i.  strangers ;  and  ull  nature  aecms  to  languish  during 

M  jboniiriable  wind." 

Vilinly  I'f  the  Wind. — The  velocity  of  ihv.  wind  is 
fua  an  imperceptible  movement  to  100  miles  in  an 
i)or.  When  it  moves  at  the  rate  of  1  mile  per  hour, 
m  raid  to  Iw  hardly  perceptible  ;  at  2  or  :)  miles,  just 
j*rcfplilile ;  at  U)  to  15  miles,  pleasant  or  brisk  ;  at  20 
Til  i.  hra'-ing  ;  at  2(1  to  25  miles,  very  brisk  ;  at  30  to 
;>  miles,  high  ;  at  35  to  45  miles,  very  high ;  at  50 
I  Bijos,  storm  or  tem|M'st ;  at  60  miles,  great  storm ;  at 
vi  miles,  hurricane ;  at  100  miles,  hurricane,  tearing 
f  trro,  and  throwing  down  houses,  <Stc. 

Tkt  Jiieniomelir. — Many  years  ago,  on   instrument 
I  ailed  the  anemnmtttr  was  contrived,  for  the  purpose  of 
Mciuring  the  force  of  the  wiml ;  and  latterly  an  uppa- 
iiuiwilh  the  same  name  has  Uoii  invent<'d,  to  mea- 
I  He  not  only  the  force,  but  to  indicate  the  direction  of 
I  iwind  at  every  minute  of  the  day.     From  an  exte- 
I  rwrTanr,  a  connection  is  established  to  a  pointed  index 
I  the  form  of  a  pencil,  which,  accordiiiir  as  the  vane 
01IVO3,  tiavels  on  a  Kheet  of  paper  spread  on  a  table  in 
I  iraom  Ix'iieath,  and  marks  tlie  paper  in  certain  waving 
DMisit  jirot'eeds.     The  pernil   iH'iug  inllneiK  ed  by 
V  mnveinents  of  a  cloi-k,  and  tbe  paper  brim:  si|iiared 
I  isiiilivi<|.>ns  for  every  himr  in  t;ie  day,  a  nvnt  e!f''-- 
isjI  recorii  is  produced.     AirMnomciers  of  tliis  kind  are 
l.m  eitablishcd  at  all  the  piiiicijial  observatofies. 

RAIN. 

Il  hi«  '.-prv,  ertplained  in  the  preceding  paragraphs, 

\..  ;.~33 


that  the  waters  of  the  earth  yield  up  a  certain  quantit) 
of  moisture  into  the  air,  which,  being  condensed,  ••• 
sumos  the  form  of  clouds  of  greater  or  Ie:<ger  density  and 
magnitude,  floating  at  a  variable  distance  above  us  iu 
the  regions  of  the  atmosphere.  It  has  also  been  shown 
that  clouds  consist  of  an  assemblage  of  small  vesiclea, 
or  globules  of  moisture,  which,  on  being  affected  by  a 
diminution  of  temperature,  lose  their  suspensory  pro« 
perty,  and  gathering  into  larger  globules,  they  drop  to 
the  ground  in  the  form  of  water  drops  or  a  shower  of 
rain.  The  fall  of  rain,  therefore,  is  the  result  of  so 
simple  and  obvious  a  cause  as  to  require  no  lengthened 
explanation ;  and  the  only  circumstances  demanding  ouf 
attention  are  the  lesser  or  greater  size  of  the  drops,  the 
closer  or  more  distant  arrangement  of  the  showers,  and 
the  quantity  which  falls  in  reference  to  peculiar  locoli* 
ties  and  different  regions  of  the  glolie. 

Within  the  tropics,  and  also  in  Great  Britain,  when 
the  air  has  liecn  charged  with  electricity,  as  often  hap- 
pens during  the  dry  summer  or  autumnal  months,  the 
rain-drops  arc  very  large,  but  during  the  wet  and  chilly 
season  which  attends  the  fall  of  the  year,  they  are  of\cn 
very  small,  ond,  as  it  is  technically  termed,  drizzling. 
It  is  a  remarkable  fact,  and  worthy  of  our  notice,  that 
drops  of  rain  have  always  been  found  larger  in  the 
lower  regions  of  the  atmosphere.  Thus,  Dr.  Walker 
observed,  in  going  down  a  high  mountain,  that  the 
drops  gradually  increased  in  size  as  he  descended.  At 
a  little  way  below  the  summit  of  the  mountain,  the  pre- 
cipitation appeared  only  a  gentle  mist ;  but  this  grado- 
ally  became  denser  as  he  descended,  until,  on  reaching 
the  valley,  it  increased  to  a  heavy  rain.  In  the  year 
1776,  Dr.  Hclierden  proved  this  curious  fact.  He  placed 
one  instrument  for  measuring  the  quantity  of  rain  which 
falls,  called  the  riii)i-<;tiupe,  on  the  square  part  of  the 
roof  of  Westminster  .Abbey ;  another  on  the  top  of  a 
neighbouring  house  considerably  lower  than  Uie  first; 
and  anotlier  on  the  ground  in  the  adjoining  garden. 
The  rain  collected  o  each  was  as  follows : — Top  of 
Westminster  Abbey,  i."".  inches;  top  of  the  house,  18 
inches  ;  and  on  the  ground,  22  inches:  so  that  much 
more  rain  was  collected  in  the  lower  than  in  the  upper 
rain-gauge.  It  has  been  observed,  that  this  difference 
may  in  some  measure  be  owing  to  the  action  of  the 
wind,  which  might  drift  the  rain  from  the  higher  and 
more  ("xposed  vessel;  but  let  the  greatest  pains  be  taken 
to  avoid  this  difficulty — which  may  be  done  by  placing 
all  the  vessels  in  positions  equally  exposed  to  the  wind 
— still  the  fact  wilt  hold  good,  that  ttie  quantity  of  rain 
incrv>a.*s  as  we  descend  in  the  atmosphere. 

It  has  been  conjectured  that  the  increased  size  of  the 
drops,  as  we  descend  mountains  into  valleys,  depends 
on  their  uniting  together  as  they  fall.  But  the  truth 
Keouia  to  !«•,  that  tht^  increased  quantity  of  moisture  pre- 
cipitatt'd  is  owing  to  the  continued  evaporation  going  on 
at  the  earth's  surtaci,  When  the  sun  has  withdrr.wn 
lii-t  rays,  or  is  overcast  by  a  dense  cloud  in  the  higher 
re;,'!  .,/s  of  the  heavens,  aiul  w'len  the  air  is  loaded  with 
excess  of  vapour,  should  an  additional  quantity  arise 
from  the  earth's  surface,  il  must  be  obstructird  in  its  a^ 
cent,  and,  meeting  with  a  colder  current,  be  condensed, 
and  converted  into  rain.  In  traversing  a  mountainous 
coantry  during  a  storm,  we  have  had  occasion  to  ob- 
serve this  fuct ;  for  often  the  rain  by  which  we  hare 
been  wet  through  has  seemed  not  so  much  to  descend 
from  above,  as  to  lie  formed  immediately  around  us 
Tlic-  garments  about  the  knees  of  the  jicdcstrian  will, 
under  -iiicli  cir  umstaiu'cs,  bo  wet  through,  while  his 
hliouliler'!  re:nain  omjiuiatively  dry.  Hence,  marshy 
and  maritime  situations  whi'-'i  emit  murli  vapoii.-  un 
observed  tii  be  remarkably  riiiiy.  Mountainous  regionn 
are  geniTally  visited  also  witli  i.iucii  rain,  in  c  ii  e- 
quence  of  the  conileiisati;n  of  el.  uils  on  llu'  siiiiiiMit.« 
of  the  hills.      \Vh<;i  t!ie  l.i  Is  lue  iii  I'.ie  in  i^hbou'Iieo! 


tti 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


of  the  ojcaii,  their  tendency  to  cxcito  rain  is  greatly  ii.- 
srepacd;  and  in  proportion  as  we  leave  hills  so  situated, 
and  pass  into  inland  and  more  level  districts,  the  less 
nin  will  he  found  to  fall. 

Winds,  however,  cxort  the  chief  influence  over  the 
•tmospheric  condition  which  produces  rain.  Thus,  if 
winds  blow  from  instead  of  to  a  hilly  country,  the  clouds 
will  be  carried  elsewhere,  and  be  prcrii)iliitod  in  lnwer 
legions  at  a  distance.  But,  if  those  low-lying  rcRions 
be  warm,  the  clouds  will  be  radi.itod,  and  their  piirticlcs, 
in  ■  relined  state,  will  be  carried  onwards  by  the  winds, 
till  thoy  come  over  a  cold,  hii(h-lying  country,  whe,e 
Ihoy  will  drop  in  heavy  showers.  In  this  manner  the 
Tapours  friiin  the  M"iliterranran  are  carried  over  Kgypt, 
and  do  not  collapse  into  rain  till  intercepted  by  the 
higher  regions  of  Abyssinia.  In  conscqueii"^'  of  CiTtain 
windi  blowini?  within  the  tropica,  inost  countries  near 
tlio  equator  have  their  rait'.y  rcusnn^ — ;>- ri.ids  during 
which  much  greater  quantities  of  rain  full  tlian  we  are 
•ccustomed  to  in  teinjjcrate  climes.  The  rains  in  India, 
which  arc  often  so  desolating  in  their  efteets,  as  already 
noticed,  generally  occur  during  the  shiftini;  of  th''  mon- 
•oons,  ami  also  during  what  is  termed  the  «outh-wcst 
monsoon. 

In  that  part  of  Peru  called  Valles,  which  lies  on  the 
north  and  s^uth  side  of  Lima,  and  is  boun<led  on  the 
•Mt  by  the  Andes,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  it  never  rains  at  all;  but  during  winter,  the  earth 
b  covered  with  a  fog  so  thick  and  dense  as  to  intcrce|)t 
tile  rays  of  the  sun.  These  fogs  supply  sulTu-ient  mois- 
ture to  render  the  most  arid  and  barren  soil  fertile,  and 
to  convert  llie  disagreeable  dust  in  the  streets  of  Lima 
'.  ito  mud.  The  reason  why  it  never  rains  in  this  coun- 
try, ia,  that  the  wind  always  blows  from  the  south,  that 
it,  from  e.  coMer  to  a  warmer  region  .it  the  woiM. 

Speculations  on  the  chance  falliiig  of  rain  in  such 
«>antries  as  Britain  are  exceedingly  har.arlous,  in  con- 
•oqucnce  of  the  variability  of  the  winds,  and  the  condi- 
tions of  the  atmosi>liere  at  [mints  far  beyond  our  know- 
ledge. With  res|)ect  to  llic  likelihoixl  of  rain,  we  can 
Mtain  only  a  few  general  principles,  all  beyond  which 
is  doubt  and  dilfieulty.  For  example,  if  the  weallfr  lie 
«teady  and  dry,  the  wi/ids,  if  not  distrarfcd  by  any  fo- 
raign  circumstance,  will  conunue  bloivinu;  and  carrying 
•way  the  evaporated  moisture  to  distant  reginrw.  thus 
•verting  rain;  but  if,  in  the  meanwhile,  the  temperature 
•uddenly  falls,  or  the  winds  shift,  clouds  immediatidy 
nmkc  their  ap|iearance,  and  showers  of  rain  are  the  con- 
•equcnce.  Vet  there  are  cxcepliniiH  to  these  general 
rules,  as  we  will  immc<liately  mention. 

In  all  countries,  particular  winds  are  noted  for  being 
•cooinpanled  either  by  wet  or  by  dry  weather:  thus, 
the  south  and  the  south-west  winds  liring  much  mois- 
ture into  Britain,  while  those  from  the  north  and  iinrth- 
•aat  are  cold,  dry,  and  penetrating  ;  hence  the  i>Id  pro- 
»erb— 

"  When  the  winifi  in  thn  (outh, 
Il'i  ill  the  rain'a  mi>ulh  " 

Not  only  does  this  arise  from  the  immense  surface  of 
ocean  over  which  these  winds  sweep  s<iuth  of  tlw-  ecjua- 
for,  the  evaporation  from  which  must  l>e  pnxligious,  but 
from  tliese  southerly  winds  Ix'iiig  of  a  hiijlier  tem[wra- 
ture,  whereby  they  hold  a  greater  (piantity  of  vapour  in 
■usptmsion  or  solution,  the  condeiisalion  of  which  must 
be  pro[)orfii)iially  great/T  on  arriving  in  tbis  colder  cli- 
mate. Acc^irdifigly.  it  has  been  observed  tlial  the  wind 
tvill  turn  fr:im  the  north  to  the  south  i|uiet!y  and  with- 
out rain,  hut.  on  returning  from  the  souih  to  the  north, 
will  blow  hard  and  bring  iniicli  rain.  .\galn,if  it  begin 
to  rain  from  the  south,  with  a  high  wind,  for  two  or 
<iiree  hours,  anil  the  wimi  fills,  but  the  rain  continues, 
n  IS  likely  Ui  T*in  for  twelve  hours  or  more,  and  does 
li>ii*lly  r^n  until  •  strong  north  wind  clears  the  air. 
tor  t)io  «a!!ie   reiKon,  winds  fro.ii  the  west  and  south- 


west are  considered  to  bring  with  them  wet  weaihej 
hence  the  old  saying — 

"A  rainliow  in  the  morning  is  th«  shopherci's  wkrninir' 
But  a  rainbow  at  night  is  ihe  •hepherd'a<li:i:|;ht." 

In  the  morning,  the  sun  rising  in  the  east  shines  dj. 
rectly  upon  the  rain  .'ailing  in  the  west,  and  therrhv 
warning  the  watchful  shepherd  of  the  approach  of  wet 
weather  with  this  humid  wind  ;  but  at  night,  when  tlia 
sun  sinks  in  the  west,  itD  rays  fall  on  the  rain  in  the  ewt. 
and  the  sliepherd  then  sees  the  storm  departing ;  hencs 
this  is  one  of  the  many  popular  sayings  founded  on  ob- 
servation of  nature. 

Men  of  science  have  made  very  careful  inquiries  to 
aR<'ertain  the  quantit-  r.f  rain  which  falls  in  certain 
places  during  a  giv  n  time,  and  the  instrument  devised 
for  that  purpose  > .  the  rfim-^'(ii«^'c.  Its  construction  ii 
very  simple,  coni  .sting  merely  of  a  circular  or  square 
vessel,  to  which  /s  affixed  a  pijie,  funnel-shajied,  for  con- 
ducting the  rain  into  it,  where  ita  quantity  is  esij. 
nialed  liy  a  scale  marking  tiie  number  of  square  inches 
which  enter.  The  annual  quantity  of  rain  is  greatest 
in  tropical  countries,  and  diminishes  as  wc  approach 
the  poles;  a  circumstance  explicable  by  the  grcai  • 
evaporative  qualities  of  the  atniosiihcrc  in  warm  than 
in  cold  countrie.i.  The  following  table  illustrates  th, 
progressive  diminution  of  rain  as  wc  reach  liigher  lati. 
tudes : — 

North  laiitudR.      Inche«of  R'nn 


I'jpaberjr.    - 

.    r.i 

Ipdrcns 

:ui 

iiiniuei. 

13-5 

I'ctrr^tiurif, 

60 

-_ 

M 

— 

ns 

Kilmliiirgh,  - 

.     65 

— 

5S 

--~ 

24S 

iKiiulon, 

51 

— 

31 

— > 

as 

I'nrn, 

.     4S 

— 

60 

— 

19-9 

Rornc,      -           • 

4t 

— 

54 

— 

,«-0 

rnlciiltn. 

-     2i 

— 

a.'i 

— 

HIO 

Vi  rn  friiz. 

le 

— 

a 

— 

•vi-s 

Itombsy, 

-     18 

-- 

57 

— 

880 

The  mean  quantity  falling  annually  in  England  is  rwt 
oncd  to  be  .32  inches,  or,  accoriling  to  Dalton,  .31-3;  hot 
this  is  unei|ually  distributed.  At  Kenwick,  in  Cumber- 
land, the  depth,  on  an  average  i)f  seven  yearn,  was  found 
to  be  67  indies;  and  at  I'lymouth,  in  l>evon;,hire, 4J 
inches.  In  the  western  parts  of  .Scotland,  the  depth  ii' 
from  30  to  .35  inches,  which  is  from  6  to  10  inches  mora 
than  that  on  the  east  coast. 

Although  the  <|uaiitity  of  rain  which  falls  in  tropica) 
countries  is  usually  greater  than  wliat  is  preci[]ilated  in 
colder  regions,  it  is  disp<>rsed  over  less  time,  and  chiefly 
falls  in  heavy  showers  duriii;;  a  limited  season  of  thr 
year.  In  our  temperate  cliniales,  therefore,  wc  havf 
more  rainy  and  dri/rJing  days  throughout  the  year  than 
are  exiioriciiced  in  warm  countries;  and  it  is  thiawhict 
gives  the  character  of  nioistness  und  pern,)iial  discom- 
fort to  our  climate. 

The  seasons  of  the  year,  while  ,lhey  eontril-ute,  hT 
their  variety,  to  our  pleasure  and  happiness,  are  ^•hara^ 
tcrizeil  by  such  weather  as  s  best  adapted  to  tli"  nrrp* 
sities  of  the  vegetable  and  animal  iTei-tion  ;  wherefore 
the  projKirlions  of  rain  vary  In  different  months  of  the 
year.  In  summer  we  have  n<vt  so  maiiv  rainy  days  a» 
ill  winter  ;  but  the  showers  are  then  heavier,  thestrpami 
of  rniii  closer  together,  and  the  i|iianlity  wliirh  falls  ii 
greater  than  during  any  oilier  season.  Dr.  Dalton  hai 
ii.scertaired  that  the  first  six  iiionllis  of  the  v  ir  may  be 
regarded  as  dry,  and  the  hi^t  six  as  wet  iiiojiihs.  An- 
other iii;;enioiis  autlior  has  inferii'il,  from  Idiio;  observj. 
tion,  that  in  spring  it  rnins  oflener  in  the  evening  than 
in  llie  iiioriiing,  but  tli  il  Imvaids  the  ei.d  of  fiuniraer, 
oftrner  in  Ihi  morriinc  than  in  the  eveiiing,  and  itornii 
at  this  time  are  n|)t  to  oiTur  a  little  after  Miiiri.'e, 

The  reason  that  in  winter  less  rain  falls,  lliiiiijh  w» 
have  more  rainy  days  than  in  Numiner,  is,  that  the  tern 
I  eraliiri'  of  the  air  is  less  variable  in  winter,  and  Ihf 
eondciiBalion  of  moisture  not  so  fori  ibie;  tlnreforr,  tli« 
rain  continues  falling  in  sma,!  Iriz/ling  drops,  ■vhirh, 
accompanied   or   fuUawed  by  chilly  a.i  'h  va?    w  mU 


b!  > 


METEOROLOGY— THE  WEATHER. 


«7o 


fltei  rtM  to  colds  nnd  coughs,  and  many  distrcsBing 
gialtfdic"-  It  is  also  to  be  observed,  that,  while  a  clouded 
,n(l  damp  ntmosphero  favours  the  increase  of  vegetable 
I'.iliage.  it  is  not  so  favourable  to  its  fructification.  In 
<uch  seasons,  while  the  blades  of  grass  grow  broader, 
ihe  nutritious  principle  which  they  should  contain  is 
lOt  well  developed  f  so  that  animals  feeding  on  this 
jooier  grass  are  obliged  to  take  a  larger  portion  to  aa- 
j(fy  their  appetites.  Cattle  and  sheep  which  feed  on 
lurh  pasturage,  may  be  observed  to  be  almost  continu- 
jl,.r  eating  ;  whereas,  in  moderately  dry  seasons,  when 
(he  occasional  rains  have  been  heavier,  every  blade  of 
trnms  grows  more  healthily,  its  nutritious  principle  is 
licttcr  evolved,  and  less  sufficing,  the  same  animals  may 
lx<  seen  lying  down  and  ruminating  in  the  shade.  In 
ilio  progression  of  the  seasons,  rain  falls  at  all  times 
Juring  the  twetily-four  hours ;  but  it  has  been  oscer- 
lained  that  much  less  falls  by  day  than  by  night. 

Rain  has  occasion.illy  been  known  to  fall  of  a  pecu- 
liar colour  or  substance  ;  but  this,  like  other  atmospheric 
nhi'nomena,  admits  of  nn  explanation  on  natural  grounds. 
Ill  liic  ycnr  1810,  a  shower  of  red  rain  fell  in  Hungary. 
It  lasted  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  and  the  water  was  like 
bi.KxI.  This  was  ascertained  to  be  owing  to  the  rain- 
,;iter  beiniT  loaded  with  the  red  pollen  of  certain  kinds 
oftrees  from  a  neighbouring  forest.  Red  rain,  however, 
J4  iii'ire  frccpiently  rauwd  by  an  incorporation  with  the 
itmosphcro  of  a  minute  fungjus  vegetation  or  of  nni- 
malculcs,  both  too  small  to  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye. 
\.y\i\  nr  a  kind  of  f^hiiinmm  rnin  has  likewise  fallen. 
In  tlio  Tran^artionH  of  the  Roya!  Society  of  London,  an 
iiTinint  is  given  of  a  shower  of  vincid  rain  which  hap- 
pcniNl  in  Ireland.  On  examination,  it  was  foui\d  to  l)e 
owin?  to  (he  presence  of  extraneous  matter,  partly  ve- 
(flalile  and  partly  animal.  In  IS2S,  a  substunce  wan 
ihir -"  to  the  PVench  Acailemy  which  fell  in  ibe  plains 
uf  Persia.  It  wi.s  edible,  and  alforded  nourishment  to 
rattle  and  many  otiier  animals.  This  nutritious  ir.after 
nis  found  to  he  a  vegetalile  production — the  l.irhrn  cs- 
tulenlif  nf  botanists — which  had  been  transported  thither 
bv  the  wind. 

We  arc  not,  in  these  various  instances,  to  forget  Ihe 
pmvcrful  ai"ency  of  the  wind,  \  "..ich  often  has  been 
[iriived  to  carry  to  a  prodigious  distance,  sand  and  dust, 
inil  the  aslies  and  scoria-  which  have  been  thrown  up 
during  the  eruptii.n  of  volcanoes.  Not  very  many 
vfars  ago.  during  n  strong  gale,  herrings  and  other  fish 
nfre  carried  from  the  Tirtli  of  Forth  to  Lochlcven,  a 
distance  of  ujiwards  of  ten  miles. 

Si'ii.'  '1/  Rail. — We  concliidu  otir  observations  on 
rair,  hy  enumerating  a  ♦ew  of  those  prognostications  of 
ipproaching  rain,  which,  admitting  of  explarMition,  are 
mist  interesting.  When  th.  moon  is  of  a  pure  silveky 
fnlour,  good  weather  is  inilicatcd  ;  but  'vlien  it  has  a 
lirmvn  or  chestnut-coloured  tint,  rain  may  be  expected. 
This  is  owing  to  the  elTect  of  the  vaptur  in  the  etmo- 
sphcre  in  refracting  the  moon's  light.  For  the  same 
foison,  when  stars  ore  surrounded  by  coloured  halos, 
ihf  approa  li  of  rain  is  indicated. 

When  maintain  ranges  or  distant  objects  appear 
nearer  to  us  than  usual — when  sounds  are  heard  more 
dearly  from  a  distance — when  the  o<tout  of  plants  is 
i.ixe  than  usually  powerful,  rain  may  be  prognosti- 
cated. The  first  of  these  signs  arises  from  the  effect 
ef  an  excrss  of  moisture  in  reflecting  and  refracting 
Ihe  rays  of  ighf — the  two  last  from  sounds  as  well  as 
odours  lieing  conveyed  better  Ihroui'h  o  damp  than 
llirough  a  dry  air.  The  low  flight  of  swallows  indi- 
'A'.if  ii|ipriMii  liing  rai[i.  The  <'auHe  of  this  is,  that  they 
purene  flies,  which  delight  in  warm  air ;  and  these  flies. 
Mnpin'^  f.om  the  excess  of  moisture  above,  dcecnd 
oenrer  to  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  nrc-  there  pur- 
•iieil  tiy  I'lese  bi'-ds. 

Uiu'Ks,  gec'<<^.  and  utlier  vraterfonia,  l^furc  tne  ap- 


proach of  rain,  may  bo  seen  to  throw  water  with  Iheii 
bills  over  their  backs,  and  dive  frequently ;  the  cause  oi 
which  is,  that,  although  so  much  in  the  water,  thoy  do 
not  like  being  wet  to  the  skin ;  to  avoid  which,  when 
warned  by  the  peculiar  sensation  preceding  rain,  they 
close  their  plumage  together,  by  throwing  a  sudden 
weight  of  water  on  their  bodies,  in  the  direction  of  the 
growth  of  their  feathers.* 

Before  the  fall  of  rain,  cattle  may  sometimes  be  ob- 
served stretching  out  their  necks,  and  snuthng  in  the 
air  with  distended  nostrils,  which,  doubtless,  is  occs- 
sioned  by  the  odours  of  plants  being  more  powerful 
than  usual,  when  the  air  is  saturated  with  an  excess  of 
moisture. 

Man  in  strong  and  robust  health  docs  not  feel  hu 
constitution  aflisct'^d  bv  that  change  in  the  state  of  the 
atmosphere  whicl'  [.  "-ccedcs  rain ;  but  perscms  who  are 
in  delicate  health  are  often  m\ich  olTectcd.  Pain  of  the 
head,  toothache,  irritability  of  temper,  pains  in  old  sores 
which  have  healed,  the  aching  of  corns,  and  excessive 
nervousness,  are  ai!,  in  certain  habits  of  body,  signs  of 
approaching  wet  weather. 

Dogs  closely  confined  in  a  room  become  drowsy  and 
stupi''  before  rain  ;  the  same,  in  a  less  degree,  is  ob- 
served in  cats ;  horses  neigh  much  ;  cattle  low ;  the 
fallow- 'leer  becomes  restless;  and  many  other  animals, 
from  the  uneasiness  they  feel  owing  to  the  altered  con- 
dition, prognosticate  the  approach  of  rain.  Insects, 
being  very  sensible  of  every  change  in  the  state  of  the 
atmosphere,  arc  good  weather-guides  ;  hence,  fine  wea- 
ther may  be  predicted  when  many  spiders'  webs  are 
seen  in  the  open  air  ;  also  when  Ihjcs  are  found  far  be 
yond  their  hives.  On  the  contrary,  when  spiders  r^ 
main  hidden,  and  bees  do  not  range  abroad  as  usual, 
rain  may  be  expected.  Many  flowers  and  plants  are 
excellent  progrosticators  of  tlie  weather.  When  tha 
flower  of  the  chickweed  expands  freely,  and  remain* 
open,  no  rain  will  fall  for  many  hours ;  but  when  it 
closes,  showery  weather  or  continued  rain  may  be  ex- 
pecteil.  The  trf''oil,  the  convolvulus,  and  many  other 
plants,  contrr.ct  their  leaves  before  the  approach  of 
ra'ii. 

FROST SlfOW. 

When  the  temperatuie  of  the  atmosphere  falls  to  a 
certain  degree  of  cold  (indicated  by  32  degrees  in  our 
thermometers),  which  it  dvies  principally  from  the  weak- 
ness of  the  sun's  rays  in  winter,  the  phenomenon  of 
frost  or  freezing  ensues.  Freezing  is  a  process  of  con- 
gel'.ifion,  or  properly,  crystallization,  produced  by  the 
withdrawal  or  alisence  of  heat,  and  by  wliich  water 
assumes  the  form  of  ice. 

When  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  arrives  at 
that  low  pitch  which  effects  freezing,  the  watery  parti- 
eles  wliich  are  upheld  in  the  clouds  are  frozen  in  theii 
desccnc.  and  coalescing,  reach  the  earth  in  the  form  of 
flakes  of  snow ;  and  these  accumulating  on  the  ground, 
constitute  the  ajiproiiriatc  characteristic  of  the  winter 
season.  An  intensely  cold  current  of  air,  mixing  with 
the  vapour  suspended  in  a  warmer  current,  occasions, 
as  in  the  case  of  hail,  this  precipitation.  Snow,  how- 
ever, is  formed  in  the  lower  regions  < X  the  atmosphere, 
or  mighl,  if  commencing  in  small  nucleus,  in  higher 
regions,  ix;  converted  in  it-s  descent  into  hail.  That 
snow  is  forined  in  this  manner,  there  can  be  no  doubt; 
for  a  very  cold  stream  of  air,  admitted  into  a  room  in 
wliich  the  contained  air  is  warmer,  and  loaded  with 
watery  particles,  will  occasion  its  formation.  In  Ihe 
huts  of  the  people  i:i  the  desolate  arctic  regions,  snow 
is  often  BO  formed  ;  tliey  stop  the  chink,  yet  bIiII  the 
walls  are  often  covered  with  a  thick  icy  ciust;  and 
whenever  a  cold  current  from  the  external  air  'in  ad- 


*  Lake  Howard's  Climalo  of  lA>nilon.  nolo  to  vul.  1. 


»•  v«  i 


tTf 


INFORMATION   FOR   THE  PEOPLE. 


wtittoJ,  gnowy  flakes  are  predpitnled.  Dr.  Robertson 
atatrs,  that,  in  a  crowdpil  assflmbly-rooin  at  St.  Potom- 
Imrn,  a  ittream  of  cold  air  was  accidcntly  admitted  into 
the  roDm  by  a  gciitlemnn  breaking  a  pane  of  tjlaas,  on 
whii-h  the  vapour  in  the  air  wag  iinmeiliatply  conprenlad, 
•nd  tell  in  the  form  of  Rnow-flakes.  In  Siberia,  Pallas, 
Chuppe,  and  othem,  have  ncen  it  formed  under  similar 
ciroumstanccB ;  and  by  the  narrative  of  iho  Dutchman 
who  wiiiU-red  in  Nova  Zembia,  we  are  informed  Ihnl  a 
•u./wer  of  anow  fell,  from  the  vapour  of  expiration, 
•very  time  there  waa  any  communiration  tvitli  the  ex- 
ternal air.  'i'he  peruliaritiea  of  anow  conHixt  in  its 
extreme  lightnesK,  and  aUo  in  its  bcinir  purely  white. 
Its  lightness  is  oceasiuned  by  the  excess  of  its  surface 
exceeding  so  much  in  comparison  the  matter  it  contains, 
and  its  whiteness  is  owing  to  the  minute  particles  into 
which  it  is  divided  ;  hence,  when  ice  is  poimded,  it  is 
equally  white.  When  snow,  however,  accumulates  in 
l.irge  quantities,  its  weight  becomes  very  considerable. 
Snow  occurs  in  all  regions  of  the  globe  nt  a  certain 
height  aliove  the  lewl  of  the  sea,  but  fulls  more  abund- 
antly on  plains  as  we  proceed  from  the  equator  to  the 
poles.  In  the  arctic  regions,  snow  falls  nine  days  out 
of  ten  during  the  months  of  A|)ril,  May,  and  June,  and 
olWn  a  depth  of  two  or  three  inches  ia  deposited  in  an 
hour.  In  these  reiji.ins,  the  thickest  precipitations  are 
oli.-ierved  to  precede  the  occurrence  of  storms. 

The  forms  of  snow-flakes  present  an  almost  endless 
Ttriety  ;  they  are  often  very  regular  and  lieautiful,  and 
reilcct  with  exceeding  splendour  the  rays  of  the  sun. 
M'hcn  they  are  very  large,  tliey  are  said  to  indicate  the 
approach  of  thunder.  After  a  co|)ious  fall  of  snow, 
when  the  tomiJcrature  is  too  low  to  produce  any  mois- 
ture, its  level  surface  may  often  bf  seen  sprinkled  with 
thin  delicate  plates  of  ice,  which  refract  the  light  in 
colours  as  varied  and  brilliant  as  drops  of  dew.  At 
»uch  times,  on  the  borders  of  lakes,  ami  on  the  leaves 
of  trees,  groups  of  feathery  icy  crystals  may  be  seen, 
remarkable  for  the  most  exquisite  delicacy. 

Dr.  Daniel  Clarke,  in  his  Trtiveh  in  Itufsin,  mentions 
thfit,  while  at  Su  Petersburg,  he  observed  flakes  of  snow 
falling  in  regular  and  lieautiful  forms.  "  The  season," 
he  says,  "  l)egan  to  change  b<"fore  we  left  Pcterslmrg. 
The  cold  liocamc  daily  less  intense  ;  and  the  inhabitants 
were  busied  in  moving  from  the  Neva  large  blocks  of 
ice  into  their  cellars.  A  most  interesting  and  reinark- 
ibk"  phenomenon  took  place  the  day  before  our  depar- 
ture: the  thermometer  of  Celsius  stood  at  th;it  time 
only  5  degrees  below  the  freezing-point,  and  there  was 
no  wind.  Snow,  in  the  most  regular  and  b<'autiful  crys- 
tals, feli  gently  on  oii'-  clothes  and  on  the  sledge,  as  we 
were  driving  in  the  streets.  All  of  them  possessed 
exactly  the  same  fiiture  and  the  same  diinensinn.  Every 
particle  consisted  of  a  wheel  ot  star,  with  six  ei|ual  rays, 
l<i)iinded  by  circumferences  of  euual  diann^ttrs :  thev 
had  all  of  them  the  same  numlx'r  of  rays  braiu'hi-rg 
froTi  a  common  centre.  The  si/e  of  each  of  these  little 
sttrs  was  equal  to  the  circle  presrntc<I  by  disiding  a  pea 
into  two  equal  parts.  This  api>earaiice  eonti.iucd  dur- 
ing three  hours;  in  which  time  no  other  snow  K'll.  and 
there  was  sulTirieiit  leisure  to  examine  them  with  the 
strictest  attention,  and  to  make  the  representation  given 
»a  t.ic  first  figure. 


"  .As  water,  in  its  cryst.i!IiMtiin.  rcems  to  conKist  of  radii 
rtivcrginj  from  a  common  centre,  by  the  usual   apjwar-  ] 
•oces  on  the  surface  of  ice  it  might  be  possible  to  obtain  j 
Uk  lh»-yry,  and  to  aace'tain  >he  laws,  from  which  tbii  j 


■tellar  structure  results.  An  equiangular  and  equllntcrit 
plane  hcxogon  is  divisible  into  three  equal  and  "Imll,,, 
rhombs:  and  if  the  engraved  figure  A  bo  attentively  oh. 
served  it  will  appear  that  each  linear  ray  of  the  star  jg  • 
diagonal  (see  tig.  D)  joining  the  acute  angles  of  a  rhntnb 
whose  sides  are  the  loci  of  the  extreme  points  of  the  linw 
of  ramification  from  these  diagoixils.  The  rhomb  tnav 
therefore  be  the  primitive  fonn  of  water  crystallize<l.  Thii 
seems  the  more  manifest,  because,  if  C(pial  and  similar 
rhomlis  he  applied  Itetween  all  the  raya  of  the  star  A  In 
the  spaces  1,  2,  8,  4,  5,  and  fl,  an  equilateral  and  equi. 
angular  hexagon  will  be  the  result,  as  represented  hy  tht 
dottfd  line  in  fig.  C."  The  same  star-like  ►h.ipe  of  snow 
flakes  has  l)ecn  seen  in  Britain.  According  to  a  notice 
in  an  Edinburgh  newspaper,  the  ]ihenomenon  occurrcj 
in  Lanarkshire  in  the  winter  of  1838. 

Snow  is  occasionally  seen  of  a  brown  coU.iir,  which 
arises  from  its  Iwing  impregnated  with  earthy  suhstanrcs, 
brought  from  the  mountains  by  those  streams  of  watei 
which  are  derived  from  the  ihnwing  of  ice  or  snow 
Much  oftener  has  snow  mvn  ol  .served  of  a  red  colour 
which  appears  generally  to  huve  arisen  from  its  iiilprmix. 
ture  witli  some  vegetable  substan  'v  Captain  S^corcsby 
informs  us,  that,  in  the  arctic  regiotjfl,  the  redness  of  ihj 
snow  may  occasionally  lie  attributed  to  the  little  auk 
(.llrd  «//<),  which  feeds  on  shrimps,  and  accumulates  in 
innnense  numbers. 

Snow,  which  in  Uritain  falls  generally  most  copiously 
durini;  the  months  of  December,  January,  and  Kebruiirv 
seldoir.  occurs  so  early  as  October,  and  is  generally,  i[\fi 
r;'maining  some  time  on  the  ground,  dissipated  by  on  in. 
crease  of  lemperuturc.  arising  from  the  direct  action  of  the 
sun's  rays  or  the  f  >'i  of  rain.  Occasionally,  however,  it  Jij, 
a|>|i<'ars  without  u.'iy  .ijiparent  thaw,  or  so  much  disslpatei 
as  to  leave  deej)  furrows  on  the  snowy  plain.  This  arisia 
from  the  snow  itself  lieing  evaporated,  which  will  oecui 
even  below  the  frec7.ing-|)oint.  "On  the  niaht  of  the  lOth 
of  IVhruary,"  says  l.uke  llowar<l.  "I  exposed  lOOnraini 
o!  light  snow,  spread  on  a  dish  (which  hud  previously  the 
tem|H'niture  of  the  air)  of  six  inches  in  diameter.  In 
the  first  hour  after  diirk  it  lost  five  grains;  in  the  third 
it  aci|uireil  a  grain,  the  wind  hiiving  changed,  uriil  the 
tem|)eralure,  which  had  been  falling  from  "a°,  inrlinino 
to  rise  aifain.  In  the  coursi-  of  trie  night  the  loss  wa» 
about  (>0  grains."  This  very  ingenious  author  ailiis 
that  this  eviifMiration  from  snow  probably  supplies  the 
wilier  for  the  formation  of  those  thin  mists  which  apprjr 
during  intense  frost.  'J'he  air  then  l)eeomes  paniall? 
loailed  with  particles  of  ice,  or  of  water  at  so  low  a  '  |. 
per.itnre  as  to  be  ready  to  liecoine  solid  the  nuwiei  ,v 
find  su[iport.  Heiirc,  too, may  arisi'  the  riine-trost, Mhifh 
is  found  to  accuiiuilate  on  the  windward  side  of  the  tivjej 
and  branches  of  shrubs  and  trees.  Snow  seldom  rerrwiiu 
long,  in  tem|H'rate  latitudes,  on  plains  or  in  valleys,  but 
on  the  to|>s  of  hinh  monntains  it  (x-cnsiimal!y  upfieari 
throughout  the  year.  The  cause  of  its  contiriiianro  on 
these  exalted  s|Hjts,  is  the  thinness  of  the  atDios]iheric  air, 
which  is  incapable  of  holiling  sutlicient  heat  from  the 
sun's  rays  to  melt  the  geniTal  miss. 

Stffi  is  ordy  a  modification  of  snow.  When  nijueous 
globules  fnN'W  in  the  higher  regions  of  the  atmosphere, 
•hey  aggregate  together,  and  lorm  flakes  of  snow;  ani 
when  these  havo  partly  thawed,  and  have  again  liocoiiic 
frozen,  they  consliiute  sleet,  which  is  thus  caiiTd  b; 
the  variable  tein[K!r:ilure  of  the  atmosphere.  Sleei  falli 
at  all  seasons,  and  soinetiriies  cliaii!;es  into  mui  inJ 
sometirjies  into  snow.  It  <M'ca'<ionally  falls,  imiceil.  ^^^t 
heavily,  gutliL'ring  and  free/ing  adililioiial  rnoistu.'c  ii,  t« 
descent. 

Hiiil  is  des<Til>ed  by  meteorologists  as  fi.«en  iIro|« 
of  r;r  I.  the  frei'7.ing  haviiii  taken  place  while  the  amajlr'r 
vesicles  of  water  were  assuming  t!ie  heavier  proiwrlit* 
of  (he  raiinlrop.  \  cold  cnirent  of  air,  hlowjiii;  sud- 
denly iii  the  direction  uf  a  rain-cloud,  is  understuuil  li 


THU.NDER 


Indf|H'iidently   o 


METEOROLOGY— THE  WEATHER. 


a77 


^  the  immmliate  cauie  nf  mnit  hail-i)howpr8.  Hail- 
(tone*  vary  much  in  ■hn))o ;  thoy  are  Kenrrully  o"al  or 
found,  but  aometitnes  thin,  flat,  irref^ulnrly  it'obular, 
(ni;alar<  pyramidal,  orcaaionully  irregular,  havini;  a  cen- 
irnl  po*"'  whence  procp«l  numerous  icy  apiculn),  like 
f5fi  in  all  directiona ;  and,  niao,  altiiough  more  rarely, 
(hey  have  appeared  aa  Hix-aidcd  priiimn.  Hail-atonea 
,iry  in  aize  from  that  of  a  amal!  seed  to  that  of  a 
[iov'»  marble,  the  ginnllor  RiMierally  falling  in  the  more 
iiotlli'"''y  rliniBtcB,  the  larnor  in  the  south  of  Europe. 
In  (lirtcrent  parta  of  France  and  Britain,  very  large 
halUtonei)  have  occaaionally  fallen,  and  done  acrioua 
a«raa«e. 

It  is  calculated  that  n  single  drop  of  water,  the  diame- 
IJT  of  which  if)  only  the  one-thouimndth  part  of  an  inch, 
«ill,  in  dcficciuling  through  the  air,  acquire  a  velocity  of 
(ino  or  ten  feet  every  second ;  wherefore  it  is  lesa  sur- 
prisinj  that  hailstones  of  such  magnitude  and  weight 
ihouid  occasionally  prove  destructive,  not  only  to  delicitte 
pliiits  hut  even  to  animals.  The  largo  aizo  of  hailstones 
jj  attributed  to  an  accumulation  during  the  progress  of 
ihcir  descent.  It  is  probahle  that  the  largext  coinniences 
iu  formation  with  a  small  nucleus,  which  receives  cou- 
liniial  accessions  from  vapoury  particles  which  it  freezes 
inJ  attaches  to  itself  as  it  proceeds.  Accordingly,  hail- 
(tones  are  found  to  be  smaller  on  the  tops  of  tnountitins 
^n  in  the  neighbouring  plains  or  valleys;  because, 
not  falling  so  fur,  they  do  not  augment  their  size  by 
ihc  addition  of  successive  layers  of  congealed  watery 
tapour. 

//uar-/io«'.  which  appears  like  a  beautiful  powdery  crya- 
talliulion  on  trees  and  herbage,  is  only  frozen  dew.  The 
conversion  of  dew  into  hour-frost  is  another  wise  arrange- 
mrnt  in  nature,  by  which  plants  are  protected  from  the 
leierity  of  a  freezing  cold  atmosphere. 

THUNDER  AND  LIOHTNINO — STORMS. 

ImlriHMidnitly  of  the  storms  of  roRuliir  occurrence 
in  warm  climates,  such  as  monsoons  and  simoums,  there 
offir  sudden  and  violent  atmospheric  agitations,  both 
It  «a  and  land,  the  causes  of  which  arc  various,  though 
fonenilly  dei)cnding  on  rapid  transitions  of  tempera- 
ture and  electrical  influence.  Two  kinds  of  storms,  in 
particular,  are  dependent  on  electrical  action  in  the 
itm(»|)luTe  and  clouds — the  common  thunder-storms 
of  teintH,'rate  cliinat<\=i,  and  those  of  a  very  violent  na- 
ture occurring  in  the  form  of  hurricanes  iu  tropical 
regions. 

T/iuii(/pr-</or«w.— Storms  of  thunder  and  lightning  are 
grajily  a  case  of  electrical  dischargi-a  from  one  cloud  to 
another,  and  are  a  means  adopted  by  nature  to  restore 
electrical  equilibrium  in  the  atmosphere,  and  at  the  same 
time  clear  the  air  from  unwholesome  vajrours  or  pro- 
perties. The  explanation  of  thunder-storms  given  by 
Professor  Thomson,  in  his  Outlines  of  thn  Science  of 
Heat  and  Electricity,  being  the  heat  we  have  seen,  we 
■hall  lay  it  before  the  reader; — '<Air  and  all  gases 
ire  noiKonductors ;  but  vapour  and  clouds,  which  are 
composed  of  it,  are  conductors.  Clouds  consist  of  a  kind 
0.'  bladders  of  vajmur,  chargotl  each  with  the  same  kind 
of  electricity.  It  is  this  electric  charge  which  prevents 
the  vesicles  from  uniting,'  together,  and  falling  down  in 
the  form  of  rain.  Kven  the  wsicular  form  which  '.he 
tapour  iissunu's  i*  probably  owing  to  the  particlfi  iH'ing 
cliargc'l  with  electricity.  The  mutual  repulsimi  of  the 
eWtric  partii'k's  may  be  coiinidercd  as  sulliciciit  (since 
ihcy  are  prcv,  ntx-il  from  IcM%iii^;  the  vohicli'  by  the  action 
of  the  surrounding  air  anil  of  the  surrounding  vesicles) 
l»)  give  ine  vapour  the  vehicular  form.  In  whut  way  these 
clouds  I'linie  to  Iw  charged  with  electricity,  it  is  not  easy 
to  say.  Uut,  as  electricity  is  evolved  duriiij;  Ihe  act  of 
evaporation,  the  prtoabilily  is,  that  clouds  arc  always 
fhirgi'd  with  electricity,  iiid  that  they  owe  their  exist- 
Nice,  ui  at  least  their  Ibrm,  to  that  duul.    It  is  very  prc^ 


bable  that  when  «■■  -urrents  of  Aty  air  are  mi.ving  dif. 
fejcnt  ways,  o  irr^  i  of  the  two  surfaces  may  evolve 
electricity.  !s,.  '  viiera  currents  be  of  different  tein- 
|)eraturcs,  a  portion  of  the  vapour  which  they  always  con- 
tain will  bt  deposited;  the  electricity  evolved  will  be 
taken  up  by  that  vapour,  and  will  cause  it  to  assume  the 
vesicular  state,  constituting  a  cloud.  Thus  we  can  vec, 
in  general,  how  clouds  come  to  be  formed,  and  how  they 
contain  electricity.  This  electricity  may  be  cither  vitre- 
ou^t  or  resinous,  according  to  circumstoncea.  And  it  is 
conceivable  that,  by  long-continued  up]iositu  currents  (>t 
air,  the  charge  accu.nulutcd  in  a  cloud  may  bo  con- 
sitlerable,  Now,  when  two  clouds,  charged,  the  one 
with  vitreous  and  the  other  with  resinous  electricity, 
happen  to  approach  within  a  certain  ilistance,  the  thicii- 
ncss  of  the  coating  of  electricity  increases  on  the  two 
sides  of  the  clouds  which  are  nearest  each  other.  Tlii« 
accumulation  of  thickness  soon  becomes  so  great  as  to 
overcome  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  and  a  dis- 
charge takes  place,  which  occasions  the  Hash  of  light- 
ning. 

"  Tho  noise  accompanying  the  discharge  constitutes 
the  thunder-clap,  tho  long  continuance  of  which  partly 
defiends  on  the  reverberations  from  neighbouring  objectu 
It  iu,  theretbre,  loudest  und  largest,  and  most  trenieiidnus 
in  hilly  countries.  These  electrical  discharges *oi)vioi:sly 
dissipate  the  electricity  ;  the  cloud  condenses  into  water, 
and  occasions  the  sudden  and  heavy  rain  which  alwavt 
t4;rininates  a  thunder-storin.  The  previous  motions  of 
the  clouds,  which  act  like  electrometers,  indicate  tiie 
electrical  state  of  dilfcrcnt  parts  cf  tha  atmosphere.  Thun- 
der, then,  only  takes  place  when  the  ditlerenl  strata  (A 
air  are  in  ditferent  electrical  states.  The  clouds  intir- 
posed  between  hesc  strata  are  al^u  electrical,  and  o-.t< 
their  vesicular  nature  to  that  electricity.  They  are  h\a 
conductors.  Hence  they  interpose  themselves  lictwtcn 
strata  in  ditferent  states,  and  arrange  theniselvea  in  si;i:h 
a  manner  as  to  (xvaition  the  mutual  discharge  of  the 
strata  in  opimxite  states.  The  equilibrium  is  restortd; 
thf  clouds,  deprived  of  their  electricity,  collapse  intoruiiij 
and  the  thunder  terminates.  In  thunder-storms,  the  dis- 
charges usually  take  place  lietween  two  strata  of  uir,  very 
seldom  lietween  the  air  and  the  earth.  Uut  that  they  ore 
sometimes  also  between  clouds  and  the  eartli  cannot  be 
doubted.  These  discharges  sometimes  take  place  with- 
out any  noise.  In  that  case,  the  flashes  are  very  briglit 
but  they  are  single  flashes,  passing  visibly  from  one  cloud 
to  anotlier,  and  confined  usually  to  u  single  quarter  of 
tlie  heavens.  When  they  are  accompanied  by  the  nuise 
which  we  call  thunder,  a  number  of  Himultaneous  flas^liei 
of  ditferent  colours,  and  constituting  an  interrupted  zig- 
zag line,  may  generally  t>e  observed  stretching  to  an  ex- 
tent of  Hcveral  miles.  These  seem  to  be  o<:ca8ioiied  by 
a  numlM.'t  of  successive  or  almost  simultaneous  discharges 
from  one  cloud  to  another,  these  intermediate  clouds  st  rv- 
ing  as  iiitermidiute  conductors,  or  stepping-stones,  for  the 
electrical  Huiu.  It  is  these  simultaneous  discharges  which 
occasion  the  rattling  noise  which  we  call  thundtr.  Though 
they  are  all  made  at  tlie  .same  time,  yet,  as  their  distances 
are  dillerent,  they  only  reach  our  car  in  succesi  ion,  and 
thus  o<'cusion  the  lengthened  rumbling  noise,  so  diilerent 
from  the  snap  which  accompanies  the  discharge  'jf  a  Ley- 
den  jar. 

"If  the  electricity  were  confined  to  tho  clouds,  a  single 
<liHcharge,  or  a  single  Hush  oi  lightning,  wouli  restore 
the  e'juilibriiim.  The  cloud  would  cohapse,  and  liis- 
char.'je  itwif  ill  rain,  and  the  seroiuty  of  the  Xvaw  us 
would  '.>e  restored;  but  this  is  seldom  the  case.  I  1  u.e 
witnessed  the  most  vivid  di.scimrgi<s  of  lightning  li"'n 
one  cloud  to  another,  which  enlightened  the  whvie 
horizon,  cuutinuo  for  st<veral  hours,  und  uiiiounting  to 
a  very  considerable  nuuil>er,  not  fewer  certainly  Ihuii 
tit\y,  and  te.-iuinuting  ut  lust  in  a  violent  thunder-storm. 
Wu  see   tital  these  discharges,  though  the  quantitv  of 


97% 


INFORMATION  VOll  THE  PEOPLK. 


(iWlririty  mwrt  hiive  been  immcnw,  did  not  reiitoro  the 
ei|uilil)riuin.  It  ia  oliTiojin  from  thin,  that  iiol  imly  tho 
elouiU,  hut  tho  ■tmta  of  air  tliemnclvon,  muNt  linve  b«-fn 
•tronaly  rhnrnml  willi  plectricity.  'ITio  (loiiiln,  lioiiiB 
conduitoni,  nerved  the  purpo«i  of  iliNrlmrginn  tlie  oiictrt- 
city  with  which  they  were  jonded,  when  they  came  within 
the  HlrikiiiK  distanre.  But  the  electric  Htrutum  of  air 
with  which  the  clouil  was  in  coiitiirl,  lieing  u  nnn-i-nn- 
(luetor,  would  not  lone  iln  eh'ctricily  l)y  llie  diwhorife  of 
the  cloud.  It  would  immediitti'ly  nupply  the  cloud  with 
which  it  wan  in  conlnct  with  a  now  chari>e.  And  thin 
repeated  charging;  and  diM'hurging  proccHS  would  ccuitinue 
to  KO  on  till  ihedilTorentHtrntuufcxcitud  air  were  brought 
to  llieir  natural  atato." 

AftiT  these  explanation!),  it  in  only  ncccwiiry  to  any, 
that  however  awful  the  noiiM'  which  thunder  UHuidly  iMnkeH, 
*t  ii  in  no  shape  dani;erouH.  The  teid  diinRcr  is  from  the 
Ughtnini;,  which  has  a  tendency  to  Htriku  Kiffh  pinnacles 
of  buiUlingH  or  spires  of  churches  ;  Imt  if  these  hiuh  placet 
be  furnished  with  nietal  rodH  to  conduct  the  liKhliiiii);  lo 
Ibe  ground,  no  injury  ik  likely  to  occur.  Lii^litiiin^r, 
either  silent  or  accorn|>anicd  hy  thunder,  is  of  much  rarer 
occurrence  in  the  British  islands  than  on  the  continent 
at  Europe. 

I.iim  iif  Sinrmt. — Considerahie  attention  has  l>ecn  l)e- 
•towcd  hy  various  men  of  Kcience  mi  what  arc  suppoKed 
to  U^  the  rei;ulatinK  principles  of  storms ;  for  it  cannot 
be  dontilcd  tliat,  however  irrcKular  their  occurrence  anil 
apparent  action,  they  are  suhject  to  certain  lixed  Ihwm, 
and  tl:eoe  it  is  ini)X)rtant  to  discover.  As  yet,  the  law 
of  storms  has  assumed  no  very  distinct  or  generally  re- 
coirnis'cl  form,  almost  every  student  of  atmospheric  phe- 
nomena haviii);  his  own  tlu.-ry  on  the  suljcct.  The 
question  upon  which  the  c!iief  tlillcrence  exists,  is, 
whether  storms  blow  in  direct  lines  or  in  circles.  The 
probability  is  that  storms  of  wind  are  greatly  iiillueiK'ed 
by  the  muliijuralion  of  the  localities  over  which  they 
Mow, as  well  as  by  tlie  op|swition  llicy  may  meet  with  in 
their  courra:  for  example,  a  violent  jtale  of  wind,  coming; 
in  direct  force  aitainst  a  lofty  mountain,  will  proliably  be 
transformed  into  a  whirlwind  ;  and  a  similar  result  will 
fcllow  the  op^xmins  contact  <>f  two  fierce  winds. 

At  a  meetmit  of  the  British  AssiK-iation  at  Newcastle 
in  IS.'IS,  LieuL  Colonel    Rcid,  of  the   Uoyal   EuKineers, 
kud  before  that  Uxly  his  views   resi>eeting  the   laws   of 
«torms,  which  have  met  with  Kcncral  acceptatum.    From 
•Xlensive  observations  on  foreign   stations  and  at  sea,  he 
was   of  opinion,  with  Mr,  Redlleld  and  Colunel  l'ap|>er. 
two  persons  who  had  pn-viously  investiijated  the  subject, 
tlut   hurmanes  are   great  whiilwinds,  and    that   tlir-<e 
whirlwinds  were  progreikiiNe,     "The  general  phenonM-na 
of  thea«  storms,"  he  obsj'rved,  "will  U-  understood,  if  the 
ttorm,  as  a  great  whirlwind,  1h'   niiM'W'nli'd    by  it  circle 
whotie  centre  is  moile  lo  progress  along  a  curve,  or  part 
of  a  curve,  which  is  in  moat  cium's   of  a  form   approach- 
ing the  parabolic,  the  cin  lea  expanding  as  they  iidvunce 
from  the  |X)int  at  which  the  sloriu  iN'gins  to  l>e  fi  It — the 
lotatory  motion,  in  (he  northern  hemisphere,  lieiiig  in  the 
contrary  diieetion  to  that  on  which  the  hands  of  a  watch 
goM  Mund ;  while,  in  the  southern  lu'inispliere,  the   rota- 
tion ia  in  the  same  direction  us  that  in  which  the  hands 
of  a  watrh  revolve.     He  pointi'd  out  how  his  vii'ws  were 
illustrated  by  the  disastrous  storm  of  ISO!),  ex|>erienced 
by  the  Ka-^t  India  fleet,  under  the  convoy  of  the  (^ullmlcn 
litic-of-baltle  fliip,  and  the  Terpsichore  frigati',  and  four 
British  men  of  war,  which  MX  the  (."a(M'  of  (ioisl  Hope 
al  out  the  same    time,   iiitei'diiig    to    cruise    about    the 
Mauritius.     tSome  of  thexe  vess<  Is  scudded   and   run   in 
the  (torm  for  days;  some.  ,iy  lyina  to,  got  almost  imrnc- 
iliately  nut  of  it;   while  others,  by  takiim  a  wriiin{  direc- 
tion,  went  into    the    heart    of  it,  fouiMlered,  anil    were 
iwver  heard  of  mote  ;  others,  by  sailing  right  ucroas  the 
raliu  apace,  met  the  same  storm  in  differeiit  parts  of  its 
Iirogrcaa.  and  tiie  wind    blowing  in  uppositu  directiuiu, 


•ml  ennaidered  and  spoke  of  it  a«  »w  ■>  storms  wnirl  j,^ 
encountered;  wl  '''  others,  by  cruising  alsml  vvilhir  ,ln 
bend  of  the  eiv  ■  't  lieyond  the  circle  of  the  »,,,. 
whirl,  eacaped  ih  ■'torm  altontelher.  which  hsd  Ijem  i;, 
days  raging  on  u\  -lies  of  them.  This  led  him  to  dn,,, 
the  very  iin|>ortant  practical  concluHion  as  to  how  a  i\, 
should  act  when  she  encounli'rcd  a  gale,  so  as  to 


ip 


from  it.  By  watching  the  moilc  of  veering  of  I'  <  jvi^,] 
the  |Hirtion  of  a  storm  into  which  a  ship  is  faljin);  niav 
l)c  ascertained  ;  if  the  ship  he  tlicii  so  iiiana^uvrcd  as  thai 
the  wind  shall  veer  aft  instead  of  ahead,  and  tho  vrwiel  ii 
made  to  com.'  up  instead  of  Is-ing  allowed  to  break  off 
she  will  'iin  out  of  the  stori'i  iiltoijetber ;  but  if  i!,,.  ^^  ' 
trary  coiirsj<  Imj  taken,  I'ither  throiij^h  chance  or  ign(,ranf» 
she  goes  right  into  the  whirl,  and  runs  a  ^'reul  risk  of 
IsMiig  suddenly  taken  al)ack.  but  most  assuredly  wi||  niivi 
the  opposite  wind  in  passing  out  throuj^li  the  whirl,  'fg 
accomplish  her  object,  he  showed,  by  a  diagrai  i,  that  ji 
was  necessary  the  ship  should  be  laid  on  opposito  ta(.|,, 
on  op|H)situ  sides  of  a  storm,  as  may  be  uiiilerstond  hJ 
drawing  a  number  of  concentric  circles  to  represent  the 
whirl  of  the  hurricane,  and  then  dilli-rent  lines  nrrum 
tlicse,  to  represent  the  c;/ur«e  of  ships  entcriiij,  jihq  „. 
going  through  the  storm. 

Mr.  Kspy,  an  American  gentleman,  who  hiid  a  num. 
Iier  of  fads  on  the  subject  before  the  Drilish  A-sociiHin,, 
in  IH'IC,  arrives  at  the  same  coii'hisinn  as  Ivnlllild.  C,,^ 
per,  and  Rcid;  but  adds,  that  the  wliirlwimls  Mow  p;,,. 
grcssivily  towaids  a  common  centre,  'i "his  blowim 
inwards  to  a  centre,  .Mr.  Kspy  conceives  to  lie  Ibe  c.insf. 
qiicnce  ot  the  sudden  and  power;''il  ascent  of  a  mliimnof 
air  at  that  centre,  from  the  atmosphere  Iwing  there  more 
healed  than  elsewhere. 

If  any  careful  oberver  of  atmospheric  plicnoniini 
01/  the  ocean,  pos.iess  facts  which  tiiid  lo  throw  any 
liuhl  on  this  exi-cidimrly  imporlniit  biaiich  of  siienre.  it 
is  his  duty  lo  make  ll'cm  known  for  the  general  ln'nolii 
of  inankinil. 

UNKRUAI,  MKTKonIC  PIIENOMRNA. 
.\mong  the  meteoric  phenoiiieiia  which  are  ot  Ira 
frequenl  occurrence  Iban  those  abeady  noticed,  niiiv  be 
inchuh'd  rainbows,  llgures  in  the  air,  luminous  mcteon 
Ignis  fatui,  the  aurora  boicalis,  lialos,  par!icll:i,  uml  ajfo. 
liles.  Having  in  the  article  (m'Tii  s  explained  the  cuii<e 
of  rainl>ows  lo  In-  simjily  the  refraction  of  liuhi  lliroiijh 
the  drops  of  a  shower  of  ruin  (or  thioimh  llie  spray  of  s 
cataract),  nolhiiig  more  need  be  siiid  on  the  siilijirt  lirrp, 
With  respect  lo  the  ajipeiiraiice  of  (Ijiiires  in  llicair,  nih 
as  repres4-iitalions  of  jandscaiies.  iin  n.  and  iiiiiiniiU,  tliM.] 
at  aea,  ami  so  on,  it  has  likrwise  been  sliouii,  in  thr 
arlic) '  (li'i'li  s,  that  tiny  are  a  natural  coMsc(|iifn(c  of 
|N-culiar  reftactivo  powers  of  tin  atiiiosphere  at  the  time 
of  the  iMciirrence.  The  Mirage  of  the  desert,  tho  Fall 
Morgana  of  llie  \'enetiaiia,  the  UriH'keii  of  the  Hnrti 
i  lountains  in  lierinany,  and  the  aimies  seen  in  the  air, 
according  to  Scollish  sii|M'rstilioii,  all  belong  lo  tliis  claw 
of  meteoric  phenomena. 

LunimaiiM  Mitiiiif — These  are  of  various  kinds.  One 
of  the  most  familiar  is  the  M  ill  o'  the  wisp  or  iiriiM 
fiiliiut  (the  fire  of  fools),  which  pjieara  at  i:i.jlit  nii 
marshy  grounds  or  places  of  si  pulliire.  Th<'  up|s'iiranie 
is  that  of  0  small  flickering  light,  stra^'dihg  in  an  irrii'U- 
lar  manner  at  the  height  of  one  or  twn  f  et  from  iIib 
ground,  and  loinctimes  standing  for  u  few  iiionicnls  over 
a  particular  spot.  When  apnroiclicd  or  piirsiicil,  llio 
lights  are  aijilaled  by  the  in  >lion  of  the  air.  and  seoni  lo 
elude  iiivesligati(ui.  The  cause  ol  this  s|Hcicsof  mfti'ur 
is  well  known  to  nuii  of  science;  the  light  lieiiig  nolhir.s 
more  than  pbosphuiiti  d  hydrogen  g.is.  aiisiiig  fro.i;  dc 
composing  subslanci  sin  the  ground,  sjMintaiii'Ouslyli|;hti<iI, 
Tho  meteors  coinmoi.ly  called  Ji.lln'i:  >/  ,)■»,  which  sh'>ol 
from  Ihc  up|M'r  region  of  the  atni'isphere,  arc  uscrilx:!  t-' 
■  Miuilur  origin:   they  aie  iuat>.'-es  of  inatur  iidlilcJ  wi'ii 


■t.^ 

».>1 


MBTEORoLOGV.-  .  hi5  WEATIlEh. 


Ciotphureted  hyilmj^en  gai,  which,  being  Bpontniioiii/  ..^  . 
nitpJ,  shout  in  a  dowiiwari]  direction  to  llio  earth.   The  ' 
neatMt  hriifht  whence  tlicy  come  in  not  aliove  two  or 
lliree  miien,  and  aeldntn  no  iiiiirh.     Kloctricity,  it  may  be 
iU|)poM<l)  i'  aloo  concerned  in  Ihiii  cliiHa  of  inetcora. 

Jturara  Ihre.itif, — In  extreme  northern  and  aonthcrn 
Ittituile^,  and  Kcnenilly  in  the  coldeat  iicnson  of  the  yciir, 
the  iliy  appears  liiniiiiouH  with  Mtreami<  of  lofl  li;jlit,  culled 
(he  aurora  l)orc:di«  or  the  northern  lijihts.  Tlii«  heniliful 
phenoincnon  Ih  compnriilively  M<ldoin  Keen  as  fur  no  ii  iii 
Ibfl  centre  of  Kiitjland,  hut  is  freiiiientlv  olxterved  in  !icot- 
Und,  where  it  is  popularly  known  liv  ■.'no  name  of  s/nii wr )■^. 
In  tlie  latter  country  it  appcarH  a  little  after  HUim't,  and 
unilornily  arisen  in  the  norti  ,  inclining  generally  a  little 
U)  the  went;  and  it  otiiurs  more  frequently  idxmt  the 
time  of  the  c(|uiiioxe.s  thiin  at  any  o'.hcr  Hcason  of  the 
year.     Its  inanncr  of  ariHi  od  the  general  characti  rs 

il  gMUiniH.  vary  extremely  ;  i,,  I  -.d,  ao  much  no  us  nli  Ml 
10  preclude  any  accurate  ''.'i  iption.  tSometiinea,  nn 
tour  or  two  'N'r  dark,  it  Bceina  to  illumine  the  northern 
region  of  the  aky  with  no  more  than  a  f^entle  and  huIi- 
duivl  twilipiht,  which  gives  a  aoft  relief  to  the  surrouiiilinB 
Harkmss.  Sometimes  detacheil  masses  c'.'  light  suddeidy 
appca.'  i:i  difli'rent  pmlsof  the  sky.  from  which  silvery 
»lid  trcmulo\is  lieums  shoot  with  dii/.zling  and  cvaneKcenl 
iplondour.  Not  unfrccjucnily,  indeed,  from  one  single 
ipot  of  !i:^lit  the  lu'urna  vividly  luul  ra[)idly  cxten  i.  ■  oi 
limes  the  phonomenon  ia  first  discernihle  in  dclieali 
itrcaks  or  Ihroaila  of  light,  which  enl.irge  and  sliill  with 
inconccival'lo  rapidity,  until  a  tremulous  arc'h  is  "ormcd 
wliich  cnmplitely  fiii:uis  the  azure  vault-  Vet  .  '  en  one 
geiierid  o  'incipul  arch  is  olwerved,  ..ith  SL...,ilcr  ones 
at  .  cipul  distances,  which  fiecjuently  move  laterally 
|o'..,.  'i  each  other,  and  sudileidy  utiite  into  on  road 
bti,  .t  mans.  Oilcn,  from  the  horizon,  in  the  norm,  one 
limb  or  segment  in  the  arch  springs  up  into  the  heavena, 
gnd  sometimes  several  of  these  arise  at  distances  from 
eail'  other.  The  •  aryiiij;  e|dendour  of  the  coruRC&tions, 
•nd  the  rapid  and  playful  movements  which  they  display, 
as  Ihey  sweep  across  the  lu^avens,  excite  alike  the  wonder 
and  admiration  of  the  r-is'ctator. 

Thfc  height  of  the  ii.:rora  has  been  variously  computed 
lo  lie  from  100  to  T'JO  milca  above  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  conse(|uently  far  lieyond  the  sphere  '^''  our 
•tmosphere.  All  the  conji'ctures  bazar  led  with  r<"iK  -t 
to  the  tiiilure  and  cause  of  the  aurora  have  lieen  ui  .-aiis- 
faolory  :  the  ini'st  I'easihie  eonclusicMi  is,  t!ia(  the  pheno- 
lucnoii  is  a  demuiistration  of  electric  Ihild  in  its  passage 
from  the  polar  to  the  tsjuatorial  regions.  Well-digesti'd 
|jcl«  are  still  rivpiired  to  form  an  exact  and  satisfactorv 
theory  on  the  subject. 

Hdl".' — I'arhtliii. — In  the  colder  regions  of  the  i  '  le, 
Knd  sometimes  in  temperate  climes  during  cidd  wv.'.'.:  - . 
what  arc  culled  balos  and  parhelia,  or  mock-:  u  '^  imiu 
mock-moons,  ur<;  sometimes  seen.  .\  halo  iisiia''*  con- 
iists  of  two  concent  lie  circles  of  coloured  or  refracted  light, 
tuch  us  that  of  a  ruiidiow,  the  one  forming  an  angle  of 
iboiit  23  J  degree*,  the  other  an  angle  of  about  47  de- 
grees, with  the  Hun  g:  'noun.  In  dilFereni  parts  of  these 
drcica,  and  chielly  in  opposite  points  at  a  sinalar  altitude 
with  the  su;.,  bright  spots  of  unrefracti-d  light  ar  «  en, 
which  ha»e  received  tlic  names  of  mock-suns  and  mock- 
inooiiH.  accordiniJt  as  the  light  is  received  from  the  ■in  or 
from  the  moon  during  the  appearance  of  the  halo.  \  rom 
iJieso  bright  spot^  ilivcrging  horns  of  light  are  (pccasion- 
ally  observable.  It  is  generally  agreed  that  a  halo  is  jiro- 
duccd  by  the  sun  or  moon's  light  being  rel'rncted  by 
frozen  vapour  in  the  atjnoMphere.  The  cause  of  the  oar- 
belia,  or  bright  sun-liki  spot,  is  more  dill'icult  of  defui,  Hn. 
Some  suppose  it  to  lie  causcil  by  the  frozen  vapour  bei'ig 
arranged  in  surU  a  niunner  at  particular  points,  as  idlowa 
the  built  of  the  sun  or  moon  lo  be  transmitted  in  a  con- 
rciitratid  iiidliad  of  a  relia>ted  form. 

uliiihikJ. — Tliese  are  fiery  meteor*,  which,  in  various 


Ijrmi  and  sizes,  are  seen  to  shoot  from  the  heavens,  nnA, 
''Ming  to  the  earth,  are  found  to  consist  of  certain  kin  I* 
''  stimos.  The  chronicles  of  almost  e»ery  age  and 
ountry  record  the  fall  of  these  tiodies,  which  sometimeii 
rrivo  on  the  siirruce  of  our  planet  iiidividunlly,  and  at 
ither  times  in  what  must  lie  called  a  stream  or  shower, 
I'ho  celebrated  (iassendi  informs  us,  that,  on  the  SOih 
November,  lOny,  about  ten  o'cl<v;k,  a.  m.,  while  the  sk\ 
was  perfectly  serene  and  transparent,  ho  saw  a  llamint' 
stone,  apparently  about  four  feet  diameter,  fall  on  Mount 
Vaison,  in  Provence.  This  stone  was  encircled  with  a 
zone  of  various  colours,  like  a  rainbow,  and  accomiianied 
ill  its  fall  with  a  noise  resendding  the  di»<-harge  of  artil 
lery.  It  was  of  a  dark  metallic  colour,  extremely  hard, 
and  59  lbs.  in  weight.  In  .lune,  1608,  two  stones,  one 
of  which  weighed  HOO,  and  the  other  200  llw.,  fell  near 
Verona.  The  ev?nt  took  place  during  the  night,  and 
when  the  /.« v.her  was  perfectly  screno  and  mild.  They 
apjieared  to  be  all  on  Arc,  descending  in  a  sloping  direc- 
tion, and  with  a  t-cniendous  noise.  The  phenomenon 
was  witnessed  by  a  great  number  of  [leoplc,  who,  when 
the  sounds  had  ceased,  and  their  courage  was  snlhciently 
re«established,  ventured  to  ap|)roaeh  these  celestial  de- 
posits, and  found  that  they  had  formed  a  ditch,  such  had 
lu'cn  the  force  with  which  they  had  descended.  One  of 
the  largest  meteoric  stonfj^which  have  ever  fallen,  is  now 
■xliibited  in  a  room  in  the  British  Museum ;  it  is  several 
feet  in  iliameter,  of  great  weight,  shaped  tike  a  sjiheroid, 
and  brown  in  exterior  appearance. 

.Ml  meteoric  stones  that  have  been  cxanuned,  present 
a  similar  structure  and  appearance,  'i'he  chemical  analy- 
sis  of  Clio  which  fell  in  France  in  1810,  may  be  taken  as 
a  sample  of  the  whole : — Sdica,  38-4  ;  alumina,  .3-6 ;  lime, 
4-2;  magnesia,  13.0;  iron,  S.VS ;  nickel,  6;  manganese, 
O'fi  ;  sulphur,  5 ;  chrome,  1-5  ;  total,  08.7.  The  velocity 
with  which  the  stones  arc  shot  through  the  atmosphere 
renders  them  red  hot,  and  some  time  elapses  after  theii 
full  Ix't'oic  they  cool  and  can  be  handled. 

M'ith  respect  to  the  origin  of  at'tolites,  there  are  four 
theories,  each  having  its  supporters.  According  to  La- 
jilace,  Poisson,  Dr.  Hutton,  and  others,  they  are  stones 
firojectcd  from  volcanoes  in  the  moon;  it  being  dcmon- 
t  trilled  that  an  initial  velocity  of  6000  feet  per  second 
would  be  sufficient  to  drive  them  beyond  the  moon'a 
attraction,  and  to  bring  them  within  the  greater  attraction 
of  the  earth,  .\nother  set  of  philosopher's  allege  they 
arc  jirojected  from  volcanoes  on  the  earth,  which  is  ex- 
ceedingly improbable.  Playfair  and  others  say  it  is  not 
•inlikcly  that  tiie  stones  arc  formed  in  the  atmosphere,  by 
an  aggregation  of  particles  of  matter,  the  result  of  gas- 
eous vapours ;  this  chemical  theory  is  olso  very  unsatis- 
factory. The  fourth  and  most  probable  theory  is,  that 
the  stones  are  (tstrroiils,  or  diminutive  planets,  drawn  to 
the  earth's  surface  when  our  globe,  in  its  annual  revolu- 
tion, arrives  at  points  near  which  these  bodies  are  per- 
forming circuits  round  the  sun.  A  series  of  remarkable 
phenomena,  of  recent  occurrence,  serve  to  support  thid 
theory.  On  the  morning  of  the  12th,  13tb,  or  14th  of 
November,  every  year  since  1833,  there  have  occurred, 
at  difl'crent  parts  of  both  Europe  and  America,  .showers 
of  meteoric  bodies,  of  a  most  brilliant  appearance ;  and 
it  has  llience  lieen  conjectured  that  the  earth,  in  its  revo- 
lution round  the  sun,  had  fallen  in  with  tiicee  bodies  in 
the  same  or  nearly  the  same  part  of  its  orbit.  If  such  be 
the  true  hypothesis,  it  follows  that  these  meteors  are  travel- 
lers in  space,  jierforming  circuits  like  the  planets,  and 
have  nio.'it  likely  been  projected  from  the  sun  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  earth  anil  other  pliiiietury  bot'ic»  are  be- 
lieved to  li-.ve  lieen  hurled  from  that  luminary.  Sinus- 
ers  of  fiery  mcteor-s  sometimes  only  gaseous,  and  at  oll.ei 
times  solid,  are,  however,  found  to  oicur  uiinuully  iji 
August.  Decemlier,  and  other  periods  of  the  year.  lu 
Septeiiil.ir,  1811,  a  shower  of  many  millions  of  meteoric 
Ktoues,  the  greater  number  of  which  were  not  lar);er  thai; 


9f*0 


iNFOnMATlON    FOR   TUK   PKOPI.K. 


■Tiill  hniUtnnPK.  rnTurrpil  in  Hungrnry,  llieir  chief  inure- 
<iienU  (x'in^  uiyilutu  of  ircin,  .>»y<l"  "f  '"'"•  a'>J  oty- 
hydruto  of  iron,  witlt  flint,  lime,  and  ciny  wrth, 

THB    WIATHBR. 

From  the  prrrediiiK  acrouiit  of  tlm  viirloii«  phi-nnmona 
of  Iho  ntiiio»i)her<',  it  iiiunt  hv  nvi<K>nt  tliiil  pro^^iioNlii-n- 
tion*  n-spi'ctinii  th«  ueatlirr  munt  !)«■  rxlrcinriy  uncortiiin, 
if  nnt,  liir  tlifl  inott  part,  qnitit  iiluitorv.  AccordinK  to  an 
ancient  prrjudice,  it  hai  bren  nuppoitrd  timt  tl>t<  moon,  un 
rnterir^  lU  dilliTont  qiinrtcrs  oxoriMno*  an  influenrc  over 
the  weather  i  liut  thia  I*  Miinil  by  men  of  M'ionro  to 

he  without  foundatio  i  nh,     'I'lio  nuum  ufll-cta  the 

iidea  of  the  orenn,  but  in  no  othiT  known  nianm-r  liua 
it  any  infl'  .•)'  j  over  lo  ordinary  {)iirnoniena  of  our 
planet. 

It  haa  lieen  aeen  that  the  winda  are  the  i{nind  diiiturl)era 
of  the  weather,  and  that  to  them  Me  may  proxiinntely 
•u.ribe  the  orcnrrenoo  of  clear  akii'H,  foi;*,  rimidi),  rain, 
Ac.  Ah  the  windH  originau'  fri>iii  cirrtiiniitanre*  fre- 
quently far  U'yond  our  horizon,  mid  cnnimt  conHcquently 
he  foreaeen,  every  proi;noNtir  of  vitlicr  linn  or  ti  id  weather 
ii  liable  to  romplote  dcrunKcnii'nt  Tlio  rhanre  foHlinHt 
of  an  irelM'rg  front  the  nortlierii  |>olar  rcitiona  to  a  ti'nipe- 
rate  latitude  in  the  Atlantic,  haa  liern  known  to  ahed 
•uch  a  cold  over  Britain  rr  Jo  deetroy  the  lieat  ho|ioa 
of  fUTimer.  To  utter  prophrriea  of  the  coniint;  weiitlicr, 
h  a  country  ex|ioiir<l  to  Hin-h  rdtitimteiicicH,  np|>c:ir< 
ridicnlouM.  It  hiia  loni(  been  a  favourite  iM-liuf  with 
certain  c1«hih'h  of  pcrHonn,  that  the  wcatlicr  gitea  in 
eyclea — that,  after  a  limitiMl  nuinlxT  of  years,  the  aamo 
ncoeaaion  of  \Ti'>ither  in  the  ditVcrrnl  acoHona  of  the 
year  recurs,  and  iH  repintcd  p<Tiodii-r,llv.  A  fieriixl  or 
cycle  of  nine,  eitfhti'cn,  tbirty-Hix,  and  lifty-fonr  years, 
haa  been  variouHly  fixed  r,pi>ii.  In  Scotland,  ninetrt'n 
yean  has  been  more  Ki'iiiTully  believoil  to  form  a  cycle, 
and  nn  that  account,  lea^wR  of  fa>nii<  nre  commonly  made 
out  for  that  [XTiod,  in  order  to  ^ive  tlie  aurirullurist  the 
benefit  of  an  entire  round  of  weather.  To  suit  and  hujh 
port  liiew  theoricM,  which  riKt  on  no  nolid  foundation, 
almnmica  have  tit-en  put  forth,  preU'nclii:i;  to  foretell  the 
weather  .if  the  coining  year ;  but,  iinleiw  when  favoured 
by  accidental  rearrr.Wencea  h«-twecn  tlie  weather  and  the 
prediclion,  all  mch  'triiculai'  propbcciea  have  been  Uia- 


proved  by  facta.  Aa  far  f  th*-  reconla  of  meteomi  '^|f« 
phriioinena  for  a  long  aeriea  of  y eara  warrant  a  conclun  in. 
the  followie  .  iirii)'  i>;'ea  reipectinx  the  weather  may  \^ 
cnimiderrd  m  hkI:-  -I,  The  woalhii  of  each  «  ear  "fanj. 
by  itwif;  'i.  'i'he  weather  dilTera  LMinually,  an  I  ii  (ijAer. 
ent  in  dillereiit  plucen  accoidiiiK  tu  circniniitiincva  ;  Q,  1'\ , 
weather  in  the  interior  of  continents  i»  *i  ret  ..Uv  in  ji, 
aeaHonnl  variationx,  that  it  may  Imi  foretold  wit'i  '>>,«ii|ff. 
able  certainty;  4.  The  weather  rf  'Iii'  Di  >  '  ,«|jnili 
ia  ao  irrexnlar,  from  unforeaeen  cauM'M,  tlm-.  ,<ie<licliniia 
aa  to  itn  condition  are  only  warrantabk^  in  very  iienrrjtl 
t«>rniH,  at  any  aen«on  of  the  year ,  5.  That  aKriculturu] 
provemeiit,  auch  aa  draining  of  inuiat  Krouiidii,  \ny, 
pro. en  I'iiinntc,  ari'I  t^nda  to  eijualize  t('iii|)eruture;  md 
tl.  That  the  at  •  i^ii  of  cold  in  our  wiiiterH,  and  »f 
treiiie  licata  of  .i  ■  uininerM,  iuive  Ihtii  nuHlirud  fiom 
tliia  c.auiH> ;  while,  thoU)(h  in  aoiiie  i'eH|>ecti<  uiiromfiirtahlf,, 
our  climate  iw  improved  in  itH  xaluliriouH  pio|H'rli(ss,  aiui 
by  allowing  out-(if-dii>ir  excrciaea  and  empb>Yiiieiit  fur  « 
greater  numlwr  of  days  ihroughout  the  year  than  thnt  <il 
moxt  othi''  rountriea,  i»  highly  conducive  tu  health,  lon- 
gevity, aiiu  Kocial  udvaiicoineiil. 


[rKOBNT    DldCOVEniES    IN    MKTEOnOLOOy, 

The  Kcicnce  of  Meteorology  hoa  attracted  more  attpii. 
tion  of  lute  than  in  'orn.  r  timea,  A  iiioiig  the  mofit  mic- 
cetuiful  iiic|uirer«  is*  Mr.  Kxpy,  of  I'liilmtclphiu,  nhoau 
iuKonioux  theoricH  on  the  nulject  are  foiiiidcd  oil  a  cDume 
of  obm>rvutiunti  and  ex|ieriineiita  continued  regularly  for 
iome  thirty  years.  His  predictions  reK|)ectiiin  cliatim 
in  the  weather,  and  the  precision  with  which  he  hu 
|>oiiited  out  the  locality  of  storms  racing  at  tlio  moment 
at  great  di»l»iices  from  his  own  rendi'iice,  have  excitcj 
BKtoiiisliiiieiit.  'J'licsc,  however,  are  founded  on  sciciilific 
principlcH  which  he  has  devclo|)cd  in  his  theory  of  storm* 

The  facts  and  laws  which  he  has  discoveri'd  are  none- 
rally  recogni.sed  as  havini;  considerable  ])rartici»l  value. 

Oilier  iiiipiircrs  Iwth  in  .\iiierica  and  Euro|)e  ire  still 
earnestly  endeavouring  to  advance  the  8<-icnce  and  to 
reduce  their  discovcricM  to  such  practical  resulla  as  may 
be  uaeful  tu  the  •grkulturiat  and  the  mariner.— wll»u£d] 


:'<:.•■'-        .''T 


rilllENOLOGY. 


It  hn*  ol  late  born  cuntomary  for  the  conclurtur*  of 

popular  rycl(i|)a>(liiM  to  admit  artirlrfi  on  I'hrciiulogy  ; 
gut  ill  >■><>■<(  >l  ii'>t  "II  the  iiiHtanre*  in  whirh  thiH  liim 
()r«n  doiK",  tl>'-  iirtiilr*  were  the  cnnipoititiiiii  of  (irriMmii 
who  doriiod  that  phrrtiolony  wna  a  true  ityHtem  of  inon- 
lll  philoKophy,  mid  wIioho  aim  rntlicr  wan  to  hIiow  it* 
«r«nt  of  HKiiiid  fouiidnlion  thiiti  miiiply  to  prt'iK'nt  a  view  of 
Itfil  ctrinr*.  la  I'vrry  oiio  of  tlipw  iiisluiirfH,  it  waaafliT- 
wirdi  BUcfrHHfully  hliown  by  |)hriMiolo){ii-ii|  writer*,  that 
llieir  urit'iirc  had  hrrii  iiuiirc|irciivnt<'d,  mid  itH  doctriiK'H 
ctiillciij;i'd  oil  uiif^iir  i^roiiiidH;  ao  tliitt  tho  nrtirlcH  in  i|Uoh- 
lion  mi^lit  an  wi'll  not  hiivo  hern  writtrii,  in  no  far  a«  the 
iiifi  hlioii  of  cniulid  iii<|uirrri  was  roncrnu'il.  Wo 
|i»vt  rcpolvid  to  eschew  thin  practirul  almiinUty,  by  prc- 
nntiiig  a  vii'w  of  phrenology  by  one  who  brIieveH  it  to 
Us  the  true  syHteni  of  mind.  Thia  wo  eoi  reive  to  bo  n 
course  lilt'  more  eieroM-tiiry,  that  phrenolojfy,  overloc'  ' 
illoBollu'r  it»  ori5iuiolonie.ttl  baniH,  pri'scnta  a  far  v, 
j\U'llij;ililc  view  of  the  f.u'iillicH  of  tlio  human  mind.aiK 
the  pluMionienii  of  their  workini:,  lan  any  of  the  melii 
ph)»ii'al  nysletuH.  It  is  eminently,  we  think,  the 
of  mentiil  philoHophy  for  the  unlrirned  man,  beeaL  j  , 
iimiii'h  lesM  alwtrirt  than  any  other.  In  (MTXiHiti  Ih 
icoount  wliioh  it  Rivi-H  of  Ih-'  mind  and  ita  pnrtH,  ordi 
n«ry  people  feel,  for  the  fi.-it  time  in  their  attempta  nl 
[ijyoliolo','ieul  invuntination,  that  they  have  f^ound 
whereon  to  rest  the  Hoir's  of  tlirir  feet.  Thus,  auppna- 
ing  the  (ibser\'alions  made  with  regard  to  the  connection 
of  rcrtaiii  m»iiifi'«talionH  of  tl.onght  and  feelins  with 
certain  partH  of  llic  brain  to  be  uiilnie,  there  in  ntill  a 
{li«tinr,t  valne  in  phrenology,  a»  an  extensively  available 
meaiw  of  Kindylnit  iniiid.  Wo  deem  it  right,  at  the 
lainc  time,  to  mention  that  plirenidofty  "ppearn  to  nn  aa 
beforehurid  likely  to  be  true,  in  aa  far  an  it  a>*nii;nH  a 
natural  ba-'is  to  mind ;  while  we  are  eipially  nensihle 
that  itn  li'ailinc;  doi-trinen  liavo  acquired  a  title  to  a  very 
teJiM'ctfnl  altcniiiin,  from  the  nnpport  given  to  them  by 
ivMt  HMioMnt  of  eari'fnl  observation,  and  the  slrikinijly 
■nili^jhtiiieil  utiil  philanlhropie  aimn  for  which  many  of 
iti  Kupportern  have  become  remarkable.  With  thene 
intrcnliK'tory  remurks,  we  leave  our  readern  to  form  their 
own  opinions  res]M-elin({  the  science,  as  far  as  they  are 
enalili'd  to  do  ho  by  a  treatise  nccensarily  brief,  and 
which,  therefore,  admits  of  but  a  slender  exhibition  of 
eridence. —  /•.'(/. 

PnRi.Noi.o(iT  in  a  Greek  compound,  siirnifying  a  dis- 
course on  the  mind.  The  nyntem  which  excUinively 
pjnien  by  lliis  nami-,  was  fonnch'd  by  Dr.  Francis  Joseph 
Gall,  a  (Jeriiinn  phy-iii-ian,  born  in  1757.  Dr.  Oall  was 
led,  when  a  s<'boo|.boy,  to  surmise  a  eoi.neetion  of  par- 
ticular mental  faculties  with  particular  parts  of  the  brain, 
in  ronwipience  of  observing  a  marked  prominence  in  the 
eyes  of  a  I'omimnion  who  always  ovennatcheil  him  in 
ooininitting  words  to  memory.  Finding  tho  same  con- 
formation in  ethers  noted  for  the  same  talent,  he  reflect- 
ed that  it  w.ts  possible  that  other  talents  might  Ik-  accom- 
panied by  external  markn,  and  that  dispositions  might 
also  be  so  indicated.  He  devoted  himself  to  observing 
marked  features  of  character;  and  on  examining  the 
heads,  was  struck  with  dilVereneeH  in  their  forms,  there 
being  prominences  and  hollows  in  some  not  found  in 
others,  with  corresponding  variations  of  character  in  the 
Individuals.  Arter  most  extensive  and  accurate  obser- 
vation, he  first  li'ctureil  on  the  subject  in  Vienna  in  1796. 
There  his  leetutes  were  suppressed  by  a  jealous  and 
iporant  dcHpotism;  upon  which  he  abandoned  Ger- 
m-iny  and  s<'ltlc(l  in  I'aria,  where  he  practised  as  a  phy- 

Voi..  r.— y« 


■ician,  and  studied  anJ  extended  hi*  ••  doctrine,"  m  h« 
always  called  it,  till  his  death  in  1828.  llin  Rrrat  work, 
with  itn  illuatrative  engravings,  is  one  of  the  inoNt  extcn* 
nive  and  lieuutiful  examples  of  inductive  evidence  ■  f 
wliich  any  nciencc  can  boast.  Many  phrenolngist^s,  wlko 
had  previously  rejd  the  works  of  tlie  Uritinh  » .iters 
oidy,  have  expressed  their  astoninhmi'iit,  when  they 
came  to  read  Gull's  work,  at  tho  immeii.'ie  fabric  he  had 
reared,  imd  how  little,  in  tho  way  of  proofn  of  the 
orgiiii".  dmeovercd  by  him,  he  left  to  lie  done.  Dr.  (Jail 
nevi  1  ,'i.ik  any  particular  step  for  i.iiking  phrenology 
known  in  our  inland.  With  the  exception  of  a  light 
and  trivial  article  in  the  Edinburgh  Iltv\eut  in  1 HOU,  and 
another  in  tho  Kiltiiliurgh  Mtdinil  anil  Surnirat  Jaurnal 
in  lH(it-"i,  the  science  was  not  heard  of  in  Britain  till 
intro<hiced  by  Dr.  Hpurzheim  in  1815,  Ho  was  a 
ative  of  Treves  on  tho  Moselle,  born  in  1770,  the 
>upi'  and,  froin  1S04,  tho  a-sociate  of  Dr.  Gall.  Do- 
iking  many  valuable  seoveries  in  tho  anatomy 
'.niology  of  tho  bran  and  ascertaining  several 
ms  in  addition  to  those  iliwovered  liy  Dr.  Gall,  Dr. 
Theim  had  the  distinction  of  systemati/.ing  the  dii^ 
<  of  botli  into  a  harmonious  au'l  beautiful  mental 
!ul  |ihilonophy.  Dr.  Spurzhcih  died  at  lioston 
i;;  ;!h-  I  lilted  Htates  in  1832.  Since  (hen,  tho  recog- 
nised head  of  the  phrenological  school  bus  been  Mr. 
George  ("omlie,  of  Edinburgh,  author  of  many  able  and 
popular  works  on  tho  science,  and  itn  most  distinguished 
and  Nuccennful  teacher,  by  his  public  prelections  both  in 
Britain  and  America.  Tho  app'  rations  of  phrenology 
to  insanity,  health,  and  infant  treatment,  have  been  at 
the  same  tinie  admirably  made  by  Dr.  Andrew  Combe, 
Mr.  fJeorf;  •  Comlni's  distinguished  br<>ther;  and  to  tbo 
treatment  and  reformation  of  criminals,  and  the  new  or 
character-forming  education,  by  Mr.  George  Combo 
himself  and  Mr.  .Tames  Himpson  of  Edinburgh.  Many 
writers  of  more  recent  date  have  followed  in  the  track  of 
these  authors,  for,  indeed,  no  other  is  now  followed  with 
practical  eU'ect  on  tho  subjects  enumerated ;  but  to 
|ihrenoIogy  the  sound  views  now  current  on  these  sub« 
jects  can  in  a  great  measure  bo  traced. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  PITRENOI.OOT. 
1.  The  hm  n  is  the  organ  by  and  through  which  mind 
in  this  life  is  manifested.  Thin  truth  is  now  disputed 
scarcely  anywhere.  It  was  a  great  though  wide-spread 
error,  before  the  discovery  of  phrenology,  that  we  can 
recognise  mind  and  body  as  two  distinct  entities  or  ex- 
istences :  under  the  influence  of  that  error,  they  were 
treated  of  separately  by  two  several  orders  of  philoso- 
phera^thc  metaphysicians  ami  tho  anatomists.  In  vaip 
to  the  metaphysician  was  it  obvious,  that  wc  have  ao 
knowledge  of  mind  but  through  the  medium  of  a  bodily 
apparatus,  with  which  it  grows  and  decays;  he  con- 
tinued to  treat  of  riind  as  a  spirit  unconnected  with 
body.  The  anatomical  investigator  reasoned  quite  as 
unphilosophically,  when  he  assumed  that  mind  was  no 
thing  but  matter,  tho  higher  qualities  of  which  were  to 
think  and  feel.  The  phrenologist  avoidij  both  these 
unjiroved  assumptions.  He  docs  not  pretend  to  know, 
much  less  to  assume,  the  f.'.'fiicf  or  nature  of  eitlnr 
mind  or  matter.  Whether  they  arc  one  or  distinct  i« 
known  only  to  the  God  who  mode  them ;  ami  whatever 
they  are,  they  must,  therefore,  be  the  best  possibly 
adapted  to  their  end  and  design.  This  is  his  answer  lu 
the  unproved  and  unwarranted  aKsumplionn  of  spiritual- 
ism on  the  one  hand,  and  materialism  on  the  other ; 
while  he  cunfuies  himself  to  the  obsen-atlon  of  the  Uwi 
i  n'i  281 


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Photographic 

Sciences 
Corporation 


33  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  NY    14S80 

(716)  S72-4S03 


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Hi 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


which  regulate  mental  phenomena,  in  their  invariable 
connection  with  bodily  organization ;  and  to  the  hrain, 
M  most  obviously  so  connected,  ho  has  seen  reason  to 
address  his  chief  attention  ^  To  all  sane  manifestations 
of  mind,  brain  in  healthy  action  is  necessary.  In  sleep, 
ftinting,  and  compression  of  the  brain,  mind  is  sus- 
pended. In  perfect  sleep,  the  brain  reposes,  and  mind 
erases  to  be  manifested.  Were  it  an  immaterial  spirit, 
acting  independently  of  the  brain,  the  repose  of  the  ma- 
terial brain  could  not  suspend  the  spirit's  working.  In 
fidnting,  the  blood  ceases  for  the  time  to  supply  the 
hrain,  and  consciousness  and  motion  are  suspended. 
Pressure  on  the  brain  instantly  suspends  consciousness. 
'  Mr.  Combo,  in  his  "  System  of  Phrenology"  (4th  edition, 
p.  14,)  describes  several  most  interesting  and  instructive 
•iperiments  on  compression,  as  made  by  Richerand, 
Cooper,  Chapman,  Cline,  and  others.  In  several  indi- 
viduals, when  the  brain  was  partiall-y  exposed  by  acci- 
dents, these  gentlemen  applied  pressure  to  the  exposed 
part,  when  speech  and  consciousness  suddenly  stopped, 
to  return  when  the  pressure  was  removed.  Pinel* 
deariy  traces  to  a  boiHIi/  cause  the  diseased  manifestation 
of  mind  called  insatiity,  by  the  following  coses : — "  A 
man  engaged  in  a  mechanical  employment,  and  after 
wards  confined  in  the  Bicetre,  experiences,  at  irregular 
intervals,  fits  of  madness,  characterized  by  the  following 
aymptoms : — At  first  there  is  a  sensation  of  heat  in  the 
abdominal  viscera,  with  intense  thirst,  and  a  strong  con- 
■tipation ;  the  heat  gradually  extends  to  the  breast,  neck, 
and  face,  producing  a  flush  of  the  complexion ;  on  reach- 
ing the  temples,  it  is  still  greater,  and  is  accompanied 
by  very  strong  and  frequent  pulsations  in  the  temporal 
arteries,  which  seem  as  if  about  to  burst;  finally,  the 
nervous  aftection  arrives  nl  the  brain."  What  then 
follows  ?  All  the  effects  hitherto  described  arc  purely 
corporeal.  Pinel  proceeds — "  The  patient  is  then  seized 
with  an  irresistible  propensity  to  shed  blood;  and  if 
diere  be  a  sharp  instrument  within  reach,  he  is  apt  to 
aacrifice  to  his  fury  the  first  person  who  presents  him- 
aelf."  How  powerfully  this  case  connects  mind  and 
brain,  and  what  a  strong  light  it  sheds  upon  that  really 
bodily,  that  is,  cerebral,  disease  called  insanity !  Pinel 
dtes  another  case  of  total  change  of  character,  from 
mild  to  furious,  in  an  insane  person,  when  redness  of 
bca,  beat  in  the  head,  and  thirst,  occurred.  The  brain, 
when  exposed,  has  been  seen  in  action,  during  emotion, 
conversation,  dreams,  ice.  Sir  Ashley  Cooper  refers 
to  the  case  of  a  young  man  who  had  lost  a  portion  of 
akull  above  the  eyebrow.  <•  I  distinctly  saw  the  pulsa- 
tion of  the  brain,"  says  Sir  Ashley ;  '•  it  was  regular 
and  slow ;  but  at  this  time  he  was  agitated  by  some 
oppontion  to  his  wishes,  and  directly  the  blood  wns 
•ent  with  increased  force  to  the  brain,  and  the  pulsations 
became  frequent  and  violent.  If,  therefore,  you  omit  to 
Iteep  the  mind  free  from  agitation,  your  other  means  (in 
the  treatment  of  injuries  of  the  brain)  will  be  unavail- 
ing."f  Blumenbach  saw  a  portion  of  exposed  brain  to 
■ink  in  sleep,  and  swell  when  the  patient  awoke.t  Dr. 
Pierquin,  and  a  writer  in  the  Medico-Chirurp^ral  Review, 
adduce  other  instances  of  the  brain  swelling  out  in 
waking  hours,  and  still  more  in  mental  agitations.  In 
these,  such  as  pain,  fear,  anger,  the  dressings  were  dis- 
turbed, and  the  brain  throhl)ed  tumultuously.  The 
cause  is  obvious:  increased  activity  of  brain,  lb  of 
muscle,  is  aci'ompanierl  by  increased  flow  of  blood  to 
the  part.  Ur.  Pierquin  cites  a  case  which  is  extremely 
Instruct' ve.  His  suliject  wiw  a  female,  twenty-six  years 
3f  age.  who  had  lost  a  large  portion  of  the  skull  and 
dura  mater,  so  that  a  corrcspomling  portion  of  the  brain 
'ras  laid  bare.  When  she  was  in  a  tlreitmletf  sleep, 
.lar  brain  was  motionless,  and  lay  inside  the  cranium ; 

•  Snr  rAlieiiaiioii  Mi'nmli-.  p.  157. 

t  l.fPtiiris  nil  S'lriCcrv.  vol.  i.  p.  '.'70. 

t  EUiooua'd  Bluintiiilitcli,  4lb  olnioa,  p.  233. 


when  her  sleep  was  imperfect,  her  brain  moved  and  pio. 
trudcd;  in  vivid  dreamt,  the  protrusion  was  consider, 
able ;  and  when  awake,  and  particularly  when  engaai-d 
in  conversation  or  mental  action,  it  was  still  greater 
and  remained  so  while  conversation  lasted.* 

Common  feeling  referK  the  mind  to,  or  localizes  it  In, 
the  noad  ;  and  common  phrases  are  in  accordance  with 
this  conviction.  We  have  long-heuded,  thullouypuUiL 
rrailc-brained,  well  furnished  mth  brain,  &c. ;  as  exprea- 
sions  in  every  one's  mouth. 

Fro"m  the  above  facts,  phrenologists  assume: — 1st,  Ai 
there  is  no  vision  or  hearing  without  their  respective 
organs,  the  eye  and  ear,  so  there  is  no  thinking  or  feel 
ing  without  their  respective  organs  in  the  brain;  2i|, 
Every  mental  alTcction  must  correspond  with  a  certiin 
state  of  the  organ,  and  vice  versa ;  3d,  The  perfection  of 
the  mind  will  have  relation  to  the  perfection  of  its  on 
gans.  The  sttidy  of  the  cerebrol  organs,  therefore,  ii 
the  study  of  the  mind,  in  the  only  condition  in  which 
we  can  cognise  it  Hence  all  previous  study  of  the 
mind,  without  reference  to  cerebral  organization,  has, 
philosophically  speaking,  gone  for  nothing,  if  we  except 
the  shrewd  but  unsystematic  guesses  of  8up<>rior  saga- 
city ;f  and  phrenology  presents  the  first  practical  mental 
philosophy  known  to  man. 

The  brain  being  the  general  organ  of  the  mind,  we 
come  next  to  inquire  whether  it  is  all  necessary  to  every 
act  of  feeling  or  thinking ;  or  whether  it  is  divided  into 
parts,  each  part  being  the  instrument  or  organ  of  a  pur. 
ticulur  mental  act.  1st.  It  is  a  law  of  organization  that 
different  functions  are  never  performed  by  the  same  o^ 
gan.  The  stomach,  liver,  heart,  eyes,  ears,  have  each  t 
separate  duty.  Different  nerves  are  necessary  to  motion, 
feeling,  and  resistance,  and  there  is  no  example  of  con- 
fusion among  them.  Analogy,  therefore,  is  in  favour  of 
the  conclusion  that  there  are  distinct  organs  for  observing, 
reflecting,  and  feeling  kindness,  resentment,  self-love,  &r. 
2d.  The  mental  powers  do  not  all  como  at  once,  as  they 
would,  were  the  brain  one  indivisible  organ.  They  ap 
pear  successively,  and  the  brain  undergoes  a  correspond 
ing  change.  3d.  Uenius  varies  in  different  individuals; 
one  has  a  turn,  ns  it  is  called,  for  one  thing,  and  another 
for  something  different.  4th.  Dreaming  is  explained  by 
the  doctrine  of  distinct  organs  which  can  act  or  rest  alone. 
Its  disjointed  images  and  letdings  could  never  occur  if  thg 
brain  acted  as  a  whole.  Undivided,  it  must  cither  all 
sleep  or  all  wake ;  so  that  there  could  be  no  such  thin^ 
as  dreaming.  5th.  Partial  insanity,  or  madness  on  oni 
point,  with  sanity  on  every  other,  proves  the  distinctioi' 


•  More  lately  Itinii  all  these  uinmples,  Mr.  Combe  hai  rf. 
corilt'il  oni;  of  liis  own  ohserviiff  in  Aitii'rica.  which  Rues  iiol 
only  to  prove  action  ot'  the  hrain  correspuiuliii^  to  activity  oi' 
mind  ^(cnurally,  but  action  of  ascertaineil  orgiins  whin  ilie ir 
corresponding  mental  manifesiulionii  were  called  forth.  The 
tulijcci  was  a  girl  of  eight  yearsof  age,  who  four  yean  before, 
from  u  full  out  of  a  window,  lost  the  portion  of  skull  which 
rov.Ti  the  organs  of  Self-Ksteem  and  J.ovo  of  Approbation. 
The  integuments  and  hsir  are  the  only  protection  her  brain 
hus  in  that  region,  and  its  movementa  can  be  fell  b.'  I'.ie  hand, 
like  a  leech  through  a  silk  handkerchief.  Mr.  Coonibp  placing 
bin  hand  on  the  part,  led  the  conversation  so  as  to  pi(jiie  the 
child's  self-esteem,  when  the  motion  wua  distinctly  felt  When 
she  was  requested  to  do  some  urithtneiical  lesson,  to  set  in  ac* 
lion  lier  intellect,  the  bruin  at  Self-F.steem  censed  to  move. 
She  wos  pruised  lor  her  success,  when  the  organ  of  the  Love 
of  Approbuliveness,  hiiherio  quiescent,  sensibly  moved;  again 
the  child's  nttentinii  was  directed  to  something  distinct  from 
liersi'lf,  and  once  more  the  organ  of  Seli'-F.steem  ai.d  Love  of 
Ai'probuiion  reposed.  Mr.  Combe  rcpeatfld  his  trials  several 
Iinii'S  with  the  same  results. — Niitaon  the  United  Stutis. 

t  An  opinion,  not  much  dilforenl,  wiis  expressed  by  the  last 
of  the  Scuiiiih  metnphysicHi  school,  towivrds  the  end  of  Imi 
life.  We  ullude  to  Mr.  Dugnid  Slewuri.  who  denies  at  true, 
liut  indirieily  confirms,  the  iollo\vin;{  cot;''  ssion  nf  M.  de  I'f 
nnid : — "  Diversity  of  doctrine  hns  increii  i.d  Iro'u  age  to  n|!« 
will)  the  niiniberuf  innsters.  anil  with  the  progress  of  kiinij- 
Irdge  :  mill  Iluroiie.  wli  eh  lit  present  po'isesses  1  brnrics  fil'rtl 
wiih  ph.lnsophicnl  works,  unil  which  reckons  up  almost  as  ra- 
lly ph  losophers  at  writers  poor  in  llic  m  dstof  so  iniieh  ricl* 
und  uncertu.n.  with  ihe  aid  of  all  ilt  guides,  whcli  rn.'..  1 
shou'd  follow— Kuropc.  tlie  centre  mid  focus  ol  all  the  lighll  uf 
the  world,  has  yr  its  puilosuciit  only  !.■«  upkctaiuin.'' 


.  ^?tl'V!l'«H!! 


PHRENOLOGY. 


'  )M.i'5 ;.' 


af  orpui*,  and  their  Mparate  aiition.  6th.  Partial  in- 
JariM  of  the  brain,  affecting  the  mental  nianifealations  of 
the  injured  parta,  but  leaving  the  other  faculties  lound, 
proTe  difltinctivenesa  of  organs.  7th.  There  couU  be  no 
luch  state  uf  utind  as  the  familiar  one  where  our  feelings 
contend,  and  antagoniie  and  balance  nach  other,  if  the  brain 
wore  one  organ. 

Thrse  are  grounds  for  presuming  that  the  brain  is  not 
unique,  but  a  cluster  of  organs,  or  at  least  that  it  is  capa- 
ble of  acting  in  parts,  as  well  as  in  whole.  For  this  con- 
elusion,  the  phrrnologists  have  found  satisfactory  proofs 
in  repeated  nlwervations,  showing  that  particular  manifes- 
tatiuns  of  mind  are  proportioned,  in  intensity  and  fre- 
quency of  ruvurrence,  to  the  size  or  expansion  of  particu- 
lar parts  of  the  brain,  and  are  thus  to  be  presumed  to  de- 
pend on  those  parts.  Every  step  they  have  taken  in  this 
investigation  has  been  guided  by  the  strictest  rules  of  the 
inductive  philosophy,  each  of  their  inferences  being 
grounded  on  an  overwhelming  number  of  cases  leading  to 
one  uniform  conclusion.  It  is  therefore  considered  by 
them  OS  a  settled  point,  that  the  brain  consists  of  a  con- 
geries of  organs.  It  is  a  necessary  result  of  the  same 
investigations,  and  one  of  the  most  important  doctrines 
of  phrenology,  that  the  power  of  each  organ,  in  other 
words,  its  degree  of  mental  manifestation,  is  in  direct  pro- 
portion to  its  size.  This  is  a  law  everywhere  seen  affect- 
ing organic  nature  ;*  a  large  muscle,  the  conditions  of 
health,  quality,  and  outward  circumstances,  beuig  the 
same,  has  mjre  power  than  a  small  one.  The  same  is 
true  of  ■  nerve.  Dogs  have  very  large  nerves  for  smcll- 
inK,  cagies  for  seeing,  &c.  A  child's  brain  is  smaller, 
■nd  ill)  mental  power  weaker,  than  those  of  an  adult  A 
very  small  brain  in  an  adult  is  the  invariable  cause  of 
idio'iy.  Ur.  (iail  observed  that  a  head  not  measuring 
more  ir.  horizontal  circumference  than  fourteen  inches,  is 
always  idiotic.  A  large  hcud  may  be  idiotic  from  cere- 
bral disease,  but  a  very  small  head,  from  defect  of  size 
alous.  is  always  idiotic     We  present  a  contrast    Fig.  1 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  8. 


u  the  head  uf  an  idiot  of  20  years  of  age ;  fig.  2  is 
the  head  of  the  celebrated  Hindoo  reformer,  Rammohun 
Koy,  which  was  of  great  size,  and,  as  is  well  known, 
manifested  great  power.  It  will  in  the  sequel  be  shown 
that  the  Hindoo  type  of  head  is  small,  and  the  mental 
power  correspondent ;  hence  the  exception,  in  both  par- 
ticulars, of  Kammohun  Roy's  head,  tells  the  more  strongly 
for  the  doctrine.  Men  of  great  force  of  character,  such  as 
Napul«:ii,  Franklin,  Burns,  had  brains  of  unusually  large 
size. 

Powerful  energetic  nations  exceed  weaker  ones  in 
sue  of  head,  and  invariably,  when  brought  into  collision 
witl  tliein,  overcome  them.  The  tiothic  or  Teutonic 
head  is  larger  tlian  the  Celtic,  which  last  race  first  occu- 
pied Europe,  but  was  drivtjn  by  the  Gothic  into  the 
mountainous  regions,  where  it  was  not  worth  the  puuis 
to  follow  it  The  average  Guro|)ean  head  is  to  the  ave- 
tage  Uitidoo  as  the  head  ol  a  man  to  that  of  a  boy ;  and 
hence  the  conquest  and  subjection  of  a  hundred  mil- 


•See  Eisny  by  l)r.  Andrew  Combe.  I'hrcnoloKical  Journul, 


lion*  of  the  latter  by  thirty  thousand  of  the  fermer 
Figs.  9  and  10,  to  be  found  in  a  subsequent  jolumi^ 
contrast  a  European  with  a  Cingalese  head.  Indeed,  the 
doctrine  of  size  of  brain  accompanying  power  of  che 
racier,  is  now  generally  admitted  by  the  opponents  of 
phrenology. 

The  general  law,  then,  being  that  size  of  organ  is  no 
eompanied  by  power  of  manifestation,  we  proceed  to 
inquire,  secondly,  if  there  are  any  circumstance!,  and  what 
these  are,  which  modily  this  law.  It  will  be  found  that 
guality  of  brain  is  a  modifying  circumstance,  also  heallh 
of  brain,  and  txercue  of  brain. 

1.  Phrenologists  conjectured  that  different  brains  difTer 
in  quality,  but  were  long  without  any  indications  of  these 
difierences.  The  doctrine  of  the  Tcniperamenti  has 
thrown  considerable,  though  not  perfect  light  on  this 
point,  and  for  this  we  arc  indebted  to  Dr.  Thomas,  of 
Paris.  There  are  four  temperaments,  accompanied  with 
different  degrees  of  power  and  activity,  in  other  words, 
quaUty  of  brain.  These  are  the  bilioM,  the  ntrvotu,  the 
languint,  and  the  lymphatic.  These  temperaments  were 
observed  and  distinguished  long  before  the  discovery  of 
phrenology,  though  to  little  purpose.  They  figure  in 
the  fanciful  philosophy  of  Burton,  and  similar  writers  of 
former  times,  and  much  nonsense  is  written  connected 
with  them.  Phrenology  has  adopted  them,  and  made  them 
intelligible  and  useful.  They  are  supposed  to  depend 
upon  the  constitution  of  particular  bodily  systems.  The 
muscular  and  fibrous  systems  being  predominantly  active, 
seem  to  give  rise  to  the  bilious  temperament.  The  name 
is  equivocal,  and  therefore  not  well  applied ;  the  other 
three  are  more  appropriate.  The  brain  and  nerves  pre- 
dominating in  activity,  give  the  nervous ;  the  lungs, 
heart  and  blood-vessels,  the  sanguine ;  wliile  the  glands 
and  assimilating  organs  present  the  lymphatic  tempera- 
ment The  predominancs  of  these  several  bodily  sys- 
tems is  indicated  by  certain  sufficiently  obvious  external 
signs,  whence  our  power  of  recognising  them.  The  ner- 
vous temperament  is  marked  by  silky  thin  hair,  6an 
skin,  small  thin  muscles,  quick  muscular  motion,  pal^ 
ness,  and  ofkn  delicate  health.  The  whole  nervous  sy^ 
tem,  brain  included,  is  active,  and  the  mental  manifesta- 
tions vivacious.  It  is  the  temperament  of  genius  and 
refinement  The  bilious  has  black,  hard,  and  wiiy  hair, 
dark  or  black  eyes,  dark  skin,  moderate  fulAesa,  but 
much  firmness  of  flesh,  with  a  harsh  outline  of  counte- 
nance and  person.  The  biUous  temperament  gives  mnch 
energy  of  brain  and  mental  manifestation,  and  the  coun- 
tenance is  marked  and  decided ;  this  is  the  temperament 
for  enduring  much  mental  as  well  as  bodily  labour.  Tho 
sanguine  temperament  has  well-defined  forms,  moderate 
plumpness  and  firmness  of  flesh,  light  or  red  hair,  bluo 
eyes,  and  fair  and  often  ruddy  countenance.  It  ia  ac- 
companied with  great  activity  of  the  blood-vessels,  an 
animated  countenance,  nitU  a  love  of  out-door  exercises. 
With  a  mixture  of  t!:;  bilioua— for  in  most  individuais 
the  temperaments  at«  mixed,  often  all  four  occurring  ia 
one  person — it  would  give  the  soldier's  temperament 
The  brain  is  active.  The  lymphatic  temperament  is  indi- 
cated by  a  round  form,  as  in  the  fat  and  corpulent,  soft 
flesh,  full  cellular  tissue,  fair  hair,  and  pale  skin.  Tho 
vital  action  is  languid,  tho  circulation  weak  and  slow. 
The  brain  also  is  slow  and  feeble  in  its  action,  and  the 
mental  manifestations  correspond.* 

It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  tlie  temperaments  are 
only  useful  in  comparing  different  brains ;  and  this  wel' 
illustrates  what  is  meant  by  the  condition  of  atttrimpaiy 
bus,  or  other  things  being  equal,  a  phrase  much  used  Ic 
phrenology.  If  two  brains,  in  every  way  similarly  or- 
ganized in  size,  dltfer  in  manifcstution  of  power  and  acti- 
vity, wo  must  look  tu  the  teniiMirttmcnts  of  the  individuals ; 
and  if  we  find  one  nervous  and  tho  otiier  lymphatic,  we 

•  Kor  u  fiiller  descripl  on  of  iliu  icniperamiinis,  6u«  the  arucl* 
Account  or  xiis  I1ux«n  Uuuy. 


■  ■?^B_«!nlSBWBSM(KO»HBHBBffl«ara5B5jnOTB^^ 


W4 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLll. 


hav«  •  key  at  once  to  the  difficulty,  fat  the  nme  brain 
•U  the  organs,  being  influenced  by  the  aame  tempera- 
■Mitt,  muat  he  lubject  to  precisely  the  same  modification. 
Various  cau$eii  of  the  temperaments  have  been  pro- 
pounded, but  none  satisfactory:  the  tfftct§  more  con- 
cern us,  and  these  are  now  tolerably  well  recognised. 
In  Mr.  Combe's  Syiiem  (4th  edition,  page  43)  there  are 
coloired  portraits  of  the  temperaments,  which  convey  ■ 
very  satisfactory  idea  of  them.  We  would  recommend  to 
our  readers  to  see  these,  as  we  are  precluded  by  our 
method  of  printing  from  introducing  coloured  engravings. 
The  temperaments  and  their  mixtures,  for  thev  are  rarely 
if  ever  found  unmixed,  should  be  observed  in  living  sub- 
jects. 

S.  The  brain  must  be  in  ■  $ound  healthy  comNtion,  to 
manifest  itself  properly  in  the  mental  faculties.  In  judg- 
ing of  character,  the  phrenologist  must  inquire  into  this 
drcurostance,  as  the  external  development  does  not  re- 
veal it. 

3.  Exercise — or  whether  or  not,  and  how,  the  brain 
has  been  exercised — is  another  condition  to  be  inquired 
into  before  judging  of  two  individuals  similarly  organized. 
The  brain  which  has  been  the  more,  and  more  judiciously, 
•xerdaed,  will  manifest  the  greater  degree  of  activity  and 
power.  The  law  of  exercise  is  of  universal  application 
to  animals,  if  not  to  organization  in  general.  A  muscle 
or  nerve  is  strengthened  by  exercise ;  and  n  tree  or  plant 
by  the  motion  given  it  by  the  wind.  Over-exercise  in- 
jures the  brain.  It  is  only  another  mode  of  inquiring 
into  the  circumstance  of  exercise  of  brain,  when  a  phre- 
nologist asks  what  opportunities  of  education  an  indi- 
vidual has  enjoyed,  and  tr  '  hat  kind  of  society  he  has 
been  accustomed.  To  tHis  information  ho  is  entitled 
in  judging  of  character,  for  the  head  alone  will  not  re- 
nal it. 

If  size  of  organ  implies  vigour  of  function,  it  is  of  great 
moment  in  what  region  of  tae  brain  the  organs  are  largest 
—whether  in  the  animal,  moral,  or  intellectual.  On 
this  preponderance  depends  the  character.  Two  brains 
may  be  exactly  alike  in  size,  generally,  yet  the  characters 
may  be  perfect  contrasts  to  each  other.  If  the  organs 
predominate  in  the  moral  region,  the  leading  manifesta- 
tions will  probably  be  of  a  virtuous  character ;  if  in  the 
intellectual,  talent  will  be  the  probable  consequence ;  if 
m  the  animal,  there  will  be  tendencies  accordingly. 
There  is  nearly  as  much  brain  in  fig.  4  as  in  fig.  3 ;  yet 
fig.  3  is  the  head  of  Melancthon,  the  most  virtuous  and 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  4. 


talented  of  the  reformers;  while  fig.  4  is  the  atrocious 
criminal  Hare,  who  murdered  by  wholesale  for  gain.  'I'he 
superiority  of  fig.  3  in  intellect  is  obvious  by  one  glance 
at  the  high  and  full  forehead,  compared  with  »  the  fore- 
head *illanous  low,"  as  Shakspeare  would  have  called  it, 
•f  fig.  4,  The  horizontal  line  in  fig.  4  shows  the  sliullow- 
neas  of  moral  brain.  A  line  drawn  from  the  same  points 
B  fig.  3  would  shew  a  much  greater  depth ;  while  the 
mass  of  brain  behind  the  ear  in  fig.  4,  compared  with  fig. 
3,  shews  the  preponderance  of  animal  brain  in  the  for- 
mar     Hare's  head  is  an  average  specimen  of  tlie  crimi- 


nal type,  of  which  there  are  hundreds  in  the  phrenologies 
museums,  all  of  one  unfortunate  family  likeness;  whi)( 
Melancthon 's  head  may  be  taken  as  a  type  of  high  virtus 
and  intelUgence.* 

THE  PRIMITITC   rXCVLTIeS  or   MIND,  AS  CORlflOTCn 
WITH  TBCIR   ORO/.N8   IN  THI   BRAIN. 

Mind,  which  was  considered  by  the  metaphysiciDns 
as  a  single  thing  or  essence,  was  said  by  them  to  he 
capable  of  being  in  dillcrcnt  ilalei,  in  each  of  whirh 
states  it  maile  one  of  its  various  manifestations,  as  memory 
judgment,  anger,  &c.  In  no  particular  does  the  phre- 
nological hypothesis  ditler  more  from  the  mctaphjairal 
than  in  this.  The  phrenological  doctrine  is,  that  the 
brain,  the  organ  of  the  mind,  is  divided  into  variom 
faculties,  each  of  which  has  its  own  mode  of  acting.  I| 
is  held — 

Firti,  That  by  accurate  observation  of  human  actions, 
it  is  possible  to  discriminate  the  dispositions  and  intellect- 
ual (Miwvr  of  roan,  such  as  love,  anger,  benevolence,  ob- 
servation,  reflection,  &c 

Stcoiidly.  That  the  true  form  of  the  brainf  can  be 
ascertained  from  tlio  external  form  of  the  head;  the 
brain,  though  the  softer  substance,  being  what  rules  the 
shape  of  the  skull,  just  as  a  shell  takes  its  form  from  the 
animal  within.^ 

Thirdly,  The  organs  or  parts  into  which  the  brain  it 
divided,  all  of  which  organs  are  possessed  by  every  indi- 
victual  except  in  the  case  of  idiocy,  appear  on  the  brain's 
surface  in  folds  or  convolutions,  somewhat  like  the  bowels 
or  viscera  of  an  animal,  but  have  a  well-ascertained 
fibrous  connection  through  the  whole  substance  of  the 
brain  with  one  point  at  its  base,  called  the  medulla  ob- 
lon^dtn,  which  unites  the  brain  to  the  spinal  cord,  'i'he 
organs  have  thus  each  a  conical  form  from  the  medulla 
oblongata  to  the  surface;  the  whole  being  not  inaptly 
compared  to  the  stalks  and  flower  of  a  cauliflower. 

Fimrllily.  The  brain  Ih  divided  info  two  equul  parts 
called  Inniispherrt ;  on  corh  side  of  the  fosse  or  division 
Iwtwcen  these  heinisphorcs  the  same  organ  occurs ;  all  the 
organs  are  therefore  double,  in  analogy  with  the  fyi.«, 
cam,  &c.  But  when  the  term  organ  is  used,  both  organs 
are  meant  The  organs  which  are  situated  close  to  the 
middle  line  drawn  vertically  on  the  head,  though  close  t( 
each  other,  ore  nevcrthclriis  double ;  for  cxam|ilD,  Indi. 
viduality.  Benevolence,  FirMncss,  &c. 

Fi/ilily.  Besides  the  brain-proper,  there  is  a  smaller 
brain,  attached  to  the  hinder  part  of  the  base  of  th« 
brain,  called  the  nrtbtlhr 

Sxxlhly.  The  brain,  ii  g  the  cerebellum,  is  di 

vided  into  the  nn/ow,  r,  ,  axxA  potttrior  lubct.  The 
cerebellum  forms  part  of  the  posterior  lolie.  I'he  ant«w 
nor  lobe  contains  all  the  intellectual  faculties ;  the  pot- 
terior  and  lower  range  of  the  middle  lobe  are  the  regioni 
of  the  animal  propensities ;  while  the  moral  sentiments 
are  found,  with  a  sort  of  local  pre-eminence,  to  havs 
their  orp-Hins  developed  on  the  top  or  coronal  surface  of 
the  head. 


*  In  llirie  rontrailed  heads,  the  distinction  may  appear  to  Ik 
fsvoiiri'd  by  the  way  in  wliirh  they  arc  placed.  Wi;  ran  nifiiira 
3iir  renders  thni  the  h.-nd*.  Iiowever  placed,  fully  moke  out  ihs 
coiilruKl  here  iiiflinled  on. 

f  A  profile  viiw  of  the  nnknd  lirnin,  with  the  conneeliil  nerves 
«nd  ve«/iel«.  i«  given  in  ihe  article  eiiiiil«d  "Arrounl  of  Ilia 
Huinnn  Itodv." 

t  The  xkuil  lieing  formed  nf  two  plnles,  a  pnrlial  »eparatioK, 
generiilly  in  llie  forehead  over  Ihe  nmieol'IrniakcH  pinee.  ral!(il 
\\\v  Jmnlnl  tintii.  'I'ha  haii  i;iyan  ri»e  lo  iruch  cnnlroversy,  and 
riuireiinpiiriniire  has  hein  given  ilby  opnoneiililhanit  d>  lervct. 
lift  ron»eiiMenee«.  whieh  Jci  noi  nffeel  ilie  general  Iriilhs  of  liie 
»p!eiicr.  are  Ireated  of  in  moH  of  Ihe  phrennlogirni  work*.  We 
may  add.  lliai  rvrrv  studeni  nf  p../vi>ntogy  tnonld  underfliaiid 
Ihe  nniitoiny  nf  ilu;  firnin,  allhougti  such  knowledge  isnntiml.i> 
nenauhlr.  We  eaniiol  enur  nn  Ihr  suhjecl  of  ihe  hrun  here, 
bul  reeommend  I)r  Spur/heiiit's  wnrk  on  the  lirain.  and  a  brtf 
and  e'rar  expusiiion  of  ill  aiiaujiuy  ill  Mr,  Comli«'s  8\\tim,  tik 
ediUun,  p.  HU. 


PHRENOLOGY. 


•.J7-+V 


3M 


The  gradatU  n  in  nizo  of  the  organs  U  thua  denoted : — 


Very  Small. 
Bmall. 
lUtliei  Small. 


Moderate. 
Rather  Full. 
Full. 


Rather  Large. 
Large. 
Very  Large. 


It  hai  been  found  convenient  to  expreis  thcM  degreei 
hi  numboM,  tliui : — 


8.  (Idiocy.) 

4!  (Very  Small.) 

5 

II.  (Small.) 

T. 


8.  (Railier  Small.) 

n. 

10.  (Moderate.) 
U. 

13.  (Rather  Full.) 
13. 

14.  (Full.) 


IS 

16.  (Rather  Large.) 

17. 

18.  (Large.) 

lU. 

ao.  (Very  Large.) 

31. 


The  intermediate  numben,  3,  6,  7,  Ac,  denote  aome- 
thing  between  the  two  denominations,  and  have  been 
found  useful. 

In  practice,  the  general  size  of  the  head  is  measured, 
in  Mvcral  directions,  with  calliper  compasses.  Twenty 
malos,  iirom  25  to  60  years  of  age,  measured,  firom  the 
occipital  spine  (tho  bony  knot  over  the  hollow  of  the 
oeck)  to  the  point  over  the  nose  between  the  eyebrows, 
on  an  average,  7^  inches ;  some  of  them  being  as  high 
go  8|,  and  others  as  low  as  6^,  From  the  occipital 
niine  to  the  hollow  of  the  ear,  the  average  was  4g , 
IODIC  being  as  high  as  H,  others  as  low  as  3J.  From 
|]ie  hollow  of  tho  ear  to  the  point  between  the  eyebrows, 
W  above,  average  nearly  5 ;  some  being  5J,  others  4j. 
From  the  saino  hollow  of  the  ear  to  tho  top  of  the  head, 
gbout  an  inch  behind  the  centre  (the  organ  of  Firm- 
(ia.is),thc  average  wi»s  5,",, ;  some  being  6 J,  others  6j. 
Across  the  head,  from  a  little  below  the  tops  of  tho  ears 
(from  Destructiveness  to  Dcstructivencss),  tho  average 
wa«  5  '^„  ;  some  being  6  J,  others  5  J.  The  averages  are 
in  these  twenty  individuals  higher  than  those  of  the 
natives  of  Britain  generally,  some  of  them  being  large, 
and  none  small. 

It  ought  never  to  be  lost  sight  of,  that,  in  estimating 
character  from  development,  it  is  not  legitimate  to  go  out 
of  the  same  head,  and  compare  any  organ  with  the  same 
organ  in  another  head.  This  will  never  ascertain  the 
oifect  of  a  particular  organ  in  tho  head  where  it  exists; 
and  for  tho  plainest  reason,  that  character  is  another 
word  for  the  most  powerful  organs,  as  modified  by  their 
i.eighbours  in  the  same  head.  A  virtuous  person  may 
have  the  organ  of  Destructiveness  absolutely  larger  than 
a  person  remarkable  for  a  violent  disposition;  but  it 
will  lie  found  that  there  are  moral  faculties  to  control,  or 
that  there  has  been  education  to  modify,  in  the  one  per- 
son, and  not  in  the  other.  Tho  relative  size  of  the 
ori^ns  iti  the  same  head  has  been  compared  to  the  rela- 
tive size  of  the  lingers  in  the  same  hand.  We  do  not 
think  of  comparing  any  one  finger  with  the  same  finger 
in  other  hunds.  But,  in  studying  phrenology,  diflcrcnt 
heads  may  be  compared,  in  order  to  observe  where  par- 
ticular organs  are  absolutely  large,  and  where  they  are 
absolutely  small.  The  learner  should  first  attend  to 
fcr.rcwK  cases  of  size,  as  the  most  easily  observed. 

We  have  said,  the  larger  the  brain,  and  of  course  the 
head,  the  luore  the  power.  The  old  ailagc,  "  Big  head, 
little  wil,"  i.s  often  true,  but  not  always.  It  is  true  when, 
with  a  large  brain,  there  is  a  lymphatic  temperament,  or 
when  some  damaging  or  deranging  circumstance  has 
taken  place,  to  deprive  tho  brain  of  its  natural  power,  or 
when  the  Largeness  is  not  in  tha  intellectual  region.  It 
i^  to  hi',  remarked,  however,  that  even  large  animal 
brains  hiive  great  nnintol  power,  in  spite  of  their  inltl- 
!••  'iinl  deli.i.-nt  y.  A  moderate-sized  head,  of  which  the 
ir.-iin  ie  thiidy  in  the  antivior  or  intellectual  region,  will 
nave  much  more  wit  or  cleverness  than  the  other.  Its 
|w.vcr  will  lie  intellectual.  The  adage,  which  originated 
ages  before  these  discoveries  were  made,  must  now,  like 
many  other  adages,  suflur  inodiflcation. 

Phrenologists  further  distinguish  between  power  and 
artivity  in  the  orgtuia  of  the  brain.  Power,  in  whatever 
degree  posieaiod,  is  capubility  of  feeling,  perceiving,  or 


thinking;  while  activity  is  tho  anriu  of  powtr,  or  the 
putting  into  action  the  organ  with  more  or  less  intensity. 
An  individual,  for  example,  may  possess  great  power  of 
rage  and  destruction,  and  yet  it  may  remain  quiet,  and 
tho  individual  be  perfectly  calm.  His  large  Destructive- 
ness, however,  will  be  idore  prone  to  start  into  activity 
than  a  smaller  would.  Activity  is  measured  by  the 
rapidity  with  which  tho  faculties  act  Clever  brilliant 
men  have  activn  but  moderate-sized  brains,  and  do  not 
make  the  impression,  or  command  the  homage,  of  larger, 
and  of  course  moie  powerful,  heads. 

The  powers  of  rriind,  as  manifested  by  the  organs,  are 
called  facuhiu,  A  faculty  may  be  defined  to  be  a  par- 
ticular power  of  thinliing  or  feeling.  A  faculty  has  seven 
characteristics.  In  order  to  our  concluding  it  primitive 
and  distinct  in  the  mind,  namely,  1.  When  it  exists  in 
one  uind  of  animal  and  not  in  another;  2.  When  it  v»> 
rics  in  the  two  sexes  of  the  same  species ;  3.  When  it 
is  not  in  proportion  to  the  other  faculties  of  the  same 
individual ;  4.  When  it  appears  earlier  or  later  in  life 
than  the  other  faculties ;  6.  When  it  may  act  or  repose 
singly ;  6.  When  it  is  propagated  from  parent  to  child ; 
and,  7.  When  it  may  singly  preserve  health,  or  singly 
manifest  disease. 

DITISIOIf  OR  CLASSIFICATION   OF  THE    FACULTIEB. 

The  faculties  have  been  divided  by  Gall  and  Spurs, 
heun  into  two  great  orders — Fiselinu  and  Intellect, 
or  Affective  and  Intellectual  Facvlties.  The 
Feelings  are  divided  into  two  genera — the  Fropentiliu 
and  the  SoitimnUs,  By  a  propensity  is  meant  an  inter- 
nal impulse,  which  incites  to  a  certain  action,  and  no 
more ;  by  a  sentiment,  a  feeling  which,  although  it  hat 
inclination,  has  also  an  emotion  superadded. 

The  second  order  of  faculties,  tho  Intellectual,  also 
suffers  division  into  the  Feneptive  or  Knowing,  and  the 
Rejiettive  FticuUies.  I'he  Perceptive  Faculties  are  again 
divided  into  three  genera — 1st,  the  External  Seiistf  and 
I'o/un/(iry  Motion ;  2d,  the  Intirmd  puweri  witich  ptrreivt 
existenie,  or  make  man  and  animals  acquainted  with  ex- 
ternal objects  and  their  physical  qualities ;  and,  3d,  the 
powers  which  perceive  the  reUitioits  of  external  objects. 
The  fourth  genus  comprises  the  lUjieciive  Fumlties, 
which  act  on  all  the  other  powers ;  in  other  words,  com- 
pare, discriminate,  and  judge. 

Wc  owe  to  Dr.  Spurzheim  the  names  of  most  of  the 
faculties  as  yet  in  use ;  and  they  have  only  been  ridi- 
culed, on  account  of  their  novelty,  by  those  who  did  not 
perceive  their  logical  accuracy.*  In  all  the  propensities, 
we  find  the  termination  tv«  to  denote  the  quality  of  pro- 
ducing— as  Destructive.  To  this  is  added  the  syllable 
ne$t,  to  denote  the  abstract  state.  Instead  of  tve,  the 
termination  ous  is  found  in  the  name  of  a  sentiment, 
with  nets  added — as  Cauti»us-ness,  Conscientiou^-ness^ 
to  express  the  abstract  quality.  The  names  of  the  intel- 
lectual faculties  require  no  explanation.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  faculties  generally  adopted  in  the  present 
state  of  tho  science,  is  that  of  Dr.  Spiuzheim  in  the 
third  edition  of  his  Flireiiology,  1825 — an  arrangement 
to  which  he  was  led  by  the  anatomy  of  the  brain. 

In  the  ca-sc  of  many  of  the  organs,  th^  proof  from  ob. 
scrvation  is  so  strong,  that  these  are  said  to  be  tstahliihed, 
while  others  are  only  probable ;  a  very  few  are  no  more 
than  coiijerluraL 

The  following  is  a  representation  of  a  bust  of  the 
human  head  in  four  points  of  view — front,  side,  back, 
and  top — with  the  organs  marked  l)y  numbers ;  and 
there  follows  a  table  of  the  names  of  the  organs  synojv 
tically  given,  before  we  proceed  to  describe  each  faculty 
as  rcbited  to  its  organ.  The  reader  is  requested  ttt 
remember  tho  number  of  each  organ  : — 

•  Dr  Onll  created  a  prejudice  against  ilie  science  Iiy  uamiiu 
certain  facu'lici  from  their  abuse,  as  tho  organs  of  tht/'  an? 
murdf,  &e    Tbii  was  corrected  by  Dr.  Spurzbeiro. 


A 


■BOTsaBBB^srnsi^^^^SSSSS 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


irncTiTK. 


■.■^PioPKMi  no. 

t.  Amativenrti. 

10.  Beir-Kslerm. 

1  PhiloproKenilivrncu. 

11.  Love  of  Approbalioo. 

9l  Inhabitiveiiciitand  Cnn- 

13.  Csutioutncu. 

eentrativeiiem. 

13.  Bpnevolrnce. 

4.  AdheiivencH. 

14.  VrnrrMion. 

8.  CombativeneH. 

15.  Firmneu. 

8.  Destrucliveneai. 

16.  CoiiicientiouincK. 

AlimcnliTcnru.] 

17.  Hope. 

iMve  of  Life.] 

IH.  Wonder. 

7.  Secrcliveneti. 

19.  Ideality. 

8.  Acqtiititirpni-M. 

tni.  Wit,  or  I.udierouinen 

8  OoailracUTene*» 

31.  Imitation. 

iinxu.i 

tCTVAL. 

39.  Order. 

30.  Kvemuality. 

tt.  Indiriduslity. 

31.  Time. 

n.  Foim. 

33.  Tune. 

M.  Size. 
as.  Weight. 
88.  Colouring 

33.  Lunguage. 

11— RirLBCTITK 

87.  Locality. 

34.  Compariwu. 

S3  Number 

35.  Cauiallty. 

ORDER    FIR.«T -FKELINCa 
OKNCa  I.— >P>OPINSIT!n. 

The  propeniiticii  are  common  to  man  and  the  lower 
animals ;  they  neither  perceive  nor  reason,  but  only  feel. 

No.  1. — Amativenen. 
This  organ  (No.  I  on  the  marked  bust)  is  situated 
immediately  owr  the  napv  of  the  neck,  and  fills  up  the 
space  between  the  ears  behind,  or  rather  between  the 
mastoid  procrasrs,  or  projecting  bones  behind  the  ears. 
(t  generally  forrais  a  projection  in  that  port,  and  gives  a 
thirktiess  to  the  neck  when  it  is  large,  antl  a  spareneas 
when  small.  The  cerebellum,  or  little  brain,  is  or  at 
least  contains  the  organ  of  this  proponsity.  The  nerves 
tf  sight  and  hearing  can  be  traced  into  contact  with  the 
•erebelluin.  whirh  probably  accounts  for  blindness  o'.d 
leitfiieu  being  often  among  the  frightful  consequences 
«f  abuxing  the  propcnRity.  In  a  popular  work  like  this, 
t  would  not  )>e  proper  to  go  into  the  details  of  this 
function.  These  nrc  to  be  met  with  in  the  more  scien- 
illc  phrenological  bookn,  C8j)ecially  Mr.  Combe's  trans- 
•tiuii  of  Dr.  Gull's  prooft  of  the  function  of  the  cerc- 
(■elliim.  Among  other  evidences  of  the  function  of  the 
«rebellum,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  organ  scarcely 
»i«u  in  infancy.  It  wai  Dr.  Spurzheiin's  opinion,  that 
hn  6ict  tliat  the  cerebellum  is  the  organ  of  the  amative 


propensity,  was  supported  by  a  more  ovorwhclmbi 
mass  of  evidence  than  any  other  truth  known  to  hiiik 
Many  of  the  enemies  of  phrenology  make  the  phrenoio. 
gists  a  present  of  tliis  organ,  sh  not  to  be  longer  doubtedt 
though,  in  doing  so,  they  are  unawares  uliandoning  thcit 
chief  tenet,  that  the  brain  is  not  divided  into  i>rgana. 
Although  Amativeness  is  the  only  asccrtaincil  function 
of  the  cerebellum,  it  is  not  impossible,  iiroin  its  size  and 
structure,  that  it  may  have  others ;  but  no  others  have 
yet  been  discovere<L 

It  is  not  neccssaiy  here  to  enter  fully  into  the  charac- 
ter of  this  faculty.  As  the  basis  of  the  domestic  afTcc- 
tions,  it  is  one  of  great  importance,  and  its  regulation 
has  ever  been  one  of  the  prime  objects  of  moral  systcins, 
laws,  and  institutions.  For  the  evils  and  culamitice., 
often  amounting  to  national,  which  it  has  occaHionally 
led  to,  in  its  abuse,  we  need  only  refer  to  history.  Dr. 
Spunheim  held,  with  regard  to  this  -faculty,  that,  n, 
education,  a  more  candid  and  explicit  mode  of  treating 
it  might  be  advantaf[eous ;  and  much  could  lie  said  ia 
defence  of  his  opinion. 

We  here  present  the  reader  with  a  head  (fig.  5)  in 
which  the  organ  is  small,  and  another  (fig.  6)  in  which 


Fig.  5  Fig.  6. 

it  is  large.  We  shall,  in  the  sequel,  give  a  few  of  the 
organs  as  specimens,  as  we  caimot  aflbrd  space  for  tht 
whole.    This  organ  is  establislied. 

No.  S.— PhiloprogeniliveneM. 
This,  in  man  as  well  as  animals,  is  the  feeling  of  tha 
love  of  his  offspring.  It  depends  on  no  other  faculty, 
as  reason  or  benevolence ;  it  is  primitive ;  itnd  in  lh« 
mother,  who,  for  wise  reasons,  is  gifted  with  it  moal 
strongly,  its  object,  the  infant,  instantly  rouses  it  to  t 
high  state  of  excitement  It  is  situated  in  the  middle 
of  the  back  of  the  head,  and  when  large  projects  Kke  a 
portion  of  an  ostrich  egg.  See  fig.  7.   It  is  small  in  fig.  8. 


Fig.  7.  Pig.  6. 

It  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Gall,  from  its  extreme  prota* 
berance  in  monkeys :  and  we  have  only  to  visit  a  xoola> 
gical  garden  to  see  how  that  animal  chcrishe  t  its  young, 
All  naturalists  are  agreed  in  this  as  a  qiiulity  of  the 
monkey  s|)ecics.  The  organ  is  one  of  the  eiusiest  to  t1i». 
tinguish  in  the  human  head.  Those  who  are  flat  end 
perpendicular  tlicre,  instead  of  being  dcliglued  are  an- 
noyed by  children.  It  is  generally  smaller  in  males 
than  in  females,  though  sometimes  found  larger ;  and 
men  so  organized  delight  to  carry  alioul  ami  nun« 
children.  'Fhe  feeling  gives  a  tender  Bynii>ulhy  gene- 
rally with  weakness  and  helplessness;  and  we  find  it 
oflcn  returned  by  the  young  themselves  to  the  old  ami 
feeble.  It  is  essential  to  a  soft  kind  attendant  on  the 
sick,  to  a  nurse  or  nursery-maid,  and  to  a  tenrher  of 
youth.  It  induces  women  to  make  pets  of  small  and 
gentle  animals,  when  tyrant  circumstances  have  kept 


•f  ^"iih 


PHRENOJ.OGY. 


Ill  >"  f 


om 


item  lingle,  •ml  denied  them  oflbpring  of  their  own. 
Im  frtilinga  are,  by  a  kind  Providence,  rendered  so  de- 
jiithttill,  that  they  are  extremely  apt  to  be  carried  the 
loitgih  of  excesH ;  and  apoiling  and  pampering  children, 
into  Ticious  ■elflghnen,  is  the  niinoua  conaoquence. 
1'he  or^an  is  large,  and  the  character  correapondi,  in 
the  Negroes  and  Hindoos,  who  are  both  good  nurses, 
toon  as  well  an  woinon — a  fact  practically  known  to  our 
countrymen  in  the  East  and  West  Indies.  The  most 
lavage  races  must  have  the  impulse  to  protect  their 
young,  or  they  would  become  extinct.  The  Caribs,  the 
most  ferocious  race  known,  are  remarkable  for  a  large 
development  of  this  organ ;  a  foct  which  may  be  said  to 
prove,  that  the  cure  of  children  is  not  an  impulse  of 
benevolence,  as  is  insisted  on  by  some.  The  Esquimaux 
have  the  organ  large ;  and  Captain  Parry  bears  testimo- 
ny, confirmed  by  Captain  Lyon,  to  the  extraordinary 
■ffection  of  that  people  for  their  children.  Captain  Ross 
could  not,  by  any  bribe,  induce  any  of  the  parents  to 
part  with  their  children.  The  organ,  like  the  other 
cerebral  organs,  may  brcome  diseased ;  and  madness  on 
the  subject  of  children  may  he  found  in  many  asylums. 
Ur.  Andrew  Combe  attended  a  woman  who  had  a  three 
days'  fit  of  insans  anxiety  aVtu-it  b«r  t4iildren.  On  her 
recovery,  she  said  she  had  hod  a  fain  in  the  bark  of  her 
hrivl,  pointing  to  this  organ;  but  hod  forgotten  every 
thing  else  that  had  passed,  iihe  mts  altogether  unac- 
quainted with  phrenology.  U:idei  this  mental  aberra- 
tion, the  most  delicate  and  virtuous  female  will  boast, 
without  the  slightest  foundation,  of  being  in  the  family 
wny  with  twins,  nay,  with  six  children  at  a  time.  Males 
hive  had  the  same  hallucination,  and  in  them  the  organ 
was  large.    This  organ  is  held  established. 

No.  3.— Inhabitivenesn— ConcentroiivenesB. 
The  organ  is  situated  immediately  above  the  preced- 
Ini;.  Two  of  tho  most  distinguished  phrenologists,  Spurz- 
heim  and  SJoinbe,  disagreed  sliout  the  function  of  this 
orjan — at  least  aliout  its  whole  function.  Dr.  Gall  did 
not  discover  its  function  at  all;  and  Dr.  Spurzheim, 
observing  it  large  in  persons  attached  to  their  native 
place,  or  any  place  in  which  they  had  long  dwelt,  called 
it  hihabiliveiient,  Mr.  Comlic  does  not  disallow  to  it  this 
function ;  and  certainly  mnn  has  such  a  faculty  as  attach- 
ment to  place,  often  so  strong  as  to  render  it  impossible 
to  move  him  from  a  particular  ^pot  by  the  most  tempting 
iiulucements.  The  purpose  of  a  faculty  which  prompts 
men  to  rettlc  instead  of  roaming,  which  latter  habit  is 
iiironsistent  with  agrieulture.  commerce,  and  civjlinstion, 
\n  olivious;  nottali^a,  or  home-sickness,  is  the  disease  of 
the  feeling.  Mr.  Combo  claims  for  it,  however,  a  more 
ritcnded  sphere  of  action  than  love  of  place — one,  at 
tho  same  time,  with  which  we  have  always  thought 
lovo  of  place  may  be  reconciled.  Ho  has  observed  the 
ori;an  large  in  those  who  can  detain  continuously  their 
feelings  and  ideas  in  their  minds,  while  the  feelings  and 
ideas  of  others  pass  away  like  the  images  in  a  mirror,  so 
thnt  they  are  incapable  of  taking  systematic  views  of  a 
tuhject,  or  concentrating  their  powers  to  bear  on  one 
point  The  first  class  of  persons,  in  conversation,  con- 
tinue the  same  subject  till  it  is  exhausted,  and  pass 
fmcefully  to  another  connected  with  it :  it  is  painful  to 
fonversa  with  the  others  whose  unconnected  thinking 
gives  us  tho  notion  of  what  is  vulgarly  called  tcatler- 
bminn.  Dr.  Welsh,  and  Dr.  Hoppe  of  Copenhagen,  un- 
known to  ciich  other,  communicated  to  Mr.  Combe  their 
o|!inion,  that  thu  faculty  gives  the  tendency  to  dwell  in  a 
;)/  ice,  or  lo  ilurll  on  leelingi  and  ideal,  for  a  length  of 
time,  till  all,  or  a  majority  of  tho  other  faculties  ore  satis- 
fied with  regard  to  them.  Mr.  Combo  illustrates  a  ron- 
Unned  feeling,  by  the  lengthened  pauses  in  the  declama- 
Uons  of  Mrs.  Siddnns  and  Mr.  John  Kemble,  in  which 
the  andience  saw  the  mental  state  prolonged  over  the 
wtiule  interval      We  must  content  ourselvoa  with  what 


we  have  said,  anif  refer  the  reader  for  proofs  and  argu- 
ments, on  either  aide,  to  the  works  of  Mr.  Cou)b«  and 
Dr.  Spurzheim.  We  may,  however,  observe,  that  thr 
knowing  faculties  moy  be  steadily  directed  by  such  ■ 
power  as  well  as  the  reflecting.  The  rope-dancer  flxM 
his  eye  steadily  on  the  point,  else  he  would  lose  his  b» 
lance ;  and  the  American-Indian  rifleman  will  lie  tat 
many  hours  behind  an  object  which  conceals  him,  wHh 
cocked  piece,  waiting  for  the  appearance  of  a  hostile  head 
at  some  selected  point,  at  which  he  instantly  fires  with 
deadly  effect.  The  organ  is  stated  as  only  probable,  till 
further  facts  are  obtained. 

No.  4  — ArihcniveiieM. 
This  organ  will  be  observed  on  the  ong^raving  of  th 
marked  bust  to  be  situated  on  each  side  of  No.  3 ;  a 
little  lower  down  than  No.  3,  bu'  a  little  higher  up  than 
No,  2,  at  the  middle  of  the  posti'-'or  edge  of  the  porietal 
bone.  It  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Onll,  from  bring  found 
very  large,  and  of  the  shnpo  as  on  the  bust,  in  a  lady 
remarkable  for  the  warmth  and  steadiness  of  her  Mena- 
ships;  and  was  observed  in  so  great  a  numlier  of  in* 
stances  to  accompany  this  propensity,  and  t/i  be  flat  or 
hollow  in  those  who  never  formed  attachments,  that  ha 
came  to  consider  it  as  dcmonstrnted.  It  attaches  men, 
and  even  animals  to  each  other,  and  is  the  foundation  of 
that  pleasure  which  we  feel,  not  only  in  bestowing  but 
receiving  friendship.  It  is  the  faculty  which  prompts  tha 
embrace  and  the  shake  of  the  hand,  and  gives  the  joy  cf 
Wing  reunited  to  friends.  Acting  in  conjunction  with 
Amativeness,  it  gives  constancy  and  duration  to  tha 
attachments  of  the  married.  Amativeness  alone  will  not 
be  found  sufficient  for  this.  Hence  the  frequent  niaery 
of  sudden  love  marriages,  as  they  are  called,  founded  OD 
that  fingle  impulse.  Tho  feeling  attaches  many  penom 
to  pets,  such  as  birds,  dogs,  rabbits,  horses,  and  other  ani- 
mals, especially  when  combined  with  Philoprogenitive- 
ness.  With  this  combination,  the  girl  lavishes  careraet 
on  her  doll  and  on  her  little  companions.  Added  to 
Nos.  1,  2,  and  3,  with  which  it  is  in  immediate  contact 
and  ascertained  fibrous  connection  in  the  brain,  it  conh 
pletes  what  has  been  colled  the  domestic  group  of  organs^ 
or  the  love  of  spoiiw.  children,  home,  and  the  friends  of 
home,  as  brothcni,  sisters,  cousins,  &c.  These  domestie 
feelings  bind  tlie  dw^lleis  under  the  same  roof  to  each 
other  faster  than  chains  of  brass.  The  finger  of  God  ia 
here,  ber.svo'.oui'y.  efTcii'iully,  lionutifully ;  for  he  baa 
rr.ije  '.hs  hon.i-i  «ot  i/ksunic  but  exquisitely  delightfliL 
So:i-.o  of  our  btjln<li>  flspres.^  .\(!heBivcnes8  with  much 
beauty,  ".loiin  Aiiiorson,  my  jo,"  and  "There's  naa 
luck  «!tcjt  the  house  when  v'>'.:r  giideman's  awa',"  are 
c.jst  touching  examples.  The  feeling  is  strongest  in 
wo:nan.  Her  frier. i'ih'ps,  s|)«-akitig  generally,  are  mora 
hrdent  than  man'n.  The  faculty  is  not  kindness  or 
benevolence;  il  is  instinctive  attachment,  often  felt 
by  those  »/IiO  are  selfish  in  every  thing  else— aelfiah 
even  in  their  attachments.  It  is  the  faculty  which 
prompts  man  to  live  in  society ;  and  its  existence  over^ 
turns  the  absurd  theory  of  Rousseau  and  some  othera, 
that  man  is  solitary,  and  that  mutual  interest  alone  bring 
men  to  congregate  with  their  fellow-men.  There  ara 
other  faculties,  tho  existence  of  which  implies  society  aa 
much  as  the  lungs  imply  atmospheric  air,  or  the  eya 
light :  Benevolence,  Love  of  Praise,  and  Justice,  are  of 
the  number.  It  is  in  this  way  that  a  true  analysis  of  tha 
primitive  faculties  settles,  with  a  word,  questions  whicL 
philosophers  agitated  for  ages  without  advancing  a  stepk 
Various  animals  congregate  under  the  impulse  of  adh^ 
sivcness — sheep,  pigeons,  deer,  &c.;  but  it  should  b« 
observed,  that  pairing  for  life,  or  vinrrvige,  is  not  found  in 
all,  though  it  is  in  some  of,  the  congrepating  auimols 
M.  Vimont  thinks  there  is  a  distinct  organ  U<t  the  mar- 
riage adhesiveness,  forming  a  part  of  what  has  b<«n 
aijuigneil  to  Philoprogeniiiveness,  on  eucii  Kidi'  tt  it    I'his 


yu) 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


IR  )rt  open  for  further  proof.  Mr.  Stewart  tnii  Dr.  Brown 
both  admit  tlii<  fuailty  of  attachment  u  primitive  in  our 
nature,  aiul  dcucrilio  it  nearly  aa  the  phrcnoloKi»tii  do. 
D.»|{t  manifcat  it  very  ftrongly.  The  organ  ia  held  to  be 
eatabliahed. 

No.  S.— romhativonaii. 
The  organ  of  thia  propensity  ia  aituatod  behind,  and  a 
little  upward*  from,  the  car ;  anatomically,  at  the  |Hwt«>- 
nnr-inforior  angle  of  tlie  parietal  bone.  Compare  fitf.  9, 
vrhich  ii  an  outline  of  the  hIiuII  of  Ooneral  VVurmaer,  at 
the  organ  5,  with  flg.  10,  that  of  a  CingalcMU,  at  tlie  aame 


Fib.  10. 


organ.  No.  12  ia  the  organ  of  Cautiouancaa,  to  («  afler- 
wanla  treated  of.  In  this,  the  differenro  ia  reversed  be- 
tween tl)e§e  two  huuda.  Dr.  Gall  diicuvercd  the  organ 
by  a  vaat  number  of  obaervationa  on  the  heada  of  iiidi- 
viduala  whom  he  obaer\'cd  to  l>e  addicted  to  fiHliling. 
Dr.  Spurzheim  extended  ita  function  to  rontenlion  in 
IDiieral,  whetiier  phyaical  or  moral.  In  thia  view  Sir 
George  Mai-kcnzio  concura;  and  Mr.  Robert  Cox,  in  an 
iDtcresting  paper  in  the  I'hrrnnhffiral  Jouraal  (vol.  ix. 
|ago  147),  cndeavoura  to  ahow  it  to  be  of  the  nature  of 
op{>oaition  in  geiu-rtd,  and  tcrina  it  oiipntivrurnr.  The 
condition  of  tlio  phvHieal  world,  full  of  difllrultiea  and 
dangera,  seema  in  itarlf  to  make  it  ncceaanry  tliul  man 
■hould  posMOiu  a  faculty  giving  the  impulse  to  meet 
boldlj,  and  press  vii;orou8ly  through,  such  impntliinentu. 
In  the  mingled  nceiie,  al.-so,  which  forma  the  niond  world, 
•uch  an  impulMO  iv  not  lesa  needed.  It  is  easy,  therefore, 
to  reconcile  with  our  ideaa  of  divine  wisdom  und  good- 
oeaa  the  existence  of  thia  vehement  quality  of  our  nature, 
the  true  intent  of  which  is  expressed  in  the  well-known 
adage  of  the  .Mantuan  bard — "  Ne  cede  molis,  aed  contra 
kiuientior  ilo,"  [Do  not  tsire  ivay  to  cvitt,  but  go  the  moi-e 
durinnly  againit  I  hem.]  A  small  endowment  of  this 
Ciculty  manifests  iLielf  in  that  over-gentle  vnd  indolent 
character,  whicli  is  cisily  aggressed  u|)on,  easil^  r.'|>ell(-d 
by  the  ap|H.'urancc  of  tlifliculty  and  trouble,  anil  which 
naturally  seeks  the  shades  and  eddy-corners  of  'ife.  Na- 
tioua  ao  organized — the  Hindooa,  for  example — are  easily 
conquered  by  others,  under  whom  they  naturally  sink 
into  a  condition  more  ur  leas  of  servitude.  A  lar^e  en- 
dowment, on  the  other  hand,  allows  itaelf  in  a  love  of 
danger  for  ita  own  sake,  a  delight  in  adventurous  military 
life,  and  a  tendency  to  bluster,  controversy,  and  lurniuils 
of  all  kinds.  Society  calls,  no  doubt,  for  all  the  over- 
average  endowments  of  this  faculty  which  exist,  to  (kt- 
Cwm  its  dangerous  and  diflicult  work ;  and  we  see  such 
endowments  rightly  diriH:ted  in  the  Leoniduses,  ^^'allllces, 
Tells,  and  Wasliingtona  of  history ;  in  Luther,  Knox, 
and  the  whole  tribe  of  Mtional  reformers ;  in  the  Colum- 
buaea,  Do  Ganias,  Cooks,  and  Parrya  of  nautical  'idven- 
turc,  and  in  audi  profusalons  aa  that  of  the  fireman,  the 
common  mariner,  and  the  lund-clearcr  of  the  "  far-wesu" 
But,  be'-.i  leil  free  to  act,  and  not  being  ccrt.iin  always  to 
folfow  the  guidaiice  of  the  moral  feeling*  and  intellect, 
great  combativcncss  often  exhibits  itself  in  painful  forms 
—in  aggressivo  war,  t)lustering,  bravudoing,  outrageoua 
polemica,  and  a  habit  of  encountering  dangers  without 
any  useful  end  in  view.  The  French  are  nmch  marked 
aa  a  nation  by  irrationally  directed  conibutivencsa.  Per- 
aons  with  large  combativcncss  may  be  readily  rvco;^niscd 
m  private  society  by  their  disposition  to  contradict  and 
wrangle.  They  challenge  the  clearest  propositions,  and 
lake  a  pleasure  in  Juut<ting  where  everybody  else  ia  con- 
vinced. The  generality  of  boys  manliest  an  active  com- 
kutivunctis  in  Uieir  adventuroua  spirit,  and  thuir  dispoditiun 


to  fighting,  and  to  the  working  of  all  kiiula  of  p«(K 
mischief.  To  control  and  guide  the  pro|H>naity  ia  one  ol 
the  moat  delicate,  but  also  most  important,  duties  of  t)i« 
educator.  When  combativencsa  ia  deranged,  we  have  a 
violent  and  noiay,  and  often  a  dangerous  patient.  Intoxi 
cation  generally  afliirds  a  great  stimulus  to  it;  hence 
drunken  quarrula  and  flghtinga.  The  organ  ia  established. 
No.  0.— Uesirnciivcnriii. 
Thia  organ  ia  situated  on  lioth  sides  of  the  head,  im- 
mediately over  the  external  opening  of  the  ear,  extending 
a  little  forward  and  backward  from  it,  and  rising  a  triHi^ 
above  the  top  or  upper  flap  of  the  ear.  It  corres|)on(lk  u 
the  lower  (xirtion  of  the  squamous  |)lnte  of  the  temporal 
bone.  When  the  organ  is  large,  the  ofM'ning  of  the  eai 
is  depressed.  In  tig.  II  the  organ  ia  largt^;  in  fig.  13  i| 
ia  small.     Dr.  Gall  discovered  tlie  organ  by  comparing 


KiK  It.  FIr.  12. 

the  skulls  of  carnivorous  witli  those  of  graminivoro-  • 
nnimnls,  and  afterwards  by  observing  the  same  prom 
nence  in  those  of  several  murderers  sent  him  for  exani< 
nation.  Ur.  Gall,  from  oliscrving  the  organ  largo  it, 
murderers,  called  it  the  organ  of  murder,  thus  describing 
it  from  an  abuse,  a  mistake  which  gave  occasion  to  a 
great  outcry  against  his  doctrines,  and  not  without  eauto. 
It  ia  still  generally  considered  as  giving  the  impulse  to 
kill  and  destroy ;  but,  in  man,  thia  pro|>cnsity  is  shown 
to  have,  under  the  control  of  the  higher  sentiments  and 
Intellect,  a  legitimate  sphere  of  exerciae.  Those  rough- 
neaaes  and  dillicullics  in  the  physical  worki  which  have 
been  shown  to  call  for  the  exercise  of  combativencss, 
that  man  may  not  sink  under  them,  also  ap|)ear  to  call 
lor  a  faculty  which  may  jironipt  to  the  destroying  or 
repressing  oi  thcin,  so  that  the  way  may  be  cleared  foi 
tho  future.  The  annoyances  and  troubles  of  the  moral 
world  call  in  like  manner  lor  a  faculty  which  may  be 
always  endeavouring  to  put  an  end  to  them.  There  arc 
many  animate  and  inanimate  things,  and  many  institu- 
tions an  J  siH'ial  arrangements,  which,  though  useful  fui 
a  time,  become  in  the  end  noxious,  and  re(|uire  to  be  de- 
stroyed :  the  organ  under  notice  a|>pcurs  to  Ik  that  which 
is  connnissioncd  to  do  this  duty.  It  prom|its  beasts  anu 
birds  of  prey  to  keep  down  the  redundant  brc^eds  of  tho 
lower  apininis,  and  enables  man  to  "kill"  that  he  may 
"  eat."  It  ilictut4-s  tho  demolition  and  clearing  away  of 
obstructive  olijccts  of  all  kinds,  and  prompts  Lutlicrs  and 
Miralicaus  to  the  extermination  of  bad  systems.  Anger, 
resentment,  and  indignation,  in  all  their  shapes,  hkewiiie 
spring  from  this  faculty.  St.  Paul  indicates  its  legitimate 
exercise  in  this  class  of  its  iuanil'estatii)ns,  in  the  uorut 
•>  Uc  ye  angry  and  sin  not."  The  penalties  ini|M>8ed  in 
nil  civilized  communities  fur  oflences  arise  fruin  destruc- 
tivcncsa,  more  or  leas  under  the  guidance  of  reason  and 
humane  feeling.  Blimie  may  l>e  descriU'd  as  a  com- 
paratively gentle  emotion  of  ilestructiveiiess. 

A  small  endowment  of  this  faculty  ia  one  of  the  ele- 
ments of  a  "aoll"  character.  Persons  so  organized  seem 
to  want  that  which  givca  momentum  to  human  opem- 
tions,  hko  an  axe  wanting  in  back  weight.  The  Hindoo* 
are  deficient  in  Destructivencsa  as  well  as  Cuuitiativenesri. 
hence  their  remarkable  averseness  to  tlu;  sheddini;  of  bloud, 
and,  in  a  great  measure  also,  their  l>eing  constnully  the 
slaves  of  other  and  more  energetic  nations.  Those,  on  tt  c 
other  hand,  who  luive  a  large  endowment  of  Destructive- 
neso,  are  generally  marked  by  an  energetic,  and  probably 
fierce  and  passionate  character.  If  uncontrolled  by  iiioraJ 
feelings  naturally  strong,  or  cultivated  into  artivi.y  liy 
education,  they  are  apt  to  be  violent  and  vindicuve    Lim 


PHRENOLOGY. 


in<]  untiitnrcJ  natviro*  itrnarally  allow  frrc  oxorciiio  to 
lhi«  fcclini;,  n«  wo  may  iluily  iieo  in  ihrir  hnitnl  gwcnrintf 
il  DBcli  Dllinr,  tlinir  horrible  conibati,  thoir  t-riii-ily  to  iivury 
ndiilcxH  creutiiro  iimlfr  lliKir  earn,  and  tlirir  dcliKlit  in 
whiitiivcr  in  MicrciloHK  ami  inhumane.   The  hii;lily-trainu(l 
Hfiillcmiin  Ki-ni'rully  tnuHli^rH  tho  tcnilfncy  to  nil  iiurh 
niAiiili'xtiilionH,  liut  oftrn  Hhowa  the  ■iimii  niilivo  i|uality 
•cite  in  hi'  natiiru,  in  |M)liiihc(i  iiarcasin  ami  invurtivca, 
,r.  (lurlliiiK,  and  in  cold  and  atiitrly  ulivnntion  from  thnno 
who  have  tfivon  him  oiTcncc.     Tlio  moi*t  noliililo  almHCH  i 
of  the  tiu'ully  i»  in  homicidi!,  a  crime  which  the  mind  in  '. 
1  tciniH'rato  utatc  reKiirds  with  liorror,     Tliin  act  ia  olU'n  j 
ptijivlriitcd  under  Iho  iiilliiiMicr  of  infuriati;  rem-ntnifnt,  i 
Dul  i«  uUo  goinctiiiifH  coinmitted  without  iho  a])|)t'aranco 
of  any  »nch  promptiiig  cauHC.     Men  have  cont'cNHcd  to  j 
chc  conimiliini;  of  murder  under  impulHOH  which  ihoy  i 
could  not  account  for,  luit  which  thry  wore  cnually  un-  i 
able  to  restrain.     h\  thcnn  cam'ii,  we  may  snrmiHO  that 
inc  iinpultK!  took  Its  rine  in  iiome  morbid  action  of  thiu 
orsuii.     I'ranlii'  iiiclinalion  to  break  and  xmaHh  Ih  aim),  i 
i.robably,  an  oflcct  of  thin  ornan  in  an  unduly  excited  or  j 
(liM'uscd   Ntate.     There   arc   inHlancea   of   rational   and 
i-xrclleiit   men,  who,  at  a  particular  and   by  no   meauH  I 
ailvaiired  Hta^e  of  intoxication,  find  thuiuHclvei*  unable  to  | 
rrfruin  from  breaking  bottk'H,  niirrorH,  and  other  articles  '. 
of  value  near  them.  1 

In  a  very  innenious  and  elaborate  paper  in  the  Phre- 
njlogicul.Iournal,  Mr.  llobert  ('ox  ha:i  expounded  a  law 
iirocliiiK  Destruciivciie.sH  and  Ucnovolence.  It  is  no 
inoro  than  the  connnoii  olwrvation  of  mankind,  that 
every  pleasure  we  enjoy  tends  to  soothe  and  to  create 
»  feeliii({  of  (,'ood  will  to  others;  while  every  annoyance 
I'tiuully  lend-*  to  riillle  and  to  produce  a  feeling  of  anger. 
Mr.  Cox  traces  this  to  a  sympathetic  action,  of  which 
e»ch  of  our  faculties  is  capable  with  regard  to  Denevo- 
loncB  and  DoHtiuctiveness.  Are  wo  undervalued  ? — our 
Self-esteem  instantly  awakens  the  hitter  faculty.  Are 
»B  ilisappointeil  of  a  meal,  or  even  of  a  favourite  disli  ] — 
jur  .Mimcntiveness  is  equally  alert  in  rousing  this  sleep- 
iuj  lion,  and  a  certain  exhibition  of  pettiNhiiess  is  the 
iilmost  unavoidable  consei|uencc.  Is  a  scene  of  wanton 
cruelty  presented  to  our  gaze  ! — our  Uenevolencc  sounds 
iho  alarm  to  the  faculty  which  may  lie  termed  its  de- 
clared cncMoy  and  antagonist,  and  wc  are  all  eagerness 
u>  puniHli  the:  authors  of  the  outrage  ;  and  so  on.  Even 
Dcstructiveness  itself  may  be  so  much  pleased  by  In-ing 
allowed  a  free  action,  that  a  benevolent  feeling  may  for 
a  brief  interval  suix'rsode  it,  and  induce  a  wish  to  act 
kindly  by  its  victims.  Were  this  law  nlVccting  Dostruc- 
liveiiess  more  generally  held  in  consideration,  many 
am;ry  and  vicdent  scenes  might  be  spared,  and  social 
lilt  in  general  would  l«!  much  sweetened. 

The  organ  of  Destructivencss  is  held  to  he  esta- 
bliiihed. 

Alimcntivcneiia,  or  Appetite  for  Food. 

Some  of  the  recent  phrenological  works  treat,  in  this 
part  of  the  order  of  the  faculties,  of  a  faculty  of  Ali- 
mcntivpiiess,  and  also  of  another  which  follows,  namely, 
Love  of  Life.  The  first  Iwing  yet  no  more  than  /)io- 
liiii.k,  and  the  second  only  lonjirlural,  ihcy  have  no 
number  allotted  to  them  on  the  bust. 

AlimentivenesH  is  the  desire  of,  or  appetite  for,  food. 
In  this  feeling,  as  such,  the  stomach  is  not  concerned  : 
its  functions  are  strictly  confined  to  the  reception  and 
digestion  of  our  food.  But,  that  the  mind  is  concerned 
in  our  desire  of  fooil,  is  proved  by  many  circumstances. 
i'liis  desire  often  continues  after  the  stomacli  is  over- 
io.uled;  it  ol\en  [rompts  to  a  fulness  and  frciiuency  of 
.ceding,  which  nuist  be  in  the  highest  degree  inconve- 
nient to  the  di'Acsting  organ.  'I'he  /I'li/.wi  created  in 
the  sick  by  the  idea  of  food — the  rush  of  saliva  to  the 
mouth  of  ihe  gourmand,  on  hearing  a  description  of  rich 
ilisheii — must  alike  be  the  ellbct  of    uiental  emotion:). 

VuL.  I      37 


Appetite  may  he  taken  away  by  other  orgam  of  th* 
brain  l)cing  suddenly  and  strongly  alVpctrd ;  as,  foi  in> 
stance,  in  sudden  acceiwoi  of  joy,  fear,  or  grief.     In 
these  cases,  we  may  presume  that  the  nervous  influenc* 
is  abstracted  from  tlio  organ  ot  Alinienliveness  to  Mn|>ply 
the  extra  demand  of  the  others.     Were  desire  anywhera 
but  in  thr  brain,  there  could  be  no  permanent  character  in 
individuals,  as  the  glutton,  the  epicure,  the  absteinioui. 
'i'he  stomach  alone  could  make  no  such  diM'riminationa. 
Hatislied  that  ap|)etite  is  a  mental  faculty,  phrenolngiiti 
have   long   In-en   looking   for  its  organ.     Dr.  HopiM)  of 
Copenhagen  was  the  first  to  observe,  in  those  who  ma- 
nifested remarkably  the  gourmand  or  glutton,  a  fnlncM 
in  front  of  DestructivencsM,  in  the  Juita  zyf^anuiliiii,  be- 
tween the  top  of  the  car  and  the  temple.     Its  place  it 
marked  liy  a  cross  f  on  the  side  view  of  the  bust.    Many 
phrenologists  have  confirmed  this  by  observation.     The 
convolution  is  developed  in  the  base  of  the  brain  farthet 
in  than  that  of  Dcstructiveness  ;  but  it  is  believed  thai 
it  aUo  shows  itnelf  liy  contact  with  the  cranium  at  the 
point  now  described.     A  lihrenologist  once  saw  it  ol)- 
viou^ly  large  in  the  head  of  a  stranger  who  sat  opposite 
to  him  in  the  sajnon  of  a  steamnliip  going  to  London. 
He  resolved  to  observe  the  individual's  manifestations; 
whenever  he  beard    the    gentlenmn   s]K'aking,   it   waa 
about  excellent  dinners  and  cookery,  while  bis  practice 
was  eating  and  drinking,  with  short  intervals,  all  hia 
wakhig  hours.     The  propensity  is  subject  to  insane  ac- 
tion, one  of  the  strongest  proofs  of  it«  being  a  primi- 
tive faculty  of  inind.     Voracity  and  insatiableness,  far 
l)eyond  the  stomach's  natural  capacity,  or  the  natural 
want,  are  then  often  the  consetiuences.     A  patient  in 
the  Infirmary  of  Edinburgh  was  permitted,  by  way  of 
experiment  on  the  capacity  of  the  stomach,  to  eat  for 
six  hours  without  stopping.     Ho  declared  in  a  state  of 
delirium,  that  nevertheless  he  was  dying  with  hunger. 
His  delirious  cry  was  "Hunger!    hunger!  hunger!" 
He  complained  of  pain  in  the  spot  where  Dr.  Hoppe  ob- 
served the  development  of  the  organs,  and  nowhere  else. 
Mr.  Sydney  Snnth  states,  that  a  patient  in  the  same  rir- 
cuinstances  was  blooded  with  leeches  at  the  same  spot, 
and  thereby  relieved.     M.  Dcscurct  mentions  a  woman 
in  the  Salpetriere,  who  ate  the  allowanc^es  of  fifteen  per- 
sons, and  was  always  stealing  bread  and  meat ;  when 
prevented  she  had  recourse  to  raw  vegetables,  planta, 
and  roots,  and  poisoned  herself  by  devouring  ranuncu- 
luses.    Alimentivenoss,  from  its  near  neighbourhood  to 
Dcstructiveness,  seems  to  have  a  peculiar  influence  on 
that  faculty,  rousing  it  to  great  energy  when  its  own 
enjoyments  are  endangered  or  interrupted.     It  is  not 
horses,  ilogs,  and  wild  beasts  alone,  which  arc  danger* 
ous  when   feeding.     The  organ  of  Acquisitiveness  ia 
also  close  to  this  supposed  organ.    Mr.  Simpson  observed 
the  organ  of  Alimentiveness  '    -  o  in  a  young  man,  with 
very  large  Acciuisitiveness,  w.  >  raa  periodical  fits  of 
indiscriminate  theft ;  and   cxpec  ng   that  Alimentive- 
ness ndght  probably  be  active  at  the  same  time,  asked 
the  question,  ar.d  was  answered,  that  the  young  man's 
friends  knew  when  to  look  after  his  stealing  propensity 
by  being  forewarned  by  his  inordinate  voracity.     The 
I  function    of  this  faculty   is   obvious   from   its   object, 
namely,  food  suitoble  to  the  palate  and  digestion,  and  ita 
I  end  the  preserN-ation  of  the  individual.     In  diseased  ao 
]  tion  it  is  discriminating,  as  in  the  case  of  the  devourer 
of  raimnculuses;  but  when  acting  in  health,  it  discri- 
ndrnitcs  the  food  whiah  is  desirable,  and  rejects  other 
;  substances.     It  has  been  said  that  animals  are  easily 
poisoned;  this  is  tnie, but  it  is  always  by  disguising  the 
,  jioison  in  the  food  which  their  alimentive  faculty  esp©« 
cinlly  selects.     The  chick  just  out  of  the  egg-shell  picki 
,  >ip  crumbs  and  seeds,  but  rejects  pebbles  and  sand ;  and 
the  new-born  child,  without  the  ]u)werof  relieving  ai'y 
other    pain,  if  all  the    medicines    known   were    placed 
j  within  its  reach,  instantly  relieves  the  pain  of  hung«ii 
'ili 


INFORMATION   FOR  THK   PEOPLK. 


kj  •pplyiiiR  iU  li|M  tn  ths  ni|>|ile  »m\  drainiiiff  iu  mo- 
ther'! Itrfimt,  HtimulalitiK  li>|iii)r«  nnt  «ii|i|><>kc(I  to 
plflRjie  thin  orKnn,  no  a*  to  roiialitiit<t  it  th«  mmm  of 
driiikinx  iw  wisll  ■■  of  culinR.  Hi'iim  the  i>riiviiiliiin 
eoiirluxion  thut  (IruiikcniD'Mi  U  a  fuiiitioiial,  if  not  mi 
organic,  iIIm'.iw  ;  ami  in  Ainrrira,  an  wi'll  n»  Ihu  coun- 
try, It  him  iH'on  Irt'atiMl  lu  mirli.  'i'oliarco  iiiul  opiinn 
are  believfd  to  Ihi  cTH\lng*  of  tliii  orKiiii ;  Imt  nuicli  ol»- 
■erration  i«  ciiilwl  for  l>cforr  plirriioloKiiitN  ran  ajioiik 
pMllivrly  on  tlin  iiihjcrt.  No  attention  Iiilh  Iwrii  paid 
to  the  proper  tr.iiiiini(  of  thia  fiu-iitty  in  PiiiicHtioii.  Ita 
atturul  activity  in  tlin  yoiin^.  their  IxNliea  ilcniiiniiinK 
much  foml,  hiw  bocn  too  niucli  pnmperol  •»!••!  <r"'ul»rrd, 
to  the  irrc>>t  injiir>  of  lioth  hciilth  iiinl  chiirnct<<r  in  aOor 
life.  (ihittoMV  und  drunkcnneHU  Ktimiiliitc  the  other  iini- 
mul  ofKaiiH,  and  henco  the  licrnliouKaeiui  of  ^liittuna  and 
drunkard* — hence,  too,  their  criniia.  Iimnnity  ia  one 
of  the  ordinary  cffecta  of  Rtarvntion.  I'lie  or^^nn  may 
now  be  aaid  to  Iw  aiivanced  from  ituijcrlural  ia  firubablt, 

I.ovc  of  I.ife. 

The  K'lf-prefiorvation  involved  in  the  love  of  life  ia 
certainly  not  accounted  for  by  any  known  ornmi  or  com- 
bination of  oruana.  Cautiou'neHa  Ik  fear  of  injury  ; 
four  of  death;  but  it  ia  not  love  of  life.  'I'hi^  feeling  ia 
powerfully  maiiifcHted  by  aomo  when  their  life  in  in  no 
danxer,  but  who  look  upon  the  close  of  life  oh  u  very 
great  evil.  Others  are  ho  indilVcrcnt  on  tlie  <<ulijcct,  aM 
aciircely  to  eare  whether  they  live  or  die,  but  for  the  ilin- 
agrecahlo  effect  the  contcmpbilion  of  dcalli  has  upon 
their  other  facultioa — vuch  aa  Iciiviuk;  ciiilil'-cn  unpro- 
vided, fn\  Mr.  Combe  thinkH  thut  tlic  oruan  is  aitu- 
ated  in  the  base  of  the  brain,  anil  tliat  itii  ilcvcliipnirnt 
cannot  Iw  awertainod  on  tl.c  iikull  during  life.  Dr.  .\n- 
drcw  ComlH'  hud  a  patient  whtwe  couHtiiit  theme  wan 
ber  love  of  life,  and  her  unwillin^iicim  to  part  with  it. 
After  her  death  he  Haw  the  brain,  and  oiiservcd  an  cnor- 
moua  development  of  one  convolution  at  the  bane  of  the 
middle  loliv  of  'he  brain,  \y\nn  towards  the  niiildle  line, 
hrthcr  in  than  Iwth  l)ealructiveiie»«  and  .MimeiitiveMesM, 
The  bane  of  the  akull  presented  nn  uncommonly  deep 
groove,  in  wiiich  the  convolution  lay.  'I'iie  Scottihli 
phrenoloifiKta  wait  for  further  otmervntion  before  couiint? 
to  any  concluaion  on  thia  auppoacd  organ.  The  French 
phrcnoloKiMta  think  they  have  discovered  the  orifan 
immediately  above  the  sphenoid  bone ;  but  their  facl« 
are  too  few  and  uncertain  to  be  philosophically  founded 
■pon. 

No.  7. — Seeretlveneta. 

The  order  of  this  faculty  will  \ie  obsen-ed,  by  ita 
■nmhcr  on  the  bust,  to  !«  situated  iinmediatelv  above 
that  of  Dcttructiveneas,  at  the  inferior  edi^e  of  the  pari- 
etal bones,  or  in  the  middle  of  the  siile  of  the  brain. 
l)r.  Gall  observed  this  f\dncss  in  one  of  his  companions 
remarkable  for  finesse  and  cunnini;,  and  for  its  sly  ex- 
pression. He  observed  it  in  another  comjianion,  whose 
gait  and  manner  were  those  of  a  cat  watchintt  a  mouse. 
Tlic  f5nit  comp-«nion  was  honest,  and  (miy  deceived  for 
•port;  the  other,  however,  heinn  deficient  in  moral  re- 
■traint,  turned  out  perfidious,  and  deeeivei!  hiii  compa- 
nions, his  tutors,  and  his  parents.  One  of  CiaH'a  pa- 
tienta,  who  p  issessed  a  larce  endowment  of  the  irifon, 
continued  throuijh  life  to  deceive  the  world  as  to  .,i«  real 
character;  but  his  alTntrs  on  his  death  proved  that  ho 
had  been  extensively  fraudulent.  Dr.  fiall  cites  many 
other  instances  of  decei'fiil  and  cnnnintf  charactera,  all 
showing  the  same  development  An  immense  number 
nf  observations  have  confirmed  the  soundness  of  Dr. 
(Sall'a  conclusions  with  resard  to  the  function  of  this 
or;fan.  The  leiritimate  use  of  the  faculty  is  to  exercise 
that  control  over  the  outward  manifestation  of  the  other 
l>icullies,  which  is  necessary  to  a  prudent  reserve. 
Withou*  it,  and  of  r-^urae,  in  those  in  whom  the  organ 


ia  small  and  the  manifrslation  weak,  the  fefhn((i  «T|m« 
theinwivea  too  ojienly.  Hiich  iniliviilualH  •>  wear  thelj 
hearts  upon  their  sleeves,  for  daws  to  |n'ck  at,"  The? 
ate  too  open  and  unau<|ieclinit,  and  olttm  all  Ktod  tost* 
and  propriety  are  lost  siKht  of  by  lliem,  in  the  ex.^^ 
ure  of  their  feeling  >l<M-iety  woubl  Im'  iiisu|ipnrtali|( 
were  there  no  seeretlveiieas.  There  is  an  uinuKJnK  fairy 
tale  ealli'd  Tht  I'nlnn  of  Tritlli,  desiKned  to  show  how 
truly  this  is  the  case.  Wo  may  consider  "eiTeliveiicK 
as  an  instinct  to  conceal  the  feeliiiirs  >t  tboin^ht*.  till 
reason  shows  it  to  lie  prudent  to  derbiro  them,  'Phii 
control  evidently  was  not  lell  to  reason  alone,  whosa 
jud'/inent  would  have  proved  too  slow  for  the  end  in. 
tended,  ('oncealment  ia  nxwu  to  aniniuls  to  enalile 
them  both  to  avoid  and  to  prey  upon  each  oiln>t.  Many 
rttiiiiKils  owe  their  safety  IVoni  Ihtir  deiitroyerH  to  tjifjf 
euiininij;  while  to  others  is  Riven  that  ipialily  to  atetl 
U(ion  their  prey  un|s'rceived ;  hiicIi  as  the  (ox,  the  rut, 
the  tiner,  Ac.  Mr.  William  Hcolt,  in  an  esnay  in  th( 
Phrriiiilnmnil  Ti'iiiiarliiiiit,  has  thrown  much  linht  on 
the  fniii'tions  of  this  organ.  The  s«'cretive,  he  reninrki 
are  always  occupied  with  pryiiii;  into  the  thdiinhts  and 
motives  of  others,  while  they  are  closely  veilinn  'brji 
own.  The  character  of  liouis  XL,  as  drawn  inf^irn'in 
/>M)ie'i)//,  is  of  the  "  calm  and  eratly"  desertplion;  he 
used  to  say,  that  if  his  cap  Knew  his  secrets,  lie  would 
throw  it  into  the  fire.  Much  are  the  intriniiinn  poliii. 
ciaiis  of  the  old,  and  yet  too  much  of  the  modern  school, 
who  mistake  cunning  for  wihibun. 

In  ibiii-e,  the  faculty  leads  to  lying,  hypocrisy,  and 
fraud.  When  acting  with  .\c(|iiisiliveness,  it  forms  the 
Ihiet",  cheat,  anil  swindler.  The  organ  is  almost  alwayi 
found  large  in  these  |H<rsoiia;  ami  they  have  been  known 
to  say  that  they  have  great  pleasure  in  the  secrelive  part 
of  their  profession.  All  iiiefn  and  stratagems  are  exe. 
cispsdf  sccrc>(ivrnes8.  The  faculty,  in  combination  witli 
the  I..'i ,  of  .\pprobution,  occasions  much  of  the  hypofri. 
tieal  insincerity  of  civilir.ed  society.  It  is,  iiceonling  to 
Mr.  Scott's  view,  the  bams  of  that  form  of  the  hidicroui 
called  humour,  namely,  concealing  the  mirth  which  i) 
in  one's  own  breast,  and  with  a  grave  countenance  and 
manner  setting  the  table  in  a  roar.  'I'lie  actor  must 
jmssess  the  organ  largely,  if  for  no  other  purpose  thnn 
to  preserve  his  gravity  while  bis  audience  is  luiiiThinir; 
but  still  more  to  conjure  down  his  natural  faciiliies,  that 
he  may  assume  those  of  the  character  he  plays.  Mr, 
Scott  allots  both  elVorta  to  Secretiveness ;  whilo  Mr. 
Combe,  with  more  truth,  limits  Secreliveiir--i  tn  the  con- 
cealment of  the  actor's  own  natural  feeliiign,  while  th« 
positive  ai't  of  imitating  those  of  his  I'lirt  must  be  the 
result  of  Imitation.  Accordingly,  in  all  great  actors  Ixith 
.S-ercliveiiess  and  Imitation  are  large.  Tn  such  an 
extent  is  Secretiveness  carried  in  the  practice  of  ninlin- 
'^riim:,  as  |iretending  sickness  is  called  in  the  nrmy  and 
navv,  that  im-rediblo  tortures  have  been  siilniiilted  to 
witlioi't  a  wince.  In  such  cases,  Firmness,  of  coutsa, 
aids  Secretiveness. 

We  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Richord  rarmichnel  of  DuN 
lin.  for  a  report  of  the  singular  case  of  .•^iop  Ross.* 
This  cirl,  to  gain  the  favour  and  charity  of  some  pioui 
ladies,  thrust  needles  into  ber  nrm  to  produce  disea^*, 
and  went  the  length  of  submitting  to  nniimtiitinn  with- 
out re\ealing  the  truth.  On  dissecting  of  the  arm,  the 
nceiHes  were  found,  a  circumsiaiice  which  appeared  li 
distress  her  much  more  than  the  loss  of  hei  .)tni,  M» 
Combe  saw  this  extraordinary  girl  in  Dublin,  at,.l  found 
both  Secretivenesa  and  Firmness  large  in  her  head.  He 
sup|>on<>s  that  the  power  of  enduring  torture,  wilhdul 
the  expre.ssir)n  of  pain,  which  is  the  '.)oa«t  of  the  North 
American  Indians,  is  the  result  of  these  two  facuhies, 
which  are  found  large  in  all  the  skulls  of  that  rare  il 
the  museum  of  the  Phrenological  Society  of  Edinbai|li 


■  fhrcnolof ical  Journal,  vol.  il  p.  M. 


PHRENOLOGY. 


Ofl 


rtif  Hindoo*  an  i>unnlnff,  und  K«>cr<«tlv«><"M  U  Itrne  in  '  howcYcr,  iin  tk)%\»e  of  the  fiictilty,  tnA  too  mnrh  tli«  v1p« 
ihrir  nkiilln.  in  thu  cfimi"  rnllcvlion,  ami  provfil  to  I*  no  of  riviliziition,  wiicn  it  ailvanTH,  in  It  hiu  hitherto  done, 
(M  I  murh  more  I'xtt'nuivn  nliiirrviitlon  in  In<li«.  Thr  '  without  iidi<(|iinto  iii(irnl  improvrment.  'l'hi«  al'lMi 
orftsn  i«  (ttilijivt  to  ilirM>n«e,  aiirl  the  running  innanfl  aro  withcri  tip  pvrry  ffcnrroim  piir])o«e,  pnrvprta  Ihc  li.ujilecl 
ilifllriilt  to  di'iil  with.  niMvinn  here  Irnilii  to  the  liriief  ilaelf,  und  \»  a  Knuid  nntioniil  rvil.  Thi^  I'ountry,  at  it* 
In  pli)li)  iiiid  oonKpirncii'ii  fornipd  riKninnt  tho  pa'ii'Mt,  an  prcupnt  n\ngt  of  prni(rrMii,  HiiiriT*  from  llila  ahuM  of 
(•niaTiiDn  "iili  thn  inoaiir.     'I'hr  munift'"liition  of  Serro-     Ari|ui«itivpneK*,       So,  at'rordiMK  to  Mr.   ('oinlx*,   di)«t 


livi'iioKK  oiiijht  to  Im  wiitchod  in  rdiioiition,  nnd  rpgn- 
|tti<l,  »Bd  Ihc  MMxim  iinprrmipil,  llmt  rtiiinin|{  i»  not 
wiwioni.  Tho  orgnn  i»  held  liy  phrrnulagiita  to  bo  eala- 
MiHlH'd. 

No.  f. — Ar(|(iititlTFnpii. 

'l  he  or^nn  of  thin  faculty  in  xituated  farther  forward 
tliaii,  nnd  a  little  ahove,  SecretivoneM,  at  thn  anterior- 
infiM'ior  iiu«le  of  the  parietal  bone.  The  exi"tenee  of  a 
fcrftiriil  ornan  for  the  ile«ire  of  property,  K'nrinif  a  pri> 
poiiiofi  ill  «i'-e  to  tho  ilcBri'O  of  that  denire,  deride*  the 
niitnlion  of  the  feeliiiij  lieinn  a  primitive  lunnint  power, 
inil  not,  ait  Hnteheaon,  Htewart,  and  U'uwn  have  held  it, 
ihcnalunil  result  of  raleulntion,  weulth  beinu  the  menna 
of  Krnlil'yinU  I'H  our  other  inelinntionM.  Man  feels  n«  an 
tnicuiil  liefiire  ho'reiuionK.  Lord  Kumea,  whom  the  r^ 
fiiliir  mel«phy»ieian»  of  hia  time  considered  aa  adinit- 
tinB;  t(Mi  many  facultiea,  taken,  by  annacioun  anticipation 
_Hi>  lie  did  when  ho  recoijniKed  a  huntini(  and  killinn 
propinsity  in  man,  phreiioloRicullv  DeatruclivenefM — 
thp  phrrnoloifical  view  of  .\c(nii<itivcnesa  na  primitive. 


America.'  When  accumulation  becomes  a  paaaion  in 
the  trailer,  there  is  no  end  to  it :  it  is  necessary  to  hia 
happiness,  and  hence  one  element  of  the  ennui  and  re- 
Ifret  of  tlie  retired  tnidesmun  or  merchant. 

Tho  faculty  li  often  diseased,  so  that  thoae  who  ara 
insane  in  this  orf^iui,  without  any  tem|>tation  arising 
from  their  circumstances,  which  are  olU-n  atsivo  want, 
and  even  prosiMToiis,  pilfer  every  thinif  of  value,  nnd 
often  of  no  value,  which  comes  in  their  way.  Many 
incorriuilile  thieves  in  lower  life,  on  whom  the  punish- 
ment* of  tho  law  fail  to  have  any  efTect,  are  diseased 
in  this  oritan.  Phrenology  is  daily  deinonstrutinK  that 
many  supposed  criminals  are  in  truth  piilienit ;  nnd  a 
more  enlinhtcned  and  tienevolent  system  of  criminal 
trenlmciit,  from  which  the  element  of  venncanee  shall 
be  excliiiled,  will  in  time  come  to  deal  with  them  a« 
such.  When  treiitinm  of  alimentivenesa,  we  mentioned 
the  cose  of  a  younot  nian,  the  son  of  a  man  of  fortune, 
who  was  subject  to  fits  of  virnnly  and  nleuling  limulta- 
neonsly  ;  the  following  is  an  account  of  his  caseu— "  An 
GnRlish  Rentlemiin,  ag;ed  nineteen,  and  his  tutor,  a  eler* 


mil  ciiiIh  it  "  the  hoarilini;  appelile."     This  theory  of  it    (tymaii,  requested  that  the  development  of  the  former 


aloiie  e\pliiin!<  tho  miser's  desire  to  accumulate,  without 
ever  piiliint;  his  wealth  to  the  use  reipiired  by  the  mela- 
nhynii'iaiis  above  nauieil,  the  purchase  of  enjoyment,  tho 
piltiliniti'in  of  the  other  fuculties.  Mr.  Comlio  illus- 
tnilen  this  blind  passion  for  wealth  by  alludinf^  to  tho 
chiinirter  ol  Trapbois  in  'I'lit  Fnrhintt  of  Smel.  The 
Yory  essence  ho  says,  of  this  ehoriicter,  which  is  true  to 
nnture,  is  a  denire  for  wealth,  'rjfpcndeiit  of  every  pur- 
pose of  application. 

Dr.  (JiiU  ilincowred  the  orjfan  by  resorting  to  what 
wu  a  common  practice  with  him,  collecting  a  number 


hIiouIiI  be  taken,  which  was  done  by  Mr.  Simpson,  and 
afterwards  confirmed  by  four  other  phrep.r,logi»ts.  Go- 
nernl  size  of  head,  considerable ;  nntcrior  lobe,  large ; 
temperimcnt,  two  parts  sanguine,  two  nervous,  and  one 
lvmph;itic.  Development  irregular  *nd  unusual.  (Hero 
follows  an  cHtimatP  of  the  organs,  of  which  it  ia  enough 
to  Hiiy,  that  .\mativeness,  Philoprogenilivejiess,  and 
Aci|ui«itiveiirss,  arc  large,  and  Self-esteem,  Benevo- 
lence, and  Veneration,  very  large — tho  two  last  unusu- 
ally MO.)  Ho  Jiad  been  rickety,  scrofulous,  and  unable 
to  walk  alono  until  hIx  years.    His  feelings  were  always. 


turnl  and  unregulated  ioHtincts.  He  found  that  some 
in  each  group  were  chnnicteriy.cd  by  the  rest  as  thieves, 
iiml  thcue  were  generiiUy  proud  to  avow  their  skill  in 
this  line.  Among  his  very  promiscuous  visiters  were 
loinolliat  nbhorrel  thefV,  and  others  who  were  iiidiffer- 
fnl  in  the  matter.  He  fouml  the  thieves  with  the  organ 
large,  those  who  alihorred  tlictl  with  it  small,  and  the 
raaiiuin  individuals  with  a  iiiciliiim  ilevclopmont.  Among 
the  ilraf  ai'.il  dumb  of  an  institution  which  he  ger\ed  aa 


of  persons  of  the  lower  orders  in  his  house,  and  en-    as  his  tutor  ex  pressed  it,  <  at  high  pressure.'  Knowing  that 
oonrii'»in'.»  them  to  the  fre«'st  manifestation  of  their  na-    the  impuls<'s  were  thus  strong,  Mr.  Simpson  considered 

the  ease  as  one  of  a  certain  degree  of  derangement.  He 
infcrreil  that  all  that  class  of  facnltiea,  called  the  Feel- 
ings, would  act  with  a  force  beyond  tho  control  of  the 
individual.  'I'hc  tutor  was  much  struck  with  the  quea- 
tion,  '  Does  your  pupil  aiipropriato  articles  that  do  not 
belong  to  him  V  And  the  answer  was  given  that  he 
had  been  forced  to  quit  a  great  public  educational  insti- 
tution for  detected  ihefl.  committed  both  in  shop*  and 
houses.  Mr.  S.  then  imiuired  respecting  vicioua  mani- 
piiysician,  he  found  some  who  showed  the  thieving  pro-  fpgtation  of  another  of  the  propensities,  and  received,  aa 
ponsity,  with  the  corresponding  organ.  Visiting,  a»  in  the  former  ca-se,  a  strikingly  affirmative  answer, 
he  iliil,  houses  of  correction  and  prisons,  he  found  the  .  Did  fits  of  rnriiri'y  in  food  ever  show  thoinselvea  V 
orgiin  always  large  in  thieves;  and  was  unfortunately  |  Jtnswrr.  The  three  vices  acted  simultaneously,  so  that 
led  to  call  it  the  organ  of  Theft,  thus  describing  not  the  tho  others  had  to  lie  watched  when  the  voracity  ap- 
primitive  function  or  legitimate  use  of  tho  ficolty,  but  !  peared.  Mr.  S.  then  observed  to  the  tutor  that  his  pu- 
onc  of  its  greatest  abuses,  and  raising  str.i'ig,"  miscon-  |  pil  was  a  patient,  not  a  criminal.  Yet,  wherever  he  had 
ceplions  with  resin-ct  to  his  system  of  mind.  i  turned,  he  had  seen  hostile  society,  and  oven  legal  ven- 

Tho  faculty  of  Acquisitiveness  could  not,  and  no  fa-  \  frpnnce;  tho  walls  of  the  late  place  of  his  study  were 
enlty  could,  be  given  to  man  by  his  ('reator  for  a  mean,  i  chalked  with  his  disgrace,  and  prosecution  threatened 
grnrclling,  and  immoral  use ;  accordingly,  when  we  by  tradesmen.  The  present  was  the  first  time  that  hit 
consider  it  aright,  we  recognise  in  it  the  dignity  of  the  i  tutor  had  heard  him  humanely  sheltered  as  an  irrespon- 
grcatest  utility.  In  a  word,  it  is  the  faculty  through  I  sible  being,  visited  with  diffnte  by  his  Maker's  hand. 
whose  imputso  man  aciMimulates  rnpilnl,  and  nations  !  The  organisation  of  the  young  man  indicated  great 
are  rendered  rich,  great,  and  powerful.     Without  the    kindness  of  heart,  which,  his  tutor  said,  was  manifested 


faculty,  man  would  be  content  to  satisfy  his  daily  wants, 
although  even  in  this  he  would  fail ;  but  the  surplus 
which,  under  the  impulse,  of  this  faculty,  he  contributes 
to  the  store  of  wealth  which  accumulates  from  genera- 
tion to  generation,  would  not  exist.  Under  proper  re- 
guhlion,  then,  tho  faculty  is  of  the  greatest  value  to 
man ;  by  mean>i  of  it  he  <•  gathers  up  the  fragments,  that 
nothing  may  be  lost."     Bxccisivo  pursuit  of  wealth  is, 


at  any  expense  of  personal  labour;  great  tenderness  to 
children ;  and,  what  was  most  to  his  tutor's  content, 
ardent  devotional  sentiments  and  active  religious  habitfl. 
Of  course,  all  who  knew  the  fatal  propensity  of  tfiefl  to 
which  the  young  man  was  subject,  set  his  religion  down 
to  gross  and  disgusting  hypocrisy.     Phrenology  teachea 

*  Sco  Notet  on  iho  United  States. 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PKOPI.K. 


that  aurh  rvliptfmi*  fi^rlinipi,  whrn  nirri'  ftvlititi',  ■>•  ('""Y 
trr  it  iinvliri>i-lril  liy  itili'llcrl,  itrr  ini|iiil«ra  •|iiili'  mi  rriit 
•H  llii<  iiri|iiJMilivo  |irii|N'iialty  il.4i'ir.  Kl,v>lit(  limii  pniMv 
ciilioii  ami  |M'rM'i-iiliiiii,  witliiiiil  mir  (Virii<lly  liiitul  lit'lil 
ou(  to  him,  hivi'  lltal  nf  lii*  kiriil-hi'iirliil  tiilcir  iiliii  u  lew 
liioim  |N<ra<mi  mIi»  priiycil  i>vi<i  liiiii  in  «niii,  llic  oiitciint 
uiiiirN  lit  hint,  nt  Ihi'  iliHiiitii'i'  of  liuinlrrilM  nC  iiiilm  Irnm 
niH  loiliiilili'n  liiiiiiK,  iiili)  I'liiiliict  Milli  llii<  ili>«-i|il)<n  III'  a 
Di'w  mill  iKniiriiMil.v-<li'>|>ivil  |iliili<Kii|iliy  nl'  iiiiiii,  liy 
wliiiin  liin  riiM*  in  at  iiiin<  iiiiilrialiuHl  niiil  i'>|iliiiiii'il, 
ami  a  iik'Hmo  iioiiitril  out  lor  Iiik  I'lirc,"  V\'i<  iiiuy  luUI, 
friiiii  our  own  kmivslcilKC,  tli:il,  nt  tlic  KiiKili'Kli<>ii  ot 
lliiiiw  who  liiiil  Jiiil(<r<l  III'  \\i»  I'nM',  till'  yixiiiK  iiiiiii  wiia 
hoiirilril  ill  lhi<  ciiuiilrv,  willi  ii  iiiiu'h  hirfffr  |Hriiiiiiiry 
allowHiiri'  thiin  lii*  nliilioiiK  at  liiHl  iiitriulril  I'nr  oiii' 
mIuiiii  tlipy  iKiioiuillly  lirlil  a  iliiKruri'  to  ihriii ;  tliilt 
he  ki'XiIiikII.V  rrciivcri'il  hit  hriillli,  wnn  r<  li'ii^nl  I'rniii 
hi*  liiul  liiiliitN,  Hiiil  i*  a){iuii  of  •miiiil  iniiiil  uiiil  cnrri'i't 
euiidiii't 

'I'lio  iN'riiMlirsI  rocnrrpnro  of  iliiM'niH<  in  Ari|uiHitivr> 
nmi  i«  a  I'lirioim  fm-t.  'I'lii-  yomii{  iiiiiii  jimt  iiIIihIivI  to 
wax  milijrrt  t»  mu'h  I'ltii,  ami  iiiiiiiy  nllirr  iimluiirrK  nw 
di  t  lili'il  ill  tho  workH  of  tlir  |ilirriiii|oKiKtM.  Dr.  liiill 
rilon  four  nih<'»  of  womi'ii,  who,  in  tlirlr  orilimiiy  utiilc, 
b.nl  no  *li-iiliiiK  ti'iitli'iiry,  hut  iimiiirrnU'il  it  in  ihc  imiHt 
niiirki'il,  mill,  to  Ihom-  urouiiil  thriii,  uiinrcountalilo  niiiii- 
DiT,  uhrn  in  n  Ntatc  of  |irpKiiiiiii'y :  tlir  hruiii  iit  ihiit 
(trgnii,  or  it*  iii'lL^hliinirhoo'l,  iiiiiHt  hiivo  Ix-t'ii  nulijii-Uil 
I.  •omo  Miorhiil  ovfriMcitiMiii'iit  iluriiiR  Ihc  pi'i'iiUar 
condition  of  thi"  ayitnn  which  prcRTiniicy  imiurcit. 

A  viiricty  of  the  inferior  aninnilH  iiiniiifcHt  the  «-n»c 
of  prii|><-rty,  and  aonic  of  Ihcni  of  ;iri'iiiiiiiliilion.  It  in  a 
niixtiikti  to  nay  thut  hiiniaii  law*  cxtiililiidi  |>ro|icrty  ;  n 
natural  propcnuily  docH  ihiH,  mid  liiux  Ik'cohic  nccc«.sury 
to  pt'otact  it.     The  or);iiii  in  pHlahliHhcil. 

No.  P.— ConitruclivaiiPK. 

The  mtualinn  of  thin  nrutim  in  iiiiincdiatcly  Wliliid  the 
l«mp!<Hi,  ill  the  frnntni  Ih)iic,  ithovu  the  Mplii'iuvtcinporiil 
•titurp.  It  in  HoiiictiincH  found  hii;hcr  up  Ihiin  ilo  iihuuI 
ptMition ;  hut  a  little  prncticc  faiiiili»riM-a  the  obscrvi  r 
with  ifH  ap|)riirniire.  Tho  temporal  iiiiihcIc,  which  varied 
in  thirknpwi,  throwii  «oiiio  ditlirulty  in  the  wny  of  aHrer- 
tainiuK  thin  ort^an  and  aUo  thut  of  AcipiiniiivencHit. 
Thin  thiekncM  can  be  frit  in  the  livinn  Buhject,  while 
iho  lowpr  jnw  Ih  moved,  nnd  ilM  ihiikncHs  may  be  iil- 
lowetl  for;  which  cannot  Iw  done  in  a  pliintcr  cunt  The 
dilFiculty  in  removed  when  the  ciint  in  tnkcn.  not  from 
tho  head  with  the  inteftiiinrntM,  hut  from  the  xkull.  The 
faculty  of  which  thin  oru.in  in  the  inHtriinient,  in  the 
power  of  inechnnically  nrnkinif,  coiiHlrur'ini:,  ar.d  fiinh- 
ioiiinit,  by  cbanxiiiK  the  form»  of  mnlt4'r.  MniiV  of  the 
inferior  aninmli  |>oiwcm  it,  a*  the  bie,  the  iH-avcr.  Mrdn, 
•lid  inNccts,  Home  uviti;eii  have  it  in  «uoh  Hiiiall  en- 
dowinentii  ax  never  to  have  built  hutM  or  made  clotheH, 
or  even  the  nimplcKt  iniitrumcntn  for  calchini;  Ithh.  8uch 
•re  the  New  Ilollmiderii,  in  whom  the  organ  apiieara 
rery  ulightly  develojied.  l)r».  (Jail  ami  li^purzheim  veri- 
fied thin  orf^un  by  a  \mX  number  of  imitanct'H — in  me- 
ehiniciani,  architect'),  denimieri),  gculptnri),  and  even 
painteri.  Indeed,  the  concomitance  in  no  conHlant  aa 
lo  lie  a  t«'rt  of  tlie  fitncns  of  iiidividuaU  to  lie  devoted  to 
thoKc  branchoH  of  art  It  ia  eiuiily  obwrved,  and  the 
tiudent  may  verify  it  f.u  hiiiidclf  In  the  ciiHtii  of  the 
Drads  of  the  celebrated  liriinell,  tnr  inventor  of  the 
>l  '.rU.machiiiery  and  eiurine  work  of  the  'J'haines  tunnel, 
8ii  W.  Her*  hell,  the  piiinters  Hiiydon,  Wilkie,  and 
Willii'iiB,  it  in  remarkably  lar'.;e.  In  all  o|i<^rativea  who 
•xcel  in  their  art — enirravers,  j-iiners,  tailorn,  <Vc. — 
»nd  in  c'xildren  who  early  manili'st  a  turn  for  drawinn 
C}nniv.n,  a/id  ruttini^  them  out  in  pafx'r,  the  ori^^an  Im 
larire.  Naturally  the  French,  and  atill  more  the  IlaliiuiM, 
are  more  comitrucTive  than  the  Kni^linh ;  yet,  with  the 
•id  of  capitelf  the  divition  of  Ubour,  and  other  favourablo 


circumalami'ii,  the  Knullnh  actuati)  »ri  Ih*  (r»ala# 
maniifiielurMiK,  in  otlier  wonU,  connlriiilive,  |MopU.  ig 
the  ivorld.  Were  thene  nilvuiitnKi'ii  liHimleried  lo  I'runeg 
and  lliily,  n  Kri'iiti'r  pri'tiileme  ol  ijir  laiiiliy  wmilil  iimk* 
it  more  euiiy  to  priK'iire  nkdliil  IuiimU.  The  tiii'tii|i|iv,|. 
cimm  ilo  not  reeoKiiiwi  a  priiiiili\e  luciilly  for  ('oii<i,ue. 
tivi'iiemi,  but  ciiiiaidir  iiierhaiiii'iil  nklll  lo  be  ilm  ir,„|| 
of  rennon,  Thia  iit  an  error,  wliirli  llie  uliKhlmt  iiliii,.r. 
viilioii  eoiilniilii  Ik.  Were  it  true,  the  immt  miKiii'mui 
aniniiiU  would  l>e  the  nioM  eonntriielivr  ;  yet  the  hm^ 
Ibe  doK,  Ihe  e!e|ibaiil,  m'\er  coiiHlriiil  ;  while  the  1,,.^ 
the  beuMT,  and  nianv  liinU  and  iiiHrctM,  |i«Tf>iiii  Wmkit 
by  ihit  iii«linel,  wliirh  excite  our  woiidrr.  Vert  ;.  una 
cliildrrn,  loiiK  Ih  fore  reamin  could  iiHxixt  ihem,  Khm'  nm. 
iilleitted  prolb'ieiicy  in  iiihhiiik  tnodelii,  ilrawin^,  i'iiiii||,> 
with  Hi'luHiirii,  Ac;  and  a  talent  for  iiircbanu'ii,  M)rn 
amoiiniiii^  to  a  paNxion,  turniiiK.  cbH'k-niakiii)(,  l\,\, 
muklni;,  Imih  been  foiiml  in  jiidue*,  maleHiiien.  linMeii, 
and  even  priiueH.  Thin  talent  in  oDeii  poHneHneil  in  g 
hiith  di'itree  by  men  of  >ery  imxlerate  and  even  inti  rior 
relleclive  powern;  while  unine  men  of  a  ureal  iiililjie. 
Iliiil  Htiinihird  have  been  nimble  to  make  a  |ieii.  The 
priiiiilive  e!,r.Mcli  r  of  Ibe  rneiilly  in  proved  by  Ihe  pimn 
iH'iliit  oib'ii  no  murh  iiiireaned  by  iiinanily,  an  to  Rpiirin 
to  be  irealed  by  it.  Iilioln  are  ol\i  ii  nkilfiil  eon'^lruclnri, 
witnenn  many  of  Ihe  Crelinn  of  the  .\l|in.  Inlilleii  |« 
however,  important  lo  Ihe  ranite,  variety,  and  iippjira. 
lion  of  hiinian  Connlructiveiienn ;  while  the  Cniintriio 
tiveiicNs  of  the  inferior  animali)  ih  limited  to  one  iiivjij. 
able  reniill. 

The  une  of  tiiin  faculty  in  obvioua.  I'hyiiical  linUir* 
conni.'itM  of  raw  malt  rial,  in  nearcely  any  iiistiinrj 
titled  for  the  convenience  ^inil  aeciuiimodalion  of  man 
('onBtruelivenenn  proinpin  him  to  form  and  funbion ;  imd 
he  ciiiiliniien  lo  tin  no.  adxancinn — which  Ihe  iiiferiei 
animaU  never  doi^from  bnildim;  the  rude  wiuwniii  anj 
making  the  nlone  hntchet,  up  lo  achievini;  Ihe  piilu'c, 
the  Hteain-eiii;lne,  nnd  Ihe  cottoii-Hpinniiif);  niaililng, 
Man  wan  held  by  Kraiiklin  to  be  the  only  lool-nmkiiiir 
animal ;  unlike  the  other  nnimalH,  he  coiintruilH  mhIh  io 
apply  to  further  objecln  of  conKlriiiiion,  Mr.  Hiclmrd 
HilmonHon,  of  MaiieheNter.  in  an  iimenioiiN  paper  in  the 
l'hrtiiiii>]itnil  Jiiiiriiiil  (vol.  ix.  p.  fiSI),  wliih-  he  niliniu 
tiiin  orunn  to  be  that  of  the  iinpulhc  nnd  power  lo  con. 
utrui't,  form,  and  I'anhion,  Huiru'eHtH  that,  innnmueh  ns  \v« 
cannot  connlruel,  form,  ami  fanhion,  without  a  nice  per- 
ceplion  of  Ihe  application  of  the  reiiuinile  force,  it  ii 
therefore  the  orifiin  of  Ihe  faiiilly,  which  munt  enint.  for 
the  npfilientioii  of  force  in  counh-raclion  of  meih:iniial 
reninlunce.  He  citen  many  casen  in  coiil'trniation  of  llijj 
view.  If  he  be  correct.  Ihe  fiiiiclinn  of  llie  ficully  mint 
be  nmch  etiended,  for  all  niiiinaln  ajiply  force  to  nnta- 
i;oiii/.«  reninliince  in  miniy  wnvR,  without  eilliir  con. 
Htrui'linir  or  fanhioniiu;.  V\'o  ohall,  in  Ihe  hei|iii'l,  ti« 
brouuht  hack  to  ibia  subject.  The  organ  of  L'oiislruc- 
tiveiiCRg  in  eatablinhed. 


OEM'S  Il.-SKNTlMrNTS, 

Mr.  Combe  introduces  this  branch  of  the  gubjoct 
thuH  : — "  This  (fciuin  of  farulliea  embraces  certain  Ircl. 
inns  which  correspond  to  the  '  emotions'  of  the  iiirla- 
phynicittiis.  They  dirt'er  from  intellectual  perceptinn  In 
beiiitf  uccoMipanicd  with  a  peculiar  vividnenn,  xvhn.h 
every  one  iiiiderslandn,  but  wliirh  it  is  impossible  to  ei> 
press  by  any  verbul  deliniiion.  Tliey  may  be  excited  iiy 
Ihe  presentment  ol  the  external  objects  n  iiurally  relaled 
to  them,  as  danger  is  lo  lear,  or  august  appe  uaiicri  to 
rcveri-nce,  or  by  the  spontaiieoua  activity  of  the  orsaiiii. 
Dr.  Spumheim  has  named  these  faculties  Srnlnr.eulf, 
lH'caus<>  they  (iriHliice  an  emotion  or  fpelinif  of  a  certain 
kind,  joined  with  a  propensity  to  act ;  but,  as  hhowii  in 
the  Appendix  No.  II.,  the  detail  of  his  cluiibificalion  i* 


PHRKNOI.OOY 


MS 


J.  ling 
hnvf  ii„i. 


thi-  milijpct 

>r  till'  III!  Ia> 
('rcr[iiiiiii  in 

llc'ss,  wtilih 
'rtsiiilc  Id  CI. 

(•\c:ii'ii  hy 

iriilly  rrlaU'J 

II  uaiici'S  to 

llu>  orKaiin. 

ol  a  ri'rtain 
as  hliiiwii  io 
ibification  U 


|i«rt  hy  no  nmna  Rrnmto.  Bcrrnil  nf  thrm  aro  rommnn 
In  ni<n  anil  thr  Idwit  aiiinmU ;  nilirnt  nrn  |)ri'iilirir  to 
Biiin.  Ttio  former,  ulylrd  llin  Itit'crior  iir  I,owi>r  Heiitl- 
mrnU,  •liitll  l>n  Hrnt  Ircatcil  of."  Thn  ari(iiinrnt  r«< 
kirnl  to  l>y  Mr.  ('omiw  in  lii^  npiwinlix,  U  an  aliriili;- 
mmt  of  an  innmioiia  pnix-r  l>y  Mr.  F{oh<>rt  ('oi,  in  tlio 
]'hrf<i"l"i:t'iil  J'uriinl  (vol.  %,  p.  \M),  in  wliirh  hn  rn- 
ilc-nrimm  Io  uliow  timt,  on  thn  onr  linrirl,  mn'mil  of  tim 
nr«|H'ti«tti('i>  uri>  nrc'iiiMpiiiiii'ij  liy  rtnotionK  n.i  wril  nx  in- 
diiiiiticiii*  I  ic't,  iinil,  on  till'  oilier,  acvinil  of  ilii>  aciiii. 
nii'iil"  have  likrwUc  liolli  (piiiliili'ii.  \Vp  an-  im'linrd  to 
({I)  fnrllior  rvrn  llmii  Mr.  Cox,  ntwl  to  Miiliiiiit  for  llu« 
(•nti«iilc'riilioii  of  pliri«nolou;iMtH,  uhi'llicr  nil  llii'  fiii'iiltii'H, 
tint  oxiTptinn  till'  iiitrllc  ituul,  h;>vi'  not  Iiolh  ii  propon- 
fiitv  Io  iii't  itiiil  an  riiiolion.  At  picwnl.  Iiowpvit,  wn 
«ll!  not  {|ip<(iir)i  the  old  iirriiri|(<'iiii-nt,  'I'lii'  ri-iicliT  will 
itiil:;^  for  liiiiiHi'll'.  Min'h  ii  )ot  to  lio  donu  in  tliu  niv- 
liiiihy«ii'al  iloparliMiMit  of  tin-  Hiilijirl. 

I.  ilNTIMINTS  COMMON   TO   MAN  AND  THE   LOWER 
ANIMAL*. 

No,  10— Siif-K.UFm. 
The  sitiinlion  of  tliia  ori^nn  \»  nt  tlic  topnf  Ihr  Imrk  of 
the  head,  nt  iho  rrntri';  foriiiitu,  hh  it  wero,  iIik  riirvo  or 
lurn  bclwrrii  tho  tiaok  and  topof  llio  linid.  'IVcliiiically, 
It  In  a  lillli"  iiliovo  till*  piwtrrior  or  mujin.d  iiimlii  of  tho 
niripini  honra.  When  it  ia  lartfo,  the  head  riHea  fur  up- 
wiiril  and  Imi'kward  from  Iho  ear,  in  l!ii>  ilirerlion  of  thn 
owin.  [t  i*  larffo  in  fii(.  1.1  anil  Hniall  in  liif.  H.  Dr. 
({ill!  llfHt  olMervrd  thn  uri{aii  in  the  head  of  a  tircRnr. 
Thi*  niiin  had  upeiit  a  fortune,  imd  wm  loo  proud  to 
laliour  for  hii»  hread.  Dr.  (iail  loiin  (leHitiiled  to  beliovn 
that  pride  roiild  aloop  to  lH>i;i{iii^;  but  the  individual 
positively  averred  that  Ilia  wMi^e  of  depradiition  in  conde- 
leeiidinn  to  lahoiir  wna  niueh  Kreuter  tli:m  in  lieijHiui? 
mil  livinn  in  idlenena.  Tho  organ  was  noted  by  Dr. 
OhII,  and  found  by  him  lari^e  in  a  Rti-nt  nuniber  of  proud 
men.  lie  eilon  many  inHtanrea  of  tliia  eoneomitanop  of 
virgan  and  inunifeHlation.     A  phyaieiaii  of  Vienna,  when 


Pip,  IT  Fi|f,  14. 

called  to  ronaultutiona,  always  put  liirnHelf  before  even 
hilt  seniors,  and  insiHted  on  placing  bin  Hi^nature  first  on 
ill  ()ecu,<ions.  At  HeiilelU-rif,  Ur,  Oall  saw  a  pirl  of 
fiuhtcen,  who  could  not  bear  a  word  of  familiarity. 
When  she  apoke,  asHunmcc  and  preiiuniption  wi're  ex- 
pri'sned  in  her  features.  She  rarried  her  head  liiub  and 
I  little  bnckwarda,  and  all  her  movetnenls  oxpreKst'd 
pride.  .Mlbouuli  of  bninble  rank,  Hho  contrived  to  aiwo- 
ciato  only  with  iKTSons  of  rank  «ui)erior  to  ber  own.  Dr. 
Gnll  found  the  orjtun  larjje  in  cliiefK  of  briiMi-ds,  whose 
pride  was  a  main  cauno  of  llieir  bad  einiiicnce.  'I'be 
loi,'ilini.ite  use  of  the  faculty  of  i^elf-EHteem,  or  Self-Love, 
ia  that  degree  of  sclf-eoinplaceney  which  eiiliaiii-cs  the 
pleasures  of  life,  and  which  gives  the  individual  coiifi- 
ilenre  in  his  own  powers,  and  leads  him  to  apply  them  to 
the  best  advantage.  It  is  sometimes  called  pro|x'r  pride, 
or  sell-respect,  in  which  form  it  aids  the  moral  sentiments 
In  rc'-istiiig  temptations  to  vice  and  self-degradation :  this 
ia  culled  being  iilioie  doitif;  a  criminal,  a  vicious,  or  a 
mean  action.  Its  deficiency  renders  an  individual  too 
bumble,  anl  the  world  take  him  at  his  word,  and  push 


him  anldp.  In  larjje  and  nnrontrolird  »ndf,  wment,  it 
priHliiees  ureal  iiliuscs,  and  enn"e«  much  annoyaiii'p  niui 
often  misery  lo  others.  It  i«  th«  ipinrr«lliii((.  InaullliiK,  do> 
mineering  tymiinl/iiig,  dm  Ming  faculty,  In  children  It  it 
IN'ttishneNi,  forwardness,  and  irlf-will,  and  produera  dis- 
obi'ilieih  p.  In  ailulta,  it  givea  arrogancp,  aupercilioiianraa, 
ami  Hi'lllsbnoH.  In  nalinna,  llip  feeling  allows  il^lf  in 
nalinual  pride  mid  boanling.  It  eharacleri7,<'s  nrurly  nil, 
il  111)1  all  tiiiliiiiia,  every  one  eoncludiini  itsidf  Ihn  mi'st 
merllorxiiis,  if  not  the  greatest  |wople  on  earth.  'I'llis 
produces  cot|templ  of  oiber  nations,  and  leads  lo  inlerna< 
tional  jeatonsiea  and  tmlreds,  the  origin  of  almost  nil  tha 
wars  thai  have  disgraced  and  deaolnted  the  world.  It  i* 
not  long  siiire,  ill  I'wi' laud.  Ihp  young  were  trained  up  lo 
call  lb"  French  jicople  their '•  natural  enemies!"  The 
(irceka  mid  Womnns  Hivled  all  other  natiom  bnrbarinlia, 
and  the  Cliinesp  di«  the  same  at  this  day.  The  vain- 
glorious  records  and  nnniveraariea  of  our  battles,  Ihr  vX- 
iillaliona  bccans<<  of  our  martini  prowess,  our  ilhiuiinalions, 
and  <iur  very  7V  Ikvniii,  are  nil  tho  otrs|iring  of  Welf' 
Ksleern.  It  m-cupies  the  individiiul  ao  inleiisrly  with 
self,  that  he  is  insensible  to  all  interests  but  his  own ; 
every  thing  is  aren  by  him  through  the  medium  of  self. 
The  first  thought,  when  a  proposal  is  made,  is,  ••  How 
will  this  nlFecl  ;//(  '"  l.ove  of  Appiobniion  is  oOcn  useful 
by  subjecting  the  individual  lo  some  degree  of  de|N'nd> 
ence  on  'he  opinion  of  others,  to  nKslerale  the  iiilensifj, 
the  exclusiveneHS,  of  Sclf-KHleem.  Without  this  counter- 
poise, the  self-eNtecmiiig  person  beeoiiios  a  sclf-erecfed 
nt.'iiidard  of  opinions,  manners,  ami  morals.  It  has  N'cn 
oIk,  rved,  that  proud  men  ollen  merry  beneath  their 
rank;  less,  we  think,  becniiso  they  do  not  like  to  rifk 
the  mortificulion  of  refusal  in  their  own  ronk,  fo» 
they  do  not  think  it  possible,  but  that  they  do  not 
conceive  that  any  thing  which  they  may  please  to  do  rnn 
be  ilei!radiiig.  These  are  your  solemn  me  -our  "  Mr 
Onieles."  who,  mi'taking,  as  they  often  uo,  the  mcrs 
blind  feeling  of  self-exallation  for  tnlent  and  genius, 
speak  forth  the  niprest  twaddle  with  a  solemn  pniphi\,si» 
extremely  ludicrous  to  tboso  who  see  its  iiolhingncs,^. 
Hut  every  thing  that  comes  from  a  person  of  such  self- 
importance  »m«/  tie  admirable.  Accompanying  this  hifih 
ap[ireciation  of  self,  we  genprnlly  find  depreciutinn  of 
others.  This  is  the  basis  of  Rpiisoriousness  and  invi- 
dionsiiess.  Discussions  of  chnractcr,  with  vilifying  re- 
marks, come  from  a  large  Self-Esteem  and  that  want  of 
candour  and  fairness  which  ia  tho  result  of  an  inferior 
endinvmeiil  of  Conscientiousiirss.  Envy,  which  include* 
butred,  is  hilt-Eateem  rousing  Deatruetiveness ;  with  de- 
ficient Henerdi  nee  and  (\)nscientiousnesB,  the  envioiii 
could  injure  a  forliin  itc  individual  mrrely  liccnusc  of  hi* 
better  fortune.  It  is  n  nKHlifieation  of  invidiousnesa, 
nltliough  directed  neninst  tliinij;-  mid  not  persons,  to  nfTrct 
to  undervalue  every  thing  one  sees-  in  other  words,  nevei 
seem  pleased — in  order  to  reap  from  this  petty  exhibition 
a  fiincied  cnnseipience,  extremely  gratifying  to  a  largo 
nnd  nclivo  Hclf-Estccin.  This  charni'tcr  is  satirized  by 
Voltaire,  who  makes  Candido  naively  exclaim,  "  What  » 
great  man  that  Pococurante  must  he — nothing  can  pleaan 
him."  Never  let  the  truth  lie  forgotten,  that  the  abuse* 
of  Sen'-Ksteem,  and  also  of  Love  of  Approbation,  inva- 
riably detent  their  own  end  ;  they  lower,  but  never  exalt, 
the  individual.  The  feeling  magnifies  not  only  self,  but 
nil  that  belciiigs  to  self.  \  vulgar  Self-Esteem  prompts 
the  individual  to  dilate  upon  the  excellence  of  "niy  horse, 
my  gun,  «iy  yacht,  i«y  house,"  merely  liocause  they  are 
his.  Mr.  (-'oiiiIm'  states,  that  an  eminent  phrenolouiat 
sailed  passenger  with  a  captain  in  wbost^  head  he  saw 
the  organ  very  large,  and  KeHection  nnd  (/onscientiou* 
iiess  deficient.  His  manifestations  were  in  accordanc. 
His  ship,  which  he  thought  .i  vpry  ordinary  vessel  befor* 
it  was  his,  '•  became  llio  first  of  Sea-boats"  when  it  b©- 
c.ime  llii:.  He  himself  was  the  nio,st  powerful  of  captain* 
dictatoriidly  telling  his  passengeri  that  he  would  send  theni 
2a3 


;  ^ 


m* 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


befar*  the  mast,  and  speaking  always  of  himself.  The 
phrenologist  observing  that  the  organ  of  Cautiousness  was 
large  iu  a  petty  tyrant,  dexterously  used  it  as  a  counter- 
working engine,  and  in  his  turn  ruled  the  ruler.  A  large 
Kelf-Esteeni  renders  its  possessors  what  is  called  touchy — 
impatient  of  reproof,  and  irritated  by  it,  however  just,  as 
if  it  were  a  positive  injury.  The  cmise  of  reproof  in 
misconduct  of  their  own,  however  marked  to  every  one 
else,  goes  for  nothing  with,  or  rather  is  never  admitted  by, 
ihrinsolvcs.  They  are  of  course  never  in  the  wrong,  l}ial 
fc  impossible ;  and  however  they  may  have  by  some  act 
injured  others,  to  be  even  told  that  they  have,  is  an  injury 
which  they  deeply  resent.  They  are  always  themselves 
in  such  cases  the  injured  party.  A  loud  and  clamo- 
rous announcement  of  this  is  sometimes  resorted  to  by 
(he  secretive  and  unconscientious,  in  order  to  avert  the 
legitimate  resentment  of  the  really  injured  party.  Yet 
■8  Self-Esteem  is  almost  in  every  one  a  strong  and  also 
•  tende>  feeling,  it  ought  to  be  one  of  our  curliest,  longest- 
continued,  and  most  earnestly-pressed  exercises,  to  mo- 
derate its  manifestations  in  ourselves,  and  treat  it  tenderly 
in  others.  The  greater  part  of  real  politeness,  and  of  its 
external  manner,  consists  of  an  etl'ort  to  rciUice,  out- 
wardly at  least,  our  own  self-estimation  and  our  general 
•elflshness,  and  pay  homage  to,  or  treat  delicately,  these 
feelings  in  others.  In  lo.v  society,  the  rudeness  and 
coarseness  which  work  the  most  annoyance,  are  no- 
thing else  but  un  unrei-ulaled  contest  of  the  s<;lf-esteeni 
'Of  the  individuals  for  temporary  aseendetiey  ;  and  to  tliis 
iray  be  traced  the  quarrels  and  blows  with  which,  in  that 
•ociety,  even  convivial  meetings  are  often  disligiired.  Yet 
the  rciined  visiters  of  the  drawiiig-rooiii,  and  the  brawlers 
in  the  pot-house,  are  the  same  Ivings ;  only  the  one  class 
restrain,  while  the  other  gives  free  vent  to,  Self-Esteem, 
•nd  yet  lower  propensities.  Intoxication,  in  some  indi- 
*iduals,  increases  tlie  acli>  ity  of  Sell-Esteem.  This  was 
ludicrously  experienced  li)  a  jwrson  who,  when  negotiat- 
ing for  the  purchase  of  a  horse,  thought,  by  giving  liijuor 
to  ita  owner,  to  lind  hin^more  easily  dealt  with  in  his  ine- 
briety. He  succeeded  only  in  rendering  him  utterly 
eil  practicable.  }IU  horse  rose  above  all  price,  and  he 
resented  as  an  insult  the  very  propos.d  of  the  dtlier  to 
buy  it.  The  self-esteeming  individual  uses  the  capital  /, 
with  lut,  mine,  myself,  and  other  correlatives,  with  great 
emphasis  and  abundance,  both  in  discourse  and  writing. 
There  is  a  joke  against  an  author  of  this  stamp,  that, 
during  the  printing  of  a  work  of  his,  the  prr^s  was  Kto|>- 
ped  till  the  printer  could  get  a  fresh  stock  of  capital  I's. 
Cohbett  was  an  example ;  his  Seli-EHteem  and  Coniba- 
tiveness  led  him  to  dogmatize  ijuite  as  conlidently  ct-ciy 
time — and  the  times  were  many — that  he  chanijed  his 
opinions,  as  he  had  doae  before  the  change.  All  patro- 
nizers  are  self-esteeming  and  benevolent  men.  You  will 
know  them  by  such  modes  of  address  as  "My  goo<l  sir" — 
•"  My  good  fellow" — '  Mark  vuj  words" — ••  That's  my 
maxim,"  &c.  Mr.  Scott  contributed  an  amusing  pa|ier  to 
the  Phieiwloiiical  Journal  (vol.  i.  p.  U78),  of  great  value, 
in  wltit'.!  he  shows  the  effects  of  Self-Esteem  in  combina- 
tion with  various  otlier  faculties.  A  win//  endowment 
of  this  faculty  is  exceedingly  rare.  A  large  emlowment 
leads  tu  a  wish  for  selfish  and  exclusive  pleasure.  This 
feeling  will  be  obwrved  in  children  who  value  some  in- 
dulgence the  more  that  their  brothers  and  sisters  arc 
not  to  share  in  it.  l'ro|H'r  training  would  [ireviiit  this 
paltry  and  most  unaniiable  in;iiill'ostation ;  and  likrwise 
lead  perhaps  to  less  of  that  minlification  of  belfi»hness 
seen  in  adults  in  the  ainbitiou  of  possesiung  uni.iun. 
Suili  [M-rsoiis  have  been  known  to  i)uriliase  a  duplicate, 
if  tliey  heard  of  the  existence  of  one,  in  order  to  destroy 
it,  and  then  boast  f  Ix.'ing  tlic  sole  poss<'ss<ir  of  the 
•rtiile  in  the  world  Parks  and  puhncs  are  kept  shut 
■gainst  the  public  by  the  same  pititiil  spirit.  Self- 
Esteem  gives  love  of  power  and  dislike  of  power  in 
Mbera      Hencu    the   uuturiuiw   fact,  that   many  violent 


republicans  have  become,  when  vested  with  power,  tb« 
greatest  tyrants.  A  duo  proportion  of  the  feeling,  now. 
ever,  is  essential  to  independence  in  a  people,  The 
English  have  it  large.* 

Self-Esteem  has  a  marked  natural  language.  When 
powerful,  the  head  is  curried  high,  and  reclining  hack- 
wards,  an  attitude  well  known  to  stage  kings  and  brdi. 
The  manner  is  cold,  haughty,  and  repulsive;  niid  two 
self-esteeming  persons  meeting,  repel  each  other  like  the 
similar  poles  of  magnets.  Dr.  Keid  and  Mr.  Stewart 
acknowledge  this  sentiment,  under  the  name  of  the  De- 
sire of  Power.  Dr.  Thomas  Brown  calls  it  Pride.  It  ii 
evident  that  these  are  narrow  and  partial  views  of  the 
feeling — one  or  two  only  of  its  manifestations,  phreno- 
logy alone  has  brought  out  all  its  phases.  The  trgan 
and  feeling  are  apjiarently  possessed  by  some  of  the  infe. 
rior  animals,  such  as  the  turkey-cock,  pea-cock,  horse,  Ac, 
Lord  Kames  observed  that  the  "  master-ox"  must  have 
the  lend,  else  he  will  not  work.  A  cow  of  a  herd  re 
fused  to  enter  the  cowhonse,  if  the  others  went  in  first' 
when  this  happened,  they  were  turned  out,  and  she  then 
walked  in  and  o(Tn[)ied  her  stall. 

Self-Esteem  is  found  insane  perhaps  more  than  any 
other  faculty,  and  then  shows  itself  in  extravii;;ant  no- 
lions  of  self-importance.  Such  maniacs  are  kinjjs,  einpe- 
rors,  and  even  the  Supreme  Being.  Piiiel  iiiontioiis 
many  such  patients:  one  man  under  his  care  lieliovcj 
himself  to  he  the  Prophi't  Mahomet,  and  moved  about 
with  the  most  dignified  majesty.  When  Ciinnons  fired, 
he  believed  it  was  on  his  own  account.  In  the  great 
Hospital  of  St.  (jcorge's  Fieldr,,  there  were  at  one  anil 
the  same  time  several  Gcm-fie  llie  Fvmihs.  The  organ  ia 
generally  larger  in  men  than  in  women ;  and  more  men 
are  insane  from  pride  than  women. 

We  cannot  conclude  our  observations  on  this  faculty, 
without  adding  that  it  is  usually  an  element  in  re!ii;iou« 
intolerance.  Cowper  in  one  of  his  letters  says,  "There 
is  no  grace  which  the  sjiirit  of  self  can  counterfeit  with 
more  success  than  a  religious  zeal.  A  man  thinks  he  ia 
fighting  for  (^'lirist,  while  he  is  only  fighting  for  his  own 
notions.  He  thinks  that  he  is  skilfully  searching  the  hearts 
of  others,  when  he  is  only  gratifying  the  maliijiiity  of  his 
own ;  and  charitably  siipiioses  his  hearers  destitule  of  all 
grace,  that  he  may  shine  the  more  in  his  own  eyes  by 
C()in|)arison.  When  he  has  perlbimed  this  notal.li'  task, 
he  wonders  that  they  are  not  converted  :  he  has  i;i\cii  it 
them  soundly ;  and  if  they  do  not  tremble,  and  conlcss 
tliat  (Jod  is  in  him  of  a  truth,  he  gives  them  up  us  repro- 
bates, inrorrigilile,  and  lost  tor  ever."  This  is  a  mirror 
for  too  many.  The  organ  is  established. 
No.  11. — Ih>vo  of  Approljtt'ion. 

This  organ  is  situated  on  each  side  close  to  Self- 
Est<'em,  and  commences  about  half  an  inch  from  the 
lambdoidal  suture.  It  gives,  when  large,  a  maikcd  full- 
ness to  the  upper  part  of  the  back  of  the  head.  It  mn. 
not  be  shown  in  outline  like  the  previous  organ  of  Sill- 
Esteem,  which,  when  large,  with  Love  of  .-\pprobation 
moderate,  gives  a  conical  shape  to  the  top  of  the  back  of 
the  head.  Dr.  (iall  discovered  the  organ  in  an  insnne 
woman,  who  imagined  herself  Queen  of  Frame.  He 
looked  for  the  organ  of  Self-Esteem,  of  course,  and  wiis 
much  iHTpb'Xfd  to  find  a  hollow  where  its  proniiiiiiice 
should  have  Ihm-ii,  but,  at  the  same  time,  a  marked  ritiii;; 
on  both  sides  of  the  holl.iw.  'J  hi  ijumi's  manilcslutionj 
soon  explained  to  him  the  diiriculty.  There  was  no  culm, 
grave,  arrouunt.  iniperiousiiess  in  her,  as  in  the  king:i  und 
queens  of  Sell-E»teein.  She  was  resllessK  vim  of  lur 
rank ;  talked  of  it  in  the  most  frivolous  and  afii'ctcd  way; 

•ll  iliii»  liiippens  llial  Seli'-I!sifiMn  it  ilie  nmiirnl  di'lenr* 
iiirtiMist  the  aui(rrsiivf  orMTiiItui)  ol*  tlie  name  tiiciilty  in  oUkti. 
A  prtipt!r  ftidowrnfiit  of  it  tirvt-r  acis  ftii  the  odttisivis  hui  it 
ran  I'f  rtni!»c(l  Id  rt|'i'l  inid  spurn  ii!l  siieti  iic-tf  in  (MherB. 
'I'lifse  dt  t:rt*es.  tiiereftire.  Bceni  to  eiitl  Inr  u  tl:«t  iirt  on  tuMwi-Ptl 
mi  iitfritMrr  uiid  ilr/iimift  Selt'TiitM  in.  Phreiiulogy  uloiiu  ullurdi 
a  key  to  character  thus  di<ciiiiiiiiuung 


PHRENOLOGY. 


9M 


0i  |iromi«d  favonw  and  honours  to  all  with  whom  she  ' 
eunveriied.     She  waa  a  vain,  not  a  proud,  queen.     From 
imt  time.  Dr.  Gail  perceived  the  dilFerence  between  Self- 
Pdtoom  and  Love  of  Approbation.     "  The  firoud  man,"  ^ 
■ays  he, "  is  imbued  with  a  sentiment  of  his  own  superior  i 
merit,  and,  from  the  summit  of  his  grandour,  treats  with 
contempt  or  indifTcrence  all  other  mortals.   Thevnin  man  , 
attaches  the  utmost  importance  to  the  opinions  ciitcrtitined  ' 
of  him  by  others,  and  seeks  with  eagerness  to  gain  ilieir  i 
tpprobatioii.     The  jmiuil  man  expects  that  mankind  will  I 
come  to  him  and  acknowledge  his  merits ;  the  iiit.i  man  j 
knocks  at  evi'ry  donr  to  draw  attention  towards  him,  and  j 
iupplicntos   for   the  smallest  portion  of  honour.     The  } 
prmd  man  despises  these  marks  of  distinction,  which,  on  \ 
ihe  vain,  confer  the  most  peiicct  delight.     Tlie  proud 
man  is  disgusted  with  indiscreet  eulogiums;   the  vnin 
man  inlmli's  with  ecstasy  tho  license  of  flattery,  although 
profusely  olfored,  and  by  no  very  skilful  hand." 

Dr.  Oall  named  this  faculty  Vanity,  from  one  of  ite 
abuses,  as  he  named  Sell-Estoem  Pride.  Dr.  Spuralioiui 
elucidated  the  ultima'.e  functions  more  satistiictoiily.  It 
id  the  desire  of  approbation,  admiration,  praise,  and  fame. 
Its  legitimate  function  is  regard  to  reputation  and  charac- 
ter, and  it  gives  tho  sentiinenl  of  shame.  It  is  an  excel- 
lent guard  upon  tnurals  as  well  as  manners.  The  loss 
of  character,  to  those  largely  endowed  with  this  feeling, 
is  worse  than  death.  If  the  mural  sentiment  be  strong, 
this  sentiment  will  desire  honest  fame,  and  in  the  line, 
too,  of  the  prevailing  faculties — as  poet,  painter,  orator, 
wariior.  statesman.  The  love  of  glory  is  a  passion  with 
many,  and  has  di'lngod  the  world  with  blood  in  all  ages. 
The  decorations,  orders,  stars,  garters,  of  civilization,  and 
tlie  tattooing,  nose-liorinc,  and  pluminu.  of  savage  life,  all 
spring  from  Love  of  .\pprol)ation.  When  th<  piopensi- 
ties  predominate,  th<!  vain  man  will  be  plea.  ■'■'  to  be 
thought  the  best  fighter  or  greatest  drhiker  among  his 
gcquaintance.  A  due  endowment  of  this  faculty  is  essen- 
tial to  an  amiable  character.  "It  gives,"  says  Mr.  Combe, 
"the  desire  to  be  agreeable  toothers;  it  is  tho  drill-ser- 
geant of  so;'iety,  and  admonishes  us  when  we  deviate  too 
widely  from  the  line  of  march  of  our  fellows;  it  induces 
us  to  suppress  ninnberless  little  manilestations  of  selfish- 
ncss,  and  to  restrain  many  peculiarities  of  temper  and 
disposition,  from  the  dread  of  incurring  disapprobation  by 
giving  olfence;  it  is  the  butt  upon  which  wit  strikes, 
when,  by  means  of  ridicule,  it  drives  us  from  our  follies." 
What  tho  world  will  think  and  say,  is  npinrmost  in  the 
mind  when  Lovo  of  Approbation  is  too  strong.  A  youth 
in  whiim  it  is  povverlid,  cannot  do  this  thing  or  the  other, 
because  everybody  will  look  at  him,  or  wonder  at  hlin, 
Tlie  young  are  extremely  sensitive  on  this  point,  espe- 
cially in  relation  to  those  of  tlieir  own  age.  The  admo- 
nitions of  the  parent  <n'  teacher  are  nothing  with  them, 
in  comparison  with  the  jeering  of  their  companions. 
Ridicule  is  intoleralile  to  a  large  Love  of  .\pproliation  at 
tiiy  age.  Hence  the  poet's  thought,  "the  world's  dread 
laugh  which  scarce  the  stern  philosopher  can  scorn." 
Combined  with  Self-Esteem,  it  creates  the  iinf)ression 
that  the  world  are  all  busy  thinking  of  us,  instead  of 
themselves;  which  last  is  the  truth.  This  excess  of  the 
fw.'jiig  subverts  all  iii(lependena\  The  opinion  of  others 
is  the  unhappy  individual's  rule  of  morals,  taste,  religion, 
«»en  philosophy. 

As  this  faculty,  and  that  of  Self-Esteein  in  abuse,  are 
tlin  cause  ot  much  evil,  both  to  tho  individual  and  others, 
education  ought  to  morlcrate  their  activity.  Under  the 
new  system  this  is  attembd  to  ;  but  under  the  old  the 
coin|H'titi(m  of  pride  and  vanity,  in  places  and  school 
honours,  is  still  the  gr.iiul  stimulus,  to  the  injury  of  tho 
cllaracter  of  the  young  for  life.' 

The  faculty,  unless  kept  in  subordination  by  a  very 
large  and  vigihiiit  Coiincientiou.fness,  prompts  to  all  the 

•Snipson'R  I'hilosnplij  of  T'.ilucaiion.  sccimti  eilition,  p.  lU3j 
Md  I'lireiiological  Journal,  Vol.  v.  p.  U13,  and  x.  p.  9. 


conventional  insincerities  and  flatteiies  of  society,  firoic 
tho  dread  that  the  truth  will  oiTend  Self-Eateein,  and 
draw  down  on  the  teller  of  it  disapprobation.     When 
Secrctivcncss  is  large  and  Conscientiousneos  small,  Love 
of  Approbation  is  profuse  in  the  unmeaning  compliments 
of  society.     These  compUments  many  people  scorn  only 
when  applied  to  others,  but  take  them  more  compla- 
cently when  addressed  to  themselves ;  their  Self-Esteem 
supporting  tlicm,  and  persuading  them  that  these  com- 
pliments liave  a  meaning,  and  value  too,  when  they  are 
tho  objects  of  them.     It  is  held  to  be  Love  of  Approha- 
bation,  which  prompts  to  the  equivocation  of  "  not  at 
home,"  when  the  person  does  not  wish  to  admit  visiters. 
"  Tlie  faculty  of  Conscientiousness  would  desire   that 
tho  plain  fact  should  be  stated;  but  Lovo  of  Approba- 
tion produces  an  instinctive  feeling  that  tho  Self-Esteem 
of  the  person  calling  will  be  olicnded,  if  any  engage- 
ment can  render  it  inconvenient  to  see  Aim.     To  save 
this  pang.  Love  of  Approbation  and  Secretiveness  resort 
to  the  invention  of  this  little  equivocjue.     The  deceit  is 
seen  through  by  all ;  and,  nevertheless,  the  use  of  it  is 
more  pleasing  to  persons  in  whom  Love  of  Approbation 
and  Self-Estecm  are  very  large,  than  the  announcement 
of  the  simple  truth."     Much  of  the  acutest  sulleringof 
life  consists  in  nothing  else  but  wounded  Love  of  Ap- 
probation, when  the  feeling  is  powerful.     The  rivalries 
of   rank,  wealth,  and  fashion,  commence  with  school 
boys  and  girls.     The  youngest  creatures  will,  uncheckcil 
by  ilelicacy,  boast  of  the  importance,  in  these  particu- 
lars, of  llii'ir  parents,  and  vilify  their  companions,  to  tho 
intense  sull'ering  of  the  latter,  who  have  not  arrived  at 
sudicient  rellection  and  force  of  character  to  disregard 
such  taunts.    Successful  rivalry  wounds  the  feeling  both 
in  the  young  and  in  the  old ;  equipage,  dress,  attend- 
ance, when    superior  in  others,  these  being   acquaint- 
ances, oi  who  have  been  equals,  arc  all  tormenting  dis- 
tinctions of  Love  of  Approbation.     Refusing  to  acknow- 
ledge, or  shunning,  well-known  acquaintiinccs,  when  the 
vain  happen  to  be  in  what  they  consider  higher  or  more 
fashionable  company,  is  a  very  usual  abuse  to  the  feel- 
ing.  This  IS  not  only  a  pitiful  weakness,  and  confession 
of  want  of  personal  merit,  but  not  seldom  an   act  of 
coldheartcd,  seliish,  ingratitude.     With  a  good  endow- 
ment of  regulating  moral  feelings  and  intellect,  turned 
into  their  right  channel  by  proper  characte(-iin proving 
eilucation,  this  paltry  conduct  would  be  of  muc.i  more 
rare   occurrence.     Tlie  vain   talk   of   themselves,  theil 
I  atlliirs,  and  connections,  and  much  afflict  their  auditors 
j  by  so  doing.     Education  would   moderate   ihis  variety 
I  of  bad  taste.     Tho  same  weakness  leads  the  vain  to  l)e 
j  impatioiit  of  the  appearance  of  neglect  or  tbrgctfiilness 
;  of  themselves  in  company,  and  to  resort  to  many  arti- 
I  fices  to  attract  attention.    Dr.  Johnson  noticed  this  small 
ambition  in  Goldsmith,  who,  he  said,  often  began  to  talk 
lest  his  presence  should  be   forgotten.     Vain  children 
force  themselves  into  notice  in  the  same  way ;  a  teacup 
!  has  been  purposely  broken  to  this  end.     Extravagances, 
.  and  even   crimes,  have  been  committed  for  mere  noto- 
I  riety.     In  these  extreme  cases  the  organ  is  diseased. 
The  incendiaries  of  the  Temple  of  Ephcsus  and  York- 
Minster,  and  the  lunatic  Oxford,  who  fired  on  the  queen 
furnish  examples.     Shamelessness  is  the  effect  of  this 
want  of  this  faculty,  often  observed  in  criminals.     It  is 
a  great  defect  in   character ;  the  individual  is  beyond 
the  salutc.ry  government  of  the  feeling ;  he  cares  not 
I  for   the  opinion  of  others,  and  laugtis  ei|ually  at  their 
censure  or  approbation.     Tho  educator  finds  this  nega- 
tion very  dilliiult  to  deal  with,  hiasmuch  as  one  engine, 
with  which   he;  might  otherwise  legitimately  work,   is 
uselcsg  to  him.     His  pupil  will  not  (nnir  by  Love  of  A.\h 
probation.     This  defect  aids  the  impudent,  who  have  • 
purpose  to  serve.     Their  impoitunity  is  often  iKtundless 
and  untiring.     No  repulses  aficct  them,  no  indignities 
touch  them,  so  long  as  absolute  personal  violence  is  ool 


«w 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


applied  I »  their  intnisions.  The  6/ii»/i  i»  the  nnturnl  well  m  his  physical  mnvemcnts.  In  generw,  the  oifru 
ianguaife  of  ahiinie— one  of  the  fcehngs  of  powerful  und  is  large  in  ohildrcn — n  wise  niid  beneficent  proviaion  loi 
■ensilivo  Love  of  Approliittion.  The  orKaii  i»  oftcner  j  their  protection.  Children  who  arc  deficient  in  the  or. 
found  insane  in  women  than  in  men,  as  in  women  it  ia  gan  are  in  constant  mishaps  and  accidents  ;  twcnti 
more  active  than  in  the  other  sex  genernlly.  The  pa-  j  keepers  will  not  sn])ply  to  them  the  place  of  the  in, 
tients  whom)  J.ovc  of  Approliation  is  diaeiined,  are  not  i  stinctivn  protection  of  Caiitioiisness.  Mr.  Oonihc  men. 
solemn,  haughty,  and  iniwiblc.  like  the  monarrlis  of  j  tioiis  a  boy  of  nix  years  of  age,  in  whom  the  organ  wai 
Belf-Esteem.  'I'hey  are  gciier.dly  in  a  hustle  of  display,  :  very  small,  who  took  olf  his  clothes  to  plurifte  into  the 
ovenrnwering  the  listener  with  details  of  tiieir  merits,  i  deep  water  of  an  old  quarry,  into  which  the  wind  liat, 
Iheir  talents,  their  works,  and  even  their  beauty,  'riiey  '  blown  his  caj).  A  child  with  a  large  Cauii.^usnegs  ■', 
•re  decked  out.  without  regard  to  taste  or  sense,  in  co-  I  com]  aratively  safe;  much  moie  so  than  any  degree  "' 
loura,  flowers,  feathers,  ribhona,  cross«'s,  and  orders;  care  by  others  would  render  him.  We  have  seen  t_.5 
titeir  rooms  are  decorated  with  trophies  and  all  sorts  i  org:in  so  birue  on  both  sides  as  to  deform  the  head,  nuj 
•f  imaginary  proofs  of  their  own  Iranscrndent  merit,  !  give,  by  contrast,  to  the  fore  part  a  great  narrowness 
worth,  fame,  and  glory.  Prompted  by  Accpiisitivcncss  I  especially  in  children.  Mothers  are  ollen  alarmed  with 
large,  the  aidiject  of  their  boast  is  the  fimcied  possession  I  this  ajipeaniiice.  seeing  that  water  in  the  head  ot\«n 
of  wealth  that  has  no  bounds;  and  if  to  this  comliiiia-  I  showt;  itself  in  this  region.  But  there  is  also  a  natural 
lion  Im-  added  Uenevolence,  checks  on  their  bankers  for  !  and  healthy  development  of  the  organ  when  extraordina- 
immense   sums  arc   freely  given   to  strainrers  who  visit  '  rily  large.     The  symptoms  of  a  very  large  endowment 


them.  As  Dr.  (iall  well  observed,  pride  and  vanity  are 
never  lietter  distinguished  than  when  manifested  uncon- 
trolled by  the  insane. 

The  orttan  and  faeidty  are  observed  in  some  of  the 
lower  animals — dogs,  horses,  monkeys,  and  others.  It 
is  established. 

No.  ia.— rHuiioii«iie9». 

The  ortrnn  of  this  faculty  is  situated  about  the  middle 
of  the  parietal  bone  on  both  sides.  Dr.  (iall  discovered 
it  by  first  observing  the  prominence  large  in  two  in- 
dividuals, who  positively  harassed  him  with  their  doubts, 
fears,  hesitations,  and  precaulidiis.  When  ho  observed 
this  cerebral  murk  for  the  ]ieciillarity.  he  eoiifirnied  it  by 
numlwrless  subsei|uent  observations.  Dr.  (Jail's  two  first 
subjects  of  observation  were  a  prelate  and  a  councillor 
of  the  reijency.  in  \'ieinia.  The  tirsi,  throuiih  tear  of 
rompromisinir  himself,  overlaid  his  discourse  with  never- 
endinar  (|ualificat:cins  and  cautions,  spoken  with  u^reat 
•lowness.  .\  conversation  with  him  was  inti-rmiiiable  ; 
he  sfopped  in  his  sentences,  and  cautiously  recurred  to 
the  jmiiit  where  he  beiriin.  to  he  assured  that  all  was 
right  liefore  proi-eedinir  farther.  He  was  always  n)i'iid- 
inir  what  he  had  said.  His  preparations  were  careCol 
and  cautious  in  the  uiost  insiiiiiitic.iiit  matters,  and  his 
examitinlious  and  calculations  most  risorous.  The 
councillor.  aL'ain.  from  his  markeil  irrescdutioii.  was 
nicknamed  Caradubin.  Sittinif  behind  both  of  these 
individuals,  on  a  public  oivasion.  Dr.  (iall  had  an  oppor- 
lunity  of  eomparina  their  heads,  ami  observed  their 
agreement  in  the  protuberances  since  called  the  orrrans 
of  ('antionsness.  The  inti'llectnal  powers  and  disposi- 
tiona  of  these  two  men  were  ditl'ereiit  in  all  other  re- 
Bj)pets ;  hut  in  ("auliousness  and  its  external  develci[). 
nient  ihev  closely  resendili«l  each  other.  \o  orjan  is 
more  easily  ol)s<'rveil  than  Cautiousness.  It  is  evident 
to  the  eye  as  well  as  the  hand,  and  there  is  iiotic  (if 
which  the  eoneoinilj\nt  mental  feeling  may  be  predi<  tc  d 
with  more  confidence. 

It  has  been  said  that  friir  is  the  fiindamenta!  feeling 
of  this  f.icnltv.  Vi'f  d(nil>l  this.  Fear  is  a  disau'rei  able 
aflwlion  of  the  faeully.  for  it  »  one  of  its  feidif};rs;  ai'd 
wo  are  dispos«>d  to  'hink  that  theilisairree.ilile  or  laiinlul 
is  not  the  root  of  any  of  our  laenltii's.     We  are  not  iie- 

rewtnrily  conscious  of  the  feelinij  of  fe:ir  while  we  ore  and  the  natural  result  is,  that  none  is  so  rre<nienfiv  the 
lokine  the  most  circuMisjM-ct  pre<-aulions  fir  our  safely. 
•nd  it  is  iust  when  we  have  taken  thes<>  precautions 
tliat  feir  is  excluded.  In  our  opinion,  (^autinnsness 
fxpre^'se«  the  feelinT  bitter  than  Fear.  The  words  inrr- 
iithi  or  '  ii<ii/i(«y/,('imi  are  too  inlelh'ctna!  for  it ;  foi  it 
ittf^  not  forewe  or  look  aroinid  ;  i'.  tnerelv  fer'ls  blindlv, 
ani!  'limtdates  the  intellect  totalc  the  means  nf  insu:ing 


will  be  great  timidity,  fears,  and  even  imaginary  terrors 
especially  in  drgains ;  but  the  existence  of  these  would 
argue  that  the  substance  itself  of  the  brain  is  large,  and 
not  merely  extended  by  hydroccplialousailc(lion,i;i  which 
la.st  case  there  could  be  no  increase  of  the  ])owcr  of 
manifestation  in  the  organ,  but  the  contrary.  No  fool, 
ing  is  more  rapidly  and  extensively  conmuinicnted  hv 
.symiiathy  than  fear  ;  it  is  well  known  to  run  through 
and  iiitiel  a  whole  army  ;  in  such  cases,  il  has  the  name 
of  |ianic.  It  is  therel'ore  of  vital  importance,  and  a 
chief  object  of  an  ofiicer's  attention  in  battle,  to  prevent 
even  the  commencement  of  a  feeling  of  fear,  by  chock- 
iinr  all  outward  manit'estations  of  it.  and  setting  an  ex- 
ample of  coolness  and  couraiie  to  the  siddiers  under  hig 
coniinaiid.  In  the  history  of  war.  there  are  instances 
of  panic  al1c<-liTig  both  the  contending  aimies  at  the 
.same  time,  when  they  have  turned  their  Lacks  upon 
eaidi  other  and  fied  in  opposite  directions  from  tlie  field. 
The  orsan  is  often  diseased,  and  then  produien  cmiseloss 
dread  of  evil,  despondency,  and  olten  suicide.  In  the 
heads  of  suicides  the  oriran  is  invariably  lari;e,  and 
Hope  dell ■ient,  Destrucliveness  also  being  of  course 
boL'e.  I'lTsons  with  the  orii:m  diseased  will  ollen  shrink 
e.s  if  the  house  were  idiout  to  fall  over  them,  or  a  hriilpc 
under  them.  Those  who  do  not  distingviish  teclin?  from 
thinkinir,  iniai^ine  that  such  persons  may  be  reasnnoil 
into  a  disuu-'s',|  of  iheir  fciirs,  on  being  shown  t!i,it  ihoy 
are  irroiniillc's ;  liut  if.  as  is  demonstralile,  the  ticlinj; 
results  I'roNi  a  |)ortion  of  brain  Ik'iu','  posiiivelv  ilisi'asod, 
it  Wduld  be  a.i  rational  to  alli-mpl  to  reason  a  person 
out  of  the  ]iain  he  suITIts  IVimti  a  bodily  wound  or  snro, 
.\  brief  extract  from  Dr.  .\ndrew  Cnndie's  adiniralilc 
work  on  Insanity,  which  has  greatly  hc'pi'd  to  revohl. 
tiiinize  the  wlmle  science  and  practice  of  that  inlcrcstinj 
field  of  medii'inc,  will  serve  the  twofold  purpose  of 
showing  in  what  maimer  ("antionsness  becoua's  dis- 
eased.anil  likewise  how  denrh  and  iiitellijiiily  the  ]ih  t- 
iiolouist  treats  the  subieel  of  that  ilisease  of  brain  called 
insiuiily.  "  .Among  the  finiclional  causes  oi'  cerrhral 
disease  and  mental  dernnuement,  the  over-activily  of 
(  iMi'iiiK.'oio'^^— lui  organ  si'cond  in  si/e  to  none — sliuidn 
pre-eminent.  I'ndcr  the  |iresent  selllsh  system  of  so- 
ciety, then-  is  |«-rha|w  no  faculty  which  is  ealird  so 
ollen,  so  iHiwcrlnlly,  nu'l  so  pcrinaiieiitly  int.i  miion; 


source  of  iurviM;fi  disease.      In  times  id  [lublic 
the  victims  whose  health  it  destroys,  whom   it 
of  ri'ason,  aiid   throws   into  the  cells  of  nri  asy 
inealcniablv   numennis.     TiuMilitv.   nuiirchensi 


S9, 


di-tn' 
!e|irivfii 
ijni.  arc 
in,  fear 


despoiideni  V.  and  despair,  are    the    dilli  lent  deirree«  nf 
intensity  of  the  same   feeling  of  ( "autioieness  i>i-.idually 
roused  to  a  hiidicr    and  liicher  dei;ree,  lil!  the  health  nf 
••Icty  :  its  motlo   is,  "Take   care."     It  is  an  important     the  cerebral  orL'an  at  last  gives  wiiy.  and  the  most  sonv- 

•tnment  In  iirud.i whicli  plteen  the  individual  on  his    lire   niehincholy   ensues.     The  wide   prevuleiiec  uf  hy* 

g'tviij  anu  warnii  htm  not  to  be  nu>h  in  \m  niorti  ••  j  pochoiidriacul  alTcctions,  which  embitter  ciistcnM,  bj 


II. — SUPF.RIO 


PHRENOLOGY. 


3W 


|]ig  gloomy  depregsion  to  which  they  give  rise,  uicl 
wliitfh  I  have  cisowhcro  shown  to  hiive  for  a  coiiniion 
feature  a  morbidly  active  OautiouanesR,  is  another  and 
^  TPry  convincint;  proof  of  tho  infliienco  of  excitement 
of  function  in  inducing  cerebral  disease.  In  the  greater 
number  of  such  cases,  it  is  easy  to  trace  their  origin  to 
jeal  or  fictitious  causes  of  anxiety  about  the  health  of 
ftionds,  tho  succeaa  or  failure  of  schemes  of  advance- 
ment, the  fluctuations  of  trade,  a  '  many  other  grounds, 
ill  directly  addressed  to  tlic  <"u  of  Cautiousnesti." 

Dr.  Combe  here  mentions  t,  ■.itanccs,  one  of  which 
enJcd  in  suicide,  and  proceeds-  "'i'he  effeet  of  fear,  or 
gucIJcn  and  violent  excitement  of  'Jautiousuess,  in  pro- 
ducing mental  derangement,  and  all  sorts  of  nervous 
disease,  is  well  known.  I  have  already  quoted  an  in- 
stance from  Boerhaavc,  in  which  a  fright  from  thunder 
tendered  a  lady  insane,  and  also  of  u  girl  in  the  Hotel- 
Dieu  in  Paris,  who  was  frightened  by  a  soldier  with  a 
drawn  sword.  Pinel  received  three  young  women  into 
the  hospital ;  one  deranged  from  seeing  a  glumt  clothed 
in  white,  by  which  some  young  men  wished  to 
frighten  her ;  the  second,  from  a  tremendous  clap  of 
thunder  which  terrilied  her;  and  tho  tliird,  from  horror 
at  finding  herself  in  a  hous(!  of  bad  character,  into  which 
jhc  had  been  unconsciously  decoyed.  In  the  two  first, 
and  partly  in  tlie  third  also,  tho  disease  was  evidently 
induced  by  the  organ  of  (Cautiousness  roused  to  un  in- 
ordinate degree.  ])ru<lucing  general  disordered  action 
ill  the  brain.  The  story  of  the  jiirrot  which  was  d.'iven 
mail  by  the  noise  of  the  great  puns  during  a  naval  ac- 
tion, and  ever  aflerwiirds  could  emit  no  sound  but  one 
imitative  of  the  report  of  a  cannon,  is  an  instance  of 
similar  functional  exci'enuiit." 

Practical  jokes,  intended  to  frighten,  have  often  fear- 
fiilly  overshot  their  aim,  and  produced  insanity.  A 
knowledge  of  this  on^ht  to  put  an  end  to  them.  Lord 
Kaines  is  the  only  metiiiliysician  who  recognised  /fir 
jsa  primitive  facuby  of  the  mind.  Nations  arc  cha- 
racterized by  dill'erenl  degrees  of  this  organ.  The  Oer- 
man  head,  including  tho  Knirlish  and  Scotch,  has  it 
lafor  than  the  (^dtic,  iiickiding  the  native  Irish,  and 
ilso  than  the  French.  It  is  smaller,  too,  in  the  Turkish 
head  than  in  the  I'lirojiean.  It  is  very  large  in  many 
savages,  iiiid  in  the  Hindoos  and  Cingale^«'.  >S'e  lig.  10. 
It  is  small  in  fi'j.  !1.     'I'lie  organ  is  held  I'stablished, 

Having  brought  to  a  dose  our  account  of  the  aflec- 
tive  fai  ultiea  common  to  man  and  tlie  inferior  animals, 
we  will  proceed  to  an  analysis  of  the  sii-Eiuoii  sknti- 

SIWTS    PBOI'KIl    TO    MAX. 

11, — 8UPRKI0H    SKNTIMKNTS,    PROPER   TO    RJAN. 

Wb  li.avc  hilherto  considered  the  faculties  which  phre- 
nologists describe  as  conunon  to  man  and  the  lower 
uuinals;  we  are  now  to  tri'at  of  th.ise  superior  senti- 
ments wliicli  they  eoosider  as  peculiar  to  man.  The 
or;;ans  oi'  these  sentiments  lie  in  the  superior  region  of 
LSc  braitu  That  they  are  all  of  them  entirely  wanting 
inaniiiiiil-.  is  .m  opinion  wliieli  the  phrenologists  will 
yet,  pvobably,  have  to  reconsider ;  but  we  ileein  it  l«'st, 
in  tlie  mi'an  time,  to  follow  tJie  generally  received 
new.  It  may  only  be  remarked,  that,  while  the  convo- 
lutions of  the  tirain  wliieh  form  Veneration,  t'onscien- 


It  is  easily  distinguished;  and  when  large  (see  fig.  1)5) 
gives  a  round  elevated  swell  to  that  region.  When  the 
organ  is  small  (fig.  16)  tho  forehead  or  top-front  is  low, 

13^ 


tiouaness.  and  Hope, 


not  found  in  animals,  traces  of 


the  convolutions  forming  liem-volence  and  Iinitalion  do 
appear;  and  these  two  last  are  the  (lowers  of  this  class 
with  which  it  s<'eins  most  likely  that  animals  are  en- 
dowed. 

No.  II).— Hi'iii'volence. 

The  organ  of  thii  sentiment  is  situated  at  the  upper 
psrtof  the  fronla!  bone,  immediately  before  the  fontanel, 
in  the  miiMIe  of  the  to[)  of  tlie  forehead,  where  it  turns 
to  form  part  of  the  top  of  the  head,  or  coronal  surface. 

Vol  I.-  -ua 


Fig.  15.  Fig.  10. 

flat,  and  retreating.  Wo  cannof  blame  tho  unfortunate 
individual  so  organized,  seeing  that  ho  did  not  make 
himself;  but  we  are  so  constituted  as  instinctively  to 
shrink  from  him,  aa  deficient  in  one  of  the  chief  orna- 
niimts  of  human  nature — tho  faculty  of  kindness  and 
brotherly  love.  Dr.  Gull  discoveiiid  the  organ,  and  at 
the  same  time  distinguished  the  faculty  as  primitive,  bv 
observing  in  what  region  the  heads  of  several  remarkably 
benevolent,  disinterested,  and  generous  persons — whom, 
after  suspecting  the  existence  of  the  faculty,  he  placed 
together — agreed,  however  much  they  differed  in  other 
particulars.  His  subsequent  observations  lelt  no  doubt 
on  the  matter. 

The  faculty  of  Benevolence  gives  more  than  compaa- 
sion  for,  and  a  desire  to  relieve,  sullering;  it  gives  a 
wish  that  others  should  be  positively  happy  ;  prompts  to 
active,  laborious,  and  continued  exertions ;  and,  unless 
Ac((uisitiveness  be  very  large  and  powerful,  to  liberal 
giving  to  promote  its  favourite  object.  It  dillers  essen- 
tially in  its  charity,  "  which  suffi'relli  long  and  is  kind," 
"and  vaunteth  not  it.self,"  from  that  which  springs  from 
Love  of  Approbation.  Yet  to  this  last  selfish  faculty, 
how  often  is  it  necessary  to  appeal  when  funds  are 
wanted  for  l)enevoleiit  purposes!  Hence  ihe  published 
lists  of  sub.scribers'  names;  hence,  too,  the  appeals  to 
other  selfish  faculties  by  ball.^,  plays,  &c.,  for  contributions 
to  relieve  suffering,  as  if  it  were  to  be  charmed  away  by 
dancing  and  music.  The  Samaritan's  conduct  was  pure 
benevolence.  Addison  portrayed  the  feeling  well  in 
Sir  Uogei  de  Covcrley.  All  the  phrenological  books 
cite  the  ca.se  of  Eustache,  a  St.  Domingo  negro,  who 
was  so  striking  an  example  of  this  fiiculty  in  great  power 
and  activity,  that  he  received  the  prize  of  virtue  from 
tlic  French  Institute.  The  organ  in  him  was  so  large 
as  to  give  an  uncoimiion  height  to  the  front  of  his  head. 
The  faculty,  like  sunshine,  lights  as  well  as  warms  the 
whole  of  social  intercourse.  Mr.  Combe  well  expresses 
this  Iciiri-niiifi  infiucnce.  "It  is  a  vulgar  idea  that  thi<i 
ficnlty  cannot  be  manifested  except  in  bestowing  alms 
or  money.  It  may  be  exerted  in  the  domestic  circle,  in 
a  thou;and  ways  j.rodnctivc  of  advantage,  without  being 
aeeoinpanied  by  donation.  It  is  bciu'voleiice  to  those 
with  whom  we  live,  to  ord(  r  oiir  arrangen.ents  with  it 
due  regard  to  their  comfort  and  happiness,  and  not  U. 
deny  thenv  proper  gratifications ;  it  is  benevolence  lo 
suppress  our  own  humours  and  lindencies  when  these 
would  give  unnecessary  pain  to  others;  to  restrain  Self- 
Ksteeiti  and  Des'.nictiveness  in  our  commands;  to  b* 
mild  and  merciful  in  our  eensinvs;  to  exert  i)ur  induLnte 
and  authority  to  iivoinote  the  welfare  of  others:  and  one 
of  the  most  beiievoler.t  of  all  exercises  is,  lo  visit  the 
jioor  and  vicious  when  sull'eiing  and  wretched,  even 
with  the  view  of  administering  only  the  pc(  nniaiy 
bounty  of  others.  Beneviilciice  is  an  e.s.sential  eleinciif 
in  true  politeness."  Those  who  have  the  organ  smaU 
are  not  on  that  account  cruel ;  for  cruelty  is  the  result 
of  a  positive  farulty,  Desliuctivencss;  they  are  merely 
indifTerent  to  others'  suffering,  so  that  their  Destructive- 
iiess  nieets  with  no  check.  Hare,  the  murderer,  was  uii 
exniniilc.  He  rei[uired  no  efliirt,  no  drowning  influenco 
of  licpior,  as  even  the  wretched  liurkc  did.  to  steel  him 
aifainst  tlie  cries  and  struggles  of  his  victims.    £>eo  hia 


'^■, 


i*-i 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


*<imi,  bg.  4,  contrnstcd  with  a  benovolont  development, 
Si<.  3.  Benevolence  is  the  chief  ground  of  an  indivi- 
dual's popularity ;  when  added  to  integrity  and  tulcnt,  it 
rendcri)  a  public  man  justly  an  idol ;  it  is  always  the 
most  prominent  inscription  on  bis  monument  The 
nuutial  fame  of  Henry  IV.,  of  France^  has  dcHccndcd  in 
the  mild  company  of  the  history  of  his  benevolence ;  and 
hia  memory  is  yet,  atlcr  nearly  three  centuries,  dear  to 
the  Fi«nch  ])eople.  The  air  that  bears  his  name  is  the 
Qnt  they  call  for  in  their  theatres.  Unregulated  by 
Conscientiouanesa  and  Intellect,  Benevolence  dcBciic- 
rates  into  abuse,  and  becomes  profusion  and  facility. 
Such  an  endowment  gives  indiscriminate  alms,  without 
roflocting  that  it  is  thereby  probably  encouraging  fraud 
and  crime.  When  Conscientiousness  is  weaker  than 
Benevolence,  we  sec  the  individual  generous  iH-foro  he  is 
just — makini;  exi>ensive  presents,  and  leaving  his  trailca- 
men  unpaid.  Benevolence  often  co-exists  with  De- 
■tructivcness,  althoui;h  tliis  has  been  ignunuitly  denied 
•8  on  inconsistency  in  nature.  How  many  individuals 
tuiown  to  us  are  at  once  kind-hcurtcd  and  hiuty  and 
irascible !  Shakspeare  has  often  portrayed  chiinicters 
■howing  both  the  feelings  in  extreme  endowment  Dr. 
Currie,  in  his  Life  of  Burns,  says,  ••  By  nature  kind, 
brave,  sincere,  and  in  a  sin^ilar  degree  compassion- 
ate, be  was,  on  the  other  hand,  proud,  irascible,  and  vin- 
dictive." To  explain  tliis  seeming  incongruity,  phre- 
nology steps  in  and  >ihows  that  the  two  clos-ses  of  mani- 
festations doj'enil  on  two  distinct  faculties.  The  sword 
of  jurtticc  is  Dostructivcncss,  coining  in  aid  of  Conscicn- 
liousness  and  Bt  nevolencc.  'I'lio  knifc  of  the  surgeon 
has  a  I)enevolent  purpose.  While  Dcstructivencss  arms 
the  soldier,  Bon;-volencc  provides  the  sur,;ical  hUi'.T  that 
follows  him  to  the  Acid.  Horses  and  dogs  are  known  to 
be  mild  or  viciiuis  by  the  breadth  and  roundness,  or  the 
narrowness  and  flatness  of  the  region  of  their  forcheudi 
in  the  middle,  a  little  way  above  the  eyes.  In  the  infe- 
rior animals,  Benevolence  is  little  more  than  passive 
mildness,  and  is  (juitc  enough  distinguishulilu  from  tlie 
Gtculty  as  above  described  in  man,  to  warrant  the  gene- 
ral position  that  Benevolence  is  peculiar  to  man.  Mr. 
Combe,  however,  mentions  several  examples  of  lienevo- 
lonct  nore  positive  in  certain  of  the  lower  animals.  The 
Scotch  metapliysicians  in  general  admit  this  faculty  as 
primitive.  Hobbes,  who  traced  all  our  Ix-uevulent  and 
just  actions  to  K<-!tisli  euleuiatiun,  denies  it.  Phrenolo- 
giets  account  fur  such  a  theory  by  concluding  that  the 
organs  of  Bciu'volcnce  and  Justice  must  have  hcen 
•mull  in  Hubheii's  own  brain,  so  as  never  to  have  in- 
spired him  with  their  legitimate  feelings.  As  already 
mentioned  in  the  section  on  Dcstructivencss,  Mr.  Hobert 
Cox  has  shown,  by  a  variety  of  factn  and  arguments, 
that  when  the  other  faculties  are  iigrecalily  excittrd,  Be- 
nevolence, as  a  f'wiing,  is  iii'-reased ;  while  Dcstructive- 
neu  is  excited  by  the  disagreeable  activity  of  tlie  other 
bculties.  Happiness,  therefore,  gives  gtiierosity  and 
•weelness  of  temper,  while  misery  gives  sourness  and 
irritability.  From  these  principles  imjwrtanl  practical 
results  ore  to  bo  deduced.     The  organ  in  established. 

Vn.  II  —Veneration. 
Tlie  organ  of  this  faculty  occupies  fhc  centre  of  the 
coronal  region  just  at  the  fontanel — the  centre  of  the  top 
of  l!ie  head.  It  was  disiovered  by  Dr.  (iajl  in  the  pious 
<uid  (levoul  ;  and  is  very  obvious  in  the  baKI  head  of  the 
monk  of  real  sentiment  and  not  of  mere  interest  The 
funelion  of  the  faculty  is  the  si'iitiment  of  veneration, 
or  def 'rence  in  general  for  snisiriorily,  for  greatness,  snd 
goo,lii"Ks.  It<  hia;!'.esl  object  is  tlie  Deity.  It  is  remark- 
able a  h.iw  ma.iy  instan -cs  tlie  painters  of  sacreil  »ul»- 
je  i>  \a»e  given  hirtjp  dL'velo;>ineiit  of  this  organ  in  the 
be.i  U  of  their  ajkistles  and  auints — no  doubt,  l)ecaiise 
tht.  pious  iniHvidnals  whom  they  would  naturally  select 
m  itudie*  for  such  characters,  potucsaed  tlie  organ  large. 


Veneration  hai  no  ipeciol  object:  it  finda  appronrwu 
exercise  witli  regard  to  whalrvcr  is  ilttmcii  lu/wiur.  On* 
man  may  venerate  what  another  treats  with  indiilerenca, 
because  his  understanding  leads  him  to  consider  that 
particular  object  as  su|iorior,  while  his  neighbour  deenu 
it  upon  hia  own  level,  or  beneath  it.  But  any  man  with 
a  largo  endowment  of  the  organ  will  have  n  tendency  to 
consider  things  as  8U|ierior:  he  will  lie  naturally  disposed 
to  look  up,  and  not  to  look  down.  Helf-Bstecm  is  g 
positive  faculty  opposite  to  Veneration.  The  one 
prompts  to  a  regard  for,  and  appreciation  of,  Helf;  the 
other  to  a  regard  for,  and  ap(ireci:ilion  of,  others,  or 
something  above  self.  Ho  in  whom  there  is  much  V^ 
neration,  with  a  moderate  or  dclective  Self-ERU-cin.  will 
alwiivs  be  disposed  to  think  well  of  what  other  personi 
do,  ai'.ii  to  put  himself  under  their  guidance  and  advice 
which  he  will  scrupulously  follow,  although  his  own 
understanding  might  have  suggested  hotter  coursesb 
Veneration  is  the  basis  of  the  feeling  of  loyalty :  it  ig  g 
main  element  in  such  political  parlies  as  the  Jacobites 
of  England  and  the  Carlists  of  France.  Wo  sec  it 
irrationally  exercised  in  the  savage,  with  regard  to  liij 
idols  of  stone  ond  wood,  and,  in  civiliwd  society,  with 
regard  to  the  mere  idea  of  rank  unattended  by  worth. 
It  is,  on  the  other  hand,  rationally  exercised  with  regard 
to  persons  of  real  excellence,  and  those  who  have  liecn 
invested  with  important  functions  for  the  benefit  of 
society.  It  is,  indeed,  at  the  root  of  all  subordination 
mid  even  of  that  courtesy  which  forms  so  important  an 
element  in  private  Ufe.  Without  this  sCTitiiucnt  to  make 
man  look  up  to  man,  a  people  would  lie  like  a  rope  of 
sand,  and  soi-iety  could  not  exist.  The  demo<Tatic  spirit, 
when  not  entertained  as  a  dogma  in  ]ihilo8ophical  poli- 
tics, de])eni!s  expressly  on  a  preponderance  of  S^lf-Es. 
teem  over  Veneration.  There  are  many  so  constituted 
in  thi:*  respect,  that  submission  to  authority  of  any  kind 
would  Itc  to  them  positively  painful.  "  I  am  as  good  as 
he,"  is  a  formula  of  words  in  which  such  a  nature  findj 
apjiroprialc  expression.  The  I'act  may  Iw,  that  the  iiidi. 
vidual  referred  to  is  possessed  of  infinitely  superior 
endowments,  and  has  a  high  place  in  society,  which  the 
other  wants;  but  the  defective  Veneration  does  not 
allow  of  the  diflerence  licing  appreciated. 

Veneration,  having  the  Deity  for  its  highest  objects, 
forms  an  element  in  the  purest  and  most  exalted  reli- 
gious feeling.  But  while  there  can  be  no  perfectly  piouj 
man  without  it,  we  are  bound  to  admit  that  individuals 
are  often  found,  passing  for  very  fair  religious  charaetcrg, 
in  whom  Veneration  is  by  no  means  conspicuous.  Such 
show  little  reverence  or  care  in  the  handling  of  divine 
things,  and  often  address  the  Deity  in  their  prayers  in  a 
style  call  ulated  to  shwk  others  by  its  familiarity.  Some 
languages  are  said  to  lie  betti'r  adiiptcil  tor  address)"**  the 
Deity  than  others:  the  (laelic  of  the  Hcotcli  llighianutre 
l>ears  this  reputation.  8iich  a  circumstance  would  seem 
to  show  that  the  people  whose  language  that  is,  are  na- 
tionally cliaracteri/ed  by  large  Veneration. 

Phrenologists  trace  to  this  faculty  a  love  of  antique 
tics,  and  a  tendency  to  approve  of  every  thing  that  \i 
old.  They  ascrilie  to  it  the  uwe  with  which  many  visit 
ancient  ti-inplcs,  cathedrals,  and  the  sepulchres  of  the 
illustrious  ilead.  It  is  said  by  them  to  de'ii;lit  in  rul- 
lecting  relics,  and  archaiological  objects  generally.  Thoj 
describe  it  as  looking  back  to  past  times  with  regret  thai 
'Jiey  tire  piist,  and  as  lieing  the  basis  of  the  oflen<x- 
poaed  fallacy  as  to  the  wis<lom  of  our  iincestors.  There 
is  some  reason,  however,  to  conclude  that  tliesR  mani- 
festations, in  some  degree  at  least,  belong  to  another  cr- 
gnn,  for  which  a  site  has  been  assigiicil  in  a  space  here- 
tofore unmarked  in  the  busta,  ami  whose  primitive  func- 
tion may  I>c  defined  as  a  love  of,  or  regard  for  the  past. 
as  hone  is  a  love  of  or  regard  for  the  future. 

So  linblo  is  tlie  organ  of  Veneration  to  tTiBeaie,  thit 
devotional  exaltation  i*  well  known  >(>  bu  one  of  the  mc«t 


n[.'-'\: 


PHRENOLOGY. 


(ommon  forma  of  insanity.  The  religioiuly  inaane 
gbounil  in  tho  asylu  xm.  Dra.  Gall  and  Spurzlieim  ad- 
duce many  oxauipleu,  and  in  all  of  them  the  organ  of 
Veneration  waa  found  large.  Esquirol  juatly  remark*, 
Ibati  aitlmugh  a  particular  aermon  ia  often  blamed  for 
deranging  religiously  the  mind,  yet  it  haa  that  effect  in 
canioqupnco  of  a  prodispoaition  to  tho  diaeaae,  and  pro- 
baUy  a  pru-exiatence  of  it  in  the  individual. 

No.  18.— Firmnesa. 
The  organ  of  thia  Acuity  occupica  the  top  of  the  head, 
briiind  Veneration,  in  the  middle  line.  It  ia  a  faculty 
of  peculiar  character.  Or.  Oall  held  that  it  waa  neither 
tn  inclination  nor  a  power,  but  a  maniere  d'ilre — a  mode 
of  existing  or  being  firm,  reaoluto,  and  determined.  He 
who  ia  deflcicnt  in  the  fiu;ulty,  ia  the  aport  of  Circum- 
■lances  and  improasiona.  Dr.  Spurzhcim  aaya  that  Firm- 
ness is  npt  to  be  mistaken  for  Will,  because  thoae  that 
have  the  organ  large  are  prone  to  aay,  "  I  will,"  and  "  I 
wont,"  that  being  tho  natural  language  of  determina- 
tion ;  but  the  fccUng  is  quite  different  from  what  ia  pro- 
perly called  the  Will.  It  gives  fortitude,  constancy,  pcr- 
jcvcranco,  and  determination ;  and  when  too  powerful, 
it  produces  obstinacy,  stubbornacHB,  and  iniUtuution. 
The  organ  will  be  found  large  in  obstinate  and  intracta- 
ble children.  Firmnesa  has  no  relation  to  external 
objects;  its  influence  ia  within  the  mind,  and  adds  a 
quality  of  endurance  to  each  or  all  of  the  other  facultica. 
For  example,  it  renders  Combativcness  determined  bra- 
very; Conscientiousness,  inflexible  integrity,  and  so 
with  otliers.  With  Sclf-Bstcem,  it  renders  the  individual 
ibwiiiloly  impracticable.  The  want  of  it  is  a  great  de- 
fect in  ohariicter ;  it  is  unsteadiness  of  purpose.  Fig. 
18  is  that  of  the  bead  of  a  lady  who  had  several  houses 
taken  bi-causo  she  could  not  determine  in  which  she 
(hiiulJlivc:  her  Conscientiousness  (marked  IG)  will  bo 
observed  large,  ond  this  feeling  she  manifested  by  faith- 
faliy  and  punctually  paying  the  rents  of  them  all.  The 
Eagliah  soldier  has  more  of  Firmness  than  the  French, 
although  in  courage  and  spirit  they  are  equal.  The 
battle  of  Waterloo  illustrated  tho  two  characters  in  a 
remarkable  manner.  The  organ  is  large  in  tlie  torture- 
enduring  American  Indian.  Dr.  Gall  mentions  that  he 
(bund  it  large  in  the  head  of  a  highwayman,  who  firmly 
resisted  the  most  horrible  tortures,  and  contrived  to  es- 
cape from  agony  and  confession,  at  once,  by  suicide. 
After  his  death,  tlie  parietal  bones  were  found  separated 
just  over  this  organ.  Dr.  Gall  did  not  conclude  from 
that  sii'.^le  case  that  this  separation  was  the  effect  of  the 
excessive  energy  of  this  portion  of  tho  brain,  but  he 
recoiniiicnds  the  fact  ns  worthy  of  notice  in  similar  cases. 
Tho  insanity  of  the  faculty  has  not  been  observed ;  it 
must  naturally  bo  a  nmrbid  aggravation  of  its  symptoms. 
The  iiis.me  ot\en  manifest  iu(lomit4>ble  obstinacy,  in  re- 
fusiiic;  food,  &c.  The  faculty  is  a  diflicult  feeling  to  deal 
with  in  education.  To  contend  with  it,  as  many  parenta 
eiul  teai'hers  do,  is  to  aggravate  it  Such  |)roccdure 
reneinlilcs  un  attempt  to  extract  a  nail  by  striking  it 
on  the  head  with  a  hammer.  Firmness  ia  an  established 
organ.  In  figs.  18  and  20,  it  is  small;  m  17  and  19, 
large. 

No.  Ifl. — Conscientiousness. 

Tlie  organ  of  this  sentiment  is  situated  on  each  side 
of  the  urgan  of  Firnmess,  bet  wren  the  latter  organ  and 
tiiat  of  Cniitiousni'ss.  Dr.  Spnr/.heiin  discovered  the 
ornn.  and  theri'l)y  incalculably  benefited  mental  and 
moral  science.  I'rcviously,  metaphysieians  dillered  in 
Jpinioii  as  to  the  existence  of  a  moral  Kensti — a  priini- 
live  instinctive  feeling  of  truth  and  justice.  Hobtn's 
and  Mandeville  held  justice  to  be  a  mere  selfish  calcu- 
lation. Kven  Paley  consid'Tcil  it  as  iniluenced  by  the 
hope  i(  eternal  rowani,  and  therefore  no  better  than  a 
wlfi^ih  calculation.  Adam  8mith  placed  the  standard 
if  muial  approbation  in  sympathy,  Hume   in  utility, 


1*  ■   *w^. 


%i 


t 


IS 


mm^i 


Pig.  18. 


Fi({.  10.  Fig.  -JO. 

Clarke  in  the  fitness  of  things ;  while  Hutcheson,  Ccd» 
worth,  Kames,  Rcid,  Stewart,  and  Brown,  all  contend 
for  fi  faculty  which  produces  the  sentiment  of  right  and 
wrong,  independently  of  all  other  considerations.  Mr. 
Coml)o  says  tliat  these  conflicting  theories  will  aerve 
"  to  convey  some  idea  of  the  boon  which  phrenology 
would  confer  upon  moral  science,  if  it  could  fix  on  a 
firm  basis  this  sinirle  point  in  the  philosophy  of  mind 
— that  a  power  or  faculty  exists,  the  object  of  which  ia 
to  produce  the  sentiment  of  justice,  or  the  feeling  of 
duty  and  obligation,  independently  of  selfishness  in  any 
form,  hope  of  reward,  fear  of  punishment,  or  any  ex- 
trinsic motive ;  a  faculty,  in  short,  the  natural  language 
of  which  is  '  Fiat  junlilia  ruut  caliini.'  Phrenology 
does  this  by  a  demonstration,  founded  on  numerous 
observations,  that  those  persons  who  have  the  organ 
now  under  consideration  large,  eKperienco  powerfully 
the  sentiment  of  justice ;  while  those  who  have  thai 
part  of  the  brain  small,  are  little  alive  to  the  emotion. 
This  evidence  is  the  same  in  kind  as  that  adduced  in 
support  of  the  conclusions  of  physical  science."  With- 
out this  faculty,  the  sentiments  which  guard,  or  rather 
constitute',  morality,  would  be  incomplete.  Benevo- 
lence prompts  to  kindness,  and  is  ollended  with  cruelty; 
Veneration  induces  piety,  and  is  shocked  with  bla^ 
phemy ;  but  neither  of  these  faculties  gives  the  percep- 
tion or  feeling  of  obligation,  duty,  incumbency,  truth — 
ill  a  word,  justice.  When,  however.  Conscientiousness 
is  added,  the  defect  is  supplied,  and  morality  completed 
— that  morality  which  Scripture  recognises  in  the  pre- 
cept  "  to  do  jKsily,  to  love  merry,  and  to  walk  humbly 
with  Goil."  This  is  a  beautiful  accordance  of  Srripture 
morality  with  natural,  and  demonstrates  the  identity  of 
their  ifivine  origin.  In  the  last  quotation  we  have  dis- 
tinguished by  itiilim  the  three  words  which  correspond 
to  Conscientiousness,  Benevolence,  and  Veneration. 
The  word  "  liiiml'ly"  is  important ;  it  expresses  the 
self-abasement  of  Veneration,  when  directed  to  its  high- 
est object,  the  Omnipotent,  and  the  utter  incompatibility 
of  prida,  which  was  not  made  for  man — in  other  worda, 
the  abuse  of  Self-Esteem — with  that  lofty  sentiment. 
In  these  three  words  there  is  a  complete  sjstem  of  ethica 

j  or  morals ;  for  an  action  is  right  whifh  satisfies  all,  and 

,  wrong  which  ollenda  any  one  of  these  three  facultica. 
Sii  simple  is  truth—a  few  words  thus  make  clear  what 

I  volumes  written  in  tho  dark  have  failed  to  do. 

I       Conscientiousness   gives  the   emotion  of  justice,  but 

I  int<'llect  is  necessary  to  uhow  on  which  side  justice  lies. 
Tlie  judge   must   hear  botli  sides  before  <leciding,  and 

,  his  very  wi.sh  to  be  just  will  promi't  him  to  do  so.  Thii 
faculty  regulates  all  the  other  faculties  by  its  rigid  rules. 
It  says  to  thein,  "  thus  far  and  no  farther,  i  r  you  will 

,  do  injustice."     Benevolence  and  Veneration  themselvei 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


require  its  g»u  linnship,  to  prevent  the  one  from  run- 
ning into  gcn«roHity  without  justice,   the  other  into 
bigotry,  fanaticism,  and  persecution.     Conscientiousness 
not  only  curb^.  our  faculties  when  too  powerful,  but 
stimulates  tliono  that  are  too  weak,  and  prompu  us  to 
duty  even  af^ainst  strong  inclinations.     I'o  cultivate  it 
in  children  is  most  iui|H)rlant.     No  organization,  how- 
ever fuvoural)Ie,  compensates  a  want  hero ;  yet  phmio- 
logists  are  torcnd   to  confrsM  that  it  is  not  the  largest 
organ  in  the  great  rnujority  of  brains,  ond  hence  the  in- 
justice that  is,  Kilviitly  as  well   as  openly,  at  work  in 
society,     'i'lie  training  of  it  by  practical  exorcise  in  in- 
fant education   is  explained  in  the  volume  on  Infant 
Education  in  Chanihrri's  Educational  Cminc     Consci- 
entiousness not  only  prompts  to  honcoty  and  truth,  in 
opposition  to  common  fraud  and  falHchooil,  but,  mure 
delicately  still,  renders  the  individual  who  is  blessed 
with  it  in  large  measure  candid  and  fair  in  his  judgments 
of  the  conduct,  opinions,  ali4  talents  of  others.     It  is 
firom  its  defect  to  this  o.-ttent,  that  in  controversy  we 
bear  so  much  complaint  of  m>.'reprrsentation  and  mis- 
quotation.    It  pays  debts,  keep*  sppointmcnts,  |H<rforms 
promises,  and  gives  a  beautiful  consistency  and  trust- 
worthiness to  the  whole  conduct,  which  securcH  the  ro- 
ipect,  and,  when  blended  with  Hencvolence,  the  love, 
of  all  within  the  range  of  its  influence.     Without  Henc- 
volence, it  is  apt  t<)  bo  too  severe  and  stringent.     When 
Conscicntiousnetts  is  weak,  or  when,  as  hapjiens  in  |H'r- 
fectly  "  honest"  and  "  himonrulile"  jicople,  in  the  broad 
sense  of  these   terms,  it  is  not  something  more  than 
average  in  its  power,  the  detect  will  run  through  ihe 
whole  conduct  and  judgments  of  an  individual.     It  is 
important  to  observe  the   manner  of  this.     Mr.  ('omlie 
•ays,  "  The  predominant  propensities  and  sentiments 
tkus  act  without  this  powerful  regulator.     If  Adhesive- 
neas  and  neiievDlrncc  attach  the  individual  to  a  friend, 
he  is  blind  to  all  his  imperfections,  and  extols  him  as 
the  mosr  matchlrHs  of  human  beings.     If  this  model  of 
excellence   happen  to  offend,  he  liecomcs  a  monster  of 
ingratitude  and  baseness ;  he  passes,  in  an  instant,  from 
an  angel  to  a  demon.      Had  Conscientiousness  l)een 
large  in  tlie  oircndcd,  the  other  would  have  been  viewed 
all  along  as  a  man;  esteem  towards  him  would  have 
been  regulated  by  principle,  and  the  olfcncc  candidly 
dealt  with.     If  Love  of  Approbation  \w  large,  and  (^"on- 
seientiousness  drficient,  the  former  will   prompt  to  the 
adoption   of  every  means  that  will   please,  without  due 
regard  to  justice  and  propriety.     If  an  individual  have  a 
weak  point  in  his  cha:-actcr.  Love  of  .\pprobation  will 
lead  to  tlattcrii)_'  it ;  if  he  have  extravagant  ex])ectalioiis, 
it  will  join  in  nil  his  hopes;  if  he  be  displeased  with  par- 
ticular persons,  it  will  affi'ct  to  hate  with  his  hatred,  al- 
together iiidopcndriitly  of  justice.     In  short,  the  inilivi- 
dual  in  whom  thi»  lacnlly  is  deficient,  is  apt  to  act  and 
also  to  juili<e  of  the  contluct  of  others  exactly  according 
to    his   predominant    srntimeiils   for    the    time;    he    is 
friendly  when  utulrr  Ihe  influence  of  Henevolence,  and 
severe  when  Destructivrncss  predominates;  he  admires 
when  his  pride,  vanity,  or  affection  give  him  a  fivour- 
ablo  feeling  towards  others;  and  condemns  when   his 
•entimc!its  i.ike  an  opposite  direction,  but  is  always  un- 
regulated by  principle..     He  is  not  scrupulous,  and  rarely 
condemns  his  own  conduct,  or  arktiDwledges  himself  in 
the  wrong.  Minds  so  constituted  may  be  amiable,  and  may 
display  many  excellent  ijualities,  liul  they  ore  never  to  Ihi 
relifil  oil  whore  justice  is  looked  for.     .\s  judges,  their 
decisions  are.  unsmind,  and  often  |)artial;  as  friends,  they 
are  liable  to  exact  tmi  much,  and  perform  too  liiile;   as 
sellers,   they  are   prone  to  misrepresent,  adidteralo,  and  I 
overcharge ;  as  buyers,  to  depreciate  quality  and  (juan- 
tity,  or  to  evade  payuient."     This  is  a  painful  but  true 
picture  of  whit  is  too  often  founil  in  society.     We  often 
near  people  com;)laining  that  a  partieulai  friend  is  ••  un- 


certain," This  word  expresses  concisely  the  defect  nl 
Conscientiousness  above  described.  The  faculty  ponk 
erful,  is  essential,  in  both  parties,  te  a  sincere  and  la* 
ing  friendship. 

Honour,  as  it  is  misnamed  in  society,  is  often  PrjiU 
or  Self-Estcem,  and  Love  of  Approbation,  without  Con. 
acientiousncss.  The  individual  will  fight,  and  therebv 
increase  the  wrong  he  has  done,  but  he  will  not  acknow. 
ledge  the  wrong  by  an  ajjologj'.  There  is  no  plii|„^oi 
phic  mind  without  powerful  Conscientiousness.  Wiihoui 
it,  scientific  men  only  acknowledge  fathionnbU  frmij 
Mr.  Comlic  again  says  on  this  point — "  I  have  obiior\cd 
that  individuals  in  whom  Love  of  Approbation  was 
large,  and  Conscientiousness  not  in  equal  pr-inortioa. 
were  incapable  of  conceiving  the  motive  wliich  could 
lead  any  one  to  avow  a  belief  in  phrenology,  \\\\i\e  ti,g 
tide  of  ridicule  ran  unslemmcd  against  it.  If  public 
opinion  should  change,  these  would  move  foremost  in 
the  train  of  its  admirers.  They  instinctively  follow  the 
doctrines  that  are  most  esteemed  from  day  to  day,  and 
reiiuirc  our  pity  and  forbearance,  as  their  conduct  pro. 
ceeds  from  a  moral  deficiency,  which  is  their  misfortune 
rather  than  their  fault."  The  existence  of  t^onscicU' 
tiousncss  as  an  independent  element  in  the  human  cotj. 
stitution,  renders  intelligible  many  8up|)osed  incon«i», 
tencies  in  human  conduct — that  a  man,  for  instan'-e, 
will  be  kind,  forgiving,  even  devout,  and  yet  not  just.  I{ 
is  a  great  mistake  with  regard  to  those  who,  after  msnv 
years  of  sanctimonious  jirofcssions,  are  delected  in  dii. 
honest  acts,  to  say  that  they  must  have  been  nil  nloni 
mere  hypocrites.  It  is  quite  possible  that  many  of  thcii 
religious  feelings  and  convictions  may  have  been  sincere, 
but  only  insufficient  in  force  to  compensate  for  thu  lack 
of  direct  Conscientiousness.  Conscientiousness  givei 
'  remorse  when  the  individual  has  been  tem|)ted  to  sin. 
I  Criminals  celdom  experience  remorse  ;  it  is  erroiicoufh 
supposed  'Imt  they  do  ;  their  terrors  arc  dread  of  pun. 
ishmcnt  only.  In  fig.  18,  Conscientiousness  is  largf 
in  fig.  17,  it  is  small,  and  ai>pears  in  a  slope  from  Finn, 
ness ;  and  in  fig,  20,  it  is  small,  from  the  general  flit 
ness  of  the  coronal  region  above  fig.  12,  or  Cw. 
tiousness.  In  this  last.  Firmness  itself  is  sinaa.  It 
represents  the  head  of  a  boy  remarkable  for  I'alwhnod 
and  deceit.  The  organ  is  larger  in  some  nationa  than 
others.  It  is  larger  generally  in  Europeans  tliiui  in 
.\siatics  and  Africans ;  very  generally  it  is  (Icfuicu 
in  the  savage  brain.  It  evidently  grows  in  civilization; 
indceil,  it  constitutes  an  cs.'^ential  of  civilization.  English 
and  Scotch  skulls,  fiiund  in  numbers  in  old  ccniotprios 
and  battle-fields  three  and  fi)ur  centuries  old,  present 
much  greater  deficiency  in  that  orgun  than  modern 
skulls  of  the  same  naliuns. 

The  organ  is  often  foun<l  diseased,  and  the  ins,inilv 
consists  in  morbid  sidf  rejirt^ach,  imaginary  dehls.  nnd 
unfounded  belief  in  mcritod  punishment.  Cowjicr,  the 
poet,  once  Indie ved  that  the  arrangements  were  made 
in  the  market-place  for  his  own  execution  for  a  fancied 
crime. 

Mr.  Combe's  theory  to  account  for  the  denial  by  some 
philoso])hers  of  a  sense  or  sentiment  of  justice,  is,  that 
it  was  weak  in  themsclve  ,  from  defect  of  organization. 
Those  in  whom  the  orijitri  is  large  express  nstoMJshiai'nt 
that  the  existence  of  a  moral  faculty,  primitive  in  man, 
could  ever  bo  the  subject  of  doubt.  The  organ  is  ci>;» 
blished. 

No  17— Hope. 

The  organ  of  this  faculty  has  its  place  on  each  tide 
of  Veneration,  partly  under  the  frontal,  and  jiartly  under 
the  p.trietal  Inme.  It  was  di:-covercd  by  Spur/licini,  hut 
never  admitted  by  (iall,  who  considered  Hope  as  a  faiio 
tion  of  every  faculty  that  Jcniti.  To  this  Ur.  Spot* 
heim  aiuwerod,  that  we  desire  much  of  wlticb  we  oiti 


PHRENOLOGY. 


lift'- 


no  hope ;  ■  criminal  on  the  Rraflbid'  intennely  deiirei 
life,  hut  liaa  no  hope  of  it  Dr.  Spurzhcim  considered 
Hope  a  fdcujty  >t<i  gentru,  producing  Iiope,  in  general, 
of  good,  or  gratification  to  the  other  facultieB ;  and,  by 
careful  olisurvution  in  nature,  found  the  organ  in  the 
lituation  iunt  descrilied.  It  seema  to  have  been  given 
10  man  to  make  him  happy.  It  produces  gayety  and 
cheerfulnciw,  looks  on  the  sunny  aide  of  every  thing, 
ind  f.aints  the  future  with  bright  colours.  When  not 
icgulatcd  by  the  intellect,  Hope  leads  to  rash  specula- 
tion, nnd,  in  combination  with  Acquisitiveness,  to  gam- 
bling, both  at  the  gaming-table  and  in  the  counting- 
bouse.  It  tends  to  render  the  individual  credulous,  and 
often  indolent.  In  religion,  hope  Icuds  to  faith,  and 
itrongly  dinposea  to  a  belief  in  a  hajipy  life  to  come. 
\/l:,  Combo  observes  (Sytlem,  vol.  i.  p.  372)  :  "  I  have 
ilready  slated  an  argument  in  favour  of  the  being  of  a 
God  founded  on  the  existence  of  a  faculty  of  Venera- 
tion, conferring  the  tendency  to  worship,  of  which  act 
God  is  the  proper  and  ultimate  object.  May  not  the 
probability  of  a  future  state  bo  supported  by  a  similar 
(IcJuction  i'rom  the  possession  of  u  facility  of  Hope  1  It 
appears  t:  me  that  this  is  the  faculty  from  which  origi- 
nates tlio  notion  of  futurity,  and  wiiich  carries  the  mind 
for«afd  in  endless  progrension  in  perioils  of  everlasting 
lime.  May  it  not  be  inferred  that  this  instinctive  ten- 
dency to  leave  the  present  scene  and  all  its  cnjoymciitH, 
W  epring  forward  into  the  regions  of  a  far  dislant  futu- 
rily,  and  to  expotintc,  even  in  imagination,  in  the  fields 
of  an  clernity  to  come,  denotes  thot  man  is  formed  for 
( more  glorious  destiny  thnn  to  jx-rL-ih  for  ever  in  the 
grave  ]"  Addison  beautifully  enforces  this  argument  in 
t!ie  Speclnlor,  and  in  the  Soliloquy  of  Goto ;  and  phre- 
nology gives  weight  to  his  reasoning  by  showing  that 
tliifi "  ardent  hope,  tlui  longing  oflcr  immortality,"  ore 
not  factitious  Bentimcnts,  or  a  mere  product  of  an 
idle  anil  wandering  imagination,  but  that  they  are  the 
results  of  two  primitive  faculties  of  the  mind — Love  of 
Idfe,  and  Hope,  which,  owe  at  once  their  existence  and 
tleir  functions  to  the  Creator.  The  well-known  lines 
ol  Pope  introduce  hope  as  the  foundation  of  the  Indian's 
uiticipalion  of  a  happy  hereafter : — 

"I.o!  ihc  poor  Tiutian,  whose  unlntor'd  mind 
Sci'sGoil  ill  clouds,  nnd  lienrs  him  inilie  wind. 
His  soul  proud  scieiiM  never  tuMKhl  to  stray 
Far  as  ih«  «ohir  walk  or  milky  way  : 
Yi'l  siiiiplt'  Nainre  to  his  hojirunt  ({ivcn 
Beyond  the  cloud-Kipt  hill  an  humhler  heaven— 
Soiiii'  nalVr  world  in  dejilli  of  woods  I'lnhraccd, 
SfiMHr  ImppitT  island  in  ihc  watery  \^■aste. 
Where  slaves  oiiee  more  their  iiaiive  land  behold. 
No  fiends  lariiieni,  no  rhrisiiuns  thirst  tor  gold.' 

The  mptuphysicians  admit  Hope  as  a  primitive  faculty ; 

phrenoloRy,  therefore,  only  [loints  out  its  organ,  and  the 

eUbcts  of  diirerent  degrees  of  its  endowment. 

No.  tS.— Wonder. 
The  organ  of  tliis  faculty  is  situated  on  each  side  of 
that  of  Benevolence,  with  one  other  organ,  that  of  Imi- 
tation, iiiterpo.wd.  Technically,  it  ha.i  its  place  in  the 
lutcral  parts  of  the  onterior  region  of  the  vertex.  Dr. 
Gall  discovered  it  by  observing  it  large  in  the  seers  of 
"isions  anil  drcamcr.s  of  dreams,  and  in  those  who  loved 
the  inarvellous.  Socrates,  Tasso,  Joan  of  Arc,  and  Swe- 
JeiilMirg,  ivere  cxomples.  The  two  first  iK-lieved  they 
were  attoiulcd  by  a  familiar  spirit.*     Swcdcnborg  bo- 

•  Mr  Combe  hna  thus  Iraiftlnled  from  the  French,  as  (riven 
in  Bli'rk'f  Lift  of  Tit^to.  the  fnllowini;  anecdnte.  exiraeled  from 
ilie  MmtfliTS  ti/the  Mti-^ntif  of  Villa,  the  tVieiid  of  Tasso.  '■  Tnsso, 
Hi  h;s  delinitin,  be.ieved  that  he  conversed  wiih  luindiar  spirits. 
Oiii  diiy.  wlien  the  mnniiiis  endeavoured  to  drive  that  idea 
(■rMTihis  mind.Tiifso  said  to  him.  'Siiiee  I  cannot  convince  you 
by  reason.  I  shall  ilo  so  liy  experience  :  I  slinll  rnii.«e  ihe  s|>irit 
in  wh.ch  you  refuse  lo  believe  to  appear  tiefore  your  eyesi'  'I 
aceepted  ilm  o.Ter '  «ay»  the  mnniiiis.  'and  next  day  when  we 
Ml  by  die  firn  conversing,  he  turned  his  eyes  towards  the  win- 
dow, and  luikint;  wilh  sieadl'asl  attention,  appeared  so  com- 
plflf  ly  ah. orbed,  ibnl  wlien  I  called  lo  liim  he  did  not  answer.' 
Eet.' laid  tie  at  length;  'loq!  luy  t'amiliar  spirit  coiudi  to  coa- 


lioved  and  declared  that  he  was  admitted  to  the  preienM 
of  God  in  heaven,  to  receive  a  revelation  of  the  tru( 
religion.  Joan  of  Arc  related  that  she  saw  St  Michael, 
and  received  from  him  her  commission  to  raise  the  sieg* 
of  Orleans,  and  enthrone  Charles  YII.  us  king.  Thera 
are  many  other  examples  in  the  phrenological  bookjii 
In  modern  times,  Joan  of  Arc  would  have  been  held  to 
be  a  mere  maniac. 

Persons  with  the  faculty  powerful  are  fond  of  newi, 
especially  if  striking  and  wonderful,  and  arc  always  ex- 
pressing astoniunmcnt ;   their  reading  is  much  in  the 
regions  of  the  marvellous,  talcs  of  wonder,  of  enchant 
crs,  ghosta,  and  witches.     When  the  sentiment  is  exces- 
sive or  diseased,  it  produces  that  peculiar   fanaticism 
which   attempts   miracles,   and  with   Language  active, 
speaks  with  unknown  tongues.     It  draws  the  ignorant 
and  fanatically-inclined,  who  have  the  organ  large,  with 
ease  by  its  pretensions ;  hence  the  numerous  followers 
of  Johanna  Southcotc,  Courtcnay  or  Thorn,  ond  Edward 
living.     Mr.  Combe  says  of  tlie  latter — "  I  examined  hia 
head  l)cfore  he  was  established  as  a  preacher,  and  when 
his  peculiarities  were  unknown,  and  observed  that  the 
organs  of  Wonder  and  Solf-Estcem  were  very  large. 
They  gave  a  tinge  to  his  whole  public  life.     The  organa 
of  Benevolence,  Conscientiousness,  Veneration,  and  In- 
tellect, were  also  amply  developed,  so  that  ho  possessed 
the  natural  elements  of  the  Christian  character  in  great 
strength,  but  their  direction  was  rendered  unprofitable 
by  the  predominance  of  Wonder  and  Sell-Esteem."  Mb. 
Combe  quotes  the  extraordinary  case  of  Dr.  Anderson, 
of  Cupar-Fife,  who  wua  tormented  by  the  bcUcf  that 
there  were  invisible  enemies  planning  his  destruction  by 
supernatural  means.     On  examination  of  his  bruin  after 
death,  an  infliunmatory  deposit,  of  apparently  old  stand- 
ing, was  found  over  the  organ  of  Wonder.     During  life 
the  part  was  painfully  heated,  and  Dr.  Anderson  was  in 
the  habit  of  sponging  it  wilh  cold  water.     Pain  in  the 
seat  of  the  organ  of  Wonder  has  been  localized  by  sevo. 
ral  ghost-seeing  patients,  who  knew  nothing  of  phreno- 
logy.    Many  instances  are  mentioned  in  the  phrenolo- 
gical books.     Second  sight,  as  the  Highlanders  call  it,  ia 
explained  by  ovcr-exciteiiient  of  the  organ  of  Wonder. 
Mr.  Combo  adds — "At  the  same  time,  it  is  diificult  to 
comprehend  how  an  exalted  state  of  this  organ  should 
produce  these  elfocts,  unless  we  suppose  it  to  excite  the 
organa  of  Form,  Size,  Colouring,  and  Individuality,  M 
as   to  prompt  tliem  to  conjure  up  illusions  of  objects 
fitted  for  the  gratification  of  Wonder,  just  as  the  in- 
voluntary activity  of  Cautiousness  during  sleep  excitea 
the  intellectual  organs  to  conceive  objects  of  terror,  pro- 
ducing thereby  frightful  dreams.     Tiiis  theory  is  ren- 
dered probable  by  tlic  fact,  that  morbid  excitement  of 
the  knowing  organs  produces  spectral  illusions,  indepen- 
dently of  an  utrection  of  the  organ  of  Wdnder.     Mr. 
Simpson  has  communicated  an  adndrablc  paper  on  thia 
subject  to  the  Phrenulotriial  Journal  (vol.  ii.  p.  290),  ti» 
which  I  shall  have  occasion  afterwards  to  refer."     We 
shall  also  refer  to  that  paper  in  the  sequel.    The  general 
function  of  the  orj;nn  is  held  to  Iw  ascertained,  but  the 
metaphysical  analysis  is  still  far  from  being  perfect    Dr. 
Spurzhcim  named  the  faculty  Marvcllousness  instead  of 


verse  with  me,'     'I  looked  with  ihe  prcntest  enrnestncss,  but 

could   see  nothine  enter  the   npnrtmpnt.     In  the   mean    time, 

Tnsso  began  lo  eonverse  with  the  mysterious  being.     1   saw 

niid  beard  himself  iilone.    The  subject  of  his  d'seoiir..5e  was  so 

elevated,  iitid  ihc  e.tiiressions  so  sublime,  that  I  felt  myself  in 

I  n  kind  of  eesiusy.     I  did  not  venture  to  int.:rriipt  h'ln.  or  to 

trouble  him  wilh  (jiiesrons.  and  a  eini'^idernble  time  elapsed 

before  the  spirit  disappeared.     I  was  iirurnnd  of  ils  ilepnrturu 

1  liy  Tnsco.  who.  tiirninir  towards  me,  snid,  'In  future  you  will 

;  cense  to  doubt,'     '  Rather.'  said  I.  '  1  shiill  be  more  siieplical, 

.  for  t)ioiu;h  I  have  heiinl  astonishing  words,  I   have  seen  no- 

;  thing.'    i'liniliug,  he  replied.  •  Voii  have  perhaps  heard  and  •re« 

j  more  ihnn' — He  stopi  short,  and  fearing  to  importune  him  bjT 

I  any  i|iiesiions,  I  dropt  ihe  eonversution,'"    We  liope  lo  ao» 

1  coiini  for  Tasao's  spectral  illusion,  tor  it  con!  1  be  nothing  clis 

'  in  tbo  sequel. 

30 


309 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


Wonder,  Im-cbuiw,  m  ho  nrRUcn,  it  eawte*  astoninhincnt 
Dy  the  coiiU'iii|)l;ilion  of  both  nHtural  iiiui  iiuiHTimlurul 
eircuiiialancvH.  Mr.  CoiiiIm)  holilii  Woiiilor  to  lio  tlw 
oetter  name  for  the  fundamrnlul  (vc\'mg,  jiml  b«H-aiiwi  it 
ii  •scited  by  iiiitural  circuuiBUmrc*,  to  which  Murvel- 
louHMM  doet  not  apply. 

No.  ID— Monlity. 
The  orRiin  of  thin  farulty  is  Hituiitcd  farther  down,  but 
clotie  to  thiit  of  Woiulcr,  alonn  the  toinporid  ridifo  of  the 
frontjtl  bono.  Ur.  (iull  disooverrd  it  in  tho  buHtu  and 
purtnutt  of  docciuiod,  and  in  tho  lipads  of  a  urent  num- 
ber of  hving,  poetii.  This  conririued  to  him  thu  old 
ehtanii'al  aiLii^r,  that  the  poi't  is  born,  not  miido  ;  in  otiior 
ivo:'dii,  tliiit  liiN  tiiliMit  iH  the  rmult  of  a  primitive  fneulty. 
Dr.  Oall  fulled  tho  or(;iut  tlio  ori^iin  of  Poetry.  Ur. 
Bpurzheim  eorrccted  this,  and  gave  it  the  elei^nnt  name 
it  now  licars ;  which  has,  as  well  as  others  of  tlio  ex- 
prussiTo  names  of  tho  phrenological  origans,  Iwen  adopt- 
ed into  ordinary  lantnintp-*.  He  says — "  It  is  im])ORsible 
tliat  poeti-y  in  general  rhould  Ik<  coiillned  to  one  single 
oritan,  and  I  tlicreforc  think  that  tlic  name  '  ()r<an  of 
Poetry,'  dm-s  not  indicatt^  the  essential  faculty.  In  every 
kind  of  poetry  the  sentiments  are  exalted,  the  expres- 
sions warm  ;  and  there  nmst  t)c  rapture,  inspiration,  and 
what  is  eoMunonly  called  imagination  or  fancy." 

The  fiieulty  delights  in  the  perfect,  the  exquisite,  the 
beau-uliiil — something  boyoud  tho  scenes  of  reality — 
■omcthing  in  the  regions  of  romance  and  fancy — of  the 
beautiful  and  the  sublimit.  Those  writers  and  sjieakers 
who  poss.-!»ii  it  large,  adorn  all  they  i<ay  or  write  with  its 
vivid  inspirations.  It  is  the  organ  of  imagery.  The 
■eraioas  of  Chalmers  owe  much  of  their  charms  to  it, 
and  the  organ  is  very  large  in  his  hciul.  8haks|iearo 
create<l  such  IxMngs  as  Ariel,  Obernn,  and  all  thu  ima- 
jnnings  of  the  ••Temi)est."  and  "Midsummer  Night's 
Dream,"  under  its  intluence.  ProsjH-ro's  speech,  when 
be  abjures  the  art  of  magic  and  breaks  his  stufl',  is  un- 
cqualleil  as  a  specimen  ot  Ideality.  The  (lossagu  is  well 
known — 

"I  hnvi"  lipdimmi-il 
The  noontide  mm.  rnlleil  forth  the  firiout  winds, 
And  'twixi  the  ftrcen  tva  and  the  a/ure  vault 
Sot  roariiij;  war."  &c. 

The  faculty  renders  conversation  elevated,  animated,  and 
elo<|uent,  the  u|<|Nisitc  of  dry  and  dull. 

Nature  altounds  in  l)eauty  and  splendour  to  gratify 
Ideality — a  proof  of  pure  l»eiieficence  in  the  Creator; 
for  it  is  a  pleasure  of  unmixed  gratuity,  if  we  mity  so 
speik ;  man  might  have  l»een  created  without  it,  but 
Divine  goodnes:*  Hn|)eradde<t  that,  the  most  exquisite,  to 
bis  other  enjoyments.  Tho  organ  is  small  in  criminals 
and  other  coarse  and  brutal  eharact«'rs,  for  it  is  essential 
to  relineincnt.  It  proni|)ts  to  elegance  luid  ornament  in 
dress  and  furniture,  and  gives  a  taste  for  |)oetry,  paint- 
ing, stjituary,  and  architecture.  Some  religious  sects,  as 
the  F'lietids,  condemn  clegimcc  and  ornamt^nt.  They 
should  revise  their  standards,  now  that  it  is  discovered 
that  a  faculty  is  given  to  man  whoso  fimction  it  is  to 
enjoy  thcHc  without  abusing  them.  A  point  of  interro- 
gation is  placed  on  tlie  bust  on  the  back  |>art  of  tho 
region  of  lliis  organ,  conjectured  to  lie  a  ililTerent  organ, 
but  one  allied  to  Mcality.  .Some  phrenologists  have 
considered  it  the  organ  of  the  Sublime,  from  its  touching 
on  ('autiousness,  which  the  grand,  at  least  the  tenific 
grand,  in  some  tlegrce  airects.  A  writer  in  the  Phrenn- 
logirai  J  inriuil  suggests  the  love  of  the  |>ast  as  itfi  func- 
tion, riie  cxistemrc  of  the  faculty  of  IdeaUty  deinon- 
Ctrates  t!iat  the  s<-iitiinent  of  beauty  i»  an  original  emo- 
tion of  ttiu  laind,  and  settles  the  controversy  in  which 
Profcasor  Stewart,  l.onl  Jeffrey,  Dr.  Urown,  and  others, 
took  a  part,  as  to  the  origin  of  our  perception  of  Iteauty. 

The  fidlowiiig  {lassage  from  ComUi's  Syf'cm  (vol.  i. 
p.  407)  is  well  worth  quoting.  It  gives  practical  aid  to 
«inr  coiiceptioiis  of  the  nature  of  Ideality,  and  affords  an 


example  of  the  application  of  phrenology  to  litemry  civ 
ticism.  ••  In  com|>o«ition,  this  faculty  iminrts  splendoui 
and  elevation  to  the  style,  and  manifests  tself  in  proif 
well  as  in  verse.     The  style  of  Lord  Ducon  is  ,,. 


as 


re. 


markably  imbued  with  the  splendour  of  Mcality,  some, 
times  to  excess,  while  that  of  Locke  is  as  dvcideill* 
plain ;  and  the  imrtraits  of  both  show  that  their  hfiij* 
eorres|)onde  J  with  these  dillerent  manifeKtations.  Id^. 
litt's  heail  indicated  a  large  development  of  Mcality,  mj 
the  faculty  glows  in  his  com|K)sitions.  It  was  the  su^ 
taining  )>ower  which  gave  effect  to  his  {irodnctioni,  for 
he  was  eminent  for  neithrr  sound  principles,  correct  ob- 
wrvations,  nor  extensive  knowledge.  He  sector  to  have 
relied  chielly  on  his  imagination  and  language  lor  his 
success,  and  his  works  are  already  Niiking  into  Ilia 
shades  of  oblivion.  In  Lord  JellVey's  head,  »h  ii  up. 
pears  in  the  bunt,  Ideidity  does  not  predomiimte.  Tlio 
report  was  current  at  the  time,  that  the  review  of  Lord 
Uyron's  tragedies,  which  ap|)eared  in  No.  L.VXII.  of  the 
liiliHliuriih  Jlii-inv,  (Feb.  18'J2,)  was  the  joint  prtxluc. 
tion  of  these  two  celebrated  authors;  and  kccjiing  la 
view  the  fact,  that  Mr.  Ha/litt's  Ideality  is  larger  than 
Lord  Jeffrey's,  it  would  not  l)e  iliflicidt,  by  h  careful 
analysis  of  the  article,  to  assign  to  each  the  seiitoiu-cj 
which  he  wrote.  Lord  Jeffrey's  predominnting  iiilcUpct. 
nal  organs  arc  Eventuality,  which  treasures  up  sijiipje 
incidents  or  events ;  ('omparistm,  which  glances  at  ihoii 
analogies  and  relations ;  and  Causality,  which  i;ivFS 
depth  and  logical  consistency  to  the  whole.  Hiizlitt,  on 
the  other  hand,  jwssesBed  n  large  ('oinparison,  res|Htt 
able  CaUKality,  with  a  decidedly  large  Mcality,  eh'Viiiinj 
and  adorning  his  intellectuttl  conceptions.  Proccrdiiij 
on  these  views,  I  wmdd  attribute  the  following  sen. 
tencc  to  Lord  Jeffrey's  |>en,  as  characti-rislic  of  lij 
manner.  Speaking  of  tho  (pialilics  of  Shaks|H'are'i 
writing,  the  reviewer  says,  'Though  time  may  h«»a 
hallowed  many  thiiigA  that  were  at  first  out  com- 
mon, and  accidental  asstK-iations  .inparted  a  charm  to 
much  that  was  in  it«>lf  indillererit,  we  cannot  but  U'liove 
that  there  was  an  original  sanctity,  which  time  only 
matured  and  extended,  anil  an  iidierent  churin  from 
which  the  association  derived  all  its  power.  And  when 
we  look  candidly  and  calmly  to  the  works  of  cur  early 
dramatists,  it  is  im]M)8sible,  wc  think,  to  Jispiite,  f.ut 
after  criticism  has  done  its  worst  on  them — after  all  tlkt 
deductions  for  impossible  plots  and  fantastical  charartcn, 
unaccountable  forms  of  sp<'ech,  and  (H-casional  extraviv. 
gance,  indelicacy,  and  horrors — there  it  a  facility  smj 
richness  ulKjut  them,  Intth  of  thought  «nd  diction,  a 
force  of  invention  mnd  •  depth  of  sagacity,  an  originality 
of  conception  and  a  play  of  fancy,  a  nakedtiess  atiil  en- 
ergy of  passion,  and,  alxive  all,  a  copiouKiiess  of  ima- 
gery, and  a  sweetness  atid  flexibility  of  vets*',  wliirh  ia 
altogether  utirivalled  in  eailier  or  in  later  titiics,  and 
pliu-es  them  in  our  estimation,  in  tho  very  hi;,'liesi  mid 
foremost  place  among  ancient  and  modem  iNX't.i.'  In 
this  passage  we  have  the  minut^'ness  of  eniunemtion  of 
Evetituality,  the  discrimination  of  Comparison  and 
(causality,  and  the  goo«l  taste  of  a  fair,  but  none  of  the 
elevation,  ornament,  and  intensity  of  a  large,  Identity, 
In  another  part  of  the  review  we  find  the  fidlowing  sen- 
tences. In  Byron  '  there  are  some  sweet  lines,  atid  ma- 
ny of  great  weight  and  energy,  but  thu  genenU  march 
of  the  verse  is  cumbrous  atiil  unmusical.  His  lines  do 
not  vibrate  like  isdished  lances,  at  otice  strong  and  liiiht, 
in  the  hatids  of  his  ]>or8ons,  but  are  wielded  like  cliniuy 
batons  in  a  bloodless  affray.  •  •  •  He  has  too  lillli 
sympathy  with  tlie  onlinary  fieliiigs  and  frnillies  of  hu- 
manity,  to  succeed  well  in  their  ri'piesj'iitation.  "  Hii 
soul  is  like  a  star,  and  dwells  apart."  •  •  •  It  does  not 
"  hold  the  mirror  up  to  nature,"  iior  catch  the  hues  of 
surrounding  objects,  but,  like  a  kinille<l  funiace,  throwi 
out  its  intense  glare  and  gloomy  grandeur  on  the  narrow 
scene  wliich  it  irradiates.'     Here  we  jterceive  the  glow 


PHRENOLOOW 


tf  filcalily,  tho  nimplicity  of  the  former  rtylc  is  gone, 
Hid  the  diction  hiu  lirromo  elevated,  fl|{urutive,  and  or- 
ntmental.  I  mn  not  informe<l  re^nrding  the  partir.nlnr 
wnteni'oii  whirh  each  o(  the  above-named  gontloinen 
wrote  in  thii  rrviow,  but  thnio  extrnct*  will  mtvo  an 
brief  exnn^'  i  •»  of  the  difforonreii  produced  on  Htyle 
wlien  Idr  :  .  Iic<ln  fi'w  or  many  benms  on  the  pen  of 
tlie  autlii)'  ,  ir.u  I  ref;itrd  the  probabilitioa  aa  very  atrong 
lliat  the  paHHiigcs  are  nH«i);ned  to  their  actual  auurcea." 
The  organ  ia  eatuliliHhed. 

Nn.  tW.— Wit,  or  Ihs  Ludicroui. 

The  ori^nn  of  tliix  faculty  is  lituatcd  before,  and  n 
little  low<>r  than  that  of  Ideality,  When  larife,  it  gives 
a  lircmlth  to  the  up]>er  rention  of  tho  forehead.  In  tho 
portraitH  of  Sterne,  bin  forcllnirer  in  rcpreitented  resting 
on  this  nnijle  of  the  forehead,  which  in  him  was  very 
liTfre,  and  the  mental  iManifestation  powerful. 

The  plirenoloi»ical  wrilora  have  discuHHed  at  great 
length,  and  with  not  a  little  controversy,  the  metaphy- 
seal nature  or  atinlyms  of  this  faculty.  We  do  not 
require  to  follow  tliem  into  this  inquiry,  as  most  of  them 
are  agrci><l  that,  by  means  of  this  faculty,  we  see  and 
enjoy  the  hulnnms,  and  experience  the  emotion  of 
laughter.  Man  is  the  only  laughinff  animal,  and  tho 
impulae  anil  itn  result  are  too  well  marked  characteristics 
not  to  be  the  inaiiifostutions  of  a  special  faculty.  Dr. 
Brattle's  theory  is  the  most  aatisfuctory  of  any — that 
the  objects  of  the  ludicrous  are  incongruities,  with  a 
certain  mixture  of  congruity.  When  tho  butcher  put 
hi)  wiff  "f  hi't  <lot?'»  head  in  the  pit  of  the  theatre,  that 
he  ini?ht  wipe  his  lie.itcd  brow,  Uarrick  was  so  tickled 
with  the  -nconiiruity,  mixed,  be  it  olmervcd,  with  tho 
con?ruity  of  a  wiu  iH-loni^ing  to  a  hcail,  that  he  ran  olT 
the  stage  to  conceal  his  laughter.  When  this  organ  is 
lir^),  the  individual  both  enjoya  and  creates  the  ludi- 
CToin,  and  is  a|)t  to  give  a  ludicrous  turn  to  every  thing 
that  pnssipM  throuijh  his  mind.  For  tho  discussions  in 
which  Mr.  Sc'ott,  Mr.  Watson,  and  Mr.  Schwartz  of 
Plncliholm,  h:ive  taken  a  part,  as  well  as  for  the  opinions 
of  Hall.  Hpur/.heim,  and  (.'ombe,  we  must  relbr  to  Mr. 
Combe's  Sici'inr  (tth  edition,  p.  41G.)  We  may  ob- 
lorvc  that  Mr.  Scott  mid  .Mr.  Hewet  Watson  consider 
llic  oripm,  .\o.  20,  iis  that  of  an  intellectual  and  not  an 
allfctive  faculty.  Mr.  Hcott  views  it  as  the  faculty  by 
which  we  di^i'riiniiiate  or  observe  dilTereuces  ;  anil  this, 
by  much  ingenious  rcasouiug,  he  is  inclined  to  hold  to 
li  the  function  of  a  dilli-rent  f;iculty  from  that  by  which 
wc  perceive  rcsenibhmces.  Mr.  Watson  thinks  the 
fiinction  of  No.  2(1  is  to  investigate  what  may  be  called 
intrinsicalitics — the  intrinsic  nature  of  things.  Mr. 
Combe  thftiktf  the  facts  adduced  by  Mr.  Watson 
make  it  probiible  that  there  is  a  faculty  for  this  power, 
but  that  it  is  not  No.  '20.  Dr.  .Spuraheim  unsettles  both 
Mr.  8cott';f  and  Mr.  Watson's  theories  anatomically,  by 
blowing  that  the  portion  of  brain  is  in  the  same  region 
with  Idcidity,  and  is  therefore  the  organ  of  an  alfcctive 
in:l  not  an  intellectual  faculty.  He  farther  holds,  that 
tho  same  facultv  which  |»rceives  resemblances  perceives 
dilTcrcnces ;  and  both  he  and  Mr.  ('omlie,  observing  that 
all  those  who  ileal  largely  in  the  ludicrous  liave  the  Or- 
gan 20  large,  coni'liiilc,  that  whatever  may  be  the  o\)- 
jtvt  or  objects  of  the  ludicrous  in  nat\ire — whether 
lorapthini;  specific,  like  colour,  or  olour,  in  a  rose,  or 
loinc  m'r/.Vi/i/  of  thiiign,  which  in  themselves  are  not 
nrcpMsarily  ludicrous — there  is  a  mental  wntiment  or 
(motion  which  move<,  or  is  laughter.  No.  20  is  the 
o-i;»n  es-iiMitiiilly  of  this  emotion,  and  so  far  they  hold 
it  eittaMislicil.  Our  own  observation  in  numerous  in- 
itanccs  coidirms  this  conclusion.  Primitive  function  is 
bf«t  observed  in  extreme  development,  and  when  No.  20 
ii  very  large,  the  individual  exists  in  ft  world  of  tho 
luilicrous.  'I'his  conclusion  is  agreed  upon,  generally, 
bj  all  the  contruvrrsialists  on  the  function  of  this  f»cul- 


ty,  ai  their  discuisiona  relate  to  the  metaphyviral  anily 
sis  of  the  faculty  only.    Gurran  and  Sheridan  waiu 
both  coniidered  witty  men,  yet  in  neither  is  the  orgti. 
SO  largo.     Mr.  Combo  thinks  that  their  cases  only  con- 
firm tho  view  of  the  faculty,  which  he  with  Dr.  Spur> 
heim  is  dis|M>sed  to  take.     He  thinks  that  in  (Jurran'i 
works  there  are  none  of  tho  witty  coiitras**  of  Sterne, 
Voltaire,  and   a   living   wit,  tho    Rev.  Sydney  Smith. 
Ourran's  is  burlesque  humour,  of  a  coarse  satirical  kind. 
SocretivenesB  and  Imitation,  with  Eventuality  and  Conv 
parinon,  gave  him  fertility  of  invention,  copiuusnesi  of 
illustration,  tnvoir  faire,  and  tact,  and  DcHtructivenesi 
gave  his  ideas  a  pungent  sting,  which  he  wielded  with 
much  address.     Sheridan,  again,  notoriously  ilnle  from 
others  his  witty  layiiigs,  and  applied  thciii  in  his  own 
compositionn.    "The  Rev.  Sydney   Sniith,"   says   Mr. 
Combe,  •<  is  a  living  examjilo  of  a  really  witty  mind. 
His  wit  is  always  |X'rtinent  to  the  object  about  which 
he  reasons.     It  is  the  seasoning  to  solid  urgumcnt,  and 
in  fact  ia  often  in  itself  argument.     Sheridan,  when  h« 
drew  on  his  own  resourccii,  manifested   Individuality 
Kventunlity,  and  Comparison,  in  enumerations  and  de- 
scriptions of  physical  objects  ond  events,  and  by  meant 
of  a  modoratfl  organ   of  wit,  he  tinged  them  with  tiie 
ludicrous.     Sydney  .Smith,  on  the  other  hand,  iinprcg" 
natea  the  abstract  deductions  of  reason  with  wit,  pre. 
scnting  the  st/ongest  arguments  in  tho  most  ludicroui 
attire,  yet  keeping  the  wit  always  subordinate  to  the 
logic.     Causality,  combined  with  a  large  organ  of  Wit, 
appears  to  me  to  be  indisiiensalile  to  the  manifestation 
of  these  qualities."     Mr.  Combo    adds     he    following 
true  observation,  which  every  one  is  enanled  to  verify 
in  the  circle  of  his  own  acquaintance.     "  Some  indivi* 
duals,  who  possess  a  large  development  of  Individuality, 
Eventuality,  and  Comparison,  [larticularly  when  Secre* 
tiveness  and  Imitation  (which  are  great  elements  in  the 
talent  for  acting)  are  olso  large,  often  enjoy  a  great 
reputation  for  wit  and  drollery  among  their  coinpaniona, 
although  in  them  the  organ  of  the  Ludicroua  is  by  no 
means  large.     Two  cxpluiiations  may  be  given  of  this 
fact     First,  the   conceptions   formed    by  the    faculties 
here  named  are  paljuiblc  and  striking,  and  if  even  a 
moderate  portion  "•'  the  ludicrous  be  infused  into  them, 
they  prochice  a  „reat  effect  on  ordinary   minds.     Se- 
condly,  many  persons   take   every  thing  for  wit  that 
makes  them  laugh,  and,  in  conseipicnce,  dignify  with 
that  name  mere  imitations,  and  sonietinios  even  absuKl- 
ities,  when  uttered  with  a  cunlidont  air,  as  if  they  had 
legitimate  pretences  to  be  considered  ludicrous." 

No.  21.— ImitBiion. 

This  organ  is  situated  on  each  side  of  that  of  Henevo- 
lence.  Dr.  (jbU  found  the  protuberance  accompanied  by 
instinctive  and  often  irrepressible  mimicry.  A  deaf  and 
dumb  boy  had  this  power  quite  uncorisciuusly.  The 
purpose  of  the  faculty  is  to  enable  the  ytmng  to  learn 
from  the  more  advanced,  and  keep  a  convenient  uni- 
formity in  the  manners  and  externals  of  society.  Cele- 
brated players  always  possess  it  largely,  and  by  it  imitate 
the  Bupposeil  manner,  and  even  feel  tho  sentiments,  of 
their  characters.  In  the  Txiiifiictwus  of  Ihc  Phreiioh- 
air  il  Svne!y  (page  109),  Mr.  Scott  has  shown  that  Se- 
crctiveness  must  concur  with  Imitation  to  complete  the 
actor.  He  must  conceal  his  own,  as  well  as  imitate  the 
character  he  plays.  The  Imitative  arts  dcjHMid  on  this 
faculty ;  and  its  organ  is  found  large,  accordingly,  tii 
painters  and  sculptors  of  eminence.  Vcntrilociuism.  a« 
shown  by  Mr.  Siiiiiison  in  two  papers  in  the  I'hretiotogi- 
cnl  Jniirndl,  is  nothing  more  than  exquisite  power  of  imi- 
tating sounds  according  to  position  aiul  ilistaiice.  What 
a  fund  of  amusement  and  delight  comes  from  the  group 
of  faculties  whose  organs  are  all  in  this  om-  region  of  tlw 
head,  well  named  "  "The  Poet's  Corner,"  namely.  Ideality, 
Wur'.dcr,  Imitation,  Wit  or  the  Ludicrous,  Time   aal 


M4 


INFORMAWON   FOR  THE   PEOPLE 


rmie !  The  fitrulty  of  Imitation  Iim  ueen  rm>Hnlwd  in 
•  ntntc  of  liiKCiiKe,  when  the  iinpiiliw  to  miinir  la  Iwyotiil 
ihu  iniliviihtiil'H  noiitml.  I'lnol  makcii  mnutioii  of  an 
idiot  girl  who  w«h  ulfrrlpil  In  tlii«  way.  Parrotn,  ition- 
kcyi,  aiiil  tlie  inockinn-hini,  imilato  and  inimir.  TIip 
laitt-mpntionod  otXim  oltmrlii  othrr  hirdi)  liy  thn  crina  of 
thi'ir  own  kind;  and  thrn,  wanifinhly,  a»  it  were,  wiiroH 
ihem  awny  willi  thn  cry  of  «utuo  bird  tliey  dread.  Tiie 
am»n  ia  oatabliahod. 


ORDRR  SKrONn-INTKLLKCrrUAr,  FACUI-TIKS. 

Dy  tlii'KR  fmnihiiM  man  nn<l  nnimnlii  iM'rrcivo  or  qnin 
knowlt'dne  of  the  cxlrrnid  world,  and  likcwiiic  of  their 
inrii  miMitid  opj-nition*.  Thi<  ohjrrl  of  the  fiicultirt  in  ti> 
know  what  pxIhIk,  nml  to  iM'rcrivo  i|inililici*  and  rpjii- 
tiona.  Dr.  Spur/.hi-iin  itividcd  thnin  into  Ihrrc  urnera: — 
1.  The  Kxli-rniil  MmHi;*;  'i.  The  Internal  Heiixea,  or 
Prrcpptive  Kaciiltios,  whieh  procure  kiiowlrdife  of  ex- 
ternal ohjirtH,  their  pliVHieal  quuliliva  and  rclationH ; 
3.  The  Kelh-etinit  Facultieii. 

From  ihii  Kreat  lenijth  to  which  our  ohacrvaliona  on 
ihr  Fe»lini;»  have  extendeil,  and  from  the  more  nieta- 
phy«ieal  nature  of  the  analy»i«  of  the  Intellectual  I'ow- 
em,  we  muHi  he  more  brief  in  our  pxi«)»ilion  of  them — 
rrferrini;  to  the  plireiu>loi;ieal  iMJoki  fur  a  fuller  treutmeiit 
of  thia  hraneU  of  the  auhjpeL 

OKNUA  I. — EXTKRNAL  8KNBC8. 
Dy  thcNe,  man  and  the  inferior  animals  are  hrnusht 
into  comnuinic.ition  with  the  external  material  world. 
Much  inetuphy.'<ieal  acumen  haii  Uen  wasted,  and  much 
nonaenae  written,  uliout  the  wn^cH.  Before  phrenology 
diiifovered  nilnntil  fuculliea,  of  which  the  HenneH  are  the 
miniHtern — they  theiiiwlves  Kivinq;  only  puwive  imprex- 
aiona  called  s<'ni<atloiia,  hut  formiu);  no  ideaii — the  RunHex 
wore  considered  the  j<ii/r  sourrex  of  our  knowledije.  'J'hey 
■re  nceewary  to  that  knowledge,  hut  would  never  of 
theinivlveH  have  completed  it  The  auljeet  in  adniirahly 
treated  hy  Mr.  Coinl>c  in  hia  Sys:em  (4th  edition,  pane 
43o).  By  each  aensp  we  dim'over  aome  quality  of  male- 
rial  nature.  The  fSensea,  aa  generally  received,  arc  five 
in  nuniher — Tomh,  Tusle,  Smrll,  UtarinK,  and  Siilii. 
There  are  certainly  two  more,  namely,  the  fcuiit  nf  Iluu- 
gti'  and  Tliiii',  and  the  Miumldi  niuc,  or  that  hy  which 
wt?  feel  the  state  of  our  muaclea  aa  acted  upon  hy  gravi- 
tation and  the  reiiiKtnnce  of  mutter.  Without  iIiIh  limt 
■enae  we  could  not  keep  our  hulanrc,  or  suit  our  move- 
tnpiita  to  the  lawaof  the  niechnnicnl  world.  Dr. 'I'hnmnH 
lirown  conjectured  this  senst;  many  yeara  ago,  and  •'^ir 
Charles  Hell  has  thrown  much  li;;ht  on  it  hy  pioviiii;  that 
■e|Nirato  rooU,  afterwards  joinin;^  in  one  apparent  nerve, 
but  evidently  beini;  two,  |rive  nius<-ular  motion  and  muscu- 
lar aensaUon.  Mr.  fSini|i8on  has  Ion);  Kivon  his  ulteiition 
lo  this  interestini;  suhject,  and  thrown  so  much  \\\!,\n 
apon  it,  as  lo  render  it  next  to  certiiin  tliat  all  aiuinaU 
have  a  fiiifsive  ttmr  of  material  resistiuicp,  and  also  an 
ai::ivtjii'ui:y  for  apply  inj:;  counter  resi«laiice — both  liein^ 
neeeaaary  to  every  niiiseuUr  exertion.*  The  a<'n«'ji, 
there  is  every  reason  to  hold,  are  not  live,  but  aevcn  in 
number. 

tKtIVH   If. — UtTFLWCTUAl.   FArUI.TIES,   WHICH     PRO- 
«-URK  KJIoWI.KnoE  or  EXTKRNAL  OBJI':rT9,  OK  THKIR 
PRTSICAL  QUAI.ITIICS,  AM)  VARlOb'S    RKJ.ATIO.NS. 
These   faculties  correspond   in  aome  dcjjree  with   the 

perceptive  jKiweni  of  the  inetaphysiciuns,  and  form  ideas. 

No.  "ja— Tailividiialily, 

The  oritan  of  this  faculty  ia  situated  in  the  middle  of 

•See  PhrmoltifiriU  Journal,  vol.  ii.  10.1.  I.  SI'S.  xi.  275.  and 

gffTioasly  III  vol.  IV.  atlfl.  Sir  Ooorije  .Mncicvn/n-  has  roiiiri- 
uied  an  lnir<^niou«  papi-r  on  this  ■utiject.  vni.  \x.  MHi  ami  .Mr. 
No')!e  or  .Muiicle-<ii-r.  x.  T)t\  xii.  'JtM.  Hee  ujiliiional  vi«w*  liy 
Mr  .'^.miisoii.  in  Tht  Lanat  of  tTili  July,  I'Hl. 


the  lower  part  of  the  forehead,  immediately  aoov*  |^ 
lop  of  the  nose.     It  takes  co^-nisance  of  individual  ««. 
istenies — of  a  home,  for  example.     Other  knowing  faeul 
ties  res|M'Ctively  olstervp  tlie  form,  cohiur,  sire,  and  weinhl 
of  the   horse,  hut  a  faculty  was  nei'essaiy   to  unite  aj, 
tlies<>,  and  i;ivo  the  individual  idea  of  a  horse.    It  furnishes 
the   sulislraluin   which  has  form,  colour,  A-e.,  an  old  de. 
siileratuin  of  the   melnphysieians.      Iiidivldnalily   ii  the 
storehouse  of  knowleih^e  of  thiiiKs  that  simply  iris/,     (• 
is  often  larifo  without   Ih-Iiik  aiinnipanii  d   hy   reflprlini 
power;  when  this  is  the  easi',  the  iiidlviihiiil   has  Iit.(<n 
compareil  to  an  encyclopiedia,  full  of  fids,  hut  uimlile  to 
reason   from  them.     All   the  ohjects  of  Indivliliialily  ara 
iii/»/i   ruh»hi nt ivm.     Verbs  and  lulji'i'tives  are  tbii  iicrceik 
lions  of  oilier   faculties   tc)  lie   afterwards   iiolici'd,     \^ 
liiilividimlily  merely  ohsi-rves  existences  wilhoiit  renaril  ti 
their  modes  of  action,  it  is  the  ruiully  of  the  inituraliji. 
Those  who  possess  it  large  and  active,  observe  the  minu. 
lest  olijects;  no'hiii((  escapes  Ihcin,  and  ihey  renicinlicr 
even  the  minutest  objects  so  well,  that  they  will  miss  thrin 
when  taken  away.     On  the  CDiilniiy,  those  wlm  huyp  ji 
small,  olwrvp  iiothin)(,  and   give   the  most   iin|M  rfect  ac- 
count of  the  objects  which  have  been    ill  their  way,     |n 
llie  artist,  the  fai'ully  uives  ^reitt  iniiuilenes.s  ofilctnil,  „^j 
with   Imitation  and  Form,  ureal  (siwer  of  liillinjj  llko. 
nes.ies  in  portrnlt-paintinn.     The  faculty  prompts  tn  iier. 
soniCicalioii  of  abstract  ideas,  as  Fame,  Envy,  Wiadoin, 
Folly.     .Mr.  CoiiiIm'  says — "In  adults,  the  fronlnl  «i,iui 
is  generally  present  at  the   situ.itlon  of  this  or^an,  and 
tills  llirows  a  dill'iculty  in  the  way  of  jiid;;in!;  of  '\u  niig. 
The  fniiction,  however,  is  ascerl,.ine(l  by  observing  young 
|N'rs(ins  in  whom  the  sIiiiih  is  not  formed,  ami  al<o  by  tha 
iic(?ative  evidence;  th.it  is,  when  the  external  part  of  ||n 
skull  at  the  top  of  the  nosi'  is  narrow,  I'ontrarted,  and 
di|ire!is«>u,  the  |)ortion  of  brain  below  is  necessarily  smmt 
mid    then   the   mental   [Hiwer   is   fou.id   invariulily  wpuk 
This  coiicDiiiitanco  of   lar.^e   si/o   and    ^reat    power  ii 
yoviiig  [HTsons,  and  of  ileficieiiey  of  si/.c  and  t'eeblenei 
of  power  in  all  anes,  proves  the  function."     'I'lie  ori^ai 
Is  established  :  the   metaphysical   iinalysls  of  the  facullt 
re<|ulres   further  ini|uiry.     For  iible  dIsciiKsioMs  on  ihL 
I'leld  of  inipiiry  by  .Mr.  Scott,  Mr.  Hewet  Watson,  aw 
.Mr.  Schwartz  of  Htockholin,  sei^  I'hrtiwlogkal  Journal 
vol.  v.  Tiii,  vi,  328,  and  vii.  'iVi, 

No.  2:). — Form. 

This  orf^an  ia  situated  on  e:'  h  nide  of.  and  riose  to 
the  nifhi  I'.iilli,  and  occupies  the  i^pace  helwien  the  evpi 
In  those  who  have  it  Urnv,  the  eyes  are  wide  iisiiiiJet 
and  V'lf  vrriii.  Dr.  (iail  discovered  the  ori;an  In  (sTsoni 
niiiarkalile  for  recoijnisinfl;  faces  after  bimr  intervals,  am 
iiltlionuh,  perhaps,  only  once  and  brlefty  sen,  The  Im* 
of  (teonje  III.  furnislies  the  best  example  in  the  I'hreno 
lo.'ical  Society's  collection  ;  and  it  is  well  known  that  h» 
never  foruot  n  face,  'i'ownsi'nil,  the  famous  Ihiw-strecl 
oll'ii'er,  had  the  same  talent,  one  most  essential  to  hli 
ollice.  As  every  material  objirt  must  have  a  form,  reifii. 
lar  or  irre;jular,  this  faculty  was  (liveii  to  man  and  ani- 
iiials  to  iM'rcelve  tbrnis,  and  they  could  not  e»l»t  wlllioutlt. 
When  larjje,  it  conslitntes  an  essential  element  in  a  talent 
for  drawinj;,  but  reipiires  .Si/e  unil  Con-trui  tiveness  lo 
IM'rfeet  the  talent.  Forms  are  capable  of  great  iH'iiuty, 
and  of  airordin^  much  pleasure,  und  in  iiuUnng  mure 
than  in  the  human  fi((ure. 

Many  jsTsons  who  have  the  orgnn  of  Form  large,  con 
nect  their  words  and  idi'us  with  forms,  and  these  often 
fanciful  ond  of  their  own  creatini^.  A  siniful.ir  inntunca 
of  this  ia  reeordeil  in  the  I'lirein  lii::ir,d  Jiiiininl,  vol.  viii 
p.  !ilG.  .Mineraloi;ists  and  crystallonraidiers  ifenerally 
poRHvsa  this  |K)wer  in  lari{C  endowment.  'I'he  celebrated 
Cuvier  owed  much  of  his  success  in  comporalive  anatomy 
to  hia  lnr){e  organ  of  Form.  De  Cuiiibille  meiitlons,  ihil 
"  his  (Cuvier's)  memory  wos  particularly  rem  irksble  in 
what  related  to  forma,  considered  iu  the  widest  scum  oI 


•t- 


PHRENOLOnV., 


j,»l  word ;  tlio  fliiure  of  iin  ■nimal  »t«n  in  reality  or  in  '■  of  Hir.o  larKPly  ilitvejopod  j    nnd  Iho  orn»n   li  now  f» 
Jrtwiiiil,  nrvor  U\\  hU  niiiitl,  iitiil  nurvud  liiin  um  h  point    ({nrcied    im    |iriilinhl<-.     I'itaoiki    in   wlioiii    Iiidlviilualilv. 
#1' i:iiin|iui  in""  Inr  nil  HiiiiiUr  olijocU."     Mr.  Drwirk,  tlir 
grit  I'l'leliiuU'd   F^ullnli  wiMMl-i'iiKriivcr,  Hliowi-d   ini   ini- 
eniiiiio'iily  uri'ttt  ilintttiii'n  b<:twt'eii  (ho  eye*.     The  organ 


ji  wtiil>li*'><''l- 

No.  !1  -Sue. 
Evrry  ohjivt  \\w  a  hI/.h  nr  dinirnitinn     Hrncc  a  fiiriilty 
li  nrd'Hii;iry  to  roi-nisi"   liiin  i|ii:ilily.     'I'lii.'  oiffun  in  mIIii- 
itfd  Hi  ll"'  i'l'irr  cxtriMniticH  of  llic  cyi'lirown,  wliori'  llicy 
turn  upon   the  nom".     A  |irrc('|ilioii  of  t^'at)  i«  iinpoilnnt 
liiour  inoviMnrntH  nnd  lU'tionn,  iind  cimontinl  to  our  Hiifety. 
Therp  i»  no  mvnrncy  in  dniwiu;;  or  piTHpcctivi'  willioiit 
l|)|fi  orRiiM.     A  Kintpilnr  inthincr  of  n  drfrcl  in  lIu'  power 
rf  porivi'  1  i;(  [Mrspcctivr,  nri'oinp.inii'il  with  n  ainiill  ori;un 
nf  Site,  i>   nirntioni'il   |iy    Mr.  Coinlio  (VyiVi/i,  vol.  i.  p. 
472).    "  Mr-  KiTifUMon,  tutor  in  the  funiily  of  Hir  (iconic 
Varkon/i*'.  stilted  llmt  lie  Imd  ii  ilitricnlty  in  'iindiTKtand- 
iim  n  l;iMd-<i'iiiir'  in  ii  pirtiire.  nml  exp!;iiiied  that  -it  ;i|i- 
[.Mrrd  to  liim  to  prr.^ent  ii  Rronp  of  olyerta  on  ii  pliiin 
<urf»i',  witlio'it    liny   jMTreptiMc   fore  or  liiuk  Krouml.' 
\\f  uttrilnili'd   thin  defi'ct  in   IiIn  perrrptions  to  his  not 
l.ivinR  hi'iii  tiiiiijht  the  rulet  of  pernpertivc  nl  fichonl.    In 
iV  cmir^e  of  fiirtlior  inlerrojiiitinn,  he  Htnled  thiit  lie  neen 
I'll'  foriiH   if  idijerlH  di^linet|y,  iih  iiUo  their  rnlonrM;   that 
•ip  Wc"  hrilliiint  tints  hint,  nnd  thnt  ill   n;itnre  he  per- 
(•fifcn  distani'in    iilw.      He    hiw   visited    Roslin   (in   tho 
iiii>hl>oiithood   of  KdinhiirL;h),  and   not  only   perceived 
the  lieiiniy  which   ehiir:irteri/,cs  thnt  deliciouM  spot,  lint 
nijivdl  it  "'itii  ii  keen  relish.     He  hnn  nlHO  seen  innny 
Miwn  of    Hi.;lil:inrl    seeneiy,  and    In'en   dellt;!ited    with 
ihcm.     Ri^erM.   ineadowK,   trees,  nnd   enltiva'ed    ground 
jtv,  however,  tin-  olijects  which  interest  him  most.     On 
lurninj  hi"  'nek  niniri  any  natural  landscn|M',  or  Hhnttiin; 
tii<  ovo.s.  Ills  reeolleelLotis  inslaiiMy  lieronie  very  confused. 
H"  is  II"!  alile  to  call  to  his  mind  tho  'relutivn  |M).sitions' 
rf  the  ofijcets,  while  he  distinctly  recollert.s  the  jihiifiin'. 
ir'i;irf''i"ii«  which  they   made  upon  him;   this  reniem- 
hnni'P  docs  not  soon   fide."     Mr.  Frr^iison's  orifans  of 
Ideality,  Womler,  and   Intellect,  arc  v,avn\ ;  hut  hi»  Hize, 
Form  nnd   IiiHMlity,  are  all  deficient.     His  description  of 
hh  pTpericM-e  IimiUs  very  like  a  det'cet  in  all  three.     Sir 
(loorec  MiickiMizie  thinUs  thnt  the   fnrulty  of  Size,  ns  it 
mirnlsofl  iliuiension   of  every   kind,  whether   in    leii'/lh, 
liroailtli.  lliickiiesH,  heinht,  depth,  or  distaneo,  is  that   fa- 
rullv  wliercliy  vve  perceive  firv,-  in  peneral.  nnnlo)iou«  to 
Mthe  liiciiltv  of  Time,  liy  which  we  perceive  time.    Dif- 
frrent  individuals  manifest  dilli'reiit  dei:;rC''M  i>f  tho  power 
of  iwrrr'ivini-  size.     Some  seem  not  to  po.ssoss  the  power 
if  pstiniatiiiil  distance   or  dimi  iision,  wh.ile   others  can 
(ifiiw  «  circle  without  compasses,  and   find  the  centre  of 
one  iilrendy  drawn  with  the  vrreatost  nccnrncy.    A  yonnt; 
lidy  is  incnlioned  hy  Mr.  Comlio,  whose  drawiiip;s  were 
nrniMte  ill  tlw  form,  lint  always  orroneoiia  in  the  size  of 
the  objects  or  parts.     The  orfjnn  is  ostnhlished. 

No.  1«.-Wri(fl.i. 
Weiaht  is  a  qunlily  of  mutter  quito  distinct  from  nil 
its  other  ipialities.  The  weight  of  liny  mntorial  ohjeet 
is  only  another  nnnio  for  its  degroo  of  Kravitntini^  ten- 
(ieiioy — its  aitrnetaliility  to  the  inrth.  A  power  to  per- 
wive  the  dilf'Tcnt  de^irees  of  this  nttraotion  Is  ossoiitial  to 
miin's  movemints,  safety,  nnd  «von  cxisloneo.  'i'liere 
musi  lie  a  t'li'-ully  for  that  [x-reeption,  and  thnt  facility 


Hize,    VVeinht,    und    Locality    are    l«r«e,    have    vfWcrMj 
■  talent  for  oiiKineerinK,  nnd  thow  hrniieheH  of  nieclianicj 
which  eoiiHist  in  the  npnlication  of  forces ;  llii'V  ilclii(hl 
in  Hteniii-entfincH,  water-wheels,  and  tiiriiifiK-lathe«.    Th« 
name   coinhlnution   iH'cnrs   in    perNons   (llHliiiuiiislied    fut 
Hnrressfiil  feats  in  skalinu,  in   which   the   re:(uliitloii  of 
oi|iiiIiliriuni   it  an  inipoitaiit  element.     ('oiistriictitrneM, 
when  VVeiKht  is  small,  leaiU  to  rearinit  still-fahrics,  rnlhof 
than   to   raluicnliim   working  ni.ichinery.     Mr.  HimpsMl 
has  Kiven  ruich  attention   to  this  faciiily  {I'hrrHoUiv.ual 
7"iirii>i/,  vid,  ii.  JI. 'Il'j),  anil   opened    up  nonio  orlHiiial 
viow.s  for  disenssion  in  the  phrenoli-Rical  world  ; — a  new 
elinptor,  as   Mr.  ('oniln'  calls  it,  in  the  science  of  mind. 
He  cites  a  iiiiiiilN'r  of  noted  inechnniciiinH  nnd  enifineers  in 
whom   the   ()ri;nn   S5  is  larue.     In   the   liiist  of  Jaine* 
VVntt  it  is  partii-nlarly   prominent,     (children  who  walk 
early  iiiiil   steadily   ha\e  uniformly   the  orcnii   liirne,  und 
the  inforenco  was  drawn  that  the  faculty  trives  the  powel 
of  preserving  eipiilihrimii,  or  that  hiilam  e  of  forces  which 
is  essential  to  the  application  of  niiiniiil   )iower,  nnd  even 
to  animal  existence.    The  inslnnccs  of  Mr.  .Inhn  Hunter, 
the  anatomist,  n  yoiinit  lady,  Miss  H.  I,.,  nnd  the  Kn'.;li«h 
Opium-eater,  are  adduced  in  coiifinnalioii  of  ihe  uction 
of  this  power,  these   persons  eshiliiliiiy  the  eH'ccts  of  t 
snsis'iision  of  it,     Mr.  John  Hunter,  in  an  illness,  felt  ai 
if  he  hud  drunk  too  iiiiich,  nlthon^h  ho  had   been   ex- 
tremely temperate — ns  if  he  wero  suspended  in  the  air, 
as  if  the  room  went  round  with  him,  nnd   ns  if  ho  were 
iiisensihle  of  his  own  coiitie  of  i^rnvity — so  he  expressed 
himself     The  younn  lady  hnd  the  same  seiisnlions,  and 
iiw  iiifjieiMltniiirt  nl  oihir  iiii^ka.   The  0[iinni-cnter  felt 
as  if  ho  wero  fallini;  millions  of  miles,  as  ho  expresses  it, 
without  ever  tindinK  ■  bottom.     Iiitoxicutiim  sports  with 
liiijirniliniliirf,  it  is  well  known.     Sir  George  Mackenzie 
sucRcited  Kesislanee  as  the  fiinctiun  of  this  power.     Mr. 
Siin[)son  considers  Resistance  to  bo  the  passive  wMisntion 
of  a  tetife  (hoo  Bxtornal  Senses),  and  the  Orgnn  25  tlwt 
of  apidyini?  Force,  or  tho  adaptation    to   resistnnco   of 
eouiiter-resistance.     For  his  muturod  views,  see  I'hreno- 
iK^iiat  Jmirnnl  (toI.  ix.  p.  193).     Mr.  Uichnrd   Edmon- 
son of  Manchester,  in  the  Phrciolni^ail  Jimnidl  (vol.  vii, 
p.  106,  and  ix.  p,  024),  atRucs  thnt  tho  Ori-an  2!i  s"'et 
tho  perception  of  the  ilinrliun  of  gravitating  force — in 
other  words,   tho  ptipciiiliruhir  or   vcrlinil:   and   cite* 
instances  ninonR  his  own  numerous  workmen,  nnd  otiicn, 
of  individuals  who  couhl  guess  the  perjicndicular  without 
applying  the  plumli-lino;  and  Mr.  Edinonsim,  ns  ho  him- 
self Bl.ites,  makes  use  of  Mr.  Simpson's  facts,  especially 
tho  cuses  of  diseased  (lereoptinn  nbove  cited,  in  support 
of  his  own  theory.     There  is  miicli  worthy  of  reflection 
nnd  farther  oliservation  in  this  view.     A  standard  of  the 
direction  of  gravitation  is  essential  to  our  safety  in  per- 
son, buildings,  &c.,  nnd  the  standard  is  Ihe  I'nliral.     A 
lino  jiercoption  of  this  is  certainly  necessary  to  tho  engi- 
neer and  meehunician.     But  it  apjiears  to  us  thnt  the 
perception  of  the  mere  iliteitinu  of  grnvitntion  were  use- 
less to  us  without  tlic  perception  of  gravitation  itself, 
which  is  just  another  term  f</r  Weight.     Mr.  Hytche,  in 
a  paper  in  the  I'hrcmld'^inil  Jmtriiid  (vol.  xiv.  p.  109), 
adduces  many  proofs  in   favour  of  the  eonclusion,  that 
No.  '.'.')  is  the  organ  of  the  application  of  mechanical 
power.     In  a  paper  lately  rend  to  the  Phrenological  A»- 
I  Kocialion    met   in   London,*  Mr.  Simpson   Kutji.rcwt.s,  ih-it 


naisl  have  a  cerebral  instrument  or  organ.     I'bri  nolouisls  i      ,  ,      ,..,.       .  .^    .-    .  ..       ,. 

,,,,.,.,.  •      .u  I  ■•        what  aiiuear  to  be  dillerent  maiiile.stations,  according  to 

tiiive  generalK  localized   tliat  or,'an   in   the  suiierorliitar  i    ,  '  *^      ..,,.. ,  >i     u   .  i  i   »• \r 

.,  ,  1-  .  1  .   .     u  1   .■    .1       I  the   views  of    Mr.  Ldmonson,  Mr.  Hvtclie,  and   hinisell, 

nilno  or  eyili-ow,  imniedi.itely  next  to  Size,  nnd   liirllirr  ' 

Imin  liic  top  -ll  llie  luise.      Hut  ns  yet  the  function  of  the 

(ivan  'ih   b:is   given  rise  to  so   much  discii.ssiou,  ns  to  ' 

lesve  it   Car   IV  mi  certain   what   that   (ireci.sely   is.     Mr.  i 

CoiaU'  nays.  ••  I'ersons  who  exci-l   in  nrehcry  and  ijuoits,  i 

liui  ulto  those  who  find  great  facility  in  .udgiiit;  of  mo-     .      ,                   •        •    .i      ,■       .■         r  .i                   .•  /'«. 
,          .           .            ,      ■                I           1   .      Its  due  proportion  is  the  luiulion  of  the  organ  ot  C» 
mciitam   and    res;stnnce   in   mechanics,  are  ob.servi-il   to  •     '  „     „_  

p.i:.a'ss  Ihe  \,:\\A  of  llic  bruiii  ljinj{  Iteareot  to  the  orijaa  I      •An  uL»iruci  iS  publishiJ  in  Tht  Laimtoi  ITiii  Julv.  Idil 

Vut.  i.-jj  St  a 


I  seem  all  to  be  mcessary  to  tho  action  of  one  simjle  power, 

1  the  nuv  haniinl  percejition  nnd  npplicniion  of  force;  in  a 

word,  that  the  labours  of  all  three  may  be  found  tei;clir.g 

to   t!io  i*ame   object.     Mr.  Kdinoiison,  however,  udduiej 

some  tacts  to  show  that  tiie  uifive  application  ot  foice  in 


■./ 


INFORM ATION    POU  THK   PKOl'I.K. 


•Iruct  >KiiPM.  Y»l  omtlrurtiim  w  rh«iiKii  oJ  forni.  *riil 
•II  xtiiiimli)  ii|>ply  forrp,  wliiln  frw  <oii.lrmt.  Tim  liiiif- 
lioiK  ini|iiil.vl  liy  Mr.  K.liii<>ii»"ii  •'>  '"''I'  -^  ••"'  1'  »f" 
yiit  "uii  <i|>i-ii  iiiU'iilioM,"  wmlinn  i»t  fiirlliiT  ih.niIh  liy 
ItitU.  Till-  hlii.liia  of  lihriiiolony  •liouia  liiul  ull  tilt) 
fytn  to  wluiU  wo  liavn  rrfrrrctl. 

No  IM.— riilourlnir. 

A*  Kvery  objivt  mint  hnve  •  roliiur,  in  onlrr  lo  l>r  vj. 
•i1)li',  it  MM'iiiii  lU'rcHiiury  tliiit  lliiTr  iiliiiiiiil  Ih'  ii  ruculty 
lo  iii,('>i*'  ''''"  il""'''y-  '"'""  '"'W'"  i"  ''"'  '"'"•  "iilwiinlit 
from  \Vi'i«l\t  ill  tlic  cyolirow ",  iM'i'U|iyiiin  lUr  iin'ciw 
Ci'iiIrK  of  r.ii-li  ryrlirow.  A  licijluw  iIuti',  iritu  which 
Ihi-  rii'l  i>f  lh<'  llnurt  cotilil  Ih<  |iiiI,  or  kiu'Ii  n  ll  iIiichh  In 
lhi>  riil.{0  of  th>>  I'volirow  thut  ii  |H'r|>i'ii(lii'uliir  lino 
dri>|'|><''l  I""''"  ■'  woiiM  paiM  ihroii'di  Iho  i<V('l<iill,  luia, 
liriit'H  uilhont  iiiniiU'r,  N-cii  fximl  to  he  iici'iiiri|iiinii'il 
«jlli  ll  w«iit  of  |hiwcr  U)  (liwrimiiiiili'  coliiiirx.  oflcii  lo  ii 
liiliiroiin  rittiit.  A  nnrcrr'"  ii|i|irriitiir,  who  iioimI  to 
oirrr  ri'il  to  nmtt'h  KfO'n,  wiih  <liriiniH4('(l  iih  unlit  for  liii 
triiilo.  'ri»<  iirKitn  iH  Inrni'  in  itrcut  |iiiintrni.  fN|H<i'iiilly 
giciil  colonri-lri,  anil  \(nc»  iin  iirchiil  ii|>|irariiJii'i'  to  ihi* 
rychrow  ;  fur  c'xnni|ili',  In  RiiIu'Mh.  Titiiin,  Hi'inlirmult, 
Nkhiilor  Iloan,  Clniiilo  liorrniiii',  iinil  oIIiith.  A  liirKi' 
iiiilov.iiiiMil  of  llu-  or^an  a'tw^  ifnal  ih>li;;!il  in  ll.'wns 
tnil  hrilliiint  colouring  of  ull  kiiiiU.  Nalnni  ha<i  wiili'ly 
•li'l  iirofnirly  |>roviih'(i  for  (hi<  Kriilini'iilion  of  iIiIh  fuciiU 
ly,  hy  the  oMjiii-itu  rolonrin*;  in  v.\ur\i  lur  worku  uro 
(!i«<40il,  >*omi'  nn'IniiliVHirialis  iMn»iili'r  llic  plr:i»iirc  wo 
d.rivr  from  iMloun  to  ho  iho  rcMilt  of  iho  uxmM'iatinn 
of  iih'iu.  I'hi'oiU'loKy  hao  ilimnviicil  that  it  lit  tho 
diriTl  Rratifioalion  of  an  orii.in  formiiiK  part  of  our  oori- 
nilution.  I.iko  that  of  Iil.'ulily,  Iho  pjia-uroit  wp  ilori\o 
fioni  ('oli)ur  aro  uratuilonn  ifooihiosi;  from  tho  ("rialorV 
liui;(I)i.  I.iyhl  anil  nhnilo,  mori'  hhii'k  unci  whito,  mlKhl 
hmo  nniliroil  olijoctn  vinihlo,  hut  «li.il  B  Konihro  huo 
woulil  n.ituro  in  that  onuo  havo  worn  !  In  nonio  inili- 
«idu'il>i  iho  lovr  of  floworx  amounlH  aInioNt  tu  a  paHHion. 
Thii  oritiin  iH  held  c«uhliahrd. 

No.  27. — I^rnlity. 

Dr.  (!all  WM  lod  to  tho  dUoovory  of  thi«  faoulty  m 
primilivo.  hy  oompnrmu  hi«  own  dillloultio*  with  n  oom- 
pani  ni'it  facilitioH,  in  liiulin^  thoir  way  throvi^h  thr 
woodn,  wlioro  Ihoy  had  jilaood  unaron  for  hirdi.  and 
murUol  nii*l>i,  whon  MudyinK  natural  history.  f;>  ry 
niatoiial  ol>j<rt  iuukI  rxi.it  in  kojuo  part  of  «f> '<- ',  and 
ll.at  part  of  Kpaco  horomoB  plnrr  in  virluo  of  loiuK  «o 
ooi  upiid.  OhjoolH  thomixlvrH  aro  roitni.K  '  ' ..  Iinliviii.i- 
ality ;  hut  their  placo,  tho  dirooliiiii  whoro  thoy  lio,  tlip 
way  to  thiMi  dr|H-nd  on  anothor  faoulty,  a  faoulty  Kivori 
fur  that  purpoMC.  Without  mu\\  a  powor,  mon  ami 
aiiiina!n  nimt,  in  Hitualiona  whon-  ohjoot*  wore  iiunio- 
nni.i.  and  oomplicutod  in  tlioir  positions,  a*  wo.kIh,  havo 
h>.4t  Oioir  wav.  No  man  ruuld  iiml  IiIh  own  hiuiu',  no 
l.inl  iig  own  np*t,  no  mouM'  Iih  own  hole.  'I'ho  uno  of 
Ul-  faculty  will  no  rondond  plain  hy  con«idorifiu  what  it 
i*  wo  lio  whon  wo  wish  to  romcinlH-r  our  way  tlirouirli 
the  MriotK  of  a  Urijo  city;  wo  noli'  puilicular  ohjoolii, 
I  uiMintfM,  for  rxampio,  and  oh«orvo  liow  thoy  ntand  in 
tolati.m  to  oaoh  olhor,  and  th'-so  rolalioim  woian  rpmfm- 
licr.  alth'.'Utfh  with  a  faint  roi..lIi'otioii  of  tho  for:ii<i  of 
l!ie  ohjoct^  ihotuwIvoK.  This  indiioid  Sir  (ioori?r  dio- 
IkOh/io,  in  hill  ••  Illuxtratiouti,"  to  altrihuto  to  this  faculty 
llic  iwrcoption  of  itltiltt-r  j:'»iIii,u  of  ohjocta.  It  in  ovi- 
ilcnt  that  ilio  ol.jccls  muni  !.o  fixed — at  least,  if  movuhle, 
f.xcd  f.>r  the  inomont — ii,  onlcr  to  lie  in  a  particular 
I  lacr,  i.r  <!iiH'<ip  UK  to  fii.d  or  ao  to  that  |'Inco,  Tlioro  ii< 
a.iolhor  rol.  'i.  iiamrlv,  that  hotwopii  our'olvcH  ami  tho 
I  laco.  Ho(  ihe  use  ■>'  tho  poinlH  of  tho  coinpa.ss, 
niii.h  a  o   Uu  »,ir  of  (i.torniinini;  the   direction  of 

placo*  ill  r^Uiti  "i  'o  mrwlv.'ii  and  ihose  places.  The 
i.iran  is  Ibi^<  iv  *i  >-'•  r  »,<j  lind  their  way  ciwily,  and 
»i\iiilv  r;j  r';!ii.si   p.it:*!- in  whicb   Un-y  ii' vis  Iccii      It 


maiprially  tid«  Iho  travrllor,  and  li  luppinrd  t<i  o*. 
a  lovo  for  'lavolliMH.  'I'ho  or«an  waa  larup  in  ('olun-. 
huK,  ('<Hik,  Park.  <'l,irk,  and  olhor  Iravollom.  (Jrom,. 
triciumi,  whow  atildy  id  Ihe  rol.illoii  of  iip.u-in,  hntn  tha 
oruaii  lame — aa  wan  tho  caw  with  Kepler,  (iiihlio,  '|'y_ 
cho  lir.dio,  and  Nowlon,  The  Inciili^,  when  ictlvn 
proinptii  ihe  individual'  lo  locali/oeveiN  Ihiiiu.aiul  think 
of  it  as  ill  Itjt  place.  One  kI'Ku'o  al  n  paiaKi:i|i|i  ,„  ^^ 
verlimineiit  In  ii  nownpapcr  lb  os  ilH  plaoe  in  Mioir  ii,ii„|. 
»o  thill  Ihoy  will  turn  mor  Iho  larnisl  nml  iimiit  vulunil. 
lioiiH  now'Hpapor,  aiiilkiiow  in  what  ciiIumiii,  aiul  pirtnf 
a  column.  Ihoy  will  I'iml  it;  ordirnt  oiLitn  to  <lo  h^ 
Many  puhlic  HpoakcrH  make  usi  of  Ihe  fiicully  hv  roii. 
iioi'llim  their  lopicit  with  placcH;  and  thoio  wlm  jn^,^ 
wiiltou  Iheir  ii|M'ochi'M,  roimtolior  Ihe  pai;.H,  or  part*  ,,f 
piu(es,  wliero  particular  paits  of  tin  ir  ili^couiw.  ^m 
noted  down.  Indeed,  Ihe  word  '"/'ir  is  di  rn.'ii  fr,i,„  ||,| 
Orrrk  /i/i"«,  a  place;  hence,  loo,  Ihewo.d  ■MniD/i.yi/,,^ 
Huh|oels.  A  perMoii  with  the  fnculty  powoilul,  w|||  ^^ 
in  Ihi'  dark  to  find  what  he  wiiiiIh.  and  will  tinil  it  i;'  j^ 
W*  plaeo.  Skilful  choBs-playcrs  invarial'ly  hti\e  ihi^  or. 
can  of  Iiocality  t.iruc,  ami  it  is  Is'Iieveil  thai  ll  j*  ((n, 
ormin  of  whiili  thoy  make  the  primipal  iiv  ;  tor  it  ^livcg 
the  power  of  conceivlntf,  heforo  iiiakinn  a  Minve,  the 
(licet  of  new  relative  posilioi'S  ol  the  pieces.  Minn*, 
lory  liirdn  are  helieved  lo  he  dirrcli'd  hj  thin  orijnn;  uk] 
animals,  like  ilo^s,  and.  it  Is  saiil,  cal-^uhiih,  dtfr 
iM'iiiK  carried  far  from  homo,  ooiilrive,  to  the  usloniiil). 
inetil  of  every  one,  to  roappc.ir  there,  hcnvi'vof  dislani. 
We  refiT  to  Ihe  /  /iriii"/"i:iM;/  J'  "iniil  (\(i|.  vii.  p,  -;  7) 
for  an  amu''inn  iiiMlaiico  of  a  teiM[iorary  s'lsjawisi,  ,  J 
the  power  of  usinn  the  faculty  of  LocHJily,  wl  1  a  .» 
perhaps  hotter  explain  the  nature  and  use  ul  iliul  {hmci 
than  iniirh  ulmtruct  doHcrijition.* 

No.  «>',— Niimlii'r, 

Tho  orijan  of  lliis  faculty  is  plai .  1  nl  the  outer  extr^ 
inity  of  till'  eyehroWH  and  aiu;lc  of  the  eye.  It  mo 
siono,  when  hii>fo,  n  fulncsH  or  hrcadth  of  ihe  Iciiipio, 
ami  ofleii  draws  downwards  the  o\lenial  con  ^t  ,if  'he 
ovp.  \'<  hen  it  is  small,  the  part  is  Hal  ami  nai.,iw  he' 
twoen  the  eye  ;ind  the  temple.  Tlieir  nunilicr  is  n  very 
iiiifiortant  relation  or  ciuelition  of  thiiii;s,  aul  letiuiro  t 
di-.linit  pers|s'Ctive  power.  Our  saldy.  niid  even  rxiiit. 
once,  may  dipend  on  a  clear  percepliun  of  Nuiiilfr, 
I  Dr,  (iall  cal'rd  the  faculty  "  l.i  S,„i<  ,le  ,V„,/  ,.,"  ..'rh, 
."^cnsc  of  Numhors,"  ai'd  iiiuiiu'iicil  to  it  not  only  arillr 
luetic,  hut  mathematics  in  (general.  Dr.  f^purzt  sim 
more  correctly  limits  it.-  fuiitlioiis  to  aritliim  lie,  Hli;i!ir», 
and  louarilhiiiH;  ifcnmctry  heiiii;  tho  exerci-c,  as  iilreuly 
shown,  of  oilier  faculties,  l;r,  (iall  I'usl  ii!.srr\iil  tin 
orn«n  in  a  hoy  of  nine  yea.-s  of  »i;e,  near  Vicnnj, 
who  coulil  multiply  and  divide,  iiicnl.iHy,  m  ],»■{  time 
than  rxport  iiiilhmetictaiis  could  do  with  their  |iiniil«, 
tell  or  twelve  hy  three  fiirures.  Dr.  (Iall  ai!  Is.  "he  hud 
crenti'd  his  own  nielliod."  An  mlvoiato  i>f  \  icnna  re- 
Ijrcttei!  to  Dr.  (i.ill  that  his  ann  was  ho  miieh  i  nurosw-J 
with  calculatint;,  th.xt  he  attondid  tu  iiolliiiii;  else,  Dr, 
(iall  compared  the  lic.uU  of  thesi'  two  Ik'V^.  lunl  found 
no  particular  rosi'inMinco  hut  in  ono  pl.no — timt  dc. 
Krihed  al'ovi — who  iiii»v  cxacllv  .u^ieod.  I)r,  tiuil  llicii 
went  to  notid  aritluin!i;iM.ii.—  i  noni;  them  an  au'liur 
of  tnlples  of  hi::u.-i'' n  -■  ,     '  iho  eanie       ,      ^ 

lion.     .Many  otho  -r   ■     • foiliid  in  the  plirrno 

louicnl  hooks;  tinu  lu.  o.^an  i»  easily  olmerMd  in  iml'jra, 
Tho  most  wondorlnl  a.-ithmolical  prinli'.^'  yet  known  to 
phrenologist  I  iit  Oeorue  liidder,  now  a  ci\il  cn'.(inei'r 
When  (piito  a  cliihl,  and  without  any  in.slii;  lion,  ha 
showed  an  cxtruordiiiary  talent  for  inentul  i  .'Iciialinn 
When  ho  camo  to  Kdiiihuruh— whore  some  .scieiilifii 
Koiitlemon"  undertook  lo  educate  him,  with  the  view,  if 
|>oMiible,  of  aarortaiiiing  lita  method,  which  they  iiivei 


*  Hcpriiileil  m  Ckauiitn's  EJinbwg/i  Journal.  Sit  yU, 


§i.m  h«  it  yot 
^«i>n  y«'»f«  "f  »«' 
ffirt  th«  moHt  com 
,rililiK  ''""">  " 
Cnmls'.  •I""«  '^i'' 
111  him.  """  'Ip''"'"' 
ricvcr  at  ichool  in 
dl  out  Iho  dollcien 
Ihe  largest  or«iin  n 
that  the  third  wbh 
Oollairn,  detailed 
IcMHo  tliiin  lliildo 
jf  the  l'lifen(»,oi; 
of  thesi'  yoiinn  m 
omHriciius.  In  I 
orann  and  power 
ili-nce  is  also  sin 
the  iirtfiin  is  small, 
lilealculilioii-  S 
lh«  mulli|ilicalion 

fi.iine  saviiKO  ti 
„,  lilty.  HiimhoMl 
America,  who,  wil 
heur,  ceil  roa  h  ll 
HuiiiK  !!•  rt:  .irk 
,  tiimiil  11) 
ll,  ."-..  '"  'r. 
Itvr  <\  hy  lie  ail 
11 ..  "ili'rior  niiin 
(i.  .  illy.  A  ll 
rewr  '  Hiiaill  {><<'< 
mtislicd  when  he 
„i„r  ,'1  siioiipr.  M 
iii.  Vccairs  asseri 

I  he  oru'an  is  o 
fiiy  mill  when  ll 
Ui»  known  to  |m^ 
ilji'liraical  f.'nis, 
natic  AByluin   in 
very  lump  ornan 
ri'»ii|pnl  siirjeoii 
6„'ureit.    'I'he  org 


The  eraan  of  I 
hetwecM  Coloiliin 
tlllieiil,  ami  o'lei 
whii  are  reinarka 
ai.il  syiniiietry,  ai 
ciil'irity.  The  n 
mill  their  suirerini 
oilier  ficully,  or 
hmee.  Several  c 
•111  liiii-,!;s.  where 
ni-ttt  everx'  othei 
w.iiiM  iiDl  enter 
in  ennhi>iion ;  am 
lie  r.Vveyron.  w 
nhieh  others,  ol> 
Mr.  I..,  a  late  iii 
fi'inarkalile   for  t 

.s  IHiiiited  ill  h 
this  important  li 
reiiihir  in  his  ace 
ill  his  jierson  :  111 
one  iiniliifestatioii 
ill  that  pcntleiiii 
arranijementH.  th. 
knife  into  a  icrot 
De  persuaded  to  I 
tho  iit'i'  one. 
muih  disconcerti 
pliieed  article.  ' 
&ill:y,  and  disgua 


PHRKN()I.()(>\. 


307 


III    ' 

llVf 


ki.  M  hii  I*  T*'*  iiim^iln  Id  put  it  in  wnnl* — hn  WM 
f|f«i>n  yt'irn  of  iitfc,  iiii|  rmilil,  in  •  nuniitc  nr  twu,  nn- 
fwrr  ihi  moot  r<iiri|>lifiiU'il  i|iii'alii>ti«  In  alKi'hra,  willmiil 
tiHiinK   ilown    n    llunrr.     II*    wim   pr'         cil   lo    Mr. 

I'nitilH'.  iiloiiK  with  two  iillu-r  tHivx,  nil  I  ii  iilriiiiui-rii 
,,,  ),iin,  Kill'  ilrncii'iit  in  itrilliini'liciil  powpr,  nml  Hniilhcr 
r|,-«iT  III  wIiodI  in  Ihiil  linr.  Ur,  Cniiilio  iit  ihicii  piiint- 
f,\  ciul  Ihi'  ili'tliii'iil  arxl  llir  itimhI  rtiillinirliciiin  ;  iinil,  liy 
llir  liir';i"<l  iirk(un  iif  Mm  throe,  uithniK  ilitl'iiMilly  i|r<  iilril 
ihiit  ''"■  ''•'"'  '^'"'  '"'"'K'"  HiililiT.  'I'hr  i'!i*'  »(  '.  iiTii 
Ciill'iii".  il'iiiili'il  hy  Ur.  (InII,  wiin  a  Mtrikinx  nnc  I'ut 
IrM  *« ''"'"  lli'l'l*'r'* ;  cnndt  III'  hiilli  urn  in  tli«  Mn-i>'iim 
of  till"  I'liriMiii'iijiriil  Siicii'lv  in  Kilinlinrnh.  Nrilher 
of  ihf'*'  v<iMiii(  mill  (iirnril  iinl  iniiri<  thiiu  nnlnmr  "•*• 
iim»lriii  III"-  '"  Miiniliiilill,  lirntlicr  nf  Ihr  Iruvcllri,  iho 
oruiin  mill  powi-r  iin-  hoili  urmt.  The  nciu'i'i^i-  ovi- 
,{,.,„',<  In  iiImi  Hlninif  ;  thrrn  iirn  iiiiliviiliiiilit  in  '  hnin 
l)i(i  ori;nn  ix  Hninll,  Hi\ii  who  llnil  ifri'itl  tlitlii'nlly  in  mi  II- 
III  cali'iililiiiii.  ^<llllll' hiivc  bt'on  utterly  unuMo  to  loam 
Ihf  iinill'|iliiMlii>n  Inlilr. 

S.iino  xiiMiKi'  trihi-M  lire  unnhio  to  rnunl  niinvx  thirty 
orl'iHy.  Ilinnliiililt  piirlicnliiri/i'H  thi'  ChiiyiniiH  iil'Noulh  I 
Amcrii'ii.  mIiii,  with  nn  i'xprr«Mi,>n  of  Kn'iit  niciiliil  lii-  | 
hilur,  rnii  rrn  h  lhi>4i<  ininil>i'rK;  nml  it  ii«  curiimK  thiit  | 
HhiiiK  II'  ri  irki'il  thiit  tho  rxtrrnul  nnnh'Pi  i>f  thiir  j 
,  tiimiil  up,  innti'iiil  of  ilowu,  n*  thi'y  ""'  whon  j 
'.h  '"I  r, '.  Tin' (irciMiliuiil  IrilwH  ciin  rojirh  ; 
^  )iy  ili<  dill  of  their  ten  l)iii;rrH  iinil  ten  Ioth.  I 
Mterior  niiiiniilN,  there  eiinnot  lie  n  iloulit,  pohmohh  | 
ll„.  (.<■  illy,  .\  lion  w,»8  nreiiHloini'il  to  lie  I'eil  !iy  nne-  ' 
rr«ii\  )  iiiiiiill  piereH  thrown  to  him,  lie  went  iiway  I 
milinllrd  when  he  liiiil  reeeived  the  lull  title,  liut  mil  one  1 
iniir  .'I  viionrr,  Min;|iie'«,  it  \n  iiiiiil.rount  three,  Dnpont  ' 
(ir  \ei  ,'MirH  iiHMertit  Ihiit  they  enunl  nine. 

1  111-  iiruan  in  ofttn  fonml  in  ii  Hliile  of  iliHeam'd  neli- 
nlv  •  mill  when  the  other  fiieullieM  were  ilorMiiiiit,  it  hiiH 
lot  known  In  |HTforin  innnt  diMii'iillliirilhiui'tinil  iind 
iJiri'liraiinl  fenlM.  Mr.  Coinhe  hiiw  n  piitieiit  in  the  Iiii- 
nalic  A"Vhun  in  Newnntle,  in  whom  he  oh-ierved  ii 
vfrv  lurtfe  orunn  of  NumN'r,  nnd  wan  informed  hy  the 
rr«iilent  Kur,iecm  that  he  wiih  perpetuully  cniployed  in 
fi„'urcii.     'l"he  orgnn  ii  eHlahliMlu'd. 

Nn.  ai.-Onler. 

Thi"  orsiui  of  thin  fneulty  in  pliued  in  tlie  eyehrow, 
Mween  Cnlouriiu?  nnd  Nnmher,  mid  Ih  lurne  and  pro- 
tiiii.Mit,  arki  oiti'ii  |ii>inteil  like  n  limpet-Nhrll,  ui  thone 
rIki  are  ri'innrkahlp  for  love  of  melhiNl.  i«rram;emi'nt, 
aril  KViiiiiii'try,  and  are  annoyed  hy  eimfiision  (mil  iire- 
jiiliiritv.  The  iniirked  love  of  order  in  some  personH, 
«iiil  their  Hiifferinn  from  disorder,  are  fei  Uukh  whiih  no 
ollior  f.iiMillv,  or  romliinalion  of  furiillies,  seeiim  to  eni- 
hrarp.  Heveral  eimeM  are  mentioned  in  the  phreiioloi{i- 
•:i|  liDo!;'!,  where  it  ehuraeleri/ed  idiolH,  delieienl  in  al- 
ninit  ever>' nihil  fatuity.  An  idiot  nirl  in  Kdinhurifh 
K.iiild  not  enter  her  hrother'n  room,  wliieh  wan  always 
in  fnnhi-^ion  ;  and  I)r,  Spnr/heini  nieiilions  the  Hauvace 
lip  r.Xveyron,  who  replai  ed  every  thins  in«linelively 
nhirh  ntliers,  ol>i'n  ])ur]ii  -ely  to  try  hiiii.  disarranned. 
Mr,  Ii.,  ft  late  medical  ■•  itleman  in  Kdinluirnh,  was 
r'markahle   for  tho   orn'^ii   nnd   its   manifeHlalion.      He 

,%  piiiited  in  hin  enc  i  ■luents — for  tho  fti'ulty  gives 
thin  iiiipnrtaiil  hahit — ii.  it  anil  earefiil  in  hii<  writiti«H, 
roiiiliir  in  IiIm  neeountu,  preei-w-  in  hi-  drest,  and  rleiinly 
ill  hid  permiu  :  the  lint-mentioned  hahit  heini;  likewisp 
oiiP  iiianifi'.Htiition  of  "rder.  The  faeulty  was  hereditary 
In  that  Keiillemaii ;  fur  hi"  father  was  so  precise  in  his 
arram;eini'iits,  thai  mi  one  oeeasion.  haviim  put  hi.-<  pen- 
knife into  a  icioML-  pocket,  he  would  not  for  some  tiiin* 
Do  persuaded  to  tr>'  any  nthor  tliiii  what  he  held  to  Ix! 
the  la'i'  one,  Hp  vi«"Idrd,  h  iwever,  at  last,  atid  was 
Riuih  (liscoiieerted  wher  he  found  tho  unwontedly  inis- 
pliici'il  artirl'',  '  laviij^es,  wh^i-e  hahit>i  are  slovenly, 
filthy,  and  disgua  wil,  like  the  E.4iiuiiu;iux,  the  urgan  is 


sinnll.  Wh«n  wa  rmaidrr  thi*  nhriilKUitint  and  farilil«i 
lion  of  our  Intmur  whii  h  result  from  «rrani(enirnl,  w« 
ean  M'f  a  piirpimti  in  llm  endowmrnt  of  this  faeulty 
Wit  ihiulit  not  that  a  more  extended  and  i'iirel\il  ana 
ly^is  may  diaeover  lor  it  yvt  more  iinpoitunt  funi'tioiik 
The  orKiin  ia  ealuhlmhed, 

^ll.  :iil.— Krcntiialliy.  ' 

The  ornan  nf  this  faculty  ia  niluiiled  In  the  very  pen« 
trp  of  the  fori'head.  and  \vh  'ii  larue,  Hives  lo  this  part 
nf  the  head  a  rounded  prominence,  liidividualily  hna 
heen  called  the  faeiilly  of  iiniiiia  Kventiiality  is  lh« 
liieiilty  of  vrrlit.  Thn  firat  |H'rceivea  mere  exialenre; 
the  .illfr  riiolioii,  ehnUHi  ,  event,  hi"t  Ty.  All  know. 
Mftv,  iiiiiHl  III  •(  one  or  the  other  nf  these  two  den  up- 
tjona — vilhrr  thiii«it  that  n/c  or  thiiitfs  that  A"/  /'  .  Im 
the  till  In  wing  e.iHmpli-s — the  Mks  nyirn/,*,  the  wi  ■«  ii //"tea, 
tile  III!  itiii'i-',  the  itouna  rnunised  hy  Inilivuludily  nw 
priiiti'd  in  capitulH,  while  the  vorhs,  uiKlroHsed  to  I'ven* 
tiiiilily,  are  in  italics.  I  he  fir^t  i*  Himplo  existenci  th« 
oilier  ia  nelion,  event  history.  J'r.  (Jail  diatinKlii"! o'll, 
as  the  nielaphysicinns  di),  vnliul  nK'timry,  A'"'  uieutory, 
it,il  memory.  It  is  now  phrenoloKiiul  dot'trine  that  all 
the  iiilelloeliial  fiieulties  haw  their  own  nienviry,  Kuim 
remeinlieri  forms ;  Colour,  .  dours;  Hiw.  dln^ensiona 
ludiviiluallty.nhjecls;  Kventuahty, action  ,Tun>e,niuaia 
('ornpiirisou,  reseinhlam  ea  and  anahiKius;  Causality,  tr>> 
uic'il  reasons. 

The  most  powerful  kumnnn  minds  hsvp  n  lari(«  tn* 
ilowinent  ol  Imth  Individuality  ami  Evontoaiiiy  ;  nnd 
sui'h  individuals,  even  with  a  inoilium  retU>  lliiK  i>rgum« 
/alinn.  are  Ihc  clever  men  ;ii  Koeiety— tlie  muto  men  of 
hii-iness — the  ready  practical  lawyent.  V  Inn  the  oita 
oriTin  is  moie  devi  loped  tfiaii  tlio  other,  the  dillirence 
will  he  marked  in  the  wrilwiiis  of  the  indivi  liiala.  Mr 
('omhe  (■N'v«'('ii,  p.  ftlH)  ailduces  mie  Linking  prooft 
of  this  in  exiracis  liom  cclehraleil  viitrrs,  *ud  rotors  to 
some  acute  and  inlercslinH  ohserv  miis  hy  .Mr.  Ilowet 
Watson  (I  tiriiiiiU'^ir.il  JtJi'riKil,  \'  vi.  jip.  :1h;1-4,'>1) 
on  this  aid  In  literary  critieisni.  I  oruaii  nf  Kventu- 
alily  is  neiierallv  well  develo|M>d  in  liildren,  and  their 
appetite  for  n.Din  is  well  known,  'i  liose,  however,  in 
w  iiiiii  eventiiallly  is  inoderate,  and  li  lividuality  lariie, 
ari'  prompted  less  lo  listen  to  talcs  lliaii  n  ••  see  thinRs," 
as  they  call  the  exercise  of  their  more  ,  iwerful  faculty. 
In  alter  life,  the  latter  will  ohserve  iniiii.c  exigence*— 
will  tell  how  many  nails  arc  in  a  door,  ii  id  luir's  n.ie  if 
taken  out  hefnre  their  iievt  iiis|s'etioii.  Miss  Pratt,  in 
the  novid  callcil  the  ••  Inheiilnnce,"  is  an  .  \aiiiple.  The 
former  will  make  use  of  inciih  iits  when  'licy  wi.sh  to 
recall  any  matter  of  memory.  Dame  (^i.  kly  couvicta 
!Sir  .John  FaUtalVof  a  promise  of  niarriam  hy  recalling 
to  his  recollection  a  whole  ciitalonuo  of  imiiltnneoua 
occurrences  (^Srnnnl  fiiiit  nf  lUiiry  II',,  art  2d,  scene 
2d).  Until  faculties  are  iiii|)ortant,  we  liiu'  say  casctt- 
tiai,  to  •  ttMicher  of  youth.     The  organ  is  O!-;  .Miahed. 

No.  rtt.— Time, 

WliatcvoT  be  the  essenoo  of  time  an  an  enf'ty,  it  ia  a 
reality  to  man,  eocriiisahle  hy  a  faeult\  hy  wl  h  he  ob- 
serves its  lapse.  S'nme  persons  are  called  wni  lUR  time- 
pieces ;  thcv  can  toll  the  hour  withmt  loi  nv,  at  a 
watch  ;  and  some  oven  ean  do  so,  neaily,  vvhi  wnkini| 
in  the  niijht.  The  faculty  also  mnrka  the  in  ito  divi- 
sions of  duration,  nnd  their  relations  nnd  h  monk's, 
which  are  called  ^ii':i'  in  music,  and  rhij'hnt  in  crsifica- 
lion.  Tho  impulse  tn  mark  time  with  the  hen  handa, 
feel,  and  whole  lody,  is  loo  common,  too  nnli  rn|,  nnd 
too  slroni;,  not  to  he  the  result  of  a  faculty  ;  r  is  the 
impulse  to  dance,  and  almost  universal  in  holli  savai^e 
nnd  civilized  man  ;  and  its  existence  seltlps  the  i  ipstioii 
with  the  "  Fiieiids,"  of  the  innocence  or  mi'/i'i  rs.i  of 
daneini».  In  some,  the  irinnilso,  when  well-nnirki  1  tim« 
i  is  otlered — the  heltor  if  cemhinod  with  xiuisic.  ih.  ,i»h  a 
I  well-beat  drum  may  be  djiiiccd  to — is  oftfu  irre.><'-.tilila, 


08 


INFORM  VTION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


It  extita  in  a  discasptl  »tato,  for  wo  have  »eon  dancing 
madmen.     Mr.  Combe  n-fcrs  to  a  paper  '..y  Mr.  .Simp- 
■on  in  the  PhrfnohfUal  Jnitnial  (vol.  ii.  page    134),  in 
which  nuii-h  light  is  thrown  upon   this  fiiculty.     Mr. 
Simpaon  acrounts  for  the  dancing  of  the  deaf  and  dunlb ; 
lime  lH>ing  conimunicalilc   through    the   eye,   and    by 
touch,  quite  aa  much  as  througli  tlio  oar.     Masters  of 
time  in  music  arc  called  good  liniisls.     The  organ  was 
deranged  in  a  lady    of  Copenhagen    attended   by  Dr. 
Hoppo  :  she  complained  that  she  had  no  conception  of 
time  ;  things  that  hap|)oncd  appearing  sometimes  very 
long  ago,  and  sometimes   only  a  few   moments.     She 
compliiined  of  pain  in  the  forehead,  and  placed  her  finger 
on   tlie  very  organ.     Dogs,  anil  even  horses,  give  |)lain 
indications  of  possessing  the  facidty,  by  their  conduct  on 
the  return  of  particular  days,  occasions,  iSic, :  Mr.  ('ondu- 
mentions  several  instances.  The  organ,  situated  on  each 
■tide  of  Evantuality,  is  held  to  l)o  established. 
No.  'i2. — Tuiu'. 
The  organ  of  this  faculty  is  8ituat4.-d  still  farther  out 
than  that  of  Time,  giving  roundness  to  the  point  where 
Ihc  forebead  turns  to  form  the   temples.     It  is  large  in 
gre It  musicians;  and  when   small   and  hollow,  there  is 
■n  utter  incapacity  to  distinguish  either  m<'lody  or  har- 
mony.    Till-  organ  is  sometimes  dis«'aseil.     A   young 
lady,  a  patient  of  Dr.  Coml>e's,  was   sei/.iil  with   an  ir- 
resistible  craving  for   nnisic,  which    haunted  even  her 
in^ams,  and  fhe  complained  of  pain  in  the  very  situation 
of  the   organ.     Music   may  1m'  defined   as  a  s|iecie8  of 
natural   language,  de|H<nding   immediately  on  either  a 
meliHlious  sni'cession,  or  a  harmonious  unison,  of  tones 
— tones,  again,  U-jng  distinguished   from  simple   noises 
by   a  peculiarity  in   the   mode  of  their  production.      A 
lioi*  is  the   result  of  some   isolated   concussion   of  the 
uir;  when  concussions  or  impidses  on  the  air  follow  in 
a  sufficiently  rapid  succession,  they  melt  into  each  other. 
and  the  elFect  is  a  tone.     'I'hese  arc   facts  in   natural 
philiMophy,   and  have  been  curiously   illustrated  by   a 
piece  of  mechanism,  which,  in  its  slow  movements,  pro- 
duces only  noises,  but,  when  impelled  with  great  rapi- 
dity, gives  forth   tones.     'I"he  musical   notes  arc  re|)eli- 
tioiii  of  a  ««Tie8  of  seven  tones,  each  of  which   is   pro- 
duced by  a  certain  nnmlter  of  impulm-s  on  the  air  within 
B  given  sjMice  of  tiiue,  and  the  nuudn-rs  of  these  impulses 
all   lioar  certain   n'wr   mathematical    relations    to    each 
other.     The  organ  of  Tunc  in  the  human  brain  apiH-ars 
to  have  lioen  constituted  in   relation   to   these   physical 
facts,  and,  in  cases  of  good  endowment,  to  have  a  most 
exact   perception   of  all   their  niceties,  and  a   power  of 
Using  them  to  the   prixluction  of  the   species  of  natural 
laiiLiiige  which  we  term  music.   Cases  of  a  low  eiidow- 
nii'ut  n(  the  nmsical  lacully,  or  of  ix'rsoiu  Haid  to  want 
niimriil  II ir,  are  of  frequent  occurrence,  though,  [K-rhaps, 
in    many    such    instances,   early    culture    would    havi.' 
brought  out  some  trac«  of  the  faculty.     The  great  bulk 
jf  mankind  jhiss<'..s   the   organ   in   a  niixleiate  endow- 
lacnt,  so  as  to  \v  capable  of  enjoying  music  in  some  ile- 
jrec.     The  individual  [lossessing  it  in  hi^h  endowment 
becomes,  in  all  stages  of  society,  a  distinguished  artist, 
exercising  a   jH-culiar   power  over  hLs  fellow-creatures, 
art  wL  lo  roiiM'.  melt,  siKithe,  and   gratify   them  jit   his 
|>le.isure.     Hut  the  gifl,  in  this  active  form,  is  liable  lii 
he  much  in>HliIicd   accordiii;.!  as   it   is   iiccoiiipiinicd   bv 
Jdf tlity,  llinevidcnce.  Wit,  and   other   laculties.      'J'he 
organ,  a>  connected  with  music,  is  hcM  istabliMhed  ;  but 
itc  funilamental  function — suir.'csted  by  Mr.  Simpson  to 
Ik-  fiiiiiiil.'  or  the  (Msrceptioii  of  the   smioroiis  in  lidtuie 
— yet  reiiuiins  fkr  from  t<'ing  fully  elucidated. 

No.  'fl. — I.!lllini«:f ■■. 

\\'(ien  the  faculties  %re  in  actiMtv,  either  wngly  or 
b  combination,  the  iirp'Jiic  m  almost  all  individuals  is 


•  »e»  naprr"  in  PkrmaKjtt^  Journal,  li   130,  iX:  x.  tW,  rjl ; 
SI.  »,Si)\>ndZiii.  IK). 


strong,  in  many  irresistible,  to  communicate  to  otimn 
the  feelings  or  thouKhts  produced  by  them.  This  ma* 
be  done  by  signs,  which  is  natural  language,  or  b» 
words,  which  constitiitc  conventioiml.  A  faculty  is  mypj, 
to  man  and  animals  which  connects  feelings  with  Hign. 
and  cries;  but  to  man  alone  is  given  articulate  spetch. 
The  comparative  facility  with  which  dilTwent  men 
clothe  their  thoughts  in  words,  depends  on  the  size  of 
this  organ,  which  is  situated  in  the  8ui>er-orbitar  plaii, 
immediately  over  the  eyeball,  and  when  large.  piHlic,' 
the  eye  outwards,  and  sometimes  downwards,  prniln 
in  the  latter  case,  a  wrinkling  or  pursing  of  the  \nv,2 
eyelid.  There  is  no  fluent  speaker  deficient  in  this 
organ.  There  is  some  doubt  of  the  faculty  giving  il,„ 
power  of  learning  languages,  and  the  s|iirit  of  liiiiir„„, 
in  philology  ;  the  prevailing  opinion  is,  that  the  faciiliv 
of  Language  has  less  to  do  with  this  power  than  Imij. 
viduahty,  imitation,  and  some  other  faculties.  lieaniino 
file  words  and  structure  of  other  languages  is  qujig 
(lilVcri'nt  thing  from  applying  our  own  to  express  oui 
thoughts. 

None  of  the  organs  have  Iieen  better  proved  to  tie 
primitive,  by  diseased  inani!'est,ition,  than  tliis.  'Plio 
instances  are  numerous  of  jwrsons  losing  the  ihiwcrnf 
finding  words  for  their  thr*gbts,  and  recovering  it  a^ain 
and  in  many  of  these  cases,  the  brain  in  the  orcan 
when  examined  after  death,  has  been  fumid  disoaso,! 
Pain  in  the  region  often  accompanies  the  loss  of  niiimw 
priate  speech,  in  plague,  yellow  and  typhus  fever.  U\\\ 
we  must  refer,  for  further  infornmtion  on  this  interest- 
ing subject,  to  the  works  on  phrenology,  espcciallv  Mr 
Combe's  Si/^'rm  (■Ith  edition,  p.  fil'i).  Mr.  \V.  A.  F. 
Urowne,  Medical  iSuperintemleiit  of  the  DumtVios  Lu. 
natic  Asvlum  (lately  of  the  .Montrose),  has  enriclici'  the 
subject  (/-"//rcii.  Jimrnal,  vol.  ix.)  by  clas.siiig  the  cisci 
of  (liseas.^,  either  in  involuntary  activity  or  deprivation 
of  this  faculty,  lyiich  have  come  under  his  own  olispr- 
valion — such  as  rapidity  of  volunlary  and  iiivoluntarv 
utterance,  partial  loss  and  total  loss  of  memory  of  words 
loss  of  iH'rception  of  the  relation  of  words  to  thiiii»5, 
Mr.  Hrowne  has  had  patientj*  who  have,  for  manv  vearn, 
spoken  with  unknown  tongues;  thereby  explaiTiiiiir  , 
recent  exhibition  in  this  country  of  insane  fanatirism. 
Mr.  Hrowne's  work  on  Insanity  is  an  invaluable  contri- 
bution to  this  subject.  Dr.  William  Gregory  obsorvcil 
that  taking  mori'''.ia  produced  in  himself  loss  of  control 
over  the  faculty  of  I.amruage,  so  that  he  could  not  stnp 
»|>eaking.  He  concluded  rhat  that  meilicine  acted  on  thf 
anterior  lolx)  of  the  brain,  es|)ecially  the  cmivohitioiH 
of  l.angiiai^e.  (/'/iroi.  Jiiurniil,\o\.  viii.  p.  1(11. ^  Soinf 
intoxicated  i>er.son»  are  more  talkative  than  when  soUr, 
|K)uriiig  out  mere  words  without  meaning.  Dr.  (iro^on 
entrots  jdirenolugical  medical  men  to  note  the  clliv'i 
of  difli'rent  medicines  on  the  faculties,  as  a  piis-;ili|o 
source  of  valuable  linht.  Dr.  Otto,  of  <'ii|,(nhai;('ii, 
physician  to  the  King  of  Denmark,  read  a  paper  to  the 
I'hrenological  .\ssoeiation,  which  niet  in  London  in  Juni', 
IHll,  on  this  subject.  (See  /'/nYii'i/ori'd/  Jonnu!!,  vol. 
xiv.  p.  288).  The  infi  rior  animals  comnuiiiicate  wiih 
their  kind  by,  to  them,  intelligil'le  language ;  ainl  the  J05, 
the  elephant,  the  cat,  even  the  horse,  can  be  iiiaili'  to 
comprehend  words,  otherwise  there  would  be  no  use  in 
Uilkiiiir  to  them.  How  wi-U  a  dog  that  wishc.<  to  niiii 
uiiilerstands  anil  disrelishes,  "(in  horn?,  sir!"  Thi! 
oriian  laige,  with  its  correHp.)niling  nriiiife.Hlation,  m  > 
com|  anion  of  Gall  first  sugyestcd  jihrenologv.  It  ii 
established. 

Inlenml  Kxciiemenl  of  the    Knowing  Organs— !»p«ctril  lliu 
*:i>nK. 

The  Knowing  Organs  arc  for  the  most  part  calW 
inti)  activity  by  1  nnnnl  objects,  such  as  forms,  colours, 
sounds,  individual  things,  Ac;  but  intcrnul  caii*c*  olUn 
excite  them,  and  when  lliey  aie  Ih  action  objccu  wiL 


i»  ipeKeireA  vi 
which,  ncvcrth 
real.    This  is  1 
ghosts,  and  at 
that  they  have 
nctcr  happens  I 
the  same  time. 
Tasso's  familial 
ho  declared  it 
marked,  when 
ease  in  that  org 
the  marvellous  i 
the  knowing  or; 
»re  the  conse(| 
subject,  and  sub 
concluded  our 
Simpson  has  gi' 
paper  finnished 
p.  2D4,  and  seve 
he  has  sueceedc 
tioiis,  which  h*' 
in?  so,  has  at  tl 
(vidcnce  of  the 
atcd  along  the  < 
cause  of  tlieir  sn 
isis  have  to  disti 
objects.    A  yoi 
mentioned  in  th 
8.  L.,  lived  in  ii 
consciiueiice  of 
sons  and  other 
hijhts,  lirilliant 
the  time  of  thci 
treating  of  the  o 
anee,  she  lost  th 
saw  pcriM'iidicu 
She  complained 
peared  to  her ; 
111(1  even  the  sit 
and  thumb,  wl 
organs  of  Form 
tlieiie  were  the 
the  figures  wli 
fo/oiir,  rcscmbi 
was  Form  activ 
jtltr  this,  her  1 
pain  extended 
of  Colouring, 
illusions  refeni 
iiinfuhir;  she  s 
dwarlish,  and 
wards  along   I 
became  alfectci 
Slid  most  anno; 
seemed  to  luml 
eonfuse<I  ma 
rltions  Iwgan  at 
mueh  aggravat<- 
LaiiKunge   and 
heanl  bands  am 
•he  was  great!; 
i|ieetres  was  e 
letl  licr  eiitirch 
It  is  likely  tl 
mauifefitalioMs 
the  region  of  t 
situated.  N'icol: 
to  tlie  same  djsi 
and  as  the  leec 
iiig  laintcr   an 
cau.ses,  revealei 
bewildering    el 
fJpium-Kater  h 
8.  L.     }Iu  sa' 


vhi 


PHRENOLOGY. 


brilliant  colourii,  &c.,  and,  an  we  have  staled  when 
trcnting  of  the  organ  of  Weight,  he  lost  the  tet  satimi 
of  support  or  resistance,  and  seemed  to  fail  milU^ns  of 
miles.  Mr.  John  Hunter,  the  anatomist,  whom  wo 
mentioned  as  having  something  like  that  horrible  sen- 
sation, likewise  sutTcTcd  from  illusions  of  Size  and  Wcigli.', 
his  leg  often  oxfcnding,  as  he  thought,  many  miles  iii 
length,  nud  having  the  weight  of  a  mountain.  Many 
persons  suircring  from  the  same  cause,  and  experiencing 
the  same  cHbcts,  have  communicated  tlicir  cases  to  the 
P/(tc, •a/o^'iVf//  Jiiunml,  since  the  publication  of  those 
above  mentioned. 

OENVR  III. UEFLECTIVB  FACULTIES. 

The  Intellectual  Faculties  already  considered,  give  ui 
knowledge  of  objects,  ami  the  qualities  and  relations  of 
objects,  also  of  the  changes  they  undergo,  or  events. 
The  two  remaining  faculties,  according  to  Dr.  Spurz- 
hcim,  "  act  on  all  the  other  sensations  and  nctiuns ;" 
that  is,  they  j\i(lge  of  the  relations  of  diflercnt  ideas  or 
classes  of  ideas  produced  by  the  Knowing  Faculties. 
They  minister  to  the  direction  ond  gratification  of  all 
the  other  faculties,  and  constitute  what  by  excellence  is 
called  reason,  in  other  words,  rcllcction. 

No.  H-l. — Comparison. 

Dr.  Gall  discovered  the  organ  of  this  faculty  in  a  man 
of  science,  who  reasoned  chiefly  by  means  of  analogies 
and  comparisons,  and  rarely  by  logicil  deductions.     He 
illiislralcil  every  thing,  aiid  carried  nis  oppone^it  along 
with  him  with  a  flood  of  resemblances,  concluding  that 
the  thing  disputed  must  be  true,  being  /i/.c  so  many  things 
tliat  are  known  to  be  true.     In  his  head  was  a  fulness 
in  the  form  of  a  reversed  pyramid,  just  in  the  middle  of 
the  npfwr  part  of  the  forehead.     The  faculty  perccivee 
analogies  and  resemblances.     Every  faculty  can  com- 
jMire  its  own  objects.     Colouring  can  compare  colours; 
Weight,    weiglits ;    Form,    forms ;    Tune,   sounds ;   but 
(..'oniparison  can  compare  a  colour  with  a  note,  or  a  form 
with  a  weight,  &c.     Analogy  is  a  comparison  not  of 
things  but  of  their  relations.    The  .Saviour,  lor  example, 
in  his  parental  apostrophe,  does  not  compare   Jerusalem 
with  himself  as  two  objects ;  but  compares  the  relation 
of  a  hen  to  her  cbickciis  covered  with  her  wings,  with 
tlie  relation  of  bis  own  benevolent  feelings  towards  that 
dcvoleil  city.     In  doing  this,  he  addressed  the  faculty 
of  Comparison  in  bis  hearers.  It  is  constantly  addressed 
in  i^cripture  by  siiiiJes,  parables,  allegories,  and  all  kinds 
of  analogies.     As   the   faiulty   deals   in   these,   and   in 
illustrations  in  general,  it  forms  the  great  power  of  the 
popular  orator.     Dr.  Spur/.heJm  thought  that  the  faculty 
[MTceives  difliMcnee.     Mr.  Scott  dissents  from  this,  an., 
attributes  that  t'unotion  to  the  faculty  of  Wit.     'I'he  pre- 
cise fundamental  function  of  the  faculty  is  yet  contro- 
verted.    Mr.    llewet    Watson    (iVinji'i/oifica/    Jiniriidl, 
vol.  X.  p.  KiK)  argues  ingeniouslv  that  it  is  the  jHjrcei)- 
tioii  of  Kiiiili,  Kills,  of  the  condition  in  which  objects  ex 
ist.     "  The  i/niiiit;   man  dies."     Man  is  cognised  by  In- 
dividnalily — bis  act  of  dying  by  Kventuality ;  but  nei« 
ther  the  one  nor  the  other  of  tliese  can  lake  notice  of 
bis  condition,  as  being  yoiuig  ;  anil  as  it  recpiires  the  ad- 
jective to  <iualiiy  a  coiiililiim.t.'omparison  is  the  iiiljnlir: 
tiiculty,  as  Indiviibiality  is  the  iicuoi.and  Eventuality  the 
iTi'i  faculty.     Mr.  Combe  thinks  there  is  soundness  in 
■Vfr.  Watson's  speculation,  and  that  it  is  really  itnvlilintis 
we  do  compare — the  condition,  for  example,  of  the  hen 
covering  her  chickens  with  that  of  the  iSnviour  gatbenng 
to  the  same  disease,  applieil  leeches  along  the  eyebrows;    .lerusalem  under  his  metaphorical  wings.     As  the  oriran 


1^  peweired  which  have  no  exteimal  existence,  and 
which,  nevertheless,  the  individuol  will  believe  to  bo 
real.    This  is  the  explanation  of  visions',  spectres,  and 
([hosts,  and  at  once  explains  the  firm  belief  of  many 
that  they  have  appeared  to  them,  and  the  fact  that  it 
ncter  happens  that  two  persons  see  the  same  spectres  at 
the  Bftmc  time.      The  Marquis  de   Villa  did  not  see 
Tttsso's  familiar  spirit,  although  sitting  beside  him  when 
he  declared  it  appeared  to  himself.     Wo  formerly  re- 
marked, when  treating  of  Wonder,  that  excess  or  dis- 
paxe  in  that  organ  predisposes  the  potient  to  lielieve  in 
the  marvellous  and  supernatural,  and  probably  stimulates 
the  knowing  organs  into  action,  when  si)ectral  illusions 
are  the  consequence.     We  promised  to  return  to  the 
gulijcot,  and  submit  this  as  the  proper  place,  after  having 
ronclucied  our   analysis  of  the  Knowing  Organs.     Mr. 
Siinpsi"!  has  given  much  attention  to  this  subject.  In  a 
paper  furni.shed  by  him  to  the   I'/iren,  Jonrnul  (vol.  ii. 
p  254,  and  several  other  confirmatory  communications), 
he  has  succeeded  in  clearing  up  the  mystery  of  appari- 
tions, which  have  so  long  terrified  mankind ;  and  in  do- 
in"  so,  has  at  the  same  time  furnished  the  most  pointed 
tviilciice  of  the  distinctive  functions  of  the  organs  situ- 
ated along  the  eyebrows — organs  so  much  doubted,  be- 
cause of  their  small  size,  although  chemists  and  natural- 
ists have  to  distinguish  much  smaller,  often  microscopic, 
objects.     A  young  lady,  known  to  Mr.  Simpson,  and 
mentinncd  in  the  phrenological  books  by  the  initials  of 
S.  L.,  lived  in  indescribable  horrors  for  above  a  year,  in 
consequence  of  the  visits  of  the  spectral  forms  of  jier- 
sons  and  other   objects,  and  the  perception  of  bright 
hixhl-s  brilliant  colours,  music,  and  other  illusions.     At 
the  time  of  these  I'also   perceptions,  as  we  slated  when 
treating  of  the  organ  of  Weight  and  the  sense  of  Resist- 
ance, she  lost  the  power  of  preserving  her  balance,  and 
siiw  periHMidiculars   and    horizontals   at   other    angles. 
She  fotnplained  of  sharp   pain  when  her  visitants  ap- 
peared to  her ;  and  although  ignorant  of  phrenology, 
111(1  even  the  situation  of  the  organs,  she  put  her  finger 
and  thumb,  when  asked  where  she  felt  the  pain,  to  the 
or"an9  of  Form  and  Individuality.     For  several  weeks, 
these  were  the  site  of  her  pain  exclusively  ;  anil  then 
the  figures  which  ap|)eared  to  her  were  forms  without 
ra/uii)-,  reseinliliug,  as  she  stated,  cobweb.     Here  plainly 
was  Form  active,  but  Colouring  dormant.    Some  weeks 
jller  this,  her  olijects  became  naturally  coloured,  and  the 
pain  extended  along  the  eyebrov.  s,  including  the  organ 
of  ('oh)uriiig.     Embracing,  as  the  progress  did,  Si/.e,  her 
i!lii.<ioiis  referable  to  that  organ'in  morbid  activity  were 
iiiniriilar;  she  saw  objects  sometimes  gigantic,  sometimes 
dwiirlish,  and  even  minute.     The  pain  proceeding  on- 
wards uloiig  the  whole  eyebrows,  Order  and  Number 
became  airecled.  and  her  visiters  came  in  ereat  numbers 
ami  most  annoying  confusion,  so  that   soiiieliines  they 
BCPiMcd  to  tuinlile  into  her  n|)artmeiit  like  a  cascaile,  u 
confused  mass  of  jiersons,  limbs,  heads,  Ac.     Her  appa- 
ritions Iwgaii  at  last  to  f/.tnk  to  her,  and  her  terrors  were 
much  aggravated.     It  was  probable  that  the  organs  of 
T.anKimgc   and   Tune   liecame  alfected  ;   for   she    often 
hnird  hands  and  clioiuses  of  music.     We  may  add,  that 
ihc  was  greatly  relieved   when  the  true   nature   of  her 
•[leotros  was  explained  to  her.     In  time  the  alfection 
left  her  entirely. 

It  is  likely  that  the  proximate  cause  of  these  morbid 
manifestations  was  an  undue  determination  of  blood  to 
thi'  roi;ion  of  the  bead  where  the  knowing  organs  are 
sitimtcd.  N'icolai,  the  bookseller  of  Uerlin,  when  subji'ct 


«ii'l  as  the  leeches  filled,  the  illusiiuis  vanished,  becom- 
ing fainter  and  fainter.  Such  are  often  the  slight 
causes,  reveab'd  by  science,  of  inqiortant  and  olherwi.se 
hcwilderiiig  elfccw.  The  mysteries  of  the  English 
Oiiiiim- Hater  have  Ih'cii  made  plain  by  the  case  of  Miss 
8.  L.    Hu  saw  faces  in   millions,   insulVerable   lights, 


of  analogies,  similitudes,  and  e<^">iparison  of  ideiiis  ■■%  m 
established. 

No.  .'K. — Cttiicnlily. 
This  is  the  highest  and  noblest  of  the  intellectual 
powers,  and  is  the  last  in  the  phrenological  analysis  of 
the  faculties.     Dr.  Spurzheim  so  nuieed  it,  from  obser* 


-*..i^ 


SIO 


INFOHMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


idg  1h»t  it  trnced  the  connertion  between  envx  and 
rffeil,  and  sees  the  reliition  of  iil.  !>«  to  each  other  in 
respect  of  inirstunj  mineijiifiirr.  lu  organs  are  siluiitoil 
on  ri\ph  siile  of  Comparison.  Some  ini'taphyHicinns 
lia»e  belli  tl\nt  wo  liavo  no  itlea  of  cause,  l)ut  see  only 
sequence,  or  one  thing  following  another.  It  is  true 
that  we  do  see  seqnence.  When,  for  example,  fire  is 
put  to  gunpowder,  Individuality  perceives  the  existence 
of  the  powder  and  of  the  match;  Kvcntiiality  -ces  tlie 
motion  which  unites  Iheni,  anki  the  chanffe  or  event 
which  takes  place  in  the  explosion  ;  hut  we  have  a  third 
/ilea,  namely,  that  of  power,  agency,  or  elliciency,  ex- 
isting in  some  way  in  the  cause,  to  produce  the  elVcct. 
Wliciice  do  we  get  this  third  idea  ? — iVom  a  tliird  or  dis- 
tinct faculty,  and  that  is  Causality.  We  are  just  as 
little  entitled,  liy  means  of  Causality,  to  ileny  tin'  (kt- 
ceplions  of  Individuality  and  EvenlM;dily,  which  tlie 
celebrated  Bishop  Berkeley  did,  wluxicnii'd  the  existence 
of  a  material  world,  ivs  by  these  liust  to  deny  the  conclu- 
■10118  of  (-ausality.  With  a  powerful  perce|>lion  of 
cauiiilioii,  the  individual  reasons  from  cause  to  ellect  by 
logical  or  necessary  consci|uence.  It  is  the  faculty 
which  sees  principles  and  actsi  upon  them,  while  the 
other  two  faculties  only  try  exiM'riniints.  Kesource  in 
dillicultics,  and  sound  juJgmiMit  in  li  r.  are  the  result  of 
powerful  (Jausality.  Dr.  Thomas  Drown  caiiic  very 
near  the  phr«no!ogical  division  of  the  intellectual  facul- 
ties inta  Knowing  and  Hcllccling,  when  he  disliimuidi- 
eii  Ihein  into  powers  of  simple  sugneslion  and  relative 
•uggestion.  Causality  existing  as  a  faculty  gives  ])ow- 
erful  aiil  to  the  natural  argument  f.ir  the  existence  of 
Gixl,  Causality  desiderates  a  cause,  and  g'VS  upwards 
to  a  First  Cause,  as  that  which  jiiu<i  eiist;  eh^^  the 
faculty  in  man  has  no  legitimate  objci't,  and  was  hcstow- 
wl  ill  vain.  'I'hn  proof,  added  to  that  drawn  f.om  the 
existence  '-f  the  ficulty  of  Veneration  lor  the  adoration 
of  the  First  Caust,  m  traced  by  Causality,  conslit.,tes 
an  i;nmeuse  additii^n  to  the  argument  for  the  existence 
of  Gixl  from  the  light  of  nature;  and  when  yet  I'nrther 
fortilied  by  the  existence  of  faculties  in  man  of  IJene- 
Tolei;ce  and  Justice,  which  necessarily  imply  a  bciuvo- 
lent  ajid  just  ("reator,  phrenology  may  be  H;nd  to  have 
been  a  ci.ntributor  to  the  e\ideiiee  of  the  highest  and 
holiest  of  truths,  the  exisl«'nce  and  attributes  of  the 
Most  High.     The  organ  is  established. 

Adaptnlion  of  the  Kxit'rimI  Wnrlil  to  tlie  Intellerlual  Facnhii-s 
ni  Mini. 

\Vr  cpiote  the   following  passage  from   Mr.  Combe's 

Syitm.  (Jih  eilition.  p.  .')!•:?:) The  human  mind  anil 

the    external    world    having    einaniited    from   the  same 

Creator,   ouuht,   when    uiidcrsl.ind.   to    1h'    found    wisilv 

•dapled  t^i  each  other;  and    this  accnrdin^'lv  apprars   in 

■n  eininent   degree   to   In-   the   case.      If  the  reader  will 

diteci  his  attcnliiin  to  any  natural  or  i<rtili>  iai  iib|cct,anil 

consider,    1st,   its   existence;  2d.   its   f.irin;   .'Id,  its  size; 

4th.  its  weight ;  .'ilh,  its   locality  or   relation  in   space   to 

other   objects;   fith,   the   inimU'r    of  its    parts;    7th,   the 

order   oi    physical   arrHngcment   of    its    parts;    Hi'i,   the 

changes  which    it    nnilergoes  ;   9th,   the  perioils  of  time 

which  thesi'  reipiire  (vse  wmild    aild  here,  its  siinnd-pro- 

dncirig  .(uality  or  s<n!iirousness,  as   .juiic   dilbTiiit   fi.nii 

all    those   eminierateih;    lIMh,  the    an.i    vi<'S   and   ditlir- 

enci's  >>etween  the   individual  object  uiiiliT  considiralioii 

«nd  other  ob|nts;    llth.  the    eflect    which    it   produces; 

4nd.  li-lly,  if  lie  will  designate  this  assfinl.lage  of  iijeas 

by  a  name,  he  will  find  'hat  he  has  oblaimd  a  tolirahly 

complete  notion  of  the  object,"      We  nia\  add,  that  the 

riditioiis  bi-tween   the  alfeelive   fai'iiilies  or  feelings  of 

man  anil  the  inoril  world   are  not  less  liMrnionioiis ;   anil 

lenionstrate  design  in  a  manner  alto:;rther  irresistible. 

itilaiiiMi  liiiwri'ii  llie  piiiici.iini  anil  the  SiriicTari' iil' the  llrii.n. 

In  thi   intriMluction   to  his   translation  of  that  part  of 

Or.  (lall'it  work  uii   thu   l'liy.u^il::^y  tij  ihe   Jirain  wliich 


treats  of  tho  functions  of  tlio  cerebellum,  Mr.  Corube  uu 
slated  the  result  of  certain  ob8«'r/ation8  of  his  own  whi  K 
tend  to  confirm  as  true  the  allotment  of  function  to  the  1  f 
ferent  regions  of  the  brain,  which  has  been  ascertained  h ' 
phrenologists.  An  accumulation  of  facts,  which  aniourt. 
to  proof  more  cogent  than  is  to  be  found  in  regard  to  anv 
other  physical    truth,   has  connected   with  the  nnierii 


^lUridr 
lobes  of  the  brain  the  Intellectual  Faculties,  and  with  th 

iiiiildle  and  /ids' rrinr  loVies,  the  Feelings.  The  Intellectual 

Faculties  constitute  the  will  of  man,  and  in  olinijpnr 

to  the  will  are  the  riliiiilnrij  motions.     Uiit  the  fcclimro 

when  in  activity,  as  is  well  known,  have  certain  iuruli,,^ 

tdiy  motions  connecled   with   them.     Now,  the  siiiimj 

cord  has  two  colnmns,  the  one,  the  anterior,  onscrved  to 

produce    the    motion,   and    therefore    cidled    the  mUnr^ 

tract ;  and  the  other  to  ]pri)diice  sensation,  and  tliorcl'ore 

called  the  /rtifnnj  tract.     'J'he.-e  two  tracts  join  the  brain 

by   what   is   called    the    timlnlUi  oliloiifinln  .■  and  liprp  „ 

most  striking  ilistinction  takes  iilace.     The  motory  !-,(.( 

nliiiic  commimicatcs  with  the  anterior  lubes,  in  wliVh  in 

the    intcllci'tiial    organs,    resides    the    will.     Hence,  in 

vnhiiitiiri/  motion,  as  an  elfcct  of  will,  tiie   motory  tract 

obeys  the  anterior  lobe  alone  ;  in  other  word^ ,  the  ante. 

rior  lobe  of  the  brain   inninfcslt   will,  and  the  inotory 

tract  cxfivitf  will.     The  sensory  tract  has  no  ciunicction 

with  the  anterior  lobes  or  intellectual  organs, 

.\gain,  the  .>i'/ivi  ry  tract  has  a  fibrous  cuniiectioii  ^,\\\\ 

the  middle  and  iiosterior  lobes  of  the  brain,  and  with  the 

cerelM'llnm,  and  most  approiirialcly,  tiir  these  are  the  or. 

gans  of  Ihe  fulnias.     lint  as  the  fielings  have  i.ivihu. 

r/n/  motions  when   acting,  these  are   provid.'il  for  In- j 

fibrous  connection   between   the   organs  of  the  Icclii'ijTs 

and   liii'l,   the  sensory   and    motory   tracts,     V,  t,  a.s  thf 

motions  consequent  upon  Ihe  energy  of  jiassion  arc  not 

voluntary  but   instinctive,  we  should   expect  a  Rcpurale 

motory  tract  fir  instinctive  motion,  with  wliicli,  aiiil  not 

with   the   tract   of  volnntary  motioi;,  the  organs  of  the 

fi'dimis  should    be   connected.     This  distinctiiin,  how 

ever,  has  only  been  conjectured,  it  is  not  yd  ascrrtainej 

.Mr.   Coinhc    farther    adds — ••  It   is   cortain   that  menial 

(■"i(./ii.)i<  exercise  a  powerful  inllnence  over  the  organic 

functions;  when  the  emotions  are  agreeable,  Ihiv  slimu. 

late  these  fimctions   to   healthy  action;  and  when  pain. 

till,  they  depress   their  energies   and  prodi.i c  lialiiliiv  to 

disease.      Heciprocally,  when  the  organic  fnncliuns, such 

as  digestion,  respiration,  aial   secretion,  aie  ilisorderej 

an  irritable  and  distressing  htale  of  the  mental  feelings 

is  induced.     The   intimate   relations  between  the  rnnvii. 

lutions  of  the  brain  devoted  to  the  mi  nial  enmtioiis  ami 

Ihe  sensory  tract  of  the  sjiiual  coni,  is  in  harniiinv  with 

these   fiicls.     The  habit  of  contending  xvith  inullniunl 

diiriculties,  if  unconnected  with  feiding,  docs  not  injure 

the  organic  fnnetioiiM  so  severely  as  do  .strong  anil  pow. 

erful  emotions ;  but  it  weakens  the   loeoiniiti\e  powers. 

Sedulous  stndenis  of  abstruse  problems  acipiire  a  great 

itversion    to   locomotion.     Thrse   tiicls  eonespoiiij  with 

the  arranffenienis  of  strnctnie,  by  «hiih  the  coiivoluiii  ni 

of  the  anterior  IoIks,  devoted  to  inti'llect,  ,ipriiig  from  llie 

motory  tract,  and    are   not   connecled    wilh   the  scn^orv 

tract  of  the  spinal   marrow,"      We   are   ikCl   aware  that 

anatomical  and  physiolouical  inveslig.ilions  have  iiiirclj. 

ed  facts  more  iijlircsling  than  those  now  del  liliil.    The 

liglil  they  throw   on   phrenology,  and   the  support  they 

atl'ord  it,  are  truly  invaluable. 

Natural  Lunii'mcr  of  tlie  I'ariilt  e«,  or  !'niliof:iiotii;rii!  aivl 
IMiy*  ounoin  eal  I'xpien^.oii. 

What  has  been  stated  in  the  pn'cnling  stclion  will 
prepare  the  nadrr  for  the  fact.  that,  by  means  of  invo- 
luntary motions,  each  organ  of  feeliim  produces  niovis 
ments,  altitudes,  and  expnssions  peculiar  to  itself.  Tht 
chief  aim  of  the  dramatic  actor  and  panloiiiiniiKl  ia  lu 
sltiiiy  and  represent  these  movemcnls,  attitinliM,  anii 
expressions;  aiid  lielice  xucli  oi  them  u»  huvu  ituiiinl 


phrenology  ha\ 
nluiibln  giiidai 
tiid  Dr.  Spur/.! 
into  this  curioi 
which  determii 
It  baa  livun  lui( 
instinctive  nioi 
^flini.  Self-Es 
uiil  sliglitly  I'll 
nose"  at  any  tl 
tn  the  person, 
wards  and  to 
beiiro  the  rev 
motions  extern 
dark  and  liarsi 
gmilc  of  Bcnci 
oouutenance  tt 
ihe  prevalence 
renders  the  pi 
trustworthy, 
cal  art.  i^kilfi 
organs  from  th 
wiicn  aided  b 
tioiis,  and,  not 
tiveiiess  giviiu: 
is  a  power  pos 
KCtcr  which  i 
unuL-;essary. 
key  to  cluuacti 


It  is  instruci 
man  faculties 
contiguously  i 
apparent  .sy  m| 
Ut,  'I'he  suppi 
montiveness — 
contiguous  in 
atomach  and  t 
lerve  his  owi 
tn  the  two  org 
tho  gentler  i 
fcrocious ;  hi 
Secretivencss 
organs  nicnti 
lioii  of  siirpl 
ant  to  in.in's 
lioss;  while, 
for  want  of  y- 
fewer  than  .<• 
lire  group  of 
more  than  " 
his  species. 
another  gron 
lie  called  tin 
Amativenis 
Ailhesivenc! 
low-men,   ii 
jwwer  by  Si 
cnc'il,  by  llii 
of  his  ciiii.l 
cJiaracter. 
The  '.hree  oi 
rif'i'.?  "))'' 
»rimp.  by 
Heneviilcnce 
ri7ig;o'(v  giiii 
Wonder,  lb 
R  religious  f 
of  the   peril 
vided  a  rich 
may  Ix"  cal 
faculties,    ii; 
Tune,  and  ' 


. /, 


PHRENOLOGY. 


811 


'>■•  Cnriibe  m 
liH  own,  which 
Ptiontoihcdif. 
aw-prlained  by 
vliich  aiiiuunti 
'  '■''ganl  to  any 
l»  the  imcrior 
""il  with  the 
'lie-  IiitelK-ctual 
il  ill  olipiljonpj 

'"  'Ik-  fffhiigs. 
'criuiii  i„r„/„„; 
'"■.  Ilip  siiinal 

or,  HllsiTVi-d  („ 

I'll  thi'  iiii.tury 
■  i""l  tlicrdore 
<  j»'"i  the  brain 
and  liorc  a 
lo  nioldry  t-act 
'^.  ill  whiWi.in 
"•  "'HIT,  in 
»•  iiK.iury  tract 
•orib ,  tho  ante 
111'  lilt'  liiolory 
i  no  Cdimcctioa 
mis. 

'liiiiTlioM  ,vitH 
II.  i>"(l  with  the 
U'^^i'  art!  til,.  „f, 
liiivo  i,ir,;,,,|. 
i'l'il  for  hy  a 
of  the  fi-clii'igs 
V'  t,  as  tht 
)ia:<f.inii  are  not 
I"i'l  a  m'parale 
"liicli.  and  not 
\  organs  of  (he 
i^'linc'liun,  how 
yet  aMTrtained 
liii  that  mental 
VIM-  the  organic 
ilil<'.  they  sliniu. 
Jiiil  when  pain, 
lime  liability  to 
■  functions,  such 
arc  (lisoriiercd, 
iiiciital  fcelinga 
vicn  the  ronii). 
il  i-nuilji.iis  mill 
1  hariiKiny  with 
ivilli  iiiulltilunl 
iii>cs  not  injure 
;lroni,'  ami  |io«-. 

inilltiM'    lUIHCIS, 

acijiiire  a  great 
i)riTs|iiin(l  wiih 
lir  I'liiiMilulii  ns 

iliriniit'roin  the 
itii  till'  scnsorv 
iK.i  aware  that 
lis  have  unl'iilJ. 

(li'liiliil.  The 
0  Kiiiniort  thoy 


i(ij:iu.in;rti!  Biii 

iiK  sc.  ti.m  will 
means  1. 1'  inv(V 
|iriii!neen  niovf. 
r  I.)  ilsiir.  Tht 
iiti.nnhnKl  la  lu 
altitiiilim,  and 
itN  liavu  itudinl 


Arenokgy  hnvc  declared  iha.  it  afibrdR  them  the  in-mt 
ftluiibld  nuiilaiice.     Ur.  Gall's  Pli^xiulugy  of  the  Urdin, 
iiid  Dr.  Spun.hciiii's  riiysioffiioniiial  Syslim,  enter  fully 
into  this  curious  sulijcet,  and  have  ascertained  the  laws 
ivhich  detcrinii-c  tliu  natural  language  of  the  faculties. 
Il  has  Iniun  laid  down  an  the  leading  principle,  that  the 
instinctive  motions  are  always  in  the  itiiratoii  of  the.  or- 
gans-    Self-E.steem,  for  example,  throws  the  head  high 
ind  slightly  backwards,  vulgarly  called  "  turning  up  tlie 
nose"  at  any  thing,     r'irinucss  gives  an  erect  Ktillhess 
tn  the   ]>orsoii.     Cautiousness   throws  the   head  back- 
wards and  to  the  side.     Veneration  slowly  for^vard ; 
heiiro  the  ri'verence  and  the  bow.     The    involuntary 
niotions  extend  to  the  features  of  the  face;  hence  tho 
dark  and  liarsh  expression  of  Destrucliveness,  and  the 
imilc  of  Ueiicvolence  and  Love  of  Approbation.     The  1 
countenance  tends  to  tike  a  permanent  expression  from  I 
the  prevalence  of  particular  feelings.     It  is  this  which  j 
lenders  the  physiognomy  of  phrenology  Bcientifically  i 
irustwortliy.     It  was  in  I.avater's  hands  a  mere  eiiipiri-  \ 
cal  art.     fSkilfnl  plinnologists  have  often  predicted  the  j 
orpms  fiinn  their  expressions  in  the  countenance ;  and  i 
when  aided  by  the  j}atlui  ;nomy,  or  altitudes  and  mo- 
lions,  and,  ii.it  least,  the  sounds  of  the  voice — Destrue-  | 
tiveiiess  i^iving  liarsli,  and  Dei.':volence  soft,  &c. — there 
is  a  power  possessed  by  pliroiiolou;ists  of  judging  of  clia- 
nctcr  wliicli  almost  lenders  manipulation  of  the  head 
uniieressaiy.     When  this  last,  however,  is  added,  the 
key  lo  character  is  complete. 

Tlic  Orj^ans  arranj^eO  in  (i roups. 

Il  is  instructive  to  find  the  organs  of  such  of  the  hu- 
man I'aeulties  as  have  an  aHinity  lo  each  other,  placed 
contiguously  in  the  biaiii,  and  lo  observe  thai,  by  an 
apparent  sympathy,  they  sliiiiulate  each  other  to  activity. 
Ist,  I'lie  siip|ioseil  organs  of  the  Love  of  Life  and  Ali- 
mcntiveiicss — the  essentials  of  Self-Preservation — lie 
contiguous  in  the  brain.  Dut  man  has  n  carnivorous 
stomach  and  teeth,  anil  must  destroy  animal  life  to  |)ie- 
servc  his  own.  Destructivcness,  accordingly,  lies  close 
tn  the  two  organs  mentioned.  He  munl  not  only  devour 
the  gentler  animals,  but  must  not  be  devoured  by  the 
tcroeious ;  hence  his  Cautiousness,  (Jonibativeness,  and 
Secretiveness,  are  all  close  neighbours  of  the  three 
organs  mentioned,  and  of  each  other.  The  accumula- 
tion of  surplus,  above  his  immciliate  wants,  so  import- 
ant lo  man's  |irescr\atitni,  is  ]iroinpteil  by  .Xciiuisilive- 
ness;  wliili',  wilhiuit  Construeliveness,  he  would  perish 
for  want  of  shelter  and  clolbing.  Thus  u  cluster  of  no 
fewer  than  s.t.  n  org.ms  firms  to  man  the  nd-prtfirv,!- 
Ure  group  of  facnllies.  2d,  Man  is  commani''d  lo  do 
more  than  "subdue;"  he  is  enjoined,  by  multiplying 
his  species,  to  ••  reiileiiish  the  earth."  Uehohl,  then, 
another  uronp  of  tacultics  for  this  purpose,  wliii'h  may 
lie  called  the  .-/n' m  ■-/ici-c/ck.  ice,  or  iluhivsiir  groui>— 
Amative!iiss,  I'liir.ipriigfniiiveness,  Inlinbitiveiiess,  iind 
Ailhesiveness.  3d,  Designed  for  the  society  of  his  fel- 
low-men, man  asKcils  his  own  rights  lUid  huilinmte 
[lower  by  Sclf-Kstecni  or  Self-Love;  while  be  is  influ- 
enced, by  the  opinion  of  others,  to  the  proper  rciiulatiim 
of  his  conduct,  by  Love  of  Afiprobation,  or  regard  to 
iJiaracter.  Firmness  aids  ISelf-Lsteem  in  asserting  right. 
The  •liree  organs  loc.ited  close  to  each  oilier  form  onr 
r  i;'i'»  niii'  I  lull, t,  til-Ill  Si  rv.tliV'-  group,  'llh.  The  iiwinl 
jrimp.  by  excelleni'c.  is  formed  by  (Joiiscientiousness, 
lienev.ilcnce,  and  \  i  iieration  firih-iHiriltil,  ."ith.  The 
ri'/iiM)'i<  tirinip  is  formed  by  Veneration  heiifri:-:!iii<'ii', 
Wonder,  llnpe,  and  Ideality;  the  last  being  claimed  as 
I  religious  lacully  by  ^'ir  (ieorge  Maeken/ie,  as  the  love 
of  the  perfcc  I.  fitb.  A  bountil'ul  Providence  has  pro- 
vided a  rich  I'nnd  of  .eereative  pleasure  liir  man,  in  what 
may  lie  called  the  i^mi,,:!  or  inreniin-  group  of  liis 
faculues,  namely.  Imitation,  Wonder,  Ideality,  Wit, 
Tunc,  and  Tiiiir,  all  lying  contiguous  in  the  brain,  and 


not  inappropriately  called  the  "  Poet's  Oomr«,''  ag  they 
form  a  corner  of  the  head.  These  are  the  faculties  ail- 
dressed  by  artists  of  every  kind — the  poet,  the  actor,  the 
painter,  the  architect,  and  the  musician.  The  theatre 
engages  them  all.  Lastly,  Turning  to  the  intellectual 
powers,  we  have  theui  in  one  splendid  and  "  godlike" 
assemblage  in  llie  forehead  of  man,  subdivided  into 
three  groups,  according  to  their  uses.  Tho  lowest 
rimgc,  the  sinijily-jienepUve  group,  gives  the  perception 
of  objects  and  theii  qualities.  Above  it  is  placed  the 
irl'.iliitly-perreplivc  group,  for  perceiving  the  relations  of 
objects  and  events;  and,  above  all,  the  organs  of  the 
highest  of  man's  faculties,  his  reflecting  powers,  which 
perceive  the  relations  of  ideas,  and  reasons  upon  theiu; 
or  the  rtjlectiue  group.  The  organs  of  the  human  brain, 
as  found  to  be  grouped  in  correlative  clusters,  were  not 
so  discovered.  The  great  majority  of  them  were  ob- 
served singly,  and  the  full  display  of  their  harmonies 
came  forth  on  the  completion  only  of  the  successive 
emergencH!  of  the  organs,  and  presented  a  combined 
force  of  truth  which  well  merits  the  character  of  irre- 
sistible :  '■  There  is  magic  in  the  web  of  it." 

CONTINUATION  OF  PHRENOLOOV  AS  A   COMPLETE    PHI- 
LOSOPHY   OF    MIND. 

The  iihrenologists  have  chiefly  confined  their  atlen- 
lion  to  the  organs  of  the  brain,  uiid  the  various  faculties 
of  which  these  are  the  instruments.  The  former  writers 
on  mind  (Ueid,  lirown,  Dugald  Stewart,  and  others), 
gave,  on  the  contrary,  their  chief  care  lo  the  nientiJ  acts 
called  Attention,  Perception,  Conception,  &c.,  which 
they  considered  as  faculties.  The  phrenologist  does  not 
overlook  the  inipovtance  of  this  department  of  mental 
philosophy,  hut  dillers  fiom  the  metaphysicians  in  con- 
sidering percejition,  concejition,  &c.,  as  only  ihutles  in 
which  tin;  real  faculties  above  described  ad.  This  dis- 
tinction is  one  of  great  importance. 

According  to  the  phrenologists,  the  faculties  are  not 
mere  passive  feelings ;  they  all  tend  to  action.  When 
duly  active,  the  actions  they  produce  are  [iroper  or  ne- 
cessary ;  in  excess  or  abuse,  they  are  improper,  vicious, 
or  criminal.  Small  moral  organs  do  not  produce  abuses; 
hut  they  are  unable  lo  prevent  tlic  abuse  of  the  animal 
organs,  as  the  larger  tend  to  do ;  thus,  small  Benevolence 
is  not  cruel,  but  it  does  not  oiler  sullicicnt  control  to 
IJestructiveness,  wnieh  then  impels  lo  cruelly.  Large 
organs  have  the  greatest,  small  the  least,  tendency  to  act 
— each  faculty  producing  the  feehng  or  idea  peculiar  lo 
itself.  Seeing  that  all  the  orgims  tend  lo  action,  the 
Creator  must  have  intended  a  legitimate  sphere  of  action 
for  them  all.  lie  could  never  have  created  either  bad  or 
unnecessary  faculties. 

The  PiiocKNsiTiES  and  Sentiments  cannot  tic  called 
into  action  by  the  will.    We  cannot  fear,  or  pity,  or  love, 
or  be  angry,  by  willing  it.     Hut  iiucriuil  causes  may  sti- 
mulate ihe  organs,  and  then,  whether  we  will  or  not,  their 
emotions  will  be  fell.     Again,  these  feelings  are  called 
into  action  in  spite  of  the  will,  hy  the  presentation  of 
their  c.vlcriuil  objects — Cautiousness  hy  objects  of  terror, 
Love  by  beauty,  and  so  on.     The  force  of  the  feelings, 
i  whether  excited  from  within  or  without,  will  be  in  pro 
1  portion   to  the  activity  of  the  temperament.     Excessive 
action  of  the  ullei-tive  faculties,  or  ihi^  removal  of  thcit 
\  object,  causes   pain.     Excessive  rage  is  [lainful  to  De- 
structivcness; and  the  death  of  un  infant  pains  the  I'hilo- 
'  progeiiitiveness  of  the  mother.     Insanity   is  a  frequent 
'  result  of  over-activity  of  the  iilVective  feelinu;s.    .\n  alfec- 
'  live  faciiltv  may  be-  diseased,  and  yet  the  intellect  sound. 
'  The  converse  is  also  true.     When  the  organ  is  small,  its 
feeling  cannol  be   adequately   experienced.     Hence   th« 
!  framls  of  those  with  small  Conscientiousness  and   larg* 
I  Secret  i.eness  and  AcquiiMtiveness.     The  will  can  ikA- 
I  rnlly  excile  the  alliictive  feelings,  hy  BCtling  the  intelloGl 


91t 


INFORMATION   FOR  THK   PEOl'LK. 


•o  wjrk  to  flnJ  rxtPiTinlly.  or  roncoivo  inlrmally,  the 
,>roi>ci  olijwts.  'I'liis  HrcoiintJt  for  tlifri-rrnt  tiiriiH  nnil 
pursuits.  'I'hc  vnliio  of  tlie  tnilh,  thiit  l«rne  organH  give 
■trong,  anil  small  woak  impulmin,  ix  inralriilulilo  in  so- 
ciety ;  all  the  prarticnl  arranK«'miMit)i  hy  which  pprnons 
may  he  wlectt-d  to  |)crfiinn  certain  fiiiictioiiH,  anil  ex- 
cluded from  others  where  they  would  Iki  |irofitle8!i  or 
unsafe,  ile|>cnd  upon  it.  Moral  tniiniiig  hy  educators  is 
founded  on  it.  The  weak  faculties  should  he  strength- 
ened, and  the  strong  regulati-d.  Lastly,  the  atfi-rtive 
faculties  do  not  form  ideas,  hut  simply  ieel ;  and  there- 
fore have  no  memory,  conception,  or  lma?iuiition.  They 
have  Sv  II  fit 'ion  only  ;  in  other  words,  they  feci,  llcnoo 
Sensation  belonffs  to  all  tho  faculties  which  feel,  and  to 
the  external  senses  and  nervous  system  in  uenenil.  Sen- 
ration,  thcR-lbre,  is  a  state  or  condition,  not  a  faculty,  os 
it  is  held  to  lie  hy  the  metaphysicians. 

TIiuKmowino  and  Rkklkctiso  Faciti.tiks,  or  Intel- 
lect,  fonn  ideas,  perceive  relations,  and  are  snliject  to,  or 
rather  constitute,  llie  Will;  and  minister  to  the  all'ective 
faculties.  They  may  lie  excited  liy  exti-rnal  objects,  and 
by  internal  causes.  When  excited  liy  tho  presentation 
of  external  oliJL'cts,  these  olijccts  are  /irnriirJ,  and  lliis  idI 
is  called  l*Kin'Beriov.  It  is  the  lowest  de;;ree  of  artivity 
of  tilt'  intellectual  faculties;  and  those  who  are  (h'ticient 
in  a  faculty  cannot  perceive  its  ohject.  We  ol'len  sec, 
for  example,  inahility  to  perceive  meliKly,  colour,  nnaloL'V, 
or  necessary  conse(|uence,  from  defectivi-  Tunis  (Colour- 
ing, Comparison,  and  Causality.  Every  faculty,  us  u 
percipient,  has  iu  own  perception. 

CoNCKPTtoN  is  also  a  mode  of  action  of  the  faculties, 
not  a  faculty  itself.  It  is  the  activity  of  tiio  faculties 
from  internal  c.iusi>s,  either  willed,  or  involuntary  iVom 
natural  activity.  Ihadi  nation"  is  Conception  curried  to 
a  high  pilch  of  vivacity.  Thus,  Perceptiui  is  the  lowest 
degree  of  artivity  of  any  of  Ihi'  intelloi-tual  faculties.  ty<  n- 
cep'tion  the  second, and  Imaijination  the  highest.  Irii;ii;i- 
nation  is  olVn  conlounded  with  Ideality,  hut  is  ipiile 
distinct  from  it.  Kach  faculty  conceives  in  its  own  wav. 
Form  conceives  forms,  ami  may  ini'i'.'nir  them  ex(|uisilrlv 
beautiful;  Tune  conceives  music;  and  soon.  Curious 
elfects  result  when  these  faculties  are  morhidly  aclivi'. 
Tho  whole  mystery  of  K|Tectral  illusions  is  thus  made  )il;iiii. 
UiiKAMiMi.  to  lu-couiit  for  whii'h  so  many  vnhiiri.'s 
ha»e  Ixen  written  in  vain,  is  at  once  ex|ilaiiied  hy  the 
•"•citahihty  of  the  organs  from  iii/rnii;/  causes;  and  as 
■ome  orirans  may  he  awake  while  others  an-  asleep,  ilic 
dikjoiiitiMl  im.igcs  of  our  ilreani'iig  muments  are,  to  tlie 
phrenoliii^ist,  a  Ihiiiu  which  was  to  have  heen  e\|H'('ti'il. 
Tho  kind  of  drcinis  must  l'rei|uent  with  us  could  he  pre- 
dicted by  the  phrenologist  from  tho  »ize  of  the  jircdo- 
loiiiHting  organs. 

.Mf.miihv,  too,  is  not  a  faculty,  hut  a  iikkIc  of  action. 
It  necessarily  foll.iws  that  there  can  lie  no  such  thing  as 
tho  KffKKi/  memory  of  the  metn|ihysieians,  hut  every 
faculty  must  have  its  own  niiinory.  Memorv  lii'|iinu«. 
however,  only  to  the  iiitelleitu.il  laiiilties.  It  ilitlers  from 
(.'onceptiiin  ami  lma'.;iiiatioii  in  tl:is,  that  it  reciillects  n-nl 
objects  or  events  wlinh  it  ha«  nrlually  ]H'r<eived.  and 
adds  the  consiiousni'ss  ol  time  ehtpK-d  since  ihey  were 
[lerceiveil.  'i'he  other  namiil  modes  of  action  do  not 
require  realities  or  time. 

Jriii.Mtvr,  in  its  [iro|ier  sens)\  is  the  |)erception  ol 
adaptation,  fitness,  and  necessari-  conseiiuence ;  anil  is  n 
mode  of  action  of  the  relli'ctmg  |Kiwers.  In  a  certain 
sense,  the  knowing  liuullies  ni:ty  each  lie  H.iid  to  pos- 
sess juilgiiiiiit ;  as  Colouring  juiIlm's  of  coIouih.  Form  of 
f<)rm,  Tui.e  of  music.  When,  however,  we  use  the  word 
judgment,  we  ni<'an  rl;;ht  reosoiiiiu;,  miuihI  lUciiling.  'i'o 
this  a  pro|K'r  balance  ol  the  alli-clive  fai'llicH  is  essential. 
'ITiere  is  no  sound  judifinent.  even  with  great  rellectiiig 
power*,  il  any  of  the  leelings  sir  excessive.  Hence  the 
difliculty  of  eoiivin  ing  each  I'hir  eii|v<'rieticed  by  heated 
couT'tststalista.    WLA  is  called  a  {lersuo  of  good  sense, 


is  one  who  h.n  not  only  clear  and  strong  reflectltig  laM* 
ers,  hut  well-halnnced  feelings,  thus  allowing  tho  reflectins 
powers  to  have  undisturbed  action. 

(5o\Hcior»sEss  is  the  knowledge  which  the  mind  has 
of  its  own  existence  and  o|)ernlions,  whether  these  last 
are  arfectivc  or  intellectual;  hut  as  it  does  not  reveal  tlie 
existence  or  nature  of  the  powers  themselves  which  think 
and  ii>cl,  it  wo»  an  error  in  the  metaphysn-ians  to  attcninj 
to  discover  these  p<iwer!i  by  reflecting  on  their  own  con- 
sciousness, As  they  could  have,  by  this  means,  no  ac 
cesH  to  know  tho  conscionsnegH  of  others,  they  fell  i„io 
the  error  of  supposing  all  men  constituted  alike. 

.\ttkntion  is  not  a  faculty,  but  the  stretch,  applicn. 
tion,  or  tcimion,  of  any  or  all  of  the  intellectual  facullica 

AssociATioM  is  that  succession  of  ideas  in  the  miint 
each  seeming  to  call  up  that  which  succeeds;  so  that,  ;t) 
our  waking  hours,  the  mind  is  never  without  an  idea 
passing  through  it.  This  is  a  state  or  comlitioii  of  ihe 
faculties,  not  a  faculty.  The  metaphysicians  have  en- 
deavoured to  discover  laws  by  wliicli,  in  every  mind,  this 

succession  is  regulated.     Tliis  atti'inpt  is  ullerlv  vain 

as  vain  as  to  subject  the  succession  of  the  tleetitig  clouilg 
or  fitlul  breews  to  regular  laws.  The  uniform  associat- 
iiig  powers,  according  to  the  old  notions,  are  rcseinlilaiuc' 
contiguity  in  time  and  jilace.  and  contrast;  yet  any  one 
who  thinks  on  the  subject,  cannot  fail  to  he  .sensilile  iliut 
there  are  many  connectinu  links  of  thought  which  cannot 
he  reduced  to  any  of  these  three.  The  phreiiologicul 
view  is,  that  the  predoininant  faciillies  in  each  mind 
create  the  associations.  It  is  in  the  philosophy  of  Mr. 
Si.'wart  that  .\ssocialion  is  made  to  play  a  part  inott 
disproportioned  to  its  actual  nature.  He  even  holds  that 
.\ss,ii-ialioa  produces  iicic  principles  of  action,  and  names 
.iviirie  (wliiih  phrenolo'jy  proves  to  be  the  abuse  of  a 
pri'iiitive  I'aculty  called  Acquisitiveness)  as  one  of  them. 
.\ssoiiation  is  a  very  important  principle  in  Jiienlal  science. 
There  is  a  mutual  influiMice  of  the  organs,  which  pro- 
lUic.'s  associations;  a  nalunil  as.sociation  belwc'ii  certain 
external  objects  and  certain  (acuities;  and  arliliiial  asBo- 
ciations  may  be  formed  between  ohjerts  and  f.icujlies. 
For  evainple,  long  exerci.se  of  a  particular  oruaii  ororgain 
ill  pirfonninij  certain  acts,  niidirs  those  acts  easy,  liy  the 
rapid  as-ocialioii  of  the  ideas  iieicssary  to  tiieir  peiforny. 
am-.'.  I'rofessional  skill,  in  all  its  varielii-s,  is  tlius  ac- 
coimli'd  liir.  Mutual  action  ol  the  faculties  aiL'^ea  (rora 
the  beautiful  arrangiMmnt  or  grouping  which  we  lia\e 
ali.'adv  dcsj-ribcil.  'l"he  oru-an  of  l.aii^iMi'e  iiivsocialei 
siijiis  witli  ideas,  with  well-known  rapidil\,  .VrliliiiuJ 
Meiiiorv,  or  Miinnt>,iii.<  as  it  is  ciillcd,  uv.iils  il,..i'M'  of  our 
must  eusy  and  natural  associations,  which  will  always  he 
rciiiihiti'd  hy  our  oru'aiii/.alion.  thic  pi  rson  will  coniiirt 
his  ideas  with  /(orii',  another  with  m/..ii;>,  and  many  il, 
«i  with  itliiio.  Prejudices  are  associations  of  (also  ideas 
with  the  li'clings.  In  short,  to  arrive  at  any  thing  like 
Inws  of  assinialioii,  we  must  not  look  to  the  ideas  thcra- 
selves,  but  the  faculties  thai  foim  them. 

l'»s«ioN  is  any  fucultv  in  excess.  Thus,  there  are  m 
miiiiy  pasnions  as  laculties.  I.om'  is  the  p.issi.ni  nf  Anio- 
tivencKs  in  union  with  Veneration;  avarice  of  Aci|uiiji 
liveiiess;  rage  of  Destructuciicss. 

I'l.iAsi  MK  and  1'ain  also  Ifelong  to  each  fa.ully, 
according  as  it  is  ai^reeably  or  disayri'eably  allicted. 

1' IT  II.  mi;  and  Ihca  ri  i.m  i;  an-  icsprctiM'ly  ihe  rciultl 
of  certain  comhiiialions  of  faculties.  Thus.  Itiiu'vipleiu-c, 
Vriicialioii,  Ilo|ie,  Conwientiousiu  ss,  and  Firiiiiii'ss,  with 
modirate  Sclf-F.steem,  prisluce  a  (;uirt,  imek,  rcsiuneil, 
and  iiatirnl  spirit.  .Xfiathy  is  ijuile  dillcrent.  althoiiuh 
often  confounded  whh  I'atiiiice;  it  arises  from  l\nipliiilii: 
teniperaiJienl.  or  delirient  brain.  On  the  oilier  hand, 
f<eii-Ksleeni,  ('omhativeiiess,  and  nestriicti\eiir.>s  wlicii 
laruer  than  Ilenevoleiice,  Coiis<'ieiitiousiii's.s,  and  \  enera- 
tion,  will  lie  inipalient  of  contrudiction.  Large  Timi 
and  Tune  give  iinpalience  of  bad  n  usic. 

Jul  and  Ciaiir  arise  from  Bgreeahlu  and  disai{reetliU 


PHRENOLOGY. 


til 


afTcotiona  of  thr  fiictiltios  liy  raimfd  of  cnnRidoraMo  power. 
Wealth,  power,  anil  praiao,  give  joy  to  Ac({uiHitivencRfl, 
Sclf-Estccin,  and  I-ovo  of  Approbation ;  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  tlie  death  of  a  beloved  relative  aflbcta  Adhe- 
Bvenesa  with  grief. 

dTMPATiir,  as  its  name  (from  the  Greek)  rignifica,  is 
feeling  with  another,  or  [lartaking  of  his  emotions.  The 
Iswi  which  ro;,'iilate  tlie  activity  of  the  faculties  show  the 
dbH  re  of  this  alfcctiDii  and  the  circumstances  in  which 
Jt  occurs.  Two  individuals  of  similar  constitution  of 
mind  naturally  feel  alike.  This  is  the  sympathy  felt  in 
the  theatre,  listening  to  el.Kpic'nce,  or  witnessing  distress 
Bid  suffering.  Tiut  lliore  is  another  kind  of  sympathy, 
namely,  that  which  is  called  up  by  the  activity  of  a  par- 
ticular feeling  in  another's  mind,  manifested  by  the  natu- 
ral language  of  the  active  faculty ;  thus,  the  h»u'.jhty  air 
of  Sclf-Esteem  instantly  calls  up  n  defensive  Self-F'stoem 
in  those  who  witness  it,  if  the  faculty  be  powerful  in 
them.  On  tlie  other  hand.  Benevolence,  with  its  kind 
natural  language,  excites  the  same  feeling  in  onother. 
Wonder,  too,  spreads  ra|)idly  ;  and  so  on.  We  sympa- 
thiie  with  the  aniniiil  feeling  of  Combativeness  and  De- 
gtructivene.'^s  only  when  tliey  are  awakened  and  guided 
bv  Conscientiousness  and  Heiievolence,  But  we  sympa- 
thise with  Benevolence  directly,  piovided  we  do  not 
detect  a  mixture  of  a  selfish  feeling  in  the  actions  it  pro- 
duces, such  as  vanity  or  love  of  gain.  The  doctrine  of 
R\mpathy  leads  to  vabrilile  practical  eonncqucnces  in  lil'c. 
In  education,  lor  example,  it  explains  the  greater  power 
of  Benevolenec  than  of  Wdf-Rstiem  and  Destructiveness 
in  the  treatment  of  the  youuLr — of  kindness  than  of  harsh 
and  imperious  commands  and  punishments. 

Haiiit  may  be  delined  as  the  power  of  doing  nny 
thing  well  by  lVc(iuentIy  doing  it.  But  before  it  can  be 
done  at  all,  there  nnist  be  the  faculty  to  do  it,  however 
g^vkwa^(lly.  Habit,  then,  is  the  accpiired  strength  of  the 
faculty  bv  if-s  repeated  exercise.  The  act  of  perform- 
ing skilfully  on  a  musie.il  instrument  is  the  best  illustra- 
tion. Mr,  Stewart  erred  when  he  held  that  "a  genius 
for  poetry,  painting,  music,  or  matheniatics,  is  gradually 
formed  by  particular  /ki'iVs-  of  study  or  of  business. 
Those  phrenology  shows  to  be  the  results  of  original  primi- 
tive powers  which  liabit  does  not  form,  but  only  imjiroves. 

Tastk  was  held  by  Mr.  Stewart  to  be  a  faculty,  and 
aciiuired  by  habit.  Phrenoloiry  holds  that  good  taste  is 
the  result  of  a  Iiarmonious  action  of  all  the  faculties. 
Bad  taste  is  evinced  when  particular  faculties,  especially 
propensities,  break  out  beycmd  due  liinit=i.  Lord  Byron's 
Destructiveness  and  other  animal  faculties  often  prompted 
him  to  sin  auainst  good  taste.  Too  much  ('ausality  is 
bad  taste  in  Poetry  ;  while  Homer  and  Moore  have  loo 
much  Comparison.  Social  converse  is  injured  by  bad 
taste  in  various  ways — by  displays  of  vanity,  disputa- 
tiousness, &c.  Bad  morality  is  bail  taste;  but  it  is  more, 
it  is  turpituile.  A  standard  of  tasti-,  about  which  so  niueh 
has  Iwen  written,  is  not  a  deiision  of  certain  objects  or 
qimlities  of  objects  as  beautiful  or  perfect  to  (ill  men. 
"I'liis  were  a  vain  alli'mpt  ;  but  it  may  be  approximated, 
liv  appealing  to  the  taste  of  individuals  of  very  favourable 
and  harmonious  oru.ini/.atinn,  which  has  receive<l  the 
highest  possible  culture.  It  cannot  fail  to  strike  that 
good  taMe,  sound  judgment,  and  good  morals,  all  rci^uire 
well-ltalunced  facullictf. 


For  other  conditions  of  mind,  which  may  appear  t« 
rc'iuiro  explanation,  we  must  refer  to  the  works  of  tha 
phrenologists.* 


[books  on  phrenoloot. 

Tho  writings  of  (Jail  and  Spur/.heim  will  alwnyi  b« 
entitled  to  respect  on  account  of  the  discoveries  of  those 
cmiiu'nt  phrenologist*.  Other  writers  have  been  succcs* 
ful  in  enlarging  the  science,  giving  it  greater  exactness, 
and  making  it  popular.  Among  these  Mr.  tieorge  Comb* 
has  bc(m  one  of  the  most  industrious  and  best  known. 
He  has  published  "  i',7cHir(i/«  vj  I'hmwtuf'y"  "  Leiiuies 
on  liirciiohiry,"  and  a  jihrenologicul  "  V'our  in  the  Uiiikd 
Slales,"  These  works  are  written  with  great  ability,  and 
are  particularly  valuable  on  account  of  the  great  muss  of 
liu'ts  and  illustrations  bearing  upon  the  subject  which 
they  present.  His  work  on  the  Constitution  of  Man  also 
contains  many  important  facts  connected  with  phrenology. 
A  small  book  entitled  "  Uncle  8am's  Hecommcndationa 
of  Phrenology,"  is  a  familiar  exposition  of  the  leading 
principles  of  the  science,  intended  fur  young  people  aiid 
beginners, 

"  Fowler' $  Phrenoliifry"  is  an  cxccller.t  popular  view 
of  the  subject.  There  are  several  phrenological  '<urnalt 
published  in  Europe  and  the  United  States,  to  wnich  the 
student  who  wishes  to  devote  himself  to  a  thorough 
investigation  of  the  subject  will  have  recourse. — jlni.EilA 

•Those  who  may  liave  little  opportunity  of  knowing  the  ex- 
lent  of  phrennlofrical  literature,  are  referred  to  Ihe  tbllowing 
list  of  works,  unJ  their  authors : — 

£LEME.\TABY    WOHKS   O.N    PIIRENOLOOV. 

Gall  on  the  .■Vnntoip.y  unit  I'hysiology  of  ihe  .\ervous  System 
niicl  liraia.  in  I'nMich.  with  an  .Mlus  of  Klti  lln.Kravinps.  TliJi 
work  lias  been  translated  at  Hoston.  L'nited  Stntca.  Spur/.lieim'a 
I'hrenolijgy,  i'hilosupliical  rrnicples  of  I'lireiuilotiy.  I'hysiofj- 
iif>[nic'ul  System,  riircnolo,iry  in  t-'otiiiection  with  I'iiysiogiioniy, 
Outlines  of  riireiioloiry,  and  Anatomy  of  the  Urain  and  Ner- 
vous System.  (ieor(;e  Combe's  Outlines.  F'.lemeiits.  System 
of  IMireiiology.  Letter  to  Mr.  JellVey.  and  Transiniion  oi"  G.-iii 
on  the  Cerebellmn.  Abi'rriethy  on  '"(tall  iind  Spur/lieitn."  S> 
(irortfi-  .Mnekcn/ie's  Illu.«lrntions  of  rhrenrtlopy  j  Viinoni'l 
Human  and  I'omparative  I'hreiiolofty  (the  I'hreuology  of  llie 
Infrr.or  .\Tiimals);  Scott's  I'Iirenoli,:;y.  as  aliording  a  pysie- 
luutie  view  o('  liuiinm  nature:  Deville's  Manual;  I'aldwell'a 
I'.li'inents ;  Klliolsoii's  'I'ranslaiion  of  Illumenbuch's  l'iiy5;o. 
i<»Ky.  With  Notes;  .Macnish  on  rhrenology :  Sidney  Sniilii'i 
I'rineiples:  Toulmin  Siniih's  Synopsis;  I  .cwel  AVatsoii's  Sta- 
tistics of  rhrenoloiry ;  Noble  on  Kstimnting  Charaeter;  the 
rhreui>h>i>ieal  Journal.  14  volaiaes;  Beleciions  I'roni  the  First 
Five  Volumes  of  the  same. 

WOHKS    O.N  THE    il'I'LICATIONS    Ot"    PttBENOLOl4Y. 

CttiifTn'tii  In  Human  Life. — Spur/heini's  Sketch  of  the  Natural 
I.uwB  of  .Mho  ;  t'omhe's  I'onstitution  of  .Man.  .Moral  I'hilomphy, 
and  .Notes  on  the  L'niled  Stales. 

To  Ki/i(m(i(m. —Spur<.heiiu's  I'rineiples;  Combe's  I.ecture.i; 
Prutle  oti  l-'dueallon  ;  Siuip^nn's  1  hilosopliy  of  I--dueat:on  ;  Cald- 
well on  I'hysical  lvhicati<in:  Hnghain's  Mental  Culture:  Dr. 
A.  l.'on.bc's  riiysioi.i^'y  Applied  to  Health  ajul  Ijlueaiiou,  I'hjr- 
s  olo;:y  of  Difi'-stinn.  mid  'rreiement  ol'  lul'unev";  Sir  (ieor^o 
A!ueken/ie's  ObservniKtus  on  I'.(luention  ;  the  same  author  on 
'i'asie  ;  llrny's  )''.ilueali()U  of  the  Fetdmiis. 

To  /ii.<nMi(i/.— Spur/heuu  on  lusiuiiiy  ;  llr.  A.  Combe  on  Men- 
tal I'.'ranircment ;  W.  A.  V  Ilrowiie  on  Insanity  and  Asylums. 

To  Trfniment  nf  CrjMOHnAs.— Simpson's  Treatise  on  t^riniinal 
Treatmeut.  aud  <ui  llorn.eidiil  .Mououiau;a—fioth  appended  \a 
the  first  •■il't'ou  ot'  his  work  on  Nutioiiitl  T'.dueatiou  ;  his  Trrii- 
lise  on  Capital  I'uiiisliment  tor  Murder,  in  Tjmtlon  Monthtif 
Chrniiirlf  for  .lime.  IMl ;  Sumpsun'a  Criminal  Junsnrudence  in 
Ki'latiiui  to  .Meiuul  Or^raiii/ation. 

.\lfn.  die  rhreiioliijr'enl  Journal,  on  all  these  npplica'ion*. 
U'atson's  Sintistics  of  I'hrennlcmy.  page  171.  gives  a  r«t  of 
sixt\-i>uir  phreaoloyieal  unJ  eleven  anti-phrenologica!  pub- 
iihed  woiki. 


TobL— M 


%D 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CIVIL  GOVERNMENT. 


INTROnUCTORY. 

It  i*  .mpo^sililo  to  iinni^ine  mnn,  surh  an  wc  know 
nim,  oxislincr  out  of  porioty.  Mnu  is  a  lioinp;  who,  from 
hit  birth  to  hi'*  death,  is  continuiilly  unclt>r;joiim  ohani;>'9 
from  wniknoss  to  strrncth,  nnd  from  strpiiiith  to  woak- 
iiesB.  Without  tlio  aid  of  otliern,  tlie  rliild  rouhl  not 
live  to  lii'Cdnio  n  mati.  Affain,  nny  one  man's  powers 
of  obsorviition  would  hv  quite  inBdeijunte  to  ])rooure  for 
him  nny  ihiii:;  like  the  amount  of  knowlrdiie  whirh  a 
'  numlTr  of  men.  imparting;  their  information  to  rneh 
other,  and  disputiiii;  about  if.  store  np  by  means  of  this 
fo-openitinM.  I.as'ly,  tlio  wishes,  fears,  likim^s,  and 
dislikinif-i.  in  wliich  a  man  habitually  iud\d(?es,  and  the 
•elions  which  they  jirouipt  Uim  to  imdortnke,  ami  the 
opposition  which  he  meets  with  from  others,  contribute 
to  form  what  we  call  his  peculiar  charactep.  These  feel- 
inifs  could  not  Ixi  excited  to  the  extent  they  are,  with- 
out the  sympathy  and  antipathy  of  beings  like  himself, 
nor  could  he  anywhere  meet  with  opposilion  to  his 
wishes  so  stroiii;  a.s  what  he  experiences  from  the  ri- 
valr\'  of  his  fcHo-.v-meii.  In  short,  man  is.durinu;  n  irreat 
part  of  his  life,  depciidiMit  upon  the  assistance  of  others 
fir  th''  preservation  of  Iiis  existence  ;  the  [las-ions  which 
e;iur  him  on  to  act  are  excited,  or  at  least  strcnulhcncil, 
by  the  sympathy  or  o])position  of  men  feclini;  like  him- 
self; hi^  kuowlcd'^cis  iucreascil,  and  his  wits  are  shari>- 
ened  by  conversation  with  other  men.  It  is  barijy  pos- 
sible to  imagine  a  creature  of  flesh  and  blood,  with  a 
Ihinkini;  principle  like  our  own,  livini;  in  ut'er  solitude; 
and  s'.icli  a  biinij,  could  it  exist,  wouhl  dilFcr  widely 
from  man.  made  what  ho  is  by  living  among  creatures 
like  himself 

.Again,  government  of  some  kind  or  another  seems 
necessary  to  the  very  existence  of  society.     Two  men 
CHonot  lie  long  tosether,  but  there  will  lie  a  chance  of 
their  tmth  de-siring  to  take  possession  of  the  same  ob- 
ject, or  one  of  them  wishing  the  other  to  give  np  some 
pursuit  in  which  the  latter  is  engaged,  in  order  to  a-ssist 
him  in  his.     The  stronger,  or  the  cleverer  of  the  two, 
contrives  to  (oTre  or  persn.ide  his  cojnpanion  to  comply 
with  his  wi-di ;  in  other  words,  he  governs  him.  .Among 
all  rude  jieoplc,  we  find  women  and  children  olil  enough 
to  l>o  able  to  work,  in  short,  the  weaker  memt)ors  of  wo- 
cietv,  governed  by    the   strong — made  to  do   what  the 
strons  want  them.     In  societies  a  little  more  advanceil,  ' 
ve    find    individuals    not     possessed    of    nuich    Inxlily  i 
strength,  making  up  for  the  want  by  cunning,  by  win-  i 
ning   manners,  or  by  reasoning,  or  by  a  mixture  of  all 
these.     The  kind  of  government  which,  as  a  society  ad-  i 
vances  in  civilization,  immeilhlely  snceeds  that  which 
•avage   tribes  call   the   "  fightmir-men."  is   that   of  the  , 
priests.  Priestly  srovernment.  in  its  rudest  form,  is  found  j 
in   the   fr't'irf  of  the    Xeijro  nations,  ami  the  "  great  j 
in(vlicinei"ofthe  red  Inrlinns  of  America.     It  is  a  proof  ! 
of  a  narrow   mind,  when  a   man  can   see   nothing  but  | 
what   is  bad,  even   in   lhe«e  (to  us)  lui'.icrons   instances 
of  prie<t!v  trovernmeiit.     The  priest-ruler  is  generally  , 
ITi'tre  of  a  thinkin-j  ts'ini;  than  the  m-re  '•  fiiilitin'j-man." 
I'e  mu-.!   have  evjiericiiced   the   iiithicncr'  of  devotional 
f<  elir.c — rude   as  his   own    nnculliv'tnl   mind,  b'lt   sub- 
••aiitially  the  same   el-vnting   emotiiii  which  adds  such 
a  dia'iiiv  to   the    most  eiili-rh'ene  1  minds — or  he  would 
Hit  be  i-apable  of  hiving  plans  to  work  upon  that  fci-ling 
in  the  luiiiils  (if  iithi-rt.     lie  is  not  ne.essarily  allu;,'ctber 
or  tnaIicioi!:;|y  sellish  ;  for  history  has  many  exaiiipli's 
f  vi-ii   ,>f  t)ie    lUi'^ler-pricst    playing  off  tricks    upon    his  , 
dnis's   in   order  to  frii;bien   them   into  uood  behaviour.  \ 
Mu<t  gdvi-rrimentii  that  the  world  has  scvti.  have  been  a  I 

ai4 


comiioiiiid  of  the  government  of  the  "  fightii  g..men " 
and  the  priests — an  alliance  between  these  two  cla.sset, 
each  acknowledging  the  power  of  the  other,  and  giving 
up  domething  to  s<!euro  its  asoistance.  The  few  wiuwe 
strength  und  courage,  or  wlio.so  nmliilion  and  talents 
enable  them  to  become  warrior  chiefs  or  jiriests,  were 
stimulated,  some  hy  desire  of  luxury,  itome  by  desire  uf 
wealth,  some  by  dosiro  of  power,  some  by  desire  of 
doing  good.  Even  the  merely  nlfisli  among  them  wore 
obliged  to  do  good  to  some,  in  order  to  jirocure  faithful 
servants.  The  goverinncnt  of  the  wise  (the  word  trit 
is  used  here  comiuratively— they  wore  win'r  than  tho:;* 
they  governed)  and  the  strong  was  yieldid  to  by  s,iinp 
becavise  they  were  all  used  by  their  rolcrs,  by  the  rest, 
because  experience  ta\ight  tin  ni  that  the  settled  cotidi. 
tion  of  a  society  in  which  there  is  a  recognised  govern- 
ment, is  lH>ller  than  the  irregular  comlilion  of  a  society 
in  which  the  ruler  of  to-day  ni.iy  be  the  sluvc  of  to. 
morrow.  When  a  government  lias  cxi;  led  for  a  con- 
siderable  time,  a  number  of  the  persons  living  under  it 
nnist  have  been  born  under  it:  it  was  a  government  at 
the  earliest  time  of  which  they  have  any  rccollecliun, 
and  is  a  government  still.  As  in  every  thing  else,  men 
jump  at  the  conclusion  in  this  matter,  that  because  tliev 
can  remcml'er  no  other  stale  of  alVairs,  there  can  havo 
been  no  other.  They  coino  to  look  upon  the  govern- 
ment under  which  they  live  as  souicthiiig  that  necessa- 
rily exists,  that  cannot  he  othi-rwise.  It  is  in  this  w-jy 
of  thinking  that  we  must  sock  the  oriuin  of  ihosc  notion* 
regardin.;  the  riulits  of  royal  and  noble  families,  whirh, 
combined  with  men's  .sense  of  the  power  i>f  the  warrior 
castes,  have,  from  the  time  tluit  history  begins  dowi  to 
a  very  recent  jicriod,  made  up  most  men's  concejitions 
of  a  goverinncnt. 

Some  of  our  readers  may  think  that  it  was  not  ne- 
cessary to  take  np  so  much  time  and  loom  as  wc  have 
bestowed  upon  the  two  preceding  para;.';r»phs,  in  order 
to  prove  that  men  have  always  lived  in  society,  and  that 
soi'iety  has  always  had  a  gov-rnment  of  svunc  kind  or 
another.  It  can,  however,  easily  be  shown,  that  llic 
detail  into  which  we  have  entered  is  not  useless.  Men 
need,  more  ol\en  than  they  confess  or  arc  aware  of,  to 
be  told  over  agtiiu  what  is  not  new  to  them.  It  is  not 
enough  to  hear  a  thing,  mdess  some  elTort  is  made  to 
understanil  it.anil  keeii  it  in  mind.  Our  object  in  layirii; 
so  mu(  h  stress  upon  so  iniilejiiable  a  fact,  as  that  we 
know  nothing  of  nuiii  but  as  he  has  been  made  by  so- 
ciety, is  |j>  impress  upon  the  re.idir's  mind,  so  that  tlie 
truth  shall  be  constantly  |irest>nt  to  him,  the  faol  that  to 
live  ill  society  is  a»  necessary  and  unalterable  a  condi- 
tion of  our  existence  as  to  breathe.  \  man,  by  brin'^ 
ing  some  of  his  neighbours  to  think  with  hijn,  and  ly 
subjecting  them  to  his  power,  may  produce  a  small,  very 
small  chauite.  in  tlic  condition  of  that  part  of  society 
which  is  within  his  reach;  but,  in  return,  socij-'y  make* 
him  almost  till  that  he  is.  Hoi-iety  is  not  a  thing  that 
man  can  make,  but  the  result  of  natural  tendencies.  It 
has  nssiirne.l,  in  every  civili/ed  country,  the  character  it 
liears.  from  the  natural  operation  of  the  mental  and  phy 
sical  constitution  of  man — we  find  in  all  a  variety  of 
professions  and  purs\iits,  some  of  hii.'h  and  others  ot  in- 
ferior intillecliial  endHwnient,  and.  from  a  concurrence 
of  causes,  iine  class  leisurely  anil  wealthy,  and  another 
more  constantly  empbiyeirand  depending  more  for  auli- 
si-itcnce  on  pergonal  excrlion.  That  even  in  the  k-iil 
organized  soiicties  there  are  faulLs,  no  one  denies;  Inil 
in  as  far  as  any  such  ar(^  inconsislei.t  with  man's  mental 
f.ieulties,  they  are  susceptible  of  remedy,  and  will  ,ic. 
cordingly  lie  remedied  as  the  K-^icty  advances  in  ineulW 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CIVIL  GOVERNMENT. 


Sift 


ealhit*'  Viewing  thew  faults  in  too  gloomy  a  *pirit, 
BMD  have,  on  vurioun  occauons,  endeavoured  to  rcor- 
fUihe  Dorirty  on  now,  and,  as  they  believed,  more  ra- 
tional prinriplei;  but  all  such  attempts  have  signally 
fcil*!'  EfTorts,  far  example,  to  eHtablish  universal 
equality  of  condition,  with  community  of  goodn,  as  wrll 
M  to  hnninh  reliKious  bolicf,  have  in  every  instance 
come  to  iinnght,  because  they  were  absolutely  inconipa- 
tililc  with  the  fundamental  principles  of  human  nature, 
wliidi  are  the  same,  on*  slightly  voried  by  circum- 
gtiUiCOH,  in.evrry  age  and  country.  All  reformers  who 
bivc  set  out  with  the  opinion  that  society  nm^t  and  can 
be  rccouKtructcd  upon  other  principlcn  than  lliose  that 
have  hilbrrto  held  it  together,  from  the  days  of  I'lato 
down  to  those  of  Rol  crt  Owen,  have  been  attempting 
an  iiiipossiliilily  and  throwing  uway  their  labour. 

Further,  the  detailed  exjiosition  of  the  nature  of  go- 
VpnuucMt  was  entered  into  for  the  purpowe  of  impressing 
upon  llio  reader's  mind,  in  a  lively  and  lasting  manner, 
tlic  fact,  that  as  society  is  necessary  to  the  existence  of 
Dian,  such  as  we  know  him,  government  is  iiiscpurable 
from  llie  exister.ce  of  society.  Wherever  two  or  three 
arc  met  together,  there  nuisl  be  government;  it  may  be 
geod  or  bad,  wise  or  foolish  government,  but  govern- 
ment of  some  kind  there  will  be.  There  will  always 
be  in  I'very  society  some  who  have  a  desire  to  rule  over 
otiierri — to  make  others  work  out  their  purposes — and 
BDiiic  who  are  satisfied  to  submit  to  the  domination  of 
lliose  who  are  more  ambitious.  There  will  always  be 
among  those  who  arc  ambitious  of  government  sonu" 
v,\m  unite  to  the  desire,  the  talents  necessary  to  enable 
thcni  10  attain  their  ends,  and  others  who  do  not;  some 
who  M'l'k  to  found  their  power  upon  their  own  force,  or 
upon  the  superstition  of  others,  or  upon  their  power  of 
(iers\iac!int;  or  convincing  men  that  they  know  better 
wliat  is  good  for  them  than  they  do  themselves.  'I'he 
propensities  and  faculties  which  induce  and  enable  some 
men  to  aapire  to  be  leaders,  others  to  contest  tlie  leader- 
Bliip  w  ilh  them,  ami  others,  again,  contentedly  to  follow 
tlic  leaJ,  are  imjilanted  in  them  by  nature;  they  cannot 
help  having  or  evcrcising  them.  But  it  is  with  these  ele- 
ments of  our  nature  as  it  is  with  our  instinctive  pro])en- 
»ities  to  eat  and  drink,  to  love  or  hute;  by  the  i)roper 
use  of  their  knowing  and  reflecting  powers,  men  may 
n  control  and  direct  them  as  to  render  them  instru- 
ments for  producing  great  good  and  hajipiness  to 
the  whole  human  race.  A  long  eiperience  was  neces- 
sary lo  teach  men  this  truth  ;  it  is,  therefore,  not  to  be 
womlcred  at  that  nothing  approaching  to  a  clear  con- 
ception of  it  dawned  upon  the  minds  of  men  till  within 
tlie  last  two  centuries,  or  that  even  yet  it  should  l)e  ac- 
knowledged liy  comparatively  few,  and  rightly  under- 
stood by  a  still  smaller  number.  The  idea,  however, 
after  visitiini,  with  less  and  less  of  obscurity,  the  minds 
of  urciit  thinkers  in  dilFercnt  ages,  has,  in  the  progress 
of  time,  revealed  itself  with  considerable  clearness,  and 
has  lieen  spiiken  aloud,  and  hiw  fallen  iu\  the  ears  and 
touched  the  hearts  of  men.  The  history  of  the  Furopcan 
luce  I'or  tlie  last  hundred  years,  is  little  more  than  an 
account  of  iiien's  eti'orls  to  apprehend  aright,  and  apply 
in  practice  this  important  truth — of  errors,  and  conlro- 
versics,  and  unreasonalile  getting  angry,  and  attempting 
to  coiiviiiie  each  other,  nut  by  orgunients  but  by  hard 
blows.  Society  has  become  convinced  that  uovernineiit 
may  be  converted  iiilu  an  instninicnl  of  greater  good 
Ihiiii  it  ha.<  ever  yet  [iroved,  and  will  not  rest  till  it  has 
solved  the  iirolilcin. 

These  remarks  have  apjicared  to  us  a  necessary  in- 
tioduclion  to  the  Pchinciim.is  ok  (^vir.  (invni\- 
Mivr — nci'cssaiy,  in  order  to  place  in  a  clear  liid't  the 
nature  of  the  tiling  proposcil  lo  be  ini|nired  into,  and  the 
object  of  the  iiiipiiry.  The  study  of  govennneut  eia- 
hraces  two  distinct  questions — What  is  g.ivenmient  ? 
In  what  uiiujicr  c^u  guvcriuucut  be  made  productive  of 


the  greatest  amount  of  good ;  or  in  what  nmnner  cma 
any  mischievous  tendencies  it  may  have  bu  moat  cfTeo- 
tively  neutralized  1  Cioverument  is  simply  the  oxcrcisa 
of  power  by  one  person  or  by  many  associated  persona. 
The  inquiry  into  the  nature  of  government  is  therefore 
an  inquiry  into  the  source  of  its  power.  Its  powei 
must  be  derived  from  some  peculiarities  in  ihc  charac- 
ters of  those  who  obtain  and  exercise  it,  on  the  ono 
hand,  and  froiii  some  peciiiiarilies  in  the  characters  ol 
those  over  whom  it  is  exercised,  on  the  other.  The  in- 
quiry into  the  faculties  and  propensities  which  mako 
some  men  governors  and  others  subjects,  exhausts  the 
uiquirj'  into  the  nature  of  government.  Tliis  investi- 
gation, it  is  clear,  must  precede  the  inquiry,  how  go- 
vernment can  be  most  elTectivcly  rendered  productive 
of  good,  or  prevented  from  <!oing  liarni.  Having  arrived 
ot  a  distinct  notion  of  what  conslitutes  a  government, 
of  wherein  consists  its  power,  the  second,  the  practicftl 
question  thus  subdivides  itself— In  what  cases  is  the 
interference  of  a  government  likely  to  be  productive  of 
good  to  the  great  body  of  society  ?  In  what  cases  is  ita 
interference  likely  to  be  productive  of  evil  ?  By  what 
means  can  government  be  rendered  capable  of  |>roduc- 
ing  the  greatest  ])0ssible  amount  of  good,  in  cases  where 
its  inteiference  U  of  use  ?  By  what  means  can  govern- 
ment be  kejit  Irom  meddling  where  its  interference  ia 
likely  to  do  harm  1 

The  answers  to  these  two  classes  of  (luesticms  consti- 
tute the  principles  of  civil  govcrniiient,  or  the  theory  of 
civil  government.  The  reader  cannot  fail  to  have  oN 
served  that  they  imply,  on  the  put  of  the  person  able 
to  solve  thcin,  some  acquaintanre  with  the  constitution 
of  man.  There  are  few  persons  of  this  class  likely  to 
take  an  inti-rest  in  these  pages,  who  can  be  entirely  ig- 
norant of  the  nature  of  man :  they  may  not  have  an 
accurate  or  systematic  knowledge  of  it,  but  by  reading 
and  conversing,  they  must  have  picked  up  a  sufliciency 
of  floating  notions  regarding  it  to  enable  them,  with  or- 
dinary attention,  to  follow  us  whcmvcr  we  may  have 
to  touch  upon  that  branch  of  knowledge.  At  the  same 
time,  it  is  rittht  to  tell  them  lliat  their  understanding  of 
the  jiriiiciplcs  of  government  will  be  rendered  much 
easier  and  much  more  correct,  by  a  careful  perusal  of 
some  book  or  treatise  giving  a  clear  and  concise  account 
of  the  constitution  of  man.  Mr.  (J.'orge  Combe's  work 
bearing  that  title,  is  what  wc  would  recommend  as  tb« 
best. 

.•\  theoretical  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  govern- 
ment is  not,  however,  enough  :  or,  wo  would  rather 
say,  that  the  mere  study  of  a  systematic  exiilanation  of 
those  principles  is  not  enough  lo  enable  a  man  to  mas- 
ter them  to  any  uood  or  ])ractical  purpose.  Von  cannot 
get  a  right  kiiowlcdce  of  any  thing  by  looking  at  it 
from  one  point  of  view  only.  If  you  want  to  have  a 
correct  knowledge  of  a  country,  it  will  not  do  to  atick 
close  to  the  high  roail.  thoush  that  will  carry  you  luort 
ea.tily  thnnnjli  it.  Von  must  turn  into  ly-lanes,  to 
the  rii;ht  and  to  the  left.  Von  must  ascend  hills  to  ob- 
tain bird's-cvc  views,  and  you  must  scramble  through 
vallevs  to  get  a  iiotiim  of  the  slciiie.  si/.e,  and  position 
of  hills.  Auain,  if  any  man  would  have  a  correct  judg- 
ment of  what  human  life  really  is.  and  what  its  value, 
he  iiiiisl  not  hastily  dei  ide.  when  in  youlh  or  early  man- 
hood he  sees  the  uiitravellcd  path  -t -etched  out  before 
him:  he  ninsl  wait  till  he  has  at  least  allained  the  mid- 
way heiirhts  of  life,  and  can  look  back  on  the  ascent  ho 
has  climbed,  forward  upon  the  descent  lief(>re  him- 
And  so,  whoever  would  lhorou'i;lily  comprebend  the 
prim  iples  <if  civil  >j;overi;ment — who  would  o'llain  such 
tt  practical  mastery  of  them,  tiial  be  shall  lie  abie  to 
make  them  a  rule  of  action — must  seek  to  look  at  inein 
from  .lillerent  points  of  view.  He  iiiU'^t  aeenslom  tiim- 
self,  on  the  one  hand,  from  such  a  study  of  llii  nature 
of  governmeul,  and  the  means  of  turning  it  to  »he  beat 


Sl« 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLB. 


•ccouLit,  M  we  hnvp  junt  rhnlkcd  an  uutlino  of,  to  pro- 
vide himxflf  nith  ii  Htuidiinl  wlicrJfliy  to  juilgo  the 
Ktioni  of  (roviTiiinciit.  And  thrn,  ai;nin.  ho  muni  nc- 
curtom  liiinm-lf  In  rt-ml  tlio  hi.-<tory  of  paxt  ««(•»  and 
olhcr  muntrioK,  iiinl  tn  ki'op  n  dis|)iifi(>ionalc  wnU'h  over 
wliat  in  K'>i"R  liiiward  in  tii«  own,  with  n  viow  to  find 
In  thcHP  olwiTvaliiinH  pniriirnl  lo<siin»  roffardinn  tho  na- 
ture and  (ipi'iuliiin  of  ^nvrrniiipnt,  tliiit  may  motlify  and 
render  ninrc  luriimlc  l\is  iilwlrart  opiiiiuiiH,  or  wrvo  a» 
illustniti.iiiH  mill  I'xpliinutiona  to  cnalilo  hun  to  under- 
Mand  tlu'in  mure  (liiiniiiRlily. 

Ill  aceDrilaiii e  willi  ilieKc  views,  wo  propose  to  sub- 
divide tlilii  Irael  int>i  two  Hoi'tions.  In  liie  (irnl,  we  will 
treat  of  the  prim  Ipli'K  or  theory  of  eivil  ({overnnieiit, 
•rcordin^  ti>  the  pl.iii  tliat  lias  lieen  already  laid  down; 
in  the  wroiid,  we  will  analyze  the  eonsliliitioii  of  our 
own  ronntry,  in  onler  to  point  out  the  aeliial  workini; 
of  these  priiK-ipIi's,  and  to  fiiriii«li  the  reader  with  illus- 
trations of  the  priiiiiples  slated  in  the  first  seelion.  and 
an  ex|K;riinemal  test  of  their  truth.  The  first  of  tlieso 
■eetions  isentillcdTiiKoiii  or  ("iviL  (iovkiivmknt  ;  tho 

■t'Cond,  (ioVCHNMKVT  AS   IT  AeTl'*I.LlC    KXISTS, 

Any  Ihiiii;  that  n  mere  man  ran  teaih  another,  must 
be  neeessarily  iiK  oiiiplele — the  partial  knowlcdire  of  a 
limited,  a  finite  niiaJ.  When  a  man  has  done  his  liest 
to  make  a  suljci't  riear,  he  must,  if  his  ohjeet  he  to  dis- 
st-miimle  Iriith.  rest  his  liope  of  siH'cess.  in  no  small  de- 
gree, on  his  power  of  stiiniilltin'^  those  he  addresses  to 
think  and  in(|uiie  fir  thcni'^elves.  It  is  on  this  aeeount 
that  we  earhi':.tly  wish  that  uvery  one  of  these  ourtrn<-ts 
may  inspire  our  readers  with  a  resolulioii  to  iii(|uire 
farther  into  the  mailers  they  treat  of.  Wv  hope,  for 
example,  that  we  shall  !«•  aide  to  iiivc  such  a  foietaste 
of  tho  important  and  interestini;  study  to  wliieh  this 
numlior  is  devoti'd,  as  will  induce  thrm,  when  they 
have  leisure,  to  consult  diiren  nt  authors  who  have 
treati'd  of  it — to  eoiiipare  or  contrast  their  opinions  with 
ours,  and  with  one  anilher.  In  the  hojie  that  it,)mr  at 
least  may  do  thif,  we  have  i!<'ded  a  third  welion,  ron- 
tainini;  a  very  short  list  of  t!ie  principal  authoro.  It 
has  Ihh'U  the  praciice  of  some  \.riters  to  preliv  a  history 
of  llu'ir  science  to  their  systeiiiutic  expl  inalions  of  it.  To 
us,  on  the  other  haiul,  a  dislinil  conception  of  the  nature 
and  splu're  of  the  iiiipiiry,  such  as  can  only  he  ohlaiiied 
from  enlerimj  upon  it,  is  reipiisile,  to  enaMe  \is  to  de- 
five  advan!ai;e  from  a  record  of  the  successive  ell'orts 
which  h  ive  hrounlit  it  to  the  sluiie  of  advamt'inent  in 
which  we  find  it.  Kvery  science,  however,  ami  most  of 
nil  a  practical  science  like  the  theory  of  government,  lias 
liitht  refiecti'd  upon  it  hy  tracini?  it  from  the  niidevelo|H'd 
form  in  which  it  llr-t  presented  itself  to  men's  minds, 
through  the  various  elVorls  and  casualties  which  have 
hrought  it  to  the  condition  in  whiih  we  find  it.  Hut 
the  only  w.iy  to  iimsler  the  history  of  a  science,  is  to 
read  the  works  of  llie  ifreat  men  who  have  treated  of  it 
one  after  another,  and  to  note  how  each,  takinii  the  suli- 
ject  up  where  his  pre.heessor  left  it,  has  U-en  eiiahled 
to  advance  if.  And  it  is  impossihle  to  esca|M'  misun- 
derstandina  authors,  unless,  by  studyinu  the  hisSory  of 
their  science,  we  know  the  preeimeeplions  which  they 
entertained,  and  the  practical  r)l)jects  they  had  iinmedi- 
ately  in  view  in  wrilini?.  inisinuch  as  these  necessarily 
war|ied  their  jud^^ineni,  and  led  llieni  to  adopt  their  [lO- 
euliar  forms  of  expression. 

SECTION  I.— TIIKORV  OF  CIVIt,  OOVERN.MENT. 
I    Wlmi  !■  Governmrnt  ? 

Many  writers  upon  ijoverninent,  some  of  them  of  no 
in«>an  not<',  have  thought  it  necessary  to  start  with  a 
definitiim  of  wii.it  they  mean  hy  the  word  i:"irnimnil. 
This  aflbclalion  of  sj-vere  exact  thinkiii)?  is  copiotl  from 
tho  forms  of  denionsiration  liilopted  h\  malheniaticians, 
b<il  in  out  of  place  in  reawiiinga  about  thiiigf  which 


exiat  indepondent  of  tho  reaioner.  The  mnthrmatirlaa 
may  define  hi*  <drcle,  because  part  of  his  procesn  {k  t« 
f onstrurt  his  circle :  but  tho  reasoner  on  Kovernmeiu 
doea  not  make  government;  ho  Audi  it  existing  Dcfork 
him. 

We  use  the  wont  government  in  its  commnn,  it  niiy 
bo  unm-ientifir,  but  perfectly  intellii;il<le,  application. 
When  we  talk  of  n  government,  wo  mean  the  sanio 
thing  as  when  we  talk  of  the  l)rilish  governinent  or  the 
Chinese  government.  Wo  roean  simply  that  man  or 
hiMly  of  men  who  govern,  or,  in  other  words,  exerciie 
power  over  a  nation.  Ho  long  as  such  a  man  or  hod* 
of  men  possess  power  over  a  nation,  are  oheyeil  hy  jt 
so  long  are  they  a  goverument ;  when  they  cease  to  |i{ 
olM-yed,  they  rease  to  he  a  i^overnnient.  Tl.ey  may  tn 
an  unjust  irovcrnmeiit,  and  continue  to  rei^n,  or  they 
maybe  unjustly  de|)osed  ;  that  does  not  alter  the  stnt« 
of  the  fact.  Tho  holders  and  exercisers  of  power  a;"o 
a  government,  by  whatever  means  they  exercise  that 
power,  or  whether  they  exercise  it  for  good  or  evil. 

The  government  <if  a  nation  is  the  man  or  body  of 
men  jjossessiiig  and  exercising  power  over  the  rest  of 
the  community.  Hy  power,  we  mean  what  was  pos. 
s<sse<l  by  the  centurion,  who  said  to  our  •'^aviour,  "I 
say  to  one  man,  go,  ami  he  K0*'th  ;  and  to  aiiniher,  come, 
ami  he  coincth ;  and  to  my  servant,  do  this,  and  be 
doeth  it."  r,)wer,  as  was  intimated  in  the  intro<!ucti  rv 
jiart  of  this  essay,  may  lie  acipiired  by  dill'ei<'nt  miaiiii, 
A  strong  man  pni.,shcs  a  weak  man  for  not  olievliig 
his  coininands  ;  ami  the  weak  man,  convinced  t'liit  simi- 
lar disobcilience  will  always  draw  down  uiion  hini  a 
similar  punishment,  obeys  him  ever  after.  .\  cnmiiiig 
man  |)rrNiiu>les  a  fixdish  man,  that  he  possesses  su|h'r- 
natural  powers — that  his  |ira\eis  and  invoialions  can 
call  down  blcHsin);s  or  curses  u|>oii  others;  and  the  dujia 
(ilM'ys  him.  in  ordiT  to  obtain  the  one  and  csiapo  th« 
other.  \  wise  man  convinces  u  man  of  ^^ood  under* 
slamline  that  he  understamls  what  is  for  their  coiiimon 
advantage,  and  thus  ])ersnailes  him  to  follow  his  ailvirp, 
which  is  a  more  p(dit<'  way  of  expressina; — to  obey  him. 
When  a  certain  nnmber  of  individuals  have,  by  llie  use 
of  one  or  more  of  tin  se  means,  secured  the  oliedic  ni* 
of  a  certain  nnmlH'r  of  followers  or  dependents,  niiotlicr, 
ill  the  same  manner,  secures  their  obedience  (und  with 
that  of  all  their  retainers)  to  hiiiisidf  In  this  manner 
siiiall  stall's  were  first  firmed,  which,  ill  ))rocess  of  time, 
by  the  operation  of  wars,  ulliances,  and  other  means, 
were  inelled  toifether  into  great  ones,  itut  the  greatest 
and  most  civilizi'd  slates,  when  closely  examined,  will 
Is'  found  to  Ih-  slill  held  toifethcr  by  the  same  means 
which  were  originally  inslrumcntal  in  forminu;  siiiall 
ones.  A  man  who  has  nnich  wealth,  has  inlhieiice  with 
a  certain  numlier  of  his  fellow-eiti/eiis.  A  man  wlui 
diM-s  much  Kood.  has  infiuence  with  another  poiliun  of 
them.  \  man  who  is  believed  in  any  way  to  ha\e  it  in 
bis  [siwer  to  do  (iochI  or  liirin  to  others,  possesses  siiiii. 
lar  infiucuee.  Two  or  more  of  the  |sTsons  possessing 
such  infiuence,  form  a  party,  aiwl  choos«>  or  are  gaiiiid 
by  n  leader ;  and  the  man  or  association  of  iicn  who.  by 
this  complicated  prcKess,  command  the  sen  ices  of  a  do 
ciiled  majoiily  of  the  citizens,  are  the  government. 

This  is  the  ease  in  every  nation  that  has  a  uovcrn 
ineiit.  whnlever  the  external  name  and  form  of  thai 
irovernnient  may  Is-.  In  mi  enliijhlened  country  like 
our  own,  in  which  men  have  acipiired  a  habit  of  obi  y- 
ini;  the  laws,  the  process  is  earri<d  on  in  coiiroriiiily 
with  the  forms  of  law.  In  countries  less  advanced  in 
civili/atioii  (as  was  the  case  among  our  own  amestor-), 
the  ai'ipiisition  of  power,  and  its  transference  from  one 
party  to  another,  is  effected  by  means  of  violence.  Hut 
in  both  instances  the  fact  remains  unaltered,  that  the 
man,  or  combination  of  men,  who  possess  the  larcciit 
amount  of  stored-up  capital,  the  greatest  (|uaNlity  of 
practical  talent  for  managing  men,  and  hy  those  mewu 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CIVIL  OoVERNMENT. 


aiT 


rriini'iii 
t  uofor* 


dn  ^prricT*  of  ttic  pfToatctit  niiinlicr  of  the  otrong  and 
rrnrttuti'  im-n  of  a  country,  alwny*  rxcrrim),  directly  or 
indiri'i-tly,  in  their  own  nampH  or  in  thn  name  of  aorae 
other  piTHons,  the  aovcrcinn  power  in  that  country. 

It  in  clcnr  from  this  analyHin  that  the  aourco  of  all 
nolilii'nl  (lowor  in  intcllcrtual  ahilily  ;  that  the  mean*  hy 
whii'h  all  iiuincroiiii  Intdic*  of  men  mn  kept  in  oliedienre, 
iri  their  !>eiii^  led  to  lieliovc  in  tho  ahility  of  their  rulera 

led  to  hi'linvu  Ihitt  it  is  morn  for  thrir  advantn|{o  to  ol)cy 

UuMiithnii  to  rcrtint  them.  In  other  wordH,  tho  oidy  meanii 
hv  whiili  a  novernment  can  e«tahliMh  its  power  upon  a 
tlMc,  iin  I  |>ermanent  foundation,  in,  hy  making  the  great 
hiwly  of  the  ]H'oplu  feel  or  helicvo  thai  it  conlributoH  to 
their  hiipjiineKs.  We  certiiiidy  read  of  nations  whrrh 
luive  HiilMiiitied  to  tho  exuctionH,  oppreaHioiiK,  and  con- 
tumelies iif  denpnta  and  powerful  nriHtoeraeies,  hut  on 
cliner  oxiimiimtion  we  will  Bce  that  oven  their  lionel'itH, 
rrni  or  im;i){iiiiiry,  were  the  inHueneeH  which  kept  the 
people  in  Huhjeetion.  Tho  uncivilized  man  i»  incapahic 
of  lookini,'  iH-yonil  the  necosaitieM  of  the  day — of  making 
Drriina;eiiieiilK  with  a  view  to  provide  for  tho  security 
and  comfort  of  yeiirn — of  aacrificing  the  gratification  of 
the  moment  t<i  cnxuro  a  greater  and  more  lasting  plea- 
giirc  at  a  future  time.  .\  class  of  men  a  little  more  en- 
ligliloncil  llian  the  rude  crew  wo  have  been  describing, 
un  easily,  by  conferring  u\>on  thenj  cheap  immediate 
plciMurcs,  incline  tliem  to  Hulimlt  to  lasting  sacrifices; 
•nil  when  a  portion  of  then\  ccperiencc  a  passing  dis- 
content, |)Ut  them  down  with  tho  aid  of  those  of  their 
own  ruiMiber  who  hap|icn  to  ho  satisfied  at  the  moment. 
A  few  capalih;  of  making  combinations  can  thus  hold  in 
rlu'ck  a  multitude  less  enlightened.  Hut  still  their  chief 
eiiiiine  of  authority  is  their  ability  to  persuade  at  least  a 
portion  of  their  subjects  that  they  are  kind  to  them. 
They  miy  cheat  them  in  the  bargain;  hut  still  the  bar- 
giiin  is,  ■'  Do  us  good,  and  rule  over  us."  But  compa- 
ratively hi'j:hly  civilized  nations,  it  will  he  said,  have 
been  seen  tamely  submitting  to  tyranny,  as  was  tho 
ni»e  in  Fnince  before  the  revolution.  In  such  cases,  it 
will  he  found,  either  that  tho  rulers  have  flattered  tho 
vanity  of  the  [K-opie,  pniil  them  in  false  coin  which  they 
l4Xik  for  storling,  or  that  the  peo|)le  have  thrown  them- 
selves into  the  arms  of  a  despotism  as  a  refuge  from 
evils  of  which,  having  exficrimental  knowledge,  they 
wore  more  afraid — invasions,  it  may  be,  by  foreigners, 
or  internal  anarchy.  Still,  tho  prosin-ct  of  advantage  to 
tlii'iinclves  was  the  source  of  the  subjects' allegiance ;  they 
acli'd  upon  the  principle— of  two  evils,  choose  the  least. 

Hiiviiig  thus  alti'mpted  to  show  what  government  is, 
ill  answer  to  the  first  ipiestion  proposed  in  the  introduc- 
tion, we  now  proceed  to  try  to  solve  tho  ipicstions  in- 
vi;lved  in  the  second  branch  of  our  inquiry : — By  what 
nvans  the  beneficial  tendencies  of  government  may  he 
iniTcascil  to  the  greatest  extent,  and  any  mischievous 
tenilcncics  it  may  have  most  ellectively  neutralized  ! 
'I'licsi!  (jir.stions  constitute  tho  next  two  heads  of  this 
division  of  our  subject.* 

2.  In  what  ('•!'*(■«  i«  tlie  InlTferenc**  of  a  (iovirrnniont,  with  a 
Vii'W  lo  c'onirol  III*  Siitijfu'ls'  ItilHTiyol*  Action,  calcalateil  to 
III-  iiroi'.urlivc  of  CiooU  to  lliu  great  Ifoily  of  Soc.ety,  or  tlic 
Conirnry  ? 

In  attributing  "  Ulterty  of  action"  to  individual  mem- 
Im  rs  of  society,  we  do  not  p'etend  to  decide  upon  tho 
ka'  ly  question  of  the  liberty  or  necessity  of  hum.m  ac- 
li  n  A  We  use  the  word  ttlcrl;/  merely  to  express  a 
niinV  friedom  from  phyBical  control  exercised  hy  others 
— his  power  »f  action  in  conformity  to  tho  dictates  of 
li!<  own  will,  whether  liiat  will  he  a  free  or  a  necessary 
*  a-cent.  We  find,  on  looking  to  the  prnctice  of  dilFcrent 
goveniinenU,  that  some  have  beim  accustomed  to  com- 
niaiiil  or  prohibit  actions,  which  others  have  left  their 
su'ijects  free  to  perform  or  leave  undone  as  their  own 
choice  determine<l.  The  laws  of  China  are  said  to  pre- 
•cribi  the  very  forms  of  domestic  mourning  for  the  loss 


of  relations — matters  which  with  ui  are  left  to  the  dl» 
crrtion  of  individuals  or  to  tho  vague  unauthoritativ* 
laws  of  fashion.  On  the  other  hand,  the  inqxTfrct  r^ 
gulations  of  the  old  feudal  governments  of  Kuro|)e  aW 
lowed  a  latitude  of  action  to  the  jiowerful  banms,  which 
seems  to  us  incompatihio  with  the  exiiitenco  of  an 
elllcient  government  or  tho  security  of  private  citizono. 
Again,  some  governments  leave  the  speculations  of 
commerce  to  bo  regulated  hy  the  judgment  of  the  mer- 
chant; others  take  upon  them  to  teach  him  which  chan- 
nels of  trade  aro  most  advantageous,  and  to  order  hiin 
to  abstain  from  some  and  embark  ir  hers.  All  nations, 
however,  have  practically  declared  there  ought  lo 

Ikj  limits  placed  lo  a  government's  rigi,.  or  jmwer  of  con- 
trolling its  subjects'  actions.     Wo  arc  now  about  to  in- 
quire whether  this  opinion  l>e  well   founded,  and  what 
actions  ought  to  he  left  free,  what  subjected  lo  regulation. 
.\mong  the  actions  over  which  almost  all  governmenta 
have  attempted  to  exercise  a  control,  arc  those  action* 
or  operatiotis  of  the  mind  by   means  of  which  men'* 
opinions  arc  formed.     Penalties  have  been  attached  to 
tho  avowal  of  certain  opinioiiH ;  nay,  tribunals  have  been 
established   (as,  for  example,  the   Spanish  Inquisition) 
with  a  view,  hy  cunningly  devised   questions,  and  even 
by  the  application  of  torture,  to  extort  from   men  con- 
fessions that  they  entertained  opinions  which  they  had 
jealously  concealed  from  all  the  world.     It  is  not  pro- 
bable that  any  person  who  peruses  these  pages  will  re- 
quire any  argument  to  show  the  impossiliility  of  pre- 
venting men  from  forming  opinions.     Opinions  aro  not 
matter  of  choice;  a  man  cannot  think  or  believe  what 
he  [ileascs ;  punishment  cannot  deter  him  from  forming 
opinions,  which  come  upon  him  whether  he  will  or  not. 
Again,  opinions  kept  to  a  man's  self  do  liurin  to  no  one. 
If  they  arc  of  a  nature  to  incline  him  to  commit  disho- 
nest  actions,  tho.se  actions  are  punishable,  and  that  pun* 
tshmenl  is  a  sulVicient  safeguard  against  his  depraved 
inclinaliims.     Penalties  attactusl  to  liie  secret  entertain- 
ing of  obnoxious  ojiinions  aro,  thtreiore,  at  once  unne- 
cessary and  incapable  of  producing  any  crt'ect.  To  pun- 
ish men  for  holding  opinions,  the  utterance  of  which  can 
only  lie  wrung  from  them  by  deceit  and  cruelly,  is  to  inflict 
sulVering  on  human  beings  for  no  purjiose — it  is  a  wanton 
waste  of  cruelty.     Tho  case  of  individuals  who  not  only 
entertain  but  o))enly  avow  their  opinions,  and  seek  to  gain 
converts  to  them,  is  somewhat  dill'erent.     It  is  possible 
lo  deter  men  from  uttering  certain  opinions;  and  it  is 
possible  that  men  may   seek  to  disseminate  opinions, 
:  which,  if  acted  upon,  must  do  harm.   Even  in  this  case, 
however,  serious  dill'iculties  present  themselves.     Who 
are  to  decide  what  opinions  are  dangerous  ?    Is  punish- 
ment an  ofiicienl  method  of  checking  opinions  admitted  lo 
have  a  bad  tendency  1    History  furnishes  us  with  nume- 
rous examples  to  show  that  it  is  unsafe  to  leave  lo  govern- 
ment the  determination  as  to  what  opinions  are  danger- 
ous.    Bad  and  unjust  governments  necessarily  think  or 
pretend  all  o|)inio!is  mischievous  which  have  a  tendency 
to    make  their  actions   appear   in    their   true  colours. 
Again,  most  men  are  afraid  of  novelty  of  any  kind  in 
I  matters  of  thought,  and  ready  to  condemn  an  opinion  as 
dangerous,  merely  l>ocausc  it  is  contrary  to  some  that 
they  ciiteitain.     Socrates,  and  a  greater  still,  are  not 
the  only  persons  who  have  sulTcrcd  for  teaching  tniths 
with  benevolent  intentions,  in  consequence  of  rulers  tak- 
ing upon  themselves  to  punish  men  for  uttering  opinions 
which   they  thought,  or  pretended  to  tliink,  dangerous. 
To  i)lace  in  any  human  hands  a  power  of  puiii.shing  the 
promulgators  of  opinion,  is  a  step  quite  as  likeh'  to  re- 
press true  and  useful  opinions  as  thof<e  which  are  falf* 
and  dangerous.     Again,  no  opinion  was  ever  put  down 
otherwise  than  hy  fair  argument.     Punishments  may 
have  impeded  the  progress  of  an  opinion,  but  they  have 
more  frequently,  by  raising  up  nvirlyrH,  given  it  a  mora 
rapid  currency.     The  reign  of  error  is  necessarily  of 
2  d2 


* 


ill 


INFORMATION  FOR  TTIR  PROPLfc. 


•hort  iliirnlion,  iintl  it  him  nrvrr  htien  iiliriilftcil  by  |K<imU 
Uo»j  thii  ri'iltn  i<r  Iriitli,  once  I'ntiililiKlinl,  in  ctrriMl;  it 
lliiH  Iwcn  iHiHtpoiicil,  liiit  nowr  liiiKtcTii'd,  hy  tho  (ii«'rrt- 
tion  uf  iM'iiiil  liiwM.  I.avvi  rntiiiiuiii>liiii(  tlic  |iuiiii4hiii('iit 
of  ivowi'il  (i|iinioiiii,  iiri'  iiiiili'  ii»  uiiavuilinif  «•»  lliii«o 
wliich  rniiiiiiiiiiil  1I18  |>iinii4iiiu'nt  of  roiici>iili<il  oiirn. 
Tlio  only  poHHilili^  I'ffrct  of  rilhor  iH  to  nmln'  ini«rlyrn  or 
hyiKJcritt'H,  lli-ro,  llicn,  wi>  linvo  it  bromi  anil  nmrki'd 
limilutiori  of  tlic  (wnvor  of  novcriiinont.  VVIunrvpr  ko- 
vcrnnu'iit  iiitcrfiri-t  to  ri'pri'sH  (Vci!  ihonnlil,  or  llii'  frer 
UltcrariiT  of  o|p!nioiiH,  it  iIiH'k  Inirin.  \Vhiit  llii«  liiwycm 
coll  ''Overt  ait-i" — nclionn  in  tlip  roinnion  iirccplalion 
of  the  trriM.  iiliyi'nl  arlionn,  or  wonln  wliich  may  iiijiin- 
tho  rrinitii;ii>n  uml  tri'linnH  of  ollicru — iir«  tiio  only  Uni- 
liinate  ol'ji  rtit  of  i(ovi'rntni-iit  control. 

Tiirniiu  our  ultiMilion  ncit  to  iictionn,  |iro|M-rly  ho 
called,  wc  I'nid  tlial,  willi  rrniird  to  noinc  even  of  llicni, 
thrre  him  alv/nyH  existed  in  nicnV  niindii  n  ji'itloiirtv  of 
till'  intcrfcrcn.e  of  novcinincnt  i»  that  jculouny  well 
or  ill  founded  ?  and  in  wlmt  eaWM  !  'I'lie  [lower  of  jjo- 
vernnient,  wu  have  ^ei-n,  in  derived  from  tin'  conviction 
entcrtiiiiu'd  liy  the  nut'jccts,  that  tlicy  ilerive  lii'uclit  from 
Ix-iu)?  Bn'ijceted  to  it(  control.  There  are  Home  aclionn, 
n-ijardini^  which  it  is  iit  onco  ap|(arenl  to  d:s|)l,H^iionatc 
minds  tliiit  all  have  an  interest  in  yovernmenl  interferiiiif 
Iji  prevent  them.  'I'hiH,  when  two  men  cjuarrcl,  und 
priH'ced  to  hlowK,  it  is  clear  that  if  one  of  them  Ih'  dan- 
geroUHly  or  f  ii  dly  wonnded,  it  would  have  Imhmi  for  his 
udvnnti;;c  hail  Rovernment  inlrrfered  to  prevent  their 
fii^htini;.  Unl  uh  a  i;eneral  rule,  every  jhthou  hits  un 
interest  in  (foverninc.it  prcventimj  tii;htini{  amoiiij  its 
•uhjccts ;  for  it  is  more  for  n  mans  advaiitane  to  lie  se- 
cured from  the  daii'.,nT  of  heilii;  hurt  and  kiUcd,  ihiill  it 
in  to  retain  the  poW(  r  of  hurtiiii;  and  kiilin'^  others.  It 
in  clearly  for  the  hmu\  of  all.  that  (jovcrnmeiit  shiuild 
interfere  to  pri'veni  any  one  of  its  suhjects  from  hnrtinc, 
or  killiin;,  or  cominittini»  any  injury  upon  the  person  of 
any  other.  In  the  saino  way,  it  niiifht  Im-  shown  that 
every  hoily  will  ilcrive  Iicnelit  from  ijoverniiH'iit  inlcrfer- 
I'Alf  to  prevent  any  one  of  its  suhji'cLs  deprivinir  any  oilier 
of  hi«  proiierly  liy  force  or  framl.  In  a  virlnons  and 
hii»lily  rivilizcil  ciin^nunity,  the  chastity  of  its  women, 
and  the  purity  of  both  wxca,  arc  so  clearly  recounised 
I »  he  advantai^es  of  wliich  the  owners  oui;ht  not  to  he 
Ibrccfully  or  frauilulenlly  disposscs-t'd,  that  the  enforce- 
mrnt  of  laws  f irladdin?  such  olKiices  is  acknowlcdircd 
hy  all  to  he  ijpncra!!y  N-neficial.  A  man's  (or  woman's) 
reputation  for  iuti-yrity.  is  not  only  an  object  of  com- 
merulable  pride,  and  then-fore  a  posses«ion  the  loss  of 
which  must  O'ca-i'on  pain,  but  a  valuable  propiTty  for 
all  who  are  en<Taixed  in  business.  There  is,  therefore,  a 
universal  H'^srnt  irivcn  to  the  laws  which  inflict  punish- 
ment npiu  tho^l|■  who  defame  tluir  nrii;hbours.  This 
brief  retrocpcct  is  ~utricient  to  show  that  the  whole  com- 
munity will  Iv  btncfited  by  government  intcrferina;  to 
prevent  any  one  citi7>'n  injuring  another — in  jH'rKoii, 
property,  or  reputiitiim ;  and  to  obli|;c  him  who  has 
inflicted  an  injury  upon  his  nciijlihour,  in  thes<-  resiK'pts, 
to  make  amends  as  fir  as  he  can.  It  is  evidently  for  the 
tdvantage  of  the  criminal,  that  his  punishment,  and  the 
re|iaration  he  is  to  make,  shall  Iw  decided  by  an  impar- 
tial third  (Mirtv,  not  by  the  ]s-rson  iujurcil ;  and  but  little 
reflection  is  reijuiri'd  to  show  that  evi-n  the  party  injured 
will  derive  tx.nefit  from  sue  li  an  arranaem.-nt,  inasmuch 
0',  where  no  man  is  allowed  to  take  the  law  into  his 
own  hund^,  there  cm  he  no  colourahle  excns<'  invi'ntcd 
for  tho  aj.p.p'essioii  made  upon  him,  while  he  is.  at  the 
Mme  time,  s<M:ure  tVoin  the  after  diuiaers  incurred  hy  all 
\n  bis  position  in  those  e.ouiitrios  where  retaliation  is 
tolerated  by  tlie  itovernment 

An  0|>iiiion  has  been  very  commonly  entertained,  that 
(jovernnieiit  can  benel'it  8o<'iety,  not  only  hy  prohibitini; 
men  from  doin<;  injury  to  one  another,  but  by  obliuinB 
tfiem  to  do  g(Kxl  to  one  anotlicr.     The  I'al'aciouisne*'  of 


this  opinion  can  Ih^  easily  deinonitrated.  The  nxirrriHii 
Imppiiies*  of  the  eomiuunity  cannot  lw  iiicrFHiH<d  h« 
any  mini  dkiui;  hoihI  to  another  ut  the  expeiii>«  ^f 
injuring  himself.  It  rnnnot  even  he  increiini'd  liy  m). 
aclion,  the  tendency  of  which  in  to  increiiiHi  the  hau. 
|iiiicNH  of  the  |H>rHon  n'ceiviuK  the  henelit,  in  a  less  do. 
Itree  than  it  iliminishen  the  liappineMi  of  the  person  con< 
ferriin;  it.  These  are  intricate  and  delicate  i|iiestioii^ 
retfanliiii;  which  even  the  partieii  mentioned  can  scarcely 
as(H<rtaiii  the  truth,  inui'h  h'sb  any  third  jMirty,  and  leiul 
of  all  a  noverniuent  eiicunihered  wilh  a  mulliplicitv  of 
ilistnictiiii;  calls  upon  its  utlcntion,  'I'he  siifesi  w:iv  fot 
the  );overiiment  is  to  leave  the  |M'rformance  of  lienevo 
li  tit  actions  to  the  consciences  of  its  sulijects;  by  iryini 
to  enforce  the  (Hrforinance  of  them,  it  is  ipiite  iw  likely 
to  create  uiihappincHs  as  the  reverse. 

There   remains    a    uumerous   clasn   of  actions  which 

contemplate  neither  ^oihI   nor   harm   to  a  man's  iieiifh. 

hours.     To    this    Iwlouij  all   pursuits  of    enjojinent  by 

means  which  injure  no  man — all  attempts  to  iiM-rease  i| 

nian'ii  fortune  by  perfectly  just  and  lionesl  meaiii,  ihuuijh 

without   any  reference   to   the  adviuitjiKe  of  otliers,     (t 

minlit  ap]M'iir  an  unnecessary  iiireclilion  of  oiniltiiii;  iio> 

thin»(,  to  slate  thiit  Hovcrnmcnt  uui{lit  in  no  way  to  uiWr. 

fere   wilh   actions  of  this  class,   to  hiiiiler,  piMuiole,  or 

direct  them;    and  yet  the  sheci    love    of   iiiciliilm;,',  so 

stroiin  ill  some  men,  bus  coni<tantly  led  (•overiiiMcms  to 

trans'jrress  this   law   of  common   sense.     II  the  hunter 

after   pleasure,  by    means  which  harm   no   oiii',  seek  it 

where  it  is  not  to  be  found,  it  is  only  his   own  llw^^.•  no 

one  can  say  positively  that  another  cunnot  find  ]ilcasuro 

in  certain  pursuits,  for  no  one  can  know  how  aiiolluT's 

mind  is  i'<mstitutcd ;  ami   therefore   to  prcs<'iibe  lo  him 

that  he  shall  abstain  from  Mich  and   suc>    ^luisiiits,  is  to 

run  the  risk  of  diminishini;  his  happiiu  -s,     It  is  also,  on 

.  the  part  of  the  government,  wasliin;  Iniie  loat  uii^fht  lie 

j  better  employed.     In  tho   pursuit  of  weilth   by  honest 

I  industry  and  enter|irise,  a  man's  whole  attention  is  (50 

j  nerally  severely   tasked;    the    government,  ciicuinbcn^l 

I  wilh   other  allairs,   is   not  likely   to  discover   what  ho, 

whose  eyes  are  sharp«'iicd  by  self-interest,  has  overlook- 

'  ed.     The  ineddlini?  of  Rovenunents  wilh  the  nii  riaiidle 

I  M()eculations  of  their  subjects,  has  its  oriiiin  in  the  alwuru 

notion  that  what  i.^  one   man's   ijain   must  !«■  aiiotli../t 

!  loss — in  forifelfulnes"  of  the  truth,  that  the  wea'.lli  of  the 

I  whole  coimnnnily  is  'li-rcly  the  sum  of  the  foiluiipi  of 

all  the  individuals  coniposim;  it,  and  that  to  iiiipeds  hg 

nains  of  any  one  is  to  di'iiinish  the  total  increase. 

It  appears  suiricielitly,  from  these  coiisidi'ralions,  that 
the  int<'rlereiii  e  of  i;overiiiiH'nt  with  the  coiiduci  of  its 
subjects  one  lo  another,  ou)jht  to  he  cau'.iou--ly  unarded, 
in  order  to  s<'cure  their  prosperity  and  haiiiiuess.  It 
ouijht  to  lie  restricted  almo-it  exclusively  lo  what  is,  in 
the  technical  laniruaife  of  the  laws  of  EmkIiuiI,  called 
"  pres«'rviiin  the  peace."  This  opinion  iIik's  n. it  iieceiu 
sarily  iin|ily  what  iniaijinative  eiilhiisinsts  would  call 
low  anil  narrow  views  of  the  fcpacity  and  destiny  of 
man.  To  say  that  s«'ciirily  in  |«'r!.,in,  property,  ami  re- 
]iUtation,  is  the  hinhest  benelit  that  can  be  best  .wed  ii|>- 
011  man  thnuiifh  the  instrnmeiitalily  of  a  Koverimiciit,  i» 
not  to  say  that  these  are  the  ului  1st  bciiefils  man  in 
capable  of  receivinif.  (iovcrnmeiit  cannot  make  a  man 
wis«> :  that  must  be  accomplished  by  the  exertion  of  his 
own  inteMectiril  faculties.  Oovernmcnt  cannot  make  a 
man  good  ;  that  must  be  the  conseipicnce  of  the  h.iMluai 
rcKulatioii  and  ciuilrol  of  his  fc'liiins  and  actions,  li\  the 
elVorts  of  his  own  will,  directed  hy  his  own  reason,  (io- 
vcrnmeiit cannot  make  a  man  ricli  (except  by  iiiakinn 
others  poori'r)  ;  that  must  1m>  the  result  of  his  own  sai^ 
cious  and  lierseverim?  industry.  Hut  thouijh  ffovcrn- 
ment  cannot  make  any  man  wealthy,  wise,  and  u'ood,  il 
may  render  it  more  easy  for  the  prcat  body  of  ilscitijcnii 
to  become  all  three,  hy  eslablishinu  wcurity  of  person, 
projs-rty,  and   reputation,  for  uU   who  act  hi:iie:-tly  tno 


PRINCIPLEJi  OF  CIVIL   GOVERN" 'INT 


(♦•nn'ily,  ni\il  thin  rfmovliiu  tiMii|itntii)iii  to  ilo  wronff, 
nfMiiiii'')>iiii{  till'  iliuii(rrH  iiKiiiiul  wliii-h  iiii-ii  iiumt  Ki'unl, 
II  .1  IciiviiiK  tlii'iii  II  Kri'iitcr  aiiiDUiit  of  Irimiru  to  ilovotR 
0  iniluNtriiiuH  purHuitH,  or  tu  tho  cultivation  of  wiwloin 
owl  virtiic. 

Wliiit  lull*  nirptiily  licrn  naiil,  haa  incIu<1<Hl  both  what 
CDViTiimi'iit  imiHt  ilo  mill  iiliHtniii  frnm,  in  no  lar  hm  ito 
own  dut'jfi'tM  uiT  coiiciMnwl,  in  order  to  proiiiotti  tlioir 
hapP'nrAM.  It  hiiH  iiIhu  in  itx  iiowcr  to  lonlriluitu  to 
tlii'ir  pi'OH|M<riiy,  liy  KinriiiiiK  tiii'in  a^^ninHt  injiiricN  at 
till'  IiuhiIh  of  tlioMO  wlin  nrn  not  itH  MiilijrilH.  It  ran 
watrli  tlio  iip|iriiiii'h  of  iliiiit(cr  from  willuiiit,  ami  ttiko 
pri'i'iiutioiiH  to  iivcrt  it.  It  vnn  or(;nni/.r,  iiriii,  ami  ilii<- 
rtpliiii'  it'*  Hiiliji'i'l:*,  til  ilrfi'iiil  llirir  Iiimium,  nr  to  cxlniil 
tlu'ir  priitrctioii  to  thrir  li'lliiw-i'iti/i'iiH  riiKiiirctl  in  tlir 
purKiiit  of  tlii'ir  lnnii'st  induHlry  on  the  orian  or  in 
fiirriun  roiintrii'n.  With  ii  viow  to  llir  ilcft'iioi'  of  tho  . 
country  frmii  fori-iKii  iii;'^rrMHiiin,  thr  Rovi'miiiriit  niny<  I 
to  a  liinitril  rxliMit,  atnl  ^(•^l'rally  for  a  liioilfd  pciioil  I 
of  tiino,  iiitiTlrn-  with  llio  nrtionn  of  itn  lili/.riiH,  in  a  , 
grciitiT  ilrnri'i!  limn  roiilil  with  proprirty  lie  riiiiii'dcd, 
whi'n  thr  iiilrriial  ri'latinim  of  rulrrH  ami  Niiliji'i'tK  nloiio 
wiTP  takrn  iiil'>  rnn>idi  r;itioii.  'i'lii-  iiatiiro  and  liniitH 
of  Ihii*  iiioi'i"  rvtrnilrd  iMtiTfrrcnco  will  appear  fnnii  the 
(li;KU ifioii  t>(  ihi'  ti>[iirit  whieh  oceur  mider  the  next  divi- 
iiion  of  our  Kulijert.  | 

3.  Hy  wlml  Minus  can  'JnviTtiiiii'nl  In'  Ui'mli'ri-il  rapnlilp  nf  > 
Ai'i'oiiipli'li  111:  ll»"  "f"'''"!  I'iii<»:Mii  Ainiiuiil  of  (iood,  and  : 
m"H  F.ir<'i'iiii>ll)   I'ri'vi'iiii'il  rnmi  lining  Harm? 

A  soveniini'iit  in  iiii   aKiocialiiin   nf  men  with  all  tho  ' 
fi'i'liiiLrf   of  other  men.     They  are   poHHessed   of  power,  i 
and  lialile,  in  emi-iecpieiire  of  tlie  prnpeiiiilieH  of  human  i 
imtiire,  to  aliiwe  it  in  Iwn  wayx : — Hy  iiidnleiu'e,  nr  nen- 
Icctint!  to  ii«'  their   power — that  ih,  hy  not  performinn 
the  dutir»  "(  their  slalimi;  hy  exeesKive  or  wroiiij  exor- 
t'm.-  ot  iheir  pmver — tj-.at  i«,  hy  meddliriR  where  tiiey  can 
pnU'  do  iniHiliief,  or  In  aiiiie.;,  with  a  Hhort-siylited  mdf- 
Wiui'ss,  ill  a  milliner  iiiiurioi:,-i  to  tiie  Kreat   luidy  uf  tho 
n;ition.    'I'lie  niily  way  nf  iruardiiiii  aijain'^t  these  ahuws, 
is  liv  iiistniitim;  liie  jN'ople,  in  the  llr«t  plaee,  acrurately  I 
iM  lo  what   ail'   the   iliilies  of  novernment ;  and  liy  fur- I 
ni'iiiin!?   them,   in    the    hccoiuI    plaee,  with   some    plan, 
whi'h  mav  lie  easily  uii.li'i'ilo.id,  and  worked  hy  men  of 
avi'rai?!'  eapaiily,  for  eh'ekimx  cjovcriimi'iit  when  it  cx- 
cfi'iU  its  powers,  or  uriiim;  it  on  when  it  is  liuy,  hy 
onlerlv  and  li";itimiti>  mi', ins.  I 

Tlie  i^eneral  atislrael  view  of  the  prineiples  of  Rovern-  ' 
meiit.  laid  down  in  the  preeedinj  head,  will  not  tie  found 
lulllieiit  for  the  pur|i'we  of  intorminu  the  people  wliat 
are  the  duties  nf  f;nveriiment,  w)  as  to  enal'le  them  to 
wiv.  at  any  uiveii  ti:ne.  !,'nveriiMU'nt  is  doiim  what  is 
ri.;h',  nr  ijoveniment  is  exeeoilinn  its  powers,  or  Rovern- 
iiient  is  nei{leelin'.j  its  diitv.  No  one  man  can,  in  hin 
own  person,  execute  all  the  functions  of  uovernment. 
I's  mcMihers  must  take  dilVerent  departments,  and  lie 
assisted  in  lhe:ii  hy  a  numlK-r  of  clerks  and  other  hu1>- 
o'diiiate  ollieers.  Hut  as  the  irreat  end  of  government 
is  one — to  prnti'ct  its  siilijects  in  the  full  enjoyment  of 
seruiitv  in  person,  pro|«'rly,  and  reputation — and  as  all 
these  departments  are  only  of  use  in  so  far  as  tliey  con- 
trilni'e  tn  that  end,  tle're  must  he  one  niasti-r-mind  con- 
Iroiliiin  and  directiii'!  tlicKi  all.  taluiic;  care  that  they  do 
ivit  clash  w  .h  or  cnunteract  each  other.  It  is  only  when 
IM-.'ple  know  what  are  the  dilVerent  departments  nf  po- 
voniiiient,  mid  what  is  the  proper  task  of  each,  that 
t!iey  can  in'iik  the  ccaet  points  in  whi.h  government  is 
ne!jli'.^ent  or  oppressive,  lay  the  hlanie  upon  the  real 
defnilters,  and  tliws  malie  such  a|iplications  for  ledre.ss, 
«)  clearly  staled,  that  it  i-  iiiipossiMe  to  evade  them. 

In  watcliinj;  over  the  se.urity  of  its  suhjerts,  govern- 
ment has  til  ijiiard  it  a^jainst  attacks  from  two  cpiarlers — 
fniin  violence  olVered  hv  one  eiti/.en  to  another;  from 
vi  ilence  olTered  to  one  or  m  ire  citizens  hy  pi-rsons  who 
arc  nol  ito  .su-jerts — hy  foreigners.     The  disi-harije  of 


'■alhid  Ibe  htmu  ikm 

»Ur     >'\  th«  forrifn 

istlU'li        HOvrrilMNN 

'•"liy,      .-     ll'p^ltt■io^^ 

re  til   .^•U'liad  \i     1» 

T.   i|n<  pi'        limi 

'  thnii  are  ri-iji     ii»— 

oml,  lh»  Jii     0,  OT 


thn  former  duly  In  l>i«iK*  t«  > 
fiiirlniriit   or   ilmiifl^r      iTm 
(lt)>inttiifnl.     'I'he  M  '         HBi. 
prenerveii  wrurity   nl         sun,  | 
to  it«  Huhjecti,  in  do  fii.  hit, 

pnlea  amniiK  themiH'lveN,  i    ilio  l:> 
of  u  Koml  and  elficient  liod     of  ' 
llrnt,  the  le^iHlalor,  or  law-iimki 

the  pernon  who  declaiea  in  wluu  niJmncr  fb''  .  iU<ml 
preceptH  of  the  law  apply  to  particular  caNea;  tmrd,  ihe 
execiilive  power,  which  enforcoH  the  decision  of  iha 
jiiilKe  when  the  party  aKiiiiist  whom  it  is  ft\\vn  prove* 
I'oiilumiicimiM.  The  nieanii  hy  which  piovrriinu'iit  de- 
fends its  Hiilijeets  aixainst  auKieiwion  from  loreiirneni,  or 
procures  them  ri'dresH  for  injniieH  done  liy  ,fnieinnera, 
are  twnfold.  They  are  either  pcaceiiMe,  that  is,  hy  the 
way  of  represi'iilalion,  pcrsiiaNion,  and  aritiinient ;  or 
they  are  foieilile,  that  is,  hy  the  v.iiy  of  wor.  Tho  nia- 
nai;eiii<  lit  of  the  former  iiinile  of  uMTtini;  or  rediiNsing 
injury,  helnuKS  to  the  diplnmiilic;  the  lutlei,  to  the  wai 
department.  The  husiiiess  of  (i;(iveriimi  nt,  like  all  othci 
kinds  of  liiisinesi,  reipurcH  money  to  drl'iay  its  e.\)ienHea, 
and  this  reiideis  necessary  another  department — that  of 
fmiiiice.  It  nppearB  friiiii  this  n  view  that  the  K<'cai 
nalinal  departiiientri  aniniifr  which  the  husiiiess  of  go 
veriiment  falls  to  he  distriliuted,  aie  as  follows: — 

'I'lie    HoMK  Dki'AHTMkvt,  which   resolves  itself  intc 
the  I  ixifliii'vr,  Jiiiliiiiil,  iiiid  t.iiiu  in   Departnielitn. 

The    Foiir.ioM   Dki'ihtmkn  r,    which   r>m>hr*  lUelt 
into  the  IHiilniiKilii-  and   M'l/i   Department*. 

'l"he    FiNAICI*!.     Dr.I'AHTMKNT. 

These  einhriice  all   the   necessary,  essential   funrtiom 
of  a   Koveriimeiit.     Kven  in  rude  tiihcs,  amop).'  whona 
one  ruler  takes  upon  him  the  whole  task  of  uovernment, 
and  linds  it  too  little  to  occupy  the  whole  of  his  timn, 
he  must,  in  a  senimhliin;  way,  discliari^e  all  the  oflicea 
of  these  dcjiartmcnts,  thom^h  h'-   never  thinks  of  distin- 
ijuishintt  and  eliiHsifviiip;  them.     He  must  lead   or  send 
out  the  warriors  of  his  trihe  to  drive  away  iiitrudeni  ujv 
on    their    liunliiit;-irroniids;    he    must    treat    with    the 
sachems  of  neii{lilionriii(f  triU's,  when  the  hatchet  is  to 
ho  liiiried  or  duR  up;  he  must   de\ise   laws,  decide  be- 
tween litii;ants,  and  enforce  his  own  ileciKion ;   he  muat 
levy    his   "  ways   and   iiieans" — the    duly   least   seldom 
neulected.     Kven  amonif  lii'»lily  civili/ed  slates,  limited 
ill  point  of  territory  and   popnlatinn — although,  for  the 
sake  nf  order  and  the  facility  it  iiivcs  in  the  traiisnelinn 
of  liiisiness,  the  ollices  of  these  departments  and  their 
records   will    lie    kept    separate — it   will    sometimes   bo 
found,  for  the  sake  of  economy,  or  hecause  there  is  not 
enon'.|h  of  husiiiess  in  any  one  of  them  to  occupy  n 
mail's  wliole  time,  that  the  duties  of  more  than  one  are 
(rischari»ed  hy  the  same  person,     (^n  the  other  hand,  in 
Un-ie  and  (lowerful  states  like  our  own,  it  is   found  ni"- 
ces.sary  still  further  to  subdivide  them,     Thus,  instead 
of  a  simple   war  department,  we  liave  an  admiralty,  a 
8<'crelary-at-war  with  the  Horse  (Juards,  and   an  oril- 
imnce   department.     The   number  of  ofllces.  of  depart- 
ments (of  hiirianr,  to  adopt  the  French  phniseoloijv'),  is 
comparatively  unimportant ;  the  Rri'at  matter  is  to  hava 
the  hiisiiicNs  of  Riivernment  so  iliHlrihuted  that  every 
man,  knowing  exactly  wkat  he  has  to  do,  may  set  about 
it  with  the  leiftt  possible  deurco  of  confusion  and  embar- 
rassiiio'it,  and  that  all  men  knowinc;  wliiit  he  has  to  do, 
the  fiircc  of  pulilir  opinion  may  more  easily  be  hrouffht 
to  In-ar  u\ion  him  if  he  exceed  his  pov.era  or  neglect  hii 
duly.     8ome  of  these  departments,  however,  from  tho 
peculiar   nature  of  their  duties,  ou'.;ht  never   to  lie  in- 
trusted to  the  same  individual.     For  example,  the  olfico 
of  miikini;  the  laws  oiiuht  never  tn  ho  intrusted  to  the 
[lerson  V. ho  has  the  charge  of  ex]ilaiiiini;  and  applvinp, 
them ;  and  neither  task  ou;;ht  to  he  intrusted  to  him  who 
is  called  upon  to  enforce  them.     Wiien  the  jndoro  is  not 
the  law-maker,  he  will  interjiret  the  itiw  according  to  ila 


no 


INFORMATION   FOR  THR   PKOPLR. 


(|>|>arrnt  tenor ;  htil  if  thr  tnw-miikrr  Iw  JimIkp,  Ii"  mny 
•MV,  1  inriijil  Ml  iiiicl  Hii,  itiiil  i't|iliiiri  It  in  u  wny  iihIknIv 
t*or  •iii«|H'i  till.      It' till'  jiiiIk''  '•  li«w-iii«l'«'r.  I"'  iii".v  Ittkf 

U|ll>ll  llilll  l»  >lll|l|ll,V   lll'lil  K'lll  i)'l4    ill   llll'   low   (III    till'    niHir 

ol  tilt'  iiiiinii'iit,  ami  tlm»  tv«|H)iM>  iiliu'iiii  In  llw  iiijiiDtUf 
ol' iH'iiiK  trii'il  liv  II  Inw  not  in  rjiKli'iiri"  at  llif  liiiii-  tlii'y 
•II'  Miiil  to  hiivc  iilli'iiilril.  'I'lic  i|iiiilitii'ii  ri'>|iiir)>il  in  ii 
K'hhI  vit'i-iiuvr  III  |Kiliri'  iiiiiiiiili'r  an'  i|iiiti'  ilitTrrrnt  rnnii 
tliiMio  ri'i|iiiirtl  in  111"  Jii'Iki^  or  Ihwkivit,  ami  niii'ly 
rniiiliiiini  uilli  lliriii  in  llii'  muni'  ihthiiii.  AIhivo  all, 
biiwoviT,  llir  Inni'liiiiiK  iil'  llnuiii'i'  inini'tcr  oiiiilit  iiomt, 
ill  tvliiilit  or  in  |>arl,  to  Ixi  inlriiitli'il  to  llio  ininiNlrr  of 
any  otliiT  ili'|>artiiii'nt.  TIk'  prai'lirn  » lurli  pri'vuilH  in 
m.iny  ({'"'■'■'ninrnU,  of  alliiwiiii;  niriri'-ln'nri'rH  to  pay 
Uii'lliarlviK,  mill  liilriiiiliiiK  till'  rolli'i'tion  nf  ililliTi'iit 
hrani'lirH  ol'  llio  ri'vi'inu'  to  vaiioiiM  ilrpaitinriilM  ol  ui>- 
viTtlini'lil.  in  Kiiri'  to  Iriul  to  I'jiortioii  iiinl  |ii'i'iiliitiiiii,  to 
|lloHi^^ll'   wunlii  ol'  inoiiry,  uiul  o|i)iri'<iHion  of  tliv  muIi- 

Them'  ari'  tiii>  mm'titiul  ili>|«rtini'iitii  of  n  KoviTninent 
— thi'ir  iliitii'H  ari<  IImmi'  whirli,  Iiowi'vit  ruilrly  or  I'oii- 
l'uii''lly,  iiiilMt  llll  iliwliarvfril  wliriii'ViT  tlirri'  in  any  no- 
Tiriimi'lit  at  all.  I'lii'rr  aro  ollii'r  ilrparlmcntH,  iiol  i'it- 
luiiiiy  of  liKK  iiM[>orlaiii'i',  Imt  wilhoiil  wliicli  many  no- 
vi'inini'iitM  liavi'  Ihiii  rnrrieil  on;  ami  tlio  iliili'-K  ol' 
wiiidi  liiiM'  U'l'ii  ilin-har^rril  l>y  privatr  rxiTtioiin,  lint 
wliicli  iiMV  witli  itilviiiituui'  Ix'  tliiti-li.iriti'il  liy  tlir  ki'iicimI 
goYuriiint-nt.  Tlii!  ilrpurtinrnlH  to  wliii-li  \vi'  nlliiile  arr 
tliiMc  wliii'h  liavi'  till'  I  liar*;!'  of  imtionul  vJucutioii  ami 
Un'  provinidn  for  llio  poor. 

The  rirriiiiihtaiii'r  of  llii'  Mate  or  Koveninirlit  takinir 


ronlil   not  with  ititvuntiiRe  iinilertnke  the  Uiaik  of  tily 

I'lititiK  thi'iii.  'Ihai  liit(oliil  nilviH'Hli'it  of  a  iloiuitigim 
I'liiin  h  frar  M'rnliir  riliiiatiini, »■  nilriiliitiO  to  eiirotiiMar 
a  npirit  of  frre  iiii|niry  inriinxi'ti'nt  with  Inipliiil  U'ltti 
ill  a  Mall'  rri'i'il.  Many  iiilviHatrH  of  ni'riilnr  I'lllli'iUioit, 
irrilatril  tiy  thin  opponilion,  mc  in  the  lalaliliNln'il  I'liri/y 
liolhiiii;  liiit  u  liiHly  of  iiirii  ulio  wniilil  put  ilimii  all  iii< 
■Iriirtion  I'xiTpt  what  !•  rali'iilalnl  to  niipri'Hii  iiiilliur. 
alily  ihv  lirlii'f  of  llirir  |i<'i-uli  ir  iIomiikim  on  tlii>  inlutii 
niiiiil.  Till'  iliMUHnion  n'uuriliiix  tin'  iililily  of  a  iiatiotial 
•yiili'in  of  I'lliicalion,  anil  tin'  l>i'»t  kiml  of  iialioiml  ,,|u. 
I'allon,  halt  hilhi'rtii  Imtii  lonilmlril  with  tiai  ('ti'limix 
n  ii'li'ri'iu'P  tu  the  jpartimin  viewN  of  tlu'ito  up|HMina 
parlii'K. 

'I'liin  liiHtorii'al  rclronpi'i't  Imx  lierii  intrmlnri'il  for  (|u 
plirpoM'  of  pliiriii^  till'  pri'M'lit  Ktutr  of  till'  roiilroviriiy 
in  a  I'lrin  MkIiI.  It  iiiiihI  lir  iinturil  ililli  rrnlly  if  wi>  ^jg 
to  arrive  at  a  trtii'  ami  prarlnal  roMilii«ion.  'I'lip  NHf. 
reiw  of  Htale  rrli|{ioii>i,  in  ilill'iiHiii(r  hikIi  a  unn'ral  know* 
li'ilui'  uf  ihi'ir  iloKiiiaH  lunoii'^  llir  I'liinii  mil'  a»  in  ro. 
i|iiiNile  to  enalili'  iiii'ii  to  roiil<iriii  to  tlir.  .  in  oiitwiud 
ap|H  araiH'i',  ih  a  proof  that  an  ortfaiii/.i'il  Kosi'riiiiii'iit 
poHiMH.rit  ifreat  powrrn  for  tlir  (liU'iiHioii  of  iiiloiiiiatiiin. 
Ily  iiitriiHtiiiK  the  Hn|H'riiiti mli'iii'i'  of  iiiilioiiat  iimtruc- 
tion  to  a  iir|iariit()  hoiinl,  tln'ii'  will  Ih'  no  iiili'rfi'ri'iirv 
with,  or  olwitnii'tion  of,  llie  ili.-iliarur  of  ihr  other  iliitii't 
of  Koveriiineiit.  .'Vrraintriiiint'i  for  pro\iiliiii{  a  niipply 
of  eimi|)i'teiit  leai'lierH,  IiooI.k,  iiistriiiiinilK,  &.i:,  will  l^i, 
an  on  a  ^nimliT  wale,  more  ellieiiiit,  an  they  will  nt  tlui 
■nine  tiiiii'  he  more  eeoiiomi(  al  than  the  ileniiltory  elVurU 
of  private   inilividiiaU.     Ho  far   the  ailvaiitii','e«  of  a  nii- 


Ufion  it  to  ilirei't  the  eiliii'ntion  of  the  wh  >le  pcoph',  ha-i  1  tioiial  Hyslein  of  eiluration  aie  a|ipiiren{.  'Ilie  iliHiciiliy 
fx'en  hrouuht  alHuit,  in  point  of  I'lut,  l>y  a  variety  of  run-  Ih  here:  harm  in  ilone  whenever  K<'vernmeiit  iiiteil'i'rpii 
Itaihetory  eaiiFi':*.     .Viiioiiif  healheii  |h  opie  it  wan  owinn  i  with  the  free  foriiialioii  ami  exprrshio''  of  opininn,  und 


111  the  Htrom;  iiilhieiiee  nciinirnl,  at  a  very  early  Hiai'e  ol 
civili'tation,  hy  the  prie^lhii<»l ;  the  eontiiinaiii'e  of  the 
|>ower  of  a  prie«tly  iiitir  iii'|n'iiilefl  ii|ion  the  proplr  con- 
tiiiuiiii;  to  I'l'lii'Vi'  in  their  preteiiHioiiH  to  Hii|ierii:itnral 
power  unil  more  thiui  onliiiary  virtue,  The  nioxt  iiatii- 
rol  way  to  kiep  np  thin  heliif  wan  hy  uravinn  it  ilei'|ily 
nil  the  miiiilH  of  the  youni;.  In  the  vmall  utateA  of 
(Jreeee,  on  they  advaiieeil  in  eivili/.alion.  the  m-eular 
at  iteKiiien  eiiiamipateil  IheiieielveK  from  the  allianee  of 
tlie  prieHtu;  ami.  in  ('oiinei|lieiire,  we  tiiiil  the  iiilliieiici' 
of  tlie  hitler  as  leaeherH  nuperneiU'il  to  a  ifreat  extent, 
i>«|ieeially  at  .Atheni,  anil  in  the  »mall  (ireik  kiiiudom.-i 
ereeti'il  out  of  tin-  fraijiMentu  of  .\li'«aiiiler'ii  empire,  hy 
philonophem  in  the  pay  of  the  Koverniiient.  In  tlie 
Rreat  Koiniin  empire,  which  im-or|xirate(l  into  itii  If  al! 
ih'iHC  (irei'k  and  m my  other  minor  heathen  MateH.  hoth 
the  philowiphrrM  and  the  prient^i  eeii.'ied  to  U'  the  aiitlior- 
ized  imineiliate  atieiits  of  a  uovernmeiit  edu'-ati'in,  thoniih 
In  the  proviiiii'n  they  eontiniied  to  leai'h.  The  hmiidirs 
of  thet-'hrisli.in  reliuion  diiMlaiined  HUih  eonneelion  with 


it  is  dilTii  nit  to  leai'h  vvithoiit  itiNimt  u  Iiih  to  opininii:, 
t)iil  of  IhiH  dilliriilly  we  are  ren,  iied  hy  n  hiikl;i  •lim, 
lii'rived  from  xiewiim  the  ipiei-lion  in  anoll'er  |Ki|iit  i,f 
vii'W.  It  in  part  of  the  eK»eiilial  diitii  «  of  a  KOMiiniu'iil 
to  take  rare  timt  itM  hiWH  are  made  kmnvn  to  nil  who  aro 
ealli  il  upon  to  oliey  theiii.  ami  th.it  eoui|K'teiit  uHiciri 
are  iiitiiisted  with  the  iiiami:;!  iiienl  of  tin-  ih'taiU  of  (■(► 
vernmenl.  The  invriition  of  printtm,'  rnalili'«  Rovrrn. 
mint  to  multiply  to  any  extnit  the  eopirs  of  itnlawii; 
hut  lluK  in  not  inoiiuh,  mile-i  lint  the  |ier»onH  amonu 
whom  these  eopies  are  ilir.lri!'iileil  are  ahle  to  read  auii 
iimh'isiaiid  them.  The  Himilesl  iiioilr  hy  whieli  a  jiv 
veriiment  eail  ensure  the  eomplele  puldii  ntioii  of  lu 
laws,  is  hy  teinhilKj  all  the  iM'ople  the  elementary 
hraiirheh  of  kiiowledi,'!' — rriulini;,  wriliim,  iiml  the  Kmiii. 
mar  of  their  native  hiiiKiiaue.  .Au'iiin,  with  a  view  to 
Heilire  ellieiejit  oIlieerH  of  t;ovrimiient,  they  inii>'t  ho 
educated  for  their  employments:  no  one  oiii;ht  Id  lie 
employed  in  any  ollice  under  L.'overniMi'nt  who  cnniint 
show  that  he  possesnes  the  rei|iiisite  Iciiowlfilgc.     flieJi 


the  state  ns  had  heeii  mniiilairicd  hy  the  priests  who  pie-  j  scIiooIh  or  uiiiversilies,  iinp)iortcd  out  of  the  national 
CfdeJ  them;  aeeideiital  eircurnKtaiicen,  however,  eon- i  funds,  will  he  found  the  iheai'est  melliod  of  puitiim  tlm 
necleil  with  the  decline  of  the  Koiiiun  oiupire,  united  |  ineans  of  ac.piirin.;  thin  knowledge  w  ilhiii  the  reach  of 
■l(.iin,  in  the  (K-rsons  of  the  diijiiitaries  of  the  t'liristiaii  ,  the  ahle  and  aspirim;  of  all  cl-.is.;cs.  There  the  hiwyrr, 
ehurch.  the  niVices  of  teachers  and  rulers.  In  the  coun-  !  the  Koldicr,  the  diplomatist,  the  lawiiiver,  tie  I'liiaiiner, 
trifti  throiii'luml  whirli  the  Mohainmedan  reliuion  iiained  I  the  eleuicnlary  nchoohnasler,  may  procure  the  ilec|ii!r 
the  onecndeiiey,  that  inodilieation  of  the  Christianity  of  J  Hcieiiliru  learning  necessary  tollierinht  discharue  of  tlicir 
tlie  time  hon  Im'Couic,  as  atnouR  heathen  natioin,  an  en-  i  re»|K'i'li\e  ilulies,  in  the  hiuhest  iicrleclioii  and  nt  the 
g'u\e  of  government.  .Vmoii;?  the  imliil^iH  of  Kiirope,  j  least  expense.  Al  these  institutions,  the  yoiinR  clergy 
and  thoHo  wliich  have  hi'en  planted  in  dilferent  purls  of  j  of  all  ehuichea  miulit  acjuire  their  literary  and  sciciililic 
the  world  within  the  few  last  centuries  hy  Kuroia-aiis,  |  instruction  :  their  jx-culiar  theolo xy  miifht  he  laiu'lii 
tlie  projjress  of  wicnce  has  proilured  an  efl'ect  aiinlonous  them  at  institutions  snpiiorted  hy  their  rr-i|>«>(  live  seels. 
t<>  that  nieiitiom  d  us  havinu;  U'cn  producnl  hy  it  i  :\  eonna'tent  nuinlier  of  such  elemeiilary  schools  ai;  I 
limong  the  small  fireek  stales  of  nntiquity.  It  has  j  univer^'ities,  teachimt  only  those  hriinchi  s  of  kuowledifo 
ah  ikeii,  not  the  Ih  lief  in  the  C'hriBtian  reliijion,  hut  the  j  in  which  there  is  no  sectari.ini'm.  wonhl  ho  lor  the  ml- 
opinion  of  the  henefit  derived  from  makini;  it,  like  the  i  vuntanc  of  all  sects,  and  would  interfere  with  the  peru- 
old  heathen  relinions,  an  engine  of  co^ernment.  Al  i  liar  views  of  none.  They  arc  of  the  rluss  of  instiiu- 
thi-  same  time,  the  opinion  of  the  importance  of  civili/-  |  lions  which  Rovernment  has  n  rii;lit  to  eslahlihli,  and 
inu  the  whole  h.Hly  of  the  jieoplc  hy  the  inOuence  of  j  neulecls  it.s  duty  if  il  iu.es  not. 
Ctiucatijii,  hua  ltd  uien  to  iin^uire  wiivllitir  yuvviuuioit  ^      'I'he  prupricty  uf  govvrnuiuiit  taking  upou  it  to  raiM 


PRINCIPLKS  OP  CIVIL  (.OVKHNMENT. 


Ml 


g^  iHstrthtito  l^m>1«  f«r  thr  aiipiiort  of  ttir  poor,  mlniila 
|i<  Mnf  inorr  \itWl\y  illiiiitittril.  Ill  nil  roiiiilrii's  tliiTi< 
„m  ^cr  )M'rii.  iinil  ■>*  lonv  •"  liiimnit  iiiitiiri'  roiiliiiiii'a 
what  il  l*<  1^1'''''  i'^'*''  ^i'  ^>  "  '''''loin  niiMilii-r  of  clmti* 
euto  |HV)r — (rt"  pmip«T»;  mil  tlii<  iiiiiiiIht  will  he  KrniiiT 
In  I'foportlon  »*  popiihilloii  liei-otm'*  mor«<  ili'iimi.  'I'hf 
Iniloli'iit,  jIh'  wi>i»k-iiiiiiil<"il,  I'lf  iil«vi>»  of  u'liHiml  p**- 
tjon,  will  rfniulii  in  iialivn  poverty,  or  drill  doun  into 
nn:i|HTi*iii  from  »  in(iri>  nflliirnl  rotnl'tinn.  It  I*  in  vitiii 
W)  «uy  lli'it  it  i"  tUi'lr  own  (nolt.  Thr  ri'NoliitioiH  of  n 
COiiiiiicrii:il  nVNtfin  liki'  nor*,  -i  inii()it,v  'iml  i-omplic'ili'il 
Ihul  it  Hwriv"  llioiM'  involvi'd  in  it  Mincllold  hillirr  nml 
Jiillii-r  moil'  it«  wavm.  nfli'H  throw  tlmnBuniU  nl  oni'i> 
mit  of  pinpr'yni'nt  nml  hrrml,  willioiit  nny  fiiilt  of 
O.i'ir't.  Kvi'ii  till'  ili^ioliilf  mill  iinl>cfili'  linvp  ilicir  «!<•- 
«rpr«  of  rriminiilily— llio  «iiiU  of  omiiMion,  viiryinn 
(V'xn  lilu'ily  I"'!!!'''''''' •"  ^ •""'"'•  Iliiniiiii  imliirf  rovoltn 
frmii  till'  ilioiinlil  of  ilt'li\in){  them  rrliof;  liiit  if  it  h.- 
Irft  to  rii'iml  ilnirily  to  h  lit-vr  tlipiii,  llin  iloiinlioiiii  will 
ho  tiiKUlIVii'iil  to  mipplv  llifl  wnntii  of  nil ;  iiinl  llio  Imr- 
iliin  iif  ioi|ipor!inu  iIu'im'  fncuinlir-iirrH  upon  tlu'  piililir 
wliiili  viippo.l')  itvi'lf,  will  lio  'ini'ipiiilly  iliHlrilMitril, 
Thti  111!  iriiii'  will  I'l'  opprcusi'd,  \vliil<>  thu  rnll  ni<  pain 
fc*  Hut  tliP  niiiin  nrnmiicnt  for  impoMinn  upon  tjo- 
vjrnim'iit  llu"  fliiir,'!'  of  dnp|>lyiii'^  llin  wuiils  of  llu- 
p^upl'r^.  n  tlm  fn't,  that,  iifiart  from  nil  roMxiilrralioim 
of  Imiiiniiity,  tin'  ^'li^f  of  tlicir  ni'ro.fiiitii'H  i^  n  prrinii- 
linii  li'iiilintt  to  nivii  nildilioii;il  Hcriirity  to  piiMnriH  niid 
property.  !•  i*  want  tluil  i*  tin*  idiirf  promptrr  to  (nr- 
liulcnct',  violonrc,  mid  ilinhoMCKty,  It  in  ai'ionif  tlir 
li.iiwcn  w!io  arc  di  piiidrnt  upon  ii  prprnrioiH  loipply  ol 
foix!  to  rclirvp  tlicir  i!*ily  n(;r('HiitirH,  that  tlir  lialf- 
xava:'!'!*  mi'  found,  who  prowl,  in  ipiirt  tliiicH,  iiinli'r  thr 
•liaili-  of  iiiiO't.  in  "iMnli  of  pliindiT,  and,  in  tiinm  of  piil'- 
lii-  pxi'ili'iiii'iil,  ruth  from  thrir  hiiliii',?-plafiH  a'«  inl'iiri- 
■l<<d  mohx.  It  in  ainoiii;  tlirir  Hipi.tlid  liaiiiitM  that  are 
(•nueiiderrd  llie  in'Mtileiue  and  disinwn  which  from  lime 
t.)  time  Hirikc  wliolc  iiationn.  It  U  thn  duly  of  noverii- 
menl,  in  iln  oiricc  i  f  jircwrver  of  the  liven  and  proper- 
lien  of  ilH  Hiilijci  tH,  to  lake  niciiniirrn  for  rcmlcriiia  Ihin 
elasH  IcMn  danijeroim,  hy  diiiiiiiihhiinf  their  ti  inptalioiin 
to  dinhonesty,  and  rclieviim  Iheiii  from  thai  state  of 
■i|ua!id  ilcstitiition  which  endnni^erti  the  iM'allh  of  the 
wliole  coiimumily. 

Wlii'ii  in  any  country  Ihn  ditTerent  lahourn  of  ifovern- 
mi'iit  have  heen  piircelled  out  in  tlio  manlier  here  nut;- 
K'rfl'il.  and  allotted  todiHerent  funetionarlin,  each  havini? 
attache  1  to  him  a  miin-ient  ntall'  of  annintaiiln,  each 
!.riiii{  miliieeti'd  to  one  reroijiiineil  he«d  of  the  Kovern- 
meiit,  whose  husiiiOMn  it  in  to  watcli  over  all  their  pro- 
(•eHlinK".  'o  urue  on  the  iudident,  to  chci'k  llie  erring, 
tj  apiieiiit  to  vacaiieien,  niid  remove  olVeinlers,  a  i;reat 
hlpp  han  Ihcii  lakrn  tow:irdn  neiuriiiu;n  junt  and  eiricient 
(.'overiimeiit.  The  peculiar  nnd  limited  dulien  of  ifo- 
voriiment  have  heen  indicated  to  all,  and  the  )ierson8 
|K)iiiteJ  out  upon  whom  devolve  the  respoiiHihility  of 
ilischarKin:;  them.  Thcrp  remainn,  however,  thin  dan- 
irer  to  nuard  aeaini't.  All  men  love  case,  and  all  men 
love  to  have  their  own  way.  .Niiain,  men  united  for 
uiy  purpose — the  (Uirnuit  of  either  a  liusiiionn  or  a  jilea- 
sure  common  to  them  all — immediately  eontrnct  what 
the  French  call  i'/oi'  ,le  nvim — n  clannish  or  eorporn- 
tion  spirit.  Thev  act  and  feel  an  havini;  n  commoii  iii- 
Ij  -est  opposed  to  the  interests  of  all  who  do  not  heloni? 
Ui  their  hoily.  Thi-;  ^ /"/nr  or  m/tni  npirit,  aniniao'd  hy 
the  love  of  enne,  and  the  solf-will  more  or  less  natural 
tn  nil  men,  han  a  temlency  to  convert  every  on:ani/ed 
government  into  a  knot  of  oppressorn.  Thin  reflection 
rarri.'s  w*.  hy  a  natural  tranHitioii,  to  the  leinainim? 
inipiiry  under  the  present  heal — By  what  moann  a  riv 
Turnmiyit  is  to  1h>  kept  in  the  line  C'f  its  proper  duties. 

It  cannot  have  csca|)e(l  the  notice  of  llie  roidei,  that 
BTfry  ROM  riiment   acin  upon   its   miltjerts  liy  ineann  of 
lliTiM'lves ;  It  einplovs  iu  Duhj^rtii  to  keep  itu  suhjecti 
Vol.  I.— 41 


in  ohedleiiee.  The  i'on«'i|urne«  of  thin  la.  that  in  •rarj 
country,  ami  in  nil  aKo,  thr  liioni  •reMiiM'4  ilenp.iiic  no 
veriiiiient  in  kept  in  elii  <  k  hy  the  opinions  uf  iia  Hiihlorlft 
No  ifovernninit  han  ever  with  impunity  net  at  dellMIM 
Ihr  opinion*,  Ih<  lliey  well  Kroiiiiilcd  or  Ih<  Ihev  pritju* 
dicen,  nioral  nnd  religions,  of  it*  suhjictn.  Thii  ()tto> 
man  sultan,  at  the  iim<>  when  his  power  wan  K^'at***^ 
never  dared  to  net  eontr*ry  to  the  l«w  of  the  Kman. 
Henry  II.  of  Kii'.{larid  wna  oli|ii(ed  to  huiiille  hiinwif 
iM'fore  ihii  reliirioun  nmlinient*  of  bin  flue.  iMilrn«rd  In 
the  person  of  Thomas-.flli'i  ket,  Thomas  Moore,  in  hit 
Tiilirt  liir  Ihr  lliilii  .  Ill\  mif,  lins  ludicrounly  hul  nplly 
illuslrnled  this  truth,  hy  liuurinK  the  soldiers  kept  nn 
foot  hy  the  monnrrhs  of  the  Holy  .\llinnce,  n*  extin- 
((iiishers  made  of  coinhnntihle  materials,  nnd  the  mili- 
tary insurroelion  which  hroiiKht  uhout  the  Spmiish  re- 
volution of  IH'JI,  ns  Ihene  exlini(uinhern  net  on  lire  hy 
the  liaili  they  were  meant  to  put  out.  Thin  is  no  state* 
incnt  of  what  ii^ht  or  'lunhl  mU  to  he;  it  is  n  slate- 
ineiit  of  what  i» — a  fai-t  that  exists  whether  men  atriril! 
or  deny  it.  Civil  ttoveriimeni — political  arliim— in  hll- 
man  iiit^cnnitv  wurkiiut  l>y  human  means.  It  in  thi« 
necessity  under  which  every  government  lies,  of  Kovem- 
inn  it"  siihjeels  hy  its  suhjecln,  which  piiln  the  whnlu 
eommuiiily  in  possession  of  an  eiiKine,  hv  the  proper 
a|>|di>'ution  of  which,  Roveriitnent  may  lie  ohlixcd  to 
work   for  the  general  xmsl. 

We  havn  already  pointed  nut  what  ii  neeennary  tat 
ennhle  the  government  to  niuke  justice  nnd  thn  good  of 
the  community  ils  aim  :  it  is  to  ori^uiiize  the  K<>vcrii- 
mint  no  an  to  render  its  uetion  eiiny  nnd  pinverfnl,  ami 
to  (  oliijhlen  it  as  to  its  dutien.  The  same  process  is  to 
he  followed  with  the  community,  in  order  to  eiiahlf  it 
to  act  as  a  check  upon  the  ((overnment  when  it  \»  in- 
clined to  Ro  wroiiK,  and  tn  orffaiiizn  the  community  ir 
such  a  manner  that  its  opinions  and  wishes  may  be 
hroiiuht  to  o|iernto  easily,  powe'fully,  and,  hy  roniie- 
iiuenee,  tranquilly  upon  the  ({''^•'fnment.  There  la  an- 
other ohj'-ct  to  he  gained  hy  thus  enliifhteniinr  nnd  or- 
^[aniziiiR  the  people,  hesideii  thnt  of  making  them  an 
eiricient  cheek  upon  Kovernment  when  it  noes  wrong; 
it  in  only  hy  eiiiiuhU'iiing  nml  nri;nni7.ini{  the  people  that 
they  can  ho  rendered  capahle  of  h'ndiii':  due  force  to 
the  operations  of  i^overniiicnt,  when  these  are  what  they 
ounht  to  Is".  .\n  unenlinhtened  jieople  in  ijuite  as  likely 
to  entertain  mistaken  notions  of  what  in  for  its  jroo<l  aa 
correct  ones  ;  it  is  ipiitc  an  likely  to  oppose  Kovernment 
when  it  tries  to  do  what  iv  riKht,and  to  iiu)i|iort  it  whei 
it  tries  to  do  what  is  wrnnR,  ns  the  reverse.  Oovem 
inent  was  in  the  rinht  when,  nhout  the  year  17H(t,  it  r^ 
pealed  some  of  the  worst  enactments  ajfninst  the  Ce- 
tholicB ;  hut  the  is'ople  were  so  far  from  heartily  nppro^ 
iiiK  of  this  act  of  justice,  that  Lord  (leorRC  (Jorilon'a 
riots  in  London,  and  the  rahhlinn  of  Catholic  ^hnpelg  in 
KdinhurKh,  had  nearly  frightened  government  out  of  it« 
goml  iiitenlionn. 

The  llrnt  step,  then,  in  making  such  arrai.4,cmpnt8  aa 
are  necessary  for  keeping  Rovcrninent  in  its  just  and 
useful  lino  of  action,  is  to  enliuhteii  the  people.  'i\rr« 
Roes  more  towards  enlii;hteninR  the  people  than  mere';/ 
schiHilmnsterini;  them.  It  is  not  ennuRh  that  the 
tencher  toll  what  he  knows,  rciieat  line  upon  line  and 
prece|il  upon  precept,  or  even  make  his  pupil  repeat 
what  he  has  told  him,  to  show  that  ho  rememhera  it 
The  pupil  must  himself  he  active,  and  make  exertiona 
to  catch  the  true  moaning  of  what  he  is  tautrlit;  and  in 
this  he  will  not  always,  in  spiio  of  his  host  ellints,  8uo 
cecd  at  first,  p'very  person  who  has  exortrd  himself 
to  master  any  hranch  o(  knowledie,  must  reiiienilur  tn- 
Rtancis  of  this  kind,  where  he  has  pored  for  hours,  day 
after  day,  upon  some  dark  pnssflRo  in  a  hook — some  sttp 
in  the  reasoninc  which  he  must  undcistand,  or  o'l  thil 
followed  would  1)0  dark — and  yet  could  not  net  at  iM 
meaning,  till  some  time,  when  he  was  I'liukiiiii  of  n 


I 


199 


INFORMAT/OX   FOR  THE   PKOPLE. 


lUing  leu,  taking  a  wnlk,  ami  looking  nt  trees  or  tho 
running  stroam,  or  engaurd  in  striking  a  liargniii,  some 
chancel  wonl  or  stray  thou^'lil  liaa  rocallrd  tho  puzzling 
passage  to  liis  niiml,  unci  all  at  once  a  li«ht  lias  l>roUe 
in  upon  liiin.  His  previous  relleelioiis  luul  not  lieen  so 
uselr-'s  as  they  wemeil ;  they  liail  been  gnulnally  o[M"n- 
ing  his  mind,  and  had  go  far  sueeeeded,  that  nothing  hut 
»n  aeeiilental  inip-jjse  from  without  was  wanting  to 
make  hirn  we  his  way.  It  is  knowledge  gain.'d  after 
tills  fashion  tliat  really  instrnots  and  forms  the  mind: 
hifornjalion  thus  earned,  wc  may  say,  in  t\\r  sweat  of  a 
man's  lirow,  is  too  deeply  graven  on  his  memory  ever 
to  he  forgotten,  and  the  rude  exercise  liis  stnijjgles  to 
■  iindcrstaiul  have  given  his  mind,  strencthens  am!  invi- 
gorates it  for  future  exertions.  All  that  tejichc-rs  can 
do  in  the  way  of  instruction,  is  to  show  their  pui)i!  what 
is  to  he  learned,  to  tell  him  how  t<i  set  al'oii*  learning, 
and  to  watch  over  him,  and,  hy  motives  either  of  pain 
or  ple.isure,  to  stimulate  him  to  perseverance  in  the 
work.  .MI  the  rest  must  he  his  own  doing.  Hence  it 
is  that  some  pass  through  the  hands  of  a  teacher  and 
learn  less  than  those  who,  from  poverty  and  strong  de- 
sire of  learning,  have  Iw'en  driven  to  teach  themselves, 
with  no  other  assistance  than  occxiional  hints.  Hence 
it  is,  as  m.wt  men  who  have  reeeivi  d  a  regular  education 
and  made  good  use  of  it  must  he  aware,  that  the  most 
iniportan!  part  of  their  education  is  that  which  they  have 
^veu  tluvnselvcs  after  leaving  school,  availing  them- 
selves of  what  they  remeinhcrcd  of  llieir  teacher's  pre- 
CcpUs  to  enable  them  to  acquire  a  <Mniplcte  nndi'rstand- 
ing  of  what  they  had  only  repealed  like  parrots,  and 
iinnii'diau'ly  in  a  great  measure  fornotten. 

Our   object  in   this  siemini;  dii;rcssion  is  to  make  n» 
clear  as  we  can  that  mere  eonnnunic.ition  of  instruction, 
which  is  all  one  human  heinu'e.in  do  for  another,  is  not 
enough  to  cnlighleji  and  itiscipline  a  man's  mind;  that 
many  receive  it  without  being  much  the  Iieller,  and  that 
many  make  eonsidcral)le   proijress  in  ac(|uiring  know- 
ledge williout  havin?  the  N-nelit  of  it.     There  \c  nri  en- 
lightenment— a  practical  trainini;.  and  a  slorinij  of  the 
minds  of  nn'U  with  knowledge — that  must  in  all  eases  ■ 
complete  what   the   teacher  has  hetjun,  and  that  often 
carries   men  a  good  way  without   the   aid  of  a   teacher. 
It  is  the  e.lucatiori  which   man's  natural   curiosity,  eo- 
o;x!ratini;wilh  the  observations  I'orced  upon  him,  and  the 
e\eilions  necessary  to  keep  him  alive,  as  it  were,  force 
upon   him.     The    great    source   of   men's    amusi'ment,  ■ 
that  which   is   more  or   less  within   the  reach  of  all,  is 
convcrs.ition,  which,  even  in  its  ruilest  ami  most  stupid,  ; 
or  W4akt>sl  and  silliest  form, is  a  i;ivin«  and  receiving  of  j 
inforiiatlon  more  or  less  valualile.     'I'he  rudest  process 
liy  wL'ch  the  mere  savaite  priH'ures  his  daily  foiHl,  in-  : 
volvcs  an   exeruuij  of  design   or   forelhouuht     He   re- 
»o|vts.  ii    may  be,  to  go  to  the   s<'a-shore,  and  pick  up 
Hiieli-lish ;  he  plans  out  beforehand  what  he  is  going  to 
do,  and    he  executes   his  intention.     'J'he  chaniring  of  , 
the   sea-sons   f.ircing  him  to   procure  iixxl  hy   dilferent  , 
menus  at  ditTerent  tinn's,  or  by  makintt  hiin  ex|)erieiiee 
want,  snggesinig  the  advantauo  of  layini;  in  a  store  Im'-  , 
ionhand.   gives    fresh    exercise    to   what   Dr.  Utid   has  ' 
called   "the  active   poweis"  of  his   miml.     Acting  in  | 
concert  with  others.  ilebatiuK  what   ii  the  best    plan  of  i 
nttaining  Ihevr  connnoii  obje.t,  i^illing  angry  and  being 
»o<)lhe<l,  or  soothing  another   who    gels    inireasonable,  i 
Uefenciing  his  own   shiiro  from  a  plunderer,  or  trying  to 
outwit  his  a»i»<H-iate — every  action  of  a  man's  life,  even 
in  the  rmlest  Htages  of  societv,  is  a   part  of  education,  j 
.kM  ihc   Hociety  ailvances  in  wealth,   it   advances  in  the 
ae/)uired  knowltMJge    and  skill  of  iu  members.     This  is  | 
a  prorrHH  i|uile  inde|><>nilent  of  design   on  I'.e   part  of  i 
men.  whiih  in  carried  a  great  length  l>efore  t<'aehing,  as  . 
••e  understand  it,  is  ev<T  thought  of.     Men  Ix'conie  rea- 
•odersalxint  what  is  right  or  wrong,  jiractieal  politicians,  ! 
•kiliji  mechanicK,  {trojccling  niurchanli*,  lawgivum,  aiui  j 


lawyers,  after  a  fashion,  long  before  tlipy  giv^  fnow  pn, 
suits  their  dift'erent  names,  or  dream  of  theories  nn  I 
science,  and  teachers.  'I'his  is  whit  we  call  anHziiiin 
which  means  the  intelligence,  a  d  skill,  and  polish  of 
manners  which  men  ac(|uire  hy  living  and  acting  in  . 
nmnerons  and  wealthy  society.  Men  never  think  o» 
teaching  or  being  taught  until  the  society  in  which  thei 
live  has  made  eonsiilerahle  advancea  in  eivilizatioiL 
This  is  the  kind  of  eidightenment  which  must  prepaM 
any  people  for  aeepiiring  a  good  government 

We  cannot  carry  back  our  inipiiries  to  the  first  orimn 

j  of  society,  and  show  that  it  has  advanced  from  rudpiip,, 

^  to  civilization  in  the  way  here  described.    But  wc  know 

I  from  history  that  a  part  at  least  of  the  process  has  lioon 

gone  through   Ity  all  civilized  nations;  and  we  know 

from  the  observation  of  travellers,  that  even  in  our  own 

'  day  there  are  frilies  in  diirerenl  parts  of  the  earth  whioh 

are  still  in  the  mere  rudiments  of  civilization.  Dm  ihorg 

is  a  still  more  curious  fact,  which,  for  the  puriioses  of 

the  imiuiiy  now  in  hand,  it  i.s  most  necessurv  to  kiio'v 

anil  in  all  our  rea.sonings  to  make  allowance  for.    Ip 

the  same  society  or  nation,  especially  if  it  he  large,  then 

may  he,  there  almost  always  is,  a  grout  variety  jn  the 

deajrees  of  civilization  which  dirarent  classes  i,i'  its  cjti. 

zciis  have  attained;  some  may  have  reaclic<l  a  very  hii;h 

grade,   whilst  others  remain   as  low  as  human  lieinin 

have  ever  been  fcunid.     This  has  been  the  lase  in  evert 

country  where  there  has  been  a  jirieslly  cm  r ip  q|^ 

Dabylon.  Fgypt,  ami  Hindoslaii.  'I'his  was  still  tnore 
strikingly  the  casi^  in  Konie,  and  is  so  at  i>resent  in  tho 
slave-holiling  states  of  tho  Knropcan  race.  Oun  fre- 
ipiciit  cjuise  of  this  ineipuility  of  civilization  in  memhc™ 
of  the-  .same  society,  has  been  the  estalilislimeiit  of(rrfat 
empires  by  coiiipicst,  Iiy  which  means  manv  diirerenl 
races  have  been  brought  under  the  same  governmcat 
It  is  in  this  iiicipiality  of  civilization  that  the  institution 
of  sl.ivery  has  had  itjs  origin.  The  relation  hoiweeij 
master  and  slave  could  only  be  estal.lishccl  where  tliora 
existed  a  ijreat  disparity  of  intellectual  culture  lietwcen 
till'  Koveriiin.;  and  the  governed  class.  .Sjavrrv  must  lie 
admitted  to  be  a  necessary  institution  in  such  stages  of 
siicii'ty,  although  it  has  the  disadvaiilagi'  of  pcrpeluatiiig 
and  even  of  increasing,  the  ineipiality  which  trivcs  ri'<e  ta 
it.  til  say  nolhini;  at  present  of  it-;  other  di<a.lviiii;im.j, 
lliii  it  is  not  merely  where  it  prcicnls  iiself  in  tliis  start, 
lin::  form  that  iiiecpialily  of  civilization  exists  atnoiij 
dilli'reiit  i-Uissi'S  of  society.  Wherever  we  find  creat  in- 
eipi  ilitv  of  power  and  privilege  prevailinir.  we  find  thii 
inc'jualily  of  civilization  giving;  rise  to  it.  An  iirist* 
cracy.  a  class  of  privileged  nobles,  has  its  ori.;iii  in  the  (■i^ 
cumstance  that  greater  skill,  enterprise,  intel!i_'eiice,  .mj 
|H>rseve'aiice,  at  tirst  threw  a  co  up  iratively  gr.  it  amoiint 
of  wealth  ,iiiil  powi*  into  the  hands  of  a  few  families; 
that  the  nianagcnient  of  that  wealth,  and  the  exercise  of 
the  power  am'  inlluence,  wrTc  occupations  enl.ulitpd  to 
give  a  greater  liraclical  dev  lopment  to  the  propensitioi 
and  faculties  of  their  dcsceiictants,  than  the  routint 
drudiicry  of  those  who  earned  their  daily  foi»l  bv  their 
daily  labour.  We  have  no  desire  ti)  paili.ile  the  evili 
of  aristocratic  government.  That  dei;ree  of  onlii;liton- 
Jiiioit  which  enables  men  to  lord  it  over  otlnTs,  is  iint 
necessarily  accompanied  by  tliat  liiuher  enlialitenaioiit 
wbi.-h  teaches  the  Is'auty  mid  utility  of  self-iontrol  mid 
the  exer.iso  of  justice  to  all.  Dot  we  musl  Mot,  Ihcrrv 
fore,  shut  our  eyes  to  the  f.ict.  tliat  aristocralic  govern- 
nieiit  is  one  of  the  stages  through  which  all  snrirtiei 
must  pas<  in  their  way  to  something  Istter;  tliat  soiirly 
advances  as  man  walks,  by  pullini;  one  part  it' the  \m\j 
foremost  and  drairging  the  rest  up  to  it ;  thai  the  live 
of  power,  and  skill  ill  acquiring  and  exercising  it  mtul 
Ih"  realized  in  tho  few,  in  order  to  excite  the  desire  of  i 
nhare  of  it  in  all.  That  inequality  of  civili/at On.  which 
given  rise  to  aristocratic  power  and  inl^ueii'f,  cxifcts  ic 
inuiiy  dilFerunt  forms  aa«l  modificAliuiui.    K.tia  iaont 


PRINCIPLES  OP  CIVIL   GOVERNMENT. 


933 


0irn  country  an  uncivilizod  class  is  found — that  unfor- 
tunate class  which  supplies  the  precarious  ilcmand  for 
the  lowest  kinds  of  unskilled  labour,  and  fills  our  policc- 
ollices  and  other  courts  of  justice  with  tho  greater  part 
of  the  victims  to  the  security  of  society. 

In  a  rude  society,  there  is  wanting  that  enlightenment 
which  is  necessary  to  confer  upon  the  subjectj  or  citizens 
the  power  of  keeping  their  governmeut  in  the  jjath  of 
its  duties.  In  a  partially  civilizeil  society — a  society  in 
which  some  classes  are  considerably  advanced  in  civil- 
ization, while  others  arc  still  rude,  helpless,  and  ignorant 

only  a  portion  of  the  citizens  will  bo  able  to  exercise 

this  control.  They  will  exercise  it  to  their  own  advan- 
tacre,  neglecting  tho  interests  of  the  powerless  classes, 
most  frc(iacntly  from  thi)\ightlessness,  but  sometimes  at 
the  impulse  of  motives  still  less  excusable.  The  only 
(junrantce  men  can  have  for  good  govi'rnment,  is  thcur 
voiftr  to  exact  it,  and  tho  founilation  of  that  power 
is  knowledge  or  intolligence — intelligence  imparted  by 
civilization  and  heightened  by  tenching — knowledge 
(iitfused  through  all  ranks  of  society.  Wherever  there 
is  an  ignorant  class,  it  will  Im;  weak  ;  and  wherever  men 
arc  weak,  they  will  be  oppressed. 

Bnt  this  power  which  tho  subjects  or  citizens  of  a 
government  or  state  derive  from  knowledge  and  iiitelli- 
jjpiifP,  must  be  rendered  available  by  organization.  It 
ia  true,  on  the  one^iand,  that  none  bnt  civilized,  that  is 
instructed  and  intelligent  (we  do  not  mean  book-learned) 
mnn,  can  be  organized,  or  can  organize  themselves,  for 
the  purpose  of  m.tking  their  government  do  them  justice. 
But  it  is  also  true,  on  the  other  band,  that  uidess  men 
do  ussoi'iate,  and  each  take  upon  liiin  a  certain  part  of 
the  labour  (which  is  what  is  meant  by  organization), 
thcv  never  can  attain  their  end.  Public  ojiinion  is 
dtrnng;  but  unless  public  opinion  is  imbodied  in  public 
artwmblics  met  to  discharge  certain  business,  or  to  choose 
the  persons  who  are  to  ilischargc  it  for  them,  it  is  impo- 
Iciil  when  opposed  to  an  organized  governiiK'nt.  Tho 
piwcr  which  the  citizens,  meeting  in  ]iublic  assemblies, 
possess  of  checking  the  government,  is  derived  from  a 
circumstance  in  the  very  constitution  of  government 
tluit  has  been  noticeil  above — the  fact  tliat  government 
f.in  only  en  force  tlie  obedience  of  its  subjects  by  cmidoy- 
ini  the  organized  force  of  a  portion  of  thcinselves.  If  a 
decided  majority  of  the  citizens  resolve  not  to  obey  the 
ronimands  of  government,  not  to  iH'come  its  agents  in 
Vninpi'lling  others  to  obey  it,  and  not  to  allow  any  of 
thi'ir  fcllow-cilizcns  to  enf  irce  obedience  from  the  rest, 
except  under  certain  condilioiis,  government  must  come 
to  term;,  with  thiMu.  Whenever,  in  any  cinmtry,  the 
Croat  luxly  of  the  inhabitants  have  <liscovcred  this  truth, 
thcv  have  succeeded  at  intervals  in  averting  the  oppres- 
sion of  those  wlio  exercised  the  governnicitt  for  the  time 
liciiig.  It  was  in  this  maimer  that  the  Roman  plebeians, 
when  they  retired  to  the  "Sacred  Mount,"  obliged  the 
patricians  to  abstain  from  tyrannizing  over  them.  It  was 
In  this  manner  that  the  Dutch  relieved  themselves  from 
the  yoke  of  Philip  II.  of  i^pain.  It  was  in  this  manner 
th:it  the  Swiss  emancipated  themselves  from  the  house 
of  .\ustria.  It  was  in  this  maimer  that  the  Reformation 
of  Rcli^iim  was  etVected  in  all  the  Protestant  countries 
of  Ei)ro|)e.  It  was  in  this  manner  that  our  own  Revo- 
lution 'n  1688  was  efTected. 

We  are  not  staling  what  ought  to  be  done  on  such 
occasions — that  mii;ht  be  more  matter  of  opinion :  wo 
«ro  stating  what  has  on  all  such  wcasions  been  at- 
tempted, with  more  or  less  success,  and  what,  so  long 
IS  man  continues  to  be  man,  will  be  attempted.  If  a 
(to'.crnincnt  persist  in  oppressing  the  people,  it  will 
drive  them  to  revolt  against  it.  If  the  people  arc  sulFi- 
cicntly  advanced  in  civili/alion  to  estimalo  tho  amount 
of  their  wrongs,  and  to  devise  some  rational  means  of 
ohinining  redress,  their  revolt  must  be  successful.  .\11 
partien  have  an   iuU'rest  in   iirevenling    matters   from 


coming  Ic  this  pxtreme.  The  memhers  of  government 
risk  the  possession  of  tho  power  and  profit  which  theit 
Hiibjects,  for  the  sake  of  a  tranipiil  and  secure  life,  would 
gladly  allow  them.  The  great  body  of  the  people  havp 
their  industrious  pursuits  interrupted,  their  property 
diminished,  perhaps  their  personal  security  endangered. 
Whenever  resistance  is  thus  olli^red  to  a  government,  it 
is  as  the  least  of  two  evils — it  is  always  in  itself  an  evil, 
though  it  may  be  a  necessary  one.  A  conviction  of 
this  truth  has,  on  more  than  one  occasion,  induced  both 
governors  and  governed,  while  the  evils  of  a  struggle 
between  them  were  yt '  '"resh  in  their  memory,  to  attempt 
to  prevent  its  recurrence  by  some  pcrinanent  arrange- 
ment. The  Roman  plebeians,  for  this  purpose,  obtained 
from  their  rulers,  at  diirerent  times,  tribunes  in  tested 
with  power  to  guard  their  rights,  the  right  of  electing  one 
of  their  own  number  to  be  consul,  anc  various  other  con- 
cessions, which  at  the  time  appeared  to  them  to  be  sufficient 
to  assure  them  of  just  government  in  time  to  come.  In  ouf 
own  country,  Magna  Charta  and  the  Bill  of  Rights  were 
bargains  struck  l)etwcen  the  governors  .and  tho  governed, 
for  the  same  purpose.  All  these  arrangements,  whether 
well  adapted  to  promote  the  end  in  view  or  not,  are 
what  aro  called  constitutions,  or  constitutional  govern- 
ments. They  are  bargains  struck  between  the  govern- 
ment and  the  people  at  large,  awarding  to  each  party 
ccrlain  powers  or  i>rivileges,  which  the  other  becomes 
bound  to  respect,  Tho  object  in  view  is  to  render  it 
possible  to  check  those  evils  at  the  very  outset,  which, 
if  allowed  to  go  on,  lead  to  revolts  and  revolutions ;  to 
enalile  the  people,  by  keeping  a  steady  watch  over  the 
motions  of  their  rulers,  to  mark  their  first  aberrations 
from  the  right,  to  remonstrate  in  time — to  prevent  injus- 
tice instead  of  revenging  it. 

Constitutions  of  government  have  been  devised  and 
adopted,  as  various  as  the  habits,  opinions,  amount  of 
wealth  and  knowledge,  and  distribution  of  them  among 
the  ])eople  who  have  devised  them.  Our  own  will  be 
examined  in  the  second  section,  and  will  serve  as  an 
illustration.  Our  object  at  present  is  to  jioint  out  what 
the  knowledge  or  opinions  which  prevail  in  Europe 
lead  us  to  believe  is  the  most  efficient  kind  of  constitu- 
tion. A  constitution  is  adopted  in  the  belief,  that  it  will 
secure  the  enjoyuii'iit  of  their  just  rights,  alike  to  the 
governors  and  the  governed.  If  it  efli'Ct  this,  men  will 
rest  contented  with  it ;  if  it  do  not,  the;y  will  look  about 
for  a  better.  The  only  thing  that  has  ever  convinced  a 
peoiile  that  their  constitution  worked  ill,  has  been  expe- 
rience. No  people  have  ever  changed  their  constitu- 
tion in  conseipicncc  of  a  mere  abstract  demonstration 
that  the  new  one  proposed  to  them  was  calculated  to 
work  well :  no  |)eople  have  remained  quiet  umler  a  con- 
stitution that  worked  ill.  Any  constitution,  however 
imperfect,  is  legitimate,  and  ought  to  be  obeyed,  so  long 
as  the  people  are  satisfied  with  it.  The  only  use  in  try- 
ing to  discover  tlie  most  perfect  and  efficient  constitu- 
tion that  can  be  adopted,  is  with  a  view  to  insure  its 
permanency,  to  ])revent  the  necessity  of  having  recourse 
to  the  evil  of  a  change.  The  plan  of  organizing  society 
for  the  purpose  of  keeping  government  in  the  line  of  its 
duty — the  constitution  about  to  bo  traced— is  not  held 
out  as  recommendable  or  possible  to  our  own  or  tiny 
nation  at  any  given  time :  it  is  an  attempt  to  imbody 
principles  which  ought  never  to  he  left  out  of  view  :  it 
ought  to  1h)  ajiproached  as  nearly  as  circumstances 
admit. 

It  has  lieen  shown  alnive,  that  opinion  is,  atter  all,  the 
engine  by  which  stable,  permanent  governinent«  are 
maintained.  The  existence  of  a  government  is  a  proof 
that  the  great  majority  ot  the  people  are  satisfied  with 
it,  or  that  it  is  the  common  belief  that  they  are  satisfied 
with  it ;  and  thereftre  any  attempt  to  resist  it  is  hope- 
less. Civil  wars,  except  in  a  few  cases  where  a  ninorit"' 
have  been  remlercd  desperate  by  oppression,  and  have 


.^ 


SM 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


ni»hpd  on  donth  rnfhor  thnn  continue  to  Hufler,  have  bren 
pi\jiiiot«!d  by  the  unrrrlaiiity  whottior  the  Biipport/rs  or 
the  advprsarit>8  of  the  rxistiiior  Rovcrnmrnt  were  the 
more  numerous  and  powerful.     The  olijeot  of  a  coHsti- 
lution  is  to  provide  the  menus  of  asrertainini;  which 
jiarty  is  the  more  nunienuis.  in  order  that  the  less  nu- 
nipruus  may  see  the  neeessity  of  suhinittinpr,  without 
lieinsr  forced  to  do  so  by  actual  Butffrinpr.     The  only 
way  in  which  this  can  be  done  is  by  cominir  to  a  vote. 
All  rotitlilulioiif,  takinc;  the  word  in  the  sense  in  which 
it  is  generally  used  in  mmlern   Europe,  wlicn  investi- 
gated, are  means  of  ascertainini^  by  whom  the  people 
wish  to  l>e  poveriied.     Tliey  are  adopted  in  the  l)clicf — 
that  the   |)eople  wish  to  lie  well   ijoverned,  that   is,  that 
when  tlu'   majority  of  the   people  are  comfortulile,  they 
will  not  seek  for  ehanse ;  and  that  when  the  m.njority 
■re  uncomfortable,  they  will  seek  for  change ;  and  that 
tlie  minority  who  I)elieve  the  choice  of  the  innjority  to 
be  wrouR,  will  the  more  williiiijly  submit,  if  they  see 
thai,  should  it  be  in  their  power  to  brinij  over  a  nmjority 
to  their  opinion,  they  can  alter  the  derision.     When  a 
nation  has  grot  the  habit  of  acting  in  this  way,  tlie  con- 
duct of  government  necessarily  comes  to  be  more  nar- 
rowly scrutinized.     'J'he  incessant  ciivillins  of  the  dis- 
roiitented  minority,  provokes  arijumcnts  in  defence  from 
the  majority,  and  not  an  action  of  their  rulers  escapes 
d'scusstcm.      Experience,   if  nothinij   else,   teaches   the 
government  that   this   incessant  disputation  may,  unless 
it  is  particularly  (juanled,  looseai  the  hold  it  has  on  the 
opinions  of  the  majority,  and  makes  it  more  truarded  in 
its  proceedincrs ;  or  if  it  misconduct  itself,  disregardinfr 
this  hazard,  its  own  blnnieable  conduct  diminishes  the 
number  of  its  suiifxirters,  until  they  become  a  minority. 
The  object  of  a  constitution  bcinc  to  afford  a  tncans  of 
Wnrkinji  out  this  process  peaccablv,  it  is  clear  that  the 
first  and  most  im]>ortanf  re<]nisite  in   a   eovcrninent — in 
•    constitution — is    a    methoil    of   nscertiiininc    beyond 
doubt  to  whom  the  majority  of  the  people  wish  to  intrust 
the  charife  of  uoveminff  thrm. 

'i'he  problem,  then,  is.  How  are  we  to  ascertain  the 
wishes  of  the  whole  |>eople — their  real,  their  sincere 
wishes?  There  is  only  one  way.  by  allowinir  every  one 
of  them  to  leclnre  who  it  is  they  wish  shoidd  ciDvern 
them,  and  allowinp;  them  to  do  this  free  from  fear  of  the 
consequences.  In  states  which  consist,  like  those  of  the 
old  (Jrecians.  of  a  sina;le  citv,  the  bnllot-Kix  and  a  con- 
vocation of  all  the  citizens  was  sufTicient  fi>r  this  pur- 
,  pose.  In  fchiies  which,  like  Great  Hritain,  France,  or 
the  Ignited  States  of  North  .\inericii,  extend  over  a  larin- 
tract  of  country,  the  votes  must  be  tal^en  by  districts; 
otherwise  lusny  wcuild  Ik*  prevented  from  votinu  by  loss 
of  time  an'^  the  exi)ense  of  travelling,  and  thus  the 
opinion  of  an  umguestionable  majority  could  not  be 
obtained,  ami  the  election  would  occupy  a  dsnccrous 
lenjrlh  of  time.  The  rule  to  he  obscr\cil,  in  dividing 
the  country-  into  voting  distrii^ts,  is,  that  they  shall  be 
srilficiently  small  tc>  admit  of  every  citizen  gi\nng  his 
*ote  at  the  ex|>ense  of  a  very  trifling  loss  of  time  and 
(>ers.inal  inconvenience;  and  that  they  shall  at  the  sanu< 
time  be  sufficiently  large  to  contain  such  a  number  as 
shall  prevent  secret  voting  Ix-ing  inenly  nominal. 

The  next  rec]uisite  in  a  conslitution  is,  that  care  N' 
liken  to  prevent  confiisiim  in  the  di'^charge  of  the  differ- 
ent functions  of  governinent.  ami  to  ensure  the  greatest 
poHsiblj.  amount  of  fitness  fur  their  ri"^fM>clive  diitii-s  in 
the  giersons  elected.  It  has  Iscn  sliowii  aliove,  that  it  is 
y  qreat  consi'<|ueiice  that  the  law-ninkers,  and  the  law- 
explainers  (judges'),  and  the  law-enforcerH  (exirutive 
j;overnment),  should  all  l>e  dillireiit  jicrsons,  indc|>endent 
of  each  other.  It  is  therefore  advisable  that  the  |s>ople 
•hould  directly  elect  all  these  separate  Cunctionarirs,  with 
theejipres*  urideritun<ling  that  each  is  to  confine  himself 
If  his  own  particular  (leld.  There  is  this  ilifliTence  Ik-- 
tmetn  the  first  of  Iheae  clanei  of  functiunmrie*  and  tl>e 


I  other  two,  that  its  ofliec  is  deliberative,  while  the  ofTiCM 
j  of  the  others  arc  to  act.     "  In  a  multitude  of  counsellor 

there  is  safety ;"  it  is  desirable  that  the  deliberative,  tii« 

law-making  body,  should  lie  numerous.  On  the  othci 
]  hand,  exj>erience  leaches  that,  where  action  is  reqnirpil 
I  the  controlling  power  ought  to  l)e  vested  in  as  frw  ^l 

possible.  Hence  it  is  advisable  that,  in  elections  of  cx- 
;  ecutive  governors  and  judges,  the  votes  of  all  the  disirjct. 

ought  to  !«•  added,  as  only  a  small  uumln-r  are  reniiiipj. 

but  that,  in  elections  of  legislators,  as  the  nimiher  re- 
j  quired  would  1h'  so  numerous  as  to  render  it  ioconvoni- 
1  ent  for  each  district  to  vote  upon  all,  each  district  should 
'  be  allowed  to  send  a  certain  number  of  legislators  to 
I  the  general  as.sembly.  By  this  means  greetei  vnrieiv 
[  of  character    and   opinion  will    he   introduced  into  ilm't 

body,  which,  though  destructive  of  action,  promotes  Jis. 

cussion. 

I  For  the  same  purpose — the  keeping  the  difl'erent  func- 
'  tiotiaries  of  piivernment  independent  of  each  oilier,  ntij 
I  preventing  as  far  as  pos.sibic  collusion  among  them,  with 
'  a  view  to  (iromote  their  own  ends  instead  of  tlic  piililic 
'  good — it  is  desirable  that  each  district  should  elect  those 
;  local  fiinctiiuinrii's  who  are  reijuirrd  to  la-  resident  wllhin 
I  it.  In  a  large  country,  it  is  iicvessnry  to  have  jiulircs 
I  within  rcarli  of  every  man  ;  and  it  is  necessary  to  linve 
!  one  sni)rrnie  judge,  whose  decisions  shall  preserve  uni- 
j  formity  among  all   those  ditl'crent  onurts,  and  to  w 


mm 


those  who  are  dissatisfied  with  the  decision  of  their  own 

'  court   may  ajiply  to  liave  it  reconsidered.     So,  while  tlio 

central   executive   government   takes  care  of  the  wliole 

nation,  there  are  many  little  details  to  l)e  attended  to  in 

every  locality,  which  are  Is'st  discharged   by  persons  re- 

silling  on  the  spot,  which  could   not  he  so  well  mannied 

by  the  central  covernmcnt,  and  would  occupy  an  uniliie 

share  of  its  time.     'I'hese  ollicials  ought  to  be  elected  ly 

the  inhabitants  of  the  district  over  which  they  prcsiJe,  io 

the  same  manner  as  the  great  functionaries  arc  liy  the 

whole   nation.     By   this    means    alone   can   seciiritv  be 

'  given  that  they  wfll  be  chosen  solely  for  their  fitness,  not 

I  with  a  view  to  s<-rure  inleresli-il  sujiporters  of  the  central 

governnieni,  which,   were    they   nominated    by  it,  they 

'  would  infallibly  liecome. 

'I'he  last  essential  point  is.  that  the  elections  of  the 
fun''lionnrics  of  government  should  recur  at  brief  Rt,nteJ 
intervals.  The  use  of  a  constitution  is  to  keep  Rovcrn- 
ment  in  the  line  of  its  duty,  by  making  it  led  tlint  it 
holils  its  jiower  only  so  long  as  it  retains  the  conli,lenc« 
of  the  people,  and  by  enabling  the  (X'ople  to  cliiinge  a 
government  which  it  fin<ls  incorrigible.  I'nless  the  nicni- 
tM>rs  of  government  are  elected  at  first  for  a  ■lilinito 
limited  period,  with  a  common  underslaiiding  that  the 
process  of  election  is  to  N-  gone  through  at  the  expiry  of 
a  certain  time,  the  object  of  traming  a  constltiillon  will 
not  Iv  obtained.  There  will  Ik-  no  means  of  ami rtaiiiing 
when  the  whole  countrv'  thinks  it  advisable  to  |  ronnl  to 
a  change  :  the  miiiDrily  will  pretend  that  the  proper  lime 
for  election  has  not  come,  and  absent  themselves,  in  onlor 
to  have  a  pretext  for  denying  that  the  result  kIiowr  the 
opinion  of  the  majority.  The  elections  must  tliirclbre  lie 
ordained  to  take  place  nt  stated  intervals,  and  tlie«e  inter- 
vals nuist  tie  calculati.l  with  a  view  to  Ivvo  e  insidrrn. 
lions — they  must  not  Is'  so  far  a[iart  as  to  allow  a  govern- 
meiil  litiie  to  do  miiih  mischief  unchecki  d  ;  liny  must  nut 
be  so  near  as  to  prcviiit  the  govcriiimnl  Irinn  diMlupln^i  in 
prnrtiie  the  syslein  on  whiili  it  inlcmls  In  ail — ihev 
niU'^t  Im-  long  eiioii''li  to  enal'lc  it  to  U-  jiiduiil,  nut  tiv 
i'lilaled  actions  bill  by  its  ucieial  policy.  At  the  same 
l:mc,  cure  must  Im'  takiii  ti>  iiistiliitc  such  arr:iiigeir,ii,U 
respecting  the  fH'iiisI  lor  «hiih  the  elected  sliiuiiil  ,erve, 
as  will  conciliate  and  seciiie  men  of  rcspei  tidile  Ktamiing 
ill  Sim  II  ly — men,  in  fact,  who  may  Ik.-  sup|S)scil  to  he 
placed  Ixyoiid  the  suspicion  of  serving  lur  basely  wldib 
piirpow-s,  and  who  are  in  the  haliit  uf  taking  cnlirje^ 
views  of  sucial  urganilutiuu. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CIVIL  GOVERNMENT. 


336 


FORMS  OF  liOVKRNMFNT  ACT7AI,LY  KXISTING. 

In  the  first  section  an  attempt  has  l)ccn  made  to  con- 
niv  a  distinct  general  notion  of  the  ends  iiroposcd  to  he 
Kcomplished  by  government,  and  of  tho  means  by  which 
(he  nature  of  man  and  society  render  it  necessary  for 
government  to  occoniplisii  these  ends. 

The  use  of  such  general  notions  is  to  sc  o  men  as  a 
iggt  or  slanilurd  whereby  to  ascertain  how  (i.id  to  whot 
Bxtent  any  actual  government  approaches  to  or  falls  short 
of  what  it  ouglit  to  be,  and  as  a  chart  by  which  to  work 
when  ciri'uuisliinccs  oiler  un  opportunity  of  introiluctng 
•nv  improvements  into  the  nuicliiiiery  of  any  existing 
eovcrmiieiit-  In  ufKiirs  of  practical  jiolitics,  as  in  all 
other  human  transactions,  it  is  of  great  advantane  to 
tliosc  wlu)  arc  called  upon  to  act,  to  have  it  in  their  [wwer 
to  lake  up  a  i>osilion  beforehand,  from  which  they  can 
^c  at  once  tlie  wliole  field  of  operations,  and  the  rela- 
tive positions  and  bearings  of  all  iU  parts. 

But  such  general  notions,  if  not  combined  with  know- 
|ed"c  of  practical  details,  are  at  times  apt  to  mislead,  and 
•jc  not  at  any  time  sullicient  of  themselves  to  enable 
men  to  decide  on  any  oe'casion  what  is  best  to  be  done. 
The  preceding  analysis  of  the  clementa  of  governimiit 
is  an  outline  of  what  exists  in  reality,  but  so  gem  uil  in 
in  features  that  it  is  applicable  to  every  goveriniiml  that 
has  ever  existed.  Whoever  would  avail  himself  .if  tho 
practical  lessons  that  may  fairly  be  deduced  from  those 
general  truths,  must  first  of  all  apply  himself  to  ascertain 
the  ix'culiar  form  under  which  those  general  principles 
exist  and  o|)erate  in  his  own  country.  He  must  not 
alluw  himself  to  be  misled  by  vague  sentiments — by  pre- 
Jik'ctions  or  anti|)atliies  for  particular  names  or  even 
forms  iif  governinont,  but  endeavour  to  discover  the 
muount  and  kind  of  the  elFects  they  produce,  and  judge 
«f  them  by  their  clFeets.  Liberty  and  loyalty — monar- 
chies and  republics,  aristociatieal  or  deiiioeratieal — are 
words  about  which  much  argument  and  much  blood  has 
been  wasted.  And  yet,  after  all,  it  is  not  the  name  of  a 
government,  nor  even  the  external  f^jrins  of  its  framework, 
that  are  of  imiiortancc.  If  a  government  [iroleets  the 
pcrsont  and  jiroperties  of  its  subjects,  without  iiUeiferiiig 
with  their  freedom  of  thought  and  action  so  long  as  they 
ilo  not  iiijure  their  neighbours;  if,  by  example  and  preccfit, 
it  cncouranei!  industry  and  intellectual  development,  and 
high  moral  and  reliuious  sentiment;  and  if  its  eonstitu- 
lian  is  sui-h  as  to  atford  a  guarantee  for  its  action  Ix'ing 
uemianently  (not  by  fits  and  starts^,  thus  benelleial — be 
tlic  name  or  form  of  that  government  what  it  will,  it  is  a 
good  one;  and  on  furlhiT  iiivesligatii)n  it  will  be  found 
that  its  gooilness  is  owing,  ii>  the  first  place,  to  the  apti- 
tude of  its  organization  for  ellicting  the  ends  of  govern- 
„„.iit— tkat  is,  to  the  skill'ul  orp'aiiization  of  legislative, 
iudii'ial,  and  executive  fiinetionaries ;  and  in  the  second 
iilace,  to  cireumstaiuis  which  render  these  functionaries 
lulijecl  to  the  control  of  public  oiiinion. 

It  must  always  be  kept  in  mind,  that  government,  in 
the  great  majority  of  easi>s,  must  U-  exenised  by,  as  well 
as  u[ioii,  individuals  of  the  nation  in  which  it  exists,  /y 
individuals  not  materially  wi^vc  or  better,  in  the  average, 
than  those  whose  imperfections  render  the  eontnd  of  a 
government  necessary  to  preserve  peace  and  justice  in 
KK'ietv.  And  it  follows  from  this,  as  a  necessary  eonse- 
([Ui'ricc,  that  at  dilfirent  stages  of  civilization,  dilVerent 
forms  of  government  may  be  not  only  the  most  i-asy  to 
cstalilish  and  suppoil,  but  the  most  beneficial  for  tho 
community.  Willi  m  the  defeds  necessarily  attemlant 
iijioii  a  non-resident  governnient.  there  can  \iv  little  doubt 
thai  theniivernment  of  the  lliiti^h  Kast  Iiulia  Compoiv  is 
not  only  a  belter  than  Inilia  ever  had  bel'ore,  but  a  lieiter 
than  the  inbaliilants  of  Hindostan  loidd  at  this  moment 
jivc  themselves,  if  lell  to  their  free  choice.  'I'he  feudal 
lorms  of  government  in  Euro|)e  during  the  miiUlle  ages, 
Uie  Lierarchj  of  Thibet  or  ancient  Kgyi't,  the  monarcliy 


of  Charlemagne,  have  all  been  in  turn  the  lest  for  the 
particular  tribes  subject  to  them  at  the  particular  period. 
The  mutual  adaptation  of  governments  and  nations  ia 
a  point  that  cannot  with  safety  be  left  out  of  account, 
in  cases  where  the  shades  of  difference  are  much  moro 
delicate  and  diflicult  to  detect  than  in  those  which  we 
have  selected  for  the  sake  of  illustration.  A  diflercnce 
in  the  kind  as  well  as  in  the  degree  of  civilization  of  two 
dilforent  nations,  can  render  the  government  which  works 
well  in  the  one  impracticable  in  the  other.  A  nation  ia 
what  wo  have  attempted  to  show  a  guvcinment  to  be, 
more  a  necessary  product  of  human  instincts  than  a  cre- 
ation of  conscious  design.  Governmcnta  and  nations  are 
the  creatures  of  human  intellect  and  will — but  of  wbolo 
races  and  generations,  not  of  individuals,  or  even  of  tlie 
collective  men  of  one  age.  There  goes  time,  long  time, 
to  the  making  of  both.  They  grew  up  together ;  they 
are  inseparable  but  by  the  destruction  of  both ;  the  capa- 
city and  peculiar  character  of  the  nation  determine  the 
kind  of  government  filled  for  it.  Every  nation  must 
work  out  its  own  happiness — in  consonance,  it  is  true, 
with  the  universal  general  laws  of  human  nature — but, 
at  the  same  time,  in  harmony  with  all  those  minor  dif> 
ferencps  which  characterize,  and  throughout  its  history 
have  characterized  it  as  dillering  from  all  other  natioLS. 

DESPOTISMS. 
At  the  present  time,  the  greater  proportion  of  the 
govcrnmcnis  throughout  the  world  arc  of  the  character 
of  ilvspolistiis,  and  comiiarativcly  few  possess  what  are 
called  fihislilu'ioiin.  Of  the  multifarious  class  of  despot- 
isms which  exist  among  barbarous  nations,  it  is  hero 
needles.s  to  sai  any  thing;  for  the  question  of  form  i  i 
government  only  becomes  interesting  when  applied  to  a 
wholly  or  partially  civilized  people. 

Jtii.-i.tidn  (Mdveniiiuiil. — The  most  powerful  despotii-m 
ill  Europe  is  that  of  Russia,  which,  in  virtue  of  here- 
ditary right,  is  governed  by  u  monarch  with  the  title  of 
Emperor.  No  restraint  can  Ih'  imposed  on  the  Empe- 
ror's government,  except  voluntarily ;  and,  eittier  from 
lienevolence  or  fear,  the  EiniKTors  have  partially  quali- 
fied their  unlimited  power,  which  is  further  moderated  1  y 
rights  and  privileges  enjoyed  in  certain  parts  of  the  eni- 
[lire,  on  which  no  monurch  could  hifringe  with  impunity. 
(See  article  Cir.oa  uAi'iiv.)  Kussia  is  chiefly  distinguishtj 
us  a  great  military  power.  Within  the  lust  seventy  rr 
eighty  years,  it  has,  by  military  rapine,  acquired  territo- 
ries eoiitainiiig  ujiwaids  of  twenty-three  millions  of  sub- 
jects;  this  extent  of  acquisition,  however,  is  much  less 
than  that  of  Great  Britain  in  India  during  the  same 
|)criod  of  time.  \  severe  censorship  of  the  press;  the 
exisleiiee  of  seignorial  rights  of  serfs  (a  kind  of  slavery); 
a  widely  ramified  police  spy-syslein ;  restriction  of  per- 
sonal loeoniotion  by  [lassports ;  and,  in  short,  a  coinpleto 
absence  of  all  tokens  of  civil  liberty,  mark  the  Russian 
goveriimeiil  as  a  |iure  despotism.  The  despotism  of  Austria 
is  scarcely  more  liberal ;  the  only  qualifying  features  are 
the  establishment  of  a  national  system  of  elementary 
education,  and  science  is  not  (lorsecuted. 

I'mffimi  diini  iiintiil. — Prussia  at  present  offers  the 
remarkable  siK'ctacle  of  great  improvement  in  intellectual 
and   social  condition,  with  ample   protection  of  life  and 
property,  and  yet  witli  a  form  of  government  very  little 
removed  from  that  of  a  pure  despotism.    .\s  little  is  popu- 
l.irly  known  resp.iliiig  the  Prussian  government,  and  a* 
it  is  the  best  exanqile  we  can  give  of  its  class,  we  shall  go 
a  little  into  detail  on  the  subject. 
'       Prussia  has  iiiereased  from  the  condition  of  adutchj  - 
'  that   of  Hraiidenbur^' — to  a  large  kinudoni,  within  lew 
tli.is   t«o  ii'iiturics.     A   liNral   rcciptioii  of  persecuted 
',  religionist.s,  and   mililury  conquest,  hav"  been  the  chief 
basis  of  its  gr"atness.     Protestants  flying  from  persecu- 
tion in  the  Netherlands  in  the  sixteenth  century,  found  ( 
refujie  in  Brandenburg;  and  great  ni'nibci,<uf  the  Frenct 


996 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


IIuRUonoffl,  who  floJ  from  thoir  country  on  the  revocn.  [  During  June,  July,  and  August,  it  mcctn  only  in  um 
tion  of  tlic  oilict  of  Naniz,  witc  enoouragnl  to  scttln  j  event  of  proRsiiig  ciiiprgoncirs.  The  husine^  of  ij), 
there ;  both  classes  of  iinniiu;rant>i,  hy  the  example  of  (council  is  to  delilicratc  upon  questions  of  policy  regard 
their  skill  and  industry,  richly  rcpiiid  the  retreat  afforded    ing  which  the  ministers  arc  not  authori/.ed  hy  the  consti. 


thom.  The  Brandenburg  territories  were  the  focus  of  the 
desolating  activity  of  the  Thirty  Years'  Wur;  hut  the 
destruction  thus  occasioned,  operating  upon  on  indus- 
trious and  cr.crgetic  race,  a  large  proimrtion  of  whose  an- 
cestors were  martyrs  for  conscience'  sake,  only  stimulated 
them  to  re<loubled  exertions  when  pence  was  restored. 
The  Inst  prince  of  the  country,  who  bore  the  title  of  elec- 
tor, Frederick- William  the  Orcnt,  who  reigned  from  HMO 
to  1GS8,  was  of  0  chamcter  similar  to  that  of  his  subjects: 
he  found  his  country  a  waste  when  he  assinned  the  reins 
o(  government ;  he  introduced  a  decree  of  civil  and  mili- 
tary organization,  that  rendered  it,  long  before  his  death, 
not  only  tlie  most  powerful  diviKinn  of  the  (iermnn  em- 
pire, but  a  slute,  the  nllinnce  of  which  was  courted  by  the 
most  pc.verful  princes  in  Kurope.  From  the  time  the 
iiovcrcisn  of  this  stale  assumed  the  kinijly  title,  down  to 
the  dissolution  of  the  empire,  its  history  has  l>een  little 
more  than  the  development  of  the  orgaiiizalion  l)ei;un  by 
Frederick-William,  under  the  auspices  of  a  line  of  princes,  |  inspection  of  each  committee,  must  be  present  at  its  » 


all  of  them  possessing  more  than  average  talent,  and  one 
of  them  uni)uesti()nalily  a  man  of  genius.  Prussia  con- 
tinued, as  before,  a  place  of  refuge  for  all  who  fled  from 
oppression  of  any  kind.  'I'he  victims  of  the  devastation 
of  the  l':il.ilin«te  by  I.ouis  .\I\'.  found  a  home  here;  the 
objects  of  religious  i)Cr.seculion  in  .Swit/.crl.uiil,  S,d/.liurg, 
.md  Bohemia,  came  in  sueci'ssive  thx-ks  to  Prussia — in 
one  instance 'J0,000  at  a  lime;  and  all  were  wilroiiied. 
The  peculiar  reliilion  of  Prussia  to  the  empire  seems  to 
have  exercised  a  favourable  inlhience  on  the  policy  of  its 
monarehs:  po.ssc.s.se(l  of  all  the  power  of  imli'pendent 
■ovepii'iis,  they  were  not  embarrassed  in  their  internal 
pov-^rnment  by  foreign  interrerencc ;  and  at  the  siinie 
time,  ii'niiinitlly  subjects,  Ihey  were  encouraged  in  a  taste 
for  the  h  imely  household  mamigemcnt  of  their  territories. 
The  n.arrow  limits  within  which  the  Brandenburg  territory, 
the  inicleuB  of  the  state,  was  contaii'cd,  rendereil  it  more 
mailttgeable ;  the  complete  organization  was  easily  extend- 
ed to  later  arcpiisilions.  The  circumstances  attendant  on 
the  dissolution  of  the  empin'  in  1H(U!,  were  such  as  to  im- 
press a  severe  les,%in  of  economy  on  the  sovereign  of  the  in 
every  res(>ect  independent  sinte;  and  the  necessity  of 
entering  into  a  death-struggle  again.st  the  compieror  of 
Europt!  for  the  preservation  of  that  indc|M'udence,  gave 
the  finishing  touch  to  its  organization.  I'russia  is  every 
wav  an  anomaly — an  uncontrolled  monarchy,  with  a 
highly  educated  population,  every  adult  male  of  which 
has  been  trained  to  the  us<!  of  arms — a  monarchy,  in 
every  public  department  of  which  as  severe  an  economy 
prevails  IS  in  the  democratic  reii\iblic  of  North  .Nmerica. 
'l"he  government  of  Prussia  is  a  hereditary  unlimited 
monarchy  ;  the  state  is  one  and  indivisible.  The  King 
exercises  generally,  hy  his  ministers,  llie  supreme  legisla- 
tive and  executive  authority,  and  Kp(s)ints  the  judges. 
All  laws  iH'ar  to  lie  framed  by  the  King  alone;  but  in 
fact  they  are  prepan-d  by  the  Council  of  State  (/iir 
Slaittinlh).  This  Ixxly  (established  by  royal  ordinaiKC 
of  20th  .March,  1817)  coi\sists  of— 1.  The  princes  of  the 
royal  family,  who  have  coinpleti'd  their  eighteenth  year; 
2.  Ofricer»  of  slate,  who  arc  t-r./nn,,  inemtK'rs  of  the 
Council,  namely,  the  President  ^(  the  Coimeil,  the  field- 
marshals,  th>>  t'aliinet  ministers,  the  I*ri~idcnt  of  the 
iSuprenie  ('.nirt,  the  Prisideiit  of  the  ChainlM-r  of  Ac- 
count'., privy-coiincillors.  and  (for  inililary  iillairs)  re- 
porting adjut  lilts-general,  llie  President  of  the  .National 
Uebt  OHice.  the  S'cri'tary  of  .^late,  the  gi  U'  raU  coiii- 
inunding  provinces,  and  the  presiilenls  of  provinci-s  v^ti.ii 
in   Berlin  ;   M.  Olficcrs  of  sl,it4'  speciallv  ap|Hiiiile(l  by  'hi- 


consti- 
tution  to  decide;  the  establishment  of  principles  for  tli» 
guidance  of  the  executive  aulhorilies ;  the  preparation 
of  laws;  the  organization  of  the  different  depaitnicnt» 
of  stale  ;  the  setllemcnt  of  conlesled  jurisdictions  bt'tween 
ministers;  and,  in  addition  to  these,  the  scrutiny  of  anv 
question  Bubmitted  to  them  by  the  King.  Six  commit, 
tecs  arc  appointed  to  put  any  business  to  be  submitted  to 
the  Council  into  shape,  before  it  is  discussed  in  fi||| 
assembly  ;  namely,  the  Committees  of  Forngii,  MilUiiry 
Judicial,  Financial,  Domeslic,  and  Ediicutioual  .Afliiira 
Each  of  thcs«'  committees  is  composed  of  five  councillors 
not  holding  execiilive  olHces  in  the  de|mrtment  of  (iintc 
the  business  of  which  is  submitted  to  their  review:  Iho 
president  from  time  to  lime  appoints  individuals  who  do 
not  belong  to  the  council — govermnent  ollicials,  scientific 
or  mercantile  men,  or  landed  proprietors — to  atleiid  Iho 
sittings  of  the  committees,  for  the  purjiose  of  giviim  in. 
formation.     The  minister  of  dejinrlinent  subjected  to  tlio 

sit- 


tings either  personally  or  by  deputy,  for  the  purpose  of 
giving  all  necessary  information,  but  is  not  allowed  a 
delilH-rativc  voice.  .Matters  of  business,  thus  brounht 
into  proiH-r  form,  are  discussed  in  the  geiicr.il  nieetin™ 
of  the  council.  Alter  the  report  of  the  commiitee  has 
been  read,  any  member  of  it  who  dissents  from  the  report 
is  heard  in  support  of  his  peiMiliar  views.  'I'lie  minis^ter 
to  whosi'  department  tlii'  business  belongs,  is  next  heard 
to  sjH'ak.  Any  other  nieiiibers  of  Council  who  wish  to 
be  he:vrd,  intimate  their  desire  lo  the  president,  who  calls 
ujion  them  in  the  order  in  vvhicli  Ihey  stand  in  the  list  if 
members.  When  all  who  desire  to  be  heard  have  Int.! 
hcanl,  the  reliTcndary  prepares  an  ahstr:M-t  of  the  opinions 
expreswd  by  each,  and  the  presiilent  lakes  the  vole.  \ 
simple  majority  decides;  ami,  in  the  event  of  an  ciiualitv 
the  president  has  a  casting  vote.  After  a  decision  luii 
been  come  to,  with  or  without  discussion  nnd  a  vote,  the 
resolution  or  draught  of  n  law,  tocelher  with  a  report  of 
the  proceedings,  is  laid  before  the  King,  who  approves, 
rejects,  or  nnHlilles  it.  Kcsolntion.s,  laws,  and  ordinances 
of  the  Council,  have  no  authority  until  they  receive  the 
royal  sanction.  .Ml  representations  from  the  provincial 
nssendilies  are  subinillcd  to  the  Council  through  the 
ministers  of  deparlments.  The  business  of  the  com- 
miltees  proceeds  uninterrupted  during  the  annual  vaci. 
tions.  The  Secretary  of  Slate  has  the  charge  of  prepaniiq 
all  pmlocols  and  draughts  of  laws,  and  superinlcniliiii; 
the  signature  of  such  us  are  approved.  Ea<'h  coniinilUc 
has  nil  establishment  of  cli'rks.  'J'he  ("ouncil  has  a 
library,  which  contains  the  laws  of  the  monanhy  and  all 
its  provinces,  and  all  the  laws  c.f  the  states  of  the  Uer- 
nianic  I  oion  that  have  Im-cii  printed. 

The  supreme  jiulieial  organizaliun  is  very  perfect,  and 
BO,  likewise,  is  that  of  the  provinces  nnd  inferior  divi. 
sions.  With  respect  to  the  central  executive,  it  is  con- 
ducted by  niiiiisti'rs  appointed  to  the  difh  rent  depiirt- 
nieiits.  including  a  minisler  for  spiritual.  educatieiial.anJ 
inedii-al  alliiirs.  'i'he  executive  is  elnirged  wilti  the  duty 
of  supervising  the  prmlucts  of  the  press,  each  'iiini'.tct 
exerc  ising  a  ccnsorsliip  nvcr  publications  r.latmg  to  l!ip 
coneirns  of  his  i.wn  de)iarlmeiit. 

'I'he  naturally  slriii;;eiit  ipiality  of  despoti,'  rule  is 
soiuewhat  moildicd  by  the  ]iccnlyir  orgaiiiz;itioii  of  'he 
proviihial  executive ;  in  puint  of  tact,  cert,iin  popularly 
n|ipoMitcd  liH-a'  councils  or  municipalilies  restrain  the 
netiiin  of  tin-  central  despotism.  'I'he  eight  [irovinces  of 
the  muiiarehy  are  divideil  into  governments,  these  into 
circles,  anil   these  iiKuiu   into  coinniiuiallics.     1.  .\t  the 


King.  The  Council  iimvIs  regiil.irly  on  a|i|Hiinled  days  Inuil  of  each  provime  is  a  Hiuih  Piesidcnt.  (who.  when 
fur  i.i:ie  months  of  the  year ;  fifleeii  meinlH'rs,  exclusive  in  B.  rhn.  h.is  a  seat  In  the  C  luncil  of  State.)  to  wh '.ii: 
ff  the  rjyal   princes,  hcnig   required   tu  form   a  i^uuiuin.  i  ore  atlached  a  council,  u  sceietary,  and  scverul  suburdi 


PRINCIPLES   OF   CIVIL   GOVERNMENT. 


am 


p«(-i  officialii.  Thn  Hip[li  Prcniilent  presides  in  moctingfi  I 
of  provincial  conHintoriea,  and  tiic  coininiHsioners  of 
ictiuol  and  medical  ulliiirs ;  he  traiiHactK  hutiiiicHs  witli  I 
tlio  representatives  of  tlie  province;  lie  makes  urrungc- 
luenU  with  the  generals  conmianding  the  troops  of  the 
jirovince  ;  he  exer(  ises  the  censorship  of  all  pulilications  ' 
in  the  province,  with  the  exception  of  sojiic  reserved  for 
tlic  Cabinet  ministers  ;  he  exercises  superintendence  and 
control  over  the  executive  authorities  in  each  govern-  ; 
ment  of  his  province ;  he  controls  the  tax-collectors  of 
the  province ;  and,  in  emergencies,  he  is  authorized  to 
ai't  in  name  of  tin;  central  government  until  directions 
can  ho  received  from  the  capital.  In  each  i)rovin(;c 
there  is  a  representative  hody  called  the  F./iiul-Sniiule 
(rliiln  piiii<iii<uii(j-).  The  general  edict  of  the  year  1823, 
which  "  called  these  bodies  into  active  existence,"  do- 
claies  that  property  in  land  is  the  basis  of  the  representa- 
tion, and  that  tlie  HUnde  is  "  the  constitutional  organ  of 
all  classes  of  sulijecls  in  each  province."  The  8t;inde 
consists  of  noblemen  having  a  right  to  appear  in  person, 
nohlcincn,  or  great  landowners  ajjpearing  as  representa- 
tives of  knots  of  five,  sij;  or  seven,  who  have  a  '•  col- 
lective voice,"  and  repn!senlativos  of  towns  and  of  cul- 
tivators of  the  soil.  In  Saxony,  Westphalia',  and  the 
Rhirc  Province,  the  re))resent;Uives  of  the  commons  are 
el'Xlivl  by  districts;  in  the  other  four  provinc«s,  by 
towns,  districts  of  towns,  and  rural  districts.  A  more 
distiiui  idea  of  the  functions  of  the  Standc,  than  can  be 
ilerived  from  the  vague  expression  "organ  of  all  classes 
of  suljccts,"  is  conveyed  by  the  fact  that  courts  of  arbi- 
tration have  been  established  in  Prussia,  Brandenburg, 
Poinorania,  Silesia,  and  Saxony,  in  conse(iuence  of  re- 
prcscnlaiions  from  those  liodies.  The  Stymie  meets  and 
dchborates,  and  represents  to  the  crown,  through  minis- 
ters, what  legislative  or  tinancial  reforms  they  wish,  the 
:rown  reserving  to  itself  the  power  of  refusing  the  re- 
quest, or  complying  with  it  in  its  own  way.  Every 
province  is  divided  into  governments,  at  the  head  if  eacli 
of  which  is  n  president  and  council,  composed  of  heads 
of  departments  ;  namely,  the  councillor  at  the  head  of  the 
executive  diipartment,  the  sui)erintend*Mice  of  schools 
and  churches,  and  the  management  of  {lirni  taxes, 
JeaiCi^ncs,  and  forests;  several  councillois  who  have  no 
B|)ccific  department ;  and  some  assessors.  Husiness  of 
wei;;ht  is  transacted  by  meetings  of  the  whole  council ; 
alfairs  of  less  importance  in  meetings  of  the  councillor.; 
iK'loiiRing  to  specific  departments.  The  <'\i'cutive  olli- 
ars  of  a  novenimeiit  are  appi>aited  by  the  president ; 
the  ouncillors  and  assessors  are  appointed  by  ii'.iiiisters, 
oa  the  recoinmeiidatiou  of  ihe  i)ri'si(K'iit ;  the  government 
treaaurcr  and  some  other  otlicials,  on  the  recommenda- 
tion of  llie  whole  council.  The  public  business  of  the 
circles  into  which  every  goverimicnl  is  divided,  is 
imuiuged  uiiiler  the  direi't  superintendence  of  the  pro- 
vincial government,  by  a  councillor  in  each,  with  the 
asiistiuue  of  u  council  compos»;il  of  the  Stinde  of  the 
drclc.  The  members  of  the  last  body  are  all  proprietors 
of  equestrian  lands,  (or,  under  certain  restrictions,  their 
delegates.)  the  representatives  of  the  towns,  and  the 
lepresentatives  of  the  peasantry.  The  commonalties  in 
each  circle  are  either  town  or  rural,  'i'lie  towns  are 
managed  by  town-councils,  elected  by  tile  burgesses,  and 
magistralcs  chosen  (with  the  exception  of  the  |)rincipal 
biircoiimster)  by  the  council.  'I'o  the  magistrates  is 
intrusted  the  care  of  the  executive  pidiee :  the  council 
majiages  the  town  property,  and  all  matters  of  local 
fiiiiuice.  .\t  the  head  of  every  rural  district  is  a  village 
j'Wtice  (^S(iiiilzt),  with  two  itssistants  (.S'/.(i,7i"i),  who 
tjercisc  a  limited  authority  in  mailers  of  police.  The 
tillage  judge  and  the  ma:;istrucy  of  towns  are  uiuler  the 
control  of  the  oxocutive  department  of  the  government 
in  which  they  ar  i  situated. 

.\ltliough  the  nation  generally  may  Iw  desi'ribed  as 
Mill  ui  u  rudu  condition,  and  perhupd  nut  able  fur  aelf- 


govcrnmont,  great  advances  are  making  to  giro  th« 
whole  population  intelligence,  which  is  the  basis  of  all 
true  liberty,  'i'he  state,  in  many  respects,  exercises  a 
paternal  and  kindly  sway.  Ft  has  established  national 
education  on  the  broadest  possible  foundation ;  for  each 
child  is  legally  compelled  to  receive  elementary  instruc- 
tion at  school,  and  it  is  considered  a  disgrace  to  remain 
ignorant  of  letters.  The  state  also  takes  charge  of  all 
the  public  highways,  and  keeps  them  in  the  best  condi- 
tion. It  protects  travellers  from  imposition,  by  regu- 
lations atfecting  posting,  innkeepers,  &c.  It  restrain* 
idleness  and  drunkenness,  by  compelling  all  men  to  sup- 
port their  families;  and  places  barriers  in  the  way  of 
that  source  of  many  evifs — too  early  marriages.  It 
gives  perfect  toleration  to  all  religions  uiul  forms  of  wor- 
ship; and  the  security  it  atfords  to  persons  and  property 
is  tpiitc  equal  to  that  atlbided  in  England.  The  worst 
of  its  features  is  the  censorship  of  the  press,  whicl 
strikes  at  the  root  of  constitutional  freedom.  The  peO' 
pie,  also,  cannot  meet  publicly  to  discuss  political  atfaira; 
personal  locomotion  is  restricted  by  passports;  the  towni 
are  walled  and  garrisoned;  every  able-bodied  male  must 
serve  for  a  time  in  the  army — all  which  circumstance* 
tend  to  show  that  the  nation,  with  all  its  social  improve- 
meiiU,  is  still  in  the  infancy  of  civil  liberty. 

CONSTITUTIONAL    MONARCHIES. 

A  rnits'JiitliiiH  is  a  legal  and  fixed  compact  between 
governors  and  governed,  that  the -just  rights  of  all  shal! 
be  respected ;  and  therefore  implies  a  liVieral  concessior. 
of  the  governing  party  to  the  opinions,  wants,  and  wishes 
of  the  community.  Europe  abounds  in  constitutional 
governments,  but  many  of  them  arc  scarcely  entitled  to 
the  name.  Sardinia,  Saxony,  Sweden,  Hamburg,  and 
all  the  smaller  (ierman  states,  have  constitutions  of  one 
kind  or  other;  that  is  to  say,  the  king,  grand-duke,  chief- 
ruler,  or  by  whatever  title  he  is  called,  is  restricted  in  hii 
designs  by  estates  composed  of  delegates  from  dilFcrent 
orilers  of  the  |)eople.  We  should  consider  it  iiuile  use- 
less to  present  detailed  explanations  of  these  constitu- 
tions, because  all,  or  nearly  so,  arc  little  better  than  a 
moikery.  The  reigning  monarch  can  either  directly 
neutralize  the  will  of  the  estates,  or  he  and  they,  together 
or  separately,  are  under  the  influence  of  armed  uitejven- 
tion.  The  King  of  Hanover,  for  example,  has  lately 
trampled  on  the  constitution  of  that  country,  and  yet  he 
is  protected  by  the  other  states  of  Germany.  In  point 
of  fact,  the  whole  of  central  Europe  is  at  the  mercy  of 
I'ruiisi.i  and  Austria,  whose  armies  can  be  marched  to 
any  point  where  constitutional  freedom  has  the  ap[x;ar- 
ance  of  st  iiting  into  life.  The  Dutch  have  a  constitu- 
tion, but  tl  V  havo  no  right  of  public  meeting  for  poli- 
tical object--  their  press  is  under  a  censorshi|i;  all  must 
carry  iiasspu  ;  and  every  citizen,  in  any  kind  of  trade 
or  profession  is  required  to  pay  for  a  license.  The 
infant  and  stib  lisorganized  constitutions  of  Spain  and 
Portugal  it  is  un.iecessary  to  notice. 

The  constitution  of  France,  since  the  Revolution  of 
July,  1830,  has  been  greatly  liberalized ;  but,  from  the 
occurrence  of  recent  events,  it  appears  that  the  press 
is  lialile  to  oppression,  without  legal  remedy  ;  that  citi- 
zens <-aii  be  treated  as  the  vilest  criminals  before  trial, 
and  mere  ly  on  susiiieion ;  and  that  the  people  have  not 
the  liberty  of  meeting  for  political  discussion.  Pass- 
])orts  are  reciuired,  a  number  of  the  large  towns  are 
walled  and  controlled  by  garrisons,  and  the  very  capital 
(January,  1813)  is  in  the  course  of  being  placed  under 
the  guns  of  formidable  batteries.  Constitutional  free- 
dom is  therefore  cither  not  yet  luiderstood  or  aiipreciated 
in  Frnnce,  and  future  dit;asters,  doubtless,  await  thai 
naturally  tine  country. 

I'nthh  Ciim^iiliilioii, — From  the  raw  and  ill-regulated 
constitutions  of  most  eontineiital  nations,  we  ascend  to 
the  old-established  and  well-guarantied  constitution  ol 


598 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


the  U»  ileil  Kin;?<lom  of  Oipat  Britain  and  Irrlnnd.  The 
govcrii.ncnl  of  tliin  liirijc  onipiro  (which  wo  nwd  not 
hero  particii arize,  iis  it  hag  lH>rn  fully  treatiul  of  in  our 

H  article  CoNNTlTl'TIUM  AN  II  UKSOl'HIF.fl  OK  TH  K  UuiTlHll 

Bmpiiik)  is  a  jwrfcct  anomaly,  and,  though  frt-qui-ntly 
nS  imitated,  luw  ncvor,  in  a  nionarcUicul  form,  Ikmmi  excelled. 

The  logislaturi',  as  is  well  known,  ronHistsof  a  horoditary 
•ovcrcijfii  (kin>f  or  cjuccn,  as  the  rase  may  bo),  a  tioro- 
ditary  Houite  of  IVors,  and  an  oloctod  House  of  Com- 
mons. A  l':iiiiiiinriit  is  tho  term  used  to  exprons  tlie 
collective  liiKlii's  of  Kinij,  liOrds,  and  Conunons.  Kleetors 
of  meinliora  of  the  floum^  of  Coiiiinons  nuist  he  native 
or  naturalized  suhjert«,  males  of  twenty-one  years  or 
upwards,  of  sane  mind,  not  concerned  in  the  maiiaRe- 
ment  or  collection  of  the  revenue,  not  holdini?  any  otUce 
in  the  mclro[iolitan  police,  and  not  loifally  eonvicled  of 
jwrjury,  suhornation  of  perjury,  or  hrilx-ry.  In  counties, 
an  elector  nuist  Ih)  posiH<ssed  of  |)ro|)erty  in  iierpetuity 
or  htervnt  to  the  value  of  X'lO  yearly,  or  lands  held  at  a 
yearly  rent  of  .U50.  In  cities  or  horoushs  he  must  lie 
proprietor  of  a  house  or  shop  valued,  uloii;^  with  the  land 
attached  to  it,  at  jt'lO  yearly,  and  upwards;  or  must 
occupy  premises  for  which  he  pays  a  rent  of  at  least 
£H)  [tcr  aniuiin. 

Such,  with  certain  modifirations,  is  the  principle  on 
which  memheiH  are  elected.  In  jiractico  it  is  lound  that 
tiie  great  hulk  of  the  elective  privilege  is  exercised  liy,or 
under  tlie  inlKiencc  of.  the  landed  gentry,  in  which  we 
include  the  titled  aristocracy  of  tlit^  country.  At  no 
time  have  what  are  called  the  lower  or  working  classes 
possessed  the  vestiije  of  the  oloc'ivo  privilege :  and  it 
has  oidy  lioen  since  the  passinij  of  the  Reform  Act  that 
the  middle  classes  (shopkeeiiers,  master  tradesmen, 
manufacturers,  farmers,  <Scc.)  have  hail  the  seinhhince  of 
direct  represeiit.ilion.  With  this  alteration,  li  iwever,  it 
cannot  lie  said  that  the  leirislalure  has  uiidert;iine  any 
■ensiblo  improvement.  In  the  main,  tho  niemhers  are 
■till  n'lminees  of  the  landed  gentry,  or  of  corporations ; 
and  so  much  time  is  usually  Hjicnt  in  electoral  iiitriirucs, 
parliamentiiry  dcliates  which  lead  to  iiolhiu'.;.  as  well  as 
the  conciliation  f  parties,  that  the  husiii.ss  ol  thi"  nation 
is  continually  fallini;  Indiind.  or  im|)ro|M'rly  exe<'uted. 

In  whichevir  way  it  is  viewed,  the  li'irislatiire  of  the 
United  Xioifdom  is  essentially  tlie  rifli'X  of  the  hinded 
(gentry  and  aristocracy,  and  consei|iieiilly  the  inlerests 
of  tliese  class<>s  are  uniformly  the  i-hicf  mailer  fur  consi- 
deration. The  next  (treat  interest  cared  for  is  tho 
We-it  India  interest;  next  tho  shippiiv-'  interest;  next 
the  milit;iry  anil  naval  interests;  ami,  lastly,  the  eoiii- 
racrrial  interest,  and  the  interest  of  the  people.  The 
executive.  re|Mis<'il  in  the  hands  of  a  rcsponsihle  minis- 
try, lakes  its  character  from  these  compeliiiij  interests. 
The  execution  of  any  project  of  law  or  Koveniment  is, 
to  all  ap|K'nranee.  rarely  a  result  of  ]iriiici[ile,  liu-  in 
almost  everx'  case  an  iiniiicdiate  con-u'iiuence  of  tem|>o- 
rary  ox[>edii'ncy.  Power  is  attained  hy  skill  in  cniiiinn 
a  nuinhor  of  supporters,  and  retaiiieil  hy  skill  in  keepiinj 
them  fojelhor.  So  inneh  <if  the  Hritish  statesman's 
efforts,  durini;  his  appretiliceship  to  power,  and  his  ex- 
ercise of  power,  are  devoteil  to  the  trettimj  and  keepiiiff 
of  powor.  that  he  is  iieressurily  deficient  in  natural  and 
■cquirod  administrative  talent.  The  manner  in  which 
the  lulministrative  functions  of  cjovenmieut  are  executed, 
4«[)ends  u|Min  the  industry  and  honesty  of  oit'i'-ials  nut 
"BsiKmsihIe  to  puhlie  npinion,  not  liahle  to  lie  dismiswd 
aniens  convicted  of  ({ross  dereliction  of  duty,  and  of 
whom  their  chii'fs  ask  little  inor"  than  sniTe  iiiit  atten- 
tion and  skill  to  save  them  fro'ii  succeKsfij!  crimiiuitionH 
hy  opimsition.  This  kind  of  oritanizatiim  weakens  the 
4irect  preswiiro  of  pulilic  opinion  unon  ailmiMlstriiticin ; 
and,  at  the  same  time,  hy  encourairiiti,'  [>ersonal  eanvass- 
Ulff  for  ]><ilitical  siui|>ort.  and  the  rnltixatinn  of  imprcs- 
c '8  oratin-,  divir's  pnlilic  attention  tVom  the  dry  husi- 
>  of  government,  to  Hympatliixe  with  fieritoiial  squal>- 


liles,  and  attention  to  prcat  abstract  qncstioni  mora 
imposing  but  less  immediately  important  than  pra'tii'iil 
detalla.  The  conseiiueiico  is,  that  the  Uritish  goveiit. 
nicnt,  more  than  any  other  in  Europe,  has  been  charac- 
t<Ti/,ed  by  tho  aimless  expenditure  of  immense  eicriry 
with  very  disproportionate  results, 

VVhelher  any  further  intrixluetion  of  the  democratic 
priiK'iple  (lowerini;  the  elective  tranchise)  into  iha  eon. 
stllution  would  improve  its  cpialities,  is  extremely  doubt, 
ful.  The  ]K'opl",  taken  in  the  nia-ss,  are  s  ill  Car  ;  oin 
being  inslrucled.  A  vast  numlier  can  neither  read  nor 
write :  and  such  is  the  distressing  staU'  of  poverty  ainl 
wrelehediiess  of  large  conununities  in  towns,  that,  with 
their  small  knowledge  of  public  alfairs,  anil  liahility  to 
be  corrupted,  it  is  to  lie  feared  they  would  apjioint  mp,, 
of  inferior  qualifications,  or  whoever  paid  them  most 
liberally.  The  freemen  voters  (working  men)  of  iVor- 
wich  and  s,)ine  other  towns,  make  a  regular  sale  of  their 
votes  on  the  occasion  of  elections.  In  this  stranjr  Iv 
complicated  condition  of  affairs,  with  great  class  interest* 
to  be  protected,  "he  only  real  restraint  on  govermiient  is 
the  action  of  pidilic  opinion,  ox|iressed  through  the 
medium  of  the  newspaper  press  and  jmlilic  nieetinss. 
Without  these  two  ijualifyiiig  elements,  the  goveriiinerit 
and  legislature  would  bo,  not  only  in  name  but  in  cha- 
racter, a  powerful  oligarchy.  As  the  case  is,  the  restraint, 
though  clumsy,  is  on  the  whole  eflicacioiis ;  and,  there, 
fore,  w'th  all  its  errors  and  anomalies,  the  constitution 
is  onc'of  the  most  favourable  to. civil  liberty.  The  very 
weakness  of  the  executive,  as  respects  the  means  of 
keeping  its  place,  and  ita  obligation  to  conciliate  parties 
is  highly  favourable  to  popular  freedom.  In  no  mo- 
narchy on  the  face  of  tho  earth  is  the  executive  so  liberal 
— that  is,  interferes  so  little  with  private  conduct,  I'nder 
its  administralion,  the  followii-g  importam  i-onditionsnro 
s<'curcd  : — Liberty  of  ti)eech  within  constitutioimj  limits; 
a  similar  lil<'rty  of  the  po'ss  in  all  its  de|iirtmoiil8 
(iiewspiipers.  however,  requiring  to  be  Klamiied)  ;  lilierty 
of  personiil  locomotion,  no  passports  being  reipilred; 
liberty  of  carry  imi  on  almost  every  branch  of  trade 
withmit  inquiry  or  licen»<";  liberty  of  meeting  in  inassit 
to  Ik-  inslrucled  hy  lectures  on  political  or  other  subjects; 
lilierty  of  meeling  to  discuss  any  polilical  topic,  u'ciiera 
or  I  ical ;  liberty  of  [iresenting  petiliniis  to  imrliament 
and  memorials  to  the  crown;  religions  toleraliiMi,  and 
lilhTty  for  the  performance  of  all  I'ornis  of  wurshif 
blierty  of  selling  up  schools  to  instruct  pupils  in  any 
branch  of  learning;  protection  from  the  law  to  life  anc 
pnqierty,  without  respect  of  ]iersnii  ;  privilege  of  trial  lit 
jury,  and  of  forcing  on  a  tri.d  fir  any  allcLed  ofii'iire 
privilege  of  being  lieM  as  innocent  till  proved  to  be 
irnilly  ;  incorrnplibility  of  judges,  these  being  no  wav 
exposid  to  intimidation  either  from  power  or  popular 
|irejiiilice.  To  these  great  bulwarks  of  civil  liberlv  irmv 
be  added  llii!  absence  of  military  ci  Mscri|ilion  ;  the  noii- 
existence  of  Pirtified  or  walled  towlis;  the  promptitmle 
with  which  riotous  proceedings  ure  (pia.slied  and  the 
[leace  preserved  ;  and  the  absence  of  any  reslriitiim  to 
prevent  the  most  huiMble  individual  from  risini;  to  tho 
highest  rank  and  consideration.  The  drawbacks  on  all 
these  aiiviiolages  may  be  comprised  in  the  follmvinn 
eirciiinstaiices  . — The  existence  of  a  set  of  laws  so  i-nin- 
pli  \  as  to  Ih'  nnintelligilile.  ami  so  ex|i>'nsive  in  iniiiiin. 
istration.  that  lei^al  redress,  as  far  as  [irivate  interests  are 
ciincernoil.  is  almost  lieyond  thi'  reach  of  the  lower 
classes;  the  most  isliiius  restrictiiiii*  on  free  eoiiiincrcial 
intercourse  with  fireigli  nations;  the  loo  prevailing 
troatiiieiit  of  all  L'reat  qnesliiin»  in  l*,i'liarneiit  with 
reference  to  classi's  instead  of  to  the  whole  (K'uple.  and 
consequently  the  impo«ition  of  burdens,  in  an  irregular 
manner,  dilVicult  to  Ik>  borne  by  the  poorer  orders  of  the 
enmnmnity  ;  and,  lastly,  the  absence  of  a  national  Ryi>- 
tem  of  eibiiation.  which  might  in  time  elevate  the  ininill 
and  morals  of  tlie  {leople,  and  altogether  produce  a  uion 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CIVIL  GOVERNMENT. 


339 


''  govcij,. 
"H  charac. 


»1if!«ion»e  woin!  rondition.  Fortutmtcly.  th«sc  circum- 
i(iUicr*  are  ull  of  a  imtiiro  which  itdjnitH  of  nmcndmcnt, 
gild  they  will,  a»  n  iiiiittor  of  roiirso,  be  iiinciidi'd,  as 
utiWk  npiniitii,  cnlighlened  by  kiwwkil^e,  is  brought  to 
bear  upon  them. 

RKPUIIMOAN    GOVERNMENTS. 

A  rrpublic  or  commonwealth  is  a  form  of  government 
in  which  the  jx-oiili',  or  at  least  a  large  portion  of  them, 
jrc  nfknowlcdgedly  llio  source  of  power,  and  have  the 
direct  appiiiMttiHMit  of  the  ollicers  of  the  Icginlature  and 
executive.  Tliere  are  few  of  this  dans  of  governmcnt» 
in  cxiHtcnce.  Tlie  only  republics  worthy  of  the  name 
in  Europe,  are  those  of  the  Swiss  cantons;  each  of 
ivhich  is  a  territory  of  generally  a  few  siiuaro  miles  in 
lizc,  i»nd  inhaliilcd  by  a,  few  thousands  of  peoidc,  chiefly 
jngoged  in  busburidry.  In  these  cantons  there  arc  no 
pent  projH^rties,  and  no  families  equivalent  to  our  land- 
ed gentry.  There  are  some  wealthy  and  intelligent 
merchants  in  the  large  towns ;  but  the  bulk  of  the  i)o|)U- 
lalion  are  a  hard-toiling  race  of  sm.iU  farmers,  and  little 
ig  seen  above  a  condition  of  mean  mediocrity.  The 
legislative  and  executive  functions  are  conducted  in 
accordance  with  this  state  of  things.  Some  of  the  laws 
are  contemiitilile,  from  the  nnrrOTV-mind.'il  views  they 
exhibit — such  as  laws  in  some  cantons  to  prevent  danc- 
ing, and  to  i)revent  the  purchase  of  houses  i.r  land  by 
itrnngcrs ;  but  other  enactments,  iiarticularly  as  to  free- 
dom of  trade,  are  much  to  be  cc  mended.  These 
republics,  centering  in  a  general  die  or  congress,  are 
ppatly  undi-r  the  inlhience  of  Austria  and  other  mo- 
narchies, by  which,  indeed,  they  are  in  a  great  measure 
tolerated  oidy  from  nnitual  jealousy,  and  because  the 
country  is  in  some  jilaces  almost  inaccessible  to  hostile 
invasion.  A  constant  drainage  of  the  overplus  popula- 
tion into  Fratioe  and  to  North  America,  helps  to  avert 
the  catastrophe  of  a  universal  degradation  to  semi- 
pauperism. 

On  the  continent  of  America,  various  republics  have 
been  foimdcd  on  the  wreck  of  the  colonial  institutions 
ofl'urope.    Th(^  principal  is  the  United  States  of  North 
America,  now  ujiwards  of  half  a  century  old.     We  have 
alluded   to    this   great    modern    republic    in  the  article 
Dtscuirriov  oi-  Tin:    I'vitkh  Statks,  and  have  no 
intcution  of  tjoing  deeply  into  the  subject  here.     The 
foriiiof  the  leiriMlalure  ;Mid  executive  is  very  lU'arly  that 
of  England;    the   miin    ditVerence    being    an    ele<-tive 
President  as  chief  ma.'islrate,  instead   of  a   hereditary 
joviTciitn.  and  the   app')iiilinent  of  judicial  and  other 
fuiictionarii's   by   the  jLople,  instead  of  by  the  crown. 
The  country  is  not  one  but  an  agtrreiiation  of  republics ; 
each  state  being  indeiiendent  of  the  others  as  respects 
iiitornal    mana^enK  nt.     The    i)ower    of  leu:islation    for 
llic  States,   in    their    united    character,  is    vested  in  % 
House  of  ilepresentatives  and  a  Senate,  jointly  forming 
a  Congress.     The    House  of  Representatives   is  com- 
posed of  members   cbost<n   everj"   second    year  by  the 
|K"oplo  of  the  rnited  States.     The  electors  in  each  state 
arc  required  to  have  the  qualifications  re(inisite  in  the 
•lectors  of  the  most  nnmennis  branch  of  the  slate  leuis- 
laturc.      Keprcsenlatives   are    ai)portioned    among    the 
levcral  stales  of  the  rnion  according  to  their  respective 
nuinhcrs,  \vlr''h  are  <leti  rinined  by  addini;  to  the  whole 
numlHT  of  free  persons  (including  those  bound  to  serve 
for  a  term  of  years,  and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed) 
three-fifths  of  all  other  (lersons.     The  House  of  Hepre- 
nentalives  onsi-ls  of  one  memlHT  for  every  77,7(10  |)er- 
»ons  in  each  slate,  estimated  according  to  this  rule :  the 
enumeration  is  made  by  a  general  census  taken  every 
ten  years.     No  person  is  eligible  as  representative  who 
has  not  completed  his  twenty-fifth  year,  and  been  seven 
years  a  citi/en  of  tho  United  States,  and  who  is  not, 
when   elected,  resident  in   tho    state   for  which  he  i« 
ch(scn.     The  Sen  ite  of  the  United  States  is  conuHiscd 
Vol  i.— la 


of  two  senators  from  each  state,  elected  by  tho  legiilatiu* 
thereof  for  six  years.  One-third  of  the  Senate  goc» 
out  and  is  rei)laced  by  a  new  election  every  two  year* 
A  senator  must  be  thirty  years  of  age,  nine  years  a 
citizen,  and  resident  in  tho  state  for  which  he  is  electe(L 
All  memlMTS,  both  of  the  general  and  state  legislature*, 
are  paid  for  their  services. 

The  President  is  elected  by  the  whole  people,  for  a 
term  of  four  years :  at  the  close  of  that  [teriod  be  may 
be  re-elected ;  and,  with  the  exception  of  three,  all  the 
presidents  of  the  United  States  have  been  re-elected  for 
a  second  term.     Each  state  ap|)oints  a  certain  number 
of  electors,  who  meet  in  their  reapcctivi^  stales,  to  vote 
for  President  and  Vice-President,  one  of  whom,  at  least, 
shall  not  be  nn  inhabitant  of  the  state.     In  Del.aware, 
South  Carolina,  and  Tennessee,  the  legislature  choosca 
the   electors;    in    Maine    and    Maryland,   electors    are 
chosen  by  the  }>eople  voting  for  one  or  more  in  each 
district;  in  all  tho  rest  of  tho  states,  they  arc  chosen  by 
a  "  general  ticket,"  upon  which  the  whole  of  the  clectora 
vote.     The  electors  transmit  sealed  lists  of  all  the  per- 
sons voted  for  as  President,  and  all  those  voted  for  aa 
Vice-President,  to  the  president  of  the  Senate,  who  opcna 
the  lists  and   counts  the  votes,  in  the  presence  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Rei)rcsentatives.     If  for  the  peN 
son  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  for  President,  a 
majority  of  the  whole  electors  have  voted,  he  is  declared 
President ;  if  fewer,  tho  House  of  Representatives  electa 
by  ballot  one  of  the  three  who  stand  highest  .in  the  list. 
If  for  the  person  having  the  most  votes  for  Vice-Presi- 
dent, a  majority  of  all  the  electors  have  voted,  ho  is  de- 
clared Vice-President ;  if  not,  the  Senate  names  one  of 
tho  two  who  stands  highest  on  the  list.     The  President 
and  Vice-President  must  be  natural-born  citi7.cns,  thirty- 
five  years  of  age,  and  fourteen  years  resident  within  the 
United  States.    The  principle  of  electing  representatives 
to  the  state  legislatures,  is  almost  that  of  universal  suf- 
frage ;    in   nio.st   instances,   every    male   citizen    above 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  who  has  resided  a  year  in  the 
state,  is  an  elector. 

With  an  immensely  large  unooeupiod  territory,  and 
gentral  thinness  of  population,  it  is  imimssible  to  draw 
any  just  inference  as  to  the  stability  of  this  still  coin- 
jiaralively  raw  and  untried  republican  government.  It  is 
suitable  to  the  present  condition  of  the  country,  but 
whether  it  will  maintain  this  character  after  its  ])opula- 
tion  has  become  as  dense  as  that  of  England,  and  great 
diversities  of  wealth  and  intelligence  have  arisen,  is  a 
([neslion  which  time  oidy  can  settle.  In  the  meanwhile, 
the  general  character  of  the  executive  is  Iccble.  Tho 
people,  in  a  sense,  are  masters  of  the  law,  and  have  it  in 
th""ir  power  (in  virtue  of  elective  privileges)  to  intimi- 
date its  ollieers,  or  absolutely  to  set  them  at  defiance. 
In  the  middle  and  eastern  stales,  the  efiieiency  of  go- 
vernment for  the  repression  of  crimes  is  about  the  same 
as  in  (ireat  Britain ;  but  in  the  western  states  neither 
life  nor  properly  is  safe  from  popular  outbreak.  The 
jirevalcnce  of  slavery  in  the  southern  slates  aggravates 
this  evil :  personal  security  in  New  Orleans  is  at  a 
lower  ebb  than  in  Italy  or  Madrid.  Still,  with  these 
drawbacks,  the  I'nitcd  States  is  a  great  nation,  in  which 
civil  freedom  is  on  a  ginnd  scale,  and  is  worthy  of  the 
enlightened  comnuinity  which  has  established  and  sup- 
ports it. 

GENERAL   REMARKS. 

The  three  great  clas,ses  of  governments  which  have 
been  >'numerated,  among  which  Prussia  is  the  most  fa- 
vourable ty()e  of  a  desiKitism,  Oreat  Dritain  of  a  consti- 
tutional monor-hy,  and  the  United  Slates  of  a  republic, 
rcijuire  a  word  of  concluding  comment.  Each  of  these 
nations  has  reached  pretty  nearly  the  same  grade  of 
civilization.  The  educated  class  of  citizens  in  all  af 
them  will  be  fouiul  prettv  nearly  ei^ual  in  respect  to  ga 
'S  sa 


aso 


INFORMATION   FO,l  THR   PEOPI.K. 


neral  information,  imluiilrial  ikiil,  rntprprinc,  nnJ  mili- 
Ur)"  ronratjt'.      If  tin-   frir  cltixciiH  of  the  rriiird  HtalcM 
poMt'ss  11  jjn'utcr  iimount  of  political  power  tluin  thow 
of  Great  Drilaiii  or  I'niMnia,  in  iioitliiT  of  the  two  Inttrr 
do  wii  find  a  olasH  of  pt'rxonai  ulnvcH.     If  t\\v.  poHHOKnion 
of  till-  political  fraiuliirto  in  (Srcnt  Dritain  Icndn  ii  Hnnitor 
(Icifrrc  of  rncrny  and   Holl-ri'Ki>ort  to  tlio    middle  claitHrH 
(jf  Biilain   lluin  arc   possciHcd  liy  those  of  l'rusni«.  we 
will  look  in  vain  in  the  latter  eonntry  for  n  class  Hiilfer- 
iiig  such  pri\alii)ns  as  the   |H'asanlry  of  Ireland,  or  the 
unskilled  ialiourcrsof  our  dci'     ly  peopleil  niamiliicturin>; 
dutrids.     In   Anierira,  the     lUnihcr  of  iiihahilants  who 
have  received  a  connuon   school    eihicution    is  urealer 
than  in  either  of  the   olher(  hut  the   proportion  whicli 
have  received  a  univcrsily  education  is  much  lower.     In 
Pmssia,  the  direction  j^iven  to  the  hinhrr  studies  hy  the 
gov.'riiMient.  lias  jilaced  the  averane  scientitic  eojunuuiity 
Cir  in  advance  of  IJreat  Britain:   there  has  nothin!{  lucn 
done  in   this  eomitry  for  the   last  twenty  years  to  com- 
pare with  what  has  heen  elfected  in  history,  ijeonraphv, 
«nd  scieiwe,  en   iiKif.'e,  in    Hcrlin.     On   the   other  haiiil, 
British    K''"'"".  developed    uncontrolled    hy    the  school 
diseiiilinc,  and  encoiiraiced  hy  tho  demand  of  a  wealthy 
roinminiity,  has  in   individual  eases  soared  to  a  liu,'her 
pitch  of  invention.     'I'he  morality  of  the  three  tia'unsin 
much  upon  n  level ;  iia  also  the  ell'iciency  of  llieir  tfo- 
verniiients  for  repressinij  crime.     The  higher  price  paid 
by  (ireat  Hi  ilaiii  lor  the  services  of  Rovernineiit,  is  largely 
•welled   hy  the  amount  of  iiDor-riitcs:   it   is   a  coiiipcn- 
•atiiiK  priiiiph',  redressing  the  less  eipial  distrilmtioii  of 
|>ro])iTty  which   prevails  in   this  country  than   in  either 
the  United  ."States  or  Prussia.     The  |)rice  paid  hy  I'rus- 
Bi.»nj   for   the    services    of  ijovernment    is  uriMiter  than 
what  is  paid   hy  .Vmericans;  hut,   in  return,  the  ori;an- 
izulion  of  Koveriiincnt   over  a  lame  portion  of  Anicrica 
is  more  iini>erfecl,  and  the  protection  it  iilVords  to  |H'rsoii 
Mid   property    less   compli'te.     The   secret   of  the  hii;h 
pitch  of  excellence  to  which  government  has  heen  carried 
in   all   these  countries,  is,  on   the  one  hand,  the  power 
exercised  hy  i)uhlic  opinion  over  the  government ;  on  llie 
otlier,  the  power  posst'ssed  by  the  state  of  availinR  itself 
of  talent  wherever  it  is  to  be  found.     Public  opinion 


works  directly  upon  ffovernn  ent  in  the  !  nited  H\% 
through  the  perioilical  elections;  more  indirectlv  in  Eim 
land,  through  the  powi'r  of  the  press,  and  the  Mou«e  «» 
('onuiiouH;  more  indirectly  still  in  Prussia,  Itironuli  i),, 
traiiiiux  "f  ''"'  whole  population  to  arms,  and  th^  con. 
stitulion  of  the  iiiiuy.  The  universality  of  th,.  eleclivM 
principle  in  tlie  United  States,  throws  open  the  ollliu 
of  stale  to  all  who  are  amhilious  and  ca|i;i|i|i..  'l'|,u 
forms  of  the  Drilish  constitution  ohliije  lli.ne  possessij 
of  political  power  to  enlist  the  scrvims  of  lulcnt  wherever 
they  can  lind  it.  An<l  in  Prussia,  the  uiu'crsities  ainl 
the  api'ointment  only  of  persons  who  have  studied  am] 
uuMeiv;one  ii  severe  examiimlinn,  toi;ethcr  with  |1|,,  o^^\^,. 
of  promotion  both  in  the  civil  and  military  ^erriee,  oiii  n 
a  career  to  the  talent  of  all  ranks.  (ioNcinmiiit  is  \\tl\ 
conducted  in  all  these  eo\nitrirs,  in  liroporlion  „^  |(j 
duties  are  discharned  as  a  matter  of  luisiness,  jii,i  „f 
mere  show  or  parade.  The  superstitious  regard  for  ilm 
hereditary  power  of  a  monarch  in  Pnis  ii,i,  of  an  uri^lo. 
eracy  in  Oreat  Dritain,  somewhat  diminisji  the  utility  of 
Koverninent.  On  the  other  hand,  the  iihnos:  excliisivo 
ntteiilion  paid  in  .America  and  (iicat  llrit.iin  to  i^imrliim 
the  individual  ri^l.ts  of  citizens,  has  lell  the  ori^-anization 
of  their  executive  f^overiuiicnt  more  ^lovelllv.  The 
executive  of  Prussia  is  nioro  completely  and  KkiltiiHy 
ortranized :  the  individuals  coinposini;  the  i-xcciitivo 
Rcrternmeiits  of  the  I 'nited  Stales  and  d'reai  Uritain 
evince,  on  the  whule,  Kfeater  rolmsliuss  and  enerijv  uf 
intellect;  and  we  tnid  in  both  these  countries,  what  is 
found  mnvhere  in  continental  Ilurope — an  alility  of  self. 
ijovernment  in  localities  fur  aloof  from  the  central  ex- 
ecutive. On  the  whole,  the  review  we  lia\e  taken  of 
the  orunni/.ation  of  these  states,  powerfully  corrohurati's 

the  conclusion  arrived   at  in   our  thi'oretical  section; 

That  i;ood  ijoviTnment,  although  it  certainly  proinnU's 
the  civilization  of  a  country,  is  much  inoie  its  coiise- 
<|uence  than  its  cause ;  and  tiuit  attention  to  the  con- 
duct and'  constitution  of  );ovi  rnmeiit,  althoiigh  a  duty 
of  the  citizen,  is  only  one  of  many  imhlic  duties  not  livj 
iinport.uit  and  necessary,  both  to  the  general  Well-being 
of  society  and  the  ha^ipineiiii  of  the  individual 


LANGUAGE. 


Li^nutfiE,  in  the  largest  sense  of  the  term,  mar  be 
defined  as  ap  means  by  which  thought  is  expressed. 
Thou»;ht,  as  is  well  known,  may  be  expressed  by  means 
of  nuite  si^^ns,  as  frowns,  sighs,  kind  looks,  gestures  of 
the  iHsly ;  or  by  inarticulate  sounds,  ns  groans,  cries, 
nlw,  lau.;hter.  The  first  are  usually  calletl  iidiurn!  tun- 
g»  lilt,  anil  the  si'cond  ifitnni  ulale  lii>ii!nai:e  .  anu  the«! 
nieaiis  of  expression  partly  belong  to  the  lower  animals. 
Finally,  thi  re  is  lutimi'itr  lunnunni,  |Hculiar  to  man 
■lO'i',  and  consistiiii;  of  a  multitude  of  sounds,  each  of 
wliitii  ((  prct-'iits  .1  distinct  idea.  To  this  last  mode  of 
e\[ir.  .ssj.m.  u'encrally  known  by  the  simple  term  languagt, 
our  attinlion  is  foi  the  pre.<i  iil  to  tie  directed. 

OIIIOINAI.    roRVATION    OF    I.ANUUAOE. 

Overlooking  the  control  rsies  which  have  taki'U  place 
on  tills  p.'|.ii.  and  from  the  revival  of  which  no  gissl 
couM  l-e  exjiectcil,  vve  arc  anxious  on  the  present  ooca- 
•loii  to  hunt  oui.iclves  to  the  consideration  of  the  hy|s>- 
l:e»i«  a.lv.M  jted  hy  Uiigald  ■'Stewart  and  others,  that  the 
Ibfowlton  of  languayu  is  an  etfutt  witliiu  the  scojie  of  the 


faculties  which  man  has  received  from  his  Maker.  It 
may,  we  think,  lie  cii.isidered  under  two  points  of  viewv 
First,  it  is  suflicit  /itly  clear  that  the  vwal  organs  of 
men  are  constituted  with  a  view  to  his  expri'ssing  him- 
stlf  by  S|>cech.  TIb  larynx,  epiglottis,  pharynx,  ton3;uc, 
palate,  and  li|>s,  are  all  of  them  framed  in  such  a  ni.uinei 
as  to  show  incontestably  that  they  were  designed  for  pro. 
ducing  such  sounds  as  we  employ  in  iirticnlate  langim^(\ 
It  is  scarcely  less  obvious  tliat  there  is  a  ilislinct  faculty  uf 
the  mind  tor  language.  Smie  have  powers  of  expression 
above  all  other  intellectual  "udowmeu's,  sc  as  to  lie  L,:,- 
sidered  as  merely  men  of  words.  Others  have  good  gericral 
powers  of  mind,  but  want  adequate  powers  , if  expression, 
so  that  their  i'it'is  liecoine  of  comparatively  little  use  In 
their  tellow-creatu'ee.  'i'lusw  diversities  st'cm  to  shew 
that  hiiiguage  is  an  intellectual  faculty  inde|ioiideiit  of  .ill 
others.  If,  then,  we  consider  ;na»  it  is  the  nuture  of  uU 
faculties  ti>  1m!  activi  we  cc.n  !«'  at  no  loss  tc  "onceive 
how  a  variety  uf  liuman  licings,  in  a  primitive  Loii(litii<ii, 
would  Is'giii  to  font'  language.  They  could  not.  imlecil, 
bo  together,  without  bc^iiiiiiiig  to  use  both  tlicir  ^oice« 


LANOUAOB. 


Ml 


ind  mental  ipfU  in  •  gtbhk,  from  which  it  would  Iw  but 
(  wurk  tif  timn  to  rpwilve  crrtuin  roiivnnttomil  mouuiU,  an 
(iiirruivfi  of  parliculur  iuoaH.  Tlie  iinitativo  fuculty 
trouK'  •'>^  I"*'!'  to  furin  luiiKUiiifo.  Otijin'lji  woulil  \te 
oaiiH'il  liy  wonU  IbriiitHl  from  Houudit  roiuiertt'd  with 
Ibitin,  iiH  the  wind  from  itii  whiHtlinif  iiiumi,  the  cow  from 
llD  InwiiiK,  and  ho  on.  Tho  Ci-ltic  lun((Uii|{i-,  which  {h 
nmlmlil.v  DMC  iif  thi!  first  that  vxixtod  upoti  ciirth,  i»  full 
of  HUcli  dcwriptivo  worils.  In  our  own  lan);uii({i',  wo 
illll  N|)tMk  i>f  the  tiifwiiiif  of  till)  nit  und  thr  riiwint;  of 
foukH.  Till!  word  airhm,  no  exactly  dcHcriplivc  of  the 
liijli'  iif  tlio  bird  thus  dcKiijnaled.  raniifiPH  through  siweral 
liiriXiiagex.     It  is  Hpelt  nmcuti  in  French,  and  iiiculo  in 

Itllli^Ul. 

Tliu  other  point  of  view  in  which  we  mny  rontem- 
pl,iU'  ilie  !iy|>othe«iH,  in  that  furnished  by  olisc--  ii  of 
the  priHi'cditiBft  of  children  and  of  uneducated  (rthoiim  in 
ex|ir('ssiii^'  their  ideiis.  The  firNt  language  of  n  child  is 
lh»t  of  inarticuh-.tc  sounds;  it  cries  when  it  is  hungry, 
■crcDuis  -.v'u'n  it  is  angry,  moans  when  it  is  in  pain.  A 
tender  umther  can  tell  tho  stnto  of  feeling  of  her  infant 
by  the  iiiiie  of  itH  voice.  Similar  to  these  would  be  tho 
first  indications  of  feeling  in  the  mcmhcrH  of  a  primitive 
HH'iel)  ;  and  by  such  means,  unciuestionably,  they  wovdd 
ComimiMicale  their  scn.sations  to  each  other.  As  children 
tak?  the  next  Ht*"p  in  language  by  iniitalion  of  the  speech 
a!  tlie  j.ersouH  arnunil  them,  they  furnish  us  with  no  evi- 
dunce  as  to  the  first  formaliou  of  words  in  u  primitive 
tncict)  ;  yet  it  is  remarkable  that,  while  the  first  Lonso- 
noiits  which  childreii  learn  to  articulate  are  those  which 
»rc  called  Idliinl.*,  iM'cause  formed  by  u  meeting  of  the 
Lui,  the  words  denoting  fallu-r  and  mother  are,  in  mosi 
bnguanes,  composed  of  that  very  class  of  consonants. 
The  strong  resemblance  which  sulwistn  l)etween  the 
words  in  dilferent  languages  expressive  of  the  first  social 
tics,  is  also  worthy  of  observation.  Thus,  the  word  nio- 
thir  is 


Bm  om.  am  in  llelirew  and  Arabic. 

Mnilr  •  •I'rrsjiiii. 

jIfiTir  ••Sniucrit. 

Mfilr  --CircMk. 

ilj.if.r  "I.aiin. 

M'titre  .'Ilnliiiii. 

Hire  ..Fruiieh. 


Moth/  in  Anglo-Saxon. 
Mi^lrr  ..SwiMlisli 
MotttT  ..Dnriixh. 
Miieiltr  ..Duieli 
iliiiln  ..ricrnian. 
Mater  .•IIiisr  an. 
Slathair-  •Cellie. 


Children  and  uninstructed  persons  show  us  how  the 
next  step  would  be  taken — namely,  how  a  word,  origi- 
nallv  applicil  to  an  individual  or  single  object,  wnidd 
come  to  be  applied  to  a  wholo  six'cies  of  similar  obji'cts. 
If  3  child,  for  instance,  has  been  accustomed  to  call  its 
fullier /'.I,  it  invariably,  till  it  learns  lietter,  ufcs  the  same 
word  with  regard  to  any  male  stranger  who  may  come 
into  its  presence.  It  considers  that  person  as  «  fin.  Adam 
i^niith  mentions  that  he  had  known  a  clown  who  did  not  j 
know  the  pro()er  name  of  the  river  which  ran  by  his  own  j 
diior.  It  was  ihe  riivr,  ho  said,  and  he  knew  no  other 
nnnic  for  it.  His  experience  had  not  led  him  to  observe 
any  other  river.  The  general  word  river,  therefore,  was, 
in  nis  ac.optation  of  it,  a  pro|)er  name  sigiiifving  an  indi- 
viikial  o'>iect.  If  this  person  had  lu'en  carried  to  another  \ 
river,  would  he  not,  says  Dr.  Smith,  have  readily  called  it 
a  river  1  We  can  thus  m'e  how,  in  a  primitive  society. ' 
if  <inv  of  the  chance  sounds  of  their  first  jargon  came  lo 
Ic  Bjiiilicd  to  a  natural  objecl,  such  as  n  certr.in  mounl;\in 
near  In,  or  a  cave  in  which  they  'ook  shelter,  that  smmil 
would  come  to  have  a  general  application  wherever  they 
biviiine  acipiaintcd  with  anolbcr  nnuinlain  or  another 
(Bvo.  .\nil,  in  point  of  fact,  we  have  still  in  existence 
c\anij)les  of  such  orimitive  applications,  fisi-,  the  Celtic 
for  ualer,  is  tin'  orignial  of  'he  names  of  a  vast  niuMier  ' 
uf  riMis  throughout  the  wide  territories  originally  peoplid 
liv  the  ("ells:  for  instance,  the  Ksk  ni  Scotlaiul,  ihe  Ouso 
and  Isis  in  England,  the  Ouse  in  Holland,  the  .\isch  in 
Bavaria,  the  Eskcr  in  Turkey,  and  tho  IJkka  in  Soutliern 
Kuiisia. 

(iruuimariani  have  been  struck  by  the  reaiarkabic  fact. 


that  the  imperative  mood  in  in  molt  lanKungrs  the  limpln 
form  of  the  verb.  For  instance,  in  Latin,  the  impurativ* 
moods  of  tho  verbs,  ilnere,  to  say,  lonnie,  to  sound,  rtrcr*, 
to  live,  are  ilir,  umii,  vivc.  When,  in  Latin,  the  syllaliUl 
b(im  is  added  to  the  imperative,  it  forms,  in  an  immense 
numl)cr  of  instances,  tho  im|MTfi'ct  of  the  iodicalivot 
thus,  miiii-hnm,  I  did  sound;  vnu:-litnn,  I  did  live.  Thi« 
has  suggested  to  philosophical  inipiirers  into  the  origin  of 
language,  that  entreaties  and  connnands,  expressions  of 
tho  necessities  and  unregulated  paHsioiis  of  |)riinitive 
men,  were  tlio  first  form  of  tho  verb  which  they  ust;d,  and 
that  all  other  forms  proceeded  from  1\wm;  Some  even 
go  so  far  as  to  say  that  this  form  of  the  verb  must  have 
preceded  th:i  formation  of  names  of  things.  It  is,  how- 
ever, generally  admitted,  that  names  of  ol  jocts  or  nouns, 
and  vcrlis,  or  words  expressive  of  the  nxilion  and  state 
of  being  of  objects,  were  most  probably  tho  parts  of 
s|N;ech  first  fonncd;  and  next  to  thciie,  propositions,  or 
that  class  of  words  which  define  the  motion  of  verbs  and 
show  the  relation  of  objects.  "'I'he  noun  and  verb,"  say* 
an  eminent  writef,  "  had  each  its  archetype  in  matter  and 
motion ;  and  the  proposition  that  marked  local  relation, 
and  the  termination  or  auxiliary  that  denoted  tho  tensed 
of  a  verb,  had  each  its  original  in  space  and  lime  long 
anterior  to  the  appearance  of  man  upon  earth." 

Words  expressive  of  the  physical  qnalilies  of  objccta 
would  probalily  be  next  introd'.iccd.  Then  words  ex- 
pressive of  the  nature,  manner,  qnality,  or  intensity  of 
the  motions  of  those  objects.  The  latter  class  of  woidf 
grammarians  have  named  adverbs. 

The  social  feelinijs  must  have  speedily  given  rise  to 
Ihe  possessive  pronoun;  for  it  is  nat\iral  lo  suppose  that 
men  would  enriy  learn  lo  say  nnj  father,  )////  brother,  my 
dauRhler.  When  division  of  properly  bcgiui  lo  be  insti- 
tuted, the  selfishness  and  acquisitiveness  which  form  such 
active  principles  in  human  nature,  would  lend  lo  the  fre- 
(pient  use  of  the  possessive  pronoun,  ond  to  the  odioiii 
distiu'-tior.  between  "mine  and  thine"  (^mrunt  el  luwrt), 
wliicli  will  create  so  nmch  disturbance  anningst  us. 

When  man  began  lo  compare  the  qualities  of  surround- 
ing objects,  and  lo  form  consecutive  .sentences,  another 
set  of  words,  called  by  grammarians  conjunctions,  would 
necessarily  be  introduced.  The  word  conjunction  is  de- 
rived from  (im,  with,  and  yuiigo,  I  join,  because  it  joini 
sentences  together. 

Interjections,  or  words  intended  to  rovisc  the  attention 
of  the  hearer,  or  to  express  the  excitement  of  the  speaker, 
would  be  used  in  toe  very  earliest  stages  of  society.  The 
article,  or  word  which  is  \ised  to  point  out  the  noun, 
was  apparently  the  last  part  of  speech  which  was  addr^l 
to  language. 

The  words  used  by  the  primitive  members  of  society 
«"em  to  have  been  all  simple  and  unconipoitndcd.  What 
we  now  call  compound  words  were,  in  many  instances, 
originally  composed  of  two  distinct  words,  which,  in 
proces.s  of  tinic,  have  become  in.se|  arably  jeined.  The 
two  words  which  were  united  to  form  a  ibird,  were  defi- 
nitions of  the  object  de.ignaleil.  Analogy  niid  order  can 
lie  traced  in  the  construction  of  most  iirimitive  wordi; 
and  it  is  |)robable  that  no  word  was  origii\nlly  formed 
from  mere  caprice.  Even  proper  names,  which  now 
seem  so  destitute  of  signification,  were  (uiiiinally  indica- 
tive of  some  circumstance  respecting  the  indi'  iduals  or 
nations  whom  they  designated.  Thus,  the  King  of  the 
Goth.s,  who  was  engaged  in  the  destruction  of  the  Roman 
empire,  derived  his  mime  (Aliric)  from  two  words  signi- 
fying loii'i'i  I ,<(i/  k'u'ii.  The  name  Ariovistus  is  compounded 
'  of  two  words  which  mean  tmuh  ln'r.fi:nl  Ihe  names  of 
nations,  countries,  rivers,  lakes,  and  momitniiis,  were  ori- 
ginally compounded  on  the  same  princi|ilcs;  so  that  the 
pro|)er  names  of  localities  in  dilll'renl  c-onntries  still  serve 
as  a  sign  to  indicate  by  what  primirtve  race  the  region! 
,  80  nainetl  were  inhabited  in  past  cenliiries. 
I      Language,  al\er  bcinK  Atst  concrctt?,  and  then  mri» 


ss* 


INFORMATION   FOR  THK  PKOPLR 


phnrcnl,  l>r<  mne,  in  prixvim  of  tiiiit',  Blwtrnrt.  Thrro  «re 
two  kiruir  iiC  tnrtii|ihor  wliicli  |M'rvruli>  nil  laiitfiiaKi'-  'I'll" 
firnt  kiiiil  tif  iii('lii|iluir  i»  iimx.  wIkmi  tho  dhiiio  o(  any 
ohji'<'t,  in  whii'li  u  |iiirtii'uliir  (jiiiililv  pri'doiniiintpii,  in  ili- 
«<*rt<-(l  triiiii  itH  (irit(iiiiil  niKiilllcatiiin  to  ilrnoto  n  Hiinilar 
quality  in  *)ini>  othrr  noun.  For  innlnnrc,  tlio  luinw  Jitx 
WBi  ii|i|>lii'(l  to  ini'n  nntptl  for  tlicir  rriiDini-a*.  A  kinif 
of  EnKlttnil  wiiM  dillril  CdMir  do  I. ion,  tliiit  in,  hrnrl  (i/  a 
lum,  on  lu'i'oniit  of  lii*  roiirnKi'oiiii  ili'rclii.  The  name 
kiml  of  nii'liiphor  ia  UHt'd  when  wr  H|H'nk  of  thr  "Hilvor 
moon."  All  liMiK'iaKrH  nlionnil  witli  NJrnilar  riipn'iwioMi. 
Wlu'n  llif  nalin'Hof  Olnhrili-  first  miw  liorw-n,  llicy  rallcil 
tlieni  •'  nii«lily  \\oif»."  'I'lii-  Krrrirh  rail  (lulutoe*  fimntint 
de  Icrrr,  lilfnilly,  "ii|ipli'!«  of  llii'  (Mrlli." 

The  olhrr  kiml  of  niflnplior  in  iisi'il  wlirn  wo  ndopt  • 
term  oriifin.dly  applied  to  «oini>  pliVNii'iil  olijri  t  to  dc-nolc 
•omo  nn'l.ipliy»iiHl  iitwl ruction.  It  li.m  licrn  oliscrvid 
that  a  Hort  of  njtnral  anaIoj;y  exinlH  iK-twrni  wliat  conii'i 
within  the  hcojk' of  the  Hmmx  and  llic  alwtrni-t  cono'iJlionH 
of  the  mind.  Hriii-i'  tlir  tnrtapliorM  of  all  nalionM,  in 
erery  Hta;,M'  of  civiliz.ition,  ari'  niinilar. '  No  nation  lia» 
yet  liet-n  known  to  call  Irulli  darkncwt,  or  error  li«Iit. 
Among  all  trihcH,  tlic  woril  heart  has  N'en  nH<<d  nieta|>lio- 
rirally  to  exprewi  alli'clion,  the  word  rook  to  denote  iweu- 
rity,  unci  sleep  to  siunify  death. 

When  the  primitive  men,  ndvnnrini(  from  enrly  ne- 
cemiliea  ami  simple  lanijilile  ideas,  found  it  necessary 
to  have  woriU  to  represent  the  alwtnictioiiii  of  the  niitui, 
they  iitill  proceeiled  acconliiiK  to  the  dictates  and  ana- 
lui^CM  of  nature.  We  have  some  trace  of  the  nmrso 
whirh  they  followeil,  iti  the  history  of  thi'  words  which 
have  iH'cn  used  to  express  the  irmnatiriiil  part  of  man. 
They  felt  that  there  was  somelliin.„'  v>itliin  their  corpo- 
real frames  which  save  these  iinpnls«!  and  ilireelion, 
■nd  they  naturally  fortned  the  iilca  that  tills  wimethinc 
was  of  an  incor|)iireal  nature.  They  also  felt  in  the 
wind  a  somithinu  possessitij;  strent'th  and  loice,  hut 
which,  was  impalpa!)|e  to  the  siu'lit.  'I'he  wind,  therefore, 
became  at  once  a  fillin',f  I'tnMcm  to  deserihe  the  iinnia- 
terial  |iriii<iple  or  soni  of  man.  Hence,  the  I.aiin  itiiiin.i, 
the  soul,  is  derived  Iroin  the  Sunserit  <i>i,  the  wind.  'I'he 
Greek  iixj'hr,  the  soul,  is  connected  with,  and  prohahly 
derived  from,  pnyrhnf,  cold  air.  The  (inek  piimnm,  a 
•pirit  (whence  pneumafnlou'y.  mental  neieiHe),  ii>  from 
I'ned,  to  hlow.  Om  word  spirit  is  from  x/nni,  to  hrenihe 
or  hlow.  The  He!)n'W  word  for  spirit  rtiunificH  air  or 
breath.  Our  word  (jliosl  or  ghiiist,  a  spirit,  is  of  Saxon 
oriRin,  and  the  same  witii  irn.v/,  a  hlasl  of  wind.  These 
thingfi  evidently  are  no  hy  virtue  of  a  law  of  the  minil, 
causilii;  it  everywhere  to  form  the  same  ideas  res|)ectin)^ 
tJie  HJiiiie  thiiiijs,  iind  cvitv where  to  pursue  the  same  line 
of  o|>«'rations  under  certain  eircumslariccs. 

Thi-  fir^t  fr.imers  of  laniruaife  piirsuecl  a  similar  courne 
whenever  they  wanted  a  word  toexpresn  any  conception 
of  the  mind.      In  all  lati;.'uai{es,  every  term  expressive  of 
mental  operationn  is  Isjrrowed  from   the  material  worl<l.  ' 
Some  of  the  terms  thus  applied  are  sigtially  appropriate.  ' 
For  instaiii-e,  the  word  reflection  Hidiiifies,  primarily,  thi' 
throwinq;  or  lienditiR  hack   of  lii^ht ;    hnt,  when  applied  I 
metaphorically,   it  siirnifies,   says   I,(H-ke,  "the    hendiiiK  i 
back  of  the  mind  to  take  a  view  of  its  own  operations."  ' 
The  same  may  If  said  of  the  verb  to  ruminate,  which,  in  1 
it*  original  accept.ition,  mentu  the  action  of  an  animal  in  I 
chewing  the   cud;    hut,   inetnphoncally,   it  signiiies   llie  I 
action  of  the  mind  in  recalling  and   meditating   n|>on  the 
knowledge  (or  mental  fixsi)  previously  acipiiri'd.    Adjec- 
tives are  constantly  and  familiarly  used  in  a  metaphorical 
■cniie.    'i'hus  wetay  -a  warm  heart,"  "  a  «H|s'rioi  mind;" 
the  adjective  Hufierior  \»  simply  a  derivative  from  the  Latin 
aitjeclive  myicnu,  high.     Prepositions  are  frequently  used 
to  convey  inetaphvsieal    ideas.     The  woriln  nhuvt,  ielmi;  i 
utiiltr.  hfiun'h,  were  originally  applied  to  rxprenH  tho  rela-  1 
tjoiia   of  natural    ohjccts.      The    primitive    memlM'rs   of 
•ociety,  |n  rcciving  that   tlie  rain  and  tho  nunshiiie,  the  | 


thunder  and  the  lii{htniii|{,  proceeded  from  nWf,  probtblt 
applied  words  Hyiionyinou*  with  iilioxt  tu  expresa  whit 
they  admired  and  Teneratiul  in  mental  chirarter.  \m 
liiliw  is  tile  opiHHiite  to  (lAi'Cr,  their  ideas  of  what  ii  dn- 
Kradeil  and  viciouH  were  expreswd  hy  t4'rm»  ■ynoiiyir,]iu 
with /"/.lie,  hence  thow  coiiiinon  [ hraica— '•  he  ia  ft/,,,,,, 
deception,"  she  ia  uiiikr  a  mistake," 

In  the  present  atage  of  language  we  have  Wrome  x. 
hahituatetl  to  the  use  of  terms  applied  metaphorii'allv 
that  we  seldom  reflect  on  their  original  import.  There 
are  many  instances  in  which  the  m<'ta|ihorical  word  re- 
maiiiH,  when  its  primary  signiflcation  has  U'eii  forgotten 
For  instance,  the  word  m/zi  oinioi  does  not  siiggist  the 
idea  of  n  goat,  although  it  ia  derived  from  the  Latin  n,ii,r 
a  goat,  to  denote  the  character  of  a  person  who  hi.undi 
from  snliject  to  suhject,  without  paying  due  attention  to 
any  ;  like  a  goat,  which  hounds  from  rock  to  rm-k,  with- 
out settling  long  in  any  one  spot. 

During  one  periisl  of  tho  world's  history,  the  only 
language  may  lie  said  to  have  Isen  that  uf  ni('ta|jh(ir 
History,  religion,  systems  of  philosophy  ami  of  morality 
were  all  wrapt  up  in  allegory  and  metaphor.  Thin  ia 
still  |H-culi.irly  the  language  of  the  I'astern  nations- 
perhaps  it  is  mainly  attriliutahle  to  their  iinaginalivr  art] 
pis'tic  temperanient.  The  language  of  p(«>lry,  in  every 
dime,  is  alnmst  excluHively  that  uf  metaphor. 

niVRROENrc  or  i.ANOtrAOB. 

The  retnarkalile  divergence  in  the  laiiu'iiagesof  dilTerenl 
nations  is  in  part  at'rihiitahle  to  the  following  causes:-. 
First,  it  is  an  ascertaiii(<l  fact,  that  few  languages  have 
any  claim  to  Ih>  considered  as  the  primitive  dialect  of  any 
one  race.  Most  languages  ullord  indispntalile  tracei  jf 
liaving  oeeii  derived  from  some  other  language,  Ll^e 
many  v  .'IV-known  o|M'ratioris  in  chemistry,  hy  whirh  t!ie 
union  of  two  or  more  suh'-tances  pKnluccs  a  compcjud 
dillirciit  ill  its  pro|srtics  an>l  in  its  appearance  from  any 
one  of  its  constituent  parts,  so,  in  many  instances,  several 
l.mgiiages  have  contrihiited  t<i  form  a  new  language,  dif. 
firing  in  its  structure  aciording  to  the  proportion  in 
which  its  coiis'itueiit  elements  luve  Iwen  comhined,  aiij 
yet  possessing  diMtiiictive  characteristics  of  its  own. 
These  characteristics  freipii'iitly  vary  according  to  slight 
|H'ciiliarilie«  in  the  anatomical  structure  of  tho  vocd 
organs  of  the  individuals  hy  whom  it  is  spoken.  It  n 
wi'll  known  that  many  jMople  find  it  dilllcull,  and  in 
some  cases  in.possihle  ti  pronounce  certain  coiisor. in;*. 
.\  fori'iLjner  has  great  diftiiiilly  in  articulating  the  Kiig!i«h 
III  ill  such  wonls  as  thine,  tlii'e,  and  that.  The  Eni,'lish, 
on  th,'  other  hand,  seldom  succeed  in  giving  the  riuht 
pronunciation  to  the  gnllural  sound  i7i,  which  is  of  sinh 
Irecpient  occnrnnie  in  the  (Jeinian  language,  imil  which 
is  ilaily  pronounced  hy  the  nativcH  of  .Scotland,  in  smh 
wonls  as  loch,  light,  and  many  others.  .Many  persons 
are  Kaid  to  /k//,  iH'cnuse  they  cannot  pronounce  the  nnind 
>/i.  The  F|ihraiinites  forfeited  their  lives  from  their  in- 
capacity of  pronouncing  this  sound.  If  the  (irecks  h.id 
Is'en  at  the  forda  of  Jordan,  they  would  likewisi-  have 
found  themselves  in  a  similar  |iredicameiil,  for  tlie  syllatile 
»/i  dm-s  not  oci-ur  in  the  (ireek  language.  The  wi.rd 
fliil-liililh  I'leans  an  ear  of  corn,  and  in  the  Septnagiiit  it 
is  renilered  hy  the  word  »-t»;^uc  (s'ik  Am),  which  in  (ircek 
has  the  same  signit'ication  as  the  Hehrew  shihholeth ;  Nut 
no  (ireek  word  could  In-  found  to  express  tlie  sound  v/i; 
therefore  in  the  Septuagint  the  narrative  is  iinperlict 
The  natives  of  Otahcite  could  not  U'  taught  to  say  ('a|>- 
tain  Cook.  They  always  culled  him  Tiipdiin  'J'uat.  'I'tie 
letter  c  does  not  (M'cur  in  their  alphabet. 

It  is  impossihle,  at  this  distance  of  fime,  to  calculuta 
the  aminint  of  inllui  ncu  which  this  iiica|iacity  of  articu- 
lating certain  aounds  must  have  had  during  the  firM 
|M'rio<lH  of  the  world's  history,  in  occasioning  the  jiresent 
<hvi'rgences  of  langtiages.  It  is  a  matter  of  daily  otiserva 
tioii,  tUat  cliildreit  havu  great  ditiicuUy  in  articulatioi 


LANGUAGR. 


ast 


ilio  onlj 

iiii'la|iliiir 

iiiDriility, 

Thia  ii 

lUltidn^; 

mlivc  Hnl 

ill  every 


(frtniii  oiuinilH     ovry  cliilil  linn  unmn  pnrtirihir  wny  at 
drtt  i>f  |>riii.i>ui  ^inif  ci'rtiiiii  ronioiiaiiti,  anil  uiiircirinly  | 
gihiliitM  the  iininn  p<-ciiliiirity  in  thu  |iri>iitin('iutinn  of  nil  : 
K,)riiit  III  which  tho«i'  piirtii'iiliir  coiimiiiiuitii  ooi-ur.    Mi«hl 
put  thr  ill<i|N'rHliiK  rhililri'ii  of  a  |iriinitivo   nncii'ly  in  tliii  i 
mannT  h;ivo  nirriril  iiwny  vnrirtirn  iif  |iriuiuii('ifition,  to 
I,,  in  tiini'  inmliflol  »o  (nr  thiit  'oiioiiililiincn  wan  nriirly  [ 
or  rnlir<''.v  lout  1      It  rn'rinn  iiiiliiral  to  miiiio  nirii  tn  niiik  \ 
trrtuiii  rnnHniiBiitii  nml  tn  Hiilmljtiito  othiTH ;  thin  in  par-  I 
briil.irly  the  cnno  with  tho^i  h-iliTS  which  have  iiii  or- 
(Tiinic  udiiiJIy  ;  Ihim,  the  H"liri'w  niiino  Duriil  in  in  (Ircck  I 
Ihiliiil.     Tho  (Vltic  woril   pen    mKiilficM   an   olcviitioii ; 
hriicc,  thi'  mniintuinH  which  truverw  Itiily  from  north  to 
loiith   arc    called   the   .ftprnninrf.     Hut   the    roiinonantH 
which  compoHc  the  word  pi  n  vary  in  iliirrrciit  liini(na|;rfl. 
Thii^.  ill  l^ciitliiiul,  wc  find  thr   letter  ;/  CDnverteij  into  /) 
in  tlic  iiamci  of  niounlainfi,  nn  />'<  n  l/oinond,  Den  liawerx, 
,,„|  /V/i  Neviii.     In  Spnin,  the  ooiiHoiimitN  ;;  ami  «  arc 
[ctaincd,  hut  c  i«  inKcrted ;  thiiH,  In   DlMcuy,  there  ih  a 
(iiDiintain  rolled  1'e.;uii  Ccrraila,  and  another  in  Leon  w 
culled  /'c.'iiii  lie  San  Romano.     The  Celtic  word  Htill  rc- 
laiiied  in  the  Wel»h  lan^iiaije  for  a  flow  of  water  Ih  incm  : 
Micrc  are  ei^fht  familiar  inHtanceii  in  which  the  le  in  thin 
word  hsH  iN'en  rhani{cd  into  r;  for  the  name  i;iven  to 
four  diircrciit  riviTH  in  W'aleM,  and  to  four  in  EiiKlimil,  Ih 
jlemi.     LondoiierH  make  ii  constant  practice  of  MubHtitut- 
ing  V  for  le  and  ic  for  r. 

It  sociiH  natural,  a!no,  fo  "ink  one  part  of  a  word  and 
In  retain  nnolhcr.  InHlanees  of  Ihese  iihlireviationH  are 
yrry  frc.|uent.  Thus  the  nionosyllulile  pnett  is  derived 
friiin  ihi'  (ireek  Tcwii/Ti^ic  (prrsliHleid').  The  wordH 
diiirrh  and  Ai»A-  both  come  from  the  two  word«  Huri'.u  c«sc 
fki'iidii  dlW'')'  hterally,  "  the  house  of  the  Lord.  The 
word  (teiii'i'i  is  derived  from  a  word  of  four  HyllahlcH, 
fiitii/i-)!  (^iti-id--i-ii('ii).  I'Voin  the  Ore"',  word  yt\u»Tit 
fgiihiklo'),  milk,  the  following  words  have  sprung: — 

/^Klf  ill  I.iiliii.  Ltrht    in  Sjiniinli. 

I.nlle  ■  ■  lliilian.  Utirlh  ■  ■  WuUh. 

Lfilt  ■  •  l'oriiiiriii-«e.  Lail     ■  ■  Kreiich. 

Ir.  all  these  words  the  first  syllable  of  the  original  is 
omitted,  and  .  'ily  purl  of  the  remaining  syllablea  re- 
tained. 

The  principal  sounds  in  a  word  are  frequently  trans- 
posed. The  natives  of  .Soiiiers<>tshire,  for  instance, 
alwiivs  siiy  rinps  instead  of  clasp,  iip>  instead  of  asp, 
liirsh  instead  of  brush.  The  word  unrnet  is  derived  from 
the  Latin  ■^rdiia'iK,  and  /(iii/him'  from  propnsilut,  False 
orthi'K'iapliy  may  also  have  been  the  cause  of  some 
variiiii'iis  in  laiii»ua.?es.  A  few  centuries  ago,  it  was 
considered  marvellous  when  a  i;entlem«ii  or  lady  could 
cither  re;id  or  write.  Du  (iuesdin,  ('oiistuble  of  France, 
wlio  died  towards  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
fimid  not  sisjn  his  own  name.  During  these  periods  of 
iijnorance,  many  changes  must  have  U-en  made  in  the 
melhi«ls  of  H|iel!itig,  and  eoiis«'<]uently  of  pronouncing 
w.irds.  Inattention  Riid  the  love  of  novelty  may  also  Ui 
a8sii;ried  «s  causes  of  many  divergences  in  languages. 

.\  dialect  is  now  in  the  prcn-ess  of  formation  in  the 
West  Indies,  which  has  greatly  attracted  the  attention  of 
philologists,  Is-cause  it  develops  the  principle  upon  which 
all  languages  at  present  existing  are  presumed  to  have 
been  ftr:ned.  It  is  cidled  the  Tulkee-talkee,  or  Negro 
dialect.  Its  basis  is  the  mcxiern  English,  with  which  it 
cnml<iiie»  many  Dutch,  Portuguese,  and  Hpunish  phrabcs. 
When  a  .Negro  attempts  to  8|)eak  English,  he  finds  a 
dilfii  ully  in  pronouncing  the  sound  ih,  and  substitutes  il : 
at  iiitri.  ijces  vowels,  even  where  they  do  not  pro|H.'rly 
ociur;  <l^J  softens  the  language  by  omitting  the  harsh 
cnns'iiiants,  freiiuently  substituliiig  liquid  ones.  All  these 
jieculiurities  are  of  course  found  in  this  new  language ; 
for  instance,  d>ie  is  three  in  Talkee-talkce ;  ikm  is  tliem ; 
htkka  is  hack;  hah  is  hold;  brmlofl  is  bridal;  inViii  is 
wine;  nmrro  is  more.  The  language  still  retains  so 
much  English,  that  our  countrymen  in  the  colonies  can 


Ken^rally  understand  it,  A  \'pnilon  of  liin  Horipturcs  m 
this  language  has  N'en  issued  by  the  Dible  8aei«ty. 
Many  objections  were  made  to  this  version.  Those  who 
ronteiiiplutcd  the  future  emancipation  of  the  Negro,  co»- 
tended  that,  by  giving  stability  to  n  mere  harlmrous  arwl 
fluctuating  jargon,  it  was  shnttinu  up  the  avenue  to  futura 
iiiiprovement ;  and  that,  though  it  might  lie  advantageous 
to  [ilace  the  Hrriptiires  within  the  coinprehensiim  of  Iha 
I^egro,  yet  that  this  version  would  render  all  the  literatur* 
of  England  and  of  the  world  inaccessible  to  him,  unlesA 
it  could  lie  jiosHJble  to  convey  it  In  the  barbarous  Tulkue- 
tnlkee.  Time  only  can  show  whether  the  Talkee-lalkea 
is  destined  to  hold  a  higher  place  than  it  diH's  at  present 
in  the  m-iile  of  laiigiinges.  A  |N',i(xl  might  Ihi  mentioned 
when  the  English  language  was  in  u  similar  state  of  dis- 
sonance and  incongruity.  It  is,  as  we  shall  herealter  re- 
quire to  mention,  coinposeil,  like  the  Talkee-talkee,  ol  a 
•leterogeneuiis  medley  of  languages;  but  its  jarring  ele- 
ments are  now  aiiialgamuled,  and  it  is  universally  ad- 
mitted to  bu  nno  of  the  most  polished  languages  of  tL« 
world. 

The  political  history  and  government  of  a  couiitrr 
have  considerable  iiiHueiice  upon  its  langungu.  In  an 
enlighteneil  community,  in  which  a  juJicioiis  attention  ia 
paid  to  the  elementaiy  educatiim  of  the  N/holo  iieople  on 
a  uniform  plan,  varieties  of  dialect  must  in  time  almost 
cease,  and  a  coininon  style  of  speech  be  used.  But 
where  little  attention  is  ptiid  to  this  subject,  or  whore  no 
utiirorm  principle  is  pursued,  all  kinds  of  jargons  and 
dialects  will  abound,  (ireat  LIrituin  is  at  present  in  the 
latter  condition ;  the  dia!ects  of  Yorkshire,  Lancashire, 
Somersetshire,  Cornwall,  .nid  some  other  counties,  bear 
little  reseinblunce  to  a  pure  English  s|)ctch.  A  uniform 
system  of  education,  communicated  by  teachers  sent 
forth  from  a  central  institution,  along  with  a  greater 
intercourse  by  means  of  travelling,  might  bo  expecttNl  in 
time  to  eradicate  this  unseemly  diversity, 

ri.ASSIFICATlON   AND   ANAI.OQIRS   or  LANOUAOBS. 

Wo  are  mainly  indebted  to  the  Cierinuri   critics  for 
whatever  advance  may  have  been  made  in  the  compara- 
tive   study    of    languages.      Adelung,   a   Gcrmun,   was 
among  the  first  who  awakened  the  attention  of  Europe 
to  this  important  study,  and  he  has  lieen  followed  by  Ilia 
countrymen  Cirinim,  liopp,  and  others  whom  it  is  need* 
less  to  mention.     It  ap|)ears  that  the  result  of  an  exten- 
sive study  of  languages,  is  the  conviction  that  two  sort* 
of  analogy  prevail  among  tliein :  first,  a  resemblance  in 
words;  and,  seconilly,  in  grammatical  structure.     Three 
dillerent  grumnialical   systems   seem  to  prevail   among 
languages ;  that  is  to  say,  the  formation  of  parts  of  siieecb, 
and  of  the  iiitlections  Iroin  the  ]iriuiitive8  of  the  language, 
may  be  etVcctod  in  three  didereiit  ways — namely,  first,  by 
chaii'jes  in  the  letters  which  conipo.>>c  the  roots ;  second, 
by  the  addition  of  formative  syllables  to  the  root;  and, 
third,  by  the  use  of  se|iarute  words,  instead  of  inflecting 
the  roots.     Which  of  these  systems  is  the  most  ancient, 
is  a  question  which  has  created  much  dispute.     Hum- 
{  lioldt,   Bopp,  and    also  Adam  i^mith,  contend  that  the 
I  second  method  was  the  firot  adopted.     It  api>ear8,  from 
i  the  history  of  languages,  that,  with  the  remarkable  ex- 
!  ccption  of  the  Chinese,  in  which  the  relations  of  syntax 
supply  the  place  of  inflected  words,  a  gradual  progress 
of  simplilicatioii   has  licen  going  on   in   all   laiiguagea. 
Thus   the   (ireek   and   most  of  the   Uriental   languages 
'  have  a  passive  form  of  the  verb,  inflected  cases  of  the 
noun,  and  a  dual  form.     The  Latin,  which  probably  was 
partly  derived  from  the  Greek,  retained  the  passive  verb 
and   iiiflectL>d  decleiiHions,  but   rejcitcd  the  dual  form. 
The  Italian  and   French,  which  were  derived  fiom  the 
[  Latin,  rejected  Imlh  the  passive  lorm  of  the  verb  and  th* 
'  inflecttd  caws  of  the  iKuiii.     The  remaining  step  of  sim- 
I  plification  was,  to  substitute  the  natural  distinctions  of 
I  gender  fur  those  previously  in  u^c,  which  were  fonoed 


331 


INFORMATION   FOR   THE  PKOPLF. 


on  «rWt?«r^  piin.i|)lri..  ilrp.  n.Iini;  .Iii<f1y  on  llip  trrm). 
natiwii,  mill  lo  do  iiwuv  willi  llii'  mccNHity  nf  iiiiikiiiK 
Ihe  ailji'i'livi-  aurn'  willi  thf  ii'>uii  in  ui'iulrr  iiiiil  imiiilnT. 
Tlim  wan  illi-itoil  h>  llii'  KiikIi-Ii.  TIi«'  wIi"I<'  liiMory 
01  tliM  |>r<H'i'M  ri'iiiiiuU  im  of  ilml  of  iii.iiiy  ini'cliiiiiiiiil 
iiivi'iiiioiu.,  ttlmli  at  llwt  win-  lomplix  in  ttii'  fxltctno, 
Sul  wLirli  liy  (U'tjii'i'ii  won'  nimli'  ti  |mrt  firnt  with  onn 
unnet't'iMiry  wlii'i'l,  ami  tlirii  with  iinotlicr,  lliii><  Ix-coni- 
bill  rnuri'  iinil  nioic  niniiilo  in  llioir  Hiriioturr,  .iml  )it'rliu|m 
more  iiv.iiliilili'  for  llii'  iiurpowii  for  wlm'li  tin  y  vvcri'  ili-- 
■Itjnol.  Am  Hriiiniiialicul  ityiti'niM  art'  iIiuh  foiiml  to  vnry 
ill  priH'CHii  ol  tiiiii',  ami  in  Iiiiiuiiiikch,  Iihi,  wliicli  urn 
•vi.lciitly  iltrioil  from  tlii'  aiimi'  riHtt,  liiiiKiUKrii  an' 
daiMiifii'il  more  willi  ri'Karil  to  llicir  viwiilaiiury  tlnin 
•ivunliiiti  to  tliu  ctriii'liir)'  of  tlnir  itr^inuiuir.  In  tlir 
briit  «yi<tt'iiiit  of  cliiNtitii'iilion,  {larliruliir  atti'iilioii  liim 
b^cn  paid  to  tilt'  iiKri'i'iiii'tit  in  xouiiil  of  tliow  worili) 
wliicli  art'  umiI  in  tlii'  firHt  i.lai;<'K  of  Mocjcly.  W'lirn 
Irrniii  (>>|iri'iMivii  of  liun»(<'r,  IhirnI,  tlic  hiiii,  moon,  NtarM, 
tro  found  iii'iirly  ulikf  in  Hovcrul  laii){tiHi{<'H,  it  i*  a|i|iiiri'nl 
that  till'  nalioiiM  liy  wliiili  they  arc  iiM'd  U'lonrfcd,  in  by- 
goiii*  O'liluru'i,  to  till'  Miinr  triln',  mid  niiKratrd  from  lliu 
winiu  diolnrt.  Tlio  xluily  of  lan^uat;l'H  ofti'ii  I'lialilt'M  Uii 
111  truer  llit'  orii^in  of  iiationi),  wlirii  all  ollit-r  avi'iiiii'H  of 
inlormaljon  am  lout  in  oliwnrily  and  fabli',  and  it  iii 
hcnio,  in  othiT  wonln,  llu'  ntuily  of  nian'ii  hiMtory. 

The  niiinU'r  ot  lan^u.iKt'H  and  d'.ult'rtK,  Hiifiriit  uiul  niiv 
Uern, liaa  Im'i'ii lomputt'd  tiy  Adiluutj  tu  Ih'  JU04 :  iianiidy — 

IhilunKiiig  lo  A«ia  ......       IIB7 

■  •  Krri'p* ft"? 

•  •         ••  Africa       -       .        .        •       ■       'JTH 

•  •         ••  Aeatrica       .....  H\i 

Tmni ;ii«n 

It  would  take  mor«  Hjiare  than  our  limit*  porniil,  io  (jivf 
•  tttliulur  virvv  of  nil  laMi;u.iKrM:  '.lu'  ti'lowiii);  KUinniary 
cnntaiMH  tlic  |iriiii'i|ial  fainilii'it,  and  tliu  claiutt'ii  in  vvhiili 
iJu'y  are  yi'iu'rally  |ilur('d  : — 

I.  Monutyllitbic  CliDf. — Cliiiiciie,  mamcw,  Avanv«>, 
Ja|)aneN«'. 

II.  Slifiiifiir  or  Stmciic  Clun — Ancmean  (Chaldoo 
Myriar),  ilrlin-w,  PhiEiiii-iun,  Ar  -liic. 

III.  Iiiilii-J  III' /iiiin  ot  Imlii-Ci  niiDiic  Ctitiit, — Sanwrit, 
Celtic,  'IVutonic  or  (iottiio,  lVlaii>;ic  or  (IrccivLutin, 
Sclavoiiir,  tluiiK»iian,  Tartarian  or  Turki!«ti. 

IV.  'I'lit'  t'iily.,i>\iin  Cliit.t,  roiiKir'tin);  of  tlio  dialrrtu 
apokrn  in  the  Indian  ari'hi|H'.a;;u  and  iKlaiida  of  the 
Houtb  S'UM. 

V.  Tho  .1/iii,in  Chtfu. — Kemuiiifi  of  the  ancient 
Lyliiun  in  Uie  imrtli;  ^ol>Huo  and  Foululi  (lietween  tlie 
nvers  N'Mij^bI  and  (iainl)in)  :  Aslianti'e :  Aiiiaaric, 
•]N>ken  in  parlx  of  .VtiyHiiiiiia ;  llnlti'iitot,  in  the  Mouth ; 
Culfre.  exfi'iidiiiK  from  tho  (uuth  uloni;  the  cunt  cotwl  an 
ikr  an  LK'lauoa  liay. 

VI.  l\Jy»t/iilirtii  Clun,  eiteiidinit  f"""  north  to  noulh 
of  both  rontiiienta  of  Anierica,  and  coniiiriHiii);  I'tiilian, 
Peruvian,  Itnizilian,  .Mexican,  Western  diali'ct.i  of  North 
Atnerica,  lloreal  diulrcu  of  North  America,  Jtc. 

The  ciiiitrant  Ix'lween  the  fir»t  and  the  laiit  of  these 
olassen,  |ire'«iitH  an  np|>:ireiit  anomaly.  The  ("hinew 
lAngua|ji-«  have  eiiHtiii  among  n  ikiIikIkmI  (N-opIc  from 
Tcry  remote  aiiliijuitv,  and  yrt  are  ax  ruih*  and  itimple  an 
if  they  hail  lai'ii  jiml  devim-d  fur  tlir  uae  of  a  nnlion  but 
fecently  nri-  r^.d  hum  barliatium;  wh.reiui  ihe  lani?ua(,'eii 
in  comriioii  UHT  amonp  the  wild  tnlx  «  nt  .America,  are 
eumplei  :iiiii  diiriciilt  in  iheir  ^t^llclurl^  a.id  wmii  a^  if 
Otry  had  U'en  invcnieil  by  a  jH'ople  who  bad  maile  great 
•Jvance*  in  civiliz:ition.  It  h:i.<  consequently  Iwen  aur- 
miiteil  that  Aiiicrira  wuh  «'.  one  lime  the  residence  of  a 
nvdircvl  (H'ople,  of  whom  the  Indian  liit>c«  ore  the  Jc- 
geiiefati'd  reiimijis. 

WRITTE.<«    I.ANOl'AOE. 
Tho  finrt  origin  of  written  !aiii{uii(;e  may  Iw  trncrd  to  a  \ 
denre.  apparently  natural  to  lii  oi,  to  [Mrja'tuate  a  record  j 


of  hilt  actiona,  lhoiit(ht»,  and  fecllnitii,  Iwynnd  the  narrtr* 
•pan  nf  Ilia  own  eiiHteiice  :  he  know*  IhnI  lh«  past  |«  p, 
longer  IiIh,  that  the  prcM'iit  i«  faat  lleellng  nway,  ainl  ihrrw 
fore  he  weka  to  Ih'  in  aoiiie  way  coimected  Willi  ihe  fi,. 
lure.  Kvi'ii  auvagea  deviae  iiieana  of  Iraiiiiiiillinir  ^^ 
their  cliildreii'a  cbildren  a  record  of  Ibeiim'hi.N.  '['[^ 
Ainrrican  IiidianH  at  tliia  day  carve  upon  Ihc  b.iii||,.,  „f 
llii'ir  tomahawk'i  flgurea  of  wurrinra  without  lii'uli,  |^ 
denote  bow   many   of  their  eiiemiea  they  have  wajiHi^ 

The  Mexiiaii  pictiire-wriliiig  apiHara  to  have  jiei ni.illy 

aimple.  W'licii  tlio  Spaniiinlri  llrtt  invaded  Mixiin,  Hn 
iialivea  pninleil  an  enact  repreaenialioii  of  Ilic  Njmi,,,,), 
abipa  u|kiii  cloth,  which  lliey  aint  iia  expresm-M  in  ||„ j, 
eipi|H'ror,  Moiile/imia.  Tlie  record"  of  llieir  in  (lirc  were 
delineali'il  in  ihe  aame  manner.  A  convin'reil  luwn  waa 
ri'preHented  by  a  lioiiae,  gencially  willi  aomc  emlijcni  an. 
nexed,  to  ahow  what  particular  town  wiia  me  ml.  Wnnio 
of  tlicHC  paintinga,  winch  may  well  Ih<  eoiiMilcrcd  na  the 
iiiDNt  ciiriouH  apecimcna  of  art  wliicli  have  yet  Ix  in  di^ 
covered  in  .\nieriia,  are  carefully  preaj'rviil  in  Ihe  llnd. 
leiaii  Library  at  llxrord.  The  repreNcnlation  ol  imliiral 
objccta  a<'ema  lo  have  la'en  the  firat  atcp  which  uaa  lakcQ 
in  the  art  of  writing.  The  next  alep  wua  proliably  iha 
delineation  of  invisible  ideai  by  Mymbolic  repretiMtuiioiiB; 
auch,  for  inatance,  aHflriiit;l.'i,  which  uaa  repiisrnti,!  ),_ 
the  figiire  of  a  lion,  on  account  of  Ihe  great  alicn^ih  of 
that  animal.  An  eivili/alion  advanced,  more  '.niic  wit 
devoted  lo  writing,  and  it  win)  then  diacovereil  llmt  n^fj 
of  an  object  would  rcpreaent  an  idea  aa  well  iiathe  whole. 
ThiiH,  a  Hceplre  was  made  lo  rcpreaent  a  king.  Smoke 
aacending,  aymbolizisl  fire.  .\  battle  waa  repri.~eiiti'd  h« 
two  handa,  one  holding  ii  bow  and  Ihe  other  a  nliield. 
Hy  ilegreea,  thew  aigna  la'came  coiiveiilioiial ;  Ihal  la  to 
any,  it  U'came  a  matter  of  agreement  that  cerlaiu  ii'faa 
alioidd  Ik-  repreHinled  by  certain  aigna.  'i'liis  kiiul  of 
ayinbolic  writing  waa  much  in  uae  uiiiong  the  F'u'vpliam, 
II  haa  lieeii  proved  by  Chaiiipollion,  who  devote;!  iw my 
yeura  to  the  inveatigalion  of  Ihe  nubject,  that  Ihe  ,1,1. 
bolic  churaclcra  which  they  used  were  liiiiilcd  lo  ■014 
which  he  hua  arranged  under  tile  tulluwiiig  eigbceeo 
claaoca : 


Cliailal  bodifi        .        .        .        . 
lliiMiiiii  I'lKurna  invnrioiia  poa;tiona 
lliiinaa  IiimIm  Iiiki-n  kcparaicl)' 
Willi  i|iia<lropi'ila 

lliiMit'^lic  i|uiiitrup<!da       .        -        • 
l.iiiilia  of  iiiiiiniiii  -        .        -        . 
Hinla  nllicr  whole  or  in  pari* 

Ki.lir. 

Itrpiili-a  eiitior  whole  or  in  parts    . 
In^iMin   .-.--. 


10 
l.'O 

'•a 

19 

ja 

5U 

lU 

to 

14 

liO 
•-'4 
I  IK) 


V,)!i'iiilile«,  flowcra,  aiiU  Iruiu       .... 

III!  tlljIIKB  ...  ..... 

Fiirntiirif  -.-...-.. 
Cov  iriiat»  for  feel  and  h'g«,  huad-drciaei.  wcapoiij, 

ornaniiMi'a.  nnit  "ci'iilrci   .....  ^ 

TooU  Mini  inalrMiiiinia      ......  150 

Va»>eH  UMil  c'lpn     .......  .'lO 

(iiiiiiii  ir  i»    hiraret        ......  jiu 

Kuiilati.c  liiriiu     .......  50 


Total 


Ki4 


The  ren-  ^n  of  thin  limitation  ia  very  ol  viom.  A«  tB 
natural  ol  icta  might  1h'  iwd  an  ayiiilKila,  the  miinlH'r  of 
eharactera  might  have  U'en  multiplied  ad  ri/iuum,  un> 
leaa  re'^ulntiiiiiH  had  la-en  made  to  rcKlrict  llic  mifiher. 
Hy  dcgreea,  ua  tliea«!  characters  laiame  uiiivcrsiilly  known 
na  tixed  and  )a'rmanent  aigna  of  the  iileaa  ihcy  rcpre- 
Milted,  lesa  trouble  waa  taken  in  their  accurate  ililliiea. 
lion,  M)  that  tlicy  were  made  leaa  like  the  visible  ulijcrl 
lit  which  Ihey  were  originally  the  image.  .Al  lengtl-.,  all 
liHcea  of  reaeinblaiiee  were  loal,  lul  the  character,  in  ilt 
abridged  and  iniitilated  form,  atill  continued  to  be  con- 
ventionally reeognifK'd  aa  the  sign  of  the  aaine  idea  nf 
which  it  waa  originally  the  Hvinbol.  Thia  is  tlio  exact 
aliile  ill  which  the  written  huiguage  of  China  now  slandA 
The  elementary  ('hineau  ctiaractera  arc  .{14  in  nunibrr, 
and  are  called  ki-y>.  Theiie  keys  are  merely  fuiinrd  hj 
thu  varioua  coinbiimtiuna  of  six  atruight  and  variouii]) 


LANOUAOB. 


3SS 


nil  ml  linva.  Pmm  Iheto  kcyn,  lh«  othor  ehariirtirii, 
wliifli  «"'  ((•"""fully  rrrkiHH'il  !■>  In'  HO.OOO  in  iiiiimImt, 
iri!  fciriii''!.  Kuril  rhifictiT  rf|ir('«Mit»,  luit  n  Icttrr  l>ii( 
I  t«i>r(l ;  »>i<l  tliiiiiu;!)  till'  I'liiiriii'ti'rit  hnvo  miw  iiii  rrNcin- 
lilmii-c  to  iiiiy  |)iirtic'iilur  ohjn't,  yd  llu-rr  in  liltli>  iloiilit 
Ihiit,  lit  "oiiin  ri'Jii'ili'  |N>riii<i,  llicy  witk,  liki<  llii<  iiiic'ii<iit 
J-Vynliaii  liKTiiKlyiiliica,  lu'ciinito  trnn*cri|ilii  of  aome  oli- 
jiilii  ill  iiiiluri'. 

Miicli  liilioiir  liiiM  liilcly  hrvn  hritowrd  U|ion  Iho  ituily 
ff  tha  K^vi*'!!!')  'vritiiK,  jiiirtii-uliirly  Ity  VniiiiK  iiiitl 
(Jli:itn|i<>"i"'i-  It  ii|i|K'iin  tliiit  tlircu  kiiidii  ut'  writiiiK 
^tfg  cijiiiiiiiiii  aiiioim  tlut  KKy|>ti»i*. 

I,  Tli<>  lliKiiiiiii.f  I'liir,  ai)  cullud  from  /^or  (AiVrdlji), 
Miacri'<l,"  iiixl  >Au#«  (k'/ii/i/ii)),  •'  I  rarvii,"  Iwi'iiuHn  ii  whh 
It  flnl  iN'li'Vi-ii  that  ihiii  kind  of  writing  wu«  iiil<-lliKil>li' 
unlv  til  tlin  jiriiMlH,  It  ciiuHMti'il  ol'  tlio  iiiiii;;c«  ul'  vJHiliji' 
ohiiM'tn,  iiiid  wikx  cluc'riy  UHud   in   inoniiiiii'iitul   initi'ri|>- 

tionn. 

II,  HiKiKTic,  «!«>  friiin  I'l^tt  ('i;Vi*'),  "holy,"  lie- 
(jiU«  u«'d  l>y  tlii^  prirMlH.  Miiin,.  of  l!>ii  ii,iiiiUMcri(itH 
wliicli  li'ivi*  I'i'i'M  Tiund  nlliii-lird  to  inuinmii'H,  ciiiiHiHt  of 
thiH  kind  >if  writiiiit,  which  wa«  merely  tho  rudo  outliiia 
ol'  iinuifr-i. 

III,  Di.MoTir.Moriillod  from /»ju;t<ik.c  (ilfmofikni),'<n( 
the  ix'ojili'."  Iicniiisi:  it  vim  ill  coiiimoii  iim<.  It  wiih 
lino  (-.died  i/ii.Wii/<ii,')'ii/(/iir.  Aiiotlirr  iiiiinn  fur  it  i*  rinliii' 
ml/,  frniii  f);^»fiit  ('  ,''/i"ii(Jii),  "of  tlic  coiiiilry,"  Iktiiuw 
ihf  I'linriirliT''  wrrr  dill'i'rriit  from  tluis*'  of  (irrccr.  'I'lii^ 
kinil  of  writiii'{  w.tK  ii  Htill  furtlicr  ri'duclion  or  Hiiii|ilifii'ii- 
tloii  uftlic  utIiutM,  iipiiroacliiiit;  wry  iit'iirly  to  the  Chiiu'iiv 

miciIiihI. 

Miilliiiiu  wim  known  in  EurojM-  rrH|K'rlinn  X\w  nii'iiniiiH 
of  till'  ?i^'y|itiiiii  wrillii^,  until  tlio  Krcnrli,  in  dii<i;iii^  u 
firt  lit  UiHi'ttii,  found  nil  irri'ijuliir  lilock  of  lniHnlt.  TIiih 
finiii',  wliit'.ll  iH  Hinoolll  on  mil'  Hide,  Ium  tlirro  iiUMTiji- 
tiD'w;  oiii'  in  liirroi;Iy|ihii'fi,  llit?  m'cond  in  cindioriiil  or 
ufiiiulii'  cliuriirtfrs,  and  tlin  lliird  in  (In'ck.  Tlic  (Jrti'k 
Inac'riiition  coiicluilr.-i  will)  ttin  iiiforiiiiition,  that  the  di'- 
txev  It  coiiliiiiw  wiiM  to  \k\  I'linrnvi'il  in  three  dill'crciit  oha- 
rjolfri;  luunely,  in  the  micred  lellerH,  in  the  letterM  of 
tlie  couiiliy,  »i'.d  in  tlie  (ireek.  I'rofiliiii;  liy  thin  infur- 
miilion,  M.  <'liiiMi|)ollion  succeeded,  hy  memiH  of  the 
(iri'ik,  ill  dccipliiTiiin  |)irt  of  the  oilier  iiisi'riplioii;<. 
Olh'T  di).-uuii'iilM  liav€)  rei'i'iitly  thrown  more  li^lit  upon 
llif  mt'iinini?  of  lOi^ypliiin  wriliiinH;  liiit  the  Uosettii  nloiie 
is  lilill  juntly  considered  to  hiivc  heen  the  key  to  tlie  whole 
mystery. 

Bv  decree'*,  an  kifnwlcd)?e  inrreasoil,  mid  ns  writint? 
lx'c;inie  more  iind  more  resorted  '  ■  uns  iiH<-overed 
tliiit  the  laliour  would    ho  (jmilly  ruHhed   tiy  inakim? 

(Midi  HVinhol  reprewiit,  not  a  w  „r  ideii,  hut  a  niiiiplo 

fii'Mii'iitid  Himiid.  This  incr  .  <  .1  'li.^  iiumlier  of  ehuriic- 
U'rs  ill  one  word,  and  ut  the  v«iiii  ue  preatly  diniiiiinhed 
llir  miiuU'r  ill  the  li".  i:,^ ;  I'or  previouKly  only  one 
cliiiracter    hud   repr..  .  w,)rd,   and   for  each   word 

there  wan  a  distinct  1  ;  hut  hy  tlii^.  urranncnieiit 

the  clemi  iital  sound-  ol  tho  laiiRuane  were  unalyzed, 
miti  n  particular  ihii.acler  appropriated  to  each.  'I'his  is 
the  oriifin  of  alpliaU-tic  writini;.  The  Hehrew  is  evi- 
dt'iilly  llio  coiiiieciiriK  link  hetween  the  synilKjlic  and  iho 
il|)h:Uielic  iiiinUMi  of  writing.  It  appears  that  each  clia- 
tif'or,  like  the  t'liiiiese.  originally  reprewntcj  a  worl. 
TViilitloii  ag<T;',K  s  a  meanini;  to  each  letter,  as  in  shown 
ill  the  fidlcwm^  tilile;  tliexc  words  arc  now  utisolete,  and 
ire  not  to  Im>  liiuud  111  any  lexicon  : 
llBKt.w  I.i:niLiui 


a 
J 

R 
1 
t 


Name. 

Aleph. 

Ucth. 

Ox. 

House. 

tJimc!. 
Duleth. 
He. 

Camel. 

llollinv. 

Honk. 

Vau. 

Zayin. 

Cheth. 

Armour. 
Travpllinp  scrip. 
Hcrpeiiu 

TliU  tahio  mlKht  h«  eilrndfil  lhrou((hont  tho  wlieln 
itphrinv  alphiilM't,  l>i|l  the  fori'K">liK  examplen  will  ■■ul1li<« 
to  allow  the  Iraimilion  from  the  aymhiilir  or  hivroglyphui 
to  our  preaeiit  aynleiii  of  nljilialHilic  writing. 

The  aliiiilarity  in  the  iiamea  Mini  orii/iiial  aiKuifleatlnn 
of  aonie  of  Ihii  (Ireek  characters,  pioves  llinl  tliey  wi-r* 
derived  either  from  tlie  Hehrew  or  Irom  aoiiie  of  Iha 
coKliale  dialecta.  The  iiemt  ancient  metliiHl  of  rrndinH 
and  wriliiiK  aiiioii(;  Ihe  (Ireeks  Waa  tliat  culled  )i;vfr%r 
#«/■.{  (/'()ii»'/(J/j'i('|'i)-'),  "  ploughed  hy  oxen,"  lieeiiui*  lh« 
eualom  was  to  ri'iid  liickwardu  and  forwards,  in  ttie  **rm 
way  that  an  ox  draws  the  ploiiKh  :  tliiiH,  one  linn  wm 
read  from  riKlit  to  lel>,  anil  Ihe  next  Irom  lelt  lo  ri|,hk 
('adiiius  introduced  from  llie  I'atI  only  sixlei'ii  l»tt*r«, 
and  It  has  loii;(  Im-i'ii  u  mailer  of  ciiii{i  iture  us  to  when 
till'  olliei  cliiiracters  wire  iiddid.  The  iiivintioii  of  tent 
udditioiiul  letters  is  useriUd  to  I'alamedeH,  aliout  1164 
years  it.  e. 

'I'lie  art  of  wrilinif  aecmato  have  hecn  known  at  a  very 
early  periiMl,  hut  alter  all  ihe  researi  lii's  tliat  have  been 
made,  it  is  not  yet  posnilile  to  say  with  certainty  to  what 
nation  we  owe  the  invention  of  this  useful  art ;  so  that  tht 
poet's  (juestiou  still  reiiiuiiiM  iiiisidved^ 

"VVlii'iice  iliil  llii!  woiii|rou»  myntie  iirl  arrm 
(If  |iniiiliii|i  api'i'rli  Hihl  >|ii'iikiiiK  li>  ilie  cycsf 
Tliiil  wi'  liy  irai'inir  limbic  Imr  t  ium  ImiKlit 
How  to  iiiiiiuily  uiul  lu  uiiloiir  lliou^lit." 

Inscriptions,  of  which  it  is  iinpnssihle  tn  fix  the  data, 
have  lieeii  found  at  Uahyloii  and  at  IVrticpiiiiH,  which  ha^ 
created  much  conjecture  iiinont{  the  learned.  The  chi*- 
raiiers  found  ut  holh  places  seem  to  Ih-  essentially  the 
same,  iiiakiii|{  due  nllowuiice  for  the  dillireiice  of  Iha 
material;  the  I'crM>politan  cliaraclcis  Uiiii;  liiiely  sruip- 
tilled  on  iimrhle,  while  the  I)ahyl,:;>i  111  aie  riide'y  carved 
ii|Min  liricks.  They  are  comiiioiily  I  iiown  liy  the  nanM 
of  the  iirri,ii'.nlu:jic(t  churaiters,  on  acv'ouiit  of  their  geiie> 
nil  resemhluiico  to  arrow-heads. 

The  art  of  wriliiii;  must  have  heen  discovered  hefort 
the  Israelites  left  Kiiypt,  which  wcs  11.  c.  Mill,  hecause, 
in  the  histuiy  of  their  journey  throunh  the  wilderncsa, 
many  allusions  are  made  to  wriliiii;,  as  if  it  were  an 
art  well  known  lo  them.  See  lixochis  xvii.  14 — "  Writ* 
this  for  a  niemorial  in  u  hook,"  Ike,  .Also,  Deuleronoiny 
chap.  vi.  U;  xi.  SI);  xvii.  IS;  xxiv.  I;  xwii.  H,  8.  It 
is  an  cHtalilished  liict  that  .Moses  wrote  a  tcreat  part  of 
the  I'cntaleuch  himself.  .Many  have  Kiijiposcd  that  tha 
hook  of  Joli  was  written  at  a  slill  irlier  period.  Tha 
characters  used  hy  the  Jews  hefou  the  li.iliyloniiHi  cap- 
tivity were  those  which  we  now  call  llie  Samaritan. 
This  appears  to  have  heen  the  rase,  from  some  coina 
wliich  were  struck  (H'foro  the  revolt  of  Ihe  ten  Inliea, 
of  which  tho  inscriptions  ,»re  in  Samaritan  charactera. 
While  the  Jews  wero  in  Uahyloii.  they  hecaino  ii(cug. 
toined  to  use  the  charaeterB  of  that  emjiire,  so  that  their 
own,  from  dniis»>,  U'camc  partially  for,;otten.  It  wai 
on  this  nceouat  tliat  Ezra  eojiied  out  the  hooks  of  the  law 
into  the  square  letters  o(  the  t'haldees.  These  are  tha 
chariu-li.TS  which  constitute  what  wo  call  the  Hebrtit 
alphabet. 

It  is  very  dillicult  to  ascertain  at  what  jieriod  alpha- 
helical  writiii  ■  i>  first  practised  in  Kurope.  Vt'o  are 
tolil  that  {'ait  iiiw  introduced  it  into  Crcece  about  1519 
years  ii.  e. ;  Imt  it  has  lieen  conjectured  that  it  was  pre- 
viou'^ly  know  to  some  of  the  oihcr  Euroin-aii  iiationiL 
Odin,  or  Wix  n,  who  lived  at  so  remote  a  )H;riod  that 
his  history  ir.  almost  lost  in  fuhle,  is  said  to  have  intro 
duced  the  Kunic  alphul)ct  into  Scandanavia.  Tradition 
relates  that  he  hrouRht  it  liom  the  KasL  It  contained 
only  sixtten  letters,  which  seems  to  have  been  the  num- 
hot  of  all  the  [iriinitive  alphaticts.  'I'he  Kuniu  charactera 
were  used  hy  all  the  (jothic  nations,  and  wrrc  applied 
by  the  priests  or  hards  to  magical  incu  itations.  'J'hey 
preteinicd   to  have,  hy   means  of  tlu'se  characters,  tha 


fS8 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


jiowa  of  «  calling  down  the  moon  and  stars  frntn  heaven, 
rt'  81  resting  the  course  of  the  most  rapiil  rivers,  of 
qucnohing  fire,  of  bursting  asunder  the  gates  of  death, 
aiid  of  culling  departed  spirits  from  the  deep."  After 
the  introduction  of  Christianity,  many  attempts  were 
•nade  to  prevent  the  use  of  these  characters,  which  had 
gradually  l)ocumc  perverted  to  the  worst  of  purposes. 
They  were  ordered  to  ho  suppressed  by  the  council  of 
Toledo  in  the  year  1116. 

There  is  a  striking  resemblance  between  the  Welsh 
and  the  Runic  alplialwts.     They  were  both  evidently 
contrived  for  a  people  who  hod  no  materials  or  iniplc- 
mentii  for  writini;  but  wood  and  a  pointed  flint  or  slone. 
The  early  events  of  hisiory  in  Bni;land  were  recorded 
A  songs  by  the  hards  or  Druids,  and  thus  handed  down 
from  father  to  son.      Various    inscriptions   have   been 
found  in  Ireland,  which  prove  that  the   Irish  were   in 
possession  of  the  art  of  writing  at  an  earlier  (icriod  than 
is   generally  supposed.     Like  the   Romans,  who,  at  an 
early  period  of  their  history,  wrote  upon  wixxl,  the  Irish 
Dihde  use  of  the  wood  of  the  beech  ;  hence  the  letters 
therrjelves   re<'eived   the    name   of  Fead'ta    or    woo<ls. 
Besides  the  nl|>liabot  in  common  use,  the  Irish  had  an 
occult  form  of  writinc,  called  (>i;iim  or  O^rmi,  appuniilly 
of  very  hiirh   antiipiity.      The  derivation   of  the   term 
Ofiam  was  long  unknown  ;  it  has  but  very  lately  N-cn 
discovered  that  it  is  a  primitive  Celtic  word  signitying  the 
uoe:  of  Ic'icrf,     There  are   some   letters  still   careftiHy 
preserved  in  the  Harleian  Library,  written  in  these  ocrult 
characters  by  Charles  I.  to  the  Karl  of  Olamorcan.     Tiis 
alphabet  is  forjned  of  n  peri)endirular  hne,  from  whence 
lateral  scratches  diverge  to  the   riijht  and   lefl.     T'  eae 
■cratches  are  never  more  than  five  on  each  siile,  answer- 
ing to  the  number  ot'  fingers.     They  are  very  similar  to 
those  found  in  Egypt  by  Mr.  Hammer,  ami   to  those 
which  were  used  by  the  Manchew  Tartars.     It  has  lioen 
conjectured  thiit  this  alphabet  was  oriu'inally  used  by  the 
Chinese,  who  still  'vrite  from  top  to  bottom.    The  method 
of  communicati 'II    called  the  (ivi/ioz,  used  by  the  Peru- 
rians,  was  bv  knolled  cords,  each  knot  representing  an 
idea  or  sound.     The  invention  of  printing,  which  took 
place  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  forms 
quite  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  language  and  of  man. 
It  is  utterly  im|)<i»sible  to  estimate  the  etlc-cts  of  this  in- 
vention in  tlio  diirusion  of  knowledge  and  in  the  develop- 
ment of  tlie  human  mind.     A  written  binguage  has  Ix-en 
devised  aUo  for  the  blind.     The  alphal>et  consists  of  em- 
Dossed   letters.      iSomelimes  the   Roman   characters  are 
used,  but  mere  frequently,  perhaps,  different  modifications 
oft  iiinglcs  are  found   available.     The  sense  oi'  loucli  is 
made  to  coiii(M'nsale  for  the  loss  of  sight ;  the  idea  is  con- 
veyed alm05rt   instantaneously  from   the  written   sign   to 
the  mind  !y  tlic  medium  of  the  hand,  and  thus  a  vast  ac- 
cession of  pleasure  and  of  consolation  is  olitained  by  this 
afflicted  portion  of  our  race.     There  is  another  kiml  of 
writing  well  known  in  England  called  tltuntimphy,  from 
#T»:c  (»/f  Mo»),  ■'  short,"  and  ;(0*  (grujilifi),  "  I  write  ;" 
it  is  (issigncd  lo  less<'n  the  lalniur  of  writing  by  Bub^titut- 
ing  more  i|uickly  formed  characters  for  those  in  general 
use.     Another  art   has  lately  been  added  to  the  various 
Carma  of  abbreviated  writing,  which  aceniK  far  more  avail- 
able than  any  whiih  have  hitherto  been  invented.     It  is 
called  }ihi.n'ii:)i:pln/,  or,  literally,  UTi/inir  hy  miuml — that 
ia.  writing  each  word  exactly  ns  it  is  pronounced.     It 
does  away  alt igether  with  the  tedious  method  ofs|x<lling, 
for  it  has  distinct  signs  for  all  the  sounds  of  the  human 
Toice.     It  is  applicable  to  all  languages.     We  have  Ixv 
fore  us  a  book  containing  part  of  ihe  Scriptures  in  Knglish, 
French,  (ierman,  Chinese,  and  Hebrew,  all  written  in 
the    phonographic    character.      Nothing    has  yet    lieen 
invented  which  comes  so  near  to  the  '•  universal  cha- 
rartef"  io  much  desirt>d  by  liistiop  Wiikins.     If  gene- 
rally   introduced,  it  would    1*  a   very   valuable  acquisi- 
tton  to  the  deaf  and  dumb,  enabling  tiiem  to  exprean  | 


their  thoughts  with  almost  ai  muth  rapidity  as  we  e«a 
do  by  sjicech. 

MONOSTLLABIO  CLASS  OF  LANOUAOKS. 
The  name  given  to  this  class  arises  from  the  cittui]). 
stance,  that  every  word  in  the  languages  strictly  belntii?. 
ing  to  it  consista  only  of  one  sylUble.  To  expresi  | 
complex  idea,  two  of  these  syllables  are  put  together,  in 
the  same  way  that  we  say,  in  English,  Imnlc-iiife,  snufi. 
hnx.  The  Chinese  language,  although  consisting  of  vcrv 
few  radical  wonis,  appears  extremely  diflicult  to  a  Euro. 
pean,  on  account  of  the  diffrrent  meaning  given  to  cacli 
word  by  the  various  inflections  of  the  voice.  One  word 
is  often  susceptible  of  five  distinct  meanings,  according 
to  the  tone  of  voice  in  which  it  is  uttered ;  so  that, 
though  there  are  only  328  primitives,  these  different 
intonations  of  voice  greiilly  augment  the  nundier  of 
words.  It  would  reijuire  the  labour  of  u  whole  life  to 
become  acquainted  with  all  the  words  in  the  languace 
but  those  which  are  in  common  use  are  comparalivejr 
of  easy  acquirement.  All  that  is  required  of  their  man. 
darins,  or  learned  men,  is  merely  t(  be  able  to  read  and 
write  2000  of  their  characters.  The  language  of  ("hint 
has  continued  in  a  stationary  state  for  many  centurica 
'i'his  m.iy  lie  ascribed  not  only  to  their  confined  and 
isolated  [H)sition.  secluded  by  a  jealous  policy  from  inter. 
course  with  other  nations,  but  also  to  the  early  introduc. 
tion  of  a  singular  sect  among  them,  who  inculcate  thai 
total  quietism  or  inactivity  is  the  only  way  to  iwrfeclion. 
Another  sect  taught  that  "the  nearer  they  approached 
to  the  ])ert'ect  inaction  of  inanimate  bodies,  the  more  thpv 
resembled  the  Deity."  Taking  into  account  the  influ. 
ence  of  these  pernicious  maxims,  and  tlie  tyrannical  despot, 
ism  of  the  government,  it  ceases  to  be  a  matter  tf  sur- 
prise that  the  language  of  China  should,  century  after 
century,  remain  unchanged  and  unimproved.  There 
is  no  doubt  but  that  the  Chinese,  at  some  very  remote 
period,  had  intercourse  with  the  Egyptians;  this  seems 
evident  from  the  afTmity  lictween  the  written  loi.guagea 
of  the  two  nations.  There  are  several  reasons  which 
might  lead  us  to  sup))08c  that  the  Chinese  and  Egyptiani 
originally  constituted  but  one  people  ;  but  this  a  subject 
which  is  much  involved  in  conjecture.  Ethnography, 
or  the  study  of  nations  and  languages,  may  olniost  !« 
said  to  b»'  yet  in  its  infancy.  As  the  science  iidvancei, 
more  light  will  no  doubt  bo  thrown  upon  this  most  inte> 
resting  subject.  An  analogy  has  already  U  en  traced  be- 
tween the  pronominal  affixes  and  suHixes  of  the  Coptic 
or  modern  Egyptian  and  thcM*'  of  the  Hebrew.  An  allinily 
has  also  Ihhmi  found  to  exist  U'tween  some  of  the  (.'hiiicae 
and  Hebrew  characters.  I'erbaps  it  may  be  prove<l  that 
the  Hebrew  is  a  connecting  link  between  the  (.'hiucae 
and  Egyiitian  languages. 

THE    SHEMKTIO    CLASS    OP    LANOL'ARKS. 

This  class  is  usually  divided  into  three  prinripi] 
branches — namely,  llie  Araiimun,  the  Hebrew,  and  the 
Arabic.  The  .Median  or  Persian  is  by  nmny  classed 
among  the  Indo-European  languages;  but  its  clos«' con- 
nection with  the  .'Vriibic  seems  to  juslily  its  being  placed 
in  the  Shemetic  class,  (.'hardin  relates  that  the  Per- 
sians study  the  .'\rabic  grammar  and  syntax  in  order  to 
make  theiiiM'tves  acquuintiMl  with  their  own  language; 
the  only  difference  In-twi-en  the  constnu'tion  of  the  two 
languages  living,  that  tiie  Persians  have  no  dual  form. 

(*f  all  the  Shemetic  languages,  the  Arabic  is  the  moot 
widely  extended.  It  is  still  the  vulgar  language  in 
Egypt.  Lyliia,  tiie  shores  of  Africa,  as  well  as  in  Aruliii 
and  Palestine.  In  Turkey,  Armenia,  Mesupotaniia, 
Persia,  India,  and  Turtary,  it  is  extensively  culiivuled, 
and  used  aa  the  vehicle  of  communication  between  dif< 
ferent  nationa.  Most  of  the  other  t^henietic  dialects  art 
either  extinct  or  s|>oken  in  dislricu  of  small  extent 
The   atructurc  of  all  the  liiheiuctic  languages  it  <ei; 


■h^'A 


LANGUAGE.    Ji  *:;.>'!/ 1 


ample-  Thny  are  wntten  from  right  to  left.  Their 
grammatica]  connectioni  are  formed  by  prefixes  and 
luffix^*.  '^hey  have  no  form  of  comparison.  The 
(lOMM  have  two  genders ;  no  terminations  or  inflexions 
]i  caw,  but  a  peculiar  form  called  the  lomlrud,  for 
eipreBsing  the  -".lation  of  th^  possessive  or  genitive 
cjM.  Most  of  the  idical  words  consist  of  three  letters 
fanning  two  syllables,  though  some  consist  of  only  two 
jotters.  The  words  are  generally  short,  and  the  com- 
pounds inartificial. 

The  Hebrew  is  distinguished  fcr  its  simplicity,  purity, 
and  energy.  The  verb  is  in  this  language  the  most  im- 
portant (>art  of  speech,  and  the  root  of  most  of  the 
others.  In  all  the  western  languages,  such  verbs  as 
jacire,  to  throw,  and  jwfre,  to  lie,  form  separate  and 
distinct  conjugations.  Bui  in  Hebrew,  verbs  thus  con- 
nected in  signification  arc  also  connected  in  the  metho<l 
of  conjugation,  and  are  regularly  and  analogically  con- 
jugated by  varying  one  of  the  vowels  or  by  doubling 
or  adding  letters.  The  inlloxlon  of  the  personal  pro- 
noun, for  expressing  the  relation  of  case,  is  also  difler- 
cnt  from  the  inflexions  of  pronouns  in  any  of  the  Indo- 
European  languages.  The  personal  pronoun  never 
cccurt  as  a  separate  word,  except  in  the  nominative 
ease;  tlms,'^^  (uiri)  signifies  I,  and  iUn  (hu)  he ;  but  to 
express  t'ne  genitive,  or  other  oblique  cases,  fragments 
(){  these  pronouns  are  subjoined  to  the  noun  or  verb,  so 
U  to  form  but  one  word  ;  for  instance,  "^3^  (^Hiivar)  sig- 
r.ifies  a  word,  and '^I^T  (,/iion)  my  word  ;  T^^^R  (^'''" 
talli)  signifies  I  have  killed,  and  n'^StSp  (kitallihu)  I 

have  killed  him. 

When  Hebrew  ceased  to  be  a  spoken  language,  the 
correct  mode  of  pronunciation  was  gradually  forgotten. 
To  remeily  this  inconvenience,  the  vowel  points  were 
invented,  which  are  merely  strokes  or  dots  placed  be- 
neath the  c(>nsonant8,  to  denote  what  vowel  sound  is  to 
be  combined  with  the  consonants  under  which  they 
ttand.  The  antiquity  of  the  vowel  points  has  created 
much  dispute  ;  but  it  is  generally  supposed  that  they 
were  invented  by  the  Jewish  rabbins  about  five  or  six 
hundred  years  after  Christ. 

Ko  writings  in  pure  Hebrew  are  extant  except  the 
Bible.  The  modern  or  rabbinical  Hebrew  is  so  much 
compounded  with  other  fanguagcti,  that  it  has  become 
quite  a  new  dialect.  The  Chablee  language  was  closely 
lllicd  to  the  Hebrew,  and  was  early  introduced  into 
Babylon.  There  are  208  verses  of  pure  Chaldce  in  the 
Bible.  The  ancient  Syriac  was  another  cognate  dialect, 
•nd  is  still  eiiltiviitcd  by  ihp  Ncstorian  and  Miironite 
Christians  in  the  East.  'I'he  ancient  language  of  Ethi- 
opia, or,  as  it  is  ni'  -  railed,  Abyssinia,  was  Chaldee. 
The  Arabic  may  in  some  respects  be  called  a  copious 
language.  It  has  600  names  for  a  lion,  200  for  a  ser- 
pent, 1000  for  a  sword.  The  multitude  of  synonymous 
words  renders  it  so  difficult,  that  Mahomet  prrVnded 
that  he  had  been  taught  by  the  angel  Gabriel  the  lan- 
l^uige  of  Islunacl.  There  are  many  Arabic  idioms  in 
the  l)ook  of  Job.  The  country  in  which  Job  lived,  if 
not  included  in  Arabia,  was  situated  on  its  very  borders; 
and  his  three  friends  were  .\mtiian.  It  is  scarcely  pos- 
sible to  comprehend  the  depth  of  meaning  in  the  book 
of  Job  without  a  knov/ledgo  of  Arable.  The  lungimge 
of  Arabia  has  been  uuich  eorrui)tcd  since  the  Kornn  was 
written,  by  admixture  with  other  tongues.  The  uncon- 
qiicred  tribes  among  th«  high  lands  of  Yemen  preserve 
it  in  the  greittt^t  purity,  bceuuse  they  have  had  less  in- 
tercourse with  ritraiigers.  The  language  of  the  Kornn 
it  taught  in  colleges  at  Mecca  with  the  same  care  that 
LiUm  is  taught  at  Home.  It  is  now.  in  fact,  the  learned 
loiigue  of  the  euuntry.  The  ancient  Persian  langtmge 
«u  divided  into  two  branches — D»ri,  which  was  si>oken 

Vol,.  i.-~ia 


at  court,  and  Pahlavi,  the  Itngaage  of  the  learned. 
There  was,  besides,  a  third  dialect,  but  so  obscure  and 
abstruse,  that  it  was  accessible  only  to  priests  and  phi. 
losophers:  only  one  book  was  written  in  this  dialect:  it 
consists  of  religious  precepts ;  the  letters  in  it  are  called 
tend,  and  the  language  avetla.  Of  all  the  Persian  dia- 
lects the  Deri  w^is  the  most  soft  and  harmonious ;  so 
that  it  became  a  common  saying,  "  that  God  delivered 
his  stern  commands  in  the  rapid  accents  of  Arabic,  and 
his  milder  mandates  in  the  delicate  accents  of  tha 
Deri."  The  modern  Persian  is  very  difl'erent  from  tho 
ancient,  and  the  Arabic  characters  are  now  generally 
adopted. 

Such  were  the  principal  languages  of  the  Shemetia 
class.  They  all  agree  in  grammatical  structure,  and  in 
a  remarkable  stitfness  of  construction,  arising  from  the 
want  of  particles  and  of  forms  for  expressing  the  variou* 
jclations  of  things.  They  had  not  sufficient  scope  to 
admit  of  much  philosophical  or  metaphysical  reasoning. 
The  character  of  a  people,  as  well  as  their  literature, 
may  be  always  inferred  from  the  genius  of  their  lan> 
guage ;  for  language  is  but  a  mirror  in  which  the  ideaa 
of  the  soul  are  reflected  and  made  visible.  Therefore, 
as  might  be  expected  from  their  language,  the  Shemetic 
nations  made  few  advances  in  mathematical  or  philoso- 
phical science.  Their  attainments  in  the  liberal  arts 
were  but  limited,  and  they  made  few  valuable  disco- 
veries. The  invention  of  lutters  u^a  been  atti-ibuted  tu 
the  Phoenicians ;  but  this  rests  on  very  doubtful  autho> 
rity,  and  all  that  now  remains  of  their  language  is  the 
inscriptions  on  a  tew  coins.  The  science  of  astronomy 
has,  in  the  same  way,  been  supposed  to  have  originated 
with  the  Chaldeans ;  but  it  is  evident,  from  all  their 
writings,  that  their  notions  on  this  subject  were  very  ob> 
scure  and  confused.  For  instance,  they  thought  that 
the  shape  of  the  earth  was  that  of  a  boat,  and  that, 
when  all  the  planeis  meet  in  Cancer,  it  will  be  destroyed 
by  fire ;  and  when  they  meet  in  Capricorn,  it  will  be 
swept  away  by  an  inundation.  Several  books  were 
written  about  the  time  of  the  Christian  era,  which,  the 
authors  pretended,  were  the  production  of  the  ancient 
Chaldeans  and  Persians ;  and  as  it  is  not  always  very 
easy  to  detect  the  forgery,  much  caution  is  requisite  in 
investigating  the  subject.  The  writings  of  the  ancient 
Shemetic  family,  which  are  kni  vn  to  be  genuine,  con- 
tain but  little  real  philosophy.  The  object  of  the  so> 
called  wise  men  among  them  was  to  excite  wonder 
rather  than  to  disseminate  the  truth.  The  little  they 
knew  was  imparted  only  to  the  few,  and  concealed  firom 
the  vulgar  by  studied  mysticism  of  language. 

THK   INDO-EUROPEAN   CLASS   Or   LANGUAGES. 

The  languages  belonging  to  this  class  are  spoken  in 
the  greater  part  of  Europe  and  in  part  of  Asia — fronj 
the  island  of  Ceylon  to  the  shores  of  Iceland.  They 
still  form  a  connecting  link  between  nations  who  now 
resemble  each  other  but  little  in  form  or  colour,  and 
whose  religion,  government,  and  institutions  are  widely 
diflcrcnt.  The  Sanscrit  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  of 
languages.  Its  name  imports  the  la»i;u(ige  of  perfection. 
It  contains  the  roots  of  the  Latin,  Greek,  Celtic,  Ger- 
man,  and  Slavonic  langtmges.  It  is  more  easy  in  thii 
language  than  in  any  other  to  analyze  compound  words, 
and  reduce  them  to  their  primitive  radicals.  It  containa 
nmiiy  compound  words;  some  consists  of  no  less  than 
twenty  syllables.  The  grammar  is  cpmplex  and  difH- 
cult.  There  ore,  as  in  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  Arabic,  and 
Greek,  three  numbers — singular,  dual,  and  ])lural.  A 
distinguished  s<'holar.  Sir  William  Jones,  has  said,  thnl 
"  Sanwrit  is  more  copious  than  the  l.ntin,  in<ire  jierlfct 
than  the  Greek,  and  more  exquisitely  rcfine'l  tbsn 
either ;  yet  that  it  In-urs  to  each  i>f  them  a  f Ironper  affl. 
nity,  both  in  the  roots  of  verbs  and  in  the  form  of  ^ram. 
mar,  than  cotlld  possibly  have  been  produced  l»v  acci* 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


■ent."  It  appoani  that  Sanscrit  waa  once  the  current 
knguaofe  of  India  ;  now,  it  ia  shut  up  in  the  librarica  of 
the  brahmins  or  priesU  of  the  country,  invested  with 
myeterioua  aanctity,  and  used  alono  for  relif^iou*  pur- 
poMtu  It  is  cultivated  only  by  the  learned,  no  lliat  it  now 
takes  its  place  araong  the  dead  hmgungea.  The  names 
of  ohjecta  in  all  primitive  languai<cs  are  descriptive  and 
•ften  highly  poetical.  This  ia  eminently  ihe  case  in 
Sanacrit.  i'he  name  given  to 
•ignifies,  literally, 


A  frojr.    - 
Aa  elepliant, 
'  A.  bee,     • 
A  bird, 
A  aerpcnt, 
Rice, 
A  clouil, 


The  lenner. 

The  hmidy  one. 

The  llowirtlrinlcer. 

The  frriiui-nliT  of  the  nky. 

The  iiiov'T  on  his  breuil. 

Tiifi-ifrowiiig. 

Water-givor.» 


Another  respoct  in  which  the  Sanscrit  closely  resembles 
the  Crock,  in  in  the  use  of  the  a  privitive.  Thus,  larl- 
turn  siijrnifies  tn  do,  but  ararm  signifies  «  crime,  or,  lite- 
imlty,  that  which  should  nol  be  done.  Almost  all  the 
languages  ivhich  are  spoken  in  India,  are  merely  dia- 
lects of  the  Sanscrit,  and  immediately  derived  from  it. 
The  Sanscrit  family  is  therefore  a  very  larger  one.  The 
dialer.t  c n'.tc  •!  Bali,  or  Maiudha,  that  is  mired,  is  spoken 
bevond  the  f inngeo ;  Bengalee  is  spoken  in  and  about 
Calcutta ;  the  Hindee  or  Hinduvce,  about  .\grii ;  Hin- 
dustanee  prevails  in  Lower  Hinilostan.  The  Afghan 
dialect  contains  more  Hebrew  words  than  any  of  the 
above.  A  Persian  tradition  relates,  that  the  Afghans 
came  from  the  north  about  two  thousand  years  ago,  and 
&at  they  are  the  descendants  of  King  Saul.  The  Mul- 
Ian  riialf  r',  which  is  spoken  to  the  north  of  Sindh,  con- 
tains a  great  many  Persian  words  and  idioms.  The 
language  spokon  among  the  Gipsies  approximates  more 
to  this  dialect  of  the  Sanscrit  than  to  nnv  other;  so 
that  it  is  probable  they  originally  emigrated  irom  this 
pert  of  Asia.  They  are  known  in  various  rounlries  by 
Ihe  name  of  Bohemians,  Oitanos,  Zlgaiii.  /cr. ;  but  in 
•venr  |)arf  of  the  world,  they  invariat)ly  style  themselves 
and  their  dialect  Rmiiiiny,  from  a  word  signifying  hus- 
band. The  ('eltic  family  is  also  of  Asiatic  origin.  Eu- 
rope has  tx'on  successively  occupied  by  dilferent  tiiles 
of  population,  which  poured  in  from  the  East.  The 
Celts  a|i|>ear  to  have  been  the  first  settlers  in  Europe. 
They  were  compelled  to  move  more  and  more  west- 
ward, to  make  room  for  the  other  .Asiatic  tribes  who 
•uccessively  invaded  Europe.  The  Celts,  or  Celtie.  as 
tt  «y  were  then  called,  thus  irresistibly  impelled  wcstwanl, 
•t  length  reached  Gaul,  whence  they  are  supposed  to 
have  crossed  the  sea  to  Britain,  whose  first  inhabitants 
flley  are  ln'lievcfl  to  have  been.  If  this  was  the  case, 
the  first  language  spoken  there  was,  of  course,  the  Celtic. 
The  Ccltaj  were  not  allowed,  however,  to  remain  in 
<piiet  po«.sessi(m  of  Britain  ;  the  successive  invasions  of 
fce  Romans,  Saxons,  and  Danes,  drove  them  to  the 
north  anil  western  parts  of  the  island,  where  their  de- 
scendants are  still  foun<l,  and  where  dialects  of  their 
language  are  still  spoken.  TTic  Celtic  language  now 
comprises  the  following  dialects: — 1.  Gaelic,  spoken  in 
the  Highlands  of  Scotland ;  2.  Erse  or  Irish,  spoken  in 
frelond  ;  X  Welsh,  spoken  in  Wales ;  4.  Mnnks,  s|H)ken 
in  Isle  of  Man;  6.  ('oniish,  spoken  in  Cornwall;  6.  .\r- 
morican,  spoken  in  Btetagne  or  Brittany.  History  af- 
firms that,  at  a  very  early  |H'rio<I,  the  PliMiicisns  traded 
with  the  first  inhabitants  of  Britain  for  tin.  If  this  be 
true,  it  may  account,  in  some  degree,  fur  the  worils  of 
E«"lern  oriirin  which  exist  in  tha  Celtic  <liii]ects.  The 
aiU'iity,  however,  which  they  still  retain  to  the  Sanscrit, 
klvhiugh  their  stnii-ture  has  lieen  cotisl(ler:d)ly  altered 
hy  tlie  la|>so  of  centuries,  clearly  proves  tlicm  to  be  of 
(j^nate  origin. 

b  ia  not  known  exactly  at  what  period  the  Celts  be- 


•  f.e  KtYmnlogint  Kmatre^m,  hy  J.  Towntend,  M.  A 


Ragitcr, 


came  hrst  settled  in  I'eland.  The  Highlanders  of  8eoL 
land  are  dcscendo<l  from  a  colony  of  thcso  Irish  Cclu, 
who,  about  the  beginning  of  the  tixth  century,  migrated 
to  the  west  of  Scotland,  bringing  with  them  the  dialect 
of  the  Celtic  which  was  tlien  spoken  in  Ireland,  aQ,j  t]). 
name  of  Scuite  or  Scots. 

The  Welsh,  Cornish,  and  Armorican  dialects,  an 
formed  from  that  branch  of  the  Celtic  family  which  w«i 
called  the  Cymbric  The  frequent  changes  of  the  im. 
tial  letters  of  the  radical  words,  in  the  formation  of 
cases  and  numbers,  arc  the  characteristics  of  all  the 
Celtic  dialects.  In  Welsh,  there  are  nine  nmtable  ini. 
tial  letters,  called  litera  umhrutiles,  from  the  Jjatin  umbra, 
a  ahadov,,  because  they  change  and  vanisii  like  a  sha- 
dow:  for  instance,  t&d  is  father,  n  thad  is  her  father- 
ti  dad  his  father ;  and  Jy  nliAd,  my  father.  M  a|,o  -^ 
frequently  converted  into/;  this  niani  is  mother,  and  n 
ftim,  his  mothL.. 

The  Ba8(|ue  language  is  a  dialect  of  the  old  Spanish 
or  Ilierian.  It  is  spoken  in  Biscay  and  Navarre  in  Hpain 
and  in  Lower  Navarre  and  Soule  in  France.  In  some 
words  it  resembles  the  Celtic  family  ;  thus,  father  is  aita 
in  the  Basque,  and  in  Irish  ntdn.  The  celebrated  tra- 
veller Humboldt  uftirmcd  that  lie  discovered  a  strong 
resemblance  between  tho  Basque  language  and  that  of 
the  American  Indians. 

The  Teutonic  or  Oolhic  Family. 

The  second  tide  of  population  which  poured  into 
Europe  from  the  East,  lonsisted  of  tho  Geriniuiic  tribes: 
they  are  gcnerully  callnl  the  Teutons,  or  Goths,  in  hia> 
tory.  In  this  family  we  are  more  especially  interested 
as  it  is  from  the  Teutonic  branch  Oiat  the  principal  por- 
tion of  the  present  inhabitants  of  Great  Britain  are  d» 
sccndcd 

The  languages  of  tho  Gothic  trilws  parted  into  two 
main  branches.  The  fir»!,  called  tho  Gehmax  or  Teu- 
tonic BiiANCH,  gave  rise  to  two  sub-branelica — fitom 
one  of  which  originated  the  Anglo-Saxon,  Fricsic,  and 
Old  Saxon;  from  tho  .\nglo-Saxon  came  the  modem 
English,  and  from  the  Friesic  and  old  Suxon  came  tlie 
Low  (ierman  or  Dutch,  and  the  Flemish,  spoken  inBei> 
gium.  From  the  other  sul>-branch  sprang  the  Misaii 
(fothic,  the  .\leniannic  and  Fruiikic ;  and  from  a  units 
of  theao  tliree  originated  the  High  Dutoli  or  German. 
pro])er.  The  «iv»ri(i  great  branch  is  coinprchonsively 
calle<l  the  ScA<ini?rAViA.\.  Iiwa;the  IniiuMtuge  of  tha 
ancient  Scandinavians,  sfmken  in  Deniiiarli,  Norway, 
Sweden,  Iceland,  Green'.unJ,  Feroes,  and  tlie  Shetland 
and  Orkney  Islands.  From  it  have  spruii'.;  two  distind 
branches,  one  of  which  is  the  modern  Icelandic,  and  the 
other  is  that  comprehending  the  modern  Dani.'th,  Sw» 
dish,  Norwegian,  and  the  dialect  called  Lnwlniid  Crotch. 

(tciinnn  IjinKUiige, — The  Hmh  Dm  frii,  or,  as  it  ii 
called  by  us,  the  (rerman  language,  is  spoken  in  tha 
various  countries  on  the  Upper  Khine  (Baden,  Nassau, 
and  many  other  states),  in  Prussia,  Austiia,  part  of 
Switzerland,  and  variou.^  countries  on  the  Baltic,  includ- 
ing part  of  Russia.  To  an  Englishman  it  apjiean 
harsh,  and  at  first  very  disagreeable  ;  but  it  improves  on 
acquaintance,  and  is  found  t.)  \v.  expressive  nnd  copioiu. 
It  is  said  to  consist  of  at  least  80,01)0  words,  or  more 
than  double  the  nuinl)er  in  tho  French  nr  I.niflish  lajv 
giiages.  Originally  consisting  of  vnrinus  dialects,  in- 
cluiliiig  those  of  the  .Vlu'so-tJoths  and  Franks,  U  hai 
latti'rly.  by  the  progress  of  literature  and  (■diication,hpt'n 
estublislied  in  the  distinct  fiirm  in  which  it  apjicars  in 
(feniian  literature.  Lutlier's  Hilile,  of  wlilcli  the  first 
e<lition  was  issued  in  164,5,  was  principally  iastrumrntal 
in  the  establishnient  nnd  disseniinaLion  I'l  this  ^lerulitr 
combination  of  dialects,  'i'he  (ieriiian  l.initnagc  tlnoa 
that  |)eriod  has  ha<l  few  if  any  changes :  the  t  ierman  of 
tH4l,  compared  with  timt  of  154.^,  will  Ih'  found  l« 
dilEiir  chiefly  in  arthoifraphy.     lu  German,  as  iu  £nf 


leh  h»be, 
Du  halt, 

Er(sie.  es)h« 
Wit  hahf  n, 
Ihr  habet, 
f,„  haben, 


If  h  halte, 
Du  balle«t, 
Erhalie. 
Wir  hallen, 
Ihr  hairel, 
Sie  batien, 


Ich  bin. 

Du  bill, 
Er  (»i«,  et;  lit 
W.r  •i"'? 
llir  »!)■:. 


Ifl  wt:, 
Du  wareit, 
y.T  war, 
^Vir  waren, 
Ihr  varel. 
Sic  waren, 


EinJ     - 

Zwfi 

Drei     - 

V,e?  .      . 

Pnnf 

Skehi 

Siebea 

Achl 

Nenn    • 

Zrhn 

E,ilf(elO 

ZwDlf      . 

Pr'izelin 

V.ef/i-hn  - 

Flinf/fha 

Sfdivehn 

Achizfhn 
Nfim/phn 
Zv»niiff  - 


ri'r,}  tyty 


LANGUAGE. 


.V,»i;^f  •■'{•( 


389 


ij  thiire  are  two  aTtic\ea,  the  definite  and  the  indefinite,    ratura  of  the  people  of  tha^  country,  has  never  made 


bnf  the  definite  article  has  a  plural,  and  in  all  the  various 
ggfft  of  the  singular  number  it  has  distinct  terminations 


eny  progress  elsewhere.    In  speaking  of  this  language, 
in  hll  work  on  Batavian  Anthology,  Dr.  Bowring  re- 


hr  the  three  genders ;  so  that  it  denotes  whether  the  I  marks,  that  "  the  Dutch  is  not  soft  or  murical,  but  it  it 
■nbstantive  before  which  it  stands  is  masculine,  femi-  |  sonorous  and  emphatic .  it  has  not  the  beauties  of  the 

nine,  or  neuter,  and  also  whether  it  is  singular  or  plural. '  "-'  " "' '  "  '"^   '    '  '*  "--  ' '-—  **-- 

Bath  articles  have  four  cases.  One  peculiarity  of  the 
German  is  the  frequent  addition  of  the  termination  inn 
to  denote  the  feminine  gender.  For  instance.  Her  Idire 
liimifies  the  lion,  and  die  Idicinn  the  lioness.  This  ter- 
mjnatiun  ia  also  used  to  express  a  female  title,  it  being 
ijio  custom  in  Germany  for  a  wife  to  share  the  title  of 
her  husband.  Thus,  der  rectnr  signifies  the  rector,  and 
He  rcclorinn  the  rettorttt  or  rector's  wife.  Die  profetsorinn 
"Biifie*  'he  professor's  wife,  and  die  doclorinn  the  doc- 
I  ,r'g  wife.  The  following  are  specimens  of  the  mode  of 
conjugating  the  two  important  auxiliary  verba  to  have 
,nd  to  be: — 

HABBN,  TO  HAVE. 
IHDICATITB.  COHjnWCTITl. 


Du  liB»t,     ,        titmiluut 
Fr  (lie,  i!»)  hat,  he  {shr.  it)  has. 
\\xx  h«b.m: 


Ihr  h»li««. 

Si's  haben, 


Ifh  hntte, 
Dii  balle«t, 
F.r  lialic. 
Wir  hailen, 
Ihr  hallel, 
S:e  liatten, 


we  Anw. 

you  have. 

thty  have. 


pamKirr  opTATrvx. 

Icli  hnbr,     I  may  have. 
Du  habe»l,  thou  niayat  haft. 
l'".r,  (»ie,  es)  habo.  he  (.iA«,  it)  ic. 
Wir  haben,  t»«  may  have. 
llir  habet,     you  may  have. 
Sie  liaLiuii,    Ihey  may  have. 


IlIFCRFRCT.  CONDITIONAL.               OPTATIVK. 

I  had.  Ich  hllltc,  Imighl  have, 

thou  hatlit  Uu  liiluest,  thou  mighttxt  have. 

Ill  halt.  I"r  hilito.  he  rni^'hi  hair, 

tee  had.  Wir  hBlIcn,  we  mij;At  have. 

you  had.  Ibr  hUltet,  you  mi^/il  have, 

they  had.  Sic  liUtleii,  they  mi^ht  hace. 


IHUICaTIYC 


Ich  bin. 
Da  bill, 
Fr  (»i«.  Cv 
W.r  li"^ 
llir  vAo. 
iit  Uu '. 


ift, 


W  wt:, 
Du  wtreit, 
Fr  war, 
AVir  woren, 
Ihr  vnri'l. 
Sic  warcn, 


I  ant. 
thoti  art. 
he  [she,  it)  u, 
tee  an. 
.  •«  are., 
■•/'.  I  are. 

•  f<    ^KFKCT. 

Itraa. 
thou  tcatt 
he  leas. 
U'f  were, 
you  were, 
they  were. 


8EIN,  TO  BB. 

CONJUNCTIVE. 

FKXSENT.  OITATIVa. 

Ich  sei,  I  may  he. 

Uu  neiat,  thott  mayest  be. 

Rr  (»ie.  ea)  «e:,  he  {she,  it)  may  be. 
Wir  ae.en,        ve  may  be. 
llir  ■ei(r)d,       you  may  be. 
Sie  seieii,         they  nmi,  be. 


eOXDITIONAU  OPTATtVH. 

Ich  wttre,  Imiishtbe.  I  were. 

Du  wiirust,  thou  mightest  i'C. 

Fr  wilre,  he  might  be. 

"Wir  wllren.  we  might  be. 

Ihr  wllrcl,  you  might  be. 

[Sio  wttreii,  they  might  be. 


It  muy  likewise  bo  interesting  to  know  the  names  of 
the  cardiiia.  numbers  in  German,  with  a  view  to  com- 
paring them  with  our  own  Anglo-Saxon  terms. 

CAaniNAL  Numbers — (Grundzahleny 


.  91 
23 

-  23 
24 

-  25 
2n 

.  27 
28 

.  20 
30 

.  ni 

40 

•    41 

SO 

.  too 
lot 

-  102 
SIHI 

-  rMKi 

1,(K)0 

Unfortunately,  the  Germans  hold  with  great  pcrtina- 
tily  to  an  old  and  barbarous  chaructcr  in  their  aipha- 
hft,  by  whicli  a  more  general  study  of  their  literature 
ii  in  some  measure  retarded.  This  peculiar  character 
is  similar  to  the  Old  Enclis?'-,— ri,  b,  C,  i,  t,  t,  Ac; 
S,  £,  (S,  B,  13,  9,  Ac- 
Ihiih  fjut^agf, — This  language,  or  Lower  Gorman, 
spoken  oniy  in  Holland,  and  though  used  ui  the  lite- 


Km     - 

.    1 

Ein  nnd  /.wanziK 

Zvvfi 

2 

Zwei  und  7.wair/.ig 

Drei     • 

.    3 

Drei  uiid  zwnnzig 

V,f?  .      • 

4 

Vier  und  /.waiuig  - 

ranf 

-    S 

Ffliif  und  /.wnnziff      • 

Skthi 

6 

S,"Ch8  und  /wan/iK 

Scben 

•    7 

Siibcn  und  zwsnlzig- 

Achl 

8 

Acht  und  zw«nlzi(f 
Neun  und  Zwantzig  - 

Nfun    • 

-    0 

Zfhn 

10 

I)rt;isBi|C  -        -        - 

FJfielO 

•  11 

Kin  und  dreissig 

ZwOlf      • 

12 

Vicr/.i((    - 

Dr'ijelin 

.  in 

Kin  und  vierzif, 

Ver/i-hn  - 

14 

FOnr/iy    - 

Piliif^phn 

•  m 

llundert 

Srh'iehn 

10 

lliindtTt  und  eini  - 

S.rli/ehn 

-  17 

llundert  nnd  zwei 

Achizehn 

1^'Zwei  bimctert 

Neim/ehn 

-  IfllPr-'i  Imndort 

Zwan?i(!  • 

20 

Tnuiend  (ein  lauaend) 

vowelled  idioms  of  the  south,  but  it  has  beauties  the;; 
ran  never  possess;  and  especially  in  the  variety  and 
grace  of  its  diminutives  (a  quality  in  which  our  own 
language  is  singularly  deficient),  it  may  be  compared 
with  the  richest  among  them.     U  may  be  studied  in  ita 
perfection,  in  that  beautiful  and  emphatic  version  of  the 
Bible  which  owes  its  existence  to  the  Synod  of  1618-19; 
to  the  expression  of  devout  and  dignified  emotion  it  if 
particularly  adapted,  and  a  high  tone  of  religious  feeling 
pervades  all  its  literature."      Believing  that   the    lan- 
guage is  already  perfect,  the  Dutch  are  most  scrupuloua 
about  admitting  terms  from  any  other  language ;  when 
any  new  word  is  required,  as  in  science,  they  form  t 
compound  for  the  purpose.    Thus,  astronomy  is  called 
tterrekunde,' ftom   iter,  a  star,  and   hmde,  knowledge. 
Another  term  for  the  same  science  is  htmtlloopkwide^' 
from  hemel,  heaven,  loop,  a  course,  and  kunde,  knowledge 
Grammar  is  ianllcxmde,  from  laal,  language,  and  kundi, 
knowledge ;  literally  signifying  the  knowledge  or  sciente 
of  language.     Occasionally   this  plan  may  be  advan- 
tageous, but  it  produces  inelegance,  and  is  adverse  to 
improvement.     The    Flemish  language   has  borrowea 
many  words  from  the  French,  but  it  is  very  similar  to 
the  Dutch.     It  is  chiefly  distinguished  by  a  more  nasal 
pronunciation,  while  the  Dutch  is  rather  a  guttural  lan- 
guage.    The  ortlioirraphy  of  the  two  languages  differs; 
for  the  Flemish  writers  have  devised  a  different  method 
of  spelling  those  words  which  agree  in  sound  but  not 
in  signi  ication.     Thus,  wagen,  is  to  hazard,  and  xfittgen 
to  weig'  1 ;  leve.i  is  life,  and  keven  is  to  live.     Another 
language  is  spoken  in  the  Netherlands,  which  is  neither 
Dutch  nor  Flemish.    It  is   the   popular  language   in 
Hainault,  Naiiiur,  Liege,  and  part  of  Limbourg,  and  ia 
called  the  Walloon ;  it  is  a  kind  of  corrupt  French.     In 
Brussels,  the  people  in  the  lower  city  speak  Flemish, 
and  in  the  upper  city  Walloon.    Of  these  languages, 
the  Dutch  most  closely  resembles  our  own.     Its  simi- 
laxity  to  English  is  shown  by  the  following  Dutch  pro- 
verb, coupled  with  a  literal  translation : — 

"Ala  do  wyu  ia  in  de  man, 

Is  dc  wyshcid  in  de  kan." 
"When  Ihe  wine  is  in  the  man, 

Is  the  wisdom  in  the  can." — Bowrino. 

As  all  classes  of  persons  above  those  in  the  humblest 
ranks,  both  in  Holland  and  Belgium,  speak  French,  and 
ns  the  bulk  of  the  literature  is  in  that  language,  it  • 
not  unlikely  that  the  native  vernacular  will  in  course 
of  time  sink  to  the  character  of  provincial  dialects — 
which,  indeed,  they  have  already  reached  in  the  Flemish 
districts. 

The  Knglieh  Langtiaae. — This  language,  as  already 
mentioneil,  is  based  on  the  Anglo-Saxon,  "  the  languago 
of  the  Angles,  one  of  the  triltcs  of  that  Saxon  confede- 
racy which,  about  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century, 
supplanted  the  Celtic  inhabitants  of  Britain,  and  drove 
them  into  the  mountains  of  Wales  and  Scotland.  The 
incursions  of  the  Danes  into  England,  and  their  settle- 
ment in  several  parts,  made  little  alteration  on  the  An- 
gki-Saxon,  as  the  Danish  tribes  were  kindred  with  the 
Saxon,  l)eing  descendants  of  the  same  great  Gothic  or 
Teutonic  family.  !n  the  eleventh  century,  the  Noi^ 
mans,  or  North-men,  onothcr  kindred  triiie,  who  had, 
two  centuries  licfore,  seized  and  possessed  that  part  of 
France  since  called  Normandy,  subdued  England. 
They  brought  with  them  the  Frei.ch  language,  which,  in 
the  course  of  time,  they  had  adopted  from  the  peo|rlo 
amongst  whom  they  had  been  settled.  This  'ht/  corv- 
tinned,  in  England,  to  use  in  common  discourse,  and  in 
schools  and  courts  of  law,  for  more  than  i^o  ccnturiee 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


after  the  Conqumrt  Yet  an  they  were  not  ao  numerous 
■■  the  Saxon  population,  the  old  language  finally  pre- 
vailed ;  and  though  many  French  word*  found  their 
way  into  the  Engliih,  the  bulk  of  the  language  con- 
tinued to  be  Saxon. 

<<  The  French  tongue  being  founded  on  the  Lrtin,  its 
introduction  caused  the  infusion  of  a  great  nuinher  of 
Latin  wordi  into  our  language ;  aftenvards,  as  Roman 
literature  was  itudied,  •  great  number  of  otlier  Latin 
terms  were  introduced  into  English.  It  is  in  some 
measure  possilile  to  distinguish  the  Latin  introduced 
through  the  French,  by  the  words  being  morn  changed 
in  thoir  form  than  the  other  Latin  te'ms  which  were 
adopted  directly  by  the  learned.  From  the  addition  of 
■o  many  Latin  words  a  species  of  double  language  has 
been  formed — the  Saxon  English,  which  wo  connnonly 
employ  in  conversation,  and  the  Latinized  English, 
which  is  prinripr.llv  employed  in  learned  composition. 
Mixed,  however.  ■•  the  two  are,  each  language  pre- 
8er\-es  an  idiom.iu  character ;  for,  with  few  exceptions, 
the  prefixes  and  affixes  of  the  one  cannot  be  conjoined 
with  the  words  of  the  other. 

••  A  further  addition  has  been  made  to  the  Enclish  by 
the  introduction  rf  Greek  words.  Thir?  has  l)oen  going 
on  since  the  comnicncemrnt  of  the  study  of  Greek  lite- 
rature in  the  sixt«enih  century.  As  we  had  Latin 
through  the  French,  wo  had  unconsciously  many 
Orrok  words  through  the  Latin,  which  may  be  re- 
,  garded  as  a  variety  of  the  Greek.  The  words  which 
we  have  received  immediately  from  the  Greek  are 
Coin{iaratively  few.  with  the  excc^/tion  of  tem.s  of 
art  and  science,  which  are  now  exteuHivcIy  taken  from 
that  language. 

"  When  wc  look  back  to  the  early  history  of  our  lan- 
guage, it  may  be  said  that  wo  see  it  approaching  our 
country  in  two  great  but  unecgual  streams ;  one  of  which 
eonies  from  the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  while  the  other, 
leaving  Greece,  passes  along  the  shores  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  finally  reaches  r,i>  through  France. 
Though  the  Celtic  inhabitants,  or  L'ritons,  are  said  to 
have  been  expelle<i  by  the  Saxons,  so.ne  of  their  words 
have  been  left  in  our  language.  The  tiamrs  of  rivers, 
mountains,  and  other  natural  objects,  in  England  as  well 
as  in  Scotland,  are  generally  Celtic,  and  the  nair.,  s  of 
many  places  are  founded  on  terms  in  the  same  lan^iage. 
At  in  the  case  of  the  Latin  passing  into  the  English 
through  the  Freneh,  we  have  '.>^^ords  of  Celtic  origin 
.  through  the  I'rench,  France  havinif  liceii  at  (Mio  tinic 
widely  inhabited  by  Celtic  trilies.  In  maiiv  of  the  names 
of  places  in  France,  Spain,  and  Italy,  the  Celtic  is  also 
•till  diSt'ennlile."* 

The  language  of  Enfrlsnd-proper  is  now  spoken  over 
the  whole  Biitish  iidands,  and  has  Ihtii  fixed  at  k  stand- 
ard by  ths  difTision  of  literature  and  ill"  labours  of 
Johnson  and  odit-r  lexicographers.  Iii  the  common 
speech  of  the  p«op|e,  however,  there  are.  as  we  pre- 
•iously  noticed,  nu.-nerous  dialects  differing  less  or 
more  from  pure  English.  The  most  remarkable  of 
these  dialects  is  that  spoken  by  the  humbler  classes 
in  the  Lowlands  of  Scotland,  of  which  we  have  sjx-- 
dmens  in  the  poetry  of  Kamsay  and  Uums,  and  the 
prose  fictions  of  Scott.  .\  .-ontroversy  has  existe<i 
r-jsjiecting  the  origin  of  this  dialect.  By  some  it  has 
Ijpen  considered  only  an  unimproved  Knirlish,  such 
as  was  ^[Miken  ami  written  generally  in  England  three 
ur  fimr  centuries  ago ;  by  olbers.  it  hm  In  en  detinnl  as 
*  distinct  branch  of  the  original  Teutonic,  through  the 
Rrandinavian  branch;  and  this,  in  our  opinion,  is  the 
true  view  of  the  matter  We  now,  then,  have  u|ku« 
Mr  'j^^and  two  branehes  of  an  origint!  (iothic  lonijue. 
Ma  of  which  has  taken  the  lead  in  literature,  while  the 


*Oraham'i  Rnglish  Eijrinolofy. 


other  has  continued  as  a  local  vemaetilar,  and  must  \m 
the  course  of  time  disappear. 

The  English  language,  as  Anally  established,  conaiiti 
of  about  38,000  words,  o'  which  al)out  23.000,  or  nearly 
five-eighths,  are  Anglo-Saxon.  Many  words,  hcwnv«r 
may  bo  said  to  be  in  a  state  of  disuse,  particularly  thon 
from  the  Latin  intrriduc(d  by  a  fantastic  mode  of  writing 
in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  Possessinii 
all  tine  force  and  bluntncss  of  the  Anglo-Saxon,  with  s 
due  share  of  the  polish  and  dignity  of  ihc  Roman 
tongue,  the  English  is  powerful,  copious,  and  »!aj)te(]  to 
express  the  most  refined  emotions'  of  feeling,  as  well 
as  the  complex  doctrines  of  an  enlightened  philogo. 
phy.  For  honesty  and  sincerity  it  has  no  equal-.. 
a  peculiarity  distinctly  referable  to  the  upright  cha. 
racter  of  the  English.  One  of  the  chief  peculiaritii>i 
of  the  language  is  its  slight  deix-ndencc  on  inflection 
and  the  abundant  use  of  articles,  prepositions,  tic 
such  as  II,  an,  the,  of,  to,  with,  hy  ;  also,  shall,  icill,  mau 
might,  could,  umilil,  l>ho•^lll,  &c.  (all  Anglo-Saxon^ 
the  meaning  of  which  is  usually  provided  for  in  lun-' 
guagcs  of  Latin  ori."?in  by  the  various  termination! 
of  the  verbs  or  main  words  ir,  the  senteni'c.  The 
rules  of  English  orthography  ore  exceedingly  indcci. 
sive,  partly  from  the  want  of  any  authoritative  academy 
to  lay  down  a  law  on  the  subject,  and  partly  fr.im  the 
difTulence  of  grammarians  in  attempting  any  rlianm 
This  irregularity  in  the  adajjlalion  of  8]x>IIing  lo  pro. 
nuneiation,  and  the  constant  shitting  of  sounds  in  the 
letters  a,  c,  and  g,  without  any  apparent  nile,  rendei  the 
language  difficult  of  ocquisition  by  foreigners.  The 
sound  expressed  by  th,  a»  in  the,  month,  pathos,  equiva. 
lent  to  the  sound  of  the  letter  thcta  in  Greek,  is  also 
rarely  mastered  by  natives  of  France  or  Gcruiany  who 
come  to  reside  amongst  us. 

In  writing  English,  some  authors  adhere  mon 
closely  to  Anglo-Saxon  roots  than  others;  but  the  bcsj 
English  is  that  in  which  no  particular  rule  on  this  r;b. 
ject  is  followed.  To  show  wliiit  diflercnee  may  Jiist 
i^i  styles,  according  as  the  rtni;lo-Saxon  or  Latin  are 
followed,  we  pr.'sent  the  following  specimens;  those 
words  r.ot  Anglo-Saxon  being  in  Italics.  The  first  ii 
from  the  authorized  version  of  the  Bible,  which  has  few 
Lu»in  words. 

'•  In  ihi^  i>e)(inimii[rioc1  erratrd  thi"  hi'svcn  snil  the  psrlh.  And 
iho  fHrth  wag  williout  form,  ami  ftiir/ ;  niid  (Inrknt'ss  was  iipog 
ilip  fare  of  the  tliM-p;  niKl  the  Spirit  of  (>o(l  moved  upon  the/o« 
of  tfii!  wriiers.  Anil  (loi!  Kniil,  l.ci  ilii-r«  lie  li(?hl :  and  th'rewai 
)i)rhl.  And  f'od  "aw  the  lipht,  thai  il  was  good  :  and  (Jwlrff. 
ii/n/  the  iiKhl  from  the  durkneKt.  Aiul  (ind  rnlli'd  the  lehl 
i)Hy.  ail. I  thi'  dnrkn<'.»«  he  enlliil  Nighi.  Ami  Ihc  evening  iiui 
llie  moniinK  were  the  firm  d«>." — (hnetis,  i.  I — fi. 

"  And  it  cniiie  to  pass,  thai  when  l^aar  was  old,  and  hJA  evri 
weff^  iiim.  so  that  he  roiild  not  pee.  he  called  K'nti.  h:a  ndeit 
Hon,  and  said  unto  him.  My  son.  And  t)t9  nuid  unto  hiin,  lleliold, 
liere  am  I.  And  he  said,  itelinli)  now.  I  am  old.  I  know  not  ilte 
day  of  my  death.  Now  then-tore  lake.  I  pray  ihee.  ihv  we». 
|Hin«.  thy  iiiiivi  r  Slid  thy  how.  and  go  "Ul  lo  the  field,  and  rika 
me  i»orne  t'niiioH  ,■  and  make  nie  irinyurv  meat.  Ntieli  as  I  Invi;, 
anii  hrinfi  :l  lo  nie.  thai  I  may  lai;  that  my  xitil  may  lilem  ihet 
hei'ore  I  die  Ami  lleheknh  hearil  whin  Kiine  .pake  in  Kiau 
hi»  son.  An  I  l'.«a»  weiii  to  the  field  lo  hum  for  <rnii<m.  unil  to 
hrinjt  il.  And  Kelnkah  npnke  •  ,110  Jaroli  her  mm.  ^ayiiijj.  H< 
hold.  I  heard  ihy  (aiher  'peak  iinm  F«nii  thy  hroiher,  "sy  nj, 
III  Off  me  renison,  and  make  me  tai'onrit  meut.  that  1  msy  ml, 
anil  lileu  Ihee  before  the  Ixira  before  my  deaih."— Gnum, 
XXVll.  I—?. 

The  nd  specimen  is  from  Roliertson,  showing  u 

abuiiilii!       of  Latin  roots  : — 

•*Th.*  ureal  empfmr.  in  ihe  fi//hiri*'/«  of  liiH  pnu'er.  and  itipi*- 
stMittn  of  aU  Ihe  Ai»nm/rt  wh.eii  cnn  ftnitrr  th.-  hi'itrt  of  inuii.  lo.ik 
the  rrtrnijrttinnry  rfsiUutirm  io  rnngn  hi*  k:ii|/tloin.  and  to  with- 
draw fntirtly  from  any  mnrern  in  hii^neii*  or  ihe  nifnitt  nt  \\\  % 
world.  JM  mtirr  that  he  iii't;ht  iipenil  Uie  rftna'tultr  01  his  dayi  ;i 
rttif^timt  and  nolitutU.  Ihnrltiinn  is  ptrhnpi  Ihe  only  pnaa, 
enpiibtt  of  hotdins  the  rpins  of  g^yfrmtnent.  wlio  ever  rtfiffneit  ihf ra 
from  itftilffiale  rhoice,  and  ^^'llo  mr.tinutd  Hurinn  many  yearn  10 
«*i,;oy  llin  trattfiuitlitu  of  rttirfntfnt,  Tvithoiii  le'eh  nj^one  penitmt 
•  'kIi.  or  roMitig  hiicii  one  luok  oldtjirt  towards  the  poieeroTdi^ 
niiif  which  tie  had  nbanttonnt.^^ 

For  further  details  resjieeting  the  English  lang«(e, 

we  icfcr  tu  the  article  on  Enolish  GaiMUAa. 


*  i*\ 


•«•; 


LANGUAGE. 


141 


The  Felatgian  or  Oieeo-Lutin  Family. 
1  he  first  inhabitants  of  Greece  were  called  the  Pelaafri, 
•nd  »eem  to  have  been  the  anceatora  of  the  Greek*  ;  b  <t 
the  early  history  <  f  these  nations  is  lost  in  fable. 

flu  Greek  is  a  most  powerful  and  expressive  Un- 
(uage.  It  '•  divided  into  four  dialects,  which  arose 
torn  the  peculiar  pronunciation  of  the  inhabitants  in 
jifTerent  parts  of  the  country,  thus  occasioning  a  change 
in  orthography.  The  Attic  dialect  is  generally  c^n- 
giJered  the  most  polished  and  the  most  classical ;  it  is 
jubdivid  '  ii.' J  the  old,  middle,  and  new.  Solon  wrote 
in  the  old  AUic,  which  is  almost  the  same  as  the  Ionic 
The  historian  Thucydiclea,  the  tragic  w ritiTS  iEachylus, 
Sophocles,  and  Euripides,  usetl  the  middle  style,  as  did 
also  Plato  and  Xcnophon,  and  Aristophanes,  the  writer 
of  comedy.  Demosthenes,  and  later  orators  and  writers 
of  comedy,  adopted  the  new  Attic  style.  The  name  of 
the  .'Vttic  dialect  is  derived  from  Attica,  the  country  in 
which  it  originotcd  ;  the  political  and  literary  pro-emi- 
nence of  the  Athenians,  or  people  of  Atticii,  eventually 
rendered  it  almost  the  universal  dialect  of  Greece.  It 
jg  distinguished  by  its  Cdntraction  of  vowels.  The  Ionic 
dialect  uses  the  controcted  inflections  of  nouns  and 
verbs.  It  is  smooth  and  harmonious,  and  was  adopted 
bv  the  historian  Herodotus,  Hi[)pocrntes  the  physician, 
,'nd  by  Anacrcon  the  poet.  The  Doric  and  Eolic  dia- 
lects were  more  harsh  and  unpolished  than  the  others. 
The  Doric  has  a  very  broad  pronunciation,  and  fre- 
quently substitutes  d  for  the  other  vowels.  The  Eolic 
has  no  dual  form,  and,  in  other  points,  rfscml  Ics  the 
Latin  more  strongly  than  the  other  diulects.  The  New 
Testament  was  originally  written  in  Gieek.  We  find 
in  it  instances  of  all  the  four  dialects,  and  several  He- 
bwisms  or  Hebrew  idioms. 

Wo  have  seen  that  one  of  the  Leading  grammatical 
lyntems  followed  in  the  structure  of  all  languages,  con- 
lists  in  the  addition  of  syllables  to  the  root,  or,  as  we 
may  briefly  descrilK!  it,  in  a  variety  of  terminations. 
These  are  called  inflftionn,  because  the  word  in  this 
c»jc  is,  as  it  were,  bcnl  or  turned.  In  the  Greek,  we  see 
the  inflective  system  in  its  greatest  ext^mt.  The  noun 
i«  inflected  for  the  cxpresaion  of  ilic  various  cases,  gen- 
i(Tf.  iind  numbers.  The  verb  is  inflected  for  active, 
oiddie.  and  passive  voice,  and  all  the  usuiil  variety  of 
tenses  in  the  first,  second,  and  third  jH-rsons.  There  is 
also  a  form  of  the  verb  for  use  with  reference  to  two 
oersoiis,  called  therefore  the  dual  form.  Thurf,  ills  im- 
aerfect  of  the  indicative  of  the  verb  ti/'tt*  (tuplo),  I 
■trike,  apiniars  in  the  following    oricly  of  forms: — 

SlMII'LAB. 

1.  imroy  9-  tri-rrrt  3.  frvrTt 

{ttiipton\  {ettipla),  (rtiiptfl, 

I  wBi  iiriking.       Thou  wen  striking.  He  was  sinking. 


Dual  (tiro  ptnom), 

(ttiipti-ton), 
Ye  two  were,  Ac. 


3.  irrnrTerrfV 
iitujttftin), 
They  two  were,  Ac. 

Plural  (anv  numbtr). 
1.  <T*rr«/in»  8.  inWrtrf  3.  friirroK 

iett(}>(omrti),  Htufitelt),  (ttuytmi), 

We  were  Hir. king.      Ye  were  mriVing.       They  wrru  striking. 

The  modern  Greek  derives  most  of  its  words  from  the 
incient  lsni!;iiagc,  but  a  great  many  Italian  and  Turkish 
terms  hnvi-  been  introduced.  Perhaps  the  dilli  rem  e  l)e- 
twcen  tl>  iiiirient  and  imvlern  (ireok  cannot  be  lutter 
illiistratiil,  than  by  eciiiipariiig  parallel  passages  from  the 
same  writer.  The  pas.sage  selected  is  the  1st  eliapter 
»f  John's  Gosjiel,  1st  verse  : — 

Axeir.xr  (iHKKK.  i     Romaic  oh  Moiubx  (Jrv:kk. 

E»  ipxh   flf    i    Xiyof  «al  i       Ku  ri>  dp^>>  r'o^   '  X(()ut 
U)o(  lit  rrfif   rilf   Qtir   tal 
eid(  i|i>  i  Uyof. 


a'i   h  Aif)  Of  'roe  i.i  rdr  9t6f 


Kol  0«){  f]Tt)^  b  \Ayoi. 


Eis   trn  nrrhftt  'icn  Ho  ft'srnn. 
kai  An  hunt  ftnn  ne  ton  Thmn 
I  kai  Thnn  tton  lui  logos. 


Six  a<thi  r;i  k(i  ln^ot  kai  Hn 
kips  m  pros  ton  TfiMn,  kai 
Vuos  *n  Ho  logi '. 

Tin  Latm,  or  language  of  aacieul  Kome,  may  be  re- 


-garded  as  a  I'omposition  >i  the  early  language*  spoken 
in  central  Italy,  particularly  the  Etrurian,  and  of  tha 
Greek,  brought  to  the  same  country  by  colonists,  and  by 
the  stndy  of  Greek  literaturei  among  the  Romans,  after 
they  had  attained  a  certain  degree  of  civilization.  It 
has  been  remarked  that  the  Eolian,  more  than  any  othel 
variety  of  the  Greek,  has  contributed  to  the  formatioi: 
of  Latin.  The  Latin,  in  its  grammatical  structure,  foU 
lows  the  Greek,  but  dispenses  with  the  dual  form  of  the 
verb.  We  shall  hero  more  particularly  illustrate  the  in- 
flective system,  for  the  sake  of  those  whose  studies  have 
not  embraced  any  language  besides  their  own.  For 
example,  while  the  Latin  word  for  a  speech,  in  tho  nomi- 
native case,  is  seriiui,  our  ideas  of  a  speech,  to  a  speecit, 
with  a  fpeech,  are  expressed  respectively  by  the  words 
lermonis,  sermoni,  sernmne.  The  verb  presents  a  great 
variety  o''  terminatioma  for  the  two  voices,  the  various 
mooil'.,  tenses,  and  persoru,  &c.  Thus,  for  example, 
while  /  Inve  (active  voice)  is  expressed  by  amt,  1  am 
loved  (passive  voice)  is  amor.  While  /  had  loved  (plu* 
perfect  of  indicative  mood)  is  nmaveram,  I  might  huvt 
hwed  (pluperfect  of  s-  bjunctive  mood)  is  amaviuem.  The 
whole  of  the  lust  tense  is — 

SINOULAR. 

\.  Amavissem,        /  might  or  could  ha; e  loted. 

2.  Ainnvis!*cs,  t/iou  rnii;htst  or  roiiltlni  havf  loved, 

3.  Ainuvisset,         he  might  nr  could  have  Imid. 

I'LURAL. 

1.  AmavissSiniis,    we  might  or  coiild  have  loved. 

2.  Aiimvisffitis,         'c  might  or  coulj  have  loved. 

3.  AniavisKent,        they  might  or  could  have  loved. 

It  may  be  remarked,  for  the  sake  of  an  unlearned  clase 
of  readers,  that  there  are  various  forms  for  the  teroiiina- 
tion  of  nouns,  called  declensions.  A  large  class,  in 
which  the  nominative  ends  in  a  as  in  penmi,  a  pen,  r!{f, 
a  wing,  arc  of  the  first  declension,  and  these  are  gene- 
rally of  the  femuiine  gender.  Two  other  large  classes, 
in  which  the  nominative  ends  either  in  vs  or  in  nm.  m 
doniinus,  a  lord,  resiinim,  a  kingdom,  belong  to  the  second 
declension.  There  are  in  all  five  declensions,  all  includ- 
ing nouns  of  peculiar  terminations.  The  singular  of 
doniitius  appears  as  follows,  under  its  various  cases;-— 

Notninative.  Doriiljuis,  a  lord. 

Ginilive.  Domini.  of  a  lord. 

Unlive.  Domino,  to  a  lord. 

Acfn.;.itive.  Dotniiiiiin,  a  lord. 

Vorntive.  Dominp,  O  lord. 

Ablative.  Doiniiio,  with  or  by  a  lord. 

The  conjugations  of  verbs  are  analogous  to  the  de- 
clensions of  nouns.  Jliiio  is  an  example  of  a  class  in 
which  the  imperfect  of  the  i,iilicati"e  always  ends  in 
abam,  tho  future  in  alio,  and  in  which  all  the  other 
tenses  take  certain  terminations  in  like  manner.  Thia 
class  of  verbs  are  said  to  be  of  the  first  conjugation.  There 
is  another  class  in  wliich  the  present  of  the  indicative 
always  ends  in  lo  .  thus,  moiiio,  I  advise,  wioeeo,  I  move; 
and  in  which  the  imiM-rfeet  of  the  indicative  always  enda 
in  f/)(im,  the  luliirc  in  e/'O,  &c.  These  constitute  the 
second  conjugation.  The  othei  two  conjugations,  foi 
there  are  four,  all  observe  certain  rules  as  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  various  parts  of  the  verb ;  in  other  worda, 
all  the  various  parts  of  the  various  verbs  of  the  Latin 

i  laiiguai;e  are  formed  after  four  schemes  or  modes,  these 
beiui;  called  <'()iijug!illoiis. 

I  In  the  .lyiitaK  of  the  Latin  language,  there  is  one 
principle  carried  to  an  unusual  extreme,  namely,  tha 
transposition  of  wurd.^.  Generally,  the  verb  was  among 
the  last  words  placed  in  a  sentcni-e.     The  sj)eeiiiiens  of 

I  early  Roman  writers  which  are  ))rei    'ved,  show  the  Ian 

'  giiaue  in  a  nide  slate,  as  the  English  was  about  the 
tliirteeiith  century.  The  limguage  was  afterwards  p(V 
lisiied,  and  Iwi'ame  reiimrkable  for  its  smoothness  and 
harmony.  Of  the  iH-atitiliil  litx-rature  ot  which,  like  the 
Greek  iH'foi'e  it,  it  became  the  honotired  vehicle,  this  ia 
not  the  place  to  speak. 

Itatiiiii,  Spanmh,  and  Portueiirse  /.»iiir»(nti'.«»— Whea 

,  the  empire  of  Ki  luc  sui.k,  as  it  were,  tieiieath  the  weigh' 


MS 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


•f  ita  own  (treatneai,  the  difforcnt  tribe*  by  whom  it  wa» 
diamembornl  introduced  a  coinplote  change  into  the  liin- 
guage.  Not  only  were  new  wordi  introduced,  but  the 
very  itructiire  of  the  grammar  waa  altered.  The  bar- 
bariani),  probably  finding  a  difficulty  in  renicmlioring  the 
Tarioui  forma  of  the  paraive  voice,  auhatitutcd  the  use 
of  an  auTiliury  with  a  participle  throughout  the  verbs, 
•nd  introduced  prcpuiiitionn  to  expreaa  the  various  rola- 
tiofH  of  noun*,  instead  of  the  old  system  of  declension. 
The  languao^e  was  thus  rendered  more  simple  and  flexi- 
bia.  It  ia  pmbalile  that  many  of  these  changes  lirst 
sprang  up  among  the  Latins  thcinsrivrs,  and  that  they 
*iere  originally  conventionally  useil  by  the  vulgar  in 
provmcio'  districts.  It  would  be  very  intereseing  if  we 
could  trace,  step  by  step,  the  prooesfi  of  the  convpmion 
of  the  Latin  language  into  the  Italian.  But  this,  like 
the  history  of  the  trtuismutiition  of  the  ancient  into  the 
modern  <  Jreek.  ia  •  subject  u()on  which  little  satiofactory 
information  can  lie  gained.  One  characteristic  ii;  Italian, 
ia  the  little  use  that  ia  mode  of  the  letter  h.  "  Not  worth 
•n  A,"  is  a  familiar  saying  in  Italy.  The  only  office  of 
*  in  the  language,  is  to  iniliratc  when  c  is  to  be  pro- 
nounced like  k :  as  for  instance,  in  such  words  as  chttn, 
Ac,  which  is  pronounced  kclo. 

•  Italian,  says  Metastasio,  is  "numira  itnm"  (music 
itself).  It  is  a  language  of  great  compass  and  variety, 
well  B.'mpied  to  express  piuviion  and  emotion.  There 
•re  many  dialects  in  Italy  ;  with  resjK'ct  to  those,  a  com- 
mon proverb  says,  "  Lingtiii  Toiicana  in  boccji  Romana," 
meaning  that  the  Tuscan  dialect  is  the  most  classical 
•nd  the  Roman  pronunciation  the  purest. 

There  are  other  lang\iagCH  besides  the  Italian  which 
•le  derived  from  the  Latin.  Of  those  tl»e  Spamsh  pre- 
Mfves  the  strongest  resemblance  to  the  geniun  and 
■tructure  of  the  Latin.  It  is  almost  equally  jmmpous 
•nd  solemn.  The  Spaninh  character  is  likcwiKc  akin  to 
that  of  the  ancient  Romans,  both  nati(m8  Innng  conspi- 
cuous for  their  prowess  and  dignity  of  mind.  A  great 
many  Latin  words  may  bo  traccil  in  the  Spanish,  parti- 
cularly if  it  be  remeinliered  that  the  e  of  the  Latin  lan- 
guage always  liecomcs  g  in  the  .Spanish  ;  for  instance, 
Diro  biTomes  Dieo  .  and  tliat  /  is  changed  into  d,  so 
tliat  the  Latin  word  tolwi  is  discernible  in  the  Spanish 
form  I'lilo.  The  Romans  occupied  Spain  between  six 
•nd  eight  hundred  years.  About  4 1 R.  the  (ioths  entered 
it,  hnd  onocted  some  tittle  change  in  tl)e  langiiaire, 
which  was  then  railed  /.oh^m  romanrr,  liecacsc  derived 
from  the  Roman  or  Latin.  Aboui  a.  n.  741.  Spain  was 
■gain  invaded  by  the  Arabs,  who  gave  an  oriental  tinc- 
ture to  tlie  language.  One  peculiarity  in  the  Hpanish 
languai;f,  is  the  constant  occurreac*  of  //  at  the  coni- 
menceini-nt  "fa  wonl;  for  instance,  Uamnr,  to  call; 
Uantza,  equality;  Unvt,  a  key;  Utgnr,  to  arrive;  Utr:\r, 
to  c«rry  ;  lluna,  to  rain.  The  sound  given  to  these 
double  consonant*  ia  similar  to  the  el  of  the  Italian,  in 
figUo,  son ;  to  the  Ih  of  the  Portuguese,  in  filho,  son ; 
•nd  also  to  tlie  11  of  the  French,  in  fillr,  .laughtj-r. 
Tliere  is  another  distingtiishing  sound  in  the  Hpimish, 
which  is  connected  in  pronunciation  with  the  French. 
The  Hptinish  n  is  pronounced  liku  the  French  gne  in 
Bretagnr ;  so  that  such  wurda  a/t  itnor,  sir,  miiitn,  dex- 
terity, anil  mnawi.  to-morrow,  are  to  Im  reail  as  if  writ- 
ten «/.'ii'ir,  mngna,  tic. 

The  Horiiigurse  lantcoaire  has  not  so  close  an  affinity 
with  the  Spfinlsh  as  might  have  N'en  exjiected  from  the 
^oTTjphical  (MMition  of  the  two  countries.  The  I'orlu- 
guese  attracted  but  little  attention  in  the  rest  of  Europe 
before  the  apfM-aranre  of  the  lumvl.  Derivatives  are 
in  this  language  very  numerous ;  thus,  from  the  niot 
peilrii,  a  stone,  we  gel  the  followini'  ilcrivatives : — ptilrt- 
ffal.m  stony  place  ;  p«.'rf<f(i/A(i,  gravel  ;  j>nlrtj6ui,  stitnv  ; 
liiiUtitm  or  jirdi^yru,  a  stone-cutter;  prlrniin,  a  blow 
with  a  sti-ne.  Hy  the  simple  addition  of  the  terminv- 
iiuu  uJx.  mau."  wjrda  •»  formotl,  which  in  other  lan- 


'  guagci  could  not  be  oxprciaed  without  c!rcumloci.iioi| 
I  thus,  ;)i<flrar/n,  a  Mow  with  a  stick  or  club;  cutilada 
I  cut  with  a  aword ;  ei'.orailn,  a  stab  with  a  sword  or  dt>. 
I  ger.    The  Portuguese,  like  the  French  and  Italiani 
have  no  adjectives  of  a  triple  form,  as  in  Latin,     ^oina 
I  of  their  adjectives  mark  the  distinction  in  gender  of  th« 
I  nouns  which  they  qualify,  us  formoto,  furmimt,  beauti. 
fill;  alio,  altii,  high;    and   others   are   unchangeable 
thus,  ttm)m  hrtve,  a  short   time ;  manlida  brevt,  a  short 
morning ;  cavalln  forte,  a  strong  horse ;   tgoa  forlt 
strong  mare. 

French  Language. — This  language  is  also,  in  a  great 
measure,  a  broken  and  re-organ iwd  Latin.  It  originatfd 
in  the  following  manner  ; — "  The  (^(iltic,  renmants  of 
which  were  long  preserved  in  Hrittany,wn8the  languam 
of  the  (inuls.  After  the  conquest  o*"  the  country  l)y  t|), 
Romans  under  .lulius  Oiesar,  Latin  became  the  prcdo. 
minant  language.  On  the  overthrow  of  the  Western 
Roman  empire,  this  langn.ige  waa  corrupted  partly  in 
its  pronunciation  by  Te.tonic  organs,  and  partly  by  the 
mixture  of  words  and  exprcss-ons  ori:?inally  Frankisb 
Burgundian,  Ostrogoll  it  or  Visigothic.  This  comipi 
language  was  culled  the  Romanic,  and  was  divided  imj 
two  branches.  They  are  denominated  from  their  re- 
spective tei.ns  for  expressing  ytf — the  southern,  or 
l.angue  (POr  (dialect  of  Oc,  Occitaiiie  dialect),  and  the 
northern,  spoken  north  of  the  Loire,  or  Lanam  ,('o,,i 
or  if  (HI,  from  the  latter  of  which  the  niode.p  Fronoh 
language  is  derived.  In  the  lieginning  of  the  twelfth 
centnrj',  Raymond  de  St.  Oilles,  (%  nut  of  Proveiii-o 
united  the  south  of  J' ranee  under  one  government,  atii] 
gave  the  whole  the  name  of  Pruanrr.  From  thii 
peric'd  the  two  dialects  were  called  the  Provmcal  uj 
the  Frrnili.  The  former,  tliou);h  iiiueli  clianL,'i»l,  's  still 
the  dialect  of  the  eoinnion  pi'ople  in  I'riiMihi',  J„iti"ii.'. 
doc,  ("atalonla,  ^'aleneil!,  ^T:lio^ea,  Minorca,  aiiil  i<;ir. 
dmia.  In  thi  Ihirteenth  rentnry,  the  mirthiTii,  or  Nor. 
man  French  dialect,  wliieh  was  ninc-h  more  prosaic 
than  the  former,  gained  the  ascendency.  Tliia  wai 
partly  owing  to  the  intlucnce  of  the  Conlniry.  who 
roamed  info  all  parta  of  the  country  ;  but  chielly  to  tht 
circumstance  that  Paris  becnriie  the  centre  of  r((inonicnt, 
philosophy,  and  literature,  for  all  France.  The  l.ai-gui 
iTOtii  was  deficient,  from  its  (irii;in,  in  thit  rhythm 
which  exists  in  the  Italian  and  Spanish  laiiLfHanes.  \\ 
was  formed  rather  by  an  alilireviation  Ihuii  liy  a  harmo- 
iiious  trans.ljrmation  of  the  Latin.  The  Frniika  anil 
Normans  deprived  the  Latin  words  of  their  chiiraotc;. 
istic  terminations,  suliKtituting  in  their  stead  the  obscure 
(lerinan  vowel,  which  was  aftenvard-i  entirely  dropped 
in  roiiversution,  and  retained  only  in  siiiijing  and  orth.> 
gniphy.  With  the  exception  of  these  dillerciices,  the 
French  Roinatxce  diiUect  was  formed  on  ttie  same  grais. 
matical  model  as  the  Italian,  Hpuniiih,  and  Portiiguew. 
A  regular  necenluation  nl  s\llu!iles.  according  to  their 
quantity,  was  at  first  presfr\i-d  ;  hut  the  metrii-aldiiiriu- 
ter  of  the  langui'ge  was  gnidiially  lost.  The  Froiirh 
thus  Ix'came  more  accustomed  to  a  rhetorical  measure 
than  to  poetical  forms.  The  nature  of  the  iKngiiaijo 
itself  led  them  to  eloquence  rather  than  |)oetry,  and  their 
natural  livelinesa  c  ntrihuled  essentially  to  encourart 
nice  dialectics.  Fnincis  I.  eslaMislied  a  professomhip 
of  the  French  lanuiinge  at  Paris  in  15;<!>,  ;ind  haniihed 
Latin  from  the  courts  of  j'istice  and  public  ilocumcnta. 
Cardinal  Richelieu,  by  estahlishing  the  .\eadeinv  in 
Ifi.'t.S,  carrie<l  the  laniriiage  to  a  hi«her  degri-e  "f  i)erfer. 
ticiii.  The  I"  luh  academy  tieeami'  the  supreme  trilm- 
iial  both  for  the  lanirnaire  and  literature.  It  put  an  fnJ 
to  th"  arbitrary  jsiwer  nf  iisacrn,  and  fixed  the  staiularil 
of  pure  French  ;  but  it  deprivt>d  genius  of  its  prero;;a. 
live  of  extetnling  the  dominion  of  the  i  ind  over  the 
language.  Nothing  was  approved  by  lh(  academy  un- 
less it  waa  rereiv«<l  at  court,  and  nothing  ^  w  lolerttod 
by  the  public  which  had  nut  been  saiicliuu  I  by  the  tc* 


.'i.jai;).-!-- 


LANGUAGE. 


S4S 


i  circumloci.Uon 

club;  ru/i/oJa,  I 
a  sword  or  d«.. 
eh  and  Italuu^ 
in  Latin,  goii,. 
in  gender  of  th, 
fiirmm,  bcami. 
B  unchangcahle; 
da  brevt,  a  (hon 
B  i   fgoa  forte,  , 

is  aI»o,  in  a  great 

tin.    It  origiiiBti.d 

■Itic,  rcninaiiia  of 

was  the  language 

lie  country  I)y  n,, 

■eiinic  tlm  prcdo. 

of  the  Western 

irrupted  partly  i„ 

and  partly  l,y  tl„ 

■•^jiniilly  Frankisb 

'I'liin  comipi 

wng  divided  Jmo 

■d   from  their  re. 

the   southern,  or 

linlort),  and  the 

,  or  Lii>ii:u>  d'O^^ 

iiioile.i'  French 

iii«  of  the  twelflh 

lint   of   Provence, 

government,  and 

fill'.     From  ihit 

the  Pruvtitcnl  tnd 

li  eliaii;,'nl,  's  still 

r'lM'ii.'c,  l.iitioii... 

'lilii'ica,  luid    .S;ir. 

luirtlicrn,  or  Nor. 

nch    more    prosaic 

leiiey.      Thii  \vm 

he    ('ii>ilnir>\  will, 

but  chietly  to  the 

■litre  of  rcnnoment, 

iiec.     'I'he  l.ii>'i\n 

i,  in   th.it  rhythni 

ish  laiiLTuanes.    Ii 

Ihiin  l>y  a  hdrmo- 

'I'he  Franks  anj 

'f  th.ir  ehararte;. 

'  Kteud  the  obscure 

*  entirely  dropped 
Hin^'ini;  and  orthi> 
HO  dillerenees,  ihi' 
»n  the  Hanic  gram- 
1,  and  I'ortiigueit 
iieeording  tn  their 
lie  inelrii-aliliiirai-. 
wt.  The  Froiiili 
rhetorical  nieasurt 

•  i>l  the  langiiago 
I  poetry,  and  their 
lily  to  eni'ourart 
'<1  a  professomhip 
riM!).  and  bani'hci) 
publie  document*, 
the    .Acadojnv  in 

■  drirree  of  |M'rfer. 
he  mipremr  triliu. 
re.  It  put  an  i-nJ 
fixed  the  stanilarj 
ua  of  it«  prerofa. 
le  I  intl  over  th« 
lh<  academy  un- 
ling  TU  iolerittid 
liou  I  bjr  tit*  ac» 


Icmr.  Tlie  Inn^i«g«  now  acquired  the  moit  admirable 
nrrniion,  anil  thud  recximmended  itself,  not  only  aa  the 
languiige  of  science  and  diplomacy,  but  of  society,  ca- 
pable of  conveying  the  most  diaeriminating  observations 
on  character  and  manners,  and  the  most  delicate  exproj- 
gioiiS  of  civility,  which  involve  no  obligation.  Honco 
Its  adoption,  as  the  court  laniruage,  in  so  many  Euro- 
pean countries." — Converialwnf  lAxirm 

The  words  in  the  French  languap  -e  much  less 
founded  by  vowels  than  the  other  toi  s  founded  on 
the  Latin ;  they  also  abound  in  silent  leacrs,  contractions, 
and  peculiar  accents.  While  in  the  English,  as  other 
'I'eutonic  tongues,  the  ailjectivt  is  placed  before  the  suli- 
(tantivo,  in  French  it  is  the  reverse.  This  produces  a 
de^ee  of  circumlocution  which  the  English  as  a  people 
could  never  tolerate ;  thus,  while  we  at  once  go  to  the  point 
in  the  term  >lf'imhoiU,  the  French  express  the  idea  in  the 
roundabout  form  of  ba'cmi  a  vii/ieiir.  The  French  is 
iIbu  defective  in  its  genders,  of  which  it  has  only  two; 
svcry  thing  is  either  masculine  or  feminine — he  or  ehe — 
a  pjculiarity  which  throwH  considerable  diHiculty  in  'he 
wiy  of  its  dcijuicition.  Another  peculiarity  is  the  use  of 
two  wordH,  lie  and  par,  to  i  xpress  a  negative,  as,  il  n'cti 
pai~it  is  not,  or,  as  we  should  literally  translate  the 
phrase,  i'  tint  is  mil.  It  haa  been  remarked  by  foreigntrs, 
that  in  spoitking  Kn^tlixh  the  hiRsing  sound  of  <  has  an 
unpleasmt  freijueticy  of  recurrence ;  in  French,  the  nasal 
wunds  ung  and  oiig  similarly  predominate. 

The  Slavonic  Family. 

The  Slavonians  formed  the  third  great  tide  of  popu- 
lation which  rolled  from  Central  Asia  into  Europe,  and 
planted  their  language  in  Kussia,  Servia,  Croatia,  Poland, 
Buhemia,  Dalinatia,  ,.  id  soiiit!  other  countries,  whore  it  is 
now  spoken  in  ititliT'iit  dialects  by  the  common  people. 
Tt*  Shivonic  toi  f'oe  is  understood  to  lie  remotely  coii- 
ptcted  with  the  ISu..Kcrit,  and  as  Latin  has  a  similar  nlli- 
inoe  with  that  language,  it  happens  thot  a  numtxjr  of  the 
Bltronic  verms  rescinbln  'Aords  of  Oreek  and  Latin. 
Tbr  shiof  dialect  or  variety  of  the  Slavonic  is  the  Rus- 
•iin,  which  nttaineil  a  t-tundard  in  the  reign  of  Peter  the 
Gieat.  In  1704,  Peter  invented  a  set  of  written  letters, 
similar  to  the  Roman  al[>hu!>et,  and  introduced  them 
among  his  countrymen  in  place  of  the  cumbrous  charac- 
ters previously  in  uw,  in  order  to  facilitate  their  inler- 
course  with  the  other  Kuropean  nations.  Of  lute,  much 
ittention  has  Imen  (niiiJ  to  the  old  songs  and  traditions  of 
Kuiwia,  for  it  is  thought  that  they  be  ir  a  strong  resem- 
blance to  the  old  liulhiils  of  bJii^land,  iSpuin,  nnil  Scnndi- 
navia,  forming  a  connected  series  of  popular  traditions. 
The  otdokt  documents  in  the  Russian  language  are  Uleg's 
(realy  of  peace  in  a.  n.  01 'J,  and  Igor's  treaty  with  the 
Greek  Emperor  in  U45.  "The  literature," says  Ur.  Bow- 
ring,  "  had  its  birth  but  yesterday,  and  certainly  its  present 
itrength  and  Iwauty  give  fair  hojie  tor  to-morrow:  in  it 
ire  elements  ot  improvement,  and  buds  and  blossoms  of 
Aituro  exjieetalion."  The  Russian  prose  is  at  present 
interior  to  the  poetry.  It  is  a  llexiblo  and  harmonious 
language.  The  nouns  have  seven  cases,  of  which  tive 
ire  limilar  to  those  of  other  languages.  The  sixth  is 
adled  the  iiniriiiiuntiil,  and  agrees  with  the  Latin  abla- 
liie.  The  stwenth  is  called  prepusUice,  and  is  peculiar 
til  lliiH  language. 

Tlie  t'olish  language  is  characterized  by  the  multi- 
plicity o!  Its  consonants  :  it  is  generally  considered  more 
hiriuoii.>ius  and  fletilile  than  the  other  i^lavonic  dialects. 
Upon  .10  intriHluction  of  Chrixtiuiiity  in  U(>5,  Latin  wns 
bfoui:  I  into  use  as  the  only  written  language.  Tlius  tiio 
pragii  n'  and  improveineiii  of  die  Polish  language  were 
eonnider.ilily  retarded;  but,duriiig  the  reign  of  iStanislaus 
ruiiialowHki.  It  iii.:de  such  rapid  advances,  and  attained 
In  tucii  strength  and  vigour,  lliat  it  has  continued  to 
1  NtrisU,  uninjured,  among  all  the  storms  and  convulsions 
whkb  have  erased  Poland  from  the  nup  of  Euroiie.   Th« 


literature  of  Poland  is  eminently  national  and  pntriotie  • 
it  contains  few  philosophical  ot  scientific  troitises,  but 
abounds  In  historical  and  poetical  productions. 

The  Hungarian  language  can  scarcely  be  called  • 
Slavonic  dialect,  anil  yet  it  seems  diflicutt  to  know  where 
else  to  place  it.  8omo  curious  affinities  have  lat«dy  been 
discovered  between  it  and  the  Finnish,  Laplandish,  and 
Esthonian  lanizuageH ;  such,  for  instance,  as  that  the  verb 
to  have  is  warning  in  all,  so  that  possession  is  indicated 
by  an  expression  equivalent  to  the  words  to  A,>  to.  Then 
arc  many  different  opinions  respecting  the  origin  of  the 
Hungarians.  Some  have  asserted  that  they  arc  descended 
from  the  Egyptians.  The  word  by  which  they  designate 
tliemselves  and  their  language,  is  Magyar,  This  is  • 
term  of  Mogul  extraction,  and  signifies /ruticiifr  or  ilrnii- 
Kcr.  The  most  remarkable  feature  of  the  Hungarian  lan- 
guage, is  the  division  of  the  vowels  hito  two  genders;  aou 
are  called  masculine,  and  e  i  o  are  considered  feminine.  A 
masculine  or  feminine  affix  is  used  according  to  whether 
the  -vord  terminatesTwith  a  masculine  or  feminine  vowel; 
this  of  course  produces  a  singular  uniformity  of  sound. 
About  the  thiiteenth  century,  the  Komans,  a  Turkish 
race,  were  conipelled,  by  the  disasters  of  war,  to  take 
refuge  in  Hungary.  Here,  being  separated  from  the  rest 
of  tlicir  race,  they  soon  forgot  thcu-  language,  and  adopted 
that  of  the  Hungarians.  Hence  it  is  that  so  many  Turkp 
ish  words  are  found  in  the  language  of  the  Magyars. 

The  Tartarian  or  Turkish  Family. 
The  InhabitantHof  Central  Asia  are  known  in  Europe 
by  the  general  name  of  Tartars.  They  occupy  the  great 
elevated  regions  of  Asia,  from  the  Northern  (Icean  to  the 
confines  of  Persia,  India,  and  China.  One  language 
prevails  throughout  this  vast  extent  of  country,  which  i> 
also  frequently  used  in  Egypt,  Barbary,  the  Levant,  part 
of  Persia,  and  on  all  the  shores  of  Africa.  It  comprisM 
ten  dialects,  of  which  the  pri.icipal  is  the  Ostn.mlis,  as 
that  which  is  spoken  in  European  Turkey.  The  Osm-irji 
derive  their  name  from  one  of  their  leaders.  They  left 
Turkestan  in  a.  n.  f)4.'),  and  conquered  Persia.  In  a.  n. 
1.543,  they  established  themselves  in  Constantinople, 
where  they  still  remain,  and  are  known  to  the  F.uropcant 
by  the  name  of  Turks.  Their  dialect  prevails  more  oi 
less  in  Bosnia,  Illy ria,  Servia,  Bulgaria,  and  in  the  Morea; 
but  the  purity,  sweetness,  and  elegance  of  the  language 
can  only  be  learned  at  Constantinople.  Il  has  been  ol^ 
served  of  the  Osmanli,  that  they  have  made  the  nearest  ap- 
proach towards  uniting  the  genius  of  the  two  heinisphe-e* 
Situated  ooth  in  Eurojio  mid  in  Asia,  it  is  probable  this 
tl"v  will  one  day  combine  in  their  literature  the  meta 
ical  imaginative  style  of  tho  eastern  hemisphere  with 
■  "'  manly  simplicity  of  the  western.  It  is  h  very  mia- 
taken  notion,  that  Mohammedan  nations  are  precluded 
by  their  religion  from  making  advances  in  literature  or 
science.  "^Sl■ek  knowledge,"  said  Malmmet,  "were  it 
even  to  China."  The  Turks  of  Europe  have  now  many 
works  on  astronomy  and  muthematics,  but  they  have 
little  knowledge  of  experimental  science.  The  licst  and 
most  numerous  works  in  the  Turkish  language  arc  those 
on  moral  philosophy;  this  science  t'.  y  call  "Adeb;" 
with  them  it  is  a  system  of  ethics  com  lied  in  a  series  of 
amusing  tales  and  fables,*  which  contain  many  lieauties 
of  thought  and  of  language.  The  nouns  in  the  Turkish 
language  have  five  declensions,  which  are  formed  by 
retaining  the  nominative  throughout  and  adding  termv 
nations.  No  language  contains  more  invirsion  of  phra- 
siMilogy — not  even  the  Latin,  Prepositions  are  subjoined 
I  instead  of  lieing  prefixed  to  nouns;  and  in  all  parts  ot 
I  s|Kiech  the  governed  precedes  the  governing.  The  Jaga- 
I  tariaii  dialect  of  the  Turkish  is  spoken  in  tho  greater 
part  of  Uokharia  and  of  IndeptMident  Tartary.  Many 
words,  now  obsolete  in  Constantinople,  still  oxiit  in  thi« 

*Uaridi'  Turkish  Granunar. 


144 


INFORMATION   FOR  THK   PEOPLE. 


Hialcpt.  In  the  namn  way ,  ohnervpi  Dnviil*,  that  the  ntme 
Tartar  hu*  Iwrn  applinl  iiuliHrriininnti'ly  lo  t)i«  nation,  so 
Ihe  tpnn  Mongol  hai  bcfii  ([ivim  to  thr  litrrnturo.  The 
fiimoufi  Trzukiit  Timiir,  or  Comn«'ntarieH  of  T'.iiour, 
Kenernlly  rnllrd  n  Mongol  production,  ii  really  v-.itten  in 
the  Jn(;iitarian  diulpcL 

Diilhi,  tlie  nm)frn\>he.r,  haa  (riven  thn  name  of  AuKtro- 
Siliprinn  to  the  various  TurkiMi  dialpcta  Npuken  in  part 
of  Hih<'ria.  Theae  dialect*  are  much  compuunded  with 
otlier  langua^fa. 

THE   POLTNESIAN    CI,AR8. 

It  haa  boon  pnivrd  'hut  all  the  liinKon^rra  apokon  in 
tfie  South  Nfn  iHlniidfi  and  Indian  archi|irtii);o,  nm  but 
dialeclj  of  onr  priinit-vo  Innrfua^n,*  Thiii  ia  ovidctit 
ftoin  t'  p  ainiilnrity  whirh  auhaiata  bctwfpn  thrni.  It 
aoetna  inpoiwihln  to  diarovrr  with  certainty  the  laiiKuatte 
from  which  these  have  aprun^  ''ho  ditrorenro  in  pro- 
nunciation is  HO  Ktrat  in  vuriouM  lalanda,  that  the  iiihnliit- 
•nta  cannot  understand  one  another.  The  rhungc  of 
dialect  wirinii  lo  rorre»|Kind  with  the  nameaof  the  islnnila. 
Thus,  in  Tahiti  the  nspiratu  abounds.  M  Ai-tu-tak-i  the 
iannuaite  ba«  the  addition  of  the  letter  k:  .\t  Koro-toiitfi 
iho  laiitfUiuo  is  charai-torir.rd  by  the  nasnl  sound  cir, 
which  is  also  the  rase  at  New  Zealand.  'V\w  Tahi'nin 
vocabulary  alxiiiiids  with  obsoleti^  words,  which  was 
cttusetl  by  tlie  following  curious  circumstance:  wlioi  any 
word  hail  a  sound  similar  to  that  whick  was  coula-aed  in 
the  kinn's  name,  the  word  was  instantly  chanu'cd.  A 
similar  custoin  prevails  in  ("hina.  Many  of  the  olMoh'te 
Tahitian  words  are  found  in  the  liin;{uai;e  of  the  Sand- 
wich Islands.  In  New  South  Wales,  trilies  who  live 
within  n  liuiidreil  miles  of  each  other  are  not  able  to  con- 
verse to(fetlicr.  'i'his  iuns«'s  not  oidy  from  the  diirercnci! 
of  pronunciation,  but  fniin  wveral  names  iM-ing  given 
lo  one  objwt.  Thus,  they  have  distinct  names  for  tlie 
kani^aroo.  accnrdini;  to  its  oho,  sex,  size,  and  tho  district 
in  which  it  is  found. 

The  eliaractj'ristic  of  all  the  Polynesian  dialects  is  the 
ftequency  of  the  vowel  soumls.  The  Polynesian  lan- 
pnagps  hiive  likewise  a  tendency  lo  a  monosyllabic  form. 
Their  moiirs  of  conjuKatinit  verbs  are  similar  to  the  He- 
brew. They  have  the  dual  of  tho  (ireek.  and  also  a 
form  of  the  dual  i>eculiar  to  iheM  islands,  which  is  so 
corwtantlv  in  use  that  no  con\ersntion  can  hi  carried  on 
without  it,  and  they  have  peculiar  forms  loex>ress  it; 
thus,  hiili.  we  two.  Iiij'i,  ye  two.  iuln,  they  two,  Ac. 

The  Papuas  or  Eiist«!rn  Ne^nx'S  ..diabit  the  wild  aiul 
mountainous  jiarts  of  New  (inirii-a.    They  are  also  found 
in  the  Philippines,  where  the  Spaniards  call  them  Sixn-  j 
IM  (id  mniilc.     There  are  aloo  mountainous   re^'ioiis  in  | 
Ihe  continent  of  India  inhabited  by  (avages  evidently  of  i 
Ihe  same  slock.     Little  is  known   coiicernini;  their  Ian-  : 
^uagc;   tile  Malays  conip:»re  it  to  the  chattprini;  of  birds. 
The  Malays  who  inhabit   Malacca  and   the  coasts  of  the 
a<ijacrnt  islamls.  s|M'ak  a  Inncuaje  iHWHcisin;  some  mm- 
\ovy  to  the  •'^ansrrit ;  it  is  soft  and  liarnionionN  in  sound, 
and  has  on  that  account   Ih'cu  called  the   Italian  of  the 
East.     Nearly  all   its  literature  consists  of  p<»'lry,  which 
is,  however,  characterited  by  monotony  and  rejietilion, 

THB    ArRIOAR    CLASR. 

Little,  conipaialivolv.  is  yet  known  res|)ectii;(j  the  lan- 
iruspes  Hpi.ki'ii  in  Africa.  'I'here  is  a  very  poor  Arabic 
di.dect  spoken  in  .Mnssinia  culled  (>ec7.  which  has  been 
i;npro|M'rly  coiifiHinded  with  the  Klhiopian.  The  well- 
knuwn  version  of  Scripture,  erroni'OU^Oy  called  llie  Kibi- 
«pic,  is  ri-ally  in  the  (te<'Z  dialect.  To  the  west  of  the 
river  '1  a<'azze.  the  lani^uaKP  chiedy  sjioken  is  the  .Amaaric, 
Br  Moilern  Alnssinian.  now  called  Ijfmt  \rshu>,  thut  is, 
loyal  iuioni,  because  it  is  the  languaife  uf  Ihe  court  at 
fiondAr. 

•Frichanl'i  Hisiory  of  Mas. 


There  arr  icattered  tribes  in  the  north,  who  are  str«ni|i 
suspecliHl  to  Ih-  tho  deseendaiils  of  the  ancient  LvbiaiM, 
'I'ho  old  Guanchoe  languaKc,  once  spoken  in  the  Cannri 
Islands,  hut  now  almost  extinct,  seems  to  lielung  to  th« 
saiiic  st<H;k  as  the  Lybian:  but  so  little  is  known  rrsprci 
ing  cither  lanKuage,  that  this  is  mere  conjecture.  Turk* 
ish  and  ,\rabie  idioms  prevail  in  the  sea-shores  of  Aftic* 
but  distinct  and  peculiar  dialects  prevail  in  tho  interior 
and  of  these  the  Moosoo  is  [wrhaps  tlie  most  extensivi'ls 
us«\l.  On  Ihe  Ivory  or  Tooth  Coast,  In'tween  Caite  Pol- 
mas  and  Cupu  Three  Points,  a  singular  dialect  is  InuniL 
which  is  called  (^mfyUJ,  these  Ix'iiin  the  words  with  whidj 
tho  natives  salute  each  other  when  they  meet. 

'I'he  Houth  of  .Mrica  is  occupied  by  two  riieea — the  Hot. 
tenlots  and  tho  Cull'res.  'I"be  Hottentot  IjUKUaite  \%  in,, 
niedialeiy  known  from  all  others,  by  its  extraordinnrr 
clipping  sounds,  pru«lucud  by  a  quick  action  of  the  toiigu« 
upon  the  palate. 

THE    POLYSYNTIIKTIC   CLAH.S. 

The  languages  spoken  by  the  Indian  tribesnf  A.npri.a^ 
have  recoived  from  Mr.  Uu  Ponceau,  an  able  investitjalur 
into  tho  subject,  tho  name  of  I'lilysynthtiir,  from  ih« 
manner  in  which  words  are  abbreviated  and  coiiibiiipd  ui 
express  ideas.  'I'his  forms  n  most  remarkable  class  of 
langua<;es;  and  wo  shall  tiest  convey  u  notion  of  in 
p<!culiarities  by  the  following  extract  from  l\\c  ('iinverm. 
tiiiiii  Ij.nroii,  founded  on  Du  Ponceau's  investiga. 
lions.  The  great  distinction  of  tliew  laiigiiatjes  t'roin 
tho<(>  of  Qtlicr  races  of  mankind  is  the  a'.;Klutination  of 
Wv.,Js.  "One  example,  fnnn  the  Delaware  hincinurp 
will  convey  u  clear  idea  of  Ihe  jiroceBs  of  compounding; 
'  and  I  have  chosen,'  says  Mr.  l)u  I'oneean.  •  this  worj 
for  the  sake  of  its  euphony,  to  which  even  Ihe  most  dci. 
cate  Italian  ear  will  not  object.  When  a  Delaware 
woman  is  |>laying  with  a  little  do;.'  or  (ut,  or  .some  olhor 
young  animal,  she  will  often  say  to  it,  Kvlm.iiKinf,  which 
I  would  translate  into  En;;lish — (lire  mc  ymr  yre  ly  h'ik 
/iiiw,  or,  Whiit  a  jxrttij  Ulte  jiair  i/""  hi've!  This  word 
is  compounded  thus;  i  is  the  inseparable  pronoun  of  the 
second  iHTsoii,  and  may  lie  renilered  than  or  ihy.  accord- 
ing to  the  context;  t(/i  (pronounced  i«'/(c,)  is  part  of  ttia 
word  l^M/l^  which  signiCics  Itiiniln'iiu  or  /miy.  it  hoi 
also  other  meanings,  which  need  not  be  hep'  specified; 
Kdl  is  part  of  tho  wonl  inchiint,  which  signifies  a  In;  or 
/(lie;  sriiis  (prnnounced  .>7ii<*)  is  a  diminutive  ti  rnilivt> 
lion,  and  conveys  the  idea  of  Ii'iIijihs  :  thus,  in  one  word, 
the  Indian  woiiian  says  ihy  puny  Utile  ^t  .w .  am!,  ac. 
cording  to  the  geituro  which  she  inakes.  cither  tails  u|kiii 
it  to  present  its  fiH>t,  or  simply  expresses  her  I'ordling 
admiration.  In  the  same  .iiannir,  /tildjir,  u  youth,  ia 
formed  from  fithit,  chaste,  iniioci'iit,  and  Ininpi,  a  man. 
It  is  dillicnlt  to  I'lnd  a  more  elegant  combinalion  ot  ideas, 
in  u  single  word,  of  any  exisiing  idiom.  1  do  not  know 
of  any  language,  out  of  this  part  of  the  world,  m  which 
words  are  coniponnded  in  this  manner.  The  process 
consi.sis  in  pulling  together  portions  ol  dillereiit  words, 
so  as  to  awaken,  at  the  Kaiii.>  time,  in  Ihe  mind  ol  the 
heiircr.  the  various  ideas  winch  they  si'p.natily  ex|ires8. 
Dill  this  is  not  the  only  inaiini'r  in  wliii  h  tlie  Amcrirao 
Indians  coniliiiie  their  ideas  i:ito  woid.'^.  They  have  idsc 
many  ol  the  lorms  of  the  Imiguuges  which  we  so  inuch 
admire — Ihe  Latin,  (irrek.  !">aii,-cril,  Slavonic,  itc*- 
inixeil  with  others  pecntiarly  their  own.  Indeed.  t!ia 
niiiililiide  of  ideas  which  in  their  languages  are  combined 
with  their  verbs,  bus  justly  iitlrai ted  the  attention  of  tiu) 
learned  in  all  purls  of  the  world. 

It  is  not  their  transitive  conjugation,  expressing,  at  the 
same  time,  the  iih'u  id'  the  |Mrson  acting,  and  thai  acted 
U|sin,  thut  have  excited  so  iiiucli  astoiUAhmeiit.  Tlie«* 
are  found  also,  though  not  wilh  th<'  runa-  ridi  variety  of 
fornui,  in  the  Hebrew  and  other  Oriental  Ihiigua^es.  But 
when  two  verln*,  with  inti-rmediule  ideas,  are  combined 
bjgethur  iiito  uue,  u  ia  the  Delaware  ntthni^wiyMta,  1 


LANGUAGE. 


34S 


Join*  I''"  •"  '■''  '*''*'  ''''"'  wM<''>  Ih"  AbW  Molina  aUn 
iJccliret  U)  exiat  in  tlin  liijom  of  ('hili — iilunnrlnrlnvin,  I 
do  not  **'•'•  '"  •"'''  ^''''  him— thera  i*  iiitnciont  cbuiio  to 
^mider,  partirulurly  when  wo  comparn  the  romplirnlion 
gf  thcM  lini^iini^cii  with  tho  iiirnplicity  of  the  (^hineio 
fff\  it!  kindrri'  'Jiiilrotn  In  the  iiiiriRnt  world.  Whence 
^„  have  arinrti  xurh  a  marked  diversity  in  the  formi*  of 
humsn  spfcch?  Nor  \»  it  only  with  tho  vcrhn  that 
,pce«ory  idens  iirc  141  curioniily  comliined  in  the  Iiidinn 
l^npiagpn ;  it  in  »o  likcwiwj  with  tho  otiier  parts  of  8|M-ech. 
'f,ke  the  adverb,  for  inxlnnro.  Tlio  nhNlrnct  ith'ii  of  time 
ill  fntquenlly  iinnoxo'l  to  it.  TIniii,  if  the  Driawareii 
mean  to  wy.  '/  .'/"»  '• '  ""'  rc'tirti,  they  will  expreaa  it  liy 
fnallal"'^'  i;li(}'liiii'i(jui ,  which  may  Im"  tiius  conHtnied : 
fimila  i"  'he  nesiitive  nilverh  no;  Isch  (or  Irh)  is  the  sign 
of  the  future,  with  whicli  the  adverb  is  inflected ;  f;li'ji]>i- 
f[Mue  i«  the  second  person  phirni,  present  tense,  subjunc- 
live  mood,  of  tho  verb  ^liipplrrlilon,  to  turn  about,  or 
ftturn.  In  'his  m'lnner,  every  idea  meant  to  be  conveyed 
hv  this  sentence,  is  cleiirly  understood.  The  subjunctive 
nio(«l  sliows  the  uncertninty  of  the  action ;  and  tho  sign 
of  the  future  tense,  coupled  with  the  adverb,  points  tu  a 
dmc  not  yet  come,  when  it  may  or  may  not  take  place. 
The  Latin  ])liraHe  iiixi  roitru  expresKcs  all  these  mrnn- 
in«<!  hut  the  Bntflish  if  yau  ih  not  mine,  and  the  Frctich 
lirottJ  Hf  frill':  jiik,  have  by  no  means  the  same  elegant 


prrcision. 


The  ;,!itt  ,vl.!  h,  in  Delaware  and  I.alin,  the 


(ul'junctlve  form  directly  conveys,  is  left  to  be  gathered, 
in  the  Englii'h  and  French,  from  the  words  r/and  «i,  and 
there  is  nothing  else  fn  point  out  the  futurity  of  the  ac- 
tion. And  where  tho  two  former  languages  express 
every  thing  with  two  words,  each  of  the  latter  reijuircs 
five,  which  yet  repres,<nt  a  smaller  nu  .ucr  of  ideas." 
Mr.  Du  Pon'euu  then  justly  asks,  to  whicii  of  all  these 
grammatical  forms  is  the  epithet  iiail' .  tm^  to  lie  applied  1 
This  %ory  cursory  view  ot  !he  ge.ieral  structure  of  the 
InJian  lansfuages,  exeinplified  by  the  Delaware,  will  at 
leaat  convince  us  that  a  consideraolc  degree  of  art  and 
method  has  [iresided  over  their  formalioi,, 

.Mr.  Du  Poncciiu  has  summed  up  the  gt^neral  results 
of  his  laborious  and  extensive  investigations  of  the 
American  languages,  including  the  whole  continent, 
from  (Jreenland  to  (Jajic  Horn,  in  three  prtipoBitions — 
ol.  That  the  American  languages  in  freneral  are  rich  in 
wonla  and  In  grammatical  forms,  and  that,  in  their  com- 
Biiintcd  construction,  the  greatest  order,  method,  and 
regularity  prevail ;  2.  That  these  complicated  forms, 
which  I  call  p  ilyfij II Hirtir,  appear  to  exist  in  all  those 
languages,  from  lireenland  to  Cnpv.  Horn  ;  3.  That  these 
forms  apiiear  to  dilli-r  essentially  from  those  of  the  an- 
diiit  and  modern  languages  of  the  old  hemisphere." 

These  explanations  of  Du  Ponceau  surprised  the  phi- 
lologists of  Kur(>p<';  and  bis  statements  were  for  some 
lime  controverted  and  ridiculed.  It  now,  however,  b[>- 
peara  beyond  a  doubt  that  the  languages  of  these  bar- 
toroua  Indiar.  tribes  are  among  the  most  expressive  of 
any  tongue  dead  or  living,  and  that  the  ))rinciple  of  their 
construction  is  most  Ingenious  and  perfect.  Wc  refer 
readers  who  may  lie  <-uriou8  on  the  subject  to  the  Cun- 
vtrtaliiiiu  Lcxicoit,  article  Imlian  Ln>igu(i(;e:. 

BROKKN   LANOUAOIS. 

L'lgna  Frnnra. —  Along  the  coasts  of  the  Levant  and 
European  'I'urkey,  the  natives  of  a  superior  class,  and 
jnrtifularly  merchants,  hold  intercourse  with  the  French. 
Englifch,  Italians,  and  other  foreigners,  in  a  dialect  called 
the  l.inunn  Fni'ira.  It  is  a  jargon  coniposed  chiefly  of 
con'upl  ilsllan  with  Turkish  and  other  words,  and  can- 
not bo  said  to  aspire  to  a  grammar  or  any  regular  form. 
Ah  the  Turks  call  all  Europeans  Franks,  this  language 
baa  been  named  from  them. 

Romaiuch  Lant^mgr. — In  that  part  of  Switzerland 
railed  the  Orisons,  and  tlte  neighbouring  alpino  region 
0    Tyiol,  tho  inhabitants  of  which,  according  to  local 

Vol.  I 


tradition,  are  (ae  descendants  of  some  fttgitives  driven 
from  Lower  Italy  by  the  Gauls,  a  corrupted  Latin  is 
spokjn,  supposed  to  resemble  the  vernacular  of  tho  Ro. 
man  peasantry,  and  called  tho  Litipun  liomantrha.  Of 
this  Romanach  there  are  several  dialects,  and  in  one  of 
them  a  newspaix-r  is  published  at  Coire. 

Cliinest-Fniiliih. — We  have  already  noticed  the  brokem 
Rnglish  spoken  by  the  Negroes  of  the  Uritish  West  In- 
dies, known  by  iho  name  of  the  Talkce-tnlkee.  A  siml. 
lurly  broken  English  is  in  use  at  ("unton,  in  (!hlna,  by 
which  an  intercourse  is  carried  on  between  English  and 
native  tradesmen.  This  ('hinese-Engllsh,  <  )mposed  of 
English  words,  witii  a  few  terms  from  the  Portuguese, 
but  altered  to  suit  the  powers  of  pronunciation  of  Iho 
('hinese,  is  a  barbarous  jargon,  governed  by  no  rules  jf 
grammar.  The  word  "change"  is  pronounced  rlnvn-the ; 
"dirty"  is  tah-tte :  "wife"  is  ti-i-fno:  "three,"  /f-/c; 
"  four,"  faw ;  « five,"  ft .  "  six,"  »t/-»/ip,  and  so  on.  01 
tho  words  from  the  Portuguese,  "  great"  is  knh-lnn-ttt,  • 
corruption  of  uraw/*;  "orange"  is  loo-lan-chc,  for  laranga; 
"  to  know"  is  iha-pe,  for  lahe  (French,  xwoir),  to  know— 
a  term  also  common  in  tlic  Talkee-tnlkec  of  the  West 
India  Negroes,  This  Chinese  gibberish  also  includes  • 
few  expressions  from  the  native  Inngnago  of  China;  al^ 
f7ii«-cAin,  for  "if  you  please;"  dioir-chim;  for  "dinner," 
&c.  At  Macao  there  is  a  similar  lingo,  formed  princi- 
pally from  Portuguese  and  some  Chinese  words. 

CONCLODIRO   ObRERTATION? 

From  what  has  Iteen  stated,  it  appears  that  soma 
hundreds,  if  not  thousands,  of  languages,  are  spoken 
over  the  globe,  the  whole,  however,  divided  into  certain 
leading  classes,  and  by  for  tho  greater  proportion  being 
dialects  or  altered  varieties  of  original  roots.  The  pro- 
dominance  of  any  individual  language  by  no  means  cor- 
re«iK)nds  with  either  its  valuable  qualities  or  its  antiquity. 
The  Celtl  ,  for  example,  the  oldest  langinige  of  most 
European  countries,  is  now  confined  to  a  few  uiimport- 
ant  localities;  the  Hebrew,  following  the  fate  of  the 
people  to  whom  it  belonged,  is  not  spoker  as  a  vernacular 
by  any  nation ;  the  ancient  Greek  has  been  modernized 
or  altered  as  a  spoken  tongue ;  and  the  dignified  and 
sonorous  Latin,  once  spoken  by  the  learned  orators  of 
ancient  Rome,  is  also  numbered  with  the  dead  languages. 
Out  of  the  wreck  of  ancient  tongues,  certain  new 
languages,  as  has  l)een  observed  in  the  preceding  page.^, 
hfive  arisen  and  taken  a  lead  in  the  civilized  world.  Of 
these  the  French  was  the  first  which  attained  general 
estimation.  It  was  spoken  at  courts,  became  the  lan- 
guage of  diplomacy,  and  still  is  tho  medium  of  converse 
among  all  refined  classes  of  p<'rsons  throughout  conti- 
nental Europe.  Except,  however,  in  two  or  three  of  the 
Swiss  cantons,  and  part  of  Belgium  (also  in  the  remains 
of  French  colonies  abroad),  it  is  nowhere  tho  vemaeular 
l)eyond  tho  confines  of  France.  In  short,  with  all  ita 
superficial  disseniinntion,  it  is  limited  m  its  s|)here,  and 
is  no',  making  new  conquests  among  either  barbarous  of 
civilized  races.  The  Italian,  though  rich  and  harmonious, 
is  only  a  local  tongue.  The  Spanish,  by  means  of  con- 
quests in  ("cntrnl  and  South  America,  has  U-cn  widely 
extende<l ;  but  its  progress  has  been  arrested.  The  Spa- 
nish colonies,  founded  on  the  most  odious  oppression,  and 
i  iH-rix'tuated  with  a  disregard  to  any  principles  of  ratiomij 
'  advancement,  have  in  every  Instance  revolted,  and  the 
p<'oplc,  to  all  np|K'arance  incapable  of  civilized  rule  at 
independent  support,  will  in  nil  likelihood  sink  before  the 
external  pres*  ..re  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  republicans;  if  so, 
the  Spanish  tongue  will  disappear  from  the  American 
continent. 

The  next  great  language  of  modern  Europe  is  th« 
German,  which,  as  already  mention  d,  is  spoken  over  a 
vast  extent  of  country,  and  ia  distinguished  for  lh(  greal 
riches  of  its  litersture.  Yet,  this  elocpiont  and  copioua 
tongue  is  alfo  nc   making  aggressions  on  new  doiuainii 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


•ei  b*eoin{<ii(  univrrmi— a  rlrimmntanre  ariaiiiK  from  that 
iltty  of  hiiliitii  in  it*  ix-nplit,  whirh  priivriitu  llirin  from 
BuahiiiR  iiilo  new  iiri-iii<*  of  ■iitrrpriM.  'I'ht'  IliiU-li, 
Rwpiliali,  Norw(>i(l  .11.  aii<l  olhrr  brant  hra  of  the  'IViiloiiu', 
ttf  all  Kulwtatitully  ronfiniil  each  lo  iti  own  liltlo  iikiI, 
from  whii'h  il  dor*  not  appear  likely  that  they  will  over 
fcn  extflndi'd. 

Ttip  EoKlinh  )nni;uaKK,  whirh,  an  wo  have  leen,  in 
lilfle  rU'  lliiin  Sntori  liiii^nl  with  l.iitin,  mfniN  to  hiivi* 
been  reio'rvivl  liir  ii  HJnuiilnr  lU'iiliiiy,  in  no  ri'ii|M'ct  lorn- 
•nan  at  llir  jN'riiNl  of  it*  I'ormation.  Fir»l  iiprrii(tinK  uvrr 
lti»  Uriliiih  ixliincJH,  anil  |iiiKhini{  out  M-vrrnl  variftlca  of 
Cuhir,  il  ha*  Item  I'omliirtrd  tiy  nationnl  fntrrprixo  to  the 
Amnriran  rontlncnt  iiikI  iidanili),  whrro  it  i«  now  the 
leadinK  fonn  of  «p<'crli  of  rivilizinl  nirn,  ovrrywhiw 
overwhflniinK  the  iinlivu  and  traniipliiiili'il  toiiKiica.  Uy 
■imilar  priv'<<aii<<ii  of  roloniziition,  it  him  U-rn  |iliiiiti<il  in 
(be  iirrat  .Aslalii-  |x ninKula  (Indin)  iind  ita  i  'utidH.  in 
AlMlraJiu,  Van  Dionirn'x  Lund,  Nrw  /riiland,  thr  kimiiIi- 
•fn  extmnily  ami  viiriouit  pHrtu  of  the  wontorn  rnant  of 
Africa,  liTNidi'i  oilier  poaiM'aaioim  of  lirllnin  in  ditrrrrnt 
pan*  of  lhi>  world.  I'<'rliii|i«  tlie  iiicwt  cxtriinrdinary 
incitlcnt  in  it«  cvciitfnl  proKrcmi  haa  Imth  it*  plantiilion 
in  Liberia,  on  tin"  ro«Ht  n(  Africa,  l>y  »  aorit-ly  of  Aiii<li>- 
Amerirnn  ci'loiiiBt^.  and  \«  here  it  now  formii  the  vernsculnr 
</  •  Nexro  moe,  Iho  intrlliitcnt  deiHU'ndanta  of  lilieraird 
•lavea.  Thus,  while  mcwt  tonRtie*  have  U-en  ronflned, 
b*  the  forre  of  rirenmi4tiilirei<.  to  the  place  of  llieir  liirth, 
the  Bngli'<h  lian  ifone  fnrwiird  in  the  van  of  civilizutmn 
to  aliiK>«it  nil  ncceHHJMe  piirtu  of  the  hahitiililc  earth;  and, 
p'enerved  from  ilcllcilion  liy  a  common  utiindiiril  lilera- 
t"re,  will  in  all  prohaliilily  UTonu;  a  univortiul  linujiiaKc. 

'i'lie  Htudy  of  liini(iiai,'eii,  with  a  view  to  phiioi«o|ihic 
CNnpariMorvH  nnd  coneluKionn,  and  aim)  with  the  deaif^n 
of  (hruwiiik;  ludit  on  iniin'H  social  proi^remi,  hiiH  in  recent 
bmeg  nii.<iiiinc<l  the  clmriicler  of  a  diiiltiict  branch  of  leurn- 
bi^,  under  the  mime  of  I'liilnLxy  and  among  thr  patient 
■cliolaT!)  of  (iermany  the  oluily  haH  liern  piir»iied  lo  a 
frrat  ami  honourable  extent  France  haa  likewine 
attainrtl  celebrity  for  iti4  linuuhita.  FjXcrpt  by  tlie  publi- 
cat^m  of  I'olyxlotl  bibleii,  Kn^land  hiia  done  little  rom- 
pr»'heniiively  in  lliia  di'i«irtinent  of  lctt<'rn,  and  few  men 
have  dt.stiiiKuiiihed  tlieniHelvea  aa  linf^uisti,  a  facility  in 
•oquiring  Iungua);e8  pit  billing  appvenlly  within  the 
wopc  of  the  iwiionni  mind  and  habita.  The  late  Hjr 
William  Jones,  who  conquered  all  dilFicultit-a  by  hia 
penH!veiaii<-i-,  was  ii  reiiiaikublo  rxce[ition.  He  waa  ac- 
quainted with  twenly-<'i^ht  lam^uaifex.  The  method  of 
•tudy  which  he  pumued,  and  which  he  iccommends  to 
Othem.  waa  tliat  which  has  Itccii  culled  i/ou/m  lrutt>litlii>ii. 
It  was  his  custom,  after  he  had  traiiNlatrd  a  pamaKe  into 
Enfflish  from  some  foreign  author,  to  restore  his  own 
translation  lo  the  lanituaKe  of  the  autlior,  and  then  lo 
eomiNtre  this  re-tniUNl.ition  with  the  original.  Hv  this 
DieaiiK,  he  waa  enabled  to  detnt  his  i<wn  errorn,  and  to 
acquire  the  peculiar  style  ami  idioms  of  each  lanituage. 
It  has  m-ip;eiilly  U'en  found  highly  advaiitaRcnus  to  read 
the  same  work  ui  ditrereni  laiiKuaKrs.  Uy  rom|«ritiK 
ive  wottls.  (rrammatirnl  sirurlurr,  and  idioms  of  each 
Uii|;uai{e,  the  poweri«  of  cuin|MriBoii  and  retWlion  are 
called  into  active  exercise,  and  the  facta  more  atrongly 
lin|irinted  on  the  nieniory. 

■PKCIMEN8   or    LAR0L-A0K8. 

With  the  view  of  allordiuit  the  uiileiirned  reader  rn 
idea  ol  the  apiN-araiiiv  of  some  of  the  principal  Ian- 
(uat^es,  dead  anil  livini;.  wc  H|>|M'iid  the  paswiues  Iriini 
tt»  New  'I'oataiueut   cuiaposiiig  like  Lurd'a  Prayer,  in 


•  ■»!    Ill  nil- I  ■*    ri|MIIVMII    1 1    IW.  ™    1  'J 'III    in    Olio    llt    lll»'  n  ■««■■    IIIIT   l'll>r'||f  i  •, 

Li'*  lifimiii  I'm  ;m   riiMiioi)    iiIIh   ruiat  In  iti;^ .  iiiu)  lou  pt.m  roii 
Itoii  M»u  L-siiii  tiu  liiiaituiftf  km  Uv  (tuiiuiiuit  kui  lit*  Uukft^  oi$  iqu 

i4iAiiiia  Aliiuii 


Greek,  Latin,  Italian,  Hpanish,  Prrnch,  n«>mMn,  um^^ 
and  RiiRlish — for  the  sake  ol  ilearnes",  the  Oroek  ii 
printed  in  the  Koiiian  al|iba)H'l,  the  Bspirato  ^i  g^ 
beKiniiing  of  rrrtniii  wonls  Im'Iiik  iipresented  by  tj,, 
letter  II.  'I'hfl  reniler  is  <'alled  on  to  oliwrvp  the  dif1)-n>i,g 
b«'twren  the  (I'lrek  and  Latin  words,  and  how  evld,,,,!, 
the  Latin  ia  tliu  jHirent  of  Ihu  IihIIiiii,  HpaiuHb,  and  Kn  n,  -^ 
the  lattec.  however,  |MHisessliiK  ibe  least  reseinbliino  m 
orthography  and  arrHiiKemrnl  to  ^ts  oriii;liml.  Ho  ^yi 
also  have  an  op|Niitiinily  of  coinpiirinu  the  (Jeriiian  ivjih 
its  kintlred  loiiKue  the  Dutch,  mid  luilh  with  their  reU 
tiuii  to  the  AitKlo-ttaiuu  or  KiiKlish. 

ORECK. 

pAT«a  iimSw  horn  lois  oiirniuiia.  hsKlaithiUn  loonoi.io  «ig 

Kllh'ii)  hu  lliisili  IS  •UN  (ii'iic'llii  u>  III  ilii'li'itia  iwni,  liO,  ,, 
oiiraiiB.  km  i-|ii  i>>  ((ea  'I'mi  iiriiMi  In  man  inn  r|iiiiuiiioii  i|„| 
Ik'Iiiiii  srini>rnii.  Kui  nplies  lieiiim  lu  npli'iiltwimla  IhinSn,  |,(, 
kiu  Iii'fi)ei4  N)ihifiiirii  ukk  <i|ilieiit  Itim  JK'innii  Km  I  ine  fih.  ijriff 
L."  ' •■ '• ■'■ 

I  _,   _ 
iiiSiius.     Aliicu. 

LATIK 

P*Tita  KOSTca.  qui  es  in  va  •.  •iinrliflcpinr  nomi-n  iiium 
Adveiiial  ri-ffiiuni  liniiii.  Kiiii  .(iliiitius  liia.  sent  .n  nn*ln.  vi  n 
ITra.  I'ain-in  ii«iAlruiii  giiordiuiiiiin  ilu  iiiiIha  lindir.  Kt  ri-iii:n« 
hi'liii  deliiin  liiiklra,  mciil  e-  iio«  run  ti.iihis  'li'hilonluiii  no»it. 
I'.i  mt  lion  iiHl.ii-111  ill  II  nun  ntii'iii.  Kill  liliiTs  una  n  mala.  '|',|,j 
eniin  est  rcunuiu,  et|iotuiiUB,  ui  Klnnu,  insiinjiilurnuiii.    Auka 

ITALIAN. 

PAIiai  Niviao,  rhr  s«i  lie'  on  li,  am  snnliRruIn  il  luo  nonie 

II  Inn  rruno  v.'Mna.  I, a  liiu  voloiiU  i-ni  liiua  in  terrii  ruiiir  n 
eiiiu.  Diircr  ngui  il  iinsiro  pHiii-  ininlrinn.  I',  niiii'iiin  ,  iioiin 
Ueliiii,  cfiuie  nui  (incorii  K''  riini'ltiunui  a'  ii'iitin  i],  liitori.  K  nun 
iiiiliiroi  ill  li'iiin/jnni'.  iiiu  liheruei  iliil  iiniliKmi.  IVrciocht  luo 
t  il  rcHiio,  c  lu  |K>li'ii/a,  e  la  gloria,  in  •ciiipiluriio     Aiuun. 

SPAIfMH. 

PadUB  wrntrao.  que  rsi4ii  i  n  Im  cielos,  sos  •nncliflcido  u 
noiiibre.  V^i(n  lit  rryiio:  ai-a  In-rim  ma  volPirJ.  cninu  tn  e, 
(Mt'Ui,  uiiai  mniliirn  I'li  lu  tierru.  Iliinoa  ny  nii'.a  ro  pan  ijiiot'- 
(liiiito.  V  aiit'tiuiioH  ini'-Kiriia  (leudutt,  rnnii  iff.Dl.ien  iinHoiroi 
aojniinoa  n  inieAlroA  tlpinlnr***.  \  no  nria  n.,*'.i'  en  irntncios, 
iiiiiM  hliriiniiH  lie  mill.  I'tirifne  iii>ii  es  ul  rryno,  y  la  p<ii«cis, . 
lu  gluriu,  pur  to^lut  los  sitcUia.    Amen. 

rRENCH. 

Nnrat  Pfhk  qui  c«  anx  cienx.  ion  nom  aoit  snnciiflf.  To« 
r^Kiie  vieiine :  In  volonl^  aoil  Iniie  aiir  In  icrre,  roninir'  an  cinj. 
IKMiie'iinua  aiijouril'liui  nnire  pujii  qnniircn.  ruriluiim'-nnui 
noa  |Ycti^B,  eoinine  unaiti  noii^  pardoiinon«  &  citix  (jni  ;iousoM 
>iiri'ni><a.  r.t  nu  iioiia  ul  umtnnni'  pom  &  l.i  nntaiion.  nu  i 
il^livr-1  lions  ilu  ninl  n.  Cur  ft  In  iipparlitnl  lu  ngno,  >  p,'>s. 
suiicu,  cl  la  gluirn,  It  juiuais.     Anaii. 

OERMAN. 

Uwna  Vateu  in  ilcm  lliniinel.  item  Nnm.:  werde  g«ttl'.l(;»L 
IVin  Keieh  knnime.  IVin  Wille  (renelitlie  aul'  !,r1r-i  r  t  u 
lliininnl.  lii«ir  IllKlirhes  llroil  K'l-  una  lie'iie.  t'r.(tv.r|eb 
una  liiiaere  >chnM.n.  wie  wir  unaern  .'^eiinliliRf'e  vir);al  rn. 
I'lul  lUlire  una  nirlil  in  WrancliiiiiK,  somleri-  r  Ifp  uiit  vn^ 
ilrin  I'eliel.  Demi  dein  ist  daa  iiuich,  mxi  iliq  ■•rsli,  uad  dis 
llcrrliclikuil,  in  Kwigkeil.    AmeiL 

DUTCH. 

0:«zi  VAnaa.  die  in  dr  lUimlen  /ijl.  iiw  nuam  word*  nfK»i- 
lifld.  fw  KiiniiRnjIt  koine.  Dw  wil  )r"  j'.ieile.  fieljjk  in  Jm 
iiiiiiel.  Zoo  ook  op  Ae  anrde.  (feel  on'  I  nleii  ona  d«((i'|  ,l[i(!> 
brood.  Kn  verKeeions  on/e  aclinld.-n.  I'flijk  ook  wi)  vrrveves 
on/in  schiildennren  Kn  leid  ona  n.ri  in  yrr/oikini,  Slut 
verloa  ona  van  ili  n  lioo/e.  Waul  L'-*  i«  hcl  knninKrijk.  Eiids 
kraclil,  en  de  heerlijklieul.  In  dc  ecuwiglisid.     Amen. 

ENOLISH. 

Ora  FATnaa  which  an  in  heav.-n.  hHllowi-d  be  thy  Iiume 
Th)  kin(?diini  eome.  Thy  will  be  .lone  in  earlh.  aa  il  ii  in 
heaven  (ive  iif  Ih^s  day  our  daily  lireiid  And  loryre  ut 
our  iresnassrs.  as  we  I'urKive  Ihiin  ihai  lrra|  n^r  aitaa.il  Ja. 
And  lead  iia  noi  mo  lempiation  Iml  del.ver  na  lro>:.  evil.  Foi 
thine  ii  the  kingdom,  the  power,  and  Ui«  glory,  tor  «v«r  tM 
aver.    Amen. 


■f.iMm'.'  ft,(  '•  -fi.v'  n«',!' 


,'   '• 


•"».  «he  Or»,k  I, 
Bopinito  *|  g,, 
pfewnlrd  by  i),, 
iTVf  tli<i  (lifli-n^^ 
iii'l  liow  evid,.,,,!, 
iiiip.li,  ntiil  Pri  n,  K 
»t  rfiM'in|,|,„„.p  1^ 
irimriiil.  Hi.  ^,,11 
llir  tiiTiiian  iviiii 
I  with  their  rel« 


■iliriii  to  onoi.in  ^„ 
I'liiim  MMi.  iiii,  ,,„ 
'  l"ii  rpi.Hi.ioi,  ,io, 
liimiin  li,in»ii,  |,(, 

Km  m p..iirh.. 

■     "|'<>  t"U  iKm.roii, 
lui  lie  iloxa,  „,,  1^^ 


peiiir  nonii>n  luun 
.  "I'lit  ,11  cn-lo, Pill 
".  '">''"'■  »-:i  riin;in 
•l>'l>:lorilni»  ih,si,  , 
■a  iui«  n  ninlo.  '1,1,1 
■ii|iiluriiuiii.    Anita 


Scmo  il  luo  nonid 
IIH  III  iiTrii  luinc  n 
■  riiiiciliri ,  „o.iri 

l«lri  (I.  I,„„f,.      |,;„,|| 

fii".  rircioch*  luo 
Pileriio     Amen. 

I 

.  •■!•  »inriH|pido  n 
'DlCi'.i.  coino  m  t, 
|-  iiu-.»  ro  pan  ipioi. 
ilf  If.nl.irn  iioKoiroi 
ti^-'a-  .Ml  ifinnrioiL 
ryiK.,  y  la|K)iicn,j 


I  »nit  •aiiriifle,  TVjj 
irri-,  rniiiinc  m  cifl, 
ifli.  I'ttriloiiiiem.ui 
4  ciiix  (jiii  .10111  oirt 
H  '.1  I'-miiioii.  niii 
till  lu  n  jtnu,  >  p,  ,fc 


II.'  wiTile  gei.«i'.;j,-M. 
I-  «ul  I.rir-i  re  ,ig 
lifiii-.  I'l.d  vtr|  tb 
niililiRe'*  vir);al,rii. 
I>'ri-  r  I-  fe  um  v  n 
li  dm  Kr*i\,  unildia 


nuam  word*  Krh'h 
'.ii'il,',  (ii'iijk  in  ,1^1 

''1**11  niin  liHjfi'I  jkart! 
ijk  iKik  «i)  vi-rKfvea 
I  yrr/oi'kiiic.  .Vlaai 
el  kipninKnjk,  tjida 
d.    AiiiLii. 


>wed  lie  thy  iiuna 
1  i-arlh,  ai  il  ii  m 
d-  And  for^ve  ui 
rn| mr  afraii.il  it. 
■  iiK  Iro-;.  eyil.  Foi 
|lury,  tor  aver  tM 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


INTRODUCTION. 

niANMAi  (rrum  the  Uronk  word  iframma,  a  latt«r,)  ia, 
lu  it*  larvi'itt  ariiMC,  that  liranch  of  kiiuwIvdKU  which 
ittirm  to  thn  coni|ioiiL'iit  parta  (..'  laiiKUiiKC 

Till'  piir|H>an  of  IniiKUiiKO  ia  to  oiprcaa  our  iileaa. 
Iliniiliir  i-laMH>a  of  iilfua  iii'cexaarily  ariaii  in  thu  iiiiiuU 
tf  every  portion  of  the  human  fuinily  ;  for  thu  mind  iH 
(«rrywh(*ru  the  aamu,  in  kind  if  not  in  deirn-e,  und  thi' 
dn'uinHlanooR  and  dmiroa  of  mnnkind  uru  vveryMherc 
ki«ii  or  more  alike.  'I'o  oxprcaa  tlicae  rlusNoa  of  tdeait, 
men,  ill  nil  cnuntriea  and  in  all  ataKra  of  aocicty,  tiae 
eorreKIiondiiiK  rluaaca  of  worda,  althoUKli  the  worila  may 
Iheiiiiielveii  be  ditTerrnt.  For  example,  men  everywhere 
ire  taiiKihlc  olijecta  around  thein.  'I'o  tlu'Me  they  apply 
diitinct  namei  or  iippiUaliimt,  which  form,  it  may  be 
laid,  one  claaa  of  worda — NouNa,  They  tteo  thinnsi  per- 
form acti ;  uH,  for  inatanre,  they  aee  cuttle  hruirse  and 
kida  </(iii'r.  Thua  ariaca  another  cliinw  uf  wordM — Vkrhh. 
J\\(^  ace  while  cuttle  and  hlark  cultlc;  hence  Aiijkc- 
TivKS.  Theao  and  other  kinda  of  worda,  or,  to  uw  the 
eonmion  phrnne,  fxiiin  nf  $peerh,  are  found  eipmlly  in 
tlie  laiii;uiiKe  of  the  North  American  Indian  und  in  the 
rtrtii'Ml  discourae  of  the  European  philoKOpher.  To  ex- 
hibit Iho  nature  and  (lowcr  of  words,  taken  «int,'ly  and  in 
coniliiiiation.  viewed  hm  a  vehicle  of  thmiplii  or  j  medium  of 
commiir.iciition,  iathe  firal  and  hi^hcNt  object  of  i(rumrnur. 

In  the  Hpeech  of  every  nution  there  are  uUo  many 
peruliarilicH,  both  in  the  formation  of  wonU  t<>  exprcax 
varii'lies  of  aenite,  and  in  the  way  in  which  »  rd«  are 
irran!?ed,  thcHe  being  partly  the  result  of  int<'lli'rtHHl 
peculiaritiea  of  the  people,  and  partly  the  effect  of  acci- 
dent, (irainmar  alao  takea  coj^nliMnce  of  such  pcculiaii- 
ties.  Hence,  there  ia  not  only  univeraul  Kninuiiar, 
which  relates  to  wliiitevcr  ia  common  to  the  atructiire 
of  ull  laiitjiiafje,  but  likewise  a  Kra>i><iinr  for  each  parti- 
cular tongue;  oa,  for  instance,  the  (ireek  gniiimmr,  the 
Latin  '4rainrimr,  the  French  and  the  Kn^'lish  grammnrs. 
Our  present  business  ia  with  English  grummar,  or  to 
art  forth,  a*well  as  we  lan,  witliin  a  aninll  coiiipiu<s,  t!ie 
•truc(uil>  and  the  usages  of  the  Engliah  languni;e. 

There  arc  four  parta  in  English,  as  in  other  grnm- 
mam,  ()>tlitiiiriii>liy,  Elynuiluty,  Syntax,  and  Prmuily, 

OaTiinoHArHT,  from  the  Greek  words,  mihm,  right, 
and  !,riifihe,  a  writing,  ia  that  part  of  grammar  which 
teaches  the  nature  ajid  powers  of  letters,  and  the  just 
method  of  spelling  words. 

PaoKonr,  from  the  (Jreek  word  protmlia,  the  arrcnt 
of  a  word,  Ireuta  of  the  pronunciation  of  words,  ami  of 
the  laws  of  versification. 

On  both  these  departments  wo  mean  to  say  nothing, 
principally  liccBuae,  us  we  appreliciid,  they  can  only  he 
effectually  tAught  by  the  living  voice  ;  liesides,  as  far 
U  relates  to  Orthograpliy,  so  few  general  rules  have 
been  ascertained,  that  tiioy  afford  litile  help  to  the 
yount?  or  inexperienced  stiident.  Practice  alone  can 
giv..'  facility  ami  correclm-sa  in  spelling.  With  reijiird 
to  Prosody,  wo  iimy  further  ler.i.irk,  that  il  relates  to  a 
mere  luxury  of  language  ;  because,  to  the  effectual  com- 
munication of  thought,  mctilcal  iiirangcincnt  of  language 
u  by  no  means  necessary,  and,  in  an  elementary  woik 
}n  grauiniar,  it  may,  without  impropriety,  W  omitted. 

This  leaves  us  Etymology  and  Hyiitux,  which  uiulc- 
niahly  constitute  the  chief  (larta  of  grniiimar ;  and  of 
these  we  shall  tre  it  aa  fully  as  our  limits  permit. 

In  CriMoi.oKT  we  shall  lie  guided  by  this  principle, 
which  we  hold  to  be  established,  that  every  won'  luis 
of  iUeli  a  distiiKt  oiiic)*  to  perforin,  aud  we  khuil  be 


careful  to  exhibit  the  force  and  aigniflrar  «  tf  wordi 
token  singly. 

In  SrnTAX  we  ahall  not  attempt  to  lay  lourn  niU$, 
as  they  are  culled,  for  every  mode  of  exp  «saion,  bgt 
rather  to  exhibit  a  few  of  the  leudin,:  iirinciples  of  oui 
language,  the  comjilete  understanding  of  which  wiU 
su|M>riedo  the  necessity  of  minute  observation  on  our 
part,  ns  will  enable  the  student  to  make  thoin  for 
himself. 

We  cannot  approve  of  the  exhaustive  system  of 
teaching  Hyntax — framing  a  rule  for  every  (leculiarity 
that  the  lunguago  contains ;  much  b«<tter  is  it  to  con- 
duct the  student  at  once  to  tiie  jmnciplen,  which  an, 
as  it  wore,  the  fountain  heads  of  mkn.  In  the  ona 
way,  we  should  but  exhibit  to  him  every  thing  by  our 
lorih-lighl :  but,  in  the  other,  ve  kindlr  Inn  awn,  and, 
having  pointtd  out  the  road  in  w hiih  he  is  to  travel, 
leave  him  to  hiins«-lf.  When  the  student  is  familiar 
with  the  principle-,  it  may  be  desimblo  to  cxerciif 
himself  on  minute  details,  mid  a  school-griimni.ir  ahnulb 
provide  exercises  on  ttie  minutest  peculiarities  of  Um 
lunguago, 

ETV.MOI.OOY. 

Ett MotooT, from  the  twoGreek  words, f/i/moii,  the  root 
of  a  wi'  d,  and  tuiiOH,  a  discourse,  i-i  that  part  of  gTank- 
mar  wliuh  treats  of  the  various  clasu'S  into  which  words 
are  arranged,  of  the  different  niocliliciitions  they  undergo 
to  express  difference  of  meaning,  and  of  their  origin  and 
history.  , 

I.  CLASSiriCATIUN. 

Words  are  the  symbols  of  Ideas,  and  they  are  classl- 
lied  and  named,  not  from  their  liirin,  but  from  the  na* 
tiire  of  the  idea  that  they  repreneiit  or  stund  for.  The 
class  of  any  purticiilar  wurd  is  only  to  Iks  ascertained  by 
observing  the  otlic  which  it  performs.  What  it  rfo«l, 
alone  indicates  what  it  i.«. 

It  would  be  ipiitc  impossllde  to  say,  previous  to  actual 
insjiectlon,  how  many  sortri  of  words,  or,  as  they  are 
generally  called,  ;)fiW.<  nf  s/ifcrh,  exist  In  any  language; 
but,  upon  examination,  it  is  ascertained  that  all  wordi 
used  in  the  English  language  may  bo  arranged  under 
eight  Iwads. 

The  .  if^lit  parts  of  sfieech  nrc — Noun,  Adjective,  Pro 
noun.  Verb,  Adverb,  Preposition,  Conjunction,  and  In» 
terjection. 

A  definition  of  each  of  these  classes  of  words  ougM 
to  point  out  the  characteristic  or  specific  idea  by  which 
it  is  distinguished  from  ull  the  others ;  and  every  indivi- 
dual word,  brought  under  niiy  ot  the  eight  heads,  must 
agree  with  the  definition,  ij  ii  i'  adujuate — that  ia, 
neithi  i  too  I'xlcnsive  nor  too  limited. 

THE    NOUN. 

A  Nor!».  from  the  I.atin  word  nomni,  n  nomc,  is  the 
name  of  any  person,  place,  ihing,  (|iiontity.  or  jirlncipio; 
or,  more  generally,  it  is  the  name  of  whatever  c;m  bo 
an  object  of  contemplation  or  sul<jcct  of  discourse. 

The  characteristic  of  the  luniii  is  this :  it  gives  of 
itself  a  disticl  idea  or  object  of  tboii«ht ;  thus,  of  the 
words, /<■,  jMi,  /iiii^,  ii/iii(.'  /if,  (i;i'i/y,  und  fin/,,  the  only 
ones  that  present  a  picture  lo  the  ••  mind's  eye"  are  pen 
and  fli'p.  These,  therefore,  we  call  nouns;  but  jM 
others  ilo  not  belong  to  this  class. 

It  should  be  CTirefully  observed,  ihnt  every  proposition, 
or  8<<ntence  thut  asserts  any  tliin^'.  must  contain  ot  lea^l 
a  noun  and  a  verb — the  noun  to  express  the  thing  spoken 

847 


148 


INFORMATION  FOR  THK   PFOPI.B. 


•bout,  Mil  th«  Tprb  lo  Ir  ^Iml*  what  !•  afTlrmr)!  ron- 
writiiiK  it. 

Noun*  are  (li«iili>(l  Into  two  great  fUmm,  Prnptr  anri 

Pm[ht  nDiitm  arr  niii-h  aa  am  applinl  to  imliviiliial 
Mreoiia  iir  tliiiiKa  only;  auch  aa  I'ulurui,  /iri'iiin,  t'.ihit- 

Comniiin   Nnuna  ar*  applicnbl*  to  wholfl  rlaaapa  of 

RTioiia  or  oliji'i'U ;  »*,  iivrf  i,  itliml,  rity,  ('oriiiiioii 
ouiia  are  liv  hoiih'  iliviilcil  iiitci  thntt  aiilt-rlaiMrii,  ciillrJ 
Milriifl,  t'iilliiiiir,Mv\  Ciilifil  hy  wliirh  iiiraiivi'iiii-iit 
thft  rlaai  of  ('oiiinioii  Noiiiia,  iii  tiic  limiu-d  m  iv|it<itii)ri 
of  t)i«  trriii,  iiii'IuIfh  only  the  iiaiuri  of  thing*  olivioua 
to  •om«'  of  llir  tlvi-  wnnra. 

An  alwtrai-l  iidiiii  in  tho  nnino  of  n  qimlity  thoiii^ht 
of  apart  fniiii  iill  coniiiili'rittioii  of  the  milmtiiiu'c  in  which 
the  i|iMlitY  rcxiili'H.  The  torni  iH'iim  rrrironco  to  an 
•rt  of  tho  niinil,  cnlli'd  n'oliit'lKni,  by  wliii-h  we  rt\  our 
attention  on  one  property  of  nn  olijeet,  leiiviiiK  the  olliera 
out  of  view.  Nii'ivv,  chiilk,  and  writinK-paper,  are  while, 
•nd,  >in  ihia  (imility,  arc  oppri-rt-iive  to  the  eye«. 
Ahali,!' tin((  the  i|iiiility  from  the  niiliHtani'e,  we  Miy 
"  Whitenewi  i»  oppmwive  to  the  eyea."  UAi/riuM  thn» 
lecoiiu^  an  ahxtr^K't  noun.*  An  alwtrurt  noun  may 
•lao  be  a  niimi'  indicMtliiK  the  want  of  a  i|ualily,  iii  loi- 
«n>r^^iiir<ii.  Coinpreheniiively,  almtruct  nouni  are  the 
naniea  of  imnuil'V  al  entirnrft,  iiii$,  nr  tintti. 

Collective  .Noiinn  arc  thone  wliicli,  though  iiinKtilar  in 
form,  m:iy  <iii;{t{i'i|  Mu  idea  of  plurality.  They  are  nucli 
•a,  (limy,  i/i'^'v,  nonul. 

The  iin|M'rfeet  purtieipic  of  a  verb  (which  will  Iw 
Irrated  of  nncruurdit).  when  Uird  u«  tti<-  utiiiir  of  an 
action,  ih  Ciillril  a  V'erbul  .Noun.  In  lli<<  aenloMce, 
"'J'he  eye  in  not  witUt'ird  with  at'cinif,  nor  the  ear  fdled 
with  hearing,"  the  wordu  $rttng  and  hannif  arc  called 
Verl>al  N'uunn. 

THI    ADJICTITK. 

An  AnjKCTiTi  i»  a  word  that  (jualiflea  a  noun,  that 
h,  marka  it  out  from  other  ihingt  that  bear  tho  aame 
name. 

The  char»i'>rristir  of  the  ntljective  ii,  that  it  limita 
tlie  appliciitioii  of  the  noun:  tliuH,  the  term  itliDnl  i« 
■pplicahle  lo  every  {nirtion  of  laml  aurroiindi'd  liy  water; 
but  if  the  udjective  fir  ilf  Ih-  a^ixed  t<i  it.  all  iMaiuU  not 
diKtinguiiihi'd  by  the  pro|iorty  of  fertility  are  rxcluiled 
from  our  ron-'idenilion. 

Thin  part  of  «|H'i'rh  wernii  to  have  receiveil  ita  name 
from  an  a<  rjili  ni.d  rirruniatunre.  and  not  from  iiny  thini; 
(laarntial  to  itN  iiatuie.  In  the  I.alin  InnKuat^e.  it  wna 
uiual  to  place  the  word  miHlifyini{  the  noun  after  it, 
thua,  taliula  loiii^'i,  while  we  prefix  it,  and  aay,  a  Iouk 
talilt  :  the  Latin  ^raiiiniariunii.  therefore,  called  thin  clnm 
Sf  worda  it.ljfriii-if,  from  (nl,  to,  and,/'' '«.>,  thrown,  an.! 
wc  retain  the  term,  although  our  modlfyini;  woni 
gort  I'lrat  If  tlu'  Htiident  haa  learned  to  reroi^niw*  the 
noun,  he  will  Icel  no  ilitriculty  in  knowing  the  mljicttvr, 
becauae  itn  oll'ice  ih  to  p<iint  out  Home  |N>«ii1iarity  which 
diMtinguiHheii  the  noun. 

"  Nouns  ailjrrtivf  are  the  word*  which  exprena  qua- 
lity connidired  ax  ijuallfyini;,  or,  a*  the  aehoolmen  aay, 
in  concrete  with  Hunte  purtiiular  au'jecl.  TIium,  the 
word  i:iten  exprcK'ten  a  certain  ijuality  considered  aa 
qualifying,  or  an  in  concrete  with  the  particular  Hulijei-t 
lo  which  it  iH  applied.  Words  of  tilia  kinil,  it  ia  evid'-nt, 
may  aerve  to  diBtini^ulah  particular  objects  from  other* 

*  Though  we  ihua  distinituiih  r>n<>  rlaai  oi'  noiina— ihoc. 
tfailMly.  wlueti  com*"  (mtn  H<lj>*ptJV«'«  of  lire  ri»»i*clv  coim**Pietl 
With  tfiein — li>  lilt-  l.ilf  nhtirart.  «■>■  ari'  (Hr  from  »■  nhiiiK  o  "> 
•r  inl«rrr<l  thlii  nrtmnon  nitiim  utr  noi  apprrhriiili  il  by  !h'  aame 
%riiltv-  On  \Uf  coiiiriir>,  rtii'lnphynicKi  proprif'y  compi'l"  u» 
lo  admit  ihai  iucli  ii  ihe  raa'-  ami  ii  any  m  our  rraM'Tt  f>'rl  an 
a>i«rL'»t  m  Ihe  <|ueal'On.  wp  rrqui'si  tun  lie  (fire  condt- mninff 
'Mr  opinion  lo  p'Tme  llif  Itiird  ch»piiT  of  ilir  iliinl  Ixmk  of 
Loeka'a  Kutmu  amftrninn  Human  Vwlmlatv/ine.  ami  alio  Adam 
floulil'*  VitMnMum  on  ilu  yurmatwn  iff  lAniguitga. 


comprehended  iiniler  the  aam*  ((fnami  aptwltatton.  T\f 
word*  ifrriii  lire,  for  eiainple,  niiifht  lerve  to  diatinnui^ 
a  |Nirtieular  trM  from  othera  that  were  willierfd  m 
blaaled."* 

Adjoetivea  are  Renerally  divided  into  two  grenl  rlaaar^ 
Attributive  and  Numeral,  or  thone  which  denote  >|ualit« 
and  llioae  which  refer  lo  niimlKir. 

'I'he  wortU  .1  or  (in  (two  different  forma  of  the  <4im 
word)  and  tfir,  are  reckoned  by  Nome  Kraniiimriiini  ■ 
aepnrute  part  of  apeech,  and  receive  tho  coiiiinon  n«m« 
o(  /i7ii/f — (I  or  (III  iH'inii  called  tho  imlifmili;  anil  thi^ 
the  I'f/lin'r  article ;  hut,  aa  they  In  all  re«|i<cls  conn 
under  tlo"  dcfinilion  of  the  odjective,  it  ia  uniiece-w.iry,  g^ 
well  aa  iiiipro|H'r,  to  rank  lliem  aa  a  claaa  by  thcMPielve^ 

In  «ii(ni(1cation,  a  or  nn  i*  ■■quivalml  to  the  niiiii  'r^ 
adjective  inir,  and  llir  lo  the  deniolixtriitive  ailjcctivf 
ihiil  :  and  the  only  difference  iM'twecn  Ihcm  i»,  ilmt  n^ 
(III,  and  f/if,  convey  the  idei  leaa  emphatically  than />in 
and  Hull.  Whoever  read*  Dr.  Croiiibie'a  remark*  iig 
the  "  .\rliclr,"  niuat  lie  convinced  of  the  nlmunlity  of 
reckiuiinif  it  a  distinct  part  of  a|M'ech. 

Varioii*  other  worda,  gem  lally  nrran«ed  under  th« 
head  of  Pronoun,  ai-em  more  properly  to  IhIouk  to  ih« 
adjective.  For  instance,  Ihe  eii;ht  word*,  my,  I'lij,  l,,,^ 
hn,  Ilu,  iiur,  yur,  Iheir,  correapondinn  exactly  in  ii|Tir» 
with  the  definition  of  the  adjective;  but  aa  they  ure  il» 
rived  from,  and  answer  t»>,  tho  ;i(i«"iio/  iiiowunn,  they 
may  Ih-  cilled  /.ioiioiiimki/  iidjtilivci  with  more  propriety 
than  p'urfxirr  ;)im,piumii.  If  they  ever  ataiid  ali'iic.  they 
do  not  exactly  supply  tho  place  of  ii  noun,  but  merely 
have  it  undcratoiKl,  and  »«,  u*  will  pieaently  np|Kiir,  da 
not  come  under  tlio  dclinilion  of  ;if(>/i(iiii;.  In  like  mni». 
ner,  the  worda  /Am  •ml  '/lof,  with  their  pluraU  /'mic  nnj 
/'i()*<-,  by  many  culled  rinonilrnliif  pi oiiotuit :  anil  :iiso 
the  fo'ir  worda  riirh,  nfry,  fi!htr,  ind  nci'hrr,  named 
iliiln/iiiliie  ptiiniiiint — niual  in  atrii  t  [iropiicty  lie  con. 
aidered  a*  adjective*,  in  iia  much  bh  they  b.iili  preffJa 
and  deMignate  noun*,  but  never  lupply  their  plate 

THK    PRONOUN. 

A  PaoMoin  IS  a  word  that  auppliea  the  plice  of  t 
noun. 

Pronouna  may  Ik)  divided  into  I'tmon.il,  h^Uilivt,  and 
/ii(cri(>i.'ii/irr. 

The  I'eraonal  Pronouns  arc  tliree  in  number — l.thmt, 
and  i.r.  Mill,  or  i/.  * 

/  is  iiaed  when  the  |)er»on  ajx-akini?  refer*  to  hini»elf; 
//((III,  when  he  refer*  to  the  |ier*ou  aiMreaacd;  and /ic, 
$hf,  or  11,  when  he  «peaka  of  »ome  other  |)erson  or  lliiiiit 

In  a  work  ei|ually  interealiiiK  to  the  Kiaininnrian  and 
the  philoaopher,  we  find  the  follow ini{  account  of  the 
Peraoiial  Pronouna,  and  we  confidi  iilly  reconnnend  it 
to  the  attention  of  our  reader*: — •'  In  all  H|s"ech  there 
i*  a  upeidfi  there  ia  *onie  peinm  tpuKtu  In.  uiid  there 
i*  aome  pnmn  or  Ihtng  tfmktn  i>f.  TheH«'  objiita  con- 
*titute  three  claaai'a.  inBrk*  of  which  are  |H'r|«'lii.illy  re- 
quired. Any  ariii^ce,  therefore,  to  abridge  the  use  4 
mark*  of  auch  frequent  occurrence,  wua  highly  to  l* 
deaired.  One  exiH'dient  offered  it*«'lf  obvioualy,  at 
likely  U)  prove  of  the  highoMt  utility.  Sptuknt  con»ti. 
tul<'d  one  claha,  with  nuinerou*  namea  ;  pirtvm  j;iM-ot 
/(),  a  aecond  claita ;  prrmnt  and  llixnut  tpoktu  nf,  a  third. 
A  ftiififiil  name  might  be  inveiiU-d  for  each  claita— a 
name  which  would  include  all  of  u  clasa,  and  which 
ainglv  iiiiKbt  bi-  ua<'d  a*  the  aulistitute  yf  many.  Foi 
thi*  end  were  the  peraoiml  pronouilH  invented,  and  «'■ 'b 
i*  their  chamcter  and  office.  '  I'  i»  tho  j,i'iiprical  niarll 
which  inci  idea  all  mark*  of  tho  claim  fpnik>i> .  •  llum'  ii 
a  genericul  mark  which  include*  all  iiiarka  of  the  cidsi 
pfimni  rp'krii  lo  ;  '  he,'  '  »he,'  '  it,'  are  luarka  which  in- 
clude all  inarka  of  the  cla**  ptrtona  or  //ii»i«i  ijwAtm  oJ.'] 


•  Ailaiu  Hinith. 

t  .Mill't  Analytit  o/tkt  Human  Stiml,  vol.  i.  p.  lt'.> 


KNGLISH  ORAMMAR. 


M* 


AH  p-iini)un«  rrfrr  to  mm*  noun,  which,  ••  U  gfit*- 
nlW  t'"*  Ix'I'on',  Ki>i*  th«  niino  of  nntnnltnl,  but  u  it 
-gy  c.m\e  nftrr,  n<rrihilirf  wiiulil  apprar  a  Iwdrr  tvrni. 
In  lh«  i'««"  "^  "'"'  <'l«*«  of  proiiniiiia,  tha  rrfrrenoe  ia 
^  ohviiiiirt  anil  imnii'iliatr,  that  thry  havn  bcpn  rallml 
Kflntivr  liy  way  of  ilintinrtioii.  'I'liraii  art',  vhn,  whirh, 
)fi,U,  iiikI  '"■  ''*'"'  i*  "''"'  vf  hrn  the  rvfitrf  lire  ia  tu  a 
nrro'ii;  K'AirA,  when  it  i«  tu  a  thing:  that  and  a»  refer 
Sllicr  Id  (H-moni  or  to  thiiiKa. 

Till'  Iiit<Trc>nalivi>  Pronounn,  ao  riilird  hocaime  thry  are 
gwHl  Id  vV.  <)Ui'iiliDiia,  are  U'An,  ivAirA,  whal,  and  inlirlhtr, 
^  lirii  ii'Aot  ia  not  iihtiI  to  aal(  a  quniition,  it  g«>t«  tlie 
ntnii*  uf  ('oin|N)unil  Krlative  i'ronouii,  aa  it  inrliiilna  in 
yn'lf  the  iJcaa  of  lioth  rorrrlative  anti  ri'lativr ;  tlitia, 
nfiivr.  ni(<  iiliiit  i*  in  your  hand"  ia  equivalent  to  «  Utvo 
0t(ltitliii>H  u'liiih  i>  in  your  hanil." 

The  itiwparalile  word  ttlf,  with  ita  plural  i></i><a,  ia  called 
Ihe  Ri'i'iiiriM'nl  i'ronoun,  and  dvnotea  that  the  object  and 
iftnl  "( t>>"  v'*''''  ""  ''"  aamo, 

grlf  ia  uddt'd  to  iicraoiial  pronouna  fur  tlic  anme  pur- 
mae  lliiit  Mirn  ia  iiniic'd  to  pronoiiiinul  ndjrrtivca;  that 
It,  10  cipriMM  cinphnaia  or  oppoaitioii.  'I'hua,  ■•  I  did  it 
wilti  my  own  hand;"  that  ia,  without  llic  amlatancti  of 
my  iillirr  in'raoii :  "  Ho  did  it  all  himulf ,"  that  ia,  with- 
«ut  l>el{ 

The  Varb. 

A  Vran  i*  a  word  that  iijfii mmnmftWwff  of  o  noun. 

Tnc  ('hariirtcrii<lic  of  the  verb  ia  airirmiition  ;  it  may, 
inilet'il,  in  conitnon  with  the  adjective,  dcnotu  n  ij%iality  ; 
bul  ihia  ii  arcidcntul,  and  not  caacntial  to  ita  nature.  The 
(itlrihulf  and  the  aifirtion  are  often  conjoined  in  one 
wflfil,  in  in  thi>  wnlcncH  "  The  nmn  njoiin  ,"  but  they 
nuiy  [»•  M-piiruti'd,  mid  then  an  adjective  will  denote  the 
(Itiibute  and  a  verb  will  indicate  the  aaiiertion  ;  thua, 
uThciniin  io  J"yful-"  It  ia  hut  fair  to  add,  that  thia 
doctrine  of  the  verb  ia  not  universally  received,  althoui^h, 
iftiT  welching  the  advcrac  arguments  of  tlorno  Tooko 
tnil  Mr.  .Mill,wu  ore  inclined  to  consider  it  well  founded. 

On  uttendiiiK  carefully  to  the  nature  of  the  idea  pre- 
Knli'd  by  verbs,  we  find  that,  while  they  all  aiMH,  they 
differ  in  lliin  re8|>ect,  that  tome  of  them  cxpreaa  a  sort  of 
iclimi  which  Directs  or  oiH'rafca  ujHjn  aonio  permin  or 
thing  (lilTerent  from  the  agent,  and  that  othera  either  de- 
note no  action  at  all,  or  elue  a  aort  of  action  which  ia 
liiiiittil  tu  the  aclor.  The  firat  claaa  in  called  'I'rannitive, 
HhJ  the  f-econd  Intranaitive  Verba.  If  the  atudent  con- 
liJfr  with  iitteiilion  the  state  of  hia  own  mind  when  he 
ftliMU.  with  intelligence,  the  aentencea,  "  Jnmca  ilrikti 
the  lalilc,"  "  Jiiniea  uiilks,"  ho  will  have  no  dilliculty  in 
aiacrmiiig  the  diKtinction  that  exiata  bctwetm  a  Tranai- 
ti»c  and  uii  Inlrnnaitivo  Verb. 

We  have  ulreiidy  atiitcd,  but  the  importance  of  the  re- 
marli  will  justify  ita  re|>ctition,  that  aa  tho  noun  denotea 
llic  thing  Hjwkeri  of,  ao  tho  verb  indicatea  what  wo  atfirm 
caiicerniiiK  it.  Without  aflirmatiun  there  could  lie  no 
communication  of  acntiment;  and  hence  tlie  claaa  of 
MorJd  by  which  alTirmalion  ia  made  has  U>en  dignified 
by  the  upiielliition  of  vkmb,  or  the  word.  "  Verba  muat 
ni'ceniiarily  have  been  coeval  with  tho  very  firat  attcmpt^i 
towards  tlio  forniation  of  language.  No  ntfirmation  can 
\)t  expressed  without  the  asaistnncc  of  some  verb.  We 
ni'vcr  riiH-uk  but  in  order  toexprcaa  our  opinion  that  aomo- 
t'liiig  either  ia  or  is  not.  But  the  word  denoting  thia 
event,  or  tills  matter  nf  fact,  which  ia  the  aubject  of  our 
alSrmalion,  most  ulwuya  I*  a  verb."* 

The  Adverb. 

An  f  DTKRB  ia  a  word  that  qualificaa  verb,  adjective, 
jr  mother  adverb. 

Aa  a  littcrijititm  of  a  fact  in  grammar,  thia  ia  unob- 
JKtlunable ;  but  it  cannot  be  received  aa  a  difinitum,  ainee 
tba  word  defined  ia  ma<le  uae  of  in  tlie  definition.     Ita 

*  Adam  Suiiili. 


application  may  lie  thua  riplained.  If  wt  wiah  to  modify 
the  noun  or  luhjict  of  a  arntenre,  ■««  must  uar  an  adjatv 
live;  hut  if  the  prtdua'i  ia  to  be  nimlined,  or  any  addW 
tionnl  miKllflialiun  In  Ih^  put  on  a  word  already  i|ualiiyirtg 
it,  the  verb  Ibi-n  uai-<l  iiiuat  lie  oi  adverb:  Ibiia,  in  tiM 
aentence,  •■  The  aun  ahinca,"  We  bave  n  aiinple  a\i)>)ect, 
"  aun,"  and  u  aimphi  predicate  ••  ahines."  If  wo  wiah  l« 
e«|ireaa  any  itimlity  uf  the  subject,  we  must  uae  an  adjee- 
tlvo ;  and  if  the  predicate  ia  to  Imi  nuMliflril,  W«  mu4 
briiiH  '■■  an  adverb :  thus,  ■■  The  haimtftiui  sun  ahiliea,"  and 
>•  The  aun  shiiiea  ryim/Zy  on  all." 

.\ilverlm  may  la'  divided  into  four  great  claaaea  :— 
1.   Adverlia  of /l/iomo  ;  aa  well,  ill,  justly,  wise|y> 

3.  Adverlia  of  Timt ,-  aa  now,  then,  aoon,  when. 

n.   Adverlia  uf  Phut :  aa  hero,  hence,  there,  where. 

4.  .\dverba  of  (iuanlity  ,-  ua  m\ich,  conaiderubly. 

The  adverb,  it  iiiiiy  be  observed,  is  an  ul'lirrviated  mode 
of  expreaaion,  and  the  idea  could  in  all  eusea  lie  conveyed 
by  the  uae  of  two  or  mure  words.  Tliey  have  a  cloae 
aifinity  to  adjectives,  not  only  in  Rii^diai'i,  but  in  moal 
other  tonguea.  Ituildiman  juatly  says,  "That  oilverbe 
aeem  urit(iiially  tu  have  licen  cuntriveil  to  expreaa  com* 
|>en(liuusly  in  une  word  what  must  otherwise  have  re> 
quired  two  or  more."  Tho  truth  of  this  doctrine  will 
ii|i|ieur  by  an  inapvction  of  tho  following  tidile  of  Adverbe 
of  I'laee  :- 

Thia  plane 
'I'liiil  pini'n     ■ 
W'liat  place 

''  le  I'rrpoiiiion. 

A  i'RKPoaiTioN  ia  a  wutd  that  cor'.ecta  two  worde 
together,  in  audi  a  manner  oa  to  indicate  the  relation 
which  tho  thinga  or  ideaa  aigiiified  by  diem  bear  to  each 
other. 

Thia  part  of  speech,  luo  the  adj  ve,  which  >  eMii»> 
Idea  ill  other  resjiecls,  has  received  itx  name  frui;  ••!  acc^ 
del  ',  circuin>4tance.  It  generally  goes  imineiliiit  v  >i/or$ 
the  object  related  tu  tlio  utlior  tiling  named  .lU'  tiie  ee» 
aence  uf  the  preposition,  it  ahoulil  be  carefully  ubaerved, 
ia  to  aignilv  letalivt  fivtiliun. 

0  Wo  Bubjoin  u  list  uf  the  prep  sitior,  in  most  common 
uae,  and  wu  recommend  tho  sti,  jnt  \.j  exercise  himacif 
in  putting  them  all,  one  alU>r  the  other,  intu  seiitencea. 
In  thia  way  ho  will  learn  tu  appruheml  their  real  aif> 
nificancy ;  and,  iiiNtcnd  of  calling  a  word  a  prepoaitioa 
because  it  ia  ao  named  in  a  coinpi  iidium  uf  grammar,  he 
will  rccogniac  it  from  ita  functiun.  Duubtleaa,  hjr  ec^ 
mitting  the  liat  to  inemury,  a  practice  oa  commuD  al 
it  ia  mischievoua,  he  might  lie  ..oun  able  tu  pane ;  bul 
hia  knowledge  would  bo  mere  deception,  and  hi  him- 
oelf  would  be  but  "  ua  sounding  broaa  and  a  tinkling 
cymbal." 

uaT  oy  paKPoamoNa. 


In. 

7b. 

From. 

Il-rti 

Ililhrr 

II'Miee 

■Hie  re 

Tliillier 

T.  I'liea 

Where 

Whilhrr 

Whonca 

Al>ove 
A  hour 
AAer 
AKainit 
Among      \ 
AmoiiKit   ) 
Amid     I 
Am:d>i  ) 
Arduml  I 
Round    ) 
At 


I  Betwei-n   I 

"  Ht;lwi.xt    } 

Ileyond 

Bl'lufB 

Mehind 
.     .  "iilh 

f   ...w 
I  <  mdea 

i;y 

I)<IWI1 

I'lir 
Krom 


In 

Into 
Near 
Nigh 

or 

OiT 
Over 
Oil      ) 

Upon  { 
Since 

Tlirongh       ) 
iiitS 


Till    I  » 

Until  f 
To     I 
UntoJ 
'I'oward  I 
Towardil 

Under  I 

Underneath) 

Up 

With 

Within 

Without 


Tlirou)!huii 

Th<;  ibilowing  rcmnrka  on  thia  part  uf  speech  by  Adaa 
Smi'h,  and  his  aciu'coly  less  illustrious  disciple,  Mr.  Mill 
wilt  amply  rep.iy  an  itttentivc  examination  : — 

"  PrciKwitiona  are  the  worda  which  express  relatioft 
conaidered  in  concrete  with  the  correlative  object.  Thua, 
the  prcpoaitions  of,  to,  fur,  trilh,  by,  ntnn-t,  hdow,  Ac, 
denote  aomo  relation  aubsisting  between  the  objocta 
expresaed  by  the  worda  between  which  the  prepoaitiona 
are  placed ;  and  they  denote  thnt  this  relation  is  const* 
dcTed  in  concrete  with  lh<'  correlative  object  Words  of 
thia  kind  acrve  to  distinguish  particular  objects  from 
others  uf  the  same  species,  when  thoae  particular  objects 
SO 


SMI 


INFC.IMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


emnnot  be  m  properly  tniirkeil  out  by  any  peculiar  quali- 
llea  of  their  own.  Whun  wo  say  <  The  green  tree  of  the 
meadow,'  lur  example,  we  distinguish  a  particular  tree, 
not  only  by  the  quality  wl.ich  Iwlongs  to  it,  but  by  the 
relation  which  it  stands  in  to  another  object."  And  again, 
H  Every  preposition  denotes  some  relation  considered  in 
concrete  with  tlif  correlative  object.  The  proposition 
above,  for  exiuii|ilo,  denotes  the  relation  of  superiority — 
not  in  abstract,  as  it  is  expressed  by  the  word  mperiorily, 
btit  in  concrete  with  some  correlative  object.  In  this 
phrase,  for  uxaniplo,  '  The  tree  above  the  cave,'  the  word 
uiiooe  exprcsst's  a  certain  relation  between  the  Irte  and 
the  cave,  and  it  expresses  this  relation  in  concrete  with 
the  correlativv  object,  the  rave.  A  preposition  always  re- 
quires, in  ordr,  to  complete  the  sense,  some  other  word 
to  come  after  it,  as  may  Ix;  observed  in  this  particular  n- 
■unoe."* 

To  the  same  purpose  Mill  says—"  It  is  easy  to  see  n 
what  manner  prepositions  are  employed  to  abriilr^  tlio 
process  of  discourse.  They  render  us  the  same  service 
which,  we  have  seen,  is  rendered  by  adjectives,  in  aflbrd- 
ing  the  means  of  naming  minor  classes,  taken  out  of  larger, 
with  a  great  economy  of  names.  •  •  •  Prepositions 
nlways  stand  before  some  word  of  the  class  called  by 
grammarians  nouns  substantive.  And  these  nouns  substan 
tive  they  connect  with  other  nouns  substantive,  with  ad- 
joctivea,  or  with  vcrbs."'|' 

Thp  Coiijur.cion. 

A  Co!rju;»CTioji  is  a  word  used  tojoin  words  and  pro- 
positions .ogcther. 

Conjunctions  are  of  two  sortA,  Co}>ulativt  and  Dit- 
juHctivt.  The  Copulative  not  only  join  tlie  words,  but 
indicate  that  the  things  are  to  I)c  united ;  while  it  is  the 
office  of  the  Disjunctive  to  unite  the  words  but  keep 
■eparate  the  things.  The  youngest  child  cannot  foil  to 
perceive  the  dilK'rence  between  these  two  sentences : 
"  Will  you  have  an  apple  and  an  orange  ?"  and  "  Will 
you  have  an  apple  or  an  orange  ?"  In  tlie  first  case,  he 
is  to  get  both  thins^s — we  therefore  use  a  copulative  con- 
junciioii ;  in  the  second,  he  is  to  have  one  only — we  thenv 
lort  use  a  disjunctive  conjunction. 

In  one  rrs|iect  the  preposition  and  conjunction  agree 
'^Hhey  lioth  conne^'t  words;  but  each  class  does  some- 
thing not  done  by  the  otlier.  The  preposition  indicato 
the  nature  of  the  connection,  which  the  conjunction  docs 
cot ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  conjunction  can  con- 
nect not  merely  single  words  but  clauses  or  sentences. 
If  I  «ay,  "  (live  me  a  knife  and  the  book,"  you  may  pre- 
sent the  objects  named  se^iarately  or  together — the  knife 
being  under  the  book,  in  the  book,  or  cm  it,  and  in  each 
case  ray  rcijucst  will  have  l>een  complied  with :  but  if  1 
say,  *'  (live  mo  a  knife  in  the  book,"  the  relative  posilitm 
at  the  objects  is  tixcd,  and  there  is  only  oiie  vray  of  com- 
plying with  my  demand. 

We  have  a^werteil  that  the  conjunctioa  couples  indi- 
vidual words  as  w<>ll  as  pro|v?8ilions ;  but,  as  in  this  we 
go  against  atithoritii-s  so  respectable  as  Ruddiman,  Har- 
ris, and  Mill,  we  mi.st  take  some  pains  to  make  good  our 
position.  Rudiliinnn  says,  ••  A  conjunction  is  an  inde- 
diiiabU  word,  that  j(nn«  sentences  together,  and  tlu-roby 
■hows  their  ili'|X!n(lpiice  u(>o,i  one  another ;"  and,  in  a 
note  to  his  rale  of  syntax—"  Conjunctions  couple  like 
ea«eN  and  moods" — he  tells  us,  that  ••  the  reason  of  this 
coiifttruction  is,  because  tlie  words  so  coupled  depend  all 
upon  the  same  word,  which  is  expressed  to  one  of  them 
•nd  iinderatrKxl  to  the  other."  To  much  the  same  pur- 
pose Mr.  Mill  says — "The  conjunction*"  e distinguished 
from  the  pn'|Kwitions  by  connm-'iiig  pn-dications,  while 
liie  |>r«pantioni  connect  only  wonis.  There  are  teem- 
^  exei)|>tions,  however,  to  this  dekcription,  the  nature 
•f  which  ought  to  be  underatood.    l*hey  ure  all  of  one 


•  Advd  MiDiib 


t  itns/ynf,  lie.,  voL  i.  p.  IW. 


kind ;  they  all  belong  to  those  easea  of  predieatioB  it 
vfliich  either  the  subject  or  predicate  consists  of  enti. 
moratod  particulars,  and  in  which  the  conjunctioQ  j( 
employed  to  mark  the  enumeration.  Thus,  we  ma 
'  Four  and  four,  and  two,  are  ten,'  Hero  the  subject  of 
the  predication  consists  of  three  enumerated  particulaii 
and  the  conjunction  «efiM  to  connect  words  and  tuA 
predications."  We  do  not  think  that  Mr.  Mill's  aigu. 
ment  is  conclusive.  There  is  no  seeming  about  the  maU 
ter.  We  wish  it,  however,  to  lie  distinctly  understood 
that  we  do  not  charge  his  doctrine  with  being  altogether 
erroneous;  it  is  only  not  complete.  It  is  right  so  far  at 
it  goes ;  what  we  maintain  is,  that  it  is  too  limited. 

Ruddiman  is  correct  in  maintaining,  that  in  the  ex- 
ample, ••  Honour  thy  father  and  thy  mother,"  the  wurd 
"  honour"  is  again  understood  betbro  motlier ;  but  this 
will  not  do  in  every  case.  The  sentence,  "  Charles  and 
John  rode  to  town,"  may  certainly  be  resolved  into  two 
clauses,  "  Charles  rode  to  town"  and  "  John  rode  to 
town."  But  can  the  sentence  ••  Charles  and  John  caN 
ried  fifty  pounds,"  be  resolved  into  the  two,  <<  Charles 
carried  f.fty  pounds,"  and  "  John  carried  fifty  pounds  ?" 
Obviously  not.  The  conjunction  and,  in  that  c.ise,  con- 
nects the  two  ^ords  "  Charles"  and  "  John,"  and  showi 
ihat  conjointly  they  are  the  lubjed  of  the  predinite  "  ca^ 
ried."  In  like  manner,  in  the  sentence.  "  The  man  of 
piety  and  virtue  secures  the  favour  of  G<k1,"  it  is  not  inj. 
plied  that  "  the  man  of  |>iety"  secures  the  favour  of  God 
and  that  "  the  man  of  virtue"  secures  the  same ;  hut  that 
the  man  uniting  the  two  qualities,  the  murAs  of  which 
are  united  by  the  conjunction  and,  secures  it.  Mr, 
Mill  himself,  indeed,  would  appear  not  to  have  felt  quite 
satistiiHl  as  to  tlie  conclusiveness  of  the  mode  of  rvasonini 
whi-h  we  have  been  animadverting  on,  for  he  iininediate>y 
shifts  his  ground,  and  argues  that,  liecausu  in  such  a  sen- 
tence as  "  His  bag  was  full  of  hares  and  pheasants  and 
partridges,"  we  may  sulwtitute  the  prepusilinn  with,  ami 
read,  ■<  His  bag  was  full  of  hares,  with  pheasants,  with 
partridges,"  the  word  anti  is  pro[)erly  to  be  considered  a 
preposition.  To  this  extraordinary  specimen  of  reasoning 
it  is  sutFicient  to  say,  that  by  a  similar  process  we  might 
onclude,  to  use  a  homely  illustration  brought  forward  by 
Uugald  Stewart  on  a  like  occasion,  that  bocauw  peopli 
can  "  supply  the  want  of  forks  by  their  fingers,  that  ther» 
fore  a  linger  and  «  fork  are  the  same  thing."  On  the 
whole,  we  consider  that  nothing  can  well  be  clearer  thaa 
tliat  these  great  grammarians  have  taken  up  a  wrong 
{KMition  ;  but  perhaps  wo  have  said  as  much  already  as 
the  importance  of  the  subject  warrants. 

The  Interjection. 

'>n  IxTKBJicTioN  is  a  word  usod  to cxpfesB  emotton  « 
excitement  of  mind. 

Pure  interjections  are  mere  instinctive  emissions  of  th« 
Toioe,  few  in  number  and  unimportant  in  character ;  and, 
as  to  other  parts  of  speech  used  interjcctvely.  the  exprea. 
■ion  ia,  we  apprehend,  elliptical ;  but  this  circumstance 
cannot  profxrly  change  the  nature  and  c!mracter  of  i 
word.  Home  Tooke  considers  that  "  interjections  hav« 
no  more  claim  to  be  called  ports  of  speech  than  the  neigh- 
ing of  a  horse  or  the  lowing  of  a  c  >w;"  but  ok  there  ar« 
words  in  the  language  which  express  mrnt»l  emotion 
and  nothing  eUe,  we  must  have  a  name  for  tticin,  and  il 
would  he  dilRcult  to  find  a  better  than  the  one  in  uniTe^ 
sol  use. 

PAR^INO. 

The  Bjudent  should  now  U>  able  to  analy/e,  or  parte, 
OS  it  is  generally  called  by  English  gramiiiiirians,  any 
sentence  submitted  to  hitn.  Various  artificial  rules  hart 
been  devised  to  enable  one  to  know  what  part  of  speech 
any  word  belongs  to ;  but  these  we  mean  not  to  mentieo, 
tteing  .'nlly  |N>rsuaded  that  such  helf»  are  aitot^etfaet 
'•  from  ttu*  purpose"  of  grammar,  inasmuch  as  they  re» 


.?!*f 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.         $<* 


xprcsB  emotion  oi 


jgt  thought  ffrsi  nnnoceMary  and  then  impoaiible.  No 
nenon  can  parne  a  Hentence  which  he  does  not  under- 
Itnnil,  (nd,  when  ho  does  so  understand  it,  he  can  have 
no  difRculty  in  rererring  each  individual  word  to  the  clam 
10  which  it  belongs.  All  he  has  to  do  is  to  compare  the 
idea  suggested  in  his  mind  by  the  word  to  bo  parsed 
with  the  definitions  of  the  various  classes  with  which  he 
niuit  be  fiimiiiar ;  and  by  this  mental  eflbrt  it  will  soon 
be  ascertained  to  whai  class  the  word  belongs.  The  idea 
m^i;este<1  by  any  word,  and  the  characteristic  idea  of  a 
classi  being  brought  before  the  mind  at  the  same  time, 
their  identity  or  difference  must  be  at  once  apparent. 
But  not  to  deal  in  general  reasoning  more,  we  shall  pre- 
«>nt  the  analysis  of  a  short  sentence  by  way  of  ex- 
unple : — 

"A  man  that  is  voiing  in  years  may  be  old  in  hours,  if  he  has 
lojtnoliine;  but  that  happeiiulh  rarely." — Bacon'i  Esaayi. 

i  ii  an  atljective,  because  it  limits  the  signiflcation  of  the  noun 

s)sn* 

jtfan  is  a  noun.  l>coniii>e  it  is  the  name  of  a  class  of  beings. 

r/tol  is  a  relative  pronoun ;  its  correlative  is  man. 

j5  it  a  verb,  bcruimc  it  asgpriK  somethini^  (exisience.) 

'imng  is  an  adjective,  <|imlifying  the  noun  man  understood. 
Every  adjective  tnust  have  n  noun  understood  or  exprefincd. 

In  '•  a  prcpnnitinu.  inH^murh  as  it  points  out  the  ikation  that 
Kyi-ars"  no»  to  "  young  man."* 

Yinr*  is  a  noun.  Iieiu^  ilie  tiBme  of  a  portion  of  time. 

ity  it  a  verb,  usseriing  Bomething  (power)  of  the  noun  man. 

5(i«  a  verb,  asseriingnr  denoiing  exitience. 

OMjs  an  adjective,  (pialifying  the  noun  man  understood. 

/n  in  a  preposition,  as  above. 

Hmn  is  a  noun,  being  the  name  of  a  division  of  time. 

J'  .t  a  conjunction,  connecting  the  clause,  "  A  man  that  is 
TonnK  in  years  mny  be  old  in  hours,"  to  the  following  clause, 
"he!  has  lost  no  time."  As  if  in  such  cases  points  out  the  con- 
ii'dns  an  which  the  assertion  going  before  it  is  to  be  received, 
il  it  called  by  many  i;rnmmarians  a  conditional  conjnnction. 

ifcis  a  personal  pronoun,  standing  instead  of  the  noun  man. 

Has  it  a  verb,  asserting  something  (potsesiion.) 

iMt  is  a  verb  indieaiing  an  act.  On  the  nature  of  this  part 
of  lie  verti  we  shall  liuvc  more  to  say  aficrwurds. 

.Vn  it  an  adjective,  qualifying  the  noun  «iffl«. 

fill  it  a  conjiniction  It  connects  the  two  clauses,  and  at  the 
iit;!  time  indicates,  or.  to  nilopt  the  apt  expression  of  which 
Mr.  .Mill  frequently  nitikef*  use.  tonnotex  that  the  clause  coming 
w^cr  it  is  in  opposition  to  the  one  going  before,  and  therefore  it 
itiulled  a  disjunctive  conjunction. 

rMt  is  a  demonstrative  adjective,  qualifying  the  noun  thing 
nii(lt'rstoo4l. 

Happcnrth  is  a  verb,  asserting  something  of  its  subject,  "that 
Iji'ii?." 

Rardy  is  an  adverb  of  time,  modifying  the  verb  kappemsh. 

A^  an  additional  rxerciso  in  porsine;,  wo  shnll  trangcrilw 
a  itanza  from  l'aiii|)t>oir8*bcautiful  ode,  "  Farewell  to 
liovc,"  containing?,  according  to  our  view,  ten  of  each  of 
the  three  classes,  nouns,  adjcrtives,  and  verbs;  five  of  the 
two,  pronouns  niid  prepositions ;  two  conjunctions,  and 
three  adverbs.  The  student  is  requested  to  make  a  care- 
ful analysis  for  himsrlf,  and  see  how  far  our  enumeration 
he  consistent  with  his  own : — 

"llsill  vrelcorae  tide  of  life,  when  no  tumultuous  billows  roll; 
Mow  wondrous  to  myself  appears  this  halcvfn  calmof  soiil! 
Th?  wearied  bird  blown  o'er  the  deep  would  sooner  quit  its 

iliore, 
Tlitn  I  would  cross  the  gulf  again  that  time  has  brought  me 

o'er." 

To  the  subject  of  parsing  we  shall  return  l>cfore  we 
quit  Etymology ;  but  for  the  present  wo  wish  to  direct 
Ihe  a'tention  of  the  reader  to  the  various  modifications 
put  on  words  to  express  a  diflerrnce  of  meaning. 

II.  INrLICTION. 

Any  change  made  upon  tlie  termination  of  a  word  ia 
mlleil  its  (Kcidenl  or  lu/Vr/ioii .  thus,  the  words,  /joy'n, 
hiirikr,  ill,  Imril,  and  .»i  onr;-,  are  said  to  be  inflected  forms, 
or  <ltiiply  inflections  of  the  words  licy,  hard,  it,  Une,  and 


*  It  must  be  confer^eil  that  it  is  not  in  all  cases  easy  for  the 
niir.d  10  iipprenend  T  e  niiiurc  of  Ihe  relnt:oii  jwinled  ut  by  a 
prf|>o«itian.  The  tiuibui  will  do  well  to  laniilian/e  his  trimi 
with  j'ikyiiuni  n^tiem  in  the  tirti  pidcr,  and  moral  will  alter- 
ward*  lieeouie  more  easily  recognisable.  In  <he  following  ten- 
Itnceii  itai  once  perceived  wlmt  r.'laiion  the  first  in  expresses, 
lint  much  more  ditlieult  to  get  the  i  siiuct  idea  meant  to  be  con- 
T«ved  hy  the  second:— "Diogenes  sat  Ml  a  tub,  but  ha  was 

sncral.v  I'li  good  humour." 


soon.  Of  the  eight  part*  of  speech,  five  only — the  noun. 
adjective,  pronoun,  verb,  and  adverb— are  declinable,  tha 
is,  capable  of  being  inflected ;  while  the  remaining  thres 
— preposition,  conjunction,  and  interjection — are  ind^ 
clinable,  that  is,  cannot  be  varied  in  such  a  way  as  to 
express  any  modification  in  meaning.  / 

Inflection  of  Nouns.  *»-■■■ -V 

The  noun  is  varied  in  three  ways — Number,  GendAr, 
and  Case. 

Number  shows  whether  one  or  more  than  one  thing 
is  meant  hy  the  noun. 

There  are  two  Numbers,  the  Singular  and  the  PluraL 
The  singular  expresses  one  of  a  class ;  as  river,  horse. 
Tlie  plural  denotes  more  than  one;  as  rivers,  horses. 
The  plural  is  generally  formed  from  the  singular,  hy 
adding  the  letter  i :  thus,  table,  tables .-  book,  books ; 
pen,  pen.?.  But  nouns  ending  in  ony  of  the  five  follow 
ing  terminations, »,  sh,  rh  (when  pronounced  soft),  x,  and 
o  (impure,  that  is,  preceded  by  a  consonant),  form  thelt 
plural  by  adding  es  to  tho  singular;  thus,  brush,  brushct, 
church,  churches ;  box,  boxes  ,•  hero,  heroes. 

When  ch  is  pronounced  hard,  and  when  u  :j  preced«d 
by  a  vowel,  the  plural  is  formed  by  idding  s;  thuii 
monarch,  monarch* .-  folio,  folios. 

When  a  noun  ending  in  j/  is  to  be  formed  into  tha 
plural,  8  is  added  if  the  y  is  preceded  by  a  vowsl;  bt:t  if 
a  consonant  goe<>  before  the  y,  then  the  y  is  cnanged  at* 
tcs ;  thus,  in  boy,  there  is  a  vowel  before  the  y,  we  there- 
fore add  8,  hoys ;  but  in  duty  there  is  a  consonant  before 
the  y,  the  plural  therefore  is  dutic!. 

Nouns  ending  inforfe,  generally  form  the  plural  by 
changing  the  /  or  fe  into  ves ;  thus,  loaf,  loat'cs;  knife, 
kniccs. 

Nouns  derived  from  dead  or  foreign  tongues,  for  tha 
.•>.st  part  retain  their  original  plurals ;  thus. 

From  the  Latin  uw  have—  From  tht  Greek  eome-^ 

SISODLAH. 

ElHiivium 

Radius 

I.arva 

Vortex 

Axis 

fieniis 

.Magus 

Medium 

Onsis 

Nebula 

Sirnium 

The  Hebrew  words  cherub  and  ternph  form  their  piurak 
cherubim  and  seraphim ;  and  the  French  beau  and  moii> 
sieiir  form  their  plurals  btaux  and  masieurs,  which  last  il 
contracted  into  messrs. 

A  few  nouns,  in  very  common  use,  form  their  plunk 
quite  anomalously ;  thus, 


PLURAL. 

BINUULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Rilluvia 

Phenoiueiion 

Phenomena 

Radii 

Crisis 

Crises 

LarviB 

Hypothesis 

Hypotheses 

Vonices 

Criterion 

Criteria 

Axes 

Automaton 

Aiiiomata 

Oi'iiera 

Thesis 

Theses 

Magi 
Media 

Elipsis 

Elipses 

Metamorphosis  Aieiuinorphc 

Oases 

Ilasis. 

Bates. 

Ncbulm 

Strata 

StNOULAK. 

Man 
Foot 
Tooth. 


PLlRAL. 

Men 
Feet 
Teeth. 


GxirnxR. — Gender  is  that  accident  of  a  noun  which 
points  out  the  sex  or  the  absence  of  sex.  Every  ex- 
istence is  either  male  or  female,  or  neither  the  one  noi 
the  other.  The  Masculine  Gender  includes  all  males, 
the  Feminine,  all  females;  and  tho  Neuter,  nil  thingt 
destitute  of  sex,  or  animals  when  the  S(?x  is  not  regarded. 

.Adam  Smith  remarks,  that,  "  in  many  languages,  the 
qualities  both  of  sex  and  of  the  want  of  sex  are  ex- 
pressed by  difTerent  terminations  in  tho  substantive 
which  denote  objects  so  qualified."  After  showing  that, 
in  Latin,  certain  ttrminntimis  were  appropriated  to  ex- 
pressing certain  gentler*,  he  adds,  "  The  ijunlity  [of  sex] 
npp<>ars  in  nature  as  a  modification  of  the  substance' 
and  as  it  is  thus  expressed  in  language  hy  a  niotlificatjon 
of  the  noun  substantive  which  denotes  llyit  substance, 
the  quality  and  the  subject  are,  in  this  case,  blended 
together,  if  I  may  say  so,  in  the  expression,  in  the  <>anw 
manner  as  they  appear  to  be  in  tlic  nliiect  and  the  iilea 


1 


^sca^-— 


S89 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLP^ 


Hence  the  orifi^n  of  M  masculine,  feminine,  and  neuter 
(oudcrs,  in  all  the  ancient  languagea." 

Admitting  the  truth  aa  well  aa  the  ingenuity  of  this 
•peculation,  as  far  as  rcgarda  ancient  language*,  it  docs 
not  appear  to  he  the  gtniu*  of  the  English  language  to 
assign  any  particular  tcrraiaation  (as  we  find  in  the 
Latin)  to  the  dilTi-rent  genders;  there,  are,  however, 
Bome  cases  in  which  gender  may  be  recognised,  from  the 
mera  termination  of  the  noun,  m  will  appear  from  the 
following  table  :— 


Miu<crLi!>& 
Actor 
Governor 
Heir 
I. ion 
Master 


rCMININX. 

ActreM 

Ooverncis 

HrirrM 

IiiolU'SS- 

Mistress. 


In  acme  cases,  difference  of  sex  is  expressed  by  a  to- 
tally different  word,  and  the  gender  cannot  be  known  but 
by  knowing  the  exact  idea  attached  to  the  word.  Of 
Ibis  aort  arc  the  follu>ving  :— 


MASct'Liira. 

Boy 

Father 
'  Brother 


rxMiinnB. 
Ujrl 
Moilier 
Sister. 


Sometimes  the  same  word  is  applied  to  males  and 
femalea  indiscriminately ;  and  when  we  wish  to  diiitin- 
guish  the  sex,  we  prefix  another  word.  Thus,  the  woni 
ttrvnnt  signifies  either  a  male  or  female  ;  but  if  we  desire 
to  notify  which,  we  can  use  the  com|iound  words  nm/i- 
icrvant  or  nKiid-fcrrant.  Of  the  same  kind  are  hc-s;i>iit 
kiA  iht'goal,  cock'spariou)  and  hen-ipurrow,  and  many 
others. 

Cask. — Case  is  that  accident  of  a  noun  which  points 
out  the  relation  which  it  Invars  to  other  parts  of  the 
•rnteuce. 

Nouns  have  three  Cascs—Nominalivo,  Possessive,  and 
Objective. 

The  noun  is  said  to  he  in  the  Nominative,  when  it  is 
tlie  subject  of  discourse,  and  repre.setits  the  pierson  or 
tiling  of  whom  or  which  some  assertion  is  made.  Thus, 
in  the  sentence,  "John  reads,"  tlic  pro|)or  noun  Julin  is 
•aid  to  be  in  the  notninative,  because  it  names  the  person 
of  whom  the  a.«sertii>ii  rroilt  is  made. 

Tlie  po«8«'«iivi>  represents  a  vast  variety  of  relations, 
but  the  principal  one  is  that  of  ownership  or  |)oKseKition. 
Thus.  "John's  book  is  lost,"'  where  Johu'i  is  in  the  pos- 
sessive, Ix'cause  it  nnmes  the  owner  of  the  hook.' 

The  inflection  of  the  Possessive  Case  (the  only  case 
in  English  that  has  an  inflection)  corrcs|x>nds  exactly  in 
import  to  the  pre|)osition  u/.     In  the  line, 

"  An  angel's  virtues  anil  a  woman's  love," 

we  could  e.isily  dis|)en»e  with  the  |x>ssea»ivc,  and  intro- 
duce the  preposition,  where  tlio  whole  meaning  would  be 
preservci;  thus. 

The  virtues  r/«n  niifjel  ami  the  love  of  a  woman. 

Adam  Smith  asserts  tliat  inflections  would  probably  lie 
made  before  prrpotitioiu  were  invented ;  observing  very 


•Concsm'nj  the  oriifin  of  the  pimemrt  esse.  F.iiflish  tram- 
mar.ans  anil  criiici  are  not  ngn-i-il.  S<jine  inii'iita.n  iliat  it  is 
what  we  may  rail  indKenniis  lo  ilie  laiiirunirc.  enrresponilini;. 
Ihrv  affirm,  to  an  inflection  nC  it  'iixnn  mnin;  but  we  raiher 
inchiie  to  the  opinion  ul'  A'tiiison  '.%tio  th.iiks  that  the  possess. 
Ive  lerminntion  is  onl)  a  rontraetion  Tor  the  pronoun  hu,  Muil 
the  iKUHUi'iv  ease  lieen  native  loo'ir  tonirue.  it  is  hsrcllv  con- 
ceivable that  the  translators  ol' the  BiMe  would  have  nsid  such 
an  expression  ns  "A^a  his  heart  was  perfect  It  has  been 
infrninusly  ol  jected  Ui  Aililison's  riplnnaiion  that  while  it  is 
Tery  easy  to  s>'e  how  •the  kinR  his  crown'  mi  :ht  have  bern 
•nniraeled  or  corrupted  inui  "the  kiiifi's  crown  '  it  is  ini|M>ss  bie 
10  imiKine  that  '  the  que.-n  her  crown"'  or  "  the  children  the  r 
bread*'  eould  have  lieen  siibjccied  in  the  same  cnntraetion  But 
•arely  this  objection  is  tmt  unanswerable:  Tor  when  the  ciiii- 
treuience  of  the  contraction  was  seen  in  the  case  of  sinitiilar 
ttouns  masciiUne.  n  miKhi  very  easily  be  transferred  to  nouns 
frminme  and  piurst  We  would  not  he  understood,  however, 
k>  speak  conAdeniljr  on  th*  |>orni,  and  in  wltataver  way  the 
possessiv*  was  ininMtuced,  it  is  now  liopossible,  supi>u«1iig  it 
wtre  dciirable,  to  displaca  L 


justly,  that  it  requires  much  less  ahttranvn  to  erctna 
the  nature  of  tho  relation  that  subsists  between  two  >|>i 
jects  Ay  a  chani^i  on  Ihe  name  titnothiff  one  of  Ihtm,  thsii 
to  call  into  use  a  class  of  wortis  expressing  relation  and 
nothing  else.  "  To  express  relation  by  a  variation  in  the 
name  of  the  correlative  object,  requiring  neither  abstract 
tion  nor  generalization,  nor  comparison  of  any  kind, 
would  at  first  be  much  more  natural  and  easy  than  to 
express  it  by  those  general  words  called  prepositions,  of 
which  the  first  invention  must  have  demanded  some  d» 
gree  of  all  these  operations." 

This  speculation  is  exceedingly  ingenious ;  but  whethsi 
it  be  true  in  general  is,  to  say  the  lea^,  doubtful ;  and  m 
far  as  the  possesaive  of  the  English  noun  goes,  it  muit 
lie  allowed,  wc  think,  to  he  wide  of  the  truth. 

The  noun  is  in  the  Objective  (/ase — lnt,  when  it  nnmei 
the  ohjicl  on  which  the  action  expressed  by  a  transiii\'j 
verb  operates ;  and,  2d,  when  it  nntnes  the  thing  jAoim 
to  lie  related  to  something  else  by  a  prcponition.  In  iho 
sentence,  "John  destroyed  his  book."  Imik  is  exprefwing 
the  objfcl  on  which  tho  verbal  action  operates ;  it  ig  there. 
fore  said  to  be  in  the  objective  case.  Again,  in  the 
sentence,  "  The  ?loud  rises  over  the  hill,"  hill  is  in  the 
objective,  liecousc  it  is  the  word  shown  to  be  related  to 
I  loud  by  the  |ireposition  ot'cr. 

The  Nominative  and  Objective  of  nouns  are  alike  in 
form ;  and  it  is  only  by  observing  how  the  noun  stands 
related  to  other  words  that  we  can  say  when  it  is  jn  the 
one  ond  when  in  the  other.  To  decide  on  the  case  of  a 
noun,  wo  must  "  look  liefore  and  after."  The  PoHsespive 
however,  may  be  recognised  by  its  form,  as  well  as  by  iti 
function,  as  it  for  the  most  part  ends  with  '«  in  the  singui 
lar,  and  '  after  the  a  in  the  plural. 

A  noun  is  thus  dechned : — 


8IN0UI.AK. 

PLURAL. 

Ncntinntiv*. 

Urn  her 

Urnlhcrfi. 

Pm^f.itivi. 

Hroihf'r'i 

HroihiTsV 

Ohjtftive. 

Brothtir 

Urothura. 

When  the  plural  does  not  end  in  »,  Ihe  Possessive  ^ 
fonned  in  tlic  same  way  as  the  singular ;  thus, 


8tMn^i.Aa. 

PI-URAU 

yr.mirintivi. 

Mnn 

Men 

Tew  VMM'S. 

Man's 

Men's 

Otijeettit. 

Man. 

Men. 

Infiee'ion  of  ^djeclives. 

In  many  languages,  the  Adjective  is  changed  in  temu. 
nation  to  correspond  with  the  noun  nliicli  it  qiiaNlics:  lut 
in  the  English  i  .:  ,r.u  there  is  no  such  mollification;  and 
here,  as  in  mar  •  i^liicr  respects,  our  liiin;uage  seenn 
su|>crior  in  mclaphymcal  propriety  to  tiiOHt  others,  Ix'cuuse 
the  acciili'iit  of  eeiider  cannot  pro(M'rly  lielimg  ti>ai|Uality 
which  is  itself  but  an  accidrnt  and  no  Bi'lf-cxiRtiti|»  tliinit. 
"  (leniler,  it  is  to  lie  olisined,  cannot  properly  lickmij  to 
a  noun  adjective,  the  sigTiification  of  which  is  always  pre. 
cisely  the  same,  to  wliativer  species  of  suhsiaiilivps  it  ij 
applied.  When  we  s-iy  •  a  great  man,*  '  a  great  womnn,' 
llie  word  -renl  has  precinely  tlie  same  meaning  in  liolh 
cases,  and  tlie  difference  of  the  S4X  in  the  sniijicls  lo 
which  it  may  lie  applied  makes  no  sort  of  (hlli'rrnce  in 
its  signification.  Mninut,  miiicn",  m"i:<tiim,  in  tlir  luittie 
manner,  are  words  which  express  precisely  the  same 
quality,  and  the  change  of  the  teriniiiatioii  is  ocronipa- 
nie<l  with  no  sort  of  variation  in  the  meaning.  Sex  uiid 
gender  an  qualities  that  ta'long  to  subntunccs,  but  caiinol 
bebmg  to  the  qualities  of  substances."* 

Hut  while  iIki  nature  of  the  thing  which  the  adjective 
is  empliived  to  express  cannot  Iw  varied,  yet  it  may  eiirt 
in  different  proportions;  and  hence  the  ailjrrti\e  in  vnriij 
to  express  different  degrees  of  the  quality  indicated  bv  it, 
and   these  variations  are  called   Degreea  of  I 'oni|inriiion. 

When  the  simple  quality  is  dep'ited,  the  adjective  it 
••id  to  be  in  the   Positive  Degree,     When  a  higher 


Adam  Smith. 


ENGLISH   GRAM!V;AR. 


ugne  i*  iifpiifled,  the  adjective  ii  in  the  Comparative ; 
uid  when  the  highust  degree  is  exprcswid,  it  is  snid  to 
M  in  the  Superlative.  Logically  considered,  indeed, 
ihe  positu't  involves  the  idea  of  comparison  as  mucii  as 
he  comparative :  thus,  when  wo  atfirm  of  a  mountain 
that  it  i*  '"/'!/'  ^^  must  have  a  tacit  reference  to  other 
mountains  i  when  wn  atlinii  of  any  particular  river  that 
it  is  raiivl,  wc  (unconsciously,  perhaps^  hut  yet  actually) 
inake  a  comparison  between  it  and  some  other  rivers. 
VVe  consider  it,  therefore,  impossible  to  state  any  esscn- 
dil  diffefi"'''  between  the  ilvKrei's  of  compiiiiton  ;  but, 
inwUlition  to  what  we  have  already  said,  we  may  men- 
Utfn  that  i\w  compai (ilivc  de^iee  denotes  that  the  (]uaiity 
expressed  by  it  belongs  to  one  of  two  objects  in  a  greater 
lirjrrcc  than  to  the  other ;  and  the  superlative,  that  it 
belongs  to  one  of  sevenil  in  a  greater  degree  than  to  any 
of  ihe  rest.     For  exauiplf,  when  we  say  that  the  line 

3^_    is  longer  than  the  line  H ,  the  meaning  is, 

that  both  lines  have  u  certain  (iiiality — length,  but  that 
\  has  more  of  it  than  U.  When  the  coni|>urison  is 
drawn  bciwecn  more  things  than  two,  we  use  the  mpn- 

litite.    Thus,  wo  say  of  the   lines  A ,  U , 

(;__ ,  D ,  tliat  C  is  the  longest.     In  tlie  same 

,»JT,  speaking  of  stone  and  wood,  we  might  say,  "  Stone 
[,  the  hariltr  body  of  the  two ;"  but  if  we  arc  disconising 
u(  iron,  stone,  and  wood,  we  must  use  the  sujierlative, 
inlsay,  "Irt>n  is  the  hiinhsi  bo<ly  of  tlie  three." 

rho  whole  class  of  Numeral  Adjectives,  from  their 
,jrv  nature,  cannot  he  in  any  other  degree  than  the 
positive;  and,  with  respect  to  Attributive  Adjectives,  it 
Ih  to  Ix!  obnervcd  that  those  only  which  express  a  ipiality 
wliich  mav  exist  in  greater  or  less  proportions,  can  be 
coniparpd :  for  instance,  if  the  exact  ideas  represented 
bv  the  words,  ciicutur,  si/iiare,  triant;uliir,  and  also  such 
(tords  as  diiff,  e.rtrcnie,  universal,  and  eternal,  bo  appre- 
hendfd  by  the  mind,  by  the  very  act  of  apprehension 
it  will  be  seen  that  it  would  bo  contradictory  to  their 
nature  (o  admit  of  any  increase.  Let  the  student  re- 
flect on  this,  and  then  he  will  be  'j|e  to  dispense  with 
rales  about  the  use  of  ihief,  /lerpoidicular,  &c.,  because 
he  will  sec  at  once,  from  the  nature  of  the  idea  suggest- 
ol  hy  the  word,  whether  it  admits  of  increase  or  dimi- 
nution. 

The  Comparative  is  formed  by  adding  er  to  the  Posi- 
tive, if  it  end  with  a  consonant,  and  r  simply,  if  it  end 
ill  the  vowel  f ;  thus,  hard,  hardi'i-  ,•  large,  larger. 

Adjectives  compared  in  this  manner  are  called  Re- 
pilar;  but  some  adjectives  follow  no  rule  in  forming 
iJifir  degrees  of  comparison,  and  these  are  called  Irre- 
gular. The  following  are  those  most  comnioidy  in 
use; — 


podrrivK. 

COMPAIATIVK. 

■I'PKBr^TIVB. 

Good 

H.lter 

Rpsi 

Ikd 

Worse 

Wor»t 

I.ilrte 

I.PSS 

I. (Milt 

Much  or  inn 

ny. 

More. 

Most. 

Hometimes  the  same  idea  is  conveyed  by  prefixing  an 
jdvorb  to  the  adjective  in  its  simple  state :  thus,  instead 
of  nrini;  jiisier,  we  might  say  more  jusl :  but  it  is  not 
liipreibre  to  be  inferred  that  min-e  jii^t  is  the  comparison 
if  •<:••.  Were  this  principle  adinittt^d,  we  should  soon 
inextricable  confusion.  In  such  cases  rnovf  is  an 
■rb  in  the  comparative,  qualifying  the  adjective  yi/.<f, 
inJ  the  two  words  should  be  parsed  s«.paratoly.  The 
prefixing  of  an  adverb  cannot,  with  any  justice,  be 
mIIciI  a  variiilioii  of  the  adjective. 

A  few  ttdic.'livcs  have  a  plural  form,  particularly  the 
dfmonstrative,  /An  and  ihal  in  the  plural,  ihtfe  and 
Iht'i :  om  otiin;  and  another,  arc  also  sometimes  varied 
by  nuinlier  or  cas4!. 

Inflection  of  Prnnoimi. 

Thfl  t'ronoun  is  varied  by  (Jeiidor,  Number,  Person, 
lOll  ('tw. 
Ui.  I.— 4& 


The  Personal  Pronoan*  are  thus  de'. lined- 


StITOULAR    NuMBEB. 


1j<  I'erson, 
2d      " 
M      » 


NOMINATIVB. 
I 

Tho'i 
He,  she,  it. 


POSSESSIVE. 

Mine 

Tliinp 

Hi»;  hers,  iu. 


OBJECT!  »* 

M« 
Thee 
llhn,  her,  it. 


Plural  Numher. 


NOMINATIVE.  POSSESSIVE.  OBJEOIIT* 

l»r  Person,    We  Our*  l/i 

2d      "  Ye  or  you  Y-^iirs  You 

'•>>'      "  They  Ti.eir»  Tlieiii. 

By  inspecting  the  two  following  lines,  the  student 
will  understand  whot  we  meant,  by  saying,  that  tha 
Possessive  Pronouns,  or,  as  we  prefer  calling  them, 
Pronominal  Adjectives,  were  derived  from,  and  corre- 
sponded with,  the  Personal  Pronouns. 

I  tliou       he       she        it        we         you         they, 

mine      thiiio      his      hers      iis      ours      yours      ihcirs; 

The  Relative  and  Interrogative  Pronouns,  tcAo  and 
u-hirli,  are  alike  in  both  numbers,  and  are  tliua  de- 
clined : — 

Who.  Which. 

IVntninative.    Who  Which 

Pavtui'ie.        Wliose  Whose 

(Mjjfrlii-e.         Wliom.  Wliich. 

That  and  us  are  indeclinable. 

Inflection  of  Verbs. 

The  Verb  is  varied  in  four  ways— Number,  PerMn, 
Mood,  and  Tense. 

There  are  two  Numbers,  Singular  and  Plural,  m  ni 
the  case  of  the  noun ;  and  three  persons,  as  in  the  pn^ 
nouns. 

The  Moods  are  generally  reckoned  fve  in  number— 
the  Indicative,  the  Subjunctive,  the  Potential,  the  Im- 
perative, and  the  Infinitive.  But  it  may  well  be  ques- 
tioned if  there  is  any  real  ground  for  such  distinction, 
as  far  at  least  as  the  Subjunctive  and  Potential  are  con- 
cerned. The  Subjunctive,  as  it  is  called,  is  merely  an 
elliptical  mode  of  expression,  and  the  Potential  is  made 
up  of  two  or  more  verbs,  and  therefore  it  can  with  no 
propriety  be  called  an  iiijlcrlion  of  any  one  of  them. 

This  leaves  us  the  Indicative,  by  which  simple  asser 
tions  arc  made ;  the  Imperative,  hy  which  commandt 
are  issued ;  and  the  Infinitive,  which  is  neither  more 
nor  less  than  the  name  of  tne  verb,  and  in  use  corr» 
njionds  exactly  to  a  noun. 

The  Tenses  are  two  in  number — the  Present  and  the 
Past:  the  Future  is  not  expressed  by  any  inflection  of 
Ihe  verb  in  English,  as  it  is  in  Latin,  French,  mid  other 
l.inguages,  but  by  the  help  of  another  verb ;  and  it  ie 
surely  absurd  to  force  a  distinction  upon  the  English 
verb,  merely  Iwcanse  it  exists  in  Latin.* 

The  Participles  of  the  verb  are  likewise  two  in  num- 
her— the  Perfect  and  the  Imperfect.  They  are  oftei 
called  the  Present  and  Past,  but  in  themselves  they  have 
no  reference  to  time,  and  merely  indicate  the  coniplttum 
or  no>i-rnmpk:ioii  of  an  action. 

According  to  this  view  of  the  verb— the  only  coiw 
sistent  one — it  has  no  such  thing  as  a  passive  voice. 
What  is  called  the  passive  voice  is  not  formed  by  any 
variety  of  termination,  and  so  cannot  be  acknowledgoi 
as  an  m/fc/ion,  without  oftening  a  door  to  all  manner 
of  confusion. 

"  The  English  verb,"  says  Cromhie,  "  has  only  one 
voice,  namely,  the  active.  Dr.  Lowth,  and  most  other 
grammarians,  have  assigned  it  two  voices — active  and 


•  "A  ]tu\e  reflection  may,  I  tliiiik.  suflice  lo  convinee  any 
piTJion.  IhiU  wt'  have  nn  iiioT''  tiasiiit'ns  wiih  a  /tittirr  tervte  in 
iiur  luiiKunifi'  tlmii  wi'  hiiv.'  with  Ihi'  wlinle  "Vfiem  of  I.ntia 
iii.Kul*  iitnl  iiMist's:  liei'aus  ■  \v»'  have  no  nuiil'liciiiion  oi  our 
vi'ttf*  In  Ciirrt'spoiul  to  it;  anil  il'  wt»  tied  tirvrr  licard  of  n  fu- 
ture Ien*e  in  rmnt*  othiT  lainriiatriv  we  shoiilil  no  more  ^avB 
friv.'M  a  nari:ciiliir  tmiii-'  to  ihu  cniitli  miiI:c»ii  oi  th«v.vrrli  villi 
till-  nnxiliftrx  sh'iU  iir  trill  than  in  iho<t'  iliat  ari-  ma.li"  wiui  th« 
RuxiliiirM's  iln  hnir.  rnn.  mum.  or  any  other."— l'BiKTi.n% 
Rudnmnts  (if  English  Uranmiur. 

3u  3 


u* 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


paMivp.  Lowth  hw,  in  thi«  instance,  not  only  violated 
the  iiimplicity  of  our  language,  but  lias  bIhu  advanced 
an  opiiiion  inconsistent  with  iiis  own  priiiciplos.  For, 
If  he  hai  justly  excluded  from  the  number  of  casen  in 
nouns,  and  moods  in  verba,  those  which  aro  not  formed 
by  inflection,  but  by  the  addition  of  preitositiona  and 
auxiliary  verb«,  there  is  equal  reason  for  rejecting  a  pas- 
cive  voice,  if  it  Ixi  not  formed  by  variety  of  termination. 
Were  I  to  ask  him  why  he  denies  from  a  king  to  l)o  an 
•blativo  case,  or  /  may  lovt  to  be  the  potential  mood,  he 
would  answer,  and  very  truly,  that  those  only  can  be 
juatly  regarded  as  cuaea  or  moods  whicl.,  by  a  dilfercnt 
form  of  the  noun  or  verb,  express  a  dillcrent  relation  or 
a  different  mode  of  existence.  If  this  answer  be  satis- 
factory, tliere  can  be  no  good  reason  for  asiiigning  to  our 
language  a  passive  voice,  when  that  voice  is  formed  not 
by  inlk'ctioti  but  by  an  auxiliary  verb.  Doctor  [being 
an  inllection  of  the  word  doieo]  is  iruly  a  passive  voice ; 
but  /  am  inuiihl  cannot,  without  impropriety,  be  con- 
■dercd  an  such."* 

By  coiijiigniiiig  a  verb,  is  meant  mentioning  the  pre- 
sent a:id  piist  tenses  and  tlie  perfect  participle. 

The  past  tense  iinil  perfect  participle  arc  formed  from 
tile  prest>nt  tense  by  adding  td,  if  it  end  in  a  consonant, 
as  ruin,  raided,  and  simply  d  if  it  end  in  a  vowel,  as 
thanaf,  changed. 

If  these  y-".rt8  are  formed  in  any  other  way,  the  verb 
M  called  I,.">^ular;  aud  if  it  wants  any  of  these,  it  is 
•aid  to  lie  Defective. 

We  subjoin  a  few  of  the  Irregular  Verbs  in  most  fre- 
quent use,  or  in  which  mistakes  are  apt  to  arise : — 


FRESaifT   'BKHSK. 


PKSrncT   PABTICIPLE. 


Am 

wai 

been 

.^wnka 

awoko 

awaked 

liear 

bore 

lorn 

Itt'teech 

bfXmght 

lie»ouKlH 

Urcava 

be  re  11 

bereft 

Bid 

bade 

bid 

(.'hooi« 

choae 

cho«en 

Cleave 

cliMt.  ciavB 

oliM'i.  cloren 

t'loihe 

clo'hcd 

oloilinl.  clad 

Crow 

crew 

'trowed 

Deal 

dealt 

Jesli 

Drink 

drank 

drunk,  drunkea 

l.ai 

•V 

eau-ii 

Kly 

flew 

flown 

Msng 

hung 

hung 

l.oy  (lo  di-po^m 

la:d 

lad 

i.ie  (as  on  a  brd) 

lay 

la.n 

K  TC 

rived 

rivp« 

Run 

ran 

run 

Hirink 

shri.-.c 

•hrunk 

8luM 

shml 

•hud 

Rink 

•Wink 

•lunk 

Ppit 

Ti-esd 

spit 
irtHl 

•pit 
trodden 

*iu 

won 

won 

The  Regular 

Verb  is  thui  inflected  : — 

To  Lov«. 

F-^imi  TmM. 

Piul  TVnn. 

Ptrftrt  Partidpb. 

Ixive. 

Ixivcd. 

Loved. 

PBBiCNT    TKKSE. 


sr^cntXAH. 
Ik  Penon,    I  Inve 
M      ■'  Thou  lovcst 

U      '  tie  luve> 


pir«»i. 
\H  PtnoTi,    Wo  love 
tU      "  Yk  or  you  love 

3<<      "  They  love. 


ITAIT    TtHll. 


■ntdVLtl. 

PLrlAL. 

1. 

I  lovr-t 

1. 

We  loved 

t 

Tlir.ii  lovedst 

a 

Yf"  nr  \ou  loved 

1. 

He  loved. 

3 

Thev  loved. 

SINGItLAI. 

I  write 
Thou  writeit 
He  wriloi. 


n-oaAi. 
We  wriie 
Yc  or  you  v/rii* 
Ihey  write 


PAST   TBNil. 


smaui.AB. 
I  wroie 

Thou  wro'eit 
He  wrjle. 


FLOBAL. 

1.    We  wrote 

9.     Yc  nr  you  wrots 

3.    They  wrote 


Imptraliin,  Write.    /if/Snid'n,  To  write. 

PABTICIPl.in. 

IrrrpcrftH,  Writing.    Peftti.  Written. 
The  Irr?gflar  Verba,  Bt,  Do,  Have,  ond  the  Dcfectin 
Verbs,  i.<hiil!,  Will,  May,  Can,  from  their  irecjupnt  occm, 
renee,  ought  to  be  carefully  examined.     Tables  of  Hja 
are  here  presented : — 

To  B«. 


Iheia 


Prtstnt  Tms4. 
Am. 


Past  Temt. 
Wb«. 

rBBSKXT   TBNBE. 


Ptrftrt  Patticipk. 
Beeu. 


siNontAH. 
1.    I  nin 
a.    Thou  an 
3.    He  is. 


PI.CBAk. 

We  are 

Ye  or  you  are 

They  ore. 


PAST    TE!»B«. 


BTNO ITLAB. 
t.       I   IVRS 

2.  T.iou  wn»l 

3.  I'.e  wan. 

Imprratirt,  Be. 

PARTICIPLEl. 

fmj>tr/rrt.  Ueiu);.     Prr/trt,  Been. 


PI.fKAI,. 

1.     We  were 
a.     Ye  or  vnu  were 
.').    They  were. 
Infinilivi,  To  Be. 


TTie  verb  To  Be  has  a  peculiar  inflection,  to  expn« 
contingency  or  conciitioiiality,  which  we  liere  suhjoin. 
It  may  be  called  the  Conditional  or  Siibjimctive  M.iod 
In  the  case  of  other  verbs,  this  form  is  elliptical. 

COVniTIOXAL  TKKS2  OF  TUB  TKKB  To  Bl. 


•  INOt'LAX. 

1.     I  were 
3.    Thou  V  er: 
3.     He  were. 

1. 

a. 

3. 

ei.iBAi,. 
We  were 
Y?  were 
They  were. 

To  Do. 

Do. 

Paul  Tenu. 
Did. 

Pffift  Partiofli 
Done. 

PBBS^lfT    TI5SE. 

sntoriAB.                 f 
1.    I  ,lo                                        1 
a.     Tliou  doe«t  or  dost                      'i 
3.    He  doe^or  doth.                        3 

pi.trSAU 
W..  do 
Ye  do 
'lliey  do. 

PART   TBKia> 

mmrLAR 
1.     I  <lld 
7     Thou  didd 
3.     He  dul. 

1 
1                3 

Pt.l'H*I. 
We  did 
Ye  d  d 
T:,cy  did. 

Imfmitir*,  Do.'  In/in'tivr,  1 

•o  rV). 

PABT1C1PI,EB. 

Imptr/eti 

,  Doing.     Frr/ttl. 
To  Have. 

Done. 

PraenI  Tmtt. 

PaM  Tmu. 

Ftr/ert  Pnmcifm 

Have. 

Had. 

il.id. 

FHEHEXT   TEHSB. 

PAST    TKrlSU. 

to.'  Lovt.     Ifyitnitirt,  To  love. 

PABTII'IPIJB 

Imjftrftet,  Ixiving.     Ptr^i.  I.oved. 
The  verb  To  Writt  is  irregular,  and  is  thus  conjugated 
■mi  declined : — 

To  White. 
Trmmt  Tmsa  Ptut  Ttru4.  Ptrfnt  FartiofU. 

Write.  Wrote.  Wntlen. 


•t?«nri.\«.  Pi.t-EAL. 

I.  I  huve  1.  We  have 

a.  Tuou  hilt  a.  Ye  biivo 

3.  He  1«»  3.  niey  have. 


SI^OC  »B.  PI.IIAL 

1.  I  hiKI  I    \Yelitd 

2.  nuMi  liadm  S   Ve  h«i) 
.'1.  He  had  .1  TlicyhU 


Impiiatirt,  Have      /n/!ni»i«.  To  have. 

PAgTIlMI'LKS. 

Jmptr/itt,  Having.     Pf/ttl,  Had. 
Shall. 

PnEStXT  TESSB.  PAST  TBKSI. 


•mot  i.Aa. 
I.  I  ■hall 
3   Tlioii  "halt 


•  Tlia  Kiymclog)'  and  Syntax  of  Ui«  I^iigi.ah  {..auguaie,  p  M     |  3.  He  •ball. 


rl.rsAL. 
I.  Wesha'l 
8.   Ye  «b«ll 
3.  Theytliall. 


siKari,.^a.  PLitti 

I    I  thouid  I   We'lunM 

a.  Thou  thoiiUUl  i    Ye  -li  ,i  i 
a  Ur  should.      3.The)>lieiiM 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


Whu 


fLOaAU 

W»  write 

Yo  or  you  viil* 

lliey  write 


We  wroio 
Ye  or  you  wifote 
They  wrote 
<M,  To  write. 

ti.  Written. 

uw,  and  the  Defectit, 
1  thoir  Ireciiient  occu,, 
ned.     TabJts  of  ihw. 


Trrfin  Patticipk. 
Becu. 


PI.CBAi,. 

We  are 

Ye  or  you  are 

They  are. 

t. 

FI.l.'KA.L. 
We  were 
Ye  or  vou  were 
Tlwy  were. 
ii«,  To  Be. 

frt,  Been. 

inflnclion,  to  exfnm 
lich  we  lii're  subjoin. 
or  Subjunctive  M.iod 
m  is  clli^itical. 

B  TKRB  Tl)  Bl. 


rmBiBNT  TBirsa. 


PAST  TIHBB. 


fl.lBAI,. 
We  were 
Y  '  w  I'  re 
Tliey  were. 


PfT/ift  Partiofk, 
l>one. 


PI.l'SAl. 

1.     W,.  ,lo 
a.     Ye  ilo 
3.    'Hiry  do. 


PLl'BAl. 
We  ili,1 
Ye  (Id 
■!':iey  did. 


i*,To  rv). 


ttt.  Done. 


Fer/trl  ParttHflt 
II. id. 

PA^T    TK?UP.. 

r"  AK.  PIltiL 

iiKI  I    Welinl 

loii  liBilst  a   Ye  had 

e  hiirf  :)   Tlity  hU 

:uY.  Tt)  luive. 


r/ui,  Had. 


FIKT  TtKSI. 

ai'i..iB.  fLi'kU 

loul.l  1   We-VinU 

111  ihnnltUt  'i    Ve  .ii    ,i 

ahould.      U  The)  ihoiM 


IIKOULAR. 

I  iwi"  ... 
I  Thou.w'" 
I  He  will- 


PLURAL. 

1.  Wo  will 
it.  Ye  will 
3.  Tlioy  will. 


■  INO'JLAR.  PLVB.AL. 

t.  1  would         1.  We  would 
3.Thouwouldsl3.  Ye  would 
3.  He  would.     3.  lliey  would. 


May. 


rBBBBNT  TBNSB. 


PAST  TBHRB. 


IINOULAR.  PLURAL.         |         ailfOULAB.  PLURAL. 

1  I  ni»y  *•  ^^''  """y     '■  '  "''B*'t  1.  We  mieht 

,  Th„u  mayit      8.  Ye  may      \'i.  Thou  mightet  2.  Ye  ininlit 
3.  lie  may-  3-  1'l'*-'y  inRyl!)'  >le  mighL         3.  They  might 

Cait. 


rBEHX'T  TBX8B. 


niiacLAR. 

1  1  ciui 

2  Thou  canst 
1  Ik  can. 


PLURAL. 

1.  W    can 

2.  Vo  caii 

3.  They  can. 


PAST  TiaSB. 

SIltOtaAB.  PLirBAL. 

I  could  I.  Wc  could 

Thou  couldst  a.  Ye  could 
He  could.        3.  They  cou.d 


INrLKCT'ON   or   ADTBRD8. 

Adverbs,  for  the  tuost  part,  admit  no  modification 
rr  iiillection :  a  few,  however,  are  compared,  like  adjcc- 


(ivea. 
Some  are  Regular,  u— 

rOSlTIVE.                 OOMi'ABATITl. 

SUPERLATIVB 

Poon                     Sooner 
Orten                     Oflener 
Sel'lom                 Scliloiner 

Soonest 
Oftcncst 
Seldomest 

Others  are  Irregular,  as— 

POHITIVB.                 COMPAnATIVl. 

SUPERLATIVE 

Well                           Belter 
liailly  or  ill                Worse 
Mule                         Less 
Much                        Mora 

Best 
Worst 
Least 
Most. 

The  student  will  now  bo  able  to  parse  a  sentence, 
mfiitioning  not  merely  what  part  of  speech  any  word 
is.  but  what  infleilum  it  has  under[;one,  and  how  it 
sniuis  rplati.il  to  other  words.  By  way  of  example,  we 
eiiall  parse  one  sentence  frotn  Oacon. 

'A  single  life  doth  wc/1  with  churchmen;  for  charity  w.ll 
binllv  wiuer  the  iiround  where  it  must  Brsi  fill  a  pool." 

J,  nnnnu'rnl  aiijeetive.  qualifying  the  noun  tife.  It  is  com- 
nn.iily  called  the  indefinite  article. 

Swiftt.  an  niiriliutive  adjective,  designating  the  noun  life  It 
tniiiiotlie  cnmiiUfd. 

D/(, a  noun.  §  nRulnr  in  number,  neuter  gender,  and  the  no- 
Biiiiiiivc  cnHu.  because  it  is  tlie  thing  of  which  soinetliing  is 
l!.«iTieil     The  plural  of  life  is  livtt. 

VclK  "  verb,  because  it  asserts  something  of  the  noun  lift:  it 
n.nthe  present  tense.  Indicative  mood,  ami  the  third  person 
t.iwulsr,  to  nitree  with  \:*  noun  tife.  VotK  is  now  almost  obso- 
lete, lioo  being  the  word  in  coinnton  use.  The  v;-xlj  to  do  is 
wujinaied  thus :  Present  T«>i:e,  Do;  Paat,  Did;  Perfect  Participle, 
IXiiie. 

iW;.  an  adverb,  expressing  bow  "a  singb.  lite  doth."  Well 
11  111  the  positive  degree,  and  is  «jommired  thus  :  —  PaTitiee, 
WVII ;  Comimrntife,  Better ;  Stiperlatirt.  Best. 

H'liA,  a  prepoHitioii,  used  in  a  metaphorical  sense,  to  connect 
thwrhmrrt  wilb  itin^fe  life. 

Cwrrhmen.  a  noun  plural,  mnseiiline.  and  the  objective  ;  being 
lieolij'C'  shown  lobe  related  tosoineihing  eU'!  Iiy  the  prepo- 
Ciiiii  rei/A.  llie  singular  if  ekiirrhman.  All  nouns,  it  should  be 
rrnnmliered.  am  of  the  tliird  per«on. 

Fur,  a  conjunction,  connecting  the  clause  tliat  follows  with  the 
tn'  wireli  went  before. 

Chnriii/.  a  noun,  being  prt'marili/  the  name  of  a  disposition  of 
m.ail.  mill  sermvlarilii  of  the  course  of  action  resulting  from 
uti  ilii|>os:tion;  singular,  neuter,  and  th<;  iwinmutive  to  the 
Tcrti  \nU. 

ITiS,  a  verb,  present  tense,  sininilnr  number,  and  third  person, 
IS  utrre  with  anrity. 

HarMy  is  an  adverb  of  degree,  qualifyinir  the  verb  teoler. 

;;'<ii«f  is  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  n.ooil.  ^To.  the  sign  of  ihe  in- 
Snil.v*.  is  suppressed  after  a  great  number  of  verbs.  an»l  will  is 
oil.' oi  them  Will  i»  a  iletVeiive  verb,  niiii  is  conjugated  ihu*  '-• 
fnvHl  Trnse.  Will :  Pott  Teme.  Wnukl. 

Tht.  niiineral  adjective,  or  definite  article,  qualifying  the  iioiin 

rr-dind.  a  noun  singular,  neuter,  and  the  objective,  being  the 
li^'i<  which  IS  atfected  bv  the  vuri>  iJ-oler. 

1(V»  is  of  the  nature  oTacoiijmi  tioii.  since  it  unites  the  two 
m, inliersnl  the  last  clause  :  but  it  also  has  in  it  the  I'orce  of  an 
fcJvt'fli,  being  ei|iiiTaleitt  to  in  theeoM  m  irhiek.  We  may  there- 
(of'*  rsll  It  a  ctiiijiinetive  advrrb. 

ft  its  perixHiBl  pronoun,  siuirubir,  neuter,  and  the  ihinl  person, 
•applying  'be  place  uf  the  iiouo  ehmrily.  it  is  Iho  iioimnalive  to 
tkt  lerb  must. 


Afiui  is  a  verb,  aise.rlingsomethlnf^or  the  pronoun  it.  Ilia  a 
the  present  tense,  and  third  person  singular. 

f  irsi  is  an  adverb  of  lime.  (qualifying  iho  vnrbjSfl. 

Fill  is  a  verb  in  the  itifinitevt,  lo  being  understood  after  musl, 
in  the  same  way  as  it  was  after  will,  in  the  former  parlofthe  »CD- 
tcnce. 

A,  numeral  adjective,  or  iitdefinite  article,  designating  the 
nouti  pool. 

Pool,  a  noun,  singular,  neuter,  and  oii.toctira  case,  being  th« 
th.ng  atfected  by  tho  transitive  verb/tt. 

Additional  Rtmarkt. — Before  quilting  this  division 
of  our  subject,  we  must  inform  the  reader,  that  the  sam* 
word  is  frequently  used  in  different  ways,  and  conse- 
quently belongs  to  diffcrunt  parts  of  speech.  Nothing 
can  lie  more  certain  that  every  word  must  have  been 
originally  significant  of  only  one  idea ;  but  in  the  pro- 
gress of  language  other  ideas  attach  themselves  to  it, 
and  -he  grammarian  must  not  resist  this  extension  of 
meaning,  but  carefully  observe  it.  To  discover,  then, 
wha.  class  of  words  any  word  belongs  to,  we  must 
"  look  before  and  after ;"  but  a  few  examples  will  illuo* 
trat«  our  meaning  best. 

"  Come  out  of  the  wet."  Here  tvet  is  a  noun,  because 
it  ib  a  name  expressive  of  a  certain  state  of  the  elements. 
"  John  threw  off  his  wet  clothes."  Hero  wet  is  an  ad- 
jective, because  it  qualifies  the  noun  clothes.  "  A  shower 
came  on  and  wet  the  ground."  Here  wet  is  a  verb,  be- 
cause it  expresses  an  action.  The  shower  did  som^ 
thing — "  wet  tlie  ground." 

On  the  following  examples  let  the  stuilent  exercise 
himself,  in  sutisfyitig  himself  as  to  the  justness  of  onr 
assertions  with  regard  to  tho  class  of  those  words  which 
may  In;  long  to  one  or  more. 

1.  Tlie  sun  is  the  great  source  of  light  (noun).  Feathers  ara 
light  ^adjec.) 

a.  Beloved,  let  us  Ime  (verb)  one  another ;  for  tow  (noun)  is  of 
Hod. 

;i.  Then  he  arose  and  rebuked  the  winds  and  the  sea,  aad 
there  was  a  great  calm  (noun). 

Thy  brow  is  eabn  (adjec.)  and  bright, 
Wearing  no  trace  of  sorrow  or  of  sin. 

To  still  the  pang  that  conscience  can  impart. 
And  calm  (verb)  the  restless  pulses  of  the  heart. 

4.  How  often  have  I  loitered  o'er  thy  green  (noun), 
Where  buinbie  happiness  endear'd  each  -iceiie. 

Yet  wandering,  I  found,  on  my  ruinous  walk 
By  tlie  dial-stone  aged  and  green  (adjec.) 

5.  Thy  niglillt)  (adjec.)  visits  to  my  chamber  made. 

When  the  blue  wave  rolls  nightly  (adverb) 
On  deep  Cialilee 

6.  Yes!  there  are  charms  (Aot  (rel.  pron.)  scorn  the  apMlar 
time. 

Blessed  are  those, 
Whose  blood  and  judgment  are  so  well  commingled, 
That  (conjunci  they  are  not  a  pipe  lor  fortune's  linger 
To  sound  what  stop  she  pleases.    Give  me  that  (demon,  adjee.) 

man 
That  (rel.  pron.)  is  not  passion's  slave,  and  I  will  wear  hin 
In  my  heart's  core. 

7.  The  common  siiTJ  (noun)  can  only  be  employed,  ke. 

Hope  quickens  the  still  (aitjec.)  parts  of  lu'e. 

Is  this  the  Talbot  so  nnich  feared  abroad. 

That  with  his  name  the  mothers  ttiU  (verb)  their  babes  T 

It  hath  been  anciently  n;.  .led,  and  is  still  (adverb)  r^ 
ceived,  &c. 

John  has  been  very  foolisii,  ndl  (conjunc.)  I  will  not  dismisa 
him. 

Let  the  student  ftirthcr  exercise  himself  in  what  re- 
spects one  part  of  speech  resembles  af.athcr,  and  wherein 
it  differs.  He  will  ftnd  that  the  noun  and  pronoun, 
ndjortive  and  adverb,  preposition  and  conjvi.iction,  re- 
sctnble  each  other  in  some  resiiects,  but  that  they  yet 
are  quite  distinct 

We  conclude  i..i'  siibjeet  with  two  brii  '.'ucta 
from  Locke : — "  Besiiles  words  which  are  nanit  ".  cieaa 
in  the  mind,  there  are  a  great  many  others  t'.iit  a» 
made  use  of  to  signify  tlie  c  tnncction  that  the  mind 
givert  to  ideas  or  propositions  one  with  aiiolhe:.  The 
mind,  in  communicating  its  tliought  to  others,  doea  not 


tM 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


V 


Miiv  need  iigni  of  the  idru  it  hnii  then  hefbra  it,  hut 
ttbcn  nlnn,  to  riiow  or  intimate  some  piirticular  action 
of  'tM  iv  ti,  At  that  time,  relating  to  tho«H  ideaa.  This 
h  Joea  acvoral  waya ;  aa  w  and  i»  not  arc  the  grnpral 
niarlin  of  the  mini'  t  Tirming  or  denying.  But,  beaidea 
a/firmation  or  negatitn,  without  which  there  i«  in  worda 
no  truth  or  falmhooi!,  the  mind  do<<a,  tn  declaring  ita 
•entiwicnUi  to  otht-ri',  connect  not  only  X'm  parta  of  pro- 
?W!<iUi>na,  but  wbol>.  aentinrr.'a,  one  lo  ant  !ii><>r,  with  their 
•everui  relation!  and  dependenciea,  to  n:.rke  a  coherent 
diaconrae." 

"Though  prifportiona  and  conjunrtiotii  ore  namea 
well  known  in  grammar,  and  tho  partirlca  contained 
under  them  carefully  ranked  into  their  distinct  aubdivi- 
aiuni,  yet  he  who  would  show  the  right  use  of  particlca, 
and  what  nii^ifirancy  and  force  they  have,  muai  take  a 
little  more  paina,  enter  'nto  his  own  thouc-hta,  and  ob- 
icrre  nicely  the  aereral  poaturca  of  bin  niiid  in  discoura- 
ing." — Human  frtderftunihni;,  book  iii.  rh.>p.  7. 

VVhooviir  wii'hea  really  to  underatand  'lie  natuve  and 
nae  of  wonip,  should  study  cari'.'iilly  the  tliird  book  of 
Locke's  invaluable  essay. 

HI.— DIStTATIOIf. 

J>eriTation  !n  that  part  of  Ktymology  which  tracea 
V>ri»  to  their  original  form  and  signiliration, 

Thw  ideas  attiiched  to  words  arc  puifly  arbilriry  and 
K'.V'svtiitional ;  there  heina  no  reason,  for  in-tati  <■,  why 
Iii"  '>f)imd  represented  by  the  combination  of  letters  fire, 
*i'^'>uld  juggrst  the  idea  f  heat,  while  that  of  i '•  e, 
aii'K'M  I'ive  the  notion  of  ci/ld.  From  this  princi|  u'  it 
follows  that  the  u-s!  import  of  a/ y  word  enn  l>e  nKccr- 
i*"(ied  only  by  in  '  -ii  >*.  Ih&t  is,  I'  ^ibserving  the  lom- 
mon  idi'fi  whir!'  !..')i;V>;»'*  l.i  e'l'ry  different  po^^ition 
that  it  may  cvupj.  "knvt,  ir,  Ir-i!,  riare  nfrrmeii,  that 
in  onisi  to  ascertnia  --»ili'i  }.'  i..  Wj  ;br  ohilo-opbical 
imp>r'  ;'t'  a  word,  it  ie  'iwo^^nr/  '  >  truce  its  progress 
hi.iiorirally,  thrciiiih  'tU  "h.  iii:r."u»ivc  jK'aiiit.ns  it  has 
beeri  ompii-^fltj  'o  coiiv,«y,  Cv  c  the  mo  . lent  that  it  was 
first  intrmlriej  inio  the  iciiguayn,  no!  others,  not  lon- 
v  it  with  thii,  ,nvrisef  ol«  their  etyniologicol  research  till 
fhey  arriv,'  at  'he  literal  nh\  primitive  smise  of  the  root 
'rare  which  it  r.prings.  Hut  it  may  well  be  daubttd  if 
auch  a  r i>ursfl  of  procedur*!  is  fi:)!!owed  by  any  substan- 
tial benefit  ,•.:  all  proportiimate  to  the  labour  which  it 
imposes  on  thf^  rtndent ;  and  one  thing  is  certain,  that 
fin  Nippea!  to  c! -iiology  from  use  is  altogether  nugatory, 
_  and  displays  an  utter  ignorance  of  the  nature  nnd  funr- 
turn  of  words.  The  derivation  or  (Kdiifiee  of  a  word 
will  by  no  mean*  universally  lead  to  its  r^vl  meaning. 
Hi>fiie  To4>ke  and  his  followers  have  emplov-'''  them- 
»'''e8  in  tracing  words  to  thtir  Rourees,  and  with  won- 
(iiiiJul  auccess;  but  their  specclalions.  hnwever  interest- 
iuK  tn  some  rcsiM-els,  are  almost  u«"le«i,  a''  lar  as  she 
(jriiumar  of  oor  languapce  is  concerned  ;  and,  certainly, 
thi>ui?h  that  schvH>l  of  philologist*  should  huccecfl  ti''  their 
minmt  desire  in  chasing  ever)  word  now  in  us»;  up  to 
ao-ne  Icelandic  or  Gothic  origin,  it  would  in  no  way 
tnti^rfiere  with  the  present  structure  of  the  Engliih 
t>ni;un.  !t  may  b<  very  int^ie-iling  to  trace  our  lan- 
guage from  the  period  when  it  wan  only  the  ru  Ie  jargon 
Hi  wrmlering  hordes  of  savage<<,  down  to  the  pr'nent 
time,  when  it  i«  ra|)aMe  of  expressing  with  precision 
tli«  minutcdt  dixtinrtions  of  tbe  metaphysician  or  the 
mt/nt  glowing  conceptions  of  the  povt ;  but  it  I>elon)n» 
r«th«.T  to  the  philolo^st  to  enter  on  «urh  investig-itions 
tkan  the  grammarian.  Still,  some  ground  is  common 
to  b)th,  and  it  i«  necessary  to  say  a  few  worda  on  tile 
•ubjrct. 

Words  are  diTided  into  two  claaae*,  Primxtin  and 
Dfrii'ntivr. 

A  Primitive  won!  is  one  r.  '  leriTed  from  any  other 
Vord  in  the  language  :  as,  ir.'  \onl. 

\.  Darivativc  word  u  eit<  .ipoundttd  of  two  hq 


niRcant  words  in  the  language,  or  of  one  vgniflnn 
word  and  some  termination  that  modifies  it*  ineanini 
aa,  irhoolman,  trholur. 

The  bulk  of  the  English  language  is  Arglofl,,, 
and  so  are  the  forms  of  ita  grammar.  A  considershli 
numlier  of  its  words,  however,  are  from  the  Latin,  i.nd 
not  a  few  from  the  Greek,  both  as  entire  word,  and 
aa  parts  of  words  or  prcfixc'i.*  The  following  i«'j  [[^ 
of  these  Prefixes,  together  with  examples  of  the  itiannn 
jn  which  they  enter  into  cotnbination  with  othsr  word* 

I.ATII«   PRSriXIS. 

A.  nfc,  or  ahs.  from ;  as  avert,  to  turn  from ;  o6iiolve,  to  tn,^ 
from ;  ofciiract,  to  ilraw  from.  ""*• 

Alt,  lo;  an.  ar/herti.  to  8tirk  In. 
>4m,  round  uliout;  on.  amiiition,  literally,  a  going  roundikiM 

Cireum.  roiintl ;  a»  fircwmnivi^'iti;. 

Con,  togrltier;  as,  fuajoin.  ^"'ivoKv. 

Contra,  HgniiiAt:  ni,  w?-/    ■.!»(•!. 

Ik.  ilown:  b«.  i/reiroy.  .'.!\.i>'i«lr. 

i>i  or  (/«,  iiNunder;  an  rfi  iri.  (/>.i  Iti 

Kor  er. out  of;  .*».  «vol\'',  ftriiHf.. 

Erlra,  lieyoiid  ;•  n,.  rjrtrna'  .iiniiry. 

fn,  in.  or  iiil'- .'  a«,  itiji-pt 

/ii(  ".  bi'lwn    1     a>.  m«-i'     i». 

lutrn.  Willi  III     rtW.  fVifrodu    r 

Ju,rtt>.  nipli  ti.     an. ^.iTiaposaion. 

('^■.  itkAlie  wn)  'M  .  an.  rifcstiiif/  . 

P.f  through  ;  a  .  j.n-foraie- 

F '.«'.  iirter;  a»,  >hm 'po'".. 

»«  1  ffiirn  ;  ai,  ^«iix. 

I'w.  ii>''iead  of;  ai.  pmnoiiii. 

/>.:.♦  >.eyonii;  nn,  pfrlfrnolur.tI. 

Kr,  i.ni-k  .  n      (iiliir-e 

lUtto,  liitcKw-i!  .  (iinply  . :,  motion);  as  rr.~<i(r<Mll». 

S«.  a^  ■'  ■  ■  a*;.  *-.*citr. 

Sub,  lii.'d.  r;  B.i.  m;t)lu  lary. 

.Viifirr,  «li<ive  ,  .,».  jt'.'.'inniire,  .it«)'-'ftu<'bfi 

Tians,  acrnti.'  st,  l   <'ij|>ort,  .'ra'i.<atlDnii'  . 

ORCKK  PRE!'. >. tea. 

A,  without :  as.  iinomaluiif .  uiiioriniuus. 

Afrrphi,  liolli;  R»,  amphi\'ion». 

Ann   lip,  ilirnugh:  an.  nnolomy. 

j4nrt.  ngain^t ;  as.  AntifUrinX. 

Ai>o,  rriiiii,  away;  ii».  u/xutaio. 

fViffi.  down  ;  ai.  cr-i'-'irMplie. 

7>iVi.  through  ;  an.  rinitfonnl. 

£;ii.  upon:  a»,  fpiloK"'".  'pidemle. 

.//v;»r.  ovnriiiiuh;  lis  /ii/J'TcriUcal. 

//i/;x).  uniler;  an.  hyp,  c  r  ac . 

.Vila,  rhiinge  ;  an.  wwimiorphoiii. 

Pnm.  uiUT  In :  an,  pi'    'clinnc. 

/■rri,  round  alioul ,  ii»  ;  'inii-icr. 

Syi,  logelhtr;  as.  Ji/no  (   «i/iingoguo. 

Affixcj. 
It  is  not  so  eoay  to  trac*'  the  AITixes  to  their  }iigUM 
rm-aning,  us  they  now  i-..  I  loin  retain  any  significatiui 
when  taken  by  thcinB«!lvc«,  but  are  used  merely  to  iiiodilj 
other  words.  We  sliull  prcsiMit  n  few  of  them,  witi 
examples,  but  we  are  far  from  thinking  tliat  the  littii 
complete. 

ArruKS  roaHiiin  nodns. 

Trigpdittn.  historiaa 


an 
nrir 


nrd 
ary 


denoting  t)ic 

agent 

or  dot-r  of  a 

thing ;  a>. 


ClniniuiK.  couibaiasl. 
Scholar.  Unr. 
l>riinkar</.  dolarj 
Adversary,  Actuary, 
Kngiiirtr.  aui:t:onr<r 
Adherrnf.  t*orrei»[K)ntlMC. 
Arruwr.  b-'hevrr. 
A[K>logijt,  tliunut. 
Actor,  rrenirtr 
I'luuler,  «p:n«i(T. 


*.rrms  roaMiMo  vrvw. 


/y 

itt  or  lu 
al4 


01/ J 

loiru 


drnot'iig  lo 

ninke  or 
caii>e  ;  as. 


llurdni   «i!rni!dn«i. 
I'liri^y.  cl«ri/u 
Civilisf.  fiiitiiiiw. 
Alieiuiff^  aitaaAniiiA.! 


trai 


•  TK*  reail' 
Vr  mors  in/. 


Arriiap  .OKMift'i  aiuktivks 

Art/ii(,  lii!ani/u(. 
Mnunir--nei.  ;il'-mfrtw. 
dcnninr  ^''l    '",       Kaihiri*  hoinfhi. 
or  r      .        .if         TroublfM'm'.  lo.lKmu. 
>,      '  Wpiilih^  m  ghiy. 

1>rTnocrnu>a/.  mrttufditk 
.  Kipensirf,  intiruetm 

.:  lo  iha  article  LANaVA.m,  in  ikii  mtk 
,»,  ■   'lis  puiut. 


toir 

nr 

lui* 


ENuLISH  GRAMMAR. 


357 


<l»f 

loir 

tudt 


kfn\9  foijo^*  awtract  nounp. 

Amusemoit,  i\liiilrm«K. 

(inOlltIM",  llOrllll'.". 

(Ninvtiljimn,  expaiMion. 
den><tin|(  Prndiiclion.  viiidiciuioit. 

stHic  of,  I    Vii'tij.  proliiti/. 

pon»ulorc(l  rhilimnorf,  manhood. 

abmractndly.  Frieml.i/ir'p.  coiirKAip. 

Chrixti'iii/nfn,  kingilom. 
Hinhoprir. 
I,iiMilti(fe,  TorlUu''*. 


\||  words  muiit  oriq;innliy  have  had  only  one  mcan- 
.„  Iiiit  subsciiuonlly  thry  come  to  hiivo  viirious  socontl- 
,-  jinniflcationH,  Those  are  attached  to  them  accord- 
nit  M  fixed  laws  of  the  asxoi'irttion  of  idran;  hut  in  the 
.Jif  of  each  iixlividual  word,  the  sij^iiiCication  muHt  be 
iifirriil  fiom  the  rchition  which  it  hears  to  the  otht.r 
„„f,|s  w'lh  which  it  stands  connected. 

\  vrrv  lar^r  and  iinjiortant  claRs  of  wordg,  whoso 
rrinwrv  siirnil'ication  refers  to  the  o])crntion  of  sensible 
Ljiij,' (ire  a|iplie(l  secondarily  to  nimles  of  thinking; 
,;  iinaijine.  apprehend,  comprehend,  adhere,  conceive, 
;„!,iil  liisgii^t.  disturbanci,  tran(|nillity,  abstraction,  sin- 
reK.  f'irc>iii;ht,  penettati.)!.,  aciitcness,  inclination,  aver- 
ii,v\,  (Iclilicration,  sai^acity,  attention,  <&c.  But  the  pro- 
^vi'liun  of  this  subject  falls  more  within  the  province 
nf  ihf  logician  than  the  Kri.inmarian,  and  here  we  may 
ilnw  our  olit>ervatiuns  on  derivation  to  a  close. 


SYNTAX. 

jJrvTtT.  from  two  (Jreek  words,  lyn,  toother,  and 
(.'H,!,  a  piittii'i?  >'.■  placing,  is  that  part  of  grammar 
nhii'h  i'hi>ws  how  words  are  connected  ond  arranijed. 

Klvinoloiiy,  wc  have  seen,  treats  of  the  materials  of 
LiniiKil??,  i'"'"""'""'  'corr/.i;  but  it  is  the  business  of 
Sviila«  to  [">i"t  ""'  ''.V  what  rides  these  words  are  put 
toidher,  so  os  to  form  urittnires.  By  a  fenlcnre,  is 
momit  n  niMubcr  of  words  so  united  as  to  make  sense; 
Ihii  is,  to  declare  or  alRrrp  somethini;:  thus,  the  words, 
•  The  city  of  EdinbHr!»h."  do  not  form  a  sentence,  be- 
cause  they  declare  nothinij ;  hut  if  wo  say,  "  The  city 
of  Edinliureh  is  the  capital  of  Scotland,"  a  distinct 
]N*Ttion  ia  made,  and  therefore  the  words  form  a  sen- 

tPllCC 

We  mast  here  remind  the  reader,  that  every  sentence 
mint  (•ontiiin  at  least  a  subject  and  a  predicate,  the  sul)- 
•ift  bcini;  the  thiim  spoken  of.  and  the  predicate  the 
iCm  at  slate  (^f  Mnx  aflT.rmed  of  it. 

When  the  verb  forinini;  the  predicate  is  transitive, 
the  word  which  it  Htfects  is  <'alle(l  the  ohjrrt :  thus,  in 
ihp  *nlence,  ".lohn  learns  his  lesson,"  Jiihii,  being  the 
ffliiitH-t  of  discourse,  is  in  the  nominative,  and  hfson, 
lifirii!  the  thing  affected  by  the  predicate  /cnrii»,  is  in  the 
objective  caa«, 

aiTLRS     'If    BVVTAT. 
Rule  I.— .NoMiinniive  ami  Verb: 

A  verb  agrees  with  its  nontinative  in  number  and  per- 
wii;  as,  /  rtiid.  he  lenrns. 

T'iis  rule  is  of  very  extensive  application,  and  if  un- 
i!ir<toixl  in  its  full  import,  it  will  render  useless  many 
fiihirs  that  are  eoniinonly  ^et  down  by  grammarians. 
Il  may  be  exprch^'d  in  more  general  terms,  thus :  ""he 
:iuinlitr  :inJ  per^on  of  t!ie  siibj.'.'  of  a  sentence  deter- 
iiiiie  the  ueni't"'  !  t  il.  ■•  ■'■;!  of  the  v^  -b.  For  exani- 
iili,  in  the  scnteiiv,  .Ijim  ;•  li.  "./■.'«,  the  subjeit,  is 
'insular,  »ii''   V  .     dll   nc.ins,  of  ine   t"  ird   person;  we 


■irrlorc  i,.. 


ihinl  pernon  singclar    il    'ic 


verb,  nnis. 


L*:iav«.  in,  in  ikii  I 


Asain,  in   .'le   sentence   "Jihn  ami   James  read,"   the 
'jlivct.  ju:.r.  and  Jan«s  expresK.'s  an  idea  of  more  than 
iiir,  anil  so  the  verb  muKt  \m   plural,  rtnil,  not  rrmU.  ns  ; 
il  would  have  'loen  had  only  one  name  In-en  mentioned, 
la  ihu  WMtcnc^  "  John  ui  Jmnoii  iiitenda  to  accompany 


mo,"  it  is  ohvioits,  from  the  very  mature  of  the  conjunc 
tion  or,  that  inlenliim  is  predicated  or  assorted  only  of 
one  of  the  persons,  and  therefore  the  verb  is  in  the  sin 
gular,  m'ends. 

As  collective  nouns,  though  singular  in  form,  may  yel 
suggest  the  iilea  of  plurality,  they  are  joined  either  tc 
a  singular  or  a  plural  verb,  according  as  the  idea  sug 
gestcd  is  that  of  unity  or  plurality.  Thus,  when  wf 
say,  "The  army  m  on  its  march,"  wc  seem  to  lose  sight 
of  tho  individuals  luuiposing  the  idea  represented  by 
the  word  army^  and  speak  of  it  as  one  mass ;  but  if  we 
say,  "  The  peasantry  gu  barefooted,"  this  mode  of  ex- 
pression seems  to  give  us  on  idea  of  a  number  of  people 
existing  separately,  and  we  therefore  put  the  verb  in  lh« 
plural.  With  respect  to  the  collective  noun,  the  only 
thing  further  to  be  observed  is,  that  if  in  one  part  of  a 
sentence  it  is  made  to  stand  as  singular,  it  ought  not  in 
another  to  be  used  as  plural. 

A  noun  is  sometimes  put  in  the  nominative,  even 

when  it  is  not  the  stibjcct  of  the  sentence,  but  merely 

stands  connected  with  a  participle  ;  thus,  in  these  line* 

of  Cowper — 

"'Ilinu,  UK  a  K'dlaiit  'lark  Irom  Albion's  coast 
(Till'  stiiwis  all  wiMiiher'd  and  the  oaan  cross'd) 
Shoots  Into  port,"  fee. 

The  words  ftnrms  and  ocean,  joined  to  the  participles 
xreniherid  and  i-rofsrd,  are  neither  the  nominatives  to 
any  verb,  nor  are  they  the  ohjeci  affected  by  a  transitive 
verb  or  a  preposition.  Still  they  are  in  the  nominative ; 
and  this  construction  is  known  among  grammarians  aa 
the  nominative  absolute.  Some  grammarians,  inde.jd, 
contend,  and  not  without  reason,  that  there  is  an  abto- 
luto  case,  ijuite  distinct  from  the  nominative;  and  th»t 
to  spoak  of  the  "  nominative  absolute"  involves  a  con- 
tradiction of  ideas.  It  must  at  once  he  conceded,  that 
the  noun  conveys  very  diflcrent  ideas  in  the  two  cases 
referre<l  to,  and  we  cannot  well  deny  that  they  ought  to 
have  separate  names,  in  the  same  manner  as  we  give 
('-.iierent  names  to  the  nominative  and  objective,  althaugh 
they  are  the  same  in  form. 

In  every  casi-,  the  ii/cii  represented  by  the  svhji'i  must 
he  carefully  noticed,  and  then  the  predicate  bo  conformed 
to  it. 

To  each  rule,  we  shall   subjoin  a  few  examples  of 

erroneous   construction,  being   persuaded,  in   common 

with   (Iromhie,  of  the   truth   of  Lowth's  remark,  that 

a  good  way  '-of  teaching    right,  is  to  show  what  is 

wrong." 

I.  Tiiis  rtiuru  ot*  lectiire*  urrr  (Iflivered  last  spring, 
a.  In  iln'  liiiniiiii  •ipecM's.  Ilie  infumrr  oi  reason  and  inttinel 
are  ^ennriilly  n?*sisieil  hy  the  h'ss^ms  of  experience. 
.)     It'iis  i/(ii(  pii>-i-m  at  tlic  meeting? 

4.  rinTi'  art  a''ini'hi>tre  o\  treat. m's  on  that  subject. 

5.  At  this  tone  the  Hovst  ff  Commons  vennf  Utile  weight. 
0.   Kvfry  nut  oi  litest  tlieoDOtt  fire  tinlbtindud. 

7.    Iras  tlie  miti^trr  mut  his  .'ichoUirs  Iheru  ? 

Rule  11. — Possessive  Case. 

When  the  relation  of  ownership  is  to  be  pointed  out 
the  Possessive  Case  of  the  noun  denoting  the  owner  ia 
used  :  thus,  '■  Tliis  is  John's  hot."  Here  the  relation 
of  ownership  is  to  be  declared  as  existing  between  the 
person  John  and  the  thing  hat,  and  consequently  the 
name  of  the  possessor  is  put  in  the  possessive  case. 

If  the  name  of  the  owner  Ite  a  comiwund  name,  the 

last  of  the  coiniHiiient  parts  only  receives  the  sign  of 

t*ie  possessive  :  thus,  "  The  Queen  of  Great  Britain'* 

prcro^^ativc  ;  also  w  hen   there  are  two  separate  names, 

as,  "  Itobertson  and  Keid's  oflice." 

1.  Thia  is  Julin  '1'liotiipwn  Kit  Itnok. 

*J.  JiiiHfS  ;»  in  tr((/A(r*,«  rtnt/ .Sttn'.t  odice. 

'.t.  riiHrles  is  a  nitinherof  "he  J»/«-»(«iic'»  latlitution. 

4.  '  lave  you  rend  Cliamlm't  Journal. 

Rule  IK.— Olijeclive  CaJ». 
Active  transitive  verbs  and  prepositions  take  the  01^ 
jectJve  Case  uAer  thein:  thus, "  Do  yu«'«ft  love  mt rev 


SM 


INFORMATION  1  OR  THK   PEOPLE. 


L  ' 


•nd  walk  humMy  with  Cfxi."  In  thU  •rntoncc,  j'u$tirt 
and  merry  are  in  tho  ohjpclivo,  l>pin«  nflertcd  by  tho 
vcrbn  dti  am!  love  rpi<|)orlivoly  ;  and  (imi  i«  also  in  thn 
objectivo,  Mixg  the  object  of  the  relation  pointed  out  by 
the  |irr|)oiiition  with. 

Homo  active  tranaitive  vorb<  ap|>i>Br  to  take  two  ob- 
jective rasps  after  tbom  ;  but  it  is  inurh  more  conatstent 
with  tho  analogy  nf  the  lanj^uaf^e  to  undorxtjuid  a  pre- 
position :  thus,  '<  He  sent  me  the  book,"  whpro  mc  and 
book  are  tH)th  in  the  objective.  It  is  ijuite  cirnr  that 
hiHik  is  the  thing  imniedintely  afTcrted  by.'iiv  verb  unt, 
it  tlierefore  must  be  in  the  otijeetive ;  but  .-  to  me,  it 
■oems  most  natural  to  understand  the  pre|H)silinn  to, 
wh'M!  the  sentence  would  be,  "  He  s«-iit  tlie  lHK)k  to  me." 
Ellipses  of  tills  sort  are  ijuite  roniinon,  and  it  is  alto- 
jelher  unnecessary  to  brinn  in  any  new  rule  or  princi- 
ple to  account  for  idiomntic  expressions  thus  prmlured. 

I'niler  this  rule  we  niiiv  further  observe,  thiU  nil  words 
denoting  mrmnirr,  whether  of  time  or  spiire,  are  cnjmble 
of  being  put  in  the  objective,  a  prepositimi  bi'ing  under- 
•too<l.  Thus,  in  the  scntenees,  "  The  wall  is  seven  /(•<•' 
high,"  "  I  was  three  rf.ivn  in  the  country,"  the  won't 
frrt  and  ilayf  are  in  the  objective,  the  i)rpposilion  fvr  or 
dun  111,'  being  understoisl.  As,  however,  the  nominative 
and  objerlive  of  all  nouns  in  Knglish  are  alike,  thia  n- 
niaik  must  be  allowed  to  be  of  limited  utility. 

1 .  I  tn/H  t/«  thst  I  would  rnnn'. 

a     ll'fto  ihoiilil  I  lint,  if  mil  my  fslhrr? 

3.  I>,i  )oti  know  icAti  you  (ipi-nk  to? 

4  Hf  l)inl  rsn  doulit  wlietlier  he  lie  any  thing  or  not,  I  ip.-Bk 
kx  <o.— I,oc»«. 

RiiV  IV.— Pronounn. 

I'ronouns  agree  in  gender,  number,  person,  end  case 
with  the  nouns  for  whh-li  tlipy  stand,  and  an  in  all  rc- 
•pects  to  be  treated  as  the  nouns  would  haM-becn  lind 
Uiey  l)epn  used.  In  the  sentence, "  'i'lie  nicsler  iiistriuts 
kit  pupils,"  the  pronoun  supplies  the  pli'.ce  of  the  piKi- 
•cssive  case  of  the  noun,  mti'irr,  which  is  of  the  singu- 
lar numlier,  third  jiersoii,  and  niiisei'iine  gender;  we 
therefore  use  hit,  which  corres|).inils  '.o  all  this.  Ag.  in, 
"John  and  James  learn  ihrir  leaso-.i :"  here  ihdr  staids 
for  two  nouns,  and  so  must  lie  plural. 

1  —Thou  ihalt  also  mske  a  later  o'  hrn»«.  and  hi)  fool  nl«o  of 
brau. 

2  For  my  nann  aiut  mtmnry.  I  icavc  ('/  to  mrn's  rhanlnlilc 
■ppri'Sri.  and  lo  forr'irn  nntinn'.  and  In  tlw  nt'Xi  np'*  — Hacon. 

n  R.'lii-ksh  look  goodly  ta'mnU  thai  was  in  ihc  hiMisc.  siid 
put  them  r>n  Jaroli. 

4.  I  snw  \ht  «  hole  .<|xn>.',  dcliviriMl  from  tlieit  norrows. — An- 
DIS01. 

6.  TtioM  are  the  liinU  tohom  we  call  (fKarioui. 

Rule  v.— The  iiiRnilive. 
One  verb  governs  another  in  the  Infinitive  :  as,  ••  lie 
loves  to  study,"  where  lo  iludy  is  the  object  of  the  verb 

IJefore  the  verb  denoting  the  object  of  the  preilirating 
vert), the  preposition  to  i*  gencni'iy  put;  and  it  is  in  this 
case  called  the  tifin  of  the  infm  lire.  But  as  we  alreiuly 
aavv  that  the  infinitive  is  nothing  but  a  noun,  the  utility 
of  this  rule  may  well  l>p  queslioned. 

Thn  iign  lo  is  omitted  aft<  r  the  following  vcrlia : — 
Bid,  can,  dare,  feel,  hear,  let,  make,  may.  must,  need, 
shall,  ere,  anil  will.  M'e  do  not  suy,  "  Hi'  bade  me  to 
go,"  hut, '•  He  luide  me  go."  The  infinitive  of  a  verb 
may  also  come  after  a  noun  or  an  adj:clive,  as  well  uy 
ifter  iin.)th,)r  verb. 

1  Sylla  MiKiil  lh.-in  tii>mit  lo  «uch  iirms  at  Ihr  tenaU  vert 
pli  av  d  lo  impixtf.     iSi'  ii'«i  n  ill-  |.\ 

2  The  king  muuil  \)\i-m  feel  ilie  weight  of  his  displeasure. 
1.  I  duireif  him  ealt  in  ihr  evriniig. 

i    ^  Oil  nee*l  fi.ii  tfi  Irouhle  yoiir*«*lf  on  my  seroiint. 

t    God  nuketh  ihr  sua  to  rise  on  ihr  evil  and  on  thf  good. 

Rule  VI  — Apposition. 
\ouna  and  pronouns  ailded       other  nonns  and  pro- 
■01.  ns  lo  explain  them,  arc  pu.  in  tlic  aaiuc  caae;  tliua, 


"  Edinburgh,  the  rapital  of  Scotland,  is  celcbralej  (, 
its  university."  Hero  i-'i/m/iio-^/i,  Iwiiig  the  sulijoct  of 
the  aentonce,  is  in  tho  nomiimlivc ;  and  tlie  noun  cia 
lot,  with  ita  adjunct  of  SioIIiukI,  lieing  added  to  cxp|i^„ 
it,  is  in  the  nominative  also.  The  two  words  in  cuNei^f 
tills  kind,  are  said  by  grammarians  to  lie  in  apponitian 

"Urutus  killed  Cniaar  in  the  Capitol ;  him  who  hid 
lieeii  his  friend."  Here  Catiir  ii  in  the  objective  o, 
verned  by  the  verb  killed;  and  as  the  auceceding  nriv 
noun  refers  to  it,  it  must  l>o  in  the  objective  too.  If  | 
were  he,  there  wouhl  lie  no  violation  of  any  rule  in 
grammar,  but  a  inisrepresentntion  of  a  historical  fjfi 
lis  it  would  h'lid  us  to  believe  that  Uriitus  iK'frion,!,.] 
C»snr,  whereas  it  was  O.sar  tliat  had  betrii.'nj,,j 
Brutus. 

There  seems  to  bj  an  exception  to  this  rule  in  i,u,.i, 
expressions  ns  ••  I  called  at  iSiiiilh's  the  liiiuksell,., " 
where  Smi'ii's  mid  ImikMller  are  evidently  murks  of  li,, 
sunn-  iiiea,  but  yet  the  one  has  the  sign  of  the  p(iHii(.<,5|(. 
(  s),  which  the  other  has  not.  As  l';ir  iis  llie  posscusjvp 
case  (so  cnllrd)  is  coiiceriiiil.  il  is  in  mosl  iiislarid.j 
awkward  to  add  any  explan.i"!  v  word  to  it;  iiiu]  || 
seiilence  runs  much  more  siuonllily  if  we  use  th,.  n,,, 
[Hisition  o/.-  thus,  "  I  called  ut  the  shop  of  Siuilh  tin 
liooksellor,"  where  both  words  arc  obviously  In  the  ob. 
jective. 

l.  Your /riVn/,  Aim  whom  you  inlrodiiriMl  lA  m,.  ycit|.f||., 
very  «o<ni  d, -purled.  -' 

'-2.  ^^'lly  do  >(iu  Ireiil  Mtry  Ann  fn  unrslily.  5/,^  who  Iibj  ui 
wuy«  h'-i-n  no  iiil'-eiionuti-  ' 

.1   The  Un:let  wa»  inkin.  Aim  who  defnd  ihe  law. 

4.  I  am  (t'liiiif  10  sec  my  /rieiids  In  Ihe  country  ;  (Afvwiiom 
we  niel  al  tho  ferry. 

Rule  VII.-The  Verh  To  Tie. 

The  verb  To  Be  has  the  same  case  after  il  as  ii  hai 
before  it:  thus,  ".Hired  w,is  a  goixl  Am:,,"  Here  th. 
work  kiii^,  coming  after  the  verb  icac,  is  in  the  iioniiju. 
iive,  iM'cnuse  it  is  descriptive  of  jllfrtd,  the  subject  of  lU 
sentence.  "  Mlie,  Hiip[Hising  lum  to  Is-  the  Kordtm 
snith  unto  him."  Here  jfri/ciif  is  to  lie  considered  in 
the  objective,  liecause  Aihi,  going  licfore  the  verbloi;  ii  I 
in  the  objcctRe,  governed  by  the  verb  ntfiposini^. 

It  reipiires  very  little   [lenetratioii  to  fs'rceive  that  thii  I 
seventh   rule  is  inclmleil  in  the   sivtii,  for   th"  vcrh  iiWi 
does  nothing   'iion-,  in   such  caws,  than    iimrk  tlmt  iIk 
two   i>ouns  iH'tween  v,hicli  it  is  put  are  dilVcrcnt  namcj 
for   the   same   thing.     On  this  subject,  Mr.  Mill  rcain.di 
with   his  usual  aciitencia.     In  showing  how  t'le  nanv 
of  a  class  comes   to   lie   used  for  the   name  of  an  indi. 
vidual,  he  says,  "I   have   tho    name   of   the    iiidivjilujl 
John,  and   the   name   of  the    class  Miifi;  and  I  citn  wi 
down  my  two  names  John,  WKiii,  in  juxliipnsition.    but 
this  is   not   siiiricient   to  elTcct  the   communication  I  -If. 
sire,  namely,  that  the  wi   A  rinin  is  a  mark  of  the  nam  I 
idea  of  which  JuIdi  is  a  m.irk.  ami  a  mark  of  other  ide,ii  I 
along  with   it  ;  those,  to  wit,  of  which  James,  Thoiiiu,  ( 
Ac,  are  murks.     To  complete  my  contrivance,  I  inven, 
a  mark  which,  placed  Is'twcen  my  marks  Jofm  and  nut.  j 
fixes  the  icba,  I  mean  to  convey,  that  mnii  is  aniilhd  I 
mark   to  that   idea  of  which  J'lhn  is  a  mark,  while  it  u  I 
a  mark   of  other   idi'an  of  which  James,  Tlioinan,  A.. 
are   marks.     For  this  piirjios*',  we  use  in  Kniriish  ihi 
mark   i,«.     By  help  of  this,  my  object  is  immedialolv  a 
tained."' 

Tliose  rapable  of  understanding  this  dissertnlion,  m. 
iinnirdislely  see  the  virtual  identity  of  our  sixth  jc 
•eventh  riili's  ;  but  here,  as  in  oilier  cases,  we  have  l»-e 
anxious  not  to  depart  irom  Ihe  common  doctrine,  and  _ 
rp|M'(ition  of  the  rule,  while  it  may  be  useful  to  Minc.ci  { 
do  harm  to  none. 

1.  Vnu  'i.-lievi-  it  1(1  lie  he. 

9   ft  wa«  n'li  m#  wno  naid  so. 

3.  It  appean-d  10  '        '  who  r»r-ird  on  the  butinau 

4  Though  I  was  Msiu,-d,  il  <  i-.iU  not  have  been  km. 


jpl>«'' 


pteiscu 


3.  In  Knir 
jwi»"*lly  nil 
psfs  ul  con 
eireptions. 
md  that,  w 
ihof*'  thus, 
ti>$i  maps. 

4.  It  is  no 
ftrb  Oi  jii.ii 
»trb.    We 
mis  well." 
"I  am  iiiysi' 

"III  lie  I 
ur  as  quality 
ceiveil  u.s  I 
consiiliTcil 
can  (jualilv 
means  a  im 


•  An>ly»  i 


i.  p.  117. 


ENGLIvSH   GRAMMAR. 


in^eM  wv  ^'ko  to  *>*  tt>s  R^"*  Inadins  principle*  on 

hifh  tic  SynUi  of  tlic  EiiRlinh  lari«uiigo  in  fournU-il, 
"  J  by  tli«  iIitoukU  urul«rataiiiliiig  of  which,  the  Httulcnt 
"ill  be  cnalplcd  to  «!p  tlin  coiiBtruction  of  nliuoHt  any 
"nUiiicc.  Muny  Bnuimiiiriniw,  ioino  of  whom— piirtiru- 
Uy  Croiiil)io  oiitl  McCiillocii— wo  highly  rfiH|><-ct,  have 

•ven  many  '""'•' !  '*"'  "'•'  "J'""'*'  *°  '''"  Jccioion  of  tho 
ScUtor  ot  rjiiahHli  htcrnture,  who  sayn,  that  » our  Ian- 
rtjgi'  111'"  »<>  '''^'''  i'irt''*''i'>"  •>■■  ''anety  of  tcrmimitioiiH  that 
^  construi-tioii  ncitlicr  riM(uiri'»  nor  ailmita  any  ruli'H."* 
'  i  few  iniHcollancouB  ri'iniirka  (vn  cannot  iligiiify  llicm 

•jl,  ,|,B  iminc  of  rules)  will  conclude  this  part  of  our  Hul.jicl. 
1  Every  adji'ftivo  must  qualify  a  noun,  eithor  ei- 
P^J  or  understood :  Ihu*,  in  tho  line* — 

!■  Aiitpieimu  llopii !  in  thy  .iii'««  ((ririli  ii  (?roW 
V.  TviUht  lor  tdcli  toil,  a  cliuiiii  lor  every  wo," 

eterv  adjective  ia  imniediaUdy  followed  by  its  noun.   But 

in  thi». 

"  Few  ultall  part  where  niani/  ine«t," 

the  noun  men  i«  olivioUKly  uiiderHtood. 

Wc  iiave  already  seen  tliot  o  and  nn  (rommonly  called 
Ih,  inJi'fmitP  article)  arc  identical  in  meaning;  but  there 
latlii!"  dillcrence  in  their  applieation;  that  ii  is  prefixed  to 
word!*  bc^'nlli"«  with  llie  sound  of  a  consnnant,  the  Inni? 

,„jnf  II,  and  vowels  souiidint?  likeic.  and  f(<i,  to  words 
tliic'l  I'l'i^iu  with  the  sound  of  u  vowel.  Thus,  we  say, 
g  rniin.  Imt  an  o\  ;  a  house,  but  nn  hospital ;  o  one-horse 
,X)tc\\;  'I  unicorn;  m*  easterly  wind,  &c. 

2,  The  exuM  import  of  the  four  words,  each,  H'rrij, 
ri/'ii/-, and  mi'hrr,  which  are  known  by  the  name  of  Dis- 
liilmtive  Adjectives,  oui^ht  to  be  carefully  attended  to,  and, 
from  their  very  meaiiiuK,  it  will  Bp|H'ar  that  they  mufC 
jlwiiys  '*  joined  to  a  noun  in  the  sinifular. 

}i',irh  means  Ibo  one  and  the  other  of  two:  thus, 
Cowper,  ill  liis  ode,  "  The  l.ily  and  tho  Hose,"  sa^-s  pro- 

iKtly— 

"  Uiilil  n  third  [llowi-r]  iii;rnn»»  you  both, 
l,Ll  emk  hu  (luiiiiuil  a  (iiieen." 

Evtrt  refers  to  any  ntnnbcr  more  than  two,  considered 
iodividoally :  thus,  Dyron,  refurrins;  to  the  unfortunate 
ie[«r«lion  of  himself  and  Lady  Byron,  sayp— 

"llnth  shall  live,  Imt  event  inorrDWr 
Wiiku  us  iVoiii  a  wtilnuM  hed." 


Either  means  tk' 

OTO 


one  01-  tlic  other  of  two;  ucilher,  not 
cither,  nut  the  oflb  iiw  the  other  of  two.  Tho  use  of  both 
words  is  seen  in  those  lines — 

"  I#t'pi()llS  llltttt'TS  holh, 

or  Ixtlh  is  tiilltiTtMl ;   Imt  lif  neither  loves, 
Nor  «i(/irf  uari's  lor  hiiu." — SiiAhscEAiiE. 

Milton  makes  a  wrong  use  of  either  in  these  line*— 

'Sht;  \va«  ehrer'd, 


Km  sili'iiily  a  K''<iil>!  tt-'ar  let  fall 
From  either  rye.'' 

3.  In  EnKlish,  as  already  noticed,  tlte  adjective  is  not 
j»p»-ally  iiideeted  for  aiiv  purpiwe  except  to  e:ipre88  de- 
iriifs  ol  comparison  ;  but  to  tliis  remark  there  are  two 
areptinns.  Thes*-  are  llie  Uemonstrativo  Ailjectivea  thin 
md  thai,  which  have  corres()onding  plurals,  these  and 
ihoft:  «hu9,W0  8uy, //lis  ,iittn,butt/iM<  mcn;Mnt  map,  but 
tkai  maps. 

4.  It  is  not  the  ufliee  of  an  adjective  to  qualify  either  a 
wboi  jiiother  adjective;  this  must  la- done  by  an  ud- 
»tA.  We  do  not  say.  •'  Janus  reads  i;m»l"  but  '•  James 
IM'ls  well."  "  I  am  my«elf  tmltffnenl  lioneFl,"  should  be, 
"I  am  myselt"  iniiiffereinhj  honest." 

"In  lie'.  Till,  1  >  quality,  when  considered  in  concrete, 
ur  usqualilyinii  some  particular  subject,  ciii'  it-  If  Ui  con- 
ceived us  the  subject  of  any  other  quality,  though,  when 
toiwidered  ill  abstia  't  may.  No  adjective,  t'  efore, 
can  qualily  any  '':■•••■  ijcctivo.  A  ^rcat  i;m  I  man, 
amni  a  man  v.'       >,  i-  >ih   ^reat  and  good,     Bmh  tho 


*Ur.,toliii'  1-1.    f  rer;..!a  to  Dictionary. 


adjoclivrs  qualify  thfl  sulistantlvc ;  they  dc   nc>*    ...ilfr 
one  another." — Jhlnm  Smith, 

That  this  is  tho  f;eniiii  of  our  language,  niltnit',  not  of 
reasonable  doubt;  but  there  an  i>"*'er.il  excepl'.ms.  W« 
<|i«ak  of  a  thing  as  lioing  of  njloriil  reil  coloi'.,  and  of  iron 
88  being  red  hot.  Wo  say,  »  a  great  many  were  present ;" 
"  tho  doors  were  wiile  open  ;"  Byron  spe.iks  of  the  "  pale 
hhie  sky  ;" — in  all  which  eases  it  is  quitx!  clear  that  the 
fust  adjective,  in  some  degree,  niodificM  tho  si>cond. 
Whether  this  idiom  is  capable  of  lieing  metitphytimUt) 
defended  against  the  reasoning  of  Smith,  or  whether  such 
expressions  ore  to  be  regarded  as,  to  use  the  words  ol 
Johnson,  "  sjiots  impressed  so  deep  in  the  English  lan- 
guage, that  criticism  can  never  wash  them  away,"  is  a 
question  into  the  discussion  of  which  we  shall  not  enter. 
About  tho  authority  of  the  expressions  there  can  be  no 
dispuie. 

It  was  already  pointed  out  that  certain  adjectives,  from 
their  vciy  nature,  do  not  admit  of  comparison ;  and  it 
should  now  lie  observed  that,  for  the  same  reason,  many 
of  them,  such  as  universal,  omniimtent,  and  others,  whose 
sif,nification  cannot  be  increased,  ought  not  to  bo  quaHf.i'4 
by  any  adverb. 

5.  Tautological  expressions  ought  to  be  avoided,  and 
no  word  should  be  introduced  into  a  sentence  which  haa 
not  son\e  distinct  function  to  perform. 

"  From  whence  came  her'shuuld  be,  "  Whence  came 
hoi"  liccause,  as  we  already  saw,  te/ifmr,  in  itself,  menni 
"frinn  what  place."  Again,  in  the  sentence,  "  I  doubt 
not  but  that  he  will  come,"  it  is  obvious,  on  a  little  reflec- 
tion, that  the  idea  intended  would  lie  completely  conveyed 
by  •'■is  loriii  wf  "»pression — "I  doubt  not  that  he  will 
come,"  and  the  insertion  of  hut  serves  no  useful  purpose. 
By  reversing  the  sentetice,  this  may  be  more  obvious— 
"  He  will  come,  I  doubt  not  that  (Ihin^)." 

In  this  sentence,  taken  from  Goldsmith's  HItlory  nf 
Knirlanil — "Tho  New  Englanders  were  determined  to 
attack  the  royal  forces  as  soon  as  ever  they  Should  march 
out  of  Boston" — tho  word  ccer  is  of  no  use,  and  cooi^ 
quently  should  lie  omitted. 

Perha]>8  under  the  same  remark  mi(.'ht  lie  included  the 
following,  which,  however,  froii  its  extensive  a[iplication, 
wo  shall  keep  se|)aratc. 

6.  Two  n"gativcs  ought  not  to  bo  used,  unless  affirm- 
ation   is   meant. 

In  t'  '^  respect  Bacon,  Shakspeare,  .  •  li  Ijockc,  and 
indeed  ..li  our  early  writers,  frequently  oi!"Mid.  Usage 
was  in  tb-  ir  times  divided  ;  but  it  has  now  bec.r  i..:  d, 
a'ld  that  on  the  side  of  n  I'tn;  Iiysical  propriety. 

Bacon  says — "  The  joys  of  parents  arc  secre.,  a:ii!  so 
art  their  griefs  and  fears;  they  cannot  utter  the  one,  no> 
will  tli^'y  nut  utter  the  other."     Shakspeare  says— 

"Be  not  too  luiiie  neither. " 
And  again, 

"  Nor  do  not  saw  the  air  too  much." 

Goldsmith,  too.  has  violated  the  idiom  of  the  English 
tongue  in  this  iciipect,  although  he  hr.s  ollended  in  good 
company  :  "  Never  was  a  tlect  more  completely  equipped, 
(lor  luver  liaii  the  nation  more  sanguine  iio|K's  of  success." 
AVtvr  should  lie  ccf;-.  "  He  is  »io^  niijuii't"  if  right,  if  we 
mean  to  express  much  the  same  idea  as  is  conveyed  by 
the  words,  ••  He  is  just."  By  some  it  ..  .;.■•  la  i:<d  that 
this  mixle  of  expression  strengtheiss  I'...  aiiiui^Uon,  and 
certainly  it  may  do  so  in  spoken  langi  ige ;  but  in  writing 
it  serves  oidy  to  introduce  ambiguity,  and  so  ought  to  be 
avoided. 

7.  Certain  conjunctions  go  in  pairs:  thus,  both,  and  j 
either,  or;  neither,  nor;  though  or  although,  yet ;  whether, 
or;  so, that;  not  only  or  not  merely,  but  also;  so,  as;  aa, 
as;  such,  as.  Most  of  the.se  words  bie  conjunctions,  but 
not  all. 

"I  will  neilhtr  come  or  send"  is  wrong;  Ixcause  o»  i« 
not  thecorrelativ''  of  neither:  it  ought  to  l)e,  "I  wiUot&ir 
come  or  leud,"  or,  "  I  will  neither  come  ivr  wetni." 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


*.  Drrlv.i  iv«  wnnU  gtntnWy  liik»  Iho  rame  prepoai- 
IJoiiii  aOi>r  tliciM  M  their  phinilivpi. 

(3<il(Urnith  i.tKiuln  sitain  in  unyinn.  " Culiliin"  wa«  in- 
■itiablp  <i/'  wriillh  ;"  ln-c»iiiie  wp  do  not  wiy  to  «iitiato  (the 
priinilivrt  of  in«(ili«bli!^  a  pcmou  »/  wealth,  but  mth 
wealth. 

tt.  (Vrtiiin  prcimnUona  are  appropriatml  to  cprtain 
wordii  anil  plirnM'* 

We  do  not  nay,  "To  hnvp  faith  inn  person,"  Imt  "in 
■  prrion  ;"  "To  lind  a  ditriciilty  mih  doiiii;  a  thiuK."  Imt 
"in  (liiiiijf  it;"  "To  diiror  with  a  jiorion."  but  "/rum  a 
pemon." 

Hucli  idiomntio  rsprrmiiona  are  only  to  he  niade  fntni- 
Har  by  an  rxtcnuivp  and  wrll-dirtTtccI  rourw'  of  Htudy  ; 
or,  an  Milton  hnH  it,  "by  a  wi'll-i-ontiiiiird  and  juillciouH 
oiinvrriiInK  nnionf;  pure  authors." 

10.  Artor  the  comparative  decree,  .•  i.,-  -u  ■  ',  'i  r  ivea 
or  adviTliH,  iiikI  thr  adjeotivi-  m,  th' co..j  ii.  ...,n  thin 
is  UHed  :  thurt,  " /jc'ifc  is  a  lil'lr  »ith'.  'ilrouHni'Hw, ''in'i 
great  revcnncH  without  riwlit ,"  "This  m  none  other  th.in 
the  hoiiw  (if  Uud."  Sliaktprare  baa  olfuiidud  against 
this  idiom— 

"Tlic  "iin  no  tonnn  litmll  ihp  inotinlalni  loiirh, 
Bui  wa  will  slii|>  hull  lieiice." 

Jiiit  ouKht  to  Iw  Ihtin.  » Scarcely  had  Austria  been 
cninhrd,  ihtin  it  was  announred,"  Ac. — OoLn»«i-Tii. 
Than  ouijhl  to  ln'  when. 

ll.'I'hc  IVrlrol  )*artiri(>lr,  and  not  the  Past  Tense, 
is  UHed  alVr  llii'  vcrlis  hnrr  and  bf. 

This  lomii  \  I  'imres  to  lio  iiltcnded  to  in  usinn  irrouu- 
lar  verlw,  hul  ">  nl'S  that  are  rep;ular,  no  mistake  run 
•rise,  as  Iwiih  j.i  u  are  tho  same.  In  notliinjj,  we  venture 
|o  remark,  diw  (Ii'lertive  }rhi)larnhip  snioncr  brtray  ilwlf 
than  in  u  'vri>nif  i-onjiiRiition  of  the  irrrunlar  verbs. 

■*Thpy  H  III  from  thr  Ix-einnintf  hoi'in  to  cmlirare  0|i- 
positc  systems." — (toLi.SMiTii.    Urgiin  ought  to  be  hrgun. 

"  Vni«  mint  not  think, 
Tlml  w<"  ST'-  nmili!  itT  ^tiilf  »o  ftiii  ninl  i!iill. 
That  «>•  run  ii'l  ofir  '     ird  ti4  think  with  ilnnei-r  " 

— SllA«SI>BARB. 

Khoolc  sliiiiiid  lie  thaken. 

12.  .\dveri»H  miirht  to  b^  placed  so  us  to  leave  no  doubt 
••hat  word  IS  iiftrctcil  by  Ihem. 

•Tlie  iii'urui'H  arc  to  apjM'ur  at  church  only  in  biHits." 
bv  this  (lositioii  of  iiittii,  it  iip|K'  irs  that  the  ncKrues  were 
not  to  CM:'  to  church  unli'  s  "in  bihits,"  ur  with  nnlhiiii; 
else  but  b.ii)iij;  but  the  meuiiinit  intended  wiim  that  they 
sh<>uld  ii;>|it'ar  at  chi  rch,  and  no  where  elw,  in  IhhiIs. 
The  nenlence  iihiiilld  therefore  have  stoml  thus : — •■  'I'hc 
negroes  are  to  apjH'ar  only  at  chiircli  in  ImotM."  "  I'otn- 
pey  |ilaycd  ii  ili>|iicable  (sirt  fjii)i(i;A  Iwtwixt  'licin."  ; 
JCnixigh  iiuifht  to  lie  iinmeilialelv  after  ilttfiimiU  "Ca^ir 
•o  turned  the  fale  of  the  d  ly,  that  the  baibarians  wcie 
a/m<itt  cut  olf  to  u  man."  It  ought  to  be,  "  were  cut  ulT 
d/moi<  to  a  III4II."  j 

EXERCISCS.  I 

To  all  tliew  remarks,  we  shall  adjoin  a  few  miserlla- 
neous  eTaitiiilcj,  on  which  the  student  m  ly  exercise  hii  • 
•elf.  We  sjull  refer  to  the  Rule  or  Remark  violated  as 
we  go  on. 

1.  Ar*- I  thiT  of  in  to  iilami''    iKiiIi' I    Rciiiark  3  ) 

J.  Til..-     kfi'l  of  things  give  ino»i  «nij«iiici,im      (Kiile  I.  Ri*- ' 
mark  .1.) 

^1.  I  scI'mI  111  romjil  niirp  to  tii«  ri-(jii».|it.     (K'>niHrk  i- ninl  0 

4-  t.rt   .iioh  ti-tich  ntto-ri  who  ltii'ni>>*4vi-ii  t-lrti  --I'oi-K. 
aiark  7.i 

S.  Tlif^p  ni' w  rtivinr«  nflTi-red  nilvnlion  upon  eau'er  leri 
•iibilitiii  iti;  prai^ticr  to  lo'lii't'  and  tt  tiiuii'k  own  rlfurta  il>  •  l-h- 
fiom  «Bi  Mui-'ion  — .\'ll«^■«  l^llrr\.    ilLonnrk   ' ) 

*  Th»re  i«  nothni  mipr<-  pleases  ns  an  to  have  onr  perform- 
•nf*^  pnuned      iKcmark  10  I 

"        .liny  led  thr  wiiy  d.r>Tt  to  Iiaiy      -  K<'iiisrk  4.1  ; 

*^     »».  ih'-r  of  thioti  iifipi-uifd  to  initsit.     ■   laws  which  coiilil 
•flbrd  Ihem  no  proieetion  — RosKSTSo't     (Kill- IV    Ri-iiisrli '?  i 

y.  Il  IS  woml' riiil  l,.iv  pf  i«i-  .  roi.«  ihs  affairs  of  this  wurld 
•  r' rganac"!   -Ksavki.'-'    (Remark  4  | 

lii.  During  th«  rest  of  his  cooaular  year.  Ribulus  eoiUd  oaJv 


eaoa/is  omrsfc  hy  not  only  svotdint  all  aaieinblia*  of  tkt  m^ 
p'l'.  'ml  rvioy  n"! "Uiii  ami  imimriiinl  inee'inB  of  lh«  Mnsta 
Ifitiivii  i<f  Himir.  I  ahliul  f'i/rli<fKtilin     (llemsrlia.)  "" 

11.  f  ni'vsr  did  rep«-nl  for  doiiif  irnod, 
Nnr  •hall  not  now  — HiiAiiiifKASS.     (Remnrkiitt  anil  0.) 

I'J.  The  wi»r«l  prinrna  need  not  lliliik  it  any  diniinuiion  u 
Iheit  frreutneia.  or  deroiniioii  to  their  •iillicirncy,  lo  rely  ggu 
counsil.— llAciii'a  Bioiirt.     (Iliiiinrk  U  )  "^ 

I  I  The  linnlilitiea  w  i.u'h  twic  in',  rroplril  the  prnjrreinof  |k, 
roniinimily.  neither  menii'd  lo  nr  irmnte  in  any  imperaii>? 
elnirn  of  iintionai  honour  or  sdvnntnire. — ^Vadk's  iJn'fy^  u^ 
rorjr      (Kemarku  la  nnd  7.)  ^ 

1 1.  It  WIIM  olipervfd  lo  me.  thai  in  iliis  eniintry  no  niatt  wim 
i«  nlile  lo  work  need  to  ffn  aiipperlesn  to  lied.  Thin  oir  he  iitigS 
the  furl — CoMiia'a  iVirfm  on  Atmrirn.     (Rule  V.  Heinnrk  4.) 

1.5.  When  a  nniioii  form*  u  irovprnineni.  il  la  iKit  w.NdonibBl 
power  who-h    they  pIncH    in  the   liunila  of  the   ininiialratu 
HoBK»TlUil..     (Rule  IV.)  "  ~ 

1(1  The  leiidera  of  the  (le«!  and  ihe  army  hegan  niuLitlU  ^ 
nreine  each  oilier —(JoMiaMirii      iHeMiiirli  .1  )  '• 

17.  Royal  proclaiiiiitHinn  coniinin  d  iia  omnipoicnt  aa  in  |k^ 
prereilniK  reiun.  — \V*i>«. 

Is  There  hnve  heen  three  rinn  in  Kniflnnd  of  late.  eii>),^ 
which  hnve  lieen  levelled  agalaal  diaaeniBri.— Rohicst  IIau 
(Urmnrkia.)  **• 

The  student  should  now  lie  ao  familiar  with  Ihe  /fu/^ 
of  Si/iilii.r,  which  are  -otbitit;  but  ueiici  ilizcd  fardi  ,f. 
gnrding  the  ciistoiiniry  ohmIch  of  uniting  w.irila  ninl  grn. 
tencen  together,  that  he  will  lie  able  lo  cominit  hii 
thouifhts  to  iip|iropriate  langiiaKc ;  that  is  such  iia  ahall 
convey  to  othera  the  exact  iiieuiiing  he  has  in  hia  own 
mind.  To  do  this,  however,  not  merely  with  nccnrnrv 
In'      ■  ..  ,  heaidcfi  iitteiidiiig  to  the  riiles  of  sviiiaj 

lie  iiiiiHt  take  care,  I. mi,  that  all  the  words  be  iiM"H  lielniiii 
to  the  Knu'isli  toiigae  ;  and,  aecninlly,  that  llicy  lie  eni- 
ploji'd  in  their  usual  and  recoifiiisid  aoceplntion. 

\  word  nut  F.nnlifli  is  terijicil  a  bui  b.inum,  and  when 
used  in  a  HenM>  diirereiit  from  its  eHlalillshcd  one,  uj 
im/iio/o  iriy  ■  both  should  la)  eijually  avoided,  either  ia 
writing  or   sjieaking. 

PI71»0TVATlnfl. 

Punctuation,  or  the  inaiTlioii  of  poiulf  in  written  Ian. 
Rinu!!',  is  usually  coiiMidi'red  a  part  of  Kriuiiiiiiir.  iind  | 
knowledge  of  its  principles  is  ilcsirable  for  coricct  literarv 
eomposilion.  The  iiitri»luctiiiii  of  points  is  said  to  lie 
useful  to  mark  |ilaces  at  which  a  pause  of  a  lcs.ser  or 
greali'r  Ieii«th  should  la-  made  in  reailiiig.  'I'liis  ilcf'nj. 
'Mill  is  not  alloKcthcr  wrong,  but  punctuation  has  much 
biijber  objects  in  view.  Points  arc  ■  cccHnary  for  mark- 
inn  the  parts  or  sectimis  into  w'.ii  ii  -.'iiteiiics  and  iiar.v 
arraphs  are  divided,  so  that  the  exact  meaning  or  smut 
may  Ih'  apprebeinled,  and  perfci  t  remiririty  preserved 
The  real  use  of  poiiiLs,  therefore,  is  lo  cut  otf  nml  »eM 
rate  siiiijle  words,  or  groups  of  words,  from  eai  li  illier. 
S  iiMctiincs  the  separatiiin  need  only  1k'  slinhl.Hinl  for  tins 
the  point  called  the  /om/ni  ,  is  suH'icieiit.  For  instance 
"  I'riuiiUnce  has,  I  think,  displayed  a  teinlerncss  for 
mankind."  Here  there  is  a  cmiiina  bi  fore  and  after 
"  I  think."  N'caiise  these  two  wdtiIh  express  sunn  ihin'» 
(hriist  into  the  sentence,  which  hIiouIiI  Ih'  ke|it  in  Home 
nil  isure  di.stin.t.  The  sitni  nlon  ;  is  used  to  mark  u 
III  c  |H'rfect  sei'anition  of  .voids.  In  gciicr*!,  it  cuts  » 
a«'nt<nce  into  two  or  mure  parts,  one  of  which  lias  s 
reference  to  the  other.  Thus,  •■  Kcoiiomy  is  ii  i  disgrace; 
for  it  is  la'ttcr  lo  live  un  a  little  than  In  out  '  ,•  a  u'real 
dcil."  Her«  the  (I.  iili'iice  is  in  two  sections,  ilie  semi- 
colun  markiiit!  the  boundary  of  separation.  The  n/wi ; 
siuniiies  a  otiil  wider  siparation  in  I'  e  words  of  a  sen- 
tence;  but  its  iju.ilifiixitiiins  nre  so  iiiilistincl,  and  .so  liable 
ti.  I  im'otiception.  that  in  practice  a  i'^  now  alnio.it  en- 
tirely ilisiim>d,  and  the  fitnoil  or  lull  slop  ■  is  employed  in 
its  stc  id. 

T!  other  marks  us«'d  in  written  l.inguaj^e  are  an  fol- 
lows -'l"hc  miii^  I'/  intrnniialiiin  f,  wliii  h  i.s  [nit  after 
words  asking  a  ipieslion  ;  the  mark  iff  ,nlmir,ilin.i  I,  put 
after  any  exclamation  of  surprise,  lamentation,  or  scorn; 
the  iliith  — ,  which  is  sometimes  em|)loyed  instead  of  t 
semii  lion,  nr  for  any  kindred  purpose  ;  and  the yiarintwtj 
(  ),  lot  enclosing  a  word  or  ]Kirlion  of  a  sentence  forei|n 
to  the  tenor  of  Uie  aenae.     Uood  wtilvrs  endeavour  W 


ENOLISH  GRAMMAR. 


pnmrkrtfl  mull)) 
"  "'ly  itiminiiiion  o 
"■n.'y.  l»  rHy  „p«, 

'illlii'prnKr^Mofik, 
m   "nv   i.n|„.,„„ 

mimrj  „„  ni«i,  ,|^ 

■  V.  U.,n,„k  /, 

>i   111*  iniinuir«te  _ 

V  l»-K«ii  muijjli,  a 

t  .1.)  '  ■ 

nii«ii..|it  II  in  1)^ 

'"'"'"f J""  -«pK(if 
ler..-  Hcmitii  Hiy, 

liur  with  the  HhI,, 
iicriliwil  |„<t,  ,f. 
IK  w.iriU  nriil  poi,. 
!•'  In  comiuit  hii 
t  i»  »li(h  in  nhall 
"'    llOM    ill    hi,  „^^ 

v  with  niTiirnoy 
If  niIcK  (if  suAu, 
r.ls  h..  11^,.,  |„.||,„|j' 
,  llmt  iluy  Ik!  en*. 
vc|ilnii,i||. 

ti'irixm,  iind  when 
tlalilislird   Dili',  an 

avoultd,  ritlier  ia 


i^t  in  wriltpn  Ian. 

f  ifriiiiiiiiiir,  nnd  | 

fur  riirrirl  literary 

liiitu  iH  siiiil  U)  l« 

mw  (if  a   |,.H.spr  „, 

liiiK.     This  M>n\. 

Illation  him  mucti 

•i-ctwiiry  for  marli. 

•ntciKin  an. I  p^,, 

mguiiiiin  ,,r  8onw! 

•uririty   prrnorvej 

rut  oir  iiiiil  «(>pn 

.  from  CHcli  i.tlipr, 

»lii,'hl,nn(l  for  thi.i 

III.     Fcir  iiHl^irice, 

a  lt'iiilprni'«»  for 

In  fiiri!   iiiul   after 

i'\|ircs<i  s.iriiithing 

I"'  ki'|)t  ill  dome 

unfil    to  mark  a 

Ki'iiiT*!,  it  cutj  a 

'  of  which  has  a 

my  in  n  uhsurare; 

to  Dill,  VI'  a  ureal 

•rcticiiis,  ',;«•  iienii. 

lion.     The  .i/o/i  J 

I'  words  ol  a  wij. 

tinci,  and  so  liable 

•   now  ahnost  en- 

|i  •  is  I'Mii'loyed  in 

iEllii(,'<'  are  an  ful- 
■  liiih  is  (iijt  aftfj 
■  iiimir,\liiiA  I,  put 
'iitatioii,  or  Hourii; 
jyi'd  instead  uf  a 
iiid  \\\i- iiari  lUmiit 
t  Nciitt'iii'i  foteiin 
l«ra  endcitvour  M 


iToU  rrqiiitHntr  rilhrr  |)iir«nthf>tic  markii  nr  danhm,  both 
gf  wliich  indiouto  irroKulaiiUM  of  (hoyglit  and  (<«(irm- 

OONCLUSION. 

We  have  now  cx|ihiiiii<d  tho  Etyrnohisy  ami  Rynlax 
4  th«  BnKhxU  toii^iic,  H»  far  aa  our  limit*  pt'rniit ;  and, 
In  drawing  to  ii  elnxe,  wv  may  ho  allowed  to  imjireMa  (in 
our  rnuhrx  'he  vuliu!  of  Ihu  xricm-n  wliich  we  have 
)y(.n  riideu<'oi.riii  i.<  <'X|»iund.  If  they  have  iiiti'lliicntly 
,„„r  alonR  with  in  our  vuriouK  remarks,  they  will  not 
|«  4ur|irii«'d  when  we  iuii<ert  that  thiH  ilFpartinont  of  hu- 
nmii  kiiowleilije,  if  MkilCnIly  cultivated,  will  lio  pnxluctivo 
of  very  vvlnahlo  reHultM.  To  undrrMluiid  tho  Kraininar 
,.('  a  MMili'l'i'i'i  Ik  nothlii|{  inurt!  or  Ichh  thiin  to  uiiderHtund 
iu  tm»f<  and  to  we  clearly  how  ita  variou*  pitrtH  are 
awni'i'tcd ;  while  in  leiirniiiR  to  rrco;;nii4c  thii  iliHbreiit 
modificalionH  that  wordK  undergo,  and  tho  diirerrnt  ar- 
nngemcntii  of  which  they  are  sUHCfjitihlc,  to  exprriw  ilif- 
firciK'c  '>f  thoiiKliI,  we  huvo  oxcrciiuMl  many  of  the  mental 
faruitioit,  and  in  so  fur  laid  the  foundation  uf  what  ia  much 
waiiU'd,  aJuHt  xyHteni  of  liOKic. 

Tho  Hourcert  whence  the  Htudunt  will  derive  cfTcrlunl 
■ill  ill  the  proHccution  of  ihiii  iiitvri'iitinK  Mulijuct,  wo  huvo 
ilrtady  pointed  out  iiii'idcntally  ;  hut  lot  no  one  hiinent 
liH)  much  though  he  -  hoiild  nut  huvo  acrrBa  to  them. 
Rallicr  let  hiiM,  hy  adilitional  thouKht  on  Inn  own  purt, 
make  up  for  tho  delicicncy,  aiul  he  niiiy  rent  bhhu rod  thiit, 
U  tccuxtominif  hiiiiM'lf  to  nmrk  tho  ditfercnt  niodea  of 
riprt'iuion  he  nieelH  with  in  rcpiituhlo  uuihorH,  a  syitim 
(;/  (ruHi"'(if  iciW  ( r»/i  1  1/1(7/,  wliich  will  ho  ull  tho  inoro 
faliii'd— if  w"  '""y  ""'  '"y  valuuhio — that  it  haa  licen 
wrought  out  liy  liiit  own  cxi^rtiiiiiH,  and  not  rrcoived  hy 
traililioii  or  puanively  from  the  humlH  of  unutlier.  Follow- 
ing this  plan,  llic  real  method  of  inducti(m,  he  will  either 
ir|ir(Hiuic  the  rules  which  we  have  cot  U'forc  him,  or  duo 
«  their  erronoousnoHH.  !So  thut,  in  either  t  ubo,  we  shall 
^xne  well  of  him  ;  for,  if  we  are  right  in  any  thiiiK, 
we  ihall  have  nerved  um  u  guide  to  him ;  and  in  those 
points  where  we  huvo  erred,  ive  Hhall  huvo  put  him  on 
llie  way  to  (iiid  out  our  errors.  We  know  very  well  that 
the  pupil  caniHil  see  with  our  cyea,  and  wo  have,  there- 
fiirc,  only  ciideuvourcd  to  lirect  his  attention  to  such  ol>- 
ectn  ax  he  may  «<<'  with  Ins  own.  So  far  as  ho  8«'i'»,  ho 
hiiulJ  U'lievc,   im      no   larthcr.       To  dof;niatizo  in  the 

I'lhod  of  a  graiiiniiitist,  hut  our  amhition  has  Ih'cii  to 
a.tthe  part  of  a  philosophical  (^ranimariun,  and,  a*  such, 
wi-  "innot  conclude  without  warning  our  rcuders  never 
I  .1-t  tlint  words  in  thcniHelvea  uro  nothing,  and  thut 
thvv  arc  >nly  valu^ihlc  in  bo  far  a«  they  arc  the  syinliols 
iilcoi.  Ueauliliilly  and  juatly  has  Johnaon  8aid, 
-Words  arc  the  Itughlera  of  earth,  and  things  only 
arc  the  sons  of  hi  i\cn."  Language  is  but  a  vehicle  of 
tluu  ^ht,  or,  at  liesi ,  its  iii-*trunicnt,  ai.:'  to  view  it  as  un 
'end  unto  itself,"  is  tho  \aiii  humour  of  a  ju'dant  Let 
none  be  oo  taken  up  witli  words  aa  to  forgot  solid 
ttujiga. 


COMMON  I'RUORS  CORRRCTED 
Tho  remaining  space  of  the  present  article  could 
icarcely,  we  think.  In-  iMtter  employed  than  in  enuiner- 
Itinjf  sono  exaiiiples  of  the  ukmI  common  errors  in  the 
pronunciation  and  sch'clion  of  words.  In  every  part  of 
the  country  there  arc  soiik^  jicculiur  vices  of  speech,  which 
htve  been  haiul.  d  down  from  one  generation  to  another, 
and  are  generally  so  inveti^rate  in  most  minds,  from  tho 
effect  of  curly  Ik.Mi.  tli;it  no  cultivation  which  the  mind 
may  receive  in  niuliire  life  altogether  obliterates  them. 
;"o.  any  one  'vho  bus  occasion  to  mix  in  refined  society 
In  be  thus  Hallo  at  every  moment  to  the  us*-  of  some 
beibaris.n  of  H|K"ech,  is  a  misfortune  of  some  magni- 
luJc ;  for  nothing  tends  so  much  to  convey  a  mean  im- 
VoL.  1.  -46 


preasion  rf  his  education  and  haMta  of  life.     Th«  mo4 

iM'Mutiful  youii      female,  who,  silent,  apix-nr*  •  kind  oi 

divinity,  ia  rrdu<  'd  at  one«  to  common  earth  when  w« 

hear  a  few  inelegant  words  fall  from  her  month.     Cole* 

ridgo  soinnvhero  t<  lis  that  he  was  once  much  prepo» 

>M  xsed  in  favour  of  an  individuiil  whnri  ho  met  at  n  dhv 

tu-r-tildo,  and  who  apiieared  a  dignilii   I  and  res|iectahl« 

'-rxon,  until,  some  kind   of  fruit  being  introduced,  ha 

r\\  him  oxchiim,  "  Oh,  them's  the  Jockiea  for  me!" 

>\  .  rd*  are  the  exponents  of  c(mditioiis  ol  mind,  arid, 

hen  mean  ones  are  UM'd,  wo  unavoiduhly  auppoM  ih 

cmdition  uf  mind  to  be  mean. 

■nnnita  iff  pHoNuNctATioK. 

The  intorchango  of  (.•  for  v  and  v  for  le,  and  the  p«W 
ting  of  the  sound  of  A  beforo  words  wh^re  it  is  inappro- 
priate, and  taking  it  away  where  it  ought  to  be.  E.t' 
iini/iln — (ill  you  rail  to  gel  soino  uiiio  and  tcictualal 
An  'ard  boiled  A  egg. 

The  sound  k  inslend  of  e  at  the  ends  of  words.  Ex- 
umjilet — Something,  iiolhin/. . 

The  addition  of  r  at  tho  ends  of  words  ending  in  vowela. 
Kxiimiikf — Ideor,  wiiiiior,  Eli/.ur. 

('hanging  the  terinlnation  in  or  di'ti  into  ing ;  u  gaN 
difig  for  garden,  founting  for  fountain, 

UiraRAMMATtOAL   FORMS. 
Between  you  and  /,  there  is  u  great  want  of  conscien- 
tiousness  in  most  partisans.     t'tirrcc(io(i — Between  you 
and  mo,  fir. 

I  am  not  so  proud  as  him.     Cor. — As  he. 
You  will  do  it  lieltcr  than  htr.     I  or. — Than  she. 
May  thou  as  well  as  ine,  lie   meek,  patient,  and  for* 
giving.     Coi. — As  well  as  I,  &c. 

While  the  house  uviji  liciii);  built.  Cor. — While  th« 
houst!  was  in  tho  course  of  licing  built. 

Ho  don't  go  to  town  to-day.  Cor. — Ho  docs  not  go 
to  town  to-day. 

I  r(i//ifr  ihink  he  is  out  of  town.  Cor.— I  believe  ha 
is  out  of  town. 

I  had  lielirr  go  myself.  Cur. — It  wore  better  that  I 
should  go  my  self. 

I  had  oliliiit  to  go.     Cor. — I  wiis  obliged  to  go. 
John  is  tall  in  comparison  lu  James.     Cor. — John  ia 
tall  in  comparison  with  James. 

He  is  a  t'lry  rising;  man.  Cor. — He  is  rising  yeiy 
rapidly. 

!>ho  rritilird  a  dish  for  us.  Cor. — She  cooked,  U  pW- 
pared,  a  dish  for  us. 

She  was  a  dKyKriwr  woman,  or.  She  was  a  mo^t  mprrior 
woman,  fcr— Sujicrior  can  only  be  used  with  regord 
to  something  else  which  is  at  the  siiinc  time  expressed; 
thus,  She  was  u  woman  much  superior  to  the  generality 
of  her  SOX. 

Short-lived,  long-lived.     Or. — Short-lifed,  long-lifed. 
•The  '/if»i  Karl  of  Wiiicbelsea;  the  ihni  Mrs.  Bonnet 
Cor. — The  Earl  of  Wincholsea  of  that  time ;  the  Mr& 
Ueniiet  then  living. 

Ho  lays  asleep  in  the  cabin.  Cor. — He  lies  asleep  in 
the  cabin. 

His  health  was  drank,  roc/..-! t '»  health  was  drunk. 
Tho  dinner  was  all  eat  up.  C'  i- — The  dinner  was  all 
eaten  up. 

I  went  to  table  and  ent  very  heartily.  Cor. — I  went 
to  tabic  and  ate  very  heartily. 

A  lofjde  of  shillinifs.  Cor. — Couple  can  only  be  pro- 
perly applied  to  objects  in  connection ;  as,  a  married 
couple,  a  couple  of  poiitters. 

John,  James,  and  Uolicrt,  were  solwr  workmen,  tha 
lattir  particularly  8&  <'oi. — Tho  last  particularly  so 
(the  objects  enumerated  being  more  than  two). 

The  Manchester (Jimrdian  is  a  (((//-iK/rei'iW paper- 
moaning  a  paper  which  usually  contains  many  ndver. 
tisemcnts.      Cor. — The    Manchester  Guardian   usually 
2U 


'68 


INFORMATION    FOR   TTIE   PKOPI.R. 


eonuiiu  mmy  xWnrtiwimenU,  or— er^joy*  a  larg«  iinara 
ot  tlin  |Mtroiiit|in  of  M<lv-<rtiM>rs. 

I  could  not  ifivo  tiiiii  rri-dit,  tnihout  li«  rhanKoa  hU 
Dohaviour.  ('cr. — I  ruuld  iiol  give  lUiii  credit,  uidvu  ha 
chitliKva  Ilia  iH-havioiir. 

I  will  Kii,  tj  rcfii  I  ilKiuld  be  ill.  C>/r.i^Unlraa  I  iiiuuM 
belli. 

I  law  tlirm  all,  unUii  two  or  threa.  Cor, — t  aaw  them 
«ll,  «X(-i'|it  twu  or  llir(>e. 

I  tuok  iHxiin  rrcaiii  iii'o  a  bowl.  Cor,— I  look  aoina 
eroMia  in  a  IhiwI. 

I  am  U'Hiiu  ii'r  to  ilo  it     ror,— I  am  Roinn  to  do  it. 
lie  wan  II  (Irvoli'd    ui'iiju  niitit  nil    hin  diivn.      Cor, — 
Hi'  wiu  i\  ili'voted  iiiitiijuHry  all  liia  iluya.    (/Iiifuyiiiiriiin 
it  tlie  adJRCtivr.) 

Jaiiini  ia  Koirii(  to  be  a  mtilirnl  man.  Cor, — Jainra 
ia  KuiiiK  to  1)0  a  iihyaicidUi,  aurgeun,  or  mudicnl  practi- 
tioner. 

Ho  ia  ii/hntr  wroii^  Ihiin  right  for.— Ho  ia  more 
firequnntly  wroiiK  thmi  riftlrt. 

I  have  iKi  li^h'  to  (my  tliia  li\t,  I  hnv  nn  righl  to  )ir 
diatreaacd  by  that  iimn'a  coiiiliict.  Cor. — I  am  uiiilcr  no 
obliifulion  to  |>iiy  tbi'<  lux.  I  uin  not  obligod  to  iiriTcr 
rr«>m  that  MMn'a  conduct. 

Von  will  Ui  iirn$ii:altd  to  lubmit  Cur.— You  will 
be  ohlij^cd  to  auhmit 

Don't  tjilk  of  ihii^t  aort  of  cbinga  to  mo.  Cor. — Don't 
talk  of  thnt  aort  of  tliiiii^s  to  tne.  Sun  of'  ihmiit  ia  a  mean 
and  objiM'iioriiiblo  ox|iroaHion.  ••  'I'hinga  uf  that  kind"  ii 
moro  rlcnan;  at  well  iia  correct. 

The  cwllc  JK  m'litcci  !•!/  tliotiaronne.  Ctir. — Thecaa- 
tle  ia  M'ttlcd  licxldc  the  (iaronnc. 

Lord  llvron  wua  liorn  «/  London.  Thorr  have  lieen 
dcMtrurlivc  lirra  ■//  Kdiiilmruh.  Cor. —  Lord  Hymn  waa 
born  in  Lomlon.  There  havo  Iwcn  dcatniclivi'  I'lrea  in 
Edinburgh.  (.'7r  ia  only  pro|H<r  with  rca|ioct  to  a  imull 
town.) 

I  met  him  on  the  atreet  Cor. — I  met  him  in  the 
•treot. 

I  ilaii't  kni'W,  but  I  will  inquire  al  my  friend.  Cur. 
—Of  my  friend. 

Oh.  I  Hill  fall,  anil  notxxly  thall  help  me.  Cor, — Oh, 
I  ahall  fall,  and  nol>ody  will  help  me. 

I  have  Iwen  to  London,  and  am  now  gainn  for  Liver- 
pool. Cor, —  I  havo  been  in  London,  and  am  now  going 
to  Livpr|)ool, 

They  were  aome  diitance  from  home  when  the  acci- 
dent hapiwncd.      Cor. — Al  aome  distance.  Ac. 

He  live*  oppoaito  tiu:  Kuyal  Exchange.  Cor. — Op|>o- 
aiie  to,  Ac. 

The  perfonnance  wa*  spproved  of  by  all  who  under- 
itood  it  Cor. — 'I'lie  (K'rforiiiaiuc  wua  approved  by  all. 
They  attacked  .NorthumlH-ilanil'a  houao,  whom  they 
put  to  death.  Cor. — Tliey  attaiked  the  hoiltM'  of  North- 
umtN'rl  ind  (or  the  Duke  cf  Northumborland),  whom 
Ihey  put  to  death. 

It  ia  true  what  he  aaya,  but  it  la  not  applicable  to  the 
point     Cor. —  What  he  aay<  ia  true,  Ac. 

Together  with  the  nitionai  debt,  the  gronteat  national 
■dvantagea  are  ul^u  trnnninittod  to  aucx^-eeding  [{cnerationa. 
Cor. — .,41/10  ia  auperfluoua. 

Failing  in  hi'*  elTort,  ho  again  rejieated  it  Cort— 
jlr.  ■•'>  ia  au|>erf)uoua. 

He  ia  nil  tr,ty  thy  inferior,  and'in  thia  inatatico  ia  no 
i».'yi  i,i  iilaine.  '  'or.  -Me  is  in  no  wise  thy  inferior,  and 
ill  thia  inatr.'ice  ia  i!(  t  M  all  to  lihcne- 

He  charge<i  ,iie  with  want  of  renoliilion,  in  whi<'h  he 
WAa  i^rcitiy  iniritaaen.  C,i  . —  lie  cliargi  d  me  with  want 
of  rei>ol<ition,  but  in  thia  conauie  Ue  waa  greatly  mia-  ^ 


No  Itti  than  two  hundreil  auiolara  have  been  adueaM 
in  that  a<-hool.     Cor.— No  fewer,  Ac. 

It  ia  above  a  year  aince  the  time  that  I  left  ichooj 
Cor.—ll  ia  inorr  than  a  year  aince  I  left  xluml. 

Ho  waa  guilty  of  auc'a  atrix'ioiia  to  '  luct,  that  ha  »•• 

deaertivl  by  hia  frivnda  for  giHMl  and  uli       Cor. H>i  mu 

guilty  uf  coniluct  ao  ^trucioua,  Uiat  I'o  waa  anlirtlv  J^ 
aeiuid  by  hia  frirnda. 


OBani.KTC,   AWKWAKD,    AND   MKAN    roRIHt, 

I  had  (It  lufdo  it  myaidf  aa  porauado  anollier  l<i  do  it 
Cor. — I  would  aa  readily,  Ac. 

ilo  convinced  hia  op|Mineiit  by  lArrr  dint  of  argumpin 
Cor. — Kntiiely  by  force  of  argiiinent 

Ilo  ia  not  II  wliU  U'ttei  than  tlioau  whom  he  ao  liberallt 
condemna.      Cur. — He  ia  not  in  any  degree,  Ac. 

He  iliinih  u/i«n  iht  honil,  and  will  not  iil«te  a  jui  of 
hia  claim.  Ciir. — Ho  iiiaJHla  on  tlm  atricl  teriiia  uf  Uia 
bond,  and  will  not  in  the  loaat  abate  hia  claim. 

(iihhI  aatin,  /  lake  J,  ia  conaiderubly  aupcrlor  to  com 
moll  Hilk.     ('i)c. —  I  prcauiiio. 

I'olitica  tiH)  olVn  ir'i  nun  by  llie  inrn.  When  thcf 
nmu  10  irorih,  aiul  fill  out,  reaaon  la  generally  loat  >i^l^ 
utl  I  ahoulil  not  wonder  but  on  thiri  ivcanion  llicrt 
might  \hi  I'roktn  hniilt  nuxni(.  Cor. —  I'olitica  too  olU'o 
caiim-a  i|uarrelH.  When  men  enter  into  coiitiDvcray  tud 
<lilU>r  violently,  rea.ion  ia  geiu'inlly  loat  aight  of.  Ittuiul.J 
not  wonder  but  on  thia  occaaion  they  might  commit  aunw 
violence  on  each  other. 

Wo  ahall  havo  a  rtnulur  hrcak-uii  in  tho  minittry 
Cor. — Wo  ahull  have  a  diaiodution  of  the  miniatry. 

Ho  waa  very  dcxli'roua  in  ttiullinK  out  tho  deai^m  o( 
hia  iieighboura.     Cor. — In  |H'netruting,  Ac. 

He  ia  u  lhuruuifh-}<ucttl  kiiuvo.  Cur. — Koiaagrvit 
knuve. 

Hrrrinfort  Hannibal  had  carried  all  liofore  him  ;  xehrri, 
fort  he  had  Ix'coine  very  proud,  linteiiing  to  nu  advica 
xrha'nitrtr  .  uhirras  ^Sci[lio  invariably  took  couiim'!  from 
the  moat  aagacioua  of  hia  olliccra. — 'I'he  Wurda  in  Italic* 
are  all  olmoleti'  and  objectionable. 

He  imfi  not  what  to  do.  Cur.— He  knew  not  what 
to  do. 

He  little  tm'i  of  the  atorm  that  ia  brewing.  Cur.— Ha 
ia  not  aware.  Ac. 

7'/i/ixy-/i(M'y,  /itll-mcll,  hurly-hurly,  having  a  mwifVi 
ntiml  for  a  thing,  rurrym^'yiU'oMr  with  a  p.THon,  i/iuirinif 
a'lrnd'inri  on  cuatomort. — All  objectionable,  from  their 
mcanneai. 

We  'ire  at  one  on  tho  alave  queation. 

I  bap|^on  to  have  a  little  leiauro  ii/irm  my  handi. 

He  might  have  jHTcrived  it  with  An//  an  tyt. 

We  aliould  alwuya  lie  glad  to  ;iu/  oiir<i/rr«  ahout  'ji 
our  III  ih'hboura.  Cor,—']LO  put  uuraelvca  to  a  litt.e  io- 
convenience. 

My  father  Uft  thia  morning  by  llie  mail.  Cor. — My 
father  went  away  thia  niorning,  Ac.  "  When  are  yoii  to 
//iirr  /"  ia,  in  like  manner,  viciouf.  1'ho  place  ur  thing 
left  ahnuld  alwaya  lie  atated. 

HIang  phruaea  of  all  kinds  sliould  bo  received  warily. 
The  least  objectionable  are  thoao  which  merely  nuggcut 
comical  ideaa ;  tliimc  which  tend  to  prcacnt  light  and 
jocular  viewa  of  moral  error  are  particularly  detestable. 
It  will  l>e  the  aim  of  a  well-breil  anil  juilii  ioun  |ienoa 
to  make  hia  diacoiirso  neither  too  nice  and  furiiial,  noi 
tiK)  loose  and  homely,  but  aa  far  aa  poHHible  to  prcaerve  i 
medium  l>etweeii  the  aelect  luiiguugo  eiii|iloyud  in  litcn^ 
lure,  and  the  familiar  and  perhapa  tom{>oriuy  pltraieolog; 
wliicb  provatla  in  ordinary  aociely. 


LOGIC. 


'  nrraoovoToiir 

It  it  ((f«er«lly  oWrvBhlo  thnt  •omo  mrn  fi)rm  rlrarrr 
liiil  ifK'd'  rntiotiiil  itIniH  upon  iiio't  mihjio'U  tlmn  (itlicra. 
In  ■  HUM  ■■llaticouii  iMitii|iiiiiy,  rIioiiIiI  any  roiii|iliciitril 
qiii'Mliiiii  nritr,  n  roriiiiili>riilil<<  iitinilHT  of  tlic  party  will 
pnilnilily  In<  I'uiinil  (o  Iri-ut  it  ill  n  ninriiM'd  or  piirtiiil 
aidllliir.  "»  *■*  'o  '■>'*<'  '><*  <'l1<'<'t  ill  niliviiiciliK  riicli 
oiIiit;  liiit  hIUt  h  K^'Hl  (Io'iI  of  wruiiKliiiK,  niicl  |>rrlin|M 
liMiii'  uum't,  it  iniiy  Imi  thnt  Miiiin  oiio  wlio  Iiiih  not  nn  yrl 
on  II"!  Iiii  iiiiHilli,  riiH'ii  up  iiiiti  M'In  tlii<  wlinlii  iiiiitti-r  in 
K)  I'li'.ii  11  lii{lit,  iihowiiiK  HO  wi'll  tlic  whole  of  itH  liciir- 
Iniin,  tiMil  ull  the  coiim'iiucik'cii  lilcrly  to  iiriHc  from  wliiit 
if  iiiviilM'il  III  it,  that  Ihn  iitorm  ia  nilcnri'il  at  oiii'n — nil, 
or  lit  lii"*<  »  liirnr  |K)rtiiiii,  of  Ihn  roiiipaiiy,  lirinif  roii- 
«ini'i'il  tli.it  :i  I'orrfrt  hiiiI  jiiit  view  of  tlii>  iiialliT  Iiuk  iit 
Iciit'lli  Iw'ii  phicod'  lioforc  them.  Wuch  in  rxiiclly  ihi- 
bJHliirv  'if  mmiy  (|iieHtioii»  thnt  romo  iM'forii  ili'lilH-rativn 
iD^einlilii'^:  all  in  I'oiifuiiion,  until  noint'  IimhIit  HtiimlH  up 
111(1  ^iu  4  a  inure  llinii  naually  roniprdiriiHivt'  uml  lucid 
vji'vv  i>r  (III'  caw,  wliich  carrit'H  llii'  conviction  of  ho  many, 
thill  oli'iir  rcHoliitionH  arc  formed,  a  meaxure  i*  arrnn|{cil, 
Biiil  the  lniHineM  of  tho  Iioiihc  in  allowed  to  udvanee. 
VVIiat  in  il  thnt  ennhlen  particular  men  thus  to  make  all 
Biiiie.ir  iirilcr  wlier-  "them  eould  hriim  forth  iiotliini{  hut 
foiilu-iuii '  It  is  iiim,)ly  llieir  iiosHesHinn  niimlH  which, 
wiiii^  many  pnrtii  of  a  auhject  at  once,  detect  the  order 
in  wl'ii  h  they  lie,  tho  iHiariiig  they  have  U|Min  each  other, 
tlii>  tiiilli  of  thin,  the  fallacy  of  that,  what  elVect  hucIi  a 
Uiliiit  Mill  liiive,  liow  fur  there  \»  juKticc  in  mich  anollur 
thiiii;,  And  HO  forth  ;  whiUi  olher*,  when  railed  to  eonsider 
(uoli  u  Hiihject,  are,  to  une  u  eoinmnn  (iliraHc,  i|uitp  at  Hca 
ill  It,  weiiig  nothing  of  it  hut  Home  of  ilH  external  parts, 
wliicli  they  may  faMcn  upon  and  discum  till  they  are 
tiriil,  vvilhout  ever  advancing  one  atep  tuwarda  a  wIm- 
coni'luhiiiii. 

It  liiix  heeii  found,  hy  attontivn  ohservalion,  that  the 
miiiil  ill  all  thoHe  o|ieralionii  goes  through  certain  delined 
cuursoH,  lcailin){  either  to  truth  or  error.  It  haH,  we  may 
iuy,rerl:iiii  iHtahliHlied  niodeH  of  action,  which  are  natural 
to  il,  and  which  inuHt  accordingly  have  characteriii^d  it 
ilwaVH.  To  all  of  thetie  imHlen  of  action  appropriiite 
ti'uns  have  lioen  (fivrn,  in  order  that  they  may  he  reco);- 
niijlili — ^jUHt  as  iuch  wordn  am  noun,  verh,  caHc,  leiiBe, 
hai»  txen  ijiven  to  certain  formu  of  speech  which  are  the 
■aiiio  in  all  languaKea.  Tho  ofierationH  of  (he  mind,  an 
f,u  UH  rcasonini;  in  concerned,  have  thus  l«"en  reduced 
iiilo  u  bcieiico ;  in  other  wordn,  methodically  <lescril>ed  ah 
t  |i,irt  of  llie  ureat  »rheme  of  nature.  Looie  is  the  name 
ijijiliui'  to  'hi.s  Hcienre. 

'I'h<  J"e  of  (his  ik'ience  ia  easily  shown.  It  Ih  readily 
allnvcil  that  many  men  reason  very  clearly,  in  ordinary 
circuuislances,  without  h.ivinif  U-en  much  instructed. 
Tlicy  enjoy  n  natural  sagacity  which  ennhles  them  to 
take  a  pretty  large  view  of  most  suhjeels,  and  to  ronsiilcr 
lln'ir  v.iri.ius  parts  with  n  hihmI  deal  of  |ircci.«iion.  The 
iu';ii'  power  enahles  them  to  Hteer  clear  of  the  ordinary 
nur.es  of  error.  'I'his  cIbmh  of  mrn  would  1*  the  tirnl, 
in  nil  e;uly  .ilate  of  iiMMcty,  to  make  advances  towniiU 
hojic  as  a  .-icienlilic  system.  Hut  even  these  men  are 
oI'Vi  luily  liaMe  to  derive  ureal  lulv.intaRe,  in  their  reason- 
in,'  priM-esH"^,  from  a  knowleilge  of  distinct  terms  for  those 
pr  <'i  ■••es.  as  well  as  for  ull  (he  kinds  and  modes  of  error 
wiiiih  lie  aloiii;  their  way.  The  lliini;  and  the  Icint  (o- 
gitber,  once  implanted  in  tlicir  minds,  (hry  know  in  an 
bistaiit  what  to  emhruce  and  what  to  n%oid  on  their  own 
|>iirt,  and  also  how  to  detect  and  render  apparent  the 
trrur  in  other^  when  it  occura.     It  ia  clear  that,  under 


(kvour  nf  auch   knowledge,  argumen)   muni  h»  jrMtlv 

fneililated,  and  much  ti'dioui  enntenlion  avoided.  With 
those  who  are  not  r  "(urally  powerful  or  clear  reasnnera, 
th«  same  knowh-ilge  is  ralculnted  to  Im*  of  innnitely 
greater  use.  We  may  fairly  presume  (1  at,  if  such  men 
were  so  well  iici|uiiinted  with  the  science  of  logic,  that 
of  any  course  their  minds  were  taking  they  could  say  at 
once  to  themselves  whelher  it  was  one  of  n  li'giliniata 
kind,  or  one  notorious  for  leading  to  error,  they  would 
lie  enahled,  alinimt  iiiei  hanieally,  (o  keep,  in  right  tntel* 
leclual  patlis, 

'I'hiiH  Logic  is,  in  the  first  place,  a  science,  or  the  d*> 
seriplion  of  a  department  nf  nature.     In  the  leroiiil  place, 
it  JKcomes  an  art,  or  mean*  of  leaching  right  mixlca  of 
reiuioning.     For  its  value  in  the  latter  eharacler,  we  hnr« 
a  Koisl  argument  in  the  preface  to  (he  niasterly  work  of 
Archhishop  Whately,     ".Many,"  he  says,  "who  allow 
the  use  of  syslemndc  principles  in  other  things,  are  ao- 
cuslomed  to  cry  up  common  Hense  as  the  sulhcient  and 
only  safe  guide  in  reasoning.     Now,  hy  common  sense  U 
meant,  I  apprehend  (when  the  term  is  ii.sed  with  any  dit> 
(inct  meanlnt,')i  an  exercise  of  the  judgment  unaided  by 
art  or  any  system  of  rules — such  nn  exercise  as  we  must 
neeesNiiiily  employ   in  nuinUrless  caKCH  of  daily  occur' 
rence,  which,  having  no  estahlished  principlcH  to  guide 
us — no  line  of  procedure,  as  it  were,  dislinclly  chalked 
out — we   must   needs   net   on   (he  hest   extempoianeoui 
conjectures  we  can   form.     He  who  is  eminently  skilful 
in  lining  this,  is  said  to  poHH<'SK  s  nu|M'rior  degree  of  com- 
mon Heiims     But  that  coninion  sense  is  only  our  teiotid- 
heal  guide — that  the  rules  of  art,  if  judiciously  framed, 
are  always  desiruMo  when  they  can  he  had — is  an  asser- 
tion for  the  truth  of  which  I  may  ap[ieiil  to  the  testimony 
of  mankind  in   general ;   which  is  so   much  the  more 
valualile,  inusmuch  ns  it  may  he  nccuiinted  the  testimony 
of  iidii'isitnet.     For  the  generality  have  n  strong  predi- 
lection ill  favour  of  common  sense,  except  in  those  puinta 
in   which  they   res|H-c(ively  puSfcsM  tho  knowledge  of  a 
system  of  rules;  hut  in  (hose  pointH  (hey  deride  any  one 
who  trus(H  lo  unaided  coninion  sense.     A  sailor,  for  ex- 
ample, will   perhaps  despise   the  pretensions  of  medical 
men,  and  prefer  treating  a  diHcast;  hy  common  sense;  but 
he  woiilil  ridicule  the  proposal  of  iLivigating  a  ship  hy 
coinmon  sense,  without  regard  to  the  maxims  of  nauticti 
nrl.     A  physician,  again,  will  perhaps  conlenin  ■ystem', 
of  political  economy,  of  logic,  or  metuphysics,  und  ind  . 
on  the  sii|H'rior  wisdom  of  trusting  to  common  sjr.c  'n 
I  such  mattera;  hut  ho  would  never  approve  ot  .  '•-  >  ,^ 
to  common  sense  in  (he  treatment  of  diseasca,      .■,  -.it  >•!, 
ugnin,   would    the    architect    recoininend   a  rcli  .net 
common  sense  alone  in  huilding.  nor  the  musician     i 
music,  to  the  neglect  of  those  systems  of  rules  which,  in 
thi'ir  resiwclive  arts,  have  b«'en  deduced  from  scientific 
reasoning,  aided  hy  ex|H~rience.    .And  the  inductior.  migll 
1h!  extended  to  every   department  of   prnctice.     Since, 
therefore,  each  gives  the  prefircnce  to  unassisted  commoD 
s«Mise  only  in  those  cas<>8  where  he  iiimself  has   nothing 
els<<  to  trust  to,  and  invariably  risr.rt.^  'a  '\\f.  rules  of  art 
whurever  ho  possesses  tlie  knowledge  of  them,  it  is  plain 
that   mankind    universally  bear   (heir   (estiiiiony,  though 
unconsciously  and  often  unwilliimly.  tu  the  preference  ot 
systematic  knowledge  to  conjectural  jlidgments," 

INVESTIOATIUN. 

Inves(ign(ion,  nr  the  art  of  iiupilring  into  the  nature 
of  causes  und  their  operation,  is  a  leading  characteriati: 
of  reason,  und  may  be  iletined  as  one  of  the  essentia, 
distinctions  lietwecn  man  and  (he  hiwer  animals,     lii- 

3li3 


h 


■f'^i 


«64 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


M 

J! 

i\ 


ff 


*estigation  impliva  three  t\\'ma:s — Ohieirnlion,  Hypolhmt, 
tnd  Erptriment.  Oliservntion  is  the  act  of  noticing 
drcumstancoA  oviilont  to  the  senses,  for  tho  purpose  of 
Acquiring  a  knowh'di^e  re8[)octing  them  and  their  causes. 
Hypothesis  is  a  supfiosition  or  conjecture  relating  to  tho 
(auso  of  an  efTci-t.  Exiieriment  in  putting  in  operation, 
or  trying  what  will  bo  the  result  of  certain  supposed 
causes. 

The  first  step  in  the  process,  it  will  be  pcrccive<l,  is  to 
observe.  Powers  of  nbscrvation  lie  at  the  foundation  of 
■11  excellence  in  art  or  ncience.  All  men  who  have  at- 
tained .ninencc  in  literature  have  been  close  observers. 
They  have  noticed  circumstances  and  treasured  remcm- 
brancos  wliich  conimoi.  niinds  would  have  neglcc'cd. 
The  late  f*ir  Walter  Scott  observed  all  that  passi-d  under 
his  eye;  no  expression  escaped  him,  if  it  bore  on  the 
illustration  of  cliiiracter.  Reasoning  from  the  first  clTorts 
of  observation  may  bo  cxeniplified  as  follows': — 

An  agriculturist  af'Sii-vrd  thut  a  certain  sjwt  in  one  of 
his  fields  produrcil  more  grass  than  any  other  portion. 
He  recollected  tliat  a  certain  quantity  of  rubbish  had  Iain 
for  some  time  on  that  spot;  and  fii/ipnued  that  the  rubbish 
had  been  the  cause  of  the  greater  fertility.  To  ascertain 
whether  his  //y/in.'Aciri.'t  or  conjecture  was  correct,  he 
covered  another  spot  with  sand,  but  no  such  eirect  fol- 
ir>wed.  He  inferr-il.  therefore,  that  tho  mere  covering 
of  the  8|H)t  had  not  Imm'II  the  cause.  He  then  .ii/i/kisiJ 
that  some  portion  ot"  the  rubbish  had  poaswjKod  peculiar 
I  ualities,  tho  nature  of  wliich  he  wished  to  discover.  A 
pirtion  of  raoli  iiiiircilient  of  the  rubbish  was  therefore 
cfeposited  in  8<'paralc  [ilaces ;  and  after  some  time  it  was 
'.ound  that  in  one  of  the  places  a  similar  decree  of  fertility 
prevailexl.  Tliis  rri>fi\mrnl  determined  his  hypothesis. 
He  acquired  a  knowlei1a;e  of  what  ingredient  is  uwlul  in 
conferring  iVrtility.  This  may  W  called  following  out  a 
train  of  rcasoniMi;  on  jbserved  circumstances  to  it.s  projier 
results. 

POWER,    CAVRC,    A!fl>   KrPKCT. 

In  Logic,  Pviicr  is  the  relation  of  circumstances  to  each 
other  in  time.  Vitii>e  is  the  invariable  antecedent  or  thing 
going  Ix'fore.  Fff'i'  is  the  immediate  invariable  conse- 
quent, or  the  chai);;e  prikluced  by  power.  No  elTi.'ct  can 
take  place  widimit  a  <ause. 

'I'hcre  are  imrni'iliate  or  proxirnflte  causes,  and  also 
remote  or  final  causes.  It  is  of  tfreat  imimrlaiice  that 
these  should  mil  W  confDnnded  with  each  other :  iii";lect 
on  this  jioint  has  led  to  all  manner  of  sii|>erHtitions  and 
errors.  First,  nf  proximate  causes:  When  we  pour 
water  on  salt,  the  Kilt  melts.  Water  is  lliercforr  the 
c^ute  of  the  melting';  In  oiher  words,  water  |x)swssi's  the 
/Hiuvr  of  caiisini,'  salt  to  melt.  The  melting  is  the  r//,' ,'. 
Again:  .\tmosplieric  air  is  necessary  fur  the  i;rowth  of 
plants;  it  is  one  of  the  essential  causes  of  the  vegitalion. 
Such  are  instances  of  the  action  of  immrilniu  causes, 
quite  undeiii;:bli'.  fur  they  have  Ixien  determined  by  ex- 
periment, Hut  the  exislenc."  of  immediate  cau«4's  dot-s 
cot  preclude  the  existence  of  remote  caus<>s.  Thus,  a 
ri-mote  cause  .if  vegetable  '^owlh  from  atmospheric  air 
is  the  nature  of  the  air,  and  a  more  remote  cause  sidl,  is 
the  Being  who  iMiule  the  air — the  {Jrt'at  First  Cauw-  of 
•II  created  thinipi.  I'ursning  an  ini|uiry  of  this  kind  is 
called  tra<-ing  events  or  circuiiisUinces  t<i  their  final 
cause* — going  In.ck,  step  by  sti'p.  till  wo  reach,  as  we 
niust  invariahlv  rl.i,  that  Heiiig  who  not  only  designtsl 
r-Ut  sustains  all  by  his  Providence. 

The  Sian. — We  must  guard  against  the  error  of  con- 
tounding  signs  with  causes,  •'^moku  acconipaiiies  the 
mmbufiii.Mi  of  moi'it  woikI.  The  smoke  is  not  the  (■.ll/^f 
jf  tlic  coiiit'U'-tiiiii ;  It  is  imly  a  tiiin  that  there  is  combiis- 
lion.  The  falling  of  ine.cury  in  Uie  barometer  diR's  iMt 
tauae  ram  :  It  Is  only  a  sign  the  atmosphere  is  in  that 
ronditi'^n  which  Is  likely  to  lead  to  rain. 

Imaginary    Cautn. — In    determining   what    are    the 


causes  of  events,  it  is  of  importance,  in  the  hrst  place,  ^ 
ascertain  that  the  sup|iosed  cau.scs  exist.  A  king  onn 
called  a  number  of  men  of  science  around  him,  and  said. 
'•  How  should  it  be,  that  when  I  fit  up  a  >ialancn  with 
two  scales,  each  of  which  hears  a  basin  uf  water  ofequa) 
weight,  and  I  put  a  live  fish  into  the  basin  in  one  of  ths 
scales,  that  scale  does  not  preponderate  1"  The  cause 
of  this  seeming  wonder  was  immediately  sought  for,  and 
created  some  little  altercation,  till  one  of  tho  men,  moru 
ready-witted  than  the  others,  aaid  boldly  out  that  he  di». 
puted  the  fact ;  and  the  king,  laughing,  owned  that  he 
WHS  in  tho  right,  and  that  his  question  was  a  joko. 
Hero  we  have  an  instance  of  trying  to  discover  the  cause 
of  a  thing  which  was  not  founded  in  truth.  It  is  clear 
that  causc-s  assigned  for  any  such  unproved  and  iinnroba. 
bio  circumstances  must  be  imaginary. 

Imaginary  causes  may  also  l)c  such  as  persons  are 
willing  to  consider  true  without  investigation.  A  stonn 
rises  at  sea  and  wreikn  several  vessels.  Witches  raise 
storms.  An  aged  and  poor  woman  is  residing  in  a  lonely 
cotUigc  at  no  great  distance  on  the  shore.  That  old 
woman  is  a  w  itch.  She  caused  the  storm  which  wrecked 
tho  vessels.  Hero  we  have  a  train  of  reasoning,  such 
as  has  sent  hundreds  of  aged  females  to  the  stake,  but 
which  rests  on  no  solid  founilation.  Before  proceeding 
to  accuse  the  woman  of  witchcraft,  it  would  be  nnccssary 
to  settle  whethei  then'  were  such  beings  as  witches  at  all. 
Having  proved  this,  which  would  he  impossible,  the  next 
step  would  consist  in  detcrinining  whether  this  old  woman, 
in  particular,  was  a  witch.  And,  last  of  all,  whether  slie 
actually  was  concerned  in  raising  tlie  storm  in  qiieslinn. 

Cotifitundim  Ciiuie  trilh  I'jjert. — Causes  and  efli?cti 
are  sometimes  mistaken  for  each  other,  for  want  of  a 
close  examination  of  facta.  It  is  not  unusual  to  hear  t 
|«'rson  siry  that  a  shower  brings  a  change  of  wind, 
wl'.oreas  the  wind  is  the  cause  of  the  shower.  The  aiv 
pearance  of  small-pox  on  the  outer  surface  of  the  body 
is  by  ignorant  jM'rsons  su|i|iosed  to  Iw  the  cause  of  tim 
illness  in  that  disease,  whereas  the  external  inaiks  are 
an  elTeet  of  an  iiiti>rnal  cause.  Tho  richness  of  certain 
soils  is  not  an  elfect  of  the  flourisliing  »f  certain  vpjf 
t  ibles  ujion  them,  but  the  cause  of  the  llmirishii  • 
Much  money  circulating  in  n  country  is  not  the  oitwj 
but  the  rffrcl  of  wealth.  Ill  coininon  s[)eeeh,  the  mistak- 
ing of  eili'ct  for  cause  is  culled  "putting  the  cait  belbre 
the  horsi'." 

Iiicluetam. 

Having  established  the  reality  of  a  cause,  and  that,  if 
certain  circumstances  l>e  given,  certain  results  will  tbllow, 
we  have  furnislic'd  the  miii<l  with  a  surticieiit  (!e'^rec  of 
ex|K'rience  to  know  that  when  the  same  cause  and  cir- 
cumstances are  again  produced,  the  same  consecpicncpi 
will  ensue.  This  i-  drawinn  an  inference  from  ascertained 
truths,  and  In  l.^^ic  is  known  by  the  term  tivluriwn, 
which  signifies  the  briiining  in  of  valid  coiiclnsionii 
We  have  liiiriicd,  by  indisputable  ex[»"rience,  thut  when 
a  spark  of  tire  falls  on  guniiowder,  the  guiijiowder  wi'l 
explode.  Therefore,  when  we  si'e  a  spark  is  alnjut  to 
tall  on  any  quantity  of  gunpowder  near  lis,  we  inter,  and 
justly,  that  an  e\|ilosioii  will  Is'  the  coiwipience. 

Thus,  iniluction  is  an  inference  from  liicts  that  hmfl 
lieen  established  by  observation,  hypothesis,  anil  exiien- 
ment.  If  the  observation  has  Ihtii  detective,  or  not  suf- 
ficiently extensive,  the  snbseijuent  hy|K)thesis  will,  in  ail 
probability,  be  di'fei  tive  also,  and  we  may  arrivi'  at  wrnni) 
cunclusii"is.  Shoulil  a  traveller,  on  visiting  a  imnf,n 
country,  see  only  a  few  people,  and  tlieH<-  have  r»ii 
hair,  he  would  not  be  warranted,  on  returning  liomf, 
to  say  that  all  the  jH'ople  of  that  country  were  nil. 
haired.  His  induction  woiiM  not  Ih'  fair;  It  would  l« 
fmndeil  on  limited  observation,  ami  liulde  to  W'  ilisputixl 
by  others  Istter  acipiiJnted  with  tint  country. 

In  some  snbjectH,  it  is  iihk  h  easier  to  ilruw  a  just  in- 
fcroncu  tliaii  in  ulliers ;  but  in  all  CAM'S,  judgment  and 


LOGIC. 


866 


(tution  are  required.  A  physician  aaw  a  cbbo  of  fever 
\0ii  year ;  he  saw  another  last  month ;  and  when  he 
,ges  a  third  similar  case,  he  infers  that  another  person 
is  about  to  have  the  same  fevoR  The  skill  of  the  phy- 
■ician  ronaists  in  judging  whether  ho  has  examined  a 
lutlicient  number  of  cases  of  fever  to  justify  such  a  con- 
cjision. 

General  Prineiples. 
In  reference  to  inanimate  substances  and  the  lower 
■limnls,  two  or  three  cases  are  generally  suiHcicnt  lo 
justify  conclusions;  but,  in  regard  to  mankind,  who 
dilTcr  so  much  from  one  another,  and  are  under  the  in- 
fluence of  so  many  external  and  various  circumstances, 
a  very  extensive  collection  of  facts  is  necessary.  When 
a  person  draws  conclusions  from  a  large  array  of  focts, 
lie  is  said  to  deduce  general  prinriplei,  and  those  are 
often  of  i^eat  importance  in  rrt^ulnting  i  icial  life. 
Paiiis-t-'iinS  men.  by  collecting  a  record  of  all  the 
deaths  which  occur  year  after  year  in  a  country,  and  the 
gffcs  of  the  persons  at  death,  are  able  to  form  a  correct 
inference  af  to  the  number  per  hundred  out  of  the  popu- 
lation who  will  die  per  annum,  and  also  the  ratio  of 
deaths  as  respects  the  ai^es  of  the  individuals.  This 
nSotia  an  instance  of  fair  induction.  If  the  facts  had 
been  collected  only  from  a  single  town  or  parish,  and 
oniv  for  one  or  two  ycors,  the  inference  would  have 
resif^  on  too  narrow  a  foundation,  and  consequently 
would  not  have  been  fair.  The  rules  to  be  observed  in 
deducing  general  principles  arc — Ist,  that  the  cases  be 
tnie ;  and,  2d,  that  the  facts  be  universal. 

Theory. 

A  theory  is  a  precise  system  of  rules,  iiucnded  to 
explain  certain  facts.  The  theorj',  to  be  correct,  must 
rest  on  rules  founded  on  a  rigorous  induction  of  things 
true  or  probable.  In  some  instances,  in  forming  theories, 
wo  require  to  take  truths  as  being  proved,  although  ,ve 
cannot  actually  measure  these  truths  by  the  evidence  of 
the  sensc-a.  The  Newtonian  theory  of  the  planetary 
jvjteiB,  aa  sustained  b"  contending  forces,  explains  the 
phpnoniena  and  movei.icnts  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  in- 
cluding our  earth.  But  this  theory,  after  all,  is  only 
conjectural.  For  instan>-'c,  it  is  stated  that  all  bodies 
let  tall  on  the  surface  of  our  earth  are  attracted  by  gra- 
vitation iti  the  direction  of  its  centre  ;  and  that,  if  a 
hodv  coiilil  get  to  the  centre,  there  it  would  remain,  even 
llwunh  unsupported  by  any  tangible  object.  Now  no- 
bcnlv  ever  was  at  the  centre  of  the  earth  to  see  that  this 
would  be  the  case.  We  can  only,  in  this  us  in  many 
other  cases  in  which  personal  ex|M  rience  is  limited,  ac- 
cept of  the  reasonable  inferences  of  learned  men,  founded 
on  their  examination  of  a  wide  array  of  facts,  and  re- 
concikldo  with  all  known  phenomena.  Henre,  experi- 
rnce  cannot  stand  mi  opposition  lo  woll-establishiid  theory. 
Without  theory  or  general  principles,  experience  is  but 
I  feeble  guide. 

ANALYSIS    AND   SYNTHESIS. 

.fiM?i/<ij  is  taking  any  subject,  first  as  i  whole,  anJ 
llion  taking  it  to  pieces  and  viewing  each  part  aepa- 
nitelv;  In  oilier  words,  proceeding  from  the  complex  to 
the  simj'le.  Syitilitdg  is  the  reverw?  of  this,  and  implies 
lakint,  first  the  teparatc  [larts,  and  after  treating  each 
jidivlibially,  prix-eedlng  to  tlie  whole  in  combination. 

When  a  iheniist  takes  a  quantity  of  mineral  wafer 
for  the  piir|inse  of  discovering  its  ingredients,  he  Hepa- 
rin's the  diirerenl  elenienU,  and  is  thus  aaid  to  analyze 
the  contiiits  of  the  water.  When,  knowing  the  dilFerent 
in^rredieiilf,  he  forms  each  artificially,  and  puts  them 
loifether  to  ft  rm  a  whole,  he  may  lie  said  to  priK-eed 
•ynthetiiiilly.  We  may  sjM'nk  of  the  I5ritlsh  constitvi- 
lion  a.1  li  whole,  and  then  analyze  its  component  parts 
U)  prove  the  tiutli  of  our  atMertions ;  or  we  may  first 


speak  of  each  part  separately,  and  then  refer  to  them  all 
in  a  united  form.  When  a  clergyman  illustrates  a  doo- 
trine  by  separate  texts,  he  treats  his  sul  ject  analytically ; 
when  he  reassemVdes  the  texts  or  heads  of  his  discourse 
into  an  aggregate  form,he  treats  the  subject  synthetically. 
The  analysis  and  synthesis  roust  agr<,«.  The  same  con- 
clusion must  be  arrived  at  in  both  cases. 

In  delineating  human  character,  general  notions  are 
resolved  into  individual  parts.  We  begin  with  the  mora. 
conspicuous  traits  of  the  character,  and  gradually  de- 
scend to  the  more  hidden  principles  of  action  and  pas- 
sion ,  and  we  may  afterwards  present  the  cnaracter  syn- 
thQtically,  with  a  unity  of  appearance.  In  all  subjecta 
the  mind  follows  the  same  plan.  Analysis  should  b« 
carried  to  thot  po'  ii  at  wh'  -.h  the  truth  of  the  general 
principle  we  wi"' .  to  find  is  ascertained. 

I'hiloKiphical  Jirrangemrnt. — The  memory  derives  aid 
from  philosophical  arrangement ;  because  knowledge  so 
arranged  is  easily  applied  to  use,  in  the  same  manner  aa 
goods  put  up  in  small  parcels  are  more  readily  and  ad- 
vantageously handled  than  if  their  contents  were  lying 
in  a  state  of  confusion.  It  enables  us  uIbo  to  ascertain 
the  truths  which  may  be  deduced  from  general  princi- 
ples. For  instence,  lives  are  insured  by  fair  inferences 
from  philosophicolly  arranged  facta. 

DISCOYERT   AND  INYENTIOir. 

Discovery  is  finding  out  something  already  existing. 
Invenlion  expresses  the  analogies  of  objects  considered 
as  means  in  reference  to  a  particular  end.  Finding  out 
the  polarity  of  the  magnet  was  a  disi  overy  ;  but  the  ap 
plication  of  that  discovery  to  the  purposes  of  navigation 
was  an  invention.  The  mechanical  powers  are  beauti- 
ful instances  of  invention.  The  lower  animals  do  not 
invent ;  they  betake  themselves  to  the  shelter  of  rocks 
during  a  storm,  but  they  are  never  found  to  construct  a 
building  for  shelter.  Newton  is  said  tn  have  diseoverea 
the  binomi;!  theorem,  because  he  only  brought  to  light 
a  truth  formerly  unknown ;  but  he  is  said  to  have  in- 
vented  the  method  of  fluxions,  because  he  contrived  a 
new  method  of  diKioverini;  truth. 

Invention  facilitated. — Invention  is  facilitated  by  n- 
fei  ring  particular  truths  to  general  principles,  or  concen 
trating  tlie  attention  to  one  subject. 

ART  AND  SCIENCE. 

Jirt  ia  a  knowledge  convertible  to  practical  purposes 
Sririice  is  a  knowledge  ■  f  the  principles  of  art.  The 
object  of  art  is  to  produce  certain  tlli'cts  by  the  action 
of  hollies  upon  each  other ;  that  of  the  latter  is  to  as- 
certain the  uniform  relations  cf  substances.  All  art 
must  be  founded  upon  science,  because  art  implies 
knowledge  acquired.  The  man  who  prescribes  for  dis- 
ea»<',  without  having  n'ade  a  fair  indiuiiun,  is  a  mere 
emplrii. 

Diffirenre  of  the  Sriencra. — The  sciences  dilTer  only 
in  their  flatter,  or  the  nature  of  their  truths.  In  the 
physical  sciences,  the  relitions  we  trace  are  uniform. 
Polarity,  or  turning  towards  the  north,  ie  a  universal 
property  of  the  magnet.  But  m  those  sciences  in  which 
we  have  to  deal  with  the  powers  of  living  bwlics,  or 
mental  operations,  the  true  relations  are  not  only  diffi- 
cult to  discover,  but  even  aiicr  wo  know  them  we  may 
freipiently  be  disappointed  in  the  result  wc  wish  to  pro- 
dure.  New  causes  intervene  which  sometimes  elude 
observation.  The  constitutions  and  habiti.  of  human 
beings  are  difterent.  A  motive  which  inlluences  one 
person  falls  to  influence  another. 

Hut,  by  extensive  observation,  we  can  trace  a  remarV- 
able  unil'oimlly  In  the  great  oiiorutlons  of  nature.  The 
eluuiges  of  the  moon  seem  to  be  irre>;ular  w  one  whose 
obstTviitlon  is  limited.  Human  life  is  vncnium  as  re- 
gards iiiiiividuids,  liul  ceitiiin  us  re^ranls  a  inminer.  Men. 
too,  are  possesiivd  of  certain  unll'oriu  prii'clples,  wluca 
2ii  3 


M« 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


tan  be  nrtel  upon  by  rerUin  moral  truths,  when  they 
•re  brought  into  circumstances  necessary  for  the  due 
operation  of  those  truths, 

Tlu  Ohjtct  of  (ill  •Scitnrr. — It  is  the  object  of  all 
•cience  to  ascertain  facta,  and  to  trace  their  relations. 
We  know,  for  example,  that  a  certain  substance  is  a 
medicine,  and  we  know  that  it  acts  upon  the  skin.  These 
are  two  flicts.  With  this  knowledge,  if  nothing  more 
can  be  ascertained,  we  must  be  satisfied.  It  is  sufficient 
for  all  practical  purposes. 

KTIDENCE. 

Demnmtrative  evidence  is  employed  about  all  subjects 
which  can  Ite  expressed  by  numbers;  but  the  subjects 
Iff  moral  evidence  arc  matters  of  fact 

Proof. — The  term  jnotf  should  not  be  confined  to 
demonstration  ;  because  a  projwsition  for  which  sulli- 
ciint  probable  evidence  has  !)een  advanced  is  considered 
to  be  f'lirli/  prored.  It  cannot  be  deiiionslraled  that  the 
Romans  had  been  in  this  island ;  but  it  is  prwed  by  the 
testimony  of  liistorians,  the  Roman  camps  and  roads, 
the  remains  of  Roman  buildings,  the  coins,  urns,  <tc. 

Two  kiiiiii  of  Moral  Kvidrncr. — The  two  kinds  of 
moral  evidence  are  Eriiirienec  and  Teslitiiony,  We 
have  the  evidence  of  certainty  for  personal  cxjieriencc. 

In  reference  to  tilings  that  are  various,  as  the  direc- 
tion of  the  wind  and  the  effects  of  medicine,  conclusions 
are  drawn  from  general  experience  by  collecting  all  those 
instances  in  which  we  have  found  them  to  exist  in  one 
way,  and  all  those  in  which  we  have  perceived  them  to 
exist  in  another,  and  then  determining  the  ratio  which 
those  instances  bear  to  each  other.  Thus  if  the  num- 
ber of  instances  in  which  a  certain  fruit  had  proved 
harmless  were  cijiial  to  those  in  which  it  had  proved 
hurtful,  it  would  be  uncertdin  whether  it  would  hurt  a 
person  that  was  going  to  eat  of  it.  If  more  had  Ix-en 
hurt  by  it  than  not,  it  would  prnhnhly  hurt  him ;  if  very 
few  who  had  eaten  of  it  escaped  injurj',  it  is  /lif/i/y  pro- 
bable that  it  would  hurt  him. 

Tetiimony. — Dirtc!  t«'stimony  is  that  which  is  profess- 
edly given.  Iiirihnlal  testimony  is  that  which  is  casu- 
ally introduced  on  one  subject  in  the  course  of  an  evi- 
dence delivered  on  another.  The  latter  has  greater 
weight  than  the  former,  lierause  it  is  lets  susceptible  of 
delilieraU-  intention  to  deceive. 

When  all  the  |)er8ons  through  whom  the  information 
paaaes  are  known,  the  testimony  is  remote  ;  bnt  when 
they  are  not  known,  the  evidence  is  termed  report. 

Mixed  Rviiience. 

Mixed  testimony  is  that  by  which  we  learn  from 
others  the  general  conchisiims  which  they  have  drawn. 
It  ii  termeit  mijul,  liccause  it  possesses  partly  the  nature 
a(  perioriiil  olurv'ilion,  nni\  partly  the  nature  of  te.iU- 
many.  'ITie  flejrte  of  evidence  to  be  attribul*^!  to  mixed 
iuhjects  depends.  1st.  On  the  nature  of  the  subject — 
tome  subjects  are  capable  of  more  accurate  observation 
than  others  ;  2<l,  On  the  character  of  the  observer — his 
nbilily  muH  l)e  considered  in  icientifc  subjects — his 
hr<mt'y  in  c.imnion  matters  ;  3d,  On  the  number  of  our 
informers — tixernl  pcrnons  are  less  likely  to  lie  mistaken 
in  tlie  conclusicms  they  have  drawn  than  one  pernm. 

A  thing  lielieved  by  all  men,  as  far  as  we  can  know, 
ii  a  matter  of  utnera^  jintoneiy. 

T.aih'i'ix  is  the  rrlation  of  a  fact  or  event  which  was 
not  cor-imitled  to  writinn  by  any  ix-rson  who  observed 
it,  but  was  communicated  from  one  to  another  fi>r  a  eer- 
t^iin  jieriiMl  of  time.  Iv  is  verv'  uncertain,  lierause  the 
doiedii  of  meniory  aie  8U|>plied  by  invention. 

Internal  Fvidenr*. 
The  preceding  siwries  of  evidence  are  termed  fr'rrml 
because  they  are  diitwii  from  some  external  source.    The 
following  are  narinHl  tn'rrnal,  becau«e  they  arise   fwm 
llie  <inbjeet«  ihrmsclves: — 


Anah^lal. — When  it  is  inferred  from  the  resemhlanoi 
which  the  subject  in  question  I)ears  to  some  other  knona 
subject,  that  they  are  likely  to  produce  similar  etfecti. 
the  evidence  is  termed  aniilo«inil.  From  the  re»cmblanci 
which  a  disease  in  a  certain  patient  bears  to  othnr  dig. 
cases  which  he  has  observed,  the  physician  ascertains 
its  nature,  and  prcserilies  for  its  cure.  The  credit  dus 
to  this  species  of  evidence  is  ascertained  by  lindint 
whether  the  resemblance  holds  good  in  regard  to  tha 
point  under  consideration. 

Prefumption$. — Poritive  proof  is  the  evidence  of  men 
on  oath,  or  of  writings  or  records.  Prexumplinm  gn 
probable  inftre.nrts.  These  inferences  are  of  greater  ci 
less  weight  according  as  it  is  more  or  less  probable  I'lat 
the  facts  established  would  not  have  existed  iniless  the 
fact  which  is  inferred  hiul  exist«!d  also.  'J'hus,  Janjci 
was  found  dead,  with  a  bleeding  wound,  in  a  house- 
Thomas  was  observed  running  out  of  the  house,  aiid 
there  was  no  other  person  found  on  the  spot ;  therefore 
he  lerij  the  tiiurderer. 

The  iJeifrec  of  I'rohdtiilily. — The  degree  "f  prnhnhilify 
is  culcu'Hted  as  follows  : — Of  100  persons  who  had  eaten 
of  a  certain  fruit,  16  were  hurt  by  it;  and  of  every  18 
who  hiul  eaten  of  it,  4  died.  Hence  the  l>rol)abil;ty  of 
safety  in  eating  of  it  is  i,  and  the  probability  of  survi?. 
ing  the  eating  of  it  is  j. 

DIRRCT  AND   INDIRECT   BEMKF. 

Belief  is  asrcnt  produced  by  apparent  credibility,  |t 
is  dircri  whcH  a  proposition,  without  regard  to  any  for. 
mer  proposition,  is  admitted  ;  l)ut  indirert  when  a  /ri> 
position  is  admitted  in  consequence  of  the  admission  of 
some  former  proposition. 

The  intuitive  principles  of  belief  are — 1st,  A  ronvic. 
'  tio?i  of  our  own  exist»-iice;  2d,  .\  confidence  in  the  evi. 
[  ilence  of  our  senses  ;  3d,  In  our  mental  operatinna;  4th 
III  our  mental   identity ;  6th,  In  the  conformity  of  th 
operations  of  nature. 

In  judging  of  the  credibility  of  a  statement,  wc  must 
often  extend  our  views  In-yond  oiir  own  e.riiirieiiie.  The 
King  of  Siam  would  not  UMieve  that  water  froze  in  Bri. 
tain,  becauw!  he  had  never  seen  water  become  solid.  If 
the  king  had  proceeded  upon  the  knowledge  which  he 
had  acipiired  of  the  properties  of  Ixklies,  he  would  hate 
recollected  that  he  bad  seen  various  fluids  rendered  solid 
bv  the  abstraction  of  heat,  and  hence  inferred  that  witet 
might  become  solid  in  a  low  teiniKTature. 

TRUTH. 

Tnith  is  that  which  admits  of  proof.  It  may  be  ]ir,  vo,l 
to  be  true  by  the  evidence  of  Mie  senses,  by  iiivistiu*. 
tion,  hypothesis,  and  experiment,  or  by  a  fair  train  of 
iiiducti'in  fdUiiiled  on  these  iireliminaries.  Some  (jcrsoni 
are  so  incredidous,  that  they  will  believi'  in  the  truth  if 
nothing  which  they  cannot  jirove  by  the  cv'dence  o(  'be 
senses  and  a  certain  degree  of  exiierienee.  lint.  mM 
the  bead  of  theory,  we  havi  seen  that  it  is  pertVitly  res- 
sonal'le  to  necejit  of  inferi'nces  foundeil  on  llie  invi<ii. 
gMlion  and  exjierience  of  ntbcrs,  |irovided  the  iiiferi'iifij 
are  reconcilable  with  known  phenomena. 

Too  great  credulity  is  as  erroneous  as  too  grent  incrp. 
dulitv.  A  f)ers<m  may  make  liims<lf  ridiciilniis  dy  !»>. 
lieving  even  that  which  the  senses  seem  to  jirnve  to  In 
true.  .\n  icnorant  person  sees  a  juggler,  as  he  Ihiiiki, 
cat<'h  a  bullet  fired  from  a  gun,  and  believes  that  li.e 
juL'L'lcr  ai'tualK- performed  ibis  feat;  wbereas  the  bullet 
is  not  fired  at  all,  but  is  held  in  the  juiriiler's  limul.  To 
judge  of  Initli,  therefore,  the  miii<l  limsf  be  cnllivatfil, 
the  exiKrieiice  extensive,  and  the  induelion  jii^t.  In 
I.ripje,  Truth  is  said  lo  be  the  agreement  of  pro|ios|tioni 
with  the  notions  concerning  which  an  alTirniatioM  ii 
maife.  Truth  does  not  exist  unless  lb.'  terms  employfd 
are  undemtiMxi  in  the  same  sense  by  the  speaker  and 
ihe  jH-rson    addressed.     The  ihicf  causes  lliul  privcu 


LOGIC. 


S67 


^t  ilisowTy  >f  truth  are — 1st,  ^mftiguou*  language;  i  arises  from  too  minute  an  attention  to  ;)ar/ifu?ar»,  the  othei 


1<1  Hasly  imlucfiona  ;  3(],  Prejudice 


from  habits  of  generalization  carried  to  an  excess.  When 
theoretical  Itnowjcdge  and  practical  sltill  are  happily  com- 
bined in  the  same  person,  then  the  intellectual  pomer  ol 


ORNIRALIZATIOIf. 

QtntraUzaHon   is   that   process   by  vibicYi  the  mind  !  mi\u  appears  in  its  full  perfection. 

It 


nrrivcs  at  a  whole  class,  expressed  by  a  general  terra 
inav  bP  defined  as  the  notion  of  partial  resemblance.     A 
horse,  a  sheep,  and  a  stag,  are  named  (jmidrupeiU,  because 
\hrv  resemble  (me  nnolher  in  havirig  four  legt,  though  they 
ditier  in  many  other  respecU. 

A  marble,  an  apple,  an  orange,  agree  in  ywr»n— they  are 
rounil .  but  the  first  is  hard,  the  second  is  pulpy,  and  the 
third  is  fragrant. 

InJia-rublier,  steel,  air,  the  gases,  are  elatlic,  that  is, 
ihev  have  the  power  to  resume  their  former  shape  when 
the  force  that  diminished  it  is  withdrawn. 

Generalization,  then,  is  trnring  certain  points  of  retem- 
Manre  Abstraction  is  fixing  the  mind  on  the  point  of 
n-noinblnnce  in  one  boily.  Ocneralizntion  implies  llire<: 
lhtnu«:  1st,  An  object  that  gives  rise  to  the  notion  of  rc- 
(Oflihlancc  in  the  mind ;  2d,  The  rise  of  that  notion  in 
tlie  mind ;  and,  3d,  The  name  to  express  that  notion 
o(  partial  resemblance. 

ANALTSia   or   TERMS. 

A  general  term  expresses  a  notion  of  partial  nmilnrity. 
Thus,  the  generul  term  qinulrupcd  expresses  the  partial 
notion  of  resemblance  that  is  felt  when  we  regard  a  horse, 

Bheop,  stail.  &c- 

To  aiiah/ze  a  general  term  is  to  mention  every  notion 
which  it  embraces. 

Pa.s9ion  embraces  two  notions :  that  of  displeafurc  and 
hnste. 

Peevishness  is  transferring  displeasure  from  the  guilty 
to  (he  innocent. 

Manslaughter  it  killing  accidentally,  or  without  malice. 

Murder  is  killing'with  malice  aforethought. 

fhe  nniiiynia  of  complex  terms  is  indispensable  to  ac- 
caracv  of  thought.  Many  hot  disputes  arise  from  men 
not  beinu;  able  to  analyze  the  language  they  employ.  A 
ceiilloiiian  lately  related  the  following  anecdote  to  show 
that  SSIioridiiii  was  a  wit.  .Sheridan  was  walking  one 
dav  wUh  a  t'riend,  when  he  oliservcd  a  [lerson  coming 
towards  him  who  was  very  affected  in  his  pronunciation. 
A*  60011  as  iie  met  Sheridan,  he  asked  him  if  he  bad 
seen  a  ccrlain  gnat  curiisity  which  was  then  exhibiting. 
Slipridan  walked  on,  and  his  friend  obseived,  "Tliut 
p'ntlciiuin  does  nuirilisr  the  Kiiglish  language."    "  iVot  so 


PREDICABLES. 

A  term  is  said  to  bo  crniimun  when  it  belongs  to  a  whoh 
class  alike ;  as.  Horses  are  qxwdrupeih. 

The  horse  is  a  qvadrvped.  A  terra  is  named  a  pn 
dicable  when  it  may  be  affirmed  of  the  class,  or  of  any 
one  of  the  class. 

Predicahlcs  have  been  reduced  to  five  classes — genw, 
speiies,  difference,  property,  arridctit. 

The  genus  expresses  the  common  part  of  the  essenoa 
of  several  objects. 

The  iperific  expresses  that  which  is  essential  to  tha 
notion  of  an  object. 

The  difference  expresses  the  distinguishing  part,  or 
characteristic. 

The  prirjierty  expresses  what  belongs  to  every  indi 
vidual  of  the  s[iecies. 

The  arcident  expresses  what  belongs  to  some  indi» 
duals  only  of  the  3^x!cies. 

The  following  are  examples  of  predicables  :— 

Man  is  an  anininl.     Animal  is  the  genvs, 

Man  is  a  rational  heini;.     Rational  is  the  difference. 

Man  possesses  the  property  of  speech.     The  property, 

Man  is  tall,  learned,  ivnonint,  ^-c,     .Irridenlg. 

Rational  being,  or  animal,  is  the  spnies.  The  species 
'  with  the  difference  is  equivalent  to  the  c.emis. 

The  qualities  necessary  to  the  existence  of  a  subject 
constitute  its  essence. 

Man  is  also  distinguished  from  other  r  limals  by  the 
capacity  of  religion,  making  exchanges,  using  fire  to  dren 
his  food. 

k  logical  or  universal  whole  is  termed  a  genus  whea 
its  parts  are  also  wholes  or  s|)ccie8 ;  as  man,  beast,  bird^ 
fish,  insect,  are  species  of  animal. 

A  whole  is  termed  a  species  when  its  parts  are  indi- 
viduals; as  John,  James,  A-''.,  are  men. 

A  genus  timt  is  not  considered  as  a  species  of  any 
"hing  is  termed  the  summum  or  the  highest  genus. 

'V\\c  pro.riniiim  genus  is  the  lowest  genus  that  can  be 
picdicated  of  a  subject. 

Man  is  an  niilmal.    Here  aninyal  is  a  genus  in  relation 

to  man.     An  animal  is  a  substance.    Animal  is  a  spcrici 

in  rilati(m  to  suhslance.     Genus  and  species  are  only  no- 

I,"  answered    Sheriilan,   "  ho    has  only   knockeil    iin  i  tions  of  resemblance.     We    iiiav.  therefore,   generalize 


i  (eve)  out."  Some  of  the  company  who  heard  this 
iiuYiliite  rrlateil,  proimunced  it  witty,  others  affirmed  that 
there  was  no  wit  in  it.  They  disputed  more  than  two 
hours,  and  seemed  then  farther  from  agreement  than 
when  tlu'V  t)eiran.  Fortunately,  just  as  they  were  about 
to  part,  a  gentleman  requested  to  kimw  whether  all  the 
ilii<[iutants  wc.uld  admit  that  n  /'erling  if  tight  mirlh,orra- 
rtmrd  by  the  Mnexperlrd  disiyn-ery  of  resemblance  u-ith  ilif- 
'ir.  M  r,  constituted  wit.  All  agreeil  that  it  did.  He  then 
aski'il  them  if  there  was  not  in  this  instance  a  resemblance 
ill  the  sound — i — eve,  with  a  dilfereiice  in  the  moaning — 
i, «  letter  of  llie  al|ibalH't.  To  '.his,  too,  all  as.sented,  and 
wondered  bow  thev  could  possibly  have  disputed  so  long 
tbotit  a  matter  that  wa"  so  simple. 

Inipirtiiiieol  (leieral  I'ninf. — The  progress  of  society 
it  gre.illy  nn'.n.^  to  the  inlnxluction  of  general  terms. 
Tlic  process  of  study  is  abridged  more  and  more  in  pro- 
|iorU(iii  as  the  truths  to  be  nciiuired  imrense  in  nutnlxT. 
Heive  Ihe  elementary  truths  of  science,  which  were  at 
one.  lime  oicult,  I  ecome  the  subjects  of  common  educa- 
tion .K  short  period  employed  at  the  present  time,  under 
I  skilful  teaeber,  will  carry  the  student  l)oyond  the  con- 
cliisions  which  limited  the  iiKpiiries  of  those  who  were 
ie«i'rve<lly  reputed  eminent  philof  (pbersan  age  or  two  ago. 

Men  are  apt  to  tail  into  two  great  extremes.    The  one 


ditferentlv,  and  refer  the  same  indiviibial  to  any  of  several 
dilferent  species,  and  the  same  species  to  several  genera, 
as  suits  our  purpose. 

Man  tn.iy  be  classed  politically,  physiologically,  th.oreti- 
cully,  or  v.  o -graphic aUy  :  as — 

'i"he  man  is  a  farmer,  a  merchant,  a  manufacturer,  &o. 

The  man  is  a  negro,  a  white  man,  Ac, 

The  nmn  is  a  pagan,  a  Christian,  a  Mohammedan,  &Q. 

The  Mian  !    a  European,  an  American,  an  African,  &c. 

And  the  property  of  an  object  may  appear  differently 
to  dilT^'rent  men ;  for  the  notion  wuich  is  most  important 
in  reference  to  uno  art  may  not  be  rcganled  so  in  another. 
The  sailor  considers  polari'y  the  pn.perty  of  the  magnet ; 
but  those  r.ianufaeturerswbouse  magnets  for  shielding  their 
faces  ill  ariiiding  needles,  i'lX  in  the  notion  of  attraction. 

The  predicables  arc  relative,  fK'canse  the  same  notion 
or  quality  may  be  considered  in  various  relations.     Thui 

Red  is  a  eenus  in  .•"elation  to  si  iirlrl. 

Red  is  a  propr  y  in  relation  to  blood. 

Red  is  the  difference  in  ri'Iation  to  a  tos*. 

Red  is  nil  accident  in  relation  to  a  cap. 

The  term  fpecies  in  natural  history  is  applied  to  am. 
mal-i  which  '•  resemble  one  another  as  much  at  thuae 
of  the  sao'C  stock  do."  Hence  it  is  said  that  the  .*ifn 
can  rlcphaiit  is  of  the  same  species  us  the  .\siatic  one 


S66 


INFORMATTION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


r1 


DITISIOir. 
Logical  diriston  is  the  distinct  rr.unieration  of  suvcral 
tfiinga  bv  one  coinman  name.     The  kighrit  genu$  is  the 
vhole,  the  tpccies  ia  the  parts  into  which  it  ia  divided. 
Thua, 

An  oak  ia  a  Iref.     An  elm  ia  a  tret.     A  fir  is  a  tree. 
Phytiral  division  is  separating  tlie  constiturnt  parts  uf 
MIT  thing;  but  in  a  lof^iral  division  each  of  llio  purts 
sxpresaes  the  difference  as  well  as  the  general  notion.    .\ 
b'ce  is  divided  pbyairally  into  trunk,  branchet,  leavtt,  &c. 
The  rules  oT  divixion  are  three  ;— 
1.  Each  of  the  part*,  or   any  of  them  less  than  the 
whole,  must  contain  lesa  than  the  thing  divided.     To 
divide  bird  into  virtchrn'cd,  wicfinii;,  rrjp.irtoia,  wonld  vio- 
late this  rule,  for  all  Iiird.i  are  vertcbrated. 

3.  All  the  parts  tojclhor  muat  be  exactly  equal  to  the 
thing  divided.  To  divide  bird  into  the  sparrmc  trilir, 
rapariiuf,  am\  toadini;,  would  l)c  erroneous,  because  some 
birda  are  dimliini;,  &c. 

3.  The  members  must  not  be  containe<l  in  one  another. 
Dook  cannot  be  diviiiod  into  qitarto,  Frrnrh,  Latin,  for 
Ihe  same  bixik  may  Ik-  both  quarto  and  French. 

The  principle  of  division  with  which  we  boRin  must  lie 
kept  in  view.  To  divide  book  partly  according  to  size, 
pa.*tl7  accordinit  to  language,  would  lie  a  riosn  ilivhion. 
One  mode  ot'  dividing  may  be  most  suitable  for  one  pur- 
p<)se.  and  another  moilo  for  anoiher.  A  l)ookselliT  would 
>v,de  book  into  octavo,  quarto,  Stc;  but  a  philologist 
ffovild  divide  book  into  Laliii,  French,  Sec. 

".'ijv«i^r<i/i()(i, — In  clas-sifving,  we  separate  object,  ac- 
?xiihug  to  certain  dilTerences,  or  continub  to  gcn.-ralize 
until  a  dilfcrence  can  no  longer  l>e  found.  In  clainifica- 
ti.)n,  one  act  of  goneralizntion  follows  another.  Thus, 
according  to  J.in>'  '<us,  niiimals  that  suckle  their  y>nuig 
form  the  c\f'  nuimmahit  :  birds  form  a  second  clins; 
amphibious  animals  a  third  cliiss;  fishes  a  fourth;  insects 
a  fifth ;  worms  a  sixth.  The  mnmmalia  are  classified  into 
$fven  wiltit.  Each  order  is  divided  into  four  ftncra. 
Each  genus  has  f/iZ/irrii/  .»/)("i(»,  of  which  there  are  mniy 
varietUt.  Cuvier  clas.sifies  thus :  Individual,  species, 
kind,  family,  order,  clasa,  division. 

DcrmiTioiia. 

Definition  is  fixing  in  a  single  word  or  phrase  the 
particular  cirrumstance  of  rcseniblance  of  vanous  objeitr. 
A  sheep  is  a  ruminating  animal;  it  resembles  thoae  ani- 
mals which  chew  their  foinl  twice.  The  atlnhute  which 
we  obtain,  common  to  all  the  object.s,  is  the  definition. 
The  proximate  genus  with  the  specific  diirererice  is  the 
logical  dcfiiiiiion.  Jinnumil  animul  is  the  logical  diUiii- 
ion  of  man. 

Uefinitions  are  divided  into  nominal  and  rral ,  because 
the  object  in  view  may  be  either  to  explain  the  nuaning 
of  the  term  or  the  mnure  of  the  thing. 

The  nomi'Ki/  explains  the  meanini;  of  Ihe  term;  as, 
decalogue,  the  ten  commaiidmcnta.  The  real  definition 
explaias  the  nature  of  the  tiling;  as,  gold  is  that  metal 
which  is  yellow,  fusible,  malleable,  heavy,  pret  ions,  Ac. 

And  real  drfinitions  have  been  divided   into  phynnil, 
ar'vl'ntal,  and  l^i-ical     liecause  a  definition  may  !»•  em- 
ployed to  enumerate  the  propenui  and  armlenti,  or  the  ' 
phfttral  or  mi'i'phyn<at  piirt$  of  the  essence.  I 

An  accidental  definilion  or  description  enumerates  tlie  < 
proftf  rties  and  accidents ;  as,  Donnparte  was  a  native  of 
Corsica,  who  was  conquered  at  Waterlix). 

The  nominal  and  ri-  it  definitions  are  the  same  in  all 
itrict  sciences ;  liecause  in  them  the  meaning  of  the 
word  and  the  nature  of  the  tning  are  Ihe  same,  liold 
tniy  possess  Kiaiiy  qualities  not  implied  in  tiie  meaning 
of  the  term ;  bill  all  '.he  prn|ierties  of  a  triangle,  or  uf  a 
Circle,  may  l>e  deducnl  from  its  definition. 

Hach  terms,  too,  as  rirtue,  vice,  obligution,  right,  Ac, 
are  capable  of  a  real  it.  fiiiition  as  well  as  of  a  logical; 
and  the«"mi-ia/  defiiiiliuii  coincides  with  the  rL>al.   >•  Vir- 


tue ia  that  benevolenc«  which  rpringn  firom  toTg  to  tny 
and  m;.n." 

Rules  for  Definition. 
The  .  ules  for  definition  are  three  :— 

1.  The  definition  must  lie  adequate.  To  define  iJu  m. 
an  animal  that  hao  an  air-bladder,  is  too  narrow,  for  mam 
fish  have  not  an  air-bladder.  ' 

2.  The  definition  must  be  plainer  than  the  thing  (U 
fined.     Dr.  Johnson'j  definition  of  nrtwnrk  is  not  so. 

.3,  The  definition  must  be  neither  too  brief  nor  toe 
prolix.  When  it  is  tautological,  we  are  left  lo  suppose 
what  is  not  true.  Circumstances  must  not  lie  introduced 
which  are  true  generally,  but  not  always;  liecause  a,'ci. 
dental  circumstances  may  be  mistaken  for  real.  Clouds 
are  gloomy  vnpoun.  This  definition  is  tr  >  only  in  certain 
circuinstaiv.es. 

Importance  of  Definii  >ii. 

1.  To  guard  our  meaning  agii'.ist  mistake,  we  must 
define  the  terms  we  employ,  if  we  do  not  us<>  thei,>  in 
their  common  acceptation.  If  we  employ,  without  dpfi. 
nition,  the  term  virtue  to  express  forliimle,  sonic  personf 
may  suppose  that  we  mean  ,/»s/i(r. 

2.  We  must  understand  the  terms  used  by  others  ii 
the  sense  in  which  they  define  them ;  and  it  a  definition 
has  not  lK>eii  given,  wo  must  understand  them  according 
to  common  use. 

.?.  We  must  distinguish  verbal  from  real  diffcreroj. 
John  iiirirms  that  the  ancient  (Jcrinaiis  wero  scvnoeu 
James  denies  the  assertion.  They  dispute  long  and  vio. 
leiitly.  'J'liey  are  a.sked  to  define  Ihe  term  savai^e.  John 
defines  it,  "a  person  unacquainted  with  agriculture." 
James  defines  it,  "  an  illiterate  person."  Hence  the  di«. 
pute  is  virhal,  for  Jumes  admits  all  llj..;  John  contemii 
for.  John  does  not  inchide  in  his  dtlinilion  the  notion 
illilcrale.  James  doj's  not  deny  that  the  ancient  Ger- 
mans were  unacquainted  with  agncuiture.  If  ho  had 
denied  this,  the  dispute  would  have  1m  en  real.  The  one 
would  have  denied  that  which  tlie  other  afT'rnied  to  U 
true. 

PROPOSITION. 

.\  prirpotition  is  an  act  of  judgment  expressed  in  laik 
gunge.  Judgment  is  the  notion  of  retition  which  iiriset 
upon  the  [lerception  or  conception  of  two  or  more  chjects, 
or  of  two  or  moTV.  aficclions  of  our  mind.  We  perreivi 
the  distant  mountain,  we  consider  its  relation  in  position 
1(1  the  hill  that  is  nearei .  A  notion  of  relation  arises  in  tht 
iiiiMd  ;  the  hill  is  judged  to  lie  nearer  than  the  mountain. 

Kvery  proposition  expresses  the  relation  of  a  whole  to 
its  parts.  Snow  is  white,  cold.  iVc. ;  that  is,  each  of  Ibow 
quahties  forms  a  part  of  the  subject  snow. 

Terns  o(  a  I'rniioiiiion. 
Every  proposition  has  tivo  terms :  tlie  tulject,  or  that 
which  Is  sfHikeii  uf;  and  tltc  prniuiiii,  ur  that  which  it 
said  of  the  8u)>ject. 

Copula. 


fill  jfCl. 

Snow 
Siiowr 


Prrclicaie. 

whil«. 
black. 


The  ropula  atfirms  or  denies  the  predirute  of  the  tubjitt 
It  is  proliulile  that  s<mio  ships  have   Ih'cii   lost,     That 

ionic  ihipi  have  betn  int   is  Iho  si.bjec(,  pivinhle  is  th« 

predicate.     Kings  reign.     Aini;i   is    tliu  subject;  (are) 

rru'fiing  is  'tie  predicate. 

When  the  predicate  is  emphutic,  it  is  placed  before 

the  subject;  as,  (Ireal  is  Diuiia  of  the  EpheHiuiii. 

A  tjuslifii-.l  Hill  j.-.'i  or  I'r.  ,1  .  iiie. 

The  roan  is  wise  who  speaks  little.  The  subject  ii  tiot 
man  only,  but  man  limited  by  the  words  who  sptakt  .lUU; 
wilt  is  the  predicsle. 

The  sailor  is  hajipy  in  having  reached  the  shore,  Tht 
predic«l4!  is  not  ha/ijiy,  but  happy  limited  or  ijualified  bj 
tbc  words  m  hat\ng  rtathtU  lite  i/iorc 


LOGIC. 


Comnoimrt  PropoBitioni. 

In  eompound  propositions  there  is  either  more  than 
■<  lubject  or  one  predicate. 

Life  tntl  (Irnth  arc  in  his  hand,  life  and  death  are 
jie  two  subjects.  Holy  and  reverend  is  his  name.  Holy 
y^  rn'tnnd  are  the  two  predicates. 

Cotnp"n''d  propositions  arc  diMtinf^uished  by  the  lan- 
jrtiugo  in  which  they  arc  clothed.  Life  'Did  death  iirc 
J  lui  hand,  is  named  a  mnjunciive  or  copulative  proposi- 
tion;  because  itnd  is  a  copulative  conjunction. 


when,  having  the  same  subject  and  predicate,  they  diSb 
in  quantity  or  quality,  or  botn. 

A  universui  negative  and  a  universal  aflirmative  aM 
termed  •otitrnriet  /  as,  Ml  horses  are  quadiupedi;  «m 
horse  is  rational. 

A  universal  afTirmntive  and   a  particular  iffirmetiTe 

I  are  termed  nuhatlerns,  and  also  a  universal  negative  and 

a  particular  negative;  as,  Ml  horses  are  quadrupeds ; 

some  horses  are  quadrupeds ,  Ko  horse  is  rational ;  some 

horses  are  not  rational. 


ydllitr  ('lEsar  nor  Poinj)cy  loved  his  cjuntry,i8  equi-  i  A  particular  aflirmative  and  a  particular  nefative,  ara 
ralfiit  to— Cresar  (lid  not  love  ;  Pompe_,  uid  not  love.  A  termed  stibi  oiil rimes ;  as.  Some  horses  are  black ;  soma 
(onjuncli'C  proposition  is  false  when  one  or  both  of  the  '  horses  are  not  black 


nroiH)sitii.iis  into  which  it  is  resolvable  is  false.     \'irtuo 

giiJ  riches  arc  necessary  to  salvation.     Virtue  is  ncccs-  1 

f^y  t«  salvation,  but  riches  are  not.  I 

Disjunciivr  I'ropositioin. 
It  ia  either  day  or  night,  is  resolvable  into  four  pro-  ; 
poaiiion^  1-  It  is  day.  2.  It  is  not  night.  3.  It  is  ' 
nigliU  4.  It  is  not  day.  A  disjunctive  is  false  when  it 
Jam  not  contain  the  true  member  or  proposition.  It ; 
j,  fi'Afr  summer  or  winter.  It  may  be  spring  or  ! 
autumn. 

C'ompnralive  unci  rnaiial  rropositions. 


A  comparative  proposition  ia  false  when  the  higher    not  white. 


A  universal  affirmative  and  a  particular  negative,  oi 
a  universal  negative  and  a  particular  affirmative,  are 
termed  rojio-m/iciorifs  ;  an,  ^11  horses  are  (lUadrupeJs; 
tonie  horses  are  not  black  :  No  horse  is  rational ;  some 
horses  are  black. 

Contraries  ililler  in  qunlity.  Bubaltems  differ  in  quan- 
tity.  Subcontraries  differ  in  ijuiility.  Contradictories 
differ  in  both  iinaiitify  and  qiinlily. 

Contraries  cannot  be  both  true ;  for  if  it  is  true  that 
all  men  are  mortal,  it  must  be  false  that  no  man  is  mor- 
tal. Subcojitrarios  <  amot  be  both  false  ;  for  it  must  either 
be  true  that  some  men  are  white,  or  that  some  men  are 


[reo  is  false,  or  the  iiositlve  is  not  true  in  bolli  proposi' 
tioiJiT  tt^'  Kii^hes  are  heiur  lliiin  virtue. 

A  ciusul  jiroposition  is  alno  false  when  cither  of  the 
iiropositions  is  false,  or  the  cause  is  falsely  assigned ;  as. 
All  cvcnUi  are  necessary,  iccaiise  they  were  decreed  by 
iitn;  Tauierlanc  vaa  cruel,  liecause  he  was  born  under 
eccrpio. 

riefinilive  anil  rondilional  I'ropositions. 

A  definitive  is  false  when,  any  of  the  propositions  is 
false;  M.  Cii'sar  wa'^  put  to  death  in  the  61()*h  year  of 
Rome,  by  ttiusc  whose  lives  he  spared  when  conijucred. 
Cesar  wiis  put  to  death  in  the  710th  year  of  Rome. 

If  this  man  is  sick,  he  has  a  fever.  This  propositioai 
ii  filae ;  it  is  not  true  that  whoever  is  sick  has  a  fever. 

'ITie  Property  of  a  I'roposiiion. 

Propositions  arc  divided,  according  to  their  property, 
inlo  true  im\  Jiilfr- 

Propositions  are  divided,  according  to  their  luOilance, 
uiU)  categorical  and  hy|H)lhetical. 

I'rupositiuns  are  divided,  according  to  their  quality, 
into  alliniiativc  and  negiitive. 

Propusitioiis  are  divided,  according  to  their  quantity, 
into  umvc'r>al  and  particular,  or  partial. 

A  calej;orii.il  pro|Misition  is  a  siiuple  proposition;  as, 
^lon'  is  wliite. 

\  hypothetical  proposition  is  either  a  disj'^tiKtivt  or  a 

mU'lU'tOMUl. 

The  following  may  bo  taken  as  illustrations : — 

Dogs  are  rational.  The  property  of  the  propf<sition. 
h  M  faltt. 

Vopue  fiiithful.  The  substance  of  the  proiMsition. 
It  is  catiiionial, 

Horsei  are  quadrupeds.  The  quantity  of  the  subject, 
il  ii  Mnit'rrxi  /. 

Ihrsm  are  quii  iru|M'd8.  The  quantity  of  the  predi- 
iil«.  hit  pi'riial ,  because  tliere  are  other  quadrupeds 
lliaji  hoiM'B, 

HofMtiire  qu;idrupeds,  is  Mvertal ;  because  all  horses 
%it  qiiulrujit'itK. 

t^oine  iiieii  are  not  virtuous,  is  partial ;  because  the 
ogti  I'-mi  iiiiliculi  H  that  the  prii|iositluii  is  particular. 

Circles  arc  round,  is  tndijinile ,-  because  the  sign  all  is 
Dot  upres^ird. 

Oppo»iti(in  of  Propositions. 
Two  pro|H)8itions  are  said  t<.>  be  opposed  to  each  other, 
V.i.  I.-47 


Subalterns  may  be  both  true  or  both  false.  .^11  men  an 
liable  to  mistakes,  Suiiie  men  arc  liable  to  nli^take8,  ara 
both  true,  Ao  man  is  liable  to  mistakes,  i^ome  men  are 
not  liable  to  mistakes,  are  both  false. 

In  contradictories,  if  the  one  is  true  the  other  is  false, 
and  I'l'P  versa.  If  it  is  ^riic  that  some  men  are  not  white, 
it  ifi  false  that  all  men  are  white. 

Conversion  of  Propositions. 

A  proposition  is  said  to  bo  converted  when  its  tenm 
are  transposed  ;  as,  .Vcnie  cotrardt  are  Luaslers ;  tomt 
toiistirs  are  ivkvi i (/.«. 

A  universal  negative  and  a  particular  aflirmative  are 
converted  simply;  as,  No  Christian  in  impious ;  no  im- 
pioun  mail  is  a  <  hnslian, 

III  converting  a  .iniversal  affirmative,  we  must  limit 
its  quantity  ,  as,  ill  birds  are  animals ;  some  animals  ara 
birds. 

In  converting  p.  particular  n'!gative,  wo  must  regard 
it  as  a  particular  athrmative  ;  as,  Home  members  of  th* 
university  are  'lOt  learned  ;  «o»tc  not  learned  are  member* 
of  the  university. 

RKASO.flNG. 

Eenmn  is  a  scries  of  consecutive  judgments,  and 
rra,<:oinng  is  a  series  of  related  propositions,  or  i  con- 
tinued analysis  of  our  thought.  Thus,  Man  is  fallible ; 
he  who  is  fallible  may  err ;  he  who  may  err  ought  not 
to  wo'ider  at  others  differing  from  him  in  opinion; 
therefore,  man  ought  not  to  wonder  at  others  differing 
from  him  in  opinion.  The  last  proposition  is  contained 
in  the  fiist  as  much  as  of  the  intervening  propositions; 
but  the  relation  iietween  the  first  proposition  and  the 
last  is  not  seen  till  the  unfolding  of  proposition  aftei 
proposition. 

logical  Inference, 

Logical  inference  is  if  tu-o  kimis :  it  proceeds  cithe* 
from  the  parts  (a  the  whole,  or  from  the  whole  to  cha 
part*.  Thus,  A  cow,  a  deer,  a  sheep,  ruminate  ;  a  cow, 
a  deer,  a  sheep,  represent  all  horned  animals  ;  therefore, 
all  horned  animals  ruminate.  This  is  iiidiulive  rea- 
soning. 

Ded'Klive  reasoning  is  proceeding  from  the  whole  ta 
the  parts;  as,  All  horned  animals  ruminate  ;  a  cow  ia  a 
horned  animal ;  tlicrel'ore  a  cow  ruminates. 

All  horned  animals  is  the  rlass  or  irlmte :  the  parts  are, 
a  cow,  a  deer,  a  liheep  ;  what  is  affirmed  of  the  jrhck 
may  l)c  anirmed  of  carli  of  the  parts,  or  of  all  t'le  par*a. 
The  rule  for  imluetive  reasoning  is — What  is  afiirmed  of 


.Jl 


«*p^i* 


's^ 


INFORMATION   FOR   THE  PEO' I.E. 


the  parts  m«y  bo  afli  ined  of  the  w'lult.  The  property 
which  belongs  to  the  ;»ir<i  is  admitted  to  belong  to  the 
wkoU,  Of  r/ii«». 

What  ifi  dented  of  the  tehoU  may  be  denied  of  the 
pari  I, 

Aimljiit  of  Reasoning. 
Ei^ery  cnnrhmon  is  dndueed  from  otlicr  twn  prtrpnri- 
tiniis,  termed  pirnmet:  oa — I'romisH  1,  or  fiKyor  propo- 
■itiun,  Alt  tior.icil  iiiiiiiiala  ruitiimite;  Premiss  2,  or 
minor  pro|)anition,  A  sheep  in  a  horned  iiiiimiil ;  ( Vm- 
duiion,  Therefore,  a  sheep  rumiimtes.  .S'/kt/i  in  uaincd 
the  minor  term,  beejius<'  it  is  less  exten-ive  tli:ui  lumi. 
natiiii;,  whii'h  i»  therefore  termed  the  inajvr.  Horned 
animals  is  the  rniitdU  or  incdn  term,  or  proof.  It  is  also 
the  wimli; 

In  the  major  proposition  wo  find  tlio  midillc  and  major 
terms;  an<l  in  tho  minor  proposition,  the  middle  t\nd 
minor  terms. 

Tho  thiril  proposition  is  named  the  coiu'Iusi(m,  l)c- 
eauvc  it  ninrlmla,  or  nhnt)  up  in  one,  the  major  and 
miiidr  propositions.  The  first  two  propositions  are 
termed  the  prunites,  l)ccauBC  they  prciiiui,  or  go  it/o/v, 
tne  conclusion. 

F.ntliymems. 

Eiithymemo  is  reasoning  from  sifjns  (lanRuapie)  or 
probabilities,  l)eraus»>  it  has  one  of  the  premises  sup- 
pn  ...Si'il.  Thus,  He  is  an  industriouK  man  ;  theretore,  he 
will  acquire  wealtli.  The  ti\  !Jor  proposition  is  here  «n[>- 
pressed — Kvery  industrious  man  aciiuires  wealth,  which 
!•!  Lslsc.  Tl.erefote,  tlie  conclusion  is  only  probable — 
itC  may  acquire  wealth.  .Ml  gooil  men  are  happy  ; 
therefore,  .John  is  liai)])y.  The  minor  premiw,  John  is 
•  good  man,  is  suppressed. 

llyixuhct  cnl  Rensoiiinir. 
■■  disjunrfivo  proposition  states  an  allernalive,  or  im- 
^.  .  ihat  some  one  of  the  catei^orii'al  |)ro[>o<iiions  is  true. 
Wealth  must  ci/Arr  lie  spent  or  hoarded  ;  it  is  not  lioardcd ; 
lh«reforp,  it  is  sjieul.  Tiie  reason  is  not  couchisivi',  hr- 
e»use  a  proposition  or  member  is  wanting;  for  wealth 
may  be  neither  sjtent  nor  lnHU'iled ;  it  may  \k  laid  out  or 
employed  in  producing  more  wealth. 

Dilt-niina. 

'ITie  dilemma  is  a  roinplcx  conditional  reasoning,  in 
which  either  one  of  the  (in'crrtUnti  must  !k'  admitted,  or 
one  of  the  nm^niufntu  must  N"  denied. 

If  Kschines  joined  in  the  pulilic  n  joicinors,  he  is  incon- 
wstent  ;  if  he  did  not  join,  he  is  mipiilriotic  ;  but  he 
cither  joined  or  did  not  join;  therefore  (tme  of  the  con- 
sequents must  follow),  he  is  either  inconsistent  or  un- 
patriotic. 

We  s|)eak  of  the  hnrnn  of  a  dilemma,  liecause  the  name 
implies  a  taking  hol<i  of  both  ways ;  if  a  iicrsoii  is  not 
caught  by  the  one  antecedent  or  con*,  quent,  he  must  bo 
caught  by  the  other. 

If  it  is  spring,  you  are  to  blame  for  not  sowing  ;  if  it 
is  autumn,  you  arc  to  blame  for  not  reniiing;  but  it  is 
either  spring  or  nutmim  ;  therefore,  you  are  to  blame  for 
either  not  sowing  or  not  reaping.  It  is  not  conclusive. 
'I'he  enumeration  of  the  parts  is  not  comiilete  ;  it  may  be 
summer  or  winter. 

Sonli't. 

The  nori.'ct  consists  of  a  numl>cr  of  dei)endcnt  propo- 
rtions, in  which  the  preilii  ale  of  ivery  preceding  pro 
|JU«ttion  l>ecomes  the  subiect  of  every  succeed)  nj  propo- 
•ilion,  till  the  subjict  of  the  first  is  found  to  agree  in 
the  conclusion  with  the  jircdicale  of  the  last.  'I'bus,  .\ 
Biiaer  covets  much ;  he  that  co%ets  much  wants  much  ; 
be  tli4t  wants  much  is  mi».^rable  ;  therefore,  a  niis«>r  is 
miserable.  There  are  here  as  many  acts  of  reatoniiig  as 
there  are  intermediate  pro|i<>»itiuns. 

Flfurs. 
riw  ftgitro  of  reasoning  arc  only  Tjjtrenl  Jvrtm  of 


stating  it.     We  have  seen  that  tho  siime  a«  of 
soning  may  be  expressed  either  mlr^nt ifallu  v  * 
tlictiailly.     It  will  now  be  shown  that  tho   same 
of  reasoning  may  I'e  expronsed  in  each   of  th«  t-, 
figures.  ■'^ 

Fir»t  Fipire, 

No  lover  of  pleasure  is  a  true  philosopher; 

Tho  Epicureans  were  lovers  of  pleasure  ; 

They  wore  not  true  philosophers. 

Second  Figure. 
No  true  philosopher  is  a  lover  of  pleasure; 
,    The  p]picureaiis.  were  lovers  of  pleasuic 
They  were  not  true  philosophers. 

Tliiril  FiRiirB. 
No  lover  of  pleasure  is  a  true  philosopher ; 
Lovers  of  pleasure  were  Epicureans; 
The  Eiiicureans  were  not  true  philosophers. 

Foiirth  Fipnrc 
No  true  philosopher  is  a  lover  of  pleasure  ; 
Lovers  of  pleasu  e  were  Epicureans ; 
The  Epicureans  >vcro  not  true  philosophers, 

In  the  first  figure,  tho  middle  term  is  the  subject  n] 
the  predicate  of  the  minor.  In  the  second  fiijiire  the 
miildle  term  is  the  |)redicate  of  both  premises.  In  t|u 
third  "lignre,  the  middle  term  is  the  subject  of  both  prp. 
mises.  In  tlie  foiirfh  fi..Tnre,  the  inidilli-  term  is  the  iiri). 
die-ate  of  the  major,  .mil  the  tnilijccl  of  the  minor.  The 
fourth  is  tli(!  c;iposile  of  the  first,  and  the  third  of  th« 
second.  'I'lic  first  figure  is  u.sed  when  we  are  rcasoninj 
witli  a  pci-.-on  who  wishes  in-i'Hicilon  ;  the  second  in 
proviiiu  to  one  who  objects;  thi  t'.i.nl  in  showinit  th«t i 
universal  coiu-lusioii  has  liecn  drawn  when  a  partial  cod. 
elusion  is  the  legiliinato  one. 

Uiiluetio  ail  Iinpossiliile. 

In  rfi'iirlin  ml  impot:iibilr  or  ad  ah.turihim,  it  ji 
proved,  not  that  the  original  conclusion  is  true,  hut  thjl 
an  al  surdity  would  tollow  iVom  the  siipposiiion  of  ils 
In-ing  false.  'I'lius,  All  cohl  is  yellow  ;  some  metal  ii 
not  yellow;  some  metal  is  not  gold.  If  this  conclusion 
is  n,it  tnie,  the  eontrailictory — All  ineUd  is  yellow,  murt 
be  true  :  .\ll  aold  is  yellow  ;  All  metal  is  goM  ;  all  mrtal 
is  yellow.  The  major  premiss  is  true,  Wing  (/riginallj 
granted ;  therefore  tlie  falsity  iiiiist  be  in  the  miim 
piemi.ss,  which  is  the  contradictory  of  the  oripudl 
conclusion;  therefore  the  original  conclusion  must !» 
true. 

Fallacy. 

Fallacy  is  fals<'  or  inconclusive  reasoning.  Whentb 
fallacy  is  in  ibc  form  of  expression,  it  is  Icriin  J  foinuL 
Otherwise  it  is  named  mattruil. 

Money  is  wealth;  corn  is  not  money;  therefore  it  ii 
not  wealth.  M'liatcver  is  alVirmeil  or  denied  (>fthfi(/iiJ( 
may  Is-  alfirmi'd  or  denied  of  any  of  the  part;.  Hut  hen 
tiolbiim  is  iMcntioiicd  as  lnlonniiiir  to  the  cl.iss,  mcnev; 
corn  is  excluded  from  it  Now,  tbongh  we  ';jay  uirinii 
o(  gold  or  silver,  or  of  any  part  of  the  term  ;«"ii»i/,  what 
was  alliriiied  of  the  class  itself,  we  are  not  aiilhonzed  l« 
ileiiy  that  what  was  atbniied  of  it  can  be  ntlirmrd  of 
nothing  elw.  The  following  is  a  similar  fillacv;— 
Morses  ate  aiiimabi  ;  sheep  are  not  horses :  thrrofore, 
fheep  are  not  animals.  Sheep  are  animals  us  well  ai 
hors«"«:  corn  is  wealth  as  well  as  money.  I'hc  tprra 
antritol  and  vnillh  have  lioen  UM-d  pntiolly  in  the  pre- 
mises, but  «)iir.rs('//y  in  the  conclusion. 

I'dllicij  f  /  l''iinv<'(<ilio'i,—\n  this  fallacy,  tlip  middk 
term  is  used  in  two  sensi'S,  or  there  are  lu-o  clanei,  not 
o>ic  'I'liiis,  Wicl.  d  men  abound  in  repentance;  th«» 
fore  they  abound  in  what  is  good. 

This  act  of  rea»o!iing  or  fallacy  is  analyzed  is  follow! 

l{e|N  iil;incu  is  a  good  tiling  ; 


LOOIC. 


Sfkkei  in<>n  nbound  in  reponUnoe ; 

They  alouml  in  whnt  is  gwoil. 
(n  the  mni  )r  premiss  rrytnUmct  si^ifies  gtnuint  torrotv. 
Mil  in  ihe  minor  it  signifles  regret  arUing  from  pnin 

fiitliiry  of  Pivhion  nnil  Composition. — 5  is  one  nuin- 
M  ■  8  ami  3  nro  S ;  thcrofnrp,  3  ami  2  nrc  one  niimlwr. 
3  «ml  2  "'■''  ^'"^  miinbcrs  ;  6  is  3  anil  2  ;  therefore,  5  is 
two  numbers.  The  former  is  the  fiillary  of  Hivinon, 
(KcauM  the  miilillo  term  5,  is  used  rollirtivrli/  in  the 
miicir  premiHM,  Init  dividedly,  3  and  2,  in  the  minor.  The 
fillarv  nf  onopo-'iiion  is  the  reverse.  In  both  there  are 
(UM  wliolcs  or  rlasses. 

Thi"  niiraele  of  curing  the  man  siek  of  the  palsy  might 
ijive  l>fPii  ''>•"  fsidt  of  ehancc ;  therefore,  all  miracles 
,„ii,ht  have  Iwen  the  result  of  ehance.  This  is  an  in- 
(linre  of  the  fallaey  of  rompn.Hl inn. 

t'allify  of  .'hriilenli. — In  this  fallaey,  the  middle  term 
•  yjpj  simply  in  one  of  the  premises,  hut  conjoined  with 
terliiin  aceiiients  in  the  other ;  bh,  What  we  eat  crew  in 
thf  fieldn ;  loaves  of  bread  arc  what  we  eat ;  therefore, 
lojves  of  bread  grew  in  the  fields.  In  the  major  \ixc- 
ijlssiw  ent  is  taken  simjily,  but  in  the  minor  it  is  taken 
„|lh  its  aoridenta,  biikeil,  cooked,  Ac, 

A  certain  medirine,  when  taken  improperly,  hurts ; 
thmfarc  it  is  a  bad  medirine.  It  is  bad  when  taken 
Bilh  its  accidents,  that  is,  improperly, 

Ri'usoiiiii);  in  a  Circle. 

This  orcurs  when  a  person  pretends  to  determine  the 
truth  of  a  proposition  by  instancing  the  roiicliision. 
The  Eiifflish  lancuace,  by  Iw'ini?  eom])osed  of  words 
ftoin  the  Saxon  and  Latin  lan(j;nat!es,  admits  of  this  fal- 
jacv  to  a  Rroat  extent.  \  person  says,  A  thini{  is  luile- 
fiii  Why  is  it  hateful  t  IJecause  it  is  <iilii'vs.  Now, 
iiv/ii/ and  otliiii's  mean  the  same  thing;  o>liiis  beiuu  a 
Latin  sviionym  for  the  Saxon  word  h'lteful.  Rea-'on- 
in;in  liiis  way  is  just  as  had  as  Siiyimj  a  thini;  is  liatc- 
fiil  hfoause  it  is  hateful,  or  it  is  true  because  it  is  true. 
Whvdid  von  ro  to  such  a  place  7  says  one  man  to  an- 
otlipr;  Because  I  went,  is  the  reply.  This  is  no  answer 
.tall. 

Whatelv  )»ive«  an  instance  of  this  fallacy  in  the  fol 


It ;  secondly  that  it  was  whole  ">'  " 
thirdly,  that  we  never  had  it    '  in. 


m 

'  returned  it ;  aaii. 


Ignorotio  Klenchi. 
Innornlin  iknrhi,  or  irrelevant  conolijsion,  is  whet 
various  kinds  of  propositions  are  substituted,  according 
to  the  occiwion,  for  the  one  that  ought  to  he  proved.  The 
fine  arts  please  the  imagination,  and  adorn  and  polish 
hfr.  Hut  the  fine  arts  are  the  parentu  of  luxury.  Thi» 
does  not  prove  the  original  conclusion,  namely,  that  the 
fnio  arts  are  a  frivolous  amusement  j  licsides,  it  mistakes 
the  effect  for  the  cause.  The  fme  arts  arc  the  otTspring 
of  wealth,  not  the  parent  of  luxury,  for  they  can  lie  en- 
couraged only  by  a  i«>oplc  who  possess  as  much  wealth, 
at  least,  as  enables  them  to  devote  a  portion  of  tlieir 
time  to  the  cultivation  of  the  mind. 

Argiimintiim  ad  Horninem. 

This  signifies  the  argument  directed  point  blank  to 
the  jicrson  spoken  to,  or  a  reference  to  so-ncthing  in  the 
person's  own  condition  which  proves  the  truth  of  the 
argument.  There  is  a  fine  instance  of  tho  legitimate 
use  of  the  (nxumnilum  ad  hnmincm  in  Luke's  Gospel, 
chap.  xiv.  V.  5.  Tho  Pharisees,  affecting  to  \te  scandal- 
ized by  Christ  doing  works  of  mercy  on  tho  Sabbath,  he 
addressed  them  as  follows : — «  Which  of  you  shall  have 
an  ass  or  an  ox  fallen  into  a  pit,  and  will  not  straight- 
way pull  him  out  on  tho  Sabbath  day  1"  This  direct 
appeal  was  unanswerable. 

The  iirfiiiinintum  ad  hnminrm  is  always  used  fairly 
when  the  conclusion  established  is  not  considered  general 
but  particular ;  that  is  to  say,  when  it  applies  to  the  con- 
duct or  principles  of  tho  person  reasoned  witli,  not  with 
the  principles  of  all  mankin'.  No  man  is  entitled  tfr 
have  his  argument  overturned  by  the  doings  of  othenk 

rullucius  of  iho  Fculiiif;s. 

The  feelings  may  bo  said  to  be  always  lying  in  w«it 
to  set  aside!  the  efforts  of  judgment.  The  class  of  fallv 
cies  of  this  nature  nre  intiinatcly  coiniected  with  inte« 
rest,  caprice,  Kelf-eKt<'em,  envy,  jealousy,  disputation, 
complaisiuue,  outward  appearance,  long-sounding 
inferring  the 


words,  uitcrruig  the  motive  from  the  efli-ct,  authority, 
Imtins  KCiitiment.  "To  allow  every  man  an  unbounded  i  nialiiier,  awe  of  rank,  fear,  &c.  Bacon  terms  tho  fal- 
frcoiloai  of  speech  nuist  always  l)e,  on  the  whole,  advan-  i  lacies  or  j)rojudiceK  whicl\  militate  against  tlie  discovery 
(.iSfOU!.  to  tho  state;  for  it  is  highly  conducive  to   the 


analyzed  an  followi 


inlcrosts  of  tlie  community,  that  each  individiuil  should 
fiijov  libortv.  perfectly  unHmiled,  of  expressing  his  sen- 
limcntK."     This  kind  of   rant  often  (lasses  for  soutid 

nmii    ig. 

Polilio  I'riiicip'i 

When  aiiv  one  reasons  on  the  supposition  of  a  fact 
wtith  is  neilbcr  proved  nor  grnnterl,  he  is  said  to  /ifg 
|/if  7i(«  io'i,  or,  in  the  language  of  Logic,  to  resort  to  tho 
ptfilin  jtnniipii.  A  proposition  caiuiot  bo  proved  to 
bf  true  from  somctliing  which  ii  equally  uncertain  and 
disputed. 

SelllContrailietion. 

Some  persons  advance  arguments  which  bear  their 
own  contradiction,  and  therefore  come  to  nothing.  A 
pjrti«an  will  Ik"  heard  to  say,  "  The  removal  of  the  laws 
which  prevent  the  free  iniportiilion  of  foreign  com 
maid  injure  the  home  agriculturists;  but  it  is  well 
k.own,  from  the  most  ample  investigation,  that  foreign 
Ciiuntrioa  possess  so  little  overplus  of  corn,  or  the  means 
of  wniling  it,  that  any  ex|K'ctatiou  of  supplies  from  abroad 
is  littli;  l]cttvr  than  a  delusion."  Here  the  second  pro- 
position, in  effect,  contradict*  the  first.  This  falbn-ious 
kiml  of  reasoning  is  only  surpassed  by  the  following 
\tH^A  jfud'rii'rit : — "There  are  three  ](iints  in  this  case," 
Hvj  the  ilefendiuit's  counsel.  "  In  llv  first  place,  wo 
wnt«nd  that   'he  kettle  was  cracked  when  wo  borrowed 


of  truth  i(li,h.  because  men  are  apt  to  pav  homage  to 
them  instead  of  regarding  truth.  He  classes  them  as 
follows : — 

'i'lie  1st  class  are  called  Idols  of  tho  'iViTie,  because 
they  are  coiniiion  to  the  whole  race  or  tribe  of  man- 
kind ;  the  2d  are  termed  Idols  of  the  l>en,  liecause  ever/ 
man  has  his  own  particular  den  or  character ;  the  3d 
class,  lilols  of  the  Market,  because  they  are  aeeommo- 
dated  to  nmimnn  tvilionf ;  and  the  4th,  Idols  of  the  TA*- 
litre,  liecause  many  systems  of  philosophy  are  but  »fag*« 
pliiyg,  whicti  exhibit  nothinc  but  theatrical  u-orldt  or  tS- 
stiimiry  hi//)<'thexrf. 

The  first  class  are  those  prejudices  which  men  en- 
iertain  from  their  early  notions,  aiul  from  a  love  of  hy- 
pothesis. Thus  an  old  woman  who  may  have  reconv 
mended  some  nostrum,  which  has  been  succeaaful  in 
curing  one  disease,  will  consider  it  a  remedy  for  tO 
other  diseases. 

The  second  ore  those  prejudices  which  arise  from 
habilj*  of  thinking,  the  dispositions  or  the  passions  of 
men.  .\  theologian  who  is  of  a  violent  temper,  will  re- 
present the  Deity  a  ■  implacable.  Tho  peilantic  niathe- 
matii-ian.  who  reasons  on  a  subject,  will  not  l)e  con- 
vinced by  probable  conclusive  reasoninjj,  because  it  le 
n'>l  demonstrative. 

The  third  are  those  which  arise  from  the  relations  of 
hninan  society,  from  the  condition  of  men,  from  ttieif 
different  stations.  The  man  of  wit  laughs  at  the  phila* 
sopher  of  whose  specutaliuns  he  is  ignorant. 


'</ 


JiSH^^, 


tn 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE  ri'v'FLR. 


if 

M 


I 


J 


The  fourth  ore  thoiie  prpjndiren  which  men  entrrlain 
■poll  tho  Huthority  of  others.  The  zealous  abettor  of 
■uiiie  favnuiito  theory  will  never  listen  to  any  orgumontti 
■iraiM.tt  it, 

'J'he  'jllowinK  ore  illustrations  of  these  Tarious  falln- 
ae«,  drawn  from  tlillerent  rireumstanees. 

(.'/■  Capncr. — 'I'here  are  pernonn  who  will  not  admit 
that  those  individuals  whom  they  happen  to  dislike  are 
in  any  respect  worthy  of  esteem.  They  seem  to  reason 
thus  : — r  like  that  man  ;  therefore,  he  is  the  l)ost  pt^rsoii 
in  the  world.  I  dislike  that  one ;  therefore,  ho  ia  a 
frorthless  fellow. 

<il'  Self-hrve  ntid  Srif-Cnnrtil. — Some  individuals  re- 
gard all  men  as  irrational  who  differ  from  thrni  in  opi- 
nion :  all  who  do  not  nurer  with  them  are  opinionative. 
I  am  a  man  of  common  seii»e  ;  therefore,  it  is  so.  I 
have  a  ric;ht  to  lie  displeased  with  you  for  not  succumb- 
ing. 

Of  Knvy  and  Jraloufy. — So«ie  men  rontradict  with  n 
momn  malifoiity  those  of  whom  they  are  jealous.  Their 
envy  of  a  person  begets  hatred  of  Inn  opinions.  I  di<l 
not  say  that ;  therefore,  it  is  false.  I  did  not  write  that 
•rtirle;  therefore,  it  is  contemptible. 

Of  IhKpMation. —  Disputation,  or  maintainiiiR  un  as- 
•ertion  for  the  sake  of  rontradinion,  renders  conviction 
ditlicult,  if  not  impossible.  When  some  disputants  find 
that  a  position  is  not  to  be  defended,  they  trimt  to  ccjui- 
*iv;i*ion  ;  some  alfect  contempt  or  modesty,  so  reproach 
t)  .'inselvcs  in  order  to  (fet  rid  of  an  adversary;  others 
di'feiid  ihemselves  with  the  only  weapons  they  can  use 
to  advanta);[e — the  strennth  of  their  voice  and  lunffs, 

(.)/  Inlirtfl. — A  difference  of  jiidirment  not  uiifre(|uent- 
\y  proceed.4  from  interested  motives.  I  am  a  native  of 
thi»  country  :  therefore,  I  mu«t  U'lieve  that  every  inte- 
resting event  rccordeil  in  it«  early  hisior  actually  oc- 
curred. My  interest  in  apimrcnlly  dninaired  by  a  certain 
public  measure  ;  therefore,  I  must  oppose  i*.  I  have  no- 
thing to  do  with  the  effect  which  it  may  have  on  the 
country  generally. 

('/  Comploimnrr. — Some  persons  either  commend 
what  is  reprehensible,  or  more  than  is  just,  and  there- 
fore delude  those  that  are  so  commended,  and  wrong 
those  that  really  merit  praise. 

Of  Ovlwani  ^Ipyrnraiue. — There  are  some  individuals 
who  cverratc  the  value  of  wha'-^ver  at  onn-  captivates 
thn  senses;  and  who  unde-vali  whatever  reipiires  ob- 
•ervation  and  thought  to  be  duly  apprecirtt«'d.  The 
colours  of  the  iiainting  are  lieaulilul  ;  therefore,  the  ile- 
■ign  i^  ttdiiiirable.  That  is  a  fu>e-loi>kiiig  man.  What 
•  fine  o.ntor!     Wh«t  a  good  iiiaii  lie  is  ! 

O/iSbwurfiMi;  W'trdt. — There aie  ii:,lividuals whonever 
discover  the  false  statementi  and  the  invalid  reasoning 
which  are  found  in  aom*  ta<flesti|y  decnrnled  |H(mIiu'' 
tjoiis.  'i"he  figures  set  them  a-gajiiiin  ,  llie  jH'riiKls  tickle 
their  ear ;  and  the  lo.iild  of  the  words  allures  them  to 
thxiighte  so  frivoloui  that  a  chiM  woulil  reject  them,  if 
eipreMed  in  suitable  bingunge. 

Of  Infrrrinn  the  Alfwt  fi^'tn  the  h'ji'rrl. — 'ITiere  are 
not  a  few  men  who  irtard  erery  change  of  opinion  as 
■  111  gn  of  fickle  nets;  who  distinguish  neither  fortunate 
from  prudent,  nor  unfortunate*  from  xicious.  He  ha 
rhunged  his  opiniims  in  regard  to  ix>)iular  educaticui ; 
therefore,  he  is  a  mere  weathcrccwk.  He  did  not  pay 
th«.  riipect  to  Mr.  A.  whiih  was  exp'cted;  therefore, 
he  i«  proud  and  vain.  He  is  of  the  saue  opinion  in  re- 
(furd  to  geology  as  Mr.  C ;  therefore,  be  is  doubtless  as 
Aercijcal  in  his  opinions.  Nay,  he  is  umpiestionably  an 
•tlieist.  and  something  woriv. 

Of  Jlulli.iniy  and  Mnnurr. — Some  i  .en  test  the  truth 
of  an  assertion  by  authority  which  lli,"y  have  iMvn  led 
•eeidentally  to  revere.  There  arc  others,  again,  who  are 
i1is[»os<il  to  teat  it  by  the  manner  in  which  it  is  pro- 
lJOunde<l  Tlieir  reawoning,  tacitly  and  involuntarily,  is 
— 'ITli*  l»  the  opinion  of  .Mr.  .\.,  tJw  leader  of  ray  party  ; 


it  is  therefore  correet ;  I  have  no  neeJ  whatever  to 
mine  it.     T.  is  a  man  of  no  fc      'ic — what  is  hii 


«i«i 


nion  worth  !     The  speaker  b 
it  was  quite  impossible  to  li,    < 
correctly,  and  feeling  rightly. 


'C  showy  manner  I 
•  m  without  rea^ni  ' 
u  completely  he  ,1,,„^ 


lished  his  opponents  !    His  very  manner  showed  th    v, 
despised  them  all.   It  whs  iiuite  sufVicieiit  that  he  iit     !  I 
a  part  only  of  what  he  was  to  prove,  for  he  left  hig 
dieuce  to  infer  the  rest.     It  may  lie  true  (hat  he  iinnmlj 
to  his  opponents  certain  sentinieiils  which  they  ult  i 
repudiate  ;  but  his  authority  an<l  manner  made  good  il'  I 
imputation.     That  many  such  sophisms  as  the  al    ' 
are  frequently  to  be  nii  '■  wi'h,  must  occur  tu  e^erv  loi  ^'\ 
ubttcrver  who  inixoa  with  the  world.  ' 

Dogmatizing. 

This  is  but  a  branch  of  the  above.     When  n  n..^    I 
utters  Ins  own  opinions,  and  endeavours  to  force  th 
on  his  hearers,  right  or  wrong,  he  is  said  to  (/ogma,,. 
that  is,  lay  down  his  doginiis  or  opinions  in  an  improw 
manner.     Few  things  v-!)  more  common  than  thisftn   I 
cioiis  minle  of  disputation,  which  clearly  originaleii  i 
exctssivc  S4'lf-esleem.     What  I  say  is  right,  for  I  Kj^ 
studied  the  subject,  and  !  am  '<  man  of  roinnion  Ben*.  I 
IVrsoiis  of  this  turn  of  mind  are  alwoys  hurt  at  anv  on  I 
thinking  diirfiently  from  them,  and  look  upon  it  as    I 
kind  of  personal  insult,  for  it  amounts  to  callin ;  in  qM,^l 
tion  their  judgment. 

Coiiriiaioii  of  IditiB. 

Fallacies  in  reasoning  often  lurk  iindei  a  coiifiuionnfl 
ideas,  and  to  prcKluce  this  confiisioR  is  often  the  oHfct 
('f  cunning  and  dishonest  urguers,  A  trickv  nun 
went  into  the  shop  of  a  rather  simple-minded  wormn, 
and  asked  for  a  i>enny  loaf  and  a  [X'nnv  glasg  of  jin 
The  articles  lieing  given,  he  drank  the  gin,  and  addrrs<«i 
the  woiimn  as  follows  : — "  ( )n  seeoiid  thouirbts,  1  wj]l  ,,„| 
take  the  bread  ;  therefore,  I  just  give  it  back  in  pavnifni 
for  the  gin."  The  woman,  somewhat  perplexed,  an- 
swered, "Hilt  you  did  not  ]iay  me  for  the  hrraii" 
"  \Vell,"  saiil  tl.e  nuin,  ••  I  have  not  taken  it."  .. IJ,j| 
where  is  the  paymeMt  for  the  gin  1"  "  Mv  good  «fk 
man,"  replied  the  man.  "  haven't  I  told  you  alrcidv  ttui 
I  have  given  back  the  p<'nny  loaf  for  it."  'i'his  pjfcfof 
sophistry  so  confused  the  ideas  of  the  poor  woman,  lh»| 
she  allowed  the  villain  to  depart. 

Very  simple  iiuctions  may  in  this  nmnncr  be  miiii 
to  assume  an  air  of  extraordinary  (lifticiilly.  A  hcrrinil 
and  a  half  for  three  halfpence,  how  many  for  ejptfji. 
[leiire  '  is  a  jocular  question,  which  has  jn-rplcred  luinr 
at  first  sight 

Sii|i|ire»ilo  Ven. 

Supprr>ft<>  rc>-i,  or  the  sun|iressiim  of  the  Inilh,  ii| 
lOiiiinon  ami  dislioiiesi  nu'tliod  of  reasoning  on  iquF»| 
lion,  The  thing  is  d>,ne  in  various  wnvs.  A  [nrniil 
under  examination  by  a  committee  <d' the  House  of  L'onvl 
mons  res)H'rling  education,  is  asked  if  he  tliinks  il  lickil 
to  give  "  s|>ecial  religious  instrui  tion  in  schiinln?'  Hil 
answers  that  "  he  would  not  give  s]s  cial  but  crnpraiifiil 
gious  education  in  schocds."  An  opponent  neo  tbiil 
answer  in  print,  oiid  in  order  to  injure  the  rciiutal-nn ofl 
the  responileiit,  he  says  that  Mr.  Ho-niid-So  "doc!.m<| 
that  he  would  not  give  religions  education  in  whaili 
Hire  the  truth  is  suppreswd  ;  the  word  \ptii(.l  hiu  Mi 
left  out.  'Hiis  is  culled  nnildin-z  a  sentence  to  iuiii| 
bail  purposi'. 

The  following  id  an  analogous  mode  of  procedurf,  .tl 
statistical  writer,  after  making  an  ekborntc  inveslisatior.1 
publi.shes  a  stateiiiert  of  fiwts  and  figures  to  showikilJ 
particular  corfximtiun  is  in  a  slate  of  iiiHoIvenrv.  Hil 
inferences,  which  are  quiti-  fair,  are  met,  not  hy  an  jnif 
Ivsis  and  disproval  of  his  slateiiient,  but  by  an  ex|«)§iml 
of  an  error  in  bis  calculations,  to  tho  oiteiit  of  ikr  f 


■II 


J^  ■  w 


L00h3. 


m^ 


I  Jillini'  »"''  iixpcnce !     Thw  trifling  error  it  thciv 

rnnJu  'o  '^'''"  ''**  fouiulalioii  of  u  train  of  rciwon- 

Kiulinn  '0  »llow  tliiit  tho  writer  of  tlu>  Htatnmoul  i» 

SLrintof  antbinctic,  limt  lio  in  rasli  in  judginpnt,  and 

iitther  wrong  in  hiH  ralculutionH.     T hi«  H|)ocio8  of 

Ihonett  rcaaoninj?  in  coininon  nniong  tlio  warm  aillier- 

f  pdrty.     A  iM?ri«)n  is  oiH-n'y  accii«cd  in  nn  aBHcm- 

u   of  ut'i"(?  roncprni'd    in    appropriating   tiie    puWIic 


BCBTT' 


Anotlicf  riwss  to  refiiln  tho  raluniny ;  sayn  tho 


"_j^  is  a  ni08t  CHtimahlo  inilividual — lie  in  a  good 

7j^,„il  on  oxi'inplary  luiHliand;  but  not  ono  word 
M  iho  ni'lu"'  "U'litH  of  the  question  ;  and  by  this  dap 
DHPpeiil  '"  Icfling"  "id  tiio  force  of  language,  all  .a- 

"„.  on  the  Hiilijort  in  prevented. 
Hmfrsniorial  Bpilo,  also,  soini'limofi  takes  tins  form  of 
ivocati""'     Inxti'ad  of  incet'oi'  the  truth  of  anv  "'  te- 
nt  cHiioftinx  the  qualifirution  of  a  rival,  s  iii< .   i     nt 
lf;,K(n'il  forward  in  reply,  with  which  the  argu^     at 

,    |,,,tiiiiii;  to  do.     "  'J'hat  man  is  an  excellent  la    y. . ," 
\,    II  '1"'^''  ""^  meet  tlus  will  a  denial  or  approval, 

,  ■  jjuv^ffs — "  fid  you  hear  ho  was  one*  a  bankrupt!" 
.■(hat  lie  '■^'i"  hrought  up  on  charity  1"  or  makes  some 
ijier  observation  equally  aside  from  the  question. 

I.oRirnl  Annlysis. 
Innnalyiing  a  triiin  of  reasoning — 1.  Tleijin  with  the 

I  Mii'liiJ'"!!   tt"*''''''''"  '    2"  Trace   tho    reasoning   back- 
],  ,nil  observe  how  that  nsscrtion  is  proved ;  3.  The 

Lwrtion  will  I'O  a  conclusion,  and  the  pniof  of  it  a  pre- 
mi.a;  ^-  Ascertain  whether  the  reasoning  thus  otilnined 
ij  fiwlusive ;  5'  Pursue  with  each  premiss  the  same 
iiliii,  until  you  arrive  at  the  p  oiiscg  with  which  tho 
iilinlc  commences. 

\iiv  train  of  reasiminr'.  i  'refore,  should  conliiin  lend- 
mformajor  premises,  anc.  .  lordinnt  '  or  minor  premises. 
In  soniP  instances,  it  muy  be  fonno  .^at  every  step  l)iick- 
fjnU  in  tliP  rcascning  is  correct,  till  we  arrive  at  the 
(njl  or  major  preiiiifes,  which  rest  on  no  i  olid  foiindation. 
Unlair  arijucrs  are  apt  to  >ct  n  pl:iin  person  ofl'liis  ijnard 
In'  makini?  him  grant  certain  premises.  The  Socratic 
Bflhoil  of  nrmiiiig  was  of  this  nature.  The  opponent 
wjs  a'ked  question  after  question,  or,  in  other  words,  to 
p„  up  point  after  point,  till  he  was  lost  in  a  labyrinth. 
Hill  then  lie  wns  at  the  mercy  of  his  enemy. 

Ill  Smith's  Wealth  of  Nations,  in  the  chapter  on  the 
Pivifion  of  l.aliour,  we  are  aft^inlcil  an  example  of  fair 
milviin.  Til"  concluding  assertion  is — Tlie  (!i\isinn  of 
lilwiir  increases  wi'alth.  The  proofs  advanced  in  su[>- 
nortofthe  .i«s<rlioii  are — Isl,  Ilecanse  it  increases  the 
jfili'rity  of  the  workman;   "d.  It  saves  lime;    'M,  It 

Ifitos  rise  to  invention.  Atid  then  those  pniofs  are 
p,,,v,.J_Because  the  man  who  confines  his  attention 
.•hifflv  to  one  dipnrtment  of  labour  works  with  mure 
i|.'(lfritv  than  mio  who  prosecutes  (lilferent  sorts  of 
(ibo'jr,  lie  who  is  constantly  cngnge<l  at  one  kind  of 
|^^mr,  iloes  not  lose  lime  in  passing  from  one  sort  of 
wiirk  to  another.  I'scftd  inventions  have  generally  been 
Bsdo  by  those  individuals  who  bad  occitsion  to  give  their 
ittfiition  cliefly  to  their  own  sort  of  emplo;.  :-ient  The 
Baior  premiss  of  the  conclusidris  re8|)ectively  are — 
Wtiitf'er  increases  dexlcrily  increases  wealth.  What- 
retmres  time  increases  wealth.  Whatever  gives  rise 
io  invention  increases  wealth. 

fluiiiaiu  I'oiu'Uinion. 
The  Division  of  iiuliour  increases  Wealth. 

Proved  liv— Mnjor  Prcmisi. 
Whatever  promotes  dexterity  increases  wealth. 
Whatever  saves  lime  increa-^es  wealth. 
WItitei.''  gives  rise  to  invention  increas«'S  wealth. 
Whutever  enables  one  man,  &c. 

.Minor  I'rtiiii'* 
Th«  division  of  labour  promotes  desterity. 
The  division  of  labour  saves  time. 


The  division  of  laf.nur  gives  rise  to  inventioa. 

Tho  division  of  .i'     'ir  enables  ono  man,  &c. 

Each  of  these  mi  .<  premises  is  proved  by  an  indu» 
lion  <if  particular  fat 

Tho  division  of  .,  lour  is  the  division  of  it  into  h 
number  of  branches  or  departments.  Labour  moans, 
Ut,  Employment;  'Ju,  Tho  act  of  labouring;  3d,  The 
result  of  laiiour.  Wealth  is  that  which  is  necessary, 
useful,  or  agre    <blo  tn  man,  and  also  cxchangtabtt. 

Analogy. 
Analogy  is  n  consistent  reference  of  one  thing  to 
another;  luid  a  want  of  this  consistency  leads  to  serious 
errors  in  reasoning;  thus,  it  may  lie  soid — Birds  swallow 
small  stones  to  aid  digestion,  therefore  men  should  do  so 
t  >o.  No  Christian  minister  ought  to  marry,  because  St 
Paul  recommends  celibacy.  W(  alth  demoralizes  a  na- 
tion, liecnuse  it  i  .•moralizes  ■:ome  ,  idividuals.  Here  tho 
proofs  are  inconsistent  or  untrue.  There  is  not  such  a 
degree  of  rese.nblancn  between  the  sto  nach  of  a  bird 
and  that  of  a  man,  as  warrants  us  to  afHrm  of  tho  one 
what  was  affirmed  of  the  other.  St.  Paul  dissuaded  the 
Christian  ministers  of  his  time  from  marrying,  because 
their  families  would  have  been  iM-rsocuted ;  but  the  fami- 
lies of  clergymen  in  our  time  have  no  such  thing  to  fear. 
Wealth  has  not  the  same  elfect  on  a  nation  that  it  has  on 
an  indivicii.'ii.  1  .y  rendor  some  individuals  proud, 
indolent,  and  prone  to  luxury ;  but  a  wealthy  nation  ii 
industrious,  and  by  no  means  comparatively  proud. 


DO' 


iNE    or    BYLLOOISMS. 80PHI8TRT. 


From  the  preceding  definition  of  propositions  and 
predicaliles,  it  ill  a|>pear  that  from  trulh  notliing  can 
ri'ally  follow  b  what  is  true ;  whensoever,  therefore,  we 
find  a  false  conclusion  drawn  from  premises  which  seem 
Io  Iv  true,  there  must  lie  some  fault  in  the  deduction  or 
inference,  or  else  one  of  the  premises  is  not  true  in  tho 
sense  in  which  it  is  used  in  the  argument.  When  an 
argtinieni  carries  the  face  of  truth  with  it,  and  yet  lead* 
US  into  a  mistake,  it  is  a  sn/ihiHm. 

It  being  of  iiiiportaiice  that  every  thing  like  sophistry 
or  a  sembliince  of  Irnlh  without  the  reality,  should  lio 
avoided  in  procc  ics  ol  reasoning,  we  shall,  at  the  risk  of 
a  little  rt(M|Mi>.K.tion,  explain  the  fundamental  grounds 
of  reasoning,  ncciiding  to  the  doctrine  of  syllogisms. 

When  unable  to  judge  of  the  truth  cr  falsehood  of  a 
propositioii  in  nn  iniineiiiate  manner,  by  the  mere  con* 
lempbilion  of  its  subject  and  predicate,  we  arc  con- 
strained to  use  a  medUim,  and  to  compare  each  of  them 
with  some  tbi  '  \iex.  The  three  parts  so  formed  are  a 
fyllii:ism.  Y  '  ■  Aarnple,  we  take  the  following,  given 
by  Walls: — 

Our  Creator  nv.     !»  worshipped; 
Ood  is  our  ■  "reator; 
Thereftire,  viod  imisl  be  worshipped. 
Here  it  may  be  observed  that  the  third  tsrm  or  con- 
clusion rests  on  a  foundation  afforded  by  the  two  preced- 
ing.    To  ensure  I'lilh  in  the  conclusion,  the  premises, 
major  and  minor,  must  Ik-  true,  and  strictly  agree.     We 
have  another    xn  npic,  as  follows: — 
Every  wick  d  man  is  truly  miserable; 
All  tyrants  are  wicked  men; 
Therefore,  ii>'     rants  are  truly  miserable. 
In  forming  syllogi^ms,  great  care  requires  to  l>c  taken 
to  construct  them  in  such   a  manner  that  the  first  and 
second  terms   art>    analogous,  and  not  a  mere  play  of 
words.     I'reviois  to  the  method  of  reasoning  from  an 
induction   from       tablished   facts,  introduced  by   Uacon, 
it  was  usual  to  'ea.son  sophistically   from  premises  pre- 
sumedly  true,  and  con.sequeiitly  tho  most  falst;  conclu- 
sions were  arrived  at.     The  logic  in  vogue  was  that  of 
tke  ancient  fireek  philowphe     \ristotle,  which  it  wis  ■ 
s|«'eieH   of    heresy    to   df.iy.     "Men    were    everywhere 
taught  to  believe  in  malut;  Jhrm,  and  prwatwii,  as  the 
21 


ill 

i 


'1^^ 


ri 


INFORMATION  F^^rt  THE  PEOPLR. 


E 


oriitin  of  nit  thitiRn;  that  llio  hdivrrm  wcro  «i  ll-t-xiriU-nt, 
lncorru|)lil>lc  niiil  iiii<'haiii?PiiM<' ;  •nil  tliiil  all  tlio  atiiiji 
werp  wliirlcd  round  llie  rnrth  In  miliil  orlw !  Ariitti)lli-'ii 
workH  WiTO  tho  (frnit  U-xt-lHiok  of  knowlnlKC,  iiiiil  hin 
logic  wim  till'  only  wi'i«|M)n  of  triilli.  Mon'*  ininiU, 
liMtrail  of  Dimply  nliiilyinK  niiliirc,  wrm  in  nil  I'lidlfHN 
fvrmiMit  nlnxit  ocrnll  <|iinliti<'a  mid  iinnKinnry  r^m-nrrN ; 
liltip  wiw  lulkrd  of  Iml  in'rn'vm  and  rftnin'ioi,  fiiii/it)r- 
tion  and  Hfi^ff,  infinity.  formiiUty,  i/uiilihlij,  inilivi<lu(ilily, 
•nd  iiinunirriiWo  (i''..r  nl>-lriicl  notionii.  Tlio  Lulin 
to.idiio,  will,  h  wnn  cin|>loyi(l  1)^  thc!"  »<  holnNlii"*,  wan 
r  <i.  .  rtt'd  into  n  ImrlmrouH  Jar)(i>ii,  i  |ii  .  '  l^oin  iii  v.niild 
not  iiiivo  iindiTHtoixi ;  and  in  tlio  end,  tin'  niii»t  itr>  tiiriiin 
liiUenira*  was  priHlilii'd  -.>  it'liincN  ii.llii){  in  lilixidy 
contr«t*.  In  tlip  mi'  I  of  tliiva'  ili»ii  ilc«.  Aristotir  wan 
•till  tliP  );r:ind  iiiitliority.  ('Iirlstian:!,  JrwK,  niui  M  >■ 
liiinniiNlanH,  iinitt'd  in  profi'sHJni;  anHciit  to  llic  grrat  law- 
giver of  lininai.  o|iinioiis:  nut  Hiirii|ii-  ttliir,  liiit  uIno 
Africa  and  Asia  n('knowli<d);i'd  his  iliiiiiiiiii>n ;  and  wliilo 
hia  (!ri'i-k  oriifimiln  wrrr  Mildicd  ut  Paris,  lraiiHlati"na 
wern  road  in  IVrsia  and  Hanianaiid.  'I'lic  rune  for  dis- 
putation wliich  now  lii'Kaii  to  pii'vaii  in  roiiKfiiiU'iiro  of 
thfl  nprcad  of  tliis  pliilosiiphy.  induced  the  ciiuiicil  id' 
Lateral!,  uiiiler  I'o|m-  Iniioeeiit  III.,  to  prcM'luiin  a  prohi- 
bition of  the  ii«'  of  the  physiis  and  nietapliVHies  of 
Aristotle;  hut,  nv. f'll  iia  were  then  llie  thunders  of  the 
Vatican,  they  were  not  niiKlity  eimuiiti  to  delhiunr  him 
from  that  despotism  over  nu'ii's  minds  which,  l>y  loin; 
custom,  had  now  rendered  iUi'lf  almotit  oniniiK)leiit."' 
It  WIS  reM'rved  f'<r  Lord  ilacon  to  hreak  llie  iiiii;hty 
power  of  Aristotle's  phiiosnphy,  and  to  Huhslitute  that 
which  is  now  in  iise.j  The  error*  of  the  sophists,  which 
it  may  h*  mis  iiitau'cous  to  examine,  were  of  two  leailiiif; 
ortlrrn.  The  fault,  in  the  first  instance,  iniiv  resiile  in 
the  t.rprff'fii  iir;iiinin',  or  hyllo({ism,  in  which  the  ooii- 
rlusloii  does  not  follow  fmm  the  premi>i'»  if  is  a|rpareiitly 
involved  in;  orwcondiy,  it  may  lurk  it:  the  ninitiiltil  pm- 
tut  of  Ihoufht,  dexteroualy  RUggeated  by  the  (ophist,  by 


•  Account  of  l.oril  Hacoii's  Nnvxim  Organon/m  I.ilirary  of 
Uieful  Knowliildc. 

t  Krancn  Itacoii.  crealrd  Hamn  Vrrulam.  who  rose  to  Iho 
rank  oi  l,onl  I'liaiicfllor  of  Kn«  itn.  ...  iln;  ri'iija  m  Jnimrs  1  . 
ohiajD'-d  llir  hiehrti  rcpiiialini-  ■  ■  i\.  , nlosoplucul  wnifr  In 
lA'JO,  apprari'tl  hit  chief  proili;Ciiii"  ,;  .1  coinplrip  form,  "Tlic 
Mmiimn  Org»m>n,  or  New  y^u.'"''  i>{  sailyiiig  iIih  S«'M>acc»," 
ka  wbieh  he  pointed  out  ihr  ,>  >  I'l  whi-  h  we  thould  luftoi  niul 
Miiry  on  our  puriuiiof  in„.vi,  ilif-  ;i)  Tilf  r  10  arnve  at  IrvM. 
Tht>  principles  tit-'  :<iid  dov  n  '^  1*1-.  *o  o.,cfria.u  tucu  in  the  lirtt 
placv,  iiiid  ihrti  to  fvaiM>ii  up<  1  li-'  '1:  tnwardii  coiiclus.<in» — a 
liJO,t«  wiMch  limy  now  appear  vcr_  ,  vious,  and  evi-ii  iiiiavoul- 
able,  tun  which  wk«  iii'vi-rihcle>»  unl>nuwn  till  explained  by 
k*ni     'i'o  coiiii?  10  purticuttirA,  Hncon  Ii'tts  ut — 

i.  'Hial  the  ultiiiiaie  ami  uf  phiiii»oph]cal  inveiiti^atiun  ii  to 
bring  the  cotir^e  of  evfiiis  n»  much  as  possihU-  under  our  own 
eontrul.  Ill  order  that  we  ma)  turn  it  to  our  owh  udvuntu^e. 

II.  That  as  each  event  dept-ndft  upon  a  ci-rtuin  cuiiiliination 
of  circuiiutuntii'a  which  pn'ctdc  it,  and  cnnioiluiv  iin  cause,  11 
laevidt-nt  we  shall  be  utile  10  cuinniand  the  event  whiMievcr 
we  nave  it  in  oiirjtjwerto  produce  that  cunibinaium  ui  cir- 
cuiiuiuiice*  uut  ol  the  iiicuiia  which  nature  has  plaeed  witliin 
our  reach. 

III.  That  the  mean*  of  producing  many  evenn  which  we 
little  dreajii  of.  are  Hclually  placed  w;;hin  our  reaeh  ;  and  tlial 
•Oliiing  prevent*  uii  iroiii  uung  those  nieaiia,  but  our  inululty 
iDleleci  them  iroin  the  erowd  oiulher  circuiimanees  liy  wb  cD 
thev  are  diSguised  uiid  surrounded. 

IV'.  'riiai  tltereiore  we  sliould  endeuvoiir,  l)ydiii|rent  ciliserva- 
tjon.  to  lind  out  what  cri'uin.ituiu-ea  are  es<icniiul.  uiul  what 
•  xtruiieuus,  to  thi-  productioit  o;  eacii  *-vent ;  and  its  reut  etiuse 
being  nr  ppi'd  Ine  iruiii  all  the  perplex. ug  eiineiiiiiilunts  which 
occur  III  iiuiure.  we  •hail  p'-reeive  ut  onee  wlieihi.-r  wi-  can 
eonituaiid  the  circuinttuncei^  that  eoin)Hi-«e  it  or  not.  Tli.s.  in 
fhort.  IS  to  generaii/e  .  uiid  having  donu  bo.  we  ulutll  Hoiiieiuiies 
discover  ttiui  objiets.  wh.eli  »ii  uii  (dliirs  appeiiri.-d  Kie  imi.-t 
uteleas.  remote,  itnd  mappbeit:  ie  to  imr  purpose.  [io',hi-as  Uh* 
ver.\  properties  we  are  .11  neareti  ut.  .Niiture  huiuiIa  ri  ady  10 
m.llialer  to  our  iU-»  gns.  ilwe  haw  olil)  the  b.i^ae.ly  lo  li-en- 
taitgie  us  operntioiiH  iriiin  one  anniiiur,  to  reier  eucii  event  to 
US  real  source,  and  to  trace  the  poweri  and  ijualiticiof  ulijecis 
UQto  their  molt  abstract  turrit 

In  pursuing  the  dieiutes  ol'  Ihia  noble  ph.lusophy.  itia!i  is  no 
longer  itti(K,:<-nt  ar;,l  ridiciilims.  He  ealiiity  vuiupiishes  ilie 
fiarriera  wh.ch  tipposr  his  w;she» — tie  elmfes  the  i-uusi's  of 
>tiii"  lie  wiitt  ns  the  range  ot  eiijo)  lueiii — :kinl.  at  the  same  tone. 
<eelt  tiie  d.giiit)  01  itiieiieet,  wh>cii,  l.kc  a  musician's  taliHiiiiiii, 
tu  tiaUa  all  liiiugt  bow  bclore  lua  teat. 


iiieatt*  of  which  falsi"  prcmlaea  »rn  n  yarded  ti  pn,,  1 
and  a  false  though   logicalV  It  gitiinatn  rotirluiion  i,  j 
cDiirsr  itecessitaleil ;  or  in   •. 'dch   u  conclusion^  |j|(|,   j 
loi^ieally   fair,  nod  prolmlily  true  na   matter  of  fa.  t  ha 
irrrlrvnnt,  or  only  |airtinlly  relevant  to  the  point  at  uau, 
is  -dmiltml  na  npfilicalile  and  ilecisive.     In  die  one  d    ^ 
the  link   ia  w«ntiti;<  which  ahintld  bind  the  infetenmin 
the  previous  [Nisilions;  in  the  other,  that  is  aUent  nhirk 
ahnuld  conneet  either  with  tho  real  suliject  of  clinimi, 
A  aophistn,  then,  which  is  itisepurable  from  Ihr  form  / 
the   expression,  may    perhapa   with    propriety  he  i,i,|,j 
tylhuialir:  wlii'"  one  utIadiinH  to  the  Hiilijcct-mntter  n, 
fall  to  ta>  treated   us  1  itm-iylhignlii;     It  ja  ohviotuly 
respects  the  latter  s,irt  that  the    a.   ■  1  minj  j:.  „„^  ' 

lo  ileceptioti ;  ami  it  must  ut  'h /  e  time  U-  ^|||,^^.,,j] 

that  lo^ic  is  here,  where    her   ,i.,l   is   most  es»eii(ii,|.  n),! 
to  lend  it  lull  in  seiinly  measure.     'I'lip  eutiiliil  wi||^  l,,,^^ 
ever,  remember  that  even  tho  mcaii-st  niiHlicuin  01'  jud, 
service  is  of  value,  and  will  not  i|iiiiriel  with  m,  ^f^f 
failure  where  absolute  rttccess  ia  (liainly  unitlninalile. 

Kirst,  then,  of  .<y//ni;i  '/iillnnii;  which,  imlecd,  (,. 
rxcessive  m'tierali/.alioii,  mijjltl  Is'  eonipriwd  utiili".  ik. 
otiiet  class,  since  they  are  resolvable  into  the  iinnrcj«ion 
thill  the  same  or  siiiitlur  terms  are  itlwaya  rcprenentutu, 
of  the  same  or  aimil.ir  ideas.  It  is  iiiueli  more  conn  uipni 
liowewr,  to  consider  lliem  sepurately. 

Krrors  of  this  description  may  proceed,  in  tlie  first  in. 
stance,  fimn  mnfuwiiU'iii  iillml  itniimn  ^ij' Ihf  fnmeldni, 
Sometimes  a  word  is  tiseil  both  in  its  primary  aiii]  in  1 
IraiiNilive  aense.  An  instance  in  puint  luTtirs  in  M| 
lltirke's  Kssay  on  Taile,  pril'ixed  lo  lii.s  (elclmitcd  'li* 
<|uisitioii  on  the  Hublltne  and  licaiitiriil.  "  It  may  ikt. 
Ii'ips  np|iear,"  he  otiserves,  "that  tlieie  is  im  maltrial 
distinction  lietween  the  111/  mid  llir  jin'^mai'.  as  thfy 
111. Ill  st-em  to  result  from  dillirent  oper.dioiis  of  the  sanx 
faculty  of  compuriiiK.  Hut,  in  reality,  whcdicr  Ihcv  «r» 
or  are  not  ilcpendent  on  the  same  power  of  the  inind 
they  dilFer  a,i  very  materially  in  many  ris|ioit«,  that  1 
(lerfecl  union  of  ici^  ii>  d  judtiiiieul  is  one  of  the  raten 
thinija  in  the  world."  The  wonla  irit  MiA  jiidtimtnl  have 
each,  in  the  alsive  pa.s.^ane,  two  di-liiict  si;{iiifi(i(tion»— 
the  powers  thus  dcnoniinated  res|><ili\ely.  and  the  pr-v 
ducts  of  liidh  in  jK-culiarly  lively  exercise.  The  itifcrcnrf 
of  course,  dues  not  hold,  and  the  objection  it  ja  ititt;nijcj 
to  meet  teitiiitis  unanswered, 

Hometiiiies  a  melaphorical  sens*"  is  slip|M'd  in.  in  plafs 
of  the  literal.  V\'e  have  he.ir.l  that  a  pii|iiilar  nribirthtu 
ltianat;ed  to  turn  to  his  own  account  the  niisfortuiie  of  1 
rival,  aliietil,  it  seems,  liom  delic.ite  hciillh.  " 'I'hc  guj. 
tiemeti  bis  kuIiI  he  cannot  venture  himself  in  such  an 
iitinoMphcre,  but  this  is  the  atlno^plll•r,•  m  which  I  (icluhl 
to  breathe,"  With  an  excited  i towd,  this  tlituKV  artilloe, 
we  Islieve,  succeeded  in  priK'urini;  fur  a  slnut  (lair  of 
lunus  the  a|ipl:iui«'  due  to  disliimui.sliej  palriotistn. 

Oceasioiially.  the  exteiiHioti  of  a  leitii  ia  channei 
Thua  lluine.  in  bis  Knsay  on  Miracles,  argues  m  itwhil 
is  granted  of  ordinary  were  true  of  uiiivcrs.il  'jptritKi. 
Heeause  events  of  thia  oriler  have  not  come  utidtT  thj 
obaervation  of  most  |K'rsons,  it  is  concluded  tl.at  thoy 
could  never  have  eotnc  under  the  oliH'rvation  of  any. 
A  little  ainhii{uity  haa  aonu'limes  arisen  from  the  vague 
application  of  nuthm  l')/.  Kelcrniii,'  to  the  wrlb-r  lait 
named,  in  his  capacity  of  hi.'^lorian,  we  may  think  111  tii 
nronounce  hiin  an  excellent  tttithority ;  but  milcsii  the 
term  Is'  expressly  Huatdrd,  we  may  Is'  rc|ircseMl(il  a 
intiniatini;  our  approval  of  hia  I'tliicul  and  tnetiiiihyiilral 
Blieeulat'oits.  liy  yiivyi/ic/  we  Usually  tini.Vr.slaiid  a  per- 
BOii  HU|s'.'iiiiturally  commissi  tied  to  furetcll  evcniii;  ic 
the  works  of  Mr.  Carlyle,  he  is  simply  a  itinn  of  com- 
mandini;  genius  and  vast  praclica'  piwer.  Mi/iliry, 
fiirineily  tiieaniiii;  simply  a  thiiii{  unknown,  now  ilcn.itei 
invarialily  u  thiiii;  that  raiinol  Ih'  known,  'i'lii  notioo 
popularly  atlaclied  to  wedliU  dillers  widely  from  the  tut 
M  Uie  l«riu  by  writtira  uii  prUlical  «cuii;iuy;  and  oiucll 


LOOIO 


m 


_^i(al  mlirhief  ha*  rr«uUi<d  firom  th«  hotirf  tlmt  •  I 
mniitry  i*  prui<|>crniiii  juKt  in  prnpnrtiiin  iih  it  arniiHaeii 
ipn'ie.  '"  tliPMi  intrn  nnil  tlin  likr,  wriouii  iiiintiikeii  | 
hi«<  N^o  K<'>i<''»(nl.  ii»<)  riiH-n  to  tlin  rank  of  i-:ilaliliiilii'(l 
inil  uiiiii>|'<''"'l>»''l<'  |>riti('ipli'i«,  thMii){h  Hlicrr  iimtli'iitinn 
ff,  tbo  \iiri,»li()iiii  of  frrniit.  Thii  nmrc  clnHcly,  imli'i'il, 
,,  aaili'i  oi'  iiii'iinini;  lili'iiil  with  rurli  other,  tlit'  iiuirn 
;v,:i  '■'.t''  'f""  "iiiiiliirily  timt  iiiil>'i'*tH  liclwccn  them,  llii' 
.  jior  Ih'i'omii'h    tlir   clillu'iilty   of   (Ictectinn   llin   Iriiiid.  I 

B»»jnil  11  i'1'rtniii   point,  ind I,    if  (lilll^rcni  i',  tlu'   niont  i 

obluw   Inlc'lli'ct   will    ttf\m^   in  Iw    iinpoHcd    on.     It    i8  1 
iJmuril.   llKTf'foro,    ill    iiii    inniinrnition    of    fiilliuii'n,    to  i 
pMin  i>  pliii'i'  to  n  jsl'ifini?  pl''.V  upon  wordH.     Tliouuli 
thp  pun  "li'V  piixzic,  it  ciin  ncvrr  ini-Ii'iid      "  Hi'  who  in  \ 
i,io«i  huMUfy   I'lil.t    imwt;    ho    who   rcitH    Icimt    is    ino^t  [ 
hungry;  tlnri"liirc,  he  who  ciitN   Icist  i-M»  inosl."     Wo 
j,jmeilialily  iliscovrr  llmt  r-ih  in  the  first  miMidit'r  of  thn  [ 
lYlliiuimn  I'  I'tpiivulciit  to  irill  cut,  whilo  in  the  Ki-roiid  it  1 
liiiiidn  for  /iiM  rutin:    I'ld  tho  apparent  coptradiflion  is 
lolvi'il  iiiii  lannhi'd  over. 

A  lUM'ond  1  liiHs  of  rrrom  in  ri'iinonlng,  hcjonqinn  to  tho 
ami"  Ki'iiiTttl  order,  inny  arise  /nmi  Ihc  lyrn-si^ht  nf  nr- 
UM  ./i/fi'Cii'r'  hi'liif,  ,t  rrlii'iil  teim*.  It  is  often,  for  ex- 
(Ul'li',  tiiken  for  grunted  tliat  words  sprin«ins  from  u 
(vmmon  root  only  vary  lunoiu?  themselves  us  parts  of 
ipeoili,  whereas,  in  fait,  the  riidiiul  meiinuin  rn.iy  li  vn 
dtdinii'  I'liM'iidi  ralily  modilied.  Sr/inivr  deiinles  iin  aft- 
(ill,  iriicUiiii;,  iin|iririi'ipled  individual — cpialilies  whiili  it 
(Mulil  lie  most  unfiir  to  iiserihe  to  every  man  that 
chsiKi'd  to  [le  the  author  of  n  irliemi:  'I'ho  two  terms 
la'  ri'laled  to  each  other,  hut  a  ilrrinit  mm  is  not  lliere- 
(ore  n  ilei'<''i''-  In  some  instaiiees,  however,  the  derivii- 
tivt  nnil  priinitivo  dJIl'T  too  plaiidy  for  either  to  heidine 
iviiliilile  lor  the  (Hirposes  of  sophistry,  A  miiid  that 
»ouM  tail  lo  delect  tlu^  transition  from  iirl  to  nilful,  from 
p/y  to  iiiii/'iil,  mid  the  like,  must  k"  under  the  iMlhienec  ' 
of  principles  of  ussoeialion  no  less  peruliar  than  those 
whii'h  lid  the  liairil  of  !')llam;owan,  in  (iny  Maniierint;, 
10  (rive  jiistiie  imiiiidimeiit  in  a  ju^.liee  o,"  the  [naee.  i 

To  this  head  we  would  also  refer  lie  disMi,;enuouH  j 
Uje  of  /i.'i'»(/«--y;i<)/ivmi.< — that  is,  terms  eorrespondinn  i 
griiprally,  hut  ni>t  alike  expressive  of  the  roipiired  sliadt!  ! 
of  Jisliiietion.      To   miiiiler,  and   lo  put   lO   ilntlh,   liolli 
indii'iite  au'eney   with  a  similar  result ;  hut  the   former 
phnsp  ilitrrinini's  that  a.;eiu'y  to  he  rriminal,  while  the 
bttir  ullixos  no  such  eharaeter  to  it.     Many,  under  the 
impression  lh.it  llu'   firms  are   perlVelly  e,;uival;'nt   and 
iliU'rrliaM,'i'ahle,   inii;ht   he    indueed    to  ascrihe    to   fimr 
iuiiil.iiii'es  the  reeojiiised  properties  ot  bititr.      It  is  un- 
neoe«sary  to  imdliplv  examples. 

Let  IIS  ninv  review  hrietly  tlio  more  frivjueiit  and 
more  il  iiii;erous  spei'ies  of  fallaeies  which  we  have  veii- 
luri'il  111  dciioininale  ij/)(i-.<i//^';'i>h'r.  'I'he  fault  here 
wjs  ili'si-rllird  as  altachinu,  not  to  the  expressed  proce  ..< 
of  «ri;iiiiieiit,  hut  lo  the  eoneomitant  process  of  thou;;l\t, 

So|iliisiiis,  rall^!;illI;  under  this  general  eaiei;ory,  are 
■11  traceahle  to  two  soureeH,  the  lirst  of  which  is  the 
iu.viim;i'i(.)i  (./■  liuuhlfiil  prcmiits.  'I'liis  error  u)ipears  in 
•  great  variety  of  forms. 

.ienttntat  loinitihuie  is  nftcn  asstimcil  <i>  suffirient  to 
aliiliiish  effirifiU  oninirtinn.  Two  events  happen  nearly 
it  the  same  time  ;  therefore  one  is  supposeii  the  cause, 
Mil  the  other  the  elVeet.  Of  this  sort  of  false  reasonini;, 
wc  renieio'vr  a  notahle  instance  in  Prideaux.  Cain- 
k»«'«  was  mortally  wounded  hy  liis  aword  piereinn  his 
Uxly  in  the  same  part  in  which  he  hud  stahhed  the 
•acred  bull  of  the  lv.;yptians.  In  narralinn  this  inci- 
dent, the  <lcau  ex|ircsses  his  concurrence  in  their  supcr- 
itilioiu  inference,  ohservinit  that  the  mode  of  the  kiiin's 
death  was  prolnddy  designed  to  mark  the  divine  displea- 
lUrc  aijaiiiEt  his  act  of  violeiu'e,  ftff  an  insult  ollered  to 
tho  cause  of  nliu'ion  in  general.  On  the  same  error 
ire  liased  the  lictions  uf  .n-iridouy.  Tlu'  lute  of  indivi- 
dimb  an  J  of  nations  huH  hveii  tliought  to  he  bound  up 


in  the  movemcntii  and  rnnjunetinn*  of  the  itara ;  mwl  m 
iim|>lK  nn  event  as  the  appearance  of  a  cnniel  hu  era 
now  fritthteued  Ivmope  into  |ieniteuce  Virgil,  in  hil 
first  OeorKie,  hiils  i  le  farmer  conti<le  in  thow  indieatioiiii 
of  the  weather  alVorded  hy  the  aspect  of  tho  mm,  sineo 
that  Inmiii. try's  <d)senration  Rave  faithful  wariiini;  of  th* 
impendinir  iloniii  of  On.-»ar.  On  the  Hume  prinriple,  the 
decline  of  the  Homan  power  was  early  userilx'd  to  the 
spreiid  of  Christianity.  All  our  popular  Hn|M'rstitiona 
are  to  he  Miinilarly  explained  ;  ihone,  for  instance,  which 
interpret  ua  infiillilde  preludes  of  death  or  discord,  the 
ehirpiin;  of  an  insect,  the  howlini;  of  a  dn);,  or  tho  ipilU 
ins  "la  little  salt. 

Closely  allied  to  tho  precedinj?  fallacy  is  that  which 
consists  in  the  iifUHiiipl n<n  u  liiipiitltrlinit  raufc.  At 
this  stumhlinK-hlock  we  '"nd  the  f  ither  of  hiific  himself 
trip[iini{.  "  .\ll  the  he  iw  oly  l«idies,"  says  Aristotle,  in 
his  physics,  "  must  move  in  i  indes,  heeanso  a  circle  is 
the  most  perfect  of  all  fiKures."  Tho  reason  here  a»- 
siKiiid  for  a  position,  now  known  to  he  at  variance  with 
existing  pheuoiiicna,  is  ticilher  iippreeiahlc  in  itself  nor 
api  !icali|e  to  the  question.  l)e«  Cartes's  hypothesis  of 
animal  spirif '  Hartley's  theory  of  vihiations,  both 

framed  to  e\  he   ' '«n«miHsi,in  of  sensihlc    iinpre*- 

sious  from  the  ■  'f  tho  nerves  to  the  h'  -in,  or« 

both  referable  t  source  of  error — thr  suppo> 

sition,  nauii  '  ,en  n  pimiiihlr  causa  ha«  neiu  «•• 

si'.;ned,  the  'ii«  lieen  discovered. 

ll'iiit  >ii  '    'C  'i'liis,  is   friqiitnlly  ttlfumiil  lo 

lit  true  nhsiiliittlij  Deleterious  drill's  are  alwayi 

to  he  rejected;  r,  .  .  i  i  deleterious  drUR;  theri'forc, 
opium  is  always  to  bo  rejected."  It  is  plain,  that  a 
maxim  which  holds  p[oo<l,  generally,  of  persons  in  health, 
is  not  applicable  es|>ecially  to  cases  of  disease.  This  so- 
phism .ippcars,  perhaps,  more  freiiuenlly  in  tho  interrosa- 
live  than  in  the  catei;oricul  form.  The  object  of  the  di  in- 
genuous disputant,  then,  is  to  extort  from  his  adver?.,iry 
an  uncimdilional  answer  to  a  ipustion  so  put  as  to  rc- 
([uiro  it  lo  be  ipialilied.  Wlien  the  query  is  advanced 
in  a  bold,  triumphant  tone,  with  its  real  complexity 
<Iexteronsly  distiuiscd,  a  timid  and  inexperienced  de- 
bater will  be  easily  silenced  hy  this  expedient.  The 
<|Ucstioii,  for  example,  •'  Is  war  detestable,  or  is  it  notV 
iMinnot  be  answered  directly  and  unconditionally.  11 
we  choose  the  airirmutivc,  we  concede  the  criminality  of 
even  ihfensive  war;  if  we  prefer  the  iiet;ative,  we  are  dealt 
with  as  the  advocates  of  affi^ressive.  W'c  must  explain 
and    ipialify,    if  we    would    avoid   either   horn  of   the 

ililiinii il   the   risk,  indeed,  of  heiiif;   accn.sed  by  our 

opponent  of  a  wish  to  shuffle  iii  d  prevaricate,  and  per- 
plex the  discussion.  To  this  head,  most  cases  of  defec- 
tive parallel  may  conveniently  be  referred. 

Anain  :  He  iiiny  assunir,  as  exhaualiic  nf  all  the  altfr^ 
n'l.'irfi  I'/'  a  ifinn  riitr,  what  einlirarca  only  ii  jmrtum  of 
tlirm.  Thus,  ii)  one  of  I.ucian's  Dialogues  of  tho  Dead, 
Mrnippus  chooses  to  take  for  Rranted  that  tho  misery 
of  Tantalus  (miy  arises  from  tear  thut  he  may  ilii  of 
thirst ;  and  proceeds,  occordinRly,  in  sarcastic  vein,  to 
:  prove  the  apprehension  grour.dless.  "  You  say  you 
are  punished  with  thirst ;  hut  why  is  that  dreadful  ta 
you  1  Fof  I  SCO  no  repoii  besides  this  Hades,  nor  any 
second  death  in  another  (luurter."  Thus,  too,  the  cele- 
brated sophistical  jiu/zle  respectini^  motion.  "  What- 
ever liody  is  in  motion  must  move  either  in  the  place 
where  it  is,  or  in  some  jdaco  where  it  is  not ;  neither  nf 
these  alternatives  is  ])Ossihle ;  therefore,  there  is  no  such 
ihiiiir  as  motion."  Here  it  is  assumed,  that  there  is  no 
su(  h  third  alternative  as  is  conveyed  by  the  |ireposition« 
^rij;ii  and  lo,  the  others  involving  manifestly  a  coutia 
diction  in  terms. 

Next  may  1«  mentioned  the  error  of  assuming  tha> 
what  is  true  of  a  whole  is  true  of  a  part.  Critics,  on 
ibis  principh-,  have  conceived  themselves  bound  to  viiy 
dicate,  or  puff  into  beauties,  even  the   noat  flagrant 


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Photographic 

Sciences 
Corporation 


33  WEST  MAIN  STRFET 

WEBSTER, NY    M580 

(716)  872-4503 


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INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


fhultf  of  ftandanl  writara;  and  have  aeldoni  itruck  the 
medium  between  unqualified  censure  and  extravagant 
praiM.  How  otlen  are  meritorioua  individuals  subjected 
to  the  odium,  attaching,  perhaps  justly,  to  the  majority 
of  a  class  to  which  they  chance  to  belong !  How  often 
•re  salutary  institutions  and  customs  neglected  or  de- 
cried, just  because  they  have  a  common  origin  with 
others  that  are  noxious  and  blameworthy  !  To  reverse 
the  illustration :  How  often  are  particular  periods  cha- 
racterized as  enlightened  and  prosperous,  simply  from  a 
partial  survey  of  the  aspect  of  affairs !  Take  the  era 
of  Elizabeth.  <>  There  was,  perhaps,  a  learned  and 
Tigorous  monarch,  and  there  were  Cecils  and  Wulsing- 
hams,  and  Shakspeare's  and  Spensers.  and  Sidneys  and 
Raleighs,  with  many  other  powerful  thinkers  and  actors, 
to  render  it  the  proudest  age  of  our  national  glory.  And 
we  thoughtlessly  admit  on  our  imagination  this  splendid 
extiibition  as  in  some  measure  involving  or  implying 
the  (X^Utiive  ttait  of  the  people  in  that  age."*  And  how 
moeh  pernicious  error  has,  in  like  manner,  resulted  from 
admitting  the  impression  that  every  wise  man  has  been 
always  wise,  every  great  man  always  great,  and  every 
good  man  always  good. 

/(  may  be  assumed  that  a  position  must  be  false  becauM 
of  certain  consequences  supposed  tofolhiw  from  it.  These 
•onsequcnces  may  not  follow.  The  truth  of  Galileo's 
astronomical  theory  did  not  infer  the  falsehood  of  the 
Scriptures,  but  merely  the  falsehood  of  tlio  received 
interpretation  of  them.  Or  they  may  follow,  and  the 
position  still  be  tenable.  To  have  alleged  that  Galileo's 
theory  was  inconsistent  with  the  Ptolemaic  system  of 
the  universe,  would  have  been  true,  but  nugatory. 

The  above  i.i  not  oi.bred  as  a  complete  list  of  all  the 
eases  which  we  think  resolvable  into  the  fallacy  of  as- 
sumption, but  merely  as  an  index  to  its  more  common 
Twieties.  An  adroit  sophist  will  sometimes,  without 
recourse  to  any  other  disguise  than  that  of  well-feigned 
perplexity,  palm  upon  us,  wholly  unsuspicious  of  decep- 
tion, a  statement  which,  but  for  this  artifice,  had  been 
the  first  to  be  tested. 

The  fallacy  of  irrelevant  conclusions  appears  in  two 
shapes. 

First,  A  position  may  be  proved,  altogether  different 
from  that  vhirh  ought  to  br  cstnblithid,  although  the 
sophist  designs  it  to  be  mistaken  for  the  other.  Thus, 
Home  Tooke,  in  the  Diversions  of  Purlcy,  would  have 
as  infer  the  falsity  of  our  common  notions  respecting 
the  first  principles  of  morals,  by  showing  that  the  terms 
right,  just,  true,  only  point,  if  their  etymology  be  con- 
sulted, to  what  is  ordered,  commanded,  troweil.  But  to 
prove  this  is  by  no  means  tantamount  to  proving  that 
there  are  no  such  things  as  immutable  morality  and  eter- 
nal truth.  Byron  is  reported  to  have  said  that  <<  he  hod 
met  with  so  many  whose  conduct  differetl  from  the  prin- 
•iples  they  professed,  and  who  seemed  to  profess  those 
principles  either  because  they  were  paid  to  do  so,  or 
ftom  some  other  motive  which  an  intimate  acquaintance 
*rith  their  character  would  enable  one  to  defect — tliat 
altogether  he  had  seen  few,  if  any,  whom  he  could  roly 
upon  as  tnily  and  conscientiously  believing  the  Scrip- 
lures."-!-  Was  not  this  conclusion  intended  to  be  taken  as 
equivalent  to  another — namely,  that  there  vere  few  per- 
(ons  in  the  world  sincerely  entertaining  these  convietiouHl 
Secondly,  The  proof  of  pnr/  of  a  position  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  proof  of  the  whole.  Thus,  if  an  inRiiineictit 
argument,  aceoropanied  by  several  valid  ones,  be  detached 
from  the  rest,  and  refuted  singly,  the  sophist  may  plau- 
nbly  insinuate  that  he  has  done  enough  to  destroy  the 
•ntire  Ixxly  of  evidence.  ')r,  again,  to  prove  that  certain 
mconvenienrea  attach  to  a  particular  system,  or  tliat 
Mrtain  defects  adhere  to  a  particular  institution,  may 


*  Foster'*  Kiiiuy  on  Popular  iKnuraiice. 

*  Moore's  Byron,  vol.  vi. 


with  many  minds  pass  as  equivalent  to  the  position  Mur 
the  system  should  be  abandoned  and  the  instituliou 
abolished.  Instances  of  such  artifices  must  occur  tniHj 
to  every  one. 

RHBTORIO. 

Rhetoric,  in  the  sense  used  by  logicians.  Is  the  & 
cutty  of  perceiving  and  employing  what  is  best  adaptei 
to  persuasion,  and  is  therefore  the  adaptation  of  Logie 
to  oratory.  The  object  of  the  rhetorician  is  to  convince 
and  persuade:  the  former  comprehend?  iiu<rurtion  mi 
conviition;  the  latter  (x/ior<o(ioii,  or  the  ir\fluencing  ej 
the  wilL 

We  confine  ourselves  to  the  following  leading  poinu 
in  persuasive  oratory. 

Perauaaion.  ''    ■" 

Persuasion,  or  influencing  the  will,  depends  on  prtnf 
and  exhortation ;  the  former  proves  the  expediency  ol 
the  means  proposed,  and  the  latter  excites  men  to  adopt 
these  means  by  representing  the  end  as  desirable. 
Proof  is  necessary,  because  the  judgment  must  be  cm- 
vinred ;  and  exhortnlion  is  also  necessary,  because  the 
feelings  must  he  influenced.  To  make  one  believe,  it  «\)f. 
fices  to  convince ;  but  to  make  one  act,  it  is  necessary 
to  show  that  the  action  will  gratify  some  feeling  in  one'i 
mind.  It  is,  therefore,  as  necessary  for  the  orator  to 
awaken  those  feelings  which  will  lead  to  action,  as  to 
satisfy  the  understanding  that  the  conduct  to  which  he 
would  persuade  will  tend  to  gratify  the  emotions  that  are 
raised. 

The  Addresa  to  the  Understanding:. 

The  address  to  the  understanding  rtay  be  direct,  becaoae 
it  is  under  tlie  immediate  control  of  the  will ;  but  thr 
address  to  the  feelings  must  he  indirect,  because  the; 
arc  not  under  the  same  control.  Tlie  emotion  of  angei 
or  gratitude  is  not  to  be  raised  in  the  mind  by  thutking 
about  it,  but  by  filling  the  mind  with  such  thoughts  aa 
arc  calculated  to  produce  a  change  in  the  feelings.  Wa 
can  produce  a  change  in  the  circulation  of  the  blood  by 
taking  a  mediriru  that  will  affect  it ;  but  we  cannot 
produce  a  change  .n  it  by  merely  willing. 

Some  speakers  fail  to  persuade  by  only  showing  the 
audience  how  they  ought  to  feel,  and  telling  them  that 
they  ought  to  feel.  They  si^ak  only  to  the  reason  of 
their  hearers.  Some  speakers  fail  to  persuade  by  oflI| 
proving ;  others  by  only  exhorting. 

Improper  Motives. — Refutation. 

Some  orators  excite  improper  motives,  because  they 
strive  to  excite  certain  emotions  when  circumstances  do 
not  require  them.  There  is  not  unfrequently  a  want 
of  skill  shown  in  attempting  to  allay  an  improper  feeling 
that  has  been  excited  in  the  audience.  An  improper 
feeling  is  to  be  allayed  by  exciting  an  opposite  one.  If 
hatred  is  to  be  allayed,  then  the  audience  must  be  led 
to  dwell  upon  a  subject  which  kindles  benevolence. 

A  string  of  vague  abuse  has  often  the  efTret  of  i 
train  of  sound  reasoning,  Iwcauso  the  excited  /ff/ii??j  of 
tlic  hearers  blind  their  judgment,  and  caui";  them  to  loaa 
sight  of  the  conclusion  to  be  prove  I. 

In  arguing,  a  respondent  should  begin  by  refuting  tilt 
objections  of  his  opponent,  when  the  audience  has  t» 
ceived  them  favourably. 

When  the  objections  to  be  refuted  are  ridiculous,  t» 
direct  or  ironical  refutation  should  be  employed. 

•  ••ua  Probandi,  or  Burden  of  Proof. 
The  burnen  of  proof  rests  with  uim  who  would  dispun 
any  point  in  favour  of  which  lliere  is  a  presumptioa 
The  burden  of  proof  rests  now  with  him  who  woulj 
disprove  the  principle  of  gravitation  or  aby  other  gei» 
rally  allowed  truth. 

Treating  a  Propoailion. 
Propositions  may  generally  be  treated  in  four  pud 


.^.V?*"',!''      riP 


LOOIO. 


877 


>llowing  leading  pobdi 


OM  Bxmolum  or  Introduction;  the  Narration  or  Ex- 
pMition ;  the  Division ;  the  Conclusion. 

In  the  Introduction,  mich  topics  are  to  be  introduced 
u  tend  to  render  the  hearers  attentive  and  docile,  and 
H  r&ie  the  hope  of  something  intere»ting. 

The  Narration  is  an  explicit  (loclaration  of  the  sub- 
u,t  of  discourse,  and  ought  to  terminate  in  the  propo- 
rtion to  bo  explained 

The  Division  ought  to  exhaust  the  subject,  and  not 
oomprehend  any  thing  besides.     See  Division. 

In  the  Conclusion  it  is  generally  proper  to  begin  with 
t  brief  recapitulation  of  the  articles  discussed,  and  to  end 
mtll  an  address  to  the  aflections. 

Some  writers  treat  a  proposition  as  follows: — 1.  The 
Introduction.  2.  They  explain  the  terms  of  the  propo- 
ntion,  show  what  is  granted  and  what  disputed  on  each 
■iile,  and  then  state  tlie  point  of  controversy.  3.  They 
uamine  objections,  and  establish  their  own  proposition. 
4.  They  refute  objections,  and  expose  fallacies.  5.  They 
make  some  observations  naturally  suggested  by  the  sub- 
ject. 

Example. — Enthusiasm  is  a  species  of  madness. 

1.  This  is  a  term  which  is  seldom  understood  by 
those  who  use  it  most  frequently.  It  may,  thereifore,  be 
useful  to  show  what  enthusiasm  is. 

2.  Some  derive  it  from  in  thittia  (Greek),  iri sanifire, 
because  many  of  the  enthusiasts  of  old  were  affected  in 
a  violent  manner  during  the  time  of  sacrifice.  At  this 
day  different  persons  understand  it  in  difTercnt  senses, 
quite  inconsistent  with  each  other.  It  is  here  used  to 
express  a  sort  of  madness  arising  from  some  falsely 
ifflugined  divine  influence. 

3.  There  are  various  kinds  of  enthusiasm.  Some  en- 
thusiasts imagine  that  they  have  gifts  which  they  do  not 
poness;  some  think  to  obtain  the  end  without  using  the 
means;  others  think  that  some  things  are  owing  to 
divine  interposition,  which  really  are  not. 

4.  It  is  a  kind  of  madness  to  suppose  that  we  have 
the  gills  which  we  do  not  possess ;  for  our  premises  are 
ulse,  though  uur  reasoning  may  be  conclusive.  Some 
men  are  misled  by  pride  and  a  warm  imagination  to  as- 
•cribe  to  the  Deity  certain  impulses  which  arc  altoi^ether 
unworthy  of  him.  The  man  who  imagines  himself  the 
peculiar  favourite  of  Heaven,  is  fortifying  himself  against 
the  advice  of  man  and  the  grace  .of  God. 

5.  Let  us  beware  that  we  do  not  run  with  the  common 
herd  of  enthusiasts,  fancying  that  we  are  Christians 
when  we  arc  not;  hoping  to  gain  the  end  without  using 
the  means.  Let  us  make  use  of  every  means  which  arc 
conducive  to  our  intellectual  and  morul  improvement,  and 
then  we  may  expect  a  daily  growth  in  that  holy  reUgion, 
which  never  can  truly  be  termed  enthusiasm. 

CONCLCDINO   OBSERVATIONS. 

The  preceding  definitions  of  the  modes  of  reasoning, 
•nd  their  application  to  persuasive  oratory,  may  be  of  use 
in  directing  the  comparatively  unlearned  how  to  detect 
fallacies  in  the  arguments  of  opponents,  and  what  me- 
thods may  be  best  employed  to  sift  and  arrive  at  the 
truth.  We  should,  however,  fail  in  our  duty,  if  we  did 
not  add,  that,  without  the  habit  of  clearly  arranging  our 
ideas,  and  acquiring  the  power  of  grasping  a  subject 
both  in  its  details  and  genernl  features,  the  mere  instru- 
nental  part  of  logic  will  not  lie  of  essential  service  in 
reasoning.  An  observation  of  the  following  rules  is 
recommended  by  Watt,  as  serviceable  in  these  respects: — 

"  I.  Rule. — Accustom  yourselves  to  clear  and  distinct 
ideas,  to  evident  propositions,  to  strong  and  convincing 
arguments.  Converse  much  with  those  friends,  and 
those  books,  and  those  parts  of  learning,  where  you  meet 
with  the  greatest  clearness  of  thought  and  force  of  rca- 
•oning.  The  mathematical  sciences,  and  particularly 
arithmetic,  geometry,  and  mechanics,  abound  with  these 
advantages ;  and  if  there  were  nothing  valuable  in  them 

Vol.  L— 48 


for  the  uses  of  human  life,  yet  the  very  speenlative  parlt 
of  this  sort  of  lean:ing  are  well  worth  our  itudy ;  for  bj 
perpetual  examples  they  teach  us  to  conceive  with  clear* 
ness,  to  connect  our  ideas  and  propositions  in  train  of 
dependence,  to  reason  with  strength  and  demonstration, 
and  to  distinguish  between  truth  and  falsehood.  Some- 
thing of  these  sciences  should  be  studied  by  every  man 
who  pretends  to  learning,  and  that  (as  Mr.  Locke  ex- 
presses it)  not  so  much  to  make  us  mathematicians,  m  tc 
make  us  reasonable  creatures. 

We  should  gain  such  a  familiarity  with  evidence  of 
perception  and  force  of  reasoning,  and  get  such  a  haUt 
of  discerning  clear  truth,  that  the  mind  may  be  soon 
offended  with  obscurity  and  confusion :  then  we  shall 
(as  it  were)  naturally  and  with  ease  restrain  our  mindl 
from  rash  judgment,  before  we  attain  just  evidence  of  ths 
proposition  which  is  offered  to  us ;  and  we  shall  with  the 
same  ease,  and  (as  it  were)  naturally,  seize  and  embraca 
every  truth  that  is  proposed  with  just  evidence. 

This  habit  of  conceiving  clearly,  of  judging  justly,  and 
of  reasoning  well,  is  not  to  be  attained  merely  by  the 
happiness  of  constitution,  the  brightness  of  genius,  the 
best  natural  parts,  or  the  best  collection  of  logical  pre- 
cepts. It  is  custom  and  practice  that  must  form  and 
establish  this  habit.  We  must  apply  ourselves  to  it  till 
we  perform  all  this  readily,  and  without  reflecting  on 
rules.  A  coherent  thinker  or  a  strict  reasoner  is  not 
to  be  made  at  once  by  a  set  of  rules,  any  more  than  a 
good  painter  or  musician  may  be  formed  extempore  by 
an  excellent  lecture  on  music  or  painting.  It  is  of  infi- 
nite importance,  therefore,  in  our  younger  years,  to  be 
taught  both  the  value  and  the  practice  of  concaving 
clearly  and  reasoning  right ;  for  when  we  are  grown  to 
the  middle  of  life,  or  past  it,  it  is  no  wonder  that  we 
should  not  learn  good  reasoning,  any  more  than  an  igno- 
rant clown  should  not  be  able  to  learn  fine  languuge^ 
dancing,  or  a  courtly  behaviour,  when  his  rustic  airs  hnve 
grown  up  with  him  till  the  age  of  forty. 

For  want  of  this  care,  some  persons  of  rank  and  edo- 
cation  dwell  nil  their  days  among  obscure  ideas;  they 
conceive  and  judge  always  in  confusion,  they  take  iveak 
arguments  for  demonstration,  they  are  led  away  with 
the  disguises  and  shadows  of  truth.  Now,  if  such  per- 
sons happen  to  have  a  bright  imagination,  a  volubility  of 
speech,  and  a  copiousness  of  language,  they  not  only 
impose  many  errors  upon  their  own  understandings,  but 
they  stamp  the  image  of  their  own  mistakes  upon  their 
neighbours  also,  and  spread  thi-ir  errors  abroad. 

It  is  a  matter  of  just  lamentation  and  pity  to  consider 
the  weakness  of  the  common  multitude  of  mankind  in 
this  respect,  how  they  receive  any  thing  into  their  assent 
upon  the  most  trifling  grounds.  True  reasoning  hath 
very  little  share  in  forming  their  opinions.  They  resist 
the  most  convincing  arpnm*  nts  by  an  obstinate  adherence 
to  their  prejudices,  an<?  .'>eUtvc  the  most  improbable  thinga 
with  the  greatest  assurnnce.  They  talk  of  the  abstniseat 
mysteries,  and  determine  upon  them  with  the  utmost 
confidence,  and  without  just  evidence  either  from  reiuKa 
or  revelation.  A  confused  heap  of  dark  and  inconsistent 
ideas  makes  up  a  good  part  of  tiieir  knowledge  in  matter* 
of  philosophy  as  well  as  religion,  having  never  been 
taught  the  use  and  value  of  clear  and  just  reasoning. 

Yet  it  must  be  still  confessed  that  there  arc  some  my»- 
teries  in  religion,  both  natural  and  revealed,  as  well  a» 
some  abstruse  points  in  philosophy,  wherein  the  wise  aa 
well  ttS  the  unwise  must  be  content  with  obscure  ideas. 
There  are  several  things,  especially  relating  to  the  invisi- 
ble world,  which  are  unsearchable  in  our  present  state, 
and  therefore  we  must  believe  what  revelation  plainly 
dictates,  though  the  ideas  may  be  obscure,  Keason  itself 
demands  this  of  us ;  but  we  should  seek  for  the  brighleai 
evidence  both  of  ideas  and  of  the  connection  of  then^ 
wheresoever  it  is  attainable. 

II.  Rule. — Enlarge  your  general  arquaintai  co  with 
3i3 


S78 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


m 


thing)!  ilnily,  in  o-dor  to  attain  a  rich  furniture  of  topici, 
at  middle  terms,  whrreby  thoae  prvpoutiom  which  occur 
nMjr  be  either  proved  or  disproved ;  but  CHpecially  medi- 
late  and  inquire  with  ipx-at  diligence  and  exactnet*  into 
the  nature,  properties,  circumstances,  and  relations  of  the 
{Mrticular  bubjoct  about  which  you  judge  or  argue.  Con- 
aider  its  causes,  eflects,  consequences,  adjuncts,  oppoaites, 
aigns,  &c,  so  far  ns  is  nredAil  to  your  prrw nt  purpow. 
Toa  ahould  survey  the  question  round  about,  and  on 
all  sides,  and  extend  your  views,  as  far  as  possible,  to 
areiy  thing  that  has  a  connection  with  it  Tliis  practict 
ha*  many  advantages  in  it,  aa— 

1.  It  will  be  a  means  to  suggest  to  your  mind  proper 
topics  for  argument  about  any  proposition  that  relates  to 
the  same  subject 

S.  It  will  enable  you,  with  greater  readiness  and  just- 
ness of  '.hoH(;ht  tn  give  an  answer  to  any  sudden  ques- 
tion upon  that  subject,  whether  it  arise  in  your  own  mind 
or  he  proposed  by  others. 

3.  This  will  instruct  you  to  give  a  plainer  and  s|)eedirr 
aolution  of  any  diffirulties  that  may  attend  the  theme  of 
ym\T  discourse,  and  to  refute  the  ohjectiuns  of  those  who 
IkaTe  espoused  a  contrary  opinion. 

4.  By  such  a  large  survey  of  the  whole  subject  in  all 
ita  properties  and  relations,  you  will  be  better  secured 
from  inconsistencies,  that  is,  from  asserting  or  denying 
any  thing  in  one  place  which  contradicts  what  you  have 
■asertcd  or  denied  in  another;  and  to  attain  these  ends, 
an  extensiveness  of  understanding  and  a  large  memory 
are  of  an  uns[)eakabIo  senice. 

One  would  bo  ready  to  wonder  sometimes  how  easily 
great  and  wis<^  and  learned  men  arc  led  into  assertions 
in  some  parts  of  the  same  treatise,  which  are  found  to  be 
acarce  consistent  with  what  they  have  asserted  in  other 
places ;  but  the  true  reason  is  the  narrowness  of  tlie  mind 
of  man,  that  it  cannot  take  in  all  the  innumerable  propcr- 
tam  and  relations  of  one  subject  with  a  single  view ;  and 
therefore,  whilst  they  are  intent  on  one  paiticular  part  of 
their  theme,  they  bend  all  their  force  of  thought  to  prove  or 
disprove  some  proportion  that  relates  to  that  part  with- 
out a  sufficient  attention  to  the  consequences  which  may 
Arm  from  it  and  which  may  unhappily  aflcct  another 
pjLit  of  the  same  subject;  and  by  this  me^ns  they  are 
acNnetilies  led  to  say  things  which  are  inconsistent  In 
anch  a  case,  the  great  dealers  in  dispute  and  controversy 
lake  pleasure  to  cast  nonsense  and  self-contradiction  on 
lluu  anta'^onist  with  hu,-t;e  and  hateful  reproaches.  For 
Biy  part,  I  rather  choose  to  pity  human  nature,  whose 
necessary  narrowness  of  understanding  exposes  us  all  to 
oome  degrees  of  this  frailly.  But  the  most  extensive 
ourvey  possible  of  our  whole  subject  is  the  best  remedy 
against  it  It  is  our  judging  and  arguing  upon  a  partial 
view  of  things  that  expose*  us  to  mistakes,  and  pushes 
oa  into  atisurdities,  or  at  least  to  the  very  borders  of  them. 

III.  Rule. — In  searching  the  knowledge  of  things, 
always  keep  the  precise  point  of  the  present  question  in 
your  eye.  Take  heed  thst  you  add  nothing  to  it  wliile 
you  are  argaing,  nor  omit  any  part  of  it  Watch  care- 
fully lest  any  new  ideas  slide  in,  to  mingle  themselves 
«ther  with  the  subject  or  predicate.  See  that  the  ques- ' 
tion  is  not  altered  by  the  ambiguity  of  any  word  taken  in 
diilerent  senses,  nor  let  any  secret  prejudices  of  your  own, 
or  the  sophistical  arts  of  others,  cheat  your  understanding 
by  changing  the  question,  or  shuffling  in  any  tb'ng  else 
ji  its  room. 

And  for  this  end  it  is  useful  to  keep  tlie  precise  matter 
of  inquiry  as  simple  ns  may  be,  and  disengaged  from  a 
complication  of  ideas  which  do  not  necessarily  belong  to  it 
By  admitting  a  complication  of  ideas,  and  taking  too  many 
4iini^  at  mce  into  one  question,  the  mind  is  soractirnea 
daulcd  ail  1  liewildcred,  and  tlie  truth  is  lost  in  such  a 
Tariety  and  (xinfusion  of  ideas ;  whereas,  by  limiting  and  ! 
narrowing  the  question,  you  take  a  fuller  survey  of  the  i 
wboki  of  it. 


By  keeping  the  single  point  of  inquiry  In  ot  r  { \ 

view,  we  shall  be  secured  from  sudden,  rash,  ant  inpar^ 
neiit  responses  and  detorniinations,  which  «om(  hav*  oh. 
trndi'd  instead  of  solutions  and  solid  answe.i,  Kfoia  tbev 
perfectly  know  the  questions. 

IV.  Rule. — When  yoi:  have  exactly  considered  tht 
precise  points  of  inquiry,  or  what  is  unknown  in  tbt 
question,  then  eonsider  what  and  how  much  you  know 
already  of  this  question,  or  of  the  ideas  and  terms  of 
which  it  is  comixwed.  It  is  by  a  comparison  of  the 
known  and  unknown  parts  of  the  question  together,  that 
you   may  find   what  reference  the  part   known  hsih 

I  unto,  or  what  connection  it  huth  with,  the  thing  that  la 
sought;  those  ideas  whereby  the  known  and  unknowa 
parts  of  the  question  are  connected,  will  furnish  you  with 
middle  terms  or  arguments  whereby  the  thing  propotoj 
moy  be  proved  or  disproved. 

In  this  part  of  your  work,  namely,  comparing  ideu 
together,  take  due  time,  and  be  uot  too  hasty  to  coins 
to  a  detcrpiination,  especially  in  points  of  importance. 
Some  men,  when  tlicy  see  a  little  agreement  or  disagree- 
ment between  ideas,  presume  a  great  deal,  and  so  jump 
into  the  conclusion.  This  is  a  short  way  to  ftncy 
opinion,  and  conceit ;  but  a  most  unsafe  and  uncertain 
way  to  true  knowledge  and  wisdom. 

V.  Rule. — In  choosing  your  middle  terms  or  arguments 
to  prove  any  question,  always  take  such  topics  as  are 
surest  and  least  fallible,  and  which  carry  the  greatest  evi- 
dence and  strength  with  them.  Be  not  so  solicitous 
attout  the  niiniber  as  the  weight  of  your  argument), 
e8[)ecially  in  proving  any  proposition  which  admits  of 
natural  certainty  or  of  complete  demonstration.  Manv 
times  we  do  injury  to  a  cause  by  dwelling  upon  trifling 
arguments.  We  amuse  our  hearers  with  uncertainties, 
by  multiplying  the  number  of  feeble  reasonings,  before m 
mention  those  which  are  more  substantial,  conclurift, 
and  convincing.  And  too  often  we  yield  up  our  own 
assent  tn  mere  probable  arguments,  where  certain  proofa 
may  !«  obtained. 

VI.  Rule.— Prove  your  conclusion  (as  far  as  possible) 
by  some  propositions  that  are  in  themselves  more  plain, 
evident  and  certain,  than  the  conclusion ;  or  at  leaM 
such  as  are  more  known  and  more  intelligible  to  the  pe^ 
son  whom  you  would  convince.  If  we  neitlcct  this  rule, 
we  shall  endeavour  to  enlighten  that  which  is  olittaN 
by  something  equally  <Sr  more  obscure,  and  to  confini 
that  which  is  doubtful  by  something  equally  or  mora 
uncertain.  Conim-.  "nse  dictates  to  all  men,  that  it  ii 
impossible  to  estsi  .y  truth,  and  to  convince  othen 
of  it,  but  by  sou.  that  is  better  known  to  them 
than  that  truth  is. 

VII.  Rule. — I.alraur,  in  all  your  arguings,  to  enlighten 
the  understanding,  as  well  as  to  conquer  and  ca))tivato 
the  judgment  Argue  in  such  a  manner  as  may  give  i 
natural,  distinct  and  solid  knowledge  of  tilings  to  you 
I;  arera,  as  well  as  to  force  their  assent  by  a  more  prool 
of  the  question.  Now,  to  attain  this  end,  the  chief  topii 
or  '.nedium  of  your  demonstration  should  be  fetched,  ai 
much  as  poasible,  from  the  nature  of  the  thing  to  ha 
proved,  or  from  thoae  things  which  are  most  nataiali; 
connected  with  it 

VIII.  Rule. — Though  arguments  should  give  light  to 
the  subject  as  well  as  constrain  the  assent,  yet  you  miM 
learn  to  distinguish  well  between  an  explication  and  an 
argument;  and  neither  impose  U|x)n  yourselves,  noi 
sutler  yourselves  to  lie  imjiosed  uiion  by  others,  by  mi» 
taking  a  mere  illustration  for  a  convincing  reason. 

Axioms  themselves,  or  self-evident  proiionitions,  maj 
want  an  explication  or  illustration,  though  they  are  not 
to  lie  proved  by  reasoning. 

Similitudes  and  allusions  have  oftentimes  a  very  happ; 
influence  to  explain  some  dillicult  truth,  and  to  rcn<ln 
the  idea  of  it  familiar  and  easy.  Whore  the  resciiihUnce 
ia  iust  and  accurate,  the  influence  of  a  simile  may  pn 


LOCHO. 


91$ 


K(j  to  fiir  M  to  ■hi>w  the  pombility  of  the  thing  in 
matdon;  bit  dmilitnde*  must  not  be  talcen  m  a  solid 
Moof  of  tbt  truth  or  existence  of  those  things  to  which 
^y  have  a  resemblance.  A  too  great  deference  paid  to 
nmilitudes,  and  an  uttri  rejection  of  them,  seem  to  be 
tiro  ext'<'mes,  and  ought  to  be  avoided.  Locke,  even  in 
his  inquiries  ailer  truth,  makes  great  use  of  similes  for 
illuitration,  and  is  very  happy  in  the  invention  of  them, 
though  he  warns  us  iest  we  mistake  them  for  conclusive 

srpiniciits. 

Yet  let  it  be  noted  here,  that  a  parable  or  a  similitude 
gied  by  any  author,  may  give  a  sufficient  proof  of  the 
true  sense  and  meaning  %f  that  author,  provided  that  we 
draw  not  this  similitude  beyond  the  scope  and  design  for 
which  it  was  brought;  as  when  our  Saviour  affirms, 
Rev.  iii.  S),  '  I  ^i"  come  to  thee  a*  a  thief:'  this  will 
plainly  prove  that  he  describes  the  unexpectedness  of  his 
(ppcnrance,  though  it  will  by  no  means  be  drawn  to 
gignify  any  injustice  in  his  design. 

IX.  Rule. — In  your  whole  course  of  reasoning,  keep 
your  mind  sincerely  intent  on  the  pursuit  of  truth,  and 
follow  solid  argument  wheresoever  it  leads  you.  Let  not 
s  party  spirit,  nor  any  passion  or  prejudice  whatsoever, 
stop  or  avert  the  current  of  your  reasoning  in  quest  of 
true  knowledge. 

When  you  are  inquiring,  therefore,  into  any  subject, 
naintain  a  due  regard  to  the  arguments  and  objections 
on  both  sides  of  a  question :  consider,  compare,  and  ba- 
lance them  well  before  you  determine  for  one  side.  It  is 
a  ft«qiicnt  but  a  very  faulty  practice,  to  hunt  after  argu- 
ments only  to  make  good  one  side  of  a  question,  and 
entirely  to  neglect  and  refuse  those  which  favour  the  other 
tide.  If  we  have  not  given  a  due  weight  to  arguments 
on  both  sides,  wc  do  but  wilfully  misguide  our  judgment, 
ghd  abuse  our  reason,  by  forbidding  ita  search  after  truth. 
When  wc  espouse  opinions  by  a  secret  liias  on  the  mind 
Ibrongh  the  influences  of  fear,  hope,  honour,  credit, 
interest,  or  any  other  prejudice,  and  then  seek  arguments 
only  to  support  those  opi:\ions,  we  have  neither  done  our 
duty  to  God  nor  to  ourselves ;  and  it  is  a  matter  of  mere 
cfaince  if  we  stumble  upon  truth  in  our  ways  to  ease  and 
pnfcrment.  The  power  at'  loasoaiug  was  given  us  by 
■D  Maker  for  this  veiy  ttd,  (•  puiiue  truth ;  and  we 


abuse  one  of  his  richest  gifts,  if  we  basely  yield  it  up  tti 
be  led  astray  by  any  of  the  meaner  powers  of  natura,  ot 
the  perishing  interests  of  this  life." 

Y  -   •  y  .    ■•■  " 

■      '  ■  ^yf'' 

*   [WORKS  ON  Loom' 

Within  a  few  years  many  works  have  appeared,  pur- 
porting to  treat  of  the  powers  and  of  the  operations  of 
the  mind,  though  few  of  them  attempt  to  present  a  sy^ 
tern  of  Logic  fit  for  those  who  would  study  it  as  a  science, 
unincumbered  with  scholastic  subtleties  and  useless  di^ 
tinctions.  Most  of  the  treatises  which,  until  of  late  years, 
were  in  common  use,  had  been  formed  on  the  mode  of 
ancient  systems,  and  contained  of  useful  information  little 
more  than  a  description  of  the  syllogism  and  a  few  gene* 
ral  principles  of  demonstrative  reasoning.  Collard  and 
Condillac  simplified  and  improved  the  science  of  Logic, 
and  all  tho  subjects  which  properly  full  within  its  pre> 
cincts  were  amply  discussed  by  Doctor  Richard  Kirwan, 
in  "  An  Essay  on  the  Elements,  Principles,  and  different 
Mo<1es  of  Reasoning."  Prolixity  and  a  fondness  for  de> 
tail,  however,  obscure  tho  merits  of  this  author.  We  maj 
speak  in  high  terms  of  the  concise  and  admirable  work 
of  Dr.  Hedge,  of  Harvard  University,  whose  Elements 
of  Logic  is  perhaps  better  than  any  other  fitted  for  gene* 
ral  use.  Another  valuable  work,  bearing  the  same  title, 
has  been  issued  by  Dr.  Whately,  archbishop  of  Dublin  * 
it  is  more  comprehensive  than  thdt  of  Dr.  Hedge,  and 
may  be  confidently  recommended  to  those  desirous  of 
acquiring  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  this 
important  science. 

The  student  should  not  confine  himself  to  either  of  the 
above  works  however,  but  should  read  in  connection  and 
with  reference  to  them,  Locke's  Essays  on  the  Under- 
standing, Rcid's  Essays  on  the  Intellectual  Powers,  tiltew^ 
art's  Elements  of  the  Philosophy  of  the  Mind,  Upham'a 
Mental  Philosophy,  Campbell's  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric, 
Gambler's  Introduction  to  Moral  Evidence,  Seattle's 
Essay  on  Truth,  Scott's  Elements  of  Intellectual  Pliiloaoi 
phy,  and  the  works  on  the  subject  by  Watt  dc  Kimuif— 
Jim.  Ed.]  .=-,;, 


A-  ' 


'?^' 


■^'^■m. 


EDUCATION. 


TitL  withic  tho  lait  few  yeari,  the  Uea  commonly 
anterUined  with  rca)Kct  to  general  elementary  educa- 
tion comprehended  only  certain  branchea  of  inntruction 
fkntiliarly  known  by  the  term*,  reading,  writing,  and 
arithmttir,  A  "  liberal"  education  added  ancient  and 
modem  languages  and  mathematics.  Such  formed 
the  entire  round  of  accompliahments  which  were  sup- 
posed, with  the  accident-directed  moral  training  of  the 
domestic  circle,  to  be  sufficient  to  fit  the  youth,  of  even 
the  highest  classes,  for  entering  upon  the  varied  duties 
of  lift.  Nor  was  this  scai^^y  education  thought  rcqui- 
dte  for  all.  A  vast  class  was  allowed  to  exist  without 
the  least  tincture  of  school  learning  of  any  kind,  as  not 
being  supposed  to  require  any  knowledge  beyond  that 
which  immediately  fitted  them  for  the  laborious  duties 
by  which  they  earned  their  bread. 

The  active  period  which  has  elapsed  since  the  con- 
clusion of  the  last  war  (1815),  has  been  distinguished 
by  nothing  more  than  by  the  enlargement  of  our  ordi- 
nary ideas  with  respect  to  education.  It  may  be  said 
to  be  now  universally  acknowledged  that  all — all,  from 
ihe  peer  to  the  peasant— ought  to  be  educated,  how- 
•ver  there  mny  still  be  differences  of  opinion  as  to 
the  metiiu  of  educating,  and  what  education  should 
lOHiitt  of.  It  is  also  generally  admitted  that  rending, 
writing,  and  arithnu  ir,  even  when  effectually  taught, 
constitute  but  a  branch  of  education,  being  merely 
instruraentary  accomplishments,  the  acquirement  and 
cultivation  of  which  tend  in  a  certain  degree  to  improve 
the  intcllrot.  The  study  of  the  ancient  classical  lan- 
guages, while  still  admitted  by  candid  persons  to  be  also 
a  means  of  improving  the  intellect,  is  now  no  longer 
upheld,  excepting  by  a  few,  as  the  grand  instrument  of 
liberal  education,  the  character  in  which  it  was  gene- 
rally regarded  a  few  years  ago.  It  is  now  seen  that 
this  study  gives  to  the  youth  of  the  middle  and  up;  ix 
classes  hut  a  portion,  and,  in  many  instances,  the  least 
requisite  portion,  of  what  they  should  know  on  entering 
the  world.  The  old  elements  of  education  may  there- 
fore be  said  to  have  sunk  from  their  former  character 
of  all-sutficicncy,  and  to  have  now  taken  tlicir  place  as 
only  parts  of  a  complete  education. 

PRINCIPLES   OP  IDUCATIOIf. 

The  primary  meaning  of  the  term  educate,  from  the 
Latin  educare,  to  lead  or  bring  out,  does  not  ill  express 
the  first  great  principle  of  the  science.  It  may  be  held 
to  assume  that  the  human  being  is  naturally  in  a  com- 
paratively rude  and  inert  condition,  and  that  external 
forces  must  l)c  applied  to  draw  forth  his  faculties  into 
their  full  activity  und  power,  and  bring  them  to  their 
highest  degree  of  retlnomcnt  and  nicety  of  application. 
This  is,  in  reality,  a  large  part  of  the  business  of  edu- 
cation, taking  even  the  widest  view  of  its  purposes.  '  A 
full  definition  would  further  include  the  regulation  and 
discipline  of  those  moral  feelings  on  which  our  actions 
are  mainly  dependent,  and  also  the  communication  of 
such  parts  of  knowledge  as  the  circumstances  and  pros- 
pect* of  individuals  may  render  necessary. 

Before  correct  views  can  be  entertained  with  regard 
to  education,  or  proper  steps  can  be  taken  for  working 
it  out  in  practice,  it  is  obvious  that  a  distinct  notion 
ought  to  be  attained  as  to  the  character  of  the  being  to 
be  educated.  Man  is  this  being;  but  the  question 
"  what  is  man  ^"  is  one  to  which  science  does  not  yet 
enable  us  to  give  an  answer  which  all  would  acknow- 
ledge as  ri;(Lt  For  this  reason  it  is  totally  impossible 
far  any  write'  to  present  a  theory  of  'xlucation  which 
S80 


■.,  ■':.','  ■■'■  M»f 
■'-:'  ■■:  ■,   -    ■*"  ,:.^ 

would  be  generally  received  as  a  perilset  ■elenee.  Tbi 
subject  must  needs  partake  of  the  obscLMJty  and  unc•^ 
tainty  which  aa  yet  rest  upon  at  least  ttie  mental  ch» 
racter  of  man ;  and  it  will  only  advance  in  clearneN 
and  precision,  in  proportion  as  progress  is  made  in  « 
correct  system  of  mental  philosophy. 

While  fully  acknowledging  the  difficulty  under  which 
every  candid  writer  on  education  must  lie,  the  pr«aenl 
would  humbly  endeavour  to  make  the  nearest  approach 
to  a  correct  system  which  his  views  of  the  natural  cha- 
racter of  the  human  being  will  admit  of.  He  consider 
the  race  aa  exhibiting  a  definite  mental  constitution,  io 
all  its  parts  harmonizing  with  the  surrounding  universe 
He  considers  this  constitution  as  embracing  a  variety 
of  faculties,  for  sensation  and  action,  whicli  it  is  thi 
business  of  the  educator  to  awaken,  strengthen,  and 
regulate,  so  that  each  person  may  arrive  at  the  bcit 
condition  of  which  his  character  is  susceptible,  and  inort 
thoroughly  fulfil  the  design  of  his  being  in  all  its  vari- 
ous respects.  He  views,  in  the  first  place,  the  faculties 
of  the  physical  frame  as  requiring  to  be  duly  exercisid, 
so  as  to  bring  them  to  the  utmost  limit  of  their  nativt 
power  and  health.  Of  the  mental  system,  he  views 
those  faculties  which  constitute  the  intellectual  powers 
as  requiring  to  be  drawn  out,  exercised,  and  instructed, 
so  that  they  may  operate  readily  and  efficiently  for  til 
the  various  purposes  which  thoy  are  designed  tn  serve; 
and  those,  again,  which  constitute  the  moral  feelings  ti 
calling  for  the  exertion  upon  them  of  all  external  moral 
influences — at  the  head  of  which  stands  the  revealed 
will  of  God  with  regard  to  human  destiny — in  ordsr 
that  the  best  possible  state  of  feeling  may  be  attained 
with  regard  both  to  the  affairs  of  the  present  and  to  a 
future  state  of  existence.  Upon  these  views  of  man's 
character  a  scheme  of  education  may  be  founded,  which 
rational  persons,  as  yet  unprepossessed  by  other  notions, 
will,  ho  thinks,  generally  acknowledge  as  accordant 
with  common  sense,  however  unprepared  they  may  \m 
to  trace  it  to  its  foundation.  He  will,  therrfoic,  with- 
out further  preface,  proceed  to  describe  such  a  schem*, 
adopting  the  appropriate  divisions  into  phyxirnl,  murni, 
and  iiitrllrrttial,  and  combining,  as  far  as  his  s))ace  per- 
mit)!, practical  directions  with  what  may  be  called  the 
philosophy  of  the  subject 

PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

The  object  of  physical  education  is  to  ensure,  as  hj 
as  possible,  that  sound  and  vigorous  frame  of  body 
which,  while  all  must  feel  it  to  be  one  of  the  greatest 
of  blessini^R,  appears  to  l)e  an  essential  concomitant  of  i 
sound  condition  of  the  mind  itself.  Physical  education 
comes  into  operation  before  any  other  department,  for 
one  of  its  first  concerns  is  to  take  care  that  the  hutnsn 
being  shall  be  brought  into  the  world  in  the  enjoyment 
of  a  perfect  organization.  The  mother  is  here  the  edu- 
cator. She  is  required,  during  pregnancy,  to  order  her 
life,  with  respect  to  food,  dress,  and  all  other  habits,  ac- 
cording to  certain  rules,  found  to  be  conducive  to  tlis 
welfare  of  her  future  offspring.  Judicious  medical  men 
recommend,  that,  at  this  time,  the  food  taken  should 
not  greatly  differ  from  what  ia  taken  at  other  times. 
The  dress  should  be  loose  and  easy.  Moderate  exercia* 
should  l)c  regularly,  as  far  as  possible,  indub^ed  in ;  and 
it  is  of  the  greatest  consequence  of  all,  that,  while  ordi- 
nary duties  are  attended  to,  a  <iuict,  cheerful,  and  easy 
state  of  mind  should  be  maintained.  Departure  from 
these  rules,  indulgence  in  late  or  otherwise  irregniu 
hour*,  and  exposure  to  the  excitements  produced  bv 


EDUCATION. 


Ml 


«()l»»  pMMOiM,  or  th«  frivolitiei  of  &aluon*)>le  life,  are 
MleuUt«fd  to  occasion  deplorable  eflecU  on  the  being  yet 
jt  ne  brought  into  the  world. 

InrAncT. — The  phyiical  iiduration  of  an  infant  in> 
folves  simply  the  ineani  of  keeping  it  in  health.  For 
Ihii  purpose  nature  has  made  one  lignal  provision,  in 
the  tenderness  which  she  has  infused  into  the  female 

li^it a  feeling  which  insures  an  unfailing  kindness 

towards  the  young.  But  something  besides  kindness  is 
Mouirad  to  rear  children  successfully.  It  is  necessary 
tfiat  those  who  have  the  duty  of  nursing  the  young, 
whether  mothers  or  substitutes  for  mothers,  should  have 
lome  knowledge  mt  the  physiology  of  the  infant  body, 
jr  at  least  be  acquainted  with  the  rules  of  management 
which  rcRult  from  such  a  knowledge.  The  sad  effects 
of  ignorance  on  this  subject  are  sufliciently  conspicuous, 
for  we  cannot  doubt  that,  of  the  groat  mortality  of  the 
young  (four-tenths  of  them  dying  under  five  years  of 
(ge),  much  is  owing  to  erroneous  methods  pursued  in 
the  nursery. 

Here  the  leading  rules  only  can  be  indicated.  An 
infant  should  never  be  plunged  into  cold  water,  or  ex- 
poaod  in  any  other  way  to  cold,  because,  the  circulation 
being  comparatively  languid  in  the  infant  subject,  he 
can  less  endure  cold  than  grown-up  persons;  and  an 
attempt  to  produce  hardiness  may  only  undermine 
kealth.  It  is  of  the  greatest  consequence  that  an  infant 
should  be  kept  constantly  clean  and  dry,  that  its  hours 
oe  early  and  regular,  and  itself  be  ns  far  as  possible 
habituated  to  a  periodic  recurrence  of  all  its  wants.  The 
mother's  milk  is  the  most  appropriate  food ;  next,  that 
of  a  nurse  about  the  same  time  confined ;  next,  cow's 
milk  warmed  and  diluted.  Farinaceous  or  any  other 
kind  of  solid  food,  is  unsuitable  to  the  stomach  of  an 
infiint  under  six  months  old.  A  child  ought,  if  pos- 
lible,  to  be  nursed  about  eight  months,  and  somewhat 
toDgn  if  weakly,  or  when  the  period  of  eight  months 
tsrminates  in  the  dead  of  winter.  After  weaning,  the 
bod  should  be  farinaceous — that  is,  of  substances  com- 
posed of  grain,  potatoes,  arrow-root,  &c.  Animal  food 
should  be  avoided  till  the  perio<l  of  infancy  may  be  con- 
adored  as  nearly  at  an  end,  and  even  then  it  should  be 
«f  the  tendercst  fibre,  and  administered  in  very  simplo 
(arms  anJ  moderate  quantities. 

The  food  and  general  habits  of  the  nurse  are  of  great 
and  direct  importance.  The  child  is  immediately  de- 
pendent in  all  respects  upon  the  person  who  suckles  it ; 
thrives  with  that  person,  and  also  declines  with  her ; 
lulfers  when  she  suffers,  and  is  well  when  she  is  well. 
So  remarkably  is  this  the  case,  that  an  act  so  simple  on 
hrr  part  as  the  taking  of  a  hasty  draught  of  cold  water, 
will  probably  give  the  infant  a  stomach-ache  within  two 
hours.  It  is  therefore  of  the  greatest  consequence  to 
the  welfare  of  the  young  that  those  from  whom  they 
Iraw  their  sustenance  should  observe  all  the  rules  pro- 
per to  their  condition.  A  nurse  should  live  a  quiet  but 
not  inactive  life,  using  simple  wholesome  diet,  avoiding 
stimulating  drinks,  and  preserving,  as  far  as  possible,  a 
cheeriiil  mind.  Fermented  liquors,  as  porter  and  ale, 
tre  only  to  he  resorted  to  when  her  strength  would 
otherwise  sink  under  exhaustion  of  her  system.  In 
fair  health,  a  light  beer  is  perhaps  the  most  suitable 
beverage. 

For  the  due  development  of  the  muscular  system  of 
in  mfiuit,  its  dress  should  sit  light  and  easy  upon  its 
person  and  its  limbs  should  be  allowed  free  play  on  all 
possible  occasions.  The  restless  movements  of  an  in- 
bnt,  the  tossing  about  of  its  head,  arms,  and  lim1)S,  are 
Ic  be  considered  as  merely  impulses  of  nature,  directing 
it  to  exercise,  and  consequently  strengthen,  its  muscular 
system.  These  movements  should  therefore  be  rather 
•ncouragcd  than  repressed.  Care  should  be  taken  that 
It  is  cot  too  soon  allowed  to  boar  its  own  weight,  as  the 
oaiural  consequence  is  bending  the  as  yet  soft  bones  of 


the  legs,  which  may  thus  heeome  deformed  for  lifa. 
Whenever  a  child  of  proper  ago  is  unable  to  hear  ita 
own  weight,  or  walk  without  this  effect  following,  w« 
may  be  sure  that  its  general  health  is  defective ;  and  it 
is  a  more  immediate  and  pressing  duty  to  take  measures 
for  remedying  this  defect,  than  to  attempt  to  keep  the 
limbs  straight  by  mechanical  appliances. 

The  general  health  of  an  infant  may  he  described,  in 
a  word,  as  to  be  secured  (supposing  a  good  constitution 
at  first)  by  food  appropriate  to  its  organs,  warmth, 
cleanliness,  regularity  in  sleep  and  other  wants,  a  well- 
aired  nursery,  and  occasional  walks  out  of  doors,  pro* 
tection  firom  all  injuries  through  the  medium  of  the 
nurse  and  otherwise,  and  the  muscular  exercise  of 
which  its  system  is  capable.(l)* 

Chilphoou,  Youth,  and  Makhood. — Physical  edu- 
cation ought  to  be  continued  till  the  body  is  brought  to 
the  utmost  degree  of  perfection,  in  all  its  functions,  of 
which  it  is  capable.  The  improvement  of  all  the  sys> 
terns  and  functions  of  the  body  may  be  called  the  tduca- 
tinn  of  these  systems  and  functions;  hence  recent 
writers  on  the  subject  speak  of  the  education  of  the 
skin,  the  education  of  the  lungs,  of  the  digestive  organs, 
of  the  muscular  frame,  of  the  brain. 

In  a  subsequent  article  of  this  work,  that  on  the  Piia> 
SEMTATioir  OF  Hbalth,  most  of  the  matters  which  fkll 
under  Physical  Education  are  carefully  treated.  By 
reverting  to  that  paper,  the  reader  will  find  of  how  much 
importance  must  he  the  formation  of  habits  of  bodily 
cleanliness,  seeing  that  the  skin  is  a  system  which  only 
can  have  a  healthy  function  when  it  is  thoroughly  free 
from  impurities,  and  that  nothing  is  more  indispensable 
for  general  soundness  than  the  particular  health  of  thia 
port  of  our  frame.  In  the  same  paper,  the  value  of  • 
due  supply  of  pure  air  for  the  health  of  the  respiratory 
organs  is  insisted  on ;  as  also  the  proper  regulation  ot 
the  appetite  for  food.  The  education  of  the  muaculur 
system  implies  a  competent  knowledge  of  the  structure, 
attachment,  and  conditions  of  action,  of  the  muscles; 
the  operation  of  arterial  blood  and  nervous  influence  on 
the  muscles,  and  other  matters,  for  which  we  refer  to 
our  article  entitled  Account  of  the  Human  Bodt. 

Under  this  branch  of  physical  education  falls  all  the 
science  of  exercise — walking,  riding,  running,  leaping, 
swinging,  skating,  dancing,  fencing,  cricket,  ball-play, 
&c.  The  importance  of  these  to  health,  in  the  fiiU  de- 
velopment of  the  muscles  and  improvement  of  the 
frame,  has  long  been  known,  and  by  some  nations 
steadily  practised.  The  perfect  forms  of  the  Greeks 
and  Persians  were  the  result  of  this  branch  of  education 
receiving  a  large  share  of  national  attention.  Ample 
provision  for  such  exercises  should  be  made  in  all  semi- 
naries of  education,  infant  and  more  advanced.  What 
arc  strictly  called  gymnastics,  are  more  violent  and  try- 
ing than  any  we  have  mentioned,  consbting  of  climbing 
poles,  leaping  bars,  swinging  by  the  hands,  and  main- 
taining difficult  positions.  These  require  much  caution 
in  the  watehful  educator,  and  should  not  be  allowed  in 
slender  and  weakly  boys.  They  ought  not  to  be  over- 
done by  any  youth  whatever,  seeing  that,  even  in  the 
robust,  strains  and  ruptures  have  been  occasioned  by  them 

MOIUL  inCOATION. 

The  training  of  our  moral  nature  for  the  due  ))erfbrn»* 
ance  of  our  part  as  members  of  society,  is  that  branch 
of  education  which  the  great  majority  of  those  who  have 
reflected  on  the  subject  consider  as  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant.   It  is  a  great  mistake  to  suppose  that  this  is  • 


•  The  nnmbprs  introducpd  in  this  mminer  refer  to  volumes 
of  Ckambm^i  Eduealinnal  Coum,  aeconliiig  to  a  list  (as  far  as 
published)  given  at  the  close  of  the  aeclion  '■IntelleoMial  Edu- 
cation." It  will  be  understood  that  the  volume  referred  to 
either  treats  that  department  of  the  theory  and  practice  of  edu- 
cation fully,  or  is  a  school  book  in  which  the  sul  ject  is  •■» 
bodied. 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


cnnch  which  the  ■dvocstei  of  improvementa  In  educa- 
on  h*  /•  generally  overlooked.  Aa  far  aa  we  have  ob- 
erved,  all  but  a  imall  aoct  of  thii  claai  of  philanthro-^ 
piata  at  knowledge  ita  parainountcy.  Thia  ia  the  part 
of  education  which,  in  a  national  Ryitcm,  would  rail  for 
the  moat  attention,  berauae,  while  degrcea  of  intellectual 
attainment  are  pro{icr  for  different  claaaes  of  men,  there 
b  no  claM  of  whom  it  can  be  laid,  that  a  right  and  ptr- 
ftrl  nutnil  Jevelnpnunl  ia  not  of  the  utmoat  conacqucn'^e 
both  to  themaelvea  and  the  aociety  of  which  they  forn  a 
part  Buaidea  audi  a  benefit,  that  of  an  acquaintr>nce 
with  the  mere  elumenta  of  literature  ainka  into  iiiMgni- 
ficance.  There  ii  no  need,  however,  (u  exalt  nuy  do- 
|>artinent  of  education  at  the  expense  of  another.  It 
may  be  true,  tliat  intellectual  development  ia  not  ex- 
preaaly  moral  development ;  but  it  muat  bo  clear  to  every 
candid  pcraon,  that  the  refinement  and  e\panaion  of 
mind  obtained  from  intellectual  culture,  are  favourable 
to  the  moral  nature.  A  thinking  man  ia  not  on  tliat 
account  likely  to  be  the  lesa  a  virtuoua  man ;  elae,  much 
of  our  common  olxwrvationi  of  life  muat  be  a  delusion. 
We  would  therefore  aay,  let  no  department  of  education 
be  conaiilered  aa  calling  for  excluaive  or  diaproportionate 
cultivation ;  but  let  all  go  on  in  harmony  together. 

Moral  education  can  have  no  definition  from  ua  but 
the  development  and  regimen  of  the  moral  nature  of 
thoae  who  are  to  be  educated.  Of  the  perplexity  which 
attend)  this  part  of  our  l)eing,  it  is  unnecessary  to  apeak. 
Let  ua  only  see  if  we  can  settle  upon  any  principles  by 
which  it  may  bo  beneficially  afTcctcd.  It  appears  to  iur 
dude  a  variety  of  native  feelings,  of  various  strength 
and  tendency  to  activity  in  every  different  )>erson,  yet 
all  of  them  liable  to  be  acted  upon  by  appropriate  ox- 
iemal  means,  to  good  as  well  as  to  evil.  In  a  mind 
totally  untrained,  the  good  dispositiona  are  not  without 
■ome  energy  ;  but,  generally,  where  there  is  a  want  of 
regulation  of  the  feelings,  and  of  certain  principles  to 
which  the  character  of  emotions  and  actiona  may  be 
referred  aa  to  a  standard,  the  moral  being  is  a  scene  of 
deplorable  confusion— the  more  so,  of  course,  in  in- 
■tancea  where  there  is  a  considerable  natural  endowment 
of  the  inferior  feelings.  We  have  then  the  coarse,  acn- 
•ual,  and  sell<8h  conduct  which  has  been  the  mark  of 
the  nidu  throughout  all  agca.  On  the  other  hand,  we 
cannot  doubt  that  many  natures,  not  originally  of  a  high 
cast,  thrown  under  influences  which  tended  to  check  the 
loaa  worthy  tendencies,  to  strengthen  the  good,  and  to 
induce  regularity  over  all,  must  have  been  thereby  en- 
abled to  pass  tlirough  life  in  a  creditable  manner,  if  not 
with  some  higher  result  less  open  to  observation. 

One  principle  thus  strikes  us  at  the  outset  aa  of  very 
peat  consequence,  namely,  the  circumstances,  or,  so  to 
•peak,  the  moral  atmosphere,  in  which  the  being  to  bo 
educated  is  placed.  It  is  but  matter  of  every-day  ob- 
servation, that  a  child  reared  amidst  gross  scenes,  where 
no  restraint  ia  imposed  upon  any  of  the  fselings  by 
thoae  around  him,  will  prove,  in  all  likelihood,  a  very 
different  being  from  one  brought  up  amidst  virtuous 
vid  gentle  people.  Such  a  difference,  we  cannot  doubt, 
would  exist  even  where  no  attempt  had  been  maile  by 
the  latter  parties  to  fashion  the  moral  character  of  the 
young  creature  committed  to  their  charge.  It  is  exactly 
a  difference  of  thia  nature  which  exists  between  the 
yontha  native  to  the  vale  of  the  Missouri  (or  those  of 
Iho  not  less  savage  classes  which  social  circumstances 
produce  in  most  great  cities)  and  those  of  civilized 
countries  in  general :  circumstances  decide  the  one  set 
to  Iw  liarbarians,  and  the  other  to  be  tolerably  well- 
behaved  persons.  Thia  tilucation  of  dreunutancti,  though 
ao  powerful,  is  unfortunately  not  always  within  the 
eommand  of  well-meaning  parents.  Individuals  are 
Mere  generally  able  to  do  little  of  themselves,  if  the  per- 
•ona  by  whom  they  are  necessarily  surrounde<l  be  not  of 
the  character  that  is  desirable.     Thus,  it  often  happens 


that  a  poor  though  well-disposed  man  ia  obliged  \»  Hw 
in  a  part  of  a  city  where  his  children  can  only  br«ttlii 
moral  contomination ;  and  we  can  scarcely  imagina  ■ 
greater  hardship.  Yet  these  are  just  reasons  why  everv 
effort  should  be  made  to  promote  a  universal  improve, 
ment  of  society ;  and  it  must  rarely  happen  tliat  som* 
arrangements  cannot  bo  made,  of  a  character  likely  to 
o|)erate  favourably  on  the  young  peraona  who  are  th* 
objects  of  care. 

Wo  would  here  impress  the  importance  of  removJn> 
lemplalion  as  much  as  poasible  out  of  the  way  of  youns 
persons.  There  is  a  notion  amongst  some,  that  a  little 
temptation  ia  not  amiss,  aa  a  means  of  training  th« 
young  to  withstand  greater  nsanulta.  But  this  ia,  «« 
arc  convinced,  an  ill-founded  doctrine,  and  most  fatal 
policy.  It  is  of  the  nature  of  every  one  of' our  feclinn 
to  be  awakened  into  activity  by  the  pri-scntntion  of  jti 
appropriate  object ;  and  it  is  the  equally  natural  result, 
thut  the  frequent  activity  promotes  the  power  and  ths 
tendency  to  activity  of  those  feelings.  By  presenting 
then,  what  are  called  temptations,  wo  are  tiikmg  a  direct 
means  of  educating  and  strengthening  the  iiiclinatlont 
towards  error.  On  the  contrary,  a  feeling,  allowed  t» 
lie  dormant,  loses  in  power,  and  becomes  always  lea 
and  less  liable  to  act  There  is  ])crhaps  a  confusion  of 
ideas  at  the  bottom  of  the  objrctioimblo  theory.  The  true 
plan  seems  to  be  to  remove  all  actual  temptntion,  but 
to  give  the  intellect  and  the  moral  feelings  proppr  warn- 
ing against  all  such  dangers,  and  thus  prepare  them 
for  resistance  when  the  time  of  unavoidable  trial  arrivea 
We  would  say,  then,  do  not  allow  the  young  to  see  « 
touch  evil  thinga,  or  eren  to  be  in  company  whore  such 
things  are  to  )>o  spoken  liglitly  of,  from  an  idea  that 
they  are  thus  to  ho  hardened  agiiinst  temptation.  Ba 
content  to  insj)ire  a  salutary  horror  of  such  tlnngs  by 
your  own  report,  if  you  only  are  so  fortunate  as  tc  t« 
able  to  keep  your  young  charge  exempt  from  positivi 
contact  with  what  is  discommendable.  An  error  may 
of  course  ho  committed  in  s^ieuking  too  strongly  against 
what  you  disapprove  of,  in  which  case,  the  young  par. 
son  no  sooner  discovers  the  exaggeration,  than,  from  i 
principle  of  contradiction,  he  is  inclined  to  rmlirace  the 
vice.  But  discretion  will  save  from  this  mistake.  Upon 
the  whole,  it  may  lie  set  down  as  a  most  important  rute 
in  education,  to  reduce  temptation  to  the  smallest  posij. 
ble  bounds. 

Nearly  connected  with  the  education  of  circumsttaeH 
is  the  eduealion  of  example.  Here  personal  conduct  in 
the  educating  party  is  all  in  all.  Children  are  remark, 
ably  disposed  to  imitation.  They  imitate  instinctivoly, 
without  having  necessarily  ^ny  discrimination  of  tha 
choracter  of  the  act  which  they  a»o  imitatinij.  The 
general  nature  of  their  conduct  is  therefore  ruled  very 
much  by  the  nature  of  the  conduct  presented  to  their 
observation.  So  much  is  this  the  case,  that,  if  a  child 
be  carefully  watched,  he  will  be  observed  to  contract  a 
tendency  to  scolding  and  beating,  from  that  very  dit. 
ciplinc  by  which,  most  erroneously,  an  endeavour  is 
made  to  correct  his  errors.  It  must  obviously,  then,  K 
of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  demeanour  and  geiM- 
ral  actions  of  the  educator,  and  of  the  family  in  which* 
child  is  reared,  should  be  models  of  all  that  is  proper. 
Just  the  more  amiable  and  correct  in  all  respects  that  this 
conduct  is,  so  will  the  young  be  the  more  likely  to  form 
those  habits  which  their  best  friends  could  wish.  W« 
will  not  pause  to  consider  the  effect  which  a  porittvelj 
vicious  cour.ie  of  life  is  calculated  to  have  on  such  ofths 
young  as  witneas  it  The  kind  of  Itad  example  which 
wc  have  here  a  chance  of  helping  to  abolish,  is  thit 
which  shows  itself  in  acts  far  within  the  circle  of  positive 
vice.  Such  are  the  use  of  offensive  and  uncivil  language, 
wninglings,  domineering,  low  and  sordid  habits  of  til 
kinds.  If  parents  and  the  other  grown-up  members  of 
a  family  do  not  restrain  themselves  from  all  such  acts  i> 


^'trin      EDUCATION.     '■^'' 


llf  p^wnoe  of  childrrn,  there  cannot  be  •  donht  that 
lb(  children  will  likowlio  lie  addicted  to  thnm.  It  may 
t«  a  MOiewhat  itartiini^  doctrine,  but  we  neverthelcM 
jfclue  our  full  conviction  that  there  ii  not  the  Icoat 
DMid  for  over  using,  in  the  presence  of  or  towardn  chil- 
dren any  languaijn  which  niight  not  be  addressed  by  a 
1  w«ll-brcd  pcfHon  to  a  perfect  equal.  All  ordering, 
^•igooning.  scolding,  and,  much  more,  all  violence,  ex- 
alted for  tlie  pur]><)se  of  managing  or  punishing  a  child, 
UC  unmitigntod  crront  and  evils,  A  child  has  feelings 
10  bo  wounded  'and  roused  up  into  contradiction  by 
lisrsb  UMge,  as  well  us  any  grown-up  person ;  and  it  is 
well  known  that  such  means  aro  not  serviceable  for 
(lining  any  end  with  our  fellow-creatures.  A  civil  re- 
queil,  if  reaionablo,  will  Hurccod  with  a  child  im  with  a 
man.  Gentle  and  respectful  language  gain  as  much 
upon  an  uneomiptcd  child's  nature  as  upon  a  man's. 
Such  treatment  can  have  no  chance  of  i/wiliiig  a  young 
rerion:  it  will  only  promote  his  being  made  a  rational, 
well-bred  lioing,  iurttcad  of  a  wrangler  or  tyrant. 

The  prcrrjitive  part  of  moral  education,  though  the 
Inweiit  in  power,  is  not  to  Iw  overlooked.     A  good  maxim 
or  a  sound  advice,  well-timed,  and  made  thoroughly  in- 
telligible and  thoroughly  acecptahio,  will  rarely  fail  to 
have  a  good  cfloct.     Even  suppoHing  it  to  be  little  re- 
nided  nt  the  time,  it  may  remain  in  the  memory,  and 
eoffls  into  play  on  some  future  occasion,  when  perhaps 
more  necessary  than  now.     In  such  moral  seeds,  there 
ii  I  vitality  like  that  of  the  seeds  of  plants,  which  may 
havo  been  buried  too  deep  for  germination  for  ihuusanda 
of  years,  and  yet,  when  placed  in  the  proper  circum- 
itancei,  visited  by  snp  and  hent,  will  send  up  as  goodly 
ipecimeiis  of  their  kind  as  if  they  had  been  shed  from 
I  parent  stem  of  lust  year's  growth.     It  will  therefore 
be  proper,  from  time  to  time,  to  inculcate  moral  lessons, 
appropriate  to  the  capacity  of  the  child.     This  may  bo 
doiie  directly,  by  giving  goml  maxims  to  be  learned  by 
heart;  but  it  will  be  done  bettor  by  means  of  narratives 
ihowing  the  virtues  in  action.     This  is  liccuusc  a  child 
mu)*!!  more  readily  apprehends  a   scries  of  incidents 
than  an  absti-act  truth.     It  will  also  bo  well  to  allow  the 
dmple  narration,  in  the  first  place,  to  be  received  into 
bis  niind,  and  then  to  allow  himself,  if  possible,  to  make 
out  the  moral.     Call  his  own  moral  feelings,  us  far  as 
DMT  be,  into  judgment  upon  the  case,  and  only  tell  him 
whether  he  is  right  or  wrong,  till  he  fully  comprehends 
it  in  all  its  bearings.     Thus  his  own  good  feelings,  as 
well  as  his  judgment,  arc  brought  into  exercise,  uiul 
tbui  a  far  deeper  impression  is  made  than  if  the  whole 
case,   including    the    moral,   were    merely  rciated   to 
hiin.(8)'     It  is  a  duly  of  preceptive  education  to  warn 
aj^iinst  and  check  evil,  as  well  as  to  inculcate  good. 
When  any  thing  wrong  is  done,  wc  but  imperfectly  cor- 
rect it  by  saying,  "  Don't  do  that,"  or  inflicting  censure 
or  punishment.     It  is  necessary  that  we  should  convince 
the  understanding  and  move  Uin  feelings  of  the  child  to 
*  lense  of  the  impropriety  of  his  conduct     This  may 
be  done  by  mild  argument  and  illustration,  calling  upon 
hiinself  ultimately  to  say  whether  such  conduct  is  com- 
Diendablc  or  not,  and  whether  it  ought  to  be  repeated 
or  avoided.     Ho  thus  becomes  judge  upon  his  own 
caw,  ana  is  forced  to  condemn  himself,  where,  if  con- 
demned by  others,  his  opposive  feelings  might  have 
only  jiresented  resistance  and  defiance.  At  some  schools, 
including  those  for  infants,  it  has  been  found  possible 
I)  impress  such  lessons  by  means  of  a  kind  of  trial,  the 
•chool-fellows  being  the  jury.    The  case  is  stated  to  the 
wscmbled  children  :  they  are  asked  to  say  if  such  con- 
duct is  right  or  wrong.     They  invariably  give  a  sound 
decision,  and  the  cOcct  is  most  powerful.     Obdurate 


•The  Moral  Cln»«-Hook.  here  referred  to.  suppues  a  variety 
si'  iisiioiLves  thowMii;  ilia  virtues  ill  aclioii.  icii(*tiier  with  a 
Mltetion  of  mora!  inuAlinii  from  Scri|>turc  uiiU  uilicr  sourcea. 


natures,  to  which  a  reprimand  (Vom  mastei  or  partnt 
would  at  the  moment  be  us  nothing  or  worse,  are  fouiiil 
unable  to  resist  the  force  of  the  fiublir  opini  n  vf  thtw 
oum  toritly — as  is  every  day  found  to  be  the  case  with 
grown-up  people,  such  being,  in  fact,  a  law  of  humaa 
nature. 

Circumstances,  example,  precept,  are  alt  inferior  in 
effect  to  Training,  which  is  more  paitieularly  the  novel 
feature  of  modern  education,  'i'his  principle  may  \m 
said  to  have  its  natural  basis  in  the  l.'kw  of  habit.  It  ia 
indicated  in  the  text,  ''Train  up  a  child  in  the  way  ha 
should  go,  and  when  he  is  old  he  will  not  depart  from 
it ;"  and  in  the  maxim,  ■•  Just  as  the  twig  is  lient,  tha 
tree  is  inclined."  We  are  so  constituted,  that,  when 
accustomral  to  do  any  thing,  wc  do  it  almost  without  tha 
goAirnaiice  of  our  will  or  judgnient.  We  do  it  easily, 
and  generally  well.  If  accustoined,  for  instance,  to  • 
particular  class  of  intellectual  operations,  we  ucquira  a 
facility  in  going  through  them,  which  generally  strikea 
others  with  wonder.  If  accustomed  to  the  exercise  of  a 
particular  class  of  feelings,  be  they  good  or  bad,  they  in 
time  awake  in  us  unprompted,  and  we  become  their 
almost  passive  instruments.  I'o  habituate  the  feelinga 
to  the  exercise  and  regulation  which  is  productive  of  tha 
best  results,  is  moral  training. 

The  feelings  aro  of  very  various  character,  Prooead* 
ihg  upon  Dr.  Gall's  description  of  them,  which  seen*  la 
us  to  be  the  best,  we  find  the  first  class  described  aa 
selfish,  yet  necessary  for  the  preservation  of  the  indrrV 
dual  and  the  species ;  others  dircctid  to  objecta  apart 
from  self,  yet  as  liable  also  to  misdirection  and  abuia. 
It  is  alto;;ether  a  strangely  mingled  web,  yet  not  with- 
out a  certain  definiteness  of  constitutional  arrangement 
and  of  purpose.  Here  it  may  be  at  once  admitted,  aa  a 
fact  not  less  clear  from  philosophical  inquiry  tnaii  from 
revelation,  that  perfection  in  the  complicated  operationa 
of  our  moral  nature  is  not  to  be  looked  for.  But  it  ia 
equally  certain  that  there  are  influences  which  may  act 
advantageously  in  regulating,  directing,  and  harmonizing 
these  operations. 

The  selfish  or  lower  feelings  arc  the  first  in  the  indi* 
vidual  to  cull  for  attention,  ind  they  may  therefore  ba 
first  treated  in  this  place.  That  early  developed  instinct 
which  regards  food,  is  so  liable  to  be  over-indulged  by 
a  mistaken  kindness,  that  we  feel  particularly  called 
upon  to  give  a  warning  with  reijnrd  to  it.  The  una- 
voidable eflTcct  of  such  over-indulgence  is  to  produce 
puiiipering  and  fastidious  habits,  equally  degrading  to 
the  moral  as  tliey  are  dangerous  to  the  physical  system. 
The  food  of  the  young  should  never  bo  otherwise  than 
simple,  if  we  were  merely  to  ro^urd  their  health ;  still 
more  should  it  be  so,  if  we  •  i.!d  preserve  in  them 
manly  and  hardy  habits.  On  vi.t  rare  occasions  when 
a  little  treat  is  afibrded,  care  shoi.d  of  course  be  taken 
that  it  is  of  a  nature  in  all  respects  harmless.  Comfita 
should  be  few  and  far  between,  if  ever  given  at  all ;  and 
rewards  and  punishments  should  never  have  reference 
to  edible  things.  As  to  liquor  of  any  kind,  such  aa  men 
are  themselves  but  too  much  accustomed  to  indulge  in, 
certainly  one  drop  should  never  enter  tho  lips  of  a  young 
person  on  any  pretext  whatever.  There  are  few  aigbte 
more  distressing  to  a  reflecting  mind,  than  that  of  pa. 
rents  handing  the  so  fatal  wine-cup  to  their  children. 
The  quantity  of  food  given  to  tlie  young  should  nerer 
bo  stinted  from  penurious  or  ascetic  motives ;  but  it  ia 
very  certain  that  great  errors  aro  committed  in  giving 
too  much  and  too  frequently.  Eating  is  altogether  much 
a  matter  of  habit,  and  that  with  regard  to  quantity  aa 
well  as  quality.  The  amount  actually  required  for 
the  eflieient  support  of  the  system  is,  under  natural 
circumstances,  not  great :  it  is  generally  much  exceeded. 
There  is  therefore  room  for  a  judicious  restriction, 
within  the  range  of  common  practice.  It  ia  but  a  nw 
suit  of  the'  general  law,  that  a  systematic  noderatioa 


n* 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLB. 


■t  thU  p«ri<x1  of  tifn  will  Icail  to  «n  euily  iiMintained 
temperance  in  future  day*,  niiJ  thua  be  productive  of 
the  greateit  hIriMiiigi. 

The  rornhalivn  nnil  dcitrurtive  iliipoaitk/nf  of  children 
•r«  alio  riirly  ininifi><tr<l.  The  great  activity  of  thvic 
facultiea  In  Niyn  i«  particularly  remarkable,  being  ahown 
«a  much  in  a  wild  iipirit  of  adventure,  for  innocent  object*, 
hut  often  lemling  into  dani(er,  ni  in  any  direct  form  uf 
violence.  The  aupcrahundant  vitality  of  thi*  .criod 
of  life  leema  to  be  a  cauM,  oi  at  leait  a  neoeaaiiry 
■ccompaniment,  of  the  energy  of  theae  faculliei.  No 
peril  intimidates ;  little  compunction  ia  felt  in  dealing 
with  either  man  or  beaat     In  all  thi«  there  ia  no  doubt 

•  good  end  in  view ;  hut  it  Htill  remnina  for  the  educntor 
to  regulate  theae  diapmiitiona.  The  ronlrmlative  apirit 
may  be  directed  to  the  ovcrcoininij  of  difficult  taxlc^  the 
taking  of  energetic  exnrcine,  and  theviiiiting  of  placca  and 
objecta  the  examination  of  which  may  Iw  uicful.  Tliu 
other  feeling,  inatehu  of  being  allowed  to  ahow  itaelf  in 
r»ge,  paaaion,  and  reientment,  to  inflict  pain  on  harmlcM 
uiitnaU,  to  torture  or  oppreiw  companion*,  or  take  delight 
tn  defacing  or  dcalrnying  inanimate  and  pcrhapa  orna- 
mental or  uaeful  ubjvcta,  may  be  trained  to  rracrvo  actual 
mnnifeatationa  of  itii  energy  for  objecta  clearly  noxious. 
It  ia  to  be  lamented  that  education,  aa  herelofure  nnd 
•till  in  many  placci  conductnl,  rather  tend*  to  foster  than 
to  regulate  or  moderate  Ibii  propcniity.  The  old  notion 
that  to  be  able  to  flght  ia  easenlial  to  a  youth,  atill,  we 
fear,  in  some  mcaaure  (guides  diroctnra  of  education,  at 
least  ao  far  as  to  induce  their  taking  little  pains  to  prevent 
Bcenea  of  outrage  where  only  youthful  good  humour  and 
kindneaa  ahnubl  prevail.  The  oppre<iKive  system  of  fug- 
ging is  also  still,  to  the  dixgrace  of  our  age,  allowed  in 
•omo  of  our  public  scminuries.  It  ia  well,  no  doubt,  that 
be  who  is  to  fmd  life  a  thorny  and  dilFicult  path,  should 
not  enter  it  with  too  gentle  or  timid  dispositions;  but 
■urely  it  is  not  impossible  to  draw  a  distinction  bi-twecn 
quarrels,  blows,  and  tyranny,  and  the  encouragement  of 

•  spirit  sufficiently  manly  and  energetic  for  all  the  com- 
mnn  needs  of  our  life. 

The  first  object  of  the  educator  with  regard  to  these 
feelings,  ought  to  be  to  impreas  the  lesaon  that  their  ex- 
crciae  is  good  or  bad  just  aa  they  have  good  or  bad  ol>- 
jecta  in  view — that  they  must,  in  all  cases,  Iw  under  tliu 
guidance  of  the  mural  sontimcnta  and  judgment  The 
pupib  should  \>e  trained  to  check  e'cry  impulse  of  these 
feeliuga  which  they  are  conscious  has  not  a  legitimate 
object  in  view,  and  only  to  allow  them  any  freedom  when 
careful  reflection  has  satisfied  them  that  such  a  course 
is  entitled  t»  the  entire  sanction  of  the  moral  law.  Par- 
ticular regard  should  be  paid  to  the  suppression  of  the 
■pint  of  Wanton  cruelty,  of  malice,  of  revenge,  of  un- 
diaritablenoss.  And  one  important  means  of  working 
out  these  ends  will  be  to  allow  no  example  of  harshness, 
cruelty,  or  quarrclsomenexa,  ever  to  appear  l)efure  the 
eyes  of  the  young.  It  is  very  desirable  that  those  who 
conduct  achools  in  which  the  children  of  the  humbler 
classes  are  e«)ucated,  should  addresa  tbemaelvea  particu- 
larly to  the  formation  of  habita  favourable  to  humanity. 
Large  sectioiui  of  the  humbler  claasea,  particular'  f  those 
who  have  any  thing  to  do  with  animals,  are  h  oitually 
eiuel.  Much  might  be  done  to  mitigate  this  distressing 
characteristic,  by  carefully  impressing  at  school  the 
wickedness  involved  in  every  description  of  cruelty  to 
•oimals. 

The  secretive  disposition  calls  for  a  large  share  of 
attention  from  those  who  would  bring  up  a  child  well. 
This  tendency  of  our  nature  appears  to  have  a  legiti- 
mate operation  in  dictating  such  a  reserve  aa  may  be 
necessary  for  the  restraint  of  our  ordinary  feelings, 
where  their  eiprcssion  would  be  disagreeable  or  mis- 
chievous; but  it  is  liable  to  great  abuae,  and  particu- 
larly amonitst  the  young.  I'he  firat  impulae  of  all  un- 
rayulated  mmds,  young  and  old,  is  to  conceal  the  truth, 


if  auch  expedient  aeem  calculated  to  save  them  my  |m^ 
or  inconvenience.  It  is  only  when  the  greater  svU  ^ 
lying  la  thoroughly  understood,  that  this  tendency  csaias. 
It  becomea,  therefore,  of  great  consequence  to  chwk  Iks 
first  instances  that  are  observed  in  the  young  of  t  ditpo 
sition  to  conceal  the  truth  for  selfish  or  base  purpoMc 
and  to  seek  to  establish  principles  and  habita  of  a  coo. 
trary  charncter.  For  this  end  nnlbing  is  so  neceistn 
as  a  mild  and  just  treatment  of  children  under  all  ciieunw 
stance's,  seeing  that  when  severity  or  injustice  is  to  bs 
apprehended,  a  direct  and  far  loo  great  temptation  is  given 
for  secretive  conduct. 

It  is  difficult  to  legislate  between  the  evils  of  blabbuii, 
and  the  eqnully  notorious  evils  of  a  hubituni  system  of 
conspirini{  for  the  concealment  of  truths  which  con- 
st'ientiousness  would  direct  iH'ing  told.  There  can  bt 
little  doubt  thai  the  <•  don't  Itit"  practices  of  the  nurMry 
and  iK-hool  are  calculated  to  implant  and  foster  the  srtdi 
of  ilisingenuousncsa  in  the  youthful  mind.  Vet  it  ii  not 
IcM)  true,  that  to  encourage  a  tule-lx<aring  habit  would  b« 
destructive  to  alt  manly  and  bonuuruble  feeling.  Here 
caution,  judgment,  and  a  careful  discriniinatiun  of  ctiei, 
must  bo  the  chief  guides  of  the  educator.  We  Hould, 
for  our  part,  deem  it  a  duty  to  lean  as  much  as  poasibU 
to  the  principle  of  having  the  truth  told  at  all  hautdi, 
The  etlucutor  may  do  much  by  a  rigid  system  of  inspe^ 
tion,  and  omitting  no  opportunity  of  breaking  up  all  coi^ 
federaciea  against  the  truth.  As  he  never  will  aUow 
thirktnji;,  if  he  can  help  it,  so  also  he  will  never,  on  hii 
own  part,  lie  guilty  of  the  mounnesn  of  winking.  The 
more  oinmi  and  candid  his  own  conduct  in  all  his  relt- 
linns  towards  his  pupils,  the  tM-tti>r  will  it  be  for  them. 
There  exists  a  school  on  improved  principles,  where  the 
most  livi'ly  mutual  confidence  exists  between  the  matlen 
and  their  pupils,  and  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  tuwardi 
each  other,  with  the  liest  elFertH  on  all  hands.  Honour 
is  thus  so  habitually  olwerved,  that  the  desks  containing 
the  little  propttrty,  letters,  &c.,  of  the  pupils,  need  no 
locks.  There  is  much  evil  in  families  from  childrea 
l<cing  brought  up  in  non-confidential  habits  with  their 
parents  and  with  each  other.  'I'ho  family  parlour  uxl 
table  should  bo  a  scene  where  all  can  unfold  theii  oi  11- 
nary  thoughts,  without  fear  of  censure  or  ridicule.  Ii  ii 
the  l<est  means  of  insuring  that  the  young  people  will  id 
with  the  concurrence  of  their  parenlj*,  when  they  coa* 
to  take  any  of  the  more  serious  steps  of  life. 

The  acijuisitive  feeling  requires  much  more  cducationil 
care  than  it  has  usually  receive^.  Wo  need  iioi  detain 
the  reader  with  an  exposition  of  the  lc):itiniate  use  of 
this  faculty,  which  prompta  man  to  accumulHte  and  iton 
up  the  g()<xls  of  life,  for  regular  ini(^?ad  of  precarious  lue 
To  this  impulse  capital  owes  its  existence,  without  which 
there  could  be  no  civiUzation.  The  Author  of  out 
lieini;  has  stamped  importance  on  this  faculty,  by  the 
strength  of  the  pro|iensity.  None  more  requires  inotli& 
cation,  regulation,  and  right  direction.  It  is  often  U>t 
strong  for  conscientiousness,  and  is  the  source  of  by  fu 
t)ie  largest  amount  of  crime.  Uut,  besides  this,  it  is  era 
with  the  honest  too  much  manilcutcd  in  abuse.  Its  ob- 
jecta are  made  the  paramount  pursuit  of  life,  and  in  iti 
intense  selfishneas  it  withers  to  dust  every  generous  ud 
kindly  feeling  of  the  heart.  In  a  commercial  country, 
like  our  own,  it  deeply  degrades  a  large  proportion  of  thi 
community,  and  leads  to  much  individual  and  social  tut 
fering. 

These  evils  are  the  consequences  of  tlie  natural  slrengtb 
of  this  feeling,  the  absence  of  regulating  educatioh,  ud 
the  presence  of  positive  mis-education,  i^-lfish  and  ei- 
elusive  appropriation  of  desirable  things,  either  to  eat  oi 
hoard,  is  a  lesaon  taught  tlie  youngest,  both  by  precept 
and  example;  and  there  is  none  more  easily  learned. 
Here  brilwry  operates,  till  infant  morality  liecome*  mm 
matter  of  barter,  and  good  conduct  and  attentive  Aitij 
are  estimated  by  the  infant  murchoiit  b}  what  tbey  will 


T.  J»«>'r^f«t- 


BDUOA'nON. 


1^,  r«HMfN  w«  err  In  w  ioan  iiitrodurinft  rhildren 
M  lb*  u***  "^  money ;  it  in  at  lewt  (ImirnbU  thai  they 
ff00iii  not  ha  icruatomMi  too  icon,  or  at  any  time,  to  nn 
-igfoaiinK  viix^  of  it*  valua  and  iin|ii>rtMnc«.  It  is  wi>ll 
toiccHit'iin  thrill  to  take  cure  ofaiiytltiiiKlhiit  in  thrirown, 
till  not  lo  "*''  '""  >{■'<'■>'  ■'"'v  tiy  'lici'  l>"lo  poMeiwiona,  or 
V)b«  loo  cii'luiivu  in  tlio  Uic  of  them.  A  huliitof  wrupu- 
lou*  regurJ  to  the  diatiiu'tion  hotwcpn  ninir  and  limit,  ii 
joe  which  rtiiiniit  lie  too  early  funned,  at  the  Knmn  time 
itut  they  ur"  nccUHtiimed  to  make  a  gciicroua  uio  of  what- 

Met  i»  ll"'if  ow"' 

Hclf-cHU'iMM  mid  lovr  of  praiao  or  approhntion  aro  early 
itiilicnril  fci'lliiK",  and  Iho  niDre  call  for  ri'i;iilation  that 
f^y  are  w)  litdilo  ti>  Iw  ruilt'd  into  exerciito  hy  tlui  prooiv- 
ilur«uf  eJui'utiuii  itwlf.  Hore  it  i«  particularly  import- 
ml  to  keep  in  mind  wliat  aro  the  Iri^itiinate  uaci  of  theite 
iiMliiigi-  ^  ^""  regulated  avlf-eatppiii  oliviouiily  givoH 
iJiit  coiifiilcnco  III  uumolvi's  and  our  powerr  which  in 
Decenary  lor  all  our  cllortii  in  life ;  while  a  niodcrutu  re- 
iui  to  tlin  upiiiiuni  of  otiivra  ii  unoful  in  prompting  to 
luch  elfurtj.  and  in  rcHtruining  uh  from  inuny  diHphiya 
ot'calirico  uii.l  ubHurdity  to  which  weahould  othvrwiiie  lio 
liable.  It  will  of  courso  bo  well  to  encourage  them)  fuol- 
iiigi,  t»  tiir  an  tliey  tend  to  give  necewcjiry  confulence, 
iiul  tP  iimiiituin  a  decent  regard  for  iharactor  in  the 
world,  tut  no  further.  Thoir  vicck,  pride  and  viiiiity, 
lo)  nii.ch  reliance  upon  xelf,  and  too  abject  a  rej^aid  to 
liie  vrurld'H  opinion,  aro  to  bo  acdulouiily  guarded  ugaiimt. 
la  the  priH'cdure  of  education,  they  are  ao  readily  avail- 
ilile  M  lucaiia  of  Htimulating  to  exertion  and  encouraging 
jDixl  (that  in,  not  trouhlegome)  behaviour,  that  it  is  not 
wrprifing  that  they  uru  ao  extenxively  made  uxe  of  for 
liiote  purpoHcs.  The  whole  aygtcin  of  plucu-taking, 
uriiMi  aiedali,  (Sec,,  w  founded  on  thom.  It  cannot  bo 
liottbted  that  educatom  are  thus  guilty,  in  many  iuHtaiicea, 
(^'  Ibiilvring  invidious  and  even  destructive  leeliii|{H  in 
thow  uiiilor  their  chargu ;  the  whole  syHtem  is  uiiijucs- 
djuably  a  deUiMh  one.  Fueling  strongly  these  objt'ctions, 
kjiiie  inudcra  educationists  advocate  the  entire  abolition 
of  ail  marks  of  eniuliitwcly  lom/ianilivt  prolicienry  or  good 
Iwiiaviuur  at  school,  rctuiniiig  only  an  accurate  resistor 
111  individual  advancement,  to  enable  the  pupil  to  mark 
'iU  own  progress.  Theoretically  this  ia  right ;  and  we 
may  bo|)e  that,  when  education  is  fully  organized  on  a 
ngbt  fooling  and  sujiportcd  by  an  improved  udult  society, 
llu  whole  syHlem  of  compel itioii,  including  every  kind  of 
retrinl*  and  pmiisltments,  will  be  dis|)enKed  with.  Mean- 
iilille  we  must  leave  educatora  to  act  on  thesu  |>oints  ac- 
cuiiliag  to  their  best  discretion,  only  strongly  recommeiid- 
luji  them  to  dispense  us  far  as  poaaible  with  ull  these 
lulbridr,  and,  lo  a  certain  extent,  dejsiadin^;  luid  corrupting 
uillucnces. 

Cautiousness — a  feeling  intended,  in  t  <<  right  direction, 
U>  prompt  lo  foresight  and  the  avoidance  of  unnecessary 
daagen,  but,  in  ila  excess,  pusillanimity  and  cowirlice — 
callK  for  a  careful  trcutincnU  Among  unthinU  ;,-;  per- 
uat,  it  is  mere  sport  to  frighten  ihildrcn  with  iMirutives, 
rbjocta,  and  exclamations,  calculated  to  inspire  terror. 
Thus  thoir  imaginations  are  filled  with  bugbi'ars,  which 
kuajs  them  constantly,  and  make  it  the  severest  punisli- 
■ent  to  be  letl  at  any  time  alone,  or  to  be  in  the  dark.  In 
BUM  where  a  predisposition  exists,  the  most  serious  con- 
aquences  sometimes  tlow  from  this  irrational  treatment. 
All  (nlightcuod  educator  never  allows  an  ideal  terror  of 
tiiy  kind  tu  enter  the  mind  of  his  child  or  pupil.  As 
llie  teelini;  may  bo  strong  or  weak  in  the  |iarticular 
cuu,  he  seeks  to  moderate  or  to  foster  it,  giving  eiicou- 
-a^'ement  and  stimulus  if  it  be  defective,  and  prompting 
iu  caution  it'  it  bo  otherwise.  He  carefully  imuressea 
tu)  Icason  that  danger  and  hazard  may  be  laudably 
•ocouuirrcd  for  a  good  object,  but  that  it  is  ft^ly  to 
uiulerlakc  the  least  risk  when  no  end  is  to  be  gained 
3J  it.  For  example,  ho  o'luld  approve  of  his  pupil 
perilling  bis  own  life  to  «a«e  •  friend  troia  drowning, 

Vol.  I.— 4  it 


but  not  cf  'ill  going  mtom  •  lak*  thinly  ttntmn,  nifraly 
to  show  his  courage. 

The  sellUb  feelings  appear  in  a  natural  siihordinatloa 
to  thoiie  which  are  usually  railed  "  higher."  and  *om*> 
timi^i,  byexcrllencfl,  •<  the  moral  lontimenla."  Thoae  ara 
whwt  mainly  give  the  rharartoristir,  "  goiHlnran,"  to  ui 
iiidiviili)<il,  and  so  rule  the  lorial  machine,  that  general 
movnn;enta  are  usually  of  a  virtuous  chorarter,  nnd  vlc» 
is  obliged  lo  remain  in  nooks  and  comers,  or  put  on  th* 
giirh  of  virtue  when  shn  ap|)ear*.  It  is  to  the  proper 
training  .ind  rpgidution  of  this  elaia  of  feelings  that  th« 
ediirntor  chielly  looks  for  the  result  he  aims  at — nameW, 
the  right  forniiitiim  of  character. 

('oiiscientinusness,  the  conscience,  the  moral  sense,  or 
by  whatever  other  name  it  is  called,  is  that  innate  feeling 
which  gives  the  disposition  to  follow  right  and  av^ld 
wrong  in  all  eircumslanres.  To  bring  this  leeling  into 
its  full  force,  it  is  necessary  to  train  it  with  the  aid  ol 
intellect  to  lend  it  discrimination.  The  pupil  must  he 
accustomed  to  olmervo  its  rules,  as  to  the  pr()()erty  of 
others,  their  reputation,  their  comfort,  and  happiness,  the 
right  decision  of  every  question  in  which  their  interesta 
are  concerned,  anil  also  with  regard  to  the  truth  in  all 
things,  I^Iu  ihuN  l)ecoines  fixed  in  e(|uitali|e,  diKiiilrrrsledt 
and  ingenuous  linbils,  beyond  all  the  powers  iif  onlinari' 
temptation.  It  will  tie  no  exercise  to  this  sentiment,  to 
tell  the  young  to  avoid  certain  acts,  because  they  ate 
mean  and  only  firaclised  by  the  vile,  or  bccBUse  they  will 
procure  univi^rsal  o<lium.  That  is  an  apin-id  to  love  of 
approbation,  not  to  consrientiousness,  lo  the  develop- 
ment of  which  it  will  bo  rather  unfavourable  than  other- 
wise. To  fortify  conscientiousness  against  what  ia 
wrong,  we  must  directly  uldrcss  itself,  by  an  endeavour 
to  show  the  actual  unjustness  or  bHweness  of  any  par- 
ticular course  of  conduct,  or  the  integrity  atid  purity  of 
the  opposite ;  taking  care  to  induce  an  act  positively 
conscientious  on  all  [KMsible  occasions,  as  in  iho  actinH 
U|>on  a  sentiment  do  tho  means  of  improving  it  chiefly 
lie. 

80,  also,  with  benevolence.  We  must  not  content 
ourselves  with  presenting  ideal  pictures  of  tho  distressea 
of  our  fellow-creatures  to  the  minds  of  the  young,  think- 
ing that  to  excite  their  commiseration  is  ennugli.  We 
must  endeavour  to  induce  them  to  p<'rform  itcli  oi  kind- 
nesa  and  charity — we  must  endeavour  to  muko  them 
give,  from  their  own  means,  or  at  some  exptinue  of  self- 
denial,  succour  to  the  unfortunate ;  and  for  this  reason 
it  will  be  proper  that  they  arc  occasionally  brought  to 
witness  cases  of  actual  sutFering,  and  made  to  administer 
relief  with  their  own  hands.  It  was  a  beautiful  old  cus- 
tom of  (.'hristian  princes  and  princesses,  to  havo  a  num- 
ber of  poor  persons  occasionally  brought  before  them, 
that  thoy  might  administer  to  their  relief  and  comfort  by 
washing  their  feet  with  their  own  hands.  It  was  itl 
least  good  eflect  to  humble  rank  to  the  level  of  mortality : 
the  better  one  was  to  give  activity  to  the  sentiment  of 
benevolence,  too  apt  in  such  persons  to  become  dormant, 
from  their  very  elevation  above  all  spheres  in  which 
humari  suHering  exists.  Benevolence  is  also  to  be  shown 
in  what  is  called  an  obliging  disposition,  a  readiness  to 
sacritice  ourselves  and  take  some  trouble  whenever  our 
doing  so  can  at  oil  promote  the  happiness  of  our  fellow- 
creatures.  It  is  likewise  shown  in  mercy  towards  the 
weak,  including  animals,  and  in  a  forgiving  placable  tem- 
per. "  Teach  your  children  never  to  wound  a  person's 
ieelings  bt^cauue  he  is  poor,  because  he  is  dclbrincd,  b^ 
cause  he  is  unfortunate,  because  he  holds  an  lunnble  sta 
tion  in  life,  liecauso  he  is  poorly  clad,  because  he  is  weak 
in  body  and  muid,  because  he  is  awkward,  or  bccauaa 
the  God  of  nature  has  bestowed  upon  him  a  darker 
than  theirs."* 

Justice  and  kindness  to  others  havo  a  worthy  1 


*  OooUrich'a  Fireside  EducBUOik 
3K 


INFORMATION   FOU  THFI   PFOPI.K. 


hi  rrtp^H  (IT  TtnernHon  for  olhf  m  who  nm  of  iiii[HTior 
worth,  itnil  r«r  Nii|N-rior  ohjiTln  in  irriii-ral.  iiirliidinx  tlir 
oJ^rotn  of  rrlii(imia  fiiith.  Tlii"  i»  nlwi  n  iiiilivr  MMili- 
■k'tit  of  thn  inifiil,  11111  one  which  n'mU  n  lirniilirii!  IIkIiI 
ihroimhiiiil  ihi'  worlil.  Thr  ncoffliiK  miil  uiiiliTviiluiiiif 
propMiHily  i/<  iu  n|ip»Milti>,  •  (liii|i««ilioii  mn-ly  found  mho- 
maMtl  with  ifitiniiil'li^  ijiinhtii-*.  'I'lu'  urnliinrnl  of  viiii'- 
ralion  ia  Ihiit  on  whi>'h  ill  nirial  KTuiirii  ih'|M>nil ;  it  ii<  tli<< 
•l^lril  of  milNmlinii  <<)ii  ilio'lf.  It  in  n  folly  whrn  rxrr- 
ciwil  with  rritiiri'  to  mm  tirliflriHl  rniik  iinnttrmlnl  liy 
worthy  i|iin!llip'  ;  hut  with  rPKnril  lo  |H-r»i>nri  rlcvRlfd 
nHhrr  liy  thi'ir  .intirr  itooil  ,|uiilili<<is  or  thr  function  which 
hmi  tvcii  inliiiatril  to  them  to  oxmilp,  it  in  im  niiirh  ilni' 
■■  in  .iiir  pi  y  nnil  nurrr.ur  for  the  unfortiincttp.  It  in  /ht- 
hap«  thin  li'i'linit  whirh  rhiofly  Rivm  n  rcifiirtl  for  thr 
frcliiiKu  of  otliprn;  for  wp  nitiiit  think  onr  fcllow-crpiitiirn 
of  i«inu>  coMi«"(|iicnrr,  U'forp  wr  will  lip  ili«|)oiH<(l  to  ^o 
•ut  of  mir  wiiy  on  their  nrrouiit.  Tlip  fi'rIinBj,  tliprpf.irp, 
•miiuMitly  ili'MTvca  thp  riiri>  of  thp  cihinilor;  Imt  itrrnt 
paiiiii  nniat  Im'  tiilcpn  to  Rivp  it  riKht  (lirprlion.  Wo  niiiKt 
Icarh  tlii<  youfiK  to  (liarriniinntp  jililiiimmly  M  to  ohjrrtii 
ffally  Pulitli'tl  to  their  revi-renri'.  iT  iniiy  hprn  Iw  rp- 
niarkcd.  Ihjit  thr  fcclinK  of  vrnoration  in  ono  which  may 
provp  of  uTi'at  im|iorlanrp  in  ciTtain  coiitini(rticirH  to 
which  thi)  cilurntor  ia  liahlr.  When  a  child  hiin  lirrn 
indulunl  or  niiH-tntinrd  to  >u*'h  nn  r\tpiit  thnl  Iip  drflc* 
•II  the  rcin«  to  which  hp  hnit  ln'cn  accuatoincd,  it  will 
gpnrrally  Im*  found  that  rrmovliiR  liioi  tu  a  new  arrnp, 
and  into  the  chiirgo  of  individutilo  who,  whether  from 
their  character  or  from  the  force  of  novelty,  pxcite  thp  veup- 
ration  of  tlip  youni;  dp|tn<|iient.  U  attfiidnl  with  a  good 
etrect,  which  it  only  nv|uirpa  firnnieiui,  diwrrtion,  and 
kindnrm  in  tho  now  teacher  lu  follow  up,  for  a  CDin|ilptp 
raformation. 

Tfio  ntidvfl  may  be  ioid  to  be  the  nntiira!  mpana  of 
cultivating  and  firming  the  moral  chunicter  of  thuHP 
Intnioted  ti)  our  hands.  And  thew  nuturul  mean*  are 
of  great  coiiHvi|Upncc,  and  entitled  lo  all  tho  reMfn-rt  wo 
can  Rive  them ;  for  they  iire  in  realilj  nuMim  of  diviiip 
appointment,  dcaignpil  to  lorve  in  tho  great  work  of 
mutual  iniprovempnt.  Rut  tho  motit  |iowcrful  meanN  of 
modifying  human  charact<-r  ia  that  other  revelation  which 
haa  come  lo  uh  hi  a  more  direct  manner,  anil  which  in 
fully  disclowd  in  the  imjfea  of  Scripture.  A»  aoon  an 
thia  can  lie  made  intelligililp  to  the  youni;,  it  Hhould  In> 
imparted,  not  under  tlioxe  rudely  familiar  circuiuKtanccK 
which  too  otU-n  attend  religiouH  educiitinn  in  the  achmil- 
room  and  at  home,  where  the  child  in  conwinus  of  little 
beaides  a  Htruggle  to  commit  certain  texta  anil  dii!;maN  to 
memory,  hut  in  the  quirt  of  rontiilential  ronverxr,  when 
the  thouglitri  are  railed  home,  and  the  loul  in  o|H'n  to 
•we,  love,  hiipt\  and  all  tlie  gentler  umotiona  of  our  na- 
ture. Then  may  we  ho|>e  to  convey  aome  just  impreit- 
■iona  of  tlio  grand  yet  tender  relation  in  which  man 
•landa  to  his  Creator,  his  drxtiny  on  earth,  und  tho  a\>- 
pointinentii  fur  tlie  future.  Then  only  may  we  hojic  to 
impart  just  feelings  with  rei^rd  to  the  iiiKcrutuble  scheme 
on  which  the  weal  or  wo  of  an  eternity  de|iends.  It  is 
•bvious  that,  if  wo  succeed  in  these  things,  we  must 
•waken  in  the  moral  nature  a  self-HUHtaining  influence 
infinitely  more  powerfiil  than  precept,  example,  training, 
and  :ill  the  other  natund  niailiiner)'  of  a  moral  educa- 
tion. Vet  it  should  never  Iw  lost  sight  of,  that  neither 
meaua  will  MUKly  !«  op<'rativc.  Upon  a  mind  which  has 
licen  left  rude  and  nprnrulatetl,  the  efliirts  which  ulii- 
luately  take  the  nanie  of  rcliuious  education  can  make 
little  impression.  The  words  which  have  been  learned 
mil  probably  remain  only  as  words,  without  producing 
any  real  religious  ftieling,  much  less  any  improvpuiont 
ot  conduct  Indeed,  both  the  morulx  and  the  intellect 
must  be  cultivated  to  a  considerable  extent,  In'fore  n-ligion 
can  be  any  tiling  but  ■  passing  sound.  There  must  l<e 
•  prc]iarcd  intellect  to  undi'r&taiid  it,  and  prepared  moral 
i*jiji){t  to  give  it  a  revcri'ntial  receptiuA,  and  cutcrtain 


its  behpsia  in  the  spirit  d  M>  to  thpin,  not  to  speak  ■A  m. 
ing  iipun  its  prpee|ilN. 

To  rprnpitiilate — the  moral  nurtnre  of  Ihr  yotmjL. 
hv  acciiinplinbrd  by  a  variety  "f  means:  flmi,  hy  p|^ 
tbi'iii   in   a   pure   moral   alnumphpre,  prpsenling  whii  u 
gmnl   and   nothing  evil  of  humiin  rondiict  liernre  i|uk 
sight,  familinriTing  them  with  pvrry  sound  prerppl  •.! 
gitinit  their  various  feelings  due  rrgidallon,  exeniwi  •.  i 
training  ;  next,  by  imbuing  them,  under  the  eirrunwlii,,^ 
most  calculated  to  In<  rifective,  with  those  religious  irnih 
which   so  inflnilply  traiuu'i ml   all   others  in  imtiortinni. 
In  iinler  to  impress  our  leoMons  utill  Miore  piiiiii|.,||. 
Iii'g  to  uild  some  exprens  directinns,  whirl,  wi,  ||,j„|, 
'n'  ailvniitagrouHly  fnllowril   in   the  miiinixenM'nl  of  t|u 
young,  more  particularly  tlmse  at  the  intiint  "tige. 

.XiiticipatP  and  prevent  fretfulness  and  ilMeinpur  bi 
keeping  the  rhilil  in  RimmI  henlth,  cum-,  and  comioA 
Never  i|uiet  with  giving  to  eat,  or  )iv  bribing  in  mi 
way,  still  lesa  by  opiati's.  F'lr  the  Unit  few  monllu 
avoid  loud  and  harsh  sounds  in  the  hearing  of  rhi|(ln.n 
or  violent  lights  in  their  sight :  address  iheni  in  mi 
tones;  do  nothing  In  filghten  tbeiii ;  and  never  iprli » 
roughly  handle  them.  Avoiil  ongry  words  ami  violprw 
iHith  to  n  rhilil  and  in  iii  (iresence,  by  which  meanii 
niitiirally  violent  child  will  be  trained  to  u'entl«no« 
Misleratr  any  propensity  of  a  cliild,  surh  as  nnifpr  vjiw 
Irnce,  greediness  for  Sxwl.  running,  <Vr.,  which  snnrin 
too  active,  Whow  him  no  exuniple  of  these.  \,e\  \]^ 
mother  lie,  and  let  her  sclcit  servants,  such  as  'he  »pi,|i^ 
the  child  to  l>r.  The  youngest  child  is  alleiteil  by  ||^ 
conduct  of  Ihowi  in  whnw  arms  he  lives.  Cuhivolp  imj 
exprens  iM'novnlence  and  cheerfulness;  in  such  an  au 
monphere  n  child  mu"t  liecome  benevolent  ami  rlufrfiiL 
Let  a  motlicr  frel  im  thr  mitih',  and  she  will  Ink  at  ihi 
fieh.  Much  of  a  child's  earliest  moral  Iraiiiiiiij  ia  U 
ionks  and  gestures.  When  necessary,  exhiliit  firninpii 
and  authority,  always  with  perfect  temper,  componif. 
and  Helf-posseHsiofi.  Never  give  the  child  that  whirh  || 
cries  fur ;  and  avoid  lieing  tiKi  ready  in  auHwerinij  rhij. 
dien'H  demands,  else  they  become  impatient  of  rcfimj 
and  si'lli»h.  When  the  child  in  nuist  violent,  the  mother 
nIiiiuIiI  lir  most  calm  and  silent.  Out-serrarning  aarrram. 
ing  child  is  as  useloss  as  it  is  nusriiievous.  StuJ. 
denial  of  the  object  H»reaineil  for  is  the  Is'sl  cure  foi 
si-reaniing.  In  such  cnntesls,  witnesses  should  nithilnw, 
ond  leave  mother  and  child  alone.  A  child  is  very  reujj 
lo  liwik  round  and  attract  the  aid  o(  /areiun  sympathy  u 
its  little  reliellions.  Never  prDinise  to  give  whrn  thi 
child  leaves  olT  rrying:  let  the  crying  Is'  thr  reawn  lot 
iii}l  giving.  Constant  waniiiigs,  refiroofs,  threats,  ai,i 
entreaties — as,  Irl  Ihiit  iilonr — he  qiiiei — hnr  n(iii[;lit\/  yw 
(ire,  &c.,  all  uttered  in  haste  and  irritation,  are  most  pf^ 
nirious.  No  fixed  or  ilrfinite  moral  imiirovcniont,  htl 
the  rrvrrse,  results  from  this  too  riiumimi  praotic* 
Watch  deMtructivrness,  shown  in  fly  and  insect  killing, 
and  smashing  anil  breaking,  quaa'-lling,  strikini;,  tu. 
Never  encourage  revenge.  Never  allow  a  chiiJ  ti  wit. 
ness  the  killing  of  animals,  ('ouuterwork  secrelivrnni 
by  exiMifing  its  manieuvres.  Refrulate  iiotiona  ol  prv 
jierty — one's  own  and  amuher's.  Never  strike  a  child, 
and  never  leach  it  to  strike  aiTaiii.  Never  tell  a  child  l« 
l)eat  or  threaten  any  animal  or  object  Corporal  rom*. 
tion  may  lie  avoided  by  juiliinoUN  sulw-titute*.  H<t  an 
rxam|i|p  of  cleanline».s,  order,  punctuality,  delicacy,  |» 
liteness,  and  pro|>er  ea«>  ol  matiner.  This  is  liettfr  Ihin 
tturhinz  »mJrwur».  as  it  is  called.  Inculcate  early,  and 
manifest  in  yourself,  a  dilicale  regard  lor  thi'  risht'ot 
others  and  their  feelings,  in  contrast  with  sellish  vanity, 
arrogance,  and  exclusive  attention  lo  one's  own  eaie, 
comfort  and  gratification.  Prevent  all  indelicacira  and 
slovenly  habits  at  table — touching  the  utensils,  strotehinj 
for  what  is  wanted,  sitting  awkwordly,  Ac.  Stuily  fany 
lo  gain  a  child's  coiiliJencc  by  judicious  nyinjiiilliy  in  ill 
joys    and    aorrowa.      Have    no    concealment  »ith  il 


BDUCATION. 


MT 


ti|i 


tftnilt  n  lo**<  *"*'  ""^  hy  A  «r !  th«  ronlriiit  lM>lw(«ri 
riiiMn'n  fuvrrnfii  I'V  lh«  one  iinil  thn  otiiera  in  truly  in- 
■miiilt*-  Nevr  forifiit  that  k  ndnrM  ii  pciwrr  with  iiinti 
iicl  !»•«••  Tkt  .iriih  nrvtr  ilrikri  hii  hiimr.  <'iiUiviilc 
iriiih,  Jii'li'^'  ""''  ■'■■X'lour  in  >'<"  diild,  tinl  miiiiirmt 
ilifni  ill  yiir*'"''     With  •  child  whumi  flrmnoM  i«  Rpt 

nin  int"  otnlinncy,  novrr  rontt'nd  ;  in  doinif  «o,  you 
,ura»«U<  111"  fi'''liiiH  N  mtnifmtinp;  Ihn  »nrnii  Cfclitin  in 
.mrarlli  *'"'  ''^  '*>'*'"''  "liowinff  your  ronilNitivonomi, 
(icilir.K  (ha  rhild'ii  oppiiiiillon.  Divert  thi'  rhilil  from 
ihii  ohK'''-  "'"'  I'"'  '"  "'''''''y  '•■  U'novojpnrit,  juiticp, 
iiiil  itiwin.  Nfvi-r  friKhIrn  to  olilniti  a  child'i  oU'ilirnre: 
thTtU  1)1'  hiiliifolilinii,  and  nil  Inliw  trrrura,  am  moat 
iiiioriiMiii  in  lln'ir  diroot  <'iri'cU,  and,  U'inn  KBnrrnlly  dii- 
ciniTnl  lo  '"'  fiil«i'li'>o<l».  o|M>rali>  miMt  iniinornlly. 

We  Ix'K  I"  •'oni'liiclr  tlio  mctlon  with  thn  fullowinK 
rrmirlo  Trom  Dr.  ('nnilH.>'a  rxcnllrnt  miiniinl  for  th« 
BiiiiiiK"''!"'"'  "f  '»f'>'i'"y :— "  It  ia  a  coinninii  and  pcr- 
gii'iou*  cror  ill  inodrrn  rducntion,  thiit  thn  paaaiona  and 
niiiril  rmotloMD  iinplnntnd  in  the  human  miiiil  are  the 
mulu  of  iiitellrctual  rultivntion ;   that  intclhictual  dii- 

ilin«  will  MUincfl  to  rcifulntn  them.  Under  thia  mia- 
Uki'D  niilion,  pnrrnta  are  often  diaappointnd  and  dia- 
nii'Dfinl  with  a  i-liild,  when,  allnr  a  lull  enpluiiiition  of  the 
uiipniprii'ly  of  tlio  frt>lini(  or  p:taAion,  it  itill,  on  thn  re- 
ntrrriice  of  thn  ti'iiiplntion,  ((ivna  way  to  it  aa  niurh  aa 
brllire.  I  liavi*  known  a  father,  under  this  fiilHe  iinprea- 
H.m, Icclure,  mid  tlirenten,  and  piiniHli  hia  child,  and  take 
ttrrr  wi«y  to  correct  it  liut  the  rl|{ht  one,  Fortunutely 
lor  mankind,  however,  morality  and  reli){ion  have  a  much 
more  iKilld  foundulinn  than  a  mere  deduction  from  an 
ertinii  iiitt'llect,  'J'iiey  are  Imtii'd  on  fet'lin((ii  iinplunted 
1,1  Ihe  very  niilure  of  man,  mid  whirh  mere  intelleetiial 
cullivitioii  or  iii'iflrct  iiin  neither  Reiieralo  nor  deHtroy ; 
iml  their  real  Htrenittli  and  authority  will  not  he  fully 
rrtotinin'd,  till  they  arn  eherinhed  and  dove|o|ied  in  strict 
kvurdinco  with  their  niitiiral  cuiiHtltuti  m,  Kike  the 
er>rii»l  wiiHen,  thoy  miiHt  lie  hahituitlly  cxnrciHed  upon 
Ihfir  ippropriiito  olijerta— in  worHliippinn  the  true  (Jixl, 
iiiil  in  doiiiK  jiiMtiee,  mid  lovini?  morcy — liofora  they  can 
itttin  tlieir  profH-r  inducncn  over  thn  charnctur,  and  their 
true  luthiirity  in  rcituhitin^  human  conduct.  From  uU 
miMt  the  I'lrat  hour  of  exi8teiicn,  thiM  irinciple  ahould  lie 
ivftdnatieully  acted  upon,  niid  the  utinont  care  \w  taken 
to  necuri!  at  nil  times  a  healthy  moral  atnioxphero  for  the 
;;unif.  'I'o  do  (Hirfeot  juHtice  to  the  infant,  thnre  ia  ro- 
quirwl,  on  the  part  of  tlio  mother,  a  comliination  of  cheer- 
ful actiwty,  niHul  WMise,  knowledge,  rcadinoM  of  resource, 
I'lii  uiifailiiii;  kiiiilneHs  and  impartiality,  which  is  not 
oiii-n  tu  he  met  with.  But  liy  uiiniii|f  at  a  hiqih  Htnndard, 
nrohall  make  a  nearer  approximation  to  what  ia  rci|ulred, 
L'liii  if  wc  rest  satisfied  in  indilfereiice  with  whatever 
orcurs.  It  is  lumentatile  tu  reflect  how  numerous  are 
Ihiae  motliiTs,  who,  from  indolence  or  other  causea, 
lotve  the  entire  control  of  their  olFsprinK  to  nn  uncjuali- 
6(iii  attendant,  and  even  themstdves  ^ive  way  to  expiea- 
liona  of  aimer  or  caprice,  which  cannot  fail  to  act  in- 
jurioualy  u|)on  the  infant  mind.  Let  us,  then,  not  deceive 
ouriielves,  but  over  hear  in  mind,  that  what  wo  desire  our 
cliildrcn  to  liecome,  we  must  cnde;ivour  to  bo  before  them. 
If  ive  wish  them  to  grow  up  kind,  gentle,  aflectionate, 
upright,  and  true,  we  must  habitually  exhibit  the  aame 
qualities  as  regulating  |)rinciples  in  our  conduct,  because 
(use  qualities  act  as  so  many  stimuli  to  the  res|>uctive 
faculties  in  the  child.  If  we  cannot  restrain  our  own 
paMJons,  but  at  one  timn  overwhelm  the  young  with 
kiiidiKMand  at  another  surprise  and  confound  them  by 
our  c«(<rico  or  deceit,  we  may  with  aa  much  reason  ex- 
pect to  gather  grapes  from  thistles,  or  figs  from  thorna, 
■a  to  develop  moral  purify  and  simplicity  of  character  in 
thftiL  It  is  vain  to  urgun  thiit,  l)ccause  the  infant  intel- 
lect is  feeble,  it  cannot  detect  the  inconsistency  which  we 
prurtise.  The  feelings  and  masoning,  faculties  being 
jet&aij  dijliiict  froni  each  otltcr,  may,  and  sometimes 


do,  act  indr|M<iidently ;  and  the  frellnga  at  onre  Mndemn, 
althiiiiKh  the  judKinenI  may  Iw  unable  to  assign  •  reamn 
for  doing  SI).  Here  is  another  of  the  many  admirahto 
lironfa  which  wn  meet  with  in  the  animal  economy  of  Iha 
harmony  and  U'liiily  winch  |N-rvnde  all  the  works  of  f  (oil, 
and  which  render  it  iiniNMWililn  to  pursue  a  right  coiirMi 
without  also  doing  colliitersi  gixsl,  or  In  pursue  a  wrnng 
roiirse  wi'limit  pro<lii>'iiig  collateral  evil.  If  the  nioinef, 
for  nxaniple,  controls  her  own  lein|ier  for  the  sake  of  hat 
child,  and  riideavcuirs  systematically  to  irek  thn  giiiilane* 
of  hnr  higher  and  pure  feelings  in  her  general  coiiilnci, 
the  go(Ml  which  results  is  not  limited  to  thn  coiisei|uenl 
improvement  of  iho  chilil.  Mhe  hnrxelf  U'comes  heidthier 
and  happier,  and  every  day  adds  to  tlin  pleasure  of  sUb 
cess.  If  the  mother,  on  thn  other  band,  givna  way  to 
Hts  of  passion,  sidllNhness,  caprice,  and  injustice,  the  evil 
is  by  no  means  limited  to  the  sulU'riiig  which  she  bringa 
upon  herstdf.  Her  child  also  sutfers,  Isith  in  dis|Hisitioil 
and  in  happiness ;  anil  while  the  mother  secuina,  in  tha 
Olio  case,  the  love  and  regard  of  all  who  come  into  roil> 
municalion  with  her,  she  rousea,  in  the  other,  only  their 
fear  or  disliko." 

INTRLLirTIJAL   EDrCATIOR. 

By  intollectual  education  we  hold  it  to  be  implied  thai 
the  hiimnn  intellect,  oriinmdly  a  mere  instrument  ready 
to  be  cxerti'd,  reiiuires,  fur  (ho  full  dovelopmnnt  of  iit 
powers,  and  sub.He(|uently,  for  the  ready  use  of  tho« 
|)owers,  llin  upplicMtion  of  certain  external  stimuli,  and 
the  force  and  regulation  of  a  certain  discipline;  also, 
that  the  intellect,  besides  being  thus  improved  in  its  own 
character  and  energies,  requires  to  lie  possessed  of  certain 
kriinvledge  and  certain  ncc(>m|ilishments,  in  order  to  a 
pr()|H'r  iM'rformaiicu  of  the  various  duties  of  life.  We 
ahall  not  slop  to  make  n  nice  investigation  aa  '  ha 
various  powers  of  the  intellect  and  their  modes  of  umng, 
hut  at  once  assiiino  that,  with  senses  serving  as  media 
for  the  access  of  impressinns  from  the  external  world,  it 
includes  powers  which  can  tuko  cognisance  of  things,  or 
perceive,  and  [siwers  which  can  compare  things,  and 
trace  their  connection  in  cause  and  ellcct  (reflecting) ; 
these  having  various  modes  of  action  recogiiisod,  M 
memory,  association,  tScc;  and  that  these  varioMs  media, 
|)owers,  and  modes  of  operation,  may  all  be  improved  by 
use  and  exercise. 

Intellectual  education  properly  begini  with  the  itral 
symptoms  of  consciousness  in  the  infant — the  first  indi- 
cations that  the  senses  and  internal  observing  powers,  tha 
germs  of  which  etist  in  the  youngest  infant,  are  begin- 
ning to  act. 

The  senses  require  the  earlieit  attention  of  the  nursa. 
Sight,  hearing,  and  touch,  are,  in  a  v  short  time  after 
birth,  in  obvious  activity  ;  but  they  requj ic  at  first  tu  be 
very  delicately  treated.  Exposure  to  bright  lights  and 
Rudilen  loud  sounds,  has  produced  blindness  and  dcafneaa 
for  life.  Both  senses  should  be  brought  on  gradually. 
These,  aa  well  as  touch,  should  then  be  judiciously  exer* 
cised  upon  their  own  objects,  placed  at  diflferent  and  ic- 
creasing  audible  and  visible  distances,  till  at  great  distancea 
objects  can  be  seen  and  slight  sounds  heard.  Object* 
should  also  lie  touched  blindfold,  and  discriminated. 
I^mull  and  taste  are  improvable  by  aimilar  means.  It 
would  form  an  extremely  interesting  occupation  to  an 
intelligent  nurse,  for  many  a  moment  of  ennui  which 
she  now  endures,  in  her  care  of  an  infant,  to  exercise  ita 
senses  on  tlieir  appropriate  objects.  When  nothing  is 
done,  or  when  the  chihl  is  shut  up  in  a  small  room  with 
no  range  of  vision,  not  only  ia  no  progress  madu,  but 
there  is  great  danger  of  shurt-sightedneas  being  citiiei 
induced  or  aggravated. 

Leaving  the  external  senses,  and  advancing  tu  the  in- 
ternal faculties  of  the  mind — the  powers  ul  feeling,  o)v 
serving,  and  thinking — we  miy  remark  that  the  btaui, 
which  is  UK  much  Uie  in.siruuu'itt  of  these  powcia  as  tee 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


9je»  and  itara  are  >f  their  reapertive  extornai  aenws,  ia 
•t  birth,  and  for  lonie  time  after  it,  too  imperfect  and 
delicate  in  ita  substance  for  active  manifcatation.  The 
desire  of  food,  and  aenaibility  to  bodily  pain,  alone  appear, 
•nd  are,  indeed,  all  that  are  then  necessary.  But  the 
more  delicate  the  brain,  the  more  delicately  ought  it  to 
be  treated ;  for  an  injury  to  it  may  proiluce  idiocy  or 
imbecility  for  life.  In  the  exercise  and  cultivation  of  the 
intellectual  organa,  it  has  been  found,  from  experience, 
that  great  caution  ia  required.  It  ia  here  that  the  brain 
is  most  apt  to  be  overworked ;  and  it  ia  here  that  that 
premature  activity,  called  prerority,  appears.  Under  the 
head  Precocity,  Mra.  Barwell  gives  the  following  einpliatic 
couiiiicl : — "  When  a  child  appears  to  l>e  over-tii(i7/ijfenr, 
or  too  rltver  or  wue  for  its  age,  this  ia  a  symptom  of  un- 
natural development  of  the  brain ;  it  is  a  kind  of  disease, 
which  oAen  ends  fatally.  Avoid,  therefore,  exorcising 
the  child's  ability ;  treat  it  as  an  animal,  with  nutritive 
Ibod,  muscular  out-door  exercise,  and  plenty  of  sleep; 
and  do  this,  and  this  only,  for  some  years."  We  allude 
to  the  subject  of  precocity  thus  early,  in  treating  of  in- 
tellectual training,  because  its  indications  often  appear  in 
very  early  infmcy,  and  erroneous  treatment  cannot  bo 
too  .'joon  avoided. 

Before  two  years  of  age,  much  important  intcllectuul 
«<liication  is  going  on.  It  is  not  the  education  of  books; 
it  is  gradual  introduction  to  surrounding  olijects.  How 
early  the  eyes  arc  used  to  gaze  at,  and  tlie  hands 
■trctchcd  out  to  grasp  and  become  familiar  with,  every 
thing  presxmted  or  observed,  need  not  1><»  here  insisted 
on.  A  judicious  nurse  will  direct  this  impulse  of  na- 
ture and  much  assist  this  self-education,  so  that  the  ear- 
liest impressions  may  be  made  by  such  objects  as  form 
Ihn  materials  of  existence,  nnJ  their  qualities,  never  to 
be  eflac«d  in  after  life ;  wliiic  (he  observing  faculties  will 
have  a  healthier  growth,  by  means  of  an  easy  and 
pleasingly  directed  exercise.  Moilern  educationists  hovo 
oftcn  C4in)>laine<l  of  a  prevalent  want,  in  jx>opIe  of  all 
ages,  f  what  may  be  calle<l  obtervalivcness — the  |)Owi'r 
or  ratlier  habit  of  noticing  what  is  before  and  around  us. 
Multitudes  f)as3  through  life,  of  whom  it  may  Ih'  said 
that  they  hive  missed  four  objects  m  five  which  came  in 
tiiuir  way.  This  could  l>v  met  in  curly  infancy  by  tjiking 
the  proper  metns  of  establishing  habits  of  ohstTvation. 
"  Look  hero  ;"  "  see  this ;"  '•  feel  that ;"  "  wcigli  the  other 
thing;"  "what  beautiful  colours;"  '•smell  that  flower," 
abould  be  tiie  simple  and  constant  lessons  of  the  nurse ; 
and  ahe  would  find  both  the  intellect  and  dis|)osilions  of 
Uie  child  improved  by  such  exercise.  'I'he  contrast,  in 
Bl'liT  life,  li'tween  children  so  trained,  and  those  who 
never  observ,<  any  thing,  wouhl  be  both  striking  and 
instructive.  ') 

Fkom  Two  TO  Six  Ykahs  or  Anv.. — Intellectually 
prepared  by  the  nurse  up  to  the  |)oint  at  which  we  have 
arrived — when  the  child  has  reached  the  age  of  two 
years,  and  when,  if  it  can  by  any  means  lie  so  arranged, 
be  or  she  should  join  an  infant-school — the  intellectual 
etliicntion  will,  so  to  a[ieak,  take  a  ...ore  acholastic  form. 
The  lessons  will  be  somewhat  more  systematic,  and 
Muited  for  the  simultaneous  attention  of  numlters.  But 
still  the  caution  will  never  lie  lost  sii;ht  of,  that,  from 
two  to  six,  the  intellectual  exercis«'s  should  be  light  and 
attractive,  and  never  long  continued  at  one  fliiie ;  air, 
i'»Br«nKe,  ami  play,  regulnrly  alterii;iting  with  instniciion 
The  paramount  object  at  that  pericnl  of  life,  let  it  never 
be  forgotten,  it  nuniil  trainini;;  to  which  olyi-ct  compa- 
nion* ;if  the  same  age,  in  consiiierahle  nunilHT,  are  .is 
•  •»>t.tial  as  light  ia  In  the  exercise  of  the  eyes,  or  air  to 
that  of  the  lunga.  Benevolence,  truth,  justice,  honesty, 
att  i.-liinent,  ill  imply  companions.  Although,  at  that 
«4;e,  the  intellectual  training  ia  seromlary,  when  com- 
pari-d  with  the  moral,  yet  without  tasking  the  infnnt 
Atcultie->,  without  giving  to  the  pursuits  ony  characti-r 
iM)  attractive  than  regulated  play,  a   great  degree  of 


intellectual  acquisition   and  improTemont  mat  )n  ^ 
aUzed. 

The  introduction  which  the  child  haa  reteived  in  tS> 
nuraery  to  the  material  world,  will  form  a  stage  in  h' 
progress  for  the  more  systematic  teaching  from  two  tn 
aix  ycara  of  age.  Uhjectt  will  still  be  the  materiel  of  hi 
studies ;  but  they  will  be  so  arranged  and  classed  u  to 
conduct  him  through  a  complete  knowledge  of  the  ei 
tcrnal  features,  qualities,  and  usea — short  of  their  ch 
mical  composition — of  nearly  all  tlie  objects  with  whicK 
ordinary  life  is  conversant; — simple  objects,  parts  „( 
objects,  objects  natural  and  artificial,  mineral,  vegetablo 
animal,  with  thcir  parts,  conditions,  ditTcrences,  airrw! 
ments,  manufacture,  and  abstract  qualities,  and  clRsait;,. 
tion  of  objects  by  resemblances  and  dilTerencrg.  t,, 
these  exercises  several  hundred  useful  ideas  may  be  im. 
parted ;  all  of  them  made  real  by  the  connection  of  eacli 
with  sonic  material  type. 

(simultaneously  and  incidentally,  the  words  eiprejsino 
the  objects  and  their  qualities,  &c,  will  be  given,  and  |n 
connection  with  the  object,  will  never  be  forgotten.  In 
cidcntally,  too,  the  word  will  be  exhibited  printed,  ind 
so  rend  as  well  aa  pronounced,  and  likewise  spelled. 
The  letters  of  the  alphabet  will  be  separately  taught  ai 
objc'cts.  This  learning  of  things  and  words  togethet 
will  lie  found  lieneficial  oa  to  both.  When  the  sengei 
are  ex|>lained,  which  we  assume  has  been  done,  the  ex. 
ercise  will  lie  easy  and  improving  which  connects  tin 
objects  with  each  sense,  or  with  several  at  a  time-  In 
other  words,  whether  the  pupil  has  seen,  heard,  touched 
smilled,  tasted,  or  weighed,  the  object  or  its  quality! 
Thus,  without  a  task,  almost  insensibly,  and  as  it  were 
at  play,  the  child,  in  four  years,  will  have  attained  i 
sum  of  knowledge  of  great  extent  and  value,  which  will 
form  the  basis  of  an  enlarged  mind  in  after  life,  and 
prepare  for  the  future  acquisitions  of  science  and  philo. 
Sophy.  The  rule  should  lie  rigidly  observed,  that  no 
object  in  nature  or  art  should  ever  be  spoken  of  to  a  child 
without  an  endeavour  being  made  to  iirescnl  it  to  him 
cither  in  reality,  model,  or  drawing,  ond  this  practice  should 
lie  continued  till  the  object  has  become  familiar  to  hhn. 
Between  two  and  six,  besides  the  acquisition  of  know, 
ledire  of  objects,  much  elementary  knowledge  may  be 
gradually,  easily,  and  almost  insensibly,  imparted ;— the 
simpler  geograjihy — arithmetic  by  means  of  Wildcripin'i 
ball-frame,  or  arilhmeliroti — the  pence-table — weightj 
and  measures — letters,  syllables,  words,  lessons  on  pli. 
tures  of  animals,  &c. — lessons  on  maxims  moral  and 
prudential — anecdotes  and  stories  with  a  moral  and  im- 
proving tendency,  told  clliptieally,  that  is,  by  wnnli 
being  left  out  for  the  children  to  supply,  Ac.  At  thij 
age  the  vocal  powers  and  musical  ear  should  be  eier. 
cis<'d,  which  is  both  amusing  and  instructive  to  the 
children ;  many  of  the  lessons  may  lie  sung.  Mufh 
knowledge  of  common  and  useful  things,  connected  wih 
life  and  manners,  may  be  communicated  at  this  age, 
with  an  impression  that  will  never  lieelTaced.  Lcsstns 
too,  connected  with  cxerdse  in  the  practice,  may  be 
given  on  the  benefits  of  cleanliness,  ventilation,  tcmpe. 
ranee,  with  all  the  evil  effects  of  their  contriirirs;  while 
prejudices,  fallacies,  tyrannies,  cruellies,  uiifairiieiisei, 
selfishnesses,  bad  habits,  Ac,  all  of  which  n|)crati!  so 
mischievously  on  society,  may  lie  met  by  ontiii|)ation  in 
.essons  and  eountcr-practice,  po  as  to  1h'  avoiiied  in  aftei 
life.  It  is  |ilain  that  the  mural  and  intellectual  trainii:; 
must  proceed  hand  in  harid.('-) 

Kkom  Mix  to  Foibteks  Yt.ahs  of  Anx.— In  a 
rij^htly  arninged  and  complete  course  of  elementary  in- 
t»'llectual  education,  it  is  presumed  that  the  jicriod  fiom 
two  to  six  yeara  of  age  has  lieen  spent  in  an  infinu 
school.  The  cirect  which  such  a  preparation  hai  in 
facilitating  the  subsequent  operations  of  the  teacher  iim 
great,  that  everi|»  eftiirt  should  be  made  to  give  chiUlM 
the  advantage  of  it 


EDUCATION. 


SM 


Prcm  lis  ^  fourteen  is  the  period  of  the  elementary 

hoiita.  Th'*  '*  ^^^  '""^  (luriny  which  children,  be- 
nle<  htnng  their  moral  education  c»rried  on  cflTiciently, 
,.  to  be  introduced  to  those  branches  of  instruction 
nhich  »re  necessary  for  the  business  of  life— a  process 
•hich  includes  within  itself  the  exercise  and  develop- 
ment of  the  intellectual  faculties,  and  tha  formation  of 
hibiU  of  intellectual  application  and  taste. 

The  two  groat  questions  arc,  what  is  to  be  taught ; 
ud  how  are  we  to  teach  it  I  Mother  tongue — the  power 
of  retilinS  ^^  acquaintance  with  its  grammatical  struc- 
ture and  with  the  exact  meanings  of  its  words,  and  the 
nower  of  composing  it  with  fluency  and  elegance — is 
wrttinly  entitled  to  the  first  attention.  There  are 
thw  modes  of  teaching  it.  First,  the  old  practice  of 
instructing  ihildrcn  in  it  by  roto,  without  regarding 
thflhcr  ^ey  ever  thoroughly  comprehend  a  single  syl- 
lable of  it,  or  are  ultimately  able  to  make  the  least  use 
jf  iL  Second,  what  is  called  the  Explanatory  Method, 
nmcU«il  '1  t''"  Edinburgh  Scss-ional  School  and  many 
oihcr  seminaries,  whereby  it  is  at  least  secured  that  the 
puiiils  have  some  synonym  for  every  term  that  comes 
uniier  their  notice,  so  as  to  give  some  reason  to  believe 
ihal  they  understand  it.  Third,  thfe  E  xhibitory  Method, 
ivhich  adds  to  other  expedients  tliat  of  showing,  in  all 
possible  cases,  the  objects  referred  to  in  lessons,  or  at 
loisl  presenting  drawings  of  them  on  a  black  board  or 
otherwise.  Considering  how  little  the  young  are  pre- 
nareil  for  the  abstra'it,  and  how  eagerly,  under  a  natural 
impulse,  they  grasp  at  the  tangible,  we  need  scarcely 
lav  that  the  last  method  ap|M!ars  to  us  as  one  of  whirh 
iiivantage  should  be  taken  as  far  as  possilde. 

rhe  first  step  may  be  a  regular  series  of  lessons  on 
llie  consonants,  single  and  compound,  as  they  occur 
both  at  the  beginnings  and  ends  of  words.  In  the  se- 
lection of  monosyllabic  words  for  this  purpose,  care 
ihould  be  taken,  for  obvious  reasons,  to  avoid  such  as 
refer  to  coarse  and  moan  ideas.  The  powers  of  single 
Tonels  being  thus  also  taught,  it  will  be  proper  next  to 
idvance  to  words  in  which  double  vowels  or  digraphs 
ireeieinplified;  and  so  on,  as  in  the  work  here  referred 
10,(1)  The  lessons  for  practice  should  consist  of  sen- 
iMiceaof  such  a  nature  aa  to  admit  of  amusing  expla- 
nation and  illustration  by  sketches  on  the  black  board, 
viJ  by  aeiiaible  objects. 

1,  A'dfiifs  nf  thinK»  will  perhaps  be  best  explained  by 
ihowing  the  object  itself,  or  its  picture,  and  by  asking 
the  children  to  tell  what  they  know  ahmtl  the  object. 
Their  own  simple  definitions  are  very  often  the  best. 

3.  Hanwi  nf  qualities,  by  requesting  children  to  name 
objfola  that  hove  the  quality.  For  example,  to  explain 
(/((//— "Tell  me  ony  thing  that  is  deep."  The  following 
hive  l)een  named — "'I'he  sea,  a  well,  a  coal-pit,  a  cannl." 

3.  A'onwj  of  aclii>iis,  by  performing  the  action  numi'<l, 
or  ijescribing  it  by  some  interesting  anerdotc,  so  aa  to 
ihow  practically  the  meaning  of  the  word. 

These  suggestions  may  by  some  be  considered  trifling 
md  childish,  but  a  proper  trial  is  requested,  and  the 
rerait  will  show  whether  children  make  more  real  im- 
provement by  the  above  simple  and  obvious  expe- 
Jioiils,  01  by  etymological  crudities  and  dictionary  defi- 
niti(>n!i.(l) 

(Iraininar  will  incidentally  accompany  the  reading,  in 
the  form  of  parsing.  By  what  is  called  the  iucidintui 
miiM  much  advantage  is  gained  ;  knowli-dge  of  nn 
jhjoct  and  its  quulitiis  is  obtained ;  its  name  is  pro- 
wunrcd,  written  ilown,  and  read  ;  while  its  description 
l»  read  and  parsj'd ;  nil  wliich  exercises,  instead  of  im- 
pciliiiif,  actually  aid  ttn<l  facilitate  viwh  other.  A  judi- 
rioiis  extension  of  the  incidental  method  may  be  made 
3I1C  of  the  most  iiiiportant  means  of  advancing  popular 
iduciUion.  Learning  to  sim-II  orally  columns  of  a  book, 
II  a  waste  of  time  and  an  irksume  liilmur.  Wo  spell 
only  when  we  write ;  and  the  |>uwer  ii  really  not  at- 


tained by  the  old  school  ererciae  of  apoUing,  tat  by 
reading ;  the  words  become  familiar  to  the  eye  aa  iperilit 
forms.  No  one  who  reads  much  can  remain  a  bad 
orthographer ;  and  no  one  writes  much  who  hua  not 
previously  read  much  more, 

Simple  Lessons  in  Reading, — The  child  may  now 
make  a  step  forward  in  the  art  of  reading  and  spelling, 
and  be  prepared  for  more  methodical  intellectual  cul- 
turc.  At  the  same  time,  in  order  to  nmuse,  and  induce 
reading  for  the  picamre  »'  communicates,  the  subjects  ol 
the  lesscms  should  be  of  that  species  of  narrative  which 
delights  the  infant  mind,  bearing,  in  each  case,  a  refer- 
ence to  the  perceptions  of  the  pupil,  or  tending  to  en- 
courage in  him  a  love  of  the  beautiful  in  nature.  In- 
stead of  the  old  unprofltable  reading  and  spelling  in 
schools,  the  improved  plan  of  instruction  in  English 
consists  of — First,  Correct  reading,  dividing  and  spelling 
of  words ;  moaning  by  spelling,  not  the  laborious  and 
useless  committal  to  memory  of  whole  columns  of 
spelled  words,  but,  1,  naming  letters  singly  by  their 
powers,  grouping  them  into  syllables,  and  these  again 
into  words,  so  as  to  rc(ul  a  language ;  2,  putting  down 
letters  on  paper,  in  proper  number,  order,  &Cm  so  at 
to  proiluce  a  combination  expressive  of  sound,  anj 
thus  write  a  language.  Spelling  is  acquired  by  con- 
stant practice  in  reading,  writing  from  dictation,  copy- 
ing pieces  from  good  authors,  composing  and  correct- 
ing original  essays,  and  performing  systematic  gram- 
matical exercises.  Second,  Understanding  what  is  read 
— proved  by  searching  examination,  and.  illustratively 
aided  by  real  objects.  What  is  called  the  elliptical 
t.icfhod  is  here  much  used,  the  child  supplying  the 
'-:iilted  words,  and  receiving,  according  to  the  skill  and 
'iitVrmation  of  the  teacher,  much  collateral  information. 
Very  simple  ideas  only  ought  to  be  called  up,  and  such 
matters  alluded  to  as  may  be  supposed  to  interest  und 
encourage  the  dawning  faculties.  We  cannot  too  earn- 
estly reconunend  the  practice  of  illustration  by  picture 
and  sensible  objects.  The  hiark  bouid  and  chalk  shoi;ld 
be  in  constant  use,  and  every  teacher  should  qualify 
himself  to  draw  ready  olf-hand  sketches.  The  rudest 
outline  done  on  the  spot  excites  more  interest  than  the 
finest  cngravinsf.  The  lessons  themselves,  in  detail,  are 
given  in  the  work  here  referred  to.(-'')  The  curiosity  of 
young  persons  is  necessarily  first  excited  by  the  things 
which  lie  most  inmiediately  around  them,  and  the  cir- 
cuMi-titnces  und  procedure  of  familiar  life.  These  afo 
the  Hubjerts  of  their  earliest  inquiries,  and  it  is  ex- 
tremely desirable  that  clear,  distinct,  and  correct  ex- 
planations of  them  should  be  invariably  given.  Most 
parents  of  intelligent  and  well-regulated  minds  take  care 
that  such  should  be  the  nature  of  the  answers  given  to 
the  first  inquiries  of  children ;  but  it  is  needless  to  point 
out,  that  many  persons  who  have  children  under  their 
care,  either  possess  not  the  ability,  or  have  not  the  na- 
ccssary  leisure,  or  will  not  be  at  the  pains,  to  give  cor- 
rect and  satisfactory  answers.  Lessons  should  be  given 
which  aint  strictly  iit  an  explanation  of  external  apprar- 
tmctf  in  the  natural  and  social  world.  Primipltt  aia 
for  subse(iuent  study.  The  subjects  may  be  ncY  as  the 
following: — Of  find  and  the  works  of  creation;  of  ani- 
muted  creatures;  of  mankind;  of  the  country;  pro. 
cesses  of  husbandry ;  iimnimate  objects  of  all  commMi 
kinds.(';) 

In  elementary  ivlucation,  ofter  some  progress  has  been 
made  in  the  power  of  reading,  the  different  conditiona 
of  a  chilli  at  about  seven,  and  at  from  ten  to  fourteen 
years  of  nge,  suggest  the  necessity  of  two  series  or 
courses  of  instruction — one  of  a  simple,  primer-lil-e  cha- 
racter, the  other  more  advanced,  but  both  goinj  o\er 
nearly  the  same  ground,  '"his  is  the  more  necessary, 
as  so  many  children  are  ti.ken  from  schoid  about  ten 
years  of  age.  In  tlii  eonstruetion  o''  a  series  of  schooi- 
book.s.  already  more  than  once  qU'-ted,  we  huvc  pru. 
2  K  2 


S90 


INFORMATION  rOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Beetled  so  far  upon  thi»  arrangement,  most  of  the  vo- 
ll.niRi  of  llio  advanced  course  being  foreshadowed  in 
lltat  which  may  bo  called  the  preliminary.  Wo  observe 
the  same  arrangement  on  the  present  occasion. 

Preliminarjr. 

Introduction  to  Otography. — The  pupil  having,  is  the 
infant  school,  hud  some  instruction  in  the  simplcHt 
elements  of  geography,  may,  in  his  seventh  or  eighth 
year,  pursue  the  study  more  regularly.  Lessons  may 
now  lie  given  which  will  suit  those  whose  education 
allows  but  a  small  portion  of  time  for  geography — les- 
sons calculated  to  impress  a  fair  measure  of  that  most 
useful  knowledge  even  on  the  future  iimniial  labourer. 
These  need  not  give  copious  lists  of  localities,  capes, 
bays,  districts,  and  towns,  it  being  presumed  that  the 
learner  has  maps  before  him  on  wlii.'h  he  will  be  exer- 
riscd.  He  cannot,  moreover,  lie  introduced  too  early  to 
the  uLOBE,  for  the  spherical  an  well  as  relative  position 
of  its  great  divisions,  with  their  latitude  and  longitude. 
Proportion  should  also  be  impressed  upon  him ;  this  is 
apt  to  be  confused  by  maps  of  different  sizes.  The 
relative  situation  of  countries  need  not  be  much  od- 
▼crted  to,  th;\t  being  liest  learned  on  the  maps.  The 
chief  attention  should  be  devoted  to  the  chnriicltrf,  iihij- 
fienl  and  polilirnl,  of  the  rnunlrief.  The  plan  should  be 
followed  of  treating,  generally,  in  the  first  place,  of  the 
plants,  animals,  and  races  of  men.  in  the  diflerent  re- 
gions; and,  in  the  second,  of  the  most  important  parti- 
culars peculiar  to  each  country,  which  cannot  l)c  brought 
under  general  heads.  With  the  maps  and  ulolic  always 
before  the  pupil,  much  uieful  information  may  by  this 
method  be  conveyed.p) 

H'liliiis;. — This  is  entirely  «n  art,  to  be  acquired  by 
practice,  with  the  assistance,  first  of  a  skilled  teacher,  to 
train  to  the  mode  of  sitting,  of  hold  in  u:  the  [>cn,  &c. ; 
and,  second,  of  suitable  exemplars  of  the  various  kinds 
of  writing.  A  free  and  bold  practice  with  chalk  upnn  a 
black  board  would  probably  form  a  good  introduction  to 
the  art  of  writing.  It  was  by  such  means,  under  the 
guidance  of  his  father,  that  the  celebraU-d  I'orson  acquired 
that  accomplishment  of  singularly  elegant  writing,  for 
which  he  was  scarcely  less  remarkable  than  for  hisextra- 
onlinary  attainments  in  classical  literature. 

IniroductioH  to  ./Irilhinetic. — The  simplest  elements  of 
arithmetic  are  presumed  also  to  have  been  taught  in  the 
infiint  school,  by  means  of  the  inslruincnt  called  Jtrithme- 
tiron.  In  this  early  school  perio<l,  it  may  be  pursued  by 
means  of  regular  exercises  wrought  upon  slater,  according 
to  the  rules  presented  in  an  appropriate  liook.  An  active 
teacher  may  also  do  much  for  this  part  of  school  educa- 
tion by  conducting  mental  exercises,  or  exercises  in  which 
no  sensible  figures  are  used.  It  is  found  an  excellent 
discipline  for  giving  habits  of  attention  and  concentration. 
Inlrodurtion  to  Enf^liih  Composition. — The  pupil  may 
be,  at  this  early  period,  introduced  to  English  composi- 
tion. We  recomra«!nd  the  modern  plan  of  teaching  the 
tul«!s  last  Let  the  pupil  successively  compose  and  write 
down  nouns ;  then  their  qualities,  or  adjectives  ;  then  the 
action  or  change,  or  verl)s.  He  has  tx-cn  a  composer  from 
the  iu>ment  he  bc;^an  as  a  child  to  prattle.  Let  him  ro 
on,  and  he  will  insensibly  infer  the  essential  laws  of  lan- 
guage, by  his  own  ex[)erience  and  his  teacher's  hints, 
more  rationally  and  more  thoroni;hly  than  from  a  system 
of  grammatical  rules,  necessarily  dry,  irksome,  and  re- 
pulsive. I'l  giving  these  lessons  on  composition,  the  fol- 
lownig  suggestions  will  lie  attended  >o : — 1.  It  is  suggested 
Uiat,  previously  to  a  pupil's  entering  on  composition,  he  ; 
itti  ilil  spend  a  few  weeks  in  copying,  with  great  accu-  ; 
ra.  y,  short  pieces  in  prose  from  some  goixl  author.  This 
will  g'.v»  the  habit  of  neatness  and  exactness  in  the  use 
t\'  pomts,  capitals,  &c.,  and,  if  carefully  managed,  will 
I'lirm  an  excellent  preliminary  exercise,  'i.  Bach  pupil 
(buuld  be  {provided  with  a  quantity  of  common  paper  fur  | 


the  scroll  copy,  an  exercise-book  for  trnnscriblnf  >  i 
this  text-book.  3.  Lft  the  teacher  place  fifteen  or  twei't, 
familiar  objects  on  a  table  or  desk  before  the  class,  i 
requef*  the  pupils  to  comply  with  the  direction  in  Ihefi'!. 
lesson,  oy  writing  on  the  spot  the  /mmes  of  the  irticJ 
and  so  on  with  the  other  lessons,  in  order.  4.  When  ih 
lists  are  finished,  they  should  be  cxchanjod,  and  e  h 
pupil  should  correct  the  spelling,  Ac,  of  his  n'eighiiojji 
work.  5.  This  done,  the  pa[iers  may  be  returned  to  th  ' 
owners,  for  the  purpose  of  their  reviewing  the  criticinnJ! 
and  all  should  lie  encouraged  to  protest  against  false  m  ' 
rections.  C.  The  teacher  should  then  pass  round  th' 
class,  deciding  disputed  points,  explaining  the  ground  of 
each  decision,  questioning  the  pupils,  and  allowing  ihpm 
freely  to  question  him.  7.  The  scrollniopy ,  thus  correoiej 
should  be  taken  home  by  its  owner,  neatly  trnnscrihJ 
info  the  exercise-book,  which,  duly  dated,  should  he 
handed  to  the  teacher  next  day.  8.  The  teacher  mav 
then  mark  the  errors  in  the  transcript,  asking  the  punii. 
to  show  the  cause  of  each  correction.  9.  The  oxercish 
book  should  then  he  returned  to  the  owner,  with  a  mim- 
/cr  (in  the  teacher's  handwriting)  indicating  the  nnlt  of 
the  exercise.  10.  At^  the  end  of  each  lesson,  the  pupil, 
should  be  quesfioned'^on  the  parts  of  speech  eninlnviil 
meaning  of  words,  knowledge  gained,  &c.  11.  The  nii! 
pils  should  use  lilid-  ink  in  wfiting  the  exercise,  and  ml 
in  correcting.  'J'lie  teacher's  criticisms,  remarks,  anj 
numbers,  should  be  in  lihie  ink.  These  distinctions, 
lliough  apparently  trilling,  will  be  found  important, 
12.  'I'liree  or  four  lessons  may  be  given  weekly,  nccordini; 
to  circunistniiccs.  Less  than  half  an  hour  will  sulfife  f^, 
writing  each  exercise,  and  little  more  than  that  time  will 
be  required  for  correction.  The  lessons  will  prnoeod  from 
objects  to  qualities  and  actions,  each  embracing  a  verr 
wide  field  of  exercise.  The  derivation  of  wonls  from  nlhei 
languages,  or  ettmoloot,  both  simple  and  comimund, 
may,  of  the  same  time,  be  an  incidental  exercise.  (Id) 

Intraihirliiiii  to  the  Sriettccs.  'i'he  pupil  has  hitherto 
been  conversant  with  the  erler»nl  features  of  ohiects,  and 
the  ordinary  uses  to  which  they  are  put.  At  the  am  of 
nine  or  ten  he  may  U'.  gradually  introduced  to  philoso. 
phical  pruiriplcii — to  a  connected  and  systematic  view  of 
nature,  the  most  obvious  parts  of  which  it  is  composej, 
and  the  laws  by  which  it  is  governed.  The  subjects «il| 
l)e — the  extent  of  the  material  world  ;  the  stars,  the  solai 
system,  the  earth  as  a  planet,  the  moon,  eclipses,  niassn 
of  matter — their  attractions  and  motions ;  the  e.irth— it* 
general  su[)<'rficial  features,  its  structure;  the  Boil.  the 
atmosphere,  heat,  light,  electricity,  and  magnetism ;  evapo-  I 
ration,  clouds,  rai?;,  frost,  ice,  snow,  the  winds;  elerapnij  | 
of  matter — their  combinations;  the  vegetable  crealinii; 
animal  creation  ;  man — bis  general  character  and  hislori-, 
his  bodily  nature,  his  mental  nature.(7) 

HudiDifiiti'  of  Miistr, — About  this  sta^e  of  education, 
the  pupil  may  Ik-  introduced  to  the  principles  and  ruli-i 
of  vocal  music,  'i'his  is  invariably  a  branch  of  education 
in  several  continental  countries,  and  is  attracting  niarkf.' 
attention  in  Britain.  In  the  infant  school  we  have  al 
ready  recommended  simple  singing  by  the  ear ;  the  pupil 
may  now  not  only  study  musical  rules,  but  learn  to  sing 
from  notes.* 

•  We  arc  tar  ("roin  iK-tnir  satixtied  wiih  the  mrann  yet  pra^ 
lisL'd  lor  leactiin^  vueal  music  in  scln«)|.».  Vrry  eiioouruLM^ff 
nrof!r"«»  is  iiiiikiiK  iii  I.iiihIoii  liy  .Mr.  Iliillali.  umli'r  llii.  I'vii.' 
l)r  Kny.  llie  olili!  unil  (.xcrllriit  SriTi'iary  of  ilir  Comniilifi' n' 
Privy-i'ouneil,  snnctinni-<t  l»y  tin-  t'oiimiilici..  Tli.-  mt-ihwi .-id' 
ployiil  I'y  .Mr,  lliillali  is  Ihe  ."ynthi-tc  iihiIkmI  n;  .M.  \Vi;ii.'rii> 
work,  piiljlishetl  111  riirin  touli-r  ilii'  Auiiciioii  01'  Ilif  Minisiirof 
i'litilie  tnsiriK'tioti.  'I'hr  ineihoil  11*  sucei'H.siully  i)rari..-fil  r 
llie  Sfli(M>!  ibr  ii'aclii.'rH  ai  ttaiu-rsea.  .'..'ulii -ili-'i!  iiii.'.  si  iii.'-' 
exolnstvfly  gnppurli-il  l,y  l)r  Ktiy  :  iiiiil  a  ..<iiii:  iii;  soJujoi  <(ii 
traolii-rd.  on  that  rnt'ilicH).  approved  hy  Om'  (rrfiniitmcf.  has  luin 
e.ftulili-lieil  III  llxcirr  IIhI!  I'lie  eumiiiiiti'i'  liiive  piililii.ii'il  1,.' 
first  pan  01  a  Mnrnml ;  nihl  one  oliheir  iiiiniiicHili'viiii's  i>v,,i 
octavo  pairus  ion  tn.nule  descniJt'oii  ofilif  oriiiur/nt  orini'..  li 
iiig  KehnoU  oil  the  Willo'in  iimilioil.  \\  e  iniii'li  npi'Mii'i'i'iM 
Ayrttein,  iiiiil  trust  it  may  U-dfl  to  lliu  uuivcrhul  imrtsluctiODoI 
gouU  vocal  mutic  iiiiu  cducalioii 


EDUCATION. 


Advanced 
fj^grafthy,  ^  yew  <"  'wo  after  the  pupil  has  mas- 
toiM)  the  (icographii;al  Primer,  he  may  proceed  to  ntudy 
•e<»nph;  in  a  "nfe  enlarged  and  generally  informing 
mMiner.  Taking  England  as  the  first  of  a  serieo  of 
oinntriea.  he  will  study  its  Nituation,  extent,  divixion,  and 
seneral  detail  of  localities;  after  which  will  come  its 
phyiical  geography,  including  superfic''  ■nlures,  climate, 
•oil  and  veitctiil'le  productions,  mi-  "  inimals,  natural 
airiositifs;  next,  its  historical  geop  ,._  ,  including  ro- 
marltnbl*  event",  anticjuities ;  its  political  geography, 
MicIuJing  its  eivil  stale,  revenue,  army  and  navy,  and 
ecrlesiostioid  state;  its  social  geography,  including  iU 
national  cliariicter,  language,  literature,  arts  and  sciences, 
manufai'turcs  and  commerce.  In  thus  studying  the  ge- 
nrraphy  "'  piirticular  countries,  a  constant  reference  to 
maps  is  iioccss^ary.  By  having  these  suflicicntly  largo, 
and  the  mimral  features  strongly  marked,  as  in  the  series 
here  referred  to  ('■i''),  a  whole  class  can  learn  at  once. 

Arithmdir  and  Grammar. — These  hrnnchcs  are  now 
pumucd  oil  more  coni|)rehcn8ive  plans,  and  with  a  deeper 
iiivestigalion  of  princiiiles.  In  connection  with  the  for- 
mer stanilsi  book-keeping;  with  the  latter, etymology  and 
compoBili'in — all  of  which  will  now  be  thoroughly  mas- 
tered, as  li'clinicalitics  of  the  greatest  importance  for  the 
business  of  life. 

Drttwim;. — This  is  an  art,  of  the  sarao  character  as 
w.'tins;,  li''*''  imperatively  necessary,  but  yet  entitled  to 
BKre  altfiilii>n  than  is  generally  paid  to  it  Its  elements 
mav  be  uti|iiirf(l  by  all,  and  are  calculated  to  be  useful 
in  many  circumstances  throughout  life.  These  may  lie 
tanght  by  tlio  iisc.  of  chulk  upon  a  black  board.  The 
oSiccts  should  be  tbo  simplest  de!iiieati!)ns  of  common 
things,  bci;inning  with  practice  in  straight  and  curved 
HnM,  an'l  proceeding  to  a  paling,  a  wall,  a  gate,  a  guide- 
post,  a  house,  a  rustic  briilijo.  utensils,  tools,  and  iniplo- 
nents,  flmvcrs,  patterns,  and  animals.  On  the  black 
board,  the  chalk,  compasses,  and  rille,  may  be  employed ; 
on  the  slate,  only  the  hand  and  eye  should  lie  used  at  this 
itage  of  the  young  pupil's  progress.  Deeper  lines  will 
show  foregrounds — lighter,  backgrounds ;  and  thus  the 
first  nolioMS  may  lie  given  of  aerial  (lerspective.  By 
ronilcriiig  universal  some  instruction  in  drawing  of  com- 
mon objccls,  real  talent,  where  it  e\i.-ts,  will  never  be 
concealoil;  while  iimkIi  pli'asure  will  be  derived  from 
efforts  far  short  of  tbuse  of  the  higher  order  of  genius.(l  I ) 

The  pupil  will  in  iliic  time  advance  to  the  elements  of 
drawing  and  [H^rspective,  and  the  art  of  sketching  from 
nalurc.(l-)  Terms  in  the  art  of  perspi>ctive  should  bo 
explained  to  him,  and  figures  delini-ated,  which  are  no- 
thin:;  more  than  the  simple  geometrical  diagrams.  The 
sector,  vi8u:il  rays,  points  of  sight,  all  the  rules  of  per- 
spective, should  be  jilaiidy  and  intelliuibly  laid  down. 
Black-lead  pencil  drawing,  characters  of  foliace,  light  and 
shade,  and  tinting;  styles  and  modes  of  treatment  in 
kctchiiig  from  nature,  bo'h  landscapes  and  figures,  with 
the  rules  for  arrangement  and  elTcct,  should  nil  lie  made 
plain  to  and  practised  by  the  pupil,  the  teacher  guiding 
his  efforts.  Wo  may  remark  here,  and  the  observation  is 
of  general  application,  that  the  teacher  must  keep  in 
mind  that  the  intellectual  powers  are  bestowed  on  dif- 
ferent individuals  in  rlilli'rent  degrees;  and  such  ditfer- 
erices  must  he  allowed  for.  It  will  soon  he  seen  whether 
the  pupil  po8sess4!s  powerfully  the  drawing  or  pictorial 
(kculits.  If  he  d-vs  nut,  he  should  never  lie  pushed  l>e- 
jrond  the  sim|.Iest  elements  of  the  art.  The  same  is  true 
ct  other  branches  of  study. 

Natural  or  Mfcluiniml  Philaanphi/. — The  pupil,  now 
•dvaiicing  to  his  eleventh  and  twi'll'th  year,  may  proceed 
to  tlie  elements  of  mechanical  philosophy,  by  eustiun, 
though  too  exti'nsively,  called  natural  philnsujihtj  or  /i'ly- 
«('i .  seeing  tliut,  under  that  denomination,  chemistr)'  and 
e»en  nalural  history  have  as  goo<!  a  claim  to  be  ranked. 
It  is  a  question  whether  this  branch  of  phy^sical  Bcicnei\ 


or  chemistry,  should  he  itndiecl  first.  iVtt  think  they 
may,  in  their  elements,  proceed  together ;  but  if  nngly, 
it  seems  rather  more  natural  to  attend  to  the  more  visibla 
and  tangible  properties  and  powers  of  matter,  unehangfcd 
in  its  bubstance,  than  to  those  that  require  a  change  in 
the  constitution  of  matter,  often  its  destructive  analysis, 
to  ascertain  its  composition.  All  should  he  familiar  with 
the  laws  of  matter  and  motion — with  matter's  impenetra- 
bility, extension,  figure,  divisibility,  inertia,  attraction, 
cohesion,  capillary  attraction,  chemical  attraction,  mag- 
netic attraction,  gravitation,  repulsion,  heat,  evaporation, 
contraction,  ignition,  density,  specific  gravity,  compressi- 
bility, elasticity,  dilatability ;  with  motion  and  forces,  weight 
in  faUing  Inxlies,  centre  of  gravity,  pendulum,  centrifugal 
force,  projectiles,  action  and  reaction,  motion  in  clastic 
bodies,  refl<>cted  motion,  composition  of  motion  and  of 
force8.(lS) 

Merhanks  anil  Mnrhinery. — The  pupil,  after  having 
attained  n  competent  knowledge  of  the  above  particulars, 
may  proceed  to  study  the  mechanical  powers,  and  theii 
philosophy — the  lever  pulley,  and  inclined  plane,  which 
are  the  primary  mechanical  powers;  while  from  the  level 
and  inclined  plane  come  the  other  three,  or  secondary 
mechanical  powers — the  wheel  and  axle  from  the  lever, 
and  the  wedge  and  the  screw  from  the  inchned  plane. 
The  combinations  of  mechanical  powers,  friction,  human 
labour,  horse-power,  draught,  water-power,  and  steam 
power,  and  all  the  science  of  machinery,  will  naturally 
follow.(lii) 

Ilydrnstntim,  ffyrlrnulics,  and  Pneumatics,  will  next  in 
order  engage  the  pupil's  altiiition;  and  he  should  not  be 
snirered  to  proceed  without  having  mastered,  by  the  test 
of  strict  and  searching  examination,  the  previous  subjecta, 
which  form  a  series. 

When  he  has  become  familiar  with  tho  mechanics  of 
solids,  he  will  proceed  to  the  study  of  the  laws  of  fluids, 
including  the  at'riform  fluids.  The  hydrostatical  part 
embraces  pressure  of  water,  levels,  specific  gravity,  fluid 
support,  &c.  Under  hydraulics — the  hydraulic  presa. 
aqueducts,  fountains,  friction  betwen  fiuids  and  solids,  ac- 
tion of  water  in  rivers,  waves,  change  of  temperature,  &c. 

Under  pneumatics  are  comprised — the  alraosphore, 
laws  of  oir,  pressure  of  air,  the  air-pump,  pressure  of  air 
on  .solids  and  liquids,  on  mercury;  the  barometiir,  pumpa, 
siphons,  steam,  latent  heat,  winds,  sea  and  land  breezes, 
ventilation,  diving-bell,  buoyant  property  of  aeriform 
fluids,  balloon8.(i') 

"p'irs,  .IrnuKlin,  and  Astronomy,  will  complete  a 
course  of  natural  philosophy. 

Clu-mhlri/. —  It  will  now  be  time  to  lay  a  foundation 
for  the  pupil's  future  progress  in  chem'cal  science,  and  at 
the  same  time  impart  to  him  a  practical  knowledge  of  the 
chemical  laws  and  operations  which  are  at  work  around 
him  in  daily  life  (14)  fSuch  are  respiration,  combustion, 
heat,  light,  water,  poisonous  gases ;  these  are  all  mattora 
upon  which  comfort,  health,  and  life  itself,  may  depend. 
The  teacher  should  begin  with  showing  cxperimentii,  and 
should  be  possessed  of  a  museum  of  substances  and 
chemical  agents,  with  an  apparatus. 

Jlnimal  Pliysiolof^y. — The  important  purpose  served  by 
including  this  subject  in  juvenile  education,  is  the  pre- 
servation of  health,  not  its  restoration  when  lost;  the 
prevention  of  disease,  not  its  <vre,  with  which  last  the 
ignorant  cannot  be  trusted.  It  ought  to  be  impressed  M 
a  maxim,  that  although  we  ought  not  to  be  our  owl 
dortors,  we  need  not  be  our  own  destroyers.  We  OUI* 
selves  can  hear  testimony  to  the  successful  and  gratifying 
introduction  of  this  study  in  a  Scottish  parish  school  in 
Falkirk,  under  the  care  of  Mr.  Downio;  and  to  the  in- 
terest taken  by  the  \m\>\U  of  both  sexes,  from  nine  t« 
twelve  years  of  agi',  in  the  lessons,  which  are  illustrated, 
as  they  ought  always  to  be,  by  diagrani8.(i:J) 

MinUil  I'liiUmiphy. — This  is  a  depaitment  of  science 
which  it  is  the  fashion  of  our  ago  to  overlook.    Vet  wuai 


tjimr. 


399 


INFORMAllON   FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


»n  b*"  mnn>  inipnrtnnt  thnn  n  knowlmJRi"  of  that  wonder- 
ftal  nower  by  which  we  think  and  act,  nnd  which  more 
eajHciallv  connerfe  ua  wilh  the  thinR*  ahove  nnd  beyond 
thia  humWp  and  tranaitory  acene  ?  No  aerviceable  ma- 
nual aa  yet  cxinta  for  importing  a  knowledge  of  mind  in 
achools ;  but  an  intelligent  ninater  haa  it  in  hia  power  to 
do  much  by  oml  instruction. 

Ma'htnniif, — Thia  imimrtant  bninrh  of  atudy  cannot 
be  omitted  in  elementary  education.  Tn  ita  widcat  sence, 
it  ia  that  acionce  Vrhich  trcata  of  meaaurable  quantity,  in 
maomitude  and  in  number.  Grnmetry  is  the  branch  of 
mathematira  which  treata  of  that  apecica  of  quantity 
railed  mnsnitude,  both  theoretically  and  practically. 
Theoretical  Reometry  investigatea  the  relations  and  pro- 
pertiea  of  magriitudca  in  three  dimensiona — as  lines, 
■urfaces,  and  solida.  Although  magnitudes  have  no  ma- 
terial existence,  they  may  be  represented  by  diagrams. 
That  branch  of  geometry  which  relates  to  magnitudes 
deacribed  on  a  plane,  is  called  Plane  Geometry.  Thia 
requires  six  elementary  hooka — a  book  on  the  quailra. 
ture  and  rectification  of  the  circle,  a  book  on  geonjetrical 
maxima  nnd  minima,  an  expoaition  of  the  methotl  of 
geometrical  analysts,  and  an  additional  second  and  fifth 
book.  The  basis  of  the  first  six  bonks  should  be  the 
Eltmenln  of  F'veliii,  aa  given  in  the  very  correct  edition 
by  Simpson,  with  the  improve<l  fifth  book  by  Playfnir, 
and  the  other  improvements  of  the  latter  geometrician  ! 
contained  in  hia  original  edition  of  Euclid's  Kltmrnlt.  I 
TTie  pupil  will  proceed  with  the  definitions,  p<i9tulates, 
and  axiom".(i")  Solid  and  spheriial  ecnmctry  and  conic  j 
aections  ('»)  wdl  next  engage  the  pupil;  and, finally,  the 
elements  of  algebra.(ao) 

Elnnition  may  lie  the  next  pursuit  of  the  pupil.  In 
Ihia  brunch  of  study,  the  subjects  of  articulation,  inflec- 
tion, mixluliition,  and  the  measure  of  speech,  will  be 
familiarly  explaine<l.('.'5) 

Hillary,  fee. — History  and  biography  are  important 
branches  of  information,  of  which  it  is  well  to  acquire 
the  elements  at  school.  The  history  of  the  mother 
country,  iti  litcmture,  and  great  men,  has  the  most  im- 
mediate claim  upon  attention,  after  which  come  the  histo- 
riea  of  the  coimtries  to  which  geographical  and  politirni 
circumstances,  or  any  other  cause,  have  given  importance 
in  our  estimation.("-!l  22  -Xi  24) 

Naitir  tl  Hifiiry. — .\»  a  study  for  the  last  two  years 
of  the  fourteen,  ought  to  be  reserved  nntnral  history, 
which  is  better  understood,  nnd.  more  tjenet'icinlly  ac- 
quired, after  than  before  the  study  of  the  eliMiicnts  of 
chemistry  nnd  mechanicnl  philosophy.  The  pnpil.  in 
this  branch,  will  learn  to  distintniish  the  animal,  vege- 
table, and  mineral  kingdoms;  the  ntmosphcrc  and  its 
phenomena  ;  the  winds,  the  ocean  with  its  tides  nnd 
rurrents ;  the  discoveries  of  geology ;  the  nature  of  ani- 
mals and  plants,  &c. 

PoUtiral  I'-'iiom)!. — A  pupil  who  has  entered  his 
fourteenth  year,  with  his  mind  stored  with  the  know- 
ledge and  strengthened  by  the  exercise  of  the  education 
we  have  dc<icril)ed,  should  be  infrrxluced  to  the  elemen- 
tary principles  of  political  economy.  Society  sutlers 
in  ita  vit.il  interests  from  the  prevnience  of  ignornnce 
and  prejudice  in  thia  great  field  of  speculation  and  ac- 
tion. 

Digir. — The  elements  of  logic  appear  to  us  to  fonn 
the  apiir.ipriale  conclusion  to  our  practicnl  elementary 
c-iiirse  from  six  to  fourteen.  All  that  precedes  it  is 
knowledge,  and  aa  such  chiefly  addressed  to  the  < n'lc- 
rfi?  faculties  of  the  mind.  But  man  has  also  rrftc-tinc 
faculties  ;  and  it  constitutes  the  chief  end  nn<l  object  of 
our  knowledge  to  furnish  these  with  mati'rials  for  their 
exercise,  whi<"h  is  called  rensonins.  Tl\is.  the  hiirhcst 
o!>erati"'i  of  miml,  is  regulat<'d  hv  laws  in  the  nntiire 
of  tnimja,  ■•■.  'lich  right  rwison  l)Oth  discovers  and  obeys. 
Tliese  taw  •  ■•tcni  itired  constitute  the  science,  pracli- 
ailly  the  art.  of  logic.     The   papil,  while  he  mMten 


ita  princir-ca,  should  be  well  exercised  iu  tleir  atmllf. 
tion.  '^'^ 

iJf/Htron.— The  first  principles  of  religion  are  und» 
stood  to  have  been  imparted  under  the  circumrtanow 
indicated  in  our  section  on  moral  education,  [n 
Bchool-eourac,  due  provision  must  Ihj  made  to  carrr  oni 
this  all-important  department.  Looking  only  to  wh«i 
the  principles  of  education  ask  from  us  on  this  point 
we  would  direct,  first,  the  continuation  of  the  method 
formerly  described  ;  next,  daily  scripture  reading;  next 
a  subjection  of  the  individual  pupils  to  the  agency  of 
the  ordinary  means  of  difliising  religious  knowledn 
and  maintaining  religioua  impressions.* 

f.(i>ii:nif;e.i. — Though  it  is  a  great  error  to  regard th« 
acquirement  of  one  or  two  ancient  IniiHuiigcs,  and 
achool  study  of  n  few  of  the  lH)oka  written  in  them  ai 
constituting  a  lil>cral  education,  unqueslionalily  a  libenj 
education  ought  to  include  that  acquirement  and  that 
atudy.  The  commencement  of  a  classical  course,  aa  it 
is  called,  may  he  made  during  the  latter  part  of  the  ele. 
raentary  (wriod;  but  it  should  maiidy  be  positioned  till 
after  fourteen,  when  the  comparative  ri|iencKs  of  the 
mind  enables  a  pupil  to  acquire  more  of  this  kind  of 
knowledge,  and  that  more  eflectually,  in  one  year,  than 
in  three  or  four  at  an  earlier  st<jge.  Tl»e  study  of  th« 
classical  languages  ia  a  8|K'cial  education,  required  by 
those  whose  occupations  are  to  lie  of  a  philosophical  oi 
literary  charact*'r.  In  an  expressly  literary  education 
they  would  always  form  a  conspicuous  elcminL  And 
the  refining  etfcct  which  the  admirable  productions  of 
the  Grecian  and  Roman  writers  is  calculated  to  have 
upon  the  minds  of  all  raunt  be  at  once  admitted.  Tlie 
abu?e  of  these  languages  in  education  has  been  eoleiy 
in  their  lieing  made  the  sum  and  Hubsti\nce  of  all  educa- 
tion, and,  though  in  a  less  degree,  in  their  bcin;?  taught 
at  a  period  of  life  when  it  is  impossible  to  experksOM 
their  softening  and  improving  influence. 

MECHANISM  FOR  EDUCATION. 

The  mechanism  for  eilucation  may  be  said  to  be  ol 
two  kinds — that  which  is  furnished  in  the  family^circle, 
and  tliat  which  is  furnished  by  public  establishments. 

The  mother  is  an  educator  of  nature's  appointment, 
anil  the  first.  To  her  falls  the  duty  of  st'curing  the 
sound  organization  of  the  infant  as  far  as  it  can  !)e  done 
by  obcilieiicc  to  nature's  rules  bcl'ore  and  after  his  birth 
She  has  the  duty  of  drawing  his  souses  and  inlellectua 
faculties  into  that  gentle  exercise  which  gives  them  viva- 
city wilhiHit  being  attended  by  danger,  and  thai  of  etta- 
lilishing  the  basis  of  regular  and  correct  moral  habita. 
For  all  tlwse  purposes  she  is  in  a  position  of  great  in- 
lluciice ;  for  her  infant,  accustomed  to  bxik  chiefly  and 

•  CiiAMRKRs's  Educational  Coi.asE. 

I.  Infant  Tri  anni-nt  umlcrTwo  ycnr>-  of  Arc 

•J.  liiiaiit  Ivlirinliiiii  friiin  Two  lo  Si  Vcariof  AfC 

n.  Kirsi  lUK.k  nf  K.»ilin(f. 

A,  S.T0111I  l!<K)k  of  KiMulinir. 

H.  Sin  'li-  l.i'nMiMs  ill  Iti'uil-iii;. 

0.  Hint  iiii-iiH  of  KmowI'mIj:©. 

7.  Imroiliiriion  to  ihe  Sciciicei. 

s     I'lip  Moral  i'lni>ii-li<>f>k. 

1*.  A  (M'l-.'rnphionI  Printer, 
in.  Iniroilnrtion  to  l-jititinh  Composition 
II.  I"ir!>i  I'ook  of  DniwiD^. 
IJ.  SiToMil  lUiok  01  Drawing. 
1:1.   An  iiimI  riiy«  clotry, 
14    RiiihiiicntH  of  ClH'tn'SIry. 
1,")    Niiimiil  riiiloMii'liy.  Kirm  Hook. 
Ifi.  Niiiiiiiil  I'hilowipliy,  S»conJ  Ilook. 
IT.   Natiual  l'liiln.,)[-.|iy.  Tliinl  Ilook 
1"-    l!l''in' ii'H  of  riiiih' ftfon^'iry. 
19.  S)!iil  mill  SplMTittl  (ieoinflry. 
SO.  r.I'Mih'nis  of  A!v'i-lirn. 

ai.  Ili»!nr\  niul  I'ri'ii'iii  f*inm  of  tin-  Hfitinti  Enipirn. 
*!.  Kxi'inplary  anil  Iimniciive  Hiojirnpliy. 
'£1  lliKiory  01  ilii'  I'nglidi  l.anguagu  uiiil  Literature. 
1(4    llii'iory  of  (irfcor. 
K.   l'rillripli'«of  KInrulion. 

9n  School  riKiiii  Mil'"  of  I'nijlnnil  Irelnml.  Serilano  Kurajx 
Aaiit.  I'al<'i>iin<-,  Nortli  Auiurieu,  iluulli  America,  Airict,  snc 
the  llemitpberci. 


H((  »f»^w  rarf* 


EDUCATION. 


s.,  *  ft '  j»  ■ 


39S 


M«l  IminwJinlely  to  her  for  protection,  kindness,  and 

^  comfort,  is  unavoidably  disposed  to  pay  to  her 

lint  wnemtion  on  which  genuine  influence  depends. 

gbo  l»,  ■■  *""  '"""'  ^*"  **'*''  ''"  nt'Tt  of  the  child, 
„j  nothing  but  a  sad  misuse  of  her  own  feelings  can 
DteTent  her  from  being  all-powcrftil  over  him  for  the  re- 
(^aion  of  the  whole  economy  of  his  being,  at  least 
daring  the  first  t^vo  or  three  years  of  his  life. 

So  fiir  as  inornl  education  depends,  as  wc  have  shown, 
on  moral  atmosphere,  and  the  influence  of  immediate 
erample,  the  importance  of  home  as  a  part  of  the  me- 
fhanitin  of  education  must  be  acknowledged.  Before 
Ihf  period  of  school  attendance,  homo  is  all  in  all:  there- 
after it  "till  continues  to  bear  a  great  share  in  the  duty. 
The  formation  of  moral  habits,  and  the  development  of 
reliitiou'  feelings,  will  depend  much  on  what  is  done  in 
these  respects  in  the  family  circle.  Parents  may  even 
len'c  4»  sids  to  the  business  of  school,  to  a  degree  of 
^chich  they  have  in  general  little  conception.  First, 
thev  may  do  much  in  the  way  of  enforcing  and  provid- 
ing for  that  important  requisite,  regular  attendance. 
Second,  they  may  strengthen  the  hands  of  the  teacher 
bTP«yinff  him  proper  respect  Compared  with  these 
ohiocts,  the  mere  superintendence  of  lessons  given  out 
to  be  learned  at  home,  is,  though  itself  important,  a 
trifle.  There  is  a  tendency  in  parents  to  be  over-cnsy 
in  the  admission  of  excuses  for  attending  school ;  and 
ther  o<\en  take  away  their  children  for  a  con8ideral)le 
time,  for  reasons  aflccting  their  own  conveniency  and 
picture.  It  is  also  not  uncommon  for  them  to  look 
down  upon  teachers,  and  speak  of  them,  and  even  to 
them,  in  no  very  respectful  terms.  All  these  are  errors 
»f  t  fetal  character,  seeing  that  they  weaken  the  school 
teciaiiiBm  in  some  of  its  most  important  reqxiisites. 

A  child  becomes  a  fit  subject  for  the  education  of 
mblic  establishments  at  two  years  of  age.  From  this 
ige  till  six,  he  should,  if  possible,  attend  an  infant-school. 

The  ini'an'-irhmil,  although  a  modern  invention,  is  a 
part  of  educational  mechanism  which  is  now  generally 
ipproved  of  throughout  Europe,  being  in  vogue  not  only 
in  Britain,  France,  Holland,  and  Germany,  but  even  in 
Ilaiy.  It  is,  when  rij^htly  constituted,  only  a  nursery 
upon  ft  large  scale — a  place  whore  infants  may  be  reared 
in  company  instead  of  being  kept  in  solitude — where 
ihov  may  l>e  reared  in  pure  and  well  regulated  circum- 
itancei",  instead  of  being  exposed  to  the  contaminations 
of  a  publii'  street.  It  is  peculiarly  esiicntia!  for  the  chil- 
dren of  the  poorer  classes,  who  o.-o  otlicrwise  so  liable 
to  become  a  mere  infantine  cnnaille ;  but  it  might  lie 
well  for  children  of  every  grade  to  be  brought  up  in  in- 
fant-schools, as  society  is  essential  to  the  working  out 
of  many  of  the  problems  of  education. 

An  infant-school  should  generally  ho  calculated  for 
aiiout  100,  or  not  more  than  140  pupils,  of  both  sexes. 
Two  teachers,  male  and  female  (if  possible,  a  man  and 
his  wife),  are  required,  the  one  to  superintend  the  boys. 
mil  the  other  the  girls.  The  school  should  be  well 
Tpntiintcd,  anil  fitted  up  with  a  long  gallery  containing 
m  or  seven  tiers  of  scats,  and  divided  into  two  depart- 
ments for  the  various  sexes,  the  younger  children  being 
disposed  on  the  lowest  forms.  The  walls  should  bo 
furnished  with  drawings  of  natural  and  other  objects : 
anil  a  black  board  and  arithmetic-ball  frame  should  like- 
wise be  provided.  A  piece  of  play-ground  is  so  essen- 
tial, that  no  estiiblishment  without  one  is  entitled  to  lie 
'lonsiJercd  us  an  infant-school.  It  should  have  flower- 
borilcrs,  which  the  children  are  trained  to  respect,  and 
pUfes  of  convenience  where  cleanly  and  delicate  haliita 
arc  inculcated.  A  circular  swing  is  required  for  the 
amusement  and  to  promote  the  physical  health  of  the 
chililren;  and  it  will  bo  well  to  have  a  quantity  of 
woihlcn  prisms,  of  the  form  of  bricks,  with  which  they 
may  engage  ir  the  bui'ding  of  houses,  towers,  and  other 
Kriietures,  according  to  fiincy. 

Vol,  I.— ."iO 


I  The  intellectual  education  of  an  infant  school  |i 
limited  to  the  learning  of  little  hymns  and  knowledga 
rhymes,  the  study  of  simple  geometrical  forms,  and  of 
the  merest  elements  of  arithmetic,  exercises  upon  n^T• 
rative  passages  of  Scripture,  the  properties  of  objects, 

I  the  characters  of  animals,  the  names  of  countiies  and 
cities,  &c.    In  some,  reading  and  grammar  have  been 

I  introduced  to  satisfy  prejudiced  parents  j  but  these  are 
departures  from  the  right  character  of  the  institutioB. 
Most  of  the  lessons  are  metrical,  and  sung  to  simjile 
airs.      The   moi  -1    department,  confessedly   the   chie^ 

I  consists  in  the  learning  of  good  precepts,  scriptural  and 

I  otherwise,  the  fostering  of  kindly,  and  gentle,  and  the 
restraint  of  angry  and  malevolent  feelings,  the   formn. 

j  tion  of  conscientious,  polite,  and  delicate  habits.  It  is 
remarkable  how  far  a  good  infant-school  teacher  can 
accomplish  these  objects,  and  how  quickly  any  new 
pupil  is  brought  into  harmony  with  the  spirit  of  the 
place. 

An  infant-school  teacher  requires  a  union  of  qualift 

'  cations  which  is  not  often  attainable.  He  should  po» 
sess  a  gentle  and  affectionate  character,  with  an  un 
limited  patience,  yet  have  that  intellectual  activity  and 
vivacity  which  are  necessary  for  sustaining  attention  in 
young  children.  He  must  both  bo  a  well-informed  man 
and  capable  of  making  what  he  knows  intelligible  to 
those  who  know  nothing :  ho  must  both  be  firm  and 
discreet  in  management,  and  possessed  of  manners  of 
almost  infantine  playfulness.  A  knowledge  of  musio 
and  a  good  voice  are  among  the  qualifications  which  he 
requires. 

The  elementary  schools  following  upon  the  infant 
seminaries  (where  these  exist,  or,  otherwise,  being  the 
first  schools),  are  different  in  different  countries,  not 
only  in  the  materials  and  modes  of  instruction,  but  in 
the  extent  to  which  they  carry  on  pupils.  In  Britain, 
they  are  generally  in  a  state  considerably  inferior  to 
what  is  found  in  Holland  and  Prussia.  In  a  rightly 
constituted  system,  there  would  be  two  seminaries  be 
twcen  the  infant-school  and  the  university,  the  first  oi 
primary  school  lieing  devoted  to  those  branches  of  in- 
struction in  which  all  should  participate,  and  the  second 
or  secondary  school  affording  continued  and  more  ad- 
vanced instruction  to  those  destined  for  professions  and 
for  the  more  important  places  in  society,  and  as  such 
being  preparatory  to  the  university.  The  parish-school 
and  the  grammar  school  of  a  small  Scottish  burgh  may 
lie  considered  as  an  arrangement  approaching  to  what 
is  required  in  this  respect. 

The  primary  school  is  applicable  to  the  ages  between 
six  and  ten  or  eleven.  In  a  country  under  a  national 
system  of  education,  one  would  be  reiiuired  for  every 
group  of  population  above  a  thousand  in  numlier,  as 
the  attendance  would  then  probably  be  from  a  hundred 
to  a  hundred  and  fifty.  Reading,  grammar,  arithmetic, 
the  elements  of  geography,  history,  and  science,  and 
moral  training,  would  form  the  chief  features  of  the 
business  of  a  primary  school.  And  to  this  extent  all 
should  be  educated.  It  follows  that  infant  and  primary 
schools  ought  to  be  special  subjects  of  state  provision 
and  care.  Society  is  expressly  interested  in  seeing  all 
children  trained  and  instructed  thus  fart  that  they  may 
become  a  moral  and  intelligent  population.  So  strongly 
is  this  regarded  in  Prussia,  that  education,  «p  to  the 
point  in  question,  is  enforced  by  law.  Certainly,  it  is  at 
least  well  to  encourage  parents,  by  all  means  con:Mslent 
with  the  spirit  of  a  free  coinitry,  to  have  their  children 
educated  to  this  extent.  While  the  state,  then,  regulale* 
the  eilueation  of  infant  and  primary  scho.ils,  the  state 
should  also  furnish  it  gratuitously,  or  all  but  gratuitously, 
thus  removing  all  difficulty  which  may  be  Icit  by  indi 
gent  individuals,  the  very  class  whose  children  are  a|)l 
to  N'come  most  diuigcrous  if  left  uneducated.  It  haa 
often  been  objected  to  the  idea  of  gratuitous  educaiioc, 


W4 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


that  what  \n  o1itain<>d  for  nothing  i«  not  Tuluod ;  but  the 
•ducntinn  furninlied  hv  tlie  state  (or,  b»  an  altrmnlivc,  Ity 
local  assesHmont)  would  not  be  really  Rratiiitoiiii.  Every 
parent  would  know  that  he  roMtrihutcd  to  tho  fund  by 
which  the  Hchoul  wan  iinp|>ar(ed,  and  that  this  was  much 
the  same  tliinp;  as  pnyinj?  fees. 

In  order  to  onHure  m  )iui)i>ly  of  wcll-qualiflcd  teachers, 
M  well  iiH  lor  the  wike  of  uniformity  of  methods,  tho 
infiint  ntid  iiriiuary  schools  would  each  require  district 
normal  «<-hools.  'J't-aidiiii)?  it«  iin  art.  It  is  one  of  con- 
■doruliio  nicely,  rei|ulrini{  both  natural  and  ac<|uired 
gifts  of  no  ordinary  l(ind.  Without  a  due  apprentire- 
ihip  to  it,  no  man  can  be  expected  to  Hatisly  th(!  de- 
mands of  the  modern  educationist.  There  is  a  Inrijo 
•mount  of  di'tail,  Uilh  in  tlie  methods  of  procedure  and 
in  the  niutcriul  of  instruction,  which  a  canilidiite  for 
this  employment  must  have  thoroughly  mastered  before 
be  can  duly  teach.  Tliere  is  also  an  a|)tness  and  facility 
for  the  duty  vvliich  iiolliiuK  but  practice  can  (jive.  For 
•II  of  these  reasons,  schools  for  the  traininir  of  teachers, 
or  normal  schools  ^ko  called  from  n/irma  (Latin),  a  ride,] 
•re  indis[viis<ilile.  We  have  not  room  here  to  enter 
fillly  into  the  dctiiils  of  a  well-constituted  normal  school 
of  any  kind,  but  may  pause  for  a  moment  to  indicate 
tiie  important  principle,  that  it  is  not  sutricieiit  for  a 
yuuiiK  man  to  sit  by.  olwerviiij;  the  procedure  of  a  well- 
conducted  s<'hool;  he  must  enter  personally  into  the 
3UMnc88.  ami  be  accustomed  to  act  as  teacher  himself,  in 
order  to  .attain  the  riijht  igualilications. 

We  have  considered  the  infant  and  primary  scIumIs 
■8  comiiri'hcndiiii}  the  e<iucatioii  required  by  all  the  chil- 
dren of  a  xlHte,  aud  as  therefore  calling  for  state  su]iport 
and  leijiilatioii.  For  tliis  reason,  we  have  indicated  a 
conclusion  to  the  primrirj-  school  period  siimcwimt  Inter 
than  what  is  practically  the  case  in  schools  answering 
more  or  less  to  this  description.  tJcnerally,  the  primary 
school  jHTioil  may  be  said  to  end  at  nine  years  of  nifc, 
at  which  time  a  Imv,  for  example,  is  considered  as  fitted 
to  conmience  a  clawical  course  in  8  hii,'hcr  school. 
While  the  material  of  intellectual  education  remains 
generally  as  it  !•<.  this  arrangement  will  be  appropriate; 
■mt  if  wo  consider  some  branches  of  general  knowledire 
•s  necessary  for  all,  we  must  postpone  the  conclusion  of 
She  primary  |)eriod  to  ten  or  eleven.  At  that  age,  the 
shildren  of  tlic  humbler  classes  wovdd  be  fitted  to  com- 
mence the  active  life  to  which  they  are  usually  destined, 
while  others  would  bo  equally  ready  to  go  forward  into 
advanced  schools. 

The  SI  condary  school — answering  to  the  grammar 
schools  ind  dcad'-mies  of  Britain,  the  collcres  and  fn  n- 
$ioiit  of  France,  the  irymnasia  of  Swity^-rland  and  the 
German  states — is  the  first  school  appropriate  chietly  to 
the  miildle  and  up|MT  classes.  As  its  iM'uefits  are  not 
Utiiversal,  it  should  Ik;  sup|iorted  solely  by  those  who 
lake  advantage  of  \l»  instnictions,  although  the  state 
may  extend  to  it  |)rotection  and  regulation.  The  higher 
intelligence  re(iuired  of  the  middle  and  upp<'r  class»'s, 
and  the  sjiecial  education  HMjuired  for  the  professions 
which  many  of  thi'se  classes  are  calle<l  to  follow,  con- 
stitute the  necessity  for  secondary  schools.  They  arc 
introdui'tory  to  a  university  course  for  those  who  are 
to  follow  law.  inedicine,  divinity,  or  any  of  those  other 
occupations  which  are  now  rising  into  tho  same  nink 
with  the  "professions;"  those  otherwise  destined  here 
obt.iin  that  compirntively  liberal  education  which  is 
required  in  the  jniddle  walks  of  life.  The  course  of  in- 
8t:ii('.ioii  proper  to  a  sccondaiy  school  corres|)onds  with 
what  h  IS  liceii  |)oiiited  out  in  the  preceding  section  as 
ihe  advaticcd  department  of  intellectual  education.  It 
mav  hi  re  !>«•  pnijior  to  remark,  that,  when  we  sjM'uk  of 
n^rlain  (•las-<'«  of  the  connnunitv  attending  this  advanced 
iiftlcr  of  Hciioojs.  We  do  not  mean  that  these  are  to  lie 
oanducted  on  exclusive  principles.  Let  their  fees  Iw 
W  inuderutc  as  possible,  and  let  all  who  can  afford  aU  { 


I  tend.  In  such  circumstances,  it  would  oArn  Vip««, 
that  children  of  tho  humbler  classeN,  who  showedtn 
aptitude  for  a  superior  education,  would  obtain  it,  •,  a 
he  thereby  enabled  to  make  an  advance  in  life  suiianU 
to  their  faculties.    - 

Keligious  instruction  is  presumed,  as  formerly  JnJL 
cated,  to  be  imparted,  throughout  the  whole  jioriod  ol 
elementary  education,  in  schools.  Here  a  dilHculty  u 
to  arrangement  unfortunately  arises  from  tho  varioui 
views  which  arc  taken  on  doctrinal  points.  'I'jie  ifQ^j 
ing  of  doctrine  according  to  the  views  of  niiy  0,,^  j^, 
mination,  necessarily  precludes  from  the  school  where 
it  is  done,  the  children  of  those  who  dissent  from  iho 
views  in  question.  On  tho  other  bond,  if  doctrine  Im 
excluded,  those  who  are  most  eager  for  the  iiiculcniion 
of  particular  doctrines  or  for  the  maintenance  of  parti 

'  cular  religious  institutions,  are  ollendej.  To  obviate 
the  dilliculty  as  far  as  possible,  a  ])arlicular  arran™. 
ment  has  been  made  in    Holland,  in    the  Irish  national 

!  schools,  and  some  others  ;  Hcripturc  rcaclinir  ig  {i^ 
conllncd  to  such  jmrts  as  include  no  controverted  doc 
trines,  and  to  a  general  reference  to  the  Bible  on  pre 
ccptive  points,  and  all  else  is  taught  to  the  pupil*,  at 
extra  hours,  by  their  partictdar  pastors.  It  ig  ti,m 
thought  possible  to  teach  reli.;ioii  as  elliciently  as  by 
any  other  plan,  while  the  school  is  allowed  to  \k  a  coi» 
mon  giMMl  to  all  classes  of  the  connnunitv,  and  a  meam 
of  briuijing  up  the  children  of  religious  parties  in  hu. 
mony  together. 

INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION. 

The  mingling  of  industrial  arts  with  ei.uration,  is  ig 
idea  of  modern  times.  One  of  the  llrst  examples  of  it, 
by  which  general  attention  was  attrarteil,  originated  at 
Hofwyl  in  Switzerland,  in  1800,  under  the  care  of  j 
man  of  fortune  still  living,  .M.  dc  Fclleiiberg.  Here 
the  object  was  to  teach  farming  on  imj)roved  lirincipjes, 
while  general  education  was  conducted  on  an  alinnsl 
incidental  plan,  at  intervals,  by  the  superior  ofthep«ij. 
blisbment  Schools  of  this  kind  have  siiue  been  planted 
in  oilier  parts  of  the  continent,  and  in  the  IiiiteJ  King, 
dom.  Latterly,  industrial  cdueation  has  been  cxtendd 
from  agriculture  to  handicralVs. 

As  a  sp(!cimen  of  a  purely  "  agricidtural  school,"  vre 
wiect  that  of  Teinplemoyle,  near  Londonderry,  which 
1  appears  to  be  conducteil  in  an  elUcieiit  niauncr.  Est* 
'  blished  in  1827  by  the  i\o.th-\Vesl  of  Ireland  Asricul. 
tural  Society,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  young  raen"i 
plain  Kiiirlish  education  and  a  knowledge  uf  the  prin- 
ciples and  practi-'C  of  agriculture,"  it  lately  containoj 
sivty-six  ()upil8,  for  each  of  whom  a  small  paymenl  wu 
made.  The  suiH'riors  arc  a  teaching  tiinner  aiid  i 
schoolmaster,  l)cneath  whom  is  a  matron  to  superintend 
the  domestic  cstnbhshment. 

"  .-M  half-past  live  the  pupils  rise,  arrange  their  rooms, 
say  their  prayers,  and.  iji  two  divisions,  whicli  nlternate 
on  ditVerent  days,  are  engaged  until  eight  in  slwjy  or  in 
work  ;  half  the  pupils  are  witli  the  farmer,  and  haifumltr 
the  schoolmaster,  except  on  extraordinary  occasiona, 
when  the  services  of  all  an-  rc^|uired  for  the  farm,  or  the 
season  releases  them  from  their  agricnllMral  ihilics.  M 
eight  they  breakfist,  and  are  free  until  nine;  work  and 
atteni'  school  in  altern.ite  divisions,  from  nine  until  on'. 
Dine  at  one,  and  have  recreation  until  two.  From  hm 
to  six,  are  at  work  and  in  stlmol  alternately.  From  w 
to  seven,  sup  and  have  recreation.  From  si;ven  to  nine, 
prepare  the  lessons  for  the  iie\t  day,  have  [.rayeni,  and 
retire  at  nine.  On  Sundays  they  attend  their  loniifc. 
live  pla<'es  of  worship,  and  mcnpy  a  part  of  tho  leinaii). 
der  of  the  day  in  reli'jious  reading. 

"  The  intclKctual  iiisi ruction  consist-i  in  fpelling.rMd- 

ing,  grammar,  geography,  arilhimtic,  writing,  and  lioofc 

keeping,  with  some  elementaiy  and   prac-lii-nl  geiimctry 

i  and  trigonometry.     The  fanner  gives  IcLturoa  also  lO 


.:t.j'f  ..  T      EDUCATION.     ^  t.  A: 


ns 


UK  fTimicg  upon  the  theor;  of  agriculture.     It  ii  in- 
tended to  introduce  lecturei  on  botany  and  agricultural 

cbemixtry. 

u'j'tie  practice  includea  all  the  operations  of  farming, 
anJer  tlio  different  approved  gystoraR ;  the  rearing  of 
cattle,  the  inanagoincnt  of  a  dairy,  and,  in  general,  the 
Incidoiita!  nfi  well  a«  the  direct  occupation*  of  the  farmer 
or  tiiricullural  labourer.  The,  head  farmer,  or  agricul- 
lural  nmHtcr,  is  expected  to  explain  the  princii)lcs  of 
Itie  work  in  which  the  pu|)ils  are  engaged,  and  to  take 
ffljuortimilicB  fur  incidental  instruction.  The  oporatiuiis 
nliich  he  in  spocially  called  upon,  in  the  regulations  of 
the  coiiniiittce,  to  teach,  are,  ploughing  and  the  setting 
of  the  pli'iigh,  the  use  of  farming  instruments  in  gene- 
ral till'  i|uuliticg  of  stock  and  modes  of  recognising 
thrm,  the  treatment  and  management  of  dairy  and 
fanning  stock,  the  making  and  repairing  of  fences,  the 
tolotion  of  crops  and  those  best  adapted  to  different 
va^icli•'^l  of  xoils,  the  modes  of  draining,  reclaiming,  and 
improving  lands,  and  the  most  recent  inventions  and 
iniprovomenls  in  agricultural  implements.  The  farmer 
lakes  those  who  arc  suflicicntly  advanced  in  knowledge 
and  naci  to  he  l>cnofited  thereby,  to  the  fairs,  to  assist  in 
the  sale  of  the  products  of  the  farm  and  stock. 

«Tlic  pupils  arc  divided,  for  work,  into  sections,  each 
of  whii'h  has  its  monitor,  or  chief,  nnd  consists  of  eiglit 
or  ten  l">ys.  The  head  monitor,  or  superintendent,  has 
the  control  of  them,  in  the  absence  of  the  master,  ajid 
trranifi'S  with  him  the  distribution  of  their  time,  takes 
in  ni'oonnt  of  the  stock,  and  of  the  products  of  tlu; 
labour,  nnd  advises  with  the  master  in  regard  to  tlio 
farm,  in  such  a  way  as  to  prepare  himself  for  actual  supcr- 
intendenc-c.  This  place  is  occupied  by  the  elder  pupils 
ii.  rotation. 

"The  farm  consists  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-three 
lereV  of  which  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  arc  aralde 
land.  It  is  worked  so  as  to  present  oxani])lca  of  the 
most  approved  rotation  of  crops,  the  fields  embraced  in 
the  sanK!  series  of  shifts  lying  adjacent  to  one  another. 
The  whole  is  drained  by  underground  drains,  according 
to  tlie  .Scottish  system,  and  is  well  enclosed  with  diller- 
ent  fences   us   specimens,    and   trials   of   tlio   various 

kind»."t 

Industrial  village  schools  are  well  exemplified  in  that 
of  Ealint;,  about  five  miles  from  London,  established  by 
t  lienevolcnt  lady.  The  principles  held  in  view  in  esta- 
blishing this  seminary  were,  that  the  children  should 
carlj  acijuire  hnhils  of  patient  industry  ;  that  they  shonhl 
be  a('i|iKiiiili'd  with  the  value  of  labour,  and  know  the 
conneiliiiii  In'twecn  it  and  i)roperty  ;  that  they  should 
haie  inlcMiiicnce,  skill,  and  an  acipiaintance  with  the 
olijei;l.s  by  wliieh  they  are  surrounded ;  that  the  higher 
senlinient.s,  the  social  and  moral  part  of  their  being, 
sli'juid  reccivi-  a  full  ilevelopiiient.  The  industrial  oc- 
cupaliiin  is  ifaniening,  jiursued  in  a  piece  of  giouiid 
connected  with  the  school.  "  It  is  divided,  one  portion 
benig  reserved  for  the  use  of  the  scliool,  another  being 
lulHliwded  iiUo  small  gardens  for  the  boys,  'i'hc  pupils 
work  in  tlie  first  under  monitors,  and  receive  a  compen- 
sation in  iiroportion  to  the  useful  results  of  their  labour. 
The  second  they  hire  at  fixed  rates,  and  dispose  of  the 
produce  as  tWey  please,  always  receiving,  however,  the 
market  priec  for  it  from  the  school,  if  they  choose  to 
dispose  of  it  tlierc.  The  younger  children  arc  not  al- 
kwed  to  undertake  gardens  on  their  own  account,  but 
work  for  others  or  fi)r  the  establishuient.  Partnerships 
are  somi'tinies  fornu-d  nmoni;  Iheni  fcr  the  more  advan- 
tageous cull!  ation  of  larger  pieces  of  ground.  An  account 


•  A  plcn  of  till'  K'rmiml.  «•  nurvfj  eil  by  the  pnpil».  nnil  ilrnwn 
ty  ont'  III  <Ii.'  niinilitT.  wits  iimti'iUril  in  iiii'.  sliowing  ilir'  details 
il  the  arrrtn'r.int'ht,  tuiil  iIih  rlus'iiflrniitm  of  its  purl-..  The 
eonilruci:oi)  of  this  tlrnwiiig  was  one  iif  the  pruciica!  tiXcrciKes 
■f  the  cliiKS. 

tBachVa  Report  on  iUucation  in  Kuropa.  Philadelphia,  ISffl. 


current  with  each  pupil  is  kept,  m  which  he  in  charged 
with  the  rent  of  his  ground,  and  the  seeds  and  plants 
which  he  has  purchased  from  the  stock,  and  credited 
with  the  produce  which  he  has  sold  to  the  school."* 

In-door  occupations  are  less  desirable  in  alternation 
with  school  instruction  than  these  healthy  out-of-door 
labours,  but  must  have  the  (^tfect  of  traiinng  to  steady 
and  persevering  habits,  not  to  speak  of  the  actual  skill 
conferred  by  them.  As  an  example  of  a  school  in  which 
such  occupations  are  pursued,  we  select  that  of  the 
Royal  Military  Asylum  at  Chelsea,  where  600  children 
of  non-commissioned  officers  arc  reared.  Those  above 
cloven  are  here  taught  hatnlierafts,  about  four  hours 
a-tlay  of  three  days  of  the  week  being  thus  de'-otcd. 
>•  Rather  less  than  a  hundred  boys  work  as  tailors ; 
fifty  each  day  alternately  :  about  the  same  number  are 
employed  in  a  similar  manner,  as  shoemakers,  cap- 
makers, ami  in  covering  and  repairing  their  old  school* 
books ;  besides  which,  there  arc  two  sots  or  coLipaniea 
of  knitters  and  of  shirt-makers,  and  others  who  are  en« 
gaged  as  porters,  gardeners,  kitchen-work,  &c.  Every 
thing  is  done  by  those  who  work  at  the  trades  except 
the  cutting-out.  This  brunch,  requiring  more  experi- 
cncc,  is  managed  by  the  old  regimental  shoemakers, 
tailors,  &c.,  who,  with  aged  sergeants  ond  corporals,  and 
their  wives,  manage  the  concerns  of  the  institution.  The 
system  of  monitors  and  tcuehers  to  overlook  the  other 
boys  at  work  is  generally  adopted ;  while,  in  addition 
to  the  various  branches  of  indtistry  mentioned,  the 
school  furnishes  a  company  of  drummers  and  fifers,  and 
an  excellent  band  of  music ;  the  players  i,ccessarlly 
devoting  a  cotisiderable  part  of  their  lime  to  the  prac- 
tiee  of  their  instruments."!  TIioul;!!  there  are  some 
defects,  tlic  asylum  is  allowed  to  bo  "  an  (widence  that  a 
greater  degree  of  progress  may  be  made  in  reading, 
writing,  and  arithmetic,  and  in  other  branches  of  learn- 
ing, than  is  attained  in  the  great  majority  of  schools,  and 
yet  that  the  boys  may  be  taught  music,  gymnastic  exer- 
cises, ami  various  useful  trades ;  thus  improving  their 
health,  increasing  their  means  of  enjoyment,  and  pro> 
moting  their  ftiture  interests,  much  more  effectually 
than  by  the  prevailing  mutbods."^ 

Industrial  education  is  practised  with  marked  success 
in  various  instituticms  for  the  reform  of  young  criminals, 
as  in  Parkhurst  Penitentiary,  Isle  of  Wight,  and  tlie 
Warwick  County  Asylum ;  in  several  for  the  refuge  of 
destitute  persons,  as  in  that  at  Hoxt<iii,  and  the  Guern- 
sey H()sj)ital ;  and  in  various  schools  for  orjihan  and 
paujier  children  under  the  New  Poor-Luw  Act,  of  whi^n 
that  at  Norwood  is  a  most  interesthig  example.  It  is 
not  as  an  impravemoil,  which  may  or  may  not  be 
adopted,  that  industrial  education  is  here  to  be  advo- 
cated :  it  is  called  for  as  something  ahsotulcly  necessary, 
to  cotiMteract  an  itdiercnt  tendeiu-y  of  all  asylums  for 
the  maiittenanee  and  education  of  children  to  become 
monastic  institutions.  The  children  are  kept  apart  from 
external  nature.  From  human  society,  and  from  many 
or  most  of  the  conunoii  operations  of  life.  They  come 
out  as  helidess  nearly  us  they  went  in.  Industrial 
education  presents  itself  as  almost  the  only  conceiv- 
alile  means  of  fitting  such  children  for  entering  the 
world  ill  any  tiling  like  the  same  condition  as  other 
chihlren.  It  is  not  essential  that  any  one  child  be  made 
a  profieirnt  in  any  one  art ;  the  great  end  is  to  make 
them  generally  iieiiuainted  with  Mie  luts  of  life,  and  to 
prepare  lliem  by  habits  of  industry  for  earning  their  own 
liread  when  they  grow  up.  From  the  attention  which 
the  Poor-Law  Conuiiissioncrs  are  giving  to  the  subject, 
I  we  h.ive  no  doubt  that  in  a  short  time  we  shall  see  the 
whole  or  the   forty-five  thousand  orphan  and  paupet 

•  llni'he'i*  U.'piirt  on  l-'diicatioti  in  l-'.iirope. 
t  Ueporl  of  Nut  onni  S  .ImmiI  .Sieifty. 

i  >k)i»i'   Areouiil  of     ii'  Uoyul   Military    A»ylnm.  Chene* 
I  Becoiiil  I'ublicalion  ol  \in  Central  Sociutv  of  t^iluca'ion.  P  tW 


M« 


INFORMATION  POR  THE  PEOPLE. 


dtildiMi  of  England  e<lurated  in  this  wholoiome  man- 
Mr.  In  the  late  report*  of  the  coinmiMionera  thrre  are 
•OHM  excellent  hinU  thrown  out.  Diflerent  arrange* 
menta  are  rornmmcndrd  for  diflorent  dintricta.  It  ii  lug- 
fMtod,  that  in  an  agricultural  diatrict  there  ought  to  tw 
•  large  garden  which  the  children  should  be  taught  to 
eultirate,  in  onlcr  to  become  aci|uainted  with  thoae 
dtttiea  which  they  will  probably  lie  railed  to  perform 
when  they  are  lent  out  into  the  world.  They  iliould 
also  be  tau)(ht  to  erect  iheda  or  outliouaea,  to  make 
wheelbarrow!  and  other  liinple  utenitilt,  and  to  fiuliion 
dcaki  and  form*  for  the  school.  Tluia,  aa  farm-icrvanta, 
they  will  bo  able  to  execute  a  nuinlier  of  little  joba  in 
carpentTj-,  which  would  othcrwiiw  require  the  interfer- 
ence of  the  proper  tradramnn.  To  oiinMo  tlii'in  to  con- 
tribute to  their  own  {>on<oiial  comfort  and  that  of  their 
houaehold,  without  nn  ex|>endituro  of  their  earning*, 
they  ahould  he  taught  to  make  and  mend  their  own 
clothe*  and  shoe*,  to  plait  atraw  hats,  to  make  straw 
niattre*M-s,  and  whitcwuMh  walls.  In  a  manufacturing 
district,  tho  employraetits  should  Ix'ar  a  similar  relation 
to  the  trades  of  the  neighbourhood,  and  in  or  near  u  sea- 
port, the  arts  connected  with  maritime  life  should  lie 
taught.  Such,  in  brief,  are  the  views  of  the  Commi*- 
aioncrs  re!i|>ectiMg  the  boys:  they  recommend  that  the 
girl*  *hould  be  train*!  to  the  household  duties  of  cook- 
ing, cleanini^,  and  washing  cIoiIich,  sewing  and  knitting, 
by  havini;  to  |N>rform  those  duticK  ns  far  a*  required  in 
tlM  workhouse.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  in  the 
Marylebono  charity  for  girl*,  this  plan  ha*  been  for 


many  years  acted  upon  with  excellent  reaulta.  Thaii 
the  girl*  aro  accustomed  to  make  their  own  bida,  t% 
clean  their  own  knives,  fork*,  and  ahocs,  and  to  be  scri^ 
pulously  clean  in  their  dresa.  •<  Their  chief  eniploymcgi 
i*  needle-work;  but  they  are  employed  in  rotation  to 
acour  the  *chool-room*,  the  play-room*,  and  the  ^ult. 
ing-rooma,  tlig  table*,  form*,  and  stairs,  a*  well  u  j^ 
prepare  and  remove  tho  meals  of  the  rest  of  the  srholam, 
and  to  wait  upon  the  domestic  *uperiiitendeiit  tod 
orticeM."* 

The  reporter  of  theie  circumstance*  adds,  and  n« 
fully  aoncur  in  hi*  *entimenta — ■•  The  value  of  rliaritiet 
of  this  description  i*  too  obviou*  to  require  particular 
comment.  By  establishing  gixiil  hnbili,  they  douhtlcn 
accom|ilish  more  than  can  ever  be  cflbctcd  by  mere  pre. 
copt ;  and  they  not  only  tend  to  make  useful  scrvanta 
but  provident,  neat,  and  intelligent  wives  and  uiothert. 
If  it  were  possiblu  to  engraft  aome  part  of  such  a  tyitfia 
on  the  national  and  other  achools,  thcae  adv-mtuge* 
would  become  generally  diflfuaed,  and  tlie  ronsequcnca 
would  tie  a  great  increase  in  tho  comfort  of  the  liouiiei 
of  the  jioor,  and  an  accompanying  contentment,  produo 
live  of  tho  licst  reautt*  on  the  character,  among  young 
married  men  of  tho  working-classes,  whom  the  exlruv^ 
gance  or  mismanagement  of  untidy  and  ignorant  part- 
ners often  drives  to  alehouse*,  and  other  resorts  of  idl» 
iieis  and  dissipution." 


*  Quarterly  Journal  of  Education,  i.  !U7 


DRAWING  AND  PERSPECTIVE. 


D«*Wfjrn  i*  an  imitative  art,  by  which  the  forms, 
position*  and  relations  of  objects  arc  represented  on  a 
flat  surface.  The  faculties  employed  in  this  as  in  other 
imitative  arts,  are  possonwd  in  a  certain  deitree  by  all 
persona.  Some  posseK*  these  faculties  in  so  hiifh  a  de- 
gree, a*  to  Ivroine  fitted  to  exercis*'  them  as  a  profes- 
sion, for  the  gratification  of  mankind  ut  large.  In  others, 
they  are  munifcHtcd  so  moilerately,  that  a  protracted 
eflbrt  to  make  such  persons  become  tolerable  draughts- 
men would  only  bt-  labour  thrown  away.  The  majority, 
howevei,  are  so  far  emlowed,  as  to  be  able,  when  in- 
structed, to  delineate  any  simjile  object,  and  to  enjoy 
much  pleasure  from  higher  delineations  produced  by 
others. 

The  practice  of  elementary  drawing  at  school,  hitherto 
greatly  overlooked,  is  calculated  to  produce  the  most 
beneficial  result*.  As  regards  those  who  posi-es*  the 
(acuities  for  design  in  a  high  degree  of  excellence,  early 
practice  will  awaken  those  faculties,  and,  furnishing 
them  with  stiimilants  to  progress,  secure  the  benefit  of 
their  ultimate  exercise  fur  the  community.  Lesser 
degrees  of  excellence  will  also  be  developed — such  as 
would  in  vain  [lerhaps  e«say  excellence  in  the  higher 
walks  of  art,  but  might  become  of  incHlculnblc  value  in 
connection  willi  certain  branches  of  mnniifacturc. 

Aa  a  mean  of  elevating  tastes  and  desire*,  and 
thereby  emiirlli'-hing  what  might  be  othcrx\i»<'  a  rou- 
tine of  commonplace  existence,  drawing  apjiears  in  it* 
most  tnteresiiiig  light  Tho  (xTson  who  has  acquired  a 
knowledge  of  botany  feels  a  new  pleasure  in  examining 
«hc  inula  of  a  hitherto  unseen  plunt ;  he  who  ha*  ac- 
quired a  kiiowlcdire  of  ijeoloiry  is  interested  in  passing 
•tong  a  road,  the  side  of  which  display*  a  deep  section 


of  rock,  or  from  which  he  may  view  various  granitit 
elevations ;  he  who  ha*  acquainted  himself  with  ih* 
principles  of  machinery  expi^riences  on  enjoyment  ij 
conieiiiplating  the  intricacies  of  some  great  engiiM, 
which  another  knows  nothing  of;  and  in  the  same  mta. 
ner  he  who  has  studied  the  art  of  drawing  (liscovern  i 
Bouri  e  of  new  and  innocent  irratification  in  the  iiinump. 
ruble  forms  and  tint*  of  externol  nature.  Thinijs  for. 
nierly  passed  with  a  careless  eye  and  a  vacant  mind, 
then  assume  n  character  which  arrest*  attention  and 
axviikens  thought  Those  faculties  of  the  mind  which 
jK'rceive  and  ajipreciate  the  figure,  colour,  and  arranjre- 
ments  of  objects,  and  trace  in  all  a  natural  and  !i)ipro. 
priate  bca'i'y,  spring  up  from  a  dormancy  which  mishl 
have  otherwise  known  no  interruption;  a  new  associi. 
tion  of  our  mysterious  being  with  the  physical  world 
around  us  is  practically  eatablishetl ;  and  the  value  of 
existence  liecome*  by  just  »o  much  enhanced.  Not 
«irely  that  it  is  desirable  that  an  absorbing  intortm 
should  be  created  in  all  minds  respecting  the  outwirJ 
as|iect  of  nature,  to  the  neglect  of  the  more  wrioui 
aflair*  of  life.  All  that  can  be  contended  for  is,  that  u 
many  as  possible  should  be  rendered  capable  of  looking 
with  pleasure,  instead  of  indifference,  upon  the  lieaulipi 
of  nature,  so  that  they  may  realize  the  benefit  of  (hjj 
part  of  the  intellectual  and  sentimental  jiowrrs  which 
have  been  conferred  upon  them ;  a  portion  o''  their  na- 
ture which,  like  others,  may  be  abus<Ml,lmt,  in  its  mode- 
rate use.  is  not  only  a  source  of  innocent  pleasure,  hul 
may  liecome  the  mean*  of  anticipating  and  supplanting 
many  pursuits  of  a  leas  worthy  character.  Nur,  while 
the  art  is  |M>rhap«  cliirfly  acquired  with  these  virwi, 
may  it  be  without  aome  results  ot  a  more  directly  owfiil 


DRAWING   AND  PERSPECTIVE. 


WVt 


|j„j,  In  many  •itualion* — when  wandering  in  our 
,„fl),  or  roaming  in  foreign  countriea — we  may  aee  ob- 
„rti  of  whii'h  wo  would  lie  glad  to  carry  away  aome 
g^moraiiilum,  and  of  which  tlie  alighteit  pencil  aketch 
^a\M  be  aiiHlcient  .oken  a  recollection  at  any  other 
tim«.  And  yet,  foi  ..  ,•  i  of  a  few  elementary  letaona  in 
drawing,  many  of  cteu  those  who  travel  for  the  purpoM 
gf  informing  the  public,  are  unable  to  commemorate  such 
o^iert«,  or,  at  the  licst,  can  give  only  a  few  icratches, 
irhich  a  profrmionni  artiitt  haa  afterward*  to  fashion  into 
ihiipe— »  "hnpe,  of  course,  in  which  correct  rcprcaenta- 
lion  i»  "ol  'o  l»  looked  for.  In  this  point  of  view,  draw- 
ini;  taken  itn  place,  as  a  useful  art,  by  the  side  uf  writing, 
boing.  likf  >'> "  means  of  description,  and  one  which  may 
ifca«ionully  be  even  more  serviceable  than  that  art, 
though  certiiinly  not  capable  of  so  general  an  application. 
Rrferrinif  to  the  volumes  on  Drawing  in  our  Biiuca- 
TKiXAi.  Coviisi!  for  a  methodic  series  of  instructions. 
Ml  Jeaign  o<>  the  present  occasion  is  to  present  a  popu- 
lit  view  of  what  may  be  done  by  comparatively  unlearned 
prrtons  to  acipiiro  a  knowledge  of  the  art,  including 
ponpcctivc,  which  is  the  foundation  of  all  pictoria! 
dolincution.  It  will  be  undorsto(xl,  then,  that  in  all 
our  observations  we  address  ourselves  directly  to  the 
pupil. 

DRAWIKO. 

Drawing  is  effected  by  various  materials,  as  chalk, 
Mirk-li'iid,  or  coloured  pencils,  Indian  ink,  &.c.  Drawings 
>  a  aimpio  kind  are  made  principally  on  white  paper 
r  Bristol  hoani,  but  also  sometimes  on  tinted  papers, 
in  which  cnso  the  lighter  parts  arc  brought  out  by  white 
crsy  iiin.  Commence  a  study  of  the  art  by  acquiring 
n.sr  of  hand,  and  in  fact  learn  what  the  hand  can  do  by 
iti  cli.li'ront  evolutions.  For  this  pur|)Ose,  drawing  lines 
nith  chalk  on  a  black  board  is  perhaps  the  best  exercise. 
Eithpr,  therefore,  on  a  board  with  chalk,  or  on  paper 
Killi  a  pencil,  learn  to  make  drawings  of  lines,  straight, 
cuni'd,  or  a  modification  of  either.  Observe  how  much 
inori"  lieautiful  is  the  appearance  and  effect  of  a  curve  in 
nmparidon  with  a  struight  line,  and  how  nature  delights 
In  this  waving  of  forms,  of  which  we  have  examples  in 
the  ticndins  of  boughs  in  trees,  the  8er|N'ntino  winding 
ofrivt'Di,  and  the  curvdinear  forms  of  animals. 

You  may  liegin  the  drawing  of  objects  by  copying 
other  drawings ;  but  tliis  8|)i-ciea  of  exercise  can  only 
Diilit'  you  familiar  with  the  manner  in  which  lines  an- 
iwer  the  piir]iose  of  reprcHeatution.  To  bo  master  of 
iht  nrt,  you  must  throw  aside  all  drawings  or  copies,  and 
brn  to  draw  by  your  own  im;onuity  from  tangible 
oljects  in  nature  and  art.  In  this  study,  the  hand  is 
tiui^lit  to  oliey  the  (onceptions  of  the  mind.  When,  for 
evaniple,  we  see  a  chair  standing  on  the  floor,  we  ob- 
nrrve  its  aha|)o  or  figure,  its  line  of  back,  seat,  legs,  and 
all  other  parts  al>out  it  We  then  take  a  pencil,  and 
ri'nJine  the  mind  intensely  on  the  form  of  the  chair, 
trr  to  dotine  all  the  lines  of  the  object  on  the  paper  or 
Kiard.  The  more  |ierfectly  that  the  hand  can  obey  the 
ilireclion  of  the  mind,  while  bent  in  thought  on  the 
Divert,  so  will  the  drawing  be  more  true  in  all  its 
iK'tails. 

The  pupil,  therefore,  must  be  taught  to  call  up  the 
wlwle  (Mjwer  of  bis  mind  respecting  the  apjioarance  of 
an  oliject,  when  he  wishes  (o  represent  it  by  a  drawing. 
Dm  thiH,  indeed,  may  l)e  said  to  rest  the  fundamental 
(Tinciple  of  delineation  in  all  its  branches.    No  one  can 
p.i«8ibly  attain  c\en  a  mediocrity  in  the  art,  who  docs 
not,  less  or  more,  (KMsess  this  |)ower  of  recalling  images 
t/i  the  mind,  and  of  training  his  hand  to  act  in  strict  con- 
junction with  its  dictates.     The  hand  is  only  the  instru-  ; 
nieiit  employed  by  the  imitative  faculty,  and   can   do  j 
nothing  uwful  without  the  strong  concurrence  of  the  i 
will.    Accomplishment  in  penmanship,  and  every  other 
irt  m  which  design  or  figure  is  an  element,  is  founded  , 
on  thiii  fuudauienlal  basis,  I 


In  the*!)  elementary  lossoni  an  idea  of  |«rap«ctiv« 
will  be  unconsciously  gained.  It  will  be  noticed  thai 
■trong  outlines  mark  the  object*  or  parts  of  oljocts  ncaiw 
eat  the  eye  or  in  the  foreground  ;  while,  to  make  part* 
retire,  or  have  an  appearance  of  being  at  a  greater  dii^ 
tance,  the  lines  must  bo  made  light,  and  the  represents 
tiona  smaller.  It  is  a  matter  of  fuKt  consequence  t* 
bring  out  eKeclt  on  a  broud  scale,  not  by  repeated  small 
markings,  but  by  a  comparatively  few  bold  lim.'s  of 
greater  and  lesser  thickness.  You  will  observe  that  an 
object  may  be  represented  in  two  waya — first,  by  men 
outlines  describing  its  figure ;  and,  second,  by  introduc- 
ing strong  shade*  among  the  outlines.  Take,  fur  illu»> 
tration,  figure  1.    Here  the  blades  of  a  plant  are  r* 


Fig.  1. 


presented  by  a  few  thin  and  thick  lines  properly  dMi 
posed,  and  by  a  little  shading  being  thrown  in  to  bring 
out  the  effect. 


Fig.  a. 


A  just  idea  of  the  value  of  light*  and  ahodea  may  ba 
said  to  bo  the  beginning  of  all  excellence  in  pictorUk 
delineation ;  and  you  are  recommended  to  lose  no  oppor< 
tunity  of  acquiring  it.  The  most  simple  object*  afford 
examples.  In  fig.  2  we  have  a  group  of  this  nature, 
being  a  stone,  a  piece  of  broken  wood,  and  the  leave* 
of  a  tall  grassy  plant,  such  as  may  be  observed  in  a  lieM 
or  by  the  roadsiile. 

Mr.  D.  R.  Hay,  in  his  excellent  work,  "  The  I^aws  of 
Harmonious  colouring,"  has  the  following  practical  ob- 
servations on  the  method  to  be  followed  by  young  nion 
in  gaining  a  knowledge  of  drawing,  with  reference  to 
patterns,  decorations,  and  ornamental  design* : — "  The 
course  of  study  I  am  about  to  point  out  is  within  the 
reach  of  all — inen  those  in  the  most  humble  situation* 
of  life.  They  will  find  it  of  easy  acquirement,  and 
a  source  of  continual  enjoyment,  in  the  improved  medium 
through  which  it  will  lead  them  to  view  the  most  ordi- 
nary productions  of  nature.  She  shall  be  their  instruc- 
tor ;  for  all  that  I  can  pretend  to  do  is  to  point  out  to 
them  a  practical  mmle  of  receiving  her  lessons.  Ta>the 
uninitiated  I  therefore  address  myself;  and  let  them  not 
be  dissuaded  from  lieginning,  by  having  no  predilection 
for  the  study — the  more  they  persevere  the  more  they 
will  love  it 

"  In  the  first  place,  your  attempts  ought  to  be  of  the 
most  simple  nature,  and  on  as  large  a  scale  "u  you  can 
conveniently  adopt:  therefore,  Iwgin  by  procuring  a 
black  painted  l>oard  or  slote  of  from  two  to  throe  feet 
■quarc,  and  with  white  chalk  practise  the  drawuig  of 
3L 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.. 


■niikr*^  eirclei,  iin<1  ovnli,  without  >iiy  ff\M»  to  yotir 
hand.  Vau  may  make  ymiriiclf  ropici  nf  ttiPM  fiHiirra 
by  tlic  ordiniiry  tiil«'«.  VVIicii  yoii  arc  tolrrnlily  prrfwt 
•t  tlieae,  upon  iho  prupcr  roiiiliiinttioii  of  which  ile|M'iiila 
■li  linear  hiirinoiiy,  yiiu  may  prai-liiHi  in  the  annii'  way 
IriiinKlt'K,  hc<xn){iini<,  i>cta)(»)iai  ami  riirh  other  n^iiroa 
A  ariae  from  the  varioim  roinliiiiation*  nC  llip  «trui|{ht 
line.  Noll,  hy  your  circulur  ami  oval  linra,  you  ni.iy 
tnrm  crviH'uiit*,  rirfuliir  ami  llatt<<nrJ  volutrH,  n<Kuliir 
UnilulationH,  anj  other  flgurrn,  which  ariiw  out  oC  their 
varioua  coaihiniitionH,  (IrMt  multintf  an  iirruriite  copy  to 
jrnurwir  of  ruch  tiituru  l)y  meaxunMnent,  ami  coiiliiiuinif 
to  pructiM!  until  you  ran  form  it  l>y  thn  eye  witit  (ler- 
fiv i  paM*.  Avoid  forming  your  flgurea  hy  little  liitit  at 
«  time ;  do  eiicli  lino  um  iimcli  iii«  puoHihIe  hy  one  Hweep 
in  liie  hand.  When  you  find  yourwlf  pretty  iierfect  in 
tin*  iiind  ul°  pnu'tice,  I  would  reconimend  you  iit  once 
to  draw  from  nuluru.  Vou  may  take  fur  your  fuNt  huIi- 
joct  a  cal)liiit(e  li'af,  the  lurger  the  hetter,  and  |>erHeverR 
in  cup>  inn  >l<  full  Hi/.e,  until  you  run  reprcHent  it  nrcu- 
ratcly  in  outline,  with  ita  principal  Ahrei.  You  may 
tliun  vary  your  prnclice  hy  ot'ier  iiiinpic  auhjecia  of  ■ 
■iinilar  kind,  until  yuu  And  you  can  do  Uicin  all  with 
e4ie. 

"  Before  endeavouring  to  draw  more  than  one  leaf  at  a 
time,  you  muHt  know  a  little  of  perHpoctive.  The  most 
•iinplc  mode  liy  which  you  will  attain  mich  knowledge 
of  (hia  art  ii«  will  Iv  moHl  useful  for  your  pre«ent  pur- 
pone,  i«  to  hiin^  li  circular  olijcrt,  xuch  aa  a  hoop,  lio- 
tween  you  and  the  winiluw ;  net  it  a-inoviuK  gently 
luund,  recede  a  little  from  it,  and  you  will  find  that,  na 
one  aide  of  it  retires  iind  tlie  otiier  comich  forward,  the 
circle  whicli  it  dem-rilioH  U'CoiiieH  narrower  and  narrower, 
until  it  disiippearH  altu);ellier,  and  lenvea  notliiiii;  hut  a 
dark  line,  an  if  a  ntick  iuNtead  uf  a  hoop  were  hiuiKini; 
hefore  you.  I  recotiimcnd  you  to  do  thia  twtween  you 
and  the  window,  l>ecauMe  the  hoop  will  np|)ear  like  a  dark 
line,  and  you  will  therehy  be  hotter  ahle  to  miwk  tlie 
chanf^e  that  takes  place  in  the  ahape  of  the  circle.  Fix 
it  in  variouH  position*,  and  draw  from  it,  and  ohxervc 
that  it  ia  a  different  figure  from  an  oval.  You  may 
now  btni^  up  your  cahhaRc  leaf,  or  that  of  anj  other 
liirife  and  well-developed  veectahle,  and  you  will  ohnerve 
the  aaino  chani;e  in  its  t'iKUro  as  it  turns  round.  Make 
•n  ontUne  of  it.t  shnjic  while  its  front  is  half  turned  from 
yuu,  thou  hrini;  it  from  between  you  and  the  liuht,  and 
place  it  where  the  li|rht  will  fall  upon  it,  with  its  face 
half  turned  from  you,  as  when  it  hung  iH'forc  the  win- 
dow. Take  your  outline,  and  within  it  draw  the  prin- 
cipal fibres  as  you  see  them.  To  do  this  pro|H'rly,  will 
require  a  ^reat  deal  of  practice,  but  it  will  pave  the  way 
to  your  heinii  ahle  to  draw  the  most  complet«'  Rroups  of 
flowers  and  foliage  that  can  be  plucr<l  la-fore  you.  You 
may  now  hanif  hefore  you  n  snmll  branch  of  any  tree  or 
plant,  with  two  or  more  leaves  U(X)n  it — the  larger  the 
leaves  are  the  belttr — and  endeavour  to  make  outlines  of 
tiiem,  varying  their  ahape  acconling  to  their  perspective, 
■a  already  descrilMul ;  be  particular  on  thia  point,  for  a 
great  deal  depends  u[)on  it. 

"  You  may  now  lay  aside  your  chalk  and  slate,  and  pro- 
ride  yourself  with  a  few  sheets  of  common  cartridge-pa- 
per, and  some  pieces  of  common  charcoal — that  m:ide 
from  lime-tree  ia  the  Iwst  Stretch  a  whole  sheet  of  your 
cartridiftvfijper  upon  your  hoard  by  a  wpfer  or  a  little 
paste  at  each  corner.  Place  before  you  a  cabbage,  cauli- 
flower, stalk  of  dork-bladea,  or  atiy  such  large  vegetable, 
and  tliey  will  bo  more  pictures<iue  if  the  outer  leaves  are 
hanihng  lo<we.  Copy  these  carefully  in  outline,  using 
your  charcoal  gently,  that  any  inaccuracy  may  be  easily 
dus<e<l  oir.  A  lar^'e  thistle  with  its  foliage  is  likewise  an 
eicfllent  etam|ih',  but  moie  dilTicult  Indeed  you  can- 
not go  wring  in  your  choice^hemlock,  fern,  nettle,  are 
all  wurthy  of  your  study.  From  these  the  richest  and 
etlvclivi!  of  Gothic   nruuincuU  were  taken  by  our 


I  forelathera.  The  more  you  study  such  subjects,  ths  mon 
lieaiily  and  grace  yim  will  find  in  their  forms." 

i       When  a  ri>nsideralile  advance  haa  lieen   made  in  i|_ 
elementary  deparlnieiit  of  drawing,  it  will  Im  pnippr  |„ 
oil  to  the  highiT  stage  of  |x<ra|iective  drawing,  in  exact  in, 
cnrdunce  with  the   rules  on  the  subject.     For  this  you 
will  rei|uiro  Mui  following 

•  lln/uiiilei  for  /JmiriMif.— Among  the  various  orticlm 
re<|uire<l  in  systematic  drawing,  the  first  place  may  be 
given  to  a  woislrn  hoanl  of  convenient  siw,  or  alioiittwn 
feet  in  length  hy  eighteen  inches  in  breadih ;  it  nhould 
be  |>erfeclly  smooth  anil  |x"rfi".tly  wjuared.  On  tliinhnnril 
the  pu|)or  on  which  the  drawing  is  to  l«  executed  nhouji) 
he  profwrly  fastened.  This  is  donn  by  damping  tho  m,.. 
face  of  the  pa|>er  with  a  wi't  s|)nngo,  and  after  it  hiu 

'  fully  expaniled,  fastening  it  down  with  a  little  thin  a\M 
round  the  edges ;  it  shoulil  be  laid  on  the  board  evenly 
and  left  to  dry  in  the  air. 

The  next  re)|uisile  is  a  flat   ruin  called  a  T-square ' 

I  thia   is  a  thin  straight-edge,  or  rule,  attached  at  riehl 

I  angles  to  a  short  piece  of  wood  much   thicker,  so  thu 

I  when  the  crnss-|>iecH  is  moved  along  any  side  of  iIm 
Imard,  tho  rule  will  project  aero-"*  the  paper,  niul  hv  ju 
edge  [lencil  hues  may  be  drawn  straight  from  Icit  to  riirlit 
and  from  top  to  bottom.  To  test  the  urciirai  y  of  |{,« 
sipiare,  let  other  lines  be  made  from  the  oppo.sitc  Hjile«nf 
the  board ;  and  if  they  agree  with  the  furiiier  Hum,  liw 
being  parallel  to  each  other,  all  is  right.  On  this  the  cor- 
rectness of  the  drawing-!  will  mnterially  depeinl. 

To  these  must  Is-  added  a  pair  of  compasses — uri  In. 
strument  so  well  known,  that  it  is  only  necessary  to  re. 
mark,  that  the  points  should  l>e  just  so  sharp  us  la  hold 
on  the  pa|)or  without  piercing  it.  'J'hecompas.scs should 
he  held  lightly  by  two  lingers  and  the  thumb,  and  moved 
with  the  least  pressure  which  the  o|ieralion  iiiav  require 
These  simple  implements  will  be  sullicient,  until  i 
knowledge  of  the  art  suggests  the  necessity  for  a  cose  of 
inatheniutical  inslrunients. 

I'ajM-r  may  lie  purchasinl  of  nil  qualities;  for  earlj 
practice,  it  is  sullicient  for  it  to  be  what  is  called  hnril 
that  is,  able  to  endure  lM.-ing  written  upon  with  pen  and 
ink. 

niack-lead  pencils  are  of  various  qualities  ;  a  soft  reiy 
cil  gives  off  the  lead  t(K>  frec-ly,  and  will  not  rrtnin  iU 
point;  a  hard  |)encil  wounds  the  surfuci  of  the  paper,  and 
cannot  Is-  easily  obliterated  ;  therefon'  the  medium  |jfnfil 
is  Is-st  for  drawing  pers|)ective.  The  wood  should  |« 
carefully  cut  from  its  point,  and  the  lead  sliariH-nfd  hj 
Is-iiig  gently  ruhls-d  on  a  file,  which  prixluces  a  belltr 
point  than  can  he  formed  with  a  knife. 

Indian-rubber,  or  a  clean  crumli  of  bread,  to  take  out 
lines  incorrMctly  drawn,  is  also  ni-cessary. 

Every  student  of  drawing  is  supposed  to  be  nrqimjnlcd 
with  the  form  of  acute,  obtuse,  and  right  angles,  cirrlri, 
ellipses,  and  other  simple  matbemotlcal  llgiircH,  and  thl•^^ 
fore  we  need  occupy  no  time  here  in  desrril'in>;  ihfm; 
those  who  wish  to  refresh  their  memory  on  these  mattcn 
are  referred  to  our  article  (ikumktiit. 

PIRSrCCTITK   DRAWINO. 

The  study  of  pt-rs|>cctive  is  commenced  by  acquirini 
a  knowledge  of  certain  principles,  and  the  tiilinical  up 
pellutions  by  which  they  ar<^  descrils-d.  The  llrst  thini; 
which  you  will  attend  to  is  the  existence  in  nil  corn-ct 
|»erspevtive  drawings  of  a  honumtiil  /i.ic.  The  Imrizonlil 
line  is  always  the  height  of  the  spectator's  eye.  and,  of 
course,  fields  or  hills  may  be  above  this  imagiiiiiry  llnpin 
a  picture.  In  the  following  diagrams,  the  hnriznntal  lint 
is  always  marked  H.  There  is  a  certain  point  on  the 
horizimtal  line  to  which  the  eye  is  ilirected ;  thii  li 
called  the  pntnl  of  tight,  and  in  the  following  d'agramiii 
marked  P. 

As  noticed  in  our  article  Or-ncs,  the  apparent  nugni- 
tude  of  ^iiy  object  iS  influenced  by  its  dlslancu  I'ruiB  Iki 


DRAWING  AND   PKRSPECnVB. 


— f  •  If  uct'i  tho  object  HMini  iBrg",  if  remote,  it  liamull. 

II  ii  ihi^n,  II  nioNt  iriipiirtiint  principle  in  |iur>|i<'<'livo 
ilrtwioKi  '"  n'Kuliild  tlir  nitp  of  the  objects  ninrl(i!il  ur- 
(unliiiK  ">  '''*'  'l'"l'">''<'  »'  wl>i*°l>  we  wish  thi-m  to  iipprnr. 
kWhovo  a  K'xxl  <'iiiiiii|il<i  or  tliii  grnilunl  diminotloii  of 
obji-cU  ««  ''"7  '<■'''■<'•'  If'""  tlio  eye,  in  tho  niunnrr  in 
uliich  a  '""X  ttvi-iiun  of  trees  seems  to  riose  in  a  |H)int  nt 

III  further  oxtreiiiily-  It  woulil  Imi  poisilile  for  ■  piTHoii, 
unnllilliil  ill  the  ruliw  of  prrH|it'rtive,  niiil  niorcly  hy  tlio 
_i„,,»l  (hrecliiiiiM  iilremly  Kiven,  to  give  o  rcpreHeiiliilion 
Kn  puiier  nf  the  iiiitiiiier  in  which  olijecta  tliua  M'eiii  to 
,llinini«ii.  ii",  for  example,  n  row  of  posts;  liut  ns  niiUho- 
imIimI  Hcii'iK't'  t''ve«  exact  rules  on  the  suliject,  no  one 
nrni  Iruxt  to  cliiiii'e,  hut  ii|>|iciil  to  principles  of  unerriii); 
«friiriicy.  ^''  ciiive  iitlciilioii  to  these  principles,  which 
wt  illuHtrsto  by  certain    lines   in    the  iliaKrains  which 

fellow. 

Flguro  ^  repremuits  n  qnudrnimulnr  drawinK,  of  which 
All  ii  lliv  '>'"**'■     AcrosK  the  picture,  ut  rather  mom  than 


P 


I'ig.  3. 

I  third  of  the  heiRht.  is  a  lino  H,  representing  the  hori- 
Kinlal  line,  "u  the  hnri/.oiital  line,  a  point  at  1'  is  the 
imint  of  xisht.  nnd  to  thin  point  nil  olijects  are  diiniiuHhcd 
jji  iiroporlion  ns  they  approach  it.  Thus,  a  rond  repre- 
mi.lnl  ly  I'lc  two  linen  (,U)  ta[)<T8  to  a  |>oint  at  P,  and  a 
riiw  of  posts  E  (liiiiinirth  towards  tho  same  centre  of  oh- 
■ervntioii. 

The  hiirizjintnl  line,  which,  it  will  bo  perceived,  renu- 
litfs  iiomc  important  |)(iint.-<  in  pictorial  delinention,  inav 
bclilaccd  lii?li  or  loiv,at  pleasure  ;  hut  it  is  Reiierally  re- 
culalpd  in  its  elevation  by  the  nature  of  the  subject  to  lie 
drawn.  It'  placed  high  up.  it  leaves  too  small  a  proportion 
o!  skv,  and  prcMluces  what  is  called  a  bird's-eye  view ;  if 
|ilao«l  near  the  base,  unless  the  scene  bo  mountainous, 
the  pro|iortioii  of  sky  will  1h>  too  gregt.  In  general,  the 
h.mjonliil  line  should  be  drawn  at  about  one-third  of  the 
hfichl  nf  the  picture.  The  point  of  sight  may  also  lie 
fiscJ  at  pleasure;  but  its  lu'st  situation  is  removed  from 
the  centre  towards  one  of  tlie  sides;  if  directly  in  the 
centre,  the  perspective  would  have  too  formal  an  cirect. 

When  an  object  havimj  aiiffles,  as  a  box,  stands  on  a 
buc  parallel  to  the  horizon,  and  two  of  its  sides  or  sur- 
faces ran  be  seen,  tnat  which  is  farthest  from  the  eye  will 
n^ccde  accordiin;  to  the  situation  of  the  point  of  sight. 
Phie  a  bo.x  as  in  fig.  4,  im- 
meiliiitcly  in  I'rmit  of  the  eye ; 
,\B  i^  its  bottom  or  base,  and 
Er  ii  the  farther  iHlgo  of  it« 
lop.  AU,  the  b;ise,  iH-intt  par- 
M  to  the  horizontal  line  H, 
the  point  of  sight  will  be  at  P, 
tiiJ  the  visual  rays  from  the 
upper  corners  of  the  liox  will 
centre  in  P,  because  the  eye 
it  in  front,  and  abov(<  the  ob- 
ject. Any  alteration  of  tho 
poiiilion  of  the  box,  or  th''  eye,  will  consequently  recpiirc 
I  corresponding  arran.;cinent  of  the  laws  of  perspective. 

Place  the  \m\  toward  tho  farthoi  side  of  the  table,  iin- 
Bkcitidicly  ill  front,  and  lower  thu  eye  till  the  horizoi.ial 


Fig.  4. 


line  Is  one-third  down  the  box,  when  the  top  will  b«  loai 
night  of;  there  let  the  eye  Ih>  flxed,  by  resting  tho  chin 
on  any  convenient  object,  and  the  front,  or  only  one  siila 
of  the  liox,  will  lie  seen.  Then  let  the  Isix  he  moTcd  to 
the  leO,  in  n  straight  linn,  the  position  of  the  eye  being 
retained,  and  a  second  side  ol'  the  box  will  come  into 
sight ;  its  receding  lines  or  visual  rays  will  then  he  ceiv 
tered  in  the  iilti^rcd  point  of  sight,  and  the  side  in  fVonl 
will  retain  its  form,  because  its  base  is  parallel  with  tha 
horizon.  When  this  experiment  hiislioen  made,  and  the 
situations  of  tho  box  and  the  eye  have  licen  coiiridered— 
presuming  the  liox  to  have  been  a  cube — procei^i  to  se 
certain  tho  niiMle  of  representing  this  object  areonling  to 
the  rules  of  perH|K"etive,  reli-rriiig  to  the  natural  apiieaf^ 
anco  of  the  box  occasionally,  the  more  iirectuully  to  flx 
the  n»itual  resemblances  in  the  mind.  Fig.  5  will  show 
*he  pioccss  by  which  all  the  particulars  may  Is;  demon* 
strated.  Presuming  the  pa|ier  is  fastened  down  on  tha 
drawing-board,  the  T-sipiare  and  pencil  ready,  commend* 
thus:  Apply  the  T-square  mid  draw  the  base  line  AB, 
and  also  tho  boundary  of  the  picture  CI).  'J'hen  draw 
the  horizontal  line  H  across  the  paper ;  this  may  be  fixed 
at  pb'asuie,  but  parallel  to  AD.  Then  find  the  half  of 
the  base  AH,  and  draw  a  perpendicular  beneath  the  fio- 
tiiro  to  (),  and  on  it  place  tho  profiled  angin  of  60  de- 
grees, just  at  that  distance  which,  by  contiruing  the  sidee 
of  the  angle,  they  will  intersect  the  extiomities  of  the 
base,  and  together  form  an  equilateral  triangle,  as  AOBi 
this  must  lie  strictly  attended  to.  Now,  as  iM'fore  ck 
served,  tho  jioint  of  sight  is  belter  when  removed  from 
the  centre  of  tho  picture  ;  and  taking  a  station  to  the 
right,  by  a  horizontal  line  from  0  to  H,  this  becomes  the 
station  whence  the  picture  is  siM-n,  ami  the  point  .')f  sight 
is  therefore  found  by  tho  perpendicular  line  from  8  to  P 
on  tho  horizontal  lino.  IS'nw,  as  a  vanishing  point  ia  n»> 
quired  to  determine  the  width  of  the  receding  side  of  the 
box,  tho  profiled  angle  of  90  degrees  is  to  lie  placed  at  8 
on  tho  [s^rpcndicular  PS,  and  the  side  line  continued  until 
it  intersects  the  horizontal  line  at  V,  which  fixes  the  van- 
ishing point:  this  also  must  bo  Htri<'tly  attended  to.  Il 
will  Ix!  observed  that  the  niiiilc  at  !S  is  one  of  46  dcgreei^ 
being  the  half  of  tho  prolileil  angle  of  90. 

We  now  call  attention  to  the  situation  of  the  ey«, 
which  is  always  on  a  level  with  tht  ^inrizoiital  line ;  there- 
fore, the  true  [losition  of  H  i;i  imimdialely  in  front  of  P, 
or,  as  if  tho  perspective  lines  beneath  the  picture  could 
be  raised  up  to  the  level  of  S,  and  fixed  at  that  distance 
tVom  the  picture,  to  show  >he  true  situation  of  tho  eye 
when  viewing  the  object.  The  front  se,iiarr  shajie  of  the 
box  may  then  be  drawn  in,  occupyiii:;  less  than  half  the 
base  of  tho  picture,  in  order  to  show  the  [lerspective,  as 
at  fig.  3 ;  then,  from  tho  nearest  por|endicular  of  the  box 
draw  the  visual  rays  from  the  top  and  the  bottom  of  the 
square  to  P,  which  give  the  diminutions.  Now,  a  line 
drawn  from  the  comer  of  the  1h)x  near  .\  to  the  vanish- 
ing point  V,  will  intersect  the  diminishin;';  line,  which 
gave  tho  receding  base  of  the  box  at  L  ;  and  a  perpendi- 
cular hue  from  L  to  K  on  this  intersection,  will  give  the 
true  representation  of  tho  S(piare  box  as  seen  in  perspoo- 
tivc.  If  this  were  a  cube  of  glass,  the  farther  sidc^  wotlld 
bo  seen,  as  shown  by  the  finer  lines  in  the  diagram. 

Repeat  this  study  in  diU'eront  sizes,  rcti^rriiig  *o  the 
natural  aji)M!arance  of  the  box,  in  order  to  feel,  a.s  'veil  a* 
see,  the  coincidence  between  that  an<l  the  object  produced 
by  the  rules  of  linear  perspective.  It  is  of  importance 
that  this  diagram  should  be  thoroughly  undcrstoo<l,  iio- 
cause  many  of  the  rules  employed  in  it  are  frequently 
reipiircd. 

The  boundary  of  a  picture,  or  the  piano,  may  be  of 
any  proportions.  The  base  is  m.irUed  in  fig.  3,  AB. 
The  per|ieiulicular,  from  the  nii(l<lle  of  th's  base  line,  ••• 
sists  In  finding  the  situation  for  the  au'^lc  of  00  degree* 
O,  tho  width  of  tho  base,  mea.surcd  from  the  extremiliM 
to  the  perpendicular  O,  forming  an  equilateral  triangle 


INrORMAHON   FOR  THK   PEOPI.K. 


0 

1    » 

K 

D 

H 

""^ 

r'l 

:::^p 

A 

J 

g 

"                      /         ' 

\ 

\ 

/ 

/ 

T\t.  5. 

M  AOB.  TTjin  in*  rule,  whalrvcr  msy  lie  the  iiiio  of  tho  iiii'liirc  ; 
il  lino  ^howit  ihi'  |iro|H-r  iliatnnre  at  which  a  pirliirn  HhotiM  l>o 
viewrtl.  I'hin  I'xpaniio  iif  viaiun,  at  nn  ariKl*^  of  (!()  ilrifrci'H,  ii 
marked  in  Ihr  (linitrnin  (),  niiJ  plnrr*  thi-  point  of  i)i|{ht  in  tlio 
miildlr  of  the  pictiirr,  whirh  \*  very  oftni  olijirtioiinhh- ;  Ihrrr- 
forr.  0  hno  parullrl  with  the  (numi  ia  ilrnwn  from  (),  aiul  nn  tliin 
liiii'  tbp  iN-tttT  rtlntion  i«  tnkrn,  which  \*  marknl  in  the  <liiiKriini  M. 
Now,  thf  hiiriziinliil  hnr  II  liiivjnK  Immmi  tiiki-n  nt  pli-aiiurc,  ii  jx-r- 
priiiHi'iilnr  drawn  into  it  from  H  will  «iv<<  iho  |)<>int  of  fiitlit  iit  I', 
into  whirh  thr  viiinul  rayn  are  ilruwn  that  rrifiilutu  th<*  ri-cc<lini( 
tide  of  the  iilijccl.  The  variiKhitiK  |Hiint  V  ia  entirely  iliitincl  from 
the  (loint  of  iti^ht,  of  which  there  ran  he  l)Ut  one ;  hut  vanishinx 
poinla  may  Ih-  numeroua.  'I'hia,  marked  in  the  diagram  V,  ia  of 
great  eonrnviiienee,  for  hy  it  ia  determim>d  the  proper  width  of  the 
otiject,  )>y  the  line  whicli  iiitcrm'cta  the  viauni  my  from  the  liaae  of 
the  lui  A  to  V,  aa  at  L ;  and  here  the  |H<rpendicular  to  K,  which 
interaecta  the  up|ier  viaual  ray,  compKHea  the  pen<|K!Ctiv«  form  of 
the  ol>jeet. 

No  olyei'fH  Mler  exempUfy  rulea  in  |>er(«|)eetive  than  nrtich'«  of 
household  furniture,  aU(  h  ua  l>oxea,  rhnifH,  tithlea,  and  elirala  of 
drawer*.  We  direct  your  attention  to  ihe  fijlowin;;  illiiKlTiiiionn  : 
Fii;.  n  exhitiita  a  parlour  rhair  and  a  footKtool.  Uliavrv>'  i',  '  the 
rfaatr  atandn  with  the  corner  of  ita  aeut  nvnreat  to  the  ap>  <  -i  jr,  the 
point  of  ai^'lit  licing  in  the  middle  of  tlie  picture,  'ri.<:  rcci'duiK 
■dea  of  the  cliuir  hdve  tlieir  rea|ieotive  purta  reifulii'i  '  liy  iliar''  iialH 
Id  their  vatii^ihiiiK  iwinta.  The  footstool  standH  on  a  line  f  iirallel 
«;  the  haae,  ,ind  therefore  ita  viaual  raya  tend  to  the  point  of  Nit;ht 
in  the  centre  of  tlie  picture.  Theae  may  prepare  the  miml  of  the 
■tudent  to  roimi<ler,  tliat  ohjecU,  when  dilferentiy  aituiiteil,  have 
each  their  vanialiiii);  point*  regulated  hy  the  fuiglc  at  wtiich  Uiey 
ue  viewed. 


We  recomriK  rul  yet;,,  <.-n  atl  ooeaaiona,  u>  draw  the  horizontal 
liu  ao  iai  on  either  «ida,  lI'.Bt  it  will  be  intersected  by  the  diago- 


nala,  wnich  are  In  be  drawn  at  an  aiiKie  of  M 
driireea  from  the  alntion,  into  llie  horlioi,uj 
line,  where  they  delerniiiie  the  «aiiii<liiiif(nai„i. 
Theae  are  only  indicated  in  the  diaKr.uiii  by  th* 
ditectiiiii  of  thoat^  Unra,  aiid  the  wnnla  i.to  V  I" 
or  "  to  V  a." 

In  flit-  ">  the  haae  line  AH  ia  drawn,  itarrn. 
tre  deterininnd,  and  the  |M'r|N>ndicul.ir  drawn  to 
()  ;  tlir  unnle  of  tlO  deKrecH  iK  taken  in  iinw. 
ment  with  Ihe  haM'  line,  niaknix  an  eifuilitfni 
ItiiinHle,  and  the  point  of  mkIiI  i>  ia  hied  on  \\^ 
horizontal  line  lI.  'I'he  vuniahiiit)  (xtinli  ir, 
found  liy  the  anich  of  U((  denrren  at  O.  |irnj,t(^| 
on  either  aide  to  V  I  on  Ihe  leO,  uini  V  !|  „,, 
(he  ri({lit,  aa  U-forc  deacriheil.  All  I'm  diniinu. 
lion*  of  eorrea|KindiiiK  ornamenlN  mi  i,ii>  'i^a 
anil  IronI  leifa  of  the  chair  ore  drawn  tn  V  ] 
while  the  aiile  of  the  chiiir  in  reKiihitcd  hy  V  | 
The  footitl(Mil  ia  placed  panilli  I  to  i|,e  |iim  ng 
the  line  CI),  and  ila  diniiniition  n  )(i||iit,',|  |,. 
the  ray  a  K  I'  iilxl  FP.  The  diiiu.nid  0  liom 
Ihe  h'K  of  the  lootatool  I),  to  ihi'  vaiiii>hinK|Hiint 
V  I,  would  determine  the  mpmre  of  tlie  iukiI 
or  the  piwition  of  the  farther  Ii  u,  at  the  point 
whi'ie  it  inlerMM'ted  the  ruy  CI*. 

Kin.  7  ahowa  the  |M-ra|NTtive  linca  requjffj 
to  repreMent  a  writiin;-de»k  plaiecl  di.inor.nljvcn 
a  liiMe  wliich  atandx  on  the  luiin'  line.  The  bid 
of  Ihe  picture  ia  drawn  na  AH,  the  rrntre  u 
taken,  and  a  |a'rpeni!icnlar  diawn  to  (),  ,,  th« 
annle  of  I'd)  deifreea.  The  liorirmi'nl  lino  i 
drawn  at  il.  'I'he  parallel  ia  drawn  Irom  Oig 
S,  and  there  the  |a-r|H'n(licnlar  to  lli.  I.nriiaiitil 
line  fi«e»  the  point  of  aiKht  at  IV  Then  iht 
anttle  of  ItO  desreea  ia  taken  at  ".  and  thciidii 
iM'iiiii  projected  to  the  horizonlnl  line,  qivnthf 
viiniHliiiiK  |K<inta  V  t  on  the  h'D,  and  V  Son 
Ihe  ric'it.  Now,  Ihe  ta'.le  Uiiiif  w\\\  in  front. 
or  on  'he  haae  line,  the  viauni  rnv"  fri'tnthelpj, 
and  the  top  are  drawn  to  Ihe  point  of  iiiifht  p. 
'I'he  tahle  la'inR  HUp|HiKed  to  U' a  piiralloloipin;, 
it«  aide,  seen  in  jaTupi'i  live,  will  Ih-  nlmul  haU 
ita  width  aeen  in  front ;  therefore  let  half  th. 
apace  aeen  in  front  he  a«>t  off  from  the  V^  tn 
the  right,  and  the  diagonal  from  lliiit  linlfioV 
I  will  (five  the  dimiimlion  of  the  side  of  tht 
tahle,  whire  it  interaecla  the  my  Ironi  llic  ftonl 
leu  to  the  |x>inl  of  ainht  P,  at  R.  A  |>ariil|fi 
line  I'roni  thia  to  Ihe  rny  from  Ihe  other  front  Ifj 
will  nive  the  aituiition  T  for  the  nio'it  distam  ifj, 
The  wrilinK-<leak  l>einn  prenented  with  it*  comer 
towards  the  »|H"ct.itor,  both  niden  will  rfijuir» 
their  recediiiii  pointa,  which  are  delerniinfi'  jj 
the  vaniahini;  pointa  V  I  and  V  ".  Snr.'i  fami- 
liar  olijrcta  alionld  l)e  drawn,  hy  which  thpmo.t 
readily  to  fix  in  the  mind  of  the  Ktiuleiit  tht 
Uviding  principlea  of  linear  |«'rMp<clive. 

It  will  lie  aeen  that,  when  an  oliject  has  iti 
has*  line  parallel  t'>  ihe  horiron,  the  [Kiinl  of 
aii^ht  ia  in  the  p'  >>  ■  n  -•'.  .hut  it  ia  arrungeil  in 
ai;reement  with  th«  .  nl"  m't  which  the  oh 
jccl  ia  viewed.  ■"' i.'.  ;.  i  m  ohject  whir 
haa  four  aides,  .  i  i  en.  .1  tlion  aides  he  imr* 
diutely  in  front  of  the  eye.  the  visual  raya  niF 
be  hidden,  U'cauao  the  point  of  Hi^ilit  in  in  nr 
behind  the  ohject.  It  will  also  la-  i"eeii,  that  if 
the  object  Im-  moved  on  either  aide,  or  tlio  pcuii 
of  Kiuht  la!  altered  by  a  chaiwe  of  .tution.  tin 
viaaal  rays  determine  Ihe  recedimr  niile  of  'he 
object  immediately  on  a  second  side  hcini;  won. 

If  Ihe  baac  line  of  an  object  Ih'  removed  fros 
it*  parallel  to  the  baae  line  of  a  piclure,  tht 
angle  under  which  the  object  ia  view  ed  hconnm 
altered  iit  itrict  couforiiiity  with  ita  cLungnl  |» 


DRAWINU   AND    PKHSPKCTIVE. 


NikR.  lb*  puflif'l*'"  "''  whirh  the  iluilrrit  m«y  ■■vrt'in  l>y  pine- 
lU  tn  "I'J*''  '"  '''"  *•''"">"  poKilioiii. 

Kiiii|Mir<'  >  I'lx'xt  III'  ilmwfrii,  or  •  I'lilxi,  lo  he  (il.>  i  '  miil  ih-«ii  •«  in 
(ill  'I,  fill  «^ )>>'*'  !'>''  "•'•rrxt  I'Driirr  in  In  act  na  a  |>i\m>,  iIic  ciiiI  tiriir 
A.  U) )"'  iii>'*<'''  "<*  "*  tocauw  u  *^tfu  iHitwt'i'ii  tlio  Imw  \\iw.  nl  lliv 


Ajirtil  llmt  fii'l  Bn<'  Ihn  Ttnl  Imnp  line  of  tlio  pii'ttirc,  the  nnRlr 

i)t  vi«i()li  V».)U' '  T  ■•'i|ii  •  thilt  the  liiiHC  iinil  t>>|i  liiirn  of  llic  oliji'cl 
ilwulilh  '  "'  «n ''liriH  iioiiilt.  'I'ho  olijf.'t  could  t...  tiiovc.l 
mf  I  ilif'  I  i.'  '  '  liil  tliiit  wl  lili  ill  till-  iliii^niiii  in  (lie  rc- 
„1.  ii.  ilrvoiiM  h«r<  in<>  tile  front,  miil  c  h  li  |iciNitioii  woiilil  rr- 
|uir  '  (111'  III! ;  lint  llic  Htuilcnt  i*  iircsnincii  to  Imvc  licconu' 
irilUJli.lfil  ■  ''  t'"'  'i"'l.  tlml.  lit  Ciich  I'liiiM'  ill  tlic  iiiovcinclit  ot 
hi«  iihJK't  1)11  I-  iiivol,  ilicri"  will  lie  oxliiliilt'il  ii  iliiiiiiiiilinti  on  oik- 
.ilo.  prciiorlmiiali'  to  tlip  iiicrniii'  of  tin-  oilier  fiidi'  ;  iiiilil,  liy  coii- 
l.ninn  Ihmc  lotiilor^-  iiiovciiiciilH  of  the  oIpJi'cI,  lliut  nidc  whirli  win*  nt 
(i-«l|.ri'  ■  III  !ii'  lii|i'<''y.lw''""'iii'''lli<'fi'ml.  iiiidiln  Iuikc  |i:uiiIIc|  totlii' 
hiLv  iil'llic  I'lcliirc.  'I'lic  oriuiiiiil  front  of  tlic  olijcct.  Iiy  llio  rrvolv- 
iiK  niiivpiiMiitH.  will  have  Im-cii  |o»t  or  liiddrn,  pxacllv  in  projior- 
tiiiii  «n  till'  .I'ccdiiiK  xidc  adviinccd  lo  i|ic  front.  'I'Ihih  Ilic  \iiiii«li- 
ini;  |ii)iiil  I'vlc'iidcd  iim  tlip  iiclvniiciiiB  Kiilc  lii'iiiini'  more  cvidcnl,  just 
111  pro|Kirlioii  u«  lliP  rcccdiiit;  Hide  diniiiiiMlicd.  M;iki'  iIichc  r\|ic- 
niiiontrt.  and  olucru',  on  tlii"  lirnt  cliiiii;»r  of  jHisition  dcvi.iliiia  from 
1  |)iirull(l  willi  till'  liiiw  of  tlio  jiii'liirc,  tlml  tlic  vanisliiiiK  |ioint  V 
I  wiis  rpiiiiircd,  anil  no  fir  reniovi-d  on  tlip  liorizont.il  line  on  the 
Ip;!,  as  |U'rh;i|iH  to  reijuire  nil  nii'^jle  of  SO  decrees  iit  the  Mtiitioii, 
whili"  V  '.'  on  the  rinht  wonM  then  re(|nire  nii  nnulo  of  10  dettrecH. 
Any  iiiibHi(|iient  elnuiKe  of  |ioNilioii  in  the  oliject  \\dl  alter  the 
,u.^lc«  for  llic  re!<|ieclive  viiniKhiiii;  pointH,  mid  tlirsi^  lo^othrr  al- 
wiVK  iniiklii';  lUi  iiimle  of  90  deurecH. 

Ki|;.  N  dhowM  the  inethoil  hy  which  the  Kitiiiition'i  of  windown 
iiinv  lie  |irii|ierly  drawn  in  the  repreHeiitalion  of  u  hoime,  seen  oli- 
lii|iU'l.v.  iJr.iw  the  Imiho  line  \U:  tiiid  the  iiiikIc  of  ('.')  deifreeH  on 
till'  iicrpendlcidiir  from  the  centre,  mid  mark  the  ^t^•,;on  S  ;  deter- 
ininc  Ihf  liorii'.ontal  line  H,  and  the  point  of  Hi|»lit  on  /,  perpemli- 
niUrto  S;  find  the  aiii,'lp  of  ninety  (leirreeH,  imd  d'.iK  the  hrien  to 
till'  viuiislunif  poiiiln  V  I  and  V  2 :  draw  the  iiearent  j-'rpendiou^ir 
ol'lhe  hmw  (',  and  lU  where  the  iieurmt  wiiiilow:<  an-  r-Ueod,  bJho 
llirir  lii'inlit  and  width,  DK  :  draw  Ihcmj  diairoiiiij-  »o  :>,p  v^Mii<hiiif{ 
point  V  2 ;  ttiey  rexulalo  the  diminution  of  the  hciguiB  r-f  a!!  the 
I     us       4     J     .,      r     I.     0    10    11    ij    in    It    IS  M    " 


Vat.  I.— fil 


r(g.a 


windowi!  draw  alun  the  rnrnlre  and  lh«  hsM 
line*  ;  then  draw  a  fine  line  K  |iiirallp|  In  the  hOi 
ri/.on,  ami  touchiii;;  the  |N<r|iciidii  lllar  (';  Ihrn, 
Willi  the  compiiiiM'a,  lake  Ihe  ineaanrr  ftf  IIm 
"pace  iH'lwecn  the  per|iendtciilar  (',  which  !■ 
the  ■•oriier  of  the  hoiiae,  ami  the  ed^e  of  th« 
window  I),  am!  mark  it  on  the  line  K  aa  al 
I  ;  then  lake  the  width  of  the  window  K,  and 
mark  it  lu  at  V,  It  ia  heller  lo  have  a  aerond 
|)ilir  of  rnmpaHara  lo  prevent  ini<take  ill  tlw 
ttlteriMile  klleratlon  that  ia  rc(|u;-eil,  or  lh« 
npncc  for  ihe  wiiiilowii  may  he  iiiHrked  with 
the  |Miilil  "1  u  needle  on  a  (itece  of  wrilinn- 
paper,  and  ihcn  iiiirked  otV  cm.  (idly  on  Iha 
IIm  y\  then  Ihc  rniiipuKM  h  will  ii  nik.  Ih« 
apai  c  iiclvvcpn  the  window*  only.  The  ainall 
projcplion  whicll  <rppnratea  the  centre  from  the 
wliiifi  mnat  he  nnticod,  i\r-  m  <i ;  then  the 
a:  ice  with  compat««ea  4,  ihcn  "u  window  6, 
then  the  apace  0,  then  the  vsind.iw  7,  Ihcii 
the  apace  H,  then  the  window  (I,  then  the 
apace  10,  then  iha  window  I  1.  then  the  *\i%eA 
13,  Ihrii  the  window  til.  In  ii  the  a)'<i.-e  14, 
'riiis  heiiin  the  farther  eMrcmily  of  lli.  centr* 
of  thi'  hoiiac,  the  corrciiiondiiin  ph>|ection  t<» 
(»  iiiiial  lie  notici  d,  w-k  liciiii;  mo  niuih  of  Iho 
ne»t  apace  hidden  hchind  Ih"  pr  iiitinH  i'>'n- 
Ire;  it  will  therefore  ho  marked  (.'i.  then  the 
window  10,  then  the  apace  17.  Thecr  com- 
poHe  Ihe  Hpiicea  and  widiha  of  the  windowH  M 
I'een  in  the  tVonI  of  Ihc  Iiouni  r  and  it  iniiHt  he 
menlioneil,  ihat  Ihe  potnta  which  have  heen 
made  on  the  line  Y,  niii"*  he  '  erlVelly  tnie 
on  Ihe  line,  or  Iho  trulli  of  the  dn  iimilinii  will 
he  impaired.  Now,  aaaunie  a  Hiint  atwnil 
llie  middle  of  the  houne,  on  the  ho  ontal  Ibiie, 
w*  at  K,  and  draw  dia^nnnlN  from  u  i  the  pointa 
iimde  on  Ihe  line  F^  into  Ihe  po-iii  K,  olserv. 
iiio;  Ihat  the  jioint  of  the  pencil  nm^  into  holh 
nt  i"'ery  line.  A  needle  mH\  ho  laced  al 
K,  at;ninat  which  the  HtrHiRht-edi?e  may  be 
pre«K«'d,  to  naaiat  in  drnwiiii;  Ihe  dini;  on  eor- 
rectly.  Now,  the  diuRonalH  which  n  nlaled 
the  diminution  in  the  height  of  theae  vt  Iowa, 
na  drawn  to  V  2,  will  be  inierFi cted  v  the 
radii  drawn  from  the  point  K  into  the  larka 
on  the  line  F,  and  thoae  ilileraeetion^  will 
ahow  the  diminution  of  width  uccordir  .  to 
the  Inws  of  linear  p<'rg|)eclivc. 

Aa  this  diagrnm  may  bo  crowded  ith 
lines,  you  ore  roeommendcd  to  examine  he 
internecliona  carefully,  and  mark  ihe  fonn^  of 
Ihe  windowH  with  a  hard  pencil,  and  tlcn 
draw  in  nil  the  perpcndiculura  as  rcKulni.  •! 
by  the  radii  on  the  iltngomil  liiie».  If  in  tin* 
slate  of  Iho  dini;rnm  there  aliould  oppear  ari» 
oonfuaion,  il  will  he  fur  better  to  i.  :nmenc«». 
another;  and  the  larger  Ihc  nrawi'ij  is,  tho 
Icaa  risk  i«  there  of  iliHappointmeiit.  The  aid* 
of  the  buildinij,  Ihat  is.  Ihe  winj;  mid  the  Iwr- 
lion  of  Ihe  centre  seen  above,  with  Ihe  little 
projection  nl  (J,  are  drawn  by  dingonala  to 
the  vanisliinp;  point  V  1. 

You  are  advised  not  to  pass  this  diaijTnni 
without  havinjj  obtained  a  perfect  knowledge 
of  Ihe  principles  by  which  the  diminutions 
ore  regulated.  Difticull  as  this  iniiv  appeer, 
it  oiiu'hl  hy  all  means  to  1m  alUini.Icd,  for  i| 
cannot  lie  too  atroni?ly  impressed  on  the  mind, 
that  no  perfection  in  drawinc,  no  delicnry  in 
finishing,  nor  lioldnees  of  eneet,  can  atone  fui 
deficiency  in  pcr-^iieolive.  When  a  little  pr» 
gross  has  been  mode  in  this,  so  that  the  judg* 
ment  ia  prepared  lo  understanO  the  arrang*- 
Vl2 


40t 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


nenU  which  objocU  must  undergo  to  bo  cor- 
rectly reprcspntfid  on  a  flat  surface,  u  scene 
in  nature  can  bo  sketchci'  without  any  ni»> 
leria:  dilHculty, 

Fig.  9  repniHcnta  a  method  by  which  arch- 
ways are  put  into  perspective. 

The  base  AB,  the  horizontal  line  H,  and 
the  point  of  siitlit  P,  are  determined  ns  in 
the  proccdiiii;  iliugrains.  In  tliis  it  will  be 
•een,  tiiat,  if  the  point  P  hod  liocn  n-tuined 
in  the  centre  of  the  subject,  the  sides  of  each 
rospertivt-  itrch  would  have  b<'en  nliku;  to 
obviate  this,  P  is  placed  a  little  to  the  left  of 
al'thp  centre. 

This  is  a  subject  which  may  often  be  mpi 
with,  and  you  are  advised  to  study  snch  objects  in  na- 
ture, Ih)  tliey  of  one  or  more  arches;  ever  ro!MOiiilicriii;T 
that  the  Hlation  must  be  jirescrved  with  the  heud  to'vnrils 
llie  point  nf  aiifht;  tlic  e_\'eH  only  are  to  Ih'  turned  from 
one  part  to  another.  You  will  thus  practically  learn  the 
distance  al  which  to  toke  a  station  for  such  rttiidics.  If 
it  lie  taken  too  near,  too  little  of  the  subject  will  be  seen. 
If  it  lie  lalcen  too  far  otT,  then  there  will  lie  more  expan- 
■ion  than  is  required,  and  the  sulject  will  not  show  the 
minutiip. 

Suppose  such  an  object  as  fip;.  9  to  be  in  front  of  the 
draunhtKinaii :  the  piers  l)etween  the  arches  should  be 
•kelched  as  per|>endicularly  as  posiibli-,  and  the  archen 
turned  by  hand :  then  the  depth  of  the  reeedinif  sides, 
■s  nearly  us  tho  jud<;ment  may  diroi-t,  and  as  much  of 
the  masonry  as  may  point  out  the  perspective  of  th<? 
iubject  :  then,  while  all  is  fresh  in  the  memory,  attach 
the  sketfh  to  the  drawim^-lmard,  and  bv  the  T-square 
draw  tho  base  AB,  tho  horizontal  line  H.  the  point  of 
tight  P,  and  the  vanishing  pomt  V  2 ;  then,  by  the 
T-square,  correct  all  the  perpemliculars  and  horizontals  ; 
draw  the  lino  CU,  which  is  the  chord  of  the  smaller 
arcs,  and  UU,  which  is  the  chonl  of  the  lar^e  arc.  ami 
otMerve  that  the  perpendiculars  intersect  the  line  C  and 
those  at  the  c»'ntre  arc  at  D:  tlien  fnid  the  c<>ntre  for  the 
ara  M,  and  dcscrilie  it  correctly  from  one  |)er|)enilicular 
into  the  other:  do  the  same  from  their  centres  to  the 
•ntallcr  arcji;  and  thus  the  superficies  of  the  subject  will 
ho  defineti  :  then  draw  tho  visual  rays  from  the  base  of 
ail  the  perfiendiculars  B,  and  from  the  intersections  on 
(JO  an<l  Dl),  to  the  point  of  si^ht  P.  which  give  the  re- 
ceding lines  for  the  visible  sides  of  the  archways.  If  the 
piers  be  square,  a  line  drawn  from  ;he  base  of  the  per- 
pendicular of  the  centre  archway  E.  to  the  vanishing 
point  V  2,  Will  give  the  persijective  width  of  tho  reced- 
ing parts.  If  the  piers  be  one  s<piare  in  front,  and  two 
•quan-s  deep,  mark  olf  a  s<]Uarc  to  the  left  of  the  perpen- 
dicular, as  at  U;  and  a  diagonal  drawn  thence  to  V  2 
will  give  the  receding  dejith  where  it  inters  rls  the  visual 
ray  EV  at  K.  At  this  intersection  draw  the  horizontal 
line  I  ;  and  where  this 


such  study  would  convey  more   information  than  tk 
copying  of  a  dozen  drawings  or  diagrams. 

SKKTCHINO    FROM    NATURE. 

Having  acquired  a  certain  facility  of  hand  »rJ 
mastered  the  principles  of  i)ers|icctivo,  you  mav  Dr 
cccd  to  the  more  ag^reeable  study  of  skctchiiii  from 
natural  scenery.  At  first,  do  not  attempt  anv  diflifni, 
or  complex  subject.  Select  some  assenibla'^e  of  oriti 
nary  olyecls,  such  as  may  l)e  thoiiirht  aKrrpaWe  in 
themselves,  and  likely  to  be  represented  with  fg^  ^i 
satisfaction.  Tho  scene  selected  should  not  rontain  I 
more  than  three  or  lour  objects  of  dilVereiit  kind»-. 
such  as  a  cottage,  one  or  two  trees,  and  a  small  rustic 
paling,  with  pi'rhaps  the  addition  of  n  little  tjlimpse  jf 
background.  You  will  observe  that  an  artist  rarpJT 
ever  takes  an  olject  in  its  broadest  and  most  rf»u|,. 
form :  he  never  represents  a  house,  for  instance,  u  if 
he  had  taken  up  his  position  right  in  front  of  it,  u  ,. 
architect  would  do ;  nor  would  he  paint  a  row  of  trm 
at  a  ri^ht  angle  to  his  own  position,  seeing  that  the 
eiTect  of  such  representations  would  be  tame  and  formal 
He  endeavours  to  catch  the  careless  grace  of  naturt 
as  sho  appears  to  casual  observation.  A  hou%,  m,. 
ticularly.  slinuld  always  Ih!  viewed  from  a  point  a  (iltis 
aside  from  the  front,  so  us  to  bring  in  as  many  of  iu 
ungnlarities  as  [>ossible.  A  group  of  natural  ohjcfn 
should  be  represented  as  if  the  draughlsnmn  had  juiit 
by  chnnec  got  his  eye  upoji  it;  and  yet  the  selection  of 
a  puint  from  which  this  elTect  may  be  obtained  mu< 
be  a  matter  of  study.  For  an  early  lesson  in  skctclp. 
ini;  from  nature,  it  is  enomjh  that  the  objects  he  o'lt. 
lined  ;  to  fill  in  details,  ami  give  the  full  ellect  of  lifhl 
and  shade,  nmst  he  left  to  a  future  period  in  the  careo 
of  a  young  artist 

As  an  example  of  the  scenes  which  may  he  selotlfj 
for  early  sketches  from  n.ilure,  fie.  10  is  given,  bcici 
simply  a  cottage  backed  by  a  few  trees,  ami  hara; 
some  broken   ground   in    front,  while   a  glimpse  of  tin 


sea  is  obtuined  at  the  side   of  the   picture.     The  slatina 
nters«"cts  the  visual  rays  at  EP,  |  of  the  dranghtsman  is  here  at  S,  in  order  that  the  rov 


as  at  K,  raise  the  {wrpendiculars  till  they  interse^  thi* 
visual  rays  t'P  and  DP,  as  at  LL.  Thus  will  the  n- 
eedi'iir  sides  of  the  archway  lie  determined.  To  find  the 
arc  at  the  farther  end  of  the  subject,  draw  the  horlzontal-i 
LL;  and  the  visual  ray  MP,  wIktc  these  intiTsi'ct  at  \, 
is  the  centre  on  which  the  arch  may  be  described.  The 
smaller  arches  are  to  be  found  by  a  similar  process. 

Now,  tho  correcting  of  such  a  sketch  by  the  applica- 
tion o(  the  rules  of  |)ers|)ective,  will  sliow  where  the 
rye  and  hand  have  failed  in  giving  a  faithful  represen- 
tation of  the  objwt.  Th<!retorc.  again  visit  the  spot, 
taking  a  station  strictly  in  agrecmerit  with  that  in  tlie 
drawing,  and  compare  the  corrected  I 'les  with  those 
which  nature  will  present  Let  all  be  nnuWy  examiiu-d, 
iiid  ttte  result  will  not  fail  to  Ih:  sstisfsctory 


tage  may  not  a|i|N'ar  to  have  la-en  viewed  forrnallv,  and 
that  the  trees  hehiuil  may  give  to  the  scene  \is  neat 
pyramidal  form,  while  tic  broken  gronmls  in  front 
coininunicate  lM>ldness  of  character,  and  the  slraijlu 
line  of  the  M'a  at  P  (^whicli  is  the  hori/ontal  liiii>)airor(ii 
a  pleasing  contrast  to  the  oilier  lines  of  the  i  raw  nj. 

It  will  be  remarked    that   the  cottage  stanils  on  a  liw  I 
parallel  to  Uic  base  .\Ti.  the  point   of  sight  I'  is  pfrpf* 
diiular  to  the   station    S ;  conseiinently,   the   rayi  ihil 
regulate   the  side  of  the  chimney,  the  Hi)pcr  iiml  iiniln 
lines  of  the  roof,  and  tho  window  on  that  side  of  ttie  | 
cottage,  all  centre  hi  P. 

I'rovided  with  a  sketch-book,  (measurin.'  pothapa  I 
10  inches  long  by  7  inches  broad,)  the  first  iliin(;tot(  I 
done  Is  to  select  a  station  from  which  the  drawing  ii  I 
lo  Ih>    exei'Utcd.     A    ditliculty    may    present  il«:'lf  i*  | 


We  recommend  that   every    opportunity   should    be 
taken    to  sketch  such  subjecta  from    nature;  they   fur-  '  B|>ecting    tho    size    of  the    proposed    drawini^;  hiltti 
bun  excellent  studiea  fur   linear  perspective,  and  one  |  dimeiuiuiua  may  be  determined  in  a  very  simple 


DRAWING  AND  PERSPECTIVE. 


\ 

r-^ 

— I 
H 

N 

formation  than  t^ 
;ram8. 

TURK. 

ility  of  hand,  vA 
livo,  you  mny  p,,. 
r  of  ski-tiliinsf  ftou 
ittompt  any  diflicnii 
aBRpml)la.:;i>  of  ordj. 
louirlit  aKroonble  ii, 
>nlc(l  vith  raseuiii 
slioiild  not  contain 
if  ililVnronl  kind*- 
'9,  and  a  «niall  nistic 
f  n  littlp  i^limpse  o( 
lat  an  artist  tarpit 
Kt  and  most  rennlu 
I,  for  instanrc,  as  if 
in  front  of  it,  is  w 
paint  a  row  of  tnti 
ion,  seeing  that  the 
1  be  tamo  andfornuL 
less  grace  of  natutt, 
ion.  A  housK),  par. 
from  a  point  a  liitlj 
H  in  as  many  of  iit 
I  of  natural  objofti 
ranghtsiDwn  had  jiK 
1  yet  the  selection  cf 
«y  be  obtained  niuit 
rly  lesson  in  ekctcfp. 
the  objcets  be  o* 
e  full  ellect  of  lijlit 
period  in  the  cares 


lie 


liioh  may  be  seleclfl 
2.  10  is  \i\\cn,  bfir.f 
w  trees,  and  havin; 
ile  n  f;lin)pse  of  tin 
)ieture.    The  statiw 

order  that  the  r* 
viewed  forinally,  iiii! 
D   the  scene  ili  nnl 
n   (rrounds   in  front 
or,    and  the  straisht 
ori/oiitttl  lini')airori!i  I 
es  of  the  (  rawnf. 
ttnce  stands  onalim  I 
of  sight  1'  is  pcrjirn. 
leiitly,  the   rays  ikil 
the  upper  and  iiiiilw 

on  tliat  side  of  (tit  I 

(nieasurinL'    pfihip 
)  the  first  thing  to  h 
ivhich  the  drawing  il 
ny    present   it«?lf  i»  I 
•d    drnwiu)^;  hit  ll»  | 
I  a  very  niuiple  ■ 


Fig.  11. 

jer.  Hold  up  tho  sketch-book  in  front,  with  one  eye 
close>l,  and  the  space  in  the  scene  covered  by  the  Imok 
is  tliat  which  may  be  drawn ;  of  conrae,  the  farther  ofT 
the  book  is  held,  the  less  of  tho  subject  will  be  covered. 
When  the  extent  of  the  scene  is  nrransed,  the  book 
mjv  be  Rently  lowered,  and  a  few  dots  made  on  the  top 
manjin,  merely  to  point  out  the  relative  situations  of 
particular  features,  as  the  width  of  the  cottape,  and  the 
lifs.  'J'hen,  rernemlierini^  to  preserve  the  stntion, 
irark  tho  point  of  sirjht  nn  the  distant  hori7/)n.  Do  not 
bi'  in  haste,  but  judi^e  of  the  relative  distances  of  the 
most  prominent  parts,  such,  for  instance  us  the  gable 
fiid  of  the  cottrtsfe  and  its  lenptli,  and  tenderly  mark 
tbi'ra  on  the  places  to  lie  so  occuijied.  When  these  or 
mire  dots  for  guides  have  been  placed,  examine  their 
ro!alive  distance's,  and  compare  them  with  the  objects, 
U  holdiiiR  the  sketch-book  out  in  front  so  as  to  p=ee 
llie  ai^ccment  between  them  over  the  margin.  To 
irrangp  these  particulars  well  at  first,  will  sove  much 
trouble  in  obliterntinR  falsely  dmwn  lines.  Bo  careful 
in  liketchini;  to  preserve  the  perpendiculars  of  walls  and 
I  chimney ;  that  is.  by  plncintf  them  at  rip;ht  angles  with 
the  bane  line,  which  is  now  the  lower  edge  of  the 
I  sketch-book. 

To  prevent  the  hand  from  injuring  the  sketch  as  it 
I  proceeds,  commence  on  the  le.ft  and  proceed  to  the  right. 
I  EiiJfavoiir  to  sketch  the  lines  with  a  lightness  of  hand, 
I  or  with  what  is  called  freedom,  the  etTcnt  of  which  is 
1  Torr  distinct  from  lines  drawn  by  a  straight-edge : 
lift  them  l)c  rather  broken,  or  a  little  wavy,  yet  having 
I  the  iteneral  appearance  of  straightncsg.  Let  tho  massca 
I  of  foiiuje  Imi  sketched  with  the  lainc  ease  and  confi- 
Idi'iice  that  the  capital  letter  E,  or  the  tiourish  of  the  D, 
I  an-  made  in  writing.  Sketch  the  grounds,  in  their 
IdiU'rent  undulations,  rather  more  angularly,  or  a«  if 
|nii;;rdly  dashed  in,  and  strengthen  the  linei  when 
jiepiralion  of  parts  seem  to  be  required. 

In  examining  the  objects  of  which  a  acene  like  the 
Itortijuin?  is  coiniHi'ied,  you  will  observe  that  the  linos 
ifv  itie  collage   huve  one  character,  the  line*  for  the 


tree*  another,  and  the  linei  for  the  ground  t 
third  character,  which  detach  the  objects  from 
each  other.  A  simple  outline  of  these  three 
forms  is  sufficient  to  be  aimed  at,  for  the  intro* 
duction  of  more  markings  or  separations  would 
only  tend  to  confuse  early  studies. 

If  the  lines,  on  a  iiist  attempt,  be  nJt  all 
which  could  be  expected,  they  furnish  a  proof 
that  the  mind  is  in  odvance  of  the  hand,  and 
should  operate  as  a  stimulus  to  exertion.  In 
a  few  studies  you  may  discover,  that,  by  be- 
ginning  with  a  cut  point  to  the  pencil,  it  gradu- 
ally wears  away,  and  gives  an  increasing  thick- 
ness of  line ;  this  is  ollcii  very  advantageous, 
for,  us  the  sketching  advances  to  the  fore- 
ground, the  bolder  lines  of  the  pencil  con- 
tribute to  the  separation  of  parts,  to  regulata 
distances,  and  give  a  more  spirited  efiect  to  the 
subject.  You  will  also  discover,  after  a  little 
practice,  that,  by  a  gentle  twist  of  the  pencil, 
a  fresh  point  or  surface  will  come  in  contact 
with  the  paper,  and  with  it  a  finer  line  may  be 
drawn.  O(!casional!y,  by  pressing  harder  on 
the  pencil,  an  increase  ot  j  owcr  will  bo  com- 
municated to  such  parts  as  may  require  separa- 
tion or  additional  spirit,  as  on  the  rude  line 
which  forms  the  foreground  in  fig.  10,  and 
gradually  on  the  pathway  to  the  cottage  door. 
Suppose  a  scene  to  consist  of  two  or  more 
plans,  ns  the  remains  of  a  castle  on  an  irregulai 
surface,  with  a  mass  of  trees  in  front,  and  neai 
it,  as  the  principol  or  leading  feature  of  the 
scene,  an  arm  of  the  sea,  and  remote  hilla 
forming  the  background  or  distance,  and  a  rude 
foreground.  We  shall  suppose  that  a  scone  of  thia 
nature,  as  represented  in  fig.  11,  can  be  conveniently 
visited.  Commence  by  selecting  a  station  that  will 
present  a  variety  of  forms  or  opposition  of  charac- 
ter, such  as  lofVy  objects  contrasted  by  small  objecta, 
which  will  prevent  the  appearance  of  equal  heights  or 
parallels,  and  also  prevent  the  scene  from  licing  crowded 
or  closed  up.  The  castle  toward  one  side  of  the  pic- 
ture, and  tho  distance  on  the  other,  so  as  to  form  an 
irregular  diagonal  mass,  are  in  better  relief  than  if  the 
building  with  the  trees  were  more  in  tho  middle  of  the 
subject.  'J'he  opposition  of  angular  to  circular  formi 
|)roduces  a  pleasing  effect  in  a  sketch,  and  should  be 
observed.  If  the  perpendiculars  of  a  ruin  be  broken, 
the  general  a|)pcarance  must  bo  that  of  standing  up- 
riglit ;  for  however  mutilated  towers  or  walls  may  be, 
there  will  still  l)c  evidences  of  their  having  been  pro- 
perly constructed.  When  these  particulars  shall  have 
been  considered,  proceed  to  arrange  the  situation  of 
the  principal  mass,  by  dotting  on  the  edge  of  the 
sketch-book;  and  by  faintly  indicating  the  forms  de- 
termine the  horizontal  line,  observing  that  hills  may 
appoar  far  a))ove  ;  in  lig.  1 1,  it  is  at  H  on  the  extre- 
mity of  the  water,  tho  station  is  at  8,  and  consequently 
the  point  of  sight  at  P,  into  which  are  drawn  the  visual 
rays,  or  lines  which  regulate  the  receding  sides  of  the 
towers.  These  and  the  perpendiculars  being  arranged, 
they  may  be  boldly  sketched  in,  and  the  trees  freely 
marked,  in  a  character  partaking  of  the  semicircular ; 
the  fewer  markings  the  better,  for  it  is  the  useless  sepa- 
ration of  parts  composing  a  mass  that  destroys  the 
breadth  and  boldness  of  a  sketch.  The  distant  billt 
may  be  tenderly  indicated  with  a  fine  point,  and  the 
foreground  may  be  coarsely  defined  with  a  broad- 
{loinled  pencil,  in  order  to  detach  it  from  the  parti 
more  distant.  Here  and  there  an  additional  spot  oi 
touch  of  the  bold  pencil  may  be  given,  to  assist  in  pre 
snrving  the  gradations  of  distance. 

The  same  object  in  nature  will  often  present  many 
excellent  subjects  for  tlic  sketch-book ;  even  moving  to 


404 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


■  (liatanre  of  fifty  yardi  may  present  n  scene  of  in- 
creased interest.  Do  r.^t  therefore  fail  to  take  advan- 
Uofo  of  such  stations,  and  slictrh  an  outline  from  each, 
in  order  to  exercise  tlie  judgment  by  comparing  the 
■ubject  afterwards.  It  is  also  useful  to  ascertain  how 
nearly  the  eye  has  determined  the  truth,  by  applying 
the  rules  of  linear  perspective  to  every  sliet^'h  at  the 
t<arliest  convenience.  Many  advantages  arise  from 
two  or  three  students  sketching  the  same  scenes  in 
i»)inpany,  for  various  valuable  remarks  are  thereby 
elicited,  tending  to  the  mutual  benefit  of  the  party.  The 
sketch-book  should  be  preserved  complete,  as  contain- 
ing records  of  advance  in  judgment  and  corrcctnesH  of 
delineation. 

In  drawing  from  nature,  as  in  penmanship,  every 
person  may  be  said  to  possess  a  manner  of  his  own, 
fciome  draw  stiffly,  and  others  with  remnrkalilc  freedom. 
You  are  reconimcndi'd  to  catch  the  tone  of  those  who 
form  tlioir  sketclica  in  a  bold  and  free  stylo,  but  by  no 
means  imitate  any  one.  Your  olijoct  ought  to  bo  to 
draw  scenes  with  ualural  truth  ami  bcnu'y,  regardless 
of  all  man.'in  i;;Hi».  At  first  you  can  scarcely  avoid 
drawing  with  •  certain  degree  of  foriniil  siiffnoss,  but 
animati'd  hy  a  desire  to  excel,  and  cxorois,  lu;  taste  and 
judgment,  your  practice  will  improve,  and  your  skotohos 
will  not  fail  to  meet  with  approl)ali;)n.  Whatever  be 
the  difficulties  you  encounter,  others  whose  works  you 
admire  wore  at  the  outset  equally  einbarras«'d ;  for 
re.it  assured  that  in  moat  cases  in  which  great  profi- 
ciency has  been  attained  in  the  art  of  dolincatioii,  no 
small  degree  of  trouble  has  been  endured,  and  miny 
failures  have  taken  place,  before  the  artist  was  finally 
eurccssful. 

Dkawixo  Foliage. — To  draw  correctly  the  various 
kinds  of  trees,  with  their  respective  charartors  of  foli- 
aije,  requires  the  most  careful  study  and  fienuent  ex- 
ercise from  nature.  In  an  elaborate  work  on  Land- 
ucajie  Drawing,  publislicd  by  Leigh,  London,  the  fol- 
lowing remarks  occur  on  tho  characters  of  foliage : — 
"  When  a  tree  is  near  tho  eye,  the  leaves  arc  distinctly 
»c|)arated  from  each  other ;  their  particular  form,  the 
iii.nertion  of  their  stems  into  the  branch,  the  perfection 
of  their  local  colour,  are  all  apparent.  Koinovc  this 
object  to  the  second  plan,  the  foliage  assuinos  masses, 
retaining  the  character,  but  the  tone  is  altered ;  tho 
Hcparalion  of  parts  is  no  longer  eviili'iit,  yet  it  is  recog- 
nised as  tile  object  previously  ins|)ectcd.  llcmove  it 
.  still  fartl.er  from  the  eye,  the  mass(>s  assume  a  uniform 
tone,  relieved  by  indications  of  light  and  shade,  sofloncd 
by  tho  intervention  of  atmosphere.  Reii'.ove  this  olject 
•till  more  distant,  it  is  icndered  indistinct,  tuid  forms  a 
{Mrtion  of  the  mass  of  light  or  shadt;  in  wliich  it  'uay 
be  situated.  Nature  presents  these  app.niraiicos  to 
every  inquiring  eye,  and  the  mode  of  representing  them 


must  depend  on  the  perseverance  of  those  ^y  3f]\^^ 
in  transcribing  them  into  their  skctch-booki."    Thi 
so  just,  that  the  student  might  imagine  the  tree  fim 
inspected  retiring  gradually  into  indistinctness,  and  d 
playing,  as  it  receded,  the  duo  portions  of  atrial  efi^.i 
It  also  teaches  how  tenderly  the  outline  must  be 
pressed  in  extreme  distance,  how  much  more  evidcni 
the  marking  may  ai'pear  in  tho  mid-distance,  how  much 
more   defined   the  form  becomes   by    light,  shade  n  I 
markings,  on  tho  second  plan,  and  how  distinct  the 
prcssion  of  character  and  power  of  touch  ought  to  \» 
as  they  approach  the  eye  or  the  foreground.  ' 

Fig.  la.  The  willow  has  been  represented  by  perp,, 
dicular  markings,  terminating  in  a  point,  to  give  the  id 
of  its  pendant  foliage.  A  broad  maps  of  light  is  ujunii 
preserved,  and  an  increase  of  markings  is  given  to  on 
side  of  each  sulidivision  of  foliage,  with  consiJorall 
power  of  characteristic  markings  on  the  shade-side  of  ih. 
tree,  bcsiilea  an  occasional  re|K'tilion  of  touch  forfffpoi 

The  fir  has  been  represented  by  short  angular  mark- 
ings connected  with  each  other,  much  like  the  im-ua 
scratch  with  a  pen  to  oMiterutc  an  incorrect  word.  TlipJ 
markings  are  continued  in  agreeniont  with  the  projections 
of  tlie  branches,  are  repeated  with  increased  power  on 
tho  shade-side  of  tlie  tree,  and  a  few  slight  miirkings  are 
given  on  the  cxlremities,  and  beneath  the  masses  to 
indicate  foliage  on  the  f-irther  side  of  the  tree. 

The  elm  has  been  represented  by  escalops  in  a  semi. 
cin-ular  direction,  so  distributed  as  to  give  the  idea  of 
thick  foliage ;  the  masses  are  separated  by  detached 
markings,  indicating  the  same  character,  and  their  r» 
tundity  given  by  rei>etitions,  with  occasional  incrt-ascof 
[(ower.  A  few  dots  on  the  extremities  will  relieve  thi 
harshness  of  the  outline,  where  the  escalops  are  too  evi. 
dent  or  regular. 

The  oak  has  lieen  represented,  as  in  fig.  13,  by  a  cba- 
racier  which  partakes  of  angular  and  broken  circular 
markings,  intermingled  with  dots  and  sharp  touches 
The  lighter  parts  are  pencilled  tenilcrly,  and  the  thii% 
portions  are  repeated  upon,  with  addition.il  jMjwer  given 
liy  sharp  angular  markings. 

We  mention  these  varieties  for  the  purpose  of  ghoBinj 
that  foliai'c  is  not  to  Ix.-  represented  by  distinctly  pour- 
fraying  every  leaf,  but  by  a  bold  grouping  and  s'uperticiil 
outlining ;  tlie  purpose  U-iiig  served  by  merely  a  jreneral 
re])resentalion.  Suppose  a  tree  is  to  lie  selectt'd  for  plariiij 
in  the  foreground  of  a  drawing,  where  its  pcruliaritiei 
are  required  to  be  displaye<l.  Let  the  growth  of  the 
branches  lie  obscrveil;  a  straight  lino  is  rarely  to  lie  seen, 
nor  do  they  sprintr  from  each  other  with  unifonni'v; 
thi're  is  usuaHy  an  undulalirig  line,  often  graceful,  on 
wild  luxuriance,  ever  pleasing,  in  these  siip|)ort8  to  tht 
foliage.  Let  tho  effect  of  the  leaves  which  niav  com|K»e 
a  principal  ma-ss  bo  indicated,  not  the  outline  uf  a  leufgi 


Plf.U- 


Fig.  ta 


DRAWING   AND  PERSPECTIVE. 


4W* 


.  „  f^hich  would  prove  labour  in  vain,  but  wliat  is 
Ln  w  much  by  the  imagination  as  the  eye — that  is,  not 
ihc  detail,  but  the  effect.  If  too  much  regularity  appear, 
iMtroT  it  by  projecting  a  touch  or  two  on  the  extremities, 

I  ^^ck  any  formality  hy  additional  markings,  in  con- 
.  j(y  with  the  character  adopted.  Oftentimes  the 
''  wRving  of  the  pencil,  or  a  powerful  repetition  with 
iip  |<oa(l  point,  will  not  only  remove  a  monotonous  ap- 

nrance,  but  communicate  characteristic  spirit  and  eflect. 
'  Pjpp,ience  has  shown,  that,  while  students  could 
ilftch  the  extremities  of  various  branches  of  trees  with 
■  I  rflect,  they  liuvo  felt  cmbarrnEsed  in  giving  a  cor- 
^sTondiiig  correctness  to  the  mass,  or  masses  of  folingc, 
bfloneing  tn  the  same  tree.  This  has  arisen  from  not 
haviiiir  liuly  considered  that  each  mas*  required  to  be 
irfaied  us  a  centre,  from  which  the  character  should  Ih) 
snrrail  towards  its  respective  boundiir)',  with  such  dis- 
■riminiition  as  to  obviate  all  a|)peiirunccs  of  formality, 
"  I  (lien,  by  the  introduction  of  re|)etitions  of  markings 

jij  touches,  to  arrange  the  separate  parts,  so  as  to  pre- 
serve but  one  central  mass,  however  it  might  be  situated. 
.\  few  trials,  with  the  oliservance  of  these  particulars, 
,ill  remove  the  difficulty.  Sometimes  the  hues  of  nature 
in  ihcir  variety  may  at  a  future  time  be  added.  The 
liMit  and  shade  in  Imlian-ink  cannot  be  ttius  used  as  a 
l\^<is,  becausi!  under  colour  it-is  injurious  to  transparency. 
Th:'  light  and  shade  in  bistre  is  rich  in  mass,  powerful  in 
tourh,  and  suscciitlble  of  niviiig  transparency,  with  a 
tii»li  Jenrce  of  finish.  Either  may  he  adopted,  as  the 
succeeding  hints  will  apply  to  one  as  well  as  tlie  other. 
Cakes  of  Indian-ink,  of  bistre,  or  of  neutral  tint,  may  be 
hail  of  the  vendors  of  colours  for  artists.  They  should 
be  free  from  grit;  and  when  they  were  well  ground,  and 
ilulv  u  corporatcd  with  gum  and  white  sugar-candy,  they 
wiii  deposit  no  si'diment. 

Floieer-Druwiiig. — In  connection  with  the  drawing  of 
foliage  and  trees,  we  should  jjarticularly  reconunend  the 
p-jclico  of  flower-drawing.  At  first  you  may  copy  draw- 
ings or  prints  of  flowers,  with  a  view  to  catiliing  the  mode 
of  delineation  in  groups;  nature,  however,  in  this,  as  in 
evcrv  thing  else,  must  he  your  true  8<hoi(l,  and  to  that 
ife  direct  your  attention.  We  press  this  advice  in  a  par- 
ticular manner  on  young  nuchanios  who  arc  studying 
oraamenlal  design  with  regard  to  their  profession.  No 
Joubt,  examples  of  ancient  and  modern  ornament  are  of 
great  value  in  this  branch  of  drawing;  but,  as  Mr.  Hay 
justly  remarks  in  his  work  on  Colouring,  ■'  flowers  arc 
tour  best  practice,  as  you  will  now  have  obtained  free- 
ilom  of  execution.  To  tliosc  who  have  gained  a  facility 
in  copying  tiie  licautiful  forms  which  (irevuil  in  the  vege- 
table kinRdoin,  and  who  have  had  such  instructions  in 
the  use  of  water-colours  as  may  enable  them  to  copy  in- 
dividual flowers  with  ease,  I  would  recommend  the 
acquirement  of  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  laws  of 
harmonious  colouring.  'I'hey  will  then  be  able  to  group 
and  arrange  flowers  in  the  most  agreeable  and  elTcctivo 
manner  in  regard  to  colour,  as  their  previous  experience 
must  have  taught  them  to  accomplish  in  combination  of 
form. 

•  Dr.  Ure  says,  that '  the  modes  in  which  taste  is  culti- 
tatod  at  Lynns  deserve  iMirticular  study  and  imitation  in 
tins  lountrv  Aiiimg  the  weavers  of  the  place,  the 
tiiildri'ii.  and  ali  persons  Im-icd  in  ilevising  patterns, 
niuih  uticntinn  is  devoted  lo  every  thing  in  any  way  ron- 
iifitcd  with  the  beautiful,  either  in  figure  or  colour. 
Weavers  may  Im'  seen  in  their  holiday  leisure  githcring 
fluwds,  and  grouping  Iheni  in  the  most  eugauing  cuin- 
biuatious.  Tliey  are  continually  suggesting  new  designs 
to  llieir  employers,  and  ure  thus  the  I'ruitlul  source  of 
elf^iiiit  patterns.'  Hence  tlie  Fremii  (l<)wer-|ialterns  are 
remarkaldy  free  from  incongruities,  being  copied  from 
nature  with  scientilic  precision. 

".\11  these  facilities  for  the  iinproveuient  of  our  fancy 
oioufact  irea  are  w  tliin  the  reach  of  tliu  most  humble. 


The  pursuit  of  such  a  course  of  study  as  I  have  endeavoured 
to  point  out,  would  not  only  augment  their  sources  of  inno* 
cent  pleasure,  but  lead  tliem  to  other  instructive  pursiuis. 
The  youth,  in  searching  for  the  most  graceful  and  pictu 
resque  plants  in  nature's  most  profuse  and  wildest  pro- 
ductions,  would  be  naturally  led  to  commence  the  study 
of  botany,  for  he  would  then  have  some  interest  in  the 
inquiry.  And  it  may  be  easily  imagined  with  what 
avidity  the  more  advanced  would  add  to  his  knowledge 
of  that  pleasing  science,  or  the  gratification  he  would 
derive  from  the  study  and  practice  of  horticulture. 

"  I  need  scarcely  (continues  this  writer)  point  out  the 
advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  cultivation  of  flowers 
by  thosa engaged  in  designing  ornamental  patterns.  The 
productions  of  a  well-managed  flower-garden  to  such 
would  be,  in  my  opinion,  of  more  real  utihty,  as  objects 
of  study,  than  the  contents  of  the  Louvre.  In  those 
productions  of  nature  they  will  find  the  most  exquisite 
beauty  and  elegance  of  form,  and,  even  in  single  flowers, 
the  most  perfect  eombinati(ms  of  colouring. 

"  In  saying  that  the  study  of  such  subjects  is  of  more 
utility  to  the  ornamental  designer  than  that  of  those 
great  works  of  art  which  have  been  the  admiration  of 
ages,  I  do  not  mean  to  undervalue  the  benefit  that  any 
one,  and  espcci  dly  the  artist,  may  derive  from  studying 
worki  of  this  dtncription.  I  am  aware  that '  the  eye  has 
its  [irinciple  of  correspondence  with  what  is  just,  beauti- 
ful, and  elegant,  and  that  it  acquires,  like  the  ear,  an 
habitual  delicacy,  and  answers,  with  the  same  provisions, 
to  the  finest  impressions.  Being  therefore  versed  in  the 
works  of  the  best  masters,  it  soon  learns  to  distinguisli 
true  impressions  from  false,  and  grace  from  aflfectation. 
I  liavo  therefore  not  the  least  doubt  that  those  who  have 
risen  to  some  degree  of  eminence  as  ornamental  design- 
ers, woidd  reap  great  benefit  in  attaining  a  knowIed2;o 
of  the  various  styles  and  subtleties  of  colouring,  hy  care- 
fully studying  and  copying,  in  masses  of  colour  alone, 
the  best  works  of  art  to  which  they  can  get  access,  and 
applying  these  arrangements  to  the  particular  figures  of 
their  patverns." 

LIGHT  AND  SHADE — TINTING. 
In  every  scene,  during  the  presence  of  light,  some 
parts  fall  inunediately  inider  the  cflcct  of  the  light,  while 
others  are  thrown  into  shade.  In  art,  advantage  is  taken 
of  this  mixture  of  light  and  dark  parts,  not  oidy  for  the 
facility  with  which  it  eiuddes  the  draughtsman  to  separate 
the  parts  of  a  scimip,  but  for  the  agreeable  effects  whictl 
may  be  produced  by  the  judicious  association  and  dis- 
triliution  of  the  light  and  shade.  In  the  representation 
<il  a  round  object,  it  is  only  by  a  careful  disposition  o( 
the  light  upon  the  convex  part,  and  the  truth  of  the 
attendant  reflected  light  and  shadow,  that  the  appearance 
of  roundness  is  conmiunicated.  The  means  by  which 
the  elfect  of  light  and  shade  are  to  be  produced  by  tinta, 
are  now  to  be  deseribed.  First,  with  regard  to  the  pre- 
paratory steps  in  the  process. 

Provide  the  best  hard  drawing-paper,  which  may  bo 
had  of  various  size  and  substance.  For  subjects  in  which 
miinite  and  fine  delineation  is  required,  the  paper  should 
be  smooth  on  the  surface;  but  when  the  subject  is  of  a 
rural  eharaeter,  in  which  all  the  shaggincss  of  nature  ii 
to  be  inirodnced.  the  paper  should  be  of  a  rough  descrip- 
tion, for  rough ness  of  surface  in  such  a  case  will  assist 
in  giving  truth  to  the  repre(ji>nlatii)n.  Drawing-papem 
have  In  cjuently  a  greasiness  of  surface,  which  prevents  • 
tint  from  being  spread  with  evenness;  the  slightest  in- 
fusion of  gall  into  the  water  with  which  the  tint  is  mailc, 
will  remedy  the  defect ;  or  the  surface  of  the  paper  may 
be  sponged  with  the  gall  and  water  iH-fore  fastening  it  on 
the  drawing-hoard. 

A  few  camel-hair  pi-ncils  must  be  provided ;  say  two 

_/fu(  iiiih  /i.i.\  to  distribute  a  lint  over  a  large  space;  two 

i  stfuii-<jiiilU,  to  wash  iu  siiallcr  spaces;  and  two  hen 


406 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


m' 


luills.  to  pick  in  minute  partg.  The  qualifiei  of  thp«e 
denominations  of  hair-pencils  are  various.  A  bad  one  ii 
far  worse  tliati  a  bad  pen ;  with  this  it  may  be  possible 
to  write,  but  witli  a  l>ad  pencil  every  effort  will  be  foiled. 
A  proof  of  the  quality  may  he  made  in  the  following 
manner,  prior  to  purchase :  When  dipped  in  water,  if  it 
■pring  into  a  line  with  the  quill,  anil  retain  its  point, 
•elect  it ;  if  it  spread  into  two  or  more  points,  reject  it ; 
and  olwcrve,  that  it  is  not  requisite  for  a  pencil  to  be 
touched  two  or  three  times  on  the  edge  of  a  vessel  con- 
taining water,  nor  to  be  passed  bctivecn  the  lips,  since 
these  might  give  a  point  to  a  bad  one.  Proviilo  also  a 
few  small  dclf  saucers,  in  which  to  mix  the  tiiiU,  and 
two  cups  or  glasses,  to  contain  water ;  one  to  be  pre- 
aerved  pure,  and  the  other  in  which  the  pencils  are  to  lie 
washed. 

The  lints  may  lie  made  according  to  taste:  from  Indian- 
ink,  a  black ;  bistre,  a  brown ;  or  neutral  tint,  a  gray  : 
they  arc  alike  capable  of  communicating  smoothness  and 
•pirit.  With  reference  to  further  advancement  in  the 
art,  it  is  proper  to  state,  that  the  light  and  shade  of  a 
landscape  in  the  neutral  tint,  is  a  basis  on  which  the  hues 
of  nature  in  their  variety  may  at  a  future  time  bo  added. 
The  light  and  shade  in  bistre  is  rich  in  mass,  powerful  in 
touch,  and  susceptible  of  giving  transparency  with  a 
high  degree  of  finish. 


Fi(r.  14. 

It  may  be  observed,  that  the  relief  of  an  object  depends 
on  the  just  arrangement  of  the  light,  the  due  uiunage- 
nient  of  the  half-tint  and  shade,  with  the  proper  intro- 
duction of  the  shadow. 

Fig.  14  represents  three  rude  stones  full  in  the  light, 
the  line  A  showing  the  direction  in  which  it  falls.  I'he 
•hade-side  of  two,  and  the  end  of  the  third,  show  a  play 
of  light  toward  the  lower  parts,  which  is  to  be  observed 
in  nature.  The  shadow  is  marked  stronger  beneath, 
while  that  wliich  is  cast  on  the  inclined  stone  is  strongest 
Bt  the  base  of  the  upright  stone,  and  becomes  lighter  as 
it  falls  on  the  varying  surfaces  of  the  others. 


Pig.  IS. 

Fijj.  15  represents  an  acorn  dislodged  from  its  cup. 
The  illumination  is  from  -the  M\,  and  falls  on  the  ro- 
tundity of  the  acorn,  the  greiitest  lii?ht  Iwiiig  on  the  nioHt 
prominent  part.  In  this  case,  a  slight  portion  of  half- 
tint  is  placed  along  the  uppt'r  edi;e,  wjiile  the  under  siile 
gradually  approaches  through  hulf-tiiit  to  shiidf,  and  then 
solb'iis  into  reflected  hght  on  the  lower  w]i<.',  vvhii'h  con- 
triliiites  to  the  character  of  smooth  rmmdiiciw,  the  |>()wer 
of  the  shadow  beneath  assisting  in  niving  effect  to  the 
olijiri't.  The  light  o|HTatcH  in  the  same  tnatuicr  on  the 
'.■up,  heii.g  luul  on  the  advancing  part  of  the  hollow  ;  iu 


shade  is  cast  on  the  receding  part  opposdl  to  the  *!•) 
on  the  same  principle  that  the  exterior  of  tl.e  cun '^ 
treated,  while  the  shadow  relieves  the  half-tint,  u  in  iT 
previous  instance.     These  plain  and  circular  obiecU    ' 
introduced  to  call  the  student's  attention  to  such  nati 
objects,  in  which  it  may  be  there  observed  hov>  idmirihl 
the  lights  and  shades  are  intermingled  with  half.tin|i 
as  to  obviate  all  harshness  or  violent  oppdsitjon  whiL 
the  shadows  give  a  due  eflect,  harmonizing  the  whol 
and  rendering  the  minutiie  worthy  of  the  closest  invt«ii 
gation. 

Suppose  you  have  made  a  sketch  of  such  an  object, 
at  least  six  times  the  size  of  fig.  14,  and  that  it  ja  fj,^ 
ened  down  on  the  drawing-board ;  a  few  small  saincf. 
Olid  two  vessels  containing  pure  water,  on  ihe  right  harm 
near  the  jicncils,  with  the  window  on  the  left,  so  thji 
the  sunHhinc  does  not  fall  on  the  drawing-board;  Lfi 
n  tint  be  made,  according  to  the  previous  directions, 
from  either  of  the  cakes  Iwfore  mentioned,  and  of  anv 
strength  the  student  may  think  proper.  Mij  it  vtcll 
with  the  pencil  to  be  us«;d,  and  always  let  that  lie  rather 
larger  than  might  seem  to  bo  required — say,  a  swan. 
quill.  The  pencil  is  properly  charged  for  use  when  it 
has  been  stirred  into  the  tint  und  gently  touched  or 
passed  two  or  three  times  on  the  edge  of  the  saucer 
This  must  be  done  cart-fully,  becniise,  if  the  pencil  con. 
tain  too  much  tint,  there  is  a  didicnlty  in  sprondin?  it 
neatly,  und  the  edges  will  be  hard.  If  the  pencil conlain 
too  sniiill  a  quaiitity,  it  will  bo  impossible  to  spread  tin 
tint.  If  the  space  lie  lars;e,  it  will  re<|uire  a  little  ei. 
perience  to  keep  the  pencil  equally  charged  with  the 
tint. 

Whatever  may  be  the  tint  chosen,  it  must  he  washcj 
over  all  the  parts  which  do  not  receive  the  light.  Thus, 
with  Ihe  pencil  ehurged  with  tint,  as  before  dcscrihej, 
commence  at  the  top  of  the  periiendicular  stone,  fill  ij 
the  form,  and  proceed  by  slow  motions  downwards,*) 
as  to  keep  the  floating  or  lower  edge  of  the  tint  con. 
slantly  liein:;  acted  upon  by  the  pencil,  while  it  isdistri. 
buting  the  tint  neatly  to  the  shajies  required.  The  pen. 
cil  must  not  Ik^  returned  to  rejiair  omissions,  as  that 
would  destroy  the  evenness  of  tint;  the  parts  should  be 
washed  in  with  correctness  at  the  first.  The  pencil  mav 
then  be  carried  across  the  shadow  to  the  shade  of  iho 
flat  stone  ami  its  shadow  on  the  ground,  with  atlcnlior. 
to  the  edges;  then  the  upper  surface  of  the  diagonally- 
placed  stone,  with  its  shade  and  shadow.  If  these  spacn 
be  well  washed  in,  they  will  appear  of  one  uiiifona 
power  of  tint.  When  't  is  |>erfectly  dry,  strengthen  ihe 
tint  in  the  saucer  by  an  addition  of  colour  from  the  rake' 
this  increase  of  power  to  the  tint  must  he  judged  of  by 
experience  in  its  a|iplieation  over  the  tint  first  wa.shej  in. 
If  the  subject  Iw  examined,  it  will  appear  to  consist  of 
three  gradations  of  tint;  that  which  has  been  spread  ii 
the  first,  as  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  diagonally-placl 
stone ;  thu  second  gradation  of  tint  appears  ou  all  ihe 
other  shaded  parts;  and  the  third  gradation  is  confiiiul 
to  the  shadows.  It  may  lie  miticed,  that,  if  too  much 
colour  is  added  to  the  first  tint,  it  wmilil  produce  a  harsh 
effect;  and  if  too  little  is  added,  the  elfect  would  lie  If. 
ficient:  in  either  case,  the  due  gradation  would  not  he 
oliserved.  Experiments  may  be  made  on  a  piece  of 
paper,  till  the  proper  strength  of  the  lint  has  been  asiif. 
tained ;  it  may  then  be  applied  to  the  shades  and  sht 
(lows  as  b.  fore,  lint  oinitliiig  the  ufipcr  surface  of  the 
diigoii'.il  stone.  When  this  is  iM'rtectly  dry,  the  tint 
must  Im'  auaiu  strenglheiied  lo  the  tliiril  grudiilion  if 
[Kiwer,  with  the  same  |irecaiitioMs  as  lii'tiire  ;  ;«nd  wih 
it  wa-ih  ill  the  sliailnws,  keopini,'  the  edges  of  this  tint 
rather  within  the  boundaries  of  the  pieicdini;. 

Manf,  I  lit  I /'•Ti  III,  mill  S'liiili: — Sup|Mise  such  a  acnt 
as  fig.  11  lo  have  lum  sketched,  and  you  arc  dispiseii 
to  give  elTeet  to  the  outline  by  a  few  tints.  ("oii>iiiii 
under  what  circumstances  of  light  it  has  been  secnii 


DRAWING  AND   PERSPECTIVE. 


407 


ulun  Of  un^<'f  what  cireumrtancet  it  might  be  neon. 
ImiMtinc  it  »"  evening  effect,  the  sun  having  deacendtd 
bfliind  the  broad  mass  formed  by  the  castle  and  trees ; 
,1,,^  on  dilTerent  broken  surfaces,  constituting  the 
■ecoii'd  p'«"  i  beyond  which  is  a  mid-dixtance,  terminat- 
ing in  water  and  remote  hills ;  the  foreground  composed 
c  I  jY)i\e  innps,  with  rock  and  bushes  interspersed. 
With  this  outline  you  are  presumed  to  be  familiar,  and 
will  perceive  Ihnt,  by  placing  the  light  behind  the  princi- 

I  objects,  an  opposition  will  be  eHtablished  that  niusit 
nvc  a  cliaructer  to  the  whole.  Thus,  the  principal  will 
L  in  half-tint ;  the  light  brightest  behind  the  cantle,  and 
eraduslly  siikUied  along  the  distance  ;  the  fonnround 
Dovverfui,  so  as  to  relieve  the  hulf-tint  of  the  princip;il, 
and  oppose  the  distance  ;  tlius  the  gradations  or  keeping 
will  I'C  prcsiTvcd,  and  eftect  given  to  the  subject. 

Attciiipt  tlio  Rulijoct   first  on  a  small  scale  to  become 
icauainlcd  with  the  process,  and  afterwards  on  one  much  : 
laisff.  I*""  improvement.  With  the  first  gradation  of  tint,  I 
uin  tlie  precedins  cases,  commence  at  the  top  of  the  ! 
lower,  and  proceed  downwards  by  slow  movements,  so  \ 
u  to  preserve  the  outline,  sweeping  the  pencil  round  the  | 
masses  of  foliage,  and  covering  all  the  second  plan;  con-  j 
tiniic  the  wash  over  the  ibrcground,  except  the  edge  where  ! 
ihc  pieces  of  voik  are  situated;  ihesc  may  be  oniitti-d,  to  | 
relieve  the  mass  from  the  second  plan.     When  the  tint  \ 
uirl,  make  tlx  iccond  gradation  of  strength,  and  wash  i 
j,0f  atrain  the  trees  and  the  ground  on  which  tlicy  are 
situated.    Then  begin   on  '.he  left  on  the   foreground, 
and  wash  over  the  mass  till  withni  a  little  of  the  lights 
jihich  were  left  untouched  with  the  first  wash.    In  these 
li'hts,  and  in  repetitions  of  wash  towards  them,  be  care- 
ful not  to  let  anypcipendicularshaiies  appear;  any  pro- 
misiuous  irregulaiity  of  form  will  better  express  rug- 
eedness  of  surface.     When  this  is  dry,  reduce  a  little 
of  the  first  tint  with  water,  and  wash  it  in  the  distant 
hills;  then  reduce  the  tint  yet  more,  and  with  it  wash  in 
the  space  for  the  sky.     As  this  may  represent  clouds,  an 
even  tint  is  not  of   material  consequence  ;  the   jK-ncil, 
therefore,  should  have  less  tint  in  it  than  usual.     Begin 
at  the  an^le  on  the  left  hand,  and  wash   over  the  space, 
leaving  such  parts  untouched  as  fancy  may  select,  occa- 
sionally touching  the  extreme  point  of  the  pencil  in  the 
pure  water,  so  that  the  tint  may  become  still  weaker  us 
it  appro  iclies  the  part  just  above  the  castle.     If  this  be 
well  done,  whatever  may  be  the  forms  left  untouched  in 
llie  sky,  the  appearance  will  be  tliiit  ol  ;i  li',;ht  or  tender 
tint,  getting  gradually   weaker  in  a  diagonal  direction 
towards  tlie  chief  li;;lit  behind  the  castle.  I 

In  this  slate  the  drawing  would  exhibit  some  elVect,  i 
and  niijjht  receive  any  ad<litional  washes  or  touches  that  i 
may  he  suggested  by  the  taste  or  the  judgment  of  the  ! 
ituJenU  .Vfter  obtaining  a  knowledge  of  the  distribu-  t 
tion  of  the  tints  in  their  gradations,  let  the  subject  be 
drawn  again  considerably  larger,  and  now  investigate  the 
general  priucijjie  which  regulates  the  proposed  effect, 
and  reflect  on  each  partii  iilar  part  of  the  process,  so  as 
to  wnriprehend  the  motive  tor  every  application  of  tint. 
When  Ine  tiets  are  w.ished  in,  let  the  (hawing  be  placed 
llsntnc  distance,  where  it  can  all  be  seen  at  once,  with- 
out the  surroundinir  obiects  inlcrlernirt  with  the  view. 
At  thia  due  removal  wbicli  is  regidateil  by  the  size  of 
the  drawing,  the  gradations  of  distance,  and  the  keeping, 
will  more  chrarly  show  their  correctness  or  inaccuracy. 
If  the  drawing  be  large,  the  (lat  tints  on  the  second  plan 
will  tamely  express  tna-si's  of  foliage,  or  the  union  of 
many  trees ;  and  the  caslle  will  re(piire  some  character- 
intic  niarkings.  The  bhu  k-lcud  pencil  may  be  used  u\i- 
on  the  tint  to  indicali!  a  variety  of  t'orm  on  the  building, 
or  to  scprrate  the  mass  into  trees  of  various  heights,  and 
lli«se  will  serve  as  guides  for  the  introduction  of  repe- 
tition of  wash  or  touch.  This  proceeding  implies  finish, 
and  may  be  carried  to  the  extent  dicUited  by  the  judg- 
ment uf  the  student ;  but  it  must  ever  be  borne  in  mind, 


that  breadth  of  effect  is  injured  by  every  addition  thai 
disturbs  a  mass.  Variety  may  be  introduced,  so  as  to 
attack  a  monotonous  space  or  mass,  without  destroying 
it  Whenever  it  appears  that  more  is  required  to  com 
pletc  the  drawing,  and  the  improvement  is  not  suggested 
by  a  glance,  desist  immediately  ;  put  the  drawing  aside, 
and  engage  in  something  else.  In  a  few  days,  on  re- 
curring to  the  subject,  it  will  be  seen  with  a  fresh  eye ; 
new  ideas  will  arise ;  a  little  will  be  added,  or  a  little 
power  will  be  reduced,  so  as  to  effect  an  improvement 
which  no  straining  of  the  faculties  in  the  former  instance 
could  have  produced.  A  drawing  may  thus  be  subjected 
to  frequent  revision,  and  retouched  as  an  advance  in 
taste  shall  direct. 

'Suppose  such  a  subject  as  fig.  10  be  sketched,  for  the 
purpose  of  study,  in  breadth  of  light,  the  opposite  of  the 
last  effect :  let  a  tint  bo   made  less  powerful  than  the 
first  gradation — such  a  tint  as  might  represent  clouds 
that  were  not  gloomy — and  with  it  wash  over  the  space 
for  the  sky,  preserving  the  forms  of  the  trees,  and  soften- 
ing oft'  the  tint  in  a  diagonal  direction,  so  as  to  leave  thu 
light  along  the  horizon,  with  the  greatest  breadth  on  the 
right.     When  dry,  repeat  a  few  washes  on  the  angle 
towards  the  left  and  along  the  top,  so  as  to  produce  n 
gradation  of  power  from  the  top  to  the  horizon,  and  it 
will  give  the  effect  of  retiring  or  keeping.     If  the  tint 
has  not  been  washed  in  with  evenness,  endeavour  to 
convert  any  conspicuous  form  into  a  cloud,  by  picking 
or  filling  in  on  its  edges  a  corresponding  tint,  so  as  to 
make  it  form  part  of  another  more  appropriate  shape. 
Then,  with  that  power  of  tint,  considered  as  the  first 
gradation,  connnenco  at  a  part  not  so  high  as  the  gable 
of  the  cottage,  upon  the  trees,  with  an  irregular  form, 
distinct  lioni  a  straight  line,  and  continue  the  tint  over 
the  trees  beneath,  to  tile  line  of  ground  on  which  the 
cottage  stands.     Begin  again  at  the  lower  part  of  the 
base  beneath  the  cottage,  and  wash  in  ttie  tint  up  to 
where  the  ground  line  before  mentioned  joins  the  boun- 
dary of  the  subject,  and  continue  to  wash  in  the  tint,  in 
agreement  with  the  form  of  an  indicated  path   to  t)ie 
cottage  door,  and  so  across  to  the  mass  of  foreground 
and  bush  on  the  right.     When  all  is  perfectly  dry,  make 
the  8e<;ond  gradation  of  power  in  tint,  and  wash  over 
the  lower  portion  of  the  trees  close  to  the  cottage,  with 
the  space  before  washed  in,  observing  not  to  let  it  ap- 
proach the  edges  of  the  previously  washed  tint,  lest  the 
shapes   should  appear  harsh,  particularly  on  the  bush 
opposed  to  the  light  horizon.     It  must  be  observed,  that 
the  power  which  was  re<iuired  to  separate  masses  in  out- 
line, ceases  to  l>e  proper  on  the   application  of  tint,  as 
there  is  no  decided  outline  in  neture.     With  the  tint  of 
the  second  gradation,  wash  in  the  door,  the  window,  the 
shade  of  the  roof  with  its  shadow,  and  the  shade  side  of 
the  chimney.     Then,  with  the  third  gradation  of  jiowor, 
wash  in  the  foreground  and  the  lower  part  of  the  bush, 
with   the   precautions  before    mentioned.      When   dry, 
|)lace  the  drawing  at  a  due  distance,  according  to  its  size; 
and  observe,  if  the  eftect  be  that  of  a  cottage  in  a  mass 
of  light,  that  the  gable  end  cannot  properly  receive  the 
,  same  degree  of  illumination  as  the  roof  and  the  sid^ 
wliere  the  window  is;  it  will  therefore  bt  proper  to  wash 
over  it  a  tint  that  will  keep  it  m  its  place.     You  must 
refiect,  that,  as  the   light  is  concentrated,  by  the  illumi- 
nation from  the  right  being  poured  upon  the  cottage,  its 
j  relieving  mass  of  half-tint  will  be  lighter  than  on  other 
i  occasions  ;  therefore,  a  tint   lighter  than  the  clouds  will 
be  sullicicnt  to  detach  it  from  the  brighter  side,  without 
'■  destroying  the  mass  of  light  in  which  the  cottage  is 
I  placed.     As  in  the  case  of  the   pieceding   subject,  any 
repetition  of  wash  or  touch  that  may  seem  to  be  re- 
quired should  be  added,  being  careful  to  pvescrve  the  m- 
*  tended  etfcct.     A  little  practice  will  teaci    that  the  trees 
'  shoulil  be  diversified  with  tender  tints,  so  as  not  to  de- 
i  stroy  the  ma^  uf  light ;  that  the  distant  sea  should  h« 


408 


INFORMATION   FOR   THE  PEOPLE. 


nature,  undor  the  f^uidnnce  of  a  master,  do  not  otifim. 
the  neoMsity  for  studying  the  human  figure  from  lift 
neillicr  do  they  su|wr»cdo  tlie  acquisition  of  a  knowledM 
of  figurr-druwiiig  on  a  sinnll  scale,  lor  the  purpose  of  m 
nuniPiiting  and  giving  cflcct  to  a  scene  ftjaj  jm^J 
The  'ntroduclion  of  liuinnn  figures  is  of  consiltrall 


•rwhcd  witli  n  tint  to  relievo  it  from  the  horizon ;  that 
the  ground  on  whirli  the  rottngo  stands  may  Iw  broktii 
or  enriched  will\  cliariicteristic  forms;  and  that  the  fore- 
ground may  be  tcmrliod  with  a  power  that  shall  judi- 
ciously di  tar-h  it  fVoin  the  second  plan. 

In  the  exiiniinution  of  drawings,  during  the  progress  j 
of  retouching,  if  ii  part  appear  too  light,  or  another  part  J  uiility  in  drawing  a  landscape,  in  order  to  dcrve  as ' 
too  dark,  so  ns  to  prixluce  the  effect  ->(  simllinesn,  cover  scale  by  which  a  spectator  may  know  the  proliuhle  mej. 
inch  part  with  the  lingors.  and  imuginc  the  niipearanoe  suremetitH  of  objects  near  which  the  figures  arcBituatoj. 
irith  any  proposed  alteration  ;  if  an  improvement  ho  figures  also  give  animation  to  a  scene,  ami,  by  ii,,! 
suggested,  at  once  ad^pt  it.  and  exmninc  again  ;  always  tiuiches  of  light  or  of  dark  which  they  justifiably  olFfr 
paying  attention  to  preservation  of  the  muKse.s,  on  which  coimnunicale  valuable  relief  to  a  mass,  or  assiat  in  th« 
both   simplicity  and   elTcct  depend.     A  drawing   should    keeping  of  the  subject. 

bo  ascertained  to  have  wir  pritini'ul  lin'i!,  while  the  sub-  '  There  are  several  well-known  rules  with  respect  to 
ordinate  liifhls  diminish  in  brilliancy,  in  proportion  as;  the  drawing  of  human  figures;  tlicy  arc  as  follows.^ 
they  are  removed  from  the  prin>-ipal.     Masses  of  ^ 

(hade  shoubl  liccrease  in  power  of  tint,  coiiforinalilo  C^Jj 
to  their  degrees  of  reniolcness.  'I'hese  are  es-  C'X'^ 
sential  to  keeping  and  etii-ct.  Making-out  or 
marking  more  than  the  respective  distances  re- 
quire, touches  whii'h  are  inappropriate,  or  harsh- 
ness of  any  description,  are  all  di'partures  from  the 
principles  of  the  art.  anil  deviations  from  natural 
appearances.  Although  efl'ects  may  be  observed 
in  nature  at  variance  with  these  rules — such,  for 
instance,  as  \\^\\  scattered  eip.ally  on  the  tore- 
fn'ound  and  the  mid-distance,  or  the  wliole  scene 
being  beneath  a  glare  of  snnsbine.  or  in  shade  by 
the  clouded  state  of  the  atmosphere — yet  these  are 
effects  unsuited  for  pictorial  delinea'ion  lH'eaiis«i 
they  are  detiricnt  in  what  constitute.^  beauty  and 
attraction  in  the  art. 

You  may  have  observed  how  e.s.sential  a  sky  is  in 
pivinor  elfect  to  a  drawins, 

lights,  half-tints,  and  sliailcs,  the  storm,  the  distant  fall-  bend;  half  its  height  is  at  the  lower  part  of  tlu'  bc>(ly;a 
ing  shower,  and  other  incidental  efli'cLs,  which  the  almn-  (juarter  of  its  height  is  at  the  knee.  This  divisinii  cf 
aphere  presents  to  the  view,  shoulil  always  be  rejanled  the  bniiian  figure  can  re.idily  be  put  on  the  nuinorv  liy 
with  attention,  not  only  because  ailvantage  may  lie  taken  the  fulldwinc  method:  Draw  a  perpendicular  line,  then 
of  such  <liversily  tiir  powerful  contrast,  but  bci  anse  a  divide  it  into  eight  equal  parls;  gi\e  one  for  the  heaJ 
well  arranued  sky  is  a  beantifiil  portion  of  a  landscape,  and.  idaciiig  dots  at  each  part  in  succession,  uivc  a  fe. 
'I'he  re|M'tilion  of  tender  washes  over  each  other  may  be  coiid  part  liir  the  breast,  a  third  part  for  the  centre  of  the 
justified  only  in  Ihc  emleavour  to  obtain  that  tenderness  abdnpien,  a  fonith  part  for  the  lower  portion  of  the  liodv, 
and  delic-acy  of  tints  which  are  conducive  to  faithful  re-  a  (ilih  |iart  for  the  niidway  of  the  thigh,  a  sixth  part  just 
presentation  of  cIoud«;  for  continuini;  to  wash  the  same 
tint  in  successive  applicitioiis,  will  prodnce  an  elfect  that 
i*  termed  icoo////.  from  its  Kini;  deliiient  in  that  fhniji- 
f)n»  or  spirit  wliich  is  obtaincil  by  a  few  decided  tints 
applied  in  just  gradations.  These  varieties  may  lie 
adapted  to  the  nature  i>f  the  seine,  and  may.  'ly  their 
judicious  contrasts  of  firm  and  tint,  coiitribnte  very  ma- 
terially to  the  B(  iiiral  elli'ct  of  a  sul  ject.  as  in  a  stormy 
sky,  bright  horizons,  and  lieains  of  light.  The  ellirt  of 
moonlight  may  readily  h<-  given  by  strong  tints,  sotteiied  j  mere  sketch  of  the  form  is  ie(|uired  to  enliven  a  land- 
otr  in  the  circular  direction  of  the   moon,  and   reixated  |  scape. 

till  the  gradation  is  obtained  ;  then  give  a  wash  over  the  ^  I'ii".  Ifi  e'.hibils  the  mode  of  ascertaining  the  hcighti 
whole  sky.  'J'ukc  out  the  clouds  to  a  half-tinl  by  d.ib-  of  liunres,  wherever  they  may  be  placed  in  a  scene,  ac- 
hing, and  take  out  the  moon  to  the  clean  p:iper.  with  |  coriling  to  the  rules  of  |vrspective.  A  is  a  fiujure  ontha 
crumbs  of  bread.  A  few  catching  lights  on  the  clouds  ,  l>asi>  line;  the  eyes  determine  tiie  height  of  the  horiion- 
near   the    moon  may  be  laktn  out,  but   made   less  bright  j  tal   line   II.     Draw  the  visual    rays  from  the   head  and 


Fig.  16. 
The  great  variety  of  forms.    The  height  of  a  figure  should  be  eight  times  that  of  ilj 


beneath  the  knee,  a  seventh  part  just  beneath  the  call' of 
tile  |i  g,  and  the  eighth  part  to  the  side  of  the  font.  Tlip 
shoulders  are  two  heads  in  width  ;  the  elliow  is  a  hpa 
and  a  half  from  the  shoulder;  and  the  arm,  witli  slraiu'hl- 
eiied  fiiiu'irs,  is  three  beads  and  a  half  from  Itii  slumlili-r; 
that  is,  the  Ciniiers  will  reach  down  to  the  filili  division 
of  the  ]STpendicnlar.  The  measurcnient.s  of  the  huniau 
fi:;iire,  aeiordin;;  to  the  highest  standards  of  art,  arc  ei- 
ceedinnly  minute;   but  such  are    not    necessary  where  a 


than  the  moon. 


HUMA.f    riOURCS. 


A  knowledffe  of  drawinir  the  human  figure  is  to  be 
^ined  by  a  careful  study  of  the  outhnes  of  tiie  dilVereiil 
parts  composing  the  trunk,  limbs  and  memliers.  .Ml 
•uch  inleirral  portions  of  the  human  ti'.;ure,  if  time  and 
other  circumstances  iM-rinit,  may  be  first  studied  from 
casta  conveniently  placed  on  the  table,  so  iis  (o  ifive  a 
facility  to  tlu*  hand  in  this  department  of  sketching.* 
It  must,  however,  he  Itorne  in  mind,  that  exercises  of  this 


•  ftareo  rsiin of  finuret  anil  ihijr  «ulK)rilin«in  pans  may  lie 
kad  (rom  il  ilccnl  rimii...Hctiir<ri  of  mniteU  of  this  iie>cn|>iion 
ji  LaMitea.  Iul.ut>  irgli,  and  uttiar  lar|;e  towoa. 


feet  of  the  figure  \  to  the  point  of  sight  I',  and  the  re- 
ciiting  diminutions  are  determined,  supposing  the  space 
to  1b'  a  level  surface.  Where  the  situation  of  a  tli;iire  ia 
below  the  visual  ray»(  as  I),  draw  a  parallel  line  I'roiuth* 
tiet  of  ibe  fiL'ure  towards  the  ray,  and  raise  the  perpeiidi- 
ciilar  line  H.  Now,  the  measurement  betivroii  the 
vi^iiial  ra\  s  at  H  is  the  height  of  the  fiiiiirc  Tequi'od. 
1  When  thi'  situa'ioiis  of  figures  are  above  the  rays,  as  at 
t'  and  D.  draw  the  parallels  and  the  perpendirulan!  to 
their  interseelioiis  Is'in-atli  the  elevations,  and  the  niea- 
surements  between  the  visual  rays  at  C  and  1)  will  ;;ive 
the  respective  heights  of  the  figures  required.  The 
fiijnre  K  Ising  on  a  level  with  the  base,  a  paiallel  line 
drawn  from  the  lower  ray  will  delenuiiio  tlio  hciglit  of 
a  figure  au  ailuateiL 


DRAWING  AND  PERSPECTIVE. 


409 


PHITOOKNIC    DRAWING. 

jepresentntions  of  liiinlscnpc  Hcenery  have  for  many 
„jjl)cen  made  by  in"chaiiical  mi'anB,  with  the  aid  of 
,\f  rawrii  Iwiila,  a  Hpmnes  (f  box  provided  with  a 
miiiur  si'd  '""''  '"  whicji  the  represontntioim  fall,  and 
,^  (herefrom  copied  by  mi  attending  artist  into  Km 
|.,(j|i.l)oi)k.  The  idea  of  fl'iiiij  reproKontations  of  this 
njture  on  the  surface  on  wliich  tlioy  fall,  ao  as  to  save 
lli(  trouble  of  copyiji?,  appears  to  have  ln"en  entertained 
bv  msJn'O""  ""'"  ^"''''  '"  f'™"™  and  Kn,'land  ;  and  iit 
lonBlhd.e  piHsiliility  of  doini;  so  was  made  known  at 
Piris  ill  the  month  of  January,  18;}9.  The  discoverer 
(taj  M'  Dai;iierio,  aided,  however,  by  one  or  two  other 
ikWiis;  I'l'l  '"'  "'""  rewarded  by  the  French  i>overn- 
nioiitfor  inakinL;  known  the  process  which  he  pursued 
i'l  the  art,  which  was  henceforth  cilled  Daguerreotype 
Dmviii?,  ofi  ns  freipunilly.  Photogenic  Drawing  (that 
is,  iirav»iii?  hy  the  action  of  lii^'ht). 

The  material  on  which  photogenic  drawing  is  per- 
farmed  i»  a  'hin  and  perfectly  smoothed  piece  of  copper 
((,iip(!  with  nil*'''!  and  its  preparation  i»  a  matter  of  ex- 
tnine  delicacv,  for  the  surface  must  bo  rendered  sensi- 
tivE  tu  the  faintest  shadows  thrown  upon  it.  Havin;; 
lipeu  pro|)erly  prepared  by  means  of  a  spirit-lamp  and 
Ihe  fumes  of  iodine,  to  give  the  silvered  face  a  golden 
liir",  the  plate  is  [)laced  in  the  camera,  a  darkiMied  box, 
unillhc  fucin  adjusted.  The  camera  being  set  in  a  posi- 
tion to  catch  the  rcllcction  of  the  object  upon  wliich  tlio 
Mil  is  shining,  Ihe  aperture  is  opened,  and  the  procei-.s  of 
Htohiiii;  and  retaining  the  reflection  goes  on  of  itseif.  A 
f(\T  minutes  generally  serve  to  give  the  representation. 
When  taken  from  ihe  camera,  nothing  is  visible  on  the 
plate,  md  it  iiiiist  instantly,  without  any  light  being 
allowed  to  fall  upon  it,  be  |)laeed  in  a  box,  and  then  suli- 
jvlo.l  to  fumes  from  m'rcury  acte.l  ujK.n  by  a  spirit- 
lamp.  Tile  'iirmerly  invisible  li,'ures  arc  now  developed. 
The  next  operation  is  to  lix  the  images,  by  removing 
the  I'oiiting  of  iodine,  on  whicli  the  light  would  still  act. 
A  satur.it<!d  solution  of  comm)H  salt,  filtered  and  wann.'d, 
or,  what  is  bettLT,  a  weak  solution  of  hyiKisulphite  of 
svla,  not  heated,  some  coM  distilled  water,  and  sjme 
warm  distilled  water,  witli  two  (sheet  copper)  troughs, 
ire  the  chief  materials  rcip.iired  in  this  process.  The 
Ijlalc,  when  removed  from  the  merourial  box,  is  freed 
from  the  hoard  attached  to  it,  and  plunged  into  one  of 
Iho  trouijlis,  coiit.iiiiing  cold  distilled  water,  care  being 
likon  not  to  touch  the  centre  of  the  plate.  It  is  again 
jni /ifi/iuV/;/  removed,  and  plunged  into  the  saline  solu- 
tion in  the  olhc-  trough,  and,  being  laid  there  face  up- 
wards, is  stirred  about  by  means  of  a  little  copper-wire 
hook.  The  yellow  tinge  now  leaves  the  plate;  and 
whon  this  is  seen  to  have  taken  p'aee,  the  plate  is  placed 
on  an  inclined  plane  (of  japanned  white  iron),  and  dis- 
tilled water,  hot,  but  not  boiling,  poured  freely  over  it. 
All  these  operations  are  but  the  work  of  a  minute  or 
t'vi);  and  when  the  last  is  fiiiisheil,  the  ])late  must  be 
dried  rapidly  by  blowing  on  it,  and  moving  it  in  the  air, 
else  stains  will  be  left  on  the  drawing.  Aller  this,  the 
ilriwina; cannot  be  washed  out;  but  rubbing,  or  the  con- 
tinued action  of  vapours,  would  destroy  it. 

hi  order  to  preserve  the  sketches  from  vanishing,  a 
cliis  is  put  closely  over  them,  and  they  are  framed. 
When  finished  in  a  pcrl'cct  way,  the  design  on  the  plate 
i.i  eiipiisitely  beautiful,  and  though  impressions  of  it 
canniit  lie  luiilliplied  as  from  a  graven  plate,  it  is  in  a 
[lerfect  state  for  the  engraver  to  copy,  and  he  can  do  this 
with  far  more  ease  and  correctness  than  in  the  case  of 
erdiimry  drawings.  'J'here  are  no  eolourij  in  the  sketches. 
They  show  only  a  neutral  tint,  or  dull  shades  relieved 
hy  lighter  parts.  And  all,  as  n  matter  of  course,  arc  the 
M'f/st  of  the  original.  There  are  now  several  able  prac- 
titioners of  the  art  in  Lon(h)n ;  and  in  Edinburgh,  some 
«erv  hcautiful  speciuion.i  of  photogenic  drawing  of  street 

Vol.  I.— 32 


scenes  have  been  cfiecteJ   by  Mr.   Howe,  niinintura 
painter. 

Various  attempts  have  beci'  made  to  adapt  photogenia 
drawing  to  the  sketching  of  miniature  portraits  from 
life ;  but,  though  likcneases  i>rc  obtained,  they  have  a 
dull,  leaden  hue,  and  the  co'jntonanco  hai  a  deuth-likp, 
unpleasant  appearance.  B'sidcs,  ns  the  slightest  move- 
ment of  the  head,  while  s'lting,  or  even  the  winking  of 
the  eyes,  causes  derangement  in  the  action  of  the  sun'a 
rays,  all  representations  from  life  iiaye  less  or  more  a 
muzzi/  or  confused  appearance.  We  have  seen  minia- 
ture likenesses  taken  on  pa()cr  prepared  for  the  purpose, 
instead  of  plates,  but  they  wanted  the  liveliness  and  force 
of  likenesses  executed  with  the  pencil.  To  all  appear- 
ance, photogenic  drawing  will  be  limited  in  its  utility  to 
the  taking  of  representations  of  buildings,  or  scenes  in 
Htill  nature,  to  be  afterwards  copied  at  leisure ;  the  per- 
fect faithfulness  of  the  delineation  being  altogcthet  un- 
approacliable  by  artistic  skill. 

STUDY  OF  PAINTING  AND  SCULPTURE. 

Drawing  with  black-lead  pencils,  chalk,  or  crayons, 
and  Indian  ink,  constitute  the  first  steps  in  a  study  of 
the  fine  arts.  The  more  advanced  studies  refer  to  draw- 
ing in  water-colours,  paintings  in  oil-colours,  and  sculp- 
ture— three  sep.irate  branches,  individually  followed  as 
professions.  It  is  not  our  intention  to  offer  any  instruc- 
tions in  these  advanced  departments  of  art,  but  to  say 
only  a  few  words  as  to  the  manner  in  which  they  are 
performed,  and  the  advantages  derivable  from  a  contem- 
plation of  their  varied  products. 

Drawings  in  water-colours  are  executed  on  thick  hard 
paper,  the  outlines  being  lightly  sketched  with  black-lead 
pencil.  The  colours  are  prepared  in  small  oblong 
cakes;  when  required,  a  portion  is  rubbed  down  with 
water  in  a  small  saucer,  and  applied  with  a  camel-hair 
pencil,  (ireat  care  is  necessary  in  laying  on  the  respect- 
ive colours;  for  the  nature  of  the  material  wrought  upon, 
and  the  transparency  of  the  tints,  prevent  that  freedom 
in  rubbing  out  or  obliterating  one  colour  by  another, 
which  may  he  resorted  to  in  oil-painting.  For  directions 
how  to  proceed,  we  refer  to  a  small  and  accessible  work 
on  Wat('r-Uolour  Drawing,  by  Mr.  John  Clark.  (W.  S. 
Orr  &  Co.,  London.) 

Oil-piinliiigs  are  executed  on  a  variety  of  materials. 
but  chielly  canvas,  stretched  on  a  frame;  less  frequently 
on  wood,  co|)per,  and  slate.  The  canvas  or  other  ma- 
terial re(iuires  to  be  prepared  with  a  coat  of  paint,  tci 
give  it  a  smooth  surface,  and  to  prevent  the  absorption 
of  the  colours  afterwards  laid  on.  The  colours  are 
ground  and  prepared  with  fine  nut,  poppy,  or  linseed 
oil,  and  are  ordinarily  purchased  by  painters  in  bladde  - 
bags,  in  a  state  ready  for  use.  For  convenience  in  using, 
11  siii.dl  portion  of  each  colour  required  in  the  piece  i« 
placed  on  a  thin  oval  board,  called  a  putlcl,  vih'ich  is  held 
in  the  left  hand,  by  passing  the  thumb  through  a  hole 
at  one  extremity ;  the  canvas  frame  is  generally  placed 
on  a  stand,  called  an  ea/rl,  in  front  of  the  artist,  and  the 
colours  are  applied  with  brushes  of  fine  elastic  hair. 
The  colours  being  opa(iue,  the  painter  has  the  opportu- 
nity of  retouching  his  work,  by  putting  one  colour  over 
another,  when  the  previous  colour  has  been  thoroughly 
dried.  Oil-paintings  are  sometimes  executed  on  walla 
and  the  roofs  of  buildings;  but  paintings  of  water-colours 
on  walls  are  the  most  ancient.  These,  known  by  the 
name  o{ fresco  painting,  arc  done  while  the  surface  of 
the  plaster  is  moist,  and  admit  of  no  retouching  when  the 
plaster  dries.  Specimens  of  fresco  painting  have  been 
found  in  Herculnneum  and  Egypt,  stilt,  after  thousandi 
of  years,  maintaining  their  brilliant  colouring. 

The  greater  number  of  sculptures,  ancient  and  mo- 
dern, are  executed  in  single  bhx'ks  of  white  marble;  a 
few  arc  in  bronze.     A  sculptor  commences  by  drawing 
his  design  on  paper;  when  satisfied  with  this,  he  pro- 
»M 


410 


INFORMATION   FOR  THT  PEOPLK. 


Mcds  to  form  a  model  of  hii  propoMxl  flgure  in  moist 
rlay,  lupportiii^  it  pnrlly  tiy  iroiii  aiid  fmine-worli. 
Having,  ax  lie  tliiiiku,  brought  liii  model  to  pcrfcrtinn 
M  renpcctN  attitiulo  ami  lurfacu,  it  ia  ready  to  form  a 
copy  to  worli  from ;  but  u«  it  in  a  peri«liabiu  niatcriul,  he 
takes  »  cast  from  it  in  plaster,  and  thia  cuat  mtvch  a»  a 
mould  for  a  fnc-airnilo  mmlol  in  piaster  of  Paria.  The 
plastir  coat  Inung  hard  and  duralilu,  it  ii  lined  as  tho  |H)r- 
manoiit  opy  by  thn  dilVoroat  workmen.  The  firit 
0|iorutivp  rnipJDyrd  nn  it,  by  mcuiiH  of  a  marhine,  takes 
jfl'  tlie  rou){lier  parts  of  the  marblc>,  nnd  KnuUndly  di- 
ininiHlios  tlic  block  ia  thu  required  dirootiomi.  The  next 
is  an  ubie  assiatant  who  biiM|{a  tho  rii{uru  atill  nearer  in 
form  to  the  copy ;  and  it  liiatly  passea  under  thu  hunda  of 
tl)n  sculptor,  who  gives  that  tasteful  liniHh  and  a|iirit 
which  the  nature  of  the  auljcct  requires.  .Statues  in 
bronze  are  east  in  moulds  taken  from   finished  models. 

With  rosjH'et  to  the  advantajf.s  derivable  from  a  con- 
templation of  the  lii;;her  objoeta  of  art,  they  may  be 
defined  us  the  education  of  the  eye  and  of  taste,  which 
is  of  partinilur  imporliinre  to  the  draughtsjiian. 

Addressing  ourselves  again  to  the  pupil — you  will 
observe  that  nature,  thou);h  truthful,  ia  not  always  con- 
sistently lieautlful  or  i^raeeful.  We  sec  living  human 
figures  less  or  more  <leformed,  some  tail  and  aleiider, 
others  short  and  uni;aiidy ,  and  a  third  class  out  of  propor- 
tion ia  the  dillerent  parts  of  their  |)rrson.  Now,  to  set 
•bout  copying  figures  puswsaing  any  of  these  detects, 
would  lie  absurri;  niiit  you  must  ia  ull  eases  endeavour  to 
imitate  only  what  is  alUiwed  to  be  nearest  to  perlection. 
Taking  mankind  in  the  i^rosa,  exceedingly  few  individn- 
ala  come  up  to  any  thing  like  a  [lerfect  standard.  Fasli- 
ions  of  dressing  and  habits  of  living,  inde|H'ndently  of 
original  deli-eta  of  foria,  conspire  to  throw  the  figure  out 
of  just  proportion;  so  that  a  perfect  man  or  woman,  as 
respects  Ivxlily  form  and  carrill^c,  is  practically  out  uf  the 
reach  of  all  ordinary  students.  In  London  and  rise- 
where,  there  are  tife  academies,  in  which  draughtsmen 
study  from  the  l>est-formed  livli'g  figures  that  can  lie 
hired  to  exhibit  tliemst'lves;  and  studies  of  this  kind  are 
india|)cnsable  for  all  who  design  following  out  tho  higher 
walks  of  art  Studies  from  sculptured  figures  are,  never- 
theless, desirable,  l)ocausc  these  are  formed  U|)on  the 
highest  ideality  of  grace,  l)eauty,  and  perfection ;  and  a 
contemplation  of  their  exquisite  proportions  is  lielievcti 
to  refine  and  disripline  the  tostea  of  the  student.  It  ia 
on  thia  account  that  we  append  the  present  ubaervations 
on  thia  branch  of  the  art. 

The  figures  which  atliird  a  recognised  standard  of  per- 
fection,  are  for  the  most  part  works  of  ancient  Cirecian 
art.  The  p(<riod  in  which  thu  highest  conceptions  of 
personal  perfe^-tion  were  formed,  was  during  tho  admin- 
istration of  Pericles  (alxiut  440  years  U'fore  the  Chris- 
tian era.)  In  this  age  fiourished  Phidias,  the  greatest 
sculptor  of  ancient  or  motlern  times,  who  raised  art  from 
a  comparaliwdy  rude  U)  a  very  high  condition.  With 
him  commenced  what  is  called  the  iilent  ttylt  of  s<'ulpture, 
in  other  words,  a  style  aiming  at  an  exalted  conception  of 
■iniple  truth  and  gr.ice.  The  religion  of  llic  (Jreeks, 
which  was  the  idnliziiig  of  deified  heroes  and  heroines, 
offered  tho  utmost  s<'iipe  for  these  lofty  conceptions.  HLs 
masterpieces  were  the  figures  of  Pallaa  .\thene  and  Ju- 
piter, his  Venus  l.'rania,  his  Ncmesia  in  the  tem|de  at 
M:irathon,  and  his  Amazon.  He  taught  a  number  of 
Others,  among  whom  Alcanienes  of  Attica,  and  .\goro- 
cntcs  of  Paioa,  were  his  faVDiiritc  |>upils.  Both  these 
•tnlptors  e«ecult-d  several  work.t  which  atuined  a  high 
reputation.  A  contein|«)rary  was  the  famed  My.'on  of 
Klcutheri^  in  Bo-otia,  who  represented  highly  finished 
al!'.'etii-  forms.  His  liunner,  his  Hliii,rer,  and  his  Panera- 
ti^^s,  are  celebrated.  Mis  ideal  of  Hercules  completed  this 
class  of  forms.  His  Heifer  and  his  .'-*oa-monster,  are 
Gituous  ainojig  his  animal  forms.  But  one  thing  was 
wanting  to  thia  grcui  sculptor — grace  of  expression ;  in 


Apollo  Belvldere. 

this  he  was  surpassed  by  a  rival  sculptor,  who  aJnpijJ 
the  undulating  lino  of  beauty,  and  first  exprcawd  ihi 
sinews  and  veins  with  accuracy.  He  created  the  idoal 
of  Apollo  in  the  position  of  an  archer,  who  hail  just  ^1,51 
the  serfient  Python — tho  figure  indicating  in  its  eiims. 
sion  a  placid  satisfaction  und  assurance  of  victory.  Tliij 
splendid  work  of  art  was  found  at  Antium,  the  modern 
Capo  d'Anzo,  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century.  11^^ 
purchased  by  Po|)C  Julius  II„  then  a  cardinal,  and  plaaj 
in  that  part  of  the  Vatican  called  the  Helvidcre,  nhiiif« 
it  has  been  commonly  named  the  .\pollo  Belvidere.  The 
fore  part  of  the  right  arm  and  the  letl  hand,  which  haj 
liocn  destroyed,  were  restored  by  Angelo  du  Muntorwjli, 
a  pupil  of  .Michael  .Vngelo.  'I'he  ease  of  the  attitude 
and  excellent  proportions  of  the  figure  are  universally 
admired.  Our  small  outline  engraving  uiforda  but  an 
imperfect  idea  of  the  majestic  oiiginal. 

.VlXer  the  ideal  style  of  Phidias  and  his  disciples,  100 
ceeiled  the  |H'riod  in  Grecian  art  distinguislipil  for  ibe 
lieaii.i/ul.  Praxiteles  and  8copas  were  the  great  leaden 
of  this  improved  style,  in  which  U'auty  was  united  wiih 
grace.  The  most  celebrated  works  of  IScopa*  are  hit 
furious  Bacchante — the  head  bending  backwards,  uniting 
the  highest  beauty  with  Bacchanalian  frenzy,  hisC"u|iiJ, 
his  Venus,  and  his  .\chillc8,  who  ia  placed  in  a  niouniliil 
attitude,  contemplating  as  if  lamenting  the  loss  of  hii 
friend  Patroclus.  I'raxiteles,  thn  most  feeling  of  all 
sculptors,  created  the  Jierlt'ct  ideals  of  IJiana  and  uf 
Bacchus ,  the  latter  U'ing  designed  by  him  us  a  contrast 
to  the  satyi'S  and  fauna,  whose  figures  express  rudemsi 
and  licentiousness.  The  figure  of  Bacchus  was  soft  and 
tender,  without  being  cireminate,  and  expressed  i)cr]Hlual 
gayety  and  si)ort.  He  elfecU'd,  also,  the  adiivri'J  slalue 
of  ^^atyr,  und  the  ideal  of  Kros,  or  Cupid,  which  was 
thiiMif  a  playful  boy.  Praxilides  was  the  first  to  rcprc. 
sent  Venus  entirely  naked,  thus  giving  to  llie  world  a  new 
ideal  of  the  gtxldess.  His  most  cehiirated  works  are  U 
Venus  of  Cos  and  of  (^nidos ;  the  former  covered  from 
the  hip  downwards,  the  latter  entirely  naked,  holding  liei 
garment  with  her  left  hand  over  the  bath.  The  group 
of  Niobe  ia  also  uscril)ed  to  this  master. 

To  the  eprndi  which  followed  that  of  Pnnitelcs  ii 
usually  ascrilw.l  the  statue  of  Venus,  styled  the  Venus  d« 
Medicis,  from  having  lieen  placed  in  the  gallery  of  tli« 
Medici  at  F'lorence,  after  its  dim'overy  ut  Tivoli  in  1695. 
It  is  of  pute  white  marble,  and  measures,  acciirJini(  lo 
one  authority,  4  feet  1 1  inches,  and  according  to  another 
5  fiw't  2  inches,  in  stature.  Home  small  js)rticm»  hj« 
been  restored.     It  is  nut  ascorloiiicd  who  was  the  icui{^ 


DRAWING  AND  PERSPECTIVE. 


411 


Aehillei. 


Venus  de  Medieii, 


(ur  of  lhi«  oxqiiinitrly  (losiunrd  ficiire.  The  ppdcutal 
llhiliitJ  lliB  namn  of  ("lfomi'nc«;  Init  Ihn  iiisrriplion  h 
Didli'm.  It  has  lioon  the  olijcct  of  tlic  artist  to  rrprrspiit 
VfnuH  either  as  jimt  onminR  from  the  bath,  on  the  point 
df  Jre9.^ini:  herwlf,  taken  hy  surpnsii,  and  full  of  nioiiesty, 
or  ad  ii|i|ie«ritiB  hefore  Paris  for  his  juilcniciil  in  the  con- 
IfHtwilh  Juno  and  Minerva  for  the  pri/.e  of  heatily.  By 
niaif,  tli«  rountenanre  is  thoncht  uninteilectnal,  or  at 
li'iii  unoxpressive.  The  grnecfnl  wavinu;  lines  of  the 
body  have  never  heen  surpassed  :  and,  taken  in  dilTrrent 
point*  of  view,  they  offer  a  most  advnntai^cous  study  for 
ideal  grnee  and  Ix'auty. 

In  this  Iiilter  a(;c,  appeared  Iiysippus  of  Sieyon,  Euthy- 
cratrs,  A|icillodorus,  and  others,  among  whom  stand  pre- 
(niineiit  Polydorus,  father  ami  sons,  of  Rliodes,  who 
f'rmed  the  coleliraled  group  of  Laoooon.  A  numher  of 
great  works  of  this  era  were  executed  hy  Greek  srulptors 
at  Rome,  to  whom  wc  arc  indchlcd  for  many  husts  of 
distiiiguislu'd  Komans. 

Aiuoni;  the  numerous  ancient  seulptures,  whieh,  like 
thodc  already  ineiiliimed,  have  survived  until  modern 
liaips,  and  lieen  preserved  in  museums,  may  he  mentioned 
the  folliiwiu^,  as  useful  studies:  The  Dyinp;  filadiator, 
a  nakid  manly  figure,  reelinina  on  hisstiield.  his  weapon 
onikiMi,  and  expiring;  from  a  mortal  wound  in  the  side. 
The  Three  (Jraecs,  a  Hrou[)  ot  female  fifjures  in  ditTerent 
altitudes,  eahidated  to  show  the  symmetry  of  the  form 
in  various  positions.  Anlinous,  the  fiijure  of  a  graceful 
j.jth,  in  a  simple  attitude,  expressive  of  melancholy, 
and  executed  with  great  correctness  of  proportion. 
Adonis,  a  fi/ure  somewhat  more  slender  and  cleijant. 
Vinus  Gcnetrix,  a  figure  dra|>ed,  and  posst>ssing  a  notde 
limplicity  of  expression ;  the  drajiery,  hani;ini»  in  the 
most  elcRant  frdds.  is  in  itself  a  study.  Cleopatra,  mcdi- 
t.iling  ill  a  recliiiinu  position.  I.aocoon,  a  group  of 
fi,iires,  ahove  referred  to,  consisting  of  a  father  and  his 
two  sons,  slru;;uliiig  in  the  folds  of  s«'rpent.«,  and  strongly 
cliaracterislic  of  the  dislrnction  and  sufliTing  which  may 
be  coi.iiivcd  to  lie  endured  i\\  that  drcadiul  situation. 
HciT-ules.  a  figure  expressive  of  nvliust  muscular  strenath. 

Arter  a  lapse  of  nearly  ti'ii  eenturi 'S,  the  art  of  sculp- 
tu."e  was  revived  in  Italy,  and  ihenee  spread  to  France 
and  other  nioilern  Uiilions.  (iermaiiy  has  latterly  pro- 
diifcd  various  .«culptoi's  of  eminince;  amonir  these  muv 
he  iiieiiiioiicil  Daiinecker  of  i^luttgaid.  and  Tieek  of 
Berlin,  llannecker  has  executed,  in  pure  white  marhio, 
I  fi,;ure  of  Ariadne  seated  on  a  tigress,  in  an  attitude  of 
iue.xpressihlc  elegance,  and  eipial  to  the  works  of  ancient 
•n.    It  IS  contained  in  a  private  museum  at  Franafott 


on  the  Maine,  l^orwaldsnn,  a  Dsnish  irulptor,  baa 
likewise  prixluccd  several  works  of  strikiiiK  grandeur  and 
beauty  ;  not  the  least  itnposing  of  his  designs  is  the  co. 
IoskbI  figure  of  a  lion  carved  in  the  solid  tocji  at  LucenM 
in  Switzerland.  The  animal  is  supposed  to  be  dying 
from  the  etfects  of  u  wound  from  a  R|iear,  iitid  reclining 
over  a  shield  emblazoned  with  flours  du  lis:  it  is  a  mo- 
nument emblematic  of  the  fidelity  of  the  Swiss  Ouarda 
who  perished  in  defending  their  master  T.ouis  XVI,,  od 
the  10th  of  August,  1702,  from  ttiu  brutality  of  the  Pa- 
risian mob. 

Canova,  an  Italian  (born  nR7,  died  1822),  I.  /een 
justly  esteemed  the  restorer  of  the  graceful  and  lovely  in 
sculpture.  All  his  works  display  a  siirfirising  degree  of 
sollneM  and  delicacy,  and  will  form  iidinirable  studies  to 
the  young  artist.  His  Cupid;  Psyche,  standing  half 
dresst'H,  with  a  butterfly;  the  reijontant  .Magdalene} 
Hebe,  amiling  and  animated  ;  a  Venus,  partially  draped ; 
Donrfioance  (several  figures) ;  Graces  rising  from  the 
bath— are  only  a  few  of  the  works  by  which  Canova 
gained  lus  great  reputation.  Modern  sculpture  has  like- 
wise been  distinguished  by  various  works  executed  in 
England,  by  Flaxmun,  (."hantrey,  Wostmacott,  Daily, 
and  others.  Modern  art  has  almost  reached  the  ancioul 
in  the  figure  of  Eve  at  the  Fountain,  which  is  conceived 
in  a  stylo  of  pure  simplicity  and  g'ace,  with  somewhat 
more  intellectuality  in  the  features  than  is  generally  tc  ba 
found  in  the  Grecian  sculpture  of  female  figures. 


Kve  at  the  Fountain. 

Besides  studying  the  manifold  grnrcH  of  ancient  and 
modern  sculpture,  with  the  view  of  improving  the  taste 
in  reference  to  figures,  you  arc  recommended  to  study 
the  styles  and  compositions  of  the  more  celebrated 
p.tinters,  as  nothing  could  be  more  suitable  for  imparting 
corr"  t  ideas  respecting  drawing,  disposal  of  groups  of 
objects,  and  colouring.  Another  great  benefit  will  con- 
sist in  making  you  feel  your  own  deficiency,  and  how 
much  you  require  to  attain  by  diligent  .study.  Painting, 
you  will  learn,  has,  since  the  revival  of  art,  taken  the 
character  of  sclwoh,  or  peculiar  styles,  each  of  which  has 
had  its  leaders  and  followers;  for  example,  there  is  the 
Florentine  school,  commenced  by  Michael  Angelo  Bno- 
narotti  (born  1474,  died  1.^04),  who  di  lighted  in  repre- 
scntutioiis  of  the  grand  and  terrible.  'J'lie  Roman  school, 
of  whom  Raphael  (MS3-1.')2())  was  the  bead.  Tho 
great  ehnnicUristics  of  this  school  arc,  truthful  repre- 
sentations of  nature,  a  just  exprotsiori  of  the  |)assions,  a 
cba- to  nobleiiegs  of  (Iesi(;n,  and  correctness  of  drawing 
The  Veuitian  school,  headed  by  Titian  (M77-157fi), 
the  characteristics  of  which  were  the  liarmoiiy  ot  colouis, 
delicacy  of  tints,  and  a  judicious  contrast  of  light  and 
shade.  This  school  was  improved  bv  Corregio  and  Tin- 
toretto. The  (ierman  school,  led  by  Albert  Durer  (1471- 
1.528)  and  Holbein.  The  second  Lombard  school,  diit 
tinguished  by  the  works  of  the  tbn  e  Ciracci  (15.^35-  1609) 
The  French  school,  founded  by  Nicholas  Poussin  (1504 
16ti5),  Vuuet,  and  Charles   l,e    Brun.     The    Flemiak 


41* 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PhOPl.E. 


•ehool  wnk  founded  liy  Potrr  Paul  RiiJu-in  (IftTT-IMO). 
whose  driii)(n  i*  dik^nifli-il,  Iiih  drawing  of  anutiiniy  and 
peripnrtivp  corn-ct,  and  bin  roliuiriiiH  brillmiit.  The 
only  ohjodion  to  miiiii<  of  lii*  fiuxT"  i*.  tliat  Iboy  are 
loo  hravy ;  and  nTlninly  they  want  the  grace  of  tlioac 
of  Rnphiirl.  Tht"  Dutch  Hrho.>l,  f.f  whirh  the  mont 
prntninrnt  pttinlnr  in  Rciubramlt  (IflOO-lflfiH),  ia  Ipxa 
diiitinifuiHhpd  for   taato   than    the   faithful  adhi'rcnco  to 

aaturp. 

Tho  work*  of  the  nninont  inartera  in  IIip»o  variona 
achnola  witc  rhii'My  «rri[)turid  ami  hislcirieal ;  and  wenps 
of  a  uiimTlliini'iiun  kiml,  omlirnrinK  JniiilwiiiH'H,  liunroH, 
■ninialH,  !ieii-|>ieiTH,  art'hiti'cturc,  and  other  aulijeelH,  were 
painted  l>y  eonteiii|ioiiity  iirtJHlH,  who  fnllowed  no  pnrlieu- 

■r  aehool.  Ainoni;  these  ;;ri'ut  mmtera  iniiy  l)i'  named 
Claude  fieleeof  Lorraine  (1000- 1083),  whose  hmdnnijies 
■re  exccedin^^ly  lirantiful,  hiH  eoloiirii\ij  deiieate,  h\»  tinta 
tender,  anil  hin  liuliti  iind  hhitdeK  unrivalled;  Halvntor 
Roaa  (101. ■)- 1074  \  wliose  tmte  wa«  for  the  wild,  rUR- 
ged,  and  roniar.tir  uspectH  of  nature;  (taKpnr  PouMin 
(1613-107ft).  who'<e  pieturea  are  i;rand,  and  rernnrknhly 
Iruff  to  nature.  'I'he  sixteenth  ami  seventeenth  ecn- 
turiea  produi'ed  the  t'olliiwiin;  ni:inter«,  all  of  whoiie  worka 
arc  esteemed : — Paul  Veronese,  (Juido,  Carlo  Murntti, 
and  8pai;niolletto  —  historieal;  Murilio  (Spanish)  — 
fl(fure«;  Holihiinii^laiHls<'npe;  Canaletti — liuildiiuts;  and 
De  Wit — the  iiiti  rior  of  ehurehen.  Vernet,  a  Kreuch- 
inan  of  the  eiifhteiiitli  eenlury,  was  eeleliraleil  for  his 
•ea-pij-ees  anil  li^'uri's.  In  the  ei)urs»>  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  Hullainl  prodiieeil,  hut  eaimot  he  said  to  have 
eneourai-ed,  many  ilistiiinuished  painters.  .Ainoni,'  these 
are  ineluded  David  Ten iers,  celebrated  tor  his  reprcsiMita- 
tiona  of  doniealic  and  familiar  wcties :  Paul  Potter,  re- 
nowned for  his  cattle  pieces,  the  inont  remarkable  of 
which  is  his  picture  of  a  bull;  it  is  contaiued  in  the 
royal  museum  at  the  Ha^uc,  and  valued  at  X.'iddO: 
Philip  W'ouverinaii.<,  noli'd  for  his  landscapes,  beautiful 
Aie»,  and  acenes  with  uroupa  of  fip;ures  huntiii)r.  or 
otherwise  ent;aKi'd  in  field  sports :  Ueruhem,  also  noted 
for  hia  landsi'apes,  his  tbliaRe,  cattle  finely  drawn  and 
coloured;  the  wixvlland  scenes  of  this  painter  are  e\(|ui- 
aitely  fiiit.'ihed  and  true  to  nature:  Vundervelde,  a  painter 
of  naval  victories  and  s<'a-piece»,  all  remarkable  fur  rich- 
weM  of  composition  and  elfcct :  (icrurd  Douw,  like  'IV- 
niepii,  famed  for  his  domestic  aeeins,  Jacob  Kiiysdael, 
who  painted  in  the  style  of  I)er«hciii,  but  gained  great 
celebrity  for  his  reprewntatioiia  of  water. 

All  the  eminent  works  of  art,  whether  in  wulpture 
or  painting,  are  now  contained  in  a  few  gieat  nutlnnul 
muaeums,  or  in  the  private  collections  of  men  of  taste  or 
opulence.     The   principal   niuscuina   arc   thoac   of  the 


Vatican  at  Rome,  the  Oallery  of  the  Medici  at  Plormt 
the  royal  Kalh'riea  at   Munich  (now  the  head  school  tj 
puiutini,'  and  other  fine  arta  in  (lerinany),  the  I.ouvrf 
Paris,  the  Ilriliah  Museum  and  National  (Jallery  in  In 
Ion,  and  the   Royal   Mum-urn   at  the   Hairuc.     If  ..i    n 


within   the   meana  of  younx  men  desirous  of 


|>uriiui„.j 


professions  in  which  taste  in  drawing  ia  reiiuiniie 
stronKly  recommend  them  to  visit  the  museum  of  ii 
liouxre,  which  ia  rich  in  ancient  acnipture  and  inoili' 
paintiiiKs;  the  sinht  of  the  many  firiu  works  of  i,rt  |' 
I'aris  would  Hcarccly  fail  to  inspire  n  hinh  dcffrce  f 
refined  taste.  If  unable  to  accomplish  Ibis  (|(isif«|,i„ 
object,  we  advis<<  you  to  pay  m-casional  visits  to  aiiv 
private  eidleclion  to  wliii  h  you  can  (tuin  ailiiiinsjon,  ,r,j 
also  to  exhibiliotiH  and  museuma  open  to  the  pulili' 
Amonij  recent  works  of  Kii);lish  urt,  nenerully  aciomji,!,,' 
the  historical  pieces  of  llaydon  and  Hilton,  the  liisturliul 
and  pathetic  pieces  of  Allan,  tho  Hraiiil  arcliiicrtufji 
idealities  of  Martin,  the  eliiireh  and  other  arcliitertura 
of  kolHTta,  tho  lanilsea|)es  of  OainslM)riiu;;li,  C'alciitL 
Mulready,  Thompson,  and  the  Nasmyths,  the  aniiiialii  of 
I.aiiil8<'er,  the  aea-vic-ws  of  Stantleld,  Turner,  und  Wjl. 
liains,  and  the  faitbl'ul  ilcliiieutiona  of  hiniible  life  u 
Wilkie,  ami  many  other  works  of  art  which  miijht  be 
mentioned,  will  alforil  much  pure  pleasure  iinil  instruc. 
lion,  und  show  what  can  be  aceoinplislied  by  a  cultivated 
observation,  and  a  |M'rsevcriiirf  desire  to  excel. 

In  the  course  of  your  observations  you  will  leum,  llm 
in  the  delineation  of  human  fiuures  frreat  care  requirej 
to  Im'  paid  to  historical  cos-tume  and  the  fashion  of  urtili. 
eitti  objects  represented.  A  person  who  li\cil  in  the 
ei(;hleenth  century,  for  instance,  should  not  i  drpsNed  aj 
un  ancient  Homun  ;  nor  should  the  iiitetio.  of  u  huuic 
of  the  lilU'ciitli  Ik!  decorated  liko  one  ol  :l,i,  sixtcentj 
century.  On  this  account,  every  student  of  the  line  attj 
reipiires  to  be  well  inslriiclcd  in  history,  uri  !iuinlo|n,  aij,] 
other  branches  of  learning.  With  res|)ect  to  .stjlues,  It 
is  so  iiijportant  to  j^ive  un  easy  anil  Hruceful  eircct,  that 
a  departure  frum  exact  costume  is  allowable,  so  far  an  to 
jilace  a  loos(>  t;arment  ovit  or  about  tho  |M'rsim.  U'c 
have  only  to  add.  that  a  due  peiception  of  the  bpnuliful 
and  truthlul  in  pictorial  delineation  must  be  in  all  cam 
a  work  of  time.  .M  lir.s'.  the  uiipraitiM'd  eye,  or,  pro 
|htIv  speaking,  the  uiiti.icire.i  mind,  will  |)erha|is  lie  most 
charined  with  a  Kaiidy  o  •■■.-,  a>id  w;e  in  the  finest  work 
of  art  only  u  ilull  anil  valiielcKS  H"ene.  Hut  the  rcpcalej 
eoiiteinplalion  of  pictures,  the  com|mrison  of  one  witli 
unotber,  and  the  constant  rei'eri'uce  to  actual  nature,  will 
ivmove  such  impressions,  und  the  work  of  true  ir.tnl 
staiidiuK  apparent,  will  receive  the  highest  meed  of  t^ 
probation. 


;,'  rt^i^      HY    .■f'r    ,*.■,-!    .'•  • ,  ,y 


'^ 


ATlITITMETIC-ALGErRA. 


l.«  th«  pri-wnt  «nil  micrrrilinn  arlirlp,  nn  Rttcmpl  i« 
^  In  ronvy  to  'h"  rninpnrntivoly  unlpnrncd  rninil 
inmr  knciwli'ilm'  "f  Miithrmntirul  m-iiMirc,  both  a*  Ti'aanU 
urawirfmi'iit  tiy  niinit)ern  (AiirriiMF.Tir)  am)  mrimiirn- 
m.nl  I'f  iliinniiHionn  ((Jhomktht).  Tlici  nkptrli  wo  offer 
rffnoh  i"  rn'ci'BKarily  liriof  and  itnperfdct;  but  oiir  end 
nill  ho  RHini-il  if  wr  afford  tb<it  amount  of  information 
on  ihf  nulijo't  wbich  in  Rctif  ridly  pn«i<oaiipd  by  pcr*onH 
ol  modiTttli'ly  wrII-rultivBtrd  intellect. —  F.d. 

A  riTOiniition  of  the  value  of  numhtri  ii  coeval  with 
thfilnwn  of  nientnl  rnllivation  in  every  oommnnity  ;  but 
f,,i,<i(lcr:iMc  proRredR  must  be  mndn  before  metho<lii  of 
rffkoiiiiiR  ore  reilured  to  a  resnlnr  nyntem,  iind  a  notu- 
Hon  iiiio|iU'd  to  expreiw  Inrpfo  or  eomjilex  quiintilim.  An 
iiumtitv  I"  rerkon  iM'yond  n  few  niimbem  i»  alwnvfi  a 
proof  of  ineiitid  obdeiirily ;  and  in  thin  ptalo  varioua 
jmace  natiunx  have  \wcn  diHeovered  by  trnvcllera.  Home 
in  liiunil  to  Ik-  able  to  eoiiiit  us  far  iih  five,  the  dicfilH  of 
tlif  hand  iiuwl  likely  fnmilinri/iiiit  tlioin  with  that  num)M<r; 
hit  any  further  quiiiitity  in  either  Knid  to  coiiflist  of  no 
nwv  fives,  or  is  expressed  by  the  more  convenient 
nhm«e,  "ft  ttreiit  innny."  Amioiir  the  North  Amerienn 
Indisnn,  any  prent  number  wliieh  the  mind  is  incnpnble 
of  (lintinctlv  reco'Tnisinij  and  nnmiir^  is  finurntively  de- 
ifrilifd  by  eomparinn  it  to  the  loaves  of  the  forest ;  and 
in  the  same  miinner,  the  untutored  Negro  of  Alriea 
)fo;ili  (lefino  any  ijuiuitity  of  vast  amount  by  pointing 
10  a  hiindtui  of  sand  of  the  desert. 

On  the  first  ndvanee  of  any  early  people  towards  eivi- 
liialion,  it  woulil  l)e  found  impossible  to  give  a  separate 
nnme  Id  each  separate  numln'r  which  they  had  occasion 
fcJi'KTik'.  It  would  therefore  tw  necessary  to  consider 
lirje  numbers  as  only  multipliciitions  of  certain  smaller 
one,  wd  to  name  them  aerordin«ly.  This  is,  no  doubt, 
what  tfiivn  rise  to  classes  of  numbers,  which  are  dilli'rent 
in  (liirt'ri'ut  countries.  For  instance,  the  Chinese  count 
bvdWJ;  'he  ancient  Mexicans  reckoned  hy  fours.  Some 
oiuiiIihI  by  Jirrs,  a  number  which  the  fingers  would 
always  lie  ready  to  suuigest.  The  Hebrews,  from  an 
eariv  period,  reckoned  by  tens,  which  would  also  be  an 
obvious  mode,  from  the  numlH-r  of  the  fmgi'rs  of  tlie  two 
hnnils,  ns  well  as  of  the  toes  of  the  two  feet.  The  (ireeks 
iiioiiled  iliis  plan  ;  from  the  (i  recks  it  came  to  the  Romans, 
jnd  by  tliem  was  spread  over  a  large  part  of  the  world. 

NOTATION. 

The  representation  of  numbers  by  written  signs  is  an 
irl  (jenendly  believed  to  have  taken  its  rise  after  the 
formation  of  niphals'ts.  One  of  the  earliest  sets  of  wiillen 
iii;'n«  of  nuniliers  of  which  we  have  any  notice,  is  cer- 
tainly the  s<-ries  of  letters  of  the  Hebrew  alphaln-t  which 
WIS  used  by  that  ]H'ople — Aleph,  bcth,  gini'l,  dalelh,  he, 
vau,  lain,  clieth,  leth,  stiuidiiig  respectively  for  the  num- 
bers one,  two,  three,  four,  five,  six,  seven,  eight,  nine. 
The  Greeks  directly  adopted  this  plan  from  the  Hebrews, 
liirmini!  tlicir  nuinliers  thus: — 1  olpha,  3  In-ta,  3  gamma, 
4  (hlla.  .5  epsilon — here  having  no  letter  corresponding 
with  the  Hi'lircw  tvii/,  they  put  in  the  words  prifn/u:*  ^au  to 
d'-iiote  six ;  after  which  they  proceed  with  7  /.eta,  8  eta,  &c. 
Ii'  fore  adopting  this  ])lari,  they  hail  indicated  one  by  iota 
I,  prohayv  liocauso  it  was  the  smallest  of  their  letters, 
fivi'  by  ri  (P)  iK'ing  tlio  first  letter  of  petite,  five;  ten  by 
t'.  (D)  being  the  initial  of  drku,  ten.  Afler  having  for 
aonie  time  adopted  the  Hebrew  plan,  they  divided  their 
alphabet  into  three  clur-icj!;  th(^  first  t<-n  letters  expressing 
llie  numls-rs  from  one  to  ten,  while  twenty,  thirty,  forty, 
ind  an  on  up  to  a  hundietl,  wero  lignificJ  by  the  next 


nine,  ninety  being  expressed  by  a  figure  forni>  n  f«^ 
|iose,  and  resembling  the  Arabic  ft  invertrtl.  'iTie  re» 
nmining  seven  letters  expressed  'JDO,  •')OII.  4110,  ftOO,  MIO, 
700,  HOO;  and  for  000  them  was  another  inverted  Anura, 
Iinrger  numlicrs  were  represented  by  lettcn  accented  in 
various  ways. 

The  Komans,  from  an  early  penod,  hail  a  plan  ol  ex 
pressing  numbers,  which  seems  to  have  been  at  flnt 
indeitcnilent  of  the  alphaliot.  'J'he  following  clear  ao 
count  of  it  wa«  given  a  few  years  ago  by  Frofeaaor 
Playfair: — "To  denote  one,  a  simple  upright  stroke  wai 
assumed  | ;  and  the  repetition  of  this  expressed  two, 
three,  Ac.  Two  crfiss  strokes  X  marked  the  next  atep 
in  the  scale  of  enuniiration,  or  ten  ;  and  that  symbol  waa 
repeated  to  signify  twenty,  thirty,  Ac.  Three  stroke*,  or 
an  ojien  square  C.  were  employed  to  denote  the  hundred, 
or  the  third  stage  of  eiiumeraliiin ;  and  four  interwoven 
strokes  fi/\ ,  sometimes  incurved  CO. '"  even  divided  CIO, 
expressed  a  thousand,  i^uch  are  all  the  charucters  abao 
bitely  required  in  a  very  limited  system  of  numeration. 
'i"he  necessary  repetition  of  them,  however,  as  often 
occasionally  as  nine  times,  was  soon  found  to  be  tedioui 
and  pi^rplexing.  Reduced  or  curtailed  marks  wero  there- 
fore  omploye<l  to  express  the  intermediate  nuiltipleg  of 
five ;  and  thin  improvement  must  have  taken  place  at  a 
very  early  period.  Tlius,  five  itself  was  denoted  by  the 
upper  half  V<  ">■'  sometimes  the  under  jialf  /\^  of  the 
character  X  fof  '•'"i  L'  <"■  "'"  half  of  C,  the  mark  for 
a  hundred,  came  to  represent  fifty  j  and  the  incurved 
symbol  .CQ,  of  (M.>,  for  a  thousand  was  |)ut  into  10,  to 
express  five  hundred. 

These  important  contractions  having  been  adopted, 
another  convenient  atibreviation  was  introduced.  To 
avoid  the  frequent  repetition  of  a  mark,  it  was  prefixed 
to  the  principal  character,  and  denoted  the  elVect  by  count- 
ing backwards.  Thus,  instead  of  four  strokes,  it  seemed 
preferable  to  write  |  V  i  for  eight  and  nine,  the  symtiola 
were  1 1  X  nnd  |  X  ,  and  ninety  was  expressed  by  X  C' 
'J'his  rnmle  of  reckoning  by  the  defect  was  peculiar  to  the 
Komans,  and  has  evidently  affi:cted  the  composition  of 
their  numerical  terms.  Instead  of  iicliiilerrm  [eight  and 
ten — for  eighteen],  and  nnvemdciem  [nine  and  ten — for 
nineteen],  it  was  he'd  more  elegant,  in  thH  Latin  Ian* 
guage,  to  use  nmlivitiinli  [one  from  twenty],  and  duodt' 
vif^i  lit  [two  from  twenty]. 

But  the  alphabetical  characters  now  lent  their  aid  to 
numeration.  'J'he  uniform  broad  strokes  were  dismissed, 
and  those  letters  which  most  resendiled  the  several  com- 
binations were  adopted  in  their  place.  The  marks  for 
one,  five,  ten.  and  fifty,  were  respectively  supplied  by  the 
letters  I,  V,  X,  and  L.  The  symbol  for  a  hui.dred  wa« 
aptly  denoted  by  C,  which  had  originally  a  squaie  shape, 
and  happened,  besides,  to  be  the  initial  of  the  very  word 
ceiilum.  The  letter  D  was  very  generally  assumed  as  a 
near  approximutiim  to  the  symlud  for  five  hundred ;  and 
M  not  only  represented  the  angular  character  for  a  thou- 
sand, but  was  likewise,  though  perhaps  accidentally,  the 
first  letter  of  the  word  mille." — I'.din.  l\ci:  xviii,  193. 

The  Hebrew,  improved  Grecian,  and  Koman  num^ 
rals,  were  jierhups  fiulUcient  to  express  any  single  number 
with  tolerable  precision  ;  but  it  is  easy  to  >-ee  that  they 
must  have  been  nearly  unfitted  for  use  in  the  process  of 
arithmetic.  'I'he  Greeks  certainly  contrived  to  ovcrcoDia 
many  obstacles  in  the  business  of  calculation,  and  even 
could  express  fractions — tlsouch,  from  a  practice  of  adding 
from  left  to  right,  and  ignoranci  of  the  plan  of  earryinf 
lens  to  the  higher  places,  their  problems  were  at  all  timet 
awkward  and  complicated.  The  Komans,  however,  car^ 
Xm3  413 


414 


INTORMATION  FOR    HIF   PEOPLE. 


Ic""  of  oM    lnrnn<rrnji>nrpii,  wrir  ntllt   mnro   nwkwnnlly 
<iiliiiiJ«l  (Imri  (hr  (irr<-ki.     I^-f  iiny  rriulir  jint  •iiji|)<vw, 
fiif  in<l4Mi-p,  I'vi'ii  no  airnpl*  a  qiv«tl"n  ««  iho  miiitunt  (if 
Xl.Virr  ii<l<lr.l  lo.X.V.VIV!     rt  i»  rvi.l-nt  lh«t  i.tnnmr 
tlie  flKiin>«  U-low  piirh  nlhrr,  mi  wo  iln  willi  llic  ArHMc 
DIMirrala,  wniilH  wrvf   lilllc  In  riicilitnfr  aiirli   n  rnlciilii- 
tfim.      fn   fkrt,  Iho    Rnrnitn*  wrri>  nhliiftol,  whrri>  mrtitnl 
raK'uliiiiim   woiilil   not  wrvr,  to  n-aort   to  ■  iiiirhiiniinl 
prorna  for  pprformwif  prohlcina  in  mithnu'tic     A  Uix  ol 
p<"ih|<«  rnlltHl  limilu*,  and  n  tionril  rnlliMl  ithnnit,  ronati- 
lt}U>d    llicir    mcuna  of  mlculmion :   iinil   of  thrar  rvrry 
■N'liDolhoy,  mill  ninny  oilier  (a'r«<in",  |«iHa<'m«'(l  a  xcl.    Tim 
word  ralruliiiiiin  clninia  no  liiKlirr  HrMTnl    tlinn    from 
nil'uliu,  •  alonp  or  |a'lilil«>.    Tlio  bonrd  wna  dividid  I'mni 
lh«  riifhl   to  thr  Irft   hund  liy  ii|iriuht  nilimiiia,  on  which 
Ih''  ppbl>l«>a  wen-  |ilnrrd,  lo  diMioIr  iihitn,  trna,  liiindr<-<la, 
thoiwiinda,  ftr.     Thr  Uhnur  of  rniiiilinif  nnd   nrr;in(?iMii 
lh<>  pcbhim  wna  ritVrw.«rdJ  aonaihiv  rihri(i;j«l   liy  driiwinn 
•rnMii   Ihn   hoHnl   n   horizonlnl   line,  bIhivo  wliii-h   r»ch 
ainql*  ppWde  hnd  Ihe  (lowrr  of  five.      In  Ihr  iiroirrraa  of 
luKiiry,  tnii,  or  (lira  miiiie  of  ivorv,  wrrc  im<'<l   itiKlrnd  of 
f>r"l>Wr«;   iind    Hllcrwnrda    the  whole   aynlfm   wna    in(id» 
mme  ponvpnipnl  hy  atiMilntinR  Iwnda  alrtnii;  on  [mrullcl 
Ihr^ada,  or  [irifa  atnrk  hIohk  (jToovca;  tncthoda  of  rnlcil- 
Itttion  «lill  iiard  in  Kuwia  and  Chinii.and  fxmd  rnnvrni- 
fnt  In  rrrliiin  dr|>nrtinenl«  of  Roman  Catholir  dcvoliim, 
»nd  in  wvcral  funiiiiar  unnira  in  mori"  civilij^l  ronntrica. 
With  mirh  inatrumcnfa,  |irohlcma  in  nddition  nnd  aiih- 
trartion  would  not  Iw  »ery  ditncult ;  hiil  Ihoac  in  nnilti- 
pliration  nnd  divi<ion,  not  to  apeak  of  the  more  eoniponnd 
rulea,  mnat  have  IwHin   extn'mely   tedious  nnd   irkMnmo, 
Bodiaaixreahle,  indeed,  wna  the  whole  hlxiiir,  tlinl  the  Kiv 
mam  senernlly  U'W  it  to  alnvea  and  prcifexsioiiHl  ciili'iilatorH. 
The  numernla  now  in  nae,  with  the  mode  of  eauxin^t 
th«m  hy   preuliar  aitiintion  lo  ex|>ri'««  nny  niinilM-r,  nnd 
whereby  the  proeenaea  of  arillmietir  have  In-en  rendered  ao 
hii(hly  convenient,  have  heretornre   Itei-n  aiip[H)»ed  to  Ih- 
of  Indian  oriiiin,  tranamilled  thromjh  the  I'rrainna  to  the 
Araha,  and  by  them  introduced  into  Kurojie  in  the  tenth 
renlury,  when  the  Moora  invntled  and  li'-cnmo  miiatera  of 
Hpnin.     Hiich  in  reality  appenra  to  have  lieen  in  a  great 
mcaaure   Iho  true   hialory  of  the  traiianiiaaion   of  lhea«« 
numrrala  ;  hut  aa  it  hna  been  iHtely  found  Ihiit  the  ancient 
hioroKlyphical   inacripliona  of  Ktvpt  contain  wverul  of 
tl)«in,  learned  men  are  now  nereed  lh:il  they  oriijinnted  in 
that  early  aeat  of  knowlislce,  lietween  which  nnd   India 
there  exists  more  [)oinUof  reaemlil.inco.aiiJ  more  tnireaof 
tnterroiirae,  Ihnn  is  genendly  au[ip()sed.      In  the  eleventh 
eenlury,  Oerhoit,  a  Benedictine  monk  of  Fleury,  and 
who  afterwarda    nKcended   the   papal    throne   under   the 
deaiinialion   of  Sylvealer  II.,  Iriivelled    into  Spain,   and 
•tudie<1  for  aevernj  yearn  the  acienccH  there  cultivated  by 
Ihe  Moor*.     Atnonif  other  ac(pii«ilioii«,  he  Ki>in<*d  from 
that   ainipilar   p<'ople   a    knowledge    of  what    are    now 
called  the  Jlralnr  nvmrrnh,  nnd  of  the  mode  of  arithmetic 
founded  on   Ihem,  which  he  forthwith  diiM'lowd  to  the 
Uhrialian   world,  by  whom   at  firat   hia  learnini;   caiiaod 
bim  to  be  aecus<'d  of  an  allinnce  with  evil  apirita.     The 
knowleilae  of  Ihia  new   arithmetic   wna  nlx>ut  the   aamc 
time  extended,  in  conaiMpience  of  Ihe  inlercourHO  which 
the  Ouwdera  opened  lielween  Kurope  and  the  Knat.    For 
a  lonjf  time,  however,  it  made  a  very  alow  and  olmcure 
proi^ia.     The   character*    themaelvea    appear    to    have 
been  lonu  conaiderwl  in  P!uro[a'  aa  dark  and  myalerioua. 
Deriving  their  whole  elficacy  from  the  use  made  of  tlie 
riptier,  ao  called  from  Iho  Arabic  word  Mu/iAni/i, denoting 
fHyfy  or  C'lii/,  thin  term  came  nfler\Viird«  lo  expresa,  in 
(cneral,  any   aecret   mark.     Hence,  in    more  troubloua 
tiinea  tha.;  tlie  prraenl,  a  mode  of  writini?  was  prnclised, 
by    mean*    of  niurka    previoualy   concerte<l,   and    called 
ir^'iai;  in  nphn.     The  Arabic  chnractera  occur  in  aotno 
■rtthmetical    tract*   compoaed    in    En^lnnd   during   the 
Hiirtei-ntli  and  fourteenth  centuriea,  jiarticularly  in  a  work 
oy  J.'hn  of  HnHfaj',  or  De  H«crob<*<co;  but  another  ccn- 
tiur  elapsed  betorn  they  were  geuerally  adopted.     They 


ttli 


do  not  np|ienr  to  have  nettled  into  their  preaent  'r 
nlmul  the  time  of  Ihe  invention  of  printing 

It  would  lie  im|Mwaible  to  calciilnle,  even  \\y  ihei<  ,-» 
Irnnacendent  jaiwera,  the  wrvice  which  the  Arabic  i^^ 
rala  have  reiiiloretl  to  mankind. 


NtlMKRATIOIf. 

The  Arable  numernla  lake  the  following  well.lnwwa 
form*:-!,  2,  3,  4,  ft.  (I.  7.  H,  U,  ((.  'I'h„  fi„^  „„^ 
llieae.  culled  ilitiilt  or  digital  niinilH'ra,  reprrmnt,  cark. 
one  of  Ihe  niliiiln'r*  In'tweeii  oiif  and  iiiiir,  and  when  th 
employed  lo  repre.ieiit  aingle  niiiiiJM'ra,  Ihey  ure  iniiii|i|,.f,j 
aa  limit.  The  luat  (0).  calli'd  a  mmuhl,  nolhini,  ,>r  lipf,,., 
ia  in  reality,  taken  by  ilm-lf,  espreaaive  ol  an  nlisenoi,  j 
iiuinlier,  or  nothing;  hut,  in  ciuineclion  with  oih,.,  „y_ 
iM-ra,  it  lH-e(iinea  expreaaive  of  nuinlier  in  a  very  reniutk! 
able  niuiiiier. 

The  valuable  peculiarity  of  the  Arabic  notation  it  th, 
enliirgenieiit  and  variety  of  valuea  which  can  l«i  gjvn 
to  the  llgurea  by  aamxinliiig  lliein.  The  minilM^r  t<ii  h 
expreaaed  by  I  and  0  put  lonether — thua,  10;  und  all  iIm 
nnniU'r*  from  ihia  up  lo  a  hundred  can  U'  expreurd 

like   manner    by    Iho   naHocialion   of   two   ('mnreii (1,^ 

twenty,  30;  thirty.  III);  eighty-live,  N,'i;  ninelyniiic,  UO^ 
Theat'  are  called  deciinnl  iiiuiiIhth,  from  ilrmn,  l.;iii|,  f , 
ten.  The  nunilN'ra  iM'tween  a  hundred  and  nliii'  liiimlin] 
and  niiiety-iiinu  inchinive,  are  in  like  manner  txprp»«J 
by  three  lii;iireH — Ihiia,  a  huiiilrod,  IDO;  live  Iniinlrfd. 
.lUI) ;  eiuht  liiiiidred  unci  eii;lilv-live,  SM.'i;  nine  liuijdnj 
and  ninety-nine,  !)!)!».  Four  fmurea  exprcKH  llioiiHiitiili' 
live,  tena  of  Ihoiiaanda;  aix,  liuiidredM  of  llinii«unJ»' 
aeven,  millioiia ;  and  ao  forth.  Kucli  figure,  in  s|,„J 
put  lo  the  left  hand  of  another,  or  of  lu'veraj  othen, 
niiillipliea  that  one  or  more  miniliers  by  ten.  Or  if  tj 
any  nI  of  liKures  a  nought  (0)  \h:  added  lowaril*  tin 
rik;lil  hand,  that  addilion  imdtiplieH  the  iiuriilH-r  liy  ten' 
thuH,  UD'.I,  with  0  added,  la'coniea  OiiaO,  nine  Ihounaini 
nine  hundred  nnd  ninety.  TIiuk  it  will  1h'  mch  that,  in 
iiolutioii,  Ihe  niiiA'  or  place  of  any  fmure  in  a  nuiiiticrii 
what  deterininea  the  value  which  it  beura.  'J'lie  llmire  iliirj 
I'runi  Iho  light  hand  ia  alwuva  one  of  the  hiiiMlntJ*;  tlitt 
which  Htaiida  seventh  ulvvavx  ixiiri'Md 

?c  2  =:?i  5  o  ??»  "''W    iKUre    ia   added    loH;ir(|«  ih. 

M         


.  „  =  3 
r  =1  »  T 

C   3    O. 


=  3i 
r.  — ' 

33 


right,  each  of  llu)  former  hi'I  ulilajiu, 
aa  it  were,  a  proiiiotliiii,  or   ia  nitJi 

0  g  «"  to  expresn  ten  timea  iln  furmer  value, 
g]S  A  large  niiiiilier  i^i  tliUKexpreaaei!  x 
g  a.                the  Arabic  nniuerala,  every  wt  of  U.i(j» 

1  "  from  the  rignt  to  the  Icll  liiuul  ln.ing 
£•                  divided   hy  a  comma  lor  the  tiukc  of 

diKtiiiclneaa. 
The  nbove  numlior  ia  therefore  one  Ihnuhand  two  hun- 
dred and  thirty-four  millioiiN,  five  hundred  and  kiMy-wtea 
thouwiiida,  eight  hundred  and  ninety.  Hiulier  numiien 
are  exprcKaed  difTerently  in  France  und  Eiigljud.  In  the 
fornior  country,  the  toiilh  figure  expreiwi^M  liilliuus,  from 
which  there  ia  an  advance  to  tena  of  billiona,  huiidrcdii  of 
billiima,  Irilliona,  fic.  In  our  country,  the  eUvinih  figure 
exprcaHca  ten  thouaunda  of  milliona,  the  next  liinidreda  of 
thouannda  of  milliong,  the  next  billioiiH,  i&c.  'I'he  l«« 
plana  will  Iw  clearly  apprehended  from  thu  fullowing  w 
ruiigcment : — 


Kaill-Ull   MCTHOO. 

UlllH. 
'IVlK, 

lliiiidredt. 

'riiojiian<)a 

Tetis  ol'  Ihoiianii'la. 

Iliiiiilri'iU  of  liiuuaands. 

MlllilHIR. 

Tell"  of  niillinni. 
Hiinilrrita  of  iiiillinna. 
Thouannilaor  iniMioiii. 
Ten  Ihuuauiiila  ormillioiia. 
Ilioidnilt  of   ihuutaacla    of 

million*. 
Biltiona. 

T.'ii«  of  l.illioni. 
lluoJr«il*of  billioni,  ke. 


raENcii  unHoD. 

Unita. 

Tein. 

hiiiiilrcda. 

TlioiiiiiitKla, 
I'lVin  of  llintiaandi 

lliinilrt'ila  of  ihoutaiidl. 

Millions. 

Tent  oriTiittions- 
I  MiiMilri'dt  of  millioni. 
{  lliliiona. 

Tens  uf  liilllons. 

Ilunilreds  uf  liillioai. 

Trillons. 

Tsiisol'  trillions. 

Hundreds  uf  irillioBS,  114, 


8!l6!2il.S2l'! 


t       »!• 


ARITHMBTIO. 


'■■/ 1 


411 


87 
A 

nA3 

S7A 
IIUS 


urti  Ml   tn<TRtr-r  ni'Miiii. 
•^iftr  tr*  ''>Mr  r|pMii<ii(>ry  il«|MrtnMnla  in  nrilhmrlio— 
4i]dii>>«>'  Muit>pl><''>'J<>ni  ^^illilrnc'liun,  and  Divimun. 

Aililiiloa. 

AiliNiinn  i«  Ihr  »MU\s(nr  •ummlnff  np  of  ncwml  nnm- 
uq,  for  111"*  imriMWo  nl'  fliiilini^  Ihcir  iinilnl  nmoiint.  Wp 
III  numhi'rK  loKi-tlirr  whrii  w«  miy,  1  'mmI  I  mukp  'i  l  '< 
iiiil  8  '»"'*''  ■'  •  "'"'  ""  ""•  '''*'  "••"'hix!  i>f  writing 
piiinlnT«  i»  mlililioii,  in  to  (lUrtt  thr  tiKiin n  iindi-r  niii< 
irvillii'r.  '■■  '''"'  '■"'I"  will  "taiiil  ilinlrr  niiil*,  trrin  iiiiiirr 
Iriifi,  hunilri-dit  iiikIit  liiiinlri'ilii,  dec.  Nii|i[hi<h>  wn  winh 
1,1  niM  tc'K''i'i<'r  ill"  fcillii«iii){  minilH'n — 87,  6,  ft3(l,  3n'i, 
unl  "7^;  w><  riiiii(i'  Ihnii  in  rnlinniinnnr  unili*r  the  iitlii'r, 
,iiinlh<'ninri{in,iinil  (Iriiw  II  line  iniilrrthr  whole.  Hc«Mi- 
ninij«l'lii'  lowcHt  fiu'iin' cif  tile  riRliI  limiil  cDlninn, 
^fniy.'S  miil8  iiri'7 — 7iiuil(liir«  KJ — 1'  milAiiro 
|H_i8  ,iii>l  7  nrr  8A;  tiiiit  in,  8  li-n«  itn  I  ft  uniU. 
Wr  now  writi'  lliti  .'i  lii'low  tint  line  of  unitH,  and 
i.irru  or  adil  llii'  'i  Ii'Uh,  or  8(1,  to  the  lowcBt  fl;{»ro 
of  the  nrit  inliiiiiM.  In  ciirryiii);  tliiH  80,  \m\  let 
iliiiriplii-r  Ki\  it  U'lMit  iniplii'd  liy  thx  panition  or 
niik  ol  •!"'  ''■■"'  I'l!""'.  i"id  liiki'  onlv  the  8;  wr 
ihiwfiiri'  I'fiH-cnl  tluK — 8  iiMil  7  iiri'  0 — U  nnd  ,"5 
,ffli— M  nnd  ;i  iiri'  17  — ITuiid  2  nrp  I!).  WrifitiBt 
jiwnttK'  ll,  wi'  iirnri'cd  with  tlio  thiril  roltunn,  rnrrviiiff 
]  lliu, — I  and  8  mc  11 — !)  iiml  3  urn  (\ — II  iinil  !i  iiro  II. 
J».iniore  fiijnri'K  ri'niiiininii  to  he  luldcil,  liolli  tliiMi-  llmircn 
iii>  now  (lilt  down,  iiml  tlii>  ntnoiint  or  Minn  of  tlioni  nil  in 
f.iiiml to  Ih'  ll'ir).  Kiillowin((llii«  pliin,  any  <|nuntily  of 
piiiiiU-rn  nmv  1h'  smnincd  np.  Hhonld  tllo  iinioiint  of  any 
riluinii  I*'  III  iliri'i'  ("unri'x.  utillonly  tlic  liiit  or  ri){lit-huiiil 
i{\itf  in  10  I"'  pill  down,  nnd  Ihii  other  two  oiirried  to  the 
[Kit'Oliiinii.  l''or  exiiinpli-,  if  the  nniount  of  t«  eolninn 
y  12V.  jiul  down  the  7  iind  eiirry  the  other  two  finiireH, 
whK'li  iir<'  1 8  ;  if  it  Ik-  8'!  I,  put  down  tlie  4  mid  curry  2.1. 

For  the  Hiil;e  of  lirevity  in  hieraturi',  nddition  ih  nIVn 
ilmoUHl  liy  the  fiiiire  of  n  erosn,  of  thin  glinpe  -|-.  'I'huii, 
74-6  iix'iiiit  7  iiilded  to  (i ;  mid  in  order  to  cjpreiw  tiio 
lum  n-nil'tiiiu'.  the  siiin  =.  wliieh  ineiiiiK  njual  In,  if)  ein- 
plDyiHJ,  an  74-fl  -i;i ;  thiit  in,  7  and  0  are  ccpiul  to  13. 

.Miiliiplication. 

Multiplii'^iiion  li  a  nhort  method  of  addition  under  cer- 
Uin  firi'iirii  liiiiceH.  If  we  winh  to  ascertain  the  iiinonnt 
of  iwilvp  li!iii'<  the  ninnher  .57,  insteud  of  settinp;  down 
livflvp  row:*  of  ■'>7,  iind  iiddini;  tliein  together,  we  n(h)pt  a 
•dorter  pl.in  hy  whicii  we  come  to  tiie  Bame  conelusicn. 
For  fuoerlaiiiiiii;  the  ninount  of  all  NiMi|jh^  nnmlN'rH  iti  liir 
14  12  tiiiii"!  18,  yomin;  perNons  connnit  to  memory  tlin 
llilln.rin^  MiiltipliiMlion  Table,  n  knowledijo  of  wiiich  lit 
of  (rri'il  viiliie,  nnd  Haven  much  trouhle  in  urter-life  : — 


'l''   2|   3|    4|    ft|    6|    7 

8| 

o| 

10| 

n 

12 

2,   4|   «|    8|10|13|  14 

I6| 

18 

80 1 

82  j 

24 
30 

■  3|  «!    9|12|I5|  t«|2I 

84  1 

87  1 

30  1 

33 

4|  8|12|  16l20|2t|28 

32  1 

30 

40 

44  1 

48 

i  5|l0|l5;20|2.'i|30|3.'i 

40 1 

,4.5 

60 

66 

60 

,  6|u!lH,84|30l;«i  148 

48  1 
.■itil 
(54  1 

64  1 

fill 

60 

72 

i  7|l4!2l|28|35|48:49 
;  (>ll6!24|32|40|4H|.')r) 

63 

73  1 

70 

80  1 
"  90| 

77 

88  1 
99 

84 

96 

108 

!  9|r8|27|30|4.5|r)4i03 

72 

81 

|lO|'iO|30|40|j>ll|(io|70 

'Ill22|33|44!5.'il(ir,]77 

80  1 

88  1 

00 
99 

100 1 

no 

110 
121 

180 
138 

|i2|24|30l48|C0]72|84 

96] 

IU8| 

ISO 

132  1 

144 

This  tnhle  is  so  well  known,  th:it  it  in  almost  §uper 
Hu^ui  to  explain  that,  when  any  numlier  in  the  top  row 
h  mulliplied  hy  an»  nirnhnr  in  the  left-hand  side  row,  the 
DiuunI  in  found  in  the  compartment  or  itquaro  benpnth 


lh«  on*  an/l  nppoail«  the  nthf^.     Tfiua.  1  llmM  3  in  4 , 
Allmr»fl«r«80(   IS  liinrn  18  are  H<. 

Thfi  niiilliplyinit  of  iiiimlxTH  iH'yniid  IS  tImM  It  Im 
uaually  elf.  elm]  hy  a  priKDM  nf  i-iileulallon  in  wrlll«a 
fli(un>a.  The  ruin  ia  to  r.rite  iown  thn  nimilwr  to  ha 
muUi  plied,  ealled  the  mii/' 71/1.  nnr/;  then  place  nnder  H, 
on  lh*<  rlithldiand  nidr.  the  nnmhrr  whnh  in  lolw  ihn  nnrf- 
iililier,  and  draw  a  line  under  them.  Kor  example,  In 
Iind  thn  aniomit  of  U  time*  87,  we  mt  down  llio  llgurM 
lhu»— 

«7  {Mulliplifimil.) 
9  ^Muliiplirr.) 

243  (frn.hrl.) 
IleuininnK  with  the  riKhtdiand  I'mnri',  w«  nay  9  lim<>«  7  an 
113;  and  |Mitliiii:  down  3  we  carry  0,  and  nay  9  timf<a  S 
are  18,  and  II  whicli  was  carried  makcN  84  ;  and  writing 
down  th«ae  fl|{ure»  next  the  3,  the  prixluct  ii  found  to  b« 
343. 

When  the  mnltiplier  coimi«ta  of  two  or  mora 
Axurea,  place  it  xo  that  ila  ri)(htdiaiid  fl|{ura 
cmiies  exactly  under  the  riMlil-hand  llHure  of  tha 
multiplicand  ;  for  inHtance.  to  multiply  6403  hy 
34,  we  proceed  as  here  shown.  Here  the  niuD> 
l)cr  i»  miiUiplinI,  lirst  liy  the  4,  the  prodth'l  o( 
which  l>eitiu[  written  down,  we  proceed  to  mol* 
tiply  hy  3,  and  the  amount  produced  ii  placti 
Ik'Iow  the  other,  hut  one  place  farther  ta  tk* 
h'ft.  A  line  is  then  drawn,  and  the  two  prodncta  addai 
togeliicr,  hrinuiiiK  out  the  remit  of  1n.")748.  V^'n  may, 
in  this  iiiniiner,  n.ulliply  hy  three,  four, 
live,  or  any  nmnlier  of  tiunres,  alwayi 
pliicim{  the  product  of  one  tiuure  lielow 
the  other,  hut  Khiflinix  a  place  farther  la 
thn  left  in  each  line.  An  exampla  i* 
here  i{iven  in  the  multiplying  of  76848  by 
4663. 

Mnltiplicntion  is  denoted  hy  a  croaa  of 
this  ahnpe  x  °  il<>'>*<  3  x  8  xs  34,  aig 
nitiea,  that  hy  multlplvinit  8  hy  3,  tlia 
pr(Mluct  ia  84.  A  linniln'r  which  ia  pro. 
diiced  liy  the  mulliplicatioii  of  tv.n  other  nuniliera,  aa  30 
liy  6  and  Ii.  leaving  nothing  over,  ia  called  a  iumjiofU* 
niimlier.  'i'he  5  nnd  G, called  tho  la'''i»'  (that  ia.  workers 
or  ii!;eiits),  are  aiiid  to  Ihi  the  ronifmninl  jmri>  of  30,  and 
30  ia  also  huIiI  to  lie  a  multiple  of  either  of  these  nuD>> 
Ihts.  'I"he  eipml  partu  into  which  a  niunlier  can  lie  ra« 
dui-cil.  us  the  twoa  in  thirty,  are  called  it.s  uliq'iot  parta> 
A  numlwr  which  cannot  he  produced  hy  the  multiplic»> 
tioii  of  two  other  numlicra,  is  called  a  ;)iimf  numlicr. 
When  the  multiplicand  and  mnltiplier  are  the  same,  that 
is,  A'hen  a  numhcr  ia  multiplied  liy  it.self  once,  the  pr(V 
duct  is  calltnl  tiio  iquare  of  that  iiunilicr:  144  ia  tha 
si|uaru  of  12, 

Siibtraclion. 
Huhtraclion  U  the  deducting  of  a  smaller  ntimher  from 
n  greater,  to  find  what  remains,  or  the  dilVerence  liptwecn 
them.     Wo  suhtract  whi'n  we  say,  take  3  from  6,  nnd  t 
reinaina.     To  ascertain  what  remains,  after  tiiking  325 
frotn  637,  we  proceed  hy  writing  the  one  under 
the  other  as  here  indicated,  and  then  suhtracting, 
Commencing  at  6,  the  right-hand  fii;ure  of  the 
lower  and  smaller  numhcr,  we  say,  6  froin  7,  and 
8   remains ;  setting  down  the  2,  we  any  next,  2 
from  3,  and    1  remains;  and  setting  down  the   1, 
we  sav,  3  from  ty  and  8  remains;  total  reniniiuler,  213 

To  suhtract  n  nnniher  of  a  higher  value,  invidving  the 
rYiiii/i»is  of  figures  and  supplying  of  lens,  we  proceed  ai 
in  thn  mar.'in.  Commencing  ns  licfore,  we  liiui  that  fl 
cannot  lie  aohtrncted  from  2,  and  therefore  supply 
or  lend  10  to  the  2,  making  it  12  ;  then  we  say, 
6  from  12,  and  7  remains.  Setting  down  the 
7,  wo  take  I,  being  the  decimal  (ignre  of  the 
number  which  waa  borrowed,  and  give  't  to  the  1, 


6403 
34 

SlM.Vi 
KmIHO 

185742 


76843 
4.'ill3 

230,589 
4,010,68 
38,431,5 
307,372 

3.')0,034,609 


637 
326 

219 


8439 
fi81» 


416 


INFORM A-nON  FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


6)7958 
1320-2 


3)fi9(23 
(i 

9 
9 

llipn, 


C)79r>S(1380 
G 

19 
18 

15 

12 

3S 
36 


This  loavos  3 


muking  it  2,  and  tnkini?  2  from  3,  wo  find  that  1  re-  | 
faius      SplliiiR  (U)wn  the  1,  wo  jjo  to  tho  8,  mid  finding 
a  CRinot  In-  tnkfu  from  llio  i  above  it,  wo  lend  10  to  the  j 
4,  mnkini;  it  14,  «nd  thru  wo  say,  8  from  14,  and  0  re-  j 
mains.     In  the  inmc  manner  as  lirforc,  adding  tlic  first  ; 
figuro  o'.   me  iHirrowed    number  ( 1 )  to  tho  6,  wc  say,  7  ' 
from  8,  and  1  remains  ;  thns  tlie  total  remainder  is  found 
to  he    1617.     From  these  explanations,  which  apply  to 
•11  calculutions  in  subtraction,  it  will  be  obs<-rved,  that 
when  the  upper  fisure  is  less  than  the  fii^ure  directly  un-  ! 
der  it,   10  is  (o  be  added,  and  for  this  one  is  carried  or 
added  to  the  next  under  figure 

Subtraclion  is  denoted  by  a  small  horizontal  line,  thus  ' 
—  between  two  fiijiires ;  as,  for  example,  9  —  ij  =  4, 
which  means,  5  subtracted  from  9,  and  4  remains. 

Division. 

Division  is  that  pnvess  by  which  we  discover  how  often 
one  number  may  \w  contained  ni  another,  or  by  which  we 
divide  a  ijiven  nunilxT  into  any  propo.sed  imnilu'rof  enual 
parts.  By  the  aid  of  the  Multiplication  Table,  we  can 
ascertain  without  writinj^  llgures  how  many  limes  any 
nuiul)er  is  conlaiiieil  in  anotlirr,  as  far  as  144,  or  12  times 
12;  Im-voiuI  this  point  notation  is  employed.  There  are 
two  modes  of  wiirking  questions  in  division, 
one  long  and  tlie  other  short.  Let  it  l>c  required 
to  divide  69  by  3 :  accordini^  to  the  lonR  me- 
lllixl.  wruc  the  fiijures  69  as  aiuiexed,  with  a 
lino  at  each  side,  and  the  ilivisor,  or  3,  on  the 
lett.  The  <pieslion  is  wrought  out  by  exam- 
Itiing  how  many  times  3  is  in  6,  and  findini;  it 
U)  l)e  2  times,  we  phuv  2  on  the  ri«ht  side 
jilacina;  6  below  (i,  we  draw  a  line  and  brinsdoivn  the  9, 
and  proceed  with  it  in  the  same  manner.  The  quotient 
is  found  to  Ih'  2it.  But  we  take  a  moro 
dithcult  question — the  ilivisi.in  of  7958 
hv  6.  In  cDinmenrinii  wetind  (hat  there 
ill  only  one  6  in  7,  and  1  over;  we  there- 
fore place  the  6  Ik-Iow  the  7.  and  sulitract 
it.  in  order  to  liriiiij  out  the  1.  The  I 
iH'in^  written,  we  bring  down  the  9  to 
it,  and  this  makes  19.  There  l>eing  3 
times  6  in  18,  we  place  the  3  to  the  pro- 
duct (which  in  division  is  called  the  lyuo- 
tiiH',  literally.  How  many  limes  !)  and 
18  liclow  the  19,  leaving  1  over  as  be- 
fore. To  this  1  we  briiiK  down  the  H, 
and  trying  bow  many  sixes  there  are  in  16, 
it  ap[>ears  there  are  only  2.  We  place 
U  10  the  quotlint,  and  12  1h-1ow  the  1.*). 
over,  anil  bringing  down  8  to  the  3,  we  have  38,  in  w  liich 
there  are  6  sixes.  .Six  sixes  make  36  ;  lliercl'ore,  placiiic 
fi  to  the  quotient,  and  .><»  l^'low  the  3S,  we  find  that  there 
arc  2  o.er.  Hire  the  account  terminates,  it  Ix'iii'.T  found 
that  there  are  1326  sixes  in  79.'i8,  with  a  remaindir  of  2 
o^er.  In  this  question.  6  ii  called  the  rlivimr  ,•  tlie  79.')8 
>g  llie  diri'l-nil,  and  1326  is  ihcyi/oMrn'. 

.'Skilful  arithmi'tlciaiis  iie\er  adopt  this  long  method  of 
division  ;  they  pursue  a  plan  of  working  out 
pirt  of  the  question  in  the  mind,  called  short 
diMsion.     They  would,  for  example,  treat  the 
tlwve  question  as  here   shown.     The  over 
niiinlier  of  1  iVom  the  7  is  carried  in  the  mind 
to  llic  9,  making  19;  the  1  from  19  is  in  the  sane  man- 
ner curried  to  the  f) ;  and  tho  3  from  it  is  carried  to  the 
8,  leaving  the  overplu^  of  2.  I 

Division  is  denoted  by  tho  following  character  -t. ;  ! 
thu.-.,  75  -i-  2.'),  sigiiifies  that  7.5  is  to  be  divided  by  2.5. 

These  rxpliiiations  conclude  the  subject  of  simple  or  | 
atwtract  iiiiintMrs.  On  the  substructure  of  the  fi'W  rule*  i 
in  .\ddition,  Multiplicilion,  Kubtruction,  and  Division,  : 
which  we  have  given,  whether  in  referenco  to  whole  num-  | 
brrt  or  frwlions,  every  kind  of  conventional  arithmetic  is  ; 
•>«ctad.  becaiine  theae    rule*  are  foonded  iii  immulalilc  , 


tniths.  Mankind  may  change  their  dennminntioin  •,» 
money,  weights,  and  measures,  but  they  can  mnkc 
alteration  in  tho  doctrine  of  nlnlrnct  nun.'oers.  Tk,,  , 
and  2  are  equal  to  4,  is  n  truth  yesterday,  to-dav,  and  fi 
ever;  but  as  to  how  many  pence  are  in  a  shillinf;,  orhnn 
many  inches  in  a  foot,  these  are  altogether  matters  of  n 
bitrary  arrangement,  and  the  treatment  of  them  fonns  an 
inferior  department  of  arithmetical  study,  taking  a  dilTcreni 
form  in  dilferent  countries :  this  lonil  arithmetic,  at  n. 
may  call  it,  is  comprehended  in  the  term 

roMPoii:t»  NrMni'iis  on  tirAXTiTiss. 
The  calculation  of  the  value  ol' any  immher  of  articlci 
or  a  summation  of  values,  in  relation  to  money,  woull 
he  coniimiatively  simple,  if  the  scale  of  money  were  con. 
striictcd  on  a  principle  of  decimals,  or  advancing  by  t^,^ 
— as,  for  example,  10  farthings  one  penny,  10  pence  1 
shilling,  10  shillings  1  pound.  By  making  both  vn-ifAf. 
and  measures  on  tlie  same  plan,  as,  10  oujuvs  1  pound. 
10  pounds  one  stone,  10  stones  1  hundiedweight-  in 
inches  1  foot,  10  feet  1  yard,  itc,  ordinary  calculations 
would  be  rendered  exceedingly  ea.sy.  Tbus.  if  ,in  (,^^,^^^ 
cost  ld„  a  pound  would  cost  Is.,  and  a  huiidredwijirb 
would  cost  lOOs.  or  jCIO;  or,  reversing  llie  qucstioii"if 
wc  were  asked  .£.'10  per  hiiii<lr<(liveigli(  for  any  article, 
we  should  know  in  an  instant  that  it  was  at  llic  rate  of 
Id.  an  ounce.  In  short,  the  greater  number  of  arithme. 
lical  calculations  would  be  aeconiplisli, d  by  little  more 
than  a  momentary  reflection,  witliout  tho  aid  of  i)en  or 
|)cncil. 

This  very  convenient  system  of  decimal  nrilhiiietic  ii 
established  in  f'rance  anil  licluiuin,  and  it  is  there  carriod 
to  a  most  enviable  degree  of  )«  ifection  :  as,  for  exnmiile, 
in  money  reckoning,  tlie/ni  k  (equal  to  ivnr  lOil.)  is(|,j 
standard  coin  of  account,  and  Is  divided  into  100  parti 
called  fC)i/i//,f;,  There  is  an  eipial  i.inplieitv  in  the 
money  reck mingof  the  Norlli  .'inierican  I'liion,  in  which 
till'  dollar  (ei|ual  t,)  our  4s,  3(1.)  is  diviJed  into  100  con- 
times;  but  as  wei'.,'hls  and  nieasurcs  are  not  on  tlic  simt 
decimal  scale,  the  advantage  is  of  comparatively  small 
moment. 

Ill  the  I'liiled  Ki'igdom,  the  pound  or  sovereign  i.«the 
standard  in  money.  It  loii.sisls  of  a  scries  of  inferiut 
coins,  ailvaiiciiig  irregularly  from  ;i  farlhiiig  upwards ;««, 
2  fartliin;{.-i  1  halfpenny,  2  liallpeiiiT  or  4  lartliini^  1 
penny,  12  pence  1  shilling,  20  >!u!liii;j:i  1  jiouml.  Wliiie 
tliercl'orc,  the  French  coiupute  valuis  in  money  liy  franri 
and  Centimes,  and  the  Aiurrii'ans  by  doll  us  and  ccnlinics, 
wc  coin|iutc  by  pounds,  sliillin^;s,  ami  peine;  and  to  js- 
certain  the  value  of  irregular  iju.intilies  in  llnve  irrcjulai 
dcnoMiinations  of  money,  there  is  a  complex  si't  of  rulo! 
to  lie  obeyed  ;  indeed,  it  may  Ik-  said  ilint  the  priMci|iid 
part  of  t!ie  time  usually  fi|>enl  by  youth  at  school  onarllh- 
luetic,  is  coiisunicd  in  learning  to  work  questions  in  tliii 
arbitrary  and  local  dep  rtincnl  of  the  Miciice.  We  have 
oi'ly  room  to  give  a  li;w  e.\ampl<  s  in  tlii.-.  .species  of  com- 
[lutation. 

Ij  is  llie  initial  letter  of  the  Latin  word  lilira,  a  pound, 
and  is  used  to  denote  )>oun>ls  ;  .v  from  the  Latin  word 
iiiUduK,  for  shillings;  and  il  from  ■li-innuf,  for  |)eiicoi 
£  >.  il.  are  therefore  resjiectively  plac'cd  over  coluiiiii.<  of 
pound.s,  shillings,  and  |H'iice.  Tlic  mark  lor  :i  halljieiin; 
is  ^,  for  a  farthing  \,  and  for  tliice  firtliings  ;. 
J..I  To  find  the  number  of  farthings,  |Hnec,  and  shil- 
20  lir.gs,  in  any  number  of  juuinds,  we  multiply  tiy 
20,  wliic'h  brin«H  the  pounds  inlo  slii!liii(;s;  noil 
by  12,  which  briiins  tlw  sliilliims  into  pence  ;  and 
lastly  by  4,  which  brings  the  pi  nee  inlo  I'arlliini.'s, 
as,  for  exam|>le.  Required  the  iiiiiiiIkt  of  larlhin.i 
in  X5 — we  prcx-ecd  as  in  llic  margiii.  The  rwuH 
.  il  observed  to  Ik)  4800  farlliiiiys. 

Compoiinil  Adil.iioii. 
In  ordinary  transactions  of  business,  and  inakiin;  up 
of  accounta,  Compound  Addition,  that  is,  lUc  luiailiai 


100 
12 

1200 
4 


ARlTHME'nC. 


41T 


tlpnominntiom  '4 
'"-y  «m  mnko  n, 
lun.'ooM.  Th«tJ 
lay,  to-day,  and  f(i 
insliinini;,  orhon 
;thcr  niattprsofar. 
t  of  thorn  foring  an 

>',takinu[acl!(rcren| 
'  arithmetic,  aa  ne 
■in 

ANTiTir.n. 
minihcr  of  articjtj, 
1  to  inonoy,  would 
f  iiioni'v  were  ran. 
advancing  by  t«ru 
prMny,  10  pcnrc  1 
aliiniT  hotli  wi'i|.hte 

0  OHMCl'S  1  pound, 
llMcllcdweigllt;    10 

iliimry  ralculntion! 

"I'lnis,  if  an  ounre 
i  a  h\iiidrfj\vi.i|;tit 
\'A  llii^  li""^'*''OH,  if 
nht  for  any  article, 

"as  at  the  rate  of 
iiiniluT  (if  arilhme. 
^liiil  hy  little  more 

the  aid  of  pen  or 

rirnal  nrithinctic  ii 
Ml  it  is  there  carricij 
11 :  as,  tor  cxnmjple, 
t'>  iviir  lOil.)  isthj 
idcil  into  100  parti 

I  ivniplicity  in  ii;j 
an  I'liiiin,  in  wliich 
vi.h'd  into  100  ron. 
re  not  on  the  same 
:oriipnralively  small 

or  sovereign  is  the 

II  sirrics  (if  inferiui 
tiling  ii|.w:irds;aa, 

or  -l  Ijithin;^  1 

1  pound.   While, 

11  money  by  francj 

liars  and  fcnlinicj, 

pi'iici' ;  and  to  js- 

s  ill  tlioe  irregular 

iiplrx   set  of  luloj 

lli;it  the  pririi-i|ial 

at  school  on  anth- 

k  i|U('siioiis  ill  tliii 

lieiH'i'.     W'e  hive 

is  species  of  com- 

oril  /i7ir(7,  a  pound, 
n  llie  I.iliii  word 

•rm.--,  lor  iienco; 
il  over  roluiims  of 
ok  lor  a  liall]ii'niiy 
tliiec  f.irlliings  ;. 
s,  jM'iice,  and  slid- 
lis,  we  iiiulliply  by 
iilo  sliilliiius;  licit 

,s  into  pence  ;  and 
xu-i'  iiilo  farlliinip, 
iii;ilier  ol  larihiii;! 
aiyili.     The  retuh 


K,  and  inakiiift  up 
lit  ii,  the  adUUiai 


.  jujneyn,  is  princtpully  rniuircd.  In  the  margin  is 
"  iccount  of  sums  to  ho  reckoned  up.  'Dw  Irst  thing 
J"„,i8toadd  together  tlic  halfivnco 
„j  i;.rtliiii!;"  o"  tl"'"  right-hand  side ; 
„id  ill  Join:;  s"  ""  ""'ow  all  into  far- 
il)in?9.  'nil'".  -  '"»'  *  "™  ^'  '""'  3 
^  6,  aid  8  are  i^,  and  2  nrc  10.  Ten 
fjrlliiW •  •"■"  ''^  |»'iiec,  uiul  2  fuithinKS, 
,r  one  hall'l'fm'y  •  over.  Wo  set  down 
lor  the   halfpenny, 'mid   carry  tho 


jESl  12  7i 

73  14  8i 

09  17  5 J 

87  15  f.} 

57  12  •^ 

£320  12  7i 


'to the  pence  coliiinn;  this  being  lulded,  wo  find  there 
',31  iieiice,  which  make  2  HhiliingH  and  7  pence.  We 
,-i;o  ilowu  tlic  7.  and  carry  tlie  two  shillings  to  the  shil- 
|i,i|tj  column  ;  adding  them  to  the  under  liguro  at  tho 
rJTlit-Iiaiid  sid',  wo  reckon  up  thus — 2  and  2  are  4,  and 
■/arc  i).  and  7  are  IR,  and  4  are  20,  and  2  are  22;  wo 
iiut  down '«  aside,  and  carry  in;?  2  to  the  Kocond  row  of  the 
Itilliii!!*  i';iliioin,  wo  find,  on  siiiii.'iiiig  it  up,  that  it 
miiounln  to  7;  thit  7  und  the  2  s<a  aside  make  72  shil- 
lii.rs,  tiial  is.  X3,  12s.;  12,  therefore,  is  written  down 
u'ldcr  'Le  shillinss  column,  and  tho  3  [jounds  arc 
carried  to  llic  iioiiiids  column,  which  is  added  up  as  in 
s-iii,ile  .Vil.liiion,  making  320.  Thus,  tho  sum-total  is 
iJJO,  12s  '(;d.  All  accounts  in  Cimipouud  Addition, 
rflVrrinj;  to  Ijiitisti  money,  arc  performed  in  tlie  same 
ii,uiiii'r.  ^Ve  recoinineiid  young  persons  to  acciuiro 
liiiily  in  wilting ;  and  it  will  save  much  time  if  they 
icMrii  to -'uiii  up  the  columns  by  a  glance  of  tho  eye, 
iiiii'.out  naiiiiiig  the  numbers;  for  instance,  instead  of 
.i\iiiK  2  and  2  arc  1,  and  5  are  !),  and  7  are  Hi,  and 
I'arc  20,  and  2  are  22,  aeiiuiio  the  knack  of  summing 
lie  figures  in  the  mind,  thua— 2,  1,  5,  'J,  10,  20,  22. 

roinrioinul  Mnliipliriuioii. 
Qucsl.onsin  Compound  Multiplication  nrc  determined 
in  t!ic  following  manner: — Having  written  down  the 
n'jiubor  to  be  multiplied,  place  the  multiplier  under  the 
Iwcst  Jciioiiiinatioii,  and  proceed  as  in  this  examide. 
Wo  wish  to  iindti|ily  the  sum  of  X'37,  ICs.  8:,'d.  by  0. 
U'c  Ivgm  by  multiplying  the  farthings 
bv  the  C  i  this  makes  18  fiirtliiiigs,  or 
i'i.  Setting  down  the  i,  we  carry  tho 
I'to  the  [lence,  saying  6  times  8  are  48, 
inJ  4  are  52,  which  is  equal  to  4  shil. 
liiiipi  a'ul  4  pence.  Setting  down  the  4  pence,  wo  carry 
iHi'  4  shillings  onwards,  and  multiplying  1 6  by  6  find  96, 
»hii'li,  added  to  tho  4  shillings,  gives  100.  This  is  equal 
to  Jl5,  so  we  set  down  0,  and  carry  the  5  to  the  37.  The 
amount  is  227.  The  answer  of  tho  question  is  there- 
lore  i227,  09.  4id. 

Compound  Pubtranion. 

Compound  Subtr.aetion  is  performed  as  in  tho  fol- 
Invini;  question: — If  wo  take  X'27,  17s.  H.^d.  from 
iSf),  Us,  5}d.,  how  nnich  remains'!  The  tirst  thing 
w,'  arc  c.illed  on  to  do,  is  to  fake  3  farthings  from 
S  farthings  or  ^d.,  and  as  this  cannot  bo  done,  we 
Mioir  a  penny,  nr  4  farthings,  and  add- 
„i.'  these  to  the  2  farthings,  we  have  0. 
Wo  now  take  3  from  6,  and  find  that  3 
virdns,  which  is  thercf  ire  written  down. 
li  i  now  necessary  to  acontit  tiir  the  bor- 
r.wed  pcnnv,  and  a  means  of  doing  this  would  bo  to 
frin'ili'r  the  pence  of  the  upper  line  of  figures  as  so 
iiu.h  less,  or  lil.  instcud  of  5d.  It  is  found,  however, 
li  lie  tho  iimst  convenient  filaii  to  aild  1  to  tho  [«  nee  of 
ihi'  lower  line,  which  comes  to  the  same  thing.  Add- 
iii;Ll  to  8,  in  this  case,  we  liave  9  to  subtriiet  from  .'). 
.\»this  cannot  be  done,  we  burrow  Is.,  which  is  12d., 
iiiJailJiiig  ihit  12to  the  5  makes  17.  from  which  taking 
9,  ihorp  will  remain  8,  which  is  placed  under  tiie  [K'nec. 
IV  Iwrroweil  Is.  is  also  repaid  by  adding  1  to  the  17, 
majtiiii;  thus  18  to  be  tak.'n  from  14  ;  but  as  we  cannot 
io  this  either,  we  burrow  il  1 ,  wdiich  is  2U8.   Adding  20s. 

Vol,  I.-.-iS 


£37   16  8^ 
0 

£227     0  4i 


to  14  makes  34;  then  IS  ttom  34  leaves  18  Thi»  !• 
placed  under  the  shillings,  and  1  is  carried  to  the  lowet 
amount  of  pounds,  which  are  then  subtracted  aa  in 
Simjile  Subtraction;  thus,  1  to  7  is  ft  ;  8  from  0, cannot, 
but  8  from  16,  there  remains  8;  can-y  1  to  2  is  3, 
iind  .3  from  3,  nothing  remains.  Totjii  sum  remaining, 
£8,  IGs.  8:jd. 

Compoiinil  Division. 

Compound  Division  is  performed  as  fol- 
lows : — We  wish  to  divide  i.'87,  Hs.  t  .1. 
into  7  eipial  jiarts.  Dividing  87  by  7,  »s 
in  Simple  Division,  the  answer  is  12,  and 
3  remain,  that  is,  3  jiouiids  arc  over. 


£     ».    d. 
7)87  14  9 J 

12  10  Si 


£ 
V)37fi 


11 


d. 


£36  14  5* 

27   17  h\ 

£8   10  8i 


We  iM't  down 
the  12,  anil  taking  the  3  which  is  over,  we  reduce  it  to 
its  cipiivalent  in  shillings,  that  is  00  ;  we  then  add  me 
(iO  to  14,  making  74,  which  being  divided  by  7  gives  10 
shillings,  and  4  shillings  over.  Setting  down  the  10, 
we  carry  forward  the  4  ;  4  shillings  are  48  pence,  which, 
luldeil  to  9,  makes  57.  This  divided  by  7  gives  8 
and  1  penny  over ;  a  penny  s  4  farthings ;  add  to 
these  the  3  in  the  dividend,  thus  making  7;  7  divided 
bv  7  gives  1,  that  is  id.  The  sum  desired,  then,  ia 
.tl2,  10s.  8^d. 

If  the  divisor  is  a  composito  numlwr — the  product  of 
two  numbers  individually  not  exceed- 
ing 12 — we  can  divide  fir.st  by  one  and 
then  by  the  other,  as  follows :  Divide 
i'376,'lls.  Ud.by  03:  63  is  a  compo- 
fate  number;  its  component  parts  are 
7  and  9  (seven  nines  are  63).  The  given 
ainoint,  therefore,  is  first  divided  by  7,  and  the  quotient, 
.fi."),  16s.  lO^d.,  is  divided  by  9.  The  result  is  the  sam« 
asif theorigiiialsumhadbcendividedby 63.  £5, 198.6^(1. 
is  the  (piotient. 

When  the  divisor  is  a  prime 
number  above  12,  the  work  is  in 
every  respect  similar  to  the  for- 
mer ;  but  it  is  performed  by  long 
division,  as  in  the  annexed  ex- 
ample:— Divide  £484,  198.  liA. 
by  73.  The  amount  l>eing  written 
down  as  in  long  division  of  simple 
miinbors,  tho  pounds  arc  first  di- 
vided by  73  :  the  answer  is  6.  The 
remainder  46  is  reduced  to  shil- 
lings by  multiplying  by  20,  and  tho 
19s.  in  the  sum  we  are  dividing 
iM-iiig  taken  in,  makes  together 
O.T.ls..  which,  divido«l  by  73,  gives 
12,  and  63  of  a  remainder.  These 
03  shillings  are  now  reduced  to 
(lence  by  being  multiplied  by  12, 
and  the  7  being  taken  in,  makes 
703  :  this,  diviih'd  by  73,  gives  10, 
and  33  over,  which,  being  reduced 
to  farthings  by  being  multiplied 
by  't,  and  the  three  taken  in,  makes  136;  and  thi^ 
divided  by  73.  gives  one,  und  62  over.  Tho  whole  answei 
is  £6,  138.  lO^d.  and  a  fraction  ^ij  over. 

Britith  Weights  anil  Measures. 
The  working  of  accounts  in  weights  and  measures, 
n«  respects  addition,  multiplication,  subtraction,  or  divi- 
sion, ]iroceed8  on  principles  similar  to  those  which  have 
now  been  explained.  The  only  real  <li!lereiiee  is  that, 
for  exainjile,  in  reduction,  instead  of  multiplyinii  by  20, 
by  12,  and  by  4,  to  reduce  a  sum  to  farthings,  if  tho 
question  refor  to  ordinary  weights  we  multiply  to  bring 
,.oi  the  niiml-cr  of  hundredweights,  1 12  for  pounds,  and 
10  for  ounces.  Suppose  wo  wish  to  know  lu)w  many 
oniK-es  are  in  15  tons;  we  multiply  \Ti  by  20,  and  Ilia 
result  is  300,  that  is,  300  hundredweights;  a  hundred 
weight   18   112    pounds,  so  we   now   multiply  300  b» 


9)53  15  lOi 
6  19  6^ 


£      s,     d. 
73)184  19  7j(6 
438 

~46 
JO 

73)939(18 
73 

209 
118 

"03 

12 

73)763(10 
73 

~33* 

4 

73)T35(1 
73 

"63 


4I» 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


112,  and  the  result  is  33,600  pouridH ;  this  niulti|ilic(l 
by  16,  tho  nuinbcr  of  ounces  in  n  pound,  gives  537,600 
ounces.  In  tho  addition  of  (luaiitities,  ciich  denoniina- 
lion  is  set  down  in  its  own  culuuin,  us  in  money,  and 
the  siuumation  is  made  also  as  we  add  ^noney,  witii  the 
ditTcrcnco,  that  wo  carry  forward  ounces,  pouiuls,  or 
whatever  it  may  l)c,  to  the  next  colujiui.  'I'he  mark 
civ!,  is  usually  employed  to  indicat43  hundredweights,  lo, 
pounds,  and  uz.  ounces. 

The  following  arc  the  principal  tables  of  wcijjhts  and 
measures  esUililished  by  law  in  the  I'niled  Kingdom, 
and  hence  called  i/ii;/ci  iu/.  That  which  is  entitled  (iiin)-- 
Jii/wis  uciglil  is  the  table  in  use  for  all  ordinary  pur- 
Doscs: — 

L — MEASUttK  or  LEMOTM. 
tllclll'S. 

la  —       1  Foot. 

M  —  :t    —      1  Yard. 

IDS  —  KiJ  —04    _       1  Polo  or  Torch. 

7,!V.>0  _  (wn    —    Wl)    —      40            —        1  I'lirlonpr. 

«8,iW0  —  Sa.H)    —  1700    —    3a0            _        (<       _       i  Mlle 

Thi>  liHiid  =  4  inches;  the  Knglish  ell  =■  4.5  indu's;  the  imoi- 
■■  .')  Ice! :  Hud  llie  fntluiiM  —  (>  iVet.  The  ijeou'r:iph:enI  tlt'^'ree 
■s  *20  tiuuiiiMil  letii^ue^.  or  liU.t^l  mites.  In  laiul  laeusure.  ilie 
ehajii  or  KK)  Unks^=  tj6  I'eel. 

n— MEASCBK  OF  SCBPACB. 

Cki.  Inches. 

144  —  1  Sq.  Foot. 

1  .\XH)  —  n      —        1  Sq.  Yard. 

r>n.j(H  _     nr.'i  —    aif  —     i  Sj.  role. 

I.5t^^lli0  —  10,^}HI      —  laiO      —    40      —        1  Rood. 
6/7U,«40  —  43,.V>0      —  4-10      -  ItIO      —       4    —    1  Acre. 
And  C4U  acres  make  1  square  mile. 

Hi.— MBASCRES   OF  CAPACITT. 

1.  So/idi(y. 

175'' cubic  inches        =■        1  cutiic  foot. 
v!7  C(ili:c  feel  =i        1  cnijic  yard. 

Tho  ton  measurement  =  8  barrel  bulit.  or  4(i  cubic  feet 

y.  Mensurf/(iT  Lvpiuh,  Corn,  ami  ilry  GvxU. 


CllbiC 

Wui. 

Inches. 

ibs.  nv. 

H-rt(1.5 

■^ 

34  MSI 

u 

eu  ii.s 

■i\ 

•mni 

10 

554  54^* 

ao 

•jyi-  19 

so 

1774.'i-5 

04(1 

t  Oill. 
4    — 

9  — 
.12  - 
M     — 


1  Pint 

2  —  1  Quart. 

S    —  4    —     1  Oal. 

16    —  s    _    a    —    1  Peek. 


4  pecks  "  1  bushel 


aso    _    (14    —    .Ta    —    S    —    4    — 

wii  —  5ia  —  35«  —  04  —  aa  — 

8  busheli  ^^  1  quarter. 


Thf  peck,  bushel,  and  quarter,  are  used  for  dry  goods  only. 
1\i  re  nre.  besides,  ihe  cO'Ui  =  4  busi,.::*.  \\\i:  wey  or  load 
••  >quarlerii  anil  the  last  =  a  loads  or  IG  quaners. 

According  to  the  system  introilnccd  January  1,  1826. 
the  iin|H<iial  gallon  contains  ill.'ilA  cubic  inches,  or 
10  Ills,  avoirdupois  of  distilled  water  at  ^""^  Fahrenlieit, 
the  barometer  bcin,;  at  30  inches.  Hcajwd  measures 
^formerly  used  for  dry  goods)  were  abolished  in  1S35. 


Trny 
firaiiis. 


27;tll7.5 

tt?.-) 

7000 

9-<KSI 

1I|C,0(MI 

7  KKJO 

liw-tmoo 


■v.— MBABl'RilS    or    WBIOIIT. 

1.  Avoirdupoit. 

1  Drachm. 
10  _  I  Ounce. 

a'j«  —        18  —        1  I,b. 
3..'.-t  —      2a4  —      14—1  Ptone. 
7.MH  —     41^—     a^  -    a—    IQr. 
'i-'.wi  —  i.r.ta  —   iia  —   >-  —  4—1  Cwt 

S7:l,440  —  35,>4<l  —  SalO  — Ifio  —  HI  _wtl  — ITon. 


FL"m  WKi'iirr — 1  Peek  "  14  pnunds;  1   boll  "  14(1  pounds; 
I  lack  —  a-<l  [Hjuuds.  or  'H  cwt  ,  1  barrel  »  luti  lbs. 


9.  TVoy  Weight. 

Ors'nu. 

a4    — 

1  Pennyweight. 

4'<l    — 

20           —              1  Onnep 

67»«)    — 

840           —             12       - 

1  I'onnd. 

Thit  weifrht  i*  used  in  wcii^hing;  gold,  silver,  pla- 
tina,  Ac.  Thn  fineness  of  golil  is  eiprcsse<l  in  carats 
■  lid  irrains,  the  pound  or  other  weight  being  dividol 
itilo  24  carats,  and  the  carat  into  4  grains.  Thus  the 
raiat  {miind  is  the  2'lth  p.irt  of  the  troy  pound,  or  10 
d'Tts.,  and  th«  carat  ^ain  the  96th  part,  or  00  troy 
|i«in« 


In  I'ecr  Mentuie,  the  barrel  contains  4  r'rKinj,  jj  u 
gallons ;  and  the  hogshead  I  j  barrel  or  54  gallons. 

In    Wine  Mriisnn,  lH>sides   tho  gallon  and  its  mi, 
divisions,  various  denominations  arc   used,  as  the  bi  ti' 
pipe,  ».Si.c. ;  but  these  are  now  to  be  considered  rather 
the  names  ol' casks  than  as  expressing  any  defi„ijg  „ 
Ix^r  of  gallons.     The  flawlnrd  ginijics  in  trades  are 
follows  :—l>ipc  of  port,  115  imp.  galls. ;  pipe  of  Liji^!' 
117  do. ;  ])ipe  of  Capo  or  Mu<lcira,  08  do. ;  piii,.  ofp^ 
rifte,  100  do.  ;  butt  of  sherry,  108  do. ;  hogshead  of  clar^ 
40  do. ;  aum  of  hock,  30  do. 

Hirriiifis  aro  measured  by  the  barrel  of  263  or  n% 
of  37  J  gallons. 

.'ll>i'l!uaine.i'  UVii,'/i/.— 20  troy  grains  make  1  scrupij 
3  scruples  make  1  drachm,  and  S^lrachms  make  1  oum-i 
The  oiini'c  and  pound  arc  th(!  same  as  in  troy  wciohi 
This  weight  is  used  in  medical  jiresuriptions  only. 

'l"he  Scottish  acre,  formerly  a  standard  in  ScollanH 
and  now  abolished,  consisted  of  5  ly:)7- la  iiniH^rial  Hiiua 
feet ;  23  Scots  acres  were  very  nearly  cipial  to  29 
im[ii'rial  acres.  The  Scottish  ihfppin  was  very  iiearU 
the  English  wine  (piart,  and  the  niulchlcin  wa^  rathe 
more  than  the  English  pint.  I'revious  to  the  Union 
with  Eni;!  iiid,  tlk^  Scottish  money  pound  was  eiinai 
to  one  sliilling  and  ciglitpencc  Eiigli^ili.  Hence  £lii( 
Scots  was  equal  to  the  sum  of  £S,  6s.  8d.  in  our  preaenl 
money. 

French  Weights  and  Measures. 

As  French  weights  and  measures  are  now  Ircqtienth 
referred  to  in  literature,  we  think  it  jiroper  to  offer  tlv 
following  particulars  on  the  subject. 

The  French  systeni  of  weights  and  measures  is  esth 
blishcd  on  a  principle  much  more  ."imple  and  unernni 
than  that  ii-.  use  in  England — Ihe  former  is  ol'  universjl 
applicalion,  Ihe  latter  can  never  Ix-  any  thing  but  locil 
The  French  unity  of  length  and  weight  is  based  onin 
invariable  dimension  of  the  terrestrial  globe,  which  is  r* 
cognisable  in  all  ccmiilrics.  It  is  independent  of  nil  extriiiijt 
notions,  such  as  gravity  and  the  arbitrary  sulvlivisionsol 
duration,  an  advantage  which  the  length  of  a  sccondi 
jM'nduluiii  I'cit.iiiily  doi\s  not  present.  The  adnieasur?. 
Mieiit  oi  a  foiirlh  of  the  earth's  iiieridiaii — an  ideal  cirdi 
going  round  the  globe  from  pole  to  pule  at  ri','ht  anjlei 
with  the  ei|iiator — constiliites  the  basis  of  the  Fn'noh  s\-^ 
tein.  The  li'iigth  of  this  fiurthof  ihe  nu  riilian  isdivije^ 
into  lO.OIKl.OOO  parts:  a  single  teii-iiiilli.intli  imrtisitu 
mi:'rc,  or  the  unity  of  long  measure.  i^\  metre  is  ouual 
to  30  '  IMtish  inches.) 

A  scpiare.  measuring  on  each  side  10  metres,  formsihe 
iriY,  or  thi'  unity  of  the  mensuration  of  surface.  (W) 
ares  are  nearly  eipial  to  one  Hritish  acre.) 

A  cube,  measuring  on  each  of  its  si<les  one  inetre,coi> 
stitutes  the  far  :  used  for  dry  measure. 

A  cuIh',  measuring  on  each  of  its  sides  the  tenth  put 
of  ft  metre,  is  the  unity  of  volume.  A  vessel  l;!i\i^jl^ 
such  a  cube,  is  the  unity  of  liipiid  inea.-ures,  and  iscalW 
the  hire.  (.\  litre  is  cciual  to  about  a  pint  and  thru 
ipiart<'rs,  or  nearly  a  (pinrt,  Uritish  measure.) 

The  weight  of  a  cube  of  water,  measurini:  on  each  of 
its  sides  the  UMIth  part  of  a  metre,  is  the  mnty  nl'wpijlii, 
and  is  callcil  the  gr  :M.mf.  .\  thousand  grarniiiesof  fun 
w:it<T  at  its  greatest  density  (about  10^  ■>(  Fihreiihiiti 
theniioniclcr),  are  of  iiMirs*-  eipilv.iliiil  to  the  litre.  (.4 
thousand  griniines,  furming  I  kilouiamine,  Hcii;h  ibci 
2i  pouIlll^  Uritish.) 

These  nniti's  lieing  oilen  too  great  or  loo  smilliN 
common  use.  they  constitiile  llie  basis  of  luw  ;;nilitsi)i 
the  siinplr'  ileclMuil  principle.  The  inimcs  of  iliest  nu 
unities  are  f.nmeil  from  (ireek  ami  Latin  wnrils.  Ifw 
express  mnltiiiliealion  of  the  oriirind  unity,  (irtfii  ii 
used  ;  if  to  express  division  of  the  original  mnlv,  luij 
to  u««d,  or  nrurJa  slightly  iiiudilied  truiu  it    'lito Untt 


AHITHMETIO. 


4IS 


fcnd  anil  myria  ten  thousHnd.  The  Latin  words  nre 
I  .ftn  tor  ten,  cenhim  u  hundred,  nnd  niille  a  thousand. 
T^ese  various  words  nre  placed  before,  or  prefixed  to. 
iiie  pnnripal  unity.  I'hus,  tha  ricrnmcirt  is  cijual  to 
metres,  and  the  lierinietrc  is  the  tenth  part  of  n 
metre;  the  hc-lnUlrr  is  eipial  to  100  litres,  and  the  cen- 
,,,i)ie  id  the  hundredth  part  of  a  litre;  the  kihisrnmme 
■  p|.,|(,|  to  a  thou.^nml  prrammes,  and  the  mittigramme  is, 
Ihp  tlioiisnnilth  part  of  a  trramme. 

The  (-oniipction  between  these  weip;hl8  and  measures 
Will  now  he  clearly  seen.  'ITie  me  is  the  square  deea- 
mAK ;  Ihc  aire  is  the  cubic  decimetre ;  and  the  kilo- 
crmntc  is  the  weight  of  a  litre  of  pure  water  at  its  max- 
iiuum  density. 

The  currency  of  the  country  being  assimilated  by  de- 
cimal reckiiiiiiig  to  the  weights  and  measures,  it  may  bo 
ufcly  iiverreil  that  the  whole  world  cannot  produce  a 
i^ore  simple  and  immutnhle  plan  of  calculation  than  that 
now  in  use  in  France  and  in  Belgium. 

FBACTIONS. 

Hitherto  we  have  spoken  only  of  whole  ntimbers 
vrlmh  in  nrithmetic  are  called  intrgrn.  We  have  now 
10  treat  of  fraetinns,  or  the  parts  into  which  integers  may 
tK'  hroken.  The  more  ordinary  fractions  of  any  sinule 
iri  de  or  inimbor  are  a  half,  third,  quarter,  tir. ;  but  a 
niimtier  admits  of  boinc;  divided  into  any  quantity  of 
ci'ial  parts.  .\ll  such  fractions  are  called  vulgnr  frar- 
It',.!  from  their  being  common.  It  is  t'.io  practice  to 
Biite  vul','ar  fractions  with  two  or  more  small  fi'jfures, 
one  iihove  the  other,  with  a  line  between,  as  follows: — 
i  (iinvhalf),  i  (one-tliinh,  J  (one-fourth  or  quart«'r), 
i  ("onc-eiijlith),  \  (four-fifths),  ,",  (nine-tenths),  and 
JO  on.  In  those  and  all  other  insltuici's,  the  u;ipcr 
uuinher  is  called  the  nnmerntor,  the  lower  the  doimV' 
r./r. 

It  may  happen  that  it  is  necessary  to  add  together  dif- 
ftent  frailii'us  to  make  ,1])  whole  numbers.  In  working 
a'l  such  (|U:'stionH,  we  mu'ft,  in  the  first  ])l;ice,  bring  all 
111.:  fra'tioni  into  one  kind;  if  we  have  to  add  ^,  |  and  ,{ 
tijji'l'aer,  no  make  all  into  eighths,  and  srp  how  many 
fi.hthi  we  have  got ;  thus,  }  is  J  ;  then  J  is  a,  that  is  2 
an!  1,  which  make  6,  and  *  makes  a  total  of  J.  The 
(,{ lie  plan  is  to  be  pursued  in  the  subtraction  of  rulgar 
"ni-tiiiiis. 

It  is  necessary  sometimes  to  sp"ak  of  the  tenths,  hun- 
ifllhs.  or  tliousin  libs  of  a  nunilier,  and  for  this  arith- 
la  ;ii'  has  provided  a  system  of  ilfinud  frit,  linn'.  Whore 
pval  eiaclness  of  expression  is  required,  deciiials  nre 
iilisp.'n-iahle.     It  his  been  already  shown  that,  in  writ-  ' 
in'coiimon  num!>ors,  the  vabie  of  a  figure  increases  by  < 
t'n  limes  aa  we  ])rocced   from   ritrht  to  IctY  ;  in  other 
ivorJs,  we  as<'eiid  by  tens.     Now.  there  is   nothing   to 
sroviMit  us  in  the  same  manner  desceiidiiig  by  tens  from 
jiiitv.    This  is  done  by  decimal  fractions.     We  place  a 
lot  after  unity,  or  the  unit  figure,  which  dot  cuts  ofT  the 
while  nundier   from  its  fraction.al    tenths;  thus  120.3' 
midiis  12n  and  3-tcnths  of  a  whole  ;  if  we  write  150-^1,  ' 
llip  meaning  is  130  and  31-huiidrpdths  of  a  whole,  that 
k  31  parts  in  100  into  which  a   whole  is  supposed  to, 
hi'  divided.     If  we  go  on  ailding  a  figure  to  the  right, 
wp  make  the  fraction  into  thousands  ;  as  for  instance,  | 
12:1-315,  whi:di  signifies  120  and  315  out  of  a  thousand 

|l:irl».  I 

Tables  of  sp-eifi-  gravities,  population,  mortality,  and 
uiiay  mattei-.i  of  statistics,  arc  greatly  made  U]'  of  deci- 
ina!  fractions,  ard  therefore  it  is  proper  that  nil  should 
fein|)reheiid  the  principle  on  which  they  are  designed. 
Ill  many  cases,  it  would  answer  the  purpose  to  writ4'  the 
fr:ip;i'i:iii  as  vulj;ar  fractions;  but  there  is  a  great  advnn- 
U,v  in  rediirioi  all  brokeo  parts  to  the  decimal  notation, 
fiir  it  allows  of  uildiii^  up  columns  uf  decimals  all  of  the 


same  denomination.  Their  great  excellence,  indeet], 
consists  in  the  uniformity  which  they  give  to  cuhnlatioa, 
and  the  easy  methods  which,  by  these  means,  they  pro- 
sent  of  pursuing  fi-actional  luimbcrs  to  any  degree  of  mi- 
nuteness. 

The  method  of  reducing  a  vulgar  to  a  decimal  frac- 
tion is  a  simple  question  in  division.  For  instance,  to 
reduce  J  to  a  decimal,  we  take  the  3,  and  putting  two 

ciphers  after  it,  divide  by  4,  thus —    '■ — ;   therefore,  .76 

•75 

is  the  decimal,  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  75-hundredth 
parts  of  a  whole  are  equal  to  the  three  quarters  of  • 
whole. 

SERIES  AND  RATIOS  or  NUMBERS. 
A  sen'cii  of  numbers  is  a  succession  of  numbers  that 
increase  or  decrease  according  to  some  law.  Of  the  twa 
kinds  of  series  usually  treated  of  in  arithmetic,  the  sim- 
pler is  one  whose  terms  increase  or  decrease  by  some 
constant  number  called  the  cnmmon  difference.  Thi* 
common  difference  or  rate  of  increase  is  only  one. 
when  \'  •  say,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8 ;  it  is  Iwn,  when  we  say  7,  9, 
11.  I  :i ;  and  fiiur,  when  wo  say  6,  10, 14,  18,  and  so  on. 
Eviry  advancement  of  this  nature,  by  which  the  same 
nunii.er  is  added  at  every  step,  is  called  ari'hmeliedl  prcf 
piessitn.  There  is  a  different  species  of  advancement, 
by  which  the  last  number  is  always  multiplied  by  a 
given  numl)er,  thus  causing  the  scries  to  mount 
rapidly  up.  Suppose  4  is  the  muliiplier,  and  we  begin 
at  2,  the  progression  will  bo  as  follows : — 2,  8,  32, 
128,  .')12,  2048,  and  so  on.  It  is  here  observed,  that 
multiplying  the  2  by  4  we  have  8  ;  multiplying  the  8 
by  4,  we  have  32 ;  and  multiplying  the  33  by  4,  we 
have  128,  Ac,  till  at  the  fifth  remove  we  attain  2048. 
This  kind  of  advancement  of  numbers  is  called  ceoine- 
Iru-iil  pidnrrxsinn.  The  very  great  difference  between 
the  two  kinds  of  progression  is  exemplified  in  the  foU 
lowing  two  lines,  the  number  3  being  added  in  the  one 
case  and  being  used  as  the  multiplier  in  the  other : — 

6,  8,  11,  14,  17, — Arithmetical  Progression. 
5,  15,4.5,  135,  405,— Geometrical  Progression. 

In  the  case  of  arithmetical  progression,  as  above  or  in 
any  other  manner  exemplified,  it  may  he  noticed  that 
the  amount  of  the  first  and  last  term  is  always  the  same 
as  twice  the  nmcmnt  of  the  middle  term  ;  thus,  5  and 
17  being  22,  arc  ecpial  to  twice  11,  or  22.  The  cause 
of  this  is,  that  as  the  numbers  increase  or  decrease  in 
equal  degrees,  the  last  number  is  just  as  much  more  aa 
the  first  is  less  than  the  number  in  the  middle;  and  the 
two  being  added,  the  amount  must  consequently  be 
double  the  central  nutnbor.  The  same  rule  holds  good 
with  respect  to  any  two  numbers  at  equal  distances 
from  the  numlier  in  the  middle.  If  the  series  be  an 
even  number,  and  do  not  possess  a  middle  term,  then 
the  two  terms  nearest  the  middle  (called  the  mean  terms) 
must  be  added  together ;  thus  in  the  natural  series  from 
1  to  24,  12  and  13  are  the  two  nearest  the  middle,  and 
one  being  added  to  the  other  makes  25,  the  sum  of  the 
first  and  last  term. 

In  geometrical  progression,  each  term  is  a  factor  of  all 
the  numbers  or  terms  that  follow,  and  a  product  of  aU 
that  go  before,  so  that  there  is  an  harmonious  ratio  per' 
viuliug  the  whole.  Each  term  bears  an  exact  proportion 
to  its  predecessor,  because  the  multiplier  is  the  same. 
Siip|),)siiig,  tm  above,  the  multiplier  to  lie  3,  the  term  15 
is  pro|)orti(mally  greater  than  5,  as  45  is  greater  than 
15.  In  the  trchnieal  language  of  arithmetic,  as  15  is  to 
5,  so  is  45  to  1 5.  'I'o  save  words,  such  a  iirmvisition  is 
written  with  dots,  thus — 15:5::  46:  15.  The  two  dots 
mean  i.<  ^',  and  four  dots  mean  sn  in.  The  same  formula 
is  applicable  to  .any  series  of  proportional  terms,  though 
not  in  continued  proportion  to  each  other. 

In  order  to  discover  the  ratio  belvveen  anv  two  tcroM 


4m- 


INFORMATION   FOR   THE   PEOPLK. 


wo  divide  the  Inrnost  by  the  loa-Jt.  and  the  qvioticiit  in 
the  ratio:  45  divided  by  15  Rives  3  na  tlio  ratio.  Hy 
#ius  aHccrtainini];  the  rnlio  ot'  two  terms,  wo  are  fur- 
nished with  the  mcaiiii  of  arrivinfj;  at  tlic  ratio  of  other 
torm.i.  Wo  cannot  do  better  tlian  explain  tho  inctliod 
of  working  out  this  |irinei|ilo  in  the  ratio  of  nuinlxTs, 
by  givinj?  tho  following  pas«at;pa  front  tiio  adiniruldc 
I^s>ms  on  Jlrilhrndie,  by  Mr.  T.  Smith  of  Livcr|H)ol. 
Taking  the  four  reguhirly  adviinring  terms,  15,  45,  405, 
•nj  1816,  he  proceeds— "  Suppose  that  we  had  oidy  the 
fimt  tliree,  and  tliat  it  wore  our  wish  to  find  tho  fourth, 
which  term  bears  tho  same  proi)ortion  to  tho  tliird  as 
the  second  does  to  the  first.  The  thing  we  liavc  first  to 
do,  is  to  discover  tho  ratio  between  the  first  and  second 
terms,  in  order  to  do  which,  as  Iteforc  bhowii,  we  divide 
tho  larger  by  tlio  smaller,  and  this  gives  us  the  ratio  3, 
with  which,  by  inulti|>lying  tlie  third  term,  we  produce 
the  fourth;  a,  let  the  three  terms  be  these,  40.5,  121.5, 
6,  iind  let  it  be  our  wish  to  find  a  fourth  which  shall 
bear  the  same  relation  to  tho  15  as  1216  d™'s  to  405. 
We  divide  and  multiply  as  before,  niid  the  fourth  term 
U  produced.  And  in  this  manner,  having  troo  numl)ers, 
or  two  quantities  of  any  kind,  bearing  a  certain  propor- 
tion towards  each  other,  and  a  Ihiril,  to  which  we  would 
find  a  number  or  quantity  that  should  l>ear  a  like  pro- 
portion, in  this  manner  do  wc  proceed,  and  thus  easily 
may  we  find  the  numlwr  wc  rciruire." 

Referring  to  tho  discovered  ratio  of  46  to  15  to  be 
3,  or  the  fifteenth  part — "  Now  (continues  this  author), 
what  woulil  hive  been  the  consequence  had  we  multi- 
plied the  third  term  (405)  by  the  whole,  instead  of  by 
a  fifii-cnth  part  of  the  second  ?  The  consequence  would 
hive  been,  that  we  should  have  had  a  term  or  numlwr 
fifteen  times  larger  than  that  required.  But  this  would 
be  a  ma:ier  of  no  ditTiculty  ;  for  it  would  be  set  right  at 
once  and  our  purpose  g;iined,  by  dividing  the  over-large 
I'roduct  by  15.  Let  us  write  this  process  down:  405  x 
45  =  1822.5,  and  18225 -h  15  =  1215,— which  1215 
boars  the  sane  proportion  to  405  as  does  45  to  15.  And 
this  is  the  rule,  when  the  terms  are  properly  placed — 
ilnhiplying  the  tecond  and  l/iinl  Icniis  loi^iihtr,  and  (/i- 
n.-Zing  the  product  hy  the  first :  this  avoids  all  the  dillicul- 
ties  arising  from  tiie  occurrence  of  fractions  in  the  course 
of  the  process,  and  gives  us,  in  all  cases,  any  propor- 
tionat  terms  we  may  require." 

Ruleof  TTiree. 

On  the  principle  now  explained,  wc  can,  in  any  affairs 
af  business,  ascertain  the  amount  of  an  unknown  quan- 
tity, by  knowing  the  amount  of  other  three  quantities, 
which,  with  the  unknown  quantity,  l)ear  a  pro|iortiiinal 
relation.  The  word  i/uantity  is  here  used,  but  any  sum 
cf  m-mey  is  also  meant. 

Let  it  l>e  remembered,  that  the  ralxn  of  one  nunil>er 
to  another  is  the  number  of  times  that  the  former  coii- 
t:una  the  latter ;  for  example,  tho  ratio  of  0  to  3  is  2, 
tlwt  of  ;2  to  4  is  9,  and  that  of  8  to  12  is  f  When 
two  numbers  have  the  same  ratio  as  other  two.  ihey  con- 
stitute a  p'cpnrtion.  Thus,  the  raliio  of  8  to  6  is  the 
rxm'!  an  that  of  12  to  9,  ami  the  equality  of  tliesc  two 
rati'is  is  represented  thus: — 

8;  6==  12:9,  or  8:6::  12:9, 

The  following  is  the  rule  for  stating  and  working 
i^ltrstifTis: — Make  that  term  which  is  of  the  same  kind 
r.»  the  answci  sought,  the  «<•("»»/ or  inrWr  term,  ('on- 
<ider,  from  the  nature  of  the  question,  whether  the  aii- 
iiver  should  be  more  oj  less  than  this  term;  \(  iwri, 
i:iake  the  »m'i//(T  of  the  other  two  terms  the  fi/.<',  and 
tit  ifreiilfr  the  ihinl .  if  tho  Bns^Vl'r  should  Ik;  less  than 
thr  m.ddle  term,  make  the  c'eattr  of  the  two  terms  the 
^•tt,  and  the»m<jH/T  tho  third;  then  multiply  the  second 
■Li  thi^xl  term*  taiytther  and  divide  the  result  by  the 


9  :  3  ::  21 


9)63 

TIbi. 


21 :  7  ::  3 
7 

21)2! 


lib. 


4:8 


first  term.     Tho  quotient  found  will  bo  tho  answer  lu  iK 
question,  and  it  will  be  found  to  l)car  the  same  prouorti 
to  tho  third  term  as  the  second  does  to  tile  first    Sudim 
the  question  be  this:  If  3  lbs.  of  tea 
cost  Os.,  how  many  pounds  may  bo 
]>urchascd  for  2 Is.? — state  tlie  terms, 
with   the  larger  sum  last.     Should 
tho  question,  however,  lie  tho  reverse 
— If  7  lbs.  of  tea  cost  31s.,  how  much 
may  lie  purchased  for  3s.  1 — tlien  the 
sum  to  be  ascertained  is  less,  and  is 
put  last.     Suppose  another  jilain  ex- 
ample: If   10  men   can   execute  a 
piece  of  work  in  8  days,  how  long 
will  4  men  take  to  do  the  sumo  1 

Such  is  tho  principle  of  working 
Rule  of  Three  questions,  whatever 
l)C  their  apparent  complexity.  If 
either  the  first  or  third  t«'rm,  or  both, 
include  fractional  parts,  they  must  be 
reduced  to  the  denomination  of  tho 
fractions  before  working:  thus,  if  one  bo  reduced  to 
shillings,  the  other  must  lie  mode  shillings  also  •  if  t,, 
ix>ncc,  both  must  bo  pence,  and  so  on.  If  the  laiJiji, 
term  be  also  a  comfiound  quantity,  it  may  either  ba 
reiliiced  to  its  lowest  term,  before  multij  lying  aiid  Jl. 
vidiiig  by  tho  other  terms,  or  you  may  multiply  aiiJtij. 
vide  by  Compound  Division  and  Multiplication. 

If  the  middle  term  bo  reduced  to  its  lowest  term  tb« 
answer  will  be  in  that  denomination  to  which  it  was  re 
duced ;  thus,  if  it  were  brought  to  farthings,  tho  answer 
would  be  in  farthings ;  if  to  ounces,  tho  answer  would 
be  in  ouncesi. 

Example. — If  2  cwts.  I  qr.  7  lbs.  sugar  cost  £8  14i 
4d.,  what  will  14  cwts.  3  qrs,  costi 


10 
8 

4)80 
SOday^ 


ru't.  qr.  lb. 
2  1  7 
4 

9 

28 

259 


L.  t.  .d. 
8  14  4 
20 

174 
12 


etrl.  qr.  B. 
14  3  0 
4 

59" 

28 


2092 


Here,  in  order  to 
make  tho  first  term  a 
simple  iiuinl)er,  it  is 
reduced  to  its  lowest 
term,  namely,  pounds. 
The  third  term  is  there- 
fore reduced  to  pounds 
also,  that  both  may  be 
alike.  The  second  or 
middle  term  is  reduced 
to  its  lowest  term, 
pence.  After  multi- 
plying and  dividing, 
according  to  rule,  the 
quotient  is  13343 
pence,  which  are 
liroiight  to  shillings 
and  pounds.  The  re- 
mainder, 147,  being 
further  reduced  to  far- 
things, and  divided  hy 
the  first  term,  'lives  2 
farthings.  The  an- 
swer    is    X'55,    Us. 


478 

118 

16.52 
2092 

3304 
14864 
33040 


259)3456984(12)13343 
259 


865 
777 

889 
777 

1128 
1036 


20)1111.11 
i.55  11  ,1) 


2.59)5S'5(2 
518 

70 


The  following  is  a  kind  ol  question  which  often  (vcnii 
in  business  : — A  person  is  unable  to  pay  his  ticbls.  He 
owes  to  A,  i.'.54(l,  to  U,  X2C.0,  to  C,  £200,  lie ini;  in  ill 
£1000.      On  examining  his   affuirs,  it   is  found  Ihi 


ARITHMETIC. 


'nn 


jar  coat  £8, 14< 


,„poifMNe8  p-opPTty    £ 


£ 
1000 


jjlyto  tho  va.ie  of  1000 
£370.  How,  then,  is 
this  to  be  divided  pro- 
portionally among  the 
Ihreo  creditors,  so  that 
each  may  receive  a 
to  share!  The  way 
loarrire  at  an  answer, 
j,  to  work  out  each  ere- 
jitor's  share  as  adia- 
tinct  areoiint.  Thus, 
j,st,a.»toA'8  share: — 
The  anwcr  is  £199 
16i.  Following  a  si- 
milar  oilciilution,  wo 
|i,„l  that  B  will  rc- 
CPivc  iflO,  '•*'•,  and  C, 
£M,  Another  me- 
tl,o(l  of  cojnputation 
iroulil  consist  in  as- 
cctoining  how  many 
ihilHngs  per  poimd 
the  ctTects  would  yield. 
In  (his  case  we  state 
the  torins  as  annexe<l. 
-Answer  Ts.  4Jd.  \, 
or  a  fraction  more 
thai  seven  shillings 
anil  fourpcncc  tlirce 
farthings  in  the  pound. 
Bviiliutting  this  rate 
of  dividend  to  each 
creilinr,  their  respec- 
tive shares  would  he 
IJijiiidaled  as  nbovo. 
Instead  of  dividing 
7400  by  1000,  the  same 
result  will  be  found  if 
74  be  divided  by  10. 
Questions  in  arith- 
^  mctic  arise  in  which  a 
'  lislh  term  is  recpiirod, 
bearing  a  proportion 
to  five  terms  alre;idy 
known.  This,  which 
involves  what  is  callei" 
VnMe  lUtle  nf  Three, 
Is  exeniplilied  as  fol- 
lows;—If  I  give  18 
men  £15  for  28  days' 
work.whatmustlgive, 
i(  ihi'  same  rate,  to  20 
men  for  35  days' work? 
The  answer,  according 
lothe  plan  of  working 
here  shown,  is  £70,  Os. 
3(1. 


£  £ 

370  ::  640 
370 

37800 

i^?!L  £    .. 
1000)199800(199  10 
1000 


9980 
9000 

9800 
9000 


800 
20 

1000)10000(16 
16000 


370  i 
20 


£ 
1 


1000)7400(7j 
7000 

400 
13 


4J*i 


1000)4800(4 
4000 


800 
4 


1000).3200(3 
3000 


Mm. 
10 

28 

128 
32 

448 


lffOil~~J 

£ 
45 


Men. 
20 
35 

700 
45 

3.'i00 

2800   „    , 
£    s.  (1. 

448)31500(70  6  3 

3130 


140 
20 

448)2800(6 
2688 


113 
12 


448)1344(3 
1344 


I'rttcticc  nnil  Menial  Arithmetic. 
TnJer  these  names  arc  con)prehended  short  practical 
DiethiKls  of'  wi)il,i!ii;  arithmetical  (|uestions,  partly  or 
f,:iij;iy  by  the  mind,  or  by  the  jotting  of  a  few  figures. 
Onliaary  Imsiius-i  l(n<■^tionH  are  seldom  solved  by  the 
Rule  of  Tluee,  ;iiid  |irinci|):i!ly  by  Practice  or  Mental 
.\rilhuielic.  The  kind  of  iiueslbms  most  commotdy 
ooeurriii;;  are  coiii[iutaliiins  of  the  aggregate  vuUio  of  a 
ctrlain  uimilier  of  articles  ;it  a  certain  price,  and  the  add- 
Uijof  the  whole  toncllier  to  lind  the  sum-total.  The 
plan  usually  adopted  is  to  caKnIale  the  vuUie  of  any 
numlHT  of  articles  by  the  nearest  round  sum,  and  then 
to  apply  the  dilfercnce.  For  instance,  a  lady  is  buying 
I  gown  I'rom  a  hulierdiisher;  she  has  received  15  yards 
It  Hid.  per  yard;  the  liaberdaslior  tells  her  in  an  instant 
siio  has  to  pay  Us.  lOjd.     lie  knows  it  is  so  by  sayiiig 


internally  to  himself— 15  yards  at  6d.  would  be  7«.  fij. 
then,  if  I  take  15  halfpence,  that  is,  7jd,,  from  the  7* 
6d.,  I  find  that  6s.  lO^d.  will  remain. 

Another  principle  followed  in  this  practical  nrilhmetia 
is  to  work  by  aIi(p)ot  parts.  By  remembering  that  i 
penny  is  tho  12th  of  a  shilling,  or  the  240th  of  a  pound; 
that  6s.  8(1.  is  the  third  of  a  pound ;  that  3s.  4d.  is  tho 
sixth  of  a  pound,  and  so  on,  wo  are  able  to  save  much 
of  the  ordinary  figuring.  As  an  illustration,  let  it  be 
required  to  find  tho  value  of  3567  articles  at  3s.  4d.  each. 
By  the  usual  rules  of  arithmetic,  this  question  would  be 
performed  by  multiplying  the  3567  by  40  (there  l>eir,t 
40  pence  in  3b.  4d.),  and  then  dividing  by  12  to  brim;  it 
into  shillingn,  and  by  20  to  bring  it  into  pounds.  The 
practical  method  is  much  shorter;  39.  4d.     f..nc,n 

i>eing  tho  sixth  of  a  pound,  if  we  divide       '      ' 

3567  by  6,  we  at  once  obtain  the  amount,       £504,  10s. 
thus— 

Interest. 

Interest  is  on  allowance  for  the  use  of  money,  paid  by 
the  borrower  to  the  lender.  The  amount  of  allowance 
on  £100  is  call«l  the  rate  of  interest.  The  amount  of 
money  lent  is  styled  the  pri}inpal.  In  the  United  King- 
dom, it  is  customary  to  reckon  the  interest  at  a  certain 
rate  per  hundred  pounds  per  annum,  or  for  the  whole 
year.  The  hundred  poumls.  for  shortness,  is  called  cent., 
a  contraction  of  centum  (Latin),  a  hundred.  If  the 
money  is  lent  for  a  less  term  than  a  year,  then  it  be- 
comes a  question  in  arithmetic  what  is  the  proportion 
of  interest  chargeable.  According  to  the  existing  laws 
(1842),  £5  per  cent,  is  the  highest  legal  interest  tliat  is 
chargeable  on  money  lent  in  any  other  form  than  by  a 
bill  or  promissory  note.  The  interest,  commonly  called 
disrnunt,  that  may  be  taken  for  advances  on  bills  or 
promissory  notes,  is  left  unlimited.  In  general,  it  varies 
from  about  4  to  6  per  cent.,  according  to  the  state  of  tho 
money  market  or  trustworthiness  of  the  l)orrower.  £5, 
being  equal  to  100  shillings,  the  interest  on  £1  for  a  year 
at  5  per  cent,  is  consequently  Is.;  and  if  the  interest  bo 
£2,  10s.,  or  2A  per  cent,  the  charge  will  of  course  bo 
Cd.  per  £1.  This  is  so  very  simple  a  matter  of  calcula- 
tion, that  interests  of  5  or  2^  per  cent,  per  annum  may 
in  most  instances  be  calculated  menta'y,  or  at  least  with 
a  few  figures.  When  the  interest  is  3,  3J,  4,  or  4^  per 
cent.,  and  for  a  less  period  than  a  year,  tho  calculation  ia 
more  cotnplex,  and  will  require  to  be  wrought  as  a  ques- 
tion in  Rule  of  Three,  or  the  amount  may  be  determined 
by  an  appeal  to  Interest  Tables. 

The  followinn  is  ari  example  of  the  mode  of  working 

a  question  of  interest  for    i  whole  year      What  is  the 

£        £  £        amoi:   '    of   interest    payable    on 

100   :   4A    :  ;    649      £640     ■  44  per  £100  or  per  cent, 

41    per  an     nil 


2596 
324-10    £ 

100)2920-10(29 
200 

920 
900 

•    ~20 
30 

100)410(4 

400 

~10 
12 

100)120(1 
100 


Or  shorter,  as  under— 

£ 
649 
4i 


2596 
324-10 

29^20-10 
20 

4,10 
12 


1,20  =  £39  4  I) 


t'li 


—  1 

—  T 


Intcircst  on  broken  (K-riods  is  not  calculated  by  calender 
months,  but  for  days— the  exact  number  of  days  from 
2N 


4t9 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


ftp  «!ny  of  Icnilin!!  to  the  rfny  of  paying ;  and  therefore 
thn  (';iIriilnlion  of  the  niiinbor  of  iliivri  is  an  important 
proliniinury  in  tho  transaction.  Diirikera  and  mprrliiinta, 
to  SBvp  the  trouhio  of  ralctiliition,  upp.al  to  a  tuhlo  which 
iihowH  the  nuinl)cr  of  dnys  from  one  day  to  another  in 
the  difli-rent  months  of  tho  year. 

Wlien  the  period  eon- 
jifita  of  leM  tiian  a  year 
(36.'i  days),  nuilti|ily  tho 
principal  tiy  the  nun)l)cr 
of  ilays,  and  l>y  twice  tlie 
rate,  and  divide  by  73000. 
(We  pet  this  73000  hy 
multiplying  3fi5  hy  3  and 
by   100.)     For  example 


£ 

«. 

235 

10 

7 

1G4»  10 

.4 

6594 

0 

6 

rf. 


20 

7012S0 
730000 

61380 
13 

"735360 
730000 

J  ^  '■  1  . 


,   in4 


-What'iH   tho    intercHt  73000)39564     0(10  10,',V, 

of£23ft,  10s.  for  28  days 

at  3  per  cent,  jier  annum  ? 

Here,  for  convenience,  wo 

begin  by  niuhiplyini;  by 

7  and  by  4,  instead  nf  88. 

The  6  ii  twice  tho  inte- 

rcat.  H. 

When  jnrlinl  paymentu 
•re  made,  it  is  ncccsfiary 
tf/  deduct  them  from  the 
principal,  care  iH-inR  taken  not  to  confus*-  principal  with 
interest  The  followinif  is  a  rule  to  follow  in  such  a 
case :-  -(.'alculatc  the  interest  on  the  principal  up  to  the 
time  at  which  the  first  partial  payment  is  made,  and  add 
it  to  the  principal ;  tVom  this  sum  subtract  the  money 
paid,  and  the  remainder  is  a  new  principal ;  compute  the 
interest  on  this  principal  from  (he  time  of  the  first  pay- 
ment up  to  the  time  of  the  second  payment,  add  it  to  the 
latter  principal;  from  the  sum  subtract  tho  s<>coiid  sum 
paid,  and  the  remainder  is  au'idn  a  new  principal;  and 
continue  tliis  process  till  the  lost  paytneut. 

MENSURATION. 

Mensuration  rcl.  rs  to  the  measurement  of  objects,  and 
U  of  three  kinds — lintnl,  or  measurinf;  by  mere  length  ; 
tuptrfirial,  which  respects  breadth  as  well  as  lenRth ; 
•nd  soliil,  which  includes,  Icntrtli,  breadth,  and  thickness. 
In  the  Unitei',  Kingdom,  the  foot  of  twelve  inches  is  the 
eomnmn  standard  of  measurement.  A  draper  measures 
doth  witli  a  rod  of  three  feet  or  one  yard,  and  workmen 
usually  measure  the  dimensions  of  walls,  or  the  su|)er- 
ficies  of  apartments,  by  a  ribl>on  marked  in  feet  and 
inches.  In  common  usage,  the  inch  is  divided  into 
•ighths  and  sixteenths. 

A«  lineal  measurement  requires  no  explanation,  we 
pass  to  a  consideration  of  suis^rficial  measurement,  or 
that  of  botli  length  and  breadth.  A  tuprrjtciid  fen ', 
which  is  the  basis  of  this  kind  of  measurement,  is  either 
a  square  of  a  foot  iti  length  and  a  fwit  in  breadth,  in 
otljer  words,  a  foot  each  way,  or  it  is  any  dimension  in 
which  tho  length  multiplied  by  the  breadth  will  form  a 
foot.  For  examjile,  the  surface  of  a  piece  of  wood, 
2  feet  in  length  a.-.d  6  inches  in  breadth,  is  a  su[MMficial 
foot.  A  superficial  foot  is  generally  called  a  8<|uare  foot, 
and  is  a  suiierficies  consisting  of  12  times  12,  or  M4 
aquare  inches.  Sometimes  tho  term  tquare  feel  is  con- 
founded with  that  of  feet  iquare,  which  is  quite  a  dilfcr- 
ent  thing.  A  piecx!  of  cloth  said  to  measure  six  square 
teet,  cotisists  of  six  squares  of  a  foot  each ;  but  a  pii'cc 
laid  to  measure  »u'  feit  .«(yi/  rr  would  iie  six  feet  along 
each  side,  and  comprise  thirty-six  squares  of  a  foot  each. 
InHttcniion  to  these  distinctions  has  often  leil  to  awkward 
arrors  and  disputes. 

The  nK'thfKl  of  finding  the  su[H!rficial  contents  of  any 

oblong  surface,  is  to  multiply  the  length  by  the  bvcudlli ; 

but  other  points   require   attention  in   the   cah-ulaiion. 

To  arrive  at  exaclneas,  the  inch   in  reckoned   to  contain 

t  a»couilii  or  part*  each  accuiu'  contaiiu  12  ttiirdii,  aud 


Ft 
f. 
3 

IT 
1 


19    8 


each  third  contains  12  fourths.  Feet  muitipljrc)  h»  ft_. 
give  feet;  feet  multiplied  by  inches,  give  inches-  f, 
multiplied  by  seconds,  give  seconds;  niches  multm|,vi 
hy  inches,  give  seconds;  inches  multiplied  by  seconl 
give  thirds ;  seconds  multiplied  by  seconds,  give  fourth"' 
Rule  for  working  questions — 1,  Write  tho  mullinli*' 
under  the  multiplicand,  feet  under  feet,  inches  un/' 
inches,  seconds  under  seconds,  &c.  2.  Multiply  .  k 
denomination  of  the  length  hy  the  feet  of  the  broadii 
beginning  at  the  lowest,  and  place  each  product  und  ' 
that  denomination  of  the  multiplicand  from  which 'i 
arises,  always  carrying  1  for  every  12.  3  Multiply  )' 
the  inches,  and  set  each  product  one  place  fartlier  to  ih 
right  hand.  4.  Multi()ly  by  tho  seconds  or  parts,  aiui 
set  each  product  another  place  toward  tho  right  iianl 
5.  Proceed  in  this  numner  with  all  tho  rest  of  the  Ja. 
nominations,  and  their  sum  will  he  the  answer. 

Example. — Multiply  6  feet  3  inches  by  3  feet  2  inthei 
In  working,  we  begin  hy  multijilying  tho 
3  inches  by  3,  and  then  the  6  feet  also  hy  tho 
same  3  below  it;  this  gives  18  teet  9  inches. 
This  makes  18,  9.  We  now  mviliply  by 
the  2  inches,  placing  the  6  one  remove  to  a 
side.  Hy  then  multiplying  the  (i  by  2,  wo 
have  12  inches  or  1  foot,  and  setting  down 
the  1  below  tho  18,  we  add  up.  The  an- 
swer is  '9  feet,  9  inches,  and  six  occonds. 
Questions  of  this  kind  may  also  he  wi ought  hy  decimals 

To  measure  the  solid  contents  of  an  object,  a  diiroreni 
priM'csf  IS  pursued.  Sup|)ose  we  take  a  piece  of  wood 
measurinsj  a  square  foot,  and  cover  it  with  dice,  each  die 
an  inch  scjuare  and  an  inch  high,  the  wood  will  |» 
covered  witli  exactly  114  dice.  Let  us  now  put  . 
second  layer  of  dice  on  the  first,  and  the  niimlK-r  will  he 
doiibliMJ.  or  2HH  dice;  and  if  we  tlui.s  go  on  mldiii"  lavci 
above  layer  till  we  have  12  layers,  the  number  of  dic« 
will  \<e  finally  12  times  144,  or  1728  dice;  in  other  wordj, 
we  shall  have  formed  a  culw  consisting  of  1728  solid 
inches.     Such  is  solid  measure. 

Solid  measure  is  computed  arithmetically,  by  multiplv. 
ing  the  length  by  the  breadth,  and  the  prmluct  hy  the 
thickness.  Civil  eriijineers,  who  require  to  calculate  the 
solid  contents  of  mas.s<'s  of  earth,  with  a  view  to  excava. 
tion.  resort  to  this  simple  rule;  it  is  likewise  follewcj  liy 
builders  in  reference  to  walls,  iilumbers  to  cisterua,  anj 
other  artificers.  The  following  is  a 
question  not  unlikely  to  oi-cur.  Re- 
quired the  contents  of  a  cistern  9  yards 
2  teet  in  lenulh,  6  yards  2  ti'ct  in 
breadth,  and  4  yards  2  feet  in  depth. 
Analyze  these  dimensions — 9  yards 
2  tiet  are  29  feet ;  6  yards  2  feet  are 
20  feet.  Multiply  the  29  by  20,  and 
then  multiply  by  14  (14  feet  Ix-iiig  27)8121) 
equal  to  4  y.aids  2  feet)  ;  next  divide  Ij~ 

by  27,  which  is  the  number  of  solid  ''  '  •'' 

feet  in   a  solid  yard.     The  question  is  thus  wroujilin 
the  margin.     'I'he  answer  is  seen  to  be  300  yards  kOCeel 

EVOLUTION. 

The  extrailion  or  disi-overy  of  the  square  am'  ruin 
roots  of  numlxTs,  forms  a  depnrtineiit  of  arilhiwiic 
called  J'volvliiiii,  and  is  usefiil  in  sonie  kinds  of  tnoasuri", 
merit.  In  the  following  table,  tlu!  sijiiares,  cuU's,  and 
fourth  and  tilth  powers  of  the  nine  units  are  irivin. 
The  square  of  any  iniiiiber,  it  will  be  observed,  is  gdiiifd 
by  inulli|ilyiiii,'  the  number  by  itself;  the  cube,  |i\  mulU. 
plying  the  square  by  the  number;  the  biquuilratic  dr 
niulli(j|ying  the  cube  by  the  iiiimlaT;  and  ihc  sursolid 
by  multiplying  the  biquadratic  by  the  nuinla'r: — 

UfMjl,  or  t»t  ptiwer,  -  Ij  2 
S«i;mre,  or  2<l  power,  '!■  4 
(^ulie.  or  'III  power.  -  .1'  >< 
Ilii|iiuil  .or  I'll  pinver.  I  IH 
burKiluL  or  5ili  puwir,  1  if-'i 


29 
20 

680 
H 

2320 


•■i\      4]      5|       lil        7        8      « 
«|     III      as      :i<l       41)       M     *1 

a?    114  i'j3i  aid    ;m    m  m 
HI  a.vi  li'ja  I'jiKii  aiiir  j-h  m 

.'4:1  nai  :iia3  7776  Ki-WiKtfssm 


ARITHMETIC. 


«M 


59019(243 
4 


44)190 
176 

483)1119 
1419 


<f^^  nowpw  of  nwmVirrn  nro  URunlljr  pxprrsso<l  by 
tiding  *  """'"  "'•''"■''  '"  ''"'"'  '<  ">u».  ^'  sisnifii't  the  so- 
(jnd  uower  or  squaro  of  3,  that  h,  3  X  3  =  9  ;  n»  siijiii- 
in  thn  thipl  [inwr  or  I'ubo  of  3,  or  3  X  3  X  3  =  27. 
The  "iiinll  fi-""' ''""  nclilt'il  is  pulled  un  in-'c  ■  or  e  rjioiien', 
hoctOfic  it  iiuiirati'H  or  rxposos  to  view  the  powers  of  the 
ounntilv  to  whieh  it  Ih  iilfixed.  The  (Kinare  root  of  any 
im«ll  qii""'''y  "'">'  '"'^''''y  '"^  Wf  rtnined  by  means  of  the 

yltiplii'i^lioii  table ;  for  instance,  R  is  at  once  seen  to 
he  the  sipl  ir<'  f'^"'  •''  •"•'  ''f'ause  fi  X  fi  =  30  ;  but  when 
lar^'pr  miinl'iTs  occur,  it  is  requisite  to  hav(!  recourse  to 
anothrr  profess. 

giinpiHiii'J;  it  were  required  to  find  the  length  of  the 
siilc  of  a  squ;ire  which  contains  .59,0 19  square}  inches  on 
ill)  siitf.ice,  it  is  evident  that  it  cannot  at  once  occur  to 
iho  mind  what  iniiulier,  by  beini^  multiplied  into  itself, 
ptixlucos  this  quantity.  It  is  therefore  requisite  to  find 
the  nuUiiri'  "^  "'"'  l'""'  "'' ''"'  """iber,  and  then  the  square 
(^  (lie  other  part.  To  ( iVect  this,  the  whole  number  ia 
iJiiiilwl  into  parts,  Iiy  a  dot  liein;;  placed  over  each  alter- 
„jtf  figure,  beijimiini;  at  the  unit.  The  reason  for  thus 
)pp;l^ltia^'  it  into  periods  of  two  fij^ures  each,  is  because 
(he  sqiii"'"  "'  "  *''i'ijl'^  tisure  never  consists  of  more  than 
two  pliices,  the  sepiare  of  a  number  of  two  figures  of  not 
more  than  lour  places,  fee. 

After  the  whole  number  has  been  thus  divided,  the 
rmii  wliiwc  square  comes  nearest  to  the  first  peri'^  :  must 
|io  liiivd  in  Hie  quotient,  and  its  square  subtracts  from 
l!ip  lirsl  pe.iod.  Thus,  .'i  iM-ing  the  first  period,  2,  as 
boin?  llic  root  of  4,  is  placed  in  the 
^uoticat,  and  the  square  of  2  (2  X  2 
^l)  I'i  sulilractcil  from  ft,  because  5 
hcri-  forms  the  first  ]ieriod.  The  next 
piTJi  1  ('•0'!  is  then  annexed  to  the  re- 
m.iiiiilcr  for  a  new  dividend.  The  root 
hdoulilcd  lor  a  divisor,  and  after  ascer- 
lj|nin|T  how  often  it  is  contained  in  tho 
diviili'iul,  oinillinu;  its  last  fijure,  the  re- 
sult (4)  is  placed  both  in  the  quotient  and  also  in  tho 
unit's  pliue  of  the  divisor;  the  whole  number  (11)  thus 
fiirmfil,  must  he  multiplied  by  4,  and  the  i)roduct  must 
ho  siilitraitcd  from  the  dividend.  The  same  [)rocess  must 
lie  rp|iented  until  there  is  no  remainder.  ;uid  the  (luotient 
will  conliiin  the  root  sought,  which  in  this  case  is  243, 
Tlio  rule  lor  extractinir  the  cube  root  is  e(iually  tedious, 
anil  indeed  almost  too  complex  for  practical  purposes. 
TliP  methods  of  e^tractini;  the  roots  of  hi'jlicr  powers 
iro  so  complicated,  that  they  are  u<ii  illy  omitted  in 
arithniptical  works.  The  4th,  or  biquadratic  root,  may 
N>  nsoprtiiined  liy  extractini;  the  square  nsot  twice,  be- 
cau.<o  it  is  the  sipnre  root  of  tho  scpiire  root.  The  fith 
roil  is  the  scpiare  root  of  the  cube  root,  or  the  cube  root 
of  the  square  root. 

T\w.  ^th  root,  beinq  the  sipiare  t  ot  of  the  biquadratic 
Mol,  mav  be  found  by  extracting  the  square  root  time 
ti'nra.  in  the  same  way  the  9th  mot  may  be  called  the 
cuhe  root  of  the  culio  root,  ami  may  1h^  found  by  extnictini; 
the  cube  root  twice.  Hut  the  <oninion  arithmetical  ope- 
rations ''urnish  no  method  of  ohtainins  vhe  5th,  7th,  10th, 
13lh,  14th,  I5th,  17th,  19th,  20th,  and  most  other  rootj4; 
mil  ihi-i  part  of  arithmetic  continued,  therefore,  involved 
in  practical  dilRcLl'Jcs,  unt''  the  invention  of  logurilhtns. 

LOrrARITHMS. 

Lo^arilh.ns  (from  two  d'reek  words,  signify incf  the  num- 
tiirofthe  ratios  or  priqiirlions)  is  a  branch  of  arithmetic 
oframpara'.ively  inodi'rn  invention,  the  discoverer  having 
breii  John  .Napier  '■'(  Merchiston,  near  Edmhurgli,  in  the 
tidy  part  of  the  s(n'i'ulceiitli  century.  The  principles 
Ulioi!  which  lo;;itillinis  are  founded,  may  jH'rliaps  be  reii- 
liored  familiar  by  the  f  illowing  illintralion  : — Hupposini? 
lliat  I  is  the  first  Utui  of  a  geornetriial  progression,  and 
llml  tlic  ratio  or  multiplier  u  2,  thi)  turius  HluiiJ  in  tlie 
ri>lii>wiiig  mauiier  :— 


I  le  the  fir»i  term. 

9  •  •  rniio. 

4  ••  a(|iiiire  of  the  ratio. 

8  ..  ciilii'  of  ilie  rnl'O. 

10  .•  4lh  power  of  till!  ratio. 

3i  •  •  Aih  piiwer  of  lliu  rutio. 

ftl  ..  (Ml  powirof  iliu  ralio 

All  this  might,  however,  have  liccn  conveyed  1  , .  2* 
far  more  concisely  by  Dubstituting  signs  fur  2  3' 
words,  thus —  4      .  2* 

It  is  evident  that  this  might  have  been  ex-  8  .  2* 
pressed  still  more  concisely  by  omitting  the  10  .  .  2* 
number  signifying  the  ratio  (2)  throughout,  32  .  2* 
retaining  only  the  indices  or  exponents,  they  04  .  .  2* 
alone  being  suiricient  to  indicate  the  degree  of 
poi-er  to  which  tho  ratio  is  raised  in  each  term.  Ex- 
ponents thus  placed  in  orchir,  opposite  to  a  series  of  num- 
bers in  geumetricul  progression,  are,  as  wo  liuve  said, 
culled  Logarithms,  or,  literally,  nvmbeinf  Ihe  rulio. 

The  niu.st  tedious  sums  in  multiplication  can,  by  means 
of  logarithms,  be  solved  simply  by  addition.  For  instance, 
if  it  were  required  to  multiply  256  by  32,  it  would  mercl^f 
be  requisite  to  iidd  the  logarithms  standing  opposite  to 
those  two  numbers — their  sum  (13)  stands  opposite  the 
product  required,  namely,  8192  : — 


Niiia. 

I.O!{. 

Num. 

^ 

1 

n 

1-JS 

T 

a      .. 

1 

a.-,o 

8 

4 

a 

SIU    -  ■■ 

9 

H 

3 

10-->4 

•■      10 

in 

4 

20  H 

••      11 

»2 

5 

4ll!l« 

..      lit 

64 

8 

hliia 

•■       13 

.\gain,  to  multiply  128  by  16,  wo  take  tho  7th  -f.  4th,  o* 
1 1th  power  of  2,  because  128  is  tue  7th  and  16  the  4th 
power  of  2 ;  opposite  to  the  sum  of  7  and  4  ( 1 1 )  is  2048, 
equal  to  the  result  of  the  multiplication  of  the  two  num- 
bers. This  also  atfords  a  quick  and  easy  method  of 
dividing  one  numlicr  by  anothrr;  thus,  if  it  ho  required 
to  divide  4090  by  10,  it  is  only  requisite  to  ascertain  tha 
dillerencc  between  the  logarithm  of  those  two  numbers, 
whieh  in  this  case  being  8,  the  figure  opposite  to  8  is  the 
re(|uired  (|uotient,  indicating  how  often  IC  is  contained  in 
4090,  namely,  256  times. 

The  indices  or  exponents,  1,  2,  3,  4,  &c.,  might,  how- 
over,  denote  the  powers  of  any  other  number  or  ratio. 
Every  dill'ercnt  ratio  or  geometrical  progression  gives  a 
dillerent  system  of  logarithms.  Soon  after  the  invention 
of  logarithms  by  Lord  Napier,  it  occurred  to  Briggs,  then 
professor  of  geometry  at  Oxford,  that  a  system  whose 
base  or  ratio  is  10  is  preferable  to  all  others,  on  account 
of  its  heing  analogous  to  the  general  method  of  notation. 
In  A.  11.  1024,  Briggs  published  the  tallies  of  logarithms 
which  are  now  in  common  use.  In  this  system,  10 
being  the  rutio  or  multiplier,  the  terms  may  be  thus  ex- 
jiressed —  ,• 

1  10         100         1000         100,000,  Ac. 

100      101         io«  10»  10«  &c 

Tho  exponents,  1,  2,  3,  4,  arc,  as  was  shown  in  the  pie 
vious  table,  the  logarithms  of  tho  opposite  numbers,  and 
might  therefore  have  been  written  in  the  following  man 
ner : — 

1         10         100         1000         100,000,  &c 

0  12  3  4        &c 

Tho  logarithms  of  all  intermediate  numbers,  such  a* 
those  between  1  and  10,  10  and  100,  &:c.,  are  found  by 
ascertaining  the  geoiiictrical  moan  proportion  between  acy 
two  numbers,  and  likewise  the  corresponding  arithmetical 
means  iM-tween  tho  indices  of  those  numbers.  In  every 
system,  0  is  the  logarithm  of  l.  Hrnc;,  the  loganthm 
of  any  number  lietween  1  and  10  must  Ih!  less  than  a 
whole  iiumlier,  and  therefore  a  decimal  fraction ;  and  the 
logarithm  of  any  uunibor  between  10  and  100  must  be 
one  with  a  fraction.  In  tho  same  way,  the  logarithm  of 
any  nuinlH<r  between  100  and  1000  must  lie  2  and  a  frac- 
tion, and  so  on,  through  the  rest  of  the  series.  The  in- 
tegers, 0,  1,  2,  3,  &c.,  to  the  left  of  tlie  decimals    ir 


494 


INFORMATION  FOR  TlIE   PEOPLE. 


liigBiithin<i,  nr"  rnlloil  tho  rhirnetrri'iio  of  thosp  In- 
garithnia.  Tims,  0  i^  lli  ■  cliiirncl<>ri«tic  of  all  iiuiiiIuts 
between  1  and  10  ;  1  in  the  cliuriicUTiMtic  of  all  ln'twrcii 
to  ninl  10(>;  2  Hint  of  nil  hvlwci-n  100  and  1000,  \c. 
In  tables  of  loptaritlimt  thn  rlinraclerlBticB  nro  geniTally 
aaiitt«>(l. 

The  method  of  using  n  table  of  lognrilhma  is  the  fol- 
lowint<: — To  iiscertaiii,  in  the  most  coiiiiuon  tiihlrH,  llie 
logarillini  of  n  rnniiliiT  lens  than  10,000,  it  is  merely 
neerasnry  to  find  the  first  three  fiKures  of  the  nuinlMT 
in  the  lefi  iinnd  enlunin,  and  the  fourth  ftiure  in  the  liori- 
xontal  line  ;it  tlie  top;  then  o|i|io»iU!  to  the  former  and 
under  the  latter  it  the  recjuired  Io2;aritlim.  If  the  ^ivcn 
number  eousists  of  five  fi:;ures,  lliid,  us  before,  the  lo- 
garithm iH'louuinn  to  the  first  four  fii^ures;  tlio  dilVercnee 
between  it  and  the  next  loirarithm  may  Iw  aseerlained 
from  the  innrLiin  ;  this  dilFeroneo  is  to  Ih-  multi|)!ied  by 
the  fifth  fiijute  of  the  jjiven  number,  and  one  figure  eut 
otTfrom  the  rit;ht  of  the  product;  and  the  other  fi({ure» 
of  this  pro<hict  Ix'inir  added  to  the  preoedinij  lognrilhit. 
and  the  index  3  prefixed,  the  sum  will  bo  tho  required 
logarithm. 

The  process  of  findini;  the  naturnl  number  of  any 
given  logai  illim  is  precisely  the  converse  of  that  just  de- 
ncriliM.  'I'lie  (fiven  loir.>rithrn  must  l>e  souiilil  in  the 
table,  and  against  it,  in  the  Iclt-hand  column,  will  Ih- found 
tfic  natural  number.  It  has  alreii  ly  b«'en  shown  that 
t;ibles  of  loifarithms  alVord  an  easj  mclhixl  of  finding;  tlie 
product  in  multi|rlication.  and  tli<  ijuoticnts  in  divisi(Mi, 
by  incansof  simple  addition  and  subtraction.  LoKaritlmis 
■re  equally  a|iiili<Mlile  to  the  solution  of  questions  in  pro- 
portion or  the  rule  of  three,  it  bein^f  merely  reipiisite  to  add 
the  logarithms  of  the  second  and  third  terms  tOH;cther,  and 
from  the  sum  to  NuMract  the  lotjarilhm  of  the  first ;  the 
remainder  is  the  lofjarithm  of  the  fourth  term. 

A  numl)er  may,  by  means  of  lo;;arithins,  Im"  raised  to 
«ny  requiti'd  piiwer,  by  mulliplyiiij^  the  loijarithm  of  the 
niimlM'r  by  thi'  index  of  the  power.  Thus  to  square  any 
numtxT,  multipiy  its  loiririthm  by  'i\  to  cube  u  numlKT, 
multi|)ly  its  loi;  iiithin  by  3  ;  and  so  on. 

To  extr;wt  ihiTiHit  of  any  i,mvcii  numl«^r,  the  loKarilhm 
of  the  niimlHT  must  hv  divided  by  the  projsised  index,  ami 
the  quotient  is  tlie  loijarithni  of  t!ie  required  root.  Thus, 
to  find  the  squire  root  of  KiS),  it  is  only  necessary  lo 
divide  its  logarithm,  wliicli  is  'J.'i'JTHSfiy  by  3;  ofipositc 
to  the  quotient  will  lie  found  thenumlH'r  13,  which  is  the 
■quato  root  of  Iti'J,  liecausc  13x  13^=101*. 


also  the  unknown  quantities.     The  present  cuatom  |a 
represent  all  kn.iwn  quantities  by  tho  first  lettoni  uf  ik! 
idplialM't,  as  (I,  /),  r,  Ac,,  and  tho  unknown  quanlilicjk 
the  last  letters,  x,  y,  z. 


ALGEBRA. 

We  have  seen  that  lor;arithmie  tables  may  be  used  iis 
•  substitute  for  many  lcni;thened  (i|n'ratioiis  in  arithiiictic. 
It  is  evident  that  the  vSlue  of  all  methods  of  computation 
lieH  in  their  brevity.  Aljjebra  must  lie  considered  as  oin' 
of  the  most  iinportairt  departments  of  matbemaliral 
nciencc,  on  account  of  the  extreme  rapidity  and  certainly 
with  which  it  enables  us  to  detcrmina  the  most  involved 
and  intricate  questions.  The  term  ii/ifcAra  is  of  Arabic 
origin,  and  has  a  ret-rence  to  the  resolution  and  c  tmiiioni- 
tion  of  quantities.  In  the  manner  in  which  it  is  appliid, 
it  imlxKlies  a  melh.Kl  of  perlonniiiK  calculations  by  means 
of  various  sii;ns  and  abbreviati  ms,  which  are  used  iiisti  ,id 
of  words  anil  phrases,  ..ii  that  it  may  Ih-  ealleil  the  systini 
of  »yml>ols.  Allhou(;h  it  is  a  science  of  calculation,  yet 
it«  o^ierations  must  not  lie  r  mtoundi'd  with  those  of  ' 
arithmetic.  All  calculations  in  arithmetic  refer  to  some 
particular  individual  question,  where.is  those  of  algebra  ! 
retier  to  a  whole  el  iss  of  questions.  One  (;real  advantage 
tn  algebra  is,  that  all  the  steps  of  any  particular  course 
of  reusunim;  are,  by  means  of  symbols,  place<l  at  nncc  lie- 
fore  "Inc  eye;  HO  that  til  •inind,b>ii)4  unim{>ededin  its  u|M'ru- 
Umiw,  prueeeds  uniiiteriuptedly  from  one  stip  of  reasoning 
n  another,  iiniil  tor  ^  ilutioii  oi   liic  question  it  attained. 

{■vmboU  aru  usoii  to  represent  not  ouly  tbe  known,  bi^  j 


Tho  symbols  used  in  arithmetic  to  denote  additjnn  luh. 
traction,  Ac,  beloiiK  properly  to  algebra.     Thiu  ihegu™ 
■+■  pliin,  denotes  that  one  quantity  is  to  lie  nildud  to  .|C 
other,  and  is  called  the  positive  or  additive  sinn;  n||  ^„ 
Is'rs  to  which  it  is  prefixed  are  called  //oM/iif.     'Ph''  u 
—  »ii/in>',  denotes  that  one  quantity  is  (o  U;  subtracM 
from  anolhfr;  it  is  called  the  iicijalive  or  sulilrnctive  siim 
and  all  <iuanlities  to  which  it  is  prefixed  are  called  „ft 
live.     If  neither  -|-  nor  —  be  pri  fixed  to  a  quaiility,  ihcj 
the  siijii  -|-  ]>tiii  is  understood. 

The  Kcneriil  siun  to  denote  that  one  number  is  to  I* 
multiplied  by  another,  is  x  ;  ''i''  •'  "ftcn  occurs  that  on» 
letter  has  to  lie  multiplied  by  another,  ami  this  is  rci,fn 
si'iited  by  placing  those  letters  one  after  the  other,  gcn« 
rally  accordini?  to  the  order  in  which  they  stand  in  thi 
alfihabet ;  thus  (t  niulliplicd  liy  /.,  is  expressed  liy  n(i 
The  multiplication  ol  quantities  consistinn  uf  iiiuru  iliaii 
one  term,  as  for  insta.ico  n  -f-  li  by  c  -^  </,  may  lie  ,p. 
presented  by  any  one  of  tho  following  methoda-^ 
a^b  X  t-Hr~/,or(i  4- /).'•-+-(/,  or  ((!-+./,)  (r+,l).  The 
bar  drawn  over  n  -\-  h  and  r  -J-  </,  which  in  tiip  two  fifri 
examples  marks  them  as  distinct  quantities,  is  rulM  a 
fivrii/iini,  but  brackets  or  parentheses  for  the  siimirpuf. 
pose,  as  in  the  last  example,  are  now  in  more  fre(|upntu8o. 

When  a  letter  is  niulti[ilied  by  any  tfiven  miiiilitr,  it  ij 
usual  to  prefix  that  number  to  the  letter.  'I'lius,  twjcc,, 
three  times  b,  four  limes  i,  six  times  j,  Ac,  are  exprosstj 
thus:  2./,  3/),  4r,  G.r;  and  the  numbers  2,  3,  1,  (i,  ||m, 
prefixed,  arc  called  tho  cuijfincnts  of  tho  letters  before 
which  they  stand. 

The  sian  ~  Is^tween  two  numbers  shows,  as  in  nritli. 
luetic,  that  the  former  of  those  numbers  is  to  lie  iliviJtJ 
by  the  latter;  thus  d  -4- A,  means  that  n  is  to  be  dividtj 
by  /).  It  is,  however,  more  usual  to  place  the  numln'rto 
lio  divided  above  that  by  which  it  is  to  be  divided,  withi 
small  line  lietween,  in  the  form  of  a  fraction ;  thuii  i^ 

b 
notes  that  a  is  divided  by  />. 

It  has  iK'cn  shown  in  Arithmetic  that  the  powe rj  jf 
quantities  are  denot'd  by  a  small  fiijuic,  called  llie  ei. 
poMcnt  or  index  of  the  power.  Thus,  n  x  «,  or  th« 
square  of  «,  is  expressed  by  «' ;  A  X  ''  X  ''1  ^'r  tlicoula 
of /i,  is  expressed  by  /',  Ac.  The  cube  of  n  -|-  b,  orcf 
(„  4.  ;,)  (,i  -J-/,)  is  expressed  thus:    („  -f.  /,)S, 

The  roots  of  quantities  are  represented  by  thn  sign 
v^with  the  projK-r  index  aftixed;  thus  ^/h,  or,  mora 
simply,  x/a,  expresses  the  sipiare  root  of  »;  ^'u  tin 
cube  root  of  11;  ^,1  4-  /.  re  piesents  the  4lh  or  biiiuailra- 
tic  root  of  (1  -f-  li.  Fractic  .lal  indices  are  also  frcqucntij 
useil  to  denote  the  roots  ol  qmuilities,  tlius : 

Ilk  is  the  square  root  of  n. 

at  is  the  culie  root  of  «, 

ul  is  the  4th  root  of  n   Ac. 

Apiin,  (I  J  is  the  cube  ro  jt  of  ii',  01  ol  the  siiuare  of  a. 

a'i  is  the  sijuare  root  of  n*,  or  of  the  eulw  of  u. 

a',  is  the  .'ilh  root  of  u'. 

When  two  or  nuire  letti  rs  or  quantities  are  connoited 
to;;etlier  by  sifins,  the  coinbinati  m  is  called  an  ulKebraic 
expression,  and  each  letter  or  quantity  is  called  a  (mii. 

(Quantities  of  one  term  aru  called  simple  quaiititirii;  u 
<i,  2  .-,  3  /.,  Ac. 

A  quantity  of  two  ter.iis,  as  6  -f  ''i  i"  ealled  a  liiwmiuL 

When  u  binoinial  expresses  the  ihlFerence  lietwciin  two 
quantities,  it  is  called  a  ristilval,  at.  n  — -  li, 

A  quantity  consistinif  of  3, 4,  or  many  terms,  are  called 
respectively  Irincmidh,  qi'inlrtfiumidlt,  niulliiKmiiaU, 

'J'he  sign  =  placed  Irtweep.  two  quantities  showi,  U 
in  arithmetic,  the  ciyim'i'v  of  those  quantities. 

When  (^uaiitilies  aru  connected  by  ttus  sign,  tlie  eipn* 


ALGEBRA. 


,^ni»':a"<"'lnn''?"''^""' 

m-  »•»"""•"  4-  ''  =  ' 


thim,  2  4-  4  ^  0,  ig  an  equa- 

.pL  nymliot  >  or  <  is  ivillrii  thilt  of  inrqunUty,  it  boitlB 
I  rfd  hetwrcii  two  qimntitips,  of  which  ono  is  (jrealrr 
{|,li  diiothpr;  tlic  oiion  pnrt  of  the  symbol  is  alwnys 
turned  towunl-i  tht!  grcntcr  iiimntity :  thuB,  a>  b  ili'notcH 
jtobc(jrtMiti'r  than /<;  ami /■  " 


(/  (IcnotoH  it  to  he  Rri'iittT 


than  (. 


Tlic  Alia  of  liilTiTriiro  in  ^,  only  used  whim  it  is 
nrortaiii  wliifh  of  two  ((uuiititics  is  the  grciitrr ;  thus 
r  f  (lenotcH  thn  (hircrciicc  lirtwccn  e  and  /  wlum  it  is 

'jiiforl'iiiiwliicli  ix  tlicgreator. 
The  word  lluri  fnrf,  or  aDianjiirnily,  o!\rn  orriirring  in 

.Irebraiial  reufioriiiii;,  tho  syiiihol  .•.  hiisln'oii  choficii  to 
'   ^,„t  it:    tliiiH,  till!  HtMiti'n(!0  "  Thrri'furo  n  -\-  h  is 

c(|Ual  tof  T  '''"  i^  '•'""  «xi>ri'ssi'd  in  aljri'bra,  .-.(•■+  b 

» f  +  ''• 
£ii(  quaiitilios  arc  nui'h  as  consist  of  the  same  letter 

loticru,  or  power  of  letters  :  Ihuc,  G  u  and  2  ii  are  like 
quantitii'6,  «"''  "'"'^'  ''  "'"'  '""'  '■'  "'"•  ' '"''^'''  quantities 
.rcsuchas  consist  of  dilfenMit  letters  :  as,  4a,  56,0  aj.*, 
4cJ,  which  arc  all  ui  like  quantities. 

Adrlition. 

The  operation  of  addition  in  arittimetir  consist'?,  as  has 
bffii  shown,  simply  in  juiniiii?  or  adding  Heveral  iinariti- 
ties together:  thus,  4  +  S  +  7  +  fi  =  25.  This  sunie  [iro- 
resj  Is  ilwav s  used  in  algebra.  \vh"never  /i7,c  quimtilies 
mth  Wf  WK'"-*'  "f"  required  to  he  added  :  thus,  2  i;  -f-  3  n 
4.  6  (1  =  1 1  "  ;  a'1'1  —  7  />  —  4  /.  —  fi  /,  =  —  17  6. 
DutnsitolWn  Iiappens  that  like  quantities  which  are  to 
bo  added  to'^el her  have  uidike  sli^ns,  addition  has  in  ali;e- 
lira  a  fir  more  extended  si^'nifieation  than  in  arilhnietie. 
Tlius,  to  add  7  (i  +  4  1:  toH  ((  —  3  <i,  it  is  evident  that, 
,Hpr7  ,(  4.  ■!  (I  +  8  (I  have  been  added  accordiui;  to  the 
usual  iiicthoil,  3  <i  must  he  siihlracted.  Hence  the  ."ciieral 
nilr  for  the  ndilitinn  o(  Idc  quantities  with  iinlil.c  sii;nsis 
to  add  fir^t  the  eoelfieientsof  tlie  positive  terms,  and  then 
to  add  those  of  the  ncfTHlive  terms  ;  the  less  sum  must  be 
lubtnictfd  iViim  the  greater,  and  to  tliisdilVerence  tliesi(j;n 
of  the  greater  must  be  annexed,  with  th-  common  letter 
orlotters.  Thus,  let  it  be  recpiired  to  add  7  a  —  3  n 
^  4  „  ^  5  ,1  —  fid  — 2  (/  and  9  a ;  2.')  <i  will  be  found 
the  sum  of  the  positive  terms,  and  11  a  that  of  the  nepa- 
live;  11  n  beinK  the  less  numlier,  must  therefore  be  sub- 
Irarted  from  2')  «,  the  greater,  leaviin;  a  reinain<ler  of  1 4  11, 
uliiih  is  the  reijuired  amount.  The  reason  of  this  mode 
(if  procedure  may  be  shown  by  a  simple  illustration  : — As 
t  loiter  may  represent  any  quantity,  let  a  represent  X'.') ; 
B!iJ  suppose  th  it  a  gentleman  has  in  one  bank  7  ",  or 
Pfvrn  five  pounds;  in  another  bank  4  (i,  and  in  another 
0  (I,  or  nine  five  |K)uiids:  let  us  suppose,  loo,  that  his 
tailor's  bill  is  (in,  or  six  live  pounds;  his  baker's  3  «,  or 
three  five  jiouiids ;  and  his  butcher's  2  <i,  or  two  five 
]»unds;  it  is  e\identthat,  to  ascertain  how  nnich  money 
i«  really  his  own,  he  must  fust  eomiiute  the  whole  value 
of  his  property  dispersed  in  the  difTereut  banks,  then  the 
mount  of  tlie  bills  of  bis  creditors,  and  then  find  the  dif- 
f'rencc  liotween  the  two  sums  by  subtracting  the  less 
f.om  the  (greater.  When  the  aggregate  of  the  positive 
timisiseqinltothatofthe  neirative  ones,  the  sum  of  the  two 
quantities  will  lueipialtod:  thus  if  a  man  possesses  £2000, 
ami  owes  X20()0,  it  is  evident  that  when  his  rlebts  have 
ben  deducted  from  his  property,  nothing  will  remain. 
I'nlike  quantities  can  oidy  be  added  by  collecting  them 
in  une  line,  and  pre(l\ing  the  pro|K'r  sign  of  each;  thus, 
llip  sum  of  3  (I  -]-  2  /i  -j-  4  r  —  2  (/  can  only  In-  rendered 
3 II  +  2  /i  -)-  4  '■  —  2  (? ;  this  will  he  evident  iiy  rclleet- 
iii?  that  dilTerent  letters  in  the  same  algebraical  expression 
always  repre-;ent  dillerent  (|uanti'ie»,  which  cannot  of 
course  be  added  into  one  sum  unless  their  precise  value 
he  known.  Thus,  the  aildition  of  ii  and  h  cannot  lie  re- 
presented hy  2  a  or  2  li,  because  that  would  imply  that  a 
w  equal  to  /.,  wliieb  it  i.-i  not  necessarily  ;  neither  cculd  it 
»c  represented  liy  nb,  because  ab  denotes  tho  multiplicu- 

VuL.  I.— 54 


tion  of  tho  two  qmntlties;  tho  only  method  tTion  of  »x 
pressing  these  sums  is  thus,  n  -f-  .''.  When  like  and  \i» 
like  ([uantitiefl  are  mixed  toijother,  an  in  the  followinjf  ex- 
ample, the  like  quantitioB  must  first  be  collected  tofsether 
according  to  the  method  above  described,  and  all  unlika 
quantities  must  bo  annexed  in  order : — 


9a   + 

6  .c^  — 

8  ay 

—    8  xy  — 

\Qx   + 

2  jy 

3a:   — 

7  iiy  — 

5x 

5  ax  — 

6o.r4- 

ny 

—       xy  — 

4  a    -f 

9  ax 

2ay  + 

12  .r  — 

2  a 

—  10  J,    — 

3ay  + 

13  uy 

3  a   —    8  (IX  —    6  xy  4-  y 
Suhtrnelion. 
When  two  like  qu  mtities,  having  like  signs,  are  to  ha 
subtracted  the  one  from  the  other,  the  process  is  precisely 
the  same  ns  that  already  described  in  arithmetic :  thus, 

3  a  subtracted  from  7  a,  leaves  as  a  remainder  4  a.  From 
8  (I  -|-  a  a  take  fi  n  -j-  2  a,  and  tho  remainder  will  be 
2  a  -f  3  n,  or  5  a. 

But  supposing  it  were  required  to  subtract  6  a  —  4  a 
from  9  .;,  it  is  evident  that  some  other  process  must  bo 
adopted  ;  because,  if  f!  a  he  subtracted  from  9  .r,  the  pro- 
|iosed  operation  will  not  be  performed ;  for  it  is  not  6  a, 
liiit  C)  a  —  4  a,  that  is,  2  a,  which  is  required  to  be  sulv 
trneted  from  9  a;  fin  subtracted  from  9  <i  leaves  3  a, 
which  is  4  It  less  than  would  result  from  subtracting  2  a 
from  9  a ;  but  if  to  3  a  we  add  the  other  term,  namely, 

4  (),the  sum  will  lie  the  remainder  soiu^bt,  bccauie  3  a  -j" 
4  H  =  7  "  ;  and  if  2  a  he  subtracted  from  9  a,  which  is 
just  the  same  question  in  another  form,  for  6  a  —  4  n  is 
=  2  a,  the  remainder  is  just  7  a  as  before.  So,  if  a  —  b 
is  to  be  subtracted  from  c,  the  remainder  would  be  c  —  a 
-\-  h,  and  for  the  same  reason.  It  may  therefore  be  given 
as  a  general  rule,  that  nil  the  signs  of  a  quantity  which 
is  reiiuired  to  be  subtracted  from  another,  must  be  changed : 
thus,  when  4  x  —  3  1/  is  subtracte<l  from  7  a  -f-  5  b,  the 
renuiinder  is  wiitten  thus,  7  »  -f-  5  /)  —  4  .r  +  3  y. 

When  like  quantities  are  to  lie  subtracted  from  each 
other,  it  is  usual  to  place  them  in  two  rows,  tho  one 
above  the  other;  the  signs  of  the  quantities  to  be  sub- 
tracted must,  for  the  reason  above  adduced,  be  conceived 
to  be  changed  ;  and  the  several  quantities  must  be  addei^ 
ns  shown  in  '.he  following  examples : — 

From  5  (u-  4-    7  ,1 1/  —  2  y 
Take  3  y    -f-    3  ax  —  fi  xy 
Kcmainder,  2  «x  -|-  1 3  xy  —  o  y 

Miilliplienlioa. 

The  multiplication  of  two  quantities  is  performed  by 
midtiplying,  as  in  arithmetic,  the  coefticients  of  the  quan- 
tities, and  then  pretixing  the  proper  sign  and  annexing 
letters:  thus,  the  product  of  3  o.  multiplied  by  6  i,  i« 
1.5  ah,  and  7  a  x  4  «/)  =  28  iiM. 

When  the  signs  of  both  quantities  are  alike,  the  sign 
-f-  is  to  1)0  prefixed  ;  but  when  unlike,  the  sign  —  must 
lie  prefixed,  which  may  bo  thus  shown  at  one  view:— 

1.  4-  multiplied  by  -f-  produces  -\- 

2.  —  multi[)lied  by  —  produces  -|- 

3.  +  multiplied  by  —  produces  — 

4.  —  multiplied  by  -f-  produces  — 

Hence  the  teehuical  rule  generally  given  is,  that  "like 
numbers  produce  phis  -|-,  and  unlike  produce  mi.ius  — ." 
This,  however,  is  not  perfectly  true  when  more  than  two 
quantities  are  to  be  succes-sivcly  multiplied ;  beciiuse  al- 
though ihc  product  of  an  oven  number  of  negative  quai>. 
litiej  is  iiositive,  yet  the  product  of  an  odd  numlier  of 
negative  quantities  is  always  negative ;  thus, 

—  ax— ''X—  ''  =  —  "''•' 
and  __ox— ^X— ''X  —  e=-  ihde. 

When  tho  same  letter  occurs  in  both  quantities,  th* 
2»  2 


m 


INFORMATION   FOR   THK   PKOPLE. 


OiHcM  mn«t  N»  ddiloJ ;  thus,  «•  x  «•  m  anann  «=  o*. 
In  thn  miiHiplirntion  of  r(irn|iminil  (iimnlilif",  it  in  iihuhI 
«  comimiicc  from  tlio  li'd-lmiid  flKiirt';  I'l'"  iiiiilli|ili<'ii- 
'on,   fi)r   iriHtiinci',  nf  H  a/<  —  4  nc  -f-  x  by  2  n,  i»  thu« 

8  o/i  —  i  ac  ■^■  X 


16  .<«6  —  8  ii*e  +  8  (II 
To  nuilli|ily  two  cniiipoiiml  <|iinntitirii.  crtch  term  of  llio 
one  iiiiihI,  iim  in  nrillniii'tlr,  tin  imilli[ilii'il  liy  imcIi  tritii  of 
the  other;  ihewi  |iiiiliciiliir  or  piirliiil  prinhii'lH  miit«l  he 
•tided  iiiTiirdiiik;  lo  llie  ride«  of  iidchtion.  iiiid  their  hiuii 
Will  K>^'*'  ''>"  whole  product,  an  Hhuwii  in  the  following 
iuttuiicu : — 

Multiply  3  (1  -f  8  6 
Hy  n  —  b 

__  3  „6  —  8  h* 
Product,  3  ((i  -I-  6  a6  —  81?" 


nivinjon. 

The  operntion»  of  diviHion  Iwlnj?  in  nlijehrn.  nH  in  nrith- 
metic,  merely  llie  rouverij)  of  tliow  of  mulliplieiition,  the 
■anie  ruleit  respeclhut  Hii^nn  apply  in  hoth.  'I'huH,  0  ah', 
divided  hy  2  /j,  \»  equal  lo  3  iih, 

8  rj^ 

And  —  8  r.i'  -1.  4  X,  or  —   - —  =  -^  8  rx 
4  .1- 

In  division,  all  Ii-IIith  eomuion  to  hoth  rniantilies  muni  he 
omitted  in  ttie  ipiotient;  mid  when  the  hiimip  letlem  oeeur 
in  l)otli  with  (lilU'icnt  indices,  the  index  of  the  letter  in 
the  diviwir  muKt  lie  Hulitracted  from  thiit  in  the  dividend; 
thui, 

nhx 


abx  -i-  uA,  or_ 


ah 


=  X :  and 


6  u»  -i-  2  a»  or  — —,  =  3  u« 

2  u' 

When  the  exponent  of  any  letter  in  tlie  divinor  ex- 
CfcJm  that  of  the  Bauie  letter  in  thi;  dividend,  the  Utter 
ex|H)netit  must  he  sulitriicted  from  ttie  forir  •^r,  and  tlic 
quotient  will  be  in  the  form  of  a  fraction  ;  thus, 

8(ij»  2"a-* 

When  the  numlnr  to  lie  divided  ia  a  coni|>ound  quan- 
tity, and  the  divisor  a  Himple  one,  then  eiich  term  of  the 
dividend  must  lie  divided  separately,  and  the  result  will 
be  the  amtwer;  tluiH, 


.  12a'xi^-8(u-«  =  — . 


6  a  -+-  34  u4  4-  8  a'  -f  12  ac 
8  a 


=  3-f  126  +  4o+6c 

When  the  divisor  and  divi.lend  are  hoth  compound 
quantitiee,  the  rule  is  the  same  as  that  of  long  division 
in  arithmetic  When  thero  is  a  remainder,  it  must  lie 
niaile  the  numerator  of  a  fr.K'tioii,  under  which  llie 
divisor  must  lie  put  as  the  denominator ;  this  fraction 
niusl  then  \te  placed  in  the  quotient,  as  in  arithmetic. 
The  comjHiund  (juaiilities  must,  however,  he  previously 
•rranjjeil  in  a  parliculiir  way,  namely,  accordimj  to  the 
deweiKlm,'  jiowcrs  of  some  letti'r,  as  of /i  in  the  following 
«»ui)j(>ie;  and  this  lelUtr  i«  called  the  Iruiliiig  quantity. 
'Jht  lollowiiig  IB  ail  example  of  the  division  of  oomp<miid 
^uan tilieb ; — 

,-.j)li^  —  3  Wx  -f-  3  ix»  .-z»(i^ ibx4-  I* 

0'—     i*x 

•  _  2  Wj  -f  3  bxi 
—  3  6«j  -f  'ibj'i 


Frnci.onn. 


Tlio  ruloa  reculotinpt  the  niiinuuemcnt  of  ftnctwin 
alitehra  are  similar  to  those  in  aiitlmiclli-.  ' 

.\  mixed  (iiiantity  is  reducicl  lo  a  frnclion  hy  multinj 
ing  the  whole  or  intenral  part  hy  the  deiioiniii",ti)t  of V' 
fraction,  and   annexing   the  iiumenilor    with  iti  „.„. 


sign  to  the   product;  the  former  dciioiMJnulor,  if 


placoj 


under  this  sum,  will  give  the   reijuii,,)  hwixm     Th 

tlio  mixed  quantity  3  x  +  _1.  may  bo   thui  tcJu^J 

to  a  fraction  :  2  .r  X  "  <  =  '«  >x,  ami   as  fi  „h  n,u„i^ 

added  to  form  the  numerator,  and  the  former  donomi 

tor   he  retained,  the  required  fraction  ig  the  foUoiii, 

12  f r  +  fi  "/'  .  ..  ,  ,  ^' 
An   operation   exactly  the   rcvern  of 

this  would  of  course  he    rcipiisite,  wcie  it  propotcii 
reduce  a  fraction  to  a  mixed  quantity,     'i'hus,  the  fr  " 
..       13  M  4-  6  ui  I         I       •  * 

-  —^ ""y  ^*  reduced  to  a  mixed  numW, 

by   dividing   the   numerator   by  the   dcnoiiiiniilor;  tlie 
nuini#ator   of   the    fractional    part    must    Im   loriiu'd  li 
that   term   which   is  not  divisible  without  a  ri'n,auii|,,p 
the  folh.wing  is  therefore  tlie  reijuircd  mixed  (luantuy! 
2  a  4-  1_!L.     A  fraction  is  reduced  to  its  lowest  tomm, 

in  algebra  as  in  arithmetic,  hy  dividing  the  numerator 
and  ileiDiiuMator  by  any  ipiantily  capable  of  clividim, 
thcjii   Uitli  without   leaving  a  remainder,     'i'hua  in  .;„ 

fracli,)ii ZL^_^_^!: ,  it  IS  evident  that  the 

coell'ieient  of  every  term  can  Iw  divjilcd  by  !,^  gmj  „ 
the  letlt  (I  enters  into  every  term,  5  n  may  Iks  calW 
the  ureatcst  common  measure  of  this  fraction,  liecaii* 
it  can  diviile  both  the  numerator  miil  tlie  ilciiominatur 
The  numerator,  (10  «'  +  20  ab  -f-  S  «J)  ^  5a  =  S,ji 
-f-  4  /(  -f-  "  i  ""J  'he  denominator,  'i!>  nt  _^  .5(i  =:  7  „. 

hence  the  fraction,  in  its  lowest  terms,  is_Ji_il*  '"t" " 

Sometimes  the  greatest  common  measure  of  two  quaii. 
titles  is  not  so  obvious  as  in  the  example  just  aJduicJ 
ill  which  cas«'  recourse  must  lie  had  to  the  follow jJ 
o|)eration  : — The  <iuaiitily  the  cxpuiicul  ofwliosf  1,,,J. 
iiig  letter  ill  the  first  t<"rii  is  not  less  than  thai  in  ilu 
other,  must  first  lie  divii  ed  hy  the  other;  the  divisij 
must  then  be  divided  by  the  remainder;  each  RUiTisiii 
reiniiintler  is  made  the  divisor  of  the  hist  divisor,  uiiul 
notliing  remains;  when  the  divisor  lust  used  will  i^-  \\^ 
greatest  common  measure.  Quunlilies  which  have  no 
common  meiisure  or  divisor  except  1,  are  called  mai... 
tmiifuiiibU;  thus,  7,  5,  3,  and  ll,are  iiicoimnonsuraHe 
qiiaiitities,  and  are  also  said  to  lie  prune  to  each  otlur. 
When  fractions  are  required  either  to  be  added  or  lol« 
stihlracted.  they  must  necessarily  U'  first  reduced  to  1 
common  denominator,  which  is  ellecled  hy  iiiulliiiKin' 
each  iiumcrulor  by  every  denominator  hut  its  own,  to  iiri>. 
(luce  new  numerators,  and  all  the  denominators  togclhii 
for  the  common  denominators.  'J'lie  new  nunifralcii 
can  tiien  lie  either  added  or  subtracted  acconliiig  as  tli« 
case  may  leiinire,  and  the  new  denominator  niustbe  Idl 
unchanged.  .Multiplication  of  fractions  is  isrloriiud  !iy 
multiplying  all  the  numerators  together  for  a  ncvnui 
meralor,  and  thi  ir  deiioiniiiulorB  togi  iher  for  a  iiimJeiio 
iiiinator;  it  is  then  usual  lo  reduce  the  resiiltinu  Iraclioii 
to  it*  lowest  terms,  llivisi.in  of  fraciions  is  cllid  ,1  ^j 
multiplying  the  dividend  by  the  reciprocal  ol  ihudivi*,', 
'I'he  reciprocal  of  any  quantity  is  unity,  or  1  liividisi  I7 
that   (luaiitity,  or  Hinqily    that   quantity   iiivciled;  tiiui, 

the  reciprocal  of  a  or—  is  _,  and  the  nxiprocal  of  —  ii- 
1        a  t     a 

therefore,  to  divide  a  fraction  as by         thodintliiid 


ALORBRA. 


iVt 


"'»aii  b«  muItipliiJ  by  the  reciprocal  of-— .which 

.  Sail        6        40.i«     L,    .       ,      . 

.  "  ■  therrfurf,    t-Xt— ""rs — i  tni»  liut  fraction, 

4  fl  •     I     J. 

liriiliJ  I'y  ''*  !?'<"'•''■■''  common  mvoiiure  8  o,  u  the  fruc- 

y^  required,  nuracly,  _^. 


Iiivdiiitidii  and  Rvoluiion. 

The  riiiHini;  of  u  <|u»iitily  to  miy  rcijiiircd  power  in 
yillivl  liiMiliiliim,  mill  in  iHTforiiii'd  by  inultiplyinn  tlio 
uiiilitv  i"'"  it"'!'  ■"*  "'^''1'  ""  'I  'I*  iiiilii'aU'd  liy  llic  bivcii 
LuT.  Wlu'ii  tlir  i|imTitity  hiH  no  imlrx,  it  is  only 
LfHiafy  '"  l'''"'"  ''"'  tf''"'"  l>owcr  nliove  it,  in  onlcr 
mtfolv  I'l  inilii'"!''  the  pownr:  thus,  thu  4lh  powrr  of  u 
j,,it.'iiiiil  till'  culir  or  .1(1  power  of  n  -f-  h  in  (a  -f-  /))'. 

M'lit'ii  till)  i|ii:iii!ity  huit  an  indi-x,  tliat  inilcx  muat  tie 
uiultiiili"'  ''y  ''"^  '^ivi'ii  iH)Wor;  tluiH,  the  fourth  powrr  of 
ji  j, ,,«,  Imtuu.*  i  X  '^  =  ^-  If  tho  (juiuitlly  r<'i|uirc<I 
I,  |x<  niiM'd  ho  n  fraction,  hotii  tho  numerator  uiiii  tho 
denomiimlor  miisit  1)0  nmltlpUvil  hy  tho  given  jrawer : 

lliuJ.  tho  «piurB   of  -j  in  -J,     When   tho  sign  of  tho 

(iii.inliiy  i"  4-1  'h<''i  all  the  powern  to  wliich  it  can  be 
(ii.iiii  iiiiist  bo -J- ;  if —,  then  nil  the  even  powern  will 
X  4.,  mill  I'll  'he  odd  [lowers  — .  'I'Iuih  x  X  x  =  r^\ 
-o  ;<  —  II  =  +  "'<  —  ",X  — "  X  —  «  =  — ii'. 
A  roinpi'Und  i|U,)iitity.  that  is,  one  conKislini;  of  nioro 
'Jiaii  one  toriii,  is  r.iiscd  to  any  t;iven  power  hy  niulli- 
(iluii;' it  into  itielf  llie  nuniU'r  of  linu's  dniolid  liy  the 
MWfi.  TIlia  in  done  accordinij  to  the  niellidd  idreudy 
JiH'ri'ieii  in  oiultiplicution.  'i'iius,  the  miuaru  of  x  -f-  "^  ; , 
ii  tliUA  fuuoil : 

Multiply  X  +  i  y 
By       X  H-  4  1/ 

x*  4-  4  J  y 

4j-y+J«  V»_ 

i^]uare  =  x«  +  '  i  y  -f-  1 6  y> 

The  opi  rations  of  evolution  are  tho  roverne  of  those  of 
involution,  l>eiii(Jt  desi;Tned  to  diwover  the  wpiare  root, 
cu!»'  root,  Ac,  of  any  iriven  quantity.  The  roota  of  nu- 
nn'rioul  i-m-nicients  are  liiund  as  in  arithmetic:  thus,  the 
iqiiare  root  of  19  'i^  is  7  a,  beeaiise  7x7  =  49.  The 
in.li'x  of  the  given  quantity  must  be  divided  by  2  for  the 
H'jarc  root,  by  3  for  the  enbe  root,  by  4  Ibr  tho  Uh  root, 
4c,:  thus,  the  cube  riMit  of  «"  is  u'. 

The  «iiiijrc  root  of  eompound  quantities  may  lie  ex- 
Irjoti ,'  liy  »  method  very  (similar  to  thut  descriU'd  in 
iriihmctic,  ami  of  whieh  an  example  was  there  given. 
Tiie  cuIjo  root  may  likewise  bo  extracted  by  a  similar 
priKess. 

Irnitiunal  Quantities,  or  ^-^iiriln. 

Some  numlwrs  have  no  exact  rout;  for  instance,  no 
numlwr  innltiplied  into  itw-lf  can  produce  .*).  'I'he  roots 
of  such  quaiititie*  ore  expressed  by  frai-tional  indices, 
or  lir  the  sii»n  y/,  which  is  called  the  riidicid  niijn,  from 
the  Latin  idilir,  a  root:  thus,  the  sipiare  root  of  .'i,  and 
I'le  inbe  root  of  (it  -)-  hy,  may  Ih;  expressed  either  by 

vA  xV  ( '  +  '•)K  or  by  .")*,  (a  +»/')'. 

T!iP  »ppri)xiiniito  value  of  such  quiintities  can  bo 
iwiTlaini'il  to  any  reipiired  de^^ree  of  exiulness  by  the 
cininion  rules  for  extraitini,'  roots:  thus,  the  8(]u;\re  rout 
of  2  is  I  ami  an  indeliuile  nnmlier  of  decimuls;  but  as' 
liie  cxiict  value  cun  ni-ver  be  determinnl,  the  ii:ime  of 
liT<i'iii/i(i/  is  given  to  such  quantities,  to  disliin;uish 
tiiem  tiom  all  mimliers  whatever,  whether  wliole  or  I'rae- 
iDntl,  iif  which  the  value  can  l)e  found,  and  which  are 
thrrcfore  tiMiued  ni.'ion  //.  Irratio'ial  immbers  nie  gene- 
riillv  called  surib,  from  tho  Latin  luidus,  deaf  or  senso- 
Vm. 


RqUBllon*. 

When  two  quantities  are  ei|Ual  to  each  other,  the  atg«> 
bruii'al  expresHioii  denoting  their  equality  la  Lulled  aa 
('i/ijM(i<oi.  TiiUH,  X —  'J  Ml  4  4-  3  is  an  equal.oii,  ilenoting 
that  if  2  be  deducted  from  aoine  unknown  quantity  repro* 
senled  hy  x,  the  remainder  will  be  equal  to  4  4-  ;i,  thut  it, 
to  7 ;  therefori%  tho  vuluu  of  x  in  this  equation  ia  tvt* 
dciitly  74-'^  or  U. 

The  diH'trine  of  equutionfi  constitutes  by  far  the  ninat 
important  part  of  algebra,  it  being  one  of  the  |irincipul 
objects  (if  inatliemulii's  to  reduce  all  (|uesti(iiiri  to  the  form 
of  equations,  and  then  lo  ascertain  the  viilue  of  tlie  un 
known  ipianliticH  by  means  of  their  relations  to  other 
quanlitii's  of  which  the  value  is  known. 

Many  probleniH,  which  aru  now  quickly  and  re-dily 
detenniiied  by  being  reduced  to  eipiatioiiH,  used  formerly 
to  be  solved  by  tedious  and  intricate  uiilhnietical  {ulet{ 
and  Ihiy  may  slill  Ih<  foui  J  ni  old  treatises  on  arithmetic, 
arranged  undrr  the  tith'S  of  Double  and  Mingle  i'ositiun, 
False  I'oHition,  Al'.egiitii>n,  «V.e,  Equ.ilions  receivu  dit^ 
fercnt  nanies,  iieconling  to  the  highest  power  of  the  un- 
known (piantilies  contained  in  them.  An  equation  ia  iuij 
to  bo  umplr,  or  of  the  Jiml  diura,  when  it  contains  imly 
the  lirsl  power  of  the  unknown  quantity:  thus, xx  ^ 
=  :>,')(!  —  'i  is  a  simple  eijualioii,  the  unknown  (jurntily 
iH'ing  icpreseiited  by  x,  as  it  generally  is  in  other  equik- 
tioiiH,  and  the  known  quantities  by  the  other  letters  unJ 
figures,  j--|-4  =  8u,  is  aijimilial.  e(piation,  becuuau 
X,  the  unknown  (piuntity,  is  raised  to  the  xeeond  power. 

a*=  a-f-  3  /)  is  a  mhiv  equation,  the  unknown  quan- 
tity being  rai.-ed  to  the  third  power. 

X*  —  (1  =  25  r  is  a  bi(^H'iiliaiir  ei|ualion,  because  x  .1 
raised  lo  the  4th  power.  If  eijuatioiis  conluin  unknown 
quantities  raised  to  the  .'ith,  (itii,  or  higher  poweri,  they 
all'  di'iiominatid  aci'iirdingly, 

'i'he  ({uantities  of  which  un  equation  is  composed,  aro 
called  its  inm:i ,  and  thi)  parts  that  stand  on  the  right 
and  left  of  the  sign=s,  arc  culled  tho  meiitb':rs  or  tide*  of 
the  e(|uation. 

When  it  is  desired  to  determine  any  question  that  may 
arise  reH|M!cting  the  values  of  some  unknown  quantity  by 
means  of  an  eouution,  two  dinlinct  steps  or  operationi 
are  reijuisitc;  the  lirst  step  consists  in  translating  tlie 
question  from  the  eolloipiial  language  of  common  lite 
into  the  pin'uliur  aualytical  lamjuage  of  the  science.  The 
second  step  consists  in  rinding,  by  given  rules,  the  answer 
to  the  (picsti,in.  or  in  other  words,  the  solution  of  tlte 
equation.  l]\perlness  and  facility  in  |ierformiiig  th* 
former  operation  cannot  be  produced  by  any  set  of  rules; 
in  this,  IIS  in  in.m)'  other  processes,  practice  is  the  best 
teacher.  Every  new  question  requires  u  new  process  of 
reasoning;  the  conditions  of  the  questio.i  must  jo  well 
onsidcrcd,  and  all  the  operations,  whether  of  addition, 
sulitraction,  iVc,  which  are  required  to  be  performed  on 
the  (juantities  which  it  contains,  aru  to  be  represented  hy 
the  algebraic  signs  of  4-, — ,  &e. :  the  whole  problem 
must  1h5  written  down  us  if  these  operationa  had  been 
already  performed,  and  as  if  the  unknown  (piantitieg  were 
discovered,  which  can  1h'  don;  very  biietly  by  substituting 
the  first  letters  of  the  al|)halH't  for  the  known  quantities, 
and  the  la^t  letters  for  the  unknown,  prclixing  to  each 
the  siirns  of  addition,  multiplication,  <!^c.,  which  may  be 
denoted  in  the  ipicstioii.  Tims,  suppose  a  fiinner  wished 
to  divide  jL'l,  l.')s.  between  Ins  two  sons,  allowing  '.)s.  moru 
to  the  elder  ihuii  to  tlie  y(miiger,  what  would  each  re- 
ceive !  To  express  this  question  in  aigeoiaiv  language, 
the  sli.ire  of  tlie  younger  .-on  may  lie  represented 
by  X,  and  then  thut  of  the  elder  son  will  be  x  -\-  9. 
The  steps  of  riMsuning  by  whi;'!i  this  question  may  be 
solved,  lire  the  following : — The  share  of  tho  elder 
-r-the  share  of  the  yiun^'cr  is  il,  \,)».,  equal  to  3U8. 
therefore,  x  4-  '.)  -f.i  ^  35,  or  2  x  4-  9  =  35s  .•.  a  x 
^  3 J  —  9,  or  2  X  =  2(j  ...  x  (share  of  the  younger  sua\ 


INFORMATrON   FOR   TIIK   PEOIM.R. 


iB---  «■  13,  bikI  J  -\-  V  (iha  •h«ra  of  lb*  elder  ton) 

B  13  4-  0  ■-  i'i. 

Th«i  WTdiiil  (i|H'riilioii  III  ilofrrminiiKr  «  qurntlnn  miiy 
be  euul  to  I'DiiKixt  III  t'oiitriviirici'i  In  K<'t  i'.  •"'  ll<<*  nil- 
known  <|iiiiiitily,  III  hIiiiiiI  iiIiiiik  on  iirii'  mil)'  iil'  ttu*  i-i|uii- 
liim,  witliDut  tli'Niroviiikr  tlio  ('i|iiiility  or  liiiliiiii'r  Ik'Iwii'ii 
the  two  milcri;  U'l'iiiitt',  in  •mli  iiii  fc|ihitiiiii,  liir  iimlmicv, 
u  the  fiillciwiri^,  .r  -^  4  -^  'i,  llir  viiliii'  kI'  i  in  <it  oiuo 
•een  ;  if  0  iviti'  Ii>  lir  jiiil  in  llir  |iliii'r  of  i,  llir  i|lli'HliiMi 
Wouli)  be  Kiiii  ti>  In'  f'liliilli'l,  Ihi-iiiim-  tlii'ii  il  wniilil  hI.miiI 
tliux,  fl  ai  0 ;  tlii'ri'iiur,  H  Ih  tlit>  iihiI  or  Kohilinii  ol  llii< 
isju.ilioii,  .1  BB  t  4-  *■  '■'  ■"OIK'  iiiK'Mixnn,  llic  iiiikiiMivii 
quiintily  IH  Ml  iiiiK'li  iiivnlvnl  willi  kiinwii  i|iiiiiititirH,  llhit 
it  Ik  often  II  ilillii'iill,  iiltliotii'tl  iil\v:iyM  ii  liii'lily  iiiliTrnliii^ 
prorfHH,  to  M'liiir.itc  it  rrniii  llii-iii.  Miiny  riili'it  liir  rlli  il- 
ioK  lliiM  lite  KiM'ii  ill  iiioHt  nlui'liriiiciil  trniliHCH,  liiil  lliry 
piny  ikll  N'  i'iini|iriw'(l  in  ono  i^i'iktiiI  iiliMTViiticni,  nuiiifly,  , 
tlml  uiiy  o|N'riilion,  wlii'llior  of  niMitioii,  Hiililractioii,  iVi-„  j 
may  Iw  |m  rliiriiinl  on  one  hIiIi-  of  mi  i<i|iialioii,  |iro«iili'il 
only  titat  Ihr  very  Kiiiir  o|M'riilion  Ih-  iHTt'oriiicil  on  llit-  | 
otliiT  nidi',  HO  UK  not  lo  ili'Ntiiiy  tlirir  (■i|iiiilily.  'I'Iiiih.  in  i 
thr  pijUMtioii  J'  4-  •'^  =  I  ••  ■'  i"  ■■>i<li'nt  iliul,  if  f<  i  onlil  Ut 
n'movcil  from  llii<  1<  It  to  tlio  riulit  xidt-  of  tlio  niinilion,  r  j 
Would  mIiiikI  iiIciiic,  uiiil  itH  Millie  ut  oiiiu  U'  nntirt.iliii'tl ; 
it  haviin;  Ih'cii  ulieuily  kI.iIiiI  tlml  tiny  o|H>riilloii  iiiiiy  In> 
perliirnieil  on  one  xiili'  of  the  e()iiation,  |iroviileil  only  tlip 
Mine  o|K'rulion  lie  iiirl'irincil  on  tlie  oilier,  it  IhIIowh  that 
6  miiy  Ih'  Niililmeleil  from  llie  jell  Hide,  if  mililraeleil  like- 
wise from  the  rmhl  ;  therefore,  r  +  •''  —  ,^=1^  —  ') ; 
Iml  ft —  ^  Wuiif  ei|ii.il  t»  U,  the  e<|ualioii  would  more 
projiorly  Ih- exprenm^d  tluw,  j- =  \'i  —  !i;  Ihal  ix  lo  Kay, 
the  value  of  .1  in  7.  .\i;am.  in  the  eiiuatioii,  .i- —  10  =:  Iil, 
add  10  torurh  Hide  of  llieei|iialion',  lhen,x—  10 -f-  10  3= 
87  4-  "';  li't—  Hl-t-  I0=a0;  llieiefore,  j  =  27  4-  10. 
When  the  mime  ijiiaiilily  in  iIiun  Hiilitiaeled  from  hoth 
•idea  of  uii  eijualioii,  or  udiled  lo  hoth  »idi'H,  the  ojH'ru- 
lion  in  teehnieally,  llini«h  iH'rha|)H  iiicorreetly,  tiniH'd, 
'•  traii.iponii)!  qiiantitu'H  Irom  one  vide  ut  an  njuulion  lo 
the  other." 

The  reiiwin  wliy  the  name  ofH'rnlion  |M'rfornied  upon 
both  (ideji  of  an  ei|uallon  diMii  not  alter  their  eijiiality.  Ih 
■imply  iH'eaiiiH'  "if  eipial  ipiantllieH  Ih'  added  lo,  or  mili- 
(rai-ted  from,  ecpial  ipiaiitilieH,  the  \aliie  of  the  ipiaiitilieN 
will  Htill  l>e  eipial."  'I'o  illiiHlriile  thi.i,  Hiip|Hi»int;  a  wine- 
mefcbant  luu  «  eaHkn  of  wine,  eaeh  ea>k  eonlainim; 
31)  KiilloiiH,  Il  in  eMileiit  thai,  if  he  drawn  otf  the 
Mine  numlier  of  Hallonii  from  enrh  eask,  the  i|iiaiillty 
»f  galloiiH  remaiiiim{  in  eiiih  rank  will  ntill  In>  eipial ; 
■o,  if  he  were  lo  re|>la(e  the  same  UiinlxT  of  ^allonii 
of  wine  in  eiieh  eai-k,  the  iiiimher  ortjalioiiH  contaiiied 
in  each  would  kIiM  I>v  eipiul  to  each  other.  For  the 
Mmo  reuxoii,  it  the  two  Hide*  of  an  eijuation  were 
either  multiplied  or  iliMded  hy  the  name  iiumlH^r,  their 
equality  to  earh  other  would  Hiill  remain ;  in  the  equa- 
tion U  jr  =  <I7,  llic  value  of  i  may  ho  diwovered  hy 
dividing  IniiU  wdva  of  the  equaliun  by  it*  i-ocflieient  3 ; 

:<i      57  3t  27 

lhiu,-g  =  — .;  hut-jj=3j,and  -^  =  9;  .•.x=s9.    In  t>je 

Mme  way,  if  the  unknown  quantity  in  an  equation  i« 
tcquired  to  he  <li\iiled  by  Home  known  quantity  each 
tide  of  the  equation   niuy  he   mulliplird   by    the  di>i»r: 

liiui,  in  tlie  equation  .  cs.32,  if  eiieh  mrmlirr  U-  inulti- 

plied  by  4,  the  rexult  will  be  ;r  s=  ,32  x  4  =  128.  Thin 
ia  technically  called  clearing  an  equation  of  fraelioiia. 

On  Simple  K<|uaiionH  ("ofiiainifif  two  or  more  I'liknuwii 

(JliO  ■  l,r«, 

It  may  be  given  aa  a  ijeneral  rule,  that  when  a  quea- 
tion  ariai'H  as  to  the  value  of  two  or  more  unknown 
quaul4tieH.  eanu  of  li>.."«i  quanlitieM  must   be  reprcitcnted 


by  nnr  of  thu  Iiwt  letter*  of  the  alphabet,  and  ni  m,. 
iepnrate  ecpiatloriH  niiinl  he  deduced  from  the  (iiicti,,- 
there  are  unknown  ipiiintilieH.      A  group  of  eciiiiitjn«,  ^ 
thU  kiiiil  ia  I'alleil  a  tifitm  of  limulliintniiii  rii'i'ii,„„, 

If  il  U'  reipnred  lo  wilve  a  Hy«leni  of  two  «iiinilaf«» 
lioii",  conlainiiig  two  unknown  ounnlitieH,  Oic  mo«t  nli 
ral  melliml  »eem«  lo  W  to  determine  firnt  Ihn  value  of 
of  the  unknown  qnantitieH  hy  mrana  of  |i,iih  the  mi 
lioiiB.     Then,  a«  "  t'lingH  which   are   r<pia|  to  (h,,  1 
lhlli«   are  eipial   lo  earh  other,"  it  IoIIowh  tlial  iKp  ,„ 
hcIh  of  numlMTH  or  lellem  in   the  two  eqiiHii„n«,  wh|,.|, 
have  iH'en  awerlaiiied  lo  Ih'  eipial  lo  the  value  cit'  j.  ».i| 
alxo  ho  eipial    lo  each  other,  and    may  lie  reduiTil  to  ,» 
eqiialion,  which  will  eontain  only  one  imkiiowii  ipnintiN 
Tliix  procena  in  teehnieally  called  (7i«ii,i(i'iii,i.     I,et  jf^  Zj 
iiiKlance,  Ih-  required   lo  Hnd  the   length  of  iwrt  tila,L, 
of  wimmI  :  the  length  of  Kith   plaiikn  to«elher  in  5i|  f„, 
and   one   plank  ia  H   feet   longer   than   the  oijipi  „\,j^^ 
Thi«   ia   evidently   n   ipie«tion    involviiiu   t«c>  uiikiimin 
qnantitiea,  namely,  the  h'n«th  of  each  of  the  two  ,,[^^\^ 
of   wixkI.     To   tralixhito    thiii   queKtion    into    ali,','liri(|i|,| 
language,  call  the  loimer  plank  i,  and  the  shorter  pjank 
y,  then   the  factn  nhove  mentioned   m.iv  |i<<  ilm,  MiUii. 
x+v  =s  20,  and  ,i-  _  y  =  H,     The  value  of  j  may  |, 
BHcertained   hy  meana  of  both  the  equalioiiH,  in  th(  (^^, 
lowing  manner  :i— 

The  first  equation  givca  x  i=  20  __  y 
.\iid  the  Hecoiid,  .r  =a    N  4.  u 

'Ilie  two  valnea  of  j,  iIiun  a.Hcertained,  inu>,  form  a  n« 
eijuatiun,  tliua: 

20  —  y  S3  H  4.  y 
80  =  8  4-  2  y 
80  that  it  In  evident  from  tliia  laat  eqi,Alion  IhatSi/ii 
equal  lo  12,  bccaUHi'  20  —  H=  12;  therctoie  v  =  t),aiiii 
20_()«  II,  The  length  of  both  the  plaiikH  is  Uiui 
awerlnined,  the  longer  lieiiig  M  feet  in  liiixlh,  and  i!n 
Hhorler  (>  feel, 

Thiit  prolilem  ia  not  only  given  aa  an  example  of  (/.'m^ 
ti'i'iioi,  hut  alMo  aa  an  ilhislralion  of  thi'  general  tlii'iircni 
that  ••  the  greater  of  two  nnmla'rH  in  equal  lo  Imlf  ilu n 
Huni,  /iluf  h.ilf  their  diircriiice;  and  that  Ihr  l,n  nuiii!»i 
Im  equal  t4>  half  the  Hum,  mi>iM«  hall  llie  ihlVrri'iut.'' 
'I'hiis  the  above  quuHtiun  might  liave  been  bdIvcJ  ij,  ij,, 
following  uianner : 

20       8  20        H 

a-+.j=ii.«na-— 2  =  6 

The  following  ia  the  method  of  demoiistrttlin?  thii 
curiouH  Ihcoreiii  algehraically  ; — Let  11  and  A  lie  ;inv  Iwj 
numlH'ra  of  which  n  ia  the  greater,  and  let  lluir  aiiiii  In 
reprcHPiitcd  by  »,  and  their  dllliTence  by  ./  j 

'J'hen,  II  4-  />  =^  ' 
and      a  —  /i  z=  1/ 

t       ft 
and      a  Bz  -  4-  - 

Alao,  S6«.f  — (f 
«      d 


and 


*-2-: 


Qiiailratie  Kquatioiii. 

A  qnndralic  eipialion  literally  ineanH  a  riiUornl  r^m. 
t\'>  ,  the  term  Ix'ing  derived  from  the  Iiiitiii  iiimihiunt, 
mpiareil ;  a  qiiadrati'-  equation,  therefnn'.  ih  mcrelv  nil 
equation  in  which  the  unknown  qnaiilily  is  si|ua;eil  ir 
niixjil  lo  the  Kecond  (Hiwer.  ynadnitic  eipiatinnn  lut 
olt«'n  called  eijualionH  of  two  dimenhioiiH,  or  of  the  nfmiij 
degree.  U'caus*'  all  eqiinlionH  are  chuMted  according  to  the 
index  of  the  higheat  [lower  of  the  unknoun  qiiaiitilM 
contained  in  Ihoin. 

There  are  two  kinda  of  quadratic  equationi,  nniMly, 
pure  and  oilUctcd.     I'ure  quadratic  rqualioun  are  tLnat 


OEOMi-rniY. 


4M 


dUfh  th"  "'"'  P"**'"'  "'  '''"  iiiil«n''wn  qunntily  (lor» 
f.nm'nr'  llif" '■  ""'  ttiD  ton*!  ilillViilty  ill  ■olviiiK  aurli 

•*"""      I     _ii    ii...>   I.   ;■,>..   1.   i....i„    it... 


iqW"""*' 


U'cniiMi  nil   lliJit  i«  ri'i|ui>ilu  U  to  olitiiin   tlir 


Juf  J  'li'  "I"""'  «<•<••>" liii«  to  tli«  rulix  Cor  niilvjiiif 
li,  ,,,.,i»lii'ii«,  mill  llii'ii,  by  I'xlrm'llnn  tli«  ii|iiur«  rmit 
IkiiIi  ■"'■'''  "'  *'"'  '''fnlioo.  to  iini'crhiiii  llii<  vnliin  of 
'  uiiiiiMnvii  i|imtiiity.  For  iiiHlniicii,  Itt  it  Im  ri'i|uiri'il 
t,  liiid  111"  '"•'"'  "'  •■  '"  """  '''l"'>'ioii  H  +  ■*  ■»  «"•  Hy 
I  lui'iiiiit  ^  '"""  '''"'''  "'''*'  "'  ''"'  <''|i"*'ioiii  tlus  vnlun  of 
.1 1,  It  oiifi'  *'''ii  to  Ik<  It*  fiil|i)W«  :  x'  ^  S!)  _  1  ■■  'ift ; 
' ,  ^murt'  root  of  'w'tli  xiili'i  of  tliiii  oi|iiatioii  '»ill  cvi- 

JfllllV  «'*"  '''"  *"'""  "^  ■'''  ''"'"'  "^  ="  v/  '■"*  "  '*•     ^''" 
,,  .„',  a,  .iftiiiii  i|iiiiilriitlc  t<<|uiilion»  iiro  micli  n*  niiitnin 

'  I  oiilv  >l><'  ■«|»i>i'<'i  ''ft  ■I*"  ''>*>  'IrHt  {lower  of  tliu  uii- 

Tlirrc  ari>  two  int'llioiU  of  nolviiiK  qimilrntic  ri|iiiilioiiit ; 
-.iiri"  inili'l'l''''  to  llir  Hiiiiloon  fur  omi  of  llirwi  iih'IIiimU, 
ofivhiili  II  fii"  iii'<'oiiiit  in  nivi'ii  ill  n  very  curioim  IliiKKm 
-jili  fnliil''<l  "y"  ''""""•  ''"111'  oilier  inotlnNJ  vvim  ili.-.- 
fovfrtil  I'y  ''"'  "''"'V  ''i'"""  »'«>'liriii«t«.  Tli«  |iriii>'i|i|i! 
juin  wtiiili  liolh  mi'lliiMlH  iirt- loiiuili'J  in  th«  followlim. 
It  li  e'iili'iit  lli»t  ill  11"  uilfrctoil  rqimlion,  um  for  iiiMtiiiicc, 
i/,  th«  firnt  iiiiiiiIht,  n.''  4*  ^'^<  '**  '■"'  "  ('om- 
it in,  liowi'vcr,  iK'i'i'HHiiry  for  tlii>  Holiitioii  of 
llir  ('UUutioil  timt  till'  Imt  Hlili"  cliDulil  lie  ho  iiioililic'il  ii« 
1, 1,,  maili'  II  coiiiiilrti'  wiuiiriMiiid  lliiit,  liy  corrrMiKiiiiliiiK 
,,!,litioiii".  iiuillipliiMlioim.  iVc,  till-  finmlity  of  llii'  hccoihI 
•J,.  aliiiiiM  iiot  Ih-  loHt ;  thru,  liy  oxtnicliiii;  tlii^  M|u;iri> 
ti>il  of  w'l  ""'''"•  •'""  ''"luntioii  will  lio  retliurd  to  oiiu  of 
^i.  firsi  drKri'ii,  which  muy   bo  lulvcd  by  the  comiiioii 

Thi)  fill'>wing  illimtration  from  Driil^o  will  prrliiipH 
ii.,;,|  more  to  iiiiiiplify  tho  mlijcct,  aiul  hIiow  Iih  prmtii'iil 
uliulv.  lliiii'  *"y  '"''"'  "bHtract  rulon  which  ini^lit  U-  iiil- 
ijiiceil.  A  pcmoii  liouuht  cloth  for  XDIt,  ISs.,  which  he 
nlJ  ii,;iiiii  lit  jL"-.  ^*-  ("'f  1''™'"'  I""'  «iiiiicil  by  the  ImrKuia 
If  mu  h  ail  olio  jiivcu  coMt  hiiu.     KcquircJ  tho  iiumlier 

•'  piecM. 


Ilu 

i,;  +  ''^  = 
piiii  *iiiiii"' 


Let  X  Mi  the  nunilior  of  piecee,  £13,  \t>:  /,  30  ■■  67t  | 

thrrrfore,  — ■■   the   liuiiiliur   uf   ■lii1liiiK«   rich    pioca 

z 
coNt,  Riiil  IH  z  in  equiil  to  thn  liumlxir  of  iiliilliiiKe  for 
which  III)  Holil  the  ii/ii'/i-,  Iwcuiiie  Vi,  Na,  or  4H  nhilllng* 
WiiH   thr   prico   lin  oliluiiu'il   fur  t'a'h   piece.     'I'heri'fora, 
48  X  —  076  WM  what  he  gained  by  lliu  bur)|uiii.    Ilviice, 

676 
by  tho  qupition,  48  jr  _  070  ■■   — •   'I'hiii  pquution,  •( 

ti^r  hiiviii  (  liocn  lulmiittiiil  to  tlir  iihiiiiI  oiu'riitiorK  of 
traii'poiiitiuii  I  lid  diviHioii  which  have  U^eii  ulreudy  (!» 
•orilxxl,  uMumcii  tho  form  of 

336         S3S 

Thn  neit  Rtrp  i«  to  complete  the  Miunre ;  thii  ii  dotM 
by  adding  to  eiich  lide  uf  tiie  equutiiiii  </iir  aiyiiarr  uf  half 
tin  cvfjfifiiiil  of  lilt  $trund  Itriii, 

885  /Sasy       'i'i^       6(lfi'j5         65035 

*•— ■g'+ V  38  y  ■■  To  +  "lim 


1U34 


then,  oxlracliiii^  tho  nqiiaro  root, 

""5       336  480 

,,^---«,iJx--,-, 


X-'  — 


in. 


Tlierefore,  16  pieces  of  cloth  was  llio  qiiaiility  moM. 

It  Ih  oneii  ri'ipiiMite,  ftir  the  more  euHy  Mululiiiii  uf  e<|Uii* 
tioiiH,  to  cliiiii){o  them  into  other  eipiiitioiiH  of  n  dilferciit 
form,  hut  of  equal  value;  and  thin  in  technically  teriiioil 
TriiiiHformiUioii.  Our  limilM  will  not  permit  uh  to  eiitur 
on  any  ex|iliinatioii  uf  this  rule,  ur  of  llie  rulcM  farther 
advanced  in  the  xcieiice,  \xt>  I'eriiiutations,  lindetvriiiiiiej 
('iH-llicicntH,  Uinomial  'I'licorcni,  liXpuiieiitiul  LI(|uatiuiii, 
Ac.  To  lliow  who  dcsiiu  to  poaHi'ds  a  thoroiinh  know 
lcd);c  uf  al;;clira,  vvu  refer  to  the  complvto  and  acceiaihla 
trcatiHu  uf  .Mr.  Bell,  in  Chambom'*  Lducatiuiivl  Courae. 


GEOMETRY. 


OtoMtTRT  (from  two  Greek  works  signifNiui;  the 
«ar:/i,  aiul  '"  wmifun)  it  that  branch  of  in  |ihi-,*j:itieal 
rioiice  which  Ig  devoted  to  the  i-onnidcration  -A  Ibriii 
in  1  *ili'>  and  may  therefore  lie  Kaid  to  'v  the  biest  and 
lurolit  jjiiiile  to  the  study  of  all  «rienr,  v  n  wluoh  ideas 
rf  dimension  or  »paco  are  involved.  Mmont  all  the 
tnoivlcilifc  reiiuired  by  navigators,  an-hitoctH,  survey orK, 
eiiiinecrs,  and  opticians,  in  their  re?<|ie.livn  occupations, 
biiii-Juci'd  from  geometry  and  utiur  branches  of  niathe- 
mitics.  All  works  of  art  are  cuiutructed  according;  to 
t>'  rules  which  (?<""'""''?  involvca,  and  wo  find  the 
urn*  laws  observed  in  the  works  of  nature.  The  study 
of  mathematics,  i^cnerally,  is  also  of  great  importance  in 
rultivalini;  habits  of  exact  reasoning;  and  in  this  re- 
(it'i'lil  foriiis  a  useful  auxiliary  to  logic.  Ah  will  be 
oii'<'r\('d  from  even  the  short  sketch  wliich  wc  arc  able 
1)  pri'scnl,  the  steps  of  reasi'iiing  from  given  and  exact 
p.i'inisi;s  are  clear  "■"  '.  andcniaWe,  and  the  resulUi  salis- 
tiitoiy.  All  sr'djectH,  it  is  iruo,  are  not  Kusceptiblc  of 
Scin:;  hrciii,'ht  to  the  test  of  mathematical  analysis ; 
luit,  to  one  ac(iuainteil  with  tho  pnx'ess,  no  fantastic 
ipi'CuliUioiH  or  loose  {mints  iii  any  argument  will  lie 
jrceptcd  as  proved  truths,  or  passed  over  without  an  at- 
ifinpt  at  refutation. 

It  hu  bp«n  frequently  aisertcd,  though  apparently 


with  little  truth,  that  geometry  was  (\nl  cultivated  in 
Egypt,  ill  relereniMj  to  tho  measurement  of  the  land. 
Tiiales  of  Miletus,  who  lived  about  (iOO  u.  c,  is  among 
the  firMt  concerning  whose  uttainments  in  mathomaticul 
knowledge  wo  have  any  authentic  information.  About 
two  centuries  later,  the  I'liitiinic  school  was  founded, 
which  event  is  one  of  the  most  memorable  e|)och8  in 
the  history  of  geometry.  Its  founder,  Plato,  made  seve- 
ral important  discoveries  in  niuthcmatics,  which  ho  con- 
sidor.'d  the  chief  of  scicinis.  A  eelobraled  school,  in 
which  great  improvement  was  mnile  in  geometry,  waa 
estnblished  ibout  !?00  u.  c.  'I'  this  school  the  cele- 
brated Euclid  beliiiiged.  Afi  r  this  period,  geometrical 
science,  like  all  general  knowledge,  gradually  declined, 
and  such  continued  to  bo  ttie  .isc  until  uliuut  a  century 
oftcf,  when  it  revived  ;imong    .'ic  .Vrabiaiis. 

.About  the  beginning  of  the  tilleenth  century,  geo- 
metry, as  well  as  all  other  departments  of  knowledge, 
became  more  generally  cultiv»*ed.  In  modern  times, 
Kepler,  Cialileo,  Tacquct,  Pascal,  Descailcs  Huvgens 
of  Itulland,  onr  own  Newton,  Maclaurin,  l.ngrange,  and 
many  others,  liave  enlarged  the  bounds  of  mallicrnatica. 
Hcieiice,  and  have  brought  it  to  boar  upon  subjects  which, 
in  former  ages,  were  cunsidervd  tu  bo  beyond  the  gt**f 
of  tlie  liuiuan  mind 


IW-'^ ' 


430 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


A»  impioved  by  the  labours  of  inathematicinn«,  gco- 
metrical  sciciii-ii  now  iui'ludcs  tho  Ibllowiiig  leading  ilc- 
partinonts: — Piano  Oooinetry,  the  basis  of  which  is  tho 
8ix  Books  uf  Euclid's  Elcinentu;  Solid  and  Sphoriciil 
Oi?otnetry,  S|)herical  Trigonoinctry,  the  Projections  of 
llie  Sphere,  Perpendicular  Projection,  Linear  PrrHiwc- 
livo,  and  Conic  Sections.  Hut  to  these  main  branches 
of  (he  science  there  are  added  Practical  Matheinatics, 
which  may  be  dch'<ed  us  an  elaboration  of  the  abslract 
Jnctrines  and  rules  of  general  nialheinatica,  in  applica- 
liun  to  many  matters  of  a  practical  nature  in  the  busi- 
ness of  life.  For  rxaniplc,  among  the  branches  of  prac- 
tical Mathematics,  wo  lind  Prac'ical  Geometry,  Trigo- 
nometry, .Meas.iremcnt  of  Heiglits  and  Distances,  Level- 
ling, Mensuration  of  Sui faces,  Mensuration  of  Solids, 
Land-Surveying,  Calculations  of  Strength  of  Materials, 
(tauging.  Projectiles,  Fortillcation,  Astronomical  Pro- 
W'Mus,  Navigation,  Uialhng,  &c.  In  such  a  limited 
Bp.ice  as  the  present  sheet,  it  would  be  altogether  impos- 
silile  to  present  even  a  mere  outline  of  these  numerous 
branches  of  general  aii<l  practical  mathematics ;  anti  all 
we  propose  to  do  is  to  olXet  a  sketch  of  a  few  leading 
features  of  the  science,  in  order  to  show  what  is  meant 
by  various  terms  in  common  use,  and  also  to  incite  the 
reader  to  a  regular  course  of  study. 

DEFINITION    or   TERMS    AND   FIGURES. 

In  common  language,  the  extremity  of  any  sharp  in- 
strument, such  OS  an  awl,  a  jiencil,  or  a  penknife,  is 
called  a  point.  A  small  mark  or  dot  made  with  such 
an  instrument  on  wood  or  )>ajH'r  would  also  be  called  a 
point ;  l>ut  if  examined  with  a  niugnifyiiig  glass,  it  would 
op|)car  an  irregular  s))Ot,  having  length  and  breailth.  A 
g,timf,ri(al  junat,  on  the  contrary,  has  neither  length  nor 
breadth,  and  may  be  called  an  imaginary  doL 

The  extremities  or  ends  of  lines  are  always  considered 
to  be  points;  and  when  the  two  lines  int*'rseet,  that  is, 
sroas  each  other,  the  intersection  is  called  a  point. 

The  ilefiuition  always  given  in  geometr\  of  a  tue  is, 
(hat  it  is  l,-in:lh  trilunU  l,rciiiiih.  It  is  therefore  eviilent 
that  a  true  geometrical  line  cannot  Ih)  constructed ;  for 
however  finely  a  line  may  be  drawn,  it  will  be  always 
found  to  have  some  breadth ;  this  will  at  once  apiH-ar  by 
examining  it  through  a  microscoj)o. 

In  piactie.il  geometry,  it  is  necessary  to  draw  f)oint» 
and  lines ;  liut  it  is  impossible  to  approach  to  niutlie- 
matical  exactness  unless  they  l)c  drawn  as  finely  as  pon- 
sible,  always  in'aring  in  mind  that  such  lines  ami  points 
are  merely  symOttli  of  the  true  geometrical  lines  and 
(mints. 

\  fttf>crfi'-ii's  or  tttrfnce  has  only  length  and  breadth, 
tmi  is  bouniled  by  lines.  Hy  the  word  surface  is  gene- 
rally understood  the  outside  of  any  thing;  os,  for  in- 
sUirice.  the  exterior  of  the  lid  or  of  the  sides  of  a  box. 
It  is  also  used  in  geometry  to  convey  the  very  same 
idea,  always  supposing  that  it  has  no  thickness. 

A  geometrical  surface,  like  a  line  and  a  point,  cannot 
lie  constructed.  The  thinnest  sheet  of  paper  is  not  a 
BUperticies  hut  a  solid,  having  the  three  kinds  of  hulk, 
trclinically  called  dimensions,  which  are  possi-ssed  by  a 
•jliil  IkmIv.  namely,  length,  breadth,  and  thickness. 

Soliih  are  bounded   by  surfaces.     (Jeometry  considers 
the  <limen'-ion»  of  space  as  abstracted  or  separated  from 
miy  solid  bivly  which  might  occupy  th.it  space :  a  body  ' 
always  ori-u|iie3  a  sriace  oxaclly  equal  to  itself  in  mag-  I 
Bifude.     This  will  Ik-  b<'ttcr  under:<tiM)d  by  imagining  a 
cast  to  ho  taken  of  some  solid   body  :   when  the  Ixjily  is 
"enr)ved.  a  cavity  remains,  and  we  can  refison  concern-  ' 
int!  the  iliinensions  o(  that  cavity,  knowing  that  it  is  of 
the  same  length,  breadth,  anil  thickne.is,  as  the  solid  Ixnly 
bmn  which  it  whs  cast.     In   this  way,  we  reason  con- 
onrning  the  dimensions  of  anv  given  space,  and   with 
the  same  ;prerision  as  if  geornetpcal  lines,  surfaces,  and 
•uliJs.  were  reall>  I'rawn  in  tlu     space;  and   it  is  tiic 


business  of  theoretical  geometry  to  examtnc  ihe  nron. 
ties  and  relations  of  these  forms  or  magnitudes     W 
learn  from  practical  geoinctiy  how  to  form  rcpreaeni*! 
tions  of  the  ideas  thus  acquired.   Therefore,  the  comm 
meaning  usually  attached  to  the  words  point  Um     " 
fiiiv  and  miliil,  if.  admissible  in  practical  geoinelry-  id" 
object  of  this  brimch  of  science  lieinj  to  show  how  i! 
draw  upon  pajior,  or  construct  in  wood  or  metal  conw 
representations  of  those  forms  or  magnitudes  which 
conceived  to  exist  in  space. 

As  there  are  three  kinds  of  magnitudes,  lines  su 
faces,  and  solids,  it  follows  that  the  natural  division  f 
the  science  of  geometry  is  into  three  primary  dppart. 
mcnts;  namely,  I.  Geometry  of  Lines;  2.  Gennictry  of 
•es;   3.  (leomctry   of  Solids,  or  Solid  lieomctre 


Surfaci 


■eomctn', 


The  term  Pliine  Geonulry,  however,  is  usually  appljf  i 
to  tho  geometry  of  straight  lines,  rectilineal  figures,  anl 
circles  described  on  a  plane. 

Lines  are  named  by  two  letters  placed  one  at  each  ei 

treniity.     Thus,  tho  line  drown  here  is ____^ 

named  the  line  A  B.  *  i 

It  is  obvious  that  lines  can  be  drawn  in  different  wavi 
a.'id  in  various  directions.  A  line  can  be  crooked,  curviij 
mixed,  convex,  concave,  or  straight.  ' 

1.  A  i-rmk-ril  line  is  com|io.sed  of  two 
or  more  straight  lines. 

2.  A  line,  of  which  no  part  is  a  straight  line,  is  called 
a  ' i/HT  line,  a  ntrved  line,  or  nirve. 

3.  A  niueil  line  is  a  line  composed  of  straight  ant* 
curved  lines. 

4.  A  niiivrx  or  mjir(it'«  line  is  sucli  that  it  cannot  be 
cut  by  a  straight  line  in  more  than  two 
points;  the  rnnnn.'u  of  tho  intercepted 
jiortioii  IS  tunieu  lowarus  ine  siraignt  hnc,  and  'Jie  r"^ 
ic.iiVy  from  it. 

A  straight  lino  is  in  geometry  called  a  nV/i/  jinj 
from  the  Latin  reifuo,  stmight.  If  two  lines  arc  such 
that  when  any  two  points  in  the  one  touch  or  coin. 
cide  with  two  points  in  the  other,  tho  whole  of  the  linpj 
coincide,  each  of  them  is  rallcil  a  .'/nii!,7if  or  n./i' 
line.  Thus,  a  line  wnich  has  been  carefullv  riiln!  on 
u  sheet  of  j.aper,  will  bo  found  to  coincide  with  the  ejgj 
of  a  ruler. 

A  straight  line,  therefore,  may  be  said  to  lie  evenly 

between  its  extreme  points.     If  a    ^ 1 

straight  line,  us  A  B,  turn  round  ^  ' 

like  an  axis,  its  two  extremities  A  and  B  rcmiiininijin 
the  same  position,  any  other  point  of  it,  at  C,  will  alsc 
remain  in  the  same  position. 

.\ny  point  in  a  line  is  called  a  point  of  nrrlinn.mi 
the  two  parts  into  whiel<  it  divides  the  line  are  lallod 
seifiiienlf.  Thus,  rne  point  C  in  the  alinve  line  ADij 
a  jioiiit  of  section,  and  A  (",  B  (',  are  secsnu'iits. 

It  is  evident  that  two  slraigh'  lines  cannot  rni'loje  i 
space;  and  that  two  straight  lines  cannot  have  a  cr.m. 
inon  RCirment,  or  cannot  coincide  in  part  without  coin- 
ciding altogether. 

A  surface  may  be  concave,  like  the  inside  of  a  basin 
convex,  like  the  exterior  of  a  ball ;  or  plane,  like  the  top 
of  a  flat  table.  A  plane  suiierlieies,  or,  as  i'  is  torn- 
inoiily  called,  a  plane,  is  coiisidereil  to  l)e  |)erfi'(tly  ovon, 
so  that  if  any  two  poinfs  are  taken  in  it,  the  strajjiht 
line  joiiiint; 'hem  lies  wholly  in  that  surface,  'i'hi'i  can- 
not, perhaps,  be  better  illustrated  than  liy  placiiu;  two 
flat  p.ines  of  glass  tho  one  above  the  other.  If  the  two 
surfiees  coinciile  exactly  in  every  part,  they  may  be  «aiil 
to  tiirm  a  geometrical  plane;  and  it  is  upon  a  plane 
eijually  flat  and  even  that  all  gecmietrical  lines  and 
figures  in  plane  geometry  are  suppusod  to  be  drawn. 


Tlie  Circle. 

A  figure  is  a  part  of  space  enclosed  by  one  or  mote 
boundaries ;  if  these   iMundaries  arc   su^iorficief,  il  '» 


GEOMETRY. 


4s: 


examine  Ac  proj,,, 
>T  magnitudes,  W, 
to  form  rcpresentj. 
lorcfore,  the  common 
ortls  pnint  /i,„,  „„. 
•tical  geomclry ;  n,, 
ing  fo  show  how  to 
ood  or  niptul,  correct 
agnitudes  which  art 

ignitudcs,  lines,  gu,. 

0  natural  ilivision  of 
rce  primnry  depart. 
IK'S ;  3.  (iennieiry  of 
or  Solid  Ccoractrj-. 

T.  is  usually  appli,:,! 
■ctilincttl  figures,  and 

laced  one  at  each  ej. 
re  ia 

*  B 

wn  in  different  wavi 

1  be  crooked,  curvpl 

f  two 


Iraight  line,  is  called 

jsetl  of  straight  an(l 

ch  that  it  cannot  be 
two       -^'        \ 
pted    '  \ 

;nt  flnc,  »nd  'Jie  :;i|. 

railed  a  rkhl  lino, 
two  lines  are  such, 
one  tdiich  or  coin- 
10  whole  of  the  Inipj 
a  fliuddil  or  nA' 
n  carefiilly  rulpil  <^^ 
incidc  with  the  rjge 

3  said  to  lie  evenly 


and  B  rein.iinini;  in 
jf  it,  at  C,  will  also 

point  of  frrim,  and 
the   line  iire  callnl 

le   nlinve  line  A  D  ii 

p  seijnii'iils. 

c»  (Miinot  eni-lojc  i 

cnnmit  li'.ivi>  a  cent. 
part  without  coin- 

'  inside  of  a  basin 
ir  plane,  like  the  top 

H,  or,  as  i*  i-i  con> 
to  lie  [lerfi'ctly  cvrn, 
1  in  it,  the  straijht 

mirfai'e.  'i'hii  can- 
bun  by  placiii?  two 
other.  If  the  two 
irt.  they  may  be  miJ 

it  is  upon  a  plane 

mietrical  Ijiics  and 
isod  to  lie  drawn. 


flcd  by  one  or  m«» 
Hu^iorficicf,  il  ii 


aWii  &  "'^'^'  ""'^ '''  ^'''""i  '^  ^  called  a  plane  figure,  in 
plane  geometry. 

The  spa"*'  oont.iincff  within  the  boundary  of  a  piano 
jTure  is  called  its  siir/.iie;  and  the  quantity  of  surface, 
in  reference  to  that  of  some  other  figure  with  which  it 
is  rompiircd,  is  called  its  aira. 

The  circle  is  one  of  those  figures  which  are  most  used 

the  arts  and  in  priu-tical  geometry,  and  therefore 
clainis  particular  attention.  When  a  line  ia  made  to 
(urn  round  one  of  its  ends  or  extremities  which  remains 
lixcJ,  ihc  extremity  which  is  carried  round  the  other 
(nircsa  line  which  is  in  every  part  equally  distant  from  the 
point  whcic  the  other  end  is  fixed.  The  line  thus  traced 
..  J  iirrli;  and  ii  frecjuently  termed  the  arctimjirence, 
Jo'H  the  Latin  rirnim,  round,  oiid  /fccn.i,  carrying. 

A  pair  of  coinpa-!ses  are  geiiornrlly  used  in  proctieal 
mmietry  to  describe  o  circle.  They  consist  of  two 
fiririffht  and  eijual  legn,  generally  of  brans  or  iron,  and 
always  pointed  at  the  bottom.  Their  upper  extremities 
I'O  joined  toiretluT  by  a  rivet  or  joint,  so  that  they  can 
(le  opened  or  clo-sed  at  pleasure.  In  order  to  draw  a 
fjrilc,  one  end  niu.^t  be  firmly  fixed,  and  the  other,  ofter 
loin?  opened  [iroporlionately  to  the  required  size  of  the 
circle,  must  lie  made  t»  turn  com])letcIy  round,  and  a 
iijncii  or  pen  beiiitj  attached  to  it,  the  trace  of  the  circle 
il  loft  upon  the  paper.  The  point  in  which  one  of  the 
liMof  the  compasses  is  fixed,  and  round  which  the  cir- 
cle is  described,  i»  called  its  leiitie,  as  " 
.\.  A  i^traiL^ht  line,  as  Ii,  drawn  fVoni 
lio  centre  to  the  circujnference  of  a 
rircle,  i»  called  a  iiiiliu.",  which  is  a 
l.Hliii  word  literally  siiinifyini;  n  ray, 
»iii!  of  which  the  plural  i.s  radii.  A 
f.imir  on  wheel  alloids  one  of  the  most 
f;inili:.r  examples  of  u  circle.  The  axle  is  the  centre, 
aid  the  spokes  are  radii,  while  the  outer  rim  of  the 
ivhei'l  may  lie  called  the  rintimfcriiux.  It  is  evident 
llial  all  the  spokes  are  of  ei|ual  length;  and  this  is  invu- 
riiiMy  the  case  with  the  railii  of  every  circle.  A  straight 
li;ie,  drawn  tlirmmh  the  cenlre  of  a  circle,  and  ternii- 
niied  at  each  eylreniity  by  the  circumference,  is  called 
immler,  friun  the  Greek  ilia,  through,  and  metreo,  I 
Dioaiture. 

An  i"(  nf  a  circle  is  any  part  of  the  circumference ; 
Ihc  ji/ii/ of  an  arc  is  a  straiiclit  lino  joininij  its  extrenii- 
lies.  These  two  words  come  from  the  Latin  words 
aci",  a  how,  and  rluinla,  a  string,  because,  as  is  shown 
k  the  annexed  figure,  a  geometrical  arc 
with  it'i  chord  closelv  resembles  a  bow  to 


which  a  string  has  been  attached  fiir  the 
purpose  of  shooting.  A  rainbow  is  a  be^io'lfjl  example 
of  an  arc.  A  anninrilr  is  a  segment,  having  a  diameter 
for  it^  chord,  and  Ihen'fore  is  just  b  > If  of  a  circle. 

When  a  chord  is  lengthened,  and  made  to  extend 
Ivvond  the  boundaries  of  a  circle,  it  's  said  to  nit  the 
ntrle,  and  is  theretbre  called  a  .w  (iiif,  from  the  Latin 
ri-iitii,  cutting.  .\  straight  line 
A  B,  which  lies  wholly  (iK'sii/e  the 
rircle,  meeting  itonlv  in  one  point, 
il  railed  a  ■hii^'ih,',  from  the  Latin, 
l««i,'i'ii.',  touching,  because  it  is  said 
ti)  touch  the  cirele  in  the  point  C 
I jlic  line  AH  were  to  remain  fixed,  ami  if  the  circle 
f  1)1^  were  nmde  to  revolve  nmrid  a  point  in  its  centre, 
in  the  xaine  way,  for  instance,  as  a  fly-wheel  turns 
it  would  lie  foiiid  that  no  part  of  the  line  A  U  wonlil 
lie  touched  by  the  circle,  except  the  one  point  C.  This 
projicrty  of  the  circle  has  been  turned  to  account  in 
\ariou.iWBys.  'I'lnis,  the  grindstone  used  for  sburiiening 
li:,ives  is  a  circle  made  to  revolve  on  its  centre ;  the 
libdc  of  the  knife  i.s  held  as  a  liiiiffeiit  to  this  circle  ; 
inil,  therefore,  each  tiniu  that  the  grindstone  is  tuim-il 
ri'und.  il  rubs  imainst  the  blade,  prjdueing  a  finer  edge, 
tliC  giving  il  a  poli  lied  appearance. 


Circles  arc  said  to  touch  one  another,  when  they  meet 
but  do  not  cut  one  or  other.  Circles  that  touch  one 
another,  as  the  circle  C  D  E  and  F  (i  H  in  the  lust  figure, 
are  called  tangent  circles. 

The  point  in  wliich  a  tangent  and  a  curve,  or  two 
tangent  circles,  meet,  is  called  a  jiniiU  nf  contact.  When 
of  two  tangent  circles  one  is  within  the  other,  the  con- 
tact IS  said  to  bo  internal ;  but  when  the  one  is  without 
the  other,  the  contact  is  said  to  be  cxteimd.  (8e« 
figure.)  Tangent  circles  are  very  frequently  applied 
to  useful  purposes,  in  various  arts  and  manufactures. 
The  wheels  of  a  watch  are  merely  so  many  tangent 
ciides.  When  hy  means  of  the  mainspring  one  of  the 
circles  is  made  to  revolve,  its  motion  causes  the  wheel 
which  touches  it  to  move  also,  and  the  motion  of  that 
tangent  circle  causes  the  wheel  which  touches  it  to 
move  likewise  ;  and  in  t'lis  way  molion  is  transmitted 
or  carried  through  the  watch.  It  will  be  observed,  on 
examining  the  inside  of  a  watch,  that  the  circumference 
of  each  wheel  is  indented  or  toothed  ;  when  the  watch 
is  going,  the  teeth  of  one  wheel  enters  into  the  indenta- 
tions of  the  other,  end  thus  the  one  wheel  is  carried 
round  by  the  other. 

Coiiceiitric  circles  are  circles  within  circles,  having 
the  same  centre.  A  stone  thrown  into  water  produces 
a  familiar  instance  of  concentric  circles ;  the  waves  at 
first  rush  in  to  supply  the  place  of  that  portion  of  watar 
which  was  disjilaced  by  the  stone,  and  then  by  rapidly 
flowing  back,  several  ( ircles  are  I'orincd,  one  within  the 
other,  on  the  surface  of  the  water ;  and  though  these 
circles  are  of  very  various  sizes,  some  being  large  and 
others  small,  yet  the  spot  in  which  the  stone  fell  is  alike 
the  centre  of  all,  and  therefore  they  are  called  concentric 
circles. 

Circles  that  have  not  the  same  centre  are  called  erenu 
trie,  in  reference  to  each  other  from  tln^  Latin  tx,  out  of, 
and  ccninini,  centre.  A  point  which  is  not  the  centre  of 
a  circle  nay  also  be  called  eccentric  in  reference  to  that 
circle. 

Circles  are  called  cqunl  when  their  radii  are  cq'ial  in 
length,  because  it  necessarily  follows  that  the  circumfer- 
ence is  also  equal :  thus,  the  two  wheels  of  a  gig  .are  obvi- 
ously ecjual  circles,  and  the  spokes  or  ruilii  of  one  ai« 
equal  to  those  of  the  other. 

The  circle,  as  we  shall  hereafter  have  occasion  to 
show,  is  of  much  inqiortancc  in  many  operations  of 
practical  geometry,  and  is  therefore  di\idcd  into  3C0 
equal  parts,  called  dctirccs.  It  would,  however,  have 
been  ])ossiliIe  to  have  <iividcd  the  circle  into  any  other 
nuinber  of  degrees ;  the  reason  why  the  number  060 
was  originally  fixed  upon,  is  the  following.  During  the 
early  ages  of  astronomy,  the  sun  was  supposed  to  per- 
form an  annual  revolution  round  the  earth,  while  the 
earth  ri'iimiiied  perfectly  stationary.  The  first  astro- 
nomers taught  that  the  orbit  or  path  in  which  they 
imagined  the  sun  to  move,  was  a  circle,  and  that  the 
perio '  which  elapsed  from  the  moment  of  his  leaving  one 
jioint  in  this  circle  until  he  returned  to  it  again,  waa 
precisely  3(50  days.  Accordingly  all  circles  were  divided 
into  S(H)  degrees. 

When  it  was  discovered  that  the  earth  moves  round  the 
sun,  and  that  she  performs  an  entire  revoUitinn,  not  in 
300  days,  but  in  30.'j  days,  G  hours, 4H  iniiiules, 48  seconds, 
it  was  not  thought  advisable  to  alter  the  division  of  the 
cirilc  which  had  previously  been  established,  because  the 
nimilHir  3(iO  is  found  of  great  cimvcnience  in  all  length 
eiied  calculations,  there  being  many  numbers  by  wliica 
it  can  lie  divided  without  a  remainder,  as  1 ,  2,  3,  4,  5,6, 
8,  i),  10,  12,  1."),  20,  A;c 

Each  of  the  3(i()  degrees  is  subdivided  into  flO  min- 
utes, and  each  minute  into  CO  seconds.  The  degree  ut 
marked  thus  (°) ;  the  minute  (') ;  the  second  (") ;  so 
that,  to  express  11  degrees,  7  niiiiules,  5  seconds,  we 
have  only  to  wiite  11'^  T  5".     .Sometiincb  the  second  m 


aititin  divided  into  sixty  equal  part*,  callud  tierces,  or 
tliirjj,  wliich  division  is  expressed  by  the  sign  ('")  ;  but 
more  frequently  decimals  are  used  to  express  the  smaller 
divisions. 

The  French  divide  the  circle  info  400  equal  parts, 
culled  degrees  ;  each  degree  into  100  minutes,  and  each 
minute  into  100  seconds.  When  this  division  is  used 
by  English  writers,  they  generally  give  the  name  of 
grades  to  the  degrees.  One  grade  is  equal  to  0°-9,  or  to 
64'.  or  to  3210". 

A  circle,  as  wo  have  just  observed,  being  divided  by 
DiattiematiciaMs  into  360  degrees  or  |)arts,  it  follows  that 
the  quarter  of  a  circle  includes  90  -  "^^os 
degrees,  'i'aking,  then,  a  quarter 
of  a  circle,  and  marking  it  as  in  the 
adjoining  figure,  H  L  is  the  hori- 
lontal  line,  and  P  L  the  perpen- 
dicular  line  ancouding  from  it. 
Any  line  drawn  from  the  centre 
to  any  point  of  the  <'ircuiufcrence 
delines  the  degree  of  inclination, 
or  "ilope  otf  the  horizontal.  Thus,  a  line  ascending  from 
the  centre  to  the  10th  degree,  is  called  an  inclinatiim  or 
angle  of  ten  degrees  ;  a  line  ascending  to  the  45th  degree 
ia  called  an  inclination  or  angle  of  forty-five  degrees; 
Bixl  so  on  with  all  the  other  degrees  to  the  90th.  In 
this  manner  a  standard  of  comparison  has  been  esta- 
bUshed  for  defining  the  various  slopes  or  inclinations  in 
planea. 


INFORMATION  FOR  TOE  PEOPLE. 


ia   not,   however,  essential   that   a  perpendicular   lii,. 
should  be  vertical,  that  is  to  say,  in  the  same  uirecUo 
as  a  weight  falls  when  suspended  by  a  string;  a  pe 
pendicular  may  be  in  un  inclined  or  even  m  a  horizontal 
position,   provided   only  that  it  fornx   an  angle  of  an 
degrees  with  the  line  to  which  it  is  perpendicular.    Ii 
is    so   oOcn  requisite  in  practical  geometry  to  erect 
perpendicular,  that  on  instrument  called  a  Carpenter' 
Square  has  been  invented  for  the  pvirpose.    It  congjsu 
merely  of  two  flat  rulers  placed  at  right  angles  to  each 
other.      As,  however,  instruments   of  this  doscriptjon 
are  often  nindo  with  great  inaccuracy,  and  as  it  is  not 
l)esides,  always  possible  in  certain  situations  to  have  ono 
at  hand,  the  following  methods  of  raising  a  perpcndiculat 
on  a  given  lino  and  from  a  given  point  will  be  found 
very  usefjd. 

Let  .\  B  be  the  given 


:^ 


from  E  and  F  as  cen- 
tres, with  the  jiamo  or 
nnv    other    radius,    de- 


Anglei. 

Every  one  is  familiar  with  the  meaning  of  the  word 
corner  :  we  me  accustomed  to  call  those  parts  of  a  room 
ill  which  the  walls  meet,  the  "  rorner.i  of  the  room,"  and  , 

in  the  same  way,  the  sharp  point  in  which  two  sides  or    and  from  E  to^F ;  then 
edges  of  a  table  meet,  is  also  called  a  corner.     The  very  , 
■nroe  idea  suggested  by  the  word  lyirner  is  admitted  into  | 
geometry,  only  the  word  itself  is  dropped,  and  the  word  i 
anile  substituted,  simply  because  the  Latin  for  corner  is 
amulu$. 

By  an  angle,  therefore,  we  are  to  understand  the  in- 
clination or  opening  of  two  straight  lines  that  meet, 
but  are  not  in  the  same  straight  line.  The  two  lines 
which  thus  form  an  angle  ore  called  the  xides  of  that 
angle.  In  the  above  figure  of  the  quadrant,  or  quarter 
circle,  we  have  an  example  of  a  right  o!i:;le  in  the  corner 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  horizontal  and  upright  j  ^  I^-  »'"!  pr'nluco  it  to 
[in^t.  •■u'  ''""  "'■'" '"  '■'  i  ''"'1 

An  angle  which  is  greater  than  a  right  angle,  or  more  \  draw  F  C,  and  it  is  the 
than  90°  (as  ()).  is  called  an  ohitue  an^l'\  from  the  Latin  ^  periMMidieular, 
•VujiHJ,  blunt,  because  the  vertex  or  angular  point  has 
a  blunt  ep]>earance. 


ine,  and   C  the   given 
point. 

Case  1. — When  the 
point  is  near  the  middle 
of  the  line. 

On  each  side  of  C  lay 
otr equal  distances  0  D, 
C  E ;  and  from  D  and  B  as  centres,  with  any  radius, 
describe  arcs  intersecting  in  F  ;  draw  C  F,  and  this  ij 
the  required  perpendicular. 

Case  2. — W'hctx  the  point  is  near  one  of  the  extreini 
ties  of  the  line. 

.Melh:)d  1.— From  C 
as  a  centre,  with  ony 
radius,  dcsorilic  the  arc 
D  E  F,  and  from  D  lay  E 

o(T  the  siimc  radius  to  E, 


A       nr 

j  scribe  ores  intersecting  in  U  ;  draw  G  C,  and  it  will  [jj 
I  perpendicular  to  A  D. 

1 Frnin 

,F 


Method    2.  —  From 

any  point  I)  as  a  ccn- 

i  tre,  and  the  distance  D 

;  C  as  a  radius,  descrilw 

an  arc  E  C  F,  cutting 

1  .\  15  in  R  and  (j;  draw 


An  angle  which  is  less  than  a  rinht  angle,  or  tesa  than 
90-  (a«  A),  is  culled   an    anUe   iitii;le,  from   the  Latin, 
aru.'uf,  sliorp,  from  the  vertex  being  sharp- pointed.    The  , 
number  of  degn-es  by  which  an  obtusi?  angle  exceeds,  or  | 
by  which   un  acute  angle  is  less  than  a  right  angle,  is  | 
called  the  comiiiemcnt  of  the  angle. 

The  two  lines  which  form  a  right  angle  are  said  to  l>e  ; 
perptnrli  u/.n  to  each  other;  therefore,  whenever  a  per-  ' 
pendicular  is  raistnl  either  on  the  ground  or  on  pa|>er,  ' 
«  right  angle  is  formed.  Thus,  the  walls  of  houses  i 
and  o(  all  architectural  edifices  are  jwrpendicular,  and 
form  right  angles  with  the  ground  on  which  they  are  i 
puilt ;  and  when  the  per))endicular  is  departed  from,  i 
at  in  the  Leaning  Tower  of  I'isa,  tlie  eye  is  otlended,  i 
aad  an  ajiiiH  heiibiuu  of  danger  excited  in  the  tuind.     It  j 


The  angles  mode  by  a  straight  line  falling  on  anothci 
straight  line,  ore  either  two  right  angles,  or  arc  tjgelhci 

D 


equal  to  two  right  angles.  The  first  of  the  annficd 
figures  presents  an  example  of  two  ri.;ht  nntjies  liciiii; 
formed  by  the  meeting  of  two  straiulit  lines.  In  the 
second  figure  it  is  evident  that  the  unule  A  ('  U  contain 
exactly  as  many  degrees  more  than  a  right  iiiigic  as  the 
angle  D  ('  U  contains  less  than  a  rii;hl  aiinle;  ther<fore 
the  two  Riigles  arc  together  equal  to  two  riqht  nndi's. 
Each  of  these  angles  is  said  to  Ik'  the  I'/iy/f/ii'ii/  of  the 
other,  from  the  Latin  Jii/i/i/m,  "  I  fill  up  what  is  (Jeli- 
cient,"  becnnse  the  numerieul  xalue  of  each  le— Ic  li 
exactly  what  the  other  wants  of  ISO  degre.s,  wliich  ii 
the  sum  of  two  right  angles.  E(|ual  angles  liuvr  thrte. 
fore  invariably  eijual  supplements ;  and  it  is  soarwlj 
necessary  to  add,  that  all  angles  having  eipial  Kupp!^ 
inents  must  be  equal. 

From   this  it  follows,  that  when  two  straight  Imi'i 


GEOMETRY. 


439 


the  oiiposito  niiglcg  are  equal.    The  angles  A  E  O 
^PBB  nro  culled  viitirnl  cm-  C 

,V,  because  they  are  opposite  to  A :2 

rtch  other;  thoy   are   cviJently 
wuil,  nmp'y  l""'"*""*  *'icy  have 

ual  8UP''l'ni'""^*'  '"'  ^'"  "'  ""'■''  ^  ^''"  ''y  *  careful 
'^ainiii^i'''"'  o(  till!  CiRiire.     The  same  ia  true  of  the 

„1j.3  C  K  H  rt'iJ  •'^  J^  ^'  I'  '*  mtt'iilest  from  this,  that 
■f  two  Btrai|;ht  lines  cut  one  another,  the  angles  which 
,  innke  lit  the  point  of  thoir  intcrsoction  arc  together 
ajiial  t"  '""'■  r'w'''  angl'''''  Hence,  all  the  iingleH  made 
*■  ,j„y  niiiiiber  of  lincH  meeting  in  one  point  are  together 
^u»l  to  four  right  angles. 

Pnrnlli!l  Tiines. 

VVcnrc  surrucindcil  hy  familiar  examples  oflinAi  which 
I  J  iiri'scrvc  tlie  same  distance  from  each  other.  'I'he 
uKiiwili'  in  a  nnukly  road  hy  the  wheels  of  a  cart,  the 
liari  culled  idils  of  a  railroad,  upon  which  the 
wheels  of  the  stoam-carriages  run,  the  five  linos  ui>()n 
tthich  llic  characters  of  music  are  drawn,  the  strings  of 
^harp  iiad  of  "  violin,  arc  all  so  many  instances  of  lines 
nliich  arc  always  ccjuidistant  from  each  other ;  and 
uiiicli  eviii  if  prolonged  to  an  infinite  extent  in  the 
fjinc  Jircciion,  could  never  meet.  Such  lines  are  in 
■ccui'irv  called  pwatlih,  from  the  Greek  words  puni, 
bfsidc,  and  allrloii,  each  other. 

\3  the  Jistanco  between  any  two  parallel  lines  is 
jliiavs  equal  at  e*ry  point,  it  follows  that  pcrix-ndi- 
culirs  drawn  lM'twe«n  such  lines  must  also  he  ciiual. 
Tun,  in  arciiitectiire,  ilie  columns  which  support  the 
•jiper  part  of  a  Imilding  are  made  of  equal  height, 
i\'v;iU3C  the  roof  which  the/  support  is  parallel  with 
t.U'  groiml  from  which  they  .-.re  er-cted.  From  the  fact 
tlaiparuLel  lines  cut  oil  'r  linos  proportionally,  results 
unCKle  of  dividing  a  given  lino  into  any  number  of  given 


id  let  the  number  of  equal 


u  straight  linil 


piris. 

Let  A  B  he  the  jivoi 
I'lrlslic  live. 

Molhodl.— Draws 
h  10  A  C  through  A  at 
rn  Indination  to  A  D, 
ij,  tliroujh  H  draw 
.i'.oiIkt  line  U  D  paral- 
:,'.  10  .\  C ;  lake  any 
}.AMi-e  \  E,  a'lil  l.iy 
i;  oil  lour  tiines  on  A  (',  forming  the  equal  parts  A  E, 
KF,  I'G,  GH;  l.iy  olf  the  same  distance  four  times 
,  III)  Din  the  same  manner;  draw  the  linos  H  l,(iK,l'L, 
iiiJ  E  M,  and  they  will  divii',-  .\  D  into  five  eiiual  parts. 

or  AB,  A  H,  and  U  M,  ar.'  cut  proportionally. 

Ill  this  fiKuro,  the  linos  A  C  and  U  D  being  parallid, 
ihf  parallel  linos  E  M,  F  L,  Ac,  are  equal  ;  and  by 
tiioiu  the  straight  line  .\  U  is  divided  into  equal  part.s. 
l:i  (iraetieal  geometry,  the  method  of  drawing  a  lino 
lu.allel  to  a  given  line,  and  at  a  given  distance  from  it, 
jejiends  on  tlie  fact  that  the  parallel  lines  are  everywhere 
fiiddistant,  and  is  th'.>  following  : — 

I.ct  K  Ii  be  the  given  Kne,  and  D  the  given  distance. 

From  any  two  points        r  S 

M  and  N   in   K   L    as     '^f"'^         /^""o^^ 
centres,    ami    a    radius 
iijiial  to  U.  describe  the 

iTH  P  and  i-i  ;   draw  a     ^ ___^__^ 

L'f  R  S  to  touch  those     Km  N     L 

i.Ts,  that  i«  to  !«•  a  com- 

nwii  tang'nt   to  them  ; 

u>l  K  8  ii  llio  required  line  parallel  to  A  B. 

Triiiiiirlei 

Thetri«n'.;leis(me  of  the  most  useful  figures  ingoome- 
tl)'i  all  fiKures  which  are  boinulod  by  straight  lines  are 
rainWe  of  lieiiig  resolvi'il  or  divided   into  triangles.     A 

Vui.I.-:.,)  ' 


triangle  has  three  sides,  and  also,  as  its  name  imports 
three  angles. 

A  triangle  (as  E)  in  which  the  'hree  sides  are  equal 
is  called  eqviliilenil,  from  the  A  A  \ 

Latin  rr^ui'ii,  equal,  and /ri'u.i,        /\  /\         /\ 

a  side.     Sue  h  a  triangle  is     /  E  \      /  '  \     /  "X 

also  called  ((/iii'ui^Wiir,  (from   ^ ^  ^ ^   '  * 

nquttf,  equal,  and  iiiif^uhtu,  corner),  because  when  the 
sides  of  a  triangle  are  equal,  the  angles  likewise  are  in- 
variably equal. 

A  triangle  (as  I)  having  two  equal  sides,  is  called 
ismieles,  from  the  Greek   inof,  e(|ual,  and  akrli)?,  leg. 

In  n  inileiie  triangle  (as  S)  the  three  sides  are  of  un- 
equal length.  The  word  scnlene  literally  moans  unequal, 
being  derived  either  from  ikazo,  to  limp,  or  from  skalenos, 
uno(|ual.      , 

One  of  the  most  important  properties  of  triangles  is, 
that  the  throe  angles  are  together  equal  to  two  right 
angles.  I'his  fact  is  demonstrated  in  the  following 
manner  :—  Draw  a  triangle  as 
A  B  C,  and  extz-nd  one  of  its 
sides  (D  C)  as  far  as  D.  The 
obtuiie  angle  thus  formed 
(A  C  D),  is  called  an  exlerinr 
angle,  because  it  is  outside  the  triangle.  From  the  point 
C  draw  a  straight  line  to  E,  parallel  to  the  line  A  B.  It 
is  an  established  fact,  that  all  alternate  angles  formed  by 
a  straight  line  cutting  two  parallel  lines,  are  equal ;  the 
angles  D  A  C,  A  C  E,  are  alternate,  liecause  they  are 
formed  by  the  straight  line  A  ('.cutting  the  two  parallel 
lines  A  1)  and  ("  E,  and  are  therefore  equal.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  tlie  angles  .'V  B  C  and  E  f !  D  arc  equal,  Itecause 
the  line  A  B,  which  ,brms  a  side  of  one  angle,  is  paral- 
lel to  the  line  C  E,  w  lich  forms  a  side  of  the  other ;  and 
the  other  side  of  each  angle  is  made  by  the  same  line, 
namely,  B  D  ;  and  an  angle  being  the  inclination  of  one 
line  to  another,  it  is  obvious  that  whenever,  as  in  this 
case,  the  inclination  of  the  lines  is  equal,  the  angles  like- 
wise must  bo  eijunl.  Having  now  proved  that  the  obtuso 
exterior  anirle  A  (J  D  is  eciual  to  the  two  interior  and 
opposite  angles  0  A  B,  A  B  C,  we  have  merely  to  add 
A  (.'  B,  the  only  remaining  angle  of  the  triangle,  to  the 
angle  A  C  1);  and  the  angles  A  C  D,  A  »'  B,  will  be 
found  e(iual  to  the  throe  angles  C  B  A,  B  A  C,  A  C  B  • 
but  the  angles  A  C  D,  A  C  B,  are  equal  to  two  right 
angles,  because,  as  has  been  already  stated,  the  angles 
made  by  one  straight  line  falling  upon  another,  arc  either 
two  right  angles, or  are  togcthcrequal  to  two  right  angles; 
theroloro,  the  angles  C  B  A,  B  .\  C,  A  ('  B,  are  equal 
to  two  right  angles,  or  180  degrees. 

There  are  several  very  useful  conclu- 
sions to  1)C  deduced  from  this  property  of 
i  triangles.  1.  There  can  only  be  one  right 
I  angle  in  a  triangle;  for,  if  one  angle  is  90 
deuroes,  the  other  angles  can  only  be  to- 
'  i:ether  oipial  to  90  degri't's ;  one  must  be 
the  complomcnt  of  the  other,  or  what  the  other  wants  of 
90  degrees.  A  triangle  which  has  a  right  angle  is  called 
a  rif^hl-ini^led  triangle,  us  R.  The  side  opposite  the  ngh 
angle  is  ^alled  the  hypotenuse.  2.  It 
is  equally  obvious  that  a  triongle 
cannot  contain  more  than  one  ob- 
tuse angle.  Fig.  O  is  an  nZ/icc- 
nnnlril  triangle.  3.  All  the  angles 
of  a  triangle  may  be  acute,  as  A, 
wliirh  is  called  an  iinite-duiiled  triangle. 
angles  of  a  triangle  are  known,  or  even 
the  sum  of  those  angles,  the  third  may 
lie  easily  discovered  ;  for,  if  the  sum  of 
two  angles  lie  deducted  from  ISO  de- 
grees, the  remainder  must  be  the  num- 
ber of  degrees  of  which  the  third  angle 
'  consists. 

I      .^m)ther  property  of  triangles  is,  that  the  greater  vmW 
iiU 


4.  When  tw« 


4S4 


INFORMATION   FOR   THE  PEOPLE. 


of  c^pry  triiingle  has  th*  grcatpr  niilc  opposite  to  it.  In 
the  annexed  triniigle,  the  nnijle  AUC 
M  qreuter  than  the  angle  B('A.  The 
■Jo  A(^,  l)eini;  opposite  to  the  larter 
angle,  is  longer  than  the  Mo  AB, 
which  is  opposite  to  the  smaller  imi?lc. 
There  is  n  kind  of  natural  geometry 
in  the  mind  even  of  an  unof'iUi'ated  |)erson,  aerording  to 
whieh  ho  acts  without  ilueh  reflerlion.  Supposing  that 
■n  unt!iut;ht  peasant  had  to  opvend  to  the  sununit  of  a 
mountain,  ho  would  not  conunence  hi:i  ascent  from  a 
point  wlierc  the  mountain  forn.s  tlie  grealosl  angle  with 
the  ground,  and  is  tlicrcfore  most  preei|)itous;  he  would, 
on  the  CKntrury,  take  the  more  circuitous  road  along  the 
©ppositf  side  of  the  mountain,  as  if  he  were  aware  of  the 
property  of  triangles  which  has  heen  last  mentioned, 
namely  that  the  largest  angles  arc  suhtcTidcd  by  tlie 
longest  I  dcs. 

Quadiilaleral  Fifrures. 

Quadidateral,  or  lit^Tally  four-sided  figures,  are  some- 
times ciilic<l  ijiiiiihnns;lex,  berau.«!  they  have  four  angles; 
Ibsy  may  lie  divided  into  two  classes— 1.  Those  in  which 
•II  the  opposite  sides  arc  ,.,,rallpl ;  and,  2.  Those  in  which 
•II  the  opposite  sides  are  not  parallel.  Those  belonging 
to  the  first  class  are  called  purallchi^rnms,  and  may  lie 
further  sulnUvidcd  into  two  divisions — namely,  tliose 
which  contain  four  right  angles,  and  to  which  the  generic 
name  of  rcrtan^lr  has  consoiiuently  lieen  applied;  and, 
•pcoikIIv.  those  which  do  not  contain  any  right  angles, 
two  of  the  angles  twing  obtuse  anil  two  acute.  A  sijuare 
i»  the  m.wt  useful  of  cpuidtilaleral  figures.  Having  lour 
right  angles,  it  is  called  a  ric/nni;/?  .  and  ull  the  sides  are 
of  eipiil  length.  The  figure  S  is  n 
stjuare.  The  annexed  figure  R  may  Ih) 
called  with  etpial  propriety  a  paralli  lo- 
gram,  a  rectangle,  or  an  oblong;  it  will 
be  observed  that  its  sides  arc  not  all 
equal,  its  length  In-ing  greater  than  its 
breadth.  Fn  spcaUini;  of  a  rectangle,  it  is  often  found 
convenient  to  name  it  by  the  lines  which  compose  its 
base  and  height,  and  it  is  called  the  rectangle  under  or 
contained  by  these  lines.  .\  rhnmlni.i,  or  Ioziiikc,  am!  a 
rlioni'oiil.  form   the   second   division   of  the   first    class; 

because  althi.u.;h  the  sides  are  

parallel,  the  angles  are  not  right 
angles.     \  rhotnbu"  lias  all  ila 
iiden  e([Hal,'as  B.     '.»  a  rhom- 
boid, the  opiwsito  sides  only  are 
equal,  as  P,  the   length  Iwing  cither  greater   than  the 
breadth,  or  vice  xrrfu,     A  Irn- 
yeziHil  has  only  two  sides  paral- 
lel, as  1).      When  the  sides  of 
B  tra[n'Zi>id  that  are  iinl   paral- 
lel  are   equal,  it  is  sorin-limes     " 
calle<l  a  trapezium,  from  the  (Jreek  word  trnpez'i,  ii  table. 

A  ilitnonnl  is  a  straight  line  drawn  tictwcen  two  op- 
pontp  angular  {xiintt  of  a  parallelogram.  A  diagonal 
bwects  a  parallelogram,  that  ii,  divides      \  n 

it  into  two  equal  part^i;  thus,  let 
ACUU  Ik!  a  parallelogram,  of  which 
B('  is  u  diagonal ;  the  oppo^iile  side* 
•nd  an).j'h-8  of  the  figure  are  eipial  to  O  i) 

Me  another,  and  the  diagonal  B('  bisocls  it. 

From  this  it  imniediatidy  follows,  that  the  complements 
of  the  parallelograms,  which  are  about  the  diagonal  of 
•:.y  parilleiogram,  are  equal  to  one 
tnotliur.  It  has  liccn  shown,  that 
llie  literal  meaning  of  the  t'  rm 
eMipleincn*  ia  :iifill  up  the  appli- 
cution  of  tliM  term  to  parallrl.)grania 
will  \x-  undiT«fo<Ml  by  careliilly  com- 
pariiig  the  following  explaiiilion 
wiin  the  Hiinexed  fi|;uru.     Let  .\U('UI)e  a  parallelograui, 


K*- 


-+L 


of  which  the  diagonal  ii  AC;  let  Ell,  FG,  be  the  n. 

lelogranis  ill  out  AC,  that  is,  through  which  AC  illJ* 

and  HK,  KU,  the  other  paralle'ograms  which  makeunih' 

whole  figure  -ABCD,  which  are  therefore  called  thee 

pleinenti.  'l"he  complement  BK  is  equal  to  the  complement 

KI).  The  two  complemcrts, joined  to     A     !  j™ 

any  of  the  paridlelograms  about  a  dia- 

ironal,  form  what  is  called  a  ,i;»o»ion. 

Thus  the  parallelogram  Hft,  together 

with  the  coinpleinents  .\F",  F(',istho 

gnomon,  which  is  morn  briefly  e.T- 

pressed  by  the  letters  AGK,  or  EHC, 

which  are  placed  at  the  ojiposite  angles  of  the  panU  • 

grams  wh'ch  make  the  gnomon. 

When  it  is  required 
to  deHcril>e  a  rectangle, 
of  which  the  length 
and  brc.idlh  are  to  be 
resiH'Ctivily  equal  to 
two  given  lines,  the 
following  operation  is 
necessary  : — 

Draw  a  line  MN 
eijual  to  HI,  and  drow 
MP  perpendicular  to 
M.N,  ami  equal  to  KL; 
from  1'  as  a  centre,  with  a  radius  equal  to  MN,  descril. 
an  arc  at  Q;  and  from  N  as  n  centre,  with  a  radiuneqm) 
to  MP,  describe  nn  arc  cutting  ih^oniier  in  Q;  jf,, 
Pli,  .\Q ;  and  MlJ  is  the  required  rectangle. 

.\  sipiare  may,  fur  practical  purposes,  lie  dcscriW,  jn 
the  following  manner  on  any  given  line. 

Let   MN  be  the   given       p 
line.  Q  ■ 

From  M  draw  MP  per- 
pendicular to  MN,  and 
from  MP  cut  olT  a  part 
M(J  equal  to  .MN;  then 
from  <.i  and  N  as  centres, 
with  a  radius  eipial  to  .VN, 
dcscrilic  arcs  intersecting 
in  IJ:  Ir.w  QU,  am)  NR, 
and  MR*  is  the  required 
square. 

Ellipse. 

An  rthp'r,  or  oval,  is  geometrically  constructed  u  UV 
lows,  by  means  of  a  pair  of  compasses.  Let  .\B  be  Iik 
major  axis  or  trans- 
verse ;  draw  a  I'ne 
bisecting  it  perjien- 
dicularly  (which  is 
done  by  describing 
from  A  and  B  as 
centres,  with  any 
radius,  arcs  cutting 
each  other  in  i'  and 
D.  and  then  joining  C  and  D),  and  make  (»l,'.  GD,  ejth 
equal  t.i  Half  llio  minor  axis  or  conjugate;  then  CD ii 
the  iiiMior  axis.  From  ('  as  a  centre,  wiih  liiill  ;he  imjnr 
a\is  .'\(i  as  a  '  tins,  cut  AB  in  K  anit  F.  ami  the-* 
|Hiiiits  are  the  Proilucc  AH  to  t^,  till  KQ  lieccma 

equal  to  .\H  ;  mid  from  E  as  a  centre,  with  Ky  Hsari. 
dius,  desiTil)c  the  arc  P(iR,  and  it  will  be  ii  .qxr ipi  of 
directrix  to  the  ellipse.  From  the  same  centre  K,  wjiji 
any  <lisl  nice  FI,  ilescrilie  the  arc  HIK,  and  withltj.lhi 
distance  of  this  arc  from  PC^R.  as  a  radius,  arJ  Kui 
centre,  cut  the  arc  HIK  in  H  and  K,  and  l\)ritt  are  two 
piiinls  in  the  curve.  Similarly,  from  E  as  a  ix'ntre  dfr 
wribe  aiii'llier  arc  I.M  ;  and  with  the  diHtance  of  ikuan 
from  PljK  as  u  ra<ltUM,  and  F  as  a  centre,  cut  tl«  irc  IM 


is  ill  a  circle,  liir 


•  Cboi'lr.liilrrnl  riKurca  are  concitvly  nainnf  by  ihe  .eiwnil 
twi)  (>|<|'UHile  ungului  poiiiis 


GEOMETRY. 


amrti'  by  the  .eiunil 


f  111(1  M,  «"''  'ht*"  ofp  "'"o  *'*"  point*  in  the  curve. 

r  J  the  otiiiT  two  points  S  an<l  T  in  exactly  the  gome 
-ner.  Having  thus  found  a  Biifflcient  numlvr  of 
nlii  iti  the  rurvc,  join  them  all  carefully,  and  the  cllipte 

rill  thus  bo  constructed. 
An  ellipi*  '""y  ^  constructed  hy  the  following  method, 
hifh  will  bs  considered   sufficiently  exact   for   many 

Llical    purposes:  — On   a 

jivcn  line,  as  AB,  d.-scnlw 

Uoirrles  of  such  -lit  meter 

,j  may   Ix"*'    acci..d    with 

,1,,,     rcquiri'd      [iroportions. 

Whatever  size  bo  tiiken,  lot 

,l„,  foot  of  the  compasses  be 

placed  so  ns  to  descntw  the 

olonsati'il  parts  of  the  fisurj 

trie  on  the  pcrpendieulnr  line 

\B,   Then  draw  a  horizontal 

l'ji,fH)  that  it  intersects  the 

,,irij  C  and  D,  where  the  cif- 

clis :ut caeh  other.     Now,  the 

ffiilih  of  the  oval  may  have 

kon  previously  dccrmincd ;  if  so,  it  must  regulate  the 

fimnsion  of  the  compasses,  and  determine  whether  the 

foot  shall  be  pliiced  on  the  line  CD,  equidistant  from  the 

n-iilrc  so  as  to  describe  the  segment,  that  it  may  unite 

inih  the  li"''s  of  the  circles  on  either  side,  forming  a 

ciiiilinuona  line,  as  at  EE  and  FF ;  that  is,  in  such  a 

minner  as  to  fonnMhe  oval  figure  as  if  made  by  one 

operatic  n. 


Polygon'.— Inscribed  and  Circumscribed  Fipircs. 

A  I'inne  <ipire  enclosed  hy  more  than  four  straight 
linos,  is  callod  a  y.ottjiion,  from  the  Greek  words  ynbis, 
i^aiiv,  and  goniii,  an  angle  ;  because,  when  a  figure  has 
panv  sides,  it  has  nece.-isarilj  a  corresponding  number 
of  uncles.  .\  regular  polygon  has  nil  its  sides  equal,  and 
also  all  its  angles ;  an  irregular  polygon  has  its  sides  or 
aiisli's,  or  both,  uneipial.  A  polygon  of  five  sidos  is 
(alloJ  a  prnlnaim  .  of  six,  a  hexoiion  ;  of  scvc\i,  a  hipta- 
[III.'  of  eiqbt.  an  oclaz"n  ;  of  nine,  a  nonasxon  :  of  ten, 
liiatgnn:  of  ekven,  an  umk  'ia,on :  of  twelve,  a  ilnlc' 
teton;  and  of  t'ii\een,  a  iiuinJicm^on  or  prnlei/ccason. 
Fii-iircs  which  have  more  than  twelve  sides  are  culled 
[Mlvcions  of  13,  14,  15,  IB,  17  sides,  &c. 

The  centre  of  a  regular  polygon  is  a  point  equally 
distant  fro!n  its  sides  or  angular  points.  The  apothim  is 
a  Ih'riiomiicMilar  drawn  from  the  centre  to  any  one  of  the 
eijfs,  and  analogous  to  the  radius  of  a  circle. 

The  whole  boundary  of  any  figure  is  called  its  peii- 
m'rr,  from  peri,  nrnund,  ana  mclreo,  I  measure.  The 
pfriracter  of  a  polygon  is,  in  fact,  what  the  circumferen(« 
is  in  a  circle,  for  1  y  it  the  figure  is  enclosed.  In  prac- 
tical geometry,  tlie  usual  inelho<l  adopted  for  obtaining 
ntular  polygons  is,  in  the  first  place,  to  draw  a  circle 
alwut equal  in  siw  to  the  required  size  of  the  pt)lygon ;  then 
the  circumference  is  divided  into  as  many  equal  parts  as 
ihf  polygon  is  to  have  sides ;  all  that  then  remains  to 
complete  llic  figure  is  to  draw  s'raight  lines  or  chords 
between  earh  two  points  of  division,  and  these  lines  will 
fonn  the  sides  of  the  polygon. 

Figures  constructed  ;  lording  to  this  method  are  said 
to  be  infoibid  in  a  circle,  and  all  the  angles  of  the  in- 
jcrilied  figur.:  will  always  1h'  found  to  Iw  upon  the  cir- 
cumforenre  of  tlio  circle.  A  regider  pentagon  may,  by 
tlio  following  process,  be  inscribed  in  a  circle  :— 

Let  SLR  1h!  the  given  circle. 

Draw  two  perpendicular  diameters,  IK  LM ;  bisect 
the  mdius  01  in  N ;  from  N  ns  a  centre,  with  NL  as  a 
ra'lius  cut  OK  in  P;  with  radius  LI',  and  centre  L,  cut 
the  circiirafe.ence  in  Q  ;  join  1,1^,  and  other  four  chords 
e({iial  to  it  lieint^  drawn  in  succession  in  the  circle,  the 
teiiuited  uulygou  will  be  foi.jed 


A  fgular  decagon 
may  b  ■  inscril)ed  in  a 
circle  by  a  little  ex- 
tension of  the  same 
process : — 

Let  SLR  be  as  he- 
fore  the  given  circle. 

Fi.,J  a  side  LQ  of 
the  inscribed  regular 
pentagon ;  bisect  the 
arc  LQ  in  V,  and  the 
chord  LV  being  drawn, 
it  is  a  side  of  the  regu- 
lar decagon ;  and  ten 
chords  equal  to  it  being  successively  placed  in  the  circle, 
will  form  th«  polygon. 

Sometimes  ,.  figure  is  described  about  a  given  circle, 
and  is  then  said  to  lie  a  circumscribed  figure,  the  circum* 
fcrence  of  the  circle  being  touched  by  each  of  its  sides. 
In  practical  geometry,  the 
method  of  describing  a  re- 
gular polygon  about  a  cir- 
cle is  the  following : — 

Let  WVY  be  the  given 
circle. 

Find  the  angular  points 
of  the  corresponding  in- 
scribed polygon  of  the  same 
number  of  sides ;  let  W, 
X,  Y,  be  three  of  these  an- 
gular points;  through  these  points  draw  the  tangents 
WU,  UT;  TY ;  and  UT  is  a  side  of  the  required  poly- 
gon ;  in  the  same  manner  the  other  sides  are  found,  and 
the  circumscribing  polygon  is  thus  described. 

Ill  this  manner,  the  regular  pen- 
tagon in  the  adjoining  figure  is 
described  about  the  circle  ;  H,  K, 
L,  M,  anrl  G,  being  the  angular 
points  of  the  inscribed  regular 
pentagon,  and  tangents  through 
these  points  being  drawn,  the  cii- 
cuniscribing  regular  pentagon  is 
formed. 

Practical  geopietry  affords  a  short  and  easy  method 
of  coiisfueting  a  regular  hexagon  upon  a  given  line. 

Let  G  H  be  the  given  line. 

From  G  and  H  as  cen- 
tres, with  the  rndius 
G  H,  dcscril)c  ares  in- 
tersecting in  X,  and  this 
point  is  tl'.o  centre  of 
the  circumscribing  cir- 
cle ;  hence,  with  the  ra-  ^ 
dius  G  H,  from  the  cen- 
tre X,  describe  a  circle, 
and  apply  G  H  six  times 
along  the  circumference, 
and  G  H  K  L  is  the  re- 
quired hexagon. 

Another  fact  relating  to  the  properties  of  regular 
figures,  and  which  is  of  some  importance  in  teveral  of 
the  mechnnical  arts,  is,  that  there  are  only  three  regular 
fiitures  which  can  cover  a  surface  completely,  so  as  to 
leave  no  intervening  interstices;  these  figures  c-e  the 
square,  the  equilateral  triangle,  and  the  hexiigon :  we 
have  a  familiar  example  of  the  flict  that  squares  can 
completely  cover  a  surface,  in  a  coninion  ciiess-board — 
the  sides  of  each  wpiare  coincide  exoctly  with  the  sid?a 
of  the  adjoining  squares,  and  no  part  of  the  board  Ik-- 
;ween  the  squares  is  left  uncovered.  The  reason  of  this 
S3,  that  all  the  angles  made  by  any  number  of  line* 
meeting  in  one  point,  are  together  equal  to  four  right 
niiglis,  or  to  nfiO  deiirees;  and  that,  therefore,  \f  it  be 
required  to  li;v  any  numbci  of  figures  together,  so  that 


436 


INFORMATION  FO?    THE   PEOPLK. 


the  sidpf  may  he  joined,  nnii  that  no  spBco  may  inter- 
*cnf  iKjtwoon,  it  in  a  nocfsnary  condition  that  tlie  angioti 
contained  bctwi-cn  their  sIdcH  bo  some  uhijnot  part  of 
360,  else  thoir  ani;uhir  points  cannot  all  meet  in  one 
point,  neither  can  the  surf«co  l)c  covered  exactly.  The 
ancleH  of  npiares  l)einK  fkt't  angles,  or  anxlcg  of  90°, 
it  is  ohvious  that  four  eqiiaren  can  completely  cover  any 
plane  -surface  which  is  proportionable  to  their  nizc,  \k- 
cause  H't  X  4  =  360.  Six  equilateral  triangles  can  he 
joined  vithont  leaving  any  interstices,  because  the 
number  ,)f  degrees  contained  in  each  of  their  angles  is 
60,  and  60  X  8  =  360.  Three  hexagons  can  also  lie 
placed  contigu^,j«  to  each  other,  because  120,  the  num- 
ber of  degrees  contained  in  ea'-h  of  their  angles,  multi- 
plied by  3,  proiUiccs  360 ;  but  no  other  figures  could  by 
any  means  l)c  thus  placed  without  leaving  interstices; 
mid  it  ii  useful  to  bear  this  in  mind,  because  in  mosaic 
work,  inlaying,  paving,  anil  some  kinds  of  ornamental 
painting,  it  is  otlen  requisite  to  cover  a  surface  with 
some  regular  tigure.  We  somi-times  see  octagons  laid 
near  each  other  in  painted  floors,  tScc,  and  there  is  al- 
vavs  an  empty  space  between  them  ;  but  this  empty 
space  is  a  iierfcct  square,  because  the  uuiuIkt  of  degrees 
in  each  angle  is  135,  and  as  two  angles  only  meet  in 
one  point,  the  sum  of  both,  135 -f-  135,  being  equal  to 
270,  there  are  evidently  90''  required  to  make  up  the 
rc-^uired  numlier  360  ;  and  90°  are,  as  wc  have  shown, 
contained  in  the  angle  of  a  square. 

The  honeycombs  of  a  bee-hive  afford  a  familiar  illus- 
tration of  the  fact  just  explained,  with  resjiect  to  the 
figures  which  can  cover  a  surface.  Of  the  only  three 
reguliu  figures  whirh  can  entirely  fill  up  any  given 
apace,  the  bees  have  selected  the  hexagon  ;  but  here  the 
question  arises.  Why  were  the  little  mathematicians  led 
to  choose  the  hexagon  in  preference  to  the  s<|uare  1 
'J'he  reason  is  cogent  and  philosophical :  the  object  of 
the  bees  was  not  only  to  fit  in  their  habitations  closely 
together,  so  that  labour  and  wax  might  lie  saved,  and 
that  each  little  cell  might  be  strengthened  by  the  iinine- 
diate  juxtaposition  of  other  cells,  but  also  to  render  the 
interior  of  each  cell  as  large  and  commodious  aa  jHjssi- 
•jle ,  because  the  young  ones  are  lodged  in  these  cells, 
and  N'sides,  the  honey  which  is  to  su])ply  the  whole 
tiive  with  food  during  the  winter  is  stored  away  in  them. 
Had  the  s.juarc  or  the  equilateral  triangle  In-en  chosen, 
the  angles  of  the  cell  would  in  that  case  have  certainly 
been  farther  from  the  centre,  but  the  sides  would  have 
come  nearer  to  it ;  for  just  in  proixjrtion  to  the  number 
of  sides  is  the  length  of  the  apotlicm.  When  a  figure 
has  but  few  siii  's,  the  apolhem  is  (Oinpiirativcly  short; 
and,  other  things  Ix'ing  equ.il,  it  increases  in  length  ac- 
cording as  tlie  sides  arc  more  numerous.  The  longer 
the  ape'.hem,  the  farther  the  sides  recede  from  the  cen- 
tre; therefore,  it  is  clear  that  a  figure  of  many  sides  cir- 
cumscril'cs  a  larger  spac»  than  a  figure  of  equal  peri- 
mi'ter,  wliich  has  fewer  sides.  This  is  one  of  the  rc.i  •  wis 
why  a  circular  form  is  given  to  domestic  utensils,  such 
as  ewers,  bottles,  casks,  culinary  vessels,  &c.,  and  also 
t )  watrr-pi[)<'S,  and  to  the  pi|)es  used  for  conveying  gns. 
A  circle  is  merely  a  polygon  of  an  infinite  numU'r  of 
aides  ;  on  account  of  ikic  infinite  suiallness  of  its  sides, 
it  is  free  from  all  angular  projcctioi.s,  a!i>'  having  more 
«ides  than  any  other  polygon,  it  can,  with  a  giv.'u  [ktI- 
miter.  accouling  to  the  principle  just  luid  down,  emlose 
tlie  largest  possible  8]iaf  e.  If  follows  from  this,  that  if, 
from  a  given  quantity  of  materials,  a  vessel  is  constrmled 
having  a  circular  form,  tlmt  vessel  will  K-  fimnd  caii.iMe 
of  receiving  a  larger  volume  of  contents  tliun  another 
vessel  wrought  into  any  oIIut  form  out  of  the  same 
given  quantity  of  materials  would  be  able  to  contain. 
This  principle  is  one  of  very  extensive  apiilicalion.  and 
is  ronstjiiitly  acted  upon  in  architecture  and  in  many  of 
Bill'  arts. 

T  ae  capacity  of  a  circle,  as,  for  instance,  a  cL'cular 


tube,  is  greatly  increased  by  only  a  small  adc^.tlrn  to  Iti 
diameter,  bocatise  the  increase  is  all  round.  T|i(  ^ 
crease  of  capacity  is  in  the  ratio  of  the  squarea  jf  ii,, 
diameter :  a  tube  8  incnes  in  diameter  has  four  times  tht 
capacity  of  one  which  is  4  inches  in  diameter;  one  ij 
inches  in  diameter  has  four  times  tlie  capacity  of  onj  a 
inches  in  diameter ;  and  so  on. 

MENSURATION    OF    PLANE    riaURES, 

It  is  often  requisite,  for  many  practical  purposes  in 
ascertain  the  exact  size  of  a  given  fiirurc.  For  |),|, 
purpose  certain  lines  of  a  dcteriniimtc  length,  as  inclnj 
feet,  yards,  miles,  &c.,  have  been  pitched  upon  m  tj,,! 
uniif  nj  j/irusiirr  or  Ihual  uiiilf ;  and  measuring  a  ||,,|, 
consists  in  finding  how  ofien  one  or  other  of  these  uiiitj 
of  measure  is  contained  therein.  Measuring  a  ligurj 
consists  ill  fir.ding  the  numlM^r  of  squares  contaimj 
within  its  boundaries,  the  sides  of  each  of  those  soiiarcj 
being  equal  to  one  of  the  linciM  units  above  mentioned' 
the  number  of  squares,  when  found,  is  called  ihe  aria 
or  tuperjiiial  ronlenl  of  the  figure. 

A  rectangle  is  very  easily  measured,  it  only  Wini 
requisite  to  a.scertaiii  its  length  and  breucltli  am]  t|;„ 
to  multiply  the  one  by  the  other. 

If  ('B  is  a  rectangle,  and  M  the  unit  ol  measure,  aj 
for  exanqile,  a  foot ;  and  if  the  . 
base  VI)  eoiitaiiis  M  4  times,  and 
the  side  DE  contains  it  3  times, 
the  nuinlwr  of  squares  descrilied 
on  M  that  are  coiilaiiied  in  C  E  is 
just^4  X  3=  12  scpiare  feet.  For 
by  liiying  off  jiarls  on  CU,  DE, 
equal  to  .M,  and  drawing  through   C  ~^j^ 

the  points  of  division  lines  parallel 
to  tlie   sides  of  the  figure,  it  will  evidently  lie  (liv|,|..ij 
into  3  rows  of  sipiares,  each  containing  4  squares ;  liial 
is,  3  X  4  =  12  si|uares  or  Kcjuare  feet. 

If  the  side  CD  contained  l^  inches,  and  DE  3  inches, 
it  would  similnrly  lie  found  that  the  number  of  sjujre 
inches  in  the  figure  would  be  =  44  x  •'=  !  X  3=1;U 
square  inches;  or  4'5  X  3  ^=  ^•^'''  ''quarc  Inches;  aiij 
whatever  is  the  length  of  the  sides,  the  area  is  U\ai 
always  in  the  same  manner- 

The  e.rea  of  a  sijuare  is  nt  once  known  by  mulliiilyu.t 
one  of  the  sides  by  itself;  thus,  supposing  one  side  ma 
square  taMe  to  measure  4  fi^et,  ther.  4  jmilliplinl  !n  1 
gives  the  whole  number  of  square  feet  coiitaiiicJ  in  llic 
table,  naiiuly,  16, 

It  is  demonslrali'd  by  Euclid,  that  jmratlelocraiiis 
upon  the  same  base  and  lietween  the  same  jnirallcls  are 
equal  to  each  other ;  from  this  it  follows  that  the  am 
of  a  rhombus  and  a  rhomboid  can  be  awrtiiini'd  Kite 
same  easy  process  adopted  fi<r  tricasuring  re<taiii(If!, 
namely,  by  multiplying  the  leni:th  by  the  ])eri)en<lir,i, 
lar  height  or  breadth.  The  area  of  a  trliinu'!','  is  also 
found  in  the  same  way,  the  bu.se  being  nuillipliid  It 
the  j)erjM'ndieular  height ;  but  only  half  ihe  prndmi 
denotes  the  content  of  tbc  triangle,  iM'causc  a  trianijici) 
exactly  the  half  of  a  parallelogram  of  the  same  base  ami 
altitude. 

The  area  of  any  quadrilateral  may  be  found  by  the 
same  method:  a  diagonal  being  drawn  from  two  "f  ill 
opposite  angles,  it  will  be  diviilcd  into  two  trlanl!t(^ 
and  by  coin|)Utiiig  as  above  the  urea  of  each  triaiijle, 
and  then  adding  their  areas  togi'ther,  their  •sum  mil 
iiiili'Mte  the  whole  i  .'nt  of  area  cou'prised  within  the 
iliiadrll-iteral.  'I'he  area  of  u  traix'/oid  is  grm.Ti!ll» 
found  bv  iiiiittl|il\  ing  half  the  sum  of  the  twi.  panlVI 
sides  by  the  iierpeiidiiidar  distance  betwren  them' tbe 
area  of  a  trapezium  may  likewise  be  found  in  the  iiit 
way.  When  it  Is  desired  to  Bscirt.iia  the  area  c  ai 
irregular  polygon,  diasjoiials  must  lie  drawn  hetwecr.  I« 
ojiposite  angles;  this  will  divide  the  figure  into  ijuad  i 
terals  or  trapezoids,  and  triangles,  and  lite  area  of  eid  I 


GEOMETR'V 


437 


II  rounil.  The  „, 
tlic  square*  jf  t|„ 
r  hiis  four  times  th« 
1  lUametcr ;  one  IJ 
e  capacity  of  on.  a 

FIGURES. 

actioai  purposes,  to 
figure.  For  n,;, 
Ic  Itmgth.  as  inches, 
itclu'd  \i,)on  as  thi! 
<1  meaHuring  a  liic 
other  of  llicse  unitj 
Vlrasuring  a  figure 
8(jiiarc!4  contaimj 
icli  of  tliose  squarcj 
a  above  nienlionfd  • 
I,  18  called  ihe  una 

urcd,  it  only  heing 
I  brcailtli  and  tl:,ii 

jnit  ol  measure,  as 


\  -  -- 


evidently  be  diviiltd 
ling  4  stiuarcs ;  1I13I 
ol. 

f,  and  DE  3  inrhpii, 
B  number  nf  si|uare 
X  :!=:;;  X  3=l;u 
K([U;irc  inches;  aiij 
H,  the  area  is  tojnd 

lown  by  multiplymc 
lK>sim;  (ine  side  of  a 
r.  4  multiplied  kl 
eet  contained  in  llic 

that  i»\rallcloarani! 
e  same  ]';irallels  are 
bllows  that  the  arts 
a  ar.e'Ttiiiiied  bv  Ihe 
eaBuriiig  re<-tanglrs, 
by  the  ])crpcnilic'j- 
[)f  a  triani:!'.!  is  ako 
!)eing  multiplied  !v 
y  hiilf  llic  product 
U'rausc  a  triangle  ii 
if  the  same  base  tiiil 

ay  be  found  by  the 
uvu  from  two  "f  in 
into  two  trian!;t(\ 
ea  of  each  triangle, 
her,  their  ^iim  will 
lU'prised  within  th« 
|)e/()id  is  grnorsIlT 
of  the  Iwii  panillfl 
lietwien  tbenr  the 
f  found  in  the  me 
tain  the  area  c  ai 
•  drawn  betwccr,  h( 
fii^urc  into  iiud  i 
(1  Uic  area  of  eaci  I 


thfK  mast  be  f.  und  separately,  according^  to  the  nbove 
■ulos-  all  these  areas  adilcd  together  will  give  the  whole 
luiKTflcial  conteut  of  the  polygon. 

The  area  of  a  regular  polygon  is  found  by  adding  all 
•hf  »idc9  together,  and  then  multiplying  the  sum  by 
ihc  apotiiein:  half  the  product  wi!l  bo  equal  to  the  p 
The  reason  of  this  is,  that  every  regular  polygon  y 
|i.iivided  into  OS  many  equal  triangles  as  it  has  ..h, 
and"  as  the  area  of  a  ♦rinnglc  is  e(iual  to  half  the  pro- 
duct produ.'i'd  by  the  multiplication  of  the  base  by  the 
urpcndicular,  so  the  total  amount  of  all  the  triangles 
Lining  a  polygon  '""y  l'"  f"""'"!  hy  multiplying  the  sides 
of  the  pol.VK""' "I'''''  '"'''  ^^^  bases  of  Ihc  rcsfpctive 
triaiisles,  by  half  the  apothcin ;  becr.nse  the  H[iolhein, 
ajbcliire  ex|  l.iined,  in  only  u  perpendicuhir  drawn  from 
the  centre  of  the  polygon  to  the  iniddlc  of  one  of  the 
sides  and  is  therefore  equal  to  the  perpendicular  height 
o.f  each  triangle ;  half  the  product,  as  in  the  case  of  a 
siii^'le  triangle,  '.lujrcfore,  gives  the  rciiuired  ar_'a. 

The  rule  for  finding  the  area  of  a  poly!;on  leads  to 
that  for  finding  the  area  of  a  circle;  because,  as  More 
observed,  a  circle  may,  by  approximation,  lie  considered 
ssn  regular  polygon  with  an  infinite  number  of  infinitely 
imali  sides.  As  the  a.oa  of  a  polygon  is  oi)taincd  by 
the  muli'plication  of  its  perimeter  by  iU  npothem,  so  it 
liiav  naturally  be  inferred  that  the  multiplication  of 
the  circiiinfi,.  ncc  of  a  circle  by  its  radius  will  be  tuj 
means  of  discovering  the  area  of  the  circle.  But  hero 
adiUlculty  arises;  it  is  evident  that  the  radius  and  eir- 
cumfercnie  cannot  be  multiplied  until  the  exact  length 
of  each  be  known  :  there  is  no  dilficuity  of  this  kind  in 
tlie  measurement  of  polygons,  bee  lUse  their  sides,  being 
slmii ht  lines,  can  easily  be  measured;  the  radius  of  a 
cireh',  being  also  a  straight  lit. e  can  be  measured  with 
eiiual  facility  ;  but  how  are  we  to  ascertmn  the  length 
of  the  circumference  1  This  question  has  occupied  the 
attention  of  philosophers  from  age  to  age,  and  was 
iierer  solved  to  the  entire  satisfaction  of  any  till  about 
a  century  ago,     IiuuuncraMe  attempts  liave  ^ 

btcn  made  to  discover  what  ratio  a  circumfc 

reiifc  hears  to  its  diameter.     Archimedes,  one 

of  Ihc  (ircek  geometricians,  who  lived  more  — - 

ihaii  two  thousand  years  ago,  assigned  the  ra- 

till  lo  1*  as  7  to  ~'i  ;  nearer  ratios  have  breii  rm: 
discovered  since  his  time.  A  Dutch  malhe- 
malirian  carried  the  ratio  to  !)G  figures,  and  this  was  at 
the  liinc  considered  so  important  a  discovery,  that  it  was 
cnsraved  on  his  tombstone  at  Lcydcn.  Others  subso- 
uuently  extended  the  ratio  still  further;  and  in  a  French 
woik  published  about  1719  a.  n.,  it  was  carried  to  no 
h'ss'than  128  figures.  The  ratio  3-11  lb  is  siifTicienlly 
accurate  for  all  common  purposes.  When  very  great 
aceiiracy  is  required,  the  ratio  .3-ltl59  may  be  used 
ia^liud'of  .1.141(1.  Sometimes  the  ratio  3.1 11592r>5.'36 
is  Uken,  but  such  a  high  degree  of  accura<'y  is  seldom 
reiiuired.  The  general  rule  for  finding  the  length  of 
iL  iriumfcrenec  of  a  circle  is  to  mulliidy  Ihe  diameter 
h.  the  r  lio,  and  Ihe  product  is  the  circumference  ;  or 
tumid  tlu  laiit  logarithm  O'lOTLOdO  to  that  of  the 

Jiaiiieter,  dii..  the  sum  is  the  logarithm  of  the  circumfe- 
rence. 


THE   CONgTiiUCTlON    OV   SCALKB. PROPORTlOtT. 

In  practical  geomct  y,  scales  of  various  kinds  are  used 
for  Ihc  constrnetion  if  figures.  Scales  arc  lines  with 
divisions  of  various  kinds  marked  upon  them,  according 
as  they  are  to  be  useii  for  measuring  lines  or  angles. 
The  nan.e  of  mile^  is  given  to  lii;es  so  divided,  because 
Ihc  Lathi  word  fur  ladder  is  .■.,(/;,  and  the  divisions  are 
f(|uiilisla'  like  the  slops  of  a  ladder.  \  line  so  divided 
l«for  '  .  same  reason  said  to  be  i;ni(/iM'i'i',  this  word 
bei-     .leriveil  from  the  Latin  ::riii!ii^.  a.  step. 

I'he  v.duet  of  the  niagniludee  oi    iu<  •  or  anglef  are 


number*  ripresenting  the  number  of  times  t}.»t  lomt 
unit  of  the  same  kind  is  contained  in  them. 

The  unit  of  nmisure  for  lines  is  some  line  of  g^ver 
length,  as  a  foot,  a  yard,  a  mile,  and  so  on. 

The  unit  of  measure  for  angles  is,  as  we  have  already 
shown,  the  ninetieth  part  of  a  right  angle. 

The  method  of  constructing  a  sculo  of  equal  parts  it 
the  following : — 

Lay  oft"  a  number  of  equal  divisions,  AB,  BC,  CD, 
&c.,  and   AE,  and  divide  AE  into   10  equal   parts. 

4  3 a 1  0    5 

~i      T  Til        I     —-i7;nr:i 


j: 


A     n 


When  a  large  division,  as  AB,  represents  10,  each  of 
the  small  divisions  in  AE  will  rejiresenl  1.  When  each 
of  the  large  divisions  represents  100,  each  of  the  small 
divisions  in  AE  represents  10.  Hence,  on  the  latter 
supposition,  the  distance  from  C  to  ti  is  230 ;  and  on 
the  former  supposition,  it  iu  23. 

If  the  large  divisions  represent  units,  the  small  one* 
on  AB  represent  tenths,  tliat  is,  each  of  them  is  jK,  or 
•1.     Ol.  this  supposition,  the  distance  C/t  is  2-3. 

To  construct  a  plane  diagonal  scale 

1.  A  diagonal  scale  for  two  figures. 

Draw  five  Unes  parallel  to  D  £,  and  equidistant,  and 

4  3  3  1  Q 


S 


^ 


7^ 


■^k^— 


D  C  B  A       in      K 

lav  off  Ihc  equal  divisions  AE,  AB,  BC,  CD,  &.,  and 
make  E  P,  A  Q,  B  1,  C  2,  Sec,  perpendicular  to  DE. 
Find  m  the  middle  of  A  E,  and  draw  the  lines  Qm,  mP. 

The  motlc  of  using  this  scale  is  evident  from  the  last 
If  the  large  divisions  denote  tens,  then  firom  n  to  0  is 
evidently  :?4. 

2.  .\  diagonal  scale  for  three  figures. 

3  2  1  Q  2    4  0    P  P 


rK 


Draw  tcti  lines  paral'el  to  DE,  and  equidistant.  Lay 
off  the  equal  pnrts  AB,  BC,  CD,  &c.,  and  AE,  and 
draw  EP,  AO  1,  0  2,  ...  &c.,  perpendicular  to  DE. 
Divide  QP,  into   10  equal  parts,        .loin  the   1st 

2d,  3d,  ...  divisions  on  Q  P  with  the  2d,  3d,  4th,  ...  divi- 
sions  on  .V  E  respectively. 

If  tlu^  divisions  on  .\D  each  represent  100,  each  of 
those  on  QP  will  represent  10.  Thus  from  3  on  AD  to 
8  QP  is  380  ;  but  by  moving  the  jioints  of  the  com- 
passes down  to  the  fourth  line,  and  extending  them  from 
11  to  0,  the  number  will  be  384.  For  the  distance  of  8 
on  QP  from  Q  is  80,  and  of  r  from  A  is  90  ;  and  hcrrs 
that  of"  from  Ihe  line  AQ  is  84. 

When  the  divisions  on  .\D  denote  tens,  those  on  QP 
denote  units  ;  and  from  n  to  o  would  then  represent  38  j-tj. 
or  30-4. 

^^'hen  the  numbers  representing  the  lengths  of  the 
sides  of  any  figure  would  give  lines  of  an  inconvenient 
size  taken  from  tlie  sede,  the  numbers  may  be  all  multi- 
plied or  all  divided  by  such  a  number  as  will  adapt  the 
lengths  of  the  lines  to  the  required  dimensions  of  the 
figure. 

Scales,  by  enabling  us  to  ascertain  the  length  of  lir  t 
and  inagiiiluiles  of  figures,  are  very  useful  in  tlie  inve  ■'i- 
gation  of  the  doctrine  of  proportion.  The  import  of  the 
term  I'roportion  has  already  been  sufficiently  dwelt  ujion 
in  arithmetic;  and  the  reader  has  only  to  apply  the  idea* 
there  developed  to  lines   Mid  to  figures. 

To  prevent  any  misapprehension  on  the  subject,  iv  U" 
403 


4m 


iNFOnMATIOV  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


•roll  to  imdenitann  oloarly  the  iliitinction  bctwirn  fho 
lorm  *i/i(,(/iiii(1  limiliir  lU'iircn.  Ki|iiiil  (lijiiri's  mp  tliiwe 
which  nrr  prrciscly  the  uniiir  in  pvcrv  rr»iM'i'l,  Immiiu  of  tl>'. 
•umo  rti/.i'  mill  of  tlii-  n.iint'  fi'riii.  Similar  fifjiircs  iii-i-  t'loxn 
which  nro  pn'ci«('Iy  of  Ihe  mirnn  funn  or  shiipc,  lait  of 
iliffiTi'nt  Hi/.i's;  the  niiRlcH  of  twoHimilnrfiKurcHnrprciiml, 
nnJ  the  lioinoloKoHH  Hiilon,  that  Ik,  tho  didon  which  lio  in 
the  Miiio  relative  poHilion  in  each  fiijiire,  are  proportional. 
There  i«  alwnyii  a  iliiriculty  in  the  demonHtraiion  of 
Ihe  iloctrine  of  pro|)ortion,  on  acconnt  of  the  frequent  oc- 
currence of  incommeiiMnrHhIe  (pnintilies,  that  in  to  Hay, 
quantiticfi  which  have  ni  common  measure ;  the  Hiiliject 
i»  however  renilered  clea,  hy  the  hit;her  hranchei  of 
mathemiiti  •». 

Tho  ap;  licationB  of  the  doctrine  of  proportion  arc  vcr\' 
nunieroiH  and  im|>ortant,  for  it  in  Ihe  very  foundation  of 
iiany  aritiinu'ticul,  altfcliraical,  and  '  '  ronometrical  o(H'ra- 
tionn.  It  furnishes  rules  for  takii-  .ilans  in  orchitecture 
•nd  snrveyiiip  :  a  map,  whether  of  an  estate  or  of  a  coun- 
try, is  merely  a  proportional  reprcM-ntation  on  n  small 
•cale  of  tho  exact  outline  of  a  district.  Sculpture  and 
paintini;,  usually  numlicred  amoni;  the  fine  arts,  are  really 
wholly  dependent  upon  the  mathematical  doitrino  of 
pro|xireion;  a  slulne  or  hust,  for  instance,  Ih  oilher  cijual 
to  Home  ijiven  tijure.  and  is  tlien  familiarly  termed  "  larije 
m  lite."  or  else  it  is  a  similar  tiijurc  pmportionalily  larger 
or  smaller  than  the  niven  liirurc,  acconliiiu  as  it  is  coji- 
Btructcd  on  a  liirner  or  a  smaller  scale.  In  Ihe  same  way, 
Uiids<-ape  p.iintiMns  are  merely  delineations  of  the  promi- 
nent forms  in  nalur.d  scenery,  all  of  which  are  repre- 
■en'ed  in  proportion  on  u  smaller  scale  ;  and  the  value  of 
the  paintinn  in  a  ureal  measure  depends  on  the  inatho- 
maticul  exactness  of  these  pro|>ortions, 

ANAIiVSIS  OP  EUCLin's  GI.CMINTS. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  remarkahli-  facts  in  the  history  of 
•rience,  that,  while  the  )»riMt  maiorily  of  ancient  scientific 
treatifles  have  U'cn  liltoijether  cast  aside,  and  their  place 
•upplied  hy  more  recent  proiluctions,  destined  in  their 
tur'i  to  lie  aH  entirely  «u|iers(\le<l  hy  others  of  atill  more 
tecent  date,  yet  that  one  tmok  Ins  wentliered  everv'  ehh 
and  How  of  (xipular  opinion,  ami  still  holds  as  hiijh,  if  not 
•  higher,  place  in  the  polilic  enlimation,  as  when  first 
jjiven  to  the  world.  This  work  was  written  more  tlian 
XOOO  years  airo;  an<l  it  is  surely  scarcely  nece.  iry  to 
•dd,  that  F'ucli<l  was  tho  author,  or  (lerhaps  nith>  the 
compiler,  of  thi-i  extrnordinary  pnxUic'ion.  There  are 
thirteen  htxiks  extant  wiitli-n  hy  Eui'lid.  and  hence  called 
EucMn  K'tnunlt.  The  fourteenlh  and  fifteenth  hooks 
•re  supposed  to  have  Iwen  added  hy  Hysicles  of  .Vlexan- 
dria,  ahout  170  *.  n.  The  ihcIIkxI  of  reasoninif  pursued 
tlirouKhout  these  Klements.  and  adopted  hy  all  malhema- 
ticians,  is  the  followini;: — In  the  first  place,  ceitain  detl- 
nilions,  postulates,  and  axioms,  are  laid  down,  which  form 
the  entire  iKisia  of  all  inalhematical  science.  I'erhaps  it 
might  ho  aiivisahle  to  make  a  few  olisc-rvatioiis  on  the 
exai't  meaning  of  thes«-  terms  Ix'fore  we  proceed  farther. 
By  a  iliftiiih'iii,  is  merely  meant  an  explanation  or  a 
description  of  the  characteristic  pro|H'rties  of  the  ohject 
defined;  the  assertion,  for  instance,  that  ••  an  isosceles  tri- 
angle is  that  which  has  only  two  sides  eipial."  is  a  defi- 
nition, because  it  conveys  to  an  urdeunied  |>erson  an  idea 
of  tlie  mcanini;  of  the  term  i-iosceles. 

A  iiriftulifr  is  someihinn  that  is  allowed  to  he  done,  or 
to  l>e  mimrine'l  to  Is'  done,  'i'he  )H>siulates  (jiven  hy  Eu- 
clid are  the  followini; : — 

1.  A  line  may  lie  drawn  from  any  one  point  to,  any 
other  jioint. 

'i.  \  line  may  he  proiluced  (that  is,  continued  or 
'enijthened)  at  pleasure  to  any  leiiKlh. 

3.  A  circle  may  W  descrilM'd  ahout  any  centre,  and  at 
tJiy   distance,  or  with  any  radius.      It  will   Im;   eviilent,  i 
horn  a  caruful  examination  of  thete  postulate*,  that  when  j 


necessary  to  prove  any  proross  nf  roasnnh  j,  n  ,, 
milted  lo  dra*  a  line  to  the  moon,  and  aiiolhcr  fr       k 
moon  lo  a  star,  or  lo  any  point  in  the  heavens-  «t,l  i* 
thouRh  it  is  of  course  im|M>ssil>ln  real'v  lo  draw  such  r 
yt  hy  these  [loslulates  we  are  iiermitied  to  im»pi„j  i""' 
to  1m'  ho  drawn.     It  is  also  evident,  thai  hv  tlm..  ^    "* 
lates  we  are   iM-rmilted   the   use  of  two  iiiHtruniont 
mathematical  n-asoniiiif,  namely  tho  ruler  and  the     '" 
passes.  "*■ 

Mascheroni,  on  Italian  mathematician,  endnavourin 
render  the  narrow  hasis  upon  which  Keoinetryisunr.     i 
still  mon-  narrow,  suif«ested  a  method  of  iwrforinino  n 
malhemalical  prohlems  hy  the  aid  of  conipasHos  alone  j 
liensin^  alloeether  with  strainl.i  IIiich  and  the  ruler-  "" 
account  of  this  plan   may  Is' wen  in  a  celehrui,.,]  ^ '1' 
piihlislied  hy  Mascheroni  ahout  a,  ».  1707,  ciitit|,.J  f 
nutria  ilii  ('oiii/ianfn  (fieimietry  of  the  ("ol|l|lassp|^^ 

.An  axiiini  is  a  statement  of  some  simple  fici  wlii-i,  ■ 
self-evident,  or  reipiires  no  proof;  thus,  the  9th  axiom'' 
an  assertion  that  the  wh(de  is  Kfeater  than  its  part     Ii 
impossihle  to  douht  a  statement  like  this  ;  even  a  chill ' 
prepared  to  admit  its  truth  ;  for  who  is  not  awnre  that 
whole  mass  of  stone,  lc>r  instance,  is  creater  than  nnyf , 
niefit  thai  may  l)e  hrokeli  of  it  ?   and  every  duy's  oliscrv 
tion    is   eipially   connrmalory  of  all    the  nth,,  ^jj     * 
which,  as  propounded  hy  Euclid  in  the  first  IhiuI;,  are  th( 
follow  ini; : 

1.  Thinss  which  are  eipial  to  the  same  thinfr,  arepnuJ 
to  one  another. 

2.  rTecpials  1)0  added  to  ocpials.  the  whcile  nro  pqml 

3.  If  ecjuals  lie  taken  from  erpials.  the  reiniiinclcrs  «• 
equal, 

4.  If  equals  lie  addeil  lo  unequals,  the  vsholcs  are  im, 
equal. 

.'>.  If  equals  1)0  taken  from  unequals,  the  romaindersin 
uneipial. 

(').  Thinifs  which  are  double  of  the  same,  are  equilio 
one  another. 

7.  Thinifr,  which  arc  halves  of  the  same,  are  equal  l« 
one  ani^iher. 

5.  .Mauiiitndes  which  coincide  with  one  nnnther,  thii 
is,  which  exactly  fill  the  same  space,  are  equal  to  oncui. 
other, 

9.  The  whole  is  )»reater  tli  in  its  part. 

10.  .Ml  riuli!  aiiqles  are  ei|uiil  lo  one  another 

11.  Two  straiuht  lines  c.innot  Iw  drawn  through  tin 
same  point,  [mrallel  to  the  same  straii^ht  line,  without  t> 
inciilin'4  with  one  another. 

12.  It  is  possihie  /"or  another  fijijiire  to  exist,  equal  ii 
every  n»|M'ct  to  any  jjivcn  fiiinre. 

(leometrical  facts  and  suppositions  are,  hv  Euoliil  .ind 
all  other  mathematicians,  coiicheil  in  a  fonn  of  exprpsnion 
called  a  pii}/insi:iiiii.  'I'hero  are  three  kinds  of  projiosi. 
lions,  thr'irrvtf,  pruHnti*.  and  li-vinint.  .\  Ihrrtm  is  i 
stati'ment  (>f  some  truth  or  class  of  truths;  hut  lu,  with 
the  simple  ex<'e[)lion  of  the  axioms,  no  hare  assertion  m 
statement  is  ailmitteil  into  geometry  unless  fullv  corrplo. 
rated  hy  proofs,  n  theorem  requires  to  !«■  ileifioiistralci 
There  is  no  way  of  provin:^  the  truth  of  a  llienrem.cxccni 
hy  reference  to  some  truth  or  truths  alremlv  oslaHislid 
hy  |iievions  theorems;  which  ai;ain  must  Imve  licin  l!^ 
inonstrateil  hysoine  prceedinif  theorems;  and  tliunweire 
led  hack  from  tlieonin  lo  theorem,  until  we  nrrlvc  at  lln 
foundation  upon  which  they  are  all  found  to  rust,  nauielr, 
the  definitions  and  axioms, 

A  pi'  liirm  either  proposes  .someihini;  to  W  elTivliJ.  u 
the  construclion  of  a  lii.'ure,  or  it  's  a  cpicslii  n  wliich 
ouyht  to  1«^  solved;  in  either  case  it  reipiires  somrthini 
Id  hi  ihiiir,  and  llierefore  depends  entirely  upon  the  poslu. 
lates  for  its  solution.  .Mler  the  niitulnn  has  In'en  tXtVi, 
its  sulUcii  ncy  for  perforniiii){  all  the  ic<|uireil  conditioM 
still  remains  to  Ih'  proved. 

A  Itmina  is  a  theorem  which  proiicrly  iHilunga  m  Km 


GEOMETRY. 


«9t 


nunnli 
il  niic 
'  111' 
to, 
PI 

llHt 

wn 
ni 


""'i-r  from  ih« 

■'"•■n»i  "tidal. 

''•"w«ll^hlinel^ 
•""""eiiieihcm 

'•y  iliMc  po,tu. 

iiiHtrutiiomi  In 
'"  »»J  the  com. 


I  to 


"i.ondi-avourinijto 

"'"ry  i"  uprcarfd 

i'  "f  l>orforniin,  ,|| 
irnimmioB  „i„np,  j;,^ 

«"'!  tlic  ruliT:  i„ 
»  ci'li'linitod  woik 

1797,  onti||,.d(,V 

1'  <"oiil|.iissi.«). 

itiil'l''  ^iil  which  il 
".  Ill'-  9lh  axiom  H 
tliiii  itH pnrt.  It , , 
lis  ;  I'vni  a  ehild  j, 
«  mil  awnro  that  i 
'■^'lor  than  anj-  f.a^. 

vorydiiyVobborva. 

till-  ollur  aiiv,nii, 
1'  tirst  book,  are  Ihj 

nic  thing,  are  eijuj 

nli()h>  nrp  pqml. 
the  rcniiiindcrs  m 

till-  wholes  are  uj. 

',  Iho  rcniiiindersin 

sariin,  are  equal  to 

same,  are  equal  to 

1  one  onnther,  thil 
an-  ('(iuiii  to  oncan. 

irt. 

H'  another 
IriiivM  through  th« 
lit  lino,  without  c* 

;  to  exist,  equal  ii 

nrp,  tiy  Euclid  anil 
1  t'onii  of  pxpresnioii 
f  kinds  of  pro|Ms|. 
t.  A  Ihr  rem  is  i 
riitlis;  liiit  lis,  wit!) 
lit  Imre  ussi'riion  or 
inless  fully  corrolo- 
Id  U-  ili'inonslratiil 
if  nthpofpm.cxcfpi 

iilrpiidy  eslahlisliiil 
iiusl  have  ki'n  i!> 
IIS  ;  and  thuswoirt 
itil  wp  arrive  at  Ihi 
iind  to  roHt,  iiauielj, 

(f  to  1h'  I'lTlYlcd,  u 

n  i(iii'slii  n  wliifh 
ri'ipiires  wiint'thm| 
I'ly  ii|h)ii  ttip  piKlfr 
I'M  lias  iH'en  slali^!, 
ipquireil  condition 

rly  hidunga  w  mu 


diM  I*'*  "^  (rcomelrj,  but  which,  from  the  cIohp  ronnoc- 
lionwl'i''''  fiibdiHtHliclwpi'n  nil  the  liniiirliPH  of  iiinllicinii- 
rical ai'iPMi'P,  ixi'l^P"  'I'ly  iiitimlllPpd  lorxpliiiii  hoiih'  ditli- 

litv  whii'h  woiilil  olliorwim  sHrp  in  tlio  dpinonHtriitinn 

,  (he  sucppdint;  tliporpnis  .ir  proldpniH.     Ah  IpinniiiH 

Ap,  j:,it,,rli  tilt'  poiitiiuiouH  oilier  of  ii  milijprt,  they  iirp 
nf»fr  U!*"'!  ''y  8""*'  "la'lii-'tnaticiana  exceiit  when  alwo- 
latflv  rciiui-itf. 

Maviiii,'  now  oxplaincd  the  nicaninc;  of  the  tprnl^  uhpiI 
iniWi'-  '"''"'  "'■'"'"I""?'  ''"^-  followiiiH;  olwerviitidiis  on 
iht  nature  of  that  rpai-oiiiii;?,  iiul  the  nii'thoil  |iiirsiii'il  liy 
EuiliJ  uiul  othiTH,  will  lie  I  'lulily  umlprstniHl : — A  pro- 
mwition  in  tir'^t  Hlali'd  in  gi'iien.l  ternw:  take,  liir  iiistaiicp, 
llic  20lh  prnpo'iition — "Any  Iw)  sidoH  of  a  tiiantjiii  nrp 
tcvftlier  areatpr  than  the  third  hiiIp."  This  is  hut  Imre 
MjiTlioii:  to  ailvaiiee  a  Hlrp  fartlior,  KhpIIiI  placPM  the 
firiire  rcfprr' d  to,  naniidy,  a  triani;lp,  liil'ore  llip  Mtudi'iit, 
and  tells  him  that,  in  the  amipxcd  Irianglo,  namely,  AU(.', 
aiiv  two  sides  of  it  tiim'lhcr  are 
greater  than  tlio  Ihiid  side  ; 
that  in  la  wiy.  Ilie  Hiiipa  IIA, 
AC,  are  touPthiT  ureater  than 
the  one  sido  H<" ;  the  sidps 
AB,  HC,  are  u'reatir  Ihiiii  AC; 
and  UC,  i'\,  are  ^jreator  than 
Ali,    This  is  rcrtaiiily  ,,.Iiiiii{ 

olf  the  utti'iilion  frmn  a  mere  general  ohf 'Tvation,  nnd 
roiiliiiinLf  it  for  a  tiiiip  to  the  i"''-..'.,,,,^'.,,..  .' oiip  iiidivi- 
dual  case  ;  it  is  also  di'iii:i'.iiiiit;  the  assent  of  the  ppri'pp- 
live  fiicullips ;  for  the  inoinonl  tlia  thi  pvp  liulits  upon 
ti'e  triaiiijlp  AUtJ  th  mind  is  i:ninpiliati  ly  ready  to  ap- 
kumvloili^p  that  two  of  the  sidi-j-  arp  together  yrp  si  r  than 
oiilv  oi.p  of  its  sidps  ■  ypt  the  matter  eaiinot  rest  tier". 
Euilid  knew,  US  well  as  any  of  oi-r  modern  yl  .losopliors, 
that  there  aro  /i.'o  primary  priripipips  •.•.<  th'.  liuinan  iiitel- 
|i>ct;  the  pvi'  sees  and  ponvpyH  its  ini|ireHsioiis  iliipplly  to 
the  peri'pplivp  orohsirviii;;  faculties  ;  hut  infoniiali.iii  thua 
ai'quireil  oiiL;lit  to  lip  imiiipiliatply  liriiu:;lit  iindpr  poi;ni- 
lance  of  lh"sp  faiultips  wliieh  enahle  us  to  trapp  tlip  pause 
as  well  as  tlip  pIK'pI.  mid  to  pomparp  the  rplation  of  things. 
Euilid,  liiprpfiirp,  sulijpptpil  every  proposition  lip  advaiippd 
to  a  doulde  kind  of  proof,  liy  aiMrpssiiiK;  Imlli  llip  sets  of 
faculties  which  pompose  the  human  iiilellppt:  perhaps 
this  may  alone  he  siilUiieiit  to  account  for  the  fait,  that 
hi«  ;«ork  has  tVoiii  aup  to  aitp  been  used  as  thp  tcxt-liook 
(/cl-'int'iitary  LreoiiiPtry,  while  other  works, Jiecause  less 
trulv  pliilusopliical,  have  pn;;rosspd  pii'dic  attPiition  for  a 
lUJ^K'iit.  and  liavp  tliPii  sunk  into  oMivioii. 

A  hripf  analysis  of  llip  si'veral  hooks  compodn','  what  is 
calkd  FIiii  lid's  illpiiiPMls,  may  not  he  iiiiaccipt.ild"  to  the 
lalenrni'd  rpadiT.  TliP  lirst  three  propositions  in  Hook 
1.  are  prohlems,  and  slmw  the  spvpral  iiiPlliods  of  iIpsitIIi- 
iui;  an  eipiihilpral  trianule,  of  ihawini;  a  straight  line 
cijual  to  a  [•i\t'n  stniiijlit  line  from  a  niveii  point,  and  of 
cultinj;  olf  I'roiii  the  tjr.'atcr  of  two  uivpii  siraiulit  lines  a 
pan  eipiiil  to  the  less,  'I'he  fourth  pruposilion  is  the  lirst 
theorem  which  opcurs  in  laieiid,  and  requires  to  Ik;  px- 
ainined  a  little  in  detail,  hecausp,  in  eonnection  '.vltli  the 
8th  pro|)<)siiion,  it  fornm  the  foumhttio'i  of  all  tiiat 
i<  advanced  respecting  the  eomparisoii  of  trian,>lps. 
Tliij  important  tlleoruni,  as  statpj  by  Euclid,  id  as  fol- 
lows:— 

If  two  lriani;Ii's  liavp  two  sidps  of  the  one  eipial  to  two 
liiloi  jf  tiie  other,  caeh  to  each,  and  have  likewise  the 
tn^lu  iiiniaiiipd  by  thosp  sidps  pipuil  to  oiip  aiiollicr,  tlipir 
ha,ies  or  third  sidps  sli.ill  lip  pipial,  and  tliP  two  triannlcs 
ahall  hi^  eiiii,'i!.  and  tlnir  nther  anuli'S  shall  hp  eipial,  each 
locach,  iianii  ly,  those  to  which  tlip  eipial  siilesure  oppo- 
tile.  Or,  if  two  sides  and  the  contained  aii^le  of  one 
ln«'.i;lp  he  rps|H'ptivp|y  pipial  to  tho.se  of  another,  the  tri- 
in«lc*are  eipiul  in  eVpry  respect. 

het  ABtJ,  lJl»r,  be  two  Iriaiii^les,  whiph  havp  the  two 
•idea  AM,  AC,  equal  to  tlie  two  uidcs  JJli,  DF,  each  to 


paph,  namely,  AB  1o  T)E,  and 
A'' toDF.and  Iheanale  HAO 
cpinl  to  the  iinude  F.DK;  the 
biiHe  H("  sliall  be  eipial  to  the 
I  use  EF,  and  the  triani?l8 
AUC  to  the  triangle  DBF; 
and  the  other  anglpx,  to  vliieh 
the  eipial  sidpH  arp  oppoiiile,  shall  be  equal,  each  to  each 
naiiiply.  tlip  aiiKle  ABC  to  the  aiiide  DEF',  and  tlicanffU 
;\('T5  to  DFE.  The  nietlnxl  adopted  for  denion«tri'tin| 
this  thiorpiii,  as  well  as  that poiitaiiipd  in  thcStli  proi.oiii. 
lion,  is  a  pppuliar  Hpppiea  of  demonstration  which  has  re- 
ceived llip  namp  of  snpei-positinn  :  it  ia  in  reulit."  the  name 
mi'tliod  pursued  by  Inilors  and  dressmakers  when  tliey 
wi:-h  to  satisfy  themselves  iw  io  whether  a  jiiope  of  eloth 
has  lippii  put  correelly  from  a  given  pattern ;  lliev  place 
theiroriginal  pattern  and  the  piece  of  cloth  or  silk  to- 
gether, Ibe  one  behind  the  other, 'and  ciirefiilly  observe 
wdiptlier  the  edtcps  of  one  project  beyond  thoso  of  the 
other;  but  if  they  both  eoineide  in  every  point,  the  tiilor 
knows  that  bis  eloth  bap  bepn  cor  .  .'tly  cut  according  to 
the  piitlern.  In  the  same  ./ay,  Euclid  reipiircH  the  triangle 
.\HC  to  lH'a|)|dipd  lo,  or  placed  exaptly  over,  the  triangle 
DEF,  so  that  the  point  .\  may  I*  on  D,  and  the  straight 
line  .Ml  upon  1)E,  tb:-  point  B  shall  eoineide  with  the 
point  E,  bi'Piiu.sp  .\I5  is  equal  to  DB ;  and  AH  cuincid- 
iiig  with  I)E,  .\C  shall  coincide  with  DF",  because  the 
angle  H.\(;  is  equal  to  the  angle  EDF ;  wherefore,  alBO, 
the  point  (;  shall  coineidp  with  the  point  F,  bppnuse  A(' 
is  equal  lo  I>F;  but  the  point  1)  poincidps  villi  the  point 
E,  wliprpfore  the  base  IIC  shall  coincide  with  the  base 
EF,  and  shall  be  equal  lo  it.  Therefore,  also,  the  whole 
tiiam;le  ,\HC  shall  coincide  with  the  wbide  triangle 
DEF,  and  Ih'  equal  to  it;  and  the  remaining  angles 
of  the  one  fdiall  Poi'  pidp  with  the  remaining  angles  of 
the  other,  and  be  equal  to  them;  namely,  the  angle 
.MIC  to  the  angle  DEF,  and  the  angle  ACB  to 
the  ainile  DFE.  The  postulates  do  not  permit  one 
triaimie  to  be  cut  out  and  plappcl  ovei  the  other,  there- 
fore Eiiilid  only  iiniipnc»  what  would  be  the  r  suit 
sniqiosiiig  this  were  to  be  done.  This  theorem  depends 
entirely  upon  the  8th  axiom,  being,  in  |ioint  of  fact, 
merely  what  a  lo;;ician  woidd  call  the  Ponror.se  of  it ;  for 
in  the  Hth  axiom  it  is  stated,  that  magnitiidps  whieh 
poincidp  with  one  another,  that  is,  whieh  exactly  fill 
the  same  space,  are  equal  to  one  nr/ither ;  aiid  in 
tliis  theorem,  in  order  to  jirove  them  equai,  ii  is  proved 
that  tiny  poinpiile. 

Tlip  demoiistiation  of  the  'ith  proposition  is  Wie  first  in- 
stance in  Euclid  of  a  spepies  of  reasoning  termed  by  logi- 
piiins  niiVne.i,  or  a  reiliiilii)  ad  nhaiiniiiiii,  ai.d  which  con- 
sists in  proving  a  theorem  to  he  true  by  showing  that  an 
al-suidily  would  follow  from  supposing  it  false.  Th» 
tlicorein  here  advanced  is,  that  if  two  angles  of  a  triangle 
be  equ  \l  to  one  another,  the  sides  wliich  subtend,  or  are 
oppositp  to,  those  angles,  shall  also  be  equal  to  one  anotlicr, 
audit  is  demonstrated  by  the  folbwing  indireet  modo  of 
reasoniiig:— I,et  AHC  be  a  triangle,  having  the  aiiglu 
:\HV  eipiiil  to  the  angle  .\CH,  the  side 
AB  is  also  equal  to  the  side  AC  For 
if  .Mi  be  not  equal  to  M',  one  of  th(!in 
WHS  greater  than  the  other.  I.et  AB  be 
the  gieater,  and  fiom  it  cut  oil"  DB  equal 
to  .\C,  the  less,  and  join  D<;,  theiefoio, 
lupause  in  the  friaiigles  DBC,  ACB,  DB  _ 

ispqwal  to  AC,  and  IK' -omiiion  tobotli;     ^  *> 

the  two  sides  I)Ii,  BC,  are  equal  to  the  two  AC,  CH, 
each  to  piipli ;  lint  the  angle  L)B(j  is  also  equal  to  Hit 
a.igle  .\CB;  tlierefore,  the  base  D(!  of  the  on.  is  equal 
to  the  base  .Mi  of  the  other,  and  the  triangle  DBC  if 
equal  to  the  triangle  ACB.  the  less  to  the  greater,  whiett 
is  absurd.  Thernlbre,  AB  is  not  unequal  Vi  AC ;  iDat  u, 
it  is  equal  to  it 


INFORMATION   FOR   THE   PEOPLR 


The  cordll.iry  or  itifcronrc  drnwii  finni  thin  in,  thot  all 
lTiitil|{loii  liitviii^  ('(|imI   iiuli'ff  lliivi-  uNo  ri|uiil  r<i(li<H. 

Tlio  Till  |iri>|H>siti(in  itlliinlH  im«tlnT  ii|HTiinfn  of  that 
kind  of  iiiilircrt  iloMiDiiHtrutioii,  ivlilc-li  |c>i;ii'iiiiiM  mil  n 
fliloiniim.  It  it  NttilrJ  ill  llii*  |>ri)|NHlti(iii,  lliiit,  U]>oii  (lii< 
miniv  \tnse,  mill  on  lli«  miino  Hiilr  of  it,  llicri*  fiiniiot  lio 
two  trim  'lis  tlint  liavr  ilii'ir  niilwi  wliiili  iiii-  tcnniiintiil 
ill  OIK-  rxtri-iiiity  of  Ihu  liiixe  pi|iiiil  to  our  iiiiotlirr,  nnil 
likcwiM!  tlioMC  wliii'li  iirc  tpriiiiiiatfil  in  llir  oIIut  rxtrc- 
mity  oi|iiul  to  ono  niiuthcr.  'I'Iud  in  )irovfJ  l>y  rxn- 
miiiiiiK  Hi"(>iiniti'ly  rvi-ry  piwHiMii  poxitioii  in  wliiih  two 
oquitl  triniiiiloH  can  Im<  iniimiiinl  to  lie  plucrd  ho  iih  to 
hkvu  lint  oiir  l<aK<> :  it  in  t'viijint  tlmt  if  tliry  mulil  lie  ho 
placed,  the  vort4'X  of  niio  triunulc  iniiHt  Ih>  cillier  without, 
within,  or  on  one  Hide  of  the  other  IriiiiiKic :  eiich  uf 
tllew  in|i|ii<iiition8  i*  exniiiiiic<l  Hepanitrly,  nnd  each 
proved  lo  1)0  itnpoKiiihln ;  the  render  in  thim  liroiii;lil  into 
a  diieiiiiim,  haviii)(  no  ii!t<>rn:itive  hut  to  mlinit  the  truth 
■tated  ill  the  theorem.  Theio  are  niiiiiy  instHiires  in 
which  thirf  eiiccieii  of  di'inoniitriitioii  in  iiwil  hy  Kuclid. 
The  '^th  iiropositiiiii  refiTH  to  eipinl  trinnuilpn. 
Till  ith.  H)th,  I  tth,  iiiiil  I  "III  propofiitioiis,  nre  useful 
prartii'it!  prolileniH,  Hhowiiiii  how  to  hisi  1 1  (tlmt  in,  ili- 
Tldo  in  two)  un  iiMi;le  and  a  Htriiiitht  line;  also  how  to 
draw  a  Htniiitht  line  nt  rii;lit  iini>lei4  to  n  itiven  Htraicht 
line,  from  n  ijiven  |>oint  in  Ihiit  irivrn  line,  as  well  aa 
from  a  point  withont  or  lieyiiinl  ih.it  nivni  line. 

'I'he  Ifilh,  l~th,  IHtli,  nnd  lilth  pmposilioiis  refer  to 
l!ip  uiiijlrH  of  Irinniileii.  'riie  iie\t  pinpusitioii  mont 
worthy  o''  exiiiniiiiilion  it  the  "Jdlli,  which  inviwti;;i»le« 
t:io  mime  Miiliject  us  the  '1th  nnd  the  '^lli,  namely  the 
C'MiditionH  of  the  ei;iiiilily  of  trinmrle-'.  The  Ith  propiv 
•itiuii  has  ulri'aily  hern  fully  expliiiiiil.  In  the  ^th  it  is 
p'oveil  that  if  twi>  IrianifliM  hnve  two  »icli-<  of  the  one 
einal  to  two  niilet  of  the  oilier,  each  to  each,  ninl  have 
likewlHi*  their  liaKet  eipial.  the  niiilc  which  jt  contained 
hy  the  two  huU-h  of  the  one  hIhiII  lie  eipi;!!  to  the  aniilc 
eintiiiiied  hy  the  two  Hides  of  the  oIliiT ;  or  if  llic  three 
■ides  of  one  liianu'le  1k'  respiclivcly  e>|iial  to  llnwe  of 
Biiiitlicr.  tlw  iriainjlct  are  ivpial  in  everv  retpect.  Thus, 
let  .\U(',  IJIIK,  lie  two  tn  im^let  havimj  the  two  hides 
AH,  AC,  i";iial  to  the  two  sides  DE,  UF,  each  Ui  each, 
namely,    AB     to     1)K,         A  D    5 

and  AC  to  I)K  ;  and 
also  tlie  hane  KC  eipial 
to  the  hate  UF;  the 
■n^lc  BAC  [4  I'lual  to 
the    Hniilr    KDK,    nnd 

th.'  un;;iel»  at  B  and  C  H "  "" ^f 

of  the  tri:iM;,'le  AB('  are  resp«'ctivcly  eipial  to  thow  at 
K  and  F  of  ilie  irianitlc  DKF,  'I'hc  "lith  proposition 
(fives  still  further  information  on  tliis  nsil'iil  Hnhjcit.  It 
siiowH  liiat  if  two  trianulis  lia^c  two  iiii:;lin  of  llie  one 
c.pial  to  two  ainjles  of  (he  other,  each  to  each,  nnd  one 
side  eipial  to  one  side,  namely,  eilhiT  the  sides  adjacent 
to  till'  eipia!  angles,  or  the  sidet  opp.isilc  to  die  eipial 
angles  in  each,  then  shall  the  other  Hides  he  ei|nal.  each 
lo  each,  and  alto  the  third  aiiijlc  of  the  ime  to  the  third 
•  nijle  of  the  other;  or,  if  two  nn','li'-i  and  a  side  in  one 
I  ianirle  he  respi>ctively  e(]nal  to  two  an.'les  and  a  corn-- 
tpondinij  siilc  in  another  tnanule,  the  t'.vo  triaiiu'liH  hIi.iII 
h"  cipial  in  every  resiiect.  Thni.  let  .MIC,  DKF,  lie 
two  triaii'^lcH  which  have  the  , 
unifies  Alt* ',  DC  A.  reiiiertively 
f'pial  to  DHF,  KFD;  namelv.  r 
ABC  to  DKF,  and  BCA  to 
EFD;  aNo  one  lidc  equal  to 
■  i,e  side;  and  first,  let  those 
gides  In-  eipial  which  are  pidja- 
cent  to  the  aii'^les  that  areeipml 
ill  the  two  iriineli's,  namely.  Bt;  to  KF  ;  the  other  sides 
«)iiUI  Im'  equal  eaizh  t«  ea<h,  namely,  AB  to  I)F,  and  AC 
:o  DF;  a-  d  the  thhd  .ini^le  BAC  to  tin  lliird  ansle  KDF. 
I'Uu  liltli  ^roup  of  thoureinx  is  found  verj'  useful  in  the 


nrta,  for  it  is  often  reipiislle  to  hiivn  some 


rule  h 


'y  whim 


^. 


iuikIcn  uro   exactly  eipial    to  each   olHie   •  j,,,]  ^f 

rules  were  llniily  enxruven  in  the  mind   if  evury  n,    1 

llic,  th.'re  is  no  douhl  hut  that  there  would  Im  f«  u*' 

expenditure  of  lime,  lahoiir,  nnd  moiiev.  " 

In  the  '-7lh  piopositioii.  the  investigation  of  ih„  „ 

j  jH'rlieH  of  parallel   lines  is  cominciiccd.  and  Ihis  dnli    "" 

I  is  continued  thnnmh  the  2Htli,  8!)th,  .'Kith,  uml  ,')!„  .J"^' 

I  positions,  until   suddenly  lirul.iii  olf  hy  the  iiilriMluni,* 

I  of  one  of  the  most  reinarkahle  proposilioiiH  in  thi"  «|,  " 

hook,   namely,  the   U-d,  in   which    it   is  "liowii  that  ,1,' 

three  interior  HiiKlei  of  a  triaoifle  nre  tii).»etlirri'ini,| ," 

;  two  riifht  nnifle*.     This  nnportaiit  fact  has  alrrnilv  w/ 

I  examined,  and  therefore  we  have  onlv  to  add  ilini  it  „, 

'  discoxered  hy  I'ytlianorns,  a  |ihilo«opiier  of  SimoB  jh,,,  1 

6(10  B.C.     The   doctrine   of  paiallel    lines   ni.i»i '„nm 

'  dismissed  hastily,   for,  with   the   exrcption   iiirhapn  ,,( 

|.Miportioii,  no   other  part   of  elementary    iieomptry  h,. 

created   so   iiinrli    |M'rplcxily  and  diHciiKHion.    The  il, , 

two   theorems   relatimj  lo  |arnllcl    1'   es  are  very  ,\\n,,\f 

and   easily   di  iiiiiiii.lralc>l ;    for    the   'JTth   Ihcorcin  f,,,!, 

adlniiH,   that   if  a   Htrai;{lit   line   fallinif   upon   two  ml,,,, 

siraiijhl    lines  makes  the  alltrnile  angles  cp,  i|  to  or„i 

another,  tiicse  two  Hlraiijhl  lines  shall  he   parallel.    T||, 

VJHih   Iheiirem    is   cipially   easy    of  di'inoii"lmtiiit(,  i,  j| 

Mil  lely  assumes  that  if  a  straii^ht  line  falling  ii])oii  two 

iille  r  Htraiijht   lines   iiuikcs   the  evti'rior  aiiu'lc  ciiiiBJ  1,. 

the   interior   and   opposite   nimie   upon  the  hihiii' side  i,f 

the    line,  or  iivikes   the   inturior   am;lcs   upon  the  »mnt 

Hide  tiijrelhiT  eipial  lo  two  rit;ht   nnitlcs,  the  two  strnirli 

lines  sliall   lie   parallel   to  one   another.     To  ninko  tliji 

more   ilear,  it   may  Is'   ns  well   lo  Ruhjoiii  an  example. 

Let  the  Htrnii;ht  line  FF,  which 
falls  upon  Ihe  two  straiijht  lines 
All,  C|»,  iiialic  Ihe  exterior  uiiifle 
K<iB  equal  to  the  interior  and 
opposite  allude  (illl)  upon  the 
same  side;  or  make  the  interior 
aidle-;  011  the  hnme  side,  HCll. 
(illD,  toL'elher  eipinl  lo  two  riijht  niinles;  .'VH  is  paf,|, 
lei  to  CI).  Hut  the  Vjilth  |)ropositloii  uhsiimics  iho  con- 
versi'  of  this,  namely,  if  !i  striii«hl  line. tall  upon  two 
pir.illi'l  Kiraiidil  lines,  it  makes  Ihe  alteniite  uiii;lei,  oiiuji 
to  one  another;  nnd  the  exterior  niii;le  eipial  In  thp  ji^ 
terior  and  ii|,'poHite  upon  the  same  side;  and  IlkewiHo  t!i 
two  interior  aiiirles  upon  the  same  side  touether  eqiuJ  ^ 
two  ri'^ht  aii.;les.  Now,  the  ii.sscrtion  coiilui;ieil  in  |||i, 
tlieoreiii  is  hoth  easy  of  compreheiiHioii  and  eviilont  lo 
the  s«Mises  ;  the  dillicully  lies  in  snlijei  tim;  it  to  th»l 
ri'joriius  deinoiistralion  to  which  all  tluoieiiis  niu.nt  I* 
liroiii;ht  liefore  they  can  Ik-  received  us  niatliemalii'il 
truths,  Kuclid  has  endeavoured  to  prove  it  liy  mi'aiu 
of  n  iiiiiirlin  ml  iilisiiriliini,  lull  this  s[H'eies  of  (Iciiionstiii. 
lion  is  for  many  reasons  never  adopted  hy  coikI  mmh.. 
m.itieians,  when  it  is  possihle  to  provi'  the  truth  nfi 
slati'inent  liv  any  other  process  of  reasonini;.  Alin.i-1 
every  siiccecdini;  malliemalician  has  devised  >.imp  parti. 
ciilar  iiielliod  of  his  own  to  el'icidale  ihc  diMlriii,.  nf 
parallel  lines,  hut  no  one  has  ever  yet  fully  succf tiled  in 
rtlii  linu'  the  required  demonstration. 

The  .'K'th  proposiliiiii  hIiowm  that  siraiuht  lines  vhirh 
nre  inrallel  to  t!ie  <:\me  st:.i!;;'il  line  are  parallel  1 1  (Hip 
another.  The  fullowinij  demonstration  of  this  fjct  ii 
fiiiiiiled  upon  the  tniilis  previously  advanced  in  Ilif29tli 
and  -7lh  propositions: — 

Let  the  two  lines  AB,  CD,  lie  jiaridlel  to  KF;  IhM 
AB  and  C|)  are  parallel  l.i  one  aiiotlier.  For.  Iweaine 
(iMK  cuts  the  parallel  straiirht  lines  AB,  FF  Ihe  nnt;le 
A(iH    is  eipial  to  the  am;le   (illF.  \   ., 

.AlTiin,  liecaiise  the  slraitjlil  lined'K    ^ A^|^ " 

cuts  Ihe  panillel  straiiflit  lines  KF,   |..  \'l         p 

(;l),  the  aiiyle  (iHF  is  equal  to  Ihe  \^K' 

angle    GKL);    and   it   was   shown  ^'  V — " 


H\ 


\w 


OEOMFHUV. 


m 


A  tth'  ""-'''  ^^^  '"  •"I""'  •''  ''"'  "ntr'*'  f'^iV  \  tlirrp- 

,      ^     A(iK  in  ciiniil  !(i  (iKl),  iiriil  llicy  arc  allir- 

'  ,„|g|i'«;  lliiTcfTi"  AH  In  imrnlli'l  Id  CI). 

Thf  •""''  l'r'>|"»'>'i  '"  n-xiiiiicn  the  rhiiin  of  tlrmonHtr*- 

nhii'li  wiM  ■^(lildrnly  iiili'j'ni|itnl   by  tlio   iiiwrtioii 

f  lliP  fiiiiiciii"  3-'l  p'""|"''*''i""i  i"i<'  <'i'tiliniirH  till'  iiivcu- 

,ji,q  of  till'  |iro|H'ili('n  of  pariillil  IhirM.     'I'lii«  Niilijprt 

lurntlv   Ii'IiIk  '"   ''"'   <'Xi»inliiiili()ri  of  piiriilU'lodriiiiM  j 

'liiiilfwl  it  limy  Itc  Hiiiil,  lliut  iilinoHl  nil  llw  sii-r.  cdiim 

f.ixwitiont  ill  fll''  "'■•''  ''"i'l<    "f   "lovntivl  til  till'  ilivri<ti- 

'     IP  nf  |iiiriilli'l'itrriiini4,  miil  tlw  ri'liitioii   "iititi^liiin  ln-- 

IV'l-ll    111''    IT'M""''''''''     "'      lllinilll'lllltrilllH    llllll      tllDMC      of 

i/iiiiiitl''"'  '"  |'r"l"'^'''""  ''•'^'  ^"'  inttaiii'i',  it  i«  i)lli"j;ril 
lliil  imrnlli+'uri'i'i'"*  "l"'"  'ln'  Wimr  hwM'  niul  l>rl»Mi'n 
Ihi-  «iii"'  pinlli'l'*.  I"'''  <'ipiiil  to  <'nrh  oiIht  ;  in  praiioBi- 
.■jj  37  till'  tiiiiiii'  fill  t  it  nfririnril  witli  rrspci't  (o  lii- 
injlon.  nanidy,  lliil  triiiiijIrH  upon  tlio  biuik' tuisi'  ami 
Mivd'nllii'  siiiiii'  p:iriilli'lH,  lire  cipinl.  I'ropoHitioiis  Mil  niiij 
^  jri'  the  niiiviTHn  of  Iho  prconlinn.  Tlio  immt  cclo- 
talfil,  hiitti'viT,  of  till'  Hiii'i'('i*'!im{  llu'or.'iii'*,  llllll  llic 
niwtiitrikiii^'.  I'i'ilisip''. '»  the  wholp  riini?i'  of  Ki'iiimti-iriil 
fimcf-  i"  ''"'  ''^'''  piopiixitioii.  Wp  Hiilijoiii  llii-  tlico- 
„.m  aii'l  till'  •'Xiiiiipl"'  Kivrn,  iiml  rifrr  those  wlio  uro 
(■(.•;,„»  as  Id  111!"  Iiirtliml  of  ili'MloiiHtrutloii,  to  Kiirlid 
linnojf.  In  liny  ri4!il-,iiii,l''il  Itiiiir^'ti!,  tlir  Hi|imrc  wliirh 
i^ il.'^rriN'il  iipiii  till'  "iili'H  HulitouilitiK  tho  right  angle, 
i<oquiil  to  thi'  si|ii:iri's  ili'm-rilii'd 
iipiiii  till'  fiili'x  whirli  conlniii 
lliP  ri;{ht  niiKli^  lot  ADC  ho 
I  riglit-iiiio'''''  triiiii;).',  hiivini? 
Ihf  right  iini;lo  UAC  ;  tlio 
uniirc,  Ji'*'rilird  lip  m  tin-  iiido 
DC  i<  I'lpml  to  tlir  s.ju  UOH  de- 

rriN'l  "P""  "^'  -^'^  ■'  "'"'  '"• 
ilu'  *|iiiii<'  '"''  i^  i''|iiiil  to  the 
tw»  *|Uar;'s  H(3  iiiul  CH.  I'y- 
ih.i'ioniH  llllll  !il^<o  till'  honour  of 

iliiciToriiig  thin  iinpoiliuit  truth.     _        

cif.liiti'Iy  iip""  tlio  iliM-ovcry,  he  was  so  triin'<portrd 
ivillijoy  ill  till'  V'.duo  of  ilie  trulli,  nnil  with  Rr.itiliidi'  at 
li/iii,'  (lorMiillcd  to  ri'v.'iil  it  to  the  hninuii  rare,  that  he 
i.riliced  a  wlmle  hei'iitoinl),  that  is  to  say,  n  hiiinlred 
iivn.  as  tt  Irslimnny  of  his  thankfulness.  This  story 
ivfiitiroly  ful'uloiis  ;  yrt  sornethini;  may  he  ffaiiieil  even 
fMiii  a  fiil'l'' ;  and  from  diis  tictitious  narration  we  Irani, 
!l)il  ihe  truth  now  uiif  ilded  in  the  i7th  iiroposition  was 
I),'!  in  thi'  hi:;licst  estiinatio;!,  not  luily  hy  the  disro- 
t,  -!  r.  but  by  the  aiieiriits  who  iuventeil  the  fal'le  and 
r:h>  Iransiiiitteil  it  to  posterity. 

Hiving  now  I'vainined  laielid's  method  of  rensonincr, 
ml  ihc  various  forms  of  lo;^i'nI  arRiinii'iils  employed  hy 
lii;ii,  anJ  :iiliiptiil  hy  others  in  denioiislraiions,  it  now 
imlv  remains  to  ulaiire  rapidly  at  the  eontenls  of  the 
olhor  liooks. 

Ill  the  lei'Dnd  hook,  the  properties  of  rerfiin|j;te3  and 
«|uarc«  forii'i'il  under  yiven  lines,  n  jii'i  u'r  the  jirinri- 
[  il  subjort  of  invcsliiT  ilion.  All  the  demonstrations  in 
'.hi* book  arc  very  --im;!!!'',  many  of  lliem  'onsist  cliietlv 
m  provinu'  tliit  the  tl,;iire  drawn  is  really  i-ompost'd  of 
l!u'  rei'tair.:!i's  alluded  to  in  ihe  propositi. in  ;  and  most 
of  the  doniiiislriiti  in<  are  foundod  u|ioii  tlii'  self-evident 
Iiriiiiiiilo,  tliat  the  woole  is  cijual  to  all  its  parts  taken 
li;'i'thi-r.  Tile  first  three  propositions  "how  the  theory 
0,"  I'iMiimon  inalhiinatical  multiplieation,  and  alM>  that 
cif  thi'  mensiiriition  of  rectniiijles  in  praetieal  peometry, 
aln.i.ly  explained.  'I'lie  "Ith  may  he  called  a  K^'nn'tri- 
cal  ileinoii.stratioii  of  the  rule  laid  down  for  exinietintf 
the  square  root  of  two  terms  in  arithmelie  and  al^elira. 
The  5th.  6th,  7lh,  a;ul  8th  proposition.s  show  the  prin- 
ii])!o8  ii|ion  whieh  some  useful  operations  in  ali^ehra  are 
Ci'iiiliuted ;  all  the  reiiiaiiiin(i  propositions  of  this  Ixink 
w  of  threat  value  in  trigonometry. 

The  third  honk  Is  ilevodd  entirely  to  the  Investictation 
of  Ihi'  ci.ele,  aii  1  if  various  lines  cotinidpred  with  refer- 

Vut.  1.— 6G 


D  I, 

It  is  related,  that  iin- 


enee  to  Ihe  eireir,  and  drawn  within  or  without  III  cil 
euinfereneo.  'I'he  properties  of  taiiKents  and  of  InnKon 
circles  are  fully  considered ;  and  also  the  relalliin  ln»" 
tween  anifles  whieh  are  made  at  the  eireunifrrencc  ami 
lliose  iiinde  at  the  centre.  This  hook  is  of  great  u«»  in 
various  meehaiiicnl  arts;  it  is  also  the  foundation  of 
praitieal  neoinetry,  the  cirele  iH'iiin  very  frcijurntly  usrj 
in  Ihe  eoiistriietion  of  compliialed  li(rure». 

The  fourth  book  may  lie  eoiisidired  as  a  conlinuat'on 
of  Ihe  thinl,  as  it  trehls  of  such  llffiires  as  cannot  l>e 
easily  drawn  without  the  circle.  It  explains  the  method 
of  descrihinif  retfular  {xilyKons  in  niul  aluuit  circles; 
and  conversely,  to  desi  rihc  ein  lis  in  and  about  regular 
polvRons. 

'i'lie  liOh  and  sixth  hooks  may  be  considered  tonethcfi 
beinn  both  devoted  to  the  same  subject,  namely,  thfl 
iloclriiie  of  projiortion.  Tlio  fltlh  hook  is  inlriHluctory 
lo  Ihe  sixth,  for  it  lays  down  iibstraet  theorems  relative 
to  proportion;  and  the  sixth  hook  shows  the  application 
of  these  theorcma  to  geometry.  FIvery  branch  of  ma- 
Iheiii.itieal  Hcieneo  is  more  or  less  dependent  upon  the 
demonstratioim  contained  in  these  two  hooks. 

The  seventh,  eighth,  ninth,  iiid  tenth  hooks  are  never 
jiiit  into  the  hands  of  students,  beiiin  of  very  little  us** 
in  any  |mr  of  nialhematies.  The  doctrine  of  proportion 
is  more  or  less  dwelt  upon  in  all  these  four  hooks;  ami 
they  also  treat  of  the  ureatest  eommoii  measure  of  any 
two  luiinbers,  of  scpiare  and  eiihe  numbers,  uiid  of  in- 
cotmneiiRiirnble  ipiaiitities.  The  main,  if  not  Iho  only, 
object  of  Kiii'lid,  in  writini?  Muse  four  books,  seems  to 
have  been  to  .settle  the  intricate  (|uesli()n  of  incoinmorh 
MU  rabies. 

The  reinainini;  books  of  Knclid  are  ei  lirely  devotfd 
tf'  Ihe  eNamiimtion  of  solids,  and  to  the  investigation  of 
their  proiH'rties  and  relations. 

SOLin    OEOMETRV. 

It  has  been    already  observed,  that  all  bOil^es  having 

leiiKlh,  breadlh,  and   thickness,   siicli    as  wo.-d,  timber, 

/if.,  are  called  solids;   and  that  the  i.ivesllgaiion  of  the 

properties  and   relations  of  llie  varinus  figurcH  assumed 

:  by  sui'h  bodies,  is  the  object  of  solid  '.geometry. 

I       'I'he  bontiilarie.s  of  .solids  are  surfaces.     Those  iiolidt 

'  whirh  are   bounded  by  plane  surfaces  are  culled  poly'ic- 

!  til   M  ,  from   the  (!reek  words  pulnf,  many,  and  edrii,  • 

'  seat     The  planes  whieh  contain  a  iiolylu'dron  are  called 

'  its  .siV/f-'or  fiiri-s ;  the  lines  tioiiniliio;  its  sides  are  termcJ 

its  ril^rx:  and  the  inclination  of  any  two  of  the  nlanes  is 

I  culled  a  ilil.t-'lntl  un.;i  ■. 

I      The  ineaniiii;  of  parallel  lines  h.ivino;  been  already 

explained,   it  is    only   necessary   to  say   that    the   word 

parallel    has    the    same    siirnification    when    applied    to 

planes  as  when   applied   to  lines.      PnniUil  jilmti^,  Wie 

'  parallel    lines,  would  never  meet,  even  if  lenijthened  to 

any  cNteiit.     The  ceiling  and  the  floor  of  a  room  are 

|iaralli'l  [ilaiies. 

I       A  fiilul  aiiiile  is  I     ined  by  three  or  more  plane  angles 

;  nieefiun  in  Ihe  same  point,     Th.'  corner  nf  a  box,  for 

!  instance,  i»  n  solid  am;le  formed  by  the  junction  of  three 

iiiiilles,  namely,  the  plane  anffle  terminatini;  one  side  of 

Ihc  upjier  or  under  surface  of  the  box,  and  the  two  plane 

ancles  belonuinc!  to  its  two  sides. 

I       The  generic  name  of  yin.im  is  ijiven  to  all  polyhediion* 

'  contained    between    two    opposite,  parallel,   and    eqna, 

polyijons,  connected    together  by    paralleloi^ams.     The 

common  bricks  used  in   masonry  are  f«n,iliar  examples 

of  one  species  of  prii-'.m  ;  the  little  optical  instrunienf  used 

for  showini;  the  colours  of  rays  of  liuht,  is  another  kind 

of  prism — it   is  a  pla-ss,  bounded  by  two  eijual  and   par 

allel  trianiinlar  ends,  and   three  equal  and  similar  sideh 

The  two  ends  of  prisms  aie  t^eiievally  called   the  Irrui,. 

lui'iiii;  .  I  airs,  and  onn  nf  them  is  called  Ihe  Im.tt.     Tne 

'  edges  of  the  sides  are  calicd  the  lahrtl  fi'!rf«,  and  those 

of  the  terminatMig  planes  are  called  the  /( rminatiiig  iJntl 

'i  t  'i 


449 


INFORMATION    FOR   THK   I'KOF'LK. 


Ptinn*  may  hi<  rii^ht  or  nhlii|u«,  rrgular  or  IrrrKiilnr.  In 
rif/i'  pri»riH,  lhi«  hitiriil  iil^ji'ii  am  |rr|N'iiiliiuliir  to  Itm 
bnwj  in  t  III  i/w  primMii  llm  m'u\e»  »n  in  iin  i)lili(|iui  jMwi- 
Uiiri  will)  r«'«|ir.l  In  lhi>  Utne.  A  rinht  primii  linvinn 
ri'ifuliir  |Nilvu>iiia  |i>r  iId  Irrininatinit  |iliini'a,  in  uiiil  lo  li« 
fifiiliii  unii  in;i'lii>  priKtii  in  iinr  in  winch  IliP  imhU  nrn 
irrrnnliir  |nilyK<>ni<.  'i'lir  line  jniniriK  ''"'  I'l'nlri-  of  lh«< 
icrniiniiliiiu;  iiliino*  of  ■  n-Kulur  priitni  ii*  rallrii  tlio  ;iriii- 
fiiii/ir  i/iM.  «nil  the  iiliiluilr  or  An^'i'  of  llio  jirinni  in 
liquiit  to  llii-  liMiKtIi  of  tliin  lino. 

'I'hi'  |mriill4'I'>i{riiitn  wliiili  form  thu  •i(l»»  of  prlnnw, am 
•Iway*  fiiuil  in  niiniluT  to  tlip  »ii\r»  ot'  lint  liiiw,  imd 
prioinii  nrc  cImmmmI  iircordjiiitly,  Tlie  primriK  wlliill  liiivii 
•  trianKiilir  Imm'  arornllfil  hiii.iiniliir  |>riiirni«,  tlxM'  wliii'li 
havo  a  ipiiiilninuuliir  Ii.ihv  iiri*  riilliM)  ijiiivlnlitirol  priHin.-!, 
Htjiigdiiiil  prinnia  iirc  IIioni  liii«iiiK  a  hrxii^'on  for  tliiir 
baar^  and  ji(il<ju.<i,inl  pri»MiH  iin'  lliom-  of  wliicli  tlio  Imom' 
la  a  |)olyi;on.  Tin'  piirulli'lopipitl  unil  llii>  iiilic  nm  iwo 
quailranKnlar  p'iinnH,  wlui'li,  lH'itii(  of  :-ii<iit  imporlnni'i'  in 
tha  artH.  -.'(pin'  Hp»-<i,il  iitlcnlion.  Tin'  /larnlliloinpt'l  i» 
boundtv  y  nix  four.iiiili'(l  lUnrpH,  ol  wliirh  rvory  op|tosili' 
Iwo  an'  parallrl.  It  i.<  r:!!!!.!  rrctunnnliir  when  il"  Imw 
U  a  rcrlaiiifli' ;  iind  ul\i>n  iIh'KP  nix  pliinrit  nr<>  ull  rt'ct- 
•litfleH  pi  I  od  pi'r|HMidi''uliirly  to  iiiih  otiifr,  it  in  Hiiid  to 
be  rii;l)t.  ni.il  oliliipu'  when  llii>  pliiiii'ii  iiri*  nii'lini'd  tucuili 
OlhiT.  VVi'  rnn  >wiirri-ly  look  round  uh  without  mciiiu 
rrrtnni;nliir  p.'ir.dlrlopipi'ilon*.  Iti'iuii.4  of  ImilHr,  lirvvn 
Mom'*,  the  Ihix  of  II  K^irili'iirr's  whi'iH-lianow,  tliu  IjihIh'm 
of  rartH,  uri>  iiliiiort  iiiviiriahlv  ri'ilaimulnr  piiriilli'lopi|ii'- 
(lon*;  Hiid  tluH  form  \»  iicniTally  Kivcii  to  Iiousi'k  iiikI  to 
ruoinn.  It  IK  oni'  of  the  propiwitionN  of  llic  I  liU  Uiok  ot 
Euclid,  ih, it  it'll  Molid  !«•  loiiliiiu'd  liy  Hix  pl.iii. -i,  two  and 
two  of  \v!iioh  lire  piirallcl,  the  oppoMiti'  pluncii  arv  HiiniUr 
anil  ripiid  piitalli'lo.;rHinii;  tliiiN,  Id 
the  xolid  (M)(i  II  (wliicli  i!<  a  piirul- 
bl'pi|><>il),  liiM-onlaincd  hy  the  parid- 
M  pinmr.  A  C.  <i  F;  lUJ,  (J  E ;  K  B, 
A  E ;  iiK  op|xmiii<  planuH  are  ainiitur 
•lui  P<pi:d  puralli'loKraiiiii. 

P«rull<dopi|H'(lH,  when   cut  hy   a 
plane    pnsrtini;    lhroni;h    the   diuco- 
niN  of  Iwo  of  till   oppoxitt)  plunoH,  arc  formed  into  two 
•quni  trianu'iilar  priHinx. 

Let  A  U  Ik-  II  Kuliil  parnllclopiiK'd,  and  I)  R  ,  (J  F,  the 
diai^onala  of  the  opiioHili;  paralli'lo^minH,  A  II,  (i  U, 
Sanirly,  those  whiih  urn  drawn  1h!- 
twixt  till'  cipi.il  aii^lcH  in  each;  and 
bccau*?  ('  1),  F  K.  are  each  of  them 
parallel  to  (j  A,  lhoui;h  not  in  the 
aame  plane  with  it,  CI),  F  K,  aro 
panilh'l  ;  wherefore  the  diaKonalu 
C  F,  I>  E.  are  in  the  plane  in  which 
the  parulleU  are,  and  are  iheiiiM'l^es 
parullrU;  and  tlie  plane  CUEF 
tliall  cut  the  solid  A  U  into  two 
equal  parl«. 

Dccause  the  trianijle  (' (i  F  is  equal  to  the  trianele 
C  H  F,  and  the  lri;»ni{le  I)  A  E  to  U  II  E  ;  and  that  the 
j(arallelo;;rani  ('A  is  eipial  and  similar  to  the  ojiposile 
«ine,  13  V  ;  and  the  parullilo){rain  <t  E  to  ('  11  ;  therefore 
the  [(.unes  which  contain  the  prisms  ('  A  E,  (I  U  E.  are 
equal  and  similar,  each  to  each  ;  and  they  are  also  eijually 
inclined  to  one  another,  liecause  the  jilanes  \  {',  E  b,  are 
ptirallcl.  as  also  A  F  and  U  IJ,  and  they  are  cut  hy  the 
plane  ('  E  ;  ihcnlore  the  piisni  C  A  E  is  equal  to  the 
prism  ('  U  E,  iiod  the  suliil  A  U  is  cut  into  two  equal 
prisms  hv  the  plane  i)  \)  E  F. 

J/'  >. — The  limV^'h,'  sIraiKliI  lines  of  a  parallclopi[K'd, 
luPiitMui'd  in  the  toll)wiii4  propositions,  an^  the  siilis  of 
the  parallelograms  lictwixt  the  base  und  the  plane  jiural- 
Icl  to  It. 

Paralle|opi|M'ds  are  equal  whin  they  are  upon  equal 
b«a<>s  and  of  the  same  altitude.  This  fact  is  very  evident, 
•tul  ia  constantly  acteJ  ujiun  when  the  fiMn  ure  right; 


for  ln*tanc«,  in  mukiiig  liook-»h<d»ca,  rtvh  %ht\'  jg  g,^. 


equal  to  the  others — that  Is,  It  is  made  rqiiiiHy  |„,|.  ^  . 
rqiiiillv  liroiid,  and  has  the  same  allilude  nr  lliirliii' 
Noliii  pHrallelopi|M>dH  which  liaNc  the  same  .iliiiu,),,  '^ 
one  niiotlii  r  as  their  hases  :  Ihiis.  Id  A  II,  t'  I)^  llf  .i! 
parallelopipeds  of  the  same  iiltilmle;  tiny  ure  lo 
another  as  their  hase* — that  is,  as  llic  \v,\m'  ,\  E  it  ton'* 
baie  ('  F,  so  is  the  solid  A  II  lo  llic  s„lii|  ('  |),  " 

Whali'ver  can    U'  proved   rr-|K'ctiim   the  prniNTii,,,  ^ 
pHr,illelopi|s'ds,  is  equally  true  with    risj,,,t   io  il,,^,,  . 
ciiIhs,   iMi'uiiHe  a   euhe  is   merely    ii  panilielnpi|i,.J  ^.. 
]  square  sides,    'I'lie  dice  used  liy  uamlilcrs  are  culio',.,  i 
tallies,  loolslools,  and    rooms  ol'nn    receive  n  ciiliic  fi,,. 
.Inst  as  the  unit  of  measure  for  pi  me  surfaces  is  imiunr 
»o  the  »/ii/  I'/  nuiifUir  fur  hiIkIa  is  u  eiiU-,  and  ihc  If^.i^. 
of  each  siile  of  the  cuIh"  is  nil  inch,  a  foot,  a  yard,  ur 
other  lineal  unit  which  may  U'  rued.     To  ineiinure  m 
solidity  of  a  solid,  is  to  asieit.iiii  how  many  culiio  imt,,,, 
111  cuIhc  frit,  iVc,  are  contained  Ihcrcin.    'I'h,,  snjidjty  / 
a  panillclopipcd  is  found  liy  iimlliply  inn  !'»' Iciiijtli  hj  |(„ 
lireadth,  and   the  prislud  hy  llic  lui^'ht;  the  rcnull  gim 
the  nii'Mlicr  of  cutics  contained  within  the  linure. 

I.il  /,  t,  and  h.  he  the  Iciitflli,  Imadlh,  nr  thirkiifs. 
and  the  heiylit,  and  v  the  volume  or  wilid  conitm 
then  v  =  llli. 

I, el  A  F  he  a  liaht  reelaii,'uli'r  p'lrallelopiiicd.  Lfi,,, 
lenutli  A  I)  he  4  lineal  ui^  ts,  ui  t  inches,  lU  thiiiiio 
II  ('  "  iiii'hrs,  and  its  heiulit 
A  I)  ■'<  inches.  'I'he  willd  can 
evidently  he  divided  into  tlnce 
eipial  portions  hy  planes 
tlirouith  (i  and  H,  parallel  lo 
the  hasi'  A  (';  niid  inio  four 
equal  portions  hy  means  of  ^ 
pl.mi  s  lhroii.;h  K.  I.,  M,  po- 
ralli'l  to  the  side  U  F ;  and 
into  two  eqii  il  |H>rtiiins  hy  a 
plane  throuijh  I,  parallel  to  I)  I),  f^nrh  of  the  small  cu!«i 
into  which  the  solid  is  now  diviiie.l,  is  a  ciilijc  inch;  luf 
iiiiiiiImt  of  euhic  inches  in  the  1  iwc^t  pnriinn  H  (' j 
'1  y  2,  or  8,  und  in  the  second  »mI  ippc-iimst  [mriioc 
there  are  as  many  ;  and  in  tlieip  'd  i'^.T' Imm',  thip;  an 
•1  X  -  X  •'.'"■  -* — '''l'">  i",  l'>  H'ic'  r  t  '^v  'ic  coiili'iiisof 
the  solid,  tind  thecontiiiurd  prudo.'  >'  Jir  I  ogth,  bitaJlh, 
and  height. 

The  solidity  of  a  eulie  ir 
fiiiiiid  hy  imiltiplyin^  the  side 
hy  ilM'lf,  und  that  product  ai'diii 
hy  itsidf;  or,  literally,  hy  raiung 
the  side  to  the  third  power 

Let  c  =:  an  ed^u  of  a  culw; 
then  f  =  I*. 

'I'he  reason  of  the  rule  is  evident, 
since  a  eiihe  is  just  a  puralle|iipi[)ed 
whose   leiii^th,  hreuiith,  und   iieijjht, 
ure  equal. 

The  solidity  of  nil  prisms,  or  of 
any  piirallelopi|H'il,  may  ls>  tound  hy 
multiplying  the  uriu  of  the  bus*'  by 
the  height. 

Let  /'  ilenote  the  base,  and  A  tlie 
height;  then         v  ■=.  Ih. 

A  pyramid  is  an  un;;ular  solid, 
which  has  a  polygon  for  its  base,  and  triaiii^lca  for  iu 
sides  or  laces;  iIiim'  sides  all  mi'et  in  one  |iuinl,  ami  lom 
u  solid  niiule,  which  is  called  the  vertex  of  the  \i'j-msA. 
Pyrumids,  like  prisms,  may  he  either  rcj^ulur  ur  ineKuiu 


Id   A^-^ 


OKOMKTRY. 


WMn  tlo*  *^*"  "'  "  Py^o'n''^  '■  ■'•'irul*''  thii  line  Joining 
tmfttft  <"  •ummit  In  mlli'il  it*  nriir,  mul  wlii<n  llin  iiiin 
u,,r|i<>nili''>>l»''  I"  ''"^  ^nfi,  il  i"  tlii'n  ii  rrgulitr  |iyrniiii(l. 
Thry  am  i>l*>  "HI''  '"  '"'  lrliiit(iiliir,  i|imilrilnl4'riil,  |iiilyi(0- 

I  j^,.,^  HirnnliriK  A*  lt»t  liiimi  Ih  ii  lriuiit(l<',  A  i|imilriliili'r>il, 

piiK,(iiii.  *<'•  ''"*  pyfi'iiil"  "f  l'!«.v|it  are  iiiiadnliiliTuI, 
hivinK  •'|'>''r<'  '">■*'*  "'"'  '"*>''  "ixiiliir  mill  I'liiml  tiiniiKuliir 
liilM  All  olx'li'k  i"  "Ui  A  |iyriiiiiiil,  niiil  liim  ii  H(|iiiir«  tiiiMi 
inil  iriiiHK"!'"'  Hiili'i<;  but  tim  lu'i|{lit  in  viiry  niciil  in  pro- 
niriiiiii  I''  'I"'  I'l'i'"'  "f  ''"•'  '''""'•  '"'""  »i>liiliiy  ol'ii  pyra- 
L|  la  liiiio'l  '>.v  iiiulli|>lviiiK  \\w  Aira  ol'  tlii'  Iiumc  liy  tlio 
Hriii>tiil>i'"lir  iii'iK'it,  mill  iiiic-third  of  tliu  pruduot  w  Uio 
gWWiTt  V— 16/-.  V 

i'jiim/i/f.— f'i"d  the  HDlidily  of  a 
f(ftaii(jiiliir  p.vraniiil,  llm  li'ii«th 
mil  briMiltli  of  itH  Imsn  iH'iiiu  0 
,11,14  I'ifi,  ami  itH  iiltiludi'  SH  tifl, 

,  -  ♦  '/i  -  1  X  «  X  -l  X  «!> 
,  IHO  oiiliii-  fi'i't. 

lly  a  ri'Kular  Holid  in  inrniit  a 
iiillil  liiiuiidi'd  hy  ri'«iilar  plmin 
jiiuriw,  arid  it«  nnlid  nimli'H  ciiiial;  ' 
that  i>*  ti>  xay,  u  Hiilid  in  wliirli  all 
tne  MiloH  ant  i'(piiniii{iilar  and  (M|ni- 
liliTal.  It  lian  lii'i'ii  prnvi'd  that 
liifnuaii  ii«  "Illy  livr  roijiiliir  miIhIk;  IIh'w  aro^lhl•ll  called 
i'laloiiii'  liodii'H,  lii'iiiuHC  I'liito  wilt  tlii^  lirHl  who  invi'sti- 
Kairil  llii'ir  propcrlii  •<.  Tim  naim'H  nf  tiiew)  llvi'  rt'niilar 
diliJa  iirit  tliK  fiilliiwinif ;  and  it  will  li«  olixorvi'd  tliiit 
Ihritt-  iiuiiii'H  aru  Ibniicd  liy  pri'lixini;  tliv  (ircek  iiuiiiciul 
iiiili('iitiiii{  IIh'  nuinlH-r  ut' rtidcH  to  the  termination  ludruii, 
itma  iilr'i  (Ureek),  a  Heat,  that  in,  a  fiido, 

'''liu/r/M/iii/"»i  IH  11  ri'){ular  triangular  pyramid,  whow 
liiln  lire  eipiilateral  triantjlen.  The  lie.niiifihon  ia  a  cube. 
'l'he(»lii/Mi/M;/i  In  cDiitalned  by  ei^ht  ei|uilaterul  triaiinleH. 
Tliii  i/u 'I"''"''"''  in  coiituiiicd  by  twelve  ivj^ular  penta- 
gons. Tlio  ti<iiithiilriin  in  eoiitaiiu'd  by  twenty  eipiilalo- 
ral  triaiiKles.  Eaeli  side  iil'  a  regular  Holid,  exeepl  tlio 
lelrolii'iiniii,  lian  an  opposite  tai'u  parallel  to  it,  and  thu 
eJ^fs  u(  tliese  tares  are  also  respeetively  [larailel. 

A  cylinder  dilli'm  tVoin  a  piisin  in  having  u  eireular 
UMlfuJot'  a  reililineul  base;  it  is  eontaiiied  lietween  two 
eijual  and  parallel  eireles  and  a  convex  surt'ace.  'J'he 
liiii'  joining  the  centres  of  the  two  circles  in  culled  tlio 
(ijii.  When  thca<i«  Ih  perpemlienliir 
ti)llii!  pl.ine  of  Iho  bases,  the  lyliiider 
issiiil  111  l«"  ni;lit.  Nleain-boilers,  the 
liial'ln  III'  circular  pillars,  the  slnne  of  u 
roinimin  u'arilen  roller,  the  barrel  of  a 
gun,  ami  many  other  lainiliar  objects, 
an;  cylinilcrs.  Conibinalioiis  of  eyliii- 
dfis  aru  also  very  freqiumlly  used  in 
IlicarU;  tclc-iCo|M>s  and  opera- nbw^ies, 
fir  iiwt.mce,  are  merely  cylinders  I'llled  one  wilhin  the 
olllir,  and  of  which  circular  lenses  form  the  base.  Tlie 
('iliility  ut'a  c\  linder  is  found  in  the  same  way  as  that  of 
a  |irisi[i.  namely,  by  mnlliplyim;  the  area  of  llie  base  by 
the  |)cr|i<'iidicuhir  lieii;ht.  This  rule  is  founded  upon  the 
Ihooroiii  that  a  cylinder  and  a  parallelo|iiped,  haviiiu  equal 
bws  and  allitmles,  are  equal  to  one  another.  .\  cone, 
lilce  a  cylinder,  h.is  a  circular  biiw\  but  it  terminates  in  a 
[»)iiit  like  a  pyramid;  suj:  ir-loave»  are  made  in' the  form 
of  COUPS.  The  annexed  figure  h 
I  cone.  \  U  is  the  base,  V  is 
I'll'  vertex,  and  the  slr.iiitlit  lino 
V  U  joliiini;  the  vertex  ;inil  tho 
centre  of  the  base  is  calleil  tliu 
•xis.  iX  fruluin  of  a  solid  is  a 
portion  contained  K'tween  tliti 
base  ami  a  plane  parallel  to  it ; 
llm:<,  the   portion    il  (i  A  It   is  a 

frustum  of  the  cone.     When  the  '^^•-;"- — ,'j ^H 

«xi»  iil'u  cone  is  |)erpendicul.ii  to  —  — ' 

ita  bam',  it  its  culled  a  ri^lU  cune. 


Othor  eonm  are  lald  to  \m  nhlh/nf,  A  rlqht  cone  may  b* 
drm'rilmil  by  the  revolnlliiii  of  n  rii(ht-unKled  triniiKb^  ahoul 
lUie  of  Iho  HideH  nl  the  rijftit  ant(le,  It  is  proved  thai  ifa 
cone  and  ncylii  .ler  liav«i  tlio  suiiie  bine  and  !•»•  h«mi«  altl* 

;  tilde,  the  conn  In  eipial  lo  the  third   part  of  the  cylinder. 

I  From  this  liicl  resultH  the  method  iimially  adupled  for  aarer- 
laiiiiiiK  the  Holidily  of  it  cone.     The  urea  of  the  bami  ia 

I  rnnlliplied  by  ihn  altitude,  which,  a»  b'f  ire  iihown,  ia  th« 

'  rule  for  llndiiiK  the  Holidily  of  a  cylinder;  onc'thirj  of 
lliu  rvHult,  llivrefort),  givva  tlio  aoliilily  of  tho  cune. 

SPHKIIIrAL   OPOMKTHV. 

A  »phtrt  or  n/u/ir  is  u  Nolid  havim;  one  cnntinufd 
curved  surface,  and  which  i»  eonceind  to  be  uenerateil 
by  the  revolnlion  of  n  Huiiiicircle  about  itH  di.iinetcr;  lial- 
loons  iind  cricket-balls  are  Npheres, 

.'Spherical  geometry  conxiHtH  in  the  invcntigbtion  of  the 
properties  of  iiphereH. 

I''very  point  on  the  mirface  of  a  aphere  is  equally  dill' 
taut  from  a  point  in  the  niiildle  of  the  rpliere  called  ita 
centre ;  any  line  drawn  from  llie  centre  lo  the  circumfor- 
encn  in  called  a  I'lr/iifn,  and  any  line  drawn  Ihrough  the 
centre,  and  tenninaled  at  both  extremilies  by  the  circum- 
ference, Ih  termed  a  ilimni'tr.  When  the  diameter  ia 
per|icndiciilar  to  the  plane  of  a  circle  of  the  yphero,  it  ia 
termed  an  axis,  and  the  extremilies  of  the  axis  arc  called 
the  poles.  Circles  of  the  flp!  ere,  whose  pianos  pasa 
through  the  centre,  dividing  '  '  sphere  into  two  equal 
parts,  are  calli'd  i;riiit  circles,  and  all  others  or'  inuiU 
circles.  Uv  the  distance  of  two  points  on  the  surface  of 
a  sphere,  is  meant  an  aru  of  a  great  c'rclu  iii.'rcoptod 
between  thelii. 

A  njilminil  iiiiiile  is  that  forme,'  on  the  S';  ce  of  the 
sphere  by  arcs  of  two  great  circles  meeliiiR  at  the  iirau- 
lar  [mint,  a,  '  is  uieiisiued  by  tho  inciiiiation  of  tbn 
planes  of  lln^  i  ircles. 

A  siilieiiiul  iriiiun!'  is  a  fmure  fornieil  on  the  aurfaco 
of  the  sphere  by  arc-  of  three  ^^real  cir  ■,  ■:,  i-.illcd  it* 
fidin,  each  of  which  is  less  than  a  semicirci;, 

A  tjii(i(lr(iu.;iil(ir  Iriiiuiile  is  that  of  wb  'h  ore  of  the 
sides  is  a  (jUadraiiL 

.•\  hiniinj  finf'ic  '  a  ]iart  of  the  surface  of  the  sphere, 
contained  by  the  halves  of  two  Rreiit  circles. 

.\  mxiiifiil  of  a  sphere  is  a  pari  cut  olf  by  a  plane. 

'i'hcre  are  several  methods  of  linilinif  the  contents  or 
siiliilily  of  a  sphere;  perhaps  the  iiuhI  simple  and  the 
iiMst  easy  to  be  remembered  is 


tlie  followiML;:  Find,  by  the 
rnb  s  previiiu>ly  ^'iveii,  ll)e  siv 
liility  of  111!'  circniiifcribiiig  cy- 
linilcr,  as  11  .\  15  F,  which  is  a 
cyliiiilcr  equal  in  diameter  and 
fiei^bt  to  the  diameter  of  the 
sphere;  two-lhinls  of  it  wi 
be  the  viilunie  of  the  •■■here, 
because  a  sphere  is  prov,  1  i' 
be  equal  lo  two-lbirds  ,;'  .i,!, 
eircumscrlbinj?  cylinder. 

The  e\lerior  extent  of  surface,  or  convex  suprrficiea 
of  a  sphere,  may  be  as,'ertained  Iv.  niullij  lyiii>^  the  diame- 
ter of  the  sphere  !;,  its  circuinfcience.  Tims,  in  a  globe 
of  ".JO  inchi's  dinueler,  and  (i',;83'.i  circninfcr<'ncc,  the 
convex  supi  /"icies  is  IS.-jIMU  inches,  because  (i'J.Sys  x 
vO  =  l".;'i(!(il.  Also,  the  surface  of  any  zone  of  the 
sphere,  as  iimu'wi',  if  exactly  equal  to  the  surface  of  the 
corrcs|uiiidini'  zone  of  the  eyliiiiler  's//. 

Niherical  t;eomelry  is  of  Kri'al  importance  in  several 
of  the  arts  and  pliysical  sciences,  and  more  especially  in 
astronomy  and  navi^^alioii. 

TRIOONOMETUY LANn-SURVICyiNa. 

Triaononictry  -i^^nilics  literally  llie  art  of  measuring 
trian;;les.  lint  with  llie  |iro;;ress  i,f  scici  ce  the  meaning 
of  Uie  word  has  been  much  extended.     'I'rigunoaetrjr  ia 


444 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


diviilod  into  pliino  nnil  spherical,  neoording  as  it  is  di- 
rected to  tlio  invcBfignlion  of  plane  or  of  spherical  tri- 
angles. 

A  fined  rrlalion  (luliBisfs  boetwen  certain  lines  drawn  in 
tnd  iinmrdintpjy  round  a  circle ;  and  it  is  upon  this  rela- 
tion tliat  trij;i)i)i>mi'try  is  founded.  .Most  of  thew  lines, 
•uch  as  tnugcnts,  Kiciints,  arcs,  chorda,  Ac,  have  alreu<ly 
seen  mentioned ;  it  only  remains  to  add,  that  the  siijn  of 
■n  arc  is  a  Htr;u«ht  lino,  drawn  from  one  extremity  of  the 
■re  per|H'udicular  to  the  radius  passini;  through  the  other 
extremity,  .>r,  it  is  in  fact  the  half  of  the  chord  of  doulilc 
Ihe  arc.  The  sine,  tani»ent,  and  secant,  of  the  comple- 
ment of  an  arc,  are  called  cosine,  cotangent,  and  cosecant 
of  that  arc.  This  vill  lie  liettcr  understooil  hy  carefully 
exauiinin:;  Ihe  annexed  llijurc,  which 
isa  reprcsi'ntiilion  of  the  various  tii- 
gonometrical  lines. 

B  C  is  the  complt-.iient  of  the  arc 
AB;  B.Ml)  is  the   supplement  of 
A  B ;  nnuli'  B  ()  < '  is  the  com|ilement 
of  AG  B,  iinil  BOD  is  the  supple  n' 
mentofAOl);  BK  is  the  sine  of 
A  B  ;  A  F  is  tho  tiimjont   of  \  B  ; 
O  F  is  the  secant  of  A  H  ;  so  B  <i  is         L 
the  sine  of  II  ('.  or  Ihe  co.^iiie  of  .\  U ; 
C  H  is  the  t;iiii;eiit   of  BC,  or  tho  cotantrent   of  AB; 
and  (1  H  is  the  sivanl  of  B  ('.  or  the  cosecant  of  A  B. 

The  fiillowii:;;  rules  (c  eompui..tion  are  iiselu!  in 
ripht-anffled  triijonometry.  that  is.  in  eomputint;  the 
•ides  and  anijles  of  riglil-ani;!ed  trianKles. 

I.  When  two  sides  are  piven,  to  find  an  angt«. 

1  Make  ii  L'iveii  .^idc  ruilius,  llicn  the  side  minlc  radius 
13  to  the  other  triveii  side  as  nidius  to  tile  triponometri' 
cal  n;ime  of  the  latter  si.le.l 

II.  When  one  of  the  three  sides  and  an  anple  are 
given,  io  tiud  a  side. 

3  Make  any  side  radius,  then  the  triijonciinelrical 
name  of  the  civeii  side  is  to  that  of  the  required  side  as 
the  given  side  to  the  reijuired  side.1 

.Although  in  this  case  any  side  may  he  made  radius, 
it  iiiprefcrahle  to  make  one  of  the  sides  concerned  radius, 
that  is,  eitlier  the  (jiven  or  the  required  side,  as  this 
introiluces  the  radius  as  a  term  of  the  proportion,  and 
its  lonarilhrn  heiiu;  Id.  it  simplifies  the  cnliiilati(m. 

III.  When  the  two  sides  arc  given,  to  find  the  hypo- 
tenuse. 

I  The  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  two  given  sides  is 
equal  to  the  square  of  the  hy|H)lenuse.i 

.'V.  When  the  hy[K)tenuse  and  a  side  are  C'ven,  to 
find  the  other  -^ide. 

1  The  dillennce  Iwlween  the  sipiares  of  the  hypote- 
nuse and  the  Lnvin  side  is  equal  to  the  sipiare  of  the  re- 
quired side.  Or.  Ihe  pn«luct  of  the  sum  and  dilleremc 
of  the  hypotenuse  and  a  side,  is  c.jual  to  the  R<juare  of 
••  e  other  side.! 

When  the  sipiari'  of  a  side  is  known,  its  scpiare  root 
gives  the  value  of  the  side. 

The  first  two  rules  are  sufli'ient  for  the  solution  of 
all  the  prolil'MM-*  in  ripht-antiled  tpiTinometrv  ;  hut  the 
last  two  may  snnu'times  t)e  conveiiieolly  emploveil. 

Tridonometry  is  one  of  the  most  useful  de|iartinents 
In  mathematical  science.  Its  api'Iication  to  practical 
purposes  are  very  evfensive.  and  it  is  of  yreat  import- 
ance in  imviiration,  engineeriiii;,  and,  as  we  shall  iiu.ne- 
distely  see.  in  land-surveyinc;. 

I.and-surveyin(5  is  the  method  of  measurini;  and  com- 
puting the  area  of  any  small  portion  of  the  r  irth's  sur- 
face, as  a  field,  a  farm,  an  estate,  or  distrii  t  iif  mcxlerate 
eitont  There  are  three  distinct  operations  in  the  art 
of  !aiul-siirv(  \  inif,  all  of  which  require  the  surveyor  to 
poiMM'sa  a  competent  tnowleilire  of  arithmetic,  alpelira, 
tnil  Kcomelry.  Ill  the  first  place,  the  sevenii  liniM  ami 
angles  must  ho  mea-ured  ;  secondlv,  they  must  lie  pri>- 
tracwd  or  laid  down  on  p.iper,  so  aa  to  form  a  plan  or 


map  o,  the  district ;  and,  thirdl) ,  the  whole  aic«  gi 
the  district  must  be  computed  by  mctna  of  the  ft 
going  operations.  In  performing  the  first  operation, 
the  most  useful  instrument  is  the  chain  called  Guntt^ 
rhniii,  from  the  name  of  the  inventor,  the  Rev,  EdmunH 
Gunter,  who  lived  obout  two  hundred  years  aco.  h 
22  yards  or  6(1  feet  long,  and  is  conqioscd  of  100  con  I 


At 


CVpry 


links,  the  length  of  each  being  7-92  inches, 
tenth  link  is  a  mark  made  of  brass.  An  acre  consi  •' 
of  10  square  chains,  or  lOO.dOO  square  links,  Thpr 
are  80  chains  in  a  mile,  and  640  acres  in  a  squar 
mile. 

Ircui  pins,  about  two  feet  long,  called  roinicf,  vvjtf 
red  handles,  or  jiieces  of  red  cloth,  attached  to  IJicrT,  jJ 
useil  for  slicking  in  Ihe  groimd  al  the  end  of  each  chain 
li'iiglh,  when  measuring  in  the  field.  Ten  of  them  nr 
conunoidy  used. 

In  measuring  land  with  the  chain,  two  persons  tt 
reipiired,  one  at  each  end  of  the  chain ;  the  one  wlio 
walks  first  is,  for  the  sake  of  distinction,  callod  the 
leader,  and  the  other  the  follower.  Lines  nicnsured 
perpendicularly  to  chain  lines,  to  the  angular  pointj 
and  other  iKiints  of  Ihe  boui,<lary  of  a  field,  such  as  to 
crooked  hedges,  brooks,  &c,,  are  called  (Ij.vlf.  The 
cross-slr.ir  is  used  in  measuring  od'scts;  it  consists  of 
two  bars  of  brass  jilaccd  at  right  angles,  with  sights  at 
their  extremities.  ])erpeii(licular  to  the  plane  of  the  bars. 
There  are  narrow  slits  at  A  and  C,  to  which  the  eye  ii 
a])i>lied.  ami  wider  ojienings 
at  B  a'ld  D.  with  a  fine 
wire  fixed  verticalls  in  Ihe 
middle  of  them.  The  crosi 
is  siippo'eil  on  a  staff  E, 
about  IS  feet  high,  which 
al  the  lower  end  is  pointed  v 
and  shod  with  brass,  so  that 
it  can  easily  be  stuck  in  the 
ground.  Tne  sights  arc 
pheed  on  the  top  of  the 
stair,  and  fixed  to  any  posi- 
tion hy  a  screw  F. 

A  simple  crosrt-staflT  may 
be  made  by  cutting  two  grooves  with  a  saw  ainnt;  tht 
iHagimals  of  a  square  board,  to  be  fixed  on  llirlopol 
tlu^  stall  It  can  easily  bi'  ascertained  if  Ihe  >iii;hls  an 
al  right  angles,  by  directing  one  pair  of  Ihcni,  as  AB, 
to  (Uie  object,  and  observinu  to  what  object  llic  other 
pair,  ('  1),  are  then  ilirccled  ;  Ihen  by  turning  llic  si;hu 
till  the  second  oliject  is  seen  through  the  first  pair  of 
sights  .\  B,  if  the  first  object  is  then  visible  llinnish  lh( 
M  coud  pair  of  sights,  and  is  exactly  in  apparcii'.  Cdinfi. 
deuce  with  the  wire,  the  sights  are  at  right  ancles;  If 
mil,  they  must  be  adjusted. 

.\n  instruiiieiit  not  less  important  in  surveyini;  isili» 
theodolite.  This  useful  iiislrumeiil.  fixed  on  llictnpol 
a  tripod,  consists  of  two  grailuale<l  circles  perpcniliculii 
Io  each  oilier,  one  of  which  is  fixed  in  a  hori/milal  mid 
llic  other  in  a  vertical  plane,  and  is  used  for  mcasimn? 
hori/mital  and  vertical  angles. 

Ill  Ihe  .'igurc  of  the  theodolite  here  ]ire-ieiitcil.  HR9 
represents  an  obliipie  view  of  the  horizontal  circle,  uii 
j/it^ii  a  direi-t  view  of 
the  vertical  one.  which 
.■■xleiids  to  lilth'  more 
tlian  a  semicircli-.  The 
virtiial  circle  is  m.iv- W 
able  about  an  l.inginary 
axis,  coinriding  v.  ith 
Ihe  radius  O  1^.  which, 
prixluced  passes  through 
the  eetiire  ('  of  Ihe  ho- 
rizontjil  cande.  On  the 
vertiial  circle  is  fixed  a 
telescojH-  W,  furnished  with  a  spirif'tcvcl  I ,  the  Ith 


GEOMETRY. 


449 


^^  i»  connected  with  a  movable  radius  O  A,  in  con- 

Hwitli  the  opposite  side  of  the  vertical  circle ;  and  this 

J      jg  flxed  to  a  vernier  o,  movable,  by  means  of  a 

along  the  limb  of  the  circle.     When  the  centre 

f  the  vernier  coineides  with  the  middle  division  (j  of 
",     jfde^  the  axis  of  the  telescope  is  then  horizontal, 

1  the  instrument  thus  serves  also  as  a  spirit-level.  A 
'  --icr  to  the  horizontal  circle  is  attached  to  the  vertical 
rircle  at  f,  and  is  movable  with  it 

To  masHre  a  Itorizonlal  angle  subtended  at  the  instru- 
ment hv  the  horizontal  distance  of  two  objects :  Direct 
I  (j|e'sco])c  to  one  of  the  objects,  and  observe  the  num- 
hfr  of  ileijrefis  at  e  on  the  horizontal  circle ;  then,  while 
tliis  circle  remains  fixed  by  means  of  a  clamping  screw, 
turn  the  vertical  circle  till  the  other  object  is  visible 
ihrouKh  the  telescope,  and  in  apparent  coincidrncc  with 
a,  intersection  of  the  cross  wires,  and  note  the  number 
of  dcsrecs  on  the  horizontal  circle  at  e ;  then  the  diftcr- 
fiice  between  this  and  the  former  number  is  the  required 
horizontal  angle.  .        ,     ^.  .         , 

To  mfdJ"'!"  'i  verlirnl  an!;lc :  Uircct  the  telescope  to 
the  object  whose  angle  of  elevation  is  required ;  then 
the  arc,  intercepted  between  Q  and  o,  is  the  required 
Mt\e.    An  aiiif/f  of  ilcpiesmii  is  similarly  measured. 

A  plane  tal)lc  is  frequently  used  in  surveying.  This 
instruiiieiit  consisU  of  a  plane  and  smooth  rectangular 
hoard  fitted  in  a  movable 
frame  of  wood,  which  fixes 
the  paper  on  the  table  PI', 
in  the  adjoining  figure.  The 
fontre  of  tlie  table  below  is 
fisivl  to  a  tripod,  having  at 
the  top  a  ball-and-socket 
joint,  so  th;it  the  table  may 
be  fixed  in  any  required  po- 
Bilion.  The  table  is  fixed  in  a  horizontal  position  by 
means  of  two  spirit-levels  lying  in  dilVercnt  directions,  or 
bv  placing  a  ball  on  the  table,  and  observing  the  position 
of  it  in  which  the  ball  remains  at  rest.  The  edges  of 
one  side  of  the  frame  arc  divided  into  equal  parts,  for 
the  purpose  of  drawing  on  the  paper  lines  parallel  or 
pen)endieuliir  to  the  edges  of  the  frame ;  and  the  edges 
ol  ilie  other  side  are  divided  into  degrees  corresponding 
t,j  a  central  (.oint  on  tlie  board  for  tlie  purpose  of  mca- 
luring  angles. 

A  magnetic  compass  box,  0,  is  fixed  to  one  side  of  the 
table  for  determining  the  Iwarings  of  stations  and  other 
objects,  and  for  the  purjiose  of  fixing  the  table  in  the 
same  rtt.ilive  position  in  dillerent  stations.  There  is 
alio  an  index-rule  of  brass  1 1{,  fitted  with  a  telescope  or 
Hjlits,  one  edge  of  which,  called  the  fi'liiriul  edge,  is  in 
till'  same  plane  with  the  sights,  and  by  which  lines  are 
drawn  on  the  paiM-r  to  represent  the  direction  of  any 
object  observed  through  the  sights.  This  rule  is  giadu- 
gteil  to  serve  as  a  scale  of  equal  parts. 

A  priniiple  of  measuring  by  triangles,  which  is  alike 
common  to  land-surveying  and  the  trigonometrical  sur- 
»evj  of  ciiuineet.;,  may  be  comprebendt'd  fr.im  the  fol- 
lowing figure.  We  wish  to  find  the  disUince  between 
two  objects  'hat  are  either  invisible  from  each  other,  or 
inaccessible  in  a  straight  line  from  each  other. 


L«t  A  and  C  lie  the  two  objects  inaccessible  in  a 
*rdight  lino  from  each  other,  on  aci-ouiit  of  a  marsh. 
MetJurc  two  lines  K  H,  1)  (j,  to  the  object*  and  the  eon- 
Uined  ingle  B.     In  t  tiiaiigle  All  C,  two  sidei,  A  U, 


B  C,  and  the  contained  angle  B,  are  known ;  hence  A  O 
may  Ix)  found. 

Such  a  problem  as  the  above  is  common  in  measar* 
ing  heights  and  distances ;  and  it  will  be  understood, 
that  the  principle  of  throwing  the  area  of  any  given  field 
or  set  of  fields  into  triangular  spaces,  is  that  pursued  in  ' 
all  processes  of  land-measurement.  In  most  inatanoea, 
fields  ore  irregular  in  form ;  their  outlines  being  often 
bent,  with  a  greater  width  at  one  place  than  another. 
In  such  castes,  after  measuring  the  areas  of  the  triangles, 
the  odd  pieces  at  the  sides  reijuire  to  be  measured,  and 
their  aggregate  area  added  to  the  whole.  We  may  illus- 
trate the  process  of  surveying  as  follows  : — 

The  angular  points  of  the  large  triatigles  or  polygons, 
into  which  a  field  is  to  be  divided  for  the  purpose  of 
taking  its  dimensions,  are  called  stations,  and  are  de- 
noted by  the  mark  o ;  thus  o,  is  the  first  station ;  o, 
the  second ;  and  so  on.  The  lines  joining  the  stations, 
and  which  are  measured  by  the  chain,  arc  called  chain 
line',  or  llation  lines. 

II  Divide  the  field  into  triangles,  or  into  triang'  s  and 
quadrilaterals,  the  principal  triangles  or  quadrilaterals 
occu|)yiiig  the  great  body  of  the  field,  and  the  rest  of  it 
cotitiiining  secondary  triangles  and  trapezoids  formed  by 
oiTsets  from  the  chain  lines.  Measure  the  base  and 
height,  or  else  the  thrt  e  sides  of  each  of  the  principij 
triangles,  then  calculate  their  areas  by  the  rules  in  Men- 
suration of  Surfaces,  and  also  the  oft'set  spaces,  and  the 
sum  of  all  tho  areas  will  be  that  of  the  entire  field.ll 

Fxitmple  1. — Find  the  contents  of  the  adjoining  field 
from  these  measurements,  A  being  the  first  and  B  tha 
second  station. 

C  D 


.zl_     N 

\* 

!" 

On  chain  line. 
Ag=  150 
A/i  =  32.3 
Ai  =.  597 
A/i=624 
A13  =  709 

iD  = 

OlTscts. 
141  to  left. 
180  to  right. 
107  to  left. 
172  to  right 

The  double  of  the  areas  of  the  component  triangles 
and  tra])ez(>ids  are  found,  in  order  that  there  may  be  only 
one  division  by  2,  namely,  that  of  their  sum. 

ei  =  Ai  — .\?  =  447,    iD  =  AB  — .\i=172,   and 
Ilk  =  At—  A/i  =  301,  B/fc=  A B—  At=  146. 

Twice  the  area  of  the 

triangle  AirC  =  AiffiO  =  150  x  141  =    21150 
trapezoid  Cj;iD  ==  ifi  (Og-}-  Di)  =  447  X 

(151-1-  167)  =  137676 

triangle  DiU  =  Bi-iD=  172  X  lfi7  =    28724 

triangle  A/iE  =  kh-liV.  =  383  x  180  s=    5S140 
trapezoid  liY.Vk  :=  hk  (/lE  -f  kY)  =  301 

(180-1- n'S)  —  105982 

triangle  BkY  Y  =  BkkY  =  14 5  x  1 72  =    24940 

Twice  area  =  376583 
And  area  =  188291  =  1  acre,  3  roods,  2^•26  poles. 

These  admeasurements,  instead  of  being  written  out 
as  above,  are  generally  registered  in  a  tabular  form.  A 
fii'ld-liook,  which  is  used  to  enter  these  measurements, 
is  divided  into  three  columns.  The  dilferent  di^^tancea 
on  the  chain  line  are  written  down  in  the  middle  co- 
lumn, and  in  the  right  and  left-hand  columns  the  oflseta 
are  insi-rted,  with  any  remarks  that  may  be  made.  The 
tneuMurements  on  the  chain  lines  are  written  in  ordet 
upwards  ill  the  iniddle  eolmiin,  the  tirst  being  written  at 
tlic  foot  of  the  column,  as  the  surveyor  von  thuii  more 
2P 


446 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE   PEOPI.R. 


uHivciiirntly  coinpnrr  the  mraHurcmciitB  with  the  imn- 
ltina>7'  liiit's  ill  tlio  t\M, 

III  au.  vcying  a  whole  country  by  trigffnoinctricnl 
mcasureim-iit,  jr  in  cnnincrring  plans  for  eanals,  rail- 
wayg,  and  roads,  it  ia  ncci'sanry  to  make  allowimcc  for 
the  earth's  convexity  in  all  the  calculations  of  levcl.-i. 
The  decree  of  convexity,  or  departure  from  a  true  level, 
W  reckoi«.d  to  be  about  7  ir-hes  and  9-lOths  in  the 
■pace  of  a  mile.  (See  anicle  HTnnoarATics.)  In 
Wnd-meosuring,  the   scale  of  oj[)cration*   is   ordinarily 


liio  limited  to  require  any  such  allowance  for  difTerenM 
of  levels. 

We  have  now,  as  far  as  our  limits  would  permit  rrit 
sentfd  an  outline  of  the  inrthods  pursued  in  lanri.gi 


Btudy 


veyinR  ;  and  to  those  who  design  following  out  the 
of  this,  as  well  as  other  brancfics  of  theoretic  and  nni 
lical  mathematics,  wo  rccomracnd  a  regular  couru  „» 
instruction  from  Mr.  Hell's  excellent  treatiics  in  (.liam. 
bers's  Educational  Course — works  lo  cheap  as  to  (■ 
I  within  every  one's  reach. 


POrULAR   STATISTICS. 


llfTRODOCTOIir. 

Statistics  is  a  science  of  comparatively  latt  date, 
but  it  is  one  wliirh  iiromisea  to  lie  of  considerable  service 
to  mankind.  WImtever  can  be  ascerliiiiied  by  tid-tiig 
Jotcii  tiuHiftfm  ii/id  imtancef,  and  mUmi;  sviiimiiriis  i<f 
them,  may  Iw  said  lo  l)e  a  projier  object  for  this  science. 
It  is  generally  applied  to  such  matti'rs  as  the  amount  of 
population,  the  rate  of  mortiilily,  the  progress  of  coni- 
inerce  and  munuliictureH,  and  the  increase  or  diminution 
of  crime.  The  lienefit  of  coming  lo  correct  reekiiniii(p< 
■Iwut  these  mailers  must  be  obvious;  but  we  shall  cite 
one  instance  to  make  it  ijuite  clear.  From  account" 
which  have  b<"en  ke|)t  of  tlie  bu.ials  in  Enaland  for  llie 
last  fifty  yciirs,  it  ap[>ears  that  the  rale  of  morlalily  (or 
number  who  die  yearly  in  comparison  vvitli  the  whiije 
population)  diminished  regularly  down  to  IS:)1,  liul  li.is 
•ince  then  In'en  a  little  on  the  rise,  showing  tlial  ihi' 
condition  of  the  jn'ople  at  larae  (mortality  iU'|)«'iii!inu'  on 
condition)  was  improving  till  that  time,  but  has  sinie 
been  sliglilly  ilediniiig.  When  such  a  fact  as  this  is 
■acertained,  stati'smen  are  put  on  the  alert  to  discover, 
and,  if  possible,  remove  the  causes.  Thus,  it  iw  seen,  a 
nation  may  Ih^  much  liendilcd  by  taking  a  ceii-us,  am! 
the  keeping  of  a  correct  register  of  deaths.  The  value 
of  statistical  operations,  then,  is  manifest.  Statistics  mny 
be  said  to  l)e  the  accouiit-l>o,)k  of  a  nation,  for  aseerljiinini; 
the  state  of  its  atliiirs.  One  which  keeps  no  slalistiial 
reconls  may  be  said  to  lie  like  a  merchant  who  does 
business  without  keeping  a  ledger  or  ever  coming  lo  a 
balance. 

Htatistics  bears  in  like  manner  U|H)n  many  of  the 
interests  of  private  life.  Of  this  we  trust  to  he  able  to 
give  g<}nie  not.iblo  instances  in  the  sequel. 

It  is  one  of  its  least  utilities  that  it  tends  to  substitute 
real  and  distinct  knowledge  in  many  matters  for  vague 
kud  general  impressions.  There  are  many  things  which, 
to  the  uninslructed  mind,  can  on'  lie  mentioned  to  crc- 
•t<'  a  feeling  of  d.iubt — for  eiaii.|ile,  tlie  comparative 
likelihood  of  life  in  men  and  women.  Ask  an  unin- 
^tructed  jsTstin  wnelher  women  or  men  in  general  livo 
liingest,  and.  at  the  Im'sI,  he  will  only  )><!  able  to  answer 
from  some  uliscure  notion  in  his  mind,  the  result  of  a  few 
o)>iH<rvatioiis  vvliii  h  he  has  hap|H-ned  lo  m  ike.  Mlalisties 
has  a»<Tri. lined,  though  only  within  the  last  fourtt'en 
years,  that  Inimle  life  is  htilrr,  that  is,  of  longer  dura- 
tioii,  than  mile.  Here  is  a  thing  which  no  individual 
rouM  BSt'crtaiii  for  himself,  and  alxiut  which  all  was  doubt 
for  huiulri'ds  aiul  thousands  of  years,  settled  at  last  by 
■tatistu-s.  We  have  liow  the  satisfaction  of  knowing  the 
dirt  diktlnitly.  instead  of  only  conjecturing,  and  perhaps 
wraiigliut;  alHiut  it 


On  some  of  these  vague  questions,  proverbial  wisJon 
is  found  to  have  made  a  conclusion  for  itself.  For  ei. 
ample,  this  oracle  has  long  licen  clear,  that  an  open 
winter  is  the  most  fatal  to  life,  end  that  more  die  of  gm. 
teit  than  of  want.  Htatislics  finds  both  of  ihesp,  anJ 
many  like  conclusions,  to  'ic  exactly  the  reverse  of  thj 
truth.  It  has  here  corrected  decided  error,  which  ii 
iM'tlcr  still  than  giving  distinct  knowledge  where  former!? 
llu're  was  only  doubt.  It  is  observable  of  nhiiost  all 
such  proverbial  notions,  that  they  apjH'ar  to  liavB  pro. 
ceedcd  u|)on  a  principle  of  contradietion  or  paraiiox.  ih( 
conlradiclion  iH'ing  generally  to  what  is  the  nic  st  litp|, 
conchi-icin  of  the  mind  upon  the  subject.  For  iiislanct, 
waul  s«'ems  at  first  sight  a  more  deadly  thing  than  over. 
abundance ;  but  tiien  it  is  also  found,  if  we  pause  and 
look  narrowly,  that  it  is  possible  also  to  die  of  cholic  and 
of  pamiH'ring.  The  clownish  oracle  has  the  same  wish 
lo  tie  novel,  original,  and  striking,  which  is  the  bane  of  90 
niuih  philosophy,  and  it  decides  that  the  most  mischief  ii 
done  by  the  less  obvious  evil.  'I'o  put  an  end  lo  audi 
modes  of  ju<lgiiig,  by  adducing  the  undeniable  lerfimoiii 
of  figures,  is,  we  humbly  submit,  a  worthy  service,  anj 
this  s<rviee  is  rendered  by  stalislics. 

There  is  one  other  ■■.•:  vi  .•  which  statistics  has  rendered, 
of  a  more  reniarkiiblt  liiii.iix'i  [s-rliaps  less  directly  usefi 
kind  than  the  above.  Aiin.ist  all  the  occurrences  which 
de|>eiid  on  Ihe  human  will  happen  irreguliirlv  us  to  lim 
as  fur  as  an  individual  is  concerned.  A  man  coiiiiuiij 
Slime  particular  crime  which  he  is  not  likely  ever  aifsin 
to  ciinimit  in  his  lile — fur  instance,  an  assault  wiih  vin. 
lence.  It  was,  to  all  human  iippreheiisinn,  l!ie  inciett 
chance  which  brought  him  into  the  circuinstaiicci  nhidi 
provoked  or  prompted  him  to  commit  the  ollincc.  Vet, 
strange  to  say,  there  is  no  olTence  »«  acciilenlal  m  10 
individuals,  or  so  unlikely  to  occur  above  once  in  m 
ordinary  man's  lifetime,  but  what  statistics  tinila  i!  10 
iH'cur,  with  the  greatest  regularity,  in  a  certain  ranjo  f 
individuals  anil  a  certain  range  of  time.  'I'lie  retuinnof 
a  particular  crime,  in  such  a  country  as  l'ii|>lard  nr 
France,  are  nearly  Ihe  same  for  each  suicessivc  \fsr, 
In  all  classes  of  occurrences  which  apjH'ar  occasional  u 
to  individuals,  the  same  uniformity  is  olwrved  when  »( 
go  to  sudiciently  large  nunilH'rs:  even  in  the  iiniiiliorol 
letters  put  into  the  |io.<t-iitlicc  without  addressei:,  there  a 
a  precis*'  uniformily,  if  we  tike  the  ollice  ol'u  lane  cm, 
and  reckon  year  against  year.  Thus  to  find  an  onleria 
the  most  casual  of  things,  even  in  Ihe  w.ivwarti  lui 
tleeting  movenicntK  of  the  mind,  atUirds  liigbl)  iiitcniliii| 
muttiT  fur  rellection. 

titatistical  si'ience  has  its  ipiicksands  and  dillicultiH  M 
well  as  its  triumphs,  Olteii,  when  an  exteimivr  rin||i 
of  tacts  has  tx^en  accumulated,  all,  as  is  thouijht,  trodisi 


POPULAR   STATISTICS. 


447 


iiflnn  a  rrrtain  view,  thore  may  ptill  be  room  to  con- 

J  iiint  they  '"^i*''  *"  directly  oppoHito  concluBions,  or 

thcv  «lif>w  the  proBcnce  of  totally  opposite  ciniscs 

'       |-j,„ac  prvaiimr^d  to  exist.     There  is  a  tcndcnoy  in 

°     wlif>  pursue  the  science,  to  make  inferences  in  ac- 

rlaiiccwilh  their  own  prejudices,  or  to  seek  ouly  for 

r'tj  I'V  wliii'li  tliesc  are  fnvoured.     Such  errors  arc  par- 

?  1   ly  ijki'ly  to  he  made  in  suhjccts  where  many  causes 

nrcsumcdly  hivnlvcd,  and  wliich  are  so  extensive  thiit 

'  ••  jiflidilt  to  coniiiiand  a  general  view  of  them.     As 

'    piample.  we  have  only  to  remind  the  reader  of  the 

'  ,jou»  nnttons  which  arc  usually  entertained  as  to  the 

J  of  any  distress  which  may  take  place  throughout 

,    country.    The  higher  class  of  statisticians  usually, 

hiwever,  arc  cautious  in  drawing  inferences  and  tracing 

uses  liclii'vitig  it  to  he  their  best  course,  in  all  doubtful 

aiii,  to  restrict  themselves  to  the  collection  of  facts. 

BIRTHS. 

rroporliyii  of  the  Sexe». 
Manv  millions  of  observations  have  Iwen  made  upon 
births  ill  'he  various  countries  of  Euroiic,  from  which 
one  uniliiTiii  result  appears,  that  about  21  boys  are  born 

for  20  girls. 

■ITKB  AHO  P«OVi:»C] 


The  proportion  in  dilFcrent  states  is  here 


Males  to 
lUO 

Females. 
KISlll 
107  (it 
107(17 
lOTiM 
l(Ki44 
lll()U7 
KNi-IH 
KWlKI 

KNi-d.') 

Id.'ifl'l 
10')  Hi 
lO'iKW 
10,')(i(! 
10.>.1^ 
1017-1 
104IW 

lOO' 


Rcssia     ■       ".,,",* 

Tin:  I'rovince  ot  Milan      ..... 

y.fckliiilHirK'  ------- 

France        -        -" 

l!,.|irmmanil  liolUind 

Briimli'iiljur^'  niiil  I'diiicrunia     .... 

K,iiL"!i)iii  "'  i'"'  "'•^" '^"^''''''         ... 
Aisinnii  Miiii"r'''iy    --••-- 
g:lfiiaanil  ^'"xciiy         ..... 

"rufs^an  ^'i"''s ''■'' '""■'"'"        -        -        -        . 
Wewrliiil'ii  !>"''  '''raiiil  Dulehy  of  the  Rhme 
KiaiJtlomnlWuru-mliurR  -        -        - 
i;«siirn  I'niiis  a  ami  Uulchy  of  I'osen 
Knploiii  of  lioli.'Hiia  ..... 

GrcHi  liriliiin  ....... 

Snellen      ........ 

AvraKe  for  Europe 

Further  impiiries  have  shown  some  curious  mo<lifica- 
tions  of  the  law  which  seems  to  preside  over  this  part  of 
l!ip  natural  ccoiiiuiiv  ol  the  world.  In  illegitimate  births, 
till'  over  |iro)i.)rti  'U  of  boys  is  somewhat  le.ss,  nearly  af)- 
pniiimatiin!:  in  some  countries  to  a  par  with  the  number 
of  I,'irl8.  'riicre  is  also  a  less  over-proportion  of  boys 
from  niarria'4ts  in  which  the  husband  is  the  younger 
[ttrtv,  and  where  both  are  extremely  young.* 

The  average  I'niitl'ultiess  of  marriages  is  not  clearly 
iwrtaincJ,  in  consii|uence  of  imjierfect  registrations; 
hut  it  is  ooiisidircil  bv  Mr.  M'(  'ulloch  to  lie  in  England  in 
the  ratio  of  4-2  children  to  each  marriage. 

I.ipitimati'  unci  Illegitimate  nirlhi. 
The  propiirtion  of  illegitimate  to  legitimate  births  is  a 
point  of  great  importance  in  political  economy  as  well  as 
morality,  'or  illegitimate  children  are  generally  a  burden 
tnthc  Btate,  mid  have  an  interior  chance  of  growing  up 
tiii.''fiil  lit'  .  It  is  also  a  fact  Hsrert«ine<l  by  statistics, 
in  oj ,  to  cornitioii   ideas,  thai   such  children   have 

gfnoiaiiv  li  ss  of  the  eh'inents  of  health  and  vitality  than 
'illiiT  rhililreii.  The  proportion  of  illegitimate  to  other 
lirths  i«— for  France,  I  to  12-5;    Prussia,   1  to  13-1 ; 


•  ''In  Krnnce,  it  wn**  otiserved  a  few  yenrs  nffo.  that  ont  of 
I.7fi3,77'<  pcrwtns  tioni,  it'Kiiiinali'  ami  illrgiMiuite.  there  are 
J,«.'.^yfi,'>  irmlt  H  tuitl  ■'.',.*t'!.' l.'(  I'-inalen.  or  nearly  Hi  males  to 
«v,ry  1,^  fiirmli's.  Out  ol"  4illi  •tul  illei;  innate  eli  Idreii.  ilim" 
•rr'il59il  iiiiiieii. 'A'l  Itll  leniiiles.  Kriiiii  these  iliita  it  ibllnws 
lh«l,  in  Kniiioe.  Mr  i-verv  lOH.tKHI  1.  ^'itiiiiait;  I'tiiinle  clnlilreii, 
tht'i  will  he  li«i..l:i4  leRitunnte  males;  Inn  for  every  lOd.OOO 
liit'eilimati*  reiniil'-ii  there  will  he  iKirn  only  tn,').t'J''i  itle>;itimate 
usli'i:  to  tliiii  the  prohtihility  ot'a  <<hilil  iihoiit  to  he  horn  heinir 
I  ii'iTMle  •  Kiealcr  tl  .1  is  illeKitiiiutu  than  if  it  ii  iLgiliinutu." — 
ButMo 


England,  1  to  14;  Sweden,  1  to  14-6;  the  preponderanca 
of  morality  thus  appearing  in  favour  of  the  two  iattei 
countries.  In  cities  the  proportions  are  strikingly  difler. 
ent.  Ii;  Paris,  for  28  legitimate  there  are  10  illegitimate 
births;  i'_  other  and  stricter  terms,  the  latter  are  in  pro- 
portioa  to  the  former  as  to  2-84,  In  Stockholm,  from 
the  report  of  a  recent  trav  iller,  the  proportion  is  I  to  2-3 } 
that  is,  nearly  a  third  of  thn  children  born  in  that  northern 
capital  are  illegitimate.  In  Uerliu,  the  proportion  hai 
risen  since  1790,  from  1  to  9  to  1  to  tJ. 

Still  Births. 

The  proportion  of  dead-born  to  live-born  children  u 
found  in  European  cities  to  be  about  I  in  20,  but  in  the 
country  not  above  half  that  amount;  showing  apparently 
that  rural  life  is  most  favourable  to  the  health  of  women 
during  pregnancy,  and  to  successful  parturition.  It  is 
worthy  of  remark,  that  more  male  than  female  children 
are  still-born ;  the  jiroportion  in  Western  Flanders  haa 
been  found  as  14  to  10,  and  the  same  result  appears  in 
some  other  countries.  At  Gottingen,  in  100  births,  3 
were  of  legitimate  and  15  of  illegitimate  children. 

KITects  of  Scarcity. 

Times  of  scarcity  and  privation  tend  to  reduce  the 
number  of  marriages,  and  also  of  births,  though  generally 
not  immediately.  The  great  scarcity  which  occurred  in 
England  at  the  commencement  of  the  present  century, 
occasioned  a  diminution  in  the  number  of  marriages  to 
the  extent  of  about  18  per  cent.,  as  compared  with  the 
previous  years  of  abundance.  In  the  Netherlands,  wheat 
was  at  9-.'i6  florins  per  hectolitre,  in  IHlfi,  and  the  birthf 
in  the  year  1818  had  sunk,  from  a  previous  higher  num- 
ber (19.'j,3fl2  in  1815),  to  183,706:  in  1819,  wheat  had 
fallen  to  ;i.72  florins  per  hectolitre,  and  the  birtha,  two 
years  thereafter,  rose  to  210,359. 

MARRIAGES. 

The  number  of  marriages  per  annum,  in  proportion  to 
the  population,  and  the  ages  at  which  marriages  take 
place  in  both  sexes,  form  interesting  subjects  of  inquiry. 
In  England  and  Wales,  the  number  of  marriagei 
reiristcrcd  was  111,481  in  18.37-8;  121,083  in  1838-9; 
anil  124,329  in  1839-40.  The  numlier  is  believed  to 
have  been  less  in  the  first  of  these  years  than  it  other- 
wi-v  would  have  lieen,  in  consequence  of  a  popular  error 
which  induced  parties  to  hurry  on  their  nuptials  Ijet'oro 
the  commencement  of  the  operation  of  the  registration 
act.  Taking  the  two  latter  years  against  each  other,  we 
find  an  increase  of  321C  marriages  upon  the  latter;  but 
this  is  liable  to  n  red..ction  of  1700  on  account  of  the 
increase  of  population  ;  so  that,  on  the  same  numlicr  of 
peo[ile  in  1838-9  and  1839-40,  there  was  an  increase  of 
marriages,  strictly,  of  about  1.500.  While  there  wa« 
thus  an  increase  upon  the  whole  country,  the  greater 
piution  of  the  manufccturing  districts  in  the  west  of  Eng- 
land, where  at  this  time  commercial  dilFiculties  existed, 
showed  a  ifeircnse,  amounting  in  some  districts  to  6  per 
cent,;  in  Manchester  and  Salford  to  no  less  than  12  per 
cent. 

In  England  and  Wales,  the  proportion  of  marriage* 
to  the  whole  population  seems  to  have  been  diminished 
duriim  the  last  fifty  years.  It  is  calculated  that,  in  the 
period  1790-1800,  there  was  1  marriage  annually  to 
every  123  persons;  in  the  pcriixl  1H1(!-1820,  1  for  every 
127  persons;  in  the  period  18211-30,  1  for  every  128 
persons.  This  seems  to  be  nearly  its  present  proprr- 
tion. 

Home  years  ago,  Mr.  Finlaison  made  a  calculation  i< 
the  ages  of  women  at  the  time  of  llicir  marriaae  Irom  id 
as.si-niblnge  of  878  cases,  wliich  was  too  small  for  very 
satisfactory  results.  Enlarging  the  n\imr)er  to  1000  foi 
the  sake  of  arithmetical  distinctness,  he  found  the  follotp 
ing  to  be  the  vari  )us  ages  at  marriage  ; — 


% 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


A<il 

14  ui 

IS. 

18  ■ 

17 

IS 

19- 

s»  ■ 

31 

u 

as- 

m- 

27 

Ark. 
33  I  S9  lu  30 


101 
210 
3M 
101 


;ii 

;)s 
^7 

30 


45 

in 

14 

H 

a 
1 


A  calculation  upon  wliioh  more  (Vpcmlcnce  m»t 
pliicou  was  mado  by  the  rogislrar-gcnt'ral,  upon  the  bu 
of  10,019  marriu;;r«  which  octurrt'J  in  dilVprciit  mi\,  ^ 

Eugluiul  in  18a8-9,  reducing  the  proportions  to  10  oou 
Thu  following  table  gives  tb.e  results : — 


Ages. 

Men. 

Woinun.                 1 

Mis-0. 

Hiiche- 
lur«. 

Wilow- 
er«. 

Toml. 

Spill- 

Mir". 

Widows. 

ToIhI. 

Men. 

Woirinn. 

15  and  under  20 

330 

330 

1.115 

I 

l:)ltl    1 

;«T 

Ulii 

•JO         ..         35 

4!  If  HI 

IT 

.'iilM 

.'Ml  1.1 

37 

.'KHI     ! 

6330 

Mri 

•J.-.         ..         M 

3:bi7 

ITO 

2.5(17 

1  .•■7!l 

130 

IIHW 

3:iii7 

ITT-i 

ito        ..       :w 

7r.l 

3-J3 

ilTIl 

M» 

1,'>8 

730 

Mil 

im 

;(3         ..40 

3<i3 

nil 

4. VI 

341 

i:t3 

;)Trt    1 

4.'>l 

.•)S5 

40          ■■         45 

111) 

Ii'T 

3M) 

KIM 

139 

310 

333 

3TI1 

45         ..         .50 

40 

114 

ISI 

aa 

73 

130 

313 

157 

M         ..35 

!■< 

il5 

IKI 

14 

67 

^1 

144 

1H 

35         ..         fiO        .        . 

P 

.■".!) 

67 

11 

34 

35 

H 

35 

60         ..03 

5 

i;;i 

OS 

1 

80 

.TO 

30 

12 

113           .         TO        .        . 

3t> 

20 

2 

rt 

10 

H 

B 

70         ..         75 

1 

4 

5 

3 

3 

h 

73         ..         K)        .        . 

5 

5 

.. 

1 

1 

.) 

HO         .           85 

4 

4 

1 

•• 

Tolnls 

HsT3 

Il'-T 

lO.OI'.l 

il'^js 

-til 

1(1.1110     ' 

UI.IKKI 

lO.lllKI 

AccoriWiig  to  this  fablo,  Iho  avornije  age  of  m.irri.ign 
in  Engliiiiil  is — for  men,  27'4  years;  for  womoii,  S.^.,") 
years.  It  jircsontu,  upon  the  whole,  n.  fuvounible  view 
of  tlio  prudence  of  the  En(;li»h  people  as  to  luurriune. 
Gidy  "'3  per  cent,  men,  and  13  per  cent,  woniru,  are 
wedded  under  tlie  ai»c  of  20.  ^bout  one-half  of  both 
■exes  are  married  Ix'tween  20  and  26.  Only  about 
tliree-fourllis  of  a  per  cent,  of  first  inarri;ii;es  are 
contracted  by  either  men  or  women  alter  the  age 
of  44. 

It  seems  to  lie  clearly  ascertained,  that  the  tendency 
of  the  sexoM  to  nv.irriuge  is  liable  to  bo  modified  by  a 
numlier  of  conditions.  .-Miovc  a  certain  point  in  educa- 
tion, conifiirt  of  circumstances,  and  respectubility  of 
position,  the  tendency  diminishes,  and  we  see  men  and 
women  of  the  middle  and  upper  classes  living  con- 
tentedly in  celibacy,  from  a  dread  of  the  increased  ex- 
penses of  matrimoniai  life.  Uelow  that  {>oiiit  the  ten- 
dency increa.<«'s,  from  opposite  causes.  It  is  observalily 
more  jKjwert'ul  ami. 1st  a  den3<>  op«?rative  jiiijiulatidM 
than  ainoni»  a  scaltereil  one,  and  it  rt'achea  ilN  extreme 
in  the  ha!l-dcstilule  class,  h.nvevi'r  oiherwi.Hc  circum- 
•lanceii.  statistics  alford  us  some  information  respect- 
ing two  widely  separatt'd  parts  of  the  earth,  one  of 
which  is  reoiarkable  for  early  and  numerous,  and  thu 
oilier  for  rare  and  long-ilclavi  d  marriaiies — (ilasgow 
and  the  pni-li  of  Montreux  in  !^wil/,erland.  In  (ilas- 
pow.  the  Mi.irriaites  were,  in  IH.'l'.l,  in  the  proportion  of 
1  to  ll'i  of  the  [Nipulation ;  and  ilis  ratio  ri.ses  nnich 
higher  in  unusually  prosjuTons  years,  as,  for  instance, 
m  1825,  when  it  was  I  in  81.  Montreux  is  too  small  a 
distric  to  atford  basis  for  a  calculation  nf  this  kind  :  but 
the  pi'ople,  who  arc  all  small  lab  lurine  proprietors, 
sre  rem.arkal)le  for  iMutjxining  inarriaife  to  a  late  airi , 
the  averaf?e  ages  of  men  and  women  being  HOniid  "fi.?.') 
respectively.  In  .Monlreus,  the  births  are  as  1  to  16 
of  the  population,  and  the  dealhs  as  1  in  75,  both  un- 
C'lmmonly  lnw  prof^irtions.  Thosi'  of  (Jlas'jow  will  lie 
found  ver,'  ilillerer.*.  It  seems  incontestable,  indeei'.. 
that  a  luulliphcation  of  marriages  in  most  situatiiins  is 
•Wtcnded  by  an  increase  of  mortality,  and  particularly 
an  increase  in  the  mortality  of  the  younH.  ^^  ^'  •""•' 
we  may  here  venture  U|Km  a  few  general  remarks  with 
respect  to  marriage  among  the  industrious  orders. 

It  it.  a  familiar  saying  among  the  irulustrioiis  orders, 
that  the  mouth  never  conies  without  the  meat  for  it ; 
t»y  which  they  encourage  themselves  to  marry,  or  eon- 
•f>le  lliem»<-lve»  when,  having  married,  they  liiid  thi'ir 
family  increasing  upon  them  more  rapi.lly  than  they 
cnn  well  see  how  they  are  to  provide  for  it.  This  fal- 
lacy has  U-en  in  sume  measure  bniught  to  the  test  i.f 
^D'tres.    Mr.  James  Philips  Kay.  an  assistaiit  I'oor-Law 


Commissioner,  insfUu'ed  in  the  year  1838  an  innu' 
into  tlie  actual  income  of  agricultural   labourers  in  i^ 
counties  of  Norfolk  and  Suirolk.     Kelurns  to  tl^  ,,• 
cnlars  which  he  is.4ued  for  this  puiiio.se  eiialijed  hjm  J 
make  the  following  abstract  of  the  annual  earninRs   f 
5.TJ  families : — 


Averni-o  inifuS 
"ii'ume. 
3fl  «intrl«*  in»'n     .----,.    j_o_^   , 
0-1  innrrh'd  iijiMi.  with  no  f  hildrrn  at  homp      -       "-■  - 
IMi  iiiiirru'il  nit-n.  Willi  3  T-'-ihs  children,  all  iin- 

(Ii-r  hi  y«'!ir»  of  .-iij) 

\3(l  iniirriid  nil  n.  "    li  3  T-IUiha  chiMren,  1  of 

\' hont  :il'o\  (■  luycHr"  -        -        -        . 

03  niiirrieil  men.  wiili  4  H-inihs  children,  2  of 

\^■hnln  itltovp  HI  vears  .... 

44  in  :":i.l  men.  willi  OJ  oliildren.  3  of  whom 

above  HI  years    -----. 

15  iitdrrieil  mill.  w.  .h  7  children,  4  of  wliom 

nlxive  1(1  ynir^     .,.-.. 

1  tniirr.eil  man.  wiili5  children  nliovf;  Id  ycurn 

1  married  man.  with  (i  children  above  Hi  ycartt 


30  lif  4 
32  13  J 
35  9  OJ 
♦Old  1 
4.^11   9) 


4-.'l3  (I 

61!   0  II 


The    first   (]uestion   suggested   by  this  talile  is— how 

much  of  the  increased  income  of  the  men  with  fimiljpj 

was  owing  to  their  working  more  sleidilv,  from  a  «.r,s/) 

of  their  families  being  dependent  upon  theml  and  hon 

I  much  to  the  earnings  of  their  wives  ami  children  flow. 

ilig  into  tile   conniion   stock'      This   dues   not  ilirccllf 

i  ap|>ear,  but  the  returns  allord   means  of  arrivinn  tirolt? 

I  near  the  truth  by  calculation.      Out  of  the  5,39  nulj 

!  heads  of  families,   475    earned    aninially   by  dav-woik 

j  X73S'J,  ."is.  2d.,  which  gives  tlic  averiigi-  aiimia!  oirninct 

of  each  man  by  this  means  at  .i.15,  KIh.  Kid.,  i:  within 

I  a  fraction   of  fis.   a  week.     The  earnings  bv  tiisk-wctk 

I  are    siiecified    in    350    cases,    and    aeioum    in   all  lo 

X.'idl-*,  n>    7d.,  which   gives  the   aveiiii>e  eiirninjs  of 

eiiih   man   by  this  meaiis  atX'lt,  Ijs.  iod.  iinnuallv,or 

.Ih.  (id.   a   week.     There    are    enuiiienil.d  at  Iciifl  8S6 

cases  in  which   the   labourer  obtained   enriiiiin<  in  Uili 

ways;  but  it  would  give  too  high  an  av(  rai.'e  to  aciil  ilu 

two   sums   together.     We  are   enabled   t.-   iipiiroach  lo 

the  truth  in  auother  direction,  by  diilii'-'ii  ;;  the  amount 

of  earnings   suiil  to  lie  made  by   women   and  chililrcn 

fr. 'Ill  the  average  income  of  the  families.     The  gimi  o^ 

all   the   uiintml    earnings  of  all   the   tiiniiliey  (couminj 

eai'h  single  man  as  a  family),  in  the  t:il'lc  L'iven  almve, 

is  X' 19.1 20,  Ifis.  .5d.;  and  this  gives  nti   uverimc  aiiiiual 

income  ot  135,  10s.    The  men  are  slated  tohnvfcamtj 

Ion  an  avernge  X'5,  3s.  by    harvest-woik,  in   iiddilion  tl 

their  regular  wages ;  the  average  earniijgs  of  wivi-s  s:! 

'  about  X'ti,  12s.  7il. ;  of  cliildien  able  Ui  work,  AH,  k  llil^ 

''  and  the  value  of  gleanings  by  the  youimir  ctiiWrcn  ii 

\  XI,  Is.  Hid.     Deilucting  these  sums  from  llie  aren^ 

faioily  income,  leaves  X'!7,  4s.  4d.  for   the   n\emi£«  t> 

1  nual  carninys  of  the  man  by  oidinuij    lu.>k  iiid  iby 


POPULAR   ST.VnSTICS. 


449 


.  ind  this,  whrn  wc  take  into  consiileration  the 
,  k^r  of  mciii  anil  the  amount  earned  in  the  year  by 
,  ruutiiio  kinds  of  liiliuur,  bceins  not  an  improbiilih! 


liom '  ami  how 


4d.   added  to   the  £5,  83.'of 
nn- 


Thw  jC17,  4s, 
""^'j'j["w8U!e9,  Rives  jESO,  ISs.  4d.  as  tl-.o   avcraqfe 

I  (ariiini?'*  of  .1  man  (7a.  3d.  per  week),  or  only  1.3h. 

°    ,  than  tlio  average  earningn  of  tiie  unmarried  men; 

which  we  infer,  that  llw  lutdittoaal  iucimie  of  ihe 

'ilmen  it  derived  from  the  labour  of  their  wives  and 

''"''''■''"•  L  -  f  .1  -1  e 

Dcductini?  the  earnuiss  ol  the  iininarriod   men  irom 

iiMviwIe  miiDimt,  and  dividing  tlic  remainder  by  the 
nuiulwr  "'"'■•'"'''''  '"'^'"i  ""^^  *''^  ""  "*^T'»«'-'  of  i'3C,  7.<.  2d. 
f  t'lc  anoiwl  earnings  of  each  married  man  and  his 
Aniiv,  Uj'  wliereas  Iho  X2.5,  Is.  4id.  is  alU)tted  ex- 
i.^ivolv  ^0  ''"'  maiiitenaure  of  one  person  only,  the 
,  of  X3r>,  7s.  2d.  has  to  provide  for  an  average  of 
I'nless  the    niariied   man   can    sujiiwrl  a 


aanK 
J.,)  pcrsiiif*' 

j|.  aiiJ  •'■•'  eiiihhen   upon  XI  I,  os.  9V1.  per  annum, 

!■ .  mu^t 'I'^'l"'"*  "'*''  '"^"urii's,  comforts,  it  maybe  con- 

■^,iu.(a_  in  which  tae   unmarried  man  can    indulge. 

.1  (i|„  livcr.ige  income  is  raised  to  this  height  by  tak- 

into  uci'ouiit   those   families   which,  having  three, 

ujr  |i«',  aii.l  si^  c-hilclren  above  ten  years  of  age,  have 

lu'iiisc  income  of  abo\U  £45  per  annum.     To  reach 

1  ■*  iiiu'lifst  griule,  even  they  nuist  have  pa.ssed  through 

>irs  of  greater  pinching,  when   their   children  were 

'o'.viiic  I'll' enough  I  o  take  care  of  themselves  and  earn 

jliule.  The  mill  through  which  they  have  been  ground  j 

..,„  bi'  conceived   by  taking  into  account  llu  se  facts. 

I'lio avf ra:;e  annual  earnings  ofm  wife  with  no  children 

(Ti'-c  i'i.  S^-  '*''■  i  "*  '*  ^^'''^  "'"'  '•"^  childreji  under  10  ye.irs 

ui  aie,  jt2,  93.  lOJd.  ;  of  a  wife  with  3,",  children,  one 

i»«elO,  i5,  lis.  74d. ;  of  a  wife  with  4,''„   children,  ' 

Wj  ubflve  H',  X'2,  6'!.  7.Jd. ;  of  a  wife  with  .5j  children,  | 

I  ihw  above  10,i'2,  I'Js.  Id.  ;  of  a  wife  with  7  chihlien,  j 

1 14;  ilwve  111,  Jl-'2,  3s,  lOd.     from  whi,  h  it  appears, 

M;  a  wuiaaii  with  a  family  is  only  able  to   earn   about 

j>lliirils  of  what  a  woman  without  that  incumbrance 

I  i.m  eirn.    The  earnings  of  the   children,  also,  fall   to 

;v  taken  into  account.     In  families  with   23   children, 

I  nmcof  whom  were  abovts  10  years  of  age,  the  average 

iiinual  earnings    of    each    child  were    15s,   3;,'d. ;    in 

Ili:m!ics  with  3  '^^  children,  one  of  them   above  10,  the 

avoraije  earnings  of  each   child  were  i'l,  Is.  'Jjd. ;  in 

iiailii's  with  4  ',  children,  two  above  10,  the  average 

I eanimi;«  of  e,ich  child  wereX'l,  13s.;  in  families  with 

h  cliiiklren,  three  above  10,  die   average   earnings  of 

lo.ili  child  were  X2,  2s.  bid.  ;  in  families  with  7  chil- 

liri'i.  tour  above  10,  the  average  earnings  of  each  cliild 

|worc£2,  17s.  >*ii.     .\n  additional  head  of  income  iini.->t, 

III  "trict  accuracy,  l>c    mentioned — the   value  of  corn 

liji'MoJ  by  the  children,     .As  might  be  ex|)ected,  the 

LnJUiit  increases  with  the  number  of  children;  but  as 

llifiee  of  tlie  latter  dcH'H  not  much  alTect  their  ability 

111  k'itaii,  the  nureasc   is  very   gradual,  and  of  small 

lasiouiit. 

v.\LUi;  or  CORN  cleaved. 

A  vpriiifp  Riini:''. 
iFiinlies.  Brnoinii  lo  encli  lujiiily. 

«  With  no  chililren XO  17  lilt 

l|i|w;th'J  7-~iin,  all  the  chiliiroa  unilerlO  0  1'*  Tj 
LiTwMli:l7.;(i!hs,  one  chilli  iiliove  10  .  1  0  tlj 
luwiih  I  li-IO'li'i.  IWM  ehililriMi  uliovo  10  1     5    (i^ 

Xwili  .i  :i  liliH.  iliri'e  chiiilrfn  iil)ove  10  1  0  (ij 
liwali  7.  1(1  iri-liiMron  ul>ove  lU      .        -       1     ft    OJ 

These  figures  demonstrate  that  the  married  labourers 
Inourred  in  general  an  additional  amount  of  expenditure, 
Khii-li  their  iidiHtMnal  income  by  no  n'- ms  <-onipen- 
ili'J.  The  ,M  /  of  expense  incurred  by  the  married 
men.  as  well  as  tin-  amount,  is  dilVerent — child-bed  out- 
liy, education  .)(  children,  and  the  increased  chances  of 
pirlinesa  as  the  nuinlwrs  of  a  family  increase.  It  nuist 
rt^irkeJ,  too,  that  the  cases  Selected  to  illustrato 
in  pm',  are,  in  so  far  as  the  unskilled  labourers  of 
ciiuntry  are  concerned,  favourably  circumstanced. 
*iu  1,-67 


Of  the  539  familiei  enumerated,  397  had  gwrueni  (avt 
ragiuij  19  j  rods)  ;  136  had  some  fuel  free  of  charg* 
25!)  had  each  u  pig ;  and  20  each  a  donkey.  The  a^e 
rage  of  Jieir  house-rent  (X3,  lis.  4^d.)  did  not  riM 
above  the  average  level  throughout  the  eo.mtry  ;  whiUi 
in  a  rural  district  provisions  arc  cheaper  than  in  towns. 
Above  all,  the  engrossment  of  their  parents'  attention 
by  labour  was  not  so  daturerous  for  tlie  children  as  in 
densely  populated  towns,  where,  when  left  at  all  ta 
themselves,  they  are  in  constant  danger  oWalling  in  with 
instructors  in  crime,  anfl  are  placed  in  a  situation  where 
greater  opportunities  present  greater  temptation.  If, 
then,  among  individuals  who,  for  the  class  to  which  they 
belo.ig,  may  oo  considered  in  easy  circumstances,  mar- 
ria(,e  be  a  step  which  must  render  increased  exertiona 
and  self-denial  necessary,  what  must  it  be  for  tho.se  who 
are  in  more  ilidlcult  circumstances]  Let  the  -xperience 
of  a  connnittee  apjiointed  in  Glasgow,  in  1837,  to  alFord 
relief  to  the  industrious  poor  in  a  seasoii  of  severe  pres- 
sure, answer  the  iiuestion.  Out  of  3072  adult  nialei 
who  applied  for  relief  and  were  furnished  with  work, 
2273  were  married.  The  number  of  the  children  of 
those  married  applicants  was  0302,  or  nearly  3  children 
to  each  fa;nily.  No  less  than  532  of  those  married 
men  were  under  30  years  of  age ;  of  the  children, 
3994,  or  nearly  two-thirds,  were  under  10  years  of  age. 
Of  the  2273  married  men,  2171  were  weaieis;  and  the 
account  given  by  Mr.  Charles  Baird,  in  a  pajier  read 
Iwfore  the  Statistical  Society  of  London,  in  February, 
18.38,  of  the  condition  of  that  class  even  in  times  of  no 
extraordinary  pressure,  may  serve  to  show  with  what 
prospects  they  had  rushed  upon  the  hazaidous  responsi- 
bilities of  marriage  : — •'  The  great  bulk  of  the  weaver! 
in  (ilasgow  and  its  suburbs  are  in  extreme  poverty. 
Their  wages  which,  even  in  1819,  were  .as  low  as  12s. 
gross,  or  10s.  8il.  net  (the  deductions  being  for  loom- 
rent,  windi.ig,  iScc),  now  averai;e  only  8s.  4d.  gross,  or 
7s.  net  per  week  ;  and  even  for  this  miserable  pi'.'inc* 
t'.iey  are  obliged  to  work  from  14  to  IC  hours  per  day. 
Their  houses,  which  are  generally  in  the  suburbs,  are 
of  the  poorest  description,  barely  furnished,  and  the 
food  and  clothing  of  the  inmates,  as  might  be  expected, 
not  only  of  the  [ilainest  description,  but  also  ijuite  iik- 
ade([Uate."  It  is  apparent,  that  they  who,  in  the  best  of 
limes,  can  barely  procure  a  subsistence  by  14  or  16 
hours  of  daily  toil,  must,  by  the  slightest  and  shortest 
stagnation  of  trade,  be  reduced  to  destitution,  and,  under 
such  circumstances,  to  incur  the  charge  of  a  family  ii 
madness. 

This  is  a  consideration  which  has  of  late  been  much 
urged  upon  the  poorer  classes — not  always,  it  is  to  be 
feared,  in  the  most  judicious  manner.  Leaving  out  of 
view  that  the  deductions  of  Malthus,  whose  disciplea 
have  been  the  most  busy  in  giving  this  kind  of  advice, 
are  based  upon  statistics  remarkable  both  for  vague- 
nesH  and  Inaccuracy,  and  tainted  by  '  polemical  bia» 
of  his  mind  when  he  first  published  !  i .  i,  the  form  in 
which  they  have  generally  been  submitted  is  of  al. 
others  the  least  calculated  to  make  an  impression  upon 
uneducated  minds.  Abstract  reasoning,  geonu-lrical 
and.  arithmetical  ratios,  convey  no  tangible  ideas  calcu- 
lated to  inlhience  their  conduct;  and  the  subordinate 
discu-.  .  into  which  some  of  these  philosophers  aiu 
fond  ol  diverging,  re(Md  by  ', 'spiring  disgust,  .\dvice 
may  be  sound,  however,  a'  ugh  it  be  given  in  ai> 
uncouth  form  and  by  nnamiabli'  pcr.sons.  In  regard  li- 
imiirovident  marriages,  the  industrious  poor  would  dc 
well  to  consider. 

Marriage  has  its  attractions,  and.  what  is  more.  it« 
moral  advantages.  It  is  the  only  institution  which  re- 
conciles with  the  stability  and  good  order  of  society  cn« 
of  the  strongest  impulses  of  our  nature.  If  it  add  in 
Monie  degree  to  a  man's  expenditure,  it  repays  him  by 
conferring  blessings  uiutttainnMe  without  it      The  un 


■ii 


4  JO 


JNFORMA'nON   FOR  THE   PEOPLK. 


niir  ■■  ,1  in.iii  if  3oliitC(1;  the  marriod  man,  if  ordinarily 
Wi;-.  1  iiii'hiotrd,  liiiH  »  i>"rnmiiont  hold  on  thi'  nllbctinns 
if  II  jiorM'iii  of  liin  friv>  -crriitiircH.  A  judii'inuH  sclrc- 
Bon  (if  ;i  lu'lpnmU?  ou^<Uir«  him  roiiiforts  nt  Iionio  wliirh 
no  (iriiT  ,'!)uld  ollic  ivisf  wriirr  for  liim  If  lie  net 
wiioli .  lio  w  ill  find  111  ■  fami'y  nirrctioin  the  !""t  of  moral 
tpn.>lii"-.  'I'he  !<tnt«>  .jf  mariini^o  is  iionou.  i''li',  and  is 
dpurid)]!'.  And  now  lot  us  turn  to  the  ro  i  i:!rriilions 
wliich  every  man,  |)ro|)orly  desirous  of  cntcnii,-  such  a 
fctole,  oiu'lit  to  weiu;h  di.ly  hefDreluiiul : — It  is  iimiuly  by 
her  diim,  ~tio  industry  tliat  he  ouiilil  to  exinct  his  wife 
to  cmtriliutc  to  his  comfort — by  her  judieious  aid  in 
niakiiu;  what  ho  earns  go  as  far  its  possilile.  ,'^he  in.iv  »t 
first  have  some  time  to  spare  for  earniiij;.  but  whin  a 
family  enines  u])On  her,  thai,  and  the  liouseli  .M  (ci^itlier, 
will  lake  up  by  far  the  greatest  part  of  her  '','iie.  Cliil- 
Jlreii  MUisi  for  a  tim>  lie  a  more  draft  upon  i  " .  industry, 
(ire  it  and  just  eoii>|)laint9  have  bcri  raised  nl' the  e\- 
Irome  Ubour  exacted  from  infants  i  i  factorii  •.  (Jrant- 
inc  that  the  employers  of  such  iiii.iiifs  arc  i  ulpable — 
wli  il  are  their  parents  I  Tli-./alher  who  lilows  his 
child  to  be  pn-eoeiously  employi  d  in  labour  1  yond  its 
jvowi  rs,  ealeulatj^ii  to  destroy  it  physically  and  .  i>  viHy, 
and  A'lider  all  its  future  li'a  one  long  disease,  is  rnn. 
«i'n  ni;  !o  the  oriri>e.  'I'herp  is  no  leupil  pvess-uuiL-  (o 
■w,  c,  I '  ildren  into  factories.  A  conseieiitii-us  inm, 
who  Ci:nUMnplate«  inarria;;e,  will  take  thesi-  tacts  into 
eoii»:dera!lon,  and  ask  biinself  whether  his  position  a '.■! 
prosj"  ■  '•  \re  »i:eh  an  iMititle  him  t  >  expect  to  Iw  abl<' 
to  suiji:  )t  1  wife  f'.D'l  .•!|ili.reii  (is  ilie  ouitht  to  be  sni)- 
j.nr!  I.  fir  a  iiuioivi  t  vc..:*  He  mist  oslii.iale  tne 
poHsililc  ca.iiinsis  ol  'v<  wife  at  a  i.ry  low  fiirure — as 
»om^»hiiii;  that  may  ut  .  n-n-f  eiis'  'e  'hem  to  i",'ail..;e  in 
an  extra  luxury,  but  not  pr.  ;.>mv  ininf  to  'he  neces- 
»ar.  liii'i.e!ioIi'  oxfvn'iM.  ifi  ':i.ifi(  i.,-  ussume  that  his 
chiliirvu,  lu'l'cie  tlieir  elafhtii  nr,  wtd  earn  niith'iu;, 
and  tiiat  for  so:iie  year';  u.'h  r  their  i  irniiias  will 
kioount  to  a  more  trifle.  '»'h«!  soureisi  of  his  income 
licit'  •  thus  asi^ett-.'iia'ii.  he  must  next  look  his  ex- 
iruM'i  fairly  in  the  face,  .'l  is  a  duty  he  owes  to 
l.iins.'lf  and  society  to  aim  at  pr(i<urini{  for  hinsclf  a 
sutlicieut  :<!lowailce  of  nourisliin:.  fond,  comfortable 
elothintr,  thi?  A-ans  of  pre-ervinu  cleanhnesH,  so  re- 
(,U!«ite  to  heallJi.  and  weat!ier-tiniit,  well  ventil.ited 
loduiiiffs.  with  thi  .'ii'cessary  luel.  The  same  omforts 
which  he  liins  at  b'l  hiii!s<Mf.  be  '  ecniiies  bound  (o  pro- 
cure f'lr  her  whose  I'me  after  their  union  on«lit  to  lie 
riuxiniy  iiirecte<l  to  carinij  for  the  comforts  i.l'  him  and 
hi,-  ihildr^n.  .\ni\  fur  those  chiMren.  he  is  bound,  by 
e\:  ■  natural  feelini';.  to  provide  while  ihey  are  i;:iable 
to  provide  fjr  th('ms<'lves.  in  sm  h  n  maiiii,  r  Jliat  ihev 
•hal!  "lart  i,;)on  life  with  halo  i  iii:siili'ii.);is  «nii  a  fair 
flriKf.iliry  education.  From  his  kiiowledire  of  iiis  o-vn 
expi'iises  a»  a  bachrlor.  and  from  what  he  can  him 
of  th"  evix-nseH  of  his  married  neiiihbours,  he  can  form 
a  to'eralily  near  estimate  of  what  maniane  is  likely  to 
fiMl  him.  He  innst  take  it  for  Rranted  that  nnfureseen 
arciilcnl.i  arc  more  likely  to  occur  in  a  lainily  consislins 
of  t'vo,  three,  or  four,  than  in  a  family  consiitine  i;f  (uie  ; 
tad  .111  'iiis  acccmnt  oiu'lit  not  to  venture  on  the  mar- 
ried ste.te  unless  he  or  his  iii'endid  has  "ome  little 
rtixk  of  s|inriniis  lairl  up  in  the  "veiit  ot  contimrenciis. 
'f  h.»  iM'iiie  provi  ie<i  tor.  he  most  n"xt  take  into  nceoiint 
whether  his  carninct  can  cover  the  certain  steady  (Ut- 
:  .y  of  a  lamily,  and  dep  isit  k  trille  at  intervals  in  the 
•BvinKi'  liank ;  and  whether  there  is  a  fair  pr'is[.ecf  if 
i.:i*ir  lonlinuinR  to  increase,  and  at  lea«t  not  to  fall  oft'. 
Il  every  prosjwct  is  favourable,  he  niav  take  the  step; 
il  not.  he  incurs  the  almost  certain  danirer  of  reducing 
U.mw'lf  and  h's  family  to  a  sti;-  '  destitution — of  in- 
erv-iLsmn   by   his    rash   act   the   i  er   of  «uflerers   in 

n-X'ieiy — of  adiliriit  to  the  num'  tiat   class  which  ia 

(I  once  inisi'inble  in  itwlf  aim    .ji.;   cause  of  miser^•  to 
•ilicrx.     When  wc  ask   all  who  havu  nut  a  reuonable 


prospect  of  being  able  to  rear  and  iii.<itiuct,  »  hmth 
family  to  abstain  from  muiTiaRC,  we  onlj   oiik  uf  ih  ' 
to  consult  their  own  happiness;  the  benefit  of  iheir   k* 
Blinence  will   bo   reaped  by   soeieiy  et  lnrg«  nnwell' 
themselves,  the  bad  etVecIs  of  thiar  rashneos  will  be  f  i 
by  society  as  well   as   themselvi  s,  but  the  tlcenpst  hi 
terest  drcijs  of  the  harsh  drautjht  will  fall  to  l)c  d,^J., 
by  (hem.     Wc   only  ask  them  to  sulmiit  to  a  nccomit 
wnich  it  is  in  yain  to  struugle  aL'ainst.     If  iIikv  |,^|(  .  | 
they  are  to  deny  themselves  a  uratificntion  AJiich  thi' 
see  others  indulge  in,  the  answer  is,  for  the  same  rcasn 
that   they  foreijo   many   other  pleusiires  they  ma\  »;  (! 
fot   but    cannot    earn    by    honest    iiulustrv.      \\^^^ 
is  a  fruitful  .source  of  hapjiiu.. .■•  w,,i-n  jiiiiiii.Muly^, 
about;  but,  like  all  other  go  ■.!-    of  this  ''t'e,  ii   .|,„,  i 
earned,  inid  those  who  an    U'.t  in  a  londi'loii  |.    ,.,|f|,:, 
(nhetlier  for  want  of  einpiiiyiiieii'   o-  want  of  ahilitvi 
ouulit  in  con<cience  to  forojt  i  if.      i.  o  i-ush  bli  ..ijly  „^^' 
the  cost  of  marrinije,  without    ior/lliui^ui't,  eii'o-.-j,;, 
their  ra-imess  1  ,   <ueh  (H''   I'l'.ie  s  le '.-..((s  n  :,  ■■  \^)^r„ 


(i  '  send-i  inoutii-  he  sends  imat,"  is  not  e'.\n  to  nua  ^ 
a  pie.i  r.u  they  liii.e  not  had  '  "i  Iheir  pnwcr  to  nn. 
for  rtii.  '!  I'iconsidera.r  matches  i.ave  more  of  acurnc  in 
them  III:  \  of  a  hles^iiii;.  .A  bachelor  slate  i  my  be  len 
happy  ihii".  a  pood  iiii'rriaije.  but  it  is  better  than  a  riii 
one.  wliii'ti  precipitates  all  partii  s    ..to  dcstitntii  n. 

Il  is  the  more  ■>.  i'es-.ary  :  i  impress  the  iiiipt.rtaiir,:  n( 
the  lessoi  ,  •  Lenra  fu  il.sti.in"  because  il  js  thi  a.-t^ 
diiliciilt  to  jiracf  ',  on  account  of  flu  st.,.-pirth  qj  |||. 
impulse  to  be  ove'  -oiix  .  anO  the  wo.aknes.  „  l.osemi), 
jected  to  !l,  from  ii.s  rc;>..niini?  its  'c'enscst  power aijn 
airewiion  the  judiiiiieiit  is  'ot  ifiiniut.ired  am!  cxporicii« 
empty  ;  and  also  Is'cause  lash  marriages  arc  the  trfii 
promoters  of  a  destitute,  and  conseipieiitly  a  licmoraltnj 
ai.d  unhealthy  jiopulation  ;  and  because  the  man  nho 
has  tauu'ht  him->elf,  by  slrnRifliiiir  iu;aiiist  inclination,  lo 
make  his  iiisliiicls  bend  lo  his  reason  in  this  iiiatter, hm 
strengthened  hiiiiself  lo  resist  almost  any  oilier  tcniptj. 
lion.  It  is  men  (and  women  too)  who  know  honij 
earn  and  how  to  practi^^i  self-denial — who  knowwhatil 
is  to  appreci.ite  pleaiair.  s,  'lut  arc  able  to  reconcile tlpm. 
selves  to  abstinence — in  .v)iom  incliiiatinn  and  willaie 
under  the  control  of  jndiiini  iil  and  relleciinn — who  con. 
stilule  the  sound  and  u.seful  )iortiim  of  society.  In  pio. 
]N)rlion  as  this  rl.iss  pre]<'>ni!r"at"'fl,  will  it  tic  [lossiblfio 
kee))  the  heal'liiness  and  morality  of  the  coiniimnity » 
a  hi|;h  average. 

DEATHS. 

A  human  beinc  born  with  a  sound  constitution  iicti 
cnlatiil  to  live   seventy  years  or  upwards,  under  favtw. 
e.ble  circumstances  ;  bui,  as  we  well   knuw,  all  of  ij«ii 
surrounded  more  or  less  by  circuiiistancrs  unfiivourjiili 
to  life,  by  which,  jiraclically,  our  term  of  years  isliaili 
to  lie   ureally  shortened.     Kxistence,  as   to  duralioii,ii 
proverbially  the   most   uncertain  of  all   thin'.'s,  aiiJ  Iti 
liecause,  from  it;norance,  in<-auliousiicss.  and  arciilroli  | 
lifr   is  constantly  eoininj;  into  collisi  m  wi;h  the  cv'^ 
tioiis  calculated  to  destroy  it.     The  conditioii.s  uiifajiii-  I 
able  to  life  come  into  ojm  ration,  we  have  .icen.lielbrtthi 
hniiian  Ixini;  has  st-en  the  liifht.     'I'hey  cmitinue  ino|» 
ration  ihrou'jhout  u.e  whnle  of  its  apiH'iiited  [ierioJ;« 
that,  out  of  any  larse  number  born,  a  certain  pro[ioni«« 
die  in  the  first  yoar,  a  certain   proportinii  in  the  lecooi  I 
the  thiid,  and  so  on,  u.i'      i-ll  iiri'  '.;i)ne — o.dy  «wmii| 
compariUively  small  ne 
nature   promisca  to  Bo.i 
circumstances. 

The  coiid'''ona  ne 
existeiici"  are  i.    ''■  ,  '   . 
briefly    enuirc       .^'  '• 

Hk^ltm,  to   1  'i 


i:aining;  the  full  age  irkiii  I 
maintained  In  ftiounUi  | 


I 

;  cuunlncn,  i'XvrC' 


,    :'iiT  healthy  and  prolurteij 
•f  Almii?hty  wisdoir  ;  iheywj 
i.ie    article    I'hkskhvatioj  ei I 
■o  refer.     They   vary  ir.  iOSemt} 
u  climate,  civiliiutiua,  twl  ptiiOk 


POPILAR  ST.VnSTICS. 


4SI 


i.Miuct.  a  hfiithj 
>nl)  auk  uf  ihfn, 
■nolit  of  iheit  lb. 
largo  as  well.„ 
BhiienB  will  be  fell 
■  tho  ilcnpct,  hiu 
full  to  l)c  JraineJ 
unit  to  a  noci'ngiiy 
If  lliBjafckwhj 
rntion  Aliich  thtj 
jr  the  Siiinc  rca.«or, 
■i"»  they  maj  winlj 
lustrv.  Mani„j, 
.rn  jihViaiiigly^, 

lis  'M'i',  ii    ;|.-!s"l  (, 

'ii'li'ioii  I.,  tiirnit 
<  ■  vviml  of  aWliiy), 
I  'HHh  Mi  idly  !ip(,'    I 

.)'/u'i't.  PtlOl^-.Tj^i,,^ 

("■'.■..ks  a-i,  ••  ffl;[,, 
not  f,\n  to  siij.i- 
fir  jHiwcr  to  fani, 
iiiori'  of  a  ( urw  m 
r  Ptiito  1  lay  be  Icn 
a  "iK'Itor  than  a  raih 
to  (U'stiimii  n. 

S   lllll    illlpCTtP.!!;-.;  j( 

iin.s'i  il  is  till   ,xa 
•  li,    Ki,rri;th  otil|... 
ikru'.s-  ,,    l.osctub. 
'onspst  (lOiver  ai  an 
.;rcil  unil  cxperier.t« 
riiinoH  ai-p  the  mi 
iieutly  a  dcmoraliKj 
;'aiist'  the  man  who 
;i\iiiiit  iiiclinalion,  to 
n  in  this  matter,  hw 
1st  liny  other  tempi* 
who  know  how  to 
— who  know  whatii 
(•  to  reeoiieilellfiri. 
illation  and  will  are 
I'llortion — who  con- 
iif  society.    Inpio. 
will  it  l)c  i/owiWf  to 
if  the  coiniiiuiiity  II 


1(1  roiistitiiiion  is  nl 
ivarils,  unilor  favon. 
I  know,  all  of  usw 
iliuiers  uiifavounNi 
rill  of  years  isliabli 
•e,  us  to  duration, II 
all  thing's,  aiiil  t'j. 
Hiiess,  anil  aceuifMi 
sim  wi;h  the  cv" 
I'orulitions  unlVjji. 
have  .;een,l)Clbreil« 
'hey  eoiitinuein'iI»  | 
al)|ioin)ecl  (ifrioil;s! 

a  cerl.iin  ])ri>[«jrtH  I 
lortii'ii  in  the  aecoti 
_;ono — o,;ly  iccrtan 
ii'j;  the  full  agenHl 
ntaiiieil  in  f«»ounlii  I 

ealihy  and  prolixiiJl 
ity  wi«loir  ;  they  M I 

I'KKSKHViTlOJ  oil 

lev   vary  '<'■  JiBWll 
iliiatioii,  umI  foiitW  I 


-tniemcnU;  «n<1  »■  nfcunnrily  follow*,  arc  diflbrent 
I^Te  «amo  counto  in  dilTercht  agc». 


a8  buried    in    England  and    Wales 


Table  of  Morialiiy  for  Knglaml. 
nirinir  the  eighteen  years  from  1813  to  1830  there 
,er«   t»i*i9t<!red 


Afre. 


I'li.li-'' 
One 
.  Vtat. 
1 

■  I 

\     3 

I      4 

5 


I    '" 

" 
11 

13 

U 

15 

10 

17 

19 

■    1) 

i    i!0 

ai 

I  -ti 

21 
■Jl 
•25 


I    SJ 

30 
■i\ 

a 

'    33 

34 

35 

30 

37 
■    3^ 

3)_ 

ll  apiiears  from  this  table,  as  it  has  done  from  others  ' 
CiiiaiructcJ  in  other  countries,  that,  while  the  births  of 
.  miles  to  feui.iles  is  about  « 1  to  20,  tlie  deaths  are  in  an 
0|i|,u9ilc  relation ;  that  is  to  say,  female  life  in  general  is 
01  loagest  duration. 

^■ormhl;•  at  Various  Ages,  ami  rxpoctntlon  of  I.ifo, 

The  Rreat  mortality  of  the  early  periods  of  life  is  very 
roniiirkulile.  One-fifth  of  the  whole  of  the  children  born 
1.1  England  anil  VV'ales  appear  from  the  above  table  to 
die  in  their  tir»t  year.  (.\  Belgian  table  represents  no 
less  than  a  tiMith  of  the  '  ntire  irtiiliv  as  takiii$;r  place 
ill  the  first  mm;  •■  i\'  life.)  The  disproportion  between 
the  deaths  o(  males  and  females,  ap()ears  also  to  he 
jrcilest  under  the  fourth  year;  a  fact  which  confirms 
the  common  remark  as  to  its  Innni?  more  difficult  to  rear 
bovs  than  [jirls,  and  which,  it  may  further  be  observed,  is 
iri  liarmoiiy  with  the  disproportion  of  still  births. 

From  a  table  of  mortality,  a  calculation  is  enaily  made 
witli  regard  to  the  probable  <luration  of  flic  life  of  any 
i  person.    The  e.ilculation  is  made,  with  n'(;,t  fi!  to  any 
pirtirular  age,  by   'ddin,?  ,      in  :i  'ible  of  n,-on,dity,  ill! 
I  the  deaths  afler  that  nif;.  ..  i  rtividiii,^  <he  sum  by  the 
I  num'iera  living  at '''•;       -o.     T!.o  quotient  is  .'le  e.^iec- 
I  tnii'ii  ./  life  of  t.         on  of  that  ai^e.     A  table    if  the 
expectation  of  hi. .  tor  service  in  l.'c  nssurnnce  and  an- 
nuity bus'nesi,  m  :o/mei!  by  doini?  this  with  regard  to 
I  every  »ne,  and  putlini?  the  whole  in  projier  succcRsion. 
I  We  here  present  such  a  document,  formed  from  the 
mortality  table,  but  only  showina;  the  expectation 
^  very  llllli  year ;  Joined  •.  .•  which  is  a  similar  table 


3,938,496  persons,  of  whom  1,943,301,  were  females. 
The  ages  of  all  these  persons  were,  as  fur  as  possible, 
ascertained  and  stated ;  so  that  it  was  imssihle  by  thc6«« 
means  to  ascertain  the  rate  uf  mortality  at  tho  difl'ereiit 
ages,  for  that  period,  and  in  that  country.  The  tab[a 
consequently  formed  is  hern  given. 


Malci. 

Femnlcs. 

Ilnth 
Sexes. 

Age. 

Mules. 

Femulos, 

llolll 
Sexes. 

Age, 

Mules 

Females, 

P(«xea. 

40 

10,209 

17,304 

33,513 

=0 

20,0flfl 

24.1151 

45.017 

4,30,(1 10 

341,137 

771,033 

41 

10,IIS1 

lO.OOfl 

20,0-0 

HI 

13,140 

14,270 

27.425 

42 

1.3,4'j:l 

14.073 

27,S«« 

MJ 

16,023 

M.a^ 

3:J,I(I5 

t3ll.4'JU 

127,017 

200,443 

41 

10,!-2H 

11,4-11 

22.317 

KJ 

12,072 

13.721 

26,703 

7-114 

7j.!ini) 

l,')4.m4 

44 

12.'J!)2 

12,0ii0 

21,058 

B4 

10,01iO 

18,477 

34,307 

47.siU 
y.S,ii!« 

40.771 

;w,(i7(i 

a;i.:i4l) 
IMlfll 
14,IHH 
l'.',:«i:i 

0 1.0.13 
OO.TOU 
4-,l!i4 
37.107 
31,1.15 
2l).2.'.d 

Art 

15..';32 

14,54S 

30.0-« 

B5 

12,245 

14,1  fi7 

20,432 

40 

12.001 

12.334 

24,o:i5 

HO 

H.W.4 

10,4:17 

10,2)11 

I<i.:i70 
lli.Ki? 
|:),-!15 

47 

12,0.i:) 

12,103 

24,730 

H7 

7,070 

H,4^« 

15,5,59 

4,S 
4U 

13,HI1 
12,',i03 

13,i30 
ll,4aO 

27,011 
23,0 -W 

fa8 

0,702 
4,488 

8,3'25 
5,037 

15,01-7 
10,105 

I2,li7l 

ll,-.!70 

2:1,1141 

50 

17.108 

lo,(ttfl 

3;i.527 

BO 

4,.54» 

8,024 

11.173 

11.010 

111.411 
ll.illKl 

8.(.ia 

l(l.,'j'J7 
11,777 
!),'S00 

Kl.'JOl 

22.137 

20. 2  IN 
1H,7!«I 
1I),!M9 

fit 

10.7(12 

10.1  ID 

2(1.011 

f)l 

2,2113 

3,057 

6,:i50 

.W 

1 1 .544 

13..-75 

2''.4I0 

»2 

2,,«B 

2,807 

4,005 

&\ 

13.0.50 

12,IMI() 

25.0.50 

03 

1.50S 

8,258 

3,s58 

54 

13,148 

12,34(1 

2.5,404 

04 

1,120 

l,Uo5 

2,814 

to,.';-* 

11, 7W) 

22.:I7U 

5.5 

10,303 

15,200 

31,512 

05 

077 

l,.58a 

2,550 

iii.mifi 

fj„'i27 

22,lr,>3 

50 

1.5.705 

M.,5'-y 

3l).2!i4 

00 

-IS 

1,1^2 

1.807 

11. ■18.5 

i:),7:i7 

2.J.122 

.57 

14.1^17 

12,1(115 

27,002 

07 

4114 

840 

1,340 

l'J,,"j(W 

14.:!Hi 

•     2(i,7  0 

58 

14.U-7 

13.414 

27,701 

09 

420 

709 

i,i;j4 

ii.Jia 

I4.!l!H 

2iP.21(l 

50 

13, 17U 

12,303 

25,7:-2 

BU 

267 

405 

708 

16,144 

lO.CKil 

31,20.') 

' 

00 

2l.f35 

21,43b 

4.3,273 

100 

230 

408 

707 

1,5.'.'45 

lfi,U4l 

3<  .2-U 

01 

13,Si;i 

12..551 

20,(1-1 

101 

1:1.3 

225 

368 

l.^'v'H 

KV.W 

,12,071 

02 

10.(:!I3 

10.2.5:1 

32010 

1112 

70 

174 

244 

ili.lSS 

;7..i!»7 

;t:i.7-.'5 

03 

1K031 

I-s.2-2 

;)(roi:i 

111:1 

03 

XM 

107 

14,-o0 

Ki.SCI 

31,(i.>;J 

04 

17,701 

17,021) 

35,:joo 

104 

41 

UU 

i;ii 

M.,';i.'j 

i;i.?s5 

13,iii'! 
ri.TTH 

l(i,7Ln> 

lo..')'<l 

31 .037 
31,l.'»5 

05 

1^,011 

1^.723 

27,034 

105 

20 

72 

101 

l'i,:!l3 
lii,l:i:) 

ic.j7a 

14.431 

3(U(I3 
2!I.T.')0 

00 
07 

20.|li0 
10.3,52 

2(i.:)3a 
11>.523 

40,402 
3^,-75 

100 
107 

17 
13 

29 
21 

46 
34 

3n,l!.')(l 

08 

1S,315 

l-i.'JOS 

30.013 

108 

10 

If! 

88 

2o,0:i0 

G« 

10,1-18 

10.222 

33,u:)8 

lOU 

0 

12 

18 

l'J.:'ili7 
!•.'  toil 
ll.tili.5 

10  ,'il4 

31  (127 

7C 

20.1  >7 

27.700 

.53,0.53 

110 

7 

11 

18 

1 1  .(10.1 
1 4  437 

2. ',3(11 
27.024 

71 

72 

10  MIH 

21.11-5 

10.l,i4 

21. -Oi 

3'.',  102 

42.0.5:1 

lit 
112 

S 

1 

3 

1 

5 
9 

It.-"-"? 
13.'J7') 

20  (I'lO 

73 

20..-)02 

21, :!!■,.) 

41,025 

113 

1 

1 

8 

24>-l 

74 

20,052 

21.103 

41,-15 

114 

0 

a 

1 

l.l.Vll 

IS.'.MK) 

2-'.!i41 

7.5 

21.030 

22  ^SI 

4  4.  •-20 

117 

0 

1 

\ 

1,W:14 

14.».)U 

S-.l-rl 

70 

10,.;(I5 

20..522 

40.1 17 

113 

1 

0 

1 

ll.-?:) 

i:i.40!i 

2.''>.2-2 

77 

21.012 

21, M5 

42.-57 

110 

1 

0 

1 

li.^iKl 

14.'J(H 

20.7-7 

7H 

1!I..')II5  • 

21.0.30 

40.02,5 

120 

£ 

1 

3 

11,107 

121111 

2:),77-i 

711 

1.5.,570 

10,1:1:] 

32,(KtO 

124 

1 

0 

1 

formed  from  the  Million  Tontine  of  f  695,  and  indicating 
very  clearly  the  improvement  of  life  in  England  during 
the  last  hundred  years. 


Million  Tontine. 

Parish  Registers. 

of  10'J5. 

181 3- two. 

Age. 

Kxpecta- 

Expecto- 

Eipecta- 

Expecta- 

lion. 

lion. 

tion. 

tion. 

Mules. 

Fcniules. 

Mules. 

Females. 

ITiidcr  1  year. 

3701 

,. 

3000 

43  20 

I  year,    - 

3^49 

4385 

47-78 

5014 

;ju-i»:i 

42-44 

49-80 

51-29 

10    . 

35-71 

404:1 

40  83 

47-05 

IS      •    •      . 

32(ia 

37  32 

4309 

44-09 

20     .. 

29-,T4 

34  25 

39  05 

40  63 

25     ..     .      - 

27  00 

3107 

30-55 

37  04 

311     . 

20.27 

28-9S 

.^3.34 

34-83 

;i,5     .   .    • 

'24  12 

2«:ia 

3003 

31-51 

40     ..        . 

2174 

2:1-05 

20-75 

28,39 

45     ..     "      - 

1915 

ao(i2 

•2:] -48 

2514 

50     •• 

10 -HO 

17-78 

2031 

2183 

.55    ••     •      - 

14-52 

1540 

17-lB 

18-51 

00     •• 

1105 

13 -25 

1420 

1523 

(15     ..     -       - 

9.10 

10-23 

11-43 

1239 

70     • . 

710 

7-79 

HIM 

0<i7 

75     ••     -       . 

501 

550 

6-78 

7.33 

M)     .. 

4-09 

3-79 

5-05 

546 

S5     ..     .       . 

3,58 

3  80 

3-85 

A9i 

0(1    • . 

2^U 

254 

342 

370 

05     •■     .      - 

1  18 

104 

3-00 

3-2-2 

100    .. 

O'llO 

0-(,0 

878 

279 

Sttins .  '  ages. 

370-88 

41137 

4.1.30 

)()5-70 

Discuses. 
Of  the  specific  causjs  of  mortality,  it  is  difficult  to 
procure  anywhere  a  '^irojier  estimate,  on  acciuut  of  ih* 


m^ 


1**:^..  'fl 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


iinpcrfcclion  of  ninst  sjntfrns  of  rPijiHlration,  anil  pnrti- 
cularly  Iho  want  of  prwiHion  and  uniforrnitv  in  nuiiiiiig 
various  (lintfaiwH.  Tlie  Dynteni  of  roKiHtmlion  rrccntly 
MtalilinllPil  in  Eimlanil,  in  condu.tcd  upon  cnlinliteni-d 
prinoiplfB,  and  appt-ars  to  huve  liitliiTto  U-cn  inannBtd 
with  nn-at  ri'(?«rd  to  correctncsn.  It  luw  i-nalili'd  ita  alilo 
director,  Mr.  Karr,  to  draw  up  vory  nilnulc  and  ronipu- 
r«tively  aaliHfartory  talilo*  of  tlic  fatality  of  diwaiW'S  in 
Bn^land  and  Waif*  for  Bcvt-ral  r.iont  year*.  'I'lic  rcRin- 
Icrod  dcairmof  lfl;)8  were  ;M!J,.'i'J9,  of  whir;.  !' 5,044 
were  of  males,  and  ICT.'lfi.'i  of  feinalen.  The  -ai.  .:.. 
of  death  wire  amiifiied  in  330,. "ir}!)  iiislanees :  asHuniinij 
that  the  otln'r  eauen  mijiht  h-  diatrilmted  proportionally 
among  the  aii»i«neu  cau-Ji",  n  table  was  coiwtructed,  of 
which  the  following  is  a  suiiunary  : — 


Aniinal  ni'(t||« 
per  cini. 

31 'Jl 

IUS3 

1"VJU 


0| 

1..I10 

1  •  aj 

I  ..S9 

1  ■   54 


No.  1                           DisinsHi. 

■Male*. 

IVmalt*. 

1 

EpiilrTnic,  Kiiilumic,  anil  ('oritnKioua 

DJv'Birs.        .... 

a>r»in 

20  7111 

•"<"""-*^]?,'Xri----- 

Sl-.'ii 

'1  7111 

fi-WKl 

ijs(i| 

«. 

r  or  the  Ni-rvous  Systrrn.    - 

inn:  14 

M-IUlO 

.1. 

Oi'lho  nrjpirnmrv  Onjans,  • 

27  It-* 

27  -.')() 

■ 

liicluiliiiir  PM/Imm, 

ic,-(«:i 

HI'llll 

4. 

* 

Oi*  ihe  Orirnim  of  Circiildtion. 

i-.tvi 

■111.') 

«. 

s 

Of  the  Diif.'Stive  Ortfnns.  - 

6'iim 

S7IIH 

fl. 

s 

or  till!  I.'riiiiiry  Oreiins. 

■711.1 

•mn 

7. 

Of  till'  Orjnin  of  <iin'Tat!iiii.    - 

(Km 

2l«i- 

f 

0(  the  Organs  of  t.nrntiKiiion, 

•<H7 

■•i2:i 

». 

f  >i  the  IiiU'iriititeiiiary  Svsictn.  - 

■\Kt 

■omi 

10.   ;   Of  fiii-rlani  Scat. 

ia074 

in-os 

11.      Old  Ai;e. 

fn>:i7 

lllhjil 

12 

De 

Bih>  by  Violencp,     ... 

5  107 

2127 

The  healthy  orcnpations  of  the  roimtry  make  a  difTer. 
rnce  in  its  favour  in  the  KeiicrnI  inort^dity ;  tml  this  i,|v 
pears  hirirer  than  it  really  is.  in  coiiseqinMice  of  the  fl.>ck- 
ilig  of  the  worn-out  and  niiseraMe  to  large  town<i,  and 
the  occasional  n-sort  of  sick  persons  thither  for  the  sake 
of  medic.il  attenoariee,  in  the  coursi'  of  which  life  is  in 
many  instances  cut  short.  In  li'SS,  out  of  e.pial  num- 
bers in  town  ami  country,  the  deaths  in  th<  former  a\>- 
peared  to  U-  101,019,  anil  in  the  latter  only  70,410.  The 
average  of  life  in  the  country  woiil<l  thus  seem  to  In?  bO, 
and  in  the  city  37  ;  hut  if  the  aliovo  riodifying  caitses 
are  taken  into  a.  count,  the  (lisproportic  n  must  t)e  deemed 
consideratily  less.  As  might  liepx|)f,  ted,  diseases  are  of 
ditftrent  fatality  in  country  and  in  'own.  Taking  similar 
amounts  of  liipulalion  in  each.  Mr.  Farr  found  that,  for 
MM)  in  the  counties,  there  were,  in  the  cities,  "  hy  asthma, 
3>S0;  erysipelas,  2.71;  convulsions  and  tecllnng,  'i-!^)7 ; 
cephalitis  and  hydrocephalus,  2- 1 1  ;  hydroplioMa,  2'37  ; 
pneumonia,  hronchitis,  and  pleurisy,  I'Jit;  delirium  tre- 
mens, I'it?  ;  typhus,  l-SS  ;  »niall-po\,  1.73  ;  heart-dis«'as<% 
1-73;  childhirth,  l^fiH  ;  syphilid,  l-.'i9  ;  rh.umntism,  l-.W; 
gout  I'S.*);  hernia.  MN  ;  purpura.  I'lfi;  suildeii  deaths, 
1-45  J  liver  di.seasc,  1-45;  hepatitib,  1.3;'i;  telniiuB,  1'3S. 
The  excess  of  mortality  in  cities  wns  of  less  amotint 
in  the  following  cases: — By  consuini  .ion,  1''24  ;  croup, 
1.23;  violent  deaths,  M7;  stone,  i-ll;  mortification, 
MP  ;  malformations,  I-()7  ;  aiMiidexy  1.07  ;  luBmorrhage, 
1-02.''  (^f  some  other  diseases,  the  '"alality  wun  greatest 
in  the  ',-unties.  The  "n>ortality  to  M»()  in  the  munties 
K.n,  in  the  cities,  hy  paralysis,  -99;  u.-opsy,  -99;  jaun- 
<i.e,  -99  ;  ilialnles,  -97  ;  cancer,  -92  ;  hy.'rothorax,  -^S  ; 
ainiatemesis,  -79  ;  dehiiity  ^freijuenlly  prem.iture  liirth), 
•75;  attiiphy, '7.5;  scrofula.  •10." 

Irijiidon  is.  upon  the  wh'ile.  healthy  for  a  large  city,  the 
annual  mortality  being  I  in  4'.!  nf  Ihe  popul.itiDn,  a  |iro- 
[)orlion  very  little  alH)ve  that  of  Knglaiid  and  Wales  (1 
in  44'5).  Uut  the  general  healthiness  of  London  is  in  some 
me.i«urc  dece|itive.  It  contains  districts  and  kinds  of  |m> 
puli.loli  widely  dilferent ;  and  the  clPe-t*  of  wealth,  spa- 
ciuu.i  accoinmiKlatioim,  and  comjiurative  cleanliness  at 
tliL  west  end  and  in  the  suhurhs,  makes  ,i  in  a  summary 
for  the  opposite  conditions  of  the  eadte  parts.  This  is 
WjiercJ  deal  hy  tlic  following  stitcment  :— 


Whilaehaiinl 

Si  (le..ri(i^'».  IHoulhWHi'* 

llt'niKiiiiUi'y  . 

Si   riiiicraK   . 

ramtn'rwfll  .        •        ■ 

Hiirkacy       .       • 

it  is  to  lie  ohserved  that  all  these  results  rpit,  not  nu^ 
the  population  us  actually  kiumn,  hut  as  compiiiiHl  hvM 
thetically  from  the  ceniiiis  of  1831.  'J'hejr  iircumry  » 
course,  cannot  lie  entirely  de|K'nded  on,  hut  they  ninv  I 
received  as  good  approximations.  'J'heeHict  of  crovyjin 
is  shown  hy  a  tahlc.exhihiling  the  mortalily,  aiidthenmiJ 
her  of  8<|iiare  yards  of  space  to  each  ix-rson  in  t|i„^  gtoutM 
of  metropolitan  districts.  ™ 


etropc 

JKjuare  ynrili 

lOt'HcIl 

IVrKiii. 
Isl  (froun  often  lUilricu,        111 
3(1  ..  Ill) 

3d  ..  IK) 


AiiiiunI     Morialiiy 
A  "rl..    front  ;ry|,4 


l;t 

.■M,'9 
27 -ti 


"lite. 
■■H9 
l-l 
131 


Hence  wc  see  that  typhus  is  nearly  three  times  as  fni.t 
ir  the  first  or  crowded  uroup  as  in  tin  iliird  or  oiien  oiia 
(ilasiiow  is  lielleveil  to  stand  linvest  among  Briu,K 
cities  in  point  of  health,  and  liir  some  years  itsuiihealihi. 
n<  m  seems  to  have  lieeii  j^leadily  on  the  increase,  [n 
1H21,  Ihe  rale  of  murliility  was  1  in  39  and  a  triiL-tioif 
in  1N31,  it  was  1  in  30  anil  a  fraction  ;  in  1S3S,  1  inje 
anil  a  frstction.  In  1821,  the  deaths  of  children  uiidpt 
tc'i  yeais  of  age  in  this  city  were  1  m  75;  in  lH39,i||„ 
'few  a  little  under  1  in  48  The  extreme  ntort.iliiy  of 
Glasifow  is  reailily  accounted  lor  hy  the  existence  cfi 
vast  horile  of  miserahle  ja-ople  in  the  meaner  and  ilotiet 
parts  of  the  city.  .Mr.  Symons,  an  Kmilisli  Ketillenmi 
who  hail  taken  pains  to  i.iake  himself  [lersoiially  «. 
(luainted  with  the  suhject.  st.tlcs  as  follows  : — ..  It  ,,  ^|, 
1  f.'in  helief  that  jiemiry,  dirt,  misery,  drunkoiness,  diwajj 
I  ami  er  ne,  cnhniiiate  in  Cilasgow  to  a  piti  h  un|iarallclej 
i  in  (ireat  IJritaiii."  This  elms  liecomes  a  foruBortyplm, 
tever  ami  other  |>estilential  di.sorders,  which  iittaiialc  from 
't  to  the  re>t  of  the  inhahitiints,  and  generally  proveverr 
I  fi.tal.  In  1839.  the  dialhs  from  typhus  fever  aliiiiercacheii 
j  2180.  It  may  lie  re:narked  that  statistical  science,  whicli 
1  has  lieen  ciillivatcd  to  an  unusual  degree  in  (ilasgow, 
give  en  unfavdiiraMe  liew  of  the  city  in  a  numlierofre. 
sjiects.  In  the  live  years  jirvinus  to  1831,  the  averagj 
hirths  in  (ilasijow  were  1  to  29'17  of  Ihe  [iopulation;th« 
huri  ds  1  to  30'91  ;  and  the  marriau'cs  1  to  1U5;  iher* 
s|«'ilive  average  nutiil«'rs  for  entire  Kngland  during  ii,« 
saute  perioil  licitig  1  to  37,  I  to  .54,  and  I  to  12'J.  Iithiu 
upjiears  that  there  are  in  tilasgow  moru  ittarria^es,  mote 
hirths,  anil  men  ilralif,  than  in  the  eouttuy  ijeitcrallv, 
In  the  parish  of  Montreux,  where  the  hirths  are  1  to  16 
of  the  population,  iiiiieleen  out  •■"  twenty  ciitn|ilftp  ilie 
first  year  of  life,  ami  very  nearly  I  lur-fifths  of  iIiohc  bap. 
tiz<'d  have  Im-cu  nlwerved  to  live  to  receive  Ihe  sucraiucol 
of  commitnion. 

A    similar  correspondence    la-twecn   many  marriafej, 

many  births,  and  many  dealh.s.  is  shown  in  the  rtluraj 

from  Liverpool,  a.^  ajipears  from  the  following  passage  u 

Dr.  W.  C.  Taylor's   work,  i.iii^liind  m  th  .Vnif/finiJ 

1  Ct  tun/  : — "The  site  of  Liver(Mio|  is  low,  mid  we  ri'grtl 

that,  U|)Oii  examining  the  rctttrns  of  the  p"|iiihition  lot 

I  1841,   and  tonipiiriiig  them    with    tlwisi'  of  the  liirtlai 

marriiiges,    and  deaths,    we  should   have   round  such  i 

1  slarllinu    result — a   result   nol  so  surprisini;  tn  ua  as  it 

W'tiilil  Ihi  bad  we  not  .seen  some  of  the  older  rctiit.i.    lo 

Ifi'i'J,  the   baptisiits  were  30,    and    lunials  HO:    1700,  u 

'  above,  the  fnriner  131,  the  burials  125;  in  IHOO, tlielat* 

tisitiH  .3033,  buriaU,  31.57.     The  bitlhs  recisleruj  in  1839, 

when  a  close  spjiro^imatioii  to  correctness  in  lite  relunii 

t.Hik  place,  were  7128.  deaths  7437  ;  in  1840,  wtth  apo 

,  pulation  of  223,051,  the  n'    'tis  showed  DIIUO  iiciilL<ll 

,  992.5  birtlts.      We  then  we';!  fartlf       and  made  calculi' 

tioiis  u|X>n  a  basis  every  way  fuv  .i     <         for  (ve  applirdtl 

I  the  Population  lieturna  of  184  i   >.  c   -      :  trar-Ufiun 


dtamof  hirth 
(uently  we  ap 
dear  increase  i 
partti  with  the 
made  from  a  tr 
lion  w«s  deduc 
tug  figures  :— 


p5i«iliiiion  (it  I 
EiiiliiMil  r.^cliir. 
,0  ],tn- :«'.  l-l 
14,ril77.M      .     . 

tlverjKiol.  ':i^^ 

HiTfi  are  slarii 
i.(l,niblo  the  deii 
half  the  nutnlsv 
ujiality  of  Engli 


Seanons  nflt'c 
alipady  adicrtcrl 
la  ihc  most  fatal 
of  the  fact.  Set 
much  greater  e 
fflfitts,  than  coil 
pareil  from  the 
pmiual  decline 
advance,  and  th( 
middle  of  wiiiJer, 
in  country  than 


Moiilh» 


Janiiitry    . 
Fi^iiniary 
»litrch 
April 

.May  .       . 
June . 
July  .       . 
Aiiitii't     . 
S-fit-ittlier 

P("fi:irr     . 

Noveintifr 
Deeeiitlwr 


Ave  nitre 


In  18.18,  the  w 
wa.s  more  than  Ui 
eases  the  morlalit 
dtlForcnt  seasons 

CattseaofDoaik. 

Paralyiii, . 
A|io|'li'Xy  . 
Aciiiitii 

llyilrnthorax     . 
Broitchiiis.  pleuris 

piieumoitia    . 
Inilupn/.R  . 
JlKi-ajM  of  the  hci 

lie. .      . 
D'alielei   . 
Dropnv 
Mortilii'at.on 
^1  Sii.lilrn  ileaiha  . 
OM  age     . 

The  iliaproportjor 
diaeaaes  of  the  res 

Klfuui 

The  proRresB  o| 

ncnt  pliire  anioim 

panvinga  niluclio 

The  niiinlHT  of 

'<  tfif  in  lli'J7,  was 

•  r  was  r<ulv 


POPULAR  STATISTICS. 


It.      "* 
linM 

>  '.:w 

1-39 

:    !••« 

»  rut,  not  u|K)| 
ompiilpj  hypo 
ir  iHTurncy,  of 
»t  llicy  niuy  |« 
lilt  of  crowilinj 
ly.  Hiiillheimrn. 
liiitliit'egtouM 

"inl  Mornliro 

rl»-  fromTy|,h„, 

^-  «l"iie. 

1J8  348 

"5  181 

'■'0  131 

re  timoi!  as  faul 
liril  or  0|)rji  ont, 
iimniii?   Briii,li 
iir«  itHUiihealthi- 
lie  incrcaac.    In 
anil  11  fruction; 
ill  1H;W,  lii,26 
f  I'liililrcii  uiidet 
!>;  in  lH3!),ihcy 
I'nic  niortiility  of 
If  oxistonoe  cf  i 
ifiincr  iinil  clowt 
iiu'lisli  Ki'iitlcnian 
It'  iKTsonally  ac- 
nvs : — "  It  ,8  ray 
rik<  nncss,  iljwij, 
\>iuU  iiniKiralleled 
a  (iKur-  of  typhm 
}k\\  I'lnuuiitc  fion 
leriiUy  prove  vtry 
■IT  ultme  reached 
■al  science,  which 
:rie  ill  (ilasgow, 
n  numiier  of  re. 
1:11,  the  avctaij* 
'  population; the 
to  105;  there. 
KJiuul  (turin;  the 
to  I'J'J.    Itthu} 


niarrwa;e»,  moie 
ouiitty  i,M'ncrally. 
liitlis  ure  1  to  16 

iity  complflplhe 
fills  of  those  bai> 

ve  the  sacrauicnl 

many  marriatei, 
II  in  the  reluini 
lowiii|<  pmuigciQ 
in  Ihr  y^mltmk 
iw,  »!i'l  we  ti'grrt 
II'  p'i|iiibtion  li)t 
M'  of  the  Wrthi, 
,vi'  loiiiul  such  I 
i>in!:  to  us  ai  h 
older  ri'tui..!.  !« 
als  :iO:  1700,11 
ill  IHdO.tliehap. 
ri-nisteriilin  IMS, 
iPtiH  in  the  relunii 
1  IKIO,  wilhap* 
e<l  'JUUO  ilealln  » 
(iiiil  made  calculi- 
for  wc  applifdH 
irui-tientn 


of  birth"  nnd  denth*  fbr  IfllO  in  Tiiverpool,  con»P- 
"  "  ji  y,g  iipiJied  them  to  nearly  the  tenth  part  of  a 
',"'  inrrea-m  more-tlian  we  oiii-ht,  anil  the  result,  eom- 
^«1  with  the  inlalily  "f  R"j!:'.P''  e.;!,.Hively  of  Wale», 
I"  ,  fj.^^  f^  tnhle  in  <vliieh  the  derinial  nurpluR  populii- 
Jmi  WM  deilucted  from  England  alone,  givei  the  follow- 
•nil  fiiuren  :— 


„g  figures: 


•^EiUliiii.l  r.-.lii<-;;l 

unirTSi    ■   ■  _ 


Hinhs  10 
rnpiilution 


1  10  31  07 
1  • .  2U  47 


DiMilh.-  lo 
l*opiilatioii. 


I  In  414.'; 


Mnrri»ni'i» 

In  I'opulii- 

llon. 


1  U)  lUS'Jl) 
1  . .   00  n 


St: 


4(0 


20 


Here  are 


sl'irllinn   anomalies,"    remarks    l>r,    Taylor ; 


u  liiiiWe  llie  deaths  and  marriiines,  ami  little  more  than 
half  the  nuinls'r  of  liirths  [to  a  marriage],  averaged  in  tlin 
loialily  of  Kii«land." 

riTeetof  Soniioni. 

9e,i»on»  i«lT<'<''  mortality  very  eonsidernbly.  We  have 
ilipailv  ndierted  to  the  popular  notion  that  a  mild  winter 
i»  the  most  fatal  lo  life,  and  nienlioned  that  it  is  the  reverse 
of  the  fact.  Severe  w<Mllier,  in  reality,  atrects  life  to  a 
much  crealer  extent,  piirtiriilarly  in  some  classes  of  ail- 
Miiits,  than  could  lie  supposed  likely.  t)iic  talde,  pre- 
pared from  the  I)eli;ian  reijislers,  shows  a  surprisinijly 
jrailual  decline  of  mortality  as  the  sprini;  and  summer 
advance,  and  then  an  eipially  Krndiril  iiicreniie  towards  the 
middle  of  wiii!er,  the  iiitluence  lieiiig  rather  more  marked 
in  country  than  in  town. 


Moulin— l^ij  to  f'l". 


January    . 
Frlinmry 
llurcli 
April 

May  .      . 
June . 
July  ■       . 
Au^u'l     • 
<!,>pt('inlicr 

Oc'olllT     . 

S'oveinltiT 
DfoemhiT 


Dentlia. 


Town.    I  Coimiry. 


ii<i  "(17 
.-)1,-J77 
.■jl.-l-* 
4- '.111 
4i;,r,(i7 

4.-i.'-'rj 

47.n;W 
.'io.llil 
.Ol.i;!!! 
.W.iios 


Averii^'c 


70(1 


1 1 0,1  at) 

1 1 4.7.1-1 
1 1  i.J\  1 

lir-jiM 

!il.7i4 
-1  till 

7.-  .'..r> 

7-.>-(« 
-.■.,l:il 
-!i,.-||| 
■^i.'i-.i 
!l..".70.> 


1I.').W-J 


In  ISaS.  the  weather  at  the  roinineneeinent  of  the  year 
WW  more  than  usually  eold,  and  i'.  certain  classes  of  dis- 
eases the  mortality  of  thill  year  in  the  metroindis  for  the 
dilftTcnt  seasons  was  as  I  diows ; — 


Causes  ofDcaih. 

Winter. 

Spring. 

Summer. 

Autumn 

Paralviia, . 

214 

IHI 

i:W 

1-7 

Aiwpifiy  ■ 

aio 

241 

•JOl 

240 

Acliina     . 

7ii(l 

a;'.'! 

07 

3:11 

llvJrolhorax 

00 

7;i 

43 

70 

Bronchiiu.  pleurisy, 

pieumoiiift    . 

1009 

(-70 

MS 

1154 

Inil,:en/.a  . 

1)1 

IS 

3 

11 

Diieasei  of  the  heart, 

he 

•JTJ 

15!) 

177 

211 

P'alicii-i  . 

I'J 

1 

1 

(1 

I)-f..V       .          .          . 

.■■sil 

4'J7 

37.') 

AM 

Mor'.  location 

N» 

SO 

:« 

r>(i 

Pj,Mcn  (Icnlhi  . 

aiB 

103 

lO.'i 

14(i 

OMaie     . 

l.IHa 

000 

77S 

!'-t 

The  diaproportion,  it  will  Ix-  nliserved,  was  greatest  in 
disetiei  of  the  respiratory  system. 

Kifccis  of  Weullh  miil  rivili/iuion. 

The  proaress  of  wealth  and  civilization  takes  a  promi- 

'  neni  place  aniontr  the  ciuidiii  'her  causing  or  accom- 

paiiyinija  reduction  oi'mo-i  .  -i. 

The  niinilM-r  of  deaths  r'l,'      r  ..rrei'i  -n  theeity  of  T,nn- 

i  hv  in  lli07,  was  2l,lK/();  a     cntury  :  iter,  in  1797,  the 

■rwas  nuly  17,000,  notwitlistan  ling  the  increaiio 


of  the  population.  About  the  middle  of  Inrt  e«ntury,  tht 
annual  mortality  in  the  same  eity  w,!:.  us  high  as  I  m  20  , 
in  1H30,  it  wan  1  in  '11.  Ofcourne,  in  the  met'opolis  of 
a  great  nation,  an  inerenso  in  the  iiunilier  of  iiilialiilnnll 
is  not  necemnrily  a  proof  that  the  indigonoi',1  population 
u  inereahing  ;  liul  tlii^  average  of  denths  lM>ingin  I.on(iorj 
1  for  every  '41  iiihaliitants  in  I8:)0,  and  the  average  of 
regiiifrtil  linptisins  (everywhere  in  this  country  Iciw  than 
that  of  births,  and  most  of  all  in  Londoii),  being  in  tlio 
name  year  1  in  every  31,  we  know  that,  indeiK'iident  ol 
'ho  increase  from  immigration,  the  population  of  London 
has  iH'en  steadily  augmenting.  The  slatisties  of  the  city 
of  i\  msterdam  present  a  remarkable  contrast  to  this  pic- 
ture. Iti  17'.J7,  tlu!  annual  average  of  mortality  wan  1 
death  for  every  27  inhahitaiits  i'Tvid  the  average  for  the 
twelve  yearn  preceding  18:i2  was  the  same.  During 
these  twelve  years,  Iihi,  the  nvcrnge  number  of  deaths  in 
a  year  was  7.'t;i(!  ;  the  annual  average  number  of  birth* 
only  7282.  If  during  that  periiMl  the  population  of  Ain- 
Hterdaii)  did  not  positively  decrease,  it  muat  have  been  kepi 
up  by  'inmit;ratiiiii. 

Theri"  is  anollier  point  of  diflerenco  in  the  career  of 
these  two  '•ities  for  a  century  back.  Whilst  the  wealth 
of  London  li.is  been  iiicrciising  ulmost  in  a  geometrical 
ratio,  the  coiimeree  of  Amsterdam,  and  with  it  the  opu- 
lence of  the  city,  has  been  diminishing.  Here,  then,  we 
have  two  '.trikiiig  examples  of  an  increase  in  the  inc;in 
value  of  life  attendant  upon  augmented  wealth,  and,  it 
th'!  leas'i,  a  stationary  condition  of  that  mean  value  at- 
tenihr  upon  adiiiiimiiiimof  c  iminereial  prosperity.  The 
,ui:il.)gy  is  marked,  and  not  surprising,  between  the  Ibr- 
luties  of  communities  and  iTidividiials:  in  lioth  cases., 
o,iulence  (that  is,  the  comforts  of  which  opulence  givra 
command)  has  u  tendency  to  improve  the  general  heal.h 
and  prolong  life.  'I'his,  however,  is  taking  but  a  super- 
licial  view  of  the  ipiestioii ;  to  enable  us  to  turn  suolj 
knowledge  to  account,  wc  must  go  inoro  closely  to  work, 
and  examine  in  what  maniier  the  lieiieficial  change  i( 
proiluced.  If  we  do  this,  there  are  f'lctu  establislnd  by 
the  statistical  impiiries  which  have  of  loie  years  been  made 
ill  Europe  (althiui'^di  the  science  of  statistics  can  scarcely 
be  considered  as  far  advanced  beyond  its  mere  infancy), 
which  will  show  us  that  t.-c  increased  wealth  ^t  •..  com- 
munity is  rath'  -  nn  allendaiit  upon  its  increasti,  health 
than  a  cause.  i  liey  are  both  mutually  causes  and  on- 
seipiences — both  the  results  of  advancing  civilization,  art 
both  coiilriluitiiii,' to  carry  on  th..l  (  -iiization  to  a  y  t 
higher  pitch.  A  reeapitulalion  ot  some  of  the  most  strik- 
ing circumsluiu  c.  either  attendant  upon,  or  productive  of, 
the  iiicrcasiiii;  health  of  a  community,  will  be  found  fraught 
with  useful  j.'ictical  lessons. 

The  ascc't  ,.iicd  facts  regarding  the  rate  of  mortality  ia 
our  own  country,  since  the  commencement  of  the  reign 
of  Oeorge  III.,  invite  t.  invi'sti^ation.  "The  annual 
number  of  burials,"  8ay^-  Mr.  Kickman,  in  the  preface  to 
the  Population  Kclurns  of  1830,  "  as  collected  in  pursu- 
ance of  the  popul  it;  :i  acts,  authorizes  a  satisfactoj-y  in- 
ference of  dimiiiisln-d  mortality  in  England;  the  average 
number  of  burials  not  ditli'ring  materially  frorr  the  yeat 
1780  to  the  year  181,5;  the  first  live  yearsof  tl,  •  /  .; 
the  laslfivcyears, and  the  whole  period  of  llr'rU-  .•':»', 
giving  the  same  average  result  of  I93,00li  registered 
burials,  the  po|>iilatii)n  having  increasiHl  3,300,000  in  the 
mean  time."  It  appears  from  a  subsequent  part  of  the 
prclace,  that  the  annual  mortality  in  1V80,  as  near  a» 
could  be  a.scertaiiieil,  was  1  in  m  or  35  of  the  population 
that  in  1820  it  was  I  in  49.  On  the  other  hand,  tlie 
saine  authority  slates — "The  mortality  of  the  inhaUtart* 
o'"  Ennland  appears  to  have  sunk  to  its  mtiiinium  in  the 
•  I.  cade  preceding  the  |H>pulation  abstract  of  1821  ;  and 
.Miice  that  lime  it  seems  to  bu  ,e  risen  as  fast  as  It  descended 
I  iter  the  year  1800.  The  census  of  1841  gives  ono 
ilealli  aim, .ally  for  every  44-.')  jH-rsons."  The  wealth  of 
{  England  U.i,  however,  cc.itinued  to  increase;  and  thia 


^^7-*:v   H^ 


464 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE  PKOFI.K. 


ahowR  thr  nrrrwity  of  inqiilrinff  inlo  llio  miniitr  dntoil* 
of  our  wvini  iiv<U-iii  iliiriiiif  llio  iH-riixl  of  iiicri'HKinn  ami 
dlininitliiiiK  hu«Uliiiit'iu<,  in  nrilrr  to  aro  wliiit  hiu  niiiiii-il 
Ml>. 

In  K«nirral  Inrmn,  if  miiy  he  rrmnrkcHl  that  th«  coin- 
llMiKTjiiiMit  of  till'  ilirviiii«ii<'il  riitio  (i#ini>rliilUy  i"  ncurly 
coiiti'iil|>ornnroui(  »itli  IIiohi'  invciilioiiM  wliirli  rniitrilxittHJ 
t»  ||i\«iuch  ail  iricrraxi'ci  powir  to  lint  |iriHliu'tivi'  iiiiliix- 
Iry  o(  tlio  iiiition.  'I'lif  Diiko  of  Mruli-fwulrr  mid  Uriticl- 
Icy  ciin«tnu'to(l  tlii»  Woiilcy  unci  Maiiclicater  Cwml  Ih- 
twpen  17''>H-(i(),  anil  tlii>  I/ivi'r()»<il  luiil  MmucIivhIit  ('iin'il 
lirlwri'ii  nti--t>7.  Ill  17'tU,  tin-  connpitioii  Ixlwcrii 
lioulton  and  WutI  for  lirinKlii^'  iiilo  piny  llii'  |iiili'iit  ol>- 
laiiii'd  liy  tht<  hiltiT  for  iin|irovi'ini'ntii  io  llii'Hti'nin-i'ni;ii)i', 
WBH  foriMfd.  Ill  177f),  tlir  iiaitiirrM  oliliiii'  '  '  i  n  •'arliii- 
ment  a  I'lirthrr  cxIiMiHion  of  tlic  |iiiti'  i  >    .  -''   ^.i  Jut 

Ihcy  wiTo  tlii'ii  only  Ix'tfiiiiiiim  lo  i  i|i  tlir  ail  „  iq;t>  of 
til*  iniiirovinicntjt.  Arkwri«ln  ,.  iiuuci'  tin  lit-  piiti  nt 
for  hin  M|iiiiiiinK  iimrliliirry  in  ITtiU.  ami  LIh  mtoihI  |>iiliiit 
in  I77o.  Hii  tiiHt  w  itcr-iiiili  vu>  vrvcuA  in  1771 ;  but 
live  yi'iirH  ohiiiw -I  bil'oro  In  Imuhii  to  dt'rivi-  any  |iro(ll 
from  iu  'I'liP  iiifliii'iiti- of  tlir*'  iin(  'ovi'ini'iiln  »iih,  from 
tliu  lir»t,  of  the  niurit  nmrki'd  kind,  aii>l  it  raiiiiliril  over  tlia 
whole  coniilry. 

By  niiMiia  of  llicnc  invi'ntioint,  ronveiiii'iicea  ami  luxii- 
rirH  will"  l)roui;lil  «illiiii  the  rracli  ol  iiiconnpi  wliirh  (in  • 
riounly  could  not  allord  llifiii  ;  nml  tlu>  exIraiirainHry 
rhcu|>ni'XH  and  tro(N!iii'H.s  of  lliitiKh  manurarliircH,  witli 
•uch  iiilvantat!('t,  id.  increaM-d  the  dciiiaiid  for  tlieni  in 
foreign  mark<  ■  lliat  the  niiHiiifactiirer)'  tiniiid  the  HM|i|>ly 
of  laltiui  iiiKul''  lit.  'I'lic  iiiiliimal  wrallli  wmh  not  only 
increased,  it  wa>'  ililiiDH-d  tliroimli  nil  rlanix''  of  Mxlely. 
Inrrcaried  inec  ivx.  the  Hpiril  of  ri\ulry,  |iroiiipleil  all 
cla'<!ieM,  til'  lal'iiiniiit  i'Iiikm  in  well  ax  oiImth,  to  live  more 
comforlulily  ;  hitler  tlotliiHl,  iiouned,  and  led,  inrii  liecuiiie 
liable  to  fewer  iliwaiM'H. 

From  the  middle  of  the  eit:hteeiith  reiilury,  n  Htimiiliia 
bad  ben.  uiven  lo  the  |Mipiilar  inlellrct,  and  tJic  Kimlinh 
were  UvomiiiK  u  readiiii,  lation.  'I'he  ^reat  iiivenlorn 
were  theiiiKelvei  rhiedy  nieinlieri)  of  the  middle  and 
humbler  rliisniH,  and  the  earJirHt  of  the  Kfeut  mamitiic- 
turerM  were  so  likewis«>.  ^Sundaj-ncliiHilit,  iMiok-rlulw,  and 
the  dilTiiKian  of  iiewHpa|KTH,  were  |i<'rlia|«  amontjMt  the 
most  M-rvireglile  ijieuiiH  of  enhirlitenin^  the  people  of 
England  during  the  reik.'ii  of  CieorKe  IK.  .\t  biMt  ranic 
Joaeph  I'liiii-aMler  with  hiK  choap  apparatim  l()r  the  ele- 
Uentiry  educiitioii  of  the  musiwu.  W'hi'ii  we  tinil  mieh 
circumstuiiees  aiNoinpanyiiiK  the  diminution  of  niortality 
in  Eiii(laiid,  we  cannot  refrain  from  aupiHMiiig  them  in 
■oiiie  iiieaHure  eonneeted. 

We  deem  it,  then,  tolerably  clear  that  the  (rreat  j  "i- 
moterit  of  the  health  of  imlividualH  are — iiiciia«'d  it- 
flueriee,  relieving  the  minil  from  denpomhiicv  or  huraiw- 
ing  care,  and  fiirniHliiin;  the  ni-'aiis  of  ehrriKhini;  the 
ho<1y ;  and  incrcam-d  inti'llik'ciice,  'i  Iiiiir  how  to  derive 
tlie  most  advantui^'  from  thm  attlueiici',  and  layini;  the 
Ibundalion  of  hahitM  of  judiciouK  lu-ll-i'ontrol ;  and  that 
the  great  promoter  of  the  health  of  eonimiinilieH  in  »lie 
eiteniion  if  these  advniitiigeti  to  ax  iiiany  of  the  indiM- 
dual*  or  eiaHHCS  compoHiiig  them  an  lumnible.  'J'lie  |hm- 
Muatua  vif  affluence,  rijid  the  iiilellii;i'iiee  reijuisite  to  aripiire. 
retain,  and  uhc  it  anuht,  is  the  main  diMliiietion  JHtween 
what  are  called  civiliu-d  and  navai^e  men.  In  the  com- 
mon pruetice  of  Hiiikiiig  the  imlividiial  in  thr  rlaxx —  Hpe;  i- 
in^  of  iiutionH  an  rciu'inbluig  or  ontrarited  with  nali'v 
we  are  apt  to  overlook  the  fact,  that  every  eiviliZ'  ' 
lion  i«  no!  nciiisairily  composed  exi-lu>ively  of  eiviioeii 
human  lieingH.  In  evi  ry  nation,  even  in  our  own,  'Urrv 
•r<'  "i^iiiy  who  ^row  up,  live,  and  die.  unrrfleetiim  i  la- 
tU'  of  impulM',  tt'raiiililing  da\  iii'-r  day  to  anuteh  a 
preearioUB  livebluHHi — now  gorged,  more  oflrii  atarvel — 
mciorant  of  reHpoiitilulits  to  (•"d  or  iiiiii — in  klmrt.  hk 
oo.iipletu  aavaiteH  ax  are  to  '■«  1,'Uiid  among  the  wixid.^  of 
/merica  or  in  the  buah  of  iS'ew  Holland.     Tiie  detri- 


nirntal  iiifluenre  of  ■  numerniia  rlaaa  nf  t}iiii  i,|„j 

If, 

nif 

01 

A, 
^y  P'luimii, 


III)  ill  any  mx-iety  ii>  not  eontbied  In  ilnelf.     It, 
doe«  not  merely  lower  the  averaore  i<f  virtue  nnj 
ill  ■ 


.' ■"•   ■•■    ■•">"'  'ind  ronifiiH 

u  country  by  diminiHhing  the  ratio  it*  nuni  hr»r,  T 
total  of  the  whole  p  iMilation;  the  eontaKion  exlj.nJ 
the  ei>ilixe<l  or  coml'oitable  cla»<)-«,  who  an-  hy  .,,  '. 
broir  lit  into  conlait  with  it.  From  the  wiinili,)  i 
whicli  tliiH  claa*  eongTi'tfatea,  eiiininite  contatfinu,  ,1;  '" 
that  penetrate  iiito  tli»'  dwelliiiv;*  of  the  W|.a|t|,,  "T' 
iiiiiiiIhth  eoiiipo*"  what  an  eminent  ntaliHt  h,,' 
called  ••  the  dangeroiiH  cbHsea  of  large  cItieM;"  (|,„  ,' 
of  our  thieve*  anil  hoiiHelirenker*  an-  liernnniall  '  ' 
iTuited  from  ainonu  Ibeni.  They  conntilute,  in  in,,  "] 
.  doineHtic  eonlention,  (lie  brute  liislrimii'iil  of  lh^««j  i,  ■ 

of  (he  nvili:iil  cIubk.      Thev  an'  a  clirotijc  iWkf,,^  ■„  1 
III  I  •         -  *  I        ,  "I  'nf 

Ronul  lioilv  ;  nml  a  nation  ih  liiallnv  in  tiroiiorliim  ,.w  .i 
I  are  iliminiHlied   in   niiiiilier,  or   N'loine  himmii|,,j  [    ' 
partiiipatiuii    in    the    eomforta  of  their   morn  ftvouJ 
iirelhreii.  ^ 

i       The  advantane*  win.  .i  aociely  ha*  derivi  i|  fro,„ 
I  nifiili'd  wealth  and  exteniled  eduealion.inay  bcdjiiirji,  I'l 
uiidir  three  clanseH,  aecordiiiif  aa  they  pioeied  Ironi  me  i 
facility   of  prm  uriiiK   phynical   comlorlH    owiiiij  |„  ,('" 
I  greater  ■buiidance,  or  from  the  urraler  power  of  ron-n' 
bet,  own  eiii'>ynieiit  by  iei;iiliiiii.i;  ||„,jr  ^^[^'^ 

I  eon  till  I,  whii ;,  men   ,,   iive   troiii   inlelleeliinl  ('i||.,n,|, 
,  or  Iroiii  the  union  of  both  these  cause*.     We  nrocpnl V 
'  illn-^'raU',  by  Home   Htalinticil  delail*,  the  iniHip  of  owiv 
tioli  in  each  of  tlicHe  three  eliiHse*. 

The  advaiitai;eH  which   the  wliule   community  il(r;„ 
from  an  incieaiie  of  wealth,  and  its  wiurce.  more  efiicifri 
appliiation  of  iiiiluslry  to  the  natural  wealth  nf  th(.f„m 
try,  are  ol  two  kiiulH — those  in  wliiehall  p.irlii'iTim,,  fj, 
those  who  do  not  exert  tbeinselveH;  and  llnwe  di  n|ii  k 
I  indiMilualrt   aecpiire  a  xhare    by  their    [lers'iiiij  (..Xfrin,,, 
1  Ot  the  lir-it  kind  are  the  benelils  resiilliiii;  hnin  .Irainaj. 
ill  town  and  country.     The  KlinniliiM  ;;ivin  hy  i[,f  |. 
I  venlioiis  adverted  to  at  the  outset  has  e\li  inleil  i,,  ,„„. 
j  culture;  and  the  ellotts  which  have  Ix'en  inndi'  to  rnjf, 
I  land  which   wb«  not    prmliietive,  or  prodmiivp  of  liiiL 
1  1  line  lirlile,  ha\e  imlirei'tly  contrilnited  to  [irniiidic  i[|^ 
I  public  health,     'i'lie  draining  of  the  'mi  ciiiiniii'ii  i^  i),, 
east  co.ist    of  Kiiiilaiid    has    bani  in.:    i  cIukn  of  i!i.s(iim  I 
which    were    most   de>tructivii    in    these  didtrii'ts.    Tin 
,  fevers    of  Kssex    Used   to    be    inli'rior  in    viriilcnrc,  Ki 
j  acaively    inferior   ill   frei|ueiiey,  to    those  of  the  I'.ini', 
I  niarshi'H.      With   the  drainaiie  of   the    marshes   j|  ;  j 
1  county  thew  lever*   have  disap|«'ared.     •' 'I'lu-  inicrni'i.  I 
I  tent*,"  guy*  .Mr.  Kiekiiian,  "which,  heretofurc,  uiiileriln 
I  name  of  anue,  inli'sleit  the  coinilry  very  exleii'<i\elv  ii*  i 
i  IKCially  the  ten  dislriels),  are  no  lomier  ~|iokc'n  of.''    Ij 
I  tlie  tune  of  KuliardHon  the  iioveliNt,  a*  we  leiirn  lini'  \| 
I  piiiilished  correspondence,  the  Moiirue  visited  |K'rimii,«.i 
1  ew'n   those  fariiihes  which   were  in  easy  eirruniBtaiKn  I 
(•  change  for  the  better  is  of  course  most  niiinifcsi  u  | 
the  |H>sitively  uidii'althy  districLs.  but  it  is  exiieni'tireilii 
,  the  diiiiiiiution  of  ihroiiic  rlieuiiialisnm,  when- vcr  mrim  I 
!  drainage  iiiid  undert;roniid  drainage  have  e\l.  o.lnl.  Tk 
'  e.»i  rtioiiH  of  the  more  wealthy  classes  m   |nri;e  i.  \nu,t» 
'.  1  .oMiote   by  siwer*  and  othii    aids  of  piilijic  i'lcanlin»« 
their  own   h<  ,ilth  uiid  coinlort.  has  in   like  in  iincrui'Ji. 
rectly  ti  ii'lid   to    proni'ile   tiie   be.dth   and  cinlort  o(  iS 
e!.i  .•!"*,     'I'liere  are   nooks  and  eo' i.ers  in  London,  iiiii» 
biled  exclusively  by  the  piKir,  wl.:ch  are  still  liaiilv  iiioiffl 
oil  ill   thm   res|iect;  but  we  do  not.  even  iii  thrni.  6 
•■tl.     'xiiiiuls  running  blood  two  days  in  every  wiik.'a  | 
Dr.      'hiisoii  has  jell  on  leeoid  was  the  ia.se  in  Nmilini 
in   hi'   day  J  nor  do  we   find  ••  pi^s  bred  mid  tn:  m  li 
hoUM's   or   buck-side*    of  paved  streets,"    round  out  ii  I 
drovi*  by  the  coiiMlaMcH   in   the  liiHliioiiaiile  |jiiilu'U8  i  [ 
l!>t.  (ieorge's,  Hanover  Nijuare,  as  wa*  the  casi'  in  1"6I, 

The  advaiitau'es  whiih  each  iiidiviiliial  inii'^t  ad|i!»  I 
for  him.s«'lf  hy  his  own  exirlions,  are  superior  h'tutii^l 
accuuiiuixlalion,  clothing,  and  iood. 


POPUI,AR  STATISTICS. 


4S6 


frcTlmi*  lo  th<^  lin|><<tiiii  irlvpn  to  ntlionni  inilimtry  in 

Ik.  inrlv  I'll''  "^  ''"'   "'f"   "t  '"'"'u'l'   III.,  Ilir  t'iilli>wlli({ 

llip  mlrn  of  WBiri'H  which   tlii'  lnhdiirini,'  iliinM'*  iif 

Eii((l»n<l  hi"'  ''  '''  ''"■'''  C"*'''  •"  '"•'"'  I'"'  "''''I*  •   ^'"' 
_[ii  till'  iriiii-wnrliK  lit  K.  ihi'rhiini,  l(i'<. ,  in  thi' rutlcry 

1  nliiliii^'  triiilfK  lit  ^'ln  irii'lil,  i:i».  del,;  in  the  dtilh 
i-uiufadii"'"  »•  Wiikrrtcld,  10«.  ;  thf  riiUirrM  in  lli:it 
--.ahhourhii.nl,  lU. ;  n  the  niuniitiicHiri'  of  clulh  «t 
leiJn,  H«.  3(1.;  »•  III''  ii'i  wiifkK  111  Ayl'in.  In  ('h<'»hirp, 
UM-;  i"  •''•  '"'"'  "'  ""  "'  f'f"'"!!"!;'"".  ill  ViirkHhirr, 
-,  gj,,  the  folliiTH  nt  \iW(MMtlr.  Mt*.  ilil. ;  in  tin"  inn- 
nufirlu"'  iif  <"lti)nM  mid  cIiicUh  nt  Ciirlii^lc,  ^»m.  ;  in  the 

iiufjiluri'  111  Mtorkim;",  rnttuni.  niiil  liiiscyivdolncyH, 
in  Ihr  liiirn'rii'"  'it  Kiinhil.  Hh.  M. ;  in  llii-  niiikini;  nf  piiiH 

J  j[ioo«  nl  Warrington,  W^.  ?il. !  in  tlin  miinnrurtiin-  of 
,Lj,l,i„,(,  chci  k»,  lintH,  mill  Mrimll-wurrM  nt  MiinilirNlrr,  7h. 
M  ;  ill  'h*'  Ji'ittcric'i  nt  MlirHli-in,  in  StuHonlslnro,  Kh.  Iv<l. ; 
in  ihi'  mil  111'"'""'  "f  Iiiiri-'.T""il"  nt  Wilnry.  in  Oxloril- 
iihlre,  11".;  nnkiiiir  I'liriM'ls  at  WiltiMi,  in  WiltKhiri',  11h.  ; 
plii,  in  (.uniii'Kli'ri'liirr.  IIh. ;  Hiiyn  nnil  hiiryiinj-criipii  nt 
Huiiburv,  7».  6<l'  >  "•0'*  ""'I  <'iili!imnro<'H  in  Hiiilolk,  !5h. 
(J  .  (laiincN  iinil  linwyH  nt  Salislniry,  Hh.  W.iiiiin — (n 
the  liiiT  iii,iniilii<liii<'  at  llnllonl,  "l^.  (Iil. ;  in  tin-  rlotli 
nianiifiu'lurt'  iii  licrils,  IN. ;  in  the  Iniil  mini's  iit  Frv- 
ii'iiiijttiii.  '>"• «  ill  ''"'  ^11  ■  liil  nmnurnctorics,  :frt.  ;ti|  ;  in 
miikintf  piiii'  '""'  ^li'"-"  nt  Wiirriiiu'ton,  'Is.  IM.;  ninkini; 
ihiii's  mill  hiilH  lit  Ni'Wi'iisllr,  4m  (lil.  fhililim — fn  thn 
iHircoliiin  mill  «lovi'  niiiiiiit.ictiiri-H  at  VVorccstor.  ~».  (Iil.; 
,f  slims  anil  liiilH  lit  Ni'wiiisllo,  1r.  ;  hiivH  in  tin- pottc- 
ncii  111  liiiilii'rhani,  :in. ;  hoys  nnil  qirhi  in  tin-  Frnninnton 
liviil  mim^.  •'"•  •'''•'  I'liil'lfi'ii  nt  Kriiiliil,  Uh,  ;  rhililrcn  at 
H].j,ii'lu'<li'r,  H.i.  Till.  'I'lir  inriliiini  rati-  of  thi-  wayrH  of 
II uiiuiai'iiriiii!  Iiilionr  ivas — in  thr  rant  of  Kinrlaml,  (ia. 
fii.  ;  in  tiit'Koiilh,  !Im.  III.;  in  thi- wi-st,  Ms.  'I'lir  nieilinin 
rale  of  iii,'ri(  nhiiral  wi.;rH  \v.i<  Km.  in  ihr  riiNli'rn  roiiii- 
lirt;  '"I-  "1  ''"■  *iiitli''rn ;  iinil  5s.  tOil.  in  lln-  wrstorn 
jjitrioU.  Tlii'Si'  rairs  won-  asrortaini'il  hy  Arthur  Yoiiiii; 
in  \\i»  tours  of  liti^  and  1770.  Youiiir  cs'liinatrs  the 
iMjiulalioii  iif  p;nL'laiMl  and  Wales,  in  177(1,  at  h.ridd.OOO  ; 
of  thC'i'  111'  KIWI'S  -,>^IMl,ll(iO  as  till"  iiiinihi'r  cinriiKi'd  in 
a'Tii'ulHiri' — till'  laiidlords,  willi  their  faniilii's  and  ili'- 
wnilaiilH,  iiiiiDiiiiliiiij  to  S(H),(i'>0;  and  fhi'  nmnlH'r  on- 
um'  '.  in  inaiiuliiilnn  s,  M.OOl'.'KIO,  This,  on  a  rmli" 
e»liii  'te,  would  L^ivc  th.  nninli  rs  of  tlu'  |io|iiilaliim  dr- 
pf,.  ■  .1  U|K)ii  the  wat;!".  'il  lahour  for  snhsJHli'iu'i',  of  that 
time.  Ii'ss  than  four  iinllioiiR.  He  r8timatPH  thr  iioii- 
iinlusiriuii*  |'<>"f  "t  .'idii.inio. 

Tho  ii,l  >rinalion  Riven  hy  Mr.  .lolliii'^iT  Synions  in  his 
"Arts  ami  .kil  •^aiiti  at  Home  and  .Ahro;til,"  |iiililisheil  in 
IMIJii.  ■  nalili's  iiK  lo  I'lHilrast  with  Voniur's  stalenienis  the 
cai'iiliil  ■*  "I  earnini,'  i'  '-^-wssi'd  hy  the  lahourim,'  classes 
of  Eu'-'liiul  ill  I'll!"  '  '  liiy-  ^l'"- — '"  ■Maiiihesler,  n 
ininner  I' II  earn  from  »'N.  to  'i.'is,  a  week  ;  a  imiii  in  the 
cjril-riioiii,  lis,  fid.  to  I7s. ;  ii  weaver  hy  power,  from  I  Its. 
to  IKs.;  In  hand,  troin  7s.  to  |:is. ;  dres.sers  earn  from 
'iH.s.  to  Jilts.  ;  and  .'iieehaiiies,  from  21s.  to  yiis,  'J'he 
wajfeH  at  Mielliild  v. try  from  S.'is.  to  li.'is.,  and  often 
amount  In  IDs.,  for  workmen  in  the  skilled  depnrlmeiitii ; 
in  tho  iroii-work.H  of  tlie  Dirmiimhain  disiricl,  wanes 
iverai;!'  Iruiii  'Ma.  to  Mils,  fur  the  eumnion  lahourers ;  in 
the  Lti'cli'  tlan-mills,  men  earn  from  17h.  to  l!»s.  a  week; 
m  till' 'Jliiuceiitersliire  elolh-faetories,  from  I5s,  to  Ms.  In 
olhrr  triiik's,  the  ii\erane  wuros  per  week  thronijlioiit 
Ei.glanil  are — iron-liiunders,  "ifs,  to  HOs. ;  inaihine-mak- 
t'lii, '.Jtiii.  Ill  yUs. ;  sawyers,  ii'ls.  lo  -Hs. ;  ear|K'iiterH,  20s. 
Ic  'i.K.:  ,sliiiie-mu>:ins,  iHs.  to  'Z'iK.\  hrieklayi  rs,  I7s,  to 
208,;  Hiniilismen,  lU>,tii  l,'';.s.;  porters,  1  Is.  lo  ll'.s.;  rol- 
lierf,  Jia.  liiLn  day  ;  sioikiiiL;  weavers  in  l.eieesler,  S.s,  ;?d. 
per  week.  lliij(i..i  euro  per  week,  at  .Vlaiuhester,  as 
ipiiiiieis,  Ids.  to  Ifis. ;  in  the  earil-room,  ils.  lo  its.  (id.; 
weavers  liy  power,  8s.  to  \'is.\  hy  hand,  (is.  to  12s.; 
m  Uu'  Leeds  tlax-aiills,  5s.  (id.  to  lis.  Cd. ;  in  tho 
(ilJuceaUiriihiio  clolli-fucturius,  4i>.  tu  5!t.     Children  caii 


enrn  in  Ihr  Mam  I-  "Icr  fnrtoriM,  frr;m  \».M.  ^iravrn- 
\H'tft)  lo  7k,  a  week  ,  in  the  IifcdH  flmi-iiiillH  ^iv.ien  iiiiM 
or  ten  years  old),  !is.  (id.  to  4n.  "  AKrieultnral  waR««," 
says  Mr,  Hvniniis.  »  in  f!ii«liiiul  vary  bo  little,  nnd  aro  lO 
Well  known,  that  I  need  hardly  do  nioro  lli>iii  state,  thai 
In  the  (^otenwold  dislrieln,  for  instance,  i>  Hhepht>rU  lo- 
vr\\  -  I0»,  v^eekly  ;  n  carter,  the  same  ;  diiv  lahourers.  Hi. 
in  ^  "er,  nnd  (Is.  in  winter;  in  addition  to  which,  thry 
rarii  .1  ^  iiineas  nt  harvesl  lime,  which  will  pay  their  rent 
Woiiieii  receive  Oil.  a  day  in  winter,  and  Hd.  in  snininor, 
nnd  U.  in  lime  of  hay  and  harvest,  Pi'rlia|m  iheHo 
are  the  lowest  wiii;es  paid  in  uii\  district  in  I'inularul. 
From  Ms.  (id,  lo  10s,  (id,  will  he  Ihroiiuhonl  the  uverant- 
winjes  of  the  ureat  hulk  ■.  f  adult  male  aurieulliiiul  la- 
hourers of  Kniflaiid.  'I'hesc  r.itcH  of  wanes  arc  taken  at 
a  period  when  the  reimiiieration  of  lidiiinr  is  retroi;rading 
in  a  marked  mniiiier.  F>V'*I  umli  r  this  Hlule  ul  iilliiirit, 
howevi"-,  they  show  that  llie  iiuredse  of  national  wealth 
has  at  least  Riven  individuals  of  tho  lahouring  elasa  tliu 
coniiniinil  of  n  trreater  money  ineoine. 

The  laliriiirer's  power  of  cotnmiuidinu  the  couifortii  of 
life  can  only  he  parlinllv  kimwn  from  a  Htateiiieiit  of  hid 
earninu's  ;  iiMenlii'ii  iiilist  lie  paid  to  what  Ihi^e  earnin^ll 
can  purchase.  The  principal  ex|M'ndilnre  of  ilie  lahourer, 
as  already  statid  is  m  hoiise-rent,  elolhiiiv;,  nnd  urlielea 
of  domeslie  consumption,  l)y  the  inipnuemenlH  of 
machinery,  all  classes  arc  enahlcd  to  proeiin'  hitler  cloth- 
iiiu'  nt  a  Inwer  price  than  they  formerly  paid  for  an  in- 
ferior article.  The  extent  to  which  this  elianse  has  hwn 
carried,  iiiav  he  inferred  from  one  or  two  fnls  rei;arilint{ 
our  innnufacliires.  In  17N7,  when  lli.  mule-ienny  first 
came  into  cnmnion  use  in  Ihilton,  Paisley,  and  (ilnsKOW, 
the  inanilfncturerH  paid  for  their  line  yarn  at  the  rate  nf 
20  guineas  per  Ih. ;  the  same  ((ualily  of  yarn  li.is  of  Inta 
heen  sold  at  from  Ms.  lo  Ifis.  a  Ih,  The  eollnii  Hvist, 
which  sold  in  178(1  for  tl,  IHs.  |H'r  ih.,  is  sold  now  for 
Hs,  The  procesH  of  rediiclion  in  the  price  of  nianultto 
tiired  clouds  is  still  ^'oini;  on,  nnd  in  the  linen  as  welt  a* 
in  the  coMiin  trade.  <' mvass,  .Mo.  27,  an  article,  the 
ipinlily  and  dinieiisiiins  of  whicli  do  not  vary,  which  8old 
in  luil  at  aos,  a  piece,  hailfallen  in  IHdiitoMs.  In  lh« 
woollen  ninnulacliires,  a  un  at  reduction  of  price,  com- 
p.ired  with  qiialily,  has  also  taken  place.  The  conHU- 
ipiince  is  apparent  in  the  style  of  dress  adopled  hy  the 
wurkiiiif-classcs  of  (inat  Uritain,  ku  ihlVerent  Iroiii  what 
prevails  on  the  continent,  and  did  formerly  prevail  here. 
.\s  to  houses,  every  person  who  has  ntlained  to  middle 
au'c  inu.st  have  remarked  the  improvement  in  many  dia- 
tricis  of  the  aecommodalion  of  the  lahouriiii;  classes  in 
this  res|iccl ;  and  yet  the  money  rental  seein.<  lo  have  re- 
niiiiiied  iieiirly  stationary.  Youin;  slates  llie  liouse-rent 
111  the  workini;  man  to  have  heen  in  his  lime — at  l.eeda, 
C2;  Wakclield,  t'2,  .'is.;  Newcastle,  i:2.  12s.  (id.;  Hut- 
lield,  i.'2.  I.'is. ;  North  Mines  in  Middlesex,  jLH,  lOs.; 
Kt  nsiiii;tiin  as  hi«h  as  £5,  In  IKD'J,  the  averiij;e  rental 
of  a  lahourer's  cottat^e  in  ihe  cuunlry  near  I'en/.iinco  waa 
ahnut.1.3;  in  the  town,  .15;  in  the  eoiinly  of  Hutland, 
£.1,  .11,  lOs..  nnd  X'2.  In  SutVolk.  in  lH;i8,  Ihe  house- 
rent  of  .'i:)!)  lahourers'  families  avi  i : ..  d  £\i.  Us.  per  fa- 
mily ;  in  Norlhumlierland,  Ihe  avernge  irii'-  of  a  liihourer'a 
coltaije  was  estimated  at  L'i,  1 'V  Kvei  the  ]irice  of 
provisions,  which  is  ijenerally  s  iprn'scil  to  have  heen  ao 
much  lower  in  former  tiiins,  has  not  increased,  if  it  haa 
increiisk'd,  so  much  as  is  supposed.  'J'he  uveraije  prict'a 
of  huUlicr  meat,  U'cr,  cheese,  milk,  and  hulter,  through- 
out the  kin;{iloin,  do  not  miiteriiilly  dilliT  now  IVoiii  what 
they  were  in  17(i0;  hread  is  dealer,  hut  improved  in 
ipi.ilily,  and  potatoes  are  much  cheaper,  'lea,  coflee, 
sURii'-,  and  pepper,  have  heen  much  reduccil  in  price; 
and  now,  in.stcad  of  scarcely  ever  nppearing  iii  the  weekly 
hillii  of  the  lahourer,  are  standing  articles  of  hiii  exp«ju- 
diturc. 

This  iinproveiuvnt  in  the  quolily  of  the  accouiti 


TNPnR>fATIOM   FOR   TMR  PHOPr.K 


liiinii  priiTMrnSIr  by  *  modrrnfr  Inrimio  nnml  nlwiiyn  Ix' 
kept  ill  vit'W,  \«lii>i  i'iiiii|>  iiiiiK  wliiil  II  iiiuri  I'Hii  rani  now 
with  wliht  lie  I'liiil'l  I'urii  liiriiii'riy. 

It  wiiiilil,  linwcvrr,  I  oiivrv  ■  CkIm'  liii|irrMiim  of  (hf 
imniiiii  ■■''  mN'ml  mlvnnliigi'  Rt  any  liiiii*  ili-rivcil  in  iirt'ul 
Briliiiii  iVuni  till'  xriMt  iiurniM-  in  ll'<'  |ir(itliii'livp  |Miwi'ni 
•f  iiiiliintiv,  wiTti  \»i'  It)  Iciivo  unniitii-i'il  the  liirLt<>  nnil 
mcTrnMiin  cliiiMi  wliioh  hii»  iii'vrr  yrt  1k'«>m  rcni-lii'il  liy 
lhpM<  iH'ni'litn.  Kvcn  in  tlio  ni»at  lumy  iiiiirtj*  ol' iiiiliiKlry, 
nuiiiU'ra  un<  to  Iw  foiinil,  iiiiil  iIuk)'  nnt  hIwiivn  I'litin  ly 
diiiiMi'  iir  iiiiwilliiiK  lo  wiirk,  wlio  arc  in  ii  hIhIi'  lionli'miu 
U|Nin  ili'niiliiliciii,  \Vi'  Imvo  u  rrmiirkalili'  ■■iiiiiiplr  I'l 
thiit  rliiox  Ml  llir  rily  of  l.itiicrirk,  wlu'rc  n  lnri;i'  iliKtri<-l 
U  in  M  iiiniiiitT  Kivrn  ii|i  In  llu'iii.  In  KiikIiiihI,  it  \»  to 
\m  oImitvi'iI,  iIii<  ini'iin  viiIiip  of  lili>  iinioiiu  tin'  more 
coinlortiilili'  |>oiiioii  ol'llic  tvorkiiiK-'liOocH  in  now  hh  IuuIi 
a»  llint  o(  till'  niiildit'  cluaMH  in  lii»t  t'cntiiry  :  tliiK  ii|h 
urara  from  <'oin|inriiii{  tlic  riiHTiciiri!  of  llii'  Aiiiii'iihli' 
lliaurniicf  Oll'irt',  rataMinlictJ  in  lillt>  for  the  In  oclil  of 
the  niiiliili'  iIkiwi'm,  witli  tlic  lulilr  of  niortiilitv  colli'i-ti'il 
by  the  MiH-ic  ly  for  llio  Dllfllxion  of  liKlnl  KliowlnluT, 
which  rinliriK't'N  llic  liiHlory.  ii'  to  nioitality,  of  V!'t,M'JM 
yearx  ut  lili'  umioiik  tlio  liilhiuriiii(  i  liiwoa  from  nil  piirlN 
of  Rni{laiiil.  Iioin  |N'j:i  to  IS'JM,  In  l,iin<-rirk,  on  tlic 
contrary,  wlnii'  th><  iIciIIik  in  tlic  tlini'  tohtinc  HiH'ii'tii'N 
ihiTK  tiiuiiili'il  III  IH07.  IMJl,  .iiiil  (HI  t,  mill  with  jivra 
ilijudirioiiHly  wlri-li'il,  uliow  n'i|iri'li\rly  oin'  ilralll  iiiinn- 
illy  in  lOH,  HI,  anil  M3  |H'Miinx,  tlu'  iiniMi:il  iiiortality 
•moiiK  the  poor  ia  1  in  \\t.  TWin  in  not  hII.  ■■ 'I'lir 
friKlitfiil  rxri""  of  cpiilt'iinr  unil  riulrinio  ilisciiM-H  iiiiioml' 
the  poor  of  Liiiirriik  niiiy  U'  Kiillirrril  from  tlir  lollowiiiK 
fact,  lliiit  nliili'  lilt'  |w'r-i'i'ntai:r  [iroporiioii  of  iIiih  iIuhh 
lo  the  wholi'  numlH-r  of  iIimiIik  in  Kiutlaml  nnil  V^'all'M  in 
183>l,  waH  iiiiilir  U(l  (  1">*)  ;  in  llii-  Mirtro|H)liM  itiiil  LitiIh, 
2ii'l  mill  V!(i  rr«[)t'rtiv<ly  ;  in  Minn  lll'^tl'r,  yit-'J  ;  in  Hir- 
mitn^haiii.  V!0;  and  in  I.ivirpiMil.  I'J'N;  it  Ih  in  Ijiiii-rirk 
nnt  li'Hii  than  ID,  or  marly  lixr  liiiii'H  »h  ^jriHt  ih  tlir  pro- 
portion ot  di'iitli"  from  iliwrttK'H  of  thi'  ri's|iiralory  hvwIi'iii, 
to  whii-h,  am<'ni{  u  hcaltliy  |Nipidalion,  it  iiiii(lit  lo  In' 
nearly  cipml."*  Aiiioiiij  tin-  lamilirH  of  this  rl  imm  who 
ramr  niuler  the  n.ituT  of  Ur.  (Irillin — ••Out  of  (ili  who 
hid  iii'irr  than  10  rhilihi'ii  horn  aU\(>,  l.i,  or  oiii'-lilth. 
had  I'ist  II  or  mori'  of  tliow  rlilu'rrii;  ami  tin'  ii:;uri'u'ali' 
mnrlality  of  tlio««  lamilii'H  uaa  ITiU.  or  I'J  i-irh,  wliirh. 
if  dialril  iitiil  ainoiii;  tlii'  Mimr  iiiiiiilii'r  of  familii'N  who 
hul  the  K"''>t'xt  numlxT  of  childri'ii  hnrn  alivr,  aiiioiinifi 
lo  "9  [>er  O'lil.,  and  waa  proliahly  hiiiher."  He  hiIiIh — 
••  It  haa  lirin  niiiiirki'd  thai  priNliii-tion  iH  oltiii  iiioHt 
rapid  aiimm;  a  population  In  rstrniii'  wrrti'hriliii'xK;  and 
I  Hlruni;l\  hu«|h  el  that  ihiH  in  a  i'onsi'i|iii'iii')'  nl'  the  liii;li 
inorliihty  wIikIi  ixrnni  in  Hiirh  i-iiiiimsl  iiirrx.  It  in  tlir 
chararliT  of  any  inlliiriu'c  whirh  Ii'miIn  uic  itly  to  drprr^s 
the  IMiwi'rs  of  lile,  that  It  alwa\~  iM'ars  lii-a\ii'Nt  on  the 
tendiTiii.-"*  of  iiilanry  iiliil  the  In  IiIi'iickh  of  aifc.  Now. 
aa  !  lind  that  the  |NMir  iiiirHc  their  o',vn  children,  then'  Ih 
generaliv  an  inlerval  of  ulioul  two  yearn  lietwein  the 
birtll  (.-*'  uMC  cinlil  and  that  of  the  next;  Iml  If  ii  child 
dica  early  on  the  hnuxt.  tlm*  iiitcr\al  will  Ih'  min  h  iiliiirler, 
and  if  UiiK  ix-cura  utU'ii,  tlirrc  will  Im>  ii  ccrtiiin  numlicr 
borUi  aa  it  were,  yo/-  tht  imr/iotc  uj  iiymg." 

KflecK  uf  Incrraaeil  Wcalili  :oiil  Kiii>wli'<l|;i!  in  CoinliinBlinn. 

Mono  rcKiilts  from  tlic  coiiiImiiciI  iiilliicnce  of  in- 
crea«e<l  wealth  and  kno»lcil;;i>  iimy  now  U'  adMrted  In. 
It  ia  to  U'  olinerved,  that  the  rich  cuiilil  at  .ill  tiiiicK  coiii- 
niar.d  inaiiy  coiiit'ortM  t'avoiiralile  to  lilc;  Init  it  i*  only 
when  kni>wlcd){c  aug',{e.-la  u  ii;.'ht  employ  nicnt  of  the 


mean'*  nironlcd   hy  opulence,  and  ppi  lemr  on  th*  ,^i 
hand  i'MhIh  to  avail   itacif  of  the  aid  of  kii  ,w||i||„  .1  ' 

the  lull    la lit  of  the  condillona  we  liav,,  |„,p„  ,fL 

inir  can  Ih'  xaid  to  he  rcnll/.i>d,      '''ln>«fu||nwm|.  ||ig 

lion  may  make  onr  ineaiiinK  more  clr  .>   

It   la  commonly   l>clic\eil  that  there  iv  mnrr  dan 
lo  life  from  lilliotomy  than  from  ainpii'iiHon ;  hui  .ur 
lical   im|iilry  ■howH  that  death   iiim<    tri  ,iuei    <  f  ii 
the   luller   llian  the   former   o|>eriilii  '•,       I'f;  .  f,.,y|,,    .' 
II'IO  cB»«  a  of  aiiipiilalion  of  lejja  tiiiii  arma,  in  hniMJi  i 
and  priviile  praclicc,  in  France,  (icriiiany,  t'nItcilNi  ' 
and  tfrciil  Dritain,  were   in  IftO  camii  filial— a  nui.,  / 
V:iJ  per  cent.      It    ia   to  he   kept    in  \iew,  howrvfr,  il,  . 
the    mortality   in  caaca  of  iiniputalinn    very   fri'iiui 
iirlMca  from  tlic  injury  ordlKeiiHc  on  nccount  of  wli(k,f. 
o|M'r.itioii    in  rcnorted    lo ;    whercaa    the    ninrtalltf   f„, 
lithotomy    in   aliniwl    invarlahly  the  direct  ellirt  uf  \\ 
operation  alone — the  nurKcuii  havini;  It  ni  liln  iitmet 
the  liitlcr  cnw,  lo  choone  a  lime  wlnn  the  piitliiit  i^ 
till'  hcNt  condition  to  cndiiri'  the  null'crlnK.  which  Iut, 
larily  do  in  cane  of  iimpiilation.     VN'hcnwe  rcthri  hk,,. 
the  int'imate  ac(piainlaiicc  with  the  huiiinn  friinic,  niult)'. 
conlidence  in  liin  own  nkill,  which  the  niinjinn  ran  itily 
acipiire  hy  devlerlly,  the  reniilt  of  much  pi:iil|cc  ami  ij, 
traditional  expcriiiictitn  of  liln   prcdccensiMH.  we  aro  tl,u 

10  form  Monie  idea  of  the  importanic  of  kiiiiw|iHl([p  ,,, 
allcviatiim  the  niKericn  of  huinanlly,  .Ami  wlim  ^, 
add  the  consldcrallon  of  the  cont  of  iiiHlriiiiiintu,  nioj;. 
cinen,  and  the  time  and  IroiiMe  rcipiihllc  to  form  u  jii,„| 
nnr«cim.  we  are  aide  In  form  Home  Idea  of  the  n\r]\\  'n 
which  ntored-up  cajiilal  in  ii  necennaiy  prercr|ui»ili'  lo 
men  liiitln^  hccii  aide  (in  the  lirHt  in^lanccH  at  Irani)  lo 
kIvc  iind  receive  thin  alleviation. 

•Anollicr  example  of  the  hcnelit  of  the  co-o|iernliii|i  c( 

ini'rc.iN'd  national  wenhli  with   increased  kniiwJi'iJLr,  „ 

i  the  dimininlied  rink  of  hie  in  cam'n  of  child-liirtli.  Ii  ^i^y 

I  appear  thut  we  are   waiidcriiitf  from  the  roiiKliliTiun,!, 

i  iif  wealth,  nei'iiii;  that  the  exiiiiiplcn  we  are  nlioiit  In  ti:lk 

I  join  arc  seleclcd  Irom  llie  retiirnn  of  lyinn-ln  liniiiiildlt^ 

till'   only    trn>lworlhy    nIalinticH  on   thin  point.    ]hii  :| 

I  inii<tl   he   ke|>l  III   iiiind,  that   a  nation   must  he  wimIiI,; 

I  liefore    it    ran   mipport    niich    inntltiitliinn;    tli'il  tlu>  ini. 

priveiilelll  no  marki'il    ill  the  rune    ot    the  piuir.  imi«I  If 

11  !' r  n,i  I  urcaler  in  Ihonc  who  can  alii. id  coiiliiiiH,! 
walcliinn  and  the  hent  nsnlHlince ;  and  llni  llic  iiffliuni 
cl.issen  iiiiint  have  enjoyed  the  Innelil  iHl'ore  it  ciiulijl^ 
extended  to  the  poor.  /I'lie  priK-cnn  hy  whicl.  a  nli.i.f  i;i 
tlii-i  and  other  pruileRcn  of  the  lich  hiin  U'cn  extiii'lnl 
to  the  )Mnir,  in  a  i|uentiiin  for  al>er  iiivcsllL'iilioii.  \\'\\\ 
tills  cvplaiiation.  wr  nnliiiill  the  following  i{iiolalli<n  t'riiia 
M.  IJueti  let's  Trialine  on  Man,  lo  nliow  ihe  nmrliijii, 
of  women  in  child-lilrth.  and  their  cliildren: — 

j  ••  Accordim;  to  VVillan.  Ihe  inoilaiiiy  in  the  ijrfjl 
lyiiiu-in  lionpilal  in  I.oiidoii,  into  which  ahuut  AUIIU  w<>- 
men  were  Hniuiiillv  udinitU'd,  wiim, 


From  trio  lo  IT.'i". 

"      IT.'iC  ■•   ITii-", 

"      ITii:'  ■•    I"-, 

"     i;t!i  "  17-', 

"       17-«  •'    17U-, 


Ofmnilifra.  Of  rliilit-eu, 

I     III    'I'.'  I    Ml    ij 

I     "    M  1    ■•   'Jii 

1   "  .«  1  ■•  i, 

1  ■•  mi  1  •■  4) 

1  '•  v-M  1  "  :; 


•  ■'  WherPTcr  Ihe  nli«(iliile  morlHliiy  i«  low.  tin-  niiinbpr  nf 
4'aiha  iti  il.*-  ep  il'-mic  r\n*%  m  l««»  thtoi  Uir  iiuititier  in  ilie  piil- 
aHjiiar>  cla"i'.  uu'l.  oii  ilif  cn'r.irj .  wlnri-vtr  'lo*  iieiiUm  ri 
Ihe  firni  clu"*  i-xi-ttcil  <»r  equai  lliii»r.  ii  iiiitv  l„*  uii.riitrii  liiui  lltir 
atwluif  cm.'a'i.  »  .  •{ii"—Ayiitiulu  In  Fint  Riinrt  of  Htgta- 
l«i'  Gtnual,  'III  rdoujii.  y.  Ill 


Arcorihnu  to  ('an|i«'r.  Ihe  mortality  of  confined  wmiih) 
at  111  rlin  has  lioen — from  IT.'SH  to  17li;t,  I  in  (15,  Imjd 
i;(M  to  1771.  1  ill  H-,';  <'roiii  ITHfi  lo  17!)«,  1  in  141: 
am!  from  IHlfl  to  1H22.  1  in  Ifi'J." 

The  nniiic  author  supplies  iis  with  nn  estimate  of  tiie 
aaiiilary  inlluence  of  vaccination  : — "  In  moat  iiiliwi 
couiilrien.  there  are  emictmcnls  on  vacciiiation.  of  gnatw 
or  less  aeverity.  which  are  enforced  with  proporti  Jiult 
riijonr.  .■Vccordlni;  to  ( "aniH-r  and  acveral  other  sinmii 
who  hiive  written  mi  Ihe  rava«ea  cauned  hy  the  imnll. 
jKix.  it  Would  appear  llnrt  formerly  |»eneriilionH  ncri' ii«- 
ciiiiati'd  hy  this  ncouru'e,  thut  in  lo  nay,  oiii-tciil!i  ul' ih* 
human  race  died   from  iU     iJuvilhird   has  foiiiiil-  1^ 


POHULVR   STATISTICS. 


m 


rSil  in  tho  natural  «tiiU\  of  tOO  intliviilii^U  of  30  ynar« 
g  «-iiri'i'ly  foor  in'iiviitimlii  h;ivo  i'icn|iril  hii  nltutk 
rf  jiuiilli""  !  '■''''  '''•''  'wi»-lhitiU  cif  nil  iiirniitii  iirti 
•iufkeil  ''y  ''  "'"""''  '"  '"''■'' ■>  •'•'•  ''"»'  imiiill-|i'>K,  ill 
ileMtly  J''!"'*  "'^'''  '''f''''  "l«"»lf'>.V'<i  iMI  nil  ftvcnmc,  om< 
1  of  fvt'ry  lliri'r  wim  urn  nircctt'il  with  it;  Itli,  Aiiil 
U^,  oillof ''^'Ty  «'vi'li  or  rinlil  iilVril4'il,  ul  wlmlt'ViT 
it  miiy  li*'-  ^i"''  "''>"  ''"'  "'"''■  "'  lliiliU"  ln'Cirn  till- 
liMU**'y  "'  vncriii.itiDii  ;  it  ll:lit  xilli'd  Iiimii  iimrli  iiilir- 
1  1,1,,],  Miiwi'viT.  ill  1HI7,  745  |K'rH.ini  ilird  in  I'liri* 
J  ,i„„||.|mh  ;  III  I'tIS,  Old ;  iiiiil  in  IH.'y,  tlm  miiiilirr 
fii,  lu  iii'iiiv  ""  '"'*'•  •^''">.  "'  '^''  IVliTMlmru.  ill  IH'il, 
loH  ilralli'  !'>"'<  I'I'ii'"  'Voiii  it',  iiiiil  at  Vii'iiiiii, 'JDS  in 
\Hii-  wliil«i  ill  l<  iii'l'ii,  ill  lliiil  yi'iir,  tlicro  wcrr  71!i. 
Fru»i»  huH  liri'ii  iiiiicli  liilliT  ilt'iilt  willi  tliim  oilur 
counlrii'n;  iliirliu;  llu'  two  ytMiM  IN'JO  iiinl  IH'il,  t;iki'ii 
iHii'lhir,  01  V  I  111  7'J04  |ii'rMi)iiH  diivl;  wtiilHt  Finiico 
|(«t  I  ill '••''  ''"'  '■''*'  '**"  >■''"'''•  I'll''  lollowiiiK  iirn 
llic  lUtu  ol  Hi'i'liii  •'"f  aliiloHt  linlf  IX  ciMiliiry  : — From 
17^3lrtlT'Jl  iiuliHivo,  HftlJdoatliH;  from  17113  to  IHill, 
«99l)a.iilh*;  from  1S02  to  1811,  aUSS;  from  IHl'Jto 
IS'Ji,  5S5.  'I'lic  iiuiiilH'r  of  (liiitlis  for  llu-  junt  |M'riiKl, 
whii'li  i'  fxlrc'iii'lv  Hiiiiill  ill  I'oinpariHoii  witli  tlio  prc- 
ffJim  yi'ilf-  "oilM  t«'  Hiill  IrsH,  if  till!  ilcMtll.l  for  IMI I 
and  11^18  "'"'  "iil'tnii'tcil,  iliiriin  wliicli  limi'  v.irciii.i- 
Uon  wiw  luitliilnl.  Imk't'il,  tlic'KO  two  yi'arn  li.iil  til 
Jtatliii  from  it;  so  llml  (liiriiin  ilio  n'liiiiliiiii-^j  tlirn-  wii« 
Milv  111.  Bill  ^v<'  ^li'Oild  fall  int.)  II  wrioiM  I'rror,  us 
M.  Villiriiio  li.H  Nii  1.  if  we  coimlril  !h  ff.iiii  to  llic  popii- 
|,ilii)ii  all  lliosc  iiiiljviiluiili  will)  liuii  lii'i'ii  viicciimli'il,  mid 
liotcarrii'J  oll'liy  the  »miill-iM  \.  '  An  riilduiiiif,  or  iiiiy 
otlior  iiialudy  i^iiiiist  wliii'ii  wn  nidriivour  to  wiiiro 
i)U'*elvi'«,'  "'iNrt  M.  VilliTMu'',  '  indi'od  mipjiri-HKis  onn 
oiu»e  of  dentil !  Iiiil  from  that  rircuiiiilaiii'i!  thf  prolia- 
bilily  of  dyiiu  ffiiiii  '•omi'  olliiT  (lisiaso  licroini'!(  greater. 
Inolhtr  words,  liy  rlo>iiii{  oiio  of  tlio  (f  iti's  of  dratli,  wv 
mien  till'  ollirrn  widiT,  ho  that  mioii>  |i<'ihoiih  pasK  tliroii;;li 
tlii'se  lalliT ;  uhicli  is  not  wiviiit(  that  iiiortulily  hIiohM 
befquallv  rapid.  (-'oiiHc'i|Uuntly,  vacriiiation,  and  every 
pri'scrvativo  against  epideiiiic  diiu.<ai*e,  or  uiiy  diseaitc 
wluU'Vor,  i\mh  not  iiicreaxe  the  population  of  old  Kiir(i|M> 
dsncli/,  liut,  what  is  still  heller,  it  alleviates  the  lot  of 
llio*;  whom  it  sn.ilihe.H  from  the  rliaiiee  of  the  sniall- 
inn,  it  dimiiii<his  the  nuinher  of  the  hiiiid,  it  preserves 
ilk'  native  heuiity  of  the  pcrboii,  uiul  incrcuoes  the  ave- 
nM(i!  duration  ol'  life.'  " 

riiiii  will  scariely  1h'  ealled  an  cxauuM'rnleil  estiiiiale 
if  tin;  advajila,,'es  H'sulliin;  from  the  iliscover",  of  vae- 
riiiitiuu.  Ill  the  three  examples  whieh  have  heeii  ad- 
dut'i'd,  tlie  reailer  may  see  how  far  knowledi^e  and  allhi- 
cmv  coiiiliiiled,  ha\e  served  as  |)re-iei\ati\e»  airiiiist 
taiV'Iblc  dangers,  liiit  in  ho  far  ais  the  alllnent  elassi's 
aro  cuiiiTriied.  tiii-.  is  hnl  a  small  portion  of  the  heiielits 
llii'V  have  eonfeiied.  'I'he  habits  generated  ill  these 
Ammh  liy  the  adv.nieeiin'iit  of  knowledge,  at  a  lime  of 
imreascil  dilfii.^ion  of  knowleilite,  have  heen  favonralde 
lo  a  );oiieral  hialtliv  lOiulilioii  of  tlie  individual  Nvstein, 
alike  culcul  ited  to  ward  olf  the  attaeks  of  disease  and 
to  Imllle  them  when  they  are  ineurred.  Any  imthuii 
wliosc  iiieiiioiv  iMii  earry  iiim  liaek  for  forty  years,  and 
who  has  had  opporuuiiiies  of  olis<Tvini;,  may  rememher 
till  delii'ieiit  \eiitii,itiuii,  the  miiall  rooms,  und  the  iiiiin- 
Wr  of  iiiiiiati's  m  eaeh  room,  which  eharaeteriy.ed  even 
llie  houses  of  the  hmded  ueiitry.  In  tovviiH,  the  evil 
wa«  still  ureati  r.  lint  it  would  re(|uirc  to  carry  the 
retrospect  i>till  tardier  liaek — to  the  time  when  liimsRcau 
in  France,  and  D.ivy  and  Hdi^eworth  in  HiiKland,  eom- 
Oicnccil  tlieir  cnis.idi's  against  uiihealtliy  ahsurilities  in 
ihcdiesai  and  iiiuiiiei  of  livim;  of  the  wealthier  ehtsses — 
lo  imaijine  the  whole  aiuouiil  of  iho  iiiiprovenienl  whieh 
has  lieeii  elleeteil  in  !lii»  respeet.  The  improved  tasto 
uf  the  wealthier  el.isM-s  has  eontrihut<\l  to  improve  their 
muiktit:  and,  in  return,  ihu  better  regulation  of  theit 
Vui,  J  —.18 


Rondiiet  Km  tended  to  improv*  thrir  genernl  hviilth. 
The  praetiee  of  deep  ilrinking,  whieh  universally  |>ra> 
vailed,  hnit  nlinoHt  ceannil  to  exlut  anionic  the  nlll'ienl 
ehisses,  liiierary  iiiid  jteii'iilitle  piiraiiitii,  if  they  do  not 
iilwayi  Kiiard  iii;aiii>it  low  dehaiiehery,  save  in  any  Irom 
it,  uiel  nialilK  «till  iiiorfl  to  rerover,  nl)er  yielding  for  a 
time  lo  temptation.  An  intereKliiiK  papiT,  piililinhej 
hy  M.  Henoisloii  dn  Ch  "iiineuf,  entitled  "On  IIm 
Duration  of  I.ilii  in  the  llii  h  and  in  the  P.mr,"  eonobo- 
ralis  these  views.  The  author  has  miid» ,  on  the  onn 
hand,  an  ubxtriiet  of  the  dealliH  of  10(1(1  |H'rsoiiit  of  tha 
liiKheitt  rank,  nmoni(  whom  are  1.57  ■overeiKim  uid 
prinees;  on  the  other  hand,  he  has  taken,  from  llifl  rivil 
re^iHterH  of  i'uris,  the  dentlis  of  'JtMKI  pcrMoiiK  in  the  *3lh 
arrondissnnent,  whieh  eiintains  a  population  of  workiiion 
of  all  kinds — ragmen,  «weepei«,  dt  Ivers,  diiv-lahourem, 
Ae.,  a  el.iHS  Huhjeeteil  to  pain,  anxiety,  and  hard  labour, 
who  live  in  want  and  die  in  hospitals.  Out  of  theKO 
niateiials  he  liiix  eoiistriieteil  a  table  NhowitiK  the  jter 
eentai;e  of  mortality  nmoii;{  the  two  elasses  at  dilVerent 
ni(es,  anil  IniM  added  a  eidiimn  iiidieutiiit;  the  per  euiitnKa 
nnioin;  the  middle  or  easy  elii-.si  s.  He  found  that,  be< 
tween  'OS  ainl  :!ll,  the  ileatlm  [mt  eent.  were — nmoiiK  the 
rieh,  II;  anioiiL(  the  eoinmon  ehiss,  I'll  ;  amoii'.;  the  poor, 
"■'ii:  IVoin  fill  to  ,').') — ainoiiK  the  rieh,  l-Sl  ;  umoiin  the 
rommon  elasH,  'i't)H\  ainoinf  the  poor,  'J  oH  ;  from  7ft  to 
Ml) — ainoni;  the  rich,  H.II'J ;  iimoiin  the  eommoii  ebm, 
lO'llS;  aiiioiii;  the  p^ir,  1  Ifti).  At  tliis  last  uue  the 
eoliimn  ^houinl■  the  deaths  amoii^  Ihe  |Hior  HtopH  for 
want  of  malirials — they  had  all  died  olV;  the  eolumii 
showini;  the  deaths  of  the  eommim  ehe^s  extemU  to  tha 
aije  of  90;  that  of  the  rieh  to  'J5.  The  same  fonelusion 
is  indiented  by  contraslintt  the  annual  mortality  shown 
by  the  annual  avernite  of  deaths  amoin;  Ihe  En^lidh 
middle  etasHes  who  have  insured  tlieir  lives  with  the 
I'ljuitable  Soeiety,  and  the  uiiniial  averai(e  anions  tho 
iieuro  slaves.  Amonut  the  former,  it  was  only  I  in 
HI-')  from  ISDO  to  IS!iO;  whereas  it  has  heen  ealeulatcd 
ihiit  one  neijro  slave  dies  annually  out  of .')  or  (i. 

Some  faelH  would  almost  seem  lo  show,  that  the  odll- 
ealioii  enjoyed  by  the  more  alllnent  el, is-.es — the  eulli- 
Mition  their  minds  received,  partly  from  direct  tuition, 
partly  from  their  social  eircumsliiiii'es — ^ave  tlie  mind 
an  inrreased  power  of  vitality.  All  ollicer  of  hiuh  rank 
in  llie  service  of  a  (Jeniian  slate  made  this  remark  lo 
till'  writer,  when  speakint?  of  the  disastrous  retreat  from 
Moscow,  in  which  he  li.id  taken  a  port.  The  oll'icors, 
he  said,  uniformly  stood  out  longer  than  the  j  vivntcs, 
allhoiiirh  the  previoiiH  habits  of  both  parlies  had  led  him 
to  expect  the  reverse,  l.ileraiy  men,  and  artists  who 
have  .iltained  to  any  lliiil^  like  a  competence,  are  also  a 
lonn-lived  ueiieratioii.  The  remark  has  often  been 
in  llie,  of  Ihe  greater  ficility  wllli  which  yonn^;  men, 
beloinjiiii;  to  the  class  vaifiiely  ealled  "  neiillemen,"  ({©- 
iierally  attain  to  s\iperior  adroitness  in  athletic  exereiscB. 
^^'hcIlcver  a  party  of  Ktonians  are  pitted  at  cricket  or 
rnnninu  against  a  party  of  lads  of  a  lower  class,  Ihe  dif- 
ference in  at  once  (M-reeptible.  Acaiii,  the  facility  with 
whieh  the  youii'.;  men  ednrated  at  Oxford  and  Cnm- 
brid;;e — unapt  lhoni;li  the  system  id"  education  pursued 
ill  these  two  c'tat  semiiiarieH  be  to  ]ire|iure  them  for 
the  real  business  of  life — work  their  way  into  the  routine 
of  lenal  or  diplomatic  business,  is  well  known.  There 
is  s  .methiiiK  in  the  strennlheniiii;  inllniiice  of  pood  ai.d 
delicate  feedini;,  clothing,  and  lodtfinj;,  emubined  with 
exercise  of  the  physical  and  menial  faculties,  sniricicnl 
to  slrcnulhen,  not  to  exhaust,  persevered  in  fiT  generu 
tions,  that  innobleH  the  race  of  the  human  animal,  ju<it 
as  careful  grooming  and  erossiiej;  Ihe  breed  judiciously 
ennobles  the  horse.  What  is  here  spoken  of,  is  not  th* 
power  of  such  a  iinx'css  lo  confei  '^cniiis,  or  true  nobility 
of  disposition ;  but  to  briiii?  out  in  ifrlVclinn  all  the  ave- 
rage comiaonpUce  ({ualities  of  the  human  living.  In  aof 
2li 


'*«^  *.* 


458 


INFORMATION   tOA   THE   PEOPLE. 


lountiy,  a^uperiority  nf  this  kind  in  disccrniblR  in  tho 
dominant  raste :  and  as  nioro  human  animnls,  thoro  is 
no  country  in  tlu"  world  that  can  nnxlucc  a  rare  t-ijual 
to  the  voung  gentry  of  England. 

Liiiiiw  to  tlie  EiToclsof  Wenltli. 

The  Uinits  to  fliis  favourable  condition  of  tho  afllucnt 
dasBCS  in  Kni;land,  arc  to  he  soURht  partly  in  delicient 
knowledifc  and  defnietit  habits  of  sclf-oontn)! ;  partly 
in  a  rediindamy  of  iiunibers  compared  with  proi)eity, 
which  nlVects  Ibeni  in  eoininon  with  all  other  classes, 
thouoih  not  exactly  to  tbe  same  exte-it.  The  delieiriicy 
of  knowledi^e  may  be  detected  in  several  noxious  prac- 
tices still  persevere. 1  in.  such  as  ticht-laciiis  on  the  part 
of  the  fair  sex.  The  want  of  proper  habits  of  self-con- 
trol is  a  nio:v  deeply  rooted  evil,  ina'<mii.h  .xs  it  has  its 
root  in  a  physical  fact  too  much  overlooked  by  reason- 
•»  upon  morals.  When  named,  it  will  l)0  found  U)  be 
■  very  commoni'I'ce  fact:  it  is.  that  every  successive 
generation  beijins  the  w^rld  with  as  little  experience  as 
that  which  precedcil  it.  Kvery  one  of  us  starts  tViiiii  as 
iwre  a  »t:ite  of  ignorant  barbarism  as  the  child  of  the 
luvagc.  We  are  forewarned  of  much  by  tho  instruction 
of  those  wb'i  li  ive  been  taught  by  their  (iwii  experience, 
or  tlie  experieii.e  of  tlmse  who  wiiit  before  them;  but 
tiere  is  much  of  vhi.h  it  si'cins  inipo.'isible  to  forewarn 
us.  The  passions  are  l"ully  deve*i));'d  before  the  rellect- 
V.\'X  poW4Ts ;  and  every  in.iividual  seems  de-;tiiied  to  cx- 
pfricncc  a  period  of  liis  existence  in  which  imacination 
«)id  i)assioii  are  strongly  and  thrillinnly  aw,ikeo<'d, 
vchile  the  truiliii;^  power  of  reason  is  yet  dormant.  This 
•'.s  the  most  ilanu'iTon-i,  as  it  is  (H^rhaps  the  most  pleasant, 
period  of  life;  and  it  is  one  \vhi<li  is  most  daojerous 
with  rcijurd  to  iliat  very  class  which  is  .so  highly  favoured 
In  other  respects.  Penury,  or  the  necessity  of  daily 
hi!>our,  m  ly  re-train  the  less  alHuent  classes  at  this  pe- 
riod of  lite;  but  the  younuer  branches  of  the  allluent 
chuss  have  no  such  su!>stitule  for  the  control  of  rea.sou ; 
and  in  iiropnrtion  a-  iheir  (general  heallhiiiess  is  liiijhi'r, 

00  tlieir  |j.i-<ions  are  (levelo|ieiI,  it  may  be,  with  i;reatcr 
intensity.  It  is  at  tliis  period  that  many  of  the  more 
favourtd  eliss  mike  shipwreck  of  their  hi'alth.  incurring 
disea.sc8  wliii-h  clinj;  to  them  through  life,  if  they  do 
not  briiia  it  to  a  premature  close. 

The  influence  of  economical  circumstances  upon  the 
affluent  cl.isses,  in  rei;ard  to  their  moral  and  physical 
welfare,  is  ipiit<"  as  striking  as  their  iiilluence  on  the 
less  fortunate  i-lasses,  llionuh  somewhat  dillerent  in 
kind.  The  anxiety  occasioiieil  to  the  upper  eliLs.sos  by 
the  prospe.t  or  a.tiial  pressure  of  jiecuniary  cinbarraKS- 
ment,  is  of  a  mu-li  more  harassing  and  exhaustin;,'  kind 
than  what  is  sutVered  by  the  poor.  Pride,  and  all  the 
Other  sei-ondary  feelings,  with  r.iiining  imaginalioii,  add  to 
tlieir  torm'nts;  and  thi'ir  occnp.ilions  generally  <lemand- 
ing  a  stiady  exercise  of  the  faculties  of  combination 
and  investigitioii,  and  keeping  their  minds  continually 
on  the  strc  tch  ev,n  in  the  tunc  of  pros|)erity — this  addi- 
tion renders  their  burden  more  than  they  can  bear,  and 
the  whole  mati  breaks  down  t>eneath  the  weight.  Ex- 
ecwive  inent.iPexertion,  even  undi'r  the  most  (iivourabic 
circumstances,  is  known  to  be  prixluctivc  of  fatal  elfccLs. 
Evf  hild  en  of  alHuent  and  firtuiiate  parents  have 
beat,  sa.rili  ed  to  the  vanity  which  was  gratilieil  by 
their  displ  i\  s  of  precocious  talent.  The  cui>iility  which 
gT.v.vs  u|ion  men  struggling  to  maintain  their  jilaci'  in 
iociity.  imreases  this  evil  by  f ircing  on  the  ai'ijuire- 
menl*  of  ehildn'ii.  in  tile  lio|)e  of  seeing  (hem  abb-,  at  a 
comparatively  early  age,  to  proviile  for  themselves. 
i'  .^iier  of  111  rhn  pulilished,  in  Mii  I.  a  tabul.ir  statement 

01  his  observ.itions  on  the  sanatory  temleney  of  various 
CKeupiiioo.-,  wini  h  HCfei  to  throw  itoiuu  light  on  thiB 
iLtnualAt  .{ueiitioii :—  • 


Of  ino  ihcnlO);ian>.  ilicre  have  attained  the  ug  ,f  «> 

and  iipwiirtls. ,, 

April' ul 01  ri sis  anil  Ibrcslers. !!."*""" 

Sijp.T.niiiiilc'nis. W"  W 

roiiiiiierciiil  ami  inilii.'^irious  rnun, ][ 33 

Miliary  inin. " ^ 

SulialiiTiis. ]' S 

Ailvopiues. -^ 

Arii.su. ','.'.'.'." '^. 

'IVaehrri*.  prerespors, ..!!"''^ 

IMiVdicians. ^ 

Si 

That  physicians  should  stand  lowest  in  this  scale  of  \ 
talily,  is  not,  considering  their  exposure  to  CDiitagion 
be  wondereil   at;  and   the   high   grade  of  tlie,iloKia„s' j, 
eipially  intelligible,  from  their  certain  llmunh  inodcrai 
income,  and  the  ei|uaiuinity   favoured  by  their  pursuji. 
It  is,  however,  startling  at  lirst  view  to  lind  tho  avcfw 
duration  of  life  among  commercial  men  so  linle  cltvur.j 
above  that  of  military  men,  in   a  table  coiistnictod  in 
country  where  war  had  raged  at  nii  irniote  pericKl.    '[X 
I  last  fact  seems  to  establish  tliiit  the  au'itatioii  of  ]iii„j  .^^ 
duced    by    mercantile    uncerlaiiiti(s    and    dithcultifg  i, 
scarcely  a  less  destructive  agent  thiin  the  sword. 

There  is  jierhaps  a  point  in  'he  development  of  nj. 
tional  wealth  and  civilization,  at  which  inortalitv  sl.ow. 
a  tendency  to  iiicreas<<,  fSncli  an  idea  is  natiirailv  ana. 
kcned  when  w  leaiii  that  the  mortality  of  Ensland  i. 
now  greater  th.m  it  was  some  years  ai;o.  The  pmwf. 
tion  of  deaths  to  |ii'r.sons  in  the  deci.de  1N'21-;)1,  wjs  l 
to-li);  that  of  the  decade  IKHI— 1 1,  has,  as  alreaJv  si.HfJ 
been  found  from  the  jiopulatioii   returns  to  be  1  1044.5 

Enur.iTioN. 

The  statistics  of  education  have  an  obvious  value  in 
their  conneetion  with  many  ijuestions  regarding  itj 
ei\  ilizalioii  of  countries. 

It  is;  clear,  however,  that  the  stale  and  amount  of  edu. 
cation  in  a  country  is  a  hiahly  complex  ipicslion;  inr 
first,  there  may  be  much  education  of  a  poor  und  ina,!(. 
ipiate  kind;  and,  second,  there  may  Is'  conditions  fan.";, 
able  to  education  in  some  countries,  and  iht  in  otlicii_ 
as,  for  instance,  the  natural  character  of  t!ic  (KO|)ip.  ly 
teii<lcncy  of  the  political  and  social  iiistitiilioiis,  and  ijk 
direction  which  the  energy  of  the  people  chiclly  takw.ss 
towards  war.  comnierce,  or  art.  'l"be  mnnUT.s  at  school 
are  also  liable  to  be  alVccted  by  the  ratio  of  tlie  iiiLriije 
of  population;  for,  where  there  is  a  r;i|iid  liifrcase  f 
|M'ople,  tlieio  is  uhvays  a  greater  than  usuil  [loportioii 
of  the  \oung. 

Prussia,  where  the  most  ]H'rfect  of  nil  national  s\* 
tems  of  education  exists,  as  (iir  as  ori;aiii/ation  is  cos- 
ceriied,  contained,  acconliiig  to  a  census  ta'  en  sow 
years  iiiio,  l'J,7-(),S'j;)  iiih.ibitniits,  of  whom  4,767.(';5 
were  under  filb'cn  years  of  aue.  It  is  recKoiuJ  that,i)al 
of  lOtl  childreeii  fr  Jii  one  to  fourteen  years  of  ai»e  co& 
pb'te,  there  are  i'.i  of  full  s«ven  und  upwards — tlicli.i 
ai;e  tor  attendance  at  school  in  I'russia.  This  wniiij 
i;ive  ■.;,l)l:l,l);U)  children  in  Prussia  liable  by  law  to  allfi.' 
school.  It  was  found,  in  point  of  fact,  that  2,(>'J1,121  ii 
attend,  being  only  a  shortcoming  of  » 1  ,(i(li<,  a  siiiull  (■]m^ 
allowance  for  contingencies.  Thus,  if  wc  were  to  ui( 
Prussia  as  a  criterion  for  old  states,  where  the  populj'jic 
j  does  not  advance  rapidly  and  consider  the  years  Ikiwm: 
I  7  and  15  as  those  proper  for  school  atli  ndame,  wc  shoaii 
I  conclude  that  about  one-,*!.! .7i  of  the  whole  populitioii 0! 
such  a  country  should  1h'  at  s<'hool. 
j  .Mo.<t  of  the  (lerman  states  inaki!  an  approach  to  ibi 
organi/.atic  1.  of  the  Prussian  system  ;  and  we  fiiid  thatn 
.■\n.stria  there  was,  a  few  years  ago,  one  .school  ioi  cvea 
S".*)  tamiiies.  Hut  the  olijeet  of  the  governilicntii  in  si;* 
porting  eilucation  in  Pru.s.-ia  and  (iermany  g.iii'rallv. a 
said  to  1)0  of  a  narrow  kind — a  species  of  drill,  for  lii 
purpose  of  confeniiig  the  Hccomplishiuenls  ^''  n-iJaj, 
wrilini;,  and  arithnietic,  and  to  train  the  young  to  tiUh 
i«-rvieni'7  to  the  governmiiit  itsilf. 
i      EUuculioii  wu»  in  a  low  htalu  iu  France  till  tlu  nm 


POPULAR  STATISTICS. 


419 


tiaincd  the  tgg  if  ^ 
41 

"•.::::::::;:-'""-:::::| 

38    ' 

a 

3 

Si 

it 

W 

lowest  ill  this  scale  of  >> 
exposure  to  oimtiigion,  i, 

h  crude  of  tlieciloKJans  \, 
cerluiii   llioui;li  modr,,,, 

ivoiire<l  In-  tlu'ir  pursuji,, 

.t  view  to  fii,,!  the  avcrajo 

rcial  men  so  liii|e  citvaioj 
a  tulile  roiistructod  in  j 

lit  no  rnnole  |irri(Kl,  '['he 
llie  uuMliiiioii  (if  mind  ■«, 

liiilic  s    uiul    (lirticulticg  i, 

il  thiiii  llie  sworil. 

ill  tlie  ilcveloiunent  of  nj. 
lit  wliiell  liiiirliility  sliowi 
uil  idcii  is  iiatiiraily  anj. 

e  iiiorlulily  of  KiiBJanJ  m 

•  yciivB  aeo.     Tile  prcj,,,. 

he  (leciale  1H'21-;H,  w,is  1 
—il.  lias,  as  already siaioj, 

on  returns  to  be  1  to  44.5, 

ION. 

have  an  ohvious  value  in 
tliu'stions    reyiirJing  H; 

i'  state  ttiul  aiiHiunt  of  ed* 
Illy  romplex  i|Uesti3n;  iu, 
alioii  of  a  [Ki.ir  mid  inai!«. 
'  may  Ih"  emiilitions  fawnji. 

itries,  anil  ii..t  in  otheis- 
liaraeter  of  l!ie  lKO|ilf, il^ 
doeial  iiiNlitdlioiis,  and  tin 

the  peiiple  eliirlly  lujiej.ij 
t.  Tlie  ihiiiiIhts  at  whcMl 
ly  the  ratio  id  the  iinrtw 
iTe   is  a   rapid  iiirri'aw  .{ 

atcr  than  usuil  [lopomoa 

rfeit  of  all  iialinnal  s\» 
,ir  us  (iruaiii/ation  is  con- 
to   u   census    tu!  cii  sonif 
tiints,  of  whom  4,767,ri! 
It  is  reckoned  thai,  oal 
fourteen  years  of  aijc  cois- 
n  and  upwards — llieli;i 
in   Prussia.     This  wnli 
issia  lialde  liy  law  tn  attci,; 
:  of  fact,  that  5,0'J1,421  ij 
C  of  'i  1  ,()(•'.<,  a  small  ciiot.'i 
riius,  if  we  wore  to  lui 
tales,  where  the  [lOpuLi'Jii; 
(■•insider  the  ycais  !iti«i»t 
'lioid  attendance,  wc  shout) 
of  the  whole  populltiou  0! 
hool. 

make  an  approach  to  ibi 
yslpiii ;  and  we  I'llid  Ihatil 
s  a:;),  one  school  lor  ciw 
of  the  noverniliClltM  in  iv^ 
and  (Jerinany  generally. ii 
— a  species  of  drill,  for  iIk 
■eoniplishmenls  c''  n-iJaij, 
:o  train  the  jiiuiiu  tojiulk 
l«.|f. 
ite  III  France  till  tlii  tm 


of  the  Bourbon  family,  iince  which  time  it 
hi  beco"""  «  government  object,  and  made,  a  rapid  ad- 

ice.  'r*>e  elementary  schools  instructed  737,369  pu- 
"1  in  I'^lfi;  in  1838,  this  numtier  was  raised  to 
1500  000;  being  one-hventiflh  of  the  population.  It  is 
calculated  that  one-third  of  the  people  of  France  are 
unable  to  read  or  write. 

In  England  and  Wales,  in  1818,  there  was  4167  en- 
dowed schools,  14,282  unendowed  schools,  and  5162 
Sunday-"'''"'"'"'  educating  in  all  644,000  children,  or 
miMu'cc  ;/i  of  the  po|)ulatior..  Of  11,000  parishes,  3500, 
or  nearly  u  third,  had  no  school  whatever.  Since  then, 
the  nninlicr  of  both  schools  and  scholars  '  ,is  liceii  greatly 
increased.  In  1833,  the  following  rcti'  >is  were  made  to 
parliament : — 

A'i.-iidiiii'  icnnl  Bcliools, ffl.OO,') 

..         ,mil>- 6C.100I8, I.'JTO.IMT 

Toinl. I,;jH3,'J5a 

Altemliiil-'  Sinidav-schools  (supposed  to 
be  ua  exngscrnud  slateinenl), 1,549,800 

ProbaMy  from  a  tenth  to  an  eighth  of  the  people  of 
Ensli»nd  and  Wales  are  now  receiving  srhool  instruction. 

The  registration  of  marriages,  by  which  the  parties  nre 
required  to  sign  their  names  on  being  united,  has  sup- 
plied within  the  last  few  years  a  means  of  tesfinc;  the 
proportion  of  those  ignorant  of  writiiig  throughout  Eng- 
land and  Wales.  Of  the  121,0S3  couples  married  during 
the  year  ending  .luno  30,  iS30,  there  were  40,587  men, 
md  58,'.'5'J  women,  who,  being  unable  to  write  their 
names,  were  obliged  to  sign  by  marks.  The  proportion 
of  men  unalile  to  write  was  thus  33,  of  women  19  per 
Diit.;  medium,  41.  The  numlier  unable  to  write  was 
If  ist  in  the  metropolis,  and,  next  to  it.  in  the  northern 
cniinticsi  and  grea;est  in  Lancashire,  Bedtimlsliire,  Mon- 
ranuthsiiire,  and  Wales.  The  trustworthine.ss  of  this  lest 
wa^  conllrmed  by  the  reuistration  of  the  ensuing  year, 
when.  amiMigst  the  134,33!)  married  couples,  4 1,N  1 2  men, 
ami  62,.''>'-l'  women,  were  found  to  sign  with  marks;  and 
ll'.c  propoilion  in  the  various  ■lislricts  was  nlso  nearly  the 
8,ime.  1'.  is  to  be  remarked,  hat  a  large  iiortioii  of  the 
mirricd  couples  r.'corded  in  these  years  must  have  con- 
listed  of  pi'isons  who  passed  tl  I'ir  educalioiiid  years  in 
liims  when  the  means  of  instruction  in  reading  and 
writing  were  much  less  extended  than  they  now  arc. 
Ten  years  hence,  the  [iroportion  of  both  men  and  women 
iltf  sting  the  marriage-r(>gister  with  "  maiks"  will  proba- 
blv  he  nuicli  diniinished. 

Scotland,  unlike  Kngland.  pns,se.sses  a  national  syslcin 
of  education,  there  being  a  legally  cndo,  ed  school  in 
every  puisli,  under  the  earc  of  the  clergy.  Returns  to 
parliaiicnl  in  1831  gave  the  following  view  of  education 
in  Scotland : — 

Schools.        Pupils. 

rarocliml. 1017  (lb,--".i:t 

Priviiio, :«««  l.'i-l.liiO 

Teiai, avia        a-i?  4,);i 

The  whole  emoluments  of  the  teactiers  of  the  parochial 
ichiiols  was  (.,'i.'),339,  being  at  an  average  an  income  of 
il5.  Us,  iMd.  to  each.  The  aggregate  .sum  was  com- 
posed of— endowments,  £2!),ti42;  fees,  X'20,117;  other 
em  ihiments,  C4!t79.  Taking  6H  393  as  the  number  of 
pupil.?  in  the  parochial  schools  (it  was,  however,  the 
r  [Iff  attciidanc«),  each  costs  ihe  public  15s.  7j(I.  |H'r 
tnnum.  In  the  si-me  year,  the  Sabbath  School  L'liion 
fcr  SiMila-id  taught  1)3,33(1  children. 

'!''''• 'iiiporlion  of  eliildreii  laii!;hl  on;  o/"  the  parochial 
rrstfin  was  uiicxpccledly  great.     It  Wtt«  greatest  in  cer- 
.tain  counties,  as  tidlows  : 


I'ar.n; 

iial  kcliiiuls. 

I'rivaie  Schools 

I-.M  u';iri;h.i!iire.- 

■  Vi 

4i>0 

AI-r.l.'.M-ihre,  ■ 

11:1 

a47 

I,(^llurk^ll  ri!.-  ■  ■  ■ 

Ti 

■mi 

fifth  of  the  teachers  and  one-fourth  of  the  schclars  were 
under  the  parochial  system.  It  is  also  to  be  remarked, 
that  some  of  the  schools  returned  ns  parochial,  were 
merely  under  the  care  and  patronage  of  [larochial  clergy, 
men,  by  whom  they  had  lieen  established.  The  returns 
were  considered  as  not  quite  conipleie,  and  the  number 
attending  school  in  Scotland  in  1834  was  coinpultd  aa 
being  more  probably  .'323,154,  the  proportions  in  the  two 
different  classes  of  schocds  being  nearly  the  .same. 

Notwithstanding  the  political  ugitatioiis  and  poverty 
which  have  long  depressed  Ireland  in  many  respects 
below  the  level  of  the  sister  kingdoms,  il  has  certainly  for 
many  years  liccn  above  at  Iims!  England  with  respect  to 
the  elementary  instruction  of  its  poojilc.  The  ability  to 
read  and  write  is  ohservahly  much  more  diffused  in  Ire- 
land than  in  England ;  and  it  is  often  reniurked  with 
surjirise,  of  Irish  peasants  of  the  hmublest  uiipcarance, 
that  they  possess  an  acquaintance  with  the  classics  and 
the  elements  of  Geometry.*  Till  1H31,  education  in 
Ireland  was  chiefly  left  to  private  enterprise  and  the 
efforts  of  a  few  religious  societies :  the  government  in 
that  year  cstalili.shed  a  Hoard  for  Naiioiial  Education, 
which  has  since  been  a  channel  for  the  apidication  of  a 
considerable  amouut  of  public  money  to  this  purpose. 
Various  enumeiaUoris  give  the  children  attending  public 
schools  in  Ireland  for  different  periods,  as  tbilnwa  :— 


Protesianis.    Catholics. 
In  IfflS, 43.auu  llii,l<"/( 


Total. 
5GU,549t 


■  ■  1-.J1-0, 142,109  4()V-'- 

In  1835,  a  return  to  the  Commissioners  of  the  Educatiou 
Board  gave  a  eoinpiifed  total  of  children  attending  school 
in  Ireland  at  (i33,940,  the  [lopulation  being  at  the  same 
time  computed  at  7,954,100;  so  that  the  proportion  under 
school  instruction  appeared  to  he  about  1  lor  every  12'6 
iahabi'aiits.  Since  then,  the  national  system  has  made 
great  advances.  The  following  table,  drawn  up  from  the 
eight  reports  of  the  Commissioners,  shows  the  progrese 
down  to  December  31,  1841 : — 


Re|i(,,tB  to  ilie 

CoriiaiissMiiivTS  of 

Kdiici'i  on. 


N'linil.i^r  of  Seliools 

ill  acnuil  (/JH- 

raiion. 


IHHi 
IHl 
i:!(ii 
i;n 

lies 
•jaiT 


Number  of  Chil- 
dren on  the 
Roll. 


1(17,042 
M.^.TOl 
15:1.70? 
l(i'l.!l'J9 

inn.Ma 

lfi-J,»71 

'.i:«.5ii0 


Nuinlier  of  schools  in  ucuial  opcrniion  on  the  ;Usl 

Ilicciiilor,  I  41, •••  2,337 

Nutiil'iT  III*  sehool-lioii-t's  ill  pro[rreR3  01' ereclum 

on  ilu:  31sl  December,  l-sll. 388 

Total  nuniher  of  iiKtional  schools  on  ihe  )  n~io 

;)lsf  December.  Ml, \  '*''"' 

Nuiiihcr  of"  ehih''en  in  aueiulance   upon  the  a.3;*'' 

seh(M)ls  in  o]ii' ration. 2^1.  >I0 

F.ipecteil  alleiKlaiice  .ipoii  the  3^2  luiililing  scIkwIs  4'.',356 

Total  niimberof  children  111  actual  attend-  I        "120  205 
ancc,  and  expected  allciidunce. S        '     ' 


Ulsi 

.Mlllisler,-  •■ 

I.iMllsier,-  '  ■ 

1    CoiUIHIlgllt, 


BVMVARY    Of  TIllJ    FOUEOINO. 

Schools  in  operailon  j  Schools  lliiilding 

,  KMLO       ;il.7IKI  Ulster, 103  10.100 

4-2       7.>.77-j|.Miinsier, 113  l.'WliT 

h-.'.'.'i.-  I.'in^irr, -1  lo.7.)4 

•jn.iin.foi.-iiuitfhi, <)  \^r>:!0 


Mi 

•JOS 


a3.i7    a-i,>49 


y^2       49,330 


— ind  there  was  no  eoiinly,  e\(ept   I'eebles,  where  the 
ptrochtal  »,ii>olii  wete  lite  most  nunicious.     dily  oiie- 


•  or II 11  ediron  of  I'liclid  published  by  the  ed'inrstu  ihe  pit  sent 

I  work,  bv  :'ar  the  Inra-'st  portion  ot"  cofiirs  .s  sold   in  Ireland. 

I  Mr  ll.eiieiis,  tn  a  r<pori  on  the  !'o.ir-I. aw.  asks.  ■•  Where  in 

I  Kiiiilaiid  could  ihi'  ori'iiauce  survey  i  rs  fiml  eeisoiis  among  ihe 

j  humt  rlitss  to  cuieiilait^  the  suh-s  ami  arei.---  .e"  iheir  triiiitgles.  at 

II  htiirp'-iiiiy  u  Inaiigle,  as  they  do  01  Ireii.iid.  mid  plenty  of 

Iheia  '" 

tin  lii.s  sum  is  included  lU.Ol'U  whose  persuafor  iVbl  na^ 

I  ascertained. 


460 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


To  which  arc  to  be  adJrd  eiffht  vested  schools  not  in- 
duded  in  the  nlwvc,  making  the  total  number  of  schools 
Ml  the  31st  Drcemlxir,  1911,  2727. 

The  Irish  national  svsteni  m  first  met  with  great  oppo- 
■tinn,  in  conw-qiienro  of  rcliKioiia  party-spirit;  but  this 
obstadta  is  «niihially  giviwr  way.  The  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Ireland  lias  300  schools  in  connection  with 
llie  national  lioard,  and  tne  Irish  Society  is  stated  to  be 
about  to  lorni  n  similar  connection  with  respect  to  about 
60  schoc'  <  under  its  rharire.  About  20  P(X)r-I.aw  Schools 
have  recently  come  under  the  8u[>erintcndince  of  the 
board.  It  may  here  Imi  mentioned,  that  at  a  great  pro- 
portion of  the  elementary  schools  in  Ireland,  one  penny 
a  week  is  paid  by  each  pupil  for  education. 

Education  is  actively  conducted  in  America,  and  it  is 
calculated  that  about  a  sixth  of  the  population  are  at 
achool.  In  most  of  the  states  schools  are  supported  by  u 
tax  on  property,  and  the  su|)erint('udonce  is  intrusted  to 
committees  of  the  rate-payers.  In  those  of  New  IjIii?- 
land,  the  schools  are  as  one  to  ever*'  two  hundred  of  the 
inhabitants — a  proportion,  (icrhaps,  exceeded  in  no  part 
of  the  world. 

In  surveyinpt  the  statistics  of  education,  we  must  keep 
in  mind  a  few  considerations  by  which  the  character  and 
eflecls  of  eUicalion  are  liable  to  lie  much  afli'Cted.  Edu- 
cation is  not  cer'iin  to  produce  himmI  effects,  but  oidy 
those  which  its  directors  contemplate  and  seek  to  brinij 
about.  It  is  a  means  of  conferring  certain  accoinplish- 
menli)  upon  the  mind,  and  mollifying  it  to  certain  ends, 
inclination",  and  habits  of  tliinkini;  and  feeling.  Its  elfi- 
cacy,  even  where  well  directed,  is  liable  to  1«"  ereatly 
modified  bv  tlie  character  of  the  |ieople  amonast  whom 
i'.  is  operatinit;  f'r  instance,  a  Euro[M'an  [leople  of  good 
stock,  and  amonct  whom  all  refinini^  social  anencies 
have  long  been  at  work,  will  show  tx'tter  results  with  a 
certain  iii>|'aratiis  of  school  instrmtion,  than  a  people 
newly  emerijcd  from  barbarism.  Above  all.  our  expecta- 
tions of  mor.il  re^  ults  must  1h'  governed  by  the  decree  in 
which  the  iiior.il  ileparinunt  of  education  is  attended  to. 
Intellectual  I'dncalioii  Kives  only  aptitude  and  iiit'orma- 
tion;  it  rcipiires  a  training  of  the  moia!  U'lng  to  prcsluce 
good  conilui  t.  ^^'e  shall  say  more  on  this  subject  under 
tlie  head  ••  Crime." 

It  has  been  seen  that  Prussia  stands  at  the  head  of  all 
llie  countri'  s  adviTled  to,  with  r<s|H  it  to  the  protHirlion 
of  the  popniiti  in  atlending  school.     It  is  exccHed  in  this 
res|)ect  by  the  'nilrd  Stati's  of  .Xnierica,  where,  it  is  com- 
puted, there  is  a   sdiool   fir  every  200  souls.     England  | 
and  Scotland   have  pmbably  a  ninth  of  their  inhabitants 
at  school — 11  i-onsidiiably  smaller  proportion.    Hut  rcckmi- 
ings  of  S4hools  and  siliolars  are  only  a  means  of  asii'r-  ; 
taining  a  portion  of  nlucatiniiHi  influences.     It  cannot  lie  i 
doubli'd  that,  br.-idis   all    llie    lieiiefits,  such   as   they  are,  i 
of  school   learning,  the  youth  of  this  country  enjoy  an  ' 
immense    a.Kant.ige    in    the    influence   which    the    iVee  | 
institutions,  till'  hijiiianitv.  and   the  tone  of  mind  result-  ; 
ing   from    an   iild-<'slabli>hed  civilization,   must   exercis<> 
u\K>i\    them.     In    a    national    system  of  education,  the 
central  govemiiieni   should   [HKssess   but  a  slight,  if  any 
influence,  and   the  business  of  both  arranging  and  su|«- 
|K)rting  sli.iiild  lie  left  as  mui'h  as  |H)ssilile  in  the  hands 
of  the  people  tlii'insi'l\es.     We  lieg  to  submit  the  follow-  , 
Ulg  general  views  on  this  subject  : 

Any  thing  dmie  by  guNernment.  as  the  organ  of  society, 
to  promiiti  universal  education,  must  Im-  based  upon  the 
actual  slate  of  I'diiratiunal  etiiirts  in  the  cuiiiitry.  The 
people  mU't  everywheie  Jm'  einiiuraged,  iinited.  stiniu- 
laled,  to  lai.e  a  |«irtioii  of  the  t.ij.k  o!  tducatioii  iritn  tlieir 
own  hands.  With  cmiiniuoities,  us  with  individuals, 
education  raniiol  1«.'  n  one-sided  matter,  in  which  the  in- 
■(ructor  aroiisis  the  pupil;  there  .iiust  l>e  exertion  on  the 
jiart  of  the  latliT  also.  The  niisuke  of  soini.'  govrrn- 
Benlii.  e»p''i'lally  the  I'mssiaii,  has  lieen  to  hold  the  pei>- 
fie  as  antirely  pamiso^    ihey  have  UiHUU  rutlur  than, 


educated.  Almost  every  thing  that  has  tieen  hitn 
done  in  Great  Britain  to  promote  education  has  Wi  k 
resultof  private  enterprise:  even  the  majority  of  endo  «! 
schools  are  the  fruits  of  private  enthusiasm  in  the  e 
of  education.  A  paper  by  Mr.  Long,  in  the  seem* 
volume  of  the  Journal  of  the  Cer.tral  Society  of  EH 
tion,  estimates  the  annual  income  of  cnilowmentu  ■*" 
England,  for  purposes  of  education,  at  Xl,50o,()oo.  b"i 
shows  the  want  of  a  proper  power,  invcstei'l  in  so' 
individual  or  body,  for  the  purpose  of  assisting,  dirccti™ 
and  correcting  all  who  are  intrusted  with  the  mainir'' 
ment  of  such  charity  property.  Educational  ainntcut 
may  ]ye  deficient  in  skill,  but  funds  left  to  supiwrt  who  I 
reipiire  some  one  to  administer  them,  and  to  adant  tS* 
mode  of  dis|ien8ing  them  to  the  perpetually  altcrini;  cir 
cumstances  of  society,  A  table  of  the  mechanics'  m\. 
tutions  and  other  popular  associations  in  Enfjlaml  f ' 
promoting  and  dilfusing  science  and  litcratnrti,  hiis  won 
published  in  the  Statistical  .Journal.  It  is  defectivp  }  i 
it  shows  approxiinatively  wli.at  has  lieen  done  bv  |)rit«>l 
elVort  for  the  higher  education  of  the  people.  The  toUl 
numlier  of  societies  is  stated  to  lie  112;  of  91  of  \ha, 
the  annual  income  has  lieen  ascertained,  and  it  amouns 
to  X'.1fi,793,  lis.  This  is  a  slender  [irovision  for  t|ie 
intellectual  wants  of  the  adults  of  England,  ami  whatii 
more,  its  influence  is  limited,  in  a  great  meaiiiire,  to  tho* 
who,  strictly  speaking,  do  not  belong  to  the  workirj 
classes.  In  the  (il,i.sgow  Mechanics'  Institution.  \ 
majority  of  the  attendants  on  the  lectures  are  shopmpn 
iiiili\iilual3  employed  in  wurelionses,  and  cM-n  some 
students — the  middle  cla8.ses.  Of  the  operatives  V,o 
attend,  the  merhiiuiis  form  a  corisidcralile  pnipjrtio- 
The  Mechanics'  Institution  of  Liverpool,  one  of  t||, 
most  flouri.shing  institutions  of  the  empire,  is,  both  injti 
elementary  .schools  and  its  lectures  for  adults,  frcqiienla! 
and  supported  almost,  if  not  ipiile,  exclusively  hv  the 
niidille  classes.  The  facts  iiieiitioned  seem  to  jusiii. 
these  conclusions  : — That  imlioiiil  edii  •atioii  reqiiiin 
the  operation  of  governnient  only  as  public  Irustcp  md 
of  the  ]ioople  themselves,  trying  to  ]irocure  the  kind  ol 
education  their  wants  iirompt  tliem  to  seek;  that  thd 
duty  of  governnient  is  to  insist  that  education  shall  le 
universfd,  and  to  provide  such  superinteiulinre  jid 
means  of  general  control  as  are  necc-sary  for  enforci!i> 
this  precept;  that  the  duty  of  the  peojile,  in  tlieir  rcsiifcl 
ive  districts,  is  to  carry  into  elli^ct  the  geiiiTal  ilirocliori 
of  governnient.  'I'lie  business  of  government  is  to  ■<« 
that  the  necessary  funds  are  provided,  the  iie'-f»s,irv 
e^tablisliments  lor  training  teachers  and  pupils  lirpt  ij!, 
and  the  attendance  of  cliiMren  enforced.  The  liu.-iiif-i 
of  the  ix'0|ile  is  to  appoint  teaclicis,  and  to  lake  privaii. 
timis  for  their  discharging  tlieir  duties  coiiwienlion-Iv. 
'I'lie  details  of  liiilioii  are  Ih'sI  left  to  the  teachers,  oif 
being  taken  that  they  are  previnusly  ediicalod  for  itfn 
prolessiiiii.  Success  in  teaching  depends,  in  a  creil 
measure,  upon  the  entliusiasm  and  ability  of  the  loarlm; 
and  the  most  successful  method  is  that  which  is  l<sl 
adapted  to  the  ]sculiar  character  of  the  teacher,  ^m 
teach  more  ed'e  iently  by  one  nictluxl,  others  by  anolV;, 
The  piililii-  jud;;e  most  correctly  of  a  teacher's  ahililv  iy 
looking  at  results — at  the  kind  of  sidiolars  he  turiu  lU 
Some  such  organi/ation  of  the  whole  country  fo'  dues. 
tional  inirposes,  as  is  indicated  in  these  general  tfmi, 
Would,  by  giving  a  controlling  [jower  to  guvcnminit, 
ensure  e.pial  dilhisioii  of  education  ;  by  leaving  to  Iht 
IK-ople  the  appoinlMiiiit  of  leacl;ers,  and  by  le.mnir, li  j 
certain  extent  to  individuals  the  choice  ot  vvli:il  stiOLiJ 
!»'  taught,  would  keep  alive  the  interest  wliicli  incii  likt 
in  their  own  handiwork;  and  by  leaving  the  iiii'thoil< u: 
th(-  I'hi'ice  of  Will-trained  teachers,  would  give  scii|K'  ji 
progressive  iinproveiiirnis  InMiig  el'i'ded  in  the  artof  eu* 
cation  by  tlioi-e  who  were  practically  iicipui.nliil  vvilliit 
'I'he  iiiiportaiice  of  liMving  a  cerlaii'i  latitude  ol  cIihI.i'M 
uidividuaU  (parents,  or  the  more  advanced  young  luiDil 


POPULAR   STATISTICS. 


Ml' 


menV  i«  sppaf''"'  '""""  ^^-^  <'^P<'ricncP  uf  the  Glaspow  ! 
Mechanics'  Institution.     Tlic  most  uniformly  successful 

.     ^  liavc  been  tliose  of  mechanics  (or  natural  philoso- 
jliY)  and  chemiftry ;  and  a  larRO  proportion  of  the  ope-  I 

u\e»  who  attemlril  them  have  been   engineers,  and 

ihcrs  cnKni?e(l  in  processes  which  are  best  conducted  by 
who  understand   somethiiii?   of  their   principles,  j 
Human  lyings  arc  most  easily  seduced  to  undergo  the  ■ 
•nil  of  learning  (for  thouah  to  pick  up  fragmerts  of  in- 
formation lie  agreeable,  to  devote  the  continuous  attention  ] 

•rc«arv  to  understand  a  subject  thoroughly  is  at  first  a  j 
t«-k^  by  the  conviction  that  what  they  are  learning  can  i 
V  (i.rricd  to  profitable   account.     Having  learned  one  j 
pihljct  thoroughly,  they  acquire  a  liking  for  the  effort, 
ami  arc  more  easily  induced  to  extend  their  researches. 
It  IS  K*""'  ""' '"  attempt  too  much  at  first.     Get  every  . 
to  learn  something  that  may  lionefit  them  in  their 
(Kfupations:  none  who  have  learned  this  thoroughly,  be 
it  what  It  may,  will  stop  there. 

CRIME. 

Crime  is  the  result  of  various  causes — as,  first,  the 
natural  or  original  disposition  of  the  culprit ;  second,  the 
moral  atmosphere  in  which  he  has  lived ;  and.  thinl,  the 
Ifniplatinn"  placed  Iteforc  him.  Generally,  all  of  those 
fsusfs  arc  more  or  less  concerned  in  crime,  so  that  it  be- 
onmcs  a  very  complex  queption.  When  we  apply  statis- 
tiis  to  the  invc8li2;ation  of  crime,  we  are  met  by  the 
further  dillirulty,  that  oidy  a  certain  portion  of  the  whole 
of  the  offences  committed  are  known  lo  us,  and  that  the 
proportion  known  must  varj'  in  (lilferent  countries  ac- 
corJing  to  the  efficiency  of  the  legal  apparatus  applied 
1,5  -he  (lolertion  of  crime.  Statistics  has,  ncverlhrlcss, 
iffiideil  some  curious  and  valualile  knowledge  on  the 
guliicct. 

The  nnirber  of  persons  aimually  committed  or  bailed 
lotakc  their  trial  in  Eiishnd  and  Wales,  has  for  a  num- 
)yr  of  yeiirs  )!ast  been  on  the  increase;  but  chiefly,  it  is 
Wicveil,  in  C()ns<'iiueiice  of  the  increased  eiriciency  of  the 
l.iivs,  Fcir  the  five  years  liefore  lH:i!),  it  was  23,174  on 
III  average ;  in  1840,  it  was  27.187.  The  lust  sum  was 
in  increase  of  4.5  per  cent,  on  the  nuTnlier  for  1 830,  which 
ffj*  IS.IiST.  It  is  important  to  observe,  that  these  are 
niil  suiiiniiirii's  of  the  whole  offfnces  of  their  resi>(;ctive 
vpars.  Tlierc  is,  liesidcs,  a  larger  numl)cr  of  olfences, 
nhii'h  are  tried  summ.irily  In'fore  magistrates.  For  ex- 
ample, in  IH37,  in  addition  to  17,090  persons  convicted 
upon  regular  trial,  there  were  5!), 374  summary  convic- 
liiins. 

Bv  far  the  greater  proportion  of  English  crimes  are 
aiainst  pro|M'rty.  Taking  the  average  of  the  five  years 
More  1S39  (22,174),  it  appears  that  Si-H  jM-r  cent,  were 
thills  and  t'rauils,  the  small  pro|>nrtion  of  7  per  cent,  of 
tlii'se  U'ing  accompanied  by  violence.  Of  oU'ences 
aninct  pro|ierty  and  person,  in  which  mr.lice  was  in- 
viilved,  as  murder,  maiming,  arson,  and  injuries  to  cattle, 
li;i're  were  alnjut  6  [H'r  cent.  A  class  culled  sexual 
olTi'nws  tiavt^  2,  and  olfences  against  the  g|««e.  in  which 
was  included  coining,  l!j  per  i-cnt. 

The  counties  in  which  committals  ar<!  year  aflcr  year 
f'we*'.,  are  those  of  Wales,  the  fiiur  northern  ones,  ('orn- 
wdl, and  Derby;  those  in  which  they  are  most  numerous, 
arc  Middlesex,  Essex,  and  Warvick. 

There  arc  some  crimes  which  women  are  not,  from 
rnous  c;iuses,  liable  lo  commit;  hut  the  gentler  dcx-s 
not  appear  lo  be  the  honester  sex  ;  (br  the  proportion 
01  (em.ilc  to  mule  comiiiitlaU  for  thett  without  violence, 
IS  a*  84  to  73  [icr  cent,,  a  tiitrerence  of  one-sixtli  against 
femalea. 

Ill  the  iiiquiries  which  have  In-en  made  with  regard  to 
the  aee  ol'  olfenders,  woiidetfully  uniform  results  have 
itvn  lound,  as  will  ap|w  ar  from  the  following  table, 
giving  the  centesiinul  projiortion  at  each  {)«ricd  uf 
lifew 


Under  13  years    -    • 
From  la  lo  10  .    - 

•  •     17  . .  21      -    . 

. .     22  . .  30   -    . 

..     31 

..     41 

.,      51  . 
Al)Ove  flO       -    - 
Nut  ascertained 


•  40 
.  SO 

•  60 


Total  - 


1S36. 

.      1-84 

-  9'71 

-  20  0.1 
-3143 

-  M  13 

-  67B 
•      3:)3 

-  140 

-'    atis 

1000 


1837. 

V.'52 

OTi 

2(i21 

3174 

14-50 

6 '0,5 

324 

1-55 

l-7» 

1000 


183a 

1-53 

092 

2013 

31  24 

1475 

71)2 

300 

ISS 

1-7-t 

1000 


nreitetl 
liitfereneib 

-  038 

-  021 

■  020 

•    oao 

-  032 

-  0-37 

-  0-33 

-  018 

■  0-30 


The  large  proportion  at  the  periods  of  adolescence  and 
youth  must  be  considered  as  strictly  owing  to  a  greater 
tendency  to  crime  for  the  proportions  of  huiiian  beingf 
at  those  ages  to  the  whole  population  are  different,  the 
persons  lirom  16  to  20  being  as  10  jicr  cent,,  and  those 
fi-om  20  to  30  as  15  per  cent.,  of  the  entire  nation.  It 
is  calculated  that  amongst  the  persons  living  in  England 
and  Wales,  from  17  to  21  years  of  age,  there  is  one  com- 
mittal for  232  ;  while  from  41  to  50  there  is  one  for  941 ; 
and  above  60  one  for  3391  individuals.  We  thus  see 
how  great  an  influence  the  strong  and  unregulated  feel- 
ings of  youth  exenusc  in  inducing  criminality. 

The  coiineelion  of  education  or  non-education,  and  o( 
poverty,  with  crime.  Ins  excited  much  attention  during 
the  last  few  years.  It  is  a!>und:iiitly  clear  that  somo 
school  learning  may  exist  where  the  moral  department 
of  education  has  been  negh-cted,  or  where  the  tempta- 
tions to  error  may  be  very  great.  The  education  of  mere 
reading  and  writing  may  only  supply  the  means  of  com- 
mitting a  crime — as  forgery — iiislend  of  tending  to  restrain 
from  it.  Yet  it  certuinly  does  appear  that  criminals  are 
generally  uneducated  in  all  ordinary  respects.  Mr.  Raw- 
son,  Secretary  of  the  Statistical  Society  of  London,  has 
found  that,  of  every  100  ofTendeis  in  England  and  Wales, 
.')5.4  per  cent,  could  neither  read  nor  write;  54-2  pel 
cent,  could  read  and  write  iinprrfcctly ;  10  could  read 
and  write  well ;  and  mly  '4,  or  less  than  a  half  per  cent, 
hid  received  a  pood  cducniioii.  In  Scotland,  out  of  8907 
offenders,  "O-"  per  cent,  could  neither  read  nor  write; 
59-2  could  read  and  write  imperfectly;  18-2  per  cent 
could  read  and  write  well ;  and  2'4  had  received  a  su 
pcrior  c  lucation. 

Mr.  bi  utley,  author  of  a  History  and  Directory  for 
Worcestershire,  has  shown  the  relation  of  non-education 
to  crime  in  a  diiferent  way.  It  appears  from  hia  tables, 
that  the  six  English  counties  having  the  greatest  propor- 
tion of  schools  are  Cuinlierland,  Durham,  Middlesex, 
IVorthumberland,  Kiitl.iticl,  and  Wc-^lmurdand,  in  which 
the  schools  are  one  for  every  727  iuhaliilants,  and  the 
criminal  olfender.-.  one  fill  every  1  Ifil)  inhabitants.  The 
six  counties  tha'  have  the  smaflest  \iroportion  of  schools 
arc  (/hester,  Dorset,  Hereford,  Lancaster,  Northampton, 
and  Somerset,  in  wbiili  the  schcKds  are  one  for  every 
1540  inhabitants  and  tli'  criiiii-ial  otVcndcrs  one  for  every 
528 ;  that  is,  out  of  a  peofile  having  twice  the  number 
of  schoiils,  thcr',  is  not  in  pro|iortion  half  so  many 
criminals  as  where  ili<-  schools  are  defi.  lent.  A  com- 
parison of  the  nuMiber  of  .scliooh:  in  the  six  most  criminal, 
and  the  six  least  criminal,  of  the  English  counties,  leads 
lo  the  same  concKi^ion.  In  Essex,  (iloucester,  Hertford, 
'"hester,  Somerset,  and  Warwick,  we  find  one  criminal 
olfeniiei  in  the  lists  of  government  fur  every  499  inhabil- 
ants,  and  only  one  school  for  every  10I>9  inhcbitants; 
on  the  other  hanil,  in  ("oriiwall,  (^uiiiberlaiid,  Derby, 
Durham,  Xorthnmberl.nid,  and  Westiihinlaiid,  we  have 
only  one  criniiii  ,1  to  every  1309  inliabitanls,  while  we 
have  one  school  for  'very  83!)  inhabitants.  In  other 
words,  there  are  six  counties  in  Englaiiu  which  have 
nearly  three  times  the  amount  of  cri'-ie  found  in  six 
other  couiities ;  and  ihe  counties  in  which  the  least 
crime  is  found  hav(>  one-fourth  more  schools  than  the 
counties  in  which  crime  abounds. 

The  different  distribution  of  educational  ac()uirementi 
among  the  convicts  of  England  and  Scutlaiut  ir  it'ikuig 
U  a  3 


4M 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


tnd  requirps  for  rlnridation  some  inquiry  into  llio  pr(v 
portionai  clitTi.sinn  of  knowlrilRe  ainonff  the  whole  rom- 
munity  in  each  rmnitry.  Anionif  the  nffliicnt  claaws  it 
is  liiuch  tlip  snmc,  Imt  nmonp;  the  workinft-dasaes  if  is 
matcriBlly  (liircronf.  At-cordini;  to  tlir  factory  returns, 
there  exists  a  more  widely  dilfusod  instriiclion  in  Scot- 
lan<i  than  in  Ent^land:  in  the  former  country,  out  of 
29.486  operatives,  95-8  per  cent,  could  read,  and  53  per 
cent,  could  write;  while  in  the  latter,  out  of  ."JO.lfl? 
ojioratives,  onlv  Hfi  per  cent,  could  read,  and  43  per  cent, 
could  write.  \\ C  have  seen  nbovc,  that,  in  proportion  as 
p^lucation  was  dilfunod  through  the  whole  connnunity, 
the  pro|)ortion  of  criminals  to  the  total  of  the  population 
was  diminished ;  and  this  hold^  gotid  in  Scotland.  Rut 
tlie  mere  extension  cf  intellectual  education  to  indi\-idual9 
af  a  class  in  wiiich  improved  economical  circuinslances 
Slid  self-*-ducation  in  moral  rrs()ects  has  not  induced  that 
moral  sense  shown  to  !)e  elicited  in  civilized  communi- 
ties, does  not  raise  these  individuals  to  the  same  elevation 
in  the  moral  scale  that  the  same  education  would  do 
under  more  favourahle  circumstances.  I'o  pro<lu<'e  the 
full  benefit  of  education,  it  is  the  alast,  not  merely  the 
indmdiu'.l,  that  must  I)c  educated.  An  educated  indi- 
vidual, helonifing:  to  an  uiieducited  class,  either  continues 
to  associate  contentedly  with  his  original  companions, 
and  retains  tli?ir  comparitively  low  standard  of  morality, 
combined  with  the  increased  power  lent  him  by  educa- 
tiji. — he  has  as  feeble  a  restraint  upon  his  cinduct  as 
ti.ey  have,  with  much  more  power  to  do  harm — or  he  at- 
If  7;ipt«  to  associate  with  those  above  him  in  cir-'umstiMces, 
tl.ough  rjily  equal  in  acquirements,  and,  failing  in  the 
attempt,  sinks  down  to  his  former  social  level,  soured 


education  porsessed  by  Scotch  and  English  criminilt 
tho  rpcessity  of  educating  cUiftci  as  well  as  individn.!' 

When  we  come  to  sp<'ak  of  educating  claRses,  ^a  , 
brought  to  the  consideration  of  their  economical  condition 
In  Bristol,  an  inquiry  into  the  educational  stolisticsof  ilui 
city  showed  tha»,  out  of  nearly  10,000  adults,  taken  in 
discriminately  among  the  working-classes,  2!!.,5  per  c™,, 
could  neither  read  nor  write;  2S-G  could  read  onlv  skq 
could  reul  or  write.  In  a  wretched  part  of  iho  y,^ 
of  Marylebonc  in  London,  it  was  found  that  35  percent 
could  neither  rend  nor  write,  and  75  per  cent,  could  piiU, 
read,  or  read  and  write;  and  in  two  other  portions  of  thu 
same  parish,  inhabited  principally  by  Irish  labourers  anil 
their  families,  49  per  cent,  could  neithtr  read  nor  wrilt 
and  only  41  per  cent,  could  read,  or  rad  and  writt 
Among  1023  al-.le-bodied  and  Irmix)  jnly  disabled  pan. 
pers  above  the  age  of  16,  the  inrnies  of  8<>veral  union 
workhouses  in  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  an  i  Kent,  whoi'e  attain. 
:,.i  nts  were  ascertained  with  [m  'cision,  4fi-l)  pt.-  ^, 
could  neither  iwad  nor  write,  18  rend  inqierfectly,  3.1.2 
read  decently,  6-3  read  in  a  8Up<'rior  manner;  andofthe 
same,  6G4  cou'd  not  write,  15-4  could  write  im|icifect|» 
16.9  wiitc  decently,  and  1-3  write  well.  It  thus  a[i[H.aJ 
that  poverty  and  want  of  education,  as  well  as  crime  and 
want  of  education,  go  in  compatiy. 

On  the  last  point  it  is  necessary  to  guard  ai^ainsti 
misconception.  There  may  be  a  district  pocr  in  re. 
sources  and  with  resju'ct  to  the  style  of  livincr  of  (i . 
inhabitants,  and  yet  crime  may  not  abound  in  it.  '|'|^ 
department  of  Creu^w  is  one  of  the  poorest  in  France, 
yet  it  presents  the  fewest  crimes.  M.  tiuclelct  diawi 
the  important  distinction,  that  a  sol  of  i)eo|)lo  living, 
steadily  on   small   means,   but  knowing  no  iMlior,  and 


against   sm'iety,  and    prepared   for  any  act  of  outrage. 

The  J)etty  pilferers  are,  for  tV.e  most  part,  supplied  i-y  the  '  contented  with  what  they  have,  arc  noi  fHX)r,  in  tbj 
destitute  and  uneihicated  class;  the  more  daring  and  i  st-nse  in  which  a  people  are  poor  w!io,  seeing' wealih 
dangerous  o'Venders  by  those  who  have  moved  in  a  more  and  luxury  around  them,  and  expose<l  to  the  eeierr* 
affluent  sphere,  and  fallen  from  it  by  their  imprudence  sulTerings  from  the  occasional  failure  of  employment,  w 
or  vices.     The  lesson  read  by  the  diircrcnt  degrees  of  ,  thervby  demoralized. 


SOCIAL  ECONOMICS  OF  THE  INDUSTRIOUS  ORDERS. 


It  is  surely  a  deplorable  feature  in  the  condition  of  a 
/arge  portion  of  the  working-classes  in  this  country,  that 
they  have  little  or  no  provision  made  against  the  necessi- 
ties whi<  h  arise  to  themselves  or  their  families  in  the 
event  of  sickness,  a  failure  of  employment,  or  death. 
With  some  this  is  not  the  case,  but  it  is  the  cjisc  with 
many  ;  and  the  result  is.  that  these  persons  have  never 
more  than  a  ibin  partition  dividing  them  from  the  realms 
of  want  and  de[K'ndencc.  The  effect  which  this  is  cal- 
culated to  have,  need  not  lie  largely  insisted  on,  for  want 
and  de|icnilenre  are  universally  allowed  to  bring  many 
evils.  Whr>.t  is  tliere  to  lie  ex|M'cted  from  the  moral  na- 
ture of  one  who  is  every  now  and  then  obliged,  p»'rhaps, 
(i)  ask  for  gratuitous  mediciim  and  medical  attendance — 
to  take  bread  from  a  parish  officer  or  the  managers  of  a 
rbaritable  sulisir'plion — to  trust  to  the  pity  of  neighbours 
whenever  any  thitm  like  an  exigency  arises  in  his  family 
—in  short,  is.  for  the  supply  of  a  great  part  of  his  needs, 
■  sti|>eiidiary  U|>on  his  fellow-creatures  1  These  things 
wc  evidently  irreconcilable  with  true  manly  dignity,  with 
political  independence,  and  with  an  upright  tiearing  in 
«ny  of  the  relations  of  life,  '/"he  destitution  of  such  in- 
dividuals is  comiinsefalid  when  it  arises — every  humane 
porsuo  whu  is  hiinwir  above  want,  tecb  bound  to  contii- 


bute  to  its  relief :  the  claim  from  suffering  man  to  bin 
who  suffers  in  the  smallest  degree  less,  is  irresisiilile.  Bui 
while  it  is  allowed  that  the  need,  when  it  diX"<  exist  must 
and  ought  to  be  relieved,  all  must  likewine  see  that,  in  iht 
ellbrt  to  diminish  one  immediate  and  clamant  evil,  anolhft 
is  introduced.  Tho  working  man  is  morally  (jctrrioratfj 
by  ceasing  to  Iw  inde|icn(leiit.  Uetter,  clearly,  llmt  thM 
{Hirtion  of  the  community  were  to  place  tlii'nisolvos,  bj 
efforts  of  their  own,  above  all  need  for  such  ilemnJinifaii 
"  Hut  then  the  workingK'lassi's  realire  sik  b  small  cainj, 
that  they  can  spare  nothing  for  this  purpose."  'I'liismH 
be  said;  but  it  is  at  the  best  partially  true.  A  crcat por- 
tion of  the  working-classes  do  most  uiii|ueslii)nahly,  la 
ordinary  tiroi, ,  realizt!  enough  to  enaMe  thein  t«  h|]are  ■ 
little  by  way  of  [.rovisioii  for  the  future.  Since  many, 
most  creditably  to  themselves,  make  such  a  pr  ivision.  ;l 
may  fairly  l>e  presumed  that  others.  Iiavinu  tliu  sarM 
wages,  could  do  so  also,  if  tluy  were  willing.  Wc  mij 
still  more  confidently  (iresume,  that,  wlnii  m\\w  wili 
comparatively  small  wages  are  able  to  save,  IIiom  vtIn 
are  U-tter  olf  could  save  also.  Now.  It  often  haifciv 
that  the  lalsjurera  of  least  skill,  and  who  are  Ira*'  liU 
rally  remunerated,  contribute  us  largely  to  Havini."<'lianliiu 
their  better  paid  brethren.     Whe.re  Ihii  U  tJie  cue,  int 


SOCIAL  ECONOMICS  OF  THE  INDUSTRIOUS  ORDERS. 


4«t 


Ihe  rircom«tancc»  of  tho  men  aro  otherwise  equal,  wo 

nnot  iloiil't  that  tho  latter  class  make  a  loss  economical 
IsiiomI  of  their  income.  Clearly,  they  have  only  to  imi- 
'    '  ,|,g  frugal  conduct  of  the  small-waKO  class,  in  onler 

have  ample  means  for  making  the  provisions  in  ques- 

On  this  subject,  from  various  causes,  many  errone- 

nolioti«  prcvHil.     When  piactical  men  arc  consulted, 

■  •liparof  an  iifflictinij  number  of  instances  in  which 

fho  higher-watjed  workmen  are  considered  as  securing 

litlle  if  unv  nio''*-'  comfort  to  their  families,  than  the  other 

fl  i$g  and  [HM-h  ipi-  not  so  much.     We  '  ive  heard  mas- 

~  of  work-*  di'clure  that  their  men,  at  Sfis.  a  week,  did 
not  asii  il.iss.  niaiutiiin  their  households,  or  educate  their 
rJiildren,  ^o  well  as  those  who  had  little  more  than  half 
Ihc  sum.  In  "  recent  return  from  the  SavinRs'  Bank  of 
Dundee,  it  ;i;r'ears  that,  while  there  is  £1189  deposited 
liv  103  male  weavi-rp,  a  class  whose  waf»e8  average  8s, 
weekly,  ami  Xl'-''i  by  •''•>  hecklers,  a  f lass  whose  overage 
wanes  nre  I2s.,  there  is  only  XflU?  from  50  mechnnies, 
men  whose  wau'cs  range  from  ISs.  to  SOs.  Such  facts, 
and  we  liclievi!  many  of  the  like  nature  might  he  nddnccd. 
teem  to  pro\e  that  the  xvorkiiig-classes  have  much  more 
in  their  power  for  the  promotion  of  their  physical  and 
mciril  wcll-lH'iMg  than  is  generally  thought.  Admitting 
lullvtli;itiniiiiy  are  ground  to  the  dust  by  poverty,  we  cannot 
doubt  thiit  a  far  larger  proportion  have  all  but  the  will  to 
l;ikc  the  pro(K'r  iiierus  fur  preserving  their  imlependence. 

We  do  not  priifi's.-i  here  to  impure  into  the  primary 
misciioflhe  unendowed  conditinu  of  the  working-classes  ; 
Imt  we  can  rcailily  see  various  immediate  ones,  as  intem- 
wrance  and  lnnl  ni;uiagement  of  resources.  The  tavern 
ill''  -f  the  whole  operati\e  chi'^s  in  the  United  Kingdom 
■nujt  he  an  eiiarnious  one.  Of  above  thirty-one  millions 
0.'  '.illons  1)1'  spirits  prepared  in  one  recent  year,  and  for 
wnich  twenty  niilli.)us  of  pontnls  sterling  would  be  re- 
ceived, we  caimot  assume  less  than  two-thirds  to  have 
Veen  coiisuini'd  by  the  workini^-classes.  These  classes 
probaWv  evpi'iid  in  this  way  three  times  the  whole  cost 
ol'  the  reli;;i"M'<  eslablishment  of  the  country.  In  filas- 
gow  there  is  a  tavern  or  spirit-shop  for  every  fourteen  fami- 
lios;  and  the  shrrilf  calculates  that  not  fewer  than  thirty 
thiiusaiid  of  the  inhiibita'its  go  to  bed  drunk  every  Si,  t- 
dav  nii»ht.  In  the  parish  of  .St.  David's,  in  Dundee, 
while  there  iire  hut  U  linkers'  shops,  there  are  lOH  for 
the  sale  of  liquors.  In  the  parish  of  I.ochwinnoch,  in 
R.'iifnwshire,  three  or  four  timi'S  nn.e  money  is  spent  in 
tiiit'Way  th.iii  is  required  for  the  support  of  religion  ,^ud 
oJu.'ation.  The  value  of  nrdent  spirits  consumed  in  the 
[«ri«h  of  Slcvenston,  in  .Ayrshire,  with  a  population  of 
Siiffl,  exceeds  the  landed  rental  by  i:is;t().  These  are 
startlin;;  tacts,  icHtng,  if  they  tell  any  thing,  that  a  large 
[union  iif  the  earnings  of  the  wo-king-clas.ses  is  worse: 
than  thrown  away.  .\ow,  thougli  it  is  well,  ei  tainly,  to 
compassionaii!  and  relieve  the  sulleiings  of  all  who  need, 
we  cannot  Imt  be  eijually  sc-nsible  that  it  i.s  proper  to  tell 
the  [plain  truth,  and  .say  that  for  nuich  of  this  sulTi'ri'.ig 
our  couiitrymi'U  have  ihemsrives  to  blame.  There  has 
been  of  late  years  a  hollow  kiml  of  cajolery  prnclis«'(i  t<v 
wards  them,  discreditable  to  all  [larlies,  and  of  a  danger- 
ous lenileiicy.  Wr  dismiss  this  eulinly.  and  conceive  it 
to  lie  Iwth  [laying  them  a  greater  eom|iliiuent  and  doing 
ttem  a  greater  service,  to  tidl  them  that  the  conduct  of  a 
latt,"  portion  of  the  ■  class  is  in  many  respects  w  rong,  and 
I)  nhow  them  how  it  ii)ii,'ht  be  slia[)ed  somewhat  bettiT. 

We  |iro(H>se  iheref  ire,  in  the  [iresent  sheet,  to  treat  of 
miouii  ,i.'rttn.;i'iiients  or  in.stilu'.mis  which  have  larn  de- 
risfd  t'lr  the  tviielit  of  the  iiuhislrious  orders,  with  a  view 
V>  ilieir  inamt  liriing  their  ind.'|ienili~nce,  or  avoiding  some 
i  the  |{r(  ater  evds  'vhich  beset  them. 

Oiii  of  the  most  consjiicuously  valuable  U 

THE   SAVINO.'j'   B,VNK. 
Previous  to  tho  commencement  of  tlie  present  century, 
RCD  1)1  tlie  huinbl>T  classes  as  were  given  to  ...iving  had 


no  proper  place  of  deposit  for  their  spare  funds,  which 
they  were  obliged,  therefore,  to  kec|)  in  an  unfructlfying 
hoard  in  their  own  possession,  exposed  to  the  risk  of  losa, 
or  had  to  consign  to  some  neighbour,  who,  though  thought 
safe,  might  turn  out  to  Ikj  much  the  reverse.  .\t  the  same 
time,  in  tho  want  of  a  pro[)er  place  for  the  deposit  of 
s|iarc  money,  those  who  might  save,  but  did  not,  lacked 
one  imfiortant  requisite  to  their  doing  so.  About  1805, 
it  occurred  to  some  lienevolent  minds  that  nn  important 
iH-ncfil  would  be  conferred  on  thc^se  classes,  if  there  were 
institutions  of  the  character  of  banks,  but  on  a  modest 
scale,  in  which  tho  poor  couhl  de|)osit  the  smallest  sunn 
they  could,  from  time  to  time,  spare,  certain  of  being  able 
to  draw  them  forth  when  they  [iha.sed,  with  accumulated 
interest.  Savings'  banks  were  aceoidingly  established, 
first  in  England,  and  afterwards  in  Sc.ilsind  and  Ireland, 
whence  they  <|uickly  s[)read  to  America  and  France. 
They  were  generally  conducted  by  associations  of  benevo- 
lent  persons,  who  gave  the  security  of  their  own  credit 
for  the  nccunmlatcd  sums,  and  held  forth  every  tempta- 
tion in  the  way  of  liberal  interest,  courtesy,  and  prompti- 
tude in  management,  to  induce  the  working-classes  to  r^ 
sort  to  tlicm. 

For  some  years,  thlo  joint-stock  but  still  private  scctj- 
rity  was  found  to  lie  sutlicient  for  the  (iur|!ose  ;  hut,  when 
it  was  understood  that  .nillions  had  found  their  way  into 
saviuL's'  banks,  it  became  a|)|)areiit  that  something  else 
was  necessary  in  order  to  maintain  the  contiuence  which 
had  at  first  been  felt.  The  goveninient  was  therefore  in- 
duced ti)  frame  a  variety  of  statutes  lor  tl.e  U'tter  regulv 
tion  of  savings'  banks,  and  one  in  [laiticulnr  by  which  its 
own  security  was  given  tor  the  i«ifc-kee|)iiig  of  the  depo- 
sits. This  was  done  under  the  guidance  of  the  l)est  in- 
tentions towards  the  industrious  classes,  who  generally 
are  depositors  in  savings'  hanks,  anil  with  as  little  inter- 
ference as  possible  with  private  and  local  management.* 
A  substantial  benefit  was  also  conh'rred,  in  the  fixing  of 
a  rate  of  interest  rather  above  the  inediuin  of  what  could 
be  e\'])eete(l  in  a  country  under  the  [larlicuhir  circum- 
stances of  the  United  '\ingdom  with  regaid  to  capital. 

By  the  aliovi'-niei.lioned  acts,  it  is  directed  that  ii// the 
funds  de[>osiled  in  "".ational  Security  Savings'  Banks  must 
be  [laid  into  the  'jank  of  England  on  account  of  govern- 
ment, and  Ib.at  the  money  so  inve.sd'i!  shull  bear  interest  at 
the  rate  of  i;),  it's.  O^d.  percent,  [itr  aiuium,  ic/i(i.'ci'<r 
tii'iy  lie  titc  Jb  eiitalwi  s  in  the  vuhic  nf  lliv  /I'lblic  J'undt 
liming  tlu  hr)n  of  inrialmvHt.  De[iositors  are  thus  af- 
fonh'd  the  beit  of  all  securities,  namely,  that  of  the  irhole 
Isrinsh  iKi'im ;  while  the  National  Savings'  Banks  are 
enabled,  af\cr  [laying  all  charges  upon  their  establish- 
ments, to  gi'.ea  considerably  higher  rale  of  interest  than 
the  ordinr.ry  banks,  or  even  the  greater  part  of  private 
.saviiiirs"  lianks,  allow  on  deposits,  '("he  hij^hest  interest 
which  '.he  law  allows  the  National  Security  Savinga' 
Banks  to  [my,  is  a^ld.  per  cent,  [ler  diem,  or  X;),  88.  5id. 
[XT  cent,  [ler  annum;  the  ditlereiice  between  this  and  the 
rate  allowed  on  the  money  invested  by  them  in  govern- 
ment securities  lieing  reserved  as  a  fund  lor  thi;  [layment 
of  the  ollicials  of  the  banks  and  other  necessary  exptnsea. 
The  rale  of  interest  which  is  generally  [laid  by  these  banks, 
is  :i^  [ler  cent.,  or  XH,  Cs,  Hd.  jht  cent,  [icr  annum;  and 
whatever  is  left,  after  defrayuig  all  charges,  ia  allowed  *'j 
accimulato  as  a  surplus  fund. 


•  Various  nilen  are  oppointed  by  Ili«  Icirislnlurc  for  the  Cor- 
iiialinn  ntid  nuuiiii.r>'iiient  ot'  saviii<.;s'  )ii;nks.  An  ii^AOtMutioii  of 
pcfNcm^  ,1<  s.rti.is  o:  iiMin-nij  one  in  any  pluee  an-  i  nj.i:nt_'d  nrsl 
to  Irame  u  s-*  ct"  rules  tlir  Ihc  nmu.iL'cuii-m.  ami  tn  *uhmn  these 
lo  the  »p|>rora!  m'  a  Imrrisier  oppoiuii'il  iiy  u'ovcriiiiiint.  w.lh- 
out  wluisn  eiTiitioate  Ihuy  eaiinei  fiijoy  a  I,  ltuI  snous,  or  any 
ol'lhi:  ailvauiagt's  whicli  Ihi-  ifjiislutiire  has  Uiou^lii  proper  ta 
liolil  tiui  Inr  Ihc  fucour»i;*'tui'in  oi'  such  iiistiiutiiuis.  The  pro- 
sc'iil  cernrvini;  luirrnu-r  is  .liilin  'I'idd  I'rail,  Ksij.  A  lee  ol  one 
Ijiiieca  IS  eliar)(t'd  lor  Ihe  revision  el'  the  rubs  mid  cerrtica'e. 
i'l'i' nriMinj'Ts.  trn^tfos  and  tron^Mr'T.  tMH«i  h^i  iTmliiitouiiVi 
Ihi-  only  pa  d  <il!.ivr  I't-d.  n  iln'  aeiiiarj'  or  c'crk  vvlio  is  (>lih|«4 
tu  g.vu  securii>  Iiir  ihu  iiiuuey  pu.t^a^  lliroutiii  li.^  ItuadB. 


464 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE   PEOFLK. 


D<"poiiil«  of  from  onr  ihitlhig  to  thirty  fioiind»  may  be 
recviTcd  by  those  Imnks,  t>iit  no  iiidiviiUial  drprwitor  is 
■IIdwcJ  to  loil^je  nion>  thnn  tliirty  pounds  in  one  your,  or 
tlian  £150  ill  wholo.  Cliaritiihlo  nnd  orovidont  inslilii- 
tioni  may  lodRP  t'linds  to  tlio  ninouni  of  £100  in  a  sin^Io 
year,  or  X.I(U)  in  all ;  and  frioiidly  sooio'ios  aro  [(orniittod 
lo  deposit  the  whnio  of  thoir  funds,  whatovor  may  be 
their  amoiuit.  Compound  intorost  is  Kivon  on  tho  sums 
■o<l)re<],  the  inlon'st  iH'inu:  addod  to  tho  priuripal  at  llio 
end  of  each  yi'i.r  ia  sonio  li.mks,  and  the  end  ofoarh  hnlf- 
vear  in  others,  and  inlo;vit  afterwards  allowed  on  the 
whole.  Any  dojiositiir  may  receive,  on  demand,  the 
money  Io<lu;od  by  him,  if  it  do  not  amount  to  a  coiisidor- 
•l>lc  sum;  and  even  in  that  ras<!  it  will  In^  returno<l  on  a 
few  days',  oral  most  two  or  three  weeks',  notieo.  I'rar- 
tirally,  in  Edinbur;;h  at  least,  payment  is  always  made 
on  demand. 

The  wi.Hosl  and  most  cirortual  provisions  arc  made  for 
insuring  the  propter  management  of  the  alfairs  of  Ihesi! 
banks.  Each  inus!  have  a  certain  number  of  trustees 
and  manatjcrs,  whose  services  are  |H'rformed  gratuitously, 
besides  a  treasurer,  actuary,  cashioi,  clerks,  Ac;  all  of 
wlioui  must  ifivo  s»'curiiy,  by  lx)nd,  to  si  ch  amount  as 
the  directors  of  the  esuiblishmeiit  may  .idgo  snlliciont. 
No  portion  of  the  funds  invested  in  government  security 
can  he  withdrawn,  except  on  the  authority  of  an  order 
iiirp:'  ?  by  si'voral  of  the  trustees  and  managers,  Uo- 
U  .  ■  i  rrMorts  of  the  transactions  of  each  bank  must  lie 
|)ei.i.Jically  forwarded  to  the  Commissioners  for  the  Ke- 
diiclion  of  the  National  Debt,  ami  also  exhibited  lo  tlie 
•Icpo.ui  irs  at  the  bank  otlice.  It  may  1h>  of  use  lo  add, 
Ilia'  !lie  money  de|)i)sitod  is  consigncii  daily  to  the  safe 
vnrtody  of  a  bank,  such  as  the  Uank  of  Scotland,  and  is 
.iu'cce  regularly  transferied  to  the  Hank  of  llnglaiid. 
Any  doubt,  tlicrcfore,  as  to  tlie  gtrurity  which  is  olfercd, 
Would  Ih!  tpiite  absiinl.  When  the  is-rfect  lately  of  the 
r,  .-li  '■  :  coiitra-sled  with  llie  insecure  iiractice  of  placing 
suoiit;.  it  interest  in  !lic  hands  of  private  persons,  as  is 
unhappily  Iiki  olicn  dniic,  no  one  in  his  s<-n»es  would  tor 
a  moment  iiositate  which  iikhIc  of  disposal  he  should 
prefer. 

Under  both  the  old  and  new  systems,  savingd*  banks 
have  lieeii  hiL'hly  successful  in  their  olijecl.  and  the  money 
de|)OsiU'd  in  lliom  roaclies  an  amount  which  no  one  who 
regarded  the  liabils  of  ilie  working-classes  thirty-live  years 
ago  could  have  aiili'  ip.ited.  In  1H40,  the  total  sum  was 
•  trille  witliin  nva  ii-ttr.j  milltiiDS.  In  1h;J7,  it  was  staled 
that  the  Hccuiiiolalions  in  the  bank  at  Kxeler  alone,  reached 
i.'rtO().UOO.  At  lh<!  saiiie  lime  Manchester  and  I,iver|i<>ol 
respectively  sliowed  X'Jsd.OdO  and  i,3».'),0(iO.  In  .No- 
vember, ISll.  after  existing  five  and  a  half  years,  the 
Edinl)urgh  tank  ha  I  uccumulatevl  jl,".i'2l,81»)  :  at  the  same 
periixi,  alter  a  somewhat  liriefer  career,  that  of  (ilasgow 
■iioweii  a  lialaiice  of  dcjii>sits  amoi;ntiiig  to  i'17.'l,"l!|. 
In  183t,  wh'ii  the  total  accnmiilations  in  Kimland  (in- 
clusive of  Wilis)  amoiuitcd  lo  .£i;i,.')H2.IO'J,  the  nuin- 
t»>r  of  dejMisiiors  was  ■j;M,8l.'J,  a  very  coiisidcrable  pio- 
po.-tioii,  it  must  U?  owned,  of  the  whole  population.  The 
average  de|>osii  of  each  (wrsoii  was  at  that  time  XSI,  4s. 
Ill  sScotland,  the  average  deposits  are  less,  [jerhaps  in  con- 
•equence  of  llic  comparatively  recent  introduction  of  the 
national  securitv  system.  At  Novemlier,  1.S41,  the  ile- 
p.)silors  in  Edinliurgh  were  18.9fil,  giving  an  average  of 
ten  tfuineas  to  each  ;  those  in  Glasgow  were  at  the  same 
time  13,339.  giving  lo  each  an  average  of  twelve  |«iui»!s. 
We  find  ten  wjuineas  the  average  deposit  at  the  Carluke 
Havings'  Hank,  a  rural  c.stablishment. 

'llie  kind  f/itrmnt  irku  ilrp'iU  is  an  iin{)ortant  point; 
•nd  here,  wc  fear,  gome  disap|H>intinent  must  Iv  felt 
We  have  already  seen  that  the  average  amount  of  ile|H>- 
tits  at  Uundee  is  little  larger  amongst  workmen  of  high  | 
JiJii  amongM  workmen  of  low  wages.  In  that  town,  out 
•r  464  mate  wcavera  in  tiie  parish  of  Su  David's,  with 
wages  averdt{iiig  ttik,  108  are  deiHwitont,  or  I  in  4^',  ;  of  , 


181  flax-dresscrs,  with  wages  averaging  12s.,  86  tr 
posilors,  or  1  in  5;  of  200  mechanicH,  with  SOs.  of  aver* 
wages,  56   are   depositors,  or   1  in  3.;.     The   very  ,^^n 
ilcgree   in  which  we  thus  see  comparatively  g,„^\  ^ 
favouring  the  saving  principle,  is  surprising  and  lament" 
Me.      Another  fact  of  a  general  character  is  not  less  stri" 
ing.     In  many  places,  of  the  de|)ositors  in  savinm'  bank 
a  majority  are  females.     Female  servants,  in  aimnj,   !j 


places,  form  a  conspicuous  section.     In  the  Dundee  S  ' 
ings'  Hank,  there  were,  u  few  years  ago,  23?  acco 
the  n  lines  of  female  servants  (aggregate  deposits,  £ 
while  (and  this  is  equally  remarkable),  out  of  the  num 


US), 


lor-  I  rolls  class  of  factory  female  workers,  only 


accoimt.     It  has  also  been  stated,  that,  "  a  few  years    "" 
in  I'l     '     '  

W( 


ai!o. 


Perth,  it  was   found,  from   its  8avin:.;s'  bank,  that  Ihp 
linen  of  the  '  Fair  City' were  laying  up  for'themon 
not  the  men  for  the  women;  that  the  young  mechani  ' 
had  forgot   there  were  such  things  as  want,  or  sickniss 
or  age."*      In  the  Edinburgh  Havings'  H  ink,  of  the  loij 
niimlier  of  accounts  existing  at  November,  Mil.  iho  - 
jorily  were  by  females,  and  generally  by  feh.ak.g  i>.o;atcJ 
in  society,  and  de|H"nding  on  their  ow  n  e,vertio;,s  as  an. 
pears    from   the  statements  given   Ih'Iow,   in  which  tr 
amount  of  balances  and  the  overage  amount  of  each  nc 
sou's  lialance  are  also  shown. 


YlVfS  > 


Fkmalo. 

Iloini'slic  servants. ... 

^iiiiijit'  svoiiii'ii  wiihoiit  (It'sigiia- 
l;<ill — i;i!lU'rally  |iel-,ilH  kcrp- 
oii;  hiiit^i;  liir  a  liiilirr  or  oiin-r 
ri-binvc,  and  having  no  other 
occiipal'oii, 

,Miirr:til  wntiKMl  witlioilt   ()eili|?- 
iiioiiiii  — HI  ni-raily    ilic    w 
oldjitTuiives, 

.Minors.      -        -        -        -        . 

I)ri'>.«nnik>'rs.  mi!l;inT5.  «rwer«, 

Will    vs.  ile^iirnatcd  snni'iy  as 

S'll'll.  -  -  -  .  - 

Slicipk'i'prrs.     lo.lgini;-ki'eper«. 

hoiisrholfl-rs.    ... 
FMinuh-  iipcrniivo.  mill-work- 

i'r>.  washer.*.    -         -         - 
(in'. rrncsKcs  and  female  li-achcrii. 
.M I  scr  I  hot  i;uu»  diisigimt.ons. 
LtuluMcrs  lull  exceeding  2s.  each. 

Accounts  in  the   names  of  ^^ 
I'fniuiea       ...  j 


.Males. 

Mechanics  and  operatives  of  all  ■( 

k:ijilH.  ....  \ 

I  tiri'Ts.    ehn nil.  II,    gririleners 

and     tnwii    and    cuiiniry    la. 

I'diirers.     .... 
'I'eiieher». students,  clerks.  «ho)>.  f 

men.  ....  ( 

Uiiiiesiie    sereants.     incbidini.'] 

piiidic  eimcliiiieii.  wnuer*,  uiui  \ 

gris>ins       ....         J 
Si.npkeepers.    .... 
S»ld;i-rs  and  ffa.lort, 
I'nI.i  c  sifvnni.*— as  |)osl-olliee,  ) 

poici*,  elCise,  Jic,  •        .         J 
Moinrt      -        -       - 
.Misei-liiineous  (Icsigiiatiuiis,  - 
.\n  des:gmiion, 
lJu!unv>  s  nut  exrerding  it.  each, 

A(  counts  in  t)io  niiineft  of  ( 
iniiU'di,         ...  \ 

Tonil  III  '.he  names  of  fc-  ) 
mules,  ai  a!)u\,  |        .  f 

Sociclies    -        -        -        • 

Tolnl  arconnts  in  opernlion  / 
ai  ■-iith  Noveinljrr,  IHll,     i 


.No. 


1904 

1«- 

3.V.' 
141 

1U4 

O.'i 

afiin 


Ainnuni  of   Averaj, 
Amounu 


lialunces. 


in.Sjo 


.\o. 


■^      '■  'I-  £   s  d. 

45,7iK)  1.5  a  la  a  7 

;il.540  15  11  17   J  , 


•-i.0s6    &  S  15   5  9 

•J.-)IS  1(1   0    6  10  3 

l'7'.'.)    1    0  10  a  J 

2li:)    5   1  17  -a  3 

•sm  ill    4  14  11  9 

Ilia  1  11  u  14  I 

I'JT-j  i;>  in  19  r,  5 

■'<'■'     5    !l    Hi  p.;  , 

'-'•■t   1   s;  0  uii 
till.:!:)-  10   4| 


Anioniit  of   .Vyenifj 
Hiilanees.     Aiiioiiiii. 


■^     '   ''<i    s.  d. 

•jia-  ,ii,t-ii  9  7!  ,4  ,j  ^ 

557  -.V.0  on  13  7  7 
XW  ii;7l  10  .1  17  10  9 
3,)4,   laSH    7   5,23   Hi 


11171 


r>r,-7  17  ''I  to  97 
■.i<>r>tr<  ii;ia  11  4 


Wj  I'.iii   :i  111  14  9 10 

W71  :tTn:  III  u-   11  r  2 

l-;i  :iT'.'.'  II    I, -.111  C  i 

■'i.'>7i  ir-ji  14  a' Hi  li  J 


•iJ-Hj 


112  n  u 


'•Ml,   HI4'Jn   5   9 

10,s5o  ii;).:ll-10   4 
10(1:  at. -Oil  II 


l().l.)0;i.>I..V.O  10   8 


0   Old 


In  (jiasgovv,  the  mule  depositori  are  a  majoritv;  bul 
here  the    factory  o|)crativt'S   aro  compuralivoly  a  nul 


■Tavern  Il.lt  01  Uuutlea,  f.  7. 


Cnstipal. 

IVr 

Monil 

- 

— 

I  >.  i. 

J. 

>, 

0  15   0 

U 

0 

11"    0 

II 

u 

i  5   3 

II 

(1 

,1   (J   0 

0 

II 

^15   0 

u 

0   • 

1  111   0 

u 

11  : 

3  5   0 

II 

0  : 

6  U   0 

0 

II  ' 

«13   n 

II 

u    <l 

TtO 

0 

11  .' 

«  s  0 

II 

u  ; 

9   0    0 

0 

0  1 

1)15   0 

0 

0  ( 

in  0  0 

« 

0  f 

in  1(1  0 

0 

0  1 

11    5    0 

u 

0  ' 

li  0   0 

0 

0  - 

12  15   0 

0 

0  t 

UlU   0 

II 

tl    K 

:t  5  0 

u 

11    1 

l.i  0   0 

0 

0  !( 

I.UJ   0 

n 

0  11 

WIO   0 

0 

II  II 

1:  5   0 

n 

0  II 

Ir   0    0 

II 

1     ( 

bis   0 

0 

1     1 

III  10    0 

ii 

1     1 

ISs.  0M„ 

wh 

ich 

D<*t  allow 

.  licinir, 

'xpensi's,  Ac. 

•1' 

nav  renilil 

V  rccko 

(iiwi'4  an 

lid 

ition 

<nJ  of  evcrv 

vcar 

Kiillini^,  anil  Ids 

I5«.a 

1  is  riu 

n  rcji|;ecl  of  inter 

Vui..  1.- 

-,'. 

) 

SOCIAL  ECONOMICS  OF  THE  LVDUSTRIOUS  ORDELS. 


m 


.  puiiiIh  ■■u>'J,  only  1U82,  while  mcchnnicB  and  arti-  show  ^  .utal  of  no  less  ilian  £1 1,021  1  On.  4(1.  Wc  her* 
T-  lie  dTf'^-  nDtwillHlaniling  the  vast  number  of  per-  sec,  in  a  Rtriking  manner,  ho"  u  :.  Cutid  oiico  heftun 
'"'         •     -'  ill   fiic'torics  in  that  city.     The   female    by  a  uersoii  in  humlvle  circum.  ■  .  ■   ,  U;nd«  to  mount  up 


''"    jjj,  wlio  di'posit  in  the  Glasgow  .'•Savings'  Hank    in  the  course  of  a  few  yean. 

.10(12  iii;il  tln'ir  iiggrej{Btc  nccuniulatiniiH  arc  Jt;28,378.  j  It  may  In-  of  service  to  many  persons  in  Iho  humbler 
il'ih  rmif'  '"  ''''"  l""'''""  "^^  '''^  community,  an  inte-  1  walks  of  life,  who  are  not  much  acquainted  willi  busincsa, 
'  fjpt  iii  mentioned  in  the  report  of  the  Edinl)urj,'h  to  see  an  example  of  a  savings'  bank  account:  the  fol- 
'^  iiio'  U""''  '"'  '*^^''  '''"'  '''^"  hunilred  accounts  lowing  is  one  presumed  to  lie  formed  by  a  man  named 
i""*  iiioneJ  by  fcmule  servants  in  ihiit  bank,  present  John  Smith,  wliosti  uisnaturo  accordingly  «|)pears  in  lh« 
["'J' rebate  sum  of  ,£2.113,  2s.  7d.;  but  the  firs',  live 
ounilrM  oiioiied  by  the  Hanio  class,  four  or  live  years  ago, 


last  colunni,  as  acknowledging  the  sums  which  b«  ha 
withdrawn ; — 


SAVINGS'  BANK  in  Account  with 


No. 


Date. 


1336. 
July  I", 


November  83, 
Deccjnlier  20,  • 
June  19, 

December!,    - 


Deposiicil  anil  Wiilidrawn 


Manager's  Hignalure. 


R'-Cl'ivPlI   S'X   SllillillirS 

K.-(  i-ivivl  N'.ii..  Sliill  U'^t, 

IiilcTSt  to  Nuvciiiliur  L*0,  •        .        .        - 

Paid  Five  Shilling*  and  Three  Haliiience, 

Received  Thirty-five  Shillings, 


Rrceivt'd  Three  I'niinds. 
lini'1091 10  .\oveml/i;r  •.'0, 


Paid  Five  Poiiiirls.  Seven  Sliill.nfS,  U!iJ  )  ' 
Twropi'neu  lliiirpiiiiny,      -        -       •     J; 


.,.  I  d. 

n  I  0 

f)  I  n 

0  I  U 


0  ,  15  I  u 


\i 


io     0 
IS     0 


7  I  a» 

7  I  H 


(icorjte  Uo»e. 
J.  T.Bechcr. 


John  Smith. 
George  Rose. 
J.  T.  Beeher. 

John  Smith. 


5  !i  Hi  1'^  1 
1^,  0  oil 

^16   4 


i  1) 

(1 

li  r, 

0 

-10 

1 

1 11 

7 

)  111 

e 

0   OlO 


I  is  of  Htill  greater  importance  that  a  person  who 
ijiiiilis  of  dejio'iiling  should  have  a  di^ilinct  idea  of  llie 
boneit  lie  is  to  dorive  in  thi"  way  of  iiiti're«t.  'I'he  intc- 
rcil  usually  given  in  8!ivin'.;s'  banks  is  at  the  rate  of  C't, 
6i,8J.  per  cent.;  the  dill'urencc  between  this   and  i;;i, 

IirriKigrr  Tablk,  at  £3,  Os.  Sd.  I'eh  Ce-nt. 


fn«ip«l- 

Per      '    Per 

Monlli.    1  ■^  lar. 

Principal. 

IVr 
IMonsh. 

Per 

Year. 

X  .'.  d. 

i 

.«. 

,/.   £   s. 

J 

X     J, 

(/. 

£ 

».   (/. 

X   .<.   (/ 

0  15   0 

0 

0 

nj  11  II 

li 

ao  s 

II 

0 

1    u 

0  13     li 

1  10   0 

II 

(1 

1    {i>    1 

II 

a."!  10 

II 

II 

I     5 

11  17     II 

i  5   3 

1) 

n 

li  !n   I 

(i 

.30  LI 

0 

0 

I  4 

1      0     11 

3   0   0 

(1 

(1 

a    0   a 

II 

■M     0 

0 

II 

a  0 

1    4    n 

315   0 

0 

0 

at  iu  a 

II 

41     5 

0 

I) 

■>  .'it 

1     7    (i 

i  10   0 

u 

(1 

:i   lO  a 

II 

48  10 

0 

0 

y   7 

1   11     II 

5  5   0 

II 

0 

3i    0    •■} 

(i 

r,\  15 

0 

0 

a  III} 

1  14    11 

6   0   (1 

(1 

0 

4    10    4 

11 

67    0 

0 

0 

.'1   a 

1    1><     0 

6  15   " 

II 

(1 

4t  10    4 

(i 

«a   3 

0 

0 

3    5} 

a   1   li 

:io 

0 

(1 

5    iO    li 

(1 

67  10 

11 

0 

3    y 

a  5  0 

?  5   0 

II 

u 

5J  Io    5 

lil 

7a  IS 

0 

0 

4    OJ 

a   8  d 

»  0   0 

(1 

0 

0     0    (1 

01 

7H    0 

0 

0 

4    4 

a  la  0 

1)15   0 

(1 

0 

lit    0    (i 

'>! 

KJ    5 

0 

(1 

I    7i 

a  1.-,  ci 

in  0   0 

(» 

n 

Oi    0    ') 

,'•1 

HM  10 

0 

0 

4  1! 

■>  111   II 

111  10   0 

0 

u 

7      (1     7 

II 

u:)  15 

0 

0 

5   ai 

3   a  I! 

11   5   0 

0 

0 

mo  7 

"1 

ug   0 

0 

0 

.'i    1! 

3     li     II 

IJ  0   0 

0 

n 

«    «   a 

ol 

IIK»     0 

0 

0 

a  nj 

3   r,   >^ 

12  15   0 

0 

1) 

pj , »   « 

"i 

104    5 

0 

0 

S    Ui 

3  n  fl 

a  10  0 

II 

II 

H      0     0 

"i 

ItW  10 

0 

0 

6     1 

3  13    II 

;4  5  0 

u 

II 

"1  i<>     '1 

It 

114  IS 

0 

0 

*l    •«* 

:.  in  » 

15  0   0 

0 

0 

III 

II  III 

III 

lao   0 

0 

II 

(i     - 

4     0    0 

15  IS   0 

n 

0 

lOi 

II  10 

III 

Vi-i    6 

0 

0 

<i  n* 

4     3     1! 

10  10   0 

u 

n 

II 

0  11 

(1! 

!;«  10 

0 

0 

7    [i 

4     7    0 

17  S   U 

1) 

u 

lU 

0  It 

li 

13.5  IS 

0 

0 

7    lij 

4  in  li 

l'^  0   0 

II 

1 

(1 

0  la 

II' 

141     0 

0 

0 

7  111 

1   It     0 

IS  15   0 

0 

I 

ot 

0  ia 

•l 

145    5 

0 

0 

■  i    It 

4  17   n 

IfllO   0 

ij 

1 

(1  l:i 

0 

l.lll    0 

0 

0 

."    4 

5    0    0 

ISs.  Old.,  which  the  Commissioners  of  the  National 
Ucht  o!!ow.  iK'ini.',  as  already  inentionrd,  ri  served  to  pny 
•xproncfl,  fit:  'I'liis  Ix-iiip;  the  intenst  nlKiwed,  any  one 
Mj  reRililv  reckon  how  bis  money  is  to  friKtily.  by  sii|)- 
piw-n  an  alilition  o( unc-'hirlii'lh  bi'wn  inido  to  it  at  the 
*nJ  if  every  year.  For  iintanco,  if  ho  deposits  lilh-eii 
Kiilhiiip,  mid  lets  it  lie  for  a  year,  he  is  then  eiititleil  to 
ISs.  6d.  It  is  riiibt  that  he  should  N' fully  ;i\v;ire  ihil, 
n  rsjf.ect  111'  intcrcBt,  he  is  belter  oil'  than  tiie  ('coplc  of 
VuL.  1. — '.'J 


the  middle  and  upper  ranks  who  deposit  in  cofooion 
banks;  for  not  only  docs  he  R-t  a  hii^hcr  percentage 
than  is  generally  given  by  the  banks,  but  he  has  the  ad» 
viiiitatfc  of  c'-ni/mii^if/  in'e.rcst  -.  that  is  to  say,  the  interest 
due  to  him  at  the  end  of  a  year  is  silently,  and  without 
any  trouble  on  his  part,  added  to  and  considere<l  ns  a 
part  of  the  principal,  on  which  interest  js  to  lie  given  in 
future.  'J'hus,  a  common  bank  account  and  n  savings' 
bank  account,  for  the  same  sum,  if  left  unattended  to  for 
a  few  years,  would  in  the  end  come  to  a  very  diflerenl 
amount.  In  order  that  no  one  may  be  at  a  loss  to  cal- 
ciilale  the  interest  he  is  to  receive  on  a  savings'  bank 
deposit,  wc  present  the  preceding  table,  which  shows 
simple  interest  for  n  year  on  a  variety  of  sums, 

A  pr(<judlco  enlists  in  the  minds  of  many  working 
fieople,  and  is  perhaps  affected  by  others,  against  savings' 
banks,  on  the  ground  that,  when  a  man  is  known  to  save, 
he  Is  the  more  liable  to  have  his  wages  reduced  by  hi» 
master,  or  to  want  work  when  there  is  any  thing  like  a 
general  failure  of  employment.  Surely,  there  can  ha 
little  foundation  in  fact  for  this  notion.  It  is  a  general 
wish  amongst  masters  that  their  working  tieople  should 
Have,  and  many  emleavour  to  tiring  this  hboutby  institnt* 
ing  savings'  banks,  and  acting  ai>  managers.  It  is  felt  by 
every  master,  that  a  workman  v  no  has  saved  a  little,  il 
likely  to  l)e  a  much  more  steady  and  resiH'ctalJc  persoa 
than  one  who  has  not.  Indeed,  ns  it  has  been  justly 
observed,  a  receipt  from  n  savings'  bank  is  one  of  the 
liest  ccrtificiites  of  character  which  a  working  man  ran 
show.  Let  it  also  l>c  considered,  that,  with  a  little  capi- 
tal  in  his  possesMon.  a  workman  st.inds  in  a  much  more 
indepemleiit  [<osilioii  with  regard  to  his  niasier  than  ha 
otherwise  could  do.  We  cannot  doubt  that  in  these  con- 
sideration? there  U  mu  h  more  than  a  oooiiterpiif-  to  the 
visionary  fear  ol  having  wages  reduced,  or  eni|>loynient 
withheld.  In  con  leiiuenee  of  a  imnk  de|)Osit. 

The  Icillowing  table  was  formed  to  sleiw  whit  a  certain 
weekly  conlri'ution  paid  into  the  \\  indsor  and  Eton 
.'^aviii-;-'  Hunk  would  amount  to  in  a  certain  term  of 
years,  interest  being  at  £.'l,  f>.  rn\.  per  cent.  Il  is  a 
liiglily  iMstriictive  table,  well  worthy  of  king  carefulty 
studied  by  evcrv  individual  of  the  industrioiw  ortlera:- 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE  PKOPLE. 


I  Yc«r, 

II  ..   . 

3  ■• 

4  ..    . 

5  ■• 

II  ..    ■ 

7  .. 

>^  •      • 

it  • 


II 

ll 
14 
15 
II) 


Ori«  Shilling 
pir  Wfck. 


X    ...      •!■ 

a  \j  7i 

a  u  11 

.'J   1 

1 


H 
U 
14 
17 


It 


;i 

7    7 

Zl  14    !2t 

S7  a  111 

.'III  l:l  ml 

;i4  7     4 

M>  ;i    .H 

ii  1   10 


4>l  .1  U 

5(1  7  a 

.14  II  '.• 

.W  4  II 

ll:l  III  lit 

IH  1,1  I 

7:1  \i  flt 


Opii-  Miilliiig 

mill  SxiuMU-o 

pvr  wt'fk. 


TwoSliillingt 
|ii;r  wuuk.     I 


riirFd  ShilllnKt 
per  wuuk. 


X    «. 
:i  ill 

M     II 

4 

I 'J 
2 


Id 
■J  I 

:»  IJ 
.■m  I'J 
;w  la 
411  \.^ 
411  a 
rii  1 

67 

0:1 
III!    II 

78  m 

fj    4 

t-i  III 

»r,  IS 
lll:|    a 

un  la 


'/, 
II 
II 
11 
:i 

5 
0 
4 

a 
3 

:i 
s 
li  lui 
5    0 


a 
s* 
1 
1 

8 

u 

III 


It  Would  lifl  (liiriniU  to  ovor-oslimiito  t]\o  iiiipnrt:iiuT 
of  a  lilllc  priviti'  hoard  to  a  workiiii;  man.  It  imt  only 
proves  u  «urcour  in  the  evil  ilny,  l)iit  it  toiidit  to  iinprovi- 
his  wliolo  moral  nature.  Wi'iilih  \n\s  lu'cn  the  ilijcct 
oi"  iiiiiiiy  liitti-r  rciniirk.'i  to  liolh  tin-  imit  iind  l'.,>  |  nl.v 
■oplicr  ;  liut  it  i.i  iillor  nil  n  ifriMlor  tViciid  to  virtue  than 
t.i  viiv.  Orti'ii  a  very  siniill  amoiiiit  of  it.  iicqiilrcd  liy 
hoiU'Kt  inilii.slry,  will  supply  a  iiiivlist  priilc  tliiit  .supports, 
if  it  is  not  ill  it«olf.  nionil  i-Hirnry.  Dniiiir  well  in  lliis 
iinull  >vay  siij'.'i'st.s  ami  loads  to  doinij  well  in  oltwr  ways. 
Tlv  saver  may  prove  the  stiiy  of  a  ilccliniii'j  parent  or 
Oilier  friend:  he  can  ilo  a  liellcr  duty  to  liis  iliildien;  lie 
ca  1  'uiitrilMite  to  pliiluiilliropic.  olijeelx  wliieli  interest  and 
br  ug  out  hi  >  fiiie.st  fei<liii|;s.  It  may  even  happi'ii  that, 
from  lens  to  more,  and  with  no  Kai  ril'iee  of  peiiee  of  mind, 
lie  ia  I  iiuliled  liy  «:ivin.u[  to  rise  into  a  liii;lier  urade  in 
•ooirty.  One  of  the  host  of  the  iMm\edi:it»!  el]'  its  of 
iaving  is,  that,  once  fnirly  licRUli,  it  proves  a  preservative 
from  niaiiy  extrava:{Mnces  and  vieeii.  Templatinns  may 
preKoiit  llirmselvo!) ;  liut  tho  mind  reverl-s  to  tlu'  f)ii.lly 
reurarded  liltle  hoard  in  the  Haviiiifs'  hank,  and  they  are 
ea.sily  resisted.  Heiiee,  it  is  tjeiienilly  oliserved  that,  oiiie 
a  practiee  of  siivini;  has  eominenced,  a  ureal  revirlution 
lake*  plaee  in  the  eharaeter.  Irrei;iilarilies  and  self-iu- 
dulijences  disappear,  and  Ht«'adinen«,  sohriety,  and  lellec- 
tioii  take  their  place. 

These  views  arc,  we  feel  aBSiirtM).  arrnrdant  with  Ren(>- 
ral  cxperi'Micc ;  hut  it  may  iievcrthetesH  \te  well  to  quott' 
one  U'slimoiiy  from  a  praetieal  (quarter  in  Hup)u>it  of 
Iheiii.  'i'he  followini;  paiwaiies  are  iVoui  a  traet,  piihlislied 
early  in  IslU,  re^jioctiiii;  ;ui  auxiliary  to  the  (iinuii  iSav- 
ings'  H:iiik,  in  Kerr  and  ('ouifiaoyH  .Nailery:— 

"  Three  yi'ars  ai<o,  nearly  all  the  men  in  this  work 
were  tie«>miiigly  coiistitutioii.illy  and  ho|)eles.sIy  alllieted 
wilh  '(  Sjtiiik  III  tfir  Ihroal,  and  spent  a  ver\  I.Uj^e  [wriioii 
if  iheir  waives  on  ardent  iipirilK  In  tpieiuh  it  As  mii;lit 
lave  lieeji  ex|H'eti'd  under  the  eireunistanees,  holh  their 
lenMNiK  and  d\velliii|{t  presented  standing  jiroofs  of  their 
'uiuous  hahits :  and  their  employer  was  frequently  an- 
«o,M'd  liy  their  NU»)ienHioii  of  lal>our  to  gratify  their 
Mtiaied  taste,  at  timen  when  the  huriied  cxeeutioii  of 
ardors  londered  him  most  depemlent  u(niii  them.  How- 
tver,  hy  the  exercise  of  a  little  kindly  feelim;  towards 
Uieiii,  lU'ttlurs  Ihi^uh  to  assume  a  more  pleasing  a8|ieet. 
\iy  being  re^furded  and  s|HiI:en  to  in  Iheir  soIht  intervals 
•s  rati  jiiat  aiul  aceountahir  iM'ings,  and  having  e.xhihited 
kj  Uieni  the  advantages  they  were  likely  to  derive  from 
CiMiiieeiiii!^  iheinselvuN  with  the  i'otal  .Mwtiiienee  tioricty 
tlltl  tile  .^dvii.gi'  bank,  one  alter  anoUier  was  cured  of 
l!>e  Ium;-t!xisl4iig  malady,  and  not  only  U'  .v  up  a  new 
position  among  his  feliow-workcrs.  as  at  oiiop  an  ndvo- 
taUs  and  jii\  evidence  of  ti'ni|i<'ruiicc  and  croiioiiiy,  but 
wax  enaliled  to  provide  himself  and  family  with  liouse- 
boki  cuiiilbrU  to  ivuich  tliuy  had  previously  been  slrangera. 


X    1. 

ll. 

X     1.    ll. 

S    >.    .i. 

S    5 

4) 

7  IH    3t 

Ill  11     ll 

10  14 

4 

in    1  10 

ai    0   (, 

111    « 

in» 

a4  10  III 

3a  13  01 

aa  ,'1 

:l 

:i.l    ,'.  II 

44   »  II 

•j-i   ;i 

■n 

4a   II  mi 

Ail    II    114 

n-4  lu  4} 

31     H 

1 

ai  14   II 

40  III 

7» 

III    7   0 

Hi  17    c 

47    U 

111 

71     7    74 
HI   14    7l 

ll.'i    4    -<» 

61    7 

•H 

Kill    II    ,11 

fil     II 

lilt 

iia   H   7 

'-•£>    ll     U 

IH  17 

111:1   II  11 

13^1    1    U 

711    H 

4t 

111  H   nt 

'4    0 

ll't 

ijii  1.1   11 

iia  11 

II 

l:i<i    II    ii 

lim  H 

a 

ISl  13    U 

lull  la 

■li 

11-  la 

-1 

ta?  Ill 

i.)7  11 

i'i 

117  u 

a 

Four  Shlllimn   I  Five  Rhi||ii„ 
pur  weeU.       I      pe,  »,^ 


X 
t.'l 


a«  Id 

411  Is 

■Vi  III 

711  iv 


'■4. 

I  III 


Hi 

lllj 
nil 
i:in 
ifjl 


I  With  the  view  of  rlierishiiig  sii<-h  newly-formpil  habiii 

their  employer  alUirded  them  the  weekly  opportuniivo! 

I  hiisliaiiiliiig    their    spare    earnin-a,    hy  'furmiiiij  amnnj 

j  them    and   eoiiiliictiiig   n   little   imeney  of  th,.  .\|,ii,|J 

Security  .*<:iviin,'s'  H:nik.     Thr  f  illowiii?  summarvof  Ju 

I  IraiHai-lions   >vill   slimv  both   the  success  of  his  lalvmr, 

j  and    the  eiicouia;;emeiit  whii-h  the  proprictnrs  anil  inin. 

]  atfcrs  of  other  public  works  are  liliely  to  eiijuv  -,1  makinj 

1  similar  eiruis: — The   nailery  consisls  of  throe  shoirsa, 

hearths,   each   aceummodalinu;    fmir  workmen.    .\niii|i2 

the  twelve   persons  employed    in   these  shops,  iinil  („., 

junior  meinbers  of  one  of  their   lainilies,  llicrc  are  niw 

open   accounts;   the    number  of  de()osi;s  has  lieon  J;| 

and  tin  aiiioiiiit  deposited,  includingmte-cst,  161,  l,')8.l(\i' 

The  numbi^r  of  icoaymenln  has  bee'.  3  I,  ami  the  mnouit 

repaid  t.;Jl-.  1  Is.  '.Id.,  so  that  the  balauiu  due  at  tho  :Oih 

November,  I,<1 1,  U|)oii  the  nine  open  avouiits,  isiJ.^  U 

Id.,  or  abou!  X'J,  tlis.  each — a  small  averai;e,  ccriainlv.in 

comparison  with  that  of  some  other  trades,  but  iirewiiijiii 

a  plc.isiiii;  contrast  to  the  Hitii:itioii  in  which  miitlcr« slum) 

at  the  commi'iicement  of  the  aueiicy,  xvlimi  scarcolv  one 

of  tho  Workmen  could,  on  a  VVeihiesday  or  Thursiiav 

muster  a  sisjM'iice  of  his  previous  week's  e;irniiii;s.    Oiie 

observation   must  yet   Ihi   made;  they  are  now  no,' ii,:/« 

»i  re  viihjiciilint  ami  ri.mfi>r!iih\.  hii>  s,,iitj  mrch  hi'hir 

III  the  emiiiHituiii  (if  Iheir  rwi/i/i.yi  »>." 

THE    FRIKNtltY    SoriETr. 

Savings,  inste:id  of  iHinvr  stornl  up  iu  a  bank,  to  b« 
there  eoiislaiitly  at  comin;ind,  may  be  dispnaed  |iy  | 
working  man  in  a  well-coiistilnled  friendly  sDcicty,  as  a 
means  of  ensuring  for  himself  certain  coiitipijciit  arnl 
fixed  hciielits,  F'rien,ily  societies  gemr.illy  cin'irarcscvo 
ral  objects,  as  the  securing  of  a  weekly  sum  liuritiijMck. 
nes.s,  and  a  pension  after  a  cerl:iiii  age,  Tlicy  are  !ia.ifti 
oil  t'  e  principle  of  mutual  insurance  ;  that  is  tu  sav, 
members  make  payments,  either  at  once  or  in  small  iic- 
riodical  sums,  and  thus  constitute  a  fund,  nut  of  which 
such  as  b:ip|M'n  to  fall  sick  or  to  survive  a  certain  im 
are  supplied,  the  uncertainty  attached  t-i  all  imlividuil 
concerns  being  lost  in  the  certiinty  which  uitendscaiiu. 
lations  involving  great  liUmbers.  In  .some  res|»'clii,  and 
for  siiiiie  cases,  joining  a  friendly  society  may  lie  betl« 
than  liocomiiiL'  a  (h'posilor  in  a  savings'  bank.  Siciinni 
iiiav  come  before  the  savings  are  (ontidernlili';  or. ifcrni. 
siderable,  they  may  Is-  melted  awi.y  by  a  lon2.ciintii:iHiii 
sickness;  but,  alter  tho  first  x^eekly  paynuiit  ieinaildo 
a  friendly  society,  tho  memlior  i.s  secure  of  .siiciour,  ho* 
ever  long  his  illness  may  rontiinie,  hesiiler,  perhaji^ 
other  ai!vaiiti;jOS.  It  is  possible,  on  tho  other  hawl,  that 
a  dirticulty  may  be  oxiKrieiieed.  in  eorlaiii  circuinslantei, 
in  keeping  up  the  wtM'kly  or  other  paymenls  required  to 
secure  the  Is'iielits  of  friendly  sociities.  Here,  howpier, 
it  may  Ik:  said,  there  ia  110  more  than  the  usual  wca- 


lit 
•0111 
lieu 
af 
roi 
aiij 
rratl 


•fo 

,  the 

is  V 

cal 


kiniy  tUachei 
of  1  lifh''."  ■ 

fonjlilfni''!" 
unoertsinti'i"  ' 
it  ia  to  lie 
liiinii,  that  inf 
nrinrijili'". "'  " 

Un  111.  ll"'"' 

Jisi|i|ii)illted 
BlwlicJ.  'I'll"* 
ti  110  |ir(i|"T 
(,ut  such  i^  "'"  '" 
inin  iiltaiiiablo. 
In.roriiliiw'uio  fri 
Miulmii,  and  by  v 
I ,  mi.i»|i>'ii''  '"'■R' 
i,,iv  1,1  st.ito  wd 

tjl;lli,n!lMlcllt  of 

fiK'li  an  lire  of  a 
Cine  :!reat   inif 
,j„,,  la  111  assume 
„ira,  wluitever  hi 
VDUiiiJf  r  members 
,.mi'  to  Ih*'  '''"' 
thifp  IK  a  rising 
Dill  ail  the  years 
f.iiiiil  thiit,  b?twe 
ail  nmu'C  to  be  I 
Iwofii  thirty  and 
oi  a  wft'k.     At  t' 
5  \,'ii,  two  week 
c:,'lv,t'riiiii  taking 
mi'out  the  pre 
filiiviii:,'  talile,  ll 
l!ii'  |,riipi)rtiiiii  of 
iiiliTvala  of  age ;. 


Aji-s. 


«10 

:lii, 

411.. 

M. 

jll.. 

ikl. 

Tho  ililfi'iciice  in  ' 


H'llU'llOC. 

■  ijcira 


The 


(i(/i'ii. 
.\iiiv,  II  ri'.'h'  friei 
riroiiiiislaiico.  Ti 
[■i  rloarly  making  I 
\viiii  shiiiihl  have 
paviiiij  all  along. 

.Vniitlii'r  great  < 
ciolii's,  is  ill  iiiakii 
olJ  I'rioiiilly  socieli' 
roii*i|uoiice  of  w; 
jwinenl,  or  peciil 
have  onlracled  til 
VMily  tomi.  The 
in  a  woll-oonstitut 
a.slht'y  lire  culled, 
ofttii  tho  keejier  ol 
will  bo  formed  in 
cants  for  ailiiiissi. 
whioh  (joes  into 
sohcino,  by  way  of 
f'llil,  naini'ly,  a  fun 
doposit  luiiil,  and 
u  jioilmps  a  weeli 
B«ci«'iry,to..;eiher 
:f  money  to  the  1 
lUtTe  ig  1  payijiLT 


SOCIAL  ECONOMICS      F  \UK  INDUSTi\'/>I'S  ORDERS. 


4«7 


Fi»e  HhilllM 

P«'wei>r 

i    1. 

T~" 

Ill     A 

III 

!»  I(i 

II 

40  1- 

7 

M  III 

a 

ril  ly 

"1 

Mi     4 

1 

1I>J    (1 

H 

nil  II 

.■i 

\M    5 

n 

ISI    '^ 

n 

,  .  lUacheil  to  nil  thinifd.  AiiHurdlly,  t\w  jrrniiijcinciit 
^    ij^hlly  I'OiiHtituU'il  t'rirnilly  Mix'i«tv  riiriiiKlioH  a  vory 

.l.^riihle  ilt'Bi'<-'>'  "f  Mourity  B(;airi»»  sorao  of  tlio 
fon*'"^  r  re 

iincerUinii''"  <"'  '"•'• 

It  Is  ii^'  '•"  "'K"'"'"''  "^  ''•'''  "'"'lli'nt  cliiHH  ((f  inHtllu- 
that  muny  of  tlu'in   arc   fiiinulcd   u|ii>ii  I'rroiiroux 

nriiili^H, or  rnthpru|)on  iio  prinoiplcH  at  nil;  niul  it  oOcii 
I  ,  (IS  ihorofiire,  tliat  IIioho  who  triHt  lo  llii'iii  an" 
I    iiiiDiiiU'il.  the  fuiiilH  fiilliiiif  short  bcforu  all  claiiim  aro 

*  iliJ.     Thin  wan  at  one  time  not  to  l»'  \vi)iuliTr<l  at, 
iiroixT  culiMilaticiiis  for  frioiKlly  Booirlics  cxisti'il; 

itsucli  in  II"  loni;cr  thu  casii,  for  miuiid  caliuilatioiw  itv 

in  iiltuiniilil''-  NoverthfloMS,  thiTo  in  utill  a  vaHt  r'  ,iiii- 
,  ,|-j;,^iiro  I'rictiilly  socictii'S,  prorci'ilim;  iilti  ;.  ihur  at 
•  iijiiiii,  ;iii''  '">'  which  the  induntrioiig  cIuhhoh  are  imluci'd 
'  .mj,i|,.|iil  larRO  nuirirt.  VV^  trust  that  what  w  -  lavc 
,,\v  10  »t.il«  will  lie  of  Bome  service  in  prini.i;  (lie 
slaliiWiiiii'ii' "'  """'"'  •""'■'■tit''*!  "lid  iiultiiig  uu.^i'  to 
^K'li  ax  uri!  of  a  dill'crciit  kind. 

One  ?rcnt  iniHtako  in  the  form,,  on  of  friendly  Hocie- 
(j.,,  is  111  iiHMUino  that  each  ineniher  Hhould  pay  an  ci|uiil 
,uni  whatever  his  a!?o  may  lie.  This  is  unjuHt ;  for  the 
rour'iitf  r  nieiuhj'rH  have  a  less  chance  of  IweoiiiiiiK  Imrden- 
81110  tn  the  I'iiuds  than  the  middle-aKed  ;  and,  indeed, 
.kre  i»  a  ri^inif  «calc  of  proliability  of  sickness  ihroiinh- 
oiil  all  llii"  .V*'^"  "*  "  'i'^"'*'  '''"■•  '1"''^'  Highland  Socii'ty 
fiiikl  that,  b?twoeii  twenty  and  thirty,  men  are  liable  at 
ail  ivprijc  to  be  half  n  week  indisposi'd  |)er  nimum.  I)e- 
tvvcf II  thirty  und  forty,  the  averaije  was  i.biiut  two-lliirds 
01  a  wet'li.  At  forty-six,  it  became  a  full  week  ;  at  firty- 
!\,'li.  Iwi)  week.-!;  at  seventy,  eleven  weeks.  'I'lie  So- 
fii'lv.lrom  takinat  unsuitable  firoi,  ;  fur  their  calcul  ilioiiK, 
Piii'oul  the  prc.babilitie:-  i' si "kiiess  too  low.  In  the 
|i!!ivin','  table,  three  set  A  ileuhilionH  are  niven,  us  to 
l!ic  l.roportiiin  of  sick  oui  one  hundred  at  particular 
iiitervali  of  age : — 


AfS. 

Ili);lilaikl 

K.TiKlisIi 

Hnii-fil 

Socielies. 

Mr.  I'.ilwarcis' 

'l'!ifnr*'ticiil 

Talile. 

20  10  .'ill, 
■»  ■  ■  III, 
411 . .  M. 
M  ■  ■  ilO. 

1  U 
1  I'J 
l!)7 
IKIII 

l.Vt 

1     -Tl 

•J  ai 

:nii 
l.U 

Tho  ililTcrcnco  in  tlie  three  columns  is  here  of  little  eon- 
K'liioncc.  They  at  least  aciree  in  re()re.sentin(;  iiirrcuse 
:•'  ijiim  IIS  nttenih'il  Utj  inn-rufrd  liii/iitilij  In  sirk'iirsn, 
.\iiw,  a  riorh'  friendly  society  i.s  boiuid  lo  advert  to  this 
nrfmustance.  To  admit  all  aires  at  an  ecjual  ii.iynienf, 
i^rliarlv  iiiakin)?  the  youiis^er  members  p»y  for  (he  elder, 
wild  shdiiKI  have  enleroJ  at  an  earlier  urc,  and  been 
paviiii;  all  ulotii^. 

Another  ureal  error  in  the  constitutiim  of  benefit  so- 
cipliii.  is  ill  iiiakiiis  them  for  a  year  only.  .Many  of  the 
old  frlcmlly  societies  havini?  ended  in  lUsappuintiiient,  in 
foiwiiucme  of  want  of  rinht  calculatiiais,  or  bad  inan- 
wpmi'iil,  or  pi'enlutwn  of  the  fiind.s,  the  workinn-ciasses 
have  contracted  the  notion  that  there  is  mop.  :ii;fety  iti  a 
yparlyterm.  The  iinmeiliate  payments  are  also  less  than 
in  8  well-mnstituted  friendly  society.  Yearly  societies, 
aslhi'V  lire  called,  usually  orii^inate  with  some  individual, 
aften  the  kecjier  of  a  tavern,  who  advertises  that  a  society 
will  be  I'orined  in  his  house  on  a  particular  day.  .\ppli- 
cants  for  .admission  pay  one  shillino;  fts  entry-monev, 
which  ffipi  into  the  poiket  of  the  originator  of  the 
scheme,  by  way  of  rent.  'I'he  objects  nn-  i;enerally  three- 
Wil,  namely,  a  fund  for  sickness  and  fuiuTal  expenses,  a 
deposit  luiiit,  and  a  loan  bank.  Towards  the  first,  there 
is  |ieihaps  a  weekly  payment  of  two-jience.  or  mere  if 
B«iwiry,lo..,rciher  with  the  interest  arising  from  the  loan 
3(  money  tj  the  members.  Towarils  the  deposit  funil, 
tuiTi;  II  1  paymviit  ranjjing  generally  from  sixpence  to 


two  HhiHinM'i,  thu  'ccumulationg  licing  rrreivej  b»ch 
when  the  society  ■  es.  The  money  deposited  in  en»» 
ployed  in  iimkimr  l>  is  to  such  of  the  members  iw  detir* 
such  aceoininodatio  within  the  amount  of  their  iieveriil 
entire  depuslts  for  i  e  year,  one  iwnny  |)cr  pu.ind  jicr 
month  beiiiK  cliarite'  by  way  of  interest.  The  surplua, 
if  any,  of  the  two(peneeH  und  interest,  after  sick  and 
funeral  money  books,  and  oilier  neeessarios  are  paid,  U 
divided  amor  i  tho.so  meinberK  who  may  lie  clear  of  the 
books  at  the  V  lose  of  the  society.  Some  such  societie* 
are  formed  !iy  a  spontaneous  assorialion  of  persons,  who 
preler  rentinif  a  room  for  their  meetinna,  and  thus  eseapa 
the  temptations  of  a  tavern ;  but  none  of  them  avoid  tbs 
errors  of  an  eipiality  of  payments  for  nil  bkch,  und  the 
yearly  dissolution.  The  youth  of  fifteen,  who  is  not 
huble  to  half  a  wck's  sickness  p"r  ann'im,  pays  us  much 
as  the  man  of  ''Ity-w.'ven,  wh  .  s  liable  to  two  week*. 
."Should  sickness  belidi  any  one  towards  the  close  of  the 
year,  he  is  left,  when  the  society  diB8«i'veB,  i)uite  unpro> 
vided  for,  beeuuse  he  wUinot  enter  anotlier  society  in  • 
stale  of  sickne.Hs,  Considered  us  a  deposit  for  savings, 
the  yearly  society  is  Btrikini;ly  interior  to  the  savings' 
liiink,  in  as  far  as  the  de|uisitor  cannot  take  nut  mone^ 
without  paying  an  exorbitant  rate  of  interest.  Finally 
tliesi'  societie''  are  Kcnerally  under  the  care  of  olmcurp 
persons,  w'  wm  '  •  no  s«ururily  for  the  limds  pl.aeed  in 
their  hands,  unj  wl  •  in  many  instonces  liecome  bank- 
nipt  or  abscond  fiefore  the  final  rcckoninR.  Yearly  no- 
cieties  are,  iiideed,  in  nil  points  of  view,  a  most  objeclion- 
able  class  n  '  inslitiitioiis.  to  which  working  jieoplc  would 
ne\  .  re.s  but  for  their  ignorance  and  unwariness,  ami 
the  leniptations  held  out  to  allure  them. 

A  Well-cons'  nted  friendly  society  involves  the  princi- 
ple of  paymei  .  approjiriute  to  particular  ages,  as  no 
other  plan  can  be  considered  eipiitable.  It  stands  forth 
before  the  working-clas.ses  as  a  perinanent  institution 
like  the  llte-iiisnr  nice  sncietlei  of  the  middle  and  upper 
clas.'-es,  and  Necessarily  reipiires  its  members  to  consider 
the  connection  they  form  with  it  as  an  enduring  on* 
because  its  grand  aim  is  expressly  lo  iiinke  provision  at 
one  period  of  liti'  (or  i  oiitimrencieH  which  are  to  arise  at 
another — yoiilh.  in  short,  to  endow  ohi  age  Uy  a  yearly 
soeiily,  a  man  is  b  It  at  last  no  better  than  he  was  at  first, 
us  far  as  that  smiciy  is  concerned;  but  the  pro]ier  friendly 
society  contemplates  his  enjoying  a  comfortable  and  indo- 
peiident  old  og'-  from  the  results  of  his  own  well-bestowed 
earnings. 

It  is  also  essential  to  tlie  character  of  a  proper  benefit 
siH-iety,  that  individual  •  In'  not  admitted  indiscrimiimtely. 
To  take  in  a  pr  ii  n  bad  health  or  of  broken  constitu- 
tion, is  unjust  u>  ':  o  rest  who  are  healthy,  bccau.se  he  is 
obviously  more  I'-dv  to  be  a  speedy  burden  to  tlio  funds. 
Here,  as  in  life-as^'...  ..ce  societies,  it  is  necessi.ry  to  ad- 
mit iiii'inln'rs  on'  upon  a  showing  that  they  are  of  sound 
coiisliliiliaii  anu  in  the  enjoyment  of  good  health.  And 
it  may  be  well  to  grant  no  Ix'iiefits  until  after  the  member 
bus  been  a  year  in  the  society.  By  tliesc  means,  men 
are  iiidiuvd  to  entci  when  they  are  hale  and  well,  instead 
of  iiostponing  the  step  until  they  have  a  pressing  need 
for  assistance,  w  len  their  endeavour  to  get  into  a  benefit 
siK'iety  is  little  e,  e  than  a  fraud. 

tfovernmeiit  has  thought  pro|x;r  to  interfere  with  its 
aid  in  the  format..."  jf  friendly  societies,  though  not  com- 
pulsory. An  association  of  jicrsons  fonning  one.  has  the 
means  of  ascertiliiing  the  soundness  of  its  principles,  and 
also  enlilles  itself  to  deposit  funds  ir  savinijs'  banks,  with 
the  government  se-'urity  and  libera  iulercst,  by  submit- 
ting the  proposed  ,  ■  ',  s  to  the  barristr  r  appointed  to  ccrtilj 
them  (at  pre.*'nt  Jonii  Tidd  Pratt,  Esq.),  I.i  whom  a  fe« 
oi'  a  guinea  is  payable.  I'ndcr  the  sanction  of  govern- 
ment, tables  have  been  formed  by  a  highly  competent 
person,  John  riiilaison.  Eso.,  A( '  :ary  of  the  National 
Ucbt,  for  the  guidance  of  friendly  societies;  and  thcs* 


4«8 


INFORMATIOX   FOR   THE   PEOPLE. 


•ra  raiily  t(i  '>p  hitil.*  no  thiil  ii  ik  i|iiitr  inPTi'iimililn  to 
procifd  u|ii)n  rniKliuii  ami  iiniiiithpniii'ntrti  iIiIh.  Uel'ore 
quoting  niiy  of  thrxe  liiMo,  \vii  »)iall  rmloavuur  to  ex- 
pUiii  how  tliry  urn  Kiriiipil. 

W«  have  nil  Mm  of  a  iH'ni'flt  norii'ly  in   it*   iiiin|i|(>iit 

fcrin,  if  we  «ii|iin>«<>  N  hiinilri'il  iiioii.  of  oxarlly  X\  y<'iir» 

of  ii\fe,  to  an'iociat)',  iiiiil   iiiaki*   Hiich  ii  |iiiyni<'iil  at  firnt 

M  may  l<«  »ure  to  nlliinl  earh   iiiiiii   lliiil   nhall  liill   nii-li 

Muring  llin  ciMuiii^  yi'ar  onr  Nhilhiii(  a  day  iliiriiiK  the 

term  uf  hia  niikiiosH.     'I'akiiiif  (for  tho  aiiki'  of  iiluKtra- 

tioii)  Iho   Hootti«h  •"l.loH,  wii   liiiil   that,   animin  Biich  a 

body  of  iii—i,  there  will  he  ahoul  0(1      ■•!  k.<  of  iHnriis  in 

!*•      our*)  of  the  year.     Tliiit,  inu'U;       '  hy  7,  ifiVtii  (lie 

wl,  'le   Hum   rpi|iiire(l,  X33,  'it.,  or  a  litthi    nioi>    tliaii 

4«.  tJ<l.  each,  wliirh,  Kna  '  _,    i  miiiill     imfor  iiilereHt,  will 

•ccordinKly  !>«■  the  er'y-nionry  of  e.r-h  man.     A  no -iety 

of  indiviiliials  of  dilli>.i'iil   ni(eH,  eiieh   |iayiiii{  tho  Hiiin 

whii'h  Would  in  like  inniiner  Ihi  found  iirojvr  to  hi«  age, 

would  Ih>  i|uiti    iM  ■ound  in  )irini-i|ili<    as  one  on  the 

•Ixjve    Rimple   iwhenie.      It    in    only   a  Htep  furlhcr    to 

equalise  earh  inun'H   annual    pnynientH   over   the  ivliole 

p<Tio(l   during  which   ho   undertakes   to   he   a   iiaying 

mcMilier. 

We  ihall  auppoee  that  the  luperannuation  allowance 


or  (Hiniiiun  ia  cnntoiii|ilated  at  funinionriiw  „(  in 
of  ane.  It  i«  nereaitary  to  eonHull  talilea  of  mo,  (jij,,"" 
order  to  aHeertiiln  how  n'  oiy  nmy  be  exiH-ci,,!  |„  .,'? 
that  ii«e,  and  liow  luiiu  e  .i  o;  vliom  haa  a  c.kv  ', 
aurvivin)(  it.  HaviiiR  already  treated  of  tallica  ,|  ' 
tallty  (hoc  the  article  on  liirK-Aaaim-^i  ,;^  ^,^  j«.  "'" 
ahall  not  any  much  on  Ihia  guhjeot.    The  tulilc  pnj'^ 


tiy  tho  Hinhland  HiN-iety,  aa  |iro|KT  for  frieiiilly  s,jri„j 
ia  B  mean  of  tho  Norlliainplon.  (',iili«le,  in„i  (^,vk1U 
tallica,  and  may  Im  regarded  aa  loleralily  safe  fur  l)olli||f 
aaaurance  and  aiuiuity  at-lieinea.  It  ahnwa  that,  of  Iw's 
lieraona  of  21  years  of  «({e,  no  fewer  than  6^8  r'c»,hilu 
a«e  of  no,  AM  'hal  of  70,  and  Ml  that  of  8U  ;  thu.  uZ 
ing  it  evident  Amc  ahmrd  il  it  f<  r  a  uwA-iin-  „wn  l„ih,l 
lltai  hi  lids  lift  txiremily  tnutt'  i  i  nv  o/  ifruwtiiji  utd  ^, 
to  nffd  a  provimihi. 

Another  jKjiiit  for  coiiaideroti  m  la  the  rate  at  whick 
the  fundi  of  tho  society  may  he  improved.  In  mu- 
vimcH,  we  helievc,  it  ia  U'at  for  aiich  aix-ictica  to  rent  con 
lent  with  taking  ailvanta^e  of  the  privilege  which  thpj 
enjoy  hy  act  of  parliament,  of  depoaitini;  tlicir  inoiipv  l]. 
the  funda  or  the  aaviii  '  Imiika,  in  which  caae  they  oli. 
t.iiufor  it  (conaiderini,'  the  half-yearly  paynicnl  of iiiU'rem 
about  i;3,  17a.  lid.  yearly.  ' 


-  i 


Tu'ul  value  in 
riti.i  niiincy 
of  tli«  three 
liciielil*. 


IS 

16 

17 

1 

l» 


«i 

S4 


9S 
ii>l 
37 


31 

M 
33 

•M 


£  $.  ,1. 
8  U  11 
H  It     l-t 

ii  14    H 
H  17     (H 
»    0  Idt 


0  4 

9  tl 

»  VJ 

M  17 

tu  1 


10   (»    s 
10  13     \h 

10  1(1  III 

11  3    4i 
11    7  III 


11  13    0< 

II  I!l  !' 

la  (I    \' 

:•-•  \->  ii 

1.^  IB  l(l| 


I'.<uiivnlellt 
Mimilily 

Ii 

Coiitriliuiioii 

0J3 

ccuH.iig  at  tlit- 

t^^  1 

.\i;n  <il  M. 

<■-  \ 

X    I.     d. 

(1    0    -1 

33 

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30 

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37 

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jy 

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40 

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41 

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41 

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4.5 

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47 

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Toial  vnliitf  in 
I'iy  iiionc) 
oi'  ilm  ilirac 
U>'iicaia. 


£ 
13 
13 
14 
14 


»     d. 

7  at 

tVl 

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14  17     Ii 


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13  14    4 

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lU  III 
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3i 


an  I!)  flj 
at  \^  uk 
aa  13  -i 
a3  n  of 
ai  13  Hi 


l-ijaivBllMlt 

Muiiilily 

CH)iilr  buiioa 

ceaKiiiK  ui  lilt' 

Age  of  113. 

■<^ 

X    1.    rf. 

0    1    H 

S9 

0    1    a 

3(1 

0    1     7 

47 

0     I     71 

0    1     8| 

0    I   10 

no 

0    1   11 

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tia 

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(I'l 

0    8    7        i 

07 

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70 

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71 

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73 

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Toml 

vuliic  in 

rcatty  niuiu'y  \ 

of  the 

Ilirci- 

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X 

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</. 

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I'oairilmiioii 

ccmingniiliB 

Aifforav 


£  I.   d. 

0    3    l-i 


Prowedin:?  upon  theee  or  nearly  aimihr  proiinda  of 
calculation.  Mr.  Finlaiaon  formed  the  talile  wiiirli  in  ijivcn 
above,  to  »how  in  one  aura  (and  also  in  an  ei|uivaleiit 
monthly  contrihution,  to  cca«!  at  the  ii|.;e  of  fi.')),  the 
»alue  of  an  allowance  of  four  ahillini;a  jxir  week  during 
nickneaa,  from  and  after  each  ai;e  until  fi.'i,  coniliiiied  with 
an  allowance  or  |)ension  of  2s.  per  week,  cuiiiinencing 
pavincnt  at  the  age  of  65;  and  further  comtiineil  with  a 
puynient  of  four  |K)uiidi  whenever  the  death  of  the  pur- 
rha«cr  ahall  happen. 

Wo  Would  here  call  particular  attention  to  a  point  of 
view  in  wiiich  aavings'  hanka  and  friendly  aocietiea 
tui/'.it  he  re;j:ardrd  as  favoiiralile  to  each  other.  It  will 
lie  obavrved  tiiat,  for  the  auin  of  aliout  thirteen  |>ounils 
at  the  ago  of  thirty-four,  a  man  can  insure  himself 
against  uhsolutt;  want  uiuler  all  fu'.ire  contingt'iiiiea 
ctci  pt  dcfuitnt  employniciit  Now,  at  that  a^e,  a  pru- 
dent and  careful  man,  who  has  lii-^iin  early  to  frequent 
the  Ravings'  hank,  may  wilhuiit  diiliouliy  have  saved 
•.hlrteen    pobiida.     Let    him    draw  his   tliirteeii   puuiuU 


•  *Vc  '-Ir.iiiriictioi'a  for  'h«  E«i«lili«hinrat  of  Friendly  Si)r:e. 
lipa"  Pr.iiii'l  by  W.  Clowes.  Lumlon.  lor  his  .Majciiy't  Sia- 
uoarry  Ollicc:   UJO. 


from  the  anvings'  hank,  and  place  it  with  the  frifiidii 
aociely,  and  he  is  all  Imt  an  ind.'ia-ii.lcnt  man  for  jifr 
'nils  is  u  course  hijjhiy  worthy  <if  the  atti-iilion  o( 
domestic  »<rvants,  who  in  the  latter  years  of  life  atcn 
ollcn  ej['0»ed  to  want.* 

•  I'ri'-nilly  •ocini.'s  ami  savinira'  tiaiik*  Komelimnupp^ifd 
rival  insliluIiniK.  and  ilicir  IH>|ieclive  imrils  arc  Itemiy  raj. 
va^sfd.  Iliiili  have  crrtiiMly  tlirir  pt*<'tiliar  Htlvanuiu'r^  'hitt 
ia  iiiiifh  in  tlu'  eontTiniiFnt-s*  of  havmi;  a  stiia!)  funil  siurfiljr, 
nnil  in  the  power  of  •■inployiiiK  it  lor  any  pariicular  piir|«itii 
plrttsiire  .  liat  II  ranniil  In-  iloiililml  Ih^ii  a  fc><.rvi'  iiiii.1  .sii>u 
ellicicnt  prolcrron  ii(,'»:n«i  con!  njii'iu-  •'v.  •^nch  us  slrkn'S*. iil 
il.'nih  iuelf.  than  oouai'i-'linn  w.th  a  »oioiil  fr.fnilK'  wktiv.  Tk» 
il.il'Tfnci^  inlikeihul  iMMWf.'ii  iukini{orie'i>  nskuf  luitirooSn 
Mtt-l  paying  in  loan  .ii-.;rutiet  o'Im-.-.  "  WIiiiicvit  llitff  .*4 
coiiiinj;' iifv.  the  rhi'npe<t  way  oi"  providiiiiT  iiKa:n«l  ii  !» '^ 
lining  Willi  oihers.  so  ihni  each  man  may  sulijecl  )i  mi«<7't}i 
/•niali  ilepriviii'Oii,  in  onK-r  thai  no  iiiiin  ma)  t.e  iiiibjcc!t'i]  lot 
^'r<-a:  In-,*.  1!',*  irricn  wlutrii  liti'  emi'  iii:**iu";.  I'.fi-'^  no!  ry!!,(lM-t 
not  Bi't  h  s  immey  hack  airnin,  nor  doea  h"  irel  liir  a  any  »•■!( 
fir  laniritdr  bi-e.eBl.  Imt  in- ohiiiina  setiiiruy  ai(iiiM4i  ruii,ar.J 
coil^iii.lrli".  pi  arc  or  iiliiid.  Ilr  ll|'un  wliii'iu  iIil-  ciiit  !i|(i';ilI 
df,es  fall,  jrits  all  ilini  iho*i'  wlinin  forniiii'  lm«  rK*'mp:''<i  fnai 
il  have  lo^i  in  hard  money,  and  la  thii«  enahled  loiuniainu 
■•w-ni  wh.eh  would  o:ht-rw.ae  uverwhelm  h.ia. 

'I'hi'  Individ. in!  d^posiior.  not  the  eon'ilniwr  to  «  foow 
find,  is  really  the  speeulator  II  noaickneas  niiackii  lain  <iiirii( 
lii>  y,'ur<  OI  sirenKlli  and  aetiviiy.  and  he  din  heinri  l.e  :<  put 
l.i'.fiiir.  he  hill  li'  ea  8ncceiii*ful  in  hi>  hpecu'uiina  hu'  .lifii' 
a.ck  at  ail  early  per.ud.  ur  if  be  live  to  old  age,  lie    •  ■  (nil 


•n^  icheme  o( 
|jlii.tnitc(l  hy  till 
proved  rharac tiT, 
■^  We  allu'l'' 
F,i,r.illy  H.H'i.t>i 
Thin  aocic'V,  »hl 
nl«"rs  i)f  and  f 
,  haiiii'"'  •""' 
,„crwi»«  coiineci 
UI  nil  persiina,  rai 
I,  liis  Ihri'o  «'|i 
Sifiai.''  i'"'"''  "' 

,H,:IHCf  fund.     ^   t 

ilif  iii.'iulieriliiriiii 
7^  6(1.  Il  wccli  foi 
ill  faliire  |>cri"'l  < 
irfofiliiiK  1"  •!»■*  "I 
tin!  ihetpiiftcr  his 
liiiinjoymcii:  oft 
of  ivluoll  ciititlea 
i»;ir,  comiiiciii  iiiij 
fiilrv.  <hic  aliari 
.ura'ol'jCl"  pnyil 

if  CO  or  fiS. 

Tho  rales  aro  en 
li.'kui'M  talile,  inci 
uJCiniiylii'i'iiiiK'ih' 
lif.iltby  men  are  a 
(loiinJi'iloftlii'N'orl' 
Uii;  l!ie  r.ilc  of  inte 
iiiii  the  only  i  liarg 
nullity  til  each  fun 
mm!  or  of  each  fui 
The  life  assuraii 
torn  Ihc  other  two, 
Ili  talile  being  the 
I  which  |ircsejils  the 
hunililcr  cla.^scs.  wt 
fi'inalei  arc  mlini.si' 
iciowQofeiitry-in 


"^        riivin.'ni. 


i.  J.  d. 

Ill 

■i  1-  10 

■a 

.1    1    71 

■i) 

3  III    111 

:« 

3  17    3 

*i 

4    4    7t 

W 

4  13    Ut 

SI 

5   a   S 

Ton 

Ht. 

S  iiKle 
I'av ni. 

19 
23 

J. 
■ii 

411 

ts 

JO   1 

X    1.    d. 
'i  I'-  hi 
3    4    71 
3  1ft    Rt 

3  17    3 

4  4    71 

4  13    (It 

5  a   5 

Th 
neitoi 

'  ricknoss  ant 
,  and  the  lalil 

Wr: 

or  his  «nvin^.'« 

I  him  I'lii  a  sliiiri  i,ri 

iiOiila)!<'.  leiiT  l;ir. 
I  uinii'iy  wliicii  he  r!_.. 
ited  10  mil!  wineii  i  .: 
I  kimieir  10  the  henelii 
I  who.  hiviiiEj  coii'rihic 
Ifmu.  had  never  reach 
I  imil*  OH  t'ririt'Hy  ,s',K-(, 


SOCIAL   ECONOMICS  OF  THK  INDUSTRIOUS  ORDERS. 


469 


■ry  irheiM  of  «  right  friendly  nocipty  mny  lie  further 

iratP'l  ^'f   '''"  "'''""'   i>''i'i>">?''i'i<"nl«   of  iirii!   of  nj*- 

"  '   J  flijfiidiT,  vvliii'h  hiiiUHMin  to   lio  well  known  to 

'"''  Wo  •""<'<■"   '-'   "'"    ^•ll"'>''"^^h  l^rliool   uf  ArU' 

''*■.  ,|||_  SiM'irty,  pBtablUlicil   alHiiit   thirtvci.  jenr*  ntfo. 

Th'«'»iH-ii'«yp  iilthouuh  oriijiiiiUiiig  with  ccrtuhi  of  iKo 

,  ii,,rri  of  arxl  frirliils  to  tin-  Hcliool  of  Arts  (ii  «|iecie» 

hiUiii'"' >'"*'''"''"")' *'"'  ("'^■■■K  ><■  luiiiiv,  ii*  not 

rwiM  roiin<'<'t<  (1  with   thut  iii!<tiliition,  hut  in  open 

liiill  writonn,  mall!  mid  fcrimh-,  rtnidiiin  in  Kdinburt^h. 

.   I      t|,[,i(j   m'liiiriilc    fumlH  or   wliciiied — nmiifly,  a 

<■kni.li  t'liii'l,  De/irrnl  .'Iniiiiily  Funtl,  ami  ii  life  .la- 

.,  fiiiiiL     One  ihiirt  of  ilio  HickiiiMH  fimd  (>atitli'« 

JJ|^i,„>l„li<TiliiriiiKi'ifliiirit«to  I  Ok.  a  Week  lor  ^2  wcekil, 

.   jii  „  ,vf'il(   for  oilier   62  wri'kn,  mid  f)»,  u  wri'k  fur 

II  /jj,,,,.,.  period  of  HifkiicHs  until  llio  ui;r   of  (10  or  OS, 

Mr.liiw  I"  •'"'  '"?"  "'  '<iii«'riinnuulion   fixod  ut  entry  ; 

Itlirrcaft'T  lii^  conliiHuli.iiiH  ceuiie,  nnd  he  entcrn  to 

i!  ■  niioviiK'ii'  of  the  DiJ  licit  Jlimtiily  Ftiml,    iie  Hlinre 

j' wliloli  eii'i''''"  '''I'  iiieiiiher  to  iin   iinnuity  of  X8  a 

,nT  comnit'iii  iii(J  at  the  ajje  of  (10  or  05,  uh  fixed  ut  hig 

mirv.    """  "'""'''  "'"  ''"'   ^''''*'  •^'■""'■"i'"'   i''i*ii'/  in  a 

umiti'il"  I'ltyilile   nt   the   iiiemlicr'g   deiitli.     In   thiH 

Qj,'  w  in  tliu  others,  the  cuntrilmtioiii  ccane  at  tno  age 

5(  cl)  or  fiS. 

Tht' rtttt'n  uro  raliuliiled  from  the  Highland  Soeietv'* 
li.kiu'M  t''W''i  inereii^ed  liy  50  per  eeril.,  wliicli    in  tliis 

jjinnylii'iimsidi'rediiHsiiiricicnt  (seeing  llmt  only  sound 
lifiltliv  iiu'ii  are  ii  linitted),  and  a  nuirtiilily  talile  coni- 
munJi'Ji'f'l"'^Uf''''""l''"".t'i»>'l'"'''.'"'d!SwediHli,  insuni- 

,  (1,1.  r.itc  (if  interest  at  4  per  eeiit.  aeeuinnlated  yearly  ; 
mil  the  only  i  liari;eH  lor  inaniineiiieiit  uro  'in.  (id.  entry- 
maiKVto  eaeli  Iniid,  and  Is.  a  year  pay  aide  by  eaeh 
Minli'toreiich  fund. 

Tlie  life  asHuranee  fund  of  this  soeiely  stands  apart 
(ju„i  ll,(.  oilier  two,  and  may  he  entered  independently, 
lu  lalili"  lieiiii?  the  only  one  wo  are  aeijuainled  with, 
itliirh  iire-'teiils  the  ttdvaiita.<es  of  life  ussuranec  to  the 
hjnililiT  classes,  we  exlraet  il.  It  is  t.)  he  <  hservcd  lliat 
fiinalca  are  lulmissihle  at  one-sixth  less  charges.  Half 
icfownoftiitry-mouey  is  charged. 

Lift  Jlsauninrc  Fund. 
CoiitnlMilions  renin  al  (10 


SiiikIh 

Aiiiiiial 

Frit 

Olher 

Aje. 

riiyiiifn!. 

Pnymetu. 

Mrillth. 

Montlia. 

i.    1.    il. 

,1.     (/. 

J.   ,1. 

1.    <i. 

11 

■2  l-^  1" 

:l    t 

II    7 

(1    3 

"S 

;t    t    TJ 

3  II 

1     i 

0    3 

:«i 

3  III    111 

4    Hi 

1)  mi 

U    4 

M 

n  17    3 

5    .-.J 

(1  mi 

0    3 

♦1 

4    4    7» 

(1    II 

1     3 

II    n 

« 

4  l:)    Ui 

H     1) 

1    s 

0   a 

SO 

5^5 

la  j» 

1     Si 

1    0 

Conlriljiiliniu  eensi-  nt  (W. 


S  nth 

Aiimiul 

riml 

Other 

hit. 

riiuii.nl. 

riiyrn,-nt. 

M.IMlll. 

Munilit. 

X    1.    (t. 

>.    d. 

$.    d. 

>.    d. 

19 

'->  ih  10 

3    3 

0    0 

tl    3 

39 

3    1    71 

3    !l 

I     Oi 

n  3 

,■>. 

3IA    Ri 

4    4 

n    Hi 

II    4 

Ill 

3  17    3 

r,    Ii 

II    Hi 

(1    5 

* 

4    4    71 

6    Ii 

(1    7i 

1)  n 

45 

4  13    Hi 

7    7i 

1   a* 

n  7 

JO 

,'.  a  5 

»  11 

I      H 

0  n 

I  The  rii'kness  and  nnnuity  fuiula  are  essentially  con- 
I  tected,  and  tlic  tahica  for  them  are  subjoined.    It  is  to  ho 

I  Vwr:  for  his  »nvii»p«.  with  tlietr  neeuinulatioiiA.  will  ?ni»port 
I  him  flit  a  short  uixw  in  sickiir,!*;  or  evt-n  if  In*  rniun  soiiietliin^ 
I  iiotil  a(tt'.  tiftiT  having  prov  d.-d  'i.r  li.*  i,ceiijmoii:il  iMiit  <<.  ijie 
linnNivwliich  hi- rmi  ihi'ri  piirrlm*'  will  lie  very  iiileriiir  in- 
I  liceil  10  lliut  which  lie  wuliid  liuvu  olilailD'd.  if  lie  luiil  eiiniletl 
I  liimicif  to  llic  hfiii'fit  of  llie  itct-iinintnted  !*ii\  ii'^i**  of  all  iluts,^ 
I  who,  h  iviiiir  c'lm'nbitii'd  for  iiiiniy  yi-on  to  o  Hiip'-ruiiiiniit'oii 
I  f'liio.  httil  nri'i'r  riMicnt'd  an  muk  to  reqiiiro  it." — /i#porl  of' Coin- 
\mtUtm  t'rirmlUj  St^U.titX,  l?r2J. 


remarked,  that  two,  three,  or  four  iharea  may  ho  taken 
in  all  of  these  funds.  Toward*  lh«aiiiii.iity  fund  fenialri 
pay  oiie-fourlh  niliiMioiial,  in  eonsideraiion  uf  their  Uvei 
being  so  much  better  thaii  thus*  jf  men. 

Sickii'in  FuniL 
Comrlbuilont  uia  lleiicQtt  coaae  atOU. 


Afo. 

KlIKla 

Annual 

First 

Otiier 

I'u)  iiiant. 

Pnyiiniit. 

Moiiili. 

Months. 

t    .1     •/. 

X    (.    d. 

1.    d. 

1     d. 

Ill 

m   3  III 

0  11    tl 

I    S 

II  11 

W 

III  14  r> 

0  la    »k 

I    Hi 

I    (1 

341 

II     U    Hi 

tl  14     1 

I     9 

1    8 

Ills 

0  III    il 

I     11 

1    4 

411 

Il  III  n 

II  IM     U 

it    3 

1    6 

4.') 

S(l 

11    17  Ul 
lU  IH    u 

1     ii    4i 

1    ft    7 

8    Si 
8    U 

I  10 
8    8 

Conlriliutioiit  and  lleneliti  ceaa*  at  IIS. 


Age. 

Sinirlo 
rayiiii'ni. 

A    niMil 
I'll'  mini. 

Kiral 
Month. 

Other 
Monlhl. 

Ill 

■a 

3(1 
33 
411 
45 
5(1 

tl     3 
11  Iti 

la  \A  ., 

13  l;l    u 

14  14    III 

15  1 

m    1 

£    ».    <l. 

II  11    4 
1  Hi 
U 
Ii 
li 
1     5     It 
1    II      I 

«.    d. 
1    4 

3    Hi 

a  II 

a  Iff 

a  8 

'.    4 

1    0 

1 

3 
.     II 
1     » 

a  t 

a  7 

Fund, 
Cuniriliulions  cease  nt  flO. 


Age. 

Single 

Annual 

First 

Other 

I'uyini  nt. 

Payment. 

Munth. 

.Moniht. 

X     1.    d. 

£    I.    it. 

».    d. 

f.    il 

10 

7  15    11 

II    H    4 

1    0 

0    ^ 

•J.'i 

III  III    n 

11  la   fi 

I      H 

1    0 

311 

I.I    II    -I 

(1  17    5 

I   10 

1     S 

.•w 

17     M    5 

I    4    71 

a  7i 

8    0 

411 

a.'  14     1 

1  III     1 

.1   1 

3    II 

4.'i 

ao  17    3 

a  III  a 

4  10 

4     ■< 

15(1 

.'ID  Kl    7i 

4  111  11 

8  11 

H    U 

Contrihiiliona  cease  at  08. 


Ago. 

Siiiule 

Annual 

First 

Other 

Pnjmciil. 

!'»>  IIIIMII. 

Month. 

Moiiilia. 

X    J.    d. 

£    J.    -/. 

».    '/. 

«.    d. 

10 

4     .1    H 

0   4  nil 

1    ai 

0    4 

as 

.■5  1!)  Hi 

0    7    0 

0    7 

0    7 

30 

7  13  Hi 

II     0     H 

I     3 

0    0 

35 

!l  H  II 

0  I.I  a 

1     .1 

I     1 

40 

I  a  10  3 

0  H    01 

a  3i 

1    0 

4.0 

17     Hill 

1   7  nil 

3    11 

a  3 

5(1 

aa  14  II 

a  3  11 

4    0 

3    7 

The  followinfc  is  an  example  of  the  payments  required 
for  one  share  in  all  the  three  funds ;  namely — 

Payments  to  ceaae  at  60. 


Age, 

Annual 
riiyniciil. 

Monthly 
rayiiient. 

a.5 
.'10 
33 

X    ..     rf. 
1  III    3 

1  17    3 

2  (i    3 

£    ...    d. 

0  a  HI 

0    3    U 
0    3  III 

Pnymenta  to  cease  at  68. 


Age. 

Annual 
Payininl. 

Monthly 
rnyment. 

as 

30 
35 

X    ,«.    d. 
1    5    0 
I  10    71 
I   17    5 

X     ,1.     '/. 

0  a  a 
0  a  01 

0    3    li 

So  that  n  person  of  the  age  of  C),  for  on  entiy-inoneT 

of  7s.  Hi!.,  nnd  the  payment  of  2s.  2d.  a  niontli  until  the 

I  age  of  ()5 — or  XI,  5,s.  Dd.  ii  vear — may  securu  an  allow- 

2  k 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


I.I 


1.25 


"92.8     i 
1^ 


2.5 


si^^l 


21 

20 

1.4     !|  1.6 


^^ 


/] 


/. 


^% 


>,    > 


VI 


o 


7 


*^////J 


/A 


Photographic 

Sciences 
Corporation 


33  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14580 

(716)  872-4503 


^ 


"'■«,■' 


•ftJ^ajlO     INFORMATION  POR  THE  PEOPLE.  i.'CJ* 


'itnca  of  lOs.  a  week  dwringf  sickncsB  for  63  weeks;  7g. 
ltd.  a  week  for  other  62  weeks ;  and  5s.  a  week  during 
ilha  whole  remaining  period  of  sirkiiesH,  until  the  age  of 
65,  an  annuity  of  £8  a  year  during  life  after  65,  and  a 
■um  of  jCIO  at  death. 

Or,  for  4g.  4d.  a  month,  or  £2,  lis.  6d.  a  year,  double 

>  of  tlicse  allowances. 

At  an  examination  of  the  society's  trnnnactions  and 
fiinds  in  December,  1840,  it  was  found  that,  after  twelve 
years  of  buKincss,  when  the  deaths  of  unfrce  mcniliers, 
or  persons  who  died  in  the  first  year  of  membership, 
were  deducted,  the  mortality  was  within  that  allowed 
for  the  tables ;  and  that  all  the  throe  funds  were  in  a 
good  condition,  each  showing  a  surplus  over  what  is 
necessary  to  make  good  the  claims  to  which  it  was 
liable,  when  the  value  of  the  future  contributions  was 
taken  into  account  against  the  value  of  the  promised 
benefits. 

For  those  who  find  occasion  to  go  deeper  into  the  sub- 
ject of  friendly  societies,  with  a  view  to  founding  such 
institutions,  we  would  recommend  a  careful  perusal  of 
the  work  which  Mr.  Charles  Ansell  prepared  for  the 
Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge,  ond  which 
was  published  by  that  society  in  ISS."),  Much  benefit 
might  also  be  derived  fi-om  Mr,  William  Frascr's  pa(>ers 
on  Friendly  Societies,  published  in  Professor  Jameson's 
Philosophical  Journal  in  1 827. 

THE    LOAN    80CIETT. 

The  modern  history  of  Scotland  has  proved  that  ad- 
vances of  money  to  perso!is  of  the  trading  class,  made 
by  the  banks  under  prudent  cautions  with  resi)ect  to 
necurity  and  the  ptrsonal  charncter  of  the  borrowers, 
have  a  beneficial  ctiect,  supplying  materials  on  which 
industry  may  work,  ;ind  at  once  enabling  many  indivi- 
duals to  thrive,  and  giving  a  powerful  impulse  to  the 
country  at  large.  The  well-cultivated  face  of  our 
northern  region  Iwars  powerful  testimony  to  this  fact. 
The  institution  called  a  Loan  Society  contemplates  the 
••me  benefits  to  be  conferred  on  an  humbler  portion  of 
the  trading  class  than  those  who  resort  to  banks.  By 
making  small  advances  to  such  persons,  it  enables  them 
tc  make  little  ventures  in  business  which  they  could 
not  otherwise  have  attempted,  and  often  sends  them 
forward  upon  a  career  which  leads  to  their  permanent 
advancement  in  life.  The  purchase  of  a  cow  or  horse, 
of  farm  or  mechanical  implements,  the  discharge  of 
rent,  and  the  fitting  out  of  a  child  for  serx-ice  or  ap- 
prenticeship, are  among  the  chief  objects  for  which 
■uch  loans  are  desired  in  the  humbler  walks  of  life. 
One  might  at  first  sight  dread  the  effects  of  such  anti- 
cipations of  income ;  but,  practically,  the  loan  system, 
when  rightly  conducted,  works  well,  and  is  productive 
of  much  good.  "  A  loan  fund,"  says  a  late  writer, 
"is  a  savings'  bank  reversed,  and  even  leads  to  the 
Mvings'  bank,  if  well  managed.  For  instance,  I  have 
before  me  now  the  case  of  a  man  who,  though  he  has  a 
(kmily,  is  able  to  put  by  at  least  one  shilling  weekly. 
I  might  have  urged  him  for  ever  to  do  so,  but  it  would 
have  been  to  no  purpose.  He  came  to  me  to  borrow 
OOi.  from  tte  loan  fund  to  buy  com  to  fatten  his  pig ; 
he  paid  back  this  regularly  at  the  rate  of  one  shilling  a 
week ;  and  at  the  end  of  thirty  weeks  I  said  to  him, 
'  Now,  you  have  been  owing  me  money,  and  have  felt 
DO  inconvenience  in  paying  it  back ;  why  should  you 
not  begin  to  make  me  oii-f  ynu  ?'     He  had  nothing  to  j 

say  to  this,  and  is  now  a  regular  depositor  in  the I 

Savings'  Bank  through  my  hands."*  ' 

Loan  societies  are  not  institutions  of  yesterday ;  but, 
imtil  a  recent  period,  there  were  none  upon  an  eijiii-  1 
table  or  philanthropic  footing.     Government,  sensible  of 

•  "Prospects  and    PreBeiil    Hondition    of  the    I.nhoiiring 
('lasses."    By  a  Beneficed   C  i-rgyman.     T.  and  W.  Uuoiic,  : 
lAndon 


the  erroneous  principles  on  which  they  were  mnanii. 
conducted,  obtained  an  act  in  1835  for  their  better  r« 
lation.  By  this  statute  certain  benefits  wcro  held  ** 
to  SUCH  loan  societies  as  should  be  formed  upon  nri 
ciples  approved  of  by  a  revising  barrister,  and  enroll "i 
in  conformity  with  the  provisions  of  the  net  for  ben  f 
societies.     The  principal  benefits  offered  were         ' 


tion  from  stamp-duty,  and  certain  powers  for  recovcn 
of  loans.  Enrolled  loan  societies  were  forbidden  Ire 
this  act  to  make  loans  of  above  fifteen  pounds  orl 
make  in  any  instance  a  second  loan  until  the  first  should 
bo  paid  off.  A  scheme  of  rules  for  a  loan  socjetT 
conformable  to  law,  is  presented  in  the  pamphlet  quoted 
below.* 

It  seems  here  necessary  to  state,  in  the  most  emjitii 
terms,  that  loan  societies  formed  by  interested  indivi. 
duals  are  entitled  to  no  confidence,  being  almost  ^niTe^ 
sally  usurious  and  oppressive  in  their  nioJca  of  dcalinj 
and  a  source  of  great  misery  to  the  poor.  There  m 
about  two  hundred  loan  societies  in  London,  and  ainiost 
without  exception  they  are  of  the  same  character  u 
pawnbroking  establishments.!  On  this  sulijeet  we  quotj 
the  following  passages  from  a  valuable  communication 
v^'iich  appeared  in  the  Timfx  newspaper: — "They gene. 
rally  originate  with  a  knot  of  small  tradesmen,  who, 
having  a  surplus  over  the  demands  of  their  immediaij 
business,  find  in  them  a  profitable  employment  of  their 
money.  A  capital  of  £500  has  been  known  to  start 
such  a  society— the  paid-up  capital  eventually  to  be 
£2000  in  shares  of  £5  each.  It  is  very  rare  that  the 
whole  of  the  capital  is  at  once  paid  down,  'i'heir  ralpi 
in  the  outset  describe  the  name  and  the  constitution  of 
the  society  ;  then  follow  the  tcrn)H  on  which  the  shire. 
holders  have  taken  their  shares,  and  the  manner  la 
which  they  are  to  Vcceive  a  return  for  embarking  inonej, 
which  is  the  allowance  of  4  per  cent,  interest  per  an- 
num on  the  amount  of  subscription,  while  the  balance 
of  profit  afterwards  accruing  is  to  be  declared  as  a  divi. 
dend.  There  are  separate  rules  which  apply  to  the  bor- 
rowers from  the  society,  which  are  called  the  '  borrowerj' 
rules.'  The  general  "lace  of  business  is  a  piil)lic  house; 
some  few,  but  very  few,  arc  carried  on  in  offices  hired 
for  the  purpose.  The  borrower  has,  in  the  first  instance, 
to  call  on  the  secretary,  director,  or  treasurer,  all  of 
whom  are  allowed  to  sell  (at  a  profit)  what  are  termed 
'application  papers,'  and  purchase  one  (they  are  cilhci 
2d.  or  3d.  eachi,  fill  in  the  amount  of  the  loan  he  re- 
(luircs,  and  leave  it  with  the  name  of  one  or  two  sur» 
ties,  according  to  the  amount,  for  the  inspection  of  tie 
directors.  He  calls  again,  and  has  to  pay  Is.  for  his  sj. 
curity  being  inquired  into,  which  goes  into  the  pocketof 
the  director  whose  turn  it  happens  to  Ixj  to  look  afci 
the  securities,  the  emolument  of  this  office  always  going 
in  rotation.  He  calls  again,  and  is  told  whether  or  noi 
his  security  is  sufficient ;  if  not,  he  gives  another  scn> 
rity  and  another  shilling;  if  it  is,  he  is  told  to  call  on  i  1 
certain  evening  when  the  loans  are  made,  and  hewiliV 
atteiuled  to.  Should  ho  give  half  a  dozen  securilit!,  I 
and  none  prove  acceptable,  he  pays  his  six  shillings-foi 
nothing  is  returned.  When  the  evening  arrives,  hcii 
called  in  his  turn  before  the  secretary,  treasurer,  and  tro 
directors,  who  form  the  authorized  court  for  the  tondirl 
of  the  business.  He  is  asked  what  amount  he  wishes  lo 
borrow.  Perhaps  it  is  £5  for  six  months;  the  first  Ihinj 
is  to  deduct  5  per  cent,  from  the  amount  of  the  loan. 
Is.  for  tho  book  with  the  '  borrowers'  rules.'  in  whidi 
willbe  made  the  entries  of  his  wcekk  payments  (for  tin 
loan  is  repaid  in  this  maimer),  and  aie  first  week's  i» 
Btalment,  and  then  in  addition  Id.  in  part  paymentofthi 


• '•Tiistrucl'ons  for  the  Estahlishmont  of  I.onn  SocieiiM. 
frfindon;  I'rinicd  liv  W.  Clowi-s  and  Pons. for  his  Majfiiy' 
Stni'nncryOiricc:  i«n7.  ,         »         , 

t  Pee  •■  A  Guide  to  nearly  One  Hundred  Loan  Sociti* 
London :  W.  Strange. 


SOCIAL  ECONOMICS  OF  THE  INDUSTRIOUS  ORDERS. 


171 


luudred  Lo«ii  Sociei*' 


J  of  the  officr  and  Id.  towardg  the  iccretaiy's  rtalary, 
hoth  of  which  cjcpcnscs  ho  is  obliged  by  the  'rules'  to 
kftr  in  common  with  the  rest  of  the  borrowerB,  weekly. 
Rhottid  he  fail  to  keep  up  his  weekly  instalinrnts,  he  is 
„jttten  to  by  the  secretary  calling  upon  him  to  pay,  and 
for  this  letter  he  is  chiirged  3d.,  a  fee  for  the  benefit  of 
the  secretary.  If  ho  does  not  pay  due  regard  to  this,  he 
I.  gt  the  expiration  of  three  weeks,  summoned  before 
Ihe  magistratiis  of  the  district,  who,  however,  have  shown 
■  (liiinclination  to  enforce  the  payment  of  the  extras, 
ind  have  confined  their  decisions  merely  to  the  sum  due 
to  the  society  after  the  deduction  of  the  legal  interest. 
That  these  societies  occasionally  sustain  losses  there  is 
no  doubt,  but  they  arc  trivial  in  comparison  to  the  im- 
mense profits  tlicy  make,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  fact 
that  one  of  them,  upon  a  capital  of  £2000,  was  known 
to  declare  on  the  first  half-year's  business  a  dividend  of 
16  per  cent.,  and  on  the  second  half-year  a  dividend  of 
18  per  cent." 

A  proper  loan  society  is  a  modest  association  of  phi- 
lanthropic persons,  connected  with  some  limiti'd  district, 
who  wish  to  aid  the  meritorious  poor  of  their  neigh- 
bourhood with  sinoll  advances  of  money,  with  or  without 
Ihe  prospect  of  a  small  interest  for  their  outlay.  Anxious 
only  for  the  good  of  their  humble  neighbours,  they  ex- 
tend their  aid  on  terms  strictly  equitable;  while  they 
guard  against  abuses  of  another  kind,  by  making  loans 
only  where,  from  personal  knowledge,  they  are  assured 
tliat  a  good  use  will  be  made  of  the  money.  It  is  only 
In  such  circumstances  that  a  loan  society  will  do  any 
iTOod,  as  it  is  only  under  certain  circumstances  as  to 
jinidence  and  careful  management  that  the  Scotch  sys- 
fcm  of  banking,  which  loan  societies  resemble,  is  at- 
tended with  the  contemplated  results. 

As  far  as  our  information  enables  us  to  judge,  the  loan 
fund  system  is  nowhere  on  a  better  footing  than  in  Ire- 
land. Private,  irresponsible,  and  usurious,  loan  soci- 
eties exist  there,  as  elsewhere,  but  apparently  in  less 
proportion  to  those  of  a  beneficial  character.  The  ex- 
tensive utility  of  loan  funds  in  Ireland  is  owing  to  the 
establishment,  by  an  act  in  1836,  of  a  central  board  of 
commissioners,  with  power  to  inspect  the  books  of  all 
locieties  fonned  under  the  act.  In  consequence  of  this 
statute,  there  are  now  fi-om  two  to  three  hundred  loan  fund 
societies  throughout  Ireland,  conducted  on  philanthropic 
principles,  and  said  to  be  producing  a  great  amount  of 
good.  In  these  societies,  all  profits,  after  paying  clerk's 
salary  and  other  unavoidable  expenses,  are  applied  to 
charitable  purposes.  It  appears  that  in  1840,  215  such 
societies  were  circulating  £1,164.046  among  463.7.'J0 
borrowers,  and  that  £15,477  of  profit  had  been  realized 
in  three  years. 

Mr.  S.  C.  Hall,  in  the  agreeable  work  on  Ireland  p\ib- 
lished  by  him  and  his  lady,  gives  the  following  account 
of  the  way  in  which  one  of  these  societies  is  usually  con- 
stituted, and  the  manner  in  which  the  business  is  subse- 
quently conducted : — "  The  resident  gentry  of  some 
locality  in  which  no  loan  society  exists,  perceive  that 
luch  an  institution  is  required,  or  would  benefit  the  peo- 
ple in  the  district  A  meeting  is  called,  and  as  many  os 
ire  inclined  to  l)ecomo  depositors  stale  their  intention  of 
taking  debentures  from  the  new  society,  for  which  they 
receive  interest,  in  some  places  five,  and  in  others  six 
per  cent.  One  party  is  voted  treasurer,  another  hono- 
rary secretary,  and  three  or  four  others  trustees,  Rules 
for  the  government  of  the  society  are  then  drawn  up,  ami 
it  is  unpcrative  that  each  set  of  rules  shall  contain  a  pro- 
vision tl.at  no  manager  or  trustee  shall  directly  or  indirect- 
ly deriv»  any  profit  from  it.  Anotl; ->r  rule  nnist  ascertain 
the  limit  to  which  the  managers  shall  be  nt  liberty  to  go 
in  eiptuises  of  man»goment ;  and  a  third,  that  the  trea- 
niter  shall  become  bound  with  solvent  sureties  in  a  rea- 
wnable  amount  for  the  faithful  performance  of  his  duties. 
Theic  rules  are  then  transmitted  to  the  secretary  in  Dub- 


lin Castle,  for  the  approval  of  the  board,  who  make  an« 
alteration  in  them  they  may  deem  expedient;  and  thii 
copy  is  then  retamed  to  the  society,  that  three  fair  tran- 
scripts may  be  made  and  sent  up  for  certification.  On 
tlieitr  reaching  the  secretary,  he  submits  them  to  the  cer- 
tifying barrister,  who,  if  they  are  in  accordance  with  the 
acts,  attaches  his  certification  and  signature  that  such  is 
the  case.  One  of  these  transcripts  is  then  lodged  in  the 
office  of  the  secretary  to  the  board,  another  with  the 
clerk  of  the  peace  of  the  county  in  which  the  society  is 
situated,  and  the  third  is  transmitted  to  the  treasurer  of 
the  society,  as  a  voucher  that  his  society  is  entitled  to 
the  privileges  conferred  by  the  act. 

The  society  is  then  in  legal  existence,  and  commence! 
operations.  A  person  is  appointed  clerk,  and  to  him 
the  intending  borrowers  apply  for  application  papers, 
which  are  according  to  the  form  printed  in  the  note," 
and  for  each  of  which  a  penny  or  a  halfpenny  is  generally 
charged. 

This  being  filled  up,  and  returned  by  the  applicant, 
his  solvency  and  general  character,  with  those  of  hb 
sureties,  are  considered,  by  one  or  two  of  the  trustees  in 
council  met  for  the  purpose,  and  if  approved,  the  full 
loan  applied  for,  or  such  portion  of  it  as  tliey  may  think 
proper  to  grant,  is  paid  to  the  borrower,  stopping,  at  the 
time  the  loan  is  issued,  sixpence  in  the  pound  by  way 
of  interest.  The  borrower  then  receives  a  card,  on 
which  the  amount  lent  to  him  is  entered,  and  the  instal* 
mcnts  he  pays  are  marked  oft'.  A  duplicate  of  this,  oi 
a  proper  account  of  the  transaction,  is,  of  course,  booked 
by  the  society.  The  borrower,  and  his  sureties  for  him, 
bind  themselves  to  repay  the  amount  of  the  loan  in 
twenty  weeks,  by  instalments  of  one  shilling  in  the 
pound  per  week.  Thus,  if  a  borrower  applies  for  a  loan 
of  £5.  which  is  approved,  the  society  hands  him  £4, 
17a,  fld.,  retaining  two  shillings  and  sixpence  as  interest. 
lie  then  pays  five  shillings  for  twenty  weeks,  and  the 
£6  is  paid  olT.  Should  <Jlie  borrower  run  into  default, 
he  subjects  hir.iself,  in  moot  societies,  to  a  fine  of  one 
penny  for  the  first  weelt,  and  tlireepence  for  the  second 
and  every  succeeding  week,  on  each  pound  lent  him  ; 
and  should  he  remain  two  weeks  in  default,  his  sureties 
receive  notice  that  they  will  be  sued  for  the  amount,  to- 
gether with  the  fines  incurred ;  .ind  unless  the  borrower 
comes  in,  this  is  immediately  done.  But  in  the  very 
great  majority  of  cases  no  such  steps  are  necessary,  the 
poor  borrowers  being  generally  very  punctual  in  the 
repayments. 

It  has  been  objected  by  some,  that  the  borrowers  lose 
their  time  in  repaying  these  instalments,  but  in  practice 


•  Api'licatio?(  for  a  Loan  from  tiik  — ^^ 

Former  I. oon  (if  any) 
Amount.  £  Vines, 

I. ,  of — ,  pai  ish  of 


Loan  Socirt. 
No. 
J.       d. 

.  county  of 

,  of  which  the  Petty  Ser ,~  niis  are  held  ni ,  and 

liolding  acres  of  laud,  Tt.iiieM  lliat  I  may  lie  acrommo. 

dnh'tl  with  pound  shillings,  uccordiiig  to  the  rules 

cf  the Loan  I'nnd,  which  I  intend  to  employ  in  , 

nnd  of  which  I  soiiMimly  declare  that  the  whole  is  to  be  applied 
to  my  own  use,  and  not  divided  with  any  other  person. 


I  certify  that  the  above-named '  if  personally 

known  to  mc.  and  that  I  consider           to  be  a  solvent,  honest, 
indiiAirions  person,  and  that  I  believe  the  above  statement  lob* 
perfectly  correct. 
Given  under  my  hand,  this         day  of  1?4  , 

*  Signed, of 

[It  is  requested  that  no  person  will  certify  for  an  umomAli 
rEBBON.  or  for  one  who  does  not  live  industriously  in  some  o«JI- 
inp.) 

We  whose  names  are  hereunto  subscribed,  will  Rnnrautee 
Ihe  pnyment  by  a  promic sory  noto  of  £       ,       .». ,  to  the  Irea- 

Hurer  for  the  time  being  of  the  ■ Charitable  I.oan  Society, 

applied  tor  by 


riven  under  our  hand  this 


are  held  at  ■ 


day  of 
of  which  the  Petty  Sesiioni 


,  possessed  of  property  in  - 


to  the  value  of  at  least  £ 

of- ,  of  which  the  Petty  Sessions 

are  hold  at .  possesses  sf  property  in  ui 

tlic  value  of  at  laaM  f^ 


in 


^{Jt^v   'NPOHMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


■,fs*.|»fy*!V 


ttie  |^er■onBl  attenJance  of  the  borrower  or  his  surettua 
M  teldora  given.  The  inKtalraonU  of  a  whole  neighbour- 
hoofa  are  frequently  brought  in  by  a  child,  or  some  old 
pmson,  fit  for  no  other  employraont,  who  goes,  per  vicrm, 
for  two  or  three  town  lands.  '  Indeed,'  remarks  the  Rev. 
Mr.  Nixon,  of  CaHtIc  Town,  <it  is  quite  dchghtful  to  see 
the  confidence  reposed  by  the  borrowers  in  the  persons 
who  carry  their  instalments,  and  also  the  fidelity,  and 
accuracy,  nay,  even  the  tact,  that  these  latter  evince  in 
the  discharge  of  the  duty  they  have  undertaken.'  In 
some  pKices  the  amount  of  interest  charged  is  loss  than 
that  above  Htated,  and  in  others  the  fines  are  higher. 
There  is  no  uniformity  in  these  matters,  nor  have  the 
central  board  any  power  of  enforcing  it,  though  it  is  evi- 
dently desirable." 

Mr.  Hall,  adverting  to  the  Third  Report  of  the  Loan 
Fund  Board  to  Parliament,  says — « It  appears  by  this 
retum-jand  thu  circumstance  is  so  remarkable  as  to  ap- 
pear at  first  incredible — that  out  of  an  amount  of 
£l,ltf4,046  circulated  in  small  loans  among  463,750  in- 
dividuals, so  small  an  amount  as  £360,  ISs.  8d.  only 
should  have  been  lost,  or  about  iq.  in  the  pound.  We 
were  rery  skcpttc-al  on  this  point,  and  consequently  di- 
rected vigilant  attention  to  the  subject;  when,  what  was 
oar  surprise  to  find  that  even  this  £360 — this  ig.  in  the 
pound — is  considerably  more  than  has  been  really  lost, 
or  left  deficient  by  the  poor  borrowers !  From  the  '  list 
of  societies  whose  accounts  show  a  loss  on  the  transac- 
tions of  the  year  1840,  after  paying  interest  to  depositors 
and  expenses  of  management,'  we  took  the  first,  namely, 
Mitchelstown,  where  the  reported  loss  was  £43,  Ss.  Cd., 
when  we  ascertained  that  this  society  lent  during  1840, 
£6420  among  3070  borrowers,  who  paid  £135,  or  six- 
pence in  the  pound,  for  its  use,  besides  £11,  10s.  lOd. 
for  the  price  of  their  applic.tion  papers  and  curds.  The 
society  paid  in  interest  for  money  lent  to  it,  and  expenses 
of  management,  £190, 38. 4d.,  and  the  (liffercnce  between 
its  receipts  and  disbursements  constitutes  this  £43,  Ss. 
6d.,  not  one  j)onny  of  which  was  lost  from  dcfiuilters. 
We  are  iiilbrnied  by  a  person  in  every  way  competent 
to  judge,  it  is  his  firm  belief  that  out  of  this  £1,164,046 
lent,  not  the  odd  £46,  or  not  mic-iciilh  of  a  farthing  in 
the  pound,  was  unpaid.  This  fact  alone  8|)cnks  volumes 
for  the  honesty  of  the  people,  arul  their  appreciation  of 
tlie  benefit  which  the  loan  funds  confer  on  thein. 

"It  has  been  argued  that  this  security  from  loss  has 
■risen  in  conse(|uencc  of  the  power  which  the  law  gives 
for  the  recovery  of  the  loans ;  but  the  oliservnlion  is 
equally  api)lieal>le  to  societies  more  strictly  jiriviitc.  For 
example,  in  iVew  Ross  a  society  h.is  been  estalilished 
upwards  of  forty  years,  for  the  lending  small  sums  to 
the  poor;  and  the  sum  lost  during  the  whole  of  that 
period  is  within  live  pounds.  This  fact  we  give  upon 
the  authority  of  the  Rev.  George  Carr;  we  could  nd- 
duoi  others  equally  strong,  and  we  have  no  doubt  might 
receive  similar  statements  from  nearly  every  institution 
of  the  kind  in  Ireland.  We  rejoice  greatly  at  the  o])- 
portunity  thus  supplied  us  of  bearing  out  by  unques- 
tionable proofs  our  own  opinions  in  favour  of  the  honesty 
of  the  Irish  |)easant.  It  is  indeed  a  sulijcct  upon  which 
satisfecCory  evidence  is  especially  necessary ;  for  it  has 
been  too  firequently  and  too  generally  questioned  in 
England,  where,  upon  this  topic  particularly,  much  prf?- 
judice  prevails,  and  where  it  has  been  far  too  long  tht 
eu«toni  to 

'  Ju'lffe  the  many  by  the  rasciil  Aw.' 

"We  therefore,  from  the  very  minute  inquiries  we 
have  institute<i,  have  no  hesitation  in  arriving  at  the 
conclusion,  that  the  loan  funds  in  Ireland  will  speedily 
Become,  nay,  are  already,  mighty  engines  either  tor  good 
or  evil,  aciording  as  they  may  be  worked  and  siiperin- 
letMWd  Wlu'-e  [Moucrly  m.Uiajieil,  tliiy  cannot  fail  to 
f  if/ciM  a  va*.  iuiluence  on  (he  moral  and  social  condi- 


tion of  the  people ;  where  conducted  carelculy  or 
parties  endeavouring  to  force  business  for  their  o  ^ 
gain,  thoy  may  lie  indeed  considered  a  moral  postilcn  ' 
blighting  the  energies  of  the  surrounding  populatim 
and  fostering  habits  of  improvidence  or  dishonestT," 

THB   ANNUITF. 

The  purchase  of  an  annuity  is  a  mode  of  provMjn 
for  the  latter  part  of  life,  which  may  be  the  must  aphr 
priute  in  some  instances,  especially  where  a  person  ii 
unconnected  with  wile,  children,  or  other  near  relaliv««. 
or  where  these  have  been  otherwise  provided  for.  When 
the  case  is  ditferent,  such  a  mode  of  provision  is  Ijavv 
to  the  charge  of  selfishness,  in  as  far  as  it  concentrulcs 
the  benefit  upon  the  purchaser  alone  ;  it  has  also  been 
thought  to  tend  to  encourage  improvident  and  catelea 
habits,  seeing  that,  once  assured  of  a  full  provision  for 
life,  the  need  for  further  saving  is  in  a  great  ineasuii 
precluded. 

There  are  numerous  companies  which  grant  annuiijoi 
on  the  principle  of  making  a  profit  by  tlicm ;  and  some, 
times  this  branch  of  business  is  carried  on  in  conncclion 
with  that  of  life-assurance.  There  are  alr,o  associationi 
of  individuals  for  obtaining  annuities  and  umlowmcnii 
to  widows  and  other  nominees  on  the  mutual  assurnnre 
principle,  and  one  largo  class  of  these,  at  present  flou. 
rishing  in  various  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom,  are  said 
to  be  based  on  unsound  calculations,  and  fraught  with 
disappointment  to  those  relying  upon  them.  There  ii 
indeed  one  circumstance  grncrally  unfavourable  to 
annuity  business,  namely,  that  the  ordinary  tables  of 
mortality  present  views  of  the  expectation  of  life  some- 
what below  what  is  at  present  the  truth  in  EngknA 
Ucnre,  what  makes  life-assurance  business  everywhere  so 
prosperous,  is  precisely  that  which  tendij  to  make  annuity 
business  a  source  of  loss.  It  is  obvious  that,  where  in- 
dividuals unite  for  annuities,  and  too  low  charges  ar« 
made,  those  dying  first  will  secure  an  over-proportion 
of  the  benefits,  and  leave  tliose  who  come  behind  nolhmg 
but  an  einj)ty  purse. 

With  a  view  to  encourage  persons  of  the  humbic! 
classes  to  provide  of  themselves  for  their  latter  years, 
the  government  obtained  an  act  (3  and  4  Will.  IV.  c. 
14)  to  enalile  trustees  of  the  legally  cstabliKhed  savings' 
banks  to  sell  annuities  of  not  less  than  four  or  more 
than  twenty  pounds,  upon  the  security  of  the  national 
creilil.  The  same  act  provided  that,  in  parishes  where 
there  was  no  savings'  bar'  ■•  society  for  grantinj  puch 
annuities  iiiiHht  l>e  forn  vided  that  the  rector  or 

minister  of  the   parish,  esident  justice  of  peace, 

should  lie  one  of  the  trusleiv .  Any  person  above  fifteen 
years  of  aiie  was  entilleil  to  purchase  such  an  annuity, 
which  might  be  to  commence  immediately,  or  at  a  future 
period  of  lite,  or  for  a  limited  term  of  years,  at  the  plea- 
sure of  the  party,  and  might  be  paid  either  in  one  sum 
or  in  li''.tf-yearly  sums,  convertible  into  quarterly  by 
dividing  the  annuity,  and  comnioncing  the  two  parts  at 
different  jeriods  of  the  year.  The  whole  arrangenienli 
of  this  act  were  di(  tated  by  the  most  considerate  licie. 
volence  towards  the  classes  designed  to  l)e  henefilciL 
To  quote  Ml  BUthoritiitive  document: — "Provisions  are 
made  for  enabling  th  -  party  to  make  his  annual  pay- 
ments, or  receiving  the  annuity,  at  any  other  society 
than  the  one  at  which  the  eontrict  was  originally  entered 
into.  Upon  the  death  of  the  (wrson  on  whose  life  the 
annuity  dejicnded,  a  sum  equf.l  to  one-fourth  port  of  the 
said  annuity  (over  and  ahove  all  half-yearly  arrears 
thereof  respectively)  will  be  payable  to  the  person  or 
persons  entitled  to  such  annuity,  or  his,  her,  or  theit 
executors  or  administrators  (as  the  case  may  ho),  pro- 
vided such  last-mentioned  payment  shall  he  claimed 
within  /ICO  ytdrit  after  such  decease,  but  not  otherwise; 
provided  also,  that  the  fourth  part  of  any  expired  life- 
annuity,  payable  under  the  provisioui  of  the  said  N^ 


IS  and  under  11, 

16   .. 

..      17, 

17    .• 

..     18, 

n  •. 

..     19, 

19   .. 

..     20, 

20   .. 

..    ai, 

91    ■■ 

..     22, 

M   .. 

..     23, 

£)   .. 

..     24, 

21   .. 

•     25, 

2S   .. 

..     20, 

26   .. 

..     27, 

,27   •■ 

..     81, 

•is    . 

..  29; 

ai  .. 

..     30, 

36   .. 

..     31, 

31    .. 

..     32 

32   . 

..    ai,' 

■&     ■ 

•     34, 

31 

.     35, 

35   . 

..     X. 

»     . 

37, 

37   .. 

..     38, 

.■!^   •■ 

..     39, 

39    ■. 

40 

40   .. 

..     41 

«     . 

..     48 

e  ■■ 

•      43 

43   ■• 

..     44, 

M   ■ 

..     44, 

"X^  ">'  ',   s     ^\?^^ 


-■/  -    \.i-r" 


SOCIAL  ECONOMICS  OP  THE  INDUSTRIOUS  ORDERS. 


irill  not  be  pnyalile,  nor  be  paid  upon,  or  in  respect  of 
inT  dttiTTtd  lifi'-iiniiuily,  unless  one  half-yearly  payment 
J  ^jh  deferred  life-annuity  shall  have  been  actually 
Mjd  or  become  due  at  the  time  of  the  decease  of  the 
nominee.  Independently  of  the  advantages  which  are 
(hus  afforded  to  the  induBtrioii»  classes  to  obtain  by 
«nall  payments  a  certain  provision  in  old  ago,  or  at  any 
(ither  stated  p»iriod,  tenired  by  gitvcrnmcnf,  and  of  which 
ihey  cannot  be  deprived  on  account  of  miscalculation, 
the  tables  of  contributions  have  been  so  calculated,  that 

t  (jj  uurchiner  «/  a  deferred  life-annuity  die  before  the 
lime  arrives  nt  which  the  annui'y  i$  to  commence,  the 
nhde  of  the  money  he  has  actually  contriliulcd  will  he  re- 
turind,  without  any  deduction,  to  hit  family.  And  if  it 
Joe«  not  exceed  £50,  it  is  not  necessary  that  probate 
or  jotters  of  administration  should  bo  token  out.  But 
if  he  has  left  a  will,  or  administration  is  taken  out,  no 
itainp  or  legacy  duty  is  payable  in  respect  of  the  sum 
10  rctornablo,  if  the  whole  estate,  «&c.,  of  the  member  is 
unJerjESO;  and  again,  t/  a  purchaser  is  iiicujiahle  nf 
continuing  the  payment  of  his  yearly  imtalments,  he  may, 
at  any  limti  "/""'  S"""?  ''"'f*  monlhs'  notice,  receive  back 
the  «•*— <  "/  ""  "loiicy  he  has  paid.  No  annuity  granted 
Will  be  subject  or  liable  to  any  taies,  &c. ;  nor  can  the  ' 
same  be  transferred  or  assigned,  but  must  continue  to  he  \ 
the  property,  or  be  received  for  the  benefit,  of  the  party  | 
by  or  for  whom  it  was  purchased ;  but  in  case  of  the 
baukruptcy  or  insolvency  of  the  purchaser  of  an  annuity, 
the  same  is  to  be  repurchased  by  the  commissioners  at  a 
valuation  according  to  the  tables  upon  which  the  aimu- 
ity  was  originally  granted,  and  the  money  will  be  paid 
to  the  assignee  for  the  benefit  of  the  creditors. 

1  From  tlie  above  statement  it  will  appear  thot  any 
Jtfrri'ed  annuity,  purchased  by  annual  or  other  pay- 
ments, from  a  society  established  under  the  stat.  3d 
Will.  IV.  c.  14,  will  entitle  the  purchaser  (if  he  live  to 
tlie  age  at  which  the  annuity  is  to  commence)  to  receive 
an  annuity  equivalent  to  the  value  of  all  his  payments, 
wilh  the  accumulation  of  compound  interest ;  if  he  be 
unable  to  continue  his  yearly  instalments,  he  may  have 
back  all  the  money  he  has  paid,  exclusive  of  interest; 
and  if  he  die  before  the  commencement  of  the  annuity, 
bis  family  will,  in  hke  monncr,  receive  the  whole  of  the 
contributions  he  may  have  actually  made  previous  to 
his  decease,  exclusive  of  interest" 


Moiipy  to  lie 

Aie  of  the 
Purchase 

person  at  the 

time  of 

Yearly 

paiililovvuiii 

upoi 

wli 

03U 

Life 

the 

Sdiii' 

One  sum 

Aiiuuiiy  is  to  (1 

epend. 

required. 

at  the  time  of 

I'urchasfi. 

£  ,«. 

d. 

£    s.     il. 

ISinduDderin, 

10  U 

li 

157  11     0 

19   ..     .. 

17, 

10    9 

0 

155  17    0 

17    .•     •• 

18. 

10    7 

0 

154    3    0 

H   •.     .. 

lo! 

10    4 

0 

1.52    7    0 

19   •.     .. 

20, 

10    3 

0 

160  10    0 

20   ..     .. 

21, 

g  19 

6 

14S  13    0 

Jl    •.     .. 

22, 

0  17 

0 

140  13    0 

?2   ■.     .. 

2.1, 

fl  14 

0 

144  11    6 

a  ..    .. 

!24, 

9  a 

0 

142    8    6 

21  ..      . 

ffi, 

g  fl 

0 

140    2    B 

25   ..     .. 

20, 

0   s 

0 

1.37  15    0 

86   ..     .. 

'«, 

9    1 

6 

i;i5    4    8 

^7   ..     .. 

21, 

8  19 

0 

1 12  11     0 

•Ss    .    .. 

•-■s. 

8  14 

0 

129  15    « 

ai  ..    .. 

30, 

a  10 

e 

120  18    B 

30   ..     .. 

31, 

8    6 

0 

124     1     0 

31    ..     .. 

32, 

8  a 

6 

121     2    0 

32   .       .. 

ai, 

7  IB 

0 

US    0    0 

■£     ■       . 

34, 

7  15 

0 

115  U     0 

31 

35, 

7  U 

6 

112  17    0 

35   ■       .. 

so! 

7    8 

0 

110    3    0 

»     . 

37, 

7    4 

0 

107  U    0 

37   ..     .. 

38, 

7    I 

0 

104  19    0 

.Tr   ..     .. 

39, 

0  17 

6 

102    7    6 

39    ■. 

40 

6  14 

0 

99  15    0 

40   ..     .. 

■•I, 

0  10 

6 

07     1    0 

tl    ..     .. 

« 

6    G 

0 

94    5    fi 

ft   .■      . 

43, 

6    2 

0 

91     7    0 

w  ..    .. 

44, 

S  18 

6 

as   6   0 

H  ■      .. 

44, 

- 

«  14 

6 

85    S    6 

The  tables  on  which  the  government  annuities  are 
Vol.  I.— HO 


47S 

granted  have  been  formed,  as  might  be  expected,  og 
the  soundest  principles,  and  are  entitled  to  the  greatest 
respect.  They  relate  to  four  kinds  of  benefit— defened 
annuities  upon  the  continuance  of  single  lives,  imme> 
diate  annuities  upon  the  continuance  of  single  fives,  de^ 
ferred  annuities  to  continue  for  a  certain  terra  of  vears, 
and  imine<liate  annuities  to  continue  for  a  certain  term 
of  years.  The  whole  are  presented  in  a  brochure  quoted 
below.*  We  have  extracted  only  one  specimen,  namely, 
the  terms  of  an  annuity  of  £20,  payable  after  twenty  yean 
from  the  time  of  its  purchase — (See  preceding  table.) 

BENEVOLKNT  PAWNBROKINO.  :-''**)! 

The  neressities  of  the  humbler  classes  have  givea 
rise  to  the  trade  of  pawnbroking,  which,  even  when  con- 
ducted, as  it  often  is,  by  respectable  persons,  certainly 
forms  a  severe  punishment  upon  the  poor  for  their  po- 
vcrty.  On  this  subject  some  exaggerated  views  have  of 
late  years  gone  abroad ;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
the  poorest  class,  in  pledging  small  articles  for  short 
periods — and  the  greater  part  of  pawnbroking  business 
appears  to  he  of  this  kind — are  subject  to  enormous  ex- 
tortions, calculated,  most  materially,  to  keep  them  in  a 
depressed  condition.  It  has  been  said  that  £.3000  is  annu- 
ally lent  by  pawnbrokers  in  Ireland  in  one  shilling  loans, 
and  that  this  sum  actually  produces  to  the  lenders  in  a 
year  not  less  than  £19,500.  To  a  poor  pers(Si  in  want 
of  a  shilling  for  a  week,  it  appears  no  great  hardship  to 
pay  a  penny  for  the  loon  of  it ;  but  when  we  consider 
that  this  is,  in  reality,  borrowing  money  at  433^  per  cent, 
per  annum,  the  hardship  of  the  cose  is  presented  in  its  true 
light.  Nor  is  the  licensed  and  ostensible  trade  of  the 
pawnbroker  the  worst  of  the  case.  Wherever  a  large 
horde  of  very  poor  people  is  collected  in  our  large  towns, 
there  rises  an  unlicensed  and  clandestine  species  of  the 
trade,  conducted  upon  principles  still  more  ruinous  to 
the  needy.  It  has  been  shown  that  there  are  in  Glai^ 
gow  no  fewer  than  seven  hundred  small  unlicensed 
pawnbroking  establishments,  whoso  extortions  from  the 
poor  infinitely  exceed  the  legal  rates  to  which  the 
licensed  traders  are  restricted.  The  saying  of  Solomon, 
that  'he  destruction  of  the  poor  is  their  poverty,  was  never 
perhaps  shown  in  a  more  striking  light  than  in  the  losses 
which  they  endure  in  consequence  of  the  necessity  they 
are  occasionally  under  of  raising  money  by  pledges. 

On  the  continent,  the  system  of  lending  upon  pledges 
has  been  practised  for  several  centuries  upon  a  benevo- 
lent principle.  The  establishments  where  the  business 
is  carried  on  are  called  Mtmts  de  Pii'i  (^mounts  being  a 
term  applied  to  heaps  of  money,  while  the  word  pidti 
expresses  the  religious  views  in  which  the  plan  origi- 
nated). In  this  cose,  an  o-ssociation  of  benevolent  persons, 
possessing  a  little  capital  in  common  stock,  are  the 
pawnbrokers,  and  the  objects  they  keep  in  view  are  to 
make  the  evil  of  pledging  as  light  to  the  poor  as  possi. 
ble,  and  to  apply  the  profits  to  charitable  purposes  by 
which  the  poor  will  be  Itenefited.  Here  there  is  no  ex- 
tortion, no  punishment  for  poverty,  and  the  poor,  as  a 
body,  may  be  said  to  lose  nothing.  In  France,  some 
abuses  have  crept  into  the  system ;  but  those  ore  not 
essential  to  it,  and  we  have  lately  had  experience  nearer 
home  how  much  good  may  be  done  by  a  well-conducted 
ment  de  piete. 

The  first  establishment  of  the  kind  in  the  United 
Kingdom  wos  set  up  at  Limerick  in  1837,  through  the 
exertions  of  a  gentleman  named  Darrington,  for  the 
purpose  of  supplying  funds  to  on  hospital  which  he  had 
founded  out  of  his  own  fortune.  The  required  capital 
was  raised  by  debentures  (or  joint-stock  shares)  varying 
in  amount  firom  one  to  five  hundred  pounds  each,  upon 

•  "Inntruclinns  for  the  Formnlinn  of  Pnrochial  ^cirnet  Jbl 
grRiiiiiig  (lOveriuiK^nl  Aiinimies.''      London:   Printed  by  W 
Clowes  and  SJoii,  lor  bis  Jlojesty's  Stationery  Oifioe. 
2iiS 


■  ?13^,T^J.'-^tT^''-«"^i't57f  " 


474 


.rmnf      information  FOR  THE  PEOPLE.      vt*»f«ilV^ 


which  interest  wan  to  be  nllnwed  at  the  rate  of  six  per 
sent  These  might  he  withdrawn  at  three  monthx'  notice, 
or  money  would  be  advanced  upon  thorn  as  pledges. 
Mr.  Barrington  described  the  following  as  the  advan- 
tages proposed  by  his  scheme : — 

«  1st,  The  raising  a  rapital  by  small  debentures  at  a 
certain  interest,  and  lending  it  on  a  greater  interest,  and 
applying  the  profits  to  the  purposes  of  charity. 

"  8dly.  Receiving  the  debentures  in  pawn,  thus  giving 
to  ttie  depositors  .in  advantage  which  they  do  not  pos- 
sess in  tlic  savings'  bank. 

"  3dly,  Lciuliiig  money  at  interest  to  poor  persons  of 
unimpenehnlilo  character  and  industrious  Uubits,  on  per- 
sonal security,  us  is  done  by  the  loun-banks. 

»  4thly,  Lending  money  on  goods,  as  is  now  done  by 
the  ordinary  (mwivbrokcrs. 

"  6lhly,  In  case  of  deserving  objects,  to  restore  the 
article,  such  as  implements  of  trade  pawned  in  the  hour 
of  real  want,  without  interest  or  charge. 

"  6lhly,  Using  every  precaution  against  receiving 
■tolen  goods  in  pawn." 

The  plan  meeting  with  a  hearty  approval,  a  capital 
of  above  fifteen  thousand  pounds  was  quickly  subscrilied, 
partly  by  the  gentry,  and  pp.rtly  by  persons  in  the  hum- 
bler walks  of  life.  An  active  and  intelligent  pers  ui, 
who  had  himself  been  a  pawnbroker,  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  establishment,  which  had  no  sooner  com- 
menced bnsiness  than  it  became  largely  supported. 
The  following  view  of  the  transactions,  from  March, 
1837,  when  it  commcnreil,  up  to  December,  1840,  is 
given  by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Hall  in  their  work  on  Ireland  : — 


Vears. 

Amount  lent  on 
Pledge.. 

Amount  rfffiveil  for 
Ri.'leaaed  Articles. 

Gross  I'rofil.* 

1837, 

1S3S, 

im, 

£       J.    ri. 
Il,i:l0    1    Oh 
l7.>"->  13    .'(| 
21,0!M    7    t^t 
'io,i-'i    0    5h 

£      ».      d. 

S.tiflS  11  10| 

in.O-j:)  l.'i    si 

an.7'-'7  19    "i 

•23.075    1    5h 

£    ,..      (/. 

ai'i  a  7t 
1071  19  •IJ 
1172  15  :n 
1357  13  11 

Total. 

ra.WS    0    0^ 

71.005    S    7 

.WO  10  21 

There  is  no  charge  for  tickets  at  this  establishment; 
consequently,  if  those  pawns  were  pledged  at  a  pawn- 
broker's, the  poor  wjuld  have  to  pay  for  each  pawn  a 
•um  of  one  penny ;  if  the  amount  borrowed  amounted 
to  10s.,  twopence ,  if  it  amounted  to  40s,,  four|)ence : 
therefore  (not  at  all  taking  into  account  the  low  rate  of 
interest)  the  saving  effected  by  the  very  poorest  persons 
ia  raoat  remarkable.     For  instance,  say  that 

SBO.OOOof  those  pifilges  were  Miw/fT  Ids.,  at  Id  each,  £1500    0  0 
PO.OUO  do.  undfT  408.,  at  2rt  eiich,       750    0  0 

lO,tM  do.  (H-er  40s.,  at  4a.  uucli,       iHl  11  8 


£2431  11  8 


Or  a  sum  saved  in  four  yesrs  on  the  bare  iieiti  if  I 
tickets,  to  the  very  pooresi  people,  of     .    .     ] 

If  to  this  bo  added  the  saving  in  interest,  we  may  safely 
calculate  that  nearly  as  much  in  addition  is  saved  as 
the  establishment  is  realizing,  as  the  following  table  will 
abow  the  difference  in  the  rate  of  interest,  for  different 
auina,  to  lOs.  and  £1. 


Pawnbroker's 

Mont  dc  Pi^t^ 

Pawnbroker's 

Total  Charge  of 

Interest. 

Interest. 

Interi'Kl  and 

Ticket. 

JE    ».  d. 

d 

ri. 

d. 

,010 

Oi 

Oh 

u 

.020 

0» 

1 

3 

0    .-}    0 

0* 

1 

3 

«   0   4   n 

1 

u 

8 

.050 

1 

u 

B 

,    0  n   0 

1  ■ 

3 

3 

'070 

1  ■ 
1  : 

1 

3 

?     0     !J     0 

a 

3i 

J,     0    9    0 

9 

*■ 

ah 

'     0  10    0 

3 

3 

5 

too 

4 

S 

7 

The  Mont  de  Pie'i6  of  Limerick  ha  ring  been  attends 
with  success,  insomuch  that  it  supports  the  hosnitaif 
the  sick  poor  of  the  city,  similar  establishments  h 
been  opened  at  Belfast  and  Tandragce,  and  tlieei"' 
pie  will  doubtless  bo  followed  in  time  on  this  side  ofi^ 
Irish  Channel.     In  September,   1840,  at  the  meetin! 
of  the  British  Association  at  Glasgow,  an  interest 
paper  on  tho  subject  of  the  Irish  establishments  w°* 
read  by  Mr.  H.  J.  Porter,  from  which  wo  make  the  fot 
lowing  extract : — 

"  ."Vt  tho  close  of  the  first  nine  months  of  the  opera, 
tions  of  the  Tandragco  Mont  de  Pieto,  I  was  able 
show  that  the  borrowers  from  the  loan  fund  departuieiiL 
on  personal  security,  had  in  their  possession  1 189  loomj 
of  which  612  (more  tlian  half  the  number)  wcro  hired 
at  10s.  per  annum.  One  man  had  at  that  period  one 
loom,  for  which  he  had  paid  £12  within  the  prcvjou, 
twenty-lour  years,  without  any  other  alteration  than  that 
which  was  necessary  on  the  invention  of  the  fly-shmtio, 
uiid,  alter  having  paid  tho  price  of  four  new  looms  in 
interest,  ho  was  not  at  that  time  tho  owner  of  ono. 
Here,  and  in  many  similar  cases,  the  mont  de  pieti  «iu 
the  means  of  relieving  tlwj  poor,  and  the  owners  of  loona 
for  hire  began  to  find  it  diHicult  to  let  them  out.  Oiis 
farmer  proposed  to  sell  his  stock  of  looms  to  the  institi;. 
tion,  finding  the  hope  of  his  gain  drawing  to  a  close 
but  of  course  the  proposal  was  rejected,  as  these  old 
looms  were  incapable  of  producing  as  good  a  fabric  u 
the  new  looms  issued  by  the  mont  de  jjiutu. 

"  At  the  period  of  which  I  speak  (first  nine  months  of 
operation),  above  2000  loans  had  been  granted  for  the  (ol 
lowing  purposes  :— 


F-'or  provisions 
iMiii'Tinls  for  trade 
Drilling  .... 
C'iuiliui:;. 

R' pinr;*  of  houses  .        . 
Yarn  for  weaving. 
Looms     .... 
To  pay  srrinll  debts 
To  buy  cows         .        , 

••        p.K»  •        •        •,    . 
Fnrmiiij;  purposes,  seed,  &c 
Rent        .... 


Ix>ans,  SIJO  amounting  to  ilCW 

..       138  ..  4(15 

••194  ,„ 

••41  ..  f,i 

••    ,2L  ■'  i« 

••       1H7  ..  613 

..       131  ..  445 

70  ..  193 

••       Sn4  ••  2569 

375  .•  143 

200  ..  SK 

jn  ••  25-J 

aou8  ' 


"  Toml  number  of  pawns  received  sii  oe  lbs  establishment 
•pened,  to  Mareb  19,  l»ll,  460,>«S. 


Total     ....  a0U8  £!KI70 

"  In  order  to  form  some  idea  of  the  ncnefit  derived  bj 

these  borrowers,  I  examined  great  numbers  of  theoi  a 

they  a|)|)eared,  on  the  payment  of  the  last  weekly  uistal- 

mcnt.     I  ascertained  pretty  nearly  the  amount  of  money 

savetl  or  realized  by  their  having  the  ailvantage  of  ready 

money,  and  from  these  I  formed  an  average  estimate  of 

the  whole. 

Oatmeal  .  .  sEllOO  Saving    .       .      .  £Xi9 

I'otaioes  ,  .  550                   JS 

r„w8  .  .  2')(>9  Profit       .       .       .  IN 

I'iirs  .  .  la-JS                   IV 

Dealing  .  .  604                  lijii 

Total       .        £6000  Total     .    mt 

"  Had  the  mont  do  pietc  conferred  no  other  benefit  oa 
the  country  than  thot  derived  by  the  peasantry,  in  pro- 
curing their  summer  provisions  for  ready  money,  ihit 
alone  would  amply  repay  the  directors  for  all  the  laboui 
bestowed  on  the  working  of  the  institution.  What  wore 
the  circumstances  of  these  HHO  families  in  bygone  sum- 
mers ?  Many  of  them  found  it  difRcult  to  procure  credit, 
or  obtain  a  sufficient  supply  of  wholesome  food  for  the 
maintenance  of  their  families;  idleness  prevailed,  sickness 
increased,  and  not  unfrequently  fields  were  mortgaged  to 
more  wealthy  neighbours,  who  supplied  the  wrelchcd 
holders  of  two  or  three  acres  of  land  with  tho  required 
food  at  an  exorbitant  price.  Others,  whose  credit  wai 
good,  passed  promi»Kory  notes,  payable  at  harvest,  and  not 
unfrequenlly  they  were  charged  for  meal  Cs.  or  8s,  pef 
cwt.  more  than  the  market  price,  independent  of  thect^ 
prnse  of  stamps;  and  it  was  no  uncommon  practice foi 
a  poor  man,  wanting  the  immediate  use  of  a  few  |Kiiindi 
in  money,  to  purchase  oatmeal  tiom  a  forestaller  «f  piv 


SOCIAL  ECONOMICS   OP  THE  INDUSTRIOUS  ORDERS. 


478 


Mv>*,  w^"«  '  ''"''''  P*'»°"  would  buy  back  the  oattnral : 
Aaffl  the  poor  man  **  «  much  lew  price  than  he  was 

diifS""!  *'*"''  ''''"  '*"'  """"^y'  """^  '^^  OB'"!""'  would  j 
Mver  hf  di'Iivcred,  but  aold  again  by  the  foreitaller  to  the  ' 

,  (Ufttomer.  The  object  of  this  transaction  is  evident. 
The  v«hi6  of  a  promissory  note  for  provisions  would  be 
cuily  recoverable  at  the  qunrter-ecssions,  while  one  for 

I,  bearing  usurious  interest,  would  be  likely  to  involve 
the  forcslaller  in  an  open  violation  of  the  law.  Thus 
wore  the  poor  on  every  side  oppressed ;  the  harvest  time 
•rrived,  and  the  debts  for  summer  provisions  were  geno- 
rilly  firs'  P*'*'  ''''""  ''^"'  P''0'luco  of  the  farm ;  too  often 
were  they  unable  to  pay  just  demands  of  rent  and  other 
tharited,  while  in  few  cases  were  they  able  to  hold  over 
their  com  till  the  most  favourable  time  arrived  for  bring- 
in?  the  produce  of  their  farm  to  market 

11  What,  on  the  other  hand,  has  lieen  the  experience  of 
the  last  tt'ummer  1  Those  650  families  borrowed,  on  mo- 
denite  interest,  from  the  mont  de  pi6t6,  £1640,  and  by 
ha'its  of  industry  and  increased  diligence,  their  weekly 
instalinentfl  are  paid ;  at  harvest,  instead  of  being  deeply 
involved  in  debt,  they  owed  nothing  for  their  summer's 
food  and  the  produce  of  their  land  has  in  many  cases 
been  reserved  for  weeks,  till  the  best  price  could  lie  ob- 
tained ;  they  are  able  not  only  to  jiay  their  rents,  but  to 
•upply  themselves  and  their  children  with  better  clothing;. 
But  other  moral  effects  have  followed.  Hnlf|)enre  and 
ponee,  which  formerly  were  squandered  in  tobiicco,  snufl', 
anil  ardent  spirits,  are  treasured  up  for  the  Monday  morn- 
inii's  instalments,  .ind  the  people  ore  beginning  to  feel  the 
value  of  small  sums,  and  the  truth  of  the  old  proverb, 
that,  ■  if  you  take  care  of  the  pennies,  the  shillings  will 
(akeciirc  of  themselves.' 

«  Again,  we  find  that  jC26(i9  has  been  borrowed  for  the 
purchase  of  cows.  The  benefit  to  the  poorer  classes  in 
this  particular  is  incalculable — the  health  arising  from  the 
poAMssion  of  an  abundant  supply  of  milk  ;  the  improve- 
ment on  their  farms,  by  sowing  green  crops  for  the  main- 
tenance of  their  cows ;  the  increased  quantity  of  manure 
which  is  provided  for  the  land — while  it  has  been  ascer- 
tained that  in  twenty  weeks  the  generality  of  cows  pur- 
chased have  paid,  by  the  produce  of  milk  and  butter  sold, 
one-half  of  their  own  cost.  Hundreds  of  families  are 
now  possessed  of  a  cow  each,  and  great  numbers  have 
already  procured  a  second.  As  a  proof  of  the  saving 
haliits  which  are  promoted  by  this  system,  I  may  men- 
tion, that  a  re8|)cctablc  person  has  settled  in  this  town, 
whose  sole  business  is  the  purchase  of  butter  and  eggs  for 
exportation ;  and  be  finds  it  frequently  ditFicult  to  attend 
to  the  immense  influx  of  persons  who  come  to  sell  their 
pro-Juce  to  meet  their  weekly  instalments.  One  poor 
woman  borrowed  a  pound  ;  she  Ixiught  five  hens  for  4s. 
2d.;  she  expended  15s.  lOd.  in  clothing;  and  at  the  end 
of  the  twenty  weeks  her  five  hens  had  been  the  sole  means 
of  paying  off  her  debt  to  the  loan  fund. 

«  But  what  is  the  testimony  of  the  manufacturers  in  the 
neighbourhood  ]  That  the  industry  which  is  promoted 
by  the  necessity  of  those  weekly  instalments,  and  the 
punctuality  of  the  weavers  in  returning  their  cloth,  has 
already  had  the  most  beneficial  clTccts. 

"  And  how  are  persons  in  trade  alTected  by  the  opera- 
tions of  the  mont  de  piet<i  7  I  have  it  from  the  best  au- 
thority, that  a  great  increase  of  business  has  been  the  ro- 
•ult,  and  a  greater  degree  of  punctuality  in  meeting  all 
nigacements  on  the  part  of  the  poorer  classes. 

"One  class  alone  arc  sullering  from  the  effects  of  the 
mont  de  pieto,  and  Ihoy  are  little  deserving  of  compassion. 
Those  who  live  by  the  destruction  of  others,  liothsonl  and 
body,  are  not  to  !»  commiserated — those  who  keep  open 
houses  for  the  drunkard — anil  when  they  have  given  a 
poor  (lerson  as  much  whisky  as  they  think  ho  can  pay 
for,  or  is  able  to  consume,  turn  him  out  incapable  of 
Cakin?  care  of  himself,  and  exposed  to  the  risk  of  a  water)- 
grave  in  the  next  river  or  canal  he  meets — those  arc  surely 


persons  whose  lack  of  business  and  prorperity  is  a  blew 
ing,  and  whoso  failure  in  trade  must  be  hold  as  a  common 
good.  I  have  undoubted  authority  for  saying,  that  tha 
temperance  cause  and  the  mont  do  pi^t^  are  going  band- 
in-hand ;  and  the  twopence  for  the  morning  glass,  or  ths 
shilling  for  the  night's  carousal,  are  now  carefully  saved 
to  meet  the  weekly  instalment. 

"  I  might  enlarge  on  the  important  benefits  which  this 
institutioii  confers  upon  the  workingndass — ahovo  JCISOO 
expended  in  the  purchase  of  pigs,  which  are  such  a  source 
of  wealth  to  the  Irish  ))oor,  being  nearly  fattened  on  the 
refuse  from  the  tables  of  the  owners." 

Wo  must  be  excused  for  adding  one  more  anecdot* 
from  a  report  by  Mr.  Haynes  ot  the  Limerick  establish- 
ment:— "  A  poor  woman,  when  the  institution  first  opened, 
was  in  the  habit  of  pledging  every  morning  her  bod-tick 
for  two  shillings  and  sixpence,  and  releasing  it  every 
evening;  this  she  did  for  the  puipose  of  purchasing  po 
tatoes  from  the  country  people,  and  retailing  them  after- 
wards in  small  quantities,  at  a  higher  price,  thereby  en- 
deavouring to  support  her  family:  for  this  loan  she  daity 
pnid  the  pawnbroker  the  sum  of  twopence.  When  the  , 
mont  do  piote  opened,  she  being  only  charged  a  halfjpenny, 
saved  three-halfpence  daily,  which  eventually  enabled  her 
to  raise  a  small  stock-purse  of  ten  shillings ;  and  she  now 
seldom,  if  ever,  visits  even  that  oflice." 

THE   PROTIDKirT,DI8PCN8ART. 

On  the  subject  of  medical  attendance,  the  working  man, 
in  ordinary  circumstances,  may  well  be  at  a  loss  how  to 
act ;  for,  on  the  one  hand  when  he  calls  in  a  doctor  on 
account  of  himself  or  his  family,  he  is  oppressed  by  the 
high  charges  for  attendance  and  medicine  ;  and  on  the 
other,  if  he  resorts  to  a  dispensary  or  hospital,  he  loees 
his  independence.     That  tliesc  are  evils  of  large  amount, 
and  widely  prevalent,  might  easily  bo  shown.     In  Eng- 
land, the  ordinary  medical  practitioner  charges  for  medi- 
cine only,  but  he  gives  much  of  that,  and  places  a  high 
price  upon  it.     A  working  man,  ill  for  three  weeks,  will 
find,  on  his  recovery,  a  bill  of  thirty  or  forty  shillings  run 
up  against  him,  cither  causing  him  to  break  up  his  little 
hoard  in  the  savings'  bank,  or  keeping  him  in  embarrass- 
ment for  the  ensuing  twelvemonth.     Conducted  as  the 
medical  profession  is  in  that  country,  it  is  impossible,  in 
short,  for  a  poor  man  to  have  independent  medical  attend- 
ance which  he  means  to  pay,  without  the  most  serious 
pecuniary  distress  lieing  entailed  upon  him.     So  severely 
is  this  felt,  that  the  resort  to  medical  charities  has  of  late 
years  l)een  rapidly  on  the  advance  in  England,  both  in- 
volving more  individuals,  and  individuals  of  a  better  class 
than  formerly.     In  1821,  when  the  population  of  Man- 
chester was  158,000,  the  dispensary  patients  were  12,000. 
In  1831,  when  the  population  was  230,000,  this  class  of 
patients  had  advanced  to  41,000 ;  an  increase  of  fully  two 
to  one.     It  was  calculated  in  the  latter  year  that,  of  all 
the  persons  ill  and  requiring  medical  advice,  the  dispen- 
sary patients  were  a  majority.     Similar  facts  are  stated 
with  respect  to  Leeds  and  Birmingham.     It  would  appear 
as  if  a  wide-spread  demoralization  wore  going  on  through- 
out England  from  this  cause.     Dr.  Holland,  of  Sheffield, 
has  recently  published  a  volume  calling  attention  to  the 
subject.      He  sets  out  by  sthting  very  broadly,  as  his 
opinion,  that   the   cbarncter  of  the    worhinj,'-clas8e3  in 
Bheffiold  is  at  present  undergoing  a  certain  desiree  of  de- 
terioration, in  consequence  of  so  many  charities,  and  par^ 
ticulurly  medical  charities,  being  thrown   o)>cn  to  them, 
the  self-res|)cct  connected  with  independen:T  feeing  thus 
gradually  worn  away,  and  with  it  the  virtues  which  have 
never  yet  been  found  to  exist  without  it.     The  Infirmary, 
we  arc  told,  was  estalilihhed  for  the  bonetlt  of  the  poor 
and  needlul  of  all  nations ;  but  it  never,  our  author  ar- 
gues, could  have  hccii  <lesigucd  for  those  who  are  abU 
otherwise  to  obtain  the  desired  aid      IVow,  nowever,  the 
fact  of  being  au  operative  is  held   as  a  tiurlieieiit  cloiai 


4Tt 


STMHif       INFORMATION  POR  THE  PEOPLE. 


"  The  wrtiaan  n«*f  (fisanm  of  the  pnambility  of  rejection 
Ml  the  ground  of  being  in  AiU  unci  regular  employment, 
■n''  buint;  Rmply  remunerated  for  hia  labour.  He  applioe 
u.  I  aa  naturally  to  Iho  charity  when  he  i«  aick,  aa  to  the 
Ub><>r  for  th«  rcpnir  of  hia  clothea,  with  thii  diHerence,  that 
be  would  Im  perfectly  aitoniihod  were  any  one  to  hint  at 
Iha  propriety  of  paying  for  the  favoura  conferred  by  the 
farmer."  Our  author  nrguea  agaiiiiit  the  following  classea, 
•t  Icait,  having  any  riF;ht  to  the  bcnrflta  of  the  iimtitution ; 
Bingle  men  in  employment — married  men  with  only 
young  and  wmall  families — men  with  several  children  but 
high  wages — men  who  havo  several  aonsand  apprentices 
working  along  with  tliein — servants  in  situations.  All 
of  these  persons,  excepting  the  lost,  must  be  able  to  pro- 
vide mttdicnl  attendance  for  themselves,  if  they  economize 
their  resources.  He  presents  a  hundred  cases  of  applica- 
tiona,  being  those  within  the  few  wceka  before  the  time 
when  he  was  writing,  and  out  of  these  he  shows  that 
there  were  fifteen  young  single  men,  all  of  whom  but  two 
had  been  in  employment  till  the  time  of  their  illness, 
twelve  at  well-paid  crafts,  and  one  as  a  labourer.  Eleven 
cases  were  of  married  persons  without  children  ;  and 
thirty-two  applicants  were  married,  with  only  one  or  two 
children.  In  some  of  the  latter  instances,  "the  only 
child  is  a  daughter  ci|!;hteen  oi  twenty  years  of  age,  who 
had  never  been  allowed  to  go  out  to  place,  or  to  learn  any 
business ;  in  othcM,  a  son  apprenticed  to  his  father,  and 
both  in  repfular  employment.  In  one  instance,  where  the 
wife  was  the  patient,  the  daughter  was  in  a  warehouse, 
and  the  son,  a  youth  of  fourteen  years  of  age,  was  a  day 
acholar  in  a  ntspectable  private  academy  in  the  town. 
The  husband  had  received  regularly  twenty-four  shillings 
•  week  for  the  Itist  twenty  years.  Many  of  the  thirty-two 
casea  are  even  more  flagrant  instances  of  imposition  on 
the  charity." 

Certainty  in  the  whole  number  of  applicants  for  relief, 
•a  far  aa  our  author  has  described  thorn,  we  do  not  find 
that  proportion  of  persons  likely  to  be  in  necessitous  cir- 
cuoistances.  which  might  bo  expected.  To  support  his 
views,  he  brings  the  testimony  of  the  house-surgeon,  who, 
in  answer  to  queries  put  to  him,  says — "  The  character 
and  appearance  of  the  patients  generally  are  very  differ- 
ent from  what  they  were  fifteen  or  twenty  years  ago. 
The  patients  are  much  more  respectably  dressed,  and  in 
bettor  ciicumslances.  Many  now,  not  from  inability  to 
walk,  are  conveyed  to  the  house  in  hackney  coaches.  *  * 
They  apply  for  much  more  trivial  ailments  than  formerly." 
The  author  speaks  of  females  who  come  to  the  institution 
in  elegant  cloaks,  shawls,  and  clogs.  Not  one  half  of 
the  applicants  have  the  appearance  of  indigence.  '•  The 
frequency  with  which  they  apply  for  very  trilling  ailments, 
such  aa  slight  symptoms  of  indigestion,  coughs,  or  occa- 
■ional  pain,  or,  indeed,  lor  the  removal  of  a  disease  which 
just  perceptibly  murs  the  beauty  of  the  face  or  neck,  is 
evidence  that  their  situation  in  life  ia  very  remote  from 
those  circumstances  which  entitle  them  to  the  sympathy 
of  the  benevolent  The  really  poor  never  apply  for  the 
relief  of  tlieht  and  unimportant  complaint  t."  Afterwards 
be  adds-— '<  In  evidence  of  the  trifling  nature  of  many  of 
the  medical  cases,  we  may  state  that  one-half  are  often 
cored  in  ten  days,  ond  two-thirds  in  three  weeks." 

The  results  of  his  inquiries  at  the  Disjwnsary  are  nearly 
the  same.  The  great  bulk  of  the  applicants  are  either 
themselves  artisans  in  the  receipt  of  go<xl  wa^cs,  or  the 
eonnections  of  such  persons.  They  come  in  respectable 
apparel,  and,  when  visited  at  their  homes  by  tho  medical 
men,  are  found  to  possess  every  appearance  of  domestic 
comfort  Recommendations  from  subscrilters  to  the  insti- 
tution are  necessary  to  procure  admission  ;  but  these  are 
giren,  in  seven  cases  out  of  ten,  by  persons  who  have  no 
knowled);e  of  the  circumstances  of  the  applicants.  ••  A 
gentleman  who,  from  his  position  in  society,  is  often  ap- 
plied to,  informs  us  that  he  always  refuses,  unless  the  in- 
dividual bring  a  letter  boa.  hia  employer,  stating  that  be 


is  a  necessitous  object ;  and  thoigh  promising  tu  ilw 
recommendation  on  this  condition,  tio(  otu  in  twenty  ■  fiy^ 
to  receive  it,"  ^ 

Farts  atill  more  remarkable  are  brought  out  bv  Dr 
Holland.  " The  diatresaes  of  a  community,*  he  ••  ' 
(meaning  such  a  community  aa  that  of  ShefHeKh  «  Jji! 
be  admitted  to  boar  a  strict  relation  to  the  state  nf  in,u 
When  this  is  oxtremly  depressed,  many  hands  arc  throw 
out  of  employment  When  the  trade  is  good,  th«  iW 
mand  for  labour  is  great ;  wages  advance,  and  the  h\nm. 
ings  of  plenty  are  universally  experienced.  The  araounl 
of  misery  or  destitution  cannot  be  the  same  in  thcae  Hn 
different  circumstances.  It  cannot  be  a  fixed  quantiti 
floating  in  society.  The  idea  is  preposterous ;  and  vet 
if  the  registered  demand  for  charity  be  any  criterion  of 
the  misery  existing,  there  is  indeed  a  quantity  aubject  Is 
scarcely  any  variation  whatever. 

••From  midsummer  1635 to  midsummer  1836, between 
which  periods  trade  was  better  in  this  town  than  it  htd 
l)een  known  for  years,  the  number  of  patients  admitted 
on  the  books  of  the  Infirmary  was  3126. 

"From  midsummer  1836  to  midsummer  1837, between 
which  periods  the  trade  was  exceedingly  depremed,  tba 
numlicr  was  3431,  being  an  increase  only  of  305  n,. 
tients. 

"  Between  the  former  periods  the  number  of  patients  oo 
the  books  of  the  Dispensary  was  2888. 

•<  Between  the  latter  periods,  that  is,  from  July  Ig36  (^ 
July  1837,  the  number  was  267S,  being  less  by  313  p^ 
tients. 

"  According  to  these  returns,  there  were  fii;A(  palintt 
more  during  a  protperoui  ttate  nf  trade,  recipicnii  of  nth 
dicnl  charity,  than  duriiig  the  severe  depresiion  of  it." 

Ho  elsewhere  states  that  hoslthy  seasons  are  marked 
by  no  diminution  of  the  number  of  applicniUs.  "  We 
hesitate  not  to  assert  thot,  during  the  last  twelve  monlhi 
there  has  been  less  discaxe  in  this  town  and  ncjghlwut. 
hood  than  has  been  known  for  many  years,  and  yd  du^ 
ing  this  period  the  demanda  on  medical  churitica  bav« 
increased." 

As  a  remedy  to  these  evils,  some  benevolent  penoni 
with  the  co-o|ieration  of  n  few  of  the  more  libernl  of  th« 
medical  profession,  have  instituted  what  are  called  Pmi. 
dent  Difjieniarict,  the  main  feature  of  which  is,  that  ihe 
working  man  contributes  a  small  sum  weekly  from  hli 
earnings,  to  entitle  him  to  medical  attendance  and  the 
requisite  medicines,  in  tho  event  of  illness  enlorinj  hia 
household — tlio  united  contributions  of  a  few  hundrfd 
members  being  sufficient  to  engage  a  resjuTtiibic  phy- 
sician, and  defray  all  tho  other  expenses.  Such  instiiu. 
tions  have  l>een  tried  with  marked  success  at  Covenlry, 
Derby,  and  some  other  places.  They  are  limited  itrict 
ly  to  the  class  who  are  unable  to  fee  medical  attendanu 
in  the  ordinary  way,  but  who  are  yet  anxious  to  kerp 
themselves  in  all  respects  above  the  condition  of  paupen, 
Individuals  wishing  to  belong  to  the  provident  dispciua. 
rics  must  join  when  in  good  health,  as  the  object  ii  in 
reality  an  "  assurance"  against  sickness,  and  the  [jrovi. 
dent  character  of  the  institution  could  not  otherwise  be 
maintained.  One  penny  a  week  is  paid  for  each  adult 
of  the  family,  and  a  halfpenny  for  each  dependent  ciiilj. 
Individuals  of  the  more  affluent  classes  contribute  wilhogf 
the  design  of  benefit  for  themselves,  in  order  to  encouraiie 
the  institution,  and  from  them,  in  general,  the  direclin; 
body  is  chosen — the  only  part  of  the  arrangement  which 
we  cannot  fully  apjirove  of.  From  the  proceeds  a  mo 
dical  man  is  fccil,  and  medicines  are  provided;  and  it 
is  remarkable  that  a  thousand  sick  persons  ronncctoj 
with  a  provident  dispensary  have  been  found  to  cost  cou- 
siderably  less  than  a  similar  number  of  patients  rcaortinf 
to  the  medical  charities.*     The  tendency  of  such  inatitu- 


•  An  Kuay  on  Dispeataries.    By  P.  H.  Holland,  Suifte 
MauclissMr:  liitt. 


Vesra. 

1834, 

ItlS, 
1H30, 
1337, 

Ca 

N 

M( 

the 

tb 

Avcrni{f8.j 

•.  "»■  •'T^^'"T'V^ 


SOCIAL  ECONOMICS  OF  THE  INDUSTRIOUS  ORDERS. 


477 


itimilntain  the  moral  iipriffhtncM  of  tha  working- 
^jjf  is  obviouf,  ind  it  ia  already  proved  that,  wherever 
^y  have  iN'en  planted,  applicationa  fur  purochial  relief 
|.,n  been  diminished.  It  ia  to  be  lamented  that  medical 
men  have  a  prejudice  against  them,  probohly  from  no 
^1  cause  than  that  email  copper  aums  ore  concerned 
in  supporlinn  'h*™-  B"'  aurely  it  ia  lietter  even  for 
_^c»l  i"«"  ''"'  '*■*  humbler  order  of  patienta  ahould 
ny  something  within  their  means,  and  that  regularly, 
lh*n  only  P»y  '"  *  '*'*  instancca,  and  in  other*  either 
.(Mtt  to  cliaritiea  or  leave  a  large  debt  unliquidated. 

Whatever  may  be  the  acntimetita  of  the  profemion 
npon  this  point,  it  must  b«  evident  to  all  that,  for  the 
working-el"'*'*  themselvca,  the  provident  diapenaary  ia  a 
most  unuK^cptionable  apeciea  of  institution.  It  cornea 
them  over  one  great  dilHculty  in  their  career  with  the 
pieservation  of  their  independence ;  it  doca  more,  for,  lie- 
jjig  on  the  aaaurance  principle,  it  encouragea  babiu  of 
jj^ght  Some  other  advantagca  preaumedly  incidental 
10  it  are  thua  stated  by  Mr.  P.  H.  Holland,  in  the  pamph- 
let above  quoted :—"  Aaaiatance  in  sirkneaa  ia  much 
more  easily  accessible  in  provident  than  in  honorary 
jiipenMries.  The  patient  need  not  lone  time,  or  degrade 
\^w»\i,  >>;  running  about  to  beg  a  recommendation,  but 
ipulies  at  once  for  an  attendance  ticket,  and  puta  hini- 
»jif  under  the  care  of  the  medical  officer  of  hia  own 
ehoice;  in  fact,  procure*  assixtance  just  oa  readily  as  the 
richest  of  the  land.  Consequently,  as  I  am  informed  by 
Mi  Nanliivell,  at  the  Coventry  Diapenaary,  the  cases 
being  seen  by  the  aurgeona  at  the  very  outset,  the  pro- 
bability of  a  successful  result  is  much  higher  than  in  or- 
dinary dispensaries :  for  instance,  at  Coventry,  thoy  have 
lost,  out  of  6094  patienU  attended,  92,  or  1  in  66 ;  at 
tjx  Chorlton-upon-Medlock   Dispensary,  in   the    aame 


period,  out  of  6438  patienta  admitted,  210  died,  or  1  U< 
30-6.  All  who  have  had  vxiterienco  in  ordinary  di*pen< 
aary  practice,  well  know  the  advantages  of  gutting  tb« 
caaes  early;  for,  at  present,  very  many  patients,  rathar 
than  undergo  the  truublv,  unpleasantness,  and  painful 
aacrifice  of  honest  pride,  will  nut  apply  for  a  recommenda- 
tion until  thay  dare  delay  no  loii);cr ;  consequently,  many 
caaea  aru  not  under  treatment  until  the  only  time  at 
which  it  could  b«  available  ia  past,  and  it  is  this  which 
renders  dispensary  practice  so  harassing. 

•<It  is  probable,  nay  certain,  that  tlie  large  number  of 
patients,  in  proportion  to  the  deaths,  is  in  a  great  measura 
owing  to  the  very  easy  access  to  a  provident  dis{ien>ary, 
causing  many  to  apply  on  very  trivial  occasions;  but 
who  shall  say  how  many  of  these  trivial  caaes  would 
have  become  aerioua,  or  even  fatal,  if  neglected  1  But 
thia  partial  explanation  will  not  ut  all  account  for  the 
very  gratifying  result  which,  by  the  following  analyais 
of  the  reports  of  the  Coventry  Sulf-suppoiting  Disponsaryt 
I  have  elicited,  namely,  that  the  averaj^r  viorialilxj  among 
the  membtn  of  that  diipiniary  tf  conndcrably  leii  than 
Iht  avtiage  nwrlulily  of  the  country  generally.  This  ia 
the  more  remarkable,  as  it  is  fair  to  presume  that  the 
sickly  will  be  more  ready  to  subscribe  than  those  in 
robust  health,  and  therefore  we  might  have  expected  • 
mortality  somewhat  greater  than  the  average.  The 
mortality  of  a  town  like  Coventry  is  about  1  in  60  per 
annum.  The  following  table  exhibits  the  number  of 
mcmbeni,  upon  the  presumption  that  each  on  an  averiige 
contributes  at  the  rate  of  3s.  per  annum,  which  must  he 
very  near  the  truth,  as  adult  members  pay  one  penny 
per  week,  and  children  a  halfpenny,  while  any  more  than 
two  in  a  family,  below  twelve  yeaia  of  age,  are  not 
^charged. 


Years. 

ISM, 

liOO, 
1337, 

Cal  collated 
Niunber  of 
Members  on 
the  avurnge  of 
llie  whole 
year. 

Patients 
Admitted. 

Deaths. 

Computed  Num- 
ber of  Members 
to  each  Death. 

Number 

of  Cases 

to  each 

Death. 

Amount  of 

Honorary 

Subscriptions  and 

Donations  for 
Kipennes  of  the 
Establishment. 

Amount  of 

Members' 

Subscriptions, 

from  wliiuh  Kund 

the  Drugs  are  paid 

for,  and  the 

remainder 

Paid  to  th* 
Surgeous. 

36Y0 
3771 
3i>.'>0 
3614 

issa 
isos 

1420 
1631 

90 
27 
17 
33 

133 
103 
155 
93 

77 
58 
83 
65 

£     ».    d. 

113  6    6 

114  4    0 
134    6    3 

101  12    0 

£     s.    d. 
400  13    0 
415  13    1 
307    0    3i 
303    t    1 

£     I.  d. 
268    0    0 
297    «    0 
308    3    0 
361  IS    C 

AvuraifS. 

9670 

1533 

33 

131 

69 

130  17  at 

401    0    1 

9t»:i    0 

«The  average  annual  mortality  among  2676  of  the 
population,  taken  promiscuously,  would  be  about  53 ; 
whereas  the  mortality  amonff  the  Coventry  Dispensary 
patients  has  been  only  23.  We  must  not  suppose  that 
(lie  disfiensary  is  saving  lives  at  the  rate  of  thirty  a  year, 
fur  much  of  this  dilTerence  of  mortality  must  be  attri- 
buted to '  the  circumstance  of  the  members  of  the  institudon 
conaiitinp;  almost  entirely  of  the  most  frugal,  industrious, 
anil  prudent  of  the  work-people.'*  Something  ought 
pprliaps  to  be  attributi>d  to  them  being  probably  a  dispro 
porlionato  number  of  adult  mem*>er«  •  Put  -f  wo  are 
ever  warranted  in  ascribing  to  medical  means  the  saving 
of  life,  most  surely  are  we  so  among  the  patieits  of  a 
srit-supporting  dispensary,  where  the  members  have  me- 
ilical  advice  at  the  very  outset  of  disease,  more  promptly 
pcihaps  tlian  any  other  set  of  persons  in  the  country.'  " 

MINOR  ICONOMIO   rURDS. 

The  Hon.  and  Rev.  S.  G.  Osborne,  of  Stoke  Vicarage, 
Buckinghamshire,  has  published  an  account  f  of  several 
iniall  economic  funds,  which  have  been  formed  in  hia 
parish — a  large  agricultural  one — for  the  benetlt  of  tiie 


.  Holland,  9urgM 


•  Letter  from  Mr.  Nankivpll. 
t "  Hints  to  the  C  larilable." 
Boone,  Loudoa. 


Price  One  Shiliing    T.  Jt  W. 


humbler  classes,  apparently  in  a  great  measure  by  the 
active  and  well-directed  zeal  of  the  author  himself. 

One  of  these  is  a  C'onl  Fund.  The  poor  in  Mr.  Oe« 
home's  district  are  generally  ill  off  f-'r  coal  during  the 
winter  months;  and,  when  the  ).'.cr  is  unusually 
severe,  it  is  found  necessary  in  matty  parishes  to  sub- 
scribe to  obtain  for  them  a  portion  of  tiiat  domestic  ne- 
crasa'v.  In  Stoke  parish,  the  poor  are  induced  to  com- 
in''nce  in  June  puyino;  one  shilling  a  week  each  into  the 
parson's  hands,  until  twelve  shillings  have  been  paid. 
Coal  is  there  generally  from  Is.  Id.  to  Is.  5d.  a  bushel; 
yet  the  managers  of  the  fund  undertake  that  each  person 
shall  have  twelve  bushels  of  coal  delivered  to  him,  during 
the  course  of  winter,  at  hb  door,  free  of  all  charge  (a 
sack  cf  throe  bushels  being  given  every  three  weeks  four 
times).  The  extra  money  required  is  contributed  by  the 
benevolent  people  of  the  neighbourhood.  Charity  is 
here  partially  employed ;  but  it  is  to  he  remembered  that 
the  bcnclit  is  conferred  upon  a  class  who  mii;lit  otherwise 
l>e  entirely  dependent  in  this  respect.  Mr.  Osborne  con- 
siders it  a  great  matter  that  the  poor  are  induced  to  con- 
tribute the  larger  share  of  the  funds:  their  spirit  of  self- 
dependence  is  encouraged  to  that  extent.  The  reverend 
manager  of  the  fund  endeavours  to  save  a  little  in  good 
years,  in  order  to  be  the  more  ubie  to  succour  the  poor  in 
bad  ones      The  poor  complain  of  tliis,  but  he  wuta 


i"^ 


INFORMATION   FOR   THE   PEOPLK. 


patiently  till  i  hati  year  eomM  In  ihow  tham  the  good  of 
the  aynHitn.  In  the  ievrTB  winlor  of  IH37-H,  hn  had 
i!34  in  hand.  '•  Wa  thouKht  tha  aevrrity  of  the  WHaon 
■uch  an  eitreme  caae,  that  we  nunht  Co  do  loniethintt 
more  than  URUal  for  the  |H)or.  AminlinKly,  we  took  a 
pa-t  of  the  lifltnnce,  and  bought  114  aanka  of  coal,  loina 
of  which  we  gave  away,  but  aold  the  irreater  pnrt  at  the 
low  prire  of  liipence  a  aack.  The  poor  wrre  thua 
iaimhl  the  advantage  of  having  aaved  thi*  hsiunrn,  and 
wii  hkd  thi)  Mitiafartion  of  affbrdiiig  a  moat  iptaonalilo 
reliof,  without  begging  for  a  ainsla  liipence  ''om  any 
one."  It  rnay  Iw  preaumed  that  the  partiea  on  the  rooJ 
fund  will  be  more  careful  of  fuel  thui  obtiiinni  than  of 
thnt  which  i«  given  them  for  nothing,  ••  Tlioy  cnn  look 
forward  to  the  winter,"  anya  Mr.  Oabome,  •'  with  one 
heavy  care  for  it  removed.  When  the  winter  cornea, 
with  little  or  any  addition,  the  tired  labourer  may  over 
And  a  comfortable  Are  at  home  to  f|inrid  hia  evrninga 
bv ;  he  ia  not  foroni  to  go  to  the  becr-ahop  to  warm  him- 
a^lf." 

The  Wife'i  FrUnrily  Soriely  ia  ilcninned  to  enable  mar- 
ried women  of  the  pooreat  cleu  to  have  a  amall  fund 
which  they  ran  draw  upon,  to  defray  the  exprnie  of  a 
proper  medical  attendant  at  their  cunfinrmenta,  and  fur- 
niiih  aome  of  the  comforta  required  on  thooo  ocraaiona. 
Generally,  thia  claoa  of  persona  have  no  proviaion  for 
Buch  occaaiona,  and  the  conoequcncoi  are  that  they  de- 
pend on  charity,  and  aomotimea  aulfer  from  the  imiiircrenco 
which  the  midwivea  in  that  caae  employed  are  apt  to  feel 
where  their  care  ia  not  to  be  romuncrntml.  A  poor  wo- 
man rcoominondod  to  the  Wife'a  Friendly  Society  paya 
Sd.  weekly  for  a  year  to  the  treasurer  (the  vicnr's  wife), 
making  Nn.  8d.  in  all.  To  thia  the  ao<'icty  from  charita- 
ble contrihutiona  adda  2a.  lOd.,  making  I  la.  Gd.  If  alio 
ii  confined  that  year,  aho  gets  an  order  for  Ifls.,  which 
aiTvea  as  payment  for  her  mcdieul  atteiulunU  The  re- 
maining la.  6d.  aorvea  to  furnish  gruel  and  other  little 
comfort*— a  small  aum  for  auch  a  purpose,  but  better 
than  nothing.  The  peraon  who  rcromrocndcd  the  mem- 
ber guarantees,  that,  after  thia  payment  is  made,  she  will 
continue  to  pay  her  weekly  two|)ence  till  the  end  of  the 
year.  Should  no  confinement  take  place,  the  money  is 
spent  on  clothes. 

In  the  ctiHo  of  the  Penny  Clothing  Fund,  the  propor- 
tion of  charitable  contribution  ia  greater  than  in  any  other 
of  Mr.  0«l><)riie'B  achemes.  The  object  is  to  encourage 
the  poor  to  exert  themaelvea  to  furnioh  decent  clothing 
for  tt.eir  children.  A  benevolent  person  pitchea  upon 
auoM  child  belonging  to  a  poor  neighbour:  the  patron 
and  the  child  each  pay  Id.  weekly  into  the  fund,  that 


is,  8a.  8d,  annually.  Home  peraona  lake  two,  thrts. 
m<ire  children  under  their  care.  Mr.  Oattorne  aiKakTi!? 
IfiO  in  all  in  his  parish  being  clothe<l  by  these  mi<tn  i 
oiii-  year,  «  The  buying  of  the  clothing  is  thus  manjJla 
a  liiien-<lrapi>r  attends  with  hia  ahopman  on  s  given  d 
at  the  expiration  of  the  year,  with  a  large  supply  of  'J 
•uch  articles  of  riotliing  as  the  poor  most  need  fur  ik.' 
children  ;  the  arhool-roorn  is  allotted  to  him  as  a  Hhnnf" 
the  day.  In  adilitiim  to  the  linen-drafxT  wii  huve  i  J" 
son  over  from  a  neighbouring  market-town,  whow  bu '^ 
neaa  it  ia  to  deal  in  ready-made  clothing  and  nhnri  f 
lH)ys ;  ho  h>is  a  room  adjoining  the  school  for  hia  i,|,„ ' 
Each  lady  (these  clubs  are  almost  always  wholly  MupiKi,)  i 
by  the  femiilo  sex)  appears  with  the  cliildrca  she  huamt 
in,  together  with  their  parents ;  tliey  are  served  in  iiinl 
and  it  ia  the  lady's  duty  to  aee  that  they  Imvc  {.\\e\,  a? 
8d.  worth  of  go(KlB,  The  penr«  are  roc.eivril  from  thi 
children  weekly  at  the  achool ;  from  the  pcrNDiis  iiuitjn 
them  in,  at  iho  end  of  the  year."  Clolliing  f  )r  cluldnn 
being  one  of  the  thinga  which  the  fHxir,  amidst  the  vj. 
rious  difRcullics  which  Iniset  them,  are  least  apt  lo  provij. 
for,  wo  can  well  l)eliove  that  this  funil  does  much  mora 
good  thyn  the  practice  of  presenting  blankets  at  ("htiit 
mus — a  blanket  Uiing  an  article  which  the  purcni  tnM,\^ 
foel  the  want  of  pressingly  ihemselvcn,  and  arc  thorefori 
eager  to  provide  from  their  own  means. 

The  K-ilrnvmriil  Snarly  far  VInlihtn  ia  tJic  last  of  Mf 
Osborne's  parochial  schemes  which  are  diirinnt  from 
those  already  developed  in  these  pagca.  The  olijcct  her« 
ii*  to  make  a  provision,  by  small  paymrntN,  in  tlic  rnuna 
of  a  few  years,  for  an  event  connected  with  a  cbilil  whjoij 
will  make  a  small  sum  of  money  nccrsaary — as,  for  jq. 
stance,  to  put  hira  (or  her)  out  to  service  or  apprenlifj 
him,  or  to  furniah  him  witn  toola  for  his  trade  when  liii 
apprenticeship  is  expired.  One  shilling,  one  and  lii. 
pcnci!,  and  two  nhillinga,  are  the  varioua  ruuih  rpreiv^(|, 
and  they  may  bo  for  two,  four,  or  six  years,  Tlie  prin- 
ciple  ia  the  same  as  in  a  uavinga'  bank,  hut  the  money  ji 
devoted  to  a  [larticular  object,  and  that  a  very  inti'milm 
one,  and  a  stimulus  to  saving  ifc  addc<l.  The  iiianai;on 
of  this  fund  place  the  money  collected  in  the  aavinij,' 
bank ;  in  the  event  of  the  nominated  child  dying,  u^ 
other  is  taken,  or  the  money  given  back. 

For  further  information  on  these  economic  iimtituliona, 
wo  refer  to  Mr.  Osborne's  little  volume.  It  may  lie  nua. 
tioned  that  he  haa  published  some  other  small  pamphleti 
(T.  and  W.  Boone,  London)  connected  with  tlic  subiwl 
of  this  sheet,  and  all  of  which  accm  to  us  well  worthy  of 
the  attention  of  those  who  aim  at  benetifing  the  poor  by 
evoking  their  own  beat  powera  in  their  own  behall 


«'< 


,;)^ .I'Uk^Ml.    .LtiUi     tAlJ*.    Ail.  t'.l  U  ILiJ  l«itt 


A.  i.  "Vi  vn-i  v»#-n>;*^*« 


i.v.    AGRICULTURE.    . 


i 


,  (      .   »,      '■  ',    ■  0  ■  -I'  '»•'■     f', 


•til 


Anniroi'"'"*'  nn'y  '>c  ileflncd  an  the  art  of  (lUpoRing 
(Im  toil  in  H'li'h  n  iiiuiinor  nx  tn  nmko  it  prmluop,  in  the 
irciteot  aliuiiilnni'o  uiitl  porfrolion,  those  vcRolalilc* 
Hhicii  are  uaol'ul  to  ninn  and  the  aiiiinaiR  <lc|icii(linK  on 
(lira  for  »ul)HirttiMic'c.  The  earth,  in  a  otato  of  nature, 
unle*  wl""'"  ''  '"  ''hilletl  1>.V  nn  unRciiiiil  climate,  poi- 
i.'iwD  a  certiiiii  ilo({reo  of  fertility,  no  an  to  proilure 
iJtnti  more  or  Ichh  Huitnhle  for  the  niibsiHtcneo  of  ninn 
and  beast;  liiit  its  (tponfnneouii  pro<luotiona  are  small 
in  amount  coinpiired  with  those  which  can  be  drawn 
from  it  hy  mun's  industry  and  intelligence,  and  those 
iiroiluctions  are  not  sure  to  In)  of  tlio  kind  which  are 
.ncHl  needful.  Savage  niition*  usually  rest  content  with 
inc  naturul  [iroduce,  and  they  are  acrordinnly  found  to 
bo  fow  in  proportion  to  the  surface  which  they  possess, 
luJ  generally  in  the  lowest  state  of  misery.  But  wher- 
ever ninn  has  i)OHscHscd  any  int«!llip[ence,  he  has  applied 
hiinsclf  to  cultivate  the  earth,  so  as  to  make  it  capable 
of  iupporting  in  comparutivo  comfort  a  larger  amount  of 
population. 

The  earliest  eflbrts  in  ajfriculturo  appear  to  have 
ererywhere  been  simple,  and  limited  in  their  object. 
The  lurface  was  ploughed,  the  cereal  grains  (wheat, 
Mti,  &c)  were  hdwu,  and  such  a  crop  as  nature  gave 
iru  contentedly  reaped.  It  cannot  bo  suiil  that,  by  such 
isviteni,  more  was  done  than  merely  to  take  ndvan- 
lai;'c  of  the  natural  fertility,  in  order  to  raise  fiirinn- 
woui  grains  iiistend  of  the  spontaneous  herbage.  Here, 
Lowcver,  auriculturc  seems  to  have  in  every  country 
taliea  its  stiiid  for  many  ages.  It  has  only  been  in 
recent  times  that  men  anywhere  thought  of  cultivating 
the  toil  under  certain  advantageous  circumstances, 
having  a  reference  to  scientific  principles,  <io  as  to  in- 
rrtiiie  the  nalurul  prodmliveiuis,  and  consequently 
render  the  earth  capable  of  supporting  an  increased 
population. 

The  rise  and  progress  of  agriculture  among  us  lui-'  -^ 
univoidably  been  much  aflected  by  the  natural  |)ecu- 
llarilies  of  the  country.  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  arc 
iilai  da,  having  the  vast  expanse  of  the  .\tlantic  on  the 
tvoat  and  Gfrnian  Ocean  on  the  east,  and  lie  within  the 
60th  and  59th  deirrees  of  north  latitude.  Both  from 
relative  situation  and  latitude,  therefore,  they  are  exposed 
to  a  variable,  and,  upon  the  whole,  ungenial  climate. 
For  about  five  months  in  the  year,  or  from  Novcmlicr 
till  March,  the  ground  is  liable  to  ho  covered  less  or 
more  with  sitow,  or  to  be  frozen  in  its  surface  ;  and 
herbage  in  cither  case  is  so  scanty,  that,  unless  for 
■liivp,  and  not  always  for  them  either,  the  open  ground 
diicf  not  alTord  nourishment  for  the  stock  of  pasturing 
animala  rciiuircd  in  husbandry,  or  for  the  dairy  and 
nuiiko*.!!.  In  a  word,  vegetable  fomi  roust  be  produced 
lu  lullicieiit  variety  a.id  quantity  during  seven  months 


■  '■   '{'* 
-  ;-  ''l>' 

•-  . .    ■  ■,).;(  (^ 

.  '..  .      <>if 

,.     i 

"■       -"'k^ 

of  mild  weather,  to  store  up  as  a  provision  for  the  |i»i 
rnaining  five.  This  necesniirily  gives  a  |ieeuliar  cbarao* 
ter  to  the  husbandry  of  the  Uritish  iNliiiids,  or  of  any  other 
country  similarly  situated.  Independently  of  the  circun»i 
Ntunce,  the  natural  character  of  tlie  soil  throughout  is  far 
from  being  uniforndy  suitable  for  agriculture.  8oma 
land  U  gixHl,  some  is  of  a  medium  <iunlity,  and  a  larg* 
proportion  is  positively  bad,  being  in  a  fltale  of  nature  no 
iK'llcr  than  an  unproductive  morass  or  waste.  Hcnre, 
under  a  poor  system  of  agriculture,  only  the  good  land 
was  cultivated,  and  a  large  section  of  the  country  wa*  of 
no  use  to  man  or  beast,  further  thai>  aflbrding  refuge  to 
tril)e8  of  wild  animals.  In  former  times,  livc-stivk  were 
cither  kept  on  such  n  limited  scale  as  to  render  their 
amount  of  winter  provender  easily  attainable,  or  they 
were  half  starved  for  several  months  wliile  the  inclement 
season  lasted. 

The  improvements  which  were  in  time  effected  to 
remedy  thcrie  deficiencicN,  consisted  of  a  scries  of  morea, 
each  de|N!nding  on  the  other.  Two  things  were  desire 
able — to  increase  the  extent  of  culturable  soil  for  grain 
crops,  and  to  raise  sufTicient  food  for  cattle  nnd  horsea 
all  the  year  round.  Now,  these  desirable  points  involved 
a  thorough  change  in  the  practice  of  hualiondry.  How 
was  it  possible  to  break  up  and  profilaldy  cultivate  in- 
difl'eront  soils,  much  of  which  hail  hitherto  been  con- 
sidered beyond  all  hopo  of  improvement,  without  an 
abundant  supply  of  manure  1  and  how  could  thin  manure 
be  procured  without  kcc])ing  a  large  stock  of  cattle,  for 
which  there  was  evidently  no  meons  of  subsistence  1 
To  overcome  these  ditricultics,  it  was  found  necessary, 
in  the  first  place,  to  introduce  what  are  called  green 
crops,  that  is,  crops  of  artificial  grasses.  Including  clover, 
turnips,  and  other  roots  and  plants ;  for,  by  having  a 
pro|>er  Bup[)Iy  of  these  substances,  two  important  enda 
were  gained — the  support  of  cattle  for  manure,  and  the 
alternation  of  green  with  grain  crops  ;  thus  at  once  en- 
riching the  land,  and  relieving  it  from  the  scourging 
obligation  to  raise  com  crops  successively.  On  these 
main  points,  then,  along  with  plans  for  drawing  off  by 
artificial  drainage  the  surplus  water  lotlged  in  or  upon 
the  soil,  hang  the  great  agricultural  improvements  ot 
modem  times. 

8011,8. CHOICE   OF    FARMS. 

The  soil,  or  that  earthy  substance  with  which  the  dry 
land  is  in  most  parts  covered,  forms  more  p.irticulariy 
the  material  on  which  the  ngrirnltiiriKt  has  to  operate. 
An  investigation  of  its  various  qualities  is  absolutely 
necessary  for  all  who  would  conduct  farming  business  in 
an  enlightened  and  Iil>cral  manner. 

The  soil  is  mainly  com])oscd  of  particles  which  have 
been  disengaged  by  various  means  in  the  course  of  time 

470 


480 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PROl'LE. 


fium  tho  rot'ki  nn  which  It  reaU.  In  nnM  iiiaUiiCM, 
•iiil  more  iinrtiruliirly  on  tull>,  it  U  cuuipowd  in  Ihu  main 
••('  pulvoriti'il  niatpriiila  froiii  thn  rocka  iMiiiii'iliatrly  Iw- 
nralh  ;  hut  In  iiwny  olhfra,  Iha  inilvcriird  tiiattcr  haa 
*«eu  waahnl  down  t'ruin  hi||li  into  low  Krounilii,  or  Iran*- 
l>oiteil  \>y  flood*  from  f rnat  diatunt-ca.  Tho  aftion  of  air 
and  wal4<r  on  r(H'k«  in  diiKolvinf  them,  and  the  |Miwor  of 
Uin  lattrr  rli'int-nt  in  Iraimportinn  the  ilimingaK'nl  i>arti- 
riea,  aro  tlif  chirf  cauMta  of  tlia  preavnt  arrnngriucnta  of 
Ihi'  auil. 

Notwitliatandiiig  the  diflerrnt  ■ppeamncea  which  the 
earthy  rovcrinK  of  the  kIoI*"  exhililla,  it  ia  roni|M>Md 
ahooal  entirely  of  four  aulwtancea,  foniMMl  kyan  oriKinal 
union  of  •inijilo  ilnnentary  mattora.  Three  four  iiul>- 
atuucea,  waNJu'd  at  a  former  period  (torn  rcx^ka,  and  railed 
priniilivo  oarthir,  aro  iV'iy,  innil,  limt,  ainl  mnifiittia.  It 
u  in  the  due  conibiinitiiNi  of  ihoaa  that  fertility  coniiata. 
We  ahall  drn'ribv  thuni  aeparately. 

Cluy. — ('luy,  or,  aa  it  ia  often  called,  tlumine,  or  ar-  J 
gillmceoua  iiirth,  ii  eaaily  diatiiiHuinhahlr.     It  i«  a  coin.  : 
pact  aulmtuncc,  which  iil>aorlM  watrr  alowly,  anil  when 
ni'iiatrneti  throunhout,  ia  aoft,  pliant,  and  exrepdin){ly  { 
tough  or  tenac-ioUH.     In  ita  ordinary  condition  it  ia  «o 
eloae  in  texture  aa  to  prevent  the  penetration  of  tho  roota  \ 
of  planta,  and  therefore  ia  a  nerioua  oliatiirle  to  vi-Kcta-  j 
tion.     Clay  ia  one  of  the  moat  obdurate  and  worst  kinda 
of  aoil  upon  which  •  farmer  i*  called  to  op<<rtte.     If  it 
nat  on  •  aubalratum  of  gravel,  or  friable  rock,  or  land, 
it  aduita  of  oaxy  melioration  ;  but  this  ia  aeUlom  tho  1 
ease ;  it  too  frequently  rests  on  a  cold  and   still  more  | 
compact  dark  clay,  called  lill,  which  ia  ao  close  that  no  ' 
water  can  sink  through  it  I 

A  clayey  noil  may  tw  meliorated  by  a  due  mixture  of 
aand  or  any  other  light  Milmtnnco,  which  will  servo  to  | 
•heer  down  its  articles  nnd  keep  thorn  apart  iVum  eoeh  ; 
other.     All  kinds  of  calcareous  manures,  oshe*,  and  the 
loose  dung  swept  from  the  streets  of  towns,  peat,  and 
farm-yard  ninnurc,  are  srrvicealile  in  niinglhig  with  clayey 
■oils,  and  bringing  them  up  to  a  pro|>pr  state  of  fertility. 
When  so  iniproved,  they  are  calculiited  to  yield  good  , 
crop*  of  l)rans,  wheat,  oats,  clover,  and  Hwe<lish  turnips. 
They  likcwite  answer  well  for  mcudow  lands  or  puxtur- 
age.     Clay  soiU  ought,  if  |MMsiblc,  to  be  ploughed  up 
before  winter  sctn  in,  in  order  to  ex|>oM  the  furrows  to 
the  action  of  tlie  frovt,  which  mellowa  and  brays  down 
the  tenacious  cloda. 

^'a<lrf.  Sand  or  gravel,  called  aometimes  silcx,  silicn, 
•iliceoua  mutter,  or  earth  of  Hints,  is  distinguished  by  pro- 
perties of  n  totally  o|)]ioHite  ehuracler  from  cliiy.  It  has 
little  or  no  cohesion  among  its  parts ;  is  inca;ml>le  of  re- 
taining moiiUure;  and  |>owerfulty  promotes  putrefaction, 
hut  permits  the  gases  to  escape.  Hand  is  thus  n  cor- 
rector of  alumino.  These  two  eortlis  may  indce<l  l)e 
clasiod  among  the  contending  elements,  of  which  n  union 
heightens  their  common  virtues,  and  rectifies  and  subdues 
their  respective  defects. 

The  bulk  of  tho  aoil,  generally,  ia  composed  of  sand, 
tn  the  extent  of  (Vom  four  to  seven-eighths  of  the  mass. 
Sir  Humphry  Davy  observes  that  '•  tho  term  sandy  should 
never  t>e  applied  to  any  soil  that  docs  not  contain  at 
least  seven-eighths  of  sand ;  "also,  that, "  sundy  soils  which 
efiervesco  with  acids  should  be  called  by  the  name  of 
calcareous  sandy  soil,  to  distinguish  them  fironi  those  that 
are  siliceous." 

We  «re  informed  by  Sir  John  Sinclair  that  <•  the  best 
mode  of  improving  tho  texture  of  a  sandy  soil,  deficient 
in  retentive  or  adhesive  properties,  ia  by  a  mixture  of 
clay,  marl,  warp  (tlie  sediment  of  navigable  rivers),  sev 
note,  sea-shells,  peat,  or  vegetable  earth.  Even  light 
oandy  aoila  arc  thus  rendered  retentive  of  moisture  and 
manure.  In  some  parts  of  Norfolk,  the  farmers  have 
•vailed  themselves  of  these  auxiliaries  for  improving  • 
•antly  aoil  in  an  eminent  degree.  They  have  thiu  en- 
tirely cbMiKod  the  nature  of  the  toil }  and  by  the  con- 


tinuation of  Judicious  management,  have  ||iv„„  , 
of  fame  to  the  huslwndry  of  that  iliatriet,  Ut  m,,,.... 
that  of  otiien  nutnraily  more  ferule." — (Cuj,  JfT'* 
iulturr.)  '  •*»"■ 

If  the  farmer  of  a  sandy  soil  |hnuh'SS  the  nieani  o#u 
Ing  it  a  ti>|Mlresaiiig  of  brayed  down  or  linikfii  uait  h^ 
will  find  it  to  be  attended  with  goml  ellirUi  in  •,„,'   , 
the  materials  of  improvement  are  olitaiiiid  willi  little  It 
(Unity.      When  pro|)erly  prrpurcil,  u  sMiLly  whI  i,  g^,  . 
the  iiHMt  valuabUi  which  ran  lie  workvd.     h  will  urodu 
good  crops  of  rommon  turni|Mi,  poialmM,  curmts  \^x\. 
rye,  buck-wheat,  |N<aa,  clover,  and  wiiiii'rin  and  Jj^ 
gnuises.    It  M^ldom  posousaes  sulllcient  •liviigtli  furwhniL 
beans,  or  flax.  "^ 

Crojis  on  sandy  soils  are  easily  injured  liy  ilrought,!. 
the  niointurii  too  r«o<lily  eva|KirateH  from  the  oiK-n  niF. 
tides.  This  moy  lie  in  some  meuxiire  remidi, Jiiy  j  * 
ploughing,  which  has  the  ellect  of  ple^.e^vil||{  g  ,|u,  \  ^ 
grco  of  moisture  in  the  aubatratuiii,  un  n  rnK'noir  for  th, 
pliints.  To  HssiHt  further  in  preserving  the  moiiiure  ir, 
the  soil,  any  siiiall  stones  which  lie  on  tlie  Hiiruico  should 
not  be  picked  olt  In  rainy  elinmtcs,  or  wlieii  the  mII 
rests  on  retiMitivo  clay,  such  expedients  may  |,gt  ^ 
nerrssary. 

Gravelly  soils  are  similar  in  character  tn  those  which 
art  sandy,  and  equally  acquire  the  HtliiiiiiJHirution  of 
materials  to  give  tenacity  to  the  muss,  also  a  iluc  supnlf 
of  conipoHt  iiiMiiure.  Uoth  sandy  and  gravelly  HuiltahoulJ 
have  frequent  returns  of  grass  cro|iH. 

lime. —  Mine,  commonly  culled  calenreous  earth,  ii 
never  found  naturally  in  a  pure  state,  but  in  ronihinb 
tion  with  the  acids — chiefly  with  the  cnrlionic,  fur  which 
it  has  so  strong  an  afllnity  that  it  attractii  it  from  th« 
atmosphere.  The  burning  of  limestone  \*  uiulcrtali(ti 
for  no  other  purpose  than  to  expel  by  heat  tliin  gju,  ^^d 
reduce  tho  huso  to  a  caustic  powder,  in  wlilcli  utile  i| 
has  a  strong  tendency  to  absorl)  first  moisture,  and  then 
tho  cHrbonic  acid  of  which  it  had  U'en  deprived.  Linn 
blends  (lie  qualities  of  clay  and  sniid,  occupying  i  niij. 
die  place  between  the  two.  In  its  caustic  state  it  ii  i 
powerful  jiroinoter  of  putrefaction,  or  decoinpoaerofioi. 
mal  and  vegetable  matter,  to  wliich  rircuiii:itniice  is  owing 
to  a  certain  extent,  its  efTicary  as  a  inniuire.  Lime  al« 
helps  to  fix  the  carbonic  acid  which  is  generated  by  thj 
fermentation  of  putrescent  manures  in  the  ruil,  or  which 
floats  ill  the  uir  on  tho  surface  of  tho  earth,  and  it  fTcelj 
imparts  this  gas,  in  union  with  water,  for  tliu  nouriih. 
nient  of  plants.  Lime  is  therefore  un  exceedinsily  vaji). 
able  iiiitredient  to  the  farmer;  and,  iircnriliiii>ly,  wher- 
ever agriculture  is  carried  on  with  s|)irit,  it  is  ragetli 
sought  after,  though  it  sometimes  boars  a  very  hijb 
price. 

Mn^nrnn, — Magnesia  is  a  jirimitivo  earth  found  in 
some  soils,  but  in  a  much  smiiller  proportion  than  tho 
above  three.  Its  pro|MMties  are  nearly  nna!oi;()ii»  totho* 
of  lime,  but  of  doubtful  value,  and  it  is  certainly  injuri- 
ous when  mingled  in  largo  quantities  with  th^  othci 
earths. 

On  analyzing  the  various  soils  and  subsoiU,  they  hait 
lieen  found  to  resolve  themselves  into  one  or  more  of  Ihe 
foregoing  primitive  earths ;  ond  their  liaiTcnrirss  or  fer- 
tility has  in  no  small  degree  depended  on  the  raixinj 
and  assorting  of  these  ingredients.  Some  noils  arc  railed 
loiiniM :  a  loam,  however,  is  by  no  mciins  a  ilihtiiict  body 
but  is  a  combination  of  clay,  sand,  or  calcareous  matter. 
Some  loams  are  denominated  clayey,  from  tlic  excess  of 
art^illaceoua  matter ;  others,  open  and  lii;ht,  IVum  Ihe 
preponderance  of  sand.  In  fact,  these  two  original  in- 
grediente  aeem  capable  of  being  compounileil  in  such  in 
infinite  variety  of  ways,  as  to  give  occasion  tuthnt  direr- 
aified  texturo  of  soils  met  with  in  ull  countries  ani'  «ll 
situations. 

Besides  these  four  primitive  earths,  which  coniititti« 
equally  the  soil  and  aubaoil,  the  upper  of  thenc.  or  uioulil, 


AOHKU'I/riJRB. 


iMUin*  '*■♦  P""'''  ""'*•  "'  nrK»n\tri\  •iilinlanrrii  thai  I 

,  ^riiwn  iir  (Icciiyi'il  upon  it,  iir  Inivn  Urn  roiivoyi'il 

hilii-r  in  tliP  l'f"H""'"' "•   ■'>il<lviilii)ti.     Till'   il«i'<iiii|iiMi- 

111' ill"'*'  '^  ''""  ["■"I'll"''"  ''"I"'  "iT'ililily  ;  htkI  (lir 

.1  iirM  III'  '•"il"  '»''"'*  "'ti'fnri'  lo  llii-  rrlntivc  i|iiiiiililli'ii, 
I'l,,  rrni'loii'  I'l'f'''  r''"i"i"iiiK  "l^i'f  ''"'  itimtkh  iifiliim)-  ' 
luli'ii.  i"  <'<li'''""''>'    "'!'''  '"  ^*<''k'''>  ""''   "Iwnyx  of  » 
l.l»ki«li  <'i>l"i"'      ''   '"  "*'■"?  •"  '''•*   •'"•'  "  «iiril('ii, 

I  .|,  ),„  I, I  uiiili'r  l<ini( ntimii'il  riilliiri',  ii|i|iriini'li('ii 

lijiick  »liiil<'.  |iroKri'Kiiv('ly  ili<i'|i<'liiiiv  n iriliiiK  In 

ill   iiMlii'l  ""■''  "'''''"   ii'i'"'''-     l>l    iiililltliiii,    iirfirly  nil 

111  iiri'  liiuii'l  t'>  dintiiiii  cfrtiiin  viiiiniiH  ihriniciil  | 
eoiii|iflUiul«.  niiiiiTiil  "lilt*,  ii'iil  nirtiilllr  iixidrn;  mmi(«  ! 
iJ'wiiii'ti  I'"'  ln'O' ri"'iiil.  "tluTM  liiiriiilt'Hit,  mill  II  fi'W  iiijii-  I 
riou».  I"  vcijcliliiiii.  ni'il  whii'li  rllhrr  pri'-ciHipi!  in  tlui 
(trnUi  fr""  "''li'l'  ''"'  "'"■•'"'"  '">"  '"■''"  liiriiinl.  "T  liiivo 
1^.11  farrli'il  I"  it  liy  iiulilirriiiiciuiii|)riiin»or  liy  t'rtrtitiouH  | 
caii'H'ft. 

'I'h*  iiK'"'!'  "f  *"""  '*  "onftinirn  liiilicntoil  liy  the  kinil  I 
f/f  ,i'Hilil''< ''  '*''''''"  ''"'y  "PI''''"'  »|ii>iiliiiii(iii.|y  Id  |iri>- 
ilmfi  '''''*'  •'"^•'vcr,  it  not  ii  xiirc  li-nt  of  llio  iiiitiiri'  nf 
*ijN,  nt  riiiliiT  of  wliiit  cm  Ui  iinnliiccil  frnin  llirm  in  a 
rtjiiMil  tilli-"';  lof  'I'f  *'<''l"  of  \vi'«'ili4  wlili'li  uruw  upon 
uiiMlli>iil''il   ifrniiiil   limy    Imvr  II.ihIi'iI    Io  llinii   from  n 

i„|,iiii.p  nil  lilt"  wiiiilH,  mill  vcifc-liili'il  wlicru  llicy  liiivi' 
Ainiwl  I'  I'l''  '^"  '''"'  '■""  "'''i""y  I'l-  i'X|ircfi'il  from 
llii*  kii'.il  "'  iiivr»tl'4iilioii  ii,  whctliiT  tlif  I'li'lil  lie  iimiMt  or 
,|,v_(ii,  I'nr  iiiHtaiii'c,  ru"li('H  will  invuriulily  imliniU' 
(uinTnliiiiiiliiii'  ninitliiro  mill  n  nrri'SMity  for  ilrniiiinif. 
'i'iif  ?«|"i'"V  "'  lii'rliiitf"  or  |iliiiit«  |)iixliicf(l  in  ii  stntH  of 
(iiliircwill  ;ilmi  jii'rvi' ns  ii  test  of  llii'noil  iiml  IIh  ciipiicity 
liir  proiliirlioii-  A  HiirCuro  wlii( !.  i-xliiliitH  thin  H'-mily 
linliiiifo  i«  II  "iiri'  iiiiliciitinn  of  pjvcrty  of  loil,  or  a  (Jcfvct 
al  nwiiiluru  in  tim  clitinitu. 

("hnioo  mill  Si/.e  of  rarmi. 

It  hiw  ''•"•'I  jUK'ly  oli«-rv((l  liy  nil  cminont  prartiral 
uriculluii"t,  tliiit  t(K>  imii'li  I'liii  liiirilly  Iki  paid  for  u 
cmUdil,  :iiiil  tlirti  I'vrn  u  low  rent  will  not  iiiiko  ii  Imil 
farm  proliliilili'.  'I'lw  liitimir  of  rullivatiim  a  rii'h  unil  a 
ftior  Koil  i'  imarly  llin  wiiiio,  wliilu  tlin  liitliT  leipiirc-a 
nm' m;»uiro.  ami  coiiwiiui'iilly  in  mom  ex|ifiiHivi- tliaii 
ihi' fotmsfi '111''  ''"'  fliifiiH  hoar  no  proiiortion  in  valiif. 
Ii  is  a  wi!«'  iiiuxim  in  hmlmnilry,  of  wliat«!vcr  iiatiiro  Iho 
kjil  limy  Ik*.  Ill"'-  I'l^''  'I'"  I'liltli'  hy  whii'h  it  ii4  ciiltivnlcil, 
it  sl'oull  iil'.viiyn  III-  kept  in  ((rtml  roiulilion,  to  fiialih-  it 
toilntlie  work  it  in  rxpi-cti'd  to  |iorforni.  Tins  onliimiy 
hfi^lU  «t  wliiih  CDnimon  ijniin  crops  can  he  raiwd  in  the 
Unliati  islaniU  is  fnuii  OIK)  to  HOO  (wi;  hut  in  Hoini-  «itu- 
stiiiiin,  I'Mni  p.irliciiliiily  f.ivuur'ihlo  cirruiiistanciH,  liilorii- 
bleoro[«of  harh-y  and  oit.s  may  h(<  produced  at  a  hciij;ht 
of  nfjriy  IKK)  feet,  and  even  hiijher.  In  propurtion  an 
tie  fjiiiiiito  ia  iniprovi  d  liy  sliellcriiig  planlatiiiiix  ami 
Jraiiiage,  the  hii.;!it  ut  which  «raiii  cro^is  may  lie  realised 
becomes  the  greater.  In  nemrul,  it  in  more  a|ipro|iriatii 
loili'voli!  hiijh  urouiida  to  Hhecp  piHtiirai;i"  tliim  In  tillage; 
■ml  a  eiinHiileratioii  of  thin  circumatanco  will  guide  the 
iii'dion  and  rent  of  land. 

Ill  raakiiin  a  choice  of  land  for  farming,  let  it  lie  n  rule 
to  prefer «  |{eiitly  sliipinij  surface,  or  level,  in  a  hilly  and 
irrejular  lurlace.  The  labour  of  woikiiiK  hind  of  irrei>u- 
lar  surface  is  very  Rretit,  independent  of  other  disatl- 
nnlagoii;  and  if  taken,  it  should  lie  at  u  proporlinnalily 
loir  rental.  If  po'isilile,  woloet  land  that  lies  with  an  c.isv 
ilo|ietollic  south;  ihoiiijh,  if  well  sheltered,  the  inrlina- 
lioii  in  otliff  directions  is  of  liKlo  conseipienco.  If  the 
l.iml  reipiire  draiiiaije,  ,ir  he  exposed  to  heavy  rains,  nb- 
(ervo  if  there  lie  .suiri;'ient  inclination  to  eairy  olT  the 
Wilier.  If  there  h."  no  lower  point  to  which  the  water 
mty  be  eunveniently  drawn,  avoid  the  risk  of  lakiinj  the 
lam!,  for  this  defect  m  its  character  will  prove  a  freipicnt 
lource  of  Iroulile  and  loss.  In  the  case  of  dry  ralcareous 
imk  ind  in  moderatj'ly  rainy  districta,  ihe  inclination  of 
(he  aurtiice  and  nieana  of  drainage  are  iriiuiaterial. 

V01.I.-6I 


Iiand  on  tho  hanki  of  n  running  ulrpam  U  likely  lo  \m 
mom  saliiliriiiua  for  eropo  than  that  which  \*  near  ilug- 
Xish  hriuikii  or  dull  aeilKy  hiken.  Kr,,in  ilull  inert  waters 
there  nrlne,  in  certain  conditionii  of  ihr  ntiiiospliire,  heaver 
pernicioiK  vapours,  which  steal  nlmiir  Ihe  surface  of  thf 
adjaeent  Kriiuiiils,  and  lend  to  lili«lit  and  ilherwisr  lliiura 
the  crops,  These  waters,  also,  are  a  lertile  hotls'd  of  in. 
sects.  Iliiiiniiiu  waters  purify  the  air,  and  are  of  tjrral 
adviinla«e  for  cattle.  Wee.  however,  that  the  land  is  iiol 
lialile  to  In'  lliHHled  in  winter,  for  a  conliiiKeiiey  of  thai 
nature  should  cause  a  diniiiinlinn  in  value. 

('nnsider.itioiia  rrspecliiiR  rliinnle,  soil,  eli'valinii,  Ae., 
are,  however,  of  siihorilinate  eonseipience  in  eumpiirison 
with  the  very  iinporlunt  nialler  of  ilithimr  fnni  tmirktU 
nnil  ri'iiilt.  \  Iniin  carriiiije  to  market,  pnrliciilarly  if  th« 
roads  he  iiidilU'reiit,  is  one  nf  Ihe  Krealest  druwliaek* 
which  the  aitriculturist  can  possihly  eiieouiiler.  We 
havi-  a  sIrikinK  exiimple  nf  ihiii  in  some  parts  uf  North 
.\meriea,  where  the  liiicst  lands,  such  us  wuiiM  W\\\\i  an 
aiiiiiMil  rent  of  Xft  or  L(\  per  iicie  in  Kii>;lii'id,  are  not, 
liir  their  entire  propiielnrship,  wnrlh  as  many  «lijHin.{a. 
Where  had  ro.nls  inlcrpose,  a  dislaiici'  of  a  few  miles  ii 
practically  as  had  as  a  distance  uf  hiiiidrcils,  nr  even 
Ihonsands,  of  miles.  The  means  of  pnu  uriicj  an  ahnn- 
daiice  of  lihour,  at  a  reiis.mrdile  rate,  iiIsd  f.iniis  an  im- 
portant matter  of  calculation  for  nil  [lersuns  liefore  settling 
on  a  larin. 

Kiirins  vary  eonKiilerahly  in  WTO  and  mo«lc  of  working. 
The  first  class  which  we  may  mention  are  small  farms  of 
from  six  to  ei«ht  aeres,  conducted  exelusi\ely  hy  the 
lahour  of  a  iiitta'.;er,  or,  as  he  may  ht'  called,  sniiill  farmer, 
and  his  family,  and  who,  hy  dint  of  ((reat  personal  ex> 
ertion,  and  scareely  any  outlay  of  money  capital,  fulfila 
Ihe  moderate  expectation  of  rcalizin){  a  plain  livelihoml, 
and,  if  he  he  a  tenant,  payini?  a  rent  to  a  landlord.  Tho 
seciiiid  class  nf  f.irniM,  are  th  se  which  are  lo  Ik'  wrme  '  i 
on  the  most  extended  principles  of  rural  economy,  either 
hy  a  tenant  or  [iroprietor,  a  lari;e  capital  eniharked,  the 
hest  implements  and  niaehinery,  hired  lalmiir,  anil  the 
hiijhest  profesHional  skill.  F'arnis  of  this  nature,  when 
almost  entirely  laid  out  in  tilln!?e  for  ifrain  crops,  such  aa 
are  common  in  iS'orfolk,  Norllinmherland,  Kiist  Lothian, 
and  Derwiekshire,  rani^e  from  !J00  to  400  acres  in  ej  tent, 
•mil  are  divided  into  einht  or  ten  larRe  lieldH,  hy  carefully 
arranged  thorn  or  stone  fence*.  Home  farms,  however, 
where  the  soil  is  liL,dit,  and  cattle  and  sheep  feedinu  i"  an 
ohject  with  Ihe  farmer,  are  as  large  as  from  700  to  1000 
acres.  In  those  districts  where  the  climate  ia  moist,  and 
attention  is  directed  mainly  to  dairy  hnslmnilry,  the  famw 
are  of  more  moilorate  «l/.e,  being  in  general  from  fid  to 
ItiO  acres.  Notwithstanding  all  that  has  been  written  on 
the  practice  of  agriculture,  it  remaiim  nndcterniined,  by 
riuiil  examination  of  facts,  whether  small  ittago  fnrma, 
wrought  hy  spade  husbandry,  or  the  large  luiiiis  of  capi- 
t.dists,  are  most  advantagcoua  to  the  country — that  ia  to 
say,  which  class  produces  the  largest  (piantity  of  produce 
at  tho  least  ex^ienditnre  of  ineaiiH,  taking  those  meaiw  on 
both  aides  at  their  market  value,  and  which  can  atlbrd  to 
(lay  tho  highest  rent.  It  being,  we  think,  very  important 
that  clear  notions  should  prevail  on  this  subject,  we  shall 
in  tho  present  article  notice  the  routine  of  proi-edure  on 
farms  of  the  larger  and  more  common  class,  and  in  that 
1  which  follows  proceed  to  an  account  of  ivlla^ic  Jurming, 
concUuling  with  a  few  general  oliscrvations  on  bolh. 
I  A  farm  of  the  larger  class,  whether  conducted  hy  • 
tenant  or  a  proprietor,  may  lie  destrilied  as  a  fut'iiry  of 
iigricnltural  proiluce,  every  part  of  the  jiroi^ee'lings  being 
coiiihictcd  us  in  u  factory  of  articles  of  trade,  by  'he  em- 
ployincnt  of  capital  and  the  division  of  labour.  The 
master  farmer  with  his  apparatus  occupies  a  largo  estar 
blishment,  such  as  we  represent  in  the  following  cut 
Hueh  is  the  eHtablishment,  at  least,  common  in  Scotland 
The  whole,  it  will  lie  observed,  form  a  quadrangle,  witli 
1  tho  farmer's  residence  in  front ;  feeding-houses  tor  calvei 

as 


4M 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


•nd  cattle  on  the  left ;  cattle-sheds  in  the  rear,  over  whidi 
IS  a  Htraw-ronm  connected  with  tlie  edifices  behind  for  the 
ibrashiu^'-ni/il,  for  which  steam  or  horse-power  is  em- 
ployed ;  and  on  the  right,  stables,  suddlc-rooins,  <Scc.  In 
iho  centre  arc  tnree  fold-yards,  open  to  cattle  from  the 
sheds  behind,  and  into  which  straw  may  lie  thrown  from 
the  str'<w-r3om.     Th«  edifices  on  each  side  of  tl>e  form- 


Fig.  1. 

bouse  in  front  are  for  cart-lodu;es,  boiling  food,  lodges  for 
unmarried  male  servants,  or  other  purimses.  A  srunary 
is  8U[>po!icd  to  l>c  connected  witli  the  ttirasliing  department. 
If  tli'3  farm  lie  rented,  it  is  suiM-rintended  by  the 
fanner  himself,  and  this  is  the  most  common  plan ;  but 
if  kept  in  the  hands  of  the  proprietor,  it  is  generally 
|)lace<l  ill  the  charge  of  a  deputy,  who  is  named  factor 
or  grievo.  The  farmer's  family  interfere  very  slightly 
with  any  of  the  arraiigments.  'i"li'  whole  of  the 
bbours  of  the  field  or  in  the  farm  establishment  are 
performed  by  hired  servants ;  and  it  is  a  leiuling  prin- 
ciple in  the  economy  of  the  farm  to  keep  as  few  of  these 
as  posstlile. 

It  is  found  from  experience  that  farms  of  this  descriji- 
tion  cannot  In;  conducted  properly,  for  the  legiliniati' 
advantage  of  either  landlord  or  tenant,  except  a  lease  of 
considerable  duration  be  grunted  ;  for  if  the  tenant  be  at 
all  tinv  s  liable  to  be  dispossessed  at  the  mere  will  of  the 
proprietor,  he  can  have  no  interest  in  improving  the 
land,  and  therefore  cinnot  afford  to  pay  a  sum  suitable 
10  the  actual  capabililies  of  the  ground.  In  all  cu.'*"n, 
for  mutual  comfort  and  pecuniary  advantage,  there  ought 
to  be  a  pro^ierly  defuicd  lease  or  contract  for  a  term  of 
fears. 

According  to  the  modern  practice  of  agriculture,  the 
profits  of  a  farm  are  frequently  prospwtive ;  a  num- 
ber of  years  must  sometimes  elapse  before  the  ground 
repays  the  farmer  for  his  sunk  capital,  and  his  trouble 
iu  ellectnig  improvement.  The  duration  of  a  least- 
consequently  depends  on  the  nature  and  condition  of  the 
■oil,  as  well  as  some  other  minor  circninstanres.  It  is 
U'lderstood  that  a  long  lease  is  a  much  greater  stiinuluB 
to  spirittMl  farming  than  a  low  rent.  If  the  Wofv  lie 
long,  and  the  rent  high,  great  exertion  is  used  by  the 
fiirmer ;  but  if  the  lease  lie  long,  and  the  rent  low,  a 
llovcnly  mode  of  farming  may  in  general  lie  expected. 
It  apiMJt  «,  from  all  ex|ieriencc  on  ihc  subject  in  iScot- 
l.ind,  th»t  a  lease  should  neither  lie  too  long  nor  too 
•hurt,  but  of  a  fair  motlcrato  duration,  as  nineteen  or 
twenty  years.  In  Ireland  it  is  customary  to  make  the 
length  of  a  lease  dep'-nd  on  the  contingency  of  two  or 
three  lives,  one  of  wl  ich  is  the  life  of  the  landlord.  But 
tlii*  is  a  clumsy  am'  far  from  lieiu^riciul  practice  an  re- 
•ij»  ts  the'improvement  of  the  Und,  and  is  not  to  lie  loni- 
OiCiidcd. 

Furnished  with  a  long  lease  j  a  capital  of  one,  two, 
or  tliroe  thousand  pounds,  according  to  circumstjinces ; 
the  best  implements,  and  active  servants,  the  agricul- 
turuit  enters  on  a  great  undertaking,  which  dcniunds 
all  his  energy  and  skill.  He  has  to  calculate  rotations 
•I  crops  i  to  procure   manure  at  uU   hazards,  cither  1 ','  | 


purchase  or  by  feeding  cattle ;  if  hy  the  latter 
dient,  he  luis  to  attend  fairs,  to  purchase  catil  '^ 
lean  state,  with  the  hope  of  selling  them  tSir  u-  ' 
fatted  by  ^vinter  keep;  and  to  provide  for  iLu'  ■  ' 
keep,  he  must  necessarily  raise  a  sufficiency  of  t*"''" 
The  keeping  up  of  fences,  the  attending  of  markeu  "'*' 
the  general  contrivance  of  ways  and  means  «  '' 
among  his  onerous  round  of  duties.  Let  us  now"l  ''*" 
at  what  must  be  the  nature  of  his  proceDdinm  ^ 
ordinary  culture  of  his  possessions.  8"  m  ib, 

TILLAOB — rARM    UTIK81L8. 

Tillage  comprehends  the  ploughing,  cleanin»  ,„, 
fallowing  of  the  ti-.lds,  with  a  view  to  their  proper  i 
tore  and  improvement  The  object  of  ploughing  ' 
delve  and  turn  over  the  soil  in  the  ridges,  to  1  ** 
the  surface  vegetation  by  burying  it  underground' wh'°' 
it  rots  and  becomes  a  kind  of  munun; ;  to  burv  the  \ 
sjiread  on  the  land ;  to  form  furrows  for  ditftrcnt  ""' 
posos ;  and,  gcncrnlly  speaking,  to  prepare  the  lanlf'" 
cropping.  In  old  times  ploughs  were  exceedinsi' 
clumsy  in  construction,  and  draggcil  with  much  diffi 
culty.  This  great  defect  was  at  length  removed  bv  il 
invention  of  the  swing  plough,  about  seventy  I  " 
since,  by  Janus  Small,  a  Scottish  ploughwright.  aiJT 
plough,  which  is  an  elegantly  shaped  instrumentforL' 
on  scientific  principles,  was  originally  composed  of 
wood  and  iron,  and  d\»-  not  weigh  altogether  abo» 
seventy-six  pounds;  it  was  afterwards  made  of  nuiu. 
able  iron,  and  of  a  light  apiicarance ;  but  latterly  th, 
practice  of  making  it  of  wootl  and  iron  has  again becom. 
pretty  general.  The  chief  merit  of  this  jilnugh  eonsiju 
in  the  fore  part  being  formed  in  such  a  slender  and 
tapering  wedge-like  manner,  as  to  cut  the  hind  wilhthj 
least  possible  resistance.  The  mould-board  for  tuniiii, 
over  the  furrow  is  beautifully  curved  from  the  poim^ 
the  sock  to  the  heel  of  the  wrest,  so  that  it  turns  o?a 
the  mould  with  a  small  degree  of  friction  and  in  the  bed 
manner. 

A  sketch  is  here  presented,  fig.  2,  of  the  profile  oriide 
appearance  of  this  valuable  instrument     The  denn 


Fig.  3. 

of  bend  in  the  mould-board  is  observed  in  Fig.  3,  whick 
represents  the  lower  part  or  sole  turned  up  to  view, 
Small's  plough,  under  diilcrent  iiiodllicalioiis,  is  adapicJ 


for  every  species  of  tillage  whivli  the  plough  is  rcfiuittj 
to  p»>rf'orni.  In  its  own  pTii\n',r  form  it  i.<  parliculail; 
well  suitt'd  for  light  soils,  and  proceeds  actively  through 
the  ground,  rutting  to  a  depth  of  from  seven  to  nine 
inches;  but  it  may  be  made  to  go  much  deeper,  If  adit 
tional  power  be  attached  to  it  In  Scotland,  and  other 
countries  in  whii'h  it  has  come  into  use,  it  is  almost  in- 
variably drawn  by  two  horses,  yoked  abreast,  and  u 
guideil  and  tended  only  by  the  ploughman,  the  mni 
coming  to  each  handle  of  the  plough.  Considerable  ikill 
is  reipiired  to  steaily  and  guide  this  sharp  inslruraenm 
it  advanc4's  through  the  ground ;  but  this  is  a  jioinl  oo 
which  pr<i|ierly-hred  ploughmen  pride  theuuelvu,  ili 
docs  iipt  (■■riii  the  lubject  of  complkint. 


AGRICULTURE. 


««l 


Sin»U'*  pious'*  """y  ^  ^'"^  *°  ^  ^^^  parent  of  all 
Hiose  modem  improved  ploughs  which  are  Btrirtly 
idapted  to  peculiar  kinds  of  work.  In  its  ordinary  form 
.  ■  jpj  very  well  suited  for  ploughing  up  moor  or  heathy 
,   J  ff^ni  a  state  of  nature,  as  the  heath  and  other  tough 

n'tabie  matter  is  liable  to  collect  upon  the  coulter,  and 
li  rhoke  and  retard  the  instrument.  To  remedy  this 
I'l'iciencyi  Wr.  Finlayson,  an  Ayrshire  farmer,  about 
ivcritv  yaf"  "8°  contrived  an  instrument  called  the  rid 
dlougli.  a  representation  of  which  is  given  in  Fig.  4.     In 


^^*4&?» 


Fig.  4. 


Ibis  plough  the  beam  is  curved  so  as  to  terminate  in  the 
coultft;  rnd  when  the  heathy  matter  collects,  it  is 
pushed  up  as  the  plough  adviinces,  and  falls  off,  so  as  to 
rill  or  clear  itself  of  all  kinds  of  loose  fibrous  rubbish. 
The  sock  and  mould-hoanl  are  also  so  contrived  as  to 
cut  aiiJ  lay  o^cr  the  slice,  without  the  power  of  its 
iiirinsing  back  to  its  old  position. 

There  are  various  kinds  of  ploughs  with  one  or  two 
wheels,  and  adapted  to  particular  pur))osps,  but  chiefly 
(iesii,Tied  to  suit  an  unskilful  class  of  ploujihmen.  Wher- 
ever agriculture  is  in  a  backward  condition,  there  are 
ffhecl-ploughs  in  use. 

With  Small's  or  Finlayson's  plough,  a  skilful  plough- 
m.'.u  and  a  couple  of  active  horses  will  make  excellent 
work.  The  following  are  among  Mr.  Finlayson's  direc- 
tions to  ploughmen  : — "  Nothing  can  be  more  beautiful 
than  a  field  commodiously  laid  oft",  and  neatly  plouglied. 
There  is  even  none  of  man's  liandiworks  that  can 
please  the  eye  more,  and  at  the  same  time  show  more  of 
its  unrivalled  accuracy,  than  a  lawn  which  presents 
riljes  of  llic  same  width,  with  furrow-slices  running  in 
elraight equidistant  lines;  and  that,  too,  with  such  minute 
exactness  as  scarcely  to  I)e  c<pialled  by  the  gar<lcner. 

"  It  is  not  the  man  who  makes  the  greatest  ado  with 
the  horacs  who  opens  his  ridges  best,  but  more  com- 
immlj'  he  who  goes  steadily  and  directly  forward  him- 
it\!,  and  keeps  such  a  conunand,  by  the  reins,  as  to 
[.ri'vent  llicm  from  deviating  far  from  the  right  path, 
vrl  without  layinq;  ton  much  iilrt!<s  In  llnir  piirisiDii,  or 
checking  them  suddenly  from  one  side  to  the  other; 
ami  he  who  can  take  a  straight  furrow  at  first,  and  ccm- 
tiiiupsn  to  the  last,  even  on  a  ridge  of  fifteen  feet,  will 
finish  with  one.  two,  or  three  bouts  less  than  one  who 
is  ail  ahmiT  undoing,  and  overdoing,  and  that,  too,  in- 
(if|)endcntly  of  the  ease  to  himself  and  his  team,  and  the 
preference  of  the  work  in  every  respect. 

"  If  liroodcnst  ridges  are  of  unequal  breadth,  bent,  or 
lij-zag,  the  work  catinot  be  so  uniform,  and  in  the  turn- 
ings much  time  is  lost,  and  harm  done  to  the  land  which 
is  ploughed,  and  with  rrooked  drills  there  is  a  loss  of 
ground,  an  unei|unl  distribution  of  manure,  if  such  has 
been  applied,  and  the  hoeings  cannot  be  so  effectually 
done  where  thry  are  far  disliiiit,  or  dime  at  all,  without 
lodilening  the  mould,  and  injuring  the  crop,  where  they 
ire  narrower. 

''In  line,  the  grand  criterion  of  ease  and  proficiency 
ii  that  of  the  ploughman's  walking  lietwcrn  the  stilts, 
and  in  the  furrow,  with  a  free  step  and  erect  body,  for 
.bus  he  is  more  convenient  for  liims«>lf,  has  the  horses 
and  the  plough  l)etter  at  coimnand,  and  increases  not 
the  friction  by  his  weight;  for  thus  h(  cannnt  i^n,  excej)!- 
ing  the  horses  and  the  plough  are  properly  adjusted, 
•nd  proceeding  with  the  \n\A  possible  obstruction,  and 
limi,  too,  ho  is  moie  giacuful  to  look  on,  than  when 


I  wriggling  with  one  foot  foremost,  or  moving  as  if  p^rl 
I  of  his  muscles  were  under  the  domination  of  violent 
■  spasmodic  contraction. 

•<  It  would  perhaps  be  impossible  to  give  any  thing 
1  like  a  »ytlcm  of  rules  fij^thc  most  proper  and  ;  onvenienl 
I  make,  size,  weight,  turn,  &c.,  of  u  plough  for  all  tba 
I  varieties  of  soil,  or  of  diversity  to  be  met  with,  even  in 
I  the  same  ridge ;  neither  shall  I  make  the  attempt ;  but 
I  a  few  rules  may  bo  Inid  down,  and  observed  as  axioini 
in  all  ordinary  circumstances,  viz: — 

"  1.  The  horses  should  l)e  yoked  as  near  to  the  plough 
as  possible,  without  too  much  confining,  or  preventing 
them  from  taking  a  free  step. 

"  2.  When  at  work,  they  should  be  kept  going  at  • 
good  pace. 

"  3.  The  chains  or  thects  should,  firom  where  they  an 
suspended  over  the  backs  of  the  horses,  point  in  a  dirso- 
tion  leading  through  the  muzzle  to  the  centre  of  Uie 
cut  Jjig  surfaces  of  the  coulter  and  share. 

"  4.  The  implement,  when  taking  the  form  of  tho 
dimensions  required,  should  stand  upright,  and  glide  on- 
wards in  the  line  of  progression,  without  swerving  in 
any  particular  way. 

"  5.  The  ploughman  should  walk  with  his  body  up- 
right, and  without  using  his  force  to  one  point,  or  shovr- 
ing  appearance  of  inclination. 

'•  The  untamed  and  liveliest,  or  most  forward  b'.YW, 
should  be  put  in  the  furrow,  and  only  bound  back  to 
the  right  or  off  theet  of  the  land-horse,  at  or  neoj  th« 
place  where  the  backhand  joins  it,  at  such  length,  when 
stretched  at  the  width  rc(iuired,  as  to  prevent  his  end 
of  the  beam,  or  double  tree,  from  being  before  the  other. 
And  further,  the  heads  of  the  two  should  be  connected 
'ogcther  by  a  small  rope  or  chain,  at  the  distance  wanted, 
gi'-ing  the  furrow-horse  power  over  the  other,  that  is  to 
sity,  if  lender-mouthed,  it  must  be  fixed  well  up  on  hi* 
head,  and  in  the  rings  of  the  bit  or  curb  of  the  other,  M 
that  he  may  have  the  power  of  the  head  over  that  of 
the  mouth  of  the  land-horse." 

Let  the  draught  of  the  horses  go  in  a  direct  line  to  the 
plough  or  swinde-trees ;  for  if  tho  lino  be  in  any  way 
bent,  a  portion  of  the  power  will  he  lost.  Sometimes  in 
England  as  many  as  five  horses  are  yoked  to  a  plough, 
two  and  two,  with  one  in  front;  and  in  most  cases  of 
this  kind,  the  power  of  the  foremost  horses  is  partially 
thrown  away,  or  probaldy  distresses  the  hind  pair  of 
animals.  It  is  not  convenient  to  yoke  four  or  five  horses 
abreast,  but  it  should  be  fully  understood  that  in  that 
manner  they  would  exert  their  power  to  most  ndvar.- 
tnge.  Two  horses  will,  in  general,  do  more  work  yoked 
abri'ast  to  a  plough,  than  four  yoked  before  each  othet 
in  single  file ;  because  some  of  the  power  of  the  foremosi 
horses  is  always  lost  in  its  passage  along  the  sides  of 
the  hind  horses,  and,  in  turning,  the  whole  draught  i« 
imposed  upon  the  hindmost  in  the  row.  Wherever  the 
practice  of  yoking  four  horses  in  single  file  prevails,  we 
recommend  it  to  be  discontinued  as  a  waste  of  animal 
power,  and  in  its  stead  to  try  the  more  efficacious  plan 
of  working  the  plough  by  only  two  horses  abreast 
Unless  on  very  strong  soils,  or  where  a  great  depth 
is  required,  two  horses  with  a  well-made  plough  will 
Ih!  fomid  amply  sufficient.  Where  four  horses  must 
be  employed,  yoke  them  two  and  two  abreast,  and  le* 
the  draught  of  the  foremost  pair  proceed  by  a  chain  from 
their  centre  swingle-tree  to  the  centre  swingle-tree  of 
the  hindmost  jiair,  thus  passing  between  the  hindtnost 
atid  going  in  a  direct  line  to  the  muzzle  of  the  plough. 
By  this  means,  the  power  of  both  pairs  of  horses  goes 
unimpaired  to  the  resisting  object  Never,  jsn  any  aC' 
eoinit,  let  the  power  of  the  foremost  pair  proteed  by  twe 
chains  along  the  sides  of  the  hind  horses  to  the  outer 
ends  of  their  swingle-trees,  for  this  would  only  cause  • 
medics-!  expenditure  of  draught.  In  Scotland,  where 
the  economizing  of  animal  power  has  hcen  ca-efully 


484 


INFORMATION  FOR   THE   PEOPLE. 


•tl:<Uel,  nil  ploughing  whatsoever,  be  the  land  light  or 
heavy,  except  when  exerted  on  the  Huhsoil,  is  performed 
with  but  two  horses,  and  these  invuriably  yoked  abreast. 
It  is  a  well-known  miixim  in  tillage,  that  clay  or  tena- 
ciouN  soils  should  never  bo  ploughed  when  cither  too 
wet  or  too  dry.  When  too  wet,  they  arc  tough,  and 
the  clods  difficult  to  break,  am)  when  too  dry,  the  plough 
will  scarcely  penetrate  the  soil.  In  ploughing  the  first 
time  for  fallow  or  green  crops,  it  is  of  importance  to  l)e- 
giii  immediately  after  harvest,  or  as  soon  after  whcat- 
■owing  as  possible,  in  order  tliat  strong  tenacious  soils 
may  have  the  full  bunefit  of  the  frost.  On  wet  stiff  soils 
frost  acts  as  a  most  powerful  agent  in  pulverizing  the 
cartt.  It  expands  the  moisture,  which,  rei|niring  more 
space,  puts  the  particles  of  earth  out  of  their  place,  and 
renders  the  soil  loose  and  frialilc.  On  such  soils  there 
U  no  rule  of  husbandry  more  essential  than  to  open  them 
as  early  as  possible  before  the  winter  frosts  set  in.  If 
left  till  spring,  clay  soils  may  be  too  wet  for  ploughing, 
or,  if  the  season  be  dry,  the  earth,  when  turned  uj>,  will 
be  in  hard  clods,  very  unfit  for  vegetution.  Therefore, 
on  farms  having  a  projxirtiou  of  clay  and  of  light  soils,  it 
is  necessary  that  the  strong  wet  land  should  be  ploughed 
first,  providing  the  weather  will  allow. 

Subsoil-ploughing  is  a  now  feature  in  husbandry. 
Tlu<  object  of  it  is  to  trench  or  loosen  the  soil  beneath 
the  ordinary  ploughed  surface,  so  as  to  allow  of  its  gra- 
dual assimilation  with  the  mould  above,  into  which  it 
may  afterwards  be  brought.  The  process  of  subsoil- 
ploughing  is  effected  by  a  powerful  instrument,  con- 
structed according  to  the  design  of  Mr.  Smith  of  Dean- 
ston.  As  subsoil-ploughing,  however,  is  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  methixls  for  imp.-oving  waste  laud,  we 
postpone  any  account  of  it  till  the  article  which  follows 
the  present  on  that  subject.  For  an  account  of  the  pro- 
per steps  to  be  taken  to  drain  the  land,  if  in  a  moist 
eondition,  we  also  refer  to  the  same  article. 

The  Iliinou: — The  |)lough  leaves  the  land  cut  in 
longitudinal  slices,  and  is  therefore  less  intended  to  pul- 
Tcrize  the  soil  than  to  turn  up  a  fresh  surface  to  the  at- 
mosphere. Another  kind  of  instrument  is  recpiired  to 
break  the  upturned  sward,  reduce  it  to  powder,  and  also 
to  clear  it  of  weeds  or  other  foul  substances.  The  har- 
row is  the  implement  chiefly  employed  for  this  purpose, 
as  well  as  for  covering  the  seed.  According  to  the 
diversity  of  soils,  and  the  particular  use  to  which  the 
harrow  is  to  be  applied,  its  form  undergoes  considerable 
_  changes. 

The  harrow  is  a  frame  of  wood,  consisting  of  at  least 
four  bars  lengthwise  and  crosswise,  with  iron  teeth  set 
on  one  side.  Usually  a  pair  of  harrows  is  yoked  and 
drawn  together,  as  reiiresented  in  fig.  5.  The  figure 
represents  the  most  perfect 
implement  of  the  kind,  or 
suih  as  is  generally  used  in 
I3i  rwickshire  and  the  Lo- 
tlii:ins.  The  teeth  are  s<'t 
only  on  the  long  bars;  and 
the  harrows  are  drawn  at 
•uch  an  angle  as  to  preserve 
A(  tracks  of  the  teeth  in  se- 
I  irate  lines,  and  at  reguliu  ''•?■  '• 

distances  from  each  other.  Strong  heavy  lands  re- 
quire nearier  harrows  than  those  of  a  light  nature.  In 
some  cases  the  ti^cth  of  the  harrow  are  of  dilfereiit 
lengths,  those  forming  the  front  row  being  half  an  inch 
longer  than  the  second,  the  second  a  little  longer  tlian 
th  •  third,  and  so  on  diminishing  backwards.  In  clrilliiig 
CT'-'yn,  an  iin|ilemeiit  called  the  drill-harrow  is  em- 
('  (d.  A  light  single  harrow  is  in  most  instances 
Biiiiiiicnt  for  driUing  or  harrowing  over  the  young  wheat 
in  spring. 

When  the  land  is  very  foul,  and  calculated  to  choke 
tba  teeth  of  toe  harrow,  a  jiuwcrful  instrument  is  now 


used,  called  Finlny son's  patent  harrow,  or  aclftlM 
cultivator.     It  runs  upon  three  wheels,  one  in  frnni""'! 
two  Ix-.liind.     The  teeth  are  curved  in  such  a  mann  . 
to  bring  up  and  disengage  the  couch  or  othorwe'cd" 
matter,  the  implement  thus  clearing  itself  as  it  advan 
By  means  of  a  lever  ahove,  affecting  the  frame  'th 
teeth  can  Ixs  depressed  or  raised,  so  as  to  work  to     ' 
required  depth.  '"^ 

The  Griiblier,t(r.— In  certain  conditions  of  the  grouni 
a  harrow  is  incompetent  to  cut  up  and  clear  it  of 
under-surfacc  weedy  matter.  In  such  cases,  grubber 
eradicators,  or  scufflers,  are  used,  according  as  circii  ' 
stances  require.  TJie  common  Scotch  grubber  rcsc 
hies  a  strong  harrow  frame,  running  upon  four  wbp  i" 
and  guided  like  a  plough.  On  the  lower  side  of  \h' 
frame  are  placed  eleven  long  prongs,  each  of  which  t 
ininates  in  a  triangular  sharp  foot.  On  being  ilraBK  1 
forward,  the  prongs  scuttle  the  ground  to  a  depth  a. 
great  as  that  of  the  plough,  ell'ectually  cutting  the  roou 
of  weeds,  and  bringing  all  loose  matter  to  the  sinfaco 
The  grublh-r,  or  scarifier,  may  \m  used  to  advantaiio  iii 
the  following  cases:—"  1.  Barley  and  turnip  land,  afe, 
being  once  ploughed,  may  bo  made  both  clean  and  lint 
by  its  means,  and  the  harrowings  and  suljscqucnt 
ploiighings  arc  thereby  rendered  unnecessary.  2,  Where 
lands  have  been  ploughed  in  autumn,  the  objection  to  the 
sowing  of  spring  crops  on  the  winter  furrow  may  be  oh. 
viatcd  by  the  us<!  of  the  scarifier,  as  not  only  barley  but 
oaU  (if  not  grain  after  grass),  beans,  pens,  and  tares, 
may  I>e  sown  without  an  additional  ploughing.  3,  Sum. 
mer  fallows  may  likewise  be  advantageously  carried  on 
with  fewer  ploughings,  earlier  in  the  season,  and  at 
less  ex|)eiise.  4.  It  may  l)c  elVeclually  employed  to  lor. 
ward  oiK-rntions  in  the  prejmralion  of  land  for  iwtatoei 
or  turnips,  and  aftenvards  for  raising  the  potato  crop' 
and,  5.  Its  utility  in  mixing  lime  or  compost  with  the 
soil  is  of  the  highest  importance,  as  it  not  only  incorpo. 
rates  these  manures  more  etVectually  than  the  nlou"h, 
but  never  places  them  beyond  the  pro|)er  depth.  Hence 
the  scarifier  or  grubber  is  considered  to  be  one  of  the 
greatest  improvements  in  the  culture  of  the  soil  that  in* 
dern  times  can  boast  of" — (^('oilc  (if  .ili^riniUun,) 

Soirinj  Imjilciiu  iih There  are  various  machines  for 

sowing  grain,  seed  for  turnips,  &c.,  in  drills,  or  rows, 
in  the  hollow  of  furrows,  or  ridges,  or  on  a  flat  surface 
as  may  be  recpiired.  For  sowing  turnip-seed,  a  harrou 
on  wlieels,  and  pushed  along  by  the  hands,  is  gpni'rallT 
used.  For  sowing  grain,  one  of  the  best  implciiients  in 
use  is 

Morion's  imprnrcd  Grain  DrilUMnrhine. — This  ma- 
chine, as  represented  in  fig.  6,  consists  of  a  box  or  hop. 


Fig.  8. 

per  supimrled  on  a  frame  with  wheels,  and  is  drawn  bi 
one  horse,  and  guided  U'hiiid  by  one  man.  The  FecJ 
escapes  from  three  cnmluctors,  the  lower  puintsof  wliiili 
act  as  coulters  on  the  soil,  making  drills  fir  the  seel 
In  the  inside  of  the  box  is  an  axle  with  prnjortini;  trelk. 
kept  in  motion  by  the  axle  of  the  n-aclnnc.  and  proveni' 
ing  the  sei'd  from  getting  clogged.  The  seed  passu 
into  the  condnetors  through  hobs,  which  cuii  be  insJe 
of  any  siw  by  means  of  a  sliding-board.  The  widlh  ol 
the  coulters  admits  of  being  regulated  bynieiin«ofl 
screw  and  other  apparatus;  and  five  conllcrs  niayh» 
used  if  necessary.     A  rod  projects  from  the  handle  biK 


AGRICULTURE. 


iU 


",  or  sclkle»„,n 
I.  "nn  in  front  u)i 
Buoh  8  raannp-  u 
h  or  other  weca» 
icif  as  it  advancet 
g  the  frame,  the 
»8  to  work  to  an; 

ionsofthegrouni 
and  clear  it  of  iu 
\\  cases,  gruhbers, 
ouliiig  as  citcural 
tell  gruWier  rescm- 
upon  four  whctU, 
lower  side  of  the 
each  of  which  tcr. 
On  being  dragijca 
and  to  a  depth  as 
y  rutting  the  roou 
itter  to  the  surface, 
I'd  to  advantage  in 
d  turiiiji  land,  after 
)otli  clean  and  fine 
8   and   sulisequeni 
•cossary,  2.  Where 
the  ohjeotion  to  the 
furrow  may  be  ob. 
lot  only  barley,  but 
IS,  peas,  and  tares, 
;)loughing.  3.  Sum. 
aseously  carried  on 
the  season,  and  at 
Uy  employed  to  for- 
of  land  for  ])otatooj 
g  the  potato  crop; 
ar  compost  with  the 
it  not  only  incorpo- 
y  than  the  plough, 
•o|)or  depth.  Hence 
1  to  be  one  of  the 
of  the  soil  that  mo- 
.//i;nV»/(Hrf.) 
arious  machines  for 

in  drills,  or  ro»i, 
or  on  a  flat  surface, 
irnip-seed,  a  banow 
!  hands,  is  gpni'rall» 

;)est  implements  in 

Morhhte. — This  mi. 
rtts  of  a  box  or  hop. 


Is,  and  is  drawn  b; 

iiu-  iii;iii.    The  sfo4 

,•.  ir  iiuints  of  wliiili 

diill^  IT  the  Will 

I'itb  ]ir(ijprtins  tre'h, 

ai'liim',  and  iirevent. 

The  seed  |ins!ii 

which  can  bo  insJi 

)aril.    The  width  ol 

lated  by  mean'  of  i 

ivc  coulters  inayli 

roni  the  handle  biK 


.,1,  gf  the  mathinc  (n  )t  shown  in  the  cut),  to    whose  seeds  will  lie  for  a  long  period  in  the  Kill.     'J 
''"  1  ?!,.  m-ound  and  by  this  mark  the  next  advance  of  '  more  common  of  these  various  weeds  are  the  wild 


'ill* 
oat, 


bine  is  regulated.  I  the  conimoii  tiiistle,  dock,  colufoot,  ragweed,  dcnt-de-leon, 

*' "'"^  arc  other  drill-sowing  machines  of  greater  ^  and  chorlock  or  wild  mustard,  the  latter  particularly.  To 
Jdi  and  size,  likewise  machines  for  dibbling  beans ;  [  these  is  to  lie  added  that  most  tormenting  weed,  cough* 
''  ,  ,f(,„irc  no  jiarticular  description.  The  rollers  grass  or  rack,  which  spreads  its  long  cord-Iiko  roots  be- 
""''  nnd  or  stone,  employed  to  roll  or  press  down  the  ,  neath  the  surface,  weaving  the  soil  into  a  kind  of  matting 
T  hi'h  lias  been  lately  sown,  are  so  common,  that  it  :  Annuals  and  biennials  may  be  partially  extirpated  by  a 
'^11  t  0  be  unnecessary  to  describe  thet  well-wrought  sumin.  r  fallow,  or,  if  the  soil  bo  light,  by 

V     ir  Iniiilciiieiilf. — 'I'he  light  'in'  nt  called  the    the  culture  of  potatoes  or  turnips,  for  the  land  in  that 


h.nd-hoc  is  "fi'S"^  »n  cleaning  tUHup 


t  IS  altogether  unsuitable  for  stirrin;,  lie  soil  between 
1  -ows  of  extensive  crops  of  turnips,  potatoes,  beans, 
t      This  heavy  duty  rcipiires  to  be  pcnormed  by  ani- 

i  labour  by  means  "of  the  liorsc-hoc.     One  of  the  best 

Srument^ofthiskindis 


other  plants,  |  case  is  well  cleaned  and  dressed  in  spring,  as  well  as  hoed 


111  summer.  Hand-hoeing  for  this  purpose  is  sometime* 
necessary.  If,  however,  no  ordinary  process  of  teasing 
and  cleaning  the  land  extirpate  the  weeds,  the  more  tedi- 
ous and  expensive  oi)crntion  of  pulling  must  be  re.sorted 
to.  This  will  be  absolutely  necessary  for  the  extirpation 
of  chorlock.  that  flowering  yellow  weed  which  tinges  the 
fields  with  its  brilliant  lustre  in  summer.  When  the  crop 
is  about  a  foot  high,  women  or  children  should  be  em- 
ployed in  going  carefully  over  the  field,  trampling  down 
as  little  as  possible,  and  pulling  and  carrying  away 
in  their  aprons  every  stalk  of  the  chorlock.  The 
same  thing  may  be  done  with  the  tall  sceding-grass  called 
the  wild  out. 

This  process  of  weeding  may  be  expensive,  but  it  gene- 
rally cleans  the  land,  and  repays  itself  by  the  increase  of 
grain  crop.  According  to  experiments  adduced  by  Sii 
John  Sinclair,  the  increa.se  of  a  wheat  crop  on  a  weeded 
over  an  unweeded  land,  was  four  and  a  half  bushels  per 
acre,  and  of  other  cro|)s  much  more.  "  A  six-oere  field 
was  sown  with  barley,  in  fine  tilth,  and  well  manured. 


Fig.  7. 
U'lHe's  Ihrfc-Hoe  and  Drill- Hiirrmi'. — Thi^  imple- 
ment, a  sketch  of  which  is  here  presented  Cfig.  7),  is 
jaiiled  and  drawn  like  a  plough.     As  soon  as  the  infant 
'lilts  iipiiear  above  the  surface,  it  is  drawn  lietwixt  the 

Kg  thorouRblv  scuflling  or  cleaning  the  land  from  its  i  The  weeding,  owing  to  a  grcit  abundance  of  chorlock, 
imerous  weeds.  The  depth  to  which  its  prongs  and  cost  twelve  shillings  (K-r  acre.  The  produce  of  an  un- 
f  ihercd  feet  go  in  the  soil,  is  regulated  by  elevating  ,  weeded  acre  was  only  thirteen  bushels;  of  the  weeded, 
r  Iciiressin?  the  wheel  in  front.  It  likewise  aiu^wers  twenty-eight  bushels;  difl'erence  in.  favour  of  weeding, 
take,  bv  dragging  along  with  it  the  heaps  of  de-  ^  fifteen  bushels  per  aere,  besides  the  land  being  so  much 
troved  weeds.  Some  horse-hoes  arc  fitted  with  a  mov-  I  cleaner  for  succeeding  crops."  With  regard  to  oats  : — 
ulilf  mould-board  at  each  side,  by  which  the  earth  is  "Six  acres  were  sown  with  oats;  one  acre  ploughed  but 
heaped  up  on  rows  of  [ilants ;  this  is  also  done  by  a  va-  '  once,  and  uiinaniired,  produced  only  seventeen  bushels, 
riety  of  the  plough.  "•'■  -   "■"    "    "' '— '   " — ■"  ' 


Weeding.  i 

\||  lands  are  less  or  more  infested  with  weeds,  which 
arc  of  no  value  either  for  ornament  or  use  ;  on  the  con- 
mn;  thev  injure  the  crops  by  extracting  the  nourishment 
fmm  the  irround,    and    greatly   impede   cultivation    by 
snrradini  their  entangled  roots  beneath  the  surface.   The  , 
manure  deposited  on  the  soil  is  destined  exclusively  for  j 
ihc  support  of  what  is  meant  to  lie  raised,  and  every  use- 
loss  pliint.  therefore,  which  lives  upon  it,  is  so  far  noxious, 
and  ought  to  be  extirpated.     Hence  the  common  maxim,  I 
« .\  farmer  should  let  nothing  grow  but  bis  crops."  ] 

As  prevention  is  always  better  than  cure,  the  farmer 
fhiiuld  lic?iii  liy  preventing  the  growth  of  weeds.  The 
seeds  from  which  weeds  spring  are  brought  in  some  man- 
ner to  the  land  from  somewhere.  Try  to  cut  otf  this 
villous  prinluce  at  its  source.  Let  nil  luiirks  or  natural 
riii'ianknierits  forming  boundaries  to  fields,  Iw  cleared  of 
rv.r\'  s])eoies  of  wee.ls,  such  as  thistles,  docks,  ragweed, 
iiiiik  masses.  &c.,  and  let  all  road-sides  near  the  fields 
Iv  similarly  cleared  of  their  gay  but  unprofitable  vegeta- 
tion. If  this  were  done  generally  over  the  country,  a 
fertile  source  of  foulness  in  land  would  be  in  a  ureat  mea- 
sure destroyed.  It  is  also  desirable  to  sow  clean  seed  lor 
cr.i'n  or  other  crops,  and  to  use.  if  [lossible,  those  maniiies 
onlv  whioh  are  free  of  the  seeds  of  noxious  vegetables. 

.N'otwithstaiiding  all  ordinary  precautions,  lands,  it  is 
arknowledned.  will  develop  a  i'ro|i  of  weed.s,  because  .some 
seeds  will  lie  niiinjured  lor  centuries  in  the  soil,  ami  the 
winds  will  waft  otlu'i's  fnuu  ureat  distanccH  ;  such,  in  fact, 
is  one  of  nature's  provisions  for  covering  the  earth  with 
tPijetation.  It  has  been  ascertained  that  upwards  of  filly 
diirertnt  weeds  infest  arable  lands,  some  of  which  are  an- 
autli,  others  biennials,  but  the  principal  part  {lereniiials. 


Other  six  acres,  ploughed  three  times,  manured  and 
weeded,  produced  thirty-seven  bushels.  Ten  bushels  may 
Ih-  fairly  attributed  to  the  weeding,  and  the  other  ten  to 
the  manure."  It  is  justly  observed  by  the  same  authority, 
that  however  anxious  farmers  may  be  to  have  their  lands 
ti:he-lii(,\l  is  of  still  greater  importance  to  have  them 
ifctil-frie.  There  is  much  truth  in  the  observation ;  lor 
the  agriculturist  who  sullers  his  lands  to  bear  crops  of 
weeds,  jiays  dearly  I'or  his  neglect  in  his  diminished  pro- 
dure,  and  has  the  additional  guilt  of  injuring  his  neigh- 
bours. 

Dry  and  gravelly  plains  and  hill-sides  are  frequently 
overrun  with  ferns,  which  occupy  tliejjpacc  that  ought 
cither  to  be  covered  with  good  pasture  or  laid  under  the 
plough.  The  I'ern  is  so  tenacious  of  life,  and  so  firmly 
are  its  roots  fixed  in  the  soil,  that  repeated  cutting,  or 
the  ordinary  course  of  tillage,  is  unable  to  extirpate  them. 
It  has  been  inenthnied  as  a  good  plan  for  eradicating  feni<i, 
that  the  land  in  which  they  grow  should  be  parliall/ 
floo<leil,  or  at  least  well  moistened,  by  leading  small  sur- 
face water-channels  across  it. 

Fallowing. 

Fallowing  signifies  leaving  the  land  for  a  certain  tinae 
in  a  bare  unproilu.  live  condition,  during  which  itreeeivoi 
a  rest  from  the  labour  of  cropping,  and  is  subjected  to 
various  proces.ses  of  ploughing  and  harrowing,  to  pulver. 
ize  the  soil  iiiid  destroy  its  noxious  weeds.  The  value  'I 
fallowing  for  these  ()urpoMS  is  a  subject  of  considcralilfi 
controversy  ;  some  a.scribing  to  it  numeious  virtues,  ami 
otherii  altoi^ether  conilenining  it,  where  green  crops  and 
go.'d  hu.diaiuliy  |Jievail.  The  truth  seems  to  be,  that  ful- 
Idwinu  i.s  extremely  useful  for  the  purpos*'  of  woikiiift 
imherizing,  eleanii  g,  .md  oilierwiso  iiiipif  \iiig,  lands  of 
2s  2 


4M 


INFORMATION  1i"0R  THE  PEOPLE. 


equally  well  coniluelcd."     IniVod,  if  fnllowing  m  > 
Ri-rilly  or  impcrfi'ctly  performrd,  nolan(l,howovurcht!L 
rciitt'd,  con  yield  much  profit  to  the  farmer.  ^^ 


Fami  Cnrti  and  Tmplamenti. 


Two  kinds  of  machines  are  in  use  for  conveying  r, 
duco  to  market  and  other  purpiwes  in  hii^bunJrj'— , 
ons  and    carts,  and  of  theac  there  are  wvernl  viriei' '' 
WaRona  with  four  wheels,  and  drawn  by  twj  <       '^ 


•  poor  quality,  nftcr  their  first  subjection  to  tillage ;  and 
that  there  its  value  rests. 

The  operations  necessary  for  a  well-wrought  naked 
■ummer  fallow  commence  after  harvest.  The  first  win- 
ter fallow  plou$;hins  is  begun  as  soon  as  the  hurry  of 
harvest  and  wheat-sowing  is  over.  If  deferred  till  an  ad- 
vanced jK-riod  of  the  season,  and  the  weather  sets  in  wet, 
the  land  becomes  unfit  flir  the  oi>ernti(>n.     To  prevent  the 

bad  conseic-ienres  of  too  much  rain  at  this  [leriod,  that     „„„„.„  „„,.   .„„ ^.„,  "■••»»■■  "j  iwd  or  m 

manner  of  ploughing  and  laying  the  ridges  should  be  horses,  are  acknowledged  to  be  liest  adupted  for  convey"" 
adopted  wliirh  will  l)e«t  keep  the  land  dry  during  the  jrrpnt  loads  to  a  great  distance,  and  that  is  their  prinf'"'] 
winter  montlis,  thislwinga  most  essential  jioint.  Strong  ny-rit.  For  all  ordinary  purposes  connected  with  I 
retentive  sods  to  which  a  summer  tallow  is  more  particu-  bandry,  the  one  horsr;  cart  with  two  whccds  is  unfcran* 
lurly  applirablt.,  should  get  aneml-long  ploughing,  so  deep  |  'i'),i,  Scotch  cart,  as  it  is  called,  is  a  most  coiivini  "i 
as  completely  to  turn  up  the  soil  frcMU  where  it  mingles  \  ,„],l  n«,.ful  machine;  and  to  add  to  its  usi's  it  nm\ 
with  the  subsoil  or  till.  |  renderi'd  serviceable  for  carting  Imy  or  straw  by  i,lj^:. 

When  thoroughly  jiulverizcd,  and  freed  from  roots  and  i  „  movable  framo  on  iU  sides,  aa  it  is  reprejcnicj  ' 
Weeds  by  the  process  just  deacrilH-d,  the  fallow  is  ploughed  figure  8. 
ond-long  into  gathered  ridges,  which  are  usually  from 
ilftccn  to  twenty  feet  broad.  When  the  land  is  gathered 
into  a  furrow  as  deep  as  the  soil  will  permit,  the  manure 
may  be  laid  on.  This  is  a  very  critical  period;  for  if  the 
weather  becomes  wet,  the  carting  of  the  manure  on  fal- 
low land  of  retentive  wheal  soils,  it  ap(  to  [xiach  and  pud- 
dle it  very  much,  by  the  pressure  of  the  horses'  feet  and 
wheels  of  the  carts,  'i'o  prevent  this  as  much  as  possi- 
ble, the  manure  should  be  carried  to  the  ground  in  single 
horse  carts,  with  broad  wheels,  as  they  are  less  a|it  to 
poach  the  land  than  others.  The  manure  is  carted  along 
the  crown  of  the  ridges,  and  is  thrown  out  into  heaps,  of 
a  size  and  at  dislajic<'s  |proportiom'd  to  the  quantity  in- 
tended to  be  applied  ;  experienced  workmen  can  generally 
measure  both  ground  and  manure  accurately  with  the 
eye.  People  are  now  employed  spreailing  the  ma- 
nure, and  the  plough  innncdiately  follows,  in  order  that 
the  dung  may  lie  exposed  a.s  short  a  time  as  possible. 
The  dung  luiing  covered,  and  the  ridges  raised,  so  as  to 
admit  the  rain  to  run  freely  into  the  furrows,  the  land 
should  remain  untouched  for  a  few  weeks,  that  the  ma- 
nure may  liecome  decomposed.  The  l)eriod  of  decom- 
position is  shortened,  if  the  dung  has  been  previously  fer- 
*  mcntcd. 

The  land  may  now  be  considered  as  ready  to  receive 
the  seed  furrow,  which  is  generally  given  to  it  previous  to 
the  sowing.  The  riilge  is  again  gathered  ;  but  as  this 
ploughing  is  very  slight,  it  does  not  raise  the  ridge  muih 
higher.  Lime  is  frequently  applied  to  fallow  as  well  as 
dung,  sometimes  iM'lbre  the  dung  is  laid,  and  sometimes 
after.  In  the  first  case,  the  hme  is  laid  on  just  iH'fore  the 
bud  is  formed  into  ridges,  and,  if  possible,  a  calm  dry 
day  should  be  selected  for  the  purpose.  After  the  lime  is 
laid,  the  land  sh<ttld  be  immediately  harrowed,  to  incor- 
porate it  with  the  soil.  The  second  method  is  tt>  lay  the 
lime  on  just  Ix'fore  the  se(>d  furrow  is  made ;  and   if  the 


Figure  «. 
The  ^otch  cart  (wit!ii)iit  the  frame)  is  suited  for  roi,. 
veyiiig  any  kind  of  miitcn.d,  dung,  tmnips,  gr.iiinnsa<|ij 
&.C.,  and  usually  carries  from  eiuliteen  to  twenlv-tni 
hundredweight,  when  drawn  by  only  one  horse;  will), 
horse  in  trace,  the  weight  may  be  augmented.  In  §^,,1. 
land,  all  grain  for  market  is  carried  in  these  one-horse 
carts,  and  to  any  ilhitaiiee.  On  such  occasions  one  diivei 
takes  charge  of  two  carts. 

The  following  ailvanLiges  of  one-horse  carts  arc  enume- 
rated in  Loudon's  Kncyelopnclia  of  Agriculture,  tluMiaj. 
snge  being  apparently  copied  from  a  papei  in  the  Aiinalj 
of  Agriculture,  by  Lord  R. . 'Seymour.  "  A  horse, whra i;e 
acts  singly,  will  do  half  as  much  more  work  as  when  he  ac!i 
in  conjunction  with  another;  that  is  to  say,  that  two 
horses  will,  s<'parat<'ly.  do  as  much  work  as  three onn- 
junctively :  this  ari-es,  in  the  first  iilace,  from  the  siiijii 
horse  being  so  near  the  loa<l  he  draws;  and,  in  themsi 
place,  from  thi-  point  or  line  of  draught  being  ,so  mucli 
below  his  breast,  it  Is'lng  usual  to  make  the  wheels  of 
single-horse  carts  low.  A  horse  harnessed  .sinijlv  l\m 
nothing  but  his  load  to  contend  with;  whereas,  whrn  te 
draws  in  coiijunclion  with  another,  he  isgenerully  emlar. 
rassed  by  some  diircrence  of  riile,  the  horse  Iiclmul  trl^ 
fore  him  moving  quicker  or  slower  than  hiiiiMlf;  hcu 
likewise  fre<|uently  inconvenienced  by  the  greater  or  li«i 
heiiiht  of  his  neigbour:  these  considerations  give  iidecili,] 
advantage  to  the  single-horse  cart.     'I'lie  very  prealeaiif 


with  which  a  low  cart  is  filled  may  be  ad<l((i ;  us  a  iDm 
ground  U- dry  and  the  dung  decompos(>d,  this  method  will  may  load  it,  with  the  help  of  a  long-handled  sliovcj  or  fark. 
be  found  good.  '  by  means  of  his  hands  oidy  ;  whereas,  in  order  In  lilU 

The  system  we  have  described  is  referable  to  the  hi'avier  higher  cart,  not  oidy  the  man's  back,  but  his  arinsrj 
■oils;  when  those  of  a  lighter  nature  are  to  be  (allowed,  whole  piTson,  must  l-e  exerted."  To  these  juslclwn*. 
the  cleaniog  prix-es,s  is  irot  so  dillicult,  and  there  is  not  the  tions  it  need  only  lie  added,  that  in  many  part,s  of  Enj- 
same  risk  from  wet  weather.  If  suniiiier  fallowing  be  land  there  is  a  wasteful  expymliture  in  horse  (mwcr,  i 
judiciously  conducted  in  the  manner  deseriU'd,  strong  couple  of  hors<>s  being  often  set  to  draw  a  ilunisv  waiin 
soils  may  carry  re|s'ut<  il  alternate  crops  of  grain  anil  pulse, 
without  any  interverinig  naked  fallow,  tor  iierhaps  six  or 
eight  years.  Ijul  to  preserve  the  Is'iieficial  elli'cts  of  fal- 
low on  ordinary  farm  land,  which  is  manured  alone  from 
its  own  produce,  it  is  cerlairdy  the  Is'st  and  most  ei-ono- 
mical  Jilan  to  lay  it  down  to  grass  with  the  crop  imme- 
diately succeeding  tin-  fallow.  .Afterwards,  successive 
crcqis  of  grain  and  pulse  may  be  taken  as  its  condition 
will  allow,  when  brokiii  u[)  from  b'a  previous  to  next  fal- 
low. Sir  John  .Sinclair  says:  "  It  may  Is-  t'oretold  ot  e\erv 
larrn>  '  on  a  strong  soil,  in  such  a  climate  as  Sdiiland,  that 
ain  atllurnce  anil  prosprrily  will  always  be  in  prii|>orlion 
l<i  the  excvUeul  slate  if  liis  fullows,  every  Ihiug  ulnu  being 


to  market,  containing  a  load  wliiih  could  with  iheLTeaK'S 
ease  be  drawn  by  one  horse  in  a  machine  of  Icm  jioniicr- 
oils  dimensiont. 

Every  well-conducted  farm  estaMishnieiit  is  now,oi 
ought  to  be,  provided  with  a  vailely  of  small  hut  Uiiful 
machines — for  slicini;  turnips  or  potatoes,  cho|i|i!ngUy  j 
or  peas  straw,  bruising  beans,  peas,  or  o«M,  wi'ishirij' 
machine.  &c.,  all  which,  of  the  newest  coiisiriictioii,  in  | 
to  be  seen  hi  the  cstalilisliini  nts  of  agriciilluriil  inijilciml 
makers,  L'tensils  lor  cooUiiig  I'oimI  liir  cattle,  iJuiry  uun- 
sils.  and  tools  for  manual  labour,  need  nut  here  Iw  |iir 
ticulaii/i'd. 

Therti  are  now  agricultural  ioiplemcut  tiiakcri  in  tm 


AGRICULTURE. 


487 


^luunt  maker)  in  lui 


iiimnii'O'h  in  England  and  Scotland;  for  n  list  of 
*  newest  iniplomentH  and  thoir  prices,  at  some  of  these 
T^ujgiitnrnts,  we  refer  to  Jiiclcson's  Trcntiso  on  Agri- 

Itute  piiblisiieil '"  connection  with  Chambers's  People's 
Editions' 

MANURES. 

Bt  repeat''"'  cropping,  the  best  soils  Wome  exhiuiatcd 

,  llifir  fertile  properties,  while  naturally  indillbrcnt  soils 
rwiuirc  the  Hdminiafration  of  certain  qimlities,  before  they 

i  1  yielJ  *  ''"*  fP'"''"  '"  '''"  l"bours  of  the  husbuiidman. 
There  arc.  no  lioiibt.  soils  so  naturally  rich  in  some  parts 
at  tlic  world,  thut,  thouuli  used  for  kventy  or  more  years 
.  „fnwing  suicessive  grain  crops,  they  show  no  indica- 
tions of  iiiipovcrishnient ;  yet  even  these  must  in  lime  l)e 
filiauslt'd,  anil  therefore,  in  all  circumstances,  manures, 
nrtificittl  fertilizers,  requite  the  coiiHidcratiou  of  tho 
husbandmiin.  In  our  own  country  they  are  of  tho  first 
importance. 

Manures  are  of  two  classes,  both  of  which  have  dis- 
tinctive characters,  and  perform  dilfcrent  offices  in  the 
fconomy  of  vegetation.  The  first  of  these  comprehends 
ill  animal  and  vegetable  decomposing  matter,  and  is  prin- 
cipully  employed  in  llscding  the  plant,  aiigmcniing  its 
fi>,  aiiJ  sustaining  the  vital  energy.  The  second  ope- 
rates raore  on  the  soil  and  decomposing  matter  than  in 
Jiiertlv  conlriliiiting  to  the  support  ot  the  vegotalJe.  TliR 
to  kind  has  been  called  animal  and  vegetable,  and  tho 
sKOiid  fossil.  iii:niurcH.  Under  this  second  class  are 
ranked  not  only  lime,  marl,  and  gypsum,  liut  sand,  gravel, 
and  ciav,  so  that  all  the  meliorations  which  are  ctlected 
on  soil  by  blending  aiid  compounding  the  original  earths, 
ire  compressed  within  its  limits. 

The  animal  and  vesetable  manures,  which  arc  putres- 
cent in  their  nature,  .are  foremost  in  importance  and  dig- 
niK.  Ibey  consist  of  certain  elementary  parts  of  animal 
ind  vegetable  siibf  taiiees,  elaborated  by  a  natural  chemi- 
cal process  in  the  course  of  the  decomposition  or  decay  of 
the  bodies.  The  exerementitious  matter,  or  dung  of  all 
animals,  is  no  other  t'mn  the  remains  of  the  vegetable  or 
iiimal  food  which  lias  been  received  into  the  stomach, 
undergone  there  a  partial  dissolution,  and  been  thrown 
out  as  unscrvii'ealde  for  the  further  nutrition  of  the  sys- 
tem. From  this  universal  decay  of  organized  matter, 
and  its  conversion  into  lluids  and  gases,  it  would  seem 
tliat  animal  and  vegelalile  substances,  and  exerementi- 
tious matter,  are  resolvable  into  each  otlie:-,  and  are  only 
different  parts  of  the  same  original  principles.  The  es- 
sential elements  of  them  all  are  hydrogen,  carbon,  and 
oxvgen.  eitl'.er  alone,  or  in  some  cases  united  witli  nitro- 
gen. Con^eycd  by  liquids  or  moist  substances  into  tho 
crouiul,  these  elements  arc  sought  for  as  nourishment  by 
the  roots  of  plants,  and  so  form  the  constituent  principles 
ofa  new  vegetation.  Inasmuch  as  flesh  consists  of  a 
greater  concentration  of  these  origiind  elements  than 
vegetables,  the  manure  produced  by  carnivorous  atiimals 
(man  included)  is  always  more  strong  in  pro|)ortion  to  its 
bulk  than  that  discharged  by  animals  who  live  only  on 
hetbai;c.  Experience  fully  proves  that  all  animal  and 
vegetable  manures  are  but  varieties  of  one  kinil  of  prin- 
ciples ;  their  actual  shape  and  appearance  Ixing  of  much 
lesB  consequence  than  the  degrees  of  strength  in  which 
these  principles  reside  in  them. 

Whatever  be  the  value  of  the  elementary  principles 
of  manures,  practically  they  are  of  no  use  as  maimro 
till  thfv  are  disengaged  by  putrefaction.  It  may  be 
furtlicr  observed,  that  putrefaction  is  in  every  instance 
produred  by  the  elementary  |)rineiples  being  set  at 
liberty  cither  in  a  fluid  or  volatile  state.  If  a  quan- 
tity of  stable  iluiig  be  piled  into  a  heap,  and  freely  ex- 
pODod  to  all  varieties  of  weather,  it  soon  heats  and 
einitit  I  stream  of  vapour,  which  is  ol\cn  visible  as  a  cloud 
over  it.  'I'hese  vapours,  and  also  the  odours  senH'oith, 
ve  gases  escaping,  and   the  lieap  is  c.nnstiuitlv  dinu- 


nishing  n  weight  and  volume;  at  the  end  of  rix 
months,  if  there  have  licen  alternate  moisture  and 
warmth,  not  above  a  fourth  of  the  original  essential  ma- 
terial remains  to  ho  spread  on  the  field ;  there  may  b« 
in  appearance  nearly  as  much  substance,  but,  it  is  com- 
paratively of  little  value — tho  real  manure  is  gone,  and 
what  remains  is  little  better  than  a  mass  of  unputrefied 
rubbish. 

It  may  be  safely  averred,  that  no  principle  connected 
with  agriculture  is  so  little  understood  or  thought  of  a« 
that  which  has  been  now  mentioned.  Wo  therefore 
crave  the  mo.st  earnest  attention  to  it  by  every  reader 
of  these  pages.  Generally  speaking,  the  exerementi- 
tious matters  thrown  to  the  dung-hill  are  treated  with 
perfect  iiKKiVerenee  as  to  the  clFects  of  exjiosuro  and 
drainage  away  in  the  form  of  liquids.  It  cannot  be  too 
strongly  stated  that  this  is  a  gross  abuse  in  fanning. 
The  putrescent  stream  contains  the  very  essence  of  the 
manure,  and  should  either  be  scrupulously  confined 
within  the  limits  of  the  dung-hill,  or  conveyed  to  fresh 
vegetable  or  earthy  matter,  that  it  may  impart  its  nutri- 
tivo  qualities. 

A  knowledge  of  this  important  truth  has  led  to  the 
practice  of  making  compost  dung-henpj,  in  which  tho 
valuable  li(iuids  and  gases  of  diflijrent  kinds  of  manure 
are  absorbed  by  earth,  or  some  other  substance,  and 
tho  whole  brought  into  the  condition  of  an  active  ma- 
nure for  the  fields.  Hitherto,  it  has  been  customary 
to  speak  of  dung-hills,  but  there  ought  to  be  no  such 
objects.  The  collection  of  manure  from  a  farm-yard 
and  offices  should  form  a  dung-/)i'',  not  a  dung-~i7/ ;  and 
the  manner  of  making  and  managing  the  contents  of 
this  pit  on  the  best  principles  is  well  worthy  of  our  coi^ 
sidcration. 

FnriH-yard  Manure. — The  situation  of  the  dung-pit 
should  be  near  the  stables  and  cow-houses,  and  placed 
so  low  that  all  streams  of  urine  from  them  should  flow 
at  once  into  it,  so  that  nothing  be  lost.  It  may  be  three 
or  four  feet  deep,  and  of  a  size  proportionate  to  the 
stock  of  cattle  usually  kept  by  the  farmer.  It  is  not 
necessary  that  it  should  be  built  round  with  a  wall,  or 
have  a  perpendicular  descent,  as  it  may  sloj)e  gently 
inwards,  and  deepen  gradually  towards  the  centre.  It 
should,  if  possible,  be  covered  by  a  roof,  to  prevent  the 
action  of  the  sun.  If  the  bottom  be  found  firm,  imper- 
vious, and  capable  of  containing  the  juices,  no  further 
trouble  is  requisite,  and  the  work  is  complete ;  in  many 
instances,  however,  it  will  be  necessary  first  to  puddle 
with  clay,  and  then  line  the  bottom  with  flag-stones. 
Into  this  flit,  earth,  with  refuse  straw,  should  be  brought, 
and  strewed  over  the  bottom  and  sloping  sides,  to  the 
thickness  of  from  nine  to  twelve  inches,  and  this  will 
form  an  inferior  layer  to  absorb  all  that  portion  of  the 
liipiid  manure  which  naturolly  runs  to  the  bottom.  The 
pit  is  now  prepared  to  receive  all  kinds  of  animal  and 
vegetable  manure,  which,  when  brought,  should  be 
always  laid  evenly  over  the  surface.  In  Scotland,  such 
dung-pits  arc  common,  and  in  the  course  of  accumula- 
tion, a  young  or  wintering  stock  of  cattle  is  allowed  to 
go  at  large  upon  the  whole ;  the  animals  being  at  the 
same  time  fed  on  a  proper  allowance  of  straw.  Care  is 
ul.so  taken  to  mix,  in  laying  on,  the  dung  brought  from 
the  cow-house,  stable,  and  piggeries,  so  that  the  ridl 
excrement  of  the  well-fed  animals  may  be  ineorporatad 
with  that  of  a  poor  description  from  others.  It  is  Iika> 
wise  of  the  utmost  importance,  ihough  too  fic(iucntly 
neglected,  to  convey  to  the  pit  the  entire  li<iuid  refuse 
of  the  farm-yard,  provided  the  quantity  be  not  so  greal 
as  to  make  it  advisable  to  have  a  separate  pi',  for  its  re 
ccption. 

It  is  customary  to  cart  away  the  material  of  the 
dun>:-i)it  at  convenient  opportunities  (usually  during 
the  lio.-ts  in  wintt>r),  to  a  place  in  the  fields,  .lear  where 
it  is  to  b«  uwid,  and  tliere  pile  it  up  in  a  quadrangulai 


488 


INFOUMATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


haap  i)f  about  f  ju'  feci  in  heiq;ht.  Dung,  carted  out  in 
thii  mannor,  is  ready  for  the  turnip  husbandry  in  June, 
and  the  practice  ii  otherwise  convcniunt.  It  may,  how- 
ever, bo  stated,  that  for  want  of  attention  to  priniipios 
■IriMuiy  explained,  such  dung>heaps,  by  exposure  lor 
montlks  to  the  weather,  must  lose  sumo  of  their  valu- 
able properties.  In  every  instance,  the  dung-heup  in 
the  lipJiU  should  ho  placed  in  a  hollow  situation,  willi  a 
•ubstratuin  of  earth,  and  should  hiive  a  scattering  of  a 
few  inches  of  earth  over  it,  and  around  the  sidos,  to  keep 
in  the  volatile  gases.  When  the  dung-pit  has  boon 
thus  emptied,  it  may  again  bo  progrrusively  llllud  us 
before;  and  when  it  is  carted  out  in  any  of  the  spring 
months,  it  will  bo  found  necessary  to  turn  it  once,  or 
oflener,  fur  die  purpose  of  accelerating  the  dcconipositiun 
of  tlie  strawy  part  of  tlio  mass.  It  may  bo  of  use  to 
know,  however,  that  the  dung  required  for  fallows  for 
wheat  in  autumn,  may  bo  less  putrctied  than  that  for 
turnip  crop*. 

Liifuid  ALumrc,  Boiie-Ditil,  &c. — The  urine  of  cattle 
U  of  great  value  as  a  manure,  and  this  is  so  well  known 
to  tlie  fiirmers  of  Belgium,  that  they  use  tanks  lor  col- 
lecting the  liquid  from  the  cow-huuscs,  and  thence  they 
pump  it  up,  and  |iour  it  over  tho  land  at  the  prupi'r  sea- 
son.    When  mixed  with  vegotablo  refuse,  moss,  or  earth, 
it  forms  an  excellent  compost.     It  is  deeply  to  bu  re- 
gretted that  HO  Uttle  is  known  on  this  subject ;  and  such 
is  the  carelessness  of  furmers    and  cottagers,  that   the 
urine  from  the  cattle  stalls  is  in  most  cum's  sutli^red   to 
go  completely  to  waste.      The  value  of  night-soil  unJ 
human   urine  as  manures  is  equally  great,  but  both  are 
much  neglected  in  British  agriculture.     Without  enter- 
ing minutely  into  details  ou  this  point,  it  may  l)C  stated, 
that  the  oIlenHive  odour  of  all   excroiiientitious   matter 
may  be   neutralized  by  an  intermixture   of  gypsum,  nr 
lime  and  carlii,  and  in  this  state  be  ust^d  as  most  valu-  ! 
able  manure.     Bone-ilusl  is  now  used  us  a  highly  nutri- 1 
tious  manure  on  light  soils;  und  it  is  reckoned  (hut  UIU  | 
bushels  arc  equal  to  40  cart-I<»uls  of  farm-yurd  niunuie.  '. 
Coinnion   sea-salt,   when    judiciously    uilministcrcd    in  < 
moderate  i|uuntities  on  arable  land  ut  the  time  of  fallow-  \ 
ing,  has  been  liiund  of  great  value  lor  its  nianuriiiu  and  . 
cleaning  properties.      It  jiroii;oti's  ferlility,  is  a  remedy  i 
against  smut  and  rust,  preserves  the  seed  from  vermin,  i 
and  is  particni.irly  useful  in  increasing  tlk;   produce  of  | 
grass  lands.  | 

(iudn.  . — The  sterile  soils  of  South  .\merica  are  ma- 
nured wilii  u  sulistuncc  called  guano,  consisting  of  urate 
of  ammonia  anil   other  ammoniacal  suits,  by  the  use  of 
which  a  luxuriant  veget^ilioii  unil  the  richest  cro|is  are 
olitJiined.     (iiiano  is  the  excrement  of  si>a-lo>vl,  accinim- 
lated  for  ccntu'-ies  on  the  ground  ;  l)eiiig  cullii  ted  by  the 
natives,  it  is  now  imported  into  Britain  by  niiTclmnts  for  , 
the  us<'  of  agrii  nllurists.    The  increase  of  crops  obtained 
by  its  application  to  land  is  s.ii(l    ti   be  very  remarkable. 
Accordini;  to  one  authority,  the  cro|)  of  potatoes  is  in- ' 
creased  forty  times  by  it.  and  maize   lliirly  times.     This 
nwy  lie  an   exai^t'enition ;   but   it    is  certain   that   guano  I 
contains  aminmiiacal  salts  in   abundance,  and   other   in-  \ 
orgjmc    coiislilniMits    which    are    in<lis|H'nsable    tor    the  { 
developnii'nt  ol  plants.     Like  bone-dust,  it  is  now  sold  by  I 
merchants  in  wa-port  towns. 

Ltrne. —  Dry  lime  from  the  kiln  is  a  powerfully  excit- 
ing a;;ent  in  aariculture.  It  pus-esses  tlie  power  ol 
decomposing  animal  ami  ve.{etaliic  mailer,  und  enters  as  , 
an  element  into  the  fabrii'  of  plants ;  in  certain  cuses  it 
only  alters  the  constitution  of  the  soil.  The  ureiit  use  ; 
ol  iime  is  to  prepare  newly  brnken-up  land  lor  socci  ssfnl 
eultivuiioii.  If  moorish  or  wiiste  soil  is  iinxh  iiili sleil 
wilh  liie  leimci.ius  roots  of  rushes,  he.illis,  niul  oilier 
weeds  which  resist  the  merliaiiical  action  of  the  harrow, 
<uiil  yield  slowly  to  putrrta<'tion,  the  liesl  mi«l.  m  to  till 
fbe  griiund.  ainl  al!  >«  it  to  lii  'n  tliis  stitc  fdr  twelve  or 
ri^hiefn  inv.iitlui,  or  even  two  year*,  before  applying  the 


limo.     It  is  then  generally  applied  in  autumn,  »nd  U|y 
in  as  soon  as  possible ;  but  if  not  immediately  tillwl  ■ 
tho  soil  wilh  tho  lime  on  it  should  be  liarrowc  I  u  ii'** 
its  decomposing  ctli^cts  may  act  as  powerfully  a^'poiau 
ujMin  tho  vegetable  matter.     After  these  operationi  ik 
land   is  sown    two   successive  yeuts  with  oats  with 
any   fallowing   but  that   Jescrilu'd,  and   along  with  ii 
second  crop  of  oats  some  teiiuiits  sow  it  out  in  on,, 
seeds  for  pasture.     Others,  al\ei   the  first  or  second  nr 
and  a  sunmier  fallow  for  one  ■/,». 


of  oats,  give  tho  land 


MWOU, 


or  a  gretm  crop  with  manure.     On  the  following  season 
another  crop  of  outs  is  taken,  along  with  which  ars- 
s«!cds  are  sown,  and  in  this  state  is  comiiiitlcd  to  paslu 
In  some  cases,  after  tillage,  the  soil  is  uUowod  to  lid  f ' 
one,  two,  or  more  ye;u-s,  uc^'ording  to  its  nature  jft 
which  it  is  reduced  to  a  coinpleti-  state  of  pulvcri'zatiu 
by    a   well-wrought   nuked   summer   tallow.      On  tli 
spring  following  it  is  limed,  und  the  lime  is  well  h-ir 
rowed  in  uloni;  with  grass  seeds  alone  ;  and  in  the  Li. 
lowing  seiison  the  l.uid  is  committed  to  pasture.    Thi' 
however,  is  a  very  expensive  moile,  and  cunnot  lie  n, 
commended    to    tenants  whose   lease  is  of  a  modcrain 
length.     It  is  decidedly  the  most  enriching  mode  of  hy. 
ing  down  wasU'  land  with  hiiie  only  for  pasturage  oi  th 
energy  which  tho  lime  comiiiunicuted  to  the  soil  is  not 
exliuustcd  by  grain  crops. — (Sec  urticle   Imi-uuvimeiit 

Ol'   Wastk  LAIfilS.) 

CROPPING. 

Difference  of  crops  successively  on  the  same  piece 
of  land  is  essentially  necess.iry  in  a  right  system  of 
husbandry.  Crops  of  the  same  kind  have  an  cxhautt. 
ing  ellect,  and  exjierience  proves  that  there  niUht  be 
n  regular  round  or  rotution,  involving  in  particular  > 
change  from  grain  to  green  crops.  .\  material  use  o| 
green  crops  occasionally,  is  to  weed  und  clean  the  land 
for  the  land  lieing  in  ojK'n  furrows,  may  lie  trenched 
or  hoed  in  such  a  way  as  to  extirpate  the  weeds  that 
spring  up.  Some  lands  U-come  so  foul,  from  negligenl 
farming,  that  the  only  method  of  cleaning  them  is  bv 
imlling  them  through  a  course  of  potato  ond  turnip 
cn.piiing. 

liii  liiion  (1,1  CI  ly  Siiilf. — Cloy  soils  are  oi  vorioiu 
dcj^tlis  und  fertility;  and,  like  ull  olliirs,  diftr  n* 
terially  according  to  the  clniiutw  in  which  ihev  arr 
situated.  -Ml  other  circunislunccs  lieing  fuvourahlc 
good  clay  soils  are  pnrticularly  udaplcd  lor  the  prwlur. 
lion  of  wheat  anil  lieans,  und  may  Is;  conliiiueil  uiiiiti 
Ibest^  crkips  uileriiately.  ns  long  us  the  land  can  lie  iiiul 
free  from  weeds  by  iliilling  the  bean  crops.  This  is  the 
lu'ist  prolltiicjle  course  of  cropping  that  can  lie  followeJ 
providing  u  siiH'iciency  of  manure  be  procured,  and  the 
drilled  beans  be  ullernately  horse  und  hand  hiM'd.  The 
nalure  of  the  soil  or  other  circumstames  may  render  a 
crop  of  clo\cr  or  rye-grass  necissary  occusionallv  for 
one  year,  and  this  can  lie  succeeded  by  outs.  Thii 
course  may  continue  for  six  or  eight  years,  or  oven 
longer,  and  will  run  thus: — 1.  Fallow;  2.  Wheat; 
U.  (.'lover  und  lye-gra.ss ;  4.  Oats;  5.  Diilled  Uiiiis; 
fi.  WhcuL  111  Ibis  rotation,  to  procure  full  li'rlililv  ami 
luxuriant  crops,  the  soil  ought  to  Ik-  n'cniiled  with 
muiinre  every  third  or  fourth  year,  the  dung  being  ilrst 
applied  in  the  fallow  year,  and  ne\l  to  the  lican  (n)|i, 
V\  henever  the  soil  gels  foul  uilh  root  weeds,  whjih  it 
will  sooner  or  later  do,  uiullier  naked  suiiimer  lullow 
must  ill  most  rases  W  resorted  lo,iii  order  to  extirpate 
the  weeds;  and  this  begins  u  new  lotalion. 

Where  circumstances  are  not  favourable  to  the  ntiove 
rniation.  the  lullowiiig  may  lie  udvuntageously  suMi. 
tulid.  It  contains  a  variety  of  the  crops  usually  lul- 
livated,  and  by  dividing  the  labour  mora  equally  thrduiih- 
out  the  year,  niuy  be  curried  on  with  a  snuiller  inuiiK'i 
of  horses,  and  cuMS,'(|Ueiilly  at  li'ss  exix'iise;  I.  F;i!hw 
2.  Wheat;  3.  Uiilled  bcujiis;  4.  Barley;  6.  Cluvcr aad 


AGRICULTURE. 


489 


niM'  6.  Onts;  7.  Drilled  heans ;  8,  Wheat;  after 
''wcli  «  '"''"'  f"""'^  lirgina  a  now  rotntion.  In  this 
"talion  it  '*  a'"«''"'«''.y  "Cfssary  that  tlic  land  Bhould 
r     dung  twi''"  '"■  •l"'''^'''  'f  I't>»Hil)lo,  to  ensure  nbumlant 

HI  throughout  th»i  course ;  and  the  proper  periods  of 

nplicalion  are — on  the  fallow  before  the  first  crop  of 

'1  at  on  the  -clover  KtiiUlilc  in  the  fifth  year,  and  to  the 

Jrilfodtaa""'''^""''^''"'''  ynf- 

A  fttijurite  rotation  on  the  strong  lands  of  Essex  is — 
1  Summer  fallow,  liiuid;  2.  Barley;  3.  Clover,  first 
H  and  afterwards  ki'pt  for  seed  ;  4.  Wheat ;  5.  Deans, 
J  J.  6.  Wlieiit;  7,  Oiila.  It  is  a  rule  in  Essix 
"vcr  to  put  in  wheat  in  a  fallow.  Although  two  »uc- 
ressivo  croi>s  of  white  corn  are  justly  ol)jccU>d  to,  on 
ih'  best  prim'ipli'''  of  cultivation,  yet  upon  land  of  this 

lure  both  wheat  and  oats  are  fre(iuenlly  taken  either 
bife  or  aft^r  each  other,  without  doing  material  in- 
•  n  to  the  soil.  Oa  the  strong  soils  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Edinburgh,  d  )vcr  is  found  not  to  succeed  when 
gown  along  witli  wheat,  on  which  account  barley  is 
lakcn  after  wheat,  and  the  grass  bown  al..ng  with  it 
succeeds  well.  In  th-  colder  parts  of  Scotland,  beans 
sill  not  riiM'ii  in  some  seasons,  and  in  these  districts 
the  clay  soils  are  uniforndy  thin  and  sterile.  On  such 
loils  and  sitnations,  tlic  following  rotation  may  be  found 
to  answer; — ••  Fallow,  with  dung  ;  2.  Barley, heans,  or 
gall'  3.  Clover,  cut  in  the  first  year,  and  depastured 
for  two  or  three  ye-.ir.s;  4.  Oats;  and  a  new  rotation 
tains.  By  this  incthofl,  Iht!  rotation  is  kept  up  for  six 
or  seven  years,  a  period  ciuite  long  enough,  as  the  pas- 
lure  on  these  cold  and  meagre  soils,  after  the  second 
ot  tliird  J'ear,  will  be  found  of  little  value ;  and  after 
this  the  soil  will  rutlicr  fall  back  than  improve  in  fer- 
ilily.  But,  as  already  mentioned,  from  the  practice  of 
furrowKlraining,  to  which,  even  in  exposed  situations, 
tliese  soils  arc  suljii'tcd,  a  fallow  crop  of  Hirnips  is  now 
luperjjeding  the  naked  sujjuner  fdlow,  which  is  of  great 
advantage,  as  dairy  farming  is  the  principal  object  in 
these  secluded  districts. 

In  the  south  of  England,  the  farmers  consider  that  a 
clover  lev  is  the  best  preparation  for  a  crop  of  wheat; 
while  in  the  north  of  England,  and  in  Scotland,  clover  is 
more  commonly  sown  with  wheat  or  barley,  and  fol- 
lowed liv  oats,  both  |je<'aiis<'  the  oats  are  almost  inva- 
ri.ililv  found  to  produce  a  large  return  after  clover,  and 
from  the  wheat  being  better  placed  in  the  succession 
immediately  after  the  fdlow. 

Ruldlii'n  "'I  Idiiiiif. — Every  soil  intermediate  between 
abwiute  clay  and  sharp  sand,  has  received  the  name 
of  forim.  Ciavey  loam,  and  loamy  soils,  in  the  rotation 
if  crops,  miiv  be  ranked  as  chiy  soils,  and  cropped 
!xactlv  in  the  manner  already  explaini'd,  even  though 
they  should  approach  to  the  nature  of  light  lands,  from 
which  they  only  dilVer  in  degrees  of  quality.  Rich 
loam  is  the  mr-st  profit.ible  and  the  mo.sl  agreeable 
tc  cultivate  of  any  dcB<-ription  of  soil,  as  it  almost  uni- 
formly produces  abundant  crops  of  all  kinds,  and 
alWs  excellent  pasture.  The  mode  of  its  nianage- 
Dicnt  dejiends  upon  the  nature  of  the  subsoil.  If  this 
he  retentive,  and  not  furrow-drained,  the  soil  will 
rrqnire  to  be  subjected  to  a  naked  summiT  fallow 
evcrv  six  or  eight  years,  to  free  it  from  root  weeds  ; 
nnd  in  this  case,  tlu'  steps  of  the  rotation  will  be 
fim'lar  to   those    already  described   as 


those  already  described  as  suitable  for  the 
Ivst  clay  soils.  When  completely  furrow -drained,  or 
if  the  soil  lies  on  a  porous  bottom,  a  fallow  crop  of 
drilled  turnips  or  jiotatoes  will  bo  found  an  eflt'ctual 
cleaning,  and  from  the  great  value  of  the.se  roots,  they 
arc  in  every  way  preferable  to  naked  fallow.  The 
rotation  may  then  be  as  follows:—!.  Turnip  fallow; 
2.  Wheat,  <in  such  [larts  of  the  land  as  are  freed  from 
the  turnips  in  time  for  that  crop,  and  barley  or  oal>t 
on  the  rest  ;  !).  Clover  and  rye-grab's;  4.  Oats  after 
pans;  .").  Drilled  li'imt-;  6.  Barley  ;  7.  Clover  and  ryc- 
Voi.  Ir-62 


grass ;  8.  Oats ;  and  this  to  b«  succeeded  by  turnips,  oi 
other  green  crop,  to  begin  a  new  rotation.  Some  stop 
at  the  sixth  crop,  and  make  it  wheat  instead  of  barley, 
and  then  commence  with  turnips.  To  keep  up  the 
fertility  of  the  soil,  manure  should  be  applied  with  tbo 
beans, 

l.utntian  on  Light  Lawk. — Light  lands  include  all 
soils  called  sandy  loam  and  loamy  sand,  which  are 
merely  gradations  of  the  same.  The  general  principles 
of  management  for  this  description  of  soil  aro  precisely 
the  same  as  those  already  described,  and  every  rotation 
should  be  cstublishcd  on  a  well-wrought  and  well-dunged 
turnip  fallow.  The  course  of  crops  l)est  suited  for  these 
light  soils  is — I.  Turnips  in  drills ;  8.  Wheat  or  barley  ; 
3.  Clover  and  rye-grass;  4.  Oats;  and  round  again  to 
a  new  rotation.  On  good  turnip  soils  this  rotation  may 
bo  rei)eated  indefinitely,  provided  the  turnip  crop  be 
eaten  on  the  ground,  that  the  grass  crop  be  pastured,  or 
that  the  manure  derived  from  the  hay  be  returned  to  the 
ground.  It  will  be  necessary,  however,  to  introduce  oc- 
casionally the  alternate  system  of  pasturage,  for  without 
this,  even  with  the  most  liberal  treatmcut,  it  will  scarcely 
be  possible  to  keep  up  the  fertility  of  tj.»  r-.iJ. 

On  good  turnip  soils,  when  what  is  pi^uced  or  the 
farm  is  the  only  manure  used,  the  following  rotation  may 
be  found  advisable  : — 1.  Turnips ;  2.  Wheat  or  barley  ; 
3.  Clover  and  rye-grass;  4,  5,  and,  if  necessary,  6.  Pas- 
ture; 7.  Oats;  and  round  again.  When  manure  is 
within  reach,  alternate  white  and  green  crops  may  be 
followed  for  a  number  of  years,  in  this  rotation  :— 
1.  Potatoes  or  turnips;  2.  Wheat;  3.  Drilled  beans  or 
peas;  4.  Wheat  or  barley  ;  5.  I'otatoes  or  turnips;  6. 
Wheat  or  barley ;  7.  Clover  and  rye-grass ;  8.  Oats. 
I'he  advantage  of  this  course  is,  that  it  secures  a.  good 
crop  of  clover,  and  it  is  practised  near  Edinburgh  for 
this  purpQse ;  but  wheat  occurs  too  often  in  the  rota- 
tion. 

In  the  vicinity  of  London,  Edinburgh,  and  Glasgow, 
the  rotations  are  frequently- -1.  Pot.itoes ;  2.  Wheat; 
3.  Clover  and  rye-grass.  By  some,  the  clover  is  fol- 
lowed by  oats,  and  the  rotation  again  begins ;  others  end 
the  rotation  with  clover.  Even  with  .'he  manure  which 
these  short  rotations  secure  to  the  soil,  occasional  pas- 
turage nmst  be  had  recourse  to,  if  the  soil  is  in  any  way 
exhausted. 

Rulntiim  on  Sandy  Soils. — Sandy  soils  arc  such  as  ap- 
))roach  to  the  nature  of  sharp  sand,  having  so  little  clay 
in  their  composition  that  they  possess  no  adhesive  qua- 
lity, either  in  a  wet  or  dry  state.  These  soils  require 
the  most  liberal  cultivation,  to  produce  cither  grain  or 
green  erojjs ;  for  in  the  event  of  dry  weather,  they  be- 
come so  ])arehed  as  to  be  unfit  for  the  growth  of  almost 
any  species  of  plant.  The  application  of  clay,  marl, 
peat,  earth,  and  manure,  will  be  found  materially  to  im- 
prove the  texture  of  such  soils,  and  their  constitution 
will  be  ultimately  changed  to  a  sandy  loam.  When 
well  manured,  sandy  soils  produce  good  ciops  of  pota- 
toes or  turnips :  if  ])ossibIe,  the  latter  should  be  con- 
sumed on  the  ground  by  sheep  or  cattle.  It  is  difficult 
to  make  these  soils  too  rich,  and,  from  tl.eir  nature,  ail 
the  manure  given  them  is  soon  consinned.  Wheat, 
tn-ans,  or  peas,  do  not  succeed  ;  barley,  oats,  nnd  rye, 
are  the  only  grain  crops  whiih  yield  a  profitable  return 
on  these  soils ;  and  pasturage  for  a  term  of  years  is  ab- 
soluti'ly  necessary.  The  following  six  years'  rotation 
has  lieen  recommended  for  these  soils: — 1,  Turnips, 
with  dung,  which  are  to  be  consumed  on  the  ground  by 
sheep;  2.  Barley  or  oats;  3,  1,  .5.  Grass,  pastured  by 
sheep  ;  6.  Rye  or  oats.  The  rotations  on  peat  or  moor- 
ish soils  will  he  treated  of  in  the  section  Iniprovcnienl 
of  Pasturage  and  Grass  Lands  by  Topdressing,  Tiliage 
anil  Irrigation,  on  which  account  little  may  be  said  of 
them  here. 
,      In  laud  situated  in  exposed  and  icmotc  districts,  (m 


490 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


only  gnim  winch  are  cultivated  are  early  vnrietio*  of 
oati,  bear  or  bii^jf,  anil  potatoci,  an  a  chanifo  of  Hood  for 
the  more  gcniiil  and  fi-rtile  f^oundi.  The  followniK 
course  of  cro])*,  prnportioning  the  quantity  gown  to  ho 
manure  nupplied  to  the  turnipi  and  potntoca,  may  he 
folluwod  in  nuch  Hituationa: — 1.  Oats  from  old  Ipyj 
2.  Turnit)s  nnil  potutoon ,  3.  Oats,  Inirloy,  or  bigK,  sown 
with  clovor  or  grass  seeds ;  4.  Hay ;  and  then  restored 
to  pattture. 

Ritdtiniia  iirrordini(  to  the  ntcte  nf  Cidturi: — Having 
treated  of  rotiilions  of  crop  unilor  a  variety  nf  rirruiii- 
•tancps,  wp  shall  now  consider  the  culture  which  nriihlo 
lands  may  require;  and  this  may  1h' — 1.  The  roHloralion 
of  land  to  fertility  which  has  become  exhausted  by  over- 
cropping ;  8.  Tile  maniiifcment  of  land  which  has  be- 
come very  rich  from  Ix-ing  long  in  pusturo  ;  3.  The 
method  of  laying  Inml  for  piisturc  which  lins  been  long 
under  tillage;  4.  The  improvement  of  pnnture-land  by  a 
short  course  of  tillage. 

To  restore  over-croppcil  land  to  fertility,  the  most 
liberal  course  nf  culture  is  necessary,  and  a  tenant  should 
therefore  receive  every  indulgence  from  the  proprietor. 
Where  lime  has  been  previously  applied  tn  the  soil,  it 
will  nnt  alone  restore  the  ground  to  fertility.  A  sum- 
mer fallowing  with  dung,  or  a  fallow  crop  of  turnips, 
and  laying  the  land  gradually  down  to  pasture,  are  the 
true  methods  by  which  it  may  lie  broughc  fiack  to  li-r- 
tility.  If  the  turnips  are  consumed  on  the  gr  uind  by 
eheep,  bone-dust  may  l>e  advantageously  used.  esp«>cially 
if  the  soil  is  light  and  friable.  If  composed  of  thin  clay, 
and  manure  not  easily  obtained,  a  sj'rics  of  years  will 
be  necessary  to  restore  the  land,  as  the  jiasturaite  will 
be  thin  and  unproductive.  On  light  soils,  pasturage  will 
be  found  tbe  most  suitable  for  their  improvement. 

With  r.'gard  to  land  which  has  become  rich  from  long 
tillage,  little  need  Ik)  said,  the  method  of  management 
being  sim|i!e  and  well  known.  Over-cropping  nuist  be 
avoided,  and  care  tuken  to  keep  up  rather  than  diminish 
iti  fertility. 

Summary  of  Rolntiorm. — The  rotations,  a«  it  will  he 
perceived,  vary  considerably,  according  to  the  nature 
and  wants  of  the  soil,  yet  all  possess  a  general  resi-m- 
blance,  and  embrace  altemationa  of  green  with  grain 
cro|M.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  mention,  that  the 
land  in  time  is  a|)t  to  l)c  injured  by  an  unvarying  rou- 
tine, and  seems  to  reijuire  changes  in  the  character  of 
those  green  crops  which  arc  usually  reckoned  to  he  so 
beneficial.  In  other  words,  there  is  a  necessity  for  a 
change  of  rotations.  This  is  done  by  either  changing 
the  green  crops  in  the  rotation,  or  alternating  one  rota- 
tion with  another.  The  latter  plan,  which  is  called  shift- 
ing from  one  course  to  another,  ii  adopted  by  many  of 
our  best  agriculturists. 

Chnire  nf  >^ec(l. — In  choosing  seeds,  there  arc  three 
rules  that  shi.uKI  be  attended  to  : —  I.  'ITiat  the  variety  to 
be  sown  is  suited  to  the  soil  and  climate ;  2.  The  pro- 
pncty  of  changing  the  seed ;  3.  That  the  seed  has  the 
a,ipearance  of  In-ing  sotmd.  Every  species  of  grain 
his  varieties  which  differ  from  each  other  considerably. 
In  many  districts  the  seed  long  used  is  still  commonly 
■own.  either  from  ignorance  of  l)ett<'r  varieties,  or  fear 
that  a  change  will  not  be  attended  with  goixl  conse- 
quences. 

All  seed  should  be  allowed  to  arrive  at  full  maturity 
before  iM'ing  sown,  for  the  nourishment  which  the  seed 
trust  yield  t.)  the  plant  in  the  first  sta'je  of  growth  can 
never  be  »••  Treat  when  this  is  nut  the  case.  'J'he  best 
cultivators  rbonsc  the  finest  iiualilics  of  each  species  for 
»eod  ;  sowing  them  on  the  land  best  adapti'd  liir  their 
(ro'.vth.  S.iJiie  varieties  are  remarkably  altarhcd  to  por- 
ticular  s.iils.  and  certain  ilcgrees  of  fertility  and  moisture 
•rem  to  suit  ilicm  be  t.  Others  require  a  greater  degree 
■nd  duration  of  heat,  and  frequently  takn  four  or  tivo  , 


I  weeks  longer  to  ripen.     Early  lowing  of  then  nk 
ought  to  l)c  resorted  to.  ^^ 

I  Too  sudden  a  change  in  climate  and  situation  it  hoTk 
'  fill ;  hence,  Yorkshire  seed  has  been  foimd  to  anaw 
better  in  Scotlaiul  than  that  brought  from  Ksscx,  Min' 
varieties  may  I)o  introduced  gradually,  which  would  nni 
answer  if  the  habit  of  the  variety  were  not  a  little  con. 
suited.  The  particular  varieties  of  grain  will  be  Jb. 
icribed  under  their  respective  heads,  and  the  loiU  t^ 
which  they  are  best  suited. 

Sowing. — The  oldest  established  mode  of  sowinir  ia  h. 
hrniiilraiit,  or  scattering  the  grain  from  the  hand  ovur  ih, 
land  which  has  been  prepared  for  it.  Uut  this  pU,,  j, 
not  so  economical,  or  otherwise  so  valuitblo  as  «o'»inii 
in  drills  by  machines.  In  Scotland,  the  usual  methoJ 
■)f  sowing  broadcast  consists  in  the  sower  walking  BJoiit 
the  ridges,  and  at  very  regidar  interval.s,  so  as  to  keen 
time  with  his  steps,  throwing  a  handful  of  grain  before 
him  by  a  wide  sweep  of  the  arm.  Ho  carries  the  grain 
in  a  siieet,  which  is  slung  round  bis  neck  and  is  open 
to  the  hand  in  front  \  ser^'ant  attends,  to  afford  freih 
supplies  ht  the  end  of  the  ridges. 

Cu I've  of  li'lieiit. — Wheat  is  the  most  important  of 
all  the  grains,  and  its  varieties  are  numerous,  Amonj 
those  now  in  cultivation,  the  following  may  lie  enume. 
rated  : — The  liearded,  the  I)\nigla.a«,  the  golden  cnr,  the 
velvet  ear,  the  egg-shell,  the  hedge-wheat,  the  Easoi 
ilun,  the  Kentish  yellow,  the  white  and  red  Essex,  the 
iMungo.swell's,  the  Burwell  red,  the  Hunter's,  and  tht 
(ienrgian.  A  general  division  of  wheats  is  made  into 
wiiilo  and  red,  with  several  shades  between,  and  mm- 
mer  and  winter.  Winter  wheat  may  be  brouijht  into 
the  nature  of  summer,  by  ahering  the  time  of  Bowint 
If  winter  wheat  he  sown  at  the  pi'riod  for  putting  mm. 
mer  wheat  into  the  ground,  in  ihe  course  of  two  te^ 
sons  the  winter  will  lieeomc  of  a  similar  halut  aa  the 
summer,  ond  the  same  process  will  bring  a  summer 
wheat  to  he  a  winter  one. 

In  general,  the  fine  white  wheats  are  preferred  to  tht 
brown  and  red  ;  hut  the  latter  is  most  jirofitable  for  wet 
adhesive  soils  and  unfavourable  climates,  on  account  of 
its  hardiness  and  ripening  early.  A  red  wheat,  of  ureij 
productiveness,  has  been  recently  introduced  into  Scot 
land  from  Mark  Lane. 

The  variety  of  wheat  most  profitable  to  he  producej 
must  depend  ujion  the  nature  of  the  soil,  as  land  which 
has  produced  an  iiiiliflerent  crop  of  one  may  yield  oi 
abuiulant  crop  of  another  kind;  and  land  is  frequently 
found  to  yield  better  crops  if  the  varieties  l)e  Blternnlfly 
changed.  It  has  been  observed,  that  a  mixture  of  grain 
produces  the  heaviest  crop*,  and  thai  mixed  flour  inaliei 
the  best  bread. 

The  richer  description  of  clays  and  strong  loams  are 
the  best  ada])fed  for  the  protluction  of  wheal ;  hut  if  pro. 
perly  cultivated  and  well  manured,  any  variety  of  these 
two  soils  tvill  prtHluce  excellent  crops  of  this  grsin. 
(tood  wheat  land  ought  olways  to  possess  a  large  qiMii- 
lity  of  clay  and  little  sand  ;  for  allhoush  liu'ht  soils  may 
be  made  to  produce  good  crops,  yet  tbe  strong  claylanili 
in  general  yield  the  heaviest  grain.  Sandy  soils,  bein? 
deficient  in  firmness,  do  not  afford  sutlicient  8up])ort  to 
the  roots  of  plants  such  as  wheat,  which  do  not  niiik 
far  info  the  soil.  There  arc  light  soils,  however,  made 
from  decomposed  granite,  felspar,  or  day-stone,  com- 
[lounded  with  vegetable  matter,  whicli  protluce  eicol- 
lent  wheat, 

"  The  season  for  sowing  wheat  is  necessarily  regulated 
bv  the  state  of  the  land,  as  well  as  of  the  season;  on 
whiih  account  it  is  not  aUv.iys  in  the  farmer's  power  tc 
choose  the  tnomenl  he  would  prefer,  .\fter  fallow,  M 
the  season  allows,  it  may  be  sown  from  the  end  of  An. 
gust  till  the  middle  of  \(  vemlier.  On  wet  cUya,  it  il 
pro{Mjr  to  sow  aa  early  a^  poaaiblc,  aa  such  loUi,  wbu 


AGRICULTURE. 


Ml 


ihMOurfily  (IrfncheJ  with  moiiture  in  autumn,  are  ael- 
J  ,  i„  ,1  pro|)or  itato  for  harrowing  till  the  nucccpding 
•wink'.    I"  '''°  "I"'"'""  "'"  n>«ny  cxpcricnrcd  liualiand- 

eii  llif  l*"'  icBaon  for  lowing  wheat,  whether  on  fal- 
low rag-fallow,  ' '  ^Inughed  clover  itulibic,  is  from  the 
bfiriimiiiK  x*^  '  "•  ■'""  '"  "**  ''*'"'  °^  Octoticr  j  but 
tlii«  must  dt>p«n''  i'l'j"  'he  »tiitc  of  the  »oil  and  weather. 
In  East  Ijolhian,  on  dry  gravelly  loams,  in  good  condi- 
iwri  after  a  clover  crop,  and  well  prepared,  wheat  has 
liwii  l(iii>wn  to  succeed  best  when  Down  in  Novcml)er. 
After  ilrilli'd  Ivans,  whenever  the  seaHon  will  admit  of 
n|i):ji{iiiii?  ""d  harrowing,  wheat  may  lio  «own  from  the 
miilille  or  end  of  September  to  the  middle  of  Novcndier ; 
liter  tliis  season,  the  sowing  of  wheat  ought  not  to  bo 
haiariliJ  till  the  spring  quarter  returns. 

i.Aftt'f  turnips,  when  tlie  crop  is  consumed  or  led  off, 
•ml  the  proun<l  can  be  properly  ploughed,  wheat  nuiy  bo 
itfwn  any  tini"  betwixt  the  Isl  of  February  and  the 
miilille  of  March;  and  it  is  cuHtomary  to  ]ilough  and 
low  tlic  land  in  successive  portions  as  fast  as  the  turnips 
are  connunied.  It  is  only  on  turnip  soil  of  a  good  qua- 
lltv  verijing  towards  loam,  and  in  high  condition,  that 
winter  wlu'iit,  sown  in  spring,  can  l)c  cultivated  with 
lUCMSs-  When  circumstances  ore  favourable,  however, 
it  will  Bi'ncrnlly  happen  that  such  lands,  when  wheat  is 
not  loo  often  repeated,  will  nearly  produce  as  many 
bunlicls  of  wheat  as  of  barley.  The  wheat  crops  there- 
fore, on  an  average  of  seasons,  will  exceed  the  value  of 
the  harley  crop  considerubly  j  hence  its  culture  is  an  ol)- 
jcotwiiii'h  ought  not  to  be  neglected." — (Cenmil  Keport 

of  !<rlillilil(I.) 

Wheat  is  liable  to  certain  fungous  diseases,  as,  for 
ianiple.  smut,  mildew  or  rust.  Sic.  With  a  view  of 
reserving  the  grain  from  these  must  injurious  disorders, 
it  [i  rustoiniiry  to  prepare  tlie  seed  by  steeping  or  pick- 
lin,i  it  in  II  kind  of  saline  brine,  or  diluted  urine.  Stcep- 
iiiL'  or  [lickling  is  jnirformed  after  the  seed  has  been 
washed,  by  allowing  it  to  lie  for  a  time  among  stale 
urini!,  diluted  with  woter,  or  salt  brine,  of  sutFicient 
«t.'i'n"lli  to  float  an  egg.  Tlie  seed  is  put  into  tubs,  con- 
taining lis  much  liquid  as  will  cover  the  grain  a  few 
indiea,  and  allow  it  to  be  well  stirred,  so  as  to  bring  all 
the  liglit  grains  to  the  surface,  which  are  skimmed  off 
(8  long  as  they  contiime  to  rise.  Another  way  is  to  put 
the  secil  into  baskets,  which  are  immersed  in  the  water, 
we  easily  taken  out,  and  can  be  conveniently  placed 
over  an  empty  tub  to  drain.  The  seed  is  left  for  three 
»r  four  liours  in  the  chamber  lye,  or  full  six  hours  in  the 
|iiikle,  after  which  the  liijuor  is  drawn  olV,  and  the  wheat 
Bpreaii  thinly  on  the  floor  of  the  granary,  where  it  is 
will  sprinkled  over  with  quick-lime  slacked  in  the  liquid. 
Aliout  half  a  peck  of  lime  is  sutlicient  for  a  bushel  of 
wheat,  and  it  slunild  be  well  stirred,  so  that  every  grain 
nuv  grt  a  jwrtion.  If  the  seed  is  to  be  drilled,  it  should 
bi  passed  tiuough  a  coarse  sieve  after  being  limed,  which 
will  facilitate  its  progress  through  the  machine.  The 
%r<}n  will  thus  1h>  quickly  dried :  oiid  it  should  not  lie 
more  than  six  hours  in  the  heap,  then  be  spread  out,  and 
used  the  following  day. 

Some  caution  should  bo  used  in  having  the  lime  pro- 
perly slaked,  for  if  this  is  not  done,  too  great  a  heat  may 
k  raised,  which  will  destroy  thu  vegetative  principle. 
Dnilits  have  been  expressed  of  the  efficacy  of  lime,  and 
1  siiiiition  of  copperas  is  used  on  the  ('ontinmt  instead. 
Drt  piiwderid  lime  would  certainly  have  no  effect,  but 
when  I  jvviy  slaked  it  is  very  eirnacious,  as  has  been 
prir.eil  from  experiment  It  was  found  tlii;t  a  steep  of 
hnie-witiT  alime,  in  which  wheat  was  iminersi'd  fur  tiiur- 
aiiil-twi'iity  hours,  proved  a  powerful  preventative  of 
diseusc.  while  the  giwd  jffeots  of  unmixed  brine  wore 
»t)ry  iiiionsiderable. 

Of  the  two  kinds  of  steeps  mentioned,  urine  is  thought 
tlje  most  efficient,  and  it  shoulil  be  used  neither  too  fresh 
nor  too  stale,  as  in  tlie  first  stale  it  is  ineffectual,  and  hi 


the  secona  injurious.  The  seed  should  he  sown  m  toon 
as  dry  ;  for  if  allowed  to  lie  in  sacks  or  heaps  beyond  ■ 
day  or  two,  the  lime  may  lie  very  hurtful.  Anothei 
steep,  which  is  recommended  by  Hir  John  Sinclair,  and 
is  much  Used  in  Flanders,  France,  and  Switzerland,  is  a 
weak  solution  of  the  sulphate  of  capper,  or  blue  vitrioL 
The  moiles  of  using  it  are  as  follow  : — 

Into  eight  quarts  of  boiling  water  put  one  pound  of  blue 
vitriol,  and  while  quite  hot,  three  liusliels  of  wheat  are 
wetted  with  five  quarts  of  the  liquid ;  in  three  hours  the 
remaining  three  quarts  are  added,  and  the  wheat  is  »»{• 
fered  to  remain  three  hours  longer  in  the  solution.  The 
whole  should  be  stirred  three  or  four  times  during  the  six 
hours,  and  the  light  grains  skimmed  off.  After  the  wheat 
is  drained,  slaked  lime  is  thrown  on  it  to  facilitate  the 
drying.  Aiiolher  way  of  using  it  is  to  dissolve  five 
pounds  of  the  sulphate  of  copin-r  in  hot  water,  and  add 
as  much  cold  water  to  this  as  will  cover  three  bushels  of 
wheat.  The  wheat  is  allowed  to  remain  five  or  six  houra, 
or  oven  longer,  in  the  liquid.  After  two  or  three  bags, 
of  three  bushels  each,  have  passed  through  the  liquid, 
one  pound  more  of  the  sulphate  for  each  batr  should  be 
added  ;  and  after  twelve  bugs  or  so  have  passed  through, 
new  liquid  will  be  required. 

To  this  we  may  add,  that  sowing  the  land  with  salt  ia 
considered  an  excellent  means  of  preventing  liability  to 
any  of  these  fungous  disorders. 

Jlye. — Rye  is  usually  sown  on  light  soils,  and  does  not 
require  so  much  care  as  wheat;  it  suffers  less  by  being 
sown  on  the  stubble  of  another  corn  crop,  or  upon  ita 
own,  and  it  is  not  unusual  to  grow  it  on  the  same  land 
two  years  in  succession.  This  grain  is  frequently  aow^ 
to  be  cut  for  soiling  instead  of  winter  tares,  and  in  Eng. 
land  it  is  frequently  used  for  early  shrcp-fceding,  cut 
green,  without  obtaining  a  grain  crop  from  it.  It  ia 
extremely  useful  to  breeding  flocks,  ns  it  rumes  forward 
earlier  than  tares,  and  afTirds  good  food  wlun  other  sus- 
tenance is  scarce.  Sometimes  it  is  sown  on  the  margina 
of  fields  of  other  grains,  to  protect  them  t'rom  pouhry, 
which  do  not  use  it  as  food,  and  will  seldom  go  amongst 
it. 

Piarky. — Barley  is  a  much  hardier  groin  than  either 
wheat  or  rye.  There  are  six  varieties  of  this  grain,  dis- 
tinguished by  the  number  of  rows  in  the  ear,  four  of 
which  are  cultivated  in  Dritain.  The  kinds  which  have 
been  recently  introduced  into  Scotland  are  tb.e  Chevalier, 
Annnt,  and  otl'ir  sorts;  but  the  two-rowcd  and  four- 
rowed,  called  here  or  bigg,  have  been  most  extensively 
cultivated.  In  its  culture,  barley  requlii  »  a  clean,  rich, 
mellow  Inam,  moderatcl)  retentive ,  and  on  clays,  tem- 
pered with  sandy  mould,  or  containing  a  ceilain  portion 
of  chalk  mid  sand,  it  is  found  to  succeed  well.  On  poor 
wet  soils  it  is  never  successful ;  and  every  kind  of  land 
on  which  it  is  cultivated  should  be  well  wrouijht  and 
thoroughly  pulverized.  If  the  preceding  crop  tias  been 
wheat,  the  land  should  undergo  three  plinighiiigs  before 
barley  is  put  into  the  soil.  Barley  usually  follows  tur- 
nips in  the  rota'inn,  but  it  is  found  to  grow  very  well  after 
potatoes.  It  is  thought  lH>st  to  have  the  turnips  eaten  on 
the  ground  when  this  can  be  accomplislicd;  and  if  the 
preceding  crop  bos  been  piitatoos,  the  land  should  be  well 
ridged  up,  in  order  to  have  it  as  dry  a:'  possible.  The 
applicntion  of  lime  and  earth,  earth  anil  dniig  or  urine, 
is  thought  of  great  ailvuntage  to  the  bailey  cr.p,  and  even 
to  plough  in  the  turnip  leaves  is  beneficial.  If  the  plough 
is  not  sufllcient  to  pulverize  the  land  ))ri'|ierly,  the  harrow 
anil  roller  ought  to  be  used  f'l  accnniplisli  this.  In  most 
cases  more  than  one  ploughing  is  iiiven,  but  after  a  win- 
ter furrow  the  grublier  may  be  used  insteiid.  When  tur. 
nips  have  been  consumed  on  thegiuiinil,  it  is  much  trod 
den  down,  and  will  require  two  ploiigbiiigs  ;  it  this  is  not 
given,  the  soil  should  be  well  h;inowed  tind  rolled.  If 
grass  is  sown  along  with  bariev.  the  Uiid  should  be  hai 
rowed  after  th'^  'ollcr  iias  passeu  over  it,  which  covers  tb^ 


«M 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE  PKOPLE. 


/itm  Hcdit.  Bnrlry  «h  .-tild  bo  lown  ni  »oon  •ftcr  plounh- 
ing  ■■  p<iHail)Ii<,  uIk'ii  tilt'  liiiitl  JM  IVmh  and  nioUl,  in  onlfr 
to  obtain  <'i|ii»l  uml  H|M'('ily  vnxi'tution.  The  U'tt  waion 
kr  lowiMK  iinrlf>y  i"  Iroin  tbo  lirKiiniinK  i>f  April  lu  the 
uiiJJIo  of  May  ;  biit  it  hiw  Ihmmi  nown  ■  month  aftor  tlii* 
with  lui'n'HK,  'I'll)'  IxTf  or  biitir  Mort  ii  loini'tinK'*  aown 
in  OctolitT,  mill  ciilli'il  wiiitor  luirlry. 

In  Hcolliiiiil,  rliivcr  ainl  ryi'-uraj«i  sro  lown  iinmcili- 
■t«>ly  afti'r  hailiy.  uml  ll"'  hipiIm  iir<<  cnviTrd  by  tht'  liint 
burrowiiiit ;  a  lii;lit  i;riu*K  burrow  iHJni;  noiiu'tiincH  um'iI 
for  the  piirpiisi'.  HnlliiiK  \a  practiHcd  by  Honir  imiiiodi- 
■l<>ly  after,  wliilo  olliois  prcfor  alluwiiiK  the  pliinta  to  roiiic 
aliove  ground ;  the  hiiiiiII  cb»U  in  thin  caw  act  um  n  hIu'I- 
lur  to  the  plautri,  which  ia  of  great  ac'rvico  in  froDty 
weather. 

Oatt. — Tlin  oat  ix  »iiitoJ  fo  rliniatoi  which  ari*  too  cold 
for  wheat  or  otiicr  i^rain  cropH,  and  therefore  tliri\ei<  in 
hit{h  regions  U'ller  lliaii  in  low-lyiii;{  countricH.  When 
land  in  broken  up,  ciltier  from  a  stale  of  nature  or  from 
pauturc,  outM  liirm  tbe  firnt  crop,  aa  they  may  U'  re|H'ated  for 
a  aeriri  of  ycuH  wiliiout  injuring  the  Hoil.  Tlicy  are  iiIho 
the  bout  crop  to  I'ollow  clover,  and  are  >«oinctinu'ii  sown 
with  clover  and  Kruss  Hcedx.  They  often  follow  potatocH 
and  green  cri>p»,  ami  in  either  of  thcxo  cum'h,  iIu>  land 
obould  lie  well  ridgcil  up  in  Ihn  winter.  When  the  hcciI 
is  sown,  the  land  xImuIiI  lie  completely  harrowed,  and 
then  rolled  across  tlic  ridi{CH.  .\  mixture  of  oatu  in  ccne- 
fally  sown  almiu  with  tarcB,  to  prevent  them  from  fallJiiK 
and  rotting  on  the  Kround.  In  this  Ntate  they  are  cut 
green,  and  I'urm  an  exiellcnt  food  for  cattle  and  liorscK. 
A  change  of  kcciI  I'mm  hot  to  cold,  and  cold  to  hot,  is 
always  to  Ik'  recommended  ;  and  the  cjuantity  of  seed 
niuiitdc|)eiid  on  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  variety  to  liu 
aown.  On  |Kior  soils,  from  the  plants  not  spreading,  outs 
ahould  be  sown  tliick.  The  Hcipetoun,  and  niiuiy  other 
Tarii'tii's,  do  not  tiller  out,  and  thcrclore  require  more  seed 
to  bo  sown.  'I'lie  cpianlily  of  seed  neccstiary,  v.iries  from 
four  to  seven  bu-iliels  per  English  acre,  and  broudcust  sow- 
ing is  gciUTally  pnii'lised. 

The  usual  lime  of  sowing  is  from  the  beginning  of 
March  to  the  end  of  .\pril  :  early  sowing  is  to  be  prefer- 
red, as  the  grain  is  of  Iwller  (piality  ;  but  Inte  sowing  pro- 
duces the  greatest  bulk  of  straw.  Sowing  in  aut'imn  has 
been  praclisi'd  with  micccs.s  in  some  parts  of  Ireland,  the 
aeed  iK'ing  put  in  early  in  OcIoIht  ;  but  this  is  only  done 
on  dry  sandy  loams.  This  iieriiHl  of  sowing  is  not  likely 
ever  to  iM'Come  common  in  S'olland,  from  the  coldness  of 
the  climate.  Sinllaiid  and  Inland  st-em  better  adipted 
for  growing  oat.<  than  England,  and  in  the  f  irmei'  coun- 
tries greater  attenlion  is  paid  to  their  cultivation  than  in 
the  latt»T,  where  the  p  loresl  soil  and  llie  worst  tillage  are 
thought  suirieiciil  drr  tliem.  The  proiluce  dilH'rs  materi- 
ally according  to  the  soil,  climate,  and  the  tltness  of  the 
particular  variety  for  llii-  land.  The  maximum  ipiantily, 
soil  and  clim:ite  licing  favourable,  may  Is'  estimated  at 
aevcnty  biisliels.  and  the  minimum  twenty  bushels  per 
acre;  the  average  lioing  ahout  lour  quarters.  Oat  straw 
is  preferred  to  asiy  other  us  fixlder  for  cattle,  as  it  is  con- 
■dered  more  nutritive. 

RrAPINO   AND   RARTRSTINO. 

The  ripeness  of  grain  is  shown  by  the  straw  assuming 
a  goldea  colour  from  the  lM)ttom  of  the  stem  nearly  to 
the  ear ,  o.-  when  the  ear  Isgins  to  drop  gently,  the  corn 
may  be  cut.  Although  the  straw  may  Ih'  green  from  the 
ear  for  some  distance  down  the  stem,  yet  if  it  Im'  quite 
yellow  at  the  bottom,  and  for  some  distance  upwards,  the 
grain  requires  no  further  nourishment  from  the  e;irlh,  and 
if  pro|)erly  harve.-ted  will  not  shrink.  These  indiealions 
of  rip«!ness  m.iy  suiriee  for  wheat,  barley,  and  oats.  It 
Was  formerly  the  practice  to  cut  grain  with  a  saw-iilged 
aicklo ;  but  this  has  i;iven  place  to  u  larger  instrument, 
•  ith  a  smoolh  edge  like  a^wythe.  The  rea|.ers  are  iisii- 
•Uv  divided  into  bunds  of  six  ur  seven,  Kith  a  binder  to  i 


I  each  band.     When  the  ridijes  are  lew  than  iiRhtfcn  f 
broad,  three  rca|H<rs  are  iisiinlly  placeil  npon  rncK     i** 
the  iniildle  rea|M'r  making  the  bands  with  which  the  ^h  '  '*^ 
itrw  bound  up.     When  four  rca|M'ra  arc  placed  iiiion'*" 
ridge,  as  is  usually  the  case  when   the  ridge  j,  (.i,,|,J"' 
feet  broad,  two  bands  are  laiil  upon  one  ridge  ;  n^d    '^^ 
are  enabled  in  this  way  to  manage  twelve  naiNTs  nl  ^\ 
on  three  ridges,  stooklng  the  corn  all  in  onn  row  u'liontl! 
middle   ridge.     When  the  crop  is  viry  strong,  hnwpv 
it  is  olb-n  found  necessary  that  each  binder  should  itn,  L' 
by  himself.  '* 

In  harvesting  oots  and  barley,  each  shock  or  atonk  ■ 
formed  of  ten  sheaves   (ilaccd  in  two  rows,   the  hi'nl  r 
j  each  sheaf  leaning  upon  the  opposite  one,  and  a«lip,'f° 
I  the  to|i  nt  each  end.     They  stand  usually  due  rmnli  ,„• 
s<mth,  so  that  each  siile  may  receive  equal   lieii.fii  fr   ' 
i  the  sun.     The  straw  of  wheat   Is'liig   lungor  llm,,  i|,^ 
of  oats   and   barley,  the  stooks  of  the   former  arc  niiil 
1  larger,  having  six  sheaves  in  each  row,  and  one  on  Ih' 
1  top  at  each  end.     When  the  crop  Is  thin,  half  stooks  nm 
frcipiently  set  up;  and  to  forward  the  drying  proepiiH  tk 
end  sheaves  arc  now  generally  omitted  whi-n  the  wrn'ih  ' 
Is  giKMl ;  but  this  should  never  N-  done  where  the  clima'u 
is  uncertain,  as  it  exposes  the  corn  to  rain. 

Oats  and  barley  arc  now  frequently  cut  with  a  «fv|h« 
wliieli  is  either  plain,  or  furnished  with  a  bow  or  rraill.' 
in  order  to  lay  the  grain  evenly  in  one  direction,  Whoai 
is  almost  universally  cut  with  the  sickle;  and  if  the  np,, 
Iher  keep  good  after  this  operation  is  performed,  li  wj||i» 
ready  for  slacking  in  the  coiirso  of  five  or  six  dav«,  B,, 
ley  is  frcipiently  cut  with  the  scythe  in  England]  hut  thj 
sickle  is  generally  used  in  Hcotland.  Uarley  and  oats'f. 
qiiire  In  lie  ten  or  twelve  days,  as  they  are  more  or  |o« 
mixed  with  clover,  before  Is'ing  ready  for  stacking,  fk. 
clover  ought  .to  1h'  completely  withered  before  the  com  ii 
stacked  ;  and,  indii'd,  it  requires  the  greatest  ciiution  ng 
the  |iarl  of  the  farmer,  in  ascertaining  whether  lli^  cro« 
are  in  a  proper  stale  for  being  carried  to  the  st!i.||.vi,,i 
'I'he  Im'sI  way  for  judging  of  this,  is  to  take  out  ii  haii,|ftj| 
from  the  centre  of  the  middle  sheaf  on  the  lea  siih- of  ii,, 
stook,  repealing  this  on  several  |)arts  of  the  fiiM  ;  opj  jf 
the  knots  or  joints  of  this  are  dry  and  shrivelled,  (he  cnm 
may  be  led  home  in  safely.  .Ml  corn  crops  slMiiJilhcpiu 
ns  near  the  ground  as  po«sili|e,  for  by  this  a  great  aililition 
is  made  to  the  straw,  and  consequently  to  the  futurj 
manure. 

S'lirhins. — When  Ihf  crop  is  thoroughly  dry,  it  is  lej 
home  to  the  slack-yard  nn  open  spar-bnilt  earls,  iiiiilhuili 
into  slacks  so  conslrneted  as  to  nftbril  complete  sIipIiit 
from  the  weather.  The  stool  or  Tiotlom  upon  whiih  lh( 
stack  stands  was  formerly  made  of  loose  straw  or  lirush. 
woihI  ;  but  in  the  best  man.iu'ed  farms,  it  is  now  thf  nrap. 
lice  to  conslriicl  the  slacks  on  stands  made  of  ^^')ne  or 
brick,  or  upon  |iillars  made  of  slone  or  east-iron,  iparred 
across  with  wismI  or  iron.  These 
stands  are  formed  so  as  to  prevent 
the  accessof  vermin,  which  iscalcu- 
l.ilcd  to  effect  a  saving  oflwoliolls 
in  thirty  ;  and  many  have  funnels 
from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of 
stacks,  fo  admit  a  free  current  of 
air.  In  Scotland,  the  stacks  lieing 
mostly  round,  a  sheaf  is  lirst 
placed  on  its  butt-end.  in  the  cen- 
tre of  the  bottom  or  st mil ;  around 
this  others  arc  iilnced,  also  npriirhl,  but  with  a  slight  irv 
clination  of  the  brad  inwaids,  until  the  stand  in  not-li 
lillcd.  The  stacker  then  places  a  layer  of  slicavcs  h  .i. 
7ontally  on  the  outside  of  ihest-,  lyinu  on  their  siilis.  tJie 
ear-ends  inwards,  and,  pressing  them  logctlicr  vvithcon. 
siderable  force,  he  continues  to  lay  on  rows,  until  the 
outside  sheaves  arc  as  high  ai.  those  standing  on  end. 
The  whole  slack  is  filled  up  in  nearly  the  same  mjiinrr, 
tlic  car -ends  of  the  sheaves  being  always  inwaril*,  with  t 


AGRTCULTtrih. 


4M 


jiiUr  Indin"'!""  downwnrdi  «nd  nutwnrila  to  their 
kiilii. «!"'  ""'  •'''"'"'  "^  *'"'  "'■''  '^'"K  liiffhcr  and  n(it  ho 

nim'i«'il  ""  '''"  ""'•'''''•  I'roiHT  iitliMitinn  to  tlin  mIoj)- 
.  |,f  (11,1  shfuvm  i«  nere«««ry  from  the  rounilntion  of 
th'nUck,  hut  |)arliriiliirly  mi  nt  th«  intnko  of  the  innor 
lavcni,  Ih'''  !'•'■'  '>•''»«  slwny*  Ifft  more  open.  When 
(hill  i«  ''"'"'•  '''"  "'"'''""'  "'■'*  "P  ■"  oiiIhuIh  circulur  row 
nf  nhciivi'*,  hiivinu  their  biitt-i'iiiN  projoctjtiK  a  frw  iiichoB 
I  .viinil  till'  '""'.V  of  thi>  ricit,  iifti-r  which  tho  oiilnich-  iuy- 
,r*riiiii"  uniiiiiiilly  iiiwariln,  until  thr  roof  in  dniwii  to  n 

nj: 
ciiinti 


„ow  riri'li'i  wlifti  two  or  thri-o  Hhi'iivpH  pliicoil  uprii^ht 
Miiili'li'lv  nil  up  'he  Htiick.    Tlict  topinoHt  hIiohvoh  iirp  thru 


liniily 


tmiinil  wi'h  a  few  turiiH  from  the  middle  of  the  utriiw 


IO\lf. 


till'  two  I  mIm  of  whiehnrc  fiiHtened  on  oppomto  HideH 


if  lli«  "'"'■I'-  W'hen  cnrefully  hiiilt  and  thiitehed,  a  Htiu'k 
„j||  crtiiipli'lely  keep  out  ruin,  nnd  l)e  quite  iecuro  from 
hiuh  wiiiilH.  M;iteriiilii  for  thalc-hin<T,  and  straw  ropen, 
ihoiilJ  alwnvH  he  mucin  before  hnrveNt,  so  that  no  delny 
miiv  »n*c  from  thi»,  in  the  event  of  wet  wontlu'r.  The 
thalchfr  ulamls  upon  a  ladder,  pineed  on  the  Hlopinst  'oof 
of  the  ilai'li,  ""d  lays  on  the  straw  in  hamlfuU  from  a 
fluniitilv  plii^'d  within  hi«  reach.  One  end  of  the  Rtniw 
lii,  thrusts  into  the  hutt  of  a  shonf,  and  the  other  end  hanns 
ovrr  lliP  "'"'■'<•  He  thus  proijreHrtCf!  up  to  tho  top,  niakiiicr 
each  Imndful  overlap  the  other ;  and  on  the  top  of  the 
ilack  a  thick  roverimc  of  short  straw  in  phired.over  whieh 
iiiliaw  rniM'  is  rurried  [lerpendicularly,  dividini;  the  roof 
into  fqiia'  lections.  He  then  covers  the  toppini?  of  short 
ilraw  with  lon^  thutch  coming  to  a  point,  and  ties  the  iij)- 
nff  cnil  of  this  with  a  straw  ro|>o  into  a  peak,  the  form 
of  ihc  lop  renenihlini?  in  apt>earance  un  uinhrella.  With 
ihraid  of  two  assistants  on  the  ({round,  the  thatcher  now 
nlace*  a  mmiU'r  of  tough  oat-straw  ropes  over  the  cover- 
ing, to  W'Oiire  it  firmly.  These  ropes  are  made  to  cross 
Mch  other  nt  angles,  and  arc  fastened  either  to  the  butts  of 
the  sheaves,  or  to  a  rope  firndy  hound  round  the  body  of 
the  utack. 

.Stack"  are  somotimcs  constructed  in  England  on  a  tim- 
ber plalforiii  raised  ujmn  stones,  and  over  the  stack  the 
framework  of  a  perfect  barn  is  placed,  which  can  \te  either 
tiled  or  thatcheil.  This  is  said  to  alFord  greater  security 
lo  the  crop,  and  to  be  less  expensive  than  annually  thatch- 
ine.  The  price  of  erection  is  suid  to  be  comparatively 
trifiiriif,  when  the  convenience  of  such  buildings  is  con- 
sideroJ;  and  they  have  been  known,  when  well  put  up, 
to  last  for  thirty  years. 

Thyashiiii  is  cither  performort  with  the  flail  or  the 
llirnhini;-inill.  'I'he  use  of  the  latter  we  by  all  means 
rrconimciul  in  preference,  on  arable  farms  of  above  one 
nuralrcd  acres  in  extent  Tlie  machine  may  Ijc  driven 
nv  water,  hors*',  or  steim  power,  according  to  circum- 
stances. Several  improvements  have  iioen  made  i:n 
ihrashirig-miiU  since  their  first  invention  ;  the  unthrnshed 
com  i*  now  maile  to  pass  liiniugh  two  revolving  rollers, 
vvhili  it  i<  acted  on  by  l)eaters  placed  lengthwise  upon  a 
larijer  cylinder  or  drum,  which  moves  at  the  speed  of 
2500  fePt  in  a  minute.  The  great  essential  in  thrashin;; 
iii  to  have  regularity  of  motion,  and  the  grain  to  lie  cipially 
finl  into  the  rollers.  One  man  should  lie  employed  to  feed 
in  the  corn;  one  raan,  or  two  hoys,  to  carry  tho  sheaves, 
anil  a  woman  to  untie  and  place  them  on  a  table  near 
ihc  feeder,  tlthor  persons  are  employed  in  raking  and 
cjrryiiii;  the  thrashed  straw  to  tho  straw-house,  where  it 
i-  liuilt.  When  the  machine  is  driven  by  steam  or  water, 
it  is  generally  the  case  that  one  or  two  wiimowing-ma- 
chiiiM,  according  to  the  power  employed,  are  attached  to 
l!ic 'hrashiiig-mill,  and  thus  the  ex|H'nse  of  preparing  the 
griiln  for  market  is  considerably  lessened.  A  powerful 
michiiie  will  thrnsh  from  two  to  three  hundred  bushels  in 
BJiu"  hours,  and,  allowing  for  wages  and  wearing  of  ma- 
chinery, th.!  cxi)ensc  of  preparing  grain  for  the  market 
by  the  use  of  water  or  steam,  is  under  one  penny  per 
Doibel. 

Winnowing  or  drtiiiiig, — Winnowing  is  a  process  per- 


formed by  the  ahl  of  wind,  by  which  the  chafT  if  corn  la 
sf'paroted  from  the  grain.  Winnowinn-iMacliin«'«,  or  fan 
ners,  as  stated  liofore,  are  somelimi's  atliicbed  to  thraihinii 
mills,  and  they  are  o  necessary  ap|M'iiilage  to  every  fsrm, 
either  in  conjunction  with  the  thrashing-iiiill,  or  aeparalnly. 
Home  farmers  winnow  their  grain  by  Imnd-laiiners,  which 
are  thought  to  h<i  steadier  in  their  molion  than  whin 
driven  by  machinery,  and  coiise(|uently  the  grain  is  more 
thoroughly  clennsed.  After  thrushilig,  the  grain  ii  regu 
larly  dresm-d  in  tho  clean  corn  room,  by  means  of  funnera, 
riddles,  ond  sieves;  and  this  llnal  dressing  is  regulated  ac- 
cording to  the  st<\le  in  whieh  the  gruin  comes  from  th« 
thrashing-mill.  Hy  the  process  of  winnowing,  ehalf,  hit* 
of  straw,  the  seeds  of  weeds,  and  other  refuse,  are  ho|«- 
rated  from  the  grain ;  and  it  is  u  wit?  precaution  to  boil 
the  latter  before  putting  them  on  the  dunghill,  which  will 
elli-etually  ilcstroy  their  vegetative  powers,  'i'he  different 
quiilitiei  of  grain  ore  also  separatt<d  from  each  other,  bj 
which  it  is  rendered  more  valuable  than  when  tho  good 
and  bad  are  mixed  together.  Tho  thorough  cleaning  and 
dresoirig  of  urain  are  of  great  importance  to  tho  farmer, 
and  lie  will  find  it  added  to  his  protlt  in  tho  end  to  haw 
this  elU'ctu,.lly  done. 

If  wheat  has  lieen  injured  hy  wet,  it  is  thought  ad* 
visabin  to  kiln-dry  it  mo<lerately,  and  allow  it  to  lie  for 
some  time  before  being  ground.  When  grain  is  in* 
fected  with  smut,  it  should  undergo  three  washings  be- 
fore going  to  the  mill,  which  will  bo  fmind  an  elfnctual 
way  of  cleaning  it.  .Mere  ventilation  has  Iwen  recom- 
mended for  this  purpose,  but  Washing  is  as  simple,  and 
a  far  more  certain  operation. 

Harley  undergoes  a  process  cnlled  hummelling,  by 
which  tho  awns  are  broken  otV  from  tho  grain.  Th» 
machine  is  composed  of  a  vertical  spindio  enclosed  in  a 
cylinder,  nnd  furnished  with  arms  which  act  upon  the 
grain.  It  is  soiiietimcB  attached  to  the  thrashing-mill, 
and  sometimes  driven  by  u  sepmatp  power.  The  grain 
is  put  in  at  the  top  of  the  cylinder,  and  aa  it  passea 
through,  the  awns  arc  broken  olF  by  ts'lng  struck  by  the 
arms  attached  to  the  lipindlc.  A  more  simple  process  is, 
after  the  barley  is  thrashed,  to  take  oil  the  head  of  tiie 
drum  and  put  on  another  cover  of  tin,  perforated  with 
small  holes  about  three  sixteenths  of  an  inch  wide.  The 
barley  is  passed  through  the  rollers,  and  by  this  the 
awns  are  rubbed  off.  Another  method  is  to  lay  the  bar- 
ley on  the  barn  floor,  and  heat  it  with  a  H<iuarc  instru- 
ment consisting  of  jiarallel  bars  of  iron  tixed  on  a  frame, 
with  a  handle  attached,  which  is  worked  in  the  same 
way  as  a  pavier's  rammer. 

Afti'r  being  dressed  ond  made  ready  for  market,  grain 
siiouid  be  kept  very  dry,  in  a  granary  free  from  dam|i, 
er..!  which  is  imixTvious  to  the  incursions  of  vermin.  It 
is,  however,  tho  best  plan  not  to  thrash  grain  till  it  be 
required  for  market,  because  it  loses  in  weight,  or  shrivela 
in  hulk,  by  keeping.  It  also  loses  in  weight,  though  to 
a  much  less  extent,  by  licing  kept  long  in  car  in  stacks; 
and  therefore  the  sooner  gr.iin  is  thrashed  and  carried  to 
market,  the  greater  will  be  the  return,  supposing  there 
lie  no  rise  in  price. 

GKEEN  CROPS. 

No  farming  can  ho  said  to  be  perfect  unless  it  in- 
volves a  due  alternation  of  cici'u  with  f;ruin  crops.  The 
more  foul  the  land  is  with  weeds,  green  ci'ops  of  the 
drill  kind  are  the  moro  necessary,  because,  in  the  course 
of  cultivating  green  crops,  we  have  an  opportunity  of 
hoeing  and  trenching  the  land,  not  only  once,  but  re- 
licatedly,  and  of  thus  exhausting  tho  seeds  of  weeds 
lixiged  in  the  soil.  Uy  administering  ir.anure,  and  this 
mode  of  cleansing,  the  necessity  for  Jalliwini:  i*  in  a 
great  measure  obviated.  Hut  green  crops  also  fulfil 
the  important  purjiose  of  feeding  live-stock  and  producing 
manure.  The  constant  exhaustion  of  the  soil,  be  ''% 
even  very  fertile,  demands  a  periodicil  nourislunciit.  and 
2T 


IN 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE   PROPT,E. 


Uili  1*  hcut  (!r>np  hy  mMii"  of  livt»  miiinal*.  Il  i«  fii*- 
lomary  on  llip  ivrll-orKuniti'd  (urim  of  Norfolk.  Kii»l- 
liolliian,  Ac,  to  iiimiiifHrliirr  iimiiiirK  on  •  Inrxx  wale 
ny  inraiiii  of  »ii/iiiv ,  lli«t  w,  fi'mlirivt  i-allli'  in  lioiiwn  or 
■n  o)M'n  yiiril  witli  luriii|M.  lln'  cnllln  at  llii-  ■iiiiir  llino 
UftiMng  on  llm  wiwto  atraw  of  llii>  litriii,  ami  tlnu  u>iii,( 
Up  •  niatiiriaj  wliiili  would  Iw  olliirwiw  lo«(.  Nlin'i) 
■r«  alio  tiiriK'd  into  |MMia  on  turni|>-lli'lili<,  to  I'lit  \\\i  llir 
turnlji*  from  llwi  ilrillii,  iiml  tlic  (li<>|i|iini{»  Kri'otly  <'Mrii'li 
Ilia  ii|M>t.  It  U  ruatonmry  in  H<u>lUnil  for  lo\v-<'ounliy 
fiinnrm  to  Imy  cattle  Iran  at  the  end  of  niituinn,  and 
K'li  tli»Mi  falti'd  to  A  ri-rtain  ext«-nl  in  H|iriiiK  ;  iind  ull 
tlii«  trouldfl  in  taken  only  for  tliii  aiiko  of  tlicir  nianiirr. 
Wd  ahall  now  niiMitioii  wliat  cunHlituti'i  tlio  |irMU'i|al 
(lai'ti  rTo|M. 

I  tiiHK  rcqiiirtt  the  aiimo  lort  of  aoll  a*  wheat,  namely, 
bravy  clayH,  ami  Khould  Ih'  howh  in  drillii.  Soint'  hii|»- 
povi  that  lirnim  •'tliauxt  the  noil ;  Imt  tliin  Ik  M-arci'ly 
proltalilo,  from  wliciil  alwayn  yiflldioK  a  koinI  ('ro|i  iiDi'r 
thnm.  Ill  (iri'iHtriiiK  the  Kround  for  iNtuiiH,  it  oiit(lit  to 
he  pjouxlwd  alter  linrvoHl,  or  rurly  in  wintrr,  tlmt  thu 
anil  may  l>u  nn'llowcd  with  tlio  wint4<r  IVohI*.  Thn  fur- 
row ahould  )«<  iliM>|),  Imt,  ht'forr  oowinK,  tlic  land  ahonld 
bo  drained  of  itH  nujieralmndaiil  inoiNtiire.  Mow  hh  noon 
•■  wintt-r  i»  ovrr,  or  never  later  than  tin-  end  of  Maivli 
in  Hoollunil  Four  Ininhel*  of  m'piI  to  the  acre  are  nulii- 
cieiit;  hut  it  i»  roninion,  for  the  oako  of  iin|iroviiiK 
the  foilder,  to  mix  pen*  with  the  iN'iin*,  to  the  extent 
of  one  liimliol  of  (wu*  to  lix  of  lieana.  ileanii  re(|uire 
£rei]unnt  werdinn  with  the  hor»e-hoe.  The  crop,  if 
I'ltn,  Rhoul  I  Ih<  lurried  to  unother  field  to  dry,  and  tliiiit 
leave  tho  land  for  o]ieratioiui  neceiiHHry  for  the  wheat 
r/up. 

Pun  urow  host  when  mixed  with  iH'aiiii,  an  they  hy 
that  meuoH  i;ain   a  Hup|Hirt   for   their   alender   trailing 
ftAlko.      Tliey,   however,  ({row   on  n    poorer   Koil    tliaii 
beanii.  lui'li  .iH  a  oaiidy  loam,  and  neither  too  iiioiHt  nor 
to<.  dry.     'I"liey  are  improved  by  lime  and  marl  m.iiiiiri'M. , 
I>ri|linir,  as  in  the  raito  of  lieaiia,  ia  Kreally  preferalile  to  | 
broadeuHl ;  and  from  four  to  (ive  buHheln  of  med  |M'r  arre  ■ 
ij-  reckoned  a  propi'r  allowance.     The  early  kind  of  poun 
may  be  kowii  at  any  time  till  the  end  of  .May,  but  tho 
lat<>  muat  be  sown  in  February  or  .March. 

Tnrti  are  a  valuable  rrop,  lioth  for  itoilinit  and  feediuK 
cattle.    Tares  are  of  two  Horta,  winter  and  auiiimer.  TI.e 
need  of  the  Hiinimer  tarcM  Nhoiild  Iw  put  into  (he  ^roUll  1 
at  intervaln.  from  the  end  of  March  (ill  the  end  of  .\t;i;, 
ao  aa  to  furnish  Hucix-naive  cuttiiigH.     The  win'  ■    tare 
requires  to  be  howd  in   Septeinl>er  or  Oclolicr ;   and  in 
early  aprinn  it  iii  a  very  valuable  foiwl  for  rattle  and  iilieep. 
Clover  iinil  A'yc^'n.-jn. — These  are  the  moHt  valuable 
•rtifieial  irrsMsea  that  can  lie  thrown  by  tlio  farmer.     They 
ahould  never  be  Down  except  when  the   land   is  in  the 
beat  condition;  if  |K»wible,  with   the  crop  iinmediHiely 
fjllowini;  a  Kumiiier  fallow,  or  after  luriii|n(  ur  potatocH. 
Thua,  ia  ull  well-inaiiuriHl  and  well-<lreaiH-d  land,  clover 
and  ryt-i;niaa  are  mi\t!<I  with  the  crop  of  i^ain,  beiii(j 
either  aown  at  the  name  time  or  at  a  auitable  perioil 
after.     When  the  jjrain  crop  in   rut  in  harvrat,  the  to[>« 
of  the  youni?  clover  are   (lerhapH  rut  at  the  wimi)  time, 
Imt  thiH  in  of  little  con««'(pieiiee ;  the  preat  bulk  of  the  ' 
gram  crop  eoraea  into  maturity  amoni;  the  reniainiiiw 
atubble,  and  in  then  either  ai  ythed  fi'r  hay  or  for  feeding  j 
animals  in  a  i^reen  atate.   When  aown  on  land  on  which  , 
innin  hoM  Imen  sown,  it  ia  customary  to  roll  the  ground,  | 
to   aaaist   in  coveriiii<   the   liifht   aeeda.     (Jreat  rare   re^ 
qui,-c»  ti,  t«<  employed  in  chi-oaim;  projior  kiiiiU  of  clover  \ 
and  Kraaa  M-eUk  "  i  there  are  many  worthless  Mirta.  | 

Many  farmer/  '.  p'lrpoac  to  prolong  the  rototions, 
•nd  prevent  *.he  U"^  ■  qu.'nt  rr-fietitiona  of  the  clover 
crop,  «ubstittiU.T  •*  r' •)(  M  pea*  oi  Urea  after  '.he  barley, 
•owing  the  clc  "f  afei-  .  le  ^v'.fii  or  barley  in  llie  next 
rntatioi..  which  m^k«••  L.e  l^um  between  Ihe  .^a  clover  ■ 
^opa  tu  iH  ae-ei.  iaKtr-;ii  c.f  four  ycara.     'I'ho  aop  of, 


|)ea«  they  roiiaider  a*  hy  no  menna  remiineriitlTa 
from  the  ailditioiml  cMj   of  clover  reajied  In  id,.  ^  *j 
rot  illon,  lliey  tlml   theiiiselvea  i'om|i«'iiaated  fir  ihTi 
flrieney  in  the   jx'aa.      Hiirfare   applicaliniia  »|-e  iml,    t 
ininialered  on  an  exti'iiaivo  «-ale   in   improveil  ilmtj,, 
for  the  Mole  piirpoae  of  priM'uriii^  an  ahiiinl.int  ,.,0-  , 
'  clover  and   rve-((ra"a.     Moot  i«  one  of  the  InnriMli    . 
wliii-h  ia  appiieil   to  the  ((realeat  exti'nt,  and  il  l,,u  „, 
foniily  till'  elfeet  of  alreiiKlhi'iiiiiK   and   forwariling  il 
rrop.      I.iipiid    iiiaiiiireM    are  alao  exlenaively  ubiiI  .  i 
the   urine   of  the  rowa   ia  rolleeted  with  ifrpal  in,^  t 
the  purpoae  of  laiiin  applleil  to  the  aoil.     I,i,nii,|'. 
liiirea  iire   much  more  laMtiiiij  in  llieir  eirerl»,  i„„|  ^^ 
Iw'tler    uilapled   for  rimer    tlian   aoot.      Wnltpclre  j)  |j|, 
wise  iiiiirh  iiiM'd,  and  forma  an  excellent  lop-ilrinfiinci r 
aee(rt»iu.i(ra""ea.      It  ia   by  aiirh  meiiiia  iia  II  ,,  .  ||i,(.),, 
B^'riiiilliiiiala  of  the  IVelheilanda  have  been  iilp\  (u  Im. 
up  the  fertility  of  llieir  laiida,  in  the  rulti»alioii  of  duv,, 
lliroiii{h   time   immemorial;  mid   llioae,  llurrliirr    ^yl 
lieiflerl  aiirh  iiieaHurea,  have  theinH<<lvea  to  bhime  „|,„ 
their  riover   crops   fad.     The  whole  of  llie  auriniliup, 
of  the  .Netlierlnnda  reata  n|Min  the  rullivalimi  of  clntfr 
wliirli   not  iinfreounntly   yielda   a  heavy  crop  ihr  |],j 
year,  two  ami  even   three  abundant  crops  ||i(.  dpropj 
and.  if  allowed  to  atand   unother  year,  will  yj,.!.]  ,  „f^ 
crop,  and  afterwards  lie  excellent  pasture  for  cattle  till 
ploiiKhed  up  to  receive  wheut  seed. 

7'iiiw/;m  yield  a  most  prontublu  crop  for  the  mninl^ 
nance  of  live-stork  ;  and  Ibey  are  also  ukcAiI  as  u  f„f^ 
rrop,  by  |ieriiiitliii|{  an  elfrrtiial  cleaiiaiim  iif  ih,.  |j,|j 
from  weeds.  The  leaves  lieinii  '■"■><''  "i"l  "pn  „lii|^, 
they  iiirird  a  aliade  which  relalna  the  iiiniitiirf, 
tends  to  decompose  any  vegetable  iiiallor  in  Ilic  ground. 
Turnips  are  divided  into  vurimis  cinssea,  la  each  ,<f 
which  there  are  several  varieties.  The  more  coin.'niio 
rliiKaes  are  the  round  <ir  Rlcibe-Hhaped,  I  ^  (IfprcHnfJ  of 
.Norfolk,  and  the  fusiform  orobloim,  the  latter  Is  in(r  f<,|t„ 
known  by  the  name  if  Hwrdish.  Tliry  ari;  also  nom^ 
times  known  '  y  their  colour,  aa  the  while,  the  yrllur 
(including  the  Swe(li:.h,)  and  the  purji|e-ln|i|Hil,  'rii« 
white,  with  the  purple-toppol,  is  early,  pMrticuUrly 
suited  to  those  lijiht  stiila  where  sheep  lire  fed,  .luj 
reipiirea  less  manure.  It  must  Ik;  coiisiiincil,  how. 
ever,  as  aoon  as  possible,  or  ia  npl  to  run  la  mpj  ,ij 
'  be  injured  by  frost.  I'pi'U  the  whole,  the  Sivcdiilj 
or  yellow  turnip  la  now  prel'erred  to  must  hiIuts.  anj 
yields  the  heaviest  crtip.  It  rei|iiirea  tc  be  suv/n  Mfj, 
Il  from  the  lH'({iiinin({  of  April  to  the  end  of  M;iv;  ih( 
seed  should  lie  given  lilM-riilly,  or  at  the  nitr  of  nlnwi 
three  pounds  per  acre.  In  all  casi's,  the  snwiim  oiiihi 
to  1k!  ill  drills,  to  |H'rmit  an  efTertive  hocinij  when  \h 
crop  is  (fetlinn  up.  .\fter  brinic  sown  on  a  well-|ilmi(T|ifj 
field,  the  toller  must  be  employed  to  press  all  "inmithon 
the  ridues.  The  plants  will  in  general  inake  thfir 
apfioaranre  aliout  ten  days  or  a  fortiiit;ht  ufler  tlipv  re 
sown,  according  to  the  quality  of  thn  soil  and  iho  Mile 
of  tlic  weather.  When  the  leaves  are  about  two  inrhpi 
high,  a  liorst'-hof tniif  is  given  lietween  the  ridiiilris, to 
cut  up  the  weeds  close  to  the  plants.  The  haml-lioc  u 
then  introdiicrd,  to  thin  tl  ■  Top.  '  aviiii{  platit.i  stand 
ing  at  intervals  of  from  .■.;.'  t  un  Miches  apart, ;he 
■<weilish  kind  Ix-ing  sotn^'*'  ai.  i'  ■  "^liis  Jistanof  ■> 

thought  ipiite  sufTicient '  .•  "i  r-  [•  m,  .thertonlarp 
nor  too  small  in  size,  'he  •...a  turnip,  when  nllowpj 
too  great  a  distance,  is  apt  to  l>ecome  very  Uri;e,  and  ill 
nutritive  juices  arc  found  to  Is-  (juitc  lost.  The  Swi'diih 
and  other  hard  lurni|Hi  should  Ik^  allowed  suffi -ii'nt  r.«ini 
to  U'come  as  large  ns  possible,  for  their  nainre  i»»uf!i 
that  there  is  no  fear  of  their  ever  being  overlmlky.  Th* 
hand-hi>eiiig  and  thinning  arc  generally  perfurnial  h 
women  and  boys,  and  three  exjiert  hoers  will  go  nvcrm 
ocre  a-day.  A  few  days  after  the  hoeing,  a  small  swin;- 
plough  is  uaod  to  make  small  ridgelets  Is'twerii  tlii'  rowi| 
and  when  weeds  arc  still  Lii  abundance,  it  will  be  D(cr» 


AORlCULTirRE. 


Mft 


.  iipln  tnlionw  or  huml-Iio*  the  unmnd,  whinli  l«iv<<U 
ih«  Inli"'""'''*'''  '"'"'''''••  AftiT  nil  wonU  urn  tl<<>rouKlil.V 
I  iirovi'il'  i>'"'  ''"'  ihiiinitiu  ii  ari'iiiii|iliiilirtt  |i<  <  rnrlii 
■.loriH'liii""  ""''""'''   I'l' "'"'"'''""  I''""'* ''y    "    «"»'>•' 

■mall  |>I"<'X''  ^''''  '^"  ><>"»l*l-l">'»'il"-    'Cilia  i)|N'riitjiiii, 
howf*"'  '"  "I'l''''''''   '"•  ""  ''"'   l'''"''  '''•''  ''"'  "''"■'''  |'f»'- 
mnU  th<'  l"il''"  '"""   Kf'wlnn,  uiid   uU)  wlirii  tlii'  |iri>- 
I        j„  |(  In*  roiimiiiiril  mi  tlii<    Kroiiiul,  tlii>   rIici'Ii  iiiiiv 
(niniureil  I'V  tiiHiim  inl"  'I"'  li"  Iuwk  Ih'Iivitii  tlic  i  "' 
Oil  wrt  iHiiln,  ihi-  I'lirlhiiiit  ii|i  i*  vi>ry   IxMiollcinl,  ns  . 
iljow*  ihr  fr>'<'  ilimhiiritt"  of  Hiiiicriiliiiiicliuit   iiioi'luri'  , 
•nil  •!"'"  ''"'  '*•'"''"■'  '"  ''""'y,  iIh'  I'lirlh  in  iiri  excfllini 
iifolci'lii'ii  •"  ''"■  I 'i"''»'     'l'iiriii|ii<  limy  riltior  ln'  I'lii. 
liimfil  <"'  ''"'  '"''''*  **'"'■■''  ''"'>  K"'w.  "II  unwK  rtrM*,  it, 
fulil-V«f'l*>  '"'  '"   ••''■''•"'■^•'""l"''"  i    "'"'  '"  'h"  vii  iiiity  ,>l 
liinp'  tow""  '"'■*'  ""'  ""'''  *"  ''""'•'•■''•"''"•     A  rlu'ii|i  >  nl 
,p,,,||l|oiiH  iiioili'  of  lil>in;[  tiiriii|m  liiin  ln'rn  pnii'li  .   ' 
in  iri'liiiiil'     ''Ik'  '"I"*  ""'  "f"'  "li'ivnl  off  with  n  mytlu', 

I  ujvi-n  to  yoiiiiut  <'nlll<'.  mill  llir  liiillm  iiro  plonulu'il 
nut  of  thi'  "oil,  wiiii'li   Im'Jiih  nlferwnrcln  hurrowi'd,  llii-y 

BIT  left  riil'f'l.v  '' ''   ''"■  uroiind.     The   tiirni|m  iire 

lhi>n  iti'Ik'I'''''  i"'"  '''■''I"-  <'oiiiiiiPM('iiit(  lit  tlip  to|i  iif  IliM 
M  nnil  RoiiiH  ri'ifiilnrly  down,  po  that  iioni'  miiy  Iw 
Imiiwili  ■■><'  ''■  i*  '  il<'ii,iitrd  timt  nix  liilioiirrrii  will  lift 
•11  nrr"  ''f  'uiii'|)»  •'"  llii"  iih'IIickI  in  «  diiy.  [Uminil 
rir«.  .<  '•<  '  'TO.'   '■'"J  with  iiilvniitiiKC  om  u  varioty  in 

,n  bu^btiiiUi;' ,  'I''  l|  •■  •  food  fur  rattle,  iiiiM'mrdi'a 

Ut.il|)i. 

i\^a'r  ■  -CrojiH  ol  lliiM  vnlunMc  pliint  iinuully  cntrr 
Into  «  ri  I  '  '  of  liiiNlmndry,  piirlicnlarly  in  the  nciifli- 
tMurhnod  i>i  |'  'pnl)!!"  towim,  wlmrp  n  rriiily  iniirki't  ciui 
he  nblaincil.  'I'ln-  uhiiiiI  prriod  of  pltintiiin  in  thr  Diilinh 
Wnncln  in  ll'i'  ''Mil  of  April  nr  lioniiiniiii^  of  Mny.  for  tlir 
Into  Jiiil  I  iiTi)  coiiiman  norli.  The  riirly  kiiidH,  which 
irc  not  ki'|it  for  lu-rrimociit  stork,  nrp  pluiiti'd  in  Miiri'h. 
The  potato  h'lrvi'nt  ii  in  Oclohcr  or  tM'ciiiiiiiiR  of  No- 
lomlifr.  It  liii!<  I'l'i'ti  ruKtoinnry  to  plant  liy  Hi'tn  or  cut 
nid'os  iif  till'  piititi),  riich  hiivini;  nn  pyc  or  point  of  kit- 
miimtion  ;  I'nt  tln"  numcrouH  fuihiroH  of  the  cropii  have 
jntrmlucf il  tlio  iirni'lic'c  of  soltiiii?  thr  whole  tulior,  which 
in  pre foralilc.  'n  the  larce  liirniH  of  Hcotlaiid,  they  nro 
ifl  in  drill  fiirrowH  ('previouxly  well  maimrcd),  at  a  din- 
tancf  of  ci'ilitcni  inchen  apart,  and  hIx  inches  of  earth 
in  turned  o\cr  upon  tlirni  hy  the  horse-hoe.  When  the 
nlantu  njil^ar  a'lnve  the  surface,  tliey  are  repeali  dly 
(irtLrd  as  niny  I  c  n'oiiircil ;  this,  with  the  wecdinn  of 
them,  i«  dune  hy  hiind-hoeintf.  Potatoes  arc  very  sus- 
Cfpliblc  nf  discuses,  whic'h  cause  failures  of  crop ;  hut 
there  is  reason  to  liclieve  that  this  arises  from  some  kind 
of  mii<ninnii;;eincnt,  iis,  for  eianiple,  prodncina  au:ain  and 
•Unin  without  chain;e  of  seed,  lilViiiR  of  seed  after  frost, 
rot  from  wet  sea.sons,  hcalimj  of  heaps  after  liftini;,  iVc, 
RMommrndini»  all  who  feel  interested  in  potato  hus- 
btndiy  to  consult  the  treatise  of  Mr.  Jackson,  formerly 


nlhided  to,  fiif  informntinn,  mr  nrrd  here  only  ««y,  tha 
the  previ-nlivcs  of  diM>nao,  likely  to  In)  iimmI  ■ueeriuful 
■re  fn'<|ii«nt  ehunge*  of  nei'd,  lirlii)(iiiK  seed  from  i|uit4 
I  dillervnt  sod,  not  too  frei|iieiit  croppiii((  Iroin  the  sniiH, 
land,  •prMiidiiiK  out  to  dry  iiAcr  lillinif,  uml  careful  pro 
t'-clion  from  float  during  winter.  They  arp  li<<*t  pr» 
«<'rvcd  in  pits,  II  liiycr  of  potatoes  and  eailli  ulternately 
to  u  height  of  four  feet,  uml  llnally  covered  with  earll 
on  the  lop  uiiil  sides.  This  is  considered  the  eunditior 
iiioat  nuturiil  to  tliu  potulu,  and  ia  found  to  lucceed 
well. 

lliiil-maki.i^, — When  th<<  grass  hna  arrived  at  or  neai 
'••  full  Kfo^Uh.  hut  N'fore  the  seed  is  |M'rl'cctcd,  it  ahould 
I  r  -lit down  hy  tli.  sivthe  for  hay.  A  short  tlrnci  after 
lieiiii{  mown,  it  shoulil  lie  turned  over  in  full  awatheii, 
without  li  r  scatu-red.  If  not  in  a  f"  ^lule  f-i  be 
co.keil  thr  lirsi  day  ftWm  cutting,  it  sluaild  he  put  into. 
small  haiid-eiH'ks,  as  sooiV  «">  its  stale  of  drvnoM  will 
alliivN  ,  ir..!ii  these  it  should  Ik-  ^  ;ih.>red  into  larger 
ones,  an  when  its  condition  perimu.  |  hI  into  tramp 
ricks.  '1  he  giithering  o(  the  hay  ia  generally  |Miiformed 
liy  women  and  hoys,  soriiR  carrying  and  others  raking 
lip  what  may  remain.  Let  it  tn>  roimOnlM'rcd  that  the 
less  the  hay  is  exposed  to  the  sun,  the  hetter  i  its  llitvour 
and  strength.  In  wet  sciisons,  the  utmosl  ;iru  wiil  ba 
rei|uired  not  to  sta<-k  the  hay  while  mui-t ;  fur  then, 
likn  moist  sheaves  of  grain,  it  wifl  heat,  and  vither  hurfl 
Into  a  llaine,  or  he  s«>riously  damai;eil  in  ({ualily.  Tha 
criterion  for  Kood  hay  is,  that  it  shonld  he  greenish  la 
colour,  la*  jiorfcctly  dry,  and  |>ossesH  a  sweet  oilour.  In 
this  state  it  will  ho  eaten  with  avidity  hy  horses 


Within  the  limit*  asiigncd  to  tis,  it  is  ""MpossiMe  to  iia* 
part  directions  for  every  step  in  Iiushanil  >  ;  ami  wc  ihall 
consider  onr  task  accomplished  if  we  Have  iinprpated 
certain  leading  principles  of  agriculliire  •  the  mindi  of 
those  hitherto  ipnorant  of  them.  Not  ■  l)o  niisiinder* 
stood,  wo  shall  s|)ecify,  in  conclusion,  wl  t  wc  consider 
important  truths  in  connection  with  thi  -iiliject: — 1 
Land,  to  1)0  well  cultivateil,  must  cither  In 
of  the  farmer,  or  Im'  let  on  a  moderat'dy  In 
The  husliandry  must  Im  i-nnvrr'ihli;  that  is, 
system  of  rotation  of  grain  and  irreeii  erop^ 
must  he  kept,  to  produce  a  dun  share  of  mam  re  for  the 
fields.  4.  If  tho  land  he  moist,  nr  liable  to  In  ivy  raina, 
it  must  he  efTectnally  drained.  (See  next  ai  icIp.)  5. 
Deep  idmighing,  and  thorough  pulvi-rizing  ol'  tho  soil 
arc  essential,  fi.  The  fields  must  he  properl  fenced 
and  of  easy  access.  And,  lastly,  no  land  will  1  ■■  profit 
nhic  as  a  8[iccnIatlon,  nnlrsR  cloncly  siiih-rinleiK  d  hy  ■ 
farmer  whose  mind  is  alive  to  all  its  vaiied  wuuta,  and 
neither  rash  in  running  into  cxporimoiits,  nor  prcjudiesd 
against  wcll-auttienticat«d  improvcmcnta. 


le  proficrty 
ease,  3, 
a  prcciae 
^1.  Cattle 


■'^v- 


•im 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  WASTE  LANDS-SPADE      '^ 
HUSBANDRY. 


■fi. 


AccnRDiirn  to  the  best  authori- 
ties on  the  subject,  it  ajiin'urs 
that  the  British  islands  contain 
upwards  of  thirty  millions  of 
acres  of  waste  lands.  Much  of 
this  large  division  of  our  territory 
is  situated  at  an  altitude  wliiih 
pl;ices  it  iK'yond  tlie  possiliilily 
of  ijnprovcnicnt ;  but  at  least 
one  half  is  lielieved  to  be  im- 
provable, and  capable  of  bi'inn 
rendered  suitable,  if  not  for  tillage  and  grain  crops,  at 
least  for  tlic  fecdinii  of  cattle.  The  ([uestion  as  to  the 
propriety  of  iiiiproviiig  the  really  improvable  waste  binds 
of  the  country,  js,  in  any  individual  case,  to  Iw  satisfac- 
torily answered  by  ascertaining  at  what  expense,  in  rela- 
tion to  the  probable  profit,  the  process  may  be  performed. 
A  barren  roi-ky  desert  may  Iw  rendered  productive  by 
covering  it  with  soil  and  manures  brought  from  a  dis- 
tance of  miles,  aided  by  years  of  skilful  tillage;  but  will 
the  cost  of  these  oper\tions  be  fairly  relumed  by  the 
profits  of  the  produce  ?  (Jold  itself  may  be  purchased 
too  highly,  and  so  may  agricultural  improvements.  We 
do  not  throw  out  this  idea  for  llie  purpose  of  discourag- 
ing, but  of  caiilioiiing  pioprietors  and  firmrrs  of  lands. 
In  all  projected  improvements,  they  will  reipiire  to  as- 
certain, in  the  first  |)Iaee,  what  will  be  the  probable  re- 
turn, within  a  moderate  length  of  time,  for  their  outlay — 
always  keeping  in  view  the  prospective  prices  of  rural 
produce  during  the  period.  Such,  at  least,  is  the  prin- 
ciple of  calculalion  which  ought  naturally  to  guide  all 
proprietors  of  extensive  tracts  of  waste  ground,  the  out- 
lay on  which  is  to  Is'  strictly  pecuniary.  With  refer- 
ence to  th  'se  who  ]>ropose  to  iini)rove  wastes  chiefly  by 
tn  exp<;niliture  of  time  and  personal  labour,  the  calcu- 
lation will  take  a  similar  turn;  and  the  cpieslion  will  be, 
wiiether  that  time  ami  labour  co\ild  not  have  been  em- 
ployed more  profitably  in  another  line  of  pursuit.  Leav- 
ing this,  however,  for  further  discussion  in  the  secpiel, 
we  pro<ecd  to  p"'nt  out,  fust,  to  those  whose  situation 
in  life  and  inclinailons  lead  them  that  way,  the  means 
to  Im"  adopted,  (.ceordi  ig  to  the  l)est  p.-iiiciples  of  silence 
and  lights  of  experieuce,  for  reclaiming  large  or  small 
portions  of  waste  lam  Is.  and  the  results  which  may  be 
expected  to  reward  their  enterprise;  and,  siamil,  the 
best  plans  which  in.ty  1k'  fiillowed  for  improving  patches 
of  ground  by  sp.ulc-hosliandry,  and  establishing  ihcre- 
npon  smi.ll  cottaije  firms,  suitable  fi)r  the  su|)port  of  a 
comparativelv  hiimide  class  of  families.  In  the  treat- 
ment of  these  certainly  not  unimportant  subjects,  we 
•hall  of  course  rd'cr  <hiel1y  to  the  condition  of  waste 
lands  in  the  I'nited  Kingdom;  but  the  irn()roveinent  of 
wastes  in  the  colonics  or  in  foreign  countries  will  also 
be  understood  to  be  inihidc<l,  and  in  each  casi!  wo  will 
endeavour  to  adhere  closely  to  i)raelical  details. 

IMPROVKMKNT   Of    MOSS    LANDS. 

The.  greater  porti.m  of  what  are  usually  called  waste 
lands,  are  stretches  of  peat-bog  or  moss,  covered  by  a 
tliin  lx*nty  gra«s  and  tufts  of  heath.  This  remarkable 
species  of  laud  is  found  to  a  very  great  extent  in  Ire- 
land and  Scotland,  often  in  the  midst  of  lH<autifnl  ami 
proiluctive  tracts  of  country,  but  gencrai'v  in  high-lying 
districts,  which  are  somewhat  defective  in  [loint  of  cli- 
mate. 

Peat-mosses  are  auppoaed  to  be  occasioned  by  the  de- 
■Uiiction  of  ancient  forests,  cither  by  thu  hatchet  or  from 


natural  decay.  The  trees  found  at  the  outskirts  of  tho 
mosses  upjiee.r  to  have  been  cut  down,  while  those  in  iT 
interior  appear  to  have  decayed  by  the  gradual  proc 
of  time.  It  is  believed  that  the  trees  thus  left  upon  ih 
ground  would  soon  beeonio  coveriMl  with  moss  lichf 
&e. ;  and  the  free  drainage  of  the  laiwl  being  obstruct  ^ 
aipiatic  pliMits,  such  as  reeds,  rushes,  horsetail  ai  I 
mar.ih  trefoil,  springing  up  and  decaying,  would  leave 'i 
strata  of  soft  vegetable  matter,  which  every  surcccdii 
year  would  increase.  These  plants  grow  in  Hcaii. 
or  less  abundance,  according  to  the  (luantily  of  inoistu™ 
on  the  ground  ;  and  this  may  account  for  mosses  lu'in 
deeper  in  some  parts  than  in  others.  The  holloiv 
would  naturally  retain  moisture  in  larger  quantities thn 
the  level  ground,  and  here  the  «i|uatic  plenits  would  he 
most  prolific,  and  the  hollow  gradually  become  fillod  un 
The  peat,  which  has  lieen  in  this  manner  formcj  i, 
therefiac  a  eom])ound  vegetable  substance,  which  al. 
though  it  has  undergone  a  change,  has  not  been  entirely 
decomposed  ;  probably  the  cellular  tissue,  or  trnnsiiaren 
vegetable  matter  has  decayed,  w  bile  the  woo<ly  ijbre  slijl 
remains.  Water  is  indispensable  in  the  formation  of 
moss ;  and  according  as  the  ground  is  very  wel,  or  onlv 
so  to  a  certain  extent,  diirerent  plants  will  be  producoj 
On  ground  completely  saturated  with  Water,  various  spc! 
cies  of  moss  grow,  to  the  almost  total  exclusion  of  oihej 
plants  ;  but  if  the  land  should  in  any  way  becoini!  drier 
reeds,  rushes,  marsh  trefoil,  horsetail,  and  other  plants' 
spring  up  in  the  place  of  the  moss.  The  quality  of  tlie 
moss  may  be  judged  of  from  the  plants  which  grow  upon 
it ;  all  the  moss  tribe,  the  horsetail  and  flu'  mursh  trc. 
foil,  are  fibrous,  and  diflicult  to  ilecoinpuse,  while  reeds, 
ru.shes,and  scilgcare  comiiaratively  easy  ofihcomposiiioit 
Peal-moss  possesses  an  astringent  cpiality,  which  has  the 
power  of  jirc-ierving  boiliis  immersed  in  it,  and  even 
keeps  itself  from  entirely  decaying.  This  |>o\ver  is  sup. 
posi'd  to  arise  from  the  carbonic  and  gallic  acid,*  wliich 
issue  from  decayed  wood  ;  ami  vi^getaiile  gums  aiid 
resins  will  also  have  the  sajiie  eircct.  The  toimin  nrin. 
ciple  exists,  as  is  well  known,  in  the  oak  ;  and  the  pine 
contains  much  both  of  resinous  and  astringent  iiwtttr. 
Many  mosses  are  formed  upon  decayed  tices,  and  the 
wo(sl  most  commonly  found  is  either  pine,  hirrh,  hazeL 
or  oak;  and- in  ihcse  cases  the  iiresence  of  the  tannin 
principle  is  easily  accounted  for.  It  is  also  highly  pro. 
liable  that  the  ]ihints  themselves,  by  the  action  of  natural 
agents,  may  have  ac(|nired  an  aiitisciitic  or  aiitiputrefvinii 
quality.  It  is  certain  that  acids  of  coiisiilcralilc  stienjth 
exist  ill  some  mosses;  and  it  is  mentioned  hv  Loril 
Meadowb;iiik.  that  in  preparing  peat-nidss  for  manu.c, 
he  used  lime  to  destroy  R  vitriolic  .salt  of  inm,  which  he 
says  abounds  in  ])eat-mosses.  In  some  ciiscs.  lakes  nrid 
pools  of  water  have  been  filled  up  by  the  accniiiuUtion 
of  moss;  anil  it  has  been  obscrveii  that  tiTiiienlalinn  o.'. 
cnrs  wlu-re  this  has  taken  |)lace,  (iascoiis  nuilter  ii 
evolved,  and  the  neighbourliood  of  such  a  moss  i.'i  lIen^ 
rally  unhealthy  ;  but  true  peat  suils  are  always  gain. 
brious. 

The  reasonable  question  has  sometiiiies  occurred  to 
inquiring  minds — whence  the  substance  of  iveal-iiin-ws! 
for  Rtngnant  water  alone  could  not  have  prcihired  maiiv 
feet  deep  of  solid  matter.  This  question  is  iinswcrodN 
chemistry.  The  vegetation  which  sprint's  iij)  in  the 
foiin  of  aquatic  plants,  absorbs  cnrlionic  acid  gas  from 
the  Btmospliere,  and  a  earlxinaceous  dejio.!-!  is  nrndeiii 
the  form  of  vegetable  fibre,  or  dead  vci,>i't;ihli's  in  !h« 
form  of  mould.    Mr.  Juhiuton,  in  hib  Lectures  on  \ft 

m 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  WASTE   LANDS. 


49? 


Itttral  Chemistry,  mnkes  the  following  observations 
jnthisflul-jcct:—      _  ,      ..         , 

„  When  liui'ls  are  impoverished,  you  lay  thera  down 

srass.  and  tlm  longer  they  lie  undisturbod,  the  richpr 

^vcectttblo  miiUiT  does  the  soil  Injcomc.    When  broken 

vou  find  a  black  fertile  mould  where  Utile  trace  of 

'  ciiuic  matter  luid  previously  existed.     The  same  olv 

^rvalion  uppHe')  l"  '""J"  'o"?  wnder  wooil.     The  vegc- 

11  [palter  increases,  the  soil  improves,  and  when 
leareJ  and  ploughed,  it  yielda  abundant  crops  of  corn. 
I)i  tJisfea  and  trees  derive  their  carbon  from  (ho  soil  1 
Then  huw,  by  their  growth,  do  they  increase  the  quan- 
liiv  of  carbonaceous  matter  which  the  soil  contains  1 
1(18  obvious  that,  taken  as  a  whole,  they  must  draw  from 
I    air  not  only  "'  much  as  is  contained  in  their  own 

lij(m,je,  but  an  excess  also,  which  tliey  impart  to  the 

soil* 
i.But  on  this  point  the  rapid  growth  of  poat  may  be 

considered  absolutfly  conclusive,  A  tree  falls  across  a 
liUlc  ruiiiiiiii;  stream,  diims  up  the  water,  and  ijroduces 
a  iiiii'sby  spot.  Hushes  and  reeds  spring  up,  mosses 
(ike  root  and  grow.  Vcar  after  year  new  shoots  are 
Mintfurt'i,  and  the  old  plants  die.  Vegetable  matter  ac- 
.•uniuiatos ;  a  bog,  and  finally  a  thick  bed  of  jjcat  is 
formed-  Nor  does  this  peat  form  and  accunnilatc  at  the 
.siii'iisc  of  one  species  or  gnnus  of  plants  only.  Lati- 
iiiJe  iind  local  situation  are  the  circumstanecs  which 
rhiclly  a"'''''  '''is  accumulation  of  vegetable  matter  on 
the  soil.  In  O'lf  "^v"  country,  the  lowest  layers  of  pent 
uro  formed  of  aipiatic  plants,  the  next  of  mosses,  and 
iho  highest  of  heath.  '  In  Terra  del  Fuego  (says  Dar- 
win), nearly  every  patch  of  level  ground  is  covered  by 
two  species  of  plants,  which,  by  their  joint  dec;iy,  com- 
pose a  thick  bed  of  elastic  peat.  In  the  Falkland  Islands. 
j.i,ost  every  kind  of  plant,  even  the  coarse  grass  which 
covers  tiio  whole,  surface  of  the  islands,  becomes  con- 
verted into  this  substance.' 

xVl  hence  have  all  these  plants  derived  their  carbon  "! 
The  iiuanlitf  originally  contained  in  the  soil  is.  after  a 
|8)8C  of  years,  increased  ten  thousand  fold,  lias  the 
JcaJ  matter  the  power  of  reproducing  itself?  You  will 
answer  at  once,  that  all  these  plants  must  have  grown 
It  tho  expense  of  the  air — must  have  lived  on  the  car- 
bon it  was  capable  of  alfonling  thcni,  and  as  they  died 
must  have  loft  this  carbon  in  a  stat<!  unfit  to  nourish  the 
BQCceoJiiig  races."  In  other  words,  the  substance  cf 
peat-mosses  is  a  deposit  from  the  atmosphere,"  which  is 
cviJcntly  a  universal  source  of  ai'Lsistcnce  to  vegetable 
life. 

Though  thus  composed  of  a  deposit  of  dead  vegeta- 
ble matter,  which  is  a  basis  of  fertility  to  new  vegetation, 
fat-mosses  are  not  in  a  condition  to  be  actively  useful 
tli  frceil  of  suiH-ralnindaiit  moisture,  and  compounded 
with  siliceous  (sandy)  materials.  Where  the  subsoil, 
Iwwever,  is  composed  of  gravel  or  sand,  it  is  necessary 
mat  tho  I  eat  and  thepo  bodies  should  be  mixed  toijelher, 
.w  as  to  I'orm  a  soil  Tho  first  of  these  methods  was 
planned  by  the  late  Lord  Kaines,  and  performed  with 
<i>!inguishe<l  success  on  his  estate  of  Ulair-Drummond. 
in  the  county  of  Perth.  The  first  jirocess  performed  by 
Lord  Kames,  was  to  construct  a  ditch  through  the  ccn- 
tri'  of  the  moss,  through  which  a  stream  from  tlie  river 
IVith  was  diriM-ted.  Branch  ditches  were  cut  in  all  ili- 
nitions  from  the  main  one,  the  water  from  which  jioureil 
itself  into  the  river  Forth.  Tho  whole  estate  was  di- 
viileJ  into  portions,  and  let  to  small  occupiers  of  land, 
who  received  the  most  favourable  terms  fr.im  Iho  pro- 
prietor, as  an  inducement  to  carry  out  his  views.  'l"he 
put  earth  was  cut  into  small  pieces,  and  e.ist  into  the 
running  waters,  by  which  they  were  carried  iiiti>  the 
Forth,  and  thence  to  the  sea.  After  the  moss  was 
:li'iired  away,  the  trees  of  tike  ancient  forest  a))pparei!, 
»nd  presented  new  diilienllics  to  the  workmen,  which 
were  only  overcome  wi'li  grrot  labour  and  cxpenst-. 

Vol.  I.— 03 


The  roots  of  these  trees  were  firmly  fixed  in  the  earth. 
and  tlu3  tanning  process  which  they  had  undergone  in 
the  moss  seemed  to  have  oddtd  greater  strength  to  their 
root-branches.  They  were  completely  eradicated,  how- 
ever; and  in  the  year  1782,  no  fewer  than  .330  ocres  of 
ground  were  reclaimed  and  brought  into  cultivation. 
His  son,  who  inherited  his  father's  spirit  of  enterprise, 
pursued  tho  same  plan;  and  in  ten  years  more,  the 
population  on  the  estate  had  incrca.sed  to  704  persons, 
who  cultivated  444  acres  of  land.  In  1805,  by  survey, 
577  acres  were  cleared;  and  in  1814,  between  800  and 
000  ocres  were  under  cultivation.  Lately  (1842),  the 
whole  has  Ix-en  cleared.  Thus,  an  extensive  tract  of 
country,  whieli  at  one  time  was  entirely  useless,  has  been 
brought,  by  labour  and  perseverance,  to  bear  rich  crops; 
and  the  land  is  now  worth  from  JE3  to  £5  per  acre 
of  annual  rent.  In  this  case,  tho  subsoil  was  good  earth, 
and  the  operation  necessary  was  the  removal  of  the 
]ient-nioss,  so  that  the  subsoil  might  be  made  the  surface 
soil. 

Where  the  .subsoil  is  gravel  or  sand,  a  very  diflcrent 
operation  must  be  performed;  and  this,  perhaps,  is  Iho 
"most  common  species  of  moss  ground.  Of  whatever 
nature  moss  ground  be,  it  is  evident,  that,  so  long  as  the 
stagnant  water  remains,  no  useful  crop  can  be  culti- 
vtited ;  and  to  remove  tlic  superabundant  moisture,  by 
means  of  draining,  must  bo  the  first  operation  of  the 
improver.  In  some  cases,  where  the  mo.-.s  is  not  too 
wet,  a  road  may  be  run  through  the  land,  which  will 
greatly  facilitate  the  after-operations.  Should  such  a 
road  be  cut,  and  a  deep  ditch  on  each  side  of  it  formed, 
the  next  operation  is  to  open  drains  leading  to  some 
main  channel,  by  which  the  water  can  bo  carried  away. 
The  moss  laud  should  he  sounded  in  different  places,  to 
ascertain  where  the  greatest  depth  lies,  and  when  this  is 
found,  the  main  drain  should  lie  drawn  as  nearly  in  that 
tract  as  possible.  Where  there  are  beds  of  great  depth, 
it  does  not  apjiear  expedient  that  the  drain  should  be  cut 
to  the  bottom  at  first ;  and,  indeed,  a  dillerence  of  opi- 
nion exists  as  to  whether  moss  land  should  be  thoroughly 
drained  at  first,  so  as  to  render  it  perfectly  dry.  Mr. 
Boroughs,  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  waste  land,  is  of 
opinion  that  tho  surface  water  only  should  be  drained 
otV  at  first ;  while  Mr.  Blackaddcr  of  Stirling  asserts 
that  there  is  no  danger  of  over-drying  moss  by  draining. 
'I'his  may  depend  upon  whether  or  not  the  moss  be  in  a 
decomposed  state.  When  moss  is  rendered  too  dry,  it 
becomes  a  fibrous  inert  matter ;  and,  as  is  the  case  with 
all  other  lands,  it  will  be  easier  !o  work  afterwards  when 
moderately  moist.  With  regarj  to  the  m-o  and  form  of 
drains,  it  was  formerly  the  practice  to  make  these  wide 
and  deep,  and  at  about  fifty  yards  apart.  The  lateral 
pressure  of  the  water  upon  tho  sides  of  these  drains, 
however,  pressed  them  so  much  together,  that  in  the 
course  of  years  they  wero  scarcely  traceable.  The 
depth  of  the  rtiain  drain  will  depend  in  some  measure  upon 
the  depth  of  the  moss ;  and  if  tho  average  depth  of  this 
be  twelve  fi'ct,  the  drain  may  be  seven  or  eight  feet  deep, 
anil  about  the  same  width  at  the  top.  The  sides  should 
be  made  slopinc,  so  that  the  bottom  of  the  drain  will  not 
be  above  two  or  three  feet  wide  ;  and  this  difference  be- 
tween the  top  and  bottom  will  gradually  diminish  in 
eonseipiencc  of  the  lateral  pressure.  It  may  in  some 
cases  lie  necessary  to  jierforatc  the  main  drain  with  holes, 
if  any  water  apiiear  to  be  coming  up  from  below.  'I'l  e 
next  ojii'ration  is  to  form  smaller  drains  leadinij  into  tho 
trriin  channel.  Kxperience  has  shown  tliat  the  ^nost 
elli'ctual  way  of  draining  deep  moss  is  to  insert  (trains 
at  small  disfaneeii  from  each  other,  and  as  dcM' as  tho 
nature  of  tho  moss  wilt  allow.  They  may  be  either  of 
tile  or  stone,  and  guarded  from  choldnc:  by  overlaying 
turf.  Moss  irroiind  drained  in  this  effectual  way,  will 
be.  Iirsi,  surrounded  with  the  main  drain  which  carries 
the  water  entirclv  away  from  the  field  ;  second,  cut  into 
8x2 


4W 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


divisions  with  open  drains,  at  from  forty  to  sixty  yarJs 
•part,  leading  into  the  main  drain  ;  third,  these  divi- 
■ions  will  hn  again  divided  into  stiinlli-r  portions  I>y  the 
covered  diftins  at  five  yards'  distinc-e  from  each  other. 

In  this  manner  tho  moss  will  bo  cfl'ectiially  relieved 
from  its  superabundant  moisture,  and  tho  next  operation 
Is  to  level  the  lanj  with  the  spade.  In  cases  of  dry 
mass,  of  course  the  draining  is  needless,  and  may  I)o  omiW 
ted.  The  land  l)cing  either  naturally  or  rendered  arti- 
ficially dry,  should  never  be  ploughed  with  a  peculiar 
kind  of  plough  made  of  wood,  and  covered  with  sheet- 
iron,  which  can  be  freely  used  if  the  ground  is  free  from 
rushes,  heath,  &c.  If  these  plants  be  growing  in  pro- 
fusion, however,  it  is  thought  better  to  burn  them  down 
to  the  surface  l)cfore  ploughing.  After  the  ground  is 
ploughed,  some  prefer  rolling  and  others  burning,  as  the 
next  oper.ition.  If  a  roller  is  used  it  should  bo  made  of 
iron,  with  plates  of  thin  iron  six  inches  deep,  five  inches 
from  each  other,  and  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  cylin- 
der. Kepeatcd  rollings  from  this  will  cut  the  sod  fine 
enough  to  allow  the  mixing  of  it  with  sand  or  gravel. 
Insteuil  of  rolling,  it  has  been  found  advantageous  to  burn 
llie  soil  turned  up,  as  a  more  ellectual  way  of  decompos- 
ing tho  roots  of  such  plants  as  the  cotton-grass,  mat-grass, 
marsh  trefoil,  &c.  If  tho  land  is  bunu  il,  it  should  be 
plouglied  irimiediately  alter,  prepariitory  to  being  mised 
with  other  substances.  The  next  step  in  the  process  is 
to  cart  sand  or  small  gravel  to  the  (icld,  and  spread  it 
over  the  whole  to  the  depth  of  three  inches.  JVow 
plough  all  down,  as  the  first  regular  dressing  and  culture. 
Thus  prepared,  the  land  is  ready  for  cropping,  and  it  is 
generally  allowed  that  the  best  plan  is  to  sow  with  grass 
■oeds ;  the  kinds  recommended  for  this  purpose  arc  tho 
timothy  grass,  cocksfoot-grass,  and  ribwort.  Wheat, 
however,  has  t)een  taken  from  newly  reclaimed  moss  land  ; 
and  potatoes,  if  the  moss  is  in  the  neiijhbonrhood  of  cul- 
tivated ground,  will  bo  found  a  very  valuable  crop  to  be 
disposed  of  for  seed.  Italian  rye-grass  has  been  highly 
recommended  for  bog  land,  and  also  rape,  to  be  followed 
by  oats  or  barley. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  experiments  ever  made  in 
reclaiming  peat  liuid,  was  performed  some  years  ago  in 
the  neighlwurhood  of  Edinburgh,  and  is  mentioned  at 
length  in  Jickson's  Agriculture.  It  was  as  follows : — 
"  On  the  high  and  bleak  grounds  which  lie  on  the  bmuid- 
•ries  of  Mid-IiOthian  and  Tweeddale,  at  tho  distance  of 
twelve  or  thirteen  miles  south  from  Edinburgh,  there  ex- 
isted, from  time  immemorial,  an  extensive  tract  of  moss, 
which  was  dug  for  its  fuel,  atjd  exhibited  the  opiwarancc 
of  precipices  of  peat  rising  from  sour  pools  of  water,  the 
whole  broken  and  disorderly,  and  of  little  or  no  value 
whatever  for  pasture.  A  portion  of  this  dismal-looking 
land,  which  lies  alnjut  eight  hundred  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  being  purchased  by  Mr.  John  Carstairs,  a  gen 
tieman  in  Edinburgh,  he  commenced  operations  for  re- 
claiming it.  The  purchase  was  made  twenty-five  years 
ago,  at  which  time  there  was  neither  tree,  Iiousm-,  nor 
road,  u|M)n  llie  whole  moor;  and  a  mere hopelcKs attempt 
than  that  of  bringing  such  a  txact  of  utterly  waste  land 
into  cultivation,  cannot  well  l)c  conceived. 

"The  first  elFort  of  .Mr.  (.'arstairs  was  to  gain  access  to 
the  ground,  by  forming  a  road  to  it  from  the  great  road 
between  Eilinbiirgh  and  Dumfries.  ilc  extended  the 
ro«d  at  a  great  ex|)<'nsc  thruu:!h  tlie  centi  af  the  moss, 
and  built  a  handsome  suit  of  firm  (iilices  at  the  western 
■extremity.  The  m.i«s  was  then  sulKlivided  into  fields  of 
Tcrioun  fizp*,  by  running  8tri|ies  of  plantation  in  squares, 
protacted  by  ilitchcs  and  turf  dykes ;  and  the  fortunate 
formation  of  a  new  line  ofroail  l«''.ween  Edinburgh  and 
Peebles,  going  through  a  corner  of  his  jiroperty,  gave 
energy  to  his  exertions.  Well-formed  metal  roads,  made 
at  his  own  cxiM-rw,  now  intersect  and  cross  each  other 
all  cf*r  the  property,  afibrding  easy  access  to  every  j)art 
•I  i\ 


"  Tho  extent  of  the  land  to  be  improved  was  f 
to  600  acres;  and  this  he  partitioned  into  fields         '"' 
by  plantations  and  turf  walls,  as  wo  have  iust'd    '^'''** 
Tho  land  was  also  effectually  furrow-drained  and  |    ^ 
on  the  surface  by  manual  operations.    The  remni  'I 
tho  process  of  reclamation  consisted  in  tho  applic  h  '  °' 
limo  and  sandy  materials,  and  tillage.    Year  aftp    ""^ 
the  land  gradually  assumed  a   better  appearance  ^*'" 
yielded  a  better  crop.     At  first,  the  oats  which  grew'  ""^ 
it  were  scanty  in  the  extreme,  btit  now  the  land  "'"■" 
heart,  and  yields  good  crops,  and  also  excellent  past  "  '" 
"  To  quote  the  worda  of  Mr.  Carstairs  himself  iino"t 
state  of  this  moss  when  he  got  possession  of  it-lh" 
mostly  composed  of  white  foggy  stulV,  standing  iv^a, !" 
to  twelve  inches  deep  of  water,  and  not  worth  a'xw 
an  acre  of  rent,  as  il  would  carry  neither  man  nor  I  * 
In    1834,  hu  commenced  cutting   sheep  drains  taT 
inches  wido  and  twelve  inches  deep  across  the  »h  i' 
moss,  dividing  it  into  regular  riggs  of  from  twelve? 
fourteen  feet  broad  each,  which  has  had  the  desired  cff 
of  drying  tho  moss  completely,  the  hollows  being  fiHe/'' 
with  tho  K(xls  taken  from  the  drains,     'i'his  drainnpp  "'' 


him  X-13,  1  Is. 


iirainagecct 


In  the  summer  of  1830  and  1837,  app,, 

and  now 


extent  of  it  was  top-dressed  with  earth  and  lime  •  „, 
it  bears  the  horses  and  carts  over  its  surface  freely  althon 
the  moss  is  from  ten  to  forty  feet  in  depth. 

"  'J'lie  application  of  gravel  and  sand  eflbcts  pcthi 
more  improvement,  in  consolidating  and  diTomposincrtf! 
moss,  than  cither  limo  or  dung.  This  is  shm 
to  be  tho  case  from  the  circumstunce,  that  moss  lant 
when  overflowed,  is  rendered  fertile  by  the  dcposii  ( 
earthy  matter  from  the  water.  In  imitation  of  this  or*. 
ration,  Mr.  Carstairs  is  in  the  hnbit,  at  cverj-  brpakin"ii 
of  tho  reclninied  moss  land  from  pasturage,  of  givin, 
liberal  application  of  clay,  gravel,  or  sand.  This^J 
elli  cts  in  an  easy  manner,  by  means  of  a  portable  rA 
road.  The  application  of  the  gravel,  and  the  commiltinj 
of  the  land  to  pasturage,  or  irrigated  meaduw,  for  a  given 
number  of  years,  have  the  cflect  of  consolidatini;  it  jj 
inucli,  as  in  most  cases  to  render  it  capable  of  bcin. 
ploughed  by  horses;  but  when  rather  soft,  pattens  are  unl 
upon  their  feet  to  prevent  them  from  sinking. 

"Uy  the  means  detailed,  some  very  large  fields  of  the 
moss  ground  have  been  so  reduced  in  ilepih  as  to  alien 
the  subsoil,  formed  from  the  application  of  ihv,  pavpL 
&c.,  to  be  brought  up  by  the  plough  and  itii-orporatwl 
with  the  moss.  Complete  furrow-drainage  kepps  tin 
soil  and  subsoil  always  dry  ;  and  now  this  ground  pre. 
sents  fields  of  us  fine  and  as  fertile  vegetable  loam  sscan 
be  seen  in  the  whole  county,  which  notliin^  but  Ihfij 
great  elevation  prevents  fioin  InMiig  equally  valuaWe, 
The  chick,  the  sorrel,  the  nettle,  and  other  weeds,  whifj 
usually  infest  moss  land  when  first  brouuht  into  cul'iv*. 
tion,  have  entirely  disappeared — a  sure  indirntion  ibali 
conqiletc  melioration  of  the  liinl  has  been  etVnted, 

"  \\  hen  the  dejith  of  the  moss  is  considerable,  the  unijer 
stratum,  from  lieing  more  decompused  and  consolidated 
is  unifiiriidy  of  a  much  lwtter(piality  fir  aijrirullural  rijri 
l)i)si's  than  that  on  or  inmiciliiitily  below  the  siirthrc.  To 
git  rid  of  this  inferior  snil,  Mr,  Carstairs  has  frcquonilT 
resorted  to  burinng ;  and  even  in  tbi-i  o|  eration,  Ike 
elli'its  of  lime  and  other  earthy  applicationn,  some  yean 
previously  put  on,  is  siuijubirly  valuable.  Tbi'v  notonit 
make  the  moss  burn  moiC  freely,  and  :it  a  nviri'  unifnrij 
deu'ree  of  depth,  but  the  aBlics  are  rendered  hi^lily  valo, 
able  as  a  manure  to  t!ie  surceeiling  cr('])s,  bv  lieini;m-j«i 
wit!i  the  lime.  Thus,  by  lVe(|Uent  ajii;licat!ons  of  -iiu 
earth  or  lime,  but  particularly  I'lay,  and  iX'casional  bum. 
in;;,  the  worthless  moss  soil  U'cemes  progressively  » 
duced  ill  depth,  and  fertilized." 

'I'lie  cx|K-nse  of  draining  and  prejmring  moss  land  iW 
jH-nds  on  many  lix-al  cireunistanees.  The  nsiial  cmt  ii 
fom  Jul'-i  to  i:l5  jx^r  acre;  but  much  has  been  doneit 
£7  or  X8  JUT  acre.    The  cx|m-ium!,  in  either  caw,  iilii 


IMPROVEMENT  OP  WASTE  LANDS. 


^4» 


mort  P*'*  ^P"'^  '"  "  "^  ^^^  ''*"" '  '"^  ^'"'"  ^°*^ 

A  which  may  he  '"t  for  £^  of  J£3  an  acre  per  annum, 

''"  be  »aiil  to  have  been  absolutely  conquered  from  the 

""m  mess  and  added  to  the  productive  soil  of  the 

country. 

DRAININO. 

In  lome  countries  the  ground  is  naturally  so  dry,  and 
,  -limato  possesses  so  little  moisture,  that  instead  of 
drainage,  the  land  may  require  to  be  irrigated  profusely 

..' L  „gier  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year.  The  landn, 
"  erailv  speaking,  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland, 
of  a' very  different  character.  There  are  few  parts  of 
*,  jountry  where  drainage,  from  superabundant  mois- 
[i  not  requisite ;  and,  therefore,  the  operation  of 
dlining  should  bo  thoroughly  comprehended  by  every 
practical  agriculturist.  _ 

The  necessity  for  drammg  anses  either  from  the  water 
.-„-  to  the  surface  from  springs  beneath,  or  from  the 
jui«oil  being  of  a  retentive  quality,  by  which  water  lying 
,  ™m  the  surface,  or  absorbed  in  the  upper  stratum,  can- 
nuJ  escape.  According  as  either  of  these  causes  predomi- 
nate or  are  associated  with  each  other,  so  must  the  pro- 
tfss'of  (Iriiinage  bo  regulated  and  conducted.  All  soils, 
ll,i)<c  of  a  very  sandy  or  gravelly  nature,  in  8ome»situa- 
tiiiii«,  excepted,  arc  more  or  less  liable  to  over-wetness, 
titlicr  from  their  own  nature  or  tljc  nature  of  tho  subsoil 
en  which  they  rest.  Clay,  whether  on  the  surface  or  be- 
uealh,  i>,  froni  its  adhesive  nature,  very  retentive  of  mois- 
ture. A  mixture  of  clay,  sand,  and  sometimes  iron,  is 
.  jiso  found  very  impervious ;  and  even  loams,  although 
Ihev  absorb  water  freely,  generally  retain  too  much.  Rich 
tliirit  loams  usually  lie  on  a  clay  subsoil,  of  diiTercnt 
cilours  and  textures,  according  to  which  the  land  will  bo 
in  various  degrees  wet  The  wetness  in  these  loams  is 
rot  so  apparent  as  on  other  soils,  but  it  is  in  every  case 
j» injurious,  and  as  great  a  necessity  exists  for  its  ritmoval. 
Land  suliject  to  springs  is  usually  very  varied  in  its  surface, 
and  may  require  a  number  of  drains  before  water  is 
pllcdnally  removed. 

Draining  is  the  operation  of  drawing  off  tho  water 
from  the  over-moist  land,  and  of  reducing  the  soil  to  that 
proiier  degri'c  of  dryness  which  renders  it  available  for 
nr(xluctivc  tillage.  Many  moist  lands,  though  undraincd, 
will  produce  crops  of  grain,  and  the  crops  will  be  the 
lioavier  the  dryer  nnd  finer  the  season ;  but,  taking  these 
laii'ls  on  a  common  average  of  seasons,  it  will  be  found 
that  '.iicy  often  greatly  fail  in  yielding  even  moderate 
criir-'.  and  ll'.it,  at  the  very  best,  their  crops  are  inferior 
in  balk  and  weight  to  those  of  grounds  which  have  been 
fiihjeded  to  a  thorough  process  of  drainage,  and  tho  kinil 
of  tillage  consequent  uiion  such  an  improvement.  The 
outward  mark  of  all  undraincd  arable  land  is,  that  little  or 
ni;  i;rain  grows  in  the  furrows.  The  crop  is  seen  to  run 
along  tlie  centre  of  the  ridges,  dwarfing  gradually  off  to 
llic  sides,  where  it  disappears,  thus  leaving  a  large  portion 
of  every  field  with  no  crop  at  all.  Wherever  land  is 
observed  in  this  ooiidition — and  apparently  tho  greater 
part  of  that  in  England  is  so — there  is  a  want  of  drain- 
age. The  practice  of  iniiking  narrow  heaped-up  ridges, 
and  deep  furrows  at  their  sides,  is  a  proof  of  tho  land 
being  badly  drained.  With  a  right  method  of  drainage 
beneath,  no  purtion  of  the  surface  is  lost  for  cropping; 
the  crop  is  at  liln'rly  to  grow  all  over  tho  field,  nnd  the 
furrow  is  only  a  slight  indentation,  to  mark  off  the  di- 
Tisions  for  the  reapers  in  harvest. 

Drains  are  of  s(!veral  kinds,  according  to  the  nature 
and  situation  of  the  land.  Home  drains  arc  conduits 
built  with  stone,  others  are  conduits  filled  entirely  with 
liwso  stones,  between  which  tho  water  percolates  and 
csa|ics,  and  others  are  constructed  with  tiles  of  a  par 
triilar  form.  Of  whatever  description,  main  and  tri- 
buUiry  drains  are  rei|uired.  Wc  shall  describe  a  main 
tiiJ  an  inferior  drain,  in  the  language  of  one  of  the  most  [ 


experienced  writers  on  the  subject,  Mr.  Smith  of  Dean» 
ton: — 

•■  Tho  main  drain  should  be  directed  along  the  bottom 
of  the  chief  hollow  or  valley  of  the  ground*,  wheie  th« 
whole  or  greater  portion  of  tho  drains  can  be  led  into  it. 
If  any  lesser  hollows  occur  in  the  field,  they  must  alM 
have  their  proportional  mains  or  leaders.  The  bottom  of 
the  main  drain  should  ho  at  least  3  feet,  and,  if  possible, 
3J  or  4  feet  under  tho  fjurface  where  it  passes  along ;  and 
it  should  have  throughout  oa  uniform  a  full  as  the  nature 
of  tho  ground  will  admit. 

"  It  should  be  flagged  in  the  bottom,  or,  where  flag-stones 
are  expensive,  built  as  an  inverted  arch,  to  prevent  the 
possibility  of  washing  away  under  the  side  building.  The 
dimensions  necessary  will  depend  on  the  fall  or  declivity, 
and  the  area  of  the  land  from  which  it  has  to  receive 
water.  With  a  full  in  no  place  less  than  one  foot  in  100 
yards,  a  drain  10  inches  wide  and  18  inches  deep  will 
void  the  rain  water  from  100  acres.  It  is  of  great  im- 
portance to  mrtko  the  open  area  of  such  drains  narrow 
and  high,  as  smaller  bottoms  and  covers  will  suit,  and  be 
less  liable  to  gi^  way ;  and  the  current  of  water  being 
more  confined,  mud  and  sand  will  be  less  apt  to  settle  in 
tho  bottom.  Let  the  sides  be  smoothly  and  securely  built 
with  fint  stones,  cither  with  or  without  mortar;  and  let 
strong  flat  covers  be  ])laccd  over,  or,  where  such  tie  not 
to  be  found,  rough  simple  arches  may  be  built  vith  thin 
stones  and  mortar,  for  the  bottom  and  cover,  packiag  tho 
haunches  of  the  arch  well  up  to  tho  sides  of  tho  cut. 
Where  lesser  hollows  occur  crossing  the  fields,  it  is  ne- 
cessary to  cut  submains  along  their  bottoms,  about  3  or 
3  J  feet  deep,  and  having  openings  of  suitable  dimensions 
formed  by  inverted  stone  couples,  or  with  drain  tiles,  or, 
where  a  very  large  flow  of  water  has  to  be  provided  for, 
with  an  inverted  tile,  and  a  covering  tile  placed  above 
the  bottom  one,  or  with  larger  tiles  made  on  purpose. 

"There  should  bo  a  cross  submain  at  the  bottom  of 
every  field  or  stretch  of  druins,  to  receive  the  water  from 
all  the  parallel  drains;  nnd  such  drain  should  always  be 
cut  six  inches  deeper  than  the  drains  running  into  it, 
that  the  water  maj'  have  a  free  drop,  which  will  prevent 
the  lodgment  of  inud  or  sand  at  their  junctions  or  mouths. 
Open  cuts  or  ditches,  either  as  mains  or  submains,  should 
never,  except  from  necessity,  he  adopted,  being  apt  to  get 
filled  with  mud  and  grass,  by  which  water  is  thrown 
back  into  the  drains,  which  often  chokes  them  ;  besides, 
the  loss  of  land,  annoyance  in  ploughing,  coiLstant  ex- 
pense of  cleaning,  and  the  unsightly  appearance  of  the 
thing,  are  serious  objections, 

"Having  thus  provided  a  main  drain,  with  submains 
flowing  into  it,  matters  are  prepared  for  setting  off  and 
executing  the  parallel  frequent  drains  in  the  bmly  of  the 
field.  Tljo  drains  can  be  executed  at  any  season,  when 
the  weather  will  permit;  hut  the  spring  and  summer  arc 
most  suitable  for  the  work.  It  is  best  to  execute  the 
drains  when  the  field  is  in  grass,  as  it  can  then  be  done 
in  all  weathers  in  a  more  cleanly  manner. 

» In  loy  ing  oft"  the  drains,  the  first  object  tor  consideration 
is  the  nature  of  the  subsoil.  If  it  consist  of  a  stiff  strong 
till,  or  a  dead  sandy  day,  then  the  distance  from  drain  to 
drain  should  not  exceed  from  10  to  15  feet ;  if  a  lighter 
and  more  porous  subsoil,  a  distance  of  fi-om  18  to  24  feet 
will  be  close  enough ;  and  in  very  open  subsoils,  40  feet 
distance  may  be  .sutli -ient.  When  the  ridges  of  the  field 
have  been  formerly  much  raised,  it  suits  very  well  to  run 
a  drain  up  every  furrow,  which  saves  some  depth  of  cut- 
ting. The  furrow  being  thereafter  made  over  the  diains, 
the  hollow  is  filled  up,  and  the  general  surface  ultimately 
becomes  level.  When  the  field  is  again  ridged,  the  drains 
may  lie  kept  in  the  crowns  or  middle  of  the  ridges;  but 
if  it  is  intended  to  work  the  field,  so  as  to  alternate  tho 
cjowns  and  furrows,  then  the  ridges  should  Iw  of  h 
breadth  equal  to  ihnhlr  the  distance  from  drain  to  drairi ; 
niul  by  setting  i'l"  the  furrows  in  the  middle  between  Iwg 


soo 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


UUIII«|^« 


draiiiH,  the  crowns  will  be  In  a  similnr  position ;  so  that, 
when  tlio  furrows  tjiko  the  place  of  the  crowns,  they  will 
■till  bo  ill  the  middle  Iw-twixt  two  drains,  which  will  pre- 
»cnt  the  risk  of  niirfiioe  water  Retting  access  to  the  drain 
from  the  water  furrows  by  any  direct  opening." 

Small  tributary  draiiiH,  made  with  broken  stones,  and 
covered  with  turf,  to  prevent  the  earth  from  filling  them 
up  (called  riimhic  Jiaiiis  in  Scotland), are  in  most  places 
felling  into  disuse,  and  are  superseded  by  drains  made 
with  tiles.  The  tile  drains  are  peculiarly  available  over  the 
■  greater  part  of  England,  where  there  is  a  scarcity  of  stone ; 
and  iKjth  there  and  elsewhere  they  will'  soon  constitute 
the  only  kind  of  field  drainage  in  use.  The  tiles  for 
these  drains,  which  are  made  ot  most  briokfu-lds,  are 
dimple  in  construction.  There  is  a  flat  tile  for  the  bot- 
tom, and  a  semicircular  tile  to  place  upon  it,  with  the 
concavity  undermost.  In  hard-bottomed  land,  the  sole 
tile  is  sometimes  disused.  The  tiles  measure  from  12  to 
14  inches  in  length ;  and  being  placed  neatly  in  a  row, 
close  to  each  other,  a  channel  of  4  inches  wide  and  fi 
inches  deep  is  formed ;  the  water  is  admitted  by  the 
warns  or  interstices,  so  as  readily  to  flbw  away.  A  little 
•traw,  stubble,  or  loose  furze,  is  placed  immediately  over 
the  upper  tile,  by  which  the  chance  of  stoppage  by  the 
intrusion  of  earth  is  removed.  The  depth  at  which  the 
tile  drain  is  laid  is  2i  or  3G  inches,  as  above,  which,  being 
covered  with  10  or  12  inches  of  gravel 
or  stones,  allows  a  sufTicicnt  depth  of 
soil  above  fiir  the  operations  of  sulv 
»oil-ploughing.  When  the  depth  of 
tlie  drain  is  three  feet,  and  the  soil  a 
retentive  clay,  it  is  frequently  filled 
up  for  about  .i  foot  with  stones  above 
the  tile,  and  turf  laid  above  the  stones, 
the  rest  being  made  up  with  surface 
rarth.  Figure  1  represents  a  section 
of  a  tilc-<lrain  of  the  proper  construc- 
tion. It  will  lie  observed  that  the 
bent  tile  laid  on  a  flat  sole,  is  a<)- 
vantageously  placed  for  carrying  olT 
all  the  water  that  may  trickle  through 
the  earth  and  stones  above,  and  cannot  bo  easily  choked 
«p  with  soil. 

In  cutting  drains,  three  kinds  of  spades  will  be  re- 
quired— a  ciimmon  working  spade,  one  a  little  narrcjwer, 
and  the  third  the  breadth  of  the  bottom  of  the  drain. 
The  cuttini-'s  should  W  done  smoothly  and  neatly,  pre- 
,  serving  a  descent  throughout ;  and  the  tiles  should  not 
1m?'  laid  till  the  cuttings  have  lK?en  carefully  inspected. 
The  terminations  of  the  tiUMlrains  may  be  led  into  sul>- 
terranran  mains,  or  into  the  shelving  banks  of  open  rivu- 
lets or  sunk  ditches ;  but  in  the  latter  case,  their  mouths 
will  probalily  re()uire  to  he  protected  from  the  intrusion 
of  vermin,  or  I'rom  external  injury.  In  planning  the 
lines  of  drains,  the  stralghtest  side  of  the  field  should  lie 
•elected,  the  first  lieing  laid  off  us  parallel  as  possiiilc,  and 
the  others  formed  at  the  distances  thought  necessary. 

In  some  [daces,  from  the  extreme  levelncss  of  the  land, 
or  from  o'lstrnrtions  in  the  subsoil,  it  will  lie  found  diffi- 
cult to  carry  olf  moisture  by  draii'age  in  the  R-gnlur  man- 
lier, and  the  leading  of  converging  drains  to  a  pit  in  a  low 
part  of  the  field,  will  lie  the  only  cnursn  opi-n  for  adoption. 
The  dniMiage  of  sliecji  pa.-iture8  is  often  not  less  neces- 
•ary  than  land  for  tillage :  it  improves  tjie  grass,  and,  by 
Wrying  the  surface,  renders  the  ground  more  s.ihibrious — 
Jry  pasturage  lieing  indispensable  for  sheep.  'I'he  mode 
of  draining  aitopted  for  hilly  sliei-p-wulks  is  very  simple. 
On  the  sides  of  hills,  opi'n  drai.is  a  foot  in  depth,  and 
from  eighteen  inches  to  two  ft-i'i  broad  at  the  fop,  arc  rut, 
with  a  gentle  bIo|ic  towards  a  rivulet  into  whirli  they  aie 
to  diicharge  tliemselves.  'i'liey  are  made  to  slope  in  dif- 
ferent directions,  and  thus  f.um  so  many  liirrows,  wlin  li 
dr«w  off  the  trickling  moisture  of  land  s|)rin::s,  and  the 
wpart  )uiidant  rain  which  falls.    In  the  south  of  Scotland, 


the  sheep-walks   have  been   prodigiously  imptOTBi 
these  simidc  and  unexpensivo  drains,  ") 


8UB80II.''PLO(;OHmo. 

It  has  been  seen,  in  treating  of  mosses,  that 
chiefly  composed  of  inert  vegetable  matter,  or 


STTiM 


sand  or  gravelly  material,  carted  from  a  distance  nr »,. 
r .1.-    —.1. :i       'Pl._ .l,:.._   _  .         "' ™iS(i| 


lie  greatly  improved  by  supplying  a  duo  proponi 


Pig.  1. 


lonoi 

from  the  subsoil.     The  same  thing  may  be  said  of  v 
lands  which  have  been  deteriorated  by  repeated  cronn 
A  time  comes  when  the  silica  and  other  enrtliy  baw-     ' 
found  to  have  been  abstracted  in  the  crops,  and  f^J  ,"' 
terials  must  be  added.  '  * 

The  process  of  eorthy  rertoration  may  bo  accoinnli  h 
by  scattering  new  materials  upon  the  fioldii;  ai'j  it- 
might  be  easily  accomplished  in  many  ps'ts  of  tho count  " 
so  far  as  silica  or  fine  sand  is  concerned  ;  but  the  real 
and  cheapest  process  in  mo.st  situations  will  consist  ' 
trenching  the  subsoil,  and  gradually  assiniilatinB  ittoih' 
mould  above.  The  subsoil,  or  that  portion  of  the  nnl ' 
stratum  which  lies  out  of  reach  of  the  ordinary  plou,k 
may  alri'ady  be  so  good  as  to  bo  available  for  brinjin, 
towards  the  surface,  and  in  such  cases  it  ailmits  of  n ' 
and  profitable  monngement;  but  in  most  instiinccsino' 
connfVy,  the  subsoil  is  hard  and  stony,  and  will  roquirp  i 
be  trenched,  and  lie  for  a  time  in  its  underground  ixjsjiioj 
before  it  is  ready  for  mixing  with  the  upper  mould, 

The  most  ellicicnt  instrument  for  trencliini;  the  gutijAJi 
on  a  large  scale,  is  the  subsoil-iilough,  invented  by  \\, 
Smith  of  Deanston,  whose  account  of  it  wo  shall  lalietlif 
liberty  to  introduce, 

"  In  the  design,  two  essential  points  were  kept  i« 
view: — 1.  The  construction  of  an  instrument  that  would  < 
ellectu:illy  open  up  the  subsoil  without  throwing  anvof 
it  to  the  surface,  or  mixing  it  with  the  active  or  sm. 
fare  soil;  3.  To  have  an  implement  of  the  easiest  m 
aiblc  draught  for  the  horses,  while  it  was  of  sufficiw 
strength  and  weight  to  penetrate  the  firmest  fronii  I 
and  resist  the  shocks  on  the  largest  stones.  The  n- 
treinc  length  of  the  jilough  is  about  1.5  feet.  From  tin 
socket  at  the  |ioint  of  the  lieam  to  the  first  stile  or  upr>',' 
fi  feet ;  from  thence  to  the  back  of  second  stile,  19  indif,. 
from  thence  to  the  outer  end  of  holding  handles,  7  feet' 
from  ilie  sole  to  the  bottom  of  beam  at  stiles,  19  imiKs. 
Icnglh  of  head  or  sole-bar,  .30  inches;  frojn  healofsoi: 
to  point  of  sock,  46  inches ;  broadest  part  of  suok,  j 


Fig.  3. 

inches,     The  coulter  is  curved,  and  in  order  topftfal 
its  [mint  being  driven  from  its  place  by  stones,  it  L<  ;r.. 
scrtcil  to  the  di'ptli  of  an  inch  in  a  socket  (k),   T:»\ 
lateral  <liiiiciisic.iis  of  the  sole-piece  are  «  inches  sqam 
This  is  covered  on  the  bottom  and  land  side  with  a  a+ 
iron  sole-piece,  to  prevent  wear.     Tliu  .so,k  pH'soniLi 
held  in  llie  usual  way,  and  from  it.s  feather  ris(8  the  ?];: 
pii'ce  (//),  for  the  purpose  of  breaking  the  snbsoil  firon 
WIh'ii   the  subsoil  consists  of  very   firm  rlav,  or  ot',3 
hard  and  compact  earth,  the  feather  and  siiur-jJiece  nu]  ii  I 
dispensed  with,  and  a  plain  wedge  or  siH-ar-poinleJ  sxL,  I 
such  as  those  of  the  old   Scotch  plough,  may  lie  \wi  [ 
The  draft-bar  (i),  of  1;^  inch  round  iron,  is  atlacli6l  k 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  WASTE  LANDS. 


besm  »t  the  irtrong  oyo  (d),  and  pnssing  through  an 

•   the  upright  ncudlc  (c),  is  ndjustnble  to  any  height 

''"literal  direction,  being  niovablo  in  tho  nockot  (/),  at 

t  Doint  of  the  l)cam,  and  can  be.  made  fast  nt  any  point 


"', ,  nincliing-scrcw  wrouglit  by  the  lever  (cr.)     By  tlie 
„„  Betting  of  the  drausht-rod,  Iho  direction  of  the 
c 

fuidiiB. 
row. 


^  n  of  the  horses  is  so  regulated  as  to  render  the 
f"!*',.  „f  the  plough  easy  at  any  depth  or  width  of  fur- 
Thc  heain  is  about  5  inches  deep  at  the  middle, 
'".  .1  jp(h  in  thickness — fovvanls  tho  draught  end  it 
'"  re  to  3  indies  deep,  and  1  inch  thick — at  the  holding 

1  where  the  handles  branch  off,  it  is  2  inches  by  1. 
fp,  '  ,^.||oie  weiglis  410  IIik.  imperial.     This  appears  an 

rnious  weiplit,  and  most  people  arc  alarmed  at  tho 
'  ,1,  mid  weii;lit  of  the  implement ;  but  after  repeated 
,■  Is  with  lii,'hter  ploughs,  those  of  the  dimensions  and 
•  icht  now  described  have  been  found  to  bo  at  once  tho 

ost  elficient,  the  most  easy  of  draught,  and  the  easiest 
for  the  plousjhnian  to  manage." 

;Vhen  a  field  is  to  bo  trenched,  a  common  plough, 
drawn  by  two  horses,  goes  before,  throwing  out  a  large 
onon  furrow  of  the  active  soil.  The  subsoil-plough  fol- 
lows in  the  wake  of  the  common  plough,  slits  up  tho- 
romhly  "■"^  breaks  tho  bottom,  and  the  next  furrow  of 
jplive  soil  is  thrown  over  it.  This  large  subsoil-plough 
is  a  kind  of  horse-pick;  breaking  up  without  raising  the 
uniler-stratum  to  the  surface.  The  atmospheric  air  lu-ing 
hv  this  means  freely  admitted  to  the  subsoil,  the  most 
sterile  and  obdurate  till  becomes  gradually  meliorated, 
jnd  the  common  (ilough  may  ever  after  be  wrought  to  a 
('piilh  of  twm  ten  to  twelve  inches  without  obstruction. 
For  this  heavy  ploughing  most  likely  three  horses  yoked 
slrcisl  will  be  required.  The  charge  for  subsoil-plough- 
ini  mav  be  estimated  at  twenty-four  to  twenty  shillings 
i«r  statute  acre,  l)eing  one-fifth  of  what  a  similar  de|)th 
ivilh  the  spade  would  cost,  and,  upon  the  whole,  be  as 
oiklually  done.  The  expense  of  sulisoil-plougliing  is  no 
doubt  considerable,  but  its  advantages  arc  incalculable. 
'All  who  have  ever  studied  or  ex|)erienced  the  most 
!«mmon  gardening,  must  be  aware  of  the  important  ad- 
vantages of  deep  working;  and  when  it  can  l)c  attained 
in  the  bmsd  field  of  farming  at  so  small  a  cosf^  they  may 
easilv  helievo  that  the  whole  will  be  more  than  <loubIy 
rmilJ  in  every  succeeding  crop,  and  iilmiidaiitly  even  in 
rasture.  When  laud  has  been  thoroughly  drained,  deeply 
wrouclit,  and  well  manured,  the  most  unpromising  sterile 
soil  h'comcs  a  deep  rich  loiim,  rivalling  in  fertility  the 
WA  niitiUid  land  of  the  country,  and  from  being  fitted 
for  raising  only  scanty  ero[)S  of  common  oats,  will  boar 
g*ij  crops  of  from  32  to  AH  bushels  of  wheat,  30  to  40 
bushels  of  beans,  40  to  00  busiiels  of  barley,  and  from 
4S  to  70  bushels  of  early  oats  per  statute  acre,  besides 
potatoes,  turnips,  mangel  wurzel,  and  carrots,  as  green 
crops,  and  which  all  good  agriculturists  know  uru  the 
ibunJant  producers  of  the  U-st  manure." 

LIMINO. 

hirac  is  the  most  imporliiiit  earthy  substance  which  is 
[usually  api'lii'd  to  land.  It  is  found  in  the  form  of  rocky 
I KisliTial,  m  which  condition  it  is  in  combination  with 
Inibonic  acid  gas.  On  being  burnt,  this  gas  is  cx|ielle(l, 
iami  it  assumes  the  form  of  a  whitish  brittle  mass,  easily 
Irfiluoible  to  imwder.  On  being  exposed  to  the  atniospliere 
linilssofl  powdery  comlitiou,  it  lias  a  strong  temlency  to 
limlubc  nioistuie  from  the  air,  and  soon  becomes  as  heavy 
|tMt  WHS  previous  to  burning.  It  also  lecombines  with 
|its(ir carbonic  acid  from  the  air. 

Thi'  use  of  this  artificially  prepared  earth  in  agricul- 
llure  is  well  known  ;  lui*.  ci'iliiin  pnuliarilii's  in  its  action 
llau^  never  been  sllli^|•^ctorily  ascertained.  It  pcssesses 
Ithc  [KHVcr  of  dccoMi|iiisuig  animal  ami  venetable  matter, 
|l:>il  inters  iis  an  element  into  the  fabric  of  plants;  in 
|C(ilain  cases  it  only  alters  the  constitution  of  th'.'  soil,  and 
lb  sumo  iiiBtauces  its  application  would  be  positively  m- 


juriouB.  Speaking  of  this  remarkable  ft  Mil,  Sir  Humphry 
Davy  observea — "  When  lime,  whether  freshly  burned  or 
slaked,  is  mixed  with  any  moist  fibrous  vegetable  matter, 
there  is  a  strong  action  between  the  lime  and  the  vegeta- 
ble matter,  and  they  form  a  kind  of  compost  together,  of 
which  o  part  is  usually  soluhlo  in  water.  By  this  kind 
of  operation,  lime  renders  matter  whichwas  l)efore  com- 
paratively inert,  nutritive ;  and  as  charcoal  and  oxygci* 
abound  in  all  vegetable  matters,  it  becomes  at  the  same 
time  converted  into  a  carbonate  of  lime.  Mild  lime, 
powdered  limestone,  marls,  or  chalks,  have  no  action  of 
this  kind  upon  vegetable  matter;  by  their  action  they 
prevent  the  too  rajjid  decomposition  of  substance*  already 
dissolved,  but  they  have  no  tendency  to  form  soluble  mat-, 
ters.  It  is  obvious,  from  these  circumstances,  that  the 
operation  of  quick-lime,  and  marl  or  chalk,  depends  upon 
principles  altogether  diflerent.  Quick-Ume,  on  being  ap- 
plied to  land,  tends  to  bring  any  hard  vegetable  matter 
that  it  contains  into  a  state  of  more  rapid  decomposition 
and  solution,  so  as  to  render  it  a  proper  food  for  plants. 
Chalk  and  marl,  or  carbonate  of  lime,  will  only  im|H-ove 
the  texture  of  the  sail,  or  its  relation  to  absorption  ^ 
it  acts  merely  as  one  of  its  earthy  .ingredients.  Quick- 
lime, when  it  becomes  mild,  operates  in  the  same  manner 
as  chalk ;  but  in  tho  act  of  becoming  mild,  it  prepares 
soluble  out  of  insoluble  matter.  The  solution  of  the 
question,  whether  quick-lime  ought  to  be  applied  to  • 
soil,  depends  upon  the  quantity  of  inert  vegetable  matters 
that  it  contains.  The  solution  of  the  question,  whether 
marl,  mild  lime,  or  powdered  limestone,  ought  to  be  ap- 
plied, depends  upon  tho  quantity  of  calcareous  matter 
already  in  the  soil.  All  soils  are  improved  by  mild  lime, 
and  ultimately  by  quick-lime,  which  do  not  eirervesco 
with  acids,  and  sands  more  than  clays." 

Let  us  now  proceed  to  the  practical  application  of  this 
valuable  fossil  manure,  commencing  with  its  use  in  the 
reclaiming  of  waste  lands.  If  moorish  or  waste  soil  is 
much  infested  with  the  tenacious  roots  of  rushes,  heaths, 
and  otherweeds  which  resist  the  mechanical  action  of 
the  harrow,  and  yield  slowly  to  pntrefaclion,  the  best 
mode  is  to  till  the  ground,  and  allow  it  to  lie  in  this  stato 
for  twelve  or  eighteen  months,  or  even  two  years,  before 
applying  the  lime.  It  is  then  generally  applied  in  autumn, 
and  tilled  in  as  soon  as  possible;  but  if  not  immediately 
tilled  ill,  the  soil  with  the  lime  on  it  should  Ix:  harrowed, 
so  that  it.s  decomposing  eflects  may  act  as  powerfully  as 
possible  upon  the  vegetable  matter.  After  these  opera- 
tions, the  land  is  sown  two  successive  years  with  oats, 
without  any  fallowing ;  and  along  with  the  second  crop 
of  oats  some  persons  sow  it  out  in  grass  seeds  for  pasture. 
Others,  after  the  first  or  second  crop  of  oats,  give  the  land 
a  suiumer  fallow  for  one  scat  n,  or  a  green  crop  with 
manure.  On  the  following  season  another  crop  of  oata 
is  taken,  along  with  which  grass  seeds  are  sown,  and  in 
this  state  it  is  committed  to  pasture.  In  some  cases,  after 
tillage,  the  soil  is  allowed  to  lie  for  one,  two,  or  more 
years,  according  to  its  nature,  after  which  it  is  reduced  to 
a  complete  state  of  pulverization  by  a  well-wrought  naked 
summer  fallow  On  the  spring  following  it  is  limed,  and 
the  lime  is  well  harrowed  in  along  with  grass  seeds  alone, 
and  in  the  following  season  the  land  is  committed  to 
pasture.  This,  however,  is  a  very  expensive  mode,  and 
cannot  be  rccninmended  to  tenants  whose  lease  is  of  a 
moderate  leiii;th.  It  is  decidedly  the  most  enriching 
mode  of  laying  down  waste  land  with  lime  only  for 
pasturage,  as  the  energy  which  the  lime  communicatC'l  to 
the  soil  is  imt  exhausted  by  grain  crops. 

It  will  MOW  be  observed  that  lin  e  is  a  most  importar 
eiiL'ine  of  imiiroveiiient  for  waste  latids  ;  for  it  decomposes 
and  liriiigs  into  active  use  the  inert  \eiielable  inaltci,  and 
also  serves  as  an  eleinenlary  earth  for  the  growth  of 
plants.  For  peat  lauds,  after  being  drainetl,  and  gene- 
rally all  rouuh  lands  reclaimed  triini  a  state  cf  nature, 
lime  IS  invaluable,  und  ei^ually  so  for  eithe*    tillRije  c« 


t09 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


|«8ture.  In  connection  with  turnip  husbandry,  it  has 
been  the  grand  reclaitnor  in  many  parts  of  Hcotland,  and 
will  cflpct  similar  onjs  in  any  district  of  country  not  pos- 
■csainiT  a  sharp  and  active  soil ;  in  such  places  it  is  not 
required,  and  its  application  may  do  harm.  Laid  on 
merely  08  a  top  dressing — that  is,  thinly  powdered  over 
the  land — lime  i«  found  to  have  very  extraordinary  cfTects. 
Mr.  Alton,  in  his  treatise  on  mosa,  obaorvea— « If  lime  or 
other  calcareous  subitaiices  are  laid  on  the  sward,  though 
tlie  land  Ihj  neither  laboured  nor  any  seed  sown,  such  arc 
the  effects  of  hot  lime,  that  the  moss  plants  will  instantly 
disappear,  and  a  rich  and  beautiful  sward  of  clover,  dai- 
sies, and  the  richest  poa  or  meadow  grasses,  will  rise 
spontaneously." 

From  the  result  of  experiments  in  many  different 
ritualions,  it  seems  satisfactorily  proved,  that  the  pro- 
prietors of  waste  lands  within  reach  of  lime  have  tliem- 
Bclves  to  blame  for  the  grounds  couliiiuing  in  sterility. 
Their  complete  melioration,  however,  is  not  to  he  expected 
Bt  once;  but  upon  proper  arranf^enienta  being  entered 
into  between  the  landlords  and  the  frnant«,  a  great  pro- 
portion of  the  pastoral  grounds,  lyTng  in  a  state  of  waste, 
might  by  these  nieatis  be  progressively  improved. 

It  seems  to  Iw  a  general  wish  of  f.irmers  to  use  lime 
rather  in  tillngo  than  by  top-dressing,  which  is  much  to 
be  regretted,  as  the  lime,  when  used  in  tillage,  conjoined 
with  over-cropping,  eventually  exhausts  the  soil ;  where- 
as, by  ajjplying  it  in  top-dressing,  it  will  prove  highly 
beneficial.  Therefore,  in  a  climate  rising  six  hundred 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  lop-dressing  is  the  most 
cftcctual  way  in  which  lime  c.-n;  be  applied  for  improving 
barren  pasture-grounds.  The  land  is  never  in  this  way 
exhausted  by  any  species  of  cropping  ;  it  is  put  in  a  state 
of  U^ing  benefited  by  the  dung  of  the  animals  grazing 
upon  it;  and  by  due  attention  being  paid  to  keeping  the 
land  free  from  wetness,  by  draining,  it  will  be  progressively 
feitilixed.  In  the  application  of  lime,  it  is  a  rule  which 
should  invariably  l>e  attended  to,  always  to  give  abun- 
dance, and  in  a  newly  slaked  condition,  in  order  that  it 
may  have  its  full  efiect.  If  slaked  a  considerable  length 
of  time  liefore  it  is  applied,  it  does  not  act  so  powerfully 
either  in  reducing  the  natural  herbage  or  neutndizing  the 
acids,  OS  when  appliej  in  a  hot  powdery  slate.  There 
are  very  thin  moorish  soils,  however,  where  lime  by  itself 
will  not  improve  the  herbage,  these  requiring  a  nourish- 
ing liefore  a  stimulating  manure ;  and  on  such  lands,  a 
dressing  of  good  earth  will  be  found  to  have  the  same 
effects  as  lime  has  on  a  strong  soil.  Top-tlressing  with 
clay  or  sand  may  also  be  performed  with  advantage  in 
mossy  moorish  tracts,  where  lime  cannot  easily  be  ob- 
tained. These  earthy  materials  have  a  wonderful  effect 
in  improving  the  pasturage ;  they  entirely  destroy  the 
growth  of  most  plants;  and  if  applied  to  the  de|)th  of  an 
inch  or  so,  will  generate  a  sweet  herbage,  rendering  the 
ground  capable  of  being  benefited  by  the  droppings  of 
the  animals  it  sup{x)rtB. 

IRRIOATIOir. 

While  some  lands  can  tie  reclaimed  only  by  draining, 
others,  which  are  naturally  dry,  may  be  rendered  ecjually 
servic<?able  by  irrigation,  or  artificial  watering.  Lands  in 
the  diy  climate  of  Australia  seem  to  be  in  this  condition  ; 
instead  of  depriving  tbem  of  water,  they  require  all  that 
can  Ih-  conveniently  led  towards  them.  Much  of  the 
land  in  the  iiuier  parts  of  \ortli  America  is  likewise  so  dry, 
that  drainage  is  altogether  undesirable,  and  irrigation  is 
in  mafiy  cases  a  njeans  of  fiTlilizalion.  It  nniy  bajipen 
tllat  lands  naturally  marshy  are  as  much  the  U^lter  for 
irrigation  as  dry  deserts;  but  in  all  such  caKcs  the  lands 
must  in  the  first  place  l>e  drained,  'i'his  leads  to  an  ex- 
planation of  the  principle  of  irrigation. 

When  water  lies  in  or  U|H)n  the  land,  it  Btagnales  and 
produces  a  mur6h,  wliich  is  alike  insalubrious  and  unpro- 
ductiie.     'I'hc  extensive  Pontine  maruhea  in  the  neigh- 


bourhood of  Rome  present  a  remarkable  example  ft. 
these  conditions.     In  order  that  water  may  not  hi  i  • ' 
rious,  it  must  bo  kept  flowing,  always  running  ^ml^^ 


and  from  the  blades  of  herbage.  Regarding  the  tl 
of  irrigation,  Sir  Humphry  Davy  says — 1<  Water  {■ '?'' 
Intely  essential  to  vegetation;  and,  when  land  has kT' 
covered  with  water  in  the  winter  or  in  fhn  !.._•     .  "• 


>.u,iiv»  .Till.  .........  ...  .....  .........  ...  lu  iiiu  ocginninu 

spring,  the  moisture,  which  has  penetrated  deep  i,,.    |' 
soil  and  even  the  subsoil,  becomes  a  sort  of  nourisi, 
to  the  roots  of  ]ilants  in  the  summer,  and  prevonta  i?'^'" 


bad  effects  which  ofYen  happen  in  lands  in  their  n 
state,  from  a  long  continuance  of  dry  weithcr.    \\i 
the  water  used  in  irrigation  has  flowed  over  a  caVo 
country,  it  is  generally  found  impregnated  with  parlw""' 
of  lime,  and  in  this  state  it  tends,  in  many  inaian. ""' 
ameliorate  the  soil.     Common  livcr  water,  also 
rally,  contains  a  certain  portion  of  organizablo  mi.'"' 
which  is  much  greater  after  rains  than  at  other  i'  "' 
and  which  exists  in  the  largest  quantity  when  the  si  .^ 
rises  in  a  cultivated  country.     Even  in  cases  whcreT 
water  used  for  flooding  is  pure,  and  free  from  animal    i 
vegetable  substances,  it  acta  by  causing  the  more  enu  u 
diffusion  of  nutritive  mutter  existing  in  the  lai,j.    ! 
in  very  cold  seasons,  it  preserves  the  tender  roots    j 
leaves  of  the  grass  from  being  injured  by  frost. 

"In  general,  those  waters  which  breed  the  best  fisi, 
the  iHst  fitted  for  watering  nie.idows,  but  most  ofr' 
benefits  of  irrigation  maybe  derived  from  any  kin  li 
water.  It  is,  however,  a  general  principle,  that  wjif, 
containing  ferruginous  inqiregnations,  though  posse.  I 
of  fertilizing  effects  when  applied  to  a  calcareous  soil 
injurious  to  soils  that  do  not  effervesce  with  acidsjj 
that  calcareous  waters,  which  are  known  by  the  catft 
deposit  tliey  afliii'd  when  boi  cd,  are  of  most  use  ongf 
ceous  soils,  or  other  soils  containing  no  remarkritile  q^,. 
tity  of  carbonate  of  lime."  Whatever  bo  the  aiiu-l 
properties  communicated  by  the  water,  it  is  cerbjn  IW 
the  general  elfect  of  meadow  irrigation  is  greatly  to  in. 
crease  the  quantity  of  herbage,  ond  render  it  more  suki 
and  nourishing  for  cattle  than  if  grown  on  dry  ground 

In  order  to  irrigate  a  field,  there  nnist  be  a  (liflirente 
of  levels,  the  water  iK'ing  made  to  run  in  a  main  channd 
along  the  highest  side,  and  thence  sending  small  rilis  a 
over  the  lower  parts  of  the  ground.  Tlic  principle  c( 
adjustment  is  by  sluices.  When  the  slope  is  considfi. 
able,  the  water  requires  to  be  sent  diagonally  across  iti 
field,  and  being  catched  in  mains  at  intervals,  is  aeJn 
distributed,  if  need  be,  in  new  directions.  ThisiscsIM 
catch-work  irrigation.  The  following oliservat;.,n8on'>:! 
subject  occur  in  Stephens'  I'ractical  Irrigator  and  Draiwi' 
— '•  In  the  fornuition  of  an  irrigated  meadow,  there  ai 
two  rules  of  the  greatest  weight :  one  is,  that  no  part  of 
the  works  be  made  on  the  dead  level ;  and  the  otlier.lia 
every  drop  of  water  be  kept  in  constant  motion;  Iw!; 
give  exact  directions  for  the  formation,  is  lu'vom]  iij 
ingenuity  of  man  ;  for  no  two  pieces  of  land  are  frcrisi 
alike,  which  renders  it  imix)ssible  for  the  irrigator  to  folij 
the  sjime  plan  in  one  field  that  ho  has  done  in  anlher. 
Each  meadow,  therefore,  requires  a  dilferenl  desiijn,  te 
construction  to  lie  varied  according  to  llie  nature  of  ii 
ground  and  the  quality  and  quantity  of  water.  IncW 
plains  arc  absolutely  necessary  for  the  purjioa'  of  Iiilt. 
tion  ;  and  the  beni'fit  of  irrigation  deiiends  so  niufhii(>ii 
the  good  mimagement  ami  patient  pevseverance  of  \k-i 
w  ho  have  the  su|ierinleiideiiee  of  it,  that  I  do  not  www 
it  has  so  otten  prove<l  unsuccessful.  However  simple  a 
construction  of  a  water  meadow  may  appear  to  h  en 
KUperliciul  view,  tiiosc  who  enter  minutely  into  the iliLj 
will  find  it  much  more  difficult  tliaii  is  co^iku 
imagined.  It  is  not  an  easy  task  to  give  an  irrc.tj: 
surface  the  equal  sIo|h.'  requisite  for  the  o\erllo«icjit 
water.  It  is  very  necessary  lor  the  irrigator  to  haMjs,' 
ideas  of  levels;  a  knowledge  of  superfii-i;il  l'onn«  willtt 
be  Hutiicient     Few  people  unacquainted  with  llic  tidf 


IMPROVEMKNT  OF  WASTE   LANDS. 


M3 


_u.fion  «nd  the  regularity  of  form  which  the  adjust- 
f  of  water  requirns,  have  any  idea  of  the  cxpi-iise  of 


podelUng  I 
uneven, 


the  surface  of  a  field.     Where  land  is  very 
it  is  somctimcx  advisahle  to  break  it  up  with  the 


I  h  and  take  a  crop  of  oats  l)eforo  the  formation  ;  by 
S  WM\<i  tlic  land  can  be  pro[)erly  cleaned  and  pul- 
*  aed  ("fif''™  '"*'''"'"«  ''  '"'"  '"""  ^''''  '''"  kveihng 
TukIi  a"''  "P'"'"  ^^"  folli'W'"!?  yar — an  operation  whidi 
''"''j^ executed  nt  half  the  expense  of  uoinff  tlso  whole 
""■ill  the  HRi'd"  "'"^  wheol-barrow.  But  there  is  one  nd- 
p  l,y  (l(iin(T  the  whole  work  with  spado  and  barrow, 

wlcciiilly  ^"^^"^  '■'"'  '"'''^  '•'*  ""■""S-  which  is,  that  the 

tur  tun  be  applied  a.s  soon  as  tlvs  beds  are  formed  ;  but 

bv' breaking  up,  and  takiiii?  a  crop  of  oats,  it  will  require 

"  or  three  years  after  the  (jrass  seeds  are  sown  l)i'fore 
lie  water  can  be  used,  which  some  proprietors  think  too 
I  11  to  wait,  tlioreibrc  will  rather  be  at  an  additional  ex- 
m»  to  have  the  tuif  lifted  and  laid  down  again ;  by  so 
Joiiiir  th'''  whole  operations  may  bo  performed  in  one 
Kiisoi'i.  The  srass  seeds  gencraliy  used  for  layiiis  down 
Isnil  fof  wa'i'f  nieudow  are,  vernal  grass,  crested  do^'sluil, 

.1  i^eadow  grjss,  rou;^h-slalkcd  meadow  grass,  ibxiail, 
forin  Rfi'^-'  (fii;CHsiis  slnhmifera),  which  last  is  one  of 
Iho  nrcvailiiiff  grasses  in  all  good  meadows  ;  and  the  best 
of  planting  it  Ui  to  cut  Iho  whole  into  short  pieces, 
(he  same  way  as  cutting  straw  into  chalf,  and  sow  it  with 
oilier  sides.  It  is  not  always  that  those  grasses  give  a 
cooJ  cr>ip  the  lirst  year ;  therefore,  to  obviate  this  evil, 
some  pereiniial  ryegrass  seed  should  lie  sown  along  with 
(lie  otiicrs,  to  produce  a  crop  of  hay  before  the  watering 

commc[iM."  ,,,... 

It  must  be  understood  that  the  irrigation  of  any  mea- 
liow  is  not  to  be  incessant.  Tliere  are  times  wiien  the 
water  must  lie  allogellier  turned  off,  and  the  ground  left 
to  dry;  it  '■''  "t  these  times  that  the  herbage  is  to  be  cut 
^nJ  removed.  In  largo  meadows,  it  is  customary  to  tnrii 
off  till'  water  from  dilferent  parts  at  dillcrent  times,  by 
which  a  constant  succession  of  crops  is  obtaineil.  Speak- 
inir  on  this  part  of  the  management,  Mr.  Stephens  ol>- 
lUfvej; — "  One  of  the  greatest  defects  in  the  management 
of  irrigated  meadows  in  this  c(  untry,  is  the  not  paying 
proper  attention  to  freeing  the  ground  from  subterraneous 
aiiJ  stagnant  water ;  for  experience  shows  that,  wherever 
there  is  too  much  moisture  l>eneath  the  surface,  or  if  the 
water  lodges  tco  long  upon  it,  the  imp  will  always  be 
coart*  and  scanty.  Another  great  error  generally  com- 
mitted is,  allii'Aing  the  water  to  run  too  long  at  a  time, 
without  properly  drying  the  cround.  I  know  some  iri- 
slauees  in  tliis  neighliourbood  where  tiie  ground  is  not 
attoniplcil  to  be  dried  iVorn  tlie  time  the  water  is  put  on 
the  meadows,  in  the  autumn,  till  eight  or  ten  days  be- 
fore the  cutting  of  the  hay  ;  the  cons.vpienee  is,  that  the 
grwsis  of  tlie  coarsest  ipialily,  and  the  groinid  has  be- 
ojimo  so  very  boggy,  that  the  whole  crop  of  grass  is 
oliliijcJ  to  Iw  carried  by  people  to  some  other  plaee  to  be 
iilaile  into  hay.  Another  inconvenience  arises  from  hud 
nianagcnietit,  whieli,  I  am  sorry  to  say,  is  too  prevalent 
in  this  country ;  that  is,  permitting  the  grass  to  stand 
loo  long  before  cutting;  the  conseiinence  is,  coarse  hay,, 
badly  made,  and  in  many  inslanee's  half  rotten  before 
being  put  into  the  stalk  ;  and.  moreover,  owing  to  the 
lateness  of  the  season,  the  aftermath  is  entirely  lost ;  so 
tliat  the  proprietor  has  not  received  half  the  value  of  his 
raiadiiw  which  he  ought  to  have  received,  if  the  hay 
had  been  made  in  the  proper  season. 

"The  llrst  operation  of  the  irrigator  is  to  adjust  the 
wati'r  hi  the  conduc  tor,  or,  if  tlie  meadow  is  m  more 
pirls  than  one,  the  water  in  each  conductor  must  be  tlist 
regulated;  then  he  {■ommcM-es  anew  by  regulating  the 
•tops  in  tlie  tlrst  teeder ;  Imt  should  there  not  be  sndliient 
Water  in  thi  feeiler,  a  littli'  more  must  be  h'd  in,  by  mak- 
ing the  a|ieriurc  wider  or  dee|)er,  'ill  the  water  llows  re- 
guwly  over  the  sides  from  one  end  to  the  otlier ;  from 
Ibe  firit,  he  proceeds  to  the  secon  '  feeder,  and  so  on, 


until  the  water  In  all  the  feedori  ii  adjusted.  Let  t)M 
beds  of  a  water-meadow  bo  ever  bo  well  formed,  yet,  by 
some  places  sinking  inur.^  than  othora,  or  by  the  ice  raio- 
ing  the  surface  of  the  grc  und,  although  the  water  olong 
the  hanks  of  the  feeders  have  been  ever  so  nicely  adjiinlcd, 
it  often  happens  that  thjre  may  be  some  places  bctwo«n 
the  feeders  and  drains  with  too  little  water,  when  it  will 
be  advisable  for  Iho  manager  to  make  a  third  round,  re- 
dressing inequalities  of  the  surface,  bo  as  to  give  every 
spot  an  inch  deep  of  water.  Every  part  of  the  work* 
being  regulated,  the  water  should  be  allowed  to  run 
through  the  wdiolo  of  October,  November,  December,  and 
Jumiary,  from  fifteen  to  twenty  days  at  n  time,  without 
intermission.  At  the  expiration  of  these  periods,  the 
ground  should  be  made  completely  dry  for  five  or  six 
days,  to  give  it  air ;  for  there  are  few  species  of  grasses, 
which  form  the  most  nutritious  part  of  the  herbage  of 
water  meadows,  that  will  long  exist  under  an  entire 
immersion  of  water.  Moreover,  if  the  frost  should  he 
severe,  and  the  water  begin  to  freeze,  the  watering  must 
he  discontinued,  otherwise  the  whole  surface  will  become 
one  sheet  of  ice ;  and  wherever  the  ice  takes  hold  of  the 
ground,  it  will  undoubtedly  draw  it  into  heaps,  which  is 
very  injurious  to  the  plants.  The  object  of  this  early 
preparation  of  the  meadows  is  to  take  advantage  of  the 
autumnal  floods,  which  bring  along  with  them  a  variety 
of  putrescent  matter,  which  is  found  very  enriching  to 
land."  At  the  most  convenient  period  of  the  year,  the 
various  channels  will  require  to  be  cleaned  out,  and  the 
works  repaired. 

PROTECTING   niVER  BANKS. 

Much  valuable  land  on  the  banks  of  riverg  and  rivu- 
lets is  often  laid  waste  by  the  encroachments  of  floods. 
A  few  words  on  this  important  subject  seem  to  lie  neces- 
sary. It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  principle  in  natural 
science,  that  water  is  irresistible,  and  therefore  it  must 
not  be  resisted — it  must  be  humoured.  All  windings  in 
streams  are  causes  by  resistance.  The  water,  in  rushing 
onward,  dashes  against  a  projecting  stone  or  hard  part 
on  one  of  its  banks;  this  sends  it  in  an  opposite  direc- 
tion, and  it  strikes  against  whatever  obstacle  is  presented. 
Tills  [iroccss  of  interruption  soon  causes  a  mouldering 
of  the  banks  in  opposite  directions,  so  that  at  length  the 
water  runs  in  a  zig-zag  or  serpentine  course.  All  this 
mii-ht  have  been  avoided  by  allowing  the  water  a  per- 
fectly free  course. 

'i"he  damage  done  to  lands  by  flooding,  has  led  to  nu- 
merous experiments  for  keeping  the  water  in  its  channel, 
Imt  seldom  with  any  degree  of  success ;  because  the  at- 
tempts have  been  to  hem  in  the  current  by  sheer  force. 
In  all  eases  in  which  it  is  desirable  to  keep  out  tides  or 
high  floods  from  lands,  the  only  secure  method  consists 
in  giving  the  banks  such  a  slope  that  they  will  present 
no  resistance  whatever,  but  allow  the  water  to  rise  and 
subside  with  equal  ease  and  tianquillily.  -\s  a  general 
truth,  tlie  greater  the  slope  tlie  better ;  and  it  should 
never  be  less  than  a  foot  ond  a  half  for  every  foot  in  the 
height.  Employ  no  stones  or  stakes,  or  any  thing  else, 
for  the  current  to  catch  upon ;  but  cover  the  slopes  with 
smooth  turf,  at  a  season  which  will  allow  of  its  growth 
before  the  floods  set  it.  If  any  patches  get  broke,  let 
them  be  annually  mended.  To  keep  out  high  flood*, 
tlie  hanks  must  be  made  correspondingly  high.  Artificial 
embankments,  in  a  flat  country,  should  assume  the  fora 
of  a  long  mound,  sloping  on  both  sides. 

Notwithstanding  the  obvious  utility  of  this  simple  and 
unexpeusive  mode  of  protecting  river  banks,  instancee 
of  damage  are  constantly  occurring  from  projects  of  an 
opposite  kind.  Mr.  Stephens  mentions  the  following  as 
one  of  many  within  his  knowledge: — "An  emliankmeut 
was  tlirowii  round  the  small  island  Mngdrum,  in  the 
river  Tay,  to  protect  the  land  from  being  everflowcd  ly 
the  tide ;  but  it  was  made  so  steep,  that  the  first  spring 


S04 


INFORMATION  FOR   THE   PEOPLB. 


iMva  itrvullrd  the  flnwntpr  pnrt  of  it  to  the  (ground.  A 
Mcond  BttiMiipt  WMK  miicic,  with  tUe  aiMitionnI  exponw) 
of  ■  iitono  Willi  fiiriiio;  the  wnt<T,  which  dhnrccl  the  miino 
'•te  with  the  former  bniik.  Hiiice  thoKe  fuilured,  n  Ihiril 
•mbnnkment  hiu  hoon  frected  with  nothiiiK  but  the  im- 
turnl  B()il  of  the  Innil,  mid  the  whole  covered  with  thin 
turf.  'I'he  leliuth  of  the  prewiit  slope  next  the  wii  i» 
iive  timeH  the  peri^ndirular  hei'.;ht  of  the  bank,  nnd  tlio 
inner  bIo]*  three  (iiii.iH  ;  the  water,  iMeeliiisj  no  reniatunce, 
roll*  down  the  lonir  bIo))c  without  iln'mg  any  injury. V 
We  refer  to  Mr.  .Stephens'  useful  trontiso  for  further  in- 
formation on  this  lubject,  aa  well  ns  on  irrigation  and 
draining. 

In  connection  with  the  protection  of  river  banks,  wo 
may  sny  n  few  words  on  the  method  of  i;i\lniiij;  Innd 
fniin  rivers  nnd  tidiil  estuaries.  This  nmy  be  done  if 
the  river  ap|>earii  to  stniiji^lo  over  an  unnecessarily  wide 
Kpace,  and  britujs  down  ((uantities  of  mud  so  as  to  ]iro- 
duco  imiwdimenls  to  navi|;ntion.  The  process  usually 
followed  with  most  ndvantaije,  is  to  run  out  at  intervals 
■hort  rows  of  stakes,  matted  with  twiijs,  calculated  to 
catch  the  confluent  particles  of  mud,  but  to  allow  the 
water  to  pass  through.  A  sediment  is  thus  gradually 
formed  liolwcen  the  rows;  in  time  it  rises  aliove  the 
water,  and  ultimately  forms  a  crcen  |)rodiictive  surface. 
When  the  water  is  allivted  by  the  tides,  a  row  of  loose 
■tones  laid  between  liich  and  low  water-mark  will  simi- 
larly catch  mud  and  sand,  and  while  foriiiinc;  in-w  land, 
will,  by  narrowing  the  channel,  ijive  greater  im|)efus  to 
the  stream,  and  Iiclp  to  deepen  ilf  bed.  When  done  on 
a  great  scale,  the  bed  of  the  river  is  scoopeil  by  mechan- 
ism, aii<l  the  rubbish  broui;ht  up  may  al\erwarils  assist 
in  elevatinu;  the  newly  formed  banks.  In  point  of  jus- 
tice to  all  parties,  nny  of  these  processes  of  river-bank 
improvement  shoidd  be  done  on  both  sides  of  the  ri\er 
at  the  sam-.'  time  ;  for  if  ellecti'd  only  on  one  side,  the 
water  may  be  dri\en  to  the  o|)posite  shore,  to  the  serious 
djuuago  c{  tlie  lanii  in  that  quarter. 


SI'ADK  IllSnA.NDRY. 

The  reclainjinc  and  culture  of  small  piece*  of  Innd  by 
means  -if  the  spade  and  other  instruments  of  manual 
labour,  is  usually  spoken  of  \nider  the  name  of  spade 
husbandry;  but  is  also  sometimes  called  cottase-farniin^. 
or  field  sardenini? — the  operations  of  the  culturist  bear- 
ing an  intimate  resemblance  to  those  applied  in  or<linary 
kinds  of  gardening.  The  a|)paratus  supposed  to  be  em- 
ployed by  the  cottage  farmer  is  simple  and  unexpensive. 
It  consists  of  two  or  three  spades  of  dlMcnMit  sizes,  a 
yickaxe,  threc-proncrcd  digging-fork,  hoes,  rake,  light 
harrow  which  he  can  dniv/,  scythe,  reaping-hooks,  buy- 
forks,  flail,  wheelbarrow,  <S:c..  according  to  meins.  It  is 
of  great  importance  for  the  cott.me  farmer  to  bo  able  to 
iihar[)en  or  mend  his  Irols,  and  for  this  purpose  he 
iihould  have  a  grinding-atone  and  small  forge,  also  some 
carpenter's  thiols.  Xo  hors<'  or  jiaid  servant  is  ki  pt.  .Ml 
the  work  is  done  by  the  manual  laliourof  the  farmer  and 
his  family.  The  ordy  live  stock  is  a  cow  or  cows,  pigs, 
and  poultry.  The  homestead  consi.-.fs  of  a  colta<;c  uilh 
■ovcnd  apartments — a  cow-lionse,  j>ig-stve,  and  barn. 
The  sizt-  of  the  farm  is  sujiposid  to  vary  from  four  to 
«ix  or  eii{bt  acres,  and  to  he  laid  out  in  .six  or  eight  dis- 
tinct fields,  projicrly  fenced. 

Trenching. 

TTie  haKJR  of  cottage  farming  is  deep  trenching  with 
the  spad;;  but  before  regular  trenching  can  CMniMicnce, 
tlie  land  if  in  u  rouifh  state,  must  l)o  cleared  and  draitied. 
We  bavi!  ttlri'ady  shown  how  these  preliminary  opera- 
lion*  arc  p<'rfo'-;Ti("l  nn  a  large  scale,  and  they  may  very 
MMlly  be  latxiified  for  manual  latuiur.    Suppose  the  jiatch 


of  land  i*  part  of  a  »nos»,  dijj  open  draini  rotnij  ii  ^ 
draw  o(V  the  water;  acarify  the  surtiice  with  the  inn i 
and   burn  the  heaps  of  turf;  scatter  the  nulip,  J'y' 
land   along  with  any  sandy  mat(>rial  or  litnn  which     * 
be   procured,  and   then    <lelvo  all   fnmi  one  nnil  to  iJ* 
other.     TluB  proccsii  will  cause  i\  largo  portion  of  iv 
mossy  fibre  to  decay,  and  the    exposure   to  the  •tJ'* 
sphere  nnd  draining  will  Ikj  found  to  melionUo  the  >,  i" 
In  twelve   months,  the   face  of  the  land  will  \^  . 
like  earlh  and  Icaa  like  peat  than  it  was  at  the  time  "! 
delving. 

If  the  land  bo  choked  with  *t(mes  or  roots,  a||  (w 
encundiranccs  should  be  removed  to  the  de))lh  to  whi  k 
you  di'sign  yinir  trenching  should  go ;  and  the  soon 
you  get  rid  of  them  the  belter.  The  whole  grouM 
should  bo  free  of  every  thing  which  can  present  tli 
slightest  impediment  to  the  spade.  Htnnes  of  rvpn . 
ounce  in  wei(;bt  shoulil  lie  removed.  Where  siilKlrain 
ing  is  reipiircil,  the  stones  maybe  enu'loyed  to  lav  i. 
the  drains.  With  respect  to  the  first  crops  takin  fm, 
the  delved  field,  it  will  depend  on  the  natural  fertility ,!( 
the  ground  and  other  circumstances.  If  the  land  1« 
comparatively  dry  and  fertile,  as,  for  instance,  the  forpd 
land  of  North  .\nierica,  a  goiul  meliorating  nn,]  openin, 
crop  is  potatoes;  but  in  the  case  of  poorer  soils,  inaiinrl 
ing  will  be  recjulred,  nnd  the  first  crop  may  lie  pj<. 
If  the  land  can  be  conveniently  partitioned  into  si'parjie 
fields,  a  (lini'rciit  crop  may  !«  taken  from  each,  thiu 
commencing  a  regular  rotation.  In  proportion  as  \U 
upper  layer  of  earth  is  meliorated  nnd  exliauslnl,  it  niji 
be  necessary  to  go  the  deeper  down.  On  lari;e  firnn 
certain  fields  are  occasionally  left  fallow,  that  is,  doJnJ 
nothing,  unless  it  bo  gathering  what  strength  can  \l 
procured  from  the  atmosphere.  In  cottage  furmin,. 
this  wasteful  practice  must  be  unknown.  Instrad  oftrv! 
ing  to  recruit  the  land  by  giving  it  a  rest,  you  must  /p. 
emit  it  by  turning  up  the  layer  of  moidd  inini(diali'!v 
below  that  whieh  has  N'on  nlfording  notirishinciit  ti 
your  crops.  This  stratum,  which  we  shall  rail  lavct 
No.  2,  extends  from  9  to  18  inches  Kdow  the  surfapc 
supposing  you  to  have  In-en  employing  a  nine  or  ttn-iiich 
sjKiile.  It  is.  uenerally  speaking,  neither  boil  nor  suli. 
soil,  but  partaki's  of  the  qualities  of  both  ;  and  aricrtRo 
or  thri'e  years'  croppin;i,  will  lie  found  to  have  imWy 
n  share  of  the  manure  delved  in  fi)r  the  crops.  The  art, 
then,  consists  of  raising  uji  this  layer  No.  2,  nnd  turnin, 
down  No.  1  in  its  stead.  Uy  doing  so,  [lerliaps  nianui- 
iiiff  may  be  omitted  for  a  year,  und,  at  nny  rate,  a  Ijohi 
manuring  will  stifllce. 

In  N<«iiie  districts  the  depth  of  available  soil  may  nul 
be  so  nuiidl  as  1*^  inches,  the  layer  beiiealli  liein^  rocl; 
or  cbalk,  in  which  ease  the  stirring  of  the  soil  raimot  he 
carried  deeper,  unless  at  an  immense  cost  of  lalioiir;  bet 
in  the  greater  luunber  of  instances,  the  soil  rests  on  i 
till  or  clayey-hardish  substance,  usually  calloil  mhmi- 
and  this  which  we  may  call  layer  No.  It,  must  he  slirrpii 
and  gradually  bronghl  up  in  aid  of  the  upper  soili.  .'s 
mi'iitioned  under  the  head  Si'lifail  nrii!;hiii<;,  the  proper 
metliiHl  of  iionrishincnt  consists  offirst  slining  or  hrrak 
in'.r  up  the  hard  sulisoil.  Oct  down  to  it,  and  no  over  it 
with  a  pickaxe.  Next  year  it  may  be  ininrpniatcd  with 
layer  No.  2,  r.nd  in  two  or  three  years  the  wliolo  three 
layers  may  be  indiscriminately  mingled  or  ni.idp  to 
cliaiig<!  jilaces.  Sm'h  is  the  principle  of  trencliiii;.  I7 
whirli  three  layers  of  soil  arc  alteinatcly,  or  at  proper 
intervals  conipellcd  to  do  duty  ;  and  thus  a  nirm  of  sii 
acres,  by  bring,  as  it  were,  three  siory  deep,  is  prarti- 
callv  as  extensive  a^  one  of  eii;lileen  acres  but  one  Motv 
deep.  When  we  add,  that  while  the  plough  lpa\e« 
lumps  of  earth  unbrokin,  and  comparatively  usticss  lo 
the  crop,  the  spade  dashes  and  pulverizes  the  whole  soil, 
bringing  all  into  elTecliw  play  on  the  roots,  the  vahii'of 
spade  over  (dough  huslnindry  will  be  at  once  apparent 
Another  important  advantajje  of  deep  trenching  with  Ihl 


.1  i'l' 


SPADE   HUSDANDRY 


SOA 


mie,  in  t'"  ''"f '"!?  •'"wn  nnd  destroying 
■    irti  anil  ki'i'cIh  of  wikhIh  which  inny  Ix)  n1 


inwcW 


thn  InrviD  of 
nbout  tho  Bur- 
.        jnJ   it  will    1)0    found   that   tho    tirHt   cropg  of 
irfnoh"^'  ground  are  nlwny*  remarkably  free  of  these 

The  proccnK  of  trcncliini;  to  cflTcct  these  importnnt  ad- 
iiitiiiP''  '^  ""  ''""'''  ^''""y  '"'I""!""  ;  this,  indeed,  Ih  a 
.  .  potto  lie  eotii'euli'd  ;  but,  without  aIniOHt  eonntnnt 
ir,  anil  labour  in  which  a  plriiHuro  is  taken,  cottOKO 
fcrraiiil  will  ci'ticrnlly  come  to  noui^ht ;  'and  ho  who  is 
H'sinclinril  to  midnriji)  the  trouble,  iihould  not  cnininencc 
ihc  uiiilef'i'kiri!;.  'I'o  render  the  work  a»  enny  a»  pos- 
luhle  it  flh'"'!''  '"'  nielliodie,  and  bit  by  bit,  nml  always 
ihp  more  the  ground  is  tilled,  tho  less  ditncult  will  the 
trrnchinff  be.  ,       •       • 

Treiichini?,  either  for  Kunlenini?  or  farminiir,  is  iiRiially 
Tvrfornie'l  an  follows : — Murk  olf  tho  field  in  strips  of 
two  feet  in  width,  an  in  the  nniiexod  dinpriiin.  ("oiii- 
meiicc  ut  X  and  y  it  top  of  thn  field,  and  tuko  from  each 

Top  of  the  Kicld. 


X 

y 

A 

I) 

c 

u 

K 

F 

O 

)l 

HolUiiii  ot"  lliu  Fiulil. 

the  top  layer,  which  wheel  across  to  n  and  /)  lif  'ond  the 
top.5fttie  strip  II.  'riien  (lii;  out  the  lowei  layer  or 
(ulisoil  from  .r,  and  wheel  it  away  to  a  separate  b.eap 
near  whore  ymi  have  laid  the  top  earth.  'I'lie  patch  .r 
W'ms  now  empty,  fill  it  two-thirds,  first  with  layer  No. 
J,  and  next  with  layer  IVo.  3  of  i/,  and  cover  it  with 
Ijyor  Jf 0.  l,or  toj)  earth  of  r.  Thus  pfo  on  wheelini; 
and  shiftinc;  till  you  cmnc  to  the  bottom  of  A.  You 
now  turn  and  trench  upwards  the  strip  B  in  the  same 
manner;  trcifrh  down  ('  and  up  D,  and  so  on  till  you 
have  in  every  patch  laid  a  layer  No.  2  undermost,  and 
a  lavcr  No.  ii  above  it.  The  ovcr|)lns,  wheeled  aside,  will 
fill  up  llv  strip  H.  You  may  vary  the  process  in  many 
ilitfcrent  ways;  and,  tf  you  think  proper,  place  layi  r 
Xo.  2  uppermost,  and  layer  No.  1  in  the  centre;  but  all 
tills  must  be  lift  to  your  own  inijcnuity,  and  your  ideas 
of  what  will  be  best  on  the  occasion.  .As  a  further 
moans  of  melioration,  some  trenchers  stir  Ihc  bottom  of 
oaoh  strip  whi'ii  it  is  exposed  with  a  pickaxe,  which  is  a 
Ciod  plan  ;  for  the  more  the  subsoil  is  loosened  and  pre- 
pared lor  b,  inj;  brought  into  activity,  the  more  fertile  will 
the  fields  Iw. 

Ooiionil  Marnifemi-nt. 

WTielher  the  land  of  a  coltai^-farmer  be  part  of  a  re- 
dalniid  ho;?  or  waste,  or  a  section  of  tertile  soil,  or 
whether  it  Iv  his  own  property,  or  rented,  he  must  ne- 
fonwriiy  exeil  imrcmittini;  industi;'  not  only  in  ditriiiiif; 
and  'reni'hing  his  smidi  fields,  but  in  all  the  ordinary 
routine  of  mannrlnii,  cropping,  and  in  altendini?  to  the 
other  alliiirs  of  his  estaldi.shmcnt.  To  procure  nianuro 
in  suflicioiit  ubuiidaiice,  he  must  keep  one  or  two  cows 
ind  a  piff,  and  into  a  \>\l  adjoinini?  the  cow-house,  all  the 
lolid  refuse,  indudint;  all  that  may  be  collected  from  the 
family,  niii.-t  be  removed.  The  urine  from  the  cow- 
house shou'  (1  bi  collected  in  another  pit,  or  a  barrel  sunk 

Vol.  I.— Ct 


!  in  the  i^nnnd,  proteefod  from  the  a!r.  This  will  N 
found  a  most  valuable  liquid  fur  throwing  over  iha 
land,  to  exeilo  a  youii);  growing  crop.  While  on  thn 
subject  of  manures,  it  cannot  be  out  of  placo  to  mcntioM 
that  most  surprising  results  have  been  cflectod  in  agri* 
culture  and  market-gardening,by  the  use  of  night-soil.  la. 
some  foreign  countries,  whero  this  is  well  understood, 
tho  night-soil  is  carefully  saved,  and  to  destroy  its  oden* 
sivo  rflliivia,  is  mixed  with  gypsum  or  earth,  for  a  lew 
sfcoveWul  of  earth  thrown  over  it  at  once  remceiikll 
oIli'Msiveness  in  this  respect,  besides  bein,  ''erwiso 
useful.  So  little  thought  and  trouble  are  usi  _,  taken 
ill  Uritnin  to  preserve  this  material  for  nianuro,  that 
for  tho  use  of  enterprising  agiculturist*,  (piantities  are 
now  imported  from  France  in  a  dried  and  prepared  con- 
dition. 

There  are  other  means  of  increasing  the  quantity  of 
manure.  From  every  piece  of  ground  a  quantity  of 
rubbish  may  be  collected,  as  withered  leaves,  stalks, 
dippings  of  branches,  roots,  &c.  Improvident  iiersona 
burn  much  of  this  refuse,  but  we  strongly  advise  the 
cottager  or  gardener  never  to  burn  any  thing,  except  it 
be  stumps  of  trees,  or  pieces  of  branches  as  fiiel.  Col- 
lect all  the  inferior  stulT  into  a  heap,  to  which  scrape  or 
carry  all  the  mire  that  can  be  gathered  from  the  path- 
ways, and  the  wlude  will  make  a  compost  dung-hill ;  a 
pailfiil  of  cow  princ  thrown  occasionally  over  Ihc  heap 
will  be  a  valuable  addition,  and  so  likewise  will  lie  a 
shovelful  of  night-soil,  A  little  lime  will  hasten  Ihc  rot- 
ting of  any  compost.  If  properly  managed,  in  twelve 
months  all  will  be  rolled,  and  then  begin  taking  from  one 
end  for  manure.  To  the  other  extremity  you  may  keep 
adding  new  matter  that  is  collected.  The  treatment  of  the 
ordinary  dung-pits  is  to  he  on  the  same  plan.  Do  not 
remove  the  manure  till  it  has  lain  a  Butficient  length  of 
timo  to  decomiiose,  but  keep  taking  from  one  that  ia 
ready,  while  another  is  collecting. 

If  a  rivulet  can  bo  made  to  run  upon  a  meadow,  a^l 
previously  described  under  the  head  Irrigation,  thn  c.it- 
tngor  will  add  pro<ligiously  to  his  stock  of  grain,  fodder, 
and  hay.  From  u  single  acre,  well  irrigated,  as  much 
as  200  stones  of  sweet,  nourishing  hay  may  be  calhercd 
every  year,  besides  a  quantity  of  green  stuft".  The  pro- 
fier  saving  of  this  meadow  hay  requires-  considcrahle 
tact ;  if  any  way  spoiled,  the  cattle  will  probably  not 
touch  it. 

In  the  scheme  of  working  a  cottage  farm,  it  should 
be  an  object  to  make  tho  very  most  of  every  day  out  of 
doors,  when  the  season  and  weather  permit,  and  to 
occui'y  *'>•'  ''•''*''  ^^  winter  and  days  of  bad  weather  at 
work  in  the  barn  or  house.  The  Swiss  small  farmers 
do  much  by  working  at  some  handicraft  employment, 
])arlicularly  weaving  and  making  toys,  during  those  sea- 
sons when  prevented  from  labouring  out  of  doors ;  and 
ill  many  instances  Ihcy  keep  one  member  of  the  family 
at  the  loom.  In  short,  none  must  be  idle  ;  tho  grown-up 
children,  when  not  at  school.  beii!g  made  useful  as  far 
as  their  cai>acities  will  admit  of. 

It  is  cnlculiitcd  that  an  active  spadesman  would  find 
little  ililfaMilty  in  bringing  half  an  acre  annually  into  an 
improved  stuie ;  fur  as  80  rods  make  the  half  acre,  and 
there  being -TIH  c.orkintr  days  in  the  year,  to  accomplish 
this  it  would  require  little  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  rod 
to  ne  trenched  daily,  whereas  a  moilerate  day's  v^-ork, 
even  where  the  soil  is  stony  and  diflicult  to  trench, 
would  considerably  exceed  a  rod.  Hut  where  there  in 
a  boy  or  two  to  assist,  an  acre  might  with  perfect  ease 
be  brouffht  into  an  improved  slate  yearly. 

A\'hether  it  would  be  preferable  to  devote  a  eottaga 
farm  to  a  mixture  of  green  and  grain  crops,  as  in  ordi- 
nary husbandry,  or  make  it  chiefly  a  dairy  farm,  in  which 
the  raising  of  green  crops  for  fodder  is  the  principal  is 
not  the  only  object,  must  depend  on  local  circumstaiicwa 
If  near  a  city,  where  fresh  dairy  produce  could  be  profit 

2  rj 


906 


INFORMATfON   FOR  THE  I'EOPLR. 


•Illy  duiMMiod  of,  ilniry  farming  ihIrIiI  he  mont  RuitaMe, 
■IthuuKli  llui  IiirKO  roiitii  uminlly  exiictrd  near  poptiloiia 
town*  would   prove)  an  obitiicli'.     Hriveriil  ov|)criim-iitii 
I  «vo  Ih'cii  inudo  in  ordiT  to  Hdrortniii  the  (|uuiitity  of  pro- 
duce  ill  roolH,  ailitlcinl    f(raMe»,  &c.,  thut  uii  ucro  of 
Kround,   iiiidor   tliis  xort  of  culturo,  could   lio   lundo  to 
yirld;  uiid   the  ri-Hult  Iihh  liei>n  tlint  even   Ichji  timii  HO 
itidN,  or  hnlf  un  ihtp,  will  prodaoo  food  itunicioiit  to 
rniinlniii  n  cow.     'I'liii  calculation  is  foumlcd  upon  tlio 
w<'ll-kn<)wii   fact,  that   100  ll)S.  wciKlit  of  ^rccn   food,  • 
conaidcrithlc  )H)rtiiin  of  it  routu,  iit  u  ituHiciunt  diiily  allow- 
ance for  an  ordinary  cow.     Uut  cown  kept  u|>on  »uch 
produ''e  inn«tnotl>ti  idlowrd  to  pasture  on  tluw  portions 
of  tlie  K<'<>i«id  tlint   are  devoted  to  ffiiufn  crops,  xucli  hh 
clover,  luccrn,  tarcH,  ^c. ;  but   for   the   In'tler   hcallli  of 
tlie   aniinalH  they  ahould   have   an   o|M-n  Kpaco  to  move 
aluiut  in  adjoining;  the  shed  or  out-liuildini;,  where  Ihcy 
lintl  kIicIut  from  the  Htorin  and  cold;  for  in  Hoilin^  cat- 
tle durini;   the    liottrHt   part  of  auninier,  an   open  nhcd, 
with  a  rack  tor  their  focxl,  is  to  he  preferred  to  slniltinK 
Iheni  up  ill  cloiio  stahlcH,     Mr.  Allen,  in  Iuh  ('iilitiiim  ill 
Home,  very  [iroperly  reiiiarka — "  Whenever  it  is  possihle 
to  make  a  ro<{  of  ground   protluce  500  IIm.  of  the  artill- 
ctal   RraNHex.  in  the  several  cuttingfl  during  the  Hciison,  I 
(greatly  pri'fer  it  to  any  thing  else,  for  cows  thrive  best 
upon  grass  and  hay."     He  afterwards  observes,  in  refer- 
ence  to  this   sort   of   food — "  As   it    soineliiiics    Hullers 
much  in  dry  seasons,  we  must  not  de|K>iid  entirely  upon 
it ;  but  I  have   proved  that  it  is  ]K>ssil)lc  to  kee|>  a  cow 
all  the   year  round  U|)on  the  produce  of  half  un  acre  of 
land  if  it  be  carefully  cultivated."     He  then  prwceds  to 
give  a  list  of  the   produce   he  raised,  wliich  consists  of 
lucern,  calibaije,  tares,  inangel-wur/.el,  potatoes,  lurni))s, 
parsnips,  and   canots;  and  as  a  portion  of  hay  is  indis- 
pensalile  along  with  some  of  the  root-crops  during  the 
winter  season,  he  did  not  attempt  to  grow  it,  but  sold  a 
portion  of  his  potatoes,  and  laid  out  the  sum  he  received 
for  them  in  hay.     We  need  only  add,  that  whatever 
numl)cr  of  cows  \>c  kept,  they  must  be  fed  entirely  within 
doors,  and  only  sutl'ered  to  go  out  in  any  small  enclosure 
for  the  sake  of  air  and  exercise. 

I'Inn  of  a  Thrce-Acro  Farm. 

With  tl'.e  view  of  keeinng  up  in  the  country  a  certain 
numln^r  of  peasjint  families  who  should  Ik-  able  to  assist 
farmers  at  particular  seasons,  the  late  Sir  John  Sinclair 
planned  a  system  of  cottage  farms  of  three  acres  each  ; 
these  were  individually  to  be  cultivated  entirely  by  ma- 
nual labour,  and  by  the  cottager  and  his  family.  Crom 
the  account  of  the  method  of  managing  these  cottage 
farms,  which  he  has  given  in  the  second  volume  of  tlie 
Farnitr'n  Masdzine,  we  select  the  following  particulars: — 

"  Course  rif  Cropt. — The  three  acres   propos«'d   to  be 

cultivated  should  be  divided  into  four  portions,  each  con- 

(isting  of  three  roods,  under  the  following  system  of 

management : — 

Romls. 

I'mltr  poinloej.  two  ronils;  under  turnips,  one. .'i 

L'lHlt-T  winter  lurfs.  two  nxiils;  spring  lufcs,  one.-  ••  -'A 

L'nil'T  tiarh'v,  whr-at,  or  oats. 'A 

Ciider  clover,  with  a  mizitire  of  rye-Rriiss, 3 

Toial, la 

••Other  articles  besides  these  might  he  mentioned  ;  but 
it  wems  to  me  of  |)cculiar  iin|H)rtance  to  restrict  the  at- 
ter.tiin  of  the  cottager  to  as  few  objects  of  cultivation  as 
possible.  It  is  proposed  that  the  produce  of  the  two 
roo<ls  of  poUitoes  shall  go  to  t!ie  maintenance  of  the  cot- 
tager and  his  I'aiiiily,  and  tiiat  the  rood  of  turnips  should 
iH>  uiveii  to  the  cow  in  winter  and  during  the  spring,  in 
•ddiii  in  to  its  otiu  r  fare. 

"'i'he  second  portion,  sown  with  tares  (the  two  roods 
of  potatoes  of  the  forincr  year  to  be  successively  sown 
with  winter  tares,  ami  the  turnip  ro(Kl  with  spring  taresj, 
might  partly  be  cut  green,  fur  foediiig  tlie  cow  in  summer  , 


•iioli 
luiiin 


and  autumn ;  but  if  the  aeason  mk    permit,  ih« 
ought  to  be  made  into  hay  for  the  winter  and 
food,  and  three  roiwls  of  clover  cut  green  for  suumifr'f""? 
<•  'I'he  third  portion  may  lie  sown  either  willi  b   l    ' 
wheal,  or  oats,  according  to  the  soil  or  cliiimu.  onT  7 ' 
general  custom  of  the  country.     The   slruw  of  » 
these  crops  would  be  of  osHcntial  service  for  lilierii     I* 
cow,  but  would  be  itill  mora  useful,  if  cut  into  chail'  f 
feeding  it.  '   " 

"  The  fourth  portion,  appropriated  to  clover  am] 
grass,  to  be  cut  green,  which,  with  the  assislanoo  JT 
orchard,  will   produce,  on   three  roods  of  laiu|,  ai  n    !k 
foml  as  will  maintain  a  cow  and  her  calf  for  fn'o  mn  ii 
namely,  from  the  end  of  May  or  beginning  of  J   "" 
when  it  may  be  (irsl  cut,  to  the  1st  of  i\ovcin|>|.r  be   T' 
some  assistance  to  the  pigs.     It  is  supposed  lluu  an    '" 
of  clover  and  rye-grass,  cut  green,  will  jinMhiee  iiutlou 
pounds'  weight  of  food  for  cuttle.     'I'lireu  ri)(Klii  ii,', 
fore,  ought  to  yield  15,U00  poiiniU'  weight,    A  lar'ac  '^"*" 
rc(|uires   110  jiounds'  weight  of  green  fisxl  y^t  duv'" 
middling  cow,  such  as  a  cottager  is  likely  lo  purcha'ir' 
not   above   i)0   jiounds ;  coiisci|uently,   in   fivo  ,,,„,.  ' 
allowing  13'iO  pounds'  weight  lor  the  calf  and  the  ciK*" 
there  V  ill   remuin  13,080   pounds  for  the  cow.    \v'''' 
there,  however,  even   a   small   deficiincy,  it  woulj  i 
more  than  compensated  by  the  roiKl  of  land  proposed 
be  kept  in  perpetual  pa>ture  as  an  orchard. 

"  iVodc  ill  irliii-li  I  lie  family  miitj  he  mnin!(iincd.—\i\ 
calculated  that  three  roods  and  eight  perches  ol"  potjiu,,, 
will  maintain  a  family  of  six  (mtsoiis  for  about  ni,. 
months  in  the  year,  but  nccording  to  the  precedinij  ulj, 
it  is  propoM'd  to  have  but  two  roods  i'  Ut  that  articlp' 
for  however  valiialple  potatoes  aru  jnstiv  accounti'd  vet 
some  change  of  food  would  be  acco|..iM  V  ;  and  ihe'col. 
tagcr  will  be  enabled,  from  the  produce  of  tlie  cow  ajij 
by  the  income  derived  from  his  own  labour,  and  from 
timt  of  his  family,  to  purchase  other  whulcjunie  aiticlei 
of  provision. 

"  Mtinner  in  which  the  Stork  may  hf  ktpl, — U  appears 
from  the  preceding  system  of  croiijiing,  that  ten  roodsot 
land,  or  two  acres  and  a  half,  are  appropriated  to  lU 
raisinir  of  food  for  the  cow  in  suininer  ami  winter  !«. 
sides  the  pasture  of  the  orchard  ;  and  unless  the  soason 
should  he  extremily  unfavouralde,  tin-  prochicc  will  [« 
found  not  only  ad  r.  ,'ita  to  that  purpose,  but  also  ij 
maintain  tlie  calf  fo.  some  time,  till  it  can  be  sold  to  aj. 
vantage.  It  is  indeed  extri'inely  material,  under  llij 
proposed  system,  to  make  as  nuich  profit  of  tliccalvosai 
possible,  as  the  money  thus  raised  will  be  a  resource,  tn 
abling  the  cottager  to  replace  his  cow  when  a  new  one 
must  Iw  jiurchased. 

"  For  the  winter  provision  of  the  cow,  which  is  the 
most  material,  Ix-cause  the  summer  focnl  can  be  nion 
easily  procured,  there  is  the  produce, 

«  1.  Of  about  three  roods  of  tares  made  into  hay. 
"2.  Of  three  roods  of  etiaw,  deducting  what  may  ta 
necesKary  for   litter;  and   if  dry  earth   l)e  put  into  iL- 
cow's  hovel,  and  n^moved  from  time  to  time  to  the  dung. 
hill,  little  or  no  litter  will  !>c  necessary. 
"  ."3.  Of  one  ro<xl  of  turni|i.i. 

"  The  whole  will  Im"  :iulllcient  for  seven  months  in  the 
year,  namely,  from  the  1st  IS'ovemlH-r  to  the  1st  June; 
and  during  the  remaining  five  months,  the  pasture  of  ih« 
orchard,  some  of  the  winter  tares,  and  the  produor  of 
three  roods  of  clover  and  dry-grass,  will  not  onlv  sufc, 
but  will  furnish  a  surjdns  for  the  calf,  if  it  is  k  'pt  for  any 
length  of  time,  and  some  clover  fir  the  pigs.  The  iiifi>. 
rior  barley,  potatoes,  &c.,  will  of  cimrse  be  given  to  the 
pigs  and  poultry. 

"IVi/iu'  i>f  the  Proilwr. — The  laud  thus  niinagcd  will 
certainly  produce,  by  means  of  the  extra  iiichistryof  tht 
family,  and  at  a  small  expense,  a  most  important  adili- 
tion  to  the  income  wliich  the  cottager  may  derive  ftom 
his  ordinary  labour.     V»t  iiivtauce— 


SPADE  HUSBANDRY. 


MV 


Per  Annum. 
t  T)«  orchard,  aiiitr  lh«  tree*  becoma  (Vuiu 

(III,  wjII  JirulmMy  yn-l<l  I,.l  10    0 

I  Three  rondt  il  tiirniiia  mill  piiinloei,  4    II    0 

II  Ki«lii''"M  liinlieliiof  l)»rli'y,  al  4>., .....a  I'J    0 

\  Thu  ciivf  mxii  caW, 7    n    o 

I.1I0K'. •, 3    "    0 

«.  I'ouiiry  Bii'l  "M a   n   o 

Tolnl, I,si  U    0 

aWhrrc  whMt  can  b«  raiwil  initoad  of  liarlcy,  the 
Mrtfit  wnulil  l>o  "'ill  more  coiiBiilvrtlile.  Opitiiona  will 
dilSt  inuili  regarding  the  vuluo  put  on  cnch  articli- ;  but 
il,a>  u  lit'  littl"  conBC(|urncc,  at  tlio  total  cannot  bo  ac- 
couiiU'il  till)  hiffh. 
11  TiHic  roiniral  far  Cullivatini;  the  I.nniL — 'JMio  qunntity 
cf  land  iiitciiili'd  to  be  cultivntcJ  will  not  nmlcrially  in- 
UrfiTo  with  llio  UPUiil  labour  of  the  cottugrr.  It  will 
piilv  rciiiii'"  '"  '"'  ''"K  once,  und  is  then  lit  to  be  cropi^'d. 
It  JH  projiDHi'd  tlint  only  nine  roods  Rlinll  )io  annually 
culliiait'cl  (tlic  renmining  three  roods  b;>ing  under  elover 
tiiJ  ryi'-KriiHH),  and  nine  roods  niuy  \ic  dug  in  the  spare 
0)'  aliout  <')-')S  hours,  or  at  the  rate  of  62  hours  |ier 
rooil.  'I'lii^  "'"y  ''*'  done  ut  by-honrs  (more  edpecially 
wlu'ii  llio  family  of  the  cottuijer  shull  bo  sotnewhut  ad- 
vanciHl,  Hiid  eonKcquently  more  nble  to  furniHh  a!<Hiitt- 
aiiw;  liut  HuppoHing  tlint  the  digging,  manuring,  hurvcst- 
iiijr,  &r.,  will  reciuiro  twenty  entire  days  jier  anninn,  in 
aJJition  to  the  by-hours,  on<l  allowing  sixty  days  fur 
guuJuys  and  holidays,  there  will  remain  USfl  days  for  tlio 
orJiiiiiry  harid-l.diour  of  tli^  cottager,  which,  nt  Is.  (id. 
pcr(l:iy,  would  amount  to  X"l,  78.  (id.;  the  earnings  of 
till'  will'  and  children  may,  a  an  average,  be  worth  at 
liaat  X'l  iier  annum  more,  .iliis  is  certainly  a  low  cal- 
:ula^ii"i.  consiilering  how  much  may  bo  got  during  the 
haf  and  corn  harvests.  Hut  even  ut  that  mtxlerutc  esti- 
aialc,  tlio  total  income  of  the  family  will  be  us  follows: — 

1  rrciiliiceof  tlie  furm, I,.ai    3    0 

2, 1.aliDiiror  ilm  ciiiliider, i.'l    7    (i 

3  i;iiriiliiB»or  llie  I'liinily, 4    0    0 


Tntiil, I..4li    0    6 

«T\tnt  and  Palnnre  of  Income. — The  rents  of  cottages 
and  of  land  vary  so  much  in  dillercnt  parts  of  the  king- 
dom, Miat  it  is  ditficult  to  ascertain  an  average.  But  if 
the  cotl.i!;c  shall  be  staled  at  £3  per  annum,  the  land  at 
253.  [UT  acre,  and  the  orchard  at  10s.,  the  whole  will  not 
exceed  X7,  15s.  'J'hc  cottager  will  also  be  liable  to  the 
pnvmcnt  of  some  taxes,  say  to  the  amount  of  jEl,  ."is. 
miire.  Hence  the  total  deductions  would  be  about  X'J, 
leaving  a  lialance  in  favour  of  the  cottager  of  X;J7,  9k.  (id. 
Considering  the  cheap  rate  at  which  he  is  furnished  with 


tagrra,  which  has  been  foUfii'     hi  ..  ^  .i«ti     ■  dM 

grazing  districts,  may  thus  be  lelitli'i.  'er  tfc>  iioi* 
kingdom;  and  indeed,  if  the  uIiovh  pi  .  f  and  M 
answer,  in  plai«  of  four  or  five  ui  i.  s  in  ,\\  ,  CmkI- 
iiig  n  single  cow,  it  would  be  mncb  In!  i,  even  m  the 
grazing  counties,  to  restrict  the  land  lu  a  dWr  quantity 
under  a  tillage  mode  of  managemt  nt. 

"It  is  of  infinite  conHoijuence  toentablish  tin  practica 
bilily  of  this  system,  as  tlie  means  of  removing  a  moat 
unfortunate  obstacle  to  the  impro\enient  of  the  country. 
It  is  well  known  to  be  the  only  iiopulur  objiclion  to  tli« 
enclosure  of  our  wastes  and  commons,  that,  while  unen> 
closed,  a  number  of  cottagers  are  enabled  to  keep  cnwa 
by  the  means  of  their  common  rights,  and  that  their  cowa 
disappear  when  the  commons  are  enilowd.  Hut  if  ao 
small  a  portion  of  land  as  3J  acres,  when  improved  and 
properly  cultivated,  can  enable  u  ei.llnger  to  keep  a  cow 
to  more  advantage  than  with  a  right  of  conunon,  whicK 
can  hardly  Is;  doubted,  as  he  is  enabled  to  provide  winter 
as  well  us  sumincr  food,  there  is  an  end  to  that  obstacle 
to  improvemiiit.  Indeed,  if  sufl'icieiit  alleiition  be  |  aid 
to  the  prini'iples  above  detailed,  the  siluation  of  the  cot 
tagiT,  instead  of  being  deteriorated,  woidd  be  materially 
brltered  by  Ihe  enclosure;  and  his  rising  family  would  Iw 
early  accusloined  to  habits  of  industry,  instead  of  idle- 
ness  and  vice. 

"  I  hhall  conclude  with  asking,  if  any  one  can  figure  U 
himself  a  more  delightful  spectacle  than  to  see  an  Indus 
trious  cottager,  bis  busy  wife  and  beallhy  family,  living  in 

0  comfortable  house,  rented  by  himwdf,  cultivating  hit 
little  territory  with  his  own  hands,  and  enjoying  the  pro 
tits  arising  from  his  own  labour  and  industry  1  Oi 
whether  it  is  possible  for  a  generous  landholder  to  om 
jiloy  his  property  with  more  salislaction,  or  in  a  mannei 
moie  likely  to  promote  not  only  his  own  but  the  public 
interest,  than  by  endeavouring  to  increase  the  number  of 
such  cottagers,  and  encouraging,  by  every  means  in  hi* 
power,  the  exeriions  of  so  meritorious  and  so  important 
a  class  of  the  comniunily." 

To  the  article  comprehending  the  above  account,  thei* 
is  added  an  oppendix  containing  a  letter  from  Sir  Henry 
Vavasour,  describing  the  field-gardening  on  his  estato 
We  extract  from  it  the  following  )mssages  : — 

"  I  have  for  some  years  encoiiraKed  my  cottagers  in 
Yorkshire  in  this  mode  of  manajiing  their  small  garths  or 
gardens,  which  are  in  general   from  one  to  three  acres, 

1  have  now  an  ojiportunity  of  staling  the  husbandry  oft 
poor  industrious  cottager's  garth.  As  the  man  can  neither 
read  nor  write,  'licse  particulars  have  been  transmitted  to 
me  from  his  own  mouth;  and  as  I  saw  his  land  almost 


Troduce. 


Value. 


R.    P. 

2  0 

I     0 

3  'iO 


210  Hiislii'U  of  jio'moi'S. l,:>\ 

(ill  Ditto  olcnrrul", 0 

R  (JiiiiriiTsorouis,  nt  Us.  per(|imrlrr, 11 

4  l.oail  of  clover,  (mrl  in  hny,  part  cut 

UT'en *..  .I'J 

Turin  I". 1 

In  t;arili'ii-.iiufrf<)r  the  family,  naiin'ly, 
beans,  peas,  cobbajjes,  leeks,  Jcc.,--- '0    0    0       0    0  30 


0  10 
O'JO 


8  quanlily  of  potatoes,  erpial   to  several   months'  con 

•uiniition,  and  with  milk  for  his  children,  surely  with  that  I  every  day  during  the  last  harvest.  I  can  vouch  that  this 
lialance  he  can  find  no  dilliculty  not  only  in  maintaining  ^  account  is  not  far  from  the  truth 
himself  and  family  in  a  style  of  comfort,  but  also  in 
pliciii!,'  out  his  children  properly,  and  laying  up  a  small 
annuid  serplus,  that  will  render  any  parish  assistance, 
either  in  sickness  or  old  age,  unnecessary. 
".A/d(1)U(1>,'M. — The  land  possessed  by  the  cottager  would 
be  completely  cultivated,  and  rendered  as  productive   as 
pof.siblD.    The  dung   pnxluced    by  the  cow,  pigs,  &c., 
would  lie  amply  sutficicnt   for   the  three  roods  uniler 
ti)rni|i9  and  potatoes,  whiidt  would  afterwards  prishice — 
1.  Tares;  U.  Harley;  and  3.  Clover;  with  a  mixture  of  , 
rve-|!ras3  in  regular  succession,  without  any  additional  , 
manure.    The  barley  should  yield  at  least  IS  bushels,  | 
besides  3  biislu  Is  for  seed  ;  and  if  wheat  is  enltivatcd,  in  : 
the  same  |iro|)oitioii.    The  milk,  deducting  what  may  be 
necessary  for  ihe  I'alf  and  the  cottager's  family,  niisilit  be  1 
solJ  in  its  orijiiiial  state,  if  there  shall  be  a  market  for  it ;  ■ 
Oreouverted  into  Imti.er,  for  tln^  pur|)ose  of  8U|iplying  Ihe 
opighliouriiig  towns  or   villages.     .Such   eoltagei'*,  also, 
ffiiLjIil  certainly  »i  nd  lo  market  both  eggs  and  poultry 


neilael  rent. 

S.'.'.l,,  ,Vc... 

Value  of  Inliour,  • 


.L.n 


9 

.;.   3 
to  10 


L.54     0    0 

f  the  house. 


3    0    0 


I'rofil,* 


0  Incburiiig 
0 
0 

-I'roilnii!  liefore  staled. 

L.a3    2    0      I,.M    II    I) 

'.':)    'i    U 

L.30    IS    0  ifsnid  stmBrHel, 
oxebnivucfbuiler. 

"His  stock  wos  twocr.ws  ond  tw:)]di5s;  one  of  his  caws 

had  a  sunnner's  gait  for  tvvenly  weeks  with  bis  landlord. 

The  laird  wus  partly   pb  'iglied   and   partly  dug  with  tba 

"It  i>  hardly  possible  to   suggest   a  measuie   more    spade,  cultivated  (the  plout'liiag  excepted)  by  the  man, 

Kkelv  to  promote  the  l)enefit  of  a  numerous  and  valuable  ,     .  ,„,  ~  ~.         ;     ;    :  '      '  ' 

^.  i'    t  <        iiM  .  .•  1        •  I  »         •  llfsi' mid  ilie  iriouding  calculations  refer  t»pricei«nu»- 

•vHl)  of  people.     1  he  system  ot  keeping  cows  by  cot-    ter  of  >  ears  Bgo.—Eo. 


MR 


INFORMATION   FOR  THK   PKOPLE. 


<)a  wiA<,  •!,(]  n  i^irl  about  twdve  ycnm  uf  iKf*.  in  llirlr 
tfiart  himrn  Irom  llmir  lUily  /inn/  work,  w^IiIimh  n  wliolii 
liav  off,  r\i'i'|it  ill  harvnit:  mailt)  lh«  rriit  in  liuUcr,  lie- 
mirm  tt  jiitli-  iiiH'il  in  the  fmiiily.  '1'Ih'  i"«n  rrliilp»  th»l  he 
tliiiilM  he  rIciirH,  niui  vriir  with  iinolhrr,  from  the  thri-o 
■<'rc^  athiiit  XM).  The  ilaily  waK<'*  In*  I'ltinily  varua 
tirarly  kiv|i  Ihi'iii.  It  in  vi<ry  eviiinit  thiit  tliiii  man  rlriira, 
fMin  hi*  Ihri'i'  Hire*,  iiiorr  than  ii  I'uimcr  run  |H>iwiIi|y  lny 
hy  tVoiii  iiiiiri'  than  rmlity  uiti'k  of  IuihI  in  ih«  ciiiiimon 
buabaiiilry  i>l'  'lie  rouiilry — piiyinii  fur  horm'it,  mtviiiiI*, 
Ac.  ,  uiiil  it  iMiixt  f  -liviiiiii  III  FVi>ry  onit  Imw  nrrul  tliu 
%ij«4nliii(r4  miiHl  Ih'  to  inh,t'ij  ji  I'liltivnliiiR  laiiil  in  lliia 
Dianni-r.  It  u'»uM  liiivn  lukcii  iniirc  ih.iii  hull'  thi<  i|iiiin- 
iity  of  hit  thiri!  lu'ifii  in  pimturi)  fur  oiio  (.iw  at  i^nimi 
'luriilK  half  Ihoyi'ur;  whi-tfaii  (i'xri>|it  Ihr  Hummt'r'ii  xait 
for  UUP  of  liii  rowD.  an  inrntioiifil  licfori')  hi*  hUicU  of 
two  coWM  mill  two  \ng»  in  krpt  ami  rurriitl  on  the  whole 
fpnr.  Tlii<  family  livi'M  well;  and  u  lianilHoiiif  hiiiii  Iiiih 
Ven  yrarly  iiavi'il,  to  iilacr  out  two  itoiiii,  uml  HU|i|ily  tlii'in 
with  clolhcH,  wanluti^,  &c." 

How  to  Ki'i'p  n  Tow  niiil  I'lR  upon  nn  Arrr  of  I. ami 
A  loricly  \\n»  forincil  in  Iioiiilon  in  IHII.'I,  puIIimI  tho 
Lahourom'  Frinul  Hm-icty,  for  tho  piir|ioHP  of  |iroiurjii« 
allotmnilH  of  Kniall  |)ortionii  of  laiul  to  tlio  luluiiiriii^ 
jOTor,  and  wliow  o|MTiilioi,H,  wr  lulicvo,  have  In-eii  on  the 
whole  U'lii'lii'lal.  'I'hp  land,  however,  iM  let  only  from 
yvnr  to  yenr,  ulilrh,  nH  n  ^eiii'ral  |irini'i|ile,  is  |ieriiii'iouH; 
fur  no  land  will  ever  he  |irii|>erly  eiillivated  when  the 
holder  of  It  Ih  Ii  iMi>  to  he  dii-|(of<wsHed  at  the  eiiil  ol  every 
year.  In  eiittii^e  ax  well  an  larije  firiiiiin;,  the  huHliaiid- 
man  must  he  injured  a  eoiitinuame  in  IiIh  (losrieioilon  for 
at  |eu»t  ten  or  twelve  yearn.  i'crlia|w  the  ahove-inen- 
tioned  NiK'iety  iiiHiireri  u  renewal  of  the  annu;il  leane, 
provided  a  rerlain  fixed  rent  Ih  paid,  which  would  he 
reanonuMi-  and  loiieOeial  to  all  fiartieH. 

TllP  Lnhourein'  Friend  Hoeiety  ha«  |iuhliiihpj  a  cheap 
maj^azine  of  pepulur  information  on  rural  Huhjeel:<,  and 
from  one  of  the  iiumhcrs  wo  pxtraet  the  follcnviiij{  ad- 
Ticea,  heailed — How  to  Keep  a  Cow  and  Pig  U|Hm  un 
Acre  of  Iiand. 

"  1.  Never  let  the  row  out  of  the  eow-hoUKP.  2. 
Carry  her  loud  and  water  to  her.  '.i.  Do  nol  keep  oiip 
foot  of  land  in  pasture.  4.  Dit;  y<nir  land  instead  of 
ploufi;hinu:  it.  .">.  Never  throw  uwny  any  thiiiif  that  ean 
be  turneil  into  niinure.  fi.  Keep  your  land  well  weeded, 
•nd  rolleet  n  l:iri;e  duii^'liill. 

"  A  cniall  row,  whieh  in  liest  for  a  eottauer,  will  ent 
from  aeventy  to  eighty  poundit  of  noml  nioiHt  foml,  of  the 
followini;  kirds,  in  a  day  :— I.iieern  or  riover.  and  the 
leaves  of  yellow  tx'Pi  or  iimncid  wui/.el,  fmiii  the  l>ei{in- 
nin|{  of  Hpriiii;  to  the  end  of  autumn  ;  ami  the  rootn  of 
yellow  heel  or  iiiaiii;!  I  \vur/il.  .Swedish  tnrnlpi.  potaloex,  I 
and  htraw,  from  the  end  of  atilUMin  lill  the  lH'i;iiiiiiHi{  of  | 
•Jiring.  If  the  eow  iii  rurried  onee  a  day,  it  will  in- 
crease the  c|iiaiitity  of  niilk. 

"To  jirorure  tlie'ahove-iiientioned  ero]m,  you  riinst 
have  pleiily  of  maiiurp,  whieh  you  will  oht  lin  hy  e.ire- 
ful  ma>in.;i'i]ieiit.  KuHliert,  potato-slalkH,  and  wenU  he- 
forp  they  Heed,  «hould  lie  induKtrio'js'y  eolleeted  for  the 
cow's  lilier. 

"  f.Krirn  requires  a  pooil  and  deep  noil.  The  prrntind 
for  it  Bhould  lie  -veil  dm;,  two  npits  deep,  and  the  ma- 
nure dp{K)i*ilP<l  at  one  npit  deep.  It  niii.'it  lie  sown  very 
«arly  in  'he  Hjiring,  in  iliills  nine  iuiheH  apart.  Tlip 
quantity  of  Heed  Ih  one  ounce  and  a  quarter  to  the  perrh. 
It  must  Im-  kept  enrefully  free  from  weeiln,  and  watered 
with  the  liquid  inannre  from  lime  to  time  ;  :i><heii  nUo 
ire  a  good  inanure  for  it.  It  Hoinetimes  ndinilK  of  four 
cuftingH  in  the  Kumnipr,  and,  with  atleulion  to  the  fore- 
going rules,  will  eonlinup  prixlurtive  for  ten  or  twplvp 
years.  It  will  not  do  well  upon  shallow  or  hogpiy  land, 
kn  which  case  red  clover  will  he  the  subfititute. 

"Swtliih  Tui  iiifiu  — Prejiare  the  land  as  if  for  drilling 


potnto<'N;   open    the   drills  nlioiit    twenty  imhrs  iluuit 
the  ilee|M'r   the  better;   llll   them   with   iiianurc    ci 
them  with   four  or  flvn   inehei  of  earth,  inulie  thg  ," 
sinoolh   mill   level,  then  with   a  dibble  makn  h,,i,.,  ,  ' 
inches  in  depth,  and  alMiut  twelve  inrlics  apart,  imj  j,  " 
a  seed   into  every  hole.      Keep  thein   free  fmni  v>(>»,| 
Three-quarters  of  a    pound   of  st'pd   will  now  [v,fl. 
perches,     'I'lie  time  for  Howiiig  is  May. 

"  jWd/icr/  irii;:(7,  or  Villnw  I'trl. — The  (jrouml  to  U 
jireparpil  in  the  same  way  o»  for  Hwedisli  liiriiipa.  t. 
the  SOth  to  the  end  of  .\pril  is  the  best  time  for  sowin 
half  a  pound  of  seed  will  sow  twenty  perclun,  i 
.Vunust  and  Heptemlx'r  pull  the  leaves  for  tlic  ,.„,, 
these  will  last  lill  you  lake  up  and  store  the  routs  whid 
should  ls<  done  Is'liire  Ihe  frost  sets  in. 

"  liiil  Clnnr  (lo  be  used  only  where  liiiern  will  f,,. 
suit  Ihe  soil")  ivill  atlord  a  laru;p  quantity  of  Hncii  fuJ 
as  well  as  hay  from  ti'ii  square  perches.  It  will  I,-, 
from  two  to  three  years  on  Ihe  same  ground ;  one  oiiiirs 
and  aquarlerof  seed  is  siiiriiient  for  a  perch.  'I'he  groiinJ 
sliould  he  well  and  deeply  dug,  and  made  as  fine  nn  ijot 
•ilile.  The  time  of  sowing  is  from  February  li||  ,\,„:i 
The  seed  put  in  immediately  nfler  you  have  sown  your 
oats  half  nn  incli  deep  in  clayey  soils,  and  one  iniji  on 
loose  soils;  n  coat  of  manure  should  be  put  on  in  sprinir 
and  autumn.  It  nia;^'  Is-  cut  two  or  three  times  in  tha 
season,  and  should  not  be  given  to  Ihe  cow  lill  it  |)j, 
Ih'cii  rut  some  hours,  or  she  would  bo  in  duneor  of 
bursting. 

"  Wome  dry  food  should  be  given  w  ilh  the  ri-inls.  'Hi, 
daily  supply  forii  cow  for  the  winter  (about  IS(l(|i,VH)iimy 
be  as  follows  : — ;l(l  lbs.  of  mangel  wiir/.el,  or  Velliiw  Ik>(I 
— nn  lbs.  of  Swedish   turnips — I •!  lbs.  of  straw."    Thi 

writer  adds,  wil'i  respect  totlie  lolation  of  crops "Tliat 

supposing  the  hind  of  the  peasant  to  consist  nf  fon, 
roods,  in  Ihe  first  year  hi'  devotes  a  rood  for  oats,  a  mvunj 
rooil  lo  jHitaloes,  a  third  to  liicern,  and  a  fourth  to  h,v| 
and  Hwedisli  turnips;  in  the  wciuid  year  hepi(«|H%. 
Iocs  on  the  first  rood,  beet  and  turni|i»  on  the  wnimL 
liicern  on  the  third,  and  o.its  on  the  fouilh;  in  the  IliirJ 
year  he  puts  beet  and  turnips  on  the  first,  oats  on  tin 
Hpcond,  lucern  on  the  third,  and  )>otatoes  on  lln'  fdun)), 
Uy  this  means  he  elVects  a  pro|s'r  rolalion  df  (nMiiiin; 
advautau'i'ous  in  keeping  his  land  in  heart.  It  v\ill|« 
easy  for  him  lo  devote  sjiaro  borders  to  the  raising  of 
onions  and  seeds," 

SiiaiU'  lliisl.ntiilry  ji  nelgiiim. 

As  a  picture  of  rural  alliiirs  under  a  well-cnniliirtfd 
system  of  spade  husbiindry,  we  presiiit  tlip  fuliuwiiiij 
from  the  report  of  Mr.  (ieorge  Nichols  reiipecliii({  I)(i- 
gium,  laid  before  Parliament: — 

"The  extensive  inamif.uliires  which  at  no  very  re. 
mote  111  riod  llourished  ill  Ib'lgiuiii,  appear  to  lii\(>  mn. 
gregaled  a  numerouH  populalion  of  artisans  in  and  nroiind 
the  great  towns.  Ah  the  scene  of  nianulleturinc  in. 
dustry  chan;;ed,  this  population  was  dejirivid  nf  i>< 
nil  ana  of  haiidicralt  rniplov  mint,  and  was  coni|irllril  lu 
resort  to  the  cultivation  of  llie  soil  for  sulisislciice.  Thii 
seems  to  have  been  the  chief,  though  possibly  not  tlie 
sole,  origin  of  the  systei'i  ot  the  smull  farms  which  «liil 
prevails,  und  whieh  are  lullivnied  by  the  holdi  r  aim  r..« 
family,  geiir  rally  vvilhm.t  niher  asuistance.  Tlio  f^iniii 
ill  Ib'li;iuiii  very  rarely  exceed  one  hundred  acres.  The 
liniiilier  conlaiiiinif  lilly  acres  is  not  gre.it.  Tlin>*(f 
thirty  iind  twenty  acres  are  more  inunenii:*;  hiil  iLe 
number  of  holdings  of  from  live  to  Irn  and  twenty  aorci 
is  very  consideralile,  especially  those  of  smaller  exltnt, 
and  to  these  I  ehielly  eoiilined  my  inquiries. 

The  small  farms  of  from  five  to  ten  acres,  wliidi 
abound  in  many  parts  nl  IJelgiuin,  closely  rcscnilili' ''* 
small  holdings  in  Irelaiul ;  but  the  small  Iiish  ciillivaioi 
exists  in  a  state  of  niiserublu  privation  of  the  coinmon 
comforts  and  conveniences  uf  a  civilized  Lfe,  while  tin 


SPADE  IIIJ 
« 

iLjfiiin  awisi.t  fljriTUT  enjoy*  a  Urijn  pnrtiim  of  tliciiw 
!,,,„.  TW«  hmi«M  of  llm  ntnoll  ctiltivitori  in  llrl- 
(Iff  grnrmlly  luiMtntitlnlly  hiiilt,  aiKl  in  k<>*'<I  >'•'■ 
-,11  tivy  hnvo  coiiiiiionly  a  iili<)<|iiiit(-riH>Mi  in  lli«  altir, 
nJ  clo«'l»  fiM  br(l»  connccticl  witli  tlni  Imvcr  ii|>iirlin«iit, 
•hitll  i*  I'or.voninut  in  ultp ;  n  iinmll  ri'IUri«t(ii  fi>r  tlm 
iliirVi  !>"''  "'""'  '"'  '''"  l^^*'"'  ""  ^^""  "*  ""  "V"">  ■">'' 
in  i)Ul-lii'""'  ''""  ''"'   ["•'•'"•■"i  *•"''  "  nimny  catlle-atall, 

ip,,y,  mill  |)oiillry-lofl.  Tlii'  l>i"i«r  'onerally  CDiilniiia 
dni'iil  ruriiitiirc;  tlm  tx'ililiiiK  niilU'  niii  iii  i|Uiiiitily  ;  iiiiil 
iillhiii'H''  ''"'  '"'■'"I'"''""'  'li'anlincM  (it  tli»  Diiti'li  may 
not  Ik)  overywIiiTO  oIhmtvuIiIi'.  ikn  iiir  of  ruiiifort  ntiil 
nroiirii'ly  |)urvuil«i  thu  wIidIu  rHtuliliitliiiii'nt.  In  thu 
liw-liiiu*'  'I'"  <'"ltli'  nro  Hii[i|ilit'il  Willi  Hlriivv  for  linl- 
iliimi  IIk' ■'"■'K  "'"'  inoiiituru  urti  ciirrfiilly  CDllurti'il  in 
ihc  \M^  i  I'"'  'l>l<'l><''*  li'^''  '**'*'■>  K>'"UriMl  to  rolli-rt  inntrriiilii 
for  iiwiiiifi'i  ''"'  ''f.V  '''"*M,  |iiiliil'>-lo|m,  Ac,  \n\'\  Immmi 
i^lci'ti'ii  ill  11  iiioint  (liti'li  lo  uiiil(  '  ;i>  tiio  prorvHM  iif  for- 
mi'iilutioii,  mill  lii'it|>H  of  riiiniiii'.i  woio  in  ciiiirm)  of  prr- 
paralMii-  '''"'  ('rrinim'H  with  ki-pl  in  a  noiit  aikI  roin- 
iiart  orilur,  mill  a  M'riipuluiiM  ntti'iition  to  a  nioHt  rlKiJ 
ecoiioiiiV  w;H  I'vcrywIicTc  nppiiri'iiU  'I'lii)  family  wi'ro 
deci'iillv  ''l"i''  "I"!"  "'  thrill  WITH  ranHcil  or  ilovcnly, 
jvi'ii  wlion  •III''''  'li'i'""  c'oiiMisti'il  iif  lliu  cimrHcHt  mulrriiil. 
Hie  mull  iiiiivorsiilly  wciir  t!u'  IiImuhc,  iiiul  wooden  »Iiium 
jri!  ill  coiiiiiiiiii  ilMC  liy  lidtli  hcm'h.  Tlio  diet  roiiHiiitH, 
loaliirni'  oli^'it,  of  ry((  lirend  niid^iilk;  the  dimirr  ho- 
inK  UHiiiillv  coiiiposi'd  of  11  iiii'Hii  of  potutocH  mid  oiiioiu, 
with  till-  oi'cnfiiiiiiiil  udditloii  of  homu'  poiindcd  liiiiii  or 
tlia»  of  liiiroii.  Tlu'  cumiilily  of  brown  wliraton  lirciid 
(»ii-uiiu'il  dill  not  iipprnr  to  bo  roiiHidcrublc.  I  iircd  not 
point  iMit  'ill'  HirikiiiK  ('oiitrnxt  of  tin*  iikmIi^  of  liviiii; 
hero  lii'Ki'ri'ii'il  with  tlii'  Kliito  of  tlio  muiic  tIuhh  of  pt'r- 
luim  ill  li't'liiiid;  mid  it  uppcars  importuiit  to  invustiguto 
til-  caumM  of  tliiii  dillori'iiiT, 

111  thi'  Kfi'tttor  pnrt  of  the  flnt  country  of  DpIi^iiiTn  the 
toil  is  li^lit  "»'l  Kiiiily,  HMil  onHily  worked  ;  but  its  pro- 
dui'livi'  piiworH  nro  rcrtiiiiily  inferior  to  llm  jreneral  soil 
of  Ircl.iiiil.  S'lil  t'l"  cliin;ilo  iIih'H  not  np|H*ur  to  Ik'  diipc- 
rtor.  To  the  soil  nnd  eliiimtc,  therefore,  the  Uelniiiii 
iliK'S  not  owe  hii  nuperiority  in  romfort  nnd  poHitioii 
oivr  the  Irish  euilivator.  'l"hc  diirercnco  in  rather  to  Ix' 
fiHiiiil  ill  the  syHtem  of  eultivation  piirhued  by  the  hiiiiiII 
briiiiTS  of  lleluiuiii,  iiiid  in  the.  habitii  of  reonomy  and 
firrtJuiiiuhl  of  tiie  people.  The  rultiviitiou  of  the  ainull 
hrMi*  ill  I)el(,'iuiii  dilfem  from  the  Irinh — Ist,  In  the 
qiiaiilily  of  stall-fed  ttloek  uhieh  in  kept,  and  by  whieli 
a  »ii|i|ily  of  nmiiiire  is  reRnhirly  Boeured;  2d,  In  the 
filrirt  alleiilioii  paid  lo  the  colleclinR  of  niaiiiire,  whieli 
i.  iiiKiit  skilfully  maiiai^ed  ;  :id,  l)y  llio  adoption  of  a 
i\«!i'in  of  rolatiiiii  of  live,  six,  or  Bevon  Bueeensivo  crops, 
rvcn  oil  the  smallenl  fannx,  wliirh  in  in  Htrikin|{  conlrast 
niih  the  plan  of  cropping  and  fallowing  the  laud  pruva- 
li'iit  ill  Ireland. 

Ill  tlie  lariiiH  of  nix  ncrpH,  we  found  no  plough,  homo,  or 
farl;  llie  only  agricultural  impli'iiicnt,  besidcH  tho  »piide, 
I'lirk,  uiid  wlicclluirrow,  whirh  \vc  observed,  was  a  li«lit 
n  ikIcii  harrow,  which  mii;lit  be  drained  by  iho  haiiil. 
Tlu'  farmer  had  no  assislance  besidcH  that  of  his  wife 
ami  cliildren,  excepting;  noiuetiines  in  hurvext,  when  we 
liiuii;!  he  ocoiiaioiially  obtained  llio  assislaiicc  of  a  neiuh- 
liiiur,  or  hired  u  labourer  al  a  fruiie  (x-r  day.  The  whole 
III  ihe  land  is  diii;  with  the  8|mde,  uiul  Ireiichcd  very 
di'rji,  liut  us  the  soil  is  li^hl,  thu  hiboiir  of  di^L^iiit;  is 
iiol  itreal.  Tlie  stock  on  the  small  fariiM  which  wu  ex- 
amiiH'J,  consisted  of  a  couple  of  cows,  a  calf  or  two,  one 
or  two  pi.;f.,  sometiiiies  a  ^oal  or  Iwo,  and  some  poultry. 
The  cows  are  iilto;»ether  slall-feil  on  straw,  turnips, 
riover,  rye,  vetches,  carrots,  poliilocs,  and  a  kind  of  soup 
uiade  liy  lioiliiig  up  potatoes,  peas,  lieaiis,  bran,  cut  hay, 
kc,  into  one  mess,  anil  which,  living  given  warm,  is 
uiJ  lo  bo  very  wliole«ome,  and  lo  promolo  ihe  gccretion 
of  milk.  In  sonio  districts  liie  grains  of  iho  breweries 
mi  ilislilleries  are  used  for  the  cattle;  and  the  failure  of 


601 


thn  Heli^ian  illstillerlei  hni  hftn  rrrkoni'd  a  caUinity  U 
the  agncultiirn  ol  the  country,  on  Account  of  (lir  Itiw  of 
thn  Miipply  of  manure  which  was  prtHlitcid  by  the  cauls 
fed  in  the  atnllii  of  these  eHtabllnhmenls. 

Tlir  NucccH  of  the  Hi'lgian  farmer  drpeinU  inuiiilj 
upi'  I  thn  numU'r  of  cattle  whieli  lie  can  niaiiitaiii  by 
the  produce  of  his  land,  the  general  lighli  ess  ol  thu  loU 

rendi  ring  th nstuiit  application  of  iiiai  iro  ubMiluti<ly 

iieceMary  to  the  prmluction  of  the  crop.  The  attention 
of  the  ciillivulor  i»  always,  therefore,  es)a'ci;illy  direcleii 
to  obtain  a  supply  uf  nmiiiire.  Home  small  farincrii, 
with  this  view,  agree  with  a  «liee|Mlealer  to  lind  itall- 
room  and  straw  for  hin  ihrrp,  to  attend  lo  them,  and 
to  furnish  fodder  at  the  market  price,  on  rondition 
of  retaining  Ihe  dung.  Thu  ■mull  firmer  collects  in  hit 
Hlable,  in  a  fosse  liiud  with  bricks,  the  dung  and  nioii- 
ture  of  his  callle,  lie  buys  suMicienl  limn  lo  mingle 
with  thu  scourings  of  his  ditches,  and  with  the  decayed 
leaves,  poUlo-lops,  die,  which  he  is  carelul  to  collect, 
ill  order  lo  enrich  his  coiii|xist,  which  is  dug  over  two 
or  three  times  in  the  cuiirstt  of  tho  winter.  !\o  portion 
of  the  furiii  is  ullovved  to  lie  fallow,  but  is  divided  uilo 
six  or  seven  sniull  plots,  on  each  of  which  a  system  of 
rotation  is  adopted ;  luid  thus,  v\'ith  the  aid  of  nianuro, 
the  pollers  of  thu  soil  are  inaintaiiieil  unexlmiisted,  in  a 
state  of  ciiiistani  activity,  'I'he  orili'r  of  succession  in  the 
crops  is  various;  but  wo  observed  on  the  six-acre  farina 
which  we  visited,  plots  appropriated  to  potatoes,  wheat, 
biirh'y,  clover  (which  had  been  sown  with  the  precetling 
year's  barley  V  llax,  carrots,  turnips,  or  parsnips,  vetches, 
and  rye,  lor  immediute  use  as  green  food  for  cattle.  Tbe 
llax  grown  is  heckled  and  spun  by  thu  farmer's  wife, 
cliielly  during  the  winter;  and  we  were  told  that  three 
weeks'  labour  at  the  loom  towards  lliu  spiiiig  enabled 
them  to  Weave  into  doth  all  tho  thread  thus  prepared. 
The  weavers  are  generally  a  distinct  class  from  tho 
small  farmers,  though  thu  laboureis  cliielly  supported  by 
the  loom  commonly  occupied  about  an  acre  of  land, 
sometimes  more,  llieir  labour  upon  the  land  alternating 
with  their  work  at  thu  loom.  In  some  districts,"  we  were 
informed,  every  gradation  in  tlio  extent  of  occupancy, 
Irom  a  ipiarter  or  half  un  acru  to  the  six-acre  farm,  ii  to 
be  found  ;  and  in  such  cases  nioru  work  is  dune  in  the 
loom  by  the  smaller  occupiers. 

The  labour  of  the  field,  thu  management  of  tho  cattle, 
the  preparation  of  manure,  tho  regulating  tho  rotation 
of  crops,  and  the  necessity  of  carrying  a  certain  portion 
of  llur  produce  to  market,  call  for  tho  constant  exercise 
of  industry,  skill,  and  foresight,  among  the  lielgian  |icap 
sant-farnicrs;  anil  lo  these  qualities  they  add  a  rigid 
econoiiiy,  hiiliitiial  sobriety,  and  a  contented  h|iiril,  which 
funis  its  chief  gratificalion  beneath  tho  doiiiestic  roof, 
from  which  the  father  of  the  family  rarely  wanders  in 
search  of  excitemeut  abroad.  It  was  most  gratifying  to 
observe  Ihc  comfort  displayed  in  tho  whole  economy  of 
Ihe  households  of  thcso  small  cultivators,  and  the  re- 
s|iectability  in  which  they  lived.  As  far  as  I  could  leurn, 
there  was  no  teiiilency  lo  the  subdivision  ot  the  small 
holdings.  I  heard  of  none  under  live  acres  held  by  tho 
class  of  peasant-farmers;  and  six,  seven,  or  eight  acres, 
is  Ihe  most  common  size.  Tho  provident  habits  of  these 
small  farmers  enables  them  to  niaiiilain  a  high  standard 
of  comfort,  and  is  necessarily  opposed  lo  such  subdivi- 
hion.  Their  marriages  arc  not  contracted  so  early  as  in 
Ireland,  and  the  consequent  strug'^lo  for  subsistence 
among  their  oll'spriiig  does  not  exist.  The  proprietor* 
of  the  soil  retain  the  free  and  unreslricled  disposal  of 
their  projKTly,  whether  divided  into  smaller  or  largei 
holdings.  The  common  rent  rf  land  is  about  iiOs.  an 
acre,  and  Ihe  usual  rule  of  wages  for  a  day  labourer  is  a 
franc  (or  lOd.)  a  day. 

A  small   occupier,  whose  farm  we   examined  neat 
Ghent,  paid  S'-io  francs  |H'r  annuiii  for  about  two  lioii- 
niers,  or  six  acres,  of  land,  with  a  comfortublc  hnusct 
2t  2 


510 


INFORMATION   FOR   THE   PEOPLE. 


ttablinqp,  anil  other  offircs  attnoiicil,  nil  very  good  of 
their  kin  1 ;  tliis  mal<os  the  rent  (reckoning  the  franc  at 
'Od.)  equnl  to  i.'9,  7s.  Ciil.  sterling  per  annum;  and  if 
We  allow  .£3,  7s.  tid.  for  the  rent  of  the  house,  sfablinp;, 
and  other  otRces.  there  will  be  jC6,  or  £1  per  aere  fur 
the  land,  which  nceords  with  tlic  information  we  olv 
taincd  nt  Antwerp,  UrnsBcIs,  and  otlicr  places,  as  to  the 
rent  of  land  in  the  flat  country,  Iho  soil  of  which  is  ge- 
nerally of  the  same  quality  throughout.  This  farmer 
hud  8  wife  and  five  children,  and  njipeored  to  live  in 
much  comfort.  He  owed  little  or  nothing,  he  said ;  but 
he  had  no  cajiitiil  beyond  that  employed  on  his  farm. 
Wo  questioned  him  respecting  his  resources  in  case  of 
sickness.  Ho  replied,  that  if  he  were  ill,  and  if  his  ill- 
ness were  severe  and  of  long  duration,  it  would  press 
heavily  upon  him,  liccause  it  would  interrupt  the  whole 
form -work  ;  and  in  order  to  provide  for  his  family  and  to 
pay  the  doctor,  he  feared  he  should  bo  obliged  to  sell 
part  of  his  stock.  If  his  wife  and  family  were  long  ill, 
and  he  retained  his  strengtli,  the  doctor  would  give  liini 
credit,  and  ho  should  be  able  to  pay  hint  by  degrees  in 
tlio  course  of  a  year  or  two.  The  thought  of  njiplying 
for  assistance  in  any  quarter  appeared  novcr  to  have  en- 
tered his  mind.  Wo  suggested  that  the  Bureau  de 
Uienfaisancc,  or  charitable  individuals,  might  afford  him 
aid  in  such  a  dilliculty ;  but,  with  evident  marks  of  sur- 
yiTise  at  the  suggestion,  he  replied  cheerfully  that  he  must 
take  care  of  himself.  If  a  sick  club  or  benefit  society  were 
established  among  these  people,  so  as  to  enable  them  by 
mutual  assurance  to  provide  for  the  casualty  of  sickness, 
the  chief  source  of  sutl'ering  to  their  families  would  be 
otiviated,  and  there  would  be  little  left  to  wish  for  or 
amend  in  tlieir  social  condition." 

Cjinrnrativo  Value  of  Ppade  Husbandry'. 

It  is,  we  believe,  an  indisputable  fact,  that  a  garden 
produces  heavier  crops,  fi|>acc  for  space,  than  a  field 
uniler  culture  with  the  plough.  "  In  regard  to  the 
diflerencc  of  produce,  an  experiment  was  tried  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Hamilton,  expressly  to  ascertain  that 
jmint.  A  field  was  taken,  which  had  been  cropped 
with  beans  the  preceding  year,  and  the  previous  year 
with  oats.  Two  ridges  were  dug,  and  two  ploughed 
•Itemately,  and  the  wliole  was  nowr  on  the  same  day. 
A  part  both  of  tlie  plouched  and  dug  was  drilled  with 
the  garden-hoe.  The  whole  was  reaped  the  same  day, 
•nd  being  thrashed  out,  the  r^-sult  was,  that  the  dug 
land  sown  bro.idcast,  was  to  the  ploughed  sown  bri.ad- 
cast  as  filly-fivc  bushels  to  forty-two;  while  the  dug  and 
drilled  was  as  twenty  and  a  quarter  bushels  to  twelve 
and  a  quarter  U])on  the  ploughed  and  drilled.  The 
additional  graii:  Tiroduced  was  not  the  only  beneficial  re- 
sult gained  by  diircing ,  for  hi  this  nistancc  there  was 
also  a  great  deal  of  straw,  and  the  land  was  much  more 
free  of  weeds,  and  more  easily  cultivated  next  year." — 
Sir  /oA»i  Siorlair's  Code  nf  jli^riniUiirr. 

Some  soils,  however,  arc  unsuitable  for  sjjade  hus- 
bandry ;  as,  for  instance,  heavy  wet  lands  liable  to  inun- 
dation; stony,  gravelly,  or  shallow  soils,  more  es|)eciully 
if  incumbent  on  chalk.  Manual  labour  is  also  inappli- 
OiWe  where  the  elimnte  is  precarious,  and  it  is  necessary 
to  he  expeditious  in  tilling  the  land,  an<l  in  sowiiiir  and 
narrowing  for  a  crop.  On  these  accounts  spade  lius- 
lmn<lry  cannot  lie  universally  resorted  to  with  advaiitace 
either  to  the  cultiirist  or  the  community.  With  re- 
ijiect  to  its  economy,  where  it  it  available,  there  are  two 
questions. 

Fittt.  Whetlier  the  coflagc  firmer  with  his  six  acres 
tan  rais«>  as  much  pnnliice,  and  at  as  cheap  a  rate,  as  the 
capitalist  can  from  any  given  fix  acres  on  his  farm? 
If  he  cannot  raise  ko  much  at  so  cheap  a  price,  and  can- 
not pay  the  same  projiortion  of  rent,  cottage  farming  is 
decidedly  injurious  to  the  community ;  but  if  he  can 
a<'m|ici«  on  all  these  jioints,  there  can  l)e  no  solid  objec- 


tion against  the  practice.    From  the  foregoing  aTJaen 
of  Sir  John  Sinclair,  ond  from  what  is  khown  resijn,* 
ing  spade  husbandry  in  Belgium  and  some  other  cont 
nental  states,  it  is  placed  beyond  a  doubt  that  more 
duce   is  raised  for  human  subsistence — space,  soil  an  I 
climate    being    equal — by   small   farmers    usini  oiil 
manual  labour,  than  by  largo  farmers  with  horses  atiJ 
plouglis ;  ond  it  is  certain  that  the  produce  is  alwavj 
more  accessible  to  thb  public  than  thot  of  large  farmers. 
who,  by  means  of  their  ciii>ita!,  which  is  very  frequenilJ 
not  their  own,  but  borrow  id  from  banks,  can  hold  them. 
selves  indifferent  respecting  sales,  till,  by  a  fortunate 
contingency,  tlio  prices  rise  and  become  highly  romu. 
nerativo. 

Second,  How  far  is  spade  husbandry  available  in  the 
shape  of  paid  labour  to  the  capitalist  farmer  1  We  j„ 
unable  to  onswcr  this  question  from  our  own  experience 
and  therefore  refer  to  a  pajier  written  by  a  coinpotent 
authority  on  the  subject.  This  is  an  essay  by  ),u 
Archibald  Scott  of  Southfield,  near  Haddington,  who 
obtained  a  prize  of  £100,  w'lich  the  Rev.  C.  Gardiner 
a  clergyman  of  the  church  of  England,  had  proposed  to' 
grant  for  the  best  plan  of  giving  employment  tn  the 
poor. 

"  I  am  quite  convinced,"  proceeds  Mr.  Scott,  "  ihcro 
is  but  one  way  of  employing  the  surplus  popiilation  of 
(England  and  Irelanel,  and  that  is  by  a  judicious  intro. 
du('tion  of  spade  husbandry. 

"  To  show  that  I  om  not  a  mere  theorist,  but  a  prar. 
tical  man,  I  nioy  mention  that  I  rent  a  farm  from  the 
Earl  of  Weinyss  in  East  I-othian,  consisting  of  530 
Scottish  acres;  that  I  have  c\illivated  land  to  a  rnrisiiier. 
able  extent  with  the  spade  for  the  last  three  years,  and 
that  the  result  has  exceeded  my  most  sanguine  :xpec. 
tatidiis.  In  18.31, 1  determined  to  ascertain  the  (litTerencc 
of  the  exjiense  and  produce  between  trenching  landwiih 
the  spude  and  summer  fallowing  with  the  plou(,'h  in  the 
usual  way:  I  therefore  trenched  thirteen  acres  of  mr 
Slimmer  fallow-break  in  the  months  of  .lune  and  Juiv 
I  found  the  soil  about  fourteen  inches  deep,  and  I  turned 
it  completely  over,  thereby  putting  up  a  clean  and  frosh 
soil  in  the  room  of  the  foul  and  exhausted  .noulil.  which 
I  was  careful  to  put  at  the  bottom  of  the  trench ;  thii 
operation  I  found  cost  about  X'4,  10s.  per  Seniijsh  acre, 
paying  my  labourers  with  Is.  6d.  per  day.  The  rostol 
the  field,  which  exjnsisfed  of  nine  acres,  I  wrouijht  with 
the  plough  in  the  usual  way,  giving  it  six  furrows,  with 
the  suitable  harrowing.  I  manured  the  field  in  August, 
the  trenched  got  eight  cart-loads  per  acre,  the  ploucheii 
land  16  ;  the  field  was  sown  in  the  middle  of  September. 
Th<!  whole  turneil  out  a  bulky  crop  as  to  straw,  par- 
ticularly the  trenched  portion,  which  was  very  much 
liMlged.  On  tlireshing  them  out,  I  found  them  to  stand 
as  under : — 

Ry  tronchcri  wheat  per  nerc.  .TO  tiii«liel«  at  0»  Oil. 
To  iwo  yciim' rent  ni  J.'.',  10s. |Hr  ncro        i.~i    n 
I'xpf'tiP'-oftrfiicli:!!^  -  •  -    4  10 

S.vil.   ihrrc  linsliclo  lit  fi«.  Oil.   -  •  In 

lOu'lit  carl-liiiuls  01  nmnnri- nt  4«.    -  -    1  lli 

j;x|)iMi.«e  of  cutting,  thri'slunn,  and  mar- 

kciiiiff  -  -  -  -  1  10 

Profit      .  .  -  -    ;i  18 


Ily  plonchpd  wheat  per  acre.  49  lunhpls  at  0«.  Od, 
To  two  yiari'  p  in.  at  Xi!.  Ills,  pir  acre       Xl    0 
Six  fornnvs  and  harrow  ng  at  I0».  •    .')    (1 

S' nd.  Ihri-f  Imsh'-Is  at  (IB.  Iiil.    -  •  10 

Sj  vicen  cart-lnddH  of  iniuiiiri?.  at  4«.  -    .1    4 

Ilxji'  iiM'  of  cutting,  tlirinliing,  and  mar- 
kiting  •  •  -  -  1  10 
Profit      -           ■           •           •    0    U 


X17U  0 
(I 

n 

3 

0 

0 

(I 

-X17  11  0 

X14   3  8 

(I 

0 

:i 


u 

-XI4 


3  « 

"  I  now  saw,  that  though  it  might  be  diiriciilt  to  tre nti 
over  my  fallow-break  during  the  summer  month",  it  tvu 
by  no  means  making  the  most  of  the  system,  as  the  op*. 
r.ttion  was  not  only  more  expensive,  owing  to  the  land 
being  hard  and  dry  during  the  summer,  but  that  it  wai 
a  uselcsa  waste  of^  time  to  take  a  whole  year  to  perfora 


in  those  distii 


SPADE   HUSBANDRY. 


f.'.l 


. 

£15 

£2  10 

0 

4    0 

0 

1    1 

0 

1  10 

0 

6    7 

0 

-f.15 

ot)ei»t!on  timt  could  1)0  as  well  done  in  a  few  works, 
*"videl  labourcrH  could  bo  had  ;  and  as  in  all  agricul- 
^\  operations  losing  timo  is  losing  money,  as  the  rent 

lut  be  paid  whether  the  land  is  carrying  a  crop  or  not, 
Ihat  in  taking   one  year   to  fallow  the   land,  and 

other  to  grow  tho  crop,  two  years'  rent  must  be 
V    jj  a'^ainst  tho  croj),  or  at  least  there  must  be  a 

lit  charRcd  ngiiinHt  tho  rotation  of  crops  for  the  year 

(he  land  was  fiillow.     As  I  felt  satisfied  that,  by  trcneh- 

,,ith  the  spailc,  tlie  land  would  derive  all  the  advan- 

laws  of  *  summer  fallowing,  and  avoid  all  the  disadvnn- 

lATcs  attending  it,  I  determined  on  trenching  thirty-four 

rtes  of  mv  fiillow-brcak  immediately  on  the  crop  being 
ruaovcd  from  the  ground,  and  had  it  sown  with  wheat 
I  (1,5  niidJlo  of  November,  1832.  I  may  hero  remark, 
thit  I  did  ""'  "PP'y  ""y  manure,  as  I  thought  the  for-  ' 
mer  crop  was  injured  by  being  too  bulky.  As  it  is  now 
threshed  out  and  disposed  of,  the  crop  per  acre  stands  as 
follows;— 

Evnverngonf^l  liiislielsper  acre  at  7s.      -  -    £15    8    0 

Torenii'l'liiMil  ;'i!riuTO 
Kxpfiisui'i'iroiichiiig 

Cutting,  throsliini?,  and  mnrketing 

I'rofit  ... 

-    8    0 

11  The  advantages  of  trenching  over  summer  fallow  arc. 
In  mv  opinion,  very  decided,  as  it  is  not  only  cheaper, 
but,  as  far  «»  I  '"''"  y^'  j"'l»f'^>  much  more  clli-ctual.  I 
im  so  salislied  of  this,  not  only  from  tho  experiments 
•bove  noticoil,  but  from  the  apparent  condition  of  the 
land  after  it  has  carried  the  crop,  that  I  have  this 
(utiimn  cultivated  about  a  hundred  acres  with  the  spade, 
mil  the  rrops  at  present  are  very  promising.  When  I 
first  commenced,  I  was  latighed  at  by  my  neighbours, 
!iut  now  when  they  sec  ine  persevering  in  what  they 
cuisiilerod  a  very  chimerical  jiroject,  they  are  suspend- 
ini;  their  judi;mcnt.  and  several  bf  them  have  made  con- 
siilcrablc  cxperiinetits  this  year.  I  should  think  there 
UK  at  least  "50  acres  under  crop  cultivated  in  this  way 
lliis  season  in  blast  liOtliian;  in  1831,  tho  year  I  com- 
menced, thero  was  not  a  single  acre.  I  have  therefore 
llie  satisfadion  of  knowing  that  I  have  been  the  means 
ol"  causing  £10110  to  be  spent  this  year  among  the  hibour- 
ind  classes  in  my  immediato  neighbourhood ;  and  I  feel 
ronfident.  that  sliould  the  season  turn  out  favourable  for 
tiin  wheat  crop,  and  fair  prices  obtained,  their  employers 
wif.  be  handsomely  remunerated  for  their  outlay.  I  do 
col  savthat  this  system  will  succeed  in  every  description 
of  soil,  as  it  must  necessarily  be  of  some  depth  to  admit 
of  the  operation ;  but  there  are  few  districts  where  such 
soil  will  not  be  t'onnd  in  suflicient  abundance  to  give 
implc  employment  to  tho  surplus  population  of  the 
jneijlibourliDod. 

".Vow,  this  is  going  on  in  a  county  where  agricultural 
Uhourers  are  lidlrr  imjiloyed  than  almost  any  other  in 
liroat  Brilain.  The  systenv  was  not  introduced,  nor  is 
It  persevered  in,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  employment 
to  the  poor,  but  entirely  for  the  benrllt  of  the  employer. 
The  East  Lotliiiui  Agricultural  Hociety  arc  now  otlering 
jircmiums  for  the  most  satisfactory  reports  on  the  sub- 
joit.  I  Inst  veer  received  a  medal  from  the  Highland 
Society  of  Scitlaiid  for  introducing  the  system  ;  and, 
nhst  I  value  st'll  more,  I  received  a  piece  of  plate  from 
the  Libourers  I  employed,  as  a  token  of  their  gratitude. 
Tiio  system,  I  admit,  is  only  in  its  infancv,  but  I  have 
l!iij  year  put  it  completely  to  the  test;  and  should  it 
siiLcecd  as  well  as  it  has  done  hitluTto,  it  must  take  root 
anl  spread  over  the  kiii'4;dom  ;  and  the  landed  interest 
in  tliose  districts  of  Knijland  where  the  poor-laws  are 
I.)  oppicssive,  and  still  more,  tho  Irish  proprietors,  will 
do  well  to  investigate  the  system,  and  have  it  introduced 
with  the  least  possible  delay,  that  what  is  now  a  burden 
on  their  estates  may  breome  a  source  of  wealth,  and 
whil  is  now  a  curae  may  become  a  blessing. 


« 'riiia  system,  ;*"  it  Succ^oJ  to  my  expectation,  poi- 
aesses  all  the  requisites  you  reiiuire ;  it  furnishes  employ- 
ment for  the  surplus  population  by  substituting  manual 
labour  for  that  of  horses — and  certainly,  if  there  is  a 
lack  of  food  for  both,  it  is  desirable  that  the  one  should 
give  place  to  the  other.  It  will  make  bread  plenty,  as 
tho  naked  summer  fallows  of  Great  Britain  will  be  co- 
vered with  grain  instead  of  lying  waste  for  a  season ;  it 
will  render  corn-laws  unnecessary,  as  we  will  bo  then 
independent  of  foreign  supplies ;  farmers  will  be  en- 
riched who  arc  enterprising  and  industrious,  and  they 
only  deserve  to  be  so ;  it  wil.  -aLsc  rent.;  by  increasing 
the  capabilities  of  the  soil,  enabling  the  farmer  to  culti- 
vate wheat  to  double  the  present  extent ;  it  will  raise  up 
a  home  market  for  our  manufactures,  as  thopaupers, 
who  are  ut  present  starving,  or  living  a  burden  on  the 
parish,  will  find  employment,  and  thereby  bo  enabled  to 
procure  the  necessaries  and  comforts  of  life ;  it  will  check 
the  poor-laws,  as  there  will  then  be  none  but  the  aged 
and  the  helpless  dependent  on  parochial  aid." 

Stronger  testimony  in  favour  of  spade  husbandry  could 
not  well  bo  adduced,  but  we  doubt  its  being  generally  prac- 
tised with  success  in  the  ordinary  routine  of  agriculture. 
It  SL'cms  to  be  best  suited  for  mere  cottage  farming,  in 
which  the  labour  is  of  little  exchangeable  value.     Refer* 
ring  to  this  point,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Hickey  (Martin  Doyle),  in 
his  Cychptrdiii  nf  I'riictirul  Ilusbaiirliy,  observes — "On 
even  an  extensive  scale  of  farming,  we  recommetid  spaJe 
husbandry  in  jmtato  or  cabbn/^r.  ntltiirc,  but  not  for  ge- 
neral crops.     However  gratifying  to  the  bencvolc;ice  of 
an  individual  farmer  it  may  be  to  employ  a  vast  number 
of  men  to  dig  his  land  in  preference  to  the  usual  course 
of  plough  and  horse-labour,  he  must  consider  that  there 
is  a  limit  beyond  which  he  eaiuiot  multiply  his  labourera 
without  occasional  inconvenience  and  peiplcxily  to  him- 
self, and  without  Hdcc'/siiijf  sviicrinldKlinic.     Sliould  any 
of  the  numerous  causes  which   may  occasion  a  cliange 
of  occupiers  on  a  given  farm,  or  a  change  of  fyslcm  oc- 
cur, what  is  to  become  of  the  numerous  families  col- 
lected by  an  individual  who  has  largely  introduced  the 
practice  of  manual   labour,  and  confined  his  oj»orations 
to  that  system  alone  1     What  is  to  become  of  an  exces- 
sive population  of  agricultural  labourers,  if  their   ser- 
vices bo  no  longer  reijuired  by  the  successor  of  the  spade 
husbandry  farmer'?     If  any  one  replies,  'Oh,  lot  tho 
system  be  generally  introduced,  and  there  can  be  no 
danger  of  their  want  of  employment  somewhere,'  the 
answer  is  plain.     '  If  you  substitute  the  spade  for  the 
plough  to  such  an  extent,  you  raise  the  j)rice  of  labourers 
beyonil  what  you  can  uilbrd  to  pay,  niid  you  diminish 
the  chances  of  success  in  your  general  firm  operations, 
by  giving   up  too  much  timo  to  one  department  of  la* 
hour.     Time  is  money  to  a  farmer;  let  him  lose  a  week 
in   a  critical  season,  and  the  delay  may  be  highly  inju- 
rious to  liiin  in  many  resjiccts.  Promptitude  and  despatch 
are  essential  to  his  completion  of  farm  labours  at  the  proper 
times :  without  the  aid  which  improved  machinery  al^ 
fords  him,  it  would  be  utterly  impossible  for  him  to  get 
through  his  work  in  due  course.     liCt  him  abandon  the 
more  rapidly  working  plough,  and  take  the  tedious  spade, 
and  he  will  soon  heartily  regret  his  exchange.     After 
what  we  have  i)rcmiKed  on  this  subject,  it  is  almost  su- 
perfluous to  repeat,  that  if  these  latter  remarks  pos.scse 
any  accuracy  at  all,  they  arc  merely  true  in  their  appli- 
cation to  large  fanners,  and  not  intended  by  any  means 
to  alli'ct  the  subject  as  it  is  connected  with  the  cottier  or 
small  farmer,  who  has  rarely  any  capital  but  his  labour, 
and  needs  no  other  if  ho  he  sullereil  to  use  it  freely  and 
fairly.'     What  is  the   limit,  then,  to  the  capital  of  hiii 
labour'?     What   sized  farm  should  he  have   that  wiU 
I  make  it  the  most  productive?     Why, the  exact  amount, 
land  no  more, 'to  which  he  can   apply  all  his  capitaM 
I  Has  ho  a  family  ?  he  may  then  have  move  cajiital  of  to- 
I  hour  to  licstow  by  their  assistance ;  consequently  a  larger 


t'ii 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


nllotinont  will  bo  needed  to  employ  all  tlio  capital  of 
more  extetulod  labour.  If  ho  bo  single,  then  leus,  of 
course,  will  suffice." 

The  only  point  that  remains  to  be  settled  is  one  con- 
nected with  political  economy.  It  is  alloRod  by  the 
leading  political  economists  of  Enalnnd,  that  cottage 
farming  (see  article  i'oll<ii;e  System  in  tlie  KmycUijimiUa 
Jirilannira),  wliilo  calculated  to  promote  llio  growth  of 
a  population  of  paupers,  is  only  distracting  manual  la- 
biiur  frtf.n  its  proper  field  of  emi)loynnnt.  Uut  this 
allegation  proceeds  on  an  unproved  assumption.  If  it 
could  he  shown  that  every  able-bodied  man  could  make 
five  sliillings  a-day  by  working  as  a  weaver,  at  a  factory, 
or  any  other  branch  of  labour,  the  assertion  would  in 
part  be  correct ;  but  such  is  not  the  case.  There  are 
countries  in  which  renmnerativo  employment  cannot  be 
permanently  had,  and  in  such  situations — to  which  so- 
ciety in  England  seems  advancing — the  choice  is  in  a 
great  measure  between  spade  husbandry  and  starvation, 
notl)etween  spade  husbandry  and  well-|)aid  eniployuieut. 
Besides,  the  political  economist  entirely  overlooks  the 
fact,  that  the  cottage-farmer  derives  immense  advantages 
from  tlie  lalxmr  of  his  wife  and  children,  not  one  of 
whom,  most  likely,  would  be  able  to  earn  a  penny  at  any 
Kind  of  labour  in  towns.  It  is  by  calling  up  these  en- 
gines to  assist  him  that  he  can  outdo  tlie  large  farmer 


with 
proved, 


all  his  capital  and    machinery — a  fact  Jigij- 
J,  at  least  as  respects  the   keeping  of  cows     '\ 
selling  their  produce;  no  joint-stock  company  of 
keepers  being  able  to  compete  with  the  niisocllane"' 
and  unmarketable  labour  of  an   hund)le  dairyman     "i 
his  family.     As  to  tiio  allegation   that  cottagc-farir ' 
would  cause  a  deterioration  in  society,  it  is  also  fonnl  \ 
on  narrow  views,     In  some  parts  of  tlie  cimton  of  V    i 
and  elsewhere  in  Switzerland,  where  the  farms  are  t 
small,  and  mostly  wrought  by  their  proprietors  ther 
no  pauperism  worthy  of  the  name,  no  overplus  popui" 
lion  ;  and  who  would  compare  the  orderliness  of  m 
ners,  the  sobriety  and  thriftiness  of  the  people,  and  i(,' 
small  amount  of   crime  in  that  country,  with  thn  yi 
ititemi>erance,  and  poverty,  for  which  Kmjland  and.Sc  i 
land,  with  all  their  large  and  s|ilendid  farms,  are  nn 
becoming  unhappily  distinguished  ?     It  niiuht  'jg  (],|t 
cult  to  jirove  thaj  large  farms  have  been  in  any  matcri  i 
(Icifree   the  cause   of  the  social   evils  now  excitjns 
much  altiiition  ;  but  it  is  clear  that  they  iiave  not 
vented  lliose  evils.     Without  going  so  fur  as  tn  say  ih 
cottiige-farming  would  furuish  a  universal  remedy  w 
think   that,  inde)«'ndently  of  its  use   in  increasins'tlu, 
productive   surface  of  thn  cmintiy,  it  wo\ild  at  lca«t  nf 
ford  some  relief,  and  add  to  that  iiection  of  the 
tion  which  is  still  in  a  healthful  luoral  condition. 


I'upula. 


THE  KITCHEN  GARDEN. 


TnEHK  are  various  icinds  of  garden»^tho  Italian  gar- 
dens, with  their  sjilendid  terraces,  vast's,  and  statues ;  the 
Old  French  gtirdens  of  Lo  Notre,  of  which  we  have  n 
•pecimeli  at  Versailles,  with  their  long  straight  walks, 
dipt  hedges,  forhial  parterres,  and  fountains;  Kjigli^h 
gardens,  with  their  elegant  blending  of  natural  with 
artllicial  Iwauty  ;  and  so  on.  But  it  is  none  of  these 
princely  kinds  of  gardens  which  wjll  engage  our  atten- 
tion in  the  present  and  succeeding  sheets.  We  propo.-it' 
to  treat  of  the  three  ilepartments  which  belong  to  the 
greater  nundier  of  gardens  of  the  middh?  and  humbler 
classes ;  those,  in  fhort,  which,  designed  on  a  moderate 
•cale,  are  intended  to  alford  the  three  stiiples  of  garden 
culcuri^ — vegetables  for  llie  kitchen,  flowers  to  charm  the 
eye,  and  the  more  easily  attainable  kinds  of  fruit.  'l'lie*' 
various  articles  are  for  the  greater  part  the  production  of 
one  garden,  a  section  or  scattered  part  being  set  aside  for 
each ;  but,  for  the  sake  of  clearness,  we  shall  confine 
ourselves  in  the  pre:4ent  sheet  chielly  to  the  economv  and 
prjducti  of  the  kitciien  garden. 


LATINO   OUT   or   OARDENS. 

A  garden   of  the  ordinary  mixeil  description  waally 
extends  Irom  the  eishlh  of  an  acre  to  a  wlmle  acre;  but 
the  more  eonunon  size  in  country  places  is  about  lialfju 
acre.     Whatever  lie  the  dimensions,  the  gaidcn  oujlitto 
be  enclosed  with  a  wall  from  ten  to  twelve  feet  hisli.ani], 
if  jM)ssiliIe,   bo  surrounded  by  a  strip  of  cultured  land 
which  slnmld  be  fenced  with  a  hedire  and  shniWic ry,  so 
as  to  remove  the  a|ipearance  of  slilliiess  iVoiii  the  wiiljfj 
enclosure,  and  serve  tor  other  uscl'nl  [nirpnses.    Bcsidfj 
a  wicket  or  small  door  for  ordinary  entrance  and  nil, 
there   should  be   a  gate  that  will  admit  a  cart,  to  late 
away  priKluce  or  bring  in  nuuiure,     A  iniirli  more  in- 
portant  circunislance  than  size  or  an  external  ap|H'araiic« 
is  expo-ure.     In  a  (hit  country,  the  garden  lunst  of  four>e 
1h^  level  ;  but  if  there   be  a  choice  as  to  siliiiilioii,  i»|fci 
liy  all  ineaiis  a  spot  which  lies  with  an  easy  slope— 5n 
angle,  for  instance,  of  lifteen  degrees — towards  the  sua 
at  his  meridian.    In  the  IJrilish  islands,  tliis  will  he  ucini 
the  soutli.     'I'he  next  best  exposure  is  towards  the  soulk. 
west,  and   the   next  ij  the  west.     Avoid  a  ni)tlhfrii  er 
eastern  exposure.      An   exposure  towards  the  mnrning 
and  mid-day  sun,  even  though  at  a  very  small  inclina- 
tion, is  as   good  as  being  many  degrees  liuuicr  scuih 
hoar-frost  on  the  grass  and  plants  will  he  melted  wiiliin 
an  hour    after  suiuise^;  whereas,  if  the  tranlen  lie  in  I hf 
smallest  degree  away  from  the  sun,  llie  lioar-lW  mil 
remain  unchangid  j.erliaps  tile  whcde  d;  y.     All-nv  no 
house,  wall,  or  trees,  to  interrupt  the  fair  aelinn  '.I'ti 
morning  sun   on   your  g  rden ;  for  tl.e  son  is  the  iinin 
agent  in  bringing  all  things  to  iK'rficlion.  ainl  if  you  li! 
deprived  of  it,  your  oper.itions  will  lie  Mi^hlcd  nnd  r^ 
tarded  in  every  |H)Hsible  way.     So  ini|iortai.l  urn  lliesiiii! 
rays,  that,  if  your  garden  l)e  small,  rnllier  have  no  Bill 
on  the  south  and  went  sides,  but  only  a  low  liner,  Ihu 


THE  KITCHEN  GARDEN. 


•11 


limit  tn  thfir  exclusion.  Some  gardens  ore  so  disposnl 
*  Ihpy  roci'ivn  the  sun  in  nbundance  in  summer,  but 
mU  pariia'lv  the  rest  of  the  ycur.  These  gardens  are 
■  '  Tfert.  Tlie  gnrden  should  be  visited  all  over  by  tlio 
'"'"jaiiY.  efccpt,  pcihaps,  in  the  heart  of  winter,  when 
r^nys  arc  of  roinparatively  little  use.  The  exposui^ 
!ouM  nls"  """^^  "  *'"''''  '"''"•^■''""  "'"^1  currency  of  n  ; 
r  this  reason  a  gar<Ien  is  best  awny  from  a  wood,  nnil 
•"'no«t  nilvantaBCously  placed  in  an  open  sloping  lawn, 
overlookeil  by,  or  near,  the  house  nf  the  proprietor. 
The  sliupe  of  a.  (jaiden  is  of  little  conse(iucnce.  It 
he  squiire,  ohiong,  seini-circular,  or  irregular,  ac- 
11  „  ^g  taste  or  local  circumstances.  In  the  greater 
number  of  instances,  an  oblong,  as  represented  in  the 
„i!ji)ininff  fiirure, 
„ill  be  found  most 
fonvcnii'ut-  It  is 
(urnniiul.'l  by  a 
mll.inwliii'liisan 


c:itnncc 


nr,\rked 


,.  Within  thi'  wall 
in  n  borih'r  of  se- 
veral fe't  wide, 
ami  (lotted  round 
nith  flowers  or 
llon-ering   shrubs. 


either  in  one  piece  or 
with  a  movaolo  top, 
as  in  fig.  2.  A  neat 
small  kind,  framed  in 
zinc,  useful  for  pro- 
tecting early  seedlings 
or  flowers,  may  be  had 
in  London  for  Is.  6d. 
each.  Other  utensils 
employed  by  garden- 
ers, such  as  forcing 
pumps  to  wash  wall 


Fiff.  1. 


Next  is  a  iiravel  walk ;  and  within  is  another  border 
•ontainins  fruit,  bushes,  or  perhaps  fruil  trees  on  espa- 
liers, and  in  tl:c  centre  is  the  liody  of  the  garden  laid  out 
in  three  plots,  mirked  ii,  /),  and  r.  Between  the  plots 
nrd  around  tlicm  are  paths  of  twelve  or  fourteen  inches 
in  witllh,  iii>t  for  ordinary  walking,  but  for  admission  to 
die  various  plots  or  aertioiis  into  which  the  ground  may 
Iv  (lividcil.  These  pnths  are  only  flattened  by  the  feet 
anil  by  the  spade,  and  are  to  be  delved  up  annually  in 
llie  course  of  digging. 

At  the  opposite  side  of  the  garSen  from  the  door  there 
mav  be  supposed  to  be  an  arbour  or  summer-house, 
overhung  with  trailing  plants  and  honeysuckle,  and  fltted 
op  according  to  taste. 

The  regular  walks  in  nil  moderately  sized  gardens 
should  tie  not  wider  than  three  feet ;  any  thing  wider  is 
J  mere  loss  of  ground.  Much  care  is  required  to  keep 
walks  in  order,  for  they  are  very  liable  to  show  crops  of 
weeds  anil  grass ;  but  the  best  remedy  is  to  bottom  the 
walks  well  with  broken  cinders  from  a  coal  fire ;  this 
eilectually  prevents  worms  coming  up,  and  also  stops 
the  growth  of  weeds.  Over  a  smooth  lied  of  cinders, 
|iiU  a  layer  of  small  gravel  that  will  bind,  or,  failing  this, 
J  laver  of  brayed  yellow  iishos  from  a  furnace,  if  they 
ran  he  procured.  Smooth  nil  with  the  rake,  and  flatten 
with  a  roller.  Many  small  flowering  plants,  such  as 
iJiiisies  and  thrill,  are  used  for  edgings  to  walks ;  but  if 
liot  eonslaiitly  attendi-d  to,  they  straggle  over  the  borders. 
The  most  erti'ctual  and  also  the  jiretticst  edging  is  dwarf 
boi.  It  h  easily  set  in  an  even  row,  grows  regularlv, 
requirw  little  trouble  in  trininiing — for  it  should  not  be 
ilwayi  dose  s'Aved— and,  summer  and  winter,  is  ever 
frwh  »nj  p-een. 

So  piwise  directions  can  he  given  respecting  garden 
tools  and  apparatus;  the  following  are  the  articles  re- 
quired in  moderately  sized  gardens  of  a  mixed  kind  : — 
HpaJi's  of  three  sizes,  a  trowel  for  lifting  flowers,  Dutch 
and  common  hoes,  a  broad  iron  rake,  a  rake  with  short 
Irt'tli  for  the  walks,  a  small  rake  for  flower  borders,  a 
stron?  clasp-knife  for  pruning,  a  pair  of  strong  pinning 
•hears,  an  axe,  a  hand-saw,  u  hammer  and  nails  (those 
made  of  zinc  arc  best),  a  wheelliarrow,  ii  wooden  scuttle 
tor  carrying  a  little  earth  or  manure,  a  roller,  a  pair  of 
Ur^e  coinp:i!i8es.  n  dibble  and  line,  a  watering-pot,  and  a 
lidder.  Flower  pots  of  dilFerent  sizes,  conical  earthen- 
ware blaneliing  pots,  iH'll-himd  glasses,  and  glazed  frames 
of  Jiffcrenl  si/^s.  These  frames  are  among  the  most 
tcrrireablc  parts  of  a  garden  npparatui,  and  may  bo  had 

Vjl.  I.— 1)5 


Fig.  2. 


trees,  fiimignting  bellows,  &c.,  need  not  be  particularized. 
A  persoti  possessing  only  a  small  garden  will  shortly 
discover  by  e;?perience  what  are  the  articles  required  in 
his  operations.  For  gardens  in  which  cucumbers  and 
melons  arc  to  lie  grown,  glazed  frames  and  brick-built 
];its  will  lie  necessary.  It  is  a  great  advantage  for  every 
garden  to  have  a  command  of  good  fresh  water  for  the 
purpose  of  irrigation,  and  also  a  small  pond  in  which 
aquatic  plants  can  be  grown.  If  water  is  procured  from 
n  pump-well,  it  should  be  allowed  to  stand  in  the  open 
air  ill  a  trough  for  at  least  a  day,  before  being  poured  on 
l!ir  plants. 

A  garden  is  in  all  cases  laid  out  according  to  the  taste 
or  fancy  of  the  proprietor ;  but  there  are  certain  general 
rules  which  all  follow.  The  wall  is  reserved  for  fruit 
trees.  As  fruit  trees  require  much  air  and  sun,  the 
borders  must  not  be  clogged  up  with  bushes,  peas,,  or 
any  other  tall  vegetables.  Tb.  borders  should  contain 
only  small  articles  whi-h  are  delved  up  yearly ;  because 
the  soil  at  the  roots  of  'le  trees  requires  occasional  re- 
newal and  loosening,  and  these  operations  cannot  bo 
done  if  the  ground  is  encumbered  with  permanent  plants. 
If  ii  roxv  of  gooseberry  or  other  small  fruit  bushes  be 
placed  on  the  Itorders,  they  should  bo  near  the  outside, 
and  not  less  than  ten  feet  apart. 

The  body  of  the  garden  within  the  walks  is  laid  out 
in  larger  or  smaller  plots,  accordinf  to  taste.  These 
]ilots  are  generally  oblong,  and  are  subdivided  into  sec- 
tions, rows,  or  beds  for  the  diflerent  kinds  of  kitchen 
vegetables.  In  the  comer  of  one  plot  are  the  cucumber 
and  melon  pits,  partially  secluded  by  bushes.  In  different 
corners  are  plots,  and  round  the  edgings  are  the  flower 
parterres,  disposed  to  meet  the  eye,  and  to  be  easily 
accessible  from  the  walks.  In  some  gardens,  much  of 
the  ground  is  overshadowed  by  fruit  trees.  This  ii 
seriously  detrimental  to  the  growth  of  the  plants  beneath, 
exhausts  the  soil,  and  prevents  the  proper  flowering  and 
fructitlcation  of  every  vegetable  within  reach.  Permit 
no  tree  to  overshadow  your  ground ;  the  only  allowable 
places  for  trees  arc  the  walls  and  narrow  es|)aliers  run- 
ning up  one  side  of  the  central  plots.  When  a  garden 
posses.ses  the  addition  of  an  outside  strip,  enclosed  by  a 
hedge,  the  exterior  sides  of  the  walla  may  be  lined  with 
fruit  trees,  and  the  ground  laid  out  for  potatoes  and  other 
common  classes  of  vegetables;  it  will  also  afford  the 
most  proper  site  for  compost  dung-heaps  and  forcing 
pits, 

SOIL — DIOOINO-— COMPOST. 

The  soil  of  a  garden  should  be  deep,  rich,  and  easily 
penetriilile.  Whatever  it  may  have  been  originally,  the 
soil  admits  of  va.<t  improvement,  and  no  trouble  tan  Imi 
considereil  too  great  to  bring  it  into  a  good  condition. 
If  shallow,  trench  it  according  to  the  plan  mentioned  in 
the  previous  sheet  on  Spade  Husbandry,  so  as  to  loosen 
the  subsoil,  and  gradually  bring  it  into  o|)eration  above. 

;  III  many  instances  the  soil  is  too  stitf  or  clayey.  Such 
a  soil  may  not  be  unlit  for  plough  husbandry,  but  is  out 
of  |dare  in  a  garden.  The  method  of  loosening  atiA 
meliiirating  a  clayey  soil  is  to  give  it  a  large  volume  \A 
sand  and  vegetable  manure,  which  may  be  delved  in  at 

j  the  winter  digging,  and,  at  the  spring  digging,  the  now 


fM 


INFORMATION  fOR  THE  PEOPLK. 


•nJ  old  matorialrf  will  \ye  well  inixod.  Tn  gcnoral,  fiir  too 
liltlo  atu-ntiori  is  paid  to  giviiis  sand  as  a  rofitorative ; 
•uch  in  alisolutcly  neivssary  in  all  m)ils  Imt  those  of  a 
«ery  sandv  nature,  because  every  cro()  actually  carries 
•way  a  certain  proportion  of  tliu  Hilica  loiljied  in  the 
wiil.  If  the  soil  he  already  too  sandy,  it  may  bo  assisted 
hy  clay,  mud  fruin,  ditches,  &c.  Whatever  he  the  na- 
ture of  the  soil,  it  should  bo  thoroughly  puWeri/ed. 
Lumps  thrown  up  by  digging  at  the  coimni'iiceiuenl  of 
winter  are  meliorated  by  the  frost,  and  have  imhihrd 
nutiitious  gases  from  the  atmosphere.  In  spring  all 
should  he  well  delved,  dashing  every  spadeful  as  it  is 
turned  down,  and  leaving  no  hard  part  impervious  to  the 
lender  root-s  of  the  vegetables.  .\  gariU'n  should  not 
contain  a  single  stone  the  size  of  a  boy's  marble.     Every 


and  especially  bidba,  and  all  flo'nl*)'  /lowers,  and  (d 
composts  into  the  composition  of  which  munureg      *'" 
not  less  than  one  year  ought  to  be  allowed  for  dj.       ' 
sition,  and  what  is  technically  called  sweetening    "n 
French  gardeners  allow  for  their  rich  orange-ifJ- 
posts  from  three  to  six  years."  ""■ 


Near  large  towns,  wlier»  there  ii  a  constant  icmand  f 
kitchen  vegetables,  market  gardens  are  cslablislicd  for    *" 
lucing  the  required  article*  in  variety  and  nbiindo 
J'hc  finest  market  gardens  in  the  world  are  near  Loml'* 
where  the  soil  is  deep,  and  any  quantity  of  nianutp  "' 
the  form  of  night  soil,  from  the  metropolis,  iscasilu'!'' 


plan  on  which   these  gardens  aro  con. 
<lucted  might  serve  as  a  model  for  all  kilchon  uardp. 

It  is  lluis  brietly  described  in  tin  ,,,1  ? 
Jiarticlo  of  soil  should  l>e  capable  of  doing  duly  in  feeding  '  daiitiiiiii;;  in  the  "  Penny  CyilopaMlia;" — "The  m,i 

ers'  year  ))r()pcrly  bcins  in  uutunm,  when  the  ||,|,j 


t;iinable.  The 
<Iucted  might  t 
in  this  countrv 


tlic  plants.  It  will  save  nnieh  future  trouble  in  liiling 
stones  by  the  li.ind,  if  you  would  iH'gin  by  putting  evii-y 
spadeful  of  mould  through  a  sieve.  Persons  owning 
■mall  gardens  ought  to  pay  particular  attenliou  to  tiiis. 
A  working  man  having  only  a  small  pitch  for  his 
amusement  at  leisure  hours  and  holidays,  could  not  do 
any  thing  more  serviceable  than  to  trench  his  ground  bit 
by  bit,  and  riddlo  every  part  of  it  as  he  proceeds. 

No  garden  can  lie  conducted  with  the  least  advantage 
williout  giNing  it  a  regular  manuring.  If  you  hiuiuer  a 
garden,  it  will  hunger  you  in  return.  In  coiniecti'„i 
with  every  rinhtly-managed  garden,  there  must  eill'.L-r  lie 
a  comiMJst  heap,  in  which  dung  is  preparing  f;jr  use,  or 
there  must  be  some  means  of  readily  |;'.:rchasing  old 
manure  when  it  is  reipiired.  The  m.'.nures  en.ployt-,1 
arc  tile  same  as  in  agrieullurc  (see  article  on  that  snli- 
ject),  but  being  reipiircd  for  a  more  delic;i!e  jinrjiose, 
they  umst  in  general  be  well  rotted  ami  ready  to  unite 
with  t!ie  soil.  .V  eom|)osl  dunii-hcap  is  prepared  by 
paltin.;  alternate  layers  of  st;d)le  dung,  or  night  soil,  &c., 
witli  earth,  weeds,  and  gem^ral  ollal  of  vegetation — lurn- 
iltg  tlie  whole  occasionally  till  the.  mass  appears  to  be 
ready  for  use.  .V^mall  quantity  of  this  stulfwill  often 
Lc  required  to  place  at  the  roots  of  plants. 

The  practice  of  professional  gardeners  as  respect-s 
composts,  may  be  learned  from  the  following  brief  notice 
in  the  •' Kiicydopa'dia  of  Gardening:"' — "  Coinpos;.s  fui 
particular  plants  may  be  reduced  to  light  sandy  loatn 
from  old  paslurci!;  strong  loam,  np|)roaching  nearly  to 
Urick  cartii,  from  the  same  source ;  |H^at  earth,  from  the 
•urface  of  heaths  or  eommotis ;  lH)g  earth,  frotn  bogs  or 
niorosses;  vegetable  earth,  from  decayed  leaves,  stalks, 
cow-dung,  &('. ;  sand,  cither  sea-sand,  drift-sund,  or 
powdered  stone,  so  as  to  be  free  as  (Hissible  from  iron ; 
lime  rubbish  ;  and  lastly,  common  garden  earth.  Theiv 
•re  no  known  plants  that  will  not  grow  or  thrive  in  one 
cr  other  of  these  earths,  alone,  or  mixed  with  some  other 
eurtli,  or  with  rotten  dung,  or  leaves.  Nursi-ry-men, 
whose  practice  may  l)e  considered  a  safe  criterion  to  judge 
from,  have  s<'ldom  more  than  three  sorts  of  cartii  :  loam, 
•pproaching  to  the  qualities  of  brick  earth ;  |X'at  or  bog 
earth,  from  heaths  or  morasses;  and  the  common  soil  of 
their  nursj-ry.  With  these,  and  the  adilition  of  a  little 
sand  for  striking  plants,  some  sifted  lime  rubbish  for 
sticculenls,  ami  some  well-rotted  cow-dung  for  1  iilbs  and 
•oine  sort  of  trees,  they  contrive  to  grow  thousands  of 
ditrcrent  species  in  as  great  perfeclioii  (taking  the  dill'er- 
eiice  between  plants  in  poU  and  plantji  in  the  free  soil 
and  air)  as  in  their  native  counliies;  and  many,  as  the 
pine,  vine,  caniellin,  rusi>,  &e.,  in  a  su|H'rinr  manner." 
'I  he  same  author  afterwards  observew:  •' IVat  earth,  or 
ticbth  earth,  being  generally  prwured  in  the  stale  ol  turfi 
full  ef  the  roots  and  to[»  o(  heath,  reijuires  two  or  three 


anoiii 


dug,  or  rather  trenched,  and  well  manured.  V 
vegetables,  which  will  b(!  reiiuired  in  winter,  aro  now 
sown,  and  especially  those  which  are  to  proilnre  plant. 
to  be  sot  out  in  spring;  spinach,  onions,  raiiishes  ani 
winter  aalads  arc  sown,  and,  when  the  weather  ig  g('„„ 
are  ]irotected  by  a  slight  covering  of  straw  or  mats.  | 
February,  the  cnnlillowers,  which  have  been  raisod  in 

frames  or  under  hand-glasses,  are  plantei'      

inige  plants  are  |>ricki' 


out. 


out.  Thecal. 
the  radishes,  onions, aiij 
salads,  go  to  market  as  soon  as  they  are  of  suillcitni 
size,  and  sugar-loaf  cabbaues  succeid  ilieni.  ,\j  ||, 
caulinowers  arc  taken  oil",  they  are  suceeedcil  by  endive 
and  celery,  and  the  same  is  the  case  with  the  cal)bai;pi 
Thus  there  is  a  const.mt  succession  of  vegetalilcs,  niil|Q„. 
one  moment's  respite  to  the  ground,  which,  in  conse. 
ipienee  of  continual  stirring  and  mimuriiig,  inainiauu 
I  its  productive  power.  Deep  trenching  in  sunic  dejrc, 
prevents  that  jieculiar  deterioration  of  the  soil  whi-h 
would  he  the  consciiueiice  of  the  frequent  repetition  ol 
similar  plants.  This  etTcet  is  most  I>erceptibli- wlun  t!,, 
plants  perfect  their  seed,  wb-ch  is  seldom  or  never  allowed 
to  take  place  in  market-gardens ;  but  great  attention  ii 
paid  to  the  species  of  |ilants  vvbidi  succeed  each  other  on 
the  same  spot.  The  principle  which  experience  anJ 
theory  unite  in  establishing,  is  that  of  avoidini;  llic  too 
iVcquent  recurrence  cf  plants  which  belong  to  the  same 
natural  families.  The  j;rc>aler  variety  cultivalcl  jn  jjr. 
dens,  in  comparison  with  the  eoinmon  produ<c  on  a  farin, 
enables  this  principle  to  lie  lully  acted  upon.  Tho«e 
gardeners  who  overlook  tlii:*,  and  repeatidly  sow  or  plant 
tlu^  same  kind  of  vegetables  in  the  same  spots,  are  soon 
aware  of  their  error  by  thi;  iliminulioii  ol  the  proiiucf, 
both  in  quantity  and  quality,  and  by  various  diseasti 
which  attack  the  plants,  however  abunihint  may  !« thj 
food  supplied  to  them,  or  careful  the  tillage. 

The  jirinciple  on  which  the  gardens  are  cultivated,  a 
that  of  liircing  vegetation  by  means  of  iin  abundant  suri. 
|dy  of  tiling,  constant  tillage,  and  occasimial  watering, 
The  whole  surface  is  converted  into  a  s|iecics  of  hulUd; 
and  crop  succeeds  crop  with  a  lapidity  wluch  ia  truly 
astonishing.  Tliosi.-  vegetables  which  arrive  at  anurUt. 
able  state  in  the  least  time  are  alwiiys  the  most  proillable, 
and  those  also  for  which  there  is  a  const.iiit  diiiiajulal 
all  times  of  the  year.  Willi  an  abundjiil  su|i|ilv  of 
manure,  the  market-gardeners  have  no  li'ar  ofexhauntinj 
the  soil;  and  dissimilar  vegetables  may  gruM  toijLthiron 
the  same  ground. 

'J'lie  value  of  the  prisliue  in  one  year  from  an  arreol 
garden-ground  in  the  most  lavour.ible  situaliuu,  as  staittl 
by  Mr.  .Midiiliton,  from  the  account  wLiili  lie  rrceitcd 
from  a  murket-gardeiiiT,  is  almost  iiicte>lii>!c.  It  i^i  ai 
follows: — Kadisbes,  XIO;  cauliilowt  r,  Xli!  ,  cablagci, 
X;i0;  celery  (lirnt  crop),  X.'jO  ;  (s<!cond  crop),  i40;  en- 


)i'ars  to  rot;  but  aftt^r  it  has  lain  oin^vear,  it  may  '■ 

lined,  and   what  passes  tlirough  a  small  sieve  will   lie  dive,  X3(l:  making  a  total  of  JL'JVIU  for  the  ^irosii  produoi 

fjund  fit  for  use.     Some  nursery-meii    use   both   these  of  an  acre  in  twelvemonths.     The  expenses  of  cultiv» 

to'ims  and  jH'ats  as  soon  as  procured,  and  find  them  an-  tion  aie  very  great.     In  inferior  situations,  the  produce  il 

•wei  (M!rleo''y  lor  most  p!:utt8;  but  for  delicate  flowers,  much  less,   but   the  cApcases  arc  alsu  buiiicwhal  ica, 


7HE  KITCHEN  GARDEN. 


915 


il/(i  3  it  is  considotod  that  there  are  non.ly  2000  acres 
I      (•  illivated,  tho  gross  amount  of  produce  must  lie 

'^thc  donvstic  gnrdonor  will  now  perceive,  that,  indc- 
lently  of  a  good  soil,  he  must  give  his  ground  plenty 
''f'ficli  manure,  and  by  so  doing  he  need  scarcely  ever 
k  anv  puft  "^  '*'*  siirfiico  unoccupied.  To  attain  and 
t  UP  fertility  is  the  grand  principle  of  his  operations ; 
1  dolvin"  may  be  awkward,  the  lines  of  beds  uneven, 
u  rakinirn"'V  not  be  neat,  but  all  is  of  no  importance 
■nfompari^nwith  keeping  tho  ground  in  good  heart. 
i(  will  likewise  maintain  a  regular  conncrtive  rotation, 
I  inz  no  cropping  to  caprice  at  the  time,  or  to  a  system 
of'unintclligi'nt  routine. 

GARDEN  OPERATIONS— CCLTIVATION. 

Pke'"?  "■'  ''■'''''"'^  ^''''  ''"'  "P""'**  i"  the  principal 
Pins  of  garden  culture.  The  spade  usually  employed 
10  inches  deep  in  the  blade  or  spit ;  but  as  delving  is 
.  jiifjtt  downwards,  but  sloped,  the  depth  to  which  the 
•mile  goes  in  digging  is  seldom  more  than  nine  inches, 
I  DJ^d,  not  more  tlian  eight  inches.  In  commencing 
l^jju  a  piece  of  ground,  take  out  a  spadeful  all  along 
oiiP  siJc,  and  carry  it  to  the  opposite  side  where  yon  are 
.  |p,ve  off.  Now  begin  at  one  end  of  the  treneli  just 
mioiwd;  thrust  the  spade  with  the  foot  into  the  ground, 
lakin?  about  five  inches  in  breadth,  lift  it  up,  and  turn  it 
Avft  into  tlie  open  trench,  the  top  undermost,  and  tho 
W4\  earth  above.  Do  the  same  with  the  second  spade- 
ful, anil  so  on  with  all  the  others  to  the  end  of  the  line. 
Take  care  to  dig  always  a  uniform  depth  and  uniform 
liriiiiilh,  so  as  to  keep  the  line  even,  and  the  trench  or 
fmrow  one  width.  If  there  be  any  weeds  or  loose  oft'al 
,n  ihc  surface,  put  them  in  the  trench  and  cover  them  in. 
Ureak  or  pulverize  the  mould  as  you  proceed,  and  keep 
[lie  fresh  surface  le^'cl.  When  you  have  delved  row  after 
row  to  the  last,  the  earth  laid  aside  will  fill  in  the  con- 
cliiJini?  trench.  Ordinary  diuging  is  performed  best  m 
iJ,-v  weather ;  but  digging  to  throw  up  lumps  for  winter 
iK'lioralion  should,  if  possible,  be  performed  when  the 
sail  is  moist.  In  this  kind  of  digging,  do  not  touch  the 
liiiiips  with  the  spade  alter  throwing  them  up. 

Rakiui!  is  usually  performed  after  delving.  Hold  the 
hiiiiiile  of  the  rake  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  ami  draw 
It  linhtly  over  the  surface  of  the  newly  dug  ground.  'I'he 
obiect  is  not  to  draw  enrth  along,  but  to  even  or  comb 
down  the  irregular  surface,  and  bring  away  any  loose 
refuse  or  stones.  Like  digging,  it  sliould  be  performed 
ui  dry  weather. 

Markmif  wt!h  the  Line. — When  there  is  any  dilTiculty 
in  delving  in  a  straight  line  by  the  eye,  mark  olF  the 
grdund  with  a  cord,  drawn  from  a  reel  stuck  in  the 
earth  at  one  end  to  a  diblili;  or  pin  at  the  other.  This 
reel  cord  will  be  inilis|ioiisal)le  in  marking  otV  the  edges 
of  parterres,  plots,  &c.  In  such  cases,  having  fixed  the 
line,  go  along  it  with  the  spade,  taking  out  a  very  small 
quantity  of  earth  inunediately  beneath  the  cord.  Then 
do  the  same  with  the  opposite  side  and  ends  of  the  plot, 
and  80  its  dimensions  will  Imj  fairly  marked.  The  gar- 
dener measures  and  marks  off  all  his  figures  in  the 
ground  with  his  line  and  spade.  With  the  lines  he  can 
draw  a  circle  round  a  central  pin,  or  make  an  oval  from 
I  union  of  two  circles,  or  from  semicircles,  spirals,  tri- 
ungular  space-s,  or  polygons.  When  he  wishes  to  make 
a  small  path  l)etweeii  reetani;nlar  pluts,  he  sets  his  line 
«rcordini?ly,  and  walking  along  it,  with  a  foot  on  each 
silt',  ho  tramples  down  the  earth  from  one  end  to  tlte 
oilier,  and  then  ho  can  even  it  and  beat  it  down  with 
iiis  8)iiide. 

//ixiiiy.— With  a  common  hoc,  the  earth  is  cut  and 
drinn  towards  the  operator.  The  object  of  hoeing  is  to 
draw  the  earth  up  ihu  stalks  of  plants  growing  in  n  row, 
ot  to  diiilroy  weeds.  In  hoeing  weeds,  cut  oil'  the  weed 
l«ncath  the  surface,  and  do  iiot  covet  the  slulk.     If  cua- 


vcnient,  rake  away  all  the  loone  stalks,  and  place  them  on 
the  dung-heap.  Weeds,  such  as  dandelion  and  grouna- 
sill,  which  become  winged  when  ripe,  should  bo  hoed  and 
removed  before  seeding.  As  niaay  such  weeds  which 
infest  gardens  arc  blown  into  them  from  adjacent  road 
sides,  it  would  not  !«■  misspent  time  to  clear  the  neigh 
bourhood  of  them  periodically. 

Jliiinial  annnyttnres, — All  gardens  are  less  or  mo"e 
exposed  to  the  destructive  inroads  of  wild  animals. 
Hares  and  rabbits  gnaw  the  bark  off  the  stems  or  lower 
brnnclies  of  trees,  and  also  tho  buds  in  season.  To  pr^ 
vent  the  encroachments  of  these  quadrupeds,  the  garden 
ought  to  be  properly  fenced ;  but  if  they  get  in  notwith- 
standing, the  trees  may  be  saved  by  smearing  the  lower 
parts  with  a  mixture  of  cow-dung,  soot,  and  water,  re- 
duced to  the  consistency  of  thin  paint ;  a  smearing  of 
tar  or  grease  will  also  answer  the  purpose.  Moles,  rats, 
and  mice,  may  he  caught  in  their  appropriate  trap.? ;  mole*, 
also,  may  be  got  rid  of  by  placing  slices  of  leek,  gar- 
lick,  or  onion,  in  a  green  state,  within  their  holes,  tut 
they  have  a  great  antipathy  to  the  odour  of  these  vege- 
tables. 

Hirds  are  sometimes  an  annoyance,  particularly  when 
n(!w-sown  peas  or  seeds  may  be  easily  scratched  up,. 
But  though  in  some  instances  injurious,  it  is  believed 
that,  on  the  whole,  their  visits  are  beneficial ;  for  they 
pick  up  large  quantities  of  sings,  insects,  larviB,  or  cuter- 
pillars  of  difi'ereiit  kinds.  Wall-fruit  may  be  preserved 
by  nets,  or  by  the  more  simple  method  of  fixing  hori. 
zontal  lines  of  black  worsted  in  front  of  the  trees;  th« 
repeated  ineffectual  attempts  to  alight  on  the  lines  is  said 
to  scare  the  animals  and  cause  them  to  desist.  Lines  of 
worsted  threads,  in  which  feathera  are  fastened,  are  em- 
ployed in  niany  cases  to  protect  beds  of  seeds  from  birds; 
this  preventative  can  be  easily  tried. 

Insects  are  the  grand  pest  of  gardeners;  their  appear- 
ance is  so  mysterious,  and  their  devastations  so  varied, 
that  all  schemes  to  extirpate  them  are  often  inctlectual. 
They  are  most  destructive  in  their  first  condition  of  larvra 
or  caterpillars.  In  this  state  they  should  iic  removed  by 
the  hand  trorn  kitchen  vegetables.  To  destroy  the  smaller 
kinds  of  larva;,  fumitration  of  tobacco  smoke,  by  means 
of  a  fumigating  bellows,  is  cm|)loyed  with  advantage; 
and  tho  plants  are  cleansed  with  a  syringe  and  water. 
For  the  cleansing  of  fruit-trees  frum  insects,  we  refer  to 
our  article  on  Fruit  Gardening. 

Slugs  are  another  chief  annoyance,  especially  in  low- 
lying  situations.  A  little  salt  destroys  them,  but,  as  in 
the  case  of  caterpillars,  the  best  plan  is  to  clear  them  out 
at  their  first  appearance  by  the  hand  or  a  pair  of  ])incer«. 
Worms  in  the  ground  are  not  considered  injurious ;  in  a 
properly  trenched  gard.  '.  however,  they  exist  only  in 
small  numbers.     Salt  kii     them. 

Sowing. — The  greater  mber  of  garden  vegetables  are 
reared  from  seeds,  which  e  sown  at  certain  seasons  in 
the  ground.  Some  seeds,  nch  as  peas,  are  sown  in 
drills,  the  hand  deliberately  dropping  them  in  a  straight 
shallow  trench.  Other  seeds,  such  as  seeds  of  onions, 
leeks,  cress,  &c.,  are  sown  broadcast,  which  is  a  thin  and 
equable  scattering  over  a  bed  prepared  for  the  purpose. 
Most  seeds,  peas  included,  require  to  be  pressed  down  by 
treading  or  gentle  rolling,  and  tlien  covered  up  by  the 
hoe  or  rake.  All  seeds  should  be  sown  and  covered  up 
in  dry  weather. 

I'hinlinn. — Many  vcgetnbles  require  to  be  removed 
while  young  from  the  bed  in  which  tliey  were  grown 
from  seeds,  and  planted  out  in  rows.  A  straight  row  is 
made  with  the  line,  which  is  gently  trcsdcd  on  each  side. 
Commence  now  at  one  end  of  the  troddc:i  line,  and  in 
the  central  or  untrod  |iart  pierce  the  earth  with  the  dibble. 
Into  tho  hole  so  made  insert  the  root  ot  Jie  placr,  and 
pierce  the  earth  at  its  side,  so  as  to  press  the  mould  round 
the  root,  leaving  no  vacant  space  below. 

ll'uuniij;. — In  dry  soiwons,  artilkial  irrigation  is  of 


MS 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Urcat  llic  f  )r  (fivitiR  due"  liquid  nlimpnt  to  jilnnts,  and  is 
IDdiH|iensable  to  plants  iii-wly  traimpluiitrd,  in  order  to 
consolidiitfl  the  ro.its.  WutoriiiK,  lor  wlmti-viT  jmrpoHO, 
is  moBt  advanlniffoiialv  ix-rt'ornii'd  in  the  niorniiiK  or 
evcnini;.  If  done  diirinff  tlie  liino  the  sun  is  sliining, 
tnko  cnrc  not  to  wnlor  llio  lenvrs  of  iiny  plant,  for  tho 
hont  will  rniw  the  tem|HTature  of  the  ticpiid,  nnd  the 
leaves  will  be  ««Mild«'d.  If  the  day  In?  cloudy  and  cool, 
VTHterinir  the  U>[»i  o(  plants  can  do  no  harm.  The  wnter- 
Itiff,  in  any  c;i»e,  should  rosenihle  as  nearly  as  possible  a 
Boll  sJiower,  ond  lie  [x^rfornicd  with  a  rose  watering-i)ot. 
Tim  (greater  numlicr  of  flowers  nro  injured  by  watering, 
if  tho  water  touches  them. 

OAKDEN  VEGETABLES. 
The  vegetables  usually  Rrnvvn  in  kitchen  dardens  arc 
of  various  tribes  or  classes,  which,  for  convenience,  wc 
shall  arranife  in  certain  inlelliKible  pronps.  as  follows: — 
l.'lhe  briissicn,  or  cabl)iii;e  kind  of  vcijetablcs ;  2.  The 
pen  and  Ix-an  kind;  3.  'l"he  root  kitidH,  or  those  grown 
only  for  the  sake  of  their  rools ;  4.  The  onion  and  leek 
kinds ;  5.  The  salad  kind  ;  (i.  The  vario\is  kinds  of  sweet 
herlu;  and,  7.  miscellaneous  kinds,  including  several  of 
a  delicate  nature.  This  arrangement  of  groups,  it  will  lie 
understood,  has  no  reference  to  botanical  order,  and  has 
only  been  adoptinl  in  preference  to  the  confusion  of  kinds 
in  alphabetic  lists. 

The  lirassica,  or  Cnblinge  Trilie. 

This  includep.  some  of  the  most  hardy,  easiest  culti- 
Tated.  and  useful  of  kitchen  vegetublcs.  The  following 
are  those  which  we  would  reconmiend  to  l>e  cultivated : 
broccoli,  Brussels  sprouts,  comiiion  cabbage,  red  cabbage, 
cauliflower,  savoy  cabbage,  and  t'cotch  kale. 

Broccoli. — This  is  one  of  the  best  kinds  of  greens, 
and  is  valuable  from  coming  at  a  season  when  not  liable 
to  tie  allected  by  caterpillars.  There  are  various  kinds 
of  broccoli,  but  all  may  be  arraligi^d  under  two  heads — 
tliose  for  spring  use,  and  those  for  use  from  .September  to 
Christmas;  tlie  latter  are  termed  "Cape"  or  autumn  broc- 
coUes.  The  I  est  varieties  for  spring  use^are  Bowles's  new 
sulphur,  Moody's  dwarf,  (.iranger's  cauliflower,  and  Ports- 
mouth cream-colour. 

One  otmce  of  seed  of  broccoli  is  calculated  to  bow  a 
bed  four  feet  wide  by  ten  long,  broadcast  on  a  prepared 
bf'd,  hut  if  sown  in  drills,  rather  leas  seed  will  lie  sufli- 
cicut.  Bach  kind  should  have  a  place  allotted  to  itself. 
The  soil  should  he  a  fresh  sandy  loam,  not  manured,  and 
the  season  for  sowing  will  lie  comprised  In'tween  April 
nnd  July.  The  Cape  plants  arc  liinilly  set  out  in  beds 
made  rather  rich  with  manure,  at  any  time  when  they 
have  leaves  six  or  eight  inches  long;  two  feet  distances, 
pi  itit  from  plant,  will  lie  sutiicient,  Each  plant  is  to  he 
tirinly  securetl  in  the  soil ;  and  if  the  weather  he  dry, 
nvery  hole  should  be  filled  with  water.  'I'his  species 
will  come  in  season  in  August,  and  continue  to  prinluce 
a  supply  throughout  the  autumn  ;  in  niilil  seasons,  some 
beads  may  Im"  cut  even  at  the  turn  of  the  year. 

The  spring  hardy  varieties  are  treated  by  most  jxr- 
aons  in  the  same  way  as  the  Cijie;  thut  is,  the  plants, 
vrhcn  they  are  six  or  eight  inches  high,  are  transplanted 
as  they  Iwcome  ready,  lietwcen  the  first  week  of  July 
ajid  that  of  Heptembcr,  into  beds  of  richly  manured 
l">n:n,  an<l  set  two  feet  apart,  the  liirgcst  "orts,  as  the 
Portsmouth,  nt  thirty  inchos,  and  tJicy  are  kept  (lorfeclly 
fr-c  from  weeds.  If  the  seasons  be  fivonrahle,  a  hui'- 
ce^ional  supply  of  broccoli  is  thus  obtained  from  the 
fir<t  week  of  March  to  the  end  jf  May.  It  is  also  cus- 
tomary f »  lay  plants  down  in  fSi'iitember,  with  the  henili 
turned  from  the  sun,  applying  earth  on  tlit-  south  side 
©■"er  the  stems,  to  protect  them  from  snow  and  frost. 
We  prefer  to  plant  in  lix-inch  deep  trenches,  pro(icrly 
ma'uired,  reinor'.r^  the  plonta  to  them  when  not  less 
toan  a  f«ot  high,  filling  each  hole  with  water,  and  re- 


peating the  watering  for  two  or  inorc  surcecsive  rvtn 
This  treatment,  even  in  the  driest  Reasons,  will  ^  ** 
the  plants;  and  as  the  winter  approaches,  by  drm'"' 
tho  earth  from  the  ridges  on  encli  side,  and  thus  fiir"^ 
up  the  trenches,  tho  stems  will  lie  protected  tml  d' 
ground  levelled  and  rendered  light.  Wc  have  pran'  i 
this  method  during  seven  or  eight  wintt-rs,  and  have  I 
no  opportunity  to  recomnicnd  it  to  others.  Bror  r 
|ilantH  do  better  in  trenches  than  any  otiicr  mciiibcm  f 
this  extensive  family. 

To  save  seed,  it  is  only  necessary  to  watch  the  n 
gress  of  some  very  line  plant  lelV  late  in  the  Rprinrr  !i 
cut  out  all  the  weakly  and  crovkding  parts  of  :.i,  v.'  i 
when  expanded,  nnd  to  wcure  the  seed  lirfore  it  be  m'l 
ripe,  or  rather  before  the  sced-vcsBcIs  shed  tip  ^  j 
Hut  as  all  these  plants  pass  by  crossing  into  olh 
varieties,  it  is  generally  not  desirable  to  attempt  wpl 
growing. 

Bkisskls  SpHorrs  produce  tall  stems,  three  or  fim 
fcot  high,  which  support  a  head  somewhat  rpsonihlin 
an  ojien  savoy,  of  little  value.  This  b«Mng  cut  ofl'  || 
lateral  buds  down  the  stem  protrude  a  succession  of 
little  green  heads,  like  small  savoys,  delicate  in  flavour 
very  much  admired,  and  yet  but  seldom  seen,  innsmucli 
as  the  true  vegetable  is  not  easily  obtained,  Ourbesi 
authority  is  still  that  of  Professor  Van  iMons  of  Bnij. 
scls.  We  cojiy  tho  following  from  the  last  edition  of 
the  Odincftir  liarrleiicr'«  Matniiil,  wherein  the  Brus«e|i 
practice  is  noticed,  and  a  few  experimental  rcmaiki 
appended. 

"  The  plants  arc  raised  from  seed  sown  in  Match  ot 
April,  of  which  an  ounce  nmy  bo  requisite  foraseti 
bed  of  four  feet  by  ten.  Van  Mons  says  (Hnrt.  Trut, 
vol.  iii.),  'The  seed  is  sown  in  spring  under  a  frame, lo 
bring  the  plants  forward;  they  are  then  transpjantei 
into  an  open  border  with  a  good  aspect.  By  thusl)ei,Tn, 
niiig  early,  and  sowing  successively  till  lat<' in  the  sea. 
son,  we  contrive  to  supply  ourselves  in  Belgium  wnii 
this  delicious  veaelable  fully  ten  nionths  in  the  yew 
that  is,  from  the  end  of  July  to  the  end  of  May,  Thj 
plantji  need  not  hi'  jilaced  nt  more  than  eiiihtcen  inchn 
each  way,  as  the  hi-iid  does  not  sjiread  wide,  and  tho 
side  leaves  drop  oil'.'  With  uh  (in  England)  the  Bras, 
sels  sprout  is  so  hardy  that  it  will  stand  twenty  degrefi 
of  frost;  nnd  its  heiul  aliout  Christmas  is  a  tender  and 
delicate  species  of  greens.  Being  then  cut,  the  plant 
will  remain  nearly  torpid  till  the  advancing  sun  caus« 
it  to  sUirt  into  new  vegetation  ;  then  th(!  spaces  between 
the  rows  should  have  a  little  leaf-soil  or  good  manure 
lightly  forked  in  ;  nnd  the  young  heads,  all  of  whicli 
were  quiescent,  but  visible  in  the  winter,  will  Bpeedily 
advnncr  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  and  yield  a  Bupfli 
for  many  weeks,  if  they  be  propt^rly  pulled  or  cut  in  iw. 
cession." 

We  cannot  add  much  to  the  nliove,  hut  may  ohjerti 
that,  if  any  one  can  procure  true  seed,  it  will  he  ajvi. 
sable  to  try  to  ripen  some,  and  to  aliandim  seeil-ijronir.; 
of  every  other  kind  of  the  brnssica  during  that  R'asco, 
for  fear  of  crossing  if;  also  to  try  Van  Mons' rejiealej 
sowings,  for  in  truth  a  more  delicate  family  vegculijj 
cannot  be  cultivated. 

( '  >  II H  Aii  K. — The  cultivated  varieties  of  the  coirmia..  w 
white  henrfing  cabbage  aiC  very  numerous;  and  as  all 
can  intcrmincle,  so  no  one  who  aHns  at  raising  wodon 
be  coiilidcnt  of  what  he  shall  pmluce.  The  I le.-t  varie- 
ties in  ordinary  usj'  are — 1.  Small  nnd  large  York;  1 
London  variety  of  Vork;  3.  Sugar-lmf;  4.  Kiiii;!]!'! 
Downton:  .">.  Battersea ;  fi.  Vnnack.  'J'he  cabhaitciji 
biennial  plant;  it  runs  a  two  years' course,  liears  mej, 
and  dies.  Therefore,  to  obtain  hearted  ca'.baKCR  thrcutl!. 
out  the  year,  two  or  more  sowin-^rs  nuist  be  made;  dm 
in  the  spring,  the  otlier  in  summer.  Spring-Bowinc  cu 
he  elTcctcd  at  once,  or  it  may  be  divided  into  two  or  'hrei 
operations;  because,  &uui  tlio  third  week  of  Maitli  li 


THE   KITCHEN   GARDEN. 


m 


iwfirniwcek  of  May,  t.o  »m1  can  oe  Biircessfully  Hown 
f  the  supply  of  suinmor  und  wiiitor.  Yet  liy  attcntivo 
-jucincnt,  on')  sovvinR  may  bo  made  to  produro  all 
it  t  a  IwS"  '•'•"'ly  •■*''  '■""l"'™ ;  wc  rcBtrict  our  directions 
Jlhat  simple  operation. 
Prepare  ft  I'd  °^  S°"'^  sound  loam  in  rtn  open  expo- 
re  and  lot  ■'  I'"  ^'"y  "''Sl'tly  manured,  for  cubliaore 
'.  ijinp)  benelit  much  by  strons  contrasts,  and  ouf?lit 
"'l  to  DC  made  to  run  up  wliilo  ti-ndcr.  Die;  the  (ground 
f  four  rows,  nine  IucIu'h  asunder,  and  from  filteen  to 
,..  f,,,,t  long.  Break  the  eartli  fnu-ly.and  leave  it  to 
nil!  for  three  or  four  days  ;  then  place  boards  to  tread 
while  a  f""'  'I'"''!'  """  '"''I'  'li't^P'  i"  struck  by  the 
r  p-  make  the  bottom  of  this  and  every  other  drill  even 
I'j  little  solid,  eillier  by  pressiuR  a  loiii;  pole  into  it, 
„,  bv  patli'iS  'I  "'■''*  ''"'  '''"''  "'"  "  wooden-headed  rake. 
Siwllie  seeds  rather  thi<'kly,  because  it  is  better  to  thin 
'.  ,  ji,  jliuiidiuiee  of  jjlants  than  to  lose  tlie  major  part 
C  n  fi,,v  |,y  insects.  When  sown,  cover  the  drill  with 
line  earth,  proceed  to  nvake  and  sow  other  drills,  till  the 
L  ]  1j(  jiiiishcd,  and  then  either  tread  the  surface  over 
with  the  feet  placed  lu'arly  close  toi^ether,  or  pat  the  sur- 
ficc  with  the  spade,  and  then  finish  it  off  smooth  with 
the  back  of  a  rake.  Always  avoid  to  tread  ground  into 
bolos  and  therefore  recede  from  the  work  backward: 
prefer  to  use  the  feet  in  li)i;ht  sandy  soil,  but  rarely  with 
gtilfanil  binding  ground.  In  a  very  dry  season,  seeds 
«ill  not  easily  vegetate  ;  therefore,  i:i  such  ca.  r  ,  strike 
thf  drills,  mid  water  cirectually  alonij  them  for  three  suc- 
cpssivceveiiinRS,  covering  the  plot  with  mats  fhrouuhout 
(ho  (lav.  I"  ll'"  ''''''''  evening  make  the  drills  even, 
iow,  cover  with  earth,  sprinkle  ac;ain,  and  lay  on  the 
.qitsbv  day,  till  the  plants  lie  visible,  tiien  dust  them 
onrewilh  the  finest  road  sand  while  the  dew  is  on,  und 
ia  the  eveniiii?  with  air-slaked  lime. 

These  directions  need  not  be  repeated.  We  never  saw 
I  set  of  caliliaee,  turnip,  or  celery  plants,  so  dusted  with 
roaJsand  that  was  iinich  infested  with  the  turnip  beetle; 
inJasto  shiss,  lime,  or  lime  with  coal-soot,  will  prevent 
their  ravages  or  destroy  the  vermin. 

When  the  plants  bej;in  to  produce  their  true  leaves, 
tliin  them  out,  first  to  an  inch  asunder,  and  acain  to  two 
infliPn;  they  will  thus  Kain  streu!>th  lapidly  ;  and  when 
thfv  have  three  or  fonr  good  leaves  f.iur  inches  lonij, 
tfievwillbc  fit  to  }?o  out,  some  into  nursery  beds,  and 
others  to  the  plots  whero  they  r>re  to  remain.  Those 
Jet  ill  the  former,  six  inches  asunder,  will  reiiuire  stocky 
roots,  anil  he  prepared  for  successinnal  beds.  The  size 
of  the  plants  will  indicate  the  season  durinii  any  of  the 
suiiuiwr  months.  'I'hose  planted  permanently  will  re- 
quire the  ijrouiid  to  be  made  rich  with  mamire.  and  the 
Iraiisilion  from  poor  to  rich  earth  will  make  them  crow 
rapiii'v.  The  smaller  Yorks,  &c.,  should  stand  twelve 
or  fifteen  inches  apart,  the  larije  vrrieties  twenty  to  thirty 
inches.  Set  each  plant  as  deep  as  the  base  of  the  lower 
le,ivM,  and  observe  the  directions  given  under  Broccoli, 
p.  3')6.  These  seed  and  nursery  beds  will  supply  the 
lalile  from  May  to  \ovendicr,  and  in  fine  seasons  even 
liter. 

('iBi)A(iK  (Joi.EwoiiTs — a  fivourite  vegetable  in  Lon- 
don, known  by  the  name  of  v/oijis-  urcrns — are  raised  by 
(owiiii;  ttie  seed  of  the  hardier  middle-sized  cabbaires 
fro:ii  tlip  end  of  .Imie  to  Ihi-  middle  of  .Tuly,  to  be  Irans- 
pljiileJ  in  Au.rust  and  .^eijtember  in  rows  twelve  or  f;f- 
lim  inrhos  asunder,  the  pl.uits  nine  inches  from  one 
another;  ihey  form  i)retty  little  head.s — not  j'ropcrly 
cjWiajo"— at  a  period  when  the  idd  stock  is  cvhausted, 
inJ  l''.e  siiriiiit  calibage  is  not  come  in.  They  fail  in 
Very  severe  winters. 

The  main  suiiiincr  crops  are  raised  from  seeds  sown 
Mween  the  '^•'ilh  of  July  and  the  Kith  of  .Vngust;  tlie 
last  week  in  the  former  month  comprises  the  most  favour- 
ible  iieriod.  The  directions  previously  given  will  apply 
in  every  respect  to  the  treatment  of  iho  plants ;  wo  need 


only  remark,  that  it  in  advisable  to  plant  the  young  ntl» 
bages  first  in  nursery  beds  of  simple  lonm,  wherein  they 
will  bo  more  secure  during  the  frosts  than  they  would  Ii« 
in  rich  beds ;  but  being  transferred  to  the  latter  at  tba 
end  of  February  or  early  in  March,  they  will  maka 
rapid  progress,  and,  according  to  the  season,  produce 
hearted  cabbages  in  April,  May,  ond  June.  All  the  de- 
partments nmst  bo  kept  clean,  and  free  from  litter  or 
weeds.  Seed  can  cosily  be  raised,  but  the  resalt  i« 
always  doubtful. 

Kkii  Oaiiiiaiif.  is  only  used  for  pickling;  it  is  raised 
by  a  two  years'  course — that  is,  by  sowing  in  August, 
and  trnns|i|anting  as  directed  above  ;  but  this  variety  ro- 
fpiires  a  little  more  space.  The  heads  form  in  the  cnsu- 
\'.  •;  sunnner,  and  arc  in  fine  condition  in  October.  If 
sown  in  8|)ring,  little-hearted  cabbages  can  be  obtained, 
which  may  supply  a  loss,  or  serve  us  a  substitute  for  the 
others. 

UAUirFt.owBn. — This  plant,  which  is  grown  only  for 
its  rich  white  head,  reipiircs  in  the  open  air  a  warm  and 
moist  climate,  or  it  mu.st  l)c  grown  under  glass.  In 
Holland,  it  grows  to  great  perfection,  and,  like  many  of 
our  garden  vegetables,  is  most  likely  imported  from  that 
country.  One  of  the  chief  ditliculties  attending  its 
open-air  culture  is  its  destruction  by  caterpillars,  and 
therefore  great  care  is  in  many  respects  neceasury  to 
bring  crops  forward.  Under  glass,  the  plants  are  ren« 
dered  very  expensive. 

Spring  sowing,  for  a  first  crop,  may  be  made  in  March, 
over  a  temperate  hot-bed.  The  seedlings  are  to  I'e 
I)ricked  out  when  the  leaves  are  an  inch  broad ;  and 
from  this  luirsery  bed  they  arc  moved  to  the  garden  bed 
in  .May,  to  stand  more  than  two  feet  asunder,  the  ground 
being  made  extremely  rich.  The  plants,  after  they  he- 
gin  lo  grow,  are  occasionally  watered  with  liquid  manure 
coll  cted  from  the  drainage  of  dunghills.  A  second 
spring-sowing  is  made  in  the  open  border  in  May,  to  ot> 
tain  plants  from  September  to  November,  by  a  simihr 
mode  of  treatmeut.  The  last  sowing  occurs  in  t!:n 
middle  of  August.  The  plants,  when  about  fonr  or  fi'o 
weeks  old,  are  to  be  thinned  out  to  two  or  three  inch('.< 
apart,  the  best  to  go  into  nursery  beds  of  rich  earth, 
three  or  four  inchus  asunder.  Here  they  must  grow  till 
November,  when  the  strongest  are  to  be  set  out  in  rows 
to  be  preserved  under  bell  or  hand-glasses.  Dig  a  bed 
of  rich  ground  in  an  open  situation,  and  make  it  still 
richer  with  manure  ;  set  three  or  four  plants  together, 
five  inches  apart,  in  patches,  each  patch  a  yard  asunder ; 
give  water,  and  cover  close  with  a  hand-glass  till  tie 
plants  begin  to  grow ;  then  tilt  the  glasses  on  the  sunny 
side  with  a  lirick  ;  and  thus  continue  to  give  air  on  mild 
days  during  the  winter,  and  on  some  occasions  tako  the 
glasses  (juite  olf,  but  replace  them  and  cover  close  every 
night. 

In  the  spring  thin  the  plants  to  two  under  each  gla^ns, 
making  good  any  deficiencies  with  some  of  the  best 
plants  thus  t.aken  up,  und  plant  the  surplus  in  a  warm 
spot  of  ground  two  feet  apart.  Keep  the  glasses  on  tho 
other  plants,  raisin'jr  them  more  and  more,  occasionally 
cxiiosing  th';n  to  mild  rains  till  about  the  beginning  of 
May  (uidess  in  the  event  of  intense  frost,  such  us  we 
have  experienced  wilhiu  a  few  years),  when  the  gla.sses 
may  be  fiuallv  removed.  Cauliflowers  will  thus  ho 
produced  in  succession  IVom  the  end  of  May  throughout 
June. 

Other  filants  should,  in  Novcmher,  be  jdaced  in  frames 
four  inches  apart,  in  a  bed  of  rich  dry  loam,  over  a  v,  ry 
slight  hot-beil :  give  water,  clo-se  the  lights,  and  be  guii'-d 
as  respects  the  admission  of  air  by  the  directions  for  the 
hand-glass  division.  The  lights  should  be  covered  with 
units  mid  boards  during  severe  frosty  niphts.  In  Febru- 
ary, March,  and  .\pril,the  plants  are  removed  in  succes- 
sion to  beds  richly  pn  pared  ;  and  the  cauliflowers  will 
couie  into   perfection   during  July  and  August     It  la 

a.x 


«lt 


INFORMATION    FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


iHotoniiiry  to  form  the  earth  Immciliiit.'ly   around  llio  ]  drillH ;  and  if  tho  winter  bo  open,  iiicreu  i«  ntn,, 
•Ifiiw  into  the  stiupc  of  bimiim,  to  .-outrtin  water  or  tlin  |  tiiin.     At  wlintcvfr  wiiaon  jwriionH  cotntn*ncc,  ,  i, 


it  in  a   UBiliil   pruclii'c,   luul   tlun,  witli     giiiiTnl   ruin   laniiot  lie   mlo|plicl  tlnin  to  now  for , 


liiiuiil 

lijciiiKH  between  the  row*,  will  coniprito   tlie   general 

irentineiit. 

Tm;  Savot,  or  S*voT  (Vuihaok,  Ih  very  Imrdy,  and 
Uie  most  UKotiil  of  winter  iiilibaneH.  lu  eulluii-  in  very 
oony,  and  ndmils  of  four  Howinni.     'I'liere  aie  two  up' 


Wlic 

■uc 


eewiionni  crop  an  noon  u»  llie  pcim  of  tin-  prrf«,lin_ 
inn  lire  fairly  obove  the  sorfuie.  The  plaiit«,w||pn,^*" 
iriclieH  high,  Hliould  have  earth  drawn  nKnin»t  lliiirm',''' 
on  both  sides,  after  which  the  Koii  may  In-  «npcrf|  ."I'l" 
opened  by  paHiiinR  the  lioo  liglitly  tliroiinh  it,  nnd  "I'l  ■ 


proved  varieties,  the  hanlij  fiiiiil!  );if,i,  and  the  large  '  braiiehy  utieliH,  of  a  heii-ht  Kiiilalije  to  tho  haliit  of  it 
yelhir:  tile  former  is  gen.'ially  prefeired.  Hegin  to  hOW  ;  variety,  ought  to  be  thrust  into  the  ground,  convngi,,/ 
ill  Ki-biuarv,  how  a  Heeond  lime  in  Mareh ;  a  third,  nod  :  little,  so  an  to  meet  at  to)),  and  ititerlurc  each  nllf! 
thin  iH  for  the  main  crop,  in  April,  alioul  the  middle  of  i  Hliallow  soils  over  chalk  are  noon  over-croiJin-J  i,y  _ ' 
eaeh  month  Let  the  Hiluation  lie  open,  the  snil  a  good  !  and  refuse  to  bring  n  heallliy  jilant;  and  in  nH  i^jn,' 
natural  loam,  if  possible,  and  laid  out  in  a  lied  three  or  ,  of  ground,  the  frecjuent  rejietlliun  of  pen-sowin!;  is  ,„  |' 
four  f.et  wide,  .ligged  ami  i:n<le  line.  Sealtrr  the  weds  [  depieeate.l.  'J'he  land  also  muHt  be  vurified  by  a  ,„,^„|j^ 
evenly,  ami  rake   them.     KeiM-at,  for  the  fourth  time,  in  ;  of  cabbage  and  potatoes. 

Au'^iist.  'I'he  plants  of  this  last  sowing  will  attain  a  \  t^licks  for  peas  arc  indispensable  in  keeping  i1„t, 
lir?p  size  bv  the  lolbiwing  /Vngust  and  September,  if  j  from  trailing  on  the  giound ;  and  therefore  e\ cry  [,.„„, 
plai'led  out  in  .\pril.  \s  the  plants  of  all  the  sowings,  who  wishes  to  grow  this  vegetable  in  bir.  garden,  nbduU 
afUT  thinning,  b.  come  four  or  five  inches  high,  they  arc  •  t  ike  care  to  preserve  the  sticks  from  one  season  lo  s„. 
Iraiuplauted  between  ciops  standing  widely  apart,  as  in  |  other,  as  long  as  they  are  serviceable.  Any  Idnj  „( 
the  single-row  system  of  Hsparagus,  or  as  succession  on  ]  hraiichy  twigs  will  answer  tlii-  purpose.  Vlien  i,! 
jxitalti-land.  Moist  weather  sluiuld  be  chosj-n,  and  the 
Buvuys  sliuuld  stand  two  feet  apart.  Keep  the  ground 
clean,  stir  it  occasionally,  and  draw  a  little  toward  the 
•teins  on  each  side,  always,  however,  leaving  a  sort  of 
fu.fow  three  or  four  inches  wide,  to  receive  th^'  rain, 
and  convey  it  to  the  roots.  Seed  can  U-  sown  -in  the 
•ecoiid  year,  but  it  may  be  rendered  spurious. 

ScoreiiKAi.K  and  (iKiiMAN  Kai.i.  are  the  hardiest 
antoii:?  oar  winter  greens.  They  aie  rai;:ed  by  sowing 
the  seeds  either  in  beils  (;r  single  drills  late  in  rclirnary 
or  eu.iv  in  March;  to  be  lirst  lliiiined  out  to  three  inches 
apart,  iiiid  iinally  Iranspliiiited  lo  bids  or  rows,  wherein 
til,-  plants  are  to  stand  thirty  ineilc.^  a.sumh'r.  'J'he 
plaii;.<  may  go  out  in  succession,  from  June  to  the  mid- 
dle of  July.  The  heads  are  cut  first,  and  sub.seipieiitly 
side-shoots  arise,  which  produce  excellent  w  inter  greens, 
till  early  cabbages  come  in.  The  plant  runs  up  to  flower 
and  seed  during  the  succeeding  summer. 

Instead  of  growing  kale,  cabbage,  or  any  other  of  these 
plants  from  seed,  it  will  save  much  trouble  to  imnha.se 
joung  plants  by  tho  hundred  from  a  nursery  of  such 
vegetables. 


polls  are  taken,  remove  the   hauiii  or  pea-slalks  to  ili, 
eoiii|io.4t  dung-heap, 

Dw.iiu-Bkans  are  planted  in  rows,  nni!  the  seeds  in 
pei'.erully  sown  at  dilTeri  lit  periods  hctrteu  the  |,,  , 
May  and  the  middle  of  .hily.  'I'he  silUiilion  fhcuMl 
open,  not  crowded   by   other  vegetiiMe   crops,  or  lir,,!., 


trees — the  soil  a  free-working  linini,  inoileriilelv 


'"aimtnl, 


'I'he  drills  should  not  be  nearer  In  each  oilier  than  tlwi- 
inches,  and  not  nioie  than  two  inches  deep.    l„  ji  ' 
the  beans  are  to  lie  dr<i]i]>ed  at  reguliir  distaiicen,  notn. 
cei'iUiig  three  or  four  inches.     Make  the  urciund  firji,  ji 
hnltoin,   but    let   the  covering  I'arlli   be   lit;lit,  .,nd  „■;, 
slightly  raked,  not  tro,ldeii  or  made  luird.     'I'lie  one  I  j.  | 
ing  principle  of  suecessfii!  growth  is  to  lirina;  ijic  |,|jf,|,  1 
iiji  as  soon   as  possible,  and  this   is  elleelcil  lij  b,,;,,j.|j 
warm  weather,  and   oiH-ning  llie  drill  euily  in  ihc  4," 
that  its  base  and  the   loose  soil  about  it  ini-y  be  rc^JriJj 
hot  by  exiiosiire  to  the  linltest  sun  for  two  or  three  hoiiti 
A  cold,  wet,  cloddy  eondilion  of  the  land  causisd.oiiv 
'I'm;   K.iiM:r    IJkan  comprises  two  species  of  iilati, 
which,  Ihoiigh  of  one  fiiiiiily,  are  of  very  ililK  rent  haliij 
Uotli,  however,  are  natives  of  the  east,  and  are  very  in. 
patient  of  cold;  hence  the  necessity  of  deferring  llu'sow 
ings  till  the  weather  be  iieaily  .settlid  in  the  sprini',  v.; 
the  grnund  warmed  to  the  deplh  of  several  inelug,    Tj,, 


The  Pea  snit  Rean  (or  I.cpiininous)  Kinds. 
TiiK  Pk*. — There  are  various  .sorts  of  this  nutritious 
little  vegetable,  bu  it  is  only  those  of  a  fine  kind  which  |  two  sjK'cies  are,  fir:  t,  the  dwarf  w  itli  its  numerous  > 
are  cultivated  in  gardens,  and  called  i^m  di-n-pro,  that  we  '  rieties,  all  Inaring  the  title  of  I'mnli  ISnuiSj  and.scco:.i 
require  to  notice.  When  fresh,  they  an"  a  bright  green,  !  the  cliniher,  commonly  termed  Srmlrl  /  rrnn,  or  ruijiicrs, 
and  when  dry  for  aeed,  most  are  a  biitr yellow.  Peas  allluiu;;h  there  ore  variilici  with  while  and  variiuji,^ 
a.-e  a  summer  delicacy,  and  the  chief  art  is  to  produce  blnssoms:  one  of  the  latter,  llic  jiin:iUcl  I'kIi/,  \s  wn 
tlieni  in  the  open  air,  by  the  middle  of  .Nfay,  and  to  keep  ,  prolific.  'I'liere  are  few  of  the  many  varieties  of  ';.( 
up  a  succession  of  crops  till  other  vegetables  siijiersede     dwarf  "vhich  can   Hur|iass   the   bnfl'or  ihin-coloured  ivu 

-it  is  free  of  g  owlh,  a;'d  fertile,  either  when  foi 


pots,  or  planted  'n  the  open  ground.     The  liiaeli  iiiieili!(J 
dwarf  is  also  an  excellent  bearer;  the  white-seeded  is  !iie  | 
true  hiitiiul   o'  the    French;  in  Kent  it  it  calkj  ^a*  | 
vaiixcrii, 

Ifi-NNKH-DcANs  arc  planted  willi  similar  precaulioiij,  I 


them.  Skilful  gardeners  do  not  consider  it  a  difllcult 
prtxvss  to  etfect  an  early  crop,  as  the  plant  is  very  hardy, 
and  sustains  violent  transitions  without  much  danger. 
Peas,  therefore,  may  he  accelerated  in  frames  and  vine- 
ries during  February,  and  lieiiig  transplanted  into  rows 
fronting  a  south  and  east  wall,  will  continue  lO  advaneo 

progremively   though   the  weather   be   cold.     They   can     or,  if  sown  early  in   pots  and  boxes,  will  transpl.mt  \m  ] 
al'o  be  sown  (provided  there   be   no  frost)   in   the   ojien     well.     When   the   pl.ints   altaiii   the  height  of  three  ,': 
grniird  at  any  time.     Tlie  chief  varieties  for  the  earliest     four  inches,  they  should  have  a  little  earth  dfann  al.d  | 
and    latest   ciup  arc   the  curly  M'lnifi'!.,  Iit.lvji'f  tlifirf,     the  stem,  and  be  slit  ki  1 ;  that  is,  souk  what  tall  hranr; 
Chtrl'Dii,  fnimr,  and  some   other  peculiar  to   loonlilles.  '  stieks  slioiild  be  placed  on  eacl;  side,  ;'oiiveri;ing 'oii;:j  1 
The  varieties   for   the    main   suimiier  crops  are  the  Hue  ,  each  other  at  lb.'  lop;  these  prop^  ought  In  he  ei;;lil tt; 
Pii<,(«o/.i.  the  imjifitnl,  hnit^hl'i  tlita'f  ntu\  lull  viunvtc-     liiuh,  an:   when   the   plants   reach   their  .suiiimils,  iJut 
fit's,  and  the  nvirlar,  \  should  be  nip,'ed  oil"  and  hejit  stopj^ed,  to  cau.«e  llinn;)  | 

The  soil  most  alTected  by  this  vegetable  is  a  free,  light,     pioiluce  fiuit-bi'aring  laterals.     "  (jatlier  heans  and  b-e  I 
Mit  rich  loam,  ahou tiding  with   vegelalde  matter,  but  not     Immiis,"  tliat   is,  never  biive   any    jkhIs  to  riiien;if*| 
manured    with    recent    .lung.     The    situation    for  crops     dundant.  let  them  be  given  away,  or  go  tc  ttie  pigsiit 
Irom  June  ti.  Auu'iist  should  lie  exjKiwil  and  open.     The  ,  for  a  mnturi'ig   pod   HiTests  the   fertility  of  the  plant  t; 
lif'ies  of  sowing  are  Very  various.     Some  obtain  an  ex- |  ta^kii.g  all  its  Mowers.     Keei  all  the  crops  clean,  auJCn 
•elUrt  yield  froru  seed  sown  early  in  November  in  long  I  surface  of  the  ground  aboul  th^jin  rather  ojien. 


TIIE  KITCHEN  GARDEN. 


810 


Tm  Oaiidi!*  Xir.KT  l«  known  to  every  one,  and  it 
ku  IKTH  in  II*'  ffi'i"  ''"'"  i'nim'"ii)riiil,  nH  appciird  by  tlio 
■Union  ""»'''  '"  ''  ''y  0"'''''"'  ''':>'"'ii''il  niithiim.  Tliouuli 
live  of  itic  fist,  it  in  in  nil  its  cultivulrd  viirictii's 
'««  hirdv ;  ilicw' variclicH  ««■  iniiiicrmis:  Hi)mn  of  llin 
'ore  apP''"*''''  "re, 111"  •'"'''y  "i":"!,'''"  l'"r  tlip  first  crops, 
\k\\  may  '"'  '""^"  ^'""^  Orldlior  to  Fcbrnary  ;  I'lirly 
r  t.jim/;  nn  oxrrllfiit  Ccrtilo  bciiii  for  K'^nt-rnl  use,  ucit 
ti'  hlv  lliivoiircd ;  hiO'til  Il'oir/ior,  tlip  IwMt  of  nil  beans 
for  da™'"'' ''!''  ""'  "  ["■"'''''^'  •"'"I'i'i".  "  liyl'ri'l  Jxtwccii  llin 

•o'last.  (•(iii.liinin'.':  llio  frrtilily  of  tlio  one  with  much  of 
(he  lii^li  lli'^oiir  of  tlic  otbi'r. 

DcuiH  prcfir  n  sound  and  ralbcr  firm  loam,  rctenfivo 
of  moist  11  ri'.  'I'bi';'  "uIUt  inucli  in  a  very  ,iry  season 
iiul  coil,  particularly  if  attuked  by  the  lilack  bb"' 
(aM')i  wliiili  covers  the  tops,  preys  upon  the  (hiids  of 
IJIP  plui'it.  and  as  we  have  seen  in  the  summer  of  ISIO, 
aimost  eiiliri'ly  destroys  wliole  fields  in  a  very  short  time. 
'fovpin':,  wlaii  tho  inseitH  are  first  seen,  u|)peur8  to  l)c 
the  only  remedy.  Thc^  seeds  should  always  be  sown  in 
rows,  and  one  pint  is  considered  encuish  for  eighty  feet. 
Tjic'lH-aiis  oi];;ht  to  be  sown  in  one  lonR  row,  three 
inolifs  deep  and  lour  inches  apart,  rcturninf?  the  soil 
and  trpaliuR  alorii,'  the  course  of  the  row  ;  after  which 
Iho  rako  should  b-?  employed  to  level  the  surlacc.  IV-ans 
Iransplaiit  entiemely  well,  and  therefore  may  bo  sown 
diicklv  in  ar.tuiii'i,  coveriiii;  the  |ilanfs  with  hoops  und 


Dints,  or 


wilh  a  itarden  frame  and  lights. 


When  till'  plants  ri>-e  in  the  rows,  or  begin  to  grow 
(lor  bein;?  transplanted,  loosen  tlie  earth  by  pushing  ihe 
Dutch  hoe  aloni;  the  surface,  aiid  draw  three  inches  of  it 
lo  each  side  of  the  stems;  or  rather  shovel  up  two  or 
tlircc  inches  (d'  the  earth,  and  lay  it  flat  a  foot  wide  on 
afh  aide  of  the  row  of  beans,  shelving  rather  towards 
ihi'  stem''  than  from  them,  lor  tlu'ii  the  rains  would  find 
their  way  directly  to  the  roots.  The  sea?  jus  of  sowing 
ire  aiiiUnin  for  the  mazagan,  January  and  February  for 
lonir-|iods,  and  from  March  lo  June  for  the  Windsor. 
go»  succession  crops  one  after  the  other,  according  lo 
the  Jcinand,  as  soon  as  the  plants  of  the  preceding  sow- 
ing slinll  lie  (jnite  above  ground.  To  cross  the  variety, 
gow  Winilsor  and  long-pods  alternatcdy  in  the  row,  and 
nve  the  beans,  inlroduiing  in  future  sowings  an  occa- 
lional  Windsor  bean,  till  tho  desired  rich  flavour  be  ob- 
taicrd. 

A-i  the  beans  riiH'n  and  turn  black,  draw  them  up,  and 
place  thcni  to  dry  in  an  airy  situulion,  i;narding  the  pods 
frim  mice,  whiidi  sometimes  take  every  bean,  and  thus,, 
18  we  have  f  lUiid,  deprive  the  gardener  of  a  elioice  va- 
riety,which  he  had  Is'en  at  considerable  pains  to  procure. 

KsculonI  or  Root  Vc(;itnlile». 

The  vegetables  grown  for  the  sake  of  their  roots  arc 
(^  two  kinds — 1.  Those  in  which  the  roots  are  round  or 
U<jt  py,  including  the  Jerusalem  artichoke,  the  potato,  and 
ietunap;  and  'i.  Those  which  are  tap  or  taper  rooted,  '■ 
Ujluiling  the  carrot,  the  beet-root,  the  radish,  and  the  , 
wrue-rudish.  Htriclly  speaking,  the  tubers  of  potatoes, 
to;.,  arc  not  roots,  but  merely  parts  of  the  vegetable  be- 
low inc  ground,  the  real  roots  U'lng  small  fibres  which 
«hx)t  out  froin  the  tubers,  and  bring  nourishment  to  the 
plant  All  roipiirc  de|ith  of  soil  to  penetrate,  and  also 
IxMeness  and  breadth  of  soil  to  allow  of  oxpansion. 

Jebisalkm  ,\HTicnoKK. — 'I'his  is  a  root  which  n)ay 
DO  miid  to  Cfiudiine,  in  point  of  flavour,  the  turni|)  w  ith 
the  potato.  Its  name  is  an  absurdity,  for  die  plant  has 
no  resemblance  to  an  artichoke;  and  the  word  Jinifulnn 
ii  a  coriuption  of  the  Itwliaii  name  lliriisfi}!.  'I'he  plant 
in  a  native  of  Itrazil,  and  bolanicully  belongs  to  the 
mine  family  as  the  sunllower,  but  it  rarely  prislncca 
dowers  in  the  IJritish  islands.  ']'he  tuU-rs,  which  alone 
ire  eaten,  are  produced  abundantly  under  the  .s\iiface 
cluw!  lo  the  base  of  the  main  stem,  'i'hc  plant  is  set 
liliu  tlie  potato,  by  either  whole  rooto  ur  cuts  with  one  or 


more  eye*  to  each.  The  pieces  or  cut^  should  \ie  pre  • 
pared  at  the  time  of  planting,  and  set  by  depositing  ig 
shallow  trenches  two  feet  apart,  and  one  foot  asunder  in 
the  row;  and  being  covered  with  earth,  nothing  more 
will  lie  re(|uired  but  to  keep  the  ground  clean  by  the  hoe. 
The  season  for  planting  is  in  the  first  dry  weather  of 
March  ;  ami  half  a  peck  of  tubers,  ac(  ording  to  Aber- 
crondiie,  will  plant  a  row  120  feet  Img.  A  good  mellow 
loam  is  the  proper  soil,  and  tho  spot  for  planting  should 
be  apart  from  the  Vegetable  garden,  otherwise  this  prolific 
plant  may  intrude  and  become  a  coni|)le?c  nuisance. 
Being  sit  in  March,  the  plant  is  perfected  about  October 
or  November;  tin  crop  is  ready  for  u.-e  when  tho  stoma 
are  ipjite  dry.  Dig  only  when  wanted,  if  that  be  con- 
venient; but  if  there  be  a  danger  of  frost,  as  will  most 
likely  be  the  case,  lilt  the  crop,  and  store  away  for  winter 
use  in  moist  sand  or  any  kind  of  light  soil  through  which 
the  frost  cannot  penetrate. 

Potato. — Like  the  Jerusalem  artichoke  and  some 
other  plants,  the  potato  is  a  naturalized  exotic  in  English 
gardens  from  the  wilds  of  America,  and  has  been  greatly 
ini|iroved  by  culture  within  the  Inst  hundred  years. 
There  are  now  many  varieties,  individually  distinguished 
by  colour  and  flavour  ;  and  as  some  arc  better  than 
others,  it  is  very  important  that  ]iroper  sorts  should  alone 
be  cultivated.  There  arc  two  di-Uinct  kindij — I'drly  and 
Idle.  Early  potatoes  are  a  Jirematurc  and  tianuient 
kin<l ;  they  soon  come  to  perfection,  and  cannot  be  stored 
for  future  use.  On  this  account  no  cottager  shouU  have 
any  thing  to  do  with  early  potatoes,  which  are  never 
grown  but  as  a  luxury,  and  alter  all  they  are  in  general 
poor  waxy  stulV.  The  true  potato  is  the  late  kind,  which 
will  store  for  winter  und  spring  use.  Of  this  there  are 
hundreds  of  sorts,  every  district  apparently  having  one 
which  is  best  .adapted  to  its  soil  ami  climate.  The  sorts 
to  be  preferred  arc  those  possessing  the  (juality  of  mcali- 
ness,  and  which  will  not  degenerate  or  fail  in  cropping. 
The  kinds  we  recommend,  us  far  as  they  may  be  found 
suitable  as  to  cliiiuite,  &c.,  arc  kidney -shaped,  or  long 
and  flattish ;  red  rough.s,  a  round  reddish-coloured  j)o- 
tato ;  and  those  white  kinds  w  Inch  are  smooth  tkinncd. 
Of  early  potatoes,  the  ash-lcuvcd  kidney  is  among  the 
best  for  ojH'n-gurden  culture. 

'J'Ik^  jiotato  may  be  cultivated  either  from  seed  pro- 
cured from  the  apple  on  the  stalk,  or  I'rom  the  tulH;r  it8<;lf. 
If  from  the  seed,  Ihe  first  crops  of  tubers  are  only  a  little 
larger  than  peas,  and  several  seasons  are  required  to 
bring  the  plant  to  an  edible  size.  The  common  method 
of  culti\atioii  is  by  pieces  or  cuts,  each  having  at  least 
one  well-defined  eye ;  cuts  wilh  two  eyes  are  generally 
preferred.  'J'hcse  arc  .set  in  trenches,  tlie  ground  being  in 
gooil  heart  with  (ircvious  manuring,  or  good  old  manure 
placed  along  with  the  seta,  'i'he  season  for  planting  is 
late  in  April.  Dig  and  plant  sets,  fresh  cut  as  the  work 
proceeds,  placing  the  sets  from  nine  to  twelve  inches 
U|)art,  and  the  rows  being  about  twenty  inches  asunder. 
Heap  hix  inches  of  soil  loosely  over  the  sets,  and  when 
the  shoots  liave  risen  sulVicicntly  above  [jround,  keep 
earthing  them  up  with  a  hoe.  When  the  stalks  begin 
to  decay  in  October,  the  crop  is  ready  for  lilting.  (For 
further   information   on   potato   culture,  see  Agiiicul- 

TIIIK.) 

Thk  TfiiMi'. — Of  this  useful  vegetable  there  are 
many  varieties,  but  three  only  arc  grown  in  gardens : 
these  are  the  inrly  Duldi,  which  is  white;  the  yellow 
DiiUh  .  and  the  Sweile,  also  a  yellow  kind.  The  white 
is  the  most  delicate  while  young,  but  the  yellow  Swede 
is  prelerable  us  a  keejiing  or  late  turnip.  The  yellow 
Dutch  has  also  an  excellent  flavour.  'I'urnips  are  culti- 
vated from  seeds  in  drills  one  tinit  ajiart,  and  thinned 
when  they  come  into  leaf,  to  aflbrd  room  for  their  e\ 
pansion.  For  the  two  Dutch  varieties,  the  Iwat  soil  Li 
sandy,  enriched  wilh  bone-dust  or  gooil  (dd  stable  dung 
,  One  ounce  of  seed  will  go  over  a  great  spac»— A'ler 


ftW 


INFORMATION   FOR   TMR   PKOPLK. 


rrMnMn  mv*  kk  nniirh  M  200  R<|iiari)  fret  of  ■iirfaro. 
Smill  miwiims  iilniild  lie  riimlc  in  Kiin-riwion  tVoin  Miiirli 
till  July,  anil  (lien  llu>  iimin  ('ri>|i  ti>r  winlcr  kIioiiIiI  !><< 
■own.  'I'd  iivrrt  tlir  ('iicroiirliini'ntH  ol'  tlii>  lui'tii|>  hrctlc, 
■ealter  ruitil-diiHt  ovrr  iIip  Icavrn  lid'oro  tliu  ilcw  in  nil' 
Ihrm  in  tlic  niuriiinff.  'I'liiM,  whrn  tinifly  ii|i|ilit'ii,  will 
nevrr  U'  l'»uncl  to  liiil.  Hwi'iln  tnrni|ii<  nliouUI  lie  mowii 
in  April  iiikI  AIjiv.  ])oi>|ily  lioi'  tlio  riilgca  ul'tcr  thiiuiinf^, 
and  kt'cfi  t\w  aiirrurc  clnir  t>(  wocdg. 

Thk  <!ahiiot. — 'I'ho  tiivoiirili!  varjrtics  ar*  the  f.irli/ 
Korn,  the  .illri'if;liii>ii,  luut  tin-  Inm;  i^niiinf  or  SiitTiy,  All 
raquirc  it  dirp  Uaht  iu>il,  'I'lic  curly  horn  \*  miwti  in 
Fehriiury  (or  the  «|irini{  orop,  mid  in  July  lor  n  liilr  crop; 
Ibo  two  other  kiiidri  arc  howii  in  Miiri'h,  April,  mid  May. 
All  are  itowii  hroadciist  in  U>d«.  'I'hc  sccil  iiiny  Ik-  hmvi d 
by  plantiiii;  II  low  of  the  licut  nirrolH  to  Htaiid  llic  winter; 
■eed  will  not  rctuiii  iut  er»wiiii{  priiiripio  hIhivo  a  year. 
CarrotH  may  In-  stored  like  putatoes  in  winter. 

Thk  I'uikmp  in  a  taper-rooted  veuetalije  rrKriiililiiif; 
(be  carrot  in  8ha|)e,  and  in  Kiinliind  i»  a  favourite  veije- 
Ublo  with  Halt  tioh.  The  Koed  in  kowii  in  drillH  a  tout 
•aunder.  'i'he  periiul  of  miwini;  in  roinpriwd  hcttveen 
the  last  week  of  Kehrnary  and  the  lirHt  week  of  May, 
Un  thiniiini;  out.  let  tho  reiiiainiiig  plantK  lie  nine  iiiehea 
apart  in  the  row. 

TiiK  Kaimhii. — There  arc  two  diatinrt  kinds  of  radish, 
whii'h  eoiiipriiH!  all  the  nuiiieroim  vurietiea  whieli  are 
occaaioiialjy  eultivuted.  Aecunling  to  Lindh'y'a  ralu- 
logue,  them-  are — 

The  iiiiii-r-it.o.id  tfirine  failuh,  of  which  tlie  varirtie* 
arc — I.  the  loiiu  white;  'i.  purple  or  falad  radisii  ; 
3.  anliuun  or  roise-colourri\,  4.  hcurlet  ;  Ct.  white  liusNian 
radiiili. 

1'hi!  rotiml  turnip-rooted  tprini;  riidish. — 6.  CriniNon 
turniji-rooled;  7.  yearly  white;  8.  {lurplo  turnip;  U.  white 
turnip;   10.  yellow  turnip. 

li'iiilir  r<idt>'li, —  II.  Ulack  Spanish;  12.  hrown  oIk 
long;  I'-i.  lai'^t!  purple;  14.  round  hrown;  10.  white 
Spanish,  a  laii;e  iiulh,  which  in  good  aoil  growa  to  the 
■ize  of  a  Hinall  8tulil<le  turnip. 

NuniU-rs  Vi  and  3  are  the  best  of  the  spindle-roolcd 
ra.li.HheH;  iiuiiilierH  ti  and  7  of  the  early  lurjiip-rootcd. 
The  winter  Mack  radislcrt  are  rarely  (icen  in  gardens; 
Uut  tlie  large  white  (IT))  ix  very  iiiild,  if  the  Hoil  and 
Hiaaon  Im'  tavoiiralije.  and  its  texture  is  ttndcr. 

Sown   in    rcliriiury  and    March,   the   s[iring    railisheg  ' 
eoine  into  use  in  April  and  May  ;  if  icijuircd  earlier,  they  I 
must  he  protC'ted  liy  ffuiiies  or  iiiuIh.     Tl.e  niaikcl-gar-  ! 
dcticrM  olilain  tliciii  early  liy  gentle  fon'in;;,  covering  the  I 
lie<l»  every  wvcre   iii^jiit.     The    Howiims  wf  all  the  early  j 
varieties  may  lie  re|HMted  inonthly  till  .\ugust.    The  win- 
ter nidihhes  are  i-own  in  July  und  .August,  and  come  into  ' 
Uw)   from   .Njilciiilicr   till  the  spring.     A  rich  and   liglit 
eoil  Muits  the  radidi,  with  oceiLsioiial  eo|iioiis  supplies  of 
water;  and  rajiidity  of  growth  is  rccpiired,  ntherwlse  the 
roots  will  nut  Ih'  teiiiler,  nor  will  the  flavour  lie  iiuld.  i 

HoiisK-aAiiisH  is  a  vcui:tali!e  wliiih  in  cerlaiii  soils  is 
ot  citreiiicly  diilicult  culture,  in  others  of  iincontrolhiMy 
luxuriant  growth  :  it  is  a  most  pcrniiiou-  weed  where  it 
jntrudes,  liecausf  of  the  inullitiide  of  vital  nernis  with 
wtiich  iU  riiot-stiH'k  alioiiiids.  an<1  hy  which  il  is  rcmlereil 
a  Bort  of  vcgctalije  p<il\  pus,  every  inch  of  it  heiiig  capalde 
of  developing  a  growiiKi  hud. 

Such  lii'ing  the  dillicully  of  artificial  ])rop'ig»tion,  it 
may  Ih'  ijui  sliomd  whether  niijcli  trmilile  is  nut  eipciidrd 
U»ele»sly  ti  elli-ct  that  which  nature  produces  hy  the 
inoft  Bimple  nicmis.  Itoivever.  horne-radish  can  !«•  pro- 
cured hy  trenching  two  feet  deep  a  plot  of  free  Iomhi, 
removing  all  sluncs  as  the  woik  pri«ceds.  One  Ireiiih 
heing  Well  cleared,  a  layer  of  manure  two  incliKM  thick 
•iiouJ  In'  laid  at  the  hottoiii  (for  none  must  lie  uiixid 
with  tlie  Huil),  and  U|Kin  that  three  inchea  of  the  lino 
ioaio,  ^^olne  tin:'  ^traighi  rout^  U'inu  in  rrndiness,  they 
•re  i<>  be  cut  into  two-iiidi  Iciigtha  juid  piece  alter  |iioco 


prciwcd  into  the  loil  eight  inrhcH  annniler,  in  a  rem  t. 

whole  length  of  the  trein  h,  and  exactly  in  the  miililL 
'J'he  foil   ia  then  to  lie  dugout  mi'ilher  two  foot  ,„, 
tiirDing  it  into  the  o|s'n  trench,  clearing  awny  tho  h  '^*' 
ami  other  rough  HuhHlaiiieH,     Thua  alternulely  trend 
and   planting,  a  bed  will   ho  Torinrd  of  m.y  e\h.nt  a* 


may  Is'  required, 
in  ( )etol>er  and 


I.     'I'he  work  sli.iuld  In-  purf„rii,ed  oitn,, 
Novemlx  r,  <ir  in  K.  hniary  ;  and  the  Ar,. 
",»t  weather  of  the  veasoii  hIiouM  be  mlectei 


the  di,. 


.Miereromhie,  one  of  the  best  pracluul  wrilernonmi 
ih  iiiiig,  made  the  following  judicinuH  reiiiurkH  «h  li 
will,  if  duly  considered,  throw  hght  upon  thoM'  Imliitj,  ^ 
the  plant  which  have  led  to  the  deep  niellusl  uf  -u|.. 
just  ilesctiU'd.  "The  root,"  be  says,  ■•  being  Jnnki 
lorniH  ilHcIf  into  a  thick  Knotly  stonl  at  n  ccrluin  tlrnih 
sending  U[i  several  erect,  straight,  rool-sluiols,  in  |,,|||.|i 
proportionate  to  the  depth  of  the  stool  or  main  rent 
which,  if  planted  lilWii  or  eighteen  inches  Ik-Iow  ili. 
surface,  the  Hhootii  or  sticks  of  horse-radish  will  rinj  , 
that  length.  They  will  rise  in  May,  iiicrensiii|>  all  Hum 
nicr  till  OclolH'r,  when  i,i  rich  ground  they  will  ]„>  Knm,,. 
times  large  enough  to  diu  up  fur  use,  being  un  imh  lliirli 
if  nut,  they  must  have  another  year's  growth,  takiiip 
them  up  chan  to  tho  bottom  hy  cutting  them  olf  cliw  in 
the  old  stool,  which  reinuining,  sends  up  a  frcnh  iuiiijIi 
annually." 

These  habitM  indicate  two  important  facts,  pjrst,  iLi 
the  crown  or  stool  must  enjoy  all  the  benedt  of  iJi, 
manure,  to  enable  it  to  »<  iid  up  a  straight  stem,  ntiil  \q 
nuurish  that  »t(  ,.1  by  itso»n  power;  Iherefore  no  miinmc 
must  Ih-  placed  in  the  upper  soil,  since  it  ini;;ht  exnij 
lateral  growth,  Necoiid,  it  points  out  the  iiiethiKl  of 
taking  U|i  the  roots,  which  should  always  lie  that  of 
trei'  lung,  lieginning  at  one  end  of  tho  bed  and  cleurinji 
awa,'  the  soil  to  the  full  depth  of  the  original  trench 
Thus  a  row  can  he  taken  without  disturbing  the  crowns 
by  i-ulling  oil'  the  uticks  or  upright  shoots  close  {n  ihe 
head  of  each  stool  or  stock  ,  and  what  is  surplus  of  each 
diL'ging  can  be  preserved  in  sand  till  more  be  reijuifiii. 
Ill  »;r-l{ooT  or  iU.ii  IUki. — 'i'his  is  ons  of  the  injit 
valuable  of  the  spinille-roolet',  vegetable:";  it  has  hcielo. 
fore  lieen  wasted  by  most  ]jeisuns,  who,  overlooking  lh« 
really  useful  jiurposes  towhicharoig  so  salubrious  can 
Ih'  applied,  have  considered  it  as  lillle  niuie  than  a  ga;. 
Iiish  to  salads,  licet-,  ools  shol'lil  be  boiled  or  bukcil  till 
they  iM'.dijie  imtIccII,'  ti  lalei,  when  they  may  lie  calfn 
wj.-ni  as  a  dinner  vegetable.  AA  hen  cold,  liny  sliuiilii  l« 
cut  into  slices,  and  covered  witi  viuegar.  'i'he  |jlui,t  ii 
a  biennial,  that  is,  it  grows,  niul  (srlects  its  roots  in  one 
season ;  in  the  following  spring  it  sends  u|i  its  lliivtct- 
slalk,  ripens  its  seeds,  and  ilics.  Seed,  therefore,  can  ihi's 
Iw  procured;  but  it  is  better  to  purchase  or  exihnnw 
than  to  grow  it.  Of  tin-  two  varieties  of  red  beet,  llit 
^mailer  deep-purple  Miriity  is  gieatly  preferable  to  lh( 
lariicr.  which  approaches  to  and  is  lillle  U'tter  tlmii  wan. 
gi  l-wiir7,el.  We  select  two  varieties.  I.  I'he  short-routed 
deep  purple  lieet.  for  its  rout.  -.  'I'he  '>(.»  ryWu, or  liiver 
lieel,  the  leaves  of  which  only  are  used  in  lieu  of  s|iiiiuch. 
To  grow  t!ii^  red  JK-et  wi  II,  'he  ground  ought  lo  '« 
liuht  and  pnlveri/Jihle,  otherwise  llie  spinilh'-root  will  be 
diverted  if  it  meet  with  obstacles,  and  bivinie  forkiil  ,in(l 
di.^lurtcd.  'I'reiii'h  tho  jilut  to  the  di  plli  of  mjlilitn 
inrlif's,  removing  large  slones,  roots,  and  liard  clodii  of 
e.irlli  ;  lay  u  stratum  of  ni.iiiurp  at  the  bullom  uf  t.hc 
trencli,  in  onler  tu  attract  the  root  dowiivsard;  llieii  riliim 
the  line  earth.  Let  the  work  be  completed  Ulon.'  Iroet 
sit  111,  and  mark  out  the  beils  accoriliiiL:  to  the  iiuiiilorol 
rows  leijuired.  .\t  the  middle  or  lalter  end  ul  .March, 
the  seeds  are  to  he  sown,  'i'bese  are  eontiiimd  in 
a  curious  Neeil.vets4'l  of  rude  sha|a',  and  cannot  coiiM^ 
nieiiily  !<•  sipaniled  from  it.  In  Kowing, tiieteh  tho  line, 
and  ilraw  an  even  drill  about  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  i 
half  deep,  anil  drop  the  si  ed-vissels  at  even  iliiUnoH, 
two  or  tlirce  iuchca  UBUiider;  liir  aitliou^h  ihvif!  *^nai 


THK  KITCHEN  GAHDRN. 


iioiirh  too  """"  '""''  ''""'  errowth,  it  i«  in  nil  rn»i>n  wiw 
'  hi  lih""' '''"*''''' '"'""""'  ''""''■'"  "'"'  "lli'T  <iii'mii'(i 
.  ,„„  iiiiiiiy  |iliillt«,  mill  tlillH  II  nciiKoti  Iiiiiy  Ik-  lont. 
("ovfrwilh  liu'it  """■  •'iirlh,  mill  ritlirr  Ircuil  nr  iM'nl   llir 

rfrinu  onrlli  wi'li  tho  fijuidi'  till  it  lio  firm  on  llio  soriln. 
If  the  pli"i'»  riKi>  iM|imlly,  tliiii  tlicin  Krnilimlly,  till  llioy 
Ijnil  f"'"'  "'"'■  '"  '*^'''''''  ''"''"'"  "I""''  •'^''f.v  wiiy.  or 
Tfii  fiRti""''"  ''"''"'"  '"^  ''"'  '"'"'''■  f""'''''  viiriity.     Uoft 

III  traiH|ilaiit,  lint  IIh'  cprnillnri  (IwnrCit  tlu'  plinilii;  mid 

best  it  i»  iilli'iiil'''!  with  mmii^  risk.  Keep  llir  rowM  nr 
Ivil*  eiiliri'lv  irci'  froiii  wii'iIh  Iiy  limiil-wi'rdiiiuf  nr  (l.tt- 
|,¥'ini!.  ^''"""  ''""'"  ^*''"  '"'  ■"'''"'>  '"  '^•'pti'iiilirr,  mid 
ih'iid'  thriiii«lii"il  «'ii)'<'i'-  I"  lining  tlirm,  or  prior  to 
monnij  lip'''"'''"^  "inter,  rut  oil' tlip  slriiKKliiii;  jciivrH, 
.  ,jiii.  f jrcfid  ""'  •"  wou'id  tho  rootn;  tlu-y  kn  p  well  in 
1  .  „nJ  wiJI-WiiHliid  NHiid,  liut  liocoiiip  tiiililid  it'  wrt 
.' ^  „f  (IcnmipiiHiiMf  vi'in'tiililc  miliHtmirrH  iirc  iiri'sciit. 

Torollict  Mord,  pillirr  rrsfrvo  two  or  thrco  of  tho  lu'»t 
rooKin  tli''  "I'"'  "'I"'"'''  ''"'.V  iJ^'w,  or  trmiKplmit  llinii  in 
iiiluinn  to  II  convi'iiii'iil  Mitimtion.  The  llowcr-RtrMiiH  will 
1^,  pfoduccd  in  till'  f'olldwini,'  Hprinp;.  mid  bIioiiIiI  hf  w- 
rurfil  |iv  st  ikt's  till  tlio  hoimIm  ri|M'n.  Then  cut  down  tlir 
^,,||(,  aiiil  dry  them  on  iirloth  under  nil  niry  hIumI  ;  Hepa- 
tiilc  the  nei'il-vesiiel.x,  mid  prewrve  thcni  in  piiper  ImRH  in 
J  Jr>'  aiii! '""'  "i'liidioii ;  tlio  necdR  will  retain  vegctutivc 
powrr  fur  i**^*"'™'  yms. 

Piimnrk  apiili"ililc  to  Vti't,  Ciirrot,  nnd  Primniji. — Fn 
^j(f  flayoy  or  cloddy  Iniid  iheHC  npiiidle-root  venet.ililes 
(UPCif  J  Vi-ry  indiirereiitly,  carrot  c»peciiilly  ;  tliereCore,  to 
avoiil  ropi'liti"".  ''  i''  tlioimht  rii;tit  to  olwcrvp  timt  iit  the 
tiiiieof  sowliii,'  (the  land  liavini;  heeii  prrvioiiKly  treiielied, 
,„j  left  expoxcil  to  front  in  ridires),  the  8oil  in  to  ho  lovol- 
jeJ,  mid  lii'l'"'*  mild"  aloiiif  thn  ooiirno  of  a  cardon  lino 
nidi  H  itroiiK  pointed  crowlmr  ahout  four  inches  '.siindor 
and  twelve  iiiclicH  deep.  Fill  them  with  very  light  Karidy 
earth  silleil,  nnd  make  ii  little  cavity  in  the  centres,  into 
which  drop  timr  or  live  seeds;  cover  them  with  the  same 
liiiht  earth,  nnd  hent  the  surtiieo  level  with  the  (hit  of  the 
spade;  the  roots  so  treated  will  tap  downward,  nnd  ho 
prewrvod  us  in  a  sort  of  sliciith  hy  the  hindinn  earth 
around  them.  Thus  cm  its,  which  alwiiya  fail  in  certain 
mi's,  as  we  have  ollen  olmoived,  may  he  produced  of 
hamlnome  llijnre  and  t,'""!'  iji'ahty,  nnd  Ix'ot-root  may  lie 
grown  witliiiut  ii  fork  in  it — a  circuiiistancc  of  fonsidor- 
ilijp  importiiiire  with  u  root  which  is  so  liuhle  to  ho  in- 
jured hy  the  loss  of  itfl  purple  juice  whenever  it  is 
wounded  by  the  knifo. 

The  AlliiiceoiiB  or  Onion  Kinds  of  Ve(felii|]le«. 

Thil  savoury  class  of  kitchen  voKetaWes  comprises  tho 
onion,  leek,  uarlick,  mid  shallot,  tho  two  former  heini;  In- 
far  the  mo^t  inipoitaiil.  All  are  natives  of  onstern  couii- 
trios,  hut  they  f;row  to  preit  perfection,  ns  respects  pun- 
genry  of  flavour,  in  the  Uritish  islands. 

Tkr  Omiiv. — For  n  crop  of  onions  tho  soil  should  ho 
rich,  lighl.  and  deep,  nnd  well  exposed  to  tho  sun.  Bo- 
ffire  miwing,  work  and  enrieh  the  Ix'd  to  the  do]itli  of 
eighteen  iiiclies,  and  then  heat  it  flat  nnd  firm  with  a 
iple,  Sow  tho  seeds  at  any  time  of  March,  thus — 
jcrati'h  drills  hy  thi'  line  just  so  deep  ns  to  lie  riearly  dis- 
cernible, and  sprinkle  the  seeds  alonif  them  about  three 
wfonr  in  an  inch.  Sift  fine  sandy  earth  over  the  seeds, 
and  |iat  the  snrfice  even.  As  the  onions  ndvanco,  thin 
them  nut  aceordinir  In  the  variety,  nllowinBr  niternntely  mi 
irilfrveninir  space  fully  eijiial  to  the  hroadtli  of  tho  onion 
botneen  hnlli  and  hnlh.  In  Heplemher  twist  tho  nocks, 
tAc  up  the  crop  when  tho  leaves  hocoine  yellow,  and  ex- 
pone  the  onions  to  sim  and  air  under  n  shed  till  thoy  l>o 
eslemally  quite  drv.  Many  sow  onions  lirondcast  in 
heds,  in  which  case  they  lik("wise  require  tliinnin;;. 

A  lumrner  supply  of  onions,  nt  a  time  when  the  previ- 
(MU  ttock  is  exhausted,  nnd  the  (riowin;;  autumn  crop  has 
not  come  into  season,  must  he  desirable,  and  it  is  easily 
tbtained.    Prepare  the  ground  early  in  February  ;  select 

Vui.  i.— Oti 


'  n  iiiindior  of  those  smnll  hul)>«  thai  arc  nltrayR  found  ia 
every  Ix'd  of  tho  lar,<er  kiiiila,  which  are  not  aliovo  in 
inch  bread.  'I'he  bed  lieinif  ready  about  the  end  of  the 
first  week,  miu^k  out  squaies  on  the  surfaco  hy  mean*  of 
croBs-strinifH,  hut  do  not  move  the  Kfound.  At  rarh 
intersoetinn  of  the  lines,  press  in  an  onion,  the  root  down- 
ward, to  one-third  of  its  depth,  «o  that  the  bulb  remnin  firm 
and  erect.  Thus,  when  completeil,  the  bed  will  exhibit 
the  onions  in  squares  five  or  nix  inehcH  iiHiindor.  The 
'  onion  liirniN  its  bulb  in  the  first  year  of  its  growth,  and 
the  rtower  and  ser  d  in  th;'  second  year.  These  amall 
onions  will  therefore  nnliirally  iitlempt  to  pro«luco  ■ 
(Imver  head,  which,  ns  soon  as  it  is  f  lirlj  visilile,  is  to  be 
1  pinched  oil".  Another  attempt  will  he  made,  nnd  that 
!  also  must  be  fruslruted.  The  luilurni  iiMirse  of  tho  vital" 
j  fructifying  snp  heinir  thus  interrupted,  will  be  uivcrted  to 
the  bulb,  and  gradually,  alnioKt  iiiiperi'e|itilily,  two,  'hree, 
or  four  onions  of  medium  si/.o  will  bo  prinluccd  and 
(rrow  freely.  'J'liese  are  to  he  taken,  as  soon  a»  they  are 
ripe  (which,  if  the  suinmer  Is'  tine  mid  Himny.with  occa- 
sional showers,  will  be  in  .Inly,)  and  dried  in  the  air  h 
before  directed. 

Thk  liKKK  is  another  of  the  t^rlic  family,  i.  id  if  pro. 
fiorly  treated  in  a  favourable  soil  and  sitiinlion,  firowg  to 
a  very  liir^o  si/o.  It  is  a  )'lant  which  is  much  improved 
by  proper  transplantation,  hut  yet  can  ho  (;rowii  very  well 
in  its  seed-bed ;  tho  Iiondon  loo!,  is  the  bos..  (Sow  the 
seeds  in  a  shallow  drill  at  the  close  of  February  or  early 
in  March,  nnd  cover  them  with  half  an  inch  of  fine  soil; 
as  the  jilantH  prow,  keep  the  suiface  clear  of  weeds  by 
hand-pickiiiR  nnd  passing  the  U^'jh  lioe  linhtlv  on  each 
side  of  the  leeks.  PresuminR  that  they  are  thii.ned  uUt 
nt  first  to  stami  three  inches  raundor,  half  of  the  planta 
will  remain,  and  the  other  half  will  lie  removed  to  an- 
other situation.  Thus  the  jihints  in  the  s»'ed-bcd  will 
stand  six  inches  asunder,  and  will  be  Kreatly  assisted  if 
the  ground  be  opened  on  each  side  of  them  at  the  di»- 
lance  of  nine  inches,  nnd  manured  spit  deep.  A  crop  of 
fine  middle-sized  leeks  will  be  obtained  in  tht  succeeding 
autumn. 

To  transplant  leeks,  prepare  a  bed  nt  tho  end  of  June 
to  contain  either  two  or  four  rows  nine  inches  nsunder, 
mill  manure  the  soil  richly  to  tho  depth  of  ;i  foot  or  fiHeen 
inches.  Let  the  lied  settle  during  n  week  or  more,  and 
in  ,liily  mnke  holes  nloni;  the  intended  lines  six  inches 
deep  and  as  far  apart.  (Jollect  a  number  of  the  strongest 
leeks,  trim  oil' the  straRclini;  roots,  mid  »ll  the  suckers  or 
oll'sels.  Drop  a  small  hmulful  of  powdery  manure  or 
reduied  year-old  cow-duii);  into  each  hole,  pincc  in  it  a 
leek,  and  holding  it  by  one  hand,  till  tho  hole  with  water. 
'I'he  objoi't  is  to  fix  the  leek  as  in  a  cnse,  to  which  it  con 
adapt  itself,  nnd  will  fiilly  i>ciu|iy,  becoming,  under  pro- 
pitious circumstances,  a  plant  of  largo  size  and  of  most 
excellent  iiuality. 

('Aiii.ie,  one  of  the  most  pungent  species  of  allium,  ia 
increased  by  dividing  tho  bulbs  into  cloves  or  small  bulbs, 
nnd  jilnnting  thorn  in  gooil  snndy  loam,  at  any  jieriod  htv- 
tweon  the  middle  of  February  and  the  end  of  April. 
Draw  drills  two  inches  deep  nnd  ten  inches  npnrt,  then 
)iress  tlie  root-end  of  each  clove  firmly  into  tho  earth,  till 
it  stand  erect ;  lot  the  distance  between  each  lie  six  inches, 
and  fill  up  the  drills  with  fine  sand.  Keep  the  ground 
free  from  weeds,  and  when  tho  leaves  turn  yellow,  tako 
up  the  bulbs  with  n  trowel  or  hand-fork,  and  keep  them 
in  n  dry  room.  ]\<>iiimhnli\  a  mild  species  of  garlic,  may 
lie  cultivnted  in  tho  same  manner, 

TiiK  Hh ALLOT  is  a  native  of  Palestine;  its  culture  ie 
precisely  the  same  ns  thnl  of  garlic,  therefore  both  may  he 
grown  to  great  advantage  by  adopting  the  p!an  suggested 
by  the  late  Mr.  Knight,  descriln-d  in  vol.  li.  of  the  Trnni' 
iiclionii of  Ihc  London  Uorlicnllvral  Soriily.  let  a  rich  soil 
be  placed  beneath  the  roots,  and  raise  the  mould  on  each 
side  to  support  them  till  tlioy  become  firmly  rooted.  Tliii 
is  then  removed  by  a  hoe,  and  by  pouring  water  from  the 
2x3 


INFORMATION    FOFl   TIIK  PKOPI.R. 


row  of  a  wulrriiiR.pot.  till  llin  luillw  •tiiml  wlidlly  out  of 

Ihe  grmiiil.    'I'luin  IIh-v  Im iii'  riiirr  Hml'ai-n  liiilli*.  Miip- 

(lorlrtl  nitiiWy  liv  tin-  lllirium  rooU,  wliidi  iinwi  ilci'|ily 
ix'iiruth  mill  till-  rirli  noil.  Tin*  urnwlh  of  tlifw  |i|iiMlit, 
Mr.  Kiiiulit  iicliirt,  no  ili>«'ly  rini'niMril  llml  of  llu-  onion, 
M  not  roiiilily  to  In-  illnliiiKdIiilicil  from  it  till  tlic  irrrtfii- 
Urity  of  fiirin  bc.'otoc  ronB|iiiiioiii4.  "'I'hc  form  of  tin- 
liullw,  liowi'M'r,  riMOiiini-il  |H'rmaMrntly  diiriTcnt  from  nil 
1  hiiil  fviT  M'cn  of  till'  miiii<<  H|M'<'ii'x,  iM'iiiK  iiuk'h  iiioro 
broiiil  anil  !<"«'•  I<<ni;;  iiikI  iIw  rrop  wiin  ko  tniii'li  U'llcr  in 
qiiitlitv,  us  will  iiH  iiHiri-  iiImiikIiiiiI,  tliiit  I  run  I'onliilriitly 
rucoinnii'iiil  llii"  iikxIi-  of  I'liltiiri-  to  cM-ry  KariliMHT," 

Chi  vKx,  oiii<  of  tin'  Hiniillist  of  llin  Kurlir  trilir,  i*  n 
harily  ami  iim'I'iiI  vrurtulili',  fur  Hii|irrior  to  yoiiiiif  iiniiin- 
turo  ollillll^<.  'I'lir  |il.iiit  t'rowH  in  liilU  miiiir'.vliut  liki< 
aniiill  nixlii'M  in  ii|ip<Mr.iii<-i',  Imt  i>t  u  ooloiir  rrmiiililiii'^  tlii< 
yellow  itriTii  of  yoiiiiix  oiiliiMH  or  xnillioiiM;  it  ih'MT  IhiIIik. 
A  crn|i  is  riMilily  iiicrrinu'il  liy  diviiliiiK  lliu  riHilM  in  April 
or  oarly  in  Muy. 

MALAna. 

Halada  arp  thone  wiitny  plmilii  wimiio  lonir  fronh  Icavo* 
mtf  I'litiMi  at  tiililr  niiv,  or  only  ilnNHt'd  willi  7.r»tH  iiMil 
coniliiiiiMitH  ullliotit  iIm<  |irrp.inilioii  of  i-oukinK-  I'lu' 
principal  vi'urliililt'  of  iIiIm  kiiiil  iM 

TiiK  I.KTTi  I  K,  i.f  wliicli  tlirrii  iirp  w'vi'rnl  varirtic", 
but  all  may  N'  rlu~<ril  iiinli'r  two  linuln — tlip  liprii{lit  or 
con  li'ttoi-c,  mill  till"  iMirii  or  fal>liii;i'  Irlliu'i'.  Of  llu' 
upri^lit,  llir  Lrivi'ii  ;iiiil  wliiti-  com,  anil  of  tlic  o|nmi,  tlii' 
iiint'r  ral>'iaL!r  ami  L;r:iii<l  luliniralili',  iiro  tlir  Ih'hI.  In 
■prinif  ciilliirr,  kow  rMiy  moiilli  in  mtv  hIiiiIIow  ilrilU  of 
frcKh-i!i,:i.'<'il  urouiid,  in  uoiul  lirart,  mailr  I'XtriMiicly  rirli 
wilii  ri>.*<  II  louMiirf.  Ntriki'  tlir  drills  u  fool  axiiiiili'r,  and 
»»  tlir  pl.intM  rinc,  tliin  them  to  Kliiiid  in  ri'Kular  ordiT. 
fintt  to  two  iiK'lii'H,  tlii'ii.  tor  talili'  lisi^  ar*  Kinall  Halad,  to 
(ix  iiu'lli'H,  niid  for  llir  lar:!cr  cortri,  tiiially  to  oiii^  toot. 
Never  Iruimplaiit  diiriii:;  npriiii;  ami  Kiimmcr,  wn  tlir 
planta,  liy  rt'iiio\al,  mi-itain  a  clirck  wliicli  nr^-cs  tlii'in  to 
fly  up  to  iK't'd.  !<priiii{  mill  Hiiiiiiiicr  Irttiircs  nri"  howii 
from  Fc'lirnary  to  July.  In  .S'(  ,  iiiImt,  two  Niiiall  how- 
ingii  »lionId  Ih"  mailr  of  llii'  liar  ly  Horts,  to  coiiii<  in  iw 
during  tliu  Into  uinlcr  and  ii|iriiii;;  hut  it  would  lie  Hiitcr 
to  make  uw  of  n  lari;i<  lliroi'dii;lit  franio.  Home  leltinrs 
heart  freely;  lliose  uliirli  do  not  Hliould  Iw  Hssisteil  l>y 
pocxinK  •)  tlat  xtrim;  of  matliiiK  round  tlieni  frmii  the 
middle  upwardii.  'I'liiH  lianiliii.'e  mimt  not  renmiii  many 
diya,  otherwisi-  the  lelluei'  will  run  to  Heed,  und  U'conie 
hitter. 

In  autumn  culture,  sow  in  AuKUHt,  in  drill*  pretty  rloite 
togetlier,  for  the  exprrsn  |iurpoite  of  trunspluiitutioii  ill 
Septcmlieror  Ortolier ;  they  will  not  then  lun  up.  \\  lien 
the  plant!*  are  three  iiii'lu-H  hli;li,  tliin  out  half  of  iliiiii, 
and  transplant  some  into  wurm  i|naitert<,  und  olIierH  in  ier 
a  frame;  protect  hy  eovcrinns  of  hoop  ami  mats  lliow  ii 
the  o|M-n  eroniid ;  and  if  they  In'ar  the  winter,  ttiin  the 
planta  early  in  the  sprim;  to  sit  inchcH  apart.  The  pUiilti 
in  the  Irame  will  rarely  fail  if  the  earth  be  (rev  from  shii?s. 

To  save  seed,  transp|;iiit  nome  of  I  he  finest  1,'ttiices 
when  alxnit  half  (jrown  ;  they  will  produce  a  flower  stalk, 
and  when  the  down  <>f  the  Heeds  iK'coinra  viHihle,  cut  otf 
the  up|H-r  portion  of  the  stalk,  and  dry  it  in  a  warm  and 
airy  room  :  iIiiih  Have  all  tlio  aecd  aa  it  npeiia  in  suci-ea- 
■on  for  it  IK  veiy  vulu  il  !•. 

F>|ii\  V  's  a  salad  of  a  pleasant  liitlrr  tusle,  and  some 
•uthorilies  r.t\  it  has  lieen  impoitid  fioiii  China.  'I'lure 
ur<'  three  principal  sorts  in  orilinary  rullivalioii,  the  :.Tf.  ».- 
aiilr'l,  tthi'i-iiirlnl,  and  I'n'arinu,  with  undivided  fiat 
leaves.  The  seeds  are  sown  at  dillereiit  (leriiuls  lietween 
the  lH';;iniiiiin  of  June  and  the  -hc  .,  d  wtvk  of  .\ii'iust. 
an  reipiired  lor  the  Hiitnmnal.  winter,  aiid  Hpring  crops. 
When  the  plants  are  three  or  (oi»r  inches  hi«h,  they  m.iv 
OC  removed  to  licds  of  miKlirately  enriched  loam,  t»)  stand 
•  I'lHit  iijiart.  But  traiiipl  ii;' ition  is  nut  essential,  lor 
*ery  line  j>lunts  are  produced  in  the  wed  bedn.      When 


ihev  are  nearly  hill  tirown,  they  must  U<  prrpi,,^)  i 
tilile  by  blanehiiitt,  »•  olherwi»c  they  would  U'  !,„ !' 
for  use.  """ 

liiiivhinii   may   be  ellictcil    by   several   inclhoiU 
most  mmple  is  that  of  piicsiiiK  a  slriim  of  win  i,,^^  ^ 
litiK  round   the  centre  of  each  plant,  so  as  ti(i'j,.iu|  'J'" 
liulil  Iroiii  the  heart;  but  as  hard  lri»t  In  vitv  |  ' 


some  plants  oiiKht  to  Ih'  reiiiovi'd  to  a  In  il  nCJ-    ■     '"^ 
or  sand  under  an  iiiry  shed;  or  a  uniilcii  li.iiiu'  \m<   i 


'''yi«h  ..,„ 


Ih 


lie  tun. 


covered    nili(bt  Ih<  placed  oser  ii  cerlain   miinU 7  ,,f 

alreiidy  tied  up.    A  U'X"I  kind  of  pot  lur  bl.nii  ||||m  :      " 

of   I'Veiiih   invi'iilion.  iiiadi    of  earlhcinMue,  iir„|      ,"* 

rated  with  holes;  11  reprcwnlalion  o(   il  is  i;iMri  jn  Ij,  !.' 

Many    persona  blanch  only    by    thriiwinif  slniv  1, /, 

over  the  plants,  but  this  makes  11  liller  not  mtv  i,i„     ' 

,  .1,1  11  •   l"^i'*iiifl 

III    u  (•iirdi'ii.      I  he  curved   endives  uniiid   IjI.h^i,      ' 

short  time  without  tyimj  within  a  darkcm,)  f,,,,.  ' 
pot,  and  be  lliiis  less  Imble  to  decay;  lor  ii  j.  r, 
that  till'  plants  sutler  Irom  Unm  licil.  Tj,,,  \\^^ 
endive,  liowcier,  rei|iiires  a  buMilnuc  at  all  Uwwt  „,|, 
wis<'  lis  harsh  (;reeli  leaves  will  be  iisehss,  u  lid  tin 
trill  lieait,  which  alone  is  eut- 
ablc,  will  never  be  reiidi  led 
lender  and  while.  Some  [ler- 
sons  blanch  in  11  Hiiiiple  way 
by  layinif  a  tile  over  the  opni 
heart  of  the  plant. 
Co u:\-sAi. A II — IiAMk'h  Lkt- 
ri  1  K.  a  native  of  llritain, 
lormerly  nsed  nnicli  more 
than  it  now  is,  and  cnllivalcd 
in  gardens  as  un  u^n  cable  but  rather  insipjij  »|,|aj,  ^ 
ipiarler  of  nn  ounce  of  N'cd  was  esliiii;ii,d  hy  .M,,.,,.,,,!. 
bie  as  Kiitlicieiit  to  sow  n  bed  I  feet  bv  5  broadnji,  '|v, 
lirst  sowiii;{  is  eirecled  in  .\iii;iisl,  ihc  .<c(uiiil  in  s.,, 
Icinbcr,  bir  winter  use.  Thin  out  the  plants  ulicn  an  in/ 
liiuli,  to  Hiand  at  three  linn  s  thai  ilislaiice  asiiiuliT,  r  . 
summer  saladiiii;  sow  once  11  luonlli,  bet-iniiim;  ni  Ma- 
Cut  Ihe  plants  for  use  as  soon  as  they  are  l.iii;i>i'ni>ii  ' 
this  the  taste  will  detcrinine ;  but  Ihry  shoiilil  lie  taifj 
Very  yoniij^  othiTwise  ihey  become  rank  in  hut  wiallui, 
CiiKSs,  oil  (J.uiiio  Ciu.ss — In  alhidiui!  to  Ihemt 
lure  of  this  eoinmoii  salad,  we  will  iuclinlc  m\it:ur!,\f. 
cause  t\;ey  naturally  are  eonipaiiions,  Miid  aro  ahvj,, 
mentioneil  loKclher,  tlioiifth  they  are  of  two  mtv  J;|!;!,. 
cut  fai. lilies.  In  rullivalliu;  miHlard  ami  crrs«,  ji  „ 
ess<Milial  only  to  remark,  that  the  l.illcr  slioiilil  tie  tmg 
lliri-e  or  four  days  in  advance  of  the  fnrnuT,  Ivaw 
cress  is  more  tardy  tlinii  mustard.  Holli  nre  vor\  dr. 
coinmodalinn  herbs,  inasmiieli  as  they  will  ijnnv  i;i j 
vM'tted  llaiiiiel  in  a  saucer  placed  in  am  apurlmniiia 
well  US  on  the  floor  of  a  urcen-hoiise.  (»ii  >lii|i.loari; 
thus,  under  cover,  Ihcy  can  Im  obtained  ihroimliniiiiit 
winter;  ami  in  the  gardens,  from  .March  to  .N'ovoml,;, 
by  succession  d  Hllwin^;s  iiiaile  once  cm  r\  forliiijjiil.  N.» 
either  broadcast  over  the  mirface  m'  a  fresh  ilici;!',!  KJ, 
rakiim,  an  .  puttiiii?  in  tlie  M-eds  by  llie  flat  ol'llii  i\%t, 
or  in  sli  low  drills  half  an  im  li  deep,  covcriiik'  tt 
s«'eds  V.  .\\  a  little  line  soil.  Sow  thickly,  ami  ii  i:< 
yoiinn  ))lantii  rise,  an  they  are  apt  to  do,  with  aooiera; 
or  eako  of  earth  over  them,  remove  il  by  nii'utisoli 
li^ht  hcalh-wisk.  Salad  should  lie  taken  betbre  Ihe  L'* 
ronch  leaves  be  fully  developed. 

W'atkii-("iikhs,  a  valuable  antisrorbulic,  and  whoi* 
aonie  ua  »  fresh  ullerative  to  the  inhabitanls  ul'rili«,ii 
lirowii  to  most  ndvaiitaite  by  the  ulye  of  runmc( 
streams.  If  11  small  livulet  ran  be  Inlrodiictil  inlu!!:t 
garden,  nolhhii;  can  li<>  more  easy  llinn  to  jilanl  i!it 
roots  in  sprinu;,  and  when  they  have  onre  see  tied,  thd 
will  be  Kpcedily  n  mass  of  vvater-crcss,  which  it  rf(|ui.M 
only  trouMe  to  pull.  The  moislnre  is  rcjiiirnl  \n\:  v 
\  p.illy  ill  summer.  The  Roiln  best  calculated  lo  hnmvt 
plants  forwaril  are  loams  iiicliiiinir  to  irravel.  TW  Lno- 
don  iiiui'kcts  are  now  nupplicd  with  immense  ijluiuiid 


THE    KITCHKN-    OARDKN. 


•91 


gi  ••  h.f  "I'rfrt  f  wRtrr-crf  Mfi«,"  from  the  moi«t  Undi  of 
l^i  mill  iiiiulil'iinriiiK  n.iiritii'ii. 

(/r.i.riir  i'  "  >i'>li''"  "f  Uriiniii,  fmiiiil  in  ilitrhn*  Hml 
mu-Uei  >>•'"'  ''■<'  '*'"■  ''"'  '"'"Or  »(  (III'  vvilil  pliint  i* 
„.fV  riiiik  iiiiil  ili««i{r<'i'iil)'i',  uiul  iIh  juicn  im  Bcriil  uiul 
(liiiii!i''<>"'-  "y  <'i''''*"»'i""i  tliii*  <Ihiiki'h>u«  wcimI  hiw 
|,Mil  liri>ili(ll>  ('•  tl>*>  coiiilitidil  of  that  lii)(hly  nati'i'iiiril 
wijuUlili'  wliiiU  i<  cullnl  Bwccl  cilery.  Of  thU  llipro 
iru  itiri'i'  viirutii'ii:  !•  'I'lir  ciiiiiiiidii  iiiiri^Iit  linllow  wliito 
cflcy  ;  '■'•  '"'"'  I'lifp'*'-"'""*'''! !  !••  '''Ill'  «iiiiit  wliiU)  unit 
fi.J.  Of  till'  lii"l  (lor  which  Miiiiclir.tcr  N  |)iirliciiliirly 
ft|ihMt;'il)  llii'rn  Ih  II  iifw  Hiili-vurii'ly,  ottrriiicly  li'iiilrr 
111(1  ili'lli'iiti'  ill  llitvoiir,  thi<  |iliuitH  Krowiiiif  in  fiivoiintlilu 
ioil>,  1111(1.  iiiiil'T  Hkilfiil  iiiiiiiii^i-iiii'iit,  til  III!  t'liiiniiiiiiH 
«ixc',  liu'  ■!>  oiiliriiiry  cumcm  not  lurKiT  thiiii  tin'  roiiiinoii 
wliilo.  v<''  iilwiVH  poHHOHsiiiut  n  HU|Mrii)rity  in  lixtiirc 
(liJ  fluvoiir.  Half  nil  ouiiw  of  uri'ii  in  cliriiicil  «uirhii'nt 
li)  loiv  II  Ih'iI  '1  fi'i"'  wi'li'p  mill  10  liTt  liiiii^,  coiii|irin- 
iiiK.  lliiTiliif.  "^  Hi|iiuri'  I'li't  of  HiirCiic  ;  uiul  it  iii;iy  In- 
lonii  ill  u  rriiiiii',  with  Ki'Htli'  lu'iit.  iit  tlir  rail  of  h'clirii- 
\ry,  liir ''"'  'i'''*'  •""'I''  "'•''  ''"''ii'"  'o  tlic  ciul  of  Miiy,  on 
1  wariii  hIii'IIi  ri'il  lionlrr  for  HurrcKHioii.  All  the  nri'iliiin 
ipjiiiilH  nil. mill  I"'  prirkril  out  into  iiiti-niii'iliiili!  liciU  of 
Kil'i  rii'U  ciirth  (ilic  firit  Bowiim^  over  a  gontio  hot- 
t^J],  to  liriii<4  |>luiit.4  in  Juiu'  uiul  July. 

Tlw  rools  of  n  Irry  lii'i-oiiii'  liu.<hy,  and  its  ii'uf-Htulk 
drill  ami  fUMl;  it  likri*  ipr.iHturr,  ami  thu  noil  to  he  rich 
with  ill  iMin|ioni(l  vcKi'lulili'  limttiT.  Hrlf-Howil  rtoril,  lliut 
whii'li  t^ill"  lr"''>  "  Ki'i'iliiiK  I'luiit,  if  it  li^lit  on  rii-li  ciirti', 
»i  that  of  11  iiowly-ilri'iiHi'il  ttH|iiirnniiH  linl,  in  Oi'tolicr,  will 
lirlii;;  iiuMc  |il:uitH  in  the  i'.|irin;;,  lit  to  i(o  at  oni'i'  into 
iri'iu'lii'-i.  Hiiili  |ilantH  may  lir  thin  shortly  dcwrilird : 
llu'V  am  uliout  nix  or  cinlit  iiiclicn  loii;^,  with  iiuiiii'ronn 
itDilt  liavc.i,  iiiiil  a  niamivo  colloctinii  of  nhort  filiroiis 
r.iotn.  If  these  liu  produceil  liy  niitiimn-Howii  Heed, 
notliiiil?  iiiiiic  iit  rri|iiire(l ;  hut  the  Hjiriiii;  Howiims  will 
»|\v:'.)3  I'liriii.sh  weak  and  lax  plaiitM,  that,  when  ({lowii 
thri;eiiii'li'''<'iii!l'-  mu''' '"'  reiiioveil  to  a  nursery  lieil  over 
manure  to  sinnntlieii  ami  hivome  ntoeky.  Few  persoim 
cm  olitiiiii  them-  plaiitH  till  June,  unleHs  grown  con- 
iti!itlv  miller  «lasH. 

To  treiirli  for  celery,  prepare  tho  trcnchcn  by  prc- 
viouiilv  iii.iiKirinn  tho  whole  plot  in  the  metliod  reeom- 
Dienili'il  lor  as{iarui;u)i,  and  aWvv  the  )rrouml  Iiiih  Hitlled, 
diij  a  Iri'iicli  or  two  for  the  lir.it  plants  at  a  inoilerate 
ipailc's  ili'pth,  depositiiii;  the  earth  on  a  ridiru  to  the 
riuht  and  lelt  of  the  trench.  Clear  the  liotloin,  lay  on 
it  three  iiulies  of  leafy  nianuie,  and  re-iliL,'  Ihi  ii  i.  '  to 
iiiior|)i)r;ite  it  with  the  tiianure.     Then  i  u  numlier 

of  the  iilriiiii;eMt  and  most  rcij;iilar  iilim,,,  trim  ofl"  loose 
Htriiwliii'.':  filiri-H  ami  all  the  Hide  !ick«Ts,  hut  do  not 
Uluch  a  true  leaf:  Kct  the  plants  fimr  .w  Se  inches,  and 
tie  lari;e  MirtH  nix  inches  aHunder.  mid  liilll  the  holes  willi 
muter;  shade  diirini;  sunshine  :.>f  thr»w>  days,  iind  i;ivo 
wator  every  evenini;,  unle^'s  tiv  re  he  copious  showers. 
The  size  of  tho  |ilants  will  iiidieutc  tlic  season  uf  truiiH- 
plaiilinc. 

As  to  future  attiiition,  water  the  plants  frequently  in 
the  oveiiiims  till  they  l>enin  to  ffrow ;  and  when  tltey 
ln'fonic  three  inches  hi!,'her,  stretch  a  line  iilon*;  each 
eilin  of  ihc  trriiili,  and  cut  down  hy  the  spade  as  miieli 
mI  .»  will  suirue  to  earth  the  steins  to  that  height  ; 
lir.'ak  it  line,  nid  sjrnspiin?  each  plant  firmly  in  the  left 
h.iml,  iasinuate  the  soft  soil  nrinind  it ;  then  place  a 
*  lilllo  fiiR'l;  -lediiied  manure  ulon;;  the  ehaiiiiel  of  the 
trfiich  on  cii-'.  side,  remote  from  the  stems;  this  will 
n.iunsh  tile  lihres.  without  comim;  into  contact  with  the 
loaves;  w.iter  |Miiired  once  or  twice  alon^  the  course  of 
L'lii  manure  will  promote  its  action.  Kepeat  the  earlh- 
inif«  as  oUcn  as  the  plants  advance  three  inches,  and 
maniiie  the  e\lreiiie  edi^es  where  the  spade  has  made  a 
gro^Ae,  till  at  leii'^tli  the  trenches  he"oiiie  |e^el  with  ihc 
iiuifice  of  the  i;rouiid.  'I'hen  din  <"i'  soil,  and  add  it, 
lla(iliig  rid|{ewiiiC  tit!  llie  plants  are  "landed"  up  tllWeii, 


elshlprn,  or  inor*  inrhnii  Rnovo  ln<>  RUrfiie*  Irvrl,  dtltrf 
may  Ih'  preserved  from  (rodt  hy  two  or  more  ilnping 
boanU  placed  lu  n  |ieiit-lioiiiie  sIniuI  iIiv  leuvua 

•  VVKKT  HKIIRR. 

These  wr  nhnll  eliiss  umhr  two  heads — nninrly,  (hoM 
that  are  purely  friigrnnt,  and  those  wliieh  uru  uied  fof 
culinary  pinposeii. 

HnsKMAHf  A!<ii  LtvKMiirN. — Thesfl ufo  huniy  iindi'* 
■hrulis.  natives  oi'  the  south  id'  Kiirope.  They  yield 
powerlul  esmmlial  oils,  when  iliHtilled  with  water,  thai 
of  lavender  JH'iiiK  emplnjed,  ii'i  are  iils.i  the  dried  Mow- 
ins,  in  the  preparation  of  the  spirit  uiuully  hut  errone- 
ously called  liivf.itlfi-  iriiii.  Heel  aro  extremely  purtiul 
to  the  llowem  of  rosemary. 

Iliilh  these  slirulw  are  propa«iited  with  Kreat  facility 
hy  "lips  of  the  yoniirj  side  ^linols,  trimmed  of  the  strip 
of  ra:;ued  h.irk,  and  merely  dilihled  into  the  soil.  They 
will  i/row  almost  anywhere,  and  in  any  aspect,  hot  th« 
(Imvers  po'tacss  the  lii|;liest  di'ureu  of  franrniico  when 
the  plants  urow  in  a  dry,  sandy,  or  Rravelly  earth. 
Hprim;  or  HepicinlMir  i»  most  favourahle  to  the  propaga^ 
tion  hy  slips, 

'I'liruK  and  I.tMox  Tiitmk  are  used  in  seasoninKi; 
the  latter  is  one  of  the  most  fraitrant  herhs  of  the  gur- 
deii ;  hiitli  are  raised  from  seeds  sown  early  in  spring,  or 
hy  opeiiinif  the  earth  ariiimd  the  stems,  sjireading  the 
rec|inini{  shoots  like  layers  upon  it,  and  spreading  soma 
fresh  sandy  moidd  over  tliciii.  Hoots  are  soon  formed, 
and  thus  a  supply  of  yoniikf  plants  is  ohlained.  It  ap- 
jiears  essential  to  renew  thyme,  and  to  place  it  (lemon 
thyme  particularly)  in  a  new  soil,  otherwise  the  plant 
dwindles  ami  |ii  rishes. 

H(uc,  red  and  green,  in  propagated  i"  the  iamo  way 
as  lavender. 

Maii.ioham. — There  are  three  »orts  of  this  herb— jwt 
iiiiiijoiitni,  Kifcit  or  K'naltiil  muijuriuii,  ami  ii-uilcr  marjo- 
mm,  all  hardy  or  Huh-hardy  perennial  and  biennial 
Hiii;ill  hhruhs,  natives  of  the  south  of  Kiirope,  which  grow 
riMilily  ill  a  dry  lit'lit  soil,  hut  require  chanire  of  situ»- 
tion.  The  first  and  third  sorts  may  he  propagated  by 
ilivini  Ml,  in  the  ni:\iinei-  of  thyme,  hiit  the  sweet  innrjo- 
ram  should  he  raised  from  seeds  sown  in  April  every 
year,  the  plants  to  be  thinned  out  to  the  distance  of  nix 
inches. 

Savout. — Winter  and  summer  savory;  the  former 
is  propauated  either  hy  slips  and  cuttini:;s,  tiy  separating 
the  lower  .-hoots,  or  rooted  ollsets,  in  spri'  ^  ;  th«  latter  it 
uii  annual,  sown  in  April,  and  becoming  tit  forgathering 
in  the  suiniiii  r  and  autumn. 

Mini-. — (iardeii  and  spearmint,  and  peppermint,  are 
not  properly  sweet  IiimIm;  the  latter,  indred,  is  only  used 
niedieiiiiiUy,  the  essential  oil  pusse.ssiiii;  extremely  pun- 
gent qualities,  which  render  it  \>ne  of  tho  best  diiriiBible 
stimulants  we  possess.  Sj.ear,  or  garden  mint,  is  used 
in  the  kitchen  tor  a  variety  ol  purposes  familiaily  known. 
All  the  species,  including  jiniiii,i..ijat,  another  medicinal 
mint,  are  cultivated  hy  division  of  the  roots  in  spring. 
iMiiit  deliu'hts  in  niiistuie;  nnd  when  growing  in  a  soil 
which  it  alli'cts,  extends  with  great  rajiidity.  Care, 
however,  is  required  to  c.i<e  it  a  new  .Mlualion  when  tho 
plant  hecui.ies  weak  ,i  ;  its  leaves  appear  of  a  pale  and 
yellow i-ih  hue. 

To  dry  and  presr  tve  these  herhs,  select  tho  shoot* 
just  as  the  tlmvers  li  -.i  and  show  n  loin,  hut  before  they 
expand;  suspend  tin  .ii  in  an  airy  situation,  under  cover, 
nut  e.xposed  to  the  sun. 

MlSCFI.I.ANPdl'S  vkoktahi.es. 

.\nTieiioi;i.. — This   ve-ite.hle   is  eslei  I'led  hy  many, 

I  yet  is  found  in  few  uardens  it  is  a   native  of  the  south 

j  of  Kuriipe,  and  wis   hri'i;';!i!   to  I'mtlaiul   nearly  three 

Inmdred   years  a^o.     Two  \,irieties  nf  it  are  cultivated 

j  in  the  best  gardens — the  conical  ovul-headed,  and  iha 


SS4 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


round  Itcndcd,   with   dark   purplish   heads,   the   soale* 
turned  in  at  tjp.     The  plant  has  fibrous,  rather  fleshy 
rooto,  larfjo  deeply-cut  leuvcs,  whitish  with  down,  and 
it  producM  an  upriffht  slojn,  bearing  nt  the  sumuiit  an 
oval  or  roundish  flower-head,  not  unlike  a  thistlo.   Arti- 
diokes  can  be  raised  from  seed,  but  much  more  speedily 
by  ofTset-surkers,  which  are  produced  freely  by  the  pa- 
rent plant.     Select  a  spot  of  open  i^round ;  any  soil  will 
do,  but  a  free  lii;hl  loam  is  to  be  preferred.     Big  out  a 
trench  two  feet  wide,  and  of  the  same  deptli,  if  the  good 
»oil  extend  so  low ;  if  not  (and  this  remark  will  apply 
to  every  future  allusion  to  trenching),  remove  all  the 
good  soil,  whatever  its  depth,  to  a  space  beyond  the 
boundary  of  the  farthest  intended  trench,  and  dig  and 
turn  the  inferior  liutlom  soil,  incorporating  with  it  three 
or  four  inches  of  good  half-decnyed  stable  manure.  Then 
mark  out  another  two-fi^t  trench,  and  throw  into  the 
fiiit  eight  or  nine  inches  of  the  surface-soil  of  the  second 
bench ;  add  another  similar  layer  of  dung,  and  work  it 
wid  the  earth  tliorouiihly  together.     Again,  throw  in  the 
remainder  of  the  good  soil  of  trench  2,  and  add  a  third 
layer  of  manure,  which  mix  also  with  the  soil.     Thus 
trench  1  will  be  coin|)Iet<'d,  and  by  repeating  the  work 
till  the  earth  dug  out  of  1  be  deposited  in  the  last  intended 
trench,  all  will  be  manured  and  laboured  alike ;  and  a 
piece  of  rich  ground  « ill  be  prepared  that  may  l)c  ex- 
pected  to  kce|)  in  heart  during  many  years.     TheBO 
directions  will  apply  to  all  enriched  trenching,  therefore 
we  shall  not  repeat  them.     The  work  ought  to  be  per- 
formed before  the  frosts  of  winter  set  in;  and  if  the  land 
be  constitutionally  heavy,  it  will  bn  prudent  to  set  it  up 
!n  ridges. 

Suckers  are  generally  ready  at  some  period  of  April ; 
•nd  gardeners  are  willing  enough  to  part  with  them. 
Having  procured  the  desired  number,  level  the  ground, 
dig  a  portion  of  it  again,  and  reduce  the   surface  to  the  i 
finest  condition  possibl- ;  then,  after  trimming  ofV  de-  I 
eayed  leaves  and  diima^ed  roots,  plant  the  suckers  in  | 
t  row,  two  feet  asniiiler.     It  is  usual  to  form  a  complete  i 
bed  of  three  or  more  ranks,  the  rows  to  be  five  feet  apart 
—and  we  have  prepared  ground,  as  above,  for  such  a  i 
bed — but,  in  truth,  artichokes  and  all  other  permanent  i 
Tegetables  ouglit  to  lie  set  in  single  rows  ten  feet  apart, 
because  the  ground  between  the  rows  can  Ik-  cro[)ped 
with   other  annual   vei^elubles,   which    will  benefit  the 
artichoke,  not  only  by  the  rich  manure  applied  at  the 
first,  and  other  successional  croppinirs,  but  by  abstracting  | 
from  tlie  soil  whatever  it  may  exude  from  their  roots  of  an 
excrcmf  ;iti;'  /US  nature,  and  which,  of  necessity,  must  )ye 
injurious  to  tlie  individual  itself,  though  nutritious  ati 
manure  to  a  vegetable  of  a  diflcrent  habit  and  chaFacler. 
The  garden,  in   all   its  crops,  permanent  or  tein)ioiury, 
ought   to  1h!  made   a  lalH)ratory  of  corrective  rotations, 
wherein  one  crop  shall  attract  and  consume  that  which 
another  de|>oKits.      A    dozen    good   artichokes  will    l)c 
(uflicient  for  a  tncslerafe   family  ;  but  as  some   suckers 
mny  fail,  it  will  \>e   prudent  to  set  the   plants  one  font 
asunder,  wcnring  the  roots  firtidy  in  the  soil,  and  giving 
a  copious  watering  at  the  '.ime  of  planting;  the  sujier- 
numeraries  can  be  removed  when  all  are  safe. 

The  snbseijuent  culture  is  as  follows  : — Hoe  occasion- 
ally to  destroy  weeils,  and  ki-ep  the  surface  ojm'U.  A 
crop  canni>t  1mi  anticipated  during  the  first  year;  and  if 
little  heads  be  pushed  up,  it  will  l»e  wise  to  remove 
tliein  as  soon  as  s<>en.  When  the  plants  become  torpid 
anj  yellow  in  autumn,  a  few  of  the  outside  leaves  are  to 
be  scaleil  oil'  by  the  hatid  ;  the  ground  should  then  lie 
marked  by  the  line  on  each  side  at  eight^'cn  inches  dis- 
tance froju  the  plants;  and  iH-ini;  cut  straight  by  driving 
the  Kpude  to  it-i  full  depth  along  the  line,  the  earth  is  to 
De  dug  up.  broken  line,  and  laid  on  the  surface  of  the 
eighteen  inches  letl  on  em-h  side  of  the  plants,  brinenig 
it  carefully  against  them,  so  as  not  to  fall  into  their 
b^artK,  but  yet  to  prott,-ct  them  elTectuully  aear  the  tupi 


of  the  leaves ;  the  operation  is  called  landing  up.  •pii 
done,  fill  the  trenches  with  littery  straw,  duug  or  fj?' 
and  in  the  event  of  hard  frost,  bring  more  litter  cIom  ' 
the  plants  and  lay  it  over  the  landing  earth,  for  ,Jl 
chokes  are  rather  tender,  and  may  be  destroyed  liuri 
severe  winter*.  This  practice  is  to  bo  observed  cv  ' 
year,  with  the  additional  precaution  to  cut  the  floJ'^ 
I  stems  close  down.  '' 

Spring-dressing  consists  in   removing  suckers  aft 

I  levelling  the  earth,  and  digging  in  a  little  of  the  short 

i  manure  that  is  left  on  the  ground  after  clcarintr  aw 

I  the  straw,  &c.,  and  making  the  soil  neat.     One  or  iw 

j  of  the  strongest  suckers  may  be  left  on  the  stock. 

j      AsPARAiu's. — This  is  justly   estcciiied   one  of  th« 

choicest  vegetables  of  the  garden,  and  indeed  it  posscsge 

every  quality  to  recommend  it — flavour  for  the  palata 

hardihood  of  constitution,   facility   of  culture    and   i 

brings  profit  to  thq  grower.     It  is  a  native  of  the  British 

isles,  but  in  its  wild  slate  bears  little  resemblance  to  ih« 

plant  in  a  state  of  cultivation.  Perfectly  hardy,  so  much 

I  so  as  to  resist  a  frost  below  zero,  as  was  that  of  Januarv 

j  1 838,  it  nevertheless  lienetits  by  protec'lion  and  generotu 

I  tillage  :   this  it  will  now  be  our  object  to  prove,  while 

explaining  the  method  by  which  it  is  cultivated.    In 

forming  new  plantations,  it  is  customary  to  purchaw 

two  years'  old  plants,  because  they  are  safely  removed 

at  that  ago,  and  will  come  into  bearing  in  two  yean 

more;  April  is  the  best  season  for  planting;  but  havinj 

ourselves  |iroduced  beds  from  seeds,  we  prefer  that  ni* 

thod  of  propagation.     Let  the  ground  be  prepared  before 

frost  seta  in  by  deep  trenching  and  rich  maimrinir;  bm 

by  all  means  adopt  the  practice  recommended  by  (iravson, 

who  produced  what  he  styled  •^iiinl  (ispuniiius  about  the 

year  1830.     We  give  his  own  concise  directions  in  the 

following  quotation  : — "  If  your  ground  be  stiff  and  uih 

pleasant  to  work,  get  some  milder  earth  to  mix  with  it 

and  a  very  large  cart-load  of  rotten  dung  to  alnnit  cvetv 

ten  square  feet ;  trench  it  two  spit  deep,  asul  loosen  Ae 

bottom ;  let  the  dung  and  earth  be  well  mixed  toijother. 

When  your  land  is  fit  for  planting,  draw  your  drills  six 

inches  di^ep  and  sixteen  inches  from  the  I'irst  row  to  the 

s<'cond  ;  that  will  form  a  bed  ;  and  ten  inches  lutivecn 

each  plant  in  the  row.     IJo  not  raise  your  beds  till  they 

have   been   plp.itod  one  year;  then  put  on  ahmt  foui 

inches  of  mould  out  of  the  alleys,  and  cut  till  the  Ullh 

of  May,     If  yon  keep  them  well  manured,  they  willjasl 

twenty  years ;   but  iierer  rut  later  Ihiin  the  ill  of  Junt, 

Let  them  Ik;  eight  feet  in  the  clear  from  bed  to  bed,  so 

that  you  may  crop  Ix'tweeii,  and  lose  no  lanil.'' 

Here  we  find  the  sum  of  all  that  coustitute:^  nsparasuj 
planting;  but,  after  all,  [ktsoiis  must  U'conlcut  willi  such 
plants  as  the  constitution  of  ilieir  ground  will  jir.Klufe; 
for  this  very  sort,  which  in  the  rich  w ati'r-<lc|iosilcd 
groinids  (alluvial)  almut  the  Thamci--,  produced  slumtsan 
inch  in  diameter,  would  and  did  dwindle  in  the  loams  of 
ordinary  gardens  to  less  than  half  that  size,  Xevorthe- 
less,  if  the  l>eds  be  narrow,  thoroughly  manured  at  firt, 
remote  from  each  other  ;  if,  also,  alsjut  February  of  the 
first  year  after  planting,  a  trench  eighteen  inches  dpfp, 
and  a  foot  wide,  1m'  formed  on  each  side  of  the  narrow 
IhhI,  and  twelve  inches  distant  from  the  plants,  and  l« 
half  niled  with  the  best  rotten  dung,  incorporiitcil  with  an 
equal  quantity  of  the  earth  <lug  out,  a  most  excellent  as- 
paragus will  be  obtained,  speedily,  and  the  quality  will 
not  deteriorate.  This  enrichment  may  be  occasiimally  t 
renewed,  but  thest'  auxiliary  trenches  are  loin  nindtutaii 
increasi'd  distance  each  time,  so  as  to  avoid  culliiii;  tiii 
mutilating  the  roots,  which  extend  very  rapidly,  .\» 
this  vegetable  will  no  doubt  be  sold  by  the  cotlnccr,  too 
much  pains  cannot  b<!  In'stowed  in  order  to  iditain  an 
early  supply  of  the  very  finest  quality. 

The  wed  of  asparagus  may  Ik;  purcl.ised,  but  it  ii 
yielded  abundantly  by  every  good  bed,  and  Nlioiildh«|» 
thered  before  it  falls  oil)  and  kcjit  ill  the  berry  tul  n^iivt 


'raE   KITCHEN  GARDEN. 


596 


Wa  win  presume  the  object  to  bn  double — flrrt  to  raise 
heirine  b^'iln,  «nd  second,  to  raise  a  stock  of  young  plants 
(br  forcnig-  I"  ''"'  former  case,  the  ground  is  to  be  in 
lipjga'for  nnrrow  beds,  eight  feet  asunder ;  in  the  lat- 
ter wide  lieds,  like  those  directed  for  artichokes,  should 
niaile.  TownrdH  the  laltur  end  of  March,  rub  out  the 
Mcd,  ani  P'**^" ''"'  """  alons  the  course  of  the  bed  ;  strike 
two  drills  with  'ho  hoe  at  the  distances  directed  by  Gray- 
,1^  two  inches  deep  :  or  in  the  broad  beds,  make  similar 
iliilis  nine  inches  asunder ;  and  in  both  tcattcr  the  seeds 
iTetty  tliic'i'y>  "*  '"'"  ""y  '"*'f  *"  '"'^'^  apart ;  cover  with 
line  earth,  and  pat  it  to  an  even  surface  with  the  spade. 
Watch  the  coming  up  of  the  plants,  and  be  prepared  to 
dust  them  with  air-slacked  lime,  if  slugs  threaten  them. 
When  they  shall  have  fairly  formed  rows  of  young  sced- 
iiims  six  inches  high,  thin  out  the  narrow  beds  first  to 
four  inches  apart,  and  again  to  nine  inches.  The  teed 
rovs  for  forcinq,  thin  first  to  three,  and  afterwards  to  five 
inches,  and  then  leave  both  to  grow,  observing  to  use  the 
Dutch  or  thrust  hoe  repeatedly,  to  keep  down  weeds. 

In  future  treatment,  sufTer  the  stems  to  become  yellow, 
then  cut  them  down  at  two  inches  above  the  soil ;  clear 
ihe  surface  with  hoe  and  rake,  and  lay  on  tho  beds  eight 
inches  of  decayed  loaves.  Such  manure  is  the  nearest 
ipproach  to  that  substance  which  it  is  now  fashionable 
to  call  himius :  this  word  is  the  Latin  for  the  ground,  and 
the  meaning  of  if,  if  it  have  any,  is  this :  all  good  ground 
contains  sulistiincea  which  the  living  principle  of  the  plant 
converts  to  sap ;  earths  pvre  cannot  bo  so  converted,  but 
nunvre,  or  decayed  vegetable  and  animal  remains,  when 
niiicJ  up  with  earth,  can.  After  a  time,  ground  so  pre- 
pared contains  what  is  called  humm,  and  .eaves  or  dung 
from  an  old  dunghill  is  in  a  condition  to  bo  soon  converted 
to  food ;  therefDre  we  say  it  approaches  pretty  nearly  to 
the  state  of  humus.  This  surface-manuring,  which  will 
generally  take  placo  about  the  end  of  October,  will  tend 
greatly  to  protect  tho  young  plants,  and  impart  a  stimu- 
laimg  principle  to  the  ground  ;  so  that  in  early  spring  the 
plants  will  lie  strongly  cxcitetl,  and  rise  through  the  re- 
maining manure  in  perfect  safety.  The  trench  manuring 
also,  before  alluded  to,  will  come  in  aid  of  the  top-dressing. 
We  have  cut  excellent  "grass"  within  three  full  years  of 
the  sowing,  and  our  two  large  beds  now  existing,  were 
prepared  from  seed  sown  in  1831.  These  annual  enrich- 
ments, he  it  observed,  might  l>e  persisted  in  with  every 
lieil  that  is  used  for  cutting ;  but  for  the  beds  devoted  to 
raisin?  plants  for  fonnng,  it  will  suflico  to  make  tho 
ground  thorou;?hly  rich  at  the  time  of  trenching;  because 
the  plants,  when  three  or  four  years  old,  will  lie  removed 
to  the  furcing  department ;  yet  a  coating  of  half-<lecayed 
.caves  or  manure,  after  the  stalks  are  cleared  oft",  will  not 
be  Inst,  as  the  stronger  the  plants,  the  more  remunerative 
will  be  the  produce. 

Vdien  once  asparagus  is  in  full  bearing,  if  tho  cuttings 
be  j*liciou8ly  made,  that  is,  by  taking  only  the  strong 
shoots,  always  leaving  one  or  two  of  medium  strength  to 
each  crown,  and  duly  applying  manure,  a  lied  may  keep 
ill  high  condition  for  twenty  years.  But  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that,  if  every  shoot  be  taken  olfa  crown,  to  the 
Olid  of  a  long  season,  that  root  will  bo  destroyed.  To 
prevent  the  crowns  from  being  too  deeply  buried,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  autumnal  dressings,  it  is  customary  to 
f,rk  '.he  nedp  late  in  March,  digging  them  carefully,  or 
Mihor  loosening  the  surface  with  a  fork  of  three  prongs, 
4inJ  raking  the  rough  earth  into  the  alleys;  this  o|)eration 
ilso  gives  freedom  to  the  phnt  by  o|)ening  tho  top  soil. 

With  respect  to  forcing,  it  is  very  easy,  with  narrow 
distant  JH'ds,  to  bring  the  plants  somewhat  more  forward  | 
ill  the  spring,  by  digging  trenches  eighteen  inches  wide 
or  wider,  aiul  above  a  foot  deep,  and  filling  them  with 
warm  staiilo  dung,  blended  with  a  third  part  of  forest-trco 
leave*,  raising  the  dung  to  six  inches  above  the  HiirlUro 
livtl    The  gentle  warmth  communicated  will  stimulate  ; 


vegetation,  and  it  would  be  assijited  by  covering  the  oed* 
with  hoops  and  mafo,  or  with  boards  sot  up  ridgcway»,  in 
the  event  of  sharp  frosty  nights.  Huccessional  forcing 
beds  are  prepared  as  soon  as  the  cutting  of  the  jarlier  be- 
gins to  decline,  or  even  when  it  is  at  its  height. 

Thr  Cucumbeh. — This  juicy  vegetable  is  tender,  and 
requires  a  fine  climate  and  extremely  rich  soil.  It  ii 
usually  grown  over  a  heap  of  old  horse-tlung,  on  a  spot 
of  ground  open  to  the  south,  and  large  enough  to  permit 
a  two  or  three-light  frame  to  rest  ufion  it.  Dig  out  the 
soil  a  foot  in  depth,  and  lay  it  on  one  side  or  around  the 
trench.  If  this  soil  be  a  light  friable  loam,  incorporate  it, 
a  month  licfore  it  is  to  be  used,  with  one  third  part  of 
leaf  or  vogetnble  earth  and  old  decayed  dung,  and  again 
dig  this  mixed  earth  two  or  three  times.  But  if  the  soil 
produced  from  four  or  five  year-old  couch  grass  roofs,  har- 
rowed from  a  field  of  sound  loam,  can  he  procured,  it  ia 
the  best  aliment  for  the  cucumber.  The  soil  should  be 
ready  in  April,  and  the  work  of  planting  begun  in  the 
first  week  of  May,  by  filling  the  excavation  with  stable 
manure  to  the  height  of  six  inches  iihovc  the  surface-level 
of  the  unmoved  earth,  and  placing  on  it  the  frame  and 
lights.  In  a  week  the  manure  will  have  settled,  and  is  then 
to  be  covered  with  a  six-inch  layer  of  the  couch  mould  or 
other  soil,  and  a  hill  of  dryi.^h  earth  raised  a  few  inche* 
higher  under  each  light,  in  which  eight  or  ten  seed*  of 
any  approved  variety  may  be  sown.  If  preferred,  the 
seeds  may  be  prepared  by  previous  sowing  in  pots  in  • 
slight  hot-bed,  and  the  plants  so  raised  can  1)0  transferred 
to  the  hills.  But  as  the  plan  now  recommended  is  not 
one  of  forcing,  it  is  safer  to  begin  on  tlie  spot,  by  sowin«; 
seed,  and  covering  the  bed  with  the  lights,  and  those  with 
mats  or  boards  every  night.  As  the  plants  rise,  observe 
them  carefully,  and  pick  out  the  central  buds  when  the 
true  loaves  have  become  strong.  Persons  dilTcr  much  in 
opinion  at  this  stage  concerning  the  practice  of  stopping 
the  shoots.  M.  Phael,  gardener  to  Lord  Liverpool,  at 
AddisromlHJ,  Surrey,  pointed  out  the  true  theory  and  re- 
sults of  stopping,  OS  may  bo  perceived  by  the  following 
abbreviated  extract  from  his  work  on  the  cucnrnlxir.  He 
first  directs  to  stop  (nipback)  the  young  seedlings  at  their 
second  joint,  then — "  When  the  plants  shoot  forth  after  • 
second  stopping  above  tho  second  joint  of  the  latterala, 
produced  by  the  first,  they  seldom  miss  '  .  show  fruit  at 
every  joint  and  also  a  tendril,  and  betv.cen  this  tendril 
and  tho  showing  fruit,  there  may  be  clearly  seen  the  rudi- 
ments of  another  shoot.  This  shoot  is  then  in  embryo 
but  if  develop  .>d  it  becomes  a  fruitful  lateral.  And  when 
tho  leading  shoot  has  extended  it.self  fairly  past  the  show- 
ing fruit,  then  with  the  finger  and  thumb  pinch  it  and 
tho  tendril  off  ju.st  Iieforo  the  showing  fruit,  being  careful 
that,  in  pinching  off  the  tendril  and  the  shoot,  the  show- 
ing fruit  be  not  injured.  This  stopping  of  the  leading 
shoot  stops  the  juices  of  the  plant,  and  enables  the  next 
shoot — tho  rudiment  above  mentioned — to  push  vigor- 
ously, and  the  fruit  thereby  also  receives  benefit." 

Tho  remarks  will  avail  equally  with  the  melon-plant 
as  with  the  cucumber;  and  when  the  few  remarks  which 
tbllow  on  forcing  shall  be  considered,  nothing  fartherneed 
be  said  of  tho  cultivation  of  melons. 

Whether  cucuml)er  and  melon  plants  have  been  raised 
separately  in  pots,  or  from  seed  sown  in  the  frame,  they 
ought  to  be  progressing  early  in  June,  and  should  be 
stopped  occasionally,  till  fruit  begin  to  show  itself.  The 
soil  must  never  he  ivel  but  always  retained  in  a  free  and 
rather  moist  condition,  wafer  biding  kei)t  in  the  frame  for 
the  express  purpose.  No  water  ought  to  be  poured 
against  the  steins — it  should  be  applied  to  the  soil  round 
the  b1o|H'  of  the  hills  only.  .Air  ought  to  be  admitted  in 
all  warm  days,  by  tilting  the  back  of  tho  lights  till  three 
o'clock,  but  ottor  that  hour  the  frame  should  bo  kept 
closed.  When  fruit  is  visible,  stopping,  according  to  M« 
Phaul's  direction,  should  be  persevered  in,  and  its  fertali* 


us 


INrORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Ing  effects  will  soon  be  apparent  Cover  with  mflU,  and 
boards  over  them,  at  sunset.  Every  decayed  leaf  and 
weak  shoot  should  bo  removed  as  soon  as  perceived. 

In  order  to  raise  and  fruit  cucumlicrs  or  melons  before 
midsummer,  forcing  must  be  employed.  The  hot  I)cd8 
of  the  Itest  regulated  ganlens  are  condueted  without 
masse*  of  manure  under  tlie  roots ;  heal  is  excited  by  an 
■tmosphorc  of  warm  air ;  thus  injury  from  internal  rank 
vapour  is  nvoi<led,  and  manure  U  economized.  I)y  this 
method  cucumbers  and  melons  can  lie  produced  during 
tho  spring  and  summer  months  with  certainty  and  pre- 
cision. In  the  rultivation  of  l)oth  those  plants,  equability 
of  heat  is  import.mt;  and  nothing  would  be  more  likely  to 
secure  this,  and  also  to  ward  otf  sudden  accession  of  cold, 
than  to  case  the  frame  with  an  inner  lining  o.""  thin  boards, 
•eaving  a  space  of  an  inch  or  two  l)ctwcen  them,  to  be 
filled  with  some  imperfectly  conducting  substance,  such 
as  powdered  charcoal  or  very  dry  deal  saw-dust,  taking 
care  to  secure  it  from  the  ingress  of  water.  The  exjicnse 
would  be  trifling,  and  the  security  alForded  very  groat. 

Celrriac,  or  turnip-rooted  celery,  is  raised  and  nursed 
tlie  same  as  celery ;  but  in  planting  out,  the  ground  is 
dug  and  enriched,  not  trcnciied,  and  the  plants  arc  set 
by  the  dibble  or  garden  trowel  along  the  course  of  shallow 
drills  drawn  by  the  hoe,  six  inches  apart,  watering  them 
freely.  Aa  the  growth  advances,  bring  earth  to  the  plants, 
by  which  the  knobby  roots  will  be  bleached,  and  made 
delicate  and  tender.  When  these  arc  the  size  of  small 
turnips,  thoy  are  fit  for  the  table.  Ccleriac  is  never  eaten 
raw ;  it  is  boiled,  and  served  up  with  melted  butter.  The 
seeds  of  Loth  the  species  ripen  freely  in  the  summer  of 
the  second  year,  and  many  fine  plants  are  obtained  from 
sell-sown  seeds,  whiih  may  serve  as  excellent  substitutes 
■hoidd  the  spring-sowings  fail. 

Mushrooms. — We  have  groat  hesitation  in  saying 
anything  of  the  artificial  growth  of  this  species  of  vege- 
table, both  on  account  t)f  the  ditliculty  which  unjirofes- 
fional  gardeners  labour  under  respecting  the  right  sorts. 
and  the  complex  methods  which  require  to  be  employed 
for  bringing  forward  crops.  TJic  greater  number  of  mush- 
rooms brought  to  market  are  of  natural  growth  on  old 
rich  pastures ;  and  it  would  appear  that,  without  provid- 
ing a  similar  kind  uf  soil  full  of  decaying  matter,  the 
plants  cannot  br  raised.  The  method  of  procedure  is 
»ery  peculiar.  The  mushrooms  arc  not  sown  in  tlie  form 
of  seeds,  for  they  have  no  olwervable  seeds,  but  by  spawn, 
or  portions  of  their  suluilance,  mingled  in  the  prepared 
soil.  Mr.  Rogers,  in  his  work.  The  t'esfl'ible  Cullivntor, 
to  which  we  would  refer  for  much  useful  information  on 
kitchen  gardening,  dosiTilies  the  procoss  of  muslu'oom 
culture  which  he  says  is  that  ajiproved  of  by  the  Horticul- 
tural Society.  We  extract  a  few  passages  for  the  sake 
of  general  informatinn. 

"  In  June  or  July  take  any  quantity  of  fresh  horse- 
droppings  (the  mure  dry  and  ili^'h  fed  the  bettor),  mixed 
with  short  litter,  one  third  of  cow's  dung,  and  a  goo<l 
portion  of  mould  of  a  loamy  nature ;  cement  them  well 
together,  and  mash  the  whole  into  a  thin  compost,  and 
spread  it  on  the  floor  of  an  open  shed,  to  remain  till  it 
becomes  finn  enough  to  lie  formed  into  flat  square  bricks; 
which  done,  8<'t  them  on  an  edge,  and  frequently  turn 
them  till  half  dry  ;  then  with  a  dibble  make  two  or  throe 
holes  in  each  lirick,  and  insert  in  each  hole  a  piece  of 
giKMl  old  spawn,  atiout  the  i>ize  of  a  common  walnut. 
The  bricks  should  then  Ih'  left  till  they  are  dry.  This 
lieing  completed,  level  the  surface  of  a  piece  of  ground, 
under  cover,  three  foeX  wide,  and  of  sufficient  length  to 
receive  the  bricks,  on  whiih  lay  a  Imt'.Dm  of  dry  horse- 
dung,  six  inches  thick  ;  then  form  a  pile,  by  placing  the 
oricks  in  rows  one  u[)on  another,  with  the  spawn  side 
uppermost,  till  the  pile  is  three  feel  high ;  next  cover  it 
with  a  small  [Hirlion  of  warm  horiic-<iung,  suflicient  in 
qtiontity  to  difi'ufe  a  gentle  glow  of  heat  through  the 
whwr.     Whiii  the  epaw u  has  i-proud  its*    'iiroueh evt  ry 


part  of  the  bricks,  the  process  is  ended,  and  ib«  ]wL,l 
may  then  be  laid  up  in  a  dry  place  for  use. 

Mushroom  spawn  made  according  to  this  directi 
will  preserve  its  vegetative  power  many  ycais  if «»  il 
dried  before  it  is  laid  up;  but  if  moist,  it  will  grow  an' 
exhaust  itself.  The  next  subject  to  lie  treated  of  jg  ii,'' 
preparation  of  the  dung  for  the  bed;  and  for  thispurno  ° 
none  answers  so  well  as  that  of  the  horse,  when  tak 
fresh  fVom  the  stable ;  the  more  droppings  in  it  the  bett* 

About  Michaelmas  is  the  general  season  for  mtkin 
mushroom  tieds  (though  this  may  be  done  all  the  ve 
round).  A  quantity  of  the  dung  mentioned  should  l* 
collected,  and  thrown  together  in  a  heap,  to  ferim  nt  an  1 
acquire  heat ;  and  as  this  heat  generally  proves  too  vio. 
lent  at  first,  it  should,  previously  to  making  the  bed  h, 
reduced  to  a  proper  temperature  by  freijuently  turn. 
ing  it  in  the  course  c'  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks ;  which 
time  it  will  most  likely  require  for  all  the  parts  to  gel  jntn 
an  even  state  of  fermentatioa.  During  the  above  time 
should  it  be  showery  weather,  the  heat  will  require  some 
sort  of  temporary  protection,  by  covering  it  with  litter  q, 
such  like,  as  too  much  wet  would  soon  deaden  its  fp.. 
menting  quality.  The  like  caution  sliould  be  allendcd  l« 
in  making  the  Ixul,  and  after  finishing  it.  As  soon  a;  it 
is  observed  that  the  fiery  heat  and  rank  steam  of  theduns 
are  gone  off,  a  dry  and  sheltered  spot  of  (jround  should 
Ik-  chosen  on  which  to  make  the  bed.  'i'iic  place  lieinu 
determined  on.  a  space  should  be  marked  out  five  ti-et 
broad,  and  the  length  (running  north  and  south)  siicnld 
lie  according  to  the  quantity  of  mushrooms  likely  to  I* 
required.  If  for  a  motleratc  family,  a  bed  twelve  or  four. 
teen  feet  long  will  be  found  (if  it  takes  well)  to  produce 
a  gootl  supply  of  mushrooms  for  some  months,  provided 
pro|)cr  attention  be  paid  to  the  covering. 

On  the  space  marked  for  making  the  bed  a  trench  should 
lie  thrown  out,  alKiut  six  inches  deep;  the  mould  mavbe 
laid  regularly  at  the  side,  and  if  good,  it  will  do  for  earth- 
ing the  bed  hereafler;  otherwise,  if  brought  from  a  dig. 
tance,  that  of  a  more  loamy  than  a  sandy  nature  will  be 
l>est.  Either  in  the  trench,  or  if  upon  the  surface,  there 
should  lie  laid  about  four  inches  of  goo<l  dung,  not  too 
short,  for  forming  the  b/ottom  of  the  U'd  ;  then  lay  oi:  thi 
[ireparod  dung  a  few  inches  thick  regularly  over  the  sur. 
face,  tieating  it  as  regularly  down  with  the  fork  ;  conlinije 
thus,  gradually  drawing  in  tlie  sides  to  the  height  of  Ave 
feet,  until  it  narrows  to  the  top  like  the  ridge  of  a  houie 
In  that  state  it  may  remain  for  ten  days  or  a  fortnichi, 
during  which  time  the  heat  should  lie  exatnini'd  towards 
the  middle  of  tht^  bed,  by  thrusting  some  small  sharp 
sticks  down  in  three  or  four  places ;  and  when  found  of 
a  gentle  heat  (not  hot),  the  l)ed  may  Ix-  spawned;  for 
which  puri>osc  the  spawn  bricks  should  be  broken  rei;ii. 
larly  into  pieces  about  an  inch  and  a  half  or  two  inchn 
square,  beginning  within  six  inches  cf  the  bottom  of  the 
bed,  and  in  lines  about  eight  inches  apart ;  the  Fame  di«- 
tance  will  also  do  for  the  pieces  of  spawn,  which,  in  a 
dung  ridge,  are  best  put  in  by  one  hand,  raising  the  dung 
up  a  few  inches,  whilst  with  the  other  the  spaw  n  can  1» 
laid  in  and  covered  at  the  same  time.  After  s[,«wnini! 
the  lied,  if  it  is  found  to  l-e  in  that  regular  state  of  hfal 
licfore  niciitioned,  it  may  be  earthed.  After  the  surlao' 
is  levelled  with  the  back  of  the  spade,  there  should  t« 
laid  on  two  inches  of  mould — that  out  of  the  tn^nch.  if 
dry  and  goo<l,  will  do;  otherwise,  if  to  lie  brought,  andi 
choice  made,  that  of  a  kindly  loam  is  to  U"  prrfirrcd. 
After  having  liecn  laid  on,  it  is  to  lie  beati'n  clusfly  to 
gother,  and  when  the  whole  is  finished,  the  lieil  ii>u-l  I* 
coveretl  abotit  a  foot  thick  with  good  oat-Rltinv,  over  which 
should  l«  laid  mats,  for  the  double  puijHise  of  kirpmg 
the  lied  drj'  and  of  securing  the  covering  from  Ifing 
blown  ofT.  In  the  coursr  of  two  or  tliree  clays  the  led 
should  lie  examined,  and  if  it  is  considered  that  the  heil 
is  likely  to  increase,  the  covering  must  lie  diminiilud  lor 
u  few  days,  wliich  is  better  tliun  taking  it  cntirrlj  oft 


THE  KITCHEN   GARDEN. 


In  »bout  a  month  or  five  weeks  (but  frequently  within 
(he  fornwr  time,  if  the  lied  is  in  a  high  state  of  cultiva- 
tion) muBhrooms  will  most  likely  make  their  a)>pearance, 

J  in  the  course  of  cight-nnil-forty  hours  afterwards  they 

ill  iijve  giovin  to  a  sulTiricnt  size  for  use ;  in  whii-h 
case  the  author  recommends  that,  instead  of  cutting  them 
if  piosc  to  the  ground,  they  be  drawn  out  with  a  gentle 
tniit,  fill"'!?  up  ''"•  '-'"*'*y  with  a  little  fine  mould,  gently 
pressed  in  level  with  the  bed." 

As  mushrooms  may  be  said  to  cost  no  more  than  a 
little  Iroulilc,  manure,  and  space  for  growth,  at  what  an 
Intonniilfrahlo  cost  might  not  this  excellent  vegetable  be 
abundantly  procured !  No  product  of  the  garden  has 
hitherto  teen  less  attended  to,  and  few  afford  so  high  a 
relish,  ''•''"  '"  ^^^"  substantial  form  or  as  ketchup. 

NAaTiH  '"-■>*•>  "f  Indian  cress,  is  a  native  of  South 
America,  but  is  not  tender :  it  is  used  occasionally  (that 
if  the  green  seed-vessels  are)  as  a  pickle.  These,  when 
ll[ey  ripen,  sepnrate,  and  drop  on  the  ground,  where  they 
remain  torpid  till  the  spring.  Thus  the  plant  sows  itself, 
jnd  so  do  most  of  the  garden  ornamcntul  varieties.  It 
therefore  rcciuires  no  minute  directions ;  and  any  one 
who  once  po.-fscstes  a  plant,  can  multiply  it  by  sowing 
icf  J  iu  anv  way  or  place  which  may  suit  his  taste. 

Pabslet. — Several  species  and  varieties  of  parsley 
are  in  cultivation ;  these  are  the  plain  and  curled-leaved, 
ind  the  common  and  the  broad-leaved,  or  Hamburg  pars- 
ley. Preference  on^ht  to  bo  given  to  the  curled-leaved 
parsley.  Tliis  vegetable  is  one  of  the  most  easily  culti- 
vated, anil  it  will  long  keep  the  ground  with  little  trouble. 
It  is  sown  m  drills  in  any  spare  patches  of  border,  and 
arrives  at  maturily  the  next  season.  When  it  has 
jitanied  this  state,  sprigs  may  be  taken  from  it  when 
iHiuired.  When  it  bccumcs  rank,  it  may  be  rooted  out, 
and  fresh  parsley  sown. 

Km  iiABB. — Tlii^  is  a  large  vegetable,  grown  for  the 
lake  of  its  firm  Ici'f  stalks.  The  leaves  are  very  broad 
and  spreading,  to  cuich  luoisturo,  and  shelter  the  ground 
.:  itn  the  exhausting  heat  of  the 
•  J,  it  requires  no  trouble,  but 
,i  :tit  runs  up  to  seed.  To  give 
ilie  stems,  cut  ofl'  the  seed  stalk. 
Sarkcrs  taken  from  known  and  approved  plants  succeed 
well,  but  the  plant  can  easily  be  raised  from  seed.  Each 
plant  requirei-  considerable  space.  In  taking  away  the 
itolks  for  use.  do  not  cut  them,  but  wrench  them  from 
lliB  main  stock,  so  as  to  take  them  out  by  the  socket. 
The  earliest  sorts  in  repute  are  Jhirk's  scarle;,  and  the 
ntif  ToMsk,  or  yellow  stalked.  Kuil/ortl's  scurhi  Golintli 
ij later, but  remains  in  season  till  August;  it  surpasses 
for  delicacy,  fullness  of  flavour,  and  extreme  productive- 
ness, all  its  competitors.  Rhubarb  may  l)e  forced  by  very 
simple  means.  A  common  method  is  to  cover  the  plant 
In  the  early  part  of  the  year  with  a  box,  to  which  air  is 
admitted,  and  covered  with  a  little  stable-manure.  This 
iiUiiches,  as  well  as  brings  forward  the  stalks ;  but  that 
is  an  advantage,  as  it  renders  the  vegetable  more  tender 
and  delicate  m  flavour.  Some  bring  forward  the  plants 
in  |>ots  in  darkened  forcing-housj's,  and,  for  this  pur|)osc, 
plants  two  years  old  are  most  suitable.  Watering  co- 
piously is  necessary  in  the  early  8tai;es  of  growth,  whether 
in  the  o|K'n  air  or  iiikIit  boxes.  As  rhubarb  forms  a 
Tiluabic  vci^clalilc  (or  ttirts  in  spring,  Ix-fore  goosetwrries 
ari'  ready,  it  would  not  bo  miss|ient  time  or  trouble  for  a 
rutugi'r  to  attempt  forcing  by  the  simple  means  above 
rcfominendcd. 

Sea'K»lk. — This  is  a  perennial  vegetable,  deriving  its 
name  from  being  liiuiid  uniwing  in  a  wild  slate  on  the 
siiidy  downs  wliiili  border  the  southern  coasts  of  Eng- 
land. The  melhoil*  of  garden  culture  is  as  follows  : — 
beds  or  spiices  for  single  rows  should  Ix!  trenched  and 
prepstij  as  lor  a>|iaratfus;  and  at  any  dry  period  of 
March,  when  the  surface  I'lrth  will  work  freely,  one  or 
ttu!\!  drill  ilijulj  Ik?  drawn  by  tlto  line,  two  inches  deep. 


around  the  npin 
jun.    When  on^ 
keeps  growing 
additional  size 


and  the  seeds  scattered  along  the  drill;  or,  the  line  being 
strained  tight,  five  or  six  seeds  should  be  inserted  in  Tings 
two  inches  deep,  made  at  the  distance  of  two  feet  t^TaiK 
The  seeds  are  then  covered  ■•'itli  earth,  and  when  th* 
plants  Ixicome  strong,  they  are  to  Iks  thinned  of  supernu- 
meraries, leaving  one  or  two  of  the  strongest  remaining 
eighteen  inches  or  two  feet  asunder  every  way.  If  the 
plants  be  weak,  it  will  be  prudent  to  retain  double  the 
number.  During  the  first  season,  nothing  more  will  be 
required  than  to  keep  the  bed  or  row  free  of  wecde  In 
the  following  spring,  if  the  plants  stand  nearer  to  each 
other  than  eighteen  inches,  the  surplus  number  should  be 
carefully  raised,  and  transferred  to  another  prepared  space, 
planting  the  crowns  of  the  roots  two  inches  below  the 
surface.  Eighteen  inches  to  two  feet,  according  to  the 
strength  of  tho  plants,  may  be  the  regular  distances  at 
which  they  are  to  remain.  Tiio  first  bed,  if  pots  be 
placed  over  the  crowns,  will  yield  a  moderate  supply 
of  blanched  kale  during  April  or  May  of  tho  second 
spring. 

Sea-kile  may  lie  forced  at  various  periods,  commencing 
with  Novemlwr,  by  inverting  large  pots  over  the  plants, 
and  covering  those  with  warm  dung,  or  dung  end  leaves, 
to  excite  and  maintain  a  heat  in  the  pot  and  soil  of  about 
55  degrees.  Sea-kale,  like  other  plants,  subjected  to 
heat,  can  be,  as  it  were,  educated  and  made  to  conform 
to  induced  habits.  Thus,  at  first,  it  seems  to  remain  long 
torpid,  even  though  the  heat  be  considerable  ;  but  after  a 
second  season,  provided  the  gardener  Ix:  himself  regular, 
the  plants  will  yield  to  the  stimulant  almost  to  a  day, 
though  it  l)c  comparatively  mild  ;  hence  sea-kale  is  at 
command  from  December  to  March  by  heat,  and  then  the 
succession  can  ^w  maintained  during  April  and  part  of 
May  by  the  coK  beds  or  rows.  As  soon  as  the  kale  ia 
cut  from  one  c  *  more  roots,  a  sharf)  spade  should  be 
thrust  through  it,  so  as  to  cut  the  plant  level  with  the 
surface. 

Spinach  is  an  annual,  of  which  there  are  many  varie- 
ties. The  following  are  tho  principal  kinds : — 1.  The 
round-leaved,  smooth-seeded,  which  is  sown  chiefly  for 
spring  and  summer  cro[)3.  -.  The  triangular-leaved, 
prickly-seeded,  or  winter  spinach — it  is  sown  in  August, 
stands  the  winter,  and  continues  in  full  bearing  during 
spring  and  till  midsummer.  3.  The  IScw  Zealand  spin- 
ach, a  plant  very  dillerent  from  the  true  spinach,  and  now 
neglected.  4.  The  white  beet  spinach,  cultivated  only 
for  the  leaves.  The  lound-leavcd  should  be  sown  about 
the  end  of  January,  and  again  in  February  and  March, 
for  successive  spring  and  suninier  crops,  The  triangular- 
leaved  is  to  bo  sown  at  the  end  of  July  or  first  week  of 
August,  and  the  leaves  come  into  use  at  the  lieginning 
of  winter ;  the  plants  require  thinning  and  hoeing. 
The  outer  leaves  oidy  are  to  he  taken  during  winter  and 
spring,  the  inner  leaves  forming  in  their  turn  an  ample 
succession.  The  seed  or  flower  stalks  will  become  ap- 
parent in  tho  early  i)art  of  the  summer,  and  some  of  the 
l)est  plants,  male  ami  female  (for  spinach  produces  both 
separately),  should  U-  left  to  perfect  the  seeds. 

V^EOETAHLK  Mahiiow  is  «  spccics  of  gourd  (n«ttr- 
bi!a)  cultivated  extensively  of  late  years.  It  was  brought 
originally  from  Persia,  and  was  particularly  noticed  by 
Mr.  Subiiie,  in  the  Umiiiullural  Trtuisucnoiif,  vol.  ii., 
where  he  desorilied  the  best  culinary  variety  as  bearing  a 
"  fruit  of  nnifurm  [lale-yellow  or  light-sulphur  colour, 
when  full  grown,  about  nine  inches  in  length,  four  inchci 
in  diameter,  of  nn  elliptic  sb.ape,  the  surface  being  ren 
dered  slightly  uneven  by  irregular  longitudinal  ribs,  the 
terminations  of  which  uniting,  Ibini  a  projecting  apex  at 
the  end  of  the  fruit,  which  is  very  unusual  in  this  tribe." 
There  are  other  varieties  whiih  Jirotluce  fruit  that  weighs 
twenty  or  thirty  pounds,  oblong  in  figure,  and  quite  green 
during  growth  ;  this  is  coarse  in  flavour,  and  in  no  re8{)ect 
equal  to  the  small  cicam-colourci!  variety. 

Sow  ill  pots  of  any  li(jlit  soil  early  in  A  nril,  treating 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Jio  plant!  exactly  u  cucumbers  under  glass.  About  the 
middle  of  May,  triinsfer  tncni  to  a  l)cd  of  rich  earth  over 
•  trench  filled  with  warm  stable  dung.  Protect  the 
plants  by  a  hand-gluHii  or  frame,  which,  if  the  shoots  arc 
to  run  on  the  ground,  shouM  Iw  rniscd  by  four  or  more 
bricks,  giving  air  freely.  When  danger  of  frost  csases, 
leinovc  the  light  or  frame. 

Wc  have  seen  the  l)est  plants  nailed  and  secured  to  a 
wall,  as  trees  usually  are.  They  licar  profusely  in  sum- 
mer and  nutuinii.  and  are  not  subject  to  bo  injured  by 
damp.  The  seeili*  are  sown  on  the  spot  at  the  end  of 
May,  and  one  strong  plant  remains,  being  stop}>cd  once 
or  twice  at  the  tips  of  the  advancing  si  lots,  of  which 
■ix  are  enough  for  each  plant.  It  would  bo  wise  to  place 
a  large  spare  light  or  two  sloping  in  front  till  midsummer, 
•nd  again  early  in  Heptenibcr.  Glass  diminishes  the 
direct  solar  power  to  t'lO  extent  of  from  8  to  13  degrees, 
but  it  wards  otf  the  primary  attack  of  frost,  which  is  fatal 


at  once  to  these  pi 


If  it  be  dcsirnble  to  save  seed. 


preserve  the  fruit  ii.ai.  formed  on  a  plant  reserved  for  the 
purpose. 

HORTICDLTURAI,  MONTHLY  CALENDAR. 
Having  in  almo.'!  •very  instance  mentioned  the  seasons 
for  sowing,  plantini;,  transplanting,  and  otherwise  attend- 
ing to  the  culture  of  vegetables  in  the  kitchen-garden,  it 
would  only  be  waste  of  room  to  repeat  directions,  as  is 
usually  done,  in  connection  with  the  dillcrent  months. 
(t  is  hoped,  therefore,  that  the  following  general  references 
to  the  months  will  l>e  sufllrient: — 

January. — Trench  and  delve  up  all  open  grounds-,  if 
the  wentluT  permit ;  and  in  warm  exposures,  sow  articles 
that  are  to  he.  broujht  forward  early.  /•V/n-ufin/.— Con- 
tinue turning  up  the  ground  designed  for  et.rly  crops; 
sowing  may  go  on  a  little  more  briskly.  Mari  h. — This 
ia  a  particularly  busy  month,  Ix'ing,  from  its  o))cn  and 
drying  character,  favourable  for  all  works  of  preparation. 
Peas,  beans,  asparagus,  onions,  carrots.  Ac,  are  sown  ; 
and  various  articles  are  tran>i[ilantcd  •'  i;m  frames.  .'7/<nV. 
— A  continuance  of  preparing,  sowinjT,  and  plantj-ng; 
lioeing,  thinning,  and  clearing  out  of  weeds,  require  alsa 
to  l)C  attended  to. 

May. —  i'he  main  crops  are  now  to  1)C  sown,  early  peas 
earthed  up  and  stiikcd,  and  young  plants  tran8pla'..icd. 
The  g.iri'eii  is  now  supimf-ed  to  have  assunieil  its  pc'lcet 
lummer  garli,  with  all  tliinns  advancing  in  their  early 
and  mid-stai^cs  of  ijrowth.  Junr.-  -tiow  kidney  beans, 
runners',  &c.;  v  ater  i;rowing  |>lanis,  if  re(iiiired;  lioe 
potatoes,  cabbiigcs.  ami  imnis;  and  t'lii:  out  Ih-iIs.  July. 
— fiow  broicoli  (or  llie  lase  time ;  also  turni|>.;,  lettuces, 
&c~ ;  .md  [ire[)are  ail  the  uiiiH.vipi>ul  plots  of  ground  for 
autumn  ami  winter  ero|«. 

JIuiruil. — Coinoieiire  now  to  sow  for  the  crops  of  next 
jrear,  such  ai  onif>ns,  early  rubbagciJ,  and  p.^rsley ;  also 
winter  s|)in<ich.  Karlh  celery:  hue  and  thin  turnips; 
cut  down  stems  m  gathered  artichokes,  and  generally 
clear  out  all  sliunps  and  stnlks  of  used  plants,  for  their 
continuance  exhausts  the  ground  to  no  proj)er  pur{)osc. 
Srplftnliir. — The  kitchen  gardener  has  now  got  his  piin- 
eipal  laboon  in  cropping  over,  and  his  chief  work  is  con- 


tinuing to  sow  for  winter  and  spring  successiont-  hs»k. 
dii4S  potatoes  that  seem  ready,  and  takes  '-are  to  cut  do 
and  cleai  olT  weeds,  *■ 

Oiiohcr, — The  garden  having  been  prepared  for  n, 
vegctablofl,  sow  what  was  left  over  last  month,  inclnl'"' 
celery,  asparagus,  also  early  peas  and  In-ans.  The  "k 
bages  and  savoys  require  ko  be  earthed  up  as  high  a  t'l, 
leaves.  Itemovo  carrots  and  other  roots,  which  i 
away  for  winter  use.  Acticmtirr. — If  temnrraio  '*, 
open,  a  little  sowing  may  be  continued  in  sheilored  bT 
ders ;  but   frost   usually  seta   in   early  in  the  month  Jj 

puts  a  stop  to  crop|)ing  operations,     htccmbcr. Du 

tlie  latter  end  of  November,  and  the  open  period  of  ir' 
month,  the  chief  operations  arc  digging,  mnn^.ino  '" 
trenching  vacant  ground,  and  attending  to  tlicpren'n'" 
lion  of  composts.  In  frost,  the  labour  exerted  on  il ' 
plants  need  only  bo  protective;  and  the  gardener  usuall" 
occupies  much  of  this  period  in  iirii.iioi;  |,is  x^^^  \ 
attending  to  the  more  delicate  plants  in  fraines  and  slvL 
tcred  borders. 


We  have  now  presented  a  skf  .eh   of  the 


Pfincipji 


vegetables  grown  in  the  kitchen  gsr(len«  of  Kiigland  wiik 
the  niotles  of  general  treatment,  ;',iiil  tlic  seasona  su'ilal I 
for  theij'  culture.  It  may  lie  necessary  to  add  the  oh. 
scrvation,  that  kitchen  gardening,  except  amnng  nkjiy 
professional  men,  is  still  in  a  backward  condition  in  all 
parts  nf  the  Uritijh  islands;  aiiil  tlnit,  except  in  ami 
about  London,  the  people  generally  either  do  not  know 
what  fine  vegetables  are,  or  very  seldom  see  them.  Much 
has  iK'eii  done  by  horticultural  societies  to  |,roraotc  i 
licttcr  knowledge  on  the  subject,  and  taste  is  ividenlly 
improving  as  respects  all  the  jjrodiiels  of  tfio  cardtn' 
nevertheless,  the  bulk  of  the  jicoplo  arc  still  fur  behind 
their  continental  neighbours  both  in  the  cullivution  snd 
preparation  of  culinary  veuetabies.  In  order  to  produce 
a  sensible  ijnprovement  in  kitchen  gardening,  we  should 
rvpiire  to  impart  a  knowledt'e  of  wliat  venctaWei  can  1« 
made  to  perform  by  proper  cookery — what  relish  can  lie 
Riven  to  a  plain  diet,  at  seurcely  a  furtliiMg  of  niomei. 
is-nse  merely  by  adding  a  few  sprigs  or  .slices  of  gouj 
lii^hly  flavoured  plants.  In  the  article  CooKtiii  we 
have  attempted  to  throw  out  a  lew  usetul  hints  on  the 
best  means  of  preparing  vegetables,  and  would  here  add 
the  reconnnendation  to  all  persons  in  an  hiiinhle  con- 
dition of  life,  that,  if  cireumslanees  at  all  permit,  ihet 
should  endeavour  to  rent  and  cultivate  a  sinuil  cardei, 
for  the  purpose  of  rearing  at  leisure  hours  a  suppjv  of 
kitchen  vegetables,  as  well  as  a  choice  of  flowers,  and  al 
least  small  fruit.  The  directions  afl'orded  in  the  prrrtj. 
ing  pages  (and  in  the  two  .sheets  which  follow)  have 
Is'en  drawn  up  in  a  great  measure  for  the  use  of  thii 
class  of  |M"o|ile,  u  id  those  in  a  somewhat  higher  sphrre; 
and  thoimh  tliest!  directions  may  not  ajiply  iu  any  indivj. 
dual  instance,  they  will,  it  is  hofieil,  lead  the  mind  to  the 
true  principles  on  which  garden-culture  is  to  lie  conductwl' 
and  by  thoueht,  diligence,  ai..l  experience,  mcli  j»n<iii 
will  ill  a  short  time  attjiin  that  amuuiit  of  sliill  which  will 
bring  his  operations  to  n  (itccessful  issue. 


.fw***'^ 


.v\  ..^i-t  *•;  •■■  .iKf/^ini*;*  ^ 


>,t.ir'»'    r^ii-  v''*^\ff^/' .>s, ■■■;!»     :^^  ;/i,f»iifr»J,'st,,. 


THE  FLOWER  GAKDEN. 


I  "     ;    >■-  ■':.    ' 


•  ,!■.  '  '»f'.«f«i<^ 


figtruRS  are  the  ornament  of  vej^table  existence, 
•III)  h«M  in  a"  ^R^^  '**'"  cultivnted  by  persons  of  leisure 
i<ii]  ttsi  J,  for  the  pleasure  which  they  yidd  to  the  eye 
ind  the  M'lcy-  While  generally  healtliful  and  exhilarat- 
m  from  beintt  pursued  in  the  open  air,  flowcr-culturn  is 
iiintlT  reckoned  to  bo  a  pure  and  hariAIrss  recreation, 
wliiii,  hy  leadinpr  to  the  tranquil  contcniplatinn  of  natu- 
ral bfniily,  and  divcrtiiiir  the  mind  from  grosa  worldly 
occupations,  has  a  positively  moral  and  thercrore  highly 
pnclifi«l  tenilfiicy.  It  has  also  the  advatit.igo  of  being 
alike  opon  to  the  pursuit  of  high  and  low,  »he  peasant 
and  the  peer,  llic  over-toiled  man  of  business  and  the 
indunlrious  artisan.  It  may  be  followed  with  ctpml  en- 
iinuient  by  individuals  o'  both  sexes,  and,  as  is  well 
known,  on  every  imaginable  sc.ilc,  from  that  of  a  single 
iiower-pot  or  ornamental  border,  to  the  princely  green- 
home  nnd  exquisitely  varied  parterre. 

The  natural  grace,  simplicity,  and  attractive  colouring 
of  flowers,  have  ulforded  endless  themes  to  moralists  and 
piets,  aiiil  volmnes  have  bes    penned  to  f^how  how  many 
i»)ciation9  of  feeling,  simple  and  sublime,  these  heaute- 
i  (tu  objects  arc  calculated  to  excite.     As  our  desire  is  to 
I  iiapruve  the  feelings  as  well  as  to  instruct  the  understand- 
iiij,  we  hope  to  escape  blame  for  pausing  an  instant  over 
tills  apeealile  view  of  the  value  of  llow"r-cu\ture,  and 
wDulJ  refer,  for  one  of  the  most  glowing  euloi^ips  on  the 
m;iict't,to  the  elegant  work  of  Miss  Sarah  Stickney — the 
i'otiry  of  life.     Accordinir  to  the  wcll-expressod  senti- 
I  itfiits  of  this  lady,  few  natural  objects  are  more  poetical, 
(T  more  rah-ulati'd    to   refine    the    taste    than    (lowei-s. 
"From  th»  m;ijestic  sun-flower,  towering  above  her  sis- 
ters of  the  garden,  and  faithfully  turning  to  welcome  the 
fjd  of  dav,  to  th«!  little  humble  and  well-known  weed 
that  is  BaiJ  to  close  its  crimson  eye  before  impending 
nhnwers,  there  is  scarcely  one  flower  which  may   not 
from  it«  loveliness,  its  perfume,  its  natural  situation,  or  its 
I  dissiciil  assiiciution,  be  eonsidi  red  highly  pcetieal. 

'•A*  the  welcome  messenger  of  spring,  the  snowdrop 

:i«ira«our  first  re^un!  and  countless  are  the  lays  in  wliii-h 

J  LV  prnUes  of  tills  liiJe  modest  flower  arc  sung.     The 

contrast  it  presents  of  green  and  white  (ever  the  most 

iMsinj;  of  roritiasts  to  the  human  eye),  may  be  one  rea- 

Um  why  mankind  ajree  in  their  admiration  of  its  simple 

1  k'.utics;  Imt  a  fur  more  powerful  reason  is  the  delightful 

I  asHofinlion  by  .vhich  it  is  coinicc'ed  with  the  idea  of  rc- 

luriiiti;{  ipiiiig.     IVrliaps  we  have  thought  long  of  the 

nii'ltinj  of  the  snow  that  impeded  our   noonday  walk. 

But  it  vanishei  at  last ;  and  there,  beneath  its  white 

I  cori-rliJ,  lies  tlio  delicate  snowdrop,  so  pure  and  pate,  so 

ric  tn  emblem  of  hope,  and  trust,  uid  con.'iJoncc,  that 

Vut.  1.— 67 


it  might  teach  a  lesaon  to  the  deaponding,  and  ahaw  tha 
Ubxless  and  Inactive  how  valuable  are  the  stirrings  of  tliat 
energy  that  can  work  out  its  purpose  .n  secret  and  undet 
oppression,  and  be  ready  in  the  fulness  of  time  to  make 
that  purpose  manifest  and  complete.  The  snowdrop 
teaches  also  another  lesson.  It  marks  out  the  progres* 
of  time.  We  cannot  behold  it  without  feeling  that  an- 
other spring  has  come,  and  immediately  our  thoughts 
recur  to  the  events  which  have  occurred  since  last  its  fairy 
bells  were  oxoKiided. 

"  It  ie  of  little  consequence  what  flower  comes  next  un- 
der consideration.  A  few  specimens  will  serve  the  pur- 
pose of  proving  that  these  lovely  productions  of  nature 
are,  in  their  general  assoiiat'ons,  highly  poetical.  Ton 
primrose  is  one  upon  which  we  dwell  with  pleasure  pro- 
portioned to  our  taste  for  rural  scenery,  and  the  estimate 
we  have  previously  formed  of  the  advantages  of  u  peace- 
ful and  secluded  life.  In  connection  with  this  flower, 
imagination  pictures  a  thatched  cottage  standing  on  the 
slope  of  the  hill,  and  a  little  woody  dell,  whose  green 
banks  are  spangled  all  over  v  th  yellow  stars,  whilt  a 
troop  of  rosy  children  arc  gamboling  on  the  same  bank, 
gathering  the  flowers,  as  we  used  to  gather  them  our 
selves,  before  the  toils  and  struggles  of  mortal  conflict 
had  worn  us  down  to  what  we  are  now,  and  thus  pre- 
senting to  the  mind  the  combined  ideas  of  nataral  enjoy- 
ment, innocence,  and  rural  peace — the  more  vivid,  he- 
cause  we  can  remember  the  time  when  something  like 
this  was  mingled  with  the  cup  of  which  we  drank — the 
more  touching,  l)eeause  we  doubt  whether,  if  such  pure 
drops  were  still  there,  they  would  not  to  our  taste  have 
lost  their  sweetness. 

"The  violet,  while  it  pleases  by  its  modest,  retiring 
beauty,  jjossesses  the  additional  charm  of  the  most  ex- 
quisite of  all  jM^rfumes,  which,  inhaled  with  the  pure  and 
invigorating  breezes  of  spring,  always  brings  back  in 
remembrance  a  lively  conception  of  that  delightful  sea- 
son. Thus,  ir.  the  language  of  poetry,  'the  violet-scented 
gale'  is  synonymous  with  those  accumulated  and  sweetly- 
blended  gratifications  which  we  derive  fr-im  odours,  flow- 
ers, and  balmy  breezes ;  and,  above  all,  from  the  con- 
templation of  renovated  nature,  once  more  bursting  forth 
into  beauty  and  perfection. 

Tile  jasmine,  also,  with  its  dark-green  leaves  and  little 
silver  stars,  saluting  us  with  its  delicious  scent  through 
the  open  casement,  and  impregnating  the  whole  atmo- 
sphere of  the  garden  with  its  sweetness,  has  been  sung 
and  celebrated  by  so  many  poets,  that  our  association* 
are  with  tlicir  numlicrs  rather  than  with  any  intrinsic 
quality  in  the  flower  itself.  Indeed,  whatever  may  have 
first  established  the  rank  of  flowers  in  the  poetical  world, 
they  have  l)econie  to  us  like  notes  of  music,  passed  on 
from  lyre  to  lyre;  and  wlienever  a  chord  is  thrilled  with 
the  harmony  of  song,  these  lovely  images  present  them- 
selves, neither  impaired  in  their  licauty  nor  exhausted  of 
their  sweetness,  for  having  been  the  medium  of  poetic 
feeling  ever  since  the  world  began. 

"  It  is  impossible  to  expend  a  moment's  thoi'tht  upon 
the  lily,  without  reciTrring  to  that  memorable  passage  in 
the  sBcred  volume — '  Consider  the  lilies  of  the  field  how 
they  grow.  They  toil  not,  neither  do  they  sfin;  and 
yet  I  say  unto  you,  that  Solomon  in  all  his  j»iory  was  not 
arr.iyed  like  one  of  these.'  From  the  little  commoa 
flower  called  heart's  ease,  wo  turn  to  that  well-knowi 
passage  of  Shakspearc,  where  the  fairy  king  so  beai>  «• 
fully  describes  the  •  little  western  flower.'  And  Jte 
forget-me-not  has  a  thousand   associations  tender  mi 

%Y  ftse 


■  '-xr^ 


UO 


INFORJrATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


louching,  but,  unfortunately,  like  mnny  other  svvrot 
Ihingn,  rudo  hands  htTe  almost  robhod  it  of  its  rh.irin. 
Who  can  'x'hold  the  palo  narcissiw,  ptanding  by  tho 
niieiit  brook,  it»  stately  foon  reflected  in  tho  ulassy  mirror, 
without  loHing  himiclf  in  that  most  funcilul  of  till  [locti- 
cal  conrcptions,  in  which  tho  graceful  youth  is  desrrilied 
«s  gnziiig  upon  his  own  beauty,  until  he  l)ecoinrs  lost  in 
otlminttion,  and  finally  epamourcd  of  himself;  whilo 
li  ipcless  Echo  sighs  hcriiclf  away  into  n  finund,  for  thn 
Id»o  which,  having  centred  in  such  an  object,  was  neither 
to  !'o  bought  by  her  caressed  nor  won  by  her  despair  ? 

•  Through  gardens,  ficld^!,  forests,  and  even  over  rugged 
tnountuins,  we  might  wander  on  in  this  fanciful  quest 
ndct  reniuie  ideas  of  pleasurable  sensation  connected  with 
present  beauty  and  enjoyment;  nor  would  our  search  be 
fruitless,  so  long  as  the  tiosom  of  the  earth  aflTorded  a 
receptacle  for  the  germinating  seed — so  long  as  tho  gentle 
gjlus  of  summer  continued  to  waft  them  from  the  parent 
atom,  or  so  lung  as  the  welcome  sun  looked  forth  upon 
the  cvor-blooming  garden  of  nature. 

"  One  instance  more,  and  wo  have  done.  The  •  lady 
rose,'  us  poets  havo  designated  this  queen  ot  beauty, 
claims  the  latest  though  nut  the  least  consideration  in 
(peaking  of  the  poetry  of  flowers.  In  the  poetic  world, 
the  first  honours  have  been  awarded  to  the  rose,  'or  what 
reason  it  is  not  easy  to  defuie,  unless  from  iU-  cvquisitc 
combination  of  perfume,  form,  and  colour,  which  has  en- 
titled this  sovereign  of  flowers  in  one  country  to  be  mated 
'with  the  nightingale;  in  another,  to  Ih3  chosen,  with  the 
distinction  of  red  und  white,  as  the  badge  of  two  honour- 
able at:d  royal  houses.  It  would  be  difficult  to  trace  the 
supremacy  of  the  rose  to  it.s  origin ;  but  mankind  have 
so  generally  agreed  in  paying  homage  to  htr  charms,  tint 
our  associations  in  the  preeent  day  arc  chiefly  with  the 
poetic  strains  in  which  thoy  are  celebrated.  After  all  the 
pains  that  have  been  taken  to  procure,  transplant,  and 
propagate  the  rose,  there  is  one  kind  porjH^tually  blooming 
around  us  through  the  summer  months,  without  the  aid 
or  interference  of  man,  which  seems  to  defy  his  art  to 
introduce  a  rival  to  its  own  unparalleled  beauty — tho 
fomniun  wild  rose.  Blooming  in  the  sterile  waste,  this 
lOvcIy  flower  is  seen  unfolding  i'.i  fair  leaves  where  there 
is  no  !)eauty  to  reilcct  its  ov»n,  and  thus  calling  back  the 
neart  of  the  weary  traveller  I"  thoughts  of  peace  and  joy 
— reminding  him  that  thd  wilderness  of  human  life, 
though  rugged  and  barren  to  the  discontented  heholdt-r, 
has  also  its  sweet  flowers,  not  the  lei>?  welcome  for  In'ing 
unlookcd  fur,  nor  the  less  luvel;*  fur  being  cherished  by  a 
hand  unseen." 

To  these  elegantly  cxpreswd  sentiments,  notliins  feed 
oe  added  oy  the  writer  of  these  pages. 

LATIIta  OUT  or   rLOWER   OARDRNS. 

Flowers  are  cultivated  in  the  borders  and  parterres  of 
gardens  of  a  mixed  kind  along  with  kitchen  vegetables 
ond  fruits ;  and  this  may  be  said  to  be  the  grneral  plan 
in  those  grounds  of  limited  space  belonging  tn  [icrsons  of 
moderate  means,  and  limited  in  t'ae  cxtriii  of  their  [ws- 
lessions.  Many,  however,  cultivate  flowers  in  gardens 
exclusively  appropriated  to  them,  and  also  in  tlie  isolated 
rlumps  which  decorate  orniimental  lawns.  In  whichever 
way,  tho  method  of  culture  is  clearly  the  same ;  and 
therefore  it  is  unnecessary  for  us  to  enter  into  particulars 
with  reference  to  all  tho  sizes  and  kindb  of  gardens  in 
which  flowers  may  be  grown. 

Tho  directions  given  in  the  previous  uhcet  on  the  lay- 
ing out,  shelter,  and  exposure  of  kitchen  gardens,  apply 
also  to  flower  gardens.  The  soil  should  Ix;  rich,  dry, 
noft,  and  partially  improved  with  decoiiipos«'d  peat  and 
I-af  mould  ;  tlie  exposure  should  lie  towards  the  sun ;  a 
free  air  should  be  allowed  to  play  over  the  ground ;  and 
means  should  be  at  hand  for  procuring  a  plentiful  supply 
af  pure  s<3ft  water  for  irrijjation.  Every  flower  garden, 
■ISO,  .iluiuld  jKwscsH  a  small  store  of  fine  wa:ihed  sand  m 


a  restorative,  and  for  scattering  oeneath  the  Am,  • 
of  flowers  when  in  Moom,  ns  a  protertion  from  crw'"* 
vermin.     Besides    thn    utcradU    usually  employed  '"k" 
flower  gardener  should  have  a  pair  of  small  seimonil  r 
off  decayed  leaves,  and  some  stripes  of  mat  for  ivj     '^ 
certain  drooping  plants.  '   !  up 

The  greatest  diflerence  of  taste  prevails  on  tho  ml' 
of  disposing  the  various  parts  of  a  flower-pot  or  <r.  f" 
Straifflit-lined  borders,  ovals,  circles,  nnd  fancy  \t"^ 
have  each  their  admirers ;  and  wo  should  advise    "^ 

iw  i 
Pi'ltut  I 

bl 


one  to  adopt  that  form  which  will  be  most  efTectii  ' 
striking  the  eye.  If  the  garden  is  seon  from  a  par' ," 
window,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  plan  most  agt*eabl 
to  lay  out  the  foreground  au  a  patch  of  well-shavcn  etw  * 
which  is  fresh  both  winter  and  sumir,er ;  on  its  fi,,,|,''' 
side  there  may  be  a  semicircular  border ;  then  a  »  ii' 


and  next  parterres  of  such  form  and  size  as  will  ,^ji  ,i  ■ 
extent  of  the  ground.  If  the  ground  contain  \[\f^J  I 
vcijelables,  they  should  b«,  out  of  sight  of  tlie  windo*"  I 
of  the  dwelling-ho'ise,  cf  at  least  not  brought  osWnJ!  i 
tiously  forward.  "  It  in  more  diflicult,"  says  the  amh  I 
of  the  Fliirist'i  Manual, ''than  may  at  first  apptar  i,  I 
plan,  even  upon  a  small  scale,  such  a  piece  of  grour,j 
nor,  perhaps,  would  any  but  an  experienced  and  dcieinjj^  i 
eye  be  aware  of  the  difficulties  to  be  encountered  in  the  'i  I 
posal  of  a  few  sha[)ed  borders  interspersed  with  tutf.  Th,  I 
nicety  consists  in  arranging  tlic  dilVereiit  partx  no  at  i 
fiiim  a  coimectcd  glow  of  colour;  to  ctTect  which  it  mi  I 
be  ni  cessary  to  place  the  borders  in  such  a  manner  ik  I 
when  viewed  f»om  the  windows  of  the  house,  or  from  iL  I 
princip-il  entrance  into  the  garden,  one  border  shall  m| 
interc'.'iit  the  lieautics  of  another — nor,  in  avoidini;  iju,  I 
error,  produce  one  still  greater,  that  of  vacancies  helRiu  I 
the  borJtra,  forming  amall  avenues,  by  which  the  whoL  I 
is  separated  into  brokin  parts,  and  the  general  effect  U  I 
.\nother  point  to  be  attended  to  is  the  just  proporlionol  I 
green  turf,  which,  without  nice  obs»Tvation,  will  lie  i™  I 
much  or  loo  little  for  the  colour  with  whieh  it  is  blcndeii'  I 
and,  lastly,  the  breodth  of  the  flower-borders  shouU  nt<  I 
be  greater  than  what  will  place  tho  roots  within  thercttli  I 
of  the  gardener's  arm  without  the  ncctssity  of  treadjM  I 
upon  thn  soil,  the  mark  of  footsteps  being  a  defunnilr  I 
wherever  it  appears  among  flowers." 

Whether  all  the  flowers  of  a  ( l.iss — such,  for  instance,  I 
as  violets,  hyacinths,  &c. — should  lie  cullivalcd  topeihe,  I 
or  interspersed  and  mingled  with  others,  is  anulher  maita  I 
tor  taale  to  decide.  The  prefcraLiJe  plan  seems  to  be  K I 
form  a  choice  variety  in  borders  and  uther  spots,  but al,  I 
to  cviltivate  n  quantity  of  certain  sorts  in  compartmcniil 
by  themselvis.  Neill  judiciously  observts,  on  tlicchoicel 
of  flowers  for  borders — "The  plants  are  arranjcil  in  I 
mingled  flower-borders,  partly  according  to  their  siic  W I 
partly  according  to  their  colour.  The  tallest  are  pianiej  [ 
in  the  back  part,  those  of  miJdling  size  occupy  thcctuinl 
and  those  of  humble  growth  are  placed  in  front  Tit] 
Iwauty  of  a  flower  border,  when  in  bloom,  depends  vm  I 
much  on  the  tasteful  disposition  of  the  plants  in  regard  it  J 
colour.  By  intermingling  plants  which  grow  \a  ml 
cession,  the  bcavty  of  iho  lioriler  may  be  prolonged  ()  I 
some  wm^ks.  In  a  botanic  garden,  the  same  pUiKciD.! 
not  Im!  re[H'uted  in  I'  e  same  border;  but  in  the  comnx* I 
fl,iwer  garden,  a  plant,  if  deemed  ornaiiiciital,  miv  l«| 
often  repeated  with  tlic  bestefli'ct;  nothing  can  be  linn;  [ 
for  example,  than  to  see  many  plants  of  double  Karldl 
lychnis,  double  sweet-william,  or  double  purple  jacobca.'  | 

The  Dutch,  who  are  among  the  best  (lower  gurdcnml 
in  the  world,  '.a\'e  lately  begun  to  copy  thu  EnghsliJi 
ornamenting  turf  lawns  with  |ilutii  of  varioua  kinds  4 1 
flowers;  but  in  all  their  large  and  regular  garJiw,tlit)| 
still  dispose  each  kind  of  flowers  by  thei^ ■'!lve«,  "Wil 
ridicule  this  plan,"  says  Hogg  in  hisTreati  '^onFlowei^l 
■>  liecause  it  exhibits  too  great  a  sameness  1  id  furma'ii;  [ 
like  a  nosegay  that  is  composed  of  one  s  1  of  llo«$ii| 
onljr,  howersr  swoa*.  aixl  beautiful  tiicy     ij  be,  iii4 1 


HNIRAL  CHARAC 


>t    <•^ 


llIB  TLOWER  GARDEN. 


Ml 


Mtke  po''*'  *"  please,  becauac  they  want  variety,     It 

Tut  nndoubtedly  bo  afknowledg^ed,  thai  a  parterre,  no 

'  uerin  what  form — whether  circular  or  Hqoarc,  elliptical 

oblone— whore  all  the  ahruba,  planta,  and  flowere  in 

like  the  lowers  in  a  tastefully  arranged  bouquet,  are 

Iriously  disposed  in  neat  and  regulated  order,  is  a  de- 

.. .  (fui  ipectacle,  and  worthy  cf  general  imitation,      'ct 

jjll  in  some  particular  casos,  I  am  disposed  to  c       ^ho 

Dutchmiui;  Old  I  would  have  my  bed  of  hyacin       3ie- 

,  ^y  anemones,  my  ranunculuses,  my  pinKs,  my 

tarnations  distinct,  and  even   my  beds  of   hollyhocks, 

loulile  blue  violets,  and  dwarf  larkspurs  distinct,  to  say 

nothing  of  dilTerent  sorts  of  roses.     Independently  of 

(he  le«»  trouble  you  have  in  cultivating  thera  when  kept 

looi/ile.  y"  '*"*®  I)eauty  in  masses,  and  you  have  Uke- 

Jk  tlieir  fragrance  and  perfume  so  concentrated,  that 

lh(V  «ro  not  lost  in  nir,  but  powerfully  inhaled  when  you 

•pi.fowh  them."     Leaving  thip  question  to  l)e  settled 

icfonlinij  to  taste  and  other  circumstances,  we  have  only 

In  lecomnicnt'  that  no  flower  or  herb  of  any  kind  should 

he  wwn  or  [ilanted  in  figures  resombling  familiar  objocta. 

Some  persons,  for  example,  will  he  seen  sowing  annuals 

or  planting  crocuses  in  the  figure  of  a  letter  of  tha  al- 

iihabct,  a  spo""'  *  Mp,  a  house,  &c. — a  practice  so  ca- 

ientislly  vulgar  that  it  cannot  bo  too  loudly  condemned. 

\^  error  not  uncommon  in  dcci'ling  which  flowers 

ihall  be  planted,  is  to  select  numbers  merely  for  their 

rarii"  or .   vclty,  without  reference  to  what  will  bo  tlioir 

ippearance  (vh^n  in  bloom,  and  whigh  generally  leads 

to  Jisappointinent.      Unless  for    botaiiicul    illustration, 

mike  a  choice  of  flowers  on  two  principles — those  which 

irill  be  beautiful  when  in  bloom,  akbough  common,  and 

luhosc  which  will  bloom  at  the  p<- .-tiiMilnr  seasons  required, 

to  ensure  a  succession  of  "aricgated  beauty  from  spring 

[  lo  autumn.    The  true  nma.svir  gardener  takes  a  pride  in 

!  improving  oven  the  commonv  it  flowers — urging  them  by 

j  careful  culture  to  the  highest  state  of  (lerfection  as  to  size 

ind  brilliancy  of  colouring  of  which  tliey  arc  susceptible 

1  ill  0111  climate. 

I  MNIRAL  CHARACTER  AND  TBEATMRNT  Of    FLOWERS. 
All  flowering  plants  belong  to  the  division  Phcp.^io^a- 
I  m\'i  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  ;  but  it  is  only  those  in 
BJiich  the  flower  is  conspicuous,  beautiful,  or  odorous, 
Itijtare  the  objects  of  garden  culture.     The  part  of  the 
plant  which  constitutes  the  flower,  bloom,  or  blossom,  is 
the  moUa :  if  consists  of  several  divisions  or  leafy  parts, 
cM'ptttih.     The  corolla  encloses  the  stnmen^  and  pis- 
(ifc,  or  organs  of  reproduction  (see  Veoktaulr  Piitsi- 
oiom) ;  and  to  bring  these  lo  [lerfi'i-tion,  so  as  to  effect 
I  the  development  of  the  seeds,  is  the  prime  object  of  ve- 
getable growth.     When  the  seeds  are  perfected,  or  in 
the  nay  of  being  so,  the  corolla  languishes  and  dies. 
The  design  of  iho  flower  gardener  is  less  to  jiroduce 
liie  and  strength  in  his  plants,  than  to  cause  them  eflco- 
tually  to  bloom ;  he  wishes  a  fine  corolla.     It  is  proper, 
then,  to  mention,  tiiat  whatever  tends  to  give  excessive 
'  tigour  to  the  stems  will  prevent  the  formation  of  flower- 
IbuJ   and  tlie  same  result  will  follow  from  stunting  or 
|jtar\i,  plant     To  induce  flowering,  the  plant  must 

I  beful.y  .  posed  to  sun  and  air  ;  at  a  lower  temperature 
I  than  50 diijrii'rt  the  blooms  cannot  be  expected  to  open; 
I  hut  fi'om  thai  to  6.')  degrees,  the  sap  will  ascend,  and  the 
[buds,  if  duly  providi'.l  with  moi^^tiirr  and  fresh  air,  will 
I  be  rapidly  dcvelnpc  I.  When  freely  exposed  to  seasonal 
I  influences,  floweriig  plants  appear  withered  and  nearly 
I  gone  in  winter;  th^'v  begin  to  shoot  up  in  spring ;  come  to 
I  perfection  in  their  lilooin  in  summer  ;  and  languish  and 
I  yield  thcii  seeds  in  aiiliimn.  But  if  treated  properly  in 
the  artificial  clii'.  11.3  of  a  i;i('cr.hou8C,  they  will  lie  found 
I  i&reifjr'ling  seuPunal  influences,  and  perhaps  blooming 
I  in  w-   .;f  or  spring. 

.  has  liccn  remarked,  that  when   plants  have  been 
r;fi^   {Ittly  chc''ked  by  frost  or  dry  cfold  air,  they  aoonor 


coine  into  bloom.  "  Thii,"  r«y»  Mr.  Rennis,  in  hit  Ai- 
phiibtt  0/  GardetiVit;,  "arises  evidently  from  tha  pu'if 
being  concentrated  instead  of  being  ex]iended  in  the  pro* 
duction  oi  new  leaves  and  branches,  while  perhaps  part 
of  the  effect  may  bo  owing  to  increased  excitability.  On  ■ 
this  principle  'ho  early  potato,  which  does  not  flower 
freely,  may  bo  made  tr  do  so  by  removing  the  tubers; 
and,  on  tho  other  hand,  the  luhdrs  are  increased  in  tha 
late  sorts  by  picking  ofl*  the  flower.  The  greater  the 
quantity,  then,  of  good  healthy  pulp  which  can  be  pre- 
pared by  tho  leaves,  tho  more  really  vigorous  and  healthy 
will  the  plant  bttcome ;  and  as  flowering  and  fruiting 
exhaust  a  great  quantity  of  this  pulp,  and,  of  course, 
tend  to  weaken  the  general  system  of  the  plant,  it  fol- 
lows that  tha  artificial  prevention  of  flowering  must  pre- 
serve in  tho  plant  the  digested  pulp  which  would  have 
gone  to  nourish  llio  flower  and  the  fruit.  Thus,  by  prun- 
ing off  the  luxuriant  shoots  of  melons,  &c.,  the  pulp  in- 
duce!i.jthe  shoots  to  spring  into  flowers  and  fruit.  Upon 
this  principle  is  ''--unded  the  practice  of  treating  bulbs  so 
t-j  to  cause  them  to  bloom  vigorously,  by  cutting  ofT  the 
flowering  stem  ns  soon  as  it  appears,  in  some  cases,  and 
in  others  so  ns  to  have  tho  blossoms  evolved  when  plac«a 
in  water,  taking  care  to  encourage  the  growth  of  the 
Iccves  by  rich  soil  and  free  exposure  to  nir  and  sunshinei 
In  this  way  the  greatest  quantity  of  strong  pulp  is  stored 
up  in  the  bulbs,  and  luxuriant  blossoms  are  produced  the 
succeeding  season.  The  practice,  consequently,  of  some 
unskilful  gardeners,  of  trimming  off  tho  leaves  of  snow- 
drops, crocuses,  and  tulips,  after  the  blooming  is  over,  for 
the  purpose  of  rendering  a  border  or  a  bed  neat,  is  very 
bad ;  and  it  is  not  much  better  to  tie  up  the  leaves,  as  ie 
also  preposterously  done,  for  in  this  way  they  cannot  be 
duly  exposed  to  the  air  and  the  light.  The  same  princi. 
pie  w.''  apply  to  all  other  flowering  plants.  When  a 
flowering  '<ranch  or  stem  has  been  produced,  and  has  bo- 
gun  to  sho\A  tho  flower  buds,  it  must  be  considered  thai 
it  can  only  blow  finely  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of 
healthy  pulp,  either  previously  in  the  branch,  or  from 
time  to  time  prepared  by  the  leaves  of  that  branch.  Con- 
sequently, if  there  are  two  or  more  flowers  on  thi>  branch, 
each  will  require  its  due  proportion  of  food;  but  .f  one  01 
more  of  these  be  artificially  removed,  all  the  spare  pulp 
will  go  to  feed  the  one,  two,  or  more  blos-soms  which  may 
remain.  On  this  is  founded  the  practice  of  thinning  out 
the  flower-buds  from  the  bunches  of  auriculas,  polynn. 
fhuses,  chrysanthemums,  and  other  plants,  in  order  to  i»> 
crease  tho  size  and  lieauty  of  those  which  are  left  to  ex. 
pand.  It  is  consequence  of  the  same  principles  that 
free  expo  1)  air  is  indis|)cnsable  for  producing  fine 

flowers,  iiuisiiiuch  as  they  depend  fur  nourishment  on  the 
pulp,  which  without  these  cannot  be  formed.  The  vivid 
colours  and  pleasant  odour  of  flowers  depend  on  tho  same 
causes — for  in  the  shade  these  are  both  feeble." 

Flowering  plants  are  usually  divided  into  the  followin|{ 
kinds: — Ji^nuaU;  plants  which  require  to  be  sowu  an- 
nually, as  they  live  and  bloom  only  one  season.  Biennis 
nls :  which  do  not  blossom  till  the  second  Beasof  after 
sowing,  remain  a  certain  time  in  perfection,  ai  .'  then 
die;  they  are  produced  by  seed,  but  some  of  the  finest 
double  varieties  are  continued  by  cuttings.  Perennink 
are  plants  which  continue  to  grow  and  blossom  annually 
Migcnmis  plan's:  those  which  are  natives  of  this  coun- 
try, and  moy  have  been  perfected  by  culture  from  a  wild 
state.  E.wtivs;  plants  of  foreign  origin,  which  have  been 
intioduced  into  this  country.  The  greater  nu'nber  of  our 
fine  flowers  and  fruits  are  exotics.  Many  of  these  iiave 
lieen  acclimated,  or  aucustomed  to  our  climalc,  and  rcn. 
dered  hardy  by  a  course  of  culture;  but  oihers  require  lo 
exist  in  green-houses  and  hot-houses,  or  under  glass 
frames,  for  at  least  a  part  of  the  year.  It  would  appear 
that  each  region  of  the  globe  possesses  plants  oa  di8tiut> 
tivo  in  their  fiMituros  as  the  ditt'crcnt  races  of  men.  On  this 
subject  Mr.  Luudon  reinaiks— "The  native  countries  «l 


•M 


INFOUMATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


planU  m«y  oftm  hriJinroTrrKl  by  their  fpatiirw,  in  the  mme 
maiiiior  aa  tho  national  dintinctinna  which  nro  nbst'rvulile 
in  the  looka  and  colniir  of  inankinil,  and  which  are  '■Tn. 
td  chlcny  hy  chmatp.  Aniutic  plunia  are  renia'Kulde  for 
their  aiiperior  beauty;  African  planta  for  their  tliick  end 
■urrulcnt  leavea,  aa  In  the  rane  of  tho  Cadi :  and  the 
American  planta  for  tho  loni^th  and  amoothnoaa  of  their 
leavea,  and  for  a  ainj^ularity  in  the  ohape  of  tho  (tower 
and  fruit  The  flowera  of  European  jilKntii  are  hut 
rarely  beautiful.  Plants  indigonoua  to  polar  and  moun- 
tainous region*  are  generally  low,  with  amall  compresaod 
irnvca,  but  with  ft,>wpra  large  in  proportion.  Planta  in- 
dis^noua  t  >  New  Hi  'land  (or  Australia)  arc  diatinguiHli- 
•Me  fur  amftll  and  dry  toavoH,  that  have  often  a  .-.!•. Ivelled 
•ppe.  ranee.  In  Ari-.liin  they  are  low  and  dwarfiBh ;  in 
tlie  irchipelngo  they  arc  generally  ahruliby,  and  fur- 
nish d  with  pricklra;  while  in  'ho  Canary  iHlanda,  many 
planta,  which  in  other  cou'  ea  arc  merely  herbs,  a»- 
■ume  the  part  of  ahruha  and  treea." 

'l*he  diflcrent  kinds  of  flowering  plants  aro  cither 
hrrha(tnu$  (green  herbs)  or  shrubbij,  the  stems  of  the 
latter  consiating  of  small  woo<ly  fibres.  A  dtntlumu 
tree  or  shrub  ia  one  which  cnHts  its  leaves  every  winter 
and  is  recovered  in  spring.  An  rfrr^jri-eu  is  a  shrub 
which  retains  its  leaver  during  winter,  but  casts  them  in 
■pring  as  the  new  buds  come  out  A  Jilirou'-roolfd 
plant  ia  one  whose  roots  send  out  small  fibres ;  polyan- 
thuses are  cxamplea  of  this  clans.  A  tttherou.i-niolrd 
plant  ia  one  whoao  root  forms  small  tubers  or  lumpK; 
dahliaa,  ranunculuses,  and  anemones  are  examples 
among  flowers,  and  the  potato  among  kitchen  vege- 
liiblcs. 

The  prevailing  colours  of  flowers  are  yellow,  oronge, 
white,  pink,  scarlet,  red,  blue,  purple,  and  many  are  va- 
riegated or  composed  of  dilVorent  tints.  Proper  culture, 
with  pure  air  and  sunshine,  increase  the  brilliancy  of 
the  tintH,  and  give  massiveness  to  tho  corollas.  Plants 
of  a  kindred  species  may,  likewise,  be  improved  by  hy- 
bridizing or  croiiaing,  the  general  principle  of  which  is 
the  artiticial  application  of  the  pollen  of  one  plant  to 
another.  By  this  means,  some  of  the  most  t)eautiful 
fli>wer8  have  l)een  originated.  Change  of  soil  and  cli- 
nnate,  however,  are  the  great  mcaiis  of  improvement 
As  long  as  it  is  confinH  U>  its  native  habitation,  the 
corolla  of  the  plant  and  ah  its  other  appi.  teiiunees  are 
meagre  and  generally  unattractive;  but  who.  nourished 
in  a  cultivated  soil,  and  all  it^wpits  supplied,  the  whole 
|)1aiit  strengthens  and  expands,  and  the  corolla  flashes 
on  the  eye  in  all  its  brilliancy  of  colour.  The  changes 
eirected  on  the  daisy,  tlie  rose,  and  the  violet,  will  here 
occur  to  remembrance  as  striking  instunces  of  metamur- 
phosea  by  culture  and  change  of  hiibitution.  .Sfx'ukiiig 
of  the  laws  by  which  a  change  of  colour  is  pro<liiccd. 
Dr.  Lindley,  in  his  Intrwiuction  to  JioUmy,  oliserves — 
"  A  blue  flower  will  change  to  white  or  red,  but  not  to 
bright  yellow  ;  a  bright  yellow  flower  will  l)ecome  white 
or  red,  but  never  blue.  Thus  tho  hyacinth,  of  which 
the  primitive  colour  ia  blue,  produces  abundance  of  wliite 
aiu!  red  varieties,  but  nothing  that  can  Iw  compared  to 
briirht  yellow ;  the  yellow  hyacinths,  as  they  are  called, 
being  a  *irt  of  pale  ycllow-ochre  colour,  verging  to 
green.  Again,  the  ranunculus,  which  is  originally  of 
an  intense  yellow,  sports  into  si  arlet,  red,  purple,  and 
alTnost  any  colour  but  blue.  White  flowers,  which 
have  a  tendency  to  produce  rid,  will  never  sport  to 
blue,  although  they  will  to  yellow ;  the  rose  for  exam- 
ple, and  the  chrysanthemumn.  Ft  is  probaMe  that 
white  flowers,  with  a  temleiicy»to  pro<lucc  blue,  will 
not  vary  to  yellow  ;  but  of  this  I  have  no  instance  at 
band." 

Improvement  in  the  brillisncy  or  rhiinge  of  colour,  is 
not  eiteefeii  without  a  certain  Ioa»  in  the  odorous  proper- 
l^efies  of  the  plant.  It  is  remarked,  tliat  cultivation 
nn  irallv  renders  Ih*;  odour  lea*  iittenae,  and  sometimes 


allogethe!  destroya  it     Thus  the  pleasant  odou,  rf  'l. 
wild  violet  ia  not  to  be  found  in  tho  hcart'a-etw, 

Propngslion. 

Flowering  plants  are  propagated  in  variooi  »aT»..4« 
sowing  aeeds  at  the  proper  seasons,  by  dividing  the^^ 
by  suckers,  layers,  pipings,  cuttings,  and  bud.gm^    "^ 

Diviihng  Iht  Root. — This  is  one  of  the  niojt  ,1  li. 
melhmls  of  propagation.    Tho  root  of  the  gronrij).  nl 
is  partially  uncovered,  and  one  or  more  portions  a» 
moved ;  tho  root  ia  then  covered  up,  and  the  rem  j 
parts  transplanted  in  soft  earth  prepared  to  receive  ih 
Nino-tenths  of  herbaceous  perennials  are  trea(«l  in  ik 
way. 

Suiktrf. — Theso  are  young  planta  thrown  up  fto^  ,1 
roota  of  the  main  plant,  round  which  tlicy  cluster,  flu 
may  Ira  removed  by  taking  up  along  with  tliein  a  pin  i 
the  root  They  should  lie  removed  in  spring,  i(\,,  .|„ 
plant  boa  begun  growing,  and  immediately  [.lanloj  om. 
If  ony  flower-buds  he  developed  on  them,  take  'lenir 
so  as  to  give  strength  to  the  plant. 

Layrri. — Some  plants,  as,  for  instance,  strawlitrtiM 
send  out  layers  or  runners  along  tho  ground ;  these  ban 
joints,  if  we  may  call  them  such,  at  certsin  ]>o\t\\f  mc 
where  any  joint  strikes  the  earth,  it  tal<"s  r(X)t,  and  t»  i 
comes  the  centre  of  a  new  plant  Thus  a  lunning  pU 
will  s|iecdily  cover,  aa  with  a  network,  a  largo  ipaceoj 
ground.  Nothing  is  more  easy  than  to  piopagalc  ti 
causing  the  layers  of  some  plants  to  take  rout.  In  a.  | 
.  asc  of  the  carnation  and  sinidar  plants,  fix  a  atem  alou 
of  its  joints  to  tho  ground,  with  a  hooked  stick  or  pn, 
covering  it  slightly  with  mould,  and  giving  it  a  Ijiiu 
moisture.  Roots  will,  in  general,  strike  out  in  a  fti 
weeks ;  and  at  tho  end  of  the  season  tho  plant  ii  reijf 
for  being  cut  from  its  parent,  and  transplniucj.  W|i,, 
layering  ia  tedious  or  difllcult,  propagation  by  diviiioni^ 
the  root  or  cuttings  is  preferable. 

l'ipins:». — Pro])agation    by   piping   is  an  cxpeditiou 
mode  of  raising   young   ])laiits.     The   fullowiiig  is  thg 
luelhod  prescrllH;d  in  a  small  and  useful  work,  enlitloi 
Krery  I.athj  hir  utrn  Flower  (lardeiier : — ''Take off thf 
upper  and  young  part  of  each  shoot,  close  below  a  joiiii, 
wiih  a  sharp  knife,  and  cut  eacii  utf  at  the  third  joint,  oi 
little  knob ;  and  then  cut  the  top  leavea  down  prdtt 
short,   and   tike  olf  the   lower   and   discoloured  onei 
When  you  have  pip»'d  in   tliis  way  as  many  as  joj 
re(|uire,  let  them  stand  a  week  in  a  tumbler  of  water, 
which   greatly  facilitates   their  doing  well.    InJepJ,  | 
never  failed   in  any  pipings,  slips,  or  cuttings,  whifk  i 
allowed  to  soak  ar.;!  swell  in  water  previous  to  plantinj,  I 
When  you  plant  the  pipingn,  let  the  ground  be  nenl; 
dug,  and   raked  very  fine ;  dibble  no  hole,  but  gcnilj 
thru.-'t  each   piping  half  way  down  into  tho  soft  earth 
round  each,  to  fix  it  in  the  bed.     Water  them  often,i/ 
tho  wentlier  is  dry,  but  moderately,  just  to  keep  thea  I 
moist ;  and  shade  them  from  tho  hot  sun  in  the  day.  If 
pipings  arc  covered  with  a  hand-glass,  they  roo*  earlier  I 
by  three  weeks  than  those  which  are  exposed.    Lajinj,  I 
piping,  and  slipping,  aro  done  in  June  and  July.   The  I 
planta  will  be  well  routed  and  fit  to  plant  out  in  tVl'ler."  [ 
81i|)s  are  shoots  wrenched  oil"  at  a  joint,  instead  of  be 
cut,  and  are  treated  in  the  same  iiiaiiiier  as  pipings. 

('ultiii^t. — .'V  cutting  is  a  strong  shoot  of  last  year'i I 
growth,  cut  from  the  parent  stem  or  braiicli,  anilietii[ 
the  ground.  The  cutting  should  Ims  al>out  s\\  iiicbNJ 
long,  and  cut  oft' slnntini^ly  and  sinmtlily.  The  soil  III 
which  the  cutting  is  in.st^rtc!  requires  to  lie  dry  or  Dd  i 
too  moist  Hoses  and  noncysucklcs  are  utnon;;  Ibeclul 
of  plants  pr.pagated  by  cuttings.  Tlie  o|ieruliou  sbiMiH| 
lie  [jorformed  in  January  or  February,  so  that  the  cutiuijj  I 
mav  root  and  vegetate  in  the  o|iening  of  spring;  bit  I 
several  months  are  recjuired  to  bring  tlie  cultinj,'s  to  1 1 
state  fit  for  transplanting.  Some  cntliiigs  of  lloi"i-| 
stalks  (nay  be  act  as  lute  an  May  and  Juno. 


"^      THE  FLOWER   GARDEN. 


l|.j(,,__Thi»  li  tne  method  of  propaRHtioit  chiefly  | 

Jjin  coniieclioii  with  fruit-troos ;  but  ai  it  in  liliewixo 

I'  ablo  w   r()»e-huHhe«,  it    iimy  here   bo   ileHfrilmd. 

R  lllta  i"  »  »P"<^''"'  °^  tf»ft'"«>  '•'"1  cu»«"'»  '"  ii»"crt. 

the  fre*h-i-iit  oxtremity   of  a  small  twig  or    bud 

^   ih    '10  •">'■''  "^  another  i)lant.     A  loaf  bud,  oujiily 

n  by  it«  taporinn  point,  sliould  bo  nloiu-  Holouli'd, 

Inolab'"'  on  "hlch  a  ilowor  is  devclotwd.     Tho 

ul on  tho  wleitnd  bud  i»  to   bo  taken  od',  for  if  it 

imI  it  would  oxhaUHt  the  nap,  and  tlio  bud  would 

""ll  i^ciiliood  withor  and  I'ie.     Alonj?  with  tho  bud,  a 

II  ilio  of  bark  is  to  he  loiion  ;  and  if  thi«  bark  sopa- 

'""  freely,  i'  '"  *  '*"'  "^  thiro  Iwinij  pulp  onout'h  to 

f*    1  uniiin.     'I'h"  "''P  "'^  '"•''*  '*  '"  '•"  if"«'f'«-'d  lienouth 

."  ^j^  of  tho  other  plant,  in  a  ulit  inado  for  the  pur- 

Z<e  and  tl»«  w''"'"  ^^  **''•'*  "  "'"P  ^^  ""''  *"  '"'•'P  ""' 
The  annexed  cut  lepieaentg  the  various  parts  in  bud- 


dinir.  fl  i'  ''"'  ^^^  ''"'  ""''  ^'''*  *  "l"'"' J  oJ^  '""'1'  attached 
10  if  6  the  stem,  with  a  slit  in  tlir   hark  to  receive  the 
I   Ljjij  g'.tached  to  the  bud ;  c  tlio  oud  inserted  "nd  the 
Vafcul  away. 

Sh'rubhy  r'»"'»  '"■"'  "''"'  P""^  .'otatec'  by  iu'ifching :  but 
I  notice  of  tlii»,  and  also  of  or-il-iary  ^rojUnt;,  will  be 
more  appropriately  given  in  Information  on  Tubus. 

9SIECT  FLOWKtlS    Toll  TUB  0*llltF.X. 

Fiowerin?  plants  are  now  so  numerous,  both  as  respects 
ncies  and  varieties,  that  a  bare  list  of  them  would  mote 
than  fill  the  present  sheet;  nil,  therefore,  that  can  roa- 
loniWy  he  ex|>ected  from  us  is  a  few  hints  as  to  those 
which  are  most  approved,  and  cullivatcd  chietly  in  the 
open  air.  A  person  with  little  experience  should  stock 
his  garden  only  by  dei^rees — a  small  nundter  of  dilVcrent 
(orts  everv  year,  according  to  fancy,  and  what  he  tlnds 
to  be  the  capabilities  of  the  soil  and  exposure.  In  com- 
mencing to  make  a  choice  for  a  modorutely  sized  garden, 
or  for  still  siniil'cr  plots  of  ground  and  borders,  we 
ihould  also  recommend  the  i)lan  of  cultivating  a  mixed 
rarietv  of  ditVercnt  colours  and  dilVerent  heights  ;  those 
RJiich  are  smallest  l)cing  in  front  or  nearest  the  eye, 
ind  tho  other  rows  rising  in  height  and  massiveness  as 
thev  recede.  With  as  few  as  four  colours,  four  sizes, 
ind  «ix  dilierent  periods  of  cotning  into  bloom,  a 
mingled  border  may  be  established  with  ninety-six  sorts, 
which  will  present  a  pleasing  assemblage  to  llio  eye. 

Annnnla. 
Some  annuals  arc  called  /idrr/i/,  and  others  hulf-nardy, 
rhehardv  kinds  will  grow  and  blossom  in  oix-n  borders, 
wilhoat  ailificial  heat,  or  protection ;  those  which  are 
more  lender  will  also  grow  in  the  open  air,  but  arc  iiii- 
proTed  hy  being  brought  forward  under  hand-glasses. 
Of  the  delicate  class  of  uuiiuaU  which  must  lio  con- 
stnillv  kept  under  glass  framrs,  it  is  not  our  purpose  to 
speak.  The  greater  number  of  annuals  may  Ih-  sown  at 
llic  end  of  March  or  iM'ginniug  of  .April.  'I'ho  soil 
ihouldhe  fine,  and  have  a  warm  exposure  ;  and,  on  be- 
ing xiwn,  cover  the  m-eds  with  oidy  about  a  half  an  inch 
of  mould ;  peas  and  lupines  shinild  be  an  inch  below 
the  surface.  If  the  weather  bo  dry.  irrigate  with  pure 
loft  water  occasionally.  Take  care  that  the  seed  you 
Hw  ii  firesb  and  good ;  tho  way  to  test  iU  quality  is  to 


throw  it  into  a  glass  of  water ;  if  it  be  worthless,  it  wil 
■wim ;  if  good  it  will  sink  to  the  bottom. 

Among  the  vast  number  of  annuals  that  nifor  them* 
selves  to  tho  choice  of  tho  gardener,  the  following,  caclt 
having  varieties  as  to  colour,  may  be  mentioned  an  taking 
the  lead  in  tho  half  hcrdij  kindi : — African  marigold, 
Krench  marigold,  Cbira  aator,  marvel  of  Peru,  chrysan- 
tbcniuin,  sweet  sultan,  Indian  pink,  love  apple,  gourds, 
bottle  gourd,  convolvulus,  yellow  balsam  or  touch-me- 
not,  amaranthus,  ton-week  gilliflower,  white  ten-week 
stock,  camiacorus,  and  Chinese  hollyhock.  L'udy 
/,i/ii/.i  . — Adonii»-flower,  candytufV,  larkspur,  lupines, 
sunflower,  lavateru,  poppy,  major  convolvulus,  nastur- 
tium, Tangier  {ten,  sweet  jwa,  winged  pci,  Lobi-l'i 
catihlly,  dwarf  lychnis,  Vonus's  looking-glass,  Virginian 
stock,  heart's-ease,  snapdragon,  mignonette,  xeranthe- 
nuun,  pur))lc  jacobaia,  Clarkias, 

If  annuals  are  required  on  a  more  extended  scale,  the 
best  plan  is  to  leave  the  selection  to  a  respectable  nur- 
seryman. 8uch  a  person  will  at  least  present  a  copious 
li.st  to  make  your  choice  from,  and  mention  tho  sizo  or 
height  to  which  the  plants  will  n  .  pcctivcly  grow.  Mr. 
I.oudon  in  his  Kitrifrliijiadia  of  Gardening,  quotes  a  list 
by  Mr.  Swindon,  a  Drentford  nurseryman,  consisting  of 
nearly  ninety  hardy  annuuls,  distinguished  in  ranges 
according  to  heights.  From  this  we  make  the  follow- 
ing extract — for  the  sake  of  clearness,  leaving  out  the 
Latin  names : — 

"  Fint  rangr—from  fl  (0  12  or  II  intha  MgH. 

Cnpe  mangold:  purnlo  anil  white.  I.srurc  caterpillar ;  yd- 
low.  1111(1  «iii);iilar  pou.  VunuB's  lookinK-Klasa:  lif(ht  purplu. 
Itiiiii's  llurnai  j'tllow:  Ihi;  pud  is  us  iMuuly.  Itounil  fiiiiijis; 
yellow,  iiiul  flingiilnr  poi).  Dwarf  varieguletl  lycliiiiA;  crimson 
iimi  whilf.  Heart's  easu ;  purple  and  yellow.  llBlf-moon», ' 
or  inuon-trf^foil ;  white,  and  nin^ulnr  pod.  lilue  nit-'ado^v 
lyihirs;  sky-lilue.  Dwurl'  Virgin's  slock;  pnrplc.  fmvA 
lu'dtii'tioffR;  yellow,  an-'  Hiiiffiilar  pod.  Woodroof;  liglii-t)lii'i. 
Hcd  hawkwcHd)  pa'  ,cd.  Large  hedgejiogi ;  yellow,  and  a^n. 
gular  pod. 

Sttnnd  rangt—from  12  (a  t8  ot  'JO  inches  high. 

Oak  of  Jeriisalum ;  yellowish,  wilA  fragrant  aniell.  Sni.ill 
while  canilyiun:  clear  white.  I.ong-horn'.'d  devil  inaliii'ii; 
yellow,  and  siinrular  pod.  fonvolvuIiiR  minor:  hriglil  Mun, 
with  yellow  eye.  I.nrgii  purple  candyiul^;  light  p..rple. 
\Vliite  l.oliePs  cnichtly  ;  reddi8)i  white.  Annual  siiaptiragunj 
purple  and  )'ellow.  Scarlet  01  wing  peas;  dark  anil  li^ht  red. 
I.ar^'i"  while  cniidytiirt;  elrnr  while.  Stripped  coiivotviiln.1 
miiiir;  hlue  and  white.  Red  l.ohel's  culciilly;  hrigiit  red. 
Uwan'tiaflnrliiiin:  diep  oran;.'i'.  Itroad  Spniii.sh  nigella,  with 
lirown  seed ;  deep  blue.     Ited  llos  Adonis;  dark  red. 

ThirtI  range— frim  20  to  24  or  L'-  inches  high. 
SpaniKh  nigella,  with  lilaek  need  ;  light  liltie.  Spanish  hnwk- 
weeil :  pale  yellow  nnil  purple  eye.  lilue  Moldavian  halm; 
deep  hliie.  and  tine  sci-nt.  AniniBl  rest-harrow;  pnle  red. 
DiHilili'  llotnan  nigella  ;  white  mixed  willi  blue.  Small  runnini 
iiaslurtititn;  daik  orange.  Nettle  tniirjornm;  yelUnvi.«li, 'to  ijtnefl 
hut  to  the  nvir  enriims.  Rocket  larkspur ;  pink  ana  white. 
Swect-scetili*d  Itipines;  bright  yellow.  White  aloldavian  balm; 
l'a;r  white,  tind  I'ragrant  smell.  Dutch  lupines;  fine  blue.  An- 
nual hnre*«-..'ar:  pale  yellow.  Purjtle  jaeobn-n;  purplish-retf. 
and  yrllow  eye.  l)Mtch  ranunculus  marigold ;  aulphur-cnlour. 
Red-lopped  clary  ;  pnle  red,  and  pink  leaves. 

Fourth  range— from  2  to  21  Of  ,3  feet  high. 

Helvidcrc  :  yellowish — a  handsome  plant.  Small  var  I'gnteii 
corn-poppy  ;  various,  red  and  while.  Ac  Double  upr  g  11  lark- 
spur;  hlue,  blush.  Uc.  t^ynnus  minor:  t>lue,  criin.son,  ice. 
'1  horn  apple;  white,  and  singular  poil.  rrince'a  feather;  dark 
crtnsoii.  Crown-lnrkspiir :  pale  p:uk.  spotted.  Jtc.  Moitey 
scnbius:  pnle  tiliie.  and  globular  pod.  Ponugnl  lychnis ;  palo 
rid.  Small  bliii^  lupines;  bright  blue.  I.ove  lies  u-bleuding; 
bru'hl  red.  Uaniinculus-nu.r  gold  ;  drep  orange.  Moneywort; 
itark  p.icple.  and  singular  shape.  Strawberry  spinach;  blight 
red  fruit. 

Fi/ih  rnnge—from  H  to  i/ret  high. 

Venelian  small-dowered  mallow;  purpli'.hwhile.  Do.il  .8 
cr'in^on  iiiirged-leaf  poppy ;  dark  crimson.  Tall  narrow-leaf 
wnll-flower:  bright  yellow.  Arnch;  deep  ciimson.  Double 
siri|>|ii'd  carualiim  poppy:  red  and  white,  lilue  sweet  trefoil ; 
hi\d-eolour.  Ri-d  lavatfra;  light  chnugi'uble  red.  Hranehieg 
larkspur:  hlue  and  whie.  Ac.  Tall  white  lujines;  cb'Sfl 
while.  Double  black  carnation  poppy  :  ros«.c<dour._  SmdII 
reruviaii  misturlium;  ilark  orange.  Lord  AuHti'speas,  fine 
td'ie.  Wh'tn  lavst.ra ;  snow  while.  Dwnif  donblo  and 
qnil'ed  yellow  snnllowir:  deep  yellow.  Blauder  keiiUia:  DV« 
sulphur  and  purple  eye,  with  singular  poU. 
3t  S 


INFOHMA'nON   FOR  THE   PEOPLK. 


mii,  '  Sixth  rang*— fiiim  i  to  7  ar  10 fin  htgk.  , 

Tllll  iloiilile  )illow«uiilliiw.T,  >vuli  hlBpk  ii'iMl ;  ilnep  yellow,  i 
rmnlnil  Imljr  nwi'i  i-aci'tiiril  |i«ii>  ;  |ml<^  n'll  niid  whitiv     Armh  :  i 
■ul|ihiir-e<ilour<'>l.     I'lirpin  iwi'i'l-nriiiili-il  |irii<  ;  ilHrk  nn<l  IikIli  , 
purple.    Tall  IikI  nil  piT'iLiiria  ;  l>r  ||lii  criiiiMm.    rainicil  ln.ly 
xniwii  ni>n» :  lilnck  aiul  wliii*.     t'liiiviilvului  iimjor ;  mm  pur- 

E[r  wlilin  orowii  pf  »• :  rlnnr  whit.'.  I.Hric^  lii>linii  iiDKiir- 
um  :  dark  ami  light  nraiige.  Tall  doulile  lir.iiiiliiiin  »uiilli>w>'r  j 
•iilphur-coloiiri'cl.  Whilo  nwiMil-nr.  iiinl  m-ni  ;  cleurwlnlf. 
I' aiii  TuiiK'^T  pen*:  Am*  rr'in»iiii.  'i'till  orii*niiil  iiiiillnw  ; 
burpla.  I'amlad  lady  Tiiiikut  p>'n< ;  piilo  ml  uiid  wliitx, 
Pcufini  lirniiai  Hiw  acarliii.  t.'iirluil  liafuiiriKlit  iimlliiw  ;  wliiio 
liiigrd  Willi  piifplr  '' 

Whelhi<rteii<li>r  or  hunly,  all  nnriuaU  ahnuld  Im  rare- 
Ailly  ti'iiiiiiH'd  mill  kept  rniiii  Htriii(i;rnii(.  Hdidi'  will  rn- 
quiro  tliimiiii»{.  l'rr«'rvo  the  atroiiiteat  hti>«Huiiia  liir 
•et-d ;  anil  runovc  withered  bloom*  to  add  vigour  to 
thoiie  which  rumain. 

BipiiiiiaU  and  I'liri'iiiiiiil*. 

The  dilTorriire  lirtweeii  liieiiniiiU  iind  |iereiiiiiiila  is  in 
many  uiDtuiiceii  very  ill  ilernicd.  A  liieiiniiil  id  n.H'I  tn 
bo  a  plant  which,  wlirn  miwii,  ducH  iiut  liloom  till  the 
foll.>wini(  apriiiK,  tiiid  dies  uiii  in  the  cdiiriM!  of  aiituiiiii. 
Thii  IK  true  uh  reHiNrtH  hhiiio  bieniii.ilH,  liiit  it  is  <  i|uiilly 
certain  that  many  will  Hurvive  and  I'lBoniyeiir  ul\er  year, 
the  same  a^  |ierennta|x.  For  iuNlmire,  cnrniiliniia  are 
called  bieiiniiilH,  allhoiii(h  it  ix  nnt<iri>>ii<«  that  theite  plants 
will  ifniw  anil  multiply  by  roots  in  the  same  spot,  year 
■Iter  year,  with  only  ordinaiy  eidtnre.  Anotlier  eiri'iiiii- 
•tance  requires  notiee.  No  treatise  on  ^ardeniiii'  Uuit 
vie  h;ne  seen  sulFuiently  recognises  the  power  wliiili 
bieiiiiiiils  and  other  plants  possess  of  eontiiuiini;  tlieiii- 
■<lves  by  drnppimj  their  own  seeds  on  the  spot  where 
they  Krow  ;  by  which  nieniis,  in  point  ot' (act,  nianv 
bieiiniiils,  and  annuals  also,  (loasi'ss  much  of  the  virliir 
of  pereiin'als.  In  all  tiealisi's,  far  too  much  stress  is 
laid  oil  the  necestity  of  artifuial  pi'opaL;atioii.  In  most 
iusiaiiccs,  liicntiial  and  perennial  IIowimiii^  plants  simply 
die  ulf  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  ol  the  stems  at  the 
beijinninif  of  winter,  and  t!ie  routa  rtwnaiii  dormant  in 
tilo  K'ound  till  revived  by  the  warmth  of  the  ensiiiiii,' 
•priiiK.  Except,  therefore,  as  res|H'i'ts  thinning;,  and  pro- 
ftUfhOnff  by  a  division  of  roots,  and  transplanting  ix-ca- 
•ioiialiy  for  the  sake  of  rhniiTCof  soil,  the  unprofessional 
gardener  liaa  little  or  iiothini;  to  do  in  th-  way  of  mul- 
tiplying the  immlwr  of  his  plants,  or  ,triilically  kcepint; 
lip  the  aperies  during  winter.  Of  course,  we  here  refer 
to  iiardening  operations  in  the  British  islands,  where  the 
winters  are  generally  so  ti'iii|><>rate  that  every  kind  of 
root  is  sale  in  the  ground,  cxceptinif  those  of  a  tuberous 
nature,  such  as  )H)tat(N-.s,  dahlias,  ranunculuKcs,  <.Vc., 
which  the  frost  would  reach  and  destroy.  The  case  is 
Very  iliirereiit  in  the  Netherlands,  North  and  Central 
France,  and  several  other  continenlal  countries,  where 
bulbs  would  [N'rish  if  lell  in  the  Krouml  in  winter,  and 
where  even  hardy  evergreens  require  protection  'i'he 
I'lurel,  for  example,  remains  unscathed  in  the  ojm-ii  airut 
Edinburgh  during  winter,  whilo  at  Urussels,  live  dcgreea 
farther  south,  it  must  ))e  sheltered. 

Among  biennial  plants  suitatile  for  ordinary  flower 
gardcni,  are  included  thi'  following,  each  having  several 
Taricties: — Canteroury  bells,  carnalions,  French  honey- 
luckie,  gl«lM>  thistle,  hollyhocks,  scabius,  sweet-william, 
roac  campion,  wallflower,  lavatera  arborea,  purple  digi-  | 
talis,  and  stoi'k  gilliflowers.  Some  of  these  are  very  | 
h<'autiful  flowers,  and  none  more  so  than  carnalions.         | 

('ainn'iiinf. — The  carnation  is  an  elei;aiitly  formed  i 
flower,  with  a  slender  stem  and  blossom  at  top.  each  ' 
bliHsoin  consisting  of  a  convolution  of  pclal.s  like  liic 
roue.  As  a  nuinlier  of  stems  grow  up  together,  the 
iihow  of  brilliant  heads  is  considerable.  Of  the  earim- 
tioii,  Hogg  observes — -Of  all  the  (lowers  wliii  h  adorn 
the  garden,  whether  they  charm  the  eye  by  their  Ix-aiity, 
or  regale  the  sens4<  of  smell  by  their  fra;;r.ince,  the  rar- 
iMtinii  may  lie  justly  said  to  hold  the  timt  rank.  The 
(tiklHiiuekii  of  ila  growtji,  tlie  brilliancy  and  divuraity  of 


ura,  and  the  aweetneaa  of  ita  {loifViug^  n. 

ct  our  legard  and  admiration.     'J'|,u  uiii,,  ^i"  '* 

,1.      r  .!._    1 .  ™"l'i'hou.k 


ita  coloura 

to  attrat  __  _^ 

atyleil   the  queen   of  the  garden,  eamiut  UwHt    <  ^''''' 

adinireraj  they  may. with  propriety,  U' '  "ii«iJcnil"ih,^" 

inaaterpiecrs  of  nature  ;  and  tliough  rival  b«»mi„      '*' 

aaid  to  ahare  the  aoveicignty  of  the  gurJei,  cuu^'m''' 

tween  them  ;  yet  it  muat  lie  admitted  thul  the  c.r      * 

inde|H  ii>lciit  of  its  ti-agrance,  liiia  tliia  uiUaiilairt   "" "' 

rival,  that  it  conliuiies  longer  in   bloom,  and  |(,,,  *'"• 

planted  in  pots,  it  can  bo  removed  to  di'curatu  ih.       " 

house,  the  coiiMTvato.y,  or  the  drawing-rimin."         "' 

There  are  many  varieties  of  tho  canialiiMi,  Imi   n 

arranged  in  three  elasscs — (lakes,  bixarres,  und  piim ,,,'"' 

Flake-carnations   p>)»hess  but  two   colon.s,  y,j,L   ,   ' 

stripes  through  tlir  |H'tals.     llixaires  are  vurico,!,, /' 

colour,    with    irregular    Htri|MH    and    s|Hit»,    I'iuM.l, " 

iiave  a  white  grouml  spotted  with   purplii  or  soini'  ,j^ 

colour,  and  are  serrated  on  the  ylges  ,  they  gr„  ^ 

common.     Acc.irding  to  anmliurs,  the  (liii'«t  m,,,.,  "" 
,.  ....  .      .  '-"'^iiluuin 


...    Lain 

ould    have  a  (lower   at  least  three  inclies  in  jj^ 


Uiirlrr 


with   the   cdnes   ol   tlie    pelali    waving  or  siihhiIIi 
serrated.     'J'he   petals   must   till   the   ciil\>,  l,ui    '    ' 
bursling  ;  if  a  caly  x  burst,  the  flower  lias  lij,,,  j,     ' 
(cctly  cultivated,     "The  caIyx,"Hays  Ho^g,  -iihoulj'' 
at    least   one   inch  in   Iciinili,   termio  iiing  with  l,,,,  i 
points  siilViciciilly  strong  to  Imld  the  narrow  liiincs  „|  1 
petals  in  :i  close  and  circular  body.      WlmlMvcr  ci, 
the  llowers  may  Ih'  piMM".sed  of, they  slioulil  Ih.  p^fi^.,] 
distinct,  and  dispi  sed  in  long  regular  siripia,  Iji.ia,], ,,;, 
the  edge  of  the  lamina,  and  grailually  bccnininK  iiair.me, 
as  they   approach   the   claw   of  tho   petal,     K^.j,  j,^,,  I 
sir    lid   have   a   diu-   propo.lioii   of  while,   oiiu  hulf , 
nearly    so,    which   .•iliould   be   perlictly   cUiir,  and  f 
from  8)H)ts.     Uuarres,  or   such  as  conUiin  iw,,  ^j^ 
upon  a  while  grouml,  are  esteemed  rallicr  prcfcnljf  j. 
Ilak;'s,  which  have  but  one,e»(s'cially  when  llieircoloM 
are    remarkably    riih    and     viTy    reniilaily   ilirtriliuu 
Scarlet,  purple,  and   pink,  aie   the  three  colours  i:  j  ' 
predominant  in  the  curnation.     When  the  piiik  |],,^,^  . 
very  high  in  colour,  it  is  distinguished  by  the ui)pillaii„. 
of  rose  flake." 

The    billowing,    which   we   copy  from  an  ajrojabli 
horticultund   treatise,  "The    Mansc-liardeii,"  ari'  liij  , 
plainest  directions   we  have  seen  re.speclini;  ilic  culim, 
of  carnalions : — "The   best  soil  for  cumatioiw  in  (^j 
ioam,  enriched  willi  well-rotted  atalilc-diiiiij,  and  uuuj. 
eiied  with  a  little   sand,      'i'he  quantity   uf  iiuiiurr  cii  | 
only    be   determined   by   the    previous   slrpiii;il|  ul  ;.,( 
ground;  if  made  too  rich,  the  flowers  will  loav ihriri: .« 
colours;  if  le(t  too  poor,  ihey    will  want  \'naw,   .\j 
recent  mainire  should  ever  come  near  a  line  plaia.   Li  I 
the  ground  lie  prepared   la-lore  winter  widi  dung,  mj  | 
rough  furrow  laid  up  to  the  frost.     In  A|iril  i;ivi!  ufrKli 
digging,  and  )iliint  in   rows  three   feet  by  two,    Tim 
width  IS  to  make  risiin  for  layers,  without  which  i  fim  [ 
blow  of  eariiation.M'annot  la;  maintained  above  oiif  vm. 
As  the  plants  shoot  up,  they  must  be  tied  tu  ne.it  ^i^a  i 
rods ;  and    in    order  to  have   a   tine   blow,  Biijiertluviit  I 
flower-buds  must  be  )iinched   oil,  leaving  only  thne  oi  f 
four  to  each  stem.     The  young  shoots  near  the  ernumi, 
which  do  not  run  to  flower,  are  denomiimled  itrass;  md 
from   these  the   la\ers  are  selected.     The  opcralion  ii 
soinewluit   nice,  but   when   riulilly  done,  is  ulwdvs  lu* 
cessbil,  and  gooil  flowers  are  thus  preserved  and  mull). 
plied  from  year  to  year.      Towards  the  end  nf  Jiilr,  i, 
up  the  ground  about  the  plants  and  mix  with  lhi'»iili 
little  old  well-wrouiilit  compost.      IhiM'  at  liiinj  a  sbij 
|H'iikiiife.  a  trowel,  and  a  number  of  small  |it>u's  ivilhii 
aiule  at  the  bead  :   pieces  of  fern  will  do,  or  wood  oiM  ( 
more  atretiglh   tlian   to  bear   pu.-^hing  iiilo  the  gro'jni  I 
Scoop  out  tlin  earth   in   the  form  of  a  basin  arouuil  Mfl  I 
plant;  select  the  strongest  urassy  shoots  for  Invcm.  and' 
remove  such  iis  arc  in  the  way  ;  crop  the  top  Icuvcs  u 
iuch  from  tlic  heart,  and  pinch  oil'  all  the  real,  laJut| 


THE   FLOWER   OARDKN.      " 


Ml 


MI*  But  to  pe«<l  the  litem.     Brgin  an  incininn  on  tlio 
iiile  of  ill'"  "lii">t,  tt  litllo  Im'Idw  tlif  wronil  joint 

I  ibn  i<>P<  "'"'  '"'  "l'^""''' '"'  '''"  J"'"'  '*  "'*'  '"  ''"' 
'  lili).  Hi't  ''"'  |'oi"l<"'  t'nln'iiiity  inado  liy  llic  olit 
ID  llip  l"il'"">  "'  t'"'  •'xovutloii,  Hiid  llu'rn  lit  i'  Willi 

"'     „„  .    |||,ui'    till-    lllMllI     111    tin-    hllOOt    ITCC't,  till    ill    tlu> 

ill  iiiili»'>l"'  it  llriii,  mill  tliiiiili  llir  work  willi  n  uoml 

IfrinK'     '"'"'  >'""■"(  I'l'i'it"  will  Ik)  riMiily  I'nr   rcnioviil 

.    diBiiid  Dtiiuliiinii,  wlii'ii  lliry  iimy  \)v  hi'I  in  (loucr- 

itif  till'  "'"'  >'*  '""  <'^"'l>>  "'"'  "l^^  *''  cuiiNC  riiUinK  in 

iiili'r;  ''"'  if  "iilHrii'iilly  dry,  lliP  lujrrs  iimy  rcuiiiiii 
lill  iiiriili!,  ""''  't  **'"  '"'  "'  """^  brfiiri)  wiiilrr  to  riirtll 
tlifiii  iiPi  "li'P''"'  "'"'  l"'»''i'«  '''8  immli!  iiliDUt  tlii'iii  m) 
10  throw  dIV  iIm^  ruin.  Allliuiirtli  tho  |)rii|>;i(iutiim  of 
t'liii  iiliinl  liy  piliiim"*  (""  •'"'  uriiB.1  mIiooIh  tuki-n  nil  unci 
•tuck  ill  t'"'  Ki"'""'  '"■"'  I'li'li"'')  i^  I'y  "»  MH'iinii  no  Kiiroiu 
the  ibovB  iiii'llioil.  yi't  of  u  iiuinlicr  nonio  will  liikn  root; 
uiJ  M  pipifiif  ""'  '"•"'  "''"'iy  proruiiiil  tiKin  pLiiits,  tliii 
e.\|ieriiiii'iit  iiiny  he  made.  If  curried  to  soim'  di^tunoc, 
Ktcentlu!  nlipH  ill  wulcr  lill  llicy  HWfU  to  their  prdper 
ijjc  •  trim  llii'in  ns  iiliovt-  diriTted,  iiiid  »et  thini  firm 
iiilo ulil  el.islii'  ioin|i()Ht ;  wutcr  ploiilifully,  nml  set  over 
Ibem  »  littii'IP[''i'"'>  '""■*''  ilirowing  water  on  the  kIumh,  iiiid 
llioii  iMfll'  "'  ''''r''''"  !'•  '""'  ''■'  't  ii"t  heiiliifi'r!  lor  some 
J,iV9,  it  l"i"!<  I'lii'i'l  'l"'t  II  delleiency  t>.,lli  nt  liuht  mid 
lir  moiiwli'-i  ilie  Hlrikim;  of  Hli|m — probalily  on  tlii^i  prin- 
cipii',  th.it  tlie  nick,  h.ivini?  no  ftppelite,  must  iivoid  tlui 
.xenioii  wliicli  rci|iiiiv»  food  ux  well  an  lluil  whirli  food 
reuuiii'i."  VVc  iniiy  udd,  that  eariruioim  reijiiirii  room 
(0  01  panel  mid  Mow  ;  mid  when  fully  drown,  tlie  Ntulka 
nhiiulJ  tie  tied  willi  UHlrip  of  ham  to  a  liiimll  Htukc  Hunk 
into  ll.e  tjiiiuiid  lit  llieir  siilc. 

Uvlii/hoih. — 'I'lie  hollylioek  in  a  splendid  floweriiiit 
plant,  and  cxeei.'d.-i  all  otliers  in  tallniHs.  With  good 
mI.  Bhcltei,  and  proper  exposure,  it  will  attain  a  lieiu  ' 
of  twelve  or  fourteen  !•  et,  and  npiienilly  naeliea  He\eii 
or  rijlit.  't  in  a  xuli^i.intiul  herliueeouH  plant,  with  ii 
tliii'k  utem,  aloiiK  wliieh,  to  the  top,  are  the  hroad  f)howy 
bU»oiii»;  and  fi'""  thiH  atlraelive  afipearaiiee  it  is  very 
suitable  to  Driianirnt  I'rciits  of  eottuges,  eduinns  to  nhriili- 
[Kriin,  ur  the  centre  of  eliiinps  in  lawns,  'I'lif  colours  arc 
icry  viriiuiM,  us  pink,  dark  purple,  yellow,  Ae.,  Ilie  don- 
Mo  HoiLs  liiiiii;  the  rirliest  uinl  most  esteemed.  The 
iKtiLiof  liolKlioclirt  ari;  sown  in  May  ;  aTiii  in  Se[)teinliir 
or  Octolier  the  yount;  plantM  are  transplanted  into  the 
griiund  where  they  are  intended  to  hlosHoin.  .\ithoiuh 
cla.'ued  an  hii'iinials,  the  plantH  will  spring  and  hlooin  lor 
nmiinlH'r  of  years. 

iriiiV/ioHiii. — There  urn  several  sorts  of  this  fracrant 
plant,  tliiisf  flowers  whiih  are  dark  and  most  massive 
luiiii,'  inoBt  hiulily  estei'ined.  Kvery  ri)tta«e-Kiirden 
sliuulJ  have  two  or  tlire.;  wallllowers,  as  their  perliimo 
\i  very  |>leasiu^  and  their  culture  no  way  troohlesonie. 
"To  insure,"  says  the  .luthor  of  the '•  Mansi-tiardeii," 
"a  nucccs.'-ion  of  the  hest  'ueed  (and  the  method  anplies 
to  tin!  iloulile  flowering;,  which  yields  no  seed,  and  can- 
not olhciwise  lie  pre^'rved),  ahont  the  liegiiiiiinn  of 
July,  pinch  olF  a  hundred  slips  or  vouiik  shooLs  of  five 
or  si):  i.uhes  in  lenRlli,  taken  only  from  the  finest  stocks; 
crop  Mi6  leaves,  and  strip  tlie  rest  of  the  stem  hare ; 
iJibblc  tbj  slips,  so  |ire|iai'ed,  into  a  lied  newly  diiu;,  and 
•haJcd  by  trees  or  a  north  wall.  Sprinkle  them  with 
waliT,  and  shade  n:iy  fiart  to  wliicl-  tin  hi.  has  access. 
Not  one  will  )jo  hack,  an  I  ii.  Ihu  way  a  hountiful  pro- 
fusion of  OIK  01  the  sweetest  (lowers,  and  the  hest  of  its 
kiuil,  may  be  had  from  year  to  y,nr." 

Kieni  what  arc  usually  called  hiennialB.  we  turn  to 
the  "upious  list  i){  iiiiv.iiuiils,  which  may  vi'ry  pro|K'rly 
w  wclioiied  into  thos<i  with  hnllious  roots,  tuberous 
rootn,  and  fibrous  roots — the  latter  by  far  the  most  numu- 
riiui),  and  including  plants  of  a  herbaceous  and  shrubby 
iwtiirc;  to  thcic  may  ho  luldcd  climbing  uiul  aquatic 
planu. 

Blluul's-Routku  Fluwsus. — In  this  class  are  in- 


eluded  {\\r  hyaeliith,  mtrrlmus,  hli,  ll.y,  tulip,  iinwdrofi^ 
mil  iroeus,  with  their  kindred  vurielien. 

Tint  lii,iiiiiiih  has  a  tapering  bulb,  shoot*  up  lung 
Kreen  leaveii,  and  hi  the  lentre  is  n  stalk  on  which  tha 
bloom,  in  ihe  fiinii  of  liolU,  grows  uU  round,  cauning  ti 
to  droop  or  bend.  There  are  several  varieties,  dillering 
ill  eiilonr,  as  bine,  red,  and  white,  hut  tho  blue  is  llitj 
iiioHl  conimon,  The  hyacinth  is  a  favouriteof  Ihu  Dutcil, 
by  whom  it  has,  like  the  tulip,  been  brought  to  gri;at 
|H'rfeclion.  The  best  kinds  have  double  tlowers  witli 
liiilliunt  colours.  A  Handy  soil  and  saline  atmosphere, 
wilh  II  warm  exposure,  are  favourable  in  developing 
these  properties.  In  the  Ilritish  islands,  they  will  en- 
dure the  winter  in  the  Kround,  and  are  amuiig  the  earli- 
est lilosaoming  plants  of  spmig.  In  Holland,  tlio  bulb* 
ari'  lilicil  and  carefully  stored  during  winter. 

Of  the  .V(0((»(i(,i  there  are  niuny  varieties,  which  in- 
clude ihillodils,  white  narcissus,  jonipiiU,  and  polyunthu* 
narcissi.  'J'he  chief  dillereiicc  is  iti  colour  and  si7.e  of 
petals.  Most  have  n  lightish-yellow  llower,  with  a  deeper 
yellow  cup.  A  fine  narcissus  has  tall  and  firm  leaves, 
and  from  tho  eentie  H|n'ings  the  round  tube-liko  stalk, 
on  tho  top  of  which  is  the  bright  yellow  bloom,  with 
petals  spiendiiiK  out  like  rays  from  u  star.  Homo  send 
up  tw»  llower-stiilks,  and  tho  criterion  of  r\i  cllence  i* 
massiveiiess  and  di:iiinctness  of  colour  in  the  corolla. 
Of  the  polyanthus  species  there  are  at  least  a  hundred 
sorts,  stilp!iur-coloured,  single  and  double,  white,  &u. 
Like  hyacinths,  tho  bulbs  remain  in  the  ground  duiing 
wiHier. 

Of  Ihe  In>  there  are  also  various  kinds,  some  low  and 
others  tall.  Hut  always  beautiful  from  Ihe  deliciicy  of 
coloiir.  The  Persian  iris  is  low,  with  delicate  blue  and 
vioh't  blossoms.  The  i^halcedonian  iris  is  more  tall, 
distin<;uished  by  the  great  si/.c  and  magnificeiico  of  it* 
fiower,  which  is  u  purple-blue  stiiped  with  white.  The 
Uii:;lish  iri  -  is  of  still  greater  height,  and  has  flowers  of 
doul  le  the  size  of  the  former.  IVone  requires  much  siin. 
'I'lic  l.ilij  is  a  plant  eijually  tall  with  the  larger  iria. 
There  are  many  species,  wilh  dillereiit  colours — white, 
orange,  and  carmine.  'J'he  orunge,  speckled  wilh  dark 
ilots,  is  the  more  common.  This  plant  will  gri  w  and 
bloom  with  lillle  sun,  or  under  the  shade  of  trees.  Tho 
elli-i  t  of  the  orange  blossom  is  phasing  among  green 
plants  which  re(|uire  to  be  set  olf  by  a  contrast. 

'J'he  V  i(//;i  is  the  pride  of  the  garden,  or  at  least  stand* 
pre-eminent  in  general  estimation.  Like  most  other  bulbs, 
it  is  a  native  of  the  Levant,  and  was  brought  to  its  iierfee- 
tioii  in  llollaiid.  where  tulip-fancying  was  at  one  peiiod 
a   mania,  and     lie   bulb  is  still  a  large  article  of  trade. 
'J'he  finest  tulip-gardens  are  ut  LLiailcm,  which  has  a 
warm  and  saline  climate,   wilh  a  soil  light  and  rich. 
!  Hound  the  roots  and   over  the  beds  sand  is  freely  scat- 
I  icied,  so  that  the  tulips  seem  as  if  growing  from  a  sandy 
I  bcueh.     In  planting  in  this  country,  follow   the  same 
!  practice.     Hefore    planting,  take    oil"  the   brown    outer 
I  rind.     I'lan'    in  October  or  early  in  November,  so  that 
j  the  plant  wu.   blossom  in  April.     In  forming  a  bed  of 
tulips,  Ihe  bulbs  should  be  set  at  a  distance  of  Bivon 
i  inehi's  apart,  and  in  straight  rows,  taking  care  to  mix 
I  the  dillerenf  colours.     To  raise  fi"om  s»'ed,  or  to  improve 
Ihe  varieties  by  crossing,  arc  works  of  time,  and  not  to 
he  tlioiiglit  of  in  ordinary  circumstani'cs.     Bulbs  can  be 
obtained  from   uurserymen  ut  a  price  ranging  from  five 
shillings  a  do/cn  tii  five  guineas  a  bulb,     llaif-a-crown 
each   is  a  common   price   for  tolerable  bulbs ;   but,  of 
course,  all  depends  on  ta.--te.     'J'he  following  is  Hogg'* 
critcrimi  of  a  fine  variegated  late  tulip : — "  The  stcra 
should  he   strong,  elastic,  and  erect,  and   about  thirty 
inches  idwve  the  surface  of  the  bed.     The  flower  should 
he  large,  and  composed  of  six  petals:   these  should  pro- 
reed  a  lillle  horizontally  at  first,  and  then  turn  upwards, 
f  'ining  almost  a  perfect  cup,  with   u  round  bottom, 
ruiher  widest  at  the  top.      'i'ho  tlueo  exterior  pctali 


»9f 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE  PROPl.l. 


•houM  he  rnlhrr  lururr  'lisn  tlic  ihrw  iritrrinr  i>np«,  unil 
hroailcr  at  tlu-ir  haw  :  rII  tlir  |ii-tiila  ahciiilil  hiivr  (nt- 
factly  (iilirf  filtina,  fri'X  from  iiolrh  iir  M-rriitiirn :  tlii<  to|i 
of  etu-h  hIiouIiI  t>o  linmil  nrnl  wi'll  riMimlril;  llic  urixinil 
colour  of  tlin  flnwor,  iit  tin-  Imllom  nf  tin-  i'ii|i.  ulioiilil  Iw 
rlrtr  wlitio  or  vcIIkw,  ihuI  I|i«  vnriniiH  riih-rnhiiiri'd 
■tripi'a,  wliifh  nri>  tlir  iirinriinil  oriiuiiKMit  of  n  fiiii<  tiili|i, 
•lioulil  Ih'  ri'Ktiliir,  IidIiI,  iiiuI  ilinliiii'l  on  tlio  iiiiiruiii,  mid 
teriiiiimti  in  fiiio  lirokni  |Hiiiiln,  rlri,':»iilly  frutlii-rcd  or 
p(<iirillril.  Thr  I'fiitri'  of  iiicli  Iruf,  or  (iclul,  ulioiild  nin- 
Uiii  one  or  rnoro  hold  hlolrlit'H  or  -tri(icM,  inliTiiiixi'd 
with  mimll  poiUoiiH  of  tlit>  ciriniiiul  .>r  lirrrdiir  I'oloiir, 
aliru|illy  lirokiMi  into  ninny  irnunliir  oIiIumk  poinlx, 
Hoini'  tloriHtM  Hri<  of  tlip  opinion  lliul  the  i-ililnil  HliiprN 
or  blotchi'ii  do  not  foiilrilmti"  to  llic  liciiiily  mid  rli'umict' 
i>r  tliu  tuli|i.  iiiilcHH  coiithii'il  to  II  iinrriiw  iiliiiH'  I'xiiitly 
down  tlio  rciitif,  and  lliiit  tliry  slioiidl  li<>  |)crfi'clly  free 
from  any  rcnininM  of  tlw  orii;iii,il  or  lirrrdi'i  i-oloiir.  It 
ia  cprlaiii  that  »iirli  upju'iir  vrry  li'iiuliful  and  dcliriiti', 
r»pc'  illv  wlicn  ihry  li«v(>  a  M'unliir  iinnow  Iriillicriiiif 
at  II  I'dnc ;  hut  thi'  urcalent  coiiniti"«MirM  in  tliJH  (lower 
unaniiiKinHly  airriT  that  it  di'iioliM  sujK'rior  mutiI  whrn 
th«  t(ili|i  uIiimiiiiIh  will)  rirli  colouring;.  diHtrihutrd  in  u 
(liatiih  t  ami  rorfulur  niiiniicr  Ihroimlumt  llic  llowcr,  vx- 
rf|>«  ill  lll^  Ihittom  of  the  ruji.  wliicli,  it  runnot  he  di«- 
]<iltr(i,  uliould  b«'  •  clear  brit'lit  wliito  or  yell>iw,  free 
from  Hlitiii  or  tinge,  in  order  to  conatitutti  a  (>orfert 
flower." 

In  order  to  havp  tulips  in  niiy  thinij  like  iiorfeetion, 
they  rpiiiiire  n  vast  deal  of  cure.  An  Htioiitf  miiisliinr 
injurra  them,  they  niiiHl  either  tie  placed  in  hoimp  kI  idy 
aituatioii.  or  eovered  with  a  slitjht  iiwniiii;  Irom  the  suii'h 
raya.  'I'liey  muMt,  nlno,  on  no  iieemint  he  allowed  to  ifo 
to  ared,  for  in  that  niHe  the  Imlh  in  exhiinsted  and  done. 
'l"o  prevent  Ihin  ealHKtrophe,  they  Bliould  he  wiitclied 
when  they  apjiroaeh  [lerfeetion,  and  the  head  nnd  stalk 
rut  oil".  A  UHual  siKiial  tiir  euttiiia  is  when  they  reuse 
rloainit  at  Miinet,  or  when  the  rilites  of  the  peliil»  exhihit 
the  HliKhte<.t  appearance  of  wilherinij.  They  Khoulil  he 
cut  rather  too  early  than  too  late.  After  rullinT,  admit 
the  aun  to  the  atema ;  nnd  when  these  wither,  which 
may  Iw  in  June  or  .Inly,  lift  the  hiiPw  nnd  lay  them 
•aide  in  a  dry,  airy  situation  ;  there  let  them  remain  till  the 
perio<l  for  phintme,  which  is  the  end  of  Ocloher  or  he- 
Kinniiii;  of  Noveinlu'r.  If  the  hiilhs  rei|nire  to  W  sent 
to  a  distance,  twist  each  separately  into  a  ]piece  of  paper; 
in  this  state,  and  kept  dry,  they  will  remnin  dormant, 
yet  fresh  and  ready  liir  plantini;.  for  years. 

The  Croiiit  and  the  Sniiinlrii/i  are  two  small  hulhons 
plants,  so  well  known  for  their  hardy  irrowth  that  little 
need  he  said  of  them,  ('roruses  are  very  various  in  co- 
lour— hliie,  yellow,  white,  and  so  forth;  and  the  princi- 
pal Ihinif  to  attend  to  in  pliintinK  is  mixini;  these  colours 
in  a  pleitsiiiij  variety.  When  the  hloom  withers,  remove 
it,  but  do  not  cut  away  the  numerous  small  irr'"''" 
leaves,  (-rocuses,  like  all  other  Inillious  roots,  re(|nire 
occasional  trnnsplantini; :  this  may  he  done  in  Oclohcr. 
TrnKnoiK-KooTKii  Ki.owkks, —  In  this  class  the 
Dahlia  (named  from  Dahl,  a  Swedish  hotanist),  holh 
from  its  lienuty  nnd  si/.p,  deserves  the  first  |ilace.  It  is  a 
native  of  the  trm[K'rate  plains  of  South  America,  and 
rcijuires  a  dry  and  airy  situation  for  its  growth.  The 
tiihere  at  the  root  rescmhle  lout;  potnt'ics,  nnd  as  they 
spread  to  some  distance,  the  plant  slumld  have  a  free 
»|<arc  of  from  two  to  three  leet  all  round.  The  stems, 
at  and  near  the  top  of  v^hii'h  are  the  rose-like  hlossonis, 
rise  to  n  hei;jht  of  four  feet,  and  require  to  lie  supported 
oy  stakes.  A  new  plant  may  he  procuieti  by  separating 
«  part  of  the  root,  to  which  a  stem  is  attached.  Frost 
at  once  blights  the  green  stalks;  and  when  thes<<  seem 
utterly  withered  and  dried,  carefully  lift  the  tubers  and 
(dace  them  in  a  drv  situation  for  the  winter.  In  May 
.hey  mu»t  be  Kp.-nns:  '>"  "Id  manure  under  n  alass  frame, 
and  then  planted  out  and  occonionaliv  watered.  Dahhos 


/■'*ihmhch/ii«.— 'I 
nnd  it  li.ia  amne  h 


»r«>  now  found  of  almost  every  colour— -thr  ^^j^ 
white  variety  ed«ed  with  crimson  ;  Aiiiandt,  rosy  llL 
Ariel,  white  nnd  lilac;    Augusta,  purple  ;   (,'(ni,it|i„    i 
Iiiverpoid,  scarlet;   Knchantress,  ereamy  eilKml  rhcTv. 
Lord    Althorp,  dark  pure;   Vrllow  i'erfectiuii ;  p^.i'  ' 
White  ;  and  »o  on, 

'his  is  a  iitoek  lieaitly  In  ill  <„,!, 
undred*  of  varieties.     Th    lufx,, 
small,  and  rec|uire  to  W  treated  like  those  o|  dif,  |||,| 'r 
I  he  hlossoin    reseinhles  u  compact  small  rosi',  (,f  ,  ii  , 
tish  form.     The  soil  in  which  the  plants  are  hliii<|.,| 
ipiires  fo  l«-  line  and  in  good  henrl.     In  piniilliiif  riinun! 
eiilnscs  and  dahlias,  the  ccdoiirs  should  Im  urriiiiKnl 
as  to  produei-  an  agreealile  varii'ty. 

The  MiirrrI  nf  I'nu  is  a  very  fine  taji-rooted  njimi 
rising  to  a  height  of  two  or  three  feel,  and  heariii)(  l^,,,,,.' 
tiful  transient  (lowers,  iliirering  in  colour,  as  pinli,  wtiji, 
mill  yellow,  nceonling  to  varieti.s.  There  is  n  hiiicm! 
sion  of  blossoms  daily,  the  old  ones  dropping  nil' an  I 
new  set  advancing.  In  its  native  climate,  die  lilnMoini 
do  not  open  till  after  the  he,,t  id'  the  day  is  ovit,  alKim 
four  o'clock  ;  the  plant  is  therefore  viewed  u<t  g  |(j„j 
of  time-measurer,    and   is  called   the    H>*(  Imlin  fi,u, 

Fi  iiiiors-KooTKii  Fi.owmis. — The  gen>irB,  unfcin 
anil  varieties  of  (lowering  plaiils  with  (ihroiis  rooln  in! 
cluile  the  greater  part  of  vegetiihle  prodneliniis.  \  (f^ 
o(  those  iiiohI  prized  are  all  we  need  notice.  Tiike,  fim 
the  hninhle  /'"i-v.  which  has  been  cidtivalcd  up  froo 
the  wild  unii-nn  or  daisy,  the  "wee  modest  crimson. 
tip|«'d  (lower,"  nnd  is  now  found  in  two  primipnl  y/nnt. 
tics,  the  mollled  crimsc'o  and  white,  nnd  the  pure  rrim. 
son.  This  plant  is  llh  hardiest  of  the  herhaceniiH  uilif 
keeps  longest  in  blooiu  id"  niiy,  nnil  may  lie  proi/agaifj 
to  any  extent  hy  separation  of  roots. 

/'iii/-.i  are  another  universal  liivourite;  lluy  iiinv  W 
viewed  as  an  interior  kind  of  carnalion,  and  me  ilividej 
hy  (lorists  into  the  three  classes — damask,  cobs,  niiil  plip«. 
sHiil"s  eye,  'J'he  criterion  of  a  line  pink  is  ele-.r  whiif 
petals,  laced  wilh  crimson  purple,  and  fiinlv  tirritiJon 
the  edges.  The  brancheii  of  stalks  rei|iiii  ■  Ivini!  to 
i-takes;  and  they  should  be  cultivated,  ho  as.  if  piiinible, 
to  avoid  bursting  the  culy\. 

The  I'lnmiixr  family  includes  several  pretty  llowrrinn 
plants — all,  as  is  believed,  sprung  and  cultivated  \i[i  I'min 
the  wild  primrorte  Qirimvin  ri(/;'m/x)  and  cmvsljp.  Then 
is  no  great  beauty  in  the  primrose  as  a  t'linlin  plnni, 
bill  it  is  iiscliil  as  an  early  spring  llowcr,  ami  nu-rfodi 
the  croeuK  in  giving  colour  to  the  borders.  The  liijiln'si 
cultivated  of  the  race  is  the  I  iilijtiii<liv>,  whiili  Biml*  iip 
steins  loaded  at  top  wilh  a  bunch  of  pidiiiiclcs,  hrnwn, 
ri'd.  and  yellow.  'I'he  colour  most  adiiHred  is  that 
shiideil  with  a  liirlit  and  dark  rich  crimson.  rcsoinWii:i; 
velvet,  relieved  by  a  hrinlit  golden  hue.  'i'he  Jmrnk 
{pnvmid  'iiiririil(i)  is  a  larger  plant,  but  varyini!  in  cr- 
lour,  nnd  more  delicate  in  many  respects.  It  lliru'ishes 
best  in  rich  soil  from  old  turf  and  rolled  cciw-nwin. 
The  chief  colours  are  red,  pink,  crimson,  while.  Mw, 
apple-green,  and  mulberry.  On  the  petals  there  is  a 
line  meal,  which  is  injured  and  marked  by  drops  of  riin 
or  artificial  irrication  ;  and  tlicrel'ore  tlinver-taiiciir.i  liike 
care  to  shelter  the  plants  with  a  ghT^s  frame,  liml  nllow 
no  dro|is  from  the  \val<  rimi-poi  to  touch  them.  When 
treated  iviili  attention,  ft  bed  of  auriculas  may  lie  rcndtrcd 
very  heaiitifiil  lo  the  eye. 

The  .•hti:"i''iir,  when  double,  is  a  pretty  (lowei,  wilh 
a  number  of  (laltish  petals  foiming  a  cup,  in  the  centre 
of  whii  h  is  a  great  number  of  long  small  jictals  clustpr- 
iiig  over  each  other.  The  /.eiic/i'i,  in  its  dillerenl  varie 
ties,  is  a  line  tall  showy  flower;  that  which  is  niont  com- 
mon is  the  cardinal  flower,  wilh  splendid  scarli-t  blos- 
soms. 'I'he  I  yrhnit  is  another  pretty  scarlet  (lower,  but 
small  in  size.  The  Swirl-  [i'tlhurii  is  deserviiiif  a  pli« 
in  every  garden ;  it  may  be  hud  of  various  colours,  dml 


THE   FLOWKR    GARDEN. 


I  .  from  ''"T  <■'''""""  '"  "'?'''  P'"'"'     "^^  ('<mfpiin>4lii, 

"  ivrainiil*'  Imll-llownr,  in   it«  <liiri<rriit  vnrii'lina,  liiiio 
I  tfhit)*,  ii)  i>    Rrncrfiil   Hiiwpr,   with    |ieii(lniit    lirlli, 

hid)  'ho"'''  "'""  '"'  ''""■<'  '"  ""  <***''f'iilly  liiid  out  iMir- 
.  ii  iiiiiy  Ix"  t""!''  '""W  '"  flownr,  hy  ruttiiii(  oil"  tlin 
WinMiM  «*  •"""  ""  ''""y  *"'*''"  '"  witlicr.  Tlic  liiriin 
k  rboft'ii""  I'fiii'i/,  willi  il«  lirilliiiiit  iiml  (li'r|>  rritnitdii 
xjk  ii  •rmlhrr  rhciirr  flowrr;  it  rvquiret  littlu  csro  bc- 
,„„d  iU|.|Mrlini;  with  «l«k..«. 

Ilie  ('"'''■'  fill'".'',  wlili'h  now  rmlirarM  whnt  arp  ti"rni<-(I 
krvi' ■•■*"'  "'"'  /'""*"'"•  '*  ■  iillli*«'ioii  from  ihi-  oritjiniil 
Willi  violi'l  (nij'i/  mhidln  mid  fi/i/ii  liinli.r).  lly  llif 
..  „(.[,  Ill,,  (•ultivntnl  violi't  or  hcart'ii-f'SBo  inriillril  iitnh 
'thoUKhl)t  "'"'  I'fiice  our  iiiiiiio  fni'iy.  No  llowrr  in 
ll ,,  lj,„|,.ii  liiiH  liilrly  rimii^ril  no  niurh  Httcnlion  iim  tho 
hcirt'iH'n'u' ;  ami  l>y  monnH  i,f  culture  niiil  liyl)riiliiiiiK,  it 
ha«  iltiii'"'''  "  ""•"'  clnionlinnry  ili'^rno  of  iii'rfrclioti  nn 
Ktntt\»  »i'<"  "'"'  fi'''""'"  "'  colour.  A»  iMiiriy  nmy 
L,ili  to uii  l"r  wnw  (lisliiii't  inroriuiilion  on  tliiN  li'iinlil'ul 
dower,  wi'  ciitmol  ilo  hi-ttcr  thnn  "(liT  tho  I'ollowiuK  inlol- 
lijiWi)  dirn'tioii*  on  llic  nuliji-rt  from  n  work  of  nn'ril,  Hur- 
n*m'ii  Fhrindliiriil  Ciiliurt  ; — "The  moHt  a|iproveil 
mdhiHl  of  priipiiKiition  i«  hy  lukiiii;  olTyounn  Rli|H  in  the 
lulumri,  wliiili  it  'he  l"'ht  time,  iin  then  the  ground  and 
wMlhcr  arc  modt  «uit;ili|o  for  tliii  formiilion  of  younn 
f^Bitlctn,  on  ii'count  of  lt«  dnrnpnenn  mid  dullniMn.  Aliout 
thf  firnt  wt'i'k  in  Ortolicr  n  bed  Ih  prepared  of  linht  but 
rioh  »oil,  rni'w'd  ii  little  iibovc  the  piith,  in  order  to  <lrnin 
(If  ,11  iiipcrfluouK  moisture.  The  eutlinnn  nre  then  iniide 
rfiiilv,  by  slfippi'iff  them  of  their  under  leaves,  nud  eut- 
linii  clone  lielow  the  bottom  joint,  from  wliieh  the  rooln 
must  iprini;;  for  if  thin  in  not  done,  the  ciittiiiir  will  de- 
cay to  thai  joint,  wliieh  frequently  deBtroyn  the  whole. 
After  tho  Ix'd  in  preparwl,  tho  ruttinRH  are  arriinsed  qc- 
cnrlin?  lo  tiicir  vnrietion,  each  sort  heitif?  marked  by  a 
tilly  stick,  numbered  or  named  neeordinn  to  the  pleanuro 
of  tlie  owner.  The  eut*ini?H  will  be  found  to  lie  well 
rixilod  in  about  "ix  week»,  when  they  may  be  pIntUed  out 
for  bloomini,'  in  the  Mprin^,  or  potted  to  keep  over  winter 
ill  a  frame. 

"Tho  noil  in  which  the  pansy  in  found  to  flourish  best 
i«  I  comp'ist  of  cow-iluiiif  one-half,  freKh  loam  one-ipiar- 
trr  part,  leaf  mould  oiie-eij;hth  ]iart,  and  eoarnesanil  oiie- 
figh.lh;  hut  pi'ut  soil  shonMon  no  neeonnt  be  intermixed, 
t«:t  bilriiH  up  the  piinny  rompletely.  Tliene  ingredients 
ihiiilj  lie  well  mingled  together,  and  piiriliedfrom  woriiH 
«j:i  slui;rt  liy  liaviin;  lime-water  fre(|uenlly  thrown  over 
the  heap,  a»d  i"  "  nhort  time  it  will  lie  fit  for  ii«>.  The 
situation  liexl  ailapted  for  the  hcart'iwase  ix  one  which  is 
fhiltcrod  from  the  mid-day  huh,  but  which  receiven  n  little 
ill  the  moriiiii);,  as  then  it  i«  nut  so  powerful  aa  to  injure 
tlie  coliiurH. 

"Trnnaplantini;  may  be  performed  nt  any  neawin.  but  in 
(binp;  no  an  error  in  prevident.      We  Hce  the  plants  taken 
up  with  a  hall  of  earth  around  them,  and  planted  auain 
with  it.    Now,  as  every   thing  deteriorates   the  soil    in 
which  it  urows,  and  as  the  pansy  entirely  pierces  every 
particle  of  earth  its  roots  can  reach,  therefore  that  which 
we  take  up  with  it  mustlic  entirely  exhausted,  and  when 
planted  aijain  can  receive  very  little  food  from   its  new  i 
situation,  as  its  roots  do  not  by  nature  8traa;i);le  far  from  ! 
the  stem.    To  prevent  this  starvation,  it  would  lio  mm  h 
lietterto  wn'ih  away  all  the  suil  from  the  roots,  and  plant  it 
i:;ain  with  its  roots  unconfined ;  then  it  would  bo  alile  to  , 
reek  food  liir  itself  abundantly,  and  therebv  produce  much  j 
larger  flowers.  I 

"  The  following  list  contaiiiB  some  of  tlte  Iw-st  varieties  in 
culti»ation  : — \ri;o,  AuijustB,  Anne  Eliza,  Hritish  C^iieeii, 
Colonel  Uinidus,  Captivation,  Dandle  Dinmont,  l''i'lips4>, 
Feronia,Haidee,  Henrietta.  Imoj^ine,  Jewess,  Livia.  Iiaiira, 
Magnet,  .Mias  Jane,  Miss  'I'owers,  Paul  Pry,  Peter  Dick, 
Platonia.  l'enelo|)e,  l^ueen  of  the  Whites,  Reliance  su- 
|icrb.  Triumph,  Victoria  suiK-rba,  Wycomb  Abbey,  West- 
minister AliU'v,  Windsor  Castle,  Wlute  Perfuctiuo,  Li- 

Voi.  I  -W 


hemi,  Armi)  of  Perfeeiion,  RiiiKlondnr.  RevrnRS,  Vietory 
MiM  May,  (llory  of  North  Durham,  ilennly  of  ih« 
Wear."  To  this  we  may  add  tho  Pair  Muid  of  I'uith, 
and  Lord  John  Kimsrll. 

Hum  RHT  (ItHiiitw  PtAWTs, — AmonR  thew  tho  /'oM 
miipiestinnably  diMTVpa  the  flmt  plaee,  having  from  tiina 
itnmemoriul  Uena  favourile  in  every  (rarden.  'I'hrre  ar* 
•'■nie  hundreda  nf  s|i«ieiea  and  varieties  of  riwea,  among 
whii'h  nrii  included  ('liliia  roNas,  hardy  rliinbiliR  roM's, 
iniBis  roses,  wieet  donblu  Ncoteh  roses,  rid  and  wbila 
rowes.  The  ('hina  rose  is  delicati!,  with  tew  petals  in  the 
ll'iwer,  and  yields  a  succession  of  blussoms  monthly 
through  a  Krrat  part  of  the  year;  it  is  hardy,  and  isKreeii 
and  llourishuiK  in  winter.  .Amoni^  red  roM's  tho  mot« 
roiMi  Is  the  most  N'uuliful,  and  next  it  may  rank  the  eatv 
bai{e  rose;  but  both  arc  exccMed  in  fraxranrc  liy  th« 
leaves  of  the  Sirtct  111  Kir,  a  rose  shrub,  nhieh,  for  tho 
sake  of  its  delicious  o<lour  and  hardy  Kre<  n  h'avek— * 
tiling  of  moment  in  makiii);  up  a  boui|uet — nii.«  Id  have 
u  place  in  every  garden.  All  kinds  of  rose-bushes  are 
exhaustive  of  the  roil,  and  should  lie  freciuenlly  mannred, 
if  not  traiisplant(<d  to  fresh  mould.  In  order  to  keep 
them  ill  bloom,  cut  otfall  blossoms  which  seem  about  to 
wither.  The  branches  require  careful  pruning.  For 
ailoriiiiig  the  walls  of  sumnier-hduses,  cottages,  A-c,  tho 
//'))/fy.»i/r/i7f  excels,  and  should,  both  for  its  lieaut  •  and 
fragrance,  by  all  means  have  a  place  in  every  Harden, 
however  humble.  The  hi  ey suckle  is  a  lu-iniiiff  p'ant, 
and  has  a  tendency  to  cli  li  in  a  spiral  direction  f.-^an 
right  to  left,  which  requires  to  bo  accommoi'  itcd.  The 
llnp.  which  is  Hometimea  grown  in  gardens,  and  allowed 
to  climb  on  tall  poles,  twines  in  an  opjsi  'e  direction, 
or  left  to  ri,,lit,  or  with  the  s.  i,  and  thi^  ccculiar  tend, 
eney,  also,  must  not  lie  frustrated,  but  .i..  .sted  by  str'  .• 
of  basa.  In  point  of  massiveness  of  green  suifaee,  i 
lioncysui  .'  is  siirpa»sed  by  the  Jasmine,  a  tall  r"in.in 
shrub,  growing  xi\>  in  iiumerouo  branches,  which  ifi.iK 
well  covered  with  small  narrow  leave  •  is  very  suitable 
for  leading  up  \  'andahs  or  conceal!  ,  ,  th  of  wall. 
It  does  not  adhere,  and  requires  nailii  r;  w(."n  carefully 
trciil»'d,  its  massive  green  and  elegaii.,y  drooping  small 
branches  have  a  pleasing  clFect.  hy,  the  most  perti- 
nacious of  climbing  plants,  will  grow  ahiiost  anywhere, 
and  only  requirespruning,  to  keep  it  within  bounds,  every 
winter  or  spring. 

Among  the  various  tail  bushy  shnibs  most  appropriate 
as  an  ornamental  background  in  gardens,  nre  the  diderent 
species  of  Laurnstinas,  Azaleas,  Ivlnslodendrons,  and 
Lilacs.  The  Lmirnmina  yields  a  plenteous  crop  of  small 
variegated  blossoms.  'l"he  Jlilivius  is  likewise  u  beautiful 
shrub,  but  more  suitable  us  an  emls'llishr.ient  in  lawns; 
it  has  small  whitish  bell-shaped  flowers,  and  yields  a 
Ktrnwberry-likc  fruit  in  warm  exposures.  Perhaps  nil 
out-of-door  exotic  shrubs  should  yield  tho  palm  of  beauty 
to  tlie  liilics  siinf;uiHCiim,  a  plant  profusely  adorned  with 
small  red  blossoms  ':•■+  appear  in  s|iring.  It  resemblca 
the  currant,  and  ti.   '  .-■■     't»  berries  in  <iur  climate. 

EvK»iiuF.K>s. —  1  i,  .  IS  u  chissof  shrubby  plants, more 

suitable  for  the  onianiental  front-jilols  nf  dvvelliiig-houheg, 

or  for  approaches  and  lawns,  than  for  gardens  ;  because, 

although  the  '.'-cvu  of  the  leaves  is  pleasine  in  winter  when 

other  vegetaiion  is  dead,  these  plants  are  very  exhaustive 

of  the  soil .  otb'ii   prevent  the  s-un  from   getting  to   the 

,  Isirders;  and  keep  the  ground  in  a  litter  with  fallen  leavea 

j  nt  a  time  when  triinnens  is  expected.     Many  species  of 

I  evergreens  are  now  cultivated   in   gentlemen's  grounds; 

but  those  which  are  most  generally  esteemed  for  ornamental 

plots  or  other  limited  situations,  are  the  various  tribes  of 

laurels,    ulaternus,    arborvit'e,    holly,  juniper,    and    box. 

With  proper  care,  any  of  these  may  l>c  lifted  and  trana- 

•  planted  into  situations  more  ngreeablo  to  the  eye,  eithei 

'  at  the  lieginuiiig  of  September  or  May,  when  young  shoota 

arc  preparing  to  burst  forth.     The  plan  is  to  dig  all  round 

,  thciu,  at  a  distance  equal  to  the  compais  of  tlie  brancbea, 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


rinking  the  trpnrh  to  a  point  beneath  the  role  of  the 
plant ;  then  lift  ihcin  bodily  with  tlio  whole  mans  or  bnll 
of  earth  round  the  roots.  A  pit  must  be  prepared  for  the 
reception  of  the  bnll,  and  when  placed  in  its  new  gitua- 
lion,  flII  In  the  rest  of  the  pit  with  fine  earth,  layinot  the 
rootlet*  Rtraicht,  and  packing  in  all  neatly  to  the  surface. 
A  copious  stii-am  of  water  must  now  be  poured  from  a 
watering-pot  u[)on  the  newly  placed  mould,  round  the 
item ;  this  carries  the  particles  of  earth  to  the  rootlets, 
surroumling  each  with  its  proper  nourishment  and  Rivini» 
solidity  to  the  plant.  If  likely  to  be  exposed  to  wiiids, 
tke  plant  should  be  supported  in  some  manner. 
roiH'liuliii!;  ruinnrks  on  the  Ganleii. 
The  pretvdi  \f{  are  the  principal  flowerin|T  plants  an- 
n  lal  and  perennial,  herbaceous  and  shrubby,  u  ually 
grown  in  o)H>n  pnrdcns  in  England  and  Scotland ;  and, 
if  we  have  fiiilcd  to  do  so,  we  wish  now  to  impres  <  on 
the  minds  of  the  '  uprofcssional  flowor-culturist  thr-.  main 
principles  which  should  govern  his  labours.  1.  Let  him, 
by  every  reasonable  attention  to  soil,  culture,  and  other 
circumstances,  endeavour  to  produce  the  finest  corollas  of 
which  any  given  flower  is  susceptible :  2.  Produce  these 
flowers  only  in  their  proper  season,  and  throw  away  ns 
little  time  as  posstible  in  forcin!?  blooms  at  unnatnm' 
periods :  3.  To  maintain  a  ^dnlon,  rxs  far  as  possible,  in 
continual  beauty,  try  to  keep  up  unrceissiiniitl  vnrie/y,  for 
in  that  is  exhibited  the  experience  and  foresii^ht  of  the 
gardener.  The  directions  n:.;»i,  in  the  foresoinp  pa^rs, 
and  in  our  floricuitnral  calendar,  it  is  hoped,  will  assist 
in  leading  to  this  arranuemenf,  on  which  so  much  Iteauty 
depends ;  and,  as  a  further  aid,  we  ofTer  the  foilowiiii; 
hints  furnished  by  a  correspondent  to  the  "  Gardener's 
Chronicle :'' — 

SrccKSiioxAt  Vahiett. — "It  is  tho  desire  of  every 
one  who  jK)sse9»es  a  garden  to  have  as  much  variety  of 
colour  and  succession  of  (;ayety  throughout  the  season  as 
the  situation  and  means  of  the  possessor  can  accomplish  ; 
yet,  in  viewin,?  most  gardens,  even  where  expense  is  not 
an  object,  borders  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  particular 
plants  may  freijuently  lie  observed  to  lie  only  attractive 
when  such  plants  are  in  blossom,  and  looking  bare,  if  not 
unsightly,  after  the  blossom  is  over. 

«  Supposing  equal  skill  in  the  cultivation  of  plants  in 
general  'o  exist  among  gardeners,  the  great  superioritv  in 
eflect  of  one  garden  beyond  another,  consists  in  the  dis- 
tribution and  arrangement  of  the  |ilanls  themselves,  so 
Uiat  a  succession  of  blossom,  and  a  due  contrast  of  colour 
sliould,  where  pfacticuble,  keep  every  bonier  furnished 
even  to  the  end  of  autumn.  In  this  respect  most  gardens 
•re  deficient.  Succession  is  not  attended  to,  except  for 
the  more  limited  space  and  favoured  spots  near  the  mun- 
■ion,  or  in  fmnt  of  tho  conservatory.  In  most  gardens  it 
is  considereil  siithcient  to  keep  any  horde'  where  plants 
have  blossomed  free  from  weeds  and  neatly  raked.  To 
Uie  mind  of  the  gardener  this  border  to'ls  its  own  history, 
af  the  beauty  of  *hich  he  had  t>oasted  but  a  few  we«'k8 
B.  ce ;  but  the  visiter  or  casual  oWrver,  who  walks  through 
the  garden,  only  leeking  to  please  his  eye  with  variod 
gayety,  makes  no  allowance  for  the  past,  which  he  has  not 
»e*n ;  and  remarks,  that  though  mie  parts  are  lieautiful,  a 
^at  portion  of  the  ground  has  nothing  worth  looking  at. 
"  By  the  following  method,  tho  comparative  gayety  of  the 
icene  may  be  kejit  up,  and  a  relief  to  the  eye,  not  with- 
out interest  to  the  obwrvcr,  preserved.  Mix  the  seeds  of 
(he  following  annuals: — 


Mifrniiiii'iiv, 
CnrnHroji  j'oppy, 
Paj'ux'r  Niiiiriiiim. 
Dwarf  i>ulcli  i  oppy 
rr  ■iii'l)  |vnppy. 
Bmrirtiiiiir  lnrk«n"  , 
Eni'liorliull/.a  I  'al.fornica, 

IX).  I'r.Kpa, 

CsTtirniinln  •pTiilijin, 
t>iulytuA.  vHticiiet, 
Nii'<itiirt:utii. 

C"iiin!irrn  '"vanui,  of  va- 
rious colour*. 


tlcnn'R  cafte, 
("Inrkin  piilrlirlla, 

C.'tMlt'tiu  of  Mil  norts, 
Aii'irrliinuiii  nr.;'S, 
Do.  .phrteniim, 

Uo.  verticolor, 

roMin«in  bicrilor. 
roffcipsis  tint 'orift. 
'  (VxivolvuliiH  iiiinnr. 
.  i i:Un  iriculor,  and  other 
specie  >. 


"Then  let  thi»  mixture  of  seed  us  very  thinly  naH-^ 
upon  the  borders  early  in  the  spring;  it  need  notinu. 
fere  with  any  ordinary  work  on  the  borders  that  mn  i'" 
required  afterwards ;  and  in  places  where  the  ground  m  ' 
be  disturbed,  many  of  tho  seeds  will  only  appeji  ,"' 
sub8e()uent  period,  and  consequently  flower  later  m  .i" 
autumn. 

"Most  of  these  annuals  wih  continue  flcwt  ring  uni'i 
the  frost  kills  them,  and,  if  not  removed  too  soon  wl 
leave  liehind  them  suflicient  seed  for  years  to  com 
Every  gardener  hag  remarked  the  strengtli,  the  bosut " 
and  the  effect  of  single  plants  of  self-sown  annuals  iL  I 
sfiiing  up  occasionally  in  a  floweMiorder,  and  have  escaiio,! 
that  destruction  which  the  merciless  hoc,  in  the  hand  ,f 
the  undiscriminating  laluiurer,  inevitably  entails  udi 
them  ;  yet  if  the  intelligent  labourer  is  properly  instructed 
he  will  soon  learn  to  confine  his  extermination  toweeili 
and  his  skilful  eye  will  spare  the  annuals  at  proper  in! 
tervols. 

"  One  case  yet  remains  of  much  consequence  to  Tirnnni 
as  well  as  to  future  effect,  though  generally  but  little  ai. 
tended  to:  .his  is  the  frequent  examination  of  all  annus'i 
as  they  expand  their  first  flowers,  and  the  pulling  thfrn 
up,  unless,  in  habit,  form,  and  colour,  they  arc  fit  to  j. 
niuin  for  stock.  Crowded  oi  annuals  generally  oreintt. 
patches  sown  in  gardens,  their  true  character  and  beawj 
are  seldom  seen  ;  and  if  among  the  masn  sown,  some  fei 
blosmmis  appear  more  striking  than  the  rest,  aiulthcscfil 
of  these  is  considered  more  worthy  of  preservation,  ii  i| 
generally  too  late  to  take  away  the  worthless  wilhom  de- 
stroying the  plants  most  desired  ;  and  the  seed  sosavnj 
from  the  most  select  variety  is  but  little  better  than  tbai 
from  the  other  jdaiits, 

"  i'lie  system  now  recommended  gives  the  ndvanlageof 
separation  and  a  power  of  selection,  with  the  ceitainit 
that  a  selected  plant  will,  by  its  position  as  a  single  pUm 
not  only  blossom  in  beauty  and  vigour,  but  aflbn]  ilm 
abundant  harvest  of  gorol  seed  which  will  amply  rep,ivii| 
future  years  the  trifling  care  thus  proposed  to  be  bestowed 
upon  it." 

(iAiiiiEN-W.»LKS. — In  the  previous  article  on  KiTnitj. 
G.viiiiENiNo,  we  have  recommended  walks  tohcthrfj 
feet  broad,  laid  with  gravel  bedded  on  hard  cinders,  and 
edged  with  dwarf-box.  As  an  improvement,  some  r.laci 
a  bed  of  stones  beneath  the  cinders,  or  at  least  the  uppn 
gravel,  and  on  this  point  all  must,  less  or  more,  be  gorernej 
by  circumstances.  Where  it  can  be  afforded,  aspln|i| 
pavement  may  beemployd  instead  of  all  other  tnatcriali 
In  the  neighliourhood  of  London,  where  fine  yellow  Ken 
siiigton  gravel  can  be  obtained  at  little  cost,  it  is  Inrje't 
employed,  and  forms  a  l)eautitul  walk,  the  yellow  coiitust- 
iiig  finely  with  the  green  of  the  plants.  On  thesulijM 
of  garden-walkg  and  borderings,  the  author  of  "Tke 
Manse  Garden"*  offers  the  following  reconimendationj,iD 
which  we  unite : — 

•'  In  making  walks  amongst  shrubs  and  flowrra,  dry- 
ness and  variety  of  edging  are  the  chief  things  to  he  pro 
moted — these  not  being  here,  as  along  a  fruit-wall, forlha 
sake  of  the  trees,  any  scruple  as  to  the  burying  of  Blonp»; 
and  there  ought  to  lie  none  as  to  tlio  trouble  of  a  two- 
feet  excavation  ;  for  every  cart-load  of  earth  so  saved  ii 
worth  money,  and  the  convenience  of  (iepositing  stnim 
in  place  of  the  earth  will  save  a  great  exfs'nse  of  canian, 
Hox,  though  tiresome,  if  there  lie  no  other,  is  by  fiir  lh( 
liest  edging  for  general  use ;  but  the  plantini;  of  it  » 
often  bungled  or  done  at  a  needlcsg  exj  cnse.  Take  0|i 
with  a  spaile  a  portion  of  the  edging  that  has  grown  tm 
old,  and  part  the  roofs:  oin'  yard  of  the  old  will  scrre 
for  ten  of  tho  new — a  supply  that  is  not  obtained  Ijdb 
the  nurscriog  without  cost.     In  parting,  tear  all  the  old 

•"  Thr  Mnn»e  fisriiirn.  *  tiy  .N'Bilianirl  I'nilorsnii.  0  P..  mia* 
tt-rofSi.  Aiidrcw'ti  cliitroli.  (ilHuirow,  (iliiii((riw ;  rolliria.  Ix^a 
dun  :  Whmukir  and  ('«,  tKl^i,  Jt  nironls  u^  iiiuch  pleuuiiu 
recouiueiid  lliii  valualilu  and  modem  treatise  to  nouca 


.^JlvquE  FLOWER  GARDEN. 


in 


mise  to  nolle* 


1Mb  down  into  the  imBlleit  shreds ;  throw  twaj  every 
Me  that  w  thicker  than  a  crow-quill,  and  cut  off*  all 
the  rooto  beneath  the  uppermost  tier  of  fibres ;  a  sin- 
gle tibre  a  enough ;  with  none  the  plant  may  do,  but 
it  ia  not  nrceiuary  to  try  it.  The  plants  so  trimmed 
diouU  be  about  four  inches  in  length.  Having  filled  the 
Mcavt'*"'  with  stones,  all  to  four  inches  left  for  gravel 
on  either  side  of  the  walk,  dig  the  surface,  set  the  line  to 
a  nicety,  using  many  pins  at  every  turn,  to  make  the 
windings  eoHy ;  bring  the  level  exactly  to  the  line,  and 
beat  all  smooth  and  firm,  so  that  the  earth  may  stand  cut- 
tins,  ^i'^'  "  tfwel,  cut  by  the  line  to  the  depth  of  three 
inches,  pulling  the  earth  towanls  the  walk,  and  lay  the 
im>en  tops  of  the  plants  to  the  line,  setting  their  heads 
ibove  it,  not  more  than  one  inch,  and  all  touching  one 
another.  The  roots  will  vary  a  little  in  depth,  but  let  a 
frw  plants  be  held  exact  at  the  top  with  one  hand,  whilst 
the  earth  is  applied  to  the  unequal  roots  with  the  other. 
The  reverse  rule  of  evenness,  providing  for  the  roots  and 
not  the  tops,  is  frequently  adopted;  hence  the  straggling 
appearance  tliat  ensues — ^rac  leaning  out,  and  others  in ; 
lomc  set  like  a  tree,  having  a  stem  from  which  branches 
proceed,  and  others  having  branches  sunk  up  to  the  mid- 
dle. The  clfcct  is  a  strong  feeling  of  indignation  ;  and 
remarkable  it  is,  that  though  correctness  of  lining  be  cf 
small  repute  in  n/attnrs  of  taste,  yet,  where  a  line  ought 
to  bo  and  is  designed,  few  things  arc  harder  to  be  endurnd 
than  unmeaning  deviations — as  in  the  case  of  ill-set 
Ifnth,  or  the  attempted  dash  of  a  clumsy  handwriting. 
Box  may  he  planted  in  8ept<'ml)er,  October,  or  Novem- 
Dcr;  in  February,  March, or  April.  To  wet  riny,  brought 
up  by  new  trenching,  coal-ashes  may  be  added  ;  and  to 
avoid  rotting  by  long  moisture  without  growth,  the  plants 
Diav  be  set  in  May  or  June. 

11  For  nthcr  edging,  sea-pink  is  very  good,  but  it  soon 
act!  Jefnrmnd  with  blanks,  unless  taken  up  and  re- 
planted :  wlicrftas  box,  annually  clipped  in  autumn,  will 
lerve  for  the  half  of  a  lifetime.  London-pride  admits 
ofpairins;,  and  will  last  for  five  years;  coarse  polyanthus 
or  priin'ose  docs  well  iKJiieath  trees.  Should  the  root  of 
an  old  tree  come  in  the  way,  it  is  easy  to  keep  up  the 
green  line  by  planting  periwinkle,  which  needs  little  soil, 
or  ivy  at  some  distani'f,  and  loading  the  runners  past  the 
tree,  where  they  will  take  root  all  the  way,  and  being 
dipped,  make  a  handsome  api)earancc.  The  propensity 
of  ivy  to  run  up  the  tree  is  easily  counteracted ;  but 
should  it  be  indulged,  few  thin;»s  are  more  beautiful,  and 
tlie  tree  is  there  rather  for  ornament  than  for  the  value  of 
its  timlier.  Double-daisy  and  cowslips  may  be  used,  and 
may  hv  kept  any  length  of  time  by  occasional  lifting  and 
partjjig  of  the  roots.  Hopatiea,  blue  and  red  mingled, 
make  a  lieiuUiful  edging,  and  will  last  an  age:  but  tlie 
most  brilliant  of  all  is  dwarf  gentioji ;  it  lasts  long,  but 
must  have  iialf  a  foot  in  breadth,  to  secure  plenty  of  its 
bright  sky-blue  flowers.  Tlu'  pansy  or  tricolourcd  violet 
is  also  fine,  but  nmst  be  replanted  every  year.  For  any 
place  where  the  walk  gets  amongst  high  shrubs  or  trees, 
or  where  a  sloping  bank  is  of  ditlioult  keeping,  there  is 
nothins;  so  fit  for  a  low  hedge  as  butcher'8-l>rooin ;  it 
lulfcrs  nu  injury  by  drop  or  sliade,  and  grows  immovn- 
lily  stnin:; ;  and  not  agreeing  with  the  shears,  it  is  in 
■mil  a  (ilacc  more  suitable  in  the  natural  sluggishness 
jf  its  growth." 

The  writer  now  proceeds  to  spj^ak  of  the  gravelling 
process: — "  In  the  gravelling  of  walks,  any  rule  fur  the 
avoiiliiit;  of  unnecessary  ex|icnse,  and  the  8ulisci|uoiit 
trouble  of  weeding,  must  lie  a  desirable  object.  J,et  the 
lop  stratum  of  stones  Im-  such  a«  arc  rakril  fVoin  the  sur- 
face of  till!  garden  in  dry  wcither.  and  made  perfectly 
clean  by  silting,  which  is  by  far  tlio  readiest  way  of  get- 
ting ijuit  ut  them  in  cleai'ing  the  ground.  Dy  such  me- 
thod, the  top  stratum  being  of  small  stones,  much  less 
puvoi,  which  perhaps  must  bo  brought  from  a  coiisidern- 
ble  diitauce,  will  sull'ice.    Tu  have  no  uiuicccusHry  car- 


riage, the  gravel  at  the  pit  }r  river  side  must  undergo  oiM 
sifting  with  a  search  one  inch  between  the  wires,  di» 
posing  of  all  large  pebbles.  Of  stu/f  in  this  state  walk* 
are  commonly  made,  and  the  result  is  eyil  continually. 
The  small  sand  it)  a  seedling  lied  for  all  manner  of  weedo, 
and  the  coarser  part  compacted  with  it  renders  hoeing 
almost  irflpracticable ;  nor  is  the  work  well  over  till,  ia 
showery  weather,  there  is  need  to  begin  it  again.  Thua 
the  coarse  and  fine  work  to  each  other's  hands,  the 
one  giving  birth  to  weeds,  and  the  other  protecting  them. 
Divide  and  govern ;  dissolve  the  compact,  and  the  con- 
quest is  easy.  Use  a  quarter-inch  search  for  second 
sifting,  and  apply  the  coarse  to  one  part  of  the  walks, 
and  the  fine  to  another.  The  coarse,  it  is  true,  does  not 
bind;  but  that  is  the  beauty  of  it;  it  will  not  grow  one 
weed  for  many  years.  No  feet  are  idle  on  such  a  walk. 
Every  one  who  comes  into  the  garden  docs  some  good  ; 
the  gravel  is  continually  shutllcd  about,  and  an  immense 
deal  of  work  is  saved  to  the  hoe.  For  dryness  it  is  ad- 
mirable— a  property  which  makes  the  roughness  a  plea- 
sure, as  every  one  feels  in  walking  on  the  t-t  „  beach« 
though  much  rougher,  and  not  more  dry.  '  \id  now  for 
the  small  sort,  which  is  almost  pure  sand,  and  in  moat 
casts  will  be  three  to  one  of  the  gravel ;  it  binds  and 
grows  weeds,  but  the  Dutch  hoe  pares  it  as  easily  as  mose 
is  scraped  from  a  tree.  For  the  wheels  of  a  little  coach, 
such  walks  have  the  smoothness  of  marble;  and,  as  to 
the  raking  of  leaves,  on  gravel  the  work  is  imperf««i; 
on  tliis  as  neat  as  the  sweeping  of  a  floor." 


OREEN-HOUSB    PLANTS. 

These  are  of  various  kinds,  both  herbaceous  and 
sir  iiby,  and  require  to  be  distinguished  from  the  pre- 
ceiling,  only  because  they  are  exotics,  too  delicate  for 
open-air  exposures  in  all  weathers,  and  require  to  be 
kept  in  a  temperature  above  the  freezing-point.  This  ie 
done  by  placing  them  in  a  conservatory  or  green-houae, 
which  is  a  light  fabric,  covered  with  glazed  frames,  and, 
if  necessary,  heated  a  slight  degree  in  winter  by  meant 
of  (lues  or  piiios  of  hot  water.  The  most  approved 
situation  of  a  green-house  is  against  a  wall  with  a  south- 
ern exposure;  and,  if  possible,  placed  in  connection  with 
a  range  of  artificial  vineries  or  hot-houses.  In  many 
instances,  a  conservatory  is  connected  in  a  very  agreeable 
way  with  the  parlour  of  a  dwelling-house,  by  whicK  ■*« 
beauties  are  enjoyed  without  the  troubb'  of  going  out  in 
bud  weather  or  during  the  inclemency  of  winter.  All 
the  plants  are  in  pots;  and,  whenever  it  can  be  done 
without  risk  of  injury,  the  frames  are  opened  and  free 
exposure  permitted.  M  the  country-seats  of  various 
EiisUsh  noblemen,  conservatories  are  formed  on  a  mag' 
nilicent  scale,  so  as  to  allow  the  free  growth  of  even  tall 
trees,  such  as  the  palm  and  other  large  tropical  plants. 

The  most  beautitul  green-house  flowers  usually  culti- 
vated are  C'timvllias,  (jcrdiiiiiins,  Fiiclmns,  and  those  of 
the  Cucteo)  tribes,  to  which  has  lately  been  added  the 
Jiznha  Inilicti.  The  Ciiviillia.  or  Ciunetlia  Joponica,  is 
a  woody  shrub,  yielding  sjilendid  rose-like  flowers,  of 
colours  varying  from  white  to  retl.  The  (leranium  is  • 
Well-known  herbaceous  exotic,  with  clustering  hunches 
of  flowers  of  diil'erent  colourt;.  The  Finlisia,  introduced 
from  (Miili,  is  a  handsome  shrub,  of  dillerent  varieties, 
yiehling  exceedingly  licautifnl  llovver;-,  of  a  briglit  crimson 
hue ;  and  tiio  manner  hi  which  these  flowers  depend 
from  the  brancliCK,  like  drop.s  of  ladies'  ear-rings,  has  a 
singularly  grateful  etreet.  I'lu- ('(d^i  are  an  interesting 
kind  of  exotics,  distinEiiisluole  by  their  thick  and  hud- 
stantial  leaves  or  Iroiids,  on  wliicii  usually  grow  email 
and  sharp  prickles;  the  llowcrs  are  splendid.  Besides 
these,  we  may  enumerate,  eitliei  llir  their  great  beauty 
of  blossom  or  iVagniiit  odours,  (he  Nerium,  Jusminum, 
(iiirdenia.  Daphne,  Heliotri>[iium,  Acacia,  Mimosa,  ijo- 
calyptus,    Diosmu,    (inidia,    Xeranthemtun,    Bignouiai 


rS3»r^^ 


sio 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


PaacUlora,  Amaryllis,  Gladiolus,  and  Calceolariiu;  the 
ktter  very  bcnutitui  and  suitable  for  open  air  in  lumnier. 
An  aiiy  parlour  or  drawiiig-room,  with  windows  facing 
the  sun,  may  he  considered  a  domestic  (trccn-housc ;  and 
these  apartmentii,  as  is  well  known,  may  Im  furnished 
with  flowering  plants,  which  will  bloom  and  thrive  if 
certain  precautions  lie  adopted.  Flowers  of  nettrly  every 
kind  may  be  thus  treated,  and  made  to  form  an  elej^ant 
ornament,  anil  means  of  deliphlful  recreation,  in  a  dwcll- 
ing-houiie.  Acconling  to  their  nature  and  size,  they  are 
planted  in  earthenware  pots,  or  buihU  wotHlcn  tubs  or 
boxes,  tilled  lip  with  the  appropriate  mould,  which  re- 
quires occnsional  renewal,  at  least  in  part,  with  the  re- 
moval at  the  sunie  time  of  the  outer  rootlets.  Bulbous 
plants  will  ffrow  and  blossom  in  glasses  filled  with  water; 
but  the  planta  are  necessarily  weakened  by  the  process.  ' 
The  glasses  should  be  dark  coloured,  for  tlio  roots  of  the 
plants  are  injured  by  light. 

On  the  subject  of  the  cultivation  of  flowers  in  win- 
dows, we  find  the  following  useful  observations  in  an 
excellent  periodical,  the  Gnrdeiur's  Chrnnirk : — "  The 
three  principal  things  requiring  consideration  are  air, 
hght,  and  moisture.  Plants  kept  in  windown  naturally 
extend  their  liranrhes  and  leaves  to  the  light,  and  they 
thereby  Iwcoine  one-sided ;  and  it  is  wrong  to  endeavour 
to  make  them  otherwise  by  frequently  turning  them,  as 
the  plants  will  as  constantly  turn  their  growth  to  follow 
the  light,  which  not  only  weakens  them,  but  s|)oils  their 
■ppearaticf.  As  fur  plants  receiving  no  perpendicular 
light,  it  is  more  natural  to  spread  them  out,  forming  one 
good  face  or  tier  of  healthy  foliage  to  the  window ;  for 
well-balanced  heads  under  such  oircuinslances  arc  almost 
out  of  the  question.  Place  them  as  near  the  glass  as 
poasible ;  of  course,  windows  having  a  south  aspect 
possess  the  greatest  advantage. 

"  Judicious  watering  of  plants  in  rooms  is  perhaps  the 
IDost  importint  feature  in  their  management;  and  it  is 
nnfottunatt'ly  in  must  rases  ill  understooil,  lieing  too  often 
given  mechanically,  as  it  were  at  stated  times,  whether 
inquired  by  the  plants  or  not ;  and,  by  a  too  eager  desire 
for  llieir  weltaic,  they  are  frequently  surfeited  to  death 
with  water,  wliieh  is  justly  termeil  '  killing  by  kindness,' 
•nd  is  practised  with  success,  especially  by  ladies,  from  a 
false  apprehension  of  their  wants.  In  sunnncr  this  can- 
not be  easily  accomplishe<l,  unless  the  plants  are  allowed 
to  stand  in  saucers  cotistantly  fdled  with  water,  which, 
by  overloading  them  with  juices,  will  soon  engender 
sickly  sot)  growths,  unsuittid  for  the  protluction  of  tloweis 
v  healtiiy  foliage.  An  enception  to  this  rule  is  the 
growth  of  aiuuiaU  in  pots  during  summer :  they,  if  well 
'irained,  may  stand  in  fee<lcrs ;  but  these,  whenever  uwd, 
should  be  half-filled  with  fine  gravel  or  sand,  which  may 
be  kept  in  a  state  of  moisture.  The  best  and  only  gene- 
rat  rules  that  can  l«'  ailopttnl  are — in  u-inUr,  keep  plants 
not  then  growing  fast  rather  drj- ;  in  fpriiin,  increase  the 
I|uantity  with  their  activity  ant"'  the  sun's  power,  keeping 
them  in  a  medium  stale  of  moisture;  in  tummir,  water 
daily;  and  in  auitmin,  decreua4>  with  tlie  length  of  day 
and  the  returning  tor|>idity  of  the  plants,  until  the  dry 
state  of  winU'r  is  again  reachinl.  All  this  resolves  in  the 
fallowing: — Plants  when  gr'  ■  ing  fast  may  have  free 
supplies  of  water,  which  must  !<  iesreiied  as  their  growths 
ipproach  maturity,  and  cease,  or  nearly  so,  when  tliat  is 
attained,  until  the  return  of  their  growing  seastm.  As 
regards  nir,  similar  rules  to  those  given  for  wati'ring  may 
oe  followed ;  and  indeed  tliey  ere  aiiulogous.  In  viiilir, 
when  the  platits  are  not  growing,  large  supplies  of  air 
are  not  so  im|Hirtanl,  enough  Iteing  usually  given  by  the 
room  door.  .\»  f/;ri/.^  advances  increase  tlie  quantity, 
earrfully  guarding  against  tlie  cold  of  mornings  and  eveo 
tngv,  or  cutting  winds ;  and  if  the  plants  are  placed  out 
'v  llie  middle  of  fine  days,  take  care  to  bring  them  in 
before  the  chill  of  evening  ernes  oil.  After  the  first  or 
mtand  week   in  .May,  they  may  be  set  outside  lur  the 


summer;  and  towards  the  end  of  September,  or  Hun 
ao  heavy  cold  rains  occur,  they  should  be  pUred  bgiin  j- 
their  quarters  for  the  winter,  setting  them  out  of  door, 
when  fine,  or  supplying  them  with  plenty  of  air  bv  tU 
window,  until  the  cold  weother  and  decrease  of  moijici. 
at  the  roots  bring  them  to  a  state  of  comparative  rett  Ii 
should  be  rcmemlxired  in  spring  and  autumn  that  tli« 
plants  must  not  go  out  to-day,  because  they  were  pitrpj 
out  yesterday,  but  the  weather  alone  must  detcnninf 
sudden  chonges  must  at  all  times  be  avoided.  The  leavfi 
of  plants  act  as  lungs,  by  whii;h  they  breathe ;  if  1],^, 
liecome  dirty,  their  respiration  is  impeded ;  therefore  an 
occnsional  careful  sponging  will  lie  usi-ful  to  them.  Ij 
spring  and  summer  allow  them  the  full  benefit  of  genial 
showers,  which  will  do  them  more  good  than  any  artili. 
cial  watering.  Never  use  spring  water  if  soft  or  rain 
water  can  be  had ;  and  always  let  it  be  about  the  eamo 
temperature  as  the  air  in  which  the  plants  are  growinj. 
It  should  hardly  lie  necessary  to  mention  tlie  reiiiovnl  of 
decaying  leaves  and  flowers ;  the  lost  are  exhausting  a» 
well  as  unsightly.  « 

"  One  principal  polling  is  usually  required,  and  afte^ 
wards  as  often  as  the  plants  may  fill  their  pots  withrooti 
or  seem  to  require  it.  The  most  important  thing  is  gocj 
soil,  which,  if  composed  of  three  parts  loam  of  a  fibrom 
open  texture,  with  a  fourth  dung,  most  plants  will  ihri\f 
in,  using  plenty  of  drainage  to  allow  water  to  pats  of 
readily.  Never  sufler  the  surface-soil  in  the  pots  lo  be. 
come  hard  or  moss-grown,  but  let  it  he  loosened  occj. 
sionally  with  a  piece  of  stick. 

"  Succulents  are  well  suited  for  growing  in  rnoniB,  aj 
they  are  not  so  impatient  of  cither  air  or  water  ns  most 
other  ))lants ;  and  the  abundance  of  their  l>eautiful  floncti 
renders  them  objects  of  interest  Cactus  speciosui 
Jenkinsonii,  flagelliformis  ond  speciosissimur,  Moscmliry. 
aiillicinums,  and  Flowering  Aloes,  deserve  special  notice, 

"  Green-fly  is  apt  to  infest  the  young  shoots  or  under. 
sides  of  the  leaves ;  to  destroy  them,  moisten  the  infodej 
parts,  and  dust  with  Scotch  snuff,  or  brush  them  cITai 
soon  as  detected  with  a  feather,  or  dip  them  in  tobaceu. 
water.     F'limigntioii  with  tobacco  will  also  destroy  ihcm." 

To  the  foregoing  is  added  the  following  list  of  lloweri 
for  pots,  with  the  pieriml  of  their  blossoming: — 

"  Fur  iS//niii,'. — Snowdrojjs,  Russian  violets,  csriv 
tuli]>s,  crocus,  narcissus,  hyacinths,  heart's-easc,  miij. 
iioneite,  iiiimulus  muschatus,  ranunculus,  anemone 
myrtle. 

>•  }-'or  Summer. —  r< '.irgoniums,  mignonette  ten-wpfi 
stocks,  China  roses,  double  wallflowers,  pinks,  carnalioin 
cactus,  aloes;  annuals,  as  nemophila,  schizantliu^,  cut 
linsia,  Ac. ;  myrtle,  heliotrope. 

"  J-'ur  Jlit/ninii. — Pelargoniums,  lulKdias,  cainpanulaj 
salvias,  hydrangea,  verbena,  fuchsias,  petunias,  calccola 
rias,  myrtles,  hehotrA|)e. 

"Fur  H  tiller. — Clirysanthemums, pelargoniums, helio- 
trope, inyrllen,  fuchsias,  aloes,  cactus. 

"(reeprrs  Builnhte  for  litiiuiiii;  round  the  I'litfuli  ol 
U'itiilows. — Rhodocliitun  volubile,  niauraiulia  liurrhivani, 
l(iplios|x'riiJUiii  scandens,  convolvulus  major,  trujixulum 
atrosanguineum." 


DOMESTIC    COK&eRVATORIES 

If  the  Btmo.-phere  of  the  apartment  in  whirli  flowc^ 
ing  plants  are  kept  lie  liable  to  vitiation  by  the  action  of 
coal  fires,  by  the  breathing  of  the  inmates,  or  otlrar  cir- 
cumstances— ill  short,  if  the  air  is  not  preserved  \t\m.  il 
is  ch'ar  that  the  (ilants  will  languish,  and  alTurJ  liii'f 
pleasure  to  their  amateur  kee|)t'rs.  In  order  to  romoily 
these  and  other  disadvantages,  a  plan  has  lately  Km 
invented  of  keeping  plants  in  a  secluded  box,  funnnl 
chiefly  of  glazed  frames,  in  which  situation  they  fp'ow 
flourish,  and  p<'rform  the  remarkable  function  of  ptrien- 
ing  their  owu  atmuHphere  in  a  state  of  purity.    Tbii 


I' 


(ft 


THE  FLOWER   GARDEN. 


Mt 


teinfftn  j-xcfpditis'y  intcrostingdepartment  of  floriculture, 
heg  •"  ""'"'  '  '*'''  explanation  of  the  auhject  from 
rchanil«ri'i  Edinburgh  Journal,"  No.  422:— 

«  Any  person,  whether  inhabiting  the  most  humble  or 
themwt  splcniliJ  dwelling,  provided  it  be  freely  exposed 

the  sun's  light,  has  it  in  his  power  io  rear  and  culti- 
rtto  »  misw'ianeous  collection  of  plants,  to  enjoy  the 
beauty  of  Iheir  appearance,  and  to  watch  their  progress 
through  ull  the  stages  of  their  growth,  at  an  expense  so 
•  -^^ifirant  as  to  be  within  the  means  of  every  man  in  very 
moderate  circumstances.  To  do  this  he  must  provide  an 
ttpanitus,  consisting  of  n  box,  with  a  glass-case  over  it, 
of  a  size  according  to  his  dcaires  and  means,  from  the 

.^.jty  of  a  small  trunk  to  that  of  an  ordinary  closet. 
We  shall  suppose  he  wishes  one  of  n  small  size,  to  stand 
nt  a  window  in  an  npnrtment  of  limited  dimensions. 
Procure  n  strong  wooden  box,  three  feet  in  length,  one 
ui(i  a  hulf  feet  in  breadth,  and  nine  or  ten  inches  deep; 
no  top  is  wanted ;  it  should  be  painted,  or  otherwise 
prcpsred  to  resist  damp.  Two  small  holes  for  corks  are 
to  be  made  in  the  bottom.  The  ledges  should  be  covered 
with  lead  or  zinc,  and  slope  inwards.  Over  the  box  is 
BJjced  a  glass-case,  resembling  a  garden  forcing-frame  in 
ihape;  it  should  measure  eighteen  inches  high  up  to  the 
iloping  top,  and  then  the  top  or  roof  should  fiUpe  in- 
wards on  all  sides,  to  meet  in  the  centre.  This  case 
must  be  framed  with  lead  or  zinc,  whichever  be  the  metal 
tiDployed  for  the  ledges  of  the  box.  Difference  of  metal 
may  cause  a  galvanic  action  injurious  to  the  plants. 
When  great  elegance  and  durability  are  required,  brass 
is  used,  and  the  box  is  made  of  mahogany.  The  case 
must  be  made  to  fit  with  nicety  upon  the  ledges  of  the 
boi,  and  in  stich  a  way  that  moisture  will  flow  down  the 
iiiaide  of  the  case  into  the  box.  The  case  should  have  a 
dooi  on  one  sidt;  to  open  and  shut  at  pleasure,  but  also  to 
(it  as  nicely  as  possible ;  there  must,  in  short,  he  no  cro- 
rices  to  permit  a  free  ititcrchange  of  air  betwixt  the 
room  and  the  interior  of  the  case.  The  glass  panes  in 
the  case  should  bo  fitted  with  care,  and  the  putty  well 
painted,  to  preserve  it  from  the  action  of  the  moisture. 
The  finer  the  glass  is,  the  better  will  be  the  view  of  the 
nlants.  When  we  add,  that  the  Ixjx,  with  its  glass  cover, 
are  to  be  placed  on  a  four-footed  stand  or  low  table,  in 
front  of  a  window  which  is  exposed  to  the  sun  during 
several  hours  of  lh<8  day,  the  entire  fabric  of  the  appara- 
tus has  Iwcn  descriln-d.  The  apparatus,  in  a  complete 
itate,  is  represented  in  the  annexed  figure. 


We  now  come  to  the  preparation  for  the  plants.  Lay 
thi'  bottom  of  the  box  with  pieces  of  broken  eurtheii- 
»ire,  to  a  de|ith  of  two  inches,  as  an  open  sulisoil. 
Ncit,  lay  a  strntiun  of  turfy  loam  nn  inch  deep,  and  till 
hi  the  remainder  of  the  siwce  with  good  soil,  mixed 
with  a  |iortioii  of  peaty  loiini  and  sand.  The  artificial 
garden-plot  is  now  ready  to  receive  the  plants.  Set 
lL(9c  in  the  usual  manner,  and  then  shower  over  ihcin 
with  a  waturing-pot  from  three  to  four  gallons  of  water, 
till  the  wiil  he  pretty  well  saturated,  and  the  liquid  runs 
■fl  hy  the  two  ojwnings  in  tlic  bottom.     When  this  is 


done,  r^ork  up  the  holes,  place  the  case  m  the  box,  anil 
the  operation  will  be  finished. 

A  question  will  here  readily  occur — What  species  of 
plants  are  best  adapted  for  these  domestic  greenhouses  t 
We  are  fortunately  enabled  to  answer  thih  inquiry  by 
referring  to  a  learned  paper  on  the  subject  by  Mr.  Ellin, 
which  was  read  to  the  Botanical  Society  of  Edinburgu, 
January  1 3,  1839,  and  afterwards  published  in  the  "  Gar- 
dener's Magazine,"  vol.  xv.,  and  also  as  a  separata 
pamphlet.  According  to  t.  i  gentleman,  the  planta 
most  suitable  are  "  tlioso  which  partake  largely  of  a  cel- 
lular structure,  and  possess  a  succulent  character,  and 
especially  those  which  have  fleshy  leaves;  whilst,  on 
the  contrary,  the  continued  humidity  is  unfavourable  ta 
the  development  of  the  flowers  of  most  exogenous 
plants,  except  such  as  naturally  grow  in  moist  and  shady 
situations.  Plants,  therefore,  which  have  to  grow  and 
bloom  in  cavernous  and  moist  situations,  or  at  least  in 
moist  and  warm  climates,  are  best  adapted  for  these 
cases.  However,  within  this  class  of  vegetables  ther* 
are  many  l)eautiful  and  highly  luxuriant  plants,  which 
it  would  afford  no  small  pleasure  to  contemplate.  Th« 
following  is  a  list  of  plants  from  various  countries^ 
which  were  set  in  a  box  under  Mr.  Ellis's  direction!, 
and  examined  from  nine  to  twelve  months  afterwards:'— 


England 


Botanical  Nama.  Country. 

ClmmcDrops  luiiiiilit 

Glentiaiwi  veriia 

ililianlum  CapiUus  Ve- 
neris 
Primula  farinosa 

Scotica 

Verlmsciim  Myconi 
^iidrosace  villosa 

fliatn.Trops  Palmttto 
Dionira  .>iii!scipiila 
Sarracciii'a  purpurea 

KpigsDa  repBns 
Testudinaria  ulephanti- 

pes 
A\oe  retusa 

liopu 
iihododendron  chrj'san- 

llium  Siberia 

Chainn'cistua  Austria 

f^yrns  revoUiia  China 

i\1;pi'iithi'3  dislillaioria  Oeylon 

Cyiiripediuiii  venustuin  Nepal 

ins'pne  Nepal 

Ajfnve  sirininiflora  Mexico 

*noodyera  discolor  Mexico 

•Ecli:iiooa('ius  niultipl.  Mexico 

•peruviunii  Mexico 

niynncumha  Mexico 

•loriiiosa  Mexico 

Oitnni  Mexico 

cuiiuida  Mexico 

Kpipliylluin  truncRlum  Urn/il 

Cereiis  fliiKellilbrmis  Veiw 
I.yeopodium   sloloniie- 

rum  Culia 
Those   markeil  :hua 


Renurla. 


Italy,  Sicily,  Increased  l-4lh  its  ongi- 
Spain  nal  size. 


Flowered,  but  no  differ- 
ence in  size. 


England         Increased  l-8th. 
Scotland        Flowered ,'    airaosphera 

riuher  damp  lor  it. 
Scotland         Flowered  ;   ainiospher* 

rather  damp  lor  it. 
Scotland         Increased  1-Slh. 
Scotland         Flowered ;      not     ver» 

healthy. 
Cnroliiia         Increased  l-3d. 
Carolina         Made  1-^ih. 
Caroliua         Increased  Tour  times  IM 

original  size. 
Carolina         Increused  one-half. 
Cape  of  Good  Made  a  shoot  ten  inches 

Hope  long. 

Cape  ol'Good  Made     l-3d.     showing 

(iower  spikes. 

Increased  one-half. 
Increased  1-3<1. 
Iner'fised  l-^lh. 
Incrca-i'rt  2-3ds. 
Increusiii  l-5ih. 
Increas^iMl  l-4lh. 
Increased  l-;)d. 
No  perceptible 
Increased  onehnlf. 
Increased  one-Kalf 
Increased  one-half. 
Increased  1-3<1. 
Increased  l-4lh. 
Increased  niie-half. 
Increased  '.^'3ds. 
Increased  uue-half. 

Very  luxuriant. 


[ence. 
difler- 


are  f^rowinf;  in  fancy  puts,  and sa*> 
pended  I'rom  the  roof  of  the  plant-case. 

Plants,  after  the  first  preparation,  require  little  or  no 
care ;  the  case  need  only  he  opened  for  the  removal  of 
dead  leaves,  or  for  a  little  trimming  when  required. 
Plants  ill  open  flower-pots  are  exjxiscd  to  the  vicissitudes 
of  change  of  climate,  and  require  constant  watering; 
but  the  plants  in  those  cases  seem  to  be  indepenuent  of 
any  change  of  temperature  in  the  air,  and  water  them- 
selves. Tl'.c  moisture  rises  by  the  sun's  influence  from 
the  moistened  earth,  cherishes  the  leaves  of  the  plants  iii 
its  aerial  condition,  and  during  the  cool  of  night  falls  to 
the  earth  again  like  rain  or  dew.  In  this  manner  there 
is  a  cniLstant  succession  of  rising  and  falling  of  moisture, 
in  imitiition  of  the  great  processes  of  nature  daily  going 
on  in  the  fields  around  us.  1'he  plant-case  is  a  littlt 
world  in  itself,  in  wiiich  vegotatinn  is  supported  solely 
by  the  resources  originally  romiuu2>ioated  to  it.  ., 

2Z 


m 


6i9 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Not  the  least  roinarkablo  point  in  the  economy  of  tlie 
CMe,  is  the  prcHcrvulioii  of  jtinoapheric  putity.  To  all 
who  reflect  for  the  first  time  on  this  subject,  it  will 
•eem  incoinpruhcnsiblu  iiow  the  plants)  can  pussihiy 
Uirive  and  bloiisoin  without  the  occasional  nit(:rchuui;e 
cf  Cresh  air  with  the  atmosphere.  This  certainly  ilocs 
appear  extraordinary,  yot  it  is  asi'ertuincd  by  cx|)cr'.- 
ment  that  no  such  rcinvigoration  in  re'^uisite  ;  to  ac- 
count for  the  phenomenon,  it  will  ho  ncrussary  to 
remember  that  while  plants  inhale  oxygen  from  tlio 
atmosphere,  and  expire  curbonir  acid,  their  leaves  pos- 
■ess  the  remarkable  property,  in  conjunction  with  the 
■un's  light,  of  retransforinini;  the  carbonic  acid  into 
oxygen.  At  niglit,  when  the  liKlit  of  day  has  departed, 
tile  expired  carbonic  acid  may  bo  di'teoted  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  ;iIantR,  and  hence  one  cause  of  injury  to 
health  by  breathing  ni^^ht-air ;  but  when  the  morning 
sun  again  bursts  upon  the  scene,  a  great  chemical  pro- 
cess commences  in  tlii^  aljnosphoro — the  carbonic  acid 
is  decomjMjsed,  oxygen  is  evolved,  and  all  nature  re- 
joices in  a  recreation  of  its  appropriate  nourishment. 

With  reference  to  the  '.'losed  conservatory,  we  now 
•ce  that  the  dutoriorution  of  the  atmosphere  will  Imj 
daily  counteracted  by  un  opposite  process  of  purifica- 
tion: so  that  '  ...'(Ist  tilt!  vicissitudes  of  perpetual  change, 
the  air  is  niaiuiuined  in  a  state  of  nearly  uniform  coin- 
position  and  purity,  and  serves  over  and  over  again  for 
all  the  purposes  of  vegclation.  It  may,  however,  be 
ataled,  to  prevent  misconception,  that  the  more  pun-  the 
air  of  tlie  apurtraent,  t'lie  plants  will  have  the  better 
diance  of  thriving,  because  there  must  necessarily  be 
an  interchange  to  some  extent  betwixt  the  air  of  the 
room  and  the  case,  in  conscijucnce  of  the  daily  cxpan- 
aion  from  heat  am'  niglitlj  condensation  from  cold. 
This  interchange  will  l)e  eirected  by  the  minute  crevices 
in  the  apparatus,  and  therefore  requires  no  special  pro- 
vision. 

ROCK   ^ND  AQUATIC  PLANTS. 

If  space  and  means  permit,  a  flower  garden  may  be 
much  improved  by  introduciiK^  a  piece  of  artificial  rock- 
work,  and  a  small  pond ;  becaus<<,  in  connection  with 
these,  certain  highly  interesting  plants  may  be  reared 
or  kept,  which  would  not  answer  in  a  plain  earthy  soil 
or  surface.  In  order  to  iticreaso  the  eflect,  the  pond 
should  be  at  tlie  base  of  tlic  rock-work,  and  receive  from 
it  the  trickling  of  watt-r  which  has  l)ecn  conveyed  to 
the  summit  in  pipes.  Let  the  rock-work  possess  a  na- 
tural appv  arance.  with  rugged  sides,  and  perhaps  be 
ten  or  twelve  feet  Aigh.  Rocks  of  the  same  kind  and 
colour  should  be  placed  together ;  if  intermixed,  they 
seldom  wear  o  natural  appearance.  A  dark  cave,  pene- 
trating into  the  tliickest  part  ojf  the  erection,  is  not  very 
dilFicult  to  construct,  and,  when  encircled  with  ivy,  and 
inhabited  by  a  pair  of  horned  owls,  which  may  be  easily 
procured,  it  will  form  a  most  interesting  o'.iject.  Rock 
plants  of  every  description  should  be  profusely  stuck 
around,  and,  in  one  short  twclTc-monlh,  the  whole 
scene  will  exhibit  an  impress  of  antiquity  far  beyond 
anticipation.  The  undertaking,  when  completed,  will 
present  a  field  of  varied  and  inti-resling  study,  and  more 
than  compensate  for  all  the  nttentiou  and  outlay  be- 
stowed upon  it,  the  a;iuatic  and  rock  plants,  which 
formerly  were  '■  far  to  seek  and  ill  to  liud ;  will  thus 
be  brought  within  the  range  of  every-<lay  observatior. ; 
the  wagtail,  oxcye,  and  stonechatter,  will  be  altracled 
U>  the  spot,  not,  perhaps,  because  they  are  lovers  of  the 
f»tcturc9i,ue,  but  U^cause  they  find  every  thing  here 
suited  to  their  nature  ;  and  colonies  of  the  wild  bee  will 
soon  be  seen  and  heard  around  the  interstices  of  the 
rocks,  ar.d  heavily  laden  with  their  winter  sto'e. 

A  weeping-willow  adjoining  and  one  or  two  mountain- 
ashes,  wiH  add  mittrially  to  the  l>eauty  of  the  srene  ; 
and,  if   tlie  spot  be  airy,   there  might   with  advantage 


bo  planted,  on  or  about  the  top  of  the  emincnK 
variety  of  what  is  usually  called  the  Scoilisli  (^,-,(k 
This  tall  clegAiit  plant  will  not  thrive  in  lo*  or  (lanii« 
situations,  and  prefers  a  bracing  to  a  warm  atmosphore 
hence,  though  a  beautiful  object  in  borders,  it  will  U 
found  ditficult  to  briiig  to  perfection  in  some  situation, 
It  may  lie  remarked  thr.t  there  has  lieen  some  uncet 
tiiinty  as  to  which  is  the  true  Scottish  thistle,  ot  th» 
fisur.'d  in  the  national  emblazonment  Mr.  DovaatoiL 
in  a  communication  to  Lcighton's  Flora  of  Slmmhin 
suites  that,  in  a  tour  of  Scotland,  ho  asked  many  per! 
sons  which  was  the  Scottish  thistle,  and  found  minv 
d-flcrent  opinions.  A  Hcbridean  gentleman  pointej  to 
the  CiirduHS  riophnntr,  and  Sir  James  Grant,  at  Inver. 
ncss,  indicated  the  Cardnus  nulant.  For  our  own  part 
we  do  not  believe  that,  when  the  emblem  was  adoptei 
any  particular  sfiecies  of  the  plant  was  meant :  the  lead- 
ins  i'lea  was  thr  self-defending  power  of  the  thintle  at 
emblematical  of  the  dote-inination  of  Scotland,  thouch 
piior,  to  submit  to  no  injury  or  offence  without  rctalia. 
tion. 

Among  the  plants  suitable  for  growing  from  the 
crevices  of  the  rocks  may  he  mentioned  various  heathi 
ami  mosses,  the  Valeriana  dicecia  montana,  Trifolium 
alpcstre,  Thymus  vulgaris,  Epilobium  alpinum,  Cam- 
(•anula  ccrvicana,  Alycsurn  calycinum,  and  Viola  liana- 
tica.  Many  plants  might  bo  mentioned  as  suitable 
lor  the  marsiiy  borders  of  the  pond,  as  the  Arorus 
Iiittorella,  Lychnis  flop-cuciili,  Saxifraga  irrigata,  Epj. 
lobiiim  angustifolium,  Primula  farinoaa.  and  so  forth. 
We  should  recommend  the;  unprofessional  gardener 
i'l  replenishing  either  a  rock-work  or  pond  with  appro- 
|iriato  i)lants,  to  c'lnsult  a  nurseryman  skilled  in  th« 
■iiilijrct;  as  soil,  air,  elimati',  moisture,  and  other  circling 
stances,  reiiuirc  careful  consideration. 

OAnnKx  PLOTS  in  towns. 
The  attempt  to  have  a  neat  and  flourishing  garden  or 
-rardi'n  plot  in  populous  towns,  is  very  often  dtfi-ated 
liy  the  almndaiice  of  smoke  and  other  impurities  in  the 
itiiiDsphcre;  for,  as  repeatedly  mentioned,  pure  air  is 
•  iscntial  to  the  proper  growth  of  plants.  It  is  found, 
liowover,  from  experience,  that  certain  kinds  of  sliru!* 
;iiid  flowering  herbs  are  less  delicate  in  tins  respect 
than  others ;  and  that,  with  a  reasonable  degree  of  cnrc, 
open  plots  in  towns  may  be  made  to  yield  a  surface  of 
vcuctalilc  bloom  and  beauty.  On  this  branch  of  flower. 
culture,  so  important  to  many  town  resiilciits,  there 
;ipi)raicd,  some  time  ago,  a  well-written  paper  in  tha' 
useful  pub'iiution,  "The  Maga7.i:ie  of  Domestic  Econo- 
my," describing  the  experience  of  an  nmatmir  florist; 
we  'rtke  the  liberty  of  extracting  from  it  the  following 
passagi's  : — 

'•  Whei)  I  first  took  possession  of  my  garden  [in  town], 
I  found  ii  encumbered  with  old  lilacs  and  laburnums, 
the  common  aster,  and  other  ordinary  plants.  These  I 
imm('<liately  removed  ;  by  my  west  wall  J  plmteJ  i 
Huddlea  globosa,  and  a  Virginia  creeper;  am)  by  my 
siulh  wall,  which  was  partly  covered  by  n  vine,  I 
planted  the  jasminiim  revolutum,  the  small  white  cle- 
matis, and  the  pyrus  Japonica.  The  latter  grew  luxu- 
riantly, and  bore  an  abundance  of  flowers,  which, 
^1  )wing  upon  the  light  wall,  enlivened  my  pro^pe*  in 
winter-  I  had  a  great  deal  of  the  south  sun  ir  isy 
garilen,  but  none  of  his  morning  bcHms  reached  it,  and 
there  was  a  corner  which  never  had  a  gleam  at  all.  In 
this  spot  I  planted  a  quantity  of  roots  of  the  lily  of  the 
valley,  and  they  ilowercd  well,  although  late.  The  lau- 
rusti.ms  also  grew  well  with  nic ;  and  I  should  s'.roigljf 
recommend  this  pretty  shrub,  together  with  the  laurel, 
instead  of  those  deciduous  clirubs  which  we  we  in  town 
gardens.  The  latter  become  very  shabby  as  they  grow 
old;  neither  the  lilac  nor  ay ringa flower  well  in  lonfineJ 
situations ;  besides  this,  the  untidy  appearance  )f  ibeil 


THE  FLOWER  GARDEN. 


MS 


fa.liii|!  '""^"^  '*  *  ^"^^^  nriTioyance.  My  jasmine  grew 
miicklVi  an<l>  with  tlio  clematis,  soon  covered  as  much 
will  as  I  could  afford  to  thcra ;  the  great  incprxvcnience 
.•  j]jg  latter  plant  is,  that  it  requires  frequent  attention 
10  nailinR  u.p,  and  this,  where  there  is  not  a  gardener 
■Iwava  a!  band,  is  troublesome  ;  as,  although  the  stem 
ihouid  bt  cut  down  within  three  feet  of  the  ground 
jvery  autumn,  yet  tlie  yomife  shoots  soon  grow  bojond 
soman's  roach.  However,  it  is  worth  while  put- 
tinil  ourselves  to  a  little  trouble  for  the  sake  of  the  de- 
licious scent  of  the  flowers  of  this  pretty  trailing  plant. 
As  regards  pcrerui  ials,  I  dare  say  all  who  are  fond  of  flow- 
ers have  endeavoured  to  nurse  the  China  rose,  and 
induce  it  to  flower  in  'he  ti.wn.  I  have  grieved  over 
inanv  a  healthy  pl«nt  which  refused  to  show  a  single 
liuJ.'and  watched  the  gr;i(iual  wasting  away  of  othcrf, 
nalwithstaiiding  my  unceasing  care.  The  common  Pro- 
vence roses,  both  white  and  red,  flower  well  in  the 
tjwn'  but  it  is  vain  to  attempt  the  China — it  requires 
»  very  pure  air.  and  I  do  not  know  any  flower  wIiokc 
colour  varies  so  much  with  the  quality  of  the  atmo- 
sphere. I  o'li  but  slightly  acquainted  with  the  names 
in  .en  by  botanists  to  the  numorou"  varieties  of  roses; 
hut  I  have!  t'.if'd  many  of  them,  and  found  the  Tuscan, 
the  rose  de  Meaux,  the  Tudor,  the  little  early  crimson, 
and  one  sarpassing  them  all  in  beauty,  the  Bengal 
ct'lential  ''I  believe),  flower  extremely  well.  With  re- 
gard to  spring  flowers,  tho  snowdrop  I  could  not  tole- 
rate in  the  city — the  smoke  robbed  it  of  all  its  beauty  ; 
tlie  crocus,  cither  the  mice  or  the  sparrows  would  not 
iiave  undisturbed ;  and,  after  replenishing  the  edge  of 
my  border  several  tinica,  I  gave  up  the  matter.  The 
tioijalica  and  gentianella  flowered  well  with  me  ;  ane- 
nwnes  also  I  had  of  vei-y  good  colours.  Heart's-eases 
pined  away  after  the  first  year,  but  they  were  easily 
replaced,  and  they  were  too  ornamental  to  be  relin- 
quished. Then  followed  the  white  lily,  and  a  variety 
of  irises,  all  of  which  increased  fa-it,  and  flowered  abun- 
dantly. Tiic  peony  I  could  never  persuade  to  flower ;  in 
the  first  place,  it  does  not  lilossom  well  until  it  has  been 
for  years  settled  in  a  garden,  and  I  believe  its  beauty 
even  then  is  greatly  dependent  upon  the  purity  of  the 
»ir.  My  buddlea  was  every  spring  covered  with  its 
golden  balls,  and  grew  so  quickly  that  I  scarcely  knew- 
what  to  do  with  it.  I  am  surprised  this  beautiful  shrub 
J!  not  more  common ;  it  is  perfectly  hardy,  even  as  a 
standard ;  it  will  remove  well,  even  when  it  has  attained 
a  i-onsiJerable  size  ;  it  is  very  easily  raised  by  layers ; 
•nd  there  is  an  air  of  grandeur  about  it,  both  as  to 
leaves  and  flowers,  that  raises  it  aliove  the  common 
flowering  shrubs  of  our  gardens.  But  we  go  on  in  the 
oid-fafhioned  manner  of  planting  our  gardens:  the  same 
varieties  ,.;'  deciduous  shrubs  are  taken,  without  con- 
(idering  with  how  much  advantage  their  places  might 
oe  supplied  by  those  more  lately  introduced.  The  niag- 
nota,  for  instance,  grows  <iuickly,  and  flowers  abund- 
antly in  the  city  upon  a  south  wall ;  and  the  arbutus  is 
not  at  all  jiartieular  with  respect  to  situation.  The 
bistnonia  g.andiflora  also  does  not  withlind  its  scarlet 
trumpet-like  blossoms  in  llio  immediate  \a'in!i.y  of  a 
steam-engine.  To  return  to  my  garden,  tho  glory  of 
whicn  111  the  autumn  was  the  lobelliafulgens,  I  mana9;ed 
itdius:  I  scmk  in  the  ground,  up  to  the  rim,  a  large 
and  deep  sceil-paii ;  this  I  filled  to  about  three  qunrter<: 
of  its  depth  with  rich  soil  properly  mixed,  and  plnntej 
my  roots.  As  soon  as  the  shoots  appeared,  I  supplied 
llicm  plentifully  with  water,  and  from  time  to  time 
added  more  soil.  The  plant'  vrew  luxuriantly,  fur- 
nifuiing  tall  and  thick  stems,  with  large  and  highly- 
colourcj  blossoms;  indeed,  the  gardener  who  hod  as- 
sisted me  said  th:it  he  had  never  seen  finer  flowers. 
The  sweet-scented  marvel  of  Peru  thrived  well  with 
me,  md  the  tiger-flower  also.  Carnations  and  picofecs 
1  Uieil  <jiie  year,  but  was  so  much  disappointed  in  the 


result,  that  I  gave  them  up,  although  rery  relnclantly 
as  I  believe  carnations  do  not  re(|uire  a  very  pure  air, 
and  I  have  fancied  since,  that  ray  failure  with  them 
arose  from  some  other  cause  than  the  smoky  atuiv 
sphere.  Dahlias,  also,  although  they  flowered  very  well, 
I  gave  up.  The  amaryllis  lutca  flowered  well  with  me, 
when  once  establirhed,  and  the  hcmcrocalios  ccrulea  and 
flava  did  the  same." 

After  condemning  annuals  in  general,  the  same  writet 
goes  on  to  say — "  I  own  I  am  willing  to  mike  some  ex. 
ceptioiis  myself  in  favour  of  the  coreopsis,  nnd  such  bril- 
liant flowers  particularly ;  the  French  marigold,  too,  and 
the  scarlet  zinnia,  I  could  scarcely  give  up.  The  lupinua 
mutiib  lis  blossoms  well  in  the -town,  but  it  is  very  liable 
to  bo  destroyed  by  a  caterpillar;  the  easiest  method  of 
prcvei.ting  which  is  to  strew  a  little  soot  around  the 
plant.  The  grub,  I  sui^pose,  will  not  rise  through  this : 
I  found  It  more  efli-ctual  than  tobacco,  which  I  aiso  tried. 
'J'lic  scarlet  colutia  is  much  eaten  by  an  insect:  I  found 
the  same  method  succeed  in  this  case.  I  had  forgotten 
to  mention  that  all  bulbs  of  the  narcissus  and  jonquil 
tribe  flowered  well  with  me:  the  primrose  and  polyanthus 
gave  miserable-looking  blossoms.  I  i)lanted  the  double 
pomegranate  against  my  south  wall,  and  it  grew  well:  I 
left  the  house  before  the  plant  was  old  enough  to  flower. 
I  should  notice  one  great  recommendation  wfiic  h  Araeri. 
can  'shrubs  possess  to  those  who  arc  likely  to  chanipl 
their  residence — they  may  bo  removed  without  daugts  ftt 
almost  any  size.  Mine  were  planted  in  a  border  of  com- 
mon earth,  in  a  hole  filled  up  with  peat  and  loam  fit  for 
them ;  and  when  a  rhododendron,  four  feet  in  height,  wa« 
removed,  it  was  found  that  the  roots  formed  a  complete 
ball,  none  of  the  fibres  having  penetrated  beyond  the  soil 
which  was  proper  for  them.  The  common  and  Portugal 
laurel  may  bo  removed  when  very  large :  I  have  myself 
seen  one  of  the  latter,  which  three  men  and  a  boy  could 
with  difliculty  lift,  transplented  with  success.  Of  course 
it  was  carefully  tended  as  to  water.  The  scarlet  lychnis 
docs  pot  mind  the  corrupt  air  of  the  town ;  but  it  will  not 
grow  to  fcu  great  a  height  in  such  a  situation  as  it  does  in 
the  country.  There  are  many  other  plants  which  might 
be  treasures  in  a  town  garden ;  experience,  however,  ia 
the  best  teacher  in  this  as  well  as  in  more  important 
matters,  and  if  a  garden  be  stocked  with  the  plants  I  have 
inciilioned,  experiments  may  be  made  as  to  others;  should 
they  all  tail,  the  garden  will  still  lie  gay." 

To  the  foregoing  we  need  only  add,  that  much  may 
be  done  to  keep  garden  plots  neat  by  frequent  trimming 
and  raking,  and  particularly  by  keeping  the  plots  in  grasa 
close  shaven.  To  be  kept  in  the  best  trim,  grass  should 
be  mown  once  a  fortnight. 

FLORICULTURAL   MONTHLY    CALENDAR. 

January. — Little  can  be  done  in  the  flowr-gnrden  ex- 
cept the  weather  be  open  and  dry  ;  but  advantage  ought 
to  be  taken  of  favourable  intervals  to  render  the  plots  and 
borders  neat;  to  protect  by  o(  rse  screenings  of  leaf- 
mould  fuchsias, China  roses,  ^  jther  choice  shrubs;  for 
though  they  may  not  perish  i.j  liost,  the  mulch  tends  to 
enrich  the  soil,  when  forked  in. 

Propagate,  by  division  of  roots,  daisies  and  thrift;  pro- 
tect the  beds  of  hyacinths,  anemones,  ranunculuses,  and 
tuliiis,  by  a  covering  of  coarse  litter.  Top-dress  auricu- 
'  <■■.,  using  a  compost  of  light  loam  and  two  year-r!d  cow» 
iKing,  mixed  with  a  twelfth  each  of  sou  or  river  sand,  and 
rotten  wood.  Plant  ,\'l  the  bulbous  roots  that  are  still 
out  of  the  ground. 

In  heat,  sow  mignonette,  annual  stock,  pensten.'!.  i 
fusus,  gcntianoides,  and  other  half-hardy  annual  am'  ,oe 
rennial  plants,  using  the  propagation-pot,  by  which  meana 
the  entire  number  of  seedlings  (allowing  for  previous  thin- 
ning out)  can  be  transferred,  with  roots  undisturbed,  to 
the  plots  or  borders.  Commence  sowing  in  the  Inst  week, 
for  hot-fc  lusc  culture,  seeds  of  Ciloxmia  and  Gesneria 


I'M 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


ihe«e,  if  nhfiinrd  from  imprognatcd  plitiits,  mny  yield 
:a<"  an)  'it iking  variotics.  Sow  ulsi)  (broken  up  anil 
li,i  ;eil  with  uund)  tim  berriea  of  PHidium  Catlloyianum ; 
fhit  pliifit  ia  one  of  'I  choicest  evergreoni  of  the  Btove, 
or  even  groen-houm^  .or  it  Is  not  lender. 

Ftbruary. — Attend  ir>  the  foregoing  general  dircctionii, 
and  (.nw  cut  turf  lot  Invns;  fork  "^nd  cl  ■;.!>  the  flowcr- 
(■orili.-i.  Pliint  aiK  .noncb,  gladiolus,  pen /mial  herhace- 
ou*  r«)oti);  and  traiiit'er  others,  dividing  i\\-  crownH,  to 
niultiply  the  aptTieK.  In  thin  way  alniout  1 1  Huch  plunts 
call  be  increased.  F  r  examples  of  tliis  divi  ion  of  rootti, 
•elect  the  primrose,  single,  double,  and  the  polynrtlius. 
Transplant  the  rooted  layers  of  carnations,  also  the  di- 
vided roots  of  campanula,  lobelia,  lychnis,  mullpink,  and 
dianthus  s'nensis.  Sow  in  mild  hoiit  a!<y  annual  dawer 
needs,  and  of  auricula  ;.' d  niimula,  in'">Y'S  ur  pans, 
VVc  include  the  beautiful  primula  sin usis.  Excite 
choice  dahli.i  rootfi,  placing  them  in  hot-bc  !  frames,  or  i:, 
troughs  or  [mIh  of  old  tan,  or  any  light  inii.^t,  substance, 
oa  the  floor  of  a  stove  or  vinery  .«  work. 

March. — Si)w  annuals,  include.. ^^  bulsam  need,  collect- 
ihJ  from  the  best  double  A.^wers.  Plant  hox-edgingi, 
u<iing  much  pit-sund;  also  evtf«recn  shrubs  •<{  every  de. 
•caption.  Tnill^plant  autumn-sown  annunh  ^nlo  pots, 
and  protect  them,  till  fresh-rooted,  under  gla-is;  at<  '"irkia 
oC  e»erv  kind,  OalJiopais,  (Knothera  Lindleynni.  wiTno- 
Ijv'«.!.%  l^i^hizantliMs  pinnatus,  and  porrigens,  .'^'ovv  la  the 
Sust  »voek,  in  the  ojien  ground,  and  at  the  same  ti;ne,  a 
l^.y.ct  .'-.ich  in  heat,  or  at  jcast  under  glass,  stocks,  i.  x- 
rIom.  i'Suaa-aster,  t'larkia,  liihlia.  cimpanula,  larkNj'ur, 
jwnsio  ;i>'i,  aniiira:>l''iis,  tobacco, an  ill  the  hnrdy  iinnu- 
«.  'iV»i<  '■utlin ,  •  (■!'  hydrangea  i'r.iftj  the  tops  ol'  the 
•hoots.  'i1io.«,  it  ;?•'■  >>i.:l*  hv  full  wmetimes  will  pvo. 
dute  a  line  ill. 'ver ill',' ;,  iiiid  ;hi' (•}")(  >•!  is  8triI.'')!T.  f^oil, 
pure  heath  mould,  or  Itfti-n.oi'!  a.-id  .smul.  Vso  small 
p.)t«,  a«  t;>r  f ',?!>ir(,(>ni:i. 

JipmL — i'laii'  dnhli.;  noli  ii  ricbh -ijianiiri d  lonm, 
holljhocks  f*ri'i,tiiins,  Ki!e('.r.iitt  H  and  (ici  mni.ils:  at  this 
season,  ever .  In  r'i.iC!H)iis  [./.,\iit  h  .ili;.o;'t  certain  to  siic- 
€»•:■•  Crjm(iai:u'i!S  (fhe  tdU  pyiamiilitl),.  riised  by  cut- 
tinguof  the  rovits  in  aeluinii,  maj  now  Iw  traiisforred  to 
p;>ti  of  loam  .iiid  Iciif-moijid ;  and  as  the  plunta  ((row, 
they  are  t"  be  mnstanlly  ^tii^te:!,  lil!  ihryeome  into  jxits, 
wherein  ths- .  •vjll  blixim  profusely.  If  placed  iu  the 
oorders,  they  v.\"  n'ljuire  n-i  |x-i-uiiiir  trcntmcnt.  Sow 
II;  a  pot  the  see^  •  ■,>f  tbis  variily  of  ri»inp'inula  (iscedliiitrs 
freqiientiy  nrodurc  tb^.'  fnics't  piaii'j*;  they  reiiuire  pro. 
fu«.'  watcrinir) ;  aiso  the  seeds  nf  ihe  pansy  or  heart'.,- 
<•««•,  to  prm'iiie  vnrielies.  rn.pnL'ate  by  eutlingr.,  as 
(.'i.  ,'ctcd  ibr  ;,'eniniuiiis.  or  by  single  eyes,  thi'  !>ythiina 
o:r  ta  fjnlli,  ;ind  luiiriliilia.  In  nropa!;atio»  po(f.  using 
the  Kfline  soil,  all  the  siilvias,  verbena.i,  lockels,  double 
w»i'-rtowe]S,  and  everv  s|)ecii:s  .if  liu-li.-iia  thai  has  pro- 
duciu  young  wood.  'I'ly  every  plant  by  cutti'igs  pia<Td 
ill  iiUiK-«  p^iaU.  three  parts  filled  with  rain-wuter.  I)ti<l 
(,'h'nu,  noisetU^  and  moss-roscb,  on  do;;-ros(!  slocks.  Di-  i 
vide  the  rooLi  of  daiihas,  either  n'taining  one  tingle  tu- 1 
hei  with  a  sproutin;?  eye,  or  twist  out  veiy  caulii.usly  a  | 
niigie  slioct,  so  as  to  detach  its  b  ise  and  the  latent  bu'i  | 
i\  i.ontains,  plantiiii;  it  in  the  smallc.it  pot  of  .s.ind  and  ' 
le.i .'■mould;  a  gentle  hut-bed  will  I'acilibitc  the  protrusion 
of  roots.  I 

May. — This  is  the  season  to  stock  the  flower  garden  I 
with  lho«e  plants  wnich  have  been  prepared  during  au- 
Uiinu,  winter,  and  spring;  and  therefore  transfer,  fro'.i  the  I 
iropagation  pots,  annuals  laised  in  them,  by  lifting  the  i 
whulo  mass,  and  depositing  it  in  a  spot  prepared  in  he  | 
bord^v:  thus  trouble  and  loss  of  time  are  obviated.  Bow  j 
a  f«w  annual  seeds  in  the  o|ien  t;round  for  aucccsfion. 
Plant  the  parterres  with  groups  of  fuchsias,  calceolaria, ' 
petunia,  Neapolitan  v'oleL  ve-'  ■;  and  at  the  latter  j 
end.  form  musses  of  the  scarlet  varie^^ated  gcrania, 

u\i  many  less  prized  but  bca"         '  ncy  varieties;  such 
ia-,    Dtumedc,     couspicuuic,    .  au-utentun:    specioauoi, 


I  Moore's  victory,  Dennis's  rival,  Ac.  Ac,     PropsciM,  i^ 

I  cuttings,  the  China  roses  of  every  kind;  plant  them'tii 

■  joints  deep,  in  a  shady  rituation;  also  calceolarias  of  ik! 

shrubby  kind,  Peruvian  heliotrope,  Ac:  by  divijloi,  f 

j  the  roots,  Neapolitan  violet,  placing  them  in  licdsof  m 

'  nured  loam,  twelve  inches  apart;  the  hcart's-easeofih 

l)est  varieties,  in  shady  situations;  the  soil,  rich  lohm  ini< 

leaf-mould.     Those  favourite  prize-flowers  n'()uire  i  f. 

quent  renewal  of  soil;  they  dwindle  if  relniiiou  in  on 

site,  and  desjenerate  to  the  condition  of  the  |H)or  »e.L 

flowers  of  former  years.     Propagate,  by  »li|iH,  lychni. 

double  rocket,  and  wall-flower;  thin  out  the  suporsbuniL 

ant  shoots  of  asters,  antirrhinunis,  ponstemons,  phlox  anJ 

indeed  of  every  luxuriant  herbaceous  plant. 

I       June. — PropaifHlc,  as  duiiii.,  \\w  !.!"•.  vuuilli,  and pl»n| 

young  side-shoots  of  the  hi?!  io'..rliai„  in  nV.i.iy  bof,;.,, 

under  a  band-glass.     Tli^r   pipiiu-a  of  piinii,  dacji  1 

sandy  earth,  are  to  bo  r!'.se!y  t"iri'-!!l  in  Wv   sninciviy 

:  till  completely  rooted,     fcilpigio.'.  ^.s    iuccted  i  best  ii^  i,,! 

I  open  air;  the   Tilnnts  shoul !   l.o   lunv  inrned  out  of  "k. 

I  and  s.'i  in  a    'i- border.     'trP' n-l.c  'j  pl„i.     nmy.,,, 

j  'e  arrniiged  in  ^>  north  aspci  t;  the  pots  to    iandoh  ; ;,, , 

I  slraiitiji   of    cnr.!-:i«hes.     ffj.-U^a!>,    accacia   nnn.ita,  uiii' 

1  i;-jmi.  .-nch  plniiH.  are  greacH'  improved  by  b-inj  tumid 

out  ef ;  .its,  and  plai.ttii  with  entire  balls  i\\  ano|H;npwi. 

bortici 

Jiibl. — Bud  rosea  on  wild  sf.^  ka.  A  pri'ltv  .  Tjci  j, 
produced  by  ir"  rting  o- '■  or  two  bud  o.  ll;..- (,-pp.,f,| 
China  i  i  I'n"  ciMi.mon  f  Ihiiia  rose.  The  fori:ier  i.«  <l-iiicth. 
cned  in  its  hali",  mid  Hie  dilTeienl  AwX".  of  tlie  !ivr.  rusf) 
arc  very  pleasii!.;..       'lop.'xgate,  bv  cull'  'he  <'i)i;ie,t 

azaleas  hnlf-sli r.ibby  v.dceolariii."..  linniu!!,  ()i'liiri;on,;;rr< 
fuchsias,  myrtles,  and  od'cr  i-xoil,'  ihrubs.  Lnvercanm. 
lions  in  sandy  earth,  willi  a  little  etiulk;  ]H'gtheninw 
the  iiui.<ii)n  with  hooU'<  of  fern-leaves.  Sow  the  seeii  of 
mignonette  in  small  p  its,  for  winter;  also,  annual  flower 
seeds  fur  bloom  in  Septemlicr. 

Jluiiint. — Hud.  as  before,  but  not  the  China  rose. 
Plant  seedling  herba.eiius  ])lants,  cyclamens  of  eve™ 
kind,  oflset  bulbs  to  i;,iin  strength;  repot  nuriculaj, if. 
moving  the  suckers,  I'm!  detach  the  black  eiiils  of  old 
roots  «ith  the  fin(;e?  icJ  tinimb.  Sow  the  seeds  of  all 
the  annuals  rocnlioiied  under  that  head  in  a  previom 
page.  Use  gentle  heat;  ii'ld  any  other  favourites,  as  ma. 
dia  eleganii,  minuihis,  tht  wiate  iiighl-flowering  pelunin, 
tall  and  dwarf  l.irkspurs.  .'•■ow  the  seed  of  the  best  pan. 
sies.  Take  cuttings  of  all  the  flne  pelargoniums  thai 
are  out  of  flower  early  in  the  monlh;  also  of  calceolarias, 
shrubby  and  half  sh.nbby ;  of  niilirrbiiuiin  caryojihvl- 
loides,  pensteinon  gentianoides,  Ac;  these  require  no 
heat,  but  should  lie  placed  in  a  cold  frame. 

Sejiteiiiler. — Plant  the  crocus  and  some  other  bult* 
Transplant  lu'rhaccous  perennials  and  jiinkn  to  perma. 
licnt  beds,  if  (lerfectly  rooted.  Propagate,  liy  cutlinpi, 
("hiiia  roses  in  the  open  borders;  and  by  slipsi  petunia!, 
lieliotro|)e  salvias,  gcrania,  calceolaria,  Ac;  they  require 
only  a  hand-glass  and  light  soil.  Sow  aiirimla  sei'd  in 
pans  in  the  greeii-houK(> ;  also  Clarkia,  colliiisia,  cJulunf, 
and  other  annuals,  to  lie  preserved  in  pi.ts  all  winter,  If 
the  pyramidal  campniiuin  Im'  out  of  flower,  t.iko  >■  o,.« 
ol  the  fiiiesl  root-s,  blue  and  while;  break  it  tu  jiict*, and 
half  fliling  a  large  pot  with  loam,  place  the  pieces  on  the 
earth;  fill  the  [>ot  with  loam,  and  keep  it  merely  protectoi 
from  frost  all  winter.  Raise  every  geranium  or  oiIt 
green-house  plant  now  fn  o|H-n  ground,  anil  rejwl  thira 
in  soil  suitable  to  each.  f/Ut  back  to  low  buds,  uell 
situated,  the  horse-shoj    .  -  inium,  .'^iid  plae(  all  the  planti 


under  glass,  to  recover 
of  the  liest  amputat:.' 
diminish  the  waterinv 

Ocloher. — ''lailt  I 
narcisrus,  ant     (.'!'_.-  , 
and  aii'Jiiion'     cit-r. 
tioo,  thoagL    i 


wic  removal ;   make  cuttings 

•i-i  of  geraiiiiini.    Graduallf 

rcrn-housc  plants. 

.    'uxe  end    bulbs  of  byaciiilh. 

common  jon<|uil,  and  (lalTjiiil 

'■,   ;  also  shrubs  of  every  J«»cri|> 

wuA  gcnerdly  succceu  iu  >pnu| 


Tat  hardy  frv 
rJinary  dcscript 
iinii— kernel  fri 
the  principal ;  ."(i 
pluia,  and  cherry 
diirerent  species, 
berry,  Th,  k..i 
tieei,  and  otheri 
,\li  the  garden 
proved  by  a  long 
-tliio  being  a  lir 
ei.i,tiged  the  iiii 
science  aim  prac 
till  the  present 
ricnce  has  .■■u:;i''i' 
iiiK  their  pn. 
ii(.'cak. 


ai 

■,1 


OENZIi 

Fruit  t.,;,  „ 
orchard,  in  uliic! 
sssuine  any  hei| 
trained  upon  wa 
cukir  inaniier  i 

\u:.I— K>J 


r  up 


THE  FRUIT  GARDEN. 


;  plant  them  two 
culceolniiaiofii^ 
=•:  I'y  ilivUionof 
)m  in  beds  of  mj. 
hBartVoaieofiht 
loil,  rich  loum  ii^i 
'■•'TO  require  «fr^ 
f  rctnihcj  in  on, 
of  the  |«ior  weak 
'>.V  slipH,  lyciinii^ 
It  the  Bupcrabuni 
cmons,  phlo,,a„j 
iliint. 

in  iKili.  and  plant 
ifi  x!\\dy  bort'.>i 
■  })iiii!>,  jilacei  15 
ill  til'   snincvMy 

XfC'.li  Ix'st  i:;  |,[' 

irnoil  out  of  pi, 
-  i'i-i.'  may  ,,„■ 
!i>  ianiloh  ;  i;,,^ 
iicia  nrniiila,  fnn'i 
(1  by  b-ins  tumtd 
Ib  ill  an  o|)cii  ptau 

A  pr-'lty  r  <<V.ct  i. 
i).  o.  Ih-  .,cop.if,J 
fori:ior  i,!  ii-i.i^lv 
l»  of  tlie  !ivf.  rosf) 
l>  ,.  'he  <1nriest 
riis,  i>olar(;oii;i;irii, 
il)B.  Layer  cania. 
Ik ;  ]M-g  thfni  nut 
Sow  the  seed  of 
llso,  annual  flowei 

the  China  rose. 
rianicns  of  every 
opot  auriculas,  re. 
black  ends  of  old 
w  Iho  8f  edfl  of  all 
ead   ill  a  pievioui 

favourites,  as  nu. 
flowering  petunia, 
}i]  of  the.  best  pan. 
pelargoniums  thai 
lino  of  calceolarias, 
hiiiuin   caryophyi- 

these  require  no 
niP. 

fomi'  other  bttlbi 
J  pinks  to  perma. 
gate,  by  cutlinn, 

hv  slipn  petunias, 

iScc;  tbcy  require 
V  onriciila  seed  in 

colliiisiu,  ciiilone, 
KilH  all  winter.  If 
lower,  t.ike  i-  Oi.e 
ilk  it  tn  jiie  .t»,  and 
?  the  pieces  on  the 
it  merely  protecta! 
leraniiim  or  niL-t 
(1,  ami  fejwl  tlleill 
to    !ow   I'uds,  ncU 

pliicf  all  the  planli 
al ;  make  culluii;* 
luiuiii.  Uraduallf 
»e  pliintn. 
bulbri  of  byaciiiih. 
i(|uil,  and  daflixiil 
8  of  every  de»t;ri|> 
iiccct'u  iu  spniij 


itiDff  •'  before,  if  not  completed.  Hyacinths  in  pots, 
tiled  wi'h  *  compost  of  lifiht  loam,  sand,  and  vpgctahlo 

th  sliould  lie  plunged  to  the  rims  in  ashes,  or  light 
**  th'  under  tiio  glass  of  a  cold  frame ;  and  when  the 
"l  its  begin  to  grow,  the  pots  shouW  he  raised,  cleaned, 

1  niaced  in  the  grccn-liouse.     Green-houso  plants  iiiuxt 

'!)W  be  taken  in,  and  bo  gradually  inured  to  winter  trcat- 

I  jiy  tde  fye  ai'niission  of  air  and  abatement  of  water. 

T  ko'up  tlie  Persian  cyclumon,  and  pot  it  in  loam,  sand, 

1  Icaf-inould.  There  is  a  ifcraiiium  which  merits  much 
tteiition;  it  >«  oiled  the  searlot  globe,  and  opjieaw  to  ho 

juedling  variety  of  Pi'largoniuni  zonale :  cuttings  of  it 
ririke  freely  in  tbo  "P''"  border  early  in  summer;  the 
handsomest  of  those,  taken  up  in  September,  and  curt 
fully  put'8'1  in  poor  loamy  soil,  will  flower  throughout 
October  and  November,  placed  in  the  window  of  a  south 
room:  the  flower-head  ussumes  the  ligure  of  a  Guelder  rose. 

A'i/i'cmkc.--Bulbs;  plant  all,  employing  much  sand 
about  and  above  the  bulbs.  Protect  fuchsias,  if  frost 
'hr'aten.  Screi^lied  leaven  form  the  best  substance  to 
L  ',,aced  as  mulch.     De.hlias  should  be  digged  up  in 


airy  and  dry  weather,  when  quite  dry  and  clean ;  pr» 
servo  the  tubers  in  dry  sand ;  damp  is  the  worst  enesk^ 
of  the  dahlia. 

Dctimber. —  Protect  beds  of  tulips,  hyacinths,  mmI 
other  choice  bulbs  or  rot^s,  with  a  layer  of  saw-dusi 
mixed  with  sand,  or  with  ashes.  Saw-ilust  alone  ha« 
lieen  found  the  most  ctleetual  protector  to  the  roots  at 
potted  plants  in  frames,  the  potit  being  plunged  in  it  \n 
tho  rims.  If  dry  uciii'  i-r  permit,  lightly  fork  the  surfacw 
of  plots  and  borders ;  but  at  any  rate,  if  It  be  frosty, 
scatter  some  light  manures  around  the  stctns  of  shrubs 
and  the  more  tender  plants;  it  will  lend  to  enrich  the 
ground  at  the  first  spring  regulation.  Secure  bcgoniai 
and  other  plants  which  die  down  to  the  mould,  by 
jilaeing  the  pots  in  a  temperate  dry  cellar. 

Our  recollection  has  been  much  assisted  by  referring 
to  the  excellent  calendar  at  the  end  of  Mr.  Mantel't 
treatise  on  Florinilftirc,  published  in  "  Baxter's  Library 
of  Agriculture  and  Horticultural  Knowledge,"  a  work 
which  we  should  bo  happy  to  recommend  to  every  kilmi- 
rer  of  rural  economy. 


THE    FRUIT    GARDEN. 


Tke  hardy  fruit  usually  produced  in  gardens  of  an 
rJinary  description  in  Britain,  are  of  three  leading 
junds— ttrnci  fruils,  of  which  the  apple  and  jiear  are 
llic  principal ;  sfOHe/ruiVs,  including  the  peach,  apricot, 
plum,  and  cherry  ;  and  tierries,  of  which  there  are  many 
Moreiit  species,  as  llie  go  -'ebenr  currant,  and  litrnw- 
beiry.  TK  k^iiicl  and  stone  kinds  arc  produced  from 
tioes,  and  others  from  shrubs  or  more  tender  plants. 
All  die  garden  fruits,  of  whatever  sort,  are  greatly  im- 
proved by  a  long  course  of  cultivation  from  a  wild  state 
-lliio  being  a  branch  of  vegetable  economy  which  has 
eiisjajed  the  unremitting  attention  alike  of  men  of 
science  and  practical  gardeners  from  a  renv>te  antii|ui;y 
till  the  present  time.  Of  the  hint  ineanH  which  ex,>e- 
rieace  has  ^ui^gestcd  for  culturiiig  fru.'  *,.  jcs,  uiid  briug- 
iu(?  their  pruliH-j  '  ..."fccii'jii,  we  no\  piopose  to 
«pcak. 

OKNEt  '       -.aNAOKMENT   Of    KFtUIi    T  IKKS. 

Fruit  t.i!!"  arc  grown  as  ii  dependent  plants)  in  an 
urclutrd,  in  vvluch  coiie  the  tree  is  saflercd  very  much  t» 
assume  any  height  or  bulk  that  naturo  ]X!rmits;  aUo 
trained  upon  walls,  or  const'ained  to  %tow  in  a  paiti- 
cuiur  manner  upon  artiticial  palings  uillod  apuUcn,     In 

\u:.  1— (VJ 


whatever  manner  the  tree  is  planted  or  designed  to  grow 
the  tendency  of  the  main  stem  and  branches  of  the 
plant  is  directly  upwards,  and  of  the  chief  roots  directly 
do-  nwards.  In  general,  the  depth  and  spreading  of  the 
roots  are  proportional  to  the  height  and  spreading  of 
the  brunches,  because  the  roots  are  the  anchorage  and 
food-seekers  of  the  plant,  and  re(|uire  a  depth  and  com- 
pass of  soil  analogous  to  the  bulk  of  the  tree  and  ita 
demands  for  nourishment.  On  these  accounts,  it  is  o/ 
the  first  importance  not  to  stint  fruit  trees  of  a  prcpef 
depth  and  breadth  of  soil  corresponding  to  tlieir  ex 
perted  dimensions. 

Trees  planted  close  to  walls  should  have  a  depth  cf 
soil  in  proportion  to  the  height  of  the  wall.  If  the  wall 
be  six  feet  high,  the  border  beneath  will  require  to  be 
trenched  soil  two  feet  deep ;  and  so  on  to  a  ten-feet  wall, 
which  should  have  at  leasi  three  feet  of  free  penetrable 
soil.  The  principle  is,,  the  deeper  the  soil,  the  less  wih 
the  roots  straggle.  As  already  said,  their  tendency  ia 
chiefly  iltfwnwards  ;  and  it  is  only  because  they  cannot 
get  far  enough  down  that  they  range  abroad.  Their 
object  is  to  alwiorb  nourishment  wherever  it  can  be  ob- 
tained ;  and,  abstractly  considered,  it  is  of  little  conse- 
quence whether  this  nourishment  is  procured  beneath 
the  main  stem  or  at  ten  yards'  distance.  But,  practi- 
cally, the  gordener  is  concerned  in  keeping  the  root* 
from  straggling,  and  interlacing,  as  with  a  network,  the 
under  strata  of  his  borders,  thus  impeding  his  operations, 
and  perhaps  robbing  his  cult-iary  vegctoblcs  or  bushe* 
of  a  portion  of  their  food. 

It  will  therefore  l>e  observed,  that  depth  of  oMilnMe 
soil  is  as  essential  in  fruit  tree  culture  as  in  an^  othci 
departiiiont  of  gardening.  If  possible,  a  de])th  of  three 
feet  should  always  be  obtained.  Should  the  garden, 
when  first  taken  possession  of,  not  have  more  that 
>  '^hlctii  inches  or  two  feet  of  soil,  our  recommendation 
1.  not  to  plant  fruit  trees  upon  ii  at  all.  till  you  hav» 
trenched  the  ground  to  a  depth  of  three  fact,  and.  b^ 
annual  digg:ng,  mingled  the  lower  layer  witn  that  iiu- 
lucdiulely  atHJvc  it.  (.See  article  L.ki<u  iMfuuvcMKXT.* 
S  z  3 


SV-"  I 


INFORMATION   FOR   THE  PEOPLE. 


[n  tliP  couriH!  of  these  prcp«ratlorn,  lot  the  soil  Im>  well 
rfeitrcd  of  Rtonoii,  mchoi-Btod  by  wintiT  frost*,  bihI  rn- 
tichi-d  with  olil  rnnnurc.  Dear  in  rt'inrinhrnnri',  that 
fruit  treos  imiHt  iicvor  lie  cxcilpii  by  new  and  uiidi'roiii- 
poaed  manure.  The  matcri*!  applied  Imth  lielorc  plaiil- 
iii(,'  and  uIno  wl'.ilo  Ihc  tree  ix  ^rowiuK,  should  lio  loam, 
mixed  with  a  Ihorouuhly  rotted  eonipoHt  of  leaves,  &c. 
t>ome  persons,  following  an  old  prejudice,  plaee  a  pavinp; 
ilone  a  cerUiin  depth  liencath  to  prevent  the  root  of  the 
t<ce  ffiui  |M-nftrating  into  the  sulmoil ;  but  this  is  only 
waste  of  laliour ;  for  if  the  descent  bo  ro\  ii."ni-ted,  the 
roots  will  proceed  laterally,  and  penetrate  di.-.  iwards  as 
aoon  art  lliey  eun  eonveniently  do  so.  Uy  giving  a  pro- 
jn-r  (h'pth  of  soil,  and  keeping  that  soil  in  heart,  no  frnr 
need  bo  entertained  for  the  tree  receiving  injury  from  the 
■ubsoil. 

When  we  say  tlut  depth  of  soil  is  advantageous,  it  is 
necessary  to  guaril  against  an  impression  lieiiig  formed 
that  deep  planting  is  also  reipiiied.  In  t^euerii!,  the 
ruota  of  trees  should  be  placed  near  the  surfuee.  Mr. 
M'lntosh,  in  his  very  iH-autil'ul  work,  "  'I'lie  drclmri'," 
oilers  the  following  rauliou  on  this  subject: — "Uiep 
planting  is  un  evil  much  to  lie  guarded  a);ainst ;  end 
many  of  the  disappointments  which  have  attended  ihe 
fruit-grower  may  \tc  traced  to  thi-  cause.  As  some  ci- 
tcrion  fnr  the  guirlancc  of  the  amateur,  we  wotdd  sa  ■, 
let  evcrj  young  fruit  tree,  of  whatever  kind,  lie  planted  it 
Icost  three  inches  above  the  ground  levil ;  that  is  to  sa;  , 
let  the  part  of  the  stem  which  was  level  with  the  si.r- 
Cicc  while  in  the  nursery, l>c  kept  three  inclies  ulmve  the 
general  surface  of  the  ground  when  it  is  planted,  ard  let 
the  earth  Is-  heaped  v\>  to  that  height  armind  it.  for  a 
couple  of  feet  or  so,  in  the  form  of  a  little  hillock. 
Trees  of  larger  size  may  be  rather  more  clevutc.l.  This 
applies  to  stiils  of  the  ordmary  description  ;  h'lt  in  damp 
■oil*,  the  elevation  should  Ik-  still  greater.  When  tr;'os 
are  Mst  in  a  pit,  vvhieh  should  always  be  r>  third  larger 
in  diameter  than  that  of  the  ext^-nt  of  ih"  roots,  so  tha' 
Ihey  may  Is;  all  spread  out  to  their  full  extent,  without 
being  doubled  or  turned  round,  they  shiuld  he  spreau  as 
rpi^larly  as  po.4sible,  and  the  hotton  shoidd  Ih*  mi  de 
perfectly  level ;  by  this  means,  the  r  )ols  will  have  a  bo- 
nzontrtl  direction  given  to  them,  which  they  will  after- 
wards ma  main.  The  intention  ff  this  arrangement  is 
to  induce  them  to  extend  themfclves  near  the  surface, 
and  to  prevent  their  extending  Uownwards  into  a  bad  or 
eotd  subsoil. 

Propogation — Grnning. 

Fruit  treea  may  tie  propagated  by  seeds,  layera,  cut- 
tinga,  budding,  suckers,  or  grafting.  Ry  any  of  these 
methods,  a  material  object  of  the  culturist  is  to  improve, 
or  at  least  not  deteriorate,  the  tjualily  of  the  plant.  In 
■  state  of  nature  every  fruit  is  inferior  to  what  it  will 
l<econie  by  cullivatiim.  This  dis|i'>siiiori  to  improve  is 
taken  advantage  of  by  gardener'. ;  and  by  attending  to 
various  circumHtances  in  the  eci  nomy  of  any  individual 
plant,  they  are  able  to  produce  and  pro]iagnte  the  liest 
varieties.  'I'lie  principal  niea  is  employed  is  to  stdeet 
•ueh  varieties  as  have  attainec'  a  certain  degree  of  per- 
fection, and  then  crossing  two  of  the  most  nearly  allied, 
In  order  to  prcsluee  an  intermedia'e  variety.  The  dis- 
co»cry  of  the  sexuality  of  plants,  as  <  <tablished  by  Ijin- 
niDUs,  has  rendiTed  this  a  comparatively  simple  opera- 
lijn  to  skilled  gaiu.-nurs.  The  following  is  a  short  ex- 
pontion  of  the  method  given  by  Mr.  M-Intosh,  who 
iiuotes  from  other  authorities  : — 

"  'J'lie  means  used  in  the  process  of  nrtificislly  fecun- 
dating the  stigma  or  frmalc  parts  of  the  blossom  of  one 
t'lwer  with  the  pollen  or  male  dust  of  another,  have 
lieen  Ixautifully  described  and  explained  by  Knight  and 
oiliers.  'I'lint  eminent  pomologisl  has  obtained  tho'i- 
iHiuis  of  apple  treea  from  seeds.  '  .ny  of  which  are  of 
fiist-iale  qualitv,  by  cutting  out  tlkv  staiiieni  of  Ihe  bloa- 


soms  to  be  impregnated  before  their  own  pollen  ^u 
enough  for  the  purpose,  and  aflerwiu-di,  when  the  ih"'* 
was  mature,  by  intrcHlucing  the  pollen  of  thcotlie'"'" 
rent,  either  by  shaking  the  pollen  of  it  over  the  fl  '*" 
containing  the  stigma  only,  by  introducing  ||,(  »  " 
when  deprived  of  its  petals  or  coloured  Icavei  n  i^ 
transferring  the  pollen  upon  the  point  of  a  caincl-h  ■ 
jMmcil  from  the  one  flower  to  the  other.  By  these  ni«i"' 
he  prevented  the  possibility  of  the  natural  fccunilai"' 
of  liic  blossom  within  itself,  and  thus  greatly  inp,,  ^ 
the  chances  of  obtaining  intermediate  varictiei  h 
making  use  of  two  distinct  parents,  ' 

"This  process  is  called  eross-impregnation,  and ii ' 
its  nature  highly  cr.ious.  ))r.  Lindley  dencrilm  |h« 
action  as  follows: — '  Pollen  (the  male  dust)  coniiiu  i 
extremely  minuio  hollow  balls,  or  bodies  ;  their  caviiv' 
filled  with  fluid,  in  which  swim  pailicloH  of  «  (mjf. 
rying  from  spherical  to  oblong,  and  having  ap|iarentl, 
si-intancous  motion.  The  stigma  (the  female  (mm) I 
composed  of  very  lax  tissue,  the  intercellular  fm^(, 
of  which  have  a  greater  diamei<  :  than  the  niovini;  ,,,. 
tides  of  the  jHillen.  When  a  urain  of  pollen  cori)eiij! 
contact  with  the  stigma,  it  bursts,  and  diKchnrgcjitsm. 
tents  among  the  lax  tissue  upon  which  it  han  fai],. 
The  moving  particles  descend  through  the  tissue  of  iii, 
style  until  oni'  or  two  find  their  way,  by  routes  siicciail, 
destined  by  nature  for  their  service,  into  a  lilllc  optnui  I 
in  tlie  integument  of  the  ovulum  or  young  seed.  Qua 
deposited  there,  the  particle  swells,  increasea  graJuil't  I 
in  iizc,  separatj's  the  radicle  and  cotyledons,  and  Umii, 
becomes  Ihe  embryo — that  which  is  to  give  hirlh,  wL 
the  seed  is  sown,  to  a  new  individual.  Such  boinir  lii 
iikmIc  in  which  the  pollen  inllueiices  the  stigma,  ni 
subseijuently  the  seed,  a  practical  coiisei|uence  of  peit 
importance  necessarily  follows,  namely,  that  in  all  caa 
of  cross  fertilization,  the  new  variety  will  take  chiillt 
after  its  poUiniferous  or  male  parent;  and  that,altt« 
same  time,  it  will  uctjuire  some  of  the  constitutionals 
culiarities  of  its  mother.'  "  ' 

Illustrating  these  principles  by  a  reference  to  the  pro. 
pagation  of  varieties  of  aijiple-trees  from  sceua,  Mr, 
M'lntosh  observes,  that  "  the  kinds  of  applrs  thai  jj  i 
would  l)e  advuntugeouB  to  cross  by  artificial  imprem* 
lion  apjH-ar  to  !><•  those  which  have  a  great  many  nnal> 
ties  in  common,  and  some  dilTereiit  ((ualities.  Thus, ii 
wouhl  be  proper  to  cross  the  Oolden  pippin  with  oihs 
pippins,  and  even  with  some  rennets,  but  it  woi<',  k 
improper  to  cross  it  with  codlings  or  the  larger  grosiii 
kinds.  The  numerous  varieties  of  pippins  raisfil  h 
Knight  and  others,  have  been  obtained  by  the  abote 
rule.  It  is,  no  d(mbt,  true  that  a  small  apple — say,  (or 
example,  the  fiolden  pippin — crossed  with  a  much  larw 
sort,  will  produce  n  variety  ,i.  fTiciently  distinct  from  tb( 
other;  but  it  is  almost  eijiially  certain  that  this  ncnvi. 
riety  will  be  of  inferior  ipiality  to  either ;  -tlie  qualiliei 
of  both  parents,'  as  Mr.  .'.imdon  has  very  justly  ob. 
served,  of  so  very  opposite  natures  being,  as  it  were, 
rudely  jumbled  together  in  the  offspring.'  " 

Grafting— its  Theory. 

firafting,  which  is  a  practice  of  great  antiquity,  is  tha 
union  uf  two  plants  in  a  growing  state,  ihroni^h  thpn)^  | 
diuni  of  the  circulating  juices.     It  is  now  a  well-knoKj  I 
fn' t   in   surgery,  llmt   if  a   jiiecc  of  a   finder  whirh  hu 
bull  aeridentally  chopis-d  utV  be  immediately  a|iplifdlo 
the  slump  whence  it  was  severed,  and  the  wnund  pro 
iwrly  bandaged,  it  will  adhere   and  become  part  of  the 
living  nieiiitii;r  as  formerly.     This,  then,  is  grBfting  in 
the  iiniiiial  economy,  and  it  is  analogous  to  the  grafliif  | 
of  one  vfgelable  on  another.     The  only  dissimilarily  la,  \ 
that  the  place  of  finger  is  restored  to  .ts  own  klumpt 
whereas  Ihe  vegelabu    jiiion   is  between   two  Jisliurt 
tre««.     Dul  this  is  a  jioiii    r  conscfjur'nop;  fcirilii 

probable  that  if  two  pcir.>  >  dually  good  bei'. 


THE    FRUIT    GARDEN. 


.   |,,Y(;  a  flnft«r  rhoppod  off  at  the  name  time,  the  | 
*\!la  might  ropeilivfly  be  rhuriKed,  und  each  permn 
'  iM  h"**  ""  *"'*  *"*'"'  '*"'  ''"'*'■'  "^  '""  '"■'Kht'oiir. 
Otrdoncri  nmiiffri  Ave  rriiBonn  for  eroftirig :— 1.  The 
tnctiiation  of  vnriei';«  of  tVuit,  which  could   not  1ki 
'^  rrA  by  Bow'r.((  wed  :  2.  Incrramnff,  with  conaider- 
"hle  rapidity,  the  mimbrr  of  trrr»  of  any  Mr'.ivd  »oit: 
9  tfcelcmliiig  tlic  frnctificntion  of  trees  which  are  tardy 
■    nrodiKi'il?  'l^"''  ^'"^^'  *■  '<"pToving  the  iiuaHticH  of 
fc^iiU  •  Biul  6.  Changing  the  sorts  of  fruit  of  one  tree, 
„d  ffncwiiiB  its  prductivencss. 
When  a  tree  liccomos  old,  hut  has  still  healthy  and 
■  oi)U»  roots,  niid  it  is  thought  advisnbli;  to  renew  or 
•prove  its  fruitful  (lunlitica,  it  is  cut  off  across  the  lower 
"  j  f  tiic  stem,  and  forms  the  ilork  on  which  inont 
re  ingrafted,  which  scions  toking  root,  bccoino  in  time 
ihe  fhiit-l'eariif?  branches  of  the  tree.     As  a  general 
minriple,  the  sorts  to  be  united  require  to  be  consider- 
Hv  alike  as  resi^cts  disposition  of  woody  fibre  ond  sap 
nil  pulp  vessels,  so  that  no  decided  inteiTuption  may 
laVo  place  in  the  ascent  or  descent  of  the  juices.     Yet, 
to  rft'ect  any  improvement  in  fructification,  there  must 
be  a  certain  difference  between  the  varieties.     For  ex- 
ample the  wild  iijiple-tree,  which  hears  only  crabs,  too  so\ir 
to  be  eaten,  forms  one  of  the  best  stocks  on  which  a 
eraft  can  be  made ;  and  for  that  reason  alone,  it  is  grown 
L  iiurservmen  from  sectls.     The  notice  of  this  romark- 
ihlc  fart  leads  to  a  consideration  of  what  arc  the  radi- 
al prihciples  on   which   improvement   is   effected  by 
palling.    On  this  intricate  subject  we  offer,  in  the  first 
plire,  the  explanations  of   Dr.  Lindley  :— "  In  propor- 
tion as  the  scion  and  stock  approach  each  other  clo«ely 
'  in  constitution,  the  less  effect  is  produced  by  the  latter  ; 
ind,  on  the  contrary,  in  proportion  to  the  constitutional 
dilTercnce  bet^vccn  the  stock  and  the  scion,  is  the  effect 
of  the  former  important.     Thus,  'vhcn  \)caia  are  graded 
d  budded  on  the  wild  species,  apples  upon  crnbs,  jilums 
npon  plums,  and  peaches  upon  peaclics  or  al:>iondH,  the 
icion  is,  in  regard  to  fertility,  exactly  in  the  same  state 
IS  if  it  had  not  been  grafted  at  all ;  while,  on  '.he  other 
hand,  a  great  increase  of  fertility  is  the  result  of  grafting 
pcnni  upon  quinces,  peaches  upon  plums,  apples  upon 
white  thorn,  and  the  like.     In  these   latter  cases,  the 
'ood  absorbed  from  the  earth  by  the  root  of  the  stock  is 
tommunicatcd  slowly   and   unwillingly   to   the    scion; 
under  no  circumstance  is  the  communication  between 
tht  one  and  the  other  as  free  and  perfect  as  if  their  na- 
tures had  been  more  nearly  the  same ;  the  sap  is  im- 
peded in  its  ascent,  and  the  proper  juices  are  impeded 
in  their  descent,  whence  arises  that  accumulation  of  se- 
cretion which  is  sure  to  be  attended  with  increaKcd  fer- 
tility.   No  other  influence  than  this  can  be  exercised  by 
the  dcion  upon  the  stock.     Those  who  fancy  that  tlie 
contrary  takes  place — that  the  quince,  for  instance,  "om- 
muuicatcs  some  portion  of  its  austerity  to  the  j)ear — can 
(rarcely  have  considered  the  question   physiologically, 
or  they  would  have  seen  that  the  whole  of  the  food  com- 
municated from  the  alburnum  of  the  quince  to  that  of 
the  pear  is  in  nearly  the  same  state  as  it  was  when  it 
entered  the  roots  of  the  former.     Whatever  elaboration 
it  undergoes  must  necessarily  t;\lie  place  in  the  foliage 
of  the  pec — where,  far  from  the  irjlluence  of  the  quince, 
ttcretions  natural  to  the  variety  gn  on  with  no  more  in- 
lirruption  than  if  the  quince  formed  no  part  of  tlie  sys- 
I0..1  of  the  individual." 

The*  explanations  do  not  appear  satisfactory ;  they 
test  upon  an  ab:iUin|  iKm  that  the  sap  taken  un  bv  the 
roiils  suffers  no  chemical  change  in  its  passage  from  (he 
itock  to  the  scion ;  that  it  's  never  altered  in  consti  i- 
tion  ull  it  reach  the  le;  •  We  confess  we  eiitei.nui 

itmnij  doubts  on  ti.i.<  ■»!  should  be  glad  to  st e 

the  fact  brought  to  till' I.  ■_>"<■  .nient  by  strict  cheu;.  • 

fal  inalyiia.    Until  this  I ,  done,  a,   theory  must  bo  coti- 
■'ti'tl,  and  atiy  cxpressior.  of  I'^nnion  usoleM.     Mr. 


Knight,  who  made  many  valuable  discoveries  in  ponu* 
logy,  coincides  with  Lindley  in  ascribing  ip.reaicd 
fertility  in  the  scion  to  the  pariial  obstructi/n  of  tha 
descending  sap ;  but  this  does  not  clear  up  »'.io  difficulty 
IIS  to  improvement  in  the  variety  and  flavcir  of  the  fruit 
by  grafting,  which  we  should  think  arotf  in  some  man 
ner  of  way  from  a  chemical  alteration  in  the  juice*. 
Knight  arrives  at  a  practical  conclusion  worthy  of  th« 
notice  of  fruit  culturiats ;  that  although  increased  fertility 
is  j)rflduced  by  a  decided  difference  between  stock  and 
scion,  it  \a  at  the  expense  of  durability ;  «  but  it  is  eligible 
wherever  it  is  wished  to  diminish  the  vigour  and  growth 
of  the  tree,  end  where  its  durability  ia  not  thought  im- 
portant." 

All  things  considered,  therefore,  it  is  preferable  to 
ingraft  the  scion  of  any  approved  variety  on  a  sound 
stock,  properly  prepari-d  for  the  purpose.  As  already 
observed,  ciab  stocks  are  often  grown  to  form  the  founda- 
tion of  gor/d  apple-trees,  and  so  are  several  other  stock* 
propagated  by  professional  gardeners  from  seeds  and 
layevs.  We  may  now  describe  the  manner  in  which 
grafting  is  performed. 

Scion  Oraftinif. 

Grafting  is  pcrforme<l  in  two  principal  ways — scion  or 
slip  grafting,  and   grafting  by   approach,  or  in-arching 


Fig.  1. 

Of  the  first  kind  we  '  iivc  examples  in  the  u'l  >ve  repre 
sentation,  fi|.'  1.  Three  modes  are  shovi-n—  i,  and  r, 
in  each  of  Ai  the  process  consists  in  placinjj  r,  sciort 
in  an  opening  or  cleft  of  a  growing  stock:  'i  is  •..'.' 
whip  grafti  ig,  h  side  grafting,  "m*.  •  tongue  grafting,  Tiy 
either  method,  the  scion  may  bo  a  shoot  of  a  single  year's 
growth,  cut  I  )m  a  tree  in  a  healthy  condition.  The 
season  for  the  operation  is  about  the  middle  of  Morch, 
when  the  sap  is  ritiing  and  the  buds  beginning  to  be 
develofieii.  The  grafting  should  not  take  place  immedi- 
ately o.i  cutting  the  scion ;  after  removal  from  its  parent 
stem,  plnc«  it  in  the  g'  und  for  a  few  days,  ro  that  it  may 
be  partially  exhausted  of  its  juices,  and  be  more  ready  to 
receive  the  ascending  saj)  from  the  stock.  Keep  it  in  dry 
ground,  and  not  1  s posed  to  the  sun.  A  scion  may  be 
brought  safely  from  a  distance,  by  being  stuck  in  a  raw 
potato.  Before  applying  to  the  stock,  cut  the  extremity  of 
the  scion  afresh. 

Tongue  grafting,  by  which  a  tongue  or  a '■•^  .'.-e.^  lii 
the  sloping  cut  of  the  sciou  is  inserted  in  1. 1  :oiie^|)«nding 
notch  of  the  stock,  is  the  more  common  method  of  pro- 
cedure. It  is  performed  when  the  stock  is  young,  so  that 
the  scion  which  is  added  forms  the  stem  of  the  fiiture 
tree.  The  cut  in  both  pieces  requires  to  be  smooth,  and 
the  joining  so  nent,  that  the  bark  on  one  side  of  the  scion 
must  be  even  with  the  bark  of  the  stock.  Having  joined 
the  two  pieces,  bandage  them  together  with  a  flat  strip 
of  mat,  but  not  so  tightly  as  to  prevent  the  circulation  or 
expansion  of  the  fibrv.  Over  the  bandage,  plaster  all 
round  a  handful  of  soft  adhesive  material,  formed  of  clay, 
cow-<li;;ig,  and  chopped  straw,  taking  core  not  to  dicturb 
the  unimd  edges.   Thit  moss  will  form  a  hardened  lumi^ 


JH  /.-.-•v 


fit 


INFORMATION   FOR  TTIK   PEOI'LR. 


uid  may  remain  till  mManmmfli,  when,  th«  union  being 
(oinpleUi,  i(  iniiy  be  romovixl. 

The  priii.i|>le  u|»on  whii-h  Ihe  eilernul  piruter  i«  ip- 
phrd  to  thr  jiiiirtion,  ia  that  of  pirluilini?  tlin  ntinoRpher* 
from  thp  wound,  and  ia  thua  arirntitirnlly  explained  by 
Kennie : — «  It  ia  to  prevrnt  the  onyiii'n  ot'  the  atm<wph<Tu 
(roin  Kettin)(  to  the  fluid  pulp  at  the  joining,  whern  it 
would  unito  with  the  rarUin,  and  form  carlH>iiii-  acid  Kaa, 
•nd  thereby  roll  the  pulp  of  ita  aolidity.  The  i-xiuaion 
ol  li^ht  ia  niM-raaary  on  the  aarne  arrount;  for,  aa  in  the 
caatt  of  a  flnifrr  rut,  the  oxygen  would  imite  with  the 
carbon,  and  prevent  the  IhickeniuK  of  tliu  mutter  of  the 
UoimI,  On  the  aarne  areount,  moialiire,  by  aupplying 
oxyflien,  would  l>e  injuriuua;  ntiil  Jrvnexa  nii^ht  art  both 
by  exhausting  the  pulp  and  by  euuaiii'-  t'n.  edKra  of  the 
Iwrlc  to  MJirivel  and  gape,  which  -■  '  '  I  eilii.it>  'he  eri- 
triinrn  of  the  air  with  ita  oxvi^i  i.  |i  .  t  •iLrious, 
from  the  Himple  principle  (ii '  ••t,  aa  fxr  aa  I  um  aware  of, 
before  stated  with  referenc  to  ,|rat*i  i^),  that  no  cumpu- 
■itioii,  whatever  may  be  ^ai  I  of  ita  |)erulinr  power  of 
healing,  cnn  act  in  any  other  way  thun  thia,  iiiiy  morn 
than  the  farnigo  of  plaatem  and  aidvea  for  heiiliiig  fleah 
wounda  and  cuta,  which  are  only  goml  in  ho  far  aa  tliey 
keep  the  hpa  of  the  wound  together,  uiid  exclude  oxygon 
•nd  light" 

If  the  graftiiifr  han  been  properly  performed,  aid  otlic. 
circumatancoa  lie  ftivourable,  the  acion  in  two  ycara  will 
be  in  bloaaoni,  and  yield  a  crop  of  fruit.  Whut  ita  qualilv 
will  be,  tnuat  di'pend  on  the  niituio  of  both  ntock  and 
trion.  If  i  i-oion  1)6  of  a  fine  variety,  that  will  reniiiin; 
and  if  the  «<>  k.  ^>c  eiiunliy  fine,  the  ipinlity  will  Im'  im- 
pri}ve<J-  Til'  excellence  of  the  acion,  however,  ia  the 
prime  rooai  eration,  for  it  ia  the  part  which  ia  immedi- 
ately f  n.-erned  in  the  production  of  the  fruit. 

For  an  aci-ount  of  the  proceaH  of  hudiltni;,  which  ia 
nalagaua  to  grafting,  we  refer  to  tlic  previoua  article. 

In-Arching. 

Thia  is  an  ingenic.  mode  of  grafting,  by  which  one 
growhig  plant,  without  removal,  ia  niiule  to  atrike  upon 
another  plant,  and  tl.nH  form  n  union.  It  may  lie  per- 
formed in  vurioUH  w;\vs,  aa  repreHentcd  in  fi<^.  'Z  ;  for  ex- 
ample, two  branchea  of  a  tree  may  be  lient  ao  aa  to  meet 
and  atrike  upon  a  wound  in  the  main  stem,  by  which  a 
g:ip  will  be  filled  up;  one  growing  tree,  either  fiom  the 
gr.)ui)d  or  a  [Kit,  may  lie  led  to  nnili'  with  nnollier ;  or 
•evemi  Buckeru  m;  y  lie  led  fmm  the  ground  arch-wiac  to 
■triku  upon  a  jioiut  in  the  xteui,  thua  bringing  Iresh  aid 


F  I?.  2. 

lo  t!ie  prot-luctive  part  of  the  'rec.  By  mi-nnn  ^u  li  as 
iheae,  quickaet  heilgea  migl.t  be  tiiickened  liVi-  a  net- 
'ork,  ao  aa  greully  to  improve  Ihcir  appearance  .nd  pro- 
'.tfCtiTe  qualitici. 

KER.tCL   rRi;iT   TltlCKa. 
Kernel    fruits,  or   pomet,   aa   they    are   acientifi(ally 
■tmed,    include    tlic   apple,    [lear,  quince,   and   several 


olhnra ;  Iho*'  which  require  any  notice  hare  art  tra 
rietiea  of  applea  and  pears.  *' 

The  Apple. 

The  apple-tree  ia  of  univeraiil  Euro|H>an  gnm(\,   ^ 
ia  helievod  to  liave  been  intrcMlnred   into  llrllsin  |,1  ,i 
Roninna.     It   waa   greiitly  ciillivaled   in  the  ganlni,  rf 
iiKinaaterira   during    the    middle    ugea,    mid    fiom  ii, 
aource  the   greiitrr   niimlier    of  our   cultivated  variM 
have  druwn  their  of  igin.    The  irnh,  or  wild  nppjf  j,  .1!' 
ty(i«'  of  the  fruit  when  lefV  to  ilegei.eriite,  siid  to'wIiiA 
it  would  ipecdily  return,  but   for   conatant  culture  .  j 
eroaaing.    t/'iilture,  without  croaaing  or  grnfting   sfo,,  1 
to  prevent  an   iiiimediute  letiltn  to  the  crab;  md  ||„„ 
j  fore,  when  an  improved  v«ri-ty  ia  obtiiinrd,  it  w|||  ,.  ,1 
Bee<la  productive  of  n  aiinilii.  variety.     'I'lie  extent  L* 
ever,  to  which  varieliea  niav  lie  prenerved  wil|iiMitir(i«,ii|, 
has  never   lieen  accuriitely  detoriiiini  d,  a*  the  praoh.' 
among  profenaional  gardeiierH  ia  not  to  rink  iIobcii,,,- 
in  the  Iriiit,  and  lli.  v  unit'ormly  reaort  lo  one  or  olhcr 
the   nielliiHlH  of  griilting  above  nienlioiied.     Th.i  anpi 
tree,  if  favoured  by  a  good  aoil  nnd  I'limate,  will  Ijvg  | 
great    age,   two  hundred    ycara    being  not  an  uiimii,| 
duration    in   a   fruit-la>nring   condition,     Some  orilijil 
1,1  have  been  reported  to  lie  a  lliouaand  Vfurioii 

j'he  Hf'ietiea  '  cultivntivl  applea  nrc  now  innun*. 
rable.  In  \'*M.  the  cntnlouue  of  the  garden  of  ijie  Hi,,, 
liculturnl  SiK'iety  of  London  deacrila'd  1400  varifiw 
nnd  there  nre  ninat  likely  aa  miiriy  more.  Tlie  nuiiierou 
vnrietiea  are  of  three  chief  aorta — npplea  for  the  lab|p,i» 
to  lie  ealen  riiw ;  npplea  auitiiMo  for  linking  and  oUw 
culinary  purpoaea;  nnd  applea  for  cider.  Talile  jp|i|^ 
are  annin  aulalivided  into  those  which  will  kpfp,  mj 
thoae  which  will  not.  The  choice  kinda  at  prfsoni  jj. 
elude  Kibaton  pippin,  which  will  keep  till  Miirrh,  taj 
in  ith  prime  about  ("hriatiima;  the  Duwnton  Hnnp.ir[iL 
8i-nrlet  p«<:iriiiiiin,  and  Blenheim  oiange.  The  Kcsvirk 
codling  and  Hawtborriden  are  early  ripe,  lint  the  fru;| 
will  not  keep  beyond  October.  The  Nnnsurh  i<afin( 
apple,  nnil  reniaiiia  good  in  October.  The  Old  noimtfil 
ia  in  every  res(M'ct  deaerving  of  ita  title ;  its  flavour  11 
hish  and  inuHky.  and  it  keeps  hmg;  few  apples  bnnj 
aiich  a  high  price  in  the  ma  !.■  in  February.  Oii,^ 
choice  long  keepera  to  be  named  nre  the  S.arlot  tiui;* 
reil,  the  (lolden  hnrvey  or  Drondy  n|iple,  the  Wjnin 
peJirnuiin,  nnd  the  Easter  apple,  commonly  called  Freixt 
crab.  To  tliia  abort  list  hundreds  might  lie  lulded;  bm 
those  who  can  grow  what  wo  have  eiianiiTMlt'il,  imi 
bring  them  to  their  full  complement  of  iH'aririK,  on » 
(]uire  no  others  as  stock  trees.  It  must,  however,  alwri 
be  borne  in  mind,  that  what  will  si-cceed  well  in  m 
gnrilen  may  not  do  ao  well  in  another,  and  that  fin. 
ricnco  os  to  soil  antl  climate,  indeiK-ndeiilly  of  adiw 
from  skilled  neighlioura,  will  in  every  caae  be  necriun 
in  the  proper  conducting  of  the  fruit  gnitlen. 

Mr.  London,  in  his  "  Encyclojia-dia  of  (larilcnin;.' 
mentions,  that  for  rnltane  gim/rus,  wh«e  the  soil  ant 
situnlion  are  favourable  for  the  pro<liioiiiin  of  the  ipfk, 
the  following  aorta  arc  recommended  by  .Mr.  Thonpsun: 
— "  VV  here  tlu:  apace  will  admit  of  only  one  tree,  (he  tM 
ia  tha  Kibaton  pippin ;  where  two,  the  Ililwton  pippu 
am',  liutch  rnigTionnc;  where  thice,  the  VVo"rnisley  pijh 
pin.  Rdwton  pippin,  nnd  DutrV  migiioniie;  where  four, 
the  Woriii.sley  pippin.  King  of  the  pippins,  Rilwion  pi|v 
pill,  mill  Dutch  niignoniie;  vihere  five,  the  Womi'W 
pippin.  King  of  the  pippina,  Kilmlon  pippin,  Old  nraip' 
■  oil,  and  Downlon  nonpareil ;  where  six,  Ihe  \Vorn.>l(i 
I'ippiri,  King  of  the  [lippina,  Ribaton  pip[iin,  .Mfrc'H, 
Old  nonpareil,  and  Downton  nonpareil ;  where  Kvfii, 
the  W'ormsley  pippin,  King  of  the  jiiiipiiis,  HilNtnii  pif 
pin,  Alfreston,  Dutch  migi.onne.  Old  nuiipareji.  iri 
i)ownt4)n  nonpareil."  Beyond  this,  Pennint;ton's  it4 
ling  and  any  other  good  aorta  may  be  addeil.  The  mm 
writer  continues — "  It  often  happens  that  one  nr  OMl 


THE    FRUIT  GARDEN. 


ft4» 


(in  b«  triiiiral  ngninit  •  colUKf)  wall  or  roof,  or 
1^11,1  M)inr  wull  BI'lH'HaiiiiTiR  to  a  rnlliiKu;  in  thrne 
(  th»' l""!"*"  "o'''*  ""•  "''""'""  lii|>piti»,  Old  tinii|ia- 
"T  riiJ.  if  "  '"''•'''  '''''■'"'"  '•I'l''''  '"'  fMuiriil,  the  Ui'il- 
J'  I  kjre  fiiiinilli'"?'  I"  lil'iutiniu  liulilit  lo  upring  froata, 
1,'i'l,  M,  oftfri  kill  llie  bloMoinn  of  the  KtinTalily  of  ap- 
*lB«.lh«  <'''"f*  l"'"*'"  I''"'  '"  r<'<'»>'n'n<'i>'l'«'il<'.  «•  ita  bio*. 
f  fximiul  ve'y  '"'"  '"  •'"'  •"■"'""'•  l'iiil<'r  Waa 
"  •.(•«,  wluTO  llio   Kibittnn  may  not 


of  an  equal  atrnifith :  thoM'  which  hav«  bran  Rian«d  '>ii« 
year,  or  what  arv  .  inrd  hy  nuraerytnnn  rtiiiidon  plantx, 
are  the  lieiit;  they  »liould  not  lie  cut  down  wlinn  plant<'tl. 
Imt  MhouUl  ataud  a  yi-^r,  and  thrn  he  hcndud  down  to  tho 
length  (if  four  or  aix  Inchca,  ai-conliiig  to  thiir  atrnntfth; 
th^'(<t^  will  |iro>lu('i<  thri-e  or  four  ihootH  Irom  iiai'li  cul» 
<l""-n  liraiii'li,  wliirli  will  lie  aulFlciont  to  I  rin  a  hcuil.  At 
il;  ''lul  of  the  MTond  year,  two  or  three  of  the  htfi 
I  of  tht-ao  from  carh  hrancli  ahoulil  lie  aclerlud,  arul 

«li<    tidcd  bark   to  nine,  twrlvc.  or  fliWcti  indiva  fatii, 


favoumMi'  '■ir'-u'"»'" 
.f.«|  ihf   Boilfiir'    liiro  hiiiiHlliiiit   will   lie  n   hardier 

"'iw'iiu't*.  0'   '''"  '^"'*'  "'    ''"'  I'lPP'""'  which   ia   ilill  |  aci  urding  to  Ihtsir  fticiiLith,  taking  rare  to  keep  tlm  head 

rnln'fi  '''"  N'irthiTii  Kri'PiiinR   miiy  Iw  pluntcd  for  l.itc  |  perfectly  l<;ilanc'i'(l  (if  tho  cx|irrHsi.in  may  lie  allowed),  ao 

liuhi'ii  i""''     ''"'  ""  ""'"'""   "I'Pl''-  P'Tliiipa  none  In  j  tlmt  one  aide  ahidl  not  be  hi|<her  or  more  nunieroua  in  ila 

iiUcaBC  w  """■'■  '"  ''"  r<'<""'"'"''"i'''''   'hull  the  KeawieW  1  liraiirliea  than  the  other,  and  uU  muat  lie  kejil  a^  near  aa 

,-iiii|i,"    'I""  '''*'•«■  iibwrviitidiin  we  iii'cd  only  iidd,  Ihiil  1  may  be  at  an  equal  distanre  from  carh  other.     If  thia 

llic  collnut'r  will  ilo  well  in  all  e«neH  to  prefer  one  or  two  |  regularity  in  foriiiiiig  the  head  hv  atUMidcd  to  and  elFecteJ 

i-opiou»-l«a''"8  '"'''*  '"  "  "umliur  of  fuucil'ul  varicliea.    at  fimt,  there  will  lie  no  d'fTiculty  in  keeping  it  ao  after- 

,  ,  _  '  *arde,  by  olmerving  cither  to  j«rune  that  hud  immediately 

Sinmlur.l«.-rruiiiii|J  iiiul  TraininK.  ,  ^„   ^„  i„,i,|g  „^,^,  ,„  „,„  ^,,„,j^„  ^f  ,^^  j^^^^  ^^  ^^^^^  j^^. 

Stii"\aril«  lire  thoBe  trcra  whirh  grow  independently  mediately  on  the  outHidc,  Hy  thia  means,  viewing  it 
in  own  ground,  ami  are  eliiiwed  aa  l.iiruc  and  Dwnrf  ,  from  the  centre,  the  briniehva  will  be  produced  in  a  pir- 
llanJiirdn.  '''''('  pr"l"'f  o''j<''''  "f  cultivation  ia  to  n'lve  I  pciidiculur  lino  from  the  eye;  whvrcaa,  if  prunctl  to  a  bud 
fjurctolhe  tree,  of  whichever  kind,  and  liriiii?  it  to  a  on  the  riKht  or  lell  «ido  of  the  branch,  the  young  shoot 
fertile  or  mature  condition.  Apple  and  penr-treca,  ua  :  will  lie  piiHlueed  in  the  Maine  direction,  so  that  if  tins 
ihoT  appronili  to  iniituri'y,  dovelo))  short  tpiirt  uloiig  the  j  brunches  formed  round  a  circle  lie  not  thus  f/ruiied  to  tho 
piilire  extent  of  tlie  br.i.ichoi,  uiid  those  spurs  are  tho  ^  eyes  on  the  ritjlit  succeaHively,  or  the  left  HUCcenHively,  a 
best  in  every  resiH-rt  which  arc  prndiiced  nnturully  with-  ^  very  niateiiul  dillerenco  will  be  found,  and  the  regularity 
nut  Ihe  a'''  »•  'he  priiiiinii  knife.  Hut,  in  udilition  to  <if  the  tree  will  lie  destroyed  in  one  single  year's  pruning." 
j^yjlfiil  , purs,  the  trees  produce  a  (jrciit  number  of  super- I  What  is  hero  said  refers  only  to  the  leading  ahouta 
fliidus  wo'tl  "hoots,  which,  if  not  entirely  removed,  or  at  I  which  form  tho  figure  of  the  tree  ;  others — side  shooti 
least  HO  curtailed  us  to  convert  Ihcni  to  Ix'aring  spurs,  ;  (luleraU) — are  duvelo|ied,  and  these  require  constant 
would  render  the  tree  almost  useless  ;  in  short,  to  effect    regulation.     "  In   pruning   these  laterals  or  su|H>rnunic- 

ruries,  tliey  should  lie  cut  down  to  within  an  inch  of  the 
bottom,  wh'ch  will  generally  cause  the  surrounding  eyet 
to  form  natural  blussoiii  spurs ;  but  where  the  tree  ia  in 
0  vigorous  statu  of  growth,  branehea  will  prolmlily  lie  pnv 
duced  instead  of  spurs;  if  so,  they  must  all  be  cut  3ut 
dose,  except  one,  which  must  lie  shortened  as  before.  In 
all  winter  pruiiiiigs,  care  must  lie  taken  to  keep  the  spura 
short  and  close,  none  of  which  should  at  any  time  ex- 
ceed three  inches;  cutting  out  clean  all  the  bliuik  spurs, 
which  have  produced  fruit  the  previous  summer,  to  the 
next  perfect  bud  below." 

It  would  perhaps  be  ini|ios8iblo  for  any  writer  to  im- 
prove upon  these  direrliDiis  generally ;  they  comprise  all 
the  essentials  for  ]ir<Mlui  ing  a  balanced  dwarf  standard, 
'Ihc  foregoing  directions  comprise  a  view  of  tho  Iheo-  I  that  is,  a  tree  low  in  stature,  furnished  with  ten  or  twelve 
I  'inciples  of  pruning,  and  it  aflfords  nn  excellent  regular  main  branches,  proceeding  at  a  short  distance  from 
nnrl  for  practice ;  but  those  who  arc  straUKcrs  to  one  central  stem,  each  brunch  garnished  from  base  to 
V  I'ultivatic  I  of  frnit  trees,  and,  as  such,  undertake  the  suininit  with  fruitful  spurs.  But  exi>cricncu  has  instructed 
ma  iijement  of  a  pi  iiitation,  will  Ih'  surprisi-d  and  p-'r- 1  us  to  caution  u  pruner  not  to  expect  too  much,  but  to 
«leti'(l  at  the  anoiii '  '^  which  cuntinually  present  them-  i  watch  the  I'lguie  which  his  tree  aifecta,  and  the  course  of 
lelvos;  it  will  then  v  self-«'vi(leiit  that  the  gor-.lening  I  its  supernumerary  shoots.  If  it  evince  a  decided  tend- 
;aniini,  in  its  routine,  be  learned  from  l.or.lvs;  that  one  ]  ency  to  form  short  spurs  naturally  at  u  very  early  period, 
tree ansumes  a  certain  mode  of  gnmth;  another  produces  j  he  may  prune  short,  as  I.indley  directs;  but  if  its  habit* 
developments  in  an  order  which  has  not  heoii  foreseen  or  be  so  luxuriant  as  to  produce  wootl-shoots  after  each 
coutfmphilcd ;  another  forms  its  fruitful  spurs  s]ionta-  pruning,  it  will  lie  wise  to  defer  the  summer  cutting  of 
neouBJy,  without  solcitation  or  the  adoption  of  means;  the  spring  sliools  till  the  middle  of  July,  instead  of  per- 
whilcafourth,  in  despite  of  the  most  rigid  foreshortening,  forming  it  at  or  before  midsunwicr ;  and  then  either  to 
coiilinufs  lor  years  to  yield  nothing  but  growing  shoots,  snap  the  shoots  or  to  cut  then;  lo  t.  lo.l  situated  at  least 
We  have  seen  numbers  of  spur  trees  purchased  at  the  five  inches  from  lliiir  base.  This  irisimig,  late  as  is  the 
«amc  lierio"!  and  treated  upon  the  same  prim  ijiles,  every  season,  will  generally  cause  i,v  h  lihoot  to  break  its  leading 
OHO  of  whirh  evinced  o  habit  or  coniititution  to  a  greater  eye  ;  in  August,  iherclore,  Ihi-.  now  .tiiout  is  to  bo  checked 
or  less  extent  peculiar  to  itself;  thus  i;  is  with  trees  ns  ,  by  nipping  olf  its  point;  and  linally,  in  September  the 
with  the  human  genus — to  be  in  any  degree  known,  they  !  spring  shoot  is  again  to  lie  cut  at  the  eye,  below  the  one 
must  lie  iiulividuully  and  diligently  observed  and  studied.  !  at  which  it  was  lirst  pruned  in  July.  In  this  way  the 
Tliia  experimenlal   lact   being  admitted,  we   may  safely    vigour  of  the  tree  will  be  moderated,  and  several  of  ihe 


prolific  friiit-bf'iring,  the  slioota  iiinst  be  kejit  in  siili- 
jeclion,  or  in  the  stale  of  spurs.  A  writer  on  this  subject 
in  the  "Penny  ("yclopiedia,"  article  .l/'ple,  observes — "  If 
( I  i-e  bo  a  free  grower,  on  a  free  stock,  as  the  crnb,  or  a 
itroi  !  pippin,  fr*""  seed,  all  the  leaders  will  be  checked 
ty  ghiirtening  them  back  every  year  to  a  distance  from 
the  point  of  oriuin,  which  varies  according  to  their 
itrenglh ;  where  they  are  very  strong,  the  leading  shoots 
ihoulJ  not  be  rciliired  more  than  within  twelve  or  fifteen 
inches  of  their  base,  but  when  they  are  weaker,  ihey  may 
'  out  to  within  nine  inches,  liy  this  means  the  onward 
wthof  the  branch  n  inonniiturily  arrested,  the  nscend- 
ip  is  impelled  ii  ■'  the  lateral  buds,  some  of  which 
V       ,' Ruro  to  ,;»row  so  sbiw  ns  to  become  productive." 


rclf 
jroii 


jdJuce  Ihe   practice 
Giorge  Lindlcy  for 


nf   pruning   recommeiuled    by   Mr. 
I'>:irf  standards,  in   his  "Guide  lu 


lower  buds  will  probably  enlarge,  while  the  leading  bud 
only  expands  into  u  growing  shoot.  If  these  hints  bo 
the  Orchard,"  &r.  (1831.)  He  observes,  that  "dwarfs  j  understood  and  acted  upon,  a  young  pruner  will  experi- 
on  fi.i  Si  III  As  arc  much  more  adapted  for  large  and  pon- 1  mentally  lie  taught  to  apply  them,  and  Jicreby  acquiru  thii 
dcnim  fruit  than  standards,  us  they  not  only  produre  i  tact  to  discover  the  conslitution  of  his  trees  individually, 
lirgcr  iVuit  but  are  less  liable  to  lie  lilown  down  by  high  |  and  to  coax  them  into  a  condition  of  niaturity.  At  thil 
wiuk  Trees  for  this  purpose  should  have  their  braikchea  I  winter  regulatitu  when  the  buds  begin  to  swcU,  it  will 


INFORMATION    FOR  THE   PEOPLR. 


b«  etuy  to  clitK-prii  the  fruitrul  <•>«» ;  •nil  whorr  »ny  of 
innM  are  ilinivrncil,  tho  nhoot  iprnJfctiiiK  bcyonti  Ihciii 
mil«t  ite  I'ntirc  'y  uin|>iitutPil  ;  iiiuj  tliii)  iiniy  litt  iloiiit  witli 
nafi'ty,  (hr  ■|iur»,  whi'ti  oiiih>  fully  foriiu'il,  turrly  break  Into 
barren  ihouti,  though  ono  if  the  eyr*  iiiny  du  ki, 

Wall-Tr|iin<ng. 
Th«»  ficumstanro  of  applr-lrwii  priMliKiTiK  fruit  only 
on  tho  outer  ixirtu,  whirh  nm  fri-rly  ••x|hwimI  In  thi-  nun 
■ml  air,  hw*  led  to  numernuii  cnntrivHin'cii  for  px|H>iiini( 
the  inner  n«  veil  »n  the  outer  uteniit.  Oiut  niithoil,  an  U 
well  knowc,  I*  the  troiiiinn  of  thr  tree  iti  a  tint  *h»|><> 
■l{ain»t  a  wiill — n  pinn  alno  nilvuiilii'.'ecniii  fur  enjoying 
the  heat,  whieh  the  wall  railinleH  uh  a  relleetor  aKuiiiHt  the 
branrhea.  A  ditTerenre  of  opinion  cxintu  aa  to  the  coni- 
parrtlive  merit*  of  IriiininK  the  nmin  xtrin  In  a  iier|M>ntine 
or  in  a  atrniKht  uprluht  direetinn,  and  >iNo  whether  the 
branrhea  nhould  b«!  led  [terfeetly  hnrimntnl  or  with  an 
upwitrd  Nl»|ie.  If  the  height  of  wall  piTiiiit,  the  upright 
Mem  and  fan  aiiaiio,  oa  reprvHenlpd  in  tig.  3,  acenia  the 


Fig ;). 
most  advantageous  and  rerlaiidy  the  leaHt  trouhleaonic 
plan,  and  we  would  reeuminend  unprofeKiticiiml  gardenera 
to  attempt  no  other.  Where  tho  wull  ia  low,  (he  Iiranchea 
■hould  proceed  more  horizontally  ;  and  tliu  top  being  re- 
■traiiied  by  pruning,  thcae  lateral  ateniM  will  gain  greater 
vigour.  In  either  e.aae,  the  bruneheN,  great  and  amall, 
will  require  to  be  held  in  their  ap|>ointedHituati(in«on  the 
wall  by  Ktripea  of  liat  and  nails.  The  nailing  should  not 
be  to  tight  aa  to  prevent  expansion  in  growth,  or  be 
otherwise  injurioua.  Iron  nailH  ruat  and  diallgure  the 
Wall,  therefore  naila  made  of  zinc  are  preferable.  When 
■  branch  at  any  time  becumea  looae,  it  ought  immediately 
to  be  reilxed. 

Eiipalieri. 

Theae  arc  raila  generally  formed  of  upright  and  rroaa- 
bara  of  wo<k1,  but  sunietimca  made  of  caat-iron.  Tho  bent 
tre  of  wood  .  i  of  from  four  to  five  feet  in  height.  To 
ttkeae  th>  creca  are  trained  ai«  on  a  wall,  the  ehief  dilTer- 
ence  '.'Cing,  that  iiiHtcad  of  Ix^ing  nailed,  the  braneheH  are 
tuually  tied ;  the  faateninga  are  soft  hemp-cord  or  atripa 
ofbaa>,  but  twiKx  of  willow  anawcr  much  better.  The 
•ituation  of  eapaliera  ia  generally  along  the  aides  of  walka; 
and  if  the  trees  Ik:  carefully  iridned,  they  have  a  neat 
efTect.  Care  must  be  taken  that  they  do  not  prevent  the 
■un  and  air  from  reaching  the  kitchen  vegetaliles.  When 
properly  managed  and  well  exposed,  egpalier-trccii,  ob- 
aervea  Neill,  "  generally  produce  excellent  fruit,  tho  Hun 
and  uir  having  acceaa  to  lioth  siiles  of  the  tri>e;  they  com- 
monly alTord  abundant  crops,  and  the  fruit  is  not  apt  to 
t>e  ahuken  by  high  winds.  Further,  they  tend  to  hide  ■■ 
the  cropa  of  culinary  vegetables  from  the  eye,  and  to  ren-  i 
Her  the  ktchen  garden  aa  pleasant  aa  an  avenue  in  the 
ilirublitrj ."  I 

The  ful  lowing  bints  on  espalier  trainuig,  by  the  autiior  i 


of  the  "  Mamie  (iarden,"  ap|)ear  so  einirirnMy  imrnn  IV 
we  take  the  liberty  of  K'^ing  them  a  plare  hiTp.  p; 
■a  to  cultivRllon — "Have  the  groinnl  well  traiichnl .,  | 
manured  [taking  i  crop  of  wgetablen  the  firi.-.  .f„|,|jj 
and  plant  the  trees  thru  or  d.Mi  feet  fVom  the  walli  .,  j 
twice  as  near  to  one  another  aa  I'x'y  should  aftrrw mli K. 
when  fnll-Rrowii.  Tho  wi/ia  fo-  'his  close  phntin, 
are,  that  the  value  of  a  fe»  •  jki  is  more  than  the  « 
pense  of  the  trees;  your  rui.s  are  sooner  cnvcrvj-  ,|,j 
when  the  trees  be«in  to  meet  and  inconimn<leui,p  ,nothpr 
you  can  then,  having  aHcertnineil  their  various  (luallti. ' 
give  scope  to  the  liest,  by  diminishing  or  rooliim  out  Ih, 
IcNS  worthy.  For  one  or  two  years  after  the  nieitlnDLi 
taken  place,  yon  nmy  delay  the  pain  of  eneculiun  Ijy  ji. 
lowing  the  young  shoots  to  piixs  one  another  on  the  o> 
pimile  sides  of  the  mils.  To  incur  no  more  ex ik'uhc- than 
is  necessary,  the  Hiakes  may  lie  pla<'ed  two  feet  apari  in 
whieh  eiisi-  the  uiuujiil  shoots  will  riMpiirelo|i<>ci)riilur||,| 
from  one  resting-place  to  another  by  pieces  of  Imh  ,,, 
wild  brier,  or  willow  of  two  years'  grovvlli,  Those  cnn. 
doctors  reipiire  a  firm  ami  separate  tying,  distinct  fnim 
that  which  fastens  more  lonscly  the  li\iiii{  wood;  du,, 
thus  gi%e  strength  to  the  rails,  ;iiiil  provide  for  Htruighipi 
training  than  is  eomnionly  done  by  having  the  Hlalfi 
twice  as  thii-kly  set,  and  conHequcntly  at  duuWe  tlip  fj. 
pi-ns(^  of  tiinbir. 

"  Hnp(ileinentnry  to  both  wall  and  espaliers  is  thcfij. 
lowing  device,  which  has  proved  eminently  Hncceiisfu|;_ 
Hupposing  that  yon  have  more  iturden  gronnd  than  ji 
necessary  for  the  supply  of  veget.ililes,  anil  timt  some  rntt 
of  it  may  be  apareil  for  a  green  sliiuly  walk  utniilst  nhrudi 
miIl^,■^■d  with  standard  fruit-trees,  on  the  south  siileofi 
row  of  eve.  ;reens,  impervious  to  the  eye,  let  a  dry  nloiie- 
wall  Is-  raised  to  the  height  of  (bur  or  five  feet,  and  coiied 
with  lar^e  stones,  meri'ly  for  strength  and  durihilily, 
I'hint  this  on  the  north  side  with  ivy,  to  assist  the  scrcon 
of  shrubs,  and  in  a  short  time  not  one  stone  will  ap[>far. 
From  the  south  aide  take  away  all  the  gooi'  soil  to  a  ilf|,|li 
of  two  feet,  a  breadth  of  five  feet,  ami  a  lenj^tli  eiiii.il  lo 
that  of  the  wall,  which  may  be  si\ty  or  a  hjiidrcd  fwt, 
as  you  find  convenient.  This  excavation,  it  is  to  be  uii- 
derstoisl,  runs  close  by  the  building,  the  foundation  of 
which  niu.'t,  of  course,  have  been  secured  by  perha|«i 
foot  of  depth,  and  which  will  yet  la;  uninju.'cd,  a»  the 
stones  that  cast  up  in  removing  the  earth  will  iinir.fili. 
ately  lie  thrown  to  the  base  in  room  of  the  inut.riali 
taken  away.  Thus  an  elTi-ctnal  provision  is  made  against 
the  springing  up  of  docks,  nettles,  or  other  trouMciWiiK 
weeds  ;  the  earth  removed  will  be  an  invaluable  Ircasuic, 
whether  for  making  compost  or  helping  a  thin  s'lil,  and 
the  excavation  itself  will  alTord  a  most  convenient  rorop- 
tacle  for  the  immense  quantities  of  stones  whic'.  occur  in 
trenching  or  raking  the  gardeu.  Suppose  '.he  fillirii;  up 
in  this  manner  to  be  nearly  completed,  let  a  row  of  lar;e 
thin  stones,  set  on  edge,  run  along  the  southern  hounda-y, 
and  rise  two  or  thret;  inches  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  This  will  serve  to  keep  the  mnHS  o."  stoiiea  dis- 
tinct from  the  earth,  that  there  may  he  no  ininglin;  in 
the  process  of  digging.  You  have  then  on  the  one  siils 
of  this  excavation  the  low  edging,  and  on  the  other  awall 
of  four  or  five  feet :  ami  the  design  is,  in  the  course  of 
time,  to  fill  up,  with  the  riddlings  of  the  curdeii  or  wiih 
clean  stones,  in  whatever  way,  the  whole  space  from  the 
summit  of  the  low  edi;ing  to  the  top  of  the  wall,  to  [ire- 
sent  an  inclined  plane  faeinif  the  south,  anil  murly  at 
right  angles  to  the  rays  of  the  sun.  On  this  [wiiioh  u 
in  reality  a  mound  leaning  against  a  widl]  fruit-treeH  are 
to  Ih)  trained.  Belorc  the  bank  iscompli'tdl  to  its  pro|w 
slope,  the  trees  may  be  planted  along  the  soullinn 
boundary,  and  trained  for  two  or  three  years  upon  poki 
laid  from  the  edging  to  the  top  of  the  wall,  accordiiu;  to 
their  future  destination.  When  tlw' surface  of  the  slupinj 
bank  is  raised  within  an  inch  or  two  of  its  proper  height, 
let  a  layer  of  coarse  Billed  gravel   be  laid  on  the  top 


TMK   FRUIT  GARDEN. 


Ul 


•nti  will  much  ini|>rnve  the  npprarince,  and  IncreaM 

|k(  kIIih'Ii'iI  Ix'iit,  niiil  tMiiiiK  frc'i'  from   aiiiull  miiiil  MiJ 

Mrthy  liurlliMcii,  will  (jivo  no  liirtli  to  uiinuul  weuiU. 

..  fur  till'  |iur|iiiiH'  of  triiitiiiiKi  nlioulil  |N'ii!hvii  or  apri- 

^  I,,  |,|jiit<'il,  II  rliiM' trpllia  will  III!   iiiiiiinilu  (  liiit  ii|i- 

I    „,  uoar-i  will  roqiiiru   iioIIiiiik   mora  timii  coiiiiiioii 

Luiilior  mil"  '•>'<'  ■>"  '''"  K'"*''l>  >'"J  '"'I'l  '»  •'"''f  |'liii<'«  1 
L    1^0 11I14I1I  HpHm   niiiiiiiitf  iicriMH,   uiiu  ut  tliu  lo|i  iiriJ  I 
thtnthiT  111  till' liot'oiii.     Ill  tliu  iiiruii  limi',  thi>  ivy  |irii-  j 
dun'"  "  Ih'ii"'''^'''  '""'  l'<'<ii'ni  till  itlli'i't,  Muriiiuuiitiiix  tliu 
wall  uii'l  ''il'''"H  '"  ''"'  <'lo»i'iir«H  iiI'hIu'IIit  I'liUHt'd  liy  llio 
everipi't'"  iiliriilM.     It  .-ilioiilil  Iki  clipin  iI  aluiiK  tliu  tup  ul-  : 
(jrllie  iiwiiiKT  of  lio\-<ili<iiii{.     i\otliiii){  fuii  oxltuiI  IIiu  j 
ftul  iiiuxiii''"'  "'  ''"'  trt'i'n  MO  pliictil,   or  tlui   bruuly  of 
tlii'ir  |il<iwiii»(  liloMsoiiiH  Hpri'iid   out  under   tliu  vyv :  uiid  | 
tlic  (lUiility  of  tlii<   I'ruit   coiiii'H  fully  up   to  tliu   tlicorutic 
iJvuiiliiKt''*  willi  vvliicli  it  in  luvouri'd.     Tliu  heal  in  uii- 
douliti'iily  much  t;>'<'»tur  tliiin   tliut  of  tliu  bunt  vv.ill,  and 
the  uiKMi  lliwcrH  lliid,  In   tliuir  hiiinlilu  lii'iKht,  a  iilit'ltur, 
lilu!  till!  lui'*}'  "f  ''"^  fiidd,  from  tliu  Hwui'ping  lilimt  which 
oftcii  pscult'T"  tlio  prtaU  of  11  lii^hur  treu  liku  u  uliowur  of 
iiimv.    Bxpi'rii'iii'u  huH  fully  proved   the  Huitutilciiuiii  uf 
this  coiitrivuiice   to  ull    elevated    HituatioiiH.       In    noma 
pluci'D  very  low  mid  warm,  tliu  hunt,  »o  powerfully  ru- 
Oci'li'il,  iniijht  pOHsilily  lie  too  tfieiit ;  hut  in  tliiit  cuhu  fi^s 
liiil  iiei'tiiriiie.H  iiii){ht  lie  ho  uxponed,  uiij  would  certuiiily 
(ale  all  that  they  can  «et." 

THB    PKAIl. 

The  peiir-troe,  iii;o  that  of  thn  apple,  b  found  in  a 
villi  litiite  >»  I'll  piiriM  of  Curope,  and  Ii.ih  been  Aiiiiilarly 
(loiueslii'Jted  ami  improved  into  niiiiiy  fine  varioticH.  The 
lenilt'iiey  of  the  tree  i.<  to  a  liaiiUornn  pyramidal  form.  It 
liimuch  lori.;er  in  attaining  maturity  than  the  apple-trco; 
tnil  oil  a  dry  soil  it  will  liurvive  and  eontiiwe  fruitful  for 
»nluricH.  Tho  tree  niiiy  be  propanated  by  Heeds,  layers, 
cuttings,  buddiiiK,  iiiid  ^ralbm;  ;  it  in  more  freipiuntly 
niai'd  from  Hueds  than  the  apple,  but  (rrulliii);  on  itH  own 
necics  i»  alno  common,  and  \h  ((enerally  KucccHHful. 

The  ubservatioiiH  already  olle.-eil  respeetiiij;  soil  for  ap- 
ple-trees apply  equally  to  tlioxe  of  the  pear  kind,  and  no- 
thing more  need  here  he  said  either  on  that  subjeet  or  on 
general  culture.  The  pruiiin,',  however,  is  dilVerent,  he- 
cauic  the  pear  is  a  very  iiideiHindeiit  (;iouing  tree,  and, 
ti  a  standard,  will  assume  itsuwn  natural  I'^nre  in  opfio- 
lition  to  all  restraint.  All  braiiehes  vvhieli  lash  one 
tnntlicr  must  lie  removed;  but  unless  the  pruiier  cut  and 
ilcl'orin  his  trees  in  his  attempts  tu  create.*  fruitful  spurs, 
there  will  seldom  b«  a  redundancy  of  wood,  A  little 
rori'slioiteninf;  or  disbuddiiii;  in  the  spring  and  summer 
may  hu  useful ;  but,  in  {reneral,  us  the  pear  can  seldom 
become  fruitful  under  seven  or  eight  yvars  from  the  ^rail- 
ing or  budding,  it  will  be  prudent  to  watch  the  gradual 
devi'lopincnt  of  the  natural  spurs,  and  to  cut  back  the  la- 
terals to  them,  when  forineil,  and  not  before.  Mr.  Knight 
pruned  very  little,  shortening  the  main  shoots  occasion- 
ally, not  sooner  than  July.  Hu  thus  expressed  his  opi- 
nion in  a  letter  to  a  professional  gardener  on  the  subject, 
in  April,  1833  : — "  I  would  recommend  the  knife  to  be 
little  used  upon  the  young  pear-trees,  particularly  upon 
the  horizontal  brunches.  As  a  general  rule  for  pruning 
trees  that  arc  to  he  kept  low  in  gardens,  I  rucoinnieiid  the 
upright  shoots  to  lie  shortened  about  the  beginning  uf 
July." 

The  finest  pears  are  the  Jargonelle,  Mario  Louise, 
Beurri  de  CapiauMiont,  Beurre  Diel,  Glout  niorceau, 
Easter  beurre,  and  Ueurre  rancc.  The  word  hriinr, 
which  here  occurs  several  times,  is  from  the  French 
word  for  buthir:  and  that,  us  widl  as  the  other  names, 
show  hovv  much  wu  are  indebted  to  our  continental 
neighbours  for  perfecting  this  delicious  fruit.  In  select- 
ing pear-trees,  the  nature  of  the  locality  must  be  con- 
wiled,  subject  to  which  thu  jargonulln  and  others  men- 
Uoned,  also  tt.u  Windsor,  are  guuerol  favuuritea.     Tbo 


•uminer,  autumn,  and  winter  bergatnot*  are  nn  excoUvil 
for  rich  mu'kiness  of  llitvour.  Thu  |M-ar  rei|uiroa  it 
wurinur  elimatu  than  the  appio,  and  hence  noum  ul' 
the  tiller  sortii,  which  grow  wull  as  HtJndl^1*  in  the 
south  and  eenlrul  parts  of  (iiiglund,  will  rui|uire  a  wall 
and  nhulttir  in  nurthorii  or  mure  keen  ailualtune. 

ORCHARDS. 
An  oreliurJ  it  a  piucu  of  ground  apecially  dftvotod  U 
thu  rearing  uf  fruit  trees,  principally  apple  and  p«ar« 
and  is  IVeipieiitly  an  upiH'iidage  of  thu  I'liglisL  farm  and 
manor  house.  It  should  be  u  wull-fenced  unclosuru,  and 
if  there  be  room  for  u  eliuicu,  its  situation  ought  to  be 
on  the  side  of  a  dry  knoll,  sloping  tu  the  south-eastward! 
the  bi'st  soil  is  a  iVenli  sandy  loam  of  eightiun  inches  in 
duplh  or  ufiwards,  reposing  on  a  subsoil  of  dry  gravel  01 
rock.  If  the  ground  liu  wet,  it  must  bu  thoroughly 
draiiii^l  in  thu  fir.il  place,  as  no  fruit  treu  can  unswci 
its  purpose  if  the  soil  bu  otherwise  than  dry.  A  damp 
clayey  subsoil  must  be  uvoidud ;  and  the  deep  rich  soil 
in  thu  lowest  dip  of  u  valley  is  thu  worst  situation  tu  be 
eliosen ;  for,  though  it  may  be  sheltered  against  wind, 
it  is  most  liable  to  keep  thu  trues  in  a  giowing  state  too 
late  ill  the  autuiim,  and  to  bo  suverely  assailed  by  lata 
frosts  in  the  spiing,  whun  thu  trues  aru  prubauly  iu 
flower. 

Hhelter  is  necessary  to  orchards  against  tlio  autumnal 
south-west  winds;  but  this  is  bust  obtained  by  higit 
hedges  or  forest  trees  planted  on  that  sidu.  Wind*  frum 
any  ulher  quarter  need  not  bu  so  much  dreaded.  Shel- 
tering hills  at  some  distance  are  an  lulvaiitagu,  so  as  the 
I  rcliard  is  not  in  thu  lowest  ilell  at  their  base.  Many 
orchards  are  almost  barren,  the  truus  covered  with  moH 
and  lichi.'ii  (a  line  harbour  for  insects),  only  from  lliuir 
being  loo  much  shelturud,  and  duprived  uf  a  free  current 
of  drying  air. 

As  an  orchard  is  Uiiually  a  pasture  fur  sheep,  cows, 
or  other  cattle,  the  trues  tu  be  planted  in  it  must  b« 
standards;  tliiit  is,  trees  trained  in  the  nursery,  with  a 
clear  stem  six  or  seven  feet  high,  from  the  lop  of  which  tlui 
brunches  diverge,  and  out  of  the  reach  uf  cattle.  Home- 
times  the  stocks  are  first  planted,  and  when  fairly  esta- 
blished, are  worked,  tluil  is,  grafted  or  budded  at  the  de- 
sired height. 

If  an  orchard  is  to  be  formed  out  of  an  arable  field, 
the  giiiuiid  may  be  prepured  by  the  plough,  laid  into 
lianiU  iir  ridges  of  eight  yards  wide,  the  trees  to  occupy 
the  middle  or  crown  of  each  ridge,  tlictM  lying  south  ai'' 
nuith.  The  trees  should  be  planted  in  right  lines,  liv  . 
six,  or  eight  yards  asunder ;  and  the  whole  urea  cur 
rounded  by  a  deep  ditch  and  hawthorn  hedge. 

When  the  trees  arc  planted  (which  sliould  '        i  .lUt 
the  end  of  Octolier),  the  ground  may  lie  laid  l    vit  .  .tti 
a  crop  of  barley  or  oats,  and  grass  seeds  in  thi  spij   " 
and  so  remain. 

If  uii  orchard  is  to  bo  formed  in  a  grass  field,  it  ia 
drained,  if  necessary,  and  closed  with  a  hedge  and  ditnli 
as  above  ;  tho  trees  are  either  planted  in  trenched  pits  or 
in  trenclied  borders;  that  is,  borders  six  feet  wide  are 
traced  south  and  north,  and  regularly  trenched  fifteen 
inches  deep,  the  turf  being  turned  to  the  bottum.  Along 
the  middle  of  these  burders  tho  trees  are  put  in  at  the 
distances  already  mentioned.  This  done,  the  broken 
ground  is  sown  down  with  grass  seeds,  and  tho  treaa 
slaked  down  and  protected  against  cattle  if  they  are  in 
any  danger.  'I'hc  pits,  six  feet  square,  are  trenched  and 
planted  in  like  manner. 

In  planting  the  trees,  tho  ordinary  care  must  be  be- 
stowed as  well  in  taking  them  up  as  replanting,  each 
I  should  bo  set  on  u  little  mound  of  the  finest  of  the  soil, 
on  which  the  roots  should  be  regularly  spread,  and  kept 
i  near  tho  surface — for  deep  planting  must  be  carcfv..ly 
.  avoided ;  the  uppermost  fringe  of  roots  should  just  b«i 
I  withiu  the  turf,  but  no  deeper ;   and  Uioy  should  b« 


«M 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


•r\coura^>(I  to  take  «  Horizontal  rather  than  a  downright 
direction. 

Orclianls  planted  in  either  of  these  methods,  if  ciire- 
fiilly  performed,  answer  very  well,  if  fjood  cure  i.s  taken 
of  the  trees  till  they  ore  fairly  established  and  can  pro- 
tect themselvos. 

The  fruits  chosen  for  such  orchards  are  apples,  p-ars, 
]>lums,  aiid  cherries,  and  of  these,  such  as  are  known  to 
thrive,  Bn<l  are  most  friiitfid  in  the  neiBhl)ourhoo<l  of 
the  intended  orchard  ;  for  all  fruits  are  not  cc|u:illy  thrifty 
in  the  same  locality,  and  this  is  a  point  deserving  the 
consideration  of  the  planter. 

Such  orchani;-  arc  planted  chiefly  with  a  view  to  the 
■ervice  of  a  family,  any  rodundaiu-e  hcinir  mmU  to  mar- 
ket, or  sold  on  the  trees  to  the  fruilinon'.;cr ;  Imt  when 
fruit  trees  are  planted  as  a  special  hource  of  profit,  a  very 
different  plan  is  ("oilowed.  An  acre  or  two  ol'suitalilo  land, 
with  a  pro|)er  exposure,  is  fixed  on ;  the  whole  i<  trenched 
fifteen  incnes  deep,  and  thoroiiulily  drained,  if  necessary. 
The  surficc  is  levelled  and  laid  liito  beds  ranctinc;  south 
and  north,  and  abi)ut  twelve  feet  wide  ;  aloni;  the  middle 
of  these  trees  are  planted  ;  and  the  intervals  are  occupied 
by  two  rows  of  small  fruits,  eitner  ijonselierries,  currants, 
or  raspberrieK.  Some  of  llie  intervals  may  have  a  rank 
of  fillK-rts  intro<luced,  which,  when  kept  as  low  bushes, 
and  properly  spurred  on,  are  as  profitable  as  uuy  other 
kind  of  orchard  fruit 

Such  an  orchard  is  intended  to  be  a  perfect  thicket 
of  fruit  trees  :  all,  whethei  yiclilinc  lanje  or  small  fruit, 
must  be  kept  as  dwarfs,  ami  trained  in  the  hu<h  form. 
Of  course  the  sorts  whicli  are  naturally  of  a  dwarfish 
habit  are  preferred,  and  if  not  dvvarlish  liy  nature,  they 
must  tie  made  so  bv  art.  The  busli  I'orin  is  obtained  by 
encouraiiiri^  the  lateral  uTdwlh  nf  the  branches,  and 
depressiii'j;  by  some  mean-;  or  other  those  which  have 
a  tendency  to  urow  upriuht.  A  sullicieiit  number  of 
hranches  in  ijaiued  by  pruiiino;  while  tlie  trees  are  ynuiij;, 
and  so  disposed  tiiat  they  may  auureuately  fiirin  a  rotund, 
compact,  but  not  over-crowded  head,  shadini?  a  cir(  le 
twelve  or  fourteen  feel  in  dianieti'r.  more  or  less.  a<'cord- 
in?  to  the  fruillMluess  or  indiviilual  strength  of  the  trees. 
This  close  |i!aMli''i;  and  Imv  stature  of  the  trees  render 
•hem  »  shelter  to  each  other,  both  aijainsl  the  frosty 
winds  at  the  time  of  tloweriuf;.  and  against  the  eiiuinoc- 
ttal  );ales  of  autumn. 

The  Kiirl'aee  of  this  orchard  is  never  dui,'.  In  dry 
mmmers,  a  mulchinij  of  liall'-deeayed  bitery-duiia  is 
unread  under  the  trees,  and  hoed  in  in  the  winter. 
8trawl>erries  are  introduced  when  the  trees  are  youn?, 
hut  the  i^round  must  not  be  exhausted  by  surfare-crop- 
piii?. 

The  success  of  such  a  fruit  uardeu  depends  very  much 
on  a  pro|)er  selection  of  the  kinds,  and  on  the  skill  of 
the  manager  in  keepinij  the  trees  fruitful  and  dwarllsli, 
without  the  application  of  the  knife  ;  for  this  is  cpiite 
practicable,  anil  is  an  art  wliieh  must  be  had  recourse  to 
in  the  treatment  of  dwarfed  trees. 

Ciller. 

In  Herefordshire.  Devonshire,  and  adjoininii  districts 
in  Enirland,  orchards  are  maintained  prin'ipajly  for 
manufacturinij  a  lieveraije  from  their  produce.  ('e'er 
is  the  li'iuor  made  from  apples;  the  trees  in  most  esti- 
mation (or  the  purpose  bcinir  the  .\ew  l''ox\vbil;i.  the 
Wildinu,  the  Cherry  I'earniain,  and  the  Velllw  and 
Red  Nornian.  .Viler  the  ri|)ciied  apples  are  sliakeri  from 
the  trees.  Ibey  arc  allowed  to  remain  in  heaps  tor  a 
inoiiti:  on  the  irroond.  to  become  mellow.  The  process 
of  manufacture  into  cider,  whieli  then  eominenees,  is  de- 
•erilK-d  in  the  following  Buccinct  manner  in  the  "  Penny 
•  lyclopiedia:"— 

"Older  is  manufactured  with  very  rude  machinery  by 
liir  follcwin.r  pto,i -s; — Tne  apples  are  thrown  into  a 
mculai   itoue  trou|{h,  usuallv  about  eighteen   feet  in 


f.diameter,  called   the   rhate,  round   wnicn  the  rumu, 

I  a  heavy   circular   stone,   is  turned   by   one  or  ggn, 

j  times  two  horses.     When  the  fruit  has  been  gti,..- 

until  the  rind  and  the  core  are  so  completely  rcdtxcH 

I  thill  a  liandful  of  '  must,'  when  squeezed,  will  n]\  „, 

I  without  lumps  between  the  fingers,  and  the  maker  swj. 

\  from  the  white  spots  that  arc  in  it,  that  the  pips  hatB 

been  broken,  a  square  horse-hair  cloth  is  spread  uiuU 

:  n  screw-press,  and  some  of  the  must  is  poured  with  pjii, 

upon  the  hair,  the   edges  and  corners  of  which  tie 

folded  inwards,  so  as  to  prevent  its  escape.     Ten  or 

j  twelve  of  tliese  hairs  are  piled  and  filled  one  upon  the 

other,  and  then  surmounted  with  a  frame  of  thick  boards' 

'  Tpon  this  the  screw  is  slowly  worked  down  by  a  lever 

:  and  with  the  pressure  a  thick  brown  juice  exudes  from 

I  the  hairs,  lenvini;  within  them  only  a  dry  residue,  whirl 

in  years   wlien  ajiples  are  scarce,  is  sometimes  mixwl 

i  with  water,  cround  again,  and  the  liquor  pressed  out  as 

I  Ix'fore.     'I'his  latter  product  is  called  'water  cider' a 

i  thin,  unpalatable  liquor,  which  is  given  to  the  labourers 

'  early  in  the  year. 

The  cider  is  received  by  a  channel  in  the  frame  of 

i  the  press  upon  which  the  hairs  stand,  eniptyincr  into  j 

j  (lat  tub  called  a  '  trin.'     From  the  trin  it  is  poured  wiili 

buckets  or  '  racking  cans'  info  casks,  placed  either  oiit 

I  of  doors,  or  in  sheds  where  there  is  a  free  current  of  air, 

'  In  about  three  or  four  days,  more  or  less,  accordini;  to 

]  the  heat  of  tlie  weather,  the  liquor  usually  will  rermi'ni; 

j  the  tliiek  heavier  parts  will  subside  as  a  sediment  to  tlio 

1  bottom  of  the  cask,  and  the  lighter  become  brii;ht  clear 

cider.     This  should  then  be  '  racked'  or  drawn  off  into 

another  cask,  and  the  sediment  be  put  to  .strain  through 

'  linen   bass,  and  what  oozes  from  them  should  be  re. 

stored. 

!       It   is  during  the  fermentation  that  the  manawment 

1  of  cider  is  least  understood,  and  there  is  the  i;re;ilesl 

hazard   of  injury.     It  is  necessary  also  to  know  wliai 

fruit  will  by  it.self  make  good  cider,  which  kinds  should 

.  be  ground   together,  and  what  proportions   shoidd  he 

'  mixed.     Hut  it  is   in   the  preservation  of  strciu;lli  and 

flavour  after  the  cider  is  ground  that  the  priiici|i:il  diffi. 

culty  consists:  fli^h'   fernieiitalion  will  leave  the  liiiuot 

thick  and   unpalatable ;  i-i/jk/  fermentation  will  impair 

both  its  streni!;th  and  durability  ;  crie-sin   fernieiitati'a 

will  make  it  sour,  harsh,  and  thin.     Other  tliiiii;«  W-g 

equal,  tliat  cider  will   probably  prove   the  lu'st  in  which 

the  vinous  fermentation  has  proceeded  slowly,  mid  has 

not  been  eonfiunded  with  the   acetous.     'J'be  r'luediei 

used   iu  cases  of  cider  not  clearing  lire  either  yo;i.st  or 

the  addition  of  cider  in  a  state  of  (eiineiitalion,  isiiii;liis9, 

'  eiigs.  oraouirtof  fre.-h  bloml  stirred  up  with  tlie  lii|Uor,iii 

which  last  ease  it  is  to  be  racked  on  the  I'ollowiiii;  day. 

j  These  do  not  always  prove  etfectuat,  liut  the  common 

[  evils  are  excess  or  rapidity  of  tcrinentation  ;  and  if  a 

'  Ki'lter  quality  than  I'arin-  bouse  or '  family  drink'  is  s„  iiiht, 

eiiler  requires  so  niueli  I'are  to  prevent  its  hei'ig  qioiW, 

that  the  best  and  most  careful  mal.ers  Ireipieiitly  liiive  it 

looked  at  during  e,ieh  niirht   fir  some  weeks  af'er  it  a 

made;  iiiid  if  the  hubldiiig  liissing  noise,  the  sii;n  of  fir. 

mentation,  becoui.'s   frequent  or  too  loud,  the  liipior  is 

limit'  hill h/   racked   (df  into   another  cask;  this  chirk 

often  rei|uiresto  be  reiieated  several  times  ;  bulallhoii.;h, 

'  at  each    racking,   sojii.;    portion   of  tlie   stieiinth  will  !# 

!o>  I.  the  body,  flavour,  and  sweetness,  will  chirtly  lie 

retained.     It  is  not  the  habit  of  the  farioer  to  add  sujar, 

treaeh',  brandy,  or  any  colouring  mailer,  to  Ibc  liijuor; 

it  is  only  adultiTated  in  the  hands  of  cider  dealers  and 

publican  ^  who  will  not  lose  a  hogshead;  and  if  eiii' hsi 

turned  sour,  or  has  been  otherwisi'  daoaged,  it  iiiu»lh« 

;  '  doctoreil'  in  order  to  render  it  niarketablc. 


.'[•j 


lit  llii!  proeegs  ill  Ihe  llcreronl  ilisirirl  In  IVvon'hire, 
u  leviir  |ire«s  la  inf.l,  and  "  ri'cil."  iinllini<ilii'cl  sirinv,  n  'fKii 
in  luyiT4  in  llie  pJKCe  of  hnirn.  The  inelliiiil  e«i;il  m  iIh'  loult 
of  Kruiice  fur  cxpreHmg  oil  from  olivei  ia  idci  ^.-ally  tlie  sum 


THE  FRUIT   OARLEN. 


598 


At  Ihe  beginning  of  January,  the  cider  is  moved  into 
»||ti8  wlicre,  by  largo  growers,  it  is  frequently  stored 
1  c»sli9  of  great  capacity,  containing  1000,  1500,  or 
2000  gallons;  these  are  cheaper  in  proportion 
thm  smaller  vessels,  and  are  thought  to  preserve  the 
filler  belter.  In  March,  the  liquor  is  bunged  down ;  it  is 
..  fit  for  sale,  and  may  be  used  soon  afterwards, 
(hough  it  will  greatly  improve  by  keeping.  If  bottled 
r  'er  is  required,  it  should  be  bottled  and  wired  in  the 
Ronteinbcr  or  October  after  it  is  made ;  some  pernons 
Dfcfer  an  earlier  time,  the  end  of  April  or  beginning  of 
May  «  greater  degree  of  etlerVescen'-  's  thus  attained, 
hut »  consiilerable  loss  accrues  from  .he  number  of  bot- 
tles that  wilHuirst." 

Good  cider  is  a  remarkably  wholesome  beverage,  and 
ni-ybo  had  at  a  very  small  jiricc,  the  Inst  not  being 
^ve  Is.  6d.  per  gallon.  Pcny,  or  the  liquor  of  poar.i, 
•8  also  a  pU'asant  and  wholesome  beverage,  and  in  some 
instances  almost  approaches  the  quality   of  sparkling 

STONE    FRUIT    TREES. 

The  finest  wall  fruits  of  the  garden  are  included  in 
this  division ;  these  arc,  the  peach  and  nectarine,  the 
plum  the  cherry,  and  all  their  numerous  varieties. 
Under  these  well-known  names,  we  shall  take  a  cursory 
view  of  each,  referring  the  reader  for  minute  particulars 
to  the  catalogue  in  liindley's  "  Guiile  to  the  Orchard 
and  Kitchen  Garden,"  and  to  th.at  of  the  "  Fruit  Culti- 
vator "  a  small  work  of  great  merit,  by  the  late  Mr. 
Rogers  of  the  Soiitbaiiipton  Nuiricry. 

Besides  the  familiar  term,  stoMc  I'ruits,  botanists  refer 
all  the  treci«  which  bear  fruit  with  a  kernel  contained 
within  a  hard,  bony  shell,  surrounded  by  a  rich  and  sac- 
cliirine  pulp;  this,  consequently,  would  rmbrare  that 
division  which  has  the  almond  tree  for  its  type.  The 
pc.ich  and  nectarine  were  till  lately  considered  a  species 
of  the  almond,  but  they  have  been  separated  from  that 
family,  and  the  peaci  with  its  variety,  the  nectarine, 
tonstitutcd  a  distinct  genus. 

Pencil  aiu!  Nectarine. 

Both  are  natives  of  Persia,  introduced  from  that  coun- 
try in  the  year  l.'iti'i,  and  extensively  cultivated  since 
thai  period.  Each  admilsof  two  leading  sub-varieties — the 
Melting  Peaches  and  Nectarines,  or  fnc  s/oHf,<,  and  those 
with  more  solid  llcsh  adhering  to  the  nut,  and  therefore 
tinned  cling  flo'ics.  The  Fren -h  consider  them  as  one 
fniit,  but  arrange  them  under  four  divisions;  but  we 
pri'fcr  to  jiinplily  our  description  as  above.,  and  shall  even 
dismiss  the  cling  ■tones  altogether  fron'i  our  catalogue, 
deeming  them  coinparalivcly  worthless,  being  later  in 
their  season,  ai.d  of  a  flavour  altogether  inferior  to  the 
true  melters. 

The  peach  and  nectarine  can  he  raised  by  sowing  the 
stones,  and  niiiiiy  excellent  varieties  have  been  so  ob- 
tained ;  therel'ore  it  is  not  a  fact  that  the  trees  raised 
from  seed  are  wildings :  but  as  there  is  no  certainty  of 
what  a  seedling  may  ultimately  become,  it  is  not  prudent 
to  trust  to  this  mcde  of  propagation ;  and  though  we 
would  urge  every  practical  gardener  to  make  himself 
intimate  with  the  process  of  budding  —  that  approved 
and  certain  inctlmd  to  perpetuate  approved  varictiet- — 
yet  aj  much  time  must  thus  id  ipse  before  a  wall  be  stix-ked 
with  fruitlul  trees,  we  think  it  advisable  that  he  purchase 
of  a  good  and  trusty  nurseryman  such  vaiieties  as  are 
found  to  be  adapted  to  the  locality.  The  peach  and 
ncctarii  e  are  seldom  graftccl  ;  it  is  usual  to  select  buds 
of  trcei  that  are  appn>\cil  bearers  and  of  fertile  habits, 
and  to  insert  them  ii.to  young  vigorous  stocks  of  the 
muscle  plain  or  seedling  peach.  Nursc-rj-men  raise  tiieir 
trees  in  this  way,  preferring  the  ])lum  stock;  tl;e  opera- 
tion is  pi^rfonned  late  in  July  or  early  in  August,  The 
buds  swell,  hut  remain  torpid  t"'  ilio  spring  of  iho  fol- 

Voi.  I.— 70 


lowing  year,  at  which  tiino  the  head  of  each  b-i:dded 
tree  is  cut  back  to  an  inch  above  the  inserted  bud,  which 
then  expands,  and  forms  one  or  more  shoota,  Trcei 
in  this  condition  are  called  maidens,  and  many  prefer 
such:  but  in  general  the  nurseryman  prunes  and  train* 
them  into  form  during  the  two  succeeding  years,  when 
they  arc  sold  as  trained  trees,  at  a  price  varying  frnra 
48.  6d.  to  7s.  each.  The  mode  of  training  thus  com- 
menced is  usually  thot  which  is  called  the  fan  or  pea- 
cork's  tail.  It  is  formed  upon  the  principle  of  rejecting 
a  central  stem,  and  of  leading  all  the  main  branched 
and  their  secondaries  to  assume  the  figure  of  an  ex 
panded  fan.  It  is  to  obtain  such  trees  that  wo  recom- 
mend the  planter  to  purchase  the  trained  plants  of  the 
nursery  garden.  But  there  is  another  very  excellent 
method  of  forming  a  tree,  called  the  Seymour  training, 
from  the  name  of  the  gardener  who  introduced  it.  Thia 
plan  requires  a  central  stem,  from  which  all  the  main 
shoots  are  trained  at  angles,  varying  according  to  the 
height  of  the  wall  and  the  vigour  of  the  trees.  The 
branches  are  led  to  the  right  and  left  alternately,  at  aa 
nearly  equal  distances  (about  nine  inches)  as  possible, 
and  when  a  tree  grows  kindly,  and  the  pruner  is  a  man 
of  dexterily  an'',  foresight,  a  handsome  well-balanced 
tree  is  the  result.  To  obtain  the.se  Seymour  trained 
trees,  the  planter  must  purchase  maidens,  and  cither 
train  'hem  himself  or  employ  an  adroit  pruner  who  is 
willing  to  attend  to  the  required  directions.  We  shidl 
now  state  the  principles  upon  which  all  judicious  prun- 
ing is  founded. 

The  peach  produces  its  fruit  upon  the  spring  wood 
of  the  previous  year ;  occanionally,  aWo,  if  the  habit  of 
the  tree  lie  very  vigorous,  upon  secondary  shoots  from 
that  wood ;  but  this  is  by  no  means  desirable  under  or- 
dinary circumstances,  because  it  proves  that  the  tree  ii 
too  luxuriant  in  young  wood,  which,  being  developed 
alter  mid-summer,  can  scarcely  become  duly  mature.  A 
tree  cannot  be  expected  to  produce  or  support  a  crop  of 
IVui*  in  a  period  short  of  four  or  five  years  from  the  bud- 
ding; but  during  that  p"riod,  the  art  of  the  gardener 
shouM  be  employed  to  lay  in  six  or  more  regular  U'anchen 
to  the  right  and  left,  which  will  form  the  skeleton  or  figure 
of  the  tree,  and  remain  the  permanent  supporters  of  the 
younn-learing  wood.  In  the  fan  method  of  training, 
secondary  fruitful  shmts  are  peri.i  tted  to  form  at  the  un- 
der as  well  as  the  upper  sides  of  these  main  branches;  but 
in  the  Seyinonr  training,  the  fertile  secondaries  are  led 
oil"  from  the  upper  sides  only ;  all  those  which  break 
from  the  front  (called  forf-righls  and  breiis:-woinl'),  or 
from  tlie  back  next  the  wall,  or  from  the  under  side,  are 
iililiterated  as  they  appear,  either  by  pinching  them  off 
with  the  finger  and  thumb,  or  by  amputation  with  a 
sharp  knife;  this  process  is  termed  ilirhudiliiig.  The 
quantity  of  wood  to  be  retained,  year  after  year,  -so  as  to 
.ibtni..  a  rei;\ilarly  increasing  proportion  of  fruit,  without 
crowding  the  tree  with  redundant  wood,  is  ehicily  pro- 
duced by  the  judicious  use  of  the  knife  in  disbuddings. 
We  will  suppose  the  example  of  a  tree  trained  in  the 
nursery  during  two  years,  then  planted  in  October  against 
a  wall  frontiu!;  the  south  or  south-east,  and  cut  back  in 
February  filhiwing,  so  as  to  leave  all  its  branches  about 
six  inches  long.  The  shoots  of  the  first  spring  form  the 
bases  of  the  permanent  branches,  and  arc  to  lie  nailed,  o* 
'  thev  advance,  in  the  most  regular  order,  leaving  them  at 
their  full  length  till  Fi  bruary  of  the  second  year,  when 
the  strenuth  and  condition  of  the  tree  are  to  be  consulted. 
.\s  a  first  rule,  we  are  taught,  and  experience  S'luCJou* 
;  the  rule,  '•  that  every  shoot  is  to  l)e  shortened  in  propor- 
tion to  its  strength,  by  pruning  to  the  point  whiae  the 
wood  is  firm  aiul  well  ri|)ened,  by  which  all  the  pithy 
wood  is  removed,  causing  a  supply  of  that  which  is  'vltei 
ripened  for  the  ensuing  year,"  Ilut,  in  order  to  facihlata 
the  rip,'ning  of  the  wood,  it  must  be  trail.  h1  thin,  retain- 
ing tiiose  shoots  only  that  m:iv  l>e  required  for  the  ensuing 
3A 


9M 


INFORMATION   FOR   THE  PEOl'LE. 


year.  After  two  years'  growth  in  a  good  soil,  we  may 
roasunubly  expect  that  six  or  eight  ponnaiicnt  Khootx,  a 
yard  or  four  feet  in  length,  will  bo  formed  and  trninrd  in, 
on  each  hand,  and  that  all  these  branches  are  furnishi'd 
with  three  or  '<iore  secondaries  luid  in  at  nearly  equal 
diatoncen  from  one  another,  and  which,  by  the  end  of 
June,  may  be  a  foot  or  more  in  length.  The  troo  will 
oontinue  to  grow  till  tlie  end  of  August;  but  difbuililiiig 
must  be  effected  repeati'dly,  so  as  to  leave  it  pretty  nearly 
'n  the  form  and  condition  just  descriU^d. 

It  has  then  In-como  a  iH-aring  tree,  which  condition 
implies  a  scries  of  strong  woody  brandies  of  two,  three, 
or  more  years  old,  that  have  pro<luced  other  shoots  in  tlie 
spring,  which,  when  ripe,  are  of  a  deep  rcddisli-browii 
tint  on  the  sunny  side.  These  latter  are  the  frnitt'ul 
shoots,  and  they  never  Iwar  twice;  but,  if  neglected,  run 
on  to  an  uncertain  length,  sending  forth  other  weak 
laterals,  which  might  indeed  bear  a  little  fruit,  but  such 
as  could  never  compensate  for  the  ruin,  or  at  least,  disli- 
guration,  of  the  tree.  It  is  a  maxim  among  good  pruners, 
that  a  peach  tree  should  be  gmn  tlirou<,'hout  or  all  over; 
that  is,  every  space,  even  rlos*'  to  the  main  stem,  has  one 
or  more  leafy  and  fertile  shoots.  This  maxim  would  bo 
violated  in  two  seasons  were  all  the  shoots  permitted  to 
ertend  themselves,  and  the  tree  would  be  found  bare ; 
every  part  of  the  centre  l«'coniing  verdant  anil  produc- 
tive oidy  at  the  remote  extremities;  hundreils  of  tine 
peaches  and  i\ecturincs  can  be  found  in  this  condition  ; 
and,  in  fact,  the  greater  proportion  of  those  in  private 
gardens  afford  irrcfragibic  evidence  of  neglect  or  want  of 
knowledge. 

The  K'aring-shoots,  therefore,  must  be  shortened  to 
twelve  or  fourteen  inches,  if  strong,  and  the  weaker  to 
eight  or  ten  inches,  or  even  to  half  that  length,  if  very 
slender.  The  |);uiier  should  cut  sloping  Iroin  biliiiid 
and  a  little  above  a  tril^lc  eye — that  is,  an  eye  with  a 
■hoot-bud  belween  two  blossoms,  if  there  be  such ;  lor  a 
branch  or  shoot  not  in  a  mature  or  bearing  state  has  no 
treble  eyes;  but  in  furnishing  a  tree,  it  is  not  nec<lful  to 
cut  awa)  the  woiHl-shoots  as  useless ;  bec.iuse,  by  prun- 
ing back  to  an  eye  seal«'d  rather  low  on  the  shoot,  two 
goud  fertile  shoots  may  he  provided  in  lieu  of  a  barren 
one.  A  single  sharp-pointed  eye  is  the  origin  of  a  wood- 
4hoot ;  the  blo»som-bud  is  more  round ;  but  by  ilcfcrring 
tlie  wint<!r  regulation  till  late  in  February,  the  condition 
of  the  two  will  Im<  no  longer  doubtful. 

When  it  has  once  Ih'cii  so  pruned,  the  leading  branch 
will  break  its  extreme  bud,  which  will  thus  elongate  that 
branch  ;  and  the  fruitful  laterals  w  ill  also  devclope  several 
minor  slio<jts.  It  is  from  tiie  last  that  a  selection  must 
be  made  to  ellecl  two  objects  of  the  greatest  importance. 
Tlje  first  is,  to  attract  the  sap  along  the  entire  shoot,  in 
trder  to  nourish  the  young  Iruit  upon  it;  and  this  will 
equirc  that  the  shoot  at  the  extreme  |ioint,  or  at  least 
Jiie  beyond  the  up|N'rmost  Iruit,  lie  permitted  to  extend 
Itself,  and  be  nailed  securely  to  the  wall,  when  it  shall 
have  acquired  some  strength  and  toughness,  'i'hc  se- 
ooiul  objei:t  is  to  provide  a  shoot  to  succeed  the  one  now 
bearing  fruit;  and  in  doing  this,  the  lowest  should  be 
selected.  Ixcause  it  will,  by  its  situation,  replace  the  pre- 
sent shoot  in  a  manner  most  confurniable  with  the  gar- 
dener's niaxmi  ticl'oro  adduced,  and  tend  to  keep  the  tre ; 
compact  and  fertilt— •r/ojif  hotiir,  A  third  shoot  ought 
also  to  lie  retained,  to  guard  against  emergency  or  acci- 
lient ;  all  thi^  others  should  lie  removed,  by  disbudding, 
early  in  May.  In  July.  aUo,  a  geneial  regulation  must 
take  place;  when,  by  remuvn.g  useless  shoots,  and  nail- 
illu'  tlmse  reUiincd.  the  lrui>  nill  be  >luly  exposed  to  the 
•un's  rays.  Thus  the  groutii  of  shouts  and  Iruit  pro- 
weds;  aud  if  regularity  and  order  In-  niaiiitaincd,  the  tree 
Will,  year  alter  M-ar,  I'liiigatc,  and  add  liranch  to  liianch, 
retaiinng  complete  venhiie  throughout.  A  few  lines 
from  ••  The  <iiiidi',"  by  (■.  I.iiidley,  will  sulhce  to  coni- 
i)t<il«  uur  cunciM)  diructious: — "tihuuld   yumig   sliuotii, 


indicating  extraordinary  vigour,  anywhere  niate  Uui 
appearance,  they  should  be  immediately  cut  out,  unl  ' 
where  a  vacant  part  of  the  wall  can  be  filled  up;  becau" 
an   exeesa  of  vigour  in   one  part  of  the  tree  cannot  I 
supported  without  detriment  to  the  other.    Peach  tny 
when  in  a  state  of  health  and  vigour,  generally  throw  „! 
hitcrala  from  their  stronger  shoots"  (he  means  seroiidn, 
laterals,  before  alluded  to)  ;  "  when  this  is  the  case  Ih  " 
should  not  be  cut  off  close,  but  shortened  to  the  last  <•» 
nearest  the  branch"  (this  is,  in  fact  to  spur  them,  in  tJL 
ho|)c  to  convert  the  lowest  bud  into  a  fruitful  oiic^  •  u,,,, 
:»•  .1 :.. , (■  ,1 c._..  .      ,  ''.  """1 


if  there  is  room,  one  or  two  of  those  first  prmluctd 


liiuy 


wall ;  or  the  middle  shoot  may  lie  cut  nuL 
10  lowest   laterals,  and  allowiiiir  ihnm  ,„ 


be  nailed  to  the 

leaving  the  two  lowest  laterals,  anil  allowing  ihcm  to 
take  its  place,  thus  frequently  obtaining  two  Iruit-beurins 
branches,  when  the  former  one  would  in  all  pt,  abiliiv 
have  been  wholly  unprixluctive. 

"In  the  thinning  of  iH'acbes  and  nectarines,  an^  in. 
deed  any  other  drupaceous  fruit,  it  is  neiessury  to  proccul 
with  caution,  as  they  are  apt  to  fall  off  aller  havitiB  at. 
tained  a  considerable  size.  In  order,  therelnre,  to  sccurt 
a  crop,  it  will  be  the  Ixist  way  to  thin  thi'm  at  three 
separate  times  ;  the  first,  as  soon  as  the  fruit  is  of  the 
size  of  a  haiel-nut;  the  second,  when  of  iju'  size  of  a 
small  walnut;  and  the  third,  us  soon  as  the  stone  hai 
become  hardened ;  alter  this,  it  rarely  happens  that  either 
peach  or  nectarine  falls  off  before  it  is  matured." 

The.sc  directions  apply  ii  every  part  to  the  oriJerof 
training  by  the  Seymour  method ;  for  all  the  Ivarinu 
wood  of  one  year  must  be  replaced,  if  possiblo,  |,v  younj 
shoots  proi'ceding  from  the  base  of  that  woiul;  this  fact 
if  appreciated,  will  of  itself  render  any  adroit  man  aii 
able  trainer  and  jiruner  of  the  iH'uch  tree. 

Peach  trees  arc  but  too  liable  to  W.  molested  hy  in. 
si'cts  and  mildew ;  the  former  arc  usually  tome  speciei 
of  the  apliii;,  commonly  called  L,rce/i  jlij,  IhouRh,  u  in 
1810,  it  was  lliifk:  .'^oine  trees  doubtless  esiu|)ed;  bat 
those  which  were  attacked  sullercd  to  an  extraordinary 
degree,  insomuch  that  the  crop  dwindliil  and  tlie  growth 
of  the  trees  was  checked — three  disliint  brniKls  havini 
succeeded  each  other  between  the  niiilille  of  April  jiij 
.July.  They  obstinately  resisted  every  kind  of  wnsji, 
though  in  general  tobacco  water  is  effectual.  Scolih 
snuff  and  fumigation  failed;  and  at  last  premature  rl(ra<> 
shortening  was  resorted  to,  and  thus  the  new  wooil  hji 
seriously  injured.  We  allude  to  this  fact,  as  h'ing  in 
strict  accordance  with  the  i  oncomilaiit  visitation  of  the 
black  aphis  that  locally  deslrnyed  the  bean  crop,  anJ  Jc. 
formed  kidney-lieans,  peas,  and  even  the  iii  Itlcs  and  otltfi 
wet'ds  of  the  fields  and  lanes.  A  ilisease  produced  ly 
frost,  which  is  called  "  the  bladder  blight,''  frequtnlly 
swells  and  distorts  the  leaves  of  peach  trees;  wc  are 
acqiiainliHl  with  no  other  remedy  but  that  of  timely 
hand-picking.  By  these  attacks  tin  regular  training  ai^d 
figure  of  the  trees  are  much  disturUd  ;  and  at  times  an 
entire  season  may  1k'  irretrievably  lost. 

With  re8|)cct  to  soil  and  preparation  of  a  border,  what 
we  have  said  under  the  head  nyyi/i  applies  strictly  toll* 
peach.  As  wall-|K:aclies  must  have  a  border,  wt  can  dc. 
vise  no  plan  more  effectual  or  sini|>le  than  that  of  clearing 
out  a  space  of  the  required  length,  of  ciiiht  to  twrive 
feet  in  breadth,  the  depth  of  soil  at  the  wul!  to  lie  tncniy 
iiiches,  sloping  to  fill«en  inches — niaking  a  full  of  {wt 
inches  from  back  to  front.  To  effect  ample  drainai!^, 
the  liottom  should  Ih>  paved,  as  before  reciimniciidrd.  with 
chalk  wr  fragments  of  stone,  &c.,  ranmicd  h.ird,  and  in- 
clining to  a  rubble  or  stone  drain  runiiinj;  parallel  wiih 
the  wall,  to  cirry  away  the  suprrfiuous  water  from  iIm 
Ih'iI.  a  natural  subslrutuni  of  t  hulk  or  lock  wiuld  nutiirc, 
but  in  that  cast'  ilrptli  uf  sod  n.Uft  be  provided.  The 
U'd  itself  should  consist  o*'  the  rich  but  not  clayey  loiim 
and  turf,  of  a  common  oi  pasture,  having  in  it  noinaiiuii 
wii'ttever.  The  trees  may,  indeed,  be  lopilrcsH'd  ivorj 
winter  with  hltery   manure   u  yurd    ir  mure  round  ibl 


gtUetion  ofa/ew 


-?!■■«'- 


THE  reUIT  GARDEN. 


«M 


cinfu  to  twelve 


^jm,  and  80  deep  as  to  protect  them  from  froit,  juBt 
•hove  tlic  collar  at  the  critical  perioilg  of  blossoming.  It 
■ill  als"  l*  *  8"*^  preventative  of  drought  in  summer ; 

J  uf  this  any  one  may  satisfy  himself  by  raising  the 
rnu.fh  in  'he  very  driest  weather,  when  the  soil  under  it 
will  lie  «■•'"  Wack  and  moist,  though  in  other  parts  it  be 
narchcil  to  aridity.  The  fruit  can  be  one  month  accele- 
rated, aiii'  its  value  proportionably  enhanced,  by  growing 

tree  in  a  pit  24  feet  long,  60  inches  deep  at  the  back 
wall,  and  3"  inches  at  the  front.  T'le  lights  will  thus 
oiilai'n  a  mifRcient  slope,  if  their  length  be  seven  feet, 
Hundrcils  of  fine  fruit  can  be  produced  in  July  or  Au- 
gust by  one  tree ;  but  great  watchfulness  will  be  required 
•bout  the  period  of  blooming,  to  check  the  ravages  of  the 
aphldcH  in  their  earliest  approaches ;  by  three  days'  neg- 
lect we  have  seen  the  destruction  of  a  crop  and  the  ruin 
of  all  the  bearing  woo<l  of  the  year,  in  despite  of  every 
usual  applii'iition.  A  strong  lining,  twice  renewed  lic- 
twocn  February  and  June,  will  greatly  accelerate  the 
iJvancc  of  the  fruit. 

Siltetion  of  a  few  of  the  final  melting  peaches  adapted  chiefly  to 
the  muiUind  eountits. 


I,  •Ilcllegarde  or  Galaiide. 

2'  •Ciiaiieel'or 

3.  Lain  Admiiable. 


4.  •Noblesse. 

5.  Royal  George. 

6.  Rosanna,  or  Yellow  Alberge. 


Neetarines. 
1  *r,lniii;e.  or  Claremont.  3.  •Violet  Halios  (the  best.) 

i.  Faircliil(l"»  Fjirly  VVIiite. 

The  trefs  ninrki-d  thus  (•)  are  slated  by  Lindley  to  be  also 
uiiable  loihr  Highlands  of  Scotland. 

The  Apricot. 

It  i.i  believed,  upon  the  authority  of  Pliny  and  others, 
that  the  npricot  is  a  native  of  Armenia,  whence  its  present 
Iifilin  name,  Jrniexidca  vul>;(tris.  It  partakes  of  the  habits 
of  a  plum  and  peach,  and  till  lately  was  cousiderrd  a 
-lam — Pridiiif  Anncnitira.  It  is  multiplied  by  budding, 
either  np^n  the  common  plum  or  the  muscle  plum. 
liinJIev  i'liy  ''">'  •'  '*  usual  to  hud  the  Mo«)-iiark  upon 
the  former ;  but  he  is  persuaded  that  the  tree  would  be 
better,  and  endure  longer,  were  it  budded  upon  the  mus- 
cle; and  if  he  be  correct  in  this,  we  may  sufoly  assert, 
that  all  tlic  U'st  apricots  will  succeed  upon  that  stc  k 
without  havini;  recourse  to  any  other. 

The  operation  of  budding,  like  that  of  grafting,  may 
he  most  readily  acquired  by  observing  tlie  practice  of  a 
g.wd  builder.  The  season  of  budding  is  comprised  be- 
tween the  third  week  of  .Inly  and  the  Uith  of  Auirust, 
and  showery  weather  is  propitiouH.  The  buds  shouhl  be 
seledi'd  from  shoots  of  the  spring  wood ;  and  in  takinc; 
thtm  olV.  a  piece  of  bark  one  inch  and  a  half  long  should 
be  relaiiicd,  Irom  which  the  strip  of  wood  it  contains 
ou^'ht  to  delaeh  itself  freely,  without  bringing  with  it  the 
ete  of  the  Inid.  This  eye  or  point  is  a  vital  organ,  with- 
out which  a  Imd  cannot  grow.  This  remark  applies  to 
everv  kind  of  bud,  whether  it  bs  that  of  the  apple,  |iear, 
peaeh,  or  any  of  their  kindred :  or  of  any  ornamental 
tree  or  shrub  which  admits  of  iK^ing  thus  propag^ited. 

The  best  varieties  of  apricot  ■"•e — 1.  The  Peach  apri- 
cot, fruit  liiijli-coloured,  and  vei  v  large.  2.  Moor-park, 
of  high  flavour,  and  also  pri-tty  large.  3.  Brussels — 
oval,  and  capable  of  ripening  on  an  o[Mn.  standard, 
t.  The  Honiiin,  hardy,  and  an  abundant  lM>arer. 

.^»  to  pruning  and  traiiiiiiu,  when  the  figure  of  the  tree 
0  fot.Tied  hy  having  three  or  four  branches  proeee<linc 
from  9  main  stem,  each  is  shortened  In  the  winter  regu- 
ation.  soon  uller  the  lea'"'  fall,  to  six  inches,  in  order  to 
oblaiii  new  hranelies.  'I'liese  are  secured  to  lh;>  wall  in 
.M.iy  or  .lune  at  five  or  six  iiichis'  distance  from  one  an- 
other, rcmovtiig  all  superiiuineniries.  .At  the  secDiiil 
winler  pruiiinij,  the  leading  sliools  may  be  cut  back  to 
lea  inches,  the  olheis  jirowlii);  upon  th.in  to  six  inches, 
■ore  or  Irs-  a»  position  and  strength  indicate.  In  May 
M  Juno  tullowiuK,  murt  wood  is  laid  ia  from  ouch  branch; 


and  thus,  by  disbudding  and  winter-shortening,  a  Teg«> 
larly  formed  head  is  obtained,  upon  the  shoots  of  which 
short  fruitful  spurs  are  duly  and  progressively  developed, 
In  all  winter  prunings  and  curtailments,  the  lotigest  shoot 
that  is  retained  ought  not  to  exceed  eighteen  inches  in 
length ;  thence  diminishing,  according  to  the  strength  of 
each,  to  nine,  or  even  six  inches. 

These  rules  comprehend  the  essence  of  all  the  be»t 
practical  directions;  but  one  remark,  which  we  seldom 
meet  with,  appears  important.  The  apricot  tree  cornea 
early  into  bloom,  when  very  few  leaves,  if  any,  are  ex- 
panded ;  and  it  frequently  fails  to  set  or  retain  its  fruiL 
'I'liis  failure  we  have  remarked  particularly  with  low  treca 
horizontally  trained.  On  the  contrary,  when  the  tree 
having  a  six-feet  main  stem  without  a  branch  is  then 
trained  with  a  central  leader  to  the  height  of  from  twenty 
to  forty  feet,  and  suffered  to  branch  obliquely  to  right  and  * 
left,  the  crop  of  fruit  is  frequently  very  great.  W5  also 
saw,  at  the  end  of  March,  after  the  severe  frost  of  1838, 
one  solitary  branch  of  a  tree  which  had  been  trained 
upon  the  breast  of  a  vinery  chimney,  with  fruit  larger 
than  nutmegs,  and  foliage  fully  expanded,  while  every 
other  blanch  remained  torpid  as  any  of  the  exposed  treea 
of  the  garden.  These  facta  prove  that  the  high  wall  of 
a  dwelling,  and  the  proximity  of  a  warm  chimney,  are 
most  favourable  to  the  productiveness  of  this  very  fickle 
tree. 

The  Plum. 

The  common  plum  of  Britain  is  the  typo  of  thia 
genus,  Pniinis;  hut  we  cannot  believe  that  this  wilding 
is  the  parent-stock  of  those  rich  and  luscious  fruits  which 
have  been  so  long  cultivated  throughout  Europe.  Pluma 
are  propagated  by  budding  upon  the  common  plum 
stock ;  and  for  standards,  Lindley  recommends  the  in- 
sertion to  be  made  nine  inches  from  the  ground,  when, 
under  favour.ible  circumstances,  the  buds  will   produce 

I  vigorous  shoots,  standard  high  the  first  year.  Open 
standards  require  little  attention ;   they  should  be  di 

I  vested  of  all  the  superfluous  shoots  by  pruning  them 
out  close  to  their  origin,  jnst  before  the  season  of  spring 
growth.  But  wall  trees  and  espaliers  are  to  be  treated 
as  espalier  pear  trees ;  that  is,  by  training  them  with  a 
central  stem,  and  a  series  of  horizontal  branches  pro- 
ceeding from  it  on  each  side,  nine  inches  apart.  These 
brau'hes  are  not  to  l)e  shortened;  and  the  spurs  which 
form  naturally  upon  them  are  to  be  kept  short  and  com- 
jinct  as  lliey  advance  in  length.  Artificial  spurs  may  be 
obtained  liy  .(uly  foreshortening;  but  as  ferlility  is  pro- 
moted Iiy  wh.itever  cheeks  the  luxuriance  of  the  wood, 
it  will,  we  think,  ".le  preferable  to  train  in  the  supernu- 
merary laterals,  depressing  them  below  the  horizontal 
level  till  some  natural  spurs  arc  formed  near  their  origin, 
and  (hen  to  cu'  the  .shoots  back  to  thi  lowest  spur. 

The  plum  ripens  in  September  and  October.  Of  the 
earlier  dessert  plums,  the  Oreen  gage  and  the  two  Or- 
Icai!-  are  the  best.  Coe's  Golden  drop,  and  the  Goliath, 
come  into  season  in  October  ;  and  for  preserving,  we 
name  the  Winesour,  the  Violetic  hativc.  the  two  varie- 
ties of  Magnum  bomim,  and  the  prune  Damson.  The 
Iini>rratricc  is  the  best  late  plum,  benig  delicious  in  No- 
vember. The  soil  already  mentioned  is  favourable  to 
the  pinm,  though  the  tree  will  prosper  in  one  of  more 
binding  quality. 

The  Cherry. 

The  cherry-tree,  or  rciYi.iKs,  as  it  was  called  by  the 
RoDKins,  has  been  known  as  a  cultivated  tree  for  at  leaat 
three  centuries;  ordiards,  llu  produce  of  which  was  sold 
at  a  hinh  piiec  in  the  yen''  l.'iK'.  evisliiig  to  a  large  ex- 
tent in  Kent.  This  circuinstain'c  conferred  the  name 
of  Kentish  cherry  on  that  preiili;ir  speiies.  Lindley 
enuiiieraics  and  describe  s  tweiity-eiclit,  and  Roger* 
twenty-live  dillcrcnt  kinds  of  cherries;  aiii./n8    which 


bM 


INFORMATION   FOR   THE   PEOPLE. 


the  bcfcl  for  general  cultivation  are  the  Kentish,  the 
Mfiy-dako,  the  Gratrion  or  Bigarreau,  Httrrison's  heart 
the  Black  heart,  and  Morcila.  All  may  bo  grown  as 
Mandard»,  hut  the  May  duko  and  Morcila  produce  larger 
fruit  when  trained  against  a  wall. 

Standard  trees  form  their  own  spurs,  and  r.^'quiro  only 
a  little  thinning  out  of  su|)orfIuous  branches;  but  wall 
trees  naist  bo  treated  as  the  apricot  and  plum,  avoiding, 
however,  to  shorten  the  leading  branches.  The  Morcila 
requires  a  somewhat  diireront  treatment,  because  it  not 
only  bears  on  spurs,  but,  like  the  peach,  on  young  wood 
of  the  last  spring.  Mr.  Rogers  olTcrs  some  remarks  in 
the  form  of  anecdote,  which  are  deserving  of  attention ; — 
In  the  Surrendon  Gardens,  of  which  ho  had  the  charge, 
"a  north  w.ill  ten  feet  high  had  a  border  twelve  feet 
^  wide,  and  very  shallow,  reposing  on  loose  rubble  rock. 
The  soil  was  a  dark  hazelly  loam,  of  rather  inferior  qua- 
lily  :•  the  roots  were  very  near  the  surface,  those  nearest 
the  stem  actually  al)ove  it.  Five  trees  were  origi.iaiiy 
planted,  but  subsequently  the  second  anil  fourth  were 
removed,  leaving  the  centre  tree  at  thirty-two  feel  from 
the  end  ones.  Even  at  this  distance  the  liranclics  met ; 
and  in  their  progi-ess,  being  kept  very  thin  of  bearing 
wood,  the  crops  wwe  magnificent."  The  trees  were 
■imply  planted  on  the  natural  surface  of  unprepared 
ground  without  any  maimre  or  deep  trenching.  "  Nei- 
ther was  this  border  evor  dug  with  spadcK.'but  slightly 
stirred  with  blunt  forks,  and  having  a  little  well-rotted 
horse-dung  bestowed  every  second  or  third  ye-T.  There 
cannot  l)c  a  more  mi.<takcn  notion  an<l  inji  rious  prac- 
tice, than  overloading  and  poisofiiig  the  fruit-borders 
with  rich  dung.  In  the  early  training  of  the  Morcila, 
the  knife  sliould  l>e  used  freely,  to  gain  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  leading  branches — thinning  out  the  laterals,  but 
never  shortening  them." 

The  cherry-tree  grows  to  a  large  size,  and  ita  wood  is 
highly  valued  by  turners  and  musical  instrument-makers, 
from  its  suitableness  for  being  Imred  and  formed  into 
■inoolh  tubes;  in  the  luxurious  East,  it  is  mueli  used 
for  the  tulies  of  tobacco-pipes.  The  fruit  of  the  cherry 
•eems  less  impaired  by  growing  in  a  wild  state  than 
other  garden  fruits;  in  Scotland,  the  wild  cherries,  called 
gf-a/M,  are  small  but  fine  fiavoured  ;  and  in  (iermauy,  the 
Civourit*'  liiiuor  Kcrsrhwdssrr,  is  distilleil  from  the  juice 
of  this  8|>ecies  of  fruit. 

BERRY-neARINO    TREES    AND    SHRUBS. 

In  this  division  will  l>e  comprised  the  Currant  mid 
GiTOselxirry,  both  members,  with  all  their  now  innu- 
merable varieties,  of  the  same  family  or  genus,  A'l/ira — 
the  Raaplwrry,  Strawberry,  CranbiTry,  and  (Jrapc-vine. 

The  riirram 

Tlie  currant  is  a  native  of  Britain ;  nevertheless  we 
arc  indebted  Ici  the  Duteh  for  tlu-  ureat  ((crfectiou  to 
which  it  has  now  arrived.  The  Dutch  red  and  white 
currant  are  niii|uestioiiably  the  liest  |iro<luec  of  the  gar- 
den ;  the  Naples  bliick  is  preferred.  Currant-trees  pros- 
per onlv  in  cool  climates,  and  they  are  soincvhut  arbi- 
trary in  their  rhoiee  of  a  situation  even  in  our  own  moist 
country  ;  they  grow  to  an  astonishing  perfection  in  the 
rich  moist  vales  of  the  middle  counties,  but  the  berries 
dwindle  in  hot  and  arid  situations.  A  loam  such  as  has 
been  so  freiiui  ntly  mentioned,  will  also  suit  the  currant, 
hni  it  likes  manure  ;  atid  this  can  be  aclvaiitai;eoiisly 
and  freely  fl|i(i||ed  as  a  top-dressltig  in  Novemlier,  to  re- 
main on  llie  'iiirfare  till  after  the  pruning  in  Pebruary, 
when  it  should  be  lightly  forked  into  tlie  soil  without 
disturlpjii«  llic  roots. 

Mr.  Knight  raised  three  or  four  hundn'd  trees  from 
•eeds  in  the  eour-!<'  of  his  sciimtific  ex|ieriinents  upon 
rrosiingi,  but  of  llnse  very  few  exielled  their  parents. 
One  of  them,  llie  lied  cryslnl,  is  «U|>erior  in  all  res]iect«. 
We  have  hUo   raised  currants  froi  i  seeds,  and  have  ac- 


quired one  fine  white  variety,  but  have  thus  been  inttitMaj 
that  coven  or  more  years  elapse  ero  the  plants  beco 
fruitful,  and  therefore  that  propagation  by  cuttinm  ■ 
greatly  preferable.     Take  cuttings  of  the  young  gpjjj'l 
wood,  with  a  small  heel  of  the  older  wood  attached  h 
it ;  divest  it  of  all  the  buds  excepting  five  of  the  vni). 
most  and  those  of  the  heel ;  dibble  holes  six  inches  dT 
in  a  shady  bed  or  border,  and  fix  a  cutting  firmlv 
each   hole,  by   pressure   and  watering.     They  succpkI 
perfectly  if  planted  in   August,   provided  they  be  konl 
moist  and  entirely  shaded,  or  in  a  north  aspect ;  hut  tL 
season  extends  thence  to  the  beginning  of  March.   Tti 
soil  should  Ix'  rich  and  light.     Cuttings  may  bo  njj.^ 
at  first  where  they  aie  intended  to  remain,  or  tliey  nia 
lie  transplanti-d  ofier  they  hecon'    rooted  plants,  cuttin 
awiiy  all  but  the  ujiper  whorl  ol  roots:  in  either  casf 
cr.t  back  to  two  or  tlirce  bui%-  ihe  shoots  made  the  firti 
spring,  and  subsequently  pr'  no  on  every  side  at  an  ouu 
side  bud,  to  make  the  bus',  spread  at  top,  and  rcndeni 
o|)en  towards  the  centre. 

I'rune  for  fruit  just  after  the  buds  begin  to  swell— 
never  before  February,  or  the  birds  will  icduce  the  e.. 
pected  crop ;  and  in  pruning,  shorten  all  the  leaders  and 
spur  in  the  laterals,  till  the  bushes  appear  like  deformr 
musses  of  scrubby  twigs.  The  long  pruning  is  compa. 
ratively  worthless. 

By  these  siJiirrings  and  .shortenings,  Ihe  trees  prontji 
somewhat  slowly,  but  the  fruit  is  produced  •:.  nir.ssive 
clusters  from  the  numerous  spurs.  The^^kcleton  of  each 
bush  ought  io  consist  of  nine,  twelve,  or  fifteen  bearini 
braiubes,  diverging  at  eiiual  distances  from  three  lower 
short  li.  bs,  which  emerge  from  one  main  central  stoni' 
this  is  till  '"est  form  of  a  neat  bu.-ih,  and  the  kiiile  should 
be  exercisci.  to  keep  it  open  m  ihe  middle.  If  j],j 
spring  shoots  push  very  vigorously,  the  first  \n^]\  -^^^^ 
generally  breaks  down  more  than  half  of  tlioni;(iD( 
this  natural  pruning  is  freiiuently  advantaneoiis.  The 
black  eurraul  reiiuircs  a  still  more  moist  and  cnol  site 
and  that  the  woo<l  be  kept  young,  but  ncvir  pruned  oj 
spurred.  Whatever  shoots  become  iilack  and  scaly 
must  be  rut  entirely  out,  leaving  those  bearing  brimfhcs 
only  which  are  of  a  delieat(!  brown  colour.  The  trcei 
re()uire  frequent  renewal,  by  taking  vlgoroi;-;  ciitli.i^?|  fo, 
old  wood  produces  small  lierries.  If  the  soil  and  «ii{ 
be  congenial,  and  the  trees  Ih'  young,  t!ie  beirips  are 
frequently  m-cn  nearly  as  large  us  small  black  chrrrics, 

Thefioo«i"l)i'rry, 

This  universally  known  shrub  Is  a  native  of  Britain, 
and  therefore  inu<'l>  more  easily  cultivated  thin  exni;r'; 
it  Is,  indeed,  so  hardy,  and  suitable  for  even  keen  r,i. 
matt-s,  that  remarkably  little  fo>terlng  is  requlrci!  to  keep 
it  in  perfecti.in.  .\ftcr  a  long  course  of  culture,  there 
are  now  hundreds  of  varieties  of  gooseberries;  still,  iIk 
kinds  which  kir  p  their  jilaee  In  public  estiiiialion  are 
few  In  number:  these  are  the  old  rougli  red.  dark  purfle, 
Ifreen,  and  yellow  goo^ebi-rries ;  they  are  stiM  iire-emj. 
nent  In  flavour,  but  as  the  genuine  culture  of  al!  is  the 
same  in  piineiple,  a  few  simple  rides  ,vlll  lii.'riirt  ihe 
grower  in  all  that  he  need  [Hrforin  to  obtain  healthy  and 
productive  biislicj. 

To  priqiagati',  take  cuttings  of  any  chosen  sorts  ei;h 
inches  long,  of  the  last  s|  ring's  woml,  hnvirii;  a  smai; 
pii  '.<•  or  heel  of  the  older  wood  ;  they  arc  inserlid  a'.-iil 
the  end  of  Oilober  to  Ihe  depth  of  three  inclics,  Tie 
situation  should  be  shady,  the  earth  rather  samly.  anj 
each  cutting  should  \tc  fixetl  firmly  in  the  soil.  It  it 
customary  to  remove  all  the  buils  cxcr'|itliu'  fi'Urorl'iu' 
at  the  top,  wliiih  are  left  to  form  the  head,  iirmliirrd 
from  one  lentral  stem  :  but  we  prefer  to  sc<  lire  Ihe  rmt- 
iiig  of  the  eiitllrig  by  relainim,'  Ihe  lowest,  and  [ilantiiig 
it  fair  or  five  buds  deep.  It  is  frum  them  buds  that  »l 
expect  roots;  and  though  none  may  1h'  d,  'leiicd  till 
spring,  nature  will  uut  he  idle     and  whenever  tlu'  efd 


THE  FRUIT  GARDEN. 


wr 


L  ,^,|  ghootfi  elongate,  it  will  bo  time  enough  to  select 
Hr  tr'pneest  and  l)est  as  a  leader  to  form  a  stem,  obliterating 
ji'the  others  both  below  and  above  the  surface.     Should 
'■     Of  four  eyes  break  at  the  upper  part  of  a  cutting, 
•     ill  be  desirable  to  remove   all  others  lower  on  the 
*!  »,  PS  soon  as  it  shall  be  manifest,  from  the  vigour  of 
nth  that  there  are  good  and  sufficient  roots  to  sup- 
^  rt  th«Tii.    A  central  stem  is  most  desirable,  and  people 
tUiik  to  obtain  one,  and  to  prevent  the  growth  of  suck- 
by  destroying  the  lower  ouds  in  the  first  instance : 
believe  that  the  want  of  succ  •  a  and  the  loss  of  the 
ttiiitJ  a'"  ^°  ^"  traced  to  this  practice,  and  therefore  wo 
;.   [ijjui  it.     When  the  head  ia  formed,  gooseberry-trees 
he  sinirred  as  directed   for   currants,  avoiding   to 
lortcn  tho  leading  branches;  or  at  each   pruning  in 
February,  a  certain  quantity   of  the   lust   year's  wood 
liould  be  retained,  and   a  corresponding  portion  of  the 
and  three  years'  old  wood  cut  out ;  thus,  as  it  were, 
reiiewiiiii  ^^^'  '"'"^^  annually.     Le.rgcr  berries  are  thus 
obtjincil  from  strong  young  wood  than  by  the  spurring 
ijjtcin. 

The  Raspberry. 

Tiie  raspberry  is  a  native  of  some  counties  in  Eno;- 
laiid,  but  hns  bceii  greatly  improved  by  culture.  The 
choice  sorts  are — 1.  Red  Antwerp,  fruit  largcs  of  high 
flavour,  ripp  in  July ;  but  by  being  planted  behind  a 
nortli  wall,  can  be  retarded,  and  the  season  thus  pro- 
tracted some  weeks.  2.  Yellow  Antwerp,  lii^ht  coloured, 
»crv  bristly  wood,  of  luxuriant  growth  ;  fruit  admirable 
in  flavour,  luscious ;  peculiarly  adapted  to  tho  dessert. 
3  New  Double-bearing;  it  is  rather  an  autumnal  rasp- 
[jfrrv  than  strictly  a  double  bearer;  still,  by  due  and 
tiinelv  pruning,  a  second  crop  is  frciiuently  obtained  in 
auUuiin.  The  raspberry  is  propagated  by  suckers  taken 
UP  from  ainong  those  which  rise  in  abundanto  from  strong 
plants.  The  fruitful  shoots  licar  bvit  once,  and  should 
always  br  cut  down  in  August  to  admit  air  and  light  to 
the  youuff  shoots  of  the  s\numor ;  and  from  these  suck- 
ers (of  which  four  or  five  are  amply  sufficient)  some 
should  be  selected  to  renew  the  stock  every  five  or  six 
yoaw.  ihan^ing  the  soil  and  situation.  Cares  -uld  also 
be  taken  to  remove  the  disorderly  suckers  which  rise 
from  the  wandering  roots.  The  soil  for  this  plant 
should  he  tt  rich  light  loam.  The  plants,  if  placed  in 
row,  should  stand  a  yard  or  four  feet  asuniler.  They 
niav  be  supported  by  strong  stakes  made  to  slope  to  the 
north;  anil,  confining  the  bearing  shoots  to  them,  the 
sufifssional  shoots  will  rise  perpendicularly,  without  in- 
fcrfering  with  tlie  others. 

Tli«  Strawberry, 
"■^he  strawberry  is  one  of  the  few  fruits  indigenous  to 
Britain,  and  is  found,  like  the  Ivilberry  and  juniper,  in  a 
wi!J  state  in  uncultivated  spots,  chiefly  in  woods  and  on 
Lingled  shrubby  banks.  It  is  likewise  found  in  all  lUe 
other  northern  countries  of  Euroi)c,  particularly  in  Nor- 
7»ay,  among  whose  riM'ky  mountains  it  grows  in  great 
aliundance ;  it  prevails  also  in  the  tempenito  regions  of 
?joth  .Xmcrica,  and  abounclH  ii;  t^-e  colder  climate  of 
Oi.nada  and  Nova  Scotia.  This  delicious  small  fruit  is, 
in  short,  very  geneiaily  scattered  over  the  earth,  and 
WIS  the  (llight  of  ancient  us  well  as  modern  times.  In 
Lilin  its  name  is  frai;;ariii,  which  is  supposed  to  be 
B^nificmt  of  the  fnigrance  of  the  fruit ;  tho  French, 
jH'-haps  frim  tins  source,  call  it  frahe,  and  hence  the 
common  surname  of  Fnifer,  whi<h  is  of  French  origin, 
and  the  well-known  heraldic  object,  the  strawlx-rry, 
which  is  home  by  families  of  that  name.  The  origin 
of  our  name  slrawhen  ij  is  much  less  obvious  ;  by  some, 
it  h:i8  lieen  traced  to  an  old  practice  of  placing  straw 
bcneatti  the  Iwrries  to  keep  them  clean  while  growing ; 
But  olliets  allege  that  it  originated  in  the  circuu'.stance 
gf  the  iierries  being  anciently  threaded  on  straws,  and 


offered  for  sale  in  that  condition.     The  strawberry  U 
one  of  those  plants  to  which  nature  has  given  the  means 
of  extensive  multiplication.     From  the  main  buah  or 
stems  there  spread  forth  tcntacula  or  suckers  over  tha 
surface  of  the  ground,  and  these  fastening  themselves  by 
a  root  at  every  joint,  as  many  new  plants  spring  up  aa 
tliere  are  joints.     A  single  bush  will  in  this  manner,  if, 
not  kept  within  bounds,  soon  spread  over  a  moderately 
jized  garden.     From  this  abundant  growth  of  the  straw- 
berry, it  has  been  inferred  that   the  fruit  is  of  essential 
importance  as  an  article  of  food  in  summer;  but  this  il 
scarcely  philosophical ;  for  to  what   plant   has   natui« 
given  the  means  of  propagation  more  abundantly  than 
the  dandelion,  and  what  is  so  little  used  or  held  in  leM 
esteem  by  mankind  1     Be  this  as  it  may,  the  strawberry 
is  universally  acknowledged   to  be  exceedingly  whole- 
some and   refreshing  as  an  occasioi?al  summer  diet,  and 
it  is  also  allowed  to  possess  certain  medicinal  properties, 
which  give  it  a  still  higher  value.     With  respect  to  these 
medicinal  qualities,  Phillips  speaks  of  it  as  follows : — "  Aa 
a  dietetic  fruit,  the  strawberry  affords  but  little  nourish- 
ment :  the  moderate  or  even  plentiful  use  of  it  is  salubri- 
ous, and  recommended  to  those  of  inflammatory  habits. 
Bocrhaavo  ccsiders  the  continued  use  of  this  fruit  as 
one  of  the  principal  remedies  in  cases  of  obstruction  and 
viscidity,  and  ii.   putrid  disorders.     Hoffman  furnishes 
instances  of   some   obstinate   diseases  being   cured  by 
strawberries  and  other  mild,  sweet,  subacid  fruits,  and 
affirms  that  he  has  known   even  consumptive   people 
cured  by  them.     Linnoius  informs  us  that,  by   eating 
plentifully  of  strawberries  every  day,  he  kept   himself 
free  from  gout.     They  promote    perspiration,  and  dis- 
solve the  tartarous  incrustations  on  the  teeth.     Straw- 
berries should  bo  taken  sparingly  by  those  of  a  cold 
inactive  disposition  where  tho  vessels  are  lax,  and  circu- 
lation languid,  or  digestion  weak."     The  medicinal  qua- 
lities of  the  strawberry  appear  to  us  to  consist  somewhat 
in  the  abundancre  of  small  hard  seeds  on  the  fruit,  which 
act  mechanically  on  the  stomach  and  bowels,  and  also  in 
the  weakness  of  tho  sub-acid  ;  in  other  words,  the  pulpy 
substance  is  of  a  simple  nnd  harmless  nature,  remark- 
ably easy  c.  digestion,  i'.nd  at  the  very  least  cooling  in 
its  etTects.     Taken   in   moderation,  it  will  save  the  use 
of  some  kinds  of  nu dicines,  and,  as  an  alterative  from 
hard  In  ul,  it  cannot  be  too  highly  <'ommended. 

In  mo^t  pr.rts  of  England,  strawherries  are  eaten  alone, 
or  dipped  iiidiv'.lually  in  sugar,  before  being  put  into  the 
mouth ;  and  to  suit  this  mode  of  consumption,  they  are 
brought  to  table  with  their  stems,  which  form  shanks  to 
hold  by.  Bu;  in  Scotland  they  are  consumed  in  a  far 
more  wholesu'ic  manner.  There  they  are  brought  to  table 
strip[H'd  of  ilieir  stems,  and  are  ladled  out  and  eaten  with 
a  plenti'ius  infesion  of  cream  and  sugar.  " Strawlierries 
and  crrani"  is,  in  fact,  one  of  the  grand  national  treats 
whiih  strangers  may  reckon  upon  seeing  set  before  them 
in  the  early  weeks  of  .luly,  and  to  which  generally  full 
j\istice  is  done.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Edinburgit, 
there  are  a  number  of  suburban  villages  deriving  cele- 
brity from  their  extensive  strawberry  grounds,  and  to  these 
parlies  proceed  from  Iowa  to  enjoy  the  fruit  in  perfection, 
that  is  to  say,  ubng  with  the  richest  and  most  delicious 
cream.  In  the  vicinity  of  Dublin,  the  ccleliratcj  "  Straw- 
berry Beds"  in  the  ^ame  manner  attract  inmiensc  crowds 
of  persons  in  the  summer  evenings,  when  the  fruit  is  in 
its  prime.  Those  who  are  accustouu'd  to  see  strawberries 
only  in  the  small  pottles  in  which  they  figure  at  Covent 
Garden  market,  can  form  but  a  feeble  idea  of  tho  mode 
of  consumption  at  either  the  Scotch  or  Irish  metropolis. 
Of  late  years  there  have  been  many  chenges  and  im- 
provements in  the  strawberry  world.  Fifty  or  sixty  years 
ago,  only  about  a  dozen  sorts  were  known,  those  of  the 
largest  size  being  called  haulhoys.*     According  to  horti- 

•Sfi  oiillf'l  irom  licing  originally  found  in  tiie  haut  Ml  or  Wfi 
woods  01'  liuUt-niiu. 

8a2 


6U 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


cnlUiris'^,  thern  are  now  some  hundrccli  of  wlocf  va- 
rieties, produr4<(!  by  crorainf;,  change  of  situation,  and 
otljer  circumstances.    An  old  and  rcsppotable  strawberry, 
known  as  the  Old  scarlet,  was  introduced  from  VirRinia 
in  168S,  and  has  been  the  prolihc  source  of  several  va- 
rieties.    The  Austrian  scarlet,  the  Roseberry,  the  Scotch 
scarlet,  the  Aberdeen  seedling,  the  Grove-End  scprlet,  the 
Downton,  Sir  Oi'orjfe  Mackenzie's  I  »te  scarlet,  Nova 
'Scotia  scarlet,  Pruliflc  hautboys,  and  KeuTi's  seedling,  may 
>e  noticed  amoii^'  hundreds  of  others.     Latterly,  some 
poor  sorts  may  have  been  banished  from  the  market,  and 
given   place  to  Keen's  seedling,  which  combines  goo<l 
flavour  with  largeness  of  size,  and  is  an  excellent  1)earer. 
The  object  in  cultivating  so  many  varieties  is  to  obtain  a 
succession  of  fruit  through  the  season,  some  sorts  ripen- 
ing and  being  ready  for  market  in   May,  while  others 
come  to  maturity  in  the  course  of  Juno  and  July.     It 
should   bo  undorstootl,  however,  that  it  is  only  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  London  that  the  successive  cropping 
of  strawlK^rries,  or  the  forcing  of  thorn  at  particular  sea- 
sons, is  methodically  conducted   on  a  large  scale.     In 
most  parts  of  the  country,  the  vicinity  of  Edinburgh  in- 
cluded, the  fruit  in  its  dilTerent  varieties  comes  almost  at 
once  into  the  market,  the  seaxoii    lasting   about   three 
wreks,  and  then  all  is  over.     The  exceeding  precarious- 
nesH  of  the  crop,  from   the  chance   damage   of  rains, 
makes  the  rearing  of  strawberries  a  business  of  little 
profit,  and  lately  it  has  been  abandoned  by  a  number  of 
our   market   gardeners.     This  is  a  circumstance  to  lie 
regretted,  and  we  should  hope  that,  by  a  greater  attention 
to  the  cultivation  of  Inle  sorts,  which  would  not  arrive  at 
maturity  till  late  in  July  and  in  August,  a  greater  degree 
of  success  in  rearing  might  lie  secured. 

The  following  comprehend  the  general  direction.!  for 
culture : —  The  seaxons  for  planting  arc  March  or  Sep- 
tember. I'he  s<iil  that  all  atTi-ct  is  a  rich  unctuous  loam, 
trenched  to  the  depth  of  two  feet  The  lieiit  and  strongest 
rooted  runners  of  July  are  always  to  be  preferred  ;  an<l 
these  should  ho  plaiitinl  at  the  [wriods  above  named,  with 
all  their  roots,  into  bods  or  borders  recently  prepare<I. 
Many  persons  retain  their  beds  or  rows,  during  an  indefi- 
nite number  of  years,  in  a  tolerable  state  of  fertility ;  but 
the  triennial  i^ystem  apjicars  to  cointiine  every  advantage, 
while  it  avoids  the  two  extremes  of  annual  renewals  and 
of  protracted  duration.  When  a  l»^d  is  formed  and  in 
full  bearing,  it  will  require  an  annual  surfacc-drcsfling  of 
loam  and  manure,  two  parts  of  the  former  to  one  of  the 
latter,  early  in  the  winter,  to  protect  the  plants  and  re- 
ceive the  new  rootn,  which  always  ari^  emiltwl  just  Indow 
the  lowest  leaf-stalks ;  in  March  the  old  leaves  ought  to 
be  all  cut  otf,  lenvjiig  the  hearts  untouched  ;  and  the  lH?d8 
should  l>c  cleared  of  litter  by  a  wootlen  ruke.  Prior  to 
the  fruit  l>eeoniing  ri|)e,  the  mowings  of  a  lawn  or  of  any 
soft  grass  laid  over  the  surface,  will  prevent  the  berries 
from  being  soileil  by  mould  or  worm-casts. 

Trifnniiil  Sijf'ein  nf  I'limtin^. —  1.  A  plot  or  border  of 
earth  h«uug  trcn  'Ikv],  as  before  dirctled,  select,  al\er  the 
first  rain  of  Scpt<"mt»er,  a  quantity  if  strong  and  well- 
rooted  runner-plant*,  and,  with  a  garden  fork  or  trowel, 
•et  them  one  by  one,  fresh  from  bed,  in  the  new  ground ; 
f  in  sir;gle  luiriler  row,  a  foot  apart ;  if  in  a  lied,  at  the 
same  dihlunce  i>lant  from  plant,  hut  the  ranks  two  feet 
isunder.  Fix  ea''h  plant  fr.inly,  and  givi-  water  over  it 
from  the  ri)s<?  of  a  waterin^f-pot.  If  u  wt  of  plants  lie 
Urns  merely  transferred  without  much  disturbance,  and 
watered  three  times,  few  will  fail.  Hi>e  the  ground  oc- 
casionally; and  prior  to  or  during  the  first  frost  sprinkle 
•i>inc  manure  over  and  around  the  plants,  and  lightly 
puss  the  wiMiden  rake  over  them.  .Sufler  no  blossom  to 
expand  in  the  following  spring,  but  leave  'he  plants  to 
«c<|uire  strength.  Stir  tha  ground  occasionally,  and  cut 
off  all  runners. 

2.   In  the  wiond  Heptembcr,  prepare  and  complete  a 
ror:t'»]iuii>lii;i;  plantation.     Manure  and  drewi  the  plants 


during  winter,  and  thote  of  No.  1  for  the  seconu  *«». 
and  in  March  trim  off  the  old  leaves,  and  rake  the  iiir 
face.     Let  the  plants  of  No.  I  bear  their  full  comnl 
ment,  the  fruit  of  which  ought  to  be  early,  abunilant  anrl 
of  first-rate  quality. 

3.  In  September,  repeat  the  work,  and  thus  complet, 
the  plantations.  Treat  this  and  No.  2  exactly  rr  direrted 
for  No.  1 .  In  the  following  spring,  suffer  No.  1  to  hta 
a  second  crop.  No  2  its  first  crop,  and  obliterate  (he  bio* 
soms  of  No.  3.  In  the  September  of  the  fourth  »., 
dig  up  all  the  plants  of  No.  1 ,  turn  the  ground,  manure' 
and  replant  it.  Thus  the  routine  will  he  coipplcicj ;  , J 
'thus,  year  after  year,  there  will  he  a  plot  priii.rr,.„|„_  : 
one  of  the  three  stages ;  and  if,  with  each  approved  vj! 
riety,  a  similar  routine  course  be  adopted — am!  esneciallT 
if  a  plantation  be  formed  in  the  three  Bspecls,  east,  eoutk 
and  north,  the  last  undei  a  hedge  or  fence,  to  grrcrn  it 
from  the  wuth  sun — the  season  of  strawberrii-a  can  t« 
extended  between  the  latter  end  of  M.iy  and  the  middle 
of  Augtist.  For  the  latter  petlod.  Knight's  Elton  ji 
peculiarly  adapted ;  and  they  who  cr\n  at  that  time  conv 
mand  a  supply  of  a  fruit  so  fine  and  beoutiful,  will  hste 
ample  cause  for  sclf-cotigratulation. 

The  Cranberry. 
This  is  a  small  wild  fruit,  which  may  be  easily  cuitj. 
vated  in  gardens ;  the  piant  is  so  exceedingly  proJuoiive, 
that  1 10  bottles  (five  bottles  to  the  gallon)  have  hoen 
known  to  grow  within  a  space  of  two  and  a  half  sqmi, 
feet  The  berries  are  used  chiefly  for  tarts.  Oanherrr 
plants  require  a  very  moist  soil,  and  if  placed  near  i 
pond,  so  much  the  lietter.  Oive  them  some  lioij  eani 
and  in  dry  weather  let  thou;  be  frequently  irrij-atcd. 

The  Orapc  Vine. 

The  vine,  from  the  juice  of  whose  fruit  wine  is  msde 
by  a  process  of  fermentation,  is  a  plant  of  eastern  orim 
which,  in  the  course  of  ages,  has  l)een  introdnccd  intn  lU 
the  countries  of  southern  ond  central  Europe,  also  Eng. 
land.  Requiring  a  fine  climate,  it  will  not  hear  fruil  in 
the  open  air  farther  north  than  York,  and  it  is  onlv  in 
fine  seasons  and  in  goo<l  exposures,  that  its  fruit  is  north 
eating  even  in  the  southern  parts  of  Hrilain ;  in  scimt'i, 
the  grapes  grown  in  gardens  aliout  London  are  small,  and 
not  presentable  at  table.  In  the  north  of  France  and 
Oermariy  they  are  little  InUter,  and  we  do  not  reallv  eei 
fine  grap.es  of  a  proper  size  till  we  reach  Italy  or  Polo. 
gal.  In  ?'ngland,  however,  gra(>es  produced  in  hot. 
houses  surpass  in  size  and  flavour  the  fruit  of  the 
Portugal  vines. 

Throughout  the  continent,  the  practice  is  to  grow  vino 
in  large  fields,  either  on  plains  or  the  sides  of  hilli, 
which  arc  fully  ex()o»ed  to  the  sun.  They  are  trained  io 
rows,  tied  to  stakes,  and  are  pruned  to  a  height  of  n!»i\it 
four  or  five  feet;  on  the  Rhine,  they  seldom  exrced  thw 
or  four  feet;  and,  at  a  diFtance,  the  ground  hi  s  somewhat 
the  appearance  of  lieing  covered  with  slaki'd  N'ans  ot 
peas.  In  Italy,  the  vines  ore  trimmeil  to  a  greater  hfijht, 
and  are  made  to  cling  to  horizontal  palings,  as  if  from 
the  roof  of  a  hot-house. 

To  those  in  the  southern  ports  of  England  who  derire 
to  rear  the  vine  in  gardens  and  on  walls,  we  otfrr  Ihei'oi. 
lowing  directions : — The  vnrirties  most  suitalde  fnrcul- 
tore  arc — 1.  'llie  White  sweet  water,  with  round  Urrifs, 
somewhat  tinged  with  yellow,  and  faintly  streaked  with 
reil  on  the  sunny  si ' '  2.  The  While  muscadine,  liuiicha 
rather  liiose,  berries  .  'it  very  large,  yellowish,  andahound. 
ing  with  saccharine  j  i"c.  3.  The  Sniall  black  iliijler, 
with  lierries  tielween  red  and  purple,  closely  packel,  v»ry 
sweet,  and  luscious  i"  flavour.  1.  Turner's  Imrdy,  iirthl 
KsiM'-ioru;,  a  fruitful  tree,  and  very  certain  Is-arer;  Umti 
of  medium  size,  varying  from  dark-red  to  dcepiHli-imrplft 

Mr.  lltwre's  Ir.atise  on  the  vine  bos  addeit  iii![nrtjiii. 
ance  to  the  culture  of  this  grai  rful  tree,  -iiid  li-.i.-  itniin 


THE   FRT-nC   GARDEN 


ireu.  I'k'''  '^P""  '''"  ''■*"'''"•"''  i'  rcquirofc  Our  limits 
I  ,(,jj  yg  to  recur  to  the  etatcinentK  tlicrcin  givpn,  and  wo 
nn  only  observe,  that  no  one  who  poKKcuscs  a  gnblc-cnd, 

brick-witUed  hoiiKo,  or,  indeed,  n  wall  or  fenoe  ol  any 
kinil  need  l>e  witliont  a  vine ;  it  aflcrts  no  richnesH  of 
■oil  but  will  urow  on  the  slmllowest  ({round,  over  and  in 
fhaltc  or  rixk  of  any  dnwription ;  yet,  if  a  border  can  lie 
formed  with  a  dry  and  well-drained  bottom,  the  tree  will 
he  rendered  more  vigorous,  though  the  fruit  may  not  be 
eiallcd  ill  flavour. 

A  sound  turfy  loam,  to  the  depth  of  ei);htecn  inches, 
rendered  oikmi  by  small  fragments  of  old  lime-rubbish, 
«nd  8  portion  of  crUHhed  bones,  will  support  any  vine, 
tnd  promote  its  fertility ;  and  these  materials  ran  Ins  in- 
troduced by  deu''<'''s.  tirst  near  the  roots,  then  at  a  greater 
(Jiitancc  to  replace  a  corresponding  quantity  of  old  soil ; 
thus  little  exjiense  will  be  incurred,  and  still  less  labour. 
But  if  a  new  border  be  contemplated,  and  outlay  be  not 
(onsiiicriid,  it  will,  of  course,  he  l)cst  to  complete  the  work 
in  the  first  instance. 

Vines  arc  propntratcd  by  single  eyes,  by  cuttings,  and 
by  layers,  placed  in  pots  when  it  is  intended  to  remove 
|!ie  plants  to  borders  or  vini-rios.  The  soil  should  be  a 
licht  rich  sandy  earth,  or  jx-rfectly  decayed  manure,  and 
nnd,  in  equal  parts ;  but  they  who  wish  to  raise  vines 
without  loss  of  time,  should  plant  cuttings  taken  from 
?ine»  of  known  fertility,  and  of  the  yearling  shoots  which 
ire  themselves  actually  fruitful.  Each  should  La"e  three 
told  eyes  on  the  young  wood,  and  each  should  retain  at 
il3  base  a  small  piece  of  the  previous  year's  wood.  The 
Kason  for  plantin;?  is  the  montli  of  March,  and  the  me- 
thod very  simple.  Dibble  a  hole  from  four  to  six  inches 
ill  front  of  the  wall  or  fence,  deep  enough  to  receive  the 
fiitire  cutting.  Mix  tofjethcr  equal  parts  of  black  leaf- 
nouid  and  white  sand ;  put  in  the  hole  enough  of  this 
to  raise  the  bottom  one  inch,  and  rain  it  hard  with  a  blunt 
llick;  then  insert  the  rutting,  and  hold  it  firm  in  the 
centre  of  llie  hole,  while  that  is  filled  brimful  with  the 
compost,  which  is  brought  into  still  closer  contact  with 
(he  fhoot  bv  pouring  water  into  it  two  or  three  times. 
Make  the  ijroimd  ipjiti'  even,  and  its  surface  level  with 
the  up[)ermcist  Inid,  Ibc-n  cover  the  cutting  with  a  small  j 
hmd-ijlass.  If  the  ground  is  kept  moderately  moist,  not 
two  cuttini;s  in  a  dozen  will  fail.  If  more  tbnn  one  shoot  ' 
brenk,  and  allnin  the  height  of  five  or  six  i..chcs,  the  i 
itroni;er  only  should  be  ri-uincd,  sliiiping  the  otlier  ofl"  I 
tvlow  ground.  This  shoot  must  grow  till  its  point  Ih'- 
ivnic  spindling,  when  it  should  be  nipped  back  ;  and  all  ' 
tuturc  growth  sbuiild  In*  thus  stopped  above  its  lowest 
li-af,  as  also  the  lii'erals  that  appear  during  the  growth  of  | 
the  main  shoot,  (ircat  cave  inu'st  be  taken  to  keep  the 
\i!ie  regularly  nailed  and  secured  by  soft  and  roomy  ties, 
li  prevent  aci'idcnt,  and  the  danger  of  Iwing  snap[)cJ  by 
the  wind. 

.\8  the  aspects  suitable  to  the  vine  are  confined  be- 
twi'en  south-east  and  a  small  point  to  the  west  of  south, 
I'.w  ultings,  if  not  duly  supplieil  with  water,  may  be 
ilriiiightcd  imd  \trU\\  before  they  become  completely  fitr- 
nished  with  roots;  but  when  once  estalilished,  the  main 
shoot  will  grow  rapidly,  perhaps  attaining  the  height  of  ;i 
rnnimrtii  fnre,  and  ripen  their  wood  early.  In  the  end 
of  Scptemlier,  let  each  be  cut  down  to  nn  inch  above  the 
three  lowest  buds  ;  miib'li  the  ground  around  the  stems 
i:ij  over  the  roots  :\^  winter  a[ipri)aches,  and  watch  the 
•pring  progress  of  ih:'  eyes.  If  possible,  obtain  and  se- 
■iire  two  equal  slioots ;  and  if  the  wall  or  fence  be  from 
eiiiht  to  ten  feet  bi;h  or  more,  lead  the«<'  shoiit.s  horizotf- 
lally  right  and  left  about  nix  iixdios  above  the  soil,  and 
secure  them  liy  shreds  and  'laiis.  If  the  wall  be  six  feet 
or  under,  retain  but  one  strong  shoot,  and  train  it  perpen- 
iliiiilarly.  In  September,  cut  back  according  to  the 
Kri'ugth;  thus,  if  the  wochI  of  the  single  rod  last  men- 
lionM  measure  from  otu'-third  to  half  an  inch  in  thick- 
OCM,  tiid  the  eyes  be  full,  and  from  four  to  lix  inches 


apart,  cut  the  shoot  ..  im-  ,  of  the  fence,  removing  alan 
the  remains  of  all  In:  and  tendrils.     The  two  hori- 

zontals will  perhaps  bt.  rather  slighter,  yet  if  they  be 
fully  ripe,  and  furnished  with  bold  eyes,  they  may  be  left 
llirec  or  four  feet  long  on  each  side  of  tlic  short  main 
stem,  but  all  the  buds  on  the  under  side  of  each  must  be 
cut  away;  mulch  the  gtoimd  as  before;  and  in  March 
following  fork  in  the  manure. 

I'tariiiK  Cniidi  hii  of  I  he  I'ljie. — The  fourth  spring  will 
find  the  vines  in  a  fruitful  state ;  but  previously,  the  tree* 
prepared  for  a  dwarf  fence  should  be  so  pruned  as  to 
rctuin  but  three  horizontal  branches  on  each  side  of  tha 
main  stt^ns,  about  eighteen  inches  asunder,  the  inter 
mediate  branches  being  cut  back  to  their  lowest  bold  cya 
lieyond  the  stem.  This  eye  is  designed  to  jiroduce  a 
new  shoot,  to  take  the  place  of  the  bearing  shoot,  which, 
after  the  fruit  is  taken,  must  lie  cut  away.  Thus  the 
vino  will  henceforwaril  produce,  year  by  year,  two  ayi^ 
terns  of  branches,  one  of  which  will  comprise  year-old 
bearing  wood,  the  other  a  corresponding  scries  of  green 
wood,  which  will  produce  the  fruit  of  the  following  year. 
This  description  would  almost  suffice  to  elucidate  the 
habits  of  the  vine ;  yet,  to  leave  no  doubt  on  a  subject 
which  involves  the  entire  theory  of  pruning,  it  will  be 
understood  that  this  tree  bears  its  fruit  solely  upon  the 
gre<'n  shoots  of  the  present  year,  which  Kpring  from  the 
eyes  of  the  [)alc-brown  wood  of  the  previous  j  ear  When, 
therefore,  a  vine  is  of  age,  and  has  oecjuirod  wfl^cicnl 
strength  to  support  a  cron  of  fruit,  it  will  generally  be 
wise  to  provide  a  new  series  of  bearing  wood  every  year 
tiecausc  the  fruit  of  new  wood  (in  the  while  varietiee 
particularly)  is  always  superior.  In  this  horizontal  niter- 
nate  system  for  low  '"  nces,  each  new  branch  may  safclj 
be  pernulted  to  extend  itself  at  least  two  joints  beyond 
its  predecessor,  always  remembering  to  e»it  back,  early  ia 
the  autumn,  to  a  short  distance  above  a  bold  eye  seated 
on  p'-rfectly  ripe  wood ;  for  thus  the  tree  will  ae<)uira 
strength  and  extent  at  the  same  time ;  and  experience 
proves  that,  in  ordinary  circumstances,  the  fertility  of  a 
tree  should  be  moderated,  and  kept  below  the  supporting 
power. 

The  trees  on  the  second  system  of  training  for  high 
walls  must  be  pruned  in  a  similar  manner,  and  upon  cor- 
responiling  principles.  In  the  autumn  of  the  third  year 
three  out  of  four  branches  will  be  cut  down  to  the  lowest 
bold  eye,  and  a  few  vertical  shoots,  from  thirty  inches  to 
a  yard  apart,  will  remain  ;  and  these  also  must  be  pruned 
to  a  strong  eye  situated  on  mature  wood.  This  system 
will  furnish  new  bearing-wood  every  year,  increasing  in 
length  as  the  power  of  the  tree  augments;  while,  also, 
the  low  horizontal  stems  will  extend  f,radually  in  duo 
proportion.  At  first  one,  or  at  most  two  bunches,  must 
l)c  permitted  to  remain  upon  each  upright  branch.  In 
the  fifth  season,  a  griatercrop  may  be  lakon,  always,  how- 
ever, remembering  to  restrict  the  fertility  of  the  vine, 
for  by  so  doing,  its  .egctating  power  will  keep  in  the  ad- 
vance, till,  in  the  end,  the  entire  fence  will  lie  filled  with 
vigorous  branches,  annually  renewed,  from  which  a  very 
heavy  crop  may  be  giUhcrcd,  without  tasking  the  vine  'a 
any  degree  that  shall  produce  debility. 

The  spur  system  of  pruning  back  the  bearing  shoit 
nnnunlly,  may  occasionally  lie  adopted  with  black  grape?, 
and  not  without  advantage  ;  yet  the  system  of  yearly  re- 
newal leaves  the  vine  at  the  entire  command  of  the  pruner, 
and  procures  large  clusters  of  fruit.  The  few  lemnrkl 
above  olTcred  ?nler  little  into  minutiae,  but  they  ^ilucidate 
general  principles;  and  if  applied  juactically,  will,  we  b«;- 
lieve,  lead  to  improvement  in  Erapc-irro.vin?.  We  again 
profess  to  be  much  indelited  to  Mr.  Hoare.  and  recom- 
rnciiil  his  treatise  to  every  cultivator  of  the  vine. 

The  fruit  of  the  vine  grows  in  clusters  or  bunches,  as 
manv,  [lerhaps,  as  a  hundred  graiies  in  the  bunch.  It  ie 
not  desirable  that  so  many  should  cluster  together,  for, 
when  numennis,  they  are  apt  to  l)e  very  small,  anil  to  I* 


iMHIki^t 


860 


INFORMATION   FOR   Tii»;   i'EOPLE. 


•o  eoaipact  in  thn  mnmi,  that  tliowi  within  iln  not  ripen. 
BuncliOK  with  iiiiuiy  graiirn,  tlu'riTnro,  ihnulJ  be  tliinnol, 
by  clip|iiii;{  out  tlutwi  of  the  Hmiillrat  Mizc,  whii-ii  will 
•llow  the  other*  trt  grow  to  the  proper  dinirnsionH.  In 
»«ry  many  in«tiiMrc»,  Krii|M'n  urrown  on  wulln  in  (jiirdonit 
arc  spoiled  tiy  vermin,  tlw  iiittTsliceH  in  the  hunrhcH  lieini; 
oAen  filled  with  spiiler'H  wrlia  ami  inMTtt  of  dilliTent 
kindH.  All  (IiIh  ia  u  rrsull  of  rareleMncHH  in  not  keeping 
the  wallH  clean,  and  primiiiK  iind  otherwiM-  iittondiiiK  lu 
the  huiirhea.  As  u  prnventutivc,  let  the  walls  in  winter 
be  limo-waiihed,  inrludiiii;  all  brnncheH  of  the  vincK,  and 
take  soine  pains  to  remove  ull  vermin  which  appear  in 
tiio  fruit  season. 

Forniig. — Of  the  growinn  of  vines  in  liot-hoiises  or 
vineries,  it  is  notour  iiitenlion  to  speak;  liul  fur  the  clasH 
of  (lersons  whom  wo  uddn-sH,  the  following  at-cuunt  of  a 
method  for  forriii);  vinrs  in  humlilo  edificcK,  );iven  by  Mr. 
M-Intonh,  in  the  '■  Ori  hard,"  seems  so  suitable,  that  we 
lake  leave  to  otfer  it : — "  In  many  i)arts  of  tlio  continent, 
■nJ  even  in  some  few  inxtances  in  tluH  country,  vines  uro 
forre<l  in  very  humble  edifices.  The  Dutch,  Flemiin^s, 
and  Germans  use  pits,  oflen  not  exceeding  three  ur  lour 
feet  in  depth.  Thcxe  are  Fometinu'S  heati  by  dung  or 
tan  beinjir  placed  within  them,  which  i;ive  out  a  mild, 
humid  heat,  serviceable  to  the  vine  while  the  buds  are 
brrakinit;  and  this,  with  the  proper  huHl>aiidinK  of  the 
•olar  heat  by  judicious  ventilation,  is  olUn  found  sutricieiit 
to  produce  ripe  (grapes  at  an  eurly  period.  Other  iiiKtances 
occur  of  such  pits  iH-iuK  heated  by  a  smoke  Hue,  to  which 
very  mcxlerate  firi-s  are  applied.  Hut  what  is  most  novid 
ill  these  piUs  is,  the  vines  beiiii?  planted  outoide — the  wood 
tiiat  is  to  proiluce  the  fruit  is  trained  under  the  ^hiK.s 
within,  while  the  youiiR  wockI  for  succeediiiR  crops  is  al- 
lowed to  grow  without,  '.vhire,  under  a  bri;Iiter  sunshine 
than  we  enjoy,  the  wokI  becomcH  i>erfcctly  ri|M'Med,  and 
when  the  crop  is  gathered,  the  old  wmxl,  or  that  which 
produced  frciit  this  year,  n  entirely  cut  out  and  replaced  I 
with  the  young  wood  hitherto  growing  without  the  pit.  i 
Vines  ere  also  ripened  on  the  continent  by  having  glass  j 
firaines  placed  against  llie  wall  on  which  they  grow,  about  i 
the  time  the  tVuit  is  half  or  three  ])arts  swelled,  at  whi^'li  [ 
period  thow-  glasses  are  not  ui  use  wliich  have  In-en  em-  • 
ployed  in  (micIii:;  early  ero|)s  of  melons,  salads,  iSie.  The 
■olar  heal  collecii'd  In  llii-s  contrivance  ripens  the  fruit  [ 
well,  and  fully  matures  the  woixi  for  the  folldwiiig  season. 
We  have  it  in  conleinplilioii,  founded  upon  the  hucccss 
ot  this  mode,  which  we  !i,ive  often  witnesseil  on  the  eon- 
tjnent  witli  adjniralion,  to  erect  a  portabb'  structure  in 
the  new  iritniens  now  |>re{iaring  for  bistiraee  the  Ihike 
(H  Hu'vlench,  nt  Ualkeiili  I'ulice,  Mild  ol  whii  ii  the  t'ol- 
lowing  biiet  desriptiiii  will  con\ey  a  sull'icient  iilea  : — 
Suppiising  a  south  wall,  built  hollow  and  heated  with  hot 
water  (as  all  our  walls  are  to  Ik'),  Im'  planted  with  the 
early  ri)H'niiig  sorts  of  grapes,  lattr  pt'aches,  and  some  of 
the  best  late  ri|ieiiing  pluinn,  such  us(.'ix:'s  (iulden  Drop 
&o.  Till'  Irii's  not  to  beexcitml  in  spring  (which  should 
never  lie  attempted  with  hot  walls),  but  rather  retarded  , 
in  their  hlo-isomin.;.  by  kee[iing  the  bianches  us  far  from  ' 
tlie  wall  as  jMinsible  till  they  begin  to  blossom,  tit  which 
time  they  are  to  be  laiil  in  to  the  wall,  and  the  blossom 
protected  with  thin  eaiiviis  awnings,  particularly  di  ring 
night.  In  July,  at  which  period  the  roof-sashes  of  the 
early  forced  )>eaeh-liou»es  and  vineries  will  be  removed, 
these  are  intended  to  lie  employed  to  cover  the  above  wall 
in  the  following  manner: — \  permanent  stone  curb.tvvelve 
inches  hi^'h  or  more  (or  a  wcxxlen  plank  of  the  same 
height  will  answer  as  well),  is  laid  along  parallel  to  the 
l>ottom  of  the  wall,  and  at  two  li.'e*  distance  from  iL  'J'his 
curb  is  furnished  with  a  groove  u;)  inch  and  a  half  deep 
and  three  inches  wide,  to  receive  the  iKilfoin  rail  of  the 
aushes,  the  top  rail  to  run  in  a  corresponili'ig  groove,  in  a 
batten  of  wootl  fixed  to  permnncnt  brackets  near  the  top 
af  the  wall,  the  distance  between  the  top  and  bottom 
t(io:j\f»  u>  be  equal  to  the  length  of  the  sashes,  the  bottom  ^ 


rail  of  eacli  lash  to  lie  furnished  with  I  vo  oriw  roii«n.i, 
facilitate  their  movement.  ''•<•  glasses,  it  will  ((,„, 
|iear,  will  i>tand  porpendi  mU.  .>  the  wall,  and  at  i 
feet  from  it,  and  ventilati  'c  iiid  the  necesMiry  oiieraii  ' 
of  pruning,  gathering,  dre.,  cuii  bo  carried  on  fro,,,  ^H"' 
out,  the  liglils  being  made  to  puss  eiu-h  -itlicr  in  ihl! 
grooves,  as  in  the  muiiner  of  what  is  calleil  barrack  » 

i  dows.     The  concentration  of  solar  heal  in  August,  S. 

]  teinlier,  and  October,   with   the   fiower  of  upijlvjng  r 
heat  by  means  of  tlio  hot  water  pipes  jn  the  walls  wh  h 
may  be  safely  used  as  soon  osthe  glasses  are  put,  ^.m 
only  ripen  our  best   autumn  fruits,  but  also  inntiirc  th 
wooil  and  buds  for  .succeeding  crops.     ( irupis  nnd  (ilum 
may  be  (irolonged  by  this  iiHxle,  we  think  till  ("hristnu. 
or  indeed  until  the  ghi'ses  be  re(|uire(l  to  1«(  again  iiui 
the  cur'y  forcing-housi-s;  and  our  finest  Fleniisli  peu, 
late  jieaches,  and  nectarines,   which  do  not  olten  rinB 
well  in  England  on  the  o|>en  wall,  and  never  in  Hcotlanl 
will  lie  brought  to  the  highest  peileiaion.     Ihit  walls  w 
have  long  ago  proved  to  be  of  little  or  no  valiu;  in  siirim, 
but  their  efficacy  in  autumn  no  one  can  doubt,  and  their 
utility  will  bo  greatly  increased  by  having  this  coveriii. 
of  glass  before  them." 

Korinfornmtinn  res[)ccting  the  construction  and  manam. 
inent  of  hot-houses  and  green-houses,  we  reler  to  Loudoii'i 
"  Km  ycloji-Tdia  of  (Jardeniiig,"  also  to  the  beautiful  wo'lu 
of  i\Ir.  M'lntosh  (Orr  &.  Co.,  London). 

Miscii:Li.ANeous  rRUiT.s. 
The  following  ire  fruits  which  cannot  lie  strictly  rsnkri 
among  the  preceding  claH.s»'.s,  and  are  grown  almouiej. 
clunively  in  gardens  of  a  high  (.rdcr : — 

niK.  Fig 

The  fig-tree  is  a  delicate  e.i;otic  like  the  grnpr-vino,  tni 
great  care  is  required  to  brine  crops  of  the  fruit  to  main, 
rity  ill  the  open  uir.  'i'here  are  many  kinds  of  tlie  (ij, 
tree,  but  the  greater  number  are  adapted  to  culture  only 
under  glass.  The  following  are  four  excellent  kinds;— 
The  Urown  Tschia;  fruit  large,  rather  glolmlar;  hrowt 
pulp  ;  purplish-red  ;  very  rich  in  llavoiir,  iuid  [ncllinifi 
ri|s'iis  in  .\ii:;usl.  Brown  Naples,  colour  bnnvii  wii!|. 
out  and  wiihin  ;  n  hardy  f-iiilful  tree.  The  Large  Bluo 
or  Purple  Fig,  like  the  Drown  Naples,  ripens  abotl 
.\ugnst.  It  is  one  of  the  best  fig-tiees;  fruit  long  anjol 
regular  figure;  pulp  red;  of  licli  and  fine  navonr.  Lcc'i 
lVr|H'tuul  Bean  r,  which  is  well  ipialified  for  genllefordriB 
in  pots.  'I'he  best  soil  fiir  fig-trees  is  a  lii^'lit  fn.sh  loi.ii' 
liiit  the  chief  essential  to  proimflb  fertility  is  a  hard  a-.J 
dry  bottom  of  chalk,  gravel,  or  artificial  pavement;  a  iln 
substratum  and  little  depth  of  soil  (tbat  is,  t'ro.n  one  loii 
to  eighteen  inches)  are  therefore  what  the  gardener  niu.st 
provide,  if  he  expects  to  render  the  trees  perinancnlJy 
fruitful. 

Cul'ur-  (inil  Trdiiiitiii. —  Uotli  are  ex''eniely  cm 
Kogers  says,  and  very  jnsily — ^  'I'liat  the  knife  is  wMoai 
wanted"  (that  is,  in  shortening;  tboui;h  'V(jii  thou, 
treme  luxuriance  of  the  wood,  it  is  iVeiiueiillv  iiecossarv 
to  cut  out  many  entire  shoots)  ;  "  piiiuhini,'  dll'lhe  poinli 
of  the  young  shoots  during  the  months  of  .May  and  June 
with  the  thumb  and  linger,  is  the  mo-t  elli'i  :ual  |iruniii8." 
.Mr.  Knight  restricted  himself  to  coiiipressiiji;  the  poi.iti 
of  the  green  shoots  till  the  substance  .vus  Ii  it  lo  yiiU 
under  the  finger  and  thumb,  by  which  pres.^ure  a  ilicrk 
is  given  to  luxuriance,  and  the  milky  sap  is  diverted  tol!i« 
embryo  fruit,  which  lies  embedded  ui  the  base  of  lach 
leaf-slnlk. 

Hut  to  secure  fruit  in  due  season,  the  jiruner  muslrf- 
collect  that,  in  Italy  and  the  south  of  Eiirope,  t«\>  itii|» 
of  figs  are  priKlucei'  yearly,  'i'hose  large  tigs  which  are 
seen  on  fruitful  trees  here  late  in  suninier,  are  di'Hlo|d 
in  spring,  and  would  ripen  early  in  a  warm  eliiiiiit(  ;  lut 
our  winters  check  their  progress,  and  gcneriilly  diiilroy 
tliem.     The  crop  which  ri{x.'ns  in  .\'ijui>l  ii>  devU<j,<«l 


'T. 


THE  FRI/IT  OA  ;i>r^ 


Ml 


l,l«  m  the  precwlinff  Bumnicni,  und  is  extremely  minute, 
IraMt  in*isil'l">  '"  ''^•'[•temlier :  it  in  situatn  iic«r  the  ter- 
minalion"  '^^  thow  grri'n  Hhoots  which  iiave  licnn  pini'hrd 

comn"'""''''  •  '•""■i''"™  f  10  Inrgo  green  fins  (which  liiivc 
nropt'flv  '*'■"  •'■■'"i'"'  ''c'l/iii'ii,'  cunimlirdHics)  hIiouIiI  ho 
V,p||„.fi|  by  mill  A\inuHt,  atid  then  it  will  freqiicnlly  lie 

^  that  two  niiniile  enihryns  furm  in  lieu  of  thii  one  ; 

J  ihow,  it  the  tree  he  protected,  will  ripen  ut  the  sea- 
ion  mentioned.     An  to  protection,  it  will  ho  proper  to  un- 

■|  ,f,ii  iH'nd  down  the  U[)pcr  hIiooIh,  so  as  to  hriiiji  thnn 
I  ,^  p,„loriile  eoinpiHH,  then  to  puiM  a  few  f'.inw  hiiniln 
•nions  anil  across  them,  und  finally  to  c(  ^er  llie  whole 
^th  a  nint  or  eanvan  Hlieet. 

In  Apii'.  •"'"  '"•  "'raisht  and  regularly,  all  the  hear- 
j  .  ^00,1 ;  and  ;in  iho  trees  urow,  kuO't  the  l)i"u«t  wood 
to  curve  forward  at  its  pleasure,  pi  i  >  ;  tlie  points  us 
ilircctcd.  Not  o'lo  shoot  is  to  he  cut  f'..  ''"r  ;  hut  if  tiie 
vrooil  heroine  redundinit,  so.ne  hraiicl;  ;  hieji  obscure 
tlic  fruit  fihould  h«  entii  /  removed,  reserving  that  which 
nill  niiinil'''''b'  ''■'  'Pr'''",  and  -.vjiich  can  bo  duly  trained 
In  at  lliP  regulation  of  the  following  spring. 

'Hie  Killicrt. 

The  filliert  is  believed  to  he  an  improved  variety  of  tlio 
coinnwn  h,izel-tnit.  Uotli  plitits  arc  monceciouH  ;  tliat  is, 
tbeV  proihice  male  and  (iuit'ul  blosHoms  very  early  in  the 
year  on  llie  same  tree,  but  separate  from  each  other ;  the 
aitkins  thai  l)ecome  visible  in  autumn  arc  the  niahs  or 
nolien-licariii;;  (lowers :  the  crimstDi  tliredds  arc  the  poinl- 
alsof  Ihcfrlile  nut-bearini;  flowers.  Aj  the  tre  are 
.„m„,,l_spurred,  as  '  3  termed — in  autumn,  care  must 
tx' taken  to  re •  .e  a  nuniber  of  catkins,  otherwise  the 
crimson  poin'  '  ill  fail  to  perfect  the  nuts.  'I'he  chief 
Mrietitu  of  the  .•"'rt  arc  the  Ued-8kinned,  the  Wliile- 
SkiiincJ,  and  the  ('ob  or  Ilarcelona-nut.  The  following 
jrt  the  methods  of  culture ; — Strong  surkers,  taken  in 
mi'iimn,  are  li.'icr  planted  in  'ho  iiursery,  or  at  once  in 
the  places  wheie  they  are  to  remain  ;  and  these  grow 
three  or  four  years,  and  are  then  cut  down  within  a  few 
inches  of  the  ground.  From  the  stem  sev<Tal  strong 
shoots  are  protluced,  which,  in  the  second  year  after  cut- 
tin"  down,  are  gerier.dly  shortened  by  one-third  of  their 
lenglli.  Regular  figure  and  an  open  head  are  procured 
by  placing  a  small  hoof  within  the  branches,  to  which  liio 
ihools  are  fastened  at  regular  distances.  In  the  Ihinl 
year.iui  llie  Imsli  approaches  maturity,  short  shoots  (spur.- ; 
gprin;  fioni  the  eyes,  and   arc  sulfered  to   grow  till  the 

utumn,  when  they  are  cut  back  nearly  to  their  origin, 
whilst,  al=J,  the  Lading  shoota  of  tlio  previous  year  are 
shortcniil  Iwci-thirJs. 

In  the  following  spring,  several  small  shoots  arise  from 
fee  hine  of  the  small  branches  which  were  cut  olV  the  pre- 
cedini;  autumn,  in  conseijui'iice  of  the  curtailment  of 
theleiiiling  trained  branches,  and  U|)<)n  these  secondary 
jputB  the  Iruil  may  bo  exiH'ctrd  ;  these  shoots  augment 
in  number  yearly,  iiisomudi  that  lutuiy  must  be  C4wl: 


away.  'lie  lnrgo«t  are  removed;  the  lefsier  reinain 
lieing  m  fertile  in  their  habit.  Many  decay  yearly  , 
but  whc'  r  they  do  so  or  not,  thoin  which  have  iMirim 
t1ll>crtd  a  always  cut  away,  and  afresh  lueccssion  pro- 
vided as  I  ilure  hearers.  The  leading  shoot  is  every  year 
Hhortened  two-thirds  01  more,  if  the  tree  ho  weak,  and 
tlio  whole  height  of  the  brunches  must  not  exceed  six 
fei  In  order  10  strengthen  the  tree  as  much  as  possi- 
ble, the  suckers  of  the  roots  are  eradicated,  by  exposing 
the  roots,  at  a  niudcrate  distance  from  the  stem,  to  the 
frost.  'I'ho  excavation  U  in  the  spring  filled  with 
inaniiru. 

The  cropi  thus  produced  are  aometimei  enormous, 
followed,  however,  by  intervals  of  barrenness.  We 
have  not  heretofore  adopt<;d  the  method  of  pruning, 
leaving  the  trees  uv -e  to  the  order  of  nature;  but  it  is 
ri^lit  to  try  experimciits;  end  when  a  row  of  young  trees 
exists,  a  compurison  might  readily  be  obtained,  by  prun- 
iii;;  alternate  trees,  or  one  of  every  three  trees,  by  the 
"spur-system  ;"  ulwoys,  however,  observing  to  keep  the 
lickd  of  vvcry  tree  open,  and  to  cut  away  its  upright  cen 
trul  linider. 

The  Mulberry. 
The  n'Mlberry  is  a  native  of  Italy,  introduced  in  1648 
M,.  si  I  ore  of  its  flowers  and  fruit  is  very  singular; 
like  the  nut  and  filbert,  the  males  arc  distinct  from  the 
fi'inales  ;  the  latter  do  not  nKvays  expand  ut  the  same 
;  me  as  ine  males,  and  therefore  arc  not  fertilizeu.  Tlie 
idyx  flwells  and  l)ccomes  fleshy  ;  each  individual  contains 
one  or  two  seeds ;  and  a  congeries  of  these  swollen  ot- 
gat  '  form  what  is  supposed  to  bo  a  single  mulberry. 
Til  I'  is  hut  one  known  species  of  the  black  mulberry, 
and  this  thrives  best  in  loam,  of  the  quality  so  ofion 
named ;  but  the  bed  ought  to  bo  deep,  and  to  rest  on  a 
dry  sandy  tubsoil.  The  fruit  sometimes  fails ;  and  on 
this  sul^eit  Rogero  observes,  that  fertility  may  depend 
very  much  on  the  warmth  of  the  weather  at  the  time  of 
blo.sHomin,!5,  anii  on  the  circuin.stances  of  bolh  male  and 
lennde  flowers  coining  forth  at  the  same  time  ;  sometimes, 
also,  the  male  calkins  drop  before  the  fruit  blossoms  ex 
pand.  Williams,  of  Pitmaston,  suggests  that  "no  tree 
ri,  c.>,:8  more  benefit  from  the  spade  and  dunghill  than 
(he  iiiuU)erry  ;  it  ought,  therefore,  to  lie  frequently  dug 
abiiut  the  roots,  and  occasionully  assisted  with  manure." 
Dlliers  consider  a  velvety  piece  of  turf  as  the  liest  site; 
and  certainly  if  the  finest  fruit  fall,  gra.ss  turf  must  pre- 
serve it  cliMU  and  sound.  We  have  known  several  old 
trer  i\  lurf  never  dug  or  disiuitel,  which  always  bore 
inn  1  ••  and  fine  crops;  on  the  other  hand  we  have  seen 
you  r  trees  on  dug  und  enriched  ground  fail  year  afler 
year.  '!;en  the  buds  expand  in  this  third  spring,  it  ia 
di'si  \blc  to  obtiiin  four  shoots  on  each  side  of  the  upright 

I  stem,  and  all  the  shoots  that  will   break  from  the  twe 
horizontals,  wliich  latter  ore  to  bo  led  upright,  and  aecuicd 
_  as  they  advance. 


f '^;Pi 


^91.  1.-7. 


ti'x: 


ARBOlJICULTURr.. 


The  Oak. 


8ciE!tTirir»LiT,  an  wr-ll  nii  popularly,  the  torm  Trrf> 
Inrludi'a  all  IIidso  plant*  wliirh  roiicli  n  contidiTahlH 
■taturr,  niul  pos-tOBs  HtciiiH  ninro  or  lc's^  milid.  They  arp, 
>•  all  must  kiinvv,  liy  fur  the  0[r;ii.iirst  ol>jtM-ts  in  tlir 
organic  worlil,  iind  tlioy  nrp  nut  nniornHt  the  Inist  clc- 
Itnnt.  Tlip  tiir.lipr  producrd  in  t!ip  Htrinx  idso  rondiTs 
tlu'in  nf  very  tjrrat  importance  in  maiiv  of  the  artn  etd- 
ftvMtpd  hy  iniiii.  and  in  none  more  ko  ilian  in  that  wliieh 
hnn  enaliled  him  from  rnten  lieynnd  historirnl  rerord  to 
Irantiport  hiinscIC  iirroAK  the  hosom  of  the  ileep,  and  rorn- 
municate  IVoni  one  land  to  another  the  various  pnxluc- 
liona  of  the  oarlh. 

Trpp«  are  divided,  with  a  reganl  to  their  Btrueturo, 
into  two  (jreat  Ha^KPS.  S  mtip,  which  »prinii  from  seeds 
of  more  than  oni-  jo)--,  i-  i.l  -irow  hy  additional  layers  on 
the  outside  of  the  i'?.  ii.  m-  !'*f  thesi'  reasons  resjierlively 
called  D'ru'ylr'ffi'i  ■  ,  iir  {'.xoufpnous  Trees;  others, 
which  sprini!  U(v,i  <(.ds  .f  one  lolie  only,  and  ;;row  hy 
additions  in  the  inf<rior  <!:'  llie  stem  (palm,  Kiiif.ir-iaiie, 
Ai".),  arcc.illed  Mitinn.j:  luiimif,  or  Kudojenous  Trees. 
A*  our  trealisp  reuards  the  practice  of  .irhori  ultnre  in 
our  own  country,  where  there  are  few  trees  of  (he  latter 
kind,  we  must  l<e  uiulcrstood  in  nil  general  dcscriplioiis 
to  refer  to  the  former  only,  unless  the  contrary  is  nien- 
tionrd. 

In  the  ori;;anization  and  organic  functions  of  trees,  as 
well  as  in  other  plants,  thi-re  is  some  general  aiialoiry 
to  ihosfi  of  animals.  Wlien  cut  across,  they  apisvir  to 
tlie  nakeil  ?ye  comjjosed  of  fibres  or  thready  sulistancp ; 
but  in  reality  tlic  snhstance  of  trees  is  almost  ;dloi»ether 
rompost^d  of  vessels  or  tuhcs,  thronvih  wliicl',  the  sap 
fljws,  liki-  hlood  in  the  veins  of  an  anim  d.  Seven  mil- 
lions of  tliesc  vessels  have  heen  counted  in  the  surface 
of  a  iMjuare  inch  of  wi><h!  !  'I'he  vessels  in  Irees,  like  llidse 
ill  animals,  are  of  ditlerent  si/.es ;  hut  it  his  U'cn  a-.ce*- 
laiiHid  that  tlii-re  is  nothinu  in  trees  performinir  the  saini" 
funrlions  us  the  heart  in  the  liiuher  classes  of  animils 
— tkat  ig,  pro|M'llini{  the  hlo  x'  throuuhont  the  systiin, 
And,  by  its  return  H);ani  to  the  heart,  completing  the  cir- 
ri!lation.  The  vessels  simply  e  (tend  from  one  end  of 
the  tree  lu  the  other,  Kometimes  joiriinu;  with  each  other, 
w  the  "ems  and  urleries  of  animals  do,  and.  moreover, 
exhihilini;  circlen  which,  when  tlie  tree  is  cut  across, 
ha»«  the  apiiea'ancc  of  rinps.  One  of  these  circles  of 
««MeU   f^rowb  round  the   uutaidu   of  the   tree    (under 

an 


the  bark)  every  jroar,  and  !■  called  nllnimun,  or  • 
wun<l,  while  the  inner  and  harder  matter  ii  called  '.. 
turn. 

A  tree  consists  of  four  principal  part* — the  Root  lU 
Trunk,  the  Urnnches,  and  the  lipaves. 

The  Unit  consists  of  two  parta — the  hixly  or  hiilh  of 
the  root,  ml  th"  Iour  hranch-like  fihres,  great  and  iiimll 
'vhich  disperse  thcmi'  •  abroad  into  the  wiil.  '|'|,' 
liody  of  the  root  dill'er  U'r  mi  Hulwtanee  from  thn  trunk, 
hut  the  rootleti  terr  iiuu  iti  (lender  H[ioni;y  threaj. 
tilted  for  ahsorbini;  the  »a_i  of  the  earth,  and  senilinj  ji 
up  into  the  rootlets,  whence  it  ascends  into  l|i,.  i,u^l 
It  is  olmerved  that  the  e;ulh  is  only  cxhausled  of  iti 
nourishing  ninitpr  in  the  neighbourhood  of  thoM  loA 
cxlrpniities  of  lli''  roo's. 

The  I'riink  is  lalled  hy  Linnmus  rmiilix  uncniltnt  n 
root  alsive  ground,  an  illustration  perhips  niorp  fiiicifiji 
than  real.  In  common  laniruage,  the  trunk  is  onen 
named  the  /  A- ,■  and  it  is  this  part  whih  ttllimln  ihf 
tindier  for  whu'h  fliost  trees  an;  reared.  I'he  trunk,  iuk! 
also  the  branches,  are  covered  with  hurk,  cousistiiiK  nf| 
serii's  of  thin  layers,  one  of  which  is  formed  (ni^ilih, 
tijnher)  every  year;  while  in  ti;e  oul.-ide  of  all  is  a  vcr» 
thin  Inyer  of  a  dilli'rent  suhst.Mice,  called  the  (  piilormii 
or  cuticle,  analogous  to  the  outer  skin  of  Ihe  human 
ImmIv,  'I'he  new  inner  layer  which  is  formed  cvctT 
year,  receives  the  name  of  Ulnr  ;  it  was  on  this  snlwtanct 
lh.it  the  ancients,  before  the  invention  of  printing;,  wftt 
accustomed  to  write;  and  lilii,  it  is  well  known,  is  the 
I.itin  word  for  u  book.  Within  Iha  hmk  is  the  wood 
consisting  chielly  of  vessels,  great  iind  small,  wlii|.li  niiiy 
he  turn  asunder  from  each  other,  unil  vshiih  are  em- 
ployed in  eonvc\ing  sap  to  the  upisT  extremiiii.,,  d, 
ihc  very  eenire  of  the  trunk  is  n  small  space  fiHod  vvith 
a  soil  suhslance  called  jii'li.  which  is  supposed  to  Iw  j 
rcsirvoir  I'f  nutritious  matter  for  the  development  of  the 
biiils  in  spring. 

"'he  hranden  reipiire  no  further  notice  than  that  thfj 
precis4  ly  rcM'mble  the  trunk  in  every  res|iect,  exceiit  tint 
(hey  are  up<iu  a  minor  scale  in  point  of  si/.e. 

'l"he  1  rnvrx  consist  princi)ially  of  tissue,  hkc  the 
trunk,  with  vessels  throimlmut,  and  an  external  ciitirlc 
enveloping  the  whole  ;  and  they  are  connecled  witli  the 
biani'h  by  a  small  stalk  called  \.\w  jnHnlf.  The  leaf  ii 
one  of  the  most  important  paits  of  the  whole  tree.  1)» 
a  niiwt  curious  jiroiess,  not  |Hrfectly  known  to  us,  thj 
criiile  sap  rises  through  the  wood,  in  the  niamier  just 
described,  anil  is  elabor.ited  or  jjrepared  into  juice  of  i 
more  nutritious  sort,  by  the  U'avi  s,  'J'hat  process,  ac 
cording  to  some,  is  etlected  by  means  of  an  alternate 
conlrailion  and  dilatation  of  the  sap-vessels,  ainl,  still 
more,  by  a  respiration,  perceptible  iind  im|srce[iiiMc,  in 
the  leaves,  and  h_\  the  aclioii  tA'  the  atmiispheio;  hut, 
aci'ordiug  to  othem,  it  is  rather  the  exhalalion  Irnm  the 
leaves,  than  what  are  properly  their  respiralor\  line- 
tioiis,  that  (  Hills  the  asceut  of  the  crude  sa|>.  It  is  thvn 
converted  into  proper  sap.  or  riinlniini,  and.  Ikmiik  .'iaeii 
fill  Ihi'  nutrition  of  the  whole  dee.  it  descends  liy  the 
Returning  vessi  Is  of  the  leaf-st.ilk,  and  the  loiigiiiuHnil 
vessels  of  the  rind  or  inner  bark.  .At  leni;tli  il  n-aiiipi 
t!ie  r>iois,  which  originally  supplied  the  crude  s.i|i  il..^(l£ 
'i'liis  elaborated  sap  is  like  liiiman  foml  di;;estcd  into 
chyle;  an<l  as  it  forms  the  only  rial  iiourishineiit  of  the 
tree,  it  becomes  apparent  that  Mil!  plant  must  decay  if 
Rtripjn'd  of  its  leaves. 

Siirh  is  an  outline  of  Ihe  economy  of  trees,  of  whici 
a  more  niinutc  uccimnt  has  been  already  given  in  Ihi 
article  on  Viuiltablk  Putjioluui. 


ARBORICULTURE. 


OLAUiri CATION   or  TRKII. 

In  •  ''""^  "'  •''""'<'u"""'i  'f'""  ni*y  bo  rinmifled  nc- 
eoriling  t"  'hrir  uncii;  for  rxaiiiple — 1.  'Vn-r*  which 
nriKluoe  itrtiglil  linilmr  for  irianU  ami  long  |ilunkii,  an 
Ihe  viirioii*  Irilw*  of  piium.  2.  Tree*  which  afford 
,|fP,|  linilMT  for  linrvii  or  liondu  Id  ihc  rib*  of  nhipH, 
Ac.  a«  lb"  o*!''  •wo<'t  clK'Htiuit,  broud-lcavcd  elm,  Sir., 
X  Ttce*  wiiich  Rivn  louuli  |>i(!C08  of  timber,  hh  the  yew, 
holly,  'born,  Rub,  biikory,  iiiuiibi,  laburnum,  Ac.  4. 
Hani-"""''  '''"''".  "*  ""'  ""''.  bi'ocb,  plane,  walnut,  1m)x, 
yiy  and  yi'vv.  ft.  Soft-wood  triHin,  an  the  po[ilur,  lur^e 
„illi)W  iii'X'i  liorM-ibeHlnul,  tftr.  6.  Wood  grown  for 
|l,.|ililc  "UikiTH.  iirid  Kprny,  to  form  boo|)(i,  hankctH,  be- 
nojnn,  l"'l<'"t  A-i'-i  '"*  '''"  'Iwif  willow,  bircli,  Ac.  To 
lln'H«  iii'iy  '"'  I'll''''''  woods  of  fori'iKo  urowlh,  an  row.-- 
hmkI,  BBtiiiwoiKl,  and  inubogany,  which  are  employed 
foromiiinentui  pnt|>o«cs. 

;^(:i'urdiii  '  Ui  another  claHniricutinn,  trcei  arc  arranged 
w  of  ibri'o  kinds  —  resinous,  hiird-wooded,  and  i»<)ft- 
w.iihW.  Those  wbii'h  arc  resinous  are  also  Ivrmed 
foriifi'''"""'  *''""  •'"''■■  priKlucint;  seeds  in  conen.  For 
the  siikc  ofcleurnrss,  wo  will  adopt  this  simple  arniiiKe- 
iiu'iit,  ronlining  ourselves  to  trees  which  may  bo  propa- 
pled  ill  Britain. 

Resinous  or  Conirernus  Trees. 

There  are  three  trilM's  of  these  trees,  one  of  which. 
the  .Miiu''"""' ''I'"  four  genera  cultivated  in  the  llrifish 
j^|ji,i|„ — the  Pious,  Abies,  I.arix,  and  ('edrus.  Of  each 
(hero  are  wvoral  s|)e('ies.  all  dislinu  lishrd  by  their  spi- 
pulnr  leaves,  their  cone-like  seed-podM,  and  their  resinous 
wood.  Each  may  be  easily  raised  in  nurseries  from 
letd.    The  more  common  species  is  the 

SioUh  I'ine,  or  Piinm  ni/tvrsliif. — This  is  a  fall  and 
generally  strniKht  tree,  with  few  branches  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  stem,  the  leaf  apparatus  beini^  contiTied  to  the 
lop  of  the  plant,  these  formirii»  a  massive  clump.  It  is 
indigenous  to  the  Highlamls  uf  Hcntbind  ;  but  little  that 
i«  generally  used  comes  from  the  foic  is  in  that  (piarter, 
Ihe  greater  proportion  being  imported  from  the  north  of 
Euro|ie,  where  a  variety  of  it  attains  great  perfection. 
For  litrong  beams  and  spars  recpiired  by  house-builders, 
this  timber  is  execedingly  suitable  ;  but  for  smoothiu'ss 
111(1  wluleiie.ss  of  fibre,  it  is  excelled  by  a  tree  of  niuch 
inferior  strenijlb — the  (janadian  pine  (/li/iiis  resi/Kwi). 
On  ai'couiit  of  the  hi'avy  import  duties  levied  on  foreign 
pine,  miii'h  of  Canadian  timber  is  employed  in  its  slead, 
being  llius  devoted  to  ])ur|)OBe8  lor  which  its  properties 
ns  way  qualify  if. 

Spru  e  Firf. — These  arc  a  well-known  genus  (J}hies) 
of  tliL*ConifcriB,  the  more  common  being  Ihe  Norway 
fir.  a  tree  which  attains  great  height,  but  no  great  bulk, 
ami  funiislics  white  deal  and  spars  of  inferior  si-«- ;  it 
is  also  very  :niitable  for  masts  and  poles  of  all  kinds. 
North  America  produces  three  speoiia  of  spruce,  the 
white,  red,  and  black,  each  esteemed  for  particular  uses 
connected  with  shi|>-buil(ling. 

The  Silver  Fii: — This  tree,  called  also  the  Pitch  Fir, 
displays  a  greater  depth  of  bra^iches  than  the  other  firs, 
anJ  becomes  a  majc.-itic  tree  on  arriving  at  full  age.  In 
tills  country  the  silver  firs  are  only  seen  as  objects  of 
ornament  mi  dressed  ground ;  but  how  thoy  would  an- 
iwcr  if  planted  closely  toi;clhcr,  iind  pruned  up  to  furm 
clear  l>utt.s  of  timber,  is  uncertain,  this  huving  never,  we 
lielicvc,  ln'cn  tried  in  ti\v>"'  kin;;diims.  The  ipiality  of 
tlic  silver  fir  timber  of  British  ,'rowth  is  yet  to  he  tested. 
TLd  coininoii  silver  lir,  the  balm  of  (Jilcad,  and  the  hem- 
loik  spruce,  have  leen  long  in  our  phasnre-grounds,  but 
the  yevv-lcaved.  Fislwr's,  Douglas's,  and  Fraser's  doublo 
Iwlsum,  are  only  in  nurseries  or  in  pine  |)reserve8. 

77ic  I.iirih. — Of  this  valuable  genus  there  are  several 
ipecies  frown  in  Britain  and  othi'r  countries;  the  more 
cominmis  the/n/i.r  euriijiim.  Th"  birch  is  the  most 
lie«ulifu\  in  figure  of  any  of  this  class  of  trees ;  shooting 


■tral|;ht  up,  it*  elegant  strtn,  taperi  iig  to  a  point,  li  fu>> 
iiished  with  peridulflua  bram-licR,  ornamenliid  with  deli« 
eatfl  il'iopiiig  spray.  Ifi  qualitin*  are  rapid  growili, 
flexibility,  and  durafiility  in  aituationi  l>«twe«n  wet  tnwl 
dry,  a  eircumitanco  (lerhaps  attributable  to  thn  (juanlily 
of  resin  in  its  (ibre.  In  many  part*  of  the  country  it  ia 
gradually  luperseding  the  eonniion  fir,  over  which  n 
possesHua  a  great  auperiority  in  point  of  ornamental 
erti'ct. 

'/'if  Ctilar  T.iirrh.—Th\H  tree  ii  remarkable  for  ita 
long  horizontal  and  ofUm  crooked  branches,  and  Iho 
great  mass  of  dark  green  ■ptenUr  foliage  with  which 
it  is  covered.  It  i«  a  native  of  the  mountains  of  Libanua 
and  other  high  n.jaeent  regions,  where  it  attains  great 
bulk,  atid  grows  to  a  very  long  age.  From  iu  •oleinn 
aspect,  it  ;'oi  11^  i  suitabla  accompaniment  to  eemoterioa 
or  eeclesiiislical  luildings.  and  also  for  soipiesterud  glena 
in  mountain  wxpcry,  or  for  extonaive  lawns. 

Hard- Wooded  Troei. 
In  thia  class  arc  included  a  large  numlwr  of  trfca 
wi'b         ch  every  one  is  familiar.     The  list  embrace! 
.       ''.  elm,  beech,  chestnut   walnut,  common, 
i»>cai  main    ash,    whiteberi  ::.    Bcaiia,    birch, 

will!  'teh  laburnum,  holly,  hazel,  liox,  elder 

I  ind  yew.      'I'he   following    are    the    prir^- 

c     ... 

TIf  'liis  tree  (the  ^iMrciu  of  Linni»iu)  ia  t)i« 

most  '(  all  the  timber  trees  grown  in  Britain, 

not  on  ,  iircrtuse  it  is  a  hardy  native,  hut  for  the  many 
important  purposes  to  which  its  durable  timber,  its  n»- 
tringent  bark,  and  even  its  nutritious  fruit,  are  opplica. 
ble  ;  and,  moreover,  for  the  delight  which  it  gives  to  the 
eye  in  sylvan  landscapes,  the  oak  being  Ihe  most  pictu- 
resque tree  of  the  forest,  when  it  has  ai  i  vcd  at  ita  ica* 
ture  age  and  form. 

There  are  two  sorts  in  our  woods,  whether  natural 
orrilanted — naiiielv  .  the  stalkless,  and  thostalked-fruited, 
one  I  *■  which  may  be  only  a  variety  of  the  other.  The 
former  is  said  to  be  the  old  Druidical  British  or  navii 
oiik,  though  the  latter  is  more  freiinentiv  met  with,  espi,- 
cially  in  woods  which  have  been  planted  in  remold 
ages  by  the  hand  of  man.  The  latter,  or  stalked- 
frnited,  is  also  of  ipiicker  growth,  und  is  altogether  what 
may  be  called  a  more  elej^ant  tree  when  full-grown. 
The  (|uality  of  the  timber  of  both,  when  any  difl'erenco 
is  observable,  is  more  owing  to  the  dilTerenec  of  soil  they 
have  grown  on,  perhaps,  than  to  any  siiceific  dilferenca 
of  the  trees. 

Besides  these  two  common  sorts,  which  are  natives, 
there  are  thirteen  other  species  which  are  exotics — 
namely,  the  willow-leaveil,  the  evergreen,  ash-leaved, 
cile-cupped;  ilex,  of  which  there  arc  six  shrubby  varie- 
ties ;  chestnut-leaved,  scarlet,  velanida,  white,  Italian, 
durmast,  l.uecombe,  and  the  Turkey,  of  which  there  are 
four  varieties.  This  last  is  a  fine  free-growing  tree,  and 
deserves  a  place  in  every  plantation.  The  other  exotics 
are  chiefly  planted  for  ornamental  purposes,  not  being 
yet  considered  as  foresters. 

All  the  species  arc  readily  raised  from  their  acorns 
(oak-corns)  when  they  can  lie  procured  ;  and  in  default 
of  tliese,  most  of  the  foreign  sorts  may  be  grafled  on  the 
common.  The  young  iilant.s  are  transplanted  twice  ot 
thrice  in  the  nursery ;  and  when  four  or  five  years  from 

'  the  acorn,  may  go  to  their  final  stations.  .Any  kind  of 
diimp  clayey  soil  is  suitable  for  the  oak  ;  hut  a  good  loam, 
or  gravelly  loam,  upon  a  subsoil  of  blue  ferruginous  clay, 

'  produces  the  finest  timber  In  tlie  shortest  time. 

j       'I'he  Jl<h  {h'r  i.niiux,  L.)  is  also  a  very  valuable  hard- 

!  wood  tree,  its  timber  being  useful  for  many  rural  purposes, 
and  particularly  for  implcmenta  and  machines.  Th* 
common  ash,  iK'ing  prolific  in  ripening  seed,  is  dispersed 
pretty  generally  over  the  face  of  the  British  isles ;  it  is, 
nevertheless,  much    better    'nanaged   when    planted   foi 


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Photographic 

Sciences 
Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y    14S80 

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lfiV0RMA!ltt6Kt0it'TR'B  PEOPLE. 


imber  oi  for  ondcrwooi!,  unmixed  with  any  other  eort  of 
lioe.  It  ihould  never  be  allowed  a  place  in  a  hedgerow, 
uor  on  pasturoland,  as  ita  numerous  Durfaeo-sprpading 
roots  engross  to  themselvas  eveiy  particle  of  nutritive 
moisture,  to  the  destruction  of  all  other  surface-plants. 

All  ash  tree  is  in  its  prime  when,  by  free  and  vigorous 
growth,  it  has  attained  a  diameter  of  about  twenty  inches; 
fitr  though  oil  rich  gravelly  lonra  it  will  continue  to  in- 
crease until  it  is  four  or  five  feet  in  diameter,  it  has  pro- 
bably begun  to  rot  at  the  core  long  before  it  has  arrived 
at  that  vast  bulk.  Therefore,  in  order  to  raise  ash-timber 
of  the  most  valuable  description,  it  is  necessary  to  sow  or 
plant  a  piece  of  land  of  the  above  character  thickly, 
placing  the  trees  almuF  two  feet  apart  These  will  rise 
rapidly ;  and  as  soon  as  they  appear  to  be  choking  each 
other,  on»'half  of  the  poles  may  be  drawn,  and  tlie  rest 
allowed  to  stand  till  they  arrive  at  a  marketable  size, 
which  is  when  they  are  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  in 
diameter,  and  from  forty  to  sixty  feet  high.  When  grouti'l- 
atli  is  of  these  dimensions,  it  U  suitable  for  every  mecha- 
nical purpose  where  flexibility  and  extreme  toughness 
•re  required.  * 

Heed  should  be  gathered  in  the  autumn,  and  imme- 
diately sown  in  nursery-beds;  or  the  sowing  may  be 
^ferrcd  till  spring.  Some  of  the  sectU  may  not  rise  till 
the  second  or  third  year ;  but  as  soon  uk  the  seedlings 
«re  five  or  six  inches  high,  they  should  l>o  rowed  out  to 
gain  strcngtli  till  finally  transplanted.  There  arc  several 
varieties  of  the  common  ash,  one  of  which  is  the  creep- 
ing-branched, hut  which,  by  grafting  it  high  on  (he  liill 
■tern  of  the  common  one,  is  miulc  a  rather  ornuniciital 
weeping  tree.  Other  species  arc  tho  ycllow-liarkcd, 
curled-leaved,  various-leaved,  and  a  great  many  other 
exotic  species. 

Tkt  Elm  (  Vtmus,  I..)  is  a  lofty  tree,  valuable  both  for 
its  use  in  tho  arts  and  its  ornamental  appearance.  The 
■mall-leaved  or  English  elm  is  generally  preferred  for 
planting,  particularly  in  hedgerows,  avenues,  and  the 
like.  This  tree  is  not  a  forester,  never  being  seen 
but  about  dwellings,  or  whore  dwelling-hduses  have  for- 
merly stood.  It  is  probably  an  exotic,  as  its  seeds  never 
ripen  in  this  country,  and  is  therefore  propagated  by 
suckers,  which  rise  abundantly  from  the  old  roots,  which 
circumstance  makes  tlie  tree  so  eligible  for  hedgerows; 
for  where  once  planted,  fell  the  princi|)aU  as  often  as 
wanted,  a  succession  of  young  stems  constantly  appears. 
They  are  also  propagated  by  layers,  and  often  by  graft- 
ing on  the  common  wych-elm,  especially  when  wanted 
for  dressed  ground,  or  for  avenues  where  it  is  desired  that 
no  suckers  should  be  seen. 

Besides  the  common  wych-elm,  found  wild  every- 
where in  the  hedges  of  Britain,  and  which  grows,  where 
allowed,  to  a  large  size,  yielding  large  butts  of  coarse- 
grained but  useful  timlier,  there  arc  several  ottier  sorts 
raised  in  nurseries,  namely,  the  cork-harked,  smooth,  de- 
clining branched  (a  truly  picturesque  tree),  spreading- 
flowered,  the  white,  and  several  others.  All  the  elms 
delight  in  a  gravelly  loam,  or  in  any  soil  which  is  nut  too 
wet,  and  they  are  well  worth  the  planter's  attention.  Mo 
tree  bean  lopping  or  shredding  better  than  the  elm,  it 
Deing  hardly  possible  to  hurt  it  by  dismemberment.  It  is 
niKMl  from  seed  when  produced. 

The  Btech  ^Fagus  oy/va/ira,  L.)  is  a  native  forest  tree, 
•ccurring  most  commonly  on  the  chalky  districts  of  the 
Kingdom.  When  full  grown,  it  is  a  beautiful  and  stately 
tror.,  and  its  timber  is  convertible  into  many  kinds  of  div 
inestic  articles,  very  durable  when  polished  by  the  caliinet- 
ninker,  and  equally  so  if  kept  constantly  under  water. 
The  boech  is  a  very  fruitful  tree ;  and  its  mast  or  nuts, 
together  with  acorns,  used  formerly  to  fatten  vast  droves 
of  swine  and  herds  of  deer,  tlie  then  common  food  of  tlie 
%uclai  lord  and  his  vassals.  The  seeds  are  gathered  aft(<r 
(ho  husks  op<>n,  by  beating  the  branches  with  poles  which 
ikej  Ui«  mast  upon  largo  cloths  spread  upon  the  ground 


under  tho  trees.  Many  are  sold  to  tho  Oil-niillpri,  %(■, 
express  an  oil  from  the  seed  useful  for  lamps  and'othn 
purposes. 

Young  plants  are  readily  raised  from  the  seed  sown  on 
beds,  and  covered  with  loose  soil  about  an  inch  thick 
Like  other  seedlings,  they  are,  when  five  or  six  im|,j, 
high,  rowed  out  on  fresh  ground,  fill  large  enough  to  b« 
transferred  to  their  final  stations.  The  lieech  is  not  at  all 
fastidious  as  to  soil,  so  as  there  is  some  portion  of  caln. 
reous  matter  present ;  but  a  subsoil  of  chalk  or  limettnns 
is  most  congenial.  There  are  several  specieu ;  tho  whits 
American,  the  dark-purple,  and  the  iron-coloured-lc.ived 
arc  ornamental,  and  are  propagated  by  grafting  on  Uh 
common. 

The  Chealnnl,  or  sweet  chestnut,  sometimes  also  called 
the  Spanish  chestnut,  is  a  splendid  forest  tree,  exceedini 
all  other  British  plants  in  its  huge  mass  of  foliage;  jtii 
also  valuable  for  its  timber,  which  is  but  little  inferior  to 
the  oak.  In  the  south  of  Europe  it  is  chiefly  regarded 
as  a  fruit  tree ;  but  here,  even  in  the  south  of  EiiftJand 
in  the  finest  summers,  the  fruit  ripi-ns  hut  imperfectly, 
As  a  timber-tree,  however,  the  S|>anish  chestnut  dcfcrvej 
to  be  more  generally  planted  than  it  has  been  of  late 
years ;  and  for  a  coppice  or  underwood  plant  it  has  no 
superior.  For  the  number,  tho  straiehtness,  and  durabj. 
lity  of  its  poles,  it  excels  all  others,  when  a  little  trouble 
is  taken  to  keep  the  growth  properly  reeulatcd  with 
respect  to  the  purpose  for  which  the  crop  is  wanted. 
When  timber  or  ornament  is  the  object,  the  trees  must 
constantly  be  divested  of  the  shoots,  which  are  apt  to 
rise  from  the  collet  of  the  stem.  A  loamy  gravel  gcemi 
to  suit  this  tree  best ;  and  young  plants  are  easily  raised 
from  the  nuts,  dibbled  in  rows  in  the  spring,  and,  wliiU 
ill  the  lUUKery,  kept  free  from  bottom  shoots. 

The  H'(i/;,T«'. — This  is  chiefly  regarded  as  a  fruit  tree, 
but  it  is  no  less  valualile  for  its  excellent  timlier,  which, 
from  its  lightness  and  durability,  is  well  adapted  for  gun- 
stocks.  And  where  its  fruit  is  of  no  great  value,  and 
especially  where  it  does  not  ripen,  if  planted  among  other 
forest  trees,  it  would  be  druwn  up  into  a  ahapeahle  single 
stem,  as  valuable  as  many  others.  Young  trees  are 
readily  raised  from  I  le  nuts,  like  the  chestnut,  and  are 
similarly  managed. 

The  Syriimnn  is  a  hardy  native  tree,  which  attains  a 
large  size,  ond  has  the  property  of  growing  more  quioklj 
than  most  other  hard  woods.  It  is  employed  to  furm 
household  utensils  and  objects  in  turnery.  The  maple 
is  a  sjieeics  allied  to  the  sycamore. 

The  Mimntdin  ^sh,  familiarly  known  in  Scotland  a! 
the  rowan-tree,  from  its  In-autiful  clusters  of  red  rowani 
or  bt'rries,  is  a  tree  of  small  dimensions,  but  elegant 
form,  and  is  grown  principally  for  ornament  in  shrub- 
beries. 

The  Acnria. — This  is  not  only  a  highly  omamenlal, 
but  also  a  highly  valued  limber-tree,  when  allowed  te 
attain  a  pro[)er  size.  Though  a  native  of  Virginia,  and 
there  called  the  loi-usl-tree,  it  has  been  recommended  as  i 
coppice  plant  for  this  country,  because  of  the  very  quirk 
growth  of  its  young  shoots,  which  rise  from  roots  after 
the  stem  is  cut  over ;  ami  for  the  excellent  and  durable 
quality  of  the  poles  for  fencing,  and  particularly  as  propi 
(or  hops  and  other  trees.  But  whether  pUnled  thickly 
for  underwood,  or  in  more  o))en  order  for  timlier,  tin 
acacia  requires  much  attention  from  the  pruncr  during 
the  first  five  or  six  years  of  its  growth.  It  f.rou!,cfi 
large  luxuriant  lateral  shoots,  which  arc  but  slightly 
attached  to  the  stem,  and  which,  if  not  stopped — that  ii, 
their  points  pinched  off  when  they  ire  about  one  fool 
long — arc  very  likely  to  m-  blown  off  by  the  wind.  'I'hii 
care  may  cease  after  the  tree  or  pole  is  ten  or  twelve  ferf 
high,  for  after  that  height,  the  growth  becomes  moderate. 
Young  jilants  are  raised  from  seeds  or  layers,  and  thriw 
on  any  light  sandy  soil.  The  timber  is  highly  priied  bj 
millwrighti  for  cogs,  &c. 


".'T';^'  ^m/^'.-^  ^"lT"'i*/* 


ARBORICULTURE. 


5«S 


Tht  Wild  Chrrry-trn. — This  hardy  native  is  feldom 
mltiTited  v  a  tinibor-troe,  nor  has  it  that  care  boatowed 
npon  it  which  it  really  deserve*.  The  best  specimena  to 
he  met  with  are  those  which  have  risen  by  accident  in 
woods;  but  when  such  are  felled,  they  are  readily  pur- 
fhued  by  the  cabinet-makers.  As  mentioned  in  a  pre- 
(ious  article,  the  wood  is  very  suitable  for  boring  and 
forming  musical  instruments.  It  is  therefore  a  tree  not 
to  be  neglected  by  the  general  planter,  and  should  have 
piscs  among  others.  Young  plants  are  raised  from  the 
•tones,  sown  thickly  on  a  bed  of  good  soil,  either  in  au- 
tumn or  in  sprinoi,  and  afterwarils  rowed  out,  to  receive 
the  ordinary  nursery  treatment,  until  fit  to  be  finally 
planted. 

TU  Hornbeam. — ^This  is  a  timber-tree,  but  it  ranks  as 
in  inferior  one ;  its  timber,  however,  is  remarkably  tough 
ind  durable,  and  consequently  invaluable  to  the  plough 
end  cart-wrignt.  It  is  a  scrublied  tortuous-growing  tree, 
unleta  it  has  some  pruning  bestowed  upon  it  when  young. 
Il  is  also  a  pretty  good  hedge-plant,  and  useful  for  form- 
ing screens  or  boundaries  in  gardens.  Plants  are  raised 
from  the  keys,  or  seed,  of  which  plenty  are  produced 
ewry  year  rj  old  trees. 

The  Futih. — This  is  another  inferior  timber-tree,  but 
nicfiil  ns  a  coppice  plant  for  many  rural  purposes.  It  is 
t  Iwauliful  and  elegant  tree,  on  which  account  it  is  intro- 
duced into  omnmenful  scenery,  especially  if  water  be  in 
the  composition.  Of  the  common  hirch  there  are  several 
varieties,  not  to  speak  of  the  poplar-leaved,  the  tall,  and 
the  black  American.  Young  plants  arc  most  convenient- 
ly raised  from  seeds,  and  the  exotic  species  are  raised 
from  layers,  or  by  grafting  on  the  common  one. 

The  Holly  (Ilex  aijuifolium,  L.)  is  a  remarkably  hardy 
evergreen,  with  smooth  shining  leaves  furnished  with 
prickly  points.  It  is  a  native  of  Britain,  and  attains  a 
great  age,  but  seldom  reaches  a  large  size.  Its  timber  is 
white  and  hard,  which  renders  it  suitable  for  veneering, 
end  for  making  mathematical  instruments.  Diflerenl 
varieties  are  grown  as  ornamental  shrubs. 

Tht  F.ox  (I'lutts  scmpen'irrns,  L.)  is  generally  grown 
M  an  evergreen  shrub,  but  when  planted  out  with  a  pro- 
per soil  and  climate,  it  attains  a  height  of  from  20  to  30 
feet.  It  growR  to  perfection  in  Turkey,  whence  its  timber 
it  imported  for  use  in  all  cases  in  which  exceedingly  fine 
cross  grain  is  required.  Sawn  across  and  planed,  its 
Miface  is  as  smooth  and  fine  as  polished  metal.  Box  is 
on  this  account  employed  for  wood-engravings. 

The  Ytw  ITnxtit  hacralti,  L.)  is  more  frequently  grown 
•s  an  ornamental  shrub  than  a  forest  tree,  and,  like  the 
cedar,  it  forms  a  plant  snitublc  for  places  consecrated  to 
solemn  feeling.  Its  timber  is  very  tough,  and  is  adapted 
Cv  making  bows  and  staves. 

Soft-Wooded  Trees. 

In  this  class  are  included  the  horse-chestnut,  lime, 
elder,  poplar,  and  willow. 

The  Horse-Cheshml. — This  tree  is  only  valued  for  the 
beauty  of  its  flowers  and  the  majestic  port  of  the  full- 
grown  tree  in  park  scenery.  The  timber  is  very  inferior, 
Uid  the  nuts  are  only  useful  for  deer.  There  are  several 
species  of  this  tree — namely,  the  smooth,  Ohio,  ruddy, 
uid  the  pale-flowered.  All  these  have  prickly  fruit,  and 
ire  easily  raised  from  their  large  nuts.  A  section  of  this 
genus  is  called  Puvia,  or  buck's  eye,  their  fruit  lieing 
nnnd  and  smooth.  But  the  flowers  of  some  of  these 
last  are  magnificent,  Iteing  of  a  glowing  red,  and  are  most 
conspicuous  in  the  spring  or  beginning  of  summer. 
Avenues  of  these  trees,  as  seen  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Oeneva,  are  of  the  most  splendid  description  when  in 
ftiwer.  The  pavias  are  often  propagated  by  being  grafted 
upon  the  common  horse-chentnut,  and  some  of  them  are 
•nly  shrubs. 

The  IMnt,  of  which  there  are  several  var  eties,  is  a 
kstutifiil  leafv  tree,  grown  chiefly  for  ornainen  ,  and  very 


suitable  for  avenues.  Those  which  iitve  most  eflieet  art 
the  red-twigged  and  broad-leaved  American,  the  lattei 
possessing  elegant  pendulous  flower*. 

The  Jllder. — This  tree  requires  a  pc4wliar  locality,  thai 
in,  a  damp  bog-earthy  soil — is  but  seldom  ranked  among 
forest  trees,  and,  except  to  occupy  a  spot  where  nothing 
much  better  will  grow,  is  seldom  noticed.  It  is  moat 
profitable  kept  as  underwood ;  large  poles,  suitable  foi 
the  turner,  or  for  pilra  or  planking  for  bridges,  fetching  a 
good  price.  Of  common  spi'cies  there  are  four  varieties, 
together  with  the  hoary-leaved,  oblong-leaved,  wave- 
leaved,  glaucous,  with  several  varieties  of  these,  and  some 
shrubby  species,  the  most  of  which  are  propagated  by 
cultingM,  oV  by  grafting  on  the  common  one. 

The  Poplar. — There  are  several  species  of  this  tree,  M 
the  common  black  poj>Iar,  the  trembling  poplar,  the  Lom> 
bardy  poplar,  and  black  Indian  poplar.  They  grow 
rapidly,  and  rise  to  a  great  height,  but  narrow  in  masi^ 
so  as  to  be  very  conspicuous  in  hedgerows  and  landscapes 
The  timber  is  of  little  value ;  but  where  undrainable 
spots  are  wished  to  be  decorated  with  stately  trees,  no 
better  kind  can  be  chosen. 

The  WUh'.  {Salix,  L.,  and  usually  called  the  Saugh 
in  Scotland)  is  an  extensive  genus,  comprehending  thoae 
shrubby  species,  the  osiers,  used  for  basket  work.  A  few 
species  of  the  willow  attain  to  the  height  and  character 
of  trees,  the  best  of  which,  as  yielding  very  good  timber, 
is  the  white  or  Huntingdon  ;  and  the  crack-willow  make 
excellent  pollards,  furnishing  every  five  or  six  years  • 
large  crop  of  poles  indispensable  to  the  farmer.  Another 
of  the  tree  willows  is  that  elegant  plant  the  Babylonian 
or  weeping-branched  one,  which  forms  so  suitable  an 
accompaniment  to  pieces  of  water,  whether  artifcial  or 
natural.  The  common  osier  is  the  sort  mostly  cultivated 
for  the  basket-maker,  and  the  annual  crop  of  rods  from 
established  stools  pay  the  owner  as  well  as  any  other 
crop  on  the  farm.    They  are  all  propagated  by  cutting*. 

GROWTH  or  TRKE8. 
Trees  grow  spontaneously  in  all  countries  in  which 
soil  and  climate  will  permit,  and,  as  is  well  known,  form 
forests  of  many  hundreds  of  miles  in  extent  on  the  North 
American  continent.  Whatever  be  the  peculiar  nature 
of  any  species  of  trees,  it  appears  that  the  dimeniAona 
and  form  of  all  are  more  or  less  iffected  by  their  relative 
situation.  If  crowded,  they  havi<  a  tendency  to  grow 
tall  and  slender ;  if  left  abundance  of  space,  they  extend 
in  breadth.  The  comparative  absence  or  possession  of  ail 
and  light  causes  these  distinctions.  In  a  forest,  each  tree 
struggles  upward,  for  its  leaves  to  get  a  snfliciency  of 
pure  atmosphere  and  sun's  rays,  and  therefore  beromet 
all  stem  and  top ;  whereas  the  tree  in  an  open  ground 
shoots  out  branches  nearly  from  the  bottom  of  the  trunk, 
and  attains  a  grandeur  in  its  mass  of  foliage.  Trees 
which  are  freely  exposed  err  also  much  thicker  in  the 
trunk  than  those  in  fore^'.?.  This  arises  not  only  from 
having  plenty  of  air  and  light,  but  from  being  exercised 
by  winds.  The  well-understood  principle  in  the  ani* 
mal  economy,  of  exercise  strengthening  a  limb— as,  for 
example,  the  legs  of  a  dancing-master  or  the  arm  of  a 
blacksmith — is  extended  to  the  vegetable  kingdom,  in 
which  those  plants  that  are  gently  moved  to  and  fro  by 
winds  arrive  at  greater  perfection  of  fibre  than  those  kept 
altogether  still. 

In  connection  with  this  remarkable  effect  in  the  ee>k 
nomy  of  plants,  it  is  to  be  obser"<!d  that  all  exposed 
trees  have  the  largest  roots ;  becouse,  being  liable  to  be 
blown  over,  they  require  to  take  a  much  firmer  hold 
of  the  ground  than  if  .they  were  sheltered  on  all  sidea ; 
in  other  words,  the  action  of  the  tree,  and  the  free  air 
and  light,  cause  numerous  branches  and  a  large  breath- 
ing apparatus  of  leaves,  and  the  tree  must  have  a  corr»> 
sponding  mass  of  roots  for  the  supply  of  sap.  80  exact 
it  this  corresu  ndence  between  the  exposed  and  undai* 
SB 


INFORMATION  POB  THE  PEOPLE. 


ground  parti  mi  of  the  tree,  that  the  extent  of  root*  may 
•Iway*  be  jldged  of  by  the  extent  of  branchea,  the  one 
being  of  the  aame  breadth  aa  the  other.  The  practical 
leaaon  acquired  from  these  facta  la,  that  to  have  treea  with 
Urge  buahy  headi,  they  muat  he  plante<l  widely ;  and  if 
wanted  to  be  tali  and  slender,  they  ahould  be  crowded. 

I'he  generally  thin  aoll  and  comparatively  ungenial 
climate  of  Britain,  render  thia  country  unauitahle  for  the 
|Towth  of  the  more  delicate  and  fine  kinds  of  foreign 
tamhar;  hut  all  the  forest  treea  already  noticed,  when 
planted  and  attended  to  with  aome  degree  of  care,  attain 
great  perfection.  The  business  of  planting  is  seldom 
'  performed  by  the  unprofessional  culturist,  being  more 
advantageously  left  in  the  hands  of  nnraerymeiT,  who  roar 
the  trees  from  seeds,  layers,  or  cuttings,  in  grounds  set 
apart  for  the  purpose,  and  at  the  proper  time  transfer 
them  to  the  locality  where  they  are  tn  rcinain.  For  the 
aake  of  general  information,  we  offer  the  following  ob- 
iervationa  on  different  departments  of  thia  interesting 
•abject. 
•■.  jf. 

ORNAMENTAL  PLANTATIONS. 

Even  on  the  smallest  possessions,  a  aprinkling  of 
forest  treea  in  the  hedgea  or  corners  of  the  enclosures 
gives  a  dignity  to  the  spot  which  otherwise  it  would  not 
possess.  There  cannot  be  a  more  cheerless  object  in  a 
landscape  than  a  house,  however  aubstantially  built  and 
furnished,  standing  naked  and  alone,  without  a  shelter- 
ing tree  or  hush  to  indicate  either  the  taste  or  compe- 
tence of  the  occupiers  within.  The  lowliest  hut,  envi- 
toaed  by  two  or  three  a^-od  oaku  or  thorns,  is  an  in- 
teresting apectacle,  and  far  more  delightful  to  the  eye 
than  the  proudest  palace  unaccompanied  with  lofty  trees. 

To  secure  these  embellishmenta,  planting  on  an  orna- 
mental acale  is  necessary,  and  much  good  taste  roust  be 
orought  to  bear  on  the  r.ibject.  It  is  now  allowed  by  all 
who  have  atudied  landscape  gardening,  that,  in  the  part 
•urrounding  the  fnansion,  trees  should  not  be  dotted 
about  at  equal  distances,  nor  in  linea ;  they  shoukl  not 
be  placed  as  blinds  to  the  principal  windows,  but  so  ar- 
ranged aa  to  form  irregular  glades,  diverging  in  as  many 
directions  from  the  house  as  can  bo  done  with  effect  and 
propriety.  Theae  gladca  ahould  always  be  laid  out  with 
reference  to  aome  distant  interesting  object,  or  aome 
•triking  feature  of  the  aurrounding  country.  The  olHcca, 
which  are  generally  in  the  rear,  or  at  one  end  of  the 
Aouse,  should  be  hidden  by  a  screen  of  treoa  and  shrubs ; 
>.nd  all  eye-aorea,  visible  from  the  windows  or  elsewhere, 
'  ahould  also  be  screened  by  plantation,  which  baa  a  dou- 
ble advantage,  namely,  hiduig  a  deformity  by  a  profita- 
ble acreen. 

When  it  is  intended  to  increase  both  the  beauty  and 
the  value  of  ai?  estate  by  planting,  and  whether  for  the 
personal  intereat  of  the  proprietor,  or  with  a  view  to  that 
of  posterity,  ordinary  prudence  will  direct  him  to  ftx  on 
Uioae  ports  which  are  the  least  valuable  for  agricultural 
purpoaca.  The  precipitoua  alopes  of  an  undulating  sur- 
tace,  where  cultivation  is  diflkult  or  impracticable — moist 
awampy  hollowa— or  the  ridge*  of  bleak  hills  lying  to 
the  northward  or  eaatward  of  the  superior  portions  of  the 
park  or  parka,  whether  arable  or  paature  land — will  all 
be  found  the  most  eligible  for  converaion  into  woodland. 
And  while  such  plantationa  yield  the  finest  shelter  and 
(overs  for  game,  they  keep  rapidly  adding  to  the  real 
value  of  the  estate. 

Whenever  a  project  of  planting  is  entertained,  if  only 
to  occupy  waat«  or  worthless  ground,  it  is  not  easy  to 
ae.^arate  the  idea  of  ornament  from  the  utility  of  the  de- 
sign, if  it  be  no  more  than  estalilixhing  an  acre  or  two  of 
c^ppioe.  For  even  such  a  feature,  especially  in  a  naked 
country,  raquirea  a  little  attention  in  the  execution.  Cop- 
pice, wban  properly  stocked  with  the  right  sorts  of  plants, 
•nly  appears  in  all  seasons  as  a  thicket  o(  shoots  of  nearly 
«|ual  haigi't    Couie<vuently,  the  eye  of  taste  would  con- 


demn the  plantation  ai  too  lumpish,  and  wmtnii  g  ^ 

riety  of  outline.  But  this,  though  but  a  trifling  d«|^ 
may  be  easily  obviated  by  planting  tufU  or  gmaps  gt 
trees,  variously  diNpused,  to  remain  for  timber,  srtht 
aame  thing  may  be  eftected  by  leaving  at  the  fint  fajl . 
few  groups  of  the  most  promising  saplings,  hrre  ana 
there  irregularly  over  the  area.  These  permanent  gnm, 
will  not  injure  much  of  the  underwood,  while  they  Jm 
give  as  much  variety  to  the  whole  a«  may  be  neceitin 
This  point,  however,  will  be  again  adverted  to  wh«! 
describing  the  manner  of  laying  down  underwoods. 

Aa  the  beauty  of  many  places  constitutes  their  chief 
value,  and  as  that  beauty  is  mostly  if  nut  entirely  owing 
to  the  tasteful  diopositiun  of  the  plantations,  it  behoTn 
every  improving  proprietor  to  study  well  the  genius  and 
character  of  hia  property  before  he  begins  planting  on  • 
large  scale.  The  safest  plan,  in  order  to  avoid  takini 
any  step  which  may  afterwards  be  regretted,  or  to  h, 
done  over  again,  is  to  sketch  an  idea,  or  upon  the  map, 
a  comprehensive  design,  emliracing  every  thing  tiiat  may 
be  done  with  propriety.  This  being  well  digested  and 
settled  in  the  Hrst  place,  may  be  called  the  general  plm 
and  of  which  n>  much  only  as  is  most  obviously  called 
for,  and  practicably  expedient,  may  be  first  of  all  eie. 
cuted,  leaving  the  more  distant  and  loss  necessary  opcr». 
tions  to  be  done  as  time  and  opportunity  may  allow. 

Such  a  general  plan  of  planting  an  estate,  whal«Ter 
its  extent  may  be,  requires  a  considerable  acquaintanc* 
with  the  principles  of  landscape  gardening,  and  can  onir 
be  designed  and  executed  prnperl)'  by  tbe  owner  hinuejf 
(who  can  do  nothing  wrong  in  this  way,  so  as  be  pleami 
himioeif)  or  by  a  professional  adviser. 

It  haa  already  been  observed,  that  some  proprietor! 
may  only  think  it  advisable  to  plant  the  interior  portiog 
of  their  acres,  while  others,  who  are  determined  to  bari 
a  tastefully  planted  park  or  a  highly  embellished  ettaie, 
place  their  grovel,  or  groups,  or  single  trees,  on  any  eli. 
gihie  spot,  without  regard  to  the  quality  of  tbe  mil, 
whether  the  worst  or  the  very  best.  In  this  case,  evm 
thing  is  sacrific<*d  to  obtain  such  a  disposition  of  the  tieei 
as  will  produce  the  most  striking  pictorial  edect;  and 
such  kinds  only  are  selected  aa  blend  harmoniously  vjtj) 
each  other. 

The  character  of  the  general  surface  surrounding  a 
mansion  fixes  the  style  of  planting  and  the  kinds  of  tre>iL 
If  the  surface  be  moderately  undulating,  having  eai; 
swelling  knolls  and  gently  falling  hollows,  without  aipt 
ritiea  of  any  kind,  such  a  surface  is  said  to  be  beautiful, 
and  consequently  the  -hntations  should  be  beaulifaj 
also;  that  is,  compos  -eea  of  the  finest  foliage  a/ni 

most  elegant  forms,  f,  on  the  contrary,  the  lu^ 

rounding  country  be  v.i..  in  character,  and  marked  nith 
bold  and  rugged  features,  as  iiaki-d  rocks  or  cliHi,  deep 
ravinea  or  glens,  &o.,  then  a  different  style  af  decomtion 
must  be  pursued— as  planting  in  irregular  masses  all  the 
most  groteiique,  rugged,  and  sombre-tinted  trees  that  can 
be  selected,  in  oidcr  to  harmonize  with  the  natural  fea. 
turii  of  the  country.  Such  scenery  is  said  to  be  pictu. 
resquc ;  and  where  such  tracta  of  country  are  chosen  for  i 
manorial  residence,  and  the  grounds  are  bid  out  and 
planted  by  a  skilful  gardener,  the  scenery  is  much  mora 
interesting  to  the  eye  of  taste  than  any  other,  especlallji 
if  water  chance  to  be  in  the  composition. 

Great  changes  occurred  in  the  style  of  planting  during 
tlie  eighteenth  century.  Up  to  the  beginning  of  thf 
reign  of  George  I.,  all  transplanted  trees  were  arranged 
in  right  lines,  aa  single,  double,  or  quadruple  avcnuea,i<! 
vistas,  or  as  boundaries  to  the  eiieloscd  grounds  belnn^ 
ing  to  royal  or  other  palaces,  colleges,  and  other  ptiolie 
buildings.  But  about  this  time  it  was  discovered  that 
very  few  ranks  of  trees  were  to  be  seen  in  the  worki  of 
the  great  maHtcrs  in  the  schools  of  painting;  a  new  idn 
was  entertained,  that,  in  all  real  scenerv  about  to  bl 
created  in  the   parka  of  tbe  nobility  and  gentry  iif  !ki 


^5*!W!»W!*«>5*S|ili«l»nw*»i'ip!««wwvf^ 


ARBORICULTURE. 


or 


■bjttth  IiIm,  ranlu  of  tree*  were  inadmissible,  as  being  too 
Mg,  formal,  and  not  agreeable  to  nature.  Thus  a  sen- 
imico  of  condemnation  was  passed  upon  every  private 
venue  in  tlie  country,  and  they  quickly  disappeared  lie- 
(an  the  ane  of  the  woodman.  A  few  only  were  saved, 
.  they  were  curtailed  in  length;  and  now,  very  few 
uif  ttenues  are  planted.  Along  with  the  avenues,  all 
Jie  old  regularly  laid-out  terraces  and  flower-gardens 
_Me  swept  away,  to  make  room  foi  a  new  style,  distin- 
i^jjiiei  by  the  prevalence  of  inegutarity  and  curved  out- 

Soon  after  this  revolution  in  landscape  gardening,  a 
neat  many  ridiculous  pranks  were  played  in  obtaining 
txlremi  irregularity,  and  tnrluinis  lines ;  and  some  of  the 
performers  got  severely  hondletl  by  the  satirists  of  the 
jiy,  Kent,  who  bognn  the  revolution,  died  without  hav- 
at  gained  much  reputation ;  but  his  successor,  the  fa- 
mous "  t;*P''''ility "  Brown,  became  highly  eminent,  and 
noi  universally  employed.  He  did  more  in  altering  the 
jurilens  and  grounds  of  the  country-seata  of  these  king- 
ilonw  th;m  any  other  professor  before  or  since  his  time. 
His  aim  was  to  produce  unmixed  beauty,  by  neatness 
and  general  smoothness,  especially  near  the  house ;  for 
which  purpose  he  cleared  away  every  obstruction,  whe- 
ther built  or  planted,  in  order  to  set  the  mansion  fairly 
ooi  upon  a  naked  grass  plot  or  lawn.  Even  the  kitchen 
innlens  were  removed  af  far  olT  aa  poAsiblc ;  and  every 
irash,  0'  "'''•"■  appearance  of  inequality  of  the  surface, 
mi  shaven  off,  to  produce  the  wislied-for  smoothness. 

In  this  proceeding  he  and  his  copyists  fell  into  the 
opposite  extreme;  instead  of  beauty,  bnlilnen  was  the 
iMult ;  instead  of  intricacy,  tawenesi:  and  instead  of  the 
embosoming  shelter  of  surrounding  groves,  complete  na- 
kedness and  exposure  to  every  wind  that  blows.  Thia 
exposure  dotmcti^d  from  the  consequence  of  the  building, 
nhatover  might  be  its  size  or  style  of  architecture ;  be- 
caiue  a  purtiul  display  is  always  more  interesting  than  a 
riew  of  the  whole  ut  once.  Nevertheless,  Brown  had 
the  honour  of  laying  out  many  beautiful  parks  ond  giir- 
JeiM,whih  remain  to  this  day  as  monuments  of  his  good 
lute  and  judi;ment ;  but  many  of  his  immediate  follow- 
er! brought  discredit  upon  his  style  by  their  very  awk- 
ward imitutions. 

The  severe  animadversions  published  against  the 
Bronnian  style,  tended  to  correct  some  of  Mr.  Brown's 
most  ostensible  errors;  and  the  works  of  'Tessrs.  Repton, 
fither  and  sons,  Loudon,  and  others,  having  improved 
the  style  of  English  gardening,  and  brought  it  much 
Qearer  to  the  principles  of  real  taste.  The  clump  and 
the  bfU  have  been  greatly  modified ;  the  first  is  now  ex- 
panded into  a  less  formal  group,  and  while  the  latter  has 
lost  its  continuity,  it  has  been  increased  in  depth,  and  its 
lengthened  form  as  a  Imundary  judiciously  broken.  Un- 
dergrowths,  which  were  swept  away  by  Brown,  are 
again  introduced;  and  the  banks  of  lakes  and  rivers,  for- 
merly smoothed  down  to  the  water  level,  are  now  left 
more  abrupt,  broken,  and  irregularly  fringed  with  over- 
hanging trees,  and  aquatic  shrubs  and  herbs. 

PLANTINO  rORCST  TRECa. 

The  diflerent  methods  pursued  in  establishing  or  lay- 
ing down  woodland,  seem  to  have  been  determined  by 
'.he  number  of  acres  or  nature  of  the  ground  intended  to 
M  planted.  To  secure  a  full  supply  of  the  plants  re- 
)uired,  and  these  of  the  proper  sort  and  age,  it  is  requi- 
site that  they  bo  previously  raised  from  seed  on  the  pro- 
nmt,  or  bo  easily  procured  from  a  nursery-man  in  the 
near  neighbourhood.  Where  a  great  extent  of  planting 
is  intended  to  lie  done,  the  former  plan  is  most  economi- 
cal; but  the  latter,  in  general,  is  the  most  convenient. 

To  raise  forest  trees  from  scc<l  is  an  easy  alTair;  it  is 
only  choosing  i  piece  of  good  niellow  soil  within  aome 
eiicloiun! ;  this  must  be  trenched  or  double.<1igged,  laid 
/(d,  and  fireed  fiom  itoaea,  dec.,  by  the  rake,  divided 


into  beds  four  fe<t  wide,  with  one  foot  alleys  between. 
In  the  month  of  March,  sooner  or  later,  according  to  the 
forwardness  of  the  season,  the  seeds  may  be  sown  either 
in  drills  lengthwise  of  the  bed,  and  deeper  or  shallower 
according  to  the  size  of  the  seed ;  that  is,  neavly  an  inrh 
for  small,  and  an  inch  and  a  half  for  large  seeds,  luch  u 
acorns  and  chestniitr;  or  small  seeds  may  be  Sbwn 
broiidcast,  by  withdrawing  with  the  rake  towards  th« 
alleys  about  an  inch  of  the  surface  eadi  way.  On  th« 
fresh  soil,  the  seeds  are  thrown  as  regularly  as  possible, 
and  covered  by  having  the  removed  soil  again  drawn  over 
regularly  and  smoothly.  The  seed-lieds  must  be  guard- 
ed from  birds  and  mice;  and  if  the  weather  be  warm, 
and  parching  winds  prevail,  they  should  be  covered  occar* 
sionally  with  mats,  and  also  watered,  if  necessary. 

Seedling  trees  are  usually  transplanted  into  rows  in 
nursing  beds,  some  in  the  second;  others  in  the  third 
year;  and  there  to  stand  till  planted  out  for  good,  which 
should  Iw  done  when  they  have  arrived  at  a  proper  size— 
the  nature  and  condition  of  the  ground  intended  for 
them,  as  already  observed,  determining  this  point. 

The  surface  to  be  planted  may  either  be  in  a  state  of 
nature,  and  covered  with  heath,  or  with  a  turf  of  some 
kind  or  other;  or  it  may  have  received  some  kind  of 
preparation,  as  paring  and  burning;  or  ploughed,  digged, 
or  deeply  trenched.  It  is  almost  unnecessary  to  add, 
that  the  Rrst  is  in  the  worst,  and  the  last  in  the  best  con- 
dition fur  the  reception  of  young  trees.  There  are  many 
cases,  however,  where  there  is  no  choice  but  the  first ; 
and  yet  the  success  which  has  attended  such  undertaking* 
as  planting  a  naked  hill  or  a  barren  common  is  a  direct 
encouragement,  and  proves  that  such  naked  portions  of 
the  country  may  be  in  a  few  years  covered  with  useful 
trees. 

When  a  large  extent  of  such  description  of  land  is  in- 
tended to  he  planted,  it  must  necessarily  be  executed  in 
the  most  economical  manner.  The  first  step  is  forming 
an  effectual  fence  against  cattle,  without  which  in  no 
case  should  planting  be  attempted.  If  the  enclosed  sur* 
face  be  acclivous,  and  covered  with  short  herbage  and 
thin  staple,  two  or  three  year  old  plants  of  larch,  Scotch 
fir,  birch,  intermixed  with  a  few  oak,  beech,  and  ash,  may 
be  inserted  by  a  one-handed  tool  somewhat  like  a  coop- 
er's adite.  One  or  two  blows  of  the  tool  raises  a  triangu- 
lar piece  of  the  surface,  under  which  the  root  of  the  plant 
is  |iroperly  placed,  and  the  raised  sod  turned  back  uA 
trodden  down  with  the  foot.  In  this  simple  and  cs^iedi- 
tious  way  of  planting,  many  hundred  acres  of  hilly  land 
have  been  stocked  with  trees;  and  though  many  of  the 
plants  are  liable  to  suffer,  if  a  dry  summer  follows  the 
planting,  a  majority  are  sure  to  succeed,  which  well  re- 
pays the  cost.  When  such  ground  is  level,  an  opening 
is  made  by  first  cutting  the  turf  in  the  shape  of  a  croea^ 
and  turning  back  the  four  corners  from  the  centre,  break- 
ing up  and  making  a  hollow  for  the  root ;  when  the  tree 
is  placed  upright,  the  turf  is  returned  to  its  place  and 
trodden  firmly  down. 

There  is  yet  another  method  of  planting  rough  unpre- 
pared ground,  called  pitting.  The  surface-covering  ia 
first  cleared  off,  the  pit  broken  up  with  a  mattock,  and 
the  loose  earth  thrown  out  with  a  spade;  the  tree  is  then 
placed,  and  planted  with  the  removed  soil.  This  method 
of  planting  is  expeditiously  [wrformed  when  the  ground 
works  kindly ;  but  if  wet  or  clayey,  the  business  is  mora 
difficult,  the  hoh:s  requiring  to  be  o|)ened,  and  the  land 
drained,  long  before  the  trees  can  be  planted  safely. 

All  the  aUiVo  methods  of  planting  forest  trees  are  only 
hud  recourse  to  when  the  ground  cannot  be  prepared  iu 
a  superior  manner.  And  notwithstanding  the  ruk  of 
being  defeated  in  such  attempts,  it  is  quite  certain  that  in 
numberless  cases  they  have  succeeded  admirably ;  apd 
very  valuable  woods  now  ornamenting  both  £r  gland  and 
Scotland  have  been  raised  by  these  simple  modee  of 
planting. 


'■-»7WTT'  TiTr" 


-MS 


INFORMATION  FOtt  THE  PEOPLE. 


WUt  n  it  if  intended  to  plant  a  field  whirh  hai  lieon 
•r  may  be  plougtted,  it  i*  irot  in  onior  by  receiving  a 
tlioroui{h  iullow,  to  clear  it  of  every  kind  of  weed.  The 
plouijhin^  (with  a  atrong  team  and  plough)  Rlinuld  ho 
maile  aa  dco|ily  aa  poutljlo.  8ti|>[iositig  the  Iniid  to  lie 
got  in  perfect  order  by  the  middle  of  Oclol)er,  if  intended 
fur  timber  only,  tire  treeu  may  bo  inimediuti'ly  planted ; 
but  if  intendi'd  for  underwood  aa  wi'll  ua  timber,  the  luvt 
ploughing  may  be  deferred  till  January ;  and  if  the 
ground  lie  tlicn  pretty  dry  and  mellow, the  whole  may 
i>«i  iiuroediiitvly  aown  broadcast  with  a  niixtnru  of  beedx, 
•lid  liariowod  in,  after  which  trees  may  he  planted  at  the 
diatancu  of  four  or  Bve  feet.  'J'ho  mixtuio  muy  cnnsiat 
of  the  aecdM  of  oak,  ash,  beech,  Scotch  lir,  and  birch ;  and 
if  a  sprinkling  of  common  furze  be  added,  it  will  be  nu 
detriment.  If  Spanish  cheatnutit  are  '"..ended  to  be  a 
part  of  the  underwood  (fur  which  ti.ey  should  always  Ih; 
preferred),  the  aecds  should  lie  dibbled  in,  aa  they  are  too 
large  to  be  covered  by  the  harrows. 

This  method  of  laying  down  wou<lland,  if  carefully 
performed,  is  always  HucccsHful,  as  there  is  not  only  a  full 
number  and  choice  of  trees  for  tiinU'r  established,  but  the 
field  answeni  the  purpoae  of  a  nursery  for  many  years, 
from  which  may  \m  drawn  unlimited  numbers  of  young 
tree^  for  planting  elsewhere.  The  tlnest  and  most  pro- 
fitable woods  we  happen  to  be  acquainted  with  were  laid 
down  in  this  way  almut  the  year  1775. 

The  n?xt  suctessful  method  of  planting  forext  trees 
ii  placing  Ihcm  on  de(>ply  dug  ground;  fur  if  di)fging  l)c 
practicable  it  is  proof  that  the  lund  is  in  a  good  con- 
dition for  their  growth.  The  action  of  the  s|)ade  forms 
a  Ited  sufTiciently  deep  for  the  generality  of  the  best  sorta 
for  tirnlier,  and  tlie  loosened  state  of  tlie  soil  renders  the 
planting  easy. 

Uut  by  far  the  best  prejiaration  of  the  ground  is  trench- 
ing it  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  deep.  The  surface, 
which  iii  usually  covered  with  vecetiitiun  of  some  kind, 
or  the  remains  of  vegetation,  being  turned  to  the  bottom 
3f  the  trenches,  forma  a  fine  nutritious  stratum  for  the 
routs  to  luxuriate  in;  liesides,  the  staple  being  opened 
and  intermixed  so  thoroughly,  admits  all  atmospheric 
mfluencca,  without  which  no  plant  can  thrive. 

When  trees  are  planted  upon  either  a  dug  or  a  trenched 
lurfacc,  seeeda  may  also  he  sown  and  pointed  in.  for  under- 
giowths  are  always  valuable  for  some  purpose  or  other, 
'i'his  ia  particularly  necessary  when  the  plantations  aro 
required  as  covers  for  game ;  and  in  parli.  scenery,  haw- 
thorn, holly,  and  juniper  iH'rries,  should  always  be  aown 
when  the  treea  are  planted. 

When  ornamental  plantations  are  made  in  a  park,  and 
eapecially  if  they  are  in  view  from  the  principal  windows, 
they  are  wished  to  rise  as  quickly  as  possible  for  the 
sake  of  immediate  etTect  The  trees,  therefore,  receive 
extraordinary  treatment.  The  ground  ia  not  only  care- 
fully and  deeply  trenched,  but  a  most  liberal  dressing  of 
good  rotten  dung  and  vegetable  mould — the  first  trenched 
down,  and  the  latter  dug  into  the  surface — is  >)estowed, 
and  which  of  course  excite*  the  trees  into  mucli  stronger 
and  more  rapid  growth  than  if  only  the  ordinary  expe- 
dients were  employed.  Uut  this  superior  and  expensive 
practice  is  seldom  necessary,  and  much  seldomer  executed. 

Plaiihnf!,  OH  Bad  Land. — 'i'hc  preceding  directions  are 
suflicient  in  all  cases  in  which  the  land  is  tolerably  dry, 
or  which  may  he  rendered  suitable  by  a  little  preparatory 
culture;  but  when  the  groun<l  is  moist,  and  barren  of  all 
u<«ful  produce,  the  following  inetliods  of  preparation  will 
icquire  to  be  purxued. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  with  a  piece  of  wet  land  is 
III  drain  it,  and  then  enclose  it  with  fences.  The  drain- 
ing operations  will  consist  in  miiking  wide  and  deep 
ditches  around  the  la  id  t<i  receive  and  carry  off  the 
rtatcr,  and  into  these  analler  rroKs  drains  are  to  l>e  led. 
( t-'or  a  minute  account  of  the  best  methods  of  draining, 
•••  Miei  to  he  aiticlc  on  LiM  Impkovkmknt).    If  the 


drains  he  finished  in  October,  ao  aa  to  allow  the  w 
run  off  for  three  months,  planting  may  begni  abouTih! 
middle  of  February,  provided  the  weather  be  drr  i 
would  recommend,"  says  a  writer  on  this  subject,  m--^ 
plants,  three  years  old  ;  for  I  have  seen  many  snull  t^i** 
stuck  in  among  rank  grass,  but  I  have  rarely  Boen  "'" 
of  them  grow.  The  ordinary  way  of  planting  does  ^n 
enough  for  the  firs ;  it  is  done  in  this  way :— x  „ ,  . 
made  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  the  labourers'  r  " 
another  is  made  at  right  angles  to  that,  and  ihj  ^\ 
raised;  the  root  of  the  plant  is  inserted;  and  tlenau 
being  withdrawn,  the  soil  is  or  ought  to  be  firmly  trodi 
down  around  it.  I  say  ought  to  be,  for  very  ofien  ir" 
not.  The  latiourers  ought  fo  have  the  importunco  of  th'' 
reiterated  uimn  them ;  and  I  would,  if  possihlD,  alwav" 
have  a  big  man  in  preferciK-e  to  a  little  one  to  wjclj  1 
spade,  'i'here  is  an  emphasis  in  the  tramp  of  hit  f^f 
which,  for  the  success  of  the  young  tree,  is  invalmti. 
The  other  moile  of  planting  is  more  tedious;  but  where 
the  proposed  plantation  is  small,  I  think  it  is  worth  nhil 
to  give  all  the  additional  trouble.  'I'his  method  consisi. 
in  making  pits  for  the  reception  of  the  plants.  A  fmn, 
piece  is  dug  out,  the  plant  is  placed  in  the  mJHJlo,  n, 
soil  i.4  broken  and  put  round  the  roots,  turf  is  cut  \n  'ivf. 
and  iHsing  turned  upside  down,  the  halves  are  placed  om 
on  each  side  of  the  stem  of  the  plant,  and  linnlv  trodden 
down  all  round.  This,  it  will  be  seen,  is  tedious,  'f|,^ 
plants  may  be  planted  by  the  first  method  for  every  om 
liy  the  second ;  yet,  where  the  plants  are  larRo,  it  is  worth 
while  to  bestow  the  tidditionul  labour:  rsijeciallv  in  plant. 
ing  trees  of  the  deciduous  kind,  this  method  ouj;|,t  j|,,j. 
to  l)c  adopted.  I  have  always  found  it  advantageonsto 
plant  pretty  close  ;  but  care  must  Ik>  taken  to  begin  cjrh 
to  thin,  otherwise  the  young  trees  fall  into  consumption, 
Ciruund  treated  in  the  manner  now  described,  lie  itnetn 
so  wet,  will  grow  fine  trees ;  that  is  to  say,  if  ther«  ism 
thing  like  a  soil  at  all. 

Let  us  next  supiKise  the  ground  to  be  planted  toc» 
sist  of  a  thin  poor  soil  on  a  hard  close  bottom.  To  plim 
such  ground  just  as  it  lies,  is  a  piece  of  the  most  con. 
summute  folly.  Far  better  burn  your  young  pjantiat 
oneo :  they  never  will  grow  to  any  thing.  The  pin 
which  I  have  now  to  propose  has  a  most  forniidible 
objection  ogitinst  it — it  is  very  expensive.  But  let  tht 
proprietor  arrange  the  matter  in  thiw  way :  instead  of 
planting,  say  ten  acres  in  one  year,  let  him  plant  on!? 
four.  It  is  far  In'tter  to  have  a  fcw  trees  thriving,  thum 
Kreat  many  pining  out  a  tuiserable  existence,  to  the  di» 
iii^urerneiit  of  t!io  face  of  nature  and  tlie  bitter  roijretGt 
their  owner.  The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  set  about  lrenl■t^ 
ing  the  ground.  To  the  ordinary  mode  of  trenrhinj 
there  is  a  most  decided  objection.  That  pan  of  the  soil 
which  ii  at  all  good,  is  mert^ilessly  buried  at  great  Inborn 
and  exjiense,  and  the  hard  till,  which  has  about  nsmuob 
nutrition  lor  plants  as  freestone  rock,  is  broiiRJii  op  to 
form  the  soil.  This  will  never  do.  We  must  keepilu 
soil  which  is  at  the  top  still  at  the  top,  and  stir  the  dll 
Ik'Iow.  At  first  Kight  there  is  some  ditTicullv  here,  but 
the  dillicully  must  Iw  overcome,  and  that  may  be  done  bj 
a  little  caleulation  as  to  arrangements  in  the  maturof 
dii;i;ing  and  filling  up  the  trenches.  The  cost  will  'k 
only  a  little  more  than  that  of  ordinary  trenrhint(,«ndil 
is  vastly  superior  to  it.  It  would  also  Ix^  an  ailvanliee 
as  each  treneh  is  rieaned  out,  to  give  it  a  roujl:  eourwot 
picking  along  the  Imltom,  which  would  make  the  noil 
although  never  so  wet  before,  dry  and  sweet  ns  n  gsrden 
The  liest  time  for  performing  this  nperntinn  is  in  lb» 
months  of  February  and  March,  and  then  only  when  tlie 
weather  ia  dry.  It  would  be  well  if  planting  rnuM  In 
earned  on  simultaneously  with  trenching.  And  seetbil 
the  plants  lie  put  in  ^tcptr  than  uiual,  and  well  trod 
round  the  stem. 

Ground  thus  treated  will  produce  the  finest  Itcet.  Tin; 
will  grow  fast,  keep  free  of  moaa,  bo  healthy  iiuflM  bull, 


"Tz:' 


'»    ARBORICULTURE 


.  itraight.  It  would  be  adviMble,  even  with  thii 
uMching,  to  "P"'*  •'"»'•'■  throughout  the  whole  that  it 
^t(d.  in  '"''''''  *''■*  '***  ■urfnce-water  may  be  carried 
£L|*  away-     L^nd,  when  thus  dried,  beromea  richer  by 

1  ,|iower  thai  falla.   The  water,  in  percolating  through 

Uio  •!>•'•  M"'«*  '*'"'"  ""*'  "  '  ^'^'^^  aupply  of  oxygon 
„hich  the  root*  of  the  trecH,  with  their  thouannda  of 
ntta  moutha,  are  gaping  to  receive  aa  thtir  moat  nouriah- 
•'afoodi  *"''  beinfi  'hua  fed,  i»  it  not  natural  that  they 
HhouU  grow  "P«c«  an'l  "■*  '"  8''"*'  health  1  In  thia  way 
Toa  will ''«™  '"  •'*  °'  ^'S***  year*  fine  planlationa,  form- 
inaan  omamont  to  your  property  and  a  shelter  to  the  fields. 
Bv  the  other  method  you  may  plant  thouHundd  of  trees;  but 
where  the  soil  is  positively  wet,  you  will  never  aee  any  of 
them  do  more  than  make  an  ineffectual  attempt  to  grow. 

1  have  now  a  few  olMiervationa  to  make  rei;;nrtling  the 
ifter-treatment  of  trees  planted  in  the  manner  now  re- 
fommendeil.  They  must  not  he  left  to  themselves ;  and 
if  hedges  be  plimlod,  they  will  require  much  care,  for  the 
(int  three  years  esperially.  They  must  be  kept  perfectly 
frte  from  weeds,  at  whatever  ex|iense  of  labour.  Thin, 
board-like  hedges,  cut  close  upon  each  side,  are  not  the 
thing.  I  never  saw  any  so  treated  do  well.  They  must 
htra  breadth,  and  should  t*  tapered  on  both  sides  to  the 
top.  But  let  us  attend  to  the  trees.  Exactly  a  year 
tftor  they  are  planted,  where  the  ground  has  l)ccn 
trenched  it  will  bo  requisite  to  give  it  a  partial  hoeing, 
tbit  !■> '"  '^"'  down  all  tall  weeds  which  may  l>c  overtnp> 
ping  «ny  of  the  trees.  Should  any  of  the  hard  wood,  in 
place  of  being  green,  become  yellow,  there  is  a  plan 
which,  if  adopted,  will  completely  restore  them.  Two 
years  after  they  are  planted,  let  them,  in  March  or  April, 
be  cut  over  nl<out  three  inches  al>ove  the  ground  ;  in  the 
mouth  of  July  a  careful  person  must  go  through  and 
pinch  off  all  the  young  buds  except  one,  the  healthiest, 
mil  the  one  which  offers  fairest  to  shout  into  a  main 
Btrm.  This  has  a  most  magical  effect.  It  insures  a 
healthy  tree,  with  a  free  bark,  and  perfectly  straight.  I 
have  had  oak,  iish,  and  other  timber  thus  treated,  which 
have  made  beautiful  shoots  of  upwards  of  two  feet  in  one 
year.  Trees  which  are  on  the  whole  thriving  and  suffi- 
ciently 8traip;ht,  but  which  are  getting  hard  in  the  bark, 
I  have  generally  improved  very  much  by  the  following 
process : — Vou  enter  the  point  of  a  common  gardening 
knife  as  near  the  root  as  possible,  and  run  it  up  to  the 
first  branches.  In  a  year  or  two  this  cut  will  be  covered 
with  new  bark,  an  inch  or  two  in  breadth,  greatly  con- 
triliuting  to  a  free  circulation  of  the  sap,  and  consequently 
promoting  the  health  and  the  growth  of  the  tree.  I  have 
teen  trees  twenty  and  thirty  years  old  materially  benefit- 
led  b;  this  simple  process.  A  handy  labourer  will  do 
many  hundreds  in  a  day. 

If  the  hints  I  have  now  given  be  followed,  I  am  quite 
confident  that  tliey  will  save  much  disappointment  to 
proprietors  who  are  disposed  to  plant,  and  that  many  fine 
trees  will  he  raised  on  situations  in  which,  by  the  common 
cianagement,  ihcy  never  would  have  attained  to  eitlier 
beauty  or  value." 

Pruning  and  Thinning  Plantations. 
When  woods  are  planted  aa  sources  of  profit,  a  very 


or  lupemumerariea,  intended  to  be  dmwn  out  h  aotin  m 
they  press  injuriously  upon  the  principals,  or  when  thcjr 
have  attained  to  a  useful  or  saleable  size. 

To  have  tall  and  straight  stema,  the  trees  muft  \m 
planted  thickly  at  first;  that  is,  only  alwut  four  faet 
apart,  or  even  less.    In  this  order  they  shelter  and  f  rompt 
each  other  to  ascend;  and  if  in  the  spring  the  woodmaD 
pays  his  annual  visit,  armed  with  a  li^ht  keen  bill  and  a 
narrow  tumwg-»fm;  he  may  direet  the  growth  with  the 
best  effect.     Every  lateral  branch  which  appears  to  be 
attracting  too  much  of  the  powers  of  the  plant,  and  e«p«- 
cially  if,  ns  already  observed,  it  he  contending  for  supr^ 
mncy  with  the  leader,  should  l)c  sawn  of[  flore  to  the  liola 
as  soon  as  it  has  attained  a  diameter  of  one  inch.     Such 
a  wound  will  be  soon  healed  up,  and  present  no  flaw 
when  the  tree  is  cut  up  at  the  saw-pit.     All  branches  of 
a  smaller  size  need  not  bo  removed,  for  they  serve  to  en 
largo  tlie  trunk,  and  have  no  effect  in  distorting  the  grain 
until  they  attain  the  size  when  they  should  be  pruned  oC 
If  liranehea  are  allowed  to  remain  until  they  have  a<y 
quired  a  diameter  of  from  two  to  four  or  more  inchea, 
and  then  cut  off  either  close,  or,  what  ia  much  worse,  at 
some  distance  from  the  l>ole,  the  timber  is  sure  to  be  de- 
teriorated.    Such  wounds,  it  is  true,  will  be  healed  ovei 
in  time,  but  the  limber  will  be  wanting  in  its  best  pro- 
perty— namely,  soundness  and  frecness  from  knots.     All 
bniiielies  originalc  at  the  pith  of  the  main  stem ;  and 
whether  they  are  alive  or  dead  when  the  tree  is  felled, 
they  are  equally  oljcctionablo  in  the  estimation  of  the 
builder  or  mechanic     The  knots  in  fir  limber  arc  Icsa 
objf-tionable,  because  they  arc  preserved  sound  iy  the 
resinous  ({uality  of  the  sap ;  but  neither  ore  they  deairv 
ble.  if  trees  can  be  grown  with  a  clear  uninterrupted  grain. 
The  most  valuable  part  of  a  tree  is  the  bole,  and  the 
longer  and  freer  from  knots  this  is,  the  more  saleable ; 
and  if  any  or  every  tree  may  be  made  to  grow  into  fine 
sound  boles  of  fifteen  or  twcnt)  feet  in  length  by  a  little 
such  attention  ns  is  recommended  above,  it  is  surely  well 
worth  tlie  trouble  and  expense. 

All  species  of  the  hardy  pine  and  fir  trilie  intended  for 
profit  should  be  planted  pretty  thickly  ;  the  supernumera- 
ries thinned  when  young,  but  leaving  o  full  nuriilier  of 
principals  to  grow  up  to  a  miirketublc  bulk,  or  until  they 
cease  to  thrive,  when  they  will  all  l)e  ready  for  the  axe 
together ;  for  such  woods  cannot  bear  to  lie  thinned  gm- 
dually  like  other  trees,  being  jiarticularly  hnblo  to  die  if 
they  lose  the  protection  of  their  neighbours.  When 
planted  08  nurses  among  deciduous  trees,  they  are  easily 
kept  within  hounds,  and  from  dani!\;;ing  the  other  trees, 
by  pinrhing  off,  from  time  to  time,  the  leiidtug  Imdn  of 
their  branches.  This  induces  a  spray-covered  rather  than 
a  nuked  stem,  and  thus  maintaining  their  character  aa 
nurses.  By  the  same  means,  fir-trees  may  be  formed  into 
impervious  screens,  or  sheltering  hedge-like  boundariea, 
very  useful  in  many  cases  of  rural  improvement.  RespecU 
ing  the  pruning  of  fir-trees  planted  for  profit,  and  which 
are  intended  to  grow  up  with  clenr-grained  butts,  a  rule 
has  been  laid  down  by  planters  which  is  easily  followed  i 
it  is  this — prune  off  the  lower  branches  every  second  or 
third  year,  always  leaving  fve  tiert  of  branches  to  form 
the  head.  This  regular  method  of  keeping  the  butt  d«- 
material .  part  of  their  subsequent  management  is  the  |  vested  of  its  lower  branches,  and  conthiued  up  to  the 
labour  of  pruning  and  thinning  the  trees.  It  is  not  ^  highest  convenient  height,  will  certainly  ensure  fine, 
enough  that  trees  grow  and  be  annually  increnKing  in  I  butts  of  clear-grained  timlier,  as  all  the  knots  will  be 
hulk— they  should  also  be  as.sinted  to  take  the  finest  and  I  amill,  and  all  near  the  centre  uf  the  axis.  The  fine 
most  vnlu'.ililc  forms.  A  round  straight  butt,  of  moderate  I  clear-grained  butts  imported  from  America  and  the  north 
length,  is  far  more  useful  and  saleable  than  a  crooked  I  of  Europe,  arc  trees  which  were  never  pruned ;  but 
knotty  one  of  twice  the  size.  To  have  fine  timUir,  it  ia  I  having  grown  up  in  very  close  order,  the  lower  spray  was 
tbfoiutely  necessary  to  bestow  a  little   trouble  to  start  I  consecutively  killed  by  the  want  of  air  and  light,  shut 


them  fairly  off,  during  the  first  ten  or  fifteen  years  of  their 
gronth.  The  best  method  of  raising  a  plantution  ia  by 
using  a  mixture  of  different  sorts,  which  may  bo  deemed 
friiiripah  and  ttcondariti.  The  first  arc  those  ibr  which 
iliB  laud  IB  judged  moat  suitable,  the  aecond  are  nurses 
Vol.  I-  73 


out  by  the  close  canopy  of  branches  above.  This  ia  gaiir 
ing  sound  timber  by  accident,  and  which  may  be  done  in 
any  country,  but  by  no  means  in  such  a  short  tuae  M 
may  be  done  by  hand-pruning. 

In  very  many  instances,  trees  are  sufTcrcd  to  remain  IB 
3  u  3 


870 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


fli«  groond  conniiierahly  Jeyond  the  time  thoy  »hould  bo 
friled  and  put  to  tho  proper  olyect  oMheir  growlh.  Thoy 
•re  Men  to  get  rotten  at  the  core,  or  tho  bmnchee  arc  leen  i 
t>  die;  Mill,  from  an  unwillinijneM  to  remove  what  may 
ho  viewed  ai  old  friend*,  thoy  are  allowed  to  remain  till 
accidAilallv  destroyed,  [niitoad  of  following  thia  prartire,  [ 
we  recomnwrul  the  proprietor  of  foreit  timtwr  to  have  I 
hia  woods  periodirnlly  oxammed  by  a  person  skilled  in  < 
timber,  who  should  mark  all  the  trues  that  seem  ready  for 
removal,  and  let  them  t«  removed  accordingly.  Unless  j 
for  particular  reasons,  every  tree  should  be  cut  down  on  i 
arriving  at  maturity,  and  a  new  one  planted  in  ita  Htcud. 
Trees  grown  for  ornumcnt  in  luwns,  require  no  other 
pruning  than  what  may  ho  necesHnry  for  the  removal  of 
rotten  or  decaying  branches ;  and  in  iiciieral  it  will  be 
found  advisable  to  IcAve  each  kind  of  tree  to  assume  ita 
own  natural  form.  Ornamental  trees  are  always  moat 
beautiful  in  their  proportions  when  the  branches  and 
•pray  reach  towards  tho  ground ;  but  this  will  not  be  the 
case  if  cattle  are  allowed  to  browse  beneath  ami  around 
them.  These  animals  nibble  awuy  all  tho  foliage  and 
■pray  within  reach,  so  as  to  form  in  park  scenery  what  ia 
called  tho  brmvuing  line — an  even  bottom  of  Ibliago,  any 
thing  but  agreeable  to  the  eye.  The  only  plan  of  ovoiil- 
ing  thia  inelegance  is  to  exclude  browsing  animals  alto- 
gether from  ornumental  c^routuli ;  but  this  is  attended 
with  opposite  evils,  and  takes  away  that  pleasing  a8s<-m- 
blage  of  forms  which  is  the  great  charm  of  woo<lland 
•cenery.  Where  cattle  or  sheep  are  permitted  to  browse, 
•II  young  trees,  at  least,  must  be  protected  for  some  years 
by  circular  palings,  otherwise  they  would  be  diabarked, 
•nd  generally  destroyed. 

To  ensure  drynesa  of  timber,  it  has  been  found  a 
profitable  practice  to  disbnrk  the  oak  and  larch  a  year 
or  two  before  felling.  On  this  point  Muntenth,  in  his 
•■  Forestcr'a  Quido,"  says  he  is  decidedly  of  opinion, 
that  the  larch  treated  in  this  way  at  thirty  years  of 
•g*i  will  be  found  equally  durable  with  a  tree  cut  down 
•t  thA  ago  of  fifty  yeura,  and  treated  in  the  ordinary 
w«> 

Tranipl.intinj  Trees 

Tree!  may  be  lifted  from  one  place  to  another  or 
tntnsplanted.  The  art  of  accomplishing  this  excecd- 
iliffiy  deliciitc  o|icration  in  tree  culture,  was  some  years 
•go  brought  to  |>erfectiiin  by  the  late  Sir  Henry  Hteuart, 
•f  Allanton,  whose  treatise  is  tho  Imst  authority  on  the 
■ubjecL  'I'hc  transpluiiiiiig  of  a  full-grown  tree  has,  in 
•II  ages,  been  ilcemoil  next  to  imixiKxililo ;  and  when  it 
was  attempted,  the  iiperiitor  thou'^hl  it  necessary  to  cut 
oft  a  gre;it  nuinlier  of  tho  branches,  (and  consequently 
the  leaves,)  from  an  idea  that,  if  suflered  to  remain, 
they  would  require  more  sap  than  the  roots  could  sup- 
ply in  their  new  situation.  Of  course,  just  in  as  far  as 
they  deprived  the  tree  of  ita  branches,  or,  wo  may 
rather  say,  of  its  leaves,  they  deprive  it  of  the  prin- 
ci|)al  organ  of  ita  existence,  and  it  invariably  decayed  to 
•  corresponding  degree.  The  lopfiing  was  like  a  cutting 
oft"  of  the  lungs  in  a  human  being  ;  and  it  would  l>e  as 
•hsunl  to  expect  a  man  in  that  stiitc  to  l>e  healthy  and 
•trong,  as  it  was  to  hope  for  vigour  in  the  stripped  mem- 
ber of  the  forest 

Sir  Henry  titcuart,  having  studied  the  internal  struc- 
ture of  trees,  began,  a  good  many  years  ago,  to  prac- 
tiae  the  art  of  transplanting  on  what  he  justly  calls  the 
preaervativo  principle:  that  is,  without  mutilating  either 
roots  or  branches,  a»  was  universally  prac'isod  till  his 
tune.  Hia  teat,  .\llanton  House,  is  situated  on  an  ir- 
regular alope,  «n  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Calder, 
which  is  •  tributary  of  the  Clyde.  The  neighbouring 
ground,  though  diversified,  has  no  very  picturesque 
natoral  points,  bat  he  contrived,  by  the  removal  of 
large  trees,  and  forming  an  artificial  lake  and  river,  to 
eaaiire  in  aome  measure  the  miracle  of  bringing  new 


and  picturesque  scenery  into  actual  oxlsteiMt,  ^  is 
almost  endless  variety  of  combination.  ^ 

The  following  are  the  rules  to  be  attended  to  Ig  tin 
transplanting  of  trees.  The  beat  season  for  transnU.. 
Ing  is  certainly  during  tho  months  of  October  and  jy^ 
venit)er ;  for  though  trees  may  bo  transplanted  in  ^. 
of  the  winter  months  when  tho  weather  is  niilj  ,Ji 
moist,  they  never  do  so  well  as  when  removed  in  th« 
first-mentioned  months.  Taking  up  a  tree  requirn 
as  much  care  as  replanting  it ;  the  spado  and  llic  pjcji. 
mattock  are  both  necessary  to  raise  the  roots  from  thcii 
stmt ;  and  as  the  most  tender  fibres  arc  the  most  icti» 
and  useful,  the  greatest  care  should  Ik  taken  to  pi^ 
servo  thcni  entire.  Neither  should  these  dolicute  abrci 
be  exposed  to  a  dry  or  frosty  air ;  they  sliculd  be  |tei< 
moist  and  shaded  till  again  put  into  the  ground,  T{,, 
root  should  b<'  placed  no  deeper  in  the  new  place  i||m 
it  was  in  tho  old ;  and  all  tho  ramifications  laid  in  tli,|, 
natural  positions,  and  imbedded  in  the  finest  of  tl]« 
earth. 

Trees  may  be  transplanted  from  the  age  of  one  up  to 
ten,  or  even  twenty  or  more  years  j  but  when  they  ut 
from  four  to  six  years  from  tho  seed,  they  arc,  both 
from  age  and  bulk,  in  tho  best  condition  to  lie  removed 
successfully.  In  planting  with  the  one-hflnilej  tool 
the  smallest-sized  plants  must  be  tiscd ;  tor  pitting 
plants  from  two  to  three  feet  high  moy  ho  chonen ;  and 
on  digged,  ploughed,  or  trenched  ground,  the  young 
trees  may  be  from  two  to  six  feet  higli,  in  which  cam 
the  tallest  may  need  propping  against  tho  south-wett 
winds. 

When  single  trees  are  to  be  planted  on  a  lawn  i 
space  of  from  four  to  six  feet  must  bo  striiiiicil  off  iju 
turf,  and  roiled  back ;  the  soil  within  should  lie  dcjplf 
broken  up  and  excavated,  to  receive  the  full  spread  of 
tho  roots.  .\  heap  of  richer  loam  or  compost  is  ijjd 
in  the  centre,  on  which  the  tree  is  placed  and  the  roou 
are  covered  with  the  same,  and  watered  to  consolidiie 
tho  earth  about  the  fibres.  Tho  other  soil  ig  d,,,, 
thrown  on.  and  the  turf  returned  to  its  place  und  bctlea 
down  firmly.  Single  trees  should  be  staked  ;  ami  if  on 
a  pasture,  a  cradle  will  be  requisite  to  defend  themfrou 
the  browsing  or  rubbing  of  cattle. 

Much  has  lieen  written  on  the  subject  of  trannplanU 
ing  larRo  trees,  and  many  successful  ex|iliiiis  of  thii 
kind  have  b«'en  performed  both  in  past  and  prestnl 
times.  Shiiily  groves  have  liccn  formed  in  the  short 
space  of  a  few  months;  proving  that,  with  euro,  skill, 
and  physical  force  pro|)erly  directi'd,  any  tree  of  mode- 
rite  size,  say  from  twenty  to  forty  feet  high,  may  he 
transplnnted  with  safety  and  success.  One  precaution 
very  much  facilitates  the  execution  ;  it  is  that  of  dij. 
ging  a  circular  trench  at  a  projK-r  distance,  say  six  fctt, 
rmmd  the  trunk,  and  deep  enough  to  lie  lielnw,  and  to 
cut  through  all  tho  roots  except  three  or  four  of  the 
largest,  which  arc  left  at  equal  distunces  to  art  as  spun 
for  the  lietter  security  of  the  tree  when  placed  in  il« 
new  situation.  The  trench,  after  the  stumps  of  the 
roots  are  cut  smoothly  oft',  is  filled  with  prepared  com- 
post, tor  a  new  fiinge  of  roots  to  strike  into,  anJ  aftei 
one  or  two  years  the  tree  is  in  a  condition  for  removil 
In  doing  this,  a  dee])er  trench  is  made  on  tho  outside 
of  the  first,  into  which  the  mould  from  among  the  rooU 
is  drawn,  until  the  whole  is  loosened  from  the  wil; 
tho  spur  roots  arc  also  followed  out  and  laid  bare.  The 
method  of  raising  the  tree  by  a  machine  is  mcntioiwil 
beneath.  In  replanting,  much  de|M>nds  on  laying  ool 
the  roots,  and  firmly  emiieddiiig  them  in  inoistentJ 
earth,  and  also  adding  a  pretty  heavy  covering  o( 
soil  round  the  stem,  to  keep  tho  tree  steady  agaiOil 
wind. 

Every  tree  about  to  be  planted  requires  a  little  pruih 
ing;  broken  roots  should  be  removed,  and  the  hetil 
may  require  thinning.    The  branches  should  be  efuaJl; 


ARBORICULTURE.     IfiXtir/' 


m 


y,gff.l  i  •nil  if  any  on*  "PpeiiM  to  be  •  riyal  to  the 
-"""li  ihoulii  be  cut  oil'  cloM ;  to  thoee  riling  with 
lH^iJenn  ihould  be  depnved  of  the  weakest  Theie 
l^lu  only  apply  to  Jociduoui  ipoclee  ;  the  plnei  end 
«T<  dM'I  ""  <l>'""'"8  ^l>«n  truiipliuited,  unleia  aome 
^  lh«  lower  ipray  ie  deed. 

Machine  for  TraniplamingTreei. 

Thii  machine  ia  formed  on  the  principle  of  the  com- 
mon liinlier-truck,  lieinn  a  strong  lever  attached  to  the 

.utree  o(  a  pair  of  wheel*.  The  latter  are  itrongly 
MMtructcd,  a(  leant  five  feet  in  diameter,  and  with  a 

•j  g,  nine  inch  tire.  The  axle-tree  ia  correspondingly 
lubiUuitiai,  and  to  its  middle  the  pole  or  levor  is  securely 
(led.  'I'l"'  P"'"  ^''""''^  ^  made  of  the  best  ash,  seven 
inchei  square,  with  the  edges  planed  ofT,  and  somewhat 
Sliced  in  thickness  towards  the  end.  The  length 
ihouid  be  at  least  ten  feet,  for  the  longer  it  is,  the 
greater  the  purchase  in  raising  a  tree.  The  pole  is 
lengthened  by  side  braces  let  into  the  axle,  and 
mounted  with  un  iron  eye  and  ring  at  the  point.  When 
gied,  it  is  backed  against  the  tree,  and  the  polo  is 
Mid  and  made  fast  thereto,  as  here  represented.    The 


wbeda  rest  in  the  hollow  made  by  baring  and  loosening 
Ihs  roots,  though  not  upon  any  of  them ;  and  when  all 
ii  reatly,  the  strength  of  men  or  that  of  a  horse,  is 
i|)plied  to  the  pole  chain,  which  is,  together  with  the 
trre,  pulled  to  the  ground,  the  root  being  lifted  out  of 
tlio  loii ;  and  when  thus  borne  on  the  machine,  it  is 
drawn  away,  root  foremost,  to  its  new  place,  previously 
prepared  for  it*  reception.  The  wheels  aro  drawn  into 
the  new  opening,  the  po'e  and  tree  are  set  at  liberty. 
Hid,  if  the  root  be  heavy,  the  tree  will  resume  its  foi^ 
lacr  position  with  but  very  little  assistance.  The 
uuibiM  is  then  loosened  from  ttw  tree,  and  removed 


out  of  the  way ;  fh«  root*  are  then  laid  out  careAillyt 
and  embedded  in  loose  soil,  well  consolidated  ani 
watered,  which  finishes  the  planting. 

When  a  machine  is  made  on  purpose  for  removing 
large  trees,  the  axle-tree  may  be  made  to  fit  a  pair  of 
cart-wheels  for  a  temporary  purpose;  but  the  axla 
should  be  formed  with  ttraighl,  nut  dn.oping,  ends,  •• 
they  are  usually  made,  liccausc  this  renders  raining  tha 
pole  much  easier.  Upon  the  u|)|>nr  sido  of  the  asi« 
there  should  bo  a  thick  block  of  wood  bolted,  to  give 
more  elevation  to  the  root  when  drawn  along ;  and  on 
this  an  old  suck,  or  a  thick  band  of  straw,  ia  bound,  to 
prevent  chafing  the  bark  of  the  tree.  < 

Renovation  of  Decayed  Trees. 

In  favourable  circumstances  as  respects  soil  and 
climate,  trees  seem  to  be  immortal ;  but  in  our  own 
country,  these  favouring  circumstances  are  aflbrded  on 
a  limited  scale,  und  consequently  we  can  show  no  trees 
which  aro  beyond  the  reach  of  decay.  A  time  inv»> 
riably  arrives  when  they  l)egin  to  show  symptoms  of 
decay,  and  the  means  to  bo  adopted  to  prevent,  as  far 
as  possible,  the  occurrence  of  this  evil,  require  now  to 
be  noticed.  On  this  delicate  and  important  depart* 
ment  of  arboriculture,  we  have  great  pleasure  in  laying 
before  our  readers  the  detail  of  a  process  discovered 
by  the  lute  Sir  Henry  Stcuart,  communicated  in  • 
letter  to  Admiral  Sir  T.  Livingston,  Bart. 

"  Dkaii  Sin, — Agreeably  to  my  promise,  I  shall  now 
gtive  you  on  idea  of  my  method  of  reviving  or  rerae* 
citating  old  trees,  which  has  often  succeeded  with  raj* 
self,  and  which  I  have  recommended  to  others ;  but 
there  is  no  account  given  of  it  in  the  notes  an  3r)y  tre»* 
tiso  on  the  application  of  the  science  of  physiology  to 
practical  tree-culture,  and  particularly  in  removing 
large  trees  for  ornament  or  use. 

"The  decay  of  old  trees,  both  in  England  and  Scotland) 
has  been  a  subject  of  general  complaint  during  at  least 
a  century ;  and  it  is  observed,  with  regret,  that  their 
place  does  not  promise  to  be  very  speedily  supplied  bj 
existing  woods  and  plantations.  The  general  causes  of 
the  decay  of  trees  are  twofold.  The  first  proceeds  firom 
diseases  to  which  all  woody  plants  are  subject;  the 
second,  from  extreme  old  age,  but  more  frequently 
from  their  having  exhausted  the  pabulum  within  theb 
reach.  The  pathology  of  the  vegetable  tribe,  in  thia 
rcs|)ect,  diflere  materially  from  that  of  the  human 
species.  Among  the  sons  of  the  forest,  there  are  no 
vicious  eflurts  made  by  individuals,  as  among  us,  by 
means  of  disease,  to  shorten  life.  There  arc  no  goar« 
raands  nor  sensualists,  by  fatal  indulgences  and  artifi> 
cial  luxuries,  to  bring  on  promatnro  old  age.  The 
laws  of  nature  in  trees  are  allo'.%  ^'i  fairly  to  operate, 
and  their  existence,  therefore,  .  ;,  be  reckoned  on, 
and  even  prolonged  by  art,  to  an  iia'."hnite  period.  It 
has  been  said  that  the  roots  of  trceb  in  a  favourable 
soil  will  go  abroad  in  search  of  their  food  at  a  distance 
f:  }m  the  stem  equal  to  the  entire  height  of  the  tree 
taken  from  the  ground ;  and  wherever  this  is  found  's 
hold  good,  trees  will  live  to  a  very  g^eat  age,  especiahj 
in  a  deep  and  calcareous  soil. 

"  Of  your  two  fine  old  trees  at  Westquarter,  Stirling- 
shire, which  I  lately  examined — a  holly  and  a  double- 
flowering  thorn — I  must  say  that  they  appear  to  me  te 
have  declined  chiefly  from  the  Initer  of  the  two  cause* 
above  mentioned,  namely,  their  having  exhausted  th» 
food  or  pabulum  in  their  immediate  neighbourhood  { 
and,  in  the  case  of  the  thorn,  in  some  measure  fi-om  the 
ground  being  overstocked  with  other  plants,  that  greatly 
crowd  upon  it,  even  to  the  exclusion  of  light  and  air, 
without  which  no  plant  can  flourish.  As  to  the  hollar, 
it  seems  stunted  and  hide-bound,  and  serds  out  no  free 
shoots  at  top,  such  ts  a  tree  in  health,  in  so  fine  a  soil 
and  climate,  ought  to  do.     The  terminal  growths  of  tba 


m§ 


INFORMATION   >OK  THB  PKOi>LK. 


Ihorn,  alto,  hare  bcKun  to  dcray  ;  and  if  aome  aalutary 
raianiij'ba  not  i|jef<lily  ailoptnl  to  txiilt  iht  rtm't  lo 
fnth  <irti.»<i,  it  ia  plain  that  tlic  evil  will  ere  Ions  extend 
lo  111*  ((reiitor  l)ri>iichi-i,  ami  a*  a  nocoaiary  conaequnnce 
to  the  trunk  itaclf. 

"Tho  Aral  tiling  tlut  1  aliould  recommend  to  ho  done 
with  thia  nolilu  tliiirn,  ia  to  rut  away  the  ivy  that  now 
Mrongly  adheroa  to  it.  TImt  pnriuitiral  plant  haa  civ 
*«re<l  ni'urly  the  wlioli*  external  aurl'ace  of  the  Htem. 
It  nlrttudy  iiitvrioptii  tlie  kindly  iiiflurnre  of  the  aun  nnd 
•ir  from  the  bark  of  tlie  tree,  under  which  the  finer 
*«Niela  of  the  dviicondin|{  anp  lie,  ao  that  it  may  lie  naid 
to  prey  upon  the  very  vitula  of  the  plant.  The  next 
nlijoct  xhould  be,  to  I'lciir  the  Krouml,  for  a  conHidrrnble 
«p;ii'e,  of  overi*hadowin|{  ahruba  and  bunhci.  Ho  vrnc- 
ralilo  a  tree,  atandin;;  "iiiKlc,  would  Ih^  the  moat  graceful 
ornament  <i4°  the  verd.tnt  turf  that  aurrounde<l  it 

"The  aeound  Muff  that  1  would  do  would  be  to  dif(a 
""^nch  round  the  tree,  not  exceeding  throe  and  a  half 
^  four  feot  out  from  the  Ktem  ;  which  trench  Hhould 
be  five  feet  broiid  at  leiiHt,  and  ua  deep  an  to  penetrate 
through  both  the  aoil  and  imbitoil,  however  deep  either 
may  be,  until  you  reach  the  rock,  gravel,  pure  aand,  or 
obdurate  clay  (Sroiiif,  till)  that  may  lie  ladow.  In 
doing  thic,  the  workmen  may  fcarlewily  cut  through  all 
the  roota  they  inert  with,  leaving  only  three  or  four 
great  onea,  on  the  south  and  aouth-wcHt  aide*,  to  act  ua 
cahtft  in  rusiiitini;  the  8<<vrre  winda  that  uaually  blow 
firuin  those  quarters  in  every  part  of  the  island. 

"  Next,  let  whali^ver  paria  of  the  trench  that  consist 
of  good  earth,  or  of  earth  capable  of  lieing  easily  made 
•o,  be  thrown  aside,  and  the  sand  or  gravel,  if  any,  be 
wheeled  away ;  so  that  you  m:ty  obtain  a  depth  in  the 
trench  of  two  feet  or  more,  if  the  soil  permit,  of  well- 
mixed  mould.  For  this  purpom.',  let  good  compost  or 
tich  garden  mould  (of  wliich  I  saw  abundance  near  the 
■pot)  be  inlimaluly  mixed,  by  two  or  three  times  turn- 
ing, with  the  better  parts  of  the  contents  of  the  trench, 
adding  about  a  third  part  of  good  well-rotted  dung,  so 
M  that  a  projier  chemical  action  may  be  excited  through- 
out the  mass,  and  the  whole  rendered  fit  for  the  fiMMl 
of  plants.  This  done,  let  the  trench  lie  filled  up  with 
such  compound  somewhat  higher  than  the  original  soil ; 
and  let  the  space  which  bus  lieen  Iel\  untouched,  of 
four  feet  out  from  the  stem  to  the  edge  of  the  trench, 
be  covered  eight  or  nine  inches  deep,  with  the  same 
prepared  and  friable  compound,  pointing  it  in  with  the 
spade  only  about  three  inches  deep,  so  as  not  materially 
tu  injure  the  roots.  In  order  to  complete  the  process, 
let  all  the  dead  wood  be  carefully  pruned  away  from  the 
branches  with  a  saw,  hut  dressing  the  extremities  after- 
wards with  a  sharp  hedge-bill. 

«  In  the  following  spring,  all  moas  or  other  impurity 
should  lie  Hcra|ied  olT  the  bark,  and  the  entire  stem  well 
washed,  two  or  three  times,  during  the  summer  season, 
with  soap  and  water  and  u  soft  brush. 

"By  following  the  above  method,  which,  however  ela- 
borate it  may  appear  in  the  description,  will  lie  very  easily 
reduced  to  practice,  I  feel  confident  that  many  fine  old 
trees  in  gentlemen's  parks,  that  are  now  allowed  to  decay, 
might  have  (inolher century  odded  to  their  existence;  bo- 
caUH<t  the  extension  of  fresh  pabulum  at  pl<  isure  to 
greater  limila,  would  lie  a  labour  well  repaid,  anu  attended 
with  little  expense,  and  as  little  difliculty.  There  are  few 
persons  who  would  not  liestow  more  labour  than  tiiis  on 
a  favourite  tree  ;  and  there  are  {lerhaps  fewer  who  will 
not  admit  that  it  might  easily  be  applied  to  purposes  of 
general  utility  as  well  as  local  ornamenL  The  principles 
Ml  wfiell  thn  process  has  been  instituted  are  in  accord- 
•ttoo  vitb  the  laws  of  animal  as  well  as  vegetable  (ihysi- 
ology,  and  will  be  confirmed  by  practice,  if  they  be  al- 
Inwsd  lo  govern  the  process.  [  ttave  uniformly  found 
that  tki  roota,  where  cut  through  in  the  opening  of  the 
Itetir.h.  will   send  forth  all  imineuso   body  of  vigorous  , 


ramifications,  of  from  a  foot  to  fifteen  inrhss  in  L..A 
during  the  first  and  sccoml  months  after  tho  oiirni^ 
with  thousands  of  capillary  '""ll«ta  emanating  from  Ow'*' 
all  which  will  go  abroad  in  search  of  rap,  fu,  „,„^^  ,*• 
the  vigour  of  the  tree.     In  a  tree  of  coiini,leri,h|,     ' 
anch  nx  the  two  above  alluded  to,  at  your  beuuiifui   l'"" 
it  is  to  Im'  observed,  that  much  fl,fure  caniml  U.  fi, 
to  lie  Miiidc,  during  the  first  year,  in  the  eliirini,ti„||  J 
terminal  shoots ;  and  for  this  plain  reanoii,  tlmt   ,ir 
mu»l  necessarily  lie  preceded  by  their  caiiwn,  »|,,!i'' 
they  lii^  on  the  surface  or  otherwise  ;  but  the  Icm,.,   '.I 
H|M'edily   liocome   larger,  and  of  a  doe|ier  urirti  c„| 
than  for  some  years  past ;  and  by   the  aiilumn  diT' 
s<>ron(l  year,  it  will  be  admitted  that  the  trne  ii  i„ 
sort  about  lo  itiitw  il>  yoiiln, 

"  During  the  curly  part  of  the  first  scBHun,  the  r 
mould  Hhonld  be  allowed   to  remain  quite  uikIIsiu.i^i* 
but  towards  the  end  of  the  year,  the  gardener  or  fur.    ' 
may  cautiously  look  in,  and  ho  will  obsvivu  the  wurul 
ful  ediirts  towards  the  increuHc  of  leaves,  sriil,  |iy  f 
qucnce,  towards  a  fresh  supply  of  sap,  that  tin.  pij,,,  Jt 
even  then  have  made ;  and  alU'r  the  second  year  ilio 
novating  piiK-ess  will  appear  still  more  slrikinir, 

"These  directions  apply  eqimlly  to  both  the  ihorn  anJiL 
holly  at  VV'estquarter,  with  this  diircrence,  llmt,  ji,  . , 
sicleniiion  of  the  for  greater  exposure  in  wliii  ||  |||p  i  (. 
is  placed,  I  should  not  advise  that  the  trendi  l,,  „  "  , 
nearer  than  within  five  feel  of  the  atem  j  uUn,  n  (jrpj,„ 
number  of  large  roots  (to  oct  as  cables  in  »ii|i|K)rliniFtl|, 
tree),  say  five  or  six,  should  bo  left  entire,  ruiiiiiiijrac,,^ 
the  trench. 

"  Tho  month  of  February  or  beginning  of  March  u, 
cording  to  tho  season,  before  tho  aHcending  snij  litginiu 
stir,  would  of  course  be  Iho  Im-hI  time  to  curry  inloeflftt 
the  methods  of  resuscitation  uliove  detniled ;  niid  hi  Vl 
laiiinii  House  is  at  no  great  distance,  I  should  have  miifh 
pleasuri'  in  paying  you  a  visit,  and  directing'  ih,'  oiec» 
tion  myself. — With  great  esteem,  I  reinuin,  ii 
Thomas,  your  most  faithful  servant, 

"  H.  Stkiait." 

Coppice  and  Fences. 

Coppice  or  uniierwood  is  eithor  natiiml  or  planted 
Natural  underwoods  appear  to  tie  the  remains  of  anrirnt 
forests,  wliich  are  kept  encloM'd,  and  arc  felled  ppHnJl. 
cally  ut  long  or  short  intervals,  according  to  the  iiunKse 
for  which  the  stuff  is  to  be  applied.  Hlimli'd  uiulcnvojOi 
are  either  willow  India  for  tlio  baskct-nmker,  hoops  for 
cih)|)ers,  hop  jioles,  poles  for  fencing  and  Imrdli'-inakinj, 
stakes  and  heuilers  for  hedging,  broom,  huy-riJie,  ami  mop 
handles,  spray  for  birch  bosoms,  fagots  for  brlckiiidkfn 
and  bakers,  kindlers,  and  other  firewood,  and  nithei  fot 
biiKliiig  fagots,  &c. 

Thriving  and  well-fenced  and  well-mana^rd  unJii- 
wckmIs  are  considered  more  profitable  tlian  tiintH'r-noaii 
The  first  are  very  soon  a  source  of  income,  and  as  sudi 
are  subject  to  tithe,  which  has  caused  many  acres  of  thm 
in  England  to  lie  allowed  to  grow  up  into  woods,  whkh 
are  free  from  tithe.  But  timber  and  coppice  mar  \» 
united  ;  the  standard  trees  to  stand  thinly,  and  if  krpi 
pruned  up,  the  undergrowth  is  not  much  hurt  by  thrii 
shade.  Mixed  underwoods  are  cut  every  five,  scvrn,  ]i 
ten  years,  unless  they  are  entirely  of  oak.  when  thfyui 
allowcil  to  stmd  longer,  for  the  sake  of  btiving  iatgn 
polca,  togothcr  with  tho  bark,  which  last  la  ti.e  principil 
part  of  the  value  of  toe  fall.  When  such  a  full  i<  mide, 
every  superior-looking  well-placed  pole  is  left  oi  a  Min- 
dard,  if  standards  be  wanting ;  these  at  last  become  fin 
trees,  and  are  felli>d  in  their  turn. 

The  most  profitable  underwo>l  is  that  which  htibm  { 
planted,  and  each  sort  of  tree  kept  by  itself,  hivins;  l^ 
gard  to  tho  quality  of  the  soil  most  suitable  for  ci^h,  il 
there  lie  any  dilTerence.     For  instance,  anh  and  8|,iiiiiih 
chestnut  should  havu  tho  driest  spott: ;  oak  and  buch  iJioa 


<■«■•    sit     ^H      ^jjl  gjujy   „|||y    wl 


.» ^T'- 


ARBOniCULTtTRR. 


an 


,4^  tit  mow  molit  I  •Wt  and  wlHow  ihi-  mniatrat. 

JhjJj  K)rt«  iliiiild  I*  pliiiiteil  very  cloidy  toRHhitr,  Im'- 

lhi«  not  only  InrreiiurK  thi*  Icnith  nnd  niiniltrr  Imt 

Jt*",,,  Ihi'  fo'ni  of  th«  polM,  circuinaUnrrii  which  tt-ry 

^  I  .        111..  *kni#  tfnini*. 


joh  .(t'l '"  '.►"-.''  \»!':" 


irkf  griiuii'l  «lii>iil<l  b«  prepared  for  undrrwood  in  the 
ni«'""'f  ■•  '"'  tiiiilirr-treoii,  rillirr  dy  the  |ilo'iKh  or 


ip*!'- 


Wit  Ixnd  i*  uaiially  laid  into  t)rdN  witli  narrow 
y  I  l.ptrtT''  ,  lli«  »oil  out  of  wliirh  nervi'i  to  riiino  tlic 
uli  iinil  ffi*"" ''""  •''"''''  '"""'  ■'■"I*"'  Wovrrid  wild  ulinilw 
■  t,i»|iiii*thirn'«'lvp«  amoni{  iindi'rwo(Ml,|!nrlicnliirly  huiol 
J  luwi'.ioi  1,  neillirr  of  which  nro  niiirh  nlijcctcd  to,  oa 
Ac  lint  >"  '■  o*"'"!  ropfiicc  plurit,  and  the  limt  i<  iilwuya 

I,  ri'iii'"''  "''""'  "  '"''"'• 
Some  of  our  onjamontal  ahruba  arrive  nt  tho  hciuht  of 

mid  Willie  of  lh»«m  prixlure  pxri'llnit  iind  Ix'aiitil'ul 

dmlH'ti  •"'''  '*'"  ''"'  '7P'''''"''  ''o"y>  ialiiiriium,  and  unol- 

il'rroix''     I'lTKO  aruntliiiKH  of  Ihu  aocuiid  and  tidrd  nro 

Burli  |iriii"l  for  vciici-rinff. 

Thi'  hIuiiIi  utoiaily  employed  for  livinR  fenrrH  ia  the 
liowtliorn,  w'lifh,  tiy  proper  ImilmonI,  niny  ho  riMiden-d 
i  very  <'I1''<''""'  lifo'e'"''""  '"  '*"''d«.  The  nhrulm  should 
be  planted  when  younif,  ac(iir<lin«  to  tho  reipiin'd  line. 

ihr  top  uf  n  dry  bnnic ;  and,  till  they  nllnin  a  uiiU'icient 
air  ilio  rows  will  reijuire  to  lie  protected  Iroin  ciilllc  liy 

IjLfc  The  way  to  cauHe  iho  planta  to  increase  in  hulk, 
kf  (lirowinif  out  lower  hranchca  to  form  a  roinpiict  lied«e, 
iitolifi'l'  ''"■  found  fre»^  of  weeds — a  duty  far  loo  fie- 
qiicntly  neslected— and  prune  the  outer  HtruKnliiiK 
Nni'lii""  iiiii""dly.  when  the  Miip  ia  down.  P'rom  lie;?- 
Wlof  tin'*"  prccnutiiuiH,  thorn  hedfjcH  lire  frei|ueiilly  thin, 
KTWSy.  *'"'  "hii""'  uxelesH  in  preventini.;  the  exit  of 
ibeci),  mill  even  Ciittle  from  enclosuren,  IJosiilcs  weed- 
jinmiil  |iruiiin«.  thicken  ofien  apaccn  by  inwerling  new 
plant*  when  iiocesHurv. 

Latterly,  fu«e  or  whina  have  heen  employed  with 
much  uilviiiiliii?c  :iH  fenecH,  hut  this  hurdy  native  ithrnh 
Kill  I,"""'  ""')'  where  there  it  Kteal  freoduui  of  iiir,  aud 
Hiocevda  lieat  in  northern  cliuiutea. 

AOB   AND  8IZK    OF   TREI8. 

Ithmhcen  mentioned  in  our  article  on  Vf.oktahi.k 
Pauioi.oiiT,  that  if  u  tree  (of  the  cxo(;enoun  kind)  he 
ret  transversely  and  examined,  it  will  Im"  found  to  eon- 
■slof  a  niiinlier  of  eyiiiiders  endoMiiin  one  aiiutlier  like 
10  maiiv  hiverH  or  ronei'iitric  circleu  dinpoHed  round  nn 
ilii;  and  liiat,  .ih  a  rircular  layer  is  deposited  every  year. 
it  is  po«<iliie  to  aseertniii  the  une  of  tho  tree  hy  eomiliiii; 
ihe  nimilH'r  of  the  layers.  M.  Decandolle,  one  of  the 
moiit  ccieliraled  hotaninta  of  modern  times,  has,  na  iip- 
warn from  a  work  on  the  nuhjeet,  paiil  ureal  attenlio'i  to 
this  iiictho<l  of  a»certainin){  the  aote  of  trees.  He  ol>- 
■errrs,  that  the  method  of  reckonini{  nr.'..  ulUided  to  is 
not  liiiMe  to  much  error,  hut  the  inspection  must  he  con- 
ducted with  the  greatest  cure  ;  for  the  ohh'r  circles  hecoino 
condensed  into  a  masa,  and  their  number  <an  only  lie 
piesaed  at  hy  meaaurement.  "  My  plan,"  snys  hi'  "  is 
u  follows :  When  I  have  got  a  ac<  tion  of  an  old  tree,  on 
wbiih  I  can  see  the  circles,  I  place  a  ahcct  of  paper  upon 
it,  eitendinn  from  the  centre  to  the  circumference.  On 
thii  paper  I  mark  every  circle,  ahowing  also  the  Hitimlion 
of  the  pith,  the  bark,  the  name  of  the  tree,  the  country 
•here  it  grew,  and  any  other  necessary  observationH.  I 
•L  uidrk  m  a  strnngor  manner  the  lines  which  indicate 
nety  len  ynin,  and  thus  1  measure  their  growth  ut  len 
Jffan'  'ntervftls  Measuring  from  centre  to  circuml'er- 
tiico,  nivesine  the  circles;  doubling  this  I  have  the  diiinie- 
hr,  ami  multiplying  by  six  I  have  the  circumference." 

The  learned  professor  then  presents  a  table  of  the 
penmls  of  incre  ise  in  the  diain.'ter  of  various  trees,  an 
iiiejieetioii  of  which  proves  that  every  tree,  alter  having 
jrown  rapidly  when  young,  seems  at  u  ceruiin  age  to 
'*kc  a  regular  march  of  growth,  which  may  [H>rlia|H  Iw 
KciMinted  for  by  auptioaing  that  young  treea  have  more 


room  to  eipand  In,  are  I'M  prraan!  hy  d  ^  roots  i  .n| 
branchea  of  their  neiglibourn,  and  may  ii«(  have  |<  in* 
(rated  down  to  a  hard,  arid,  or  otherwise  iiiifavourabtl 
noil ;  and  alio,  that  aa  trees  advance  in  age,  they  atill  colli 
timie  to  form  layers  as  thick  aa  they  previouHly  did  aalv 
■ripiently  to  the  |)eriod  of  rapi'l  growth.  If  »ueh  tahlel 
were  multiplied  to  a  aulUcient  entent,  aa  we  have  n* 
doubt  they  will  be  in  coiirHe  of  time,  they  would  form 
data  from  which,  hy  awcerluining  the  circumfcreni-e  of  • 
tree,  its  age  might  Iw  known  without  having  recouna  tit 
the  deatriiclivo  proceaia  of  cutting  deep  into  the  growing 
timber.  <•  If,"  aaya  Decandidle,  "  one  cannot  get  a  ttan» 
verae  section  of  a  trunk,  then  one  must  wek  for  old  a|)»* 
cimeiis  of  each  kind,  the  date  of  whose  plsnting  is  known, 
meaHure  their  circumference,  deduce  their  average  growth, 
and  calculate  from  them  the  age  of  olhrr  trees  -f  the  aain* 
kind,  iilwaya  keeping  in  mind  that  yiiung  treea  grow 
fa  ter  than  old  ones."  Decandolle  eiles  instances  of  tree! 
whos<<  agea  have  been  aacertaineil  according  to  the  rulM 
hero  laid  down.  Home  of  these  we  shall  preiumt  to  tb* 
reader,  along  with  dcHcriptiona  of  other  trees  obtained 
from  a  variety  of  aourcea,  particularly  American  publW 
cation*. 

.^  certain  Fanhah  trtt  of  Africa  la  considered  hy  Hum* 
holdt  as  the  oldest  organic  moniimenl  of  our  |ilanet ;  and 
AdaiiHOii,  a  distinguished  botanist,  by  ingenious  calcul** 
tions,  haa  aaecrtnined  its  age  to  he  f>l.M)  yeara.  The 
methoil  adopted  by  .\dansnn  for  tiiidiiig  its  age,  waa  by 
making  a  deep  cut  in  (ho  aiile  of  the  trunk,  and  counting 
the  concentric  rings,  hy  which  he  ascertained  how  much 
the  tree  had  grown  in  three  centuries ;  and  hnvinii  already 
learned  (he  growth  of  young  trees,  he  established  hil 
general  law  through  the  average  growth.  The  enormouf 
ilimensions  of  the  trunk  o(  this  tree  hear  a  striking  di^ 
proportion  to  the  other  parts,  Examples  of  (he  apecioa 
have  ls>en  seen,  which,  with  a  (runk  ninety  feet  in  ciN 
ciimference,  were  only  twelve  feet  in  height.  A  still 
larger  was  seen  by  Mr.  Oolberry  in  the  valley  of  tho  two 
(lagiiai'ks,  in  Africa  ;  it  was  thirty-four  feet  in  diametcT, 
The  (lower  is  of  the  same  gigantic  proportions  aa  tha 
tree,  t^uch  colossal  masses  of  timber  mif^lit  he  hollowed 
out  into  hy  no  means  straitened  dwelling-houses. 

One  of  the  most  celcbiiiled  trees  described  by  travellera 
of  recent  (iines.  is  (ho  (-'reiil  Jlini^nii  Irre  of  (ho  island  of 
TeneriU'e.  It  derives  its  name  of  ilriific  I's-lilmiil,  by  which 
it  is  popularly  known,  from  the  circumstance  of  a  liquor 
of  a  derp  red  colour  like  blood  flowing  from  ita  hoary 
trunk  during  the  dog-days.  This  exudation  soon  be- 
comes dry  and  brittle  by  the  action  of  Ihe  atmosphere, 
and  is  the  (rue  drHgoirS'bloo<l  of  tho  apothecaries  and 
oilier  venders.  The  wonderful  size  and  appearance  of 
this  tree  excited  the  admiration  of  Humboldt,  who  thus 
describes  it: — "  W'b  were  told  that  the  trunk  of  this (;«<•, 
which  is  mentioned  in  sonu.  very  ancient  documenta  m 
marking  the  hounduriei'  of  a  field,  was  as  gigantic  in  the 
filleenlh  century  as  it  is  at  the  present  moment.  Ita 
hei;;ht  afipeared  to  us  to  b^^  about  tifty  or  sixty  feet;  it* 
circumference  near  the  roots  is  forty-five  feet.  •  •  • 
The  trunk  is  divided  into  a  great  number  of  branches, 
which  rise  in  the  form  of  a  candelabrum,  and  are  termi- 
nitted  by  tuRs  of  leavcj,  hkothe  yucca  which  adorna  the 
valley  of  Mexico.  It  still  bears,  every  year,  both  leav«* 
and  fruit.  Its  aspect  feelingly  recalls  to  mind  '  that  etor- 
,  nal  youth  of  nature'  which  is  tin  iiicxhuuiitil  le  source  of 
I  motion  and  of  life."  'I'hb  giant  plant  wa.^  laid  prostrate 
by  a  tempest  in  1822. 

The  fact  here  nuticcd  hy  (ho  learned  traveller,  that  the 
1  tree  annually  bore  leaves  and  fruit,  allords  indubitable 
proof  of  a  very  reiiiaiUablu  circuni-taiice  connected  with 
the  ve^etidde  kingdoin.  In  miui  nud  all  other  unimala 
we  find  III  orgaiiiz.'.tion  and  a  process  of  life  going  on 
which  Hie  ilesliiicd  to  cca.se  at  a  certain  period.  But  it  i* 
otherwise  with  trees.  They  appear  to  pos.sess  the  powei 
,  of  growing  on  for  ever  without  exhibiting  any  dymptoni* 


m 


INFORMATfON  FOR  TIIR  PFOPLB. 


•f  itatf,  anlMB  fVmn  irrldmlil  nr  vilrmnpinii  rau«>a. 
W«  iliill  qiKrtn  (hit  wonli  of  DwnnilolN-  on  Ihin  point : — 
•  As  therr  ii  formrti  trrrj  yr«r  ■  lifii<-ou»  H«|>aiil,  ind 
gPlMnitly  new  orniin*,  thrrt  (■  no!  amoiiK  Ihr  vr|ti<tiihl« 
emtlon  plurr  Tor  tlial  hunlnrM  or  riciility,  that  oMruo- 
llon  of  old  and  iMTtnanrnt  orKana,  which  ronatiliitr  pro- 
parly  the  titiiilt  I'f  M  Oft,  and,  rnii«rqiirnlly,  that  hrini 
the  raap,  Irrra  can  only  dir  rnim  aciidciital  canara.  Trrra 
do  not  dip  friiin  affr  in  th«  tru<>  apn>e  of  (hr  woril ;  Ihry 
hava  no  fi«fd  prriivl  of  ptiatpncc  j  and,  cninei|ncnlly, 
MOM  may  hf>  found  that  havn  arrived  at  an  extraordinary 
agr."  liul  although  a  tree  thna  pcuKeiuM'a  in  itM<lf  the 
•lemenla  of  continual  MronKth  and  youth,  niimcroiia 
oauaaa  atop  in  to  interrupt  or  dcatiuy  ila  rxixtetice.  In 
fonrohomtion  of  whnt  wo  alate.  we  need  only  idliide  to 
the  f'irta,  thai  lutil  ia  of  limited  depth — that,  Ih'Iow  the 
■oil,  there  are  UHuidly  hard  alrnta,  which  the  frclcrit  of  a 
plant  rannol  peni-tratc — that  roota  iiitcrcrotminK  enctinihi-r 
••ch  other,  and  check  vevetiition — iH-aidea  which,  there 
■n  otiier  dcatnictive  and  ohatructive  cauaea  which  we 
need  not  occupy  the  render'*  time  hy  ap<'cil\'inK.  ('on- 
Mtquently,  alihouRh  what  the  French  philoaopher  aaya  ia 
quite  true,  that  ■•  xninc  (tri-ea)  may  be  found  that  liovo  ar- 
rivfld  at  an  extraordinary  aKe,"  yet,  every  circumatance 
eonaidered,  we  cro  not  to  he  aurpriiied  if  the  nnmher 
Ibund  abould  prove  exceedinKly  amall,  compored  with  the 
immenae  extent  of  the  earth'a  aurfaoe  which  ia  covered 
with  foreat  treea. 

Cypreaaca  of  (tii^anlic  dimenaiona  are  met  with  in 
Mexico.  At  Atlcxo  there  ia  one  aevenly-aix  fed  in  Rirth; 
•nd  another  at  Ht.  Mnria  del  Tuli,  in  the  province  of 
Oaxaca,  which  ia  one  hundred  and  eighteen  feet  in  cir- 
cumference !  Thia  ia  liirner  than  the  driiRon  tree  of  the 
Canariea,  and  all  the  Imoi>iiha  of  Africa,  ■•  Hut,"  anya 
Humboldt,  "  on  examining  it  narrowly,  M.  Anza  ohaervca, 
that  what  excitea  the  admiration  of  trnveliera  ia  not  a 
■ingle  individual,  hut  that  three  united  trunk*  form  the 
famoua  Saliini)  of  Siinln  Miiiiii  iltl  Tuli."  The  I'nct  of 
the  threefold  nature  of  the  atem  aeema  to  have  eitcap''d 
the  notice  of  aome  writera;  it  ia  of  importance  in  detvr- 
mininf;  which  ia  really  the  largcat  organic  monument  of 
our  planet.  There  ia  another  eyprena  at  Chapulte|iec,  in 
the  aame  region,  which  ia  aaid  to  be  one  hundred  and 
Kventeen  feet  ten  incliea  round,  and  the  youiiifer  Decan- 
dolle  conaidera  it  even  older  than  the  huohiib  of  Adunaim. 
If  the  nieaauremml  here  given  lie  correct,  and  the  tree 
conaiata  only  of  <inc  stem,  we  are  eiititletl  to  roRard  thia 
Mexican  cyprcaa  a»  the  moat  gii;:inlic  and  ancient  tree 
hitherto  dincnvered  on  the  glolie.  Hunter  aaya  that  in 
1776  there  exiatod  in  the  garden  of  the  palace  of  Orenndu 
eypreaaea  that  were  celelirated  even  in  the  time  of  the 
Mooriah  kingH,  and  which  were  named  ('uprti»>t  de  In 
Btffna  Sultdiin,  from  a  Hultaneaa  who  waa  aeen  aitting 
under  it  with  a  lover,  who  waa  one  of  the  Abencerragea. 
They  are  aup|>ow'd  to  lie  eight  or  nine  hundred  yeara  old. 
Strabo  mentiona  a  Pe;«ian  cypreaa  in  girth  aa  much  aa 
Ave  men  could  span,  and  he  U'lieved  it  t<>  he  two  thou- 
i«nd  6ve  hundred  yeara  old.  But  thia  muct  h.ive  Iteen 
gueaa-work  ;  at  lenat  we  are  not  a'.vare  that  he  made  the 
computation  afU-r  the  akilful  manner  of  Adnnwn  or  De- 
oandolle.  Michaux,  a  Frenchman,  has  p\iIiliHhed  a  splen- 
••id  work  on  the  foreat  trees  of  the  United  States.  He 
ieya  that  the  largest  stocks  of  the  cypress  nre  one  hundred 
and  twenty  feet  in  height,  and  from  twenty-five  to  forty 
feet  in  circumference,  uIhivc  the  conical  liase,^  wiiich  at 
the  aurfaoe  of  tht  earth  is  always  three  or  four  times  as 
Urge  as  the  continued  diamet^-r  of  the  trunk,  ('ypresaea 
Itfe  kmung  the  trci-s  in  the  aouth  of  Europe  which  live  to 
Ibe  moat  advanced  age  ;  and  the  custom  of  planting  them 
in  ceniotenea  and  consecrated  ground,  ensures  respect 
being  paid  to  them,  and  ihua  aflbrda  l)olani»ia  the  meant 
of  measuring  tnem. 

Yewa  are  helieviid  to  l.e  the  most  ancient  trees  of 
Great  Britain :  and  no  doubt  can  exist  th»t  ttiere  are 


indlvidiiala  of  the  apeeies  in  Kngland  as  nM  m  4u  u 
troiiurtioti  of  (Christianity,  and,  there  is  evrry  rraju. 
helieve,  a  very  grest  deal  older.  It  ia  the  opinion !! 
DrrandoUe,  that  of  all  Euroiiean  treea,  the  yrw  h  (iH 
which  attains  the  greatest  age.  "  I  have  mrMumj  it 
de|MMila  of  one  of  aeventj  yeara  j  CKlhafen  hu  m, 
atired  one  of  <me  hundred  and  Ally  years  ;  ^niil  Vltji  « 
haa  measureii  one  of  two  hundred  and  rijihtj  .,^ 
These  three  ineaaurementa  agree  in  proving  thtt  tin 
yew  growa  a  little  more  than  one  line  •nriiially  in.i^ 
flrat  one  hundred  and  fifty  yeara,  and  less  thnn  ■  \,^ 
from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred  ami  it|^ 
If  fr)r  very  aged  yews  we  lake  the  average  of  n,i,  \.^  , 
annually,  it  is  probably  an  admisaioii  beyond  tht  tmil,. 
and  thus,  in  estimnting  the  numlier  of  lines  and  utn 
as  equal,  we  make  them  younger  than  they  reallt  „,> 
We  think  this  reasoning  very  plansiiile,  and  point  dm 
to  such  of  our  readers  as  may  have  opporluiiitictof  ,. 
ing  old  yew  trees,  how  easily  they  may  asrrrlain  thm 
age,*  The  line  here  s|M)ken  of  ia  one-tenth  of  in  inrfc 
The  circumference  may  la-  taken  just  above  the  hiK  j 
the  tn-e ;  the  third  of  this  measurement  gives  iIm  jj.  I 
meter,  and  every  inch  of  iliaineter  is  equal  to  ten  jn« 
There  are  four  measurements  of  venerable  yews  in  Ei,. 
land — those  of  the  ancient  Ahliey  of  Fountnini,  nm 
Ri|)on  in  Yorkshire,  which  yewa  were  well  known  a 
early  na  IIAA,  Pennant  aaya,  that  in  1770  Ihry  «» 
1314  linea  in  diameter,  and,  consequently,  wpre  nrnri 
than  twelve  centuriea  old.  'J'hose  of  the  cburrhjanly 
Crowhurst  in  Surrey,  on  Evelyn's  authority,  wrre  |5«7 
linea  in  diameter.  There  are  two  remarkalije  yrwin,]) 
in  the  same  cemetery,  and  if  they  lie  the  wimf  w|ii,j 
Evelyn  refers  to,  they  must  Ik-  fourteen  centurifn  m,! | 
half  old.  The  yew  tree  at  Fortingnl  in  Pcrth«hin 
mentioned  by  reiinant,  in  1770,  had  a  dinmeterof  ;s?j  I 
lines,  and,  conse<iuently,  we  must  reckon  it  at  frog 
twenty-five  to  twenty-six  centuries  old.  Tlic  jfwrf  ' 
Urabourn  churchyard  in  Kent,  has  attained  the  t^d 
.100(1  years ;  but  that  at  lludsor  in  Bucks  aurpiMin  I 
all  others  in  magnitude  and  antiquity.  It  i*  in  fug 
health,  and  meiisures  above  twenty-seven  feet  in  iliir» 
ter;  conwcpiently,  according  to  Decaiidolle's  mdhodef 
computation,  this  yew  has  reached  the  enorniom  ip ol 
3°J'tO  years!  In  nil  likelihood,  this  is  the  moat  anrin! 
siM'cimen  of  Euro|H'an  veijetation. 

The  elm  attain*  o  very  large  me,  ami  han  i  tnj  i 
rapid  growth, both  inEurojie  and  America;  tmtllufla 
of  the  latter  country  has  a  much  more  nmjeBtic  appn» 
anee  than  that  of  Euro|H',     Michaux  charaderi7rk  it  a 
"  the  most  magnificent  vegetable  of  the  teiiipernlo  lont.'  I 
A  sjiecimen  mentioned  by  Decandollc,  which  ijrcw  nn  I 
the  town  of  Morges  in  Switzerland,  mensureil  nevpnlm  [ 
feet  seven  inches  in  diameter,  and  was  estiinated  nt  ihia  I 
hundred  and  tliiily-five  yeara  of  age.     He  iiiformiiil 
that  it  grew  on  an  average  three  lines  and  a  half  yeiilt; 
but  dividing  its  growth  each  century,  it  grew  six  liim  I 
anniinlly  the  first,  two  and  a  half  the  accortil,  and  in 
and  three-fourths  the  third  ;  and  this  growth  aprffiwili 
that  of  those  elms  planted  by  order  of  Sully,  Irfforelbi  I 
Chambers  in  France.     Every  one  who  has  it  in  hii  I 
power  to  ascerlnin  the  rate  of  growth  of  treea  ou(,'litlg| 
do  so,  as  he  is  thereby  not  oidy  gratifyinir  a  rational  r» 
riosity,  but  conferring  a  lienefit  on  science.    Whrrro  I 
the  ago  of  an   dm  or  other  tree  is  correctly  known, Hi  I 
girth  should  be  taVen,  and  a  jilain  statement  of  thf  i|»  I 
ciea  of  tree,  the   nature  of  the  soil  where  it  b'".*! 
diameter  and  age,  transmitted  to  any  journal,  the  upeiil  I 

•  \Vc  are  awiire  thai  ul  the  llrili«li  AMOcislion  whirli  mf.t  I 
Ifflfl.  a  paper  wiis  T<-ai[  oiiiilrsiiielory  of  l)icaiir|i>lli-'«  cnrnti  I 
tation  repnrilintf  vi-w  irrei.  niid  stallnir  lliiu  lie  inadfilmJI 
trees  loo  younir.  uinl  Ihe  voiing  trees  looohl  The  fipitinifiiM 
aaaerieil  lliul  llie  moan  average  of  the  nimilier  of  Imii-j  «;h^ 
a  tree  inereaseil  in  a  yenr,  was  two,  or  one-fifih  of  an  ii« 
Riil  Deeamlolle  is  the  liigheat  aiittiority,  and  we  are  iMJiaij 
to  aliido  by  his  opinion  till  further  experinicnta  lia«  dim 
made. 


■^■".T  T'  "»T«^»^  yr^r'^  "- 


ARBORTCULTURR. 


jJhI  of  wtii''h  i*  l<>  i*1i*  <*nfn'Mn««  of  lh«  TaRrlaMi* 
Tj^jgia,  Wo  mf  rnruln  th*t  ninny  of  our  rrulor* 
rrTj,  In  ihrir  |>o»»i'r.  Imlrnl,  Dccaiiilolln  «*rii<>aily 
^•4  the  *lt<'nliim  of  Rnxliiili  iMitnninU  lo  lh«  culijvrl  ; 
Ik  it  If  only  ''y  ""  'it^'xi'*''  nrriiiniiUtion  of  iiuliviilual 
fc(Mth(t  itfin""!  I«w»  '•■•11  tw  mlalplUhrd. 
On*  of  tlx   "">*'  <'>>''"«*  ■'>■'  txiaiitiful  of  naturr'i 

5^  „f  iiiiUiiinU.  Kiifh  trm  form*  in  llaolf  •  urovp, 
Pjn^l  ,if  iiiiinnroui)  Kli'mii  roniirrlril  IniirthiT,  »ornt' 
J  ^iiiifi,  nr»  of  111"  "iw  •'f  «  l«fB"  •'■<'«.  On  ihr  iaiiiiiil 
/  N«ihiii!  Ix'i.  nriir  llnnmch,  in  inniliMtan,  tliarn  I*  •till 
Miwlini  •  I'cifhratml  hnninn,  ralli'il  ihn  ('iilnrr  lUnr. 
The  InMlition  ')!'  die  nativpH  it,  that  it  la  thrpn  lliouantiil 
ntn  ol'l'  ''  '"  ""PI""""'  ''y  •"'<"'  •"  *•"  ''"'  "nnio  •"'«' 
thit  *»•  vinili'tl  by  Noarciiu",  ono  of  Alriunilcr  tin- 
Qfeat'i  olfiiTra.  'J'lic  l.irnn  tiunka  of  thin  Ircn  nriiinu>( 
u  nuinN-r  to  flflO,  tho  mnallrr  oiiea  orrril  3000,  ami 
Mch  of  llii''^  ■■*  ronitniilly  xi'niliiig  fnrtli  liranclirn  anil 
hinrnii  f"""  '"  ''""'  "'I'"  trunk*.  Tho  rircumfprcnco 
of  Ihia  rrnmrkalild  plant  ii  nrarly  3000  frrt.  Millon, 
In  hii "  I'a""!'"*  I'""'/'  I'l'*  'li'wribnJ  one  of  ihrao  troi-a 
Mtbit  of  wlinw  Ictvpa  our  llrat  parrnti  ••  niado  them- 
■Itm  iproiM  "  f^f^t  tho  full. 

"  HiMin  thny  ehnaa 
Tho  TiK-'ri'i'.  nni  Ihnt  kiiiil  lur  friiil  r«nnwnad, 
Dm  aiK-li  III  ni  iliii  itny.  iii  liiiliiiii*  knfiwii, 
In  M«liil'«r  nr  !>«•'•«".  "Prcadu  lur  aiiin, 
HtniirliiiiK  ao  liriiiiil  iind  IdiiK.  Iltnl  in  t)i)-  Krniind 
The  h'  iiiliiiit  IwiitK  tiiki'  riHit.  iiiiil  ilnii|.'hli)ra  grow 
Abiiiil  Ih*-  iiinllipr-lrii',  a  pillanMl  aliaile 
Hinli  i)»«i'-'"'''i'"''  ■"''  "•'lioi'iK  walka  ln-twren." 

Th«  limo  i"  the  Eiiropoan  tree  which,  in  a  ifivrn  timo, 
ipprtrt  rapal'ln  of  ni'(|uirinp[  the  Inr^fat  diuniotrr.  I)t'- 
eimlallp  hm  «oine  ohaorvationa  on  tho  rato  of  ({rowth  of 
Ihii  trf(<,  whii'h  may  prove  naofui.  Ho  aaya — "  tlint 
which  w«»  plantnl  at  F'riboiirn  in  147B,  on  ocrnaion  of 
tlw  battle  of  Moral,  hiia  now  a  (lianictor  of  1 3  foot  0 
iflchM,  which  would  nive  alioiit  two  linoi  of  niiriiial  ilia- 
metric  growth.  'I'liia  ia  about  tho  rate  of  tho  im  roair 
of  the  (irowtli  of  an  oiik,  and  tlioroforo  I  auppifip  tho 
tree  hiil  not  found  n  fuvoiiralile  aoil,  and  it  would  bo 
gntei  the  truth  to  ouloulnto  the  annual  growth  of  tho 
lime  «t  four  linen.  Thrro  arc  in  Euro[)c  a  tpvnt  num- 
ber of  liinea  of  liirijo  ai/.e,  and  it  would  bo  intoroatins;  to 
h«»e  the  circuiiiforonco  of  thoao  whoao  date  ia  known. 
I  thall  inontion  for  thoir  aizo  that  of  the  Clmtoau  of 
(.'hjilM,  noiir  Mollos,  in  tho  dopartinont  of  tho  Doiix 
Serrw,  which  in  1H04  moaaurod  15  motrea  round 
(iNiut  .'id  foot),  and  which  I  aiippose  was  then  five 
hundred  and  thirty-oiiiht  yoara  old  ;  that  of  Trona  in 
the  GriiinM,  alri'iuly  ooli'brnlod  in  142 1,  which  in  1708 
mmurcd  .51  foot  in  oircuniforonco,  and  which  I  cnlcn- 
Itte  to  'a-  fivo  hunilroil  and  oinhty-throo  yoiira  old  ;  that 
of  Depehain,  near  Norwich,  which,  in  1664,  was  8j 
yirJj  in  circumforonco ;  and  that  of  Ilonatadt  in  Wur- 
temberg,  which,  in  IS.'iO,  was  so  larije  as  to  have  neod 
of  projia,  and  which,  in  1664,  was  37  foot  4  inchca  in 
drrumfcrencc.  One  mual  distinKuiah  between  the  largo 
ind  small  leaved  liinos,  as  the  former  appear  to  grow 
hiter  than  tho  latter."  There  appears  to  be  a  mistake 
in  regard  to  the  Dopehnm  lime.  Wo  auspoct  it  is  the 
Bine  monliiinoil  ny  Hir  Thomas  Browne,  which,  he  says, 
wu90  fort  in  hoiglit,  and  48  foot  round  at  a  foot  and  a 
h«lf  from  the  Rround.  Ho  also  descril)e9  a  poplar  near 
Hirling  as  of  nearly  the  same  dimensions.  The  largest 
now  known  in  Knsjland  grows  in  Moor  Park.  Herts. 

The  Oriental  plane  is  ono  of  those  trees  which  attain 
the  largest  size,  but  the  rate  of  its  increase  is  not  ascer- 
tiincd.  In  the  valley  of  Bujnkd^re,  about  three  leagues 
from  Constantinople,  there  is  a  plane  which  calls  to 
mind  one  which  Pliny  has  celebrated.  Aceording  to  the 
RoRMD  naturalist,  there  was  n  plane-tree  in  Tjycia  which 
had  t  hollow  trunk  capacious  enough  to  accommodate 
lae  euniul  Liciiiiua  Mutianus  and   eighteen  followers, 


who  foiiiiil  within  it«  ampt*  t*y\ij  •  ntrMt  hi  tkm 
night.  This  living  vegetable  grotto  was  76  feet  in  eir 
cuinfarenee,  and  the  Mininiit  of  the  taee  rriH>mhled  ■ 
■mall  foreat.  'Cha  plane  at  ('onalantinople  la  lAO  fiMt 
round,  and  within  It  there  la  •  cavity  of  HO  feet  in  «<r> 
rumferrnce.  This  traiiacenda  the  tree  of  I'liny.  1'her* 
are  other  very  large  orinnlal  planea  mentioned  by  Clark 
and  others,  and  one  of  vast  aixe  tin*  biloly  noticed  hv 
Mr.  (jiilii  in  his  voyage  down  the  Danube,  fur  the  in* 
formation  of  our  reailora,  we  may  mention  that.  In  lb* 
eaalorn  atalea  of  the  North  Amoricnii  I'liion,  the  tree  i« 
ciillod  Huttim-woiNl.and  in  the  woatorn  alatra  Nyrainore. 
Under  tho  latter  ap|iellution,  Mr.  Flint,  the  dirtiiiguifchrd 
geographer,  styles  it  <•  the  king  of  tho  weat.irn  foreata. 
It  ia  the  l.irgeat  tree  of  our  wiiihIh,  and  riaea  in  the  mjal 
graceful  fnrms,  with  vant  aproading  luteriil  branchea, 
ciivereil  with  bark  of  a  brilliant  white.  A  tree  of  thia 
kind  near  Marietta  (Ohio)  nienHiirod  1ft)  foot  in  diam«> 
ter.  Wo  h»ve  seen  ono  on  tho  Dig  Miami  (a  river), 
which  wo  thought  atill  larger.  Judge  'I'lirker  of  Mi*- 
aoiiri  rut  otr  a  suction  of  a  hollow  trunk  of  a  sycamore, 
and  applied  a  roof  to  it,  and  lUtod  it  up  Ka  a  study,  It 
was  regularly  .'ylindrical,  and  when  furniahed  with  • 
atovn  and  other  arrangomenia,  made  an  ample  and  con» 
venient  apartment"  liut  buildings  of  a  more  exten* 
aive  doacription  than  tho  above  have  boon  cnnatruetod 
out  of  this  tree.  We  loam  that  a  hollow  trunk  of  an 
enormouN  sycamore  was  lltted  up  with  the  reipiisite  ■{> 
|ietidagoa,  and  made  use  of  at  IJtica,  in  New  York  ataU^ 
as  a  retnil-ahop;  and  it  was  afterwards  carried  to  th« 
city  of  New  York  for  a  show.  We  extract  from  the 
"  Now  York  Traveller "  the  following  notice  of  such 
another  extraordinary  domicile,  or  in  all  likelihood  the 
same  aa  that  made  use  of  at  IJtioa.  It  was  exhibited  in 
tho  saloon  of  the  American  Museum  in  New  York. 
"A  sycamore  tree  of  moat  singular  and  oitraord''  i../ 
si/c  has  lieen  brought  to  this  city  from  the  western  port 
of  this  state.  The  interior  is  hollowed  nut,  and  wiH 
comfortably  accominodato  some  forty  or  fifty  persons, 
[t  is  splendidly  furnished  as  a  aitting-room,  and  eontaina 
every  article  of  elegance  and  usefulness.  It  has  a  hand* 
some  pinno,  softs,  glasses,  and  mirrors,  of  fit  and  bocom* 
ing  stylo,  and  is  decorated  with  pictures  and  fancy  ar* 
tides."  The  reader  is  not  to  class  this  account  with 
the  many  incredible  trans-.\tlnntic  stories  whri'h  are  im- 

'  ported  into  thia  country.  We  have  no  reaiioit  to  douU 
tho  fact ;  but  it  seems  quite  clear  that  the  apartmenta 
must  have  boon  hollowed  out  of  tho  tree  turned  Iciigth- 

;  ways,  its  diameter  affording  suincient  height  for  them. 

I      There  are   still  some  I  roes  of  a  very  remarkable  size 

'  or  age  which  remain  lo  be  described,  but  we  cn.l  only 
briefly  notice  the  most  coleliriiled  of  them.  In  tho 
(iiirilen  of  Olives  nt  Jerusalem,  there  fire  now  existing 
eiijht  olives,  which  can  lie  proved    by   Imlurical  docu- 

'  ineiits  to  have  existed  anterior  to  the  taking  of  Jeru- 
salem by  the  Turks,  and  which,  consequently,  mn«t  ba 
at  least  800  ycnrs  old.  A  writer  in  tho  "  North  Anw- 
rican  Review"  remarks,  that  the  largest  ouk,  and  indeed 
the  largest  tree  he  has  seen  in  that  country,  ia  an  o<0c 
aliout  twenty-seven  feet  in  circumference  at  the  smallest 
part.  Its  age  he  computes  at  not  loss  than  500  years, 
so  that  it  must  have  l)een  a  majestic  tree  at  the  tima 
when  Coliinjbus  discovered  the  WoKtern  World.  We 
wish  he  had  told  lis  its  girth  immediately  above  the  base 
but  it  is  quite  clear  tliat  thia  oak  must  bo  a  stupendous 
organic  fabric. 

In  1804,  Decandolle  saw  at  Gigcan,  near  MontpelieT, 
ill  France,  an  ivy,  the  trunk  of  which  near  the  basa 
was  six  feet  round,  and  whose  immensity  he  says,  was 
truly   astonishing.     Another    ivy.  only  forty-five  years 

I  old,' was  only  seven  and  a  half  inches  round ;  so,  taking 
it  as  a  general  type,  the  sfiecimen  art  Gigean.  in  the  year 
1804,  ouglit  to  have  boon  of  the  age  of  435  yeam.  We 
have  nowhere  seen  mentioned  an  ivy  of  such  colossal 


m 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


'ftraensioni.  A  writer  in  the  "  North  Ampricnn  Review" 
menticni  wild  (;rapr-vinea  of  enormous  iii7.e.  He  sayn 
that,  while  in  the  eiistcrn  state*,  and,  we  rany  add.  in 
Euro()e,  it  "  rarely  grows  larger  than  a  atnut  wnlking- 
■iick,  in  uur  wrstprn  states  it  sometimes  siirpnases  in 
diameter  the  h^ly  of  a  fuil-grown  man.  This  fact  we 
kaye  veriRcd  by  nctuol  inensurement" 

Eni;laiid  nt  one  period  posscased  many  noble  and  re- 
Biarkal>le  onk-trcca,  the  rcmnins  of  which  are  in  some 
instani'os  still  to  lx<  seen,  while  in  others  they  arc  only 
lememhered  by  tradition.  Close  by  the  gate  of  the 
Water  Wnlk,  at  Mni^dali  ii  (Jollejc,  in  Oxford,  there 
frew  an  onk,  which  jiorhaps  stood  tlicrc  a  snpling  when 
Alfred  the  Great  founded  the  university ;  for  this  period 
only  incSudcs  a  space  of  nine  hundred  years,  which  is 
no  gfrcat  ngc  for  an  oak.  This  trc<!,  however,  can 
almost  pro<luce  historical  evidence  for  the  aofc  assi[»ned 
CL  About  five  hundred  years  p.fter  the  time  of  Alfred. 
William  of  Wainflect  expressly  onlered  his  collciie  to 
be  founded  near  the  fJreot  Oak ;  "  and  an  onk,"  says 
Oilpin,  "  could  nut,  I  think,  be  less  than  live  hundred 
years  of  aije  to  merit  that  title,  together  with  the  hon- 
our of  fixing  the  site  of  a  college."  When  the  magtii- 
icenee  of  Cardinal  Wolscy  erected  the  handsome  tower 
which  is  80  ornamental  to  Magdalen's,  this  tree  might 
probably  be  in  the  meridian  of  iu  glory,  or  rather,  per- 
haps, it  had  attained  a  i^een  old  age.  .\t  a  subsequent 
era,  in  Charles  II.'s  time,  this  famed  tree  was  much 
injured  wlicu  the  present  walks  were  laid  out  Its 
roots  were  disturbed,  and  from  that  period  it  declined 
Gut,  and  became  reduced  by  degrees  to  little  more  than 
a  mere  trunk.  But  the  faithful  records  of  history 
have  Imnued  down  its  ancient  dimensions.  Through  n 
apace  of  .oixteen  yards  on  every  side  from  its  trunk,  it 
once  flung  its  boudhs.  and  under  its  m.ignificent  pavi- 
lion  'ould  have  been  bIi.  Ilered  with  ea.se  three  thousand 
0Mn,.  thoush,  in  its  decayed  state,  it  could  for  many 
years  do  little  mrire  than  shelter  some  luckless  indivi- 
dual whom  the  driving  shower  had  overtaken  in  his 
evening  walk.  In  the  summer  of  1788,  this  magnificent 
ruin  \'e\l  to  the  ground,  alarming  the  college  with  its 
ruahing  souud.  It  then  appeared  how  precariously  it 
had  stood  for  many  years.  Its  grand  ta[>-root  was  de- 
cayed, and  it  had  holil  of  the  earth  only  by  two  or  three 
roots,  of  which  none  was  more  than  a  coujile  of  inches 
in  diameter.  From  a  part  of  its  ruins  a  chair  has  liecn 
made  for  the  president  of  the  college,  which  will  long 
preserve  its  memory. 

Near  Worksop  grew  an  oak,  which,  in  respect  both 
to  its  own  dignity  atid  that  of  its  situation,  deserves 
honourable  mention.  In  point  of  grandeur,  few  trees 
ei|ualle<l  it.  It  overspread  a  space  of  ninety  feet  from 
the  extremities  of  its  opposite  Iwughs.  These  dimcn- 
■ions  will  pro<lucx>  an  area  capable,  on  mathematical 
calculation,  of  covering  a  squadron  of  two  hundred  ond 
thirty-five  horse.  'I'he  dignity  of  its  station  was  ecpial 
to  the  dignity  of  the  tree  itself.  It  stood  on  a  point 
where  Yorkshire,  Nottinghamshire,  and  Derbyshire, 
anite,  and  spread  its  shade  ^  ;r  a  portion  of  each. 
From  the  honourable  station  of  thus  fixing  the  boun- 
daries of  three  large  counties,  it  was  equally  respected 
through  the  domains  of  them  all,  and  was  known  far 
and  wide  by  the  honourable  distinction  of  the  Shire 
Oak,  by  whi'-h  appellation  it  was  marked  among  cities, 
towns,  and  rivers,  in  all  the  larger  maps  of  Eni,dand. 

In  u  glade  in  Haln'iault  Forest,  in  EsH<>x,alH>ut  a  mile 
ftnni  BarkingHide,  stands  an  nuk,  which  has  Imen  known 
through  many  centuries  by  the  name  of  Fairlop.  The 
trailition  of  the  country  traces  it  half  way  up  the  ('hris- 
tiun  era.  It  is  httll  a  nuMe  tree,  thou;;li  it  has  now  suffered 
greatly  from  the  dciiredatinns  of  time.  About  a  yard 
from  the  ground  when  its  ruuiih  fluUnl  stem  is  thirty-six 
fret  in  circumference,  it  divides  into  eleven  vast  ana*, 


yet  not  in  the  horizontal  manner  of  an  oaV.  bnt  rttb*  i 
that  of  a  beech.  Beneath  its  shade,  which  ovemnn,  1 
an  area  of  three  hundred  feet  in  circuit,  an  annuil  r 
was  long  held  on  the  2d  of  July,  and  no  booth  «|,  "If 
fered  to  be  erected  beyond  the  extent  of  its  bourhi,  '" 
Not  far  from  BlandfonI,  in  Dorsetshire,  once  itngj 
'0,  which  five  or  six  centuries  ago  was  probahU  in  ■! 


tree. 


■nib 


maturity,  and  known  by  the  name  of  Dumory'i  n  t 
At  the  ground  its  circumference  was  sixty-cight  feet  a 
seventeen  feet  above  the  ground  its  diameter  w«a'f 
yards.     As  this  vast  trunk  decayed,  it  bn-amc  holl 
forming  a  cavity,  which  was  fiibicn  feet  wide  and  ut  ' 
teen  feet  high,  capable  of  holding  twenty  men,    l.f|i,jj, 
the  civil  wars,  an  .  till  alter  the  Restoration,  this  cavcvr 
regularly  inhabited  by  an  old  man,  who  sold  alo  in  li 
In  the  violent  storm  in  the  year  1703,  it  sulferej  ncmi 
many  of  its  noblt-st  limbs  having  been  torn  from  it   I 
the  year  I76i>,  this  once  magnificent  production  of  nMu, 
was  cut  down  and  sold  for  fire-wood. 

Queen  Eliza!()eth  his  in  more  than  one  or  tno  lb 
stances  communicated  her  name  to  oak-trees  of  great »!» 
in  England.  Uilpin  mentions  one  of  those  oaksBhidi 
grew  nt  Heveningham  in  Suffolk,  of  great  dimensioni 
but  in  his  time  greatly  decayed.  In  Elizabeth's  time  i) 
was  hollow,  and  from  this  circumstance  the  tree  dcrim 
the  honour  of  being  handed  down  to  posterity,  'fhii 
princess,  who,  from  her  earliest  age,  loved  masculine 
amusements,  used  oflcn,  it  is  said,  hi  her  youth,  to  lib 
her  stand  in  this  tree,  and  shoot  the  deer  as  they  passM 
and  hence  it  acquired  the  name  of  ElizalH-th's  Oak.  sj, 
Thomas  Dick  Lauder,  in  his  notes  to  Gilpin,  raettionj 
another  of  these  oaks  of  Queen  Eliiabelh,  at  Huntin* 
field,  also  in  the  county  of  Suflblk,  measuting  thirty-font 
feet  in  girth  at  five  feet  from  the  ground,  and  which,a|m 
in  the  days  of  yore,  afforded  a  station  for  the  princes»ln 
the  sports  of  the  field.  "  Huolingfield,"  says  Sir  Tlio. 
mas,  "  was,  for  a  considcrnble,  period  after  the  Norman  I 
conquest,  the  estate  and  residence  of  an  eminent  family 
of  that  name.  It  afterw.irds  descended  to  the  De  li 
Poles,  Earls  of  Sullolk,  and,  in  the  time  of  Queen  Eli» 
l>eth,  was  the  property  of  Henry  Lord  Iluiisdun,  Qutfj 
Elizabeth  is  said  to  have  liceii  entertained  at  the  old 
mansion  by  Lord  Hunsdon,  and  to  have  enjoyed  ihj 
pleasures  of  the  chase,  in  rural  majesty.  The  approadi 
to  the  house  was  over  an  arm  of  the  river  Blillic,  whith 
waters  the  park,  and  ttien  through  three  great  s<juin 
courts.  A  gjillery  was  carried  along  the  whole  lenslh  o( 
the  building,  and,  o|H-ning  u|)on  a  balcony  over  the  porch, 
gave  an  air  of  grandeur  and  variety  to  the  front,  Tfee  I 
great  hall  was  built  round  six  straight  ma&sy  uakfi,nhjdi  I 
originally  upheld  the  roof,  us  they  grew ;  and  upon  thra 
the  forcHtt-rs  and  yeomen  of  the  guard  used  to  hang  tkrii 
nets,  cross-bows,  hun'.ing-|)oles,  and  other  implrnirntsof 
the  chase.  This  gives  a  most  curious  picture  of  the  ro  I 
mantic  notions  of  these  olden  times.  In  later  years,  llie  I 
roots  lieing  decayed,  the  shafts  were  sawn  otf  at  Ihi 
bottom,  and  the  roof  was  supported  either  by  irrogulu 
logs  of  wood  or  by  masonry  ;  and  part  of  the  long  git 
lery,  where  the  queen  and  her  attendants  used  to  dittil 
themselves,  was  converted  into  a  cheese  clwinlier,  Eli» 
lieth  is  said  to  have  been  much  pleased  with  the  reliI^ 
ment  of  this  park,  filled  with  tall  and  massy  timlier  trtet, 
but  particularly  with  the  oak,  which  ever  afterwards  ben  I 
the  appellation  of  the  (jueeii'g  Oak.  It  Ktuod  .ibiiuttm  I 
liowshots  from  the  old  romairtic  hall ;  and  trailition  rN 
cords  that  Elizabeth  shot  a  buck,  with  her  own  lmnd,lTou 
this  tree.  The  upjHT  part  of  the  nmiii  stem  of  thetrn 
in  now  considerably  shortened  by  age  nii<l  aeciilentt.  TIk 
limb«,  however,  are  bold  and  picturcsipie ;  and  it  still 
carries  many  lioughs,  and  eiiuui;h  of  foliage  to  roiutituM 
a  considerublo  head.  The  trunk  thickens  as  it  niu.it  \ 
that,  at  s<!vcn  feet  from  the  ground,  it  nieaaurcs  aboal 
thirty-three  foot  in  circuiutereuce.    Another  oiik,ailM 


ARUORICULI  USE. 


wrt 


A|  Dukfl'i  Walking-stick,  at  the  same  place,  ia  in  girth, 
il  Ibe  ground,  twenty-une  feet,  and  riiea  to  the  height  of 
M  hundred  and  eleven  feet  from  the  ground. 

Among  the  treea  deriving  celebrity  from  hiatotical 
Mdit*  in  England,  one  of  the  moat  considerable  note  was 
Ike  otk  in  the  New  Foreat  in  Hampahire,  againat  which 
Ihe  arrow  of  Sir  Walter' Tyrrel  glanced,  which  killed 
William  Rufua,  aon  of  William  the  Conqueror,  in  the 
tmr  II'IO-  '^'^'^  oak-tree,  which  waa  of  exceedingly 
itmt  proportiona,  aurvived  till  about  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  at  which  period  of  its  final  decoy,  it 
vru  in  all  likelihoo<l  nine  hundred  years  old — an  inter- 
Til  of  years  embracing  all  that  had  occurred  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  country  from  the  reign  of  Alfred  the  Great 
yil  |],|t  of  George  III.  This  exceedingly  interesting  and 
indent  tree  at  length  going  to  utter  dec^y,  its  stump  was 
,<fii]icated,  and,  to  preserve  the  memory  of  its  site,  a 
monuinental  stone  waa  erected  upon  it  by  the  late  Lord 
Dejawarf,  with  appropriate  inscriptions. 

The  Skclton  Oak  is  another  of  those  trees  which  have 
been  connected  with  historical  transactions.  This  oak 
A\\\  lurvives,  and  stands  about  a  mile  and  a  half  from 
Hbrewsbury,  at  the  spot  where  the  Pool  road  diverges 
Irom  that  which  leads  to  Owestry.  Near  this  place 
nil  fought  the  famous  battle,  on  the  21st  of  June,  1403, 
between  Henry  IV.,  king  of  England,  and  the  forces  of 
iiiny  Perry,  son  of  Ihe  Earl  of  Northumberland,  sur- 
iiimeJ  Hotspur,  along  with  those  of  Owen  Glendower. 
It  ii  recorded  by  tradition  that,  prior  to  the  engagement, 
Ibii  celebrated  Welsh  hero  mounted  the  tree,  now  called 
the  Skelton  Oak.  to  make  hia  observations.  Tho  tree, 
which  has  been  thus  in  some  degree  associated  with  the 
iransaction  in  which  took  place  the  death  of  Hotspur,  is 
now  hollow  in  its  trunk,  and  can  contain  about  a  dozen 
people.  It  divides  into  two  enormous  limbs,  both  of 
which  have  been  fractured.  It  is  thirty-seven  £ect  in  ci.  - 
cumference,  at  a  foot  and  a  half  from  the  ground,  and  is 
otherwise  propotlioiially  large. 

Scotland,  though  by  no  means  a  woody  country,  at 
oae  time  possessed,  and  inda-d  still  possesses,  many  fine 
Urge  trees  of  various  species,  as  oaks,  elms,  yews,  firs, 
hiwthorns,  &c.,  some  of  which  have  been  celebrated  in 
ihe  hutory  of  the  country.  Professor  Walker  of  Edin- 
burgh, in  his  catalogue  of  remarkable  Scottish  trees, 
mentions  several  very  fine  oaks.  An  oak  at  Lochwood, 
in  Annandalc,  measured  at  six  feet  above  the  root,  was 
fifteen  feet  girth,  among  a  number  of  others  of  nearly 
the  ume  size,  standing  not  less  than  nine  hundred  feet 
ibore  the  level  of  the  sea.  \n  oak  at  Blarquosh,  in  the 
piriih  of  Strathblane,  m  SttHingshire,  the  spread  of  the 
branches  of  which  was  ninety  feet  in  diameter,  measures 
(lUen  feet  in  girth  at  fiiur  feet  from  the  ground.  An 
oik  in  the  Marquis  of  Tweeddalc'a  grounds,  at  Yestcr, 
in  Haddingtonshire,  at  one  foot  from  the  ground,  mca- 
■ures  about  fifteen  feet  five  inches ;  and  at  six  feet,  it  is 
about  fourteen.  The  tree  called  the  King  of  the  Wood, 
on  the  estate  of  Fernyhirst,  near  Jedburgh,  is  n  beautiful 
till  itniglit  oak  of  eighty  feet  in  height  The  girth  of  it 
il  eighteen  feet  above  the  roots ;  and  at  fifteen  feet,  it  is 
eleren  feet  six  inches  in  circumference ;  and  it  goes  on 
tapering  gradually  for  nearly  three-fourths  of  its  height. 
And  tlic  Krppiiig  or  Trysting  Tree,  which  grows  near  it, 
10(1  which  is  nmch  more  picturesque  in  form,  measures 
twenty-one  feet  above  the  roots ;  it  speedily  divides  itseU 
into  two  brunches,  which  measure  respectively  cleveu  fr«t 
all  inches,  and  fourteen  feet.  ^  It  is  upwards  of  sevciilQf  tbct 
high,  and  covers  un  area  of  ninety-two  feet  in  dituucter. 
Tboie  two  trees  are  considered  to  lie  remuants  of  the 
great  forest  of  Jcdwood.  An  ouk  wluch  stands  near 
the  niiddlr  of  Inch  Murin,  in  Loch  Loutoud,  nieiisured, 
b)  1786,  eighteen  feet  one  inch  in  girth.  This  tree  is 
(tnurkable  lor  its  fine  expanded  head. 

Dill  none  of  these  trees  have  attained  the  releltrity  of 
Wallace's  Oaks,  two  trees  of  considerable  antiquity,  one 
Vbi.  Ir-7.t 


in  Stirlingshire,  the  other  In  Renfrewshire.  The  fonnar 
which  is  now  completely  gone,  in  1771  measured  twontf* 
two  feet  in  circumference  in  the  trunk,  and  grew  upon  • 
little  knoll  in  Torwood.  From  surrounding  vestigca,  it 
is  lielieved  that  this  oak  originally  mingled  in  the  accna 
of  Druidic  worship,  at  a  far  remote  period  of  our  history. 
Out  its  celebrity  dei>ended  on  events  nf  a  much  later  date. 
W'hen  that  illustrious  hero.  William  Wallace,  roused  th« 
spirit  of  the  Scotch  nation  to  oppose  the  tyranny  of  E(W 
ward,  ho  often  chose  the  solitude  of  Ihe  Torwood  a«  • 
place  of  rendcEvoua  for  his  army.  Here  I»«  concealed 
his  numliers  and  his  designs,  sallying  out  suddenly  on 
the  enemy's  garrisons,  and  retreating  as  suddenly  when 
he  feared  to  be  overpowered.  While  his  army  lay  in 
those  woods,  the  oak  which  we  are  now  commemorating 
was  commonly  his  head-quarters.  Here,  it  is  said,  the 
hero  generally  slept,  the  hollow  trunk  being  capacioua 
enough  to  aft'ord  shelter  not  only  to  himself  but  several 
of  his  associates.  This  tree  was  thence  afterward! 
known  nH  Wallace's  Oak.  Tnere  is  another  Wallace's 
Oak  at  Elderslie,  in  Kcnfrowshire,  near  the  place  where 
Wollace  was  Imrn.  It  is  a  very  noble  tree,  twenty-one 
foet  in  circumference  at  the  grouml.  It  ia  sixty-seven 
ft'Ct  hii;h,  and  its  branches  extend  forty-five  feet  east, 
thirty-six  west,  thirty  south,  and  twenty-five  north,  co. 
vering  altogether  nineteen  English  poles  of  ground. 
Tradition  relates  that  Wallace  and  n  large  party  of  hia 
followers  hid  themselves  from  Ihe  English  among  the 
branches  of  this  tree,  which  was  then  in  full  leaf.  It  ia 
a  custom  in  Scotland  to  indent  small  portions  of  the  wood 
of  this  famed  tree  in  snuff-boxes,  along  with  perhaps 
minute  portions  of  a  tree  said  to  be  planted  by  Queen 
.Mary  at  Ilolyrood,  and  lately  removed — of  another  tree 
which  the  same  queen  sat  under  near  Crookston,  while 
'.vitnessing  the  battle  of  Langside — of  the  rafters  of 
'.lloway  Kirk,  celebrated  by  Burns — with  pieces  of  va- 
rious other  trees  and  timbers  either  brought  into  notice 
in  history,  or  some  way  connccti>d  with  the  populu 
litcrnture  anil  traditions  of  the  country. 

It  is  a  very  remarkable  fact,  that  the  trunks  of  large 
oak-trees  are  frequently  dug  out  of  the  ground  in  Scot- 
land, lioth  in  Ihe  mainland  and  islands,  at  places  where 
there  ore  now  not  only  no  trees  of  an  ordinary  aize,  but 
where,  in  Ihe  present  day,  trees  will  not  grow.  There 
is  no  way  of  accounting  for  this,  but  by  supposing  that 
the  climate  has  very  much  changed  since  th«  period  when 
all  was  one  universal  foreat  Some  very  Ibrge  niasaiw 
of  oak  (says  Sir  Thomas  Dick  Laudsr,  in  hia  notes  to 
Gilpin's  work)  were  brought  up  by  tite  dredging-inachine 
employed  in  deepening  the  line  of  t4te  Caledonian  Caiial, 
in  Loch  Dochfour,  from  undeir  sixteen  feet  of  gravel 
which  lay  at  the  bottom  of  tb»  hike.  One  of  these  frag. 
meiils  measured  thirty  feel  round ;  and  though  it  m*nir 
ffstly  appeared  to  be  onfy  a  small  portion  of  the  orig'ual 
tree,  it  waa  calculate<i  to- contain  aliout  two  hundred  Kfld 
twenty  cubic  feet.  It  was  black  as  ebony,  and  perisnvly 
fresh  and  hard^  Although  there  are  fine  thriving'  oaku  lu 
Scotland  at  thi»  moment  yet  few  of  them  a^noavh  the 
dimensions,  af  these  fragments  of  the  oldeia  time.. 

The  kesl  ehn  we  have  recorded  as  of  Seettish  growth, 
was  t^k  in  the  parish  of  Roxburgh^  in  TiHiiotdalo,  called 
tlitr  Trysling-Tree,  which  waa  meusuMd  in  the  year  1700, 
smJ  found  to  lie  thirty  feet  in  girth.  The  ruins  of  this 
noble  tree  still  remain  at  the  Friara,  near  the  old  castle 
of  Roxburgh.  The  most  pbusible  tradition  regarding 
the  origin  of  tho  nanav  of  the  Trysling-Tree  is,  that  the 
liiirds  of  Cci<sii>nJ'  Mtl  Fernyhirst,  with  a  number  of 
Si-oUish  gantry,  i».s«mMc»l  there  in  1547,  to  meet  .he 
Probeclur  S»ni»>!<et,  during  his  rough  courtship  of  the 
yoiti^  tjueea  Mary,  and  to  swear  homage  to  the  King 
ui  Engtan*!.  There  can  Iw  no  doubt  that  he  was  the»« ; 
and  tbia  spot,  which  wns  near  the  old  prioiy,  waa  cer- 
tainly a  very  likely  place  for  such  an  asaemhUg^ 
The  Tr>'sting-Trcc  wa^  also  famous,  in  later  timea,  m 

3<; 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE 


«  4b»  iccne  oF  much  innocent  pleaiiantry.     After  the  Hc- 
-  formation,  and  tintil  the  present  house  of  Flours  was 
t  built,  in  J  7 18,  the  family  of  Roxburgh  made  an  occa- 
/  aional  residence  of  the  remain!  of  the  religious  house  at 
^  Friars,  which  was  then  called   East   Koxhurah.     The 
ganlens  belonging  to  it  were  kept  up  until  the  year  1780, 
when  old  Coles,  who  waa  butler  to  Duke  John,  ploughed 
them  up,  and  destroyed  wune  beautiful  vestiges  of  anti- 
quity.    In  these  gardens  there  was  a  raised  walk,  called 
.  Iho  Iiovcr's  Walk,  Iwtween  two  rows  of  old  elms,  forin- 
I  ing  a  vista,  whirh  terminated  with  the  'I'rysting-Trrc, 
.  whither  the  beaux  and  liclles  of  these  old  times  used  to 
,  resort,  to  enjoy  themselves,  on  a  summer  evening,  anil  to 
eat  the  ftuit,  which  was  always  sold  during  the  absence 
of  the  family.      U[K)n  these  occasions,  the  gentlemen 
.  were  oiVcn   made  to  walk  blindfolded  in  the  alley ;  and 
,  if  any  one  failed  to  grope  his  way  from  one  end  of  it  to  the 
other,  without  diverging  from  the  grass  into  either  border, 
be  was  immediately  fined  in  a  treat  of  fruiU     What  a 
picture  would  Watteau  have  made  of  so  admirable  a 
■ubject!     Many  a  courtship  was  brought  to  a  happy 
termination  at  this  antiquated  Vauxhall. 

At  Newbatlle  j^bbey,  the  scat  of  the  Marquis  of 
Lothian,  a  few  miles  south  from  Edinburgh,  there  are 
some  remarkably  fine  large  trees,  most  probably  planted 
by  the  monks  prior  to  the  Reformation.  "  Professor 
Walker  measured  a  beech  at  this  place  in  1789;  its 
trunk,  where  thickest,  was  seventeen  feet  in  girth,  and 
the  span  of  the  branches  was  eighty-nine  feet.  He 
thinks  that  it  must  have  been  planted  between  1640  and 
16G0.  It  was  blown  down  a  short  time  lieforc  the  year 
1809.    It  contained  upwards  of  one  thousand  measur- 


able feet  of  timber  (twenty  loatK  or  twcnty.fi»e  ton  1 
and  it  is  with  rcoson  reckoned  among  the  i.  "^  I 
Iwcches  that  have  ever  grown  in  Hcotland.  A  hejr'l 
'i'aymoufh,  of  a  like  mje,  and  seemingly  coevnl  mI 
this,  was  blown  down  when  it  had  reached  aW  •  I 
teen  feet  in  girth.     The  large  lieech  at  Ormiwon  lyl 


,**^»e  ii).| 
in  Haddingtonshire,  the  bofo  of  which  we  retjiemb.    i 


have  seen  scooped  nrlificinlly  out  into  a  shclter-li 
was  measured  on  the    10th  of  May,  1702,  and  rmJI 
to  1)0  eighteen  feet  ten  inches.     We  believe  It  wai  oo'l.l 
entire  when  it  was  destroyed  by  a  hi«h  wjnJ.    Ala    | 
beech   near   Oxenford   Castle,  in   Edinburghshire  vt^l 
measured  on  the  6th  of  June,  1763.     At  theheiBhill 
three  feet   from  the  ground,  it  was  nineteen  feci  ■  I 
indies.     This  fine  tree  was  then   decaying.    Profej.'! 
Walker  says  that  the  lieech  was  not  copiously  puJ  I 
in  Scotland  till  a  little  before  the  Revolulion;  andih,! 
trees  planted  about  that  period  do  not  form,  jn  j,,   I 
pliices,  considerable  timlier,  as   at   Iiivnrary  and  oil-  I 
places.     But  the  four  trees  last  mentioned,  which  ? 
pear  to  be  nearly  contemporary,  are  of  a  much  mo  l 
remote  era.     They  seem  to  have  lieen  planted  sjnj), 
and  merely  as  curious  foreign  trees,  in  the  gardens  ill 
some   eminent   persons.      From    their  dimenFJons  aui 
maimer  of  growth,  they  may  bo  presumed,  at  leasi  i« 
have  lieeh  planted  between  LilO  and  1.^60,  so  that  \L, 
may  ijow  bo   estimated   at   between    two   hunclred  M 
forty  and  two  hundred  and  sixty  years  old.    From  l|» 
state  of  the  Ormiston  Hall  and.NcwbottIc  trees, It  nuT 
be  concluded  that  the  lieech,  if  it  meets  with  no  acciJeni 
will  grow  with  sound  timber  for  at  least  two  hunJied 
and  fifty  years." 


THE  HORSE. 


Th«  HoHsr,  well  known  as  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
tnd  useful  of  animals,  is  classified,  aeconling  to  the  ar- 
rangements of  zoologists,  in  the  order  Pachydermata,  of 
which  it  constitutes  a  family — the  Kqxiida,  along  with 
the  zebra,  the  ass,  and  several  other  animals.  The 
lorse,  as  a  di  ..inct  B|>ecie«,  dilTers  from  other  members 
f  the  genus,  not  only  in  n  few  particulars  of  physical 
ftracturc,  but  in  its  superior  strength,  spirit,  and  tract- 
tbility.  Of  the  absolutely  natural  character  of  the 
horse,  however,  mankind  possess  no  certain  account; 
l'i>r.  III  all  the  instanres  in  which  the  niiimnl  is  found 
In  a  wild  state,  the  rare  a|i|)ear8  to  have  been  generully 
derived  from  a  domesticated  stock.  'I'he  form  and  gene- 
ral qualifications  of  the  animal  ore  of  a  high  order,  nnil 
|«cniiarly  susceptible  of  cultivation  by  art.  The  senses 
•f  tmell  and  sit^'it  are  remarkably  acute,  and  tlio  clcar- 
ncM  of  perci  ptiun,  excellence  of  memory,  patient  en- 


durance, and  gentleness,  are  not  excelled  in  any  oIIir  I 
of  the  lower  animals.  The  horse  is  altogether  heibin>  I 
rous,  for  which  the  structure  of  his  teeth  and  IImiI 
adapted;  but  he  docs  not  ruminate,  and  has  onlvoul 
stomach.  His  native  country  is  believed  to  havebetil 
Tartary,  whence  the  species  has  spread  over  the« 
and  separated  into  diirerent  varieties. 

VARIKTIE9    or    HORSES. 

Horses  exist  in  nunieroiia  varieties,  distinijuishiNij 
by  size,  strength,  colour,  and  other  qualilieations,  liil 
result  most  likely  of  peculiarities  of  climate,  food, «iij| 
habits.  The  following  is  a  brief  notice  of  the  \ 
varieties  in  which  the  aniinnl  is  found : — 

Horses  in  a  Suub  of  Naiiire. 
Horses  are  found  in  a  state  of  nature,  living  a!  wiUl 
animals,  in  various  parts  of  America,  Asia,  and  Afria I 
In  the  vast  plains  nf  Nnntli  America,  immense  troojij 
of  wild  "horses  are  to  be  found,  which  have  all  spnujl 
fr.iin  emancipated  individuals  taki'ii  to  that  coiintrvhl 
tlic  .'Spaniards.  'J"he  groi;rii|lii(iil  range  of  tliesc  hcrJij 
extends  from  the  shores  nf  l,a  Plata  to  I'ataiinnia.  ThnI 
have  increased  in  such  ii.Htouisliiiig  riniidily,  that  lii; I 
are  to  be  met  with  in  troops  of  many  lliousaiuls.  Nrl» I 
rally  gentle  in  disposition,  these  wild  horses  ncveraltitkl 
other  animals,  but  always  act  upon  the  ileli'iisivt.  'fWl 
wiile  pa.^tures  salisfv  their  afipi'tites,  and,  w hen  thl  fooi  I 
of  one  district  is  exhausted,  they  have  only  to  fhlfi  llm  I 
'  stations  to  places  where  it  is  more  abundant.  'iVvi 
I  seldom  to  lie  taken  by  surprise ;  but,  if  uliuekcd,  the » I 


fi!M»/;!«   •;  THE   HORSE. 


■!<•• 


nt 


]ij„(  raifly  CO  lief  iff  victorioiw,  for  the  whole  troop 
gnjlit  in  dof«in-e  of  tneir  comrades,  and  frequently  either 

,  their  enemy  to  pieces  or  kii-k  him  to  death.  Wild 
n(ir«*B  usually  retire  to  the  ronlines  of  a  forest  to  repose, 
Onuor  more  of  their  number  are  always  awake  to  keep 
watch  while  the  rest  are  asleep,  nnti  to  warn  thoir  fellows 

j- upproaching  danger,  which  is  done  by  loud  snorting  or 
ofiahing !  upon  this  signal  they  start  to  their  foot,  and 
(idler  reconnoitre  the  enemy,  or  fly  off  with  the  swift- 
.(98  of  the  wind,  followed  by  the  tinel,  and  by  the 
irtallion  who  is  patriarch  of  the  'v 

fn  the  desert  tracts  alonK  i!"  "«  of  the  Don,  in 
Kussia,  there  are  numerous  troop  u  :  .  wild  horses,  which 
liiive  sprung  from  emancipated  pror<enitor8.  The  Cos- 
Mcks  frequently  take  those,  and  breed  from  them,  by 
crossing  thoin  with  their  domesticated  horses,  which  are 
aiiil  to  be  thereby  greatly  improve<l.  J*allu8  says  they 
uboiind  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Palus  Mteotis.  These  herds 
,rc  the  descendants  of  the  Russian  horses  which  were 
,i9.ii  at  the  siege  of  Azoph  in  1696,  when  taken  from 
the  Turks  by  Peter  the  Great,  who  was  compelled,  from 
^iut  of  forage,  to  set  at  liberty  nearly  the  whole  horses 
belonging  to  his  cavalry,  to  seek  food  for  themselves. 
I'hcy  ito  now  quite  wild,  and  associate  in  troops  in  the 
mine  rannner  as  other  wild  horses.  Those  herds  which 
have  remained  close  to  the  alluvial  and  fertile  banks  of 
Ihc  river,  are  of  a  largo  size,  owing  to  the  raiikneas  of 
llieir  food;  the  ground  in  these  situations  is  so  extremely 
swampy  that  no  solid  edifice  can  be  erected  near  the 
river,  the  whole  surrounding  country  being  little  better 
tlinii  a  morass.  The  herds  which  inhabit  the  higher 
mountain  districts  have  all  the  appearance  of  tlie  horse* 
from  which  they  sprung.  It  is  supposed  that  the  troops 
found  in  the  plains  of  Great  Tartary  are  descended  from 
the  same  source  as  those  of  the  banks  of  the  Don  and 
the  Ukraine. 

In  South  America  there  are  no  regulor  stables,  the 
horses  being  either  kept  in  pastures,  which  are  fenced, 
or  in  what  they  call  lorrah,  which  consist  of  a  circular 
enelcisure  of  rough  posts,  driven  into  the  ground  so 
close,  that  a  horse  cannot  pass  through  between  thcin. 
In  these,  however,  the  marcs  and  foals  are  never  con- 
fined, but  are  allowed  to  graze  about  at  freedom.  'l"he 
niitivcs,  however,  usuully  keep  one  horse  tied  at  the 
dour  of  their  hut,  to  bo  ready  in  case  of  immediate  need. 
which  is  fed  on  a  scanty  meal  of  mnizc  at  nia;ht.  If  an 
mlililional  horse  is  watited,  the  f^uurho  (or  native  inha- 
hihint  of  the  plains)  goes  to  the  corral  with  his  lassn, 
mill  fetches  one  which  may  have  been  only  subdued  the 
preceding  day  ;  or  he  will  go  to  the  plain  where  they 
are  c^razing  at  fneedora,  and  bring  one  which  he  has 
Kicked  fir  the  first  time ;  and  when  these  horses  have 
been  once  used,  llioy  are  either  put  into  the  corral  and 
fod  with  maize,  or  returned  to  the  plain  to  feed  at  liberty. 
The  las<o  is  a  very  simple  contrivance,  but  of  great 
piiwer  <n  the  hands  of  the  gaurho,  who  is  accustomed 
to  use  it  from  his  youngest  years,  or  at  least  to  sec  it 
done,  and  he  puts  it  in  practice  as  soon  as  he  has  suffi- 
cient strength  to  use  it.  Miera,  ii»  his  Travels  in  Chili,* 
gives  the  following  account  of  it  :— 

•'  The  hmm  is  a  missile  weapon,  used  by  every  native 
of  the  United  Provinces  and  Chili.  It  is  a  very  strong 
plaited  thnng,  of  equal  thickness,  half  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter, and  forty  feet  long,  made  of  stripes  of  green  hide, 
plaited  tike  a  whip-tliong,  and  rendered  supple  by 
grease.  It  has  at  one  end  an  iron  ring,  about  an 
inch  and  a  half  in  diainrtcr,  through  which  the  thong  is 
pa«ieJ,  and  this  forms  a  running  noose.  The  gaucho, 
or  native  peon,  is  generally  mounted  on  hnrsi^back  when 
he  uses  the  lasfo ;  one  end  of  the  thong  is  alfixed  to  his 
«ddle-ijirth ;  the  remainder  ho  coils  carefully  in  his  left 
hand,  leaving  about  twelve  feet  bolonging  to  the  noose  end 
in  a  coil,  and  a  half  if  which  he  holds  in  his  right  hand. 
He  then  swings  this  long  noose  liurizontally  round  his 


hca'],  the  weight  of  the  iron  ring  at  the  end  of  Utt 
noose  assisting  in  giving  to  it,  by  a  continued  tircuUl 
motion,  a  sufficient  force  to  project  it  the  whole  length 
of  the  line." 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  break  in  a  number  of 
horses  at  once :  in  this  event,  they  drive  a  whole  herd 
of  wild  horses  into  the  corral  at  one  time.  This  scene 
was  witnessed  by  Micrs,  who  thus  describes  it: — "The 
corral  was  quite  full  of  horses,  most  of  which  wero 
young  ones  ab.iit  two  or  three  years  old.  The  eopilar 
(chief  gaucho),  mounted  on  a  strong  steady  horse,  rode 
into  the  corral,  and  threw  his  lasso  over  tlie  neck  of  it 
young  horse,  and  dragged  him  to  the  gate.  For  some 
time  ho  was  very  unwilling  to  leave  his  comrades;  but 
the  moment  he  was  forced  out  of  the  corral,  his  first 
idea  was  to  gallop  away  ;  however,  a  timely  jerk  of  the 
las,so  checked  him  in  the  most  cflectual  way.  The 
peons  now  ran  alter  him  on  foot,  and  threw  a  lasso  over 
his  fore-legs  just  above  the  fetlock,  and,  twitching  it, 
they  pulled  his  legs  from  under  him  so  suddenly,  that  I 
really  thought  the  fall  he  got  had  killed  him.  In  one 
instant  a  gaucho  was  seated  on  his  head,  and  with  bis 
long  knife,  and  in  a  few  seconds,  cut  off  the  whole  of 
the  horse's  mane,  while  another  cut  the  hair  from  the 
end  of  his  tail.  This,  they  told  mc,  was  a  mark  that  the 
horse  hnd  been  once  mounted.  They  then  put  a  piece 
of  hide  into  his  mouth,  to  serve  for  a  bit,  and  a  strong 
hide  halter  on  his  head.  The  gaucho  who  was  to  mount 
arranged  his  spurs,  which  were  unusually  long  and 
sharp,  and  while  two  men  hold  the  horse  by  his  ears,  ha 
put  on  the  saddle,  which  he  girthed  extremely  tight 
He  then  caught  hold  of  the  horse's  ear,  and  in  an  instant 
vaulted  into  the  saddle,  upon  which  the  men  who  held 
the  horse  by  the  halter  threw  the  end  to  the  rider,  and 
from  that  moment  no  one  seemed  to  take  any  further 
notice  of  him.  The  horse  instantly  began  to  jump  in  a 
manner  which  made  it  very  difficult  for  the  rider  to  keep 
his  scat,  and  quite  diflctrent  from  the  kick  or  plunge  oi 
our  English  horse :  however,  the  gaucho's  spurs  soon 
set  him  going,  and  off  he  galloped,  doing  every  thing  ill 
his  power  to  throw  his  rider. 

<•  Another  horse  was  immediately  brought  from  the 
corral :  and  so  quick  wus  the  operation,  that  twelve 
gauchos  were  mounted  in  a  space  which  I  think  hardly 
exceeded  an  hour.  It  was  wonderful  to  see  the  difTer- 
cut  manner  in  wliich  different  horses  behaved.  Some 
would  actually  scream  while  the  gauchos  wero  girthing 
the  saddle  upon  their  backs ;  some  would  instantly  lie 
down  and  roll  upon  it,  while  some  would  stand  without 
being  held,  their  logs  stiff,  and  in  unnatural  positions; 
their  necks  half-bent  towards  their  tails,  and  looking 
vicious  and  obstinate ;  and  I  could  not  help  thinking 
that  I  would  not  have  mounted  one  of  those  for  any  re- 
ward that  could  be  offered  me,  for  they  were  invsiiably 
the  most  difficult  to  subdue. 

"  It  was  now  curious  to  look  around  and  see  the 
gauchos  on  the  horizon,  in  different  directions,  trying  to 
bring  their  horses  back  to  the  corral,  which  is  the  most 
difficult  part  of  their  work ;  for  the  poor  creatures  had 
been  so  scared  there,  that  they  were  unwilling  to  return 
to  the  place.  It  was  amusing  to  see  the  antics  of  the 
horses :  they  were  jumping  and  dancing  in  different 
ways,  while  the  right  arm  of  the  gauchos  was  seen  flog- 
ging them.  At  last  they  brought  tlie  horses  back,  appa^ 
reutly  suUlued  and  broken  in.  The  saddles  and  bridles 
were  taken  off,  and  the  young  horses  trotted  off  towards 
the  corral,  neighing  to  one  another." 

There  is  a  remarkable  difference  in  the  dispositions  of 
the  Asiatic  and  South  American  wild  horstis :  those  of 
the  former  country  can  never  be  properly  lamed  unless 
trained  very  young ;  if  taken  when  adults,  tliey  fre- 
quently break  out  into  violent  fits  of  rage  in  after  life, 
exhibiting  every  mark  of  natural  wildiicsb;  while  ttiotis 
of  America  cuii  bu  brought  to  perfect  obedience,  anJ 


mrORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


wen  renclered  wmcwhat  docile,  within  a  few  week*, 
Bar,  aometiroea  days.  It  would  be  difficult  to  account 
for  this  opposition  of  temper,  unleaa  we  can  auppoae  that 
it  ia  influenced  by  climate. 

Th«  Arabian  Horu. 

The  Arabian  Horae  ia  considered  to  occupy  the  high- 
cat  rank  among  the  numerous  cultivated  varieties,  and 
imhodles  that  qualification  in  its  purest  condition,  known 
in  England  by  the  term  thorough-hred.  By  the  wander- 
ing tribes  of  Arabia,  he  has  been  skilfully  subdued  and 
domesticated,  and  exhibits,  with  great  lieauly  of  figure, 
apirit,  docility,  and  intelligence.  The  pure  Arabians  are 
somewhat  amaller  than  our  race-horses,  seldom  exceed- 
ing fourteen  hands  two  inches  in  height.  Their  heads 
■re  very  beautiful,  clean,  and  wide  between  the  jaws ; 
the  forehead  ia  broad  and  square ;  the  face  flat ;  the  muzzle 
short  and  fine;  the  eyes  prominent  and  brilliont;  the 
eara  small  and  handsome ;  the  nostrils  large  and  open  ; 
the  akin  of  the  head  thin,  through  which  may  be  dis- 
tinctly traced  the  whole  veins  of  the  head.  The  body 
may,  as  a  whole,  be  considered  too  light,  and  the  brea«t 
rather  narrow  ;  but  behind  the  arms,  the  chest  generally 
awells  out  greatly,  leaving  .ample  room  for  the  lungs  to 
play.  The  shoulder  is  superior  to  that  of  any  other 
'  breed ;  the  acapule,  or  shoulder-blades,  inrline  backwards, 
nearly  in  an  angle  of  45  degrees ;  the  withers  are  high 
and  arched ;  the  neck  beautifully  cuived,  and  the  mane 
•nd  tail  long,  thin,  and  flowing ;  the  legs  are  fine,  thin, 
and  wiry,  with  the  pasterns  placed  somewhat  oblique, 
which  has  led  some  to  suppose  that  the  strength  was 
thereby  lessened,  which  is  by  no  means  the  case ;  the 
iione  is  of  uncommon  density,  and  the  prominent  mus- 
cles of  the  fore-arm  and  thigh  prove  that  the  Arabian 
is  fully  equal  to  ail  that  has  been  said  of  his  physical 
powera. 

The  Arabs  of  the  desert  hwe  made  the  breeding  of 
boraea  their  sole  occupation  for  ages  bygone  ;  and,  from 
their  strict  attention  to  certain  rules,  they  may  be  justly 
fefarded  arthe  first  breeders  in  the  world.  They  take 
infinite  trouble  in  grooming  their  steeds,  and  are  ex- 
tremely regular  in  their  hours  of  feeding  them  morning 
and  evening.  They  get  but  little  drink,  and  that  ia  sup- 
plied to  them  two  or  three  times  a  day ;  they  conceive 
that  much  water  not  only  destroys  their  shape,  but  alxo 
affects  their  breathing.  In  apring  they  are  pastured  on 
dry  aromatic  herbage ;  and  during  the  rest  of  the  year 
they  are  fed  on  barley,  with  a  small  quantity  of  straw ; 
"  and  they  are  the  hardiest  horses  in  the  world.  The  Arab 
Iraina  his  horse  by  kindness,  and  never  on  any  occasion 
strikes  it ;  the  consequence  is,  that  the  animal  shows  a 
degree  of  affection  and  tractability  in  which  most  British 
horset  <ie  quite  deficient  The  Arab  horse  is  employed 
only  for  riding,  and  posnceaca  great  fleetnesa. 

The  following  interesting  account  of  the  hardihood  of 
the  Arabian  is  given  by  M.  Owteaubriaml,  in  his  Travels 
in  Greece — "  They  are  never  put  under  shelter,  but  left 
exposed  to  the  moat  inteaae  hicat  of  the  sun,  ticti  by  all 
four  legs  fo  stakea  driven  in  the  groand,  so  that  they 
cannot  stir.  The  saddle  ia  now  taken  from  their  backs. 
They  frequently  drink  bat  enee,  and  have  only  one  feed 
of  barley  in  twenty-fonr  hoara.  This  rigid  treatment,  so 
far  from  wearing  thera  Mit,  gives  them  sobriety  and 
tfwed.  I  have  often  admired  an  Arabian  steed  thus  tied 
iown  tu  the  burain^t  sands,  liis  hnir  loosely  flowing,  his 
head  i'OVfed  between  his  legs  to  find  a  little  shade,  and 
stealing  with  hia  wild  eye  an  oblique  glance  of  his  mss- 
ler.  Releaat)  his  legs  from  the  shackles,  spring  upon  his 
back,  and  he  will  •  paw  in  the  valley,  he  will  rejoice  in 
tii*  Btrcngth,  he  will  swallow  the  ground  in  the  fierce- 
ness of  his  rage ;'  and  you  recognise  the  original  picture 

Th^  .\raba  are  exceedingly  particular  regarding  the 
imligra  i<r  their  boraea ;  and  they  have  amongst  them  a 


breed  which  they  declare  has  descendid  from  a  horwij 
King  Solomon.  It  must  not,  however,  be  suppoaej  tli!! 
all  the  horses  of  that  country  are  of  the  finer  kiiuli .  f 
the  Arab*  have  three  distinct  breeds:  the  two  \uL'* 
kinds,  they  say,  were  introduced  from  India  and  Gnm! 
The  auperior  kinds  they  call  nobles ;  and  they  nt  „,,  ' 
sold  without  a  pedigree,  which  ia  more  scrupulouilv  i! 
tended  to  than  with  human  beings  in  Europe.  ' 

British  Race-llorse. 

The  British  Race-Horse  is  a  cultivated  breed,  oriinnan 
sprung  from  the  Arabian,  and  to  which  is  traced  ih' 
quality  of  being  Ihrmmnh-brtd.  The  skins  of  mre-ho,- 
are  delicate,  with  short  hair,  usually  lending  to  tho  biinhi 
brown  or  bay  generally  characteristic  of  the  horsps  ofth 


East,  and  sometimes  the  gray,  prevalent  likewise 


iniongst 


the  Arabs  and  Barla.  'J'hey  are  frequently  chctinMi 
which  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  mixture  of  the  dun  or 
tan  colour  of  some  of  the  races  of  Northern  Europe  vjii, 
the  finer  brown  or  bay ;  and  sometimes,  though  vm 
rarely,  they  are  of  the  bright  black  common  to  the  wf^ 
horsea  of  the  plains  of  Germany.  They  are  of  medium 
height,  rarely  exceeding  fifteen  hands,  l^eir  form  ii 
that  which  an  almost  exclusive  attention  to  the  pronerh 
of  speed  has  tended  to  produce.  They  have  the  btoail 
forehead,  the  brilliant  eyea,  the  delicate  muzzle,  the  ex. 
pandcd  nostrils,  and  the  wid<t  throat,  charRctcriitic  of 
their  eastern  progenitors.  Thi'ir  light  body  is  compan. 
tively  long,  and  suited  to  the  extended  stride.  Theb 
chest  is  deep,  so  as  to  give  duo  space  to  the  lungg,  byi 
comparatively  narrow,  preventing  the  fore  extremilifi 
'  from  being  over-loaded,  and  the  limbs  from  being  thrown 
too  far  asunder  in  the  gallop.  Their  shoulder  it  ohljque 
to  give  freedom  of  motion  to  tho  humerus,  and  thejt 
haunch  is  long  and  deep,  beyond  that  of  any  other  knowg 
race  of  horses,  indicating  the  length  of  thofie  honei  of 
the  hinder  extremities  on  which  the  power  of  progrcwion 
essentially  depends.  Their  limbs  are  long  and  musculu 
to  the  knee  and  hork,  and  below,  tendinous  and  delicate 
and  their  pasterns  being  long  and  oblique,  give  elasticity 
to  the  limha. 

The  pedii^(*e  of  race-horses  is  always  a  matter  of  con. 
sequence  to  the  breeder  and  purchaser  of  these  animak 
and  is  preserved  with  the  same  degree  of  care  ai  th« 
genealogy  of  many  a  noble  family.  By  jnckejri  and 
others,  therefore,  a  list  or  stud-book  is  kept  of  the  nm 
and  dams  of  their  horses,  which  can  be  exhibited  if  re- 
quired. The  pedigree  of  many  fine  racers  of  the  present 
day  is  tmced  through  stud-books  to  the  Dailey  Arabian, 
a  horse  purchased  by  a  Mr.  Darley  at  Aleppo,  fromakirh 
it  was  imported  to  England.  One  of  its  immediate  it. 
scenilants  was  the  famous  Flying  Childcrs,  bred  bj 
Mr.  Childers  of  Carr-House.  This  lieautiful  racer  li 
reputed  to  have  been  the  fleetest  runner  ever  known  In 
England,  or  perhaps  in  the  world.  On  one  occasion,  he 
ran  round  the  course  in  Newmarket,  which  meuurei  3 
miles,  6  furlongs,  and  93  yards,  in  6  minutes  and  M 
seconds. 

Horse-racing,  which,  in  the  opinion  of  competent 
judges,  is  unnecessary,  as  far  as  keeping  up  aervicetbit 
breeds  of  horsea  ia  concerned,  is  usually  spoken  of  as  the 
turf,  from  its  being  performed  on  stretches  of  turf.ground 
at  Newmarket,  Epsom,  and  various  other  f  laces.  .^mon| 
an  idle  and  in  many  instances  a  proflij^ate  clasf  of  p(^ 
sons,  this  rport,  as  it  is  termed,  affords  scope  for  a  moat 
extensive  system  of  fraud,  betting,  gambling,  and  gct.erai 
disaolutenesa  of  behaviour;  in  a  word,  this  cruel  pasline 
may  be  described  as  a  great  canker  lying  at  the  root  of 
society  in  England ;  and,  countenanced  by  the  high  ia 
rank,  is  at  the  present  moment  not  the  least  e iTectite  of 
the  many  draga  on  social  advancement  'I'hr  fiameti 
and  conservator*  of  the  laws  of  the  turf,  are  the  memberi 
of  an  asaociation  called  the  Jockey  Club,  whose  prindpil 
betting-rooms  are  at  Newmarket,  and  at  the  eatabliiLsuci 


THE  HORSE. 


hi; 


J  Uf,  Tittemil  in  London.  At  these  plarns  of  reiort, 
MK|ein«n<  gentlemen,  turf-spefulatora,  tharpen,  and  jock- 
of  (II  sbadei  meet  to  bet  on  the  reiiult  of  certain 
!Lf  and  there,  alio,  they  attend  on  certain  lettling 
.  to  p*y  ^^^  loa«ei  and  receive  the  gains  of  their  wa- 
J.  When  we  find  ao  open  a  syBtem  of  gambling 
r^|.  aupported,  and  rendered  in  appearance  renpecinble, 
.  ,|,g  higher  eltnea,  need  we  feel  lurprined  at  the  al- 
liied  iegenetacy  of  the  bulk  of  the  lower  ordcrM  1  Horse- 
ncini,  with  all  ita  train  of  evils,  may  certainly  be  con- 
ajderod  a  disgrace  of  the  age;  and,  as  one  of  the  relics  of 
btrl)>ri»ni.  along  with  cock-fighting,  bull-baiting,  and 
prite-fighting,  we  should  rejoice  to  see  it  for  ever  aban- 


Coaeh-Horsas, 


H  unlers— Saddle-Horiei. 

The  Hunter  is  a  combination  of  the  thorough-bred 
nce'horse  and  half-bred  horses  of  greater  strength  and 
lione;  but  changes  are  continually  taking  place  in  its 
character.  The  older  race  of  hunters  has  licen  giving 
place  to  one  of  lighter  form  and  higher  breeding,  and 
even  the  thorough-bred  horse  is  now  employed  by  nume- 
lous  aportsmen.  In  his  improved  state,  the  hunter  may 
itnk  as  >  saddle-horse  of  the  first  class,  combining 
itrength  with  fieetness.  The  prime  qualities  of  a  hunter 
giay  be  briefly  summed  up — head  small,  neck  thin,  crest 
firm  and  arched,  a  light  mouth,  broad  chrst,  body  short 
and  compact,  the  hocks  well  bent,  power  behind  to  push 
him  over  difficulties,  and  broad  well-made  feet  turned 
outward.  He  is  prepared  for  his  duties  by  physic,  air, 
ind  eiercise.  To  do  him  justice,  the  hunter  should  not 
voik  above  three  days  a  week ;  and,  after  a  hard  day's 
ran,  he  ought  certainly  to  have  two  or  three  days  of  rest 
We  cordially  coincide  in  the  following  remarks  on  the 
cruelty  of  abusing  this  noble  anitnal  — •<  It  is  very  con- 
aivabie,  and  does  sometimes  happen,  that,  entering  as 
fully  as  his  wrnster  into  the  sports  of  the  day,  the  horse 
ditdains  to  yield  to  fatigue,  and  voluntarily  presses  on, 
until  nature  is  exhausted,  and  he  falls,  and  dies;  but 
much  oftener  the  poor  animal  has  intelligibly  enough 
hinted  his  distress;  unwilling  to  give  in,  yet  painfully 
and  falteringly  holding  on.  The  merciless  rider,  rather 
than  give  up  one  hour's  enjoyment,  tortures  him  with 
whip  and  spur,  until  he  drops  and  expires.  Although 
the  hunter  may  be  unwilling  to  relinquish  the  chase,  he 
t(bi>  'is  merciful  to  his  beast'  will  soon  recognise  the 
lymploms  of  excessive  and  dangerous  distress.  To  the 
drooping  pace,  and  staggering  gait,  and  heaving  flank, 
and  heavy  bearing  on  hand,  will  be  added  a  very  peculiar 
noi«.  The  inexpcrien::ed  person  will  fancy  it  to  be  the 
beating  of  tbc  heart ;  but  that  has  almost  ceased  to  beat, 
and  the  bings  are  becoming  gorged  with  blood.  It  is  the 
&4ivulfive  notion  of  the  muscles  of  the  l)clly,  called  into 
ti  'lent  action  to  assist  in  the  laliorious  office  of  breathing. 
TLt:  man  who  proceeds  a  single  nule  after  this,  ought  to 
iulfcl  the  punishment  he  is  inflicting." — (^Library  of  Vie- 
fvl  Knowledge.) 

The  Charger  or  Cavalry  Horse  partakes  of  the  quali- 
tiei  of  tbe  hunter — great  strength  and  spirit,  without 
which  he  would  be  unable  to  bear  the  toil  of  warfare  in 
a  rough  cc'mtry. 

The  proi^sr  kind  of  Snddle-Horse  is  only  a  variety  of 
Ibe  hunter,  possessing  less  or  more  bluotl,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  work  required  of  him,  and  <he  taste  of 
Ihe  breeder.  Of  the  great  varieties  of  saddle-horses, 
there  may  Iw  said  to  he  a  chain  of  connection,  as  res|)ects 
spirit  and  form,  from  the  racer  to  the  cart-horse ;  oiid 
Iherelbre  the  station  which  any  individual  occupicE  is 
aluiuat  undcfiriable.  'I'lie  suddli'-hurHi-s  of  England  are 
celebrated  for  Ibcir  licauty  and  action  ;  and  nowhere  are 
mil  10  many  of  elegant  forms  as  in  London.  Latterly, 
Nw  breeds  have  lieen  tending  to  greater  lightness,  the 
Mate  of  the  roads  not  now  requiring  the  a'.rength  of  limb 
which  was  at  one  time  necessary. 


The  better  kind  of  Coach-Horses  owe  their  origin  to 
the  Cleveland  bay,  and  are  principally  bred  in  Yorluhire, 
Durham,  and  the  southern  districts  of  Northumberland, 
and  some  few  have  been  produced  in  Lincolnshire.  Th« 
coach-horse  is  produced  by  a  cross  of  the  Cleveland 
mare  with  a  three-fourth  or  thorough-bred  hone,  which 
is  possessed  of  sufficient  substance  and  height.  The  pro- 
duce of  these  is  the  coach-horse  of  the  highest  repute, 
and  most  likely  to  possess  good  action.  Hi*  points  are 
advantageously  placed,  with  a  deep  and  well-proportioned 
body,  strong  and  clean  bone  under  the  knee,  and  his  feet 
open,  sound,  and  tough.  He  possesses  a  fine  knee 
action,  lifts  his  feet  high,  which  gives  an  elegance  to  hii 
paces  and  action:  he  carries  his  head  well,  and  has  a  fine 
elevated  crest.  The  full-sized  coach-horse  is,  in  fact,  only 
an  overgrown  hunter,  too  large  for  that  sport. 

The  carriage-horse,  reduced  to  drawing  stage-coaches, 
is  generally  used  in  a  very  disgraceful  manner.  Urged 
with  a  heavy  draught  to  the  height  of  his  speed,  and 
almost  incessantly  wrought,  whipped  unmercifully,  and 
poorly  groomed,  his  fate  is  often  melancholy  in  the  ex- 
treme.  It  ought  to  be  recollected  that,  in  proportion  as 
the  load  or  draught  is  increased,  so  is  the  animal's  {lower 
of  speed  lessened ;  and  therefore  to  make  him  botl.  draw 
n  heavy  weight,  and  run  also,  is  to  put  him  beyond  hia 
natural  powers,  and  his  muscular  energy  suiTers  acconl- 
ingly.  We  shall  afterwards  advert  to  the  principles  which 
ought  to  regulate  both  draught  and  speed. 

The  Hackney. 

The  term  Harkney,  in  common  use,  is  employed  to 
denote  a  kind  of  horse  fitted  for  general  services,  and  is 
therefore  understood  to  exclude  the  horses  of  the  highest 
breeding,  as  the  thorough-bred  horse  and  hunter ;  and 
there  is  further  associated  with  the  idea  of  a  hackney,  nn 
animal  of  moderate  size,  not  exceeding  fifteen  hands,  and 
possessing  action,  strength,  and  temper.  Our  present 
breed  of  hackneys  have  a  considerable  portion  of  racing 
blood  in  them,  varying  from  a  half  to  seven-eighths.  The 
latter  are  too  highly  bred  for  the  general  purpose  of  % 
roadster,  as  their  legs  and  feet  are  rather  tender;  and 
their  long  paces  and  straight-kneed  action  are  ill-adapted 
for  the  road,  being  more  fitted  for  cantering  and  running 
than  the  trot,  which  is  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of 
a  good  hackney.  Indeed,  they  should  never  be  permitted 
to  go  nt  any  other  pace  than  a  trot,  which  is  undoubtedly 
much  bt;ttcr  adapted  fur  the  road  than  cantering. 

Nothing  is  more  essential  in  a  hackney  than  sound 
strong  fore  legs,  and  also  well-formed  hind  ones ;  his  feet 
must  lie  quite  sound  and  free  from  corns,  to  which  hard- 
ridden  horses  are  very  liable ;  and  he  ought  only  to  lift 
his  fore  legs  moderately  high.  Some  are  of  opinion  that 
he  cannot  lift  them  too  high,  and  conceive,  while  he  is 
possessed  of  this  quality,  he  never  will  come  down. 
There  is  a  medium,  however,  in  this,  as  a  horse  that 
raises  his  fore  legs  too  high  in  trotting  is  always  disagree- 
able in  his  action,  which  greatly  shakes  and  fatigues  hii 
rider;  Iiosides,  he  batters  his  houfs  to  pieces  in  a  few 
years.  The  principal  thing  to  be  attended  to,  is  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  hackney  puts  his  feet  to  the  ground  ; 
for  if  his  toes  first  touch  the  road,  he  is  sure  to  be  a 
stuniblcr.  The  foot  should  come  flat  down  on  the  whole 
sole  at  once,  otherwise  the  horse  is  not  to  be  depended 
upon  in  his  trotting.  A  hackney  should  be  particularly 
even-leni|>ercd,  and  not  given  to  starting.  The  thorough- 
bred hackney  ought  to  possess  two  qualities,  indispensaMa 
to  the  safety  of  the  rider — he  should  never  shy  at  any 
thing  on  the  ro«d,  and  bis  motion  at  a  trot  should  b« 
much  more  smooth  than  that  of  a  half-bred  bcrte. 

The  rsrl-lloru. 

The  Carf-Horses  of  Great  Britain  arc  extretiely  vari- 
able in  point  of  size  as  well  as  iu  shap« .  diiloring  in 
3c  2 


Mt 


iwrOKMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


timost  every  coanty.  One  prinripal  character,  however, 
JH  weight,  to  givB  more  physical  Torce  in  the  drouofht. 
riiey  should  nut  he  above  sixteen  hnnda  high,  with  a 
light,  well-shaped  head  and  neck,  short  pointed  ears,  with 
brisk  Hparkling  eyes;  their  chests  should  be  full  and 
deep,  with  large  and  strong  shoulders,  hut  rather  low  in 
front  than  otherwise.  'I'he  back  should  be  straight,  and 
rather  long,  but  not  too  much  so,  as  this  always  impairs 
his  general  strength ;  the  animal  should  stand  wide  on 
■II  his  four  legs,  and  considerably  wider  behind  than  be- 
fore; he  ought  to  have  great  pliability  in  the  knee-joints, 
and  bo  able  to  bend  them  well,  which  asaist  in  producing 
a  brisk  and  active  step  in  walking,  a  quality  of  much 
consequence  in  a  cart  or  wagon  horse.  The  heii{ht  to 
be  desired  in  a  draught-horse,  however,  will  depend  upon 
tlie  purpose  for  which  ho  is  to  be  employed. 

In  the  midland  counties  of  England — Warwickshire, 
Derbyshire,  lieiceslershire,  Lincolnsliire,  and  Nottin^;- 
haDKhiro,  there  is  a  very  large  breed  called  the  great 
cart-horse.  It  was  bred  in  the  lowland  rich  alli  vial  pas- 
tures of  the  plains  of  these  counties,  from  the  Flemish 
and  Dutch  horses,  with  the  larger  English  breed.  Mr. 
liakewell  in'troiluced  horses,  and  alsi>  mares,  from  the 
Netherlands,  and  thus  produced  those  fuic  animals  with 
Uelgic  blood,  both  on  the  side  of  the  sire  and  dum. 

Tho  very  large  horses  of  seventeen  hands  and  uji- 
wards,  are  only  useful  for  the  puri)03e;<  of  brewers'  drays, 
wagons,  and  the  slop-carts  of  London.  It  is,  however, 
doubted  if  they  answer  the  better  for  their  gigunlic  size; 
and  all  who  have  written  on  the  subject  consider  that 
they  are  inferior  in  point  of  strength,  on  account  uf  their 
bulk ;  for  by  tlio  feeding  which  is  re(|uired  to  increase 
their  dimensions,  little  of  muscular  dUve  is  produced,  the 
growth  being  principally  in  the  cellular  tissue  and  fat; 
and  the  additional  quantity  uf  food  roipiired  to  keep  up 
their  system  must  more  than  countorlialancc  any  advan- 
tage to  be  reaped  from  their  size.  Latterly,  con:iiderahli! 
pains  have  Ipcen  taken  to  improve  the  qualities  of  ordinary 
cart-horses,  among  which  wu  include  those  required  in 
agriculture.  A  breed  chilled  tho  Clydesdale  is  highly 
valued,  for  either  cart  or  plough.  Animals  of  the  Clydes- 
ilale  breed  reach  to  a  large  size,  and  are  not  unfrequcntly 
to  he  met  with  sixteen  and  a  .half  hands  high.  These 
animals  are  strong  and  hardy,  but  their  heads  are  coarse, 
and  they  are  rather  flat  on  the  sides  and  hinder  quarters. 
The  usual  colour  of  these  horses  is  gray  or  brown.  This 
breed  is  supposed  to  have  originated  about  one  hundred 
and  thirty  years  ago,  between  tho  common  Scotch  marc 
and  the  Flanders  horse. 

Ponies. 

A  horse  beneath  thirteen  hands  is  called  a  pony,  but 
this  defmition  is  not  very  strictly  attended  to,  nnd  the 
same  thing  may  be  said  of  the  giiltouuy.     The  old  Scot- 
tish galloways,  which  took  their  name  from  the  district 
of  Galloway,   in    the   south-western   extremity  of   the 
country,  are  now  nearly  extinct.    They  were  stout,  com- 
pact animals,  sure-footed,  and  of  great  endurance,  and  on 
Iheie  accounts  invuluahlc  in  travelling  over  ru;>gi'd  and 
mountainous  districts.   The  beauty  and  speed  of  the  gallo- 
way were  supposed  to  have  arisen  from  the  breed  having 
been   the  produce  of  the   Spanish  ji'unels  that  escaped 
from  the  wreck  of  the  Spanish  armada,  and  these,  crossi-d 
with  our  Scottish  horses,  gave  rise  to  this  esteemed  lirecil. 
But  we  apprehend  they  were  famous  at  a  date  li)n;j  prior 
to  that  event,  as  this  district  is  known  t>>  have  sup|ilie<l 
Cdward   I.  with  great   numlwrs  uf  horses.     Tiiis   breed 
icidom  exceeded  fourteen  hands  in  heiulit:  tlieir  colour 
was  generally  bright  bay  or  brown,  with  black  Ic^s,  small  : 
head  and  neck,  and  their  legs  [K'tuliarly  deep  anil  clian.  i 
K  compact  stout-built  pony,  of  iVom  thirteen  to  Iburteen  ; 
hands  high,  and  possessing  some  uf  the  ()ualill('atiu:is  uf  . 
die  (iailoway,  is  railed  a  tvb,  which  is  valuable  us  a  steady  ! 
%accr,  at  an  easy  rate.  { 


Tho  small  ponies  of  the  Highlands  :  t  Sa  (Ian  j  ,o 
Shetland  (usually  called  ikcllies)  may  almost  he  term!!! 
wild  animals ;  for  they  go  at  large  in  herds  on  the  M 
and  wastes,  and  are  not  shod  till  caught  and  put  i,, ' 
training.     They  are  docile  and  tractable,  and  beina  ». 
sure-footed,  arc  the  best  adapted  for  boys'  riding.  Of  ih  ■ 
remarkable  sagacity  in  passing  fords  and  dangcrouj  m 
rassea,  numerous  accounts  have  been  given.    The  H,. 
Mr.  Hnll,  in  his  ••  Travels  through  Scotland,"  mcmion 
"  When  these  animal  come  to  any  boggy  piece  of  ground 
they  first  put  their  nose  to  it,  and  then  pat  on  it  in  >  w' 
culiar  way  with  one  of  their  fore  feet;  and  from  tli 
sound  and  feling  of  thj  ground,  they  kjiow  whether  it 
will  bear  them.     They  do  the  sumo  with  ice,  and  delar 
mine  in  a  minuto  whether  they  will  proceed." 

The  Welsh  pony  is  more  handsomely  formed  than 
that  of  Shetland  ;  has  a  sniull  head,  high  withers  detn 
round  body,  anil  excellent  feet.  'I'hcExmoor  ponies  art 
also  very  stout,  hardy,  and  usi<ful  in  the  fatigues  of  rural 
sporting.  The  ponies  of  Dartmoor  are  likewise  a  harJv 
sure-footed  race,  well  adapted  for  riding  in  wilJ  disltict.' 
The  jioiiies  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  which  are  of  a 
dirigy  cream  colour,  nnd  of  which  there  are  now  occn. 
sional  importations  to  Britain,  arc  considerably  larw 
than  the  Shetland  or  Welsh  breedi',  hut  also  hardy  ajj 
very  docile. 

REARING    OP    HORSES. 

The  breeding  and  rearing  of  horses  are  carried  onpto. 
fessionally  in  England,  chiefly  in  Yorkshire;  but  mariT 
private  gentlemen  and  farmers  jlso  address  tlicmselves  to 
it  tt:i  a  means  of  pecuniary  profit  and  the  iiiiprovoniont 
of  their  animal  stuck.  We  do  not  pretend  htrctootTfr 
any  specific  directions  on  this  branch  of  our  sulijoct,  it 
being  one  in  which  the  public  at  large  nre  not  parlico. 
larly  interested,  and  a  few  observations  8ce:a  all  that  ii 
necessary. 

The  circumstance  which  the  breeder  of  horses  rcqiiirei 
to  keep  most  in  mind,  is,  that  the  qualities,  good  or  bad 
of  the  animal  are  hereditary.  Finely  made  horses  pro. 
duce  finely  made  descendants,  and  fire  verm;  liratj 
cart-horses  never  produce  animols  possessing  the  qualiliej 
of  racers.  Thu;i,  the  bone,  blood,  and  general  make  are 
directly  transmissible ;  and,  in  the  case  of  crossing  the 
produce  is  found  to  possess  a  proportional  share  ofloth 
sire  and  dam.  Cross-breeding  between  extrcmol'-diirer- 
ent  horses  is  not  found  advantageous :  it  is  a  giiifrallj 
recognised  principle,  that  the  nearer  the  resemblance  be- 
tween the  parents,  so  will  the  jiroduce  he  more  satisfac- 
tory. Mr.  N.  H.  Smith,  in  his  Obfcivniionson  Imiv'i 
for  the  Turf,  remarks,  that  "  the  stock  of  some  niarei 
will  frequently  partake  most  of  the  dam,  and  tlial  of 
others  most  of  the  sire  ;  and  sometimes  one  foal  will  pat. 
take  most  of  the  marc,  and  the  next  perhaps  most  of  the 
horse,  &c.  It  also  occasionally  hapiicns  that  the  proJuie 
bears  some  resendilance  toitRgr3iidsire,graadam,orollifl 
distant  kindred  ;  and  although  this  docs  net  ivhapanfien 
occur,  so  as  to  be  very  perceptible,  yet,  as  their  qualiliei 
must,  in  a  lesser  or  greater  degree,  descend  to  tlieir  pr* 
geiiy,  it  has  always  had  its  dun  weif^ht,  and  hence  the 
value  and  partiality  to  blood,  or  ancestral  cxcelli'iicf!, 
transmitted  through  many  generations."  He  furlherob- 
serves,  however,  "  that  he  is  disposed  to  attribute  morein 
general  to  the  dam  than  to  the  sire,  inasmnch  nsheisdf- 
cideilly  of  opinion  that  a  frood  'iiare  put  to  the  norsl 
tliiirougli-lired  horse  would  be  inmh  more  likely  to  pro- 
duce a  runner,  tlimi  a  bad  mare  put  to  the  most  fashion- 
able stallion  in  Eiij^la'id  ;  and  ihere'ore  a  permn  iioss.y 
irig  (>ood  mans  may  bring  any  stallinii  into  repiilo."  The 
grand  aim  of  the  breeder  must  be  tho  inopaRnting  of  ei- 
cellences  and  avoiiiiiig  defect'- ;  but  this  is  not  tu  be  sf- 
complislicd,  as  iisprcts  important  alterations,  all  at  Pnii; 
im|)rovemeiits  in  this,  us  in  every  thing  else,  \k\?.i  the 
work  of  time  and  a  judicious  experience,    llrecdiugm 


THE  HORSE. 


MM 


t^M  M  it  i»  called,  or  between  close  relationships,  is  de- 
Ijldly  wriiicious,  and  should  by  ull  moans  bo  avoided. 

f^  seaHon  for  maros  is  about  February  and  March, 
hot  in  »omecii9e«  it  continues  later;  and  the  term  of 
iMtalion  i»  pencrally  over  eleven  months.     The  fool  ro- 

uni  with  the  mother  till  weaned,  which  takes  pliico 
Llieror  later  according  to  the  quantity  of  milk,  the 
iireneth  of  tlie  animals,  and  the  season  of  the  year.   On 

moval  it  requires  to  be  carefully  attended  to,  and  pro- 
riJcd  with  soft  nourishinR  diet. 

The  opcnition   of  cutting   is   seldom   performed   on 

thorougli-l'f''^'  '^°"*> ''"'  ^''''  ""  "''""■"  't  is  common.  It 
■  j^  owration  which  ought  by  all  means  to  be  left  to  the 
telcrinary  surgeon  or  skilful  farrier.  The  best  aulhoritics 
rocoiiiinenJ  it  to  take  place  with  young  cart-horHcs  when 
font  or  five  months  old,  but  if  for  carriage  or  light  work, 
it  may  ^'-''■y  l"'"P'''''y  ^^  postponed  till  the  anim;il  is 
twelve  month's  old.  The  use  of  the  operation  is  ti)  ren- 
der the  horse  more  sulimissive  than  if  left  in  an  entire 
rtite,  and  to  devote  him  altogether  to  the  work  ho  is  re- 
quired to  perform.  The  advantages,  whatever  they  are, 
it  may  be  supposed  nre  in  .some  moasuro  lessened  by  the 
lowering  of  spirit.  The  practice,  however,  is  univcrsully 
(ecognised  in  England  as  one  indispensable  where  great 
numbers  of  horses  arc  congregated,  and  required  to  be 
kept  in  good  condition. 

Bretitiiin;  of  reducing  the  young  animal  into  obedience, 
is  a  most  important  point  in  the  education  of  the  horse, 
[f  previously  accustomed  to  handling,  the  ditTiculty  of 
breaking  will  be  much  lessened.  Racing  colts  are  now 
begun  to  be  broken  at  one  year  old,  and  saddle  colts  at 
two  years,  and  arc  finally  and  fully  broken  and  trained, 
lome  at  tliree,  and  few  later  tban  four  years  old.  Break- 
ing horses  is  u  regular  business,  and  is  best  left  to  the 
person  who  is  well  accustomed  to  it,  provided  he  follow 
ajuJicious  course  of  treatment.  As  in  the  training  of 
children,  gentleness  yet  firmness  ought  to  be  a  prevailing 
principle  of  management.  The  chief  apparatus  of  break- 
ing is  a  powerful  bridle  or  head  tackle,  with  boots  or  pads 
strapped  on  the  legs,  to  prevent  them  knocking  against 
each  other. 

The  young  horse  is  to  a  certain  extent  trained  before 
his  back  is  mounted,  all  the  preliminary  part  of  the  pro- 
ceis  of  subduing  being  accomplished  while  he  is  led  by 
the  bitted  tackle.  His  back  is  not  to  bo  mounted  till  he  is 
eviilenlly  able  to  endure  the  load  without  injury  to  his 
figure ;  loo  early  mounting  is  apt  to  make  him  hollow- 
backed  for  life.  In  putting  on  a  saddle  for  the  I'lrst  time, 
peat  caution  should  be  taken ;  let  the  girths  be  drawn 
loosely,  the  crupper  smooth,  and  keep  the  stirrups  from 
dangling.  In  short,  the  animal  requires  on  this  trying 
Kcasion  to  be  treated  with  aa  much  kindness  as  it  is  pos- 
lible  to  employ. 

llaviiig,  by  the  various  means  which  are  adopted, 
brought  the  animal  into  subjcclion,  and  in  elTccl  taught 
him  thai  he  must  in  future  act  the  part  of  a  dutiful  ser- 
rantto  an  indulgent  but  firm  muster,  the  next  step  is  to 
teachhirubispaccs.  These  are  partly  artificial.  Commence 
with  slow  and  regular  walking,  whenever  he  is  inclined  to 
bolt,  bringing  liim  back  to  the  steady  pace  you  desire. 
After  lie  lias  been  accustomed  to  slow  paces  on  n  methodic 
fLin.goon  to  the  slow  trot,  then  the  quick  trot,  anti  lastly  the 
canter  and  gallop.  By  no  means  allow  him  to  mix  these 
picss,  that  is,  halfcanter  and  half-trot,  which  would  l)e 
in  ungainly  holible  ;  but  bit  him  know  that  he  must  for 
the  lime  being  keep  to  one  kind  of  pace.  The  skill  of 
the  breaker  consists  in  enforcing  these  lessons,  and  teach- 
ing Iho  animal  to  change  readily  and  neatly  from  one 
pace  to  another,  by  little  more  intimation  than  a  twitch 
of  the  rein.  Lawrence  recommends  that "  a  graceful  can- 
ter should  he  encouraged,  commencing  with  the  proper 
iW  off-leg  foremost,  and  the  nag  accustomed  to  be  pulled 
upftoni  the  canter  to  the  trot  without  unseemly  and  un- 
piwianl  blundering.    The  lessons  should  not  bo  too  long 


or  fatiguing,  but  the  young  animal  kept  in  as  eheorfui 
and  easy  a  state  as  possible."  The  first  shoeing  ought 
to  be  performed  with  great  cate^  so  as  to  alarm  the  viuiiuj 
as  Utile  as  possible.*  ,;.,,.,,,,    ,    ,    >  .Tp-;-  ^j,4i», 

V,. 
Tlie  Teeth— Age. 

The  horse  attains  maturity  at  five  years  old,  ond  he  ii 
in  his  prime  till  eight  or  nine.  If  no  unfair  play  be  used, 
his  age  may  be  judged  of  from  his  teeth,  or,  as  it  is  called, 
murk  of  rnowit.  We  shall  give  a  short  account  of  thie 
part  of  the  animal's  economy. 

At  fivu  years  old,  when  the  teeth  have  been  fully  de-  ' 
vcloped,  the  horse  possesses  six  teeth  in  the  front  of  each 
jaw,  culled  the  incisors  or  nippen ;  it  is  with  these  teeth 
that  be  bites.  At  a  short  distance  from  each  end  of  the 
row  of  incisors,  and  in  each  jaw,  ti.erc  is  a  solitary  caniqe 
tooth  ;  these  canine  teeth  are  technically  named  tushei. 
At  a  greater  distance  inward  in  each  jaw,  and  on  each 
side,  there  are  six  grinders — the  whole  apparatus  being 
designed  to  bite  or  crop  the  herbage,  to  tear  and  to  chow. 
At  five  and  a  half  years  old,  the  nippers  are  marked  by  a 
natural  cavity  formed  in  the  substance  between  the  oului 
and  inner  walls,  and  it  is  the  presence  or  absence  of  these 
d.irkisli  marks  that  certifies  the  age  of  the  animal.  When 
the  horse  reaches  six  years,  the  marks  in  the  two  front 
nip|iers  in  the  nether  jaw  are  filled  up,  and  tbotushesbni 
blunted.  At  seven  years  the  two  nippers  next  the  mid- 
dle ones  are  also  filled  up ;  at  eight,  the  two  outer  ones  are 
filled  up  also,  and  the  tushes  arc  round  and  shortened. 
The  lower  nipper  teeth  ore  now  oil  smooth  ;  the  marks 
are  gone ;  but  in  the  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw  marks  re- 
main a  year  or  two  longer.  At  eight  years  the  disgrace- 
ful practice  of  ISishnping — a  term  given  from  the  name 
of  the  inventor — is  often  resorted  to,  for  the  purpose  of 
imitating  the  obliterated  marks.  An  engraving  tool  is 
employed  to  cut  the  surface,  and  a  hot  iron  is  then  ap- 
[ilied  to  give  a  permanent  dark  stain.  This  infamous 
trick  may  impose  on  the  ignori  nt ;  but  a  person  skilled 
in  horses  can  easily  detect  the  imposition,  from  the  stain* 
being  dillused  around  the  marks,  and  other  appearances. 

As  a  horse,  if  well  treated,  remains  in  excellent  work 
ing  condition  till  twelve  and  even  later,  the  disappearanct! 
of  the  marks  on  the  teclh  is  often  of  little  consequence. 
Some  horses  are  as  valuable  lo  their  owners  ot  lifteeu 
years  as  they  are  at  eight;  and  for  ordinary  saddle-work, 
ten  or  twelve  may  be  considered  an  age  sulliciently  young. 
It  is  important,  however,  that  the  teeth  are  capable  of 
mustication ;  for  if  the  animal  is  unable  to  chew  his  food 
properly,  ho  cannot  be  kept  in  good  condition,  or  fit  for 
the  performance  of  his  duties.  In  consequence  of  the 
very  general  abuse  of  horses,  few  live  till  twenty-five  years 
old,  and  the  instances  of  any  living  till  above  thirty  are 
rare. 

Terms  applied  to  Horses. 

Horsemen  employ  terms  to  horses  which  are  not  strictly 
adhered  to  in  ordinary  language.  A  male  horse  left  un- 
cut is  said  to  be  an  entire  ht'r.ie,  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
gelding,  or  cut  animal.     A  female  horse  is  always  spoken 


•  III  connection  with  ilie  breeding  of  liorses,  we  may  any  a 

few  wcircls  respccliiig  wiiito,  or  llie  lijhritl  olTsiirinK  of  the  horse 

and  iiss.    The  iniile-proper  is  the  produce  of  a  ninlc-ass  nnd 

in:iri' ;  when  the  purunts  are  tlie  horse  and  she-ass.  the  prochics 

isciillrd  nlihini;.    Tlie  miilo  is  the  snpi'rior  animal,  p;irinking 

to  a  liirRiT  deirroc  in  the  qoiililieH  of  the  horse;  it  is  more  ro 

iiiist.  plump,  and  liurdy,  and  lietter  adnpled  for  all  the  ordinary 

purposes  of  ridiiig  and  draught.     The  hinny  is  more  thini) 

lunde.  has  a  longer  liend.  and  is  nltnircthor  more  like  the  b.sk 

than  ihe  horse.     Mules  of  both  kinds  live  lo  a  very  old  ape,  and 

j  wliiii  properly  trained,  they  are  tractable  nnd  very  serviceohlB 

iinimiila.  There  areeoinparniively  few  inuki  in  Britain;  but  in 

I  Spa  11,  nnd  some  oiher  countries  of  sonlliern  Knrope,  also   in 

I  Span  ;di  America,  they  are  numerous,  and  are  used  in  carrinyea 

;  of  prople  of  ilio   highest  rank.     According  to  a  well-known 

'  principle  :n  nainral  cronomy.  by  which  intermixture  of  k  ndrcd 

j  species  is  not  allowed  to  go  beyond  n  single  step,  and  only  tor 

1  one  ginerat:on,  inub'S  do  not  breed ;  ami  the  slock  requires  W 

1  bo  kept  up  by  a  recurrence  to  the  common  purcmuRe. 


ill 


INFOnMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


of  M  a  mnrt.  A  young  mule  hor«e  ii  culled  ■  mil,  and 
•  youn^  femalfl  afllly.  Tknnm^h'hrtil,  Hi  iilrrady  notircil, 
U  applied  only  to  hone*  (wc  includn  marri,  uf  rourae) 
whoae  pedigree  can  be  traced  to  an  Araliian  orii^in,  without 
atain  or  any  common  intermixture.  When  the  ppdit^rve 
of  the  raocr  ii  to  a  certain  degree  atainrd,  tlie  animal  ii 
called  a  rocktml.  The  term  hlooH  ia  of  more  looae  nigni- 
flcation,  but  what  is  generally  undenitood  by  it  is  a  horse 
which  is  thoroug;h-hr«d,  or  of  the  blood  of  thu  Arabian, 
and  consequently  shows  a  fine  spirit  and  aotiori.  A  horse 
oiay  be  half-bred,  three  parts  bred,  and  so  nn.  according 
to  his  pedigree.  The  half-bred  is  produced  fioin  a  rnrer 
and  a  common  mare.  Some  of  the  best  ridinu-horsos  are 
of  thb  stamp.  The  term  uillrr  hone  is  applied  to  racers 
who  are  «ble  to  carry  the  highest  weight. 

HontM  ar«  measured  by  hands,  four  inches  Iwing  reck- 
oned to  the  hand  ;  the  measure  is  taken  ut  the  forn  leg 
and  shoukler.  I'o  all  the  mnrn  prominent  parts  nf  the 
body  and  members  certain  technical  names  are  oiiplicil ; 
for  example,  to  take  the  fore  extremities  first,  the  muzzle 
includes  the  lips,  mouth. and  nostrils;  the  uilhert  arc  the 
aharp  protuberance  over  the  shoulders  between  the  bark 
and  neck ;  the  breast  is  the  cmmier ;  the  turn  is  the  upper 
part  of  the  fore-leg.  but  enveloped  in  the  nuiscle  of  the 
ahoulder ;  beneath  it  is  the/nrcwirm,  which  is  the  higher 
part  of  the  visible  leg,  and  extends  downward  to  the  ^-iirr  ,- 
below  the  knee  we  have  another  stretch  calletl  thc«AniiA-, 
which  extends  to  the  pn»!trn,  or,  as  we  mii;ht  call  it, 
the  ankle ;  the  fetlock  is  behind  the  pastern  ;  beneath  are 
the  feet  A  few  of  the  hinder  extremities  arc  nuined  as 
follow :  the  croup,  which  extends  from  the  loins  to  the 
TO«t  of  the  tail  or  rump;  the  flank,  extending  from  the 
riba  to  the  haunches  ;  and  the  leu  or  thigh,  which  reaches 
down  to  the  hock  or  middle  joint  of  the  hind  leg,  corre- 
sponding to  the  knee  in  the  fore-leg.  The  IciV  side  of  a 
iione  is  called  his  near  side ;  and  his  right  the  off  side. 

The  greater  number  of  British  horses  are  of  a  dark 
eolour,  inclining  to  black  or  brown,  but  of  innumerable 
riiadea.  One  kind  of  brown  is  called  bay,  and  another 
the  chestnut ;  a  yellowish  chestnut  is  termed  the  sorrel. 
The  roan  is  a  blending  of  red  and  whitish  tones.  The 
gray  is  a  mixture  of  white  and  bbick  hairs,  and  in  old 
age  becomes  nltDgether  white.  The  dark  colours  are  the 
most  esteemed  for  their  physical  qualities,  and  patches  of 
white  on  the  legs  are  considered  defects  or  foul  markings. 

aTABLB    MANAOBMCIfT. 

The  horse,  as  has  been  already  mentioned,  possesses 
very  delicate  senses,  and  is  nice  in  its  hubits,  in  whirh  re- 
apect  it  dilfers  very  materially  from  black  cattle.  In  a 
stale  of  nature,  the  nninial  seems  to  !«  I<est  ndupte<I  lor  a 
mild  and  genial  climate,  and  to  rejoice  in  fn-edom  and 
apaix.  When  reduced  to  domestication,  as  it  is  with  uh, 
care  should  be  taken  to  violate  as  little  as  (Ktssible  its  na-  I 
tural  tastes  and  habits.  Its  delicacy  of  constitution,  aug-  | 
mented  in  no  small  degree  by  an  artificial  mode  of  life, 
should  warrant  the  best  attentions  of  its  kee|)erH ;  and 
whatever  be  the  nature  of  its  work,  it  should  l>e  treated 
with  kindness,  regularly  fed,  and  supplied  with  pure  water, 
allowed  a  cleanly  and  well-ventilated  habitation,  and  its 
\toAy  and  limbs  preserved  free  from  dirt  and  all  offensive 
matter  that  may  cling  to  them.  The  leading  features  of 
management  may  be  defined  a*  follows : — 

The  Stable. 

The  Biable  varies  in  site,  according  to  the  numlwr  of 
tone*  kept  Of  whatever  dimensions,  the  situation 
should  be  dry  and  airy ;  if  in  any  resi)ecl  dump  or  fretiil, 
the  animals  will  assuredly  contract  disease.  When  the  ; 
aUbte  ia  calculated  to  contain  many  horses,  it  is  seliloin  | 
regular  in  temperature,  from  the  fluctuation  of  numbers 
in  it  at  an>  one  time.  T>  avoi  1  this  defect,  the  Ik-sI  sizi-, 
in  ordinary  circum8Uiu6e«,  is  tl.at  which  will  accommo- 
date ail  or  eight  b  >rsea,  leaving  plenty  of  room  to  each,  i 


A  stable  with  a  row  of  stalla  only  on  aim  4,u  ^ 
better  than  one  with  double  rows ;  if  double,  the  b1^ 
between  should  not  be  less  than  eight  r>r  ten  fm  y^ 
Sixteen  leet  is  a  proper  width  for  a  stable  with  a  ilngk, 
row,  six  of  the  feet  being  allowed  for  the  depth  of  L 
stalls ;  each  stall  should  also  be  six  feet  wide,  but  ^m 
monly  five  and  a  half  ore  only  given.  The  floor  of  thg 
stalls  should  be  neatly  paved,  slope  very  little  from  htij 
to  feet  and  be  bounded  by  a  gutter,  with  gratinn  (. 
carry  off  all  liciuid  refuse.  The  gangway,  or  ip,- 
lieyond  the  stalls,  should  be  also  paved  in  a  neat  nun. 
ner ;  and  care  ought  to  lie  taken  that  rats  are  eflecnn||, 
excluded  from  the  wolls  or  any  part  of  the  floorlnif. 
The  stalls  sliould  be  lined  with  smooth  wood.  Theitib;^ 
should  have  only  one  door,  and  that  not  opposite  • 
stall ;  it  ought  to  Iw  at  least  four  and  a  half  or  five  fe,t 
wide,  and  eight  feet  high.  A  pinchedness  in  any  of 
these  details  is  for  from  economical. 

The  inner  walla  of  stables  are  often  kept  shamcfuIN 
dirty.  They  onght  by  all  means  to  be  well  whitewMhdi, 
at  regular  intervals,  in  order  to  extinguish  vermin  mj 
wipe  off  impurities.  The  interior  ought  to  he  i»(|| 
lighted  with  windows,  which  should  be  kept  clean,  and 
never  |)ermitted  to  remoin  in  a  broken  condition.  .\ 
little  carelessness  in  this  respect  may  occasion  the  Im 
of  a  horse ;  for  broken  windtJWs  in  stnhles  are  about  u 
dangerous  to  the  health  of  the  inmates  as  broken  win. 
dows  in  a  dwelling-house. 

When  wc  say  that  the  stable  should  be  well  lighltJ 
we  certainly  oppose  one  of  the  most  vulgar  piejudjcfj 
respecting  horse  management  In  most  instancM, 
stables  are  kept  as  dark  as  dungeons,  greatly  to  the 
injtiry  and  discomfort  of  the  inmates.  It  is  impowibfe 
I  to  understand  what  can  be  rationally  designed  by  ken. 
!  ing  horses  standing  during  their  waking  hours  in  the 
dark.  Nature  never  intended  any  thing  of  the  kind; 
'  and  we  any  the  practice  should  be  almlifihod.  Mr, 
;  .Stewart  pleads  as  warmly  as  we  do  on  this  point.  "A 
j  horse  was  never  known  to  thrive  better  for  being  kept 
in  a  dark  stable.  The  dealer  may  hide  his  horse  in 
darkness :  and  perhaps  he  may  l>clieve  that  thry  fatten 
sooner  there  than  in  the  light  of  day.  But  he  might  u 
well  tell  the  truth  at  once,  and  suy  that  he  wanta  to 
keep  them  out  of  sight  till  they  are  ready  for  the  market 
When  a  horse  is  brought  from  a  dark  stable  to  the  open 
air,  he  sees  very  indistinctly  ;  he  stares  about  him,  and 
carries  his  head  high,  and  he  steps  high.  Dark  stable* 
may  thus  suit  the  purposes  of  dealers,  but  thoy  ate 
certainly  not  the  most  suitable  for  horses.  They  are 
said  to  injure  the  eyes.  There  is  not  perhaps  an  ariinnj 
so  liable  to  blindness  as  the  horse.  It  cannot  he  said 
that  darkness  is  the  cause;  but  it  is  well  known  that 
the  eyes  suffer  most  frequently  where  there  is  no  light 
Whether  a  dark  stalile  l>c  pernicious  to  the  eyes  o:  not, 
it  is  always  a  bad  stable.  It  has  loo  many  invialble 
holes  and  corners  obout  it  ever  to  be  thoroughly  denned. 
All  these  things  considered,  it  is  evident  that  he  stable 
ought  to  Im-  well  lighted."  The  preferable  plan  of  light- 
ing is  by  skylights,  made  to  open  when  required  for  the 
sake  of  improving  the  ventilation. 

Ilay-loft  and  Racks. 

Tlie  hay-loft,  or  place  of  deposit  for  hay,  ought  not, 
as  is  usually  the  case,  to  be  over  the  stable,  hut  ailjt- 
cent ;  and  a  chnmt)er,  level  with  the  floor  of  the  stable, 
is  preferable.  The  reason  for  this  is,  that  the  hay  mar 
Ih-  preserved  free  from  the  breath  of  the  animals  and 
effluvia  which  rises  from  the  stalls.  Lawrence  strongly 
opposes  the  use  of  hay -lolls  over  stables: — "  Arroni. 
ing  to  the  gootl  old  and  present  custom,  it  ia  the  i^ 
ceptarle  of  all  kinds  of  impurities  as  well  as  hiy  ■ 
the  excrement  of  cats  and  mice,  and  exuvia  of  spideti, 
and  the  accumulated  and  sacred  dust  of  perhaps  half  i 
century.    Add  to  theae  triflea  the  perpetually  aKeodiiif 


THE  HORSE. 


doodf  i>f  itMin  from  the  utahlinir  hclnw,  contaminating, 
tnmg,  tixl  exhauiting  tlie  hay  of  it*  fragrance,  and  of 
g^trj  p<i'"  ■'■*'  heneflcial  quahty.  Hay  ahoulii  remain 
In  the  Dtark,  in  or(l<>r  to  have  it  in  it*  utmoat  fragrance 
inil  moiature  of  -Uty,  to  be  cut  oftun,  and  talion 
f;^  to  the  hort  V.  V«jre  lieing  a  clean  and  cool  hay- 
mon.  near  the  itaoli),  to  contain  iinati  quantiliei.  The 
nngway  and  walla  of  the  atable  should  he  perfectly 
(iMir  ot'all  enrumhranccH  of  choita,  paili,  brooma,  alielvva, 
i^lei,  or  lumber  of  any  kind,  for  which  extra  roomi 
trt  the  proper  place."  In  caaea  where  haylofta  are 
gied,  let  them  be  kept  aa  clean  aa  poaiiblo,  and  allow 
no  opening  to  the  rack*.  The  hay  must  be  brought  down 
in  ■mall  qunntitiea  and  placed  in  the  racki. 

Hiy-racki  of  the  bcBt  material  and  form  are  made 
of  iron,  the  bar*  rounded,  and  two  inchra  from  each 
other.  The  rack  need  not  traverie  the  whole  breadth 
of  the  atall,  becauae  in  such  a  plan  rubbinh  collcrts  in 
the  corners.  A  size  to  hold  from  a  half  to  a  whole 
itone  of  hay,  will  be  sufficient  in  most  instances :  and 
the  form  should  be  that  of  a  convex  or  bulged  grating 
from  the  wall,  placed  a  little  aliove  the  head  of  the 
horae.  A  rack  of  this  or  any  other  shape  cannot  be 
krpt  too  clean  ;  the  bars  should  be  daily  rubbed,  ar.d  all 
old  bits  of  hay  removed. 

Mangers. 

The  manger,  from  which  the  corn  and  other  kinds  of 
food  are  eiitrn,  is  also  best  made  of  raRt-iron,  and  need 
not  be  larger  than  a  foot  in  length  and  breadth,  and 
about  nine  inches  deep.  The  old-fnHhioned  wooden 
mangers,  traversing  the  extremity  of  the  stall,  arc  ab- 
lurdly  large,  and  as  they  sometimes  are  splintered, 
the;  injure  the  animal  when  feeding  or  at  rcsL  The 
form  and  dimensions  of  the  manger,  however,  are  of 
much  leas  importance  than  being  kept  in  a  high  state 
of  cleanliness.  All  horses  are  nice  feeders,  but  some 
ire  more  fastidious  than  others,  and  will  not  partake 
of  foo<l  from  a  foul  manger,  or  one  even  which  has 
been  blown  upon.  Let  the  groom,  therefore,  keep  his 
horae'a  manger  as  clean  as  ho  would  do  his  own  dish, 
and  at  all  events  do  not  allow  it  to  get  dusty  or  out  of 
order. 

The  mnn?er  is  only  for  dry  foo<l.  Some  attentive 
italile-kce|)or9  also  provide  a  monger  for  water,  and 
this  aeeiiis  to  he  highly  judicious.  Drinking  from  pails 
ii  a  slovenly  practice,  independently  of  its  being  inefli- 
(acinua.  It  is  now  allowed  that  horses,  when  stalled, 
ihould  have  a  little  fresh  water  beside  them  to  drink, 
if  they  feel  the  desire  to  do  so ;  and  it  may  be  doubted 
if  any  horse  will  drink  whoso  nature  does  not  need  this 
refreshment.  Be  this  as  it  rnoy,  a  good  plan  is  to  have 
in  one  corner  at  the  head  of  the  stall,  an  iron  manger, 
shaped  like  that  for  corn,  and  info  which  pure  water 
can  be  made  to  flow  from  a  pipe  when  the  groom  thinks 
proper.  A  waste  pipe  beneath  should  Iw  provided  to 
nin  off  the  water  which  is  left,  or  which  becomes  im- 
pure from  the  drojiping  of  particles  of  matter  from  the 
aniinara  mouth.  A  little  consideration  will  point  out 
how  this  very  convenient  arrangement  can  be  accom- 
plished. 

Bedding. 

The  good  horse  sleeps  in  a  lying  posture,  his  legs 
being  partly  drawn  under  him,  and  his  head  remaining 
up.  k  horse  that  habitually  sleeps  standing,  or  will 
not  lie  down  at  night,  is  usually  reckoned  to  be  of  little 
value ;  for  it  is  indispt-nsahte  to  doing  his  duty  during 
the  day  that  he  rests  well  at  night  The  preparation  of 
a  bed  for  the  animal,  ought  to  he  one  of  the  most  pleas- 
ing parts  of  a  stable-keeper's  duty;  and  he  should  per- 
form it  well.  The  best  Iwd  is  made  of  wheat-straw, 
bat  when  that  is  dear,  or  cannot  be  got,  the  straw  of 
Mti  mav  suit  the  purpoee.    The  more  even  and  leaa 

Vou  1.-74 


rumpled  the  litter,  the  bettor.  Tlie  bed  should  be  mada 
level,  or  sloping  slightly  from  the  sides  and  head  to- 
wards  the  centre,  and  be  completely  free  of  hard  lumpa. 
All  ought  to  be  smooth,  clean,  soflt,  and  the  depth  of  lit* 
ter  perhaps  seven  or  eight  inches. 

Every  morning  the  soiled  litter  i*  to  he  taken  away 
to  the  dung-yard,  and  the  clean  portion  separated  and 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  stall,  or  in  some  other  con> 
vonicht  situation,  ready  to  Iw  employed  again  at  night. 
It  is  disgraceful  niggardlinesa  to  bed  horses  with  foul 
litter,  or  to  stint  them  of  what  is  required  for  their 
comfort,  and  seldom  fails  to  bring  its  own  punish- 
ment  in  the  injured  health  and  appearance  of  the 
animal. 

Venti  latinn — Clean  ing. 

Ventilation,  or  a  meana  for  the  provision  of  firesh 
air,  is  of  the  first  importance  in  the  economy  of  the 
stable.  Small  apertures  at  different  places  should  ho 
made  in  the  walls,  to  allow  the  entrance  of  pure  air, 
and  the  escape  of  such  as  has  been  vitiated.  A  better 
plan  for  the  removal  of  the  foul  air,  especially  from 
stables  in  which  a  number  of  horses  are  kept,  would 
consist  in  leading  it  away  in  a  tube  from  the  roof  to 
the  flue  of  a  fire.  (See  our  article  Vkhtiiatiox.)  Ar- 
chitects, generally,  do  not  make  any  provision  of  this 
nature  in  stables,  and  as  few  stable-keepers  think  of 
instituting  such  an  cflectual  process  of  ventilation,  wa 
can  only  here  state,  as  a  general  principle,  that  meana 
of  some  kind  should  be  adopted  to  keep  the  atmosphere 
of  the  stable  in  an  equable  temperature,  and  aa  pure  aa 
possible,  both  night  and  day.  We  invite  attention  to 
the  following  observation  on  this  point  by  an  intelligent 
writer : — 

<•  If  the  stable  is  close,  the  air  will  not  only  be  hot, 
but  foul.  The  breathing  of  every  animal  contaminate* 
it :  and  when,  in  the  course  of  the  night,  with  every 
aperture,  even  the  key-hole,  stopped,  it  passes  again 
and  again  through  the  lungs,  the  blood  cannot  un- 
dergo its  proper  and  healthy  change ;  digestion  cannit 
be  so  perfectly  performed,  and  all  the  functions  of  life 
are  injured.  Let  the  owner  of  the  valuable  horsa 
think  of  his  passing  twenty  or  twenty-two  out  of  the 
twenty-four  hours  in  this  debilitating  atmosphere. 
Nature  does  wonders  in  enabling  every  animal  to  ac- 
commodate itself  to  the  situation  in  which  it  is  placed, 
and  the  horse  that  lives  in  the  stableoven  suffers  less 
from  it  than  would  scarcely  be  conceived  possible ;  h\it 
he  does  not  and  cannot  possess  the  power  and  the 
hardihood  which  he  would  acquire  under  other  cir- 
cumstances. The  air  of  the  improperly  close  stable  is 
still  further  contaminated  by  the  urine  and  dung, 
which  rapidly  ferment  in  the  heat,  and  give  out  stimu- 
lating and  unwholesome  vapours.  When  a  person  first 
enters  an  ill-managed  stable,  and  especially  early  in 
the  morning,  he  is  annoyed  not  only  by  the  heav  of  the 
confined  air,  but  by  a  pungent  smell,  rcsemhlitig  harts- 
horn ;  and  can  he  wonder  at  the  inflammation  of  the 
eyes,  and  the  chronic  cough,  and  the  inflammation  of 
the  lungs,  with  which  the  animol,  who  has  been  shut 
up  in  this  vitiated  atmosphere  all  night,  is  often  at- 
tacked, or  if  glanders  and  farcy  should  occasionally 
break  out  in  such  stables  1  It  has  been  ascertained  hy 
chemical  experiment,  that  the  urine  of  (lie  horse  con- 
tains in  it  an  exceedingly  large  quantity  of  hartshorn, 
and  not  only  so,  but  that,  influenced  by  the  heat  of  a 
crowded  stable,  and  possibly  by  other  decompositions 
that  are  going  forward  at  the  same  time,  this  ammo- 
nincal  vapour  begins  to  be  rapi'My  given  out  almost 
imineiliately  after  the  urine  is  voided.  When  disease 
begins  to  appear  among  the  inhabitants  of  these  ill 
ventilated  places,  is  it  wonderful  that  it  should  rapidly 
spread  among  them,  and  that  the  plague-spo  should 
be,  as  it  were,  placed  on  the  door  of  such  a  itabla  1 


666 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Whtn  diiitempor  npponrn  in  iprinK  or  in  autumni  it  i« 
in  rtry  innny  cwwh  Id  Iio  (riicvHl  lint  of  all  to  aui'li  a 
pMt-houKp.  Tim  \\ornc»  bi'lonifinK  to  a  (mull  cstul>- 
liahment,  ami  rntionilly  tr<'atc<l,  liavo  it  comparatively 
■eldoin,  or  liiivo  it  lightly  ;  luit  iiinonjf  thn  inmutci  of  a 
crowUol  Mtulile,  it  ix  Hiirn  to  ilispluy  itiolf,  nnd  there  it 
is  moat  of  all  fulal.  'i'lin  cxix-rioiifo  of  every  veteri- 
nary aiirseon,  iiml  of  every  liirRn  proprietor  of  horaen, 
will  corroborate  thia  ituteinent." — (^Library  of  Uiejul 
KnouMiic.) 

The  more  cleanly  the  atalile  i*  kept,  the  more  easily 
will  it  'hi  veiililuli-il.  HtaliloM  are  in  »;eiirral  kept  in  a 
moit  uireiiKively  foul  coiidilinii.  In  the  luNt  place,  they 
•TO  olten  ill-pav<  il,  ami  the  refuse  uf  tlie  uiiiiiiaU  gettini{ 
imbedded  in  the  inter;<ti('eH  of  the  Htmiei*  of  the  Htall  and 
gutter,  lu'ep!4  up  a  roriNtaiit  exhiilulion.  Then  there  in 
no  proper  provision  for  dixpnsinn  uf  the  foul  litter  and 
urine.  It  is  euKtonuiry  to  rake  out  the  iiKcd  litter  and 
other  inipurltirH  to  n  dunif-heiip  innnediatoly  outjtide 
the  door,  and  then*  it  KteaniB  and  Iuhch  ita  value,  be- 
ridei  lieini;  a  niiiHance  to  puHwnKerii.  Irmtead  of  thin 
bad  ecunoiny,  let  all  be  riiked  or  shovelled  out  to  a 
dung-pit  covered  in  from  the  outer  atinoxphere,  ho  that 
erery  particle  of  the  annnotiiacnl  paws  may  bo  pre- 
■rrved.  Into  this  pit,  let  a  Minooth  chaiuiel  from  the 
atalls  convey  rapi.lly  and  eHictiially  nil  licpiid  rofuse. 
Any  man  who  willindly  allows  the  hquid  manures  of 
hia  stable  to  run  to  waste,  may  with  great  justice  Ite 
Mud  to  be  daily  pickinj^  hia  own  pocket.  Should  the 
gaseous  odour  he  inleuKe,  and  tlio  quantity  of  litter  in 
the  heap  incapable  of  ahsorbiiiir  it,  add  now  and  then  a 
spadeful  uf  earth  or  any  absorbent  material  that  will 
decom[ios<>. 

The  Htablo  should  bo  dean  swept,  brushed,  and 
thorouRhly  ventilated,  every  morninR,  leaving  impuri- 
ties neither  on  thn  ground  nor  in  the  atmosphere. 
Good  feeding  and  regular  exercise  may  partly  neutra- 
lize the  ctfectH  of  uncleanliness;  but  in  the  event  of 
epidemical  influenza,  glanders,  and  other  diseases,  these 
nflecta  become  sadly  manifest;  and  then,  as  Mr.  t^^tewart 
humanely  obs<'rves,  "  the  pro|irietor  begins  to  look  about 
him.  It  is  time  Tor  him  to  know  that  God  Ims  not  given 
him  absolute  and  unconditional  control  over  his  fellow 
tenants  of  the  earth.  Oppression  has  wide  domi- 
niona,  but  there  are  limit»  which  cannot  be  passed  ;  and 
death  reveals  the  oi)cration  of  a  wise  and  beneficent  law." 

Stable  Furniture— Stablemen. 

Every  stable  is  to  bo  provided  with  proper  receptacles 
for  hay  and  straw.  The  oat4,  peas,  lieans,  bran,  <!lcc., 
■hould  lie  kept  in  one  large  chest  with  divisions,  or 
separate  chests,  and  if  possible  be  placed  in  an  apart- 
ment separate  from  the  stable.  For  small  stables  an 
kdjoining  room  should  !«  fitted  up  neatly  for  the  accom- 
inodation  of  the  corn  chest,  the  saddles,  and  other 
apparatus ;  all  saddles,  bridles,  and  small  articles  being 
properly  hung  on  hooks  on  the  wall,  or  placed  on  other 
appropriate  Bup|)orts.  A  cuplmard  for  combs,  brushes, 
&&,  will  be  an  advantage.  If  the  stable  be  not8up|ilicd 
with  water  iti  pipes,  a  well  should  be  at  hand. 

Horsas   recjuire  to   bo    under  the  charge  of  persons 
who  urderstand  the  business  of  attending  to  them  in  all 
tlicir  voried   wnts.     iSome   persons    seem    to    imagine 
that  any  ooy  o'  lad  will  do  for  taking  care  of  a  horse. 
This   is  both  inhumane  and  bad  policy.     Where  oidy 
one  horse  is  kept,  a  steady  l.ul.  under  the  directions  of 
his  master  and   instinictcd   in  the   lino  of  his  duty,  will  : 
often    be    found    sullirient ;    leat    he    reiioires    constant  j 
looking  after,  for  all  young  persons,  and  some  old  ones  , 
too,  are  dispos-d  to  [ilay  pranks  with  horses,   and  rob 
Ihcm  of  their  food.     The  ordinary  class  of  o*tlers  are 
liot  regularly  instrui'ted  in  the   qualities  and  wants  of 
the  horse.     All  tU(y  know  is  empirical,  and  their  pre-  ' 
iikiices  are   frequently   ulwurd.     Let  all  such  persons,  | 


therefore,  lie  estimated  at  their  junt  value;  mj 
conunittiiig  your  horse  to  any  of  them  at  an  inn 
that  he  d(ie!i  his  duty  both  as  respects  cleaning  andf    L 


ing.     A  kind   master  always  sees  that  l-.is  hurm 


Ri'taiti 


proper  measure  of  corn,  and  stands  by  tilt  he  eatg  |, 

In  stables   in  which   two   or   more   horses  are  kci t 
regular  groom   shoidd   be    employed  ;   an<l   tliia  |»r»,J 
should   reside  clo.ie   by  the   stahle,  so   us   to  1k'  jU 
at  hand.     Thn   (|Ualilii'ations  of  a   gnimn  iiui^ht  t    I 
steadiness  of  conduct,  promptitude  in  a  cusi- of  iliifi,.^], 
openness  to  advice  or  inslrlietiens,  experieiu'c  in  y^M 
managed  stables,  taste  fur  cleanliness:  and  be  t\\oM  i 
as  desirous  of  making  his  charge  comfortable  as  he  W(,uij 
be  of  his  own  person. 

In  large  establishments,  there  are  head  and  unjrr. 
grooms,  strappers,  and  stable-boys — the  latter  a  kinJ 
of  loose  appendages  to  the  concern,  who  act  usdruiina 
to  the  superior  i^lliciTs,  anil  look  forward  to  proinotlon 
III  estahhshiiieiits  of  moderati-  size,  thn  grnoni  aiuj 
driver  or  coachman,  are  the  only  functionatius,  Ji  j, 
the  duty  of  the  groom  to  attiiul  to  the  horses  in  evfrv 
particular,  wluii  in  or  about  the  stable,  and  vvlien  takiiM 
excieise.  The  duty  of  the  ilrivcr  is  more  iiarliculajl.  (^ 
keep  tlie  chaise  or  other  vehicle  clean,  and  also  to  elm 
the  harnesH. 

If  all  horses  were  good-tempered,  or  rendered  JoriloliT 
kind  treatment,  they  might  Ixi  advantageously  \f\\  .|, 
liberty  in  their  stalls;  circumstances,  however,  reiiiiite 
tliat  they  Nhinild  be  restrained;  hut  this  sIimiiIJ  jig  j,,„g 
with  as  litllo  pain  to  them  as  possihle.  Tho  halter  or 
rein  from  tho  head  gear  should  be  led  to  a  rin^  at  the 
head  of  the  stall,  leaving  the  animal  at  liberty  to  liu  down 
in  an  easy  posture.  The  rein,  whither  of  rope  or  chain 
should  not  be  tied  to  the  ring.  It  hliould  go  through  the 
ring,  and  drop  down  with  n  plummet  at  tlie  extremity  U 
keep  it  down,  yet  allowing  the  animal  to  pull  it  up  or 
allow  it  to  sink  at  pleasure.  A  shorter  halter  mnv  be 
employed  during  the  day  than  ut  night,  so  us  to  koop 
him  from  straggling  backwards  into  tlio  passage  or  gang. 
way. 

•Some  horses  are  most  restive  in  restraint,  and  rotnmit 
tricks  to  loost'ii  themselves ;  and  others,  by  awkwarJnosi 
•if  inovenieiit,  get  inat,  that  is,  benuinlinl  or  crainrioil, 
when  lying;  and  it  is  necessary  to  eniplny  skill  anj 
force  to  raise  them  to  their  feet.  \  soft  bed  and  abiiu;!. 
aiice  of  room  are  tho  bust  iircvenlives  fur  this  iuiiJ  cf 
accident. 

Grooming — 'Dreii«in<». 

The  skins  of  horses  are  liable  to  become  eloggpj  wiih 
a  scurf  of  dried  perspiration,  along  with  particles  of  ilusl 
nnd  mud,  which  collect  and  lud^e  among  the  hairii.  It 
is  of  great  importance  to  remove  ihesi!  impurities  by  rur- 
rying  and  brushing,  fur  the  sake  of  the  health  of  the 
animal,  independciilly  of  tho  value  of  the  o|H'r.iUon  ai 
res|iects  the  appeorance  of  his  coat.  The  ili'grco  to 
which  this  species  of  grooming  is  carried,  will  of  cou'se 
very  much  de|)end  on  circumstances;  but,  as  n  getipral 
rule,  it  should  take  place  every  morning  before  the  \\om 
is  led  forth  to  the  labour  of  the  day. 

The  grooming  is  coinineneed  while  the  animal  is  in 
his  stall,  his  wrupping-i-loth,  if  he  have  one,  beini;  re- 
moved, and  the  restraining  rein  being  leiigthcneJ,  to 
allow  his  standing  a  little  back  into  thu  gangway.  If 
restive,  his  head  must  be  tieil  up.  All  rel'ibe  having 
lioen  previously  remiivcd,  a  little  of  his  becKling  miiy  Iw 
drawn  out  for  his  liind-l'eet  to  stand  upon.  The  k< 
tiling  done  is  to  curry  him  with  a  curry-coinli — a  flat 
iron  instrument,  with  riiws  of  short  blunted  teeth  niiJ  3 
handle;  by  being  (l.-;'.\vn  along  the  surface  of  the  hixly 
and  limbs,  it  rakes  up  t!\e  lumps  of  hair,  and  generally 
loosens  and  brings  up  all  e.vtraneous  subslaiioos.  The 
groom  commences  with  the  neck  and  shoulders;  nelt  he 
goes  to  tlio  bo'ly,  hhidcr  quarters,  belly,  ind  legs,  Uili 


THE  HORSE. 


,Jm  b*!"'  tf*'''''  "'"*••  "^^  curry-comb  mu«t  not  in 
eaiB  I*  '""■''  ''"'B'''y>  ""''  "'''''  tliin-itkiiincil  homnn 
I  '  Ppiicatii'M  rmiHt  liu  very  «oiUlr.  Iftlio  horw!  he  rcffu. 
u,|«  arcHnncJi  Btid  iu  work  not  dirly,  a  gBiitlo  icrulv 
binir  wi'l"  *'"'  curry-comb  will  In  most  cancn  lumi-o.  In 
nerforiniiii?  the  o|>criilion,  b  bru«h  may  bo  hclJ  in  tho 
oHicr  liuii'li  "''''  w''''"''  '"  clear  out  tlio  tcntli  when  no- 
cf^ajy.  Afler  Ihn  curry-comb  has  Rono  its  roiiiulx,  np- 
rlv  Uii!  hruxh  ill  turn,  going  over  the  wholo  nurfucu  with 
^  from  liC'"'  ^  becU,  to  remove  all  rnincil  impuritic*,  and 
li)  lay  ilic  colli  Hmooth.  Lately,  a  rouxb  Imlr-glovu  Iiah 
\mi\  iiilroiluccil  iiiti)  uho  ui  an  improvomeMt  upon  the 
bfuslii  I'liil  it  cortiiiiily  poiMeaHCfi  the  uilvant|ii(o  of  brim; 
more  luiiily  II I  •plied  to  nooks  niul  corners  than  tho  brush. 
BliouU  iho  horse  ho  chari^ini;  his  coat,  which  ho  docs 
mice  a  Yc^r,  Ihc  curry-comb  must  not  lio  used  nt  all;  a 
nibliini;  with  a  strnw-wisp  lieiiii;  |)erliaps  Hiiflicieiit. 

After  the  currying  and  brushiiig,  the  groom  proceeds 
to  coinl)  >li''  fxrc-lock,  mane,  and  (nil,  so  as  to  mako  all 
the  huirn  lie  straight.  This  finishes  llio  grooming,  but 
if  tho  Icijs  or  f'ei't  lio  white,  they  will  perhaps  re(|uire 
washing  with  warm  water  and  soup,  to  jirevcnt  the 
jrowtli  of  a  ycll'iw  appearance,  and  then  dried  with  a 
wisp.  We  have  oidy  to  add,  that  if  horses  uro  not 
jfoomecl  rcKuliirly  in  this  manner,  they  will  inevitably 
lose  their  licalth,  or  bo  troubled  with  parasitical  animals 
jiiJgins  I'cneath  tho  hairs;  and  never  have  a  glossy  and 
cheerful  np|K'arance.  Home  horses  have  a  great  repug- 
nance to  Ix'ing  groomed,  but  this  generally  arises  from 
harsh  Iroatinenl  while  they  were  young :  if  treated  con- 
siJcratcIy,  they  will  feci  pleased  with  tho  friction,  and 
QTateful  f'lr  the  attention  bestowed  on  them. 

The  cleaning  of  a  horsn  after  work  is  as  necessary  as 
the  morning  grooming.  When  u  liorwo  is  brought  tothu 
stable  in  a  state  of  perspiration,  it  should  not  bo  taken 
in  ti}  Iw  nt  rest  all  at  once,  but  be  walked  gently  about 
till  it  lieeoincs  moderately  cool.  This  allows  the  excite- 
ment of  tho  blood-vessels  and  muscles  to  bo  allayed  gra- 
duillv,  and  prevents  any  sudden  Bto|)page  of  tho  pores 
of  the  skin.  To  assist  in  drying  and  cooling  down  tho 
animal,  ho  may  be  scrapvd  or  rubbed  with  wisps.  Wisp- 
iag  is  preferable. 

After  the  horse  has  Wen  walked  and  wispcd,  his  legs 
mil  feet  should  Is'  washed  with  water  and  a  brush  or 
ipongp,  anil  also  his  belly,  if  it  bo  dirty  with  sparks  of 
muil;  but  after  any  such  washing,  every  part  should  be 
thoroughly  drii'd  with  a  fresh  wisp.  Never  leave  a 
horse  with  wet  legs  or  feet.  In  tho  country,  it  is  not 
unusual  to  walk  horses  into  a  river  to  wash  their  legs — 
a  praetiee  most  detrimental  to  their  health,  and  which 
ihould  not  1)6  allowed. 

When  tlie  horse  has  been  cleaned  and  dried,  the  cloth 
may  bo  thro'vfi  over  him,  and  tied  to  his  stall.  Tho 
rioth  used  in  summer  should  be  more  light  than  that 
used  for  winter.  It  is  customary  for  grooms  to  exercise 
brscs  with  the  stablo-cloths  wrapped  round  them,  and 
then,  perhaps,  the  next  hour  they  are  taken  out  saddled, 
inJ  without  any  cloth  at  all.  This  seems  an  inconsist- 
tli'?j.  The  use  of  cliiths  is  to  protect  tho  animal's  loins 
^om  cold,  and  is  unnecessary  in  flue  weather.  If  the 
aorsc  has  to  stand  still  out  of  doors,  and  the  weather  )>c 
dngcnial,  his  loins  ought  by  all  means  to  he  protected  by 
in  oiled  cloth,  to  keep  out  wet.  The  horse  is  very  suscej)- 
tible  ui  injury  by  exjHtsure  of  the  loins;  and  it  will  be 
abcrvcij  that,  to  shelter  that  part,  cavalry  soldiers  wear 
I  long  riding-cloak,  which  fulls  loosely  over  the  hinder 
put  of  Ihc  animal. 

Triinm'ng. 

Nature  gives  the  horse  u  beautiful  flowing  tail  and 
mane,  for  tlic  (mrpose  of  whisking  olf  (lies  and  for  other 
ucs;  but  mankind,  in  taking  the  creafire  under  their 
protection,  h.ivn,  in  many  instances,  and  for  no  good 
leasou  as  far  as  we  uro  aware,  deprived  it  of  these  grucc- 


fnl  p«r«onal  apprndngn*.  The  mo«t  cnntrm|itible  pioM 
of  this  rash  interference  has  Is'cn  the  docking  of  the  tail, 
and  causing  it  to  cock  u|),  thus  leaving  th«  rear  of  Um 
animal  exposed,  Tho  tail  should  be  left  flowing  to  • 
point,  and  oidy  trimmed  to  a  limited  exttnt;  and  the  sMna 
thing  may  be  said  of  tho  mane.  N'aturu  has  likewis* 
given  the  animal  long  hairs  on  tho  legs  independently  of 
thn  fetl(X'.ks.  These  various  a|ip<iiiiluges  have  likewlM 
not  been  given  unnecoHsarily ;  tlu-y  answer  as  a  kind  of 
thatch  to  carry  oft"  tho  moisture  vvlii.'h  trickles  down  tht 
l<gs,  so  us  to  keep  the  feet  ilry  and  tho  legs  warm, 
Theso  parts,  therefore,  shouhl  bo  triinnicd  sparingly,  and 
the  fouler  the  work,  tho  moio  should  lie  left  on.  Anjr 
trimming  should  be  executed  tastefully  with  a  comb  and 
pair  of  scissors.  It  is  cuslomury  to  clip  away  tho  long 
hairs  about  tho  ears  and  muzzle,  but  this  a\m  must  be 
[M'rformod  with  groat  discretion.  These  hairs  have  their 
uses,  those  about  tho  oars  in  particular,  and  harm  may 
bo  done  by  their  removal. 

Managomont  of  Iha  Feet 

When  tho  horse  has  lieon  stuliled  for  tho  night,  it  will 
be  tho  duty  of  the  groom  to  see  that  the  hoofs,  above  and 
l)eIow,  huvo  lieen  cleaned,  particles  of  sand  removed 
from  tho  crevices  of  tho  shis's,  and  the  feet  generally  in 
a  goiul  condition.  Tho  feet  have  a  tendency  to  harden 
and  crnck,  and  thus  u  good  horse  may  become  lamu. 
Tho  fore  feet  are  most  liublo  to  this  serious  evil.  To 
]irevent  hardness  and  soreness  of  feet,  it  is  customary  to 
stop  them  at  night  with  a  soft  moist  material,  most  conw 
nionly  pieces  of  horse-dung,  which  is  crammed  into  the 
sole.  No  special  directions  on  this  point  can  be  given; 
for  some  thin-soled  horses  do  not  require  stopping,  and 
the  hiiM  feet  are  seldom  in  need  of  any  thing  of  the 
kind  When  the  frog  is  liable  to  thrush,  the  feet  require 
to  bo  kept  dry,  and  cleaned  and  attended  to  with  peculiar 
core.  To  prevent  ovcr-dryness  of  hoofs,  as  well  as  to 
prevent  the  undue  action  of  moisture,  it  ia  advisable  to 
anoint  the  horny  part  of  the  feet  with  an  ointment  made 
of  tar,  fish-oil,  and  bees-wax,  melted  together  in  equal 
proportions;  but  this  should  not  bo  done  unless  it  ia 
absolutely  required.  If  well  washed  and  kept  clean,  the 
feet  will  seldom  require  any  of  this  kind  of  varnishing. 

When  at  large  in  a  wild  state,  horses,  as  may  be  sup* 
posed,  go  barefooted  like  all  tho  other  lower  animals. 
The  hoofs  grow  with  a  slight  curvo  up  in  front,  but  thia 
does  not  seem  to  impair  their  speed.  If  domesticated 
horses  were  always  to  walk  on  turf,  and  not  be  obliged 
to  carry  or  draw  a  weight,  their  feet  might  remain  un- 
shod ;  but  tho  circumstances  of  tlicir  condition  make  it 
necessary  to  protect  the  hoofs  from  tear  and  wear  by 
means  of  shoes.  Horse-shoes  have  been  used  of  many 
dillcrent  shapes  and  materials ;  but  it  is  needless  here  to 
speak  of  any  others  than  the  iron  shoes  in  common  use. 
Tho  shoo  must  be  of  weight  conformable  to  the  powers 
and  uses  of  the  animal,  but  exactly  to  suit  the  curve  of 
the  hoof,  flat  and  of  equal  thickness,  and  be  secured  by 
nails  to  the  hoof.  Tho  proper  paring  of  the  hoof  before 
shoeing,  and  the  shoeing  itself,  urc  matters  to  be  left  to 
the  discretion  of  regular  farriers.  As  a  general  principle, 
care  must  ho  taken  not  to  drive  the  nails  into  any  tender 
part,  and  tho  hoof  should  be  us  little  broken  us  posssible. 
A  gentleman's  horse  should  bo  shod  at  regular  intervals, 
and  a  shoo  never  sullurcd  to  come  oil'  from  too  long 
usage. 

Exercise. 

Every  horso  ought  to  be  exercised  daily  in  fhi 
open  air.  Tho  exercise  sliould  be  in  liiv  early  pan  of 
the  day :  when  not  exercisinl  by  work,  he  must  be  walk- 
ed out  and  trotted  on  purpose.  .Vii  authority  already 
quoted  olMcrves: — " 'i'be  horse  that,  with  the  usual  stti- 
bio  feeding,  stands  idle  for  three  or  four  days,  as  is  th«t 
casu  in  many  ostablislimenti'    nust  sutler.     lie  ia  diif 


INFORMATION  FOR  THK   PKOPLB. 


I  to  fevai,  •  to  KreaiP,  or,  moit  of  all,  to  lUtimuM  at 
Iha  foot ;  anil  If,  aftitr  thrnr  (hree  or  four  day*  of  inarlivily, 
ti*  ia  ritkler  fiat  and  far,  i*  almoat  aura  tn  have  iiiAani- 
roaU>^n  of  iSit  lunya  or  of  tli«  frrt,  A  Ronllrman  or 
Iradaaman'a  honni  auflrra  a  ircat  dral  mora  frntn  idknraa 
than  h«  dtipa  from  work.  A  alaldv-fHd  horav  ahoiild  have 
two  houra'  eirrriap  rvory  day,  if  hn  ia  to  be  kept  frre 
from  diaeaav.  Nothiiiit  of  rttraonlinary  or  rvrn  of  ordi- 
nary tahiiur  ran  be  rlfiTliNl  un  the  road  ur  In  the  Acid 
without  futHi-lpnl  and  rrxular  exrrriae.  It  ia  thia  alone 
whirh  ran  Rive  riierKV  to  the  ayatrrn,  or  develop  the 
powrra  of  any  anitnnl.  In  trainloK  the  hunter  and  the 
race-horae,  regular  exerriae  ia  the  moat  important  of  nil 
.Mmaiderationa,  however  it  may  br  forgotten  in  the  uaual 
raanaKrment  of  the  atable.  The  eierciaed  horae  will 
diacharge  hia  t««k,  and  nomelimra  a  acvcn'  one,  with  t»»e 
mkI  pleaiure,  while  the  idle  and  neKlrrti'd  one  will  la<  fa- 
li(ue<l  ere  half  hia  laliour  be  acromplinhrd,  and  if  hu  lie 
puahr<l  a  little  too  far,  dani^rroua  inflammation  will  en- 
aue.  How  often,  nrvcrtheleaa,  diN<a  it  hnpp«'n,  that  the 
horae  whirh  haa  atwMl  inactive  in  the  ntulile  three  or  four 
daya,  ia  ridden  or  driven  thirty  or  forty  milea  in  the  rourm' 
of  a  aini^le  day  t  Thia  real  ia  ofiri  pur|M)aely  given  to 
prepare  for  pxtra-4<xertion — to  lay  in  a  atork  of  •trrnKth 
for  the  performance  of  the  taik  required  of  him;  and 
then  the  owner  ia  aurpriai>J  and  diaaatinAed  if  Ihc  aiiimal 
ia  fairly  knocked  up,  or,  poaaibly,  lieromea  arrioukly  ill. 
Nothing  ia  ao  coininun  or  in  prepoateroua  aa  for  a  [lenion 
to  buy  a  horae  from  a  dealer'a  atahic,  where  hu  haa  lienn 
idly  fattening  for  aale  many  a  day,  and  immediately  to  give 
him  a  long  run  after  the  liounda,  nnd  complain  bitterly, 
and  think  that  he  haa  lieen  impom'd  upon,  if  the  animal 
ia  exhausted  before  the  end  of  the  chawt,  or  \»  rompelled 
to  be  led  home  aiiflTering  from  violent  inlliirnmution.  lie- 
gular  and  gradually  increaning  exerciM  would  have  made 
the  aame  horae  appear  a  treaaurc  to  hia  owner.  Excr- 
cioo  ahoulil  l)c  Humcwhat  pro|)ortioncd  tn  the  age  of  the 
horae.  A  young  horse  requirea  more  than  an  old  one. 
Nature  has  given  to  young  animula  of  every  kind  a  dio- 
puaition  to  activity;  but  the  exercine  muat  not  be  violent, 
A  great  deal  depends  upon  the  manner  in  which  it  ia 
given.  To  preiiervR  the  temper,  and  to  promote  health, 
it  ahould  be  moderate,  at  least  nt  the  beginning  and  the 
termination.  The  rapid  trot,  or  oven  the  gallop,  may  bt- 
reaorted  to  in  the  middle  of  the  exercine,  but  the  hor>«i 
nauat  be  brought  in  cool.  If  the  owner  would  Htlviom 
tntruat  hia  horae  to  boya,  and  would  inaiat  on  t'l '  rxer- 
doe  being  taken  within  aight  or  in  the  nei  jhborlioo<t  of 
hia  reaidence,  many  an  accident  and  irreparable  injury 
Would  be  avoided.  It  should  be  the  owner'a  pleanure, 
and  ia  hia  iiitrreat,  peraonally  to  attend  to  all  tlieae 
thingo,"— (£i/i.  L'$t,  A'ftou'.) 

Watering  and  Feeding. 

A  horse  should  be  exercised  a  little  after  being  water- 
ed. H*.  should  on  no  account  Ims  allowed  to  drink  when 
healed,  particularly  if  heated  to  the  extent  of  ptirspirinj^. 
The  only  refreshment  allowed  in  thcoe  circumstances  ia 
a  rinsing  of  the  mouth,  and  the  muzzle  may  be  waiihed 
and  relieved  of  froth.  When  not  permitted  to  take  water 
of  hia  own  accord  in  the  stall,  let  him  be  offered  a  par 
three  or  four  times  a  day ;  and  afVer  drinking  copiously  at 
either  a  pail  or  pond,  he  may  be  trotted  or  gently  can- 
tered, the  motion  being  generative  of  heat,  and  at  least 
prevents  any  cS<ill. 

IIorae>i  are  fcxi  on  diflcr.'nt  matcriiils  in  dilTerent  coun- 
tries; bi;t  pn  nally  on  thj  various  kinJs  of  grasses  and 
cereal  grains.  '»e  OcrniaiiK  give  thetn  feeds  of  brown 
bread  whi- 1  on  >  ^r'.,y;  i,:  India,  rice  ami  spices  am 
employeil  fo(  t'.ti-  •.  ';  in  Er.K'.-.nd,  the  cM'.-f  articles  of 
|i>od  are  oats  iivl  jay'.  wi;'>.  ':)x(i;iioT  proportions  of  beanc, 
peso,  cut  stijiw..  ami  Man.  The  quan.ity  ^'nd  also  the 
Wtare  of  tb .  fuud  wU  do^iend  on  the  Ij'^bita  ot  the  ani- 


mal, and  the  work  to  which  he  la  put  If  ihn  ^^  y^ 
hard,  he  miusI  be  fed  to  a  considerable  eilrnl  on  !, 
which  are  more  nutritiou*  than  moat  olh«r  articlw 
uae ;  liut  if  llut  work  be  lighl,  a  lighter  din  ,,<  (,„  ^jj? 
|)erha|ia  only  a  amall  quantity  of  oala,  will  •ufflre, '  fiJ 
stomach  of  the  horae  twing  small,  he  cannot  est  murh 
a  lime ;  and  it  ia  alwaya  preferalde  to  feed  uini  i,([f^  ,^ 
at  regular  intervala,  than  'o  olfer  him  large  I'nsU  at  in 
gular  iierioda.  There  is  another  reason  for  oirerniK  itniii 
feeds;  the  horae  nauoeolea  food  which  he  ha*  blimn 
upi>n  or  previously  touched,  anil  will  accordingly  rcjwi 
it  if  otTered  a  second  lime,  or  allowed  lo  stand  lieiid^  [,||. 
For  various  reaoona,  thurel'ore,  it  is  iN'lter  to  {!««  |,  _ 
only  a  little  at  a  lime,  so  aa  to  leave  nunc  lichinj,  i; 
the  animal  lie  a  po«ir  feeder,  or  apt  to  waste  lii>  fi^  ii^ 
more  rare  mu<t  lie  taken  in  this  rea|iecL 

Oats  ought  to  Im!  sound,  old,  and  dry.  If  miiilT  j,, 
ject  Ihetn.  In  almost  all  casos  it  ia  preferalile  to  it,, 
them  bruised ;  for  by  this  they  are  more  eaiiily  ilig,rtfil 
and  nourishing  than  if  lel\  whole.  It  is  now  curtonuri 
to  mix  oala  with  chaff  composed  of  the  cuttings  ofcjovr 
or  meadow  hay,  and  the  straw  of  wheal,  oau,  or  lurif, 
In  some  stables  a  machine  is  kept  to  cut  these  initcriili' 
The  length  of  the  cuttings  should  bo  about  half  an  inch, 
Uruised  oata  have  a  tendency  to  scour  the  animal;  but 
the  infusion  of  chaff  counteracta  this  quality. 

Of  hay,  clover,  and  meadow  hay,  little  need  lie  igjj. 
They  should  be  sound  and  sweet-flavoured,  wilhnul  imi 
mustineaa.  The  hay  ahould,  if  poaaible,  lie  a  yrnr  old 
and  well  aaved  for  use  in  an  adjacent  stack.  8om*' 
horses  are  fond  of  peas;  but  they  require  to  lie  give  <  > 
caution,  as  they  are  apt  to  swell  in  llie  stommh.  Alm<a( 
all  horaea  are  inordinatt'ly  fond  of  carrots,  Mnich,  when 
administered  in  small  quantities  do  not  purge  the  animiL 
and  improve  his  coat.  A  rcs|ioctable  luthorily  itatM 
that  ••  for  agricultural  and  cart-horseN,  eight  poumli  of 
outs  and  two  of  lieaiia  should  be  added  to  every  twenty 
imunds  nf  cinlf;  and  thirty-four  or  thirty-six  pnuntia  of 
the  mixture  will  Im  aulficient  for  any  muderali-me.! 
horse  [daily]  with  fair  or  even  hard  work."  In  iliixili* 
mate,  no  buy  is  supposed  to  be  given.  When  tlie  horn 
is  fed  on  the  lust  two  articles,  huy  and  oats,  four  frrdi, 
or  nine  or  ten  pounds  of  oata  yot  day,  will  lie  a  fiiir  aljnir. 
.ince,  during  winter,  and  in  the  case  of  moderate  work; 
.but,  in  summer,  half  the  quantity,  along  with  a  |iro|jor. 
tion  nf  green  herbage,  will  suffice.  Many  gpiitlrmn 
I  illow  a  general  rule  of  allowing  twelve  pounds  of  oali 
[H-r  day  to  each  riding-horse,  and  this  is  given  in  ibrre 
or  four  meals.  A  \>ony,  having  but  moderate  work,  will 
lie  well  fed  on  six  pounds  of  oata  per  day,  with  a  fair  pro- 
(Mirtion  of  hny.  Latterly,  sago  boa  come  into  imc  an  in 
article  of  horse  diet ;  and  wo  believe  it  ia  highly  nutri- 
tive, and  may  be  employed  to  a  certain  extent  to  nuprr- 
aedo  oats,  or  to  lie  mixed  with  them.  It  should  be  pu- 
tially  sullencd  by  pre|)arution. 

Heveral  serious  diseases  arise  from  improper  feeding, 
particularly  at  intervals  during  hard  labour ;  and  m  thii 
point  we  refer  to  our  observations  on 

THE  DI8I    ...»  it  Aon-ta. 
In  conaequence  of  tba  ^i  .-.er-i!  iji   'nanagrment  -H 
ill  treatment  of  horaec.  ;l'  v  i"i     \  to  a  numln    . 

formidable  dis<<ases.  .  !io<:o.  ..i  mua,.  '.  cqueht  oci-urrtnct 
ore  glanders,  inflammation  of  ihe  lungs,  brokm-niiid, 
inflammation  of  the  bowels,  and  certain  illne«8<<s  of  tli« 
feet  and  lega.  Keferring  our  readers  to  larger  work*  on 
the  Horse  for  full  information  on  lliese  diseases,  and  re- 
commending all  unskilled  persona  at  once  to  hiind  ovrt 
their  horse  to  a  veterinary  surgeon  when  unwell,  we  pr* 
pose  only  to  give  a  few  hints  aa  to  the  best  monni  uf 
prevention.  The  institution  of  schools  of  vetrriinrj 
aurgery,  at  which  the  anatomy,  peculiar  nature,  snd  di* 
of  horaea  are  explained  by  men  akilled  in  :bii  in* 


TlIE  HORSE. 


Sinl  ilrpa-lnMnt  n(  iriitnr*,  hiu  bc«n  of  (rtat  un  In 
otlng  iho  qualitia*  of  hone*,  praMrvlng  th*<i-  Utm, 
Mviiig  thf*m  iVuin  much  nMdluM  dUtma. 

Ulandaia, 

fhii  I*  ■  •lii'**"  of  'I*'  "ow  ii  •OHM  mcMura  rMcm* 
ilin(  (l>«  '"'•^■''*  of  ■  <^'*''''  ''  '*  helieveil  to  Iw  oerm- 
x^il  hy  hrruihinK  rilUlitil  air,  ami  take*  tho  form  of 
irritation  of  the  tl«lirat«  mrmhranea  of  the  iiootiiit), 
icriini|uini<'<l  hy  an  ofli-naivD  diarharge.  Olaiulara  i* 
tiihly  iiifm'tioi"*'  anil  may  Ixi  roininiinicatcd  heretlitarily. 
Wlwn  not  roiiiKVcil  in  tinui,  it  will  |)erhapa  terminally  in 
l^v,  t  MtMf  of  the  vcirii,  which  rautea  awi>llinH« 
nlli'il  fircy-liiida.  The  pr«vrntive  of  either  of  thenc 
4t;iinT<>i  •  inuladiea,  ia  cleaidiiiua*  in  the  ftabte  and  |iiir<< 
nntililion. 

Inltnmmailon. 

The  more  onlinary  inflammation  ia  that  of  the  lunga, 
ind  i)  ('iiu"«<l  I'Y  auddrn  changra  of  temperature ;  it  ia 
in  nality  thn  itrand  dlaonlor  of  the  horae,  and  ita  rlfrvta 
in  only  paralleled  by  thoae  of  pulmonary  conaumption 
in  the  huniun  '  iiecirv.  /  lrra<ly  wo  have  apoken  of  tho 
ireiil  improp  o    expoaing  horaca,  while  heated,  to 

^y  ,jr  llo .  mit  them  to  atand  any  length  of 

Ijr  1  tl  0..  r.  I  I  c  lid  or  moiat  weather,  ia  equally 
,1  i  '  inal)'  ,  ind  |ioii'tively  crupl.  No  gentleman  hav- 
in  ir'>'  '  regard  fm  the  hralth  of  hi*  honinii,  or  for 
hiio.n  ,  •  '.  will  permit  hiH  horaca  to  atand  waiting 
ill  the  KirtM't  it  night ;  and  many  in  London,  rather  than 
(low,  make  a  practice  of  not  employing  their  own  car- 
•iigc  lute  ill  the  evening,  and  procuru  u  hackney-coach 
innteal  '>il1:iintnation  of  tho  lunga,  however,  will  ariao 
fiuia  varioua  caunea  Iwaidea  cold,  and  theao  have  on- 
giged  the  moat  acrioua  attention  of  voterinariana.  Some 
liaie  ago,  Iho  Highland  Society  of  Scotland  oflered  a 
premium  lor  thu  licat  eaaay  on  tho  inflammalory  com- 
pliiinlt  gtnrnilly  of  farm-horR<>a,  and  the  prize  waa 
iwanlcd  to  Mr.  Matthew  M.  Milliurn,  Thorpfiold,  near 
Thirak,  Yorkshire,  whoae  paper  appeared  in  one  of  the 
Dumhen  of  tho  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture.  Some 
of  the  parta  of  the  eaaay  appear  to  ua  ao  worthy  of  being 
nikle  known  to  poraona  who  have  the  management  of 
horsei,  that  we  take  the  lilierty  of  giving  them  publicly 
in  our  pastcH. 

After  ihowing  that  there  ia  not  any  particular  predia* 
pitinn  to  disenac  in  the  brerda  of  horaea  uaually  em- 
ployetl  in  heavy  draught,  nor  in  the  particular  conforma- 
tion of  the  animalH,  Mr.  MiUiurn  procecda  to  aay,  that 
"The  poHt-horae,  and  auch  aa  are  required  to  perform  faat 
work,  are  more  liable  to  attack*  of  diHease*  of  the  brain, 
the  nerve*,  and  the  lung*,  aimply  because  their  work 
coniiiti  of  rapid  and  powerful  exertion;  the  farm-horie, 
the  animal  of  long  and  atcady  exertion,  to  gripe*,  in- 
flammation of  the  bowel*,  and  stomach-itagger* — result*, 
IS  I  ihall  prpKcntly  show,  of  a  management  un*uited  to 
the  character  of  the  labour  wo  require  from  them.  The 
itomarh  of  the  hor*e  ia  remarkably  email — smaller  in 
proportion  to  hi*  size,  and  tin  quantity  of  foml  ho  re- 
quires, than  any  other  domcHtit-  animal.  Nature  intend* 
SotW\a,  supply  of  nutritious  food,  and  that  al  thorl  iii- 
irrc'i/i ,'  wherein  he  matcriallN  tlilFcra  from  the  ox,  whose 
capacious  stomach  will  contuiii  food  which  will  not  be 
digested  for  hour*.  The  po*t-hor*e,  the  hunter,  and  the 
cariii^[ehoree,  have  food  of  the  most  nutritious  dcscrip- 
lioi  am)  Iho  time  durinit  which  they  are  worked  is  ne- 
eeaaarily  short,  owing  ti  the  extreme  exertion  required ; 
Ihcy  return  to  their  food  ;  and  although  their  appetite 
may  for  a  time  be  impaireil,  ami  their  stomach  and  bow- 
sli  aiTrcteJ  by  the  general  di'liility  of  tho  syatcm,  yet 
they  recover  their  tone  as  socti  aa  the  rest  of  the  frame 
admits  of  their  taking  '  -imI.  The  farmer's  horae,  on  the 
contrary,  has  food  of  a  waa  noiirialiin?  nature  ;  his  rack 
k  filled  with  straw,  or  at  beat  with  clover ;  the  plough- 


man riaea  early,  givea  him  •  feml  of  com,  and  biada  liim 
to  hia  work,  where  he  rontlnuea  fur  aeven,  aighl,  and 
even  nine  houra,  and  hia  whole  day 'a  work  ia  couiplvled 
liefora  h*  ia  allowed  to  eat.  We  do  nut  And  the  ui, 
worked  under  similar  rircumatancaa,  ao  alTerted  in  th« 
atomarh  and  Irawela,  simply  lierauae  hia  cafiacioiia  ativ 
inarh,  when  fliled,  requires  many  houra  to  empty,  w.iile, 
as  wo  have  seen,  it  is  dilferent  with  the  horse.  Debiln 
tat«*d  and  hungry,  the  horse  returns,  and  hi*  rai'k  if 
|i|>-ntifully  supplied,  and  a  (oimI  feed  of  com  given  him 
and 'lie  ix  left  to  himself;  he  eutt  voracioualy,  half  mas- 
ticatea  Iih  fiMxl,  luaila  his  dclnlitutcd  Muiniieh,  and  hi* 
'  K'eHtivo  organs  •'■  weakeiuuj,  and  |t!rnianently  ii>- 
jurrd.  Thla  cuursr  is  ro|ieatcil — a  habit  of  vorarily  m 
acquired,  mM'I  ut  no  very  remote  periiHt  the  (imh\  ludijea 
and  olMtrud'  do  pyloric  orilico  (the  |iasii«Ke  from  ilta 
stomach  to  the  bowel*),  fcrnuntution  vunues,  gas  is 
evolvnil,  the  alomorh  ia  disu-iiilH.  h«  grows  sluggiib 
and  slerfv,  drops  his  head  u|Nm  iusi  nianger;  or  he  is 
delirious,  and  evinrea  thtil  the  sympathy  tvliich  exiata 
between  the  atonmih  and  Iho  brain  haa  excited  the  latter 
orgnn  ;  he  rolls,  paws,  und  is  seized  with  convulsions  ( 
at  length  he  expires,  and  he  Ititi  <lied  of  stomweh-«tag> 
ger*.  The  Imll'-mastii'aled  fiHiil  has  irritated  >>  ,i;  bowels, 
extra  exertion  of  the  mUHilos  lias  lieen  rci|iiired  to  pro* 
pel  tho  ficcea  to  the  rei'liini,  and  chulie.  ur  cramp 
(spasms)  of  tho  bowels  hus  followed,  or  «  roMrse  of  cofi< 
tinued  irritation,  or  of  cunlinucd  cholio,  or  h^th,  haa 
ended  in  inllammation  of  thu  bowels.  I  renunibei  a 
beautiful  furm-horse,  which,  owing  to  the  distance  of 
part  of  the  farm  to  which  ho  lielonged  from  the  build* 
ings,  was  worked  the  long  hours  described,  and  finished 
his  day'*  work  before  hi*  bait.  Ho  wu»  constantly  lutv 
ject  to  attack*  of  the  gri|K>*,  which  wcr  sulHhiu'd  ;  btit 
he  died  of  *tomach-staggcrs.  The  sain-  stable,  tlten  *o 
often  *ubject  to  diseases,  is  now,  by  a  elu  '{o  in  thie  sy»i 
tcin,  completely  free  from  them.  A  nut  r  caoc,  how- 
ever occurred  ;  a  beautiful  compact  littU>  naro  was  con« 
Btantly  afflicted  by  cholic ;  ahe  eventsiall  died  of  in 
flammation  of  the  intestine*. 

•'  There  ore  other  part*  of  the  managenx  nt  to  which 
horsea  employed  in  agriculture  are  subject,  ^^  Hich  iniluc* 
diseases  of  the  bowels.  For  instance,  a  bu^  returning 
from  work,  with  heoted  and  sweating  horiu  <,  to  aav« 
himaelf  trouble,  allow*  them  to  drink  copiousi  v  ut  *oin« 
pool  or  stream  ho  passe*.  Suddenly  o.io  or  ni'  ro  of  tho 
hor*e*  exhibit  *ymptom*  of  gripes;  they  audJenly  lit 
down,  roll  about,  look  at  their  sides,  rise  up,  neein  re- 
lieved, and  again  8|)ecdily  relapse ;  the  sudden  applico* 
lion  of  the  cold  water  has  produeed  spasma  in  the  Howela, 
through  which  it  h»s  paiiscd.  This  ia  neglected  ir  pei^ 
hapa  gin  or  whisky,  aided  by  pepper,  ia  adminixterod  aa 
a  remedy,  and  severe  and  general  inflammation  of  the 
bowels  is  the  result;  this  is  mistaken  for  another  ''lack, 
and  again  the  poison  is  administered  and  the  infl^i  iimi»> 
lion  increased,  and  death  follows.  The  horse  of  heavy 
work,  too,  is  longer  cxpoaed  to  the  inclemenciea  i"'  tba 
weather  than  the  animal  of  light  work.  In  the  for-ner, 
the  rain  i*  allowed  to  fall  upon  him  for  houra,  an('.  tt  ia 
allowed  to  dry  u/mu  his  htuk :  the  sympathy  betweei  tha 
skin  and  the  alimentary  organ*  i*  known  to  e  ery 
groom ;  obstructed  perspiration,  and  consequent  irric  ibi< 
lity,  ia  conveyed  from  tho  one  to  the  other,  and  diseaaa 
ia  the  consequence.  It  is  true,  the  latter  is  also  partly 
exposed  to  tho  rain,  but  for  shorter  periods,  and  the  w  !«p 
and  brush  are  liberally  applied  when  ho  enters  the  st«. 
ble ;  a  dctcriitination  of  blood  takes  place  to  the  skin, 
perspiration  is  excited,  and  disease  thus  prevented. 

"  Of  the  best  means  of  preventing  these  disea*e*  In 
farm-horses,  we  will  now  treat.  Wo  have  attributed  tlm 
peculiar  liability  to  them  in  farm-horse*  to  mismanage- 
ment, with  the  exception  of  certain  instances  of  peculiar 
formation  of  the  animals ;  and  although  the  farmer  muat 
necessarily  work  his  horses  longer  houra  than  the  horM 
3D 


INFORMATION  FOR  TRE  PEOPLE 


»f  ropid  work  i«  capable,  Ihere  ii  no  nece-nity  for  de- 
priving the   itnimnl  bo  long  of  food.     No  horac  should 
work  more  than  live  or  six  hours  without  a  bait.     If  wo 
nsniino   Ihr  history  of  the  stables  of   largo   farmers, 
whose  fields  necessarily  lie  at  a  great  distance  from  tho 
buildings,  and  whore  they   arc  worked  long  in  conse- 
quence, and   compare   it  with   that  of  small   farmers, 
under  the  contrary  cirrumstancca,  we  shall  find  a  strik- 
ing diflcrence  as  respects  the  health  of  the  animals.     The 
case  referred  to  above,  strikingly  illustrates  the  truth  of 
thig  ob.-iervation.     But  it  may  be  asked,  how  is  it  possi- 
blf  to  bait  the  animals  so  far  from  home  1  The  difficulty 
geems  to  be  in  procuring  food  upon  the  spot ;  for  if  this 
is  not  done,  the  precaution  will  lie  neglected,  and,  at  any 
rate,  the  land  will  Im;  occupied  by  it.     This,  however, 
may  be  remedied.     In  the   case,  for  instance,  of  a  field 
intended  for  turni|)s,  which  has  to  he  worked  during  the 
spring,  a  part  of  it,  half  an  acre,  or  in  proportion  to  the 
size  of  the  field,  may  be  sown  with  winter-tares,  a  few 
of  which   may  be  mown  olT,  and  given  to  the  anitnnis 
green,  without  carrying  them  from  the  field,  interfering 
with  any  crop,  or  wasting  any  time  in  carrying   the 
horses  to  a  distance.     If  the   field  be  intended  for  sum- 
mer fallow,  the  spring  tare  will  answer,  and  which  may 
bo  used  in  tho  same   manner,  instead  of  allowing  the 
poof  animals  greedily  and   indiscriminately  to  crop  the 
leaves  of  the  hedges  at  every  turning,  from  the  impuUc 
of  hunger.     There  is  aivother  easy  way  of  baiting  which 
S'lme  carters  adopt,  and  wliirh  might  be  applied  to  the 
farmer'^  horse,  especially  when  carting.     It  consists  in 
securing  a  bag,  containing  corn,  over  the  animal's  mouth 
and  nose,  by  a  string,  which  passes  over  the  poll,  and  is 
locally  denominated  a  '  nose-oag,'  or  <  horse-poke,'  and 
which  should  be  removed  when  he  has  finished  his  feed. 
To  prcvert  the  effects  of  the  wet  upon  the  skin,  an  un- 
expensive   glazed   cloth  may  be  thrown  over  the  horse's 
back,  and  secured  to  the  collar  and  traces.     This  may 
by  some  1m!  considered  very  troublesome,  but  it  will   be 
found,  that  when  it  is  once  begun,  it  will  be  considered 
no  more  trouble  than  carrying  the  rest  of  the  harness, 
and  if  disease  is  preventecl,  the  trouble  amounts  to  no- 
thing.    To  counteract  as  much  as  possible  any  habits  of 
freedy  feeding  which  the   horse  may  have  acquired,  his 
corn  shoidd  l>e   mixed  with   chopped   straw  or  chopped 
clover,  which  will  secure  its  jiroper  mastication,  and  pre- 
vent many  troublesome  complaints,  as  well  as  render  all 
the  nutrition  of  the  food  avniiatile.     These  may  be  sub- 
stituted by  an  admixture  of  clean  cliaflf  with  corn,  a 
plan  which  is  pursued  in  a  farm  sl::\Ac  with  which  I  am 
acquainted,  and   is  found   a   useful   practice.  •  It  would 
save  the  animals  much  time  in  eating,  if  all  their  food 
was  chopped,  and  perhaps  steamed ;  but  on  this  subject 
we  have  not  suflicient  data  to  determine  with   accu- 
racy." 

The  cure,  it  ha^  I'cen  hinted,  must  generally  Iw  left  to 
tlie  veteritjary  prai  liliimcr,  whose  chief  object  should  be 
to  empty  the  stomach.  In  si'vere  cases,  an  ounce  of 
Inndanum  and  a  drachm  of  pounded  ginger,  in  a  quart 
of  warm  ale,  may  bo  used  with  probable  success. 

Brokcn-Wiiidfilness. 

When  the  breathing  of  a  horse  is  rapid  and  laborious, 
it  is  said  Ui  ho  t hit  k-iriiKlnl  ■  and  when  it  breathes  ir- 
regidarly,  the  inspiration  taking  one  elfort  and  the  expi- 
ration two,  it  is  called  ln>krn-ii-:ni!r<l.  Iiilbimmatiiin  of 
the  bines  from  cold  is  the  cause  of  thick-windcdness, 
the  c/indilion  of  :liese  org;ins  preventing  the  fiill  action 
of  the  air-tnbcs.  This  complaint,  if  not  removed,  will 
most  iikcly  icrminatc  in  the  broken-winded  condition; 
but  broken-windcdness  will  lake  |  I  i  e  without  this  prc- 
inorutory  svmjitom.  'I'he  main  cause  of  broken-wind- 
edness  isj'harp  work  after  over-feeding — causing  the  ani- 
mal to  run  whdc  his  Hlomach  is  full.  'Hie  distended 
mcuihrano  ];re8Hes  upon  the  lungs,  and  cau.ics  a  rupture 


in  tho  air-ccllB,  by  which  several  cclln  are  thrown  m 
one.  Thus  the  breathing  is  at  once  rendered  irtcmi 
by  imperfert  muscular  action  in  the  porta, 

This  disease  is  almost  invariably  the  result  of  jW 
carelessness  in  the  persons  whose  duty  it  is  to  minenv 
tend  the  feeding  of  the  horse.     The  case  -^tands  as  f  L 
lows: — "Suppose  a  horse  to  bo  a  gross  I,  ,iler  >(„]  i, 
have  filled  his  stoniacli  with  straw  and  hay.  and  proven. 
der  that  occupies  a  great  bulk,  and  contains  little  nou, 
rishment,  tho  lungs  arc  squeezed   into  a  less  than  tl» 
natural  compass.     Let  the  horse  he  now  auddcniy ... 
smartly  exercised ;  more  blood  nuist  be  puriHcd,  and  in 
the  violent  elliirt  to  accomplish   this,  some  of  the  (cll« 
give  way.     'I'hcreforo  we  do   not   find   brokcii.winjpj 
horses  on  the  race-course,  for  Dllhough  every  oxcrlion 
of  speed  is  required  from  them,  their  food  lies  in  siaall 
eompas.s,  and  the  stomach  is  not  disteixled,  and  tho  lunpi 
have  room  to  play,  and  care  is  taken  that  their  cjonin 
shall  be   required  when  tho  stomach  is  nearly  tinnj,. 
Carriage  and  coach-horses  are  seldom  brok(ii-\viini,J 
unless  they  bring  the  disease  to  their  work,  for  they  Im 
live  principally  on  corn,  and  their  work  is  repuiar.anj 
care  is  taken  that  they  shall  not  be  fed  iiiimouaioh- 
before   their  work.     'J'he  farmer's  horse  is  the  hrolipj, 
winded  horse,  because  the  food  on  which  lie  isfcJij 
bulky,  and  too  often  selected  on  account  of  its  olita> 
ness ;  because  Ihere  is  little  regularity  mi  the  maiijrf. 
ment  of  most  of  the  farmer's  stables,  or  the  workofjij. 
teams ;  and  because,  after  many  un  hour's  fisiine,  !!„ 
horses  are  often  suffered  to  gorge  themselves  with  tliis 
bulky  food ;  and  then,  with  the  stomach  pressinir  upon 
the   lungs,  and  almost  impeding  ordinary  rcspiraiion, 
they  arc  put  again  to  work,  and  sometimes  to  that  whicl 
requires  considerable  exertion. 

"This  disease  dep<mds  as  much  upon  the  craispol 
state  of  the  lungs,  from  the  pressure  of  an  ovcr-goriieij 
stomach,  in  tho  ordinary  state  of  the  animal,  as  on  ilu 
cirects  of  over  exertion.  The  agriculturist  knows  tint 
many  a  horse  becomes  broken-winded  in  the  straw-vari 
There  is  little  nutriment  in  the  provender  which  he 
there  finds;  and  to  obtain  enough  for  the  snpportof 
life,  he  is  compelled  to  keep  the  stomach  coiislanllvfuli 
and  pressing  upon  the  lungs.  Some  have  come  upfroj 
grass  broken-winded  that  went  out  |)crfectly  sound, 

"  The  cure  of  a  broken-winded  horse  no  one  I'Vfrmt 
nessed;  yet  much  may  be  done  in  the  way  of  palliation, 
The  food  of  the  animal  shoiild  consist  of  nnich  iiulriimni  I 
condensed  into  a  small  compass;  the  cuiantily  of  can 
shoidd  be  increased,  and  that  of  hay  pro|ioitirnaNv 
<liminished  ;  tho  bowels  should  be  gently  relaxed  Intt.f 
freiiucnt  use  of  mashes;  the  water  should  he  gives 
sparingly  through  the  day,  although  at  uIhIiI  the  llirst 
of  the  animal  should  be  fully  satislled ;  and  ovorrist  | 
should  never  be  taken  when  the  stomach  is  full 
(iii.  Vst.  Know.) 

Curb — Hog-Ppavin— Hono-Spavia. 
The  hock-joint  is  jinrticularly  liable  to  di'ranewneDl,  | 
so  as  to  render  the  animal  unsound.     C)nc  of  these  alfe, 
lions  is  called  nirli,  which  arises  from  over-exertim  ollk  I 
liirainents,  and  takes  the  form  of  un  eidargiiiiint  a  fen 
inches  beneath  the  joint  of  the  hock.     .V  more  serjpu 
complaint  of  the    hock   is  the   iaa-.'/xivni,  which  lakit 
place  from  over-exertion,  anil  is  an  iiillsniniaiion  in  ill 
vesicles  containing  the  lubricating  material  Hir  the  joint 
This  disease  is  almost  incurable;  and  the  fjoiir  aninialii 
in  general  only  fit  for  ordinary  and  moderate  work  all  ibi  | 
rest  of  his  life.     The  liDuc-f/Kivni  is  a  still  iiiiiro  I'nmiiili' 
ble  disease.     It  is  an  allc'clion  of  the  lioncs  of  the  hocii' 
joint,  caused  by  violent  action,  or  any  kind  of  shiWI  I 
which  throws  an  undue  strain  on  certain  liuaincnts,  a 
deranges  tho  action  of  the  liones.     A  bony  deposit  tiiM  1 
place,  the  joint  is  stillened,  and  the  consecjuenrc  ij  t 
lameness  or  stiir  motion  in  tho  hind  lega.    Uli.-'tcriiig,  u  i 


THE  HORSE. 


Ml 


■  ;ounlcf-if'i''"''i  ■""'  '''^'''  "''*'  '''"  chief  remcdieg  pre- 
Kfilicii  for  the  complaint ;  biit  the  host  thing  of  all  is  not 
In  overload  tho  hor«i',  or  put  him  to  ony  violent  exertion, 
,u  n«  to  prevent  not  only  this  but  other  similar  com- 
plaiiils- 

Phynieking 

Horses  that  are  attended  to  with  the  greatest  care 
(icrasioniilly  set  into  n  condition  which  requires  physic, 
ihiit  is,  purRiitivo  medicine  ;  as,  for  example,  when  they 
havo  I'Pen  too  long  on  hard  food  and  require  a  laxative, 
when  tbcy  Ret  into  a  heated  stiito  of  body  from  constant 
work,  when  their  bowels  Rct  overloaded  or  disordered,  or 
when  tbcy  arc  gettini;  too  fat.  The  most  sim[)lo  laxative 
is  n  brnn'-rmsh.  Bran  is  put  into  a  pail  and  softened 
with  boilinii  water ;  when  cooled  snfTiciently,  it  is  given 
to  the  animal  as  the  last  feed  at  iiiq;ht,  instead  of  corn  or 
hay.  About  half  a  pailful  is  a  dose.  Horses  used  by 
commercial  travellers  or  others  during  the  whole  week, 
ind  fed  on  corn,  are  indulged  in  a  mash  on  Saturday 
nieht;  and  this,  with  the  rest  on  Sunday,  keeps  them  in 
goiHl  condition. 

When  a  working-horse  is  lamed,  or  becomes  sick,  and 
must  remain  idle  for  a  few  days,  he  requires  to  be  relieved 
liy  a  dose  of  physic.  Generally,  this  consists  of  from 
fiur  to  nine  drachms  of  Barbadoes  aloes,  powdered  and 
formed  into  a  round  moistened  mass,  fit  to  be  swallowed. 
It  requires  to  be  adniini-tcred  by  a  skilful  groom,  who  will 
push  it  over  the  throat  adroitly  without  alarming  the  ani- 
nul.  Somntimes  tho  powder  is  mixed  with  a  little  Castile 
poap.  An  hour  or  less  after  taking  physic,  a  bran-mash 
sliould  be  given,  and  then  the  horse  be  gently  exercised ; 
on  his  return  to  the  stable  he  may  bo  offered  a  drink  of 
WHtcr  from  which  the  chill  is  taken,  or  as  warm  as  he 
will  take  it. 

We  should  consider  it  imprudent  to  offer  any  further 
cjplaiiations  of  the  materia  niedica  of  horses ;  and  again 
rfcoinmend  all  unskilled  or  hut  ])artially  instructed  |)er- 
Rons  not  to  attempt  dot^toring  their  horses  themselveo, 
but  to  call  in  at  once  the  advice  of  a  veterinary  surgeon. 

ADVICE    IN    PURCHASING    A    HORSG. 

The  purcli  isiu!;  of  a  horse  is  ordinarily  a  matter  of 
very  serious  dillicully,  in  (•onseciucnce  of  the  proverbial 
(rickines.<  of  dealers,  and  the  many  defective  points  in  the 
aiiimal's  conslitutioi.  vvhicli  cannot  be  seen  with  all  the 
cire  that  may  b(^  bestowed.  In  olli'iing  any  hints  on 
llii^  important  particular,  we  must  refer  to  the  instruc- 
tions of  authorities  whose  l.'stimony  is  worthy  of  con- 
fiiliMice.  Mr.  Stewart  has  written  a  valuable  little  manual, 
entitled,  "  Advice  to  the  Purchasers  of  Horses,"  which 
should  be  hi  the  hands  of  all  who  have  frequent  occa- 
sion to  make  purchases.  The  following  are  a  few  of  his 
aJmonitious : — 

"  111  buying  a  horse,  one  of  tho  chief  requisites  to  be 
(ttcnded  to,  is  the  degree  of  nervous  energy  which  the 
iniinal  possesses;  and  it  is  tho  union  of  this  energy 
ivilh  good  conformation  that  makes  many  horses  inva- 
luaMc.  Its  absence  or  presence,  however,  is  not  likely 
I J  lie  discovered  by  the  ]inrchaser  without  a  trial,  and  to 
avoid  disappointMicut  in  this  respect,  it  is  therefore  advis- 
»We  to  obtain  one  prior  to  purchase.  The  horse  should 
bo  sot  to  till'  work  he  will  be  I'alled  on  to  perform ;  and 
if  lie  is  ihteiidi'd  for  the  saildle  or  single  harness,  ho 
il'ould  have  uii  companion  on  his  trial,  for  many  horses 
work  well  in  coinpaiiy  that  arc  downright  sluggards  when 
lloiio. 

•Soine  horses  have  an  nn;^Ieasant  way  of  going,  or 
Vf-  (liiricult  t.<  niauage,  or  have  some  vice  which  is  only 
displayed  when  at  work.  These  are  so  many  more 
roiiMiiis  for  having  a  trial  prior  to  striking  a  bargain.  But 
if  that  cannot  be  obtained,  some  sort  of  conclusion 
Kftarding  the  animal's  spirit  may  lie  drawn  from  his 
general  njipcuiauce.     The  way  ho  carricu  his  head,  his 


attention  to  surrounding  objects,  his  gait,  and  the  livelj 
motion  of  his  cars,  may  all  or  each  be  looked  to  as  indi 
cative  of  '  bottom'  or  willingness  to  work.  It  is  only 
however,  in  a  private  stable,  or  in  tliat  of  a  respectable 
dealer,  that  these  crilcria  can  bo  depended  upon  ;  for  in 
a  market-place,  the  animal  is  too  much  excited  by  the 
cracking  of  whips,  and  the  too  frequent  application  of 
them,  to  be  judged  of  as  regards  his  temper.  Ncithei 
must  the  buyer  be  thrown  olf  his  guard  by  the  animation 
which  horses  display  at  an  auction,'  or  on  coming  out  of 
the  stable  of  a  petty  dealer ;  for  it  is  a  fact  which  cannot 
bo  too  well  made  known,  that  there  are  many  uiiprm- 
cipled  dealers  who  make  it  their  b'lsineco,  iiefoie  showing 
a  horse,  to  'put  some  life  in  him,'  that  is,  they  torture 
him  with  the  lash,  till,  lii-tv,.,u  pain  and  fear,  the  pool 
animal  is  so  much  excited  as  to  bounil  from  side  to  side 
with  his  utmost  agility,  at  the  least  sound  or  movement 
of  the  bystanders.'' 

This  writer  continues,  in  relation  to  the  head  and  other 
parts  of  the  animal : — "  The  head,  as  being  a  part  not  at 
all  contributing  to  progression,  should  in  the  saddle-horse 
bo  small,  that  it  may  be  light — the  nostrils  expanded  to 
admit  plenty  of  air,  and  the  spare  between  the  branches 
of  the  lower  jaw,  called  the  channel,  should  be  wide,  that 
there  may  be  plenty  of  room  for  the  head  of  the  wind- 
pipe. In  the  draught-horse,  a  heavy  head  is  not,  as  far 
as  utility  is  concerned,  an  objection,  for  it  enables  him  to 
throw  some  wc^iglu  into  the  collar;  and  henip,exeeptirg 
its  ugliness,  it  is  rather  an  advantage  if  he  is  used  entirely 
for  draught.  But  it  makes  tho  saddle-horse  bear  heavy 
on  the  hand  of  tlie  rider,  makes  him  liable  to  stumble, 
and,  when  placed  at  the  end  of  a  long  neck,  is  apt  tc 
wear  out  the  fore  feet  and  legs  by  its  great  weight.  The 
neck  of  the  saddle-horse  should  be  thin,  not  too  much 
arched,  and  rather  short  than  long,  for  tho  same  reason 
that  the  head  should  be  light ;  and,  in  the  draught-horse, 
it  may  be  thick,  stallion-like,  and  suificiently  long  to  afford 
plenty  of  room  for  the  collar,  and  for  the  same  reason 
that  the  head  may  be  large  in  this  animal.  Tho  wind- 
pipe should  be  large,  and  standing  well  out  from  the 
neck,  that  the  air  may  have  an  easy  passage  to  and  from 
the  lungs.  Tlie  horse  used  for  both  carrying  and  draw- 
ing should  have  a  head  and  neck  neither  too  light  nor 
too  heavy. 

"  That  the  saddle-horse  may  bo  safe,  and  have  exten- 
sive action,  it  is  nci-cssary  that  the  witlieis  be  hi^h.  This 
advantage  is  indicated  by  the  horse  standing  well  up  be- 
fore; and  it  is  usual,  in  showing  a  hoise,  to  exaggerate 
the  height  of  the  linehand,  by  making  him  stand  with 
his  fore  feet  on  a  soiiiowliat  elevated  >  pot.  A  horse  with 
low  withers  appears  thick  and  cloddy  about  the  shoulder. 
In  the  ass  and  mule,  the  withers  are  very  low,  and  the 
shoulders  very  Hat,  and  this  is  the  reason  why  they  are 
so  unpleasant  to  ride,  and  why  it  is  next  to  impossible  to 
keep  the  saddle  in  its  proper  place  without  the  aid  of  a 
crupper.  High  withers,  however,  are  not  essential  to  the 
racer  or  the  draught -horse.  The  former  does  all  hii 
work  by  leaps,  and  that  is  performed  best  when  the  horse 
stands  somewhat  hi.;iier  behind  than  before  :  neither  are 
high  withers  necessary  to  the  draught-horse ;  but  in  the 
roadster  they  are  as  important  as  the  safety  of  the  rider 
is,  for  a  horse  with  a  low  forehand  is  easily  thrown  on 
his  knees.  In  the  draught-horse,  this  tendency  towards 
the  ground  is  obviated  by  the  support  the  collar  aftiuds. 

"The  chest  should  be  deep  and  wide  in  all  horses,  hut 
especially  so  in  one  intended  for  ipiiek  work,  in  order 
that  there  may  be  plenty  of  room  fur  those  important 
organs,  tho  lunus. 

"The  back  shoiiM  not  be  too  long  nor  too  short;  for 
though  length  is  favourable  to  an  exierided  stride  and 
rapid  motion,  yet  it  makes  the  horse  we  k,  and  un.ihle 
either  to  draw  or  carry  any  consideraiile  weight.  On  th« 
other  hand,  if  the  back  be  too  short,  the  horse's  action 
m'jst  be  confined;  and  sliorHueked  horses,  in  genera^ 


SOS 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


n»ke  an  unpleasant  nci*e  when  trottini;,  hy  atriking  the 
■hoe  of  tlio  hind  foot  against  Ihe  shot-  of  the  fore  one : 
•nil  though  they  are  in  general  very  hardy,  and  capable 
nf  enduring  much  fatigue,  and  of  living  on  but  little  food, 
yet  a  back  of  middling  length  is  better  by  far  than  one 
immoderately  short  or  long.  The  back  should  be  nearly 
•truight 

"  In  the  saddle-horse,  and  where  safety  is  desirable, 
(he  position  of  the  fore  leg  is  worthy  of  attention.  It 
•hould  be  placed  well  forward,  and  descend  prr|)endicu- 
larly  to  the  ground,  the  toe  being  nenrly  m  a  line  with 
the  point  of  the  shoulder.  Tlie  pastern  should  neither 
be  turnetl  in  nor  out.  When  they  are  turned  inwnrds, 
tlie  horse  is  in  general  very  liable  to  cut  the  fetlo<'k-j»int 
by  striking  the  op|>u<<ite  foot  against  it.  The  drauuht- 
horse  may  be  excused  though  he  leans  a  little  over  his 
fore  legs,  but  the  saddle-horse  will  be  apt  to  stumble  if 
he  does  so." 

Minute  attention  should  be  bestowed  on  the  examina- 
tion of  the  fore  logs  and  feel;  these,  in  fact,  are  Ihe  great 
trying  points.  If  the  feet  he.  not  round  and  full,  so  iis  to 
stand  firmly  and  flatly  on  the  ground,  and  if  tender  or 
thin  in  the  hoofs,  the  animal  is  not  to  be  trusted  for 
■addle-work.  Mr.  Lawrence  on  this  subject  remarks — 
•■The  li'ct  of  saddle-horses,  lie  they  ever  so  sound  and 
goo<l  in  nature,  detract  greatly  from  the  value  of  the  iiair, 
unless  they  stand  even  on  the  ground ;  since,  if  they 
deviate  inward  or  outward,  the  horse  will  either  kn>K'k 
or  cut  in  the  speed,  that  is  to  say,  will  strike  and  wound 
the  opposite  pasterns,  either  with  his  toe  or  his  heel ;  and 
if  he  bend  his  knees  much,  and  is  a  high  goer,  will  cut 
the  inside  of  the  knee  joint.  Nature  has  been  very 
favourable  in  the  hinder  hoofs,  with  which  we  have 
■eldom  much  trouble;  but  there  is,  now  and  then,  a 
most  perilous  defect  in  them  ;  namely,  when  the  horse  is 
■o  formed  in  his  hinder  quarters,  that  he  overreaches, 
and  wounds  his  fore  heels  with  the  toes  of  his  hind 
feet."  The  defect  here  spoken  of  will  !«  observed  to 
cause  an  unpleasant  clattering  noise  in  trotthig. 

The  fore  legs,  from  the  knees  downwards,  should  be 
dean  made,  sound  and  flexible  at  the  joints,  Uud  usage 
knocks  up  a  horse,  or  founders  him ;  and  his  legs.  Iieing 
in  a  ki.id  of  lienumbed  state,  will  either  wholly  or  parliully 
refuse  to  pertorm  their  oflice.  By  ease  und  physicking 
tlie  horse  recovers ;  but  his  system  bus  iH'en  shaken,  and 
he  is  apt  to  come  down.  This  is  a  fearful  defect  in  a 
b'irse ;  for  no  one  is  for  a  nionient  safe  on  his  hack. 
Weakness  in  the  fellork-joint  will  also  cause  a  horse  to 
stumble  and  come  down,  and  is  therefore  an  ecjiially 
serious  dcft-cl.  When  the  horse  slumbles,  so  as  to  come 
down  on  his  knees,  Ihe  likelilioo<l  is  that  Ihe  knees  are 
broken;  and  it  is  well  known  that  wounds  of  this  nature 
never  heal  over  U>  resemble  Ihe  original.  The  horse 
with  broken  knees  is,  in  short,  damaged  for  life,  at  least  in 
as  tar  as  he  is  a  marketable  commodity.  A  good  horse, 
however,  may  be  thrown  down  on  his  knees  by  a  bad 
ri'ler,  merely  from  his  head  not  Iteirig  held  well  up  while 
fx'.nning  or  quick  trotting  downhill  over  a  hard  road.  Much 
a  circumstance  as  this  ouuht  not  in  general  to  injure  the 
cliaracter  of  a  horse ;  but  it  is  indisputable  that  it  does 
so  in  the  estimalion  of  buyers. 

Horses  are  sold  eillier  with  or  withiMit  warranty.  At 
•ales  at  repositories,  the  terias  of  wamiiiiy  are  generally 
•nnounccd  in  a  public  manner;  but  when  the  sale  is 
private,  no  warranty  is  binding  which  is  not  expresm'd  in 
writing  in  the  receipt.  The  principle  that  a  price  above 
ten  (lounds  warrants  a  horse  souiul.  is  not  now  recognised 
•s  bmdiiig.  The  warranty  must  U;  nonielhing  dilli^rent 
Iroin  a  mere  understanding  or  illusory  custom.  "  When 
a  horse,"  says  Mr.  Lawrence,  •'  is  simply  warranted  sound, 
that  does  not  extend  either  to  his  (|uuliticaUons  or  dispo- 
sition ;  it  merely  guaranties  that  the  animal,  at  the  time 
of  sale,  is  neitlier  lame,  blind,  broken-winded,  or  in  any 
ri:Bijv<:l  Jikc-ascd.  or  has  any  imucnding  cause  of  unsound- 


ness. Broken  knees  do  not  impede  a  sound  watruiL' 
Wo  oflcr  these  hints  on  warranty  with  much  diffidciu- 
for  the  rules  on  tilt  subject  are  constantly  alterint  bi 
legal  decisions.  ™ 

THE   DUTIES  OF   HORSES. 

Draughl. 

The  horse  is  equally  willing  to  make  hiinsclf  usefbi 
as  a  Iwast  of  burden  or  draught ;  but  his  powers  are  be 
adapted  for  draught,  and  particularly  on  a  level  roaH. 
The  formation  of  his  iKxIy  does  not  suit  him  for  climbin 
or  going  up-hill  with  a  load  ;  and  his  strength  is  alwavi 
exerted  to  greatest  advantage  when  he  can  throw  hji 
cenire  of  gravity  forward  as  a  makeweight.  The  amouni 
of  load  which  he  can  draw  in  a  wheeled  vehicle,  depemk 
on  tlie  arrangement  of  the  load  to  the  pull.  ']'), 
pulling  point  is  across  the  shoulders,  and  the  innft  al 
vanlagcous  method  is  to  make  the  line  of  traction  pn 
ceed  rfircrt  from  the  shoulders  to  the  load — in  no  ihaue 
bent  or  distracted  from  its  course.  The  load  should  I* 
placed  lower  than  Ihe  line  of  the  shoulders,  thus  nuking 
the  line  of  traction  go  by  a  straight  slope  to  the  wat  ot 
resistance.  The  loud  should  not  be  at  a  greater  distan™ 
than  will  allow  ficcdom  of  itiolion  to  the  liinii  lees.  |f 
the  loud  l>c  placed  too  low,  a  part  of  the  power  will  \t 
uselessly  s|ient  in  lifting  it. 

According  to  the  calculations  of  James  Walt,  iIk 
weight  vvliirli  a  horse  can  draw,  called  a  liorae  pou-cr  ji 
1,980,000  lbs.  raised  one  foot  high  per  hour,  or  33,ooo 
lbs.  raised  one  foot  per  minute.  The  weight  is  suiiposj 
to  hung  ut  Ihe  end  of  a  rope  passing  over  a  freely  niovinj 
pulley.  This  cnlculation  is  based  on  considetatiuni  mow 
favourable  than  those  which  usually  attend  Lorsc-labour. 
There  are,  in  reality,  no  rules  lo  guide  the  imposing  of 
loads  on  horses ;  for  every  thing  de|>end8  on  the  uenee 
of  friction  on  the  wheels  of  the  carriage,  the  nature  of 
Ihe  road,  and  the  strength  of  the  animal  in  question. 
One  thing  is  certain,  that  a  horse  always  exerts  hit 
|M)wer  iMlter  by  himself  than  when  yoked  with  otheri, 
Tbe  load  which  it  requires  four  horses  lo  draw  unitediT 
if  divided,  could  lie  drawn  with  equal  case  by  three.  TIk 
following  olwervalions  in  the  t*colsman  new8|ia|er(Jui» 
lH3y),  referring  to  the  operations  of  Sir  C.  Sluarl  Men- 
teilh,  deserve  to  Ih!  noticed  : — 

"  Krom  the  ex[H'rience  this  gentleman  has  had  in 'hi 
ust;  of  animal  |>owcr  u|)<>n  common  roads,  he  is  of  cpi. 
nion  that  the  most  economical  mode  of  emplovinii;  horm 
in  draughl  is  to  give  every  horse  his  own  carriage,  anJ 
that  he  should  solely  depend  upon  his  own  exertions  in 
drawing  the  load,  as  otherwise  it  is  well  knnnn  thai  lib 
ditlicult  to  find  either  man  or  txMist  equally  willini;  ot 
capable  to  make  the  same  exertion,  or  to  have  the  Mine 
spirit  or  motion ;  and  at  the  same  time  never  tu  t\mi 
six  miles  on  one  stage,  anil  to  lie  performed  twice ilaih. 
Ill  a  stage  of  three  miles  and  a  half,  8ir  ('.  Stuart  .Men. 
j  tcilli  employs  wagons  \veii;liing  eighteen  cwt.,  in  which 
horses  draw  three  tons.  The  road  is  in  general  U|)on i 
declivity  of  one  foot  of  fall  for  every  eight  sixteen, oi 
eiglitceii  feet,  with  si'vernl  ascents  of  one  fiiot  in  evm 
thirly  fe<  t,  up  which  a  horse  draws  the  loud  of  three  Iobj, 
and  a  wugoii  of  eighteen  cwt. ;  but  in  order  lo  faciliuii 
the  ascent,  a  continuous  line  of  sandstone  rnilroiid  IstirM 
laid  down,  u|H)n  which  a  plate  of  iron,  six  inches  vA, 
by  a  (jnarter  of  an  inch  thick,  is  fixed  down.  In  onlci 
Vj  enable  a  horse  to  bring  a  load  of  three  Uiiis  down  anr 
rate  of  descent,  a  friction-break  has  U>en  ein|ilo,veil..'iiini' 
lar  to  the  one  in  common  use  in  Uel);iiiiii,  friim  whirh 
Sir  U.  Stuart  Menteith  derived  this  important  ap|ilioiilion. 
The  break  is  a  strong  ])lank,  fixtnl  lo  the  back  uf  a  carl 
or  wagon,  which,  by  means  of  a  s<-rew,  the  carter  prcwi 
against  the  two  hind  wheels  of  the  machine,  so  ai  ic 
give  a.Bufliciency  of  friction  to  retard  the  too  raplil  lir- 
scent  of  the  carriage.  This  plan  has  Ihm'ii  eiii|ili>.vnl  uilb 
great  success  by  Mr.  Croal    coach  propiietur  in  Uu). 


The  art  of  riding 
of  instruction  and 
WHO  have  not  bee 

Vw.  I.-75 


■"•■;• 


THE  HORSE. 


693 


mgli,  from  *lie  guggcation  of  Sir  C.  Stuart  Mentcith,  who 
ui  lion  used  it  more  thnn  fourteen  yoar8  upon  his  coal- 
mgona.  The  mode  adopted  by  Mr.  CronI  is  to  fix  a 
lying  Ml*  '<'  ''"'  plank  pressing  upon  the  liind  wheels 
of  a  coach,  and  which  is  turned  by  an  upright  shaft, 
with  a  bevel  wheel  connecting  the  two  shafts,  and  turned 
by  a  winch  by  the  hand  of  the  coach-guard,  without 
moving  from  his  seat.  Wore  this  break  applied  to  every 
coacli,  the  lives  and  limbs  of  thousands  would  be  pre- 
gcrved,  as  the  gttard  would  bo  able  to  stop  horses  when 
running  away  with  a  carriage^as  it  if  thought  the  treble, 
ii  it  were,  of  the  weight  of  a  coach  is  to  lie  drawn,  if  the 
two  hind  wheels  are  prevented  from  revolving  by  the 
break.  This  kind  of  break  enables  a  coachman  to  drive 
with  perfect  security  down  a  descent  of  any  length,  and 
It  any  rate  of  speed.  If  the  employment  of  horse 
wagons,  weighing  from  twelve  to  thirteen  cwt.,  were 
adopted  in  conveying  coal  through  the  streets  of  London, 
one  horse  would  do  the  work  of  two ;  at  present,  four 
immense  horses  draw  three  chaldrons  of  coal,  or  four 
ions  one  cwt.,  in  a  wagon  weighing  two  tons ;  so  that 
ihf  shalt-horse  is  obliged  to  draw  a  weight  of  six  tons  in 
turning  out  of  one  street  into  another,  which  is  the 
greatest  cruelty  to  which  a  poor  animal  can  be  sub- 
jected." 

The  larger  the  size  of  wheels  in  a  vehicle,  within  a 
reasonable  proportion,  so  is  the  friction  in  overcoming 
ubstaelcs  on  the  road  less,  and  so  is  the  draught  more 
eaiy  to  tiie  horses.  The  benefits  of  large  wheels,  how- 
ever, have  often  been  completely  lost  by  not  making 
them  run  fairly  in  an  upright  position.  The  custom 
baa  been  to  make  them  ditlied  or  bevelled  outward  from 
ihc  asle,  and  to  cause  the  axle  to  lean  downward  at 
each  extremity  to  accommodate  this  peculiar  shape.  It 
is  of  importance  to  understand  that  a  wheel  always  runs 
best  when  its  tiio  is  of  equal  diameter,  when  the  spokes 
arc  at  right  angles  to  the  axle,  and  when  the  axle  pro- 
jects straight  out.  This  is  exemplified  in  the  trundling 
of  a  hoop:  a  hoop  which  is  perfectly  upright  and  even 
on  the  rim,  requires  less  force  to  send  it  forward  and 
keep  it  moving  than  if  it  were  bevelled,  and  inclined  to 
go  round  in  a  circle.  For  the  sake  of  convenience, 
wheels  may  be  a  little  dished,  though  now  that  the  roads 
are  good,  that  is  scarcely  necessary. 

The  power  of  draught  of  a  horso  depends  on  the  rate 
It  which  he  is  compelled  to  proceed.  He  exerts  his 
power  to  most  advantage  at  a  fair  pull,  when  moving 
It  the  rate  of  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  miles  per 
bour.  If  he  go  at  a  greater  speed,  he  is  less  able  to 
draw.  As  a  general  rule,  if  the  speed  lie  doubled,  the 
load  should  lie  halved;  and  if  the  speed  be  twice  (1>'ii- 
blcd, the  load  should  be  quartered;  yet  this  will  only 
hold  as  correct  for  short  distances.  Much  work  may  be 
procured  from  a  horse  if  ho  be  impelled  only  for  short 
(lages.  A  horse  in  a  stage-coach,  running  only  five 
miles  at  a  time  and  then  resting  for  a  few  hours,  will 
last  at  least  four  times  longer  than  another  horso  of 
equal  power  which  runs  ten  miles  at  a  time.  This  is 
well  understood  by  all  stage-coach  proprietors,  and  short 
ifagcs  have  now  almost  everywhere  superseded  long 
Hies.  Such  a  fact  should  also  be  known  to  all  private 
travellers.  Whether  employed  in  a  gig,  chaise,  or  for 
riding,  the  horse  on  a  journey  should  take  his  day's 
work  in  two  distinct  stages ;  one  in  the  morning,  and 
mother  in  the  afternoon,  when  rested  and  refreshened. 
He  should  also,  to  remiiin  in  good  condition,  have  a  rest 
liuriiig  the  whole  of  Sunilay.  In  journeying  with  light 
loads,  a  distance  of  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  miles 
ii  considered  a  sufiicient  day's  task. 

Riding. 

The  art  of  riding  or  eqtittation  formi  a  regular  branch 
»f  instruction,  and  is  seldom  well  perforine<l  by  those 
wno  have  not  been  regularly  taught.     It  is  not  to  bo 

Vui.  1,-75 


8uppr«ed  that  any  thin^  wt  can  Bay  can  supfrsrde  th« 
instructions  of  the  riding-school ;  but  it  may  be  of  uso  l« 
offer  a  few  hints  on  the  subject  from  the  Ix-st  authorities. 

Riding  should  be  performed  in  that  manner  which  if 
least  calculated  to  oppress  the  horse  and  fatigue  the  rider, 
and  which  will  lie  most  secure  for  both  parties.  The 
first  principle  in  horsemanship  is,  that  the  horse  and  hie 
rider  should  act  and  react  on  each  other,  as  if  frovemed 
by  one  common  feeling.  To  attain  this  end,  the  rider 
must  ac(iuire  the  knack  of  balancing  himself  properly  on 
the  animal,  ond  estal)lishing  the  means  of  making  him- 
self understood  through  certain  movements  of  hand  and 
body.  A  good  horseman  will  act  according  to  the  fol- 
lowing directions,  given  in  Walker's  Manly  Exercises >— 
"  The  place  of  the  rider's  seat  is  that  part  of  the  saddle 
into  which  the  rider's  body  would  naturally  shde  were 
he  to  ride  without  stirrups.  This  seat  is  to  be  preserved 
only  by  a  proper  balance  of  the  body,  and  its  adaptation 
to  even  the  most  violent  counteractions  of  the  horse.  In 
relation  to  the  thighs,  the  rider,  sitting  in  the  middle  of 
the  saddle,  must  rest  chi(fly  upon  their  tlivision,  vuU 
garly  called  the  fork,  and  very  slightly  upon  the  hips 
The  thighs,  turned  inward,  must  rest  tliit  upon  the  sides 
of  the  saddle,  without  grasping;  for  the  rider's  weight 
gives  sutHcient  hold,  and  the  pressure  of  the  thighs  on 
the  saddle  would  only  lift  him  above  it.  The  knees 
must  be  stretched  down  and  kept  back,  so  as  to  place 
the  thighs  several  degrees  short  of  a  perpendicular ;  bnt 
no  gripe  must  be  made  with  them,  unless  there  be  dangpn 
of  losing  all  other  hold.  If  the  thighs  are  upon  their 
inner  or  flat  side  of  the  saddle,  both  the  legs  and  the  feet 
will  be  turned  as  they  ought  to  be.  Thus  turned,  they 
must  be  on  a  line  parallel  to  that  of  the  rider's  body,  and 
hang  near  the  horse's  bides,  but  must  not  touch ;  ye» 
they  may  give  an  additional  hohl  to  the  seat,  when  ne- 
cessary, and  the  calves  must  act  in  support  of  the  aids 
of  the  hands.  The  heels  are  to  be  sunk,  and  the  toes  to 
be  raised,  and  as  near  the  horse  as  the  heels,  which  pre- 
vents the  h*el  touching  the  horse.  As  to  the  body,  the 
head  must  be  firm,  yet  free ;  the  shoulders  thrown  back 
and  kept  square,  so  that  no  pull  of  the  bridle  may  bring 
them  forward.  The  chest  must  be  advanced,  and  the 
small  of  the  back  bent  a  little  forward.  The  upper  parts 
of  the  arms  must  bang  perpendicularly  from  the  shoul- 
ders, the  lower  parts  at  right  angles  with  the  upper,  so 
as  to  form  a  horizontal  line  i>om  the  elbow  to  the  little 
finger.  The  elbows  must  be  lightly  closed  to  the  hips, 
and,  without  stifiness,  kept  steady,  or  they  destroy  the 
hand.  The  wrist  must  l>o  rounded  a  little  outwards. 
The  hands  should  be  about  three  inches  from  the  body, 
and  from  the  pommel  of  the  saddle,  and  from  four  to  8i.x 
inches  apart ;  the  thumbs  and  knuckles  pointing  towards 
each  other,  and  the  finger-nails  towards  the  body.  When 
the  rider  is  in  the  proper  position  on  horseback  without 
stirrups,  his  nose,  breast,  knee,  and  instep,  are  nearly  in 
a  line  ;  and  wifn  stirrups,  his  nose,  breast,  knee,  and  toe, 
are  in  a  line.  The  man  and  tlie  horso  throughout  are 
to  be  of  a  piece.  When  the  horse  is  at  liberty,  or  dis- 
united, as  it  is  termed,  the  rider  sits  at  his  ease;  and, 
as  he  collerts  and  unites  his  horse,  so  he  collects  and 
unites  himself.  Thi're  must,  however,  be  no  stiftiicss  ot 
manner  more  thnn  in  silting  on  a  chair ;  for  it  is  ease 
and  elegance  which  distinguish  the  gentleman." 

Hiding,  to  one  accustomed  to  it,  is  best  ])erfDrracd  with 
a  curb  and  snnfllo  bridle;  the  curb,  however,  being  only 
employed  to  bring  the  animal  up  by  pressure  on  the 
mouth,  when  occasion  requires.  As  sonie  horses  have 
a  much  more  <lelionte  mouth  than  others,  the  nature  of 
the  bridle  must  ileprnd  on  circumstance.s.  In  holding 
the  reins,  a  union  of  firmness,  gentleness,  and  lightness. 
is  the  essential  reciuisite.  The  foregoing  authority  al- 
ludes to  the  manner  in  which  the  reins  arc  to  operat* 
on  the  mouth  of  the  animal : — "  The  hand  being  con 
nected  with  the  reins,  the  reins  to  the  bit,  the  bit  operu 
3d2 


•94 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEQPLE. 


Ing  ill  tho  curb  on  the  liarg,  and  in  the  snnffln  on  the  Iip», 
the  rider  cannot  move  tho  hand,  and  scarcely  even  a  finger, 
without  tho  liorsc's  mouth  being  more  or  less  affected. 
This  ifi  called  tho  corrnpondtnct.  If,  moreover,  the  liniul 
He  held  Ktriuly,  as  tho  horse  advances  in  Iho  trot,  the 
fingers  will  ("eel,  by  the  contraction  of  the  reins,  a  flight 
tug,  occiisioiiod  by  the  cadence  of  every  step  j  and  this 
tu^,  b\-  menus  of  the  correspondence,  is  reeiprocnlly  felt 
in  the  horsc'n  mouth.  This  is  called  the  apptiy.  While 
this  rohtion  is  preserved  between  the  haml  and  mouth, 
the  horse  is  in  perfect  obcJioncc  to  the  rider,  and  the 
hand  (lirocts  him,  in  any  josition  or  action,  with  such 
case,  tliiit  the  horse  seems  to  work  by  the  will  of  the 
rider  nilher  than  by  the  [wwcr  of  his  hand.  This  is 
called  the  .«»/)/io>-,'.  Now,  the  conespondcnrc  or  cffoctive 
coniniiinication  between  the  liand  and  mouth — the  nppuy, 
or  strcnstli  of  the  operation  in  the  mouth;  the  support, 
or  aid,  the  hand  gives  in  the  position  or  action,  are  al- 
ways maintained  in  the  nmneise  and  all  united  ]).iees. 
Without  these,  a  horse  is  under  no  immediiitc  control, 
as  in  the  extended  gallop  or  at  full  speed,  where  it  may 
require  a  hundred  yards  to  pull  before  we  can  stop  him. 
The  decree  of  correspondence,  appuy,  and  support,  de- 
pends, in  horses  otherwise  similar,  on  the  relative  situa- 
tion of  the  hand.  The  act  of  rnising  the  rider's  h^ind 
increases  his  i)owcr;  and  this,  raising  the  horse's  head, 
diminishes  hin  power.  The  depressing  of  the  rider's 
hand,  on  the  contrary,  diminishes  his  power;  and  this, 
depressing  the  horse's  head,  increnst-s  his  power.  On 
these  de[H>iul  the  unitcdness  or  disunitediiess  in  the  ac- 
tion of  the  horse." 

Much  may  be  done  to  animate  a  horse,  cither  in  rid- 
ing or  dnnvinjr,  by  addressing  a  cheerful  word  to  him, 
instead  of  the  lashing  and  scolding  with  which  he  is  too 
ticquently  visited.  If  a  horse  requires  correction  or  urg- 
ing by  the  whip,  he  should  only  Iw  touched  liglitl;  lie- 
liind  the  girth  and  saddle,  never  on  any  account  on  the 
head  or  in  a  fore  part  of  the  body.  8omo  carters  strike 
their  horses  with  sticks  over  the  head  and  l^^8,  and  yell 
to  them  like  savages — two  practices  equally  detestable, 
which  we  should  be  glad  to  see  abolished.  We  have 
also  seen  riders  so  lost  to  humanity,  as  to  whip  their 
horses  when  restive  over  the  head  aijd  ears.  Should  a 
rider  f.nd  that  his  horse  designs  to  baflle  him,  he  must 
be  pressed  by  the  legs,  urged  lightly  with  the  spur,  and 
kept  in  his  proper  track,  but  not  drawn  up  with  the 
«urb,  or  terrified  by  abuse. 

The  most  c(miniou  pace  in  road-riding  is  the  trot, 
which  in  elfeet  is  a  rapid  walk,  and  most  dlllieult  for 
a  rider  to  perform  with  ad<lres8  and  a  small  degree  of 
fatigue  to  himself.  In  slow  trotting,  the  body  should 
adhere  to  the  saddle,  and  when  it  becomes  fust  or  rough, 
the  body  may  be  raised  at  the  proper  monii'uts  to  ease 
the  joltinir.  This  rising  of  the  l>odv,  however,  is  to  l>c 
a  result  of  the  liorse's  action,  not  an  effort  of  the  rider. 
The  projwr  method  is  to  rise  and  fall  with  the  leading 
foot,  the  body  rising  from  the  seat  when  the  leading  foot 
is  elevated,  and  falling  when  the  foot  sinks.  Unskilful 
riders  make  an  unnecessary  effort  by  trying  to  rise  and 
fall  in  the  Siuldle. 

In  the  course  of  either  slow  or  fast  riding,  the  horse 
may  trouble  his  rider  by  plunging,  shying,  or  restiveness. 
If  he  kick  and  plunge,  sit  upright,  hold  on  by  the  legs, 
■lid  do  not  vex  him  liy  any  lashing ;  when  let  alone,  he 
i«  not  lonfT  in  coming  out  of  his  freak.  When  he  shies, 
or  flies  to  one  side,  as  if  afraid  of  something,  press  him 
fm  the  side  to  which  he  is  flyinii.  keep  up  his  head,  and 
bring  him  info  his  track.  Pressing  both  legs  against  his 
•ides  will  generally  keep  him  from  runmng  backward. 
When  he  becomes  restive,  that  is,  turns  round,  and  has 
a  disinclination  to  go  in  the  way  he  is  reciuired,  the  rider 
nMi<  kee[)  him  in  his  track  by  dint  of  pressure,  a  touch 
tf  the  ipiir,  and  the  band.    If  he  lias  been  accuatoined 


to  spurs,  and  finds  that  your  heels  arc  not  prnvidfj  ^a 
these  appendages,  your  case  is  very  hopclpsg,  U' 
must  allow  Walker  to  point  out  the  course  to  he  pnniwi 
with  a  restive  horse.  If  he  persists  in  turning  rounJ 
the  rider  must  continue  "  to  attack  his  unguardDd  imJ 
turn  him  two  or  three  times,  and  let  the  heel  and  mm 
if  necessary,  assist  the  hand,  l)efore  he  can  arm  or  (JefcJ 
himself  against  it.  If  he  still  refuse  to  go  the  right  wnv 
the  rider  must  take  care  that  he  go  no  other,  and  imri! 
diately  change  his  attack,  turning  him  about  and  roirinii 
him  backward,  which  the  horse  is  easily  compelled  to  ■fe 
when  he  sets  himself  against  going  forward.  In  tj, ,, 
contests,  the  'ider  must  be  collected,  and  havenne/eta 
the  surrounding  objects ;  for  restive  horses  try  their  ni 
most  to  place  their  riders  in  awkward  situalionn  U 
sidling  to  other  horses,  carriages,  tho  foot-pavement' tli« 
houses,  &e.  In  this  case,  the  rider,  instead  of  pnHj.. 
him  from  the  wall,  must  bend  his  head  to  it,  br  whit^ 
his  side  next  the  wall  is  rendered  concave,  and  his  ql 
most  endeavours  to  do  injury  arc  prevented.  The  in. 
slant,  therefore,  that  the  rider  perceives  his  horse  siilline 
to  any  object,  ho  must  turn  his  head  to  that  ohjcct  and 
back  him  from  it.  There  are  some  horses  who  set  ihcm. 
selves  like  stocks,  setting  all  endeavours  to  move  them 
at  defiance.  There,  happily,  their  delence  can  in  no 
way  endanger  the  rider.  It  must,  however,  be  convertni 
to  puiii!:hmcnt.  Let  them  stand,  niako  no  attempt  to 
move  them,  and  in  a  short  space — fro(|uenlly  le.'s  than  i 
minute — they  will  move  of  themselves." 

The  same  author  recommends  the  rider  to  remain 
|)erfcctly  cool  in  all  these  awkward  circumstances.  "When 
passion,"  ho  observes,  «  possesses  the  rider,  it  prevent! 
that  concord  and  unity  taking  place  which  ever  should 
subsist  between  the  rider  and  his  horse.  He  should  jI- 
ways  Imj  disposed  to  amity,  and  never  suffer  the  mo* 
obstinate  resistance  of  the  horse  to  put  him  out  of  tea), 
per.  If  the  contest  does  not  demand  his  utmost  n» 
tion  of  strength,  ho  should  he  able  to  hum  a  tune,  or  coiv 
verse  with  the  same  composure  and  indifference  m 
though  his  horse  were  all  oU'dience.  By  these  mein^ 
the  instant  a  horse  finds  hims<df  foiled,  he  desists,  havia; 
no  provocation  to  contend  farther,  and  is  abashed  at  hit 
own  weakness.  It  is  the  absence  of  passion  which, 
nilded  to  cool  observation,  makes  the  English  the  bol 
riders  and  drivers  in  the  world." 

Neither  in  the  above  section  nor  elsewhere  hive  m 
said  any  thing  of  the  accoutrements  of  the  horse,  as  all 
articles  of  this  kind  must  be  left  to  the  taste  of  Ihcpirti 
concerned.  The  harness  in.xle  by  all  saddlers  is  no» 
both  handsome  and  commodious,  and  so  well  calculatwi 
for  the  comfort  of  the  animals,  that  it  would  lie  super- 
fluous to  say  any  thing  resix-cting  it,  further  than  tor^ 
commend  its  always  being  kept  clean  and  glossy,  ami 
that  it  nowhere  galls  or  presses  unduly  on  the  animal'i 
body.  A  properly  bred  and  carefully  treated  horse  ii 
proud  of  his  harness  as  well  as  his  coat  being  kept  in 
good  condition ;  and  these,  like  other  points  in  lli( 
economy  of  this  highly  useful  animal,  we  press  on 
the  attention  of  all  whoso  duty  includes  the  care  of 
horses. 

In  concluding  this  comprehensive  treatise,  which  «> 
pires  only  to  lie  a  manual  for  horse  manaiienient  in  oriii- 
nary  circumstances,  we  have  much  pleasure  in  refer- 
ring for  full  information  on  the  subject  to  a  variety  of 
excellent  treatises  of  recent  date  ;  ainomi  others— "The 
Horse,"  ill  the  "  Farmers'  Series — I.ilirnrv'  of  Useful 
Knowledge,"  which  we  have  iK'ca.-iionally  quoin! ;  "Slt- 
ble  Management,"  and  "Advice  to  tlie  Purchasers  of 
Horses,"  by  Mr.  Stewart  (Blackwood  and  Sons),  two 
volumes,  which  can  be  recommended  for  their  gre«( 
practical  utility ;  also,  Wolkcr's  » Manly  Exercisci" 
( W.  8.  Orr  mid  Co.,  London),  for  instructionB  in  B^W' 
tation. 


!(■•■-  ' 


CATTLE  AND  DAIEY  HUSBANDRY. 


Next  to  the  horse,  the  cow  is  justly  valued  as  the  most 
useful  animal  which  man  has  been  able  to  domesticate 
jnd  retain  permanently  in  his  service.  The  ox  tribe, 
of  which  it  is  the  female,  belongs  to  the  order  Jiumin- 
aniiti,  in  the  class  Mammalia,  these  terms  implying  that 
the  animals  ruminate  or  chew  their  food  a  second  time, 
aiiJ  have  mamm»  or  teats  with  which  they  suckle  their 
voung.  In  the  ox  tribe  there  are  dilTcrent  genera  and 
Biiocies,  all  more  or  less  differing  from  each  other ;  and 
of  the  (loniMticatcd  ox,  the  varieties  from  the  elVcct  of 
cultivation  are  now  very  numerous.  The  ox,  in  one  or 
olhfr  of  its  genera,  and  for  the  sake  of  its  labour  as  a 
bfiist  of  draught,  its  flesh,  or  the  milk  of  its  female,  has 
licon  domesticated  and  carefully  reared  from  the  earliest 
limes,  in  some  countries  having  bceu  raised  to  the 
milk  of  a  divinity,  or  at  least  held  as  an  object  of 
extreme  veneration. 

The  domesticated  species  of  oxen  common  to  Britain 
and  adjacent  parts  of  Europe;,  is,  in  all  its  varieties, 
materially  altered  from  its  wild  parentage.  Influenced 
bv  climate,  peculiar  feciling,  and  training  in  a  state  of 
siiliipclion,  its  bony  structure  is  diminished  in  bulk  and 
power,  its  ferocity  tamed,  and  its  tractabilily  greatly  im- 
proved. Our  observations  in  the  present  sheet  will 
refer  chiefly  to  'he  cow,  on  which  very  great  changes 
hiive  licen  effected  by  domestication  ;  the  most  reniark- 
alile  of  these  alterations  has  been  in  the  capacity  for 
giving  milk.  In  a  wild  state,  the  udder  is  small,  and 
shnnks  into  an  insiginficant  compass  when  the  duty 
of  suckling  is  over ;  but  when  domesticated  for  the 
wke  of  its  milk,  and  that  liquid  is  drawn  copiously 
from  it  by  arliflcial  means,  the  lacteal  or  milk-secreting 
vessels  enlarge,  and  the  udder  expands,  so  as  to  be- 
come a  prominent  feature  in  the  animal.  In  this 
manner,  by  constant  exercise,  the  economy  of  the  cul- 
tivated species  of  cows  has  been  permanently  altered, 
«nd  rendered  suitable  to  the  demands  which  are  con- 
itantly  made  on  it.  Yet  it  is  important  to  remark, 
that  those  milk-yielding  powers  are  not  equal  in  the 
different  varieties  or  breeds  of  cows.  Some  breeds, 
from  the  influence  of  circumstances  which  it  is  here 
uniipcpsiary  to  inquire  into,  give  a  large  quantity  of 
milk,  but  of  a  thin  or  poor  quality,  while  others  yield 
lesf  milk,  but  of  a  good  or  rich  quality.  Whether, 
thn,  the  cow-keeper  wish  •jvantiiy  or  qwiHiy,  is  the 
qjestion  for  him  to  solve  in  making  a  selection  of  stock. 
In  general,  near  largo  towns  where  the  demand  for 
milk  is  considerable,  the  object  of  ilairyincn  is  to  keep 
jBvrs  which  will  give  a  large  c|uantiiy  of  milk,  \w  matter 
jf  what  sort.     Privitte  families  in    iho    country   are 


usually  more  regardful  of  the  quality  of  the  articto 
they  wish  a  little  milk  which  is  good,  some  fine  creain, 
and  perhaps,  also,  some  sweet  butter  and  cheese,  and 
on  that  account  are  more  careful  in  the  choice  of  their 
cows.  Thn  following  is  a  list  of  breeds  which  may  aid 
the  selection  of  cows  in  these  ditVercnt  respects. 

BREEDS    OF    CATTLE. 

The  breeds  of  cattle  throughout  the  United  Kingdom 
vary  in  different  districts  from  the  small  hardy  varie- 
ties of  the  north  Highlands,  to  the  bulky  and  handsome 
breeds  of  the  southern  parts  of  England.  It  has  been 
customary  to  classify  the  whole  according  to  the  com- 
parative length  of  the  horns — as  the  long-horned,  short- 
horned,  middle-horned,  crumpled-horned,  and  homles* 
or  poKed  breeds.  Besides  these,  there  are  many  inter- 
mixed breeds.  The  middle-horned  cows,  which  are 
found  in  the  north  of  Devon,  the  east  of  Sussex,  Here- 
fordshire, and  Gloucestershire  arc  among  the  most  valu- 
able and  beautiful  vaneties  of  the  animal. 

The  intelligent  author  of  the  work  on  Cattle,  pub- 
lished by  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Know- 

j  ledge,  thus  describes  what  ought  to  be  the  proper  fori» 
and  shape  of  cattle : — "  Whatever  be  the  breed,  there 
arc  certain  conformations  which  are  indispensable  to 
the  thriving  valuable  ox  or  cow.  If  there  is  one  part  ot 
the  frame  the  form  of  which,  more  than  of  any  other, 
renders  the  animal  valuable,  it  is  the  chest.  I'heis 
must  be  room  enough  for  the  heart  to  beat  and  the 
lungs  to  play,  or  sufficient  blood  for  the  purpooes  of 
nutriment  and  strength  will  not  be  circulated;  noi 
will  it  thoroughly  undergo  that  vital  chang?  which  is 
essential  to  the  proper  discharge  of  every  function. 
Wo  look,  therefore,  first  of  all,  to  the  wide  and  deep 
girth  about  the  heart  and  lungs.  We  must  have  both : 
the  proportion  in  which  the  one  or  the  other  may  pr^ 
ponderate,  will  depend  on  the  service  we  require  from 
the  animal ;  wo  can  excuse  a  slight  degree  of  flatness 
of  the  sides,  for  he  will  be  lighter  in  the  forehand,  and 
more  active ;  but  the  grazier  must  have  width  as  well 
as  dejilh.  And  not  only  about  the  heart  and  lungs, 
but  over  the  whole  of  the  ribs,  must  we  have  both 
length  and  roundness ;  the  hooped  as  well  as  the  deep 
barrel  is  essential ;  there  must  be  room  for  the  capa- 
cious paunch,  room  for  t'.;  materials  from  which  the 

j  blood    is   to   bo   provided.     The  beast  should   also  be 

\  ribbed  home ;  there  should  be  little  space  between  the 

'  ribs  and  the  hips.  This  seems  to  be  indispensable  in 
the  ox,  as  it  regards  a  good  healthy  constitution  and 

j  a  propensity  to  fatten  ;  but  a  largeness  and  drooping 
of  the  belly,  notwithstanding  that  the  symmetry  of  the 
animal  is  not  improved,  are  considered  advantageous 
in  the  cow,  because   room  is  thus  left  for  the  udder ; 

I  and  if  these  qualities  are  accompanied  by  swelling  milk 
veins,  her  value  in  the  dairy  is  generally  increascd- 
This  roundness  and  depth  of  the  barrel,  however, 
are  most  advantageous  in  proportion  as  found  behind 
the  jH>int  of  the  elbow  more  than  between  the  shoul- 
ders and  legs;  or  low  down  between  the  legs  rather 
than  upwards  towards  the  withers :  for  the  heaviness 
before,  and  the  comparative  bulk  of  the  coarser  parts 
of  the  animal,  arc  thus  diminished,  which  is  always  a 

'  very  great  consideration.  The  loins  should  be  wide. 
Of  this  there  can  be  no  doubt,  for  they  are  the  prime 
parts  ;  they  shoulil  seem  to  extend  far  along  the  bncJ< . 
and  although  the  bel'y  should  not  hang  down,  the  flanks 
should  be  round  und  deep.   Of  the  tips  it  .s  su|)erfluuu« 


ft96 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


to  say  that,  without  ocmg  ragged,  thoy  shoulJ  bo  largo ; 
rounJ  ruthcr  than  wide,  and  presenting,  when  handled, 
plenty  of  muscle  and  fat.  'I'he  thighs  should  be  full 
and  long,  close  together  when  viewed  from  behind,  and 
the  farther  down  they  continue  close  tho  better.  Tho 
legs  may  occasionally  vary  in  length  according  to  tho 
£<M>lination  of  tho  animal ;  but  shortness  is  a  good  gene- 
ral rule,  for  there  is  an  almost  inseparable  connection 
between  length  of  leg  and  lightness  of  carcass,  and  short- 
n«-88  of  leg  and  propensity  to  fatten.  'I'hc  bones  of  tho 
leg  (and  they  are  taken  as  a  sample  of  the  bony  struc- 
ture of  the  frame  generally),  should  be  small,  but  not 
loo  small — small  enough  for  tho  well-known  accompa- 
niment, a  propensity  to  fatten — small  enough  to  please 
the  consumer ;  but  not  so  small  os  to  indicate  delicacy 
of  constitution  and  liability  to  disease.  Lastly,  the  hide 
— the  most  important  thing  of  all — should  he  thin,  but 
not  so  thin  as  to  indicate  that  the  animal  can  endure  no 
hardship ;  movable,  mellow,  but  not  too  loose,  and  par- 
ticularly well  covered  with  fine  and  soft  hair." 

Of  the  various  breeds  and  cross-breeds  of  cows  now 
ia  uue,  there  arc  a  few  which  enjoy  tho  best  reputation. 
We  may  name,  for  example,  the  Old  Yorkshire  Slock, 
a  cross  between  the  Tecswater  and  Holderncss  breed ; 
the  Long-liorned  or  I.oirashire  lirccl,  the  SImrl-horiied 
or  Dutch  hreed,  the  Middle-horned  breeds  of  Devonshire, 
Sussex,  and  Hereford,  the  Ayrshire  breed,  the  Mderney 
In-ted,  &c.  Some  of  these  merit  particular  attention. 
We  should  first  point  to  the 

Devonshire  Cow. — The  Tiivonshire  is  a  handsome 
breed  of  cattle,  well  set  uj)on  their  legs,  straight  along 
the  back,  small  muzzle,  generally  red  in  colour,  and 
both  as  ojcn  and  cows,  they  feed  well  at  an  early  age. 
The  cow  is  much  smaller  than  the  bull,  but  roomy  for 
breeding,  and  is  distinguished  for  her  clear  round  eye 
luid  general  loveliness  and  neatness  of  features.  Fed 
QB  the  fine  pastures  of  north   Devon,  the  cow  yields  a 


j?^':^^; 


Devonshire  Cow. 


^ch  quality  of  milk,  and  in  reasonable  abundance.  The 
north  Devoij  breed  prevails  in  some  parts  of  Somerset- 
shire, and  has  been  introduced  into  other  quarters  of 
the  country,  but  is  not  considered  suitable  in  situations 
^eatly  ditfering  from  its  native  country  as  respects  cli- 
iitte  and  herbage. 

Herefordshire  Coti: — The  Hereford  breed  of  cattle  is 
trger  thin  that  of  north  Devon.    It  is  broad  across  the 


Harefbrd  Cow. 


IrJ  qiuu1ei%   narrow  at  the  surloin,  neck  and  head 
veil  proporti«.ied,  horn*  »f  a  medium  siae,  turned  ip 


at  tho  points,  colour  deep  red,  but  with  face  and  Mm. 
other  parts  generally  white,  and  countenance  ctiMTfiL 
and  sagacious.  This  cow  is  reckoned  among  the  ben 
in  England  as  respects  the  production  of  milk  inj 
when  too  old  for  that  purpose,  i.  fattens  to  a  ttettn 
weight  than  the  north  Devons. 

The  (iolloway  breed  of  cattle  is  well  known  for 
various  valuable  qualities,  and  easily  distinguished  l> 
the  want  of  horns.  It  is  broad  across  the  back,  with  i 
very  slight  curve  between  tho  head  and  quarters,  bro«d 
at  the  loins,  tho  whole  bmly  having  a  fine  round  appear, 
ance.  Tho  head  is  of  a  modernte  size,  with  large  roujli 
ears,  chest  deep,  legs  short,  and  clean  in  the  neck.  The 
prevailing  colour  is  black,  those  of  this  colour  beini 
thought  the  most  hardy,  although  this  varies.  Thii 
breed  is  highly  esteemed,  as  there  is  no  other  kiml 
which  arrives  at  maturity  so  soon,  and  their  flesh  is  of 
tho  finest  quality.  Tho  milk  is  very  fine,  but  is  not 
obtained  in  very  large  quantities.  Great  numbers  of 
this  breed  are  sent  annually  to  Smithfield  market ;  and 
it  is  remarkable  that  they  are  generally  in  as  good  con. 
dition  after  the  journey  as  before.  The  Snflbl!-  dun 
also  a  hornless  breed,  is  supposed  to  ho  a  variety  of  ih, 
Galloway,  from  their  general  resemblance. 

The  Ayrshire  breed,  which  is  considered  the  m(a( 
valuable  in  8cotlan<l,  is  of  the  small  sized  and  miildli 
horned  race :  its  origin  is  unknown,  as  it  has  been  Iom 


Ayrsliiru  Bull. 

settled  in  the  county  from  which  it  derives  its  ninie 
In  modern  times,  the  breed  has  been  iniprovpd  bj 
judicious  selection,  coupling,  and  general  trcalmmi 
The  common  characteristics  of  this  excellent  variety  of 
cows  are  thus  described  by  Mr.  Alton  in  his  "  Survey  of 
Ayrshire:" — '-Head  small,  rather  long  and  narrow u 
the  ninzzlc ;  eye  small,  smart,  and  Uvcly  ;  horns  small, 
crooked,  and  set  at  considerable  distances  from  eacl 
other ;  neck  long,  rather  slender,  tapering  towards  llu 
head,  with  no  loose  skiti  below;  shoulders  thin;  fort 
quarters  light ;  hind  quarters  large ;  back  straiglil, 
broad  iH-hiud,  the  joints  rather  loose  and  open ;  carcaa 
deep;  legs  small,  short,  with  firm  joints  ;  udder  rapa- 
cious, stretching  forward;  the  milk  veins  large  ani 
prominent ;  teats  short,  all  pointing  outwards."  Tlii 
Ayrshire  cow  is  very  dix-ile,  feeds  well,  is  easily 
managed,  and,  as  a  dairy  cow,  is  equal  to  any  ollief, 
It  is  inferior,  however,  for  feeding,  to  the  Devon,  S» 
SCI,  and  Hereford  breeds. 


fmm 


Ayrshire  Cow. 
Many  of  the  Ayrshire  dairy  cows,  when  properly  M 


CATTLE  AND  DAIRV  HUSBANDRY. 


69T 


M  yjeiJ  from  6  to  8  Kallonn  por  tiny  during  a  part  of  the 
Maimer.  'J'ho  quantity  varies  much  during  the  year, 
(torn  U  to  ^  gallons,  or  more;  and  the  highest  average 
of  the  milk  yielded  by  this  breed  is  1000  gallons  per 
uinum.  I'  •'  ""'y  *"'"*  "^  '^®  finest  cows  that  will  yield 
racb  «  uuan'i'y  as  this,  and  from  500  to  780  gallons  may 
hf  calculated  as  the  most  general  yearly  produce.  Every 
{1  gallons  of  milk  will  airord  1  pound  of  butter,  of  1 6 
ounces  to  the  pound,  or  8  gallons  will  give  3  pounds. 
About  26  gallons  of  milk  will  give  a  stone  of  cheese,  14 
Douiids  to  the  stone,  and  a  good  milch  cow  will  thus 
5iel(l  3fi  stones  annually,  which,  at  lOs.  per  stone,  is 
£18  per  annum  for  this  article  alone. 

The  Shorl-hnrnrd  or  Dutch  breed  is  considered  of  great 
Tn!ue,  both  for  milking  and  feeding.  There  are  many 
varieties  of  it,  known  by  the  natncs  of  (he  counties  where 
Ihey  have  been  raised.  The  best  of  these  varieties  are 
large  in  the  carcass,  well  proportioned,  broad  across  the 
loins,  chine  full,  legs  short,  head  small  but  handsome, 
neck  Jeep,  but  in  keeping  with  the  size  of  the  body,  co- 
lour generally  red  and  white  mixed,  or  what  is  called 
flecked,  hide  thin.  The  flesh  of  this  breed  is  thick,  close 
mined,  retaining  the  juices  well ;  and  from  this  circum- 
stance is  in  request  for  victualling  ships  going  on  long 
voyages. 

Regarding  the  milking  qualities  of  this   breed,  Mr, 
Dickson,  an  eminent  cattle-dealer,  who  has  had  the  most 
extensive  experience  throughout  the  whole  country,  says 
— "  It  has  been  frequently  asserted  that  the  short-horned 
cows  are  bad  milkers ;  indeed,  that  no  sort  of  cattle  are 
a  deficisnt  in  milk.     But  this  deficiency  of  milk  does 
not  proceed  from  the  circumstance  of  the  cows  being  of 
the  short-horned  kind.     Had  the  flesh  been  neglected  as 
much  as  the  milk  by  the  eminent  breeders,  and  the  pro- 
perly of  giving  milk  as  much  cherished  as  the  develop- 
ment of  flesh,  the  short-horned  cows  would  have  been 
deep  milkers.    Indeed,  it  is  not  to  be  doubted  that,  where 
the  general  secreting  powers  of  the  animal  system  have 
been  increased,  the  power  of  secreting  milk  will  be  in- 
creased with  the  power  of  cecreting  fat ;  all  that  seems 
requisite  is  to  encourage  the   power  of  that  secretion 
which  is  most  wanted  for  the  time.     It  would  be  to  de- 
sire an  impossibility  to  desire  the  full  development  of  flesh, 
fat,  anil  milk,  at  the  same  time;  but  there  is  no  absurility 
indejiring  a  large  secretion  of  flesh  and  fat  at  one  time, 
and  a  large  secretion  of  milk  at  another,  from  the  same 
cow.    Accordingly,  this  is  the  very  character  which  has 
been  acquired  by  short-horned  cows.     They  will  yield 
from  six  to  sixteen  quarts  a  day  throuehout  the  season ; 
and  they  are  such  constant  milkers,  that  they  seldom  re- 
main dry  above  six  weeks  or  two  months  before  the 
time  of  calving.     I  know  a  Scotch   breeder  who  had  a 
short-horned  cow  which  gave  fifteen  quarts  a  day  during 
the  flush  of  the  grass  in  the  summer,  and  never  went  dry 
for  two  seasons.     A  cross  between  a  (ialloway  cow  and 
a  short-horned  hull  in  Berwickshire  yielded  twanty  pints 
I  day  during  the  best  of  the  season,  and  she  had  to  be 
milked  five  times  a  day  to  keep  her  easy."     We  have 
ilius  considered  it  our  duty  to  give  the  opinion  of  Mr. 
Diion  regarding  the  value  of  the  short-horned  breed  of 
cows  as  a  dairy  stock,  seeing  that  the  demand  for  short- 
Vorned  bulls  has  of  late  years  been  great  in  many  of  the 
counties  of  both  England  and  Scotland.     It  seems,  how- 
ever, a  well-confirmed  opinion,  that  the  breed  which  of 
ill  others  appears  to  be  gaining   ground  throughout  the 
I'liitfd  Kingdom  for  abundant   produce  on  ordinary  pas- 
ture, is  the  Ayrshire  kyloe,  which  is  described  as  without 
J  parallel  undi'r  a  simil.ir  soil,  climate,  and   relative  cir- 
cumstances, either  for  the  dairy,  or  feeding  for  the  hhiim- 
tiles.  But  the  ever-variable  circumstances  in  climate,  soil, 
•belter,  ami  the  quality  and  (juaiitity  of  the  pasturage,  as 
well  as  the  winter  feeding  and   general   treatment,  will 
ilwnys  have  an  effect  upon  the  stock. 
The  Improved  Kiriy  is  a';  Irish  breed,  of  rather  di- 


minutive size,  hardy,  and  which  can  lubiist  on  icantv 
pasture.  This  renders  them  exceedingly  well  adapted 
for  hilly  pastures,  and  for  cottagers  who  may  not  have 
the  best  food  to  otfer  their  stock  Their  milk  and  butter 
are  rich  in  quality,  and  for  their  size  they  are  good  milk- 
ers. They  are  quiet  enough  when  let  alone,  but  if  the 
least  irritated,  no  fence  can  contain  them.  The  Irii-h 
cows  have  improved  very  much  of  late  years,  in  conse- 
quence of  crossing ;  and  they  are  now  in  many  respects 
thought  equal  tj  the  breeds  of  either  England  or  Scotland. 

The  I.on^-horned  or  Lancashire  is  distinguished  by  the 
length  of  its  horns,  the  thickness  of  its  hide,  and  the 
large  size  of  its  hoofs.  It  is  far  from  being  a  liandsoine 
animal ;  nor  is  it  held  in  very  general  estimation  either 
for  milking  or  feeding. 

Highland  breids. — The  cattle  of  the  Highlands  of 
Scotland  are  of  small  bulk,  and  very  hardy.  The  raost 
esteemed  are  those  belonging  to  the  Western  Highlands 
and  Isles^  called  the  Argylcshiro  breed,  and  frequently 
kyliies.  It  is  thought  that  this  breed  might  he  much  im- 
proved by  judicious  crossing,  as  was  seen  in  the  case  of 
the  Ayrshire  kyloe,  formerly  mentioned.  This  breed  is 
rather  handsome  in  appearance;  the  horns  are  long  and 
upright,  head  large,  neck  short  and  deep,  legs  of  a  good 
length,  and  the  beef  is  in  general  estimation.  The  cattle 
of  the  Highlands  and  Isles  are  bred  on  an  extensive  scale 
of  farming  for  the  purpose  of  sending  to  the  southern 
markets.  Small  in  size  at  first,  they  increase  in  bulk  as 
they  are  transferred  to  a  more  genial  climate  and  richci 
pasturage  as  they  proceed  southward,  till,  by  annual 
stages,  they  reach  the  neightraurhood  of  London,  when 
they  are  large  and  heavy.  The  breeds  may  therefore  W 
considered  more  an  object  of  culture  for  the  shamblei 
than  the  dairy. 

The  Aldcnicy  breed  of  cattle  is  awkwordly  shaped, 
with  short  bent  horns,  and  light  red,  dun,  or  fawn-colourdl 
skins.  'J'he  appetite  of  the  cow  is  voracious,  and  it 
yields  little  milk,  but  that  is  of  on  exceedingly  rich 
(juality,  and  the  animal  is  on  that  account  preferred  1  y 
families  who  do  not  regard  the  expense  of  keep. 

Remarks  on  Breeds. 

"Wc  have  thus  briefly  treated  of  some  ot  the  many 
breisls  of  cattle  considered  valuable  as  dairy  stock  in 
Britain ;  but  we  pretend  not  to  give  any  decided  opinion 
as  to  which  is  best.  The  merits  of  each  kind  have  \<een 
vigorously  contested  by  their  respective  advocates,  and  it 
would  lie  extremely  diflicult  to  decide  between  them. 
Upon  the  form  oiid  qualifications  of  a  perfect  cow,  it 
ought  to  be  observed,  that  whatever  breed  is  selected, 
there  is  u  wide  diflercnce  between  the  form  of  one  meant 
for  t'attcning  and  that  intended  for  the  dairy.  The  first 
should  resemble  the  ox  ae  nearly  as  possible;  while  the 
latter  should  be  long  and  thin  on  the  head,  with  a  brisk 
quiet  eye,  lank  in  the  neck,  narrow  across  the  shoulders, 
but  broad  at  the  haunches;  and  there  should  be  no  ten- 
dency to  become  fat.  The  udder  should  be  large  and  full 
looUing,  but  not  protruding  too  far  behind;  the  teats  all 
pointing  out  and  downwards,  equal  in  size,  and  rather 
long  and  tapering.  A  cow  vi'ith  a  high  backbone,  large 
head,  small  udder,  and  showing  an  incUuation  to  liccomo 
fat,  will  be  found  to  be  a  bad  milker.  This  description 
applies  to  all  breeds ;  nnd  of  course  the  diflercnce  be- 
tween a  cow  for  fattening  and  one  for  yielding  milk  will 
be  comparati\e. 

Mr.  Alton  mentions  the  following  as  the  most  import, 
ant  qualities  of  the  dairy  cow  ; — "  Tameness  and  docility 
of  temper  greatly  enharice  its  value.  One  that  is  quiet 
nrul  contented  feeds  at  ease,  does  not  break  over  fences, 
or  hurt  hciself  or  other  cattle,  will  always  yield  mora 
milk  than  those  who  are  of  a  turbulent  disposition.  T» 
render  them  docile,  they  ought  to  be  gently  •leated,  fr& 
queiilly  handled  when  young,  nnd  never  struck  or  frignt 
,  encd,     Some  degree  of  haidiness,  however,  a  sound  Joft. 


INFORMATION  TOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Mitulion,  and  a  mndernto  (Irifrpo  of  lifn  and  npiritn,  are 
quiilitioa  to  be  wighcd  for  in  a  milch  row,  and  what  those 
of  Aynhire  Rcnnrnlly  pomw-an.  Soino  hiivo  thouultt  that 
a  cow  living  on  a  iimall  (|uantity  of  food  waa  a  valuable 
quality,  but  that  will  do|)cnd  on  the  quantity  of  milk 
given  by  the  row  that  catn  little  com|iari>d  with  thow  that 
eut  much.  If  the  cow  that  oat*  little  kivbh  aa  much  milk 
an  the  one  that  rntx  more,  il  rrrtaiidy  in  a  valuitblo 
quality;  but  of  thin  I  entertain  doulitH,  which  forty  years' 
experience  nnd  ob«ervatiiMi  have  nerved  to  ronfirm. 
Speculative  writers  allinn  that  some  cowh  will  fatten  an 
well,  and  yield  ax  much  milk,  when  fed  on  coiirHc  as 
othera  will  do  on  rich  food.  Cowri  that  have  been  reared 
and  fed  on  roanw  pasture  will  yield  some  milk  of  a  (;oo<l 
quality,  and  from  which  the  best  butter  niny  be  e\lraet4'd  ; 
while  a  Cflw  that  has  l)een  reared  and  fed  on  nuieli  bettor 
«a«ture,  would,  if  turned  on  that  which  in  bud,  (five 
■rarrriy  nny  milk.  Uut  if  a  cow  lliat  has  been  aeruf*- 
tonicd  to  iml  on  mul  jiasturc  bo  put  on  that  which  is 
Better,  she  will  greatly  increase  in  milk,  and  faltiii  much 
hstor.  If  two  cows  of  the  same  hrc  and  condition,  and 
which  have  In-en  reorcd  nnd  fed  on  food  of  eipml  i|ualitv, 
are  put,  the  one  on  bad  food,  and  the  other  on  that  wliieh 
is  good,  the  latter  will  yield  four  times  the  milk,  and 
fatten  four  limes  fnaler  than  the  former.  A  cow  need 
not  alwayn  be  fed  on  Rreen  clover,  cabbages,  and  caidi- 
flower;  but  she  will  neither  fatten  nor  yield  milk  if  she 
gets  no  better  faro  than  rushes,  bent,  and  »ai;e  ijrass." 

A  writt'r  in  tlie  "  Farmer's  Maa'i/.ine,"  a  fi  w  years  aijo, 
presented  tlio  followini;  doff'^rel  lines,  as  ci)mbininj»  what 
are  po|)\darly  considered  the  swxl  points  of  a  cow,  such 
•a  is  common  among  the  short-horned  breed  of  York- 
•hire: — 

"Shp'i  loiiir  in  her  fncn,  «lie'«  fine  in  lii-r  liorn, 
Slir'll  niiiekly  tff't  I'lil  wiiliout  r:ik<'  or  corn  ; 
Stic's  i;IfUM  111  IpT  jiiw.^.  liiid  tiill  ill  li'T  eliiiio. 
She's  heavy  in  llaiik.  ami  wide  in  licr  loin, 

"She's  lirniKt  in  hfr  rilia.  and  long  in  her  ninip, 
A  stneitlit  nnd  Hal  hack,  williout  I'l-r  a  hiiiiip; 
,  Shi''B  wide  in  hfr  tups,  nnd  calm  in  her  eyt'S. 

Stie's  fine  in  her  shotdders,  and  ihiii  in  tier  thighs. 

"  She's  li(rht  in  her  nerk.  nnd  smiill  iif  her  mil. 
She's  wide  ill  her  hreasi,  nnd  (foiid  at  the  pad. 
She's  tine  in  her  hone,  and  silky  n!'  nkin — 
Slic's  a  gra/.ier's  without,  and  a  hatcher's  within." 

To  ensure  the  jicrpctuation  of  valuable  qualities  in 
eowa,  it  is  necessary  to  breed  from  good  bulls  of  n  similar 
variety  to  the  cows.  The  heifer  or  youn^  cow,  if  pro- 
perly pastured,  should  Ivijin  to  breed  at  two  years,  or  not 
beyond  two  nnd  a  half  yenrs  old.  'I'lie  cow  is  at  her 
prime  at  from  four  to  six  years,  and  declines  into  old  aije 
at  ten  or  eleven  yenrs,  when  it  is  customary  to  fatten  her 
for  market.  Dairymen,  in  selecting  cows,  prefer  those 
which  have  had  their  third  or  fourth  calf  when  they  have 
attained  their  fifth  or  sixth  year.  The  bull  is  in  his 
prime  at  three  years,  and  should  not  bo  used  after  eight 
or  nine  years  old. 

OENERAL   MAITAOEMRNT    OF   COWS. 

Calvinif. 

The  COW  goea  with  young  nine  calendar  months,  or 
270  day*;  but   this  length  of  time  is  lialile  to  variation,  ^ 
from  tne  elTcct  of  circumstjinccs.     A  calf  is  most  likely 
to  survive  and  be  healthy  which   has  gone  exactly  the 
nine  months.    Cows  come  into  season  at  difTerent  periods 
iif  the  year,  in  which   state  they  remain   for  a  few  days,  ' 
after  which  the  afli'ction  ceases,  but  it  afterwards  returns  I 
tn  three  or  four  weeks.     The  farmer  watches  these  pe-  I 
^mls,   and   permits  the  coinpai\y  of  the  bull   at  such  a  ' 
lime   as  will   produce  the  young  ut  a  time  of  the  year  < 
when  grass  is  plentiful   for  the  nourishment  of  the  mo-  I 
Iher.     Tliis  should  lie  an  advaneed   period  of  spring,  for 
the  cow  will  recjuire  nonrishing  diet  some  time  before  she  | 
iropM  her  calf  as  well  as  afterwards.  ! 

A  cow  may  be  kept  in  milk   up  to  the  time  of  her  '. 


colving,  by  daily  taking  n  quantity  from  her;  buttUil. 
most  injurious  to  the  fa-tiis,  and  the  excitement  of  th* 
new  upon  the  old  milk  is  npt  In  proilucu  local  itiHumnution 
In  towns,  where  dairymen  caro  nothing  for  the  caltni  l' 
muat  have  milk  at  all  riaks,  cows  are  often  nmltioatcd  b» 
being  milked  to  the  last ;  but  no  one  who  conducu  i 
dairy  on  projicr  pritieiples  will  lie  guilty  of  this  inhu. 
manity.  'I'ho  best  plan  is  to  allow  the  cow  to  go  graJu. 
ally  dry,  and  not  tnilk  her  at  all  for  six  or  eight  wwlu 
before  calving.  This  will  keep  hor  in  a  reasonably  irooj 
condition,  and  save  extra  foo<l,  which  it  is  not  advaniaijcoiii 
to  give  oti  a  luxuriant  scale,  becuusii  high  feeding  at  il,j, 
j>eri(xl  may  induce  iiillatnmation  and  fever  at  calvinL. 

No  animal  is  so  liable  to  abortion  as  the  cow:  il  lako, 
place  at  nncertiiin  periods  during  the  pregnancy;  iioi„j, 
times  it  occurs  from  fright,  t<-a7,ing  by  other  cattle  in  iL 
field,  or  over-high  condition ;  but  also  not  unfrniuontly 
from  some  bad  habit  acquired  by  tlie  unimul.  li  U 
Is-en  found  that  the  habit  is  itifcctious;  and  when  onca 
it  has  got  among  a  parcel  of  cows,  it  can  1h'  hanislifj 
only  with  the  greatest  dilRculty.  In  all  cases  tlie  aiiortci) 
foetus  should  1h!  buried  deep  and  far  from  the  cjw  pmturc' 
the  cow  physiiked,  and  its  [iirts  washed  with  chloriileof 
lime;  the  cow-house  thoroughly  liinc-waslnd  and  oilui. 
wise  purified;  and  lastly,  the  cow  fattened  and  sonl  tn 
market. 

If  in  a  state  of  health,  no  dilliculty  will  occur  at  the 
parturition  ;  but  slionid  the  ca.^^e  lie  ollierwise,  we  prefei 
leaving  the  cow-keeper  to  ask  a.ssistance  IVorn  a  iiorson 
of  |ir,ii'lieal  skill,  or  veterinary  surgeon,  than  to  olliranj 
s|>ecnlativc  advices  on  the  sniiject.  With  rcspert  lo  ilu 
treatment  aller  calving,  we  beg  to  ijuote  the  folloninj 
directions  from  the  volume  on  (,'attle,  "  Library  of  Umi'ijI 
Knowledge:" — "  I'artnritiiin  having  been  aiconipliihfl 
the  c)w  should  lie  left  cpiietly  with  the  c.ilf;  the  lickiri! 
and  cli'aniii'.';  of  which,  and  the  citing  of  llie  jilacenla.i/ 
it  is  soon  discharged,  will  employ  and  amuse  her,  It  || 
a  cruel  thing  to  separate  the  mother  from  thcyoungK 
soon ;  the  cow  will  pine,  and  will  lie  deprived  of  that 
medicine  which  natu.e  designed  for  her  in  the  inoislure 
which  hangs  about  the  calf,  nnd  even  in  the  placciiti 
itself;  nnd  the  calf  will  lose  that  gentle  friction  and  rao. 
lion  which  help  to  give  il  the  immediate  use  of  ull  ju 
limbs,  and  which,  in  the  language  of  .Mr.  Berry. 'incri-asii 
the  languid  circulation  of  tlie  blood,  and  prinhn'csa  goniil 
warmth  in  the  half-exhaUKted  and  chilled  little  aniioal 
A  warm  ina.sh  should  be  put  before  lier,  and  warm  gruii 
or  Water  from  which  some  of  the  coldness  has  lieon  taken 
off.  Two  or  three  hours  afterwards,  it  will  be  pruilnt 
to  give  an  aperient  drink,  consisting  of  a  pound  of  Ep. 
som  salts  and  two  drachms  of  ginger.  This  may  loni 
to  prevent  milk  fever  and  garget  in  the  udder,  .-itten. 
tion  should  likewise  be  p:iid  to  the  state  of  the  uJJci, 
If  the  teats  are  sore,  and  the  bag  gciicrally  hard  and  tonir, 
she  should  Ik-  gently  but  carefully  milked  three  or  foiii 
times  every  day.  The  natural  and  the  elTeetual  prevent. 
utivc  of  this,  however,  is  to  let  the  calf  suck  her  at  Ifssl  j 
three  times  in  the  day  if  it  is  tied  u|'  in  the  cow-hos*, 
or  to  run  with  her  in  the  pasture,  and  take  the  teat  «hej 
it  ideases.  The  tendency  to  inflanmiation  of  the  uJilft 
is  much  diminished  by  the  calf  frcineiitly  snekin;;  or 
should  the  cow  be  feverish,  nothing  sooths  or  (juiiis  hti 
so  much  as  the  presence  of  the  little  one."  For  in- 
structions respecting  the  condition  nnd  di.sc;isps  of  roiti 
at  and  after  calving,  we  must  refer  to  the  vuluiiWe  work 
above  ijuoted. 

TrenliiienI  of  Ihc  f'alf. — If  the  c.df  be  a  male.  sr.Jil 
to  he  pastured  and  fittencd  for  market,  or  to  he  litnlji 
a  working  ox,  it  should  be  cut  between  the  first  ul 
third  months;  if  deferred  later,  the  ojie ration  is  daoj* 
rous. 

Whether  calves   are  kept  for  veal  or  for  stock,  thfj 
are  begun    to  lie  fed   in  the  same   manner,  liy  surfej  ] 
milk  from  a  dish.     As  lliey  nalurai'y  seek  for  tha  tt«l 


CATTLE  AND  DAIRY  HUSBANDRY. 


699 


iriMD  th(<lr  noiM)  !r  put  to  the  diHh,  the  flni^rni  of  the 
■ttonJunt  may  ho  put  into  thnir  mouth  when  in  the 

millii  <■"''  ^''''*  ^'"  '"'^  '^""  f^"'")?  '"  '''"  1'''  "'^  nrtifli'iiil 
nicking.  "  '"'"9  milk"  (snyii  tiie  author  of  "  Cloricnl 
Economiw"),  "uliouiil  lie  given  to  thorn  s(iiiiiMj;ly  at 
finti  to  render  their  iipprtito  more  Icecn,  nnci  prevent 
ihrm  from  losthinn  at  thi-ir  food.  For  tlio  firnt  two 
weoki  thfV  should  ho  fed  on  the  milk  first  drawn  from 
th«  cow,  lorally  termed  tlie  fonhrnuih,  which  ubomiils 
with  scrum:  and  as  they  grow  up,  the  quantity  of  milk 
b  gradually  increased  to  bh  much  an  the  calvoa  ran  liu 
Dilile  to  d.iiik.  After  the  first  two  or  three  week.:,  I)y 
ill  mcani)  nivc  them  plenty  of  milk,  wnrnj  from  their 
mother;  and  let  it  be  that  which  is  last  drawn  from  the 
cow,  locally  termed  'iftcrinns,  which  are  mUeli  richer. 
Kfop  aliundanco  of  dry  litter  under  them.  Have  them 
in  a  place  t'.iat  is  well  aired,  and  of  u  uniform  tem|iera- 
tute,  neither  too  hot  nor  too  cold ;  let  the  apartment  U'. 
quite  dark,  cxeeptins  when  the  door  is  oiiened  to  nivc 
ihein  food.  If  they  enjoy  the  light,  they  become  too 
iportive,  and  will  not  fatten.  Take  care  they  are  fast- 
ened to  the  wall,  in  such  a  way,  by  '  swivels,"  that  they 
mnnot  bans  themselves.  Never  let  them  make  their 
escape  at  the  door,  or,  by  their  runninij  and  jumpin),', 
they  will  do  more  injury  to  themselves  in  three  minutes 
than  a  week's  teeding  will  make  up.  Don't  keep  them 
till  they  become  too  old,  because,  when  they  beL;in  to 
grow  to  the  bone,  they  re()uire  more  milk  than  the 
manse  can  generally  produce ;  and  whenever  they  cease 
to  uilvancc  in  the  fattening  process,  they  beicin  to  re- 
cede, and  tlie  milk  for  a  week  or  two  is  lost.  'J'liey 
should  be  kept  from  four  to  seven  weeks,  according  as 
milk  may  be  abundant  and  rich.  If  o  calf  be  ke|it  long, 
during  the  last  two  or  three  weeks  it  will  require  the 
richest  part  of  the  milk  of  at  least  two  or  three  cows 
to  bring  it  to  the  highest  pitch  of  fatness.  When  the 
milk  begins  to  fall  short  of  the  calf's  appetite,  some  mix 
eggs  and  others  peas-meal  into  their  food ;  others  trv 
infusions  of  hay,  oil-cake,  and  linseed;  but  tmnc  of 
these  additions  arc  approved  of  by  those  who  feed  calves 
tothe  greatest  perfection.  Meal  is  understood  to  darken 
the  flesh,  web,  and  lights  of  the  animal ;  but  sago  has 
»f  late  years  liecn  almost,  from  tho  first  two  or  three 
weeks,  boiled  and  mixed  in  its  liquid  state  with  the  milk, 
and  to  great  advantugc.  Begin  with  a  snucerful  of  it  or 
»,  and  gradniiUy  increase  the  (pmntiiy.  Calves  are 
rcry  fond  of  clialk.  and  they  also  feel  the  want  of  salt. 
If  a  calf  happens  tii  be  dropl  abin.i  the  niiildle  of  slim- 
mer, when  the  processes  of  butler  and  cheese  miking 
wont  admit  of  their  being  fattened  to  perfection,  they 
aie  sometimes,  even  at  the  manse,  brought  sparingly  for- 
ward for  two  or  three  months  on  whey  and  skimmed 
milk;  and  in  IVovcmber,  when  veal  is  very  liish  priced, 
they  are  fattened  at  considerable  cost,  nnd  sold  so  as  to 
jielJ  a  great  return,  owing  both  to  their  weight  and 
the  high  markets  at  that  season  of  scarcity.  A  calf 
well  managed,  in  ordinary  seasons  nnd  jiriccs,  should 
yield  'Shen  sold,  six  or  seven  sliillings  for  every  week  it 
isola" 

Cow  house — Cleaning. 

The  cow-house  shoidd  be  airy,  nnd  well  ventilated ; 
of  moderate  temi)ernture,  and  kept  very  clean.  The 
dtWf  for  the  cows  should  be  paved  with  small  stones, 
•lepe  gently  towards  the.  foot,  where  there  should  be  n 
cliiir  run  of  a  guller  to  curry  off  ihe  urine  to  a  pit  out- 
ade.  The  stalls  must  be  daily  serniied  and  swept,  and 
ill  tifuse  carried  o\it  to  the  dune-heap.  In  gen  'lal,  far 
too  little  litter  is  allowed.  The  cow  shoidd  have  jilenty 
sf  straw  liediling,  kept  in  a  cleanly  rondition  ;  and  this, 
when  soiled,  is  to  lie  mixed  with  the  dung  for  manure. 
The  only  fistening  for  the  cow  should  be  a  chain  to  go 
round  the  r.ick,  with  the  other  eiul  round  an  upright 
pMt,  but  easily  movable  up  anil  down,  and  al'owiui; 


room  for  the  animal  shifling  ita  poiition.  llie  feeding 
mun;{cr  or  vtuno  trough  in  on  tho  ground,  and  ought  tii 
be  kept  free  of  all  impnriliea;  for  though  tho  cow  is  noi 
so  nice  as  the  horse,  it  hu8  a  diiincluiuliuii  for  food  uul 
fresh  and  cleaidv. 

Except  in  dairies  of  a  high  order,  it  is  customary  td 
kee[4cow»  in  a  Khamefully  unclean  condition.  The 
(lour  of  thi'ir  habitation  in  filthy,  the  wall*  ragged  and 
full  of  vermin,  and  the  hides  of  tho  animnls  dusty  or 
barkened  with  dirt.     Persons  who  keep  '  are  not 

aware  of  the  loss  they  incur  from  allowing  .n  to  Uvo 
in  this  uncleanly  state.  Some  people  secin  to  think 
that  they  do  quite  enough  for  their  cows  if  they  give 
them  food  and  shelter ;  but  besides  this,  they  require  to 
be  kept  very  cleaidy,  though  sehlom  indulged  in  that 
luxuiy.  Tho  cow  should  be  curried  daily  like  the 
lioise:  its  hide  should  be  freed  from  all  impurities,  and 
ri'lieved  from  every  thing  that  caUKcs  unea.siiie-is.  M'hen 
you  see  a  cow  rubbing  itself  against  a  post,  you  may 
di-pend  on  it  that  the  animal  is  ill  kept,  and  rei|uircs  a 
good  scrubbing.  Irritation  of  the  skin  from  impurities 
also  causes  them  to  lick  themselves,  a  habit  which  ia 
injurious,  for  the  hairs  taken  into  the  stumach  form  a 
compact  round  mass,  which  may  destroy  the  ainmal.  If 
well  curried,  any  danger  from  this  catastrophe  in  avoided, 
the  health  is  generally  improved,  and  this  improves  the 
quality  of  the  milk,  besides  increasing  the  quantity.  A 
ciitlager  might  easily  make  two  or  three  sliilliiigs  mora 
of  his  cow  weekly  by  attention  to  this  point ;  and  if  ho 
at  the  same  time  took  pains  to  preserve  all  the  liquid 
rel'use  of  the  cow-house,  ho  might  double  that  amount 
How  strange  to  reflect,  that  many  decent  and  well- 
meaning,  but  ignorant  and  rather  lazily-disposed  people, 
are  sufl'ering  a  loss  of  four  or  five  shillings  weekly  from 
no  other  cause  than  this !  It  ia  long,  however,  before 
old  habits  arc  eradicated,  and  new  and  better  ones  in- 
troduced. 

Feeding, 

The  cow  requires  to  bo  supplied  with  an  nbundanco 
of  food,  not  to  make  her  fat,  which  is  not  desirable,  but 
to  keep  tq)  a  regular  secretion  of  milk  in  the  system. 
The  feeding  must  be  regular,  from  early  moriang  to 
night,  and  pure  water  must  also  beolfored  at  proiier  inter- 
vals, if  the  cow  has  not  the  liberty  of  going  to  the  water 
herself. 

Regarding  the  nature  of  the  footl  of  cows,  although 
soiling,  or  artificial  feeding  in  the  house,  is  at  all  timca 
economical,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  best  milk  and 
butter  arc  produced  by  cows  fed  on  natural  pasture;  and 
although  the  quantity  of  milk  is  not  so  great,  yet  the 
butter  has  a  sweet  taste,  never  to  be  discovered  in  tho 
produce  of  soiled  cows.  It  was  formerly  Ihe  ease  in 
Scotland,  and  the  practice  is  still  continued  in  some 
parts,  to  put  the  cows  out  to  grass  in  sjiring,  in  such  an 
emaciated  state  that  a  considerable  part  of  the  best  sea- 
son was  gone  before  they  yielded  the  quantity  of  milk 
they  would  otherwise  have  done.  On  well-enclosed 
farms,  it  is  the  custom  of  many  to  keep  their  cows  out 
both  night  and  day,  from  May  till  the  end  of  October, 
so  long  as  a  full  bite  can  be  olitained ;  and  some  bring 
them  into  the  house  twice  a-day  to  be  milked.  In  moor- 
ish and  unenclosed  districts,  they  arc  put  imder  the 
c-harge  of  a  herd  through  the  day,  and  are  brought  into 
the  byres  during  the  night.  Soiling,  or  feeding  entirely 
in  the  house  or  court-yord,  is  but  seldom  practiFcd, 
except  by  some  farmers  in  arable  districts.  Although 
complete  soiling  is  only  occasionally  resorted  to,  yet  a 
considerable  qtiantity  of  rich  green  food  is  served  out  to 
Ihe  dairy  stock  in  their  stalls  at  night,  and  in  the  hea» 
of  the  day,  by  such  farmers  as  bring  their  cows  into  the 
house  at  these  times.  This  mode  of  feeding  is  moie 
especially  followed  when  the  pasture  begins  to  fail ;  the 
second  crops  of  clover  and  tares,  cubl  agtii,  colewoi  \» 


I 


600 


INFOUMATION   FOR   THK   PEOPLE. 


*n»l  Jthm  RHrilrii  prmlucp,  nro  nil  pivi'ti  fo  tho  rowi  in 
Iho  iiouRp  nt  lliin  |>orio<l.  U  U  ii|>ori  IhiH  nvHtcni  lliat  the 
wholp  (loircrliiiii  of  Iho  Floiiii«h  liiiMlnindrv  in  fouiidcil, 
and  it  cniilil  In-  put  in  praclii'P,  with  tho  iiiiiHt  liciu'lii'liil 
rpHult*.  ill  iiiniiy  nthrr  niiiiilrirH.  In  II<illnn<l,  the  rowH, 
whnn  fed  in  thr  hoiino,  havo  their  drink  "(  wiitcr  iiiva- 
riubly  mixrd  with  oil-rako,  rye,  or  out-iiicul.  l)niry 
cowii  arp  nUownl  to  hp  iniirh  injured  hy  l«'iiin;  drnicd  it 
duo  lupiily  of  unit,  whirh  \»  Hoid  to  iiiiprovo  Iho  (|iiiihty 
and  iiirroiiffo  Iho  i|uniitily  of  Iho  milk.  In  tlio  IiohI  niii- 
nagcd  diiirirs  in  Hcotlund,  whon  Iho  oown  uro  lakoii  in 
lor  the  wiiilor,  Ihoy  are  never  pnl  out  lo  Ihe  (IoMh  until 
spring,  when  tho  ^rnfiR  hiis  risen  mi  much  iis  In  iill'ord  n 
full  L.le.  In  Iho  monriHh  diHtrieli',  however,  lliey  are 
put  I'Ul  lo  Ihe  Cu'ldH  for  notno  hourn  every  diiy  wlien  the 
w«a'her  will  poimil.  In  lliew  diHlrirls,  the  winter  food 
in  liirnipK  with  niamh  inoudow  buy,  oceiiHionully  Hiriiw 
ami  hoilod  rhiiir. 

In  Ihe  rirher  dintrirt*,  tnrnipH  iind  iitrnw  nro  (fivrn  nnd 
ocoasionnlly  Bonio  clover  hiiy  in  Mjiriim,  or  when  Ihe 
cowi  hiive  ralved.  Upon  thin  suhjerl  nntliinn  need  lie 
added,  lint  that  the  qnanltty  nnd  <|Uiility  of  Iho  milk  will 
tie  in  proportion  to  Ihe  noiiriHhnient  in  Ihe  I'ooil.  White 
turnip*  iillord  a  ifixxl  ijuantily  of  milk,  but  Ihi-y  impart 
•  very  diKai'reonlile  taste,  which  may  ho  removed,  bow- 
ever,  by  Kte.iiiiinij  or  boilini;  Ibe  turnips,  or  by  piiltinu  a 
small  qimnlity  of  diwiolved  8alt|>otro  into  Iho  milk  when 
now  drawn.  'l"he  '|ualily  of  the  milk  do|ieii(ls  a  Rrent 
deal  on  the  row,  influenced,  however,  by  the  food  »he 
eats.  Linsi'od,  pea»,  and  oat-moal,  prodnre  rich  milk  ; 
and  a  mixture  of  lirun  and  (jraiiis  ba«  been  recommciMl- 
ed  an  food  in  wiiilor.  Brewers'  Rraiiis  arc  said  lo  pro- 
duce a  larco  i|uaiitily  of  milk,  but  very  thin,  ihe  (piality 
beinij  somewhal  similar  to  that  sold  in  larije  towns, 
vieldins  neilhor  nood  cream  nor  butter.  It  has  been 
found  of  some  importance  to  feed  cows  frec|iiently 
— three  or  four  times  a-<lay  in  summer,  and  five  or  six 
in  winter,  mid  lo  give  them  no  more  at  n  lime  than  they 
can  eat  cleanly. 

What  has  been  slated  re^ardino;  the  fcedini?  of  cows 
■pplles  principally  lo  ihowe  kept  on  dairy  farms.  In 
rstiblisliments  lor  the  supplyiii'i  of  largp  towns  with 
milk,  Ihe  method  of  feeding  is  somewhat  diirercnl ; 
tliere  tho  iiractire  is  to  feed  them  chiefly  on  distillers' 
wash,  brewers'  L'rains,  and  every  sort  of  liquid  stnlVtbal 
will  produce  a  lar^e  quantity  of  milk,  without  reference 
to  its  quality.  'I'hi^  Edinburgh  cow-keepers  beirin  to 
feed  willi  uraiii,  drcif,  nnd  bran  mixed  losetlior,  at  five 
o'clock  in  Ibe  momiiiK.  foeil  aijain  at  one  o'clock  after- 
noon, and  a  third  time  at  seven  or  eiuht  o'clock  in  Ibe 
I'vonintf ;  crass  in  summer,  nnd  turnips  anil  potatoes  in 
winter,  being  (jiven  in  the  two  intervals.  The  (tr.iss  is 
I:iid  ufniii  tho  straw,  in  order  to  impart  to  if  a  certain  fla- 
vour, and  111  ikc  it  palatable  ;  it  is  eaten  after  the  prass  ; 
■ind  in  winter,  straw  or  hay  is  given  after  the  turnips. 
I'urt  of  the  turnips  and  potatoes  are  boiled,  particularly 
when  there  is  a  scarcity  of  grains. 

The  following  is  mentioned  in  the  "  Farmer's  Magn- 
7.ine,"  vol.  XV.,  as  an  improved  mode  of  foi'ding  milch 
cows,  no  ir  F'arnham,  in  .'Surrey  : — "  (lo  lo  the  cow-stall 
at  six  o'clock  in  the  morning,  winter  and  summer  :  give 
"ach  cow  half  a  bushel  of  the  mangel-wur/.el,  carrots, 
turnips,  or  [Kital'ies,  cut ;  at  seven  o'clock,  Ibe  hour  the 
dairy-miid  comes  lo  milk  them,  give  each  sumo  bay, 
ami  let  them  feed  till  they  are  nil  milked.  If  any  cow 
refuses  hay,  give  her  something  she  will  eat,  such  as 
grains,  carrots,  &c.,  during  the  time  she  is  milking,  as  it 
W  abioi'tily  nrrrfsury  the  cow  should  feed  whilst  milk- 
ing. As  soon  as  Ihe  woman  has  finished  milking  in  the 
tnorning,  turn  the  cows  into  the  airing  ground,  and  let 
there  .w  plenty  of  ficfh  water  in  the  troughs  ;  nt  nine 
ydock,  give  each  cow  three  gallons  of  the  mixture  (as 
under — to  ei.;b  giilliiim  of  grains  add  four  gallons  of 
br»n  or  jiollnni);  vihen  they  have  cat^n  that,  put  some 


hay  into  tho  cribs ;  at  twelve  o'clock  (jiv*  n^^y^  y, 
gallons  of  Iho  mixluro  as  before.  If  any  cow  lo,ik, .' 
more,  give  her  another  gallon.  On  tho  controry,  |(  ,(, 
will  not  ent  what  you  give  her,  take  it  out  nf  tho  m, 
ger,  for  never,  at  one  lime,  let  a  cow  have  more  Ihun  »(, 
will  oat  up  (7(71)1.  Mind  you  keep  your  niannem  clcnn 
thiit  they  do  not  get  sour.  .\t  two  o'clock,  givr  onri.' 
cow  half  a  bushel  of  carrots,  miingel-wurzcl,  or  lumin.' 
look  the  turnips,  Ac.,  over  well,  before  you  give  them  u 
Ibe  cows,  ns  one  rotten  turnip,  itc,  will  givci  a  h«d  |j,(. 
to  the  milk,  and  most  likely  sjioil  a  whole  dairy  of  biiL 
tcr.  At  four  o'clock,  put  tho  cows  into  the  stall  to  k. 
milked  ;  fci'd  Ihein  on  bay  as  you  did  at  mi!kiii|r.||m. 
in  the  morning,  keeping  in  mind  that  the  cow,  whiUf 
milking,  must  feed  on  Bomething.  At  six  o'clock,  (ot. 
I  each  cow  throe  gallons  of  the  mixture  ns  liefore.  Riri, 
!  tliein  up  at  eight  o'clock.  Twice  a  week  put  into  fadi 
cow's  feed  at  noon  a  cpiart  of  malt-itiisl."  Th(!  writo 
of  these  directions  adds,  that  the  daily  ex|K>iiso  of  ml,, 
sistiiig  each  cow  on  tho  aliovo  feed  would  be  about  two 
Khillings. 

Milking. 

Cows  nro  milked  twice  or  thrice  n-dny,  acrordinij  to 
circumslaMces.  If  twice,  niorning  nnd  night ;  if  [hrjof 
morning,  noon,  nnd  night.  'J'licy  should  iiol  go  too  |ono 
unmilked,  for,  independently  of  Ibe  uneasiness  to  ilic 
jioor  animal,  it  is  severely  injurious. 

'I'he  act  of  milking  is  one  which  requires  great  rau- 

lion  ;  for  if  not  cnrefully  and  properly  dune,  the  ipmnlily 

of  the  milk  will  be  diminished,  and  tint -inility  inrcrior,lhe 

milk  which  comes  last  out  of  Iho  udilet  Leing  uhvays  the 

richest.     It  should,  therefore,  lie  tho'.'U  .'ily  drawn  from 

tho  cows  until  not  a  drop  more  car  lie  olitniiicd,  lioth  to 

ensure  a  continuanco  of  the  usual  su,ip!y  of  milk,  and 

also  lo  gel  the  richest  which  the  cows  nlliird.    Cowi 

should  be  soothed  hy  mild  usage,  especially  when  yoiini!> 

for  lo  a  jierson  whom  they  dislike,  they  never  gjvo  ihrir 

milk  freely.     The  teats  should  lie  always  clean  washrj 

I  before   milking,  and  when   tender,  they  ought  lo  bo  fo. 

[  mented  with  warm  water.      The   milking  and  manaj^ 

i  nienl  of  tho  cow  should,  in  these  circumstances,  be  only 

intrusted  to  servai's  „f  character,  on   whom  \\\c  ulraogt 

reliance   can  be   p  e    d.     In   the   southern  and  miJIatiJ 

'  ciMinties  of  Knglar..',  it  is  a  common  jiractice  lo  i'ni[i!oy 

I  men  lo  n'.ilk  the  cows,  an  operation  which  seems  bottm 

lilted   for   females,  who   arc    likely   to   do   the   work  in 

a  more  gentle  and  cleanly  manner,  which  is  of  cswniial 

importance. 

'i'lie  writer  in  the  "  Farmer's  Magazine,"  above  quoted, 
gives  tho  following  explicit  directions  to  the  dairy-maij 
in  regard  to  milking : — "  Go  to  the  cow-y'all  nt  seven 
o'clock ;  lake  with  you  mlil  vulir  and  a  sponge,  and 
wash  each  cow's  udder  clean  before  milking;  dc.wsc  llw 
iiddor  well  with  ("W  water,  winter  and  sinninrr,  ai  it 
braces  and  rejiols  bents.  Keep  your  hands  and  arm 
clean.  .Milk  each  cow  as  dry  ns  you  can,  inoinineand 
evening,  and  when  you  have  milked  each  cow  as  voo 
snii/insc  dry,  begin  again  with  the  cow  you  first  niilM 
ami  drip  them  each ;  for  the  iiriiici]ial  reason  of  cow! 
failing  in  their  milk  is,  from  negligence  in  not  milking 
tho  cow  dry,  ;i(ir/irii///i7y  nt  the  time  the  calf  ie  taktn 
from  the  cow.  SulFer  no  one  to  milk  a  cow  but  your- 
self, nnd  have  no  gossipinu;  in  the  Flail.  Every  8ati* 
day  night  give  in  an  exact  nccount  of  the  (juaiitity  of 
milk  encli  cow  has  given  in  the  week." 

THE    DAIRY. 

The  dniry  should  ho  cool,  niry,  dry,  nnd  free  from 
vermin  of  nil  kinds.  To  prevent  tho  intrusion  of  fliej, 
the  windows  or  veiililulors  ought  to  bo  covoreil  with  a 
line  wire  gauzo.  'J'lic  floor  should  bo  laid  with  smooth 
glazed  tiles,  and  nlso  the  lower  part  of  the  walls;  tit 
benches  on  which  the  milk  puns  arc  to  be  placed  tn 


iiublic  enliiimtiou. 


CATTLE  AND  DAIRY  HUSBANDRY. 


n^whfii  ninilt"  "f "'"'"'  or  utiitn,  nml  iiliiuit  lliirly  inchi'H 

'      I     Till'  i'i'ili>>i(    hIiouIiI  Ih<  ut  Irnnt  rii^lit  fort  from 

ih   floor,  mil'  fiiiiil""'!  '"  <'vi'ry  rc»|iert  like  tlint  of  uri 

rnjrv  (lwi'lliiii{l'"ii»i'.     A   Hinto  roof  is   prpfornhle  to 

of  tilp,  ii"  i'  ••"'"l"  'o  keep  tlio  ti'inprratiiro  more 

uiblf'    {'li'iinlincHH   in  of   tlin  moiit  cNHriitiiil   fonno- 

u«nce  in  ilnify  iiiiiiii!J'"iiiriit,  nml,  if  not  utrictly  lookpil 

V,    ,„;,y  Cllline    COIIBitilTullIll    lo-l*.       It  iH  tluH  wllioll   llllg 

iird  ill'-  |iri)ili"'P  of  till)  ilniriod  of  Hollaiiil  no  much  in 
nubile  eniiiiiiitii"'-  I'ivory  nrticlii  in  which  milk  Ih  pluccd, 
more  em<  iu'lv  "'n'"  >"ii'l''  of  wooil,  oimht  to  he  wiiHhnd 
iiiliuilini?  wilier,  ainl  ii  little  hoiIu  or  liiiio  disHolvcd  in  it. 
If  milk  kIiihiM  hiipi'fn  to  Hour  in  niiy  iIIhIi,  the  acid  thuH 
wncratcil  "ill  iiijiiio  any  which  may  1h(  iiftcrwardn  jmt 
jiiloii;  I'll'  it'wiiHhrd  with  wiitor  in  which  un  nlkali  hiia  i 
beiMi  dissolved,  the  iiciil  will  he  doHtroyod.  I 

The  uti'imiU  of  a  dairy  oro  very  numcroiiii.  Tho  ' 
niiiicipiil  a'"  iii'lk-pailH,  shallow  coolerH  for  holdinpr  tho 
milk,  sieven  liir  straiiiiiin  it  through  after  it  i«  taken  from 
ihc  cow,  ilixlii'i  tor  Mkimniinif  the  rroom,  chiirnH  for 
nuking  lln'  I'liHer,  fcale«,  weiKhtH,  Ac.  For  making 
cnn«i  '•"■"' '"'''  '"^''^^'N^'  ladderB,  vatu,  tulm,  nird-hrenk- 
ys  and  preH.<e«;  and  viiriouu  other  nrticloH  will  lie  rc- 
nuircd,  which  it  in  almoHt  impossihlc  to  enumerate.  In 
(o.m,  th'''"'  vcjrselH,  with  a  few  exceptions,  arc  alike 
throughnat  Orciit  Uritaiii ;  and  even  in  other  countries 
tliere  is  li"le  variation.  'I'he  majority  of  them  are  m.ide 
of  wood;  lull  ill  some  of  the  liest  dairies  in  England  and 
Scolliind,  it  i"»  now  llie  practice  to  have  the  coolers  made 
of  cast-iron,  wood  lined  with  tin  in  Iho  inside,  or  glazed 
carlliciiware.  Maple  is  the  wood  generally  used  in 
Eneland  for  iJie  inanufacturc  of  these  dislujs ;  lioth  from 
its  lightiiess,  and  lieing  easily  cut,  it  ran  lie  finished  in  a 
neater  style,  'n  llnllnnd,  the  milk  dishes  are  very  com- 
monly mude  of  lira'is;  and  certainly  hrass  or  iron  is  to 
1*  prcferml  to  wood,  hecauso  the  dishes  made  from 
cither  of  these  materials  are  more  duruhle,  and  can  he 
easier  chMiied.  It  liin  Iwen  ohjectcd  to  earthenware  ves- 
sels, that,  beiiia;  ula/.eil  with  lead,  tho  acid  of  tho  milk 
jdiiig  upon  the  (•la/.e  fornis  a  very  noxious  poison.  This, 
Lowever,  is  scarcely  cirrect;  it  would  re()uirc  a  much 
rtror^r  acii!  than  that  of  milk  to  decompose  the  glaze ; 
aiiJ  in  some  parts  of  Rnirland  lead  has  hcen  long  used, 
and  never  ,dijectcd  to.  Zinc  pans  are  now  coming  into 
use,  and  they  can  he  sufely  reconunended  for  their  cool 
ind  cleanly  ipi  dities,  In'sideu  lieing  economical.  Wo 
have  seen  it  stated  that  cream  rises  Iiest  in  zinc  pans. 

Cheesc-prcsscs  arc  usually  uiailc  of  stone  of  various 
«i);ht<,  according  to  the  size  of  the  cheese,  (iranite  is 
I'toferrfd  for  this  purpose,  on  account  of  its  great  weight. 
A  lever  was  a  method  long  practised,  one  end  of  which 
luing  pl.ioed  in  a  hole  in  the  wall,  the  sinker  acted  as  a 
fulcrum,  and  one  or  two  unhewn  stones  hung  on  the 
cr.dofthe  pole  produced  the  pressure.  Another  kind  of 
priMis  consisted  of  a  stone  weight  placed  upon  the  sinker, 
which  was  raised  and  depressed  either  hy  a  hloek  and 
tackle  or  a  screw.  The  kind  most  commonly  used  at 
|iraent  is  a  lever  with  a  douhle  wfieel,  which  (X-cuiiies 
lillle  space,  is  easily  worked,  and  allows  of  the  weight 
king  belter  regulated  than  hy  a  stone  placed  upon  the 
sinker. 

Churning  is  now,  in  all  largo  dairy  est.ahlishmeiits, 
performed  by  machinery,  worked  cither  hy  horse  or  water 
power,  ir  ittaehed  to  a  thrashing-machine,  if  there  is  one 
near  the  dairy.  (Miuriis  vary  in  size  from  ten  to  fil\y,  and 

venoue  liundred  gallons,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
eslalilishmeiit.  The  plunge-churn,  which  has  the  appear- 
aiicof  a  barrel  plsced  on  its  end,  is  that  most  commonly 
used— the  plunt;e  being  worked  by  a  lever  connected 
with  a  shutt  and  crank,  moved  by  a  wheel  oulside. 
The  common  h.ind-churns  arc  of  various  forms,  either 
upright  with  a  plunge,  or  horizontal  with  arms  inside, 
which  are  turned  hy  an  iron  handle.  A  churn  formed 
hke  a  cradle  is  much  used  in  Canada,  and  has  been 
V.H..  I.— 76 


strongly  recommended  for  adupt      i  in  i  ouilHy.     II 

is  rocked  regularly  by  a  child  >■  ng  aM<  -i'-.  wit*  mtif 
thus  ho  usefully  employed  while  uuiusiii|(  |i  t,\t  mtt 
care  should  1)«  taken  to  wash  ehunm  th,  'laghlv  ,«ilh 
boiling  water,  both  immediately  aft.  '  i'  hava  hero 
used,  and  before  they  arc  again  to  be  pii  '|;ierittion ; 

and  those  rhurnii  which  admit  of  iKMiig  iajl>  elenntMl 
are  always  to  Iw  recommended,  oven  although  tliey  slioulii 
not  bo  BO  elegant  in  construction. 

DAIRY    PItODUCC. 

Milk. 

Milk  consists  of  three  materials  blended  loHether,  called 
in  science  tho  hutteraceoun,  lactic,  and  serous  kinds  of 
matter,  which  can  he  separated  by  urtiticial  means,  so  a* 
to  fivm  liiittcr,  the  milk  called  iutirr.iiM;  and  trrum  or 
whey,  Tho  whey  is  little  elite  than  water,  slightly  su- 
line,  and  is  generallv  the  chief  ingredient  in  the  milk. 
When  taken  from  mo  row,  milk  sliould  ho  removed  to 
llu)  dairy  or  milk-house,  and  ulk'r  being  sieved,  placed  in 
shallow  pans,  to  throw  up  tho  bntteraceous  matter  term- 
ed cream,  which,  being  lightest,  floats  on  tho  top. 

The  following  observations  on  milk  and  itn  manage* 
ment,  made  by  Dr.  Anderson,  in  his  "  Keercutions,"  are 
worthy  of  tho  consideration  of  cow-keepers: — 

"  Of  tho  milk  drawn  from  any  cow  at  one  time,  that 
part  which  comes  off  at  tho  first  is  ulwiiys  thinner,  and 
of  a  much  worse  quality  for  making  butti-r,  than  that 
afterwards  obtained ;  and  this  riehness  continues  to  in> 
crease  progressively  to  tho  very  last  drop  that  can  be 
obtained  from  the  udder. 

"  If  milk  be  put  into  a  dish  and  allowed  to  stand  still, 
it  throws  up  cream;  tho  portion  of  cream  rising  flrst  to 
the  surface  is  richer  in  quality  and  greater  in  quantity 
than  that  which  rises  in  a  second  equal  space  of  time ; 
and  the  cream  which  rises  in  the  second  interval  of  time 
is  greater  in  quantity  and  richer  in  quality  than  that 
which  rises  in  a  third  equal  space  of  time ;  that  of  thn 
third  is  greater  than  that  of  tho  fourth,  and  so  of  the 
rest;  tho  cream  that  rises  continuing  progressively  to  de- 
crease in  quantity  and  to  decline  in  quaUty  so  long  as 
any  rises  to  the  surface. 

"Thick  milk  always  throws  up  a  much  smaller  propor- 
tion of  the  cream  which  it  actually  contains  than  milk 
that  is  thinner ;  but  the  cream  is  of  a  richer  quality  ;  ami 
if  water  be  ailded  to  that  thick  milk,  it  will  uH'ord  a  con- 
siderably greater  quantity  of  cream,  and  consequently 
more  butter  than  it  would  have  done  if  allowed  to  icinain 
pure;  but  its  quality  is,  at  the  same  time,  greatly  debased. 
"  Milk  which  is  put  into  a  bucket  or  other  proper  ves- 
sel, and  curried  in  it  to  a  consideraMo  dislanco,  so  as  to 
be  iiiiieh  agitated,  and  in  part  cooled  bcl'ore  it  be  put  into 
the  milk-pans  to  settle  for  cream,  never  throws  u|)  so 
imuh  or  so  rich  cream  as  if  the  siune  milk  had  been  put 
into  the  milk-pans  directly  after  it  was  milked. 

"  From  these  fundamental  facts,  the  reflecting  dairyist 

will  derive  many  important  jiractical   rules.     Some  of 

these  we   shall   enumerate,  and   leave  llie^rest  to  lie  dig- 

covered.     (Jows  should  be  milked  as  near  tho  dairy  ai> 

possible,  in  order  to  prevent  tho  necessity  of  carrying  and 

I  cooling  the  inilU  before  it  is  put  into  the  cieaming  dishes. 

Every  cow's  milk  should  bo  kejit  sepurate,  till  the  pecu 

liar  properties  of  each  ore  so  well  known  as  to  admit  of 

their  being  classed,  when  those  that  are  most  nearly  allied 

may  be  mixed  together.     When   it  is  intended  to  make 

butter  of  a  very  fine  quality,  reject  entirely  the  mdk  of 

'  all  those  cows  which  yield   cream  of  a  bad  quidity,  and 

also  keep  the  milk  that  is  first  drawn  from  the  tow  at 

each   milking  entirely  seourate  from  that  which  is  last 

I  obtained,  as  the  quality  tf  the  butter  must  otherwise  b* 

;  greatly  debased,  without  materially  auginenthig  its  qiian- 

!  tity.     For  the  same  purpose,  take  only  the  cream  that  ia 

I  first  separated  from  tlie  first  drawn  milk.     Uuttei  of  the 

I  very  best  quality  can  onlv  he  ecuiiomicully  made  in  I 

3£ 


I 


INFORMATION   FOR   TIIR  PROIM.R. 


dairirii  wlicrr  rhrrw  la  »Iiio  msilr ;  Invuihh'  in  Itii'iii  llir 
lw«l  |>nrt  1)1'  I'lich  rnw'ii  milk  run  Ixi  wl  npiirt  lor  tliniwing 
up  rri'.irii,  tlio  lu'itt  |iurt  nf  tliii  i-riMiii  cun  Ih<  liikrri  in 
ofdi'r  to  Ih<  inatli'  into  Itulirr,  niiil  thx  rrtnitimlcr,  or  nil 
the  rent  of  lliH  milk  unci  crouin  of  thu  <liiii>,  cun  Im-  lurniol 
into  clii'ciio.  'I'Ik'  HiHijitiUK'ouii  »<'|iuriiti(in  ofrrnim,  unil 
the  prndui'liiin  of  Iniltcr,  iiro  nrvi-r  rlli'cti'd  liut  in  ronM'- 
quviio)'  of  tliK  |iriM!u<-tioii  of  nrid  in  the  milk.  Hcnii'  it 
U,  thill  whiTi*  iIk-  wIioIi)  milk  in  wt  apurt  for  tlir  wpiira- 
tion  of  crriim,  iind  tlin  whoio  of  tliii  cii'iitn  in  M'piiriiUil, 
tlifl  milk  niii><l  in'ccnmrily  hiivp  turnrd  Hour  iM'fun'  il  in 
mndf  into  I'liri'Hi' ;  niiil  no  wry  I'trcllrnt  clwrm)  run  bo 
niide  from  milk  wliirli  linn  onro  iiltiiinrd  lliit  hIiiIo." 

Wi'  now  paM  on  lo  a  rumtidrrutioa  of  tliu  niuMt  valu- 
able ingrrdiunt  in  the  dairy  produce— 

Hiilli-r. 

Bultrr  il  miide  of  rrrnni,  frrrd  from  it»  milky  nnd  hc- 
rou«  proprrtirs.  'I'hls  ia  rfli'ctrd  %  cliiirninK.  H(>ini> 
iinaginr  lliil  no  liiiltor  run  l>u  i;o>mI  rxrrpt  HUt'h  nx  in 
nmdr  from  frrHli  criMin ;  hut  thii*  in  a  miiluki',  im  rrriiii\ 
mquirrn  to  liuvc  a  lilllo  aridity  Iwforu  tlio  liiittrr  will 
form.  I'lir  liMiKth  nf  timr  which  the  crrum  Hhonlil  Htaml 
iK'foro  cliiirninij  Iiuh  iiuvrr  Invn  clrurly  uiKvrtuiiM'd ;  fron) 
three  to  M'vrn  duyfi,  liowrvrr,  muy  lio  con-<idrri'il  uh  tlir 
pro|)rr  |irrio<).  .\  more  import.int  mutter  tliun  the  IniKtli 
of  time  which  rrrnni  rrquircM  to  iituiid,  in  ihr  dcKrcr  of 
teiniN-ruliirc  at  wliii'h  thr  rrruiu  will  turn  into  Imtlrr. 
Thi»  huH  lii'cn  awrrtainrd  from  rx|M'rimriit  to  lie  from 
45  to  76  di'ifrrrn  of  Kuhrriilirit.  In  Holland,  wlirii  tlir 
rri'um  in  to.i  cold,  hot  watrr  in  put  into  the  churn  to  raise 
the  tom|M'raturr  to  70  or  7!>  dr);rrr.<.  The  bent  ipiulily 
of  butter  in  ohtainrd  at  a  tem|H-raturo  of  fil  ileij;recH,  iic- 
oordin);  lo  i'\(H'riiiirii!n  |)orforined  by  .Mr.  Pooler;  uiid 
llie  ({reutrnt  (jiiaiilily  at  u  trin|K'raturo  of  40  de^jrres. 
During  lh«  priH-rsn  of  chiirniii;;,  tho  OKitution  will  in- 
ereaiM!  the  lieut  lo  almut  livj  de|{reeii  mure  thun  it  wun 
when  tho  cream  wun  put  into  tho  churn.  Mr.  Pooler  in 
of  opinion,  that  the  i;rcatrr  quantity  of  hutter  in  ohtuined 
by  tho  iiicrtani'd  heat  caunin)r  more  milk  to  remuia 
•inuni^nt  tho  butter;  und  thia,  of  cuunic,  munt  derrruno 
ila  quulity. 

In  aoiiio  of  the  dairies  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  in  all  tlio-ie  neur  (ilun^^ow,  the  butter  in  made 
by  rhuriiinK  the  cream  und  the  milk  together.     Thin  in  j 
done  in  order  to  obtain  the  buttcriiiilk,  Iho  demund  for 
which  in  ulwayn  K^eat  in   lari;c  citien.     When  the  milk  j 
and  cream   are  lo  be  churned  tofjelher,  tho   milk  in  kept  ' 
in  the  ciMilern  for  from  twelve  to  twenty-four  huurn,  und 
tlien  poured  into  u  milk-tub.     It  remuiim  here  until  re-  i 
quired  for  rliurnini;;  und  will,  durini;  thin  time,  have  cu- 
agululrii.     If  a  rertaiii  quantity  of  milk  is  put  into  the 
milk-tub,  and  hun  coa^uluted  before  any  more  lian  cream- 
ed, the  coa);ulated  milk  munt  in  no  wuy  be  disturbed,  or, 
if  the  two  quuiitilien  aro  mixed  together,  too  much  fer- 
mentation  may  ho   tho  cuiiHC(|Ucncc.     The   milk  in  nr)t 
churned  till  il  ban  become  acid;  and  when  onre  coanulu-  ; 
tion  hun  taken  place,  it  Hhould  he  churned  an  early  as 
convenient.     If  the  milk  has  not  fermented  before  churn-  , 
lag,  the  buttcriiiilk  will  keep  for  a  much  longer  time, 
will  have   an  uttreeablo  tunte,  and  will  bear  to  \>c  mixed  i 
with  a  lilllo  water.     When  the  milk   hun  fermented  be-  ' 
fore  iH'int;  churned,  the  buttermilk  w  ill  never  bo  ho  Kood,  ; 
nor  will  it  keep  for  such  a  leiiyth  of  time  as  the  former. 

'i'he  operation  of  churning,  win  tlier  it   bo  oJ'  cream  ' 
alone,  or  rreum    and    milk,  in    performed   in   the  same 
manner,     'i'lic  milk  requirex  more  time  than  cream  to 
complete  the  proeesn,  from  two  to  three  hours  being  con- 
•idered  iiecrspiry,  while  rream  alone  may  lie  rHecliiully  I 
■iliiriied  in  an   h.iur  und  a  half.     It  in  necessary  that  thu 
'  oeralioii  nhoiild  be   slow    in  warm  weather;  for  if  done  ' 
U  o  ha.^tily,  the  butler  will   be    soft  and  white.     If   thu 
cream  in  at  loo  hi.4h  a  t*"inperature,  the  churn  should  be 
«ool««l  with  cold  spriiij;  water,  tu  reduce  it  to  the  proper  j 


'  decree  of  heat.     In  winlrr.  Bijttln.lhe 

iwg  uliould  Imi  doiio  ■•  quickly  n«  poh^ihlt^  (hi  tttm  h. 
inn  rrnulur;  and  ihu  churn  nhoiild  Ih)  wm'iik.,}  („    ^ 
llie  l4>iii|H'riilnru  of  the  milk  or  rream.     'l'\\^.  ^i,  ^i .  , 
Rrnrrulril  in  the  rliurn  nlioiild  In-  ullowed  to  i-m'^m  ,  " 
will  im|M'de  the  prormii  by  the  frolli  which  jt  rreiilr'. 
I       Art«r  the  eliuriiing  is  |H'rlormrd,  tlu,  hiillcr  nhouiill* 
wanheil   in  eold   npriiii;  water,  with  a  lilllr   null  Jn  jt 
or  tlirre   tiiiiea,   lo  exlrart   all   the   milk   wliidi  miv  i 
loilgiiig  about  the    maim.      It   in  naid    by  miiimi  ||„|  ., 
bulter  relaiiin  iln  sweeliien»   miirh   loiiixer  wlll•|ln^^^,  . 
in  uiM'il ;  anil  others  alliriii  that  the  waHhin^  hiiiiroYf ,  .k, 
llavoiir.     The  exirurlion  of  the  milk  froir.  lailtct  wi(|  «^ 
dure  its  wciuhl;  but  it  uppeurs  from  the  e  x  [K'rlim.m,  ^ 
i  Mr.  Pooler  upon  the  teiii|M'rature  of  the  creiuii,  ihn  (k, 
[  li'MM  milk  which  in  In  the  butt«'r  iln  quality  jn  pwimrt,,,,,. 
bly    iiiiprined.      Kneading   nnd    In  utiiig   the  Ijuh,,  ,, 
iiiueh   reiicirr   it  tiMnth   and  gluey,     .\fler  llin  milli  hy 
In'cii  carefully  extraeled,  if  the  butler  in  to  Iw  jaly  |. 
kIioiiM  )h!  mixed  with  the  fluent  Hull,  in  the  prii{io[tio'igf 
leu  ounces  to  the  stone  of  fourleeii  pouiiiU.  mom  or  i,- 
uceoidin.;  to  l!ie  lime  the  bulter  is  to  In'  pn  MerveJ,    fk, 
butler  and   salt   Hhould  be  well   mixed  to^iihor  witbii,, 
hand  ;  and  in  Inland  it  in  cuntomary  lo  add  a  liitl,;  „|i, 
|ietre.     A   coiiipoiiiid  of  one    part  nugar,  one  pjirt  ^1^. 
und  two  parts  of  the  bcHt   Hpaninh  fill,  finely  iiow(lir,.| 
togither,   has  Is'en   highly  recoiiinuniled  lor  lireHmnu 
butler.     It  in  used  in  the  ['ropoiiiuii  of  one  oiincc  [^  ij,, 
|Hiuiid  :  and  it  is  said  to  give  u  lla\our  tutlie  liuilorttUii 
no  oilier  kiiiil  ever  aecpiiren. 

For  making  butter  casks  or  kegs,  tho  irooj  of  ihj 
lime-tree  in  highly  reeomiiiindi  d,  as  conlaiiiiiig  no  iii>|' 
I  and  iil'ter  it  thu  white  oak  .iiid  the  unli.  Wlinn  wud 
I  contains  arid,  it  ucis  powrrfully  upon  the  sail  in  the  hat. 
i  ter,  ronverling  it  into  brine.  Pir  has  hI<o  lieen  rcom. 
I  mended  for  making  casks;  and,  indeed,  any  ivuud  .vill 
I  answer  if  boiled  for  a  few  hours,  for  by  this  proctatiiu 
pyroligiioun  acid  will  bo  entirely  taken  out. 

In  sailing,  the  butler  should  never  he  piu  into  tht 
(irkins  in  luyern;  but  the  surface  should  be  \cH  e^m 
day  rough  and  unbroken,  so  an  to  unite  I  ilUr  with  ihji 
of  the  Hiirceeding  churning.  The  iinalily  amy  likcva 
be  Is'lter  preserved  by  covering  it  ov,  r  with  n  oli'iin  Imej 
cloth  dipped  in  picklo,  and  placing  it  in  a  cool  situatiija 

nalterniilk. 

This  is  tho  liiiuid  which  remains  in  tho  churn  ate 
removing  the  butter.  If  skimmed  milk  has  liveii  cinplnyrj 
for  churning,  the  buttermilk  in  lliiii,  poor,  anil  raiilj 
sours;  but  if  from  tho  churning  of  the  entire  milli, l!ii 
butlermilk  is  more  thick  and  rich,  and  in  roiisiilor«llT 
many  a  delicious  beverage,  (iood  buUeriiiilk  in  at  ij 
events  exceedingly  whole.sotne  and  niitriiioui).  In  \k. 
land,  it  is  largely  us<hI  ut  meals  with  potutoeii;  in  iVo^ 
land,  it  is  more  frequently  oniploytil  as  a  reliitli  viiii 
oatmeal  |iorridge ;  and  for  this  purp.iso  large  (luanUiei 
are  brought  to  Kdinburgli,  lilasgow,  and  other  lovu, 
from  the  adjoining  raral  districts.  In  Knglaiul,  the  bit 
tcrmilk  of  farinoni  is  usually  employed  in  leoliug  pigi 

rorKtnrplKiio  Cream. 

This  is  a  preparation  of  milk,  which  derives  its  nim 
from  Corslorpliine,  a  village  three  miles  west  from  EJi> 
burgh,  where  it  was  once  made  in  |H'rfi'clioii.  Il  rai. 
«i»tM  of  the  curd  of  soured  or  Id/'fu'mt  milk,  from  whicli 
the  whey  is  poured,  along  with  fresh  cream  aiiJ  a  liul* 
sug.ir.  In  former  times  it  was  a  favourite  supper  iliill 
ill  Edinburgh,  but  is  now  altogether  out  of  use. 

Devonihirp  Cloiiiiril  rream. 

■  Thi.i  is  a  preparation  of  the  rich  milk  of  l)cvnr.!bitf, 
and  may  be  siid  lo  be  a  kind  of  half-formed  I  iller, such 
is  the  Kolidiies.n  of  iln  conaisliiii'y.  In  Vjiimiivcri 
"  Survey  of  Devoiisliire,"  the  following  is  dencribeJ  ai 


CATTLK  AND  DAIRY  HUSBANDRY. 


MS 


^  iiy>le  of  (vrrp«rint  thii  di'Ilcloil*  nrficlf  : — ••  Tlia  milk 
out  )»)'>  <■"  <"  oarttioii  iiaiiK,  hi>|.liiiK  nlioiit  U-n  or 
w  iiuar'"  i<ich.  I'lio  vvriiiii|('ii  nir-ul  in  placed  llm 
filliiwinu  ii>"r'ii»ir,  •'kI  thr  iiiiiriiiiiK'a  milk  iit  plut'L-il  in 
iMil)*''!""'"'  "I"'"  "*  '"'"*''  ■''""  I''"'*'  l>*'i>'''<l  l>.V  n  xmull 
furii*'''  '"  o'lK'^wiiin  ovit  kIovik,  wlirrp,  ('«|i<xioiJ  lo  a 
Mtill"  ''"■•  •'"■''  """"'"  ""'•'  ''^^'  •''•  whole  IxHJy  of 
attia  I*  Kii|i|Ni«i'il  lo  liavii  foriin'tl  M|mii  the  nuiluro; 
(IikIi  lK'iiii(  K'Miily  removcil  l>y  ihr  ■  l((i'  i)f  u  njMwm  or 
jjjlv,  iiiiiill  iiir-lililibleii  will  l)ci(iii  tu  rixi,  lliiit  drlioto  the 
•nproui  (i  lit  I'  ImilinK  heol,  wlirii  llif  |ihii«  miiMt  \m  re- 
movfil  iViMii  I'll  ihi"  hi'iiU'd   pl.ito  or  Htovm.     Tli"  cifiiin 

rrmiiii"  "I"'"  ''"'  '"'"^  '"  ''''"  "'"'"  ""'"  M"''*'  <'"''''  ^vlicii 
llmiy  !»'  removed  into  u  fhiirn.  or,  iin  \»  more  rrccnienlly 
(he  I'll"'',  iiit'i  iin  ci|M'n  vkhwI,  iind  then  movrd  liy  thn 
huiil  will)  a  itlii'k  nlKiut  a  foot  Ion  ;,  at  tlir  rnd  of  which 
infisi'il  II  Hiirt  1)1' perl  trom  four  tn  ,ix  inrhr*  in  diiinietrr, 
Kill  Willi  vvliii'h  alioiil  twelve  |i<iuii(U  of  Imtter  limy  he 
ituiiriitcd  (Vmii  the  hutlcrimlk  ut  ii  time — the  hiitler  in 
Mil  <''>'"''*  l'<'>'iK  found  lo  Hepamto  much  more  freely, 
iml  Kxiiicr  to  coiiKulatn  into  ii  iiiumm,  thiiii  in  theordiniiry 
way,  when  churned  from  raw  creiuii  tlmt  niiiy  have  U'cu 
nvcrul  diiyi  in  K"'h<'rinK;  and  nt  the  mimo  lime  will  an- 
iwerii  ni<>rc  valuahio  puriH>M\  in  prewrviiiK,  which  Hhould 
bf  fir.'l  Huitcil  in  iho  UHUitI  way,  then  placed  in  conveni- 
(nt-ai''j'<l  cui;-"haped  curlhen  erockii,  and  nlwayn  kept 
cnvcrcil  with  o  pickle,  nmde  Htron^f  i>noii«h  to  lloat  and 
buoy  U|>  itliout  half  out  of  the  hriiie  a  new-laid  ei;i;.  This 
cri'uin,  Ih  lore  churning,  i»  the  culvhrutvd  clouted  crcini 
of  De*"ii" 

Cliecan. 

Cheeiw  niny  'ic  mode  from  crenm  alono,  or  from  the 
nhole  mill. ;  the  ohject  in  either  raxc  heiii'^  in  llie  I'liHt 
ulacu  to  iwpnratp  the  Heruin  from  ihe  other  mnte- 
riak  i'hi^  i^  •iVected  hy  eurdliii);  the  rream  or  milk, 
by  llin  iiihu.of,  of  an  acid,  the  refuse  Ikmiik  the  Herain 
tr  wlicy,  which  is  of  scarcely  any  value.  No  noiduloua 
Nklnncc  is  found  bo  Huitalili-  for  curdlini;  milk  as  leii- 
HI/,  which  is  formed  of  the  Rnstrio  juice  of  u  culf  that 
hi8  licoii  fed  on  milk.  Some  persons  preserve  the  inawn 
or  i'.uiiiiich  hiiKs  of  calveii  with  the  curd  contained  in 
them ;  others  employ  the  sloimich  htti?«  alone,  putlini,?  a 
fcnr  h.iii(iriils  of  salt  into  and  around  them.  They  are 
Iheii  rolled  up,  and  hung  in  a  warm  place  to  ilry,  and 
ire  kept  for  some  time  U'fore  they  are  used.  'I'lie 
itomiu'h  is  never  made  uw  of  in  (iloucestershiro  until 
it  u  a  twelvemonth  old ;  for,  if  used  hefore  this,  it  in 
gaiJ  to  swell  the  cheese,  rnakiii)?  it  full  of  iiji-x  or  holes. 
The  iiHuid  way  of  ]irepariiii{  the  rennet  in  Ent;lniid,  is 
tn  add  to  every  six  skins  or  stomachs  two  gallons  of 
briiic,  and  two  lemons,  which  lake  away  any  uniileusant 
taste,  and  i;iv3  ihc  rennet  an  aureeahlc  flavour.  .\  larpe 
quantity  is  made  at  a  time  j  and  it  is  never  used  until 
it  h.»a  stuod  at  least  two  months.  A  method  of  pre- 
paring reiiiint,  recommended  by  the  late  Mr.  Marshall, 
id  aii  fallows  : — 

"Tike  the  maw  of  a  newly-killed  calf,  and  clean  it 
rf  its  contents,  salt  the  liai;,  and  put  it  into  an  earthen 
jir  fiir  three  or  four  days,  till  it  forms  a  pickle ;  then 
lake  it  (i.ini  tlie  jar,  and  hanu;  it  up  to  dry  ;  after  which 
I,  ia  to  l.-p  replaced  in  the  jar,  Ihe  eoverinu;  of  which 
ihouM  Ih'  pierced  with  a  few  holes  to  admit  the  air  ; 
iiid  allowed  to  remain  in  the  jar  for  twelve  mouths. 
Whn  wanted  I  >r  use,  a  handful  eiich  of  leaves  of  sweet 
hnir,  .ci'x  rose,  ami  hiamUle,  with  three  or  f.nir  hand- 
fuli  of  s.ilt,  are  to  he  lioiled  to;jether  for  a  (juarter  of  iin 
LOU.',  v.lieri  the  liipiid  is  lo  he  strained  od",  and  allowed 
In  oodl.  'Pile  maw  is  then  to  be  put  into  the  li<|uid. 
toqtllii'r  with  a  lemon  stuck  round  with  duves;  and 
ihi"  loiiL;,'r  it  remains  in  the  licpiid,  the  slronijer  and 
bettor  will  the  rennet  lie ;  half  a  pint  of  the  liijuid  is 
lufficienl  to  turn  fifty  (gallons  of  milk."  As  almost  every 
Jury  county  in  Eiigluud  huH  its  own  particular  method 


of  aterpinil  and  ultintr  'hr  m.iwn  and  f/«tpnrin|  Ih 
rennut,  we  iihall  only  gl^n  tiio  iiielhod  piiroied  tn  Ayik 
nhirv,  the  niimt  important  dairy  district  in  Mcotland, 
The  k.oiiiacli  of  the  calf  is  examined,  iiiid  all  impurilie* 
«ui  ti  1114  ntrnw,  removed  from  lh«  curdled  milk.  Two 
haiwIfiiU  of  salt  are  then  put  into  and  aniiiiid  the  bag, 
which  u  huiii(  ill  a  warm  place  to  dry  ihorointhly.  U 
\»  Keldoin  used  lirforn  it  i*  a  year  old,  and  even  a  loni|er 
period  is  tlioUKht  to  iinprovn  it.  When  wanted  tn  pre- 
pare rennet,  the  liat(  Is  rut  into  small  pieci's,  and  put 
into  a  jar,  with  a  handful  or  two  of  salt,  and  a  quantity 
of  hoiled  soft  water,  cooli'd  down  to  alioiit  sixty-flva 
denrces,  or  new  whey  luken  olf  Ihe  I'urd  is  put  into  the 
jar.  The  i|inintily  of  wati'r  or  whey  will  vary  accordin|| 
to  the  ipiulity  of  Ihe  yirnliiK  S  dikI  if  it  i«  that  of  a  new< 
drop|H'd  calf,  three  KiirIIhI)  pints  will  Iw  enough;  hiii 
if  fed  for  four  or  five  weeks,  two  i|uarts  will  he  uhout 
the  (piantity  reijuired.  This  is  alloweil  to  stand  in  the 
jar  for  two  nr  threy  days,  and  is  then  Htraine.l  ofT,  ami 
another  pint  of  water  placed  upon  the  maw,  which, after 
standing  three  days,  is  added  lo  the  first  infusion.  If 
any  impurities  appear  in  the  liijuiil,  it  should  l)o  rare* 
fully  strained  throiiKh  a  sieve,  and  the  whole  can  l« 
hottlcd  and  used  us  wanted.  A  ^'"'''''^"1  of  whisky  if 
Hoiiietimes  put  into  each  holtle  ;  hut  this  is  noteominoiw 
'i'lie  liipiid  thus  prepared  may  he  used  either  immcd^ 
niely,  or  ke|it  months  if  rei|uired,  and  a  tahle-sponnful 
will  coagulate  thirty  gallons  of  milk  in  thn  course  of  ten 
minutes ;  whereas  the  English  rennet  re(|uuva  nearly 
tliree  hours  for  this  purpose. 

IhinUft  Chtefc. — Dunlop  cheese  hai  of  late  eotna 
into  very  general  repute ;  and  although  nowhere  so 
well  made  as  in  the  parish  of  Ayrshire,  from  which  it 
derives  its  name,  it  is  now  matin  fad  u  red  in  (ialloway, 
in  Ihe  roiiiities  of  Itenfrew,  Lanark,  and  Ayr,  and  i* 
extending  to  others.  'J'he  cheeses  are  male  of  variouf 
sizes,  from  a  quarter  to  half  a  liuiulred  weight;  and 
the  process  of  making  them  is  as  follows  : — Sweet  milk 
for  Dunlop  cheese  is  composed  of  all  the  milk  ai  it  i* 
yielded  hy  the  cows  without  having  the  cream  sepa- 
rated from  it.  When  so  mony  cows  are  kejit  upon 
a  farm  that  a  cheese  can  bo  made  every  time  they 
are  milked,  the  milk  is  passed  through  a  seivo  into 
the  vat,  anil  formed  into  a  curd  l>y  the  rennet.  But 
when  the  cows  are  not  so  nuiiurous  as  to  aflurd 
milk  sutlicient  to  form  a  cheese  at  each  milking,  it  ia 
put  into  the  coolers  about  six  or  eight  inches  deep. 
At  the  next  milking  the  cream  is  skimmed  oft',  and 
without  being  healed,  the  milk  is  put  into  thu  curd-vat 
along  with  that  just  drawn  from  the  cows.  Tlie  milk 
is  then  raised  to  a  t^'mpcrature  above  blood  heat,  or  in 
summer  to  90  degrees,  and  in  wi.'itcr  'J.'i  degrees.  If 
coagulated  much  warmer,  the  curd  becomes  too  adhe- 
sive ;  some  of  the  buttoraccona  matter  is  lost  in  the 
whey,  and  the  cheese  will  be  found  dry,  tough,  and 
tasteless.  If  too  cold,  on  the  other  hand,  the  curd, 
which  is  then  soft,  does  not  part  readily  with  the  scrum, 
and  Ihc  cheese  is  so  wanting  in  firmness  that  it  is  difTi- 
cult  to  get  it  to  keep  together.  Even  after  the  utmost 
care  has  been  taken  to  extract  the  whey  and  give  soli 
dlly  to  the  cheese,  holes,  which  in  pri)vin<'ial  language 
are  termed  ryes,  whey-drops,  and  springs,  frequently 
break  out,  ond  render  the  cheese  eiilier  rancid  or  in- 
sipiil. 

It  is  not  enough  that  the  milk  be  brmii^ht  to  a  right 
tempeiatiire  when  the  rennet  is  appliid,  but  Ihe  milk 
must  be  kept  neither  too  hot  m  r  too  celd  from  the  time 
it  is  taken  from  the  cow.  The  ti'm|icr,!liire  of  the  milk- 
hoiise  ought  to  be  kept  as  equal  as  jmssilile,  never  rising 
above  .').'■>  nor  sinking  below  .10  ciegrees.  In  operation* 
so  critical  as  those  of  the  dairy,  where  any  matw 
rial  .ilteviition  in  the  tempeniturr  'vill  aftect  the  quality 
of  the  ehee-ie,  this  ought  at  aM  times  to  \w  ascertained. 
Instead   of  tliis,   llie  general  practice  is  for    the  d     y 


694 


INFOVMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


moid  merely  to  pass  ht  r  fingers  through  the  milk,  thnn 
which  nothing  can  lie  more  uncortiiin.  A  thermometer 
ought  not  only  to  bo  in  every  niiiic-housc,  but  also  in 
erery  byre,  ns  extremes  of  heat  or  cold,  or  sudden 
changes  in  tlie  temperature,  have  a  great  effect  upon  the 
•ecretion  of  milk. 

About  n  fnhle-spoonful  of  the  liiiuid  rennet  is  consi- 
dered Buiricicnt  for  100  quarts  of  milk,  aiid  the  curd  is 
formed  by  it  in  twelve  or  fifteen  minutes  j  but  in  some 
dairies,  tlie  curd  does  not  appear  in  less  than  forty-five 
or  sixty  minutes,  although  double  the  ([uantity  of  rennet 
is  used.  This  must  be  owing  either  to  a  want  of  strength 
in  the  renin't,  or  from  some  peculiarity  in  the  herbage 
upon  which  the  cows  have  lieen  fed.  The  curd,  when 
formed,  should  be  broken  with  the  skimming-dish  or 
the  hand  ns  soon  as  possible,  but  without  pressing  as 
the  least  violence  has  been  found  to  make  it  come  off 
white,  and  thus  weaken  the  quality  of  the  cheese.  The 
whey  may  be  run  off  by  lifting  the  tub  gently  on  its 
edge,  and  alLiwing  it  to  flow  into  a  vessel  placed  beside 
the  tub.  The  curd  should  then  be  allowed  to  stand 
until  the  whey  had  gathered  in  another  part,  and  this 
is  also  poured  off. 

When  quite  freed  from  the  whey  and  the  curd  has 
acquired  a  little  cojisistency,  it  is  cut  with  the  cheese- 
knife,  gently  at  first,  and  more  minutely  as  it  hardens, 
after  which  it  is  put  into  the  drainer,  a  stjuare  vessel 
with  small  holes  in  the  bottom,  and  a  cover  to  (it  inside. 
The  lid  is  placed  upon  the  cuni,  with  a  cloth  thrown 
over  it,  and  pressure  is  applied  according  to  the  (|uan- 
tity  of  cuni  ;  and  in  this  state  it  is  allowed  to  stand 
for  altout  half  an  hour.  It  is  then  cut  into  pieces  about 
two  inchi's  sipiare  ;  the  whey  is  ajaiii  discharged,  and 
double  the  former  weight  is  placed  upon  it.  This  pro- 
cess of  cutting  it  smaller  every  half  hour,  and  increas- 
ing the  wci;jht  until  the  pressure  is  100  lbs.,  is  con- 
tinued for  three  or  four  hours.  It  is  then  cut  very  small, 
ind  thorouirlily  salted  ;  thirteen  ounces  of  salCto  twenty- 
four  pounds  Rnglish  of  the  curd  being  suiricient. 

A  clean  clicesc-cloth,  rinsed  in  warm  water  ami  wrung 
out,  being  then  placed  in  the  chcssel,  the  curd  is  put 
in,  and  half  a  hundredweight  laid  on  it  for  an  hour. 
It  Li  then  jnit  under  a  press  of  two  hundredweitrht, 
where  it  remains  during  an  hour  ai.'  a  half,  after  wliiiii 
it  is  taken  out,  and  a  fresh  cloth  placed  in  the  chcssel. 
The  cheese  is  (hen  placed  upside  down,  and  laid,  with 
increast'ii  weight  under  the  press,  letting  it  remain 
three  or  four  hours  in  the  press  at  a  time,  and  at  each 
shifting  get  a  clean  dry  cloth,  f^ouie  have  shortened 
the  process  of  pressing  by  placing  the  cheese,  when  it 
comes  from  the  press  for  the  first  time,  into  water  heateil 
to  about  95  or  100  degrees,  where  it  remains  till  the 
water  becomes  milk-warm.  The  cheese  is  then  dried 
well,  and  again  placed  under  the  press. 

When  ultimately  taken  from  the  press  the  cheeses 
are  geneially  exposed  for  about  a  week  to  a  consider- 
able degree  of  drought,  turned  over  every  twenty-four 
hours,  and  rubbed  with  a  dry  cloth.  They  are  then 
removed  to  the  store-room,  which  should  be  in  a  <'ool 
exposure  between  damp  and  dry,  without  the  sun  being 
allowcil  to  shine  on  them,  or  a  great  current  of  air 
admitted — this  gradual  inoilo  of  ripening  being  found 
essential  to  prevent  the  fermenting  and  swelling  of  the 
cheese  and  cracking  of  the  rind.  The  mode  of  sweat- 
ing cheeses,  after  they  come  from  the  press,  and  before 
they  are  laid  up  to  dry,  although  common  in  Kngland, 
is  not  approved  of  nor  pructised  in  Ayrshire.  Yet 
Dunlop  cheeses  do  not  crack  in  the  skin  except  when 
the  milk  his  begun  to  acidify  before  being  coagulated, 
or  when  tiny  are  exposed  to  too  much  drought  at  first. 
Whey  springs,  or  eyes,  are  seldom  seen  in  the  cheeses 
of  .Ayrshire.  ("Iiecae,  like  butter,  is  Svunetimcs coloured 
with  an  infusion  of  annato,  but  the  practice  is  far  from 
King  common.     The  Dunlop  or  Ayrshire  chcosoa  have 


not  so  high  a  flavour  and  spicy  taste  as  some  of  iKi 
English,  owing,  perhaps,  to  the  inferiority  ofthcpasi, 
and  to  the  greater  pains  taken  in  the  English  dniJ'' 
to  give  the  cheese  an  acrid  taste.  " 

Cheshire  Cheese. — It  has  been  remarked,  that  I 
though  good  imitations  of  the  cheese  made  in  the  Rn 
lish  counties  have  been  produced  elsewhere,  yet  in  i, 
trial  has  a  cheese  possessing  the  true  Chenhi'ro  flavn 
been  made.  This  is  attributed  to  the  abundimcu  of th 
saline  particles  in  the  earth,  resulting  from  the  nun 
rous  salt  springs  in  that  county.  Cheshire  is  ain,;,,, 
entirely  a  dairy  county,  its  arable  husbandry  \)tn, 
neither  extensive  nor  of  a  superior  character,  h  \ 
said  to  possess  thirty-two  thousand  dairy  cows-  iht 
i|uantity  of  cheese  made  annually  is  cstimalcd  ut  p|py„. 
thousand  five  hundred  tons,  and  the  average  quanlilv 
afforded  by  each  cow  at  three  hundred  pounds,  In 
making  the  cheese,  the  practice  followed  is  to  set  [K 
evening's  milk  apart  till  the  following  morning,  when 
the  cream  is  skimmed  off,  and  two  or  three  callom 
put  into  a  brass  pan,  which  i.s  immediately  placed  in  hot 
water  and  rendered  s<-aldirig  hot.  Half  of  the  mjik 
thus  heated  is  poured  upon  the  night's  milk,  mid  ih, 
other  half  mixed  with  the  cream,  which  is  rendered 
thinner  by  the  mixture.  This  is  done  by  the  dairy. 
woman  wliile  the  other  servanta  are  milking  the  cowi- 
and  the  morning's  milk  being  immediately  added  to  that 
of  the  previous,  evening  tho  whole  mass  is  Rpt  to- 
gethcr  for  cheese.  The  rennet  and  colourin);  Wnj 
then  put  into  the  tub,  the  whole  is  well  stirred,  and ) 
wooden  cover  put  over  the  tub,  with  a  linen  cloth 
thrown  over  it.  It  in  general  requires  on  hour  and  i 
half  before  the  milk  curdles ;  and  if  the  cream  gjioulil 
rise  to  the  surface  in  this  time,  the  whole  must  he  ajjj 
well  stirred,  which  is  done  every  time  the  cream  risei 
until  coagulation  takes  place. 

When  the  curd  is  formed,  if  it  V)e  firm,  it  is  cut  wth 
the  cheese-kuife,  and  then  cut  across,  imdiing;  the 
incisions  about  an  inch  distant  from  each  other.  The 
curd  is  then  broken  by  the  dairy-woman,  until  everj 
part  of  it  is  made  as  small  us  possible,  al  out  forty 
minutes  being  generally  spent  in  this  process,  when  the 
curd  is  left  about  half  an  hour  to  subside,  covered  over 
with  a  cloth,  .\fter  this,  the  curd  is  ])ul  in  a  fuvouraMe 
position  in  the  tub  to  drain,  and  a  weight  of  nliuut  ?!iiv 
pounds  put  upon  it.  in  order  to  press  cut  the  wher, 
which  is  drained  to  the  lower  side  of  the  tub  and  ladK 
out.  When  well  drained,  the  curd  is  turned  ii|>iiie 
down,  and  pressed  as  lu'forc.  It  is  cut  into  jiii'ivs  of 
about  nine  inches  sijuare,  which  are  [lilcd  one  above 
another,  and  jiressed  both  with  the  hand  and  the  weight, 
so  long  as  the  whey  continues  to  flow. 

'I'heso  pieces  arc  then  cut  into  three  parts  of  alwul 
the  same  si/.e.  wliicli  are  broken  very  small,  and  salted 
at  the  rate  of  tnreo  handfuls  to  each.  They  are  thfi 
put  into  a  cheese-vat,  furnished  with  a  course  cheese 
cloth.  The  curd  ishea|M'd  in  the  vat  in  a  coiiicuUhape 
the  cone  being  covered  with  a  cloth,  to  prevem  anyeun 
from  falling  off.  As  soon  as  tho  curd  adheres  tiiKcthc, 
a  weight  of  about  sixty  pounds  is  put  upon  it.iuid  sefe- 
ral  iron  ski  wers  are  stuck  through  it  by  holes  in  iho 
sides  of  the  vat.  These  holes  arc  made  in  order  to 
allow  any  whey  remaining  in  the  curd  to  esra|H'.  The 
weight  an<l  skewers  are  then  reinoveil,  and  the  curd  « 
broken  as  small  as  possible,  half  way  down  the  vjl 
The  i)ressinu'  and  skewering  are  again  repeated,  and  i 
clean  cloth  is  jiut  over  tho  upper  part  of  tlie  eurJ, 
which  is  then  taken  out  of  the  vat,  and  put  into  il  aiiain 
upside  down,  and  broken  half  way  down  us  befort 
When  no  more  whey  can  be  extracted,  the  curd  ii 
turned  in  the  vat,  and  rinsed  in  warm  whey.  The  cure 
is  still  kept  above  the  edge  of  the  vat,  being  liound 
round  with  strong  tape  to  keep  ii  in  a  prn|ii>r  sliap* 
Tho  cheese  m  iioxt  put  into  the  press,  .which  bta  ((m 


CATTLE   AND  DAIRY  HUSDAKDRY. 


.1   f^^f  power  of  fourtci  n  or  Btxtccn  liuiidrcclwcight, 

i/is  then  well  skowcrct  with  strong  wires,  cightrcn 
a  twenty  inches  long,  and  sharp  at  tho  points.     The 

1 19  furnished  with  holes  on  the  sides  to  receive  the 
ikewers;  i- d  after  being  about  half  an  hour  in  the 
DreM  the  rhci^se  is  again  turned,  and  supplied  with  a 
If »n' cloth.  It  is  turned  again  and  again  several  times 
for  wrty-fight  hours,  each  liuie  supplied  with  a  clean 
tloll)  anJ  ''*  '''*''  P"'  n>id-dccp  into  salt,  its  top  co- 
.([jj  with  salt,  where  it  remains  for  three  days,  its 
nosition  Iv'ing  reversed  each  day.  When  taken  out  of 
he  vat,  it  is  put  into  a  wooden  hoop  or  girth  of  tho 
„ne  lircadth  as  the  thickness  of  the  cheese,  ond  is 
rUwd  on  thi'  salting  bench,  where  it  stands  about  eight 
L,(,eing  well  salted  during  that  time.  The  cheese 
■  ihen  washed  in  lukewarm  water,  and  after  being 
wiped,  is  placed  on  the  drying  bench,  where  it  re- 
Biiins  about  seven  days ;  it  io  then  again  washed  and 
dried  as  licfiirc,  and  rubbed  all  over  with  sweet  butter. 
After  this,  it  is  placed  in  the  wannest  part  of  the 
checsc-room,  and  rubbed  each  day  with  sweet  butter  !'or 
the  first  seven  days. 

These  cheeses  vary  in  size,  being  in  some  dairies 
nearly  a  hundred  and  forty  pounds  in  weight.  The 
QiiaBtitv  of  salt  made  use  of  during  the  process  is  un- 
ctrtaifi;  three  pounds  to  a  cheese  of  sixty  pounds  is 
thought  to  be  about  the  amount ;  but  much  of  this  is 
lOst  in  the  salting  house.  Whether  the  cheese  acquires 
much  saltness  during  the  steeping  and  rubbing,  is  un- 
cirtaiii,  though  much  salt  is  expended  in  these  opera- 
tions. 

Gloiicrster  Checfc. — The  double  Gloucester  cheese, 
which  is  held  in  such  high  repute,  is  almost  wholly 
mailo  in  the  vale  of  Berkley  in  Gloucestershire.  Its 
esrellcnce  is  said  to  depend  much  upon  the  quality  of 
the  land,  and  tho  great  attention  which  is  paid  to  the 
management  of  tho  dairies.  The  quantity  of  cheese 
nude  in  this  vale  annually,  is  about  one  thousand  two 
hundred  tons,  and  each  cow  is  estimated  to  yield  three 
hundred  and  fifty  pounds.  It  is  usually  made  in  the 
months  of  Atay,  June,  and  July,  and  the  process  of 
manufacturing  is  as  follows  : — 

When  the  curd  is  considered  firm  enough  for  breaking, 
it  is  rut  gently  and  slowly  into  squares  of  about  an  inch ; 
ud  aft*'r  standing,  to  ollow  the  whey  to  gather,  it  is  again 
cut  at  this  time  into  larger  pieces  than  before,  and  slowly 
It  first.  This  cutting  is  gradually  quickened,  the  incisions 
being  in;ide  near  to  each  other.  The  lumps  of  curd  are 
litleJ  with  the  skimming  spoon  in  one  hand,  and  cut  with 
« knife  in  the  other  hand,  while  suspended.  The  curd 
ii  now  allowed  to  settle  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  when 
the  whey  is  taken  from  it  by  being  poured  through  a  fine 
hair  sieve,  the  dairymaid,  at  the  same  time,  cutting  the 
curd  so  that  all  the  whey  may  escape.  The  curd  is  then 
pressed  down  with  the  hand  into  vats,  covered  with  largo 
cheese-cloths  of  fine  canvas,  ond  placed  in  the  press  for 
half  an  hour.  It  is  then  put  into  o  mill,  which  crumbles 
it  to  small  pieces,  thus  saving  the  labour  of  squeezing 
tnd  rubbing  with  the  hands ;  and  this  operation  is  tliought 
I  jreat  improvement  in  the  making  of  chees*!. 

The  whey  is  rext  completely  extracted,  and  tho  curd 
put  as  compactly  as  poasible  into  the  vat,  heaped  above 
llie  vat  just  so  far  that  it  can  be  pressed  down  to  a  level 
with  the  edge.  A  cheese-cloth  is  then  spread  over  tho 
»at  and  a  little  hot  water  thrown  over  the  cloth,  which 
huittudeney  to  burden  the  outside  of  the  cheese,  and 
prevent  it  from  cracking.  Tho  curd  is  next  turned  out  of 
I'll!  vat  into  the  cloth,  and  the  inside  of  the  vat  Wing 
Rwhed  in  whey,  the  invertetl  curd  with  the  cloth  is  re- 
tumoil  to  the  vat.  The  cloth  is  then  folded  over,  and  the 
Mt  put  into  the  press  for  two  hours,  when  it  is  taken  out, 
Did  dry  cloths  applied  through  the  course  of  the  day. 
It  ii  then  replaced  in  the  press  until  salted,  which  is  gene- 
(illy  performed  about  twenty-fuur  hours  aHm  it  v  iBa<K 


In  salting,  tho  cheese  is  rubbed  with  finely  powdered  saltj 
and  this  is  thought  to  make  the  cheese  smoother  and  more 
solid  than  when  the  salting  process  is  performed  upon  the 
curd.  The  cheese  is  after  this  returned  to  the  vat,  and 
put  under  the  press,  in  which  more  than  one  are  placed, 
the  newest  one  at  the  bottom,  and  the  oldest  on  the  top. 
The  suiting  is  repeated  three  times,  twenty-four  hourg 
being  allowed  to  intervene  l)etwoen  each ;  and  tho  cheese 
is  finally  taken  from  the  press  to  the  cheese-room  .n  the 
course  of  five  days.  In  the  cheese-room  it  is  tumid  over 
every  day  for  a  month,  when  it  i^  .  leaned  of  all  scurf,  and 
rubbed  over  with  a  woollen  cloth,  dipped  in  a  paint  made 
of  Indian  red  or  Spanish  brown  and  small  l)cer,  Ae 
soon  as  the  paint  is  dry,  the  cheese  is  rubbed  once  a  week 
with  a  cloth. 

The  quantity  of  salt  employed  is  about  three  and  a 
half  pounds ;  and  one  pound  of  annato  is  sufllcient  to 
colour  half  a  ton  of  cheese. 

'I'he  true  characteristics  of  double  Gloucester  consipt  In 
its  great  richness,  together  with  the  mildness  of  its  fla. 
vour.  The  single  Gloucester  differs  in  no  respect  in  the 
Leaking  from  tho  double  sort,  excejit  that  it  is  thinner ; 
the  weight  of  each  seldom  exceeding  twelve  pounds, 
while  the  double  is  generally  about  twenty-two  i>oundaL 
This  cheese  is  sometimes  made  less  rich  by  being  mixed 
with  skimmed  milk. 

Siilton  Clicrse. — This  cheese  is  made  by  putting  the 
night's  cream,  without  any  portion  of  skimmed  milk,  into 
the  next  morning's  milk  ;  but  those  who  wish  to  make  it 
very  fine,  add  still  more  cream  ;  and  thus  its  richness  de- 
pends upon  the  quantity  of  cream  made  use  of.  Butter 
is  also  said  sometimes  to  be  used  in  its  manufacture.  The 
rennet  is  then  added  without  any  colouring ;  and  when 
the  curd  has  formed,  it  is  taken  out  without  being  brokei\, 
and  put  whole  into  a  sieve  or  drainer.  In  the  drainer  i( 
is  pressed  with  weights  until  all  the  whey  is  extracted, 
and  when  dry,  put  into  a  hooped  chessel.  Tho  outer 
coat  being  salted,  it  is  then  put  into  the  press,  and  when 
suflieicntly  firm,  it  is  taken  out  of  the  chessel,  and  bound 
tightly  in  a  cloth.  This  cloth  is  changed  every  day  un<ji 
the  cheese  is  quite  dry,  when  it  is  remove! ;  and  the 
cheese  requires  no  further  care  except  occasional  brushing 
and  turning.  The  Stilton  cheese,  althoui^h  small,  not 
weighing  more  than  twelve  pounds,  requires  two  years  to 
bring  to  full  maturity. 

I'arniisan  Clieesr. — This  famous  cheese  is  manufactured 
in  that  part  of  Italy  which  lies  between  Cremona  and 
Lodi,  comprising  the  richest  portion  of  the  Milanese  ter- 
ritory. The  cows  arc  kept  in  the  house  nearly  all  the 
year  round,  and  fed  in  summer  with  cut  grass  from  the 
rich  irrigated  meadows  of  the  country.  Some  of  the 
cheeses  are  so  large  as  to  contain  nearly  180  lbs.  and 
the  milk  of  100  cuws  is  required  to  prjJ'ice  one  uf  thi» 
size.  This  cheese  is  maile  from  the  milk  of  the  evening, 
which  is  skimmed  in  the  morning  and  at  noon,  and  the 
milk  of  the  morning,  which  is  also  skimmed  at  noon. 
'I'hese  two  milks  are  put  together  into  a  large  copper  cal- 
dron, which  is  hung  on  the  arm  of  a  lever,  and  can  be 
taken  off  and  put  on  the  fire  at  pleasure.  The  mik  is 
heated  in  this  vessel  to  about  120  degrees,  and  then  re- 
moved from  the  fire  and  kept  quiet  until  all  internal  mo- 
tion has  ceased. 

The  rennet  is  then  added,  ond  in  an  hour  the  curd  will 
have  formed,  when  it  is  again  put  on  the  fire  and  heated 
to  a  tenqieraturc  of  1-15  degrees.  While  heating,  the 
mass  is  briskly  stirred,  till  the  curd  separates  in  small 
pieces,  when  part  of  the  whey  is  run  oft',  and  a  little  saf- 
fron added  to  colour  the  cheese.  When  the  curd  is  suffi- 
ciently broken,  nearly  the  whole  of  the  whey  is  taken  out, 
and  two  pailfuls  of  cold  water  arc  thrown  in.  Tho  tern 
pcraturo  is  thus  reduced  so  far  as  to  allow  the  .lairymcn 
to  collect  the  curd,  by  passing  a  cloth  under  it  and  gather- 
ing up  the  corners.  It  is  now  [iresscd  into  a  frame  of 
wood,  placed  on  a  solid  platform,  with  a  heavy  weight  on 
3k2 


m 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


tt  e  top.  In  the  counw  of  the  night  the  curd  cools,  pnrts 
with  the  whpy,  nnj  assumes  n  firm  consistenco.  The 
next  (lay  one  side  is  rubbed  with  salt,  and  the  succewlins 
day  the  chocae  is  turned,  and  the  other  side  rubbed  in  fho 
ii.ime  manner,  this  alternate  salting  being  continued  for 
forty  days.  After  tliis,  the  outer  surface  of  the  cheese  is 
pi-red  ok,  the  fresh  surface  ruhliod  with  linseed  oil,  the 
convex  side  is  coloured  red,  and  the  cheese  is  fit  for  sale. 

[t  api>cars  that  this  higlUy  esteemed  cheese  is  altogether 
mide  from  skimmed  milk,  and  yet  all  the  pores  are  filled 
with  an  oily  substance.  This  seems  too  rich  to  be  im- 
parled by  tlie  butteracnous  matter  of  milk  which  has  been 
dr,irived  of  its  cream,  and  it  is  generally  supposed  that 
BCine  portion  of  oil  is  mixed  with  the  curd.  This,  how- 
6»cr,  has  not  been  ascertained  to  l)C  the  case.* 

Strist  Clifcsc. — The  finest  cheese  made  in  Switzerland 
is  that  of  Gruyerc,  in  the  canton  of  Friburg.  It  is  rich 
in  quality,  and  generally  flavoured  with  a  powdered  dry 
Herb,  the  Meliloliii'  oJJitituiUs.  The  cheeses  weigh  from 
forty  to  sixty  pounds  each,  and  are  exported  in  largo 
quantities. 

Mr.  Laing,  in  his  work,  "  Notes  of  a  trovcller,"  thus 
jlludes  to  the  primitive  dairy  operations  of  the  small  pas- 
toral fanners  in  Switzerland  : — "Each  parish  has  its  iilp, 
that  is,  its  common  pasture  for  the  cows  of  the  parish, 
and  each  inhabitant  is  entitled  to  a  cow's  grazing,  from 
Juno  to  October,  on  this  common  pasture.  Few,  how- 
ever, have  cows  in  <iuflicicnt  number  to  repay  the  labour 
of  attending  tlicin  at  the  summer  grazing  in  the  alps. 
The  properties  arc  too  small,  in  general,  to  keep  more 
Ulan  five  or  six  cows  all  winter;  and  few  can  keep  more 
than  three.  Yet  these  small  proprietors  contrive  to  send 
cheese  to  market  as  large  as  our  Cheshire  dairy-farmers 
with  tlieir  dairy  stocks  of  forty  or  fifty  cows ;  and,  as  the 
price  of  Gruycre  cheeses  shows,  incomparably  better  in 
quality.  Each  parish  in  Switzerland  hires  a  man,  gene- 
rally from  the  district  of  Gruyerc  in  tiic  canton  nf  Friburg, 
to  take  care  of  the  herd,  and  make  the  cheese ;  and  if  the 
man  comes  from  Gruycre,  oil  that  he  makes  is  called 
Gniyere  chec;je,  although  made  fat  enough  from  (iruyerc. 
One  chcescman,  one  pressman  or  assistant,  and  one  cow- 
herd, are  r.nisidcred  necessary  for  every  forty  cows.  The 
owners  of  the  cows  get  credit,  each  of  them,  in  a  hook 
daily,  for  llic  quantity  of  milk  given  by  each  cow.  The 
ciiceiicman  and  his  .assistants  milk  the  cow<>  put  the  milk 
altogether  "ud  make  cheese  of  it ;  and  at  the  end  of  the 
w-^uion  each  owner  receives  the  weight  of  cheese  pro- 
portiotmblc  to  the  quantity  of  milk  his  cows  have  de- 
livcred.  By  this  co-operative  plan,  instead  of  the  small- 
sized,  unmarketable  cheeses  only,  which  each  could  pro- 
duce out  of  his  three  or  four  cows'  milk,  he  has  the  same 
weight  in  large  marketable  cheese  superior  iti  quality,  be- 
cause made  by  (h'oj.Ic  who  attend  to  no  other  business. 
The  cheeseman  ami  his  assistants  arc  paid  so  much  per 
head  of  the  cowp,  in  money  or  in  cheese,  or  sometimes 
tliey  biro  the  cows,  and  pay  tlie  owners  in  money  or 
cnecsc.  In  October,  the  cows  are  brought  home,  and 
the  home  grass-lands  having  been  mown  for  hay  twice 
during  the  summer,  the  winter  fnod  is  provided,  and  a 
♦ery  small  area  of  land  keeps  a  co\t,  when  the  home  grass 
has  not  fM-eri  burdened  with  sutnnicr  grazing.  The  pas- 
ture in  these  al[>s,  or  summer  grazings,  is  abutidant  and 
rich.  In  some  of  the  upjier  valleys,  inhabited  v<int<'r  as 
well  as  summer,  but  in  which  the  corn-crops  arc  second- 
ary, and  dairy  produce  the  main  object — as,  for  instance, 
Grindewald — a  man  with  a  house  suitably  situated  is 
pcrmaiicnily  estaldished  for  receiving  the  milk  of  the 
neighliourhotxl.  Each  family  takes  care  of  anil  milks  its 
own  cow  or  cows,  keeps  the  milk  wanted  for  family  use, 
•nd  sends  the  rest  of  it  daily  to  the  checaoman,  who  givos 


each  family  credit  for  the  milk  delivered  esch  J»y. 
the  cheese  made  during  the  season  is  divided  or' 
usually  the  cheese  is  marketed,  and  the  nioney'diTiil!!? 
and  in  this  way  cheeses  of  great  weight  are  m«nuf« ' 
tured,  although  no  one  cow-owner  has  milk  fuanA  h 
make  one  of  marketable  size.     I  went  one  warm  f 
noon,  while  ascending  the  Rhigi,  into  one  of  those  da 
houses.     From  the  want  of  dairymaids  or  females  abd'^ 
the  place,  and  the  appearance  of  the  cow-man  and  h' 
boys,  I  thought  it  prudent  to  sit  down  on  the  bench  out 
side  of  the  smoky  dwelling  room,  and  to  ask  for  a  Ijo  i 
of  milk  there.     It  was  brought  me  in  a  reniarkaMy  cIm 
womlen  howl,  and  I  had  some  curiosity,  when,  cli-m 
dirty,  my  milk  was  swallowed,  to  see  where  it  cnme  from 
The  man  took  mo  to  a  separate  wooden  biiiliijm;.  anJ 
instead  of  the  disgusting  dirt  ami  slutlishness  I  haJp 
pected,  I  found  the  most  unpretending  cleanlincFs  imiJ  ] 
rough  milk  room ;  nothing  was  in  it  but  the  wnodei,  re,. 


sels  belonging  to  the  (!airy,  but   these  were  of 


"neictp. 


•  Fnroiir  infiirmntion  iipmi  lh»  mnniirnrlurr  of  rhrete  In  ilie 
f^nRlisi  I'oiiiiUi;!!.  we  liayn  l)e*ri  in>li'l'l<'d  U>  llii-  Urjtiih  Hiik- 
C'lnilr;  aiul  me  diirurciil  couiuy  ri-iiorm  ,  and  Ibr  Ilii-  arcininl 
of  ill  •    'armf  «oil  clici-«e,  priic  imllj  lo  tlii'  Juuriia!  ilc  I'lij  k.>,i.<;. 


tionablc  nicety  ;  and  all  those  holding  the  milk  worn  1 
standing  in  a  broad  rill  of  water  led  from  the  nffl''hlxinr 
ing  burn,  and  rippling  through  the  centre  of  the  j,^  ' 
and  prevented,  by  a  little  side  sluica,  from  running  too  fii'l 
and  mingling  with  the  milk.  This  burn  runninir  throojh 
gave  a  freshness  and  cleanliness  to  every  article ;  althoiith 
the  whole  was  of  rude  construction,  and  cviijcnijv  ij. 
use,  not  show.  The  cows  were  stabled,  I  found,  at  sow 
disttmee  from  the  milk-house,  that  the  etlluvia  of  thoii 
breath  and  dung  might  not  taint  the  milk.  Chrese  li 
almost  the  only  agricultural  product  of  Switzerland  ihai 
is  exported;  audit  is  manufactured  by  these smiill  fannen 
certainly  as  well,  with  as  nmch  intelligence,  cleanlinei 
and  advantage,  as  by  large  farmers," 

Whey. 
Whey,  or  the  thin  watery  serum  of  milk,  is  of  >  p 
greenish  hue,  and  saline  in  taste,  and  forais  an  a^recabji  I 
beverage  when  cool.  Some  dairy-farmers  in  England areij 
the  habit  of  extracting  a  little  butter  from  it;  Imt  »iij| 
careful  management,  this  practice  would  he  qnile  mv  I 
necessary,  as  it  is  only  when  the  milk  has  htcn  coajij,  I 
latcd  too  hot  that  any  quantity  of  butter  will  remain  it  I 
this  liquid.     In  Scotlanil,  the  whey  is  used  as  food  bviln 
farmers  and  their  families  in  making  oatmeal  portiiJB 
and  a  saving  of  nearly  one-third  of  meal  is  elTected  irlin  I 
the   porridge  is  made  of  whey   instead  of  water,  fiji 
boiling,  what  is  called  float  whey  is  obtained,  which.jrlmiil 
mixed  with  a  little  sweet  milk,  is  thought  little  infrriottil 
curd.      Whey  is  also  very  valuable  in  feeding  swine; a 
it  is  estimated  that  the  whey  of  three  or  fmir  ciiwsm|| 
in  the  course  of  one  season,  with   little  ndiiitin'ial  food,! 
fatten  a  pig  to  the  weight  of  twelve  or  fourteen  stonei 

LONDON   DAIRV   MANAGEMENT. 

The  quantity  of  fresh  milk  annually  consumed  in  lin I 
British  metropolis  was  lately  calculated  to  lie  ;)9J2il,(K(| 
quarts,  costing  £9S5,.'500,  and  lieing  the  prinli  ce  of  1!.0I 
cows,  kept  principally  in  large  dairy  establishment inill 
parts  of  the  environs.  The  milk  is  generally  nf  tliclirti 
kind  when  drawn  from  the  animals;  but,  liett\(rnlli(| 
dairy  and  the  consumer,  it  passes  through  several  liaad^l 
each  of  whom  takes  a  profit  upon  it,  and  incnnufslliil 
quantity  of  saleable  liquid  by  large  infusions  ofwil(i,[ 
chalk,  fiC.  In  the  condition  it  usually  reaches  the  fobk I 
it  is  shamefully  ailutterated.  1"he  charg<!  of  detfrioiitBjl 
the  quality  of  the  article  is  seldom  made  upon  ihp  (»[ 
kee|M'rs,  whose  establisluiients  are,  for  the  niiist  |ijrt,i»j 
dels  of  good  nianagenn  iit.  As  it  may  l)c  inleie'sliiiiBl 
our  renders  to  have  some  account  of  these  large  iliin«| 
we  present  the  following  particulars: — 

The  two  largest  dairy  establishments  are  those  o(  Hi  I 
Flight  (known  as  Laycock's  dairy)  and  of  Meseis.  Khodal 
Flight's  is  one  of  the  curiosities  of  London ;  it  m»«i| 
fourteen  acres  of  ground,  surrounded  by  a  high  wall,  ail 


CATTLE  AND   DAIRY  HUSBANDRY. 


wr 


•  |i,!'injl''ii''''"P-''  *"''  '''"  '"'''"■''nt  purposes  required. 
r'llio  cow-hou;<c  thnro  nre  upwards  of  400  cows,  the 
niole  of  wliich  arc  M  in  stalls.     Tlie  food  is  very  pro- 

1  ,|,fipii ;  at  one  time  they  have  mangel  woracl ;  tlien 
jf 'ijjyp  turnips,  cnrrotx.cnbliages,  and  clover;  and  wli  i 
..j^j^gfor  market,  they  are  fed  on  oil-cnke  and  oti: 
rtidca.  All  are  rurried  daily.  Adjoinincrtliceow-hoii^ie 
In  an  hospital  for  imwell  eows,  or  cows  which  nre  calviiipr. 
The  milk-lioiise  i»  kept  beautifully  clean,  being  scoucrcd 
Jailv  with  hot  water. 

With  respect  to  Rhodes's  dairy,  which  is  situated  at 
[linirton,  Mr.  London,  in  his  "  Eiicyclopa-ilia  of  Asrirul- 
ijre"  has  coiulcnwd  the  f)lIowing  desoription  of  its  ex- 
tent'and  mode  of  manatjement  from  various  publications : 

•  The  nuinhor  of  cows  kept  by  the  present  Mesurs.  Rhodes 
floeoJs,  on  an  avcnme  of  the  year,  four  hundred  :  at  one 
time  tho>^i'  individualH  arc  said  to  have  had  upwards  of  a 
thousand  cows  in   their  dillereiit  establishments.     The 
airfeoc  on  which  the  buililings  are  placed  is  a  slope  of 
two  or  three  acres,  faciiia;  the  east;  and  its  inclination  is 
Jioiit  one  inch  in  six  feet.     The  sheds  run  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  slope ;  as  well  for  the  natural  drainai?e  of  the 
pntlcn,  and   the  more  easily  scrapins,  sweeping,   and 
wheeling  ont  of  the  manure,  as  for  supplying  water  for 
drinking  to  small  cast-iron  trou;,'hs,  which  are  fixed  in  the 
walls,  at  the  heads  of  the  cattle,  in  such   a  manner  as 
tjiat  the  one  tronch    may  lie  supplied  from  the  other 
throughout  the  whole  length  of  the  shed.     The  sheds  are 
iwcntv-four  feet  wide ;  the  side  walls  about  eight  feet 
hiih;' the  roof  of  tiles,  with   rising  shutters  for  ventila- 
tion, ami  with  pnncH  of  glass,  glazed  into  ca.st-iron  skele- 
ton liles,  •""■  '"'ht.     '''he  floor  is  nearly  flat,  with  a  gutter 
i\o\r  the  centre  ;  and  a  row  of  stalls,  each  seven  feet 
jnil  a  half  wide,  anil  adapted  for  two  cows,  runs  along 
the  sides.    'l"he  cows  arc  fastened  by  chains  and  rings, 
which  rings  run  on  upright  iron  rods,  in  the  corners  of 
the  stalls;  the  common  mode  being  departed  from  only 
inharing  iron  rods  instead  of  wooden  posts.  A  trough  or 
manger,  formed  of  stone,  slate,  or  cement,  of  the  ordinary 
lizc  of  those  used  for  horses,  and  with  its  upper  surface 
ibout  eighteen   inches  from  the  ground,  is  tixcd  at  the 
l.rad  of  each  stall.     Four  sheds  are  placeil  parallel  and 
dose  ti-i  each  other,  and  in  the  party  walls  are  openings, 
ihont  a  foot  in  breadth  and  four  feet  high,  opposite  each 
(flw.    The  bottom  of  these  openings  is  about  nine  inches 
ninhcr  than  the   ujiper  surface  of  the  trough i,  and  is 
formed  by  the  upper  surface  of  the  one-l'oot-.'.iiuare  cast- 
iion  cisterns,  which  contain  the  water  for  drinking.    Each 
rislcrn  serves  two  cows,  which,  of  course,  arc  in  dilferent 
sheds,  hut  adjoining  and  opposite  each  other.     All  these 
troughs  are  supplied  from  one  large  cistern  by  (lipes,  in  a 
manner  which  can  be  ho  readily  conceived  that  we  shall 
not  stop  to  offer  a  description.     Each  of  these  troughs  has 
a  wooden  cover,  which  is  put  on  during  the  time  the 
cows  are  eating  their  grains,  to  prevent  their  drinking  at 
the  same  time,  and  dropping  grains  in  the  water.     At 
the  upper  end,  and  at  one  corner  of  this  quadruple  range 
of  sheds,  is  the  dairy,  which  consists  of  three  rooms  of 
about  twelve  feet  s<piare :  the  outer  or  mcasuring-rooni ; 
Ihe  middle  or  scalding-room,  with  a  fir«-placc  and  a  boiler ; 
and  the  inner  or  milk   and  butter-room,  separated  by  a 
p««.«ge  from  the  last.     At  the  lower  end  of  the  range  is 
•  sijuiro  yard,  surrouinled  by  sheds;  one  for  fattening 
tlw  cows  when  they  have  ceased  to   give  milk,  and  the 
otliiTs  for  store  and  breeding  pigs.     The  pigs  atv  kept  fur 
I'lc  piiqiiisc  of  lon.-nmiiig  the  casual  stock  of  skim  milk 
which  occnsirtii;\lly  remains  on  hand,  owing  to  the  fluetu- 
■liiinH  in  the  demand.    This  milk  is  kept  in  a  well,  wollcd 
Willi  hrick  laid  in  cement,  about  six  feet  in  diameter,  and 
tW(  Ive  f'ei  deep.     The  milk  liceouieg  simr  there  in  n  very 
iliorltiric;  and,  as  is  well  known,  is  found  most  nourish- 
ing to  tlie  pigs  when  given  in  that  state.     Breeding  swine 
itc  found  most  protltable,  the  sucking  pigs  Iteing  sold  for 
•muting.    Beyond  this  yard  is  a  deep  and  wide  pit  or 


pond,  into  which  the  dung  is  emptied  from  a  platform  of 
boards  projecting  into  it.  'I'hc  oidy  remrdning  building 
wanted  to  complete  the  dairy  establishment  is  a  house  «» 
pit  for  containing  the  exhausted  mull  (grains),  on  which 
the  cows  are  chiefly  fed.  Mes.srs,  Rhodes  have  a  build< 
ing  or  pit  of  this  description  at  some  distance,  when 
they  have  a  smaller  establishment.  There  are  a  stack- 
yard,  sheds,  and  pits  for  rout.?,  straw,  and  hay,  a  place  for 
cutting  hay  into  chaff,  cart-sheds,  stables,  a  counting- 
house,  and  other  buildings  and  places  common  tn  all  such 
esthlilishment.s,  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  describe. 

"  The  cows  in  Rhodes's  dairy  are  purchased  newly 
calved  in  the  cow  market  held  in  Klington  e\ory  Mon- 
day. They  arc  kept  as  long  as  th^'y  eontiime  to  give 
not  less  than  two  gallons  of  milk  a  day,  and  arc  then 
fattened  oi\  oil-cake,  grains,  and  cut  clover  hay,  for  the 
butcher.  The  short-honied  breed  is  preferred,  partly 
for  the  usual  reason  of  being  more  almndant  milkers 
than  the  long  horns,  partly  because  the  shortness  of  their 
horns  allows  them  to  be  placed  closer  together,  and  partly 
because  this  breed  is  more  freipiotitly  brought  to  market 
than  any  other.  The  .\yrshire  breed  has  Ik'cu  tried  to 
I'lr  nninlicr  of  150  at  a  time,  and  higldy  approved  jf,  ae 
atlording  a  very  rich  cream,  as  fattening  in  a  very  short 
time  when  they  have  left  off  giving  milk,  and  as  pro 
diK  :ng  a  beef  which  sold  much  higher  than  that  of  the 
short  horns.  The  ditficulty,  however,  in  procuring  this 
breed  was  found  so  great,  that  IMy.  Rhodes  was  obliged 
to  leave  it  olf.  The  length  of  time  during  which  a  cow 
treated  as  in  Ibis  establi^hment,  continues  to  gi\e  mil^ 
varies  from  six  months  >  the  almost  incredible  period 
of  two  years.  We  were  assured  of  there  beiiij;  at  thi* 
moment  several  cows  among  the  300  which  we  saw, 
that  had  stood  in  their  places  even  more  than  two  years, 
and  continued  to  give  upwards  of  one  gallon  of  milk 
daily. 

"  The  treatment  of  the  cows  in  Rhodes's  dairy  diflera 
from  that  in  most  other  establishments.  The  cows  are 
never  untied  during  the  whole  period  th.it  they  remain 
in  the  house.  In  most  other  establishments,  if  not  in 
all,  stall-fed  cows  or  cattle  are  let  out  at  least  onco  a  day 
to  drink ;  but  these  animals  have  clear  water  continu- 
ally before  them.  They  are  kept  very  clean,  and  the 
sheds  are  so  remark.ihly  well  ventilated,  by  means  of  the 
opci\ings  in  the  roofs,  that  the  air  seemed  to  us  purer 
than  that  of  any  cow-house  we  had  ever  before  examined ; 
probably  from  its  direct  perpendicular  entrance  through 
the  roof,  this,  in  moderate  weather,  being  certainly  far 
preferable  to  ita  horizontal  entrance  through  the  side 
walls. 

"  'I'ho  principal  food  of  the  cows  in  Rhodes's  dairy,  as 
in  all  the  other  London  establishments,  consists  of  grains ; 
that  is,  malt  af^er  it  has  lieen  used  by  the  brewer  or  the 
distiller.  As  the  brewing  sen.sons  are  chiefly  autumn 
and  spring,  a  stock  of  grains  is  laid  in  at  these  seasons 
suflicicnt  Ibr  the  rest  of  the  year.  The  grains  are  gene- 
rally laid  in  pits  bottomed  and  lined  with  brickwork  set 
in  cement,  from  ten  to  twenty  feet  deep,  about  twelve  or 
sixteen  feet  wide,  and  of  any  convenient  length.  The 
grains  are  firmly  trodden  down  by  men.  the  heaps  being 
finished  like  hay-ricks,  or  ridges  in  which  potatoes  are 
laid  up  for  the  winter,  and  covered  with  from  six  to 
nine  inches  of  moist  earth  or  mud.  to  keep  out  the  rain 
and  frost  in  winter,  and  the  heat  in  suunncr.  As  a  cow 
consumes  about  a  bushel  of  grains  a  day,  it  is  easy  to 
calculate  the  quantity  required  to  be  laiil  in.  'I'he  grnin» 
are  warm,  smoking,  and  in  a  state  of  iernii  ntalion  when 
put  in,  and  they  continue  fit  for  use  for  several  years, 
lu'coming  somewhat  sour,  but  they  are,  it  is  said,  at 
much  ri'lihhed  by  the  cows  os  when  fresh,  (t  is  conip 
moil  to  keep  grains  two  or  three  years ;  but  hi  this  esla- 
blislinient  they  have  lieeii  kept  nine  yt  nrs.  and  found  per- 
fectly good.  The  exclusion  of  the  air  almost  preventa 
the  increase  of  the  feriiieiita''oii  and  consequent   leom. 


608 


:nformation  for  the  people. 


pOMtion.  What  is  called  distiller'*  wash,  which  is  the 
remainder  after  distiUalion  of  a  decoction  of  ground  mult 
•nd  meal,  is  also  cfiven  to  cows,  but  more  frequently  to 
•uch  aB  are  fitleiiing  than  to  those  in  milk.  The  pre- 
»ent  price  of  In  owns'  Kmins  is  fourpcuce  halfpenny  iK-r 
bushel;  of  dis'ilicrs'  irraiiis,  on  account  of  the  meal  they 
contain,  nin;'pcnce  a  bushel ;  of  wakh,  thirty-six  gallons 
for  sixpence. 

«'  Salt  is  «iven  to  the  cows  in  Hhodes's  dairy  at  the  rate 
•f  two  ounces  each  cow  a  day.  It  is  mixed  with  the 
grains,  which  are  supplied  before  milkini;,  about  three 
o'clock  in  the  morning ;  and  in  the  afternoon,  about  two 
o'clock,  just  before  milking.  Of  preen  food  or  roots, 
portions  are  supplied  alternately  with  the  grains  ;  and 
in  winter,  when  tares  or  preen  gfiass  cannot  be  procured, 
after  the  turni|)s,  potatoes,  or  manpcl-wurzcl  have  been 
eaten,  a  portion  of  dry  hay  is  given. 

"  The  produce  of  this  dairy  is  almost  entirely  milk  and 
creom  for  private  families  and  for  pubUc  hospitals  and 
other  institutions.  A  nujiiber  of  the  public  e.-itablish- 
ments  arc  8upi)Iied  directly  from  the  dairy  by  contract; 
but  private  families  are  principally  supplied  by  milk- 
dealers  :  these  have  what  are  called  milk-walks ;  that  is, 
•  certain  numl)cr  of  customers,  whom  they  call  upon 
with  supplies  twice  a  day  ;  and  they  are  thus  enabled  to 
*s<-ertaiu  the  avcraRC  of  what  their  customers  consume, 
and  to  contract  with  Messrs.  Rhodes  for  this  average. 
The  latter  calculate  the  number  of  cows  suilicient  to 
give  the  dealer  the  supply  wanted,  and  this  number  the 
dealer  undertakes  to  milk  twice  a  day,  namely,  at  three 
o'clock  in  the  morning  and  at  three  in  the  afternoon.  'I'he 
milk  is  measured  to  the  dealer,  and  should  he  have  milked 
more  than  his  quantity,  it  remains  with  the  dairyman ; 
but  should  the  cows  have  been  deficient  in  the  quantity, 
ki  is  made  good  from  the  milk  of  other  cows,  milked  on 
account  of  the  contracts  of  the  establishment.  As  the  sup- 
ply of  the  cows  and  the  demand  of  the  dealers  are  continu- 
ally varying,  it  olVmhappens  that  considerable  quantities 
of  milk  remain  on  the  dairy  man's  hands,  frequently,  we  are 
tokl,  as  much  as  sixty  or  seventy  gallons  a  day.  Thisquan- 
tity  is  plaieil  in  shallow  earthen  vessels,  to  throw  up  the 
cream  in  the  usual  manner;  this  cream  is  churned,  and 
the  but'er  sold."'  The  skimmed  milk,  it  is  added, as  well 
as  the  intter-milk,  are,  as  is  aiual  in  English  dairies, 
given  to  the  pigs. 

OENRRAL  MAHAOEMENT  OF  CATTLE. 

Cattle  are  subject  to  various  diseases,  the  result  of 
hnproiK'r  trcatmcjit,  or  of  causes  connected  with  climate 
which  it  is  ditllcull  to  ivert.  By  attention  to  feeding, 
housing  and  cleaning,  as  alrcaily  noticed,  much  may  be 
done  to  prevent  some  of  the  more  fatal  distem|>ers.  Cat- 
tle that  have  passed  tin  ir  lives,  both  day  and  night,  in 
the  open  air.  are  generally  so  hardy  that  they  are  not 
injured  by  a  wetting  of  the  skin,  ond  are  liable  to  few  of 
the  complaints  of  dairy  or  stall-fed  animals,  ('ows, 
b<'ing  com[>clled  to  lead  an  artificial  mode  of  life,  are  the 
most  delicate  in  every  respect,  and  require  the  most 
careful  treatment.  They  should  not  l)c  left  out  all  night, 
aurl  when  they  return  from  the  field  wet,  it  is  always  a 
aafe  and  humane  plan  to  dry  them  with  a  wisp  of  straw. 
The  diseases  to  which  they  ore  most  liable  are  of  an 
inflammatory  kind,  and  for  these  the  veterinary  surgeon 
prescribes  bleeding,  and  |>erhaps  some  medicines  to  he  i 
token  internally.  Leaving  cow-kee|)crs  to  seek  tlie  ad- 
vice of  these  professional  men,  or  at  least  of  persons 
possessing  practical  skill,  we  need  here  only  allude  to 
three  chief  disorders  for  the  sake  of  general  inforiniition. 
I'he  first  we  shall  mention  is 


in  warm  weather.  The  substance  ferments  tni 
membrane  beromes  distended  by  the  creation  of  ■ '* 
gas,  which  cannot  find  the  means  of  escaije-  nnl'f'  '" 
taken  oft' artificially,  the  animal  will  be  sullboated  '  v"* 
Loudon,  in  his  "  Encyclopa;dia  of  Agriculture"' 
lions  the  Ibllowing  methods  of  relief  from  this  fatari-"' 
tension  : —  "" 

"  There  are  three  modes  of  relieving  the  comnl ' 
which  may   be  adverted   to   accordmg  to  the  dej,  "") 
distension  and  length  of  time  it  has  existed.    'I'Kf 
internal    ine<licines;  the    introduction  of   a  vroban  "f 
some  kind  into  the  jmuneh  by  the  throat;  anil  the  n^ 
turing  it  by  the  sides.     Dr.  Whyatt,  of  Edinliu-ib"* 
said  to  have  cured  eighteen  out  of  twenty  hovpj 
by  giving  a  pint  of  gin  to  each.     Oil,  by  comlensin"iI'! 
air,  has  been  suceCFsfully  tried.     Any  other 


Tlie  Hove. 

The  hove,  or  blown,  in  cattle  is  a  swellin?  in  the 
paunch,  caused  generally  by  eating  wet  grass  or  clover 


nsing  ihi 

alf o  that  has  a  strong  power  of  absorbing  air  mav^ 
advantageously  given.     Common  sail  and  wator  n  l 
strongly  saline,  is  a  usual  country  remedy.    Jlp,^  '  i,' 
with  a  proportion  of  tar  equal  to  one-sixtli  of  Uu  -jr" 
is  hiirhly  s|)oken  of.     A  strong  solution  of  I'ropared  ai^ 
monia  in  water  often  brings  oft"  a  great  tuianijiy  of  ^ 
and  relieves  the  animal.     Any  of  these  iniornal  icnicdi  ' 
may  be  made  use  of  when  the  disease  Ims  rcccntlvtali 
place,  and  is  not  in  a  violent  degree ;  but  wlion  o(htr! 
wise,  the  introduction  of  an  instrument  is  iiro]ipr,  and i! 
now  very  generally  resorted  to.     The  one  pripc-ij»|L  j^ 
use  is  a  species  of  probang,  invented  by  Ur,  Munroc.of 
Edinburgh.     Another,  consisting  of  a  cane  of  six  L 
in   length,  and  of  considerable  diameter,  having  atiulb. 
ous   knob  of  wood,  has  been  invented  by  Eai;cr,  which 
is  a  more  simple  machine,  but  hardly  so  cllicacious.  It 
is  ]>robalile  that,  in  cases  of  emergen<'y,  even  the  lai», 
end  of  a  common  cart-whip,  dexterously  iisru,  might 
answer  the  end.     Dut  by  far  the  l)cst  instriirm'nt  forre. 
lieving  hoven   cattle,  as  well  as  for  clvsterini;  themii 
Head's  enema   apparatus,  which  is  alike   applicaHe  to 
horses,  cattle,  and  dogs.     It  consists  of  a  fjringe,  Id 
which  tubes  of  ditferent  kinds  are  applied,  acrorJinf  to 
the  purpose  and  the  kind  of  animal  to  be  operated  wm, 
There   is  a   long  flexible   tuln-  for   giving  nn  enfiiia  It 
horses  and  cattle,  and  a  smaller  one  for  dogs.    Tore. 
lieve  hoven  bullocks  efleetually.  it  is  necessaiv  not  onli 
to  fri'c   Ihe  stomach   from   an  accumulaliim  of  gas,  bii 
from  the  fermenting  pultaceous  mixtine  vvhirli  gontmin 
;•;  for  this  jjurposo  a  tube  is  ajjplied  to  the  citrcmiii 
of  the  syringe,  and  then    passed   into  the  animal's ito. 
niiieli  through   the  mouth,  and  beiHg  put  in  action,!^ 
olViMiding  matter  is  discharged  by  a  side  openijig.  Wlw 
the  same  o|H'ration  ic  performed  on  sheep,  a  smaller  ti:i» 
is  made  use  of.     The  characteristic  excellency  of  Kfjili 
instrument  is,  that  there  is  no  limit  to  the  (juanditrf 
fluid   that  may  be  injected  or  extracted.     'I'lio  sameii. 
ringc  is  u.sed  for  extracting   jKiison  from  Ihe  slomachjf 
man,  lur  smoking  insects,  extinguishing  liros,and  syriij. 
ing  fruit  trees.     The  intriKluction  of  anv  of  the*  * 
KtrumenU  may  \m  eflectcd  by  the   help  of  an  assistin 
who  should  h(dd  the  horn  of  the  animal  .>\  one  haul, 
and  the  dividing  cartilage  of  the  nose  with  the  olketn 
while  the  o|>crator  himscdf,  taking  Ihe  tiim;\ir  in  liis|(j[| 
hanii,  employs  his  right  in  skilfully  and  cnrclullT  inlo 
ducing  the  instrument;  the  assistant  brinniiiK  ihehd| 
and  neck  into  such  an  attitude  as  to  make  the  pasic 
nearly  straight,  which  will  greatly  faciliUatc  the  ope»i 
tion.     Uut  when  no  instruments  can  Ix-  procured,  ors 
cases  may  occur  when,  indeed,  it  is  not  advisalilelol^ 
them,  as  when  the  disease  has  existed  a  conaidenNl 
time,  or  the  animal  has  become  outrageous,  or  Ihe  tt 
mach  so  much  distended  with  air  that  there  is  (liii;i| 
of  immediate  sulFocalion  or  bursting,  in  those  inHiiMJ 
the  puncture  of  the  maw  must  be  instantly  pcrfoni4 
which  is  called  puttnrhing.     This  may  he  done  wiliilll| 
greatest  ease,  midway  between  the  ilium  or  haunchJioil 
and  the  last  rib  of  the  left  side,  to  which  the  paunch » 


HiiMii  «  sharp  ,K>n 

m  Tetoriiiary  practii 

^hich  will  bo  foun 

lir  the  most  safe,  a' 

Slid  quickly,  at  the 

trance  into  the  cavi 

iTijion  an  equal  distt 

fvicusted,  and  the 

may  bo  removed ;  i 

wniind  should  bu  c 

«  other  adhesive  i 

thai  this  operation 

iulstaiit  cannot  be  ( 

1  moment  about  doii 

allbrded  by  means  ol 

in;,  astirnulnnt  driu 

a  pint  of  common  g 

horn  in  a  pint  of  ale 

tine  in  ale,  may  auj 

(limulus.     When,  al 

sirae  rclaxntion  of  tl 

Ural,  therefore,  feed  s 

ill's,  a  tonic." 

The  apparaf-us  me 

am,  may  now  be  had 

dealers  in  agricultur 

I  10  employ  in  emerge 

without. 

The  malignant  epi 
I  species  of  catarrh,  al 
ismost  frequent  in  dai 
L*ie  country.     The  wr 
(jaoteJ  from  (Lib.  Xlm 
tare  and  remedies: — ' 
iiirac,  in  its  earlier  or 
brm ;  but,  disarnred   > 
jfrn  times,  or  at  least 
nits  for  some  years 
piiehcd  by  some  or 
lyinptoms : — 

"There  will  Iw  coi 
I  miny  cases  for  a  we 
other  marked  symptoir 
[aware  of  this,  but  he 
It;  and  he  will  be  fully 
I  Wore  we  have  don  ^ 

"  .\fter  a  few  days, 
be  added  to  the  coup 
Ifrpqueiit,  and  sometime 
toot  of  the  horn  cold 
IWafk,  at  others  liquid 
I  Presently  nfbirwards,  i 
|i?>in  and  :igain,*is  obs 
[Ihe  spine,  and  particul; 

"Thecr.ugh  tecome 
li  brown  or  bloody  m 
Inouth ;  the  eyes  are 

liinds  his  teeth ;  there 
jllioot  the  nostrils ;  am 
■if  he  does,  rises  again 

The  eyes  soon  afterv 

Ipulse  remains  small,  bi 

Tfitiin  is  quicker ;  the  l 

|lif»son  the  loins  is  rem 

Uif  frame;  and  the  fie 

Ind  more  llctid.   The  p 

ki«  teeth  almost  ineess 

onTulsive  motion ;  hloi 

•»  bretth,  and  even  tl 

Hid  the  beast  staggers 

"'rumours  and  boils 

ous  parts.     If  thev  i 

Vol.  1 77 


CATTLE  AND  DAIRY  HUSBANDRY. 


«» 


.     J  ,  sharp  ,x>nknife  is  frequently  used ;  ond  person* 

veWriiiary  practice  should  nlwnys  keep  a  long  trocar, 
'V  h  will  bo  found  much  the  more  cfliracioug,  and  by 
r  the  most  safis  at  it  [wrmits  the  air  esciipini?  certainly 

1  (luickly.  at  tho  same  time  that  it  prevents  its  cn- 
'"  ce  into  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen,  which  would  oc- 

.     UP  equal  distension.   As  soon  as  the  air  is  perfectly 

usted,  and  the  paunch  resumes  its  olRce,  the  trocar 

'  V  bo  removed;  and  in  whatever  way  it  is  done,  tho 

'"(liind  should  bo  carefully  closed  with  sticking-plaster 

other  aillicsive  matter.  It  is  necessary  to  observe, 
,  ,  iiijg  operation  is  so  safe,  that  whenever  a  medical 

istaiit  cannot  be  obtained,  no  person  should  hesitate 

moment  about  doing  it  himself.  After  relief  has  been 
Horded  by  means  of  either  the  probang  or  tlie  paunch- 
L,  a  stimulant  drink  may  bo  very  properly  ijiven  :  half 

nint  of  common  gin,  or  one  ounce  of  spirit  of  harts- 
horn in  a  pint  of  ale,  or  two  ovinces  of  s[)irit  of  turpen- 
in  sic,  may  any  of  them  be  used  as  an  assistant 
(timulus.  When,  also,  the  cud  is  nc;ain  chewed,  still 
wme  relaxation  of  the  di(je«tive  organs  may  remain  ;  at 
first,  therefore,  feed  sparingly,  and  give,  for  a  few  morn- 
iu'is,  a  tonic." 

The  apiiarat-us  mentioned  above,  with  directions  for 
n«,  may  now  be  had  from  tho  principal  makers  of  or 
Jealcrs  in  ai;ricultural  implements.  The  cane  tube, 
to  employ  in  emergencies,  no  cow  keei)er  should  be 
nilhout. 

rpidemic  Murrain. 

The  malio;nant  epidemic,  generally  filed  murrain,  is 

i  anpecies  of  catarrh,  atfccting  the  respirutoiy  organs,  and 

is  most  frequent  in  damp  climates  or  ill-drained  parts  of 

I  ihe  country.     The  writer  of  the  work  on  cattle,  already 

quoted  from  (I'ib.  J'se.  Know.),  thus  speaks  of  its  nn- 

lutc  and  remedioa : — "  There  are  few  diseases  that  as- 

(iirac,  in  its  earlier  or  later  staaes,  a  greater  variety  of 

(irra ;  but,  disarmed   somevhat  of  its  virulence  in  mo- 

1  im  liraw,  or  at  least  not  having  appeared  in  all  its  ter- 

riitJ  for  some  years   past,   it  will  generally  he  distin- 

piifhcJ  by  some  or  the  greater  part  of  the  following 

I  lyinptoms : — 

"There  will  l)c  cough,  frequent  and  painful,  and  in 
I  minv  eases  for  a  week  or  n^e  l)eforc  there  is  any 
1  other  marked  symptom.  The  farmer  may  not  always  bo 
I  iiwrc  of  this,  but  he  will  find  it  out  if  he  inquires  about 
I  i!;  and  he  will  be  fully  aware  of  the  imixjrtance  of  the  fact 
I  before  wc  have  doin  with  this  division  of  our  subject. 

"  .\fter  a  few  days,  some  heaving  of  the  flanks  will 
I  be  added  to  the  cough;  the  pulse  will  be  small,  hard, 
I Ircquent,  and  sometimes  irregular;  the  mouth  hot ;  the 
I  (oot  of  the  horn  cold  ;  the  fseces  sometimes  hard  and 
IWack,  at  others  liquid  and  black,  and  then  very  foetid. 
I  Presently  nt^orwards,  that  of  which  we  have  to  speak 
|i?«inand  :igain,*is  observed— extreme  tenderness  along 
llhe  spine,  and  particularly  over  the  loins. 

"The  ccugh  liccomes  more  frequent  and  convulsive,  and 
li  brown  or  bloody  matter  runs  from  tho  nostrils  and 
Inoiith;  the  eyes  are  swelled  and  weeping;  the  patient 
pinds  his  teeth ;  there  is  frequent  spasmmlir  contraction 
llliottt  the  nostrils ;  and  the  animal  rarely  lies  down,  or, 
■if  he  does,  rises  again  immediately. 

The  eyes  soon  afterwards  liecomo  unusually  dull ;  the 
Jpulse  remains  small,  but  it  has  become  teeble  ;  the  respi- 
jtili™  is  quicker ;  the  flanks  are  tucked  up;  the  tender- 
pjesson  the  loins  is  removed ;  insensibility  is  stealing  over 
Ibf  frame;  and  the  fieees  are  more  loaded  with  mucus, 
bad  more  I'lctid.  The  patient  moans  and  lows,  and  grinds 
|hi>  leelh  almost  incessantly  ;  the  bead  is  agitated  by  a 
MnTuUive  motion ;  bioi:<l  U'gins  to  mingle  with  llie  fan^s; 
tie  breath,  and  even  the  perspiration  l)vcumes  oiFengive; 
tiid  Ihe  beast  staggirs  as  he  walks. 
I  "Tumours  and  boils  now,  or  often  earlier,  appear  on  va- 
'm«  parts.  If  thev  are  to  come  forward,  the  sooner 
Vol.  1.-77 


they  rise  the  better,  for  much  depends  on  what  become* 
of  them.  If  tho  animal  has  suiricient  strength  For  them 
to  go  through  the  usual  process  of  suppuration,  although 
the  slou'^hing  and  the  stench  may  be  greater  than  could 
be  thought  possible,  the  beast  will  have  a  chance  to  nv 
cover ;  but  if  there  is  not  energy  to  bring  them  forward 
— if  lliuy  become  stationary — and,  most  assuredly,  if  th^y 
recede  and  disappear,  the  patient  will  die. 

"The  treatment  of  this  disease  is  most  unsatisfactory. 
If  tho  farmer  could  be  brought  to  attend  more  to  thin 
cough  in  cattle,  if,  here,  he  had  recognised  the  violent  and 
incresing  cough  and,  ahhough  he  had  not  dreamed  of 
nnirrain,  had  bled  and  physicked  the  beast  on  account  of 
tlio  conu'h,  the  disease  would  probably  have  been  arrested, 
or  at  least  its  virulence  would  have  abated. 

"  The  early  stage  even  of  murrain  is  one  of  fever,  and 
the  treatment  should  correspond  with  this — bleeding. 
Physic  should  be  cautiously  yet  Hot  timorously  resorted 
to.  For  sedative  medicines  there  will  rarely  be  room, 
except  the  cou:;h  should  continue.  Small  doses  of  pur- 
gative medicine,  with  more  of  tho  aromatic  than  wa 
generally  add,  will  be  serviceable,  efteiting  the  present 
[iiirpose,  and  not  hastening  or  increasing  the  debility 
which  generally  is  at  hand ;  but  if  the  bowels  are  suffi- 
ciently  open,  or  diarrhoea  should  threaten,  and  yet  symj> 
toins  of  fever  should  be  apparent,  no  purgatives  must  be 
given,  but  the  sedatives  should  be  mingled  with  some 
vegetable  tonic.  The  jx-culiar  foetid  diarrhma  must  bo 
met  with  astringents,  miuLded  also  with  vegetable  tomes. 
In  combating  the  pustular  and  sloughing  gangrenoni 
stage,  the  chloriile  of  lime  will  be  the  best  externa!  apr'»- 
cation  ;  while  a  little  of  it  administered  with  the  other 
medicines  inwardly,  may  possibly  lessen  the  tendency  to 
general  decomposition.  The  external  application  of  it 
should  not  be  ronfined  to  the  ulcerated  parts  alone,  but  it 
should  be  plentifully  sprinkled  over  and  about  the  beast; 
and  the  infected  animal  should  be  immediately  removei) 
from  the  sound  ones." 

Ri'd- t/ater. 

This  disease,  indicated  at  first  by  the  redness  of  tba 
urine,  is  properly  inflammation  of  the  kidneys,  and  arises 
from  an  undue  determination  of  blniid  to  these  parts  of 
the  animal.  The  cause  of  this  1  cal  inflammation  is 
generally  connected  with  tho  nature  of  the  food.  In 
many  instances,  it  is  found  to  have  arisen  from  the  cattle 
eating  plants  of  a  noxious  quality,  and  which,  as  it  ap- 
[lears,  are  not  confined  to  any  particular  species  of  soil. 
When  in  its  aggravated  form,  the  disease  becomes  what 
is  culled  htack-ll'aler.  On  the  slightest  indication  of  the 
early  stages  of  the  disten  it,  the  cattle  ought  to  be  im- 
medi.itely  .shifted  to  difli  nt  pastures,  or  housed  and 
stall-fed  for  a  short  j)eriod ;  tid  if  this  simple  pi-ecaution 
prove  unavailing  in  restorii,  health,  each  animal  aflected 
should  be  cojaously,  ond  if  'cessory  frequently,  bled; 
and  let  that  aitive  treatment  I !<•  followed  up  by  purga- 
tives, so  as  to  clear  out  and  restore  a  projier  tone  to  the 
bowels.  Should  these  means  fail,  let  a  skilled  practitionei 
lie  consulted.  On  no  account  listtm  to  the  absurd  advices 
of  superstitious  and  ignorant  people  either  on  this  or  any 
other  disease  of  cow  or  bullock.  In  every  quarter  of  tho 
country,  there  are  persons  who,  from  total  ignorance  of 
the  physiology  of  cattle,  and  the  natural  causes  and  ac- 
tion of  disease,  ascribo  calamities  of  this  kind  to  witch- 
craft or  other  supernatural  influences.  Let  all  such 
i]uac-ks,  and  their  irrational  sulvos,  be  carefully  shunned. 

FaltiMiinsf  Ciiltln  lor  Market. 

The  stall-feeding  or  soiling  of  cattle  is  considered  to 
possess  several  advantages  over  feeding  in  the  fields.  In 
field-feeding  the  animals  waste  a  certain  quaiitily  of  p«i^ 
ture  by  treading  and  lying  upon  it,  and  by  dropping  their 
dung,  the  grass  which  grows  on  the  dung  spots  being 
ever  after  rejected ;  the  animals  also  s^nd  time  ui  seekr 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


tng  Pir  the  bcrlngc  which  suits  their  futiry,  and  much  i» 
■llowcd  to  Ko  to  ttocd  untouched.  Iti  Htall-fecdiiiff,  tlio 
wliolo  time  in  devoted  to  eating  and  runiiniitinK,  wliile  no 
food  is  lost,  iind  the  aninials  are  hrou;;ht  to  n  higher  eon- 
ditinn.  Another  iinportniit  advontiige  of  soding  is,  that 
it  uxes  up  tlio  waste  straw  of  n  farm  as  litter,  and  tliUH 
furnishes  a  |  lentiful  Huppl)i  of  that  indinpensahle  arlii'le, 
manure,  for  tlie  fields.  Some  feeders  tie  U|i  their  cattle 
'  t()  tlie  stall  while  preparing  for  market ;  hut  others  permit 
them  to  roim  ahout  on  a  thick  bed  of  straw  in  an  en- 
closure in  the  farm  yard,  with  a  shed  to  retire  to  for 
shelter,  the  feeding  in  this  case  lu-ing  from  racks.  Un- 
less for  a  period  during  the  final  process  of  fattening,  the 
•truw-yard  mcthcMl  in  reckoned  the  host  for  kee|)ing  the 
cattle  in  a  healthy  state,  and  eon^elplently  for  |)roilueiiig 
beef  of  the  finest  kind.  The  practice  of  feeding  cattle  for 
a  consiileralle  length  of  time,  in  darkened  stalls,  c.n  oil- 
cake, carrots,  mangel  wurzel,  &c.,  produces,  as  is  well 
known,  u  gnat  de|)osition  of  fat,  and  swells  the  animals 
to  u  iuon»ifoii8  size.  The  l)eef,  however,  of  such  over- 
fed cattle  is  never  fine.  The  fat  with  which  it  is  loaded 
easily  escapes  in  cooking,  and  leaves  lean  of  an  inferior 
quality.  The  U-st  sign  of  gO(Kl  meat  is  its  In'lng  marbkil, 
or  the  fat  an<I  lean  well  mixed,  when  brought  to  the  table, 
and  this  is  not  to  be  exiiecled  from  In-ef  fed  in  an  un- 
natural condition. 

Sp.'aking  on  this  subject,  the  writer  of  the  article 
Agricultuie,  in  the  "  Encyelopa'dirt  Uritannica,"  observes 
— "  The  age  at  which  cattle  are  fattened  depends  upon 
the  nmiuier  in  which  they  have  Is'en  reared,  upon  the 
properties  of  the  breed  in  regard  to  a  (iropenslty  to  fatten 
curhcr  or  hiter  ia  life,  and  on  tlie  circumstances  of  their 
bting  employed  in  breeding,  in  labour,  for  the  dairy,  or 
reared  solely  for  the  butcher.  In  the  hitler  case,  the 
most  improved  breeds  are  fit  for  the  shambles  when  aliout 
three  years  old,  and  very  few  of  nny  large  lireed  are  kept 
more  than  a  year  longer.  As  to  cows  and  working  oxen, 
tiie  age  of  fattening  must  necessarily  l>e  more  indefinite ; 
ill  most  instances,  the  latter  are  put  up  to  feed  after 
working  t'  ree  years,  or  in  the  seventh  cr  eighth  year  of 
their  age." 

Many  of  the  cattle  fed  for  the  nietro|x)lilan  morkets, 
as  formerly  mentioned,  have  originally  been  brought  from 
Ihc  Highlands  and  isles  of  JScotlaiid,  also  from  Wales  and 
Ir.-land.  •■  'I'he  Highland  ealth'  often  pass  through  three 
different  hands  or  more  before  they  come  to  the  butcher. 
They  are  iir  proved  at  every  stage  by  a  greater  cjuantity 
•nd  U'tter  iiuulity  of  food,  instead  of  being  suddenly 
transp.irtcd  iroin  poor  to  rich  feeding;  and  while  each 
•uccessive  owner  applies  his  produce  to  the  In'st  ad- 
vanUige,  ami  receives  a  suitable  return  according  to  its 
value,  from  the  advance  of  price,  the  corisumi"r  at  least 
purchases  his  l)eef  chea|ier,  and  of  a  nnicli  superior 
quaUly,  than  if  the  cattle  had  been  sent  to  the  shambles 
from  any  of  the  intermediate  stages. 

"The  West  Highland  cattle  make  this  progress  oftcner 
Uian  the  larger  cattle  of  the  north-eastern  eonnties. 
Many  of  them  are  brought  to  Dumbartonshire  and  other 
places  at  tlie  age  of  two  years  and  two  years  and  a  half, 
\fcintered  on  coarse  pastures,  with  a  small  allowance  of 
bog-hay  or  straw,  and  moved  to  Iowit  groun<ls  tiext  sum- 
u;cr.  They  are  then  ih-iven  farther  south,  where  they 
gi^t  turnips  in  straw-yards  through  the  following  winter, 
«nd  in  April  are  in  high  condition  for  early  grass,  upon 
nhich  they  make  themselves  fat  in  the  month  of  June. 

"The  larger  varieties  of  the  north-eastern  counties  do 
r;i>t  leave  the  bremler  at  so  early  an  age.  They  are  sel- 
ii.Mii  brought  to  market  till  they  are  three  or  three  years 
and  a  half  oid,  and  then  fre(iuci>lly  in  gootl  condition  for 
tieing  fattened  either  on  fjrass  or  turnips.  A  great  many 
IK  llie  Aberdeenshire  cattle  are  bceight  for  the  straw-yards 
#f  llie  southern  counties,  get  a  fi'w  turnips  through  winter 
«iid  spring,  and  aiu  eilhei  driven  to  Cngland  in  .\pril,  or 
^tcncd  at  Ijoiue  in  the  course  of  the  ensuing  sutuiner. 


The  Fife  cattle,  like  the  other  h'ceds  of  tnp  | -^, 
are  generally  sold  to  the  graziers  at  three  yeain  !,u  ""'* 
ing  got  a  iilieral  allowance  of  turnips  duriiu  II  '  '"* 
ceding  winter."*  *     *  P* 

Rules  for  Selecliug  Oatile 

In  selecting  cattle  for  feeding,  their  qualities  tnav  t*  • 
some  measure  known  by  examining  the  hide,  ImfJ.    i" 
"  It  is  well  known  that  the  grazier  and  the  butcher    i 
of  the  aptitude  that  any  animal  has  to  fatten  from  k! 
touch  of  the  skin.     When  the  hide  feels  soft  a^j    ,1 
it  strongly  indicates  a  tendency  in  the  animal  lo  \a 
meat;  and  it  is  evident  that  a  fine  and  soft  skin  tniijii!!  I 
more  pliable,  and  more  easily  stretched  out  to  rofm« 
extraordinary  quantity  of  flesh,  than  a  thick  or  toufli ""'  ' 
At  the  same  time,  thick  hides  are  of  greai  nnpurtann. ' 
various  manufactures.    Indeed,  they  are  nccessurv  ii,  il 
countries,  where  cattle  are  much  exposed  to  iho  in  i,' 
mency  of  the  seasons ;  and,  in   the  best  breeilg  of  H  i 
land  cuttle,  the  skin  is  thick  in  Jiroporlion  to  tjinr  ''' 
without  being  so  tough  as  to  Ih!  prejudiiial  to  thoirca' 
city  of  fattening.    It  apiM-ars,  from  Columella's  dcscrinn'^ 
of  the  best  kind  of  ox,  that  the  advantage  of  n  soft  l 
is  not  a  new  discovery,  but  was  peifeclly  well  known  tn  I 
the   husbandmen  of  ancient   Italy."     'I'bese  aro  the  k.  I 
servalions  of  Sir  John  Miulair,-(  who  adds  the  foljonm 
us  a  sunmiary  of  good  points  to  Ik'  attended  la  in  cho* 
ing  cattle.     They  should  be — 1.  Of  a  modenite  size,  ji, 
less   where   the   food   is  of  a   nature   peculiurlv  fordnti  I 
8.  Of  u  sha|H'  the  most  likely  to  yield  profit  to  tiit- I'araier' 
3.  Of  a  do(  ile   disposition,   without    Is'lng   dcfincnt  in 
spirit;  4.  Hardy,  and    not   liable   to  disease;  5.  Ej,||, 
maintained,  and  on  fi)oil  not  of  a  costly  nature;  6.  Ani?. 
ing  soon  at  maturity;  7.  Producing  considerable  qujuij, 
lies  of  milk;  8.  Having  flesh  of  an  excellent  qualiir. 
0.  Having  a  tendency  to  take  on  fat;   10.  Having aviju! 
able  hide;  and,  lastly,  Calculated  (should  it  be  jujjj 
necessary)  for  working."     It  is  thought  best  to  l*mn  |, 
break-in  oxen  at  tlireo  years  old,  and  to  give  them  M  I 
work  at  four. 

With  respect  to  judging  of  cattle  by  their  horns  ml  I 
teeth,  we  offer  the  following  observations  l'r(-ni  tlie"Cn  I 
clopailia  of  Practical  Husbandry,  by  Martin  Dovie"  I 
(Kev.  Mr.  Hiekey). 

"The  ordinary  guidc^for  ascertaining  the  prroise i^ I 
of  cattle  is  the  horn,  which  is  also  indicatin!  of  il»  I 
breed;  at  three  years  old  (this  is  laid  down  us  a  rult)  [ 
the  horns  are  p«Mfectly  smooth,  after  this  a  rini;  appeinl 
near  the  rout,  and  annually  afterwards  a  new  circif, » I 
that,  by  adding  two  years  to  the  first  ring,  the  age  i( I 
calculated;  but  the  contributors  to  the  volume  so  fi»I 
queiitly  (|Uoted,  have  clearly  shown  that  this  i8aie7| 
uncertain  mode  of  judging;  'thai  the  rings  air  onlvibl 
tinet  in  the  cow;'  and  that  'if  a  beilir  goes  lotbi 
when  she  is  two  years  old,  or  a  little  Ufore  or  iftcr  Ibll 
time,  there  is  an  immediate  change  iti  the  horn, ull 
the  first  ring  apjiears;  so  that  a  real  three-veiir  olilwoijl 
carry  the  mark  of  a  four-year  old.'  'In  the  builthevnl 
either  not  s<-en  until  five,  or  tlu-y  cannot  Ih'  iMorJ  atil,'| 
nor  in  the  ox  do  they  'appear  until  he  is  live  years'iHl 
and  they  are  ollen  confused ;'  besides,  there  is  ali 
instrument  called  a  rasp,  which  has  U'en  sniJ  to  mikil 
many  an  arm  ache  a  little  bef  )rc  a  large  fair.'  Wilhotll 
any  delusive  intentions,  however,  an  ugly  set  in  Ihf  koraj 
of  young  cattle  is  oficii  remedied  by  tiling  a  little  olTUii I 
sides  of  the  tips  opposite'  to  the  direction  which  it  ifii»| 
sired  that  the  horns  sliimld  take. 

"  iSome  men  have  an  antipathy  to  horns  idlfiiothcrdl 
would  even  carry  their  dislike  so  far  as  to  cMirpalellwl 
from  the  brows  of  all  their  cattle  ;  they  can  indulitHiMl 
taste  by  ])ariiig  olF  the  tops  of  the  horns  when  ltieffal| 
break  through  the  skin.  Perhaps  it  is  not  gcnenll|l 
known,  that  the  larger  the  liorn  the  thiiim^r  the  ikall 

•nencral  Report  of  S<'Oilmi{),  vol.  viii ,  p.  6t 
t  rarmcr'i  Mugamiu.  vol.  viii. 


SHEEP. 


611 


«Th'  an*  '*  in<''<'"'''''  ""ith  iincrnnp;  rortninty  by  tho 
^t),  to  those  who  have  jiidirinpiit  nnd  expcriptipc,  until 
.    I'ninwl  reaches  the  a("c  of  six  or  f«»cii ;  until  two 

•in  old.  1''  ^"^^  ■''*  ''"'''•  "'  *■'"*'  ^''^^  '*"  ""^  '•''''''  ■"''' 
nt '  »t  three,  two  more  are  rut ;  and  in  the  two  sucneed- 
inj  years,  two  in  each  year;  ajt  five  tho  mouth  in  said  to 
DC  full,  thoufih  not  complcUOy  so  until  six,  because  until 
Ihit  period  the  two  corner  teeth  (the  last  in  renewal)  are 
,  perfectly  up.  The  front  or  innior  teelh  arc  those 
considered,  for  a  fviU  grown  beast  has  altogether  thirty- 
lifO  teeth." 
Mellioil  of  anccrmining  the  Weiix'il  of  Cniile  while  l.ivjngr. 
iiTliis  •'  "I"  ''**'  utmost  utility  for  till  those  who  are 
not  exiieriencet'  jiidiiPH  by  the  eye,  and  by  the  following 
Jirertiiins,  the  womht  c-:in  Im;  asoortiiiiiod  within  a  mere 
Ijjflc  ;_Take  a  striiii;,  put  it  rotind  tlie  beast,  standing 
(iiuare,  just  iM'hind  the  nhouldnrblade ;  measure  on  a 
foot-rule  tho  feet  and  inches  the  animal  is  in  circumfe- 
rence; this  is  calli'd  the  girth;  then,  with  the  string, 
measure  from  the  bone  of  the  tail  which  plumbs  the  line 
with  the  hhider  part  of  the  buttock  ;  direct  the  line  along 
the  back  to  the  fore  part  of  the  shoulder-blade ;  take  the 
dimensions  of  the  foot-rule  as  before,  which  is  the  length, 
jnJ  work  the  figures  in  the  following  manner : — Oi'th 
of  the  bullock,  C  feet  four  inches ;  length,  5  tcet  3  inches; 
nhich,  multiplied  together,  make  31  square  superlicial 
feel;  that  again  multiplied  by  23  (the  nutnbtr  if  pounds 
illoned  to  each  superficial  foot  of  cattle  inoat>i.ring  less 


than  7  ami  more  than  0  in  girth),  makes  71.3  pounds 
and,  fillowing  14  pounds  to  the  stone,  is  50  stone  13 
pounds.  Where  the  animal  measures  less  than  9  and 
more  than  7  feet  in  girth,  31  is  the  number  of  pounds  to 
each  superficial  foot.  Again,  suppose  b  pig  or  any  small 
Iwast  should  measure  2  feet  in  girth,  and  two  feet  along 
the  back,  which,  multiplied  together,  make  4  square  feet; 
that  multiplied  by  1 1,  the  number  of  pounds  allowed  for 
each  scjuare  foot  of  cattle  measuring  less  than  3  feet  in 
girth,  makes  44  pounds;  which,  divided  by  14,  to  brifig 
it  to  stones,  is  3  stone  2  pounds.  Again,  suppose  a  calf, 
a  sheep,  Ac,  should  measure  4  feet  6  inches  in  girth,  and 
3  feet  9  inches  in  length,  which,  multiplied  together, 
make  16^  8<)uare  feet;  that  multiplied  by  16,  the  number 
of  pounds  allowed  to  all  cattle  tncasuring  less  than  6  feel, 
and  more  than  3  in  girth,  makes  264  pounds ;  which, 
divided  by  14,  to  bring  it  into  stones,  is  18  stones  13 
pounds.  The  ditnensions  of  the  girth  and  length  of 
black  cattle,  sheep,  calves,  or  hogs,  may  be  as  exactly 
taken  this  way  as  is  at  all  necessary  for  any  computation 
or  valuation  of  slock,  and  will  answer  exactly  to  the 
four  quarters,  sitiking  the  offal,  and  which  every  man, 
who  can  get  even  a  bit  of  chalk,  can  easily  perform.  A 
deduction  must  Ite  made  for  a  half-fatted  beast  of  1  stone 
in  20,  from  that  of  a  fat  one ;  and  for  a  cow  that  has  had 
calves,  1  stone  must  be  allowed,  and  another  for  not  being 
properly  fat."* 

•Cattle  Keeper's  Guide. 


SHEEP. 


4^      iiffi^A 


rf*;^'cw    5'- 


b  the  Euminant  onlcr  of  tlic  Mammalia,  a  distin- 
fuiihed  place  is  given  to  the  sheep,  the  flesh  and  wool 
ofwhichhnvo  been  recognised  as  alike  of  the  greatest  use  to 
man  from  the  earliest  ages.  In  our  own  country,  within  the 
bt  half  century,  the  difTcrcnt  lireeds  of  sliccp  have  been 
improved  by  the  growing  intelligence,  skill,  nnd  industry, 
01  the  farmers :  atid  their  management  has,  tinder  high 
patronage,  Iwen  brought  to  a  degree  of  perfection  perhnps 
nowhere  else  iittaincd.  It  may  tx-  added  that,  as  the 
iciencf 9  of  anatomy,  physiology,  botany,  and  chemistry, 
ire  every  year  throwing  new  light  on  those  laws  of  na- 
vm,  which  regulate  the  structure,  health,  nutrition,  and 
reproduction  of  the  animal  kingdom,  we  may  entertain 
the  hope  of  still  further  improvement  in  this  department 
(( rural  economy. 


DirrERENT   BREEDS   Or  SHEEI>. 

The  varieties  of  sheep  that  now  exist  in  different  pnrtl 
jf  the  globe,  have  all  been  reduced  by  Cuvier  into  four 
distinct  species. 

1.  (Oris  Jinmoii) — tho  Argali;  this  species  is  remark- 
able for  its  soft  redilish  hair,  a  short  tail,  and  a  mane 
under  its  neck.  It  inhabits  the  rocky  districts  of  Barbary 
and  the  more  clevntcd  parts  of  Egypt.  2.  (Oris  TVo-j*- 
tophus'^ — the  l)earded  sheep  of  Africa.  3.  (Ovis  Mhmon.') 
4.  (Ot'is  Mnnldiia') — the  Moiiflin  of  America  ;  but  this 
species,  which  inhabits  the  rocky  mountains  of  North 
America,  is  now  believed  to  be  identical  with  the  Argali, 
which  inhabits  the  mountains  of  Central  Asia,  and  the 
higher  plains  of  Siberia  northwards  to  Kamschafka.  Thi« 
leaves  only  three  distinct  species  of  wild  sheep  as  yet  dis- 
covered. 

It  is  still  a  point  in  dispute  from  which  of  these  race* 
our  domestic  sheep  have  been  derived  ;  nor  is  the  que^ 
tion,  in  our  circumstances,  of  great  practical  importonce, 
though  its  solution  is  very  desirable  in  a  physiological 
point  of  vlow.  Whether  the  wild  races  may  be  regarded 
as, of  one  species,  as  some  naturalists  contend,  or  of  dit 
ferent  sjiecics,  according  to  others,  the  best  judges  are 
next  to  unanimous  that  the  domestic  races  of  this  coun- 
try are  of  one  species ;  and  what  arc  called  difTerent 
breeds  are  nothing  more  than  varieties,  the  result  of  dif- 
ferent culture,  food,  and  climate.  The  influence  of  these 
conditions,  in  diversifying  the  character  and  condition  of 
sheep,  will  be  adverted  to  under  their  projior  heads. 

The  following  may  be  'regurtled  as  the  principal  breejt 
of  this  country  :— 1.  The  Zetland  sheep;  2.  The  Dun- 
wooled  sheep;  3.  The  Blnck-faced  heath  sheep;  4.  The 
Moorland  sheep;  .■>.  The  ('he viot  sheep;  (5.  The  horrcd 
varieties  of  tiii,--wooled  sheep  of  Norfolk,  Wi',tshire,  aud 
Dorset;  7.  The  Kyeiai.d  ii*ep     9.   The   South d»wn 


•It 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE   PFOPLn. 


•hMip ;  9.  rhi'  Merino  'hoop ;  10.  Tho  Dovotmhire  Notts, 
Riiimioy  Miiruli,  old  iiiiioolnnhiro,  'IVfswntcr,  miij  OM 
I.oii'OMlor  »hoc|> ;  1 1.  The  Now  LvicoHler  and  Improved 
'IWnwiiter  Khocp. 

1.  Thfi  '/rllniiH  ffifrp  inhibit j  Itiooo  iiiliindii  from  whirh 
thoy  derive  Ihoir  nnmo,  nnd  oxtond  to  the  Fiirot^  Ixliindii 
■ml  (he  Helirido*.  In  KonerHl,  they  hiive  no  horns.  The 
finent  Tahricii  are  insdr  of  tiieir  wool,  which  forms  n  fine 
fiir.  'I'hii  woo)  is  mixed  with  n  HiN'oioM  of  cniirNe  hair, 
wbieh  forms  n  covoriMK  for  the  nnimid  when  tho  v/iw\ 
falk  off.  A  similnr  sjKTios  are  known  to  inhiiliit  the 
most  northerly  parts  of  Kiiro|>e,  from  which  it  is  snppowd 
the  line-woolod  she<'p  of  oiir  iiorthrrn  islumls  nnd  Hiuli- 
lands  have  been  derived.  They  are  hardy  in  oonslilu- 
tion,  nnd  well  adapted  to  tlie  soil  and  pastiiri's  on  whii-li 
they  are  rean-il,  hut  would  ill  repay  Ihfir  eultivalion  in 
Lowliind  diHtriols. 

2.  'I'he  Ihiii-irix^kil  brrril. — The  dun  colour  of  this 
•pecifs  is  not  confined  to  the  wool.  I.ut  exicnds  to  the 
face  and  lours.  They  seem  nt  one  time  to  Imve  Is-cn 
cultivated  very  extensively,  nnd  ronmunts  of  them  still 
exist  in  Scotland,  Wales,  nnd  the  Isle  of  Man. 

3.  Tht  lUiuk-faifd  htnlh  hn-fil,  iH'inn  'hi-  most  hardy 
and  active  of  all  our  sheep,  are  tho  |)ro|ier  inhnhilutils  of 
e^'V^y  country  ul>oundin|{  in  elevated  hoathy  mountains. 
They  have  spiral  horns,  thoir  Ioks  nnd  faces  are  Ijlack, 
with  a  short,  firm,  and  compact  lusly  ;  their  wool  is  coarse, 
weiifhiiiR  from  H  to  4  Ihs.  jwr  lleece ;  they  fatten  n-mhly 
on  nood  pastures,  and  yield  the  most  delicious  mnltou. 
wei);hin);  from  10  to  IH  llw.  \>vr  quarter.  They  still  exist 
in  consideraMe  numliers  in  the  more  elevated  nioiinlaiiis 
of  Yorkshire,  CumU-rlaiKi,  Weslmorelnnd,  Argyleshire, 
and  the  central  Hishlniids  of  fScotland. 

4.  The  M<K>iliinil  ahec/i  I'f  IhrDunhire  are  somcliines 
tcrme<l  the  Kxmoor  nnd  Dartmoor,  from  tlic  dillcrent 
(listriclfl  of  Uevou<hire  in  which  they  are  reared.  They 
have  hoins,  with  legs  and  faces  white,  wool  loni;,  with 
u  hardy  constitution,  and  are  said  to  Is'  well  adapted  to 
the  wet  lands  which  they  occupy.  Their  wool  weiijhs 
4  lbs.  the  fleece ;  but  tliey  are  ruthor  small,  and  in  some 
respect*  ill  formed. 

5.  The  I'herwl  bircil  derive  their  name  from  tho  Che- 
viot mountains,   in  which  ihey   are  indigenous.     They 
are  longer  and  heavier  than  the  black-faced.  Their  wool 
is  fine ;  a  medium  ticoce  weighs  about  3  llw.;  a  carcass, 
when  fat,  weighs  fi^wn  1'.^  to  18  lbs.  |H'r  quarter.     Their 
£ices   are  white;  their  legs   ure   1  nvi,  clean,   and  small 
boned,  and  clad  »  tli  wool  to  the  h.mi;!i.     Their  oidy 
defect  of  form  is  a  waul  of  depth  in  the  chest ;  yet,  with  ! 
this  exception,  their  size,  gcniTal  form,  hardy  eonstitu-  j 
lion,  and  fine  wool,  arc  a  cond)ination  of  (|ualities  in  ' 
which,  as  a  breed   for  mounlain  pasturage,  llicy  are  yet  j 
unrivalled  in  tliia  country. 

6.  The  Ihriied  variciun  of  fine  uixilfil  $hei-p  of  AW-  i 
fall;,  H'illfhiit,  nnd  Duntt. — 'l^his  breed  of  sheep  have 
Mhurt  wool,  in  which  they  dilTer  from  the  black-faced  | 
■heep,  and  moorland  sheep  of  Devonshire,  nnd  from  the  i 
Cheviot,  in  having  lar;;e  spiral  hums.     They  arc  not 
much  lighter  than  the  Cheviots,  but  they  are  ill  formed,  ! 
•ml  thin,  flat  in  the  ribs, and  slow  feeders ;  a  medium  fleece  | 
weighs  alwut  2  'bs.     It  is  believed  that  the  South-down  i 
will    eventually    displace   them.     Tho    Wiltshire   sheep  , 
mro  still  heavier  than  those  of  Norfolk,  being  the  largest 
ci  our  fine  wooled  sheep;  they  are  suid  to  thrive  well  in 
the  downs  of  Wiltshire,  but  tlioy  are  also  giving  ground 
to  the  Buuth-downs.      The   Dorset  sheep  have  horns, 
white  faces  and  legs ;  their  three-year-oM  wetlwrs  wei.;h  ; 
from    16  to  20  llw.  jx-r  (piarler;  their  wo<il   is  less  fine,  i 
but  heavier  than  th'it  of  Wiltshire,  weighing  from  3  to  4 
Ikf.  the  fleece,     'i'he  jM-culiar  adv.intage  of  this  breed  is, 
that  the  ewes  admit  the  ram  at  «o  early  a  period  that  Ihey 
generally  have  Iambs  in  the  months  of  Sepleml>er  and 
Ojto!,cr,  which  find  a  ready  market  in  large  towns  for 
(Tintci      usumptioik. 


7.   The  Ri/ilanil  hrfil  derive  their  nnrnc  from  «  ii,„„l 
em  diitricl  in   Herefordshire,  which  nt  one  Ijmp 
gnrdod  i 


*M  r* 
as  inc'ipable  ot  growing  any  thing  Iml  ryo.  Ti,' 

species  nn<  witite-faced,  and  wilhout  horns;  llicirgrnf 

form  is  lolernble ;  Ihey  fall  short  of  the  iinprovi^l  l,,,^^! 

in  lieing  more  flat  in  the  ribs,  nnd  less  level  in  il,„  |    , 

their  wihiI  is  fine,  weighing  from  I  i  to  2  llw.;  ii„,|, 

ton  is  delicate  ;  they  nrrive  soon  ul   innturity,  sii,|  (^^^, 

easily,  and  weigh  from    12  to  Ifi  Ilia.  \h'i  (|unrl"ri  ih 

breoil   has  been  eross«'d  by  the  Spanrsh   Meriiio.    Tl 

produce  of  this  cross  were  nt  one  time  in  lij(r|,  \\^J^^, 

Kiiglaiid,   under   the  name  of  the   .Xnglo-Meriiio-  ani 

though  their  wool  is  said  lo  have  been  of  a  fin,.  ni,,|,,. 

the  breed  has  for  long  declined  in  popular  favniir.        ' 

H.  Thf  SdUlh-iliiwii  I  mil. — This  species  have  no hoi-n,. 
their  legs  nnd  faces  gray.  They  have  fuw  \\,w\^  nlurl,' 
is  from  two  lo  three  inches  in  length,  and  \veii;lis  ir,,^ 
2.}  to  3  lbs.  per  fleece;  Ihey  are  siiijhlly  ilelirnni  m 
depth  nnd  breadth  of  chest,  but  their  niiitloii  isexrollim 
ami  highly  flavoureil ;  Ihey  ure  kiiiiliy  feeilers.  unci  wh™ 
fat,  their  average  weight  may  be  slated  at  Iroiii  15  i,,  ^ 
lbs.  |H>r  (piarler.  This  species  of  slurp  have,  Iroin  liin. 
imiiieinorial,  Im-cu  reared  upon  the  chalky  soils  of  .Sum  i 
bill  are  now  widely  extended,  aiid  thrive  excelltMiily  jj 
only  on  the  chalk  downs  nnd  light  soils  of  lOnglund,  hut  on 
the  slii'ltere<l  lawns  of  Hcolland.  In  n  note  lo  iln.  |,m||,| 
from  Lord  Pitiiiilly.  iienr  Ml.  Andrews,  nre  the  liillowinj 
facts: — "1  generally  keei>  about  a  score  of  iSoiiili-dowu 
ewes  for  enrly  lambs  ;  lliey  pasture  in  llie  lawn  wiilnl,, 
black-faced  wcllicrs  kept  for  family  use.  'I'lic  |j|„^ 
droppeil  early  in  winter  IHD'J-IO,  not  beiiii;  wuruij 
were  sent  to  Ililiiiburiih  ;  ten  of  tho  ewes  lamlicd  a^ain 
in  Septi'inber,  ISIO.  and  again  in  March,  1841.  .s„ni( 
of  them  had  twin  lanilw;  all  illd  well.  'I'he  Hcptcnilft 
lamlis  1  sold  in  August,  1H4I,  when  eleven  iiKiiilhii  olJ 
nt  30s.  u  pii'ce.  I  asi-rilM-  ihe  fact  of  llie  ewes  tlirlvinj 
si>  well  to  llie  dry  ground,  and  to  their  Is'lin;  yv.i  i\o[v 
ni:;ht,  siiiunicr  ami  winter,  into  a  slied,  and  well  U'dilfd' 
they  have  no  extra  foml,  except  nt  lambing  liiiic,  \v|i,fl 
they  get  a  little  oil-cnke  or  sliced  turnip."  'I'lic  oboi, 
note  is  highly  deserving  the  ntlenliun  of  breeders  of  ihii 
sjM'cios  of  sheep,  it  testifying  to  tho  greatest  degree  of 
fecundity  tt  which  I  have  yet  heard. 

y.  'I'he  Miriiin  luceil. — This  sjiocies  of  sheep  is  wp 
pos<'il  to  have  been  nrigiiinlly  from  Africa.  iMatcai 
Columella  saw  a  vuriely  from  thnt  country  ot  sonio  if 
the  games  cxhibiteil  at  Koine.  Ho  procured  some  of 
them  (or  his  own  farm,  crossed  them  with  the  brfcdsof 
Tnrenti.in,  and  stMit  tho  ofTspring  of  this  cross  lo  Spain 
III  Spain  they  soon  rose  to  such  perfoclion  and  c>:lelrm, 
that  Uiey  uttracleil  tho  nttention  of  breeders  of  stock  ig 
other  nations,  and  this  breed  inny  now  lie  found  in  cvm 
part  of  the  gloU',  They  were  im|>orted  into  EnclanJfo; 
the  first  time  in  1 VTS.  'fhe  Ryeland  and  other  fine-nooleil 
briH'ds  of  England  were  crossed  by  Merino  rams  in  IT'.i'i 
The  Merino  breei  of  rums  were  cultivated  wilii  gnat  oari 
by  his  late  majes  .y.  King  (ieorge  III.  The  sales  of  b 
majesty's  stock  which  ecnnmenced  in  tho  car  I*"* 
attracted  such  g,!neral  attention  in  Hnghind  IIiuLisocIht 
was  formed  for  promoting  the  breed  in  1811;  but  tbi 
high  cx|ieclalions  v.hich  were  formed  of  the  rfcultol 
this  cross  with  native  sheep  were  far  from  liein!»rfil- 
i/.cd.  The  quality  of  the  wool  of  the  native  kh^ipnu 
improved,  but  the  inert  ased  voluo  of  l!ic  fleece  wii  u 
inadequate  compensation  for  rl.focts  iu  the  cliaracl«rol 
tho  animals  themselves,  which  proved  less  hwrii  tbu 
the  parent  stock,  wc-e  slow  feeders,  and  very  dei'ccli't 
in  form. 

riie  Merinos  that  have  been  naturalized  in  tliiscoiu- 
try  retain  tht'ir  natural  chara:'ters,  excejit  llwttheyl* 
come  larger  ii>  the  caicass,  and  the  wool  longer  mi 
heavier,  thai;  in  Hpain ;  but  tlic  Merino,  as  a  fc«Jiii| 
animal,  is  too  i-.iiall  and  ill-formed,  and  the  mutton (l» 
ticient  both  iii  qu^iiitity  and  quality.     These  poinubiil 


SHEEP. 


CIS 


4«(ii  riw  to  """"'  rintfvcMV  ;  but  in  tlir  fnri-ililp  Inn- 
Iiintoi'f  l'rotflSP«i>r  liow — "  II  m  v,i  ii  Hint  mum"  lirpcdrm 
Jill  coiilfiiil  for  ll-(  Hii|icriority  "f  the  piiro  Mrriin) ;  tlio 
i^noriil  Jiiili;ii<rnt  of  furiiicni  ia  ai^uiiiitt  tUoni,  ■iid  willl 
pfrlVft  ti'iixoii."* 
The  Merino  n\\vr\>  iiro  niltivntnl  in  Rpnin  nnd  Cicr- 
j.y  with  u  KroiiliT  rrRiinl  to  llip  wmil  than  lo  llin 
weight  mill  viiliip  of  the  hiiIiiiiiI  ;  Imt  tho  t'liriiiiTH  in  Knu- 
laiul  lliiiil<  i'  '"""'  I'roCitnhh'  to  raiw  thi>  wcinlil  iiiiil 
filuf  "'f ''»'  "I'llloii,  iiii'l  it  iH  hi'licvcd,  hv  thoHC  well 
ounlili''''  -o  jiiiliji",  tluit  the  ht-Ht  of  Iho  Mcriim  Hlir('|i, 
umlrr  llir  more  riuoroiiH  rliiimlc  of  (Irriil  Uriliiiii,  w  <iil(l 
ni<vrr  yii'I'l  ii<i>"«n  i'i|niil  in  i|iiiilily  to  thiit  of  S|iiiin. 
Till' woiil  of  III'"  I'"  <''!  i"  liner  thiiii  thut  of  iiiiy  othiT 
•jicpp.  Ii'  f^l'iiin.  IIk'  (Iitco  of  till"  nun  wi-iijIiH  H  llm 
mil  tlm' of  III"  I'wi"  S  11)1.;  luil  iIiIm  wool  Imvinn  mich  n 
|jwe  iliii'i'li'v  of  yolk,  which  iilisorlw  i-vcry  kind  of  im- 


purity 


with  whii'li   it   roiii)<.4  in   contiict,  tho  wool   Iohci 


ihre^fiftlii"  of  its  wriijht  liy  lirini;  proiicrly  wiiHhrd. 

10.  Tlif  lhi'nii>hirr  Xi>lli,  lli)iiinnj  Marsh,  Old  /.iiini/ii- 
ihin,  Terfir.iirr,  iiiiil  Old  I rinflrifhirr  slurp. — The  Dc- 
loiiniii"'  Niiitu  ■■onuist  of  two  viirii'tii'H.  'I'ho  ono  is 
fjlli'd  the  Dun-fmvd  Notts,  from  tho  colonr  of  llio  fiirc; 
ttiinis  at'mrw  :ininiiil,  with  tint  ribs  and  crooki'il  Imrk, 
Init  it  yii'Ms  n  lli'ct'<-  wrighinm  10  llis.,  nnd  wlicii  tut, 
wi'ii^hn  "Jii  It'".  P''r  c|imrlt'r  when  only  thirty  nionliis  old. 
The  w'coikI  viiiii'ty  is  ciillod  tlir  Hampton  Nolls  ;  it  rr- 
tenMen  llio  foriniT  in  miiny  rcH|nTl(;,  luit  is  casior  fi'd, 
vii'ldii  If'-' wool,  and  lias  a  white  facp  and  legs,  Uolh 
varii'lif^  'ii'^"  '"'•'11  crossed  liy  the  Leici'stcr,  liy  which 
liolli  brreils  have  lieen  innch  improved. 

The  Koiiiiiey  Mnrsli  breeds  are  very  larRc  animals, 
with  white  fan's  and  legs,  and  yield  a  licavy  tleece,  Iho 
miality  (load  of  its  kind.  'I'lieir  general  stniclnre  is  de- 
fcdivf,  llie  ehest  iH'iiis  narrow  and  tlio  extremities 
fiiarsc.  The  result  of  tlieir  beinp  crossed  by  llie  New 
Lciieiilt'r  is  slill  a  point  in  dispute — one  paily  alleninn, 
lh.it  iIioiikIi  tlie  ipiaiility  of  wool  has  been  lessened,  and 
tho  Ale  "f  tlie  animal  diininished  by  the  cross,  yet  the 
li'iiJcncy  to  fatten  and  their  i;eneral  form  have  been 
much  iinprovi'd.  f)ii  tho  otiier  lianci,  snmo  well-inforined 
brooders  say,  tliut  besides  the  loss  of  the  (piantily  and 
ijuiiiiiy  of  the  wool,  tho  constitution  of  the  animal  is 
ifiiilorod  Ic'is  fitted  to  tho  cokl  and  niursliy  pastures  on 
which  it  feeds. 

The  Old  Iiiiicolnshiro  brood  aro  Iar(fo,  coarso,  ill- 
•hipcd,  si'iw  feoders,  and  yield  indifFerent  mutton,  but 
I  tloeoc  of  very  heavy  IoiIr  wool.  'J'ho  'I'eoswaler  breed 
wore  oriijiiially  derived  from  tho  former  and  pastured  on 
tho  rich  lands  on  the  lianks  of  tho  'I'oes,  t'rom  which  they 
derive  tlu'ir  name;  but  Professor  IiOW  remarks,  that  "it 
a  onliroly  clianged  by  crossing  with  tho  Uishly  breed, 
KjiJ  that  the  old  unimproved  race  of  tho  'I'ees  is  now 
loarcoly  to  tic  found."  They  are  very  lartfe,  and  attain 
a  greater  weight  than  almost  any  other  breed,  tlio  two. 
year-old  we'heij  weiuhinp;  from  'J5  to  30  lbs.,  and  yidd- 
mf  a  loiiK  and  heavy  fleoco  of  wool. 

The  Old  Leicester  is  u  variety  of  tho  coarso  hinu;- 
wdolod  breeds.  On  ricli  pBsliir<'s  they  feed  to  a  creat 
woiahtib'it  iH'iiiR  regarded  ns  slow  feoilers,  thi'ir  Kcneral 
character  has  either  Ih'oii  chanRod  by  crossiiiff,  or  nlto- 
IjClhor  almiidoned  for  more  improvi'd  breeds. 

11.  Thr  \iir  l.rimirr  tiiid  hnpriiyel  'icrxwiitrr  hrmh. 
—Mr.  Bakewoll  of  Dishly,  in  the  county  of  Leicester,  has 
iho  honour  of  forininn  this  most  important  breed  of  sheep. 
Hoturiieil  his  attenlion  to  iniprovini;  tho  form  of  foedinji; 
aiilmaU  about  tho  year  IV.'i.'i.  Tho  exa  't  niolliod  ho 
followed  in  forniinj;  his  breed  of  sheep  is  not  uccurately 
known,  ua  he  is  saiil  to  liavo  observed  a  prudent  reserve 
on  the  subject.  But  we  now  know  that  there  is  but  ono 
way  of  correcting;  the  defective  form  of  an  animal,  namely, 
Inr  breeding  for  a  course  of  years  from  animals  of  the 


*  Low's  Kluiiicatd  of  Agriculture,  p.  5t3. 


'  most  porfoi't  form,  till  Iho  dcfociii  nro  rmnovcd  and  iht 
IirojM'rtios  sought  for  obtained. 

I  Tho  ureal  proporties  of  tho  Now  1/oicoster  for  thf 
farmer,  aro  their  early  maturity  nnd  disposition  t<  fatten, 
ill  which  they  excel  all  oilier  breeds.  'I'hoy  nro  less  in 
si/.e  than  several  oilier  breeds,  and  their  wool  is  .Wemcd 
inferior  to  the  Cheviot;  but  this  breed  is  now  cultivated 
with  urent  success  in  almost  every  part  of  KuKland. 

That  class  of  Hlieep  now  known  by  tho  name  of  ihu 
Improved  'J'eoswaler,  is  derived  from  tho  old  brood,  lis 
improvement  has  lu'cn  chielly  elli'ctod  by  crossi|l^ 
with  Iho  New  I,eiciHler.  Tlwy  aro  not  so  larRO  iis  thr 
older  race,  but  are  iilill  the  largest  of  our  improved  breeds; 
rodiietive  in  laoilw,  and  yield  a  good  (toeco ;  yet  their 
..irni  renili'rs  them  less  filteil  lor  Kcnural  cultivation  than 
tlio  New  Leicester. 

CIIOICR    OP    BRRKDa. 

If  tho  farmor  has  rendered  himself  master  of  tho  con- 
stitution and  cimraclor  of  Iho  dilfcrent  broods  nf  doinestio 
sheep,  already  given,  and  wiih  thi'  general  nnd  peinlinr 
i-Jinractor  of  the  climale,  soil,  and  pnslurago  of  tlio  locality 
on  which  ho  is  to  sellle,  the  sj'lection  of  the  brood  tlnil 
will,  upon  the  whole,  yield  him  the  highest  profit,  will 
not  be  a  matter  of  very  dillicult  calculatioi..  Hut  sh.iuld 
nn  error  be  commilled  on  this  head  in  tho  first  trial,  very 
slight  oxiM'rienco  would  enable  a  practical  farmer  to  cor- 
rect it,  uiilesH  he  belong  lo  that  class  of  imtnoiis  to  whom 
the  lessons  of  history  nnd  oxiH'rioiico  convoy  neilhei 
knowledge  nor  correclion. 

Tho  breeds  Iiest  adapted  to  tho  soil  nnd  elimato  of  tho 
ditli'rent  districts  of  (treat  Hritain,  aro  arranged  by  thut 
distinguished  airrieiiltnrist.  Professor  Low,  in  the  follow, 
iug  manner: — "The  broods  of  sheep,  then,  of  this  coun- 
try, may  be  divided  into  two  clacsos — the  sheep  of  the 
mountains,  lower  moors,  and  downs,  and  the  sheep  of 
the  plains.  The  sheep  <if  tho  first  class  have  sometimes 
horns,  and  sometiincK  want  them.  Tho  fiiieKt  of  them 
have  no  horns,  namely,  the  ('hoviot  and  Wouth-dowii. 
One  of  them,  Iho  blaek-facod  heath  breed,  has  coarso 
wool ;  another  of  them,  the  Moorland  sheep  of  Devon- 
shire, has  long  but  not  coarse  wool ;  and  nil  tho  uthem 
have  sliort  nnd  line  wool. 

"Of  the  moorland  nnd  down  breeds,  us  they  inny  bo 
cnlled,  the  hardiest  is  the  black-faced  heath  breed,  and 
this  pro;H'rty  points  it  nut  ns  the  most  suitable  for  a 
high  and  rugged  country,  where  artificial  food  cannot 
bo  procured.  The  breed  next  lo  this  in  hardy  propertios, 
but  surpassing  it  in  tli^;  weight  of  tho  individuals,  is  the 
Cheviot.  Where  the  pasture  contains  a  sufliciency  of 
grasses,  this  breed  doserven  tho  preferonco  over  any  other 
known  to  us  for  a  mountainous  country.  Tho  next 
brood  dom<rving  of  cultivation  is  the  Southdown.  This 
breed  is  suited  to  the  chalky  and  sandy  downs  of  the 
south  of  Knglaiid.  It  is  in  this  respect  a  very  valuable 
breed,  but  it  is  iiiiHuited  to  the  more  rough  and  elevatcu 
pastures  lo  which  the  blaek-faced  and  Cheviot  aro  adapted 

"'I'he  moorland  and  down  breeds  nppear  to  be  the  most 
desorving  of  cultivation  in  this  country.  Of  tho  larger 
breeds  of  the  plains,  the  New  Leicester  is  tho  host  adapted 
to  general  cultivalion,  and  wherever  nn  imiirovcd  systein 
of  tillage  is  estiiblisbed.  this  iidmirablo  breed  may  be  in- 
troduced. The  Leicester,  the  ('heviot,  and  the  black* 
faced,  have  for  long  Im'oh  regarded  as  the  breeds  best 
ailapted  for  the  dill'erent  districts  of  iScotland.  That 
those  three  breeds  have  nearly  sto(Hl  in  the  same  nunio- 
ricnl  ratio  lo  one  ain'ther  liir  some  years,  is  n  gooil  proof 
that  each  has  been  pbi'-ed  in  that  Iwality  iM'st  fitted  by 
nature  for  proniotijig  its  health  and  productiveness.  Tha 
Leicester  is  admirably  adapted  lo  the  rich  and  nlluvittl 
soils  of  our  ciillivaled  plains;  the  Cheviot  breed  is  |i«ci>' 
liarly  adapted  to  tho  grassy  mountains  ch'cfly  formed  of 
the  tiaiisitjoii  serlis  of  rocks;  then,  our  most  elevated 
mountain  ranges,  formed  chielly  of  primitive  rockt,,  and 

at' 


^ 

■ 

':*^ 

,   ■ 

% 

■■'■■•1 

J' 

3*i 

^ 

ill 


TIVFORMATION   FOR   THE  PROPI.K. 


sovotrul  with  heath,  on  whirh  nonf  but  thn  Msrk-fnrrd, 
the  imml  Hrtivo  ami  liiinly  "f  "nr  br""!",  miiM  »urvivp."* 
'I'he  hIkivo  arriini{)'nicnlii  hnvit  Rciicrally  licoii  nniiii- 
pucPtl  in  iiN  the  l)riit  ixxhIIiIo  by  the  larrncrM  of  Miolliniil. 
Hut  thp  cbiiinii  of  Hmith-iloH'riii  fi>r  the  niiildio  ninnc  of 
the  IlJKhbuul  pmtiirr*  in  Wi'otlanil  hiivrlM-oii  iirurii  biloly 
Dy  a  itcntb'inun  ni'ilhrr  iIcmiIIiiIi-  of  tiili'iit  dor  obNi>rvutii>n, 
iinil  Hided  by  twenty  yearn'  prnrlicnl  e«|)erioii'C.  Tliin 
genlli-nian,  Mr.  H.  Wulson.  Keillor  Kr.rni,  Hh;>ll  be  allovv- 
«d  to  plead  the  elainm  of  the  Minitlwlowiiit  in  IiIh  own 
words: — "Having,  durini;  the  IhiiI  tweiity-live  yi'nr», 
been  in  the  ninnnKernent  or  |ioiu<eHi<ion  of  a  eonniilirable 
breodinn  flin-k  of  Woutb-down  ewes,  var\  inn  at  dillrrent 
timpK  from  600  to  1000  in  nunilM-r,  nn<l  diiriiii{  tlint  (m-. 
ri'/d  havini;  bad  Rood  opporlunitie)i  of  drawini;  ebme  coin- 
pariiionii  iM'tween  that  and  the  other  breedH  of  nionntaiu 
•beep,  namely,  tbo  Cheviot  and  blark-fareil,  I  have  eoine 
to  the  roni'lu^ion  (and  am  arline  upon  it  in  my  own 
prartiee),  that  from  a  puHtuic  ranxini;  from  MiO  to  I'JdO 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  m-a,  havim;  a  niixlerale  portion 
of  green  Kwurd,  the  ri-st  whin  and  heiilber,  there  i-aii  l>e 
no  more  profitable  Hlwk  of  sbei'p  kept  than  a  llm'k  of 
8oulli-<lown!<  of  the  lieHt  aorl.  My  ehiel  rea'Miiia  lor  bav. 
inif  pnd'erred  thin  breed  are,  that  tbo  iSoulh-ilown  nbeep, 
althonKh  nnlurally  apiriteil  and  aciive,  are  easily  roti- 
trolled  by  a  uoixl  Hhephcr.l ;  enii  no  over  more  Kronnil  for 
their  foiMl  than  any  other  kind  of  sheep,  williout  Htoppio); 
their  i^rowth ;  and  when  tried  liy  wvere  slornm  in  winter, 
will  brave  it  la'tt^-r  than  even  the  blaek-faceil  lliijbland 
aheep;  and  althouifh  reduced  very  low  in  upririK,  sooner 
pick  np  eoiiditiiai  than  the  other  short-wooled  Hhee|i. 
As  a  proof  of  the  Monlh-downn'  inclination  to  fatten, 
when  |int  to  f,ixn\  keep,  I  may  mention  a  fact,  that  while 
I  have  Heldom  Ixien  able  to  produce  a  fat  Cheviot  ewe  the 
same  M-aaon  that  hIiv  baa  rean-d  a  lamb,  I  never  fail  to  make 
Kood  fat  of  the  east  >S>utli-<lownM  olV  tjrasa.  'I'lu'ir  vi'ool 
in  BO  closely  matted  on  their  ba(  kn,  and  about  the  hca<l 
•nd  neck,  aa  to  be  almoat  ini|>ervious  to  rain  or  anow ; 
hence,  ao  aonn  aa  the  atorni  ceasea,  they  appear  dry  and 
comfortable,  their  coal  not  the  least  diaorderiHl,  and  allo- 
gelhcr  free  from  that  droukrd  (AnRJice,  drenched)  ap- 
pearance which  loiif^er-wooled  alwi'p  exhibit  even  for  days 
•tier  a  winter  atorm.  In  all  my  c\)M-rienco,  the  South- 
down aheep  have  kept  remarkably  '  '.^althy.  I  have 
never  aeen  an  instance  of  rot  in  my  fluck;  wliile,  durim; 
the  last  twenty  yeara,  I  have  Ikm'Ii  forced  to  clear  oil'  a 
lot  of  Cheviot  and  alao  of  black-faced  ewea,  from  that  in- 
curable diaeaae.  This,  however,  may  have  liecn  owlni; 
more  to  the  unaoundiu?8a  of  the  pasture  from  which  I  i;ot 
Uiem  than  from  any  (leculiurity  of  the  animala  tbeimwlvcs. 
My  average  loaa  in  tlie  Mouth-down  lot  Ima  invariably 
been  much  under  that  of  any  other  Hheep  I  have  bred. 
They  are  hardy,  and  easily  managed  at  land>inK-time; 
•f]ectionute  niothero,  and,  on  moderate  keep,  (>ive  a  great 
quantity  of  milk ;  and  if  there  ia  any  inducement  for 
early  larnba,  they  will  go  with  the  ram  almost  aa  aoon  aa 
the  lamb  ia  weaned.  When  crosaed  with  a  well-bred 
Jjeici^ater  rain,  and  brought  into  good  keep,  they  produce 
perhupfl  tlie  moat  prolitabic  lamb  that  ia  bred,  taking 
wool  and  carcass  into  account  I  have  for  the  last  ten 
years  put  all  the  ewea  I  eouli!  ipare  from  pure  breeding 
to  this  sort  of  crossing,  lambing  the  ewes  on  turnips  in 
•pring,  then  turning  them,  as  Hcatn  as  the  acucion  would 
permit,  to  the  hill  pasture  (the  Hidjaws)  till  wraning- 
time,  when  the  lambs  are  brought  to  the  in-lield  pastures, 
anil  put  to  turni|m  for  the  winter,  on  which  f<H)d  they  are 
kept  fur  aliuut  'id  per  week  each,  and  kept  on  the  earliest 
crass  ill  spring;  so  that  in  a  month  or  six  weeks  alter 
ttiey  are  clipped,  they  are  lit  for  the  butcher,  who  values 
IhiK  criaa  almost  aa  high  as  the  pure  bred  Houlh-down. 
The  w  lol  ia  of  the  finest  quality  for  combing,  and  fetches 
'JtuB  highest  price  of  any  Britisb  grown  wool,  generally 

■  Ixiw'i  fc^enHiiiti  of  Africullure,  p.  &4S-C. 


'rom  2s.  to  2».  2d.  per  lb. ;  and  the  clip  in  a  gno,l  „„^ 
will  average  about  (1  lbs.  At  sixteen  niomhii  old,  |  t!/* 
never  realized  less  than  ■lOs.  each,  wiad  and  nimion  i' 
Hmithneld,  this  cross  is  much  sought  after.  '     ^ 

••On  Inndi  where  fulling  is  found  tiei-essary.thcSomh 
down   submits  to  this   treatment  better  tliini  any  nil 
brwd  of  sheep ;  such,  indeed,  in   all  cases  whrro  Ik" 
put  them  to  the   test,  is  their  spirit   and   hnrdinn,  ii  ! 
nolbing    short    of  ill  treatment   seems   to  inJHf,,  ,'| 
Combining  lliese  fads,  I  can    have  no  hesilaiioi,  j. 
commending  a  .South-down  (lock  of  sheep  in  iir(.ff,„ 

j  to  every  other,  on    such   situations  as    I    have  dcm-nhf,! 

!  namely,  too  high  to  la>  oceupii'd  during  the  wlio||.  ^.^^T 

I  by  a  (lock  of  I.eicesters,  ami  under  that  level  which  ih 
nativ,'  black-faced  aliei'p  only  can  thrive  U|i()ri. 

i  "  So  far  as  I  know,  it  is  not  yet  sullieienlly  ii«cprt«iniiJ 
by  experience  how  far  a  cross  between  the  SonthHl,,, 
and  Leicester   may  Is'  carried,  so  as  to  keep  up  |(,p 

[  vily  of  the  former  with  the  well-known  latlriiiiu,niii,|,||J 
of  the  laller.  .Anollier  train  of  breeding  thrdutl)  ih, 
black-laced  and  South-down  sheep,  whose  liiiliils  mym  •• 
mui-h  akin,  seems  likely  to  succeed,  lly  this  orois  im. 
provemeiit  in  qualily  of  wool  woiil.l  lie  gained,  while th,| 
of  the  niulton  would  not  be  deteriorated." 

On  the  other  side.  Professor  Low  reniarkm-j.'fu 
.Sonllwlown  breed  is  best  suited  to  the  chalky  and  janj, 
ilowMs  of  the  south  of  Hni;hniil.  It  is  in  this  ti'sni.ct, 
very  valu.d)le  breed;  but  it  is  imsiiiteil  tutlie  inure  rnii'h 
and  elevated  pastures  to  which  the  blaiU-farnl  nnj  ('u 
viot  are  adaptc'."' 

In  Ireliind.  the  breed  of  sheep  has  been  nnicli  iiiiprovBl 
since  the  beginning  (d' tlie  present  century.  Aliout  ilm 
tune,  Mr.  Ciilley  attended  the  celebrati-d  fiir  ;it  Ihlliiuj, 
loe.  and  thus  describes  the  Irish  slierp  of  llmi  |n'ri(i||;_ 
'•  I  \M\  sorry  to  say  I  never  saw  such  ugly  sheep  nii  I  siw 
there.  The  worst  breeds  we  have  in  (ireiit  Hriiaiiute 
much  superior.  One  would  almost  iinaiiine  lluit  iIk 
sheep  brei'ders  in  Ireland  have  taken  as  much  pninsio 
breed  awkward  sheep  as  many  of  the  peii|i!e  in  Kii^'ljuJ 
have  taken  to  breed  handsome  ones.  I  know  niilhiinu 
recomiiu'iiil  them  except  their  si/e,  which  nii^jht  piciie 
some  old-fasbiened  breeders,  who  can  get  no  kind  of 
stiH'k  large  enough,  lint  I  will  enileavoiir  to  diviibt 
them,  and  leave  my  reaib'rs  to  juilge  fir  ihomsthfj. 
These  sheep  are  su|  ported  by  very  lonj  llnrk  crootej 
gray  legs,  tlicir  lie.idi  long  and  ugly,  with  hirne  ll;,i;,'in? 
ears;  gray  faces,  and  eyes  sunk;  necks  loni;,  and  wi (ij 
behind  the  sbonlilers;  breast  narrow  and  short;  hnllon  I 
both  before  and  iH-bind  the  shoulders;  (liit-sidt'd,  «ii|i 
high  narrow  herring  backs  ;  hiiid-i|uartrrs  (tro()|jirii>,  ajj 
tail  set  low.  In  short,  they  are  almost  in  every  rcsM  | 
contrary  to  what  a  well-lormed  sheep  should  1n'."| 

Hut  an  immense  improvement  was   soon  cfli'ctfiHr  I 
Mr.  St.  (leorge,  and  Mr.  .\stley  of  Odslon,  who  iin|*r!ni 
a  valuable  selection  from  the  ths-ks  of  the  IickI  brtiiltii 
of  the   New   Leiceslers;  and   by  carefully  lireediiiii  fruu 
these,  their  sheep  soon  obtained   a  degree  of  |)PrrHliiii 
little  inferior  to  those  of  Kngland.     They  sooi    tieganlo 
let  their  tups  at  very  high  prices.     They  let  thirty  rami, 
in  IHOO,  at  XI714.     One  of  them    was  to  hav»  Iwu  | 
l.'iO  guinea.s.     Mr.  f'asun,  near  Tipperary,  was  the  [*i. 
son  who   bad   hired   this  famous    ainiiial,  and  luJ  tlx  I 
misfortune  of  having   him   munlered  the  night  ul'icrli(| 
had   arrived   at  his  farm,  by  some  maligna^it  0|i|iu8cr of  I 
the  new  breed. 

The  Irish  sheep,  since  the  introiluction  of  the  impMVfJ  I 
breeds,  are  now  able  to  coiiifiele  in  ti.e  niarkels  wiililln  I 
Knglisb  breediTs.  'I'bere  is  no  entry  in  the  hooksoflbtl 
Custom-I louse,  of  sbee|)  exporleil  troni  Irelanil  fjrtln  I 
back  than  the  year  I7'.)7,  and  in  that  year  there  i>  u  I 
entry  of  1875.     The  number  had   increased  inlBtUl 


*  l«w'<  Rlrineiils  of  Agriculture. 
t  Culiey  on  Lave  iSiock,  p.  100, 


pori  in    l«:<l    «">• 

LjviB";  ""•'•  '" 

rf  ,hrp|..  S"."""  I' 
innually  "'»«<  •'"'  '' 
Billinni'l"''.  the  niim 
gHOflO  to  nearly  UH 
bui>hamlrv  in  Irelan.l 

(i,lw»V.  <'l:'"'.  '■'"." 
Iliil  idinn.e,  there  is 
^^omcMl  of  sheep  ill 
in  nmny  I'l  "''''*  l"''"" 
Ami  from  llie  progrc 
f,rty  yciirs,  there  iiei 
fiiliire  emini'iice  in  s' 
Uleiits  mill  i'lier:;ies  i 
lion  of  tlie  soil.  "fl".  I 
rcrU'il  1111(1  eiifeeliled 
lion,  ffi""  ""■  K''ii''i|' 
loil,  the  tiiildiiess  of 
lion,  the  iiiiir.ber  of  \\ 
for  inliiiiil  iiavig:itioii, 
civiliMlio"  the  most  t 
The  rising  iiii|)ort 
liih  colony,  the  prog 
buHl'iinilry. entitle  it  I 

tiirinins.     "'""''  "" 
ism\  was  of  an  extn 
Bonpil.    Tlic  hue  d 
noon  iiii|iro,eil  the   I 
In  the  couise  of  two 
s,i  niucU  lor  the  bet 
ill  in  sliMul  aro'ii'  n  lli 
|«rtaliiin  of  the   Leii 
lowed,  whiili  111  once 
caas  ami  the  lleece,  ll 
more  for  the  mutton 
first  wa-''  slow  ;  then' 
llrmcnt  in  ISilO,  twi 
Oral  ship.    Til"  M 
fMult  I'lr  cxceeiled 
with  the  prev.dent  st 
of  8hee|i  Ihiit  yieldi 
Merino  of  Ihirope. 
From  this  perio, 
increased  in  the  ci 
of  !ih?e|)  hail  ain.ni 
in  I81K,  to   I7(M',':) 
Macarlhir,  the  gre: 
andwlw  raised  the  vv 
on  his  exainiiialioii 
1811— "That,  to  Ih 
he  had  ciiviilated  a 
breeding  animals,  all 
to  another  iineation 
quantity  to  the   ma 
lure  I  may  fairly  c; 
Ihe  colony  will  be 
weight  annually, 
■tale  lo  the  court,  tl 
wpplii's  have  been  i 
about  six  or  seven 
that  from  these   I 
Waed  cattle,  and 
Aiil  llie   increasing 
ihows  llic  pri>gressi> 
in  .\ustrilia  and  V:'. 
wool  in   I8;i'.>,  to  tl 
1833,  to  3,.'jl6,H(i'). 
•f  the  wool,  the  m 

•Wentworl'i's  New 
t  llullernii  .\uslrul: 
{  M-rullrtch's  lliclioi 
(Oru's  Land,  p.  SO. 


I 


RTTKKP 


•If 


•doM' nndth"  "t\npp  pxporlcil  from  In'lnnil  fo  Livrr- 
\\,  in  IH.'II  wn-  i;M,7li2;  biiiI  in  1H:)3  niiumiiti'il 
'ii'iCO'  "'»'•  '"  nil'li'ii'"  to  'I''"  iiii'iii'ii""  niiuilK-r 
rf  •hrt-p,   SI'.""*'    I"'"''"-    '»    K"™'    "inrkf't     roiiililinii, 

mlly 'I'fi""*  ''"'  '''"''  <■'""""''•  '^"''  "'  ''"'  '■'"''  "' 
I.""|j„,i,|„p,  the  nimilKT  n(  hIii-i'ii  cxliiliilcd  riiiiRc  Ctoin 
811000  I"  iH'iif'y  l'"*.""*^-     ''"''"  """''   viilimlili'   Hlu'cp. 

'.  |,y  ii,  IrrUiid  p«itlH  nt  pri'Hriit  in  Uosionirniin, 
(' IwiiV.  *'li'''''  I'iiiii'riik.  nnd  TIpiMTiiry.  I)\it  willi  all 
il, ,  iihniiii',  tlitTO  U  HMich  Hllll  tci  1m-  (loiio  in  tin-  man-  , 

^1,1  „t  slii'i'p  in  Ireland.  Tlii' Knil  and  oliinalc  aro 
■  nianv  I'l  »•'''•  p<"''iil'''i'l.v  ndaiilcd  fcr  HJu'rp  IniHliandry. 
inij  from  lla'  pri)«ri'HH  Ireland  ha»  innilo  within  the  lant 
f,rtv  Vi'iif.  ''"  "'  '"''''  '"■  ""  '"'"I?"*''"!?''  rri;ar,linu[  her 
fulure 'I"'""''"''  in  «lieep-lniMliandry.      ('nuld  llie   native 

1  (j,  mill  ener:;ie^  <it  Ireland  la-  directed  to  tlie  enltiva- 
tionof  tl"' ""il.  '"'"■  "'"'  I'l'ininerrc,  instead  of  heiim  pi  r- 
terti'il  I""'  ''nli'elilel  liy  tierce  and  fevcriNli  political  a(,'ita- 
lion  frill"  ''"'  Ri'"''!''  "f  '"'■'  P''<'p'''>  ''"'  riclnieHH  of  the 
inil'llio  inildiicHH  of  llie  rliinate,  lier  m^o^^rapliiial  piisi- 
(inn  the  ini";!"'''  "•  '"'f  l"""'"  "'"'  IniflwnrH,  the  faiililien 
forinliiiiil  navigation,  nhe  nii«ht  hoihi  riNnI  in  wealth  uiiJ 
avifatifiii  Ihe  inoHt  liivoured  nation  of  Kurope. 

'file  riniii:;  iinportnnec  of  An«lralii\,  ita  lieliiR  a  llri- 
liih  colony,  the  [)roi;re!n  it  lia«  al'eady  made  in  !iliee|i. 
husl'iini'ry. entitle  it  to  some  notice  in  ii  treatise  on  Hlieep- 
tnriniii!?-  !•  hud  no  native  sheep;  and  the  lirrtl  iinpor- 
l^lioii  wai  I't'an  extreniely  u^ly  and  ill-Hliaped  race  fioin 
BpiirJl'  '  '"■  '""'  '^^y  "'"'  'i'"'Pt'i"'''  climate,  however, 
HDiin  iin|iro.cil  tho  lireed  in  a  iiiont  rpinarkahic  deiiree. 
In  the  roui'<»'  of  two  or  three  years  they  were  chaii;;eil 
s.)  niuill  t'lr  the  hetter,  that  tlie  hair  chsappcared,  and 
mil,  stead  arose  n  lieece  of  toleruhlo  fineness.  An  iin- 
mrtaliiin  nf  the  Ijcicester  and  8onth-<lown  hreeds  fol- 
lowpj,  which  at  once  doidiled  the  value  hoth  of  tiu-  oar- 
cassmul  tlic  llccco,  though  eolonists  at  that  period  hred 
more  for  tlie  nnitton  than  the  llcecn.  Tho  inerea-e  at 
first  wa«  slow;  there  were  only  (iliJ'l  in  the  whole  sct- 
llfincnt  ill  ISilO,  twelve  years  at\er  the  arrival  of  the 
first  Bhi|i.  Th"  Merino  were  next  imported,  and  the 
rwull  far  exceeded  expci  ation.  Three  or  four  erosses 
with  the  prevalent  stock  ol  the  colony,  produced  ii  lirecd 
of  shci'Ii  lliat  yielded  wool  equal  in  tiiioness  to  the  puri.- 
Merino  of  Kurope. 

From  this  [leriod,  the  nuinher  of  free  settlers  rapidly 
increased  in  the  colony,  and  in  three  y,  ,irs  the  nnniher 
of  sheep  hud  ain..iinled  U  U),l.')7;  in  ISIIt,  to  .'•).'),rJl  ; 
in  1818,1,.  WO,!'^!);  and  in  IHJH,  to  fi^O,;!!)!.*  Mr. 
Macarthir,  the  t;reat  improver  of  the  Australian  sheep, 
andwlw  raised  the  wool  to  a  very  sii|ierii)r  ipiality,  stated, 
on  hin  eiaiiiiiiation  on  the  trial  of  (^ilonel  .lohnson,  in 
lgll_"']'liit,  to  the  hcst  of  his  knowledge  anil  helief, 
he  had  circulated  amonut  the  settlers  l'20,t)0()  worth  of 
breediii'T  animals,  all  raised  hy  himself."  And  in  answer 
toanollier  inicstion  he  says — "  I  have  sent  an  immense 
quantity  to  the  market  to  bo  slaunhtored ;  and  I  am 
lure  I  may  fairly  estimate  that,  from  my  [iresent  stock, 
the  colony  will  he  supplied  with  at  least  1110,000  His. 
weight  annually.  It  is  perhaps  proper  that  I  should 
■tate  to  the  court,  that  the  stock  from  which  such  large 
lupplics  have  heen  ohtained  originally  consisted  only  of 
tbout  six  or  seven  eow»,  and  ahout  thirty  ewes  ;  and 
that  from  these  I  have  raised  1000  or  1200  head  of 
braed  cattle,  and  at  least  10,01)0  or  12,000  shpep."-!- 
Aid  llie  iiicreasiiiti  (juantity  and  ipiality  of  tho  wool 
ihows  the  pro'^rcHsive  improvement  of  sheep-hushandry 
inAiislnlia  and  »:iii  Diemen's  Land.  They  ex]ii)rtid 
wool  in  is;t2,  to  the  amount  of  2:»7,7.^7  Ihs.,  and  in 
1833,  to  3,.'Jlfi,H(;>J.t  .\iid  with  reijard  to  the  quality 
if  the  wool,  the  market  ]>riee,  in  jWnrch,  i834,lbr  the 


•  Wrnlworiii's  Nrw  Sauli  WhIoj,  p.  \'M. 

t  Itiillt^r  oil  .\ii!nral:u,  p.  'tty 

J  Mi'iilioch'«  Diciioiiary,  article  Wool;  and  WidowMii't  Van 

«au-u't  Land,  p.  SO. 


bout  AimtraliRn  wool,  mnn  in.  Od.  p<<r  Ih.,  ■nd  foi  ili« 
host  Hnxon,  ."is.  Bd.  per  lb.,  and  lot  the  best  Npaniih  Mp- 
riiio,  Is,  per  III.  Tliem)  fact*,  which  oulweinh  all  «)>«•- 
cnlntinn  on  tho  suhjecl,  piovu  that  sheep,  well  bred  and 
managed  in  Australia,  yield  a  return  of  at  least  70  or  I4U 
per  cent,  per  annum.  .\nd  as  nheepdiusbandry  niiiit, 
for  a  loiitf  series  of  years,  fnrm  tho  chief  branch  of  riirn' 
iniliistry  in  Australia,  it  cannot  ho  n  nariled  »«  niiphilo- 
sophical  to  contemplate  iitill  hinher  results  when  wo 
know  that  a  hiijher  decree  of  knowhone,  ciierRV,  and  en- 
ter)iri  "■,  will  annually  be  transttrred  from  the  mother  coun> 
I17  to  the  Hhcp|i-hui)bandry  of  that  iiitereiiting  colony. 

IMPROVKMKNT    OP    RIICEnH    OT    RHRI'IP. 

Tho  first  point  of  essential  ini|iortaii ' '  to  he  attended 
to  by  the  :;hec|i-larnier  in  every  part  of  the  j\lol..>,  is  thu 
selection  of  u  lu'eeil  whoso  Ki/it  and  eonslitntional  quali- 
ties best  iiccord  with  the  climate  ninl  the  pastureH  oti 
which  they  are  to  li'cd.  ;\n  error  of  any  maifnitude  on 
this  point  would  be  uttended  with  fatal  elVcets  on  tho 
health  and  productiveness  of  the  (lock,  and  thus  ruin  the 
finances  of  the  farmer. 

It  is  true  thill  sheep  eon  exist  in  almost  every 'Ountry, 
and  niay  1>"  said  to  reach  liearly  from  the  equator  fo  tho 
poles.  'I'liey  are  found  np|)roaehiiiR  the  eteriiul  snowi 
and  icy  barriers  of  the  arctic  regions  ;  they  are  found  at 
i;rcat  elevations  ill  the  (/'ordillerps  of  South  .Ameriee, 
and  in  the  still  more  elevated  Himalaya  Mountaiim  of 
Asia.  Yet  tlionnh  sliecp  enii  be  reared  within  an  iin- 
mcnso  r'lni^e  of  latitude  anil  temperature,  it  is  equally 
true  that  the  climate  and  soil  fix  tb"  limits  within  which 
our  domestic  breeds  can  ho  cultivated  with  advi.ntanv 
The  climate  wears  down  the  rocks,  and  thus  fornn  tho 
soil,  and  hence  the  natural  pastures  of  all  lountries. 

The  elinmte,  and  the  coniTition  of  exiiitence  which  il 
indnees,  alf'i  t,  with  irresistible  force,  the  structure,  health, 
and  repriKluctiveiiesHof  men  and  animals  from  the  ciiUtt- 
tor  to  the  poles.  The  laws  of  nature  cannot  bo  trani- 
Hressed  witli  impunity.  I3ut  this  eoiiilition  brinp;  occu- 
rately  adjusted,  the  next  objects  which  the  shee|i-farmct 
ouudit  to  keep  steadily  in  view,  arc  the  (juantity  and 
quality  of  the  mutton  and  the  wool.  Nature  has  jicr- 
haps  forbidden  that  the  same  sheep  should,  in  any  cir- 
cumstances, yield  the  i^reatest  weight  of  the  best  mntton, 
and  a  fleece  nf  the  greatest  value.  The  farmer  will  bo 
able  easily  to  determine,  from  the  country,  elinmte,  ond 
various  other  consideratioiiH,  to  which  of  these  he  should 
direct  his  chief  attention.  In  Kngl.md,  for  example,  tho 
farmer  finds  it  more  profitable  to  )ironiote  the  weight 
and  (inalily  of  the  nnitton  than  the  wool,  while  tho 
(iirmer  in  Spain  and  Germany  finds  it  his  interest  to  at- 
tcnil  more  to  the  wool  than  the  mutton. 

The  properties  most  desirable  in  tho  shocp  ore — 
1.  Size  ;  2.  Form;  3.  Early  maturity;  4.  Constitutional 
hardiness;  6.  Productiveness;  6.  Disjiositioii  to  fatten; 
7.  Lightness  of  ofVal ;  on  each  of  which  points  wo  shall 
proceed  to  treat  in  detail. 

1.  The  .<i:f  of  tho  sheep  must  be  regulated  by  tho  cli- 
mate, the  pasture,  and  the  steepness  or  levelness  of  tho 
lands  on  which  it  is  to  feed.  One  rule  never  to  bo  vio- 
lated is,  that  the  size  of  the  sheep  should  bear  some  re- 
ference to  the  iinturc  of  the  pasture.  .\iid  very  heavy 
shee|>  are  unsuited  to  very  elevated  and  precipitous 
mountain  ramres. 

On  the  subject  of  size,  a  practical  liuestion  of  very 
considerable  importance  is  still  unileterniincd,  and  that 
is,  what  is  the  ratio  of  food  consumed  by  a  large  animal 
and  one  of  moderate  size.  'J'he  result  of  an  experiment 
I  is  given  by  Dr.  Parry,*  where  it  is  slated,  that  hy  brnea- 
iiig  small  slieep  instead  of  large  ones,  the  numbers  won 
increased  from  060  to  8!t0  ewes  and  lainlis,  and  the  pro 
fit  from  i'450  to  above  £724.     But  this  exp«'riineiil,  an } 


•  Cominuiiicalioiis  to  the  Boat  1  of  Af  ricullurc,  voi.      ii   IW 


tl« 


INFOnMATION    FOR  THE  PROPI.R. 


til  nthfru  Ihni  hiivf  hern  trinl,  hnvc  nrvcr  ronl»iiirtl  nit 
Ilia  <>lriiii-nl(  iii'ii'i.i«iiry  lo  •li'lrrtniiii'  Ihe  mii>«lii)ri  with 
U,y  thillK  likr  |iliiliiii<i|iliirul  aiTiimrv. 

9.  Tli«  t'lrvi  ;if  the  »lie<|i  •liould  <  ori-iiit  nf  Unit  l)o|ipy 
ronibiimtiiiii  of  .iimtoinirnl  «lruclur<'  on  wliirh  llio  liciiltlj 
miti  iiriKlijctiviMirHK  of  the  mnlinil  iIi-|m-ii(I;  ■ml  llm 
piiiiitu  of  |irn<'ti<-ul  iiii'ii  iiiunl  l>«  14'ntml  liy  tliin  iiiliriml 
■  natoinirnl  ulnirliin*.  'I'lml  riiiinr ill  Kurni'on,  Mr.  Cliiir, 
in  hi«  CcMiiiiiiiiiii'iitioiiii  to  tlii>  Hoiinl  of  A^noiiltiirp. 
■t*lf« — ••'I'linl  the  liiiiK*  nf  nil  niiiiiiiil  nri' tlio  liml  olijiTla 
to  Iw  attniilol  to,  for  on  their  mzp  niiil  iioiiiuliii'itM  the 
lirslth  mill  iilrtMiKlh  of  iiii  niiinial  |iriiiri|MillY  iIi'|m'Iii1  i 
that  the  rutrrinl  jiiiliciitloiiii  of  llio  M?.r  of  tlir  liiiii(i<  arc 
the  form  anil  Mizi<  of  Ihi'  chest,  niiil  itH  lircnilth  in  piirti- 
rulnr:  thiit  ihr  hcml  aliiiiilil  lio  •nnill,  iih  In  tliiH  tlio 
liirth  in  liicililiilcd,  iiiiil  iilfonlx  oilier  iiilvniilii«es  in  feoil- 
inf(,  anil  an  it  Keiii'riilly  iiulii  uleH  lliiit  the  iiiiiinal  id  of  n 
giKHl  breed  :  tliiit  ttl«  length  of  thfl  tierk  hIioiiIiI  Ih<  in 
|>roportion  to  the  Hi/.e  of  the  nhiiiiiil,  that  it  iiiiiy  eollect 
ita  foiNl  with  eiiiH> ;  uiid  thiit  the  iniiHoleN  iiiiil  tell- 
tlonii  ihoiild  Im<  UrKe,  liy  which  the  aniiiml  in  eiiiilileil  to 
travrl  wilh  ureiiler  facility ;  and  the  bunea  ahuuld  be 
■inall  and  ele.iii." 

Wc  may  tuTe  add  a  deneription  of  the  Iwit  propor- 
tiona  of  a  t'hcviol  nun,  hy  the  lute  Mr.  Ciilley  of  North- 
nmhrrliir.d  : — "  Ills  heiid  hIiouIiI  Ih- line  uiiil  mniill ;  hi* 
noatrilH  widi>  and  expanded  ;  hi*  eyeH  proiiiini'nt,  and 
rather  iHild  and  dariiiv ;  eiirH  thin  ;  hia  rolliir  full  from 
the  hreatt  and  Khonldera,  but  tuperinif  ffraduiilly  iill  the 
way  to  where  the  iieek  iind  heiid  join,  whieh  kIioiiM  be 
very  tine  and  urneeful,  heinn  |)erfectly  free  from  any 
roarac  leather  haiiKinx  down  ;  the  ahouldera  broad  and 
full,  whii'h  iinut  iit  the  a  unc  lime  join  ao  rany  to  the 
rollar  forward,  mid  rhino  harkward,  ua  to  leave  not  the 
leait  hollow  in  either  (ilaic  ;  the  mutton  upon  hiit  arm 
cr  fore-thii;li  mioit  roiiie  quite  to  the  knee;  hiit  \cg»  u|>- 
righl,  with  a  eleaii  fine  hone,  lioiii^  ei|UHlly  clear  from 
ruporfluouH  Hkiri  and  rouiite  hairy  wool,  from  the  knee  iind 
hoimh  downw'irda;  the  hrenut  liroid  and  well  forward, 
which  will  keep  liin  fore  le(;s  at  a  pro[M"r  widciicitH;  bin 
(irth  or  chest  full  and  deep,  and  iii>t<-nd  of  a  hollow  hehiiid 
I'le  ahouldem,  that  part,  by  Home  called  the  fore  Hank, 
mould  tic  ipiite  full;  the  buck  anil  IoIiik  broad,  till,  and 
vtrai|{ht,  from  wliiih  the  rilut  muni  ride  with  u  fine  circu- 
lar arch;  hiH  liclly  i«trnii;ht,  the  ipiartera  lonof  and  lull, 
with  the  nuitton  ipiite  down  lo  the  liimi;h.  which  hIioiiIiI 
neither  xtaiid  in  nor  out ;  IiIh  twiit  or  junction  of  the  iiiHuic 
of  the  tLiu'liideep,  wide,  and  (till,  which,  with  the  broad 
hreaMt,  viill  keep  IiIh  four  Icrh  opin  and  upright;  tbn 
whole  IkwIv  covered  with  a  thin  |K'lt,  and  that  with  line 
bright  »ort  W(K)I.  'I'he  nearer  any  breetl  of  sheep  comes 
up  to  th  ■  hIkivc  ilem-ription,  the  nearer  they  appron.-li 
towards  excellence  of  form  ;  and  there  is  liitle  dou!-it, 
but  if  the  same  attention  and  pains  were  taken  lo  im- 
prove any  particular  breed  that  has  In-en  taken  with  a 
certain  variety  of  the  Lincolnshire,  the  aumc  advaii- 
tnijea  would  lie  obtained."* 

3.  F.iirli/  l/.i/iin'v  is  a  property  of  i;rrat  importance 
to  the  farmer  who  bretnls  and  feeds  all  his  own  ahcep 
fur  the  shambles;  tliev  not  only  make  a  'plicker  return 
f>r  their  food,  but  yield  a  hiirher  pr.ilit  lo  the  breeder 
than  slinv-feeilinii  animals,  'I'hia  va;uable  |iro|i«'rty  of 
eirly  maUintv  can  be  induced  by  breeding,  foixl.  and 
t'patmcni.  'I'ho  New  Iriicester  breed  pi.-ii-esa  this  pro- 
jierty  in  a  hiit'^er  dci^ree  than  any  other  of  our  doineatic 
breeds,  and  ih'v  also  yield  a  i>rejter  ipiaiitily  of  mutton 
no  the  same  i|Uitiitity  of  fiMxl  than  any  otiier  breed. 

4.  Conx  ifH  '1)11  il  hnrihiif-!,  —  In  ft  riiiorous  climate, 
•  lid  in  lilenk  and  elevalcd  moun'ains.  in  which  artilici  il 
food  cannot  In'  obt.-iiiied,  this  quality  ia  iiidiH[)vnsahle. 
Hut  a  fanner  will  seldum  make  a  wrong  ■election  in  cir- 
funiatannes  ao  ubvioua. 


I       6.   Pimlurlirrnft. — 'Phis  1«  ■  prnperiv  w  ilrh  A 

I  trriiea   wime  varieties  of  nheep   uiiil   other  stiiiiul.  "* 

I  tnayjHi    extended  by  careful    srlectinii    ji,  lir,.„||„     '  ' 

;  from  fiMid  nnd  Ircrttmciit.     I'ets  have  ulmnat  liivjn !', 

twin   lambs.      The  draft  ewea  from   the  mouiilnln,   ' 

Mcotland   have   kcik  >ally  twins  when   tnkpn  to  »  ,mj 

I  climate,  and  kept  on  sii|M-rior  food.  " 

(1.   Di^iKitilmn   III  t'a'irn. — This   projierty  jg  ^f 

Rrrat  importance   to   feeders,  as  his  alieeii  ean  hf  ■,  / 

fit  for  the  market  both  in  a  shorter  perino  luiil  wiik  .  i  ' 
-.,,».  ..  ,  •'«i  ■  i(>,^ 


quuntity  of  foixl.     None  of  our  doiiieslic  brepili 


\n*»n 


this  quality  in  Hreuter  |N<rfection  than  the  Nr*  ),^,^ 
ter ;  this  quality  also  may  Ix'  ascertained  liv  I'lunii,,,. 
the  depth  and  breadth  of  ihe  chest,  accorilinn  lo  m' 
John  H.  I^ihrinht.  And  the  KreulMolm  Hum,,  ^^^^^^ 
that  easy  corpulence  was  coiicoiiillant  with  hi„i||  [„,„  , 
it  is  also  accompanied  with  ■  pliable,  loll,  anj  g^||^ ' 
■kin. 

7.  l.iifhlntft  n/' ijfdi. — Il  i»  obvious  that,  to  vvhiii»v 
extent  the  weii^lit  of  the  olful  can  li«  diiniuJHhril  <k 
value  of  the  animal  is  increased.  The  perfection  of  • 
animal  is,  when  the  dead  weiuhl  of  all  the  eainl,],  ^^ 
approacliei  the  nearest  to  the  weiKliI  of  the  aiiinuil  yihn 
alive. 

The  following  statement  of  the  live  and  df^ml  i„u, 
of  a  Devonshire  ox,  aifcd  3  years  and  10  iiiniii|i«,  ^,\\ 
explain  the  niuiiiiur  in  which  those  accounts  ireilnwn 
up:— 


filniwi 

I.iVB  weiirlil,      .               • 
iVlTsl. 

• 

. 

lb.-      '" 

Stones 

Tallow, 

• 

10 

C 

llHJt', 

• 

n 

3 

II rail  ntiil  toniriis, 

- 

il 

»» 

llrarl,  liver,  and  lunfta,  • 

• 

a 

7 

Ki'fl, 

• 

1 

4 

r.nlrals  hiiiI  1iIo<mI, 

• 

11 

l:t-ij 

I'tirrami,  or  four  iiiinrtert, 

- 

W.llt. 

Princifilei  of  7/ri(v/i<iif,- 

-Th 

P 

fun.lanipnt 

d  sndewn 

lial  principles  of  improvinit  any  of  our  domeslir  jiiii,,, 
by  breeding,  conniHt  in  a  Kkilful  selcilinn  of  those  nul,, 
and  females,  the  union  of  wIiukc  qualities  will  reino\e 
the  defeclH  and  induce  the  propeitics  dcsireil.  Tk 
Khecp-faimcr  can  neither  rais<'  nor  keep  his  flixk  in  ihf 
highest  [x'rfection  of  which  the  climate  and  pasture k|. 
mil,  witlmul  a  rij^id  adherence  to  this  priiiiary  [rinriple, 
It  vvai  upon  this  |irinciple  that  Kakcwill  I'liriniil  hi^ccl^ 
brated  breed  of  sheep,  and  il  is  the  only  priiiriple  upm 
which  any  breed  can  Is-  raised  to  the  liiL'tiest  iicrfpriioa 
I  of  which  it  admits,  /'ncf/idi!  in  mif/ in,  as  il  is  nllrO 
I  has  niveii  rise  to  a  loiiR  controvcrrsj,  which  our  incnm. 
1  iii!{  knowl('ilj,'e  of  the  phyHi<douy  of  the  iinimal  ccoiiuini, 
1  and  a  sviilcr  iiiductiun  of  facts,  carefully  olisirvrj  aiiil 
accurately  recorded,  will  B|>eedily  biiiiu;  lo  a  final  close. 
'l"he  fuels  now  collcil.  d  from  a  wide  Hinl'ace,  and  all««itj 
hy  men  skilled  in  the  sciences  of  |iliysiiilogy  und  uii- 
loiny,  as  well  a«  by  practical  breeders  .if  live-ntofk,fsti. 
blish  the  important  fact,  that,  breidinij  hy  too  iinr affi- 
nities, the  ofr-.|iring  deijcnerates.  It  is  a  law  of  nature 
and  applies  to  men  and  animals,  and  even  pl;mU.  'Dm 
accurate  c\|ierim.'nts  of  Mr.  Kiiiuhl  eslaldisli  the  fori 
that  in  the  veBCtablc  as  well  us  in  the  aiiiiiiiil  kiiii{Jin 
the  oflspriiiu  of  male  and  female  plants,  when  not  r* 
latcd.  jiossess  always  more  streiiirlli  nnd  viijour  ihaa 
those  of  near  airinities.  Sir  John  S.  Nihriuhl  tried  mjiij 
experimeiitji  hy  breeding  in  and  in  with  d()i;s,  fowls. im 
pi^reoiis,  and  found  that  the  olVspiiim  unilonnly  drirpw 
rated.-j-  Sir  John  Sinclair  relates  an  cxperiiiii'iil  «iil 
i  pies,  which  he  carried  so  far  lli  it  the  females  aliuMi 
reasc'd  to  breed ;  and  if  they  did  breed,  the  otlsptinj 
was  so  sniall  and  dehcate  that  they  died  as  sonn  nslhe; 
j  were  born.t  To  breed,  therefore,  from  tlie  siimc  ratu, 
;  but  of  different  families,  is  now  established  as  the  onli 
syst<-m  thai  will  aecure  the  highest  results  in  thr  dl£'^ 
ent  breeds. 


•  See  Cullcy  <  a  Lavt-Stoek. 


•  Tode  ol'  Agricullurn,  p.  98. 

(  S««  yi-  "  itihriRUl'*  EMav,  p.  13. 


t  Cods  of  AgTieulum 


SHKF.P 


617 


('jYijnitif,— TliU  in  <i  inc«n»  of  imprnvlnit  •  lirrnl  that 
MKiui'i'*  'i'*".V  ■'(iiii'iirriiiif  (•irciiinntuiii'rii  to  riimirc  itiir- 
^^^  Thi'  clirimlo  «iiil  iho  I'liixl  iiiiiiit  ii'rnril  with  llio 
hm  tn>l  I'oMntitiitiiiii  1)1°  Ihi'  niiliinil  lli*t  lit  In  hii  pro- 
flKf''  ''"  i'"'"'"*''  ''"'  "'*''  "*  "  '"'•■•''I  i>f^»hiM'|i,  wilh- 
Ml  iunmrnlim;  nr  iiii|>r.)viiin  ihi-ir  foixl,  wiiulil  (hi  a  riilii- 

_l,  i<iilrr|>riiu',  iiml   in    the    fu )f  iill   |iririri|>lp,     'I'hn 

III  mpl  •"  iiicri'iim'  «i/.i'  liy  i'r<mHiii((  wilh  hi'iivicr  riiinii 
(roll  aii'>lli*'r  >'<>ii<itrY  riM|iiircii  dIkd  Kniit  cure  thnt  tlin 
loiiil  »iiil  ilii""l<'  '•<'  mliip''''!  '"  '^"'  coiKlilioii  mill  rhii- 
^irrol  'h«'  o«|n'ct('tl  rncr ;  for  it  in  in  iiniporliivii  nil 
lizi'  in  ifi'i'ii'il  ''y  <  'i"*"iiiK.  tli'it  ili'liniry  »('  roiiMitiiliim 
uul  liiil'ili'y  Id  ili»t'ii«f  urn  iiicrcnwd.  'l"ho  cniiiititutiiiiiiil 
mnillliti  dC  II  riicr  of  «hi'i>|)  will  not  nri'iimiiioiliili'  ihi-tii- 
lelvca  to  iIk'  "oil  <>r  <'liini>t<'  of  ii  coiinlry  diircrini;  niiirli 
in  |iii«tiiriii;i'  miil  trmpcniliiri'  Iroiii  that  on  which  il  hii« 
grrn  li>'il?  "  ii^'livi",  willmut  time,  ffrvM  ciiro,  nkill.  iiiiil 
itlfiilioii.  WiTi>  v/c  lo  .ToiiM  our  nioiiiilHJn  Cheviot 
ffift  with  I.i'iocKlrr  nimn,  the  oil'iiiririi'  woiihi  iBluiiir 
untlff  tw"  I'l'"'  <li»Hil>niitii|fc-. — a  conHtitiition  too  ilcli- 
(Ali'  for ''"'  <'liii"it<',  iiiiil  a  iti/r  ahovo  lhi<  paxtiiri'.  An 
itlrinpt  wan  iiiiiilc  in  Si  ollaiiil  Home  yrnrn  affn  to  rniin 
th»qimlity  nl'  Iho  wool  of  our  nioiiiiliiin  Hlii'cp  by  croNit- 
Ihk  tlii'iii  with  Cheviot  ramK,  ami  the  reiult  wur  u  coni- 
p|(tf  fnihirp, 

Tkt  iijliiiiiie  nf  Srr. — It  i»  now  Ronrrnlly  mlniitlrd 
that  the  iu:ili"  hiiH  ii  higher  inlluciiro  on  the  rhnrurlrr 
of  the  iiir^priiin  lliiin  tlir  roiiniU'.  'riiis  hiw  Im  in  luuiiti- 
ful  arioriliiiii'i"  with  llml  lirm-fici'iit  (IrMinn  bo  visililc  in 
the  irrunKi'mciilH  of  imliirc,  im  it  rimhliR  niim  to  hrinir 
Ihc  ilomi'Hiic  aiiiniiiU  to  Ihi'ir  ino<.l  prufituMi'  condiliim 
in  a  fif  nliortcr  prrioil  tliiin  if  Iho  l.iw  hud  hcon  rovcr*d. 
There  in  iiuolhor  liiot  pcrlrclly  (MtidiliHhrd,  timt  Iho  ninlo 
bv  (inc  ciiiinci'liDn  Ims  ii  liitrhor  infhionro  on  tho  Kooond 
grnrmtinii  tliiin  itx  iii'tiiiil  fathor.  Thin  hIiowr  that  no 
|in|iortiiiit  iliaiini'  in  Iho  rhaructor  of  n  hrood  ran  ho  of- 
ftctril,  uiilc-iH  the  croHsing  in  coiitinuoJ  until  Iho  fourth 
Of  fifth  Roiicnition. 

Jfie  iif  llif  I'lirrnif  :  il>  Fffertn  on  Ihf  Srr  of  thr  flff- 
Biriiip. — Sonic  very  intorrslini!  rxporimmts  wrro  hoRiin 
nine  yoarH  nsn,  tho  rosulln  of  whiih,  no  far  as  thoy  ro, 
Icml  lo  cHlidilifili,  an  a  i^onoral  law  of  natiiro,  that  tho  o(T- 
l]iriiig  of  a  youMu;  rain  and  owo,  of  from  four  to  five 
jrfun  old,  will  in  noiicral  ho  n  foininino,  wliilo  that  of  an 
oil!  ram  ami  yo'.iiiu  owo  will  in  nonornl  ho  niasculino. 
Ciiulil  nurh  a  hiw  ho  jiraolioally  noli-d  upon,  it  woiil.l  bo 
of  iinmoii'o  ailvimtano  to  liroodorM  of  Rtook  in  i  i;  rv 
counlry,  Imt  parlicularly  to  hroodrra  of  hIo'  „  gm.|,  ^ 
country  a«  AiHlralia,  in  whioh  tho  rapid  \  k  asc  of  tho 
nuiiiKr  of  siDik  i*  an  object  of  hhi  b  |>^ramount  irn- 
iwdinco'  There  iR  an  «l>lo  paper  .  n  tn-,  i  iiriouH  nub- 
jitt  in  tho  CnA  nninlHT  of  the  " '.^imrur  v  Journnl  of 
ijrifuUiire,"  cuntainini?  tho  rosu  !>;  of  tliio  oxporiinents 
Bimlo  in  Franco,  from  which  «h  fnllowincr  fiutu  and 
nem  are  eTiraetod.  Fn  the  ■•  AiinaloR  d'Anriculture 
Fniifaiiio,"  voIh.  xxxvii.  and  xxxviii.,  Romo  very  inte- 
resting PxperiinontR  IKO  rpcoi,led,  whirh  have  lately  boon 
mid!'  in  Franco,  on  tho  bieedini?  of  live  stock.  M. 
ChiidcR  riiroM  de  Hu:';irrinKuen  propoRod,  at  li  meelini; 
of  the  AiTriculliirnl  Society  of  Spverac,  on  tho  3d  of 
July,  1826,  to  divide  a  flock  of  sheep  into  two  equal 
parti,  »o  that  a  gnalor  niimbor  of  nialoR  or  fomaloH,  at 
choice  of  tho  jiroprietor,  rIiouIiI  1)o  produced  from  each 
of  them.  Two  of  tho  inemberB  of  the  gooiely  ofTorod 
their  flocks  to  Ih  eome  RubjoctH  of  his  experiments;  and 
the  rmultR  hiivc  now  lieon  conununicated,  which  are  in 
oeoonldiiro  wilh  tho  author's  exp'cliitionH.  The  first 
ixperimont  wn<  conducted  in  tho  following  manner: — 
He  recommended  very  young  rams  to  bo  put  to  tho  flork 
of  cw<ni  from  which  the  [irnprietor  wished  the  greater 
naralior  of  females  in  their  oflTspring,  and  also,  that 
duriiiR  the  senson  when  the  rams  were  with  the  ewes, 
they  should  have  more  abimilant  pasture  than  the  others; 
while  to  tho  flock  from  which  the  proprietor  wished  to 

Vol.  I.— 78 


obtain  mal«  lambs  rhierty,  ho  rerommrnded  lilii  topul 
sironu  and  vigorous  raiiw  four  or  five  years  o|J.  The 
following  tubular  view  coiitiiins  thr  result  uf  his  »X|«i 
rinieiits,  which  are  highly  in  lavour  of  the  views  of  M 
(liroii:— 


Flock  rn*  Fxmai.i  Lambs. 


Afuol  lb*  Mothers 


Two  years  old, 
'I'lircc  jfiari,  , 
Fiiiir  years,  .    , 

Tolal,    . 

Fire     years 

iililiir,     ,    , 


and 


Total, 


ftriiil'tha 
l.ambs 


Nil.— Thrtie  twin  liiriiis  in 
thill  tUiek.  'I'WD  ritiits  Her  veil 
It,  one  fH'Icvii  iiiniiths,  the 
other  nearly  two  years  ohi. 


Flock  roR  M«i.a  I. ami 


Ags  orthsMolhsri 


Two  yssrinld 

Tlireii  yiars,     , 
Four  yeurt, 

Toial, 
FivB     yrari 
oilier,     ,    , 

Total,     , 


Me»nr7K«i 

l.uinbs. 


and 


t 

K 

9. 
7 

ai 
an 


3 
M 
14 

IT 

!M 


N.ll.— No  IwIpi  liirth"  in  this 
lliiek  TwoKiriiniiriuiiii.utra 
tour,  the  other  five  years 
olil,  served  il. 


"  Tho  general  law,  as  far  as  we  are  able  to  detect  it, 
seems  to  Iw,  that  when  animals  are  in  ^ood  condition, 
|ilentiliilly  supplied  wilh  food,  and  kept  from  brooding 
as  laHt  as  they  mi|;ht  do,  they  are  most  likely  to  jirmluco 
femaloH;  or,  in  other  words,  when  a  race  of  animals  is  in 
eircunistnnces  favourable  for  its  iiicreuHe,  natiiro  prcv 
iliicoH  the  greatest  number  of  that  sex  which,  in  animalf 
that  do  not  |iair,  is  mo.'<t  etricient  for  incroasiiig  the  num- 
Iter  of  the  race.  Hut  if  thoy  arc  in  a  bad  climate,  or  on 
Hiintod  pasture,  or  if  they  have  already  given  birth  t<) 
a  iiiitneruus  otlspring,  then  nature,  setting  liniitN  to  the 
incroaso  of  tho  ruce,  produces  more  males  thuii  fonialea. 
Yet,  |H'rhnps,  it  may  Ite  premaluro  to  ntloinpt  to  deduce 
any  law  from  experiments  which  have  not  yet  been 
Nulliciently  extondeti.  M.  (iiron  ia  disposed  to  ascribe 
niueli  of  the  oirecl  to  the  age  of  tho  rum.  iiide|iendent  of 
tho  condition  of  the  ewe."*  The  author  of  this  treatise 
has  unitormly  observed,  that  in  every  favourable  Reason, 
when  his  stuck  was  in  hiiih  condition,  ho  had  a  niucL 
larger  ii umber  of  female  lambs  than  of  mules;  and  in 
one  of  the  most  favourable  seasons  that  Iih-;  occurred 
iliiring  his  own  persimal  ex|s'rionco,  the  i  .lulo  lamhe 
exceeded  tho  iiiulos  to  tho  number  of  iiim  ly,  in  a  fliKk 
of  (iOO  ewes.  The  ewes  had  no  artificial  food  at  any 
season  of  tho  year;  thoy  lived  entirely  on  tho  natural 
gniHKOB  of  our  mountain  piiNturos.  They  got  bog  and 
lea  hay  in  snow  storms,  but  nothinu  else. 

OENERAL   MANAOKMENT  OF   SHEEP. 

The  manngemont  of  sheep  must  he  varied  according 
to  tho  nature  and  character  of  the  breed,  tho  soil  and 
eliinato,  character  of  tho  pastures,  natiiriil  or  artificial, 
the  position  of  the  farm  in  reference  to  markets,  and 
whether  all  the  sheep  upon  th,>  farm  can  be  prepared  for 
the  biitcher.  .ir  muRt  ul'  .old  lean,  as  is  the  case  with 
those  farmers  whoso  fiuiks  subsist  entirely  on  tho  natu- 
ral grasses  of  our  niounf  lin  pastures ;  and  whether  earlf 
luinbs  would  be  profit  Hie  or  otherwise.  These  and 
many  other  circamstanc  .^  must  regulate  Iho  proper  time 
for  admitting  tho  rams  to  the  ewes,  and  honco  tho  lamb- 
ing season,  the  proper  time  for  washing,  shearing,  dipping, 
Rtnoaring,  &c.  DitTerent  names  are  applied  to  sheep  at 
difTorcnt  periods  of  their  age.  .\  young  sheep  rcinainn 
a  himh  from  birth  till  the  first  smearing  time.  From  thii 
till  the  first  clipping  it  is  called  a  nng.  From  the  first  to 
the  second  clipping  it  is  termed  a  gimnier,    Jt  ii  iiuw 


m 


*  Quarterly  Journal  of  .Agriculture,  No.  1. 
3^3 


619 


INFORMATION  J'OR  THE  PEOPLE. 


adled  a  young  ewe,  till  it  bears  its  first  lamb.  Wlicn 
male  sheep  are  cut,  they  arc  ilcnominatcd  wedJcrs ;  and, 
according  to  their  age,  arc  called  weddcr  hogs,  &c.  At 
UiTM  years  old,  the  weddcr  is  iu  its  prime  for  mutton. 

I<anil)ing. 

The  period  at  which  sheep  begin  to  breed  is  in  the 
atumn  of  the  second  year  after  birth,  when  both  rains 
and  ewes  arc  at  their  maturity.  In  the  British  islunils, 
tiie  company  of  the  ram  is  permitted  at  the  beginning  of 
October.  The  ewe  goes  w.'lli  young  about  152  days,  or 
between  twenty-one  and  twenty-two  weeks,  and  conse- 
quently the  lambing  season  is  at  the  beginning  of  March. 
It  is  of  high  iniportanre  that  sheep,  during  gestalion, 
should  be  managed  with  peculiar  gentleness  and  care, 
%e  rash  use  of  the  dog  Iteiiig  attended  with  the  most 
pernicious  conscciucnccs.  The  ewes  should  be  well  but 
not  over-fed,  as  the  ewes  being  in  too  high  cojidition 
greatly  increases  tlic  risk  in  lambing.  Though  parturi- 
tion, being  a  natural  priKcss,  cannot  bo  regarded  as  a 
disease,  still,  in  sheep,  as  well  ah  in  many  of  our  domes- 
tic animals,  it  is  attended  nith  sonic  risk ;  and  in  certiiiii 
8tat«s  of  the  atmosphere,  and  ewes  in  too  high  condition, 
the  loss  is  often  very  considerable  from  inflammation. 

"  As  the  period  of  parturition  approaches  (observes  an 
intelligent  writer  in  the  "  Penny  ('yclopffidia"),  the  at- 
tention of  the  shepherd  should  increase.  There  should 
be  no  ihgifiiig  then,  but  the  ewes  should  be  driven  to 
aoine  sheltered  end  .sure,  and  there  left  as  muoh  as  po»- 
ribie  undisturbed.  Should  abortion  take  place  with  regard 
to  any  of  them,  allhough  it  does  not  spread  tiirough  the 
flock  as  in  cattle,  yet  the  ewe  should  be  immediately  re- 
moved to  another  enclosure,  and  small  doses  of  Epsom 
■alts  with  geiitian  and  ginger,  adjninistered  to  her,  no 
great  ijuantity  of  niilritivc  food  being  allowed. 

"Tfcsewes  shiuld  now  be  moved  as  near  home  as 
eoiiTenience  will  |ierinit,  in  order  that  they  may  be  under 
tiie  immediate  observation  of  tlie  laml)er.  The  operation 
of  chilling,  or  the  remoiml  of  the  hair  from  under  the 
tail  and  around  the  udder,  should  be  cfli-cted  on  every 
long-wooled  ewe,  otherwise  the  lamb  may  1)0  prevented 
from  sucking  by  means  of  the  dirt  which  often  accumu- 
lates there,  and  the  lamber  may  not  be  able  at  all  times 
to  ascertain  what  ewes  have  actually  lambed.  The  chit- 
ting before  the  approach  of  winter  is  both  a  useless, 
cruel,  and  dangerous  operation. 

"  The  vtriod  of  lamliing  having  actually  commenced, 
the  shepherd  must  be  on  the  alert,  yet  not  unnecessarily 
worrying  or  disturbing  the  ewes.  The  process  of  nature 
ahould  l)e  permitted  quietly  to  take  its  course,  unless  the 
■uflerings  of  the  mother  are  unusually  great,  or  the  pro- 
gress of  the  labour  has  been  arrested  during  several 
hours,  or  eighteen  or  twenty  hours  or  more  have  passed 
since  the  labour  commenced.  His  own  experience,  or 
the  tuition  of  his  elders,  will  teach  him  the  course  which 
he  must  pursue. 

"  If  any  of  the  newly-dropped  lambs  arc  weak,  or 
•carcely  able  to  stand,  he  must  give  them  a  little  of  the  | 
milk,  which  at  these  times  he  should  always  carry  alxmt  | 
nim,  or  he  must  place  them  in  some  sheltered  warm  place ; , 
in  the  course  of  a  little  while,  the  young  one  will  pro-  i 
bably  Ve  able  to  join  its  dam.     The  lambing-field  often 
presents  at  this  (leriod  a  strange  spectacle.     '  Some  of  | 
the  younger  ewes,  in  the  pain  and  confusion  and  fright ' 
of  their  tirst  parturition,  abandon   their  lambs.      Many  ; 
of  them,  when  the   udiler  begins  to  fdl,  will  search  out 
their  otf-pring  with  unerring  precision  ;  others  will  search 
in  vain  for  it  in  every  part  ol  the  field  with  incessant  and  j 
piteous  bleating  ;  others,  again,  will  hang  over  their  dead 
ofT^priiig,  from  which  nothing  can  separate  them ;  while 
a  few,  straagely  forgetti.ig  that  they  are  mothers,  will 
graze  unconcernetlly  with  the  rest  of  the  flock.'  \ 

"  The  shepherd  will  often  have  not  a  little  to  do  in 
ecler  to  reconcile  some  of  the  mothers  to  their  twin  ofT- 


spring.  The  ewo  will  occasionally  refuse  to  icknc* 
ledge  one  of  the  lambs.  The  shepherd  will  have  to  n. 
concilo  the  little  one  to  its  unnatural  parent,  or  lo  ijnd 
a  better  modiQr  for  it.  If  the  mothers  obstinately  refu» 
to  do  their  duty,  they  must  be  folded  by  thcniselvM  nnu 
they  arc  better  disposed ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  if  th. 
little  one  is  weak  and  perverse,  it  must  be  rnpcatpjj. 
forced  to  swallow  a  portion  of  her  milk,  until  it  acluio», 
ledges  the  food  which  nature  designed  for  it." 

Male  lambs  are  cut  nine  or  ten  days  af\er  birth 
Weaning  or  removal  from  the  mother  takes  ploct  from 
three  to  four  months  after  birth,  according  to  circum. 
stances.  In  weaning,  the  ewes  and  lambs  musi  be  sepj. 
rated  so  far  that  they  will  not  hear  the  bleatings  of 
each  other.  The  lambs  are  at  first  put  on  the  tcnJcrest 
herbage  that  can  be  selected.  Somo  ewes  may  have  w 
much  milk  that  the  udders  will  swell  when  deprived  of 
the  lambs,  and  this  will  rccjuire  to  i>c  attended  to  by  Iht 
shephertl  at  this  trying  season  of  ui?  '  'bours. 

Food. 

The  best  kind  of  food  for  sheep  is  nutritious  grajsj 
pasture,  growing  on  a  dry  and  firm  soil.  The  sheep  ii 
most  assiduous  in  picking  up  food,  and  will  range  over 
a  great  space  in  quest  of  the  herbage  which  it  is  fond 
of.  In  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  and  in  Austra'a 
where  the  herbage  is  scanty,  the  sheep  farm  requires  lo 
\w  very  large — twelve  miles  in  length  and  breadth  is  no 
unusual  size  of  a  Highland  shcop-farm.  In  countries 
liable  to  be  covered  with  snow  in  winter,  grass,  hay,  or 
some  other  vcfjctabh;  material,  must  be  preserved  for  tlie 
subsistence  of  the  flocks  when  their  ordinary  walls  art 
under  a^nowy  mantle.  Natural  meadow  hay  and  lu^ 
nips  are  used  in  Scotland  for  winter  keep,  wlienordinaij 
resources  fiiil;  and  the  employment  of  these,  in  thecas 
of  heavy  drifts,  sometimes  saves  large  numbers  of  sheep 
If  the  flock  can  bo  conveniently  diiven  to  a  cleared  bar 
field,  such  is  done  in  preference  to  carrying  food  to  tin 
animals:  there  should  be  one  field  for  the  rams  and  ao. 
other  for  the  l.inibs,  or  for  sheep  in  a  weakly  condition. 
A  general  rule  for  sheep  intended  for  the  butcher  is,  that 
they  should  never  be  allowed  to  turn  lean,  but  lie  kepi 
in  a  constant  state  of  improvement ;  and  that  kind  of 
food  should  be  sidccted  that  will  bring  the  animals  lo  llie 
highest  piofit  in  the  shortest  time  and  at  the  leastei. 
pense.  In  well-managed  store-farms,  sheep  arc  no» 
allowed  many  kinds  of  food  little  thought  of  in  fotmei 
times,  and  arc,  besides,  provided  with  troughs  of  pun 
water,  and  a  trough  of  salt,  that  they  may  lick  wliej 
their  taste  leads  them  lo  that  indulgence.  In  all  ani- 
ficial  feeding,  the  food  should  be  free  of  dirt  or  anjr  jj. 
sect  spawn. 

Heedless  farmers  are  sometimes  apt  to  purchase  and 
keep  more  sheep  than  they  can  conveniently  feed  on 
their  grounds,  which  causes  a  serious  evil.  To  overstock 
II  farm,  where  artificial  food  cannot  be  obtained,  is  om 
of  the  most  fatal  errors  a  farmer  can  commit.  It  doM 
not  only  diminish  the  quantity,  but  also  fouls  and  Jclfr 
rioratcK  the  quality  of  the  food.  A  farm  may  be  o\w 
stocked  for  a  few  j-cara,  but  death  will  by  and  bv  not 
only  lessen  the  numbers,  but  diminish  td  a  great  eilenl 
the  health  and  productiveness  of  those  that  surrjit 
Avarice  and  icnorancc  have  tempted  not  a  few  farmm 
to  carry  on  this  unequal  struggle  against  the  biwiol 
nature  and  hnmanity  for  years,  but  it  has  always  eiiJed, 
as  it  ever  must,  cither  in  the  farmer's  ruin,  or  reforn* 
tion  of  his  plan. 

Herding. 
The  tendency  which  most  sheep  have  to  ramble,  m 
ders  it  necessary  for  them  to  be  attended  by  a  shepW 
and  his  dog.  The  duties  of  a  shepherd  are  very  irksooti 
and  ic.iuire  lo  be  performed  by  a  man  of  firm  rfsoluliot, 
good  temper,  and  discretion.    To  keep  'be  flock  wilhji 


SHEEP. 


liMindi  may  l«  trouhleiiome,  but  much  may  bn  done  in 
the  way  of  preventive ;  and  at  all  events,  the  sheep  must 
not  ^  harassed  and  chased  as  if  they  were  so  many 
vrild  boasts.  B'iing  naturally  of  a  timid  and  gentle  na- 
ture the  sheep  ought  to  be  treated  with  a  degree  of  gen- 
tleness, nnd  taught  rather  to  look  up  to  their  shepherd 
M  a  friendly  protector  than  a  tyrant.  Lazy  shepherds, 
who  do  no*  exercise  a  judicious  foresight  in  tceeping  the 
(lock  to  it*  ground,  try  to  remedy  the  evil  by  hounding 
the  dug  after  the  stragglers,  besides  giving  no  small  toil 
to  their  own  limbs  in  running.  We  are  desirous  to  lay 
it  down  on  a  rule,  well  known  to  all  good  shepherds, 
that  there  should  be  only  a  rare  and  cimtinus  usf  of  the 
rfoj.  Much  also  depends  on  the  dog  being  of  the  pro- 
per breed,  and  well  trained  to  his  duty.  A  good  dog 
mves  little  tongue ;  he  is  seldom  heard  to  bark :  his  great 
knack  consists  in  getting  speedily  and  quietly  round  the 
further  extremity  of  the  'flock,  and  then  driving  them 
glowly  before  him  in  the  direction  which  his  master  has 
poinlL'd  out.  A  wave  of  the  hand  in  a  certain  direction, 
and  the  word,  There,  are  usually  enough  as  a  sign. 
I'ncler-lireil  dngs  bark  at  and  fly  upon  the  poor  animals, 
chasing  them  hither  and  thither,  without  any  rational 
purpose.  All  such  dngs  should  be  destroyed  as  unfit  for 
the  important  duties  which  they  are  intended  to  perform. 
A  lirst-ratc  shepherd's  dog  is  invHluable  to  the  store 
farmer,  and  he  should  grudge  no  reasonable  price  to  get 
him. 

Shelter— Sheepfolds. 

In  those  districts  which  are  exposed  to  storms,  it  is 
importan'.  to  afford  shelter  to  the  flocks.  Where  there 
are  jutting  or  overhanging  rocks  or  bushes,  the  sheep 
will  crowd  under  their  Ice,  and  so  far  protect  themselves 
from  harm;  but  where  th^ country  is  bare,  it  will  be  ne- 
cessary to  erect  artificial  walls  or  enclosures  of  turf  and 
stone,  to  which  they  can  be  led  id  coses  of  emergency. 
On  tlie  exposed  hill-sides  of  Scothind,  it  is  usual  to  build 
circular  folds,  locitlly  termed  s£i7/s,  of  siiihcient  size  for  a 
fii(,  or  parcel  of  sheep.  The  stcll  is  a  rude  enclosure, 
formed  of  a  stone  nnd  turf  wall  about  four  feet  in  heifsht, 
ami  i:i  pi  iced  on  a  piece  of  ground  known  to  be  seldom 
ilriftcil.  Besides  these,  there  should  be  on  every  sheep- 
farm  ample  and  conveniently  situated  folds  for  the  vari- 
ous »ortiii;;s  of  sheep,  such  as  for  weaning  lambs,  shear- 
inj,  and  drafting  or  drawing  out  any  aiiiiiiuls  required. 
These  folds  are  ordinarily  constructed  of  flukes  or  mov- 
able paliiiys. 

Shearinp— Wool. 

The  winter  coat  of  the  sheep  begins  to  bo  ragged  in 
jprinf!  or  early  in  summer,  while  the  lambs  are  in  course 
of  beinu  suckled ;  and  towards  June,  the  wool  is  seen 
to  be  falling  ofl"  in  lumps,  or  caught  in  every  bramlile. 
To  save  the  wool  in  time,  and  relieve  the  animal,  it  is 
the  praelioe  lo  sheer  them  about  the  middle  of  June, 
when  Ihr  lambs  have  been  weaned,  and  the  weather  is 
%t\..A.  In  any  case,  however,  it  should  not  be  done  till 
tne  new  wool  is  oliserved  to  be  pushini;  off  the  old. 
Previoi:s  to  sheering,  all  the  sheep  should  l>e  collected 
and  washed  in  a  running  brook  or  pool,  to  rid  the  fleece 
of  impurities.  Some  shepherds  employ  a  little  soap  in 
this  flporaiion.  On  lieing  washed,  the  animals  should 
be  put  into  a  clean  field  or  fold  to  dry.  Fine  weather 
•h.iulJ  be  selected  for  washing.  The  shearing  is  per- 
formed a  day  or  two  alter,  by  means  of  large  sheers  made 
for  the  purpose.  In  shearing,  care  should  be  taken  not 
to  break  or  tumble  the  wool,  but  to  take  off  the  fleece 
neatly,  and  without  mjuring  the  skin  of  the  animal. 

Jmirilinn  Uml  Mtiiun^ement. — Mr.  Walter  Duchnimn 
has  writti's  directions  to  the  wool-growers  of  Australia 
respecting  the  management  of  wool,  from  which  we 
aakc  the  fallowing  extract : — "  It  is  of  groat  ynportance 


that  the  f*eeoe  should  be  well  washed,  that  the  wool 
may  be  brought  to  market  with  a3  bright  acolou  m 
poasible.  Every  convenience,  ind  a  very  plentiful  sup> 
ply  of  pure  water,  should  theiefore  be  provided  a  run* 
ning  stream  being  most  desirable.  The  preferable 
mode  of  washing  is  that  which  is  performed  before 
shearing,  according  to  the  German  manner.  Some 
growers  have  tried  the  plan  of  washing  after  the  fleeces 
have  been  shorn  and  sorted,  and,  as  is  sup|K)sed,  to  have 
used  tepid  water,  following  the  French  and  Spanish  me- 
thod ;  but  this  has  not  been  approved  of  by  the  buyers 
generally,  and  particularly  by  those  who  buy  for  combing 
purposes. 

"  The  breaking  of  the  fleece  and  washing  after  shear- 
ing, give  the  wool  more  the  appearance  of  Spanish  than 
of  German  wool,  and  it  is  consequently  reduced  to  a 
lower  standard  of  comparison.  It  is  well  known  that  the 
sheep  of  those  German  flocks  that  are  best  washed,  are, 
after  that  operation,  driven  into  some  shed  strewed  with 
clean  litter,  o.'  penned  up  with  hurdles  on  clean  grass; 
that  the  utmost  care  is  taken  to  prevent  their  exposure 
to  dirt,  or  whatever  else  might  tend  to  sully  their  white- 
ness ;  and  that  they  are  not  shorn  until  a  sufficient  do 
grec  of  moisture  is  deposited  in  the  fleece,  by  perspiration, 
to  impart  a  soft  handle  to  the  wool.  It  may  here  be 
added,  that  it  is  very  important,  if  possible,  to  prevent 
the  sheep  from  flllini;  their  fleeces  with  grass  seeds, 
broken  leaves,  and  other  extraneous  substances,  which 
cannot  be  removed  in  the  operation  of  washing,  and 
which  are  productive  of  labour  and  expense  in  every 
process  of  manufacturing,  in  some  cases,  indeed,  render 
ing  wool  almoet  unsaleable.  It  may  be  here  observed, 
that  so  conscious  arc  the  Spaniards  of  the  superiority  of 
the  German  mode  of  washing  and  assorting,  that  they 
are  making  every  effort  to  introduce  it. 

"  In  order  to  assimilate  the  Australian  wool  as  much  as 
possible  with  the  German,  in  preparing  it  for  market,  the 
fleeces  should  not  be  broken,  but  merely  divested  of  the 
breech  and  stained  locks,  and  so  assorted  or  arranged, 
that  each  package  may  contain  fleeces  of  the  same  cha- 
racter as  to  colour,  length  of  staple,  firr"ies8  of  hair,  and 
general  quality. 

"  If  the  washing  has  been  performed  at  the  same  time 
and  place,  and  with  an  equal  di'grec  of  care,  the  colour 
is  likely  to  be  uniform,  and  it  will  then  only  be  necessary 
to  attend  to  the  separation  of  the  fleeces  as  to  length, 
fineness,  and  general  quality  :  but  if  a  larger  grower  has 
flocks  of  diircrent  breeds,  and  fed  on  different  soils,  care 
should  lie  taken  that  the  fleeces  be  separated,  first  as  to 
colour,  and  then  again  as  to  length,  fineness,  &c. 

"  The  fleeces,  being  assorted,  as  already  suggested,  should, 
lie  spread  one  upon  another,  the  neck  of  the  second 
fleece  being  laid  upon  the  tail  of  the  lirst,  and  so  on  al- 
ternately, to  the  extent  of  eight  or  ten  fleeces,  according 
to  their  size  and  weight.  When  so  spread,  the  two  sides 
should  be  folded  towards  the  middle,  then  rolled  together, 
beginning  at  each  end,  and  meeting  in  the  centre,  and  the 
roll  or  bundle  so  formed  held  together  by  a  slight  pack- 
thread. The  bagging  should  be  of  a  close,  firm,  and 
tough  nature.  The  material  hitherto  most  genernlly  used 
has  been  sail  canvas,  which  very  ill  resists  bad  weather 
on  a  long  voyage ;  and  when  received  here,  even  in  fa- 
vourable condition,  is  so  dry  and  cris])  that  it  will  tear 
like  pai>cr:  a  thicker,  twilled,  more  tlexible,  and  tough 
nialeriiil,  would  be  preferable.  'i"hc  siie  and  form  of  the 
Jiackage  may  be  in  length  about  nine  feet,  and  width  foul 
feet,  sewed  up  on  the  two  long  sides  and  at  one  end,  the 
other  end  being  Ictl  open,  and  the  sheet  so  formed  being 
suspended,  with  the  open  end  upwards,  to  rcieive  the 
bundles,  made  up  as  before  directed,  which  are  to  he  ptit 
in  one  at  a  tijue,  one  of  the  flat  sides  of  the  roller  bundle 
being  put  downwards,  and  so  on  in  succession,  lieing 
well  trod  down,  until  sulliciently  filled  for  the  mouth  Is 
bo  closed,     'i'his  is  the  Uurman  n^ode  of  packing ;  htti 


690 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


it  ii  'loubtful  whctlior  smaller  packages,  of  the  dimensions 
that  have  been  hitherto  sent  fiom  liie  colonies,  may  not 
be  more  convenient  for  so  lonif  a  voyage.  The  operation 
of  screwing  should  be  discontinued  where  it  has  been 
practised,  as  the  screw  pressure,  and  remaining  com- 
proised  (luring  the  voyage,  occasion  the  wool  to  be  caked 
and  matted  to|;ethei  in  a  manner  that  is  highly  preju- 
dicial to  its  appearance  on  arrival.  The  practice,  also, 
of  winding  up  each  fleece  separately,  and  twisting  a  por- 
tion into  a  band,  is  productive,  in  a  minor  degree,  of  the 
same  piejudicia!  effect ;  and  it  is  to  avoid  this  that  the 
making  German  bundiss  of  eight  or  ten  fleeces  is  sug- 
gcstetl." 

QiM/i/i>»  nf  JFoo/.— Improving  the  qunlily  of  the  wool, 
or  at  least  of  not  allowing  it  to  deteriorate,  is  now  an  ob- 
ject of  as  great  importance  to  the  British  store-farmer 
■a  in  raising  the  weight  of  the  carcass.  The  finest  wools 
•re  those  purchased  for  making  broad  cloths,  merino,  and 
mousseline-de-laine  fabrics  (Inim-  is  the  French  word  for 
wool).  "  The  wool  of  which  good  broad  cloth  is  made," 
observes  Ur.  I'ro,  in  his  "Dictionary  of  Arts,"  "should 
be  not  only  shorter,  but,  generally  speaking,  finer  and 
softer  than  the  worsted  wools,  in  order  to  fit  them  for  the 
fulling  process ;"  and  to  judge  of  this  degree  of  fineness, 
great  nicety  of  discernment  is  required.  "  There  arc  four 
distinct  qualities  of  wool  ujmn  every  sheep ;  the  finest 
being  upon  the  spine,  from  the  neck  to  within  six  inches 
of  the  tail,  including  one-third  of  the  breadth  of  the  back; 
the  second  covers  the  flanks  between  the  thighs  and  the 
shoulders  ;  the  third  clothes  the  neck  an<l  the  rump ;  and 
tha  fourth  extends  upon  the  lower  part  of  the  neck  and 
breast  down  to  the  feet,  as  also  upon  a  part  of  the  shoul- 
ders and  thighi«,  to  the  bottom  of  the  hind  ([uartcr.  These 
•hould  be  torn  asunder,  and  sorted  immediately  after  the 
■hearing. 

"  The  harshness  of  wools  is  dependent  not  solely  upon 
the  breed  of  the  animal,  or  the  climate,  but  is  owini;  to 
certain  peculiarities  in  the  pasture,  derived  from  the  soil. 
It  is  known  that,  in  sheep  fed  upon  chalky  districts,  wool 
is  apt  to  get  coarse ;  but  in  those  upon  a  rich  loamy  soil, 
it  becomes  soft  and  silky.  The  ardent  sun  of  Spain  ren- 
ders the  fleece  of  the  Merino  breed  harsher  than  it  is  in 
the  milder  climate  of  Saxony. 

"  .\ll  wool,  in  its  natural  state,  contains  a  quantity  of  a 
peculiar  jiotiish-soap.  secreted  by  the  animal,  called  in  this 
country  the  ynlk;  which  may  be  washed  out  by  water 
■lone,  with  which  it  forms  a  sort  "f  lather.  It  consti- 
tutes firom  25  to  50  ptr  cent,  of  the  wool,  being  most 
abundant  in  the  Merino  breed  of  sheep ;  and  however 
favourable  to  the  growth  of  the  wool  on  the  living  ani- 
mal, should  Im'  taken  out  soon  after  it  is  shorn,  lest  it  in- 
jure the  fibres  by  fermentation,  and  cause  them  foI)ecoinc 
hard  and  brittle.  After  being  washed  in  water,  somewliat 
more  than  lukewarm,  the  wool  should  be  well  pressed, 
•nd  carefully  dried." 

The  quantity  of  wool  importe<l  annually  into  the 
United  Kingdom,  a  large  portion  of  which  is  now  from 
Australia,  has  latterly  been  about  60,000,000  lbs. — a  quan- 
tity not  nearly  equal  to  that  produced  from  native  flocks. 
As  the  importinl  wi>ol«  are  chiefly  of  a  finer  quality  than 
those  of  native  growth,  so  far  is  the  larpe  importation 
from  injuring  the  Hritish  wool  growers,  that  it  is  the 
means  of  giving  them  hiRher  prices  for  their  commodity. 
It  has  been  satisfactorily  shown  by  cloth-makers  before  a 
pirliamentary  committee,  that  unless  they  imported 
foreign  wool  to  mix  with  that  of  Britain,  they  could  not 
produce  the  finer  class  of  goods,  and,  consequently,  that 
British  wool  would  be  much  less  in  demand. 

Smearing:. 

Smearing  is  a  process  of  anointing  the  skins  of  sheep 

vith  certain   ingreflients,  principally  for  the  purpose  of 

rendering  the  animal   less  liable   to  injury  from  winter 

•oH  (the  ut.,guent  being  a  slight  count4>r-irritant),  and  of 


destroying  the  vermin  which  lodge  among  the  rooh  m 
the  wool.  Smearing  with  a  mixture  of  tar  and  huit 
was  general  in  Scotland  in  former  times.  The  pmnn 
tions  varied  in  diflerent  districts ;  but  in  general  6  WtT'i 
butter  to  a  gallon  of  tar  were  deemed  suflicicnt  for  twertr 
sheep.  The  time  for  laying  on  this  salve  was  in  themd 
of  October  and  beginning  of  Novemb  -r,  before  the  ram 
are  admitted  to  the  ewes,  which,  in  t  lo  mountain  far™ 
jf  Scotland,  is  in  general  about  the  ?2d  of  Novcmbe 
The  smearing  with  butter  and  tar  l.as  very  much  dc' 
dined  of  laic  years,  and  various  other  preparatini  juch 
as  butter  and  oil,  turpentine,  arsenic  with  a  solutjou  of 
soft  soap,  and  various  other  baths,  are  used  instead  of 
butter  and  tar.  Which  of  the  various  baths  now  in  m, 
are  the  best,  it  wou'd  bo  difli?ult  to  determine,  as  eachhu 
its  advocates.  On  this,  as  on  other  subjects,  the  store 
farmer,  without  running  rashly  into  experiments,  ouglit 
to  have  his  mind  open  to  well-considered  improvementi 
and  adopt  such  measures  as  are  supported  by  respecttbU 
authorities. 

DISEASES   OF   SHEEP. 
The  sheep  is  subject  to  a  great  variety  of  diseaws^ 
but  the  most  formidable,  and  by  far  the  most  dcstiw' 
tive,  is 

The  Rot. 
It  is  unfortunate  that  in  the  early  stages  of  rot  thedis. 
ease  gives  no  external  intimation  of  having  commenced 
its  destined  fatal  career ;  for  it  is  at  the  liegiiiningof  most 


diseases  that  human  skill  is  most  efficacious  in 


arresting 


their  progress.  But  sheep  in  the  early  stages  of  the  rot, 
instead  of  showing  symptoms  of  disease  and  decay,  if. 
(piire  a  great  tendency  to  fatt^m,  which  has  been  turned 
to  advantage  by  Mr.  Bakewell  and  others.  But  aflcrtlK 
disease  has  undermined  the  'general  health,  the  animil 
becomes  listless  anil  unwilling  to  move,  leaves  its  com. 
panions,  and  sinks  rapidly  in  flesh ;  its  eye  Iwcoines sunk, 
dull,  and  glassy;  the  wool  comes  easily  from  thpilrin 
the  breath  liecomcs  fetid ;  the  bowels  variable,  at  on« 
time  loose,  with  a  black  purging,  and  at  another  coslitp; 
the  skin  becomes  yellow,  and  sometimes  siwtted  Fith 
black ;  emaciation  now  becorjies  more  rapid ;  genersl 
fever  is  iiuluced.  and  death  ensues.  'I'herc  are  variouj 
metliods  by  which  practical  men  endeavour  to  nsoertain 
the  iiiiipient  symptoms  of  the  disease,  but  tlie  two  fol- 
lowing are  the  most  general : — 

The  first  is  by  handling  the  sheep  on  the  rmall  of  Ihe 
back,  and  if  the  flesh  feel  firm  and  solid,  the  nnimal  ii 
judged  sound,  but  if  the  flesh  feel  flabliy  anil  m<\,  and 
give  u  cracking  sound  when  rubbed  apainst  thi' ribs.lhii 
animal  is  unsound.  The  other  method  is  by  examining 
the  small  veins  at  the  comers  of  tho  eyes,  and  if  filled 
with  yellow  serum  instead  of  bloo<l,  the  animal  is  pr> 
nounced  unsound;  but  the  greatest  practical  tact  and 
talent  will  not  always  ensure  success  in  disco 'ering  lh« 
caHy  stages  of  this  insidious  disease. 

jlppenrnnret  im  Disfniion. — The  whole  cellular  tinsiie 
is  filled  with  a  yellow  serous  fluid  ;  the  muscles  are  pale, 
and  api)ear  as  having  been  macerated,  bcinu  nolt  wil 
flabby  ;  the  kidneys  are  infiltrated,  pale,  and  flaccid; the 
mesenteric  glands  distended  with  a  yellow  serous  fliiiJ; 
the  lungs  filled  with  tut)ercle8;  the  heart  enluriifi]  and 
softened;  the  f)eritoneum  thickened  ;  the '.lowcls are ollra 
(listj'nded  with  water,  and  sometimes  (;ro\vn  tntelher. 
But  the  liver  is  the  primary  scat  of  the  diwase;  in  whole 
structure  is  in  ditVerent  states  of  disease;  one  part  ii 
scirrhous  and  indurated,  and  another  soft  and  ulorralcil, 
and  the  biliary  ducts  are  filled  with  flukes.  This  appeal* 
to  the  author  the  origin  of  tho  disease  which  hasinvokrd 
so  many  omans,  and  effected  such  •  vast  disorKaniutiog 
of  the  whole  nnimal  frame. 

Cituten  of  Rill. — In  endeavouring  to  sscertiiin  thecau* 
of  tliis  lUseasc,  it  seems  unnatural  to  begin  by  ini|'unn| 


SHEEP 


6C1 


nhedier  iIiom  pnrnsites  wliich  are  found  in  inch  numbers 
the  biliary  ducts  of  the  liver,  are  the  cause  or  effect  of 
Ibe  diacaae.  1'he  parasites  named  the  liver  fluke,  the 
/aiiw'rt  of  Lintiffius,  the  dittoma  Aryia/icuni of  Rudolphi, 
iktfknttria  of  Gocse,  are  not  peculiar  to  the  sheep,  but 
L^jljccn  found  in  the  biliary  ducts  of  the  goat,  deer,  ox, 
horte  ass,  hog,  dog,  rabbit,  guinea-pig,  and  various  other 
•niin«l«i  •""'  **""  '"  '''^  human  being.  The  parasite  is 
of  a  brownish-yellow  colour,  and  resembles  a  small  sole 
ij,j,ted  of  its  fins  ;  in  size  it  may  be  seen  from  that  of  a 
pin-head  to  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in  length,  and  half  an 
Lh  in  brenilth.*  It  is  supposed  to  be  a  hermaphrodite, 
mbo  ili-i  nction  of  sex  has  yet  been  made  out.  The 
(Mwn  lii  es?"  "*"  *'''•  parasite  are  found  in  great  num- 
lire  in  the  biliary  ducts  of  the  liver ;  these  eggs  are  also 
found  in  pvory  part  of  the  intestinal  canal,  and  very  often 
Been  in  the  dung  of  a  sound  sheep,  though  always  nume- 
rous in  that  of  a  diseased  one.  This  animalcule,  and 
many  other  of  the  entozon,  have  never  been  found  out 
of  the  intestines,  but  this  is  not  positive  proof  that  they 
cannot  or  do  not  exist  out  of  the  body.  Mr.  Blackluck, 
in  his  very  valuable  treatise  on  sheep,  after  laying  flat  all 
bis  oppononts,  comes  to  the  following  conclusion: — 
"From  all  tlus  data,  the  conclusion  must  at  once  be 
drawn,  that  as  living  flukes  cannot  reach  the  liver  from 
without,  they  must,  of  necessity,  be  produced  only  in 
ptrticulor  states  of  the  animal  they  inhabit ;  how  they 
originate  we  cannot  of  course  determine,  and  this  is  not 
the  place  to  hizar^'  a  physiological  conjecture  ;  but  it  will 
be  found  that  the  (r  appearance  in  the  bile  is  always  pre- 
ceded by  tuberculous  deposits  on  the  lungs  and  liver."j- 
That  Frommon  found  the  fluke  worm  in  the  foetus  of 
the  sheep  is  a  strong  fact,  hu.  not  decisive ;  for  Mr.  Black- 
lock  must  know  that,  although  he  is  anatomically  correct 
nhen  he  states  th.i;.  there  is  no  direct  vascular  communi- 
cation botwjp".  ' .  '-♦'''  and  maternal  side,  yet  the  indi- 
rect communn;..''  '  •■  be  sufficient.  And  besides  this, 
M'  BlacklockV  .'  ,v!i  on  this  point  are  extremely 

unphilosophica  .  l.^n  he  says — "  That  living  flukes 

ctnnot  reach  the  liver  from  without,  they  (the  flukes) 
must,  of  necessity,  be  produced  only  in  particular  slates 
of  the  animal  tliey  (the  flukes)  inhabit"  This  is  just 
layinj  that  the  flukes  inhabit  the  animal  before  its  parti- 
cular slates  produce  them.  This  must  mean  that  the 
cgi^  of  the  flukes  exist  in  the  liver  of  the  sheep,  ready 
to  bo  hatched  by  the  peculiar  states  of  the  animal ;  and 
Ls  these  eggs  could  not,  according  to  Mr.  Blacklock,  reach 
tho  liver  from  without,  the  only  other  alternative  is,  that 
ihe  liver  lays  the  eggs  when  in  healthy  state,  and  hatches 
Ihem  when  diseased.  This  wont  do;  equivocal  genera- 
tion is  alwurd.  But  thi  limits  prescribed  forbid  the  author 
pursuing  this  interesting  inquiry  farther:  he  must  simply 
stale  his  lielief  that  the  ova  of  the  fluke  are  not  generated 
by  the  liver  of  the  sheep,  but  find  their  way  to  that  organ 
by  means  not  yet  ascertained  ;  but  these  ova  are  not  vi- 
vified in  the  liver  except  under  certain  states  of  that  vis- 
cus.  The  ease  with  which  Mr.  Bakewell  could  induce 
ro:  in  his  sheep,  by  putting  them  on  ground  which  he  had 
previously  flooded  for  that  purpose,  shows  that  other  cir- 
cuiiBtanccs  must  concur  to  proiluce  the  disease.  It  is  not 
ctused  by  scanty  food,  as  has  often  been  alleged,  fur  sheep 
may  be  ata  ve<l  to  death  without  prmlucing  rot ;  the  fact 
thai  the  sheep  has  an  extraordinary  tendency  to  acquire 
fat  in  the  (^arly  stages  of  the  disease,  shows  that  the 
aiuKH  act  OS  a  stimulant  at  first,  and  originate  a  slight 
il<','ree  of  inllummation  in  the  liver,  as  the  first  step  in 
the  progress  uf  this  fatal  disease.  Rut  the  numerous  and 
well-attested  facts  no.v  obtninetl  from  various  climes  and 
countries,  e»(l  to  the  conclusion  that  the  nature  of  the 
mil  and  pasture,  and  the  character  of  the  seasons,  are  the 
thief  agent*  m  causing  rot.    This  view  is  confirmed  by 


•  Library  oi  Useful  Kiiowliidife,  p.  4l-<. 

•  B;acl[liick'a  Treut.aeon  Sheep,  pp  till,  319. 


the  fact,  that  rot  is  most  pre  thnt  in  wet  seasons,  and  ii 
nearly  confined  to  lands  subject  to  be  occasionally  flooded 
with  water  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  and  to  soils  na- 
turally moist  and  marshy.  Moist  and  level  lands  of  re- 
tentive soil,  from  which  water  is  slowly  evaporated  by 
the  sun,  and  a  temperature  favourable  to  the  decomposi- 
tion of  vegetable  matter — on  such  lands,  when  not  tho- 
roughly drained,  rot  may  be  said  to  be  indigenous,  whila 
on  lands  that  are  dry  and  hanging,  the  disease  is  unknowa. 
The  nature  of  the  plants  which  the  soil  produces  is  not 
so  important  as  the  plants  being  kept  in  a  morbid  state  by 
that  degree  of  moisture  and  heat  favourable  to  th<^ir  de- 
composition. 'I'hese  views  will  be  amply  verified  by  any 
one  who  will  take  an  accurate  survey  of  the  midland, 
eastern,  and  southern  counties  of  England,  in  which  the 
disease  is  most  destructive.  Besides  supporting  the  viewi 
here  advocated,  the  following  passage  from  the  pen  of  M. 
Hamirond,  the  founder  of  the  veterinary  school  in  Egypt^ 
is  highly  interesting  to  every  sheep-farmer : — "  It  appear* 
every  year  in  Egypt  after  the  falling  of  the  Kile,  and  it 
follows  and  keeps  pace  with  the  subsidence  of  the  waters ; 
desolation  and  death  accompany  it  wherever  it  passes,  and 
it  annually  destroys  at  least  1<10,000  sheep.  As  soon  as 
the  waters  of  the  Nile  subside,  the  pastures  which  were 
submerged  are  speedily  covered  by  a  tender  rnshy  grass  • 
the  sheep  arc  exceedingly  fond  of  it,  and  they  are  per- 
mitted to  feed  on  it  all  day  long ;  in  the  course  of  a  very 
little  time  they  begin  to  get  fat,  when,  if  possible,  they  ar» 
sold;  their  flesh  is  then  exceedingly  delicate,  but  soon 
after  this  the  disease  begins  to  appear,  and  the  mortality 
commences.  1'hc  disease  is  more  frequent  and  fatal  when 
the  sheep  are  fi  ■st  turiicd  on  the  newly  recovered  pasture 
than  when  the  ground  becomes  dried  and  the  rushy  grass 
harder.  But  if  the  sheep  pasture  in  the  midst  of  mud, 
or  on  the  borders  of  the  marshes  and  canals,  rot  attends 
every  step ;  the  rot  does  not  occur  in  elevated  countries, 
where  the  sheep  feed  on  dry  aromatic  herbage.  The  Be- 
douins sell  all  the  sheep  which  they  can  before  they  quit 
the  Nile,  for  then  they  are  in  high  and  prime  condition, 
after  which  they  lose  not  a  moment  in  reassembling 
their  flocks  and  driving  them  back  to  the  desert."* 

Prcvenlion  and  Trealment  of  Rot. — If  the  true  causes 
of  rot  have  been  accurately  given,  every  farmer  has  in 
his  own  hands  the  most  efficient  means  for  its  preven- 
tion ;  on  all  lands  that  can  be  defended  from  being 
flooded  with  water,  and  on  all  lands  whose  levels  admit 
of  thorough  drainage,  the  manner  and  amount  of  drain- 
age must  be  determined  by  the  position  of  the  land, 
whether  level  or  hanging,  and  by  the  character  of  th« 
soil,  and  the  quantity  of  the  moisture  to  be  removed , 
and  on  all  these  points  ti>8  farmer  must  decide  for  him- 
self, or  be  guided  by  the  advice  of  a  eonripetent  judge. 
'I'he  only  indispensable  rule  is,  that  the  drainage  must 
be  thorough,  in  order  to  be  eflectunl ;  and  if  the  drain- 
age is  carried  to  this  point,  the  farmer  will  have  tho 
pleasure  to  see  the  rot,  that  dreadfid  scourge  of  his  flock, 
disappear.  This  ini|)ortant  point  is  established  by  practi 
cal  men  whose  testimony  cannot  be  impeached,  that 
there  would  be  no  rotten  sheep  found,  even  upon  the 
moBt  spongy  lands  in  the  country.  The  treatment  of 
rot  is  confined  to  narrow  limits,  from  the  curious  fact 
that  sheep,  in  the  early  stages  of  rot,  acquire  fat  with 
singular  rapidity ;  the  best  thing  the  farmer  can  do,  as 
soon  as  he  finds  his  flock  tainted,  is  to  sell  them  to  the 
butchcr'for  what  they  will  bring  in  the  market;  from  the 
condition  of  the  sheep,  this  forced  sale  may  be  attended 
with  considerable  loss,  but  it  will  be  a  loss  inferior  ti> 
that  sustained  in  the  vain  attempt  to  eflect  a  general  euro. 

Tainted  flocks  have  recovered,  it  has  been  alleged,  by 
being  sent  to  pasture  on  salt  marshes;  but  though  this 
ctficicncy  of  such  pasture  were  admitted,  it  is  a  remedy 
which  only  a  few  farmers  could  obtain.    To  change  this 

*  Sea  Transactions  of  the  Highlanil  Socieiy. 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE 


flock  to  a  mon  dry  at  4  elevated  part  of  the  farm,  when 
this  ia  practicable,  has  oecn  attended  with  favourable  re- 
sults. The  free  use  of  salt  is  universally  admitted  to  be 
the  best  medicine  within  the  reach  of  the  farmc:-  for 
checking  the  progress  of  this  deadly  disease.  That  many 
cures  have  been  oflfcscted  by  the  proper  use  of  salt,  is 
attested  by  persons  of  the  highest  character  and  intelli- 
grtice.  Sir  John  Sinclair  stites,  that  at  Mr.  Musselman's 
farm  at  Chenoi,  br-  tnd  die  Wavre,  ho  found  that  salt 
was  used  for  sheep,  and  that.  Ity  allowing  them  to  lick  it, 
tlie  rot  was  complctoly  cured.*  And  as  the  only  expla- 
nation of  sheep  taking  on  &t  rapidly,  in  the  early  stage 
of  the  didcaxe,  is,  tliat  the  dig^istivo  organs  are  stimulated 
for  a  time  by  inflammation  of  the  liver,  perhaps  the  dis- 
ease might  lie  checked  1 1  /inline  by  copious  bleeding ;  but 
the  disease  can  scarcely  ever  be  detected  at  that  period 
in  which  bleeding  v  !J  be  proper,  and  bleeding  late  in 
this,  as  in  almost  ai.  diseases,  is  fatal.  But  in  this  dis- 
euHe  the  sheep-farmer  must  direct  his  energies  and  cans 
to  the  prevention  rather  than  the  cure,  though  some  of 
tlic  remedies  jui>t  mentioned  may  be  of  service  at  the 
orginning;  yet,  from  the  insidious  nature  of  the  disease, 
it  can  undermine  the  constitution  before  it  is  perceived, 
tu  that  extent  which  no  known  remedies  can  restore,  so 
that  every  sheep-farmer  must  rest  his  hopes  of  safety, 
not  in  curatives,  but  in  the  vigorous  use  of  the  means  of 
prevention. 

Braxy, 

Uraxy,  or  Hicknoss,  is  an  inflammatovy  disease,  whL«e 
ravuges  are  chiefly  confined  to  hogs,  and  those  in  the 
highest  condition  are  most  liable  to  be  attacked.  This 
distdse  is  not  nearly  so  destructive  as  it  was  formerly, 
when  ho^s  were  hiniled ;  this  has  been  accounted  for  by 
allrifing  the  inexperience  of  hogs  in  selecting  their  food, 
and  their  tendency  to  feed  too  much  on  the  succulent 
parts  of  their  pasture.  Braxy,  being  entirely  an  inflam- 
matory affection,  may  be  excited  i;  i  variety  of  causes, 
such  as  drinking  cold  water  in  a  heated  lUate ;  any  great 
or  sudden  change  of  temperature;  by  hail  snow,  or  rain; 
feeding  on  soft  rank  grasses,  which  arc  apt  to  excite  fer- 
mentation, and,  by  extrication  of  gas,  distending  the 
stomach,  thus  originating  inflammation,  and  somrtir  js 
producing  sudden  death  by  pressure  on  the  diaphragm. 
One  very  frequent  cause  of  braxy  is  that  kind  of  frosty 
mornings  which  U>ad  the  pastures  w''h  hoar-frost.  The 
hogs,  from  feedir  t;  chiefly  on  dry  a..J  binding  pastures 
at  that  season  of  the  year  (from  Noveml)er  till  March), 
cat  the  succulent  spots  of  grass  ladeii  with  hoar-frost 
very  greedily,  and  thus  the  temperature  of  tho  stomach 
is  so  suddenly  lowered  to  icy  coldness,  that  violent  in- 
flammation is  immediately  produced,  and  death  often 
ensues  in  a  few  hours.  In  the  lis',  of  the  causes  of 
braxy,  the  improper  use  of  the  dog  must  not  be  omitted. 
It  IS  as  clear  as  a  suj.!icani,  that  nothing  is  more  fitted  to 
produce  inflammati'in  than  once  heating  a  sheep  by  in- 
cessant use  of  tho  dog,  at  seasons  of  the  year  so  liable  to 
Hidden  and  great  falls  of  temperitture. 

Symp'omt  of  Ilrary. — The  animal  appears  uneasy, 
often  lying  down  and  rising  up,  standing  witti  its  head 
down  and  back  railed,  taking  no  food,  but  often  drinking 
water:  fever  then  ensues,  when  the  pulse  becomes 
■Irong  and  quirk,  respiration  laborious  and  rapid,  the 
•kin  hot,  and  tbu  wool  clap[)ed ;  the  eyes  are  languid, 
watery,  and  haif-cloaed ;  it  ceases  to  follow  tho  flock,  and 
poon  dies. 

Jippcarnnm  on  DUtfction. — On  ojiening  the  iMidy,  the 
appearances  vary  according  to  the  purls  afti^cted.  Some- 
limes  only  the  reed  is  atfrctcd,  and  all  llic  rest  of  the 
vise?;-.,  appear  [wrfectly  healthy,  and  the  flesh  not  at  all 
•fleeted.  In  other  cases  the  cirects  of  violent  inflamma- 
tiim  are  visible  through  tho  whole  viscera,  and  the  flesh 
if  the  woole  animal  is  in  a  state  of  rapid  putrefaction. 


Frtalnwnt  of  Braxy. — From  the  nature  of  the  ditetB. 
it  ia  obvious  that  the  first  ind  most  efiective  remedv^ 
prompt  and  copious  bleeding  ftom  the  jugular  veitu 
this/being  eflbcted,  the  constipation  of  the  bowels  mnB 
bo  removed ;  the  best  purgutivo  for  this  purpose  is  f.ausi 
salts,  two  ounces  for  a  dose,  dissolved  in  warm  water  snil 
followed  by  thin  warm  gruels;  these  remedies  woulj  »„. 
rally  prove  eflcctual  if  applied  at  an  eorly  stage  of  ihejii. 
eane ;  but  in  a  large  flock  of  mountain  sheep  the  diaeue  ■ 
frequently  not  observed  by  the  shepherd  till  too  late  for  an? 
remedy.  The  best  preventive  of  the  disease  in  mountain 
sheep  is  skilful  and  attentive  herding,  by  prcvcni:,,|rtl» 
young  sheep  from  fastening  too  much  on  succulent  apoij 
and  by  seeing  they  graze  regularly  over  every  part  of 
the  pasture,  and  be  allowed  pertbct  repose  for  ruminalion 
undisturbed  by  the  dog. 

Sturdy. 

The  proximate  cause  of  this  formidable  diuaie  a 
hydatids  formed  in  the  brain,  or  by  an  accumulotion  of 
water  or  scrum  in  the  ventricles  'f  the  some  ormn. 
Many  ingenious  writers,  both  in  France  and  in  our  own 
country,  have  favoured  the  public  with  a  few  facts  anJ 
much  speculation  to  account  for  the  manner  in  which 
hydatids  reach  tho  brain,  and  the  causes  of  tho  acciiniu. 
lation  of  water  in  the  ventricles;  but  none  of  these 
speculations  are  in  the  least  dcpree  satisfactory,  mj 
many  of  them  can  be  shown  to  be  absurd,  from  th« 
known  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  brain  of  th( 
sheep.  Many  plans  have  been  adopted  to  extract  the 
hydatids  from  the  brain.  Hogg,  the  Eltrick  Shej.herd, 
was  succcasful  by  tho  use  of  the  wire.  He  bjvs— 
"  When  I  waa  a  youth,  I  was  engaged  for  many  \wi 
in  herding  a  large  parcel  of  lambs,  whose  bleating 
brought  all  the  sturdics  in  tho  neighbourhood  to  them 
and  with  whom  I  was  exceedingly  plagued;  but  as  ( 
was  frequently  knitting  stockings,  I  fell  upon  the  follow. 
ing  plan ; — I  caught  every  stiirdieu  sheep  that  I  could 
lay  my  hands  upon,  ond  probed  them  up  the  nodtrils  "o 
the  very  brain  '.vith  one  of  my  wires,  and  I  beheld  niih 
no  imall  degiec  of  pleasure,  that  by  this  simple  operation 
I  cured  many  sheep  to  dilFerent  owners ;  but  I  kept  all 
my  projects  to  myself,  for  I  had  no  authority  to  trj-  my 
skill  on  any  of  them;"  and  ho  adds,  >'  that  several  ynn 
passed  l>cfore  I  failed  in  this  operation  in  any  one  ij. 
stance;"*  but  nothing  approaching  this  success  hasnn 
attended  the  operation  in  the  hands  of  any  of  Mr,  Hogg'i 
disciples ;  though,  when  the  hydatid  is  situated  in  lb) 
ventricles,  or  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  brain,  sorae 
farmers  and  shepherds  have  acquired  such  tact  in  the  use 
of  the  wire  as  to  cure  considerable  numbers. 

But  the  opcrotion  performed  with  the  trocar,  and  vj. 
riouB  other  instruments  thr  have  been  used,  ia  lialile  to 
many  inconveniences  and  great  danger.  If  the  hvilatjd 
is  situated  in  the  base  of  the  brain,  it  cannot  be  rai^M 
by  tho  nostril ;  then  there  is  ■"  'at  danger  of  rupturing 
son<e  nf  the  numerous  blood-vessels  of  the  brain,  and 
thus  producing  inflammation — a  disease  as  fatal  at  the 
one  attempted  to  be  cured.  The  use  of  the  trephane  it 
also  atteml  vith  difliculty  and  danger.  It  lays  ofn 
at  once  an  i  lense  vacuum  in  the  brain  to  tht  action  of 
the  atmosphere,  and  its  consequent  irritatiuii,  and  henn 
the  risk  of  inflammation.  When  tho  situation  of  tht 
hydatid  can  Iw  ascertained  by  the  softening  of  a  portion 
of  the  skull,  to  destroy  the  vitality  of  the  hydatid  by 
perforating  it  with  tho  trocar  or  other  sharp  instrunifiiU, 
is  perhaps  the  method  attended  with  the  least  danger  of 
exciting  iiiflHinmatiun,  and  hence  the  mo«t  likely  toRK- 
ceed.  But  the  extent  tu  which  the  disease  must  hit 
injured  the  brain,  before  tho  softening  of  the  bone  U 
reveal  the  position  of  the  hydatid,  is  an  insuperable  etH 
diminishing  the  chances  of  success  in  any  modiiofn» 


•  S.r  John  Sac'-aii's  Stato  of  the  Netlierluuds. 


•  Hogg  on  Slieep,  p.  5b,  59. 


SHEEP. 


flBS 


Juetin;  the  oprration  that  can  be  devised.  There  is  no  ' 
ntdicine  that  can  juxtly  bo  regarded  as  of  any  avail. 
But  carefully  observed  and  accurately  recorded  fact*  may 
vet  throw  Bomu  lii;ht  on  the  remote  causes  of  this  for- 
mulable  disease,  under  that  higher  anutomical  and  physio- 
liifical  knowledge  which  has  within  those  few  years 
)^r.  orought  to  bear  on  the  diseases  of  our  domestic 
inimals. 

Pining. 
This  disease,  it  is  said,  was  unknown  in  this  country 
before  the  sheep-wallis  were  thoroughly  drained  and  the 
moles  exterminated.  If  this  statement  is  correct,  the 
(uuse  of  the  dispaso  must  obviously  be  too  dry  and  bind- 
ing pasture;  and  in  (ccordance  with  this  view,  constipa- 
tion of  the  bowels  is  always  prcsetit  in  this  disease.  To 
open  the  bowels  freely,  and  change  to  a  more  nutritive 
pasture,  are  the  obvious  remedies;  and  when  both  can 
be  leoilily  applied,  seldom  fail  of  complete  success. 

Dysentery. 

This  dis'^nse  begins  with  violent  discharges  from  the 
bowels  of  a  green  slimy  mixture,  which  in  progress  of 
tine  becomes  mixed  with  blood.  It  has  nften  been  con- 
founded with  diarrhoea,  from  which  it  dilTurs  in  many 
particulars.  Diarrhcea  attacks  young  sheep,  particu- 
larly hogs,  occasioned  by  a  sudden  rush  of  grass  in 
the  sprin?,  or  from  too  sudden  a  change  from  e.  scanty 
to  an  over-rich  pasture ;  when  such  are  the  causes  of 
diarrhoea,  the  mere  chnnge  to  a  drier  pasture  will  elToot  a 
cure.  But  dysentery  attacks  old  sheep,  and  generally 
(Ikss  not  commence  till  June  or  July.  Many  writers 
illec?  tliat  this  disease  is  highly  contagiou',  but  the  best 
published  facts  do  not  sustain  the  allegation.  The  dis- 
eaie  prevails  in  fouled  pastures,  and  in  seasons  character- 
i"Hl  by  a  peculiar  state  of  the  atmosphere  with  regard  to 
lie«t  and  moisture,  a  certain  combination  of  which  ren- 
Jers  the  disease  so  fiital  to  our  army,  especially  in  tropi- 
Qil  clirnatfts.  In  the  treatment  of  this  disease,  bleeding 
is  a  proper  remedy  in  an  early  stage;  but  if  late,  gentle 
purgatives  alone  must  be  used ;  Epsom  salts  or  castor 
oil,  with  an  io  :W  drops  of  laudanum,  are  the  best  purga- 
tives. Mr.  Stovenstm  also  used  an  infusion  of  logwood, 
inil  doses  of  ipecacuanha  in  numerous  cases,  with  great 
•ffect* 

Trembling. 

Trembling,  or  Louping  111,  in  mountain  flocks,  is  a 
disease  caused  by  cold  east  winds,  which  are  prevalent 
in  .\pril  ami  May,  and  at  which  season  this  disease,  after 
I  bail  winter,  is  often  very  destructive.  The  animal 
(ometiracs  leaps  from  the  ground  and  falls  down  dead, 
but  more  generally  it  is  seized  with  trembling,  loses  the 
poller  uf  i's  legs,  and  lies  on  its  side,  griuding  its  teeth, 
and  moving  its  limbs  with  great  violence.  The  appear- 
nwcs,  on  dissection,  arc  very  uniform ;  great  congestion 
of  blood  in  the  liver  and  lungs,  and  particularly  the 
heart,  which  is  invariably  gorged  with  dark  bloo<l ;  ninl 
the  brain  is  also  gumetimes  congcstr<l ;  the  whole  flesh 
of  tht!  body  is  as  white  as  if  the  animal  had  been  killed 
by  bleeding. 

These  appear.\ni'  ■*,  and  various  experiments,  led  tbo 
uriler  of  this  p:i|)er  to  view  the  disease  as  the  cflt-ct  of  a 
Intt  balance  in  the  circulation  ;  the  cold  cast  wind  acting 
«n  the  surface  of  the  animal  when  she  is  just  beginning 


The  Trtitnunt.  Copious  bleeding  in  the  first  stage  of 
the  attack  will  often  restore  the  baloncc  of  the  circula- 
tion ;  bu(  if  the  animal  has  been  aflcctcd  some  time,  it  is 
often  diflicult  to  obtain  a  suflicient  quantity  uf  blood, 
which  has  been  thrown  from  the  surface  upon  the  heart 
and  other  internal  organs.  In  this  state,  the  animal  must  be 
put  into  a  tub  of  hot  water  at  98  degrees,  which  will  caOM 
the  blood  to  flow,  and  thus  restore  the  action  of  the  hearty 
and  tend  to  restore  the  balance  of  the  circulation.  After 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  btoi:d  has  been  drawn,  doses  of 
Epsom  salts,  dissolved  in  warm  water,  and  Ibllowed  with 
thin  warm  gruels,  must  be  given  till  the  bowels  are  freely 
opened.  The  prompt  application  of  these  remedies  on 
the  first  attack  of  the  disease,  would  in  general  be  suc- 
cessful ;  bi-;,  like  many  other  diseases  of  sheep,  it  is  not 
ohscrvtu  till  the  action  of  the  heart  has  become  too  feekle 
for  any  remedies  to  restore  the  lost  balance  of  the  circle 
lation.  The  same  views  of  the  nature,  causes,  and  treaU 
mcnt  of  this  de8tructi\c  I'lsensc,  e.re  supported  by  nume- 
rous facts  and  experiments  brought  forward  by  Mr.  Tod, 
in  his  [jrizc  essay,  publisheil  in  the  Transactions  of  the 
Highland  Society  of  Scotland. 

»  Fool-Rot. 

Foot-rot  is  a  disease  most  prevalent  in  luxuriam 
meadows,  and  in  all  soft  „rassy  lands  saturated  with 
moisture.  The  opinions  entertained  regarding  the  cauM 
of  this  disease  arc  discordant  in  the  extreme.  SonM 
writers  contend  that  it  is  comparatively  a  modem  dit. 
ease,  and  was  first  mentioned  by  two  French  physiciur% 
M.  Etienne  and  M.  Licbault,  who  published  some  case* 
of  the  disease  in  "  La  Maison  Rustique,"  in  the  ytar 
1529.  Lullin  says  that  it  was  brought  from  Piedmont 
to  Geneva,  in  the  year  1786,  und  that  the  foot-rot  did 
not  exist  among  Swiss  sheep  before  that  perio<l;  and 
in  a  report  of  the  management  of  Flemish  sheep  in 
1763,  published  by  authority,  foot-rot  is  not  once  men> 
tioned.  In  our  own  country,  it  is  mcn'ier.ed  by  8b 
Anthony  Fitzherbert  in  the  year  1523.  But  whatever 
moy  have  been  its  history  and  progress  in  other  coun- 
tries, it  was  very  prevalent  in  Great  Britain  in  1749. 
Ellis,  who  wrote  in  that  year,  says,  "  that  it  raged  par- 
ticularly in  the  counties  around  the  metropolis.  The 
ewes  were  seized  with  foot-rot,  which  was  commnni- 
cated  to  other  sound  ewes  and  to  the  lambs  which 
they  suckled  ;  and  most  of  the  meadows  are  so  much 
infected  with  this  sheep  malady,  that  few  of  the  suck- 
ling ewes  are  ever  clear  of  it  in  a  greater  or  less  de- 
gree, and  the  pain  and  anguish  therefore  keep  them  poor 
in  flesh,  and  Hsaen  their  milk ;  so  that  two  or  three 
ewes  thus  aflfected  give  no  more  milk  than  one  li)ll 
milch  ewe  that  is  in  perfect  health."* 

It  will  aid  the  reader  to  follow  with  greater  clearnesi 
the  following  discussions  regarding  the  nature  and 
causes  of  foot-rot,  to  have  first  a  correct  view  of  tho 
healthy  anatomical  structure  of  the  foot  of  the  sheep, 
at  least  in  as  far  as  this  very  formidable  disease  is  con- 
corned.  "  There  are  tcine  points  of  importance,"  sayi 
that  eminent  veterinary  surgeon,  Mr.  Dick,  •<  to  be 
kept  in  view,  in  order  to  understand  properly  either 
the  functions  of  the  foot  of  tho  sheep,  or  the  nature  of 
the  diseases  to  which  it  is  liable.  The  foot  presents  a 
ptruclurc  and  arrangement  of  parts  well  aila[  ?d  to  the 
natural  habits   of  the   animal.     It  is  dividwJ  into  two 


digits  or  toes,  which  are  shod  with  a  hoof  composed  of 
lo  return  from  the  lowest  point  by  the  coming  grass,  drives  dilVerent  parts,  similar  in  miuiy  respects  to  the  hoof  of 
the  blood  from  the  surface,  congests  the  lungs  and  livi,r,  ,  the  horse.  Each  hoof  is  principally  composed  uf  the 
iiid  overpowf  rs  the  action  of  the  heart  with  a  rush  of    crust  or  wall,  and  the  sole.     The  crust,  extending  along 


luk  venous  blood.  The  numbness  of  thn  limbs,  caused 
by  the  heart  being  unable  to  send  the  circulation  to  tho 
oxlrtmitirs,  has  led  some  writers  to  regard  tlie  diseasu  lu 
I  kind  of  palsy. 

•  S:e  Tr!kn«netions  of  the  IliKklsni)  Sociaty. 


the  outside  of  the  foot  round  the  toe,  and  turning  ii>. 
wards,  is  continued  about  half  woy  back  betneen  each 
toe  on  the  inside.  ']"he  sole  fills  the  space  on  the  in- 
ferior surface  of  the  hoof  between  these  narts  of  tiM 


f!^! 


•Sec  Ellis's  SliepUerd's  Sure  Guide,  p.  KN 


684 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


crust,  and  being  continued  bnckwanlfi,  hocomei  softer 
u  it  proceeds,  assuming  somewhat  the  structure  of  the 
■ubatance  of  the  frog  in  the  foot  of  a  horse,  and  pcr- 
fonoing  at  the  same  tiintj  analogous  functions.  The 
whole  hoof,  too,  is  scrret«Ml  from  the  vascular  tissue  un- 
domc  ith.  There  arc,  ln-siilcs,  two  supplementary  digits 
it  the  fi'tlork.  Now,  this  diversity  of  structure  is  for 
particii  ir  purposes.  The  crust,  like  that  in  the  foot 
of  the  irsc,  being  harder  and  tougher  than  the  sole, 
kcop»  up  a  sharp  edge  on  the  out4-r  margin,  and  is 
mainly  intended  to  resist  the  wear  and  tear  to  which 
the  foot  of  the  animal  is  exposed."* 

This  structure  of  the  loot  of  the  sheep  is  extremely 
well  adapted  to  Alpine  ranges,  which  are  the  nntivo 
abodes  of  the  sheop  in  llicir  natural  state.  "  Dwelling 
b^  preference,"  in  the  language  of  Mr,  Wilson,  "  among 
the  steeitest  and  most  iimocessihle  summits  of  lofty 
mountains,  among  its  native  faHtnesses,  it  is  seen  to 
bound  from  rock  to  rock  with  inconceivable  swiftness 
•nd  agility."! 

From  these  facts,  it  is  easy  to  perceive  how  our  do- 
mestic sheep  arc  subject  to  foot-rot,  when  confined  to  n 
limited  range  on  soft  and  rich  pastures,  and  in  wet  and 
grassy  lands.  In  these  situations,  the  growth  of  the 
crust  of  the  hoof  exceeds  the  wear  and  tear,  and  soon 
overlaps  the  sole,  and  in  tliis  situation  is  either  rent  or 
broken  off,  when  sand  or  dirt  reach  the  vascular  parts 
of  the  foot,  and  hence  Inflammation  is  produced.  The 
animal  then  becomes  lame,  suppuration  takes  place, 
md  ulcers  discharge  foetid  matter;  and  if  these  ulcers 
go  on  unchecked,  they  throw  out  fungous  granulations ; 
and  if  these  l>e  allowed  to  go  on  the  hoof  falls  off. 
When  the  disease  reaches  to  this  extent,  the  constitu- 
tional disturbance  is  very  great  from  high  intlam- 
roatory  fever,  and  the  anim:d  rapidly  loses  flesh,  and,  if 
unrelieved,  dies  of  fever  and  starvation. 

Such  being  the  nature  and  causes  of  the  disease,  the 
author  of  this  paper  thinks  the  views  of  Mr.  Dick  rest 
upon  a  more  secure  and  philosophical  foundation  than 
any  other  writer  that  has  come  under  his  observation. 
And  if  these  views  are  admitted,  the  treatment  and 
means  of  prevention  are  very  olivious.  To  piire  awov 
all  the  detached  hoof,  and  dress  the  diseased  pait  with 
aonie  caustic,  p«!rluips  the  muriate  of  .intininny,  1ms  the 
g^atest  weight  of  authority.  Hut  as  prevention  is  in 
ail  cases  to  I>e  prel'encd  to  cure,  the  shepherd  should 
keep  a  vigilant  eye  upon  the  Hock,  and  pare  regularly 
on  lands  that  require  it.  By  the  simple  means  hen 
recommended,  the  writer  hits  prevented  the  disenw 
from  injuring  hi:  flock  of  sheep  for  more  than  twelve 
years,  though  the  lands  were  subject  to  the  disease. 
Uut  if  foot-rot  be  as  virulently  infectious  as  it  is  afrirmed 
to  be  by  a  whole  host  of  writers,  many  of  whom  are 
men  of  high  character  and  uttjunments,  very  diffc  rent 
mean*  both  of  prevention  and  treatment  mu~t  be 
adopted.  As  tlie  decision  of  the  (juestion  whether 
foot-rot  he  infectious  or  non-infectious,  is  of  great  i>rac- 
tical  importance  to  every  sheep-farmer,  the  evidence  on 
both  sides  of  the  question  would  require  to  be  stated 
with  perfect  cand(?ur,  in  order  to  arrive  at  the  truth. 
In  so  far  as  evidence  has  been  producoil,  the  argument 
inclines  to  the  side  of  those  who  contend  for  the  non- 
contagiousness  of  the  disease.  Mr.  Dick  vety  reason- 
»!)Iy  asks,  "Has  any  one  ever  attismpted  to  proiluce 
the  disease  by  inoculation  1  If  it  is  highly  infections, 
surely  it  will  at  once  be  produced  by  inoculation.  But 
tht«  is  not  such  an  easy  matter  as  one  would  expect, 
from  a  disease  which  is  supposed  to  infect  a  whole 
Aeld,  and  that,  too,  even  if  it  he  of  Ave  hundred  acres  I 
in  extent.  Goheir,  a  French  veterinarian,  first  applied 
•  piece  of  horn  from  a  diseased  foot,  covered  with  the 

•Dickon  Foc'.-rot.    Qiiarierly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  No. 
an   p  Hi,. 
I  Wilioii  oil  Uie  Natural  lliitory  ot  me  Sheep,  p,  333, 


matter,  to  the   sole   of  a  sound  forit  without  «(|m 
secondly,  he  rubbed  a  diseased   foot  against  a  ^mJ 
one,  ,vilhout  effect;  thirdly,  he  pared  the  sound  fooL 
and  having  applied  a  piece  of  diseased  hoof,  the  dii! 
ease   afterwards  appeared ;    but   in   this  case  the  fogt 
afterwards  got  well  of  itself,  and  there  seems  to  hiva 
been  a  doubt  in  the  mind  of  Goheir  as  to  whether  il 
was  truly  foot-rot  or  not.     Other  French  vetcrinarisni 
have  tried  similar  experiments,  and  particularly  Vielhan 
of  Tulle,  and  Favro  of  Geneva ;  and  although  I  have 
not  seen  an  account  of  their  experiments,  it  is  said  thev 
succeeded   in   producing   the    vliseasc   by    inoculatioii 
Now,  il  will  be  asked.  Is  not  this  a  suffic'cnt  proof  of 
its  infectious  nature  t     I  answer  that  it  m  not.    It  an. 
pears  to  me  that  this  is  a  strong -prr of  against  it.    If 
it  is  produced  with  so  much  diffici-Ity  by  the  direct  ap> 
plication  of  matter,  is  it  not  o'lsurd  to  suppose  that  a 
few  sheep  willi  diseased  feet  r.liould  infect  a  wliolc  field. 
I  liavc  not  seen  an  account  cf  the  n.anner  in  which  ths 
exiieriments   of    the   French    veterinarians  have  bocn 
performed ;  I   know  not  what  quantity  of  matter  vtu 
employed,  neither  have  we  any  account  of  counter'^), 
jieriments,  nor  whether  any  were  tried  to  prove  whether 
a  similar  effect  would  not  have  been  produicd  by  th« 
application  of  ony  other  morbid  matter ;  for  example 
whether  the  matter  of  grease  from  the  hfcl.«  of  horses, 
or   from   thrushes    would    not   have   produced  similar 
effects.     I  have  little  doubt  of  such  being  the  case ;  that 
suppuration  might  be  produced  by  inoculating  with  that 
or  almost  any   other  mutter,  if,  in  the  operation,  the 
wound  was  made  sulKcitiitly  deep ;  nor  w.)ul(I  I  doubl 
that   disease  would  be  produced  if  matter  was  spread 
over  the  foot  in  sufficient  quantity,  and  applied  for  a 
suiricieiit     time."     The    same    writer    continues— "I 
rejieat,  that  it  is  absurd  to  suppose  that,  if  applied  to 
the  hoof,  it  would  proiluce  the  disease.     The  hoof  is  not 
governed  by  the  laws  of  living  matter;  it  is  totally  insen- 
sible, and  it  has  not  a  circulation,  neither  has  it  tierves; 
it   altsorbs  moisture  only  like  a  piece  of  inert  matter, 
and    it   is   not   acted  upon  as   a   living  \»at.    Matter 
frum  the  foot  af  a  diseased  sheep  might  as  well  produce 
the  disease  in  a  tree;  nay,  even  more  likely,  because 
it  is  a  living  hotly,  which  the  hoof  is  not.     Why,  then, 
are  wo  to  supDose  the  hoof  to  he  acted  upon  by  mallei 
from  ilLseased   feet,  and  that,  too,  alb'r  tbe  mutter  haj 
been  exfmsed  to  the  influence  of  the  atinos|ihcre?    But 
rain  and  sun,  we  must  suppose,  have  no  inlhiencc  upon 
it.     Arsenic  may  l>e  diluted    with   water  to  such  an 
extent    as  to  be   swallowed    with    impunity,  but  water 
seems  to  increase   the  virulence  of  the  matter  of  foot. 
rot.     It  is  true  that  heat  and  moisture  will  reduce,  after 
stifiicient  exposure,  animal  matter  to  a  putrid  inassof 
the  same  consistency  and  properties,  but  the  inlueme 
of  these  ajents  is  lost  upon  the  matter  of  foot-rot.  The 
plague  is  now  known  not  to  be  so  infectious  as  it  waj 
once  thoti^lit  to  be,  but  the  foot-rot  will   still  afccl  the 
most  ext(   mive  domains.     The  upas-tree  may  annihilate 
the  exist  nee  of  all   ihot  comes   within  its  pestilerom 
shade   I);'   what  is  that  '     the   infection  of  the  fool-rot 
when  a  single  sheep  will  contaminate  a  iJioimtain  ?  Nay, 
it  will  ac  t   even  upon   parts  totally  devoid    of  vitality; 
and  such,  loo,  is  the  eccentricity  of  its  action,  that  it 
will  allow  its  neighbouring  toe  to  escajie,  and  still  infect 
the  whole  grountl.     But  I  need  not  discuss  this  point 
farther  at  present,  is  I  trust    I    have   already   shown 
that  all  ideas  of  its  infectious  nature  are  merely  chime- 
rical."* 

In  support  of  these  views,  Mr.  Black,  farm  overseer 
to  his  Grace  the  Duke  of  Buccleuch,  states  ha!  he 
had  thirteen  score  of  black-faced  sheep,  the  ;ro«let 
part  of  which  was  affected  with  foot-rot,  an/  many 
of  them  crawling  about  on  their  knees.     He   urnM 

•Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  No.  13,  p. 91 


SHEEP. 


<M 


diHn  into  a  drier  pnnluro,  on  which  were  seven  wore 
«f  LeiceHter  and  Cheviot  sheep.  All  of  the  discnsed 
ihWP  e«ccpt  four,  recovered,  and  not  one  of  ti\o  Lci- 
ntt«ri  or  Cheviots  was  infected.  This  is  n  very  alrong 
hct,  from  the  pressure  of  which  the  ccntagionists cannot 
euily  eK««pe- 

Tho  Scab. 

ThiJ  /rcqucnt  and  very  inisrhievous  diH<;ri8e  has  an- 
noyed the  cultivators  of  Rlioep  In  dillercnt  partj"  of  the 
world  fKim  'ii""  inimetnorial.  It  is  inenlioned  by 
()viil,*  Li^v.T  and  in  the  (Jeorgics  it  is  very  Brnphi- 
cally  ili^irihed  hy  VirRil,  In  our  own  cntintry  it  is. 
incfitionod  liy  our  earliest  writers;  and  in  Italy,  Frnm-f, 
anil  (iiriiiimy,  there  is  si-;irce!y  n  writer  on  sheep  who 
Joes  not  (liscribc  this  prevalent  and  ruinous  disease. 

Syojii'om.i »/  ilie  /-'i«'"sc. — The  sheep  becomes  rest- 
Its,  scratcliina:  itself,  teirini?  olFlhe  wool  with  its  teeth, 
mid  rubbint  violently  aijainst  any  post,  stone,  or  Rate. 
Wlioii  tlif  skin  is  carefully  exaininei!,  there  are  seen 
numerous  pustules,  which,  having  broken  and  run 
logcthcr,  fori'!  large  ])atchea  of  scab.  The  hack  and 
shoulders  are  Reiierally  first  affected.  The  general 
health  of  the  animal  sinks  iii  proportion  to  the  extent 
of  ll'.c  erii|ition  and  the  virulence  of  the  disease,  and  if 
illowcd  to  proceed  unchecked,  it  brings  on  general  in- 
llimmatu  .1,  and  the  anima!  dies  in  a  most  miserable 
ronJition. 

It  is  now  ascertained  that  this  disease  in  sheep 
is  caused  by  minute  insect"  of  the  class  (iniri.  M. 
Wall,  a  (ierman  veterinarian,  has  given  a  very  curious 
and  interesting  account  of  tho  operations  of  these  acari, 
which  are  said  to  burrow  in  the  skin  of  the  sheep,  and 
rojppeav  ai^nin  about  the  s  xteenth  day  with  a  nume- 
rous brood.  These  young  ii.sects  commence  operations 
al  once,  and  propaeate  in  tho  same  manner  till  tlie 
poor  fhctp  sinks  under  myriads  of  his  destroyers.  The 
ivork  of  M.  'Vjiij.  contains  drawings  of  these  insects, 
highly  magnified.  The  subject  deserves  farther  investi- 
ijalion,  being  of  great  importance  to  the  sheep  farmer. 

The  treatment  of  scab  is  thus  rendered  very  simple — 
ihe  destruction  of  the  insect  which  caused  it.  Infusions 
of  tobacco,  hellebore,  or  arsenic,  have  all  been  empbtyed 
with  success.  In  bad  cases,  the  mercurial  ointment 
has  been  apfilicd  wilb  the  happiest  ellect.  A  verv  good 
tfcfiiit  is  a  decoction  of  tobacco  and  spirit  of  turpentine. 
wilha  little  soft  soap,  and  sulphur  vivnm. 

The  only  caution  necessary  to  be  given  in  the  use  of 
any  of  these  remedies,  is  to  take  care  thai  they  be 
Irouffht  thoroughly  in  contact  wi'h  every  part  of  the 
«kin  of  the  aflected  animal,  lest  any  of  the  burrowed 
t:m  escape.  And  all  folds  or  sheds  in  which  infected 
►hfcp  have  IsHMi  confined,  and  all  gates,  posts,  and 
lUher  rubbing  placi's,  must  undergo  thorough  purifi- 
mtion.  besides  the  acari,  sneep  arc  liable  to  be  attacked 
by  various  other  insects,  such  as  the  flesh-fly,  and  a 
species  of  aphis  called  the  sheep-louse.  The  maggot 
only  •  revails  in  Ihe  moist  and  warm  summer  months, 
M  in,.  I  ui  nuniliers  with  amazing  rapidity,  and 
rfjuireu  li.  at  watchfulness  on  the  pa't  of  the  sbepherd, 
•s  they  soon  destroy  a  large  portion  of  the  skin  and 
lltsh  of  the  sheep,  if  unchecked.  The  aphis  also  creates 
vm  irritation,  but  both  s|)eciej:  an'  easily  destroyed 
liy  any  of  the  prepa-ations  already  detailed.  The  tick 
;|firi(j  niliivius)  is  also  n  very  formidable  insect  to 
'iifcp.  It  almost  I  uries  itself  in  the  skin,  and  udherrs 
« firmly  by  six  logs,  very  muscular  and  imwerful,  and 
«  snned  with  serrated  claus,  that  it  can  scarcely  be 
ilisengaged  from  its  hold,  but  will  yield,  like  most  insects 
which  'riles!,  the  sheep,  to  the  application  of  a  mercurial 
["fir   jii. 


•Mcinmnrrh.  lib.  Tii 
VuL.  1.— 7« 


tTit.  I.iv.  iv.,  cap.  30. 


THE  ALPACA. 

It  is  perhaps  not  very  generally  known  It.at  att«inpto 
are  now  making,  under  the  most  respectable  auspicei^ 
to  introduce  tho  alpaca,  or  Peruvian  sheep,  into  lh« 
number  of  our  domestic  animals.  As  the  subject  is  of 
vaFt  impurtance  in  u  national  as  well  as  individual 
point  of  view,  we  propose  oibring  a  few  explanatory 
observations  upon  il. 

Nature,  as  is  well  known,  furnishes  animals  ex- 
pressly 8uit»>d  to  the  climate,  vegetable  productions, 
and  other  ci.'cumslanees  connected  with  the  locality 
which  they  are  destined  to  inhabit.  The  Andes,  and 
other  high  mountain  ranges  and  slopes  of  South  Ame- 
rica, are  accordingly  provided  with  several  species  of 
sheep  adiii)ted,  by  their  habits,  to  these  lofty  regions  of 
scanty  vegetation,  and  which  so  materially  dillcr  from 
the  sheep  of  this  and  other  Eurojiean  countries,  as  to 
seem  a  jMrfectly  distinct  tribe  of  animals,  'j'he  two 
most  common  oi  these  South  American  sheep  are  tho 
llama  and  alp.ica,  and  they  abound  most  extensively  in 
Peru.  Tlio  llama  is  somewhat  taller  than  the  alpaca, 
and  though  in  some  respects  a  remarkable  animal,  ita 
peculiarities  are  not  such  as  to  render  it  so  especially  in 
teresting  as  the  alpaca,  for  purposes  of  practical  utility 
out  of  its  native  regions.  The  alpaca,  which  it  is  pro- 
posed to  dninesticate  in  Britain,  is  an  animal  combining 
tile  appearance  of  the  common  European  sheep  with 
that  of  the  goat,  and  partly  of  tho  deer  and  camel.  Like 
the  sheep,  the  alpaca  is  lanigerous  or  wool-coated  ;  in 
its  general  structure  ii  is  light,  and  possesses  limbs 
adapted  for  springing  and  leaping  like  the  goat ;  it 
resembles  the  deer  in  skin,  flesh,  and  general  appear- 
ance ;  and  though  without  the  camel's  deformities,  it  is 
gifted  like  him  with  patience  and  docility,  being  of\er» 
used  as  a  beast  of  burden  by  the  natives  of  South  Ame- 
rica. The  heirrbt  of  the  alpaca  is  from  three  to  four 
feet,  when  measured  from  the  ground  to  the  top  of  tho 
back;  the  eyes  are  large,  black,  soft,  and  expressive; 
the  animal  has  no  horns;  the  neck  is  long,  slender, 
curved  backwards,  and  finely  set;  the  head  handsome, 
and  the  muz7.1e  and  ears  lengthened  ;  the  hoof  is  horny, 
and  divided  ;  the  tail  long,  and  resembling  what  is  called 
a  switch-tail ;  the  body  has  a  tapering  towards  the  loins, 
resembling  that  of  the  greyhound  ;  and, as  regards  other 
points,  the  alpaca  has  partly  the  characters  of  the  sheep 
(its  incisors  on  the  lower  jaw,  for  example,  and  six 
molar  teeth  on  each  side,)  and  partly  those  of  the  camel 
(the  most  '  rkable  lieing  a  similar  reservoir  ir  tho 
stomach  (>  ,uds,  suiting  the  creature  to  an  arid  cli- 
mate.) To  common  observers  the  alpaca  might  seem 
to  be  a  fine  tall  goat,  with  small  head  and  no  horna, 
but  of  more  gentle  and  fleecy  appearance  than  that 
animal. 

The  wool  of  the  alpaca  forms,  of  course,  a  point  of 
peculiar  importance,  taking  into  view  the  proposal  for 
introducing  the  animal  into  (ireat  Britain.  The  colour 
of  the  wool  varies  considerably,  the  majority  of  the  -..-.Yie 
being  of  a  tint  intermediate  lietwcen  black  and  brown, 
while  others  are  of  a  pure  wb.ite.  The  texture  is  ad- 
mitted on  all  hands  to  bo  peculiarly  fine.  In  a  me- 
moir on  this  subject,  written  by  Mr.  W.  Walton,  and 
printed  for  the  Natural  History  Society  of  Liverpool, 
the  wool  is  thus  described : — "  With  the  polite  assist- 
ance of  the  Fccretary  of  the  Polytechnic  Institution, 
I  was  enabled  to  examine  the  anatomical  structure  of 
three  samples  of  alpaca  wool  throngh  a  lens  magnify- 
ing one  million  times.  The  colours  of  those  subjected 
to  the  power  of  Ihe  micoscope  were  white,  black,  and 
gray.  When  thrown  upcn  the  disc,  each  fdament  ajv 
pe.ired  eipial  in  thickness  to  a  man-of-war's  topsail 
halyard,  f«!rfeetly  distinct,  and  tho  fibrous  structuro 
more  evi.lent  than  in  the  wool  of  common  sheep. 
White  WU.1  the  lirst  simple  tried,  and  it  produce  1  an 
etFect  at  the  siine  time  singular  and  pleasing.  'L\o 
30 


INFORMATION   FOR  TUP  PEOPLR. 


■urfRce  ipppA  -ihI  pnlinhed  «nil  (linlinniiiHheil  by  ulit- 
teririK  hriKlitiii'm,  nlinoHt,  I  rnulil  iiny,  rtifiilf^ciir'',  wiiicli 
Ib  wuntiri|{  in  hIil-o[>'i*  wuoI.  The  ^''ni'riil  >-  aults  pro- 
duced by  aflrrwanla  nhowins  the  lilnck  Hampio  wttrn 
the  Hame,  oxopptiiig  that  the  shiulc  on  thi*  iliftc  wn» 
more  opaque,  and  the  brillianry  of  oarh  filiimpnt  diins- 
nii«hcd.  The  ^rny  exhibited  a  niciliuin  lictween  the 
coiitnixtN,  nail   helped  to  Hhow  both  to  advantage. 

"  There  are  initanceR  of  alpaca  wool  incaHuriiiR  thirty 
iiichea  long;  frecuenlly  it  ii  seen  twenty  iiirhi'M,  ami  it 
average*  from  ei^'it  to  twelve.  In  the  Haniple,  there 
appeared  to  be  no  'Midcr  wool — no  eioKer  and  imme- 
diati  covering.  No  shorter  hair,  or  wool,  could,  in 
fact  be  perceived;  the  very  reverse  of  what  is  olwerved 
wl"  u  a  morxei  of  an  oik's  or  caniers  coat  \s  exnndned. 
Alp.ioa  won!  is  also  straigb''-  .ban  that  of  sheep,  never 
appearing  in  those  spiral  •  ..ils  which  dislinguish  our 
pile.<,  more  particularly  when  the  bearer  of  the  fleece 
has  Im'cu  SMU'iircd.  The  snialiness  of  the  filire,  its  soft- 
nosH  and  [iliabilily.  coupled  with  ils  elasticity,  etpiully 
add  to  its  value.  There  is,  in  the  mass,  what  is  tech- 
nically called  a  triu.ieu,  that  is,  an  equal  growth  and 
an  exemption  from  shaggy  |>ortions,  accompanied  by 
a  soundness,  by  which  is  meant  the  general  strength 
of  the  filire — properties  certainly  of  the  first  import  to 
the  manufacturer.  In  consequence  of  this  character- 
Utic  disposition,  alpaca  wool  breaks  less  in  the  act  of 
combing,  is  freer  from  shreds,  spins  easily,  anil  not 
being  80  harsh  or  so  stubborn,  docs  not  injure  the 
machinery  so  much.  The  thread  spun  with  it  is  also 
finer  and  truer.  In  the  manufacture  of  fine  goods,  it 
\b  agreed  lliat  the  pile  cannot  be  ti>o  soft  or  too  silky, 
provided  the  strength  of  the  fibre  is  not  impaireil.  As 
well  as  I  could,  I  have  compared  the  strength  of  a 
filament  of  alpaca  with  thos<;  of  other  wools,  and  found 
't  the  strongest ;  and  a«  it  is  devoid  of  that  irrcL'uIar- 
ity  of  surface — the  knots  and  joints  whi<h  some  per- 
•onf  liken  to  those  of  a  bamboo  cane — the  cloth 
made  from  it  must  consequently  be  less  harsh  to  the 
touch." 

But  the  qualities  of  the  alpaca  wool  for  manufactur- 
ing purposes  do  not  rest  ujKJn  mere  conjecture.  "  The 
merits  of  alpaca  wool  have  for  some  time  past  at- 
tracted the  notice  of  manufacturers  and  consequently 
of  merchants ;  and  through  the  advice  ot  Mr.  Dan- 
■on  and  otiicr  enterprising  i-  Jividuals,  the  importa- 
tioDS  of  it  have  within  the  last  six  years  considerably 
increased.  Mr.  J.  J.  Hegan.  of  Liverpool,  has  Is-cn  the 
largest  importer,  and  it  is  believed  that  his  l>ouse  alone, 
•incc  1838,  has  imported  S.'i.OOO  bales,*  sold  to  the  con- 
sumers at  from  Is.  8d.  to  2h.  fid.  per  lb.  Other  houses 
receive  considerable  quantities.  One  million  lbs,  ar- 
rived there  in  the  course  of  February,  IS  1 1 .  During  his 
lour  in  Scotland,  Mr.  Danson  urged  the  expediency  of 
introducing  the  alpaca  into  the  Higldands,  and  pointed 
out  the  benefits  which  would  accrue  from  this  mea- 
sure. In  illustration  of  his  views  he  exhibit^'d  samples 
of  the  wool,  and  specimens  of  articles  manufactured  in 
Rngland  from  it.  imitating  silk,  some  as  black  as  jet, 
although  of  the  natural  colour,  and  without  the  aid  of 
dye.  He  very  ably  contended,  that  this  wool  would 
itot  enter  into  com])etition  with  that  of  our  ordinary 
sheep,  and,  from  the  fineness  and  transparency  of  the 
filament,  was  peculiarly  well  adapted  for  the  fine  showl 
trikle  of  Paisley  and  Glasgow."  Kven  these  trials  have 
Ixjen  made  under  disadvantages,  for  the  al<>aca  wool 
has  only  reached  this  country  in  a  dirty  and  also  in  a 
mixed  state,  the  wool  of  inferior  brce<ls  forming  almost 
always  a  large  proportion  of  the  bales  containing  it. 

The  value  of  the  wool  f)eing  once  determined,  the 
next  question  is.  Have  we  space  and  food  for  the  al- 
iitica  ir.  Britain  ?     On  this  point,  after  some  argument* 


*  Kj>--'i  lin'r  nveri|rhs  from  bS  to  00  lb*. 


I  in   proof  of  his  views,  Mr.  Walton  rni,!bfl,  ih#  |i,|i 
■  iiig   conclusions,  which    appear  to   ho   i'5»ctiii«ilv 
\  rect :— "  Wo   therefore    have,    and    must    coiitinu«'"|[," 
j  have,  large  trai:tii,   neither  cropped  with  grain  nor  I 

pastured  by  cattle,  consisting  of  chains  of  barren  hiir 
^  running    in     various    directions     througii    the   UniiJl 
Kingdom,  moors,   heath,   moss,   lands,  iStc,  wholly 
priHiuctive,  the  amount  of  which  may  |)c  »ot  down  "" 
from  twelve  to  fourteen   millions  of  acres.     And  wo  m 
it  not  Im)  highly   exiM-dient  to   stock   these  lands  wL 
another  <lomestic  animal,  yielding  a  commodity  of  in  h 
a  nature  as  to  reward   the  farmer  for  his  care,  and  h*. 
sides   triple   in  value    by    the    beneficial   applirjijon  of 
labour — an  animal   reijuiring  no  additiunnl  subBinicn. 
for  its   support,  and   conseciuently  not   likely   lo  i|,u 
fere   with   any  cattle   already   on  our  farms?     Breidf 
if  an  improved  race  of  domestic  animals  could  bp  ni| 
even  into  our  occupied  lands,  would  it  not  be  idvUahl 
to  do  80,  even  at  the  cost  of  diminishing  in  pai  the  i 
isting  breeds  1 

.\notlier  material  questiim  is.  Could  the  alpaca  /in 
in  this  country  1  "  .\llhough  dedicate  in  appearance 
the  alpaca  is,  (lerhaps,  one  .if  the  hardiest  anlmali  o' 
the  creation.  His  al)stinencc  has  alreaciy  l)eon  nolicej, 
Nature  has  provided  him  with  a  thick  skin  ami  ■  mn, 
fleece,  and  as  ho  never  perspiri's  like  the  ordiiufy 
sheep,  be  is  not  so  susceptible  of  cold.  There  ia,  there, 
fore,  no  necessity  to  smear  his  cout  with  tar  and  buiin 
w  the  farmers  are  obliged  to  do  wilii  their  flocki  i. 
Hcotland — a  process  which,  liesides  being  troublejonn 
and  ex|)en8ive,  injures  the  wool,  as  it  is  no  longer  lit  lo 
make  into  white  goods,  nor  will  it  take  light  and  brigiit 
colours. 

" '  The   Highland  hills,'  says  the   Ettrick  Shepherd, 
'  are,  for  the  most  part,  of  a   pyramidal  form,  very  high 
and  commonly  so  steep  and  rugged,  that  to  the  eve  of 
the    traveller    they    have    an   op|>earance   (lerliectly  tie 
mendous.     The  sides  and   banks  of  the  glens  and  riri). 
1(  ts  are  commonly  covered,  or  mixed,  with  a  rich  short  i 
urasB,    intermingled    with    iiuml>crle»8    aromatic  herl« 
and  flowers.     The   extensive  flats  and  sloping  dccliTJ.  | 
tic's    around  the    bottimi    and  lower  parts   are  coverrf 
wiih  a  coarse  mossy    turf,  interspentcd  with  thin  «p,  I 
less   heather,  which   has  stood  in  the  snnie  8i]ualid  foni 
since  the  time  that  it  first  made  its  apjiearanie  on  lii 
retreat  of  the  universal  deluge,  mixed  with  Rnnieofiln 
moss-stalks   (ulled   ling    ond    deer    hair.'     This  ii  the 
(lescrij  tion  which  so  exp<'ricnced  a  man  as  the  Ettrick  [ 
Shepherd  gives  of  •  that  %ast  range  of  slupemlous  moun- 
tains, deep  glens, and  trackless  forests,'  which  (he  siji)  [ 
•  at  the   first   view  every    un|irejuiliced   niun   must  n. 
knowledge   nature   never   intended   for   the  rearin;  rf 
cattle.'    iii'd   where   no   one    (adds   he)    '  will  hcatjli 
whether  slueep   or    goats    are    the   most  feiisihie  itott' 
What  pen  could  have  fkctcbed  a  more  faithlul  fiifl«f»  I 
of  the  .\iides  mountains — those  high  and  seoluJfd  »  I 
gions,  inaccessible   to  other  animals,  wher."  the  alpw 
lives    '  an  inmate  of  the  cloud    anil    slorai,'  ^atherinj  I 
subsistence  from  edilJe   plants   which  otherwise  woiild  I 
be  let\  to  wither  on  the  land  !"     We  arc  awareofonljl 
one  doubttiil  circumstance   as  to  the  surcessful  doia*  I 
ticatioii  of  the  alpaca  in  any  of  the  British  isl«nd«,i«>| 
ticularly  in  the   Highlands — this  is  the  hvmiiit'ij  tj ml 
clitnn'e.     If  the  alpaca  can   resist  damp  as  well  Mwl 
South-downs,  we  shall  have  nothing  to  fear  on  lheiM»| 
of  hardiness  in  other  respects. 

Mr.  Walton  alludes  to  the  st-ong  enamel  on  lit  I 
alpaca's  teeth,  aa  fitting  the  treaturc  peculi«rlf()ll 
rocky  and  mountainous  pitsti)rage.  In  the  case  if  [ 
snow-storms,  too,  on  <mr  elevated  ranges,  by  which » I 
many  of  our  common  sheep  are  apt  to  be  smollienJI 
every  severe  winter,  the  remarkable  docility  of  tin  j 
al)iaca  renders  him  almost  secure,  with  little  rompi*  | 
live  toil  to  tite  hordainan.     "Peruvian  sheep  h>n,  it 


SHEEP. 


nr. 


tut,  tn  ui  errini?  forpiinht  of  the  coming  danger,  long 
liffon  their  toiuler  (if  they  hnppon  to  have  one)  weg 
iboTit  him  ■  lliruatcning  cloud  or  dream*  of  a  drift. 
Inrti'  "lively  timy  know  the  nufuit  Hide  of  a  crag,  a»  if 
lliey  Haw  'lie  P<''"'  "^  '''^  compnua  from  which  the  atorm 
wai  tuproachint?,  and  thua  admoniahcd  collect  their 
lounn.  »'"'  "y  '"  ^^  *''"  *''''"''  "a'ure  provided  for 
■•-.n)  even  tiolbre  the  ctnflict  of  the  elemcnta  and  the 
n  inc  of  the  winiU  ahail  have  commenced.  If  within 
tract),  the  alpaca  aaka  )rot«'ction  at  the  cottaj^e  door 
where  at  other    momeiilt   he   had    been    welcomed." 

i„in II  Another   gri-nt   i.'dvantano    in   the   alpaca   is, 

ihal  he  iJ  ""l  liiililc  to  the.  many  discnHca  incidental 
to  common  Blieep,  and  whicli  have  go  orten  ratted  like 
I  peitilencc  union,'  the  teniints  of  the  Scotch  tiilla.  In 
Prm,  where  the  circuinHtiinces  are  as  near  aa  poaaible 
ilike.  the  llaniii  and  alpuca  are  not  hurt  by  chani;cg 
of  diet  incidental  to  tiic  aeuiwina.  This  may  ariae 
purtly  froin  thtir  RriMtor  alwtemiousncaa  and  discern- 
ment, and  partly  from  their  havini;  a  wider  ranirc, 
iiiit  conneqiiently  more  choice  of  food.  It  in,  how- 
(tcr  a  fact,  which  I  have  ascertained  '  om  nalivea, 
ihat  the  Peruvian  breeds  are  not  so  litr  )le  to  bowel 
complaints  as  ours,  and  •'"'•'  conatitutior,  being  much 
itronner,  they  are  onacquently  less  atfer.ed  by  sudden 
traniitions  from  one  food  to  another.  A'^e  distemper 
cillcJ  pining,  or  daising,  very  usual  .n  the  west  of 
Siotland,  which  occasions  a  thir.icss  of  blood,  and 
ulicn,  though  the  animal  cont-.iues  to  feed  greedily, 
it  pin^t  away  to  a  mere  sk'.de'on,  is  unkiiow"'  on  the 
Amies:  neither  are  the  fawpj  there  liable  to  tiic  many 
jcfidents  which  altcnd  the  ."eedihg,  herd'"g,  and  fold- 
in?  of  lambs  among  us.  As  loimrds  vermin,  they  are 
much  clearer."  With  respect  to  other  (liscases,  though 
the  alpaca  is  not  exempt  from  some  of  them,  its  hardy 
comtilution  seems  to  render  their  influence  less  extended 
inj  destructive. 

In  reality,  the  experiment  of  keeping  the  alpaca 
in  Great  Britain  has  already  been  tried  on  a  con- 
siderable scale,  and  the  wool  has  been  found  to  be 
even  improved  by  the  change  of  site.  "  The  Earl 
of  Derby,  with  that  patriotic  spirit  and  splendid  taste 
which  have  distinguished  him  through  a  long  life,  also 
•tepped  forward  among  the  first  breeders,  and  his 
lordship  has  now  at  Knowsley  a  little  flock  of  llamas 
ind  alpacas,  amounting  to  fourteen,  two  of  which  were 
•ired  on  the  spot,  whoso  wool  is  finer,  softer,  and  more 
jcautiful  than  that  on  the  backs  of  their  jiarents.  The 
proof  that  the  wool  improves  with  our  pasture  is,  in 
fol,  established  in  this  instance.  The  young  are  eight- 
ind-twcnty  months  old,  and  already  the  first  has  wool 
upon  it  six  inches  long.  A  fine  male  alpaca,  shorn 
three  years  ago,  has  at  present  a  coat  upon  it  from 
eighteen  to  twenty  mchcs  long,  thus  proving  that  the 
wool  grows  from  six  to  eight  inches  yearly,  if  regu- 
larly ihom.  Speaking  of  the  practicability  of  ir.tro- 
ducing  the  Peruvian  sheep  more  generally,  in  s  leticr 
addressed  to  William  Danson,  Esq.,  of  Liverpool,  who, 
accompanied  by  a  friend,  visited  Knowsley  at  the 
beginning  of  the  current  month,  [April,  1841,]  his 
kidship  says  that  <  he  certainly  know»  of  nothing  likely 
to  prevent  the  propagation  of  the  aniii  jtl  in  this  country. 
On  the  contrary,'  he  adds,  •  the  gentlemen  will  see  in 
lime  groundii  living  specimens  that  they  can  and  will 


do  so,  one  female  having  pro  .uced  in  each  of  the  two 
lost  seasons,  and  the  young  ore  doing  well.'  His  lord- 
ship then  expresses  his  anxious  desire  •  to  obtain  tb« 
remainder  of  the  speeios,  more  especially  the  vicuna.' 
Already  does  this  nteresting  animal  adorn  the  plea« 
sure-grounds  of  the  Marquis  of  Breadalbane,  at  Aber- 
feldy,  Perthshire;  J.  J.  Hegan,  Esq.,  Harrow  Hall, 
(/'hcshire;  Charles  Tayleure,  Esq.,  near  Liverpool:  Mr. 
Hiephenson  of  Oban,  and  others.  The  Duke  cf  Mon- 
trose has  lately  become  a  purchaser  of  alpacas;  and  Earl 
Pitzwilliam  has  also  bought  a  llama  at  £80.  Various 
isolated  trials  in  other  covintries  have  proved  equally 
successful."  Messrs.  Di»cruw,  Wombwell,  and  othei 
proprietors  of  menageries,  have  also  kept  specimens  oi 
Peruvian  sheep,  which  have  been  at  once  wonderful  foi 
docility,  and  have  lived  healthily  upon  the  usual  food 
procurable  for  animals  in  Great  Britain. 

From  the  tone  in  which  this  notice  has  been  drawn 
up,  it  may  be  observed  that  ''e  statements  before  ui 
have  been  convincing  in  our  eyes,  in  so  far,  at  least, 
as  regards  the  propriety  of  making  fair  and  full  expe- 
riments on  the  subject  of  the  alpaca.  This  animal,  wa 
conceive,  without  infringing  materially  on  the  keeping 
of  sheep,  might  prove  the  means  of  enlarging  the  pro- 
fession of  the  pastoral  farmer,  and  of  vorying,  extending 
and  improving  our  manufactures.  From  the  alpaca 
wool  which  we  do  procure  at  present,  yarn  is  spun, 
which  the  French  import  at  from  Os.  to  12s.  per  lb.  In 
conclusion  wo  give  a  few  additional  words  from  Mr. 
Walton.  "  When  we  consider  the  great  improvement 
which  we  have  attained  in  sheep's  wool,  there  is  every 
reiwion  to  look  for  a  similar  success  in  that  of  the  alpaca ; 
and  in  devising  me  ins  to  increase  the  productive  power 
of  the  country,  v>  ,  ought  never  to  forget,  that  there  have 
been  periods  in  our  history  when  we  were  dependent 
upon  foreign  supplies  for  the  raw  material  required  for 
our  woollen  manufactures,  and  that  the  best  way  to  be 
independent,  is  not  to  be  under  the  necessity  of  I  uying 
that  which  it  is  in  our  own  power  to  grow.  The  task 
of  obtaining  suitable  breeds  of  the  alpaca  is  by  no  meana 
a  diflicult  one  ;  and  in  our  attempts  to  naturalize  them, 
we  ought  to  feel  the  more  encouraged,  when  we  reflect 
on  the  recent  chani^es  in  the  growth  and  supplies  of 
sheep's  wool,  and  how  soon  a  farming  stock  propagate* 
under  judicious  management.  It  must  be  equally  borne 
in  mind,  that  in  using  alpaca  wool  we  are  not  competing 
with  that  of  our  own  sheep,  but  rother  with  that  of  the 
Angora  goat  (mohair)  and  silk ;  and  the  manufacture, 
it  has  been  ascertained,  does  not  cost  half  so  much  •■ 
that  of  the  latter." 

One  other  point  calls  for  notice.  Our  present  breed* 
of  sheep  are  of  essential  importance  as  food  to  man. 
The  flesh  of  the  alpaca  is  spoken  of  as  excellent  by 
Acosta,  GarcilasBo  de  la  Vega,  and  other  writer*  on 
Peru.  Of  the  various  breeds  of  sheep  on  the  Andes, 
"  the  alpaca  (says  Garcilasso  de  la  Vega)  is  chiefly 
valued  for  its  flesh."  (teneral  O'Brien,  an  Irish  gentle- 
man in  the  Peruvian  service,  speaks  of  the  flesh  aa 
"  delicious,"  and  likely  also  to  improve  much  on  th« 
animal  l)eing  placed  on  milder  pastures  than  those  of 
the  Peruvian  mountains.  The  flavour  resembles  tbat 
of  venison,  and,  from  all  accounts,  could  not  fail  ta 
command  as  fair  a  price  in  our  markets  as  muttoih 
beef,  or  any  other  kind  of  meut 


."^ 


riGS.  GOATS,  RABKITS,  TOULTRY,  CAGE  BIRDS,  &c. 


PI08. 

A»  a  iiource  of  BURtennnce  and  emiilumpnt  tothn  hum- 
bler clatMCR  of  uncicty,  the  pii;  ix  (inly  swond  in  iniport- 
tnec  to  the  cow,  and  in  nimiy  instunrrs  in  found  tn  In- 
Dioro  Avaihihlc  and  useful  tlmii  (luit  animal.  As  an  ol>- 
jpot  of  natural  history,  it  in  |ilaccd  amonast  the  I'arliy- 
tlfrmaiii  or  thick-skinniHl  order  of  the  Mummuliu,  the  hog, 
mid  l)OHr,  and  probahly  also  the  (H'ccMry  of  .South  Anic- 
rioa,  lieing  varieties  of  the  satne  family.  Tlie  most  re- 
niarkahle  chararteristir  of  the  roinnion  pit;  ia  its  long 
roundish  snout,  given  for  the  purjiosi!  of  grubbini;  in  the 
Mftli  for  roots  and  other  kinds  of  fotxl ;  the  feet  are  cloven, 
and  euch  posst'sses  four  toes  ;  the  Ixidy  is  thinly  rovereil 
with  bristles,  and  the  female  is  provided  with  from  twelve 
to  sixteen  teats.  The  jaws  of  the  pig  ;'re  powerful,  and 
the  toi'th  with  which  liiey  are  furnished  are  very  formida- 
ble, particularly  in  the  wild  varictiefc.  Swine  do  not  ru- 
minate, and  from  this  and  other  |M><-uliaritics,  they  can 
feed  either  on  veiretable  or  aiumal  sulistanees,  and  thus 
form  a  kind  of  link  between  the  herbivorous  and  car- 
nivorous class  of  animals. 

The  particular  breeds  of  pigs  most  esteemed  in  Great 
Britain  are  the  Berkehire  and  Chinese  breeds.  I'hese  arc 
also  the  breeds  Iwst  marked  by  distinctive  features  ;  though, 
by  crossings,  and  peculiarities  of  feeding  and  position, 
varieties,  dilli'ring  in  a  slight  degree  from  one  another, 
have  been  raised  up  in  almost  every  county  in  England. 
The  Berkshire  breed,  the  parent  sto«-k  of  most  of  them, 
are  marked  by  Ixxlies  of  a  reddish-brown  tint,  with  black 
spots,  large  pendant  ears,  short  legs,  and  small  bones. 
This  a|iccles  of  hog  fattens  to  an  enormous  weight  under 
^oixl  management,  some  having  been  killed  which 
am  lunted  to  upwards  of  twelve  hundredweight  The 
Chinese  breed  vary  in  colour  from  whit<!  to  black,  and 
from  a  piebald  to  a  sandy  hue.  'I'hey  are  neat  in  form, 
comparatively  s|ieaking,  and  yield  excellent  tlesh.  They 
•re  usually  not  very  large  in  size,  but  vary  in  this  re- 
spect, and,  of  course,  in  weight  also.  The  gigantic  white 
•lid  black  breed  of  Cheshire,  the  white  pigs  of  Sulllilk 
ami  Hampshire,  and  the  piebidd  hogs  of  Sussex  and 
Sh'opshire,  ma-  no  mentioned  as  the  U'st  known  among 
the  district-breiiis  of  Enjiund.  They  ure  coarser,  gene- 
rally speaking,  than  the  Berkshire  nnd  Chinese  varieties. 
Both  of  these  have  been  pretty  exti  nsively  introduced 
uito  Scotland,  where  a  less  valuable  wiiite  breed  ap[)earH 
to  have  been  earlier  located,  if  not  indigenous.  There  is 
also  a  small  gray  pig,  apparently  aboriginal,  which  feeds 
in  herds  on  the  natural  pasture  of  the  llighknd  hills,  and 
438 


furnishes  very  sweet  flesh.     By  artiftcial  freillno,  ji 
Iw  raised  to  a  consider.dilo  Inilk.     But  the  lirecil  m  ' 
commonly  esteeini'd  both  in  England  and  Hmil;,,,,!   j 
mixture  of   the   Chinese  dnrk-colonred  swim-  wit),  / 
Berlishire,  or  some  of  the  large  varieties  of  HritiBhBwin 
This  cross  possesses  many  good  qualities,  und  in  i,,,^ 
liiirly  prolific.     Either  Iwdonging  or  allied  to  tht  H(.,k 
shire  vaiiety,  is  the  Hampshire /)0((-,  a  sniall  hlarli  pi, 
suitable  for  cottagers,  for  it  is  easily  fed  ami  t'uttcticd 
is  therefore  hiKbly  esteen)e(l. 

I.inei  iiiir. — 'I'll''  sow  is  very  prolific,  cninpnred  vtiil 
other  lurge-si/.ed  quadrupeds.  Stic  eorrmienres  lirfwli,,. 
at  almiil  twelve  inonths  old,  n<  d  generally  liririn  f^,|i 
twice  u  year,  her  |M'ricid  of  ge  /ition  Iwing  siitcen  vinfW 
The  nuiiilier  of  yoinig  varie.,  considerably  ;  it  isfrrquonlli 
IkIow  ten.  and  occusiotiallv  rises  to  twenty.  The  voum 
pig  isexce.'dingly  delicate;  anil  the  broxl-aow  shiiiililm 
be  allown!  to  furrow  in  winter,  but  in  spring  and  iiulijmn 
when  the  weather  is  less  severe  and  fooil  mure  almii.liiii 
Another  [leril  tn  the  litter  arises  fiom  the  somi^'armj 
rous  habits  of  the  mother,  which  lead  her  to  fori,'it  ih, 
dues  of  nature,  nnd  devour  her  own  brood.  Shi.  oujln 
therefore  to  be  well  watched,  ninl  fed  ubumliuitly  at  s-n\ 
pel  I. ids.  The  male,  for  the  same  reason,  must  be  fj, 
cludeil  altogether.  Not  uiilreqiieiitly,  innrcover,  i!k 
young  are  crushed  to  death  by  the  mother,  in  coine(|ufnf( 
of  their  nestling  nnst^en  liclow  the  straw.  To  iircrmi 
this  risk,  a  small  quantity  only  of  straw,  dry  anJ  thott 
should  1h)  placed  below  them.  'I'he  young  are  wcanei 
when  six  weeks  old;  and  after  weaning,  it  is  cssi'niialh 
necessary  to  Iced  the  young  with  nieul  und  milk,  ui  tsj 
and  w.iter. 

'I'he  brood-sow  ought  to  have  an  ample  abdomen,  u^ 
ought  to  he  in  good  condition  when  breeding,  otheivit 
little  good  can  be  expected  of  her  progeny.  .Manvper 
sons  labour  under  the  mistaken  notion  that  sniiu 
while  breeding,  should  be  kept  lean  ;  but  nothiuf;  rani* 
more  erroneous;  for,  after  farrowing,  great  part  of  tt* 
juices  which  woulil  lie  converted  into  milk,  wercshfii  i 
gooil  condition,  will  naturally  go  towards  nourisliin;  Ii6 
system.  When  required  for  the  purpose  of  fultenin8,il» 
male  young  pigs  are  cut,  ati<l  the  females  spaveJ.  whicli 
is  an  ttiiologous  proj'esa.  These  oiieralionssliouU  bei*  I 
trusted  to  a  farrier  or  other  skilleil  person. 

Pin-hcu''ti. — Although  swine  are  found  to  succcpJiil 
all  countries,  ami  their  constitutions  Iravc  been  arcoiiiiwl 
dated  to  every  climate,  yet  they  are  found  to  doitfrienj  j 
and  thrive  ill  cither  in  the  extremes  of  heat  or  cnlJ.  li  [ 
a  native  state  we  find  them,  when  inhabiting  counlns  I 
towards  either  extreme,  seeking  situations  most  ailapv^  I 
to  their  constitution.  Swine,  in  a  domesticaied  state, » I 
quire  to  be  kept  very  dry  and  warm,  otherwise  they  »Jj 
never  thrive.  It  will  lie  noticed  that  in  cold  weathiTlkn  j 
invariably  bury  themselves  among  the  straw  and  Ettil 
with  which  they  are  supplied  as  liedding,  thus  jioiiiDijj 
out  their  natural  desire  for  luat  'l"hc  pi u'fxerv  shoiiH I 
therefore  be  in  some  well-sheltered  spot,  ami,  if  possinii;! 
with  a  south  or  west  exposure.  If  kept  in  iiuil 
styes,  there  lilmuld  lie  a  small  aju'rlnre  at  ench  fnilil 
,  them,  so  as  to  admit  the  free  passage  of  air  lliroui!hl!j(ll 
for  ventilation.  'J'hese  may  be  kijit  open  roiislidlj 
during  the  summer  months,  but  only  allinvcd  tolifOidl 
for  air  once  every  second  day  in  winter,  anil  that  in  the  Iwl 
noon,  while  they  must  be  carefully  shut  up  in  thte'»l 
ing.  Pigs  will  lie  found  to  grow  notwithstaniliin'Jil 
netflcct  of  all  these  precautions  ;  but  we  know,  fruuirti 
jierience,  that  they  will  grow  much  faster  anJ  will  H 
more  healthy  with  them. 


PIGS. 


6M 


I,  niniit  ennf*  pi((«  nre  kept  in  ii  Hhampfiilly  filthy  ron. 
(lition  i  thfir  «l>  •■  ill  voiililali'd,  the  nlruw  ilirty,  tlii'ir  ainall 
fiiurt-y«fil  ""  t'P"''''  '*•""  *  **•'•  'l>iii«hill.  ami  ron«H|uoiilly 
tiKikin  of  the  animal  twifriincd  with  wurf  and  nil  norU 
oi  iinpu'i'i''''  We  cannot  too  Ktroni(ly  ri'|irclii<nd  tliii 
infimoun  lrpnlnicnt  of  the  pin,  which  i»  not  n'ltnrRJIy 
dirty,  «»  I"""'  "iipp"*"'  ''"'  I'""""  '•>  h<'  kept  dry  nnd  rlt-Hti, 
ifwell  a»  wiirm,  »«  nny  ono  nmy  olwf ,  vo  liy  tht  delight 
rt  «riilf iitly  <«kp«  in  hiivinn  itM  hide  Hcratchi'd  nnd  »crulv 
1^  l.il  n^  tlion,  hcHccrli  all  piK-kcrptTi  nndor  whoM 
fvc  thin  "hwt  may  conw,  lo  pri'dcrvt-  the  nlyo  in  tlir  nioHt 
il'rv  anil  cii'iui  condilioii  pomililo,  lo  chiinnu  tho  utriiw  fre- 
oiifnlly,  a"''  '<>  rurry  tlin  Hkin  of  the  piif  at  IpdHt  onro 
iwfoli.  Uy  cloinn  so,  without  n  particlu  of  additional 
food,  lIlP  ttiiiinal  will  thrive  and  fatten  in  a  very  Kii|)orior 
i)i,jfce,  whilo  tho  flesh  will  Ik-  nmrr  pure  iind  dellrato. 
8(1  iruo  i«  th'"'  ''"»'  "">  n^""  '*''"  keejiK  hia  pig  dirty, 
mavtwiaiil  lo  b<'  piekinjr  his  own  pocket,  a*  he  will 
roaiizt'  \c»*  money  for  ilH  carcuBa  than  if  hu  hud  taken  a 
liltle  troiihle  to  olcnn  it. 

To  insure  comfort  to  the  pig  or  pigx,  let  the  alye  con- 
nit  of  at  It'URt  two  compartnientH — a  nloepine  apartment 
inil  an  n|)Pti  court-yard,  the  one  openini;  into  the  iitlicr. 
The  ilocping  apartment  nhould  he  well-huilt  and  f>lntrH, 
for  the  sake  of  dryncsn,  and  tho  floor,  formed  of  strong 
pjiinks,  shouli!  nlope  outwa'ds  to  the  door.  The  outer 
rnurt  should  he  paved  in  a  sidistantial  manner  with  large 
|la;'.jtonp»,  sloping  also  in  a  particular  direction,  to  which 
the  liijuiil  rcCune  can  flow  into  ;i  ifutter.  ft  is  advantage- 
m«  for  tho  erection  to  he  near  the  dunuhill,  to  which  all 
liquid  may  run,  and  solid  nuiterials  be  carried  without  loss. 
Kccppli'my  of  straw  both  in  the  pin-house  and  itsciuirt, 
in  order  to  alisorh  moixture  or  dung,  and  let  all  ho  raked 
out  n>3Ularly,  and  renewc.l.  The  money  Inst  hy  allow- 
iiij{  the  dung  to  go  to  waste  hy  mere  evaponition — flying 
off  into  the  atmosphere — no  one  can  calculate.  Tho 
open  court  of  the  pig-house  should,  if  possiMe,  lie  to  the 
lun,  as  the  inmates  are  fond  of  hashing  in  his  beams. 
riiofefding  utensils  placed  in  the  court  should  consist  of 
two  strong  Irouglu,  which  cannot  be  easily  knocked  over. 
These  should  be  daily  washed  and  scoured  to  keep  them 
i  iweet. 

fm/i'if. — In  rural  Bituations,  where  extensive  woods 

eiist,  and  where  the  grass  is  otherwise  of  no  value,  the 

feedini?  and  breeding  of  pigs  will  be  found  very  profitable 

to  the  cottager;  for,  'vliere  thi'V  ha\e  a  wide  range,  they 

»ill  require  little  fn-v'  save  what  lliey  fnid  for  themselves 

I  in  grazing  under  the  trees,  and  in  digging  for  worms  and 

I  runts  of  various  kinds — liir  which  latli^r  task  their  long 

[and  strong  snouts  peculiarly  fit  them.     Artificial  feeding 

[is  only  resorted  to  in  winter,  and  when  the  pigs  are  to  lie 

l&ttened  for  tho  market  or  table,     It  is  more  common, 

Ihowevcr,  for  tlie  cottager  to  keep  one  or  two  pigs  entirely 

Iwithin  a  stye,  to  add  to  the  means  of  subsist<'nee  of  his 

lown family;  and  even  when  kept  with  this  limited  view, 

■the  pig  is  a  creature  of  no  little  conso(|uence.     As  (^ob- 

lett acutely  and  pithily  observes — "The  sight  of  a  flitch 
br  two  of  bacon  on  the  nick,  tends  more  to  keep  u  poor 
Ban  from  poaching  and  stealing,  than  whole  volumes  of 

icnal  statutes.     They  are  great  softeners  of  the  temper, 

ind  ptomol<!r«  of  domestic  harmony," 
Whtn  u  young  pig  is  to  he  purchased  for  feeding  and 

killing,  it  is  advisable  to  buy  one  which  will  be  about 
■itcen  months  old  at  Christinas,  that,  or  some  time  in 
Isnuary  bring  the  preferable'  periinl  of  slaughtering  the 

niuial.    I'niess  for  delicate  pork,  it  should  not  be  killed 
*  than  a  year  old.     During  the  summer,  the  pig  may 

! fed  on  any  refuse  from  the  kitchen  or  garden,  ir^lud- 

K  turnip  and  [lot.ito  parings,  talrle-waste,  cabbau'e  bl.ides, 

Jc;  hut  if  li.irlcy-dust,  or  grains  from  a  d;.->iillfry,c»ti  be 

!ononii(iilly  procured,  either  forms  a  good  article  of  diet. 

lelitlw  k<'|it  in  remeuibrance  that  the  finer  the  feeding 
;  fnior  will  he  the  pork.     The  food  should  at  all  events 

I  of  a  vcuLlable  kind,  or  princiiially  so  ;  nothing  bcvond 


slop*  from  the  tahin  being  to  be  tolerated  in  the  shape  nf 
animal  food.  Whatever  be  given,  let  it  lie  nlTercd  in  Kiiiall 
quantitiei  and  frF<|uently,  it  iM-ing  a  matU-r  of  iinportunca 
never  to  allow  the  pig  lo  become  violently  hungry,  'i'ha 
half-slirving  system  of  I.cding  is  poor  policy,  and  is  r^ 
paid  by  n  lank  pour  cureasa  scarcely  worth  killing. 

Farmers  possess  great  advsntnges  for  Ii  eding  pigs. 
The  straw-yard  of  itself  alfords  eoritiniml  support  to  them; 
and  many  pigs  rfiich  tliii  age  of  one  year  without  having 
received  any  Ibod  but  what  they  themselves  have  galhernti, 
yet  ari'  in  good  condition.  Whal  with  the  sweepings  cl" 
the  barn,  and  the  stniw,  turnip*,  and  clover,  lying  alioulK 
steading,  with  the  refuse  of  the  kitchen,  a  farmer,  it  ha* 
been  calculated,  may  sustain  swine  in  the  proportion  of 
<me  to  every  seven  ir  eight  acres  of  bind  under  croji, 
without  being  conscioim  of  the  consumption  made  by 
them.  In  tew  instances  are  swine  reared  in  such  num- 
licrs  as  to  have  crops  specially  laid  out  for  them,  though 
Slime  writers  assort,  that  ihey  would  yield,  in  such  a  case, 
greater  profits  than  other  live-stock  habitually  reared  in 
the  same  way. 

About  the  month  of  September,  the  process  of  fattening 
pigs  should  commence,  whither  they  be  designed  for  pork 
or  bacon.  If  for  pork,  tho  fattening  need  not  be  carried 
to  tho  same  extent.  In  either  case  a  nourishing  diet 
must  bo  given,  the  only  prticaulion  being  not  to  com- 
mence feeding  too  rapiilly,  otherwise  surfeit  may  be  pro- 
duccd,  'I'he  lii-t  materials  for  feeding  are  barley  and 
peas-meikl ;  ami  if  milk,  either  skimmed  or  churned,  ;'an 
be  given  at  the  same  time,  it  will  greatly  facilitate  the 
feeding,  and  improve  the  quality  of  the  flesh.  Many 
persons  feed  their  pigs  on  potatoes,  but  in  that  case  the 
D'Mh  is  not  so  solid  and  goml,  and  the  fat  is  somewhat 
Imise  and  flabby.  Soft  meat  may  do  very  well  for  pig* 
when  they  are  growing,  but  it  is  not  tho  food  which  should 
bo  given  when  they  are  fed  for  killing.  Those  who  feed 
pigs  for  their  own  use,  generally  give  them  a  feed  or  two 
of  corn  daily  for  fourteen  days  before  they  art  killed,  nnd 
give  thoin  nothing  else  but  cluinied  or  skimmed  milk  'o 
drink  ;  nnd  for  a  day  before  kdling  the  pig  should  not  get 
any  food.  Where  people's  circumstances  will  not  permit 
any  of  the  modes  of  feeding  for  killing  which  we  have  aliuva 
pointed  out,  boiled  potatoes,  mixed  with  a  handful  ortwo 
of  oatmeal,  may  lie  resorted  to  as  a  substitute.  It  is  un- 
deniable, notwithstanding  what  has  been  said  above,  thnt 
the  Irish  peasantry  produce  excellent  pork  by  feeding 
their  pigs  almost  i  tirily  on  potatoes.  It  is  not  so  fat  as 
the  pork  proiluceil  Iroiii  peas  and  barley,  but  it  is  on  that 
account  the  better  suited  to  stomachs  unaccustomed  to 
very  strong  food.  When  the  time  arrives  for  slaughter- 
inir,  lei  it  be  done  in  a  humane  and  neat  style  by  a  but- 
cher, so  as  to  avoid  all  mangling  or  injury  to  tho  flesh. 

Pork. — The  carcass  of  a  pig  is  less  frequently  con- 
sumed as  fresh  than  as  salted  pork,  and  the  preparation 
of  the  salted  arli.  •  for  home  consumption  or  exportation 
forma  a  large  and  flourishing  business.  Those  who  pur- 
sue the  occupation  cut  the  carcass  in  pieces,  and  pack  it 
in  kits  formed  to  hold  from  one  to  two  hundred  pounds 
weight,  A  brine  is  then  made  by  dissolving  salt  in 
water,  until  the  mixture  is  so  thick  that  an  egg  will  swim 
in  it.  This  is  boiled,  and  poured  upon  the  pork  aft«r  it 
has  cooled.  Russian  pork,  always  much  esteemed,  is 
steeped  in  a  brine  containing  2  lbs.  of  loaf  sugar,  and  3 
oz.  of  saltpetre,  to  0  lbs.  of  salt,  the  whole  being  boiled  in 
six  gallons  of  water,  .\llcr  brine  is  added  to  pork  in 
kits,  the  end  of  the  receptacle  is  fixed  in,  and  iho  article 
is  usually  sulliciently  cured  in  a  few  days.  Fonr  days 
are  enough  lor  small  pork.  People  who  pickle  pork  for 
private  use  must  t;ike  care  lliat  the  brine  covers  the  meat, 
otherwise  it  will  require  to  be  turned  daily.  The  same 
pii-klf  limy  lie  si'veral  times  used,  if  reboiled,  and  slightly 
strengthened  anew, 

1  riiu-H. — Boars  arc  also  fattened  for  tlic  purpose  of 
procuring  an  article  for  the  table  called   brau-n.     Mala 


INFORMATION   FOR   TIIR  PKOPLR. 


|i|pi  of  til  ■)(•*  ani  put  into  t'ordin?  with  ihi«  tIkiv,  hiit 
IhiMM  ei|wrifiir«'l  in  "iirh  m<ttti'r<  priifiT  Ihmn  of  the 
•gr  uf  two  ycnrn.  Thoy  artt  li«|il  M'|>uriitrly,  in  prii* 
whirh  will  not  (Hvintl  of  tlirlr  luriiinK  niuml,  (iiTrrrl 
inwtivity  lM>inK  hclil  to  (■oiuliici)  to  tlinr  liiltoiiini(,  Thi'ir 
KmnI  in  U'an«,  with  watrr,  intii  whirh  «  kiiimII  i|iinnlity  n( 
aulphur  ha*  l>«<*n  put.  'V\w  rolUr  iil'  the  miitiinl  in  tlii< 
pnrt  prfpiirvil  fur  lirawn,  by  Ihn  pniri'Nwii  of  picklinK  kiiiI 
(liviiiK.  A  l.iri(«  riilUr  will  vvciith  iiNMit  thirty  poiinilia, 
ukI  ia  valiinl  at  ntioiit  X'3  in  tlin  uinrket.  TIik  Ioiim 
purta  of  the  animal  «r«  i-iiininonly  iimmI  f(ir  annmiifi'-nK'at. 

H'tnm  arc  the  rurnJ  hintl-lfxa  uf  the  pii(,  and  arr  con- 
iidcroil  tlin  rtiipat  parta  uf  thi>  iiiijrniil.  'I'liit  fulliiwiiii{  nri' 
KrncMl  (lirrcliiMia  for  i-iirinK  tlirin  : — In  the  (imt  plan-, 
tlie  lrn»  require  to  Im>  rut  in  a  ni'Ht  roumli'il  form,  ami  it 
U  uauiil  to  prepare  a  iiuniU'r  ut  ii  time.  lleiiiK  pro|H'rly 
prepared,  pai'k  tliem  with  roek-Kall  in  a  Nuiliilile  tub  or 
e«»k  'hmiik  careful  not  to  liiy  the  lint  nideii  of  the  \iitge 
pie'  U|H>n  each  «tlM>r,  and  tilling  the  iiitrrvula  with 
hik  k!i,  jowln.  iVe.  To  erery  300  llw.  of  meat,  then  take 
30  IIm.  of  riek-Nalt,  or  OiiiindiiKo  roiiriie  ault,  1  Ih,  uf 
aallprlre,  and  14  IIm.  uf  brown  auiiar,  iir  half  a  K'lHon  of 
KihmI  imUaaen,  and  an  iniieh  witter  (pure  Hpriii|{  wuter  Ih 
Ihv  lioit^  u-i  will  cover  the  inent ;  put  the  whole  in  a 
clean  venael ;  boil  and  iwuin ;  then  Hct  it  aaidu  to  cuul, 
and  pour  it  on  the  meat  till  the  whole  ia  covered  nuiiiu 
three  or  f4mr  incluM.  Huni!*  wel|{liiiiK  (rmit  18  to  lAllw. 
niUHt  he  in  the  picklo  iilHiut  live  weeka;  from  ITi  to  'if> 
IIm.,  aix  weekH;  from  'if>  to  4.')  Ilw.,  Heven  wei'kii.  On 
lakiiit;  ihem  out,  ao.ik  them  in  coM  wnii-r  two  or  'Sree 
liourH,  t»  remove  the  HurfiH-4-  aull,  then  wipe  nnd  dry 
them.  It  ia  a  kimkI  plan  in  eultiiii;  up,  to  tiikeoll'feut  and 
ho<-kH  with  a  r<aw  instead  of  an  uxe.  an  it  li'itvei<  a  Hiiiiy>th 
■urfnce,  and  no  fracturea  fur  the  lo(l,{iiu-nt  of  the  tly. 
Home  make  only  nix  pieces  uf  u  triininid  Iiok  for  HultiiiK, 
but  it  is  more  cuiivenicnl,  when  iiilemled  for  domesljc 
IIM',  to  have  the  niiln  (Mirk,  aa  it  ia  culluil,  cut  in  amall 
pierva.  The  guodneaH  of  haina  and  ahouldera,  and  their 
preaervutiun,  dep<-iid  jjrcatly  on  their  cinoking,  ua  well  ua 
■alting.  The  requiait«a  uf  a  amokr-liouHe  are,  that  it 
should  bo  perfectly  dry ;  not  warmed  by  the  fire  that 
makes  the  Huioko;  au  far  from  the  lire,  that  any  vapour 
thruwii  otf  in  the  amnke  may  lie  cundeiiM'd  U'lure  reach- 
ing the  meat;  au  cluac,  aa  to  exclude  all  IlieH,  mice,  &c., 
•nd  yet  capable  of  ventilation  and  ei«eu|>«  of  Hmoke,  The 
Weittphalian  hums  are  the  moHt  celebrated  in  Europe, 
•nd  are  princi|ially  cured  at  und  exported  from  llambuig. 
'I'Ue  Rinuking  of  tlieae  ia  performed  in  extciiaive  chain- 
bera  in  the  upper  Btoriea  of  hii^h  buildinga,  8umo  of  four 
vr  Ave  Hturiea;  and  the  ainoke  ix  conveyed  tu  thvao  ruoma 
from  I'lrea  in  the  cellar,  through  tulicM  on  which  the  va- 
p(mr  ia  condenaed  anil  heat  alMorlied,  no  that  the  amoke 
ii  both  dry  and  cool  when  it  cumea  in  contact  with  the 
moat.  They  are  thus  pe4lWtly  diy,  und  acquire  a  colour 
uiid  flavour  unknown  to  thoac  amoked  by  the  common 
iiuithuj.  Hams,  at\cr  being  ainukud,  may  be  kept  any 
length  of  time  by  being  packed  in  any  dry  duit,  which 
will  keep  them  from  the  air,  lirun  ia  UHually  employed 
(tit  tliis  purpuric.  When  fully  Hinuked  and  dried,  the 
meat  may  be  hung  up  in  a  dry  airy  room;  und  if  liable 
to  l)e  attacked  by  the  bacon-ljy,  or  other  inaeclH,  draw 
over  it  a  luo.se  cotton  bug,  tied  cluHcly  with  a  string.  The 
aiuull  part  of  a  ham  should  always  U;  hung  downwarda 
in  the  procci>a  of  amoking,  or  when  aus|a'iided  fur  pre- 
cervatiun. 

lidiDii  is  the  whole  aide  oi  a  pig  cured,  'i'he  method 
ol  preparation  is  as  follows : — After  being  killeil,  the  rur- 
i.aaa  ahould  nut  lie  scalded  to  rumuve  tlie  bristles,  as  in 
the  case  of  pork,  but  aingcd  olF  by  Ijeiiig  coveicd  lightly 
with  straw,  to  which  fire  is  applied.  When  the  burning 
•truw  hua  cliMred  one  side,  the  ullier  side  may  be  cleared 
in  the  like  tiianner.  Uy  this  means  ull  the  huir  ia  tu  lie 
uiii(cd  clean  u!)',  but  withuut  scorchinij  the  flesh,  und 
Ukcu  the  akin  ia  tu  be  well  Hcruped  ua  a  finish.     Tbw 


'  ainneina  proeeaa  ijivea  a  fine  flrmne*!  toth*  i>»«m, *||L| 
waldiHl  bacon  iievrr   po««r«sr«.     In   llaiii|w||||,,  „  u 
(Niblielt  informa  ua  in  hia  '•(Collage  Kconoiny,"  thf  lila 
uf  aingeing  is  univeraally  rolluwed  ;  himI  piK-ki'p|»nicoulJ 
^  not  have  •  Is-lter  example.     The  next  uli'iw  h,  ||,,  .^^^ 
I  reaa  are    related    as  fullows   by  this    writer  :—<i'|'|„  „ 
ward*  are  next  taken  nut,  and  if  the  w||'u  Iw  not « ,{,i, 
tern,  hern,  in  the  mere  iilTal,  in  the  iiiern  garliaiip,  (|^,,, 
is  I'MhI,  and  delieiit^  I'imkI  ton,   for  a  large  family  fm 
week,  and  hog'a  pinlding'a  for  the  children.     Thdliul.h,, 
the  nev    day  cuts  the  hog  up,  and  tlii'ii  the  houir  i« |i||„| 
with    meal;    aoiiae,    griskina,    blaile-hoiiea,   llilnh.i,,,,,, 
•pure-rilM,  ehiiiea.  Ixdly-piei-ea,  cheeks,  all  i-ominn  Hiliiiinii 
one  utter  the  other,  and  the   Inst  uf  Ihi-  Inlirr  riiil  Wi;,,, 
the  end  of  about  four  or  live  weeks.      All  the  nihrt  imrii 
taken  away,  the  two  sides  that  remftMi,and  tliiit  trrnlu 
ftitrhtf,  are  to  In<  cured  for  bacon.     They  nre  fiml  mhw 
with  ault  on  their  insides,  or  flesh  sides,  then  plu'eildM 
on   the   other,  the    fli'sh    *id''s  up|N-rtiiost,  in  ■  h||,„, 
troiinh,  wliich  has  u  jrulter  round  its  edges  tudmin  iwh 
I  the  brine;  for,  to  have  sweet  uni4  fine  bucon,  \\v  fl|||.|,p, 
'  must  not   lie   sopping  in   brine,  which  gives  it  ilut  k,^ 
,  of  taste  wliich   biirrel-pork  and   seu-Juiik  have,  nul  i;,„ 
I  which  nothing   ia   more   vilhinous.     Kvery  one  Jmiioi 
how  different  ia  the  taste  of  fresh  dry  suit  fnitn  thilof 
I  salt  in  a  dissolved  state ;  the  one  is  savoury,  \\\f  ,)||||., 
nuuaeuUN.     'I'herefore  rhsnue  the  salt  olb'n  ;  nnrejn  fiKi 
or   live  duya.     As  to  the  lime    reqiiirni  lor  inuknii lh« 
flilclier  siiHiclenlly  anil,  it  de|ieiids  on  cinuiinlnnrp*- 
the  thickness  of  the  Hitch,  ihe  state  of  the  wcalhcr,  llii 
place  wherein  the  aallpig  is  going  on.     It  tnkcfi  a  iDng^f 
time  for  a  thii'k  than  It  n  thin  fliti'h;  it  takes  Innijnin 
dry  thun  in  damp  wi'uther;  it  tnkos  longer  in  ailrvtlian 
in  a  dump  pluce.      Hut  for  the  Hitches  of  a  lii>i!  oftmlve 
score,  in  weulher   not  very  dry  nor  very  diiiii| .  alwut  -it 
weeks  may  do;  and  us  yours  is  to  be  iiit,  wliicji  rfcvivfi 
little  injury  from  over-sailing,  give  time  enough,  for  yoa 
ure   to  have    |j;i''on   till  ('htistmaa   comes   ngolp..    fht  I 
place  for  salting  should,  like  a  dairy,  ulwiiys  Iv   cool,  liui 
always  udniit  u  free  circulation  of  air;  cunl'iiiid  nir,  Ihou^h 
coul,  will  taint  meat  sooner  than  the  niid-duv  >ungmiii), 
punled  with  a  breeze.     The  flitches  of  bniiui  nn  nowio  | 
lit<  ■moked,  for  smoking  is  u  greul  ileul  Is'ller  than  inrrriT 
drying,  as  is  the  fashion  in  thed>iiry  counties  in  lliowrlt 
of  England.     When  there  were  plenty  of  /iirm-houw, 
there   were   [ilenly  of  plnces  to  smoke   li:iiim  in;  linn 
farmers  have  lived  in  geiillenien's  hoiisiH.  mid  the  mim  I 
part  of  the  farm-houses  have  Is'cn   kniH'ked  down,  Ikf^l 
places  are  not  ho  plenty.     However,  there  is  scarrpiv int 
neighborhoud  without  a  chimney  left  to  hang  liicongn 
in.     Two   preiautioiis  ure   necessary:  first,  to  Imnelhil 
Hitches  where  no   ruin  comes  down  U|ion  Ihini;  Wfoiii,  I 
not  tu  let  them  be  so  near  the  Hre  as  to  nivlt.    IIikiI 
preeuutioiiM  taken,  the  next  is,  that  the  smnkt'  niujtpi»| 
cecd  fioin  wml,  not  turf",  [M^al  or  coal.     Stubble  or  iili'i  I 
might  do,  but   the  trouble  would  Iv  great.     Fir  or  Ml 
smoke  ia  not  fit  fiir  the  purpose.     I  take  it,  that  Ihr  sN  I 
aence  of  wood,  as  fuel,  in  the  dairy  countries  and  inll«| 
north,  bus  led   to  the  making  of  pork  und  dricil  bum  I 
As  tu  the  time  thut  it  reipiires  to  siimke  a  Hitch,  il  niuil| 
de|H-iid  a  good  deal  upon  whether  there  be  aruntlanlill 
lieneath,  and  whether  the  fire  be  lar!.'e  ar  small.   Amocllil 
may  do,  if  the  lire  Is.'  pretty  coiiBlanl,  and  such  aiafani'l 
house  fire  UKually  is;  but  over-smukiiii!.  or  rather  tools 
hanging  in  the  air,  makes  the  bacon  rust.    (irralilifi'| 
tion  should  therefore  be  paid  to  this  matter.    ThrCltti 
ought  not  tu  be  dried  u|i  to  the  hunlin'ss  of  a  b(unl.>iidl 
yet  it  ought  to  be  perfectly  dry.     Hrl'ore  you  hansilifti 
lay  it  on  the  floor,  scatter  the  Hi'sh-sidc  pretty  Ihicklyo'nj 
with  bran,  or  with  some  line  suw-diist  other  ihanlliJl:'! 
deal  or  fir.     Kub  it  on  the  flesh,  or  jiat  it  well  down  ufull 
it.     This  keeps  the  smoke  from  getting  into  Ihe  Ml 
oficningH,  and  makes  a  sort  uf  crust  to  be  dried  oii.iMI 
in  ahurt,  kccpa  tiie  flesh  cleuiier  thun  it  \>  oukl  uthtKial 


nnhjn 


Ml 


^''  Other  writrm  rprommitnil  plum  ilighlly  ilifrorinn 
^  Ihi'  pniooHinn.  I'li*  ili''  i;ii;(li"li,  «iniiiu''«liiiiii«f>ly,  «ri> 
ortt  ikill''''  '"  ''"■  •"""''■  "•  |i'<'|i«riii«  miiifrlnr  luniii ;  iinil 
•httovr  111!"''  ihnrictriintirx  witp  iliapliiyi'il  liy  llir  tin- 
ikw  qu>iti''l<  hi>  *t  li'u«t  kiK'w  thoroiivhly  all  llic  iinioi'iiwH 
iiKriili'nlul  ii>  )')•'<»  mannvi'iiiiMit  in  hi«  iiallvn  limd. 

Ijiril  ID  tluil  |(iirt  of  llif  (ill  of  till-  linif  wliii'h  rimily 
_(|tii,  tixl  forinpt  H  •oil  ffri'iiM'.  'I'lii'  wwitiK  "•  'I'i"  tnn- 
Irntl  i»  "'  <"''''  irn|i<>rl«nc«,  fur  it  iiiny  ln>  put  lo  iniinv 
nf  III  hi)U*'lii>lil  t'rondiiiy.  Mnrliii  Doylr.  in  IiIh  "i'y. 
rfowwliK  of  AKrii'iiIliirc"  inulti'H  thi'  fullowiiiii  <'l«<'rvii- 
tiniiion  lliii*  milpji-rt; — " 'I'lic  luril  «tiiiiil(l  Im  of  ricKinnlj. 
Um;  till)  lltii'Kt  iiii'l  w)iiti"<t  (that  tiiki'ii  from  llic  njili'4) 
■hiiuM  Ix'  <'I>'>p|nnI  into  xiihill  piont'ii  in  n  piin.  ovi>r  n 
iliiw  111)',  iio'l  '■■'pl  <'on>tiiiilly  Htirrcil,  lest  it  ^miilil  \>Ui\ 
[0  thit  iiiil<"<  "'  l'"*  I'oili'r ;  tlii'ii  «triiiiii'il  mul  piU  into 
'.ijiiMrr".  tiiriii'il  iiiaiilfl  out,  iinil  thuruiiKlilv  piiriiii-il,  liy 
fll«illK  III!  Ill''  ''>'  ''"'  '"■*'  '*'"'  l"'>I)l{  "'■'11  lilown,  iiikI  p)<r- 
fcflly  ilrii'''  '"  ''"'  "I"'"  "if  i  wl"'"  •'"'  wind  l»  prcHnciJ 
out,  tlii'V  urn  to  Ihi  put  into  11  litlli-  milt  pjckli'  for  11  frw 
Juyi,  Itw'ii  w,i«Iii'il  in  liikcwiirm  wotir.  iil^i'r  wliiili  itu-y 
inty  !'«  tiirnril  liy  inciiiH  of  n  Mtick.  'riiiit  of  ilic  lirHt 
quililVi  wlii'ii  <vi'll  III  iili>,  it  I'.ir  lirttcr  tliiin  niiy  hiiIi  lMitt< 
for  fiHikiTV,  ttiitl,  from  thr  ilr'irncy  of  itH  i-oloiir,  in  incil 
liv  coiili'i'lioni'rH  for  lli.<  nnont  kiiuln  of  ciikf  ami  piinlry. 
The  iiili'riiir  liril  ih  olitiiiiird  from  tlin  iirci'iiir.",  nnd  ii< 
troitwl  a*  till'  fine  Unl  in  cvfry  piirticiiliir.  'I'lie  fo«>t, 
when  liikiMi  otr,  urn  rliopp<-d  in  two  nr  llirro  plurcH.  nnd 
put  into  lirino,  in  wlilch  they  may  lie  kept  until  rrijiiirrd." 

The  Hiiiiii'  niitlior  contimu-H — "  Holli  the  hair  ami  hrin- 
tliii  «rfi  m'rvi.i'iililo  for  lirn»h-mnkeri«'  nnd  l•nllinl<t-lnak^r^4' 
purpow'M.  No  part  of  tlir  pi^  i»  ui<cI<'hh;  cvrn  the  inti'iv 
IliiMur)'  converted  into  an  inferior  kind  of  hird,  liy  lH'iiii( 
cut  open  and  washed  elenn,  nnd  (after  tiie  wati  r  in  well 
pri'twil  out  of  ttiein)  nielteil  in  the  Kiine  way  iix  Inn! ; 
lliii  iubstanee  i»  very  U'«-lnl  fur  making  cuiidleN,greuitiiig 
nhitli,  and  Kiu'h  purpows." 

00AT8. 

Ooiti  form  one  of  the  I'amilirR  of  the  liumiiianl  order 
of  Mammalia.  The  eominoii  doinmticated  goat  iH  UHUally 
ibout  the  xiw  of  the  sheep,  thoni;h  lewi  rounil  in  form, 
anJ  ia  marked  hy  keen  eye«,  joni;  hair,  and  uenerally 
bont  horns;  the  ni  ilen,  ealird  familiarly  in  Enahnd  hillus, 
have  a  loin;  heard;  but  the  fenialen,  or  intnnie^,  are  iirl- 
iloni  provided  wjth  that  appeiidaife.  Wliether  in  n  Htatc 
of  nature  or  tamed,  the  noat  ia  remarkahly  awift  and 
wile,  itnd  will  hrowfo  fenrlesnly  on  the  most  rUK';i''l  pre- 
cipice". VVe  fii'd,  from  ancient  writers,  that  i^oats  have 
lon^  I'ornieil  [lart  of  the  Htock  of  monntain-herdHmeii.  and 
were  tfiiiled  with  even  greater  cnro  in  former  than  in 
present  davst.  In  many  res|)ert».  indeed,  tlw  animal  is 
Taluablc.  Ita  skin  is  eoiivertihle  to  several  usel'nl  pur- 
piiiea.  and  the  flesh  of  the  full-i;rown  goat  is  good,  Ihoiinh 
irarcely  eipial  in  <|uality  to  that  of  the  sheep.  Hut  it  it 
for  the  milk,  ehielly,  that  the  goat  ia  prized,  the  (lualitiea 
of  that  seerction  being  not  only  very  nutritious  hut  even 
ttteJicinal.  Where  eottui;ers  hove  not  the  means  of  keep- 
ing a  cow,  a  gont  will  be  found  a  very  useful  animal,  Ix-- 
log  eauily  fed,  and  contented  with  grasw^a  which  are  re- 
jected liy  the  cow  and  the  sheep.  To  those  peasants 
who  live  in  the  iieighbourhoml  of  mountainous  countries, 
Ibetroulilc  and  exjx'nse  of  kee[iing  a  couple  nf  goats  will 
be  nothing,  aa  they  will  liiid  aulFicient  nourishment  in 
iht  most  heathy,  rough,  or  barren  grounda.  Heaths, 
•IK,  wliich  are  unlit  fur  any  kind  of  pasture,  will  afliird 
lliii  aiiimal  an  ample  supply  of  food;  and  it  rn|uires  no 
care  or  allenlion,  easily  providiin;  for  itself  proper  and 
lufBcieiit  foiKl.  In  some  countries,  goals  render  conside- 
rable service  to  mankind,  the  flesh  of  the  old  ones  being 
lilted  aa  winter  pruvision,  and  the  milk  is  used  in  many 
places  for  the  making  of  cheese.  The  flc^h  of  the  kid  is 
highly  palatable,  being  etpiul  if  not  Huperiur  mi  flavour  to 
ttie  auwi  ileliculc  lamb. 


In  nriliiin.  thr  gnnt  prmliirpa  Q[rr.  riaily  twr>  yran*  M 
n  time,  •mnelimea  thre<<,  rarely  four,  l.i  wanner  elimnlM 
it  ix  more  prolillc,  nnd  pro<liiee»  four  or  five  al  nnri» 
thouuli  the  breed  is  found  to  ilegrnerale.  The  tmie  nt 
K'stiition  is  Ave  niontha.  The  mule  is  capable  of  propa* 
mitlnv  at  one  year  olil,  nnd  the  feniali'  at  seven  monlhr, 
but  the  frnita  of  a  generation  ao  premature  are  nenernll) 
weak  and  defective ;  their  beat  lime  i-i  at  the  ngi'  of  two 
years,  or  ei^htenii  months  at  aoonest.  A  gnat  is  old  al 
six  yrnra,  althouuh   its  life  Nometlmes  extenda  to  litleen. 

If  goals  are  properly  trained,  they  will  reliirn  lo  Ihair 
owners  twice  a  d,iy  lo  b«>  milked,  nnd  piefi^r  sleeping 
under  a  roof  when  neeiistomed  to  it.  The  milk  of  tho 
<;o:il  is  sweet,  anil  not  so  apt  to  I'lirdle  upon  the  aloinaeh 
,is  that  of  the  eow ;  it  ia  therefore  preferabli-  for  thoa* 
whose  digestion  ia  but  weak.  The  peculiarity  of  thia 
animal's  foisl  civis  the  milk  a  flavour  diirerent  from  that 
of  eitlier  the  cow  or  the  aheep;  for.  na  it  generally  feeda 
ii|H>n  shrubby  pastiiri'S  and  heathy  inountaina,  there  ia  a 
savoiirv  inilchiesa  in  tho  taste,  very  pleasing  to  such  aa 
lire  limd  of  that  aliment.  The  quantity  of  milk  pnslucMl 
itaily  by  a  goal  ia  from  three  half  pints  to  a  quart,  which 
yields  rich  and  excellent  cream.  If  properly  allended  lo, 
,1  goat  will  yield  milk  for  eleven  months  in  the  y-ar, 
hi  «<neral  parts  of  Hwit/.erlanil  and  the  lliuhlaiida  of 
Heotland,  the  ijoat  is  the  ch  f  possession  of  the  inhi.iiit- 
ants.  On  those  moiinlnins  where  no  other  ii^iful  ani- 
mal eoiilil  find  subsistence,  the  goat  contrives  to  glean 
siillicient  living,  and  supplies  the  hardy  native  with  what 
they  consider  a  varied  luxury.  They  lie  up.^:!  s'ds  mada 
of  their  skina,  which  are  soli,  clean.  ai>'  .vholesome; 
they  live  upon  their  milk,  with  ont-brcad;  they  convert 
part  of  it  '  >to  butter,  and  aomo  into  cheese;  and  the  Heti-. 
furnishes  .,,  eveejkiit  food,  if  killed  in  the  proper  s<  n  'B, 
and  salted.  Thry  are  fattened  in  tho  same  nianiui  aa 
sheep:  but  takinir  ''very  precaution,  th'  ''-h  is  never 
so  good  or  so  swee,  in  our  cliniatu  us  th  >  o  :  utlon.  It 
is  otherwise  between  the  tropica.  The  sheei  '.here  be. 
comes  flabby  and  lean,  whih^  the  flesh  of  the  goat  rather 
seems  to  improve,  and  in  aomo  places  is  cultivated  ill 
|irefcrence  lo  tlint  of  tho  sheep.  The  creiuii  of  goat'a 
milk  coagulates  as  easily  as  that  of  cow's,  and  yields  a 
larirer  proportion  of  eunl.  The  cheese  is  of  an  excellent 
ipndity,  anil  high  flavoured  ;  and  although,  to  apprarnnce, 
it  looks  poor,  it  baa  n  very  delicnte  reli  '1,  and  strongly 
resembles  Parmesan  cheese,  Nome  liiriners  hnvo  bi-cn 
in  the  jirnctice  of  adding  n  little  goat's  milk  lo  that  of 
cow's,  which  materially  improves  the  llavour.  In  winter, 
when  native  food  becomes  scarce,  the  Rout  will  feed  u|>on 
tnrni|)-peerinus,  potato-peelinKs,  eabbau'c-leaves,  nnd  other 
refuse  of  a  house.  In  addition  to  the  other  |)roducta 
yielded  by  the  gout,  its  tallow,  we  should  mention,  ia  also 
an  article  of  some  importance.  It  is  much  purer  and 
fliier  Ihati  that  of  ah  I  brings  a  high  price,  being 

calculated  to  make  1  ■.  li'       >f  a  very  superior  quality. 

Coblwtt  advocates  ihc  Hcepinc  of  a  goat  by  cottugera. 
"  There  is  one  great  inconvenience  iH^longing  to  guata, 
that  is,  they  bark  nil  yoiuig  trees  that  they  come  near ; 
so  that  if  they  net  into  o  garden,  they  destroy  every 
thing.  But  there  are  seldom  trees  on  commons  except 
such  as  ar"  lnj  large  to  be  injured  by  goats;  and  I  can 
SCO  no  reason  against  keeping  a  goat  where  a  cow  cnn- 
not  bo  kept.  Nothing  is  so  hardy;  nothing  is  so  little 
nice  as  to  its  food.  Gouts  will  pick  peelings  out  of  the 
kennel  and  cat  them.  They  will  cut  mouldy  bread  01 
bi-cuit,  fusty  hay,  and  almost  rotten  straw,  furze-bushea, 
heath  thistles;  and,  indeed,  what  will  they  not  ent,  when 
they  will  make  u  hearty  meal  on  pnjur,  brown  or  white, 
printed  on  or  not  printed  on,  and  give  milk  all  the  while! 
Tliey  will  lie  in  any  tbg-hole.  They  do  very  well  d'Jg- 
i  giM,  or  slumped  out.  And  then  they  are  very  healthy 
thinga  i-''^  the  barnain,  however  closely  they  may  he 
confined.  When  sea-voyagea  uro  ao  stormy  «s  to  kill 
geese,  ducks,  fowls,  and  almoat  pigs,  tl>c  goata  are  well 


633 


INFORMATION   FOR  THK  PEOPLE. 


•nd  livfily ;  and  whrn  a  doir  of  no  kind  cnn  keep  the 
deck  for  a  minute,  a  goat  will  skip  alraut  upon  it  as  bold 
as  brass." 

In  Bnt-iin,  no  attempts  have  been  made,  nt  least  sur- 
cesgfully,  to  intrmluro  foreiern  breeds  of  i^oiits,  though 
in  France  thin  Ims  Iieen  done  to  a  considerable  extent. 
The  Cashmere  goat,  famous  for  its  lontt  silky  hair,  or 
wool,  has  been  brought  to  the  country  mentioned,  and 
there  bred  with  the  Thiln-t  goaf,  a  hunlier  species,  but 
almost  e<iually  esteemed  for  its  wool.  The  manufactures 
producible  from  this  material,  as  the  (Cashmere  shawls 
have  long  testified  are  scarcely  to  be  surpassed  for  fine- 
ness, and  yield  imi  icnsc  prices.  It  is  prol'ablo  that,  in 
our  warmest  districts,  a  cross  of  these  foreign  goats  w  th 
the  common  breed  might  be  successfully  and  advantiig  ;- 
ously  effected. 

RABBITS. 

Rabbits  belong  to  the  family  of  r.fporirftr,  members  of 
the  lindeiitiii  or  Gnawing  Order  of  animals.  Tlicir  form 
and  appearance  are  too  well  known  to  require  any  gene- 
ral description.  In  a  wild  st.ite,  rabbits  live  in  holes  in 
the  earth  ;  and  where  the  proprietor  permits  of  the't  ac- 
cumul.ition  for  sport,  they  collect  in  ^'leiit  numbers,  un- 
dermining with  their  burrows  whole  plains  or  tracts  of 
land,  and  forming  what  are  called  trdrrnn.  Their  amaz- 
ing fecundity  renders  th>,  keeping  of  a  few  of  them  in  a 
tame  slate  an  object  of  some  consequence  in  cottage 
economy.  The  nibbit  breeds  seven  times  in  tb-^  year, 
and  generally  produces  eii;ht  young  at  a  time.  At  the 
•ge  of  five  months,  the  animal  begins  to  breed ;  and, 
taking  an  estimate  perfectly  within  Imunds,  it  is  supposed 
that  a  pair  of  wild  raWiits.  which  breed  no  oftener  than 
■even  times  in  a  yepr,  would  multiply  in  the  course  of 
four  years  to  the  amazing  amount  of  a  nuUion  iiuil  ii 
ijunrlfi;  if  the  young  were  preserved.  But  many  of 
them  di",  being  injured  by  the  cold  and  damp,  or  de- 
'oured  by  the  male,  or  htrl.: 

Experienced  rabbit-breeders  conceive  too  frequ'^nt 
breeding  to  be  injurious;  but  even  when  |)roiH'r  rules 
are  observed  in  this  res|)ect,  three  domesticated  females 
(linen)  an,l  a  buck  will  give  ..  fniily  a  rabbit  fur  dinner 
at  least  twice  a  week.  'I'his  is  a  matter  of  fonie  conse- 
quence. Hy  keeping  a  few  of  these  ]iretty  little  crea- 
tures, which  wild  vegetables  will  almost  entirely  supply 
with  fooii,  the  poor  man  may  derive  ten  times  the  Ix'ne- 
fit  to  lie  gained  by  violating  the  laws,  and  iinacliing  on 
ti.e  ganu'-prcerves  of  bis  rich  neichbours.  A  stock  of 
rabbits  is  ea-iily  set  a-going;  they  may  usually  be  bought 
under  one  shilling,  and  soinetirnes  even  at  twopence  n 
p;iir.  It  is  of  importance,  in  making  such  a  purchase, 
to  attend  t.i  the  kinds  which  furnish  the  best  food. 

The  short-leirgrd  stout  rabbits  are  generally  supposed 
'o  be  the  most  healthy,  and  also  the  best  breeders.  The 
large  hare-coloured  variety  is  much  esteemed  by  soni'- 
people;  but  the  whit",  or  wbitc  mottled  with  black  or 
yellow,  are  more  delicate  in  flesh.  'I'lie  gray,  and  some 
of  the  blacks,  approach  nfarer  to  'b,  flavour  of  the  wild 
raribit  than  any  others.  Willi  res|irMt  to  the  colours  of 
these  animals,  gray  is  considered  the  worst  of  all  rolonrs; 
black  is  the  next  in  gradation ;  fawn,  and  white,  and 
gray,  hold  the  third  place  in  estimation  ;  pure  white,  with 
red  eyes,  is  by  some  reckoned  e(pial  with,  and  by  others 
«U[)erior  to,  these  ;  tortoist'-shell  (a  rich  brown  and  while, 
and  brown,  gray,  and  'vliite),  and  black  and  white,  rank 
the  highest;  mou-ie-coliur,  tlinuiih  little  p^'iced  by  fan- 
C'  rs  in  general,  i>  nnicti  admired  by  a  few. 

The  most  important  part  of  the  duty  of  the  rabbit 
fimrier  is  to  erect  his  rabbil-Iionse  or  iiulch  on  projier 
princi[iles.  Two  objects  are  parlicidarly  necessaiy  to  be 
sttendi'd  to.  The  I'.ouse  or  raliMlry  must  l>c  ki  pt  al- 
»»'ays  dry  and  well  aired ;  beciuse  the  rabbit,  in  its  n»- 
lural  slate,  pn  fers  a  dry  and  airy  hiibitation.  liabl  lt> 
tn  sometimes  placed   in   boies,  but  whether  kept  lu 


these  or  in  regularly  erected  houses,  the  plact  must  hi 
kept  quite  dry,  as  loo  much  humidity  will  cause  the  ttU 
bits  to  rot.  Where  considerable  numbers  are  toepther 
fresh  air  is  of  great  moment ;  still  they  should  not  U 
exposed  to  draughts,  which  may  bring  on  a  digeiuj 
called  the  snutflcs — a  dangerous  and  frequently  ii»| 
malady. 

Persons  who  live  in  large  towni"  will  in  general  (inil 
considerable  difliculty  in  keeping  rabbits,  us  it  is  seldom 
Ihey  have  open  grounds  behind  tlveir  houses  wlierpin 
they  might  construct  their  rabbitry.  In  ea?es  of  hii 
nature,  rabbits  might  be  kept  on  a  small  scale,  in  wooden 
hutches,  open  in  front,  with  spokes  like  a  ca^c,  and 
having  a  division  t,i  separate  tiio  8lec()ing  apartment 
from  the  feeding-i)laco,  and  a  small  door  betwixt  ll,j 
one  place  and  the  other.  But  it  will  be  found,  on  trial 
that  rabbits  do  not  thrive  well  when  put  in  cages  or 
confined  in  this  manner,  'i'nc  genuine  rabbitry  ^ijj, 
be  a  small  house  constructed  on  purjiose,  whore  tin. 
animals  will  I  ivc  liberty  to  feed  and  amuse  thcnisclves 
These  houses  may  be  built  about  four  feet  scpiare,  and 
the  same  in  height,  with  a  sloping  roof,  covered  with 
thatch,  or  some  other  substance  that  will  carry  off  ftp 
rain.  This  house  ought  to  be  paved  on  the  floor,  bo 
as  to  prevent  the  rabbits  from  burrowing,  and  under. 
mining  the  wdIIs.  It  should  be  well  laid  with  dry  sUm 
or  ineadow-hay,  and  possess  several  boxes  with  il)o 
open  side  downwards,  and  holes  for  the  rabbits  to  go 
in  and  cnit.  It  would  also  be  as  well  for  the.sc  holes  to 
be  provided  with  doors,  which  you  could  shut  when  ne- 
cessary. To  this  house  there  might  to  be  nttarhod  i 
little  o\..  n  court,  also  paved,  and  covered  comiilcttlv 
with  oj)on  spokes,  so  as  to  give  air  and  light,  as  well 
as  to  alTord  you  an  opjiortunity  of  seeing  the  creatures 
feeding. 

On  the  subject  of  feeding  rabbits,  the  foUowiiijT  extract 
may  be  oflered  from  "  The  Boys'  Own  Book"— a  p|ca». 
ing  work  addressed  to  the  young : — 

"  If  too  much  food  be  given  at  once,  the  aninials  will 
get  disgusted  with  and  refuse  it,  so  that  a  niMiit  maj 
be  nearly  starved  by  aflTording  it  too  great  n  i|U3nlil\ 
of  fo(xl.  Mo"!  persons  feed  their  rabbits  twice,  but  fm 
our  own  part  we  feed  ours  thrice  a  day.  To  a  full. 
grown  doe.  without  a  litter,  in  the  morning  wc  jivc  i 
little  hay  or  dry  clover,  an<l  a  few  su<  h  vegclaliles  tj 
arc  in  season ;  in  t!ie  afiernooii  we  put  tw,)  haiulfnlj 
of  good  corn  into  her  trough;  and  at  night  uc  f;ive  In 
a  boiled  potato  or  two,  more  vegetables,  mid,  if  her  luilcli 
be  clear  of  what  we  gave  her  in  the  morning,  but  by  no 
iiicaiM  otherwise,  a  little  more  hay  or  clover.  If  vou 
give  rabliils  more  hay  than  they  can  eat  in  a  few  hours, 
except  it  be  a  doe  just  about  to  litter,  they  will  treaj  il 
under  f>ot,  and  waste  it;  if  you  give  tbcni  but  a  moiie- 
rate  qu.intity  at  a  time,  they  will  eat  and  mjny  il.  (h^ 
nerally  speaking,  rabbits  |>ref("r  green  or  iiiuis'  lood  to 
corn  ;  but  it  is  necessary  to  make  them  eat  a  Millirienl 
proportion  of  solid  fiod,  to  kei'p  them  in  health;  ocn- 
sionally,  instead  of  corn,  we  give  our  rabbits  a  few  spill 
or  whole  gray  peas.  When  a  doc  has  a  lillcr  hv  lei 
side,  and  also  for  rabbits  reccntiv  wcaiicd,  we  soak  the 
peas  a  few  hours  previously  t<  pulling  Hicm  in  the 
trough.  If  a  rabbit  will  not  eai  a  pri>per  qiinnlilyol 
corn,  wc  mix  a  small  quantity  of  sqin  czcd  Ica-lravci 
V.  ith  her  portion,  and  stint  lur  propoitimrildy  in  creen 
meat.  Tea-leaves,  in  small  quantities,  well  siiucrzeJ, 
m.iy  at  all  tl,oes  be  given,  by  way  of  a  treat;  lail  it  ii 
highly  improper  to  make  them  a  daily  substilutc  for  green 
meat. 

"  .Mmo.st  all  the  vegelablos  and  roots  used  forthelaWe 
may  In-  given  to  rabbil.-i;  in  preference  to  all  others,  we 
choose  celery,  parsley,  and  the  roots  and  tops  of  carruH 
n-.d  in  this  choice  the  animals  themselves  beartily  sjrw 
V  i  k  us  ;  lettuces,  the  leaves,  and,  what  arc  iiiucli  Mm, 
till  stumps  of  cabbages  and  cauliflowers,  they  catwik 


POULTRY. 


6S3 


itWily,  ti't  ''"'y  "'""'  ^  eiven  to  them  with  a  sparing 
fcjnd ;  turnipH  pnrHnips,  uiul  cvon  potiifocs  in  a  raw  state, 
«e  occasionally  aflbrd  our  stock,  on  an  cmcrRoncy,  when 
lirtter  roots  or  pood  greens  arc  scarce.  In  the  spriii)?  time, 
lioioft  meat  is  Itettcr  for  them  than  tares,  so  tliat  they  be 
not  wet ;  in  fact,  no  green  meat  ought  to  bo  given  to 
raobits  when  there  is  much  moisture  on  its  surface.  Wu 
liave  heard  of  some  country  persons  feeding  th(!ir  rab- 
bits on  marsn-mallowB,  liut  we  never  did  so  ourselves, 
Ojndelions,  milk-thistles,  or  sow-thistles,  we  know,  by 
long  experience,  they  take  in  preference  to  all  other 
food,  except  celery,  parsley,  and  carrots ;  and  notliing,  as 
peen  meat,  we  are  convinced,  can  be  better  for  them. 

u  It  must  be  remembered,  that  a  doe  will  ent  nearly 
twice  as  much  when  suckling  as  at  other  times ;  and 
when  her  litter  begins  to  cat,  the  allowance  of  food  must 
be  gradually  increased.  In  our  own  rabbitry,  wo  never 
tdmit  chaff,  and  grains  only  in  a  dearth  of  green  food. 
If  we  can  obtain  neither  greens,  roots,  nor  grains,  at 
fecding-timc,  we  make  it  a  practice  to  moisten  the  corn 
with  water,  milk,  or,  as  we  before  stated,  with  tea-leaves. 
Though  a  ranbit  must  lie  restricted  from  rioting  in  green 
or  soft  meat  according  to  its  own  appetite,  f(jr  its  own 
sake,  yet  it  is  cruel  to  afford  it  only  such  food  as  will 
increase  rather  than  appease  its  thirst ;  for  this  reason, 
in  such  a  case  as  we  have  mentioned,  we  moisten  the 
grain;  and  some  rabbits  will  even  do  well  with  an  oc- 
casional table-spoonful  of  water,  beer,  or  milk;  but  it  ia 
» dangerous  experiment  t^  fry  the  effect  of  a  liquid  on 
their  stomachs. 

« If  well  fed,  and  kept  warm,  does  will  breed  all  the 
year;  but  most  fanciers  are  contented  with  five  litters 
a  year,  and  lot  them  rest  during  the  winter.  It  is  a 
disadvantage,  rather  th:in  otherwise,  to  have  above  six 
produced  in  a  litter,  as  the  young  rabbits,  when  that  is 
the  case,  are  almost  invarialdy  weak  and  puny ;  and 
even  if  they  Iw  reduced  to  a  moderate  ([unntity,  by  re- 
moving some  of  them  to  another  doe,  or  otherwise,  they 
nirelv  iiccome  remarkable  for  their  size  or  Iwnuty. 

"  Diseases  may  in  a  great  measure  be  prevented  by  re- 
gularity in  feeding,  good  food,  and  cleanliness.  The 
refuse  of  vegetables  should  always  be  scrupulously  re- 
jwled.  For  the  liver  complaint,  to  which  rabbits  are 
suliject,  there  is  no  cure ;  when  they  are  attacked  by 
it,  fallen  thi'ni,  if  possible,  for  the  talde.  The  snuffles 
arc  occasiDncd  liy  damj)  or  cold.  If  there  be  anv  cure 
for  this  disorder,  it  must  be  dryness  in  their  hutches  and 
fooil.  S'luoezed  tea-leaves  ccnerally  restore  a  doe  to 
he«lth,  if  weak,  or  otberwisi-  atfi'ctod  after  kindling.  [A 
little  bread  moistened  with  warm  milk  may  also  be  ad- 
vantageously given  to  a  doe  at  this  critical  period.] 
When  old  rabbits  are  altai'ked  by  a  looseness,  drv  fooil 
will  in  general  restore  th(Mi\ ;  but  do  what  you  will,  it  is 
very  difticult,  and  in  most  eases  im|)Osaible,  to  save 
young  ones  from  sinking  under  it ;  dry  food  for  them, 
u  well  as  for  the  old  ones,  is  the  oidy  remedy. 

"Be  careful  (■coiitiinirslliis  author)  to  keep  your  rabbit- 
hutches  particularly  clean;  a  short  hoe,  or  a  trowel,  and 
e  hand-lirush.  will  be  necessary  for  this  purpose.  Do 
not  handle  your  rabbits,  particularly  the  young  ones,  too 
much ;  when  you  lift  them,  take  them  with  one  hand 
by  the  ears,  and  place  the  other  under  the  lower  part  of 
their  backs." 

When  rabbits  are  to  be  used  as  foo<l,  it  is  commonly 
deemed  beneficial  to  feed  them  for  a  short  time  on  biy, 
and  alterwards  on  sheiiinss  and  oats,  when  the  flesh 
will  grow  very  delicate  in  flav(>ur.  As  an  example  of 
the  ordinary  extent  to  which  rabbits  may  be  made  pro- 
ductive, with  common  care,  the  case  of  a  labouring  man 
in  the  country  may  lie  mentioned,  who,  iu  a  small  wooden 
house  enclosed  by  a  railing,  fed  n  batch  of  rabbits,  and 
killed  annually  about  twenty  dozen,  still  maintaining  his 
ilock  unbroken.  Wb.il  with  the  skins,  flesh,  and  sales 
uf  youns,  he  turned  the  animals  to  great  account,  yot  ho 

Vol.  i 80 


scarcely  expended  a  penny  upon  them,  and  even  troabto 
was  entirely  spared  to  him,  when  he  had  fairly  put  hia 
children  in  the  way  i<f  management. 

GUINEA  PIO. 
This  animal  is  misnamed  when  called  a  pig,  being 
one  variety  of  the  Gnawing  Animals  {Hodemia),  and 
technically  termed  the  ciwia  cnhuyii.  It  comes  froni 
South  .'\merica,  and  is  smaller  than  the  common  rabbit, 
with  a  body  of  variegated  colours — white,  black,  fawn, 
or  a  mixture  of  all  three  tints,  being  common  character- 
istics. Some  of  them  have  deep  red  eyes,  and  the  whole 
tribe  arc  remarkable  for  the  want  of  tails.  They  feed 
on  grain,  bread,  or  kitchen  vegetables,  showing  a  marked 
preference  for  parsley.  They  bring  forth  from  four  to 
twelve  young  at  a  time,  and  begin  to  breed  at  the  age  of 
two  months,  repeating  the  process  of  parturition  so  offen 
that  a  thousand  young  might  readily  spring  from  a  singia 
pair  in  the  year.  But  these  Utile  creatures  are  ,i-,y* 
tender,  and  many  of  them  perish,  soon  n  '.er  birth,  llirougil 
natural  causes  and  accidents,  (guinea  pigs  are  of  no 
use,  their  flesh  being  of  a  very  inferior  quality,  but  they 
form  a  pretty  ornament  to  the  court-yard.  In  their  ha- 
bits, they  are  extremely  quick  and  restless,  and  spend 
much  of  their  time  in  '•  caning  one  another,  having  such 
a  predilection  for  tidiness,  that  the  mother  will  even  take 
a  permanent  dislike  to  her  young,  if  any  of  them  chanc« 
to  get  dirtied.  They  are  gentU  in  disposition,  and  seem 
so  objectless  in  their  habits,  that  BulVon  compares  them 
to  living  machines,  calculated  only  to  represent  and  per- 
petuate u  species.  It  is  l)elieved  they  frighten  away  mica 
from  n  '  ,>use,  and  are  sometimes  kept  for  that  purpose. 

POULTRY. 

Poultry  (from  poule,  French  for  hen)  is  a  term  applied 
to  different  kinds  of  large  birds  in  a  state  of  domestica- 
tion, as  the  chicken  or  barn-door  fowl,  turkey,  goose, 
pea-fowl,  and  guinea-fowl.  The  most  numerous  and 
important  in  every  rospcct  are  those  first  mentioned. 

Cbickcns. 

The  chicken  is  classed  by  naturalists  in  the  tribe  of 
the  GalUniicett.  forming  part  of  the  order  liasoies,  or 
Scrnpinr-Birds  It  is  needless  to  describe  minutely  the 
appearance  of  the  barn-door  fowl.  The  most  prominent 
characteristics  of  the  cock,  or  male-bird,  are  a  thin  in- 
dented comb,  with  wattles  on  each  side  under  the  beak; 
a  tail  rising  in  an  arch,  and  a  great  variegation  of  co- 
lours. The  female,  or  hen,  is  smaller  as  regards  body, 
comb,  and  wattles,  and  her  tints  are  less  vivid.  The 
domestication  of  this  bird  seems  to  have  taken  place  in 
the  earliest  times,  and  Persia  is,  usually  sujiposeil  to  have 
b(?en  the  place  of  its  origin.  Many  varieties  of  it  have 
been  enumerated  as  existing  in  Britain  ;  but  the  diifer- 
ences  betwixt  these,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  seem  to  Ho 
as  much  in  colour  as  in  any  more  important  features. 
The  liest  marked  kinds  are  tlie  following : — The  Dung- 
hill Fowl,  Game  Fowl,  Dorking  Fowl,  Poland  Fowl, 
Spanish  Fowl,  and  Bantam. 

The  first  of  these  varieties  is  a  mongrel  one,  arising 
from  crosses  with  all  the  other  breeds ;  but  it  is  the  com- 
mon and  most  useful  variety.  The  best  fowls  of  this 
sort  are  of  mid<lli  size  and  dark  colour,  and  have  white, 
clean  legs;  the  pure  white  dunghill-fowls  are  helil  to  be 
the  weakest  in  constitution,  and  to  lay  fewest  eggs.  I* 
has  been  usually  agreed  to  call  the  game  fowl  the  proper 
English  fowl.  The  body  is  erect  and  s.ender.  and  the 
colours  showy,  particularly  those  of  the  cock.  In  com- 
parison with  otiier  breeds,  the  game  bird  is  like  the  race 
horse  beside  that  whii-h  draws  the  cart  and  plough.  The 
flesh,  moreover,  ia  peculiarly  white  and  delicate  in  fla- 
vour, while,  though  small,  the  eggs  are  also  of  a  very 
superior  quality.  There  is  a  peculiarity  of  disposition, 
however,  in  this  variety  of  the  domestic  fowl,  wlucht 


[.^■•BjSpT^TS^?^ 


C34 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


^ih  for  agRb  the  source  of  a  cruel  species  of  sport,  has  farm-stendin^,   it   is  common   for    the   hens  to  rn™ 

always  impaired  tho  real  utility  of  the  creature  to  a  very  among  tlio  beams  of  Iho  Btiil)li'8  or  cattle  sbeds,  audi 

great  degree.    Wo  allude  to  tho  pugnacious  spirit  which  lay  in  holes  formed  hy  scraping  luvny  ii  portion' ol  li 

bu  gained  for  the  fowl  its  pt^culiar  name.     80  stronRly-  on  the  top  of  the  pidc-wiills.     Very  little  painj  n,i  h' 
marked  is  this  prujicnHity,  that  broods  scarcely  feathered 


are  found  occasionally  to  have  reduced  themselves  to 
ttttai  blindness  by  reciprocal  battling.  Kven  when  the 
breed  is  crossed  and  rocrossed,  a  tincture  of  tho  love  of 
fighting  still  remains,  rendering  such  admixtures  of  spe- 
cies  the  source  of  risk  and  trouble,  though  in  other  re- 
spects very  advantageous.  Hftnce,  game-cocks  are  bred 
on  a  large  scale  almost  solely  for  the  bsttles  of  the  cock 
pit 


pains  mishi 
give  to  the  humblest  families  much  better  and  aranl 
accommodation  for  poultry.     We  quote  on  this  snhi 
the  directions  given  in  0  little  work  by  Mr.  Peter  B 
well  of  Greenlaw  : — "  Always  in  t'^e  liuilding  of  amt. 
tage,  and  sometimes  even  where  there  wiis  no  intcniin 
of  the  khid  when  it  was  built,  very  ample  acrommoj 
tion  for   poultry    can    be    provided,  idinost  wiihoui 
shilling  of  additional  ex[)en8e.     To  this  ~ 


s  purpose  a  pari 
Where  [jcrsons  prefer  to  have  a  game-cock  in  their  i  of  the  space  next  the  roof,  ho  often  uiioccu|)i  ■(!  j^d  no. 


po  jitry  yard,  their  choice,  according  to  tlie  lK3st  authori-  I  less,  might  easily  be  devoted.     'J"o  acconipliah  the  oi' 
ties,  should  be  directed  to  birds  of  some  one  or  other  of  I  ject,  a  part  of  it  next  the  kitchen  tire  gable  end 


be  partitioned  off,  floored,  and  fitted  up  with  baM, 
and  laying-places.  This  could  be  done  cither  on  a 
large  or  a  small  scale,  according  to  the  inclination  or 
the  means  of  the  projector.  An  opening  of  siifiicle„i 
width  should  be  made  in  the  wall,  at  the  height  of  the 
lower  cx-iling,  through  wliicli  the  fowls  could  be  con. 
ducted,  by  means  of  a  hen-hullcr,  to  the  enclosure  mr. 

1     r-1    *1 i.„i  ....        'in ^^    \  ,        .' 


convenience  in  the  passage  of  the  house ;  but  if  they 
arc  low,  tho  nearer  it  is  to  the  space  portioned  oft'  for 
the  reception  of  the  fowls  the  better,  'i'his  is  a  lora. 
tion  for  [)Oultry  possessing  many   advantages.     Havini 


the  following  colours  : — dark-red,  dark  black-breasted 
red,  dsrk  gray,  mea'.y  gray,  and  red  dun.  The  Dorking 
fowl  is  named  from  u  town  in  Surrey,  where  it  has  long 
been  bred  iji  great  numbers.  It  is  a  large  bird,  well- 
■hapeil,  with  a  long  capacious  body,  short  legs,  and  five 
daws  upon  each  foot  instead  of  four.  One  spur  charac- 
terizes other  breeds  of  Tlie  common  fowl,  but  tlie  Dorking 

fowl  has  two  spurs  on  each  leg.  These  distinctive  marks  '  ))ared  for  them  l)elow.  There  must  be  a  hatchwav 
seem  to  be  of  old  standing  in  peculiar  breeds,  as  both  |  somewhere,  to  aH'oril  access  for  the  pur|)osc  of  mr2. 
Aristotle  and  I'liuy  mention  tive-toed  fowls.  Though,  from  1  tion  and  cleuning.  If  the  attics  are  sutlicicntlv  hish 
repeated  crossings,  the  Dorking  fowls  are  now  found  of  j  it  may  be  placed  anywhere,  but  evitlcntly  with  grjatpsl 
til  colours,  white  or  yellowish-white  is  supposed  to  have  '       '  ■■    .      . 

tieen  the  primitive  and  genuine  tint  They  lay  large  eggs. 
and  in  groat  plenty.  The  Poland  (Polish  or  Paduaii) 
fowl  is   much  valued   by  breeders,  but  is  seldom  found 

perfectly  pure  in  Uritain.  The  species  was  imported  !  their  Ix-rth  immediately  above  the  coUage  kitchen,  thry 
principally  from  Holland,  and  when  unmixed,  was  uiii-  are  secured  in  a  propi-r  degree  of  dryness  and  narmtii 
formly  of  a  black  colour,  with  a  white  crest  or  tuft  on  ]  which  in  winter,  especially  with  the  sprMig-halchcJ 
(ae  heads  of  both  cock  and  hen.  Their  form  is  plump  |  pullets,  will  tell  well  in  the  ])rodurtion  of  eggs.  Pef. 
and  deep,  and  the  legs  of  the  best  sorts  not  too  long.  I  liaps  this  is  the  best  hen-house  locality  for  securino 
Ttey  are  callcil  vivrliix'inii  layers,  from  the  number  of  |  eggs  in  winter  which  can  be  suugested  to  the  fruBa] 
eggs  pr(Hiuccd  by  thein,  and  from  their  disinclination  (0 
•i*  and  hatch,  which  olVice  is  usually  done  for  their  eggs 
tj  other  hens.  The  Spanish  fowl  is  of  large  size,  and 
lays  large  eggs.  It  is  of  the  Polish  family,  and  is  almost 
uniformly  marked  by  a  black  body,  black  legs,  and 
large  red  combs.  In  London  and  its  vicinity,  the  breed 
is  now  extremely  common,  lieiag  valued  for  the  size  of 
the  eggs;  but  it  is  supposed  to  be  inferior  in  some  re- 
spects to  other  breeds,  though  yielding  good  fo<Ml.  The 
bantam  tiiwl  is  well  known  for  its  small  size,  and  its  fea- 
lliered  grotesque-looking  limbs.  It  was  originally  a  na- 
tive of  India,  and  the  nankeen-coloured  and  black  birds 
are  the  most  esteemed.  The  bantam  should  have  a 
m8e.^omb,  a  full  tail,  and  a  lively  carriage,  and  should 
not  weigh  above  one  pound.  It  has  been  recently  dis- 
covered that  the  characteristic  of  feathered  legs  is  not  an 


and  judicious,  besides,  the  fowls  are  here  free  from 
many  dangers,  and  sate  from  nmny  enemies,  to  whicji 
they  are  exposed  in  a  lower  and  more  open  situation." 
Another  simple  poultry-house  of  small  size  mav  lie 
formed  by  building  a  shed  against  the  r.ililc  of  the  house, 
opposite  to  the  part  waiiiied  by  the  kitchen  fire,  ami 
p.lacing  cross-bars  in  it  for  roosting,  with  boxes  lot 
laying  in,  or  (jttan'.ilies  of  fresh  straw,  'i'liere  fhould 
always  be  an  oim"-'-,;.'  ti  allow  of  the  clpiining  out, 
once  a  week  at  leas.,  <  <  '■'•.p  jiouUry-house — a  protesslDo 
often  neglected,  but  v  ;  essential  to  the  health  of  the 
poultry.  They  never  will  thrive  long  amid  unilean- 
ness;  and  oven  with  the  utmost  care,  a  place  wheie 
poultry  have  been  long  kc;,t  l)ecomes  what  the  house- 
wives call  tainted,  and  there  they  will  thrive  no  longer. 
'I'he    surface   of  tho    ground    In^'omes  saturutcd  wiih 


improvement,  the  birds  with  clean  bright   limbs  being  !  their  cxuviee,  and  is  therefore  no  longer  he.ilthv.    To 


the  liesl.     The  ttesh  of  this  breed  of  fowls  is  peculiarly 
delicate. 

Besides  these  well-marked  varieties  of  the  common 
domestic  fowl,  there  are  a  number  of  others  brought 
from  foreign  countries,  which  have  produceil  mixtures  I  houses  and  yards,  purify  the  houses  by  fumiKations  of 
pretty  familiar  to  breeders.  The  Turkish,  Malay,  j  blazirig  pitch,  by  washing  with  hot  rune-water,  anJ  Iv 
Rumkin,   Russian,  and   Barba,     species,  may  be  men-    strewing  large  quantities  of  pure  sand  both  within  aiij 


avoid  this  eflc-ct,  some  poulterers  in  the  country  f^^ 
qucntly  change  the  sites  of  their  tioultry-honscsi,  to  uh- 
tain  fresh  ground ;  ami  to  guard  against  tl  0  same 
niistbrtune,   farmers,    who   cannot    chuiige    thcii  hen. 


tk>ned  as  the  principal  of  these.  It  need  only  be  ob- 
aerved  here,  that  all  the  crested  mixtures  or  varieties 
of  fowls,  are  much  esteemed,  as  possessing  the  liest 
qualities  of  the  race.  All  or  any  of  these  breeds  of 
liomestic  fowls  are  valuable  to  the  cottager,  even  one 
good  laying  hen  being  a  treasure  to  an  humble  family. 

lien  Hume. — The  artilicial  ai<sistancc  given  by  tho 
eottager  in  housing  the  birds,  is  usually  of  the  scan- 
tiest order.  The  upper  part  of  the  spac«  at  the  door 
of  the  cottage,  or  tho  hmttkt  (loft),  is  often  the  nightly 
•oaA  of  two  or  Ihri'e  hens,  ai:d  the  roailside  is  their 
dailv  walk.  Vet.  with  the  j)elty  scraps  of  food  fur- 
nished in  aildition  to  their  own  pickings  there,  these 
bauf  will  lay  good  eggs,   and  produce  fine  birda.     At 


without  the  |>oultry-houses.  Washing  the  Ooor  of  1 
hous(!  every  week  is  necessary  ;  lor  which  purpose  it  ii 
of  advantage  that  it  bi'  paved  either  with  stones, 
bricks,  or  tiles.  But  as  these  three  modes  are  eipeii- 
sive,  a  gocnl  Ihwring,  which  is  chi'aper,  maylH'  formcill'y 
using  a  Ci>m|>osilion  composed  of  lime  and  smithy  ashes, 
together  with  the  riddllngs  of  common  kitchen  oshei; 
these  having  Iteen  all  tinely  broken,  must  be  miuxl 
together  with  water,  and  put  on  the  floor  with  a  mason'i 
trowel,  and  nicely  sinootlud  on  the  surliice.  If  this  ii 
;>ut  on  a  fliK)r  which  is  in  a  tolerably  dry  situation,  and 
allowed  to  hard-Mi  lielore  lieing  umh\,  it  will  boroiM 
nearly  as  Kolid  and  compact  as  stone,  and  is  almost  u 
durable.     The  inside  of  tlio  layiiig-boxea  rcquiroi  i» 


POULTRY. 


(iMnt  «  aHhing  with  hot  lime-water,  to  free  them  from 
mtrmin,  which  greatly  tnrment  the  sitting-hena.  For 
Die  ■uins  purpoie,  poultry  aliould  always  have  a  heap 
g)  (Irv  8311(1  or  lino  ashej  laid  under  some  covered  place, 
or  thicK  tree,  near  their  yard,  for  them  to  dust  them- 
lelves  in;  this  bnin(<  their  resource  for  getting  rid  of 
Ibc  vermin  with  which  they  are  annoyed. 

The  olHce  of  keeping  and  managing  domestic  fowls 
ibould  bo  performed  by  gome  individual  whom  the  hens 
know,  n-i  ihn  voice  and  presence  of  a  stranger  scare  the 
fowls,  anil  dii.turh  the  operations  of  the  hen-house.  To 
distribute  fuml  and  drink  at  regular  hours,  to  visit  the 
neuls,  to  remove  egq;s  as  soon  as  laid,  and  carry  them  to 
a  cool  pla 'Ci  to  examine  by  candle-light  what  eggs  are 
fecuniliitt'il,  and  place  these  under  the  hen,  and  mark 
the  time,  are  iimong  the  daily  duties  to  be  performed  by 
the  koejier.  When  the  hens  lay  in  a  secret  place, 
the  kecfier  may  readily  discover  it  by  placing  a  few 
grains  of  salt  in  the  oviduct,  which  hurries  on  the  pro- 
cess of  laying,  and  causes  the  hen  to  retire  to  the  spot 
anew. 

Failim:. — Most  persons  are  doubtless  aware  that 
fowls  swallow  forni  without  mastication.  That  pro- 
ce*i  i«  rendered  uimecessiiry  by  the  provision  of  a  crop, 
an  oriian  which  is  somewhat  similar  to  the  first  stomach 
of  the  cow,  and  in  which  the  fiod  from  the  gullet  is 
iDicerated,  and  partly  dissolved  by  secreted  fluids. 
From  the  crop  the  food  pauses  downwards  into  a 
spconil  small  cavity,  where  it  is  partly  acted  on  by  n 
di^stivc  juice;  and,  finally,  it  is  transferred  to  the 
pjzaril,  or  last  stomach  which  is  furnished  with  mus- 
cular and  cartilaginous  linings  of  very  great  strength. 
In  the  gizzard  the  partially  softened  food  is  tritu- 
rated, and  converted  into  a  tlr>i  pant*',  fit  to  be  re- 
ceived into  the  chyle-gut,  and  finally  nosorbed  into  the 
circulation.  Such  is  the  power  of  the  gizzard  in  almost 
all  kinds  of  poultry,  that  hollow  globes  of  glass  are  re- 
duced in  it  to  fine  powder  in  a  few  hours.  The  most 
rough  and  jagged  bodies  do  no  injury  to  the  coats 
of  the  i;izzard.  8pallanzani  even  introduced  a  bull  of 
lead,  with  twelve  strong  needles  so  fixed  In  it  that  their 
points  projectcil  a  fourth  of  an  inch  from  the  surface,  and 
the  rciiult  was,  that  all  the  needles,  with  the  exception  of 
one  or  two,  were  gro\md  down  in  a  short  time  to  the 
•urface  of  the  ball,  while  those  left  were  reduced  to 
Here  stumps.  It  is  remarkable  that,  to  add  to  the  tri- 
turalins;  powders  of  the  gir/.ard,  fowls  arc  gifted  with  the 
instinct  of  swallowing  stones  with  their  food. 

Fowls,  when  left  to  roam  at  large,  pick  up  all  sorts 
of  seeds,  grains,  worms,  larvs  of  insects,  or  any  other 
edible  ciibslances  they  can  discover,  either  on  the  sur- 
(JKe  of  the  ground  or  by  scraping.  They  also  pick  u 
liillc  grass,  as  a  rtomachic.  'I'he  more  that  hens  can 
be  allowed  to  run  obout  and  pick  up  their  own  food,  the 
better  for  their  own  health  and  the  pockets  of  their 
^per.  When  secluded,  and  fed  altogether  in  an  artifi- 
cial nianner,  their  keep  becomes  expensive,  and  is,  on 
Ihe  tth'le,  seldom  compensated  by  their  produce.  We 
law  li'od,  great  hesitation  in  advising  any  one  to 
wis  who  cannot  unexpensivcly  give  them  plenty 
ol  rciuic  from  the  table  or  kitchen,  or  permit  them  to 
runie  in  a  field  or  lane  in  (juest  of  what  seems  pro|>er 
forlhcir  natural  apjietite.  The  very  pleasure  of  ranging 
tnd  arruping  seems  advantageous  to  the  animals. 

If  kept  in  a  coiirt-yard  or  (hmj,  atui  requiring  alto- 
pjllicr  artificial  feefling,  their  natural  tastes  should  he 
coisulU'd  as  fur  as  conveniently  (iraeticable.  'I'hey 
ihould  lie  fed  reuularly.  and  with  a  miscellaneous  kind 
of  diet;  allowed  at  all  tinu's  access  to  clean  water  for 
drinkinii.  unJ  have  eurtb,  sand  or  dust,  to  scrape  at 
pleasure  and  roll  themselves  in.  A  certain  (|uaiitity  of 
clialk  or  lime  should  also  be  scattered  about  for  them  to 
(lick  up,  ns  that  material  is  reipiin-d  by  them  in  the 
production  of  eggs.    .Speuking  on  thin  subject,  Profesdor 


Gregory  of  Aberdeen,  in  a  letter  t<  a  friend,  published 
in  a  newBpa|)er,  observes — •'  As  I  suppose  you  keep 
poultry,  I  may  tell  you  tliat  it  has  been  ascertained 
that,  if  you  mix  with  their  food  a  suflicient  quantity  of 
egg-shells,  or  chalk,  which  they  oat  greedily,  they  will 
lay,  other  things  being  equal,  twice  or  thrice  as  many 
eggs  as  before.  A  well-fed  fowl  is  disposed  to  lay  • 
vast  number  of  eggs,  but  cb..not  do  so  without  the 
materials  for  the  shells,  however  nourishing  in  other 
respects  her  food  may  be  ;  iiidei'd  a  fowl  fed  on  food 
and  water  free  from  carbonate;  of  lime,  and  not  finding 
any  in  the  soil,  or  in  the  shape  of  mortar,  which  they 
often  eat  off  the  walls,  would  lay  no  eggs  at  all,  with  the 
liest  will  in  the  world." 

In  a  state  of  domestication,  the  hard  food  of  which 
fowls  seem  most  fond  are  peas  and  barley  (outs  they  do 
not  like)  ;  and  besides  a  proportion  of  these,  they  may 
be  given  crumbs  of  bread,  lumps  of  boiled  potatoes,  not 
too  cold,  or  any  other  refuse.  They  are  much  pleased 
to  pick  a  bone;  the  pickings  warm  them,  and  excite 
their  laying  propensities.  If  they  can  be  supplied  with 
caterpillars,  worms,  and  maggots,  the  same  end  will  be 
served.  Any  species  of  animal  food,  however,  should 
lie  administered  sparingly  ;  and  the  staple  articles  of 
diet  nmst  always  be  of  a  vegetable  nature.  When 
wanted  for  killing,  the  quantity  of  food  may  be  increased 
and  he  more  substantial ;  they  should  also  be  kept  more 
within  the  coop.  A  fortnight's  feeding  in  this  way  will 
bring  a  fowl  of  a  good  breed  up  to  a  plump  condition. 

Layiiii;. — The  ordinary  productiveness  of  the  hen  is 
truly  astonishing,  as  it  usually  lays,  in  the  course  of  a 
year,  two  hundred  eggs,  providetl  it  be  allowed  to  go 
at  liljerty,  is  well  fed,  and  has  a  plentiful  supply  of 
water.  Many  instances  have  been  known  of  hens 
laying  three  hundred  in  a  year.  This  is  a  singular 
provision  in  nature,  and  it  would  appear  to  have  been 
intended  peculiarly  for  the  use  of  man,  as  the  hen 
usually  incubates  only  once  in  a  year,  although  she 
will  occasionally  bring  out  two  broods.  Few  hens  are 
capable  of  hatching  more  than  from  twelve  to  fifteen 
eggs;  so  that,  allowing  they  were  all  to  sit  twice  a 
year,  and  bring  out  fifteen  at  a  time,  there  would  still 
be  at  least  one  hundred  and  seventy  spare  eggs  for 
the  use  of  man.  It  is  therefore  evident  that,  in  situa- 
tions where  hens  can  pick  up  their  food,  they  must 
prove  very  profitable;  for,  supposing  that  the  engs  of 
one  fowl  during  the  year  were  sold,  without  any  of 
them  being  hatched,  they  would  bring  (if  near  a  large 
city)  on  an  average  nincpcncc  per  dozen,  or  fourteen 
shillings,  and  the  hen  herself  would  be  worth  two  shil- 
liniis  at  least  As  the  number  of  eggs  which  are 
annually  brought  out  by  a  hen  bear  no  proportion  to 
the  imnilH^r  which  she  lays,  schemes  have  been  ima- 
gined to  hatch  all  the  eggs  of  u  hen,  and  thus  turn  her 
produce  to  the  greatest  advantugt; ;  so  that,  in  place  of 
twelve  or  fourteen  chickens,  upwards  of  two  hundred 
may  he  produced. 

Hens  will  lay  eggs  which  have  received  no  impreg* 
nation,  but  from  these,  as  a  matter  of  course,  no  hatch- 
ing can  take  place;  they  are  equally  good,  however,  for 
eating.  When  the  chief  olijoct  is  to  lirecd  chickens,  a 
cock  should  be  allowed  to  walk  with  ten  or  twelve  hens; 
but  when  eggs  are  principally  icquired,  the  numlwr  of 
hens  may  be  from  fifteen  to  twenty.  Endeavour  to 
procure  a  cock  of  a  good  bicod,  not  game,  and  let  him 
he  in  his  prime,  which  is  at  eighteen  months  to  iwo 
years  old.  Cocks  will  lust  two  years,  after  which  they 
lose  their  liveliness  of  coloiiM,  and  become  languid, 
inactive,  and  mere  consuiuers  of  food.  It  is  fit,  there- 
fore, that  younger  cocks  should  then  take  their  place 
in  the  poultry-yard.  It  is  coinmoii  to  make  choice  of 
a  young  cock  by  pitting  one  or  two  against  each  otiier, 
HI"!  selecting  the  most  r;ourageoiis,  which  is  alwuyf  sbt 
favourite  of  the  yard. 


m 


4*\ 


ess 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Sonift  remarks  have  born  mado  on  tlie  coloara  of 
(he  b«8t  hens  of  the  difli-rent  varieties.  As  to  other 
funlitics,  M.  Parinentirr  recommends  that  they  should 
be  chosen  of  a  midilling  size,  robust  constitution,  larito 
head,  hrii^ht  eyes,  ""d  pendant  comli.  Growers  should 
be  rejected,  and  tlioKc  thit  are  of  quarrelsome  tempers, 
•uch  hens  l)ein|!;  rarely  goo»l  liatchera  or  layers.  Old 
hens,  or  those  nhove  four  or  five  years  old,  arc  of  little 
use  when  added  to  a  stock ;  and  when  th-.^  comb  and 
daws  arc  rou^h,  it  is  a  siiin  that  they  have  ceased  to  lay. 

If  left  to  themselves,  hens  would  produce,  like  sonic 
wild  birds,  two  broods  in  the  year.  Early  spring,  and, 
after  a  cessation,  the  end  of  summer  arc  the  two  sensons 
■t  which  they  l)e(>in  nuturally  to  lay.  In  the  depth  of 
winter,  under  ordinary  circunslanccF  hens  very  rarely 
Say  eggs,  though,  by  artificial  means,  they  can  U?  made 
io  do  so.  If  the  temjieraturo  of  the  place  where  they 
•re  kept  be  raised  by  a  stove,  or  otherwise,  they  will 
produce  eggs.  'J'he  fowls  of  the  Irish  peasantry,  whicH 
are  usually  kept  in  the  cabins  of  the  owners,  lay  often 
in  vinter,  in  consequence  of  the  warmth  of  their  quar- 
ters; and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  warmth  aflbrds 
the  most  elTective  meiins  of  procuring  new-laiu  eggs  in 
winter,  though  stiinuliiling  food  may  aid  in  producing 
the  same  resu  '.  i'lic  fecundity  of  hens  varies  coiisider- 
abiy.  Some  lay  but  once  in  throe  days,  others  every 
•econd  day,  and  others  every  day.  In  ordei  to  induce 
laying,  each  hen  shnnb'  have  its  own  nest,  made  with 
soft  straw,  and  furnished  with  a  piece  of  chalk  as  a 
decoy.  The  signs  which  indicate  when  a  hen  is  al)out 
to  lay  are  well  known.  She  cackles  frequently,  walks 
restless  about  and  shows  a  brighter  redness  in  her 
comb  and  wattles.  After  the  process  of  laving  is  over, 
she  utters  a  loud  ami  peculiar  note,  to  which  the  other 
fowls  usually  resimnd,  Shortly  after  the  egg  is  laid,  it 
should  l>e  removed,  foi'  the  heat  of  t\\s  hen  socn  cor- 
rupts it.  When  the  eggs  are  taken  away  by  the 
poultry-keeper,  tboy  should  immediut^-ly  !«"  laid  in  a 
cool  and  dry  place.  If  allowed  to  absorb  damp,  they 
■oon  spoil ;  itideed,  one  drop  of  water  upon  the  shell 
quickly  t;iints  the  whole  egg.  Various  methods  have 
been  tried  to  prevent  the  absorption  of  air  through  the 
■hell,  and  preserve  the  freshness  of  the  eggs.  A  not 
uncommon  plan  is  to  keep  them  si'duded  from  the  nir 
in  bran,  rye,  or  ashes,  which  may  do  very  well  whore 
the  eggs  are  to  Im;  ke|>t  in  this  way  till  eaten,  but  is 
Utterly  us4>less  if  quantities  of  them  have  to  lie  sent  to 
market.  We  lieg  to  offer  a  plain  piece  of  advice  to 
cottagers  on  this  subject,  which,  if  pro|»crly  acted  upon, 
will  give  them  the  means  of  at  idl  times  commanding 
the  highest  price  for  fresh  firs-.',  al.tlu>ugh  situated  a 
hundred  miles  or  more  from  the  place  of  sale.  Nniivir 
o//  your  fi;i;$  with  n  hit  nf frtsk  hu'lrr  the  mnmrnt  ymi 
git  hold  of  till m.  Do  not  load  the  shell  with  grease,  but 
merely  give  a  light  \arnish.  The  butter  must  be  good. 
By  this  simple  process  of  smearing,  which  diM>s  not 
taint  the  interior  in  the  slightest  degree,  the  egg  is  ns 
fresh  at  the  bn"akfast  table  when  three  months  old  as  if 
jnst  newly  laid,  and  possesses  all  the  delicious  milkiness 
which  the  freshes*  eggs  possess.  .Scarcely  any  thing  is 
more  common  than  to  hear  complaints  of  the  ditliculty 
of  getting  fresh  eggs,  and  all  a  result  of  the  sheer  negligence 
of  f<iwl-keei>"rs.  Hy  the  plan  we  nienti.^ncd  there  need 
never  lie  sue!,  a  ibiiigas  a  bad  egg  heard  of. 

//n'c/iiiig — When  egjis  are  to  be  hatched,  it  is  neces- 
•ary  to  pay  ttttonlinn  to  the  choice  of  pro|icr  ones  for  the 
purjioKe.  T  le  company  of  the  male  bird  roiiilers  the  hiii 
productive  of  fccunilated  eggs,  and.  as  already  noticed, 
it  is  only  egi>n  of  this  kind  which  are  available  for  pro- 
ducing yo'ing.  The  eivgs  must  also  lie,  fresh ;  from  the 
lime  they  are  laid,  they  should  lie  aside  in  a  cool  place, 
It  is  siiid  to  tie  possible  to  ascertain  from  the  ap|NMranco 
of  the  egg,  whether  the  forthcoming  progeny  is  to  lie 
Bale  ui  female ;  but  we  greatly  doubt  the  truth  of  tlie 


popular  notions  on  this  subject  When  eggs  sro  lefl  i. 
bo  brought  forth  by  the  hen,  a  certain  numliet  i»  p|,JJ 
under  her  in  the  nest,  when  she  is  in  the  full  inclinaii 
to  sit.  From  nine  to  twelve  eggs  are  placed,  actordin™ 
to  tlie  extent  of  the  breast  and  rvings;  and  the  timer 
quired  fo'r  hatching  is  twenty-one  days.  Sdiiiftimeii*' 
hen  will  desert  her  eggs,  a  circumstance  which  may  oooi' 
siunally  In;  traced  to  an  uncomfortable  -ondition  of  ih' 
skin,  caused  by  vermin  or  want  of  cleanliness,  and  th' 
atfords  a  strong  -cason  for  keeping  the  hen-hoiisc  cIcBn 
and  giviufj-  the  animals  the  means  of  purifying  ly' 
feathers.  Occasionally,  the  hen  is  vicious,  or,  in  »|iQf. 
bad  sitter,  and  experience  in  pitching  on  the  liest  hatchirs 
hens  is  the  only  remedy.  Sometimes  a  hen  will  hrcnk  lie 
eggs  with  her  feet,  and  in  all  such  cases,  the  broken  ccm 
must  lie  removed  as  soon  as  observed,  otherwise  the  hfn 
may  cat  them,  and  from  that  may  lie  tempted  to  break 
and  eat  the  sound  ones,  and  spoil  the  whole  batch. 

It  has  generally  been  found,  that  hens  whitii  arc  the 
liest  layers  are  the  worst  sitters.  Those  best  adapted 
have  short  legs,  a  broad  body,  );irge  wings,  well  furnlflied 
with  feathers,  thf  ir  nails  and  spurs  not  too  long  or  sliBro 
The  desire  to  sit  is  made  known  by  a  particular  sort  of 
clucking;  and  a  feverish  state  ensues,  in  which  the  naln. 
ral  heat  of  the  hen's  liody  is  very  much  increased.  Th« 
inclination,  or,  as  physiologists  term  it,  tho  tlorgc,  soon 
liecomcE  a  strong  and  ungovernable  pasfion.  The hpa 
flutters  aooul,  hangs  her  wingn,  bristles  up  her  feathers, 
searches  everywhere  fo-  eggs  to  sit  upon;  and  if  she 
finds  any,  whether  laid  by  hcriielf  or  others,  she  [same' 
diately  sets  herself  upon  them. 

With  a  proper  provision  of  food  at  hand,  warmth 
quiet,  and  dryness,  a  goal  hatching  hen  will  give  liitij 
trouble,  and  in  due  time  the  brood  will  come  forth-  one 
or  two  eggs  may  perhaps  remain  uiihatched  or  a(l,;!?.l 
but  their  loss  is  of  little  consequence.  As  soon  as  the 
hen  hears  the  chirp  of  her  young,  she  has  a  •(  ndincy  to 
walk  oil'  with  them,  leaving  the  unhatchcd  vfifn  to  {heir 
fate ;  it  is  therefore  advisable  tc  watch  the  liirth  of  the 
chicks,  and  to  remove  eacn  as  soon  as  it  iKconiesdrv 
which  may  lie  in  a  few  hours  afterwards.  I3y  ihia  menus 
tho  hen  will  sit  to  hatch  the  whole;  yet  she  sliouldnot 
be  wearied  by  too  long  sitting.  If  all  the  egijs  are  net 
hatched  at  the  end  of  twelve  oi  fifteen  hours  after  the 
first  chick  makes  its  appearance,  in  ail  priibiiliillty  they 
are  addled,  and  may  Iw  abandoned.  The  chicks  luust  lie 
kept  in  a  warm  place  during  the  first  day,  and  at  nijht 
restored  to  the  mcther,  wlui  now  assumes  her  niatemai 
duties.  The  lood  given  to  the  young  chicks  should  l* 
split  grits,  which  they  n  quire  no  teaching  1 1  pick  tifj; 
afterwards  the  ordinar*'  food  of  the  poultry-vird,  orwhal 
the  mother  discovers  for  their  use,  is  sullicient.  S>ori.i 
give  thf!  yolks  of  hard-boiled  eggs  or  cur<l,  when  a 
nonrshiii;-  diet  seems  advisable.  The  extreine  solicitude 
of  the  hen  for  her  yoang,  or  tho  brood  which  may  \v 
imposed  upon  her,  is  well  known.  She  leads  tl.ei  i  about 
in  quest  of  foixl,  defends  them  by  violent  g.-ntinilatioii 
and  the  weapons  which  nature  has  giren  her  calls  them 
around  her  liy  a  peculiar  clucking  cry,  nnd  gathers  thf m 
carefully  under  her  wings  to  shelter  thcin  from  daneer, 
or  to  kec-i  them  warm  at  night.  This  maternal  care  ii 
bestowed  as  long  as  the  chickens  require  her  U):sist?nce: 
as  soon  as  they  can  shift  for  themselves,  the  mutual  st 
tnchmetit  cei.ses,  and  all  knowledge  of  each  other  is  lout 
The  young  now  go  to  roost,  and  the  motler  agaiii  liogii;* 
to  lay.  Voung  hens,  usually  culled 'pullets,  liigin  to  lay 
the  spring  after  tl'.cy  are  hatched. 

Jhiiflmil  Hiitihiiit:. — .\s  heat  if  all  that  is  tiPTiisiiry 
to  incubation,  eggs  may  lie  hatched  I'.rtifi'iully,  \vilh(i:it 
the  inu'rveiition  of  the  hen.  This  priu  tice  was  ck» 
mnn  in  Kgypt  in  very  early  times,  and  has  mm  laf 
adopted  in  many  other  quarters.  In  Londin,  »  yearoi 
two  ago,  a  hutching  apparatus,  called  the  f.VrK/.ih'inn, 
was  constructed  on  a  large  scale,  and  was  mott  max* 


POULTRY. 


6S7 


(bl  in  it-'  result*.  An  oven,  consiBting  of  eight  floors  or 
^gipgrtiiipntti,  was  employed  to  contain  the  efigs,  while 
lliey  were  Bubjcctctl  to  heat  from  steam-pipos.  Each 
compartmen'  held  from  two  to  three  hundred  eggs,  and 
the  wlipli)  exhibited  the  hatching  pvocess  in  all  its  various 
jjjjjos.  Tlio  rrgularitj-  with  whi-.-h  the  temperature  was 
-,i„tiiu'.edi  as  well  as  uccnminodated  to  each  peculiar 
lUac  of  the  process,  broiiiiht  out  the  chick  with  much 
(rreater  certainty  than  when  the  incubation  was  performed 
bv  the  h^n,  wbii'h  sometimes  cannot  be  kept  steadily  to 
Iht  work.  A  viaiier  <o  tiie  Kocalcobion  gave  the  foUow- 
i- ,  account  in  "  Chaml'erR'o  Edinburgh  Journal,"  No. 
4 1)0,  of  tlie  nianageintiit  of  the  chick  after  hatching: — 
(  The  superintendent  of  the  oven  poli»<-'ly  exhibited  r. 
toiniiartinent  in  which  (he  eggs  were  chipping.  Sone 
biul  chipped  the  day  before,  others  that  day,  and  some 
would  not  be  chipped  till  the  morrow ;  in  a  few  cases  we 
oMrvod  tlie  beak  of  the  chick  boring  its  way  ti>roui»h 
the  shell,  and  getting  itself  emancipated.  When  the  little 
creatures  are  usiicred  into  the  world,  they  are  not  im- 
•neJiatcly  remiwed  out  of  the  oven,  but  are  allowed  to 
.tmain  a  few  hours  till  they  become  dry ;  they  arc  then 
removed  unu  put  into  a  glass-case,  on  the  table  at  tlie 
end  of  the  room.  This  case  is  very  shallow,  and  the 
jilass  cover  can  lie  easily  pushed  aside  to  permit  the 
luperinteiulent  handling  them  if  required.  They  are 
here  for  the  first  time  fed,  though  not  for  twenty-four 
nours  after  being  hatched ;  the  material  scattered  among 
them  is  small  bruised  grits,  or  particles  little  larger  than 
DK'al;  these  they  eai^erly  pick  up  without  any  teaching, 
their  instinctive  desito  for  food  l)eing  a  sufficient  monitor. 
After  the  brood  has  been  kept  in  the  glass-case  (which  is 
partially  open)  for  two  or  three  days,  and  been  thus 
gradually  accustomed  to  the  atmosphere,  tlwy  are  re- 
uioveil  to  one  of  the  divisions  in  the  railed  enclosure  on 
tlie  lloor.  Here  hundreds  are  seen  running  about,  utter- 
ing p'.epy  cries,  picking  up  grits,  or  otherwise  amusing 
themselves,  all  being  apparently  in  as  lively  and  thriving 
t  condition  as  if  trotting  about  in  a  barn-yard.  At  six 
in  the  evening  they  are  put  to  bod  for  the  night  in  coops, 
twelve  together  in  a  coop :  these  coops  are  small  wooden 
boxes,  lined  with  flannel,  and  furnished  with  a  flannel 
rurtain  in  front,  to  seclude  and  keep  the  inmates  as  warm 
and  comfortable  as  if  under  the  wing  of  a  mothur.  At 
lix  or  seven  in  the  morning  they  are  again  allowed  to 
come  forth  into  their  court-yard,  which  being  strewed 
tvith  siiud,  and  provided  with  food  and  water,  affords 
llicm  ail  the  <idvintagcs  of  a  run  in  an  open  ground. 
''  1  nioJj  wme  inquiries  respecting  the  failures  in  hatch- 
iiii;,  and  deaths,  and  received  the  following  information  : 
—The  egc[8  arc  usually  purchased  from  Lendenhall 
market,  and,  consequently,  not  being  altogether  fresh,  or 
othorwise  suitable,  one  half  of  them  fail  in  hatching. 
Once  hatched,  they  are  safe,  for  not  more  than  one  dies 
out  of  tilty  which  are  brought  into  existence.  If  good 
and  suitabli'  eggs  could  be  procured  in  all  seuK^ns,  the 
Ciiluresin  hutching  would  be  comparatively  triling.  Bad 
f,'gs,  therefore,  are  the  weal  pnint  in  the  e.-'  iblishment; 
tiid  I  should  recommend  the  proprietor  to  complete  his 
irran)j;etnents,  by  adding  an  egg-laying  department  to 
tliosc  which  he  has  for  hatching.  This  might  be  done 
Iiy  keeping  a  regular  poultry-yard,  either  in  connection 
nitl  the  place  or  in  the  country.  The  apparatus  for 
hatching  is  capable  of  producing  forty  thousand  chickens 
ill  »  fy^ii,  iind,  making  allowance  for  failures,  the  actual 
produce  cannot  fall  far  short  of  half  tliat  number.  When 
tliri'C  weeks  old,  as  I  was  informed,  \'..e  chickens  are  taken 
l<i  marki'l,  and  sold  for  a  shilling  each.  'I'hus,  we  should 
(Ujipose,  the  Eccoloobion  turns  out  at  least  a  tliuusund 
pounJb"  worth  of  chickens  annually — no  bud  revenue,  it 
will  lie  said,  after  paying  ex|)euses,  but  not  greater  than 
the  iniienious  contriver  and  proprietor,  Mr.  William 
Hiicknell,  deserves."  The  writir  concludes  by  culling 
lh«  dllentioi.  of  tlio  public  to  the  ease  witli  which  siiui-kr 


(istahlishments  might  bo  got  up  in  all  nrge  towns.  Th< 
price  of  poultry,  he  argues,  might  be  greatly  lowered  in 
the  market,  and  the  dietary  resourc  ts  of  the  common 
people  materially  improved  and  extended. 

Caponi. — The  best  modes  of  fatt(  ning  fowls  for  the 
table  have  been  adverted  to.  The  process  of  converting 
chickens  into  capons,  however,  ought  also  to  be  noticed 
here.  By  removing  the  reproductive  and  oviparous  organi 
from  the  male  and  hen  chickens  respectively,  a  great 
change  is  produced  on  them  as  regards  voice  and  habits, 
and  they  can  be  made  remarkably  fat  for  the  table.  Ca- 
pons ere  chiefly  reared  in  Sussex,  Essex,  and  one  or  two 
other  counties  around  London.  They  can  be  trained  to 
watch  chl:kens,  hatch  eggs,  and  do  many  useful  offices 
of  the  poultry-yard.  Upon  the  whole,  however,  the 
special  Icnefit  derived  from  rearing  capons  I'oes  not 
countetln  lance  the  trouble  which  they  jive. 

Di'<e(isei: — Chickens  arc  liable  to  various  diseases,  de- 
manding ottcntlon  from  the  poultry-keeper.  The  pip 
is  the  mpst  common ;  it  consists  of  a  catarrhal  thick- 
ening of  the  membrane  of  the  tonijue,  causing  a  danger- 
ous and  obvious  obstruction  to  respiration.  It  may  be 
cured  in  most  cases  by  throwing  the  fowl  on  its  back, 
holding  open  the  beak,  and  scraping  or  pcaliuff  off  the 
membrane  with  a  needle  or  the  null.  The  part  may  be 
wetted  with  salt  or  vinegar  nflcirwards,  and  a  little  fresh 
butter  pushed  over  the  throat.  Dr.  Bcchstcin  recom- 
mends giving  a  mixture  of  butter,  pepper,  garlic,  and 
horse-radish,  as  an  internal  remedy.  But  the  operation 
is  most  eflcctive.  Tliirsl  sometimes  attacks  fowls  like 
a  fever,  and  often  arises  simply  from  dry  food,  though 
more  frequently  symptomatic  of  indigestion,  or  some  in- 
ternal and  deep-seated  derangement.  Careful  attention 
to  diet  is  the  lirst  and  great  point  in  all  such  cases.  If 
iDii.-tijia'inn  appear  to  lie  present,  bread  soaked  in  warm 
milk,  boiled  carrots  or  cabbages,  earth-worms,  chopped 
suet,  or  hot  potatoes  with  dripping,  will  be  found  usefuL 
A  clyster  of  sweet  oil  should  be  tried  in  ^''vere  cases. 
M'here  a  tonic  seems  to  be  required,  a  little  iron  rust 
may  be  mixed  with  the  food,  and  will  generally  relieve 
atrophy  or  loss  of  flesh.  Where  diarrhaa  or  scouring 
is  olwerved,  iron  or  alum  may  be  given  in  small  quanti- 
ties. There  is  also  a  species  of  influenza,  culled  the 
roup,  which  is  often  epidemical  in  the  poultry-yard,  and 
causes  much  havoc  among  the  young  birds.  The  eye» 
become  swollen,  a  discharge  comes  from  the  nostrils,  and 
the  fowl  gapes  continually,  showing  much  difficulty  of 
breathing.  Some  observers  have  oscribcd  this  complaint 
to  worms  in  the  windpipe,  and  have  recnnimended  their 
extraction  by  an  operation ;  but  warmth,  cleanliness,  and 
sotl  food,  and  such  laxatives  as  sulphur,  with  frequert 
ablutions  of  the  eyes  and  nostrils,  are  more  likely  per- 
haps, to  do  good,  Olid  are  not  attended  with  danger. 
Where  general  fever  has  been  observed  in  fowls,  the  uae 
of  a  little  nitre  has  been  found  very  advantageous.  Saf- 
tron  is  another  remedy  very  o*  '  i  .employed  m  relieving 
tlie  symptoms  of  sickness  in  fo'^ '  •. 

Many  of  these  remarks  will  apply  equally  well  to  the 
diseases  of  geese  and  the  other  species  of  domestic  poul- 
try yet  to  be  noticed,  and  this  subject,  therefore,  need  not 
again  be  adverted  to  in  detail. 

Turkeys. 

'I'hc  turkey,  like  th'  common  chicken,  has  been  ii^ 
eluded  by  naturahsU  i  i  the  GnUmacnms  family  ef  f'^rijs. 
and  possesses  the  main  characteristics  common  ti  !'.'■ 
whole.  It  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  valuable  fo'.sii 
which  have  been  naturidia'd  in  this  country,  but  is  very 
ditfieult  to  rear.  The  turkey-hen  lays  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  eggs,  and  then  sits  u.poii  them.  She  will  bring 
out  two  broods  in  a  year.  The  eggs  are  of  a  pale  yel- 
lowisli-wbite  colour,  finely  streaked  ond  spoiled  witU 
reddish-yel'ow.  Tliiy  are  a  niOot  delicious  tood,  much 
mure  delicate  in  their  flavour  than  those  of  the  comiuon 
3H 


438 


INFORMATION    FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


tii'tt  h\  Eufi\an\  o'-  Scotland,  however,  the  egg*  are 
MUuni  U'  be  met  vv-'  i  lor  hii!p,  l)eiiiff  deemed  too  volu- 
siiie  to  bo  UHfd  as  (..  d.  In  [roliind  they  ar  to  bo  got 
in  the  murkots  in  great  aliundancc,  especially  in  the  mid- 
land! coMntica,  when  wc  have  bought  ihei'i  <\t  ninepence 
per  li.i'fii.  In  thai  v'ouni"y,  wiicn  ihc  ti  i  ey-hen  has 
UiJ  alvjut  half  a  dozen  eggs,  they  af>£rivar<l  take  away 
one  daily,  by  which  means  the  hens  are  im'i.eed  to  pro- 
duce a  groiitor  numlvr  of  eggs  than  otheiifine.  'i'his 
they  asfiist  by  means  ui  stimulating  food,  such  as  hemp- 
■eed  and  buik-whcat.  There  is  an  interval  of  n  dny  Iw- 
twnon  the  laying  of  each  egg.  It  is  said  that  the  first 
two  eggs  which  she  lays  arc  unfruitful.  A  turkc. -hen 
can  seldom  hutch  more  'Van  from  sixteen  to  eighteen 
c,?i;8.  The  time  of  incubation  vanes  from  '.v.enty-sevcn 
to  twcnt, '-eight  days,  at  which  time  the  yi'i  ng  lH>gin  to 
pierce  tlwir  shi'l'y  prison,  and  emerge  froiu  if.  When 
Uiey  first  coirir  forth,  tliey  are  oxtri  :iiely  week,  and  much 
«a'<iduous  care,  is  necessary  to  real  iieni.  Tl\  ■  first  thing 
to  bo  attended  to  is,  to  n'movR  them  to  a  situiuion  where 
they  aro  not  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays,  which  if  first  are 
too  powerful  for  Shem.  A  woody  place  is  lh>  most  suit- 
able to  their  natural  habits.  Nothing  is  so  deitirx'tivo  to 
tlium  atj  rain,  from  which  liicy  must  be  protected. 

VVIii'C  young  larkevs  accidentally  get  wet,  tli'-y  (bould 
bf  biT.uglit  into  a  house,  care.'ully  dried  by  applying  soft 
t  -."'efg  t<  them,  and  then  plnr-cd  near  a  fire,  and  fed  ujion 
b.-<  ..i!.  which  has  hiccn  niised  with  n  ■-niall  proportion  -f 
p.-ouri  j.'ppcr  or  (jinifiT.  It  shcui  '  he  made  up  in  the 
fbrrj  of  srri'il^  p>'aa,  ':"  i!ii'  i>rcad  i&  (  ">  dry  for  this  ;inr- 
f.ose,  it  nnv  if  H'  .i  ■'  fi-d  >vilh  ^  (title  sweet  milk. 
Should  tlie  t;rke  ,-p,  ';••  et'iiH'  to  •  nl  it,  a  fe"v  of  tlii'so 
pellois  uiay  be  forc^il  i.)  vn  hf  i.  rort*.  Rv  i.  Heavy 
dews  prove  dcstii;L-tiv.!  to  iImm  jh*  t'nwt  is  no  less  in- 
jurious in  if;,  ert'Cs.  'Ph.-  ,'■  .m-.si  (.iurcforc  K:.  most 
carcliillj  g!.!,'!ix  against,  vh  •  i  the  hei.rf  incnbaie  in 
March  or  eiuly  in  April.  Ory  and  samly  situations  ore 
m.Ht  cong-tPi  1.  f<»i  bri.'eilinK  turkeys,  and  oupccially  ele- 
ViiWU  situa'.ioDs  where  I[iri»<.'  woo<ls  arc  conti:;uou8.  A 
single  male  tiirWcy  ii-  sutficient  for  twelve  or  sixteen  fe- 
miilos,  alHiough  llie  former  numl)cr  is  probably  the  safcKt, 
to  prevent  s'  riiity  in  the  fgcfs,  which  is  frci|uent!v  the 
case  with  those  ijf  turkeys.  Eggs  should  never  l>e  intrust- 
eJ  Ut  the  care  of  ;•  female  until  slie  is  at  least  two  yenrs 
of  age,  and  they  -say  be  kept  fot  the  purpose  of  incuba- 
Uoii  till  they  rca::i  their  tenth  year.  The  largest  and 
oti'jn^e^t  hens  should  always  be  kt  i)t  for  tnin  purpose. 
'.)i>ring  the  time  the  hen  is  sitting,  it  berome»  ii^cossary 
K>  !''ace  fi>oo  near  her ;  as  otherwise,  from  htr  as.iiduity, 
iikC  may  be  starved  to  death,  as  turiiey-henr  seldom 
mcr.!  from  their  nest  during  the  whole  tiric  of  incuba- 
tion. 

Where  fanners  rear  turkeys  in  great  numbers,  they 
do  not  iiiduigc  the  lien  by  allowing  her  to  sit  as  soon  as 
ihc  has  done  liyiii'/,  but  keep  them  from  her  until  all 
the  other  hen*  have  ceased  to  lay,  as  it  is  of  consequence 
that  ihey  should  all  be  hatched  about  one  time.  Whcti 
lieos  art*  unhappy  during  this  interval,  they  may  Ik>  in- 
dui/;ed  with  hen's  eggs.  When  they  have  all  cea.'-.e  1  to 
lay,  each  of  them  is  provided  with  a  nest  ranged  close 
to  tlie  wall,  in  a  barn  or  other  convenient  place,  and 
eai;h  is  KUpplied  with  from  sixteci  to  twenty  of  her  own 
egi5».  The  windows  and  doors  are  then  closed,  and  oi.ly 
■pened  once  in  the  twnnly-fiuir  hours  for  the  admission 
v'  air,  and  for  the  purp.)se  of  feeding  the  hens.  They 
are  taken  off  their  nests,  fed  and  replaced,  and  agkin 
•hut  up.  Oil  the  twtnty-sixth  day,  the  person  who  is 
intrusted  with  the  management  cf  the  birds  examines 
all  the  egijs,  ami  removes  those  that  arc  addled  ;  feeds 
'Jhe  hens,  un<l  docs  not  again  di: '  them  till  the  poults 
nave  emerged  from  their  sheMi  have  become  per- 

foctly  €iry,  from  the  heat  of  '  ^nt  bird ;  as  to  Iw 

•ubjecfeil  to  cold  at  thii!  time  would  certainly  kill  them. 
WLen  the  youn;  birds  are  thoroughly   dried,  two  of 


the  broods  aro  joined  together,  and  the  care  v,f  iK,-, 
intrusted  to  a  single  hen ;  and  those  which  hgvc  V^ 
deprived  of  their  ofTspring  arc  again  placed  on  hen's  " 
duck's  eggs,  and  subjected  a  second  time  to  the  teJiou 
operation  of  incubation,  in  which  case  it  is  not  unuiuil 
for  them  to  ))ring  out  thirty  eggs.  We  cannot  ttcom. 
mend  this  practice  in  point  of  humanity ;  for  tbe  r^ 
hens,  when  they  have  iircoinplished  their  second  sitHn 
are  literally  reduced  to  skin  and  bone,  and  frcquenlly  m 
weak  as  hardly  to  be  able  to  walk. 

As  Iwforc  hinted  at,  great  care  should  be  taken  of  th« 
young  turkey-poults ;  besides  warmth,  proper  food  j^d 
shade,  the  nearer  they  aro  t<  r.  r  irr  rrjirii  >  stream  the 
better,  as  they  drink  a  gti-.it  deal,  »nd  iio'Uinjt  i»  e.t 
greater  im|)ortanco  to  thri-  iviniv  «i«cceh*fuU,  i ,  i,,fj  ,i 
fresh  drink.  They  niusi  '*  also  er?i'ul!y  pit'ectcd  U  1 1 
strong  gusts  of  vind,  ar;;!  on  W  ■  ilightest  ippear'.m 
cf  a  thunder-storm,  should  Ik>  i>iH::pdiately  taken  ir,,v 
hou.4e.  They  r'.ould  get  ;i.i  foid  fi-;,  .'icxx  ,it  h,  -, 
after  they  leavi  liie  egg.  i'Seir  fir,i.'bn(\fi'.ouj(ll!"r.,.,i. 
uoiled  c  {gs  finely  chopped,  nod  mixed  with  crunbjoi 
bri'8>i.  ('urd  is  t  ■  nn  exe'lli  ,it  food  for  them.  When 
they  .'  alMjut  tt  w.'ck  old,  boiled  peas  and  mixed  jca|. 
\iou:  i.  1  given  to  them.  If  eggs  are  contlinied,  ih« 
shclU  HJiould  be  minced  down  w'th  their  food  to  nc,!,; 
digestion,  or  sonio  very  course  sand,  or  'nii.uic  r  .ly^^ 
They  «b/iiM  be  •:.  d  tbrici  a  day  ;  and  as  t'oey  i;,'i  oliier 
a  inixlUi'.'  of  Ieitut«'-n  'Ik  will  be  fount',  bcniiuitl,  to.' 
gethcr  with  mM,cod  iiHli  •*.  Bftiiey  b  '•  in  niiii,  p 
another  excellent  foot*  n'.  this  p«vi:>d,nn(i  v'u  a  oatsl.v.^J 
in  milk.  In  short,  llic  con<!litiK!.'n  of  youn?  turkpvs 
requires  at  all  ages  every  kind  of  stimulating  food. 
When  about  three  weeks  old,  their  meat  should  consiii 
of  a  mixture  of  mini  id  lettuce,  nettles,  curdled  milk, 
hard-boiled  yolks  of  eggs,  bran,  and  dried  camomile  ■ 
but  when  all  these  eiumot  bo  readily  obtained,  part  of 
them  must  tie  used,  i'ennel  and  wild  endive,  nitli  a, 
plants  which  aro  of  n  tonic  character,  may  be  safely 
given  to  them.  Too  liiurh  lettuce,  however,  has  been 
found  to  be  injurious.  When  poults  are  about  a  monlh 
old,  thoy  should  1)C  turi'fld  out,  along  with  the  parent 
bird,  into  the  fields  or  ])l«ntationB,  where  lliey  will  find 
sufficient  food  for  themhiKes.  Grass,  worms,  all  kinds 
of  insects  and  snails,  arc  tlii'ir  favourite  food,  and  nature 
dictates  to  them  such  vegetubles  as  are  conducive  tothfii 
general  health.  As  their  feet  aro  ot  first  ver\  tender, 
(•nd  subject  to  inflammation  from  the  pricking  of  nelth 
and  thistles,  they  ought  to  i<'  rubbed  with  spiritu,  whi'l: 
has  the  effect  of  hardening  the  skin,  and  fortifying  then 
against  the»c  plants. 

The  glandulous  fleshy  parts  and  barbies  of  iheir 
heads  bogm  to  develop  when  they  are  from  sis  weeks  to 
two  months  old.  This  is  a  critical  period  with  ih; 
poults,  and  unusual  cure  must  be  bestowed  on  them,  u 
they  now  become  weak  and  oflen  sickly.  .\  little  hriw 
mixed  with  their  food  *iU  be  found  very  litnefifial,ot 
spirits  much  diluted  with  water  A  paste  made  of 
fennel,  pepper,  hempseeil,  and  parsley,  has  Iwen  fr  iji 
an  excellent  remedy  when  afflicted  with  at;  inil:  iquii- 
tion  in  the  wattles,  to  which  they  are  bable  wh;D  gra^. 
inp.  They  are  very  subj<'ct  to  this  if  the  weather  lu[^ 
pens  to  1)0  broken  and  changeable  at  the  time  tbeie  '.» 
bercles  are  growing.  Thei,c  parts  swell  and  grow  vfij 
red,  which  frequently  proves  fatal  to  them.  If,  lh(I^ 
fore,  such  be  the  state  '  *  the  weather  Ht  this  critid 
period,  the  paste  abovi-  rf-o. -.mended  should  ht  gn« 
£.Ithough  they  are  ptii  'W  healthy,  which  will  bo  foMi! 
an  excellent  prevent*  'Vhen  the  inflammation  b* 

comes  very  great,  re-      .  of>en   had  to  bleeding  i 

the  axillary      ■    ,  wl        '  equently  recovers  thcin. 

Soon  after    'i-.  '•'.:         poults  ha"e  acqui/ed  their  tnl 
feathers,  thcv     ■■  iif..  i-  '.o  a  disease  which  is  vcryfilil 
to  them,  if  n,-    •  »"  Jed  to.     This  distem)M<r  prodiiM  | 
great  debility,  t  , J  l:  ■  'Mrds  appear  languid  and  drooping. 


POULTRY. 


639 


ai  »lmosl  totally  neglect  tlicir  food.    Their  tail  and  i 
^^..fcathtrs  a»»ume  u  whitish  nppearance,  and  their  ! 


plumage 


hus  «  briHllo<l  n»|>cct.     'J'hiu  is  occasioned  by  a 


Jjj^jijc  in  two  or  three  of  the  rump-feathcri.  On  ex 
•mination,  the  tulics  of  theso  will  he  found  filled  with 
blood.  The  oiilv  remedy  for  this  diicaHO  is  to  pluck 
them  out,  when  the  bird  will  s])«edily  acquire  its  wonted 
health  and  spiritH. 

In  faltcninK  turkeys  for  the  table,  various  methods  are 
(Mortc'l  to.  Sonic  feed  them  on  barley-meal  mixed  with 
(kim-niilk,  and  confine  ihcni  to  a  coop  during  this  time ; 
others  ineicly  confine  them  to  a  house ;  while  a  iMrd 
daiB  nilow  them  to  run  (iiiite  at  lilwrty ;  which  latter  prac- 
tice frcin  the  experience  of  those  on  whoso  judgment  wc 
oin  most  rely,  is  hy  far  the  licst  niethotk  Care  should, 
however,  Iw  taken  to  feed  them  abundantly  before  they 
arc  allowed  to  range  about  in  the  morning,  and  a  meal 
should  also  be  prepared  for  them  at  midday,  to  which 
tiie-r  will  pt'iierally  repair  homewards  of  their  own  ao 
cord.  They  nhould  be  fed  at  night,  before  rousting,  with 
o;t-mcal  and  skim-milk ;  and  a  day  or  two  previous  to 
their  being  killed,  they  should  got  oats  exclusively.  Wo 
hive  found,  from  experience,  that  when  turkeys  are  pur- 
chased for  the  table,  and  cooiKid  up,  thoy  will  never  in- 
crease in  bulk,  however  plentifully  they  may  he  supplied 
with  food  and  frcnh  water,  but,  on  the  contrary,  are  very 
liable  to  lose  flesh.  VVhi'ii  feeding  them  for  use,  a  change 
of  fond  will  nlso  tx;  found  iHMieficial.  Boiled  carrots  and 
Swedish  turnips,  or  putatoes  mixed  with  a  Httle  barley  or 
o»t-mcal,  wid  be  greedily  taken  by  them.  A  cruel  method 
is  practised  by  some  to  render  turkeys  very  fat,  which  i? 
urracd  cramming.  This  is  done  by  forming  a  paste  of 
crumbs  of  bread,  fl>ur,  minced  suet,  and  aweet-inllk,  or 
even  crcain,  into  srr.jll  balls  about  the  bulk  of  a  marble, 
which  is  passed  over  the  throat  after  full  ordinary  meals. 

T'ca-Fowl. 

The  peacock,  also  one  of  the  Gallinaceous  tril)c  of 
liirds,  came  originally,  it  is  said,  from  India,  and  was  well 
known  to  the  ancient  (Jreeks  and  Romans,  who  intro- 
duced it  into  their  mythology.  The  great  beauty  of  its  tail, 
BO  ample  in  exft  nt  and  so  rich  in  colours,  rendered  it  in- 
deed not  nn«orlhy  of  such  preferment. 

One  peacock  is  usually  kept  with  three  or  four  hens. 
The  female  is  extremely  fastidious  about  a  spot  to  lay.in, 
tnu  generally  Iciivcfi  any  artificial  nest  for  the  grass  of 
some  neighbouring  coppice,  where  she  lays  under  the 
branches  of  a  ..^hrub,  in  a  well-ooncoaled  situation.  One 
teaMin  for  this  is  the  propensity  of  the  cock  to  break  the 
(ggs  if  he  discover  theip..  When  the  eggs  of  the  pi'a-hen 
ire  gathered  in  suHicient  numbers,  whether  from  a  natu- 
ral or  artificial  nest,  it  is  a  common  practice  to  place  them 
under  a  common  hen,  which  hatches  them  in  thirty  days, 
inJ  makes  ai'  ex-  idlc'iit  st(i...iothb!  lo  the  young  chicks. 
These  are  wty  tender  at  first,  but  soon  grow  vigorous, 
evtnin  a  chilly  climate.  Barley-meal  pae'e,  mixed  with 
cheese  or  curd  prepared  from  milk,  with  alum,  ants'  eggs, 
meal-worms,  and  hard-boiled  egg,  are  among  the  conunon 
articles  of  diet  given  to  the  young.  The  grown-up  pea- 
fowl feeds  on  boiled  barley  or  other  common  grains,  and 
ia  a  dangerous  neighbor  to  corn  or  wheat  fields  and  gc  - 
Ans.  On  the  other  hand,  they  arc  vorai-iiusly  fond  of  i 
loih  crealurts  rn  froj;  'i/a^'  .,  and  the  ;.'>',  and  keep 
pounds  clear 'i1^..uch  .'  Huiic..,,  in  nio'ililng-time,  it 
is  requisite  to  he  m.'-  •  -.aicful  of  these  :'uvl»  than  at  other 
tiir  ■  and  to  r'  m  'jood  grain,  with  •.  ^i'le  honey, 

and  fresh  wntc  I'hough  the  t(mgups  and  livers  of  pea- 
cocks were  run;  'd  among  the  duintici  of  the  Homan  epi- 
eurea,  the  bird  is  rarely  killed  for  the  table  now-a-days. 
Vet  it  always  bears  a  high  price,  being  one  of  the  most 
bmutiful  of  the  feathered  rac  ,  iiiid  an  object  on  which 

.c  eye  ever  delights  to  dwell,  though  its  screaming  note 
ky  ue  muns  gives  u  corv»;.sponding  pleasure  to  the  ear. 


The  Ouinra-Fowl. 

This  stranger  is  found  native  in  Africa,  as  its  naiM 
indicates,  and  it  also  exists  in  an  indiirenuus  state  is 
South  America.  The  Guinea-fowl  or  Pintado  is  about 
the  size  of  the  common  hen,  and  the  male  diflbrs  tctj 
little  in  apiUM  nuici'  from  the  female.  Three  species 
exist  in  considenilil.  numl)ers  in  Europe,  namely,  the 
crested,  the  mitred,  and  Egy[)tian  varieties.  A  very 
beautiful  sort  is  marked  by  a  pure  white  tint  of  body 
but  the  most  familiar  hues  are  dark-gray  and  black. 
The  bird  is  less  tamo  than  other  conniion  poultry,  and 
prefers  to  live  in  a  half-wild  condition  in  its  native 
regions,  perching  and  living  on  trees  like  undomesti- 
catcd  birds.  It  is  a  spirited  creature,  an'l  will  battle 
even  with  the  turkey.  The  guinea-hens  require  great 
attention  at  the  time  of  laying,  making  their  nests  by 
preference  in  corners  of  the  woods.  The  common  baa 
is  usually  made  to  rear  their  brooils.  In  the  market, 
guinea-fowls  always  bear  a  high  price,  both  on  account 
of  their  flesh,  which  i  i  of  a  good  quality,  and  because 
they  form  a  very  pretty  variety  of  the  poultry  stock. 
Their  food  is  grain,  of  the  various  kinds  given  to  ordi- 
navy  barn-door  fowls,  with  which  they  'issimilate  closely 
in  habits. 

The  Goose. 

The  goose  difTers  in  many  respects  from  the  fcrTbl 
already  noticed,  being  aquatic  in  its  hubit<.  It  ia 
marked  by  a  flat  bill  and  webbed  feet,  characters  nUc 
possessed  by  the  duck  and  swan,  which,  in  conjunctics 
with  the  goose,  may  be  held  as  forming  a  distinct  family 
(^JhiatiilcB)  of  the  feathered  aquatic  tribes. 

Our  common  tame  goose  is  the  wild  species  domesti- 
cated, known  to  naturalists  by  the  name  of  the  fen  or 
sti>'ible-gooso.  Where  people  have  a  right  of  common, 
ut  live  in  the  vicinity  of  raacshy  heaths,  the  breeding 
and  rearing  of  geese  will  prove  very  i)rofitable,  for  in 
such  situations  they  are  kept  at  a  trifling  expense ;  they 
are  very  hardy,  and  live  to  a  great  age.  If  properly 
kept,  and  fed  regularly,  although  sparingly,  they  will 
lay  upwards  of  a  hundred  eggs  yearly.  If  lhe.se  are  set 
under  large  hens,  each  having  half  a  <?iizcn,  with  the  a«- 
sistance  of  the  goose  herself,  they  may  be  nearly  all 
hatched.  For  the  first  three  or  four  days,  they  must  be 
kept  warm  and  dry,  and  fed  on  barley-meal  or  oat-me*I 
mixed  with  milk,  if  it  is  easily  procured ;  if  not,  let 
these  ingredients  be  mixed  with  water.  They  will  he- 
gin  to  grow  in  about  a  week.  For  a  week  or  two  the 
goslings  should  not  be  turned  out  till  late  in  the  morn- 
ing, and  should  always  be  taken  in  early  in  the  evening. 
In  Ireland  the  tenantry  depend  much  on  the  breeding 
of  these  birds  and  turkeys  to  pay  their  rent;  and  with 
those  who  are  indi'.strious  and  favourably  situated  for 
rearing  geese,  they  even  do  more  in  many  instances. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  year  they  are  allowed  to  feed  on 
grass,  on  heaths,  meadows,  and  commons;  and  as  most 
of  the  peasantry  have  small  bits  of  corn  land  of  their 
own,  the  geese  are  turned  out  on  the  stubble  to  pluck 
what  grass  is  left ;  and  they  also  fatten  upon  it,  ar.J  in> 
prove  the  flavour  of  their  flesh. 

Although  water  be  the  natural  element  of  geese,  yet 
it  is  a  curious  fact  that  they  feed  much  faster  in  situa- 
tions remote  from  rivers  and  streams.  To  fatten  geese 
it  is  necessary  to  give  them  a  little  corn  daily,  with  the 
addition  of  some  raw  Swedish  turnips,  carrots,  mangel- 
wurzel  leaves,  lucerne,  tares,  cabbage  leaves,  and  let- 
tur?s.  ""hey  should  not  be  allowed  'i  run  at  large 
wl'  .1  the}  are  fattening,  as  they  do  not  ac.,i)!re  flesh 
noaily  so  fast  when  allowed  to  take  much  exercise. 
Therefore,  tho:.e  who  can  only  afford  to  bring  up  ■  goose 
or  two,  should  confine  them  in  a  crib  or  some  such  piece 
about  the  beginning  of  July,  and  feed  them  upon  the 
ingredients  above  recommended,  with  a  daily  supply  ol 


MO 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


tlf-an  wate'  for  drink.  If,  on  the  coiitmry.  from  a  ilozcn 
to  twenty  are  kept,  ii  IarK<i  p«-ri  of  from  fiflucn  to  Iwriity 
foet  iiiunrn  must  lie  niailo,  nnil  wril  covpriMl  with  iitriiw 
in  the  bottom,  nml  a  covi-ml  houno  in  a  corner  for  pro- 
Ifction  ueaicmt  thn  nun  iinil  rnin  when  rLMjuircd,  liroiiuse 
erposurc  to  citlirr  of  thrso  in  not  good.  It  will  be  ob- 
scr^-ed  tlint,  iibnut  noon,  if  (jpcimi  nro  at  liberty,  they  will 
■eek  Homr  nhndy  spot  to  avoid  the  inflnencn  of  the  HUn ; 
•nd  whcii  ronlined  in  mnall  pliire*.  they  b'lve  not  mitli- 
cient  room  to  lliip  their  wingti  and  dry  theii'm '• '■'  iit\er 
heini?  wetted  ;  nor  h.ive  they  room  to  move  ui.;.ut  ho  as 
to  keep  theinsolved  warm.  There  should  tie  three 
trmii»hs  in  tlie  pen,  <mr  for  dry  oats,  another  for  ve.'e- 
tablcs — which  oiiL^ht  always  to  be  entdown — and  a  tliird 
for  eionnwatrr,  nf  whicli  they  must  ntwayHhavc  a  pleiili- 
fu!  «npply.  It  must  be  rcinemliored,  that  the  riper  the 
ralibages  und  lottureH  whirh  they  are  Hiipplied  with,  the 
better.  In  the  neinhbourhood  of  large  towns,  the  most 
profitable  way  of  disposing;  of  i^eese  is  in  a  dead  state  ; 
a"  nearly  the  same  sum  ean  be  obtuineil  for  them  as  if 
they  were  alive,  and  then  you  have  the  feathers,  whie'i 
an-  valuable,  and  may  be  sold  to  much  advantage  by 
tlieinsclvcs  when  you  have  collected  a  stone  weight  or 
more. 

(leese  are  kept  in  vast  quantities  in  the  fens  of  Lin- 
ohnhire,  several  [)crsons  there  havinc;  ns  many  as  a 
thounand  breeders.  They  are  breil  for  the  sake  of  their 
quilU  and  feather*,  as  well  as  for  their  carcass;  it  iv 
Uierefore  ciistoinary  to  strip  them  partially  of  the  fire 
downy  feathorH.  and  leave  them  to  crow  afieKh.  and  Oiso 
to  take  quills  from  their  A-insfs — both  prartiees  barba'ous 
in  the  extreme,  however  thiy  may  be  attempted  (o  \->c 
justified,  fieese  br»'ed  in  generul,  only  once  a  yeir,  but 
if  well  kept,  they  8<)r.ietimes  hatrh  twiie  in  a  seai'oii. 
The  best  method  for  promoting  tills  's  to  feed  them  with 
corn,  barli'y,  malt,  fiesh  (grains,  and,  as  a  stimr.lant,  they 
■hould  get  a  mixture  of  pollard  and  ale.  Duriiiu;  their 
aitting,  each  bird  has  a  space  allotted  to  if,  in  ro\"8  of 
wicker  jx-ns  placed  one  above  another,  avid  the  goose  ■ 
herd,  who  has  the  care  of  them,  drives  'he  whole  (IikI, 
to  water  thrice  a  day,  and,  bringing  then  back  to  theii 
habitation,  places  every  bird  (without  nissiiig  iiiie)  in  its 
own  ne-it.  (niv  gander  is  generally  jiiit  'o  five  Beese.  '/"he 
time  of  incubation  varies  from  twei.ty-xeven  to  thirty 
days.  The  goose  Ix-gins  to  lay  in  March,  but  the  time 
of  th<  month  depends  upon  the  slite  of  the  utmospliere. 
When  go-lings  are  first  allowed  .o  ijo  at  large  with  their 
dam,  every  plant  of  hemlock  whi'l:  grows  within  the 
extent  of  their  range  should  be  piillid  up,  as  they  arc 
very  apt  to  eat  it,  and  it  generally  proves  fital  to  them, 
Nightshade  is  also  cipially  ]«'rnicious  to  lliem,  and  they 
hive  been  known  to  be  poiaoned  by  eating  sprigs  of 
yew-tree. 

Diickx. 

Durkk  are  a  kind  of  fowl  easily  kept,  particularly  near 
pnnda  or  streams  of  water.  In  siich  situations,  even  the 
/Hiineat  families  may  have  half  a  do7X!n  of  thcin  running 
nliout  without  the  least  InconvenKnce.  In  keeping  tfiein 
III  1  domestic  state,  one  drake  is  usu'illy  put  to  five  ducks. 
'Mie  duck""  begin  to  lay  in  Fchruary ;  'heir  time  of  laying 
being  either  at  night  or  early  in  the  nior.ilng.  They  are 
extremely  a[)t  to  de{)<)>lt  their  eggs  at  son:"  geijuestered 
apot,  and  to  cimceal  Ihcm  with  leaves  or  straw.  From 
eleven  to  fifteen  eirgs  is  the  nunitwr  which  a  duck  can  pro- 
perly cover.  The  time  of  incutiation  Is  aliout  thirty-one 
days.  The  place  where  they  incubate  should  l)e  as  quiet 
and  retired  as  possible  ;  and  if  they  have  liberty,  they 
will  give  no  trouble  whatever  in  feeding,  as  the  duck, 
when  »he  feels  the  call  of  hunger,  covers  her  eggs  care- 
fully up,  a. id  s.>ek8  food  for  herself,  ei'h-r  by  going  to  the 
•Creams  or  ditches  In  her  neigliNmrb  J,  or,  if  such  are 
not  It  hand,  she  will  come  to  the  cMUge  and  intimate  her 
iiraiit4  by  her  I'l^ualling      When  the  y  ang  are  hatched, 


they  should  be  left  to  the  tare  of  the  duck,  who  will  im,i 
them  forth  in  duo  time;  and  when  she  does  so,  prcutni 
coop  for  them,  which  shimid  lie  placed  on  almrt  irru.   f 


the  weather  is  mild  ;  and  if  cold  or  stormy,  thiy  ahouM 
lie  kept  under  cover.     The  future  sticngtli  of  ii,e  y^ 
will  dejiend   much  upon   the  care  that  Is  taken  of  th 
for  the  lirst  three  or  four  weeks  after  they  have  iMnenrnl 
from  the  hIicU.     Ducklings  will  begin  to  wash  flic 
the  first 
hand. 


mselvfi 


day  after  they  ore  hatched,  if  they  fiml  ^.^^^^ 
Therefore,  a  llat  dish  filled  with  ilmt  v\e^^, 
shoiilil  be  always  within  their  reach.  Many  per*inB«r. 
in  the  prai'tiee  of  clippp.g  the  tiiil,  and  the  down  Wm;,^ 
it,  in  ducklings,  if  the  weulher  is  wet  during  t|,„  (j^^ 
weeks  of  their  exiy'.ence.  'I'liis  is  to  previuil  them  from 
draggling  themselves,  which  has  a  tendency  lo  produce 
Intestinul  diseases.  From  a  I'ortiiiglit  to  three  wccki  u 
all  that  is  necessary  to  confine  lliein  to  the  coop, 

'i  he  first  thing  on  which  ducklings  are  led  U  9  mii. 
tiire  of  barley,  (icas  or  oat-meal,  and  water,  Tlicy  i,,,, 
afterwards  Ihj  fed  upon  a  mixture  .1  buckwheat  imd  any 
of  the  above-named  meals.  Tin'  greatest  attention  mu«l 
be  paid  to  keeping  their  bed  warm  and  dry;  anJ  wj||, 
young  ducks  a  freifuent  change  of  straw  is  ubsojuiely 
necessary,  as  their  licds  soon  get  dirty  and  wet. 

Ducks  are  not  such  attentive  guardians  of  tlicir  vnunn 
as  hens,  and  tliercfore  it  is  a  eoinmon  practice  to  plum 
iluek  eg'^s  under  a  sitting  hen,  and  leave  her  i«  hatch 
them  UH  her  own  progeny.  When  the  young  ilucks  10 
hatched  make  their  appearance,  the  hen  dis's  not  aiipoai 
aware  of  the  Imposition,  but  talces  ut  once  to  her  duiiei 
with  all  11  mother's  fondness.  The  natural  desire  of  lh« 
ducklings  to  plunge  Into  water  aiiii  nwim  away  from  the 
shore  vexes  her,  but  she  wafcliis  lor  their  rciurn,  and 
does  all  in  her  power  to  (irovlde  the  means  of  suliaisicnco, 
SI"!  scrapes  for  them,  which  a  duck  would  not;  she  nhej. 
tirs  tliciii  under  her  dry  and  warm  bosom  and  \vinn«,aiKi 
altogether  makes  a  better  nuiho  than  their  own  urowt 
|iareiit, 

fn  feeding  ducks  for  use,  pens  and  oat-mcal  ore  to  he 
preferred.  It  Is  said  that  barley-meal  renders  ihtir  flesji 
soft  and  in:<ipid.  Unused  oats  should  be  given  to  Ihrm 
freely  for  some  weeks  iM'fore  they  are  killed,  which  ronden 
their  fiesh  solid  and  well  tasted  ;  and  the  same  general 
principles  recommended  in  the  (ecdina:  of  geese  sIiolU 
lie  kept  in  view.  It  has  been  liiuiid  that  the  ollaj  o( 
buUlierH'  shops  feeds  ducks  quickly,  and  that  thisdotj 
not  impair  the  flavour  of  their  fiesli.  In  verj-  many  in- 
stances, ducks  are  reared  in  situations  where  thrrc  ire 
no  [lools  of  clean  wutiT  for  tlicin  to  dabble  in.  und  die 
poor  animals  arc  com|ielled  to  grub  with  their  liills  in  all 
sorts  of  nauseous  puddles,  wl''(h,  of  course,  inaki's  lh«lr 
fiesh  rank  and  offensive.  Tb.  v  Hliouhl  in  all  cases  hau 
a  pool  of  clean  water  to  swim  in,  and  are  liest  ream! 
near  a  natural  meadow,  wiierc  they  can  search  for  thiir 
appropriate  Ibod. 

Those  who  have  paid  much  attcntiim  lo  the  nianath 
nient  of  domestic  poultry,  assert  tliit  geese  and  ducki 
should  lie  kept  apart  from  other  lowls.  The  former  should 
have  their  houses  ranged  along  the  banks  of  a  pirn-  of 
water  with  a  fence,  and  suHii  iently  extensive  liir  valkl 
III  front,  with  doors  for  their  access  to  the  water,  uhidi 
can  be  closed  ut  plea-sure. 

Swans. 

Swans  are  a  class  of  aquatic  fowls  kept  for  amaiMnt 
rather  tliiTi  use.  'J'he  flesh,  even  of  the  young,  is  Kafk, 
hard,  and  rank,  while  that  of  the  old  is  too  toiieli  forina.4. 
cation.  The  ecrgs,  also,  are  not  peculiarly  palalulilc;aiid 
there  Is  littl  ■  inducement  to  rear  Iliem,  In  short,  if  ram 
jiecuniary  advantage  be  looked  to,  excepting  on  ttir  snul 
of  the  skin,  feothcrs,  am.  .own,  which  are  articles  of  ooO' 
sidcrable  value.  At  tlie  mud.  k  if  the  swan  tcmitl 
productive  bird,  few  animati.'  '     can  be  i-ompanJ 

uitli  it  as  reganla  ornameiiL      1,'   .     1.  .^ize,  nuow-vthM 


POULTRY. 


Ml 


pMUlT' 


,  »nd  smrofnl  form,  render  it  a  most  attractivo 


t-incHl  nrc  to  U 

ultTs  ihcir  flesh 

nivi'ii  to  thfm 

wliicli  ronden 

same  geneial 

ijefsc  shouU 

lilt  thf  oli'al  f,| 

tliiit  this  (loti 

vcn-  luanv  in- 

iTp  there  ire 

ir  ill.  uml  llie 

it'ir  liills  in  sll 

r«o.  imki's  Iheii 

cam's  lu\! 

ri'  lH'»t  rcumi 

sfiircli  lor  Ihiii 

to  the  maniieh 
'Kf  mill  (lurki 
i^  Ibrinor  bIiouU 
of  a  [lieco  of 
risivc  lor  valiil 
wiitcr,  tthid 


lit  for  ornaiMnl 
vouiit',  is  I'lufki 
liuichfonnii* 
paliitiilile;i»4  I 
short,  it'  ra.'re 
iiiff  on  the  snn 
.^article;' of  co» 
,_•  «wan  he  mil  I 
ail  lip  rompsr'i 

VU!,   BIlOW'V.hlM 


n^fUi'le  upon  tho  liosotn  of  n  pool  or  looli.  It  in  n 
luiriiv.  hin«-l'*'«'*'  '"""''•  "'"'  "•"""■' -t'""  in  luiim.  Tlui  foiMl 
J  ihd  iiwBii  coiminf';  iiHiiiilly  of  scfdn,  riiot«,  and  |iliinti(, 
ronilTeil  «iicr':i<'iit  liy  water.  Wlioii  fed  in  n  liarn-yanl, 
■.ji,|jp,„tlirivfn,  lit'iri(?nioind('('iiliMlly  uquntlr  in  itsliahilH 
lliin  iluikHor  irci'sc.  From  tlii'  culourof  (lio  Eiiro|u';iii 
•wan  iwiiiK  "'  iiiiil'Tmly  wliilc,  a  Muck  HWim  iisi-il  mii  n 
lobe  provrrliiully  Hpokeii  of  «»  an  iiiipmnihilily,  Imthlack 
iwaiii  havu  bi'«u  found  uf  late  in  AuMtrulia. 

I'igfOlli. 

PijeoiiH  nrr  nmontf  tho  mo.<t  ornamental   and  impfiil 
,P|ionihu'<''<   "'    0    ■■'"■"'    dwellini;.     If   permitted   to  fly 
slTOu!  to  wek  tl.eir  fond,  little  esponito  will  he  ineiirrcd 
for  ihi'if  ke'l''  while  the  value  of  their  youni?  will  he  of 
fwrae  importanee  to  <-ottai;crB.     The  piijeoii  lias  n  Rreat 
Mwerof  lliuht,  and  will  »o  to  a  diHtaiice  if  many  niiles  j 
ill  quest  of  the  ineans  of  suhxistencc ;  hut  wlieiever  it 
ii„,V  ilv.  it  never  tails  to  retnrii  home.     The  leading  fea- 
iiireaol  the  district  around  its  hiihitation  appear  to  he 
iiiproswd  on  its  memory,  and.  flying  at  a  (jreat  heiKlit, 
niiJ  with  a  wiinilerful  power  of  vision,  it  sees  the  weil- 
Lincmlieri'd  lunilinarks,  and  directs  its  path  lionieward.  i 
Tliia  Imhit  of  seeking  for  the  place  at  which  itwaa  reared,  I 
1  likes  itdifiii'ull  to  keep  pigeonH  in  any  new  home  ;  the  i 
licslplanof  imlucinn  iheni  to  Hettle  in  B  new  ahode,  is  to 
dip  one  wiiii?,  which   prevents  their   flyioR  ;  and  kec])  i 
lliem  in  a  cot  near  tho  ground,  till  they  get  accuHtomci'  1 
1.1  the  place.  _      _  j 

Many  pi^rsnns  keep  their  pii^eons  in  the  space  helween 
the  garret  and  roof  of  their  iKvelling-house,  with  holes  nt  | 
wliich  tliev  CO  out  and  in  ;  aIl^!  this  arranscment  answers  j 
vory  well,  for  the  animal's  lodninp;  ii'.ust  Wo  dry  and  eoin- 
fortible.  A  more  regular  plan  is  to  furnish  thi?m  with  a 
moperly-construeted  ilovc-cot,  aloof  from  any  l-uildint;. 
'I'liecot  should  emsist  of  a  siihslnntial  wooden  box,  with 
j.ilopinp  roof,  and  divided  interiorly  hy  partitions  into  iis 
pany  cells  its  [lairs  are  to  Is-  ke|.t,  tor  each  pair  requires 
a  distinct  cell.  Each  cell  should  lie  twelve  inches  deep 
from  front  toli.ick,  and  si\teen  inches  broad  ;  theentrance 
hiile  should  not  he  opposite  the  centre  of  the  cell,  hut  at 
iifiJe,  so  that  the  pigeons  may  Iniild  their  nest  a  little  out 
4'  sight.  In  front  of  ea<-i-  cell  there  Hiiould  lie  a  .slip  of 
ivood  to  rest  and  coo  upon-,  hut  as  dillercnt  pairs  inces- 
iiantly  quarrel  aliout  the  ri'^ht  of  walking  on  these  slips, 
ud  are  apt  to  tijjlit  for  the  [lossession  of  cells,  it  is  hr.U  to 
spporutc  tiie  slifis  with  upright  |iartitions ;  and  it  would  he 
ml  improveineiit  to  have  twoor  three  small  cots  instrail  of 
oiii'  Urijc  one.  The  cot,  of  whatever  size  or  form,  should  he 
tievated  on  a  wall  facing  the  south-east,  or  otherwise 
placed  at  such  a  height  as  will  lie  out  of  the  reach  of  >  iils 
and  other  vermin.  The  col  should  Im>  painted  while,  as 
Ihf  pigeon  is  attracted  hy  that  colour,  (travel  should  ho 
(Itewcd  on  the  ground  in  front  of  the  dove-cot,  the  birds 
Wng  fond  of  picking  it ;  and  a  little  straw  or  hay  is 
nfcesuarv  for  the  nests. — (Cleanliness  is  indispensable  to 
Ac  healih  of  the  birds,  and  a  semiring  out  of  the  cot 
should  therefore  take  place  regularly.  The  quantity  of 
ilmig  prodi  ■.•I'll  in  the  nests  is  very  great,  and  its  removal 
la  the  compost  heap  will  amply  lepay  the  trouble  of 
rli'iining. 

In  commencing  to  keep  pigeons,  h  pair  or  two  shouhl 
bf  procuriHi  vihic'-  hav-  not  flown,  and  they  sliould  be  shut 
11)1  for  a  lime,  anil  wi  li  fed.  'i'heir  chief  food  i.s  gi.  in, 
and  the  kind  which  they  prefer  to  all  others  is  dried  tare's. 
Siiiall  horsi'heaiis  are  anothe  ■  'ivouritearti 'le  of  diet,  a:' 
,  barley,  oats,  and  |.eas, 
.  .ods.  are  also  prized  by 
le  C  li  i.uit  articles  c^f  fooil 


U'rv  nutritions  ti,  'hem.       ■ 
with  tape,  heMi(i,  am!   ' 
llirm,  but  should  not  Ui  ii 
-"lerany  circumstances. 

'  he  hiiuse-ilovo  or  common  pigeoii,  aa  is  well  known, 
ixiLiiistn  hri'i-d  about  tho  age  of  luiin  months,  and  brccdd 

Vol.  1...-81 


every  month.  Dnrini;  hreetlind  nme,  mey  r.nodnte  m 
pairs,  and  pay  court  to  each  other  with  th.'ir  bills ;  iha 
female  layit  two  eggs,  anil  tho  young  one .  that  are  pro. 
dnced  are  for  the  most  part  a  male  and  ,'enmlc.  When 
the  eggi"  are  laid,  tho  female,  in  the  space  of  filWn  dayi, 
not  including  the  three  days  during  which  she  is  em- 
[iloyed  in  laying,  cantiniioa  to  hatch,  relieved  at  intoi- 
vals  hy  the  male.  FriPi.i  three  or  finr  o'clock  in  tli« 
evening,  till  nine  the  next  day,  the  fem.de  continues  to 
sit ;  she  is  then  relieved  by  the  male,  wlio  takcH  his  place 
trom  ten  till  three,  while  his  male  is  feeilin)}  aiToad.  In 
tills  manner  they  sit  alti-rnately  till  the  young  come  out 
Kept  with  ordinary  tare,  a  pair  will  give  to  the  breeder 
nine  pairs  or  so  in  a  year,  and  will  continue  to  do  this 
for  four  years.  The  bird  lives  for  eii;lit  years,  but  is  Ufccles* 
fir  hreeding  long  before  attaining  that  age.  On  th« 
whole,  the  cottager  who  keeps  a  few  pairs  may  have  a 
palatabh  addition  to  his  diet  frequently  during  tho  year 
with,  very  little  trouble. 

With  regard  to  the  best  breeds  of  the  common  doraea- 
ticated  pigeon,  it  is  lUfl'iiult  lo  give  any  uset'ul  instruc- 
tions, '.''hey  have  been  cultivated  to  a  s^reat  eitirit.  and 
many  disliiict  varieties  have  been  formed,  but  the  dillijr- 
cnees  rest  .'hiefly  in  colours,  and  tliespiiial  value  of  each 
lies  in  the  taste  of  the/oiiiVr.  The  leading  vaiieties  of 
fancy  pigeons  are  known  by  the  names  of  the  English 
Pouter,  the  Dutch  Cropper,  the  Horseman,  the  Tnloper. 
I'  Dragoon,  tho  Tuinhlcr,  tho  Leghorn  and  Kpanislfc 
itunt,  the  Trimipefer,  the  Nun,  the  Fan-tail,  and  th« 
('iipuchin.  The  peculiarities  of  some  of  these  breeds  V(t 
very  odd.  The  tumbler,  lor  in.stance,  derives  its  nr.nio 
fiom  a  practice  of  tumbling  in  the  air  while  on  the  v  ing. 
Instead  of  pmsiiing  a  steady  straightforward  flig/it,  it 
tnrns  over,  or  casts  somersets  backward,  whirling  round 
heels  over  head  as  exjiortly  as  afirsJ-rnte  rope-d,inecrdoo» 
when  he  makes  the  hack  spring.  The  fan-faiT  derives  ita 
name  from  the  eircumstiincc  of  .'Is  having  a  remarkably 
broad  tail,  which  it  has  tho  power  of  spreading  out  like 
the  tail  of  a  turkeycock.  The  priii,,;  quality  of  the  bird 
consists  in  its  ability  to  make  its  tail  touch  its  head,  and 
surround  it  with  a  wide  ';lory  of  feathers.  K  it  cannot 
do  this,  it  is  .alueless  to  the  fancier,  no  m-tte,  '.  n-  excel- 
lent are  its  o  '  properties,  Amusing  as  this  u  'surdity 
is,  it  is  not  ..o  laughable  as  the  ijualities  which  r.  •'-■'r, 
mend  the  English  pouter  to  public  favour.  This  bud, 
which  is  a  cro.'-s  between  a  horp.'.,aii  and  a  cropper,  j.  »]• 
sesses  the  remarkable  property  of  blowing  out  its  breast 
or  crop  to  such  an  extent  that  it  rLses  to  a  level  with  ila 
beak,  and  the  bird  appears  to  look  over  the  top  of  an  in- 
flated bl.iili.'  r. 

Cnrriir  Pigeons, — Pigeons  have  been  put  to  the  re- 
markable purpose  of  ac'iiig  as  carriers  for  leftcs  or  other 
light  objects.     A  particular  species,  larger  than  commo.n, 
is  trained  for  the  purpo^e,  and  in  some  cor.ntries  the  rear- 
ing of  them  forms  a  lucrative  employment.     The  instinct 
which  has  rendt  i.'ii  the  carrier-pigeon  so  serviceable,  is 
the  strong  desire  manifested  by  all  pigeons  to  rciurn  to 
the  place  of  its  ordinary  residence  ;  and  man  \  as  adopted 
various  precautionary  measures  in  order  to  inal  <  i'  ■  ■  ■   ',)ir» 
on  particidar  occiusions  more  certain.     A   ii.im     ;  i,.i  ib- 
mab  arc  usu.ally  kept  together  and  treated  w,  11;  and  one 
of  these,  when  taken  elsewhere,  is  supposed  to  have  tlie 
greater  iMduoeiiient  to  come  back.     It  is  even  considered 
by  some  that  the  bird  should   have  left  eggs  in   tho  pro- 
cess of  incubation,  or  unfled(;ed  young  ones,  at  home,  in 
I  oriler  to  make  the  return  certain  ;  but  prohably  these  are 
I  suparfliious  precautions.     It  is  obvious  that  the  carricN 
pigeon  can  only  be  jiut  to  use   in  conl'ormity  with  soma 
coiitemnlated  plan,  for  which  thcproj'er  preparatio.ns  huvo 
been  made.     It   must   i  n-  e  been   taken  from  a  place  to 
j  which  it  is  wished  that  it  should  rciurn,  and  it  must,  at 
I  liie  mom  lit  when  itsserii.'csove  wanted,  be  temporarily  at 
the  pi  ICO  from  which  the  i.itelligcnco  is  to  be  conveyeA 
It  is  usually  taken  tc    \\aX  place  hoodwinked,  or  in  a 
3ii'i 


INFOKMATION   FOU  THK   I":0P1.K. 


•nvcrrd  liuke.  •  tho  in«tinrt  by  which  it  fiiiiln  iU  way 
k«rk  upon  it»  own  wiiiRit,  inuit  of  rour»r  lio  tulo|H'iiiti'iil 
of  nil  knowlcil){e  of  llic  iiiU'rmt'diato  lunililii-*.  Wlirn 
the  niciiiipiit  for  fii.pl'i.viiig  It  lum  arrivi'd.  tliu  imliviiliiiil 
rrquiriiiK  iU  wrvicrH  writ4'H  amiiult  liillot  ii|hiii  Ihii)  |>a|H<r, 
which  in  pUrrd  lenulhwiwi  under  tho  winn,  luid  t'linUMiod 
Iw  a  pin  to  onr  of  tho  fenthfTt,  with  ■'>nui  pri'inuttoiin  to 
prcvpMt  the  I'll)  from  pricking,  mid  the  pu|N'r  from  filling: 
with  iiir.  On  U'inn  relciiwd  thi'ciirrnr  iibivmhIh  Idh  urcut 
lit'iiflit,  tiikm  iin«  or  two  turnH  in  thf  air,  and  tlii'ii  c mn- 
niiMiif  H  itH  forward  career.  i;t  the  rat<'  of  forty  niileti  in  the 
hour,  or  about  a  lliouiand  a  day. 

ooi.D  risH 

Tlicac  beautiful  little  err  mi.  \  hi>*li  i".  .  irm  pe'i 
of  the  iliawitip!-r»om,  beinp  orr.riiia'!  from  a  warm  eli- 
mate,  reipiire  to  be  kept  if  iipurtmeiitH  of  a  genial  tem- 
perature. They  are  UHually  kept  in  a  cryiitul  (jIoIh-  which 
alandri  on  a  tahle,  and  the  water  ahould  l>e  chanited  daily. 
The  water  niu»t  not  he  (jiven  in  a  eold  Btalc,  hut  allowed 
to  stand  in  a  warm  room  for  an  hour  iM'fnre  U-ini;  put 
into  tho  glol)0 :  tliiH  precaution  may  not  bt;  neceitiiury  in 
■ummer.  Tho  foo<l  ijiven  may  cunaiit  of  iiniall  crui-'  •. 
of  bread,  and  iiinall  flies;  the  I'lHh  ore  fond  of  :hc  I<1'1Wh 
of  the  Mue-liottle  fliea  ;  a  littlo  duckweed  may  be  olfered 
on  the  Rurfacc  of  (he  water. 

Gold  fisi'  '  :■  cd  freely  in  jionda  or  tanks  in  jilensnre- 
'gruunds,  bu(  ''  "v  rcipiire  to  l>e  removed  during  Hevere 
weather  in  \  i  'er.  They  thrive  well  in  nil  m-aHons  in 
pmidM  into  w  iiich  a  little  warm  water  in  constantly  tlow- 
iiig.  [ii  the  hc.iutiful  work  of  Yarrel  on  britiBh  I'i^hes, 
the  author  s|)eakii  on  gold  fish  rh  follow»:— "  It  is  well 
known,  thai  in  mnnufacturinp;  dislrictn,  where  there  in  an 
tnadeijuate  supply  of  cold  water  for  the  condensniioii  ot 
tiie  '■'.•am-enRines,  recourse  is  had  to  what  arr  railed 
engincHlams,  or  pon<'  into  which  the  water  from  the 
»f<'am-enRiiic  (or  comiensed  steutn)  is  thrown  for  the 
purpose  of  being  cooIr>d.  In  these  dams,  the  nveratre 
tami>eruturc  of  which  .»  about  eighty  degrees,  it  m  com- 
mon to  keep  gold  fish ;  and  it  is  a  notorious  fart,  thai 
they  multiply  in  these  situations  much  more  rapidly  than 
in  pone's  of  lower  temperature  exposed  to  the  vnriationH 
of  the  Climate,  (lold  t'l^ih  arc  by  no  means  useless  inha- 
bitants of  these  Jams ;  they  consume  tho  refuse  grease, 
which  would  otherwise  inipide  the  cooling  of  the  water 
bf  accumulaliiig  on  ita  suriuce." 

CAGE    BIRDS. 

The  birds  usually  domesticated  in  cages  in  I!ritain 
•re  canaries,  goldfinches,  larks,  thrushes,  blackbirds,  and 
parrots.  The  only  menus  b'-  which  these  or  any  oriiir 
sijcrirs  of  birds  can  !«  reared  .i' '.  preserved  in  a  healli 
condition,  is  to  accomnKHlntc  each  as  fur  as  possible  with 
the  food,  space  for  exercise,  and  other  eonveruences 
which  the  animal  woukl  enjoy  in  a  state  of  natiir<'.  The 
most  difficult  thing  to  nflbrd  is  »t,,ice  :  'vhcre  n  mom  or 
»via.y  can  l)c  filU'd  up  with  all  reciuisitc  aecommalatioii-, 
— perches  to  resemble  trees  and  branches,  gras.s,  ninss. 
■  nd  oll>er  plants,  pati-hcs  of  i;ravel  or  sand,  secluded 
piiices  for  nests,  a  trough  of  clear  water,  Ac. — the  birds 
wdl  thrive,  breed,  and  he  rheerfiil;  Hut  such  acci  mno- 
datioiis'  can  rarely  be  afforded  ;  and  the  nviar'  ■  the 
most  part,  is  only  a  cage  more  or  less  ornatiient  '  led 
of  wood  and  wires. 

Placed  in  this  state  of  confinement,  no  bi'.'  oould 
i;  "ssilily  exist  unless  great  care  is  ticstoweil  in  fui  lishing 
i.'ieni  with  food  and  fresh  wuier  daily,  keeping  their  ha- 
I'iiation  very  clean,  and  placing  them  in  a  rheerl^l 
iiMiation  in  a  parlour,  where  they  can  enjoy  the  ligbt 
.Jirds  that  are  prmluced  ni  confinement  are  more  con- 
•nieil  than  those  who  have  known  freedum ;  but  the 
«(ier  may  Im>  reronciled  to  this  new  state,  and  made  >o 
Mg  with  their  uccuetumcd  gayety.     A  good  plan  of  il- 


eonciling  a  newly  caught  bird  to  the  cage  i*  ,„jj  ,^, . 
as  follows : — For  two  or  three  hours  leave  ii  n,  \n„„^^ , 
lily,  and  then  pli  Mije  it  into  fresh  water.  This  n|ni,,i. 
It  ;  but  on  recoviTV,  it  arrange*  its  leatlirra.  heranm 
hungry,  niid  takes  at  once  to  its  food.  The  WfHj. 
however,  sliouhl  take  place  only  iluring  "unshino,  w  ikJ 
the  fejithiTH  may  Iw  sjieedily  ilried. 

The  lo.xl  of  cage  birds  is  very  various.  1.  ('imrK, 
ffoldllnihi's,  and  siskins,  live  only  on  sei'ds.  2.  (j^^^, 
larks,  iliairnulu's,  and  bidlfimhes,  ('(-.•tl  on  both  Henla  hm 
insects.  It.  .\iuhtingales,  redhrimtlK,  thruslicn,  ami  |,|^l 
binls,  take  heriies  and  insects.  Ueft^rring  to  tlii«<.  flinw 
of  bird:<.  Ilechslein  observes- ■••  ExisTience  'laohciim 
that  a  mivlnre  of  crushed  ca.iary,  hemp,  and  riiiw-s,.,,, 
is  the  favourite  food  of  caiuiries;  goldlinclies  miil  sj,|(||., 
prefer  poppy-seed,  and  someliincs  a  little  cnishoii  h,.rni> 
seed  ;  linnels  and  bollfinches  like  the  rape-seeil  uiorif  |i 
is  belter  to  soak  it  f  theyoung  challin'-lies,  bullllnclif. 
and  others;  in  order  to  do  this,  as  much  rnpc-wivl  an  u 
wanted  should  I*  put  into  a  jar,  c.ivered  wiih  w,),, 
and  placed  in  n  niixleralo  heat,  m  winter  mar  itie fin. 
in  summer  in  the  sun.  If  this  bi  done,  in  the  tnoriiin, 
h'   •    '  ■  the  birds,  the  soake<l   snd  will  ,|„  |,„,||^ 

rexi  niori,.  ig.  ,1  of  thi'in  ouuht  to  linvc  (jran  inul 
besides,  as  ehickweed,  enbbage-leaves,  li'lliup.  I'liiiiit, 
B'ul  wnt'T-cresses.  Hand  should  be  jinl  in  tlii>  bono^j 
of  the  cages,  as  it  seems  necessary  for  diueslinn, 

'■  .\nioiigst  tho.ie  of  the  second  class,  the  i|ii;ij|a  |H, 
cheese  and  the  crumbs  of  bread  ;  the  lark  liii''';y.mf,] 
with  cnbliiige,  chopped  cress,  pi)|ipy-sivil  k.ucJ  »,i1| 
bread  crumbs,  and  in  winter,  oals;  the  chatl'mclifn,  ram 
seed,  and  sometimes,  in  summer,  a  litlle  cinshcij  him 
seed.  Too  niuch  heni|i-seed,  however,  is  hurtful  loNrii^ 
and  should  only  bo  given  as  a  delicacy  now  anJ  then, 
for  when  they  eat  too  much  of  it  thiy  become  iHthnijti«, 
blind,  and  generally  die  of  consumption.  VellLH».han). 
mers  like  the  same  foisl  as  the  larks,  without  iJiovfB- 
tables;  the  tits  like  hemp-seed,  pine-seed,  |p,ic(in,  nifj^ 
suet,  bread,  walnuts,  almonds,  and  filber's."  The  saim 
uiilhor  proceeds  to  describe  two*  'iinds  of  pnsip,  «inip|| 
nnd  cheap,  and  which  may  U'  '..  .ed  a  univcriyl  '  nj 
for  birds. 

"  To  make  the  first  paste,  take  a  wliite  loaf  whifh '» 
well  baked  nnd  stale,  |)ut  it  into  fresh  wiitir,  ami  \nn 
it  there  until  ijnite  soakid  through,  then  si|un/,  out  tin  j 
water  and  pour  lH>iled  milk  over  the  loal,  aihlinir  aliool 
two-thirds  of  barley-meal  with  the  bran  well  siftoil  ou^ 
or,  what  is  still  better,  wheat-meal ;  hut  us  this  i>  Jatft,  | 
it  may  be  done  without. 

"  For   the  second   [)Rste,  grate   a   carrot  very  nirelj,  I 
(this  root  may  lie  kept  u  whole  yenr  if  bmieil  in  nand), 
then   soak   n  small  white   lonf  in  iVesli  water,  pri'jj  lit 
water  out,  and  put  it  and  the  grated  carroc  iiiliiiiiionrtha 
pan,  ndd  two  handfiils  of  barley  or  wheat-nical,  ana  ml  [ 
t!ie  whole  well  louelher  with  a  pestle. 

"  'I'liese  pastes  should  Ik'  made  fre-h  evf  rv  niorninj.i  I 
they  soon  (•cconie  sour,  |)artieidarly  the  hi  t  nniiccn*  I 
i|uently  hurtful.  For  llii '  purpose  I  have  a  fpfiiii^ 
trough,  roiind  which  there  is  room  emumh  for  half  ml 
birds.  It  is  Wtter  to  have  it  made  of  eurthfnwm  I 
■■•one,  or  delft  ware,  rather  th:'!'  wood,  as  ln'ini;  IK«  j 
easily  cleaned,  and  not  so  lil.'ely  to  cause  the  I'luii to  1»  j 
'  oine  sour. 

••'I'he  first  paste  agrees  so  well  with  all  my  lirdKi ebii  j 
'e  not  more  than  thirty  or  forty,  at  liberty  in  the  row  [ 
.int  they  are  always  healthy,  and  [ireserve  lli.ir  Nl»nl 
so  that  they  liavo  no  appearance  of  lieina  prisoiynl 
Those  which  live  only  on  seeds,  or  onl>  on  insorls,(il[ 
this  foisl  with  equal  avidity;  and  chatlinrlies.  linneH  I 
Koldfincbes,  siskins,  eunaries,  fauvettes,  roil-hreml*  il  j 
sjiecies  of  larks,  quails,  yellow-hammers,  bu^tin^^U«  f 
breasts,  and  reil-starts,  maybe  seen  eating  out  ol  OK  I 
snme  dish.  Homelimes,  as  a  delicacy,  they  iimv  liei^ill 
«  litilo  hemp,  poppy,  and  rape-seed,  trumis  of  Inrfl 


CAflE  BIRDS. 


i«  mid  <o  )m 
u  in  trin()\ii|. 
I'hi*  exhauih 
ll»r»,  brroiiwi 
Tho  \\(Bini, 
nutiinc,  K  thit 

!•  ("inind 

K     S.  Quaili, 

both  Hfodn  iKi 

il\i'«,  aiiiUilirk. 

to  llicnn  t\»>^ 

ICC  '.I'Ufhii  n» 

iiihI  rniic.K^l. 

Iu"<  mill  iiii<{(iiii 

itiisIh-J  hiiii|h 

('■wed  iiliiiio.  li 

lii'»,  hiilllinchfi, 

1  rn|i('-H('i'il  an  u 

rod  wuh  wiitr, 

cr  near  the  lire, 

in  ll\i'  mnrniiK, 

I  will  ill)  tiiithi 

invc  urccn  ti»i 

lelliup,  fiiiliin, 

lit  in  the  Ixilloni 

im'Nlinn. 

n,  tlic  i|iiiiili  lilii 

lurk  lni'',y.mfjl 

wil    K.iirii  «ith 

I'liiiirmcliPii.  ruffw 

e  ciimliwl  hi'ujv 

iiihurtl°\iltoMrili, 

•y  now  ami  thfn, 

H'Ciimp  UHthmilie, 

in.     Yollow-hiui> 

withimt  tliD  vp^^ 

H'l'd.  Ii.ii'on,  nifjl, 

'r'.H."     The  Sdini 

of  pai-lp.  anifli 

tt  univiTnal  '  'i 

bite  louf  which  V 
wiitiT,  anil  Imm 
II  HlHlll'7'  oiititu 

liiul',  aihliiii.'al"jiil 
an  well  Biftoil  oW,  I 
It  us  tliis  ij  Jfinr,  I 

urrot  vriy  nireli, 
f  Imiii''!  Ill  lanil),  I 

ll   VVlltlT.  |irO!!l  it 

r.ii  iiilii  iimarthM 
iciU-mi'al,  '.iniiniil 

cvf TV  ranrninfl.i  I 
Up  III  1.  nnJcoi*  I 
I  hnvp  a  fenlin^l 
noutllt  frr  111''  "7  I 
of  carthcnmn,  I 
I,  lis  iH'ing  IK»  I 
uso  the  fivJlol*] 

;illmybirii».»t«*j 
ilKTty  in  the  row  I 
servo  lliiir  ffslli"'i| 
if  licina  liti*«»l 
iMih  on  insects,  Ml  I 
•hatlindiM.  Iii«i*l 
tfi4,  Tf  il-hreist*.  J I 
ors,  huiitiiii!'.''*  r 

patins  oulolllnl 
.tlu'ViiiiivlifP^j 

crumla  of  brt«| 


Hid  inlf  egg*'  ^"''  "f  tlfiip  \»  ncccMiiry  fo.'  Iha  birili 
,t  lh«  Ihinl  »nil  fourth  '■li»""«- 

..  I'Hry  morning  frmli  wHlor  muiit  he  jjivon  to  the binlii, 
mAh  fof  driiikinn  «nil  Imthing.  WIhmi  a  uront  luanv 
ire  WH  at  lilvtly,  one  iIIhIi  will  ilo  for  them  nil.  alioul 
fijihl  iiu'hoi  lonu  huI  two  in  tlo|)tli  uml  wiillh,  ilividpil 
into  nfvi'nil  parti'i  oh,  liy  whii'h  niciiiiM  tliry  urn  |ir«- 
tonlfd  lf"n<  |ilnni<i"H;  entirely  into  lb«  water,  unci  in 
(MnM'<|Ui'iii'<'  niiikini!  tho  pliire  iilwityn  dirty  niiil  dump. 
,\  vcwl  of  the  Millie  me.  ami  ihiipr  will  do  for  holding 
tV  iinivcr^iil  |iiiKtP,  but  then  it  iniitt  hnvc  no  pnrtitiona. 
iJiiniU  mid  larku  ri'iiuirc  wind,  which  does  for  thom  in- 
itfail  (if  wiil'T  fur  hiitliiiiir. 

"Soiiir  liiriln  Biviillow  dim'tly  whalovcr  is  thrnwii  to 
them:  urciit  niro  imiHt  lio  liikrii  to  avoid  giving  them 
inv  lhii«{  ^vith   |K'p|wr  on  it,  or  had  nu-ut.     Thia  iniiHt 

I,,', rnl  mil".     I  bIihII  uNo  remark,  that  food  Hiidi- 

di'iit  fiif  "IIP  <'"y  only  miiHt  ho  given  to  liirdu  kept  in 
c.ieM.  f  T  they  are  iKviintoiiied  to  aciitter  it  iilioiit,  picking 
nut  Ihi"  luKt,  mid  leaving  only  the  worat  for  the  next 
nmrniiig ;  this  inakcg  them  pino,  and  puts  tliom  out  of 
humour." 

Caimrlea. 
Those  hirda  are  the  chief  peta  of  tho  parlour,  and  tho 
in,'thod  of  Irenting  them  rpipiirea  to  lie  given  nt  aomo 
jiiK'lh.  Being  originnlly  from  n  warm  climute,  they  nre 
tiiiilrr,  ami  must  he  kept  in  rooiiia  of  an  agreeahle  tem- 
wraliiri';  if  expoacd  to  cold  either  in  rooms  or  the  open 
jir,  they  pine  and  die.  In  dry  weather  in  anmmer,  their 
ca'e  8hiiiild  lir  hnng  in  the  open  air,  or  ut  least  in  the 
juimhiiie.  If  the  apartment  in  kept  too  hot,  they  will 
nin'ill  at  an  iinpro[|'r  aeaaon,  and  thia  inuat  ho  avoided. 
Oiili  one  male  ahould  he  allowed  in  a  cage.  Kcmiiles 
fur  iirp.'iling  are  the  lietter  for  having  u  large  cage,  oh  it 
aironls  thoni  space  for  excreinc.  The  greateat  cure  niuat 
lie  taken  to  riean  the  cage,  of  whatever  diinensiona,  and 
to  scatter  a  little  fine  aaiul  on  the  bottom  of  it.  F'ach 
should  lie  provided  with  three  cross-Hticka  as  perchea,  a 
•  ill  (jlasfl  trnni^h  for  water  tixcd  outside  at  the  extrc- 
V  of  one  of  the  Hljika.  The  water  muat  ho  changed 
i'       or  even  more  fn  jiiently. 

'  persons,  from  mistaken  kindness,  offer  pieces 
of  ma  cake  and  other  innp|iropriatc  food  to  canaries, 
mil  the  little  creatures  lieing  fond  of  these  things,  they 
do  l!i.  msc!\.>s  a  great  injury  by  eating  of  them.  A 
ctnsn- in  hig..  song  will  at  once  be  rendered  mute  by 
pari  '<ing  of  any  impmix-r  food  of  this  sort.  Aa  already 
mentioned,  the  foo<l  mt  be  of  a  simple  and  natural 
kind ;  besides  the  aceil-  and  other  things  dcscrilic.!,  they 
ihoukl  1^  supplied  daily  with  u  little  green  vegetables; 
luch  ai  chickweed  in  spring,  lettuce  and  radish-leavea 
m  summer,  endive,  watcr-creag,  and  slices  of  aweet  apple 
in  winter.  As  they  like  to  wash  their  feathers,  a  cup 
offtesh  water  may  lie  placed  in  the  cage  daily.  In  the 
moulting  season,  it  is  recommended  to  put  a  nail  into 
the  water  they  drink,  in  order  to  strengthen  the  system 
by  the  slight  infusion  of  iron  matter. 

The  breeding  of  canaries  rp(piires  additional  accom- 
modations. Tho  breeder  must  have  a  large  cage,  into 
which  tiic  pair  of  birds  is  put  about  the  middle  of  .\piil. 
At  the  I'pper  part  of  the  cage,  at  one  end,  boxes  for  the 
aestj  are  placed,  with  holes  to  go  out  and  in  by  ;  and  in 
the  centre  of  the  cage,  near  a  perch,  a  net-work  bag  is 
hung  filled  with  cotton,  wool,  moss,  hair,  and  other  soft 
nmtcrials,  for  the  birds  to  tuc  for  their  nests.  Tho  female 
only  huilils ;  and  about  ten  days  after  pairing,  she  lays 
the  first  "gg.  She  ordinarily  lays  six  eggs,  one  every 
day;  hut  each  egg  is  to  lie  taken  away  as  laid,  leaving  an 
ivory  one  only ;  and  when  done  laying,  replace  all  the 
'  HI.  The  period  of  incubation  is  thirteen  days.  When 
the  young  are  hutched,  finely  minced  egg  and  bread  are 
I  pl«ced  at  the  feeding-trough,  to  enable  the  parents  tc 
twiy  snitilile  food  to  thcii  young. 


RlirkblrHl. 

Tho  male  lihickhinl  ia  a  handsome  reature,  live.y  in 
inner,  mid  poaaesaing  aonie  aweet  "  wixhI  notes  wild," 
h  sound  moat  agreeably  I'runi  a  garden  ur  the  out 
of  u  window,  'i'ho  liinl  requirea  a  large  wickar 
I  <4e,  which,  whenever  weather  iiermits,  ought  to  h« 
hung  ill  ibii  open  air.  In  a  slate  of  nature,  the  black 
bird  eatM  iH'rnes,  seeds,  inaertH,  lurvn,  and  worms.  It 
lives  to  run  aluiut  a  gram-plot  in  the  tpriiii^  murninga, 
and  pick  up  any  stray  ti^nrni  which  is  atragglinif  froM<  its 
hole.  This  luihit  auggehta  the  propriety  of  giving  it, 
when  in  conlinenient,  both  vcgitiiblo  ojiil  animal  food. 
The  universal  paste  will  anawer ;  but  if  too  heating, 
which  it  ia  liable  to  lie,  give  hits  of  bread,  dies,  cock- 
chaffers,  worms ;  and  failing  theae,  chopjicd  raw  meat. 
A  rough  lione  from  tho  table  will  alno  not  he  inappro> 
priate.  A  ahnrt  ex|ierieiice  will  show  upon  which  kinda 
of  fo(Hl  the  creature  thrives  lirat,  and  let  that  bo  adhered 
to.  Give  also  plenty  of  pure  water  to  drink  ;  and  onoa 
a  week,  v^ilen  the  sun  shines,  act  a  basin  of  water  in  tha 
cage  for  it  to  bate  in  and  dean  itself.  Let  the  cage  ba 
carefully  and  regularly  cleaned. 

I'arrota. 

Under  this  head  may  he  classed  a  number  of  beakea 
birds  of  similar  character,  as  parrots,  parrakeets,  cock- 
atoos, and  mnccnws,  all  possessing  beautiful  plumage  of 
green,  yellow,  or  grayish  tints.  They  arc  chicHy  from 
Nonth  America,  and  require  the  warmth  of  a  dwelhng- 
house  to  keep  them  alive  in  this  country.  All  possesa 
harsh  voices,  and  would  on  that  account  bo  considered 
a  pusitivo  nuisance  by  most  persons  except  for  the  oddity 
of  their  being  able  to  repent  certain  words  ;  but  this  is  a 
(pinlity  possessed  by  smno  in  greater  [lerfection  than 
others.  Each  kind  of  these  birds  may  be  treated  much 
in  the  same  manner.  They  nre  allowed  u  large  caga 
formed  of  strong  wires,  with  thick  round  bars  to  perch 
upon,  and  a  ring  at  top  to  swing  from  by  their  hooked  beak. 
All  the  parts  must  be  of  tin,  for  they  would  soon  pick 
wood  to  pieces.  In  the  Zoological  Gardens,  they  ara 
usually  seen  perched  on  a  cross-bar  of  tin  at  the  top  of 
a  start',  hut  chained  by  the  leg  to  prevent  their  escape. 

The  food  offered  to  parrots,  maccaws,  &c.,  is  chiefly 
bread  steeped  in  milk,  nuts,  or  any  other  simple  article. 
Care  must  be  taken  never  to  give  them  any  thing  with 
salt  or  [icpiier.  On  the  subject  of  feeding  them,  Bech» 
stein  makes  the  following  observations: — "In  its  native 
country,  the  fruit  of  the  palm-free  is  its  principal  food ; 
our  fruit  it  olso  likes,  but  white  bread  soaked  in  milk 
agrees  with  it  better ;  biscuit  docs  not  hurt  it ;  but  meat, 
sweetmeats,  and  other  niceties,  are  very  injurious ;  and 
thiiugh  at  first  it  does  not  appear  to  be  injured,  it  be> 
comes  unhealthy,  its  feathers  stand  up  separate,  it  pecka 
and  tears  them,  above  all  those  o'.  the  first  joint  of  the 
pinion,  ond  it  even  makes  holes  in  liifrrv.-nt  parts  of  ita 
body.  It  drinks  little — this  is  pt-rhapM  .»  asioned  by  ita 
eating  nothing  dry.  Many  biid  fitr.cierb  say  that  the 
heat  fiKxl  for  parrots  is  simply  th','  f.ruii'ba  of  white  bread, 
well  baked,  without  salt,  soaked  in  water,  and  then  slightly 
squeezed  in  the  hand.  But  though  this  appears  to  agree 
with  them  p'ctty  well,  if  is,  however,  certain  that  now 
and  then  soniothing  else  ought  to  be  added.  I  have  ob- 
served, indeed,  that  parrots  which  are  thus  fed  ore  very 
thin,  have  hardly  strength  to  bear  moulting,  and  some- 
times even  do  not  moult  at  alt;  in  that  case  they  become 
asthmatic,  and  die  of  consumption.  It  is  clear  that  feed- 
ing them  only  on  this  food,  which  has  very  little  if  any 
moisture  in  it,  is  not  sutlicient  to  nourish  them  properly^ 
at  least  during  the  moulting  season,  and  while  the  fea- 
thers are  growing  again.  I  never  saw  a  parrot  in  better 
health  than  one  which  belonged  to  a  lady,  who  fed  it  oa 
white  bread  soaked  in  boiled  milk,  having  more  milk  than 
the  bread  would  absorb,  which  the  parrot  diank  with 


INFORMATION   FOR  TIIK    PKOPLK. 


■pptrciit  plrMiir«  ;  'hrra  wm  »\m  put  intu  (hr  ilrawcr  nt  | 
ib  cinr  aoiih)  w»  liwiiil,  or  wliili-  lirnid   kojiIu'iI  in  lK>il- 
in((  wiiti'r;  it  wia  nlao  Rivsii  rr\i:t  wlirii  in  HiMiKdii.     It  la 
nrrf'Mary  to  lie  vi-rv  I'Krrrul  that  thn  milk  ix  not  wnir. 

"  Mom*  >oiiriii  mmTiiwii  tm  I'l-ii   (in  hi<in|>Hirnl,  wliirh  I 
mu«t  iilwayi  !><<  of  tha  ymr  iM'lorp,  n*  tlin  new  wiiiilil  lir 
loo  warm  and  lUiiiirroua.      Yi'l  Ihry  niiiat  not  Imi  (n\  en- 
tirely on  Itii*  fiHjil,  lint  tliarr  niUfit  hi*  adilcil  wliito  hread  | 
aoiknl  in  milk  ur  wali<r,  aa  hao  alrmdy  Wri\  inciitionnl, 
■Qinc  Iriiit  an<l  nnia,  liut  nrvor  liit'er  ulmoiidn,  nn  ttu'y  ' 
will  infallibly  kill  all  yonntt  nniniaU.     In  nil  ciiat'ii  iho 
nrrcmrnta  nf  tli«  bird  will  indicati'  tlio  aintp  of  ila  lieullh, 
•lid  whrtiiiT  lilt'  food  oiiiflit  to  lir  rlniiiui'd  o:  nut,  I 

•>  Altli(iiii;li  mitrciiwa  rarrly  want  to  drink,  na  tlirir  foiKl 
U  vrry  inuiat,  yet  thcv  iniial  not  lir   It'll  without  watrr, ! 
fkliirh  ia  vvnoruliy  |ilii(i'd  in  onu  of  ihr  divitioiH  of  ihcir 
tin  druwiT.     It  ia   hUo  ii  i;ood  lhini(  to  riiliif  thi'in  to  ^ 
bathe;  nothinit  ix  mori<  fuvourahle  to  their  hnillh,  or  !«:• 
tvt  fariiil.itiM  tlir  painful  o|>eration  nl  inoiilliiiK,  or  krepn  ! 
their  fuulliera  in  iH'ltflr  order.     A  little  iitlrntion  to  tlifne 
favourite*,  deprived  of  their  lilierty,  their  iintunil  cliiniile, 
oml  food,  rnnnol  Ui  too  iniirh  troulile  t  >  iiiiii.ilile  [n'raona 
wh.i  arc  fond  of  thciii,  and  to  whom  theao  pretty  birdu 
become  ureiilly  atturhed." 

The  coi-kiitoo  ia  Heneriilly  eateenied  aa  of  mililer  tein- 
fier  than  the  parrot.  Of  thia  apee'ea,  Diitliin  ohservea 
-r-"  C'ockatooa,  whieh  may  lie  known  by  lliiiir  tuft,  are 
not  eaaily  taught  to  a|M>ak ;  and  there  ia  uni'  ipt'iiea  which 


dnni  not  api'ak  at  al! ;  but  tlila  i«  In  anme  menaurv  »■ 
pi'iiaati'd   for   by  the  kiimiI  fiieilily  with  wtiidi  lh-» 
laini'd  ;  in  aoine  piiria  ol  liiiliti  tin;   ure  even  >|  r.,  j 
iiii'hljciiled  that  they  will  build  lliei'    <  >u  „n  tlir  roo'' 
the  houaea;  thia  fmilily  of  edui  ill   m   ia  owing  tilth 
intelliiii'nre,  whirh   ia  very  aiip, ,  ,.    li  Jhui    :f  ctbr  (, 
rotn.     They   liateii,  iinderatiind,   .1,;  ol<  y;  hm  it  |,   ' 
vain  that  they  iniike  the  nuine  1  lliiiu  to  ri'|a'>t  whii 
aiiid   to  them  ;   they  aeiin  to  wiah   to  miike  ii|i  lor  ji  1 
other  exprraxioiia  of  feiliiiH  and  by  iiflectioiiali'  rm^ 
There  ia  a  iiiildiieMa  and   unire  in  nil   ihrir  riKivi'Mf, , 
whirh  (jreatly  add  lo  tlirir  beuiily.   In  Murrh,  r,7S  ((,,  ' 
were  two,  u  mule  and  femiile,  iit  the  f.iir  of  .St.  (Icfm,.. 
in  I'aria,  which  olM-ycd  with  Kniil  docility  ll>e  onl-n  ,1    ' 
them,  eillicr  to  aprrml  out  their  tuft,  or  aiil'.ito  ik'hiiI,.  „  ||, 
H  land  of  the   heiid,  or    lo    b-iich   diirerrnt  iilijirii  mih 
their  beak  and  tomriie,  ,.r  to  reply  lo  ijiieHlionii  fniin  ilui, 
m.uii'i  with  II  tliark  of  naa<'iil,  wliidi  clearlj  i«hrci,«.,] , 
eiieiit  yn     Ihcy  nlao  allowed  by  rcpniled  i<i«iiB  the  nun,. 
lar  of  jieraona  in  the  room,  the  limir  of  day,  tin.  f„|,,„. 
of  clollica,  Ac;   they   ki»a<'d  oiin  uimlhcr  by  loucbiiu 
their  N'aka,  and  even  cureaaed  eiicli  oilier;  llm  hIkj,,,,,! 
a  wiah  lo  pair,  and  llm  iimoler  iiHiniiH  Ihiit  Ihey  ii|'|i>n,|n 
ao  even   in   our  cliiniitea.     Though   the  cockalnw,  lii, 
other  parrotn,  uae  Ihcir  bill  in  iiaceiidinR  and  (li-winlinn 
yet  they  have  not  their  heavy  diaa;;rccable  alfp;  on  ih» 
contrary,   they   arc   very   active,   and   hop  liiout  vm 
nimbly." 


BEES. 


Tiis  aubjpct  of  Bees,  which  ia  equally  extensive  and 
inlcrcaliii)(,  has  for  many  ages  attrucli  il  the  attention 
of  mankind.  The  Sacred  Wrilings,  the  moat  ancient  of 
wliich  we  have  any  knowledi^e,  nhow  in  nuiiieroua 
jiUces  how  strongly  the  fathcra  of  the  Jewish  |>eo)iIc 
had  been  iiiipreaajMl  by  the  (leculiaritiea  in  tlio  natural 
history  of  tlie  Bee ;  and  we  know  that  Ariatotio  anil 
other  pliilosophora  of  old  (irecce  di'ciiicd  the  subjei  I 
worthy  of  years  of  patient  inveatiijiilion.  Virijil,  also, 
<nil  many  other  Koinnn  writers,  dwelt  on  it  with  en- 
thusiasm ill  tlicir  writint^s ;  while,  in  iiiiich  later  tiiiica, 
r)w  iinmerdum  and  other  diali'ii;uishcd  ciillivatora  of 
science  have  pursued  the  aamc  tra.k  with  uiidiininislicd 
ardour.  The  moit  zealous  of  these  iii'iiiircra  was  Francis 
Huber  (born  at  (lenevn  1750,  died  IHDI ),  who,  thou;;h 
abourin);  under  the  de|).  v.iiion  of  Hi'.{lit,  by  the  aid  of 
aik  wife  forntcJ  a  most  valuatlu  cullectiun  of  observa- 


tions on  the  habits  nf  Lens,  and  to  whose  wort  vc  ihig 
have  occaaion  to  refer.  Hiwieties  have  olao  hecn  forni^ 
for  the  sole  purpose  of  iiivi'stiKatiuR  this  portion  nf 
natural  hiatory.  A  mere  summary  of  the  inlfrwiuji 
essays,  therefore,  which  thia  insect,  so  univrrnally  lo. 
prcciatcd,  has  called  forth,  would  occupy  a  virv  Itnf 
sjiacc.  On  the  present  occasion,  an  attemiit  an  only 
bi-  made  to  cull  from  the  moat  approved  Bourc'is  iiii 
dilaiU  as  may  form  a  complete  hiatory  of  tho  IW, 
though  at  till-  same  time  it  must  necessarily  Iw  a  ro: 
cise  one,  aloii);  with  directions  for  the  praclioai  rnana*  I 
inentof  this  nioat  useful  animal. 

Bees  are  arratiRcd  by  zoologists  into  the  f>.nily  of  I 
tho  .'l/iiiltr  (from  ii/ns,  a  bee),  in  the  order  Hi/imnifirtl 
(having  four  unequal  inemtiranuceouH  wins«)  of  tin  [ 
IiiHiVt  class.  The  8<K'ial  Apida)  form  the  principj  I 
division  of  the  family,  their  typo  bcinR  Iho  .'?/i>  M  I 
l-Jirii,  the  Moncy-ninkini;,  or,  in  common  p!i'w,  ibfl 
Honey-Bee.  It  ia  so  called  not  from  an  cxoliisivf  |».  I 
culiarily,  but  becaus*-  it  is  the  sjieciea  wlii^'h  hn  Iod^I 
yii'liled  to  man  the  rich  product  indicated  in  its  nii».| 
\»  the  obs<'rvutions  to  follow  will  h.ive  rrfrmiitlol 
the  Honey-Bcc,  it  may  simply  be  mentioned  ihit  lit  I 
deacri|.'tion  of  this  i;enus  iiiviilvea  all  lli>'  main  frilm  | 
in  the  natural  history  of  its  less  important  con!;eiita| 
the  Wild  or  Humble  Bees,  Ihi;  K|)ccial  pwuliiiimi I 
of  which  will  be  brielly  adverted  to  in  the  conclusion  f 

HONEY  HKES. 
Of  the  family  of  the  Smial  Apidie  or  Honfv.Bfal 
two  species  seem  lo  exist  in  Kurojie,  the  one  fuLiiJ  il  I 
the  north,  and  the  other  in  the  south ;  but,  irjikii|l 
allowance  for  a  slight  deefM<nin|!;  of  tint  from  bruinili| 
red  in  the  rin^s  of  the  liody  in  the  case  nf  the  1 
■outhcriy  insect,  the  descripliua  of  tho  conunon  iii»| 


BEES. 


mppcifc 


jf  Britain  will  npply  to  Ihn  oth«r  In  all  impnrtnnt 
\  liivi*  of  hiirivv  or  Knrilrii-ttrpi  i-iinlniiK 
ihrM  iirili'X  of  i'llinliitiiiitu,  itiii  i-ilrninl  rliar^ti'U'ra  of 
•hlrli  ilill''^  I'oiiHiilt'riiMy,  wliilr  their  iiwi)  iiii  I  t'uiiclioni 
(lie  ri)iiirmiiii'y  «"'  "'""'  nmrkfilly  cliiilinil.  Thn 
matt  imixirluiU,  niid  by  fMr  the  iiumt  niiiiirroii*  order  ii 
ihit  i>l  ''"'  "'"'*'"'"•  "'  ii''iil^i"V-l'<>'',  formerly  re^arcle  I  aa 
nfuU-rn  in  re«|»'et  of  »rx,  liilt  mow  more  pro|K>r'  i  <• 
iiilfri'<l  '*  iiiiilevp!o|>eil  lerimle><.     The  neeonil  order 

i„.i„„.i|  of  the  limleH  of  the   hive,  terineil    the  r/idiic 
phiTC  in  iitiiiilly  hut   one   |M  rfeet  ineniber  of  tho  third 
nnjrr  iiremMit  iit  ii  lime  in  ii  liive,  nnd  thiK  in  thu  (yiiren- 
{(f,  till!  nolr  t'erimle  of  the  eoiiirmiiiity. 

'I'll,,  vvoikinu  hoiiey-liee  hiis  ii  body  nboiit  hidf  nn 
inch  in  li'm'l'.  lil.ickiHh-brown  in  line,  iiiid  eoverrd  with 
4,.«..«'t  hiiim,  which  are  feiitlieM(lin|ied,  iinil  mi'ml  Iho 
•rentnro  iimleri.illy  in  eollnetinij  the  fiirinn  of  (lowerH, 
■fill'  /ii'ii/,  which  \»  a  (liitlened  trinin;le  in  Hhape,  in  at- 
lnhfil  I"  ''"'  ''b<'''t  hy  a  tliin  lii;iinient  ;  uiiil  the  rhent 
niihiinir,  wliii'h  inofa  Hpherieal  form,  in  united  in  a  nimihir 
lliijlit  wiiy  to  the  aliiliimcit.  Thn  uUlomeii  in  divided 
into  «i»  »''"'y  ""?"•  wliieh  nhorten  thn  body  by  Blippiii({ 
ovtTone  iiiiDllier  to  a  eertiiin  extent.  'I'liexe  three  ex- 
tnnal  ilivisiona  of  the  intert'g  body  have  all  of  them 
ipwnil  I !,"''<  «'•"  peeuliar  ititerr^it  and  utility.  'I'ho  head 
in  provicU'cl  with  a  donble  visual  uppnratiiH.  In  front  are 
pUivtl  two  I'V'.  eoiisiHtliiif  each  of  iiumeroii!<  hexiiKonnl 
nhli'ii,  tlwliled  witli  liairH  to  ward  oil'  the  dn«t  or  pollen 
of  liiHvors;  and  three  ■•:•  ",  eyen  are  aNo  to  be  loiiiid  on 
the  very  lop  of  ibo  head,  intended,  doubllosH.  both  to 
hoi^'hlon  the  ueni'ral  iienBe  of  Hecinu,  which  thu  creature 
10  iipciili;iHv  roipiirex,  nnd  to  Rive  a  dcfi-iMive  viHion  up- 
wiixiii  fnin  the  cups  of  llowerx.  The  iiii!eiiii<r,  however, 
which  iire  two  Hictider  tube*  Bpriniiinu;  from  iH-twixl  the 
front  e\i'«.  and  ciirvinif  outwardu  on  each  Hide,  niont  pro- 
kiMv  fulfil  iniuiy  of  the  pnrpoHeB  of  vision  in  the  dark 
interior  of  llic  hive.  Tlie.sc  inilrumeiits  have  each  of  them 
hvrlvc  arliciilationH,  and  tcniiiiiate  in  a  knob,  allied  with 
llip  innut  ilclicatc  sen'titivenexn.  By  the  flexibility  of  the 
inlfnniE,  Ihi'  bee  in  enabled  to  feel  and  RraHp  any  object 
in  iuwny;  and  there  ran  Iw  little  doubt  that  it  iiicluefiy 
bv  mfaiif  cif  tlieiie  it  hnildn  ii»  combs.  fei'dH  the  yonni;, 
fills  the  honey-cells,  and  perform*  the  other  operations  of 
the  hive.  Itccs  also  use  thu  uuino  instrumentH  for  the 
rei'ojnitiiin  "f  "ne  another. 

The  mouth  of  the  Iwe  in  a  very  complex  structure,  nnd 
one  woiulcrl'nlly  lilted  for  its  <luties.  lis  most  im|iorlaiit 
p»rti  are  the  mnmVlilef,  the  Iniintir,  the  pralioTin,  nnd 
lih'ud  feftfin.  The  mandibles  are  merely  the  two  sides 
of  the  upper  jaw,  split  vertically,  nnd  movable  to  such  a 
Jcgrce  a-i  ti>  enable  the  insi<rt  to  break  down  tixsl  be- 
Ivtlxt  thcai,  to  manipulate  wax,  and  use  them  othciwise 
u  jcrviccable  tools.  They  are  (iirnished  with  teeth  at 
ihcir  enili,  two  in  numlMir.  The  tonHuo  of  the  bee  is 
Hiremrly  small,  and  indeed  is  scarcely  n<lmitted  by  some 
naluralims  to  exist  at  all,  the  prolK>sci8  licin^  otlen  siir- 
lilied  by  that  name.  Many  of  the  usual  functions  of 
luch  an  instrument  are  indeed  performed  by  the  probos- 
:i»,  a  loni^  slender  projection  eom|>o»ed  of  about  forty 
cartilaginous  rini;s,  frinired  with  line  hairs.  From  the 
haK  of  this,  on  each  side,  rise  the  labi.d  feelers,  instrii- 
mfnts  also  friii'^ed  or  feathered  interiorly  ;  nnd  outside 
of  these  arc  the  lower  jaws,  simiLulv  provided  with  hairs. 
When  the  feelers  and  jaws  close  in  on  the  proboscis,  they 
form  a  hIiciiiIi  or  ilcl'ciice  to  it.  Naturalists  used  to  term 
ihf  proboscis  a  tube;  but  they  now  know  that  it  acts  by 
rollin:;  about  and  lappine  up,  by  means  of  the  frintjes 
irouiid  it,  evi'ry  tliiiiij  to  which  it  is  :i|)|ilic(l.  The  uath- 
ereJ  materlut  is  thiMi  conveyed  into  the  Kiillet  at  its  base, 
whfiice  it  pisses  into  the  internal  or^aiis.  Thus  we  lind 
the  mandibles  of  the  upper  jaw  reaily  to  hreak  and  pre- 
ptre  the  loud  lor  the  swecpinn-up  apparatus  of  the  lower 
\Ul»     WliiU  pofftict  in  action  in  an  exuanded  atatu,  Iho 


whole,  mnrrover,  mn  be  lo  folded  together  ■•  to  forru  on* 

■trorin  well-protected  in*trument. 

To  the  trunk  or  thorax  of  the  bee   exteriorly  tr*  <it> 

tached  the  nium  lea  of  thn   winffi  and  Icri.     The  wlni;4 

consist  of  two  pairs  of  iineipial  nixo,  which  are  hooked  Id 

one  another,  in  order  to  act  in  concord  and  iteady  tha 

movement*  ill  flyiiitf.      .  .in  U-e  has  thn-e  pairs  of  Ii'k*,  of 

which  the  anterior  piiit  are  the«hortest  nnd  the  piMteriur  lit* 

lonueat.     All  of  them  urn  formed  upon  the  laiiie  prinei* 

pie  as  the  limlwof  man,  haviiiK  articulations  for  thethiith, 

le'{   and   foot,  with  some  minor  joint!   in  tlie  latter  part. 

I  The  hind  Ic^s  are  marked  by  a  s|H<cial  and  beautiful  pro> 

j  vision.     'I'his  is  a  eii|>-like  cavity  on  the  Ithin  or  foie-leij, 

inleiided    for    the    important    p\irpose   id°  rnceivinK    Ihn 

liiiraded   |H>llen  which  the  bee  collecls  in  its  wanilvrinL.-a. 

The  lei(R  are  all   thickly  Htinlded   with  haira,  and   mora 

I  parliciilar  the  cavity  mentioned,  in  which  the  material* 

I  reipiire  to  1m!   retained  securely.      Another  proviaion  of 

i  the  bee's  limbs  consists  in   a  pair  of  hooka   attached   to 

each  foot,  by  inc.ins  of  which  the  aniiiml  sus|ienda  itself 

from  the  roof  of  the  hive  or  any  aimilar  position.      Ho- 

I  neakh  or  behind  the  wiiiKS  the  tfnrmtft  or  air  u|ieniiiKa 

.ire  found,  which  admit  air  for  Ihn  purpose  of  (H-rmeatiiig 

j  the  chest,  and  probably  the  whole  body,  for  thn  oxynena- 

i  lion  of  the  rirciilatlnn  syHtem.     Hulier  completely  proved 

both  that  respiration  is  essentially  necessary  to  hoea,  aiid 

I  that  thu   spiraclrs  are  the   niHtrumenU   by  which   it  ie 

I  eHected.     He  found  that  they  die  in   nn  exhausted  re« 

celver  and  become  asphyxiated   when  shut  up  in  iiuin* 

hers  ill  closi!  bottles.     'I'hey  (s^rish  in  water  only  if  iIm 

spiracles   are   under  the  surface;  and   the  use  of  these 

a|iortures  is  then  made  apparent  by  the  bubbica  whli  li 

escape  from  them  under  water.      As  will  Im  shown,  nlso, 

Ik'cs  carefully  ventilate  their   hives.     Therefore,  lhou.;h 

no  hlootl  has    lieen  detected    in  bees  or  other    insects, 

these  tiny  spiracles  are  of  no  sUkIiI  consequence  in  the 

physical  economy  of  the  insect,  oxyRen  beiiiK  apparently 

not  less  neccHsary  to  the  vilnllly  of  its  circulating  lluidi 

than  to  those  of  wnriii-blooded  animals. 

IJesiilcs  these  appeiidai?es  and  contenta  of  the  chest, 
that  renion  is  traversed  by  the  (tso/ihanuii  or  gullet,  on 
its  way  to  the  digestive  nnd  other  organs  aituated  in  the 
abdomen.  These  orp;niis  consist  of  the  htMnj-hng,  the 
nlDiiuirh,  the  ivax-iiockc'^,  and  the  inltslinri,  with  tha 
veiiiii,i-liiii;  and  »'i»m.  The  honey-baff,  sometimes  called 
the  first  Blmnacli,  thouch  dinestion  never  takes  place 
there,  is  an  eiilariiemeiit  of  the  gullet  into  a  pea-sized 
bnij.  pointed  in  front,  with  two  pouches  behind.  In  thia 
receptaide  is  lodflcd  the  fluid  or  saccharine  portion  of  the 
bee's  catheriiifiH.  and  by  the  muscularity  of  the  coats  U 
can  be  rcvturgitated  to  fill  the  honey-cells  of  the  hive,  A 
short  passage  leads  to  the  second  or  true  stomacli.whic  . 
receives  the  food  for  the  nouriHhment  of  the  bee,  anU 
also  the  sncchariiie  matter  from  which  the  wax  is  scented. 
The  small  inteHiincs  receive  the  digested  food  from  the 
stomach,  and  from  them  it  Hp|wara  to  lie  absorbed  for  the 
piv.poses  of  luilritlon.  Wax,  it  was  once  thought,  waa 
polli'ii  elaborated  in  the  stomach  and  ejected  by  the 
moth  ;  but  it  is  entirely  derived,  it  is  now  known,  from 
the  honey  or  saccharine  matter  consumed  by  the  insect ; 
nnd  .lohti  Kiinter  discovered  two  small  pouches  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  iii'doincn,  from  vessels  on  the  si4face 
of  which  it  is  secreted.  After  accumulating  for  a  time 
in  these  pouches,  scales  of  it  ap|iear  externully  below 
one  or  other  of  the  four  medial  rin^s  of  the  alKlomen,  iind 
are  vvltli<liawn  by  the  bee  itself  or  those  around  it.  Close 
to  the  stomach  is  found  the  Inst  important  organ  of 
the  alHlomen,  the  .sting.  Much  benutilnl  mechanism  it 
observed  on  a  microscopical  e\aniiiiation  of  this  weapon, 
so  powerful  in  comparison  to  its  bulk.  It  consists  of  two 
long  darts,  udherlng  loiiu;ltudlnally,  and  strongly  pro- 
tected hy  one  nrinciiial  sheath.  'I'his  sheath  is  supposed 
to    be    tirst  thrust  out  in  stinging,  anl   its  power  i« 


Mt 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


pierco  may  be  conjectured  from  tlio  fact  that,  when 
newed  through  a  rIusi  which  niagnilics  a  tino  needle- 
point to  the  breadth  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  the  ex- 
tremity of  tlie  sheath  ends  so  finely  as  to  ho  invisible. 
Tiie  sheath  once  inserted,  then  llio  two  stdl  finer  darts 
follow,  and  make  a  further  puncture.  The  use  of  this 
is  to  receive  Ihe  poison,  which  is  coiiducicd  to  the  en<l  of 
the  shciith  in  n  (rroovi*;  and  in  order  that  the  conjoined 
darts  may  not  lie  withdrawn  ton  soon  for  this  pur^xne, 
they  have  each  nine  or  ten  liarhs  al  the  puint  to  retain 
thon.  Wh^n  the  weapon  is  withdrawn,  the  poison  is 
thus  left  with  a  cavity  tc  enter,  causing  a  deeper  fester- 
ing. The  insect  ejects  the  poison  by  means  of  a  'luscle 
encircling  the  hag  at  the  b.ise  of  the  sling,  in  which  bug 
the  venom  is  secreted.  The  chemical  comjiosition  of 
th"  '  )i8on  has  not  Iwen  discovered,  though  it  has  so  far 
'  .u  nature  of  an  acid  as  to  redden  the  vegetable  blues. 
Altogether.  Paley  is  fully  justified  in  pointing  to  the  de- 
fensive weapon  of  the  hee  us  a  wondrous  union  of  me- 
ehanical  and  chemical  perfection. 

The  manner  in  which  the  Ih'c  collects  the  food  which 
forms  the  various  secretions  alluded  to  is  worthy  of  note. 
The  hairs  willi  which  its  body  and  feel  arc  covered,  are 
the  main  instruments  used  for  this  end.  Uy  means  of 
tlie  hairs  on  the  feet,  the  insect  usually  heiiins  its  eollec- 
<ion  of  the  pollen  in  the  corolla  which  it  has  entered, 
•nd,  after  kncaiilng  the  dust  into  halls,  finally  places  it 
In  thi;  liaskets  of  the  hind  legs.  But  the  creature  is  not 
content  with  the  product  of  this  process.  Rolling  its 
boily  round  and  round,  it  brushes  olf  the  pollen  still  more 
cleaidy,  gathers  it  into  two  heaps  with  its  active  brushes, 
and  loads  its  baskets  to  the  brim.  Even  afterwards, 
tliey  soinetiines  lly  homo  like  dusty  millers,  anil  brush 
their  jackets  when  unluaded.  'I'he  pollen  is  umlerstood 
to  he  liriiuglit  hdini'  by  the  working-bees  more  )ieculiarly 
as  food  for  llie  young.  'l"he  fluid  stcrcliDns  eoiitaiue<l  in 
tlie  nectarea  of  flowers,  and  lioney-<lew,  which  is  a  de- 
position of  certain  aphides  on  plants,  serve  as  other 
natural  varieties  of  the  liee's  food;  and  the  insect  also 
drinks  large  quantities  of  water.  | 

'i'he  senses  of  liees  have  been  in  part  touched  ujMJn 
already.  The  means  of  vision  bestowed  on  them,  it  was 
ilientioned,  consist  of  the  many-leiised  eyes  in  front,  and  the 
•upplomeiitiiry  organ  above.  Ini|uirers  liave  lieeii  stag- 
gered by  the  seeming  contradictions  connected  wit!',  the  '. 
vision  of  the  bee.  .\rter  collecting  its  store  of  food,  its  ! 
first  movement  is  to  rise  aloft  in  the  air,  and  h",k  tor  the  , 
•ite  of  its  home.  Having  determined  this  in  an  instant. 
hov^ever  distant  the  hive  may  be,  it  g.H-s  for  the  point 
Vith  the  directness  of  a  cannon-ball,  and  usually  a!ii;lits 
at  its  own  door,  though  the  whole  counti'v  U;  erowiled 
with  hives.  Vet  if  the  h  ve,  or  its  door,  has  Ih'cii  sliilud  . 
to  I  slight  exti'nt,  Ihe  insert  >-eeins  confused,  and  cannot 
find  itij  way.  'J'he  conclusion  from  tiiis  is,  that  the  eyes 
of  the  bee  have  a  lengthened  focus,  suitinir  them  for  the 
main  purpos«'8  of  its  exiclenee.  Hut  the  consKjuent 
inability  to  deiermine  accurately  on  short  distances  has 
been  cnmjx'iisaled  to  the  creature  by  the  aiiteniiH',  which  i 
then  become  a  highly  serviceable  n'source.  The  sense 
of  laslc  in  bees  has  U'eii  the  subji'ct  of  much  argumenta- 
tion. Hulier  was  of  opininn  ihiit  it  was  the  nioiit  im- 
perfect of  their  .sense's,  and  ihey  have  been  observed  to 
resort  to  putrid  marshe  for  water,  even  when  iliey  were 
not  resliicted  in  their  duice.  .Venophon  found  his  men 
WTionsly  iiijureil  by  taking  honey  proihiced  by  bees 
which  had  ted  mi  deleteiitius  jiliiits,  iiut.  on  the  other 
hand,  it  has  U'eii  noticed  that  they  reject  iiiupiv  substances, 
and  (iri'tei  others,  wben  a  choice  is  allowed  tliem;  and 
it  hag  ben  conjectured  that  they  goto  marshes  piiiponely 
for  the  SiuLin  llieir  wat<Ts.  .Moreover,  what  ri'iiders  tlie 
honey  ili'lel4'rioiis  tii  man,  may  not  he  liiirtlul  to  bees. 
'foney,  formed  from  a  partii  ular  dower  in  the  Jerseys, 
was  found  uiitit  for  usi' iVom  its  iiitoxnatiiig  qualities ; 
jrul  lite  bees  throve  wonderfully  upon  it  at  the  .-same  time. 


Their  taste  in  selecting  the  richest  flowers  is  |i|,,_' 
unquestionable.     No  doubt  the  sense  of  snif// come, '  T 
operation  on  these  occasions,  as  well  as  the  sense  of  ta  i 
Uetwixt  the  influence  and  cflects  of  the  two,  indeed  'i 
is  scarcely  possible  to  discriminate.     Even  in  the    ' ' 
of  the  human  being,  it  is  an  estublishcd  fact  that  ih 
power>>  common'y  ascribed  to  the  sense  of  taste  are  t 
rem  irkable  degree  de|)endent  on  the  sense  of  sincll    If 
the  eyes  ho  bandaged,   and  the  apertures  of  the  n 
well  shut  up,  the  most  experienced  judge  will  be  at 
loss  to  determine  between  any  two  kinds  of  ardent  i;,ir|,, 
or  other  pungent  suhstiinces.     The  most  nauseous  nieji' 
.\  les  alse,  much  as  they  may  usually  seeiii  to  affect  th" 
taste,  will   be   found   almost   insipid  if  the  site  of  ih 
sense  of  smell  lie  closcil  up  while  they  are  swallow  1 
In  bees,  the  site  of  the  two  senses  st'enis  to  lnj  almoi 
one  and  the  same.     Many  cxperinieiits  of  Iluler  sen 
to  prove  that   the  sense  of  smell  lies  in  tlie  inoinb  aiiJ 
that  it  is  very  acute.     He  found  tliut  tli.y  hate  the  oJour 
of  turpentine,   yet    on    i)lu;jgiinr   up   the    moutli  ih,.. 
showed  no  ilisgust  when  placed  beside  lli.il  liniiiu.    ji', 
concealed  honey  at  considerable  distances,  ami  ihev  in , 
very    short    time  delected   the    hidden    treasure,     'n,, 
acutencss  of  their  sens"  of  smell,  in  truth,  is  .sullioimtlv 
jiroved  by  their  admirable  skill  in  trackim;  mu,  overhjj] 
and  dale,  the  most  fra.;rant  flower-parterres  ami  Ijoils  of 
mountain  heath.     The  .sense  of  liiuirii'-j,  has  been  denicij 
to  bees  by  many  ob.scrvers,  wlii4e  oilicis  dc>;cril)e  the  an. 
teuiia' as  their  organs  of  hearing.     The  prulia!iiliiicia,j 
ill  favour  of  the  latter  position.      iVoise,  pioilured  hilie 
wings,  and  varied  to  suit    particular    purpo.H's,  is  wtli 
known  to  be   used  as  a  means  of  iiiteic,)iiiiiiuni('ut»iii. 
and  ilulM'r,  though  doubtl'iil  about  Ihe  faculty,  avers  that 
by  a   particular   sound,   eniUtcd  from   tlu^    immlh  aiM. 
reiilly,  the  queen  will  reiicier  the  whole  hive  siLiu  aiij 
motionless  in   one  iiistuiit.     A  certain  .soniid,  too,  licirj 
in    the    hive   before   swarming,   is  always  I'olloweil  by 
definite   eoiiseipience.s.     t^ucli   facts   as  these  go  Jar  lo 
establish  the  po.>sscssion   of  heariiii.'   by  bees;  is  simiaij 
by   sound,    'iiade   when   the   eyes  could   not  ileturi  the 
movement  attending  their  production,  would  ollionvise 
lie  valueless.   The  anteiiiiie  have  been  iiiciilionoil  as  W(- 
scs.sed,  if  not  ol  hearing,  at  lea.st  of  a  delicale  sense  of 
touch,     Huber  points  out  a  tnooiiliglil  niulit  as  ihe  Iiosl 
time  for  observing    the   u.ses  of  the  aiileniia'  in  lliis  re- 
spect.    The    Ih'cs,   gunidiiig   auainsl  the   intrusion  of 
moths,  have   not  lijiht  enough  to  see  fully,  and  ihcv  lir- 
eumambulale  their  door  with  the  unteniueslrctelie.j  njl.t 
before  them,     'i'he  instant  a  moth  is  felt,  it  is  ilesinAoJ 
When  the  queen  of  a  hive  is  lost,  the  antenna'  form.*  i 
curious   means  of  spreading  intelligence,     liie aflor lioe 
)iric.-udes  its  aiiirnna',  and  eros.siiig   llieiii  with  those  ui 
its   next  neiuliboiir,  disseniiiiutes.  in  this  wav,  ll.c  sail 
news  over   llii    hive,      liesides   the   anieiiiia!,  the  feivin 
have  lu'en  shown  by  ex|MTiment  to  po.ssess  a  coibiiini' 
ble  degree  of  sensibility,  and  to  .serve  in  part  asunjaiisuf 
touch. 

iSuch  are  the  anatomical  and  physiological  fh.:racter- 
islics  of  the  coiniiion  or  wi)rkini;-l>t  e.  The  duiii- J 
this  or.ler  include  aliiii  -t  the  wlioh'  business  of  the  '.x 
coiiMiiunily,  as  will  U'  shown  aftcrwaid.s  in  detail.  ]h.\ti 
dilli'r  greatly,  of  course,  in  tlu'  nunilier  of  their  iiiiiuies, 
taking  Ihciii  even  at  the  same  se.ison.  Seme  coiiam 
but  a  fi'W  thou.saiuls;  others  f'ruiii  twenty  to  lliirly.fnift, 
and  e\eii  titty  thousand.  Of  these  the  drones  coiiij.x 
but  a  thirtieth  part,  or  little  nioie;  all  the  rest,  v  th  .se 
exception  of  the  queen,  are  workers. 

Drones  or  Mii.rR- 

'I'he  drones  differ  considerably  in  outwaro  apiiearj^ci 
from  ihe  wiirk^Ts.  Tlu'y  are  bulkier  and  tiatl.r  in  iiJr, 
with  a  r<iiiiid  In  ad,  a  shorter  proboscis,  and  an  aiHriii.' 
with  uii  additional  articuiation  ;  they  have  no  Li-M- 
cavity  on  their  hind-h'gs,  and  their  abdoimii  c>jiitauii  UK 


PBOCKEniNOS   01 


BEES. 


617 


gMtuiiof  gctrntintf  neither  honey,  wax,  nor  poison,  vhile 
Ide  prodiiclivo  organs  are  there  found  instciid.  They  are 
ealled  ilumes  from  the  peculiarly  loud  noise  which  they 
mke  with  their  wings.  It  has  been  suul  that  the  drone 
is  the  male  of  the  hive.  He  lives  hut  for  the  reproduc- 
tion of  the  race,  and  when  the  object  of  his  existence  is 
accomplii^hcd,  he  is  doomed  to  die.  The  workers,  who 
have  their  own  winter  food  and  that  of  the  coming 
vouns  '0  provide,  instinctively  pass  scntcncn  of  death,  iit 
the  fitt.nj  time,  on  a  cl.us  that  live  oidy  to  feed,  and 
^ji(i  if  they  ever  stir  from  their  luxurious  nests,  go  out 
'  ,  pleasure,  not  toil.  With  the  exceptions  specified, 
the  de!<cription  given  of  the  worker-bco  applies  ulsu  to 
the  drone. 

Quren  Hecf*. 

The  ipicen-bec  is  of  larger  size  t!>:in  eitlier  the  drone 
or  the  worker.  She  has  an  elongated  I>ody,  blackish 
ibt).'  and  tinted  with  yellow  infcriorly,  while  the  pre- 
jcn-c  oi  'wo  ovaries,  or  egg-receptailes  in  the  abdomen, 
(leiiienstnite  In  .■  <ex.  She  has  also  a  Nting,  considerably 
tent.  Tlie  (tcnnans  cidl  the  queen  tl\e  mi'.lier-luc  and 
this  is  lie  most  appropriate  name,  since  her  functions 
arc  those  of  a  parent  rather  th;  n  a  potentate.  Iler  sole 
pijvince  is  to  l.iy  the  eif^s,  from  which  issue  those  an- 
nual iiuillitiiili's  that  perpetuate  the  race  in  new  cnni- 
iiiunilie*.  The  progress  of  all  kinds  of  bees,  from  the 
larva  slate  to  maturity,  will  fa!!  to  he  described  in  an 
ciisuiiii;  scciion ;  but  it  may  iii  the  mean  time  be  ob- 
served, that  111.-  (piecn-bee  usually  commeuces  laying 
egjjs  on  the  fdlli  day  of  her  age,  and  often  conliiuics 
wilhoiit  iiitcrmis^iinn  from  early  spring  to  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember, l.ivini  in  the  warmest  scascm  about  two-hundred 
egg,!  a  day.  Such  are  the  general  characteristics  and 
fundions  of  tlio  mnther-bee. 

We  propose  now  to  give  an  account  of  the  natuntl 
and  reiiulaj  opeiations  of  a  colony  of  bees,  from  the  mo- 
ment of  tlicir  introduction  to  a  eoin[)':'tely  unfurnished 
habitalion  lo  the  establishmeiit  of  a  |)ei;ect  hive. 

PROCEEDINOS   OF    BEE3    FROM    FIRST    ".ETTLEMENT 
IN    THE    HIVE. 

The  hrcedinir  of  yoiuig  bees  connneiipes  in  February,  I 
and  a  hive,  howrver  thinned  by  the  previous  winter,  be-  1 
conits,  under  01. linarily  favouralile  circuni^lancs,  crowdi'd 
toeJci'Sri  ill  iiiidsumaier.      Besides  t'lc  !lovi'lo;ied  bees,  it 
alwuiids  ill  CLTgs  and  young  ones  not  nialuri'd.     That 
'ne  instinct   wliicli,   in   the   ea.se  of  bees,  occasionally  | 
jirompls  to  acts   almost   above   tlie   power  of  reason,  le- 
lii'vosllii<  crowded  state  of  tilings.     The  ([ueeii-liee,  the 
proper  laothcr  of  at   least   the   great   body  of  the  hive, 
ri'sobes  iijion  deparluri'  witli  a  swarm.    The  phenomena 
lUenditig  lliat  departure  will  be  noticed  under  a  separate 
Motion;  III  the  ineaii  time  let  it  be   supposed    that   the 
quivii  ha?  led  olV  a  cidony,  and  that  by  the  care  of  the 
owner  of  the  bees,  the  swarm   is  lodged  in  a  new  and 
einply  h'  v.  i 

The  first  object  of  the  enniinunity  is  to  clean  out  their 
neiv  lo"li;iiig  Ihoroilglily,  if  lliey  find  this  not  done  before- 
hand. Tlie  next  gre.it  object  is  to  block  up  all  the  chinks 
of  llie  hive,  siiiooih  .!s  projecting  parts,  and  lay  a  stable 
fouiul.itioii  for  the  I'uiure  works  of  the  interior.     Uesides 
Uie  wax  which  they  use  so  eNtcn.sivcly  in  their  arcbitec- 
tiro,  bees  alao  employ,  particularly  at   first,  e  remarkable 
luli.stiince  called  jiniroUn.  from  the  (ireek  words  /no  and 
f)'/i,<  .licfore  the  city),  as  in  licatim;  its  use  on  the  super- 
ficial  parts  af   the    hive.      Propolis   is    a   grayish-brown 
resin,  of  uii  uroii.alic  odour,  and  better  lilted  by  its  tena-  | 
city  for  ceiiieiiung  than  wax.      llubcr  first   showed  dis- | 
tiintly  that  tlve  bees  gather  this  from  the  poplar,  alder,  I 
liiri'li,  and  willow  trees,  but  more  esp"iallv  fr'Cn  the  first  ' 
>f  lh"<c  trees.    'I'lio  in,;eiiious  naturalist  alliuled  lo,  su-- 
f<^"l!n.' lic.iuiiair  to  be  wrong  in  rclerriim  t'' ■  propidis 
1«  llie  piiie,  placed    near    his    hives   ioii.u   VNihl-poplar  , 


branches,  which  the  hoes  soon  discovt  red,  and  flocked  tt 
in  great  numbers.  In  the  heat  of  the  day,  when  ihi? 
vicious  matter  is  ductile,  it  is  thus  carried  off  by  the  in- 
sect. A  small  thready  portion  is  detached,  kneaded  with 
the  mandibles,  and  then,  by  means  of  the  four  feet, 
placed  in  the  basket  of  the  hind  legs,  a  smart  pat  or 
two  being  given  to  secure  it  there.  Another  psrtioii, 
similarly  kneaded  to  make  it  portable,  and  a  little  drier, 
is  basketed  in  the  same  way,  till  as  much  is  procured  o* 
the  insect  can  carry.  Sometimes  the  patient  creature  will 
spend  half  a  hour  in  the  mere  kneading  of  a  portion  of 
propolis;  and  occasionally  u;>er  bees  will  come  behind 
and  rob  the  little  liliourer  of  its  v^hole  load,  for  a  suc- 
cession of  times,  without  eliciting  the  slightest  symptom 
of  impatience.  When  a  bee  reaches  the  hive  with  its 
load,  the  propoli;-:  adheres  so  firmly,  that  the  insect  has  to 
|ire.sent  its  limbs  to  the  workers  in  the  hive,  who  detach 
it,  and  immediately  u.s<'  it,  while  yet  ductile,  to  fill  all  the 
crevices  of  t!ie  hive,  and  smooth  the  projecting  parl.s,  so 
as  to  prevent  hurts  being  received  in  the  dark.  Anot}.?r 
remarkaid.'  use  is  made  of  the  propolis.  From  the  hov  t 
of  their  entrance  into  the  hive,  bees  are  liable  to  the  in- 
trusion of  other  creatures.  A  fly  they  can  soon  remove, 
but  what  are  they  to  do  with  a  snail?  They  can  sting 
it  lo  death,  to  be  sure,  in  an  instant,  but  their  puny 
strength  is  totally  insullicient  to  remove  the  carcass.  In 
this  dilemma,  I'.iey  completely  obviate  the  disagreeable 
effects  of  the  presence  of  a  large  putrefying  body,  by 
covering  it  with  propolis,  which  hardens  over  the  ma.s3, 
and  gives  them  a  pleasant  aroma  in  place  of  a  frrlid 
odour.  With  the  jiropolis,  moreover,  they  of>en  narrow 
the  entrance  to  the  hive,  forming  a  secure  harrier,  when 
they  have  reason  to  dread  the  intrusion  of  the  death's- 
head  moth,  their  great  enemy  in  some  countries. 

In  the  mean  time,  while  some  workers  are  using  tho 
propolis  for  the  [lurposes  first  stated,  others  are  com- 
mencing the  preparation  of  the  cells  or  combs,  'i'he 
propolis  is  emjiloyed  to  attach  these  to  the  edges  of  tho 
hive,  but  wax  is  the  component  material  of  the  cells 
tliem.^elves.  We  shall  find,  in  noticing  the  afler  arrantrc- 
nients  of  the  completed  hive,  that  the  working-bee:i  are 
liiitiirally  divided  into  two  great  classes;  but  at  the  out- 
set of  their  labours,  when  the  cell.^  are  being  constructed^ 
they  firm  ihrcr  sections,  each  of  which  pursues  its  allot- 
ted toil  with  .idmirable  ordi  ;  and  regularity.  One  sec- 
tion produces  the  material  for  the  combs,  and  forms  i( 
roughly  into  cells;  the  second  division  follows  the  first, 
examines  and  adjusts  the  angles,  removes  all  the  super- 
fluous wax,  and  perfects  the  work;  "hile  the  third  band 
passes  continually  out  and  in,  seeking  and  brinsing  |iro- 
visioiis,  chiefly  pollen,  for  the  recond  section,  which  never 
ipiits  the  hive.  The  firs,,  class  flies  ai..oad  at  intervals, 
it  being  necessary  that  they  should  have  rich  saccharine 
food  for  the  ''•cretion  of  the  wax.  As  the  secretion  goes 
on  best  in  a  state  of  repose,  bands  of  the  wax  producers, 
after  feeding  fully,  suspend  themselves  in  clusti>rs  from 
the  roof,  each  hanging  from  the  hind  legs  of  the  one 
above,  till  the  wax  scales  are  formed,  and  they  are  pro- 
j)  ired  to  take  up  the  work.  This  clustering  occurs  on  tho 
very  entrance  of  a  swarm  into  a  hive,  when  a  seeming 
inactivity  of  several  hours  takes  place,  till  the  production 
of  wax  is  set  a  goir.g.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  secoiid 
section,  the  architects-proper,  have  the  most  unremitting 
toil  to  perform.  They  nevt'r  ipiit  it  when  once  licgun, 
exce])tiiig  to  turn  to  the  little  waiters  of  the  third  section 
and  iiiilieale  their  hunger  by  holding  out  their  trunk, 
when  the  caterer  either  spirts  out  a  drop  or  two  of  honey 
or  furnishes  pollen  from  tho  stores  brought  iii. 

Cells. 

Hut  if  the  labour  of  the  architect  class  ho  severe,  thcii 
work,  when  coiii|dctc,  is  a  marvel  of  instinctive  ing.  'luily. 
IJ'cs  alwavs  l'"giii  their  work,  in  ordinary  circi  mstaiieeiv 
at  the  eeiljinj,  suspending  their  structures  froij  i»    Thuii 


! 


'^T^?lT'^■'Xf^,/*?w■7■''^'&*T™^^'!^f^■*''^T^■''■'W'7^^■''^"^'^'*T^"■•T 


b48 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


tombs,  or  duiters  of  cells,  are  nrrancrpd  in  vortical  and 
parallel  strata,  with  a  space  of  about  half  an  inch  be- 
twixt contiguous  pairs ;  and  each  conjb  is  nearly  an  inch 
in  thickness.  At  the  ontsi-t,  when  one  wax-making  lice 
leiivoH  the  suspended  cluster  alluded  to,  and  lays  the 
foundation  of  a  cell,  others  follow  in  rapid  succession, 
not  only  adding  their  wix  to  that  of  the  first,  but  soon 
commencinK  now  combs,  one  on  each  side ;  and  so  the 
work  goes  on,  in  most  cases,  until  the  whole  nwf  is 
covered  with  foundatioiij,  Tlio  architects-iiropcr,  also, 
are  meanwhile  at  their  finishing  work.  They  have,  savs 
Roaunnir,  to  solve  this  dilficult  fjeomctrical  problem : 
"  A  quantity  of  wax  beincj  tjiven,  to  form  of  it  similar 
and  equal  colls  of  a  determinate  capacity,  but  of  the 
largest  size  in  proix)rtion  to  the  matter  employed,  and 
disposed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  occupy  tlu!  least  possilile 
■pace  in  the  hive."  VVonih'rful  to  reflect  upon,  this 
problem  is  solved  by  bees  in  all  its  conditions,  in  dieir 
constructiim  of  hex:i'j;onLd  or  si.v-.ii(ltil  lells.  Tlie  s<juare 
and  the  equilateral  Iriaufjle  are  the  only  other  two  figures 
of  cells  which  could  make  them  all  e(iu;d  and  similar 
without  interstices.  But  cells  of  these  figures  would 
have  either  eoiisumeil  more  material  or  have  been  weaker; 
and  they  would  also  have  consumed  more  space,  being 
less  adapted  to  tlie  form  of  the  bee.  In  Nhort,  the  hexa- 
gonal form  combines  all  the  requisites  of  economy  and 
C4ipa;ity.  Another  wondorl'ul  arrani;enient  is  seen  in 
the  construction  of  the  bottoms  of  the  cells.  K,K'h  of 
these  is  composed  of  three  rhombs,  or  plates  of  wax  in 
the  shape  of  card-iliamonils,  disposed  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  form  a  hollmv  pyramid,  the  apex  of  which  forms 
the  angles  of  the  ba.fcs  of  three  cells  on  the  o|)posite  side, 
giving  to  each  of  them  one  of  the  three  <liamonil-sbaped 
jdatcs  which  is  required  to  form  their  bases.  Now,  t!ie 
three  rhomt's,  composing  each  cell-bottom,  have  the  two 
obtuse  angles  each  of  110  degrees,  and,  consequenllv, 
c»ch  of  the  two  acute  angles  of  70  (lei;rer's  K.ienig,  on 
being  di-.siie.l  by  Kcaumiir  io  uiliu'ate  the  evai-t  nnule 
which  woid  1  i;ive  the  greatest  economy  of  wax  in  a  cell 
of  such  ^apa  ity.  found  that  t!ie  angle  slioidd  be  1(19  de- 
grees 'J6  minutes,  or  1 10  degrees  nearly.  Other  geome- 
tricians have  arrived  at  .-imilar  conclnsioiis.  The  problem 
is  one  of  great  diiliiulty,  yet  the  Imc  practically  .solves  it  at 
oaco.  under  the  guidarice  of  the  (.Jreat  d'eometrician  who 
Aide  both  the  Ik-c  and  tlie  law  on  which  it  proiceils. 
Attempts  have  l>een  made  to  ascribe  the  form  of  the  cells 
to  the  jKculiar  sha|H>  of  llie  head  of  the  bee,  and  the 
instruiueiits  whi'h  itemplDys;  but  nil  such  cxplaMations 
Ldve  liecn  foun  1  liable  to  insuperable  olijei'ticms. 

The  cells  of  tlie  iiec  are  extrniely  delicate,  two  or 
I'lrue  plates  or  sides  being  of  the  consistence  only  of  a 
c(  in:n:jn  leaf  of  jpajK-r.  They  are  made  strong,  h.twever, 
bv  m  :tual  support  and  other  means,  liesidis  a  sort  of 
froth  which  the  insect  mixes  with  the  wax,  the  cells,  at 
first  of  a  dull  white,  soon  a|>pcar  yellow  on  the  interior, 
the  change  aiising  from  the  plastering  over  tliem  of  a 
compound  varnish  of  wax  and  prop.plis.  Each  cell  is 
soldered,  too,  a(  its  montli  by  a  similar  coniponnd  of  a 
redfiish  colour,  liavinir  in  it  more  propolis;  and  threads 
of  the  same  suii.-tanci  are  l.iid  around  the  walls  to  bind 
and  Blreicrthen  ibem.  It  is  now  to  be  observi'd  that  all 
cclU  are  ni>t  alike.  They  have  f>ur  dill(-r<nt  uses  in  the 
economy  of  the  hive,  and  are  constrniti'd  varioii.sly  lo 
•Uit  t'lisp.  One  s,-t  of  cells  is  ("or  holding  the  eggs  or 
snbryoB  of  w.prkcr-bees;  a  second  for  those  of  mdes  or 
drones;  a  ihiid  lor  those  of  young  cpieens,  hcnc'  called 
r.yul  cells;  and  a  foorlli  set  are  for  the  recption  of 
li  tney  .;nil  pollen.  Tlie  first  arc  generally  about  five 
laseii  ni  di'fitli  (.ir  less  th.in  half  an  iii(  li),  and  t.vo  lines 
,inu  *wo-fiflhs  in  diumi'li'i'.  The  cells  of  the  young 
in  dps  'ire  mii'U  less  nuni'rous,  and  measure  from  six  to 
ii.'ven  lloi  s  in  depth,  liy  time  and  a  h  df  in  iliainctir.  It 
if)  war.hy  nf  ii.iti-,  iiiat  in  pa.',-in({  f.oin  tlie  construction  , 
il  wo-ker-cells  to  tlu.si;  of  drones,  in  the  same  co.u'    '  oj  | 


architects  do  not  alter  the  size  at  once,  but  gradnsflt 
thus  disordering  in  the  slightest  pos.<iblc  degree  the  d  r 
catfc  arrangement  of  the  bases  of  the  cells.  In  shift!' '" 
from  Kirger  to  smaller,  the  same  rule  is  observed.  * 
small  number  only  of  royal  cells,  about  ten  or  twelve  a' 
constructed  on  ordinary  occasions.  They  art'  about 
inch  in  depth,  and  nearly  one-third  of  an  inch  in  width' 
with  walls  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  All 
the  breeding  season  is  over,  the  cells  both  of  worker  ai  J 
male  bees  are  used  for  holding  honey.  Those  made  pur. 
posely  for  that  end  are  chiefly  marked  by  a  gtcot'r 
divcrgeiico  from  a  horizontal  ])Iane,  I'.iat  the  honey  muv 
be  belter  secured  ;  and  it  is  curious  to  observe  that  ui  a 
very  warm  season,  these  wise  insect.M  give  the  floor  a  !i;|| 
greater  dip  from  the  month  inwards.  As  the  .store  ci . 
largcs,  they  seal  up  llie  mouth  with  a  ring  of  wax  lo 
which  they  gradually  add  concentric  layers  till  Ihccpl'lij 
filled,  wlien  they  close  it  iiltogether.  Pollen  is  kept  in 
cells  of  considerable  size. 

Laying  of  Eggs. 

A  very  short  time  elapses  ere  a  great  number  of  cf||,» 
are  constructed;  for,  in  the  height  of  the  honey  seaiinii 
a  good  swarm  has  been  known  to  build  f'.tir  llioit.<(,„il  C 
a  day.  The  queen-mother  very  soon  K'giiis  the  task  of 
laying  eggs,  A  thousand  conjectures  have  iicen  h.izanl. 
ed  as  to  the  mode  in  which  the  fecundation  of  the  female 
bee  takes  place.  No  observer  has  yet  been  able  to  dj* 
cover  any  contact  with  the  drones  in  the  hive.  It  w;ii 
sup|)osed  by  Swaminerdain  that  a  certain  aura  or  odour 
from  the  drones  was  all  that  was  necessarv  to  render  the 
e>gg>-,  of  the  queen  productive;  while  M.  Dehraii  mir 
gined  that  the  eggs,  as  in  Ihe  case  of  frogs  and  (lsh,>s, 
were  fecundated  by  a  fluid  from  the  drone  after  luji,^ 
l.iid.  M,  Hatlorf  thought,  again,  that  Ihe  qupin  was 
fecundated  by  herself  id. me.  All  these  opinions  .M,Hu. 
bcr  ri  fi;ted  in  a  satisfictory  manner,  by  separations  anil 
conliLCiiients  of  the  insccis  in  various  way.s.  He  iil  longlli 
came  lo  thr  belief,  founded  on  experiments  which  jiiijcar 
almost  decisive  of  the  question,  tint  ihe  female  bcenovrr 
becomes  fruitful  in  the  hive,  but  requires  t(,  go  abroij 
for  that  purpose;  and  it  has  been  also  Ihouulit  [toUMo 
that  tlie  fi'cundation  takes  place  by  con'art  in  the  air 
as  is  known  to  occur  in  the  case  of  winged  aiils,  The 
nuiiiber  of  drones  in  a  hive  has  been  thought  a  most  uik 
iiiti'lligible  cir.  umslaiice,  Mr.  Holer's  views  exiilaj 
the  in.itler  fully.  It  is  c.sseniial  that  they  shoiiM  Iv  nu- 
merous, tliat  the  female  may  liavi!  a  chniKc  of  imolini 
tlii'in  abroail ;  and  it  is  to  be  observed  that  she  alwavs 
quits  llie  hive  at  llii-  hour  when  the  drones  liave  it,  rr 
iminediateiy  afterwards.  One  inlcrcoursi'  is  sulliiioiil, 
acc.irding  to  Huber's  experiments,  to  render  llie  female 
bee  I'roductive  for  at  Icasl  two  seasons;  and  if  llie  inlir. 
course  l.ikes  place  at  Ihe  end  of  the  year,  the  eiiiisi'qiii'nt 
laving  ed  eggs  may  be  deferred  to  the  eiisuiiii;  spriiii;. 
The  cold  weather  has  a  stioiig  iiifliience  in  this  rt>s|K'oL 
M.  Hnber's  coneliisions  may  be  nioi-.'  fully  iisi-ertjiiieJ 
by  reference  to  his  interesting  work, 

M.  Hiiber  discovered  that  the  (|ni'en  begins  to  lav  oigj 
f)ity-six  hours  after  reluming  from  the  flidit  diirin? 
which  fecundation  takes  place.  For  the  space  of  eleven 
inonlhs,  under  ordinary  eir<'Uinstaiices,  a  qu'cii,  al  her 
first  l.iylng,  pro<luees  the  eugs  of  worker-l  ees  alone.  M 
the  end  ol  tlie  space  meiilioneil,  a  I'cjiisideralde  l.iyiii'.'of 
the  ergs  of  drones  commences  and  soon  after  Ihe  ,i|i|ii?at- 
aru'c  of  these,  the  workirs  of  the  hive,  wiih  a  stMii^t 
instinct,  begin  to  prepare  royal  cells  for  Ihe  (|Un'n.e.'n 
that  arc  certain  to  follow.  .Mtogetlier,  the  Iriiilliiliifii 
of  the  fi'inale  isc  is  am  i/.iiig,  from  one  to  two  liiiiiilrcii 
eg;s  a  day  beini;  Ihe  usual  amount  of  her  proihiie.  Oiit 
hundred  ilionsaiiil  is  saiil  to  In-  no  very  jiicoiiiiiion  num- 
ber of  youiu  lor  her  to  uive  orii;in  lo  in  a  sriisoii,  K 
hwarm  consisting  of  2000  or  :hKiO  in  the  beginning  of 
the  yea;:,  will  llirow  otf  in  June  swamu  ainoanliiig  U 


'^^^V.^^^i'^^W^'^V''^ 


BEES. 


649 


Ifl.OOO  or  60,000 ;  in  many  cases  tlio  first  sw^irm,  and  in  I 
uine  the  cast  or  iiecond  swarm,  throw  olF  colonies  of  | 
10,000  or  12,000;  and  yet  the  oi'i<;inal  stock  is  left  aug- 
nie'nte'J  to  tiie  numlwr  of  18,000  or  20,000.     Uccasion- 
lUy,  a  lirst  swarm  even  casts  twice. 

Trandforination  of  Worker-bees. 

A  ftrtilizcd  quecii  is  so  impatient  to  Iwgin  iicr  layini; 
ofworltori'giis,  tliat,  in  a  new  hive,  she  only  waits  till  a 
few  inches  of  comb  arc  erccti'd.  Before  depositing  the 
,ag,  slio  can-fully  examines  the  cell,  and,  if  satisfied, 
turns  and  drops  into  it  from  the  oviduct  an  egg  of  an 
oval  shape  and  lihiisli-wliite  tint.  Hero  the  egi?  remains 
I'orllirec  davrf  attached  by  a  visotns  (luid  to  the 'corner  of 
Iho  cell;  tti'd,  on  the  four'.h,  the  thin  outer  shell  of  the 
arir  bursts,  oxposinjj  a  small  lively  worm.  Now  come 
into  play  tin.'  inme.i  or  nursing-bees,  one  of  the  two  gri  it 
classes  into  which  Hubcr  and  others  consider  the  labour- 
ers of  the  hive  to  be  divided.  The  other  class  are  the 
fniix-imrki IS.  Both  elaborate  honey,  but  the  latter  class 
alone  make  wax  and  form  combs.  Again,  the  nurses, 
whose  figure  may  be  distinsuished  from  its  Iving  more 
ovoidal  tiian  ihe  oihers,  are  those  who  alone  take  care  of 
the  youiii;.  As  soon  as  the  egu;  is  hatched,  they  watch 
over  the  larva  or  worm  with  the  tcndorest  and  mo.-t  in- 
cciisant  care,  ndmiiiisterini?  copious  supplies  of  mixed 
pillion,  honey,  and  water,  which  the  nnusling  devours 
with  avidity.  Like  other  larva;,  it  soon  grows  so  as  to 
fast  its  cuticle ;  and,  five  days  after  chip()ing  the  shell,  it 
has  become  large  e:iough  to  till  the  cell,  lying  coiled  up 
like  a  ring.  It  now  ceases  to  eat,  and  the  bees  seal  up 
the  Cull  with  wax.  Left  to  itself,  the  larva  begins  the 
process  of  spinning  a  cocoon  round  its  body,  which  it 
docs  in  thirty-six  hours,  the  material  being  a  fine  silken 
lliread  froju  the  mouth  of  the  spinner.  In  three  days 
more  it  is  converted  into  the  stale  of  pup  i  or  clirysalis, 
when  all  the  parts  of  the  future  bee  become  gradually 
(•isible  throiigii  the  transparent  covering,  assuming  a 
darker  hue  day  by  day,  and  progressing  to  the  state  of 
llie  coni|jh'te  iiii  iiiO  or  insect.  On  the  twentieth  day  f'om 
tlie  deposition  of  the  egg,  the  young  bee  begins  to  cut 
through  il."  prlsou-Joor  with  its  mandibles,  and  in  half 
111  hour  makes  its  escape.  t)ld  writers  say  that  the  elder 
bees  fondly  caress  and  feed  the  new-comer ;  but  later 
uliscrvers,  of  no  mean  authority,  declare  that,  on  the 
contrary,  they  seem  to  think  their  duty  ended  with  the 
rJoiini;  np  of  the  cell,  ami  leave  the  young  stranwr  to 
iliil'l  lor  itself  in  the  busy  world.  One  thing,  however, 
is  done  hy  the  elder  bees.  They  instantly  clean  out  the 
vacated  cell,  and  prejiare  it  ai;ain  for  eggs  or  lioii«y, 
Icavuij  at  the  same  time  the  silk  cocoon  adhering  to  the 
walls. 

V.f^s*  of  Drones— Royal  Fggs. 

The  passane  of  male  eggs  through  the  larva  and  pupa 
ilalc  is  attended  with  the  very  same  phenomena  as  in 
the  case  oi'  the  egus  of  workers,  with  the  exception  that 
the  process  occupies  a  little  m.>re  time,  twenty-four  days 
ill  all  being  spent  in  the  change.  The  cause  of  male 
eggi  being  iaid,  in  ordinary  circumstances,  oidy  nt'ter 
eleven  nmnths  have  been  passed  in  the  laying  of  worker- 
esgs,  was  explained  by  Ilnber.  Ho  conceived  eleven 
tnonllis  to  be  necessary  to  perfi'c  i  the  male  egus,  and  was 
of  opinion  th.it  the  ariangcinent  of  Ihe  eggs  in  the  jva- 
rifci  was  such  as  to  permit  and  e'en  compel  the  reten- 
tion of  both  male  and  royal  I'ggs  iiiilil  they  were  fully 
m.-lured.  This  idea  serins  to  Iv  confirmed  by  the  ordi- 
nary course  of  things  in  the  hive,  but  certain  anomulons 
facts  slartiriL'ly  contravi'ne  it.  HuIkt  himself  found,  that 
ifayonnu;  cpiccn  bad  not  the  opportunity  of  proving  fer- 
tile within  twcnl;'  da  s  if  her  birth,  all  her  aller-prodnet 
consisted  of  drones,  and  drones  abuie  ;  and,  what  is  still 
more  curious,  he  diwoviTcd  tlinl  she  began  to  produce 
Ibesti  drooes  :il  the  lime  w  hen  she  should  have  laid 
Vui-i—   . 


worker-eggs,  namely,  within  foity-iJix  hours  after  lei 
cundation.  The  gestation  of  eleven  months  seemed  to< 
tally  unnecessary  in  such  eases  of  retarded  fecundatioih 
Huber  confessed  himself  incapable  of  explaining  this  re- 
markable circumstance.  Though  we  do  not  understand 
it,  however,  it  only  tends  to  make  us  marvel  more  and 
more  at  the  perfection  of  order  in  the  bee  economy.  Tlie 
queen-bee  is  never  voluntarily  guilty  of  that  breach  of 
the  laws  of  her  being  which  produces  such  remarkable 
fcllects;  and,  if  artificially  confined  till  she  is  twenty  days 
ohi,  her  violent  agitation  shows  her  sense  of  the  depar- 
ture from  the  order  of  nature  into  which  she  is  forced. 

The  raising  of  workers  and  drones  from  the  egg  to  th« 
insect  state  is  a  simple  matter  in  comparison  with  thil 
same  transition  in  the  case  of  queen-bees.  'J'he  royal 
eggs,  which  the  queen  begins  to  lay  twenty  days  aft*r 
she  has  commenced  the  deposition  of  male  ones,  dilTer 
in  no  respect  from  common  eggs.  But  on  the  royal 
larva,  when  it  breaks  from  its  three  days'  confinement  in 
the  shell,  the  nurses  be.-tow  peculiar  attentions.  They 
watch  it  incessantly,  ami  feed  it  with  a  rich  jelly,  slightly 
acescent,  and  given  in  such  (juantities  that  the  royal  cell 
is  usually  wet  with  it.  In  five  days  the  young  majesty 
of  the  hive  has  grown,  so  ns  prepared  to  spin  its  well, 
and  the  bees  wax  up  the  cell.  The  cocoon  is  spun  in 
twenty-four  hours;  two  days  and  a  half  of  inactivity  fol- 
low ;  the  larva  is  then  transformed  into  a  pupa,  or  a 
)iymp!i,as  the  insect  in  this  slate  is  more  often  called; 
and,  alter  other  four  or  five  days  have  passed,  the  royal 
insect  is  complete,  the  wholi-  time  occupied  in  the  meta- 
morphosis being  sixteen  days. 

Young  t^uecns. 

We  have  now  arrived  atone  of  the  most  extraordinary 
points  in  the  history  of  the  hive.  The  young  queen,  or 
rather  queens,  do  not  issue  from  their  cells  when  perfect, 
like  workers  and  drones.  They  are  not  permitted,  unless 
the  old  or  regnant  quc-en  has  quitted  the  hive  with  a 
swarm,  or  the  seat  of  royalty  is  in  any  other  way  vacated. 
They  therefore  close  the  royal  cells  more  firmly,  leaving 
only  a  small  aperture  to  introduce  footl ;  and,  acting  ns  if 
aware  that  they  may  need  a  queen  in  case  of  swarming, 
they  at  such  times  will  not  permit  the  old  queen  to  ai>- 
proach  the  cells.  Her  struggles  to  do  so  are  often  vio- 
lent, and  her  dire  hostility  to  her  own  sex  leads  her,  if 
she  gets  near  the  cells,  to  .lestroy  thein  instantly,  whether 
in  the  state  of  full  insect  or  nymph.  The  strength  oi 
this  instinctive  luite  is  vmh  sncb,  tliat  a  young  queen  no 
sooner  h'aves  inr  own  cell  than  she  feels  its  stirrings. 

Acc(nding  to  Huber,  there  can  only  be  a  single  queen 
in  a  hive.  Ti.e  mere  ol!':>priiig  of  two  could  scarcely  co- 
exist in  the  same  hive;  ami  it  is  wonderful  to  observe  hy 
how  many  accessory  circumstioices  nature  has  ensured 
till'  death  of  one  or  other  of  any  two  placed  in  the  same 
community,  j"!  ;  first  thought  of  a  young  queen,  it  has 
been  seen,  is  to  kill  tier  yet  undevelopid  rivals.  Nature 
has  given  her  the  chance,  lor,  as  more  queen-eggs  than 
one  are  seldom  laid  daily,  one  is  usually  tli<;  oldest.  If, 
however,  two  do  quit  the  cell  at  the  same  instant,  they 
"oxb  into  con  lial  with  the  most  headhmg  fury.  If  a 
stranger  enters  a  hive,  its  queen-reitnanl  (lies  to  the  field 
without  a  niomeni's  hesitation.  In  short,  in  all  ordinary 
circumstances,  two  queens,  brought  into  contact,  figiiL 
lint  they  mi^ht  Iniili  die  in  the  contest,  and  the  commu- 
nity be  lelt  without  a  queen.  Nature  diinands  but  one 
victim,  and  she  has  arranged  that  but  one  victim  shall 
tall.  Bees  are  only  vulnerable  in  the  lu'lly ;  and  Huber 
observed  that,  whenever  two  royal  combatants  were  so 
locked  tiigethrr  thntlhcy  could  mutually  plant  tiicir  stings 
in  the  fatal  part,  their  instinct  caused  them  to  separate 
precipitately  without  harm  on  either  side.  The  combat 
only  closes  when  one  can  get  an  advantage  of  position, 
and  k.'ll  its  rival  with  sati'ly.  Again,  the  worker-tieei 
,  might  interpose  to  prevent  these  mortal  coiubuts.   Uu  th« 

ai 


650 


INFORMATION  FOR   THF  PEOPLE 


contrary,  their  instinrt  is  fo  prevent  the  quocni  from  part- 
Llg,  and  force  on  h  falul  issur.     Alluding  to  one  Imttle, 
Huber  HUTS  that  it  neemod  an  i(  '  the  Iwps  nntiripati-d  the 
combat  in  which  these  queens  were  about  to  ensa^je,  Rni! 
were  impatient  to  behold  the  issue  of  it,  for  they  rolaiiicd 
their  prisoners   only  when  they  appeared   to  withdraw 
from  each  other ;  and  if  one  le««  re^^traiiied  seemed  desirous 
of  appri,ochini!  her  rival,  all  the  l)ees  formiui;  the  clusterH 
gave  way  to  allow  her  full  liberty  for  the  attack  ;  then  if 
the  queens  lnstine<l  a  dis[>08ition  to  fly,  they  returned  tn 
enclose  them."     Another   n'niarkable    provision  for  en- 
mirini;  the  existence  of  but  one  queen  in  a  hive,  is  Iwlield 
in  the  peculiar  mode  in  which  tlie  royal  larva;  spin  tlicir 
cocoons.     Other    bees    spin    perfei'tly  close    cases;    the 
queen-larvtp  spin  cocoons  which  envelop  only  the  head, 
tliorax,  and  first  rinij  of  the  abdi)nien,  leavini;a  piirt  open 
behind.     Hulier  thus  explains  this  minute  but  important 
peculiarity: — "Of  several   royal  nymphs  in  a  hive,  tlie 
first  transformed  attacks  the  rest,  and  stings  them  to  dcatli. 
But  were  these  nymphs  enveloped  in  a  complete  cocoon, 
•lie  could  not  accomplish  it.     Whyl     Because  the  silk 
is  of  so  close  a  texture,  that  the  stin^  could  not  penetrate. 
or  if  it  did,  the  barbs  would  bo  retained  by  the  mcslies  (if 
the  CO 'Ooii,  and  the  queen,  unable  to  retract  it.  would 
become  the   victim  of  hir   own  fury.     Thus,  that  tlie 
t;jcen  might  destroy  her  rivals,  it  was  necessary  the  last 
rioffs  of  the  body  should  reinnin  uncovered  ;  therefore,  ihc 
royal  nymphs  must  only  form  imperfect  cocoons.     You 
Will  observe  that  the  last  rin''s  alone  should  be  exposed, 
for  the  stinjT  can  piMietrate  no  other  part;   the  head  anil 
thorax   are   protected  by  coniiccted  shelly   plates  wliicli 
it  cannot  |iierce.     Hit'ierto,  pliilosophers  have  claimed  oiii 
adiniratiiin  of  niture  in  her  care  of  preservinfj  and  multi- 
plying the  siM'cies.     Hut  from  the  facts  I  relate,  we  must 
now  admire  her  precautions  in  exposing  eert.iin  iinlivi- 
duals  to  a  mortal  hazard."     Kxainiiiiiii;  further  into  the 
causes  of  the  cpcn  cocoon  of  the  royal  nymphs,  IIuIht 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  it  anwe  from   the  figure  of 
their  cells,  and  was  desifjned  for  the  purpose  of  exposing: 
them  to  ttie  certainty  of  destruction. 

Ixiss  of  a  Qiit'on. 
If  bees,  by  death  or  artificial  means,  are  deprived  of 
their  quecu,  the  event  has  a  marked  influence  in  the 
hive.  We  do  not  allude  to  the  case  in  which  a  stranger 
kills  the  ipieen-reunant;  for  if  such  a  Ihini;  happens,  as 
naturalists  conceive  it  scarcely  ever  can  do  under  natu- 
ral circumstances,  on  account  of  the  wariness  of  the  lieis 
to  prevent  intrusion,  the  victorious  stranger  mounts  the 
vacant  throne,  and  reigns  in  peace.  We  refer,  however, 
to  the  removal  of  a  queen  without  the  introduction  of  any 
other.  In  such  a  case,  the  following  results  ensue,  ac- 
cording to  Hulier  :•—"  Bees  do  not  iinmediatej'  oliserve 
the  removal  of  their  queen;  their  lalmurs  are  uninterrupt- 
ed ;  they  watch  over  the  young,  &nd  [M-rform  all  their 
ordinary  occupations.  But  in  a  few  hours,  agitation  en- 
•ues;  all  appears  a  seen*  jf  tumult  in  the  hive.  .\  sin- 
gular humming  i»  heard;  the  bees  desert  their  young,  ami 
rush  over  the  surfice  of  the  combs  with  a  delirious  im- 
petuosity. Then  they  discover  their  queen  is  no  longer 
•lining  them.  But  how  do  they  liccome  sensible  of  it? 
How  do  the  liees  on  the  surface  of  the  comb  disi-overthat 
till"  queen  is  not  on  the  nexl'coinhl  It  is  sup|Hised  that 
llie  iihirmiiig  intelligence  of  the  loss  is  coinmunicaled  by 
tlie  slriikes  on  'lie  antennia,  which  Ik-cs  aro  uniformly 
o'lmTvi'd  10  giv  •  (o  each  other  irt  these  times.  The  in- 
•<H;t«  llirii  tip|M'ar  to  seek  lor  their  lost  queen,  some  ru.sh- 
big  hurrir  lly  out  to  make  the    scarcti  abroad.     At  the 


•  III  ihia  nriH-lB  wi;  refrr  very  lri'(|ii«'iilly,  it  will  In-  |ii-ri'i?]ViMl, 
lo  IIiiImt     Tin;  iniih  i».  nil  ijiiiti)  naioii  of  many  liiii-  wiirku 
an*  pnivc'il  to  ii«  t'  II    !i|  lliSif  lii-sl  pHri«.  th«y  (five  tjin  n  irun-- 
sripi  111  Im  viiwsmiil  "Ijier  iih'iiii.    This  i«  no  rf|irtmeli.  Iicing 
S  iiui  iral  riiii»ei|.ieiiriv   iiurily.  nf  ilulj.  f'«  wijii.k-rnil  mule-  • 
!!•'•<  'iiifl    nccirrin'v     Omf   iiikUhI.cti.*   iirr  iimdf  triiiii   ii  w-tl-  j 
cx<'C'iMl  iruiiniiitiuii.  piililnlifJ  II  iMiiiburgli  by  .Mr.  John  An-  ; 
tuttuu.  Ill  I  ili 


end  of  five  hours,  the  commotion  greatly  ceasei 
instinctive  recourse  to  the  means  of  supplying  th'uv  '  *' 
cy  takes  place.     If  they  have  royal  larvm,  they  tunuh"' 
whol'3  attention  to  them.     If  they  have  only  the  Urv  "^r 
workin^-liees,  they  immediately  select  two  or  three  of  h 
pull  down  the  neitthbouring  cells  at  the  cost  of  the  v"!' 
of  the  young  within  them,  and    construct  a  royal    7 
around  each  of  the  sclectid  Iarva> — the  consequen'     » 
which  proceeding  will  be  immediately  explained.    Ifik 
have  no  I  irva;  at  all  on  the  loss  of  their  Hiir"ii  gini  .i  '^ 
Iniild  several  royal  cells,  as  if  ao  lar  at  least  lo  supp|..  .i,' 
emergency.     If  a  stranger  queen  Iv    intrixluced  in  suci 
a  stale  of  things,  within  twelve  hours    f^rr  the  loal  'r 
their  own  sovceign,  the  new-comer   ,s  treated  m  an  ' 
tinder,  ai,d  the  bees   surround   hi  r    so  clo.sely  th.it    •» 
commonly  dies  from  privation  of  «■  ,  sufliication  lieini'iii 
rcsdurce  of  b.es  in  such  cases.     If  the  stranger  he  in' 
troiluccd  within  eighteen  hours,  they  idso  surround  her 
but  leave  her  sooner.     To  show  that  they  possess  m  ' 
mory,  it  is  only  necessary  now  to  re-inlrodnce  their  oivn 
qiicc  n.  when  they  will  show  everv  svmntoin  of  re  „„r; 
tion  and  joy.     But  Ihcir  memory  is  short-lived,  for,  ifij, 
stranger  be  not  introduced  till  Iwentv-four  hours   jansi. 
she  receives  n  treatment  very  dilferent  from  that  exm\. 
eiiccd  at  nn  earlier   period.     "  I  introduced,"   coiitiiuis 
the  ingenious  naturalist,  "a  fertile  queen,  eleven  mn-  i., 
old,  into  a  glass  hive.     The  bees  were  twenty.Jour  hours 
deprived  of  their  queen,  and  had  already  begun  the  con. 
struction  of  twelve  royal  cells.     Immediately  on  tlacin' 
this  fennle  stranger  on  the  comb,  the  workers  nenrlicr 
touihcd  her  with  their  antcnnir,  and,  passing  their  trunlis 
over  every  part  other  body,  they  gr.,,   Ii.t  hon;'v.  Thrn 
these  pave  place  to  otlicrs  that  treated  her  exactly  in  ite 
same   nianner.     All   vibrated   their  wings  at  oiicr ,  .nnj 
ranged  themselves    in    a   circle  around   their  sovcroi>n. 
Hence  resulted  a  kind  of  agitation  which  graduallv  ci>n> 
niiiiiicated  to  the  workers  situated  on  the  .ane  surlw 
of  the  comb,  and   induced  them  to  come  and  leconiiniire 
in  ihcir  turn,  what  was  going  on.     They  snnn  nrriv,,]' 
aiwl   having  broke  through  the  circle  formed  by  the  fiw 
uppni.iclicd   the   queen,  touched   her  with  the  nntfiiia 
and  g.ive  her  honey.     After  this  little  ceremony  ihn  re' 
tired,  and,  jilacing  themselves  beliiiid  the  others,  oiilafrd 
Ihc  circle.     There  they  vibrated  their  wings,  inul  huzzfj 
without  tumult  or  disorder,  as  if  experiencing  some  ii'v 
agreeable  sensation.     The  ([ueen   had   not  yet  hi)  ili 
plai'C  where  I  had  put  her,  hut  in  a  quarter  of  an  him 
she  U'gan  to  move.     The   lu-e.s,  far  fioni  i>ii|;osiii.'  lur, 
opened  the  circle  nt  that  part  to  which  she  turnoj,  !1- 
lowi  d  her,  and  formed   a  guard   around.     She  v.\[i  ,y.. 
presicd  with   the   necessity  of  laying,  and  druiipru  her 
egus.     Finally,  after  iin  aliiKle  of  four  hours,  she  htra^ 
to  deposit  male  eggs  in  the  cells  .she  met  with. 

■■  While  these  events  passed  on  the  surface  of  the  coai 
vvhcie  the  queen  stood,  all  was  quiet  on  the  other  siiif. 
'i'here  the  workers  were  apparently  ignorant  of  a  quecn'i 
arrival  in  the  hive.  They  laboured  with  g:?iit  acliiiiv 
at  the  royal  cells,  as  if  ignorant  th.it  they  no  longer  st>jj 
ill  need  of  them :  they  watched  over  the  nnnl  wc-m-, 
Bupplied  them  with  jelly,  and  the  like.  But  the  (jutco 
having  at  length  come  to  this  side,  she  was  received  mlh 
the  sam,'  r.a|iect  that  she  had  expericncej  from  ibfii 
companions  on  the  other  side  of  the  conili.  Tht'icn- 
com|iassed  her,  gave  her  honey,  and  touched  her  with 
their  niileiina; ;  and,  what  proved  belli  r  that  they  trcilfj 
her  -M  a  niollier,  was  their  iininedintely  doi.iiin;  frs 
work  at  the  royal  cells:  they  reiinncd  ihe  nimis, uhI 
devoured  the  food  collected  aioiiiid  lliein.  From  I,"!!! 
niomenl  the  queen  was  recognised  by  all  lier  I'eoplc,  ami 
conducted  herself  in  this  new  habitation  as  ifithju!«« 
her  native  hive." 

Makini,'  of  »  ({.iccn 
If  one    queen  \t    not   so   iiuiiKluced   to  suppl;  tin 
loss  of  aiio.hei',  aud  no  royal  larvtu  vxist,  one  uf  Uie  nval 


•rondel  lu  I  phei 

been  stated  tha 

cell  ariKind  an 

(hem.  if  the  la; 

feeding,  are  fori 

ing  that  the  wc 

u  neuters,  are 

remiirkiliie  disc 

used  smoke  abi 

that  she   flew  a 

iliiinediiitely  bui 

when  tlicy  had 

truth.     Hnber 

cecding  experiii 

containiag    worl 

kind  us  those  c 

of  B  queen. 

larged  hy  the  be 

the  worms  supp 

(fcri)  then  renin 

wonns,  which,  i 

coTic  from  the  ei 

not  .ifcin  aware 

new  worms  the 

selves;  they  cont 

them  at  the  usu 

them  seven  days, 

that  were  to  Ik;  p 

It  the  same  inoiiii 

ji'  every  respect. 

elapu'd,  and  no  q; 

O'le  w:is  a  ilcail  ip 

were  cnqily.     'i"h 

but  didl  liefore  pi 

pri'sentcil  only  a  <1 

conclusive  than  t 

bees  have  the  pow 

inh  queens,  since 

by  operating  on 

lelei'ted."     'I'his 

preserve  the  conn 

from  the  iknger  o 

the  queen ;  and 

evolution  of  a  (|u 

ent  on  the  eflbcts 

(vsteo). 


Another  mist  i 

Bomy  of  the  hive 

mon  worker-liees, 

'■rtile  eg^rs.      It  w 

this,  and  also  to  ex 

found  tliat,  in  a  hi 

drones  were  h.  i. 

had  liccn  said  bv 

ence  of  fvinll  quei 

Iv  directing  a  can 

ililividual  l>ee  in   I 

ti'dn.  every  one  li; 

«ii('.  ii  .siraight  siji. 

8(hirach's   dis<'iivei 

workers  laying  eggi 

tie»  piirliiiily  deveh 

the  only  known  cat 

llif  fior!  or  jelly  giv 

Iraiu  of  thought,  he 

(ill  wirker.H'es  nrc 

tiid  Klicre  worker-l 

hefunlier  found  lb 

Cl'ill  I.I  those  of  ihi' 

till!  liiMiight  him  tii 

gi'f  the  r.ii'il  ,•),.  Ci 

li:'.idcn'.  orhy  a  pari 


BEES. 


m 


wondcifu'  pVienomeiia  of  the  hive  takes  place.  It  haa  ig  unknown  to  me,  drop  aomj  particles  cf  royal  jolly 
been  ntnfd  that  bees,  on  losing  their  queen,  build  a  royal  into  ceils  contiguous  to  those  (ontainiiiK  the  worms  de*> 
cell  arounil  an  ordinary  workor-l)ee  larva!,  or  scvcrul  of  tindd  for  iiurensj"  whence  the  expansion  of  the  ovarioa 
them,  if  the  larvB  are  abundant.  These,  by  peculiar  to  a  certain  degree.  That  expansion  is  imperfect.  Aa 
feeding,  lire  formed  and  developed  into  t/ueenn,  thus  prov-  in  the  case  of  retarded  fecundation  in  queens,  the  fruit 
Ing  that  the  worker-bees,  commonly  viewed  at  one  time  ful  workcr-lwes  produce  nothing  but  drones.  In  thii 
la  neutc'"'  are  in  reality  undevoloiied  females.  Thin  '  fact,  it  seems  to  us,  may  possibly  be  found  the  principle 
Tcmiirkiilile  discovery  was  made  by  Schirach.  Having  ;  of  the  unexplained  instinct  in  question.  May  the  in- 
used  smoke  about  a  hivo,  he  so  tnnoyed  'ho  queen  I  stinct  which  leads  them  to  create  queens  from  worker- 
Ihat  sl'i'  'k'w  away,  and  the  circumstance  of  the  bees  ;  larvic,  not  also  prompt  them  so  to  dispense  the  royal  food 


iinincdiiii''ly  buililing  royal  cells  around  common  larva;, 
when  tlu'v  hud  no  royal  larva),  revealed  to  him  the 
truth.  Hiiber  proved  the  same  thing  by  the  suc- 
cecJinK  experiment : — "  I  put  some  pieces  of  comb, 
conlainiin;  worker's  ccgs  in  the  cells,  of  the  same 
kind  IIS  those  already  hatined,  into  a  hive  deprived 
of  a  (|iicen.  The  same  day  several  cells  were  en- 
lariied  by  'he  bees,  and  converted  into  royal  c^lls,  and 
the  worms  supplied  with  a  thick  bed  of  jelly.  Five 
were  then  removed  from  these  cells,  and  five  common 
worms,  which,  forly-eiglit  hours  before,  we  had  seen 
coTic  from  the  egg.  substituted  for  them.  The  liccs  did 
not  .fcein  aware  of  the  change;  they  watched  over  the 
new  worms  the  same  as  over  those  chosen  by  them- 
jcIvcb;  they  contniued  enlarging  the  cells,  and  closed 
them  at  the  usual  time.  When  they  hud  hatched  on 
them  seven  days,  we  removed  the  cells  to  see  the  queens 
that  were  to  lie  produced.  Two  were  excluded,  almost 
at  tho  sami'  moment,  of  the  largest  size,  and  well  formed 
jr  every  respect  The  term  of  the  other  cells  having 
elip^cd,  anil  no  queen  appearing,  wo  opened  them.  In 
O'le  was  a  ilcad  queen,  but  still  a  nym|ih  ;  the  other  two 
wore  eiii|ily.  The  worms  had  spun  their  silk  cocoons, 
but  didi  liefore  (lassini;  into  their  iiympbine  -^tato,  and 
nnwiiti'd  only  a  dry  skin.  I  can  conceive  notll^ng  more 
conclusive  than  this  experiment.  It  demonstrates  that 
bees  have  the  power  of  converting  the  worms  of  workers 
inn  qucciis,  since  they  succeeded  in  procuring  queens 
bv  operating  on  the  worms  which  we  ourselves  h„d 
lolecled."  This  curious  provision  seems  intended  ^ 
preserve  the  communities  of  bees,  in  any  emergency, 
from  the  danger  of  wanting  that  all-important  nie-nber, 
the  queen ;  and  it  is  reasonably  conjectured  lliat  the 
evohition  of  a  queen  from  a  worl.er-larva)  is  depend- 
ent oil  the  cflects  of  the  royal  food  upon  the  ovarian 
■ystem. 

Ferlilc  Worker-Bees 

Another  m  ist  remaikable  fact  obsen'able  in  the  eco- 
nomy of  the  hive  was  discovered  by  M.  liiom.  Com- 
mon workor-bces,  that  naturalist  jiroved,  soni'  nines  lay 
firtile  eg:>.  It  was  rewrved  for  HuImt  to  determine 
this, ami  also  to  explain  the  cause.  He  in  the  fir.st  place 
found  tiiat.  in  a  hive  deprived  of  its  queen,  the  rugs  of 
drones  were  \u.\.  'I'hougli  he  did  not  put  faith  in  what 
had  Ih-cu  said  by  some  naturalists  res]K'eting  the  exist- 
ence of  fiimit  queens,  he  nevertheless  satisfied  himself, 
Iv  direeliiig  a  careful  examination  to  be  made  of  each 
ililividual  bee  in  the  hive,  that  no  queen  was  among 
tlicin.  every  one  having  the  little  basket  on  the  bind  leg, 
«iK  ii  straight  sllir;.  'I'luis  ciinvinced  of  the  reality  of 
Sihirach's  discoverv,    Hnl'cr,   having   detected    several 


to  common  larvte  as  to  supply  the  hive  with  new  drones 
for  the  new  queens  1  This  end  is  at  least  gained  by  the 
mode  in  which  the  worker-bees  become  productive. 
Ovaries,  in  a  rudimental  state,  have  been  found  by  late 
observers  in  all  working-bees. 

Mutilations  cf  Queens. 

Before  leaving  the  particular  subject  of  queens,  the 
remarkable  cflccts  of  mutilations  upon  them  may  be  men- 
tioned. Huber  cut  off  one  antenna  from  a  queen,  with- 
out any  marked  etTects ;  but  when  he  cut  off  both,  the 
case  was  different.  "  From  this  moment  there  wa.-^  a 
great  alteration  in  her  conduct.  She  traversed  the  comba 
with  extraordinary  vi  acity.  Scarcely  had  the  workers 
time  to  .separnte  and  recede  before  her;  she  dropped  hel 
eggs  without  taking  care  to  deposit  them  in  any  cell. 
The  hive  not  being  very  populous,  part  was  without 
combs.  Hither  she  seemed  particularly  earnest  to  re- 
pair, and  long  remained  motionless.  She  appeared  to 
avoid  the  bees  ;  however,  several  workers  followed  her 
into  this  solitude,  and  treated  her  with  the  most  evident 
respect.  She  seldom  required  honey  from  them,  but, 
when  that  occurred,  she  directed  her  trunk  with  an  un- 
certain kind  of  feeling,  sometimes  on  the  head  and  some- 
times on  the  limbs  of  the  workers,  and  if  it  did  reach 
their  mouths,  it  was  by  chance.  At  other  times  she  re- 
turned upon  the  combs,  then  quitted  them  to  traverse  the 
qiass  sides  of  the  hive :  and  always  drop|)ed  eggs  during 
her  various  motions.  Sometimes  she  appeared  tormented 
will)  the  desire  of  leaving  her  habitation.  She  rushed 
touariis  the  ojienng,  and  enter'.d  the  glass  tube  adapted 
there;  but  the  cxt(  rnal  orifice  boinc;  too  small,  after  fruit- 
less exertion,  she  returned  Notwithstanding  these 
syni|)toiii3  of  ticliriui'i,  the  Iiecs  did  not  c;ase  to  render 
her  the  same  alteiiticm  r.s  they  ever  pay  to  their  queens, 
but  this  one  received  it  with  inditVerence.  All  that  I  do- 
sciibe  appeared  .o  me  the  consi'(iuence  of  amputating  the 
aiitciiii.T! "  Another  similarly  mutilated  queen  was 
jilaced  beside  her;  th.v  had  both  lost  their  conibativo- 
iie.i.'i.  Finally,  on  beii  ;;  again  left  alone,  the  poor  mu- 
tilated queen  qiiil'.cd  llie  hive,  unheeded,  and  abandoned 
to  her  fate.  This  evidence  of  the  high  value  of  the 
aiiteniKT  was  gained  on  the  whole  in  a  manner  whica 
evcii  a  lluber's  ardour  for  siience  can  scarcely  excuse. 

Massacre  of  the  Drones. 

Another  of  the  great  natural  phenomena  of  the  hive 
is  t!ie  massacring  of  the  drones.  It  was  at  one  time 
asserted  that  the  worker-bees  diil  not  use  their  stings 
auainst  the  stingless  males,  but  merely  pushed  them  on* 
to  die;  this  idea,  however,  resulted  from  the  massacre 
K'ing  always  committed  at  the  bottom  of  the  hive  whither 


iforkers  laying  eggs,  examined  them,  and  linind  the  ova-  i  the  poor  drones  retire  in  clusters  in  .Inly  and  -Ansust,  as 
riet  inirlially  deve|o|ied.  Me  -.ow  iM'tlioualit  him  that  if  aware  of  the  doom  impendin'j  over  them.  As  usual, 
the  wly  known  cause  of  such  development  is  the  use  of  by  one  of  his  ingenious  expedients,  Hiiber  di.'icoven'd 
thf  food  or  jelly  given  to  the  royal  larva'.  Led  into  this  the  truth.  Six  swarms  were  put  on  glass  tables,  beneath 
Inin  of  thought,  he  ipeedily  dif-covered  that  all  the  fruit-    which  the  watchers  placed  them.selves.     "This  contriv- 


fiil  worker .M'cs  are  born  in  hives  where  no  queen  exi.sts, 
(lid  where  worker.liir\2?  are  transfor'ned  to  (jineiis;  and 
he  fiinlier  found  that  tl.ey  are  always  born  in  ecjls  adja- 
ivul  I.I  those  of  the  larva'-ijueens.  Conliiuied  investiija. 
lim  liniui,'hl  hill)  to  the  bellet',  linallv,  '•  that  when  bees 
fi'e  till'  r,  1/  il  .'ir  tliin'<ii  to  I'ertain  worms,  llicy  either  by 
t,:.ideii<.  or  by  a  particular  inutinct,  the  piiiiclple  of  which 


ance  succcedrd  to  admirHtion.  On  the  4th  of  July,  wo 
saw  the  workers  actually  massacre  the  males,  in  the 
wbi>le  six  swarm-,  at  tin  same  hour,  and  with  the  same 
peculiarities.  'l"ln'  'jia.-s  table  was  covered  with  bees  full 
of  nuiniatioii,  which  lb  vv  upon  the  drones  as  they  came 
from  the  boltoinof  the  hive;  sei/.i  d  lliein  b\  til"  aiilenniB. 
,  the  linih.-.,  and  the  wings,  and  after  having  dragged  then: 


y 


659 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


•bout,  »r,  m  to  spook,  after  quartering  thejn.  they  killed 
them  liy  re|)ent<'(l  Blings  direrted  l)etwcen  tho  rings  of 
the  jelly.  The  moment  that  this  formidable  weapon 
reached  (hem  was  the  lant  of  their  cxiBtrnee ;  they 
stretched  their  wiiian  and  expired.  At  the  Hamo  lime, 
M  if  the  workers  did  not  consider  them  a-i  dead  as  they 
appeared  to  iin,  they  still  Ntruck  the  slim;  so  deep  that  it 
could  hardly  l>e  witlidi  iwii',  and  these  hees  were  ohligod 
to  turn  round  upon  tlicniselveH  before  the  stings  could  !« 
disengaged. 

Next  day.  having  resumed  our  former  po.iifion,  we  wit- 
ne88e<l  new  scenes  of  rnrnnge.  During  three  hours,  the 
bees  furiously  destroyed  the  males.  They  had  massa- 
cred all  their  own  on  the  preceding  evening,  but  now 
attacked  those  which,  driven  from  the  neichhoiiring 
hives,  hud  taki-n  retiit,-o  among  tbem.  We  saw  them 
also  tear  some  reinainini;  nymphs  from  the  conilm;  they 
greedily  sucked  all  the  lluid  from  the  abdomen,  and  then 
carried  them  away.  The  following  days  no  drones  re- 
mained in  the  hives. 

These  two  observations  seem  to  me  decisive.  It  is  in- 
contestilile  that  nulure  has  charged  the  workers  with  the 
destruction  of  the  niiilrs  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year. 
But  what  means  does  she  use  to  excite  their  fury  aganist 
tli^ml  'ri'..o  is  u  question  that  I  cannot  pretend  to  an- 
;wf..  However,  an  oltservation  that  I  have  made  may 
one  day  b'ad  to  the  sohition  of  the  problem.  The  niali's 
»re  never  destroyed  in  hives  deprived  of  queens;  on  the 
<vi'iirary,  whiN'  a  savage  massacre  jirevails  in  other 
piaces,  they  there  find  an  asylum.  They  are  tolerated 
and  fed.  ami  many  are  seen  even  in  the  middle  of  ,laim- 
»ry.  They  arc  also  preserved  in  hives,  which,  without 
a  queen  properly  so  callid,  have  sonu'  individuals  of 
'^-t  specii  s  tlv  1  lay  the  eggs  of  males,  and  in  those  whose 
rccuiulati  ,1  queens,  if  I  may  use  the  expression, 
propagate  only  diones.  Therefore,  tho  massacre  takes 
place  in  none  but  hives  where  the  queens  are  eoinpletcly 
fertile,  and  it  never  In'gins  until  the  seai^on  of  swarming 
is  past" 

Swunning. 

We  have  now  only  another  of  the  great  natural  ope- 
rations of  the  hive  to  advert  to,  before  coming  to  the 
consideration  of  the  artificial  provisions  which  have  Ix-en 
discovered  and  I'niployed  by  man  for  augmenting  the 
usefulness  of  this  interesting  insect.  Swarming  is  the 
operation  referr»"<l  to.  which  usually  takes  place,  In  fein- 
|«;rHte  climes,  in  May  and  June,  thouirh  additional 
swarms,  and  swarms  from  swarms,  are  commonly  later. 
In  noticing  the  proceedinirs  of  a  community  from  its  first 
settlcnicnl,  it  was  niciitioried  that  the  old  queen  led  off 
the  first  swarm,  and  did  so  as  if  under  alarm  at  the  num- 
ber of  royal  enibryos.  usually  from  twelve  to  twenty, 
which  were  in  progress  to  maturity,  and  which  the 
worker-bees  would  not  allow  her  to  approach.  Other 
causi-s  also  ofierate.  Ix  yond  doubt,  in  a  "ertain  degree. 
The  increased  heat  of  the  hive  from  crowding,  for  exam- 
ple, in  all  likelihiM)il  influences  the  movement.  Bees 
cannot  do  without  f-eeilom  of  respiration  and  fresh  air, 
Biiii  it  has  sur[iri-<ed  many  observers  to  find  the  air  usu- 
ally pure,  and  U-low  8(i  degrees,  in  a  hive  ordinarily 
filled.  The  insc't".  however,  have  been  discovered  to 
manage  this  by  active  ventilation  in  their  own  way.  A 
number  of  them  are  always  to  lie  -ieen  near  the  inner, 
and  sometimes  the  outer  siile  of  the  opening  of  the  hive, 
Tibrating  their  winus  with  ereat  rapidity,  and  sending 
the  enterinGT  air  buckwards  in  <i  smart  current.  One 
band  relieves  another  at  this  task.  'J'hese  means  o(  vcn- 
til  ition,  however,  seem  to  become  eoniparativelv  inef- 
fective when  the  bivp  tets  over-crowded.  The  hc't 
oftt'n  rises  to  nlnut  100  degrees,  the  bees  are  driven  to 
■he  door  in  cluslers.  while  the  warmth  makes  the  "live 
»i«ibl»  moist.  .At  the  same  time,  the  old  queen's  alaim 
at  the  ^uwtb  of  iLc  royal  yourifr  seems  to  have  its  influ- 


ence. She  would  fain  kill  them,  but  the  workcr-beM 
lose  all  respect  for  her,  biting  and  heating  her  off  wiik 
violence.  The  way  in  which  thoy  defend  the  rnval 
young  at  swarming  time  is  inileed  most  remarkable,  ir 
nt  any  other  season,  they  bring  up  queens  from  worker' 
larvoj,  the  first  queen  that  leaves  the  cell  is  allowej  to 
kill  the  rest  at  pleasure.  But  when  casting  colonici  th, 
workers,  as  if  from  the  sense  that  various  swarms  mav 
be  cast  off,  and  various  queens  required,  will  not  perinii 
the  old  queen  to  touch  the  young,  whom  nature  haj 
giver\  them  the  strange  power  of  k«<^ping  alive,  lor  UHf, 
secunty,  in  their  cells.  Nor  will  they  allow  the  first  yoiiuij 
one  to  whom  they  grant  free<loni  to  touch  the  rest.  Hii. 
Iier  illustrates  this  subject  beautifully.  Suppose  an  old 
queen  to  have  left  a  very  populous  hive,  as  dcrerilipj 
with  a  swarm.  "  After  the  departure  of  the  colony,  the 
remaining  workers  set  another  queen  at  liberty,  ui\\  iffj) 
her  with  e(|ual  inditVerenco  as  the  first,  'i'hcy  drive  liei 
from  the  royal  cells;  she  also.  perpctLally  harassed,  fcj. 
comes  agitated,  departs,  and  carries  i.  new  awarm  olons 
with  her.  In  a  populous  hive  this  scene  is  repeated 
three  or  four  times  during  the  spring.  The  nuuitiet  of 
bees  l)eing  then  so  much  reduced,  they  arc  no  joniiet 
capable  of  preserving  a  strict  watch  over  the  roval  cfljj 
several  females  are  therefore  enabled  to  leave  their  coij. 
finement  at  once;  they  seek  each  other,  fight,  and  tin 
queen  at  last  victorious  reigns  peaceably  over  the  re- 
public. 

"  The  longest  intervals  we  have  observed  betwf-t-n  the 
departure  of  each  natural  swarm  have  been  from  scvpti 
to  nine  days.  This  is  the  time  that  usually  elap<e« 
from  the  jreriod  of  the  first  colony  being  h>d  out  hv  the 
old  queen  until  the  next  swarm  is  coridueled  bv  the 
first  young  queen  set  at  liberty.  The  interval  betwem 
the  second  and  third  is  still  shorter  ;  and  llio  tburih 
sometimes  departs  on  the  day  after  the  third.  In  hivi^ 
left  to  themselves,  fifteen  or  eichteen  days  arc  ustiilij 
sullieient  for  the  throwing  of  the  finir  swanin,  if  tin 
weather  continues  favourable,  as  I  shall  explain. 

"  .\  Bwarm  is  never  seen  except  in  a  fine  day,  or,  to 
speak  more  corn'ctly,  at  a  time  of  tho  day  when  the  an 
shines  and  the  air  is  calm,  sometimes  we  ha^e  ohscrvrj 
all  the  precursors  of  swarming — disorder  ami  iiiiilalion— 
but  n  cloud  passed  Iiefori- the  sun.  and  trniKiuillitvwai 
restnrr'd  ;  the  liees  thought  no  more  of  swarmini;.  An 
licnir  afterwards,  the  sun  having  again  appcarcil,  the  hi- 
limit  was  renewed  ;  it  rapidly  uugincntcd,  and  thcswsnr 
departed. 

"  Bees  generally  seem  much  alarmed  at  the  pro»pcflol 
bad  weather.  While  ranging  in  the  fields,  the  piissin^ 
of  a  cloud  l)efore  the  sun  indoces  them  ])reripil,ilfly'j) 
return.  I  am  led  to  think  that  they  are  disiiuirlod  k 
the  sudden  diminution  of  light.  For  if  the  sky  i| 
uniforndy  obscure,  and  there  is  no  alteration  in  clear- 
ness or  in  the  clouds  dispelling,  they  proccd  to  tbo 
fields  for  their  ordinary  collections,  and  the  ;irst  drofi 
of  a  soft  rain  do  not  make  them  return  with  much  p» 
cipitatitm. 

"  1  am  persuaded  that  the  necessity  of  a  fine  day  fm 
swarming  is  one  reason  that  has  induced  nnturf  to 
admit  of  bees  protracting  the  captivity  of  llieir  yiure 
queens  in  the  royal  cells.  I  will  not  deny  that  ihfT 
sometimes  seem  to  use  this  right  in  an  arlilriiry  man' 
ner.  Howevc,  the  confinement  of  the  (Hicen  is  nhnn 
longer  when  bad  weather  lasts  several  days  loarllft, 
Here  the  final  objc-t  Ciiniiot  be  mistaken.  If  the  vol  )j 
females  were  at  liberty  to  leave  their  crudlM  i!iin:ij 
those  had  days,  there  would  lie  n  plurality  of  (\unBf  J 
ihr-  hive,  eonsecun'iitlv  combats;  and  victims  wiulJ  l;.il 
Had  weather  mii'ht  continue  so  long  that  all  the  ccnm 
nugbt  at  oniT  have  undi'rgone  their  last  tiieliin)"r|'lio-n 
or  attained  their  liberty.  One  victorious  over  Ihc  "(wK 
would  enjoy  the  throne;  and  the  hive.  hIiiiIi  ■lift''! 
naturally  produce  several  swarms,  could  give  uiii;  ow 


Tlins  the  inultii 
left  to  tlio  cha 
which  it  is  reiidi 
Jijpnsitions  of  n 
to  esape  nt  one 
This  explanutioi 
QUS  t^  insist  farll 
Our  author  at 
roiiilting  from  tl 
ill  a  condition  to 
arty,  and  are  thi 
mjment  of  suns 

I 

The  capture  o 
on  some  bush  o 
itcp  towu'ds  lodi 
placed  in  it,  with 
follow.  A  stroni 
the  bees  without 
when  they  are  sv 
(lines  happens,  Ik 
person  of  any  ini 
case  presence  of 
pie.scryation  of  HI 
'fhorley,  is  etrikii 
advanced : — 

"  One  of  my  s 
branches  of  a  et 
hive  without  help 
oflercd  her  assista 
the  bees.     Havin; 
put  a  linen  cloth  t 
and  secure  her  fr 
fell  into  tho  hive, 
body  upon  the  elc 
I  look  tho  hive  ou 
bees  had  got  undc 
towards  her  breas 
Ming  posture.     V 
farther  service,  si 
done,  a  most  nil 
Die  with  the  deep 
nn*!!"  the  uiiha| 
imminent  hazard 
all  ns.iisliiiice  had 
[i.'r  ■•  mid  have  at 
a:     iienls  I  eoul 
earnestness  in  my 
her  present  postui 
body  uj)Oii  her   hi 
cilia,  and  I  began 
I  imineiliately  sei 
crowd,  ailing  with 
together  into  the 
time;  and  as  I  dii 
ccived  that  the  wl 
rltlemeut ;  but  ii 
g.ithering  closer  tc 
parting.     IfiHin  tl 
there  must  be  ano 
returned.     I  direc 
ill  J  short  time,  w 
«"''ind  or  the  sain 
till'  crow  ,  to  esea 
Ijreit  nunilier  of  t 
the  perilous  sc^ne 
mire  pic.isiiig  aiu 
i]Ui'cn,  U'uaii  to  lii 
Will  it  in  iiiultiti  ill 
«iile;  and  In  the  s 
Had  not  oin^  singi 
much  as  one  btii 
quiik'y  have  (.topj 


fi£ES. 


653 


Tlini  the  multiplication  of  tho  specioa  would  have  been 
Irft  to  tlio  cliaiico  of  rain  or  fine  weather,  instead  of 
uhich  it  is  romlcrcd  independent  of  cither  by  the  v/'me 
jjjpnsitiond  of  nature.  By  allowini;  only  a  single  female 
to  escape  nt  one",  the  formation  of  Hwarmx  is  secured. 
Thi>  explanation  appears  «o  simple,  that  it  is  superflu- 
ous tj  iiiKii*!  f^'fther  on  it." 

Our  niithor  adds,  that  another  important  circumstance 
lojultini;  from  the  captivity  of  queens  is,  that  they  are 
ill  a  condition  to  fly  when  the  bei'H  have  given  them  lib- 
irty,  and  are  therefore  capable  of  profiting  by  the  first 
njmcnt  of  sunahinc  to  depart  at  the  head  of  a  colony. 

DatiRiTS  diirini;  Swnrining. 

Tlic  rapture  of  the  queen,  when  a  swarm  hns  settled 
on  some  bush  or  tree,  is,  it  should  be  added,  the  first 
itop  towa"lH  lodging  a  swarm  in  a  new  hive.  If  she  be 
placed  ill  it,  with  two  or  three  bees,  the  rest  will  soon 
follow.  A  Htrong  glove  will  enable  any  one  to  handle 
the  bees  without  risk,  as  they  are  less  disposed  to  sting 
when  they  are  swarming  than  at  other  times.  Ft  some- 
(Irncs  hiii)pi:ns,  however,  that  a  swarm  may  settle  on  the 
person  of  any  individual  who  may  be  near  it,  in  which 
case  presence  of  mind  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the 
piescrviitinn  of  life.  The  following  anecdote,  related  by 
Thorloy,  is  strikingly  illustrative  of  what  has  now  been 
advanced : — 

"One  of  my  swarms  settled  among  the  close  twisted 
branches  of  a  codling  tree;  and  not  to  be  got  into  a 
hive  without  help,  my  maid-servant  k-ing  in  the  garden, 
offered  her  assistance  '.o  hold  the  hive  while  I  dislodged 
the  bees.  Having  never  licen  aci|u,iintcd  with  bees,  she 
put  a  linen  cloth  over  her  head  and  shoulders  to  guard 
and  secure  her  from  their  swords.  .V  few  of  the  bees 
fell  into  the  hive,  some  upon  the  ground,  but  the  main 
body  upon  tlie  cloth  which  covered  her  upper  garments. 
I  look  the  hivo  out  of  her  haiids,  wiien  she  said  that  the 
bfcs  hail  K"t  under  the  covering,  ami  were  crowding  up 
towards  her  breast  and  face,  which  put  her  in  a  trem- 
bling posture.  When  I  perceived  the  veil  was  of  no 
farther  service,  she  gave  nie  leave  to  remove  it.  This 
done,  a  most  airccling  spectacle  was  presented,  filling 
nu'  with  the  deepest  distress  and  concern,  as  I  thought 
niya'lf  the  unhappy  instrument  of  drawing  her  into  so 
unmincnt  luiz.ard  of  her  life.  Had  she  enrngeil  Ihcin, 
til  ns.<isliiiice  had  l)een  vain,  and  nothing  less  than  her 
lili'  Kill  Id  have  atoned  for  the  olli'iice.  I  used  all  the. 
s:  iicnls  I  could  think  of,  begging  her,  with  all  the 
cunieslness  in  my  power,  to  stand  her  ground,  and  keep 
hor  present  posture.  The  bees  had  now  got  in  a  great 
body  upon  her  breast,  ahobt  her  neck  and  up  to  her 
cliin,  and  I  began  to  search  among  them  for  their  queefl. 
I  iminediiilely  seized  her,  taking  her  from  among  the 
crowd,  alimg  with  some  of  the  cominiMiers,  and  put  them 
togethei  into  the  hive.  Here  I  w^olched  her  for  some 
time;  and  as  I  did  not  observe  tlmt  she  ennie  out,  leon- 
ccivcd  that  the  whole  body  would  quickly  abandon  their 
•"tllpinent ;  i)Ut  instead  of  that,  I  soon  observed  them 
g.ilbering  closer  together,  without  the  least  iiignal  for  de- 
partini;.  lf[K)n  this  I  immediately  reflci-ted  that  ei.hcr 
tlipre  must  be  another  sovereign,  or  that  the  same  was 
rciurned.  I  directly  commenced  a  second  search,  and 
ii!  a  short  time,  with  a  most  agreeable  surprise,  found  a 
t''  md  or  the  same.  She  strove,  by  entering  farther  into 
thf  crow  ,  to  escape  me ;  but  I  re-conducted  her,  with  a 
Ijr.'U  number  of  the  popidace,  into  the  hive.  And  iu)w 
the  perihus  Rci,ne  began  to  ihaitiie  to  one  indefinitely 
m):i'  plc.ising  and  agreeable.  The  bees,  missing  their 
qui'cn,  Ix'Kaii  to  lislodge  anil  repair  to  the  hive,  crowding 
tnio  it  in  nuiltiti  des,  and  in  the  greatest  hurry  imagin- 
alilc;  and  in  the  space  of  two  or  three  minutes  the  mnid 
Bad  not  one  niiigle  bee  about  her,  neither  had  she  so 
much  as  one  sting,  a  small  number  of  which  would 
quiili'y  have  stopped  her  breath." 


ARTiriCIAL  MANAOEMKHT   or   BIh:S. 
I      The  artificial    management  of  bees  forms,  in   tonM 
measure,  a  brancii  of  the  present  subject  perfectly  di»> 
tinct  from  the  consideration  of  the  natural  operatiims  of 
I  bees,  of  their  various  classes,  of  the  phenomena  attend- 
I  ing  their  transformation,  and  of  their  social  economy  in 
I  general.     Many  al)|e  writers  of  recent  days  have  given 
I  to  the  i)uhlic  their  experience  of  the  best  modes  of  pre- 
serving these  insect  communities,  and   rendering  them 
most  productive.     And,  in  the  first  place,  the  local  situa- 
tion of  an  apiary,  or  a(  cumulation  of  beehives,  has  been 
held  of  especial  consequence. 

She  of  Apiaries. 

The  hivo  must  he  sheltered  in  a  particular  manner 
from  the  action  of  high  winds.  A  wall  or  hedge  is  not 
sullicient  to  yield  the  requisite  protection;  houses  or 
lotVy  trees  are  necessary  to  insure  it.  The  reason  of 
this  is,  that  the  bees,  returning  homewards,  require  a 
calm  a'V  at  a  considerable  ncight  above  their  dwellings, 
otherwise,  when  they  attempt  to  alight,  they  are  dashed 
to  the  ground  and  killed,  their  exhausted  strength  dis- 
abling them  from  coping  with  a  wind  of  any  force.  A 
low  position,  enclosed  with  woods,  suits  them  be.st.  Beea 
drink  much,  and  a  fountain  or  brook  is  essential  to  them; 
deep  pools  or  cisterns  very  ollcn  cause  their  death  by 
drowning.  Shallow  troughs,  filled  with  moss  or  floating 
wood,  are  recommended  as  a  substitute  for  shallow  rills. 
It  is  an  error,  according  to  the  experienced  bee-kcej>er 
Ue  (ielicu,  to  suppose  that  hives  should  be  placed  full  in  th» 
sun.  Uees,  he  says,  live  and  ''iriveinshiidy  places  of  mode- 
rate and  nnifoim  tempcrature.atuihence  their  partiality  for 
forests.  Desides,  exposure  to  all  the  extremes  of  the  solar 
heat  melts  anil  spoils  the  honey.  At  least,  if  exposure 
to  the  sun  be  beneficial  at  all,  that  exposure  should  last 
oidy  for  a  comparatively  short  lime,  or  from  about  tsn 
o'clock  till  noon.  Hives  should  not  bo  placed  on  upper 
floors,  on  account  of  the  increased  danger  from  wind. 
.\t  the  same  time, a  bee-house  ought  to  be  so  made  as  to 
cause  a  free  passage  of  air,  though  not  of  strong  cur- 
rents, at  all  jx'riods,  with  openings  both  anteriorly  and 
posteriorly.  A  covered  shed  or  venmdab  is  perhaps  the 
best  form  of  a  bee-house,  yielding  both  a  shade  and 
shelter  from  the  wet.  Where  hives  are  simply  placed  on 
opwi  stands,  these  should  be  about  sixteen  inches  from 
the  ground,  and  each  three  or  four  feet  apart.  Shifting 
is  condemned  by  almost  all  bee  observers  as  very  hurtiul 
to  the  bees. 

Hives. 

The  important  question  of  the  size,  fonn,  and  mate- 
rials of  the  hive,  has  ot  course  received  much  attention. 
Whatever  tie  the  form  of  iiivc  ado|)tcd.  it  is  found  that 
bee.  iK-commodute  their  b'boura  to  it,  and  fashion  their 
combs  of  honey  accordingly. 

."^,'niir  /iii'C',  or  fkrpf,  as  they  are  called  in  Scotland, 
of  which  a  ski  Ich  is  alforded  by  our  frontispiece,  are  the 
hives  most  comnioidy  used  in  cottage-gardens;  and 
being  easily  and  i-lieaply  constructed,  they  f.till  main- 
tain their  place,  though  nuich  better  habitations  could  be 
suggcstc,!.  They  are  of  a  rouinlish  form,  ordinarily 
measuring  about  twelve  inches  deep  anil  nine  inehi'S 
wide  iM  the  lower  jiart.  Made  of  imbroken  ire-stran, 
or  any  other  straw  of  a  strong  and  elastic  fibre  and  well 
bound,  they  will,  if  tolerably  well  sheltereil,  la.^i  many 
years.  It  is  cuslcmiary  to  place  sli(  ks  across  the  info- 
rior,  froi  ■  an  idea  tliat  such  are  necessary  for  supporting 
the  combs;  but  Mr.  Taylor,  in  his  /  c c- /icc/JCi's  Moiiutil,* 
combats  this  opinion.  "  The  sticks,"  observes  that  in 
telligent  writer,  "are  only  an  annoyance  to  the  bees; 
ami   there  is  little  fear  of  the  combs  falling,  except  in 

•ThiK  is  a  vnlinil)!"  prnetienl  treaiiiie.  which   it  ntTordi  ni 
pli'iisiirr  lo  ri'coiiimcnil     li  wus  piil)lis!ietl  by  K,  tioombridya, 
I'uicrnoitcr  How,  l.oiulon,  in  1  ^il>. 
3i3 


654 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE   PKOPLE. 


fery  dopp  hiveii :  at  any  rntfi  it  may  bo  pre»pnlC(l  by  coii- 
tnnting  tlio  lower  part  n  little.  Tlio  brut  wiiy  of  doiiiR 
thia  ii  by  working  :i  wu(mIcii  Iui(I|i  IiihIiIp  tho  bottom 
b«nJ  of  tho  bivB,  us  ri'iMinmn-ndeJ  by  Dr.  Boviin,  wlio 
mys,  •  It  should  Im;  |ierforated  throuxb  IIm  whole  rour^e, 
•nd  tho  pcrforiitioiiH  iiiixle  in  an  obliipie  dirertioa  ho 
di.itant  from  eai-h  other  an  to  eauNO  all  the  HtitrheH  of  tho 
hire  to  Ta.nffe  in  a  uniform  manner.'  Tlu^  hoop  ofives 
greater  stability  to  tho  hive,  preserves  the  lower  edge 
from  deruy,  und  affords  fnoility  in  moving  it.  I  advise  a 
cin-ular  pieco  of  wood  (turned  with  a  groove  ot  the 
etUe,  to  retain  it  in  its  plare)  to  bo  worked  into  the 
crown,  having  through  it  an  inih  and n  half  hole.  With 
a  little  ingciniity,  the  lices  may  \m  fed  through  this  o|ien- 
in,{— a  Ix'tter  method  tlian  the  ordinary  one  at  the  bot- 
tom of  a  hive.  A  piece  of  wood  or  tin  will  commonly 
cover  the  hole;  but  at  times,  and  esperiatly  in  winter,  it 
may  be  usi'd  for  the  pur|x)8e  of  ventill'ition,  and  allow- 
in.;  esca|>e  to  the  impure  air  of  the  hive,  In  this  ense,  a 
bit  of  [H'rfuraled  tin  or  zinc  should  bo  placed  over  it, 
which,  when  stop|«;d  up  by  the  beei,  can  im  replac  .,  ' y 
■  clean  one.  An  earthen  pan  is  a  coniin(m  cover  to  a 
draw  hive,  and  this  may  Iw slightly  raised  by  wedges  (m 
the  four  sides,  to  |><>rmit  a  small  space  underneath.  Of 
whatever  material  the  outer  covering  conxists,  it  nnist 
projcc'  HO  far  on  nil  sides  as  to  protect  the  hive  from  the 
lea' i  moisture.  This  cannot  be  too  much  gunnled 
a«.  ainst ;  and  whether  of  wocxl  or  straw,  all  hives  ought 
to  be  well  painted  at  the  beginning,  and  periodically 
•flerwurds." 

^Vl>o'^ell  Hiven. — These  are  su}>erior  to  straw  skeps, 
the  square  Hliape  Iteiiig  Ix-tter  .adapted  for  the  deposit 
of  combs  than  the  round  form.  .Mr.  Taylor's  observa- 
tions may  be  likewise  ipiDled  on  this  important  pciiut. 
"It  matters  not  much  of  what  wood  the  boies  are  made, 
provided  it  is  sound,  thoroughly  gcasoned,  and  well  put 
together.  Dilfv  rent  opinions  are  entertained  as  to  tlic 
Is'st  size  of  bee-boxes,  but  I  think  that  much  must  depend 
on  the  nuinlior  of  Ih-cs  they  are  to  contain,  and  on  the 
honey  locality  ;  thi're  must  also  be  a  reference  to  tho 
propositi  inixle  of  working  them ;  for,  where  no  swarm- 
ing is  permitted,  a  larger  hive  may  l>e  advantageously 
used.  .\  good  size  is  'wclve  inches  sipuire,  and  nine 
inches  deep  withinside  ;  tho  thickness  throughout  being 
not  less  than  an  inch.  The  top  of  the  hox  nuglit  to  pro- 
ject on  all  sides  nearly  threeiiunrters  of  an  ini'h.for  Init- 
ter  protection  ami  ap|)earsMce,  ami  as  atrording  conveni- 
ence for  lit^iiig.  Oti  the  top  a  two-inch  hole  should  l>e 
cut  in  the  centre,  for  placing  a  bell-glass,  and  for  the  pur- 
pose of  feeiiing;  and  another  hole  to  n'ceive  a  vcniillalor 
may  t)c  nude  near  the  back  window,  that  position  iH'ing 
better  for  iiis|X'ction,  and  less  in  the  way  of  the  liees, 
than  the  centre  of  tbi'  hive,  which  is.  or  ought  to  be,  the 
•eat  of  brecdini;.  and  should  not  In-  disturl)od.  A  win- 
dow may  be  placed  at  the  back  and  front,  five  inches 
high  and  six  or  seven  inches  wide.  The  best  and  neat- 
Mt  way  of  seiuring  tho  win<!ows  tliat  I  have  seen,  is  by 
a  sliding  shuHer  of  7.inc.  Round  the  window  there  must 
be  a  projecting  moulding,  mitred  at  the  corners.  On 
one  side  the  piece  of  muulding  is  movable,  and  to  the 
back  of  this  is  screwed  a  plate  of  sheet  zinc.  This 
pa-iscs  into  a  rabbet  to  receive  it,  cut,  on  the  romaining 
three  sides,  at  the  back  of  the  lower  edge  of  the  inouM- 
ing.  To  prevent  any  wet  from  lodging  at  the  bottom  mould- 
ing, an  o|)cning  or  two  may  easily  be  cut  through,  on 
the  under  side,  to  allow  its  P8cai>e.  Fo,  the  sake  of 
unifor.niiy  of  appearance,  blank  windows  may  be  made 
opposite  to  the  real  ones.  Hives  of  this  kir.il  re(|uire  to 
be  placed  under  some  cover  or  shed, as  a  protection  from 
wet  and  a  hot  sun." 

To  these  cx(ilanalions  it  rhoulil  be  added  that  the 
hive  of  eillicr  furni  must  l>e  placed  on  a  cli^an  wooden 
floor  or  bjanl ;  anil  if  there  he  several  hives  together, 
eacri  should  have  its  own  separate  floor.  1>j  nut  cement 


tho  hives  to  tho  board,  that  bom!'  a  dul^  which  tha  ht 
will   themselves  perform;    all   t'li'    ■\<ny  he  given  i 
slight  luting   of  clay,  or  ony  easily  removahlc  niati-riiL 
The   entrance   to  the   hive    requires  to  he  smiill,  a  IjtiL 
laruer  than  a  shilling,  but  rather  wider  than  deen  imj 
ought  to  be  at  the  lower  edge  of  the  hive,  on  thn'  ,ij, 
which  is  exposed.     Numberless  have  heen  the  pluns  iiw 
vented  to  enl.irge  hives  as  they  may  he  reijuired,  both  l« 
permit  of  the   greater  accumulation   of   honey,  j^j  , 
render  swarming  unnecessary.     Capes  or  hooiin  orp  ih* 
simplest  of  these  inventions.     In   order  to  u«>  cnu,. 
hives  must  have  a  stopiwred  hole  at  tho  top.    \  nmnll 
additional  hive  of  li;?ht  structure  is  placed  over  thia  t 
the  proper  timo.ihe  stt)p|)er  being  removed.     This  sorrei 
as  a  secoiul    magazine  for   hnm-y.      Storyed    hives  un 
meri'ly  hives  made  oritrinally  with  one  or  two  siorys  for 
the  same  end.      Wildman's  hive,  the  lirecian  hive  and 
Lombard's  hive,  are  specimens  of  hives  made  on  thji 
principle.     Collalerol  hives,  again,  such  as  Null's, clTtct 
the  same  ends  by  bein,!j  placed  side  \\y  ciile,  ami  a^m 
increased  accommmlation,    when   necessary,  cither  for 
swarms  or  stores.     But  of  all  such  hives,  oiir  roudon 
will  probably  prefer   to  know  the  one  used  Ijv  Hubci, 
We  <pioto  an    account  of  it  given  in  tho  Ah'-;,,)/,,,', 
Lilrniry.     Huber's  leaf-hive,  as   he   called  it,  <•  coiisisti 
of  eight  frames,  each    18  inches  high  [a  height  »f  14 
inches  is  preferable]  and  10  inches  wide  insi,!,-,  hnvint 
tho  uprights  and  top  cross  pieces  one  and   a  hi;'f  inrh 
broad,  and   one   thick,  so   that   tho   eight  frames,  when 
place<l  cli>H<!  together,  constitute  a  hive  18  inchcn  hli;h, 
I'i  inches  l)etween  end  and  end,  and  iO  inches  hctwofn 
back   and   front,    all   insiile   measii.e.     The  frnnios  tie 
held  together  by  a  flat  sliding-bar  on  each  side,  flocunil 
by  xvedges  and  pins.     To  the  first   and  eiglith  of  these 
frames  is  attached  a  frame  with  glass,  and  covered  willi 
a  shutler.      The    body  of   the  hive    is    proleclcd  hv  t 
sloping    roof,  and    the    entrance  is  made  through  lh« 
thickness  of  the    (loorboanl.       We    dislike   the  sliding. 
bars,  with  their  pins  and  wedges,  which  are  so  fur  inoon- 
venient.  that  in  drawing  them   out,   all  the  IV.inu's  m 
liable   to   open,    and   the  observer   is  exposed  to  iiom« 
hazard  of  annoyance,  from  the  bees  issuing  out  at  evert 
joint;  and  we  have  substiti'ted  tor  them  hinges  on  one 
j  side,  and  a  hook-and-eye   on  each  frame  on  the  other; 
j  we  can  thus  open  any  particular  leaf  without  inpildlin; 
j  with  the  rest.     In  taking  honey  from  this  hive,  the  bee. 
{imasler  has  the  whole  interior  completely  under  his  eve 
and  at  his  disposal,   and  can  choos  ■  what  comhi  hcul 
'  suit  his  purpose,  botb  as  to  quantity  and  quahlv  ;  taking 
!  care,  howi'ver,  to  do  so  only  at  such  perimis  as  will  leavi 
the   liees  time   to  replenish  the  vacancy  before  the  ter 
!  minatinn  of  the  honey  seasim.     It  is  also  well  adajiled 
i  for  ailificial  swai  lirg.     By  separalin<  the  hives  ir.u) 
;  halves,  the  hotiey,  brood-combs,  and  liees.  will,  cencralh 
speaking,  be  eipially  dividixl ;  and  by  supplyini;  t  irh  half 
with  four  empty  frames,  we  shall  have  two  hivrs,  one 
j  half  empty,  equal  in  number  of  liees,  of  brood,  and  even 
of  stores.    One  of  the  new  hives  will  possess  the  qiiee -; 
j  aiid  if  the  o|icration  has  been  performed  at  'he  pro,et 
I  time — that  is  to  say,  a  week  or  ten  days  before  the  perioi) 
i  of  natural   swarming — the   p'^olmbiliiy  is,  there  lil!  t« 
royal   lirood   coining  forward  in  the  other;  at  nil  eviiitt, 
there  will  be  plenty  of  eggs  and  larva  of  the  proper  agt 
for  forming  an  artificial  (|ueen." 
j       I'fe  iif  fapa. — It  will  Iw  oliserred  from  these  quoti 
tations,  that  experienced  apiarians,  v/ho  work  on  a  lar^ 
scale,  now  i'in|iloy,  for  the  most  part,  hives  so  ciiiitrivni 
I  as  to  remedy  all   the  inconv,  nienccs  resulting  fmrntlii 
\  straggling  of  swarms  and  the  old   custom  of  killing  h; 
!  brimstone.     As  the  use  of  single  straw  hives,  however, 
I  formed  upon  the  simpb'st  plan,  still  prevails  anniiij  tho« 
who  have  but  one  or  two  hives   in  all,  the  cii|ie  mafbi 
I  regirded  as  the  easiest  means  of  afTording   eulargi-d  *> 
I  commodutiun  in  auch  coses,  and  tlie  mode  of  uiun| 


rfiy  the  nji 

nw«s«'iry  to 
I  hiiiiilkerclii 
few  lii|is  will 
In  the  hive,  n 
(lily  removed, 
jenwin.  De  d 
from  one  of  li 
i«a  pounds  oi 
(apet  IS  they 

If  if  ctrongl 

inarms  should 

thousand  lices 

cording  to  inn 

nearly  four  poi 

colonics,  each 

prnjier  to  uiiili 

■troiig  popiilali 

r.ilily  more  prol 

liiiut  he  (  eijiiei 

keep  bees  on   a 

dirtalcs  the  jui 

tJelieu  thus  ihs 

two  small  swan 

K'piirately,  and 

Ml  on  wliich  I 

i|ircud  a  Udile-cl 

anil  sudden  inov 

ol  tlio  hives,  and 

1,'iiilly  over  the 

cloth,  and  they  i 

Willis,  and  join  I 

are  quiet  in  tlic 

remove  this  ne.vl 

lo  occupy.     'I'lii- 

lUc'ccss,  and  in  th 

bcfonies  a  |imver 

derived.     'I'wo   I 

liini'  manner,  alt 

some  days  later  I 

construclcil  coiiih 

the  first  one  eiilc 

as  the  bees  will  -, 

have  already  begi 

Hid  net  day  llici 

ardour  with  the  w 

and  which  will  \\, 

fnase  ,)f  the   la!) 

after  this  union, 

morning  in  llie.sai 

lias  alrciiily  passe 

llic  circumstance  c 

the  fail.'  e  of  a  coh 

roinovul  of  on,,  of 

ihe  cordial  junctii 

swarining  may  bo 

ail!  lodging  them 

coiiin  iciiioved  wit 

file  expulsion. 

Sum 
The  feeding  of  t 
•nl  point  to  tile  lie 
wives,  and  of  cmir 
'iriiil  is  then  essei 
Wly  cultival"d  d 
"•tho.-:i>  in  which 
Ktvail  I  or  where 
mustard,  and  cole 
{'•ic-keeiMrs,  howev 

•Til!  work  wc  hi'i 
I'nilllillediVorr,,!,,.  y^ 
f^5h,  »««   pul,:.sl,ei 


BEES. 


h  tflR  bctt 

given  ii  I 
e  inuioriaL 
lull,  a  litllt 

I'wp,  snd 
•»i  thn  sill* 
10  pliinn  tn> 
f«'(l,  both  t« 
x'.V.  and  lo 
'hU  «re  lh« 

»i»e  cajin, 
p.  A  small 
over  Ihisrf 
This  Horvct 
il    liivet  UK 

0  slnryi,  for 
»n  liivc,  (nd 
imic  on  thii 

p,  iiiiil  (ri'ing 
y,  fitlicr  for 
,  our  Tfadcn 
ed  'ly  Hubfi. 

1  A'd'-.-'n/iji'i 
i<>  "  consisu 

hfifflit  »f  H 
iiiHiilr,  having 
1  a  hi.'f  iufh 
fr*mf»,  when 
S  inches  hieh, 
icht'R  Iwlwocii 
he  frnnjos  »re 
li  side,  st'cunj 
inhlh  nf  ihf* 
1  rovirod  wilh 
prnli'i'lf  J  hy  t 
c  thrmiRh  the 
to   the  »h  J  ins- 
re  fo  fur  inooii- 
th?"  fr.uni'9  are 
pOBi'd  to  iwiiK 
HE  out  at  every 
hiiigos  on  oiM 
on  the  other; 
'lumt  meddling 
\n  hive,  the  tiee- 
under  his  eve 
jiiit  coiiibs  bed 
'|n;ility  ;  taking 
(Is  ijj  will  loavj 
brliire  the  ter 
II  well  adapleil 
the  hivos  inui 
will,  cencrally 
dyinu  1  irh  haK 
two  hives,  ™e 
brood,  an,!  even 
moss  the  qiiee  ■; 
,  lit  rlie  rio,et 
lofore  the  period 
there  ^'il!  i« 
|r ;  at  all  evtnU, 
If  the  proi«r  agt 

lim  these  qMt» 
Ivvork  iin  a  Ui? 
Ives  so  ciinltitrti 
liiltiiig  frimlln 
Ini  of  kiHin?  !'J 
1  hives.  h„»evft, 
liits  nnvmn  lho« 
Ihe  i-apc  mi  ^ 
InR  enlargitlic 
ImoJc  of  Ulan 


Mfty  the  ojney  from  it  in  very  plain  and  eaay.  It  ii  only 
nirfiMiry  to  remove  iho  cape,  invert  It,  and  cover  it  with 
I  haiidlterehiiif,  leiiviii(i  u  little  opening  on  one  dido.  A 
'e«r  lap"  ^^iH  eaiiso  the  lieen  to  quit  the  capo  and  return 
(0  the  hive,  after  wliich  the  Inmcy  can  i. '  course  !»  ren- 
iljlv  removed.  Thin  may  l>o  done  frcqueMij  '"  the  aanie 
Knson.  Do  (folien  menlionH  that  in  one  Hoason  he  drew 
from  one  of  hit  straw  liives  Ihnt  did  not  dwarni  scventy- 
i«a  pounds  of  fine  honey-comb,  by  merely  emptying  the 
Q^^  t»  they  were  filled. 

Union  nr^warmi. 
It  if  ttrongly  reeiinwnonded  by  experienced  men,  that 
inarms  should  lie  i.iore  .ilU-n  united  than  th -i  »re.  Five 
thousand  lues  are  enliinttu'd  to  wei|{h  i  >.  :.';  and,  ac- 
cording to  most  hoc-keepers,  a  Bwarm  oii„h(  o  weii;h 
nearly  'our  pouiuls.  An  a  liivo  often  ciiats  (...'(nuri'ssive 
(ulonien,  each  fur  below  tin  weight,  it  then  beoonies 
nro|)cr  to  unite  two  or  more  of  tliom ;  sceinR  that  oiu> 
Wrong  jMpulttlion  supports  itself  iK-tlor,  and  is  ineompii- 
rablv  more  profilnlilc,  than  several  forhle  colonies,  whiidi 
iiml  be  f  o(|uently  in  want  of  Bssistunce.  To  those  who 
keep  bees  on  u  snudi  and  cheap  Bcalc,  convenience  also 
dictates  the  junction  of  swarms  in  such  coses.  Do 
(jolicu  thus  (li'serlbes  his  mode  of  practice  :* — "  When 
two  small  swarms  come  ulf  the  same  day,  I  gather  them 
(pnarately,  and  leave  (hem  at  the  foot  of  the  tree  or 
bush  on  wliieh  they  have  alif;hted.  Towards  eveninir  I 
Biifcad  a  tjibU'-clotli  on  the  ground,  on  which,  hy  a  smart 
and  sudden  movement,  I  si  e  all  the  bees  out  of  one 
ol  tlie  hives,  and  imr  ialoly  take  the  other  and  place  it 
Hintly  over  the  Imic  i.  it  are  hea|>ed  together  on  the 
clolh,  and  they  insia,.  ■,  ascemi  into  it,  Hupping  their 
wiiijjs,  and  join  tlio.<e  which,  not  having  U'en  disturbed, 
are  quiet  in  their  i.  'w  abode.  Early  next  morning  I 
remove  this  ne.vly  un  ted  hive  to  the  place  it  is  destined 
to  occupy.  This  douide  population  works  with  double 
•ueccss,  and  in  the  most  |)erfoct  harmony  ;  and  gei\ernlly 
bcooiues  a  powerful  lohiny,  from  which  a  groat  profit  is 
derived.  Two  Icelde  swiirins  may  lie  united  after  the 
lime  manner,  although  one  of  thorn  may  have  come  oft' 
some  ilays  later  than  the  other,  and  the  first  may  have 
constructed  combs ;  taking  care,  however,  not  to  make 
the  first  one  enter  the  second,  hut  the  second  the  first, 
as  the  bees  will  ascend  more  readily  to  join  tliose  that 
have  already  begun  to  make  honey  and  to  hatch  brood  ; 
and  ne't  diy  tlicy  will  proceed  together  wilh  increased 
ard.mr  wilh  the  work  which  the  lirst  had  ulready  liegun, 
and  which  will  now  advance  more  rapidly  from  the  iii- 
creasc  of  the  laliDurers.  It  is  to  be  umlcrritood  that, 
after  this  union,  the  hive  should  !«•  placed  early  next 
nwrninj}  in  the  .same  [)lace  where  the  oldest  of  the  swarms 
liis  already  passed  some  days."  On  many  occasions, 
tlie  cirrutuKlaiiee  of  two  queens  passing  out  at  once  is 
llierau.e  of  a  colony  going  olV  in  two  halves,  and  the 
removal  of  one  of  the  ipieens  is  necessary,  to  facilitate 
the  cordial  junction  iiitj  one  coininui..iy.  Artificial 
swiirmitig  may  be  elfccted  by  expelling  a  body  of  lu-es, 
anl  lod|;iiig  them  in  a  new  hive  with  a  quantity  of 
i>jiiin  removed  with  them.  Tobacco  sinoko  i»  used  for 
the  c.ipulsion. 

Sunnncr  Mnnajrement  of  Hees. 
The  feeding  of  bees  at  diirerent  seasons  is  an  import- 
inl  point  to  the  lx!e-kee|)er.  [n  summer  they  feed  them- 
»tlves,  and  of  course  a  good  supply  of  the  reuuisite  ma- 
li'riiil  IS  then  esm'iitial  to  their  well-doing.  The  most 
liiilhly  cultival"d  ilistricts  are  not  so  favourable  to  l)ce8 
««  lhos;>  Ml  which  wild  heaths,  commons,  and  woods 
jitevad;  or  where  white  clover,  saint-foin,  buck-wheat, 
mustard,  and  cole-seed,  are  pr.nluced  in  abundance. 
U<!c-kee|)<rs,  however,  may  do  soniething  to  further  the 

•Tl,;  worit  w,'  hi'roi|,ii)ir'cl  is,'nlille<1  ''The  Hee  PrciiTVcr;" 
Iniiilaitil I'mtr  til,'  [''i,'n('!i(ii'.liiiinsil<>(;i-li.'ii.  Iiy  iilucly  m  lvl;n- 
b'ii;li,  Mi  pulM.jlu'il  liy  Jiilin  Auderaon   junior,  l'.clin:>nri;h, 


iupply  of  m.  'mcr  foo«l.  Mr.  Payne  recommoiidi  tht 
planting  of  qi  .ntities  of  the  common  kinds  of  rrornt, 
single  blue  h'  paticas,  black  hellebore,  ami  some  othei 
eai'ly  lloworing  plants.  Vurious  kinds  of  thyme  and 
niigi  \netle  may  lie  grown  to  purpose,  and  the  beca  «r* 
especia'  ■  fo.  d  of  llie  salvia  neinorosn  and  the  snov^ 
l)orry  pi.mt  '  a  on  the  natural  products  of  the  country, 
generally  si)e!.king,  liees  must  rely  for  summer  food,  if 
the  weather  be  such  n^  to  permit  of  their  gathering  it 
Should  a  succession  of  coarse  bad  weallior  occur,  how. 
ever,  at  Ihe  In^ginning  of  summer,  and  iiurticularly  after 
8  swnim  ban  entered  a  new  hive,  most  apiarians  think  it 
essentially  incessary  to  pive  honey,  ar  syrup  of  sugar 
and  water,  to  the  newly  '.  .-cd  stock.  If  no  projior  brook 
or  fount  be  at  hand,  wa'er  should  always  form  a  part 
of  the  tiummcr  provision.  The  Sees  lioing  at  full  work 
in  this  wnson,  lit"  door  of  the  hive  should  be  opened  to 
its  whole  extent,  and  not  closed,  as  is  more  or  less  re- 
quisite it  other  times.  In  the  hives  formed  upon  im- 
|)roved  plans,  ventilators  constitute  a  part  of  the  appara- 
tus, and  thermometers  are  introdnced  to  regulate  their 
use.  Though  these  are  valuable  adjuncts  certainly,  they 
are  r"*  iiidi""- )sable;  seeing  that  the  liees,  as  already 
mentioi;i(!,  ei "  ive  to  ventilate  lo  some  extent  forthoni- 
selves.  Where  artificial  ventilation  can  be  efli^ctcd,  it  it 
recommended  that  the  tem|)erature  should  be  maintained 
at  froi  ■  65  to  «0  degrees  of  Fahrenheit.  It  is  recora- 
noil'  '  ,  on  evenings  when  the  moths  are  numerous,  to 
place  a  Hiivdl  grating  before  the  hive ;  and  it  will  also  b« 
advisable  '  destroy  any  wasps,  spiders,  earwigs,  oi  :t'&ef 
insects  set  '  il  near  the  hives. 

Autumnal  Mnnn|;einunt. 

The  autumnal  pcriiRl  has  long  been  the  most  calami* 
tous  for  boos,  not  throuuh  the  injuries  of  enemies  Of 
weather,  but  from  the  improper  management  cf  beft^ 
keepers.  After  t.he  carcas,sca  of  tlie  diones,  stremi  in 
multitudes  before  the  hive,  have  indii-nted  that,  with  tha 
beginning  of  August,  has  come  the  close  of  the  rlca 
honey  foason,  the  bee-keeper  deems  it  time  to  take  from 
the  hive  tl.,  .,  ward  of  his  care  and  uttentiim.  The  use 
of  storied  hivcs  or  extra  boxes,  renders  it  easy  to  take 
away  e  pcrlion  of  honey  early  in  the  season,  and  this  is 
callc'l  inijm  honey.  Even  with  ,<i  common  straw-hive, 
it  has  boon  fmnd  possible  to  take  away  the  honey, 
and  retain  the  lees  in  the  hive.  Wildniun,  the  famous 
ex|M'rimento-  n  hoes,  recommended  that  the  hive  should 
be  taken  ini  ■  .  .ark  room,  and  there  strtick  repeatedly 
till  the  Im'oi  ..e  forced  to  ascend  into  an  eini)ty  hive. 
The  combs  are  i  "  cut  out  with  a  thin  knile,  and  the 
bees  finally  'turned  to  the  old  hive.  But  this  plan  is 
seldom  pur.sacd,  biing  at  once  dangerous  and  destructive 
to  the  brood  combs. 

It  is  generally  reckoned  advantageous  to  change  the 
pasturage  for  a  veck  or  two  before  taking  the  honey- 
harvest.  About  mid-autuiTin,  the  ordinary  food  of  bees 
begins  to  fail  ai"l  their  stock  of  honey  to  decrease  daily. 
Uy  a  removft.  of  three  weeks  to  a  healthy  district,  a  hive 
not  only  loses  nothing,  but  freciuently  gains  as  much  as 
ten  or  twelve  ^jr  inds  of  honey  in  ordinarily  favourable 
circumslntices.  8o  well  is  this  known  hy  bee-keepers 
near  Edinburgh,  that  one  she)dierd  on  the  healthy  Pent- 
land  hills  receives  in  charge  several  scores  of  hives  annu- 
ally, for  the  her.th-feeding. 

Iloncj'-Harvest. 

After  •he  autumnal  accession  of  honey  has  been  ob- 
tained, and  the  bees  have  been  brought  home  again,  the 
;  question  comes  to  !<•,  in  what  i  imer  the  harvest  should 
be  rea|)ed.  By  partially  d(  priving  each  of  a  portion  ot 
comb,  and  leaving  some  for  food  1  By  siilTocating  one- 
half  the  communities,  tiking  their  entire  honey,  and 
i  lea    '      i  h,  r   hives  wilh  their  honey  untou<-hed,  to 

,  scrv      .  li. !     t)r  finally,  by  rei, loving  the  boe*  from 


656 


INFORMATION    FOR   THK   PKOPLE. 


ono<hiiirtno  nivc«  to  Iho  othor  h»lf,  fnrmina;  uiiltnl  ntocVr. 
■ii>l  sdiiiiriiiq  iill  tlip  I1111117  of  ilio  ovufuiilpd  oiicb  ' 
These  tiirt-p  |iUim  urn  kimwn  by  tlio  wvoriil  nninoa  of 
pirlml  il,  firieiiiiiii  (romiiinnlv  ainl  niDHt  ciiMily  jiriicliwd 
with  iin|iruvc<l  hivm,  a*  iilrciidy  drwrilu'cl),  suffiu'i' 1,111, 
•nd  uninn  0/  s'mk-n,  "  Tim  |ir;icli(H!  of  |iiirtml  dcprivii- 
tion,"  miyii  the  \ii!iinil'tl'.i  lilnnry'  •' hii»  never  yet 
U'como  Rnirrid,  lieniiiw  it  in  linlile  In  freciiielit  fiiliire, 
evi-n  in  iin[iriiveil  '.iveH.  ami  becii'ise  the  tidl  benefit  in 
not  doriv.d  trmn  it  at  ihe  veiy  •  I'Mee-eine'it  ol  the 
'...■  .em.  The  lidiility  to  fdilim  I'l  ^^^l  of  the  oli|e(- 
ti  .ns  Rtnted,  iH  Dwinii,  in  inoHt  iiin'iii»  ex,  not  to  the  iii(i''f, 
but  to  the  jifvii-il  of  liie  ,)ii  iilidii.  .\reordiiii»  to  the  too 
common  pr.ietiee  ■>''  ilione  wlio  ui.'  friendly  to  de|.,lvu- 
lion,  n  |"irtion  of  l\oin  y  in  idwinieted  from  the  liive-<  ilunit 
th"  beniiuiinn  or  middle  of  S('|ileiii!)er ;  mid  the  owner 
ci>mplimentt  1  .insell'on  hi^  tn(ider:\ti()n.  in  N'in.;  rontent 
with  a  purt  iiiste:id  of  the  whole,  ami  on  bin  hunmnily  in 
Mvinn  the  liven  of  bin  iMdnsirii>iiH  fnvonriien;  while  in 
ninu  in!<t,inees  oiil  often  he  liiid".  on  the  nrriviil  of  .M.ireli, 
thnt  hi-i  m')deriilion  mid  hum.iiiity  have  U-eii  allocether 
uniivailin);,  and  (liat  he  ha.'i  s^tved  them  from  a  viulenl 
death  by  HiilVoeiition,  only  to  expose  thein  to  the  more 
tardy  but  not  leH.<  eru(d  deatli  by  starvation.  Whereas, 
if  deprivation  take  plaee  soon  aOer  the  swaraiini;  season, 
as  already  reeoiiimeiidcd,  ami  is  mananeil  wiil\  disere- 
tion,  the  issue  will  Ik-  very  dilViri'nl,  and  ultimately  more 
profitable  to  the  owner,  than  the  almost  universally  piar- 
lisi'J  moile  liy  siiirH'alion,  whiih  is  too  well  known  to 
need  deseriplion.  'I'lie  latter  system  may  yieUI  a  (ireater 
return  in  proportion  to  the  hives  o|H;rated  noon;  but  in 
the  former,  there  is  a  mmh  Hf'i'er  number  of  hives 
available.  Fiir  examjile,  suppose  two  apiaries,  eaeh  eon- 
taining  tivo  stoek-liives  at  the  end  of  .Inly,  exelusive  of 
as  niarjy  swarms  rei'enlly  tlirown.  The  owner  of  the 
one,  practisinjj  the  depriviie.;  system,  lakes  from  eaeh  of 
bis  sloekH  10  pounds  of  honey,  ninkini;  un  anxnint  of  ,"10 
pounds  as  bis  honey-harvest.  The  owner  of  llie  other, 
and  abettor  of  Buir)eatio!i,  proeeeils  in  September  to 
■moke  his  /'ive  old  hives,  and  reeeives  fnnn  ea-'h  25 
pounds  of  honey,  making  "i  Mmount  of  !-.'>  p.iunds  cs 
his  honey-ha-vest — bete,  '.  I  ■)  and  three  times  the 
quantity  of  the  otner.  li  '.h^  lblb)wim;  yeur.  the  de- 
priver  has  his  live  old  '■;  ^  htv:  g,  uiid  ih"  live  swarms 
now  Iwcome  stock'  1  .:  ,  iVo'/i  the  whole  ten  he  now 
lakes  a  linm  "ed  poun.U  of  r'  )ney,  while  at  the  same 
time  his  aj)!  iry  is  an^meol-d  iy  the  addilioii  often  new 
iwjrms,  mikiri'^  twenty  for  the  following  year;  while 
his  rival  p  )S  es>es  only  his  former  nnmbi'r  of  five,  yield- 
in'.{  12.")  pounds.  In  the  next  year,  that  is,  two  years 
from  the  eoinmeneemen!  of  the  loiiiparative  Irii!,  the  de- 
piiver  has  twenty  Hto.'k-hives,  yieldin;?  2110  pounds,  luid 
If)  on  by  a  |{''"inetrie,d  ratio;  while  the  other  rennins  ut 
his  original  125  pounds.  This  ealeulation  is  nude  on 
the  supposition  that  eaeli  owner  lakes  but  one  ewarm 
from  eaeh  stock,  and  without  inakin.;  any  allowance  for 
|i)ssc«  and  failures,  which  will  alleel  the  pr  idui-e  of  both 
in  honey  ainl  l>ees.  but  to  w'.iicii  both  are  li.i'ile." 

'I'he  writer  of  this  coinprehi'ii-ive  treatise  proceeds  to 
point  out  the  aiivantaijes  of  the  humane  loinciple  of 
■pirine;  the  lives  of  thest*  useful  insects.  ••  It  is  pitiable 
to  reflect,  that  the  small  deuree  of  additional  trouble  ri'- 
quired  in  nniii'i^  them,  should  prove  so  ellectual  an  oh 
Wide  to  this  conservative  practiee.  Yet  the  operation 
with  each  hive  so  treated,  need  not  occupy  more  than 
fifteen  or  tw.-nly  minutes.  In  the  evetiin!;,  when  all  are 
jjuiet,  turn  up  the  hivo  which  i-i  to  he  operated  upon, 
fixiii^  it  in  ii  ehair  'rom  which  the  stulVcil  bottom  ha.-' 
been  removed;  place  un  empty  hive  above  it,  wrap  a 
cliith  round  the   p  >int  of  junction,  to  prevent   the  U'eis 


•  ■  Naturulisi's  l.ilirarv,"  rcinliicjcii  by  S.r  WilUam  Junliiii'. 
F.'<T<iMoi.iv,Y  V'll  VI  — fiV'  Kliii!Mir.,'li  :  W  It,  I,'/:irs  l-l'i. 
Til  •  (•,!iiiiiihil  ni:»aellnnr  reqmri'»  110  paiipgyric  .''roin  ilie  writer 
or  'lie Ml  pii^.;». 


from  coming  out  and  ao'ioyint  *\\e  operotnr;  lli».n,  »iik 
a  Mhort  stick  or  iitone  in  .ich  baud,  beat  roun.l  /,„  ,11 
hut  urii'ty.  for  fear  of  jooseninu  the  eomlm,  |  ,  Cn,,  . 
ules,  the  panie-struek  insects  will  hanlily  iinnint  Into  tha 
empty  hive,  with  aloud  biiiiiinliiK  noise,  ox  pn'mtiv*  ,f 
trepidation.  The  hives  an,'  lien  separate. I— that  con. 
tninin«  the  bees  is  plaeed  on  its  usual  (s'llcNrJ,  m,,)  ji 
other  containiim  tlie  honey  is  carried  o(V.  'I'd,,  imiup 
next  to  be  elleeled.  Turn  up  the  stoek-liive  which  in 
to  receive  iho  aildilion  to  its  population;  \\\\\\  a  Imnrl, 
of  feathers,  i  n  small  w  .itcriii.'pan,  such  as  is  us'd  U, 
'vateiinn  fleiverbeils.  ((rem'  •hem  with  n  siiinlldii  of 
ale  and  snijar.  or  water  111  1  >;h'>r,  made  a  lillle  warm. 
Do  the  same  to  the  exp  1'  I  ' ,  es ;  and  then,  plarin,, 
the;-.e  last  over  the  st'iek.  inoulh  to  moiiili,  n  Miinrt  ran 
on  the  top  of  the  hive  will  drive  them  down  nnioni.  n.^ 
bees  and  eonihs  of  the  undiriiin.l  hive.  I'lire  thin  [,1,1 
on  its  pedestal,  md  the  opeiMtioii  is  cninplcled,  'fhi 
strong  il.ivour  of  the  -iolniion  will  prevent  tliein  Irom  ilj* 
tin:rnisl\ini;  Is'tween  iiend  and  Klraiii,'cT;  ami  their  |in,i 
niiniinenl,  lifter  recoverinij  troni  their  panic,  v  ill  l,t  j. 
lick  till'  liipiid  from  one  another's  bodies.  This  mn,), 
of  opcralinif  is  :i[>plieable  to  all  kinds  of  liivi  h  "  \Vi||, 
rei;ard  to  the  twu  (lUeeiis,  one  would  ii.-Rurei  v  |<i||  t||, 
other  in  n  very  shoil  time;  but  the  lest  way  is  in  remou 
one  of  them  before  union. 

tine  argument  employed  bv  ad..)<ntcs  of  the  |iliin«f 

RiilT. cation    by   inlrodnciiij;  the   fumes  of  liriiiistune  nj 

oilier  noxious  effluvia,  is,  that  by  the  union  of  niooU 

you   have  nn   immense   iinmber  of   moiillis  to  feidnf 

j  wliirh  the  killiiii;  plan  relieves  yon.    Only  iiiexperidimj 

liee-kee|)ers,  liowever,  could  use  ibis  rcasniiim;.  ]Jo  (i,.||,j 

;  haviii;?  discovered   the  remarkabli-  fict,  that  the  imrcnj 

I  of  numbers  in  the  winter  hives  is  far  from  iKndinir..,  j 

!  proportionate  increase  of  eonsiiinption.     rmin  lHu'cnn; 

twenty  pounds  of  honey,  .'I   from  three  to  (ner  pnis.  ](( 

'  iec|iiisite  for  the  winter  maintenance  nf  a  sinu'le  hivco' 

ordinary  sirenijth,  wiih  which    the    plan  of  union  lim 

'  not  been  iiraelised.      T)e  (lelii'ii  plaeeil  kik  h  a  hive,  »i',|j 

■  sneh  a  store,  beside  one   into  which  Ihn  e  full  comjiunj. 

ties  bad  lieeii  intriKliiccd,  and  be  loiind,  on  wcithiiii;  the 

latter  in  the  s[irinu:,  that  its  inhnlutaiits  hiiil  siarcclv  uiW 

,  one  pound  of  limey  more  lliaii  those  of  Ihe  aiii:;le.y(,i,l;(,| 

hive.     The  exiM'rlmenter  CM  n  went  fuilher.     To  a  hiii 

;  alre.idy    .".iiiply   stocked,    he   addi'd    the  sHprms  of /mr 

ollnr  hives,  and  found  on  weii.;hiii(r  it  in  llie  -prinj, thjj 

"the   total    iliiiiiiiulion  of  lioncy  did   not  excei'il  llir,« 

I  Iiouii'ls  more  than  took   place  in  onlinary  sinc'e  hivo<." 

I  Had   they  not   been   thus  unitcil,  be  siiy.s,  eaili  nf  llio<« 

stocks  would  have  ".'ost  him  niiicli  more  money  tlinn  llin 

,  were  worlh,  and,  indeed,  the  most  of  tlieia  "  wniilil  loj 

'  cert.iiiily  have  perished."    The  cause  of  lids  slriiiiut' fjd 

by  which  nature  seems  to  p.iiiil  to  Ihe  pliiii  of  miliimi.i] 

unions  as  tin-  best  jios.sible  for  both  bees  and  hi'i-iiivffrs, 

is  yet  unknown. 

;       The  combs,  by  whatever  process  procineil,  slioiiM  l« 

;  deprived  of  the  honey  at  once,  whil'.'  a   iiatiiial  wjriiilli 

I  reinains  in  Ihein.      Various  kinds  of  drainers  hi.vdwi 

I  used   for  scparatin-^  the   h.inev.  anil  kcpint;  it  a«  inwii 

i  as   possiiile   fion   the  exlcni.d    air,     T!ie  lioiiry  uhirli 

I  runs  olf  nalnrally  willioul  brcai:iii'„'  diuvii  ihe  eoiiilis,iiri(i 

\  p.-isses  tiirou^h  muslin,  is  held  to  he  the  ('nest.    A  sivoni) 

I  kind  is  cured  by  eilttiny  the  combs  in  pieces,  and  Idlim 

the  honey    pass  throiiuh  a  drainer,  under  exiiosuip  Idi 

I  Rentle  beat.    .\  third  ipialily  is  proenied  liv  suIwiiutiM 

j  puttini;  the  eom!  s  in  a  vessel   placed  on  a  lire;  Ihpti!' 

I  duet,  strained   tbrounh  eanvns,  is  used   in  feiilin','  l>» 

j  'i'he  tirparat4'd  wax   of  the  combs  is  iiitroihicrd  in!.ii 

I  woollen  bait,  firmly  tied  at  the  mouth,  and  put  Inliilnt. 

inn  water,     'i'he  pure  wax  oozes  ihrouuh,  and  is  fk»» 

med  olV  the  surface,  where  it   (lials.     It  is  tliin  to  1« 

allowed  to  cool  slowly.     'I'lio  ts'st  honi'y  is  si:p|Ki*'J  H 

lie   that   fiirmed    Iroin   heath       ''be  lain  his  I'lSufHl 

inctlus  were  nouriiihc'd  by  that  plant. 


BEKS. 


M7 


III  five  min 
rilliit  into  Um 
'Xjiri'Mivo  o( 
'I— Ihit  con. 
i'Ht;;l,  ami  tlw 
'rill'  iiiiinn  ,1 
liivo  which  u 
Willi  »  bunch 
n*  i»  HH'd  for 
n  Hnlnlioii  of 
tt  liit'c  Warm. 
iImii,  (ilai'iin 
li,  11  Miiiirl  rap 
'Vii  niiiiinij  ihj 
I'l;iO(>  thin  lasi 

I'l'l"'!'''!-  Tho 
llicni  irom  ilis. 
;iii(l  tlirir  tifft 
nil',  vill  htto 
I.  Tlii^i  iiiiKlf 
hivi » "  Wiih 
uiri'i'a  kill  the 
tiy  is  to  removt 

'  of  till"  phin  of 
f  lir:ni»tone  nr 
iiiiin  of  Blocks, 
lllis  ti)  feed,  of 
y  iiiox|>pripiicp(i 
iiiim.  Do  (ii'lifj 
ml  till'  increin 
oin  jiviiiliiiir.jj 
Friim  llfU'cnic 
to  limr  [lols.  jij 
ii  sinu'li'  hivf  (/ 
1  of  union  liu 
i(li  a  liivp,«i!h 
e  full  cnminuiii- 
1111  wcii;hiiic!lln 
il  srarcrlv  usej 
'  .•iTi:;l('-ylii.ki'il 
her.  'I'o  a  hin 
sniirnis  of  i«ut 
till-  -priie,  ihjt 
rxcfcd  llui* 
sina'c  hiVf<." 

(Mill  of  llh« 

onrv  tlinii  tliii 
in  "  wiidIiI  In) 
lii.-i  striiimc  fjil 
111  of  nuliiiniii! 
anil  lu'c-'iit'iffrs, 

riiri'i!,  «lwii!il  k 

ll;llUll|l  Wjrilllll 

rs  lii.vp  !«n 
■\'\U:',   it  U"  lliwll 

:■  'i.^Mcy  whifii 
ilir  r!«iili*,«riJ 
au'sl.  A  ^'"imii 
ii'Ci'.i.  :ilid  Ifili"! 
•r  i'\|Ki'^uii'  loi 
\\\  juIwiiotM 
II  lirf.  Ilif  MO 
in  fi'CililK  If'fi 
ilroiUii'i'd  iii'>'« 
11(1  inil  into  1«>  ! 
di,  mill  i»  'k"* 
It  is  tlicii  to  1« 
'V  i»  si:piHi*'J  I' 

1  HIS   !  '.'IS  iif  1" 


Hon<*v  in  used  b*  rondimont  at  the  tnhle,  •nil  in  alio 
mployil  '"  ">«''''■''"'•  '"  a'"'i""l  ti'ni's  in  Ilrilniii,  it 
(omK'J  11'*  ''""'*  "^  "  ''•""■'■''HI'  <"«II<'J  Mtail,  iinil  Irom 
iiir '-oinnion  priu'tico  of  drinkinif  it  for  a  montli  alh-r  n 
*cddi.iK'  ''"""'  ''"'  e''I"'<'*"'''>"  li'iiieum'K'n,  In  orniritii  of 
jmi!  raeuil  wiih  RiijierMiilnil  liy  lii-er,  wltio,  am!  other 
liouurn,  Imt  il*  "'ill  iill"W«'l  I'y  writer*  on  iliot  lo  Im  wliiih'- 
lomo  •«  «  ilf'i'l'' "'"'  '■'■'■•I'ii'l.V  l''"*  pprnicioun  than  lliv 

jliiirv  kiiiil^  of  intoxicatinjj  (liiidH,  An  miiiui  lii'i'- 
knpcrs  '"  wl"""  '""'  ['"K""  "f  uihlrcHHocI,  may  wish  to 
■llcinpt  '1'"  "iiiii"fi"''i"'''  "f  "ifiul  for  ilimioNlir  uhb,  wr 
oflir  till-  following  iiH  Olio  of  iho  hcst  nirthoilH  for  ita 
oftpiirutioii,  from  tli«  Riirycli)|Miuliii  Uritaiiiiira: — 'Into 
twelve  nallonx  of  w:Uor  put  the  ulhumon  [or  wliilc]  of 
lixeKK"'  iii'^i"K  ^'"'•''''  "''"  togi'thfr,  ami  to  tho  uiixtiin- 
iddini!  Iwi  Illy  |ioiiii(ls  of  honey,  het  the  liijuor  lii'il  nii 
hour;  mill  when  'ileil,  lulil  e.innainon,  ffin);er,  eloves, 
inw.  "ii'l  ro'''-'"'i"'>  •  ^'*  """"  *"  i' '"  ""I'l'  F'ut  n  Hpoon- 
fui  of  V'l  i-it  to  it.  and  I'i'rii'l  it,  keepiiij^  tho  vcrtsel  filled 
K  it  worU ;  when  it  has  done  working;,  stop  it  up  close ; 
ind  when  f""'- '""""  ''  """  '"'  "*''•" 

Wiiiior  mill  Spring  MniinifcmcnI. 

Ill  winter  and  early  iiprinR,  lM>e«  reijuiro  to  he  inded 
with  great  earc.  In  tho  cane  of  lliow!  hives  whirl-,  huve 
yen  entirely  deprived  of  their  honey,  Bystenintie  Iredint,' 
inof course  iriiIi»IK"ii«nI)lo  in  winter;  hut  few  lice-keepers 
jf  jny  cxperieni'O  ever  willingly  follow  iir  v  other  plan 
Jian  that  of  leavinc;  lo  hoes  a  winter  supply  of  tlieir  own 
riroducr.  Some  liee-kee|)orH  remove  their  hiven  into  the 
!ious«  ill  winter;  hut  this  in  on  unwise  praelioe.  as  the 
U««  niii^l  lliL'H  lie  kt'l't  eontinually  in  confiiienient. 
Though  the  door  of  the  hive  fihould  he  carefully  mir- 
mwcd  or  shut  up  in  very  eold  v\euther,  at  wliieh  time 
every  bee  that  issues  perishes,  yet  ndvantnp[o  should  ho 
skm  of  every  lino  day  to  let  them  uhroud.  Wliere 
feeding  if  neifssary,  the  following  rides  have  heen  laid 
J)wn  for  the  manai;ement  of  eommon  hives  in  winter 
and  early  spring.  Uees  must  be  fed  only  when  tho 
Heather  is  tlin!  and  worm,  to  prevent  the  teinpiraturo  of 
liie  hive  from  heiiiR  injured  ;  and  a  larRO  quantity  should 
iieter  lie  i;iven  at  once ,  for  tho  bees'  are  so  greedy  of 
liod,  that  tliey  will  rather  fill  the  broad  cells  with  it  than 
reliiiquinh  tlieir  treasure.  The  qiinntity  of  food  which 
oukIii  10  lie  given  tn  u  liivo  may  be  calculated  in  the  pro- 
iwrtion  of  two  pounds  a  month ;  but  if  tho  weather  ho 
very  cold,  a  less  quantity  will  sullice.  \^'hen  a  hivo  is 
led  in  the  sprinj;,  it  should  always  bo  after  sunset,  when 
(helices  have  returned  from  the  fields;  otherwise  the 
iiiojt  disastrous  eonsaiiueiiccs  may  ensue,  from  the  rob- 
l«rics  committed  by  the  Ih'cs  of  other  hives.  If  they  are 
led  in  the  inornini;,  it  must  l>o  before  eunriKo,  uiid  the 
entrance  instantly  stopjied  to  keep  out  depredators  ;  for, 
an  the  bees  leine  the  hive  on  the  very  first  appearance 
of  day-light,  u  later  period  would  prevent  the  return  of 
all  those  who  had  lell  tho  hive  previous  to  the  entrance 
being  secured. 

Relative  to  the  substances  which  are  proper  for  tho 
Icfding  of  bees,  many  difTorent  opinions  exist ;  but  the 
followinir  may  lie  considered  ninoiiR  the  miMt  liencrtcial 
IS  well  as  economical  articles  of  diet: — To  two  quarts 
of  good  ale  put  one  pound  of  moist  sugar;  boil  them 
until  the  sugar  i^  wholly  dissolved,  carefully  skiinminf; 
it;  when  it  is  cold,  it  will  be  found  of  the  consistency 
jf  honey,  nnd  it  may  lie  given  to  bees  in  the  followinij 
manner:— If  the  bees  arc  in  the  plaui  cottage  hive,  an 
•ckof  the  same  diameter  as  the  hivo  must  1*  provided, 
•nd  from  three  to  four  hands  in  height.  When  the  sun 
is  set,  and  the  hoes  have  retired,  lot  the  hive  be  gently 
raised,  and  the  eek  |)laced  on  tho  stool ;  then,  having 
filled  a  sou)>-p|ate  with  the  food,  placo  it  on  the  eek, 
iftd  put  down  the  hivo.  To  prevent  the  l)cc«  lieitig 
drowned  in  tho  liipiid,  it  is  necessary  to  place  some 
itraws  over  the  plate,  and  over  the  straws  a  piece  of 


pA|)«r,  cither  tl  ickly  perforated  or  cut  into  nicki;  th«M 
nicks,  howevr'r,  must  not  run  parallel  with  the  atrawt, 
but  I  ither  acroHH  or  diagonally;  the  entrance  iniist  thMi 
be  closed,  nnd  the  plate  rrinoved  on  the  following  morn- 
ing, and  tho  whole  of  tho  liquid  will  be  IranitfurreU  into 
tiio  combs. 

Ilisoniirii  anil  rni-mlcs  nf  Ttrpi. 

Dees,  according  to  the  conclusions  of  Do  Gelieii,  aft«t 
sixty-four  years'  experience,  have  "no  real  disease;  Ihoy 
are  always  in  good  health  as  long  as  they  "re  at  libfrty, 
and  when  they  are  wurtn  enough,  and  have  jilenty  of 
food."  In  early  spring,  however,  they  are  found  liable 
to  an  afTectioii  calU,;  dysentery,  which  is  known  l.y  th« 
marks  on  the  I  oard  of  dark-coloured  evacuations,  by  the 
iilli'nsive  smell,  nnd  by  the  frequent  ileallis.  'i'his  (liseaie 
'•ertainly  results,  in  most  cascH,  from  long  confiiu  iiient  in 
;i  damp  and  impure  ir.  IJy  lifting  the  hive  to  expel  the 
vitiated  nir,  scraping,  washing,  and  drying  the  lioard, 
anil  roniovi  t),,.  ,ij,j„i  bodies,  the  compliiint,  says  Mr. 
Taylor,  n  I     renieilic.l  evtn  in  tlii' rost  extreme 

rasoB.      ICoj-  led  with   honey    aii'     water,   hu 

been  recomi  i  cure;  but  the  oxja   ie;u'ed  apia- 

rian   mi"  '  oneeives   all  dietetic   rcmeilies   to  do 

more   li  jiiiid.     A  little  chloride  of  lime,  ho 

HUggents.  ma  lioneficially  in  washing  t'le  board. 

One  point  i-  loticed  here,  lh.it  ex pmuie  to  tlje 

sun  ia  hold  '  ...itMli,  injurious  to  the  hives  in  winter. 
'I'liis  caution  is  necessary,  as  bee-keepers,  when  they 
suspect  dampness,  might  full  into  an  error  on  thil 
■core. 

A  few  of  Do  ndieu's  hints  respecting  the  chief  foea 
of  the  bee-tribe  may  be  useful  to  bee-keepers.  After 
observing  that  the  poss<'S9ors  of  bees,  often  from  an  igno- 
rant excess  of  care,  ore  among  their  greatest  enemies,  he 
says — "Ants  arc  their  b  ist  dangerous  enemies;  tru#, 
the  lioes  cannot  sting  them  to  death,  berniise  they  are 
small  and  well  defended  with  armour,  but  they  seize 
hold  of  thcin  with  their  teeth,  and  carry  th<iii  to  a  dis- 
tance. Had  they  not  this  means  of  getting  rid  of  them, 
their  colonies  could  not  exist  in  the  vast  forests  full  of 
ant's  nests,  and  where  they  thrive  so  well,  in  spite  of  the 
horrible  inassucres  that  amiually  take  place. 

"  Moths  arc  little  known,  and  never  injurious,  in  the 
high  valleys,  nor  on  tho  mountains;  but  they  attack  and 
destroy  a  vast  number  of  hives  in  tho  plains  or  in  the 
vineyards,  where  they  are  a  ki'  at  scourge.  As  soon  as 
a  moth  has  penetrated  a  weak  nive,  it  establishes  itself 
in  a  comb,  envelopes  itself  in  a  silken  web,  multiplie* 
ra]iidly,  consuming  the  wax,  and  spreading  its  destruc- 
tive galleries  from  side  to  side,  until,  arriving  at  a  certaiu 
point,  tho  evil  has  scarcely  a  remedy. 

"  The  only  means  of  saving  the  colony  is  to  imitate  the 
surgeon,  who  cuts  off  a  diseased  limb  to  save  the  other 
— every  bit  of  infected  comb  must  be  cut  out,  leaving 
only  thos(>  occupied  by  tho  bees.  And  tho  bees  must 
then  be  liberally  fed,  liy  giving  them  every  evening  as 
much  honey  as  will  maintain  them  tmtil  the  fields  shall 
yield  them  a  sullicient  quantity.  'I'hus  I  have  preserved 
hives  whose  circumstances  seemed  to  be  desperate. 

"  Spiders  annoy  tho  bees  much.  The  liees  get  entangled 
in  their  webs,  and  are  not  able  to  extricate  thcmselvea. 
Here  cleanliness  is  the  best  protection ;  therefore  care 
should  be  taken  to  sweep  the  webs  away  from  the  luTe 
and  its  avenues  ns  fast  as  they  appear. 

"  Birds  eat  a  prodigious  quantity  of  bees,  especially  in 
spring,  when  the  trees  are  in  blossom ;  and  the  poultry, 
also,  that  roam  about  or  near  tho  water  where  tho  bee* 
go  to  quench  their  thirst,  gobble  up  a  great  many. 

"  Mice,  especially  the  red  mouse,  or  fnrcv  arniiciis,  some 
times  jienetrnte  a  hive  in  the  winter  time,  cither  from  the 
entrance  being  left  too  wide,  or  by  gnawing  a  hole  for 
themselves  in  tho  straw.    They  cat  the  honey,  and  even 
the  bees,  when  clustered  together  on  the  side  6f  the  hive, 


'""^v^l'^ 


'W 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


i..j 


1^    I 


I.I 


it  i^s  lllllio 


1.8 


Photographic 

Sciences 
Corporation 


A 


% 


1.25      1.4      1,6 

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33  weST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  NY    14580 

(716)  872-4503 


•68 


INFORMATION   FOR   THE  PEOPLE. 


in  which  poHition  they  are  unable  to  defend  themwlvet, 
uid  scarcely  even  see  the  enemy. 

"  Waspa  are  also  reckoned  among  the  numernua  ene- 
mies of  bees.  I  have,  however,  seldom  seen  a  hive  de- 
stroyed by  wasps;  although  they  are  larger,  stronger, 
•ud  armed  with  a  formidable  sting,  and  »n  impenetrable 
cuirass,  they  seldom  dare  enter  a  well-stocked  hive. 
Onc«  attacked,  they  soon  fall  beneath  the  united  oflurts 
of  these  brave  citizens,  who  sacrifice  themselves  to  de- 
fend the  place  of  their  nativity.  Wasps  only  appear  in 
great  numbers  when  the  fruit  is  ripening,  and  then  they 
range  unceasingly  round  the  hives,  and  enter  the  weak 
ones,  or  those  of  which  the  too  spacious  lodging  bears  no 
proportion  to  the  number  of  its  inhabitants.  There  are 
three  ways  of  providing  against  the  attacks  of  wasps. 
The  first  is,  to  unite  weak  hive*  by  doubling  or  tripling 
the  population,  thereby  enabling  them  to  defend  them- 
selves. The  second  is,  to  contract  the  entrances  as  soon 
u  the  swarming  time  is  over,  after  the  massacre  of  the 
drones ;  and  the  third  is,  to  destroy  their  nests. 

"  The  bees  are  continually  fighting  between  themselves, 
•nd  robbing  each  other :  avarice,  not  necessity,  leads 
them  to  do  so,  it  being  almost  always  the  strongest  and 
best  provisioned  hives  that  pillage  the  weak  ones.  When 
once  a  bee  has  been  able  to  introduce  itself  into  a  hive, 
•nd  carry  away  a  load  of  honey  without  being  arrested, 
it  will  return  a  hundvrd  times  the  same  day ;  and,  mak- 
ing it  known  to  its  companions,  they  will  then  come  in 
hordes,  nor  cease  their  pillage  till  there  is  nothing  left  to 
take.  In  one  day  the  whole  of  the  honey  will  be  carried 
off,  and  with  a  determination  which  one  can  scarcely 
have  an  idea  of  without  seeing  it.  'J'his  kind  of  pillngc 
is  most  frequent  in  the  spring  and  autumn,  and  it  is 
easier  to  prevent  than  to  stop  it ;  and,  for  this  purpose, 
the  entrance  of  the  hives  ought  to  bo  straitened  in  pro- 
portion to  the  population." 

WILU  BEK8. 

Besides  the  garden  or  hive-bees,  as  already  mentioned, 
there  are  various  other  species  of  bees,  which  have  never 
been  domesticated  by  man,  though  many  of  them  con- 
struct hives  and  produce  honey.  Of  such  of  these 
wanderers  of  the  wilds  as  are  indigenous  to  Dritnin,  it 
may  be  interesting,  more  especially  to  the  young,  to  learn 
some  brief  particulars.  The  most  common  species  of 
the  wild  or  humble  bee  (bombus')  is  an  insect  at  least 
double  the  size  of  the  hive-bee,  with  a  black  head  and 
body,  having  yellow  rings  crossing  the  latter  anteriority 
and  supcriorily,  and  white  and  black  rings  alternating  at 
the  posterior  extremities. 

Both  on  account  of  their  peculiar  habits  and  selected 
places  of  residence,  this  and  another  wild  species  called 
the  moss  bee,  are  unfitted  for  domestication.  Few  of 
them  survive  the  rigours  of  winter,  but  one,  a  female, 
that  does  escape,  manages,  for  a  season,  the  resuscitation 
of  the  breed.  Abroad,  it  flies  in  early,  and,  alone  and 
unaided,  sets  laboriously  to  work  in  constructing  its  nest, 
piercing  the  earth  or  moss,  as  its  instinct  may  Ih;,  and 
excavating  a  small  chamber  wherein  to  lay  its  eggs.  It 
does  not  make  wax  and  cells  for  the  young.  These 
come  to  maturity  in  the  cocoons  which  they  spin  for 
themselves  in  the  larva  state ;  and  when  they  emerge, 
these  cocoons  form  stores  for  food.  The  solitary  bee 
feeds  alone  in  its  earliest  progeny,  but  these  soon  multi- 
ply around  it,  enlarge  the  cells,  gather  honey,  and  feed 
the  increa»ing  young.  The  wants  of  the  young  go  on 
increasing  for  a  great  part  of  the  summer,  and  the  quan- 
tity of  honey  they  consume  is  very  large :  towards  the 
ini<ldlp  or  latter  part  of  September,  however,  the  ener- 
cies  of  the  l)ees  begin  to  wax  fainter,  and  little  further 
pmirress  is  made  in  adding  to  the  colony,  or  in  collecting 
honey.  Cold  and  showery  days  liegin,  even  by  this 
t.ime,  to  thin  the  number  of  the  insect  population,  who 
%io  now  seen  creeping  slowly,  with  dump  and  heavy 


wings,  upon  tlio  stalks  and  petals  of  flowers,  whers  (Km 
were  formerly  seen  actively  buzzing  about  in  learrh  j 
honey.  The  stores  of  the  honey-cups  have  not  omlutiS 
the  wants  of  the  young  unfledged  bees,  of  which  th 
were  the  proper  food ;  and  if  the  nests  be  exami  •! 
now,  these  cups  are  found  quite  empty.   The  bees  »h'ik 
survive  the  accidents  of  rain,  cold,  and  frost  (fof  ii, 
are  now  frequently  overtaken  by  frosty  nights  in  ij,^ 
languid  journey  homeward),  by  degrees  forsake  the  ii2 
and   its  furniture,  leaving   the  latter  a  prey  to  mi 
beetles,  or  other  animals.     To  sheller  themselves  for  ^ 
winter,  they  seek  out  some  dry  bank  (not  prcferrinf  on, 
exposed  to  the  sun),  where  they  penetrate  to  the  diim  I 
of  eighteen  inches  or  two  feet  into  the  earth,  piMhinj  m 
the  earth  behind  them,  and  leaving  no  visible  track  br 
which  they  have  descended.    In  these  situations  they^ 
often  found  by  labourers  and  others  in  digging  thceanh' 
and  such  people  are  often  greatly  puzzled  to  imagjii^ 
how  the  insect  can  have  reached  such  a  depth.   Penoj, 
who  have  attended  to  the  habits  tf  wild  bees  can  ofen 
fix  on  the  spots  where  they  take  rtfiige,  digging  form) 
finding  them  with  the  greatest  certainty. 

The  experiment  of  domesticating  the  different  kiali 
of  wild  bees  has  bten  tried;  and  it  was  found,  that  b? 
removing  their  ne|t  cautiously  in  an  evening,  and  p'ncji,, 
it  in  a  quiet  situation,  in  a  garden  or  otiier  place  when 
they  could  be  observed,  they  went  on  with  their  norb 
without   apparent  alarm  or  interruption.    Dliring  \k 
whole  summer,  they  continued  to  prosecute  their  occu»  I 
tions  with  the  same  industry  as  other  bees;  but  aboiii  I 
September,  as  we  have  mentioned,  the  hive  began  to  I 
turn  languid,  and  the  numbers  which  appeared  goiot 
and  coming  about  the  entrance  became  daily  jdisIIi,,  I 
It  was  imagined  they  had  taken  refuge  within  the  hiie'  I 
but  when  this  was  opened,  after  all  seemed  to  hm  I 
ceased  their  labours,  every  thing  was  found  empiv  si  I 
deserted ;  there  was  neither  bees  nor  honey ;  thcstrongo  I 
and  younger  insects,  no  doubt,  having  gone  to  make  bii>  I 
rows  for  themselves  in  the  earth,  and  the  older  m  I 
having  gradually  fallen  victims  to  the  accidents  of  w  I 
proaching  winter.  I 

Our  wild  bees,  therefore,  appear  to  possess  theirbtirf  I 
lives  but  for  self-enjoyment,  or  rather  to  form  oneotllitj 
order  of  beings  created  by  the  great  Author  of  all  ajjfl 
for  the  purpose  of  leaving  no  corner  of  the  unitmil 
without  its  utmost  allotment  of  sentient  and  enjoTla(( 
things.  And  surely,  in  copse  and  forest,  by  dale  mj  I 
mead,  on  river-bank  and  mountain-side,  there  iscnousil 
and  to  spare  of  t(ic  food  which  it  seeks  for  tlichuuibli| 
bee.  I'hough  oitr  British  wild  bees  may  not  be  conieivl 
able  to  man's  uses,  however,  there  are  wild  bccswbitkj 
are  not  so  situated.  In  Cashmere,  there  arc  several  kindi  I 
of  bees,  which  have  the  habits  requisite  for  domcilii»l 
tion  ;  and  that  country,  with  the  north  of  Iijdia,  apfttal 
to  lie  the  native  soil  of  these  genera  of  honey-bees.  Till 
inhabitants  have  a  way  of  domesticating  them  vhkkl 
might  lie  imitated  with  success  in  this  country,  1(1 
building  dwelling-houses,  they  leave  certain  carltiHll 
the  wall,  with  a  very  small  aperture  to  the  outside,  Ibl 
the  entrance  to  a  hive,  but  quite  open  inwards;  thii»l 
ner  part  is  covered  afterwards  with  a  frame,  harai[i| 
door  which  opens  at  pleasure;  into  these  cavities, itbiA I 
are  much  superior,  in  the  essential  respects  of  \nmlk| 
and  security,  to  our  bee-hives,  the  insects  are  admilKJiI 
and  here  they  carry  on  their  labours  during  the  imiM  I 
The  jM"ople  of  the  house,  by  opening  the  intciiorilwl 
can  sec  them  at  work  whenever  thoy  -j  ..ibso,  amlf«ii»| 
move  a  honey -comb  at  any  time  without  distros!ii)«fcl 
hive;  the  only  precaution  necessary  Wiig  toblo»ii<| 
the  back  part  as  much  smoke  as  will  make  tlie  bwlfl 
out  at  the  front  entrance.  English  travellers  hate «•! 
the  operation  jtcrformed,  and  the  bees  quietly  ntttl 
This  jdan  of  lo<lging  lices  might  be  followed  hero  t«p*l 
advantage,  if  not  in  dwelling-houses,  at  least  iiilUiA*! 


!♦  Jltfy^-iils  ..'V ' 


BEES. 


"t  f  J' ' 


659 


lowers,  whn»ih«j 
ibout  in  iearch  of 
have  not  outlailfi 
!cs,  of  which  they 
lesU  be  examined 
'.  The  bees  whidi 
nd  frost  (for  n^ 
sty  nighU  in  Oiej, 
tea  forsake  the  un 
r  a  prey  to  mij^ 

•  themselves  for  the 
(not  preferring  ow 
letrate  to  the  dcpil  | 
E  earth,  pushinf  up 
no  visible  track  bj 

!  situations  ihejia  I 
iiligi;ingthccanh; 
puz/.lcd  to  imagim 
li  a  depth.   Penoj,  | 
wild  bees  can  ofcn 
ige,  digging  fotjul  ] 
11  ty. 

the  different  kioJi  j 
was  found,  that  bi 
evening,  and  piacinj 
IT  other  place  when 
on  with  their  wotiu 
iption.    Dtiring  ihi 
isccutc  their  occii[» 
icr  bees ;  but  aboil 
,  the  hive  began  l« 
tiich  appeared  goinj 
ccame  daily  siiialler, 
iige  within  Ihe  hiTt j  I 
all  seemed  to  han  I 
as  found  empty  an!  I 

•  honey;  Ihcstrongal 
ig  gone  to  make  bll^  I 

and  the  ulder  om  I 
the  accidents  of  1^  I 

to  possess  their  biirf  I 

T  to  form  oncofltitl 

Author  of  all  a!  Hi 

rner  of  the  unitmil 

nticnt  and  enjoylii|l 

forest,  by  dale  ul  I 

side,  there  Ijcdoii^I 

seeks  for  thcliuiiiUi| 

may  not  he  conisv  I 

arc  wild  becjwbkkl 

lere  arc  several  kini  I 

[uisitc  for  domcstk*! 

irth  of  Iridia.apjKMI 

of  honey-bees.  Tbij 

ticating  them  ithxkl 

this  country.  It  I 

certain  ca»ili«il| 

e  to  the  outside,  Ibl 

(cn  inwards;  thiii»l 

a  frame,  ha™!il 

these  cavities,  itkiill 

respects  of  waniAl 

insectii  are  admitlrfir 

during  the  SIMM  I 

ng  the  inteiiortal 

•y     i.iKS?,  nnilrul*! 

ithout  dislrrsiiiijill 

y  ImngtolilowiD*! 

■ill  nmketliebwl|| 

travellers  hard 

becB  quietly  nt»I 

followed  hero  to !*! 

I,  at  least  ill  th*!**! 


^Mi  ftrmai  where  a  bee-hive  would  be  at  once  cheaper, 
more  Mcurn,  and  naore  ornamental,  than  the  masaeo  of 
atraw  now  used ;  whi!;h,  lieaidea  aflbrding  no  security 
aninit  human  plundererg,  are  tL«  haunia  of  all  aorta  df 

«nnin>  * 

In  the  warm  regions  of  the  south  of  Europe,  a  black 
fMoeB  of  wild  bee  is  found,  which,  according  to  the  na- 
^^  Reaumur,  constructs  ita  nest  in  a  remarkable 
manner  by  boring  into  timber.  "  She  usually  selects  the 
nutrescent  uprights  of  arbours,  espaliers,  or  the  props  of 
•ines'  but  sometimes  she  will  attack  garden  scats,  thick 
doora,  sa<l  window-shutters ;  the  piece  that  she  chooses 
,,  usually  cylindrical,  and  perpendicular  to  the  horizon. 
Her  strong  maxilln  are  the  instruments  she  employs  in 
boring  it;  beginning  on  one  side  for  a  little  way,  she 
point)  her  course  obliquely  downwards,  and  then  forwards 
in  a  direction  parallel  with  ita  sides,  till  she  has  bored  a 
tutinel  of  from  twelve  to  fitleen  inches  in  length,  and 
teven  or  eight  lines  in  diameter.  A  passage  is  left  where 
(he  enters  or  fin<t  begins  to  bore,  and  another  at  the  end 
of  the  pipe.  As  the  industrious  animal  proceeds  in  her 
employment,  she  clears  away  the  wood  that  she  dctarhes, 
throtving  it  upon  the  ground,  where  it  appears  like  a 
Hnall  heap  of  sawdust.  Thus,  we  see,  she  has  prepared 
a  long  cylinder  in  the  middle  of  the  wood,  sheltered  from 
the  weather  and  external  injuries,  and  fit  for  her  pur- 
pose!. But  how  is  she  to  divide  it  into  cells?  What 
materialman  she  employ  for  making  the  floors  and  ceil- 
ing of  her  apartments  1  The  sawdust  is  at  hand,  and 
this  iupplies  her  with  all  that  she  wants  to  make  this 
pan  of  her  mansion  complete.  Beginning  at  the  bottom 
«f  the  cylinder,  she  deposits  an  egg,  and  then  lays  in  a 
itore  of  pollen,  mixed  with  honey,  sufficient  .for  the  nu- 
triment of  the  little  animal  it  is  to  produce.  At  the 
height  of  seven  or  eigiit  lines,  which  is  the  depth  of  each 
cell,  the  next  cotistructs,  of  particles  of  the  sawdust  glued 
li^ther,  and  also  to  the  sides  uf  the  tunnel,  what  may 
be  called  an  annular  stage  or  scattblding.  When  this 
li  lulficiently  hardened,  its  anterior  edge  affords  a  sup- 
port for  a  second  ring  of  the  same  materials,  and  thus  the 
ueiliog  is  gradually  formed  of  these  concentric  circles, 
till  there  remains  only  a  small  orifice  in  its  centre  ;  and 
this  is  also  filled  up  with  a  circular  mass  of  agglutinated 
particles  of  the  sawdust.  This  partition  exhibits  the  ap- 
pearance of  as  many  concentric  circles  as  the  animal  has 
Dade  joinings,  and  is  about  the  thickness  of  a  French 
crnwn-piece ;  it  serves  for  the  ceiling  of  the  lower,  and 
the  floor  of  the  upper  apartment.  One  coll  being  com- 
pleted, she  proceeds  to  another,  which  she  furnishes  and 
Ciiishesin  the  same  manner;  and  so  on  till  she  has  di- 
vided her  whole  tunnel  into  apartments,  which  are  usu- 
ally about  twelve."  At  the  profier  season  the  young 
cone  forth,  cich  in  its  turn,  from  these  long  and  ingeni- 
outly  contrived  tunnels. 

Bee-Hunts  in  the  Wilds  of  America. 

fn  tomn  countries  the  honey-bee  still  roams  in  an  un- 
domeaticated  state,  taking  up  its  abode  in  the  hollows  of 
treeaor  other  suitable  places  of  shelter,  and  annually 
throwing  off  swartps  which  seek  new  habitations.  In 
the  western  parts  of  North  America,  colonies  of  bees  en- 
joying this  wild  freedom  are  frequently  observed  by  tra- 
>ellcr9 ;  and  the  discovery  of  their  rude  hives,  for  the 
lake  of  their  store  of  honey,  forms  a  kind  of  profession 

i  I)  a  class  of  persons  known  hy  the  name  of  bee-hunters. 
On  the  subject  of   these   sports,   Washington    Irving 

I  ipk!  as  follows,  in  his  "  Tour  in  the  Prairies  of  the 
Far  West:"— 

"  The  beautiful  forests  in  which  we  were  encamped 
ibnunded  in  bee-trees  ;  that  is  to  say,  trees  in  the  decayed 
trunks  of  which  wild  bees  had  established  their  hives. 
h  is  surprising  in  what  countless  swarms  the  bcos  have 
orerspri-ad  the  Far  West  within  but  a  motleralc  number 
<i  years,    The  Iudiau3  consider  lUoiu  the  harbinger  uf 


the  white  man,  aa  the  buffalo  la  of  the  red  man ;  ami 
say,  that  in  proportion  as  the  bee  advances,  the  Indian 
and  the  buffalo  retire.  We  are  always  accustomed  to 
associate  the  hum  of  the  bee-hive  with  the  farm-house  and 
the  flower-garden,  and  to  consider  those  industrious  little 
animals  as  connected  with  the  busy  haunts  of  men;  anil 
I  am  told  that  the  wild  bee  is  seldom  to  be  met  with  at 
any  great  distance  from  the  frontier,  lliey  have  been 
the  hcralda  of  civilization,  steadfastly  preceding  it,  as  it 
advanced  firom  the  Atlantic  borders ;  and  some  of  the 
ancient  settlers  of  the  West  pretend  to  give  the  very 
year  when  the  honey-bee  first  crossed  the  MississippL 
The  Indians,  with  surprise,  found  the  mouldering  trees 
of  their  forests  suddenly  teeming  with  ambrosial  sweets; 
and  nothing,  I  am  told,  can  exceed  the  greedy  relish  with 
which  they  banquet,  for  the  first  time,  upon  this  unbought 
luxury  of  the  wilderness.  At  present  the  honey-be« 
swarms,  in  myriads,  in  the  noble  groves  and  forests  that 
skirt  and  intersect  the  prairies,  and  extend  along  the  Ma- 
vial  bottoms  of  the  rivers.  It  seems  to  me  as  if  thesa 
beautiful  regions  answer  literally  to  the  description  of 
the  land  of  promise — <  a  land  flowing  with  mil|i  and' 
honey ;'  for  the  rich  pasturage  of  the  prairies  is  calcu^ 
lated  to  sustain  herds  of  cattle  as  countless  as  the  sands 
upon  the  sea-shore,  while  the  flowers  with  which  they  ars 
enamelled  render  them  a  very  paradise  for  the  nectar* 
seeking  bee. 

•<  We  had  not  been  long  in  the  camp,  when  a  patty 
set  out  in  quest  of  a  bee-tree,  and  being  curious  to  witness 
the  sport,  I  gladly  accepted  an  invitation  to  accompany 
them.  The  party  was  headed  by  a  veteran  bee-hunter, 
a  tall  lank  fellow,  in  homespun  garb  that  hung  loosely 
alx>ut  his  limbs,  and  a  straw  hat,  shaped  not  unlike  a  be»> 
hive ;  a  comrade,  equally  uncouth  ii.  garb,  and  without 
a  hat,  straddled  along  at  his  heels,  with  a  long  rifle  oa 
his  shoulder.  To  these  succeeded  half  a  dozen  other% 
some  with  axes,  and  some  with  rifles ;  for  no  one  stilus 
from  the  camp  without  fire-arms,  so  that  he  may  be 
ready  either  for  wild  deer  or  wild  Indian.  Afler  proceed- 
ing some  distance,  we  came  to  an  open  glade  on  the 
skirts  of  the  forest  Here  our  leader  halted,  and  thea 
advanced  quietly  to  a  low  bush,  on  the  top  of  which  I 
perceived  a  piece  of  honey-comb.  This,  I  found,  was 
the  bait  or  lure  for  the  wild  bees.  Several  were  hum- 
ming  about  it,  and  diving  into  its  cells.  When  they  had 
laiden  themselves  with  honey,  they  would  rise  up  in  the 
air,  and  dart  off  in  one  straight  line,  almost  with  the  ve- 
locity of  a  bullet  The  hunters  watched  attentively  the 
course  they  took,  and  then  set  off  in  the  same  direction, 
stumbling  along  over  twisted  roots  and  fallen  trees,  with 
their  eyes  turned  up  to  the  sky.  In  this  way  tliey  traced 
the  honey-laden  bees  to  their  hive,  in  the  hollow  trunk 
of  a  blasted  oak,  where,  afler  buzzing  about  for  a  moment, 
they  entered  a  hole  about  sixty  feet  from  the  ground 
Two  of  the  bee-hunters  now  plied  their  axes  vigorously 
at  the  font  of  the  tree,  to  level  it  with  the  ground.  The 
mere  spectators  and  amatenrs,  in  the  mean  time,  drew  off 
to  a  cautious  distance,  to  be  out  of  the  way  of  the  falling 
of  the  tree  and  the  vengeance  of  its  inmates.  The  jar- 
ring blows  of  the  axe  seemed  to  have  no  effect  in  alarm- 
ing or  agitating  this  most  industrious  community.  They 
continued  to  ply  at  their  usual  occupations'^some  arriv- 
ing full-freighted  into  port,  others  sallying  forth  on  new 
expeditions,  like  so  many  merchantmen  in  a  money- 
making  metropolis,  Kttle  suspicious  of  im^nding  bank- 
ruptcy and  downfall :  even  a  loud  crack,  wliich  announced 
the  disrupture  uf  the  trunk,  failed  to  divert  their  atten- 
tion from  the  intense  pursuit  of  gain  :  at  length  dowe 
came  the  tree  with  a  tremendous  crash,  bursting  open 
from  end  to  end,  and  displaying  all  the  hoarded  treasures 
of  the  commonwealth.  One  of  the  hunters  immediately 
ran  up  with  a  wisp  of  lighted  hay,  as  a  defence  agaiikst 
the  bees.  The  latter,  however,  made  no  attack,  and 
sought  no  revenge:  they  seemed  stupified  bv  the  *.  i»» 


IfiO 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE 


trophe,  and,  nnsngpicioue  of  ilB  cause,  remained  crawling 
•nd  boning  about  the  ruins,  without  offering  us  any  mo- 
leitation.  Every  one  of  the  party  now  fell  to,  with  spoon 
and  h'jnting-knifo,  to  scoop  out  the  flakes  of  honeycomb 
with  which  the  hollow  trunk  was  stored.  Some  of  them 
Wore  of  old  date,  and  a  deep  brown  colour ;  others  were 
beautifully  white,  and  the  honey  in  their  cells  was  almost 
limpid.  Such  of  the  combs  as  were  entire  wrre  placed 
in  camp-kettles,  to  be  convoyed  to  the  encampment ; 
those  which  had  been  shivered  in  the  fall  were  devoured 
opon  the  spot.  Every  stark  bee-hunter  was  to  be  seen 
with' a  rich  morsel  in  his  hand,  dripping  about  his  Angers, 
and  disappearing  as  rapidly  as  a  cream  tart  before  the 
holiday  ap|)etite  of  a  schoolboy.  Nor  was  it  the  bee- 
hunters  alone  that  profited  by  the  downfall  of  this  indus- 
trious community.  As  if  the  bees  would  carry  through 
the  similitude  of  their  habits  with  those  of  lal)orious  and 
(gainful  man,  I  beheld  numbers  from  rival  hives,  ar- 
riving on  eager  wing,  to  enrich  themselves  with  the  ruins 
of  their  neighbours.  Those  busied  themselves  as  eagerly 
and  cheerily  as  so  many  wreckers  on  an  Indiaman  that 
has  been  driven  on  shore — plunging  into  the  cells  of  the 
broken  honeycombs,  banqueting  greedily  on  the  spoil, 
and  then  winging  their  way  full-freighted  to  their  homes. 
As  to  the  poor  proprietors  of  the  ruin,  they  seemed  to 
have  no  heart  to  do  any  thing,  not  even  to  taste  the  nec- 
tar that  flowed  around  them,  but  crawled  backwards  and 
forwards,  in  vacant  desolation,  as  I  have  seen  a  poor  fel- 
low, with  his  hands  in  his  pockets,  whistling  vacantly 
and  despondingly  about  the  ruins  of  his  house  that  had 
been  burned.  It  is  difl'icult  to  describe  the  bewilderment 
And  confusion  of  the  bees  of  the  bankrupt  hive,  who  had 
been  absent  at  the  time  of  the  catastrophe,  and  who  ar- 
rived, from  time  to  time  with  full  cargoes  from  abroad. 
At  first  they  wheeled  about  in  the  air,  in  the  place  where 
the  fallen  tree  had  once  reared  its  head,  astonished  at 
finding  all  a  vacuum.  At  length,  as  if  comprehending 
their  disaster,  they  settled  down  in  clusters  on  a  dry 
branch  of  a  neighbouring  tree,  from  whence  they  seemed 
to  contemplate  the  prostrate  ruin,  and  to  buzz  forth  dole- 
ful lamentations  over  the  downfall  of  their  republic.  It 
Was  a  scene  on  which  the  'melancholy  Jacques'  might 
have  moralized  by  the  hour." 

In  Tarious  parts  of  Africa,  hunting  for  the  nests  of  wild 
bees  ia  similarly  pursued  by  the  natives  of  that  extensive 
continent  In  Alexander's  <<  Expedition  into  the  Interior 
of  Africa,"  we  find  the  follovring  notice  of  a  hunt  of  this 

'  kind : — "  One  of  the  Hottentots  observed  a  number  of 
bees  entering  a  hole  in  the  ground,  which  had  formerly 
belonged  to  some  animal  of  the  weasel  kind.  As  he 
made  signs  for  us  to  come  to  him,  we  turned  that  way, 
fraring  he  had  met  with  some  accident;  and  when  the 

■people  began  to  unearth  the  bees,  I  did  not  expect  that 
We  should  escape  without  being  severely  stung.  But 
they  knew  so  well  how  to  manage  an  sflair  of  this  kind, 

'(hat  they  robbed  the  poor  insects  with  the  greatest  ease 
and  safety.  Before  they  commericed  digging,  a  fire  was 
made  near  the  hole,  and  constantly  supplied  with  damp 
'ftiel  to  produce  a  clod  of  smoke.  In  this  the  workmen 
Were  completely  enveloped ;  so  that  the  bees  returning 
%(m  the  field*  were  prevented  from  approaching,  and 


those  which  flew  out  of  the  nest  were  anven  bt  it  •« 
distance.     Yet  the  rest  of  our  party,  to  avoid  their  ran  * 
mcnt,  found  it  prudent  either  to  ride  ofi",  or  stand  aim  ' 
the  smoke.     About  three  pounds  of  honey  were  ohtain»l' 
which,  exccptin;;  a  small  share  which  I  rescrvrd  till  i   ' 
time,  they  instantly  devoured  in  the  comb ;  and  aom  „r 
the  Hottentots  professed  to  be  equally  fond  of  the  Jan. 
Tho  honey  appeared  unusually  liquid,  ^nd  nearly  aatli' 
as  water,  yet  it  seemed  as  sweet,  and  of  as  delicate  " 
taste,  as  the  best  honey  of  England.     AVhilat  I  wai      j 
gaged  in  the  chase  one  day  on  foot  with  a  Nanaqui 
tendant,  he  picked  up  a  small  stone,  looked  at  it  eametil 
then  over  the  plain,  and  threw  it  down  again.    I  ^ijl 
what  it  was;  he  said  there  was  the  mark  of  a  beaonii' 
taking  it  up,  I  also  saw  on  it  a  small  pointed  drop  of  »u'  i 
[properly  excrement],  which  had  fallen  from  a  bee  in  in 
flight.    The  Namaqua  noticed  the  direction  the  point  oi  ' 
the  drop  indicated,  and  walking  on  he  picked  up  aaotlm 
stone,  also  with  a  drop  of  wax  on  it,  and  so  on  it  con. 
sidersble  intervals,  till,  getting  behind  a  crag,  be  looM 
up,  and  bees  were  seen  flying  across  the  sky,  and  in  and 
out  of  a  cleft  in  the  face  of  the  rock.    Here,  of  conrn 
was  the  honey  he  was  in  pursuit  of.     A  dry  bu«hij«. 
lectcd,  fire  is  made,  the  cUff  is  ascended,  and  the  nut  ii 
robl)ed  in  the  smoke." 

Park,  in  his  Travels,  mentions,  that  the  African  wJU. 
bees  nre  often  a  formidable  enemy  to  the  caravgni  of  ihi 
travellers  crossing  the  desert  The  followinf^incidmi  I 
as  he  relates,  took  place  near  Doofroo: — "Wehsilul 
sooner  unloaded  the  asses,  than  some  of  the  people,  bdm  I 
in  search  of  honey,  unfortunately  disturbed  a  large  swing  I 
of  bees.  They  came  out  in  immense  numbers,  and  iv  j 
tacked  men  and  beasts  at  the  same  time.  Luckily  niM  | 
of  the  asses  were  loose,  and  galloped  up  the  vallev '  bgt  I 
the  horses  and  people  were  very  much  stung,  and  oblinj  I 
to  scamper  off  in  all  directions ;  in  fact,  for  half  an  hour  I 
the  bees  seemed  completely  to  have  put  an  end  to  on  | 
journey.  In  the  evening,  when  they  became  leai  troobi^  I 
some,  and  we  could  venture  to  collect  our  cattle,  vrefo 
many  of  them  much  stung  and  swelled  about  the  h 
Three  asses  were  missing;  one  died  in  the  evening, uj I 
one  next  morning.  Our  guide  lost  his  horse,  and  ngiil 
of  the  people  were  much  stung  about  tho  handsandfut'l 

Honey-bees  exist  in  great  numbers  in  Australii.  I|l 
the  account  of  an  expedition  in  that  country  by  Mini 
Mitchell,  that  gentleman  observes — <<  We  were  now  i|i|l 
land  flowing  with  milk  —1  honey ;'  for  the  nalivei,intk| 
thoir  new  tomahawkt  ted  it  in  abundance  froniil»| 

hollow  branches  of  t'  ;  and  it  seemed  that,  in  Ihtl 

season,  they  could  finu  ■,„  almost  everywhere.  To  tail 
inexpert  clowns,  as  they  probably  thought  us,  the  boiin| 
and  the  bees  were  inaccessible,  and  indeed  invisible,  ait  I 
when  the  natives  cut  it  out  and  brought  it  to  us  in  itil 
sheets  of  bark,  thus  displaying  a  degree  of  ingenuiirull 
skill  in  supplying  their  wants,  whicb  we,  with  ailo 
sciei.cc,  couid  not  hope  to  attain.  They  w.iuldutclica| 
of  the  bees,  and  attach  to  it,  with  some  rosin  or  giiiii,il«l 
light  down  of  the  swan  or  owl ;  thus  laden,  tlic  ln| 
would  make  for  the  branch  of  some  lofty  tree,  ani  !o!»l 
tray  its  home  of  sweets  to  ita  keen-eyed  pursueti,  wIm| 
bee-chase  presented  indeed  a  laughable  loeoe." 


THE  DOG-FIELD  SPORTS. 


Tri  dog  is  an  animal  inrhirh  geema  to  have  been  des- 
ined  by  the  Creator  to  be  the  friend  and  assistant  of 
nan.  Tiiroughout  the  dangers  and  difficulties  which 
oesel  the  human  being,  particularly  in  an  inartificial 
lUte  of  society,  the  dog  has  ever  proved  himself  the 
kindly  defender  of  his  life  and  property,  as  well  as  a 
powerful  and  essential  auxiliary  in  subduing  other  ani- 
mals to  his  purpose.  Without  the  assistance  of  the  dog, 
man  would  not  even  yet  have  obtained  a  beneficial  do- 
minion over  the  various  races  of  wild  animals  of  the 
earth,  or  been  able  to  watch  with  sufficient  care  those 
creitureB  formed  for  his  food. 

According  to  naturalists,  the  dog  belongs  to  the  family 
of  the  Caniila  (from  canis,  Latin  for  dog,  hence,  ravine 
ipeciea),  in  the  order  Cnrnivora,  class  Mammalia.  In 
the  same  family  are  united  the  wolf,  fox,  and  jackal,  and 
these  so  nearly  approach  the  dog  in  physical  construc- 
tion, and  certain  habits  and  qualities,  that  some  authori- 
ties arc  inclined  to  consider  them  of  the  same  species. 
The  resemblance  in  some  respects,  and  great  dissimilar- 
ity in  others,  between  dogs,  wolves,  foxes,  and  jackals, 
is,  however,  not  mone  remarkable  than  the  general  simi- 
larity of  dogs  to  each  other,  as  far  as  an  apparent  unity 
of  species  is  concerned  ;  while,  at  the  same  time,  there 
u  a  striking  difference  of  form  and  character  between 
opposite  breeds.  One  dog  is  large,  another  small ;  one 
is  smooth  in  the  skin,  another  rough  ;  one  has  a  long 
head, in  another  the  head  is  short;  one  has  an  exquisite 
sense  of  smell,  another  has  comparatively  little  of  that 
power;  and  so  on.  We  have  an  animal  which  watches 
our  flocks ;  another  which  tracks  and  hunts  down  nox- 
ious wild  beasts ;  another  which  destroys  and  digs  out 

i  Terrain  from  the  earth;  another  which  guards  our  houses 
and  lives  while  we  are  asleep ;  another  which  seeks  out 
k  game  in  our  field-sports;  another  which  will  plimge 
into  the  deepest  waters,  and  save  us  from  being  drowned  ; 
bf'ides  many  other  varieties,  all  less  or  more  distinct  in 
character.  The  diflerence  is  so  very  remarkable,  that 
the  varieties  would  he  entitled  to  I)e  classed  as  of  differ- 
enlf/ierifs  of  animals,  unless  for  the  fact  that  they  all 
breed  toircthcr,  and  pcrpolnale  mixed  or  mongrel  varie- 
jps.  This  circumstance  led  BiifTon  and  other  natural- 
ists to  infer  that  all  dogs  whatsoever  are  but  of  one  spc- 
fies,  the  physiolosical  theory  being,  that  no  two  differ- 
ent specieK  can  produce  fertile  descendants.     BiifTon  fur- 

I  ther  concluded,  from  a  course  of  observations,  that  all 


are  gpning  from  one  common  root,  the  shepherd's  dog; 
and  that  climate,  food,  and  peculiar  training,  have  bcM) 
the  causes  of  the  departure  from  the  primeval  itock. 
The  line  of  argument  adopted  in  support  of  this  taeory 
is,  that  in  the  animal,  as  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  (sea 
article  Fruit-Gabbbn),  improved  or  very  remarkable 
varieties  can  be  produced  by  selecting  kinds,  and  breed- 
ing from  them  alone ;  as,  for  example,  taking  the  two 
largest  dogs  of  a  breed,  and  breeding  from  them ;  then 
taking  the  two  largest  which  this  pair  produces,  and 
breeding  from  them  also;  and  so  on,  till  a  large  variety 
of  dogs  is  ultimately  formed.  And  further,  that  if  each 
generation  be  trained  in  a  particular  way,  the  variety 
will  come  to  possess  properties  agreeable  to  the  kind  of 
cultivation  bestowed  upon  it  Such,  there  is  reason  to 
believe,  is  the  true  explanotion  of  the  extraordinary  dif- 
fei'cnces  of  size  and  character  in  the  canine  species. 
We  must  view  these  dissimilarities  as  a  resultof  a  course 
of  treatment  from  the  earliest  period  of  civilization  till 
modern  times.  The  ancient  Egyptians,  and  after  then* 
the  Greeks,  are  recorded  to  have  paid  considerable  atten- 
tion to  the  training  of  dogs,  and,  as  is  well  known,  thia 
formed  a  favourite  study  in  connection  with  the  6eld- 
sports  of  later  ages.  Doubts  may  very  naturally  be  en- 
tertained respecting  the  power  of  transmitting  acquired 
qualities  from  one  generation  to  another,  of  any  specie* 
of  animals;  but  investigations  into  the  subject  afTord 
some  remarkable  proofs  of  what  can  be  accomplished  by 
means  of  careful  training  or  teaching. 

EFFECTS  or  TRAININO. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century,  one  Bisset,  a 
native  of  Perth,  by  trade  a  shoemaker,  having  applied 
himself  with  great  perseverance  to  the  teaching  of  ani- 
mals, succeeded  in  making  a  set  of  cats  play  in  harmony 
on  the  dulcimer,  uniting  their  voices  to  the  tones  of  the 
instrument;  and  this  singular  orchestra  was  exhibited, 
to  the  perfect  satisfaction  of  the  public,  for  a  succession 
of  nights,  in  the  Haymarket  theatre.  He  it  was  who 
trained  that  "  learned  pig,"  of  which  our  fathers  usrd  to 
speak  80  highly,  the  animal  having  been  exhibited  in 
every  part  of  the  empire.  At  a  somewhat  earlier  period, 
a  Saxon  peasant  boy  trained  a  dog  to  the  pronunciation 
of  words.  The  boy  had  observed  in  the  dog's  voice  an 
indistinct  resemblance  to  certain  sounds  of  the  human 
voice,  and  was  thus  prompted  to  endeavour  to  teach  him 
to  speak.  The  animal  was  three  years  old  at  the  begin- 
ning of  his  instructions — a  circumstance  which  must 
have  been  unfavourable  to  the  object !  yet,  by  dint  of 
great  labour  and  perseverance,  in  three  years  the  boy 
had  taught  it  to  articubte  thirty  words.  It  used  to  as- 
tonish its  visiters  by  calling  for  tea,  coffee,  chocolate,  &c.i 
but  it  is  proper  to  remark,  that  it  required  the  words  to 
be  pronounced  by  its  master  beforehand,  and  it  never  aj^ 
peared  to  become  quite  reconciled  to  the  exhibition! 
which  it  was  forced  to  make.  The  learned  Leibnitz  re- 
ported on  this  wonderful  animal  to  the  French  Academy, 
attesting  that  he  had  seen  the  dog  and  heard  it  speak ; 
so  that  there  dws  not  appear  the  slightest  ground  fof 
doubting  the  fact,  such  as  it  was.  All  doubt  on  the 
question  of  possibility  may,  indeed,  be  considered  as  set 
at  rest  by  the  recent  exhibition  of  the  educated  Jogs  in 
London — animals  which  could  play  at  dominoes  and 
chess,  and  even  indicate  when  their  adversaries  made 
false  moves.  These  creatures  were  visited  and  pluyed 
mlh  by  thousands,  and  we  never  have  heard  that  a  de- 
ception of  any  kind  as  to  the  reality  of  their  acquired 
powers  was  detected. 

3K 


MS 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Liying  uide  fuch  extraor<lin«ry  ixamples  an  these, 
Ihe  ordinary  training  conferred  on  horaes,  doga,  and 
other  domesticated  animal*  aeemi  to  be  RufTicient  to  ra- 
(abliah  the  general  fact  of  animal  educability.  We 
nave  no  more  forcible  illuHtrationa  of  the  principle  than 
in  the  uses  which  are  now  made  of  certain  of  the  canine 
tribe-  in  rural  sports.  The  pointer,  setter,  springing 
spaniel,  and  all  that  class  of  dogs,  are  understood  to  bo 
descended  from  one  stock,  the  Spanish  spaniel,  with  a 
■light  crossing  from  the  fox-hound,  for  the  sake  of  in- 
creasing Ihe  speed.  The  original  animal  may  bo  con- 
sidered as  a  record  of  the  original  powers,  to  which 
every  thing  else  must  be  regarded  as  an  addition  made 
oy  human  training.  Now,  the  original  animal  is  only 
gifted  by  nature  with  a  fine  scent  for  game,  and  a  dispo- 
Mtion  to  make  a  momentary  pause  on  seeing  it,  for  the 
purpose  of  Springing  upon  it.*  Man  has  converted  tins 
ficlination  to  a  temporary  pause  into  a  habit  of  making  a 
flill  stop,  and  the  animal,  instead  of  gratifying  its  de- 
■truclive  tendency  by  flying  upon  the  game,  has  been 
^ined  to  be  contented  with  witnessing  a  vicarious  exe- 
cution by  the  gun  of  his  master. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  only  the  spaniel  tribe 
li  capable  of  serving  sportsmen  in  the  capacity  of  point- 
ers and  setters.  There  are  other  classes  of  dogs  which 
perseverance  would  enable,  to  a  certain  extent,  to  act  in 
•he  same  way.  Gcrvase  Murkham,  who  wrote  on  sports 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  speaks  of  having  seen  dogs  of 
the  bastard  tumbler  kind  adapted  to  act  as  setters, 
though  not  so  well  as  thoso  of  the  spaniel  kind,  Mr. 
Blaine  is  of  opinion  that  this  power  can  be  cultivated  in 
most  (1ogs.t  It  has  even  been  elicited  in  another  and 
veiT  Jlllcrent  class  of  animals-^the  hog.  Some  years 
•go,  Mr.  Toomer,  gamekeeper  to  Sir  Henry  Mildmay, 
bethought  him  of  teaching  a  pig  to  act  as  a  pointer, 
having  been  struck  by  the  scenting  powers  of  the  animal 
in  its  search  for  palatable  roots  under  ground.  Ho  began 
by  alliwing  a  young  female  pig  to  accompany  his  point- 
tn,  in  their  breaking  lessons,  to  the  field.  Within  a 
fortnight,  to  his  own  surprise,  she  was  able  to  hunt  and 
point  partridges  and  rabbits.  There  being  an  abund- 
ance of  creatures  near  the  keeper's  lodge,  her  education 
advanced  rapidly  by  frequent  exercise  and  in  a  few  weeks 
.  fhe  was  able  to  retrieve  game  as  well  as  the  best  pointer. 
8lul,  as  this  extraordinary  animal  was  called,  was  con- 
sidered to  have  a  more  acute  scent  than  any  pointer  in 
the  charge  of  the  keeper ;  and  it  was  a  kennel  of  the 
highest  character.  They  hunted  her  principally  on 
moors  and  heaths;  and  it  often  happened,  that  when 
left  behind,  she  would  come  of  her  own  accord  and  join 
the  pointers.  <•  She  has  ol'ten  stood  a  jack  snipe  when 
■II  the  pointers  had  passed  it:  she  would  hack  the  dogs 
when  they  pointed,  but  the  dogs  refused  to  back  her 
nntil  spoke  to — '(Jpomer's  dogs  being  all  trained  to  make 
•  general  halt  when  the  word  was  given,  whether  any 
dog  pointed  or  not,  so  that  she  has  been  frequently  stand- 
ing in  the  midst  of  a  field  of  pointers.  In  consequence 
df  the  dogs  being  not  much  inclined  to  hunt  when  she 
was  with  them  (for  they  dropped  their  sterns,  and  showed 
■ymptoms  of  jealousy),  she  did  not  very  often  accompany 
them,  except  for  the  novelty.  Her  pace  was  mostly  a 
trot;  she  was  seldom  known  to  gallop,  except  when 
called  to  go  out  shooting:  she  would  then  come  home 
off  the  forest  at  full  stretch,  and  \ie  as  much  elated  as  a 
dog  at  being  shown  the  gun.  She  always  expressed 
i^reat  pleasure  when  game,  either  dead  or  living,  was 
placed  before  her.  She  has  frequently  stood  a  single 
partridgii  at  forty  yards'  diittanre,  her  nose  in  a  direct 
line  to  the  bird ;  after  standing  some  considerable  time, 
■he  would  drop  like  a  setter,  still  keeping  hor  nose  in  an 
exact  line,  and  would  continue  in  that  position  until  the 

*  Tliouithis  and  Recolleotloni,  by  one  of  the  last  Century 
Civiilnn     \TiirrHy.     l^ai 
t  t'ncyelopxdia  of  Rural  Sports,  7W  { 


game  moved ;  if  it  took  wing,  she  w  nuld  conio  up  tc  Ju 
place,  and  draw  slowly  after  if;  and  when  the  libJ 
dropped,  she  would  stand  it  as  before."* 

These  facts,  together  with  what  common  obaerfni 
presents  to  us  in  domesticated  parrots,  blackbird 


'<  ravens, 


magpies,  monkeys,  Ac,  place  the  educability  of  anj^. , 
upon  a  basis,  in  our  opinion,  not  to  l>e  shaken.  But  tin 
most  wonderful  thing,  and  the  most  convincing  part  f 
the  proof,  remains,  in  the  fact  of  the  transmiBsion  of 
quired  qnnlilief  by  animals  to  progeny.  The  habi 
which  education  has  conferred  upon  the  pointer  annM  I 
in  his  puppy,  who  may  be  seen  earnestly  standing  u 
swallows  and  pigeons  in  a  farm-yard,  before  he  has  «», 
once  seen  such  a  thing  done  by  his  seniors,  or  received  ih. 
least  instruction.  Here  only  the  object  is  amiw  t|u 
act  itself  is  perfect.  As  may  \te  readily  suppoaed  the 
puppy  of  a  race  of  English  pointers  can  be  trained  ic 
the  whole  business  of  the  field  in  one-tenth  of  the  ti™ 
which  the  most  experienced  breaker  would  require  la 
eftt'ct  any  improvement  upon  the  simple  instinct  of  tk 
piuse  in  an  original  Spanish  spaniel.  On  the  sulijri-iof 
the  hereditary  transmission  of  acquired  qualities  hy  ajj, 
nials,  we  have  some  curious  information  from  the  vene. 
rabic  naturalist,  Mr.  T.  A.  Knight. 

In  a  communication  to  the  Royal  Society,  in  1807,.Vr 
Knight  cited  several  instances  of  domesticated  aniimlj  I 
inheriting  the  acquired  habits  of  their  parents,    u  In  ,]i 
animals,"  he  says,  "  this  is  observable ;  but  in  the  doe  ii  i 
exists  to  a  wonderful  extent ;  and  the  olli^pring  aoMn  I 
to  inherit  not  only  the   paMsions  and   propcnsitios.  bg|  I 
even  the  resentments,  of  the  family  from  which  It  spiiua 
I  ascertained  that  a  terrier,  whose  parents  had  been  in  j 
the  habit  of  fighting  with  polecats,  will  instantly  thoi 
every  mark  of  anger  when  ho  first  perceives  the  kmi  ( 
of  that  animal,  though  the  anima4  itself  be  wholly  con- 
cealed from  his  sight     A  young  spaniel  brought  up  Wfi 
the  terriers  showed  no  mirks  of  emotion  at  the  scent  of  I 
tUe  polecat,  but  it  pursued  a  woodcock,  the  first  time  II 
Huw  one,  with  clamour  and  exultation:  and  a  yosiii  I 
pointer,  which  I  am  certain  hnd  never  Keen  a  partriJff  I 
stood   trombling  with   anxiety,  its   eyes  fixed  and  iu 
mu'jvles  rigid,  when  conduct^,)  into  the  miilstofaMvej  I 
of  those  birds.     Yet  each  of  thtso  dogs  arc  mere  viri- 1 
cties  of  the  same  species,  and  to  that  »|)ccies  none  of  I 
these  habits  are  given  by  nature.     The  peculiarilicscf 
character  can  therefore  be  traced  to  no  other  source  ijijn  I 
the  acquired  habits  of  tlio  parents,  which  are  iiihctiW  I 
by  the  oflspring,  and  become  what  I  call  i)i«li>ic/ii(  kt  I 
(litary  propeimilies," 

It  appears  from  another  communication  maae  or  .H 
Knight  to  the  same  society,  in  1837,  that  he  had  >\n\ 
been  pursuing  investigations  on  this  suljcct  for  nnilr  I 
sixty  years.  He  procreds  in  that  communicanion  la  I 
give  a  general  account  of  his  investigations: — "Atll)i[ 
period,"  he  says,  "at  which  my  experiments  commcna^l 
well-bred  and  well-taught  springing  spaniels  were  abuivj.  I 
ant,  and  I  readily  obtained  possession  of  as  many  is  I 
wanted.  I  had,  at  first,  no  other  object  than  that  of  oS  I 
taining  dogs  of  great  excellence ;  but  within  a  vcrysloit  [ 
time,  8<ime  facts  came  under  iny  observation  which  ve^  | 
strongly  arrested  my  attention.  In  seyeral  in«lancn| 
young  and  wholly  inexporicnceii  dogs  appeared  '•ql 
nearly  as  expert  in  finding  woodcocks  as  their  expeii-l 
enced  parents.  The  woods  in  which  I  was  arcustoirf  I 
to  shoot  did  not  contain  pheasants,  nor  much  game  of  I 
any  other  kind,  and  I  therefore  resolved  never  to  siMl 
at  anything  except  wooilcocks,  conceiving  that  by  ml 
doing  the  hereditary  pro|)ensitios  oliove  mentioned  not.')  j 
Iwcome  more  obvious  and  decided  in  the  young  and  a*  I 
taught  animals  ;  and  I  hud  the  satisfaction,  in  more  tliii  I 
one  instance,  to  see  some  of  these  find  as  manyvtooil 
cocks,  and  give  tonguo  as  correctly,  as  the  dcsI  of  a)  | 
older  dogs. 

•  Dauiel's  Rural  Sports. 


■f  .""-t 


THE  DOG. 


«i'>;i' 


6<J 


«  WooJcocka  are  driven  in  frosty  weather,  m  ih  well  I 
known,  to  neok  their  food  in  springs  and  rills  of  unfrozen  1 
inter  and  I  found  that  my  old  dogs  knew  about  as  well  ' 
m1  (lid  the  degree  of  frost  which  would  drive  the  wood-  ! 
cocki  to  such  pluces;  and  this  knowledofo  proved  very  i 
Iroubieiomo  to  me,  for  I  could  not  suflioienlly  restrain  \ 
Ihem.    I  therefore  left  the  old  experienced  dogs  at  homo,  i 
ind  took  only  the  wholly  inexperienced  young  dogs;  but, 
J,  mj  aslonishenent,  some  of  these,  in  several  instances, 
confined  themselves  as  closely  to  the  unfrozen  grounds 
•  m  vhfif  parents  would  have  done.    When  I  fir«t  observed 
this  I  suspected  that  woodcocks  might  have  been  upon 
the  unfrozen  ground  during  the  preceding  night;  but  I 
could  not  discover  (as  I  think  I  should  have  done  hud 
(his  been  the  case)  any  traces  of  their  having  been  there ; 
mil  as  I  could  not  do  so,  I  was  led  to  conclude  that  the 
young  dogs  wero  guided  by  feelings  and  propensities 
limilar  to  those  ot  their  parents. 

a'l'he  subjects  of  my  observation  in  these  cases  were  all 
lh«  offspring  of  well-instructed  parents,  of  five  or  six 
years  old  or  more;  and  I  thought  it  not  improbable  that 
instinctive  hereditary  propensities  might  be  stronger  in 
these  than  in  the  otTspring  of  very  young  and  inexperi- 
enced parents.  Experience  proved  this  opinion  to  be 
well  founded,  and  led  me  to  believe  that  these  pro|)ensi- 
tics  might  bo  made  to  cease  to  exist,  and  others  to  bo 
given  i  and  that  the  same  breed  of  dogs  which  displayed 
10  slron(;ly  an  hereditary  disposition  to  hunt  at\cr  wootl- 
oocks,  miglit  be  made  ultimately  to  display  a  similar  pro- 
pensity to  hunt  after  trufles;  and  it  may,  I  think,  be  rea- 
sonably doubted  whether  any  dog,  having  the  habits  and 
propensities  of  the  springing  spaniel,  would  ever  have 
been  known,  if  the  art  of  shooting  biriJs  on  the  wing  had 
not  been  acquired. 

"I possessed  one  young  spaniel,  of  which  the  male  pa- 
tent, apparently  n  well-bred  springing  spaniel,  had  been 
taught  to  do  a  great  number  of  extraordinary  tricks,  and 
of  which  the  female  parent  was  a  well-bred  springing 
spaniel ;  the  puppy  had  l)een  taught,  Iwfore  it  came  into 
my  possession,  a  part  of  the  accomplishments  of  its  main 
parent.  In  one  instance  I  had  walked  out  with  my  gun 
and  a  servant,  without  any  dog;  and  having  seen  a 
woodcock,  I  sent  for  the  dog  above  mentioned,  which  the 
servant  broui^ht  to  me.  A  month  afterwards,  I  sent  my 
servant  for  it  again,  under  similar  circumstances,  when 
it  acted  as  if  it  h.id  inferred  that  the  track  by  which  the 
servant  had  come  from  me  would  lead  it  to  me.  It  left 
my  servant  within  twenty  yards  of  my  house,  and  was 
with  me  in  a  very  few  minutes,  though  the  distance  whirh 
it  had  to  run  exceeded  a  mile.  I  repeated  !his  experi- 
ment at  ditferent  times,  and  after  considerable  intervals, 
and  uniformly  with  the  same  results,  tho  dog  always 
taming  to  me  without  the  servant.  I  could  mention  se- 
veral other  instances,  nearly  as  singular,  of  the  sagacity 
rf  this  animal,  which  I  imagined  to  have  derived  its  ex- 
traordinary powers  in  some  degree  from  the  highly  culti- 
vated intellect  of  its  male  [larent." 

Tj  conclude  these  preliminary  observations  on  dogs. 
A  gentleman  of  our  acquaintance,  and  of  scientific  ac- 
quirements, obtained  some  years  ago  a  pup  which  had 
been  producfd  in  London  by  a  female  of  the  celebrated 
Su  Bernard's  breed.  The  young  animal  was  brought  to 
8«)tlaud,  where  it  was  never  observed  to  give  any  parti- 
cular tokens  of  a  power  of  tracking  footsteps  until  winter, 
when  the  ground  became  covered  with  snow.  It  then 
showed  the  most  active  inclination  to  follow  footsteps; 
and  so  great  was  its  power  of  doing  so  under  these  cir- 
cumstances, tliat  when  its  master  had  crogse<l  a  field  in 
lie  moat  curvilinear  way,  and  caused  other  persons  to 
cross  his  path  in  all  directions,  it  nevertheless  followed 
nis  course  with  the  greatest  precision.  Here  was  a  jwrfect 
revival  of  the  habit  of  its  Alpine  fathers,  with  a  degree  of 
specialty  as  to  external  condllioiis,  ut  which,  it  seems  to 
us,  we  cannot  sufticiently  wonder 


WethuR  see  that  not  only  doci  what  metaphysiciorg 
call  the  Inw  of  hnbit  exercise  a  sway  in  the  intellects  of 
animals,  but  that  modilication  which  takes  place  in  hu- 
man communities,  and  passes  under  the  comprehensive 
name  of  civilization,  also  nflects  the  lower  tribes  of  crea- 
tion. A  race  of  animals,  like  a  race  of  men,  is  civiliza- 
bio ;  and  we  cannot  doubt  that  the  same  snfteninij  influ- 
ences which  have  produced  the  advanced  nations  of 
Europe,  have  operated  upon  the  animals  existing  in  the 
same  countries,  and  made  them  very  dilTerenl  from  what 
they  were  in  early  times.  It  cannot  escaiie  remark,  that 
tho  whole  principle  of  civilization  acquires  strength  from 
having  its  basis  thus  widened.  Wo  become  the  more 
confident  in  the  improvability  of  our  own  species,  when 
we  find  that  even  the  lower  animals  are  capable  of  being 
improved,  through  a  succession  of  generations,  by  the 
constant  presence  of  a  meliorating  agency. 

OEIfERAL    CHARACTER   OF    D008. 

The  dog  has  six  incisory  or  cutting  teeth  in  both  jaws; 
beyond  which  there  are,  on  each  side,  both  above  and 
below,  a  canine  tooth;  and  still  further  into  the  mouth 
are  six  cheek-teeth,  or  molars,  in  each  side  of  the  upper 
jaw.  The  three  first  arc  sharp  and  cutting,  which  Cu- 
vier  calls  false  molars.  The  next  tooth  on  each  side  is  a 
carnivorous  tooth,  furnished  with  two  cutting  lobes,  be- 
yond which  the  other  two  teeth  on  each  side  are  flat 
There  r.'e  seven  cheek-teeth,  on  both  sides,  in  tho  under 
jaw;  four  of  these  are  filse  molars,  a  carnivorous  tooth, 
with  the  posterior  part  flat,  and  behind  it  two  tuberculous 
teeth.  The  muzzle  is  elongated,  subject  to  great  variety 
of  length  in  different  varieties.  The  tongue  is  smooth 
and  soft;  the  ears  erect  in  the  wild  varieties,  and  in  some 
of  the  tamo  ones,  but,  in  the  latter  kinds,  for  the  most 
part  pendulous.  The  fore-feet  are  provided  with  five 
toes,  and  tho  hind-feet  with  four  toe?,  furnished  with 
rather  longish  nails,  obtuse  at  their  points,  and  not  re- 
tractile. 'I'he  females  are  provided  with  both  inguinal 
and  ventral  teats.     The  pupils  of  the  eyes  are  circular. 

The  .female  goes  with  young  sixty -three  days,  and 
generally  produces  from  three  to  five  at  a  birth,  and  some- 
times even  twelve,  which  are  at  first  blind,  in  which 
stole  Jhey  continue  for  from  nine  days  to  a  fortnight 
About  the  end  of  two  months,  their  faculties  begin  to 
develop  themselves.  They  shed  their  first  teeth  at  the 
end  of  six  months,  which  are  repliircd  by  others  that  do 
not  exfoliate.  At  twenty  months,  or  two  years,  dogs 
arrive  at  their  full  vigour. 

The  mnlcs  continue  to  propagate  for  nearly  theit 
whole  lives,  while  the  femolc  discontinues  having  young 
ones  at  about  the  age  of  eight  or  nine  years. 

The  average  age  to  which  dogs  live  is  about  fourteen 
years;  they  frequently,  however,  live  to  sixteen,  and 
even  have  been  known  to  attain  the  age  of  twenty  years. 
In  their  latter  days,  dogs  frequently  sufler  greatly  from 
decoy,  and  various  diseases.  They  are  extremely  sub- 
ject to  rheumatism,  from  their  liability  to  exposure  to 
rain,  and  damp  beds. 

Until  dogs  have  attained  seven  or  eight  years,  their 
teeth  are  white,  smooth,  and  acutely  pointed ;  but  after 
this  age  they  become  yellow  spotted,  and  their  points 
assume  an  uneven  ond  jagged  appearance.  At  this  time, 
also,  the  hoir  of  the  muzzle  and  around  the  eyes  assumes 
a  hoary  appearance,  and  becomes  whiter  as  they  increase 
in  years. 

Tho  dog  is  naturally  carnivorous,  but  when  domesti- 
cated, he  does  not  refuse  farinaceous  food.  He  uses 
grass  as  a  vomit ;  and  drinks  l,y  lapping  with  his  long 
flexible  tongue.  He  does  not  sensibly  perspire  by  (he 
skin ;  the  superfluous  moisture  of  the  body  escapes  at 
the  mouth  by  panting,  when  lieatvd,  and  by  the  extra- 
ordinary diurelic  habits  of  the  animal.  The  sense  of 
smell  is  diHorent  in  dilTerent  vnrieties.'but  in  all  is  suiE- 
ciently  strong  and  refined  to  enable  the  d<in  to  seek  oul" 


INFORMATIOM  FOR  THE  PEOPI F 


•ml  fulli  w  hill  mnRlrr  evv.i  amonf;  a  crowd,  Hia  icnae 
r  heHriiii;  is  iiIbo  quick.  Ho  pxpri'ssog  anger  by  growl- 
g  or  barking,  hut  aliio  hark*  when  joyful;  ami  ihowa 
.Htlight  by  the  waiiging  of  his  tail.  He  ilcrfm  very  liithtly, 
•o  u  to  lie  uwiikcnrd  by  the  alifthlcst  noixe;  and  durinft 
hia  alumlM>rs  he  in  apt  to  dream,  a»  ii  indicated  by  start- 
ing, whiiiinir,  axy\  short  bnrka. 

The  most  remarkable  feature  in  the  ehnrnctcr  of  the 
4og  ii  hia  attachment  to  man.  In  wild  tm|MMiplcd  cniin- 
triM,  doK*  are  known  to  live  in  hordes,  iinil  Hcek  their 
prey  like  other  untnined  nnimuU;  but  brought  into  con- 
nection will)  linninn  society,  the  dop;  Uavrs  liis  own 
aperies  without  regret,  and  is  only  hniipy  when  belong- 
ing lo  a  ina.iter  to  whom  ho  enn  Ih-  fiitliful  ns  a  friend, 
■ervant,  or  companion.  In  Ihi^  condition  of  domestica- 
tion his  ambition  seems  to  lie  the  desire  to  please ;  he  la 
■een  to  come  crouching  along,  lo  lay  his  force,  his  cou- 
lago,  and  all  his  useful  talents,  at  the  feet  of  his  muster: 
he  waits  his  orders,  to  which  he  pnys  implicit  olicdieiice: 
he  consults  his  looks,  and  a  single  glance  is  sullicient  to 
put  him  in  motion :  ho  is  mure  faithful  than  even  the 
moat  boasted  among  men:  he  is  constant  in  his  aflec- 
tiona,  friendly  without  interest,  and  grateful  for  the  slight- 
Mt  favours :  nmch  more  mindful  of  l)enefits  received  than 
injuries  ofTered,  he  is  not  driven  oflf  by  unkindness :  he 
•till  continues  humble,  submissive,  and  imploring;  his 
only  ho|)e  to  \ie  serviceable,  his  only  terror  to  displease : 
JM  licks  the  hand  that  has  just  been  raised  to  strike  him, 
and  at  lost  disarms  resentment  by  submissive  perseve- 
fancc. 

More  docile  than  man,  as  Buffon  observes,  more  obe- 
dient than  any  other  animal,  he  is  not  only  instructed  in 
•  short  time,  but  he  also  conforms  to  the  dispositions  and 
ipanners  of  those  who  command  him.  He  takes  his  lone 
from  the  house  he  inhabits;  like  the  rest  of  the  domes- 
tica,  he  is  disdainful  among  the  great,  and  churlish  among 
clowns.  He  knows  a  beggar  by  his  clothes,  by  his  voice, 
or  his  gestures,  and  forbids  his  approach.  When,  ut 
night,  the  protection  of  the  house  is  committed  to  his 
care,  he  seems  proud  of  the  charge;  he  continues  a 
watchful  sentinel ;  he  goes  his  rounds,  scents  strangers 
at  a  distance,  and  gives  them  a  warning  of  his  being 
upon  duty.  If  they  attempt  to  break  in  upon  his4erri- 
toriea,  he  liecomes  nioro  fierce,  flies  at  them,  threatens, 
fights,  and  either  conquers  alone,  or  alarms  those  who 
have  most  interest  in  coming  to  his  assistance ;  however, 
when  he  has  coii(|ui;red,  he  quietly  reposes  upon  his 
spoil,  and  abiilains  from  abusing — thus  giving  at  once  a 
lesson  of  courage,  temperance,  and  fidelity. 

CLASSiriCATION    OF   VARIETIES. 

Cuvier,  the  eminent  French  naturalist,  formed  a  classi- 
fication of  dogs,  founded  on  the  shape  of  the  head,  and 
length  of  the  j.iws  and  muzzle.  These  ho  has  separated 
into  three  great  groups,  as  follows: — 

I.  Mati.ns. — These  have  a  head  more  or  less  elongat- 
ed; the  parietal  bones  insensibly  approaching  each  olher, 
and  the  condyles  of  the  lower  jaw  placed  in  a  horizontal 
line  with  the  upper  cheek-teeth. 

II.  Spaniels. — The  head  mmleratcly  elongated;  the 
parietal  bones  do  not 

temples,  but  diverge  and  swell  out,  so  as  to  enlarge  the 
forehead  and  cavity  of  the  brain.  In  this  group  are  in- 
cluded all  the  varieties  of  dogs  which  are  of  the  greatest 
utility  to  man,  and  also  the  most  intelligent. 

III.  DnouKs. — The  muzzle  more  or  less  shortened; 
the  skull  liiL;h ;  the  frontal  sinuses  considerable;  the  con- 
dyle of  the  lower  jiiw  extending  aliove  the  line  of  the 
upper  cheek-teeth.  The  cranium  is  smaller  in  this  group 
than  in  the  tvto  previous,  owing  to  the  formation  of  tlio 
head. 

Following  this  arrangement,  the  three  groups  have, 
for  convenience,  been  divided  into  dL>linct  sections,  as 
follows  • — 


Division  I.— Head  Rimngaled. 

ffrlinn  1  Wild  and  half-reclaimed  dogs,  which  bhi 
in  packs,  ' 

Srilinn  2.  Domestiralcd  dogs,  which  hunt  in  rmrU 
singly,  principally  bv  the  eye,  although  somotimca  bv  th. 
scent.  '   * 

Src'inn  3.  Domesticated  dogs,  which  hunt  singly  (nj 
always  by  the  eye. 

Uiviiioii  II.— Head  lens  Elonitaled  than  foriiivr  Diviiion. 

Strliim  4.  Pastoral  dogs,  or  such  as  are  employed  ir 
domestic  purposes. 

Siriion  5.  Watcr-<Iogs,  which  delight  in  swimmin. 
having  their  feet  in  general  semi-wel)l)ed. 

Seciiim  6.  Fowlers,  or  dogs  whoso  natural  inrlinjtjon 
is  to  chase  and  point  birds,  and  hunt  singly  by  the  went 

Serlion  7.  Hounds,  which  hunt  in  packs,  liy  the  Kni 

Seclion  8.  Mongrel  hounds,  which  hunt  singly,  either 
by  the  scent  or  eye. 

Division  III.— Head  much  Shortened. 

Serlion  9.  Watch-dogs,  which  have  no  propensity  fn 
hunting. 

We  shall  now  present  a  short  notice  of  the  differenl 
varieties  of  breeds  in  each  of  the  several  division*  mij 
sections. 

Diviiion  I.— Dogi  wiih  Lcngllicned  Ileada, 

Skctiow  1.  Half-reclaimed  dogs,  which  hunt  inpacltn, 
The  IMngo,  or  ^utlralian  Doii. — The  head  of  this  dot 
is  not  unlike  that  of  a  wolf,  on  which  account  Bewick 
calls  it  the  New  South  Wales  wolf.  The  muzzle  ij  ion; 
and  pointed,  with  short  erect  ears.  Ho  is  two  feet  sii 
inches  in  length,  and  about  two  feet  in  height.  His  ki 
is  composed  of  a  mixture  of  silky  and  woolly  ht'rs,  and 
is  of  a  deep  yellowish-brown  colour ;  and  his  tail  i>  loni 
and  bushy,  resembling  that  of  a  fox.  This  dog  is  of  i 
ferocious  disposition.  Pennant  mentions  one  which  was 
brought  to  this  country,  and  that  leai)ed  on  the  back  of 
an  088,  and  had  nearly  destroyed  it  bel'ore  a  rescue  couU 
take  jilace. 

The  Dhiile  is  tho  native  wild-dog  of  India,  and  bean 
a  strong  resemblance  to  the  dingo,  but  without  the  bushj 
tail  of  that  species;  he  is  of  a  uniform  bright-red  colour, 
Differently  from  other  dogs  which  hunt  in  packs,  accord' 
ing  to  tho  account  given  by  Captain  Williamson,  Ihii 
species  always  hunts  mute,  and  only  utters  a  soft  nhi* 
poring  sound  when  in  high  chase,  and  near  his  prey, 
Tho  dhole  is  exceedingly  swift  of  foot,  and  soon  over. 
takes  most  animals  which  are  the  objects  of  his  pursuit 
It  is  said  they  are  exceedingly  fond  of  the  flesh  of  the 
tiger,  and  that,  in  consequence,  this  animal  is  prevenled 
from  propagating  to  that  extent  which  would  booh  over- 
run and  lay  waste  all  the  countries  which  it  iidiabili, 
This  predilection  is  confirmed  by  Bishop  Heher,  who 
states,  ujion  the  authority  of  the  peasants  of  Khaya, 
which  borders  the  frontiers  of  China,  that  a  tiger  isolleii 
killed  and  toni  to  pieces  by  tho  wild  dogs,  which  |;ivi 
tongue  like  foxhounds  or  harriers.     It  is  in  the  uiil're- 


quented  wilds  of  the  western  frontiers  of  India  that  thi 
approach   each  other  above  the    dhole  takes  up  his  abode,  lurking  amongst  the  extensive 

jungles  which  cover  mighty  tracts  of  that  territory. 

Tho  Pariiih  is  the  common  village  dog  of  India.  He 
has  a  small  sharp  head,  with  short  pricked  ears,  a  slondti 
body,  and  particularly  drawn  up  about  the  aJKloniinal 
region;  his  chest  is  deep,  his  limbs  light,  and  hiscoloui 
is  of  a  reddish-brown.  The  native  Indians  use  these  in 
hunting  the  tiger  and  wild  boar.  They  are  very  fierce, 
and  follow  their  game  with  much  avidity. 

The  Kkia  is  tho  native  dog  of  Africa,  and  in  all  Ilk* 
lihond  sprung  from  tho  same  stock  as  the  dhole.  They 
are  said  to  bo  of  various  colours,  as  black,  brown,  while 
anil  yellowish.  They  are  oaten  by  the  negroes.  'Iti 
Afri'san  wild  dogs,  like  those  of  India,  hunt  in  paclu. 


TIIE  DOG. 


66S 


<Pi«  ,Toulh  JiMtiriin  Dos  if  n<A  unlikn  the  ilinxo,  and 
It  (boot  the  bIm  "f  <lio  H[)riri)?or,  w  'h  short  and  prickod 

_  like  most  other  wilil  (Ioi^h.  TKo  hair  on  his  tail  in 
loni  Hi''  •"'"''y  i  ''"  '"  "'^ "  brownish-gray  colour  on  the 
lack  w>ll>  Rnriilv-rolouroil  npots  on  tho  Irgii  and  flankii. 
In  leneral  u«|>oct,  ho  gronlly  reiicMible«  the  wolf,  but  is 
ouch  lUftll'T  i"  "i/P. 

There  Ih  another  South  American  dog  called  the  Aloo, 
of  which  there  nro  two  vurii'tioa.  The  head  of  tho  AIco 
iiverv  iinull,  and  the  onrH  pendulouM,  thun  diflferint;  from 
jlmojt  all  other  wild  dogs.  The  back  is  somewhat 
rurvc<li  unJ  ''"'  '"''  f'her  short.  It  ia  said  that  the 
SpaniBrda  fuund  this  douf'  among  the  natives  on  the  first 
Jjjcovcry  of  America.  Herrera  says,  that  Columbus  found 
in  Ainerit'u  inuny  dogH  which  did  not  bark.  But  there  is 
reason  to  siipiHiHC  tliiit  whatever  may  have  lieon  the 
original  types  of  the  South  American  dogs,  they  have 
been  greatly  altered  by  intermixture  with  descendants 
of  thow  iiitrmluccd  at  the  conquest  by  tho  SpaniardH. 

The  Niirilt  American  Doii. — We  have  no  very  distinct 
iccount  of  this  variety,  but  it  is  said  to  resemble  the 
dingo  in  its  pricked  ears  and  general  conformation.  It 
ii  remarkable  for  the  ncutenesa  of  its  scent,  and  very 
expert  in  tlio  detection  of  its  prey,  or  animals  which  it 
may  be  trained  to  pui-sue. 

Sectiox  2.  Domesticated  dogs,  which  hunt  in  packs 
or  singly,  principally  by  tho  eye,  although  sometimes  by 
the  scent. 

The  hifh  Greyhnund  ranks  omong  the  noblest  of  the 
oanine  race ;  his  mien  is  striking,  full  of  dignity,  and  his 
conformation  beautiful.  In  his  general  shape  he  l)cars 
I  strong  repcmblunce  to  tho  common  greyhound,  but  is 
much  taller,  and  more  robust  He  is  not  fitted  for  pur- 
suing the  more  speedy  animals  of  the  chase.  His  use  in 
early  times  was  to  free  the  country  of  wolves  ond  wild 
boars,  wliirli  abounded  in  England  and  Ireland.  The 
hair  is  siiort  and  smootii,  and  the  colour  of  these  dogs  is 
fcwn  or  pale  cinnamon.  Tho  Marquis  of  Sligo  had 
some  of  this  breed,  which  were  of  various  colours;  some 
were  brown  and  white,  and  others  block  and  white. 
The  ordinary  height  of  the  Irish  greyhound  is  about 
three  feet,  although  they  have  been  known  to  reach  four 
fcet.  Goldsmith,  who  had  seen  several  of  this  breed,  says 
they  were  about  four  feet  high,  and  as  tall  as  a  calf  of  a 
year  old. 

The  AU«inum  Dog. — This  variety  is  about  the  size  of 
a  fiiU-iized  niastilT.  His  hair  is  very  fine  ond  close  set, 
and  of  a  silky  texture,  variously  clouded  with  brown  ;  his 
tail  is  long  and  bushy,  and  carried  like  that  of  a  New- 
foundland dot! ;  his  muzzle  is  pointed,  and  rather  long ; 
his  legs  are  strong  and  muscular,  which  fit  him  well  for 
hunting  the  wild  boor,  in  which  sport  ho  was  much  used 
ui  ancient  times;  he  was  also  used  in  hunting  wolves, 
and  in  protecting  shec|>-folds  from  thieves. 

The  French  Matin  has  on  elongated  head,  ond  flat 
above;  his  ears  are  erect,  and  slightly  pendulous  to- 
wards the  tips;  tho  hair  of  a  yellowish  fawn-colour, 
with  darker,  oblique,  and  parallel  indistinct  rays  trovers- 
ingthe  whole  of  his  fur.  His  height  is  about  two  feet, 
and  his  length  three  feet.  He  is  strong,  muscular,  and 
active,  and  very  courngeous.  He  evinces  great  eager- 
ness in  hunting  the  wild  boar  and  wolf,  in  which  sport 
he  is  frequently  employed.  Permant  thinks  this  variety 
is  a  descendant  of  the  Irish  greyhound. 

The  Sniliisli  Higlttinid  CrcylKiund. — This  dog  will 
either  hunt  in  packs  or  singly.  He  is  an  animnl  of 
great  size  and  strength,  anil  at  the  same  time  very  switl 
of  foot.  In  size,  he  nearly  equals  the  Irish  greyhound. 
His  head  is  long,  and  tho  nose  sharp ;  his  ears  short, 
(omewhat  pendulous  at  the  tips;  his  eyes  are  brilliant 
and  very  penetrating,  and  half  concealed  by  the  long 
crisped  hairs  which  cover  his  face  ond  whole  body.  He 
is  remarkable  for  the  depth  of  his  chest,  and  tapers  gra- 
dually towui-ds  the  loius,  which  are  of  groat  strength, 

Vol.  I.— 84 


and  very  muscular ;  his  back  is  slighlly  arched ;  hia 
hind  quarters  are  powerfully  formed,  and  his  limbn  strong 
and  straight.  Tho  possession  of  these  combined  quali> 
ties  particularly  fit  him  for  long  endurance  in  the  chase. 
His  usual  colour  is  a  reddish  sand-colour,  mixud  with 
while ;  his  tail  is  long  and  shaggy,  which  he  carries  high, 
like  tho  atnghound,  although  not  quil«  so  erect.  It  ia 
this  noble  dog  which  was  used  by  the  Scottish  Highland 
chieftains  in  their  great  hunting  parties,  and  is  supposed 
to  have  descended  in  regular  succession  from  the  dogs  of 
Ossian. 

The  Rutiian  Greyhmiiul  is  nearly  as  large  as  '.he  Irish 
greyhound,  resembling  hnn  in  shape  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible, but  covered  with  long  bushy  hair,  his  general  colour 
is  a  dark  reddish-brown.  He  is  sometimes  hunted  in 
small  packs,  and  as  frequently  single,  in  which  case  he 
not  unfrequently  will  kill  a  wolf,  deer,  or  wild  boar, 
without  any  aid  whatever.  When  used  in  coursing,  he 
i?  taken  to  tho  field  in  slips,  in  the  same  manner  aa  is 
prnctiscd  with  greyhounds. 

Sectiox  3.  Domesticated  dogs,  which  hunt  singly, 
ond  always  by  the  eye. 

The  Gatciumnd. — This  is  a  dog,  the  breed  of  which 
is  now  lost.  It  was  hunted  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
greyhound,  ond  took  foxes  and  hares  by  running  them 
down.  It  is  said  by  Ucwiek  that  it  was  employed  in 
stag-hunting,  which  we  think  is  rather  doubtful,  as,  oW 
though  the  stag  is  an  animal  of  great  speed,  yet  the  oo» 
test  between  it  and  a  dog  possessing  the  swiftness  of  a 
greyhound  would  be  but  very  unequal.  No  represent*- 
tion  of  this  dog  has  been  preserved,  which  is  much  to  be 
regretted,  as  we  are  but  imjierfectly  acquainted  with  ita 
appearance. 

The  Greyhound  is  the  fleetest  of  all  dogs,  which  is  in 
consequence  of  his  peculiar  conformation.  His  head  ia 
long,  tapered,  and  shaped  like  that  of  a  snake ;  his  neck 
long  and  slender ;  his  ears  somewhat  erect  ond  pricked, 
slightly  pendulous  ot  their  tips;  the  tail  ought  to  be  Tory 
fine,  pointed,  and  the  hair  on  it  very  short ;  the  chest 
should  be  wide  and  deep  ;  the  belly  drown  up,  with  strong 
loins,  and  with  largo  and  prominent  hip-muscles.  This 
dog  is  iiy  no  means  so  inti'lligent  as  many  other  varioties, 
and  he  is,  in  consequence,  much  less  susceptible  of  edu- 
cation. He  bos,  however,  very  fine  feelings,  and  seshij 
to  l)c  much  alive  to  caresses,  which  excite  him  to  such  a 
degree  as  to  produce  a  quick  pulsation  of  the  heart, 
This  may  be  felt  beating  against  his  side  with  much 
vigour.  Ho  is  one  of  the  most  elegantly  formed  of  all 
the  canine  species. 

The  Scotch  Greyhound. — This  dog  K'  formed  exactly 
like  the  common  greyhound,  and  di.  .  ,''om  it  merely 
by  being  of  &  larger  size,  and  in  tho  tiut '  being  longer 
and  hairy,  lui  general  colour  is  reddish-urown,  or  of  a 
sand  colour. 

T'^e  Italian  Greyhound. — This  dog  is  merely  a  miniap 
lure  of  the  common  greyhound,  being  only  about  half 
the  size  of  that  dog.  It  has  a  very  fine  skin  of  a  silky 
texture,  ond  is  so  tender  as  to  be  easily  injured  by  cold 
or  wet.  It  is  used  only  as  a  pet,  being  quite  valueless 
in  all  other  rcs|iccts. 

The  Turkish  Greyhound  is  still  smaller  than  the  Italian 
greyhound,  being  Uttic  more  than  half  its  bulk,  and  is 
entirely  divested  of  hair,  except  on  the  tail,  wheie  it  ia 
few  and  scattered.  Ita  usual'  colour  is  blackish  lead  co- 
lour. It  abounds  in  'i'uikish  towns,  where  it  forms  a 
dreadful  nuisance  to  travellers. 

Division  II.— Head  less  clongnted  than  former  diviwoR. 
Section  4.  Postoral  dogs,  or  such  as  are  empli  ved  \u 
domestic  purposes. 

The  Shepherd's  Dot;. — This  dog  is  covered  with  long, 

flowing,  Bomewhai  woolly,  hair ;  his  muzzle  is  long  and 

pointed,  and  hia  ears  erect,  and  slightly  bent  downwards 

at  the  tips ;  his  toil  is  long  and  busby,  aud  the  osual 

3k2 


«6« 


INFORMATION   FOR  THR  PROPLE. 


«oiour  of  hit  f  i»  Mnrk  iinil  whibt,  or  viirim]  with  Mnrk 
•nd  gray  ;  thr  liarkii  of  hix  Torr-lrKii  havo  nlmi  Ioiir  linim. 
The  peculiar  ami  highly  uwffi  (|iialitiea  of  Ihia  iIor  »oi'm 
to  he  ratlirr  iiitiiitivp  than  aniiiirpit;  iiidcrd,  nnthitiK  ran 
hardly  exrcotl  thi-  ijiii('kni>««  with  whirh  hp  ran  Ito  IniiRht 
•ny  |pfii«in ;  mid  rrrtninly  nn  othnr  dng  ha*  thp  aanie  (la- 
tient  iMTKovcninre  and  cnnraRcoiia  fldolity,  and  at  the 
Mme  tiinn  pofiKi'Km-d  nf  thr  ppratpat  diirrimination.  'I'hr 
labour  of  a  nhrphcrd,  with  thr  amiiiitanro  of  thin  faithful 
anil  liitclliu;i<iit  animal,  i«  rnniparHtively  an  rniy  tiiNk ; 
and  it  ia  h:irdlv  {lOHHiblt'  to  fanry  a  nioro  arduous  em- 
ploympnt  thnn  it  woulii  he,  if  divr«to<l  of  the  norviron  of 
Ihc  dog :  tor  without  him,  how  rniild  ho  rullrrt  t-xtiMiaive 
flocka  inittrred  over  hinli  and  widely-spread  tnountain 
range*  1  Tlie  ahepherd'n  don  Ih  po'iiieaHed  of  great  Rnu;n- 
eity,  gratitude,  and  anlf-denial,  at  ia  well  known  from  in- 
nunneralile  uno.-dotea. 

The  Cur  or  W'alrli  Dnir  AUXen  from  the  ahepherd'a 
dog  in  Iwini^  nearly  mnooth ;  he  ia  stronger  in  hia  make, 
and  hax  lialf-pricked  earn,  and  hia  tail  ia  rather  short,  and 
alightly  IVnthered  Ix'iieath.  He  is  a  trusty  and  uHeful 
anrrant  to  the  farmer  and  unizier,  and  is  ehirfly  employed 
in  drivini;  eattle ;  and  heing  larger  and  stronger  than  the 
ahepherd's  dog,  from  which  ho  is  sprung,  ho  is  better 
qualified  for  the  grnzicr  and  farmer.  Ho  bites  with 
great  keriinesa,  and  alwaya  makes  hia  attack  nt  the 
heels.  His  sagacity  is  very  great,  and  he  aoon  knows 
hii  mastcr'x  Iteids,  and  watches  with  great  assiduity  tho 
cattle  which  arc  in  them. 

The  (leniiiin  Dog  is  a  small-sized  animal,  with  bushy 
tu(ned-u)i  tail,  bushy  neck,  small  muzzle,  and  ia  gene- 
rally uf  a  cream  colour,  but  also  sometimes  black.  His 
manner  is  briik,  and  his  character  tbut  of  great  fidelity. 
He  ia  seen  nil  over  central  fiermany,  where  he  appeiirs 
to  be  employed  chiefly  as  a  mery  companion  to  man,  and 
also  for  watching.  A  few  are  bcgitining  to  be  seen  in 
England, 

Sectiok  6.  Water-dogs,  which  delight  in  swimming, 
having  their  feet  in  general  semi-webbed. 

Tho  I'nmtniniiin  or  Wolf  Dos;  has  tho  hair  on  the 
head  short,  as  is  also  that  on  the  feet  and  ears ;  but  it  is 
long  and  silky  on  the  body  and  tail,  which  last  is  curled 
up  in  a  spiral  form.  His  colour  is  white,  black,  gray, 
or  aometinies  yrllowish  ;  his  head  is  long,  and  his  muzzle 
pointed ;  his  ears  are  short  and  pricked.  Ho  is  possessed 
of  intelligence  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  shepherd's  dog. 

The  Siheriiin  Dm:  has  much  tho  appearance  of  tho 
Pomeranian  dog,  and  is  very  nearly  ollied  to  him,  exceiit 
that  he  ia  covered  with  long  hair  even  on  the  head  aiul 
paw*.  In  their  native  country,  four  of  these  dogs  arc 
attached  by  pairs  to  a  sledge,  and  in  front  of  them  is 
placed  a  leader,  on  the  propter  training  of  which  much 
of  the  useful  services  of  the  others  depend.  'I'hesc 
■ledges  are  just  largo  enough  to  contain  one  person,  who 
directs  them  with  his  voice,  and  in  which  ho  is  partially 
■Misted  tor  a  stick.  The  reins  ara  fastened  to  the  dogs' 
neck*  by  a  collar.  Those  doga,  thus  yoked,  have  lieen 
known  to  drag  a  sledge  from  seventy  to  eighty  miles  in 
■  day ;  and  so  powerful  is  their  acent,  that  they  contrive 
to  keep  or  the  beaten  track  by  that  means  alone,  c-  en 
■ttfaough  it  be  hid  by  showers  of  snow. 

The  Gricnland  Don  is  of  a  lorgc  size,  strong  in  tho 
bone,  and  its  fiir  consists  of  long,  thick-set,  woolly-li'ie 
hair ;  his  muzzle  is  shar)),  and  his  ears  short  and  pricked  ; 
his  tail  is  thick,  very  bushy,  and  xpirally  twisted. 

The  Ictlnnd  Dos;  ii<  shorter  in  the  hair  than  the  above 
variety ;  bis  ears  are  pricked,  but  slightly  hont  downwards 
on  tliu  tips.  His  general  colour  is  white,  v%'ith  patches 
of  bhck  diflerenlly  disjKwed. 

'J'he  /■.iKyiiiH.ui/.r  DoL. — This  highly  useful  variety  is 
detv'rilied  by  M.  Licsmarest  as  having  the  head  shajuMl 
like  that  nf  the  wolf  dog.  the  tail  is  spreading  and  curved, 
aod  the  ec<r»  erect  The  hair  is  thinly  scattered,  and 
consists  of  two  sorts,  the  one  silky,  the  ottier  thick  and 


fine,  and  somewhat  curled,  and  so  dctache<l  |^nm  ik* 
other  that  it  may  bo  pulled  ofl  in  flakes  from  the  inhn 

Tho  Uorr-litiliini  Jloit  has  a  narrow,  elmmntfj  . 
pointed  muzzle;  his  cars  are  broad  at  the  Imis' .-j 
(Hiinted  towards  the  tips,  and  perleclly  erect;  hji  i,. 
are  long  and  slender,  anti  bis  tail  thick,  buiihy  ,„i 
curved  slightly  upwards,  but  by  no  means  «0(|«ciiloi|. 
curveil  as  that  of  the  F'squimaux  dog.  His  Ixidy  j,  |,|J 
verrd  with  long  straight  hairs,  the  ground  colour  of  wliick 
is  white,  marked  with  large  irregular  p.itcbes  of  grayi.h. 
black,  intermingled  with  various  Hlioilrs  of  brown,  li, 
Kirhardson  say*  it  h;is  neither  courage  no»  slrcriglh  foi 
pulling  down  any  of  the  larger  Miiimtils, 

Tho  Niii'fiinudliitnl  Dog. — This  beaulifid  and  in|p||j, 
gent  dog  is  remarkable  for  the  symmetry  of  liisform  mij 
the  acutcness  of  his  understanding.  He  nieuurri 
from  the  tip  of  tho  nnwi  to  the  point  of  llin  tail, ,;, 
feet  and  a  half,  the  length  of  the  tail  itself  hejnu  two 
feet;  from  the  one  lore  foot  to  the  other,  over  tho  ulioul. 
ilers,  Civn  feet  eight  inches;  the  girth  l)chinil  Ihn  «hiiul. 
ilers,  three  feet  four  inches;  tho  length  of  hiii  hpail  is 
fourli-en  inches.  He  has  webbed  IVet,  in  consiiiuonct 
of  which  he  is  a  dexterous  swimmer.  His  hair  it  innj 
flowing,  and  slightly  curled,  and  his  tail  very  bunliv' 
particularly  in  the  lower  side,  and  he  carries  it  in  t  vm 
graceful  manner.  'J'lie  docility  of  tho  Nevvfoumllitnl 
dog  is  very  great;  there  are  innumerable  most  (trikini 
anecdotes  of  his  sagacity  and  benevolence  of  clisposiiion 
particularly  with  reference  to  his  saving  (M-rsons  from 
drowning.  During  tho  galo  on  'J'hursday,  June  11 
1829,  B  vesfM'l  was  driven  on  the  beach  at  Lydil;  no 
boats  could  get  off  to  tho  ossistanco  of  the  crow,  vh 
were,  however,  all  saved  and  brought  ashore  throin'h  thj 
activity  of  a  fine  Newfoundland  dog.  'J'he  surf  «k 
rolling  furiously,  and  eight  poor  fellows  were  crying  for 
aid,  which  the  spectators  could  not  afliird  them,  when 
one  man  directed  the  attention  of  his  dog  to  the  in<t\, 
and  tho  intelligent  animal  at  once  swam  towards  it,  unij 
the  crew  joyfully  made  fast  a  rope  to  a  piece  of  Wdol, 
which  the  dog  seized  and  swam  with  to  his  niantrion 
shore;  a  line  of  communication  was  thus  fornied,  and  iht 
eight  mariners  rescued  from  o  watery  grave. 

Tho  Ruiiian  D<>i{  is  somewhat  larger  and  slronijn 
than  the  Newfoundland  dog;  he  is  a  cross  between  Ihil 
variety  and  tho  8il)crian  dog,  and  has  now  liccumeadiii. 
tinct  race.  His  head  is  large,  with  hia  cars  penduloiu 
and  rather  full-sized;  his  tail  is  curled  over  his  hack;  hi) 
hair  is  very  long  and  shaggy,  consisting  of  black  ind 
white  patrhcs. 

Tho  Greiit  Umit;h  Wnler-Dog  is  w*-  '.  ,^,  mn. 
with  great  ease,  and  dives  witn  much  dexterity;  hii 
hair  is  long  and  curly,  and  he  is  of  various  colouri;  his ieii 
and  feet  arc  olso  thickly  covered  with  thick  nndbu"'';  _ 

Tho  I.mge  Wulcr-SpamrUa  about  the  size  of  the  Eij' 
lish  setter,  hut  of  a  stronger  make.  His  face  ia  Braooth, 
as  also  the  front  of  his  legs,  while  the  rest  of  .lis  body  li 
covered  with  small  crisp  curls,  usually  of  a  dark  li^e^ 
brown  colour.  This  dog  is  very  valuable  in  the  spoil 
of  shooting  wild  fowl. 

The  StiKill  Watcr-Spnniel,  or  Poodle. — Thisisabrwi 
lietween  the  large  woter-dog  and  the  8[iringer:  he  it 
thickly  covered  with  fine  hair,  all  of  which  is  in  Jisliwl 
small  curls,  more  like  an  eflbrt  of  art  than  of  nainn 
It  is  one  of  the  most  active  of  dogs.  Its  general  cokiiii 
is  while,  and  sometimes  it  has  various  black  patches,  It 
dives  with  much  dexterity,  and  will  lenp  from  ««7 
great  height  into  the  water;  wo  have  seen  one  leapnm 
'I'yno  Bridge  at  Newcastle,  a  height  of  nearly  fifty  fctl. 

Tho  .Slinck  Dog  is  the  snuillest  of  the  walcr-iloevan* 
ties,  and  is  probably  bred  between  the  sninllcr  Spaniel 
or  King  Charles's  dog  and  the  poodle.  Its  hair  isei. 
trcmely  long  uml  flowing,  so  much  so  that  its  ears  hikI 
eyes  are  nearly  concealed  from  view  by  it.  It  i«  uxd 
as  a  lapdog. 


il  \v. .  1 ,.  ■  I 


THE  DOG. 


gicTtnT  0,  Fnwinif,  or  dogi  whoKO  indinntinn  U  to 
AuMi  ami  point  bird-),  ami  hunt  ainsly  l)y  the  •Rent 

The  S/iniiifr, — Thin  variety  ii  iihiipcil  much  like  tlio 
|iurll«h  iii'tt<>r,  but  ahortnr  in  the  lioily  and  Inota  in  pro- 
nortion  to  hi*  "izo,  hoini^  nhout  two-flf\h8  Iohh  than  thnt 
^;  the  hiiir  i«  loni{  and  «hni(iiy<  ond  iho  niir*  vnry  Innif 
ggil  neiuliil'iu",  and  cnverrd  with  Idiir  wiivod  liair«. 
He  \»  iiKiiiillv  of  a  white  rolnur,  with  patclioH  of  liver- 
eolout  or  I'hfittnut.  Ho  i»,  however,  aometiinoH  black, 
■lid  Bt  olhiT  liinpii  entirely  of  a  liver-coloured  brown. 

Thn  I'drkfr  in  about  a  third  lean  than  the  Rpriii'^cr,  and 
like  it  in  nil  roKperta.  It  ia  u««d  aa  well  aa  that  variety 
for  rainin!^  woodonnk*  i  iid  inipei,  in  which  oxurciao  they 
traliolh  vi-ry  expert. 

Thd  Kill)!  CImrMi  Don  ia  atill  loaa  than  the  corker, 
inil  (li^lin!?uiiihed  by  the  very  (front  IcuRth  of  hia  corn. 
Ill  hulr  i"  xilky,  and  thia,  with  ita  grntlcnoaa  and  ainall 
lite,  hiiH  rcnilernd  it  n  favourite  pet  of  ladies  of  faahion. 
Of  Utc  it  has  ticen  faahionahle  for  liidiea  to  carry  tlieno 
littln  crontiirca  in  their  arma  while  walkini;  in  the  strcota 
of  London.    They  are  aold  at  a  high  price. 

The  ('ninfi)rler  ia  another  diminutive  variety  of  thia 
race,  rliielly  uaod  aa  a  Inpdog.  It  ia  auppotird  to  bo  a 
cronn  hetween  the  Maltese  and  King  Churles's  dog, 

^rho  Miilint  and  Lion  Dog$  are  dcicendanta  from 
Donrly  llic  same  stock. 

The  .fllpine  Spiinirl,  at  Great  S/,  Tinnnnl  Don;,  ex- 
ceeds oilier  vurietics  of  the  spapiel  for  aizo  and  l)oauty. 
It*  URUiil  height  is  two  feet  ut  the  shouldors,  and  he  is 
lix  feet  in  length  from  the  nose  to  the  tip  of  the  tail. 
Two  of  these  dogs  arc  sent  out  from  the  monastery  of 
tho  Oroiit  St.  Bernord,  situated  among  the  Alps  of  Swit- 
tcrkin>l<  to  scour  tho  mountains  during  snow-stormx,  in 
learch  of  lost  or  wearied  travellers — tho  one  with  a  warm 
cloak  fastened  to  his  back,  and  tho  other  with  a  basket 
lied  round  his  neck,  containing  a  bottle  with  some  cordial, 
inil  brciid.  In  this  employment  they  manifest  great 
juJgnient,  and  seem  to  undoriltand  perfectly  tho  import 
of  their  mission.  They  are  frequently  of  the  greatest 
use  in  meeting  the  travellers  who  in  those  stormy  ond 
dangerous  regions  often  fall  victims  to  tho  inclemency  of 
the  weather.  It  is  said  that  if  they  meet  with  o  traveller 
who  has  sunk  under  tho  fatigue  and  inclemency  of  the 
btant,  they  will  lie  close  to  him,  until  by  their  warmth 
they  restore  heat  and  energy  to  the  animation  which  is 
nearly  suspended,  and  thus  frequently  will  save  tho  life  of 
thesutferer.  Should  they  discover  a  traveller, to  have 
fallen  into  some  deep  pit  or  fissure,  whence  he  is  unable 
to  ascend,  and  if  they  are  unable  to  render  him  any 
issiatanee,  they  will  return  to  the  convent  Tid  give  tho 
tlatni  tn  the  inimks,  and  then  conduct  theni  to  the  place 
where  the  unfortunate  traveller  is  immured. 

Tho  Old  English  Setter. — It  is  supposed  that  this  breed 
was  produced  between  the  large  water-spaniel  and  tho 
Spanish  pointer;  they  were  much  more  curled  th.i;,  'bo 
present  breed  of  setters,  and  were  very  steady  lit  tho 
field,  but  not  so  rapid  in  their  movements. 

The  English  Seller  is  a  mixed  breed  between  the 
water-spaniel,  Spanish  pointer,  and  the  springer,  which 
has  attained  a  very  high  degree  of  perfection  as  a  sport- 
ing dos;.  Ho  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful,  lively,  and 
active  of  dogs. 

The  Spinish  Pointer  is  the  stock  from  which  tho 
finglisK  pointer  has  sprung.  He  is  one  of  the  most 
•taiinch  of  all  dogs  used  in  the  sports  of  the  field,  al- 
thcui^h  he  is  considered  too  heavy  for  the  present  im- 
proved mode  of  sporting,  and  has  now  nearly  become 
utinct  in  Great  Britain. 

The  Enslitk  Pointer  was  obtained  by  a  cross  of  the 
Spiiiish  pointer  and  fox-hound,  and  is  unrivalled  for  the 
ra|iiditv  of  his  movements  in  tho  field,  and  the  beauty 
and  symmetry  of  his  form.  Since  his  first  production, 
ho  has  N'eii  improved  by  being  re-crossed  wiih  the  bar- 
er.   He  is  subject  to  considerable  vatriety  in  point  of  size. 


The  Smnll  Pmnltr,—TMn  is  a  diminutive  breed,  b«in| 
only  aliout  two  feet  from  the  point  of  the  noan  tn  the  tip 
of  tho  tail,  and  scarcely  a  foot  in  height,  and  is  a  com* 
plelu  and  lieautiful  miniature  of  the  large  pointer.  They 
have  proved  theniiNdvoi  oxcrllent  sporting  dogs,  but 
their  sinnll  size  renders  them  unfit  for  uh«!  in  rough  land. 

The  Huniian  Pninler  is  much  like  the  Hiiunish  pointer 
in  Rlm|i«,  but  his  hair  is  long  and  hairy 

'i'he  Dalmiilian  is  a  handsomo  animal,  lieautifully 
spotted  black  on  a  \«hite  skin.  In  his  native  country  ha 
is  employed  as  a  pointer,  but  imported  into  England  he 
has  there  lost  nil  qualities  for  sporiini;,  and  is  kept  merely 
as  un  attendant  on  carriages.  While  most  other  dogs 
attach  themselves  to  man,  this  one  seems  to  care  for 
nothing  but  horses.  He  lives  by  choice  in  the  itahlo, 
and  is  happiest  when  running  at  the  heels  of  the  horses ; 
even  his  own  species  he  abandons  in  following  out  hia 
prevailing  taste.     He  barks  little,  and  is  docile. 

Skution  7.   Hounds  which  hunt  in  packs  by  the  icent 

Tho  Englith  Ttrrier, — This  lM>autiful  dog  is  too  well 
known  to  require  any  description.  He  is  possessed  of 
great  courage,  and  is  famous  for  killing  all  kinds  of  ver- 
min, and  is  a  useful  attendant  upon  a  pack  of  fox-huunda, 
fur  getting  into  tho  earth  when  the  fox  haa  taken  hia 
hole,  and  driving  him  out  His  hair  is  smooth.  Hia 
general  colour  is  black,  with  tantied  checks,  and  the  in* 
side  of  his  legs  are  of  the  same  colour.  They  are  now 
to  bo  met  with  of  a  brown,  and  even  white  colour,  but 
these  have  unquestionably  an  admixture  of  some  other 
breed  in  them. 

Tho  Srotrh  Terrier. — This  breed  has  short  wiry  hair, 
very  rough,  and  is  much  shorter  in  the  legs  than  the 
English  terrier.  His  usual  colour  is  sandy,  but  he  is  to 
be  found  black,  and  also  gray.  He  bites  with  great 
keenness  and  is  a  bold  and  determmed  dog.  He  will 
attack  dogs  of  any  size ;  and  when  ho  fixes  on  an  ani- 
mal, he  maintains  his  hold  with  great  pertinacity.  He 
is  much  used  as  an  attendant  upon  packs  of  fox-bounds, 
and  forms  an  excellent  killer  of  vermin. 

Tho  Ttil'lm  is  one  of  tho  primitive  breeds  of  British 
dogs,  and  is  the  sumo  which  was  used  by  tho  ancient 
Britons  in  the  chase  of  the  deer  and  other  wild  animals. 
It  is  now,  wo  believe,  extinct,  or  at  least  not  in  commoo 
use. 

Jihuiilhnund. — This  is  a  powerful  and  sagacious  animal, 
generally  of  a  dark  colour,  with  brown  markings,  and 
is  endowed  with  a  keen  scent.  On  l)eing  led  upon  the 
footsteps  of  any  animal  or  man,  he  will  follow  them  up 
with  unerring  precision.  This  has  led  to  tho  breed  being 
employed  for  tracking  criminals,  or  the  unhappy  victims 
of  oppression.  By  the  Spaniards  a  breed  woa  token  to 
Ouba  to  track  the  natives,  and  this  race  of  animals 
still  exists  in  that  island.  A  correspondent  in  a  news- 
paper thus  speaks  of  them  : — 

»  At  a  period  not  very  remote,  the  unfortunate  negroes 

in  tho  Spanish  settlements  were  frequently  torn  to  pieces 

by  the  Cuba  bloodhounds.     In  fact,  under  the  title  of 

Chasstura,  the  Spaniards  maintained  regular  regiments 

of  these   dogs  and   their  attendants.     In   pursuing   or 

hunting  tho  runawoy  negroes,  the  chasseur  is  generally 

accompanied  by  two  dogs,  and  armed  with  a  cmleau  dt 

rhanH;  or  straight  sword  ;  and  we  arc  informed  that  these 

bloodhounds,  when  weB  and  properly  trained,  on  coming 

j  up  with  the  object  of  pursuit,  will  not  kill  him  unless 

■  resistance  is  offered,  but  bark  at  and  terrify  him  tdl  ho 

stops,  when  they  crouch  near  him,  and,  by  barking,  give 

'  their  keepers  notice,   who   approach  accordingly,   and 

secure  their  prisoner. 

I      •'  Dallas,  ill  his  account  of  the  Maroon  War  in  Jamaica, 

]  mentions  an  import  ition  of  these  Cuba  hloodlioumls,  in 

order  to  assist  the  regular  troops  in  reducing  the  refrac* 

tory  Maroons.     It  may  seem   strange  that   dogs  were 

called  to  the  assistance  of  wcll-disoiplined  soldiers,  but, 

I  in  order  to  elucidate  tho  subject,  it   nust  be  observed. 


■7v^:^*---^-'f3W^^ 


'#^.#11,  tW|ll.4it.fli5.f«L-.ff^'T^^.-!J  «»!iyi^=rr  ^pf- 


«M 


INFORMATION  FOB  TIIR  PEOPLE. 


that  III  I  anncil  Mm  Ain«,  undrr  th«  condoet  of  varioui 
eunnliii(  Icmlfrii,  |Mirtirulaj|y  of  Cuiljoe,  Hriiith,  tiul 
JohtiMin,  iiwnrK  nf  their  own  inferiority  in  point  of  that 
organization  which  ronxlitiili'i  thn  ftn^nifth  anil  puHmre 
of  a  rpKolar  nrmy,  rniitjniiiily  nvotdril  mm'ting  thnir  op- 
poitanta  on  lh«  pluin  ;  on  thn  contrary,  th«y  retirrd  to 
the  imiM-nftrnlilii  l'.iHlnraM>«  of  tho  woiNlannd  mountain!, 
and  by  niKiiiix  of  unihiiiriidoi,  rontrivrd  no  to  hurai*  tht* 
iTDopa,  that  thn  aovvrnor  of  Jniiiaira  ultiinutcly  prix-nrt-d 
•  eomfiaiiy  ol'  ihiwii  il»;ii  iind  their  altrndanti  from  ('iihn, 
which  nrrivi'cl  at  .liini.iira  umh'r  the  connnand  of  Don 
Manual  de  Hvjait ;  and  a  loleralila  idea  of  thoio  doKK 
may  lie  fonned  from  n  review  whirh  took  |>liir«  immedi- 
ately aOer  their  urrivul.  Oencriil  Wuipolu,  who  com- 
duele<l  the  war  nitaniHl  thn  Maroonn,  lieinif  anxioui  to  re- 
view th"'«e  chauM'tirx,  left  head-quartori  the  morning  after 
ttiey  landed,  ueeompnnied  liy  Col.  Hkinner,  and  arrived 
in  a  poNt-ehniiM'  at  Seven  Rivera.  Notice  of  the  Renemi'ii 
approach  having  In-en  iriven,  the  rhasaeuri  wero  taken  to 
a  dittanco  from  tho  houic,  in  order  to  advance  when  ho 
arriTod.  The  Hpaniarili  were  drawn  up  in  a  line  nt  the 
end  of  a  gentle  deelivity,  and  conitiiited  of  upwarda  of 
forty  men,  with  their  doga  in  fVont  unmuzzled,  and  held 
by  cotton  rn[M'ii,  an  it  wiia  Intendtnl  toaacertain  what  effect 
would  be  prodiired  on  tho  liogi  if  uctuully  cngai^ed  under 
a  flra  of  tho  Maroonn.  Tho  Hpaniarda,  upon  tho  word 
being  given,  fireil  their  fuaeei,  when  tho  doga  preHieil 
forward  with  almont  ungovernable  fury,  aniidxt  the 
■houta  of  their  kee|iera,  whom  they  drugged  along  with 
irreaiatihiu  imiwtuoaity.  Borne  of  tlicHe  ferocioua  ani- 
mals ma<ldencd  hy  the  ahout  of  attack,  and  held  in 
check  by  the  rojwa,  actually  neized  upon  the  gun-»tn<'k8 
in  the  hnnda  of  the  rhasHcura,  and  lore  piecea  out  of 
them.  Tho'unfortiinate  Marooii:<,  who  Imd  aucceaMfully 
oppoaed  nil  the  etfortii  of  regular  troop*,  were  panic- 
struck  on  the  arrival  of  the  liloodhounda,  and  aurn-mlercd 
without  once  daring  to  como  in  contact  with  animnU 
which  at  bcxt  >'Ould  oppose  but  a  feeble  reiiatancu  to  firc- 
arma." 

The  Stnghound  is  the  largest  of  all  tho  British  dogs  of 
the  chase ;  ho  liax  n  noble  and  dignified  aN[ioct,  and 
posscss<-s  great  sagacity  and  cnduranco  in  the  chase ;  this 
dog  is  also  supiMised  to  be  a  direct  descendant  of  one  of 
our  original  Biitish  dogs. 

The  Foxhound  has  a  much  larger  muzzle  than  tho 
■taghound,  and  his  head  is  small  in  proportion  to  tho 
■ize  of  his  body ;  his  ears  are  very  long  ond  pendulous, 
although  less  so  than  those  of  the  stnghound  and  blood- 
hound. Though  a  determined  enemy  of  the  fox,  this 
active  hound  is  hy  no  means  destitute  of  warm  affec- 
tions. A  foxhound  bitch,  lieloni;ing  to  tho  Kivington 
Hunt,  near  Bolton,  on  the  8th  November,  1792,  during 
the  chase,  pup|ied  four  whelps,  which  she  carefully 
covered  in  a  rush  aisle,  and  immediately  afterwards 
joined  the  pack.  In  a  short  time  alter,  sho  pup|H>d  an- 
other, which  she  carried  in  her  mouth  during  the  remain- 
der of  a  hard  chase  of  many  miles,  to  the  great  astonish- 
ment of  a  numlxT  of  H|H>ctator8,  after  which  she  returned 
to  the  place  where  she  had  dropped  the  four. 

The  Harrier. — This  dog  is  used  in  hare-hunting,  and 
was  originally  obtained  by  a  double-cross  l<etwecn  the 
amall  beagle  and  southern  hound.  He  it!  very  eager  in 
tlio  pursuit  of  the  hare.  There  are  few  instances  of 
any  of  the  deer  trilH^  lieing  hunted  with  success  by  dogs 
of  so  small  n  description  as  harriers. 

The  Ikniile  is  the  stnullest  of  the  dogs  of  the  chase. 
Ho  is  possessed  of  a  very  acute  sense  of  smelling,  and 
pursues  the  hare  with  unwearied  steadiness;  and  what 
ne  wants  in  speed  ana  strength  he  makes  up  by  his  per- 
aeveranee. 

The  Oittr-HoHnd  is  a  ernes  between  the  large  south- 
ern hound  and  the  large  rough  tecier.  He  has  a  large 
head,  with  {lendulous  cars,  and  his  whole  fur  is  of  a 
.  *  X  textoro,  and  rather  long ;  hia  colour  is  either  sandy  | 


or  black.    ()tter-hunlin|  was  a  favourite  ip>n  in  sitalm 
times,  but  is  now  nearly   out  in  this  country. 

'I'ho  Hult-Ttrritr  is  a  ttoss  between  the  hull-dot  inil 
the  tnrrier,  as  its  name  implies,  and  has  now  HmmniKi  ths 
character  of  a  distinct  breed.  It  is  much  Used  bj  ih, 
gentlemen  of  tho  fancy  as  a  fighting  dog. 

HscTios  8.  Mon.-rol  hounds,  which  hunt  Mngly  eith,, 
by  the  scent  or  eyo. 

The  l.urihtr  is  a  cross  between  the  greyhound  (n 
harrier,  and  re-crossed  with  tha  terrier.  Ilia  limii,  ,^ 
strong;  his  head  less  sharp  than  that  of  a  grryhoumj' 
his  ears  are  short,  erect,  and  half-pricked  j  and  liin  \i^, 
coarse  and  wiry.  Ho  la  much  used  by  po-irlurs,  and  !■ 
famous  for  killing  rabbits,  as  he  haa  a  fine  srunt,  and  rum 
his  game  without  giving  tongue. 

Tho  l.fytntiirr  and  the  TumliUr  are  imperfectly  known 
dogs,  which  are  now  nearly  if  not  entirely  extinct.  'J'Iim 
hunted  both  by  tho  sirent  and  eyo. 

'i'ho  TunupU  is  a  small  dug  with  a  lung  Inidy  and 
short  crooked  limbs,  and  was  much  used  in  turning  the 
spit  before  tho  invention  of  jacks.  Breeds  helween  (hit 
now  useless  variety  of  dogs  and  mongrel  torticn  md 
hounds,  a[i|H>ar  to  form  tho  nondescript  and  ugly  racci 
of  animals  which  liaunt  thu  streets  of  our  large  towni, 
but  whose  nuniltcrs  aru  now  diminishing  by  tbu  propti 
interferciicu  of  the  police. 

Diviiion  III  —With  Short  Hcadi. 

SarTiojr  9.  Watch-dogs,  which  have  no  |irapeniitv 
fur  hunting. 

The  MufiijT  h»n  a  large  flat  head,  and  a  tliort  ind 
blunted  inuzzio ;  his  lips  are  full,  and  haiigini{  consiije. 
rably  over^  the  lower  jaw ;  his  ears,  although  rulbet 
small,  ore  pendulous,  ilo  has  aaullen  and  i;rHve  aipcct, 
and  is  excellent  as  u  watchnlog ;  his  voice  is  loud  md 
deep-toned.  He  is  a  dog  of  large  sice,  and  is  siipjH'sfd  to 
have  t)een  produced  between  tho  Irish  greyhound  inij  bull. 
dog.  Like  tho  dog  next  mentioned,  ho  is  ferocioui  in 
dis|iositioii,  and  of  little  practical  use. 

'J'he  Hull' Doff. — This  dog  is  remarkable  for  llic  doplh 
of  his  chest  and  the  strength  of  the  whole  muscles  of 
his  body.  His  head  is  large,  flattened  above,  and  bit 
inuzzin  much  blunted,  with  the  under  jaw  |iroJcrtini 
considerably  lieyoiid  tho  up[ier  one ;  his  eyes  arc  »cl  fu 
a|)art,  and  project  considerably  from  his  head;  jiji 
power  of  smelling  is  less  acute  than  any  otliir  of  ih« 
canine  rare,  on  which  account  ho  is  a  duni;crons  dot.  for 
he  bus  frequently  been  known  to  lay  hold  uf  liis  masUi 
without  discriminating  the  dillercncc  between  liini  mdi 
stranger.  Ho  is  tho  boldest  and  must  obstinate  of  all  dci^i, 
and  has  Is'en  known  to  hold  his  adversary  bo  (ietcrmin- 
cdly  that  his  legs  have  been  cut  off  without  making  bin 
desist 

Many  instances  hove  been  recorded  of  the  invini'ible 
courage  of  tho  English  bull-dog,  but  we  scurctdy  rrcoi- 
lect  one  in  which  so  much  unconquetulde  iipiiit  anl 
tenacity  of  life  have  ever  been  displayed,  on  on  the 
fidlowing  occasion  : — A  abort  time  since,  a  large  dog  of 
this  s)iecies,  from  some  cause  that  was  not  otiscnrd, 
suddenly  flew  at  a  fine  cart-horse  that  was  standing  it 
the  end  of  the  Halihouse  Dock,  Liver])ool,  and  tiling 
his  lacerating  teeth  in  his  shoulder,  defied  every  eirortlo 
get  him  olf.  At  first  he  was  beaten  with  rart-whipe  and 
sticks,  with  such  fury  as  seenied  to  break  his  bonci;  bit 
this  being  unavailing,  a  carpenter  with  an  adze  in  bii 
hand  cnme  up  and  brat  hini  with  the  blunt  iron  head  of 
the  instrument,  till  it  was  thought  he  had  pounded  him 
to  u  jelly ;  but  the  dog  never  moved  a  toulli.  A  inao 
then  took  out  a  large  }>ointed  closp-knit'e,  with  nhicLke 
stablM-d  him  rr|)eatedly  in  the  back,  loins,  and  ribs,  bill 
with  no  liettrr  sucress.  At  length  one  of  the  sjicctaton^ 
who  appeared  to  have  more  strength  of  sinew  and  tm 
than  the  rest,  stpieezed  tho  frrorious  beast  m  tisbll; 
about  the  throat,  that  at  length  ho  turned  up  the  whili 


TllE  DOO. 


uiit  miikI;  litbti 


4  kl<  <*^''*  *"''  f'lxnti  liii  |nw«.  Th«  man  Ihrxw  him 
^  to  »  iliii)'iiici>,  liiit  thr  iloif  irninrcliiiU'ly  winil  rnuiiil 
lb«cr«w<'K"(  'x'liiixl  thn  hiitw,  aiiil  nKnin  urixril  liiiiihy 
lh(  uikI''''  I""''  "^  ^^^  ''^ir'<-  A"  1"  li^rnii)  rtiiilil  now  Iw 
^pt  wiih  Ilii*  nntitnimlilc  linitp,  hi-  \vu  iKniii  looaciml 
ind  Ihniwii  iiilit  the  ilnrk  tn  ilrown.  I(n  iimliiMtly, 
howevi**.  r«*«  '■>  the  ■urtiicf.  whon  a  iwilor  atrurk  him 
«  luppiiwil  ili'tidly  hlow  on  Ihn  hr«<l  with  it  hHiiil- 
Hiikr,  wliii'h  KKiiiti  ""xt  hlin  to  thn  Imltnin.  He  aroMi 
on'*)  moro,  nml  waa  iiKairi  M-iit  down  in  tho  anmv  niiin- 
urr.  AikI  ihiH  prorraH  wna  ri-|M>ttlril  llvn  or  aix  tiinra. 
At  lrni(th  oiiH  of  thr  byMntiihMi,  who  either  pnawaartl 
or  ■Miiiiii'il  aonifl  riitht  or  pro|N*rty  in  the  do;^,  ovprranie 
by  hi*  ninx/.iiiK  tenacity  ol'  iil'e,  and  weary  ol'  |xirai-cu- 
tion,  K"!  Iiii"  ""'-  ""'  hoiked  olT  with  tliia  prodigy  of 
Eliiliah  rournifP,  to  all  appenrnnre  very  little  the  worao 
for  the  horrilile  punialiment  ho  hod  undergone. 

Hitire  the  very  proper  diauio  of  hull-lmitinHi  thia 
ftroriaux  variety  of  the  dog  haa  furtunutoly  diiniiiiahiid 
in  iiumlicr. 

The  Vuif  Dog  ii  deicendcd  from  tho  biill-<loii,  hy  a 
doM  with  the  amall  Daniah  doR,  and  reaeniblea  tho 
bnner  to  much  in  appearance  that  he  may  Iw  conaiijorod 
H  a  miniature  of  that  variety.  He  ia  a  uaeloaa  dog,  and 
with  generally  a  bad  temper,  haa  no  good  quality  to  re- 
eoouncnd  him. 

OENKRAL  HANAOCMINT  OT  DOOS. 
Al  formerly  mentioned,  doga  are  very  auaceptibic  of 
iducation,  and  will  fall  into  auch  habita  aa  are  iinprrsHed 
opnn  them  hy  a  couroe  of  training.  Whatever  be  the 
mculiar  variety  of  dog  kept  in  or  about  a  dwelling-houae, 
it  ii  important  that  he  be  at  leaat  tnught  good  maimera ; 
m  for  example,  to  be  oilent  and  lie  down  when  bidden, 
lo  refrain  from  leaping  on  the  kneca  of  porMina  viailing 
the  family,  and  not  to  ait  ataring  at  nieala,  watching  every 
bit  that  ia  put  in  tho  mouth.  To  make  a  dog  behave 
properly  in  theae  and  other  pointa,  he  must  bo  carefully 
taught  when  young,  and  for  thia  purpoae  hia  ninHtcr  rc- 
quirea  to  employ  a  Judicioua  mixture  of  aovority  and 
gentlcnena.  He  muat  bo  made  fully  aware  that  ho  must 
>Jo  an  he  ia  bid ;  that  if  he  do  not  ho  will  bo  punished, 
but  that  if  he  obey  he  will  be  rewarded.  Aa  all  dogs  uro 
very  tractable  in  auch  matters,  they  will  soon  learn  to 
knnn  the  meaning  of  a  look,  a  sign,  or  a  word,  and  will 
act  accnrdinRly.  Aa  very  lew  persons  take  tho  trouble 
to  tench  domestic  doga  either  one  line  of  conduct  or 
another,  we  see  on  all  occasions  iustancca  of  tlie  natural 
consequences  of  neglect. 

Breeding. 

The  best  doga  are  produced  from  parents  not  lesa  than 
two  years  old,  to  which  period  a  valuable  bitch  should  be 
reserved.  During  her  heats  l)efore  this  tinio  she  should 
he  locked  up,  and  be  treated  with  a  little  cooling  medi- 
cine. All  who  ore  interested  in  preserving  the  breed  of 
their  dogs,  should  on  no  account  sufler  a  cross.  In  every 
instance  let  tho  male  and  female  be  of  the  true  breed  de- 
signed, not  mixed  or  deteriorated.  If  a  slight  alteration 
of  character  be  desirable,  breed  from  the  nearest  varie- 
ties. Breed  alwaya  from  tho  healthiest  and  Iwst  shaped 
ioimala.    Mongrel  breeds  are  good  for  nothing. 

Breeders  of  sporting  doga  require  to  pay  marked  at- 
tention to  '.hesd  principles.  According  to  tho  author  of 
the  "Oakleigh  Shooting  Guide,"  the  theory  respecting 
pointers  in,  '<  that  the  further  any  dog  is  removed  from  the 
irigir."]  Spanish  pointer  the  worse  the  dog  is ;  and  con- 
sequently that  all  attempts  to  cross  the  pointer  with  ony 
other  blootl  must  necessarily  deteriorate  the  b  eed.  The 
gteyhounil  is  seldom  or  never  crossed  to  givo  him  addi- 
tional fleetness,  nor  the  hound  to  improve  his  nobo ;  why, 
then,  should  the  pointer  be  crossed  with  doga  w'lich,  in 
M  &r  u  the  sports  of  the  field  are  concerned,  scarcely 
inheril  one  quality  in  common  with  him  ^    Attempts, 


however,  are  constantly  maJe  to  ini|>rove  the  |Miint«r  hf 
a  croM  with  tlin  bloitd-hound,  lot-hound,  NewfunndlaiMl 
dog,  or  nmxtiir,  miiiirtiiiiit*  with  u  view  of  improving  hii 
apitrariiiire,  and  hriiikiing  him  to  stwnn  fitnried  atiinJai^ 
of  |M-rferlir)n,  but  in  reality  indming  a  deformity,  Tha 
hr»l  iMiintrr  ia  the  olfupring  of  a  jiointi'r  liiieh  by  a  polnlai 
dug ;  auch  a  one  in  nearly  brnken  by  nature.  Tha 
M|iiiiiiah  [or  true]  pointer  wldom  reijuires  the  whip  |  t)M 
hound  pointer  has  never  eiiouKh  of  it."  The  siime  writn 
rontinura — »  Dogs  iihoidd  be  conHtanlly  allot  over  durin| 
the  aeastm  by  ii  succeiiaful  shot,  and  i  xerciiwd  during  tha 
shooting  recess  by  aume  |)orHiin  wlui  iinderstunila  well 
tho  tnanagcment  of  tliein,  otherwise  they  will  full  oflT  in 
vulue — the  half-bred  ones  will  lieeomu  unninintgoable, 
and  even  tho  thorough-bred  ones  will  acquire  disorderly 
hubita," 

It  apiMmra  that  female  doga,  l>pforp  or  during  a  state  of 
heat,  arc  liuble  to  receive  ini'iitui  inipreMaions  of  the  ap* 
pearaiiee  of  male  dogs  with  which  they  have  lieen  in 
company,  and  theae  remenibranees  will  all'eet  their  pr<k 
geny  even  for  years  nllurwitrds.  We  lH<g  to  refer  lo 
"  Ubiine'a  Eneyelopnidia  of  Itural  Nports,"  p.  413,  for 
some  intereating  information  on  thia  auliject. 

Whelps,  nt  a  month  old,  are  deprived  of  their  dew 
elawH ;  and  if  the  tail  be  ton  long,  a  small  piece  may  b* 
pinched  olF.  Tho  ears  of  some  do^'S  nra  also  pared  about 
this  period.  It  is  not  cuatomury  to  cut  mule  dogs,  excel  I 
those  winch  are  intended  for  |)ota;  tho  ogieration  render* 
the  animul  n  much  more  docile  and  agreeable  companion. 
There  is  a  prejudice  of  very  old  standing,  that  dugs  hav* 
a  worm  beneath  their  tongue,  nnd  that  the  removal  of 
this,  called  iroimiiii;,  deprives  the  animal  of  the  power 
of  biting,  should  it  become  rabid.  No  worm  exists;  and 
it  is  doubtfid  if  the  proccHs  is  of  any  use.  That  \  <  f,h 
is  oillcd  u  worm  is  merely  a  minute  ligament  or  AbroiM 
cord  in  the  bridle  beneath  tho  tongue ;  and  when  tho 
bridle  is  cut,  tho  ligament  mny  be  drawn  forward  and 
separuted  at  both  extremities ;  tho  contraction  of  the 
ligament,  on  uxtroetion,  resembles  the  movement  of  • 
worm,  and  hence  tho  origin  of  tlio  term. 

Feeding. 

Some  of  tho  most  troublosomn  trnlta  in  the  dog's  b» 
haviour  arise  from  misinanngement  in  feci'ing.  If  a  dog 
lie  hulf-hungored,  ho  cannot  bo  blamed  for  watchirc  tho 
breaktiist  or  dinner  tabic.  We  advise  all  who  indulgO 
themselves  with  k'  eping  dogs,  not  to  leave  their  feeding 
to  the  chance  scraps  of  eitlx^r  the  kitchen  or  the  parloui. 
Ciivu  tl)o  dog  his  own  regular  meals,  and  with  food  Buit*> 
ble  to  his  wunta  or  the  duty  he  has  to  perform.  Tho 
fooil  should  be  chiefly  flesh  of  sotne  kind,  boiled  and 
cold  ;  if  given  raw,  it  has  a  tendency  to  foutei-  ferocity  of 
disposition,  and  will  cause  the  animal  to  be  oflcnsive  in 
smell.  No  pet-dog,  especially,  should  ever  be  allowed 
to  eat  raw  meat.  Any  common  pieces  of  flesh  or  tripe 
will  answer  for  dog's  meat.  Some  persona  give  liver, 
which  is  decidedly  bad  ;  it  relaxes  tho  bowels,  and  i^  other* 
wisu  objectionable.  Besides  the  piece  of  boile»  meat  con- 
sidered necessary,  givo  doga  a  few  bones  fr'^m  tho  dinner 
table ;  they  are  fond  of  these,  and  they  are  useful  in 
cleaning  ond  preserving  their  teeth,  and  keeping  their 
bowels  in  order.  If  the  doga  will  take  it,  they  ahouM 
also  bo  given  a  little  farinaceous  food,  as  morsels  of  bread 
or  a  little  oatmeal  porridge  with  milk. 

The  nature  of  the  dog  leada  him  to  feed  well  when 
food  ia  olVered  to  his  appetite,  and  to  feed  seldom.  Once 
I  a  day,  therefore,  is  in  ordinary  circumstances  suflnciently 
I  frequent  for  his  meals.  Present  him  v.  ith  hia  oUowanca 
i  in  the  morning  or  forenoon,  and  givo  him  no  more  till 
!  next  day.  He,  however,  requires  to  drink  frequently ; 
'  and  it  is  a  leading  rule  in  keeping  a  dog,  to  have  at  all 
'  times  a  pan  of  clean  cold  water  ready  for  his  use.  Change 
j  the  water  daily,  or  oftener. 
I      For  the  feeding  of  hounds,  Daniel  recommenda  that 


»4 


670 


INFORM /^TION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Scah-meat  fhould  be  alternatrd  with  a  diet  of  oatmeal 
porridge,  made  with  broth  in  which  meat  has  been  boiled. 
Ureens  boiled  in  their  meat  is  also  proper.  '<  A  horse 
killed  and  given  to  the  hounds  whilst  warm,  after  a  very 
hard  day,  is  an  excellpnt  meal ;  but  they  should  not  hunt 
till  the  third  day  after  it.  The  bones  broken  are  good  for 
poor  hounds,  as  there  is  great  proof  in  them.  Sheep 
trotters  are  very  sweet  food ;  and  bullock's  paunches  may 
also  be  of  service,  in  a  scarcity  of  horse-flesh.  Hounds 
should  be  sharp-set  before  hunting ;  they  ruQ  the  l)etteT 
fui  it"  The  same  excellent  authority  continues  to  ob- 
siTve  that  hounds  should  be  fed  once  when  returned  from 
the  fatigues  of  the  chase,  and  again  sometime  afterwards. 
<*  It  is  the  best  plan  to  feed  twine  the  hounds  that  have 
been  out.  Some  hounds  will  feed  better  the  second  time 
than  the  first ;  besides,  turning  them  out  from  the  lodgmg- 
honse  refreshes  them  ;  they  stretch  their  limbs,  and  the 
litter  being  shaken  up,  and  the  kennel  cleaned  out,  they 
settle  themselves  better  on  the  benches  afterwards.  At 
all  times,  after  being  fed,  the  hounds  should  be  turned 
into  the  grass  court  to  empty  themselves ;  it  will  not  a 
little  contribute  to  the  cleanliness  of  the  kennel." 

»!«!(#-■  Lodging?— Kennel  Treatment 

Doga  require  to  be  lodged  in  a  dry  situation,  at  a  mode- 
rate temperature.  The  practice  of  keeping  dogs  out  all 
nt^t  during  frosty  weather,  or  of  putting  them  into  cold 
coach-houses,  is  most  inhumane  and  disgraceful.  Dogs 
kept  for  watching  the  outside  of  premises  should  he  pro- 
vided with  a  comfortable  dog-house  of  woo<l,  bedded  with 
oloan  straw,  and  sheltered  from  cutting  winds.  A  dog 
kept  in  a  dwelliPg-house  should  have  an  appointed  place, 
as  in  a  lobby,  foi  sleeping;  its  birth  should  consist  of  a 
basket,  open  box,  or  small  house,  according  to  the  taste 
of  the  animal.  A  spaniel  will  not  go  into  a  dog-house ; 
n  terrier  prefers  it  In  any  case  the  berth  should  be  laid 
vnth  a  piece  of  carpet  or  blanket,  which  must  be  fre- 
ijoently  washed  and  dried. 

Damp  is  "eriously  injurious  to  dogs.  It  produces 
rheumatisms,  which  show  themselves  by  lameness  in  the 
slioulJers,  and  other  diHorders  detrimental  to  their  usrful- 
pess.  It  is  therefore  of  great  importance  to  build  ken- 
lels  in  airy  situations,  and  to  keep  them  dry  and  airy, 
The  best  kennels  are  paved  with  tiles  or  stone,  but  on  the 
floors  there  are  raised  benches,  littered  with  strtiw  in 
winter,  on  which  the  dogs  repose.  The  straw  should  he 
daily  changed,  rothing  being  of  so  much  consequence  as 
cleanliness,  botl.  for  the  sake  of  general  health,  and  pre- 
serving the  pjv  ers  of  scent  of  the  animals.  For  this 
latter  purpose,  f  >me  keepers  of  packs  of  hounds  have  a 
change  of  roi  ^  ,  one  being  used  while  the  others  are 
becoming  sw*" .  .fter  cleaning.  On  this  subject  Daniel 
observes  :  "  'l">»  excellent  sense  of  smelling,  so  peculiar 
to  the  hound,  i  what  our  sport  entirely  depends  on ;  care, 
therefore,  mus<  oe  taken  to  preserve  it,  and  the  utmost 
cleanliness  is  tk«  surest  method :  to  keep  the  kennel  sweet 
cannot  be  too  much  recommended,  and  is  on  no  account 
to  be  neglected.  The  exactness  of  ti.w  master  in  tUia 
particular  will  ensure  that  of  the  feeder. 

"  Hounds  that  come  home  lame  should  not  be  taken  oi>t 
the  next  hunting  day,  since  they  may  appear  sound  with- 
out being  so.  At  the  beginning  of  a  season  the  eyes  of 
hounds  are  frequently  injured  ;  such  hounds  should  not 
be  hunted  ;  and  if  their  eyes  continue  weak,  should  lose 
a  Utile  blood.  Such  as  have  sore  feet  should  have  them 
well  washed  out  with  brine  or  pot-liquor.  Hounds  un- 
able to  work  should  be  permitted  to  run  about  the  house ; 
it  will  be  of  great  use  to  them ;  and  such  as  are  ill  or 
lame  ought  to  be  turned  into  a  kennel  by  themselves ; 
Acre  it  will  be  more  easy  to  givo  that  attention  both  to 
ihdr  medicine  and  food  which  is  requisite." 

Hounds  which  are  properly  disciplined  are  obedient  in 
•  very  extraordinary  degree  to  the  orders  of  the  hunts- 
man.   *■  To  see,"  says  the  writer  of  tlie  article  Hunting, 


in  the  Encyclnpeedia  Britanniea,  "sixty  couplet  nf  hounj. 
animals  all  hungry  as  tigers,  standing  aloof  in  their  tu^ 
and  without  oven  hearing,  much  less  feeling,  the  wUn 
not  daring  to  move  until  the  order  is  given  to  them.  A^ 
what  is  the  order  given  1  Why,  at  the  words  •  comi 
over,  bitches,'  or  'come  over,  dogs,'  every  hound  of  etch 
individual  sex  comes  forward,  as  the  sex  it  belongs  to  omt 
be  called  for,  leaving  those  of  the  other  sex  in  their  pluea 
Then  the  act  of  drawing  them  to  the  feeding  troughi  ■ 
an  exceedingly  interesting  sight — often,  with  the  door 
wide  open,  having  nothing  to  do  but  to  call  each  hound 
by  its  name,  which  of  course  he  answers  readily  to.  Tia 
expression  of  countenaiice,  too,  at  this  time  is  well  worthy 
of  notice ;  and  that  of  earnest  solicitation,  of  ut'^str 
we  might  almost  say  of  importunity,  cannot  be  mora 
forcibly  displayed  tiian  in  the  face  of  a  hungry  hound 
awaiting  his  turn  to  draw.  He  appears  absolulel;  lo 
watch  the  lips  of  the  huntsman,  anticipating  his  own 


Health— Ciaease. 

All  doga  whatsoever,  but  those  designed  Sir  field  bdotIi 
in  particular,  require  to  be  kept  in  what  is  'called  « con. 
dition,"  that  is,  neither  too  fat  nor  too  lean,  but  the  bodr 
in  that  hardy  and  active  state  that  will  enable  the  animal 
to  perform  its  duties.  If  loaded  with  flesh  or  fat  it  ni 
not  possess  wind,  or  a  due  power  of  quick  'orcathing,  for 
any  length  of  time  in  the  chase.  Colonel  Cook  ubserw, 
on  what  constitutes  a  proper  condition — "  The  ribs  should 
be  visible  and  the  flank  moderately  hollow,  but  the  ioioi 
must  be  well  filled  up  in  a  dog  in  perfect  condition. 
When  dogs  exhibit  general  fullness  and  too  much  flesh, 
commence  by  physic  and  a  regular  course  of  exercise, 
which  should  be  mild  at  first,  but  increased  until  it  ii 
severe.  Avoid  too  great  a  privation  of  food,  otherwise  th« 
conditioning  process  will  be  retarded." 

To  keep  a  dog  in  a  state  of  good  health,  he  muat  not 
only  be  regularly  fed  and  admitted  freely  to  water,  but 
lie  allowed  plenty  of  exercise  daily  in  the  open  air,  and 
kept  in  a  cleanly  condition.  If  his  bowels  appear  relaied, 
he  is  not  in  sound  health ;  and  as  a  preventative  of  thia, 
let  his  food,  as  already  said,  be  substantial,  and  coasiA 
partly  of  bones ;  let  him  also  have  access  to  grass;  evet; 
pro|ier  kennel  has  a  grass-yard  to  which  the  dog«  can  t^ 
sort.  In  the  pan  of  water  used  by  housc-dugs,  put  i 
piece  of  brimstone ;  it  slightly  aflects  the  water  by  l;i^ 
in  it,  and  helps  to  keep  the  animals  cool. 

All  dogs,  are  liable  to  \ie  troubled  with  fleas,  whidi 
they  get  from  the  ground;  the  skin  also  contracts  dirt,and 
from  th.it  or  other  causes  becomes  oflensive  in  smelL 
The  remedy  is  cleanliness.  Every  lap  nr  house-doi 
should  oe  washed  at  least  once  a  week  with  soap  and 
water.  Some  dogs  have  a  great  dislike  to  washing,  but 
it  must  nevertheless  be  performed.  After  washing 
thoroughly,  rub  the  animal  dry  with  a  hard  cloth,  and 
comb  and  brush  it  If  there  be  fleas,  a  small-toothed 
comb  will  remove  them,  and  they  should  be  killed  as  the; 
appear.     Wash  and  dry  delicate  dogs  before  the  Are. 

On  the  subject  of  physicking  as  a  preventative  of  di» 
easo,  or  when  there  are  symptoms  of  diseased  skin,  a  lil> 
tie  sulphur  and  antimony  is  recommended,,  mixed  vlih 
the  meat,  or  done  up  as  a  bolus  or  pill,  and  in  this  latter 
form  pushed  over  the  throat.  "  Once  a  week  or  fortnight,'' 
■ays  Daniel,  "  during  the  hunting  season,  hounds  should 
have  one  pound  of  sulphur  given  them  in  their  meat; 
and  when  the  season  is  over,  half  a  pound  of  antimony 
should  be  added  to  the  sulphur,  and  well  mixed  with  the 
meat    This  cools,  and  is  doubtless  of  service  to  them,'' 

Miinfce.— Thia  is  a  cutaneous  disease  in  dogs,  very 
closely  resembling  itch  in  the  human  B|ieciu>,  but  more 
inveterate,  end  is  hereditary  as  well  as  contagious.  Hi 
Blaine,  in  hi*  •'  Encyclopndia  of  Rural  Sports,"  ihu 
speaks  of  this  nauseous  complaint : — "  Of  all  the  ciuisi 
which  beget  mange,  and  they  are  not  few,  tlic  aciil 


,^-.(r-;.-j,.  r';,^-^-ii'^ff^.\ 


PIELD  SPORTS 


m 


iAk«{im  troni  their  own  aecrotioni  is  the  moat  common ; 
irben  it  M  gene''atod  by  numbers,  particularly  when  it  is 
jonfintKl  witliin  a  limited  space,  it  is  sure  to  appear.  Close 
mnfinement  of  any  dog  will  commonly  produce  it,  and 
inuHi  certiiinly  so  if  it  be  at  the  same  time  fed  on  salt  pro- 
riaions ;  thus  there  are  few  dogs  on  ship-board  that  do  not 
contract  »■  except  such  as  are  allowed  full  lilrarty  oi  the 
deck.  Fotxl  too  nutritive  in  quality,  and  too  considera- 
ble in  quantity,  is  productive  of  mange ;  and,  on  the  con- 
trary, food  in  a  great  measure  withheld,  or  being  very 
poor  in  quality,  id  equally  a  parent  of  the  disease."  The 
Mino  authority  gives  several  rec«ipts  of  medicine  to  be 
fwploycd;  the  leading  arc — powder«d  sulphun  four 
ounces;  muria^  of  ammonia  (sal-ammoniac)  powdered, 
half  an  ounce;  nloes  powdered,  one  drachm;  Venice 
turpentine,  half  an  ounce ;  lard  or  other  fatty  matter,  six 
ounces;  the  whole  to  he  mixcJ  and  administered  in 
boluMis.  In  all  bad  cases,  however,  we  should  recom- 
mend no  one  to  attempt  doctoring  his  dog,  but  to  apply 
to  a  regular  practitioner. 

Distemper.'^TUe  disease  called  the  Distemper  is  most 
conMuon  among  dogs  which  are  much  kept  in  the  house 
and  cubjecte'd  td  artificial  treatment  The  disorder  is 
epJilemical,  alfccts  the  constitution,  and  is  very  difficult 
of  removal.  W.  H.  Scott,  in  his  work  on  "  British  Field 
Sports,"  thus  describes  tho  symptoms  of  distemper  in  a 
young  ilog : — "  Sudden  loss  of  usual  spirit,  activity,  and 
appetite ;  drowsiness,  dullness  of  the  eyes,  and  lying  at 
length  with  the  nose  to  the  ground  ;  coldness  of  the  ex- 
tremities, ears  and  legs,  and  heat  of  the  head  and  body  ; 
■udden  emaciation,  and  excessive  weakness,  particularly 
in  the  hinder  quarters,  which  begin  to  sink  and  drag  after 
the  animal ;  an  ai>parcnt  tendency  to  evacuate  from  th  ' 
thiwels,  a  littlo  at  a  time ;  sometimes  vomiting ;  eyes  and 
nose  often,  but  not  always,  sfTccted  with  a  catarrhal  dis- 
chargo.  lu  an  advanced  stage  of  the  distemper,  such 
•yinptams  will  occur  as  spasmodic  and  convulsi^'e  twitch- 
iui;3,  the  nervous  and  muscular  systems  being  materially 
aHected ;  giddiness  and  turning  round,  foaming  at  the 
mouth,  and  (its.  The  dise&se  is  then  oiVen  taken  for  in- 
cipient madness,  into  which  it  might  not  improbably  de- 
generate." The  same  authority  odds — "I  have  found 
daily  mild  doses  of  from  two  to  three  grains  of  calomel ' 
itlono,  lapped  by  the  animal  in  milk,  continued  for  four 
or  five  days,  with  inte-inissions  when  necessary,  fully 
luflicient  to  carry  it  safely  through  tlio  disease,  even  when 
the  fever  has  been  very  high.  James's  powder  has,  how- 
ever, always  proved  the  must  certain  remedy."  To  aid 
•ccovery  nourishing  diet  should  be  given.  In  cases  of 
severity  consult  tho  veterinary  surgeon. 

Madness. — Canine  madness,  rabies,  or  hydrophobia,  is 
the  most  fatal  malady  to  which  dogs  are  subject,  and  for 
which,  as  far  as  we  have  heard,  there  is  no  certain  cure. 
DIjIne  considers  that  rabies  is  never  produced  sponta- 
neously in  dogs  or  any  other  animals,  but  is  invariably 
the  effect  of  inoculation  by  a  bite  from  a  dog  already 
mad.  But  as  the  disease  must  have  commenced  spon- 
taneously in  some  dog  at  first,  we  do  not  understand 
why  it  may  not  do  so  again ;  in  short,  the  doctrine,  in 
the  exclusive  form  in  which  it  is  put,  seems  untenable. 
I(abic9  is  little  known  in  hot  or  cold  countries;  it  is  com- 
imm  chiefly  in  temperate  regions,  but  shows  itself  princi- 
pilly  in  summer,  when  it  may  be  supposed  to  be  excited 
by  ft  fe-'crish  condition  of  body. 

Tiie  lca<ling  symptom  of  tho  rabid  state  is  an  apparent 
discomfort  and  u.isettledness  of  purpose,  with  a  desire  to 
|nuw  and  cat  any  thing  within  reach,  as  straw,  woo<l, 
'oiil,  or  any  other  rubbish ;  as  tho  disease  advances,  tho 
animal  snaps  and  bites  at  everybody,  or  any  animal  near 
iL  This  is,  however,  no  effect  of  bad  temper;  the  dng 
his  no  wish  to  go  out  of  his  way  to  bite  ;  he  is  under 
lbs  influence  of  a  derangement  which  makes  him  catch 
only  at  what  is  near.  Like  the  unnatural  uppelitc  lie 
,  the  iiiappiiij  propensity  may  uLu  partly  oriiw 


I  from  the  irritated  state  of-  the  stomach  and  inlestinM^ 
'  both  of  which  are  greatly  inflamed.  The  throat  ia  like- 
I  wise  livid,  and  by  a  constriction  of  parts,  soon  prvventi 
the  animal  from  swallowing.  That  the  rabid  dog  baa  • 
terror  of  water  (hence  the  origin  of  the  name  hydr» 
phobia),  is  now  beginning  to  be  doubted ;  and  at  aU 
events  it  is  not  an  invariable  symptom,  for  mad  dogi 
have  been  known  to  lap  water  the  day  before  their  death. 
In  the  later  stages  of  the  disease  paralysis  ensues,  and 
from  the  fourth  to  tlie  seventh  day  the  dog  expires.  It 
is  humanity  to  shoot  the  animal  before  this  final  catas- 
trophe. 

With  respect  to  the  production  of  rabies  in  the  human 
species,  there  have  latterly  been  some  very  grave  doubts 
An  idea  has  been  started,  and  supported  with  considerable 
plausibility  of  argument  by  certain  medical  practitionen, 
that  hydrophobia  in  the  human  being  is  merely  a  nervoui 
affection,  very  much  if  not  almost  altogether  arising  &om 
the  influence  of  the  imagination ;  the  |)crson  bit  fancies 
he  is  going  mad,  and  mad  he  becomes.  It  is  very  de> 
sirable  that  the  medical  world  should  investigate  and 
arrive  at  some  determinate  conclusion  respecting  this 
remarkable  doctrine ;  meanwhile,  till  the  matter  is  settled 
one  way  or  other,  we  must  speak  of  rabies  in  the  human 
subject  as  a  real  disease,  against  which  every  reason* 
able  precaution  should  be  adopted.  On  being  bit,  it  ia 
always  safe  to  wash  the  wound  immediately,  and  hsw 
the  parts  burnt  with  a  hot  iron,  or  cut  out.  In  every 
case  let  a  skilled  surgeon  be  immediately  consulted — ona 
who  will  not  hesitate  to  act  with  promptitude  and 
decision. 

Many  cures  have  been  mentioned  for  the  bite  >f  a  maa 
dig.  We  shall  notice  a  few.  The  following,  according 
CO  Blaine,  is  the  famous  Herefordshire  cure,  commonlj 
called  Wtbb'$  drink : — "  Take  the  fresh  leaves  of  the  tret 
box,  two  ounces ;  of  the  fresh  leaves  of  rue,  two  ounces  ■ 
of  sage,  half  an  ounce;  chop  these  finely,  and  aftei 
boiling  them  in  a  pint  of  water  to  half  a  pint,  strain 
and  press  out  the  liquor ;  beat  them  in  a  mortar,  or  othe^i 
wise  bruise  them  thoroughly,  and  boil  them  again  in  a 
pint  of  new  milk,  until  the  quantity  decreases  to  half  a 
pint,  which  press  out  as  before.  Afler  this,  mix  both  the 
boiled  liquors,  which  will  make  three  doses  for  a  human 
subject.  Double  this  quantity  will  form  throe  doses  for 
a  horse  or  cow ;  two-thirds  of  it  is  suflicient  for  a  large 
dog,  calf,  sheep,  or  hog ;  half  the  quantity  is  required  for 
a  middle-sized  dog;  and  one-third  for  a  smaller  one. 
These  three  doses  are  said  to  be  sufficient ;  and  one  of 
them  is  directed  to  be  given  every  morning  fasting." 
Blaine  has  not  much  confidence  in  this  remedy,  but 
allows  it  is  worth  trying. 

Mr.  Murray,  known  as  a  lecturer  on  chemistry,  men- 
tions, in  a  letter  to  a  newspaper,  the  following  remedy  : 
— "  Let  a  mixture  of  two  parts  of  nitric  and  one  part  of 
muriatic  acid,  both  by  measure  (evolving  chlorine  in  a 
concentrated  form),  be  applied  to  the  wound  as  soon  as 
possible,  and  more  than  once."  He  adds,  that  be  baa 
found  this  a  preventive. 

M.  Buisson,  a  Parisian  physician,  declares  that  mad- 
ness from  the  bite  of  a  rabid  dog  may  be  thoroughly 
cured  by  fumigating  the  patient  in  a  hot  vapour  bath, 
and  afterwards  keeping  up  the  copious  perspiraujn  in 
bed ;  this  he  recommends  to  bo  done  for  several  boo 
cessive  nights.* 


FIELD  SPORTS. 


Conducted  on  principles  of  moderation,  humanity,  and 
fair  piny,  tho  sports  of  the  field  may  Ikj  said  to  bo  those 
exhiliraiing  and  healthful  pursuits  by  which  'be  tribes  at 

•See  nn  ncoomit  of  Hiii^son's  proceedings  in  "Cliamu«rt'S 
JBdinburgli  Journal,''  ^o.  %S7. 


«79 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


irilil  animals  are  made  subscrviont  to  man'a  use,  or  ro- 
Kovfd  (riin  n  sphvro  in  which  they  qrc  inconvenient  and 
uiisuitablo.  In  taking  amuscmtMit  from  such  ftportu,  it  is 
the  glory  of  tho  true  English  gentleman  to  avoid  every 
proceeding  which  can  give  unnecessary  pain  to  the  ani- 
piaU  over  which  ho  claims  dominion,  and  to  discounte- 
nance by  every  means  in  his  power  such  odious  abuses 
of  sport  as  biiitiiig,  worrying  iit  the  stake,  or  any  other 
method  of  protracting  the  death  of  the  creatures  who 
have  tlie  misfortune  to  be  objects  of  the  chase. 

Our  space  will  permit  us  only  to  notice  the  leading 
field  sports  of  Britain  in  past  and  present  times. 

FALrONRV. DEER    HUNTING. 

Falconry  was  the  favourite  field  sport  of  tho  middle 
ages,  as  shootitig  with  the  gun  is  the  predominant  one 
of  the  present  day.  It  appears,  in  this  country,  to  have 
declined  and  gone  out  of  use  in  the  seventeenth  ccntur}', 
in  consi'quciii'e  of  tlio  gun  liaving  then  l)ccorae,  by  the 
addition  of  the  lock  and  flint,  a  much  more  ready  means 
of  brinifing  down  gainu  than  the  use  of  hawks  had  ever 
been.  Falconry,  while  it  existed,  was  the  peculiar  sport 
of  kings,  and  princes,  and  nobles,  many  uf  whom  were 
painted  in  life  with  their  hawks  seated  on  their  wrist, 
and  were  sculptured  on  their  tombs  after  death  with  the 
kame  creature  placed  at  their  feet,  thus  marking  the 
Bi^cial  regard  in  which  they  held  the  animal  which  was 
the  means  of  giving  them  so  much  amusement. 

Tho  sport,  we  need  scarcely  remark,  was  founded  on 
U.0  natural  instinct  of  the  rapacious  order  of  the  feathered 
creation,  us  the  chase  may  be  saiil  to  be  founded  on  the 
instinct  of  the  dog  to  pursue  the  hare,  fox,  and  other 
animals.  The  rapacious  order  of  birds,  of  which  the 
eagle,  falcon,  and  owl,  are  the  three  principal  types,  arc 
formed  in  such  a  way  as  evidently  tits  them  for  pursuing, 
seizing,  and  destroying  tho  smaller  birds;  a  part  in  crea- 
tion which  at  first  sight  appears  to  involve  much  cruelty, 
but  which  has  been  clearly  shown  to  bo  intended  to  save 
rather  than  to  produce  pain,  and  to  be  indispensable  to  a 
system  of  things  in  which  one  leeding  feature  is,  that 
there  shall  always  ho  as  many  living  creatures  as  can 
possibly  be  supported.  The  falcon  family  were  alone 
employed  for  purposes  of  spnft,  as  alone  possessing  the 
required  docility,  and  of  this  family  two  or  three  species 
were  more  frequently  used  than  any  other.  Of  those 
possessing  long  wings,  the  falcon  proper  and  the  ger- 
falcon ;  and  of  tho  short-winged,  tho  goshawk  and  spar- 
row-hawk, seem  to  have  been  the  favourite  kinds.  Species 
called  the  hobby,  the  kestral,  the  merlin,  and  buzzard, 
worci  the  next  in  request.  Tlie  female,  which  is  in  all  the 
varieties  of  this  tribe  considerably  larger  than  the  male, 
was  alone  employed  in  sport,  and  the  common  names  of 
alt  the  species  apply  to  that  sex,  tho  male  having  usually 
aome  distinctive  appellation :  thus  the  male  of  the  ger- 
falcon was  called  the  jakin,  of  the  falcon  proper  the 
tierce  gtnitr,  of  the  goshawk  the  tiirctt,  and  of  the  spar- 
row-hawk the  musket. 

These  birds  naturally  choose  retired  habitations.  The 
falcon,  in  particular,  builds  her  nests  amongst  cliffs  in 
wild  and  unpeopled  regions.  In  order  to  fit  birds  for  the 
•port  of  falconry,  it  ...is  necessary  to  take  them  from  the 
nest  at  a  very  early  stage  of  their  existence  (then  techni- 
cally called  eynsses),  or  to  ensnare  them  in  their  more 
mature  age,  and  then  train  them  for  the  purpose,  A  fal- 
con in  its  natural  state  was  said  to  be  a  haggard ;  hence, 
apparently,  the  term  by  which  we  still  express  a  wild  or 
agitated  aspect.  Tho  first  step  in  training  the  falcon 
was  to  man  it,  or  accustom  it  to  the  presence  of  human 
bein  «.  Feeding  wns  the  grand  source  of  the  power 
which  its  keeper  acquired  over  it  When  it  did  as  re- 
quired, it  was  fed,  and  thus  taught  to  know  that  it  had 
done  right — and  not  otherwise.  If  extremely  refractory, 
a  stream  of  cold  water  was  directed  at  its  hcoil,  as  an 
adoi'iiiilion  tliat  nothing  was  to  bo  gained  by  such  con- 


duct.    From  the  very  first,  the  animal  was  acuwtwj 
with  certain  paraphernalia,  the  namea  of  which  at  [.^g, 
must  be  familiar  to  most  readers.     First,  its  head  wu 
covered  by  a  leathern  hood  fitting  close  all  around  lo  u 
to  shut  up  its  eyes,  and  calculated,  by  a  slit  behind  m 
be  readily  slipped  on  and  off.     On  the  top  of  the  hood 
there  was  a  tuf\  of  feathers,  which  usually  has  a  grate, 
ful  elfect  in  the  old  pictures  representing  ladies  or  gnnJe. 
men  travelling  with  their  hawks  upon  their  wrist,    W 
thern  straps,  called  jesses,  a  few  inches  in  length,  wen 
fitted  to  the  legs  of  tho  bird  by  a  button  slipping  throueh 
a  slit  or  loop.     Close  beside  the  end  attached  to  each  .ei 
was  a  small  spherical  hell,  like  that  of  a  child's  nmie 
and  composed  of  silver  for  clearness  oj  sound,  tho  one 
being  in  some  nice  instances  made  a  semitone  hieher 
than  tho  other.     The  other  end  of  tho  jesses  were  I'ur 
nished  each  with  a  ring,  which  could  be  readily  (lited  udob 
the  swivel  designed  to  connect  them  both  with  the  leaiL 
a  long  slender  strap,  sometimes  prolonged  by  a  creann 
or  common  cord,  and  designed  as  a  tether  by  which  to 
restrain  the  animal,  at  the  same  time  tliat  it  should  U 
allowed  considerable  room  for  free  motion.    'I'wo  peat 
objects  in  training  were  to  teach  tho  bird  to  fly  at  iij 
proper  game,  and  to  habituate  it  to  come  back  to  the 
hand  of  its  master,  Dfl«-r  on  ony  occasion  havinpr  been  let 
free  in  pursuit  of  its  prey.     For  tho  first  of  tlioae  ends, 
ill  the  case  of  long-winged  birds,  iin  im|)lenicnt  termed 
the  lure  was  used.     It  consisted  cither  of  a  stick  or  of  a 
cord,  on  the  end  of  which  were  fixed  pieces  of  flesh 
Willi  a  bunch  of  the  feathers  of  the  prey  whiih  it  was 
dcsign.'d  that  the  bird  should  fly  at,  or  perhaps  un  actual 
resemblance  of  the  prey  in  its  entire  form.    The  falcon 
being  set  loose  by  one  man,  another  stood  at  a  distance 
waivin.::;  tlie  lure  around   his  head,  thus  tempting  the 
animal  to  advance  and  strike  at  it.     A  whistle  was  the 
iinplemcnt   used   to  reclaim  or   bring   back  the  hank 
When  a  hawk  was  to  be  kept  on  the  linnd,  strong'  gloves 
were  worn  for  protection  from  its  talons.     It  may  here 
be  remarked,  that  the  training  of  falcons  was  n!to<^ther 
a  most  laborious  business,  and  that  trained  birds  were 
accordingly  to  l)eonly  purchased  at  a  high  price.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  soventecnth  century,  a  trained  Roshank 
and  tiercel  brought  one  hundred  marks,  and  it  was  con- 
sidered a  favour  to  part  with  them,    'i'lie  extreme  lahoni 
attending  the  training  of  the  «.iimals  must  have  been 
stiiricient  in  early  times  to  confine  the  sport  to  persons 
of  birth  and  fortune,  if  there  were  no  other  cause;  onii 
it  must  also  have  conduced  to  the  rapid  decline  and  ex- 
tinction of  tho  sport,  after  a  ready  means  of  killing  wild. 
fowl  by  the  gun  became  attainable. 

I'he  sport,  after  being  long  given  up,  wns  revived  in 
England  a  few  years  ago  by  Colonel  Thornton,  tlicDoke 
of  St.  Albans,  and  a  few  other  gentlemen,  chiefly  through 
the  influence  of  a  taste  for  wholever  is  elegiint  and  ro-  j 
niantic  in  the  usages  of  our  forefathers.  It  is  said  to  be  j 
a  gallant  and  goodly  sight,  when  a  train  of  vvc'l-niounled 
Engliiiii  ladies  and  gentlemen  rides  forth  in  n  clear  fu* 
shiny  day,  to  pursue  this  sport,  attended  by  their  fiilconers, 
each  with  his  hawk  on  his  wrist.  In  the  pre.wnt  daj.ii 
of  yore,  various  kinds  of  feathered  game  are  flown  at 
lleron-hitwking  is,  we  believe,  in  greatest  estcoin.  The 
heron,  as  must  be  generally  known,  is  a  large  binl  io 
ap[)earance,  with  a  long  neck,  long  legs,  and  a  loiii;  sharp 
bill,  t)cing  designed  to  haunt  marshes  ond  |)ools,  mi  feed 
upon  whatever  fish  it  can  find  thiTi^ri.  It  is,  however,  | 
a  light  unsubstantial  bird,  with  nothing  to  protect  it  from 
enemies  but  its  sharp  bill.  Herons  are  gregarinus,  and 
the  lonely  places  where  they  live  arc  callril  heronrii* 
These  explanations  will  introduce  the  following  account  I 
of  heron-hawking,  from  Blaine's  •'  Eneyclopxdia  of  itunl 
Sports:"— 

"  The  daily  visitations  of  the  heron  to  its  feoJing-pltai 
are  watched  by  the  falconerr,  who  station  tlicinselvei  te 
the  leeward  or  down  wind  of  the  heronry,  so  thil  li* 


\1 


FIELD  SPORTS. 


671 


e  (tri'Riirinus,  vi 


teror.  on  his  ratnrn  must  fly  againtt  XKe  breeze,  which 
(Ttes  a  gre"'  advantage  to  its  enemy.  As  soon  as  on4 
Jifcovered  on  the  return,  a  cast  of  falrons  is  let  loose, 
who,  catching  sight  of  the  quarry,  rise  in  pursuit.  The 
heron,  instinctively  aware  that  its  life  is  at  stake,  prepares 
for  t.ie  fray  ^Y  disgorging  the  contents  of  its  stomach  to 
lii'hten  the  weight  of  the  body.  The  courding  falcons 
,^nd  the  airy  vault  in  spiral  ftjrati"  hy  which  the 
itmospheric  resialance  to  their  fli?' ■  '■  <»ned.  These 
tirclings,''  has  been  observed,  have  ff.  ■  tly  the  cnrious 
elect  of  presenting  the  three  birds  c )  uying  in  diflerent 
directions;  whereas  the  real  intentions  of  the  two  hnwks 
irc  steadily  directed  to  one  point,  which  is  that  of  coi)tact 
,fitii  the  heron,  whose  entire  efforts  are  as  steadily  en- 
piied  in  avoidinif  it.  To  ctfcct  this,  the  affrighted  heron 
itrcnuously  endeavours  to  rise  above  the  hawks,  who, 
iiowever,  by  the  superior  power  of  wing,  commonly  suc- 
nrt^  in  gcltinpt  the  upper  station,  from  which  one  pre- 
ii>ntly  makes  its  stoop ;  and  happy  it  is  for  the  poor 
lipron  if  he  ran  evade  the  blow,  which  he  occasionally 
JMi,  either  by  shifting  his  station,  or  by  receiving  the 
fjlcon  on  his  sharp  bill,  which  instantly  transfixes  it. 
This  danger  is,  however,  denied  on  authority,  but  we 
I'^l  assured  that  it  does  occur.  The  second  hawk,  if  the 
hrst  fails,  stoops  in  his  turn ;  but  the  meditated  blow  of 
this  also  is  frequently  evaded  like  the  former.  The  trio 
then  still  rising  higher  and  higher,  the  sight  becomes 
interesting  in  the  extreme,  and  the  spectators  are  scarcely 
less  agitated  than  the  feathered  warriors  above.  At 
length  another  stoop  takes  place,  and  the  fatal  seizure  is 
made  by  one  hawk,  while  the  other  hinds  to  his  fellow, 
md  sti  three  quickly  descend  together,  but  not  with  a 
dangerous  rapidity,  as  their  powers  of  inflation  and  the 
ictiun  of  their  wings  break  the  fall.  It  is  now  that  the 
aouiited  horsemen  <make  the  best  of  their  way  to  the 
issislance  of  their  falcons,  and  their  first  efforts  must  be 
directed  tc  secure  the  head  of  the  heron,  that  the  sharp 
licak  may  not  take  effect  on  one  or  both  of  them." 

Pheasants  are  objects  of  this  sport,  but  not  to  a  great 
extent,  on  account  of  the  inconvenience  presented  by 
lie  sylvan  ground  in  which  the  sport  must  he  practised, 
fartridge-hawking  is  found  to  be  a  more  convenient 
sport  To  quote  the  same  authority — "The  scene  of 
practice  is  commonly  on  large  fields  or  open  tracts  of 
cuunlry,  where  the  horsemen  and  company  generally 
ran  beat  in  line,  and  the  attendant  falconer  or  master, 
lieiiig  well  mounted,  can  ride  forward  and  be  ready  to 
receive  the  quarry.  Either  pointers  or  spaniels  are  ne- 
wjsary,  or  both. 

••The  partridge  being  flushed,  the  hawk  will  stoop  with 
ailani8hini,(  rapidity,  and  scizo  on  it;  at  which  time 
neither  horses,  dogs,  nor  company,  should  press  forward ; 
on  llie  contrary,  they  should  permit  the  falconer  only  to 
advance,  who,  approaching  the  hawk  with  caution,  must 
j  walk  quietly  round  her,  when,  gently  kneeling  down 
with  h''  arm  extended,  as  though  in  the  act  of  feeding 
the  hav't,  he  should  lay  hold  of  the  partridge,  and  at 
the  lame  time  place  the  hawk  on  his  fist.  This  done, 
put  on  the  hood,  and  reward  the  hawk  with  the  head  of 
the  quarry,  and  if  she  be  not  intended  to  fly  again,  let 
ler  be  fed  immediately. 

"  A  somewhat  different  method  of  partridge-hawking  is 
I  practised  in  the  latter  part  of  the  season,  when  the  coun- 
try 19  very  bare,  and  when  the  partridges  are  often  very 
wild,  and  lie  indifferently   even  to  the  dog.     In  such 
fuel  it  i»  recommended  that  the  company  '  draw  up  in 
I  line  at  fifty  or  sixty  yards'  distance  from  each  other,  and 
gilloj)  acro9i4  the  plain  with  a  hawk  u|K)n  wing,'  the  fal- 
I  coner  being  in  the  centre  of  the  line,  that  he  may  regu- 
I  late  the  pace  by  the  situation  of  the  huwk.     Sir  John 
I  Sebright  informs  us  that  this  method  of  partridge-hawk- 
Dg  has  afforded  him  more  sport  than  any  other,  and  that 
I  shen  the  face  of  the  country  was  so  bare,  and  the  birds 
Vou  I.— 85 


so  wild  M  to  make  it  impofwble  to  approach  them  in  th« 
usual  way. 

<<  Brook-hawking,  as  it  is  often  termed,  was  much  ia 
vogue  formerly.  The  practice  was  not,  however,  con> 
fined  to  brooks,  but  extended  to  rivers,  sea-shores,  moora, 
and  ponds.  It  engaged,  according  to  Blome,  'the  jer> 
falcon,  the  haggard  fulcon,  the  jerkin,  and  the  tasael 
gentle.'  Waterfowl  of  every  description  were  made 
prey  of;  but  some  particular  objects,  according  with  the 
training  of  the  falcons,  were  particularly  sought  for. 
Dogs  were  employed  to  rouse  the  fowl,  being  led  on  if 
men  who  traversed  the  water's  edge;  while  horsemen, 
with  the  hawks  on  their  fists,  were  at  hand  to  cait  off 
one  or  more,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  game.  A 
heron  or  mallard  would  require  two,  while  a  widgeon  or 
teal  would  probably  engage  only  one." 

Deer-huntinf;  was  another  principal  amusement  of 
past  times,  but  has  now  been  abandoned  in  the  form  ill 
which  it  used  to  be  conducted.  The  species  of  animala 
chiefly  hunted  in  England  was  the  fallow-deer,  a  beautW 
ful  creature  with  stately  horns  or  antlers,  and  of  fpett 
speed  in  running.  Fallow-deer  are  now  closed  up  in 
parks,  at  least  in  Britain.  The  stag,  red  deer,  or  hart, 
whose  female  is  called  the  hind,  differs  in  size  and  in 
horns  from  the  fallow-deer.  He  is  much  larger,  and  hia 
horns  are  round,  whereas  in  the  fallow  species  they  ain 
broad  and  palmated.  Red  deer  are  now,  we  believe,  th* 
only  objects  of  field  sport  in  this  country,  and  principally 
in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  where  they  still  exist  in 
considerable  numbers.  No  hounds,  however,  as  in  the 
chase  in  former  ages,  are  employed,  the  hunter  depend- 
ing on  his  gun  and  his  skill  in  approaching  the  animal 
noiselessly.  This,  which  is  called  deerstalking,  is  ■ 
sport  requiring  a  vast  deal  of  tact,  knowledge  of  the 
animal's  habits,  and  patience,  as  whole  days  are  occap 
sionally  taken  up  in  stealthily  watching  an  opportunity 
for  a  shot.  Such  is  the  power  of  sight,  scent,  and  hear- 
ing, that  to  approach  unperceived  on  a  plain  is  irapoMi> 
ble.  They  must  lie  approached  down  the  wind,  and 
from  behind  thickets  or  hillocks.  A  telescope  is  required 
in  these  diflicult  manoeuvres.  When  it  is  impracticable 
io  reach  them  in  this  artful  manner,  attendants  drive 
them  into  gorges  among  the  mountains,  and  the  sports* 
man  singles  out  an  object  for  his  gun  as  it  passes  hia 
concealed  station.  A  lively  work  on  deer-stalking  haa 
lately  been  written  by  Mr.  Scrope,  to  which  we  beg  to 
refer  those  who  are  interested  in  the  subject. 

KOX-HUNTINO. 

The  variety  of  fox  most  common  in  Britain  is  called 
the  cur  for,  which  is  of  a  brown  colour,  with  generally 
some  white  on  the  breast  and  belly,  and  a  light  tip  to  the 
long  bushy  tail.  Foxes  go  to  clid-et  in  winter,  and  cuba 
are  produced  in  the  latter  end  of  March ;  they  breed  but 
once  a  year,  and  have  from  three  to  six  young  ones  at  • 
time.  In  his  nature  the  fox  is  playful,  but  rapacious  in 
his  appetite,  and  his  predominating  characteristic  ia  great 
craftiness.  He  usually  fixes  his  abode  on  the  border  of  a 
wood,  at  no  great  distance  firom  a  farm-house  or  village  | 
he  listens  to  the  crowing  of  the  cocks  and  the  cries  of  ths 
poultry  ;  he  scents  them,  and  chooses  the  time  of  his  at- 
tack with  judgment ;  he  conceals  his  road  as  well  as  hia 
design ;  ho  slips  forward  with  caution,  sometimes  even 
trailing  his  body,  and  seldom  makes'  a  fruitless  expedi- 
tion. He  plans  similar  encroachments  on  the  nests  of 
birds,  rabbit  warrens,  &.c. ;  and,  in  a  word,  is  sn  destruc- 
tive to  live-stock  that  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  taka 
and  kill  him. 

Fox-hunting  on  a  proper  scale  requires  to  be  conducted 
with  the  class  of  active  horses  termed  hunters,  a  pack 
of  fox-hounds  to  scent  and  run  down  the  prey,  and  ter- 
riers to  turn  the  animal  from  his  hole,  should  he  take  la 
caith.  \  pack  of  hounds  varies  from  twenty  to  thir^ 
3L 


«n 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


CtMiples  ;  bat  bosiJex  these,  nnmc  hounds  are  always  left 
uiirlr.ined  into  Iho  netil.  The  coat  of  a  good  pack  is 
reckoned  at  from  £1000  to  £1300,  and  the  annual  ex- 
"wnse  of  its  kcop  and  management  as  much.  The 
juntsraan,  as  the  grand  leader  of  the  chase,  is  a  fiinc- 
tionary  of  no  small  importance ;  he  is  assisted  by  two 
whippors-in,  who  bring  up  and  take  charge  of  the 
hounds. 

The  fox  being  an  early  riser,  and  his  scent  lying  best 
on  the  damp  grass,  he  is  hunted  in  early  morning ;  and 
the  first  buHincss  on  taking  the  licld  is  to  ridu  to  and 
draw  cover — that  is,  bring  out  the  fox  from  his  retreat. 
At  the  firdt  sight,  the  view  hnlloo  is  given  by  the  hunts- 
man, and  all  follow  the  sweeping  trnnk  of  the  hounds. 
It  is  a  rule  in  hunting  never  to  get  before  the  dogs,  or 
to  throw  them  out  any  way  by  a  false  signal ;  on  the 
contrary,  the  groat  art  is  to  keep  them  to  the  scent,  and 
to  aid  their  search.  The  run  is  conmdercd  the  exhila- 
Irating  part  of  the  sport,  and  consists  of  a  rapid  chase 
through  a  broken  or  rough  country,  with  the  hounds  in 
full  cry.  Then  is  the  ardour  of  the  chase  shown;  and 
U  continues  till  the  fox,  by  some  clever  manoeuvre — such 
as  tracking  up  a  brook — throws  the  hounds  off*  the  scent, 
tnd  the  party  is  brought  to  check.  The  scent  and  track 
of  the  animal  being  again  found,  off  all  go  once  more 
in  pursuit,  hut  with  generally  frequent  doubts  of  the 
reiult.  "  Sec,"  says  Beckford,  in  his  cnthusiadlic  style, 
"  where  the  hounds  bend  towards  yonder  furze  brake ;  I 
ivish  he  may  have  stopped  there.  Mind  that  old  hound ; 
how  ho  dashes  over  the  furze  !  I  think  he  winds  him  ! 
Hark !  they  halloo  !  Ay,  there  he  goes !  It  is  nearly 
over  with  him  !  Had  the  hounds  caught  view  ho  must 
h jve  died !  He  will  hardly  reach  the  cover.  See  how 
they  gain  upon  him  at  every  stroke !  It  is  an  adniiralilc 
race ;  yet  the  cover  saves  him.  Now  be  quiet,  and  he 
cannot  escape  us ;  we  have  the  wind  of  the  hounds,  and 
cannot  be  better  placed.  How  short  he  runs  !  He  is 
now  in  the  strongest  part  of  the  cover  !  What  a  crash  ! 
Every  hound  is  in,  and  every  hound  is  running  for  him ! 
That  was  a  quick  turn  !  Again,  another  !  He's  put 
t<>  his  last  shifts !  Now  mischief  is  at  his  heels,  an^d 
death  is  not  far  off'.  Ha!  they  stop  all  at  once; 
•II  silent,  and  yet  no  earth  is  open.  Listen !  Now 
they  are  at  him  again!  Did  you  hear  that  hound 
ciitch  him  1 — they  overran  the  scent,  and  the  fox  had 
laid  down  behind  him.  Now  reynard,  look  to  yourijelf ! 
Hiiw  quick  they  all  give  their  tongues  !  The  terriers, 
'  too,  are  now  yelping  at  him.  How  close  f'enjfeanre 
pursues  ! — how  terribly  she  presses  ! — it  is  just  up  with 
liim !  What  a  crash  they  make ;  the  whole  wood  re- 
sounds !  That  turn  was  very  short  I — There ! — now  ! — 
•y,  now  they  have  him  !  Who-hoop !"  The  chase  is 
over :  Reynard  is  no  more ;  and  his  hmth  or  tail  being 
cut  off  as  a  trophy  by  the  huntsman,  his  unfortunate 
carcass  is  thrown  to  the  hounds,  and  in  a  few  moments 
destroyed,  leaving  scarcely  a  wreck  behind. 

HARB-nVNTINO— COURMINO. 

Hares  are  hunted  in  much  the  same  manner  as  foxes, 
the  chief  dilTercnce  bciiii;  that  harriers  are  employed  in- 
■tead  of  hounds ;  both  hunt  by  the  scent  Of  this 
lir.inch  of  field  sports,  the  writer  of  the  excellent  article 
on  ffunting,  in  the  "  Encyclopocdia  Britannica,"  makes 
tho  following  mention : — 

"  Hare  nunting  claims  precedence  of  fux-hunting  in  the 
■{•orting  chronology  of  Great  Britain,  and  we  believe  of 
•II  other  countries,  inasmuch  as  a  hare  has  always  been  cs- 
tt-^ined  excellent  eatin-;,  and  a  fox  the  rankest  of  carrion. 
We  gather  from  Xenophon  that  it  was  practised  before 
hii  day,  and  he  wrote  fully  three  centuries  before  the 
Christian  era,  both  hounds  and  nets  being  then  nsed  in 
the  pursuit  Neither  can  we  marvel  at  bare-hunting 
baing  the  favourite  diversion  in  all  nations  given  to 
porting,  where  the  use  of  the  horse  in  the  field  had  not 


Jwcome  common.     But  we  will  go  a  point  farthm  ii, 
"his,  and  assert,  that  how  inferior  soevnr  may  be  ill 
estimation  in  which  hunting  the  hare  is  held  in  com 
rison  with  hunting  the  fox,  no  animal  of  the  chsie   t 
fords  so  much  true  hunting  as  she  doe«,  which  wag  iiT 
opinion  of  the  renovtmed  Mr.  Beckford 

"  The  difficulty  of  finding  a  hare  by  the  eye  ii  „  n 
known.  It  is  an  art  greatly  facilitated  by  exporlBn' 
although  not  one  person  in  ten  who  attempts  it  sucieej'' 
But  here  we  recognise  the  hand  that  furnished  her  wiik 
such  means  for  her  security ;  as,  from  the  delicacy  of  ji 
flesh,  she  is  the  prey  of  every  carnivorous  ania.al  Jl 
her  means  of  defence  are  confined  only  to  flisht.'  I 
going  to  her  form,  she  consults  the  \jreather,  especiall" 
the  wind,  lying  always,  when  she  can,  with  her  head  to 
face  it  AUbt  harvest,  hares  are  found  in  all  situation  ' 
in  stubble  fields,  hedge-rows,  woods  and  brakes'  h  i 
when  the  leaves  fall,  they  prefer  lying  upon  opel 
ground,  and  particularly  on  a  stale  fallow,  that  is  (L 
which  has  been  some  time  ploughed ;  as  likewise  afte 
frost,  and  towards  the  spring  of  the  year.  In  furjj  „, 
gorsc,  they  lie  so  close  as  to  allow  thcmi>clves  nearly  to 
ho  trodden  upon,  rather  than  quit  their  form,  n, 
down  or  upland-breed  hare  shows  best  sport ;  that  bred 
in  a  wet  marshy  district  the  worst,  although  the  scentfrom 
the  latter  moy  be  the  strongest  If  a  hare,  when  nut 
viewed  away,  runs  slowly  at  first,  it  is  generally  a  im 
that  she  is  an  old  one,  and  likely  to  afibrd  sport ;  bni 
hares  never  run  so  well  as  when  they  do  not  knownhert 
they  are.  Thus  trapped  harc»  turned  out  before  liounjj, 
almost  invariably  run  straight  on  end,  and  generally  till 
they  can  run  no  longer ;  and  they  generally  go  straight 
in  a  fog.  The  chase  of  the  hare  has  been  altered,  anj 
rendered  less  difficult  in  some  degree,  by  the  improis 
ment  of  the  hound  used  in  it 

"  The  difference  in  the  terms  used  in  hare-huntint 
and  fox-hunting  is  comprised  in  a  few  words ;— Ha^ 
ricrs  are  cast  ofi*  in  the  morning ;  fox-hounds  thron  oH 
The  hare  is  found  by  the  quest  or  trail ;  the  foi  by  tit 
drag.  The  hare  is  on  her  form  or  seat ;  the  fox  in  bis 
kennel.  The  young  hare  is  a  leveret;  a  fox  a  year  old 
is  a  cub.  The  view  hollo  of  the  hare  is  'Goncanay' 
of  a  fox  'Tallyho.'  The  hare  doubles  in  chj«; 
the  fox  heads  back,  or  is  headed.  The  harrier  is  it 
fault ;  the  fox-hound  at  check.  The  hare  is  pricked  by 
the  foot ;  the  fox  is  balled  or  paddad.  The  hare  squati; 
the  fox  lies  down,  stops,  or  hangs  in  cover;  the'tho 
hoop '  signifies  the  death  of  each." 

Hires  are  hunted  with  packs  of  generally  tnenty 
couples  of  harriers ;  but  whatever  number  is  craploveii, 
it  is  the  established  rule  never  to  run  in  upon  the  hirtt 
as  soon  as  discovered  in  their  forms,  but  to  allow  thcni 
little  8|)acc  Iwfors  the  dogs  are  set  on.  The  hares,  ilio, 
must  not  be  pressed  upon  in  the  chase  by  the  coinpanv, 
neither  arc  the  dogs,  on  losing  scent,  to  be  called  on  ita 
right  path  ;  for  this  leads  them  to  depend  on  the  si^fei 
of  the  huntsman  instead  of  their  own  noae.  Leave  tlit 
harriers  pretty  much  to  themselves. 

Courtinif  is  the  chasing  and  taking  of  the  harrbr 
means  of  greyhounds,  which  hunt,  by  the  sight  onlt 
Among  fox-hunters  it  is  considered  an  inferior  kindof  j 
sport,  but  many  country  gentlemen  find  in  it  sn  eihil* 
rating  recreation,  and  it  is  patronised  by  numcrou 
coursing  clubs.  "There  is,"  says  Blaine,  "even a pli- 
lan'hropic  character  about  coursing  almost  unknom  lo 
other  huntings.  It  may  lie  said  to  oiler  a  kind  ofrefugi 
for  the  sporting  destitute,  for  it  holds  out  innocent  rem' 
Htion  to  those  whose  means  or  whose  prudence  will  nn 
allow  them  to  risk  cither  their  neck  aflcr  a  fox  ortbiii 
Wealth  aflcr  a  racer.  Here  the  octogenarian,  at  oim 
labouring  under  his  increased  years  and  his  itoitixi 
energies,  may  solace  himself  with  an  epitnine  of  fonnet 
huntings ;  and  farther,  that  the  joys  of  this  chiae  an 
within  the  reach  of  every  state  or  stage  of  lib." 


\ ; 


FIELD  SPORTS. 


675 


)lnt  fatthm  ft^ 
vnr  muy  be  (h« 
I  held  in  compt 
of  tho  chaie  »( 
I,  which  wu  tiie 

r  the  eye  ii  ^jU 
I  by  exporienc*, 
impU  it  Bucl■eell^ 
irnighed  her  wiih 
he  delicacy  of  her 
irous  animal,  Md 
ily  to  flight  In 
feather,  especiallj 
,  Tvith  her  head  to 
tin  allsituationi; 
Mid  brake);  but 
iring  upon  open 
illow,  that  i8,niM 
;  as  likewise  after 
year.  In  funeor 
imiielvea  nearly  t« 
their  form.  The 
t  sport ;  that  bred 
)ugh  the  Bccnt  from 
a  bare,  when  not 
is  generally  a  «ign 

afibrd  sport ;  bm 
Jo  not  know  where 

out  before  liounJj, 
I,  and  generally  ii|| 
snerally  go  straight 
8  been  altered,  inij 
e,  by  the  iinprore. 

«d  in  hare-huntinj 

few  words  ••—Hat. 

pt-hounds  throw  08, 

ail ;  tho  fos  by  tht 

scat ;  the  fox  in  his 

a  fox  a  year  old 

is  'Gone  away;' 

doubles  in  chaie; 

The  hanier  it  it 

hare  is  pricked  by 

The  hare  sqnjti; 

cover;  the'wh» 

generally  twenty 
uinbcr  is  employed, 

in  upon  the  hm 
but  to  allow  them  I  I 
The  hares,  tin, 
se  by  the  companT, 

to  be  called  on  the  j 

'pend  on  the  siitlit 
n  nose.    Lcate  the 

ing  of  the  hatfht 
by  the  sight  only 
an  inferior  kind  of 
ind  in  it  an  eihili- 
liscd  by  numcran  ] 
llaiiic,  "  even  a  pli- 
almost  unknown  w 
Her  akinJofrefuj)  I 
out  innocent  nc» 
e  prudence  will  tot 
after  a  fox  ot  ihiii  1 
togenarian,  at  oM 
and  his  imwti 
1  epitome  of  fornn 
Is  of  this  chaw  M 
ze  of  life." 


The  greyhound,  whoae  fonn  to  eminently  adapta  him 
far  com|)eting  with  the  hare  in  ■  race,  requires  to  be 
mtll  trained  in  the  art  of  turning  suddenly,  and  deter- 
minedly pursuing  hit  game  on  a  new  line  of  pursuit. 
Hi*  "y  ^bould  be  Ck.  ar  and  quick,  and  his  wind  good, 
to  enable  him  to  hold  out  to  the  last  Grevhounds  are 
delicate  in  their  nature,  and  require  very  oxreful  treat- 
ment; their  lodging  must  be  dry  and  comtvTtable,  and 
when  taken  oitin  a  cold  morning  thoy  must  be  held  in 
leiiih  with  jackets  on,  ready  to  let  slip.  In  any  case, 
they  are  not  uncoupled  or  let  go  till  the  haro  has  been 
seen  and  started.  A  single  pair  of  dogs  is  generally  suf- 
Acient  for  the  sport ;  and  hotting  oftiMi  ensues  as  to  the 
iKim'»  in  'he  course.  There  are  numerous  rules  of  an- 
cient and  modern  date  on  the  subject  of  coursing.  The 
following,  established  by  the  Duke  of  Norfolk  in  Queen 
Kliialieth's  reign,  are  yet  held  applicable  : — 

"  The  Feuterer,  or  person  who  lets  loose  the  grey- 
hounds, was  to  receive  those  that  were  matched  to  run 
loiether  into  his  leash,  as  soon  as  he  came  into  the  field, 
■till  to  follow  next  to  the  hare  finder,  or  him  that  was  to 
start  the  hurc,  until  he  came  to  the  form,  and  no  horse 
or  footmen  wcro  to  go  before  or  on  either  side,  but  di- 
rectly behind  for  the  space  of  about  forty  yards. 

u  .\  hare  was  not  to  be  coursed  with  more  than  a  brace 
ol  greyhounds. 

,1  The  hare  finder  was  to  give  the  hare  three  >  sohos ' 
hcforo  he  put  her  from  her  form,  to  give  notice  to  the 
dogs  that  ihey  may  attend  her  starting. 

"The  hare  was  to  have  twelve  score  yards  law  before 
tli,i  dog'i  were  loosed,  unless  the  small  distance  from  the 
cover  would  not  admit  it  without  danger  of  immediately 
|,«in?  her. 

><The  dog  that   gave  the  first  turn,  and  during  the 
coarse,  if  there  was  neither  cote,  slip,  nor  wrench,  won. 
I'  A  cote  is  when  the  greyhound  goes  endways  by  his 
fellow,  and  gives  the  hare  a  turn. 

"A  cote  served  for  two  turns,  and  two  trippings 
or  jerkins  for  a  cote  ;  if  the  hare  did  not  turn  quite  about, 
she  only  wrenched,  and  two  wrenches  stand  for  a  turn. 
"If  there  were  no  cotea given  between  a  brace  of  grey- 
hounds, but  thai  one  of  them  served  the  other  at  turning, 
then  he  tnat  gair  tho  hare  most  turns  won  ;  and  if  one 
'ave  as  many  turns  as  the  other,  then  he  that  bore  the 
hare  won.  A  'go-by,'  or  bearing  the  hare,  was  equiva- 
lent to  two  turns. 

"  If  neither  dog  turns  the  hare,  he  that  led  last  to  the 
i-ovor  Tvon.  If  onu  dog  turned  the  hare,  served  himself 
ind  turned  her  again,  it  was  as  much  as  a  cote,  for  a  cote 
Will  esteemed  two  turns. 

"  If  all  the  course  were  equal,  the  dog  that  bore  the 
hire  won ;  if  tho  hare  was  not  borne,  the  cause  was 
adjudged  dead.  If  a  dog  fell  in  the  course  and  yet  per- 
fonned  his  part,  he  might  challenge  the  advantage  of  a 
turn  inore  than  he  gave. 

•<  If  a  dog  tu.ned  the  hare,  served  himself,  and  gave 
Jiver*  cotes,  and  yet  in  the  end  stood  still  in  the  field, 
the  other  dog,  if  he  ran  home  to  the  cover,  although  he 
gave  no  turn,  was  adjudged  the  winner. 

'•  If  by  accident  a  dog  was  rode  over  in  his  course,  tho 
coarse  was  void,  and  he  that  did  the  mischief  was  to 
make  rejxiration  for  tho  damage.  If  a  dog  gave  the  first 
•ml  list  turn,  and  there  was  no  other  advantage  between 
them,  he  that  gave  the  odd  tarn  won. 

"He  that  came  in  first  at  the  death, took  up  tho  hare, 
laved  her  from  being  torn,  cherished  the  dogs,  and 
detnaed  their  mouths  from  the  wool,  was  odjudged  to 
have  the  haro  for  his  trouble.- 

"Those  tliat  were  judges  of  the  course  were  to  give 
llieir  deciiiioii  before  they  departed  out  of  the  field." 

SHOOTINO— flROUBI — PARTRIDOEB,  &^C. 
Th?  lending  sports  with  dog  and  gun  are  tho  shoot- 
ing (if  irrouiu'.  partridges,  and  pheasants,  which  difl'or  in 


some  respects  from  each  other.  The  first  thing  to  ba 
attended  to  in  either  case  is  having  a  good  fowling-piee* 
or  gun  ;  and  tho  second  is  to  know  how  to  use  and  clean 
it.  Next,  the  sportsman  must  Iw  provided  with  a  dog 
trained  to  point  the  kind  of  game  for  which  he  is  taketi 
to  tho  field  ;  to  tako  a  dog  accustomed  to  point  partridge* 
on  a  grouse-shooting  excursion  would  be  impropei. 
The  gunpowder  employed  should  be  kept  very  dry  in  a 
metal  flask,  and  of  proper  strength  and  purity.  Patent 
shot  is  now  'commonly  used ;  it  is  of  eight  sorta,  each 
numbered,  and  rises  from  83  pellets  to  620  pellets  in  the 
ounce.  The  more  tender  the  birds,  the  smaller  may  br 
the  pellets  or  drops.  For  grouse,  shooters  begin  wit^ 
No.  7,  or  480  to  the  ounce;  ducks  require  shot  No.  4, en 
106  to  the  ounce. 

The  following  hints  to  a  beginner  in  shooting  are  by 
Hawker  and  others : — •<  In  raising  the  gun,  let  hilt 
remember  that  the  moment  it  is  brought  up  to  the  centra 
of  the  object,  the  trigger  should  be  pulled,  as  the  first 
sight  is  always  unquestionably  the  best.  Then  send  him 
out  to  practice  at  a  card  with  powder,  till  ho  has  got 
steady,  and  afterwards  load  his  ^n  occasionally  with 
shot,  but  never  let  the  time  of  your  making  this  addition 
be  known  to  him  ;  and  the  idea  of  it  being  perhaps  im- 
possible to.striko  hie  object  will  remove  all  anxiety,  and 
he  will  soon  become  perfectly  collected. 

"The  intermediate  lesson  of  a  few  shots  at  small  birds 
may  be  givcn^  but  this  plan  throughout  must  be  adopted 
at  game,  and  continued,  in  the  flrst  instance,  till  the 
pupil  has  quite  <livestcd  himself  of  all  tremor  at  the 
springing  of  a  covey,  and  observed  in  the  last,  till  most 
of  his  charges  of  shot  have  proved  fatal  to  the  birda. 
If  he  begins  with  both  eyos  open,  he  will  save  him- 
self the  trouble  of  learning  to  shoot  so  afterwards.  An 
aim  thus,  from  the  right  shoulder,  comes  to  the  aaina 
point  as  one  taken  with  the  left  eye  shut,  and  it  is  tha 
most  ready  method  of  shooting  quick.  Be  careful  to 
remind  him  (as  a  beginner)  to  keep  his  gun  moving,  a* 
follows : — before  an  object,  crossing ;  full  high  for  a  bird 
rising  up  or  flying  away,  very  low ;  and  between  the  ear* 
of  hares  and  rabbits  running  straight  away.  All  this, 
of  course,  in  proportion  to  the  distance ;  and  if  we  con- 
sider the  velocity  with  which  a  bird  flies,  we  shall  rarely 
err  by  firing, .  when  at  forty  yards,  at  least  five  or  six 
inches  before  it.  Till  the  pupil  is  aufait  in  all  thii, 
he  will  find  great  assistance  from  the  sight,  which  ha 
should  have  precisely  on  the  intended  point,  when  ha 
fires.  He  will  thus,  by  degrees,  attain  the  art  of  killing 
his  game  in  good  style,  which  is  to  fix  his  eyes  on  tha 
object,  and  fire  the  moment  he  has  brought  up  the  gun. 
He  may  then  ultimately  acquire  the  knack  of  killing 
snap  shots,  and  bring  dnwn  a  November  bird  the  mo- 
ment it  tops  the  stubble,  or  a  rabbit  popping  into  a  furz^ 
brake,  with  more  certainty  than  he  once  used  to  shoot  a 
young  grouse  in  August  or  a  partridge  in  September. 

"  Many  begin  with  very  quick  shooting,  and  kill  ad- 
mirably well,  hut  are  often  apt  not  to  let  their  birds  fly 
l)cfore  thoy  put  up  their  gun,  and  therefore  dreadfully 
mangle  them,  and,  I  have  already  observed,  are  not  such 
cvcry-day  shots  as  those  who  attain  their  rapid  execution 
on  a  slow  and  good  principle. 

« If  a  rival  shooter  (some  stranger)  races  to  get  befbra 
you,  push  him  hard  for  a  long  time,  always  letting  him 
have  rather  the  advantage,  and  then  give  him  the  double 
without  his  seeing  you.  Having  done  this,  go  quietly 
round  (sujiposing  you  have  been  beating  up  wind) ; 
and  on  rciching  the  place  where  you  l)cgan,  work  closely 
and  Btradily  tho  whole  of  the  ground  or  covert  that  you 
have  lK>th  been  racing  over,  and  you  will  be  sure  to  kilt 
more  game  than  he  will,  who  is  beating  and  shouting  in 
haste,  through  fear  of  your  getting  up  to  hiin,  and  (if 
the  wind  should  rise)  driving  the  dispersed  and  con«^ 
qucntly  closest  lying  birds,  to  your  beat  as  fast  as  ho  finds 
them. 


:../■  lOAf  ■ 


ttt 


INFOHMATION   FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


■f  "  Beware  of  the  muwle  of  the  gun  beiiiB  kept  hang- 
ing downwards ;  when  «o  carried,  the  shot  i«  apt  to  forre 
Its  way  from  the  powder,  esjicciaily  in  clean  barrels. 
If  it  happens  that  a  space  of  sixteen  or  eighteen  inches 
<*  thus  obtained,  and  the  gun  fired  wilh  its  point  below 
the  horir-on,  it  is  ten  to  one  hot  the  barrel  bursts. 
There  arc  oilier  perilous  consequences  besides  those  that 
generally  accompany  the  disruption  of  a  barrel,  for  Iho 
men,  hnrses,  an(i  dtfgs  are  in  perpetual  danger  of  being 
shot  when  a  gun  is  carried  in  the  licfore-mcntioned 
}iendant  manner. 

"  When  a  Run  begins  to  exhibit  symptoms  of  haxing 
done  iti«  work,  the  sooner  a  man  discards  it  the  better. 
An  injured  barrel  or  enfeebled  lock  may  prove  fatal  to 
the  ow;.er  or  hia  associates.  Accidents  occur  every  day, 
and  very  lamentable  consequences  proceed,  from  a  cul- 
pable neglect  in  retaining  arms  which  should  Ik;  declared 
unserviceable  and  dis\iaed." 

Growe  Shooting. — This  favourite  field  sport,  as  is  well 
known,  commences  annually  on  the  12th  of  August, 
when  thousands  of  persons  adjourn  to  remote  parts  of 
the  country  to  follow  it,  with  all  its  toils  and  privations. 
Among  the  varieties  of  the  game  are  numbered  the  cock 
of  the  wood  or  capercaiize ;  the  black  cock,  black  game, 
or  black  grouse ;  the  red  grouse  or  moor-fowl ;  and  the 
white  grouse  or  ptarmigan.  The  moor-fowl  are  tho 
most  common,  at  least  on  the  northern  moors  and  hills. 
The  birds  being  hatched  in  April,  if  the  summer  ia  dry, 
they  will  bo  pretty  strong  on  the  wini?  in  August.  The 
best  weather  for  shooting  is  that  which  is  dry  and  warm; 
wet  makes  them  lie  still  on  the  ground.  No  one  need 
attempt  grouse  shooting  who  is  of  delicate  health,  or  not 
well  trained  by  previous  feeding  or  exercise.  The  labour 
of  walking  over  heather  is  most  toilsnme,  and  the  danger 
>f  colds  from  rain  or  wet  feet  considerable.  'J'ho  dress 
ought  to  be  very  strong,  without  any  regard  to  fineness ; 
stout  shoes  or  ijuarter  boots  are  indispensable^ 

The  times  of  day  best  suited  for  grouse  shooting  are 
the  morning  and  evening,  when  the  birds  are  in  quest 
of  food;  but  few  arc  able  to  reach  their  haunts  till  eight 
o'clock,  when  the  sport  commences.  "  To  find  the 
Wrds,"  says  the  author  of  "  WiM  Sports  of  the  West," 
"  when,  satisfied  wilh  food,  they  leave  the  moor  to  bask 
in  some  favourite  haunt,  requires  lioth  patience  and  ex- 
perience, and  here  the  mountain-bred  sportsman  proves 
his  superiority  over  the  less  practised  shooter.  The 
)iacks  then  lie  closely,  and  occupy  a  small  surface  on 
some  sunny  brow  or  sheltered  hollow.  The  best  nosed  dogs 
will  pass  within  a  few  yards  and  not  acknowledge  them  : 
and  patient  hunting,  with  every  advantage  of  the  wind, 
must  be  employed  to  enable  the  sportsnvin  to  find  grouse 
■t  this  dull  hour.  But  if  close  and  judicious  hunting  lie 
necessary,  the  places  to  be  beaten  are  comparatively  few, 
and  the  sportman's  eye  readily  detects  the  spot  where 
the  pack  is  sure  to  be  discovered.  He  leaves  the  open 
feeding  grounds  for  heathery  knowes  and  sheltered  val- 
leys; and  while  the  uninitiated  wearies  his  do^s  in  vaiti 
over  the  hill-side,  where  the  birds,  hours  before,  might 
htve  b»pn  expected,  the  older  s|K)rtsman  profits  by  his. 
experience,  and  seldom  fails  in  discxjvering  the  dell  or 
hillock  where,  in  fancied  security,  the  indolent  pack  is 
reposing." 

Our  most  practical  authority  on  this  exciting  topic  is 
(tie  "  Uak'eigh  Shooting  Guide  :"• — "  Grouse  shooters 
should  separate  and  range  singly  ;  they  should  have  no 
aoisy  attendants.  In  wet  weather  one  dog  is  sufficient ; 
we  advise  rest  from  eleven  till  two.  The  flight  of  grouse 
is  ifeiierally  about  half  a  mile.  Their  favourite  haunts, 
when  undisturbed,  are  those  pat';hrs  of  ground  where 
Uw>  young  heallier  is  most  luxuria,->t.    They  avoid  rocks, 


'Tail  manual  has  keen  repuhlii^il  In  an  improved  and 
tandionie  mnn  In  ihe  voluni  enlitleie  '■  The  Rod  and  the  Gun." 
^  Md  C.  U  a(k,  Ivdii'.b.rgh. 


■nd  bare  places  where  the  heather  has  been  HMtiih 
burnt ;  at  any  rate,  they  are  not  to  be  approached  hi 
such  places.  It  is  in  young  heather  that  grouse  mod 
frequently  feed.  They  are  seldom  found  in  the  ytn 
long  thick  heather  that  clothes  some  part  of  the  hill, 
until  driven  there  for  shelter  by  shooters  or  uthrra,  rj 
is  early  in  the  morning  and  towards  evening  that  grouic 
are  to  be  found  in  young  heather.  During  the  tniiM, 
of  the  day  the  shooter  should  range  the  sunny  aide  ft 
the  hill,  and  avoid  plains. 

"  No  species  of  shooting  requires  the  aid  of  good  don 
more  than  grouse  shooting,  and  in  no  sjiort  doc«  « 
much  annoyance  result  from  the  use  of  bad  ones.  Tim 
best  dog,  perhaps,  for  Ihe  moors,  is  a  well-bred  nointn 
not  more  than  five  years  old,  which  has  lieen  well 
tutored — young  in  years,  but  a  veteran  in  experienw 
The  setter  is  occasionally  used  with  success,  hut  we  pre! 
fer  Ihe  pointer.  The  latter  hns  unquestionably  the  ad- 
vantage when  the  moors  are  dry,  as  it  not  unfrequenllv 
happens  that  they  are  in  August.  If  a  setter  caiiDot 
find  water  wherein  to  wet  his  feet  every  half  hour  he 
will  not  bo  able  to  undergo  much  fatigue.  Some  iportt. 
men  will  hunt  a  couple  of  mute  spnniels  for  grouse 
shooting  in  preference  to  any  other  loam  of  does,  Of 
course,  when  this  melhoti  is  pursued,  the  birds  are  never 
pointed,  and  the  ahnoler  must  ever  be  on  the  look-ouL 
for  the  game  is  generally  sprung  very  near  the  gun." 

Piirlriil^e  Shmtivf;. — Of  partridges  there  are  two 
kinds,  Ihe  red  and  gray,  the  latter  being  thai  which  ii 
common  in  this  country ;  the  plumage  is  of  a  hrown 
and  ash  colour,  elegantly  mixed  with  black;  ihe  tail  jj 
short,  and  the  figure  more  plump  than  handsome 
Partridges  pair  about  the  third  week  of  February,  md 
sometimes,  after  being  paired,  if  the  wenllicr  lie  teym 
they  all  gather  together  and  form  a  covey,  and  arc  then 
said  to  p'lck.  They  begin  to  lay  in  six  weeks  after  pair, 
ing.  Tho  female  Inys  her  ecgs  on  Iho  ground,  scraping 
together  a  few  Iwnts  and  decayed  leaves  into  unv  small 
hollow.  The  young  birds  begin  to  appear  about  ihelirsi 
ten  days  in  June,  and  the  earliest  will  take  the  winir 
lowards  the  latter  end  of  that  month.  In  dry  sessoni 
they  are  most  numerous.  So  many  arc  Ihe  enemies  of 
the  partridge,  that  it  is  believed  never  more  than  half  of 
those  produced  come  to  perfection.  The  nflcction  of 
both  parents  for  their  young  is  very  reniarknble;  ihpy 
lead  them  out  in  quest  of  food,  shelter  them  with  Iheir 
wings,  anil  resort  to  many  tricks  to  lead  supposed  ene. 
mies  away  from  their  broods. 

Partridge  shooting  commences,  by  law,  on  the  1st  of 
Septemln-r,  when  the  birds  are  strong.  In  the  courwof 
this  month,  the  short  flights  of  tho  coveys,  in  tokrollt 
well-presiTved  grounds,  afTord  abundance  of  sport  In 
more  open  districts  of  country,  where  there  is  «  widn 
range,  partridge  shooting  requires  more  skill,  and  a  steiiiv 
pointer  or  setter.  In  shooting  either  at  a  flight  of  gioon 
or  covey  of  partridges,  select  a  bird  on  the  outside,  and 
fire  at  it  alone ;  it  is  only  ovcr-hiisty  or  ill-taughl  sporti. 
men  who  let  fly  indiscriminately  at  the  centre  of  a  ^oiip 
of  birds. 

Phenfnnl  Shootinf;. — Pheasants  are  a  species  of  lirdi 
allied  lo  domestic  fowls,  and  partake  of  some  of  Ihw 
habits;  no  birds  of  tho  game  kind  possess  such  elennt 
plumage,  and  few  arc  so  large.  They  breed  on  tbt 
ground,  and  like  partridges  are  fond  of  nestling  in 
clover,  but  their  chief  resort  is  shrti'-bcries  or  mkiti 
spots  in  plantutions.  The  pheasant  and  its  brood,  if 
undisturbed,  remiiin  in  the  stubbles  and  heiljerows  wm 
lime  after  corn  harvest ;  if  molested  they  sock  the  wooi 
and  only  issue  thence  to  feed  in  the  stubbles  at  niom« 
and  evening.  Besides  corn,  the  birds  will  livconwiU 
berries,  or  any  seeds  they  can  pick  up.  As  .he  roM 
weather  comes  on,  they  liegin  to  fly  up  at  sunset  m 
trees,  where  they  roost  during  the  night. 
"  For  shooting  pheasants,  it  often  In  ^omcf  Bccetan 


ANGLING. 


Ig  Mart  very  early  in  the  morning,  as  they  are  apt  to 
lit  during  the  day  in  higli  covert,  whore  it  ii  HimoBt  iin- 
MWtble  to  ahool  them  till  the  leaf  hai  fallen  from  tlio 
•MM,  Wo  can  never  be  at  a  Insa  in  knowing  where  to 
ao  for  pheaaantfl,  as  wo  havn  only  to  sond  soino  one  tho 
nravious  evening,  for  the  last  hour  before  sunset,  to 
watch  the  dilfcicnt  barley  or  oat  stubbles  of  a  woodland 
country.  biJ  ""  these  will  be  regularly  displayed  tho 
irhote  contents  of  tho  neighbouring  coverts.  It  then 
nmains  to  l>o  chosen  which  woods  are  tho  best  calculated 
10  shoot  in ;  and  when  wo  begin  beating  them,  it  must 
be  remonilMjred  to  draw  tho  springs,  so  as  to  intercept  the 
birds  from  tho  old  wood.  If  tho  coverts  are  wet,  tho 
hedgerows  will  be  an  excellent  beginning,  provided  we 
here  also  attend  well  to  getting  between  tho  birds  and 
their  places  of  security.  If  pheasants,  when  feeding, 
(re  approached  by  a  man,  they  generally  run  into  covert; 
but  if  tlii'v  see  a  dog,  they  are  apt  to  fly  up. 

«  There  are  very  few  old  sportsmen  but  are  aware  that 
this  is  by  far  tho  most  sure  method  of  killing  pheasants, 
or  any  other  game,  when  they  are  tolerably  plentiful  in 
covert;  and  although,  to  explore  and  beat  several  hun- 
dred acres  of  coppice,  it  becomes  necessary  to  have  a 
party  with  spaniels,  yet  on  such  expeditions  wo  rarely 
hear  of  any  one  getting  much  game  to  his  own  share, 
except  some  sly  old  fellow,  who  has  shirked  from  his 
companions  to  the  end  of  the  wood,  where  the  pheasants, 
ind  particuliirly  the  cock  birds,  on  hearing  the  approach 
of  a  rabble,  are  all  running  like  a  retreating  army,  and 
perhaps  (iyingin  his  face  faster  than  he  can  load  and  fire." 

It  is  necessary,  in  pheasant-shooting,  to  uso  a  short 


double-barrelled  gun  of  wide  bore,  and  large  shot  Fir* 
at  not  a  g^reater  distance  than  thirty  yards,  and  only  whca 
the  bird  has  risen  clear  of  the  bushes :  aim  is  to  be  taken 
at  the  head ;  but  if  the  pheasant  is  crossing  your  path, 
fire  a  little  before  the  head,  the  rapid  flight  of  the  animal 
bringing  it  in  contact  with  the  shot.  Towards  Novem- 
ber, this  field  sport  may  bo  united  with  woodcock  shooting 

OAMK. 

According  to  law,  wild  animals  are  no  one's  property 
but  of  theso  animals  only  certain  kind*  may  be  kille<i 
without  a  license.  Those  protected  from  indiscriminate 
slaughter  are  called  f;ame,  and  are  deer  of  every  species, 
foxes,  hares,  partridges,  grouse,  pheasants,  woodcocks, 
snipes,  &c.  The  wild  animals  not  reckoned  game  are 
rabbits,  rats,  mice,  crows,  rooks,  pigeons,  sparrows,  all 
kinds  of  sea-birds,  &c. ;  any  one  may  kill  and  appro- 
priate these,  provided  it  he  in  a  highway,  tht  sea-shore, 
or  liny  other  [lublic  ground.  Game  cannot  be  legally 
taken  or  killed  in  any  form  without  a  license  procured 
from  the  competent  oflicer  of  the  crown,  and  a  permis- 
sion from  the  proprietor  of  the  ground  on  which  the 
game  happens  to  be.  To  shoot  or  hunt  without  a  license 
is  called  pixultiiif; :  to  shoot  or  hunt  with  a  license,  but 
without  a  permission,  renders  the  person  liable  to  an 
action  far  trespiiss.  These  game  laws  are  relics  of 
uncioiit  laws  instituted  by  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  Norman 
sovereigns  for  protection  of  the  royal  forests ;  and  though 
some  of  these  provisions  are  useful,  they  are,  generally 
speaking,  a  disi>race  to  the  statute  book,  and  ought  to  be 
siinpliflcd  and  amended. 


ANGLING. 


AifOLTNO  is  tho  art  of  alluring  and  capturing  fish  by 
means  of  a  rod  and  line,  to  which  a  hooked  buit  of  some 
lind  is  atlarhcd — an  'i»ii;7i',  as  it  were,  being  formed  by 
the  apparatus  as  held  over  the  surface  of  tho  water. 
Either  for  profit  or  amusement,  the  practice  of  taking 
fish  in  this  excusably  crafty  manner  is  of  great  antiquity, 
ai  we  may  learn  from  the  mention  mudo  of  it  by  the 
prophet  Isaiah  :  "  Tho  fishers  also  shall  mourn,  and  ail 
Um)  that  cast  unglo  in  the  brooks  "  (chap,  xix.,  vcr.  8). 


As  well  as  fishing  with  nets,  tho  practice  has  continued 
through  all  ages  to  the  present  time,  and  in  almost  all 
countries.  In  the  British  islands,  it  has  long  formed  a 
favourite  pastime  among  every  class  of  society,  lay  and 
clerical,  and  to  all  presents  many  features  of  attraction. 
"It  ia,"  to  use  the  words  of  Mr.  Blaine,  "far  from  dan- 
gerous or  expensive,  but  on  the  contrary  is  productive  of 
interest  and  amusement  without  any  extraordinary  sacri- 
fice. Its  ajipareni  simplicity  lures  many  into  the  prac- 
tice; and  as  a  trifling  success  elates  the  tyro  and  leads 
him  on  by  its  fascinations,  so  he  pursues  it,  although  he 
soon  discovers  that  extreme  nicety  and  precision,  great 
patience,  caution,  and  perseverance,  arc  esscntiiil  requi- 
sites to  the  attainment  of  proficiency  in  the  art.  Nevr-- 
tbcless,  he  M\  continues  the  pursuit ;  difficulty  after  diffi- 
culty is  overcome ;  each  succeeding  year  adds  interest  to 
the  practice,  which  he  continues  with  undiminished  ar- 
dour to  the  latest  period  of  his  life.  It  is  asserted,  ond 
we  believe  with  truth,  that  there  is  not  one  among  the 
field  sports  that  takes  so  permanent  a  hold  on  tho  pas- 
sions as  this.  It  is  no  less  remarkable  for  the  variety  it 
oflcrs,  for  it  presents  itself  under  many  forms,  some  of 
which  are  suited  to  the  taste  of  every  age,  of  every  rank, 
and  every  variety  of  character  and  habit.  The  sedentary, 
the  thoughtful,  and  the  advanced  in  life,  may  watch  the 
filial  as  it  slowly  moves  with  the  stream,  without  dis- 
turbance to  the  train  of  thought,  or  without  any  fatiguing 
exercise  to  their  jierson.  The  active  and  volatile  may 
throw  afar  the  loaded  bait  for  the  [like,  or  may  engage  in 
the  graceful  evolutions  of  the  fly-rod.  Its  seductions 
therelbre,  prove  universal,  and  it  owns  votaries  ol'  every 
3l2 


<7f 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


■Ct  and  ■tatioii."  At  thn  iport  i«  pununl  on  the  banki 
iif  ri««n  or  lakei,  in  the  iniJit  of  purely  natural  acenery, 
and  in  weather  which  invite*  to  otit-oWoor  rrcreation, 
all  eonapirea  to  render  it  in  a  peculiar  manner  delightful 
and  healthful,  when  indulged  in  with  judicisua  modera- 
tion. 

No  kind  of  amuaemenl  haa  been  the  object  of  aurh 
frequent  doacription  as  angling.  Hundreds  of  trratiiiea 
have  been  written  doicriptive  of  the  sport  in  all  its  de- 
pwtmenta,  and  with  reference  to  all  varietioa  of  fish  and 
the  waien  to  which  they  resort  The  flriit  writer  of 
XiOUe  on  the  subject,  and  who  has  been  acknowledged 
Jhe  great  father  of  the  angle,  was  Isaac  Walton  (liurn  in 
Stafford,  1503,  died  1683),  who  in  the  year  1653  gave 
to  the  world  hia  "  Complete  Angler,"  a  work  nt^erwards 
enriched  with  additions  by  his  friend  Charles  Cotton,  and 
which  till  this  day  is  esteemed  not  more  for  the  correct- 
neaa  of  its  details  than  the  singularly  happy  humour  of 
its  apologues,  |)oettcal  pieces,  and  disquiititions.  Accord- 
ing to  old  Isiiac,  all  rerreations  sink  into  iiisigniflcancc 
in  oomparinon  with  angling,  which  in  almost  every  page 
he  lauds  for  its  moral  qualities,  and  the  happiness  it  is 
calculated  to  yield.  •<  Will  you  hear,"  says  he  on  one 
oeeaaion,  "the  wish  of  an  angler,  and  the  commendation 
af  hia  happy  life,  which  he  sings  in  verse : — 

*Let  ine  live  harmleasly,  nnil  near  the  brink 

Oi'Trenl  or  Avon  hiivi*  a  (Iwfllintf-piace. 
Where  1  may  «ce  my  qiiill  or  rork  ilowii  sink 

Wi(h  eaj{er  l)il«  oi  perch,  or  lilcak,  or  dnco; 
And  on  the  worlil  and  my  Crciiior  ihiiik, 

Whilit  dome  men  sirive  ill-frotien  gomli  to  embrace, 
And  othera  spend  thc-ir  lime  in  l)aae  rxcuat 
Of  wine— or  wor«e,  in  war  and  wantonnu5S 

'Let  them  that  li»t  Ihcjc  pnatime*  siill  pursue, 
And  on  «uch  plrasiuj?  faiicit's  tVed  their  fill, 

So  1  \hv  fields  and  meadows  frrecn  may  view. 
And  daily  by  Irexh  rivers  walk  at  will, 

Anhitig  the  daisies  and  the  violets  Idue, 
Red  hyacinth  anil  yellow  dniTodil. 

Purple  narcissus.  Itl>*'  the  inuru  iif^  rays, 

Pale  gunder-Krasj,  and  a/.ure  culvcr-kcys. 

'I  count  It  h'g'ipr  pleasure  lo  behold 

The  •lately  compass  oi  ilie  lolty  sky. 
And  in  Ihe  inidsl  liierrol',  like  liurinn^:  puld 

The  Hainini;  clinriol  of  llie  world's  |,'riiil  eye; 
1%e  watery  clouds  that  in  ihe  air  iip-ruli'd. 

With  sundry  kinds  of  painted  colours  tly ; 
And  fair  Aurora.  \in,ng  up  her  head. 
Still  blushing,  rise  from  old  Tithouus'  bed 

'Hie  hills  and  mounlains  raised  from  the  plains, 

The  plums  exIeiMleit  level  with  the  ground, 
The  grouiiils  divided  itilo  sundry  veins. 

The  veins  enclosed  with  rivers  -unnnij  round  ; 
Hie«o  rivers,  iiiukiiig  way  through  nature's  chuiiii, 

With  heiultoiig  course  into  'h*-  sea  profound; 
"ITie  raginR  sea.  i)enealh  the  valh'vs  low, 
Where  lakes,  and  rill*,  and  rivuleli  do  flow 

'The  loHy  woods,  the  Toresii  wide  and  long, 

Adorn'd  with  leaves  mid  lirnnches  fresii  and  green, 

In  whose  cool  bowers  the  birds,  with  many  a  song, 
Do  welcuinu  wilh  their  cho  r  the  s.imm»r's  queen; 

The  meadows  I'alr.  where  Flora's  gifts  um<mg 
Are  iniermi.v'd  With  verdant  grass  between; 

The    silver    scaleil  Ksh.  that  softly  swim 

Wiihm  the  swet  brook's  crystal  watery  stream: 

'AM  these,  and  many  more  of  His  creation 
That  made  ilii?  heavens,  lb"  aiiirlerotl  doth  see; 

Taking  tliereiii  no  little  ileleeialioii. 
To  thihk  how  strange,  bow  wonderful  Ibey  be, 

Framing  thereof  an  inward  contemplation 
To  set  his  heurl  from  other  fancies  free  ; 

And  whilst  he  looks  on  these  wilh  joyful  eye. 

His  mind  is  rapt  above  the  starry  sky.' " 

80  much  fur  the  I'dtlry  of  angling;  wt  shall  now  <^ak 
.>t  the  practice  of  the  art,  beginning  with  a  few  obscrva- 
liona  on  the 


.   .    OENERAL  CHARACTKR  or  riSR. 

The  fiali  which  are  the  object  of  attention  to  the  angler 
are  all  coiiriin'il  to  fri-<<h  water,  and  are  chiefly  found  in  I 
t^xw*  ox  small  brojks;  some  axe  fouutl   iu  lakes  and  | 


ponds.  All,  except  eels,  have  a  pretty  uniform  chir».it«t 
though  differing  in  ap|)«arance  and  size.  Thi<ir  form  k 
suitable,  in  a  remarkable  way,  to  give  celerity  and  ea« 
of  motion — a  small  head  swelling  into  a  thick  h«<]y  |q„ 
tapering  off  towards  the  tail.  Those  designed  fur  slowst 
motion  are  more  thick  and  lumpy  in  figure.  The  pow«i 
of  moving  quickly,  and  of  buoying  themselves  in  the  «• 
tcr,  is  very  nicely  provided  for  by  their  specific  gravit< 
which  is  nearly  the  same  as  the  water  in  which  tliev 
move ;  in  other  words,  they  are  about  the  same  huavineu 
as  the  water  which  they  displace,  and  conscijucnlly  thev 
are  almost  destitute  of  any  feeling  of  weight.  On  thji 
account  they  are  not  in  the  slightest  dcgrte  encumbered 
in  their  movements,  and  dillicult  to  tiro  in  their  exertions. 

The  tail  is  the  grand  instrument  of  motion ;  it  is  s 
tliin  delicate  tncmhrane,  whose  anfiallest  bonding  to  mj 
fro  impels  the  body  forward  in  any  required  courac. 
The  fins  are  principally  reiiuirod  for  balancing  and 
regulating  the  movements  of  the  iish ;  if  any  be  cut  olT 
the  animal  loses  the  power  of  keeping  itself  with  tli« 
back  fairly  upwards ;  should  it  lie  deprived  of  the  tail 
the  ability  of  moving  forward  is  gone,  and  it  lies  a  hulk 
at  the  mercy  of  its  enemies.  Not  the  least  remarkable 
peculiarity  in  the  economy  of  the  fish  is  the  existence  of 
an  air-bluddcr,  by  the  dilatation  or  contraction  of  which 
it  possesses  the  power  of  rising  or  sinking  in  the  water 
according  as  it  feels  inclined.  It  may  be  olwicrvcd  that 
flsh,  while  in  water,  are  constantly  moving  the  gillg 
which  is  analogous  to  the  art  of  breathing.  Tjic  watct 
sucked  in  by  the  mouth,  and  vented  by  the  gills,  contri- 
butes a  minute  (wrtion  of  air,  but  enough  to  keep  up  the 
circulation  ofthe  blood  and  sustain  life;  if  we  were  to  tie 
up  the  gills,  iho  fish  would  bo  immediately  suffocalei). 
The  blood  of  fish  is  cold,  being  only  about  two  dcgreci 
warmer  than  the  water  in  which  they  live. 

The  senses  of  fish  have  engaged  much  attention  from 
naturidiets.  'i'heir  ijuiokest  sense  is  that  of  sIkHi;  but 
they  are  destitute  of  the  power  of  contracting  the  iris  of 
the  eye,  so  as  to  accoiniiiodatc  themselves  to  dilTercnt 
degrees  of  light.  In  ordinary  cin-um.stnnces  this  is  ol 
no  consequence,  as  the  water  diminishes  the  intensity  of 
light,  and  the  animal  has  the  means  of  retiriin;  to  the 
bottom,  or  into  holes,  to  escape  the  glitre  of  the  inid-day 
sun.  It  has  been  doubted  if  fish  have  any  orguns  of 
hearing ;  but  it  is  certain  they  do  possess  them,  and  hear 
to  a  limited  extent.  They  ore  alTected  by  any  loud  noise, 
though  this  may  be  partly  ascribable  to  feeling  the  vi. 
brations  of  the  water.  'I'he  taste  of  fish  is  allowed  to  be 
very  blunt,  if  it  exist  at  all;  and  so,  likewise,  is  their 
smell.  Whatever  may  bo  their  deficiencies  in  these 
respects,  they  are  provided  with  an  appetite  of  Ixjundlcw 
voracity. 

•'  Every  aquatic  animal  that  has  life,"  observes  Daniel, 
"falls  a  victim  to  the  indiscriminate  voracity  of  one  01 
other  of  the  fishes.  Insects,  worms,  or  the  spawn  of 
other  tenants  of  the  waters,  sustain  the  smaller  Iriliea; 
which  in  their  turn  arc  pursued  by  millions  larger  and 
more  rapacious.  A  few  feed  upon  mud,  aquatic  plants, 
or  grains  of  corn;  but  the  far  greater  numbers  subaiit 
u]N>n  animal  food  alone ;  and  of  this  they  are  so  ravenoui 
as  not  to  spare  those  of  their  own  kinil.  That  there  are 
vegetables  in  both  fresh  and  salt  waters  admits  of  no 
doubt,  nnd  these  may  furiiiHh  food  to  particular  fi-ihcs; 
but  those  sorts  arc  few,  |ierhaps  no  om-  kind  can  be 
puitilpd  out  tlint  Bulisists  entirely  upon  tlieni;  and  al- 
though most  fishes  eat  flies  nnd  terrestrial  worms  whi'ii 
they  come  in  their  wny,  yet  in  the  immeusuralile  wa.'le 
of  waters  surrounding  this  ^lobc,  the  swarms  of  fishei 
are  so  immense  that  the  subsistence  to  be  derived  from 
the  above  sources  appears  to  be  altogether  disproporlioncd 
to  their  wants,  nnd  those  of  a  smaller  size  seem  to  cofl 
atitute  the  ])rincipHl  food  of  nearly  all  the  fishes  known 
to  us.  Charr  kept  in  a  pond,  if  scantily  supplied,  fn- 
4ucutly  devour  their  own  young;  other  iish,  that  in 


'1     v^'  ;■  ■  ■ 

ANGLING. 


«» 


Mft,  go  in  QU6''  o''  mora  bulky  prey,  it  iratlen  not  of 
„^  wrt,  whether  of  their  own  or  of  another  ipeciri. 
If  we  turn  our  attention,  in  thii  argument,  to  wa-fiiih, 
ijioM  with  the  '  t  capacious  niouthi  pumuo  aimoat 
ivery  thing  th..  >  ito,  unil  often  meet  each  other  in 
fierce  oppotitiow,  vUen  the  fish  which  haa  the  widest 
lluoat  cornea  ofT  with  victory,  and  devoura  hi*  antagonist 

uThe  voracious  fiHhoa  diiror  widt-ly  from  the  predatory 
kindi  of  terrestrial  animals;  they  are  neither  limited  in 
their  numlier  nor  soiitmy  in  thvir  haliita.  Their  rapa- 
city i«  not  confined  to  a  few  species,  one  region  of  the 
Ki,  or  individual  rtrorls.  AIihohI.  the  wholo  order  is 
continually  irritated  liy  the  craviiiitsof  an  appctile  which 
eicites  tliPin  to  encounter  every  danger,  and  which,  by 
iti  excCHS,  often  dpstroys  that  cxiHioncc  which  it  was  in-  ! 
tcmWd  to  prolong;.  Iiinunicrufilo  shouls  of  one  species 
purKiie  those  of  another  through  vast  tracts  of  the  ocean, 
from  the  vicinity  uf  llio  ,pole  to  the  equator.  The  cod 
pursues  the  whiting,  which  flics  before  it  from  the  banks 
of  Ncwfuuridliind  to  the  southern  coasts  uf  Spain.  The 
cfchalflt  drives  whole  armies  of  herrings  from  the  regions 
if  the  north,  devouring  at  every  instant  thousands  in  the 
rmr.  Hence  the  life  of  every  fish,  from  the  smallest  to 
the  greatest,  is  but  a  continued  scene  of  rapine ;  and 
efeiy  quarter  uf  the  immense  deep  presents  one  uniform 
picture  of  hostility,  violence,  and  invasion. 

"  In  these  conflicts,  occasioned  by  the  voracity  of  the 
diflurent  kinds  of  fishes,  the  smaller  classes  must  have 
Ion?  since  fallen  victims  to  the  avidity  of  the  larger,  had 
not  nature  skilfully  proportioned  the  means  of  their  es- 
cape, their  numbers,  and  their  productive  powers,  to  the 
eitent  and  variety  of  the  dangers  to  which  they  are  un- 
ceasingly exposed.  To  supply  the  constant  waste  occa- 
lioned  by  their  destruction  in  the  unequal  combat,  they 
are  not  only  more  numerous  and  prolific  than  the  larger 
ipecies,  but,  by  a  happy  instinct,  are  directed  to  seek  for 
food  and  protection  near  the  shore,  where,  from  the  shal- 
lowness of  the  water,  their  foes  are  unable  to  pursue 
them.  These,  however,  yielding  lo  the  strong  impulse 
of  hunger,  become  plunderers  in  their  turn,  and  revenge 
the  injuries  committed  on  their  kind  by  destroying  the 
ipawn  of  the  greater  fishes,  which  they  find  floating  upon 
the  surface  of  the  water. 

« In  what  mannerdigcstinn,  tOBUch  an  amazing  extent 
and  ra[>idity,  is  carried  on  in  the  stomach  of  fishes,  the 
inquiries  of  naturalists  have  at  present  been  unable  to 
ascertain.  It  so  far  exceeds  every  thing  that  can  be 
effected  either  by  trituration,  the  operation  of  heat,  or  of 
•  dissolving  fluid,  that  a  celebrated  physician  (Dr.  Hun- 
ter), after  various  experiments,  was  of  opinion  that  none 
of  these  causes  were  equal  to  the  eflfect,  and  that  the  di- 
gestive force  in  the  cold  maw  of  fishes  is  so  great  as  to 
overturn  the  systems  that  have  attempted  to  account  for 
it  on  those  principles ;  that  by  some  power  in  the  sto- 
mach yet  unknown,  which  from  all  kinds  of  artificial 
maceration  acts  diflcrcntly,  the  meat  taken  into  the  maw 
is  often  seen,  although  nearly  digested,  still  to  retain  its 
original  form ;  and  whilst  ready  for  a  total  dissolution, 
appears  to  the  eye  as  yet  untouched  by  the  force  of  the 
itomach."  It  may  be  added,  that  although  generally 
voracious,  fish  have  a  remarkably  accommodating  appe- 
tite and  will  endure  hunger  a  much  longer  pcriud  than 
most  terrestrial  animals. 

Fishes  arc  for  the  greater  part  oviparous,  that  is,  pro- 
duced by  ogi^s  or  spawn,  in  the  deposition  of  which  a  male 
and  female  fish  are  concerned.  It  is  usual  to  call  the 
male  a  milt  or  miller,  and  the  female  a  rue  or  roiraiier. 
The  process  of  spawning,  which  takes  place  in  secluded 
parts  in  the  licds  of  rivers,  is  involved  in  considerable 
obscurity.  The  salmon,  of  which  most  is  known,  seeks 
the  hi;;her  parts  of  rivers  for  spawning,  and  there  the 
deposit  is  made.  Mr.  Halliduy,  in  his  communications 
to  the  IIouw  of  Common*  on  this  subject,  describes  the 


process  as  fnllowp : — "  When  the/  proceed  to  th«  ihallow 
waters,  which  is  generally  in  the  morning,  or  at  twilight  ' 
in  the  evening,  they  play  round  the  ground,  two  of  them  - 
together.  When  they  begin  to  make  the  furrow,  ihcy 
work  up  the  gravel  rather  againit  the  atjeam,  as  a  talinon 
cannot  work  with  his  head  down  tha  stream,  for  tlia 
water  entering  hie  gills  in  this  manner  would  drowM 
him.  When  they  have  made  a  furrow,  they  go  to  a  ht> 
tie  distance,  the  one  to  one  siile  and  the  other  to  ttia 
other  side  of  the  furrow,  and  throw  themselves  on  their 
sides  when  they  come  together,  and  rubbing  againat  each 
other,  they  shed  their  spawn  both  into  the  furrow  at  once. 
They  do  not  lay  it  all  at  once;  on  the  contrary,  it  re- 
(|uiros  from  about  eight  to  twelve  days  fur  them  to 
lay  their  stock  of  spawn,  which  being  deposited,  the  bed 
is  made  and  covered  as  they  go  along,  both  assisting  ill 
the  operation." 

Immediately  afler  spawning,  all  fish  are  thin  and  poor, 
and  not  worth  the  trouble  of  catching.  In  about  twenty 
days,  if  the  circumstances  be  favourable,  the  eggs  are 
hatched,  and  emit  the  young  fry  of  fish.  The  number 
of  young  is  in  some  cases  enormous.  Carp,  perch,  or 
roach,  pro<luce  from  nO,000  to  200,000  young ;  a  herring 
from  20,000  to  36,000;  a  mackerel  400,000  to  000,000; 
and  a  cod  between  three  and  four  millions.  Of  the  young 
of  any  fish,  however,  comparatively  few  reach  maturity, 
the  greater  proportion  being  devoured  by  enemies  shortly 
afler  hatching.  As  if  for  the  sake  of  mutual  protection, 
most  fish  of  a  kind,  as  may  be  observed  in  the  case  of 
minnows  and  pars,  associate  together  and  swim  in  flocks. 

That  fishes  are  liable  to  diseases  arising  from  varia- 
tions of  temperature  and  other  causes,  there  is  no  reason 
to  doubt;  but  few  are  ever  seen  dead  in  the  water,  there 
being  too  many  scavengers  of  the  deep  to  allow  of  tliis 
waste  of  food.  la  general  the  weak  fall  a  prey  to  the 
strong  before  the  period  of  natural  death.  It  is  under- 
stood that  fishes  possess  a  blunted  nervous  energy,  which 
renders  them  almost  insensible  to  any  ordinary  infliction ; 
and  so  mean  arc  their  reflective  faculties,  that  after 
escaping  from  a  hook  which  has  locerated  their  palate, 
they  will  in  the  next  minute  catch  at  a  similar  bait,  and 
be  hooked  a  second  time  and  drawn  frum  the  water.  A 
number  of  years  ago,  two  young  gentlemen,  while  fishing 
in  a  lake  in  Dumfriesshire,  having  expended  their  stock 
of  worms,  had  recourse  to  the  expedient  of  picking  out 
thn  eyes  of  the  dead  perch  they  had  taken,  and  at- 
taching them  to  their  hooks — a  bait  which  this  fish  if 
known  to  take  as  readily  as  any  other;  one  of  the  perch 
caught  in  this  manner  struggled  so  much  when  taken 
out  of  the  water,  that  the  hook  hod  no  sooner  been 
loosened  from  its  mouth  than  it  came  in  contact  with  one 
of  its  eyes,  and  actually  tore  it  out.  In  the  struggle,  tha 
fish  slipped  through  the  holder's  fingers,  and  again 
escaped  to  its  native  element.  The  disappointed  fisher 
still  retaining  the  eye  of  the  aquatic  fugitive,  adjusted 
it  on  the  hook,  and  again  committed  his  lino  to  the 
waters.  After  a  short  interval,  on  pulling  up  the  Une  he 
was  astonished  to  find  the  identical  perch  that  eluded  his 
grasp  a  few  minutes  l)efore,  and  which  literally  perished 
in  swallowing  its  own  eye. 

Fishes  are  exposed  not  only  to  external  foes,  which  it 
requires  all  their  dexterity  to  elude,  but  to  the  torment 
of  parasitical  marauders  in  their  own  person.  Beside* 
creatures  which  make  a  lodgment  in  the  intestines,  vari- 
ous parasites  fix  themselves  beneath  the  scales,  in  the 
mouth,  and  upon  the  gills.  Salmon,  perch,  trout,  and 
other  fresh-water  fish,  are  preyed  upon  in  this  manner 
by  difTerent  species  of  lice ;  and  as  some  of  these  para- 
sites cannut  live  in  salt  water,  it  has  been  supposed  that 
one  of  the  reasons  fur  the  salmon  migrating  to  the  sea 
is  to  relieve  itself  from  the  lice  (lernea  s«/nio«eo)  wluch 
have  adhered  to  its  gills.  The  trout  louae,  or  Itrntm 
trulia,  is  not  unknown  to  trout  fishers. 


INFORMATION  POR  THK  PEOPLE. 


ijfc"") 


ritaiifo  TACKLi.  ' 

The  Rwl. 
Thil  if  th«  chief  implement  of  th«  otiitlpr.  It  ought 
to  Im  ilrong,  but  pnrfnrtjy  elmitic,  and  Iwiul,  on  iN-inft 
waved,  through  iti  upper  half,  Ixit  pnrlinilnrly  nt  tlie 
■mall  tapering  point.  Thn  wixxl  moMt  Huilahle  in  liicknry 
or  Mh,  with  7e-.v  for  tho  upper  purt,  to  whi(>li  a  point  of 
whalebone  i«  attached.  'I'he  aizu  nml  atrenKth  niuil  ile- 
pnnd  on  the  nature  of  the  duty  to  whirh  the  riNi  in  put. 
One  for  traut,  perch,  Ac,  ou^ht  to  he  from  twelve  to  flf- 
toen  feet  in  length,  and  a  salmon  one  from  aixtren  to 
twenty  tcet,  Iwsiiles  luMnn  conaiilernbly  Htroiiifer.  Whjil- 
tiver  be  the  UniKth,  it  must  Iw  quite  ntniiKht,  nnd  on  all 
occuionii  benil  hark  to  it*  originul  RtraiRht[i<!M*i.  If  thnru 
Iw  a  ainKle  knot  in  the  timber  reject  it,  for  it  will  rcrtiiinly 
snap  at  the  (irat  Hpvrre  pull  or  jerk.  It  Hh>iul<l  l>e  viir- 
niahed,  to  prut<>rt  it  from  the  nclion  of  the  wulrr.  'I'ho 
rod  i8  not  all  of  one  piece.  For  the  nuke  of  ronvrnieruu', 
it  i«  divided  into  four,  or  perhapHiiix  piorcit  in  the  length. 
Theae  pieces  are  UDimlly  joined  h  meuna  of  iicri'ws  and 
voiules;  but  if  this  lie  the  plan  of  the  rod  otfcrcd  to  your 
choice,  take  care  to  iM-e  that  (hpHe  mclal  junction*  do  not 
impair  the  hemlinif  pro|M>rtieg  of  the  iuHlrumcnt,  or  ren- 
der it  too  heavy.  Rudn  of  a  plain  kind  m:ido  in  the 
eountry  are  apliced  with  wnxeil  thrends,  and  thrao  arc 
generally  more  acrviccible  than  the  fine  liHikiiii^  nxln 
manufactured  in  citiea.  Listen  to  whiit  John  Younir,  of 
St.  Boawrlla,  (a  villni;e  on  the  Tweed)  says  on  this  »u\<- 
JBct: — "To  those  who  reside  near  the  water,  I  would  ro- 
•ommend  a  rod  all  of  glui'd  and  tied  joints  as  iM-st  in 
point  of  real  use,  and  not  ao  liable  to  break  in  the  moment 
of  action.  Or,  indeed,  even  for  travelling;,  I  would  pre- 
fer tied  joints,  as  wherever  a  |>crson  hns  lime  to  stop  to 
fiah,  thoui;h  only  for  a  day  or  two,  he  huii  at  least  five 
minutes  to  spare  for  tyini;  his  rod  in  a  suiricient  manner. 
Rods  are  often  brcakinit  at  brass  joints,  and  those  who 
Use  them,  instead  of  bringing  in  a  buck-load  of  linh,  are 
constantly  arriving  home  from  the  water,  telling  you, 
•  I've  broke  my  rod !'  Such  sickening  news  may  gone- 
rally  be  prevented  by  tied  joints."* 

At  the  bottom  of  the  rod  where  it  is  grasped  by  the 
hand,  a  brass  reel  or  /nrn  is  attached,  and  on  this  the  line 
is  wound.  It  should  he  simple  in  its  mechanism,  so  as 
to  allow  of  ex))nditious  winding  or  unwinding.  The 
line  is  conducted  from  the  reel  to  the  up|)er  termination 
through  small  wire  loops,  in  Scotland  called  niylim.  which 
are  fixed  to  the  rod  ;  these  must  be  in  an  even  line  when 
the  pieces  of  the  rod  are  joined  together,  and  be  almut  a  foot 
asunder.  U\fa!luon  ihle  rods,  the  mylics  arc  smoll  rings 
held  by  wires  to  the  rod,  and  they  t-onveniently  fall  Hat 
when  the  rod  is  not  in  use.  (i»od  m^rviceable  rmis  re- 
quire no  such  elegance  of  dci^ii^n.  'I'ho  angler  wha  is 
akilled  in  his  art  care:)  nothini;  for  finery  of  apparatus, 
and  will  pull  out  doztins  of  fish  in  a  <lay  with  an  instru- 
Bwnt  which  many  would  think  not  worth  the  carrying. 

Lines. 

These  should  lie  long,  smooth,  light,  and  flexible,  and 
of  a  material  which  will  not  be  cttHily  injured  by  wet. 
These  qualities  are  found  in  lines  made  of  horse  hair  and 
gut,  which  we  recommend  in  preference  to  any  oilier.  The 
part  of  the  line  which  is  wound  on  the  reel,  and  goes 
along  the  rod,  is  called  the  reel  li'it :  and  l)eing  designed 
to  be  let  out  only  on  occasions  when  a  fish  darts  olt  with 
a  hook  in  its  mouth,  it  nerd  not  be  so  thin  and  light  as 
the  bulk  of  the  portion  termed  the  rasiint;  linr.  'I'he 
reel  line,  which  may  be  about  thirty  yards  in  length  for 
ordinary  trout  fishing,  is  formed  by  spinning  together 
horse  hairs,  so  as  to  make  a  fine  even  cord.  As  it  is 
troublesome  to  make,  it  should  be  purchased  from  a  re- 


••'On  River  Atielinir  for  Snlmon  ami  Trnnl."  by  John  Young, 
M,  tfcsnrlli     Ediilburnii :  Ulttikwiioil  and  SJuii>.     1H40. 


•prrtahle  dealer  in  fishinit  tackle.  It  thould  |i«  f,^ 
twelve  to  flileen  hairs  in  thicknesa,  the  huirs  iHiiiig  w|,|t, 
fresb,  nnd  well  cleaned.  The  lino  for  salmon  ahoulH  roik 
tain  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four  hairs,  and  extend  tnti 
least  sixty  yarda  in  length. 

The  casting  line,  which  is  united  by  a  loop  to  thetM 
line,  inny  be  also  of  horse  hnir.  but  of  a  smaller  textur» 
and  lighter  in  weight.  It  should  he  five  lengths  of  hain' 
in  extent,  the  uppermost  length  Inking  eight  huirs  in  (ai(|,. 
noas,  and  gradually  diminishing  the  numlier  to  three  or 
four  in  the  lowest  length.  To  the  lower  end  of  this  cam. 
iiig  line  is  added  the  i^ut  linr,  which  is  the  part  that  ais 
tnally  falls  upon  the  water,  and  therefore  requin-s  tc  U 
very  fine.  It  consists  of  a  series  of  strong  gut,  nml  ten 
IS  attached  the  short  lengths  or  casts  of  gut  on  whirh  ai» 
the  h(Hiks.  In  some  instances,  the  casting  line  is  alto, 
getlier  made  of  gut,  on  which  usually  more  dcpi'ndenoi) 
can  be  placed  than  on  hair  line%;  if  of  gut,  three  threada 
ant  sufficient  for  the  thickness. 

On  the  article  gut,  Mr.  Btoddart  hns  the  followini  otv 
servations : — "  Thia  article,  originally  imported  fmni  (he 
east,  and  now  brought  in  considerable  quantitir*  fmn, 
iHpain  nnd  Italy,  is,  as  fir  ns  we  have  U^en  able  tu  learn 
fabri.'Hti.'d  from  the  male  silk-worm  in  a  state  of  deroni! 
position.  The  oi)erntiori  is  principall)  •omlurled  hy 
rhildren,  and  consists  in  removing  the  external  sliiinh  of 
the  worm  with  the  fingers,  elonguting  at  the  same  lime  iho 
gluey  substance  which  composes  its  entrails.  Todnlliii 
pro|H'rly  reijuires  some  cnre  nnd  attention.  Should  the 
worm  be  kept  too  long,  a  hard  crust  forms  itself  over  it, 
in  destroying  which  the  application  of  the  nail  ii  nm> 
sary  ;  hence  the  gut  becomes  flattened,  and  loKca  murh 
of  its  value.  The  oiiiews  of  herons  and  other  hirds  ire 
also  manufactured  in  8pain  into  a  sort  of  gut,  and  art 
much  used,  although  unwittingly,  by  our  salinciii  fnhera. 
Worm-gut  varies  in  length  from  nearly  two  fnct  and 
downwards.  Wc  have  seen,  however,  an  article  wry 
closely  resembling  it  from  the  Archii)clago,  which  mea- 
sures nt  least  a  yard  and  n  half.  This  is  not  to  be  con- 
founded with  wa-weed,  although  a  vegetable  fibre,  aiij 
drawn  out  of  a  plant.  It  is  nmch  stronger  and  better 
suited  for  angling.  The  inhnbitants  of  the  Greek  inkniji 
use  it  for  catching  mullet,  and  will  often  toss  a  fiahioiM 
poundn'  weight  over  their  heads  by  .1  thread  or  two,  We 
ourselves  have  found  it  excellent  lor  the  larger  aorta  <if 
tackle.  Animal  gut  is,  however,  more  generally  used, 
and  better  adapted  for  trouting.  It  ought  to  be  (mall, 
round,  and  transparent,  without  any  flaw  or  roughness 
When  worn  or  disordered,  the  application  of  a  piece  of 
Indian  rubber  will  ut  once  renovate  it.  In  joining  threadi 
together  for  the  purpose  of  making  caaU,  the  single  knot 
properly  drawn  is  quite  sufficient.  One  should  avoid  clip. 
ping  the  usclesii  extremities  too  closely  in  this  o[ieralion 
as  in  thtt  case  the  knot  is  somewhat  liable  to  give  Wd< 
Out,  to  keep  well,  should  l)0  moistened  with  fine  oil,  aid 
stored  in  oiled  paper."* 

To  these  recommendationB  we  may  add,  that  linei 
of  all  kinds  shoubl  be  kept  dry.  On  returnini;  froin  1 
fishing  excursion,  draw  out  the  line,  and  let  itbcthi' 
roughly  dried  by  waving  in  the  nir  before  Ix-ing  woudo 
up  or  Inid  aside.  When  to  be  again  used,  look  it  over 
giving  it  a  gentle  tug  here  and  there  to  try  its  strenslb, 
and  repair  damaged  parts.  On  coming  to  the  watersiiie, 
anil  just  Iwlbro  throwing,  allow  the  castiui;  line  to  li« 
wetted  in  the  water,  and  this  will  at  once  give  ilBraoolh- 
ness  and  elasticity. 

Houks. 

These  are  small  instruments  made  of  tempered  tol 
and  of  whatever  size,  they  require  to  possess  the  quulilia 
of  lightness  and  great  strength.     They  have  been  alwaji 


•  "  The  An  of  Ain'liiig  B«  praelisi'd  in  Scoilaml."  liyThomu 
To<l  SloiMarl.  K»(i  .  millior  of  tlir  ■' Di-uili  Wiike,"  and  ollia 
pueiii*.     lidiiiburtjb  ;  \V.  and  R.  Cliuinhcrs.    ItOS. 


ANOLINO. 


It  thmiM  l«  fto„ 
10  huint  Imiiig  w||i(, 
malmoinhouUrop.' 
ir«,  and  extend  to  « 

by  ■  I<)opioih,,„ 
->(  •  «inallvr  ti-iture, 
five  IfrMm  of  hain' 
[  cidht  liuini  in  in,,!,. 
iiumlKjr  to  thret  or 
iWBrpnd  of  this  out. 
in  the  purt  thai  lo 
rfitrr  rpqiiiriii  tc  U 
MroiiR  gut,  imd  toil 
of  ffut  on  which  are 
••asliiiK  line  in  alto, 
ly  more  doiHndfnoi) 
of  gut,  three  llireaiU 

iBR  the  following  ol> 
y  iiniMirted  from  the 
ulilo  qumitilio«  from 
i>  Iwen  olile  to  Icurn 
ill  a  slate  of  ijecom. 
|mll>  ■oiidurtcd  hy 
10  nxtotnni  slough  of 
:nt  thonamo  time  the 
cntriiilg.  Todntliii 
•iilion.  Should  the 
I'oriim  itHi'lf  over  it, 
ol  the  niiil  ii  ncro 
led,  and  Iowa  much 
I  iind  other  hirds  ire 
sort  ot'  RUl.  and  are 
f  our  suhiion  fiaheri 
lonrly  two  I'oct  and 
3ver,  an  article  very 
il)clac;o,  which  mea. 
hin  in  not  to  [te  con- 

voRotahle  fibre,  and 
stronm-r  and  better 

of  the  (irei'k  islandi 
ften  tosR  a  fishniiiie 
thread  or  two.  Wj 

the  larger  sorts  .if 
lore  generally  usfd, 

oiiijht  to  be  imsll, 

flaw  or  rouifhneia, 

at  ion  of  a  [licce  of 
In  joining  throaiii 
'ubU,  the  single  knot 
hIiouM  avoid  clip- 
in  this  o[ioratioii, 

lialile  to  give  wn 
with  fine  oil,  and 

lay  add,  that  lino 
returning;  from  i 
and  let  it  be  th» 
■fore  lieing  wouuo 
UKed,  look  it  ovn 
to  try  its  strenslh, 

ig  to  the  water  siiie, 
rusting  line  to  lie 

ince  give  it  smoolli. 


of  tempered  steel, 
possess  the  quulitiei 
y  have  been  alwaji 

<coilniiil.''l>yThomu 
h  Wiike,"  will  oika 

laas. 


■rinrip*".'  manuftcturett  attwoplirea — Kendal,  in  Weit- 
niorelandi  and  Limerirk,  in  Ireland.  The  Kendal  circu- 
Ur  bciKl'i  !>■  '^"y  *!'<'  ralleil,  are  reekoned  the  beat  hooka 
(,'  a  small  ">"  ■  while  the  Limerick  hook  i«  preferable  for 
Minion.  Many  of  the  flah-hooka  of  ordinary  English 
mikeni  RIO  worthleM.  Hooka  range  in  aizo  from  about 
in  inch  and  a  half  in  length  down  to  a  quarter  of  an 
j^^h,  with  u  proportional  diminution  of  thicknew.  Home 
oiak'"  iiuniher  them  from  No.  10,  the  amallest,  to  No. 
jfl  the  largest,  while  others  numlier  from  1,  the  largoil, 
lo  I'l,  the  siinllest.  The  liimerick  hook*  are  denoted 
by  letlrrs,  '  Miinencirig  with  A,  and  ho  on.  In  pur- 
chwin;;  honks,  try  their  power  of  resistance  by  forcing 
the  bend  with  the  fingers,  and  urging  the  point  againit 
the  thunil>-nuil.  Hooks  for  fly-fishing  ihould  be  thinner 
in  the  Hliuiik  than  those  designed  for  bait.  An  angler 
ihoiild  keep  a  small  stock  of  hooka  of  various  sorts,  to 
be  ready  on  all  emergeneies ;  with  the  tackle  to  which 
llwy  are  altaclu'd,  they  require  to  bo  kept  very  dry. 

Landing  Net— ClnfT— Drag-IIook. 

rhe/rt"''i'iff  net  is  considered  in  England  a  necessary 
implement  for  an  angler,  but  in  our  opinion  they  must  bo 
poor  IliikIs  at  fishing  who  cannot  drag  u  trout  or  any 
iiiuilnr  small  fish  from  the  water  afler  hooking  it  without 
resorting  to  such  a  cumbrous  apparatus.  Perhaps  it  is 
found  to  1)0  essential,  in  consequence  of  the  feebleness  of 
the  rods  and  tackle  usually  employed.  It  consists  of  a 
aiDull  bug  net  stretched  on  a  hoop  at  the  extremity  of  a 
polo  four  or  five  feet  in  length.  Mr.  Blaine  seems  to 
lliink  a  landing  net  of  first  importance ;  ond  for  the  use  of 
tyros  in  the  art  he  gives  the  fiillowing  directions: — "  In 
fly-fishing,  when  the  line  is  long,  and  there  is  not  much 
space  to  step  backward,  or  the  reel  clogged,  it  is  neces- 
sary Rometimes  to  lay  hold  of  the  line  with  one  hand  ; 
but  this  shiiuld  be  done  with  groat  caution,  and  then  only 
allcr  the  fish  is  well  nigh  spent,  or  one  struggle  may 
cany  away  line,  hook,  and  fish.  In  all  other  cases  avoid 
touching  the  lino  if  possible ;  but  having  sufficiently 
played  the  fish,  whether  taken  by  bottom  or  by  fly-fishing, 
bring  him  within  reach  of  the  landing  net,  and  then 
carefully  conduct  or  elide  the  net  obliquely  undci  the 
foreparts  of  his  body,  which,  if  the  fish  be  completely  ex- 
hausted, will  fall  into  it;  but  if  ho  has  still  sullicicnt 
tripiur,  it  will  lie  prudent  rather  to  slide  him  over  tho  net 
than  the  net  under  him-  It  must  have  occurred  to  every 
ingler  to  have  supp.ised  a  trout  or  salmon  to  he  com- 
pletely spent,  who,  the  moment  he  hos  been  touched  by 
the  net,  or  has  even  caught  sight  of  the  fisher,  has  sprung 
off  with  most  annoying  violence.  Against  such  an  ac- 
dJcnt  it  is  prudent  to  be  ever  prepared  by  keeping  tho 
tod  in  un  upright  position,  acting  on  a  tightened  lino,  but 
yet  80  disposed  that  it  can  run  at  lilierty  if  required. 
When  the  head  and  shoulders  of  (he  fish  are  once  fairly 
witliin  the  net,  a  slight  turn  of  it  will  take  in  the  whole 
body,  and  the  net  being  then  kept  horizontally,  will  insure 
hissali'ty;  for  with  the  head  downwards,  no  efibrts  he 
can  make  will  disenglige  him  from  the  net ;  but  if  he  be 
received  tail  foremost,  as  is  sometimes'  done  in  deep 
Katcrs,  from  overhanging  banks,  &c.,  beware  of  hia 
plunges."* 

The  ■^iiff  is  another  aid  to  landing  fish,  and  is  cm- 
ployed  in  cases  in  which  the  landing  net  would  be  too 
small.  It  is  used  chiefly  for  landing  salmon,  and  consists 
of  I  iieouliarly-shapcd  hook  at  the  end  of  a  staft  When 
tho  salmon  flounders  about  and  incommodes  the  fisher, 
he  is  cxiH'cted  to  secure  the  animal,  and  prevent  it  from 
breaking  his  line  and  rod  by  hooking  it  with  the  gaff  at 
Iho  liills,  the  liil,  or  any  part  he  can  conveiiiontly  reich. 

The  ilriiii-hodc  is  an  implement  with  three  bent  prongs, 
«r  hooks,  with  a  long  cord  line  attached.  It  is  used  for 
CMting  into  rivers  to  clear  away  any  object  at  the  bottom 


*  f-'ncyclopoxLa  of  Kural  Sports. 
Vol.  1.— 86 


upon  which  the  hook  ii  Might     We  pity  the  anirlar 

who  attempts  fishing  in  weedy  puddles  requiring  itich  ■ 

clearer  of  hindranoea. 

'I: ,- . 
Angler's  rocket-liook,  ke. 

The  angler's  equipment  is  completed  by  tho  addition 
of  a  basket  for  holding  hii  fish,  which  is  ilung  un  tha 
back  by  a  ihouldor-belt  i  also  pucket-lMiok  for  holding 
hooka  and  othor  trifles ;  and  a  round  flut  tin  box  for  hia 
fly-castj).  Many  carry  thoir  supply  of  fiy-casis  wound 
round  their  hat,  and  some  keep  them  within  tho  Icavra 
of  their  pocket-book.  This  pocket-book,  which  ia  tha 
atorehouse  of  all  kinds  of  odds  nnd  ends — we  have  aocn 
a  good  one  made  out  of  an  old  pocket  almanac. — should 
have  two  ar  tliree  pockets  for  holding  an  assortment  of 
hooka,  iilk  thread,  stuff  for  making  flies,  gut,  wax,  small 
cord,  fly-nippora,  scissors,  &c. — all  to  bo  used  in  case  of 
breakage  of  tackle  or  rod,  or  any  otlier  accident. 

In  fishing  for  porch,  gudgeons,  bream,  ^c.,  a  imall 
float  is  oilen  used.  Floats  are  inado  of  cork,  quill,  and 
othor  materials;  and  a  choice,  according  to  circumstance*, 
can  be  added  to  the  contents  of  the  pocket-book. 

Dreis. — All  finery  is  worse  than  useless.  Fish  are 
easily  scared  with  the  appearance  of  any  light  or  showy 
object  un  the  banks.  Let  the  angler,  therefore,  dreia 
himself  in  a  plain  dull-coloured  suit,  with  a  hat  equally 
sober  in  its  as|icct,  and  let  him  use  only  strung  shoes  or 
boots,  which  will  not  be  injured  by  water. 

Baits. 

A  bait  ii  any  substance  put  upon  a  hook  to  act  a*  ■ 
lure  to  tho  fish ;  and  when  used,  tho  baited  hook  ia 
dropped  into  and  allow  itd  to  sink  in  the  water,  instead 
of  being  kept  near  or  upon  the  surface,  as  in  the  case  of 
fishing  with  fiy.  The  materials,  living  and  dead,  used 
for  bait  are  very  numerous ;  but  the  leading  kinds  art 
worms,  maggots,  minnows,  insects,  and  salmon  roc.  I'hs 
hook  employed  in  cither  case  is  tied  by  the  shank  to  the 
gut  with  waxed  silk,  and  tho  preparation  is  therefore  not 
at  all  difficult.  When  dressed  to  tho  gut,  it  ia  called 
bait  or  worm-tackle. 

IVoints  used  for  bait  are  of  various  sorts ;  but  that 
which  is  most  commonly  employed  is  tho  lob  or  garden 
worm,  a  long  reddish-coloured  reptile  found  in  abund- 
ance in  many  gardens,  grass-plots,  and  in  any  rich  old 
soil,  Tliey  may  bo  dug  up  with  a  spade,  or  caught 
crawling  from  their  holes  at  twilight,  and  particularly 
after  heavy  showers.  « He  who  seeks  them,"  says 
Daniel,  "  must  move  cautiously  without  noise,  or  they 
will  quickly  retreat  into  the  earth ;  draw  them  gently 
out  of  their  holes  without  nipping ;  thpso  that  sever  in 
taking  must  be  thrown  away,  as  they  will  soon  become 
putrid,  nnd  infect  the  others;  when  as  many  are  collected 
as  are  wanted,  having  plenty  of  good  moss  freed  from 
dirt,  dip  it  into  clean  water,  and  wring  it  nearly  dry ;  put 
it  into  an  earthen  pot  proportioned  to  tho  quantity  of 
worms,  laying  it  regular,  and  forcing  it  down  with  the 
hands ;  strew  the  worms  on  the  surface,  af\er  dipping 
them  in  clear  cold  water  to  rid  them  of  the  soil  that  may 
adhere  to  them  ;  such  as  are  not  injured  will  soon  bury 
themselves  in  the  moss,  and  those  that  do  not  must  the 
next  morning  lie  picked  off  as  useless  ;  they  must  be  in- 
spected every  three  or  four  days,  the  dead  ones  removed 
and  have  fresh  moss,  or  that  wherein  they  have  been 
kept  well  washed  nnd  picked,  and  the  water  squeezed 
out  at  least  once  a  week;  they  mu.st  be  so  placed  sum- 
mer and  winter  as  to  be  safe  from  the  extremity  of  tha 
weather  nt  both  seasons.  In  a  week's  time  they  will  be 
fit  for  use ;  and  upon  the  angler  coining  home  from  fish- 
ing, he  will  return  from  his  worni-ba:;  into  the  pot  those 
which  he  has  not  used.  I3y  observing  the  above  care 
fully,  they  may  be  kept  a  month  in  summer,  particularly 
by  now  and  then  giving  them,  drop  by  drop  upon  tha 
mo.ss,  a  small  quantity  of  new  milk  and  the  yo(k  of  an 
ogg  well  beaten  together,  and  warmed  so  as  to  Ihickeu 


INFORMATION  FOR  THR  PKOPLR. 


H;  bat  when  •  itnrk  nf  Inh  worma  ii  mMnl  to  b«  ratain>»l 
fer  ■  coniUlnmhls  IriiKth  of  lltn«>,  ■  Ur^  tmmI  inuat  lia 
flilcd  half  or  lhrpr-<]iiarten  full  of  goiHl  mould,  In  Iha 
middle  nf  whirh  i>  to  He  plarril  lonM  iixM*  or  uld  roane 
linen  clolha,  ho|Mirk,  nr  rait*  wntted  ;  in  hoi,  drjr  wrather, 
cie«a  wator  miiat  !«  upriiiklfd  upon  Iha  earth  with  a 
waUrinn-iHit,  »>  aa  lo  kiwp  tlintn  mniat  hut  not  wet ;  Ihry 
majr  thu*  he  prearrveti  ai  long  ai  i«  requiaite ;  and  • 
w*ik  liefore  aiii(liiiK,  what  are  wanted  may  be  drawn 
from  the  alore,  and  put  into  innaa  to  arour  thcmarlvra," 
Another  worm,  whirh  ia  found  in  dunghilla,  rallt-d  the 
brandling,  from  ila  •tri|M-d  apitearaiice,  forma  •  good  bait, 
bat  it  ia  aeldom  ua«*d. 

Maggntn. — Thrnc  liirvB  of  inaecta,  aa  ia  well  known, 
•re  found  on  fly-lilown  nirat  or  any  putrid  animal  auh- 
atancea ;  very  Ann  onra  are  prorurrd  from  game  in  a  hiiik 
condition.     Danirl  ralla  thnno  creaturea  ntntln,  and  de- 
■erihea  them  ai  of  great  virtui*  in  rtiruin  kinda  of  fishing ; 
^^  Oentlca,"  he  oliaervca,  "  may  be  prorurrd  almoat  at 
any  time  at  thp  tallow-chandleri,  and  ahould  be  kept  in 
oatmeal  and  bran,  aa  bran  by  ilarif  ia  too  dry.     Thoae 
who  live  in  or  nrar  London  may  buy  thvm  in  proper 
condition  for  the  day  on  which  they  wiih  to  um>  thrm  ; 
but  for  the  arpommmlntion  of  thoae  who  reaido  in  the 
country,  remote  from  aurh  ronveiiienro,  the  beat  mcxlra 
of  braeding  them  will  lie  here  mentioned,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent diaappointmenta.     Courae  flith,  auch  aa  rhiih  and 
roach,  may  br  laid  in  an  earthen  |>ot  in  the  ahade,  and 
will  aoon  Iw  (Iy-l)!own  ;  when  the  gentloa  are  of  the  pro- 
per aiie  (but  not  before),  put  aome  oatmeal  and  bran  to 
them,  and  in  two  day*  they  will  he  well  acoured  and  flt 
to  fiih  with  i  in  about  four  more  they  become  hard,  aa- 
■ume  a  pule  red  colour,  and  aoon  after  change  to  (lira ; 
Iha  red  onua  ahould  not  be  thrown  away,  aa  iTe<|ucntly 
roach  and  dare  take  theae  with  a  white  one,  in  prefer- 
ence to  all  other  liaita.      Some   have  recommended  a 
piece  of  liver  aiispended  by  a  atick  over  a  barrel  of  clay, 
into  which  the  gontlna  fall  and  cleanie  thrmaclvoa;  but 
day  will  not  a<x>ur  them,  and,  beaidea,  they  fall  from  the 
liver  before  thry  have  attained  their  full  aizc.     The  be- 
fore-mentioned ia  a  Icaa  diaguating  plan;  for  a  abort  time 
after  oatmeal  and  hrnn  are  put  to  the  gcntlea,  the  flih  in 
which  they  are  bred  will  be  found  perfect  akeletons,  and 
may  be  thrown  away;  however,  if  they  are  to  bo  bre.l 
from  liver,  it  ahould  be  acariflcd  deeply  in   many  pu^i.-, 
and  then  hung  up  and  nearly  covered  over,  aa  '  i  iliat 
way  the  fliea  will  Mow  it  b<>tter  than  when  wholly  ex- 
poaed ;  in  two  or  three  daya  the  gcntlea  will  !«  seen 
alive ;  the  liver  ia  then  to  lie  put  into  an  eartlicn  pan, 
and  there  remain  until  the  flrat  brood  are  of  full  ii:rowth; 
a  auffieient  quantity  of  fine  aanil  and  bran,  (letting  the 
liver  remain)  ia  then  to  be  put  into  the  pan,  and  in  a 
few  daya  they  will  come  from  the  fleah,  and  acour  them- 
•elvea  in  it:  the  liver  ahould  then  be  hung  acroaa  the  ' 
pan,  and  t'le  latter  brood  will  aoon  drop  out  and  lie  fit  ! 
for  uae;  and  by  thua  breeding  them  in  October,  and  | 
ceeping  them  a  little  warmer   than  thoae  bred  in  the  j 
•ummer,  until  they  arrive  at  their  full  growth,  and  after-  ! 
warda  putting  them  in  the  aame  pan  into  a  damptab 
•ault,  they  may  be  preserved  for  winter  fiHhing.     Those 
bred  in  aummcr,  hut  for  the  bran  and  aand,  would  aoon  \ 
•ink  into  a  dormant  state ;  the  akina  take  on  a  blackish-  | 
red,  full  of  white  matter,  and  shortly  after  become  flies ;  > 
tb*i«e  prmluced  in   autumn,  from  whatever   suhstanre,  ' 
w>U  continui:  in  'hia  atate  a'l  the  winter,  provided  they 
can  aheltcr  ihev  "Ivea  under  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  | 
fi»  xls,  gardi"ia,  <*         a>i<d  in  thn  warm  weather  uf  the  i 
ensuing  spriit;  lir        ,ftr..re  into  flies,  thus  preserving  ' 
tlwir  kind  Ironi  ;-">>'  \    yeur.     O.  ,itles  are  nc  universal 
ahd  so  alluring;  a  biil,  ;  at  tVc<  angler  ahould  never  \te  | 
■uprovided  with  thei.i.     Troy  is  have  bec.i  I'^ken  with  \ 
Itleni  in  clear  vater,  wh;-:i  t'aey  have  refu<c«!  ail  kinda  ; 
afwomu  and  artificial  flicu.''  | 

Caddis,  or  cud-baU,  ia  aaotber  kind  of  ;  urvB,  ioliabit- , 


ing  pieces  of  straw,  or  adhering  to  Mta  nf  ttirk  m  imj 
at  the  aidra  of  rivera.  Daniel  baa  aome  internMlni  ob> 
aervstiona  on  this  aperies  of  bait  t— ••  The  aeveral  kInJa 
of  cadews  in  their  nympha  or  maggot  state,  thiM  houia 
themselves ;  one  sort  in  straw,  thrnre  callnl  ttUtir. 
worms;  others  in  two  or  more  parallel  sticks,  rrecpjnt  tl 
the  bottom  of  hnmks;  a  third  in  a  small  bundle  ofpliirf, 
of  rushes,  duck-weed,  Ac,  glued  together,  thrrewilh  th»i 
float  on  the  surface,  and  can  row  themselvcH  sh<iul  thg 
water  with  the  help  nf  their  feet ;  both  theae  arn  ralM 
cad-bait  It  ia  a  curious  faculty  that  theae  rrraiurn 
possess  of  gathering  stirh  b<Nlie*  as  are  lUlcat  for  thrii 
purpose,  and  then  so  glueing  them  together,  an,op  tii  I* 
heavier  than  wiiter,  that  the  animal  inny  rei  i.tin  if  \x>^ 
torn  where  its  food  ia,  and  other*  to  Iw  so  li'i  .^^^i  f, 
to  float,  and  there  collect  its  Rustermnce ;  these  houiioi 
are  coarse,  and  show  nu  outward  art,  but  are  within 
well  tunnelled,  and  have  a  tough  hard  paste,  into  whirh 
the  hinder  part  of  the  maggot  ia  ao  fixed  llmt  ita  ,'e||  nj, 
bo  drawn  after  it  without  danger  of  leaving  it  liehind 
and  it  can  also  thrust  out  its  body  to  reach  the  needful 
aupplios,  or  withdraw  into  ita  covering  tor  protection  in| 
aaiety. 

■*  These  insects  inhabit  pits,  ponds,  low  nmning  riven, 
or  ditches,  in  caaea  of  diflerent  forms,  and  rompniiod  of 
various  materials ;  some  of  them  enclosed  in  a  very  rougb 
shell,  found  among  weeds  in  standing  waters,  are  atnc 
rally  tinged  green ;  others  lire  bigger  than  a  gentle,  and 
of  a  yellowish  hue,  with  a  black  head  ;  they  are  i  i  ei, 
rellont  bait,  and  are  found  in  most  plenty  in  Krivr';-, 
and  stony  rivulets,  and  by  the  aide*  of  Htreamn  in  |irg« 
rivers  among  stones, 

•■  To  collert  them,  turn  up  the  stones,  and  the  heat  kill 
adhere  to  them ;  when  the  quantity  wanti't  ia  obtninrd 
put  them  into  a  linen  bag  for  five  or  aix  diiya,  di|i  tlicm, 
together  with  the  bag,  into  water  once  a  day,  and  hang 
them  up;  they  will  then  turn  yellow,  become  tough, 
and  fitter  for  ani^ling  than  when  hrat  got  from  the  hrnik, 
If  meant  to  bo  kept  long,  they  must  be  put  into  a  thick 
woollen  bag,  with  aome  of  the  moist  grovel  or  sand  from 
the  same  rivulet  whence  they  are  taken ;  they  muit  b« 
wetted  twice  a  duy,  but  ortener  in  very  hot  weather; 
v^  'icn  you  rarry  them  abroad,  fill  the  bag  with  water, 
uiid  holding  the  mouth  of  it  close,  let  the  water  run  from 
thim;  in  this  way  they  may  be  kept  three  weeks.  An- 
ol'i  T  way  of  preserving  them  ia  by  placing  them  in  an 
earthen  pot  full  of  river  water,  with  some  of  the  gravel 
they  were  bred  in  at  the  bottom;  but  the  prcceilin; 
method  is  preferable.  Some  uso  bait  pjna  of  iliflercul 
sizes  for  insects,  the  tops  punched  full  nf  huleii,  not  n 
largo  as  to  admit  of  their  escaping  when  placed  in  ibe 
river,  which  not  only  keeps  them  cool,  but  suppliea  thtm 
with  aliment  in  the  fresh  water ;  some  keep  them  in 
moss  in  a  woollen  bag  on  a  damp  floor,  taking  care  lliil 
the  bag  retains  a  proper  moisture.  Another  mode  of 
preserving  caddis,  and  also  graaahoppcrs,  ■■atcrpillan, 
oak-worms,  or  natural  flies,  is  to  take  the  green  wit):; 
bark  from  a  bough  six  or  s<'>(  ■-  incl'cs  round,  ond  abool 
a  foot  in  length ;  turn  boti.  '  .  ' .  <iru  the  .orm  ot  a  hoop, 
ind  fasten  them  with  a  lart  nM'i'h  •  i,(!  ''>rcad;  stopuD 
the  bottom  with  cork,  7  .^  i >...•,'  u  «  full  of  hold 

with  a  red-hot  wire ;  tie  .<  f;^  ii  <j  colcvvorl  leaf,  and  laj 
it  in  the  grass  every  night.  In  this  manner  caddii  mi; 
be  preserved  until  they  turn  to  fliea.  When  grassho;* 
pers  arc  to  be  preserved  in  the  caae,  aome  grass  mQ)l  t« 
put  uito  it. 

"  In  angling  with  caddis,  the  line,  when  all  out.ahoulil 
))e  as  long  as  the  rod,  for  three  lengths  next  the  hot'li, 
of  single  hairs,  with  the  smallest  float,  and  the  ki* 
weight  of  lead  that  the  swiftness  of  the  stream  will  albw 
to  sink ;  and  that  may  lie  aided  by  avoiding  the  violeDd 
of  the  current,  and  angling  in  the  returns  of  a  8trcaiii,il 
in  the  eddies  between  two;  which  are  also  thn  !»<( 
likely  places  wherein  to  kill  fish,  either  at  the  lop  n 


drKcnii  rii   'dl 


l,^,(/,y,f 


ANOLING. 


•^ 


0  put  into  a  thick 


Th<*  i'><Mia  nuiy  Im  at  tlmna,  with  v  v  !<x)<l 
ffl^t,  joiiiml  tji  ■  wuriii,  anil  aoiiMtittMi  tu  an  vrliiirial 
If  to  ('.uver  ttia  (Miint  ol'  a  iitxik,  anil  alio  two  or  tlirea 
|J«lh«r  tnuy  Iw  put  in  iip<ni  the  hook  ;  hut  it  la  alwayi 
10  h»  ■iikI<'<'  ^i'h  ■*'  ''^^  hottoin,  rapcciaily  when  hy 
lurir,  with  the  lincKt  laiklo,  anil  at  all  aeaaoiia  ia  a  ni»«< 
holiling  l«it  li'f  trout  unci  Rrayling." 

Minnuu'  liiti  ■ — MinnowN  iirii  a  imall  flih,  from  an  Inch 
Inlwoini'hea  in  IcuKth  ;  thvy  iwiin  in  florku,  and  may 
lui  capturixt  hy  »  hiiii|)-ni't  on  Ihu  rn<l  of  a  atafT,  or  mure* 
amply  '>y  "  t'rookfii  pill  haitdj  with  a  iniall  worm. 
Anfltr*  Ki'iiiTully  him  a  boy  to  riitrh  a  quiinliiv  of 
thtiO'  ''>('  tucklca  uiwd  for  minnow  Itiiit  nrn  vari<i>H  li 
ibeir  fiirriiiitiiin ;  iiomi-  nrn  aini^le  hooka;  othera  n  pai 
of  biMik"  ilri'iiMt'il  hiii'k  to  linrk ;  ami  ii  third  kind  arc  a 
KriM  of  jMira,  onn  iilxivo  iiiiothvr.  We  riiiinot  do  lict- 
lerlhtn  givr  Mr.  MliHkhirt'i  dewripliuM  of  thuM  dradly 
inilruincntii,  and  tho  nio<lo  of  haitiiiK  tliein.  He  ulludoa 
10  Kentlul  hooka : — 

■I Tilt)  niiMt  Dimple,  and  in  lome  |ilacea  tho  moat  dendiy, 
ii  I  coiniiKiii  «i  >tlo  f'lit  h  Mik.  TImi  'vo  inaert  through 
ihelwck  of  th'  i  '"i.'  vv,  uud  drawing  it  out,  run  hclow 
Uiagill,  '  I  h«  '  irh  to  protiudo  from  tho  mouth; 
we'.'iili'  'it  t><  >''  I  u.ig  the  i{Ut,  either  with  u  piprn 
of  ii.  'hrM  !,  '>r  muri'  ex|M>ditiouKly  with  the  xut  itwlf, 
yio*  I  ov' '  ''lit  part,  riiiii  in  anitU'd  with  in  tlio  nuiiio 
miiiik.  a.  woriii,  allowing;  ph'iity  of  time  for  tho 

Ml  to  Korpt.  A  tiicklo  Himilur  tu  it  may  Ih:  iiacd  in 
^unJing  |xioIm  or  ioiin*.  Hun*,  however,  tho  shank  of 
ihn  book  (a  ton^  one)  in  loaded,  and  the  Imit  allowed  to 
dfKeni!  ru  'dl.  towurda  the  liottoin.  Large  cautioim 
fiih  are  tumetiinea  taken  hy  thin  method  of  niigliii);.  Of 
ill  miiiiiow  turkleit,  that  with  awivelH  ia  the  cdinnioiieRt 
ind  matt  iiijreeuhle  to  employ.  There  arc  many  wayH 
of  conslrui'tuio;  it.  Two  of  theao  wo  shall  mention  as 
prefertlilc  lo  nil  others.  One  ia  simply  a  largo  hook, 
No,  11,  fiiNtened  to  good  round  gut  with  two  smaller 
oiiei,  No,  7,  tied  hack  tu  hack  nlMive,  and  looped  in  tho 
dfouing,  so  ns  to  slide  along,  and  shorten  or  lengthen 
the  lioklc  to  the  dimeiiHionH  of  the  t>ait.  In  using  it, 
enur  the  lowermoHt  hook  through  the  mouth,  and  hring 
it  out  near  the  tail  of  the  minnow  ;  insert  one  of  the 
hooki  on  the  slider  through  its  lips,  noticing  that  the  fish 
be  ilighlly  curved  so  as  to  spin  pro|H!rly.  Tho  other 
tackle  ia  coinfiosed  of  six  hooks.  No.  7,  dresaed  in  pairs, 
inil  in  aiiKluU  with  only  when  iho  trout  are  in  a  taking 
mood.  Two  or  more  swivels  are  required  for  both  of 
these  contrivances — tho  lowermost  fastened  about  two 
feet  or  80  above  the  bait.  Leaden  pellets  may  also  ho 
ujcl,  hut  many  think  them  unnecessary.  Some  anglers 
itlarh  lieliind  tlio  whole  apparatus  an  extra  hook,  No. 
13  ij  13,  drcrMHl  upon  a  hog's  bristle,  which,  should  tho 
trout  miss  the  minnow,  is  apt  tu  catch  him,  when  retir- 
ini,  by  the  middle  or  other  part  of  tho  body.  This  is  a 
luperfluity,  and,  like  many  superfluities,  docs  more  harm 
than  godl,  alarming  the  fish  wi'hout  securing  them. 
Tackle  for  trolling  with  par  or  k  uall  trout  ought  to  be 
KDstructed  on  the  same  principU's  ss  the  minnow  tackle; 
only  th'  I  ks  should  be  largei  i:id  dressed  upon  gim|i 
ini'teid  of  gut  Snap-hooks,  also,  are  in  use  for  this 
kind  of  angling.  Small  silk  curd  oiled  will  be  found  the 
belt  trolling-lino." 

hurU. — The  insects  iihimI  for  baits  are  grasshoppers, 
tricketi,  day-flies,  spring-liios,  May.flies,  humble  lx)es, 
ud  nnous  others.  Thi>  epiiemcm,  or  those  fragile 
treitures  that  live  but  for  a  day  or  even  a  few  hours, 
ind  therefore  called  day-Qies.  are  ibund  sporting  by  tho 
It  *  banks  of  rivers  in  witrm  weather,  and  form  a  taking 
bait  for  trout  and  some  otlier  lis:  .  . 

Sdlinmi  Roe. — The  efl'  tent  use  of  this  as  a  bait  is  a 
modem  disoovery,  and  hu.<  added  largely  to  the  angler's 
meanH  of  capturing  tho  lishy  tribes.  The  roe  ia  taken 
from  t  salmon  a  fortnight  before  spawning,  nt  which  time 
t  ii  beat  fur  \be  purpose.     Some  prepare  it  for  use  by 


aa'tinf  .1  •  little,  and  dryiiif  it  to  •  iiale  in  whieh  il 
will  keep  t  others  cure  it  with  sugar  inatead  of  aalk 
UUine  retomroaiuU  the  following  aa  a  method  by  whick 
it  iiMy  be  kept  good  for  two  years  in  a  cool  situation  i— 
■'  A  pound  of  spawn  is  immersed  in  water  as  hut  h  tlia 
hands  can  bear  it,  and  ia  then  pirked  from  memliranuu* 
rtliiia,  ^.  It  ia  now  lo  he  rinsed  with  cold  water,  and 
liiiiig  up  to  drain  fur  twenty-four  houra,  after  which  put 
to  il  tw"  ouiiees  of  rock  or  bay  salt,  and  a  quarter  of  tu 
nunoe  ol  sallpi'ri'  and  again  hung  it  up  for  twenty-four 
II  '"'s  more.  Now  ',ifend  it  on  a  dish,  and  gently  dry  il 
lielore  the  Are  or  in  the  -uii.  and  when  it  liecomea  stiff 
pot  it  down  We  should,  however,  recomiiiend  thai  die 
jKitling  he  nut  m  'ilie  maae,  but,  like  tho  aiinmp  piutta 
sold  at  the  ttsh-aeuce  shopt,  'hat  it  be  divided  into  small 
pots,  pouring  over  each  some  mell'ii  •»>«!.  by  which  me- 
thixl  a  (Mil  an  be  opened  when  wunte.I  ih^li'oil  of  die- 
tiirbing  tin-  general  store.  It  forms  an  ridilttional  *fir.\t- 
rity  to  covor  each  over  with  a  uiuialuiied  skin  or  bladder. 
Trout  roe  is  also  said  to  niakn  a  g<x>d  bait,  Imt  we  havt 
no  (icrsonal  experience  of  its  elliiai  y ;  in  fart,  »  <i  nf\et 
tried  it;  but  it  has  lieen  so  strongly  recommi  i  ,led,  tlui 
it  would  lie  hut  fair  tu  give  credence  to  itx  value  until 
niinu-rous  trials  have  proclaimed  it  as  tolnlly  iiH>rt 

■■  To  bait  with  salmon  nw,  first  put  on  ilir  hook  (which 
should  tie  sized  according  to  the  lish  ini  ended  to  Ih)  tried 
for^  a  mass  which  shall  All  up  Ihu  hollow  uf  llu'  IimhI 
and  hidH  the  steel.  On  the  point  put  two  or  more  firm 
large  grains  of  it,  Imth  to  conceit  the  snare  and  tempt 
the  lish.  In  this  way  it  is  said  lo  U;  principally  a  winter 
and  a  spring  bait,  but  we  know  no  reux  >ii  why  ii  may 
not  lio  advantageously  used  at  other  timi'-  for  spawn  of 
some  kind  is  almost  always  to  lie  found." 

Pastes  made  of  shrimps,  of  cheese,  of  >ad  criimba 
mixed  with  honey,  and  of  other  material  ^re  also  em- 
ployed, according  to  the  fancy  of  the  .in,  r,  aod  the 
nature  of  waters  and  sport  he  inti^nds  to  |  iirsue;  our 
limited  space,  however,  obliges  us  tu  r«<fer  thi  who  aro 
curious  in  the  subject  of  baits  to  the  Eiicyi  ipiedia  of 
lllaine,  where  there  is  a  vast  body  of  highly  .  teresting 
mutter  on  angling.  Those  who  are  disincline  to  pre« 
pare  roe  and  pastes,  or  havo  not  the  means  of  i.  >ing  so, 
may  bo  supplied  by  the  principal  dealera  in  fishinif-tacklei 

Ariificinl  Flius. 

Hooks  dressed  up  so  as  to  bear  something  lik*  a  Te> 
seniblanco  to  actual  live  flics,  arc  by  far  the  most  i:  ipurt- 
ant  lures  employed  by  tho  angler.  The  pri  <'ipnl 
materials  employed  in  dressing  are  light  portin  s  of 
cock's  hackle  or  other  feather.^,  lo  form  winns,  tho  tur  of 
a  hare's  ear  or  some  other  substance  to  make  tho  body 
and  waxed  silk  thread  by  which  tho  whole  is  tied  in  un 
artful  manner  on  tho  shank  of  tho  hook.  A  whole  sli  ?«t 
inigtit  easily  be  tilled  with  descriptions  of  urtiflcial  Hiea 
Multable  to  dilTorcnt  flsh,  waters,  and  season  ;  but  ae 
bulk  of  what  has  been  written  by  Wulton,  Daniel,  a  id 
many  others,  is  now  considered  superfluous,  oxperienc  1 
flshers  having  arrived  at  tho  conclusion  that  flshea  i 
general  are  such  eager  and  heedless  fools  as  to  bo  sat.  - 
tied  with  a  very  limited  choice  of  deceptions.  Th 
author  of  the  article  Annlinf^,  in  tho  "Encyclopedia 
Uiitunnica,"*  has  some  clever  remarks  on  this  branch  of 
the  art : — 

"As  simulntion,"  says  he,  "consists  in  the  adoption 
or  aflfectation  of  what  is  not,  while  dissimulation  consists 
in  the  careful  concealment  of  what  really  is — the  one 
being  a  positive,  the  other  n  negative  act — so  the  great 
oliject  of  the  fly-fisher  is  lo  dissimulate  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  prevent  his  cxpe(^ted  prey  from  detecting  tho  artifi- 
cial nature  of  his  lure,  without  troubling  himself  by  • 
vain  effort  to  simulate  or  assume  with  hib  fly  the  appear- 
ance of  any  individual  or  specific  form  of  insect  Ufa. 

*  Hrpiiblished  in  tlie  handsome  velum  i,  "The  Rod  and  tte 
Uun."    A.  aa'.  C.  Black,  Cdiuburgh. 


«BA 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


There  is,  ir.  truth,  little  or  no  connection  between  the  art 
ef  angling  and  the  science  of  entomology;  am)  therefore 
'he  success  of  the  nnglor,  in  by  fnr  the  greater  proportion 
of  cases,  docs  not  depend  on  the  resemblance  which  sub- 
fists  between  his  nrtiricinl  fly  ond  the  natural  insect. 
This  statement  is  no  doubt  greatly  at  variance  with  the 
expressed  principles  of  all  who  have  deemed  fishing 
worthy  of  consideration,  from  the  days  of  Isaiah  and 
Theocritus,  to  those  of  Carrol  and  Bainbridge.  But  wo 
•re  not  tho  less  decidedly  of  opinion,  that  In  nine  in- 
•tances  out  of  ten  a  fish  seizes  upon  an  artificial  fly  as 
upon  an  insect  or  moving  creature  siti  ypnfri.«,  and  not  on 
account  of  its  exact  and  successful  resemblance  to  any 
accustomed  and  fiiiniliar  object. 

"  If  it  is  not  so,  let  us  request  to  be  informed  upon  what 
principle  of  imitative  art  the  (litfi-rcnt  varieties  of  salmon- 
fly  can  be  su|)poscd  to  bear  the  most  distant  recemblance 
to  any  species  of  dragon-tly,  to  imitate  which  we  are  fre- 
quently told  they  are  Intended  ?  Certainly  no  percepti- 
ble similarity  in  form  or  aspect  exists  between  them,  all 
the  species  of  drugon-fly,  with  the  exception  of  one  or 
two  of  the  sub-genus  Calepterix,  being  characterizfd  by 
clear  lace-like  pellucid  wings,  entirely  unadorned  by  tliose 
fantastic  gaudy  colours,  borrowed  from  the  peacock  and 
other  '  birds  of  gayest  plume,'  which  are  made  to  dis- 
tinguish the  supposed  resemblance.  Besides,  the  finest 
•jlmon-fishing  is  frequently  in  mild  weather  during  the 
cooler  seasons  of  the  year,  in  autumn  and  early  spring, 
BPvera!  uiontbs  either  before  or  after  any  dragon-fly  has 
become  visible  on  the  face  of  the  waters,  as  it  is  a  sum- 
mer insect,  and  rarely  makes  its  appearance  in  the  perfect 
atate  until  the  month  of  June.  If  they  bear  no  resem- 
blance to  each  other  in  form  or  colour,  how  much  more 
unlike  must  they  seem  when,  instead  of  being  swept  like 
lightning  down  the  current,  as  a  real  one  would  he,  the 
artificial  (ly  is  seen  crossing  and  rccrossing  every  stream 
•nd  torrent  with  the  ngility  of  an  otter  and  the  strength 
of  an  alligator!  Or  darting  with  regular  jerks,  and  often 
many  inches  under  water,  up  smooth  continuous  flows, 
where  all  the  dragon-flies  on  earth,  with  St.  George  to 
boot,  could  not  maintain  their  place  a  single  second  ! 
Now,  as  it  is  demonstrable  that  the  artificial  fly  generally 
used  for  salmon  bears  no  resemblance  except  in  size  to 
any  living  one — that  the  only  tribe  which,  from  their 
respective  dimensions,  it  may  be  supposed  to  rei)resent 
does  not  exist  in  the  winged  state  during  the  period  when 
the  imitation  is  most  generally  and  most  successfully 
practised — and  if  they  did,  that  their  habits  and  natural 
powers  totally  discnable  them  from  being  at  any  time 
icen  under  such  circumstances  as  would  give  a  colour  to 
the  supposition  of  the  one  being  ever  mistaken  for  the 
other — may  wc  not  fairly  conclude  that,  in  this  instance 
•t  least,  the  fish  proceed  upon  other  grounds,  ,ind  are 
deceived  by  an  appi  arance  of  life  and  motion,  rather 
than  by  a  specific  resemblance  to  any  thing  which  they 
had  previously  been  in  the  habit  of  capturing?  What 
natural  insect  do  the  large  flies,  at  which  sea-trout  rise  so 
readily,  resemble  ?  These,  as  well  as  gilse  and  salmon, 
frequently  take  the  lure  far  within  the  bounds  of  the  salt- 
water market;  and  yet  naturalists  know  that  no  such 
thing  as  a  salt-water  fly  exists,  or  at  least  has  ever  been 
•  discovered  by  their  researches.  Indeed,  no  true  insect 
inhabits  the  sea.  What  swcies  are  imitated  by  the 
palmer,  or  by  tliree-fourths  of  the  dressed  flies  in  common 
use  ?  An  artificial  fly  can,  at  the  best,  be  considered 
only  as  tlie  representativr;  of  a  natural  one  which  has 
been  drowned,  as  it  is  impossible  to  imitate  the  dancing 
or  hovering  flight  of  the  real  insect  u.er  the  surface  of  I 
the  stream;  and  even  with  that  restricted  idea  of  its] 
resemblance  to  nature,  the  likeness  must  bo  scarcely  per- 
ceptible, owin:{  to  the  ditTerenco  of  motion  and  the  great 
Tariety  of  directions  in  which  the  angler  drags  his  flies, 
according  to  tiie  nature  and  spetuul  lo(!aUties  of  the  cur- 
««tti.  Mud  the  prevailing  direction  of  the  wind. 


"  We  are  therefore  ol  opinion  that  all  or  a  gtttX  pm, 
portion  of  what  has  been  an  ofle  .  and  sometimet  to  well 
said  about  the  great  variety  of  flies  necessary  to 
angler — about  the  necessity  of  changing  !iis  tackle  o 
cording  to  each  particular  month  throughout  the  toaso 
— about  one  fly  being  adapted  solely  to  the  itiorr.jn, 
another  to  noonday,  and  a  third  to  the  eveninir— .'.r  i 
about  every  river  having  its  own  particular  flics,  4c 
if  not  altogether  erroneous,  at  least  greatly  exagmalr  I 
and  misconceived.  That  determinate  relations  exist  Ik^ 
tween  flies  of  a  certain  colour  and  particular  condiiiom 
of  a  river,  is,  we  doubt  not,  true ;  but  these  are  rather 
connected  with  angling  as  on  artificial  science,  and  hava 
but  little  to  do  with  any  analogous  relations  in  nature 
The  great  object,  by  whatever  means  to  be  accnmplishci 
is  to  render  the  fly  deceptive ;  and  this,  from  the  vm 
nature  of  things,  is  continually  eft'ected  by  fishing  wiiji 
flies  which  difler  in  colour  and  ap[)earancc  from  those 
which  prevail  upon  the  water;  because,  in  truth  asm 
sliall  afterwards  have  occasion  to  show,  none  else  can  be 
purchased  or  procured.  Even  admitting  for  a  moment 
the  theory  of  representation,  when  a  particular  fly  pre. 
vails  upon  a  river,  an  artificial  one  in  imitation  of  it«ii; 
never  resemble  it  so  closely  as  to  a|ipear  the  same  to 
those  below  (that  is,  the  fish) ;  on  the  contrary,  a  certain 
de^-ree  of  resemblance,  without  any  thing  like  an  csaci 
similitude,  will  only  render  the  finny  tribe  the  more  cau- 
tious through  suspicion,  while  a  different  shape  and 
colour,  by  exciting  no  minute  or  invidious  comparisoiis, 
might  probably  be  swallowed  without  cxaininHtion.  Ii> 
deed,  it  seems  sufliciently  plain  that  where  means  of 
comparison  are  allowed,  and  where  exact  imitation  is  i|  I 
the  same  time  impossible,  it  is  much  ItetU^r  to  have  re.  I 
course  to  a  general  idea  than  to  an  awkward  and  bun?. 
ling  individual  representation." 

Mr.  Stoddard,  one  of  our  most  experienced  anRlen, 
entertains  a  similar  opinion : — "  'I'lie  colours  of  wtiei 
and  sky,"  he  observes,  "are  the  only  indicators  whiflj 
can  lead  us  to  select  tho  most  killing   hook,  and  cvej 
tlicse  are  often  deceptive.    We  have  fished  in  one  stream  j 
where  dark,  and,  in  tho  next,  where  red  flies  look  iIk 
lead.   There  is  no  tru.iting  to  the  fancy  in  certain  plac«, 
On  Tweed,  we  have  seen  it  veer  about,  like  the  winJ.Ja  i 
one  moment,  without  a  note  of  preparation.   Most  rivti.^ 
however,  are  more  steady;  and  when  the  water  isofi  ( 
moderate  size,  may  bo  relied  on  with  at  most  two  sorli  I 
of  flies  all  the  year  round.    For  ourselves,  our  maxiiwu  | 
in  every  Scottish  stream  is  reduced  to  only  four  desoti> 
tions  of  artificial   flies,  with  one  or  other  of  which  n  I 
engage  to  catch  trout  over  all  the  kingdom.    Knowlftia  I 
and  practice  have  convinced  us  of  the  tieciUesaness  ! 
storing  up  endless  and  perplexing  vaiioties,  which  some  | 
do,  to  look  knowing  and  scientific." 

The  following,  according  to  these  and  other  tnist.  I 
worthy  authorities,  form  a  very  serviceable  set  of  Ium  | 
for  fly-fishing; — First,  there  is  a  lly  which  has  km  I 
called  Ihe  pnfessor,  after  Professor  Wilson  of  EdinbuFji.  I 
The  wings  are  formed  of  a  mottled  brown  leather,  tain  I 
from  tho  m.'.llard  or 
wild  drake,  tho  body 
being  composed  of  yel- 
low flos  Kiik,  rather 
long,  and  wound  about 
close  to  the  head  with 
a  fine  red  or  black 
hackle.  This  simu- 
lated fly  has  a  tight  clever  aspect,  and  is  a  powerAil  iiih 

Second,  a  fly  which 
differs. from  the  above 
oidy  by  being  a  little 
shorter,  more  thick,  and 
with  a  body  made  of  pale 
green  instead  of  yellow 
silk.     Green  worsted  may  be  ksed. 


Tile  Professor 


Fly  with  Green  body. 


ANGLING. 


an 


Rough  Hackl*. 


Third,  a  rough 
powerful  hackle, 
niihwinggofwhite 
,11(1  black  tnarkod 
(feather,  a  briBtling 
lioily  of  dark-green 
wound  about  with 
gruy  or  mottled 
jmckte,  to  which  is 
given   a    pointed 

lail. 

Fourth,  a  fly  of  a  sombre  cast,  the  wings  formed  of 
ivoodcock,  snipo,  or  lark  feather,  and  the  body  of  hare's 
ear,  darker  or  li$;htcr,  according  to  fancy. 

Fif;  1,  a  fly  with  wings  of  the  starling  or  fieldfare,  and 
havii.g  a  boily  mude  of  mouse  or  water-rat  fur. 

Sixth,  a  plain  hackle,  black  or  red,  witliout  wings,  and 
commonly  called  ixdmer. 

Seventh,  a  red  hackle,  with  wings  of  the  starling, 
and  a  body  formed  of  light-red  mohair,  and  a  red  cock's 
hackle. 

To  these  m?y  be  added  any  other  variety  of  fly  that 
the  fancy  suggests  as  being  suitable  to  the  time  or  place 
of  fishing.  Flies  for  salmon-fishing  must  be  of  a  much 
more  largo  and  powerful  kind,  as  representing  insects 


illi  Oreeii  iKHly. 


Salmon  Fljr. 

of  larger  proportions.  In  the  adjoining  figure,  a  spe- 
cimen is  given  of  a  powerful  spring  lute,  with  wings  of 
varii's«tcd  turkey  feather,  a  body  of  orange  camlet, 
mixed  with  mohair,  and  a  brown  cock's  hnrkle.  A 
thread  of  gold  may  be  wound  round  the  body  for  sum- 
mer fishing.  Wo  refer  to  the  work,  the  "  Rod  and  the 
Gun,"  for  further  information  on  salmon-flies,  which  in 
ill  rases  ro<iniro  to  be  dressed  on  doulilo  gut. 

From  dealers  in  fishing-tackle  all  sorts  of  artificial  flics 
inav  be  obtained  at  a  reasonable  advance  upon  the  raw  ma- 
Icrinl ;  persons,  however,  who  intend  to  make  themselves 
muters  of  the  art  of  angling,  should  not  be  dependent 
oil  Iradcsnicn  for  their  supplies,  but  learn  to  dress  hooka 
for  themselves.  Mr.  Stoddart  oirers  the  following  explicit 
•lircctioiis  on  fly-dressing : — 

"  Our  materials  for  the  making  up  of  flics  are  as  fol- 
low ; — Hoolis,  and  small  round  gut ;  a  pair  of  brass  nip- 
pers for  twisting  hackles;  a  point  for  dividing  the  wings; 
a  pair  of  fine  scissors;  orange,  yellow,  and  green  silk 
llr'^ad  of  all  sizes;  good  cobblers'  wax  enclosed  in  a 
|M;ce  of  siift  leather ;  a  hare's  oar ;  some  brown  wild- 
jrakr  teal,  and  pheasant  feathers;  the  fur  of  a  mouse, 
s:|uirrfl,  and  water-rat;  a  few  wings  of  lark,  snipe,  huul- 
lail,  and  starUng ;  and  lastly,  red  and  black  hackles, 
tiken  from  the  neck  and  head  of  an  old  cock  at  Christ- 
mis;  these  should  be  fully  formed  and  free  from  soilness,  i 
Plovers'  herls,  and  those  of  the  peacock,  are  tiscd  by 
luinc,  yet,  wo  deem  them  superfluous,  as  also  tinsel,  ex- 
cept for  large  flics. 

Commencing  your  operations,  the  first  stop  is  to  lay 
out  the  iiittmded  wings  and  body  before  yju;  wax  your 
lilk,  and  applying  one  cud  of  it  to  the  gut  and  hook 


together,  wrap  them  both  round  four  or  five  times,  com 
mencing  a  little  below  the  end  of  the  shank,  and  proi 
ceeding  downwards;  you  then  fasten,  by  drawing  the 
disengaged  end  of  the  thread  through  under  the  last  turn 
of  the  wrapping.  Work  the  silk  upwards  to  where  you 
commenced,  then  take  your  wings,  which  are  still  uii« 
separated,  and  lay  them  along  your  hook,  so  that  theit 
extremity  or  tips  shall  reach  its  curve ;  twirl  the  thread 
twice  round  the  upper  part,  which  lies  along  the  shank 
top ;  then,  taking  it  under,  press  firm,  and  clip  off  the 
unnecessary  portion  of  the  feather;  divide  with  your 
point  or  penknife,  so  as  to  fmin  the  two  wings;  take  up 
the  silk  Iietwixt  them,  and  wrapping  again  around  at  the 
head,  bring  it  back  crosswise;  then  lift  your  hackle,  and 
lay  the  root  of  it  down  along  your  hook;  whip  the 
thread  over,  as  far  as  your  first  fastening ;  seize  the  top 
of  the  hackle  with  your  nippers,  and  whirl  it  round  in 
the  same  manner ;  fasten  and  lengthen  the  body  to  your 
liking  with  fresh  floss  silk ;  fasten  once  more,  and  your 
fly  is  made.  This  last  fastening  ought,  in  our  opinion, 
to  \^e  tho  same  as  that  used  in  arming  bait-hooks,  for 
which  we  quote  Hawkin's  directions : — '  When  you  are 
in  about  four  turns  of  the  bend  of  the  hook,  take  the 
shank  between  the  fore-finger  and  thumb  of  the  left 
hand,  and  place  the  silk  close  by  it,  holding  them  both 
tight,  and  leaving  tho  end  to  hang  down ;  then  draw  the 
other  part  of  tho  silk  into  a  large  loop,  and  with  yout 
right  hand  turning  backwards,  continue  the  whipping  for 
four  turns,  and  draw  the  end  of  the  silk  (which  hag  all 
this  while  hung  down  under  the  root  of  your  loft  thumb) 
close,  and  twitch  it  off*.'  When  t.ie  body  of  your  fly  is 
required  to  be  of  hare's  ear  or  mouse  skin,  pull  out  a 
omall  quantity  of  the  fur,  and  lay  it  along  the  silk,  after 
the  wings  are  formed  ;  twist  together,  and  then  wrap  a* 
if  t'ne  thread  were  bare,  and  fasten  as  above.  In  making 
flies,  keep  all  tight,  guard  against  heavy  wings  and  much 
dubbing;  the  fibres  of  your  hackle  ought  to  be  short  and 
lie  near  the  head  of  the  fly  ;  they  are  intended  to  r©. 
semble  legs,  which  in  the  real  insect  ore  always  so  placed. 
Such  is  our  method  of  fly-drceaing,  commendable  both 
for  its  simplicity  and  expedition.  It  dilT'ers,  we  find, 
somewhat  from  that  generally  practised,  being  in  a  man- 
ner self-taught,  and  not  encumbered  with  any  unnecessary 
display." 

Having  now  described  the  various  parts  of  the  angler's 
apparatus,  and  the  lures  which  he  generally  employs, 
we  proceed  to  show  how  he  is  to  practise  his  craft  when 
fully  equipped  for  the  purpose 

nUCTICB    or   iLXOLINO. 
There  are  two  distinct  kinds  of  angling — bait-fishin,^ 
and  fly-fishing,  and  these  are  variously  practised  accord- 
ing to  the  depth  or  nature  of  the  water,  or  the  fish  that 
are  to  be  caught. 

Bait-Fisliing. 

This  kind  of  angling  is  practised  to  great  extent  in 
the  Thames,  the  Lea,  and  other  deep  and  somewhat  dull 
rivers  of  England.  The  fish  usually  sought  for  in  these 
waters  are  gudgeon,  dace,  roach,  bream,  chub,  barbel, 
tfiich,  carp,  i)erch,  and  pike;  all  are  sometimes  taken  by 
fly,  but  a  bait  of  worms,  gentles,  roc^,  or  some  other  ma- 
terial, is  commonly  employed.  The  angler,  in  these 
rivers,  usually  stands  on  the  shore  while  fishing,  but  in 
some  instances  he  fishes  from  a  punt,  or  small  flat-lioU 
tomcd  boat,  in  which  his  chief  occupation  is  to  sit  watch- 
ing his  floiit,  and  pulling  in  his  line  when  a  fish  appears 
to  bo  hooked.  Among  the  nppitratus  of  this  order  of 
deep-wntcr  fishers,  a  jduminet  and  line  is  carried,  in 
order  to  sound  the  depth  of  the  river,  which  having  as- 
certained, the  angler  puts  his  float  upon  the  line,  at  that 
point  which  will  allow  the  bait  to  trail  on  the  bottom, 
while  the  float  swims  on  the  surface. 

Tlic  first  thing  the  bail-fishor  has  to  learn  is  the  art 
3M 


aM 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


ft  iMJiing  his  hooks.  Taking  the  hook  in  his  right  hand 
^nd  the  boit  between  his  finjjcrs  in  the  left,  let  him  enter 
he  hook  at  the  head  of  the  worm,  and  carry  it  through 
.he  animal  tu  near  the  tail,  covering  the  entire  hook  and 
i'»  tying.  The  worm  should  be  broken  or  mangled  as 
little  as  possible ;  and  the  more  life-like  it  appears,  the 
B'i'ater  the  probability  of  its  proving  an  effectual  lure. 
I'here  must  not,  however,  l)c  too  much  spare  worm  left 
ilaniiling  from  the  hook,  otherwise  the  fish  will  keep  nib- 
bling it  away  without  biting  at  the  bait  bodily,  and 
taking  it  into  its  mouth,  the  thing  which  the  angler 
desires. 

In  throwing  the  line  with  bait,  take  care  not  to  splash 
the  water,  but  let  the  bait  fall  gently  on  the  surface, 
nn-.l  sink  slowly  in  the  water,  to  the  required  depth. 
After  sinking,  the  rod  and  line  should  be  very  slowly 
moved  in  a  direction  against  the  stream,  or  in  some 
other  way  to  give  motion  to  the  bait,  which  the  fish  per- 
ceiving to  glide  through  the  water  will  hasten  to  seize 
upon. 

Occasionally  the  angler  will  feel  a  nibble,  but  he 
must  not  be  in  a  hurry  to  s'rikt,  that  is,  to  draw  the  fish 
from  the  water.  Perhaps  it  is  no  more  lan  a  nibble, 
and  it  is  well  to  allow  the  fish  time  to  get  the  hook  in 
hi<  mouth.  If  drawn  too  quickly,  you  may  actually 
pull  away  the  honk  alter  it  is  half  gulped.  Expi-ricnce 
and  dexterity  are  required  in  this  ticklish  part  of  the 
craft.  As  a  general  rule,  do  not  strike  till  the  line  has 
been  distinctly  tugged  ;  then  strike  by  a  slow  side  mo- 
tion at  first,  then  a  more  quick  jerk,  so  as  to  cause  the 
hook  to  catch  in  the  jaws  of  the  animul.  Supposing  the 
fifth  to  be  hooked,  do  not  draw  it  violently  out  of  the 
water  at  if  in  a  transport  of  delight,  but  wind  up  part 
of  your  loose  line  if  necessary,  and  holding  up  your  rod, 
retire  gradually  backward,  by  which  the  fish  may  be 
landed  on  the  shore.  .\  good  fisher  does  not  lay  aside 
his  rod  to  take  a  fish  from  the  hook,  unless  it  be  of  great 
•iie,  requiring  two  hands;  if  small, ^old  the  rod  in  the 
right  hand  while  you  catch  the  fish  with  the  left ;  un- 
hook it  carefully,  place  it  in  the  basket,  put  on  a  new 
bait,  and  once  more  proceed  to  your  sport. 

The  pidf-eon,  a  fine  large  fish  of  the  trout  shape, 
•fiords  a  favourite  amusement  to  anglers  in  the  Lea,  a 
river  near  London,  and  also  in  the  Thames.  Ulaine 
thus  speaks  of  this  branch  of  angling: — "  Fishing  for 
gudgeons  in  the  Thames  is  usually  practised  by  means 
cf  a  punt,  which  is  fixed  across  the  stream  part  of  the 
river  just  above  a  tolerably  sharp  scower,  running  over  a 
fine  gravelly  bottom,  free  froui  weetis,  at  depths  varying 
from  five  to  eight  or  ten  feet.  As  the  eddy  is  greater 
generally,  and  the  water  deeper  in  these  scowers  than  in 
Ihow  of  the  Lea,  so  the  tackle  used  is  commonly  some- 
what stronger,  and  a  fine  gut  line  is  more  frequently 
V>et  with  there  than  one  of  single  hair.  Fine  tackle, 
ijowever,  in  a  good  hand,  is  to  lie  always  preferred  ;  and 
wo  have  seen  many  hundred  dozens  of  gudgeons  taken 
in  the  sharpest  currents  of  this  river  also  with  a  single 
hair  only  for  the  two  bottom  links.  Punt  fishing  for 
gudgeon  in  the  Thames  is  a  ilelightful  amusetiieiit,  |)ar- 
ticularly  to  the  lu\urious  angler  who  is  nut  inclined  to 
take  much  trouble.  The  scenery,  the  qn  etude  and 
safety  from  interruption,  the  cleanliness  of  the  practice, 
where  the  bait  is  put  on  the  hook  by  the  attendant  fish- 
erman, and  where  even  the  prize  it  gains  is  removed  by 
the  same  hand,  oil  tend  to  make  it  epicurean  in  the  ex- 
treme. But  the  thorough-bred  fisher  is  soon  tired  with 
it  after  this  method,  for  the  very  reason  that  there  is  ac- 
tually too  much  luxury  in  it  to  constitute  true  sporting, 
which  must  of  neeessily  present  some  labour  to  keep  up 
the  attention,  and  some  difficulty  to  enhance  the  value 
of  the  prey.  In  the  Thames,  so  many  as  fifty  dozen  of 
IKudgeons  have  been  taken  in  a  day  ;  but  in  the  Lea 
•eldom  half  that  numlx'r  are  caught.  Yet  the  Lea  ang- 
I*'  its  the  nr^t  acoue  for  his  sport,  for  h»  cor  commence 


it  in  March,  whereas  in  all  that  part  of  the  Thamn 
within  the  liberties  of  the  city  of  I^ondon,  it  ma^  niA 
be  attempted  until  the  beginning  of  June,  at  which  tima 
the  gudgeons  have  spawned,  and  continue  for  some  tims 
afterwards  inferior  in  point  of  their  gastronomic  worth, 
Gudgeon  fishing  seems  to  have  voricd  little  from  the  an 
cient  practice,  and  the  angler  wh9has  aught  of  Uie  an. 
tiquarian  about  him,  will  be  amused  probably  at  the  clo« 
parallel  between  the  present  method  and  the  guclceon. 
fishing  of  early  times,  as  it  is  dcscrilied  by  John  Daverr 
or  John  Dennys,  Esq.,  for  it  is  n  disputed  point  to  which 
of  these  worthies  the  'Secrets  of  Angling,'  in  which  it 
is  contained,  owes  its  birth.  Walton  ascribes  it  to  Dn. 
vers,  and  gives  the  name  at  full  length  in  the  fifth  edw 
tion  of  'The  Complete  Angler:'  — 

"Loe,  in  a  little  l)oat  wlicre  one  iloih  stand. 

That  to  u  willow  liniiitli  tliu  iviiile  isti.'d. 
Anil  wilh  a  pole  doth  slif,  a'!d  rmiw;  the  snnd, 

WhiToul  the  geiille  str^PTrii-  doth  softly  slide; 
And  then  wilh  ulenJer  litie  and  rod  in  liniid, 

The  en^iif  bite  not  hintj  he  doth  nliidc. 
Well  loaded  is  hi«  lii;e,  his  hooke  \\\\\  small, 
A  good  big  cork  to  bear  the  Klream  with  all. 

"His  bait  the  least  red  wornie  that  may  he  found, 

Anil  nt  the  hottome  it  doth  nlwuyes  lie  ; 

WhiTenl  the  preedy  fttnlgiun  bites  so  sdund. 


71mt  hooke  and  all  he  sw-nlloweth  by  luid  1 

d  nulls 
As  if  new  store  the  plnre  did  still  supply; 


S*'e  how  he  strikes,  and  nulls  them  np 


by  11  nd  by, 
lis  riMiiid 


And  when  the  bit  doth  die.  or  bad  doth  prove. 
Then  to  anoilier  place  he  doth  remove." 

The  ranch  is  a  thick  fish  deep  from  the  back  to  th« 
belly  ;  it  inhabits  the  bottom  of  deep  rivers  or  lakes,  and 
is  usually  reckoned  so  incautious  and  silly  as  to  he  cilled 
the  water  sheep :  nevertheless,  it  is  not  taken  wilhout 
some  degree  of  skill.  It  is  angled  for  by  nieuns  of  bait 
sunk  to  within  a  few  inches  of  the  bottom.  The  fii,h 
may  lie  attractcil  by  throwing  in  some  crnnibs  of  bread. 
It  is  caught  in  the  Thames  some  time  alter  ihc  end  of 
August.  The  baits  used  arc  gentles,  red  paste,  and 
boiled  mult  or  wheat ;  one  grain  of  the  latter  is  snllicifnt. 
(ireat  atteiilion  is  required  to  strike  quick  when  the  bait 
is  taken.  Dace  and  tench  are  angled  for  inuch  in  the 
same  manner.  Carp  is  angled  for  in  stngDaiit  waters 
from  February  to  Soptcmlier,  and  the  bails  are  worms, 
larva;,  grain,  and  pastes.  The  |M'rch  also  iiihaMts  dull 
waters,  and  is  a  short  unshapely  fish,  soft  in  the  flesh, 
and  seliloni  worth  cooking.  It  is  so  eager  to  bile  thtt 
little  skill  is  required  in  pulling  out  a  whole  fry;  the 
baits  employed  for  it  are  worms,  insects,  and  minnows, 

Pike-Fishing. 

The  pike  is  a  voracious  fish,  and  may  very  approprv 
atcly  be  termed  the  fre«h-wat»;r  shark  ;  it  (Iik's  not  cot). 
fine  itself  to  feed  on  worms,  insecls.  fish,  niiil  Irons,  but 
will  devour  water-rats  and  young  ducks,  ami  attack  raufh 
larger  animals.  All  small  fish  ore  teirit'ieil  at  the  ap- 
proach of  this  marauder,  which,  if  pcrmiltid,  \ouW  soon 
clear  a  pond  of  all  its  finny  tribes.  "  Pike,"  says  Dan- 
iel, "love  a  still,  shaily,  and  unfrequented  wnlcr,  wilha 
sandy,  clayey,  or  chalky  bottom  (arriving  at  a  larftri 
size  in  pools  than  rivers);  and  fiom  .May  to  the  begin- 
ning of  October,  they  usually  place  llieimelvoB  among 
or  near  flags,  bulrushes,  and  water-docks,  ami  [larticu. 
larly  under  the  rannnculvti  lujuntinis  when  in  flower, 
and  which  flottts  on  the  surface;  they  will  romrtinies bt 
found  in  the  termination  of  sharp  cuiicnts  ;  from  Marrh 
to  the  end  of  May  they  resort  to  back  waters  that  have 
direct  communication  with  the  main  stream ;  as  winter 
approaches  they  retire  into  the  deeps,  uinler  day-taiiki, 
bushes  impending  over  the  water,  btumps  mid  routs  of 
trees,  piles  of  bridges,  and  flood-gates.  They  spawn  io 
March  or  April,  according  to  the  coldness  or  wamilhof 
the  weather,  quitting  the  rivers  for  the  creeks  end  ditcbti 
communicating  with  them,  and  there  droppini;  Ihclron 
in  the  grass  and  recdi ;  in  ixjuds  they  choose  the  needi 


ANGLING. 


M7 


ipon  the  ffhallowN  for  depositing  it;  ducki  and  other 
«ild  I'uwl  eagerly  devour  the  spawn,  and  by  them  it  is 
tiiuported  to  other  waters.  The  appearance  of  the 
pike  in  ponds  where  none  were  ever  put,  has  been 
licismed  as  extraordinary  as  its  asserted  longevity ;  it  is, 
however,  cosily  accounted  for  upon  the  well-known 
principles  of  the  generation  of  fishes.  If  a  heron  has 
devoured  tlieir  ova,  and  afterwards  ejected  them  while 
fceJins  in  one  of  these  ponds,  it  is  hi,;q;hly  probable  that 
thev  miiy  be  produced  from  this  original,  in  the  same 
nay  as  the  seeds  of  plants  are  known  to  be  dissemi- 
nutcd. 

II  Pike  arc  in  season  from  May  to  February  (the  female 
fish  arc  to  bo  preferred),  are  bold  biters,  afford  the 
angler  good  sport,  and  may  bo  fished  for  all  the  year ; 
but  the  best  months  (especially  for  trolling)  are  Febru- 
ary, before  the  weeds  shoot,  and  October  when  they 
are  rotted  ;  the  latter  is  to  be  preferred,  as  the  pike  are 
aliened  by  their  feed  during  the  summer;  and  from 
ihe  lowiii'ss  of  the  waters,  their  harbours  are  easily  dis- 
covered." 

The  same  author  thus  describes  the  method  of  troll- 
ing for  [like  : — "  For  trolling,  Ihe  rod  should  be  twelve 
or  fourtei'ii  foct  lonj? ;  but  a  strong  top  for  this  fishing, 
with  a  riiis  at  the  end  for  the  line  to  run  through,  may 
be  filled  to  a  fly  or  general  rod  ;  there  should  bo  one 
ring  upon  each  joint  to  conduct  the  line,  which  is  better 
than  a  ijrt'iaer  number  (iind  thc^se  rings  must  be  set  on 
itraight,  tliul  it  may  run  freely,  so  that  no  sudden  check 
after  ihc  bait  is  tikcn  prevent  the  pike  from  gorging  it)  : 
the  line  siiould  be  of  silk,  with  a  swivel  at  the  end  to 
receive  thir  armed  wire  or  gimp,  and  at  least  thirty  yards 
long,  wound  upon  a  wincli  or  reel  fixed  to  the  butt  end 
of  iho  rod.  HooUs  for  trolling,  called  dead  gorges,  and 
other  sorts  for  trolling,  snap,  and  trimmer,  and  fishing- 
nceiiles,  are  to  lie  b(jught  at  every  shop  where  fishing- 
tackle  is  sold.  In  the  choice  of  the  first  let  them  not  be 
toj  large,  nor  their  temper  injured  by  the  lead  on  the 
shanks,  nor  the  ])oints  stand  too  proud  ;  and  although 
mually  sold  on  wire,  it  is  recommended  to  cut  of!"  the 
wire  about  an  inch  from  the  lead,  and  with  double  silk 
well  waxed,  fasten  about  a  foot  of  good  gimp  to  the 
wire,  with  a  noose  at  the  other  end  of  the  gimp  large 
enough  to  admit  the  bait  to  pass  through,  to  hang  it 
lijion  the  line.  The  best  baits  are  gudgeons  or  dace  of  a 
middling  size ;  put  the  baiting  needle  in  at  the  mouth, 
and  out  at  the  middle  of  the  tail,  drawing  the  gimp  and 
hook  af^er  it,  fixing  the  point  of  the  hook  near  the  eye 
of  the  fish  tie  the  tail  to  the  gimp,  which  will  not  only 
keep  it  in  a  proper  position,  but  prevent  the  tail  from 
catching  against  weeds  and  roots  in  the  water;  thus 
bailed,  the  hook  is  to  lie  fastened  to  the  line,  and  dropt 
jcntly  ill  the  water  near  the  sides  of  the  river,  across  the 
water,  or  where  it  is  likely  pike  resort;  keep  the  bait  in 
constant  motion,  sometimes  letting  it  sink  near  the  bot- 
tom, and  gradually  raising  it.  The  angler  need  not 
make  more  than  two  or  three  trials  in  a  place,  for  if  a 
pike  be  there,  lie  will  within  that  time  bite  if  he  means 
Ui  do  fio.  When  the  bait  is  taken,  if  at  a  depth  too 
i;rcat  to  sec,  it  will  easily  be  ascertained  by  the  line  being 
Jfawn  tight,  and  by  some  resistance ;  let  the  pike  have 
what  line  he  chooses,  it  will  be  soon  known  when  he 
has  readied  his  harbour  by  his  not  drawing  more ;  allow 
fioai  five  to  ten  minutes  for  his  gorging  the  bait;  wind 
u|i  the  lint;  gently  until  the  pike  is  seen  (which  ho  will 
IKTinit  though  he  has  not  gorged);  should  the  bait  he 
acnss  his  mouth,  give  more  time  ;  hut  if  ho  has  swal- 
lo'.ved,  manage  him  with  a  gentle  hand,  keeping  him, 
however,  from  roots  and  stumps,  which  he  will  try  to 
fuiSeii  the  line  upon  ;  in  clear  water  veer  out  line  u..til 
li«  is  Buiricieiilly  tirvd,  and  a  landing-net  can  lie  used ; 
but  b>  no  means,  however  apparently  exhausted,  attempt 
to  lift  liiin  out  with  the  rod  and  line  only  ;  for  the  mo- 
DHiit  ho  (|uits  the  water  he  will  open  liis  mouth,  and 


from  his  own  weight,  tear  the  hook  from  his  stomach 
and  the  fish  will  be  lost  to  the  angle.',  although  it  must 
inevitably  perish.  In  trolhng,  the  bait  should  never  be 
thrown  too  far  ;  in  small  rivers  the  opposite  bank  may 
be  fished  with  ease ;  and  the  violence  of  its  fall  upon  the 
water,  in  extensiT,e  throws,  soon  spoils  the  bait,  by  rub- 
bing ofl'  its  scales,  and  alarms  the  pike  instead  of  entic- 
ing him.  Pike  are  to  be  allured  by  a  large  bait,  but  a 
small  one  is  more  certain  to  take  them;  never  suffer 
weeds  to  hang  upon  the  hook  or  bait  when  recast  into 
the  water,  and  which  cannot  touch  the  surface  too 
softly.  Always  prefer  a  rough  wind,  and  when  the 
stream  is  clear,  for  trolling;  pike  never  bite  in  white 
water  after  rain,  &c.  If  a  pike  goes  slowly  up  the 
stream  after  taking  the  bait,  it  is  said  to  be  a  signal  of  a 
good  fish." 

Mr.  Stoddart's  methods  of  angling  for  pike  here  de- 
serve notice : — "  In  rod  angling  for  pike,  we  adopt  three 
methods,  employing  the  gorge  tackle,  the  swivel  tackle, 
and  the  fly.  Our  gorge-hook  is  double  brazed,  and 
armed  upon  brass  wire.  A  por  or  small  trout  inverted 
is  the  usual  bait.  We  insert  Ihe  wire  of  our  tackia 
through  the  fish,  bringing  the  upper  end  of  it  out  at  the 
tail,  and  allowing  the  two  barbs  of  the  hook  to  protrude 
from  its  mouth.  In  angling,  we  both  throw  and  drop 
the  bait,  as  the  nature  of  the  water  demcnds,  moving  U 
slowly  towards  the  surface.  When  a  pike  seizes  it, 
there  is  at  first  no  perceptible  tug ;  one  feels  as  if  he 
heard  the  shutting  of  a  pair  of  jaws  on  the  bait ;  and  if 
you  can  manage  to  see  your  fish,  you  will  observe  him 
holding  your  trout  by  the  middle,  as  if  crushing  the  life 
out  of  it.  Keep  a  tight  line,  but  do  not  pull  or  strike. 
Too  much  resistance  places  your  intended  victim  on  hi* 
guard  ;  a  little,  however,  sharpens  his  appetite.  After  a 
few  seconds,  the  pike  will  begin  to  move  towards  his  den, 
still  grasping  your  bait  between  his  teeth,  and  intending 
to  bolt  it  immediately.  Let  out  Uno  with  your  hand 
from  the  reel ;  and  now  he  is  fixed,  and  darts  off  like  a 
tiger,  shaking  his  chain,  and  with  open  mouth  tossing 
himself  out  of  the  water  at  thirty  yards'  distance— ih* 
worst  is  over,  and  ho  turns  revengefully  towards  the 
shore;  wind  up — ha!  he  is  out  again,  and  again  he 
makes  for  the  shallows ;  but  the  monster  is  exhausted 
and  moves  heavily ;  lead  him  with  caution  to  the  edge, 
lay  down  your  rod,  and  lift  him  upon  the  bank.  In 
order  to  disengage  your  hook  from  the  entrails  of  this 
formidable  fish,  the  gills  should  be  forced  open,  and  a 
knife  introduced  for  the  purpose,  taking  care  previously 
to  thrust  it  through  Ihe  spine-bone  of  your  victim,  and 
so  prevent  the  possibility  of  your  catching  a  Tartar. 
Unfasten  your  hook  from  the  wire  before  drawing  the 
latter  through  the  mouth  of  the  pike,  as  otherwise  it  is 
again  apt  to  catch  among  the  teeth,  from  which  it  may 
be  somewhat  dillicult  to  extricate  it,  without  incurring  a 
few  scratches. 

"  Should  a  fish,  after  having  bitten,  abandon  your 
gorge-hook,  try  him  with  a  running  bait  "pnn  swivels, 
and  let  this  be  a  fresh  trout  of  a  smaller  size  than  your 
other,  and  fixed  upon  a  gimp  tackle  with  the  tail  down- 
wards, as  in  minnow  fishing.  See  that  it  spins  judi- 
ciously ;  and  when  the  pike  rises,  let  him  turn  with  the 
bait  before  you  strike.  River  pike,  it  may  be  remarked, 
seldom  play  so  well  as  those  in  lochs.  They  push  gene- 
rally below  the  banks,  instead  of  striking  across,  and 
look  out  for  old  stumps  upon  whieh  to  entangle  una 
break  your  line.  One  ought,  therefore  to  make  quick 
sport  with  such  rascals — running  them  down  upon  level 
banks  in  a  twinkling,  and  before  they  are  able  to  get 
under  weigh. 

•'  The  third  method  of  angling  for  pike  is  with  a  fly 
— a  kind  of  fishing  not  much  i"-  use,  but  still  on  some 
waters  very  deadly.  The  pike-fly  should  be  large  and 
gaudy,  fabricated  of  divers  feathers  and  tinsels  to  re- 
semble the  king-fisher  or  a  huge  dragon-fly.     Use  it  in  ■ 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


itronR  warm  wind,  upon  water  from  six  to  *wo  feet !  to  the  surface  for  winf^cd  inticcta.    In  March  and  A 
deep,  and  neat  wrcJs.     You  will  liill   with  it  fish  of  '  use  the-  worm  in  the  forenoon,  and  a  fly  or  minnow 
various  sizes,  from  ton  inches  in  length  and  upwards:    cording  to  the  state  of  the  water,  the  rest  of  the  d 
»ery  heavy  ones,  however,  refuse  to  take  it,  on  account,  '  in  the  swiflest  and  sharpest  currents,  provided  the  d'' 
[•robably,  of  the  exertion  necessary  in  order  to  come  to    lie  warm  and  bright,  and  in  the  deeps  early  and  I  i*^. 
the  aurfocc.     Wo  Imve  always  noticed  that  the  biggest    but  if  the  water  be  discoloured  or  vcrv  thirk  i...  .l  ' 


pike  arc  caught  during  close  sultry  weather  with  a 
ground  bait,  and  at  tliost;  times  when  trout  refuse  food 
altogether.  Also  at  night,  with  set  lines,  in  the  summer 
months,  when  they  leave  the  weeds  and  bulrushes  in 
quest  of  food. 

"  Although  the  pike  is  often  nice  and  suspicious  in 
places  where  trout  abound,  still,  when  |)rovokcd,he  be- 
r^iines  bold  and  unwary,  treating  your  presence  us  no 
constraint  u|H)n  his  temper  and  appetites.  He  will 
follow  tho  bait  to  your  very  feet,  and  should  it  escape 
him,  will  retire  a  y»rd  or  two,  waiting  eagerly  for  its 
reappearance.  When  angry  he  erects  liis  fins  in  a  re- 
markable manner,  as  the  lion  doth  his  mane  or  the  por- 
cupine his  quills;  moreover,  the  pike  appears  careless  of 
puin,  if,  indeed,  lisbes  in  general  feel  it  to  any  great  de- 
gree. We  have  actually  landed  one  of  these  fish.cooped 
him  aliye  in  our  creel,  and  when  by  some  negligence  of 
ours,  ho  made  his  esca|)c  into  the  water,  have  succeeded 
a  second  time  in  securing  him.  On  another  occasion, 
wo  remember  having  apart  of  ourtackle,  consisting  of  a 
lurgo  double  gurgo-hook,  dressed  upon  brass  wire,  car- 
ried off  by  a  pike ;  and  yet,  u|)on  renewing  it,  the 
aifgressor  returned  to  the  charge  and  was  taken.  The 
former  hook  we  discovered  gorged  by  him  in  such  a  man 
ner  as  must,  we  thought,  not  only  have  suifocated  any 
other  animal,  but  done  so  by  the  medium  of  the  most 
exquisite  internal  a;;ony. 

"  Great  injury  has  of  late  years  been  done  by  the 
transference  of  the  pike  to  many  of  our  best  trout  iig 
locha,  where  a  single  individual  has  been  known  to  con- 
sume nearly  its  own  weight  of  fish  daily.  This  was  the 
case  on  Loch  Turit,  near  Creiff,  where  the  trout,  for- 
nterly  abundant,  are  now  greatly  reduced  by  the  hostile 
and  merciless  depredations  of  their  naturaf  enemy.  The 
pike  at  table  is  reckoned  l)y  some  a  coarse  dry  fish,  and 
so  in  general  they  are;  yet  to  our  knowledge,  in  cer- 
tiin  lochs,  for  instance  that  of  tho  Lowes,  in  Selkirk- 
shire, they  almost  rival  the  turbot,  and  should  bo  cooked 
somewhat  in  a  similar  manner.  They  are  none  t!ic 
v*'orse  lor  lieiiig  kept  a  few  days,  especially  if  of  any 
size.  A  good  sating  pike  ought  to  weigh  at  least  from 
five  to  twelve  pounds — the  smal'nr  ones  being  without 
exception  bad.'' 

Trout-Fishiny. 

The  trout  is  of  dilTcrent  specie*  and  varieties,  as  the 
common  trout,  the  gillaroo  or  gizzard  trout  of  Ireland, 
(he  bull-trout,  and  the  salmon-trout.  The  shape  is 
liandsome ;  the  ticfth  lirm  and  sweet,  and  coloured  pink 
or  white,  according  to  8|>ecies  and  feeding-ground ;  and 
the  weight  varies  from  half  a  pound  to  four  or  five 
(Kiunds.  In  one  or  <ithcr  of  its  varieties,  the  trout  is  a 
universally-known  fish  in  temperate  climates ;  its  favour- 
ite haunts  arc  clear  running  rivers;  and  there,  both  in 
England  and  Scotland,  it  alTords  a  favourite  object  of 
Hport  to  the  skilful  lUiglcr.  Sometimes  bait  is  employeil, 
but  the  fiy  is  more  common.  In  some  cases  the  bait  and 
fly  nmst  tie  tried  altcriiat<'ly  in  one  day,  as  the  fish  is 
cafiririous,  and   requires  to   be   tonipted  in  all   kinds  of 


very  thick,  try  \hl 
gravelly  shallows   near    tho  aides  and  tails  of  stream 
with  a  worm  only,  to  run  on  tho  bottom  with  one  larg*' 
shot  a  foot  at  least  from  it.      When   there  is  a  sm  n 
fieih,  or  the  water  is   clearing  oflf,  and  is  of  a  dark 
brownish  colour,  first  use  the  worm,  which  should  i» 
well-scoured  brandling,  cast  in  as  a  fly  at  the  head  of 
the  stream,  and  move  it  gently  towards  you,  still  letting 
it  go  down  with  the  current  so  as  to  keep  it  a  litii 
under  water ;  the  line  should  be  rather  short,  with 
lead  upon  it,  and  the  hook  fine ;  then  try  the  minnow 
and  as  the  water  clears,  the  artificial  flics  should  l)c  irieii' 
In  fishing  for  trout  with  tho  worm,  use  running-tackle 
and  employ  a  strong  line,  but  let  its  strength  consist  in 
the  excellence  of  its  material  rather  than  its  bulk  to 
which  end  the  hook  should  be  small,  the  gut  fine  the 
shotting  fine  also,  and  let  the  whi|)pings  l)e  wojl  con- 
cealed, for  in  bright  water  trout  are  singularly  warv  and 
suspicious.     In  some  few  instances  a  float  is  indispensa- 
ble, and  when  such  is  the  case,  let  that  likewise  be  ai 
light  and  fine  as  the  water  will  allow." 

A  short  line  and  quick  striking  arc  recommended  by 
Mr.'Stoddart,  who  says  the  line  "ought  always  to  b« 
kept  at  its  full  stretch,  and  moved  in  a  half  circle  with 
the  angler.     It  requires  some   degree  ff  percc(ition  to 
know  the  exact  instant  when  the  fish  first  seizog  your 
bait ;  it  does  so   with  such   softness,  and  witli  no  like. 
ncss  of  a  tug,  as  one  is  apt  to  imagine ;  nay,  it  menU 
closes  its  jaws  upon  the  hook,  as  a  gajiing  oyster  would 
do  upon  one's  finger,  then  is  your  opportunity  for  sirik. 
ing ;  if  you  neglect  it,  you  allow  the  trout  it«  more  lei. 
surely  process  of  nibbling,  and  its  chances  of  escape. 
In  striking  with  the  short  line,  do  it  sharply,  and  never 
against  the  current,  but  rather  with  it,  in  a  diagonal 
direction,  and  not  too  high.     The  reason  of  this  advice 
is  obvious,  for  all  fish  feed   with  th(  ir  heads  pointing  up 
the  stream — kindly  giving  you  the  choice  of  pulling  the 
hook  into  or  out  of  their  mouths;  the  latter  of  which 
purposes  you  accomplish,  to  a  dead  certainty,  by  striking 
against  the  current.     This  whip-jack  manner  of  hail. 
fishing  is  very  deadly  with  an  experienced  hand.    The 
long-line  anglers  make  nothing  of  their  method  rem. 
jiaratively  :  and  yet,  among  clear  waters,  and  where  fish 
are  few,  or  bite  shyly,  patience  and   a   long  line  will 
carry  the  day.     Remarkably  fine  gut  ought  tn  lie  used 
by  all  ground  anglers,  whatever  be  the  practice.    Trout 
are  a  suspicious,  distrustful  set,  and  three  in  general  slink 
ofl"  for  one  that  nibbles,  terrified,  no  doubt,  by  those  sin- 
gular accompaniments  of  your  worm,  a  line  and  hook. 

"  To  all  bait-fishers  Scotland  alTords  exec  llont  sport; 
her  rivers  run  so  strongly,  and  are  maintained  bv  k 
many  sources  in  the  sha|)e  of  mountain  burns,  These 
romantic  streamlets  abound  in  trout ;  every  stone  BJifJ. 
ters  its  inhabitant,  and  the  meanest  pool  is  pei)|iled  wiili 
numbers.  Uurn  fish,  however,  are  generally  of  a  sraull 
size;  they  seldom  exceed  a  pound  in  weight,  except  lo 
the  spawning  wason,  when  larger  oiies  ascend  from 
broader  streams,  or  lochs  at  a  distance.  Still,  the  taking 
of  them  is  a  pleasant  pastime,  especially  when  the\  bite 
eagerly  at  your  worm,  as  they  do  during  ruin  and  in 


ways.     'J'he  season  most  favourable  for  trout-fishing  is  j  discoloured  woter.     At  such    times,  you   have  only  to 


sprin.;  a.iil  early  summer, 

'J  tim.'fisliinti  v'lth  bait. — "  Trout,"  rays  Blaine,  "  !«-  ' 
gin  to  take  a  Liit  on  or  near  the  gruund  early  in  the 
year,  and   l»i;foro   March  will  readily  take  most  bottom 
Baiia  all   day   Um^  in   favourable  weather ;   but  as  the 

■ummer  advances,  it  is  only  very  early  or  very  late  in  the    most  fatal   method  of  capturing  trout,  and  is  growiiij 
day   that  they  will  take  a  halt  near  tho  ground,  they    much  into  practice  in  the  south  of  Scotland." 
being  at  the  intermediate  Youca  more  disposed  to  riao        1'he  same  enlhusiislic  brother  of  the  angle  next  pi» 


dro(i  your  bait  without  art.  and  the  fish  will  inanaije  it) 
own  ruin.  Worms  arc  tsiKen  greedily  at  night  and  earj 
in  the  morning;  also, when  the  sun  is  very  powerful, at 
mid-flay.  Akin  to  this  sort  of  angling  is  rnc-li$hin;, 
concerning  which  we  remai-k,  that  in  autumn  it  is  th« 


ANGLING. 


ffg^  to  treat  ol  minnow  fighingTi  which  he  sayi  is  by 
hr  the  plcasantest  mode  of  capturing  trout,  next  to 
■ogling  with  the  fly  :— "  If  you  wish  to  engage  in  this 
pletmnt  sport,  provide  your  minnows  by  means  of  a 
«iniili  drsg-nct  or  hook.  Select  those  of  a  moderate 
liic,  and  which  shine  whitest.  Thoy  may  bo  suited, 
liul  are  I'cst  perfectly  fresh.  The  tail  of  a  small  trout 
or  pal  is  no  had  substitute,  if  minnows  cannot  Imj  had. 
Our  only  reason  for  preferring  the  fresh  to  the  8alte<l 
mwnow  is,  that  by  its  silvery  appearance  and  more 
rstionsl  form  it  better  attracts  the  fish  ;  at  the  same 
Umo,  it  is  ""-'"  known  that  a  trout  loves  u  s.ilt  bait,  and 
will  repeat  its  attack  upon  a  minnow  of  that  description, 
while  it  refuses  to  do  so  upon  one  newly  taken.  Fish 
in  t»\>vi  streams,  also  in  deep  discoloured  pools,  and 
(luring  n  smart  curl.  Manage  the  minnow  asyou  would 
your  fly,  throwin;^  it  down  and  across  as  far  as  you  are 
iible;  bring  it  towards  you  about  six  inches  or  more  be- 
Inw  the  surface,  spinning  rapidly  by  the  aid  of  several 
swivels.  When  a  fish  rises,  give  him  time  before  you 
itrikc;  let  him  turn  and  gorge  the  bait,  then  strike 
s'.iirply,  anJ  he  is  yours ;  all  fly-fishors  are  apt  to  strike 
(i)0  aoon,  and  miss  the  fish. 

u  Trout  seize  a  minnow  by  the  middle,  or  near  the 
head,  anil  you  generally  hook  them  on  the  upper  hooks. 
In  rivers  where  numbers  of  minnows  arc  found,  yon  must 
angle  with  the  very  smallest,  not  above  nn  inch  in  length, 
anJ  use  a  proportionate  tackle.  The  trout  in  such 
ffiters  love  delicate  tid-bits,  and  are  absurdly  nice  in 
ihcir  feeding.  Artificial  minnows  are  sometimes  cm- 
]iloycd  l>y  anglers,  but  generally  fail,  except  in  muddy 
waters  and  lochs.  Mother-of-pearl  makes  the  best  imi- 
lalion — there  is  a  virtue  in  it  which  few  fish  can  resist." 

"Trolling  with  jiar  for  large  trout,"  he  continues, 
"  is  a  glorious  pastime,  especially  on  a  Highland  loch 
rircled  with  mountain  scenery — the  craft  of  nature  by 
incantation  wrought,  when  the  morning  stars  sang  to- 
cflher.  It  needs  intellect  to  enjoy  it  well,  and  a  poet's 
iu'irt  to  know  its  luxury.  Take  with  you  some  choice 
and  idle  spirit,  a  rower  he  must  be,  that  can  manage 
vour  airy  shallop  as  the  winds  do  a  weathercock— can 
cliant  a  ballad  of  yore,  of  ladye  and  chieftain,  and 
pianksomc  elf  and  kelpie  wild — can  speak  to  the  echoes 
and  to  yourself,  cheering  you  with  wit  and  wisdom,  and 
admiring  your  science  and  skill ;  and  the  gorgeous  fish 
vou  are  playing,  twenty  fathom  off,  with  a  strong  and 
iileady  hand,  your  heart '  high  fluttering  the  while,  like 
woman's  when  she  loves.' 

"Tackle  for  trolling  should  be  dressed  upon  tried 
pmp.  Bait  as  you  do  with  a  minnow  :  use  a  strong 
lod,  heavy  lead,  and  a  long  line  of  oiled  cord  wound 
upon  an  easy  reel.  Choose  a  sunny  day,  with  a  stifRsh 
breeze,  and  troll  nea*  but  not  among  the  weediest  parts 
of  the  loch.  Plant  yourself  at  the  boat  stern,  and  get 
rawed  gently  at  the  rate  of  three  miles  an  hour,  letting 
out  from  twenty  to  thirty  yards  of  line  Iwtween  you  and 
your  bait.  Trout  from  six  to  nine  pounds'  weight 
cause  the  best  sport  when  hooked  ;  a  larger  one  seldom 
leaps  or  makes  any  violent  exertion  to  escape ;  he  swims 
sullealy,  and  at  ease,  regarding  the  angler  with  a  sort  of 
lovereign  contempt.  You  must  row  after  him,  and 
turn  him  if  you  can  before  he  gets  among  weeds  ; 
never  slack  your  line  for  an  instant,  and  look  well  about 
you.  Land  as  soon  as  you  are  able,  and  play  him  from 
the  shore.     Your  companion  will  assist  you  at  the  death. 

'•So  much  for  the  different  kinds  of  bail-fishing  prac- 
tiied  in  Scotland.  We  esteem  it  fally  to  talk  of  the  less 
|K>pul«r  bails  used  by  the  vhimm — of  frogs,  grubs,  and 
IcL'chcs,  water-rats,  and  mice — all  of  which  animals 
trout  will  devour.  It  might  l>e  asked,  may  fish  not  be 
taken  with  any  thing  1  They  have  been  known  to 
l^wllow  money,  rings,  and  many  other  marvels ;  never- 
IfaeleM  they  seem  to  have  no  pleasure  in  snapping  at  the 


bait  of  the  unskilful  angler,  and  refuse  to  die  under  Lia 
hands." 

Trout  fly-fishing. 

This,  after  all,  is  the  true  angling,  all  other  efibrt*  ti 
taking  fish  being  either  somewhat  ch.ldish  or  murder* 
ous.  A  long  flexible  rod,  fine  lines,  and  appropriate 
flies  arc  the  necessary  equipment ;  and  tlio  best  time  for 
making  the  attempt  is  on  a  dark  lowering  day,  at  any 
rate  not  in  bright  sunshine.  If  the  moon  has  shone 
brightly  the  previous  night,  it  will  have  prevented  the 
trouts  from  feeding  freely,  and  they  will  accordingly  bite 
more  readily  when  tempted  with  the  artificial  fly. 
Great  skill  and  nicety  are  reijuircd  in  throwing  the  fly 
line.  Mr.  Stoddart  gives  the  following  directions  how  to 
proceed : — 

"  Your  rod  and  tackle  being  ready,  the  wind  in  your 
favour  down  the  river,  draw  out  with  your  left  hand  a 
few  yards  of  line  from  your  reel,  dip  the  top  of  youi 
rod  in  the  water,  and  with  a  rapid  jork  you  will  lengthen 
as  you  wish  that  part  you  intend  for  throwing.  A 
thirteen  foot  wand  will  cast  from  six  to  seven  fathoms  of 
line.  With  a  large  double-handed  rod  you  may  manage 
a  much  greater  length.  Always,  if  you  can,  angle  from 
a  distance.  Trout  sec  you  when  you  least  imagine,  and 
skulk  oflT  without  your  notice.  Noise  they  care  little 
about ;  you  may  talk  and  stamp  like  a  madman  without 
frightening  them,  but  give  them  a  glimpse  of  your  per- 
son, and  they  won't  stay  to  take  another.  Some  icthyo- 
logists  attribute  to  them  an  acute  sense  of  hearing;  this 
we  are  disjiosed  to  question  ;  for  how  happens  it  that  the 
most  obstreperous  rattling  of  stones,  when  wading, 
causes  no  alarm,  although  conveyed  to  them  through  tho 
medium  of  water,  a  good  conductor  of  sounds  1  Wo 
remember  angling  one  still  night  by  St.  Mary's  Loch, 
when  our  movements  were  heard  distinctly  by  some 
shepherds  from  the  distance  of  a  mile,  and  yet  the  fish 
rose  eagerly  at  our  very  feet,  following  our  fly  to  the 
shallowest  parts  of  the  margin — a  fact  which,  if  it  doea 
not  prove  the  obtusity  of  hearing,  at  any  rate  renders  it 
a  matter  of  little  consequence  to  the  angler. 

"  It  requires  some  art  to  throw  a  long  line.  Ilie  be- 
ginner should  commence  with  a  short  one,  and  without 
flies,  lengthening  it  gradually  aa  he  improves.  The  best 
method  of  casting  is  to  bring  the  rod  slowly  over  the 
right  or  left  shoulder,  and  with  a  turn  of  the  wrist  make 
the  line  circle  behind  you,  then,  after  a  pause,  fetch  it 
forward  again  in  the  same  manner,  and  your  flies  will 
descend  softly  upon  the  water.  AHl  jerks  are  apt  to 
whip  off  your  hooks  or  •■'•eck  your  gut.  A  fly-fisher 
may  use  two,  three,  or  four  flies  on  his  casts,  according 
to  pleasure.  When  angling  with  small  hooks,  we  adopt 
the  medium  number.  Large  ones  ought  to  be  fished 
with  in  pairs,  and  well  separated.  In  throwing  the  cast, 
the  lowermost  or  trail-fly  should  bo  made  to  alight  fore- 
most ;  its  fall  ought  to  be  almost  imperceptible  ;  it  should 
come  down  on  the  water  like  a  gossamer,  fol'owed  by  ihe 
droppers.  The  moment  a  fly  touches  the  surface,  it  is 
ten  times  more  apt  to  raise  a  fish  than  during  the  act  of 
drawing  it  along.  At  no  time  are  we  stanch  advocates 
for  the  system  of  leading  our  hooks  either  against  or 
across  a  stream ;  our  method  is  rather  to  shake  them  over 
it  for  a  moment  and  then  repeat  the  throw.  A  trout 
will  discover  your  fly  at  the  distance  of  several  yards,  if 
feeding,  and  will  dart  at  it  like  lightning,  .always,  if  you 
can,  fish  with  the  wind,  and  do  not  concern  yonrsclf,  as 
some  do,  from  what  quarter  it  comes.  In  spring,  no 
doubt,  a  south-west  breeze  is  preferable  to  all  others ;  yet 
we  have  seen  even  easterly  winds  not  the  worst  on  many 
waiters,  especinlly  during  summer  months,  when  the 
natural  fly  is  apt  to  liecome  over  plenty. 

'•Trout  will  sometimes  take  in  the  most  unlikely  wea- 
thers, so  that  the  angler  should  i.ot  dosp  tir  at  any  tinwi 
3m9 


CM 


INFORM ATION    FOR  TIIK   PEOPLE 


Hunger  causes  them  to  feed  at  least  once  in  the  twenty- 
four  hourR,  nnJ  (jenorally  much  oftener.  If  llie  wind 
blows  down  tlie  river,  commence  at  tiio  pool  head,  mid 
fish  every  inch  of  good  water ;  you  may  [insn  over  the 
very  rough  and  very  shallow  parts,  also  tlioHe  which  are 
absolutely  dead  calm,  and  clear,  unless  you  sec  fish  rising 
in  them,  when,  whould  your  tackle  be  light,  tlierc  is  no 
harm  in  taking  .1  throw  or  two.  Dead  water,  however, 
when  rippled  or  discoloured,  may  he  angled  in  with  great 
vuccess.  When  you  raise  a  good  trout,  strike  slowly,  or 
hardly  at  all ;  only  continue  the  motion  r.f  your  hand 
without  slacking  it;  tliu  fish,  if  Inrge,  will  hook  itself. 
Hniall  trout  and  par  may  bo  whip()ed  in  with  rapidity  : 
it  is  folly  to  play  or  use  ceremony  with  such  trifies. 
8hould  the  fish  miss  your  fiy  a!to:;ctlier,  give  him  another 
chance,  and  a  third  if  that  will  not  do ;  a  touch  of  your 
liarb,  however,  will  sharpen  his  wits,  so  as  to  prevent  him 
from  a'j;ain  rising.  He  prefers  flies  without  stings.  When 
you  hook  a  trout,  if  you  can,  turn  his  head  with  the 
stream,  and  take  him  rapidly  down.  Thus  you  will  ex- 
haust him  in  the  shortest  time,  whereas,  by  hauling 
•gainst  the  current,  you  allow  him  to  swim  freely  in  his 
natural  directiDn.  and  also  exert  three  times  more  strength 
u|K>n  your  tackle  than  is  really  needful.  A  goixl-si/.eil 
fish,  handled  in  this  foolish  manner,  can  never  be  taken ; 
it  is  impos.silile  to  tire  him  out,  and  the  strongest  lino  will 
give  way  to  bis  resistance.  When  your  victim  is  ex- 
hausted, draw  him  gently  ashore  upon  the  nearest  chan- 
nel or  most  level  part  of  the  n'art'in.  He  will  come  in 
tideway.s,  ami  generally  lie  mol.oidess  for  a  few  seconds, 
during  which  time  you  will  l)e  able  to  run  forward  and 
icize  him.  Beware  of  catching  bold  of  your  line  until 
ho  is  properly  banked.  Many  a  famous  trout  li:ive  we 
Jcon  lost  by  tills  inadvertence  on  the  p:irl  of  anglers,  who 
think  so  to  save  time  and  labour.  One  sliould  remember 
how  the  spring  uf  the  rod  is  thus  removed,  and  how 
there  remains  no  projM'r  curb  to  the  strength  of  the  fish, 
which  easily  breuka  a  single  gut,  or  tears  itself  from  a 
iiharp  hook,  and  wishes  the  astijnishcd  angler  better  s[x)rt 
farther  on." 

The  practice  of  double-rod  fly-fishing  for  trout  or  for 
salmon  is  a  murderous  kind  of  sport,  und  should  be  pro- 
hibited by  law.  A  line  stretched  between  two  rods,  and 
h'.mg  with  flies,  is  taken  down  the  stream  by  two  indi- 
viduals on  its  opposite  sides,  so  that  every  part  of  the 
water  is  gone  over,  and  every  feeding  trout  raised.  By 
this  plan  large  numbers  are  caught,  but  many  also  arc 
wounded,  and  escape  to  pine  away  for  mouths  at  the 
bottora,  unable  cither  to  feed  or  spawn. 

SiilmonFishinK. 

This  may  he  described  as  a  gigantic  trout-fishing,  the 
principle  of  alluring  and  capturing  being  the  same,  but 
all  the  tackle  rei]uiring  to  l)e  stronger,  and  a  greater  deg.-ee 
of  physical  power  being  necessarily  called  into  o|)eration. 
The  salmon  has  a  |)ecuhar  habit  very  likely  to  upset  the 
calculations  of  l)cginners;  it  consists  of  the  ugly  prac- 
tice of  running  olT  at  a  violent  sj-ecd  as  soon  as  he  feels 
himself  hooked,  darting  U|)  the  stream,  throwing  himself 
several  times  out  of  the  water,  and  generally  in  the  end 
hastening  into  some  sheltered  haunt  where  he  ex|)ects  to 
bo  safe.  Great  tact  is  necessary  on  these  occasions,  first 
to  give  line,  and  then  to  keep  him  from  burying  himself 
in  sotne  unapproachable  nook. 

With  respect  to  the  miuutiic  of  the  art,  both  in  throw- 
ing and  striking,  the  reconnneiidations  of  Mr.  Younger 
of  St.  Boswells  are  well  worthy  of  attention :-  "  I  re- 
ejmmend  a  beginner,"  says  he,  "  to  (iractise  throwing  the 
line  on  a  broid  smooth  pool,  where  he  can  sec  that  it  is 
di'livered  out  pn)|iorly,  and  falls  lightly,  without  splash- 
ing. In  such  a  ease  the  practitioner  will  perceive  soine- 
tiiing  which  he  cannot  easily  account  for :  and  that  is, 
Diat  Hi'ier  he  has  even  attained  a  great  dcint-e  of  pcrfec- 
Ituu  Lit  the  art,  he  will  not  bu  able  to  distinguish  how  it 


I  happens  that  in  one  throw  his  long  line  will  proeiwii 

'■  direct  out,  his  fly  alighting  first  on  the  water;  in  anmh 

j  throw  the  middle  of  his  line  will  fall  first,  while  the  fatth"' 

j  part,  still  olicdient  to  the  general   Impulse,  will  procJ!| 

out  the  full  length,  the  fly  falling  the  last  on  the  surfap. 

This  last  throw  is  not  so  good  as  the  former,  for  ih 

reason,  that  the  main  current  having  caught  the  midlU 

of  his  line  first,  carries  it  too  quickly  down,  leaving  th 

fly  lagging,  to  form  an  awkward  curve,  as,  lieforc  it  comci 

over  above  the  fish,  the  fly  should  lie  on  the  water  to  u 

to  have  the  appearance  of  flying  at  an  angle  ai;ainst  tl 

current.     And  the  angler  should  so  manage  his  lod  ih 

while  ho  lets  his  line  float  round  at  its  full  length,  ypi  i,' 

cause  his  fly  to  come  as  slowly  as  possible  over  the  mail 

spot.     In  this  case  the  salmon  will  sometimes  rise  at 


once,  rather  before  you  expect  hini,  but  more 


generally 


will  follow  the  fly  to  the  eddy,  or  edge  of  the  deep,  where 
if  on  examination  ho  feel  disjiosed  lo  seize  the  hnolt  h« 
has  it  before  you  perceive  a  head,  fin,  or  lnjl  aliovc'tlie 
surface.  Indeed,  before  yon  i)erceive  the  web  of  his  tail 
ho  generally  has  the  hook  in  bis  jaw  a  foot  lielow  waltr 
as  in  descending  he  goes,  like  other  divers,  head  fon> 
most," 

Having  managed  to  place  the  fly  over  the  di  sired  spot, 
our  authority  continues — ••  Hn  w'M  make  no  perceptible 
motion  to  keep  his  fly  on  the  surface  (except  on  a  slut. 
gish  pool),  but  let  it  sink  a  little,  dependimr  on  fef||„, 
rather  than  on  sight;  and  though  ap|iareiitly  keeping  no 
pull  on  his  line,  yet  all  the  while  able  to  detect  the  touch 
of  a  minnow.     On  a  bi'il,  or  rather  appearance  of  a  fish 
he  pulls  np  his  line,  not  twilehingly  but  actively,  slepii 
yard  or  two  back,  rests  a  minute  to  let  the  fisli  resume hj 
lair  and  attention,  and  perhaps  feels  inclined  to  niter  hi 
tly,  before  he  annoy  and  disgust  or  alarm  his  fish,  to  1 
^liade  darker  or  a  size  smaller,  when  he  will  most  pro. 
bably  come   up  and  seize  it  in  earnest.     iSliouKl  he  not 
rise  again,  or   rise  and  pass   it  thrice,  leave  him  quietly 
alone  for  the  prestmt,  and  return  to  try  him  some  time 
aftei-wnrds.     On  taking  the  fly,  the  fish  means  to  return 
with  it  to  his  precise  select  s/iot  of  lair,  on  ruck,  stone,  or 
gravel,  at  the  bottom ;  and  the  fine  angler,  holding  hio 
gently,  often,  in  the  first  instance,  allows  him  to  do  so    ' 
luit  soon,  too  surely  feeling  liis  awkward  predicament,  he 
bolts  oir '  indignant  of  the  guile.'     Then  is  the  time  whci 
the  fisher  is  attentive ;  widi  the  butt  end  of  his  rod  test. 
ing  on  his  thigh  or  groin,  he  keeps  the  top  nearly  ere<l, 
never  allowing  it  to  fall  below  the  projier  all^'le  of  forty. 
five  degrees,  as  relative  to  the  situation  of  the  fish,  as  in 
this  position  the  elasticity  of  the  rod  never  aliows  the  hne 
to  slacken  in  the  least  degree  for  a  single  instinl,  hm- 
ever  the  fish  may  shake,  flounce,  jerk,  or  phiiiiie.    Vlih 
two  or  three  fingers  and  the  thumb  of  his  lell  hiindlfce 
angler  holds  his  rxl  while  the  wheel-line  runs  out,  rt-jc. 
lated  by  the  first  or  first  and  second  fingers,  relieved  01 
assisteil,  as  occasion   may  suggest,  by   the  rii;lit  hanJ, 
when  it  can  be  spared  from  its  nceessary  (Hcu|iatioii of 
rolling  up  the  wheel-line,  as  the  fish  settles  a  lillie  or 
returns  inwards.     In  this  manner  the  fisli  U  allowidio 
run   right  out,  up,  down,  or  across,  as  he  may  ehoow 
But  if  in  an  outright  dash  of  thirty  or  filly  yards  aslinl, 
ending  in  an  outward  bouiiil  fiing  above  w:iler,  the  inci. 
Jierieneed  angler  should  feel  flustered,  whiili  he  is  veni 
likely  to  do,  and  by  some  involuntary  twitch  of  the  nii> 
niiig  line  let  the  toj)  of  his  rod  be  |)iillcil  down  lo  a  level 
with  his  own  head,  then  the  tug  of  the  last  pinnt'onill 
assuredly  break  his   hook   or  line,  or  tear  the  hook  from 
the  mouth  of  the  fish.     Or,  what  is  as  bad,  a  sudden  jnli 
or  turn  of  the  fish  will  give  the  line  a  nionienlary  Ad- 
ening,  when  the  hook's  hold,  alreudy  so  straiiud  as  lo  j 
have  widened  its  incision,  vtill  fall  out,  and  your  fish  11  ] 
gone  for  ever." 

Now  is  the  critical  moment  for  the  salmon-fisher,  who 
must  keep  up  his  rod  and  give  line,  "'i'lit  fwhwill 
then,"  continues  John,  "  allow  himself  to  lie  led  at  eiu 


W  (be  ingler'i  ti 
illsr,  when,  on  fi 
niike  another  d< 
(he  middle  currei 
itill  continued  pi 
Ihe  shallow,  whe 
alarmed  into  a  111 
insr  Ins  outward-i 
and  again,  and  nf 
ment  of  funning  < 
swimming  are  inii 
moving  him  by  di 
he  must,  like  all  1 
fall  panting  on  hii 
rml  length,  which 
without  slackenini 
fore  finger  and  tl 
root  of  the  tail  (\ 
seizure),  lifts  or  ra 
pravel  and  grass. 
Ihn  back  of  the  lie 
•'After  going  th 
noiiiider  (and   the 
ib'ty-four),  the  writ 
lliat  from  he  mom 
luid  on  the  grass,  h 
of  more  or  less  pul 
of  run,  regularity  ( 
aid  final  success, 
laid  on  the  dry  gra\ 
lip  of  his  mouth  wj 
steel  of  the  hook — 
management  in  the 
a  master  angler  so 
lisli  to  land  excites  i 
die  .'latter  should  be 
ral  ease  of  mind  wl 
lions  of  loss  and  gn 
often  tends  to  stir 
This  perfect  case  is 
cellence  and  ultimut 
Leislerinc;  is  the 
kind  of  sport  pursi 
Armed  with  leisters, 
i  set  of  fishers  proi 
attract  the   fish   by 
uutcr  by  members 
discovered,  one  soloc 
rapid  blow  transfixes 
the  fish  cannot  be 
into  the  water,  but 
several  men  may  lie 
stream  while  shouts 
sjjcctators  on  the  ban 
o'Guy  Muiineriiii;,  h 
species  of  sport,  win 
and  its  tributaries,  hu 
Jers  who  are  regardle 
lish  during  "  close  tii 
shut— from  alwut  the 


The  par  is  a  small 
dance  in  almost  all 
free  communication  ' 
course,  according  to  it 
li'ngth  tliaii  si<  iiiehe 
magnitude.     It  is  silv 
peculiar  blueish  bars 
nwre  nicely-forked  tai 
spots  along  the  sides  i 
111  distinguishing  the  j 
ttwt  rcseiiililcs. 
Of  tlio  actual  char 


ANGLING. 


691 


^  the  tni^ler'i  tide  of  the  river,  like  a  bndegTootn  to  the 
ilur,  when,  on  finding  tijo  WBter  shallowing,  he  will  again 
make  another  dcuperate  eftbrt,  probably  a  new  daub  into 
(he  middle  current;  but  too  much  exhauatod  to  resist  the 
iiill  continued  pull  upon  him,  ho  will  soon  again  fnll  into 
ihe  ihiillow,  where,  on  a  night  of  his  enemy,  he  is  again 
Hlarmi'd  into  a  new  effort,  and  again  exhausted  by  turn- 
jnn  his  outward-bound  head  down  with  Ihe  water,  again 
ami  axain,  and  iigain,  as  if  the  parties  were  in  the  amuse- 
ment o(  fiirrning  i-irrles,  until  bis  own  last  etforts  to  keep 
Bwimniiny;  arc  made  subxervient  to  the  rautious  angler  in 
moviiiiJ  iiim  by  degrees  into  the  shallow,  where,  half  dry, 
lip  mnxl.  like  all  the  strong,  at  last  yield  to  his  fate,  and 
fall  panlinij  on  his  side,  while  the  line  rolled  up  to  within 
rixl  loni?lh,  which  is  to  be  held  with  its  top  landwards, 
without  Khu-kening,  and  the  fisher  seizing  him  with  the 
fore  tin;;er  and  thumb  of  his  right  hand  across  by  the 
root  of  the  tail  (which  is  by  far  the  surest  method  of 
seizure),  lifts  or  rather  slides  him  out  bead  foremost  over 
irrjvel  and  grass,  and  in  mercy  fells  him  with  a  blow  on 
ihn  bark  of  the  neck. 

■'  After  going  through  this  process  with  a  twenty-two 
nninidcr  (and  the  process  would  be  the  same  with  a 
ib'tv-feur^.thc  writer  can  aver,  that  he  docs  not  conceive 
Ihat  from  he  moment  he  has  hooked  such  until  he  was 
hid  on  the  grass,  he  ever  for  an  instant  had  three  ounces 
of  more  or  less  pull  on  the  tish ;  for  in  all  circumstances 
of  run,  regularity  of  pull  is  the  sure  test  of  true  skill 
ail  final  success.  Indeed,  I  have  seen  many  a  fine  fish 
laid  on  the  dry  gravel  when  the  hold  of  the  hook  in  the 
lip  of  his  mouth  was  so  slight  as  to  he  smaller  than  the 
steel  of  the  hook — so  much  for  equal  pull  and  cautious 
management  in  the  run.  And,  in  short,  a  man  is  never 
a  master  angler  so  long  as  a  desire  to  have  his  hooked 
(tih  to  land  excites  in  his  feelings  the  least  agitation,  ns 
the  .latter  should  be  managed  with  that  cool  philosophi- 
i-al  ease  of  mind  which  is  alike  above  the  paltry  calcula- 
liona  of  loss  and  gain  and  the  common  ridicule,  which 
often  tends  to  stir  up  a  degree  of  childish  frctfulness. 
This  perfect  case  is  iibsolutely  necessary  to  first-rate  ex- 
cellence and  ultimate  success." 

Lcisierins;  is  the  name  usually  given  to  a  murderous 
kind  of  sport  pursued  by  salmon  fishers  in  Scotland. 
Armed  with  leisters,  or  spears  with  three-barbed  prongs, 
I  set  of  fishers  proceed  to  the  river's  bank,  and  there 
attract  the  fish  by  the  glare  of  torches  held  over  the 
water  by  memliers  of  the  party.  When  a  salmon  is 
(liioovercd,  one  selects  it  as  h.is  prey,  and  by  a  cool  but 
rajjid  blow  transfixes  it  with  his  spear.  In  many  cases, 
the  fi»h  cannot  be  secured  or  landed  without  plunging 
into  the  water,  but  this  usually  forms  no  obstacle,  and 
several  men  may  lie  seen  floundering  in  the  deptlis  of  the 
stream  while  shouts  and  confusion  prevail  among  the 
iipectators  on  the  banks.  Sir  Walter  Scott,  in  his  novel 
oSGuy  M<tiinerini;,  has  presented  a  vivid  picture  of  this 
species  of  sport,  which  is  still  pursued  on  the  Tweed 
and  its  tributaries,  but  mostly  by  parties  of  rude  marau- 
Jeri  who  are  regardless  of  law,  and  kill  vast  numbers  of 
lish  during  "  close  time,"  or  when  the  rivers  are  legally 
shut— from  alwut  the  middle  of  October  till  February. 

THB   PAR. 

The  par  is  a  small  fish,  which  is  found  in  great  abun- 
dance in  almost  all  rivers  which  are  clear,  and  have  a 
frefl  communication  with  tht  sea.  It  varies  in  siie,  of 
course,  accordmg  to  its  age,  but  seldom  reaches  a  greater 
li'ni,'th  than  s'(  inches,  and  is  usually  found  below  that 
ma,'iiitude.  It  is  silvery  in  appearance,  and  marked  by 
peculiar  hlueish  bars  or  markx  along  the  body  ;  while  a 
nii)re  nicely-forked  tail,  and  one  regular  row  of  scarlet 
spots  along  the  sides  in  place  of  two  or  three,  aid  further 
in  distiiiiiuishing  the  par  from  the  trout,  the  fish  which  it 
tiut  rCiU'iiildt'S. 
*Uf  tlic  actual  character  of  the  piir,  whether  it  is  oji 


independent  spcciec,  or  the  fry  of  salmon,  there  hii  been 
a  long-continued  controversy.  Many  naturalists  wer« 
incliDe<l  to  hold  it  as  a  kind  of  mule,  or  creature  Mwixt 
the  trout  and  salmon  breeds.  The  dispute,  however, 
may  lie  said  to  have  licen  term!nat«.d  recently  by  Mr. 
Shaw  of  Drumlanrig,  whose  lengthened  and  ably  con- 
ducted experiments  establish  the  par  to  l)o  the  natural 
produce  or  fry  of  the  salmon.  In  a  memoir  communi- 
cated to  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  Mr.  Shaw 
mentiono  that  his  first  experimonf  on  the  aubject  consisted 
in  the  removal  of  a  number  of  pars  from  their  native 
stream  to  a  pond,  when  he  found  that  all  of  them  assumed 
the  perl'ect  appearance  of  salntan  fry  or  smolls,  at  the 
end  of  periods  of  time  proportioned  to  their  bulk  when 
placed  in  the  pond.  He  also  satisfied  himself  that  the 
change  from  the  state  of  par  to  that  of  smalt,  which  is 
marked  by  the  appearance  of  a  covering  of  silvery  scales 
over  the  blue  burs,  always  takes  place  at  the  age  of  lito 
yearn;  and  that  then,  for  the  first  time,  the  roetamor- 
phosed  fry  take  their  departure  for  the  sea. 

But  it  was  objected  to  these  experiments,  that  Mr.  Shaw 
might  have  mistaken  young  salmon  for  pars  in  the  first 
instance,  so  rendering  his  conclusions  of  no  Weight.  To 
settle  all  disputes,  he  began  his  exiierimcnts  with  the  ova 
or  cifu,':  of  the  salmon,  first  constructing  ponds  for  their 
reception.  These  ponds,  three  in  number,  he  protected 
by  falls,  pipes,  and  gratings,  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
seclude  them  in  a  perfect  manner  from  all  interference 
on  the  part  of  any  other  fishes  whatsoever.  Having 
provided  a  proper  not,  Mr.  Shaw  was  successful  in  cap- 
turing a  pair  of  adult  Halmon,  male  and  female,  while  en- 
gaged in  depositing  their  spaw  n.  By  expressing  a  portion 
of  the  ova  from  the  female,  and  of  the  milt  from  her 
companion,  he  had  it  in  hi  i  power  to  transfer  fertilized 
ova  to  his  ponds  on  the  2"th  of  January,  1837.  "Ou 
the  2l9t  of  March,  fifty-four  days  afterwards,  the  embryo 
fish  were  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  On  the  7th  of  May 
they  had  burst  the  envelop,  and  were  to  be  found  among 
the  shingle  of  the  stream.  It  is  this  brood  which  I  have 
now  had  an  ofiportuiiity  of  watching  continuously  for  a 
length  of  time." 

Mr.  Show's  descriptions  of  the  brood,  read  to  the  Royal 
Society,  and  accompani<!d  with  specimens,  will  liest  show 
the  general  scope  of  the  results.  At  the  age  of  forty 
days  after  the  exclusion  from  the  egg,  the  symmetry  of 
the  young  fish's  form  was  but  imperfectly  developed. 
"  .\fler  the  lapse  of  two  months  (7th  July)  the  shape 
was  found  to  be  materially  improved,  and  to  exhibit  in 
miniature  much  of  the  form  and  proportions  of  a  mature 
fish.  At  the  age  of  four  months  (7th  September)  the 
characteristic  marks  of  the  par  were  clearly  developed. 
Two  months  later  (six  months  old,  7th  Novemlier)  an 
accession  lioth  of  size  and  strength  was  apparent,  and  on 
comparing  the  pond  specimens  with  the  par  of  the  river, 
no  marked  dillcrence  was  perceptible.  The  average 
length  at  this  time  was  three  inches. 

"  During  the  winter  months,  the  general  temperature  of 
the  rivers  is  so  low,  and  the  consequent  deficiency  of  in- 
sect fowl  so  great,  that  the  whole  of  the  Scottish  salrno- 
nida;  which  inhabit  the  fresh  waters  during  that  season 
are  well  known  to  lose  rather  than  gain  in  point  of  con- 
dition. The  same  rule  holds  in  regard  to  the  young  sal- 
mon in  the  experimental  ponds,  although  not  to  the  same 
degree,  they  having  maintained  comparatively  a  superior 
condition  throughout  the  winter  to  those  found  in  the 
river  of  a  corresponding  age  and  size.  The  temperature 
of  the  ponds,  averaging  about  40  degrees  during  the 
winter,  not  only  keeps  the  young  fishes  which  occupy 
them  in  a  more  active  condition,  but  the  insects  them- 
selves are  also  more  abroad,  and  thus  aflbrd  a  convenient 
supply  of  food  not  to  lie  obtained  by  those  at  that  time 
in  tlie  river,  the  average  temperature  of  wh'ch,  in  ordi- 
iiiiiv  winters,  l^;iri'ly  cxcivds  34  degrees.  I  shall  now 
refer  more  spciially  to  the  spiiiinciis  before  the  Socictv 


09a 


INFORMATION  FOR   THK   PEOPLE. 


••Number  n\x  i»  a  ipeeimen  from  pond  numbor  one,  ot 
llie  «(»e  of  niiio  month*,  taken  in  ilie  middle  of  Fcl)runry, 
l9'iH.  It  exhibits  little  or  no  {tarticuldr  atveision  of 
w*e  or  condition  to  thnt  of  niimlier  Ave.  but  mny  wrve 
lo  ohow  the  gentiral  appearance  of  the  nevcral  broodi  of 
(he  young  lalmon  in  my  powoaaion  at  the  ago  of  nine 
months. 

"  Number  loven  iiaapecimrn  twelve  month*  old, taken 
from  pond  numbor  one,  on  the  10th  Mny,  1838.  It  ia 
much  improved  in  rondition,  a«  well  of  in  ext<!rnal  ap- 
pearance, in  oornpariaon  to  that  taken  in  Pubruary,  and 
has  exrhang^t'd  its  dusky  autumnal  and  winter  coatini; 
for  th^t  which  may  lie  called  its  summer  dross.  It  mea- 
sures about  three  and  three  quarter  inches  in  length,  and 
is  ilenominntetl,  along  with  those  of  a  corresponding  iige 
am)  size  in  the  river,  the  Mny  Par.  Immiuliiitcly  after 
the  niiifratio.'i  of  the  two-year-old  par  (which  the  latter 
nlwiys  effect  about  the  beginning  of  May,  under  the 
name  of  salmon-fry),  there  is  no  other  par,  licsidcs  such 
lis  have  been  recently  hatched,  to  l>e  found  in  the  river, 
■sve  thorn  which  correspond  with  this  specimen,  which 
is  the  Piitk  of  the  river  Hodder,  alluded  to  by  Mr.  Yar- 
rell.  As  the  summer  advances,  they  increase  in  size,  and 
are  actually  the  little  (ish  which  alTord  the  angler  in  sal- 
mon rivers  so  much  light  amusement  with  the  rod,  during 
the  months  of  August,  September,  and  Octol)er.  They 
rumaiii  over  the  second  winter  in  the  river,  during  which 
period  the  males  shed  their  milt,  and  are  found  continu- 
ing; their  kind  along  with  the  female  udult  salmon,  al- 
tii  jugh  stiil  bearing  all  the  external  morkings  of  the  par, 
as  I  shall  afWrwards  more  particularly  mention.  Num- 
ber eight  is  a  specimen  eighteen  months  old,  taken  from 
)>(>nd  number  one,  on  the  14th  November,  1838.  It 
mea^iures  six  inches  in  length,  and  has  now  attained  that 
■tagc  when  all  the  external  characteristic  markings  of 
the  par  are  strikingly  developed,  and,  in  point  of  health 
■nd  condition,  cannot  be  exceeded  by  any  taken  from  the 
liTer.  All  the  males,  at  the  age  of  eighteen  months,  of 
the  several  broods  in  my  possession,  last  autumn  (1838) 
attained  a  most  important  corroborative  stage,  namely, 
that  of  showing  a  breeding  state,  by  having  matured  the 
milt,  which  could  be  made  to  flow  freely  from  their  bo- 
dies by  the  slightest  pressure  of  the  hand.  The  females 
of  the  same  broods,  however,  although  in  equal  health 
•nd  condition,  did  not  exhibit  a  corrcsimnding  ajipear- 
•nce  in  regard  to  the  maturing  of  roe.  The  male  and 
f<4inale  pars  in  the  river,  of  a  similar  age,  are  found  re- 
•Iiectively  in  precisely  a  corresponding  slate,  which  may 
•urely  be  admitted  aa  moat  important  evidence  in  support 
of  the  fact  that  all  these  individuals  are,  in  truth,  specifi- 
cally the  same. 

"  Number  nine  is  a  specimen  two  years  old,  taken  from 
:pond  number  one,  on  the  SUth  May,  1839,  n/ttr  Ani'ing 
a»mnudthe  nrigratory  drm.  The  commencement  of  the 
change,  which  was  perfected  by  the  whole  of  the  broods 
•bout  the  same  time,  was  first  observable  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  previous  April,  by  the  caudal,  pectoral,  and 
dorsal  fiii*  aitsuming  a  dusky  margin,  while,  at  the  same 
time,  the  whole  of  the  fish  exhibited  symptoms  of  a  silvery 
exterior,  as  well  as  an  increased  elegance  of  form.  The 
aperimen  in  question,  so  recently  par,  exhibits  a  very 
perfect  example  of  the  salm'm  fry  or  smolt."* 

These  exiieriments,  conducted  in  an  unexceptionable 
way,  were  confirmed  by  other  observations.  Being  su- 
lutied  that  tlie  par  never  migrated  to  the  sea  until  the 
•g']  ot  two  years  had  been  attained,  and  the  change  from 
p.ir  to  smolt  had  taken  place,  Mr.  Shaw  watched  to  dis- 
lover  the  descending  shoals.  He  was  successful  on  three 
occasion*.  "  The  first  u(  these  was  in  the  first  week  of 
May,  1831.  I  was  ablo  deliberately  to  inspect  them  as 
(h>!  several  ahoala  arriv»d  behind  the  sluices  of  a  aalmon 


*<)r.e  or  two  ofcach  of  th«  thren  hroniU  aMumed  the  inigra- 
Vrv  or  soMli  dras*  at  l^te  agi  oi  twelve  months. 


cruive;  and  while  they  yot  remained  in  the  water  tm! 
were  swimming  in  a  porticular  direction,  indistinct  trsnn. 
rerae  lateral  bars  might  still  be  seen ;  but  as  they  chnniieij 
their  position,  those  liecamc  as  it  were  lost  in  the  silvery 
lustre.  I  also  examined  many  of  them  in  the  hand,  and 
could  there  also,  by  holding  them  at  a  certain  angii;  in 
relation  to  the  eye,  produce  the  Imrrod  appearance-  hm 
when  the  flsh  were  held  with  their  hroad  tide  dirrctly 
opirased  to  view,  the  character  alluded  to  cuiild  not  he 
seen.  Its  actual  existence,  however,  could  bo  easily 
proved  by  removing  tho  deciduous  silvery  scales,  when 
the  barred  markings  became  apparent,  and,  of  course 
continued  so  to  whatever  light  exposed.  The  tiii.-J  op. 
portunity  to  which  I  shall  here  refer  occurred  in  May 
1830,  at  which  time,  as  I  have  stated,  I  compared  a  few 
of  the  descending  smnlts  with  tho^o  which  (having  be«n 
two  years  in  my  possession  as  par)  hod,  in  tin-  confine. 
ment  of  the  pond,  assumed  the  corre8|)imding  silvery  gg. 
pect  of  tho  Bolmon  fry.  Tho  river  during  this  month 
being  remarkably  low,  I  wos  thus  enubled  to  ascertaiii 
more  neeuratoly  the  time  during  which  they  continued  to 
migrate,  which  I  found  to  be  nearly  throughout  the  whole 
of  the  mniith,  but  more  esi)ecially  in  the  course  of  the 
second  week,  in  which  the  shoals  were  both  larger  and 
more  frequent  in  their  successive  arrivals.  Their  exter- 
nal as|M!ct  was  the  same  as  that  of  the  former  shoals,  and 
the  average  length,  as  usual,  from  six  to  seven  inches." 

To  conclude  this  subject,  it  may  bo  added  that  pars 
arc  never  found  wh^re  salmon  do  not  exist;  and  that 
large  pars  are  always  found  to  disappear  when  smoto 
disappear;  being,  indeed,  as  Mr.  Shaw  shows,  the  same 
animals  slightly  changed.  Other  points  in  the  h'atory  of 
tho  par  arc  fully  elucidoted  by  Mr.  Shaw,  whose  mcmoii 
the  disciple  of  Walton  would  do  well  to  consult. 

Pors  are  caught  by  the  rod  and  fly,  or  with  wom^ 
bait,  in  the  same  manner  as  trouts;  sr.d  fishing  fortheoi 
forms  a  common  and  amusing  sjx  rt  to  the  juvenile  an. 
glers  in  our  Scottish  rivers. 

riSH    PONDb 

Artificial  ponds  for  the  rearing  of  fish  and  supplying 
them  when  wanted  for  the  table,  were  common  in  nji. 
cient  times.  The  luxurious  Komans  possessed  such 
preserves,  ond  we  learn  that  one  l)clonging  to  Lucullui 
sold  after  his  decease  for  upwards  of  jt24,000.  Com- 
paratively little  has  been  done  in  modern  times  in  the 
way  of  establishing  artificial  ponds,  and  those  which  ex- 
ist are  chiefly  to  be  found  in  noblemen's  preserves.  Yel 
artificial  fish  ponds  may,  with  little  or  no  trouhle,  l« 
made  to  yield  a  large  and  regular  supplyof  fish,  and  mav 
be  constructed  at  a  most  insignificant  expense  in  anj 
piece  of  low-lying  waste  ground  intersected  by  a  rivulet 
of  pure  water. 

The  fish  most  suitable  for  ponds  are  trout,  carp,  tencli, 
perch,  and  minnows.  Kels  also  thrive  in  (wnds,  and, 
what  has  frequently  been  a  matter  of  surprise,  these  ani- 
mals sometimes  find  their  way  to  ponds  k,~  their  own  ar- 
conl,  without  actual  transfer.  It  is  extremely  probable 
that  the  spawn  or  young  of  eels  and  other  fish  is  gobbM 
up  and  vented  by  birds  in  appropriate  localities;  there ii 
at  least  no  other  rational  means  of  iiccountin;  for  the 
spontaneous  stocking  of  remote  fish  ponds  ond  lakes 

The  size  of  a  pond  may  be  from  one  to  twenty  seres; 
but  a  piece  of  water  of  from  two  to  three  acres  is  ronsi- 
dered  the  most  convenient  dimensions.  Of  whatever 
size,  the  pond  must  not  be  ovenstocked,  and  it  must  not 
be  left  too  long  unfished.  Fish  ponds,  to  be  on  the  mosl 
cflective  scale,  should  be  in  a  scries  of  two  ot  three,  the 
wattT  running  from  tho  one  to  the  other.  This  mil 
allow  means  for  perio<lical  cleaning,  if  required,  ond  lot 
having  a  choice  of  fish.  Some  remarks  of  Daniel  may 
here  be  introduced: — "In  potids  so  situated  astohaw 
communication  with  each  other,  never  put  into  the  upvi 
of  them  either  •  pike,  •  bream,  or  a  roach;  the  iptvn 


trill  get  througu  i 

lower  ponds  will 

p-ke  will  destroy  I 

two  laller  will  cor 

■ubtister.ce  of  hoti 

and  roach  should, 

into  tho  first  or  hi 

continues — '•  Somi 

to  have  three  pond 

(which  is  mostly  f 

ahould  continue  di 

A  serond  for  the  ( 

fry,  into  which  the 

or  early  in  \\>\i\  ti 

ny  day  for  their  n 

their  heiiiij  dcntroy 

new  hnbitJtion. 

years,  and  become 

third  or  iiiiiil  pone 

80  grown  as  to  met 

ing  their  heads  and 

"The  proportion 

ent  ponds  arc — for 

male,  and  six  or  eij 

leven  years  old,  in 

full  eyes   and   a   1 

wound,'  are  to  be  | 

ously  cleaned  of  all 

animals,  as  <  perch, 

and  also  the  frogs; 

and  open  exposure  ' 

tcr-fowl  kept  from  il 

or  twelve  hundred  c 

for  an  acre;  and  for 

of  fifteen  feet  is  the 

pcnds  greatly  on  tlw 

Our  friend  Mr.  Si 

but  mainly  in  referc 

he  of  the   hardier 

either  case,  the  tran* 

made  with   little  di 

hoop-net,  place  thcni 

to  their  new   habitj 

may  be  carried  in  w 

riage  best  in  winter 

during  the  day. 

"Ponds  intended 
be  made  large;  the 
wards  the  middle,  fr 
five  or  six  feet  W 
encouraged.  A  seri: 
ent  elevations,  ia  pro 
this  fish.  These  ba? 
and  flood-gate,  so  thr 
another  for  the  muti 
pairing.  Also,  thou 
those  below,  and  nioi 
for  a  nursery  and  brc 
perch  in  a  warm  sit 
taincd  readily  in  Sc( 
off  and  paved  with 
years;  niimy  allow 
months,  and  others  s, 
crit  laboriously  cnro 
writers  of  bygone  daj 


ANGLING. 


693 


irill  get  througn  i..e  grating*,  anc!  liy  that  mpaim  all  Iho 
lower  pondi  will  unexpectedly  iwarm  with  thein.  The 
p-k«  will  dentroy  the  fry  of  the  carp  and  tench,  and  the 
two  latter  will  cdnsumc  all  the  food  which  vhould  bo  the 
lubiislcno'  of  both  parenta  and  progeny.  Pike,  bream, 
tnd  roach  should,  therefore,  on  no  account  bo  over  put 
into  the  flrat  or  hioghcHt  of  a  nuccoBsion  of  pondi."  Jlo 
continues — "  Some  have  rrco  in  mended,  in  raiKing  carp, 
|n  have  three  pondH.  One  whcriMii  the  fliih  arc  to  apawn 
(which  in  mostly  from  May  to  July),  and  in  wliieh  they 
should  continue  duriiii;  the  summer  and  on»uitii;  winter. 
A  second  fir  the  ronveiiiencc  of  nursing  up  the  young 
fry,  into  which  they  should  he  put  ut  the  end  of  Miireh, 
or  early  in  Apnl  following,  ehuosinf?  n  calm  but  not  nun- 
ny  dny  for  their  removal,  iiiid  lii'ing  careful  to  prevent 
their  bcioi;  ile-ftioyed  when  comiriar  to  the  sides  of  llieir 
new  habitation.  In  this  pond  they  may  remain  two 
yours,  anil  become  four,  five,  or  six  inches  long.  The 
third  or  main  pond  is  for  the  reception  of  those  that  are 
go  grown  as  to  measure  a  foot  or  more  in  length,  includ- 
ing their  heads  and  tails. 

•"The  proportions  advised  for  the  stocking  these  difTcr- 
«nt  ponds  arc — for  the  first  sort,  per  acre,  •  three  or  four 
male,  and  six  or  eight  female  carps,  those  of  five,  six,  or 
levcn  years  old,  in  good  health,  with  full  scale,  and  fine 
full  eyes  and  a  long  body,  without  any  blemish  or 
wound,'  are  to  be  preferred.  The  pond  must  bo  previ- 
ously  cleaned  of  all  sorts  of  voracious  fishes  and  other 
animals,  as  'perch,  pike,  eels,  and  trout;  the  water  beetle, 
«nd  also  the  frogs;  the  newts  or  lizards;'  hiive  n  warm 
anil  open  exposure  with  soft  water,  and  all  kinds  of  wa- 
ter-fowl kept  fii)m  it.  For  the  nursing  pond  a  thousand 
or  twelve  hundred  carp  may  be  not  more  than  sufiicient 
for  an  acre;  and  for  the  main  pond  one  to  every  square 
of  fifteen  feet  is  the  allowed  space,  as  their  growth  de- 
pcnJs  greatly  on  the  room  and  quantity  of  food." 

Our  friend  Mr.  Stoddnrt  likewise  treats  of  fish  ponds, 
but  mainly  in  reference  to  Scotland,  where  the  fish  must 
be  of  the  hardier  kinds — perch,  pike,  and  trout.  In 
either  case,  the  transfer  of  the  fish  to  the  ponds  may  be 
niaJe  with  little  dilliculty.  On  l)eing  caught  with  a 
hoop-net,  place  them  in  large  jars  of  water,  and  cart  them 
to  their  new  habitation;  if  this  be  inconvenient,  they 
may  be  carried  in  wet  moss  or  straw.  All  fish  bear  car- 
riage best  in  winter,  and  better  during  the  night  than 
during  the  day. 

"  Ponds  intended  solely  for  perch  do  not  re(iuirc  to 
be  made  large;  they  should  slope  gradually  down  to- 
wards the  middle,  from  a  depth  of  six  inches  to  one  of 
five  or  six  feet  Water  weeds  ought  not  to  be  greatly 
encouraged.  A  series  or  chain  of  small  basins,  nt  difTer- 
ent  elevations,  is  preferable  to  a  single  large  reservoir  for 
this  fi.<h.  These  basins  should  be  connected  by  a  sluice 
and  flood-Rato,  so  that  one  may  be  readily  emptied  into 
another  for  the  mutual  convenience  of  cleaning  and  re- 
pairing. .Mso,  the  uppermost  ought  to  be  shallower  than 
those  below,  and  more  exposed  to  the  sun,  so  as  to  serve 
for  a  nursery  and  breeding-pond.  Bream  live  well  with 
perch  in  a  warm  situation ;  they  are  not,  however,  oIh 
taincd  readily  in  Scotland.  Perch  ponds  should  be  let 
off  and  paved  with  channel  stones  every  four  or  five 
years;  niuny  allow  them  to  remain  fallow  for  some 
months,  and  others  sow  them  with  grass  and  oats,  a  con- 
ceit laboriously  encouraged  by  •vhiuisy  and  theorctiol 
writers  of  bygone  days." 


The  following  engraving  reprewnt«  ■  pair  of  pt^rch 
ponds;  a  in  the  up{icr  or  breediag  pond;  6,  the  lower 


pond;  r,  a  covered  sluice  with  movable  gratings;  d,  tho 
sluice  with  outlet;  and  c,  the  small  feeder. 

"  The  pike-pond,"  proceeds  our  authority,  "  if  for  breed- 
ing and  fattening  to  some  extent,  ought  to  be  large,  co- 
vering from  eight  to  twenty  acres ;  its  mcun  depth  six  ur 
seven  feet.  One  end,  however,  should  be  much  shallower, 
and  sown  with  bulrushei  or  other  water-plants.  Previ- 
ous to  stocking  it  with  this  fish,  a  sub-stoek  of  perch  or 
trout  should  by  all  means  be  introduced;  otherwis*-,  with- 
out a  great  supply  of  such  sustenance,  pike  will  not  only 
become  thin  and  ill-tasted,  but  quarrel  and  devour  each 
other.  To  facilitate  a  steady  supply  of  perch,  small  tanks 
should  l)e  constructed  alongside  of  the  leading  preserve, 
with  connecting  sluices  and  flood-gates,  so  as  to  expel, 
whin  necessary,  o  shoal  of  live  food." 

Our  author  next  treats  of  trout  ponds: — "Choose 
from  six  to  twenty  acres,  less  ir  more,  of  an  oval  shape, 
but  indented  with  small  b:iy8.  Cast  a  long  trench 
through  the  middle,  from  heud  to  foot,  noticing  that  yon 
can  readily  divert  along  it  the  stream  just  mentioned, 
which  stream  is  intended  ns  a  spawning  place,  seeing 
that  trout  never  shed  their  roe  in  dead  water.  Let  this 
trench  deepen  gradually  as  the  ground  descends;  so  that 
at  tho  intended  foot  of  the  pond  it  should  sink  nearly 
three  yords,  while  the  upper  part  thereof  is  kept  shallow. 
Dig  from  either  side  of  your  trench,  keeping  its  slope  and 
level  until  within  four  fathoms  of  the  intended  margin  of 
the  fish  pond.  When  this  is  done,  turn  your  atteiitioa 
to  what  is  called  the  dam-head,  at  the  outlet  ur  lowest 
part  of  the  pond.  From  it  continue  your  trench  for  :t 
sliort  distance  in  the  form  of  a  paved  sluice.  Build 
stones,  grass-sixls,  and  clay,  along  the  bank  on  each  side, 
if  needful,  and  drive  in  a  few  piles  to  strengthen  it.  Then 
set  a  flood-gate  at  the  out-let,  and  another  to  serve  as  a 
check  in  case  of  accident,  three  yards  farther  down, 
where  your  paved  sluice  terminates.  A  few  cart-loads 
of  coarse  channel,  not  from  the  sea,  ought  to  lie  emptied 
over  the  earthy  parts  of  your  pond,  which  otherwise  are 
Bi)t  to  get  covered  with  weeds,  or  else  to  encourage  eels, 
the  marked  enemies  of  trout  in  all  stages.  After  this  i« 
done,  let  loose  your  stream  and  form  your  preserve,  in- 
troducing trout  of  about  six  inches  in  length,  eight  or 
ten  to  every  acre.  Raise  alwo  at  the  head  a  small  nir 
sery  of  minnows,  connecting  it  by  distinct  sluices  buUi 
with  the  peiid  and  its  feeder.  These  are  favourite  foiSi 
of  trout,  and  fatten  them  at  a  quick  rate." 

To  these  remarks  it  may  lie  added  that  little  care  neea 
lie  taken  to  fetch  apparently  fine  breeds  of  any  spccien 
of  fisli  from  a  great  distance,  as  what  seem  poor  fish  at 
the  period  of  transfer  w#ll  greatly  improve  by  good  pond 
feeding,  and  the  easy  unharassed  life  which  they  eujujr. 


GYMNASTIC  EXERCISES-OUT-OF-DOOIl  llECllEATlONa 


Cricket 


A  nKHinr.  for  indulging  in  activo  sports  nml  oxorri«cg 
has  evidently  l>crn  Ri"i'n  to  youth  for  tlin  lulmiriibli-  pnr- 
pog<>  of  proniotin;^  bodily  liniltli  mid  Htroni^tii,  at  a  pi-riod 
of  lil"f  when  nirtitiil  ocnipatioii  or  Ht'dfiitary  i-inpioyiiii'iit 
would  not  only  Imve  lioon  uiifitlinv,  but  |M)Nilively  iii- 
juriouR.  Inxti'ad,  tlioroforc,  of  railing  at  the  bointerouii 
paHtimi'i  of  boyhood,  ridiculous  aa  they  may  Honictiineii 
■p|>eRr,  we  ouplit  to  view  tlieni,  so  long  aH  kept  within 
the  Iwuiids  of  inmlerHtion,  hh  eonaiHtent  with  u  ureal  |)ro- 
videntiul  desiRU  in  creation,  and  worthy  of  our  wannest 
approval  and  eiieouru^enient.  Im|ires.sed  with  these  eon- 
^deralions  of  the  value  of  youthful  rerreations,  |iartieu- 
larly  ihom'  carried  on  in  the  open  air,  wo  xhould  by  all 
moans  afford  reasonable  scope  for  all  the  usual  ami  hurni- 
lesg  sports  in  which  youn^  persons  are  pleostnl  to  indul);o; 
we  should  say  to  parents,  let  the  boy  have  his  marbles, 
ball,  nine-pins,  and  bat;  and  the  girl  her  doll,  skipping- 
rope,  and  hoop,  liesidcs  any  other  toys  wliii'h  would  call 
their  resficctive  faculties  into  harmonious  exercise.  But 
an  indulgence  in  physical  recreations  and  general  amuse- 
ments is  not  to  terminate  with  the  period  of  youth.  In 
advanced  and  middle  Ufe,  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
to  hcclth  to  relieve  the  tasked  brain,  to  soothe  and  com- 
pensate the  drudgery  of  our  current  labours,  and  to  bring 
into  exercise  those  parts  of  our  muscular  frame  and  in 


perfections,  gymnastics  ought  to  form  a  part  of  rducttiui 
in  youth,  when  the  joints  and  muscles  are  llexible  mj 
time  is  ptTmitted  for  the  various  kinds  of  exerriiu'i, 

Pirniiiiioii. — It  has  not  lu'en  iMiUHual  of  late  ypurs  ig 
conduct  the  gynniastics  of  st'luxds  on  an  inipro|»'r  seui, 
by  iiniM'lling  young  |>ersons  of  eompurutiveiy  feeble  fiariict 
to  undertake  feats  and  exercises  which  have  Iwcu  at  vjri. 
ance  with  the  lN>dily  orgHiiizntiun,  or  at  least  bivhly  dan. 
gerotis  and  of  no  practical  value.  A  caution  is  iircoh 
sary  on  this  subject.  " 'I'he  Is'st  guide  we  can  havi'" 
observes  Dr.  .Andrew  Condie,  in  a  work  on  pliyHioloB* 
•■  is  to  follow  the  footHtejis  of  nature,  whether  it  in  jn 
harmony  with  the  nnsle  of  action  assigned  by  the  Criiu. 
tor  to  the  parts  which  are  to  perform  it.  If  it  lie  so,  y,f 
miy  proceed  with  perfect  confidence  that  it  will  not  only 
iinprovr  the  health,  but  add  to  the  freedom,  plei>iitH'r,  pro. 
ci.iiini,  and  strenuth  of  our  ■noveiiients  ;  wliereas,  if  i(  |„ 
opposed  to  the  obvious  iiiteniion  of  the  f^reutor,  wc  ni«» 
rest  assured  that  no  gocHl  can  accrue  from  it.  If,  fo, 
example,  we  examinn  the  various  altiliides  and  niolinni 
of  the  body  which  occur  in  fencing,  dancing,  swimmii'n 
shuttlecock  playing,  ami  some  of  the  belter  cIiibh  of  i;yi,i. 
niislic  exercises,  we  find  that  they  are  n,(t  less  grocelul 
and  IxMioficial  to  the  young  who  ei.ga<-i-  in  tliciii,  than 
pleasing  to  those  by  whom  they  are  wii.Msscd — ju»i  lig. 
cause  they  are  in  Jierfect  harmony  '.  n!.  nadiiy,  (ir,  jn 
other  words,  with  the  structure  and  ricsl*-  <if  action  of  llie 
joints,  ligaments,  and  muscles  by  which  I'ipy  are  exroutciL 
Hut  it  is  far  otherwise  with  some  of  the  nioMialoiis  exor- 
cises which  were  at  one  time  so  fasliioiiiible.  and  wlijih 
are  not  yet  extinct  in  schools  and  uynniasia,  and  Mhuji 
seem  to  have  for  their  chief  object  the  conversion  of 
future  men  and  women  into  foresters,  fnemer  . or  savanos, 
rather  than  into  beings  who  are  to  continue  ,o  bnvc  the 
use  of  stairs,  ladiU  rs,  carriages,  steam-boats,  ami  the  other 
conveniences  of  civ  ,li/...(l  life.  It  is  no  doubt  a  uood  ihiinj 
for  a  boy  to  be  ablr  i  rlimli  up  a  {lerpeiuliciilar  poir  ur 
a  slippery  rope,  whci  no  other  means  present  tlu'iiiselvis 
of  attaining  an  important  object  at  its  upper  end  ;  iind  ilij 
an  e(|ually  g<Hid  thing  for  a  young  lady  to  be  al>le  toiu^- 
tain  her  own  weight  hanging  by  one  or  IhjIIi  hiiiids,  wiiic 
tliero  is  no  possibility  of  resting  her  feet  on  terra  firinai 
and  where  boys  and  girls  an-  strong  enough  to  lake  plea- 
sure in  such  amus<-ments,  there  is  no  great  reason  to  liin. 
der  them,  provided  they  arc  iin|>elled  to  th'in,  not  li» 
emulation  or  any  secondary  motive  which  may  lead  la 


t^llect  which  professional  duty  has  lefl  unoccupied.     To 

young  men,  especially,  whose  frame  requires  regular  and  i  over-exertion,  but  by  the  pure  love  of  the  exenise  itwif, 
bracing  exercise,  those  out-of-doorrecreations  which  afford  \  In  all  ordinary  circumstances,  those  only  who  are  vjiior- 
a  certain  degree  of  amus<Miient  are  indispensable  ;  anil  to  j  ously  constituted  will  attempt  them,  and,  if  left  to  them- 
them  the  contenta  of  the  present  sheet  are  more  particu-  selves,  will  l)e  sure  to  desist  Indoro  any  harm  can  hv  done. 
larly  submitted.     Our  object  will  be  to  point  out  what    Hut  the  case  is  entirely  altered  when  such  extraordinary 


sports  may  with  propriety  he  indulged  in,  suitable  to  the 
dififerent  seasons  of  the  year,  and  how  they  may  be  pur- 
(ucd  with  advantage  to  health  and  other  circumstances. 

aVMNASTlC    EXERCISEa. 

Gymnastics  arc  those  exercises  of  the  body  and  limbs 
which  tend  to  invigorati-  and  di^elop  their  |H)wers.*  In 
ail  orilinary  course  of  living,  without  due  regard  to  rules 
for  promoting  bodily  strength,  the  frame  becomes  relaxed, 
the  muscles  arc  soft,  the  circulation  of  the  blood  languid, 
the  twnes  and  joints  debilitated,  and  the  stomach  weak- 
ened and  dainty.     To  avert  as  far  as  possible  these  im- 


evolutinns  arc  not  only  encouraged  but  taught  to  all  in- 
discriminately, whether  they  are  strong  or  weak,  resoliil* 
or  timid.  Wo  have  only  to  reflect  for  a  monient  on  llie 
structure  of  the  shoulder  joint,  and  on  the  sphere  of  ac- 
tion of  the  muscles  surrounding  it,  to  (icreeive  iit  cnee 
that  the  position  of  the  one  an<l  the  strain  upon  the  otliet 
caused  by  the  exercises  alluded  to,  are  so  forced  and  un- 
nalnnil  as  to  exclude  the  possibility  of  the  Creator  liaviiii! 
intended  either  to  he  practised,  except  upon  occasions  of 
urgent  necessity,  and  to  discover  how  preposterous  it  ii 
therefore  to  make  ihcm  a  subjeet  of  general  iiistrucliKi. 
Nay,  the  very  violence  of  the  efli)rt  reijuired  to  auslaiii 
the  body  when  hnniiing  by  the  hands,  is  far  beyond  tlial 

„  ,  moderate  exertion  which  adds  to  nutrition  and  tostrcnislli, 

•The  term  ^i/miMidt  II  irom  a  fifceli  vviinl  signitVini;  niAv/'  i  ■       i   i-     .  i  ■     .      ■.  •     i  i  •  ,;  r 

ih,.  ail,l.l,r  or  yoong  persons  who  rrarii..-,!  hoiiriy  ex.rn  ses  in    »'"'  '"  delicate  subjects    It   may  even   induce  reloxalior 

.he  puldic  arena  or  (jvmnmiuin  of  anrieiiKireecf.lmingntarly  I  and   stretching  of  the    ligaments  and   blood-vessels,  una 

III  a  siBie  of  null  iy,    Th.;  iiion'  Benile  kmil  of  ^ymnasiie.,  liir    ,i,ug,  ^a  in  the  case  of  the  young  men  at  Ca  nliridiji',  lay 


'I'll* 
f«inHlii"  arc  iirim  il  rnlisthenira  from  wonU  signifying  ek-gaiil 
tH  gracBlu!  ex-;"^  "  ' 
694 


I  the  fouudatiuu  for  futurr  and  latal  disease.    Tlie  NUit 


GYMNASTIC  EXERCISES. 


&9» 


fiiiitfki  »pply  to  a  cominnii  practiro  of  mnkinit  tlin  pupil* 
iliJi*  iliiwii  111!  iiifliiif'd  [ilniir,  runliiiif  on  tlui  haiiiU  uliiiiu, 
w  whii'li  iinimturitl  ftrurt  thu  iIidiiIiIitii  nro  |iualM-il  hnlf 
M  up  tho  iiiM'k,  mill  llio  wriHta,  iirinx,  mid  clioHt 
MTcroly  trM'tl.  Hut  in  tiii^M-  ami  other  Kiiiiilaruvulutioii.^, 
It  nM{uiroii  only  to  lnok  iit  tliu  druKKiiiK  iiml  di^lorlion 
which  they  prodiici',  iiikI  which  I'urrn  Hiit-h  n  pniiiful  roii- 
Ipal  to  the  I'HHfi  Hiid  \fraci!  of  all  iiiitunil  iiiotuiim  iind  at- 
ll(mlnt,  to  pori'rivt)  thiit  llipy  nrti  out  of  tlin  ordi-r  of 
ntturiN  mid  tliiit  in'itluir  hnijth  nor  td<';;uiico  run  remit 
(joia  them.  Ill  tilt!  m'lei'tioii  of  oxiToim-!!  for  thu  yoiiiin, 
Ihrii,  vvi*  !4houUI  not  liu  niiHhmd  hy  ii  viiiii  ilvxiru  of  Hur- 
mounlini;  ditli -ullii'ii  uiid  p<>rforniin({  fi>nti4  iit  tin-  Ht-rioiu 
tUkofiiidiK'ini^iiiicurifini  or  riipturi!,  hut  rutliori'iiilcavoiir 
Id  «trfiii!;tlii'n  tho  Uxly  hy  iictivc  iiiiiuHi'mcntM,  which  .shuli 
call  tlio  Hocinl  iind  moral  fccliiiits  iiiid  intcllcrt  into  play 
»llht'»aiu<'  tiiiu',  anil  hy  tliii  practicu  of  hucIi  (jyiniiaslic 
ovolulioMH  only  ««  lend  to  improve  and  (i[i^'''  'one  to  tho 
natural  action  of  thn  niovin^  powiTH.  And  in  uiiilcavuiir- 
ing  to  attain  thin  ohirot,  wo  hIioiiM  he  alwayn  can  ful  to 
avoid  ureal  fatiijui,  and  to  modify  thr  kind,  dc(;ri'e,  and 
(Jutalioii  of  till!  I'xereiso,  ho  an  to  produce  ihn  dcHircd  re- 
lultx  of  iiicn'UHed  nutrition  itiid  xtrenii^th  ;  and  lu  remcm- 
bcr  that  the  point  of  which  these  reHiilts  are  to  he  oh- 
laincd,  ix  not  thu  Haine  in  any  two  individuaU,  and  can 
Ik  discovered  only  hy  oxpericnco  and  careful  ubxerva- 

lion." 

With  tho  precaution  HUKgegled  hy  thcBO  ohservationa, 
the  following  gyuniaHtic  exercist's  in.iy  be  pursued  : — 

fJi  iicral  DirPCtionii. 

The  rxercisoa  are  hcHt  performed  in  on  ojicn  court  or 
pioco  of  Rrou'nd,  linn  helow,  hut  without  any  Hlonea  to 
jiijuro  tlie  feet  or  person  ;  a  (rrasn  plot  i»  the  most  suituhle. 
The  littini;i<  are  a  elinihini<  kIhikI,  vaultini;  liar,  leapinp; 
poioa,  &c.  The  dress  of  tho  nyinnast  is  to  consist  of 
w9y-fittiiiR  trousers,  and  encircled  with  u  holt  or  i,'irlh. 
The  belt  should  pass  round  tho  loins,  and  not  ho  too 
tight.  The  performances  should  bo  in  the  forenoon,  or 
It  luat  before  any  heavy  meul, 

Poiitions  and  Motions. 

The  body  must  ho  drilled  in  the  art  of  standini;  and 
Ihrowins  "iit  the  limbs.  In  Ktiindiiii;  jiroprly,  tho  per- 
lon  should  he  erect,  the  head  held  up,  and  the 
face  looking  straiuht  forwunl;  the  shoulders 
ire  to  Ih"  sijnure,  with  tho  chest  fully  c\\t  i-ed, 
K  as  slicclilly  to  curve  the  back  ;  the  lei;9 
Hosod;  the  heels  in  a  line,  and  closed;  the 
toes  turned  out;  tho  arms  hiuRini;  straiijhl 
down;  the  elbows  held  in  to  the  Uidy  ;  tho 
hiinJs  open  to  the  front ;  the  little  linger 
tuuchin?  tho  letjs;  and  the  thumb  Hat  to  tho 
forctiiwer.  When  perfected  in  thi"  art  of 
Mandiiii;  in  this  position,  which  is  called  at- 
Ifitim,  as  shown  in  fiir,  I,  tho  next  thing  is 
to  be  taui;lit  to  march  or  walk,  as  in  the  case 
of  I  soldier  on  drill,  the  feet  hping  alternately 
thrown  out,  and  both  brought  together  into 
poiition,  at  tho  order  to  halt. 

The  pupil  next  learns  to  liond  tho  body 
mil  ex 'end  the  arms.  The  first  exercise 
of  this  kind  is  to  carry  the  hands  to  tho 
front,  the  fingers  lightly  touching  at  the 
points;  now  raise  the  arms,  the  hands  still 
together,  till  thoy  are  held  over  tho  head,  as 
in  fig.  2. 

The  second  motion  is  to  learn  to  hold 
the  arms  out  in  front,  tho  tips  of  tho  lingers 
touching,  and  returning  to  tho  position  of 
fig.  1 :  this  is  to  bo  done  repeatedly.  The 
tliird  is  to  extend  tho  hands  separately,  and 
riisc  them  over  tho  respective  shoulders, 
the  lingers  pointing  upwards.     The  fourth 


Fig.  1. 


motion  ii  to  keep  tho  arm*  an  I  leg*  «tr  .«||^  an  1  tb  bn^ 
the  body  Forward,  with  the  Head  '^>^^  md  the  tip*  o! 
the  lingers  toward*  the  ground.  Thi"  nohat  dlflkul 
iiiutiun  i*  represented  in  llg.  U. 

A  fifth  .notion  is  to  resume  tli« 
position  of  nttentioii,  allowin){  the 
•rniH  to  fall  freely  to  their  place,  but 
still  without  liending  tho  log*.  'I'heiM! 
motion*  are  trying  to  tho  pupil, 
and  should  ho  done  gradually ;  the 
great  object  i*  to  exercisi^  the  inusclon 
bit  by  bit,  and  perfection  is  not  de- 
sirablo  at  first.  Then  follow  other 
motions,  as  throwing  tho  arm*  out  in 
opposite  directions,  swinging  the 
arms,  &.c.  In  these,  it  is  of  import- 
ance to  exercise  the  left  hand  and  arm  fully  nioro  than 
thu  right,  ill  order  to  make  them  as  active  and  strong. 

Imlinii  Cbib  Kxurciiiei. 

The  pupil  having  advanced  in  simplo  personal  exei^ 
cises,  is  suppo.Hcd  to  bo  somewhat  strcngtlii'tied  ;  and  to 
further  the  operation,  he  proceeds  to  the  Indian  club  ex- 
ercises. The  main  object  is  to  expand  tho  chest,  and  in- 
crease the  power  of  the  arms.  For  this  end,  some  sedun- 
lary  persons  regularly  exercise  tlieins<dvps  with  dumb- 
hells;  that  is,  heavy  piccen  of  inetui,  one  being  held  in 
each  hand.  The  club  txcrciso  is  an  improvement  on 
that  of  the  dunih-belln.  The  club  bears  a  resemblance  to 
the  bat  for  cricket,  and  varies  in  weight  from  two  to 
twelve  pounds.  One  is  used  in  each  hand.  The  follow- 
ing, according  to  Torrcns,  are  the  regulation-rxorcisea 
now  adopted  in  tho  army  : — 

•■  The  recruit  being  placed  in  the  position  of  attention, 
with  a  club  in  each  hand  pointing  downwards,  as  in  flg. 
4,  must  bo  exorcised  as  follows  : — 

"  Firft  I'arl. —  I.  At  the  word  imt,  the 
club  in  the  right  hand  is  slowly  carried 
round  the  head,  until  the  hand  arrives  in 
a  perpendicular  line  above  the  shoulder, 
with  tho  large  end  of  the  club  pointing  in 
a  diagonal  direction  to  tho  rear ;  2.  1'ho 
club  in  the  let\  hand  is  raised  in  a  similai 
niamier,  and  carried  over  that  in  the  right 
hand  till  it  reaches  a  corresponding  posi- 
lion  ;  H.  The  hands  are  carried  slowly  to 
the  right  and  left,  until  they  become  in  a 
true  horizontal  line  with  the  shoulders, 
the  largo  ends  of  tho  clubs  still  remaining 
to  tho  rear ;  4.  The  hands  uro  brought 
slowly  to  the  firnt  position.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the 
recruit  docs  not  stand  with  a  hollow  back  during  thb  and 
the  succeeding  practice. 

»  Sirnnit  I'liri. —  1.  Raise  both  hands  to  the  front,  ap- 
proaching thein  close  together,  in  horizontal  line  with 
the  shoulders,  the  oluhs  being  held  perpendicular,  with 
the  large  ends  upwards ;  2.  With  the  hotly  well  poised 
forward,  separate  the  hands,  and  caiTy  them  to  the  right 
and  lell  line  with  the  shoulders,  the 
large  ends  of  the  clubs  remaining  up- 
wards; 3.  With  the  head  well  kept 
up,  let  the  clubs  turn  over  till  thoy 
point  in  a  diagonal  direction  to  the 
rear,  the  hands  still  remaining  out  in  a 
line  with  the  shouldern ;  4.  With  the 
arms  extended,  drop  thorn  slowly  to 
the  first  position. 

"  77n>(/  /'(/>•'. — 1.  The  club  in  the  right 
hand  is  circled  round  upon  the  right  of 
the  body  for  a  few  revolutions  of  the 
circle,  or  until  the  word  lialt  is  given; 
2.  The  one  in  the  left  hand  is  used  in 
the  same  manner  on  the  left  of  the 
lody,  luitil  tho  word  hall  is  given,  wnon  the  i  icruit  will. 


lig.  4. 


Fig.  a 


INFORMATION    FOR  TIIK  PROPLR. 


■•inaiii  pcrfi'dly  itenily  In  th*  flrnt  poNitimi ;  :».  With 
Ihe  IvhIv  rathor  l<'Hiiiiii(  furwiiril,  lircli-  Imlli  cIi^Im  it  Ihu 
Mm«  time,  nii  tlio  right  and  left  of  tin-  Ivxly,  until 
onkrad  to  halt." 

I.«apin(.— Vaullirj. 

The  ■implrnl  kiiiil  of  IcapinK  ia  that  of  jiiin|iiiii{  on 
level  gronnil  from  one  point  to  miothrr,  with  or  without 
a  run.  Thu  rnn  nt-cuintiiiilnit  [xiwcr  in  tho  prraon,  or 
mnmcntniii,  ami  onuhlo*  a  (leriton  to  li'ji|i  ronsJiliTuMy 
f.uther  tliiin  wiihont  mioh  nn  aid.  "In  nil  kiiulit  of  loiip. 
lug,"  ohM-ivi'ii  Wiilkt-r,  in  hi*  "  Miinly  K«rrrii«'ii,"  "it  ii« 
of  great  iinportanci'  to  ilraw  in  iin<l  n-liiin  ihr  liri>iith  iit 
tike  inunient  of  the  KrciiteHt  ctlort,  iia  it  KivoM  tho  rhi'Ht 
more  •oliillty  to  iiii|>|>ort  tho  rent  of  tho  nirinhiT'i,  iin|H'U 
the  blooil  into  tho  miiNriilar  partii,  nnd  iniTr'uwH  Ihoir 
atnMiRth.  Tho  hittidii,  uIm,  iihoulit  lio  nhiit,  ami  tho 
anna  |i«nilunt.  Tl-o  extent  of  tho  lonp  in  hi'it(ht,  or 
hurizontally,  in  proporiiontnl  to  tho  powor  oinployoil 
and  tho  prurtico  iioi|niri'il.  Aa  it  iit  |H-rforrnoil  with 
furility  only  in  pro|Hirtion  to  tho  nlronKth  oxortod,  ami 
the  elitiitiolty  and  Nopplonoiw  of  tho  iirtioulittiont  iind 
muacloi  of  tho  liiwor  oxtrornition,  nnirh  oxoroiHo  Im  no- 
luasury  to  nttmn  tlmt  doffroo  of  porfootion  whioh  loiwnn 
III!  ohatiirloH,  and  Hupplion  the  moiinii  of  rloaritiK  thoni 
without  dniii;or.  I.'  rlitnoM  and  tirnnimii  aro  tho  c|viali- 
tiea  necoiiHary  for  loapinir;  evory  thiiiK  fhonld  be  dono  to 
netjuire  thow)  two  .|(ialiticatioiia,  for  without  them  l«a|)- 
ing  ia  iirithor  Kracofid  nor 
••fo."  Pnpiln  lH>i»in  hy 
leapinK  HJioit  iJiMiiuiroii  and 
no  groat  hoi^lit,  and  aa 
thoy  Ix-oorno  cxiaTt.  the 
foat  ia  inrrO'iMMl.  To  re- 
KUlate  the  exorolw,  n  Iob|)- 
ing  Niand  in  oiii|iloyod  ;  it 
ron«i«ta  of  two  tnovnhle 
poatA,  about  nix  foot  hJL'h, 
having,  abovo  richtoon 
inrhoa  from  the  cronnd, 
bolex  lH>ro<l  Ihnpuu'h  thorn, 
nt  tlic  diHtnnre  of  an  iiirh 
from  enrh  ollior ;  a  ro|)o 
alretWieil  orross  from  pinu, 
and  held  tn;hl  by  Hand- 
baga,  ia   tiie   bar   to   be   loaped   over. 

In  leopini;  inihmil  n  rnn,  hold  tho  ion*  and  fort  rloaod, 
bend  tho  knooH  well  up,  hold  forward  tho  hoad,  and  throw 
out  tho  hundn,  an  in  li.;.  B.  Hkill  in  throwiriif  forwanl 
the  Ixxly  with  r  jork.  thin*  dnnblnl  up,  ia  only  uoi|uirod 
by  exporionoo.  Lot  ifroat  raro  be  taken  to  doiirond  with 
an  hkcUnation  forward,  and  to  fall  on  the  foro  part  of  tho 
foot,  ao  OH  to  tiiiich  tlio  f^ronnd  liuhtly,  and  by  the  apriii); 
of  the  fcot  and  hmba,  to  doadon  tho  nhotk. 

In  lea|)lnK  wiih  a  run,  tho  run  prrcodinc;  the  leap 
should  novor  oxreod  ton  paion ;  tho  riHe  into  tho  air  to 
lake  plaoe  at  a  diKtam-o  from  tho  cord  cipial  to  half  tho 
height  of  tho  ohord  from  tho  K'ouml.  .Skill  ahould  be 
iittaino<l  in  loapini?  from  eithor  foot,  or  from  tho  sprini; 
of  lK>th  fi-ot.  It  iM  considi'ri'd  a  ijcHid  loapwlion  tivo  foot 
iircoloarod;  a  first-ralo  one  is  tivo  and  n  half;  and  an 
wxtraordinary  one  aix  fcot ;  few,  however,  ever  roach 
nioro  than  four  foot. 

What  in  ijainod  in  holght  ia  lost  in  diatanoe.  To  niako 
a  I'liig  leap,  tbiToforo.  It  ia  not  noccHxary  to  go  high. 
Tho  moasuromont  of  hmp;  lonps  ia  by  niurka  on  lovol  and 
<M>lt  ground,  ami  ho  who  rioara  the  i;roatost  number  of 
innrka  ia  tho  mo^it  |)ro(iciont.  Aa  in  hit;h  leaping,  the 
body  niuat  b"  iticlin<'d  forward,  and  tho  apriri);  inudu 
Irom  the  balla  In  the  tiM-a,  To  clear  twelve  foot  without 
•>  run  ia  conaidorcd  a  good  leap.  With  a  run  of  ten  to 
dftt'cn  pacoa,  inrreaaed  in  velocity  ua  the  runner  ap- 
proaones  thn  h^irmj;w?;  point,  a  leap  may  be  piM formed 
ul  fourteen  or  fifte(-n  feet.  In  tlii.n  running  leap,  it  ia 
best  t«  spring  fr>iin  the  foot  in  which  there  ia  moat  pro- 


■^fai^- 


K,«  U, 


llcienry,  ami  to  ri«o  to  a  imxlerate  height  I    .m  tim  jroanJ 
t<Hi  low  a  apring  defoata  tho  doaire<l  ond. 

LeafMng  from  a  high  U)  a  low  aitualion  ia  arioihor  h,,, 
ful  exorciae.  To  anpiire  prufirionoy  In  It,  lH>gin  with  nit 
iterate  hotghia,  and  learn  to  fall  aolily  on  Ihr  hull,  gf  .1 
toea,  or  fore-part  of  tho  loot.  If  tho  full  \^  ,||^,„  j. 
hoola,  the  whole  iMnly  niay  Ih'  jarrod,  and  tli«  |,.^,  ,|„^, 
Koop  tho  iHxIy  ronipaot  in  tho  doaiont.  wilh  thn  hatil' 
well  forward,  ao  that,  wbon  alighting,  the  |ior«)n  m,ij 
apring  lightly  up  from  a  1  rooked  |Mmtiire, 

I'aulltiiK  ia  that  kind  of  loaping  in  which  tli«  Ihi,|.  [, 
holjH'd  forwanl  by  u  momrnlary  loaning  on  nn  olijoct  u 
iho  handa.  Tho  art  of  vanlling  iimy  prove  UHefiil  in  mtnt 
circumatiincea  in  life,  aa,  for  inatance,  in  goltliiK  ,|ulr|||y 

over  u  \m\\ux,  f,.,,,.,,^ 
or  gate  to  oluilc  dan 
gor.  Kxcniarn  arc 
p-rforrModwiiliviiuli. 
ingliara,  of  whichin 
ilbMtialiiin  ,h  (jivf„ 
hi  tig.  7 ;  Ihry  «„ 
^^^ "*■    varioua    lipi;(|,i^ 

*«6«*w.  --vv^-  *^«^  Uko  «  hor«<  wi,;,  , 
••  «  ^-  aa-hlle. 

Vaulting  ia  |N>rformed  with  or  without  u  run.  The 
apring,  aa  uaind  ia  from  tho  toon ;  and  roatiiiK  llio  liiimli 
on  tho  bar,  tho  loga  are  raiaod,  and  by  a  jork  pilrhcil  over 
to  the  other  aido,  Tho  pupil  ia  to  loarii  to  \aull  in  iKi» 
manner,  oilhiT  lowarda  tho  loft  or  right,  W'hiii  in'rHvt 
ill  tho  oxorriao,  ho  loarna  to  vault  alraight  forward  ovit  the 
bar,  la'twoon  bin  handa,  in  wliioh  loatvory  grout  akill  in  n,.. 
ooaaary  ill  duuMiiig  up  the  biHly  during  Iho  »|>riiii;.  The 

inethodaofvuullini^onaiidolVhorai'-bliM'kHaroiiinnmrralilo, 
Liiiptng  with  a  pole  ia  a  rombination  of  Hiniplo  irnpiii} 
and  vuiilliiig,  and  ia  hIvo  a  nm»| 
uaoful  and  an  elegant  aciiim|i|ifh. 
imiil.  'I'lie  polo  shoulil  lie  sinoolh, 
light,  and  from  aovon  Id  ten  frol 
liin',<.  Hold  in  till'  liaiiils,  as  rt^ 
prrHciilod  in  fit;.  H,  llio  Idt  hanil 
tii'low  and  tho  right  almve,  the 
pnio  ia  planted  with  ila  Imvit 
point  on  tho  ground,  and  hv  1 
_      .    .,    ^j__        „  apring  from  Iho  loft  foul,  Iho  IhhIj 

/|A  ^/..^?^L^^ ia  impollod  through  the  air  to  ih 

doairrd  diataiico. 

Ill  porlbrniing  thia  oxorcine,  the 
pupil  iniiat  loam  not  to  loan  too  much  on  thr  iKilr,  iiiiil 
not  to  keep  too  close  to  it,  Tho  knack  of  |H)lo-leii|iiii|j 
is,  like  all  other  kinds,  doponilonl  on  Iho  apriiii.'  of  the 
loot,  and  tho  proai'iico  ol  mind  in  throwing  llio  hoilv  fur- 
ward  lightly  and  gracefully.  The  U'st  plan  la  to  boein 
with  abort  leapa  acroaa  dilchoM,  ond  to  increase  Iho  ili* 
tance  allorwarila.  Whin  the  inothod  of  ajir'nginj;  from 
a  lixed  situation  ia  aciiiiirod,  proceed  to  advanced  |mio. 
lice  by  making  a  run,  a  ipiirk  plant  of  the  pi'lo,  nnd  i 
apring  to  a  conaidorablo  distance,  aa  acroaa  a  brouk  of 
twelve  or  fifteen  feet  in  width. 

'J'ho  next  atop  ia  to  loarn  to  vault  over  a  high  obj(cl 
by  nieana  of  the  polo.  Two  poata  and  u  cross  cord,  M 
in  Hg,  9.  are  uaually  onijilinod  in 
Ihia  exorciae.  Tho  leap  ia  taken 
by  a  run,  and  "  npoti  this  run," 
obaiTvea  Walker,  "  principally  de- 
pend the  facility  and  aucceas  of 
the  leap.  .\s  the  apring  can  take 
place  only  wilh  one  foot,  and  aa 
this  must  arrive  correctly  at  the 
apringing  place,  it  ianeceaaary  that 
tho  order  of  the  ateps  aliould  lio 
arranged  ao  aa  to  elFect  thia  ob- 
ject. The  fixing  of  the  pole  in 
till-  ground  and  the  apring  must 
take  place  at  the  aoino  iiiatunt, 


-=^J6^ 


Fig. ». 


0YMNA8TI0  KXEHCISES. 


Wt 


Igfgu'W  by  Ih'*'  ini"*ii«  rfi"  upp«r  nrul  l.twi-r  mrmlwrn 
gMTtfo  !»«•'''"'' i  ""  |»'>**''f  \»  I'wt,  nnd  thi>  nwiiiK  '• 
„fhr-3e<\  with  tiw  BfWte»»  fBi-ility.  Tim  li-rtfirr  mitat 
MTcfully  nh4i<rva  thill  the  iiiritiK  nf  the  rxit,  ami  ihr 
1,1,1  of  ili«  polti,  urn  ill  iho  (Urrction  of  tlto  prrpaiatory 

roib" 

rsrrying  WalthM. 

yi  Wffuliir  niiiriM'  of  uyiimii«tii-n  <-inhr«pp<  thn  nrt  of 
IflinK  ■'■'!  <'>><'r>i>>4  vmmkIiIh;  hut  lotMoiix  in  Ihi'Nc  i-x- 
(fCiiiD*  I"*"*'  '"'  •  oimIiii'IicI  will)  iiiiicli  riiiitiDii,  mill  only 
when  iIk'  '"'"'y  ''•"*  '""''"  otliorvi-ii'  will  iliii('ipliiii>(|. 

In  liftinn  11  wcinlil,  power  in  ln-nl  rxi'rriwcl  liv  doiil)- 
Ungl,ic  lHNly,.i»  if  iilioul  loHild.iwn  ;  llie  hiiniliithi'ii  umnp 
ihi  rinu  of  till'  vviluhl  pliri'il  del  icii  tlir  Icct,  ami  llio 
bnlv  srailuiilly  NlriilLtliti'iiiiiit,  tlir  .triiifi  rii«<  with  it  ami 
|il\'wlli>t  it  ill  >h<'  liiimlN.  Ily  this  tikmiik  the  wliolr  forrc 
of  lliv  Ixxly  i«  rxiTtril,  mill   mi  p.irt  inuru  tlniii  niiothrr. 

[jnad*  ol'  liny  liiinl  iiro  inoHt  ailvniitiiifi'oiiHly  horiii'  on 
till)  iMck  mill  »liiMililrrK,  with  llio  licHly  rri'ct.  'I'hc  ur. 
nnii'iiK'nt  nf  kn:ip>«irkii  mi  the  liiuUn  of  mililicrH  \»  on 
lliii  |iliiii,  iIk'  wf-iitlit  ili'pi'iKliiii;  tVoiii  (Mii'h  Hhoiilili'r,  uml 
not  linnxiiiK  loo  low.  'I'lio  morn  cIihi-  tin-  loiiil  in  to  the 
ihoulilv.  till-  itlwirtur  iH  the  luvcr,  and  thu  Icim  tlio  pull  un 
the  I'oint  of  ri'«irttaiir(i. 

A  man  cxrrciMcH  KIh  power  of  dranuht  with  the  p?''''*'- 
eit  wlvinlni^e  liy  pulliiiir  ii  rope  over  hi'i  Hhoiilder,  for  in 
lliiii  cane  ho  throWM  furwiinl  thu  weight  of  liiH  pcrnoii, 
mil  he  artii  lioth  hy  inusi'iilur  enerny  und  weight.  The 
lemt  BiWuiitaucouii  exerciHe  of  hiri  power  in  to  curry  a 
luaij  up  a  ladilrr ;  for  he  lia«  to  carry  up  his  own  wei^jht 
m  well  U8  tlin  load  which  i.i  on  hi'i  iihou'.dura. 

KiiiiniiiK— Walking, 

Tho  art  of  walking  with  ciise,  firmnem,  and  grore, 
forum  a  nnossury  purl  of  RyiniinHlir  or  drill  cxercincH. 
Few  fiersoiiH  walk  well  niitnrally  ;  the  eoiiHlriint  of  drcHS, 
Jijtortion  froiii  lalmnr,  or  hud  huhitn  of  Home  kind  flenc- 
rally  contriluitiiii;  to  ijive  a  nlnungo  to  tho  fl|{uru,  niul  an 
awkwarilncM:<  In  all  the  iiiotioim. 

To  walk  (fracet'iilly,  the  liody  muBt  be  erect,  but  not 
itlff,  and  the  head  held  up  in  flueh  a  poHtiirc  that  tho 
fvr»  arc  dirri'tcd  forward.  The  tendency  of  uiitaii);ht 
walkcm  is  to  look  towards  tho  pfround  near  the  feet; 
mil  Some  pcrsouH  appear  iilway*  an  if  adiniriii)(  their 
ihoc-ties.  The  eyes  nIiouIiI  not  thus  lie  cast  downward, 
neither  should  tlie  chest  hciid  forward  to  throw  out  the 
bii'k,  makin({  what  an;  termed  ••round  shoulders;"  on 
the  contrary,  the  whnle  |pcr«iin  must  hold  itself  up,  us  if 
not  afraid  to  look  the  wurM  in  the  face,  and  the  chest  hy 
ill  means  he  ullowrd  to  expand.  At  the  same  time, 
every  thin({  like  strulliii'.?  or  pomposity  miHt  he  carefully 
•voided.  An  easy,  tinn,  ami  erect  posture,  are  alone 
di'sirahlc.  In  walkiiit;,  it  is  necessary  to  boar  in  mind 
that  the  Iwoinolion  is  to  he  performed  entirely  hy  the 
legs.  Awkward  persons  rock  from  side  to  side,  holpin;{ 
forward  each  le^  alteniatily  hy  ndvancini;  the  hiiuneheR. 
This  is  not  only  uiiiiraicl'iil  hut  faliKuing;.  Ijct  the  legs 
lloiic  advance,  heariiiu;  U|i  the  luHly.  In  setting  down 
llic  feet,  let  the  outer  i'd«e  of  the  heel  first  touch  the 
ground,  and  thu  sole  of  tlie  foot  bear  and  project  thti 
weight  of  the  body.  The  length  of  step  is  of  course  to 
tic  determined  by  the  Iniirth  of  limb.  KHiirts  at  taking 
lonif  steps,  out  of  proportiun  to  the  power  of  motion,  are 
always  unijraccrul.  Ucikoning  from  heel  to  heel,  or  toe 
ti)  toe,  the  length  ol  a  military  step  at  drill  march  is 
thirty  inches,  which  is  coiiBiderably  more  than  the  length 
of  ordinary  steps  in  walking.  The  length  of  step  at  a 
moderate  pace,  of  a  man  five  feet  nine  inches  high,  is 
ittually  twenty-four  inches;  and  this  will  ho  found  a  con- 
venient length  to  acipiire  the  habit  of  using. 

The  motion  of  the  arms  to  and  fro,  in  cadence  with 
the  inoveiiicntK  of  the  le  ;s,  greatly  helps  tho  locomotion, 
tod  is  advantageous    in  excrciuiiig  tho  muscles  of  tho 

Vol.  I,— 88 


Fig.  10. 


•houldor*  snd  expanding  ll«>  rhfat.  Th»  motions  of 
the  n.ms,  however,  ahoiild  lie  on  a  liiiHlrriite  ai-al«,  ||m 
hai'  U  not  Nwini{iiig  through  a  greater  »|iac>-  than  einht 
or  nine  inchea  Is'fiire  and  behind  the  leg.  The  pmctie« 
of  vvorking  liirwiird  the  ■boulders  and  awinginu  tho  arin* 
■t  »  great  rain  ia  moat  iMlioiia.  It  limy  lie  added,  thiU  lhi> 
art  of  comporting  the  lianda,  keeping  them  down,  or  frorc 
middling  with  the  jierMin,  ia  oiin  very  nceeaaitry  in  |iulll« 
hi'baviiiur,  and  ahuuld  In<  acipiired  by  all  yuuiiK  peraona, 
before  bud  habits  are  eiinlirmed. 

/^inning  i*  a  rapid  leaping  kind  of  walk,  the  leap 
being  from  each  loot  alteniatily,  and  the  inotion  heiiig 
pfomoted  by  throwing  forward  the  weight  of  the  [lerauii. 
'I'he  following  are  Walker's  ilefinitioiiH  of  running,  which 
we  illuslratu  by  fig,  10: — "The  upper  part  of  the  Imily 
ia  alighlly  iiicliiird  forwsnl ; 
the  hi'ad  slightly  thrown 
backward,  to  niuiiteract  Iha 
gravity  forwaid;  thn  breast 
is  freely  projected;  theshoiil. 
dera  are  steady,  to  give  n 
fixed  |Kiint  to  the  auxiliary 
niusclus  of  respiration ;  the 
up|ier  parts  id  the  urniN  ara 
kept  near  the  mIiUs;  tho  uU 
bows  are  lieiit,  and  each 
forms  an  uculo  angle ;  tho 
hands  are  shut,  with  the 
tiuils  turned  inwards;  nnd 
the  whole  arms  move  but 
slightly,  in  order  that  tho  muscles  of  respiration  on  the 
chost  may  ht;  as  little  as  possible  disturbed,  niid  follow 
only  thn  impulse  coinmnnicated  by  other  parts.  There 
exists,  in  fart,  during  the  whole  time  of  run.iing,  n  strong 
and  pennonent  enntraclion  of  tho  muscles  of  the  shoulder 
and  arm,  which,  tiiough  very  violent,  is  less  serviceable 
to  the  oxtended  movemiiits  than  to  keep  thn  chest  iii>> 
movublo,  toward  which  the  arms  are  brought  close,  the 
flexors  and  adductors  of  which  are  es|:H<ciully  contracted. 
"At  every  step  the  knees  aro  stretched  out,  ihe  lega 
kept  as  straight  as  po.ssihle,  the  feet  almost  graze  the 
ground,  the  tread  is  neither  with  the  mere  balls  of  the 
toes  nor  with  the  whole  sole  of  the  foot,  and  Ihe  spring 
is  made  rapidly  from  one  foot  to  tho  other,  so  that  they 
pass  each  other  with  great  velm'ity. 

"Speed,  and  still  more  duration  in  running,  are  in  pro 
portion  to  the  developnieiit  of  the  lungs,  and  consiv 
quently  the  volume  of  oxygen  ond  blood  which  they  can 
combino  in  their  parenchyma  at  ouch  respiraloiy  niovi'' 
ment.  Thus,  of  two  men,  ono  having  tho  uhdominal 
meiiibers  developed,  and  the  other  possessing  gmxl  lungs, 
the  former  will  run  with  the  greatest  speed  for  a  short 
distance ;  but  if  tho  distance  bo  considerable,  he  will 
soon  be  gained  upon  by  tho  latter.  A  runner,  after  per- 
forming a  certain  space,  is  seized  with  a  difficulty  of 
breathing,  long  before  the  rejietition  of  the  contractions 
has  produced  futi:;ue  in  the  abdominal  inemliers.  To 
excel,  therefore,  in  running,  requires,  like  walking  and 
dancing,  a  peculiar  exercise.  As  tho  muscular  contrac- 
tions de|iend,  for  Ihe  principle  of  excitement,  on  Ihe  re- 
s[iiration,  the  chest  should  be  firmly  fixed,  so  o«  both  to 
facilitate  this  and  to  servo  as  a  point  of  sujiport  for  the 
elTorls  of  the  lower  members.  The  bcHl  runners  aro  those 
who  have  the  hc.H  ici/iii,  and  keep  the  breast  dilated  lor 
the  longest  time. 

"  During  the  whole  time  of  running,  long  inspiratione 
and  slow  expirations  nro  of  the  greatest  importance  ;  ana 
young  persons  cannot  be  too  early  accustomed  to  theiiv 
To  facilitate  respiratio.i  towards  the  end  of  the  race,  cue 
upper  part  of  the  body  may  be  leant  a  little  forward 
Running  should  ceaso  as  soon  as  the  breath  beconioN 
very  short,  and  a  strong  perspiration  tnkes  place." 

Exercises  in  running  should  commemc  with  very 
moderate  distances,  and  for  short  periods  of  time ;  wtd 


■n  .f 


fl98 


INFORMATION    FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


groat  or  fntiijuinQ;  fcatn  aro  only  to  be  atti-mptcd  after  the 
body  and  lungs  aro  stronstluMii'd  by  training. 

TRAININO. 

The  method  of  trniiiinu;  in  niodorn  times  for  |)cdcstrian 
feats  and  other  liiborioiis  undortakingB,  docs  not  dilli-r 
miiterinlly  from  tliat  pursued  by  the  ancient  Greeks. 
The  great  objert  is  to  increase  the  muscular  strength, 
and  to  improve  the  free  action  of  the  lungs  or  wind  of 
the  person  subjected  to  the  process.  The  means  adopted 
to  accomplish  the  end  in  view  is  evacuation,  to  cleiiiise 
the  stomach  and  iiitei^tines;  swcatiii'T,  to  take  off  the 
superfluous  fnt  and  hiimours;  daily  exercise,  to  strengthen 
the  muscles  rind  system  generally ;  and  a  peculiar  regi- 
men to  invigorate  the  body.  And  to  this  wo  add  the 
use  of  the  tepid  bath,  to  remove  impurities  and  promote 
a  healthy  acti  in  to  the  skin.  We  present  the  following 
graphic  account  of  the  process  of  training,  from  "  Walker's 
Manly  Exercises:" — 

"  The  most  edectual  process  for  training  appears  to 
bo  that  practised  by  Oaptain  Barclay,  which  has  not  only 
been  sanctioned  by  professional  m^m,  hut  has  met  with 
the  unqualilleil  tipprobation  of  amateurs.  We  are  here, 
therefore,  almost  entirely  indebted  to  it  for  details.  Ac- 
cording  to  this  method,  the  pedestrian,  who  may  be  sup- 
posed in  tolerable  comiitioii,  enters  upon  his  training 
with  a  regular  course  of  physic,  which  consists  of  three 
doses,  (ilauber's  salts  are  generally  preferred  ;  and  from 
one  ounce  and  a  half  to  two  ounces  are  taken  each  time, 
with  an  interval  of  four  days  between  each  dose.  After 
having  gone  through  the  course  of  physic,  he  commences 
his  regular  exercise,  which  is  gradually  increased  as  he 
proceeds  in  the  training. 

"  When  the  oliject  in  view  is  the  accomplishment  of  a 
pedestrian  match,  his  regular  exercise  may  Ix"  from 
twenty  to  twenty-four  miles  a  day.  He  must  rise  at 
five  in  the  morning,  run  half  a  mile  at  the  top  of  his 
■peed  up  hill,  and  then  walk  six  miles  at  a  mo<lerutc 
pace,  coming  in  about  seven  to  breakfast,  which  should 
consist  of  beef-steaks  or  nuitton-chops  under-done,  with 
■tale  bread  and  old  beer,  .\fter  breakfast,  he  must  again 
walk  six  miles  at  a  moderate  pace,  r-nd  at  twelve  lie 
down  in  bed,  without  his  clothes,  for  half  an  hour. 
On  getting  up,  he  must  walk  four  mdes,  and  return  by 
four  to  dinner,  wliii-h  should  also  tie  beef-steaks  or  mut- 
ton chops,  with  bread  and  beer,  as  at  breakfast.  Imme- 
diately after  dinner,  he  must  resume  his  exercise,  by 
running  half  a  mile  at  the  top  of  his  speed,  and  walking 
■ix  miles  at  a  moderate  pace.  He  takes  no  more  exor- 
cise for  that  day,  but  retires  to  Ix-d  about  eight  j  and  next 
morning  he  proceeds  in  the  same  manner. 

"  Animal  diet,  it  will  be  observed,  is,  according  to  this 
■ystcm,  alone  [irescribed,  and  l)eef  and  mutton  are  pre- 
ferred. All  fat  an<l  greasy  sub.stances  are  prohibited,  as 
thev  induce  bile,  and  consequently  injure  the  stomach. 
The  lean  of  meat  contains  more  nourishment  than  the 
fat ;  and  in  every  case  the  most  substantial  food  is  jire- 
ferable  to  any  other  kind.  Fresh  meat  is  the  most 
wholesome  and  nourishing.  fSalt,  spiccries,  and  all  kinds 
of  seasonings,  with  the  exception  of  vinegar,  are  pro- 
hibited. The  lean,  then,  of  fat  beef  cooked  in  steaks, 
with  very  little  salt,  is  the  best;  and  it  should  be  rather 
under-done  than  otherwise.  Mutton,  being  reckoned 
eaiy  of  digestion,  may  l)e  occasionally  given,  to  vary  the 
diet  and  gratify  the  tustc.  'i'hu  legs  of  fowls  are  also 
esteemed. 

"It  is  p:eferable  to  have  the  meat  broiled,  as  much  of 
its  nutritive  'Vpialily  is  lost  by  roasting  or  lM)iliiig.  It 
ought  to  1)0  dressed  so  as  to  remain  tender  and  juicy ; 
for  it  is  by  these  means  that  it  will  he  easily  digested, 
and  utfijrd  most  nourishment.  Hiscuit  ami  stale  bread 
are  the  oidy  [ireparations  of  vegetable  matter  which  are 
pprmitted  to  be  given  ;  and  eviTy  thing  inducing  flatu- 
lency muiit  be  carefully  avoided.     In  general,  (ho  quan- 


tity of  aliment  is  not  limited  riy  the  trainer,  hut  |(ft 
tirely  to  the  discretion  of  the  pedestrian,  whose  appeii, 
should  regulate  him  in  this  respect. 

"  With  reRi)ect  to  li(]UorB,  they  nuist  he  always  i^t 
cold  ;  ond  home-brewed  beer,  old  but  not  bottled,  is  tl 
best.       .\   little   red    wine,   however,   may   bo  given  i 
those  who  are  not  fond  of  mall  liquor;  but  never  uu 
than  half  a  pint  after  diimcr.     It  is  an  eslalilished  nil 
to  avoid  liquids  as  much  as  ])ossible;  and  no  more  linn, 
of  any  kind  is  allowed  to  be  tak(Mi  than  is  rcquisiie  Ir 
quench  the  thirst. 

"  After  having  gone  on  in  this  regular  course  fortlmj 
or  four  weeks,  the  jiedestrian  must  take  a  four  idIU 
sweat,  which  is  produced  by  ruiming  four  miles  in  flim. 
nel  at  the  top  of  his  speed.  Immediutely  on  returniiii' 
a  hot  liquor  is  prescribed,  in  order  to  promote  the  per.' 
spiralion  ;  and  of  this  he  must  drink  one  English  pint. 
It  is  termed  the  sweating  liquor,  ami  is  conq)o.se(l  ot  one 
ounce  of  carrawny  seed,  half  an  ounce  of  coriander  scrj 
one  ounce  of  root-liquorice,  and  half  an  ounce  ofsucarl 
candy,  mixed  with  two  bottles  of  cider,  and  boiled  down 
to  one-half.  He  is  then  put  to  bed  in  his  flannels,  and 
bciii!;  covered  with  six  or  eight  jiair  of  blankets  and  a 
feather-bed.  must  remain  in  this  state  from  twcnty-li\'o 
to  thirty  minutes,  when  he  is  taken  out,  and  rubbed  per. 
feclly  dry.  Being  then  well  wrapt  in  his  greatcoat, 
he  walks  out  gently  for  two  miles,  and  returns  to  lireak. 
fast,  which,  on  such  occasions,  should  consist  of  a  rousted 
fowl.     He  afterwards  proceeds  with  his  usual  cxcrdsc. 

"  These  sweats  are  continued  weekly  till  within  a  frw 
days  of  the  performance  of  the  match  ;  or,  in  other  words 
he  must  undergo  three  or  four  of  these  oi)crations.  If 
the  stoni  lib  of  the  pedestrian  be  foul,  an  emetic  or  two 
must  be  given  about  a  week  before  the  conclusion  of 'lin 
training.  He  is  now  supposed  to  bo  in  the  hifhcrt 
condition. 

»>  Besides  his  usual  or  regular  exercise,  a  person  under 
training  ought  to  employ  himself  in  the  intervals  in  cvvrv 
kind  of  exertion  which  tends  to  activity,  such  as  goli" 
cricket,  bowls,  throwing  ipioits,  Ac,  so  that,  during  the 
whole  day,  both  liixly  and  mind  may  be  constantly  oc. 
cupied.  Although  the  chief  parts  of  the  system  depend 
upon  sweating,  exercise,  and  feeding,  yet  the  olijeot  to 
be  attained  by  the  pedestrian  would  be  defcutcd,  if  these 
were  not  adjusted  each  to  the  other,  and  to  his  conslilu. 
tion.  The  trainer,  lK.'fore  he  proceeds  to  apply  hislhiory, 
.should  make  himself  accjuainted  with  the  conslitulion 
and  habits  of  his  patient,  that  he  may  be  able  to  judge 
how  far  he  can  with  safety  carry  on  the  dilferent  parlj 
of  the  process.  The  nature  of  the  patient's  disposition 
should  also  be  known,  that  every  cause  of  irritation  may 
be  avoided ;  for,  as  it  requires  great  patience  and  |)crse. 
verance  to  undergo  training,  every  expedient  to  soolhi 
and  encourage  the  mind  should  be  adopted. 

"  The  skilful  trainer  will,  moreover,  consiautly  studr 
the  progress  of  his  art,  by  observing  the  elfect  of  its  pro- 
cesses, separately  and  in  combination.  If  a  uian  retain 
his  health  and  spirits  during  the  process,  improve  in 
wind  and  increase  in  strength,  it  is  certain  that  the  ohjcct 
aimed  at  will  be  obtained  ;  hut  if  otherwise,  it  is  to  be 
api)rehended  that  some  defect  exists,  through  the  un.tkil- 
fulness  or  mismanagement  of  the  trainer,  which  oufikt 
instantly  to  be  romodied  by  such  alterations  as  the  cii 
cumstances  of  the  case  may  demand.  It  is  evident, 
therefore,  that  in  many  instances  the  trainer  mint  b« 
guided  by  his  judgment,  and  that  no  fixed  rules  uf  man- 
ngement  can,  with  absidutc  certainty,  be  depended  ujioo 
for  priMliicing  an  invariable  and  deltirminate  result,  In 
general,  however,  it  may  l)C  calculated  that  the  known 
rules  aro  nde(iuiite  to  the  purpose,  if  the  pedestrian 
strictly  ailhere  to  them,  and  the  trainer  lieslow  a  mode- 
rate degree  of  attention  to  his  state  and  conditiuu  duiii^il 
the  progress  of  training. 

"  It  is  impossible  to  tix  any  precise  period  for  the  i  omr 


pletiiin  nf  the  tram 
L,ious  condition 
three  months,  in  mi 
ifheisin  t"l<"'a*''^ 
possessed  of  sufficie 
Jnlt  cheerfully  to  th 
„„  nmst  imavoidab 
which  it  may  be  kr 
dition-or.  what  is  t 
uroperly  trained— is 
mnotli,  elastic,  and 
flesh  is  also  firm,  ar 
light  and  full  of  spir 
his  condition  may  a 
weals,  which  ceas 
manner  in  which  h 
jpeed.  It '!'  1"  '''*^' 
,peed  as  to  walk  a  b 
this  short  ilistance 
(Oiidition  is  perfect 
tantajes  which  cai 


Prepared  by  trair 
r-ations  as  to  food 
(urprising  feats  of  pi 
completely  out-trave 
tinuously  from  thiit 
at  the  end  of  his  jou 
preparatory  training, 
be  committed  in  attt 
offer  some  preoautioi 

Advices  lo  You 

Young  men  who 

bjps  sedentary,  cmpi 

ofa  few  days  in  the 

errors  as  mar  their  c 

of  all  the  benefit  the 

result  of  an  exempti 

and  relaxed  frames, 

thtra.iclvos  to  walk 

c-uid  bo  convenieni 

to  such  tasks.     Ace 

day  nt  farthest,  the 

strength  is  completi 

tcm  is  in  a  fever  of 

of  enormous  volunt 

morning,  perhaps,  st 

their  small  stock  of 

ind  a  vigorous  rose 

^.ly's  travel,  which 

111  a  worse  state   th 

ever,  to  w.ait  tiir  a  \ 

and  probably  comp 

dra^iiir^  fashion,  gl 

enjoying  it,  so  that 

again  s|v"cdilv  nc  ho 

This  is  the  univo 

want  of  relleclion. 

source  of  pleasure  it 

considcraldy  lotbey 

niindis'4usteil  with  t 

9iily  priiceeclod  upoi 

111  It  tin-  body,  aftc-r 

s;'il.'iitary  prolcssioi 

state  fit  for  underta 

aftir  bring  a  consii 

linlcrtake  a  long  m 

short  w.ilks  each  da 

day's  walk  lengtlii' 

lor  the  serious  tasl 

mrih.    It  is  a  pri 


TRAINING. 


6M 


plrtion 


of  the  training  proceM,  a«  it  depcndfl  upon  the 


pro'ioiia 


condition  of  the  pedestrian ;  l)ut  from  two  to 
[hteo  months,  in  most  cases,  will  be  sufficient,  especially 
if  he  is  '1  tolerable  condition  at  the  commencement,  and 
nossc'sed  of  sufficient  perseverance  and  courage  to  sub- 
mit chccrlully  to  the  privations  and  hardships  to  which 
must  unavoidably  be  subjected.  The  criterion  by 
which  it  ni!»v  bo  known  whether  a  man  is  in  good  con- 
liilion— or,  whnt  is  the  same  thing,  whether  ho  has  been 
uroper'V  trained — is  the  state  of  the  skin,  which  l)ecomi's 
<rannth,  elastic,  and  well  coloured,  or  transparent.  The 
flesh  is  •'•''"'  '""''"■  ■'"''  ''"'  person  trained  feels  himself 
light  and  full  of  spirits.  In  the  progress  of  the  training, 
ijjs  fomlition  may  also  he  ascertained  by  the  eflect  of  the 
Bffcals',  which  cease  to  reduce  his  weight,  and  by  the 
mmner  in  which  he  perfon.is  one  mile  at  the  top  of  his 
jpeed.  It  is  as  difficult  to  nm  a  mile  at  the  top  of  one's 
gpeed  as  to  walk  a  hundred  ;  and  therefore,  if  he  performs 
this  short  distance  well,  it  may  be  concluded  that  his 
(oiiilition  is  perfect,  or  that  he  has  derived  all  the  ad- 
fantagcs  \vl\icli  can  possibly   result  from  the  training 


PEDESTRIAN    FEATS. 

Prepared  by  training,  and  acting  under  certain  pre- 
,- jtions  as  to  food  and  rest,  a  jjerson  may  perform  very 
surprising  feats  of  pcdestrianism.  He  may,  for  instance, 
oomiili'tely  out-travol  a  horse,  by  walking  for  days  con- 
linuiiusly  from  thirty  to  forty  miles,  and  yet  be  as  fresh 
at  the  end  of  liis  journey  as  at  the  beginning.  Without 
nrcparatnrv  traiiiing,  however,  the  most  fatal  injuries  may 
|)f  committed  in  attempting  pedestrian  ibats.  We  must 
offer  some  precautionary  advices  on  this  subject. 

Ailvices  to  Young  Men  on  Walking  Excursions. 

Young  men  who  break  away  from  regular,  and  per- 
haps sedentary,  employment,  to  take  a  walking  excursion 
of  a  few  days  in  the  country,  often  commit  such  grievous 
errors  as  mar  their  enjoyments,  and  deprive  themselves 
of  all  the  benefit  they  had  calculated  upon  as  the  proper 
result  of  an  exemption  from  ordinary  duty.  With  soft 
and  relaxed  frames,  they,  in  many  instances,  address 
themselves  to  walk  such  a  distance  each  day  as  only 
c:'uiii  bo  conveniently  walked  by  a  person  accustomed 
to  such  tasks.  Accordingly,  by  the  end  of  the  second 
dav  at  farthest,  their  feet  are  all  over  blisters,  their 
strength  is  completely  exhausted,  and  their  whole  sys- 
tem is  in  a  fever  of  nervous  agitation,  the  consequence 
of  enormous  voluntarily  incurred  sulTering,  The  next 
morning,  perhaps,  sees  them  a  little  recovered,  and,  with 
their  small  stock  of  renewed  strength,  soaped  stockings, 
ind  a  vigorous  resolution,  tlioy  sot  out  upon  the  third 
iifa  travel,  which  probably  concludes  by  leaving  them 
in  a  worse  state  than  before.  There  is  no  time,  how- 
ever, to  wait  ti)r  a  i)erfe('t  recovery ;  so  they  travel  on, 
and  prolidily  complete  their  excursion  in  a  miserable 
drai;j;ing  fashion,  glad  to  get  over  the  country  without 
cnjayina;  it,  so  that  they  only  have  the  prospect  of  being 
a;:iin  siioedilv  a(  home  and  at  rest. 

This  is  the  univoidable  consequence  of  ignorance  and 
want  of  rclliM'lion.  The  excursion  might  have  been  a 
aourec  of  pleasure  instead  of  pain,  and  might  have  added 
considerably  totlie  youth's  stock  of  ideas,  instead  of  leaving 
nim  disgusted  with  the  country  and  with  nature,  if  he  had 
mly  prt)ceodod  upon  right  principles.  He  ought  to  know 
lint  tin-  body,  after  being  long  under  the  intlueuee  of  a 
s'll'ntarv  profession,  or  of  ordinary  city  life,  is  not  in  a 
state  fit  for  undertaking  great  fatigue.  When  soldiers, 
after  bring  a  consiilerable  time  in  garrison,  are  about  to 
tuilert.ike  a  ling  march,  they  usually  are  led  out  to  take 
short  walks  each  day  for  about  a  week  bef  )reliand,  every 
day's  walk  lengtli'iiing  a  litlli-,  until  they  become  fitted 
tor  the  serious  task.  This  they  call  l«'iug  he  it  iii/o  « 
muh.    It  is  a  practice  founded  on  right  physiological 


principles,  and  worthy  of  being  followed  by  every  indh 
vidual  inflike  circumstances.  In  the  walks  of  the  first 
two  or  three  days,  young  pedestrians  should  not  set 
themselves  to  any  certain  numl>er  of  miles,  but  only  walk 
as  far  as  they  feel  their  strength  will  agreeably  carry 
them.  Thus  they  will  grndually  acquire  power,  instead 
of  losing  it,  and  in  the  long  run  become  goo<l  walkers, 
enjoying  the  country,  moreover,  as  they  go  along,  and 
leaving  off  with  an  increased  lo —  of  nature,  and  a  dispo- 
sition to  have  another  such  walk  at  the  first  opportunity. 

Young  travellers,  and  old  ones  loo,  ofien  make  a  great 
mistake  with  regard  to  eating.  They  suppose  that,  hav- 
ing much  fatigue  to  undergo,  tliey  ought  to  eat  a  great 
deal;  and  the  excitement  of  novelty,  and  th>.  tempting 
and  unusual  food  presented  at  inns,  enable  tlicm  to  carry 
out  this  idea  into  practice.  In  a  few  dayii,  however,  they 
find  themselves  unaccountably  unwell,  'i'his  is  the  con- 
sequence of  simple  over-eating,  for  in  travelling  there  is 
no  need  for  more  food  than  usual.  Food  is  also  taken 
at  wrong  times,  and  of  wrong  kinds.  It  is  not  uncom- 
mon for  young  pedestrians  to  walk  ten  or  twelve  miles 
before  breakfa.st,  not  so  much  for  any  economy  of  time 
or  money,  as  under  the  impression  that  they  will  have  a 
capital  appetite  at  the  end  of  their  walk.  As  they  go 
along,  they  delight  themselves  with  reflections  as  to  how 
they  will  astonish  the  waiters,  how  fresh  relays  of  egg* 
will  bo  called  for,  and  rolls  vanish  like  morning  dreams. 
Alas!  when  they  have  walked  their  dozen  miles,  their 
frames  arc  in  a  state  the  most  unsuitcd  for  the  receipt  of 
a  full  meal ;  and  if  they  are  aide  to  cat  largely,  it  will  be 
the  worse  for  them  after.  The  whole  aim  here  is  the 
very  reverse  of  what  it  ought  to  be.  A  very  full  meal 
should  never  be  taken  on  a  pedestrian  excursion,  and 
that  simply  for  the  reason  that  there  is  no  time  to  digest 
a  very  full  meal.  A  breakfast  or  dinner  during  a  walk- 
ing excursion,  when  only  a  little  time  can  be  allowed  for 
rest  afterwards,  should  be  light.  Whether  light  or  heavy, 
the  longer  the  rest  afterwards  the  belter — that  is,  of 
course,  within  a  reasonable  limit.  Certainly  the  rest 
should  not  be  less  than  three  quarters  of  an  hour ;  and 
if  H  heavy  meal  have  been  taken,  half  an  hour  longer 
will  be  required  at  the  very  least. 

Many  young  travellers  have  the  prudence  to  fare 
slightly  during  their  day'9  walk,  but,  on  getting  to  their 
iiHi  in  the  evening,  they  make  all  up.  as  they  think,  by 
taking  a  great  composite  meal — dinner,  tea,  and  supper, 
rolled  into  one.  If,  as  often  happens,  this  be  taken 
pretty  late,  the  tea  keeps  them  awake  half  the  night,  by 
virtue  of  its  exciting  power.  But  it  may  act  injuriously 
in  another  way.  When  much  of  it  is  taken  in  propor- 
tion to  the  solids,  it  prevents  digestion.  The  gastric 
juice,  it  must  be  understood,  requires  that  what  is  sub- 
mitted to  it  should  possess  a  certain  solidity.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  nature  has  so  arranged,  in  the  case  of 
sucking  infants,  that  the  milk  curdles  immediately  aftei 
being  taken,  the  gastric  juice  being  thereby  enabled  to 
catch  hold  of  it.  When  a  young  man,  after  exhausting 
his  energies  by  a  long  walk,  fills  his  stomach  with  a 
great  lilashy  meal,  he  commits  one  of  the  greatest  of  im- 
prudences. The  gastric  juice  gets  mixed  and  confounded 
with  the  mass,  and  several  hours  will  elapse  before  any 
progress  whatever  be  made  in  digestion.  Many  is  the 
sleepless  night  endured  on  ibis  account  on  summer  ex- 
cursions. It  is  obviou.sly  necessary  that,  if  tea  is  to  be 
taken  at  all  at  a  late  hour,  it  should  be  weak,  and  in 
ipiantity  strictly  proportioned  to  the  solids  taken  at  the 
same  time.  Weak  coffee,  however,  ought  alwoys  to  be 
preferred  to  tea,  if  to  be  taken  near  bedtime,  as  its  ex 
citing  power  is  much  less. 

The  rules  here  laid  down  are  all  of  them  grounded  ou 

natural  principles,  which  will  be  found  more  particularly 

explained  in  physiological  works — Those,  for  instance, 

of  Dr.  Combe,  which  are  by  far   the  mcst  intelligibly 

I  written,  at  tlie  same  time  thai  they  arc  even  more  philo 


3 


700 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


■ophical  thnn  most  others.  By  attending  to  such  rules, 
•  rtiral  exciirnion  may  l)e  iniiile  very  delightful,  and  may 
Ittre  the  best  odl'i-ts  on  hoth  body  and  mind,  while  neg- 
lect of  them  as  certainly  must  entail  pain  and  disappoint- 
ment. 

Captain  Barclay's  Feats  of  Walking. 

Captain  R.  Barclay  Allanlico.  of  Ury,  an  enthusiastic 
cultivator  of  mniily  sports,  is  well  known  as  having  soino 
years  apo  performed  various  remarkable  feats  of  pedes- 
trianism,  and  his  mode  of  walking  is  well  worthy  of  no- 
tice. Piorec  Egan  thus  writes  of  his  performances: — 
"His  style  of  walkiiiu;  is  to  bend  forward  the  bo<Iy  and 
throw  its  weight  on  the  knees.  His  step  is  short,  and 
his  feet  are  raised  only  a  few  inches  from  the  ground. 
Any  person  trying  this  plan  will  find  his  pace  quickened, 
and  he  will  walk  with  more  ease  to  himself,  and  be  liet- 
ter  able  to  endure  the  fatifjue  of  a  long  journey,  than  by 
walking  p<-rfeetly  erect,  which  throws  too  much  of  the 
weight  of  tho  body  oti  the  nnkle-joints.  Ho  always  uses 
thick-soled  shoos  and  lanibs'-wool  stockings,  which  pre- 
•erve  the  feet  from  injury." 

We  have  not  space  to  ccmclude  an  account  of  tho  va- 
rious extraordinary  feats  performed  by  this  able  pedes- 
trian, and  shall  only  notice  his  famous  match  with  Mr. 
Webster,  in  Octolier,  1808.  "The  captain  engaged 
himself  to  ao  on  foot  a  tbotisand  miles  in  a  thousand 
■ucoessivc  hotirs,  at  the  rate  of  a  mile  in  each  and  every 
hour,  for  a  bet  of  one  thousand  guineas,  to  l)e  performed 
■t  Newmarket  heath,  and  to  start  oti  the  following  first 
of  June.  In  the  intermediate  time,  the  captain  was  in 
training  by  Mr.  Smith,  of  Owston,  in  Yorkshire.  He 
•tartcd  on  his  niateh  at  twelve  o'clock  at  night  on  Thurs- 
day, the  1st  of  Jitiie,  in  good  health  and  high  spirits. 
His  dress,  from  the  commencement,  varied  with  the  wea- 
ther. Sometimes  he  wore  a  flannel  jacket,  sometimes  a 
loose  gray  coat,  with  stroitfj  shoes,  and  two  pair  of  coarse 
stockings,  the  outer  pair  boot-stockings,  without  feet,  to 
keep  his  legs  dry.  He  walktnl  in  a  sort  of  lounging 
gait,  without  any  apparent  extraordinary  exertion,  scarcely 
raising  his  feet  two  inches  above  the  ground.  During  a 
great  part  of  the  time  the  weather  was  very  rainy,  but 
he  felt  no  ineonvenienoe  from  it ;  inde<>d,  wet  weather 
was  favourable  to  his  exertions  ;  as,  during  dry  weather, 
he  found  it  necessary  to  have  a  water-cart  to  go  over  the 
ground  to  keep  it  cool,  and  prevent  it  becoming  too  hard. 
Towards  the  conclusion  of  the  ])crformaiice,  it  was  said, 
the  captain  suBi^red  much  from  spasmotlic  afli'dion  of  his 
leg«,  so  that  he  could  not  walk  a  mile  in  less  than  twenty 
minutes;  he,  however  ate  and  drank  well,  and  bets  were 
two  to  one  and  live  to  two  on  his  completing  his  journey 
within  the  time  prescril«'d.  About  eight  days  before  he 
finished,  the  sinews  of  his  right  leg  I)ec8me  much  bet- 
ter, and  he  continued  to  pursue  his  task  in  high  spirits, 
and  conseipiently  Ih'L-*  were  ten  to  one  in  his  favour  in 
London,  at  'I'attorsall's,  and  other  sporting  circles. 

"  On  Wednesday,  July  the  12lh,  Captain  Barclay  com- 
pleted his  aniiious  uiMlcrtiiking.  He  had  till  four  p.  m. 
to  finish  bis  task,  but  he  |>erformeil  tho  last  mile  by  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  after  three  in  perfect  ease  ami  great 
spirit,  amidst  an  immense  crowd  of  sjH-etators.  Tho  in- 
lux  of  compiiny  had  so  inuc^li  increased  on  Sunday,  that 
:t  was  recommended  that  the  ground  i>hoiild  be  roped  in. 
To  this  however,  ('aptain  Barclay  objected,  saying,  that 
he  did  not  like  such  parade.  The  crowd,  however,  he- 
came  ao  great  on  Monday,  and  he  had  ex|)erieneed  so 
much  interruption,  that  he  was  prevailed  upon  to  allow 
this  precaution  to  Ik-  taken.  F'or  the  last  two  day:-  he 
appeared  in  hik>lier  spirits,  and  performed  his  last  mile 
with  apparently  more  ease,  and  in  a  shorter  time,  than 
ke  had  dutiu  for  some  days  past. 

"  With  the  change  of  weather  ho  had  thrown  off  his 
loose  great<-oat.  which  he  wore  during  the  rainy  period, 
and  wallted  in  a  liaiin  >l  jacket.     Ho  also  f  ut  on  shoes 


thicker  than  any  which  he  had  used  in  the  previoui  niH 
of  his  performance.  When  asked  how  he  meant  to  ai^t 
after  he  had  finished  his  feat,  he  said  he  should  that  niifi  i 
take  a  good  somid  sleep,  but  that  ho  must  have  hiniHli 
awaked  twice  or  thrice  in  the  night  to  avoid  the  danitn 
of  a  too  sudden  transition  from  almost  constant  xxertion 
to  a  state  of  long  repose.  One  hundred  guineas  to  on* 
and,  indeed,  any  odds  whatever,  were  offered  on  Wedne»! 
\  day  morning ;  but  so  strong  was  the  c  mfidencu  in  hji 
success,  that  no  bets  could  be  obtained.  The  multltui]. 
i  who  reported  to  tho  scene  of  action,  in  tbc  cou-se  of  i||„ 
'  concluding  days,  was  unprecedented.  Not  a  Ix^d  could 
be  procured  on  Tuesday  night  at  Newmarket,  Cani 
bridge.  Bury,  or  any  of  the  towns  or  viila^cs  in  tbe  viii 
nity,  and  every  horse  and  vehicle  was  engaged.  Amonj 
the  nobiUty  and  gentry  who  witnessed  the  conclusion  of 
this  extraordinary  performance,  were  the  Dukes  of  .^r. 
gyle  and  St.  Albans ;  Earls  Giosvenor,  Besl.orough,  and 
Jersey  ;  Lords  Foley  and  Somerville ;  Sir  Jolm  IsJe 
Sir  F.  Standish,  Ac,  &c.  The  aggregate  of  the  bets  ii 
supposed  to  have  amounted  to  £100,000.  Upon  the 
whole.  Captain  Barclay  must  l)o  viewed  as  a  most  extia. 
ordinary  man,  and  shows  the  extent  of  vigour  that  the 
human  frame  derives  from  exercise." 


OUT-OF-DOOR  RI^CRRATIONS. 

SWIMMING. 

The  art  of  swimming  is  so  exceedingly  Hdful,  nti 
only  as  a  bracing  summer  exercise,  but  asanifansof 
preserving  life  when  accidentally  plunged  into  the  water, 
that  it  should  be  acquired  by  every  youtig  lursoti.  ii 
may  lie  perfoimed  either  in  the  sea  or  iti  rivers;  biiithe 
sea  is  preferable,  as  salt  water  is  of  greater  specillc  sra. 
vity  than  firesh,  atid  has  th"  greater  power  of  buoNinj 
up  the  body.  Whether  in  fresh  or  salt  water,  howeior, 
the  body  is  lighter,  bulk  for  bulk,  than  the  mass  of  Ii(]md 
displaced,  and  consequently  will  float  if  a  siiimII  aid  he 
given  by  the  impulsion  of  the  hands.  It  is  also  iminrtani 
to  observe,  that  the  more  the  bo<ly  is  ininiersiil  in  the 
water,  the  more  easily  is  it  sustained.  Thus,  if  onlv  the 
face  is  left  above  the  surface,  the  buoyancy  will  he  much 
greater  than  if  the  whole  head  or  the  heail  and  liamlsKfre 
ex|H»8ed.  When  persons  unskilled  in  sw iiiiiniiin  are 
plunged  into  the  water,  as,  for  instance,  by  the  upwuin; 
of  a  boat,  they  ought,  for  tlie  reasons  now  tuentioncj, 
not  to  struggle,  splutter,  and  hold  the  hunils  up,  but  re. 
main  tratiquil,  with  as  little  above  water  as  posi^iblc; 
draw  in  the  breath  so  as  to  fill  the  lungs,  nn^  sustain 
themselves  by  a  paddling  motioifwith  the  iiaiids. 

Pracucal  Directions  for  Swimminf. 

The  best  season  for  bathing  in  the  soa  or  rivers  li 
summer  and  autumn,  aiid  the  time  of  day  inost  prcfe^ 
able  is  the  morning  In-fore  breakfast;  the  next  liest  time 
is  iM'forc  dinner.  Immediately  after  dinner,  or  when  the 
stomach  is  full,  is  injurious.  A  person,  also,  shoulil 
never  bathe  twice  in  one  day,  or  continue  in  the  natw 
more  than  twenty  minutes  at  one  time.  To  avoid  llit 
danger  of  profa-lling  the  blood  to  the  head,  bv  stepiiin 
suddenly  into  cold  water,  always  wet  the  head  fiisi< 
Bathing  is  l>ost  pt^rformcd  when  entirely  naked;  butil 
this  1)0  unsuitable,  short  drawers  may  bo  used. 

Young  persons  or  others  unskilled  in  swimming  should 
not  on  any  account  go  beyond  the  depth  of  lireastliivh, 
till  tliey  are  able  to  buoy  lluunsc'lvcs  u|)  freelv.  They 
can  commence  their  lessons  in  swiinming  by  tbiowing 
lhemw'lvi;s  forward,  and  trying  what  will  be  the  I'lTcclof 
a  throwing  out  of  hanils  and  feet,  keeping  only  the  htad 
above  the  surface.     Some  persons  tie  corks  or  blaililen 


SWIMMING. 


701 


Jmt  thoir  nock  or  hroast,  Imt  this  we  dincommend  an 
K-ujfous.  A  preferable  plan  of  learning  to  swim  is  to 
-ceive  tho  aid  of  a  person  skilled  in  the  art,  who  i  ill 
help  to  buoy  up  the  learner  with  his  hand,  and  withdi  ,v 
hi]  swistance  gradunlly.  In  ordinary  circumstance!), 
however,  any  young  person  may  acquire  the  art  him- 

vlf. 
Tlie  Icnrncr  having  thrown  himself  forward,  he  must 

Jraw  his  hi-nd  hack,  elevate  his  chin  clear  of  the  surface, 
moiect  hia  breast,  hollow  his  back,  and  be  firm  and  col- 
rfcted.  fp'"'  "^"'^  ^  entirely  thrown  aside.  Instend 
(,;  putting  down  the  hands,  as  if  to  grope  for  something, 
which  is  a  very  common  error,  throw  the  hands  boldly 
forward,  mid  strike  out  with  them.  The  plan  of  doing 
tliis  is  first  to  bring  the  hands  together,  with  the  fingers 
dose,  and  tho  thumbs  closed  to  the  forefingers;  then 
strike  out  with  the  palms  undermost  and  slightly  hol- 
lowed. The  hands  must  not  touch  the  surface  in  strik- 
ine,  I'll'  niako  a  sweep  level  with  the  breast,  and  as  far 
out  88  possible.  Next,  they  are  to  be  drawn  back  with 
t  rapiJ  movement ;  in  this  retraction,  the  elbows  are  to 
be  bent  and  the  hunds  drooping  downwards,  so  that  aa 
litllc  obstacle  as  possible  may  be  presented  to  the  water. 
The  hands  being  brought  together  as  before,  they  are  to 
be  struck  out  in  the  same  manner ;  and  so  on. 

The  hands  furnish  only  half  the  means  of  advancing. 
ITie  other  half  are  the  logs,  which  must  be  sent  out 
behiniJ  with  a  jerk  to  thoir  lull  extent,  the  solos  pushing 
jgaiiist  tlie  water.  Tho  position  of  the  swimmer  in  the 
water  is  indicated  in  the  adjoining  cut,  fig.  H,  in  which 


F.g.  11. 

H  will  be  seen  that  the  body  slopes  from  the  neck  to  the 
feet.  To  advance  properly,  and  secure  regular  buoy- 
ancy, the  hands  and  feet  must  act  alternately,  the  arms 
descending  while  the  legs  are  rising,  and  the  'irms  rising 
while  the  logs  are  descending. 

Besides  regulating  the  action  of  the  hands  and  feet, 
the  swimmer  must  regulate  his  breathing.  The  breath 
is  to  be  inhaled  when  the  body  is  rising  by  the  descent 
of  the  hands,  and  when  the  mouth  is  clearly  above  the 
ruffle  of  the  wafer.  This  fills  the  chest  with  air  at  the 
moment  most  advantageous  to  do  so.  The  breath  is  to 
le  expended  at  the  next  impulse  forward  by  the  legs. 
Jiamc  persons,  in  learning  to  swim,  acquire  the  habit  of 
hriasling,  or  rising  high  out  of  the  water  at  every  stroke 
nf  their  arms;  this  mode  of  swimming  is  not  only  un- 
graceful but  fatiguing ;  a  good  and  tasteful  swimmer  ad- 
Tance*  smoothly  through  the  water,  with  a  moderate 
rise,  and  at  a  moderate  and  steady  rate  of  speed. 

There  are  various  fanciful  modes  of  swimming ;  one 
«f  these  is  swimming  with  tho  buck  downwards,  as  re- 
presented in  fig.  12.  In 
IJiis  case  the  hoiid  is 
more  immersed  than  in 
orJinary  swirniuing,  and 
rousinuently  b^ss  labour 
i«  required  to  buoy  up 
the  body.    Tho  method  !•'■(?•  12' 

employed  is  to  lie  gently  hack  in  the  water,  with  the 
hands  on  the  thighs,  and  to  strike  out  the  legs  as  in 
front  swimming.  By  swimming  on  tho  back  little  pro- 
greM  is  made ;  and  it  is  chiefly  useful  as  a  relief  to  the 
irnu. 

Another  means  of  relieving  the  futiguo  of  swimming 
b  lo  float  01)  the  back  with  «  very  gentle  motion  of  the 


legs,  in  the  positior.  rep- 
resented in  fig.  13.  The 
arms  are  extended,  the  chin 
and  mouth  elevated  higher 
than  the  forehead ;  and  the 
water  is  to  be  agitated  as  ''^'  ^'^' 

little  as  possible,  so  as  not  to  enter  the  mouth. 

Swimming  with  one  arm  is  sometimes  useful.  1*0 
perform  this  feat,  the  head  should  be  held  more  back- 
ward  than  usual ;  the  swimmer  hold  himwlf  more  erect ; 
the  legs  and  arm  must  be  exercised  pretty  quickly  ;  and 
with  force  the  hand  should  lie  struck  out  against  the 
body,  and  so  brought  down  before,  the  arm  extended  its 
full  length  for  every  stroke.  Tho  swimmer  must,  how- 
ever, be  very  careful  to  keep  his  breast  inflated,  as  this 
mode  of  swimming  requires  more  than  ordinary  dexterity. 
Should  the  swimmer  draw  in  his  breast  imprudently, 
when  his  arms  are  raised,  he  would  immediately  sink  to 
the  bottom, 

IMving  is  the  art  of  descending  rapidly  in  the  water, 
and  requires  to  be  done  with  address,  'i'hc  best  method 
consists  in  drawing  in  the  breath,  placing  the  two  hands 
together  as  a  cut-water  in  front,  and  then  to  plunge  head 
foremost,  causing  the  forehead  to  receive  the  force  of  the 
full.  In  taking  the  water,  tho  eyes,  for  safety,  should  be 
shut ;  but  they  may  be  opened  when  beneath  the  sup- 
face,  when  the  body  assume  the  swimming  attitude. 
Swimming  below  the  water  is  so  exceedingly  easy  that 
it  requires  no  direction^. 

Mr.  Frost,  in  his  small  work  on  "  Scientific  Swim- 
ming," presents  the  following  practical  rules  for  sportive 
swimming : — "  To  spin  with  ease,  the  person  should  be 
somewhat  buoyant ;  the  breast  must  be  well  inflated, 
and  the  attitude  may  be  that  of  sitting  with  the  feet 
crossed.  It  is  eflccted  by  embracing  the  water  with  each 
hand,  alternately,  on  the  same  side.  In  order  to  turn  to 
the  right,  tho  water  must  be  embraced  with  each  hand, 
alteniately,  on  the  right  side ;  and  to  turn  to  the  left,  on 
the  left  side.  .  This  action  causes  a  circular  or  spinning 
movement,  which*  increases  in  velocity  as  it  is  continued. 
Of  all  the  playful  ways  of  swimming  he  ever  knew,  the 
author  considers  this  to  be  tho  most  curious.  He  has 
seen  boys  sportively  rolling  along  the  stream,  and  con- 
ceived it  very  much  to  resemble  the  juvenile  amusement, 
on  a  summer  day,  of  rolling  down  a  declivity.  The 
stream  is  the  most  favourable  situation  for  rolling,  as  it 
very  much  assists  the  tuni.  To  achieve  this,  the  person 
must  lay  himself  straight  across  the  current;  he  must 
inflate  his  breast,  and  hold  his  head  very  backward ;  his 
legs  may  either  lie  together  or  be  crossed ;  he  must  exer- 
cise his  hands  in  the  same  manner  as  in  spinning.  By 
this  alternate  action  of  the  hands,  with  the  assistance 
of  the  stream,  some  persons  will  roll  along  in  a  pleasing 
ond  extraordinary  manner."  He  then  mentions  quadru- 
ped swimming ;  but  neither  the  posture  nor  action  is 
agreeable. 

In  some  cases  cramp  takes  place  in  the  '';ster,  and  the 
swimmer  requires  to  lie  prepared  for  its  r.tlacks.  The 
following  directions  by  Walker,  acted  upon  with  due 
sclf-poBsosoion,  comprise  all  that  need  be  said  on  this 
subject  :>- 

"  As  to  cramp,  those  chiefly  are  liable  to  it  who  plunge 
into  the  water  when  they  are  heated,  who  remain  in  it 
till  they  are  benumbed  with  cold,  or  who  exhaust  them- 
selves with  violent  exercise.  Persons  subject  to  this 
afll'ction  must  be  careful  with  regard  to  the  selection  oi 
the  place  where  they  bathe,  if  they  are  not  sufliciently 
skilful  in  swimming  to  \oiy  their  attitudes,  and  dis|)enE« 
instantly  with  the  uso  of  the  limb  attacked  by  cramp.  Even 
when  this  does  occur,  the  skilful  swimmer  knows  how  tc 
reach  the  shore  by  the  aid  of  the  limbs  which  are  unef 
fected,  while  the  uninstrucued  one  is  liable  to  be  Irownud. 

■•  If  attacked  in  this  way  in  the  leg.  the  swimmer  must 
strike  out  the  limb  with  all  his  strengcn,  thrusting  the 
3m8 


lm 


INFORMATION   FOR   THE   PEOPLE. 


heol  downward  and  drawing  the  tooa  upward,  notwitli- 
itiinding  .  the  mnmciitury  pain  it  may  occasion  ;  or  lio 
may  immediutcly  turn  Hut  on  his  buck,  and  jerlt  out  tlio 
aflcctcd  linili  in  tlu-  air,  taking  cam  not  to  clcvato  it  so 
hiL,'h  as  groally  to  disturb  the  balance  of  the  body.  If 
Ibis  docs  nut  succi'od,  he  must  paddle  ashore  with  his 
liiitids,  or  keep  himself  afloat  by  their  aid,  until  assist- 
ance reach  him.  Should  he  even  l>c  unable  to  float  on 
his  back,  ho  must  put  himself  in  the  upright  position, 
and  keep  his  head  above  the  surface  by  merely  striking 
the  water  downward  with  his  hands  at  the  hips,  with- 
out any  assistance  I'roin  the  legs." 

SKATING. 

This  is  a  highly  exhilarating  and  healthful  ont-of-door 
pastime  in  winter,  when  rivers  and  ponds  are  frozen, 
and  oflcr  a  clear  surfn'e  of  ice.  The  art  of  skating  con- 
sists in  poising  the  body  on  a  sharp  ridge  of  iron  beneath 
the  sole  of  the  foot,  and  adviincing  on  the  ice  in  that 
position,  one  foot  relieving  another.  As  a  very  slender 
liBse  will  support  any  mass  of  matter  kept  in  motion, 
skating  is  iiy  no  means  ii  difficult  art,  and  requires  only 
courage,  quickness  of  eye,  and  delicacy  of  taste,  to  ren- 
der the  performances  elegant. 

A  skate  is  a  well-known  apparatus  of  wood  and  iron, 
with  strips  and  buckles  to  attach  it  to  the  foot.  The 
skate  for  each  foot  must  he  alike.  The  iron  should  not 
lie  deeper  than  three  quarters  of  an  inch,  and  smooth  or 
fiat  along  i's  under  edge ;  only  boys'  skates  should  be 
grooved,  te  take  better  hold  of  the  ice.  The  iron  should 
be  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick.  The  edges  should  be 
smooth,  free  from  rust,  and  sharply  ground. 

Praeiicnl  Directions  for  Skating. 

We  hex  to  offer  the  following  directions  to  the  young 
skater,  chiefly  from  the  work  of  Mr.  Walker : — 

"  Either  very  rough  or  very  smooth  ice  should  be 
rvoided.  The  person  who  for  the  first  time  attempts  to 
skate  must  not  trust  to  a  »tick.  He  may  make  a  friend's 
h and  his  support,  if  he  reijuire  one ;  but  that  should  be 
soon  relinquished  in  order  to  balance  himst-lf.  He 
will  probably  scramble  about  for  a  half  an  hour  or  so, 
till  he  begins  to  find  out  where  the  edge  of  his  skate  is. 
'I'he  beginner  must  be  fearless,  but  not  violent,  nor  even 
in  a  hurry.  He  should  not  let  his  feet  get  far  apait, 
and  keep  liis  heels  still  nearer  together.  He  must  keep 
t!ie  ankle  of  the  foot  on  the  ice  quite  firm ;  not  attempt- 
ing to  gain  the  edi;e  of  the  skate  by  bending  it,  because 
the  right  mode  of  uctting  to  either  edge  is  by  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  whole  body  in  the  direction  required ;  and  this 
inclination  should  be  made  fearlessly  and  decisively. 

'<  The  leg  which  is  on  the  ice  should  be  kept  i)erfectly 
straight;  for  thout;h  the  knee  must  be  somewhat  bent 
at  the  time  of  striking,  it  i7iust  l)e  straightened  as  quickly 
as  possible,  without  any  jerk.  The  leg  which  is  off  the 
ice  should  also  be  kept  straight,  though  not  stifi",  having 
an  easy  but  slight  play,  the  toe  pointing  downwards, 
and  the  heel  within  fiomsix  to  twelve  inches  of  the  other. 

"  The  learner  muct  not  look  down  at  the  ice,  nor  at 
his  feet  to  see  how  they  perform.  He  may  at  first  in- 
cline his  body  a  little  forward,  for  safety,  but  hold  his 
head  up,  and  see  where  he  goes ;  his  person  erect,  and  his 
face  rather  elevated  than  otherwise. 

"  When  once  off.  he  must  brin;j  both  feet  up  together, 
and  strike  again,  as  soim  as  he  finds  lumself  steady 
enough,  rarely  allowing  both  feet  to  be  on  the  ice  to- 
gj'ther.  The  |iosilion  of  the  arms  should  l)e  easy  aid 
varied,  one  iH-ing  always  more  raise<l  than  the  other ; 
this  elevation  being  alternate,  and  the  change  corre- 
•|K>nding  with  that  of  his  legs ;  that  is,  the  right  arm 
lieilfg  rauicd  as  the  rii;ht  leg  is  put  down,  and  vice  verm, 
no  that  the  arm  and  leg  of  the  satno  side  may  not  be 
nur,rd  together. 

«  'file  l^cc  I'i'ist  be  alwaya  turned  in  tlic  direction  of 


the  lino  intended  to  be  described.  Hence  in  backwjM 
skating,  the  head  will  be  inclined  much  over  the  ahoul 
dcr ;  in  forward  skating,  but  slightly.  AM  sudden  «n,| 
violent  action  must  be  avoided.  Stopping  may  \^ 
caused  by  slightly  bending  the  knees,  drawing  the  fpjt 
together,  inclining  the  body  for  ward,  and  prcssini;  on  th« 
heels.  U  may  also  be  caused  by  turning  short  to  th« 
right  or  left,  the  foot  on  the  side  to  which  we  tun.  being 
rather  more  advanced,  and  supporting  part  of  the  weisliL 

"  The  first  attempt  of  the  beginner  is  to  walk,  und  thji 
walk  shortly  becomes  a  sliding  gait,  done  entirelj  on  tb 
inside  edge  of  the  skate. 

"  The  first  impulse  is  to  be  gained  by  pressing  the  iiw 
side  edge  of  one  skate  against  the  ice,  and  nilvandni! 
with  the  opposite  foot.  To  effect  this,  the  hcgiiinemiu!,) 
bring  his  feet  nearly  together,  turn  the  left  somcwhal 
out,  place  the  right  a  litile  in  advance,  and  at  ijchi 
angles  with  it,  lean  forward  with  the  right  shouliler,  and 
at  the  same  time  move  the  right  foot  onwards,  and  pre* 
sharply,  or  strike  the  ice  with  the  inside  edge  of  the  loft 
skate — care  being  taken  instantly  to  throw  the  weight 
on  the  right  foot.  While  thus  in  motion,  the  skater 
must  bring  up  the  left  foot  nearly  to  a  level  with  the 
other,  and  may  for  the  present  proceed  a  short  wav  on 
both  feet. 

"  He  must  next  place  the  left  foot  in  advance  in  jii 
turn,  bring  the  left  shoulder  forward,  inclining  lo  that 
side,  strike  from  the  inside  edge  of  the  right  skate,  and 
proceed  as  t)eforo. 

"  Finally,  this  motion  has  only  to  be  repented  on  m(\ 
foot  alternately,  gradually  keeping  the  foot  from  which 
he  struck  longer  off  the  ice,  till  he  has  gained  sufficiml 
command  of  himself  to  keep  it  off  altogether,  and  ii 
able  to  strike  directly  from  one  to  the  olliei,  wjihout  at 
any  time  having  them  both  on  the  ice  together.  Thii 
must  be  practised  till  he  has  gained  some  degree  of  ilrm. 
ness  and  power,  and  a  command  of  his  balance." 

'I'luis  accomplished  in  the  rudiments  of  the  art,  the 
skater  may  proceed  to  learn  the  fmwnril  mil,  which  Is 
the  first  step  towards  figure  skating.  "  The  impulse  Is 
gained  in  the  same  manner  as  for  the  ordinary  run;  but 
to  get  on  the  outside  edg('  of  the  right  foot,  the  inomont 
that  foot  is  in  motion,  the  skater  must  advance  the  left 
shoulder,  throw  the  right  arm  back,  look  over  the  rii;ht 
shoulder,  and  incline  the  whole  person  boldly  and  d» 
cisively  on  that  side,  keeping  the  left  fool  siispended  l«. 
hind.  As  he  proceeds,  he  must  bring  the  left  foot  past 
the  inside  of  the  right  with  a  slight  jerk,  which  produces 
an  opposing  balance  of  the  liody ;  the  right  foot  must 
quickly  press,  first  on  the  outside  of  the  heel,  then  nn 
the  inside,  or  its  toe  ;  the  left  foot  must  be  placed  ilonn 
in  front  liefore  it  is  removed  more  than  aliout  eight  or 
ten  inches  from  the  other  foot ;  and  by  striking  outsiJt 
to  the  left,  giving  at  the  same  moment  a  .strong  push 
with  the  inside  of  the  right  toe,  the  skati  r  passes  from 
right  to  left,  inclining  to  the  left  side  in  the  same  mannci 
as  ho  did  to  the  right.  He  then  conliiuics  to  change 
from  left  to  right,  and  from  right  to  lelt,  in  the  same  man- 
ner. At  first  ho  should  not  remain  long  n|ion  one  leg, 
nor  scruple  occasionally  to  put  the  other  dov  ii  to  assist; 
and  throughout  he  niu.st  keep  himself  erect,  Icanii  *inotl 
on  the  heel," 

Having  attained  this  proficiency,  there  will  be  littl« 
difficulty  in  describing  any  figure,  formed  by  a  coniHna. 
tion  of  circles  or  semicircles.  The  figure  H  isa  favoutile 
among  clever  skatera,and  also  the  figure  3,  both  forward 
and  reversed. 

Skating  on  ice  of  doubtful  strength  is  accomjianied 
with  great  danger,  as  in  an  instant  the  skater  may  find 
himself  sunk  to  the  neck  in  water,  and  be  drowned  liefore 
assistance  can  be  rendered.  Much  of  this  danger  mij 
be  obviated  by  wearing  a  infeiy-nipi;  which  in  a  loose 
I  cap<'  inflated  with  air,  the  invention  of  a  neniher  of  tti« 
,  Edinburgh  skating  club.     Wu  recumniend  ever)  tkiM 


CURLING. 


70S 


to  aic  by  all  menn!i  a  rape  of  this  kind  while  pursuing 
hi)  amusement  on  the  ice. 

CURLING. 

Curlinff  is  a  gBine  of  great  antiquity  and  popularity  in 
(Iw  southern  and  wcHtprn  parts  of  Scotland.  It  is  a 
winter  giiinc.  played  on  tho  iec;  and  where  the  rivers 
anil  ponds  are  frozen,  usually  super«ciies  all  other  out-of- 
iloor  amusements.  As  tliu  ieo  requircH  to  bo  much  thicker 
tlran  for  skating  it  is  usual  to  form  ponds  so  shallow  that 
llip  whole  water  in  them  iwcomDs  a  frozen  mass  capable 
of  bearins  "1>  any  weight. 

The  giiine  is  phiyed  by  a  party  forming  rival  siiles, 
carh  individual  Ixing  possessed  of  a  circular  hard  stone, 
of  about  nine  inches  in  diameter,  flat  and  smooth  on  the 
under  side,  and,  on  the  upper,  having  a  handle  fixed  to 
tlic  stone.  Each  player  is  likewise  armed  with  a  broom 
to  sweep  the  ieo,  in  order  to  accelerate  the  progress  of 
the  stones;  and  his  feet  are  ordinarily  furnished  with 
Uainpi'l*.  or  cra]ni)ets,  which  help  to  steady  him  in  taking 
liis  aim.  A  large  long  open  space  of  ice,  of  from  thirty 
10  forty  yards  in  lon'j;th,  and  eight  or  nine  feet  across, 
ailed  a  link,  being  cleared,  and  a  mark  or  tee  being 
made  nt  each  end  to  |)lay  to,  the  contest  takes  place  by 
fii'h  person  hurling  or  causing  his  stone  to  slide  towards 
llic  opposite  end  of  the  rink.  A  certain  number  being 
llic  game,  the  object  of  each  side  is,  which  will  have  the 
(Ticatest  number  i>f  stones  nearest  the  tee;  and  all  play 
from  end  to  end  alternately,  till  this  is  ascertained.  To 
liurl  the:-e  stones  with  precision,  in  this  species  of  sport, 
IS  exoeedimrly  diflicult ;  much  depending  on  the  keen- 
n.'ss  of  the  frost,  the  tone  of  the  ice,  and  the  truth  of  the 
stone.  Sometimes  tlic  best  and  oldest  players  are  baf- 
(Ifil  by  beginners,  siiiiply  by  their  curling-stones  having 
lilicn  a  bias  to  one  sile  or  another ;  and  frequently,  after 
l!ic  best  players  have  placed  their  stones  in  a  cluster 
round  the  tee,  one  rajiid  sliof  from  an  antagonist  will 
ili51)erse  the  whole  in  all  directions  round.  Occasionally 
it  also  happens  that,  in  hurling,  the  stones  come  far  short 
jf  the  mark;  but  if  they  do  not  get  beyond  a  line, called 
ihe.  hong  score,  they  arc  dragged  aside,  and  are  not 
cf'untcd.  A  more  than  usually  extensive  mutch  is  called 
I  lioiispiel. 


Curling. 
Huch  is  a  meagre  outline  of  the  game  of  curling, 
which,  ull  over  tlie  west  and  «iuth  of  Scotland  during 
llio  keen  frosty  days  of  winter,  engages  all  classes  of 
persons  in  exciting  sport.  Parish  contends  against 
piuish,  county  against  county,  club  against  club,  in  uni- 
vct'al  rnirlhlul  rivalry.  At  Kdinbnrgh,  where  there  are 
nrithcr  rivers  nor  pond.s,  the  inhabitants  resort  for  the 
iiiiuscnient  of  curlinc;.  as  well  as  skating,  to  the  adjacent 
In-BUtiful  small  lake  at  Duddingstone,  lying  nt  the  south- 
raslern  base  of  Ailhur  Sent.  Here  a  most  animated 
PO'iie  is  exhibited  during  the  period  that  the  waters  of 
llip  lake  are  frozen.  Numbers  of  rinks  arc  cleared,  at 
which  may  Ih!  seen  playing  together  persons  in  almost 
tvcry  shade  of  society — professors  of  the  university, 
ricipynieu,  |):ivate  gentlemen,  mcrchant-s,  frndesmen, 
lud  ttrliswis — all   meetiu;^  on  u  conunon  level,  and  en- 


gaged in  the  same  spirit-stirring  pursuit ;  for  in  curling 
there  is  no  aristocracy  of  feeling,  and  so,  for  the  time,  • 
universal  saturnalia  prevails.  The  game  of  curling  it 
eulogized  by  more  than  one  Scottish  poet,  particularly 
by  Grahame  who  thus  commences  a  description  cf  tiw 
sport : — 

"Now  rival  pnrishps  anil  nlirievi'doms  keep 
On  upliind  lochs,  the  lonn-cxpiTlcil  ir>xi. 
'I'd  play  Ihnir  ywirly  lioiispiel.     Afjcd  nien, 
Sriiii  wiihlhi'  eajfriu'ss  of  yniith.  are  Iherc, 
Wliile  love  of  con(jU''»l  lights  their  hentnless  eyes, 
New-nerven  iliuirurma.  and  makes  Ihum  young  once  more.* 

In  Mr.  M'Diarmid'a  "  Sketches  of  Nature,"  we  find 
the  following  spirited  account  of  this  delightful  wintei 
game: — 

"  The  time  is  not  distant  when  the  game  of  curling 
was  little  known  out  of  Scotland,  or  even  within  it, 
iM'uorth  the  Forth.  But  the  taste  for  this  manly  sport 
has  increased  greatly  of  late  years;  and  in  varioub  parta 
of  England,  as  well  as  America,  the  broom  and  the 
channel-stone  are  jnit  in  requisition  with  the  same  regu- 
larity that  winter  comes  round. 

"  In  the  whole  range  of  rural  sports,  I  know  nothing 
more  exhilarating  than  a  n/iicl  on  the  ice,  where  the 
players  are  numerous  and  well-niafched — the  stakes  a 
dinner  of  beef  and  greens — and  the  fortint  the  honoor 
of  rival  parishes.  All  around  is  blank  and  dreary — the 
snow-flake  freezes  as  fast  as  it  falls — the  sun  seems  level 
with  the  horizon's  verge — the  hills  make  the  spectator 
cold  to  look  at  them — and  every  thing,  in  one  word,  con- 
spires to  complete  the  picture  of  a  winter's  day.  Bui 
the  courage  of  men  bent  on  the  favourite  amusement  of 
curling,  is  not  easily  damped  by  the  inclemency  of  the 
elements;  on  the  contrary,  their  spirits  seem  to  mount  as 
the  thermometer  falls,  and  nothing  pleases  them  more 
than  a  feeding  storm,  and,  along  with  that,  the  prospect 
of  a  long  lease  at  'their  roaring  play.'  Arrived  at  the 
scene  of  action,  all  is  bustle  and  aninnition,  till  the 
stones  have  been  distributed,  a.ssorted,  claimed — rinka 
measured,  tramps  fastened,  tees  fixed,  and  the  order  of 
battle  completely  arranged  ;  and  as  these  pieliminariea 
are  speedily  settled,  to  it  the  parties  set  with  all  the 
anxiety  of  those  who  contend  fur  a  much  higher  prize. 
Lots,  perhaps,  are  cast  for  the  first  shot,  and  the  greatest 
novice  invited  to  deliver  the  first  stone;  and  should  his 
arm  lack  the  proper  pith,  that  instant  a  dozen  bfooms  arc 
raised  to  help  the  laggard  over  the  !:ui;g,srurc.  A  second, 
a  third,  a  fourth,  succeeds,  and  so  on,  till  the  line 
stretches  a  tolerable  '  iigth;  and  each  man  is  warned 
by  his  respective  frien  to  plant,  if  possible,  an  excel- 
lent guard— <lislodgc  t  stone  and  cover  that — open  up 
one  jiort  and  close  anoi  r — play  soft  or  strong,  outside 
or  inside,  as  the  occasii  may  require — and  steer  aa 
closely  by  the  signal  broom  as  the  mariner,  when  warned 
by  similar  devices,  threads  his  watery  way  through  sand- 
biuiks  and  shallows. 

"As  the  animating  sport  deepens,  it  is  amusing  to 
contrast  the  bustle  that  obtains  in  one  little  spot  with  the 
stillness  that  broods  over  the  external  world  ;  while  tlie 
hills  above  arc  silent  ami  dark,  the  shining  lake  below  ia 
instinct  with  life,  and  resounds  with  sounds  of  mirth  and 
glee,  which,  borne  along  on  the  elastic  nir,  invade  the 
solemn  loneliness  that  reigns  around,  till  echo  itself  takes 
up  the  tale,  and  repents  in  broken  fragments  the  curlcr'a 
vocabulary.  At  length,  as  the  more  veteran  playera 
advance  to  decide  by  tlieir  skill  the  fate  of  the  side,  the 
interest  becomes  intense,  and  gives  rise  lo  so  many  calcu- 
lations of  what  is  to  lie  done  nnd  what  avoided,  such 
bustling  to  and  fro,  as  must  ajipear  a  perfect  mystery  to 
the  uninhinted.  The  last  wary  shot  booms  athwart  the 
ice  as  if  impelled  by  magic,  and  while  every  port,  to  an 
unlookcr,  seems  closed,  finds  its  way  under  the  guidanc* 
of  a  powerful  arm  and  steady  eye,  tbrougl-  passngea 
rivalling  the  int:ica.y  of  the  walls  of  Trov.     Then  fol 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE   PEOPLK. 


Iiiw  the  ghoul  of  victory  and  the  murmur  of  defeat,  till 
the  contest  is  renewed  uniler  the  mini;r'<^d  emotion*  of 
4l  >pe  and  foar — the  vanquished  truatini;  that  the  tablea 
will  be  turned,  and  the  conqnerorR  confident  that  they 
will  remain  the  same.  Speedily  the  eaoter  players  are 
u.iirahallc(l,  nnd  the  brooms  put  in  rcq'isition  as  before  ; 
again  the  Rtoiics  boom  atvny  and  away,  meandering 
here,  meeting  there,  and  whirling  from  the  collision  like 
the  urchin's  top  at  school ;  again  shot  succeeds  shot,  and 
game  follows  game,  until  the  conclusion  of  the  hon»})icl, 
fvr  the  approach  of  evening  proclaims  that  it  is  time  the 
8por^  should  surcease,  and  the  combatants  wend  their 
way  to  the  nearest  tlaclmn,  to  enjoy  their  favourite  feast 
of  beef  and  greens.  And  now  the  scene  changes  en- 
tirely, thoui^h  as  the  savoury  viands  load  the  board,  all 
4oel  the  effects  of  the  keen  mountain  air,  and  make  so 
good  a  use  of  their  time  while  the  opportunity  serves, 
lliat  the  business  of  eating  becomes  nearly  as  noisy  as 
Ihe  business  of  play  ;  rounds  of  corn-beef,  flagons  of 
hoine-brewed,  disappear  with  a  rapidity  that  is  truly 
Mtonishing,  and  of  which  no  adequate  conception  can 
De  formed  by  persons  whose  appetites  were  never  whetted 
ivf  ■  day  on  the  ice." 

Laws  and  Regulations  Tor  Curling;. 

In  the  year  1838  was  instituted  the  Grand  Caledonian 
C':rling-Club,  for  the  purpose  of  uniting  all  curlers  into  a 
*  krotherhood  of  the  rink,"  and  of  regulating  the  game 
by  general  laws,  which  it  was  hoped  would  bo  adopted 
by  all  local  curling  associations,  Fro;n  the  Annual  pul)- 
iiahed  by  the  club,  we  extract  the  following  aa  the  rules 
of  the  game : — 

"  1.  The  length  of  the  rink  shall  be  forty-two  ynnls  ;  any  de- 
viation occasioned  by  peculiar  circumt^tiinces  to  be  by  mutual 
■greerRem  of  parties.  When  a  game  is  begun,  the  rink  is  not 
to  be  lengthened  nor  shortened,  unless  by  consent  of  the  majo- 
rity of  players. 

[It  is  advisable  that  rinkn  have  double  tees  at  each  end,  the 
one  at  least  two  yards  behind  the  oilier,  the  whole  four  to  be  as 
nearly  as  po.ssi' le  in  the  same  line.  The  siones  are  to  be  de- 
livered from  th  <  outer  tee,  and  played  towards  the  inner;  this 
Mve*  the  ice  from  being  injured  around  the  tee  played  up  to.] 

''9.  The  rink  shall  be  changed  in  nil  cases  when,  from  the 
■pringing  of  water,  tue  mnjonty  of  players  cannot  make  up. 
^eithksr  the  winning  nor  losing  parly  have  right  to  object,  as  all 
eontesis  must  be  decided  on  tlic  fair  and  equitable  principle  of 
science,  not  of  strength. 

"  3.  'Fhe  number  of  shots  in  a  game,  if  not  otherwise  mutually 
fixed  upon,  shall  be  twenty-one. 

(A  game  more  fre(|uen'fy  consists  of  thirteen  shots,  or  even 
of  seven,  than  of  any  others,  when  an  hour  or  two's  practice 
only  is  intended ;  but  this  is  a  matter  of  private  arrangement. 

In  a  bonspiel  or  match,  when  a  considerable  number  of 
players  appears  on  each  side,  the  aggregate  number  of  shots 
gained  m  a  fixed  time  is  not  only  ns  equitable  a  method,  but 
aflbrds  umutement  to  all  the  rink  to  the  conclusion,  and  ought 
to  be  universally  adopted.] 

"4.  The  hogs"  score  to  be  one-sixth  part  of  the  length  of  the 
rink  from  the  lee.  Kvery  stone  lo  be  considered  a  hog  which 
doe*  not  cl«a7  a  square  placed  upon  the  score. 

"3.  Every  rink  to  be  composed  of  four  players  a  side,  each 
with  two  stones,  unless  otherwise  mutually  agreed  upon.  In 
110  case  shall  the  same  individual  or  parly  play  two  stones  in 
•uocession.  and  every  plavcr  shall  deliver  both  nis  stones  alter- 
nately with  an  opponent,  before  any  other  of  Ihe  same  side  or 
party  play  one. 

"  e.  Parties  to  draw  cuts  which  shall  fill  the  ice  at  the  first  end ; 
after  which  the  winning  parly  of  Ihe  last  end  or  game  of  that 
day's  play  s'  all  do  so.  No  stone  to  be  counted  which  does  not 
lie  within  seven  feel  from  the  tee,  unless  it  be  previously  oiher- 
wise  mutually  agreed  upon.  In  cases  where  each  piiriy  has  a. 
■tone  equally  near  the  tee.  neither  to  be  coiinied,  and  the  win- 
ning party  of  the  previous  end  is  again  to  fill  the  ice.  Maasure- 
mciits  to  be  taken  from  the  centre  of  the  lee  to  thai  part  of  the 
■ume  which  is  nearest  it. 

''7.  Each  player  to  place  his  feet  in  such  a  manner  as  that,  in 
(tiliverlng  his  stone,  he  shall  bring  it  over  the  tee.  A  player 
•lepping  aside  to  take  a  brittle  (or  wick),  or  other  shot,  shall  for- 
feit his  stone  for  that  end.  A  player,  aller  delivering  his  last 
■tone,  shall  not  remain  longer  than  to  see  his  next  opponent  fit 
hi*  tee,  bm  shall  take  his  place  at  the  other  end  between  the 
•core  and  the  previous  player  of  hi*  own  party ;  and  shall  on 
no  account  remain  to  give  direotioiis  to  the  next  of  bis  party 
iMio  plays. 

"  8,  If  any  player  shall  improperly  speok_lo  or  interrupt  another 
while  in  the  act  of  deliveringhis  stone,  one  shot  shall  be  added 
to  die  score  of  the  party  so  interrupted. 

"9.  The  roiatioa  of  play  adopted  at  the  beginning  roust  be  ob- 
served through  the  whole  game. 

"10.  All  curling  siones  shall  be  of  a  circular  shape.  No  stone 
nut  bo  ehangod  tlirougltuut  the  game,  unluss  it  happen  to  be 


broken,  and  thin  the  largest  fragment  to  count,  wittim*  ._ 
iiBcessity  of  playing  with  it  more.     If  a  mone  roll.i  and  iinnl 
upon  its  «ide  or  iop,  ii  shall  not  be  counted,  hut  put  oil  ih«  i„ 
Should  the  handle  quit  the  sione  in  Ihe  deliverv.  the  nlav 
must  keep  hold  of  it,  otherwise  hs  will  not  be  eniiiled  torenlM 
the  shot.  ^  I 

"  II.  If  a  player  plays  out  of  turn,  Ihe  sione  so  plaiklniav  u 
slopped  ill  its  progress,  and  returned  to  the  p|j»yer.  If  ihe  m,;, 
lake  shall  iiol  be  discovered  till  the  stone  is  again  at  lesr  ik 
opposite  party  shall  have  the  option  lo  add  one  to  iheir  jcom 
and  the  game  proceed  in  its  uriginnl  rolaiioii,  or  lo  declara  iiu! 
end  null  and  vo'd. 

"  la.  In  doiible-foled  stones,  the  side  commenred  with  ihill 
rot.  under  forfeit  of  the  match,  be  changed  during  the  pronteit 
of  Ihe  game.  ^     ' 

(Doiilile-»oled  stones  are  those  in  which  the  hand'e  can  U 
shifted  from  one  side  lo  another;  one  side  being  slightly  cofc 
cave  for  kern  ice.  and  Ihe  other  convex  lor  dull  ice.) 

"  1.1.  The  sv/eeping  departineiil  to  be  under  Ihe  exclanive  con. 
trol  of  the  skipper.  No  sweeping  lo  be  allowed  hy  any  pariv 
till  Ihe  sione  hits  passed  the  hogs'  score,  except  when  unow  ii 
falliitg  or  drifting,  in  which  ease  it  shall  be  adiuiiisilile  los'-eeg 
from  tee  to  lee.  The  playi-r's  party  may  «wn  p  when  the .  lonj 
has  parsed  the  further  hogs'  score,  his  adversaries' when  it  Im 
passed  ihe  tee.  Sweeping  lo  be  always  lo  one  side,  rrevinui 
to  each  direction  being  given,  eillier  parly  are.  eniiiled  toiween 
the  rink  clean.  ' 

•'  14.  Parties,  before  beginning  to  play,  to  lake  dilferem  lidei 
of  the  riiilf.  whieh  they  art  lo  keep  throughout  Ihe  .;ame;  and 
no  player,  on  any  pretence,  to  cross  or  go  upon  Ihe  middle  of 
the  rink.  The  skippers  oilone  lo  stand  about  the  tee.  'I'lieirre- 
speelive  parties,  according  lo  llieir  rotation  of  play,  shall  itke 
their  position  down  lo  tlieliogs'  score. 

"  is.  If  in  sweeping,  or  otherwise,  a  running  stone  he  marred 
hy  any  of  ihc  pnrly  to  which  it  belongs,  it  sliull  be  put  ofTilu 
ice.  iiby  Ihe  adverse  pariy.il  shall  be  placed  where  Ihetkiii. 
per  of  the  parly  lo  whom  it  belongs  shall  direct.  If  marred  by 
any  oiher  means,  ihe  player  shall  take  his  shot  again.  Should 
a  stone  at  rest  be  nccidenlnlly  displayed  at  any  pan  of  the  end 
before  the  case  provided  for  in  rule  i3  comes  iiiiooperatioii  ii 
shall  be  put  as  nearly  ""  possible  in  its  former  position.       ' 

"  10.  Kvery  ploye.  to  come  provided  with  a  be.iuin.  lo  be  readv 
to  play  when  his  turn  comes,  and  not  to  take  more  than  a 
reasonable  time  lo  throw  his  sloiies.  Should  he  aeclilental'y 
play  a  wrong  sione,  any  of  the  players  may  slop  it  while  ro  • 
ning:  liiil  if  not  slopped  till  it  is  again  at  resi.  ii  shall  litre' 
placed  by  the  one  which  he  ought  to  have  played. 

'•  17.  No  measuring  of  shots  allowable  previous  lo  the  termina- 
tion of  the  end.  Disputed  shois  lo  be  delcriiiined  hy  tlic  slip. 
pers:  or.  if  Ibey  disagree,  by  some  neiilrnl  person  mulually 
chosen  by  ihein.  whose  decision  shall  be  final. 

"IS.  Should  any  played  sione  be  displaced  before  the  laoiiiona 
is  thrown  and  at  rest,  by  any  of  the  parly  who  are  lying  lit 
shot,  they  shall  forfeit  the  end;  if  by  any  of  ibe  losing  parly 
who  have  the  stone  yet  lo  play,  they  shall  bo  prevented  Iron 
playing  Ihot  stone,  and  hove  one  point  deducted  from  iheii 
score.  The  number  of  shots  to  be  marked  liy  the  winners  lo 
be  decided  by  the  majority  of  the  players,  the  offender  nol hav- 
ing a  voic. 

'•  in.  The  skippers  shall  have  the  exclusive  regulation  and  di- 
rection of  the  game,  nnd  may  piny  in  whal  part  of  it  ihey 
please:  but  having  chosen  their  place  ni  the  bigiiining.  ihey 
must  relam  il  till  ihe  end  of  ihe  game.  The  players  may  civt 
llieir  adviei*.  km  ennnot  conirol  their  direcior:  nor  are  uiey 
upon  any  prelext  lo  address  Ihemselves  lo  llie  person  nlioulii) 
play.  Koch  skipper,  when  hisown  play  conies  shall  nameont 
of  bis  parlv  to  lake  charge  for  him.  Every  player  lo  follow 
implicillv  the  direclion  given  him. 

''  30.  Should  any  question  arise.  Ihe  determination  of  which  ii 
noi  provided  for  by  the  words  and  spirit  of  the  rules  iioweiia- 
blished.  il  may  be  referred  lo  the  three  nearest  m-mliers  of 'In 
represenlHlive  committee,  unconnected  with  the  dismiiing  psi- 
lies,  who  shall  form  a  district  commilteeof  reference,  anil  whose 
decision  shall  be  binding  on  all  concerned  till  Ihe  aniiusl  f*ne. 
ral  meeting  of  Ihe  representative  comniitlee,  to  whom  cilhei 
party  may  appeal  the  case." 

CRICKET.  t 

This  is  perhaps  the  best  of  all  out-nf-Joor  sports  for 
youth.  It  tcquircs  quickness  of  mind  ami  eye,  peal 
agility  of  limb,  nnd,  properly  conduclcd,  is  hifflily  exhila- 
rating and  amusing.  'I'he  game  is  played  on  an  open 
well-shaven  preen,  which  is  level  and  free  from  stona 
or  shrubs ;  it  should  also  lie  dry,  and  of  sufficient  di- 
mensions to  allow  of  a  good  blow  to  the  ball  and  run— 
a  square  field  of  three  or  four  acres  is  a  good  size.  Tin 
apparatus  required  in  the  game  consists  of  balls,  bal^ 
and  wickets.  The  dress  of  the  players  should  be  ligb! 
and  easy — a  white  woollen  jacket,  cap,  linen  trousen, 
and  shoes  provided  in  the  soles  with  points  to  prevent 
■lipping  in  running ;  in  London  there  are  shoes  mult 
purposely  for  cricketing. 

Cricket  is  played  in  two  distinct  forms ;  one  »  called 
Stng/e  Wirhtt,  and  the  other  Dmtbk  Wkket.  We  M 
first  give  an  outline  of  Sinclc  Wicket. 

Sinf^U  Wicka  —This  game  is  played  by  a  nu  n'oer  ii( 


CRICKET. 


70S 


lOWW,  but  gonerally  five  are  on  each  party  or  lidc,  I 
fliTM  »trnight  /oils  or  ttumpt,  twcnty-soven  inches  luBh,  I 
irt  wiuck  III  a  row  in  the  frround ;  on  the  top  of  the  \ 
itnnip!'  are  laid  two  pieces  of  wood  called  the  bnil,  and 
N  placed  mat  they  will  readily  fall  off  if  ih  /  stumps  lie  ' 
yt  by  th#b.ill.     This  apparatus  is  called  the  wickel.    At 
the  distance  of  four  feet  four  inches  in  front  of  the 
wicket  is  a  mark  on  the  ground,  called  the  pnpping-rrease. 
In  a  straight  lino  with  the  wirkct  is  a  mark  on  the 
ground  culled  the  bowling-create,  which  is  parallel  to  the 
pjpping-crcaso. 

An  individual  taken  from  one  party  is  appointed 
t/cncltr ;  his  duty  is  to  bowl  his  ball  towards  the  opposite 
witket,  which  ho  docs  by  a  short  run.  An  individual 
from  the  antagonist  party  is  appointed  batlcr ;  his  duty 
la  lo  etand  with  his  bat  placed  with  its  tip  on  the  ground 
it  the  popping-crease,  and  to  oppose  the  progress  of  the 
ball,  or  to  prevent  it  from  knocking  down  his  wicket 
He  must  also  endeavour  to  strike  the  boll  smartly,  so  as 
to  send  it  to  a  distance  on  the  field.  The  field  is  in 
charge  of  the  party  lo  which  the  bowler  belongs ;  these 
nre  termed  /■  Id-men  or  field-keepers,  and  each  has  an 
appointed  place  from  which  he  takes  a  peculiar  designa- 
tion :  one  is  named  the  leg-hit,  or  long  tlop,  another  the 
o/f./ii/,  a  third  the  long  field  on,  a  fourth  the  long  field  off. 
Thfir  duties  arc  to  catch  the  ball  when  eithc.  struck  or 
uiiued  by  the  batter. 

If  the  ball  be  missed  by  the  batter,  he  remains  at  his 
wicket,  and  the  ball  is  returned  by  the  long  stop  to  the 
bowler.  If  the  ball  be  struck,  and  to  such  a  distance 
thai  the  batter  thinks  he  could  run  to  the  bowling-crease, 
touching  it  with  his  bat,  and  return  to  his  popping- 
crease,  touching  it  also  before  the  ball  is  returned  and 
strikes  the  wicket,  he  does  so ,  and  if  he  perform  this 
feat  successfully,  it  is  called  cue  run,  and  counts  one 
towards  the  game.  Sometimes  he  strikes  the  ball  to 
luch  a  great  distance  that  he  can  run  to  and  fro  twice, 
in  I  this  counts  two ;  if  three  times,  it  counts  three ;  and 
i;oi.    These  are  termed  runs  or  notches, 

Should  the  bowler  knock  down  the  wicket,  the  batter 
tetircs,  and  this  finishes  his  inning.  His  inning  is  also 
Sniihed  by  the  wicket  being  knocked  down  with  a  ball 
by  any  of  the  field-keepers,  if  ho  be  off  his  ground.  The 
inning  may  likewise  befinished  if  the  batter  strikes  the 
ball  into  the  air,  and  it  be  caught  by  any  of  the  batter's 
antagonists  before  it  reaches  the  ground,  and  retained  long 
enough  to  be  thrown  up  again. 

Dnuble  IVuket,  which  is  considered  the  true  game  of 
cricket,  is  like  two  games  of  single  wicket  playing  at  one 
time,  there  beiiip  two  wickets  from  which  to  bowl ;  also 
two  batters,  but  only  one  ball.  This  game  is  played  as 
ibove,  with  this  difference,  that  the  batter  runs  only  to  the 
oppoaite  end,  exchanging  places  v  ith  the  other  batter,  who 
ij  of  the  same  party.  The  number  of  persons  engaged 
ii properly  eleven  on  each  side.  As  in  single  wicket,  the 
game  is  determined  by  the  number  of  runs  made  in  two 
innings  by  each  player ;  the  party  gaining  the  greater 
niimbcr  of  runs  being  the  victor. 

Such  is  an  outline  of  the  two  kinds  of  the  game ;  but 
there  are  many  minute  differences  in  playing  in  different 
parts  of  England,  which  it  would  be  tedious  to  describe, 
ll  has  been  conceded  by  general  consent  to  follow,  in  case 
:f  dispute,  the  laws  and  regulations  of  the  "  Mary-le-bone 
Cricket  Club,"  an  association  in  London  which  has  taken 
i  Wing  part  in  this  truly  English  sport  The  following 
in  the  Kws  of  the  club : — 

Laws  B'ld  Regulation*  of  Single  Wicket 

'I.  When  there  sHrII  l>e  fewer  thon  five  plnyer?  on  n  side, 
tioumli  shall  he  placi^d,  at  twent>Mwo yards  each,  in  aline  from 
Uie  off  anil  lee  slump. 

'S.  The  hiill  must  he  hit  before  ftie  lioundp  to  entitle  the  striker 
toanin;  which  runeannoi  be  obtained  unless  he  touch  the  bowl- 
ajsiump  or  crease  in  a  line  with  it  with  hii  bat  or  some  part 
«  his  person,  or  go  beyond  them;  returning  to  the  iroppiiig- 
WMe,  as  at  double  wickel,  according  to  the  twenly-seeond 

Vol.  I.-  89 


"3.  When  the  striker  shall  hit  the  ball,  one  of  h'S  feet  mt.4 
h<i  on  the  ground,  and  behind  the  popping-creiise,  oihurwiae  tjia 
umpire  shall  call  '  iin  hit.' 

"4.  When  there  shull  be  less  than  five  players  on  a  aii)*, 
neither  byes  nor  overthrows  shall  be  allowed ;  nor  shall  th« 
striker  lie  cauglil  out  behind  wicket,  nor  stumped  nut 

"S.  The  fielilsmi'n  must  return  the  ball,  so  iliui  it  shall  crosa 
the  niny  between  the  wickel  and  the  bowling  mump,  or  betwesa 
the  bowling  stump  and  the  bounds.  The  striker  muy  run  till  tb* 
ball  bo  so  returned. 

"  U.  Alter  the  sinker  has  made  one  run,  he  must  touch  tb« 
bowling  stump  and  turn,  before  the  ball  shull  cru8s  the  pluy,  la 
enlilli!  him  to  another. 

'•  7.  The  striker  shall  be  entitled  to  three  runs  for  lost  ball,  ant 
the  same  number  for  bull  stopped  with  hul.  wiih  reference  toiha 
Iwenty-ninih  and  thirty-fourth  law  of  double  wickel 

"  H.  When  there  shall  bo  more  than  lour  players  on  a  side, 
there  shull  be  nu  bounds  All  hits,  byes,  and  ovi-'lhrows,  will 
then  be  allowed. 

"  I).  The  bowler  is  subicct  to  the  same  laws  as  at  double  wicket 

"  to.  Not  more  limn  one  minute  shall  be  allowi'il  betweeN 
each  ball. 

"  Laws  and  regulations  of  Double  Wicket. 

"  1.  The  boll  must  not  weigh  less  than  five  ounces  and  • 
half,  nor  more  than  five  ounces  and  three  quaiters.  1 1  must  not 
measure  less  than  nine  inches,  nor  more  thun  nine  inches  ami 
one-eighth  in  circumference.  At  the  beginnlni;  of  luili  i-iiuings, 
either  parly  may  call  for  a  new  ball.  (liul  in  matches  the  sama 
ball  must  go  through  the  game.) 

"  2.  The  bat  must  not  exceed  four  Inches  and  one  tjuartcr  in 
the  widest  port;  it  must  not  be  more  than  thirty-eiglil  inches  in 
length. 

'•  U.  The  stumps,  three  to  each  wicket,  must  be  twenty-seven 
inches  out  of  the  ground,  the  bails  eight  in  lenijih  ;  the  stumps 
of  sulPcicnt  thickness  lo  prevent  iho  ball  from  pii.isiiig  ihrougl. 

"4.  The  bowling-crease  mu.st  be  in  a  line  with  the  slumps,  fii 
feel  eight  inches  in  leiiglb  ;  the  stumps  in  ihe  centre,  with  I"  tC' 
turn  crease  at  each  end  towards  the  bowler,  at  right  angles. 

"  5.  The  popping-crease  inusi  be  four  feet  four  inches  irom  tha 
wicket,  and  parallel  to  it ;  unlimitled  in  length,  but  not  shorter 
than  the  bowting-creose. 

"B.  The  wickets  must  be  pitched  opposite  lo  each  other  by 
the  umpiren.  at  a  distance  of  twenty-two  yards. 

"  7.  It  shaU  not  be  lawful  lor  either  party  during  a  match,  with« 
out  the  consent  of  ihe  oihcr.  to  niter  the  ground  by  rolling,  wa- 
tering, covering,  mowing,  or  beating.  This  rule  is  not  meant 
to  prevent  tlie  striker  from  beating  the  ground  with  his  bat  near 
to  the  spot  where  he  stands  during  the  innings,  nor  to  prevent 
the  bowler  from  filling  up  holes  with  saw-dust,  &c.,  wlieu  tli« 
ground  shall  be  wet. 

"  8.  Alter  ratn,  the  wickets  may  be  changed,  with  the  conseat 
of  both  parlies 

'•U.  The  bowler  shall  deliver  the  ball  with  one  foot  behind 
the  bowliiig-crense,  and  shall  bowl  four  balls  before  he  changa 
wickets,  w'hich  he  shall  be  permitted  to  do  once  only  in  tE« 
same  innings 

"  10.  The  ball  must  be  bowled.  If  it  be  thrown  or  jerked,  or 
if  Ihe  hand  be  above  the  shoulder  in  the  delivery,  the  umpire 
must  call  ■  no  ball.'  (This  is  not  reckoned  as  one  of  tlie  lour 
balls.) 

'■  11.  The  bowler  may  require  the  striker  at  the  wicket  from 
which  he  is  bowling  to  stand  on  that  side  of  it  which  he  mz.j 
direct. 

"  1*2.  If  the  bowler  toss  the  ball  over  the  striker's  head,  or 
bowl  it  so  wide  that  it  shall  be  out  of  distance  to  be  playctl  nt, 
the  umpire  (even  though  he  attempt  to  hit)  shall  adjudge  one 
run  to  the  parlies  receiving  the  innings,  either  with  or  without 
an  appeal  I'rom  them,  which  shall  be  put  down  to  the  score  of 
wide  linlls,  and  such  ball  shall  not  be  reckoned  as  any  of  tha 
four  balls.  When  Ihe  umpire  shall  have  called  'Wide  ball' on* 
run  only  shall  be  reckoned,  and  the  ball  shall  be  considered  dead. 

"13.  If  the  bowler  shall  deliver  a  'no  ball,'  tlie  striker  may 
play  at  it,  and  be  allowed  as  many  runs  as  he  can  get ;  and  ha 
shall  not  be  put  out  except  by  running  out.  In  the  t«rcnt  o(  no 
run  be  ng  obtained  by  any  other  means,  then  one  run  shall  ba 
scored. 

"14.  In  the  event  of  a  change  of  bowling,  no  more  tlian  tw» 
balls  nhall  be  allowed  for  the  sake  of  pructicc. 

"  15.  If  Uic  bowler  bowl  one  ball,  he  shall  be  obliged  to  bowl 
four. 

'•  10.  The  striker  is  out  if  either  of  the  balls  be  bowled  off,  oi 
if  a  stump  be  bowled  out  of  the  ground. 

"17.  Or  if  the  ball. from  astroke  of  the  bnt  or  hand  below  tha 
wrist,  be  held  before  it  touch  the  ground,  although  it  be  hugged 
to  the  body  of  the  eutcher. 

"IH.  Or  if  in  .>itr.k;ng.  or  at  any  other  time  while  the  ball  is 
in  play,  both  h.s  feet  be  over  the  popping-crease,  and  his  wicket 
^ul  down,  except  his  but  be  grounded  within  it. 

"  lU.  Or  if  in  sinking  at  the  ball  he  hit  down  his  wicket. 

"20.  Or  it',  under  pretence  of  running  or  otherwise,  cither  of 
the  strikers  prevent  a  bull  I'rom  being  caught,  the  sinker  of  the 
ball  IS  out. 

■'•Jl.  Or  if  the  ball  be  struck,  ond  he  wilfully  strike  it  again. 

•'2'2.  Or  if  in  funning,  the  wicket  be  struck  down  by  a  throw 
or  by  the  bund  or  uriu  iwith  bull  in  hand)  belbre  his  bat  (in 
hand)or  some  part  of  h:s  person  be  grounded  over  his  popping- 
crease.  llut  il  th"  bails  be  off,  a  stump  must  be  struck  out  of 
the  ground. 

'".'y.  Or  if  any  part  of  the  striker's  dresi  kncck  down  th« 
wickel  when  striking. 

"'.14.  Or  if  the  smker  touch  or  take  up  the  ba  srhile  la  pla|' 
uoleu  at  the  reqtnist  of  the  opposite  party. 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


"123.  Or  if  with  any  port  orhii  parton  ho  mop  the  ball,  which 
In  llin  opiiiinii  i>r  iKh  unip:rn  al  the  l>->wlcr'ii  wickut  •hull  huve 
Wii'ii  d«l>vi'rfl>l  in  a  •triiight  liiiu  u  Ihu  •trikur'rt  wic^kei,  anil 
would  hitvu  hit  A. 

'".'<l.  It'  the  pinyura  have  croaied  each  olhor,  he  that  run*  Ibr 
liin  wicket  wliirli  ii  piil  down  ia  out. 

"'/7.  A  linll  bi'iiiK  I'ttUffht,  no  run  ihall  be  reckoned. 

'"■it.  It  a  Most  liuTr  lie  called,  the  atrikur  dIihII  be  allowed  aiz 
ntna;  but  if  mure  than  aix  ahnll  huve  been  run  bei'oro'loat 
hnir  ahull  have  been  called,  then  tlie  striker  aliall  hare  all 
which  ahull  have  been  run. 

■".'U  Al^er  the  ball  ahull  have  been  lodged  and  definitively 
•I'ltbd  n  the  wirket-keeiiBr'i«  or  bowler'a  hand,  it  abnll  he  eon- 
i.ilere.1  dead.  If,  when  tlie  liuwler  la  ibout  to  deliver  the  ball, 
the  striker  at  hia  wicket  ahull  go  outaide  hia  popping-erenae  be- 
fore aiieh  ucluul  deliverv.  the  auid  howler  iniiy  put  liiin  out. 

•"M.  If  the  airiker  be  hurt,  he  may  retire  from  hit  wicket,  and 
return  to  it  ul  iniy  time  during  tliui  innings. 

"  :il.  If  H  air  ker  be  hurl,  aome  other  person  may  aland  out  for 
«iin,  but  not  go  in. 

"■K.  No  substitute  in  ihe  field  ahnll  be  allowed  ti>  bnwl,  keep 
wicl:et,  alund  ut  point,  cover  the  point,  or  slop  heliind,  in  any 
cuse. 

"  M.  ir  any  fieldsman  slop  the  ball  wth  his  hat.  the  hull  ahnll 
be  eoiiKidered  ileiid,  and  the  npiioftiie  piirty  shall  ndd  five  runs 
•o  their  score.     If  any  be  run.  they  shall  linve  five  in  nil. 

'•'■A.  The  ball  having  been  hit,  the  striker  may  gourd  his 
wicket  with  his  hut.  or  with  uny  part  of  his  body,  except  his 
.land ;  but  the  twenty-fourth  law.  by  which  he  is  forbidden  to 
touch  or  lake  up  the  ball,  may  not  be  diiiobeyed. 

^'iCt.  'I'lie  wicket-keeper  shull  no^  take  the  bull  for  the  purpose 
jf  stumping,  until  it  has  passed  the  wicket.  He  shull  stand  ut 
■  reaaonr.ble  distance  behind  the  wicket,  nad  shall    not  inov 


preceding  iliagrain   repreacnU  the  field  j„,j^ 
t  miitcli,  with  tho  proper  poaition  of  the  outtH 


PaitlM 


1.11  the  l>all  be  out  of  the  bowh-r's  hitnd  ;  he  ahull  not  by  nity 

t  of  bis  pers4in  be 
1  hit  it,  the  striker 


noi»u  incounnode  the  striker;  und  if  uny  iiurt  of  bis  perwin  In 
over  or  before  the  wicket,  although  the  bu 


thull  not  ho  out. 

'UU.  I'he  umpires  shall  not  stand  more  than  six  vards  from 
tho  wnketi  Ibey  arc  sole  judges  of  lair  and  unfair  play,  uiil  nil 
disputes  shall  be  determined  t>y  them,  each  at  his  own  wicket : 
but  Ml  case  of  a  ca'ch  which  the  umpire  ut  tlie  wicket  bowled 
from  cannot  see  sulhciently  to  decide  upon,  he  may  apply  to  the 
oilier  iimnire,  whose  opiiroii  shull  be  ccuiclusive. 

"U7.  'liie  umpires  in  all  inutelies  shall  pilch  lair  vickets.  and 
the  parties  shull  loss  up  for  the  choice  of  innings. 

",W.  They  shall  ullow  two  minutes  for  the  striker  to  come  in. 
•lul  fll'ieen  miuules  between  eneh  innings.  When  the  umpire 
■hall  call  'play.'  the  party  refusing  io  piny  shull  lose  the  innlch. 

"^til.  They  are  not  to  order  a  striker-out,  uidess  appealed  to 
ty  the  adversaries. 

"id.  Hut  if  one  of  the  bowler's  feet  be  not  entirely  behind 
the  bowling-crenae,  within  the  retuin-crease.  when  lie  shull 
deliver  the  ball,  the  umpire  at  hii  wicket,  unasked,  niurt  call 
•no  bull.' 

"41.  If,  in  running,  either  of  the  strikers  shall  full  to  ground 
his  bat  (in  hand)  or  some  part  of  his  person  over  the  popping- 
crease,  the  umpire  for  every  such  failuri;  shall  deduct  two  runs 
from  the  number  intendeil  to  have  been  run:  because  such 
sinker  not  having  run  ligmr  in  the  first  instance,  cannot  have 
■laried  in  the  second  from  the  proper  goal. 

"4;!.  No  Uiii^ire  shall  be  allowed  to  bet. 

"  4.!.  .\o  umpire  is  to  be  changed  iliiiing  a  match,  unless  with 
the  consent  of^  both  parlies,  except  in  case  of  .a  violation  of  the 
lurty-second  law;  then  either  parly  may  dismisa  the  trans- 
gressor. 

"44.  After  the  deliNery  of  four  balls,  the  umpire  shall  cull 
'over,'  hut  not  until  the  ball  shull  be  lodged  und  definitively  settled 
iu  the  wicket-keeper's  or  bowler's  hand;  the  ball  shall  then  bo 
considered  dead.  Nevertlielesa.  if  an  idea  be  entertained  that 
Hlher  of  the  strikers  is  out.  aiiiiestion  must  be  put  previously 
A,  but  not  aAer.  the  delivery  of  the  next  bell. 

"45.  Tlic  umpire  must  take  especial  care  to  rail  'no  ball' 
instantly  upon  delivery;  'wide  ball' as  soon  aa  ever  it  shall 
p«a*  the  striker." 


Name*  of  ralie*  indioated  by  the  figure* — *.  Striken;  1 
ftewler;  8,  wickM-keeper;  3,  Ix>iig  Stop;  4.  Short  Slip;  3 
1  ona  Slip;  fl. Point:  7.  Cover;  8.  Middle  Wicket;  9.  Ix»ng 
I'  eld.  olT  side;  10,  liong  Field,  on  side;  U.  I^eg;  O.  Umpires; 
t*  Scorers.  This  is  the  usual  placing  of  the  field-men.  but 
llowlers  make  such  aJterati;>iu  as  lliey  dceia  best  Io  op|H>ae 
«iM  Stiikeri. 


The 
•  cricket 
playing,  alim  tlie  tecliiiictti  iianiea  of  tltvae  partita, 

BOWLS. 

GatncH  with  bowla  are  ot  great  antiquity,»and  biw 
cxisti-tl  in  many  (liflTorciit  forma.  That  which  has  uli 
mut«!iy  Ihtoiiic  tho  pro|H)r  Engliah  gumo  of  bowljiij.  b 
performed  with  littiia  of  fine  hard  wood  on  a  smoolh 
ahaven  lawn  calli'd  a  liowtinK-green.  'I'hore  are  two 
partioa,  and  each  individual  imisschhcs  a  bowl.  One  of 
each  party  piny  a  niternutely.  'l"he  object  ia  to  c'olivcrlhj 
ball  from  tho  hand  along  the  atirfure  of  the  green,  and 
in  such  a  manner  oh  to  place  it  eloau  by  un  appointed 
mark.  The  party  which  first  gains  the  "iiecified  iiumbei 
of  pointb,  by  being  nearest  the  goal,  in  victor.  The  goaj 
or  object  played  to  is  a  small  ball  called  the  jartc,  l(|, 
nut  fixed  ufxin  any  particular  spot,  but  is  bowled  by  («■ 
of  the  party  to  a  certain  diHtanrc. 

A  bowling-green  retjuircs  to  be  remarkably  love!,  and 
kept  closely  shaved  by  the  scythe.  Tho  length  of  span 
played  in,  called  sonietitnea  a  riyik,  may  be  about  thirtr 
yards.  The  balls  are  not  altogether  spherical ;  they  m 
spheroids,  or  llattish  on  two  opposite  sides.  They  u 
usually  made  of  lif;niim  vila,  ami  are  sometimes  hand, 
somely  mounted  with  silver  plates  on  tho  sides,  beirlnii 
the  names  or  arms  of  tho  owners.  The  size  varies  fron 
about  four  to  six  inches  in  diameter. 

A  knowledge  of  the  value  of  forces,  which  can  bt 
gained  only  by  ex|)cricncc,  is  necessary  in  bowling;  but 
a  not  less  important  requisite  is  a  knowledge  of  the  ut 
of  giving  a  bias  to  the  bowl.  A  person  skilled  in  thii 
art  will,  by  a  peculiar  pressure  of  the  fingers  in  dulivtv 
ing  his  ball,  cause  it  to  roll  in  a  kind  of  semicircle,  n 
as  to  go  with  a  sweep  round  the  clusters  of  bulls  b  front 
of  the  jack,  and  come  to  its  place  of  rest  close  by  Ibi 
jack  or  goal. 

The  game  is  healthful  and  exhilarating,  and,  played 
in  moderation,  seems  well  adapted  for  the  recreation  of 
sedentary  persons.  In  many  towns  in  England  and 
Scotland  there  are  !)eautif\]l  bowling-greens,  the  property 
of  the  citizens  at  large,  or  maintuin'Hl  by  private  clut* 
In  Glasgow  there  arc  several  l)owling  clubs,  and  the  h\ 
h)wing  arc  a  fow  of  the  reguliitions  laid  down  for  thr 
game  by  a  most  respectable  as80<'iation  in  that  city,  niuiiM 
ly,  the  "  Wellcroft  Bowling  Club  :"— 

Refulnlions  for  Bowls. 

"Thegume  to  consist  of  nine  points,  unless  olherwi»(>  smsj; 
and  the  throwing  of  the  jack  and  playing  first  to  be  decided  by 
lot. 

'•If  the  jack  is  thrown  into  the  ditch  on  any  occasion  aflri 
the  first  throw,  the  opposite  party  have  the  privilege  of  ihrow' 
ing  it  anew,  and  not  afterwards  moved  if  three  feet  clear  ot'lht 
ditch  in  front  of  the  pi  i  vers.  This  rule  luii  Io  apply  Io  the  t,i» 
ditch,  from  which  the  nick  must  be  suiriciently  disiant  loalkit 
both  fore  and  back  he  ,id  play, 

"  All  players,  whe  i  throwing  iheir  bowl,  to  have  ons  footoo 
the  aftermost  white  mil  marked  on  the  cloth;  the  positiono/ 
the  cloth  not  to  be  r  iianged  during  an  end  ;  anr  if  by  ac.''(lsiil 
removed  from  its  si  .nation,  to  be  placed  as  near  as  pustiblcto 
the  same  spot. 

"  A  bowl  touching  the  jack  at  any  time  during  its  course  on 
the  green,  is  what  is  calbd  a  toucher,  and  counts  the  lameu 
an/  other  bowl,  though  in  the  ditch. 

"If  the  jack,  or  bowl  alter  touching  the  jack,  is  run  into  the 
ditch,  the  place  where  cither  rests  may  be.  nmrkeil,  the  jark 
placed  at  the  eilge  of  the  ditch,  and  both  replaced  when  ll» 
end  is  played  out. 

"  If  the  jack  is  hurnol.  or  displace.!  olhcrA-ise  than  by  lu 
effect  of  the  play,  the  opposite  party  lo  have  the  option  ol'pliy- 
ing  out  the  end,  or  beginning  it  anew. 

'•When  a  D.wl  is  burn  mI,  if  belonging  to  the  parly  guilty,  il 
is  to  he  put  off  the  ffcn .  if  l.elo-iging  to  the  opposite  party. » 
be  replaced  us  neur  its  original  position  as  possible  by  IM 
parly  to  whom  it  belongs.  If  the  jack  is  burned  by  a  noi> 
player,  the  end  lo  be  played  0"ei  ai:ain.  , 

"If  a  bowl  is  aecid'Mitally  iiaired  by  an  opponent,  it  shall  m 
in  the  option  of  the  puny  playing  to  let  it  rest,  or  play  Horn 
again :  if  it  is  marred  willingly  »y  an  opponent,  it  niny  M 
placed  anywhere,  at  the  pleasure  Of  Ihe  player.  If  a  bowl  ii 
marred  in  either  case  by  the  player'*  party,  the  oppouenU  H 
have  the  same  piivilege. 

"If  a  bowl  (without  touching  the  jack)  rebounds  from  IM 
ditch,  it  shall  be  pul  oiT  the  green ;  and  if  il  hn  disiurbed  eiiM' 


GOLP. 


Ml  or  hotrli,  they  ahall  be  ,  aplaped  ai  near  ■■  puiiible  by  the 
Jppoiifnt'i  iiarty. 
"  Afii'T  ""  ""''  i'  Pl»ye(l.  neither  jack  nor  bowU  to  be  tniirhed 


And  no 


I  during  the  game  ;  the  party 


entii  llx'  D^'te  !•  counted  and  ail  partial  laliafled 
ntasiiririK  nil  the  end  ia  played. 

"No  pinyer  to  olianfta  hii  bowli 
rtoing  «o  lo»"»  the  game.'* 

ootr. 

Tho  game  of  golf  is  believrd  to  be  peculiar  to  Scot- 
lint!,  tliDUKli  moet  likely  derived  from  (Jcrinnny ;  the 
tffiu  li"//"  iH^itiK  from  tho  Oorman  word  hilhv,  or  tho 
Dutch  kolf,  a  dull.  Tho  popular  pronunciation  of  the 
Scotcli  word  18  ii"Jf,  or  K"irf.  Strutt,  in  hii  "  Sports 
mil  I'lwtiincg  of  tho  People  of  England,"  observen  !'■ 
'thee  are  many  gnmca  played  with  the  ball,  that  require 
the  aiifiiituncn  of  a  club  or  bat,  and  probably  tho  moat 
m.'icnt  iiiiiong  them  ia  tho  puHtimo  now  diMtinRuiHhed  by 
Ihe  name  of  KoH".  In  the  northern  part  of  the  kingdom 
^IT  it)  Miiich  practiHod.  It  answers  to  a  rustic  pastime 
of  the  RoiTiiins,  which  they  played  with  a  ball  of  leather 
rtulfeJ  with  fei"licrs.  and  the  gofT-hall  is  comiKised  of  the 
Mmo  m.ileriiilH  to  this  day.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  III., 
ihi:  Latin  nami  mmlmra  wag  applied  to  this  pastime,  and 
it  derived  the  denomination,  no  doubt,  from  tiie  crocked 
club  or  iiut  with  which  it  was  pliiycd." 

It  stiuns  to  be  tjuite  uncertain  at  what  period  the  game 
if  golf  wiiii  uitroduced  into  Scotland  ;  but  it  moy  he 
fairly  ;;<rctiUincd  that  this  amusement,  as  well  as  football 
and  nrchcry,  were  practised  to  a  considerable  extent  in 
Ihe  reign  of  our  King  James  the  First 

King  Charles  I.  was  much  attached  to  the  amusement 
of  golliiig,  and,  on  his  visit  to  Scotland  in  1 04 1 ,  was 
engagetl  in  it  on  Lcith  Links  when  intimation  was  given 
Uiii  of  the  rebellion  in  Ireland ;  whereupon  lie  threw 
down  Ills  club,  and  returned  in  great  agitat'on  to  Holy- 
toad  House.  The  Duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  11., 
liso  dt'ljghttid  in  the  game. 

Golf  is  played  upon  a  large  piece  of  open  ground, 
covered  witii  short  herbage,  but  not  necessarily  level.  It 
ia  considered  that  skill  is  best  sho'vn  by  playing  over  a 
lutface  on  which  there  are  certain  irregularities  or  hnzardt. 
The  grounds  on  which  the  game  is  played  are  called  linkr, 
i  term  nearly  equivalent  to  downs  in  England.  The 
open  downs  of  Dluckhoath,  near  Greenwich,  seem  a 
filir  specltiicn  of  the  kind  of  ground  suitable  for  the  sport, 
and  there  we  lielievc  it  is  now  played.  Bruntsflcld 
Links,  a  common  near  Edinburgh,  slope  somewhat,  and 
are  irregular  in  form,  hut  they  aflbrd  a  fine  opportunity 
of  showing  skill  in  playing  "  up  and  down  the  green,"  a 
greater  forcu  being  required  in  strokes  in  impelling  the 
ball  in  one  direction  than  in  another. 

Golf  is  entitled  to  b«  called  a  "respectable"  game.  It 
ia  pliyed  almost  exclusively  by  gentlemen,  and  is  con- 
ducted leisurely  and  without  any  appearance  of  boister- 
ouBness.  A  stranger  would  call  it  a  spintless  sport,  little 
better  than  walking.  It  possesses,  however,  the  usual 
fucination  of  a  game  of  skill  and  chance,  and  might 
appropriately  be  compared  to  billiards — the  table  being  a 
green  of  a  mile  in  length,  the  billiard  rods  clubs,  the 
balls,  instead  of  ivory,  hard  stuffed  leather,  and  the  puraee 
hotea  in  the  ground. 

Golfs  are  formed  of  wood.  The  handle,  which  is 
itraight,  is  generally  about  four  and  a  half  feet  long,  and 
made  of  ash  or  hickory.  To  the  lower  part  of  this  stolk 
ia  united,  by  compact  tying,  a  fiattish  curved  en.l,  which  is 
the  striking  part ;  it  ia  faced  with  horn,  and  to  give  force 
ia  loaded  with  lead.  To  give  a  hold  to  the  hands,  the 
tipper  extremity  of  the  stalk  is  wrapped  with  a  rind  of 
cloth.  In  regular  practice,  players  use  several  golfs. 
Each  has  his  set  of  three,  four,  live,  or  even  as  many  aa 
ten,  which  is  carried  by  an  attendant  boy  called  a  cadie; 
Hid  from  this  sot  the  golf  appropriate  for  the  stroke  is 
■elected.  Sometimes  the  b>ill  lies  fairly  on  the  grass,  at 
othri  times  it  may  have  got  into  a  hollow,  or  behind  a 
Mono  or  bush,  and  an  instrument  best  adapted  for  sentling 


it  forward,  or  lifting  it  fi'om  its  hazard  or  awkward  situs* 
tion,  ia  in  requisition.  One  of  the  golfs  ia  technically 
culled  tho  »,)(i(m,  from  its  use  in  lining  the  ball  from  hot- 
lows  ;  another  is  culled  tho  iron ;  and  so  on. 

The  ball  is  siimll,  Ixing  not  more  than  an  inch  and  ■ 
half  in  diameter ;  it  ia  made  of  leather,  sIuIIcmI  almost  ■• 
hard  as  a  stone  with  feathers ;  tho  outside  ia  smooth,  and 
painted  white.  At  Edinburgh  and  St.  Andrews,  tba 
muking  of  golfs  and  balls  is  a  regular  profession. 

There  are  generally  two  players,  one  matched  against 
the  other.  Each  .las  his  own  ball.  Tho  game  consiita 
in  driving  the  ball  into  certain  holes  made  in  tho  ground, 
vhich  he  who  nchievca  in  the  fewest  strokes  obtains  th« 
victory.  When  four  persons  play,  two  of  them  aw 
sometimeH'  partners,  and  have  but  one  ball,  which  they 
strike  ollcrnately.  The  holes  arc  situated  at  the  difTorent 
ends  and  sides  of  the  green,  at  irregular  distances,  and 
their  number  is  optional.  The  usual  number  is  five.  A 
player  must  never  touch  his  ball,  unless  in  very  particu 
lar  circumstnnces,  or  when 
he  takes  it  out  of  one  of 
the  holes.  When  com- 
iiioncing  from  a  hole,  the 
bull  may  be  cogged  up  or. 
the  point  of  a  ilot  of  mud 
or  turf,  to  allow  of  a  com- 
manding stroke ;  and  this 
is  called  leeinf;  tho  ball ; 
but  on  all  other  orcasions 
the  ball  must  be  struck  or 
impelled  by  the  golf  from 
the  place  in  which  it  hap- 
pens to  lie.  Much  depends 
on  the  first  blow,  and  it 
should  be  given  with  great 
firmness  of  |)crson  und  a  good  aim.  Pro|>erly  performed, 
the  first  stroke  will  Rend  the  ball  two  hundred  yard% 
while  at  other  times  a  blow  in  an  awkward  situation  will 
advance  it  only  a  few  feet  When  tho  balls  at  length 
get  near  a  hole,  great  skill  is  shown  in  putting  or  giv> 
iiig  those  delicate  strokes  which  will  not  make  the  ball 
go  beyond  the  hole,  but  if  possible  into  it  A  know- 
ledge of  the  value  of  forces,  the  nature  of  the  green,  tha 
influence  of  wind  or  weather,  &c.,  is  important  in  this 
and  all  other  parts  of  tho  game,  and  is  only  to  be  gained 
by  long  experience. 

At  Edinburgh,  Leith,  Musselburgh,  St.  Andrews,  Perth, 
and  perhaps  some  other  towns,  there  are  associations  or 
clubs  of  golfers,  whose  proceedings  are  goveriied  by  cei^ 
tain  laws  and  regulations.  Tho  oldest  in  Edinburgh  b>« 
the  "  Edinburgh  Burgess"  and  "  Brunt^field  Links" 
Golfing  Societies.  The  Bruntsfield  Links  Society  waa 
instituted  in  1761,  and  is  limited  to  forty  members,  tha 
uniform  of  which  is  declared  "to  be  a  red  jacket  with 
green  velvet  collar  and  badge,  bearing  the  arms  of  tha 
society ;  namely,  vert  two  golf  clubs  in  saltier,  with  head* 
in  chief  proper,  between  four  golf-balls  argent:  motto  ut 
nn  escroli  below  the  shield,  Jnde  Siiliu  (Thence  Health). 
The  affairs  of  tho  Society  are  managed  by  a  captai^ 
treasurer,  secretary,  and  six  councillors,  elected  annually 
A  gold  medal,  played  for  annually  on  the  last  Saturday 
of  March,  is  retained  by  the  winner  for  one  year.  A 
silver  medal,  played  for  annually  on  the  last  Saturday  of 
September,  is  retained  by  the  winner  as  his  property. 
The  following  are  the  regulations  prescribed  by  the  M^ 
ciety  for  playing  the  game: — 

'•1.  No  golfer,  or  cadie,  to  be  allowed  to  dig  tee  within  tea 
yards  of  the  hole,  and  no  bull  lobe  teed  nearer  tlio  hole  than  twa 
club  lengths,  nor  furiher  rrom  it  thuii  four,  unless  by  conkent 
of  parliei,  end  the  bnll  to  be  leed  on  the  ground. 

■'2.  Two  or  more  ponies  meeting  at  the  hole,  the  party  w)i«» 
plays  6rst  to  be  allowed  to  |)loy  their  second  strokes  bel'ore  tha 
succeeding  parly  strikes  on.  But  should  the  first  pnriy'a  ball 
be  in  a  hazard,  that  pnriy  shnll  allow  the  aecond  party  to 
pnss. 

"  3.  Kvery  hnli:  niisi  be  played  out  with  the  aame  ball  tliM 
ia  airuck  from  the  ce. 


7M 


INFORMATION    POR  THE   PKOPLR. 


*'  4  All  )ont«  •ilrki.  ulnnrfi,  Alili,  iiiilinnrn.  or  <)llii>r  mnvalila 
tmcmliinrnli,  inny  tm  ramiivBil,  il  wiitun  oiiii  cliih  li'iijiili  of  ihe 
oall .  unci  in  iiuliiiig,  all  iimv«l)lo  nlmniciioin  niny  Im  rrinnvrtl 
Wclhiii  four  rliih  IriiKlha  oi'  lliti  hcilii— ihn  ilnlniicw  lo  bf  ini'H- 
•urncl  wiih  th«  pIuIi  which  Ihn  pnriy  i»  lo  play  with.  In  lh« 
•  vr»'  of  ■  lioll  KnOiiifl  mio  *  holn,  or  »iiy  olhi'r  hn/nril,  Ihe  pnrly 
thai  III-  KlIuwiTil  lo  iiikii  il  out.  mill  mniuliiiK  iiiiiiii-iliiiuilv  lnOiinil 
tht  iin/Bni,  drop  it  over  hi«  ■hoiilil<  r,  uiiil  piny  it,  loaiiiK  a 
•Irak*. 

'•i.  No  hols  il  gsinml  unlcM  the  hall  Im  holnl  («iPi-pi  by  eon- 
•oni  of  pariiflil.  »n<l  ii  puny  loiinv  hn  hall  limi'i  llix  holiv 

"tl  III  mu  of  doulil  ii»  t<i  Ihr  hnll  heliinRnif  lo  riihf  pnrty, 
■eithor  hull  ihiill  \>i  lill>-<l  iiiili'm  liy  roimi'iil  nf  pitrliva,  aii.^  Oitt 
bAil  ikrlhti«t  t'roiii  ihn  holo  iiimhI  Im  nluyt-il  hri«i. 

^'7.  If  a  ball  Itr  mriirk  or  iiiovrd  l>y  iiii)'  oiui  iinl  of  the  party, 
II  •hull  bs  hroutfht  bark  nml  playcil  iroin  wln-rti  it  wn>  ao 
■truck  ur  moved,  Ihn  pnrty  prcvioualy  ilroppiiiK  it  ovi-r  hii 
ahoiildpr. 

'•  •<.  In  a  inntrh  of  niori-  ihiin  two  plnyiTu,  if  a  Imll  bf  atriirk 
IwirH  or  olluiier.  lunceisively  by  one  pluyt'r,  tlintamde  of  the 
mnirh  lox'D  the  hole. 

"9  If  a  party  play  the  advi"r«Bry'«  linll.  the  ndvrriiary  (jnin« 
the  hnlf. 

•'  HI.  If  a  pnrtjr  perMinnlly.  or  by  hit  cndii^,  mop  or  touch  any 
ball  of  the  nintrii,  the  ndvcriury  Kiiiim  ibi'  holf. 

••  II.  If  a  ball  utick  limt  into  thi'  itrnnnil,  il  limy  be  loox-neil. 

"  !9.  Ill  playing  for  nnit-a.  no  conipi'iiiioM  to  be  nllowd  uiilcii 
the  partu't  be  dreMed  in  the  uiiiliirin  of  Ihi^  nocieiy. 

''  i:i.  In  putlinKithe  ball,  if  praiiienble.  ahull  be  pinyed  directly 
for  the  hole,  bin  if  the  advirKnry'a  ball  oppoie  the  player,  it 
•liall  he  lawful  to  play  upon  it." 

Enlhusiaotir  and  long-cxprrioncrd  rultivators  of  }fn\{ 
at  Eilinburifh  have  been  known  to  iiorform  aoine  re- 
markable fenlM  in  their  favourite  uport.  "  Hct«  of  n  no- 
vel nature,  ^vhich  let  the  ordinary  routine  of  tlie  Riime 
entirely  aside,  are  occaaionnlly  undertaken  by  Ihe  more 
atliletic.  An  amusinf;  and  dilTieult  feiit,  aomeliinefi  at- 
tempted from  Bruntsfield  liinka,  U  thiit  of  driving  the 
bull  to  the  top  of  Arthur's  Sent  [o  hill  800  feet  hi«h.] 
In  thia  fiiti;(uing  undortakinq,  beini;  a  xpeciea  of  Mteeple- 
cbaac  over  hedge*  and  ditches,  the  parties  are  usually 
followed  by  bottle-holdera  and  other  attendants,  denoting 
the  exressivo  exertion  required.  In  1798,  liels  wtre 
taken  in  the  Bur;;es8  Golfing  Society  thiit  no  two  mem- 
bera  could  be  found  capable  of  driving  a  ball  over  the 
■pirc  of  St.  Giles's  steeple.  The  late  Mr.  Scenles  of 
Leith,  and  the  present  Mr.  Smellie,  printer,  were  wiected 
to  perform  thia  formidable  undertaking.  They  were 
allowed  to  use  six  balls  each.  The  balls  passet)  consi- 
derably higher  than  the  weathercock,  and  were  found 
nearly  opposite  the  Advocate's  Close.  T'  o  bet  was  de- 
cided early  in  the  morning,  in  case  of  accident,  the  par- 
lies taking  their  station  at  the  south-cast  corner  of  the 
Parliament  Square.  The  feat  is  descriU'd  as  one  of 
easy  performance.  The  re4|uircd  elevation  was  obtained 
by  a  barrel-itave  Buit^bly  fixed ;  and  the  height  of  the 
■tecple,  which  is  one  hundred  and  sixty-one  feet,  together 
with  the  distance  from  the  base  of  the  rhurch,  were  found 
to  be  much  lea*  than  a  good  stroke  of  the  club."* 

■HIKTT — KUM.ltia, 

'  Rhinty  in  Scotland,  Hockey  in  llngland,  and  Huriing 
fo  Ireland,  appear  to  be  very  much  the  same  out-of-door 
(port.  We  shall  describe  shinty : — Two  parties  armed 
frith  sticks  or  clubs  crooked  at  the  lower  extremity,  and 
generally  termed  tfowffi  (golfs),  throw  down  a  little  ball 
of  wood,  called  a  thinly,  midway  between  two  points, 
and  the  struggle  is,  which  party  will  drive  the  ball  t* 
their  «hail,"  as  it  is  called,  or  the  point  allotted  as  the'r 
ijoil.  It  may  be  guessed  by  those  who  have  never  set  n 
It,  that  there  is  smart  smashing  work  at  this  game  of 
shinty— most  appropriately  named  so,  seeing  that  the 
shins  of  the  players  are  exposed  to  ticklish  cracks  from 
the  cluha  of  their  opponents  when  a  lock  takes  place,  and 
a  dozen  boys,  perhaps,  are  struggling  to  get  the  ball  out 
from  among  e4u:h  other's  feet.  Hard  though  the  hall  be, 
and  smart  the  strokes  given,  the  activity  and  quick  eyes 
of  the  playen  usually  prevent  any  great  injury  from  be- 
ing received  at  shinty.  By  far  the  most  serious  mischief 
lAmmonly  reaulling  trom  it  contisia  in  the  damage  which 

•  Biofraphical  iketehes  of  "  Kay's  Poruaits." 


it  brings  upon  the  neighbouring  hawthorn  heil|{ni,  «|>i^ 
are  sadly  cut  to  pieces  in  order  lo  provide  rlnln  for  ika 
sport.  'I'hr.  worst  of  it  is  that  young  hawtlmtn  alip. 
with  the  root  cut  for  the  striking  part,  iniikc  by  h,  ^. 
best  clubs,  and  aerordingly  the  evil  done  is  tsditalh 
ruinous  to  the  unlortuiiule  hedgerows. 

Hurling  is  alluded  to  as  fiillows  by  Mr.  anil  Mra.  HiU 
in  their  work  on  Ireland  : — "  The  great  game  in  Kerr/ 
and  indriHl  throughout  llin  Houth,  is  the  game  of  >  HuJ 
ley ' — a  game  rather  rare,  although  not  unknown,  in 
England.  It  is  a  tine  manly  exerelso,  with  enouiih  of 
danger  to  prmluco  excitement,  and  is,  indeed,  icn  (j..,(. 
tetin;  the  game  of  the  |MMi«ntitry  of  Ireland.  To  be  an 
ox|)ert  hurler,  a  man  must  possess  athletic  power*  nrno 
ordinary  character;  he  inust  have  a  quick  eye,  a  ready 
hand,  and  a  strong  arm;  ho  must  bo  a  good  runner, « 
skilful  wri'Stler,  and  withal  patient  as  well  as  reaDluto, 
In  some  respect.'*,  it  reaemliles  cricket ;  but  the  rulea  aiij 
the  form  of  the  bats  are  altogether  ditterent;  'lie  bat  of 
the  cricketer  being  straight,  and  that  of  the  hurler 
crooked. 

"  The  forms  of  the  game  arc  these : — The  plnyert, 
sometimes  to  the  numlier  of  fifty  or  sixty,  lieing  chonon 
for  each  side,  Ihey  are  arranginl  (usually  barefoot)  m 
two  opiKwing  rtiiiks,  with  their  hurleys  croHscd,  lo  nnnjl 
the  toaxing  up  of  the  hall,  the  wickets  or  goals  being 
previously  fixed  at  the  extremities  of  the  hurlinR-nrceii, 
which,  from  the  natuio  of  the  play,  is  requlreil  to  he  | 
level  cxteiiHivc  (:'ain.  Then  there  are  two  picked  men 
chosen  to  keep  the  goal  on  each  side,  over  whom  tb» 
op|H)8iiig  party  places  e<|ually  tried  men  as  a  counte^ 
poise;  the  duty  of  these  goal-kccjiors  being  to  arrest  ih.. 
ball  'v\  case  nf  its  near  approach  to  that  station,  and  re. 
turn  t  back  towards  that  of  the  opposite  party,  while 
those  placed  over  them  exert  all  their  energies  lo  drivj 
it  through  the  wicket.  All  preliminaries  being  ajjusleil, 
the  leaders  take  their  places  in  the  centre.  A  pt'raon  ji 
chosen  to  throw  up  the  ball,  which  is  done  as  straight  u 
possible,  when  the  whole  party,  withdrawing  their  huN 
leys,  stand  with  them  elevated,  to  receive  and  strike  it  in 
ita  descent ;  now  comes  the  crash  of  mimic  war — hu> 
leys  rattle  against  hurleys — the  bail  is  struck  and  r» 
■truck,  often  for  several  minutes,  without  advancing 
much  nearer  to  either  goal;  and  when  some  one  ii 
lucky  enough  to  get  a  :lear  <puck'  at  it,  it  is  :«cnt  flying 
over  the  field.  It  is  n.)w  followed  by  the  entire  party  at 
their  utmost  speeil ;  the  men  grapple,  wrestle,  and  Iom 
each  other  with  amazing  agility,  neither  victor  nor  vai^ 
quished  wailing  to  take  breath,  but  following  the  coune 
of  the  rolling  and  flying  prize ;  the  best  runners  watch 
each  other,  and  keep  almost  shoulder  to  shoulder  throui;h 
the  play,  and  the  beat  wrestlers  keep  as  close  on  them  at 
possible,  to  arrest  or  imfiede  their  progress.  1'hc  ball 
must  not  be  taken  from  the  grountl  by  the  liniid ;  and 
the  tact  and  skill  shown  in  taking  it  on  the  point  of  the 
hurley,  and  running  with  it  half  the  length  of  the  M, 
and,  when  too  closely  pressed,  striking  it  towards  the 
goal,  is  a  matter  of  astonishment  to  those  who  are  but 
slightly  acquainted  with  the  play.  At  the  goal  is  the 
chief  brunt  of  the  battle.  The  gonl-keepcrs  receive  iht 
prize,  and  are  opposed  by  those  set  over  them ;  the  stru;;- 
gle  is  tremendous — every  power  of  strength  and  skill  ii 
exerted ;  while  the  parties  from  opposite  sides  of  the 
field  run  at  full  speed  to  support  their  men  engaged  in 
the  conflict;  then  the  tossing  and  straining  are  at  thuir 
height,  the  men  often  lying  in  dozens  side  by  side  on  the 
grass,  while  the  ball  is  returned  by  some  strong  arm 
again,  flying  above  their  heads,  towards  tlie  other  goal 
Thus,  for  hours,  has  the  contention  been  carried  on,  anil 
frequently  the  darkness  of  night  arrests  the  game  witti- 
out  giving  victory  to  either  side.  It  is  often  attended 
with  dangerous  and  sometimea  with  fatal  results. 

"  Matches  are  made  sometimes  between  diflereb, . 
landi  or  parishes,  sometimea  by  barony  against  jVODJI 


BALIi— QUOITS. 


70» 


ipl  nol  unftwqurntly  rounly  nKninit  rounty;  when  the 
(Kck  mon'  from  tlis  inont  iliHtitnt  imrbi  are  wlfcti-J, 
^  the  inlero»t  excited  in  pro|iurti<)iiitlily  rfroat.  Alwut 
^jf  a  renlury  «g'),  Ihcro  wiu  ii  nr«at  m»li-h  (lUyed  in 
ihc  Phtenii  I'srk,  Dublin,  lk-twi'«Mi  Ihn  Muniit4'r  men  anJ 
Iht  mi'D  of  Iieiiisler.  It  waa  got  up  by  thn  then  lord- 
jeultniint  and  other  aporting  ni>l)leinen,  and  waa  attended 
y  ill  the  ni)liility  and  ({entry  l)elonKin*(  to  the  vice- 
ngal  cuurt,  and  the  Ijoauty  and  rai4!iion  of  the  Iriah  eapi- 
lil  and  it"  vicinity.  The  victory  wn«  contended  for  a 
{onf  liin"  '^i'''  variinl  aucrcMH ;  and  at  luat  it  waa  decided 
in  fivour  i)f  the  MuuHtcr  men,  liy  unu  of  that  party  run- 
ning with  the  Imll  on  tlie  point  of  hia  hurley,  and  strik- 
UDI  it  through  the  open  windowa  of  the  vico-r(«:\l  car- 
nji(C,  uiid  liy  that  inanceuvro  bafllintt  the  vigilance  of 
t||(i  licinitter  ifouU'neri,  and  di  ivini{  it  in  trium|ih  throu!;h 
[]xe  goal.  I'hia  man  ia  Htill  living;  hia  name  ia  Mat. 
Hi'ily.  Ill"'  '"'  ''""  '"'•■"  """ly  yearn  a  rcaident  in  Lon- 
don. Itetwi'eti  tiventy-tive  und  thirty  yeara  u({0,  there 
^ete  several  (jood  inatchea  played  on  KenniuKton  Com- 
non,  t)etwei"i  the  men  of  HI.  Uilea'a  and  thoae  of  the 
giut«in  parta  of  the  metropnlia;  the  alliiir  being  got  up 
by  the  then  notorioua  Lord  Uarrymore  and  other  noble- 
men who  led  the  sporting  eirclea  of  the  time." 

FIVES RACKETS TENNIS. 

The  si>ort  of  atriking  u  soft  ball  covered  with  leather 
igainut  Iho  wall,  or  throwing  it  upwnrda  and  catching 
ll  with  the  hand,  aoems  to  lie  of  great  antiquity,  and  in 
progrc""  of  time  waa  regulated  into  the  character  of  ccr- 
ttin  gamca.  One  of  these,  the  most  simple  of  the  whole, 
litho  striking  of  ■  ball  against  a  wall,  rcboundinr  from 
which  it  falls  with  force  on  the  ground,  and  in  Oio  rise 
N  again  struck  in  the  same  manner.  The  sustaining  of 
thi»  action  for  a  specified  numl)er  of  times  constitutes  the 
pme.  In  England  it  has  been  customary  to  call  a  game 
of  this  kind  Jivea,  from  the  ball  being  struck  with  the 
fitc  fingers  and  palm  of  the  hand.  In  Scotland  it  has 
for  ages  been  called  ru^.  or  vaitrh  ball.  Jamea  I.,  in  hia 
quaint  production  descripiive  of  what  should  constitute 
the  tJucation  and  recreations  of  a  prince,  refers  to  caiteh 
ball.  Ho  remarks — "The  exercises  I  would  have  you 
to  UM,  although  but  moderately,  not  making  a  crad  of 
them,  are  running,  leaping,  wrestling,  fencing,  danc- 
ing, tnd  playing  at  the  cailrh  or  tenniae,  archerie,  palle- 
malle  and  such    like    other  fair  and    pleasant    field 

tfOTtM," 

Racktit  is  the  same  game  aa  fives;  but  instead  of 
itriking  the  ball  with  the  open  hand  it  ia  struck  by  a 
racket,  which  is  an  implement  held  in  the  hand  formed 
of  a  frame  and  catgut.  It  is  played  against  a  high  and 
bioad  wall,  even  in  surface,  with  a  smooth  stone  or 
earthen  ground,  from  which  the  ball  will  rise  evenly  to 
the  hand.  Two  persons  play  the  match,  each  atriking 
the  ball  alternately,  and  each  strikes  it  in  such  a  way  as 
that  hia  adversary  may  not  be  able  to  return  it.  But 
the  adversary  is  supple  of  limb  and  quick  of  eye,  and 
darting  to  the  spot  on  which  the  ball  ia  about  to  fall, 
endeavours  to  strike  it  with  his  racket,  and  preserve  it 
froio  rolling  on  the  ground.  He  who  doe*  not  return 
the  ball,  either  loses  a  point  (or,  as  it  is  tvr.-ned,  an  art) 
or  has  his  hand  out,  that  is,  forfeits  the  situation  in 
which  he  would  be  able  to  add  to  his  score  of  the  game. 
Neilier  fives  nor  rackets  are  now  played  to  the  extent 
that  tiicy  lormerly  were.  There  arc  still,  however,  seve- 
ral courts  laid  out  for  these  gumes  in  the  metropolis; 
and  nowhere  are  tlioy  pluycd  so  well  as  in  the  court- 
jrarda  of  the  Queen's  Bench  and  Fleet  prisons,  where 
many  of  the  inmates  endeavour  to  kill  time  by  this  spe- 
tiea  of  aniuHemciit. 

Tiixnu  is  a  game  similar  with  ball ;  it  is  played  with 
a  racket,  but  instead  of  striking  the  ball  against  a  wall, 
it  i*  struck  over  a  central  nu*,  on  each  side  of  which  the 


player*  stand.     The  game,  whirh  waa  once  fashionabl* 
we  believe,  i*  now  *carcely  ever  prjctiaed. 

TRAP-BALL. 
I'hi*  game,  which  i*  Irareahio  as  far  hark  as  the  com 
menrement  of  the  fourteenth  century,  is  played  rhicfly 
by  boys.  A  wooden  object,  called  a  trap,  reM'inblinL;  a 
shoo  in  shape,  with  a  spring  slip  or  tongue  fastened  in  it 
by  a  joint,  is  laid  on  the  ground.  The  ball  is  laid  un 
one  end  of  the  spring;  the  other  eml  is  struck  with  abjil, 
and  the  ball  rising  '•^  to  be  snmrtly  Htriick.  "  It  Is  Usual," 
says  Ntrutt,  "in  the  present  game  of  trap-ball,  when  pro- 
fK-rly  played,  to  place  two  boiuuluries  at  a  given  distan  a 
from  the  trap,  between  which  it  is  necessary  f'<r  the  bail 
to  ntj!  when  it  is  struck  by  the  baUinan,  for  if  it  fall* 
j  witnoutsidu  of  cither,  he  gives  up  his  bat  and  is  nut;  h« 
is  also  out  if  he  sti  ikes  the  ball  into  the  air  and  it  is 
caught  by  one  of  his  adversaries  \iefaie  it  grounds;  ond 
again,  if  the  ball,  when  returned  by  the  opposing  party, 
touches  the  trap,  or  rests  within  one  bat's  length  of  it; 
on  the  contrary,  if  none  of  thes<>  things  happjti,  every 
stroke  tells  for  one  towards  the  striker's  game."  In 
some  country  parts  of  England  trap-ball  ia  a  favourit* 
sport  of  the  rustic  population. 

rooT-BALf,. 
Foot-ball  is  an  old  English  sport,  now  little  known  in 
some  parts  of  the  coimtry,  but  keenly  (iluyed  in  others 
It  is  pined  by  means  of  a  distended  ox-bladder,  tightly 
covered  with  dressed  leather,  anil  lewed  up  <p  a  strong 
and  secure  way,  so  as  to  retain  its  full  elasticity.  This 
ball  is  thrown  aloft  in  the  air  between  two  part'e*  of 
players,  equidistant  from  each  other;  on  one  side  and  th« 
other  there  is  a  fixed  point  or  lino,  called,  aa  in  the  pre> 
reding  case,  the  hail  or  hailitig  spot.  The  object,  then, 
of  each  party  is,  by  vigorous  kicks  to  propel  the  ball  to 
the  hailing  pluct-  l)ehind  their  adversaries,  on  the  attain- 
ment of  which  object  the  game  is  won.  This  game  is 
less  hazardous  than  shinty,  an<l  exercises  fully  both  tti« 
strength  and  s|>ecd  of  the  players.  It  is  atnazing  how 
dexterous  even  very  young  boys  become  by  continual 
practice  at  foot-ball ;  and  skill  in  the  application  of  a 
slight  degree  of  force  avails  much  more  at  tliis  sport  than 
greater  strength  unskilfully  directed.  The  young  men 
of  tlie  Sottish  Border  yet  practise  this  game  annually  in 
various  places;  and  few  sights  can  be  more  exhilaratini; 
than  to  behold  a  strong  bwly  of  them  so  employed,  when 
the  fleet  foot  of  the  shepherd  vies  for  conquest  with 
the  vigour  of  the  ploughman,  and  health  and  enjoyment 
beam  unequivocally  from  every  countenance. 

QUOITS. 

Contests  in  throwing  or  pitching  heavy  pieces  of  me- 
tal were  practised  by  the  ancient  Greek*  at  their  great 
periodical  asscndilagcs  for  athletic  exercises.  The  pieco 
of  metal  thrown  was  called  the  diinit,  from  its  round 
form.  The  main  object  in  these  contests  was  the  culti* 
vntion  of  strength  of  arm,  and  victory  was  gained  mora 
from  the  ability  of  throwing  heavy  weights  to  a  distance 
than  from  skill  in  attaining  a  particular  mark. 

From  these  ancient  practices,  first  pursued  by  the 
Greeks  and  then  by  the  Romans,  the  game  of  quoits,  or 
coits,  appears  to  have  heen  derived.  'I'ho  quoit  is  a  cir- 
cular plate  of  iron  perforated  in  the  middle,  or,  more 
properly,  a  flattish  iron  ring,  concave  on  one  side  and 
convex  on  the  other,  the  concave  or  hollow  side  being 
undermost  in  throwing;  and  a  notch  being  in  the  edge 
for  the  fnigcr  to  press  upon  in  delivering  the  throw. 
Quoits  are  of  dillerent  sizes,  to  suit  the  ditferenl  tastes 
and  powers  of  [daycrs.  "To  play  this  game,"  says 
Strutt,  '<  an  iron  pin.  called  a  nob,  is  driven  into  the 
ground  within  a  few  inches  of  the  top;  and  at  the  dis- 
tance of  eighteen,  twenty,  or  more  yards  (for  the  distanr« 
is  optional),  a  second  pin  of  iron  is  also  made  fast  in  a 


no 


wo 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


/)!        *V  •tmlUr  minnm  two  or  more  pc^ 
jW_/^»       ■"»".  ""  •"'"■•  "''■   'iK'''.  "'    inorr, 
yi/j^  •'  (ili'Murn — who,  iliviiloil  iiiln  Iwd 

yf\jl,^/  »i|iiiil  pnrti**,  ari<  to  I'lintiiml  lor  th« 

ff  (\  »irlory — kIiiihI  nt  on«  of  the  iron 

-  ^  '  mark*  and  tlirow  hii  oi|iiiiI  loiinlier 

of  i{Uoit«  nt  tlin  otilur  [tlin  (|iioit 
hi>irii(  ilvlivorril  IVoin  the  Kniiil  by 
ail  upward  niul  I'orward  pilcli  with 
a  iliMidy  iiini  utthr  (tin,  iirar  which 
"*••'"  it  •hoiild  Kink  wilh  iln  thurp  «'ll^^^ 

In  the  turf];  thv  iirarmt  ol'  thriii  to  tho  hi>li  iin-  ruckonod 
towanla  the  Riimo.  liut  tho  detvriiiiiiiilioii  in  di«-riiiii- 
IMlaly  made:  for  inilniii'«,  if  a  i|uoit  tH-lon)(iiiK  to  A  licit 
IMarcsttoth*  hob,  and  a  quoit  Iwloni^iiiK  to  l<  thit  iiccoiid, 
A  Mn  claim  hut  un«  toward*  Uta  yaine,  though  all  hia 


other  qiioita  li«  nrari^r  to  tho  Tr.nik  '!mn  all  ihr  ^j, 
(|Uoil»  of  H ;   Ix-i-aUMi   one   ijuoit  of  11  liciiiK  'he  w^n 
nrari'Dt  to  the   hob,  tutt  nut,  an  it  in  ralli'd,  ill  Iwhlml  ii 
if  no  aurh  (juoit    h»il    iiitcrfi'rnd,   Ihi'ii   A    Wiiii|,|   k,  ' 
rn'koiu'd   all  hi*  aa  oiio   riich.     Hiiviiii(  iMat  nH  ^v 
<|Uoila,  tha  rnndidiitra  walk  to  thn  oppn-iitii  oriil  nmj  i, 
trriniiin  tho  Uinta  of  thn   piny;  thi'ii,  tukiiin  llirir  tumj 
thorn,  throw  ihoir  ijuoitii  liiu-k  nKaiii,  mid  cimliiiiiii  tmlg,^ 
allomntoly  aa    Ioiik    m  tho    kiiiio    ri'iiiniiia  iiiiilrric|f,|" 
I'ho  droiiit  ill  t|uoitiii|{  ihould  Im)  Ioomi  ami  ouiy,  with  lio 
rodraint  from  brnooa. 

In  aonio  of  tho  rurul  diatrli^ta  of  EiifrlanJ  huriMiihoM 
UH4'd  to  lie  omployod  an  (juoita;  ami  in  nonic  n«it,  „f 
Mootlmid  thn  quoila  foniiiit  of  round  tint  atuj>,rt  gtan 
with  which  an  amHeil  tho  ••  |M-niiy-itanci," 


IN-DOOR  AMUSEMENTS. 


CIIES9. 

It  ban  heon  juatly  oharrvetl,  that  amonit  nil  the  in-door 
•muieiurnta  invonind  by  man  for  tho  oinploymont  of  thn 
idlu  or  tho  relivf  of  thu  nluilioui,  chuaa  atnniU  pro-cnii- 
nont  It  in  the  moHt  rotinod  and  inxonioui  of  all  Kanion, 
and  (lODiuMMta  n  chnrin  which  hna  randorod  it  a  fnvourito 
of  the  Kroiitont  rimraclvra,  whether  kiiiif*,  warriurn,  or 
philorioplieri.  An  an  ainnsement,  it  po-'Hcancn  an  ad- 
«aiitnt{u  an  Kreut  a«  it  i«  HiiiKular :  beini;  highly  intcroMt- 
inn  in  itnelf,  uiid  pluyed  with  leinure,  it  reqiiiron  no 
liiduceiiuMit  of  i{ain,  and  in  conHC(|i  ii<iicc  in  rnrely  plnyed 
f(>r  money.  The  glory  of  conque^^  is  allowed  to  form  a 
sufTiciont  attraction. 

Chess  in  of  unknown  origin  and  antiquity.  Some 
writrri  have  ascribed  its  invention  to  thu  Greeks,  some 
to  tho  Hindoos,  others  to  thn  Chinese,  and  a  fourth  eluns 
to  the  Persians.  Theru  can  be  little  doubt  that  it  orii^i- 
nated  in  the  east,  and  at  a  very  remote  |>criod  of  history  ; 
•nd  it  is  certain  that  it  has  been  known  in  Hindostan 
and  adjacent  reirion*  for  at  least  two  thousand  yearn. 
From  the  Persians  it  wan  introduced  by  the  Arabians 
into  Hpain  ;  thenre  it  found  itn  way  to  France ;  and  wan 
made  known  in  England  during  the  reign  of  VVilUn/n 
the  Conqueror. 

The  name  of  the  i^me,  and  also  the  nnmns  of  the 
{)ioo«s  with  which  it  is  played,  have  underi^one  muny 
mutations  in  travelling  from  country  to  ccmntry  ;  never- ' 
theless,  in  tho  present  terms  which  we  employ,  the  sein- 
blanre  of  the  original  eastern  appellatioiiit  may  lie  seen. 
In  Hindostan  it  possesses  the  Sanscrit  name  of  ('hatu- 
ranxn,  which  imports  the  four  members  if  an  army — 
elephants,  horses,  chariotn,  and  foot-»<>ldie»« ;  the  game 
being  a  scene  of  mimic  warfare,  in  whi'h  Ihew  elements 
respectively  .ict  a  peculiar  part.  The  Persian*  corrupted 
the  Sanscrit  word  into /-/infrdtiif,  which  the  AruliiaoH  soft- 
•nod  into  </ifirriiii;' ;  from  that  appellation  it  passed  int. 
Korchi,  echen,  and  finally  chess.  I5y  the  Krendi  it  is  called 
tchtn,  and  a  che»n  bonril  tliey  Irriii  rrhii/viir. 

According  to  the  m.xlern  European  arnini^einent,  the 
idea  of  elephants,  horse~i,  chariots,  mid  faot-soMiers  h»« 
Iwen  abandoned,  and  there  have  been  Bub>ilitiiteil  a  king. 
queen,   bishops.   kni:;hls.   castles  or   ronks.   and    pawns, 
forminfr  si»  diHtinct  rlassea  of  pieces.     Tin-  lerin  /ii*7iri/i  , 
is  only  English,  being  a  suhKtiliiiion  for  elephant.     The  | 
knights  rcpres'iit  the  horm^-HoKliers.     The  term  rwik  is 
from   the  eastern  word  rnkfi,  a  hero,  and   represents   an  I 
•rmcd  chariot  or  furtificatiur. .  the  English  give  tho  piece  j 


the  fortn  of  a  rnntle.  Tho  |mwni  are  the  foot-ioljjw. 
the  name  lunng  from  ;iro'i,  an  atlendnnt. 

The  chess  pieces  made  in  India  or  ('hiiin  for  laieto 
wealthy  Euro|K>anM  are  soinctimes  made  of  sniiil  ivu,, 
five  or  six  inclief.  high,  oml  are  nxcdeilingly  tn'mililul,  lio 
degree  of  laUiur  being  spared  in  the  curving,  'i'lui  jd^ 
Mild  queen  arc  seated  on  elephants,  under  u  canopy ;  \y 
bishops  are  camels,  wilh  archers  as  their  riilirs;  ihi 
knights  are  on  horseback  ;  the  ensiles  are  eleplianlii,  win, 
castles  on  their  backs  filled  with  warriors;  iin<l  i||,. 
pawns  are  soldiers,  one  a  s<'rgennl,  another  a  (Iruiiinm 
another  a  filer,  and  tho  rest  ordinary  lighting  iiumi, 

In  England  the  pieces  are  usually  made  uf  lione  or 
boxwood,  with  more  or  less  taste,  and  from  a  luw  loi 
high  price.  'I'ho  following  ia  a  representation  of  tbtii 
common  form. 


J'divn.       Uuok;     Km^ltt,    lUnhop.    Qiiccn.    A'injj 
Chess  Men  snil  llonril. 

There  are  two  sets  of  pieces,  of  dirti'rcnt  coloiiri ;  oim 
is  usually  white,  and  nnolher  red.  A  sol  consists  of  lii. 
teen  pieces,  so  that  the  entire  nuinlsT  with  which  thi 
gnine  is  playe.  is  thirty-two  pieces.  A  set  inclmlei  on« 
king,  one  qu«^en,  two  bishops,  two  knichls,  two  rooks  or 
castles,  and  ,  iglit  pawns.  Two  parties  play,  each  h«ving 
a  set  of  a  dillcrent  colour. 

The  game  is  played  on  a  s<]uan<  Imard.  divided  into  «ixt)N 
tour  squares,  checkered  black  ond  wliite,  as  reproaenlwl 
in  tlie  following  figure.  The  nutnbers  which  ore  here 
shown  on  tho  8<iuares  do  not  oxist  on  the  chesx-lwarJi 
we  have  only  marked  them  thus  in  order  to  illustrate  the 
subjoined  explanations  of  tho  method  of  playing  llie 
gaim*. 

In  beginning  to  play  tho  ^nme.  the  first  thing  is  to  net 
th..  Isjurd.  This  is  done  by  plai'ing  it  before  you,  wilhi 
white  square  in  tho  right  hand  eornor.  .\n  the  iilsyeri 
sit  opposite  each  other  at  a  table  on  which  the  board  is 
placed,  each  has  a  white  square  on  his  right. 

Next,  place  the  men  in  their  appointed  places.  Let 
us  suppose  it  is  the  white  sot  of  men.  On  tho  »hit( 
corner  square  marked  64  place  a  rook  or  cn^llc.  anJ  on 
tlie  black  corner,  57,  place  the  utlier  rook ;  on  tlie  blacll 


rr 

^K^H 

Bj 

2%. 

m 

tf 

E 

b 

^^ 

u 

dE 

B 

HB 

iquare,  fi3,  place  i 
M,  pIsco  the  <itlie 
plire  a  bishop,  nn< 
other  bishop;  on 
Hid  on  the  while 
(anpletos  the  first 
itanil  siipporlod  o 
■eooiid  row,  Miai'ki 
Ailed  entirely  wilh 
front  guard  to  llio  | 

Tho  rod  or  (lark 
the  same  onlor — a  ( 
T,a  bibliopon  'A  am 
It  ii  a  rule  of  the 
It  first  on  a  square 
«  a  white  s<|uare,  i 
The  pieces  and  pii 
king  and  quooii  tak 
bishop,  king's  kiiii- 
king's  pawn,  &c. 

When  pro|)crly 
anocoupiod  in  the 
I  ipaoc  on  which 
place. 

It  is  n  loadinp:  \ 
pipes  liii"  its  own 
iomc  can  move  or 
very  dilVcrcnt  from 
tdnughl  board. 

A  pawn  moves  o 
line  forward,  and  tr 
first  moved,  howevi 
cither  one  B(iuare  o 
the  square  over  whi 
pann ;  so  that  if  hi' 
leaping  over  it.  ho  n 
adTcme  pawn  has  I 
himself  on  tho  sq 
move  backwards ;  I 
the  lioard,  upon  t' 
Ityled  ifDiiig  to  qtui 
the  pieces  lost  in  t 
.'lioscii  must  bo  pla 
has  arrived.  If  n< 
power  of  taking  dii 
from  that  of  all  otl 
in  whioh  tht  y  movi 
1(0  forward  as  bcfot 
wed  tho  most  valii 

.\  kivi.h!  moves 
upon  every  third  a 


riiBss. 


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II 

(j-i 

iquare,  13,  [ilnre  a  kniKitt,  and  on  the  white  iiqunro, 
H,  place  tho  olhrr  knight;  on  tho  white  aquarr,  68, 
ulare  a  l>iHh'i|>,  niiil  nn  tho  hiark  miimrn,  59,  pluco  tho 
other  bii<ho|);  on  thn  hhirk  iii|imro  fl I,  place  the  kiii^f, 
■nd  on  the  wliilo  Hqiiiire  ftO,  plHco  thp  queen.  Thia 
compli'ti'"  tho  fiFHt  row,  in  which  the  kinii  anil  qu<>cn 
lUnd  siipporti'ii  on  each  Hide  hy  Ihrir  otRrerH.  'I'he 
iccoiul  row,  nmrkcd  'ID,  60,  51,  52,  M,  M,  Sft,  5(5,  in 
filled  I'lilirt'ly  with  tho  oiifht  pawni*,  which  thim  form  a 
frwit  ijimnl  to  llic  pioccn  holiiiid. 

This  r('<l  or  diirk  sot  of  piocoa  are  pliicod  in  precisely 
thesamo  onlcr — «  ciiHtIo  on  I  and  H,  a  kiiiitht  on  2  and 
7, a  biuliop  on  M  and  0,  tlio  i|ucon  on  4,  and  tho  kinif  on  5. 
It  ii  a  rule  of  tho  o[aino  that  the  (pioon  inuHt  lio  placed 
It  flrst  on  a  Mqimrc  of  her  own  colour — tho  wiiiln  queen 
an  a  white  H<|uarc.  and  the  dark  qiicon  on  a  ilark  uquare. 
The  pii'CCH  and  pawns  on  tho  side  and  front  of  onch 
king  ond  qiu'on  take  their  names  from  them  ;  as  kim^'g 
Map,  kiiii;'s  knight;  queen's  bishop,  queen's  knight; 
king's  pawn,  Ace. 

When  properly  placed,  four  rows  of  squares  are  left 
nnoccupied  in  thr-  middle  of  tho  hoard,  and  these  form 
a  ipace  on  which  tho  early  ovolutiouH  of  the  me::  'ako 
place,  ' 

The  Movpj. 

Il  i*  n  leading  peculiarity  of  ehr-"*  that  each  class  of 
(licif.i  lia»  its  own  peculiar  value  atid  rtv'"  of  movinj;; 
KMic  can  move  one  way  and  HMm  anhitbei',  a  systt^m 
very  dilVcrent  from  that  of  the  MtKnary  movemuntg  on 
>  draught  board. 

A  /iiiieii  moves  only  one  siriarc  at  a  time,  in  a  straight 
line  forward,  and  takes  llic  «-iiemy  diaijonally.  On  b«ing 
firit  moved,  however,  a  pai* n  has  the  power  of  ad'ancinf; 
cither  one  square  or  two,  us  tho  player  thinks  fit,  unless 
the  square  over  which  he  li'apa  is  commanded  by  a  hostile 
pawn;  so  that  if  ho  wore  to  rest  on  that  square  iiiatcad  of 
leapinu  over  it,  he  might  lie  captured.  In  such  a  case,  the 
nlTerse  pawn  has  tho  option  of  taking  him,  and  placing 
himself  on  the  square  leaped  over.  A  pawn  cannot 
move  backwards ;  Imt  on  getting  to  the  further  side  of 
the  Iward,  upon  the  first  line  of  the  enemy,  which  ii 
ityled  tfiHitff  '"  ip"fn,  he  may  be  changed  for  any  one  of 
the  pieces  lost  in  the  course  of  tho  game,  and  the  piece 
■hoseii  must  ho  placed  on  tho  square  at  which  the  pawn 
has  arrived.  If  not  exchanged,  he  remains  idle.  The 
power  of  taking  diatroiially,  possessed  by  a  pawn,  difters 
from  that  of  all  other  pieces,  who  take  in  the  direction 
in  which  thty  move :  after  every  capture  he  continu^B  to 
(fo  forward  as  before.  The  king's  hishop'g  pawn  is  reck- 
oned the  most  valuable. 

A  kiii^hi  moves  obliquily,  either  backward  or  forward, 
upou  everv  third  sqi  ore,  including  the  square  on  which 


htt  atn<Ml;  fVoni  Mack  to  whit«,  %t  while  to  hIncV,  ovni 
the  Iieiidi4  of  tho  men,  wliii  h  no  other  piece  is  periiiilteii 
to  do.  Kor  eiiimpir,  a  kiiiil'''  may  leap  from  lift  to  10, 
'i\,  DM.  :)(),  4*2,  411,  51,  or  •5:i,  imaaing  over  piiee*  in  (Im 
inlermodialo  squares.  This  prn|i«rty  of  leaping  renders 
the  kniKlit  particularly  unvful  at  the  liogiMning  of  a  i^iiine, 
as  ho  Clin  \w  brought  into  the  enemy's  ranks,  and  retire, 
notwitliataiidiiig  any  bloekadn;  and  should  ho  cheek  ■ 
king,  without  ImiIiir  himself  liable  to  Iw  taken,  the  king 
must  remove,  and  cannot  afterwards  castle. 

The  tiMiuji  moves  only  diagonally  over  any  numlior  at 
sqimros  as  fat  as  they  are  o[H>n,  forward  or  Uickward, 
but  always  on  the  colour  ho  is  first  plai'od  on.  He  can 
take  at  any  distance  when  the  road  is  o|)on.  For  ex- 
ample, the  bishop  may  move  from  29  to  2,  H,  56,  or  87. 
The  king's  bishop  is  usually  consiilorod  the  better  ime, 
as  ho  can  check  the  king  on  his  original  s<|uare,  which 
the  queen's  bishop  cannot 

The  rtxik  moves  Imekward,  forward,  or  sidewise,  and 
as  far  as  the  sijunres  are  open.  He  is  viewed  as  not  very 
useful  at  the  beginning  of  a  game,  but  is  particularly  so 
towards  tho  conclusion,  by  possessing  the  power  of  giving 
rhtikmalf.  with  thn  king  alone,  which  neither  tho  bishop 
nor  knight  can  do. 

The  i/KccM  is  tlio  best  piece  on  tho  hoard.  Hhe  unite* 
the  powers  of  the  bishop  and  rook,  and  her  moves  are 
therefore  unlimited,  provided  tho  squares  are  open  in  her 
lino  of  motion.  As  an  oxnmplo,  she  may  In?  moved  from 
37  to  1,  ."5,  in,  23,  40,  5H,  fil,  04,  or  any  other  number 
in  the  direction  of  these,  so  that  the  squares  are  not 
blocked  up.  The  preservation  of  tho  qi'"cn  is  always  a 
matter  of  groat  im|iortaiic«  in  the  game. 

The  Will,'  moves  only  one  Rtpniro  at  a  time,  but  in  any 
direr  ;ion,  either  forward  or  backward,  sideways  or  diago. 
nally.  But  once  in  a  game,  ho  can  move  two  nquarca 
to  tho  right  or  left,  which  is  termed  castling.  Ho  can 
I  take  any  of  the  enemy'n  men  in  any  square  adjoining  t* 
i  him,  provided  he  dcMis  not  place  himself  in  check.  'I'hia 
j  rhrilc  is  a  peculiarity  in  his  condition.  Ho  has  the  pri 
vilege  of  never  being  taken  ;  hut  this  can  scare ely  t« 
coiisiden-d  a  benefit,  since  it  only  means  that  he  must 
not  move  into  or  continue  in  a  situation  of  danger.  To 
bo  in  such  a  situation,  and  liable  to  Im  captured  if  he 
were  an  nnlinary  piece,  is  called  being  in  ''  k.  On  the 
avoidance  of  this  perilous  situation  the  v  ,,,\e  game  de 
ponds;  for  tha  instant  tho  king  is  cheikiiiafod,  without 
the  means  of  moving  into  a  place  of  safety,  tho  game  ia 
at  an  ond.     The  ailvcraary  has  the  vicl.iry.* 

To  tho  foregoing  account  ol"  the  moves  and  powers  of 
the  respective  pieces,  may  bo  added  the  followiiig  expla- 
nation of  terms: — 

Ca$tl'm<^, — This,  aa  above  hinted  at,  is  allowed  onc« 
in  the  course  of  a  game :  it  consists  in  moving  tho  king 
to  the  second  square  to  the  right  or  loll  of  that  where  ho 
originally  stood,  and  placing  the  castle  or  rook  on  the 
sqnaro  over  which  ho  leaped.  Cabling  is  a  moana 
adopted  to  secure  the  kins:  from  attack  ;  but  it  is  not 
allowable — I.  When  the  king  or  the  rook  with  which 
you  would  cistle  has  .  <dy  been  moved;  2.  When  tho 
king  is  in  check ;  3.  When  the  king  would  require  to 
pass  over  a  square  in  vhich  he  would  be  checked  ;  and 
4.  "When  the  kin;;  has  1  niece  between  himself  and  the  rook, 

Chcik. — When  the  king  is  in  a  situation  that,  were  ha 
an  inferior  piece,  he  would  bo  taken,  notice  is  given  by 
the  adversary,  by  saying  the  word  "check"  smd  the  playe? 


•Ill  a  linlile  lielwcpn  the  French  ami  Knglish,  m  the  year 
1117.  an  r.nfjiish  kniRht  seizinu  <Uv  bridle  of  I.oiiis  leCros,  ami 

I  oryiiifr  to  hiscoinradiK,  "Tho  king  is  taken  I"  the  prince  slrunH 

I  him  to  the  (tround  with  his  sword,  .jnyinif.  "Ne  B^nis  tu  pat  qa' 
am  ivhecB  on  ne  nrend  pas  le  roi  ?"  (Host  tlioii  not  know  thai 
at  chosa  the  kinR  is  never  taken?)    The  meaning  oi  which  is, 

'  that  nt  Ihr  same  olchess.  when  the  king  is  reduced  ihat  pom 
ilmt  ihiri'  "  no  way  for  him  to  eacnre.  ine  game  eniin ;  because 
ili«  royal  pn  ce  is  not  to  lie  exposed  to  an  imaginary  slfroiit-' 

;  Philidor  on  Chai. 


719 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


muit  adopt  some  means  of  remoTuig  him  from  this 
position. 

Double  check  is  when  the  king  is  in  check  by  two 
pieces  at  once.  He  may  emancipate  himself  from  single 
or  double  chock — 1.  By  capturing  the  piece  which  is 
attacking  him,  cither  by  himself  or  one  of  his  party — 
and  tliia  is  only  available  in  double  check,  if  one  of  the 
pieceo  does  not  guard  the  other;  2.  By  inter|)osing  a 
piece  between  him  and  the  attacking  piece ;  and  3.  By 
removing  to  another  square,  of  which  no  hostile  piece 
has  the  command. 

Checkmaic  is  when  no  means  of  escape  or  conquest  is 
available ;  the  king  is  then  said  to  lie  checkmated,  and 
the  game  terminates.  One  king  cannot  give  check  to 
another,  as  it  would  place  him  in  a  similar  situation. 
The  term  checkmate  is  saiil  to  be  a  corruption  of  the 
•astern  words  diiih-mat  (the  king  is  dead). 

Siulc-iiitile  (from  stall,  a  place  of  fixture)  is  applied  to 
the  condition  of  tlie  king  when  he  is  comjiellcd  to  remain 
hi  his  {iluce,  by  being  surrounded  in  such  a  manner  by 
bis  own  or  his  adversary's  pieces  that  ho  could  not  move 
without  going  into  check,  and  has  at  the  same  time  no 
means  of  movini;  other  pieces.  The  game  is  then  con- 
sidered drmi'ii,  that  is,  not  won  by  either  party. 

Lows  of  Chens. 
The  game  conimences  by  the  two  parties  determining 
»y  lot,  or  concession,  which  shall  have  the  first  move. 
After  this,  the  moves  are  token  alternately,  one  piece  at 
M  time.  The  principle  of  advance  is  to  push  forward 
(he  men  gnulually  against  those  of  the  enemy,  each 
party  caK-ul.it. ni;  beforehand  what  will  be  the  elfoct  of 
any  |)articuliir  move.  The  following  are  old  established 
«ws  in  reference  to  playing: — 

1.  It"  >oii  lo.ich  your  man  )oii  mnal  play  it.  except  it  woulil 
expose  your  kiii^  to  etierk.  in  whieli  case  you  can  only  move 
Ihe  It'ntf.    r  rt  lie  praevicable. 

2.  A4  loii);  us  vuu  rt'tuiii  a  hold  of  your  man  you  are  at  liberty 
to  place  li.m  vvliere  you  think  proper,  though  you  may  have 
faim  fet  down  on  a  fujuare. 

3.  1 1  you  have  removed  your  hand  from  a  man.  he  nmst  re- 
■mm  where  he  !.<. 

4.  If  y()u  touch  one  of  your  adversary's  men.  he  may  insist  on 
your  tak.uf?  it.  if  you  can,  anil  when  you  cannot,  then  y  ou  must 
move  your  kiiu,'.  jirovidett  the  move  do  not  put  h.ni  in  cheek. 

5.  If  \<Mi  niaiir  a  ;aise  move,  by  aeeidenl  or  otherwise,  your 
adversary  can  obf;^e  you  to  move  the  kin^f:  but  if  he  plays 
without  liaviiijj  notiied  the  false  move,  jl  eauiuit  be  recalled. 

6.  If  your  adversary  challenpe  you  with  a  eherk.  whih-  in 
reality  the  k'np  is  not  in  check,  and  you  move  your  kins  or  any 
Mhcr  man  in  cunse<(iience,  you  may  retract  it  if  you  discover 
the  enor  beujrr  lir  lias  made  his  next  move. 

7.  You  are  not  'n  ^r  ve  cheek  to  your  adversary's  kin;?,  when. 
bydo:ii;<  so.  \  in.  vvotild  expose  ycnirown  kin^to  ehti'k. 

8.  if  your  a.lver-ary  p:ve  olieck.  but  without  ^ivinKthe  usual 
warn:njT  of  "eln'i-k."  jou  are  not  oblijjed  to  notice  it  t:!!  he 
does:  lul  if  he  d:.<eover  that  he  shonhl  have  done  so  on  his 
next  move,  ami  tluii  warn  you.  each  niusi  relrael  his  move, 
and  liw  k  njf  be  rfiiioved  out  of  eheck  or  protecteil. 

9.  After  your  kjii;  or  rnok  has  moved.  \ ou  cannot  castle. 

to.  In  laeh  fresh  name  the  players  have  the  first  move  aller- 
naiely;  luil  if  a  player  K've  the  advantage  of  a  piece,  that  is, 
agrees  to  start  witli  one  piece  less  than  his  antagonist,  he  who 
gives  the  udvaiila^'e  has  the  first  move. 

Iloyle's  Rules  for  Chess.* 

1.  .Move  your  pawns  before  your  pieces,  and  afterwards 
brinK  out  the  piiees  to  support  them :  ihereiore  the  kilty's, 
queen's,  and  lislmp's  pawns  should  lie  the  first  played,  in  order 
lo  open  the  iranii-  well. 

2.  Uo  nnt  thereibre  play  out  any  of  your  pieces  early  in  the 
(fame,  because  you  thereby  lose  moves,  in  ease  your  adversary 
ran.  by  playinR  a  pawn,  make  ihem  retire,  ann  lu'  also  opens 
his  game  at  th.-  snuie  lime  :  espeeially  avnid  playing  yourijuet;!! 
out,  till  your  iriiirie  is  tolerably  W'di  opened 

3.  Avoid  (fivinff  useless  cheeks,  and  never  «;vi»  any  unless 
10  fia  II  some  udvairnife.  because  ymi  may  loss  the  move,  if  the 
sdvi  rs.iry  '"an  fiili'-r  take  or  drn'e  ymir  pier,,-  away. 

4.  Never  crowd  your  Kaiiie  by  having  too  iiiaiiy  pieces  to- 
f'  iher.  so  ns  lo  previ-iil  your  men  udvuiitMif;  or  relreatinK.  as 
occasion  may  reipere. 

5.  If  your  iranii'  should  he  crowded  endeavour  to  free  it  by 
«iehaiii!''S  of  pieces  or  pawns,  and  ensile  your  king  as  soon  ns 
Mnveii  em  ;  Bllcrwards  bring  out  your  pieces,  ami  Htlaek  the 
sdvrrsnry  wtiere  weakest 

8.  When  the  adversary  plays  out  his  pieces  before  his  pawns, 


*  iloyle  la  a  very  old  author,  and  his  v\orks  on  chess  and 
jiher  games  are  well  known  :  ihcv  nr»  now  .und  in  «ll  forms 
skridifci  ^i  altareU  lo  suit  luuitera  piayers. 


attack  Ihcm  as  soon  as  you  can  with  your  pawai,  by  «k,.. 
you  may  crowd  his  game,  ond  make  him  loso  moves,      '"'•• 

7,  Never  attack  the  adversary's  king  without  a  •uffioi.n! 
force ;  and  if  he  attack  yours,  and  yon  cannot  retaliate  iiR» 
exchanges;  ard  should  he  retire  when  you  present  a  iiiece  is 
eiehaiige.  he  may  lose  a  move.  It  may  also  he  sometimes  oi 
pedient  to  act  in  this  manner,  in  case  of  other  attacks. 

6.  I'lay  your  men  in  guard  of  one  another,  so  that  if  an*  h« 
taken,  the  enemy  may  also  he  captured,  by  that  which  guardod 
yours,  and  endeavour  to  have  as  many  guards  to  your  piece  oi 
jour  adversary  ad  voiices  others  upon;  and,  if  possible,  let  ihcm 
lie  of  less  value  than  those  he  assails  with.  When  you  cannii 
well  support  your  piece,  see  if  by  attacking  one  of  his  thaii'i 
better,  or  as  g-iod.  you  may  not  thereby  save  yours 

0.  Nevi^r  nunck  but  wnen  well  preifared.  lor  thereby  v-on 
open  your  adversary's  game,  and  prepare  him  to  pour  la  • 
strong  attack  upon  vou,  ns  soon  as  your  weaker  one  is  over 

It).  Never  play  till  you  have  examined  whether  you  are  fres 
from  danger  liy  your  adversary's  Insi  move,  nor  olfer  to  attack 
till  you  have  considered  what  harm  he  would  he  able  to  do  you 
by  his  next  moves,  in  consec^nence  of  yours. 

11.  When  your  attack  is  in  a  prosperous  way,  never  he  i-. 
verted  from  it  by  taking  any  piece,  or  other  sieiniiig  advantam 
your  udvcrsary  may  purposely  throw  in  your  way,  v/ith  iiis 
intent  that,  by  your  tating  the  bait,  he  might  gain  a  move  whicli 
would  make  your  design  miscarry. 

12.  WhiMi,  in  pursuing  a  well-laid  attack,  yon  find  it  ncM^ 
mry  !o  ibrce  your  adversary's  defence,  with  .'■;  'os:;  ol^  some 
pieces,  if,  upon  counting  as  many  moves  iL/w.ird  as  you  can 
you  find  a  prospect  of  success,  sacrifice  a  piece  or  twotoimjn 
your  end :  these  bold  attempts  make  the  finest  ^janies. 

1,1.  Never  let  vonr  queen  stand  so  bel'ore  t  e  king  as  thit 
your  adversary,  by  bringing  forward  a  rook  or  a  bishop,  miirin 
check  your  king  if  she  were  nnt  there;  for  you  could  hardly 
save  her,  or  perhaps  at  best  must  sacrifice  her  for  an  inferior 
piece :  as.  for  example  place  the  white  king  on  01 ,  the  queen  on  56 
the  black  king  on  4.  and  the  rook  on  IB;  which  last,  if  moved  to  11 
must  be  taken  by  the  white  queen,  who  in  return  would  be  taken 
by  the  black  king,  because  the  white  (|ueen  could  not  otherwise 
be  moved  without  putting  the  kiiii;  on  check  lo  the  black  rook. 

14.  I, el  not  your  adversary's  knight  fork  your  king  and  queen. 
or  king  and  rook,  or  queen  and  rook,  or  your  two  rooks,  at  thj 
same  time;  lor  in  the  two  first  cases,  the  king  being  forced  lo 
go  out  of  eheck.  the  queen  or  the  rmik  must  be  lost;  and  in  the 
two  last,  a  rook  must  be  lost,  at  best,  for  a  worse  piece.  Place 
the  white  queen  on  5.  the  rook  on  7.  and  a  black  knight  on  37. 
The  latter  piece,  if  moved  lo  •J'i.  will  fork  both  the  queen  anj 
rook,  and  consequently  one  of  thcin  must  he  lost  lor  the  knijht 

15.  Take  care  that  no  guarded  pawn  of  your  adver.sary's  ftitk 
two  of  your  pieces;  knights  and  rooks  are  particularly  liiibleio 
this  mode  of  attack  ;  also  guard  against  either  a  check  by  disco, 
vcrv  or  a  siale-mate. 

1(5.  When  the  kinps  have  ca«tled  on  difTercnt  sides  of  the 
board,  attack  with  ihe  pawn  you  have  on  that  side  where  the 
adversary  has  castled,  advancing  the  pieces,  especially  the 
ijueen  and  rooks,  to  support  ihem;  and  if  the  adversary's  kini 
have  ihrei'  pawns  on  a  lino  in  front,  he  should  not  stir  ilicm  tifl 
forced  lo  it. 

17.  Ktideavonr  to  have  a  move  in  ambuscade  ;  ihai  ts.  place 
the  queen,  bishop,  or  rook,  behind  a  pawn  or  a  piece  in  such  a 
inani'er  as  that,  upon  playing  that  pawn  or  piece,  you  discover 
a  check  upon  your  adversary's  king,  and  consequently  mav 
oilen  get  a  piece  or  some  other  advutilage  by  it.  Suppose  ihi 
black  king  on  (i,  a  white  bishop  ou  41,  and  a  pawn  on  34,  by 
nioviiig  the  pawn  lo  yO,  a  check  by  the  while  bishop  is  d.piio. 
vered  upon  the  black  king. 

IH,  Never  guard  an  inferior  piece  or  pawn  with  a  better.  If 
you  can  do  it  with  a  pawn,  because  that  better  piece  may  ii 
such  a  case  be,  as  it  were,  out  of  play. 

to.  A  pawn  pushed  on  and  well  supported  often  costs  the 
adversary  a  piece  ;  but  one  separate  t'roni  the  others  is  seldom 
of  any  value.  And  whenever  you  have  gained  a  pawn  or 
other  uilvaiitage.  and  are  not  in  danger  of  losing  ifie  move 
thereby,  make  as  freipient  exchanges  as  you  can. 

'2(1.  If  each  player  have  three  pawns  upon  the  board,  and  no 
piece,  and  you  have  a  pawn  on  one  side  of  the  board,  and  the 
other  two  on  llie  other  sidi'.  and  your  adversary's  teree  arc  op- 
posite to  your  two,  march  with  your  king  to  take  Ins  pawns; 
and  ifhe  inove  to  support  them,  go  on  toqiieenwiih  your  single 
pawn;  and  ifhe  aitempt  lo  hinder  it.  lake  his  pawns,  ami  push 
vours  to  (lueeii:  that  is.  to  move  a  pawn  into  the  adversnrj'i 
Lack  row.  in  order  lo  make  a  queen, 

".'1.  At  ihi'  latter  end  of  the  game  each  parly  having  onlf 
three  or  lour  pawns  on  ilifferent  sides  of  the  bpard,  the  kmgii 
are  to  endeavour  lo  gain  tlie  move,  in  order  to  win  the  gaiite: 
for  example,  the  white  king  [ilaei'd  on  .'>l.  and  tlii'  Mack  kin; 
on  :!".  white  would  gain  the  move  by  playing  to  ,').'l,  or  black  tn 
S"*.  and  in  both  cases  the  adverse  king  would  be  prevenied  from 
ntlvauciiig. 

'."J  When  the  adversary  has  no  more  than  his  king  and  one 
pawn  on  the  boanl.  and  you  a  king  only,  you  can  never  lose 
that  game  if  vou  bring  and  keep  your  king  opposite  lo  your  ad- 
vrrsiir>  's,  when  he  is  iminediaii'ly  eilher  bet'ore  or  on  (Uie  side 
of  his  pawn,  and  onlyone  scpinre  between  the  kings,  Thisniuil, 
then,  be  a  slab-  male  or  drawn  game. 

■S-t.  Never  cover  a  elii'ck  with  a  piece  ihat  a  pawn  pushed 
upiHi,;t  may  taki'.  for  iVar  of  only  getting  thai  pawn  lor  it:  put 
a  black  nxik  on  7.  and  a  pewn  on  411 :  the  white  kmg  on  ft'l.  and 
a  knight  on  (11  :  the  wbili^  timg  being  on  a  cheek  lo  ihe  rook,  if 
the  cheek  be  covered  by  moving  ihe  white  knight  tn  50,  th» 
black  pawn  could  :l  en  lie  moved  lo  4H  ,ind  take  the  knight 

24.  I)o  not  crowd  your  adversary's  king  with  yourpieces,.0f 
you  iniidvertently  give  a  slab-male,  which  is  •»  drawn  gnme. 

35.  l>o  not  be  loo  much  afraid  of  losiiif  a  rooa  for  an  infwi 


CHESS. 


m 


■lecti  IfiOUSh  "  '""''  ''  ''elter  than  any  other  excep  tho  <;  oeen, 
L«j|»eldoin  cuiiiLS  jiiU)  pluy,  so  as  to  operuit;,  until  the  end  of 
Le«mi!i  an''  <' '"  K<-'nei'ully  butter  to  huvo  a  worse  piece  in 
2»y  lliaii  B  »upi;rior  out. 

'jj.  When  you  Imvu  moved  a  piece  which  your  adversary 
Irivei  sway  with  a  pawn,  that  is  a  bnd  move,  your  enemy 
niainx  »  tloul>le  udvuntu)irii.  At  this  nice  game  no  move  can 
L  inliriletcul.  TliouKh  the  first  move  may  not  be  much  bitwecn 
MUtlly  (J™*'  P^syf"'  yi'l  'he  loss  of  one  or  two  more,  after  the 
iJit,  maSvs  iIk' game  ulmosi  irretrievable ;  '>ut  if  you  can  re- 
drertiie  move  or  ilie  uiiack  (lor  they  both  go  togeilier),  you 
ire  In  a  fair  way  ol'  winning. 

47.  If  ever  yonrgami-  be  fuch  that  you  have  scarce  any  thing  to 
«lty,  you  have  uiilior  brniiuhl  out  your  piece  wrong,  or,  wliat 
iiwor«e,  not  at  all .  for  if  you  havo  brought  them  out  right,  you 
oosthttve  vuriiMy  unDugli. 

3i  Do  not  la-  luueli  airuid  of  doubling  a  pawn  :  two  in  a  di- 
(Mtliiii-'  are  not  cl.sudvuiiliigeoug  when  surrounded  by  three  or 
fojr others;  iliree  togfilu.T  are  strong(u4  three  white  pawns  on 
til,3i,  ami  '*<) ;  but  ibur  ins  44  in  addition)  that  make  n  8(|uure, 
»ilh  the  help  of  ollnr  pieeiii',  well  managed  form  an  invincible 
Ur.iigth,  anil  probably  may  produce  you  a  queen:  on  the  coii- 
iiiiry,  two  pawns,  with  lui  interval  between  (as  on  .'!5  and  H7), 
jru  no  better  than  one  :  and  if  you  should  have  three  over  eacli 
Other  in  a  lim;  (us  M,  34,  and  43),  your  game  cannot  be  in  a 
mrse  situnlion. 

29.  When  a  piece  is  so  attacked  that  it  is  diflicult  to  save  it. 
Jive  it  up,  and  endeavour  to  annoy  your  enemy  in  another 
place;  for  it  often  Imppcns,  that  whilst  your  adversary  is  pur- 
luinga  pieee.  you  either  get  a  pawn  or  two,  or  such  a  situation 
uends  in  Ins  dt'Structimi. 

30.  Supposing  your  queen  and  another  piece  are  attacked  at 
He  same  time,  and  by  removing  your  queen  you  must  lose  the 
piece,  if  yon  can  gel  two  pieces  in  exchange  for  her.  rather  do 
lliatthan  retire,  for  the  '.lillerence  is  more  than  ilie  worth  of  a 
mieen;  besides,  yon  preserve  your  situation,  which  is  often 
better  than  a  piece ;  when  the  atiaek  and  delince  are  thoroughly 
(bnncil,  if  he  who  plays  hrst  be  obliged  to  retire  by  the  person 
vbodefcnils.  thm  geiii'rully  ends  in  the  loss  of  the  gam  <  on  the 
Bile  of  him  wlio  iiltneks. 

31.  Do  not  a;m  at  e.Keliunges  without  rehson ;  n  gomi  player 
will  take  advanliige  of  It  to  spoil  your  siiuution  and  mend  his 
own;  but  when  you  are  sirongesi,  espi'clally  by  a  piece,  and 
bave  not  an  immediate  cheek-mate  in  view,  then  every  titne 
tou  exchange  your  itdvauiage  inrreases.  Again,  when  you 
tavo  played  ii  piece,  and  your  adversary  opposes  one  to  you, 
cicliaage  dineily,  for  In:  wants  to  remove  you  ;  prevent  him. 
Hid  do  not  lose  the  move. 

'&  Kvery  now  and  ilien  examine  your  game,  and  then  take 
four  measiiies  nccoriliiijily. 

33.  At  the  latier  end  of  ilie  game,  especially  when  both  queens 
are  off  the  board,  ihe  kings  are  capital  pieces;  do  not  let  your 
king  be  Idle ;  it  Is  liy  his  means  generally  you  must  gel  the 
auveand  the  viciory. 

34,  As  tin'  quei'ii.  rooks,  and  bishops,  operate  at  a  distance. 
Illanot  always  necessary  in  your  attack  to  have  them  near 
four  adversary's  k  ng;  ihey  do  belter  at  a  distance,  as  they 
wimol  lie  dr  ven  away. 

IJ5.  When  ihcre  is  a  piece  you  can  take,  and  that  cannot  es- 
cape, do  not  liiirry  :  see  wli.'re  you  can  make  agood  move  else- 
wbere.  and  lakr  the  piece  at  leisure, 

3ti.  It  Is  not  always  right  to  take  your  adversary's  pawn 
Willi  your  king,  for  very  often  It  happens  to  be  a  safeguard  and 
proieclion  lo  hin  Piece  a  black  rook  on  5,  wlih  a  pawn  on 
15.  and  the  while  king  on  5.3,  and  he  will  be  shelterrd  by  the 
black  pawn  t'rom  the  attack  of  the  rook. 

Recommendations  as  to  some  of  th«  fo'c going  Rules. 

1.  Whether  yon  play  the  open  or  olose  game,  bring  out  all 
four  pieces  iir.o  play  betbri'  you  li  irin  the  attack  ;  for  if  yon  do 
not. and  your  luivrjri^iiry  sliould,  vm  will  always  nltack  or  be 
Itiackcd  at  a  great  disailvniinige  ;  this  is  so  essential,  that  vnii 
bad  better  liirego  an  advaniiige  than  deviate  from  It;  and  no 
person  can  ever  play  will  who  does  not  strictly  practise  this. 
In  order  to  bring  oul  >i>nr  p  eees  properly,  push  on  your  pawns 
firm,  and  support  ilnni  wnli  your  pieces'  by  which  your  game 
will  not  be  crowded,  and  all  your  pieces  will  be  at  liberty  to 
play  and  ass.st  em  h  oilier,  and  so  Co-operate  towards  obtain- 
ing your  end:  aii'l  ■■  iher  111  your  attack  or  defence,  bring  them 
out  10 as  not  to  be  ilriven  Inick  uirain.  , 

'i.  When  J  on  have  broiiglil  out  all  your  pieces,  which  you 
vil  have  iluin'  wrtl  il"  you  iiave  your  choice  on  which  side  lo 
eustle.  then  ei>iis'iler  ihnronghly  your  own  and  adversary's 
pme.  and  not  only  resolve  where  lo  castle,  but  likewise  to 
attack  where  you  appear  sirongesi  and  your  enemy  weakest. 
Bvihis  It  is  possibli'  you  will  iie  able  to  break  through  your 
«Jyer»nry's  ^aine.  In  whleli  some  pieces  must  he  exchanged, 
.Now.  pniise  again,  and  survey  both  games  ntieiitlvely.  aiicl  do 
not  let  your  impeinnsiiy  hurry  you  on  too  far:  at  this  critical 
iuiictnr'e  (especially  If  yon  still  find  your  adversary  very  strong) 
rally  your  men,  and  put  them  in  goml  order  for  a  second  or  third 
aitiok,  ktill  keeping  ilit-iu  close  and  coimeeted.  so  as  to  be  of 
nsetoeneh  oiImt.  Kor  want  of  this  method,  and  a  little  cool- 
ntij.  UN  almost  sure  victory  Is  often  snatched  out  of  a  player's 
hands,  and  a  loliil  overthrow  ensues, 

3,  At  the  lust  period  of  the  game,  observe  where  yo  ir  pawns 
•re  itrongest.  besi  conniM'ied.  and  nearest  lo  queen;  likewise 
iiind  how  your  adversary's  pawns  are  disposed,  anil  lompare 
ieje  things  together;  and  if  you  can  get  to  queen  betore  him, 
proceed  wnhmit  heslialion;  if  not.  hurry  on  with  your  king  to 
jireyenthim.  1  sp<<«k  now  as  supposing  all  the  higher  pieces 
ire  gone ;  if  not.  thi'V  are  to  aiiund  your  pawns,  and  likewise  to 
pre»ciit  your  adversary  tVotn  going  to  queen  -Set  Uoylt, 
W^  • 

Vot.  I.— 90 


To  theie  rulen  and  recommendations  we  add  the  fas* 
lowing  advice : — Conduct  your  game  with  coolness,  tatM 
time  to  consider  the  chances  for  and  against  in  moving, 
and  do  not  give  up  the  contest  till  all  hope  is  gone  of 
retrieval.  An  anecdote  has  been  told  of  two  gciulcmeh 
]>laying  at  chess,  one  of  whom  found  his  game  so  hop^ 
less  that  he  declared  himself  beat ;  wlicn  an  onlooker  of 
more  skill  said  he  would  undertake  to  win  the  game  for 
liitn  by  three  moves,  without  the  possibility  of  being 
counteracted.  The  offer  was  accepted,  and  tlie  game 
at  once  retrieved  and  won.  As  this  is  a  particularly  in- 
structive incident,  we  shall  state  the  positions  of  the 
pieces  on  tho  board  in  reference  to  the  numbers  of  the 
stjuarcs  on  the  diagram. 

The  black  rook  was  at  9,  the  black  knight  at  IS,  the 
black  bishop  at  20,  the  black  king  at  22,  the  black  rook 
at  40,  black  pawns  at  25,  26,  30,  35,  and  36,  and  the 
black  queen  at  42.  The  white  king  was  at  7,  the  white 
rooks  at  61  and  63  ;  the  white  knight  at  47,  and  a  white 
pawn  at  38.  Tho  white  has  the  move.  The  white 
knight  at  47  gives  check  at  32 ;  the  black  rook  at  40 
takes  it.  The  white  rook  at  63  gives  check  at  23 ;  the 
black  king  takes  it.  The  white  rook  at  61  gives  check- 
mate  at  21.  Thus,  the  white,  by  a  few  dexterous 
moves,  completely  paralyzes  the  adversary,  and  wins  ttta 
game. 

By  writing  an  account  of  moves,  it  is  possible  for  ad- 
versaries to  carry  on  games  at  chess  though  -  at  a  great 
distance  from  each  other.  Thus,  chess  clubs  in  London 
are  known  to  tarry  on  matches  with  clubs  in  Edinburgh 
or  Paris,  or  even  with  a  club  in  India.  Giuues  of  thil 
kind  sometimes  last  for  years 

The  Morals  of  Chess,  by  Dr.  Franklin, 

The  game  of  chess  is  not  merely  an  idle  amusement; 
several  very  valuable  qualities  of  the  mind,  useful  in  the 
course  of  human  Ufe,  arc  to  be  acquired  or  strengthened 
by  it,  so  as  to  become  habits,  ready  on  all  occasions;  for 
life  is  a  kind  of  chess,  in  which  we  have  often  points  to 
gain,  and  competitors  or  adversaries  to  contend  with,  and 
in  which  there  is  a  vast  variety  of  good  >,nd  ill  eventa 
that  are,  in  some  degree,  the  effects  of  prudence  or  the 
want  of  it. 

By  playing  at  chess,  then,  we  may  learn, 

1.  Fotetie;hl,  which  looks  a  little  into  futurity,  and 
considers  the  consequences  that  may  attend  an  action  t 
for  it  is  continually  occurring  to  tho  player,  >'  If  I  movt 
this  piece,  what  will  bo  the  advantage  or  disadvantage  oi 
my  new  situation,  what  use  can  my  adversary  make  ol 
it  to  annoy  me  1  What  other  moves  can  I  make  to  sup* 
port  it,  and  to  defend  niyiielf  from  his  ottacksl" 

2.  Cirawifpfction,  which  surveys  the  whole  chess- 
board, or  scene  of  action ;  the  relation  of  the  several 
pieces,  and  their  situations ;  the  dangers  they  are  re- 
spectively ond  repeatedly  exposed  to  ;  the  several  possi- 
bilities of  their  aiding  each  other ;  the  piohabilitica  that 
the  adversary  may  make  this  or  that  move,  and  attack 
this  or  the  other  piece ;  and  what  diflcrent  means  can  be 
used  to  avoid  his  stroke,  or  turn  its  consequences  against 
him. 

3.  Catitioti,  not  to  make  our  moves  too  hastily.  Thi» 
habit  is  best  aciiuirrd  by  observing  strictly  the  laws  of 
the  game,  such  as, "  If  you  touch  a  piece,  you  must  move 
it  somewhere;  if  you  set  it  down,  you  inuKt  let  it  stand." 
Anil  it  is  therefore  best  that  these  rules  should  be  oh- 

I  served,  as  the  game  thereby  becomes  more  the  image  of 

!  human  life,  and  particularly  of  war;  in  which,  if  you 
havo  incautiously  put  yourself  into  a  bud  and  datigerou* 
position,  you  cannot  obtain  your  enemy's  leave  to  with- 
draw your  troops  and  place  them  more  securely,  but  you 
must  abide  all  the  consequences  of  your  rashness. 

I  And,  lastly,  we  learn  by  chess  the  habit  of  nut  onnf 
dixvuraged  by  present  bud  appearance)  in  the  itatt  of  mar 

I  affair),  the   habit  of  hoping  for  a  favourabU  chan§»^ 

'  3oS 


tt4 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


and  that  ol  ffrsevenni;  in  the  tearch  of  retourret.    The 
pme  is  80  fVill  of  events,  there  in  such  a  variety  of  turns  ■ 
fa)  it,  the  fortune  of  it  is  so  liable  to  swldcn  vicissitudes,  { 
and  one  so  frequently,  after  long;  contemplation,  disco-  ^ 
vers  the  means  of  extricating  one's  self  irom  a  supposed  '• 
iniurmoiintable  difficulty,  that   vie   are  eftcouragcd   to  { 
eontinue  the  contest  to  the  last,  in  hopes  of  victory  firom  j 
our  cwn  skill,  or  at  least  of  giving  a  stale-mate,  by  the 
negligence  of  our  adversary ;  and   whoever  considers, 
what  in  chess  he  often  sees  instances  of,  that  success  is 
«pt  to  proiluce  prusumption  and  its  consequent  inatten- 
tion, by  which  more  is  aflerwards  lost  than  was  gained  by 
the   preceding   advantage,   while   misfortunes   produce 
more  care  and  attention,  by  which  the  loss  may  be  re- 
fovered,  will  learn  not  to  he  too  much  discouraged  by 
•ny  present  success  of  his  adversary,  nor  to  despair  of 
final  good  fortune  upon  every  little  check  he  receives  in 
the  pursuit  of  it. 

That  we  may,  therefore,  bo  induced  more  frequently 
to  choose  this  beneficial  amusement  in  preference  to 
Others  wliirh  are  not  attended  with  the  same  advantages, 
every  circumstance  which  may  increase  the  pleasure 
of  it  should  be  regarded  ;  and  every  action  or  word 
that  is  unfair,  disrespectful,  or  that  in  any  way  may 
give  uneasiness,  should  be  avoided,  as  contrary  to  the 
immediate  intention  of  all  parties,  which  is  to  pass  the 
time  agreehbly. 

Therefore,  1.  If  it  is  agreed  to  play  according  to  the 
■tn'ct  rules,  then  those  rules  are  to  l)c  exactly  observed 
by  both  parties,  and  should  not  be  insisted  on  for  one 
ride  while  deviated  from  by  the  other;  for  this  is  not 
equitable. 

2.  If  it  is  agreed  not  to  observe  the  rules  exactly,  but 
one  party  demands  inili)li;i!ncea,  he  should  then  be  as 
willing  to  allow  them  to  the  other. 

3.  No  false  move  should  ever  be  made  to  extricate 
yourself  out  of  a  difficulty  or  to  gain  an  advantage ;  for 
there  can  lie  no  pleasure  in  playing  with  a  person  once 
detected  in  such  unfair  practices. 

4.  If  your  adversary  is  long  in  playing,  you  ought 
11(4  to  hurry  him,  or  exp.-ess  any  uneasiness  at  his 
delay.  Vou  should  not  sing,  nor  whistle,  nor  look  at 
yo-jr  watch,  nor  take  up  a  l)ook  to  read,  nor  make  a  tap- 
ping with  your  feet  on  the  floor  or  with  your  fingers 
upon  the  table,  nor  do  any  thing  that  may  distract  his 
attention  ;  for  all  these  things  displease,  and  they  do  not 
diow  your  skill  in  play:ng,  but  your  crmllineM  or  your 
rudeness. 

5.  You  ought  not  to  endeavour  to  amuse  and  deceive 
y«ir  adversary,  by  pretending  to  have  made  bad  moves, 
■nd  saying  that  you  have  now  lost  the  game,  in  order 
to  make  him  secure  and  careless,  and  inattentive  to 
your  schemes ;  for  this  is  fraud  and  deceit,  not  skill  in 
the  game. 

8.  You  must  not,  when  you  have  gained  a  victory, 
use  any  triumi)hing  or  insulting  expression,  nor  show 
too  much  of  the  pleasure  you  feel ;  but  endeavour  to 
console  your  adversary,  and  make  him  less  dissatisfied 
with  himself,  by  every  kind  and  civil  expression  that  may 
be  used  with  truth,  such  as,  "  You  understand  the 
game  l)otter  than  I,  but  you  wore  a  little  inattentive ;" 
or,  "  You  had  the  best  of  the  game,  hut  something  hop- 
pened  to  divert  your  thoughts,  and  that  turned  it  in  my 
fiiTMir." 

7.  If  you  are  a  spectator  while  others  play,  observe 
the  most  perfect  silence;  for  if  you  give  advice  you  of- 
fend b<jth  parties — him  against  whom  you  gave  it,  be- 
cause it  may  cause  the  loss  of  his  game ;  him  in  whose 
favour  you  gave  it,  liecause,  though  it  he  good,  and  he 
follows  il,  he  Icm-a  the  pleasure  ho  might  have  had  if 
you  hail  permitted  him  to  think  until  that  had  occurred 
to  himself.  Kven  after  a  move  or  moves,  you  must  not, 
by  replacing  the  piece*,  show  how  they  might  have  been 


placed  better ;  for  that  displeases,  and  may  occanoi  A'l^ 
putes  or  doubts  about  their  true  situation.  All  talkii 
to  the  players  lessens  or  diverts  their  attention  and  u 
therefore  unpleasing.  Nor  should  you  give  the  leaii 
hint  to  either  party  by  any  kind  of  noise  or  motion  •  if 
you  dc,  you  are  unworthy  to  be  a  spectator.  Should 
you  have  a  mind  to  exercise  or  show  your  judgment  dn 
it  in  playing  your  own  game,  when  )  ou  have  an  oppoN 
tunity,  not  in  criticising,  or  meddling  with,  or  counsclliiio 
the  ploy  of  others.  ^ 

Lastly,  if  the  game  is  not  to  be  played  rigorously  ao. 
cording  to  the  rules  as  afore-mentioned,  then  modcraio 
your  desire  for  victory  over  your  adversary,  and  ba 
pleased  with  one  over  yourself.  Snatch  nut  eagerly  at 
every  advantage  oticred  by  his  unskilfulncss  or  inatle^ 
tion ;  but  point  out  to  hitlTkindly,  that  by  such  a  iiio.o 
he  places  or  leaves  a  piece  exposcxl  and  unsupponej. 
that  by  another  he  will  put  his  king  in  a  dangeroui 
situation,  &c.  By  this  generous  civility  (so  opposite  to 
the  unfairness  before  forbidden)  you  may,  indeed,  ha> 
pen  to  lose  the  game  to  your  opponent,  but  you  (vi|| 
win  what  is  better,  his  esteem,  his  respect,  and  his  afleo 
tion,  together  with  the  silent  approbation  and  good-will 
of  impartial  spectators. 

When  a  vanquished  player  is  guilty  of  an  untruth  to 
cover  his  disgrace,  as  "  I  have  not  played  so  long— his 
method  of  opening  the  g!ime  confused  mo — the  men 
were  of  unusual  size,"  Ac,  all  such  apologies  (to  call 
them  no  worse)  nrtist  lower  him  in  a  wise  jierson  s  cyea, 
both  OS  a  mon  and  as  a  chess-player ;  and  who  will  nit 
suspect  that  he  who  endeavours  to  slicker  hiuisclf  undd 
such  untruths  in  trifling  matters,  is  no  very  sturdy  lao. 
ralist  in  afliiirs  of  greater  consequence,  where  his  fame 
and  honour  are  at  stake  ?  A  man  of  proper  pride  would 
scorn  to  account  for  being  beaten  by  one  of  these  ex- 
cuses, even  were  it  true ;  because  they  all  at  the  moment 
have  the  appearance  of  being  untrue. 

DRAUGHTS. 

Draughts  is  a  game  with  a  checkered  board  and  men, 
of  much  less  antiquity  than  chess,  and  ia  perhaps  to  be 
considered  a  degenerate  descendant  of  that  noblo  spoit 
In  France  it  is  called  k»  dnmei,  from  having  been  a  fa. 
vourife  game  with  the  ladies ;  and  in  Scotland,  this  sij;. 
nification  is  preserved  in  the  term  tluiu-hroii,  the  name 
universally  applied  by  the  common  people  to  the  draught 
board. 

Draughts  is  played  on  a  chess-I)oard,  or  a  hoird  check- 
ered precisely  in  the  same  manner,  with  thirty-two 
white  and  thirty-two  black  squares.  The  board,  how- 
ever, is  {daced  l)cforc  the  players  diireretitly  ;  in  chea 
there  must  be  a  white  square  in  the  right-hand  corner, 
but  in  draughts  the  right-hand  corner  nmst  be  black 
(that  is,  supposing  you  to  play  on  the  white  squares). 

The  game  is  played  by  two  persons,  whc.  NJt  opposite 
to  each  other.  Each  party  has  a  set  of  twelve  men,  the 
colour  of  the  twp  being  ditferent  for  the  snke  rf  distino- 
tion.  The  men  are  generally  round  anil  flat  pieces  of 
wood  ;  one  set  white,  and  another  black  :  those  of  the 
neatest  kind  arc  turned  out  of  boxwood  and  eliony. 

The  men  may  he  placed  either  on  the  white  or  black 
squares,  but  the  whole  must  be  put  on  one  colour  only. 
It  is  cuatomary  in  England  to  place  all  upon  the  whi*e, 
and  to  have,  as  above,  a  black  square  on  the  right,  Ig 
Scotland  the  black  are  played  upon,  when  there  is  cons* 
quently  a  white  square  to  the  right.  Me  go  upon  the 
supposition  that  the  play  is  upon  the  whiti;  sijuares,  and 
have  numl>ered  thcin  in  the  annexed  figure  accordingly. 

The  movcmcntH  in  draughts  are  very  siinple :  u  man 
can  move  only  one  square  at  a  time,  and  dingonnllj) 
never  straight  forward  or  sideways.  If  an  enemy's  man 
stand  in  the  way,  no  move  can  take  place,  unlewi  tiien 
be  a  vacant  square  beyond,  into  wliich  the  pieje  can  U 


BACKGAMMON. 


71S 


Htud  In  this  case  the  man  leaped  over  is  taken ;  he  is 
i»B»»ed  from  the  board. 

The  grand  object  of  the  game,  then,  is  to  clear  the 
eoird  of  the  enemy's  men,  or  to  hem  them  in  so  that 
Ihey  cannot  move ;  and  which  ever  party  does  so  first 
mins  the  virtory.  As  no  piece  can  move  more  than  one 
itep  diagonally  at  a  time,  there  can  be  no  taking  till  the 
two  antagonists  come  to  close  quarters  ;  and  the  pusliing 
thetn  iiirautiously  into  each  other's  neighbourhood  is  the 
principal  art  of  the  game. 

When  the  men  on  either  side  have  cleared  their  way 
|«  la'  '„  .  or  found  an  open  path  to  the  opposite  side 
of  tiie  !>'  ard,  they  become  invested  with  a  new  power 
of  movement :  by  reaching  the  first  row  of  squares  on 
the  opposite  side,  the  piece  is  entitled  to  be  crotomd,  which 
ii  done  by  placing  a  man  on  the  top  of  it.  Thus 
crowned,  the  man  may  move  backwards,  but  always 
diagonally,  and  one  square  at  a  time,  as  before.  This 
power  of  moving  and  taking  either  forwards  or  back- 
wards, renders  it  of  consequence  to  get  men  crowned ; 
Bid  if  two  or  three  on  each  side  gain  this  honour,  the 
game  becomes  more  interesting,  and  nay  speedily  be 
determined.  The  following  is  a  representation  of  a 
draught  board,  numbered  for  the  sake  of  illustration, 
ind  placed  as  it  should  bo  in  playing. 


M 

I 

2 

JM 

3 

H  J 

5 

n 

« 

10 

|h 

^jH 

11 

9 

jBI 

11 

sTm 

13 

w 

cl-i^<il 

IB 

CZ 

iieill 

Hj'' 

jBi 

19 

i^ 

20 

21 

ffll 

22 

2£ 

CH. 

24 

Hi 

|J^5 

30 

jii 

27 

B 

^ 

^11 

V" 

32 

H 

Drs'jght- Board. 

Immediately  after  crowning,  great  art  is  shown  in 
blocking  up  one  or  Tiore  of  your  adversary's  men,  by 
the  aid  oi  which  to  accomplish  a  scries  of  decisive 
moves.  For  instance,  supposing  you  have  detaiiied  your 
ulversary'H  piece  at  4,  while  he  has  othori  situated  on  25 
Hid  26 — and  supposing  you  have  pieces  on  12  and  19, 
with  a  crowned  man  at  14,  you  may,  by  giving  him  your 
12  and  19,  exchange  two  pieces  for  three,  which  is  com- 
monly equivalent  to  winning  the  game.  Again,  suppos- 
ing you  have  pieces  on  1 3,  22,  30,  and  a  crowned  one 
UD  26,  and  your  adversary  a  piece  on  5,  with  others 
Bcattcred  in  the  direction  of  16,  8,  7,  you  may,  by  suc- 
cessively pushing  before  him  your  pieces  on  13  and  22, 
tain  a  fnnniilablo  exchange. 

In  hesjinning  to  play,  much  depends  on  having  the 
frst  move;  and  the  rule  is,  that  in  playing  several  games 
each  (i.irtj  takes  the  first  move  altorniitcly. 

II  a  phiycr  touch  one  of  his  men  ho  must  play  it.  If 
I  pjjyor  ninil  to  take  a  man  when  it  is  in  his  power  to  do 
»,  his  adversary  can  huff,  or  liloir,  him ;  that  is,  cither 
take  tile  iiinn  or  insist  upon  his  own  man  being  taken. 
,The  pructicc  is  at  once  to  lift  the  man  which  ought  to 
Have  taken  yours. 

We  present  the  following  as  an  exampl.™  of  playing  a 
|UM  iu  wliich  white  loiwis.     The  tetters  N   C  F,  T,  at 


the  head  of  the  columns,  n(>  ify  Number,  C  jlonr,  Fioa^ 
To:— 


N 

C 

P 

T 

N 

C 

F 

T 

1 

B 

11 

IS 

28 

W 

30 

25 

3 

W 

23 

18 

29 

B 

29 

33 

3 

B 

15 

83 

30 

W 

2(1 

17 

4 

W 

85 

13 

31 

B 

11 

IS 

S 

B 

3 

11 

33 

W 

20 

16 

6 

W 

29 

8S 

33 

B 

IS 

18 

7 

B 

4 

8 

34 

W 

24 

18 

8 

W 

Ob 

82 

33 

B 

18 

27 

9 

B 

13 

16 

36 

W 

31 

24 

10 

W 

34 

20 

37 

B 

14 

18 

11 

B 

10 

15 

38 

W 

10 

a 

13 

W 

37 

24 

39 

B 

7 

16 

13 

B 

10 

19 

40 

W 

20 

11 

14 

W 

23 

16 

41 

B 

18 

23 

15 

B 

IS 

19 

43 

W 

11 

8 

18 

W 

84 

IS 

43 

B 

23 

37 

17 

B 

0 

14 

44 

W 

8 

4 

18 

W 

13 

9 

45 

B 

27 

31 

10 

B 

11 

25 

46 

W 

1 

8 

20 

W 

33 

37 

47 

B 

31 

27 

31 

B 

S 

14 

48 

W 

24 

20 

38 

W 

87 

33 

40 

B 

87 

23 

33 

B 

6 

10 

50 

W 

a 

11 

24 

W 

Ifl 

12 

51 

B 

Kt 

18 

25 

B 

8 

It 

52 

W 

11 

8 

2« 

W 

88 

34 

53 

B 

18 

15 

27 

B 

25 

29 

&c. 

W 

loses.       1 

It  is  not  considered  fair  for  any  bystander  to  advita 
what  motions  should  be  taken,  or  for  a  player  to  waH 
longer  than  five  minutes  between  each  move.  Tho 
draught  player,  therefore,  must  on  al!  occasions  act  with 
much  more  p  -omptifude  and  decision  than  in  the  caM 
of  chess.  In  short,  draughts  is  a  very  ticklish  game.  A 
single  false  step  may  lead  to  irretrievable  ruin ;  and  it 
is  only  after  long  experience  in  figuring  in  the  mind  what 
would  be  the  result  of  particular  movements  that  pro& 
ciency  is  attained. 

BACKGAMMON. 

Backgammon  is  the  modem  name  of  a  game  of  con- 
siderable antiquity  in  England,  where  it  was  formerly 
known  by  the  appellation  of  "  the  tables."  The  words 
biick-aammon  have  been  ascribed  to  the  Welsh  tongue, 
in  which  they  are  said  to  signify  litlle-ballle:  but  Strutt, 
with  greater  plausibility,  traces  the  term  to  the  Saxon 
"  hue  and  gawif  11,  that  is,  back-game ;  so  denominated 
because  the  performance  consists  in  the  two  players 
bringing  their  men  back  from  their  antagonist's  tables 
into  their  own  ;  or,  because  the  pieces  are  sometimes 
taken  up,  and  obliged  to  go  back ;  that  is,  re-enter  at 
tho  table  they  came  from."  Whatever  be  the  etymo- 
logy of  the  term,  the  game  has  been  long  established 
in  the  country ;  and,  as  a  fireside  amusement  of  a  d^ 
corous  and  exciting  nature,  is  a  favourite  among  cler- 
gymen, squires,  farmers,  and  retired  professional  per- 
sons. 

Backgammon  is  played  with  an  apparatus  consisting 
of  a  board  or  tables,  men  or  pieces,  dice,  and  dice-boxes. 
The  introduction  of  dice  into  the  game,  and  their  con- 
stant use  in  determining  moves,  makes  backgammon 
essentially  a  game  of  chance,  and  therefore  liriiigs  two 
players  of  unequal  talents  nearer  a  level  than  other 
diversions  in  which  skill  is  tho  sole  or  predominant 
element. 

The  backgammon  board  consists  of  two  parts  or  tables, 
generally  united  by  a  hinge  in  the  middle,  by  which  they 
can  be  shut  up  as  a  box.  Each  tal)le  possesses  twelve 
points,  six  at  each  cud.  These  points  arc  coloured  white 
and  black  alternately  ;  but  this  variation  of  colour  baa 
no  reference  to  the  game,  and  is  only  done  to  make  the 
points  more  easily  counted. 

'I'lie  game  is  played  by  two  parties,  and  with  30  pieces 
or  men  :  each  party  has  16  men,  one  set  of  l.'j  being 
black  '.nd  the  otiior  white.     In  beginning  the  game,  tbe 


^^.. 
^>^ 


Tie 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


urn  an;  placed  on  certain  points  on  the  tables,  as  shown 
10  the  gubjuined  figure. 


The  Backgommon  Table. 

The  game  is  played  with  two  dice  and  two  dice-boxes. 
The  dice  are  common  to  both ;  but  each  party  uses  his 
own  dico-box,  and  the  throws  are  alternate. 

Each  die  is  a  perfect  cube,  marked  on  its  sides  wiih 
dots  from  1  to  6.  The  1  is  called  ace,  the  two  deuct,  the 
three  tre  or  trois,  the  four  -junlre,  the  five  cirKjue,  and  the 
■ix  lize.  At  every  throw  the  two  dice  are  employed ; 
oonsequently  a  (lerson  may  throw  from  two  up  to  twelve ; 
that  is,  two  ares  up  to  two  tizei. 

If  a  player  throw  boublets,  or  l>oth  dice  of  one  num- 
ber, double  the  number  of  dots  is  reckoned  ;  thus,  by  a 
throw  of  two  aces,  the  player  does  n'^i  count  two,  but 
fixir. 

These  numbers  thrown  or  accidentally  turned  up  by 
the  dice,  lH<ar  a  reference  to  the  iwiiils  on  the  tables.  In 
order  to  understand  this  connection  between  the  dice  and 
the  men,  the.  learner  must  observe  how  the  men  l-ic 
placed  on  the  points,  and  the  rules  by  which  their  shiS- 
ing  from  one  to  another  is  governed. 

The  tables  are  here  spread  out  as  i."  two  partners  were 
■eated  and  about  to  begin  to  play.  The  pany  owning 
the  white  men  is  seated  at  W,  and  the  party  owning  the 
black  men  at  B.  We  shall  call  one  party  White  and 
another  Black.  White  counts  round  from  the  ace  point 
of  Black,  and  Black  counts  round  from  the  ace  point 
of  White.  These  ace  points  are  respectively  seen  to 
bavr  two  men  upon  them  in  opposite  C3rners  of  the  same 
table.    - 

The  grand  object  of  the  game  is  for  each  party  to  get 
all  his  men  played  round  into  the  table  containing  the 
aces,  removing  them  from  point  to  point  agreeable  to  the 
throws  of  the  dice. 

In  throwing,  the  numbei-  upon  each  die  turned  up 
may  be  reckoni-d  by  itself,  or  collectively,  with  the  num- 
ber on  the  other  die.  Thus,  if  quatre  be  thrown  by  one 
die  and  size  by  the  other,  a  man  can  be  advanced  four 
points  and  another  six  points,  or  one  man  can  l>e  ad- 
vanced ten  points,  always  providing  that  a  point  is  o|)en 
to  suit  this  movement  to  it.  No  point  can  l>e  moved  to, 
if  covered  by  two  men  l)clonging  to  the  adversary.  If 
cohered  by  only  one  man,  wh'ch  i.s  called  a  /■/()',  then 
thut  man  can  be  hit,  and  be  rvinoved  from  the  point,  and 
jviaccd  on  the  bar  between  the  tables,  his  place  being 
token  iiy  the  man  who  has  won  it. 

The  removal  of  h  man  to  the  bars  throws  a  player 
ecnsiderably  U-hind  in  the  game,  because  the  man  must 
leroain  out  of  the  play  till  the  dice  turn  up  a  number 
oarreRfHiinling  to  one  oi)fn  point  on  the  ad^o'sary's  table. 
Being  fortunate  enough  to  get  an  open  point  by  this 


means,  the  man  must  be  entered  and  xvrouj^ht  -onirf 
from  thence,  as  in  the  case  ]f  others  in  the  set  to  which 
he  belongs.  Tho  frequent  occurrence  of  this  hitting  of 
H  blot  gives  an  adversary  a  g^eat  advantage,  and  allowi 
him  to  win  the  gammon. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  victory,  winning  the  hit  and 
winning  the  gammon.  Tho  party  who  has  played  all 
his  men  round  into  his  own  table,  and  by  fortunate  throwi 
of  the  dice  has  borne  or  played  the  men  ofl'  the  poinu 
first,  wins  the  hit. 

The  gammon  may  be  explained  as  follows : WbcQ 

you  have  got  all  your  men  round  to  your  own  tahk 
covering  every  point,  and  your  adversary  has  a  man  out, 
then  you  are  enabled  to  hear  or  lift  your  men  awuy.  If 
you  can  bear  all  away,  so  as  to  clear  your  tabic  before  iIm 
adversary  gets  his  man  placed  by  a  throw  on  your  tabk 
you  win  the  gammon.  If  the  adversary  has  been  able 
to  bear  one  before  you  have  borne  all  your  men,  it  re- 
duces the  victory  to  a  hit. 

Two  hits  are  reckoned  equal  to  one  gammon  in  plar- 
ing  matches.  To  win  two  games  out  of  three  in  called 
winning  the  rub,  as  at  whist. 

Hoyle'i  Directions  for  Bearing  Men. 

If  a  phyor  has  taken  up  two  of  the  adversary's  meiL 
and  happens  to  have  two,  three,  or  more  points  made  in 
his  own  tables,  he  should  spread  his  men,  that  he  cither 
may  take  a  new  point  in  his  tables,  or  be  ready  to  hit 
the  man  which  the  adversary  may  happen  to  enter.  If 
he  finds,  upon  the  adversary's  entering,  that  the  game  ii 
upon  a  par,  or  that  the  advantage  is  on  his  own  side,  hi 
should  fake  the  adversary's  man  up  whenever  he  can, 
it  being  25  to  11  that  he  is  not  hit :  exccjrt  when  he  it 
playing  for  a  single  hit  only ;  then,  if  playing  the  throw 
otherwise  gives  him  a  better  chance  for  it,  he  ougni  ts 
du  \t 

It  being  6  to  1  against  his  being  bit  with  double  iic^ 
he  should  never  be  deterred  from  taking  up  any  on*  nun 
of  the  fidversary's. 

It  he  has  taken  up  one  of  the  adversaiy's  men,  ani 
should  happen  to  have  five  points  in  his  own  tables,  anJ 
forced  to  leave  a  blot  out  of  his  tables,  he  should  endea- 
vour to  leave  it  upon  doublets  preferable  to  any  otoer 
chance,  liecausn  in  that  case  the  odds  are  35  to  1  that  he 
in  not  hit ;  whereas  it  is  only  17  to  1  but  he  is  hit  upon 
any  other  rhance. 

When  the  adversary  is  very  forward,  a  player  should 
never  move  a  man  from  his  own  quatre,  trios,  or  deuce 
points,  thinking  to  bear  that  man  from  the  point  whore 
he  put  it,  as  nothing  but  hiijh  doublets  can  give  him  any 
chance  for  the  hit.  Instead  of  playing  an  ace  oradeuoi 
from  any  of  those  points,  he  should  play  them  from  hii 
own  size  or  highest  points ;  so  that  throwing  two  fivei 
or  two  fours,  his  size  ond  cinq"e  points  l«'ing  eased, 
would  be  a  considerable  advantb^^e  to  him  ;  whereas  had 
they  tir.'n  loaded,  he  must  have  been  obliged  to  plaj 
otherwise. 

It  is  the  iiii''i-est  of  the  adversary  to  take  up  the  plajref 
as  soon  as  b  lers.  The  blot  should  be  left  upon  thi 
adversary's  I  .vest  point;  that  is  to  say, 'upon  his  deuce 
point  rather  than  upon  his  troia  point ;  or  upon  hi,s  troii 
point  rather  than  upon  his  quatre  point;  or  upon  hii 
quatre  i)oint  preferable  to  his  cinque  point,  for  a  reason 
l«'fore  mentioned  ;  all  tho  men  the  adversary  plays  upon 
his  trois  or  his  deuce  points  are  (fc-emcd  lost,  U'ing 
greatly  out  of  play  ;  so  that  those  men  not  linvinR  it  in 
their  power  to  make  his  cinque  poiiit,  ond  his  cuuielicinj 
crowded  in  one  piece  and  open  in  annt!ier,thc  adversary 
must  1)0  greatly  annoyed  by  the  player. 

If  the  player  has  two  of  the  adversary's  men  in  liii 
•ables,  he  has  a  l)rtler  chance  for  a  hit  than  if  he  hid 
more,  provided  his  game  is  t()rw»fder  than  tl»t  of  hii 
antagonist;  for  if  he  had  three  ;»r  more  of  tlie  iii» 


BILLIARDS. 


717 


mn't  ttifti  in  hit  tables,  he  would  stand  a  worse  chanco 

to  b*  hit. 

When  a  player  is  running  to  save  the  gammon,  if  he 
dbould  have  two  men  upon  hia  ace  point,  and  several 
loen  abroad,  although  he  nhould  lose  one  point  or  two 
w  putting  hia  men  into  his  tables,  it  is  his  intcest  to 
'eave  a  man  upon  the  adversary's  ace  point,  because  it 
will  prevent  his  adversary  from  bearing  his  men  to  the 
/malest  advantare,  and  at  the  same  fime  the  player  will 
hiive  «  chanc-  »f  'he  adversary's  making  a  blot,  which 
he  mav  chance  to  hit.  However,  if  a  player  finds,  upon 
I  tbron,  that  he  has  a  probability  of  saving  hia  gammon, 
he  should  never  wait  for  a  blot,  as  the  odda  are  greatly 
uiiiut  Ilia  hilling  it,  but  should  embrace  that  opportunity. 

BILLIARDS. 

This  aport  may  be  said  to  combine  the  principles  of 
oowls,  golf,  and  some  other  games  in  which  objects  are 
impelled  from  the  hand.  Whether  the  game  was  in- 
tented  in  France  or  England  is  not  clearly  ascertained ; 
hut  as  it  ia  mentioned  by  Shakspeare,  it  is  at  least  as 
old  in  this  country  as  the  sixteenth  century.  In  the 
present  day,  it  is  pursued  in  every  civilized  country,  but 
principally  by  the  higher  or  leisurely  classes  of  society. 
In  France,  it  is  much  more  common  than  in  England, 
where  ila  cJiaracter  has  suiTercd  materially  by  the  game 
having  been  made  the  subject  of  large  gambling  specu- 
lations. It  is  unfortunate  that  such  should  be  the  case, 
for  no  game  is  to  be  conaidered  so  purely  scientific :  it 
is  dynoinics,  or  certain  laws  of  motioii,  put  in'o  practical 
operation ;  the  hits  are  concusainiis  of  the  bails  exhibit- 
ing some  of  ihe  finest  examples  of  divergent  forces. 

Bil'iiirda  is  played  with  a  table,  certain  !iinds  of  rods, 
ind  balls.  The  table  varies  in  size,  that  in  most  com- 
mon use  being  from  eight  to  twelve  feet  long,  and  from 
fcur  and  a  half  so  six  feot  in  width.  Whatever  be  its 
dimensions,  it  requires  to  be  perfectly  level  and  smooth. 
It  is  crjinarily  made  of  small  pieces  of  wood  joined 
together,  so  as  to  avoid  warping,  and  these  being 
brought  to  a  dead  level  by  planing,  the  surface  is 
covered  with  fine  green  cloth.  All  round  is  a  ledgo  two 
to  three  inches  high,  and  atutfed  as  a  cushion.  The  table 
is  furnished  with  six  pockets,  one  at  each  of  the  four  cor- 
ners, and  one  on  each  side  at  the  middle.  The  mouths  of 
these  porkcts  or  purses  are  level  with  the  surface,  so  as 
to  allow  the  balls  to  glide  easily  into  them. 

The  bidia  are  of  ivory,  about  an  inch  and  a  half  in 
diameter.  Two  are  white,  and  one  is  red.  One  of  the 
white  is  distinguished  by  a  spot.  There  are  usually  two 
players ;  he  who  owns  the  plain  ball  is  called  Plain,  and  he 
who  owns  the  spotted  bull  is  termed  Spot.  The  red  ball 
belongs  to  neither,  but  is  aimed  at  by  both. 

The  rods  or  bills  used  by  the  players  are  of  two  kinds, 
mu  liitlereiit  lengths  to  suit  dilTercnt  players.  The  ordi- 
nary kind  of  rod  is  called  a  rue.  It  is  long  and  smooth, 
with  one  end  thick  and  heavy,  and  the  other  more  slcn- 
iJer.  The  other  kind  of  rod  is  termed  a  marc  ,•  it  has  a 
dub-like  extremity,  and  is  much  less  frequently  uacd. 
Almost  all  players  employ  cues  of  the  length  which  suits 
them. 

In  playing,  the  Icf^  hand  is  rested  with  the  palm  under- 
most on  the  tabi''.  The  palm  is  hollowed,  and  the  thumb 
dose  to  the  forefinger  is  raised  up  to  form  a  bridge  or 
rest  for  the  cue.  The  hand  is  to  be  at  the  dist,ince  of 
itiout  six  inches  from  the  ball.  The  cue  is  lighlly  held 
ill  iie  right  hand,  the  thick  end  up[>crmost,  the  blow 
beiVig  struck  with  the  small  extremity.  Thus  held,  ii.  a 
froe  but  firm  manner,  and  resting  on  the  channel  between 
tlie  foretinger  and  thumb,  the  cue  is  given  a  sharp  run 
forward  so  as  to  hit  the  ball  in  the  required  direction, 
and  with  that  exact  degree  of  force  which  will  make  it 
perform  the  desired  fcuC.  To  prevent  slipping,  the  point 
of  tha  cue  is  generally  -ihaiked. 

The  table  is  laid  out  as  follows  for  play  :— At  the  dis- 


I  ince  of  about  a  foot  from  one  end,  hi  the  <^!ntro  of  the 
table,  is  a  small  dot  or  mark  in  the  cloth,  on  which  tha 
red  ball  is  placed.  At  a  similar  distance  from  the  othei^ 
which  we  shall  cill  the  upper  end  of  the  table,  a  line  i* 
made  across  by  a  chalked  string ;  and  in  the  middle  of 
this  line  there  is  a  mark  on  which  the  white  ball  of  • 
,ilayer  is  to  bo  strtick  from. 

The  leading  principle  in  the  sport  is  for  a  player  to 
impel  his  white  ball  against  the  red  ball,  and  drive  them 
into  a  pocket  or  pockets ;  or  to  perform  a  still  greater 
feat  of  striking  the  red  ball,  the  adversary's  ball,  and  hit 
own  ball,  into  pockets.  It  must  be  understood  that 
nothing  is  gained  by  a  player  striking  his  own  ball  direct 
into  a  pocket;  anybody  could  do  that,  and  there  would 
be  no  science  in  it.  The  merit  consists  in  impelling  b«Us 
against  r  ch  other,  at  such  an  exact  angle  that  on(:  or 
both  may  be  pocketed ;  and  the  skill  displayed  in  this  u 
often  very  surprising. 

In  setting  out  in  a  game,  the  first  stroke  or  lead  ib  d^ 
termined  by  lot  Thisiscoliedsfringing  forthelead.  Each 
player  hits  his  ball  from  the  string  or  line,  and  he  wh« 
causes  it  to  rebound  from  the  bottom  cushion  and  come  back 
nearest  to  the  upper  cushion,  has  the  lead  and  the  choice 
of  the  balls. 

The  first  player  begins  by  striking  his  ball  from  tho 
string  against  the  red  ball,  as  already  mentioned ;  and  if 
he  pockets  the  balls,  he  scores  a  certain  number  and  be* 
gins  again.  So  long  as  he  pockets,  the  adversary  does 
not  g«t  a  stroke.  If  the  player  miss,  the  adversary  take* 
his  turn.  Both  now  play  alternately,  hitting  tho  balll 
where  they  chance  to  lie ;  but  when  one  pockets,  ht 
starts  afresh  by  striking  from  the  string. 

A  person  in  attendance  $corei  or  keeps  reckoning  of 
the  play.  He  does  this  by  means  of  two  indices  moving 
round  a  figured  circle,  and  when  one  is  gained  he  turn! 
the  index  accordingly.  Technically,  he  is  told  to  scoie 
one  for  Plain  or  one  for  Spot. 

Hitherto  we  have  spoken  of  billiards  as  one  game, 
but  it  is  necessary  to  explain  that  at  least  twelve  diflerent 
games  may  bo  played.  We  shall  notice  the  two  follov^ 
ing  as  those  in  common  use. 

Winning  and  Losing  Game. 
This  is  played  by  two  persons,  and  twenty-one  potnta 
are  the  game.    The  following  are  Hoyle'a  regulations  for 
playing  it : — 

1.  The  gamecommences.  ns  usual,  with  atringingforlhelead, 
as  well  as  the  clioice  of  balls.  The  ball  in  sirin^ing  lobeplactd 
within  the  circle,  anil  Ihe  striker  must  stand  wiiliii'  the  corners 
of  the  table.  The  bull  which  rebounds  from  the  botiom  cushion, 
and  comes  nearest  to  the  cushion  within  the  baulk,  takes  tha 
lead,  and  has  the  choice  of  balls. 

8  If  the  adversary  to  the  first  person  who  has  strung  for  th» 
lead  ^liould  cause  h;s  bull  to  touch  the  other,  he  loses  the  lead 
thereby. 

3.  When  a  player  holds  tho  ball  In  stringin({  or  leading,  hia 
lead  is  forl'eited. 

4.  If  11  ball  is  followed  by  either  mnce  or  cue  beyond  tha 
middle  hole,  it  is  no  lend ;  the  adversary,  of  course,  may  foroa 
him  to  renew  his  lend. 

5.  Alter  every  losing  hazard,  tho  ball  ia  to  be  replaced  within 
the  nails  or  spots,  mid  wiiliin  the  ring. 

0.  The  place  lor  the  red  ball  js  on  the  lowest  of  the  two  spott 
at  the  bottom  of  the  table. 

7.  The  red  ball  being  holed  or  forced  over  the  table,  is  placed 
immediately  on  the  lowest  of  the  two  spots :  the  present 
pliiyer  is.  besides,  compelled  to  see  it  thus  replaced,  else  ha 
cuLiiot  score  any  points  while  it  is  olT  the  spot ;  the  stroke,  of 
course,  is  foul. 

H.  When  the  plnyer  misses  his  adversary's  I  '1,  he  losea 
one  :  but  should  he  at  the  snme  time  pocket  his  own  ball,  ha 
then  loses  three  berides  the  lend. 

9.  The  odvcrsary's  ball,  and  the  red  bull  also,  being  struck  by 
a  player. 

10.  When  the  striker,  after  making  a  hazerd  or  carnmbole, 
acciileiimlly  forces  bis  own  or  either  of  the  other  bulls  ovei 
the  table,  he  loses  all  the  advantages  he  has  gained  besides  tlia 
lead. 

11.  When  a  ball  is  accidentally  forced  over  the  table,  tha 
atriker  loses  the  lead. 

Vi.  To  strike  your  adversary's  ball  and  the  red  one  too,  yoa 
score  two  ;  this  is  called  u  enrom  or  carnmbole. 

i;.>  To  hole  the  adversary'^  or  the  white  ball,  you  icorB  twa 
To  hole  the  red  ball  you  score  three. 

14.  When  the  sinker  holes  hit  own  ball  off  hit  adTeiiarT'% 


7ia 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


fc«  leores  t<To  noimi;  but  if  he  hole*  his  hull  olf  the  red,  he 
•coroi  ibrcc.  But  \(  he  liolun  both  the  rud  mid  his  ndvorsary'i 
balls,  he  scores  live.  If  the  player  holes  the  red  and  his  own 
ball,  ho  scores  six. 

in.  If  ilii!  striker  holes  his  own  and  his  antagonist's  ball,  ho 
ioorua  four. 

l(i.  When  tha  striker  pluys  at  the  while  ball,  and  should  hole 
the  rad  ui'icr  tliat,  and  his  own  bull  besides,  he  scores  five— two 
for  liolinif  Die  white  und  three  forme  red.   , 

17.  Wtii'n  the  siriker  playing  on  the  red  hall  Rrsl.  should 
pocl<-t  lii«own  as  well  as  his  adversary's  ball,  he  scores  five 
poiiii-  ■  Ihroe  for  holing  olf  the  ri'd.  und  iwo  fur  holing  hiH  own. 

IS.  't'  the  pinyer  lioles  his  advemary's  bull,  his  own.  nnd  the 
red.  \i  »rore»  seven  iwints:  namely,  two  for  holingOlTlbe  while, 
IW'i  uir  till'  adversary's  holing,  und  three  for  holing  the  red  hull. 

lu.  Should  the  striker  hole  iiia  own  ball  olT  the  red,  und  hole 
the  red  and  '•■s  adversary's  too  nl  the  same  stroke,  lie  scores 
eight  puinis  thus:  three  for  holing  himself  olf  the  red,  three  for 
the  red  imeli',  and  two  fur  holing  his  adversary. 

',•  All  the  ubo»e  giimes.  coininiMiciiig  with  the  thirteenth,  are 
scored  without  the  cnramboles ;  the  following  are  those  in  which 
lUe  caruinUoles  occur : — 

■M.  Wlu'ii  u  caruinliole  is  mude.  nnil  the  adversary's  ball  is 
pocketed,  tour  are  scored;  namely,  two  for  the  carambolc  and 
two  for  the  white. 

'Jl.  If  the  striker  pockets  the  red  ball  nller  making  a  carain- 
')ole,  he  scores  fire ;  two  for  the  carainbole,  and  three  for  the  red. 

•ii.  U  the  striker  should  hole  both  his  adversary's  and  the 
rod  bull,  alter  having  carambolud,  lie  scores  seven:  iwo  for 
Uie  cariiiiiliule,  two  for  the  white,  and  three  for  the  red  ball. 

•J3.  When  a  carambole  is  mude  by  niriking  the  white  ball 
3rst,  and  llie  striker's  ball  should  be  holed  by  the  same  stroke, 
four  points  ure  gained. 

•U.  When  the  striker  makes  n  carambole  by  striking  the  red 
bull  first,  n.i'id  should  hole  his  own  boll  at  the  same  time,  he 
gums  tive  poinisi  three  for  the  red  losing  hazard,  and  two  for 
tU^  carumliole. 

^m.  If  in  playing  at  the  white  ball  first  you  should  make  a  co- 
rambolu,  und  hole  your  own  and  adversary's  ball  at  the  same 
'.line,  yuu  score  six  puinis  ;  namely,  two  for  each  white  ha/.urd, 
and  two  for  the  cnrainbole. 

ii8.  The  striker  wins  seven  points  when  he  earamlioles  ofTlhe 
red  ball,  and  holes  his  own  und  his  adversary's  ball;  namely, 
two  for  the  carom,  two  lor  the  white,  and  tliree  for  the  red 
hai^ard. 

!I7.  When  the  player  caramboles  by  playing  first  at  the  white. 
and  should  also  hole  his  own  niid  the  red,  he  scores  seven 
points:  numely,  two  for  the  carom,  two  for  the  white  losing 
fiuzard.  and  three  for  the  red  winning  hazard. 

i^.  When  the  player  caramboles  hy  hitiinglhc  red  ball  first 
■lid  al.so  holes  his  own  and  the  red.  he  scores  eight;  namely, 
two  Ibr  the  curom.  three  lor  the  red  winning  hazard,  and  three 
V>r  the  red  losing  hazard. 

21).  Sliualil  n  piuyer  carambole  on  the  white  ball  first,  nnd  then 
iiole  his  own  ball  and  his  opponent's,  and  the  red  ball  besides, 
he  then  scores  nine ;  thus,  two  fur  the  carom,  two  for  each 
while,  anil  three  ibr  the  red  hu/ard. 

3(1  If  u  carambole  is  done  by  striking  the  red  ball  first,  and  at 
the  same  stroke  the  player  holes  his  own  ball,  the  red  ball,  nnd 
his  advirsitry's  too.  he  gains  ten  po,nts,  upon  the  principle  of 
Ihe  prcccd  ng  rule. 

31.  W.hiMi  your  adversary's  hull  is  off  the  table,  and  the  other 
tvro  balls  nte  upon  the  line  or  inside  of  the  strinjing  nails  at 
the  leud  iii;  end  of  the  table,  it  is  named  being  within  the  baulk. 
The  player,  therefore,  striking  from  the  ring,  in.ist  mnke  his  b.ill 
rebound  from  the  opposite  cushion,  so  as  to  hit  one  of  the  balls 
ilriihin  the  baulk ;  if  he  misses,  he  loses  a  point. 

32.  Now  and  then  it  occurs  that  atler  the  red  ball  has  b-T 
forced  ovfr  I'.e  table  or  holed,  one  o,"  the  white  balls  has  so 
taken  up  the  pl.-ice  of  the  red  bull,  that  it  cannot  be  replaced  in 
its  nropcr  sitiiatiui:  willioiit  touching  It.  In  such,  the  marker 
holds  the  r.>il  ball  in  his  hand,  while  the  player  strikes  at  his 
opponent's  ball. 

ii.  And  directly  after  the  stroke,  replaces  iton  the  proper  spot. 
in  ord>  r  that  it  may  not  prevent  a  caiambole  from  being  made. 

34.  When  the  striker  plays  a  wrong  ball,  it  is  reckoned  a  foul 
•troke 

35.  When  the  player  is  about  to  strik>!  at  or  play  with  the 
wrong  bull,  none  in  the  room  can  with  propriety  discover  it  to 
him.  his  partner  excepted,  if  they  are  playing  a  double  mutch. 

.16.  WlM'ii  the  player,  ufter  making  a  curom  or  a  hazord. 
should,  either  with  his  hand,  cue,  or  mace,  move  either  of  the 
bails  r-'iniiining  on  the  table,  the  stroke  is  tbiil. 

37.  If  the  sinker  should  play  with  the  wrong  hall,  and  this 
erroneous  play  should  not  be  discovered  by  his  onponcnt.  ihe 
marker  is  ohi'ged  to  score,  and  he  is  a  wir'ier  of  ail  the  points 
he  has  gained  by  the  stroke. 

3^.  Nuiie  can  move  or  touch  a  ball  without  permission  of  the 
Qidversnry. 

:«)  Snmetimea  a  ball  happens  to  be  changed  in  the  course  of 
thr  gaiM'-,  and  it  cannot  be  ascertained  by  which  ployer:  in 
Ihnt  coHi'.  the  balls  must  be  used  as  they  then  are,  and  the 
iraine  so  played  out. 

40.  It  in  a  foul  stroke  when  the  striker,  in  the  act  of  playing, 
elip'dd  happen  to  touch  his  ball  twice. 

II.  Siinetimea  ihe  plaver  accidentally  touches  or  move*  his 
bail.  Without  intending  to  striki..  In  that  cnse  he  loses  no  point, 
but  his  ball  may  be  replaced  as  it  originally  stood. 

iu.  WliiMi  a  striker's  adversary  or  spectator  impede*  the 
player's  stroke  by  accident  or  de*ign.  he  has  a  right  to  renew 
Bi*  airoke. 

t'l  Should  ft  play.'r.  in  the  act  of  atriklng.  hit  hi*  hall,  and 
eaiiHi:  hi*  cue  >;  hi*  >nao«  to  go  over  it  or  pa*t  it,  he  forfeit*  a 


44.  No  iiriker  can  play  upon  a  running  ball;  (ach  itnka  . 
foul.  '  • 

45.  An  accidental  *lroke  i*  to  be  con*idered  grod  If  ■iieniUi 
wiih  the  proper  ellbct,  though,  by  miising  the  cue.  tc.  it ,,  iS 

inl«ii>l..il    na    Aimli  '  '-QI 


inlendcd  i 


c* 


n  ne  is  lo  try  uguin.  ^ 

:er  or  hi*  adversary,  in  the  aclof  plav  » 
design  the  opponent'*  white  or  red  hS 
ipied  on  the  Inlde,  the  stroke  ia  foul 


«t« 


such. 

40.  Should  a  striker,  in  attempting  to  play,  not  hit  his  ba>l  u 
all,  it  I*  no  atroke,  and  he  is  to  try  again.  ^ 

47.  Should  Ihe  sirik 
move  by  accident  or 
from  the  place  it  occupieil  on  tne  tame,  ihc  stroke  ia  foul 

4''  When  the  striker's  ball  und  either  of  Ihe  other  hail's 
so  close  us  to  touch  each  other,  and  in  striking  at  the  forine? 
either  of  Ihe  Inner  is  moved  f'om  itsjilace,  the  stroke  is  fou)  ' 

49.  Whoever  stops  a  running  ball  in  any  w«y  loses  the  leiiiL 
if  the  opponent  dues  not  like  tlie  situatioi.  of  the  ball  he  hiu  u 
play  nt  next  time. 

80.  It  may  happen  that  a  striker,  after  having  made  a  eanniv 
bole  or  a  hazard,  interrupts,  by  accident,  the  course  of  liiiown 
ball ;  in  this  ease  he  scores  notliing,  as  Ihe  stroke  is  fiuj. 

51.  Should  a  player  impede  Ihe  course  of  bis  own  liuli  alUr 
having  made  a  miss,  and  it  is  running  towards  the  lioh,  and  ii 
is  so  tbnughl  also  by  the  marker,  he  Iojcs  three  jiciils. 

5'2.  To  8tn|"..  ri-inin,  or  impede  the  e..iver8ary  in  ihe  actofBirik. 
ing.  is  deemed  foul. 

5:).  S^huuld  u  player  in  any  ivay  interrupt,  slop,  or  drive  hi* 
adversary's  ball  out  of  its  crmrse  when  running  towardq  • 
packet,  he  forfeits  three  poiiili'. 

54.  Kven  blowing  upon  a  bull  whilst  running  makes  n  aimh 
foul :  and  should  Ihe  striker's  ball  be  making  its  way  lowardi 
a  hole,  and  he  blow  upon  it.  he  loses  two  points  by  Mich  act. 

Sa.  If  n  mace  or  cue  is  thrown  upon  the  table  during  a  sirolg, 
it  is  baulking  the    inker,  and  Ihe  stroke  is  considered  loul. 

5H.  No  piny  is  deemed  correci  when  both  leel  are  off  Iht 
ground. 

57.  If  Ihc  table  is  struck  when  a  ball  i*  running,  the  ttrolce  ii 
deemed  foul. 

58.  A  player  leaving  a  game  unfinished  loses  that  Trinie. 
5(1.  Some  tables  are  so  uneven  that  they  give  wav  toward  ilii 

pockets.  In  cose  a  ball  should  go  lo  the  brii  k  of  a  hole,  siul 
after  there  resting  for  a  few  seconds,  slio.ild  drop  into  li.  lutk 
tells  for  nothing;  nnd  Ihe  ball  must  be  again  placudiiniiiehrmk 
before  the  adversary  strikes  ngnin;  anil  should  it  fall  nno  iha 
hole  again  the  innmen;  the  striki  r  has  play,^d  his  Irall.  waio 
frustrate  the  intended  success  of  his  stroke,  the  striker's  and  hit 
opponent's  balls  must  be  placed  as  they  were  originally,  i.uj 
the  strokes  plnyed  over  again. 

60.  When  a  player's  mace  or  cue  should  touch  both  balUin 
the  net  of  striking,  the  stroke  is  foul ;  and  if  noticed  liv  hison. 
ponenl.  noihing  is  gained  on  the  poiiiis  made  by  the  stroke;  and 
Ihe  opponent  may.  if  he  pleases,  pnrt  the  bulls  also. 

tU.  Those  who  agree  lo  piny  with  Ihe  cue  must  do  so  diirini 
the  whole  of  the  match;  but  if  no  conditions  of  this  son  lian 
been  made,  the  player  may  cliniiiie  ns  he  pleases.  No  player 
con,  without  permission  of  the  adversary,  breok  his  agrreme.u 

Ori.  If  a  foul  stroke  is  made.  Ihe  udver.sury  tuny  either  part  ila 
halls  and  play  from  Ihe  ring,  or.  if  the  bulls  sliuuld  he  favour 
ably  placed  tor  himself  permit  the  siriker  to  score  the  nointsli 
hnil  gained,  which  Ihe  marker  i*  bound  to  do  in  all  cum  swhtu 
the  balls  are  not  broken. 

6-1  All  agreements  are  specially  binding.  For  instance. thon 
who  .igrce  to  piny  with  the  cue  point  and  point,  cnnnoi  useihe 
butt  without  permission;  but  lliey  may  use  the  loiijjiiie:  ud 
the  snme  will,  those  who  agree  to  play  with  the  butt  only. 

64.  .\  striker  wins,  and  the  marker  is  obliged  to  score  jii  tin 
points  he  gains,  by  unl'a'r  strokes,  if  the  adversary  nejriectiB 
detect  them. 

65.  lie  who  olTeri  lo  pari  the  balls,  and  the  advcrs.iry  »pet- 
ing  lo  the  same.  IhJ  ofTcer  loses  lh.»  lead  by  such  propnsaf 

nfl.  None  (unless  ihey  belong  to  n  four  match)  have  a  riihin 
comment  on  a  stroke,  whether  fair  or  foul,  until  nskcd:  and  ii 
the  above  case,  none  but  the  playet  and  his  pnrlner  ciin  ankii 

67.  When  disputes  arise  between  Ihe  pinvers.  Ihe  markernloM 
decides,  and  there  ir  no  appeal  from  his  (tecih'on.  Hni.it  may 
occur,  he  might  have  1  een  inattentive  to  Ihe  stroke:  in  Ihii 
cnse.  he  is  lo  collect  the  sense  of  tlie  disinterested  pnrt  of  ihe 
company ;  namely,  those  who  have  no  bets  on  the  stroke;  ind 
their  decision  i*  to  be  final. 


The  White  Game. 

Two  :ila;era  are  tngaifed  as  above,  and  thp  striking  B  | 
altemn* •'.  The  general  rinciple  ia,  that  you  win  if  joq 
pocket  tlio  red  ball  or  your  aiivcrsiiry's  ball,  but  invariv 
bly  lose  if  by  any  ineana  you  hole  your  own  ball.  The 
numbcf  of  pointa  in  the  game  is  twelve.  The  followinj 
are  Hoylo'g  regulations: — 

1.  In  beginning,  airing  for  the  lead,  and  the  choice  ofbsllii 
if  you  please. 

8.  When  a  person  strings  for  the  lead,  he  must  stand  wiihii 
the  limits  of  the  corner  of  the  table,  and  also  must  not  pi  ice  liii 
ball  beyond  the  stringing  nails  or  spots;  and  he  who  brings u 
ball  nearest  the  cushion  wins  the  lead. 

3.  If  after  the  first  person  has  strung  for  the  lead.  ■  id  hisi*  | 
versary  who  follows  him  should  mnke  his  ball  touci  :heotliu, 
he  loses  the  lead. 

4.  Should  Ihe  player  hole  hi*  own  ball  either  in  s  inginj «  I 
lending,  he  loses  Ihe  lead.  | 

5.  Hhonld  the  lender  follow  his  ball  with  cither  m  eortne 
past  the  middle  hole,  it  is  no  lead ;  and  if  hi*  adver»ar  •.uvmi, 
he  may  make  hun  lead  again. 


BAGATELLE— CARDS. 


7It 


in>  infini"  I 

ler  m    (>or(« 
reriM    :iioo«i, 


I.  The  ttriker  whc  playa  4.  the  lead  muii  atnnd  with  both  hii  I 
(Mt  wiiliin  ihe  limits  of  ihu  corner  of  Ihe  inlil"  and  must  not 
■lici)  lii«  Ijiill  t>i'V""''  "'•'  Xri'iKing  "»il"  of  «P"         id  his  nd-  I 
«erur)' (onl))  in  houitJ  tu ski!  that  he  alands  and  uir, el»e  : 
the  iiriki:''  wins  nil  ilie  |)OJnlii  he  miidi;  liy  that  itirc  > 

'  VVIien  H  lin/iird  liiiH  !)iM'n  lodi  in  either  of  Ihe  corner  holes,  ' 
die  leoili'r  is  olili(f"d  (il  '"•  ttdversary  rai|ulres  itl  10  lead  from  I 
llie  end  of  ihe  \u\>\i:  where  il.e  hazard  was  luoi;  but  if  the 
h«/.ard  wns  lout  in  either  of  ihe  middle  holes,  it  is  at  ine  leader's  | 
opiion  10  lead  from  cither  end  of  the  table  he  pleases.  I 

B.  If  the  sinker  misses  his  atlversury's  ball,  he  losesone  point;  | 
^  if,  by  ilio  saiil  siroke,  his  ball  should  go  into  a  hole,  over  1 
Itjgiaiile.ornnaciishion.  he  loses  three  poiiiis:  namely,  one  for  [ 
miwiiig  die  IihII.  uiiiI  two  for  liolinf;  it,  Ice.  and  he  losei  the  lead.  I 

t.  U  the  striker  holes  his  adversary's  ball,  or  forces  it  over 
Iho  lolile.  or  on  a  cushion,  he  loses  two  points. 

10.  If  ihe  stnkir  holes  his  own  ball,  or  forces  It  over  Ihe 
inble,  or  en  a  cushion,  lie  loses  two  points. 

II.  If  tie:  striker  holes  both  hallo,  or  forces  them  over  the 
lalile.  or  on  11  ciishion.  ho  loses  two  poinls. 

li.  No  '»'■'■  h'ls  II  r:i;ht  to  tiike  up  his  ball  without  permission 
from  his  mlversary. 

13.  If  llie  striker,  by  neeident.  should  touch  or  move  his  own 
hM,  not  iiiiondini;  10  make  a  stroke,  it  is  deemed  as  an  neei- 
dent; anil  his  ttdversiiry,  if  he  requires  it,  may  put  the  bad 
liack  in  the  pliiee  vvlieie  it  stood. 

14.  If  t!ie  striker  I'orces  his  adveisary's  ball  over  the  table, 
Bid  his  aiiversnry  sliould  cliTince  to  slop  il,  so  ns  to  make  it 
Simeon  liie  table  again,  the  striker  nevertlieless  wins  two  points. 

15.  When  ihe  strik^T  forces  his  own  ball  over  the  table,  and 
his  sdver^iiry  should  chance  to  step  it.  so  as  to  make  it  come 
oullie  lahle  UKaiii.  the  sinker  loses  nothing  by  the  stroke,  and 
le  hath  the  lead  ;  btcuiise  his  adversary  oufeht  not  to  stand  in 
the  way.  or  near  th^'  'able 

lo  If  the  litriker  misses  the  ball,  and  forces  it  over  the  table, 
(lid  it  should  be  slopped  by  his  adversary,  as  before  mentioned, 
tfli-isuf  "le  point,  and  has  the  lead  if  he  chooses. 

IV.  If  I'.'  sinker,  in  playing  from  a  cushion  or  otherwise,  by 
loiiclung  the  ball,  niiikts  his  mace  or  cue  go  over  or  past  11,  he 
loses  oiu'  point;  and  if  his  adversary  requires  it,  he  may  put 
liioball  iMiek.  and  iiiuy  miiki'  him  pass  ilic  ball. 

|i<.  If  the  striker  in  atienipiing  to  make  a  stroke,  doth  not 
Icuc'i  his  bull,  it  js  no  stroke ;  and  he  nust  try  again  10  make  a 
vroke. 

19.  If,  wlien  Ihe  balls  are  near  each  olher.  and  Ihe  striker  by 
(rciiU'iil  .'hn  ilil  make  Ins  ''all  i.jiicli  the  other  ball,  i'l  is  never- 
llielcss  a  siruke.  tlio.ifili  not    n'eiiiled  as  such. 

ai.  If  thi'  sir  ker  who  plu>s  |i!s  stroke  should  make  his  od- 
Tersary's  hull  ko  su  iii'ar  llie  I  rink  of  u  hole  as  to  be  judged  to 
tiaml  still,  and  iiitcrwards  should  fiiii  into  it.  the  striker  wins 
nolliii^r:  uuil  the  bail  jiii.^l  he  pi,t  on  the  same  brink  v/here  it 
lloml  lor  his  adversary  lo  play  t'rnm  the  next  stroke. 

\.  H.— I'hi  re  is  no  occasion  for  chal<eni;ing  the  ball  if  it 
ll'{>«.  as  soiat!  imagine. 

21.  If  the  striker's  ball  should  stand  on  the  brink  or  edge  of  a 
holo,  Biul  if.  ill  playing  it  olf,  he  should  make  the  ball  go  in,  ht 
lose!  lhr"e  points. 

ii.U  a  ball  shoiild  stand  on  the  brink  or  on  the  edge  of  a 
hole,  and  il  should  liill  into  the  hole  before  or  when  the  striker 
ha*  ilehvi  red  his  ball  from  his  mace  or  cue.  so  as  to  have  no 
dmuce  for  h.s  siroki-.  in  lliiil  case  ilu;  striker  and  his  adversa- 
ry'* balls  niiist  lie  pli'ced  in  Ihe  same  position,  or  as  near  as 
poifihle  ilicreio,  ami  'he  striker  must  play  again. 

it  The  sinkur  is  obliged  to  pass  his  adversary's  hall,  more 
(j)iecially  if  he  misses  the  hall  on  purpose;  and  liis  adversary 
rasy.  if  he  chooses,  olilige  him  to  place  the  ball  where  it  stood, 
uiilplay  iiui.l  he  iias  pu'^sed. 

'.il.  If  till:  striker  plays  both  balls  from  his  mace  or  cue,  so 
tliai  'hey  tniieli  at  the  same  lime,  it  is  deemed  a  foul  stroke  : 
aiiil  if  it'  is  disccvered  by  his  adversary,  and  a  dispute  should 
ar;8e  lliereoii.  he  lias  an  uiiiloiibted  r.glit  10  appeal  to  the  (lis- 
iiiliTcsied  eoinpuny  then  present;  and  if  determined  by  the 
miijoriiy  of  the  disinterested  company,  and  the  marker,  if  need- 
ful. 10  he  a  foul  stroke,  then  il  is  at  his  adversary's  opiion  (if  not 
holed)  cliher  to  play  at  the  ball  or  take  Ihe  lead.  Hut  it',  by  the 
Rijove-meiiliotied  siroke,  his  adversary  dolh  not  discover  it  "to  be 
a  ioul  siroke.  then  llie  sinker  may  reckon  all  llie  poinls  he 
iiiaile  hy  the  said  stroke,  and  Ihe  marker  is  obliged  to  mark  thein. 
'^d.  No  person  has  a  right  to  discover  to  the  player  whether 
Ihe  stroke  is  fair  or  I'oiil,  until  it  is  asked. 
K  If  hv  a  Ibul  stioke  the  striker  should  hole  his  adversary's 

Ml,  le  '     ■•■■  the  lead. 

87.  r  foul  sirol:e  the  striker  holes  his  own  or  both  balls, 

wfortv's     8  own  or  both  balls  over  Ihe  table,  or  on  a  cushion, 

he  loses  two  ihdiiis. 
i=.  If  i!io  sinker  plays  on  a  ball  when  it  is  running  or  moving. 

It  IS  deemed  as  a  loiii  -troke. 
29  If  the  striker  pi  lys  with  both  feet  olT  the  ground,  without 

lie  porm'.'-sioii  of  his  ridversnry.  it  is  defined  a  loiil  siroke. 
3(,.  If  the  striker  i   ays  with  a  wrong  ball  he  loses  the  lead, 

if  hil  adversary  re<.  ..res  il. 
11.  If  ine  hall  sli    ild  be  changed  in  n  hazard  or  on  a  game, 

•nd  il  is  not  known     v  which  party.  Ihe  hnv.ard  must  be  plnyiul 

Ml  hv  each  puny  w  ih  their  dilferent  balls,  and  then  ehanged. 
J!.  If  the  sinker  pi.i;.  ■  with  his  adversary's  ball,  and  holes  or 

fcrres  the  halls  he  playi  d  at  over  the  table,  Ac,  it  is  deemed  a 

foul  stroke. 
a.  If  Ihe  striker  plays  with  his  adversary's  ball,  and  holes  or 

fcices  I'     ball  he  played  wilh  over  the  table.  &c.,  he  loses  two 

poin'     and  if  he  missed  ihe  ball,  three  points. 
''  *f  die  striker  plays  wilh  his  adversary's  hall,  and  misses 

'..  .le  loses  one  point :  and  if  his  adversary  discovers  that  he 

aih  played  wilh  the  wr.iiig  bull,  he  may  part  the  bulls,  and 

Aim  the  lead  if  he  pleases. 


35.  In  all  the  before-mentioned  eases  of  Oie  striker's  playiM 
with  the  wrong  ball  (if  discovered),  his  adversary  initst  pity 
with  Ike  ball  the  striker  played  at  throughout  the  hazaid,  01 
part  the  balls  and  lake  the  lead. 

'M.  Whoever  slops  a  bail  when  running  with  hand,  stick,  01 
otherwise,  lotas  the  lead,  if  his  adversary  does  not  like  tlie  bal. 
he  has  10  plav  at  the  next  stmke. 

37.  Whoever  .-eiaiiis  his  adversary's  stick  when  playing,  it  if 
deemed  foul 

ii'S.  If  the  striker'siops  or  puts  his  own  ball  out  of  its  courM 
when  running  towards  either  of  llie  holes,  and  if  a<|judged  by 
the  murker  and  the  disinterested  comnnny  thi'n  present  to  b« 
going  inloa  poi  ket',  if  he  missed  II  e  ball  he  losesone  point, and, 
if  going  into  a  hole  by  the  same  stroke,  three  poinls. 

30.  Il  the  sii'iker  slops  or  puts  bis  adversary's  ball  out  of  tha 
course  wh"n  running  towards  or  iiilo  a  hole,  or  puts  his  adver 
sary's  ball  into  a  bole,  it  is  deemed  a  foul  stroke. 

^.H. — If  the  I  dversary  dolh  the  same  as  in  the  foregoing 
rules,  he  is  suhjeeted  10  the  same  penivliiis  as  the  sinker. 

40.  Me  who  shakes  ,he  table  when  ihe  ball  is  running  moke* 
it  a  foul  siroke. 

41.  lie  who  throws  his  stick  upon  Ihe  table,  so  as  apparently 
to  be  of  any  detriment  to  his  adversary,  makes  it  a  foul  slroko. 

'12.  lie  who  blows  on  the  ball  when  running  makes  it  fouL 
And  if  his  own  ball  was  running  tuwurils  or  near  Ihe  hole,  iM 
loses  Iwn  poilli^. 

43.  He  who  leaves  the  game  bei'bre  it  is  finished,  and  will  nM 
play  it  out,  loses  Ihe  ^'ame. 

44.  Any  person  may  change  his  mace  or  cue  in  playing,  UI*" 
less  otherwise  previously  agreed  on. 

40.  When  two  persons  are  ot  play,  and  no  particular  term 
of  agreement  have  been  made,  neither  party  has  a  right  to  ob 
jeet  lo  either  inaee  or  cue  being  played  with  in  the  said  game, 

41).  When  Ihe  parlies  agree  lo  play  mace  against  cue.  tha 
mace  player  hath  no  right  lo  use  a  cue,  nor  has  die  cue  player 
any  right  10  use  a  mace  during  the  game  or  match,  without  per- 
mission from  his  adversary. 

47.  When  a  person  agrees  lo  play  wilh  Ihe  cue,  he  must  play 
every  ball  wiiniii  his  reach  with  the  point  thi'reof;  and  if  ha 
agrees  to  play  With  the  bull  of  the  cue,  be  has  no  right  lo  play 
wilh  the  point  thereof,  without  permission  from  his  adversary. 

is.  When  die  parties  agree  lo  play  point  u!\d  poie.t  of  tha 
cue,  neither  of  them  has  a  right  lo  use  a  butt  duri.ng  tbe  gana 
or  mulch,  widiout  permission,  &c..  but  they  have  a  ngat  Hi  p.ay 
with  tilt!  point  of  a  long  cue  over  a  maee,  &c. 

4U.  When  the  parties  agree  to  play  all  jwint  with  the  santa 
cue,  they  have  no  right  to  use  any  other  string  the  game  ot 
maicli. 

."JO.  Whoever  proposes  to  part  the  balls,  and  his  adversary 
agrees  10  il.  the  proposer  thereof  loses  Iho  lead. 

ill.  Two  missings  do  not  make  a  ha/.ard,  unless  it  is  pMn> 
ously  agreed  on  lo  the  contrary. 

5'J.  In  all  eases,  the  belters  are  lo  abide  by  ihe  players  on  tba 
detenninalion  of  the  ha/.ard, or  on  ihe  game;  and  the  bettcra 
have  a  right  to  demand  their  money  when  their  game  is  over. 
to  prevent  disputes. 

5;).  KveiypiTson  ought  to  be  very  attentive,  and  listen  for  tha 
stroke,  before  he  opens  the  door  of  a  billiard-room. 

CA,  'rln-  striker  bus  a  right  10  coniinaiid  his  adversary  not  fa 
sland  facing  him,  nor  near  him,  so  as  lo  annoy  or  molest  hia 
in  the  siroke. 

C>5.  Each  party  is  10  attend  10  his  own  game,  and  not  to  ask 
if  his  adversary's  ball  be  close? — if  he  touches  his  ball  ?— if  ha 
can  go  round  ilie  ball  ? — nor  any  qiiesiiou  of  the  like  tendency; 
nor  is  any  one  in  be  set  right,  if  going  lo  play  wilh  the  wrong  ball. 

flfl.  will-  r  persons  play,  Ihe  game  is  fifteen  in  number, 
and  each  as  a  right  to  consult  wilh  and  direct  his  part, 

ner  in  nii  ^  respecting  the  game,  ice.,  and  the  party  who 

makes  i«..  inissings  before  ihe  ha/an!  is  made,  is  out,  and  it  ia 
his  partner's  tiiru  to  play  ;  but  if.  at'ler  the  two  missings  have 
been  made  by  Ihe  party,  his  adversary  should  hole  a  ball,  so  as  to 
make  a  hazard,  die  siroke  ibllowing  the  said  two  m  ssings  hova 
been  made,  yet  the  party  who  did  not  make  Ihe  two  missings  ii 
to  plav.  as  he  cannot  be  suuposed  to  be  out  who  lias  not  miada 
a  stroke, 

BAOATEI4LE. 

The  large  and  inconvenient  size  of  billiard-taVi'  ■>  haa 
led  to  the  iiitroiluction  of  bagatelle-tables— -iaeaffiic  being 
the  French  word  for  any  thing  trifling.'    A  bagatelle- 
table  is  usually  about  five  feet  long  and  eighteen  inchea 
broad  ;  it  is  lined  with  cloth,  and  a  game  is  performed  on 
it  with  balls  and  a  cue  or  mace.     The  balls  are  small 
ivory  s[)heres,  and  the  sport  very  much  consists  in  strik- 
ing one  or  more  into  holes  at  one  end  of  the  board.  T» 
perform  this  and  other  feats,  some  skill  and  experience 
I  arc  required,  and  the  sport  is  far  from  unamusing  in  a 
'  cheerful    pnrlotir  circle.     Of  late  years,  basratclle-tablea 
'  have  become  very  common  in  the  houses  of  the  middle 
classes  of  society ;  they  possess  the  recommendation  tff 
:  being  purchaseable  at  a  small  expense. 

GAMES  WITH  CARDS. 

Playinor  cards  are  small  oblong  pieces  of  pastehoird, 
on  wliicli  divers  figures  are  impressed  in  two  prineiral 


790 


INFORMATION   TOR  THE   FEOPLB. 


coloura,  rnd  nnj  hlnrk.  Fifty-two  cards  form  a  park,  <>' 
complete  ket  lur  playing  any  game.  Tho  pack  cr.isinti 
of  four  huitf  ur  kindc.  of  cards,  thirteen  in  oacK,  diitin- 
guiihable  by  tlioir  respective  marks.  Thu  suits  are 
S'lir/i,  <liiimiiiid.i,  cUihs,  and  tpadii.  Hearta  and  dla- 
nionda  arc  rod ;  elulis  and  iipades  are  blnrk.  Tho  thir- 
teen in  eiich  suit  cunMist  of  ton  cards,  distingiiishnble  by 
•pots,  from  nuo  to  ton ;  and  throe  cards,  ordinarily  called 
court  ciirda,  from  l)oing  impressed  with  certain  figures 
having  a  semblance  of  court  costume—one  of  those  ia 
the  hinn,  another  tho  iju-eii,  and  a  third  the  kniive,  ot  jack. 
Of  the  origin  of  playing-cards,  and  the  8igni''''?.t'on 
of  thcii  reR|)ortivo  ma'kingn,  there  has  been  no  small 
controv  !i-8y  among  untitjuarios.  The  general  opinion 
has  ben  that  cards  wore  invunto'l  aliout  the  year  l:3U2, 
for  the  puriMse  of  amusing  ^  trios  VI.  of  Franco,  at 
tho  time  ho  was  alllicted  with  a  mental  depression  or 
dorangemont.  But  it  haa  Iwt  n  ascertained  that,  in  l.tST, 
John  1.,  king  of  Castile,  issued  an  edict  forbidding  tliu 
plrtvirj  of  cards  in  his  dominions;  and  from  this,  as 
well  as  from  some  of  the  names  given  to  the  cards,  it  is 
extremely  probable  that  playing-cards  were  known  in 
Europe  ns  early  as  about  tho  middle  of  tho  fourteenth 
century.  At  tirst,  tho  outlines  of  the  figures  on  the 
cards  were  made  by  stamps,  and  afterwards  filled  up  by 
the  hand ;  but  soon  after  the  invention  of  engraving  on 
bliKka,  tho  devices  wore  produced  by  wood,  and  sufii- 
ciently  finished,  so  that  the  impressions  did  not  require 
any  assistance  frotn  tho  pencil. 

The  names — hearts,  diamonds,  spades,  and  clubs — 
which  the  English  give  to  the  cards,  appear  to  be  in  a 
gnat  measure  a  corruption  of  the  original  Spanish  and 
French  appellations,  or  a  misapplication  of  terms  to  the 
original  symbols.  Wo  find  tho  follnwing  account  given 
nf  the  design  and  names  of  the  cards  in  the  work  of  an 
anonymous  writer: — 

"  The  inventor  proposed,  by  tho  figures  of  tho  four 
suits,  or  colours,  as  the  French  call  them,  to  represent 
the  four  states  or  classes  of  men  in  the  kingdom. 

"  By  the  Casiirt  (hearts)  are  meant  the  ficns  de  rhaur, 
choir  men,  or  eccle.-iiastics ;  and  therefore  tho  Spaniards, 
who  certainly  received  tho  use  of  cards  from  the  French, 
bava  rofiiif,  or  chalices,  instead  of  hearts. 

"  The  nobility  or  prime  military  port  of  the  ''ingdom 
are  represented  by  the  ends  or  points  of  lances  or  pikes, 
and  our  ignorance  of  the  meaning  or  resemblance  of 
the  fitrure  induced  us  to  call  them  spades.  Tho  Span- 
iards have  ef/iiidis  (swords)  in  lieu  of  pikes,  which  is  of 
similar  import. 

"  By  diamimds  are  designe<l  tho  order  of  citizens, 
merchants,  atid  trddesmen,  carreux  (square  stone  tiles  or 
the  like).  The  Spaniards  have  a  coin,  dinerot,  whieh 
answers  to  it ;  and  tho  Dutch  call  the  French  word 
cnrreiir,  slieneen,  stones  and  diamonds,  from  the  form. 

"  Trette,  the  trefoil  leaf,  or  clover  grass  (corruptly 
called  clubs),  alludes  to  tho  husbandmen  and  peasants. 
How  this  suit  came  to  be  called  clubs,  is  not  explained, 
anlosa,  borrowing  the  game  from  the  Spaniards,  who  have 
hciiot  (staves  or  clubs)  instead  of  the  trefoil,  wc  gave  the 
Spanish  signification  to  the  French  figure. 

"  The  history  of  the  four  kings,  which  the  French  in 
drollery  sometimis  call  the  cards,  is  David,  ^^Uxnnd'r, 
Caaar,  and  C'luirtes  (which  names  were  then,  and  still 
•re  on  the  French  cards).  These  respectable  names 
represent  tho  four  celebrated  monarchies  of  the  Jews, 
Greeks,  Romans,  and  Franks,  under  Charlemagne. 

•'  By  the  (juccns  are  intended  Atf^ne,  Either,  JudilK, 
and  Palliii  (names  retained  in  the  French  cards),  typi- 
cal of  birth,  piety,  fortitude,  and  wisdom,  the  qualifica- 
tions residing  in  each  person.  Argine  is  an  anagram  for 
niftna  (queen  by  descent). 

"  By  the  knaves  were  designed  tho  serranta  to  knights 
(for  knave  originally  meant  only  servant ;  and  in  an  old 
traualtttiou  of  the  Bible,  St  Paul  is  called  the  knave  of  , 


Christ) ;  but  French  pages  and  valets,  now  indhwrlml- 
natcly  used  by  various  orders  of  persons,  were  formerly  onlr 
allowed  to  [lersons  of  quality;  esquires  (i'«fuifni),iliisU 
or  arrnour  bearers, 

•■  Others  fancy  that  the  knights  *liomsclves  weia  d^ 
signed  by  those  cards,  because  ILwier  mid  /.,i/n>,  ^^ 
names  on  the  French  cards,  were  fiuiious  kninbts  at  tU 
time  cards  wero  supposed  to  bo  invented." 

With  the  entire  pack  of  fifty-two  ciirda,  or  with  onit 
a  portion  of  it,  there  have  l)ecn  iniiuiiieralile  games,  and 
there  are  so  sti  I ;  to  notice  tho  whole  of  thes*',  however 
would  occupy  too  much  of  our  space,  uiid  wc  propose io 
confine  our  explanations  to  what  are  considered  resp«c^ 
able  and  harmlessly  amusing  games. 

WHIST. 

All  games  at  cards,  in  jur  opinion,  are  insignificant  h) 
comparisiin  with  whitt,  which  is  believed  to  tuke  its  lami 
from  an  old  exclamation  to  keep  silence ;  it  mu.t, f, 
least,  ho  conducted  noiselessly,  and  with  extreme  attei> 
tion.  Tho  whole  structure  of  the  game  is  ingcnioui 
and  a  result  of  just  calculation.  Ito  rules  have  all  beta 
carefully  studied,  and  there  seems  to  ho  a  sulHciont 
reason  why  each  has  been  instituted.  The  game  ig  t 
happy  blending  of  skill  and  chanco  ;  Hkill  being  iha 
most  important  clement,  and  chance  only  necessary,  in 
order  to  im|)art  a  due  relish  or  piquancy  to  the  sport,  and 
de;  rive  highly-skilled  players  of  being  always  certain  d 
the  victory. 

Whist  is  played  by  four  persons,  two  forming  a  partj 
or  side.  The  four  sit  at  a  squ-.iro  table,  one  on  each  slik 
partners  being  opposite  to  each  other.  The  table  fihouj 
Iks  covered  with  cloth,  to  permit  an  easy  lifting  of  tlu 
cards.  Before  commencing  the  game,  a  piick  ofcnrdiji 
laid  on  the  table,  the  faces  undermost.  The  parties  then 
ciit  for  partnerti ;  that  is,  they  leavi-  it  to  cluuue  to  dcleN 
mine  who  shall  be  partners.  This  is  done  l>y  each  pes 
son  lifting  or  cutting  a  portion  of  tho  cards  from  the 
heap  or  puck,  and  the  two  who  have  the  highest  caidi 
play  together. 

Tho  value  of  the  cards  is  as  follows: — As  already 
stated,  there  are  four  suits,  each  suit  consisting  of  this 
teen  cards,  ten  being  common,  and  three  bt'ing  court 
cards.  The  card  in  each  suit  which  has  but  one  mark 
is  culled  tho  are ;  and  this  ace  is  the  highest  in  value  ia 
nil  cases  except  in  cutting  for  partners,  when  it  is  tlu 
lowest.  The  next  highest  is  the  king,  the  next  the  queen, 
tho  next  the  knave  ;  then  tho  ten,  nine,  eight,  and  soon 
down  to  the  two,  or  deuct,  which  is  the  lowest.  In 
playing  whist,  one  suite  is  of  higher  value  thun  any  of 
the  other  three  ;  but  which  suit  shall  possess  this  tempo- 
rary distinction  dc()ends  on  chance  in  dealing  out  the 
cards ;  tho  last  card  dealt  out  is  turned  up,  mid  the  suil« 
to  which  it  belongs  is  culled  ti  wnp.i  ,*  trumps,  then,  ii 
the  suite  of  tho  highest  value.  In  the  courst;  of  a  game, 
the  trump  suit  may  of  course  vary  at  every  deal. 

The  rulling  of  the  pack,  as  above  mentioned,  detch 
mines  who  are  to  bo  partners,  and  at  the  same  time  de- 
termines who  is  to  deal.  The  rule  is,  that  be  who  had 
tho  lowest  card  in  rutting  is  the  dealer.  This  pcmon 
shiijJUs  tho  cards;  that  is,  mixes  them. in  any  way  be 
thinks  proper,  always  keeping  the  bucks  towards  hini 
Having  done  this,  his  adversary  is  entitled  to  shuffle  Iha 
cards  also ;  indeed,  each  person  has  a  right  to  shuffle 
them,  but  this  is  seldom  done.  Being  <luly  shuffled,  tht 
pack  is  laid  on  tlie  tabic  (always  back  uppermost) 
Iwfore  the  ymmgctt  hand,  or  the  person  sitting  to  the 
right  hand  of  the  dealer;  and  he  cuts  it,  by  lifting  off  i 
portion  and  laying  it  down.  The  dealer  now  puts  the 
lower  portion  on  the  top  of  tho  portion  laid  ofij  and  ii 
prepared  for  dealing. 


•  The  term  trump  i«  believed  to  be  a  corruption  ol  mu 
msauiiig  tlie  triumphuui  card. 


DtaUnt  must 
im  the  puck  in  I 
nn  rixlit.  and  disi 
lii'Kiiis  'ith  the  | 
Urtnrf,  then  the  pi 
ind  then  liiinhcl 
last  curd  whicli  h 
ih  ^.  Tliis  last 
aull  0  lie  truiiq 
ilwdvs  one  trniii 
auppuHi'd  to  lie  m 
liiKiwh'dgi'  of  one 
the  taldc  exposed 
poeuroof  u  card  i 
Ii  strictly  provided 


If  Rpnnl  in  liirnoi' 
t  new  til  111  it  Iht^y 
been  llii!  cniisi'  ortui 
ti|ition. 

II' «  Clint  is  fiiciu 
ijiili'»!i  ii  liiippcni)  In 
liimlic  limy  oi'  cv 
lliifteeii  ciiriN.  If  a 
iliiriiiol  Hint  it  out  li 
f-jlhavo  ilii'ir  right 
»/ni  who  playnl  w  i 
(fch  revoke,  providt 
CI  Ihc  iH'iyern  Rliniil 
;r!»'  Ihe  ileal  i«  ln«I. 
riieilt'Hier  slimilil 
J  \\\i  Ittni  Io  pliiy ; 
?krilF.  nil  line  has  ;i  r 
^^ilmlly  n«k  wliat  »ii 
llie  ilealtT  eaiiiiol  nil 
n.iglii  Iiave  il.iiie 

Xone  of  the  player 
'h-'V  are  ileiiliia<  out 
ilioulil  liiipiH'ii  in  mis 
hf  «L'«  from  his  piirlti 
*'iiliii|;,  no  iii'W  lieu! 
cume  of  It. 

If  nny  person  (li'al« 
pn:*  ihe  Iniinp  eiird  i 
dcvnwarils,  he  loses 


Th«  cards  beinf 
which  he  must  sen, 
nuts  or  his  purtii 
ranged  like  a  fan  in 
see  all  his  cards  ut  i 
of  order  und  convi 
hand,  all  of  a  suiti 
ftrtrd,  the  game  coi 
m  the  left  of  the  d 
■m  on  his  left  fello\ 
iliwn  last. 

The  principle  i 
loil  tlie  first  cuni 
Iblloived  liy  each  pi 
i  caul  of  that  suit, 
«uit    Should  he  d 
of  the  suit  which  h 
committed  a  rrvoke, 
three  tricks.     It  is  i 
Of  very  rigorous  in 
The  four  cards  lu 
The  trick  is  won 
highest  value   wins 
Us  down  a  deuee 
'liaiifs,  the  third  a 
M  "pades,  this  lust  | 
liul  should  one  of 
hand,  and  lavs  ilmv 
'"  Iw  trumps,  tlint  e 
value  the  curds  laid 
« Iruinp  card,  thougl 
'""np  cards  he  laii 
bi«hcst  trump  card 
livhe,;  rnid. 


I 


0AM KS  WITH   CARDS. 


791 


Qiahit  >■>>>"'  l"'  nnatly  porrurtned  ;  (he  denier  hold- 
UK  tlie  pi"'''  '"  '""  ''-'^  hand,  \if%  off  the  top  ciinU  with 
li^fjijlit,  and  diHlrilmti's  tlu'in,  /tie  touiich,  all  round.  He 
Mill*  'ilh  tliP  ptTHon  on  hi*  left,  who  is  culled  thn  rlilir 
tiinrf,  ihi'n  'ho  prrHon  oppoiilto,  then  tho  yoiinn<'»t  hnnd, 
ind  'l><'"  hiiiisi'll'  lit!  thUH  gooH  tliirtwa  roundH,  thn 
Udtoard  which  he  holdn  in  Inn  hand  falling  to  hi»  own 
i),  ^.  'I'liix  liiHt  curd  he  'urnH  up,  und  it  dctrrniinrrt  the 
tull  0  '•*-'  'ru'"!"-  '"'"'  dcnicr,  thcrclorc,  hm  nt  least 
ilwiivs  "■■'^  trninp  in  \m  hand,  Imt  thiH  advaiitaire  is 
ju|ilK)»cd  to  lie  nculridizcd  hy  the  ndverHaricH  having  a 
Liiowlcdgi'  of  one  of  IiIh  curds.  The  trunip  card  lies  on 
tlio  tiililc  c<iioHcd  till  the  first  vrick  is  played.  Any  ex- 
poeurcof  u  card  in  dealing,  by  real  or  pretended  accideiit, 
iiitrictly  provided  against.     Tlio  followiiij;  arc  lluyle's 

Hulcs  for  ilifalin|{. 

If  arnrd  i»  Inrni-d  up  in  deiiliiiu,  ih*  ndveme  parly  may  cull 
i  new  ill  111  if  lli'-y  lliiiik  proper;  Imt  if  either  of  tliciu  liiis 
bfeii  llie  cBusi'  ol'  turn.liK  up  iiueh  cur<l,  then  ihu  ik-aler  has  the 

"'if «  oiiril   is  faced  in  the  ileal,  then;  ini.it  Im  a  fresh  deal, 
uiili'«»  it  liii|ipen«  to  lie  tlie  last  card. 

II  in  the  duly  01"  every  persmi  who  plays  to  sf  !  that  he  has 
lliitietn  onriii  If  any  one  happens  to  have  oi  y  twelve,  and 
iliiei  not  find  it  out  till  Heveriii  "'"Vs  are  playei  and  that  the 
r-m  have  their  right  uc'.iiier.  the  deul  mauds  KO'/d.  and  the  per- 
fnii  who  pluveil  wth  the  twelve  enrds  i-*  in  le  punished  I'or 
((ch  revoke,  provided  lie  has  made  any.  Hut  ii  ny  of  the  rest 
CI  the  iHiiyiTs  filioiild  happen  to  have  fouri  .ii  card.i,  in  that 
•rii'lhe  ileal  ik  l"«t. 

The  dealer  sliould  leave  his  trump  r'.d  upon  the  talile  till  it 
J  his  turn  to  play;  and  after  he  ha  ini.xed  it  with  his  tiitier 
Mitilf.  no  one  has  a  riKlit  to  deina,id  what  enrd  was  mrned  up. 
hut iniiy  a'k  wliiil  suit  is  trump*:  m  coiiseipienee  o.  i.iiis  law, 
the  ilealer  eaniiot  name  a  wro.\^  card,  which  utherMisu  he 
n.i«lii  have  il.ine 

None  of  the  players  may  tnlfo  ni.  or  look  at  Ihd  eards  vhili; 
thi'vore  deiiliiK  out:  when  t'.is  is  the  ease,  the  dealer,  if  he 
ihoulil  liappen  to  misdeal,  has  a  right  to  deal  again,  unless  'i 
i,Tde«  from  his  partner's  Ihiilt :  and  if  a  card  is  turned  up  'n 
dinliiH,  no  new  deal  can  he  called,  unless  the  partner  was  ihe 
ctmseof  It. 

!f  niiy  person  deals,  and,  Instead  of  turning  up  the  Irnmp.  he 
pii:>lhe  Iriinip  card  upon  the  rest  of  his  curds,  with  the  face 
downwards,  he  loses  liis  deal. 

IMaying  the  Game. 

The  cards  being  all  dealt,  each  takes  up  his  hand, 
which  he  must  scrupnlously  |)rcvent  any  of  his  antago- 
iiintforhis  partner  from  isceing.  'ilm  cards  should  lie 
rantfcd  like  n  fan  in  the  left  hand,  so  that  its  holder  can 
see  all  his  cards  at  a  glance.  It  i.s  advisable,  for  the  sake 
ol'  onler  and  convenience,  to  arrange  the  cards  in  the 
h.inil,  all  of  a  suite  together.  Each  having  his  cards 
sorlcJ,  the  game  coinm<  nces  hy  the  eldt;r  hand,  or  person 
iin  the  left  of  the  dealer,  laying  down  a  card.  The  per- 
"on  on  his  left  fellows,  and  so  on  to  the  dealer,  who  lays 
iliiwn  hist. 

The  principle  of  playing  is  as  follows: — Whatever 
lait  tlie  first  card  is  of,  that  suit  must,  if  possible,  he 
(ollotvcii  by  each  party  round  ;  but  if  one  (larty  has  not 
I  card  of  that  suit,  he  can  lay  down  one  of  any  other 
«uit  Should  he  do  so,  and  allerwards  lay  down  r.  c.vrtl. 
of  the  auit  which  he  appeared  to  ho  dcrieieiit  of,  he  lias 
committed  a  rrvnkr,  and  a  penalty  is  exacted  in  loss  of 
diree  tricks.  It  is  necessary,  for  tho  sake  of  fair  play,  to 
DC  very  rigorous  in  punishing  a  revoke. 

The  foitr  cards  laid  down  in  a  round  is  called  a  trick. 
Tho  trick  is  won  in  various  ways.  The  card  of  the 
hijhest  value  wins.  For  exainide,  if  the  first  phiyer 
lavs  down  a  deuce  of  spades,  the  second  a  three  of 
'|Kiilo8,  the  third  a  four  of  spades,  and  the  fourth  ii  five 
oi  spades,  this  last  person  wins  ;  his  party  gains  a  trick. 
Hut  should  one  of  the  players  not  have  a  spade  in  his 
hand,  ami  lays  down  a  deuce  of  the  suit  which  happens 

III  he  trumps,  that  card  wins.  No  matter  how  high  in 
value  the  cards  laid  down  are,  the  trick  is  always  won  by 
I  truinp  card,  though  it  were  only  a  deuce.  If  several 
Ifump  cards  be  laiil  down,  or  all  Ix)  trumps,  then  the 
hiijhcst  trump  c«rd  wins.  The  aco  of  trumps  is  tho 
lll^'lte■.;  en  11 1. 

Vui..  1.-91 


When  tho  trick  is  played,  it  is  lifted  hy  the  person  who 
wins,  aiul  placed  livside  him  in  a  heap  on  the  table,  hack 
uppermost;  and  he  coiitinuts  to  take  up  all  other  trick* 
his  party  wins.  Thus,  one  on  each  side  collects  and 
reekoiiH  tlie  tricks. 

Whoever  wins  the  trick  becomes  elder  hand,  and  playa 
first  in  next  round ;  and  so  on  each  winner  plays  first  till 
all  the  cards  are  played  out. 

A  pack  produces  tliirtecn  tricks,  hut  none  is  counted 
till  ath'r  six.  For  instance,  if  one  party  wins  four  tricks, 
they  do  not  count ;  and  the  other  patty  which  has  nina 
tricks  counts  'hree.  Should  one  party  gain  all  the  tricks, 
it  cuuiils  seven. 

The  ace,  king,  queen,  and  knave  of  trumps,  aro  called 
hoiimir.i.  These  have  a  peculiar  value  in  reckoning  to- 
wards the  game.  iShould  each  person  hold  one  honour, 
honours  do  not  count:  but  should  two  partners  hold  three 
honotirs  between  them,  they  score  two  points;  when 
they  hold  four,  they  score  four  ;    ints. 

'l"he  game  coti.iists  .if  ten  pntnif,  and  these  may  be 
gained  by  tricks  attd  by  honours.  Should  a  party  make 
six  tricks  and  hold  four  honours,  it  has  won  the  game  at 
one  (leal.  It  will  therefore  be  perceived  that  honours, 
the  possession  of  which  is  a  matter  of  mere  chance, 
exert  a  powerful  influence  in  gaining  the  victory  over  an 
adversary. 

Only  at  one  time  in  the  game  do  honours  not  count ; 
this  is  when  the  party  is  at  nine;  the  odd  point  to  niaka 
up  to  ten  being  mdy  gained  by  tricks.  When  a  party  is 
at  eight,  and  the  first  trick  has  been  played,  one  of  that 
party,  who  holds  two  honours,  may  ask  his  partner  if  he 
lias  one  honour ;  and  if  he  says  ho  has,  the  three 
honours  are  at  one  shown,  which  concludes  the  game. 
Tliere  are  rules  f'oi  calling  honours,  which  v/c  subjoin. 

Ill  the  course  of  playing  the  giuiie,  no  one  \n\tt,\  drop 
the  slightest  hint  how  he  wishes  his  partner  to  play,  or 
make  any  other  observation  calculated  to  mislead  or 
direct.  Neither  may  any  one,  before  his  partne.  haa 
played,  iiiforin  him  that  he  has  or  has  not  won  the  trick; 
even  the  attempt  to  take  up  a  trick,  though  won,  betbre 
the  last  partner  has  played,  is  deemed  very  improper. 

•Ml  parties  must  play  by  their  own  perceptions  of  what 
would  be  most  judicious,  'i'here  is  only  one  exception  to 
Ihe  rule  of  keeping  silence,  which  is  in  tho  case  of  a  re- 
voke. If  a  jierson  happens  not  to  follow  suit,  or  trump 
a  suit,  the  partner  is  at  liberty  toiii(|uire  of  him  whether 
he  is  sure  hi^  has  none  of  '.hat  suit  in  his  hand.  Thit 
iiululgciice  must  have  arisen  from  the  severe  penalties 
annexed  to  revoking,  which  affects  the  partners  equally, 
and  is  now  universally  admitted. 

'J'he  great  knack  in  playing  whist  is  to  remember  what 
IS  "I'',  and  hence,  by  Ihe  play  of  both  partner  and  adver- 
sniies.  to  have  a  shrewd  guc.is  of  what  each  holds  in  his 
hand.  .\  primary  rule  is  to  follow  a  partner's  lead,  as  it 
is  prcsunied  that  no  one,  in  playing  first,  is  without  a 
good  reason  for  tabling  a  (larticular  suit. 

The  term  /i/if,s,«iHi;  signifies  the  attempt  to  gain  ad- 
vantage ;  tints,  if  you  have  the  best  and  third  best  card 
of  the  suit  led,  you  put  on  the  third  best,  and  run  the 
risk  of  your  adversary's  having  the  second  best;  if  he 
has  not.  which  is  two  to  one  against  him,  you  are  then 
certain  of  gaining  a  trick. 

A  /(I'KC  (dill  is  a  card  of  no  value,  and  consequently 
the  iiKL^t  proper  to  tliiov,  away;  it  would  be  folly  to  lay 
a  good  card  down,  when  it  must  clearly  be  taken  by  a 
belter  ciird  already  tabled. 

A  fciyiioKi  is  a  succession  of  cards  in  the  sai  lo  suit 
as  ace,  king,  queen,  knave. 

'J'fniiii  is  tiossessiiig  the  first  and  third  best  cards,  and 
being  last  player  ;  you  consequently  conquer  the  adver- 
sary when  that  suil  is  pl.iyed. 

Sntrtiis  is  the  method  of  reckoning  the  points  in  a 
game.  The  reekoning  is  made  hy  four  counters  or  piecci 
of  money  ;  and  the  wav  in  which  these  piece*  ore  did 


tjt<" 


m 


199 


INFORMATION   FOR  THK   PKOPLE. 


The  following  U  the  ordinary 


.14     a 

0 

7 

H 

0 

n 

(1 

«) 

IHX) 

0 

uuo  0000  ou 

oou 

0 

u 

0 
0 

powil,  ihowi  tho  loore. 
•oaUiod  of  ituorilig : — 
1      a 

0      00 


Kul«i  for  Playing. 

If  ■  prrnon  plnyi  out  of  hi*  propi-r  turn,  or  ihowi  n  cnril,  il 
M  ill  till'  opiion  ol  <MttM*r  ot'  liK  »(lvor>iiriofi  ui  rail  thai  card  ; 
lliiit  in,  niiiHi'  hiiii  to  Iny  it  ilowii  ill  uny  limr  in  iliiit  il'iil.  pro- 
Tiit"il  It  il"'»  not  m«k<'  h  m  n-voki-  nr  riiliiT  nf  the  mlviTsa- 
rie»  may  rri|iiiri'  of  ihr  pirmiii  who  im;<ht  to  Imvc  luil,  Ihu  »uil 
llie  Raul  iiilv.THiiry  iiiii)'  riKioir 

W  a  person  mippoiirii  h''  liaii  won  fh(»  trirk.  ami  li'iiiN  ftRnin 
bvtnri*  his  partniT  has  pjaytid.  ihu  adviTHary  may  olilif^u  his 
parlimr  v>  win  It  IT  hf  ran, 

ir  a  pirixiii  li'ails.  and  li^  pnriniT  plays  before  hit  turn,  the 
•dvcrsnry's  pariniir  may  do  ihn  saiiii-. 

If  the  an-  iir  any  oihrr  rani  of  a  suit  It  Ird,  and  the  last 
phiviT  should  liappi'ii  lo  play  oiil  of  liis  turn,  wln'ih.  '  li  »  lart- 
nrr  has  .iny  of  ihc  kuiI  li'd  or  not,  h>'  is  ni"iihi'r  pniiil''il  m 
trump  it  nor  to  win  the  trick,  providrd  you  do  not  iiiaki'  hnii 
revokn, 

ir  a  rrvoke  liapprns  to  be  ninilc.  tho  advpr«arifis  may  add 
ffirt'i'  to  itifir  srnre.or  Ink*'  ihri'f  irirk*  from  the  rcvokiinr  party, 
or  laki'  down  Ihroa  ironi  tlinir  scorM  ;  iiml  if  up,  nouvithsiandliiR 
till"  pmiiliy.  thi'y  must  ri-niam  at  iiiii'' :  thi'  rcvokii  lakis  place 
of  any  nthrr  scort'  of  Ihc  frame. 

If  any  person  revokes,  and  discovers  it  hcfori!  the  cardsaro 
turned  till'  iiilversary  ma>  call  the  IiikIicsI  nr  lowest  of  ilie 
lull  led,  or  cull  the  card  tlirn  plnyi'd,  at  any  lime  when  it  does 
■ot  cause  a  revoke. 

No  revoke  can  lie  claimed  till  the  ir  ck  is  turned  and  cpiilted, 
or  the  parly  who  revoked,  or  Ills  pariii'T.  has  played  iik'iih 

If  a  revoke  >n  cln'ined  liy  any  person,  the  udver.'e  pari\  lire 
not  to  mix  their  cards,  upon  foneiinre  of  the  revoke. 

No  per«in  can  claim  a  revoke  ailer  tho  cards  are  cut  for  a 
■evv  deal. 

If  any  person  calls  encepi  at  the  pomt  of  eiftht.  the  adversa- 
ries may  call  a  new  deal,  if  they  ilimk  proper, 

Aller  the  ir;imp  card  is  turned  up.  no  p  rson  must  remind  h  « 
pttrlner  loca't.  nn  penalty  of  lii*iiifr  one  point. 

No  honours  in  the  preceding  deal  can  lie  set  up  aller  the 
trump  card  ;m  turned  up,  nnlcAa  iht'y  wi're  liefore  clii'ined. 

If  any  person  calls  at  eiplit.  and  his  parlner  answers,  and 
Ihi^  adverse  party  have  both  thrown  down  their  cards,  and  il 
appears  that  the  parties  calliiiir  have  not  Ihe  honours,  the  ad- 
versaries are  entiiled.  if  they  please,  to  compel  the  play  lo  go 
oil.  or  lo  have  a  new  deal. 

If  any  person  answers  without  having  an  honour,  the  adver- 
sary may  consult  and  stand  the  deal  or  not. 

!■  aiy  person  calls  at  ei^ht,  after  he  has  played,  it  is  in  the 
optioi'  of  the  adversi*  party  to  enll  a  new  deal. 

If  any  person  separates  a  card  from  the  rest,  tlie  adverse 
party  may  call  it,  nrovided  lie  names  it,  and  proves  the  sepnrii- 
ton ;  lint  if  he  calls  a  wronij  card,  he  or  his  nctiier  are  lialile 
for  once  to  have  the  highest  or  lowest  card  called  in  any  suit 
led  dnriiii;  that  deal. 

If  any  person,  supposing  the  game  lost,  tnrows  his  cards  upon 
the  talile  with  their  faces  upwards,  he  may  not  lake  them  up 
•  irain,  and  the  adverse  jiarty  may  call  any  of  the  oardri  when 
tliev  liiiiik  proper,  provided  ile'V  do  iim  niiike  th^'  parly  revoke. 

If  anv  person  is  sure  of  wiiimne  every  trick  in  li'S  hand,  he 
may  show  his  curds,  hut  he  is  th"n  lialile  to  have  ihem  called 

If  any  person  oiniis  playing;  to  a  trick,  and  it  appears  that  he 
has  on.'  i-ard  more  than  the  rest,  it  is  in  the  option  of  the  advcr- 
iarv  to  have  a  new  deal, 

l-^ch  person,  in  |itayiiig,  ought  to  lay  his  card  before  him ;  and 
if  any  of  the  adversaries  mix  ilielr  cards  with  his,  his  partner 
may  demand  each  person  to  Iny  his  card  before  him,  but  not  to 
ioqiiire  who  played  any  particular  card. 

Hints  to  Learners. 

1,  I,ead  from  your  stron?  suit  (or  that  with  which  you  could 

make  ih,'  riiosi  tricks),  ami  be  caiilious  how  ytni  chaiiire  siiiis. 

5,  r.cnd  ihrotigh  an  honour  when  you  have  a  ^ivvl  hand — that 
ia.  cause  your  adversary  on  the  lefi  to  lay  down  a  good  honour. 
In  order  that  ii  may  be  taken  up  if  possible  by  voiir  partner 

8.  Lead  through  the  strong  suit  of  ihe  li'h-liaiul  adversary, 
nnto  the  weak  of  h'm  who  is  on  the  right;  hut  not  in  trumps, 
anicss  you  are  strong  in  them. 

4  Lead  a  irunip.  if  you  have  four  or  five,  or  a  strong  hand  : 
but  not  if  w,'ak, 

■5,  S'oneiices  are  eligible  leads,  and  heirin  wiih  the  highest, 

6.  I'\>llow  your  partner's  lead,  but  not  your  adversary's, 
y.  Do  not  lead  from  ace  iiiieen  or  nee  knave. 

fl.  Do  not  lend  an  ace  iinle«s  yon  have  llie  king. 
ft.  T)o  not  lead  a  thirteen'h  card  unless  iriinips  are  out. 
10.  I)o  not  trump  a  thiituunlii  card  unless  yon  are  last  player, 
•r  want  the  lead. 
It,  'Hie  Ih-rd  10  play  a'ways  to  put  or  his  best  cart!. 
18.  When  you  are  in  doubt,  win  Ihe  trick. 
IM.  When  you  lead  small  iriirnps.  bepn  wiili  the  highest. 

14.  Do  not  trump  out  vi-heii  your  partner  is  likely  to  trump  a 
«uit. 

15.  Having  only  a  few  small  trumps  make  them  when  you  can. 
Ifl.  Mtki  your  tricks  enrly.  and  be  cautions  Low  yon  finesse. 
17  N'ever  negleci  to  mi>ke  the  odd  trick  when  in  your  fower. 
IH,  Never  Ibrce  your  adversary  with  your  best  curd,  unless 

foil  have  llie  n.'xi  best. 

IP  K  yr.ii  have  only  one  cnt-d  nf  any  suit,  and  V'lt  two  or 
Ib'ec  •iiiuJi  iiuiiips,  Icuii]  the  siui^i.^  card. 


90.  Aiwa)  s  cndcavoor  lo  koap  aeommandinK  card  laliniu,, 

your  strong  suit.  ^  ' 

ill.  When  your  partiiar  laads,  endeavour  to  keep  ih(  ,^ 

maiid  in  li.s  bund 

•fj.  Alway  s  keep  the  card  you  turned  up  u  long  as  you  «». 
veinenlly  can 

IKI.  If  your  anlagoiiists  are  eight,  and  you  have  no  IiuA,, 
pla\   )oiir  1,1'ptt  iriinip  ^'' 

'i\.  Always  take  care  to  reckon  and  amend  the  seorr  at  ,„». 
elusion  of  each  deal ;  and  do  not  speak  or  attempt  to  convin, 
unless  between  the  deiiis  ^ 

A  ruhher,  or  rul),  Reliomlly  coiiaJHtH  of  three  gmnt^ 
The  pnrlira  who  Ituvo  two  out  of  the  three  win  ih^.  ,^^ 
If  the  Hiiiiin  party  gain  tho  I'lrat  ami  lliu  Mi-ond  n^ 
that  coticliiili'M  thii  mil,  witlmut  playitiK  tile  third. 

A  ruhlifr  bIho  roimiHta  of  live  pfiiitt*.  if  u  purty  ki,^, 
the  ifiiim'  before  the  uilvcrHary  liun  sciiritl  livu,  ho  it  saul 
lo  have  won  a  liimhte,  or  two  poiiita.  'I'wo  g«iiKi«w,ini|j 
thia  inaiiiicr  cotttil four  |><iinl.s.  utiil  ioii.ii'.|Ui  miy  coiuluJe, 
the  rulila-r,  for  wliicli  otic  point  in  iilso  rickoiiril.  ^\^(^ 
iiti  lulvcraiiry  liaa  stored  five  or  mure  at  the  tcrminmlo^ 
of  u  Ruine,  you  liovo  woti  only;'  tittf'U,  which  countsbul 
na  one  point. 

Whist  ia  Nomctiincs  playrahy  three  persoiis,  Ihcfmrili 
pince  lieiittc  lertru'd  ilumliy.  The  canlH  for  diiinhy  areei. 
posed  on  tho  tulile  and  pluyed  liy  one  who  umlcrtiikps  w 
BCt  aa  diiiiiliy's  partner  throughout.  'I'lils  mcthwl  of 
plitying  very  nitich  destroyathu  intercat  of  the  i;flme,inj 
ia  never  resorted  to  hut  in  cuses  of  nccesitity,  when  bin 
[wraons  cannot  be  liad. 

CRIHRAOC, 

This  fpimo  ia  pinynd  with  the  whole  pack  of  cards,  imj 
by  two,  three,  or  four  pcriioiiH,  aa  the  ease  may  Im.  W^dj 
there  are  three,  they  play  n»  indiviihiiil.s;  when  four,  *o 
play  an  partners,  aa  in  the  case  of  whist.  Tho  value  of 
the  cards  in  eribhage  is  tho  name  as  in  whist,  but  Ihert 
are  no  trumpa,  exceptinc;  the  knave  of  tlir  suit  tumpdun 
'I'here  are  dillerent  nioiles  of  |iliiyitin  uei  unliiig  to  ihe 
number  of  curds  dealt;  the  number  is  generdlly  fivooi 
six.  The  pame  consists  of  sixty-one  pointH,  and  to  kptp 
Hi'orc  or  reckoninc;,  an  appariiltis  culled  n  crililmi;c-b(iai(i 
is  employed.  This  board  (awse.sseH  lioles  for  the  scorinj 
of  each  party,  and  the  scorinu;  is  elll'i'led  by  means  of 
pegs.  The  parly  who  is  able  to  bring  his  peg  iiilo  \\t 
last  hole  first  wins  Ihe  frame. 

The  lolbnvinR  is  an  cxpliinution  ol  terms  generallT 
used  In  the  game : — 

f  ri/i,  the  cards  laid  out  by  each  party  ;  and  whatevs 
points  arc  itiiide  by  them,  the  dealer  scores. 

Pairs  are  two  .similar  curds,  as  two  aces  or  two  king*  I 
They  reckon  for  two  |K)iritii,  whether  in  hand  or  plavinj 

/'((irs  raynl  are  three  similar  cards,  and  reckon  for  sit 
points,  whether  in  hand  or  playing. 

Dnuhle  /xiiri  roynl  are  four  siinilar  cards,  ami  reckon 
for  twelve   points,  whether  in  hand   or  ]iliiying.    The  I 
|H)inlH  (gained  by  pairs,  pairs  roynl.  and  dmiblc  [mirs  royil,  I 
in   playlnR,   are  thus  eUcctcd;    your  adversary  havinH 
played  a  seven,  and  you  Huotlier,  conslituli'S  a  pair,  and 
entitles  you  to  score  two  points;  your  unlat;oni«t  ihra 
pluyinp;  a  third  seven,  makes  a  pair  roynl,  aiid  he  marki  j 
six ;  and  your  playing  a  fourth  is  a  double  pair  royal,  and 
entitles  you  to  twelve  points. 

l'if,ee>is. — Every  fifteen  reckons fortwo  points, wMn 
in  hand  or  playing.  In  hand,  tliiy  are  forincd  cither ky 
two  cards,  such  as  a  live  and  any  tenth  card,  a  .six  amli 
nine,  a  seven  and  an  eight ;  or  by  three  cards,  as  a  Iwo, 
a  five,  and  an  eight,  &c.  And  tii  [iliiying  thus,  if  «ucli 
cards  are  played  as  make  together  fifieeii,  the  two  poiiitt  j 
arc  to  be  scored  towards  the  game. 

Si'ijuenics  are  three  or  four,  or  more  stici'issivc  cards. 

and  reckon  for  an  equal  niiinlx;r  of  points,  cither  in  haml 

or  playing.     In  playing  a  seiiuenc*,  it  is  of  no  cow* 

qucnce  which  card  is  tlirown  down  first,  ns  thus:  ymil 

'  adversary  playing  an  ace,  you  a  five,  he  a  llircc,  you  i 

I  two,  then  he  a  four,  he  counts  five  for  the  Fcijuciice. 

Flmh  is  when  the  cards  are  all  of  one  suit,  and  reckoM 


GAMES   WITH   CARDS. 


TOT 


ig  Ilia  peg  into  thi 
ol  tcrtiis  geiifrallT 


Off  J  miny  P"''  '■  "■  mr*}*!  for  •  flunh  in  the  crib,  tho 
eifj  turiieil  nr  munt  bu  of  tlio  laiiio  suit  M  Ihoiie  ia 

hind. 

Tht  K"  ■■  guinea  by  thn  player  when  no  other  number 
caR  Ik!  (iliiyJ  under  thirty-one,  in  which  cuho  h"»J  tnkci 
one;  but  il'  the  numlwr  ninltoi  thirty-one,  ho  lukoii  two. 
Tli«  lain-up  curd  aiTuunto  in  with  both  hand  and  crib. 

Ri'gtilnlioni  for  I'luylng. 

1  In  (lc'»lin|t.  Ill''  ili'iilfr  iimy  ilmroviT  \in  own  curiln,  If  h« 
ainmn.  hill  Hill  ihoiiMii' lii«  lulvi'mary.  IT  ii«  dot'ii,  iliiil  iiil- 
vetiary  :•  iMitjili'd  i<>  itiiirk  Iwu  [loiiiiK,  unit  I'lill  n  tVcali  ili'ul,  if 
he  iil<'li«c» 

K  II  IIP'  ilpiiliT  .^VB"  lin  BilviT^nrv  loii  iniiiiy  rui-.ln.  ilii-  i\i|. 
VI  r>i"y  I'i'iy  "'"''"  '^vopoiiiM  iiml  iilmi  ilciiianil  iiimiliur  ilfiil, 
nruviilrd  lit:  (IlU'CH  ilie  cirur  priuKiua  lo  hii  Inking  up  hii 

;i.  Wni'ii  any  playr  i"  olnHrvcd  lo  liovn  in  hi»  Imnil  more 
l!i;iii  ilii^  pMi|MT  miiiiliiT  of  cJirili,  in  lli»t  oiim^  !li«  pi-rMiii  who 
i  Jrovt'ia  II  mny  inuik  luiir  poiiiia  lo  hi*  ffan^'^i  aii'l  cull  a  iii-w 
il,.iii.  ifiii'  lliiii«»  propiT. 

4,  li'llii'  (lealiT  t!""'»  liimni'lf  moru  ruriln  ilian  lie  i»  i-ntilled 
in  iliomlvi THUry  iiiuy  ni'iiri'  iwn  poiiiiH  lo  hit  K«mff,  iinil  cull  ii 
fri  <li  ili'iil.  il  hi'  lli'iiki*  priiprr:  if  hi'  iIkhn  iini,  In  i  rnliili'il  lo 
ijrnw  ihi'  exini  rariirt  iVinii  the  licultT'H  humU.  Il  Ihe  nini-di'uhT 
):»«tvc»  111' uilifersury  lin»  iiiiire  cunln  lliuii  un'  Inn  due.  uripr 
lli.y  atf  liiki'n  oil'  the  iiihle,  he  inuy  acure  four  poiiilt  lo  hta 


jiiinc  I 


iiid  cull  n  new  ilenl. 


3.  If  iMlliur  piirly  meddle  wilh  the  curd»  from  the  lliiir  they 
iri'ileall  uiiid  they  are  cut  for  the  turn-up  card,hia  udvvraury 
iiciiiiih'd  to  more  twopoinia. 

II  It  liny  pluyer  seorea  more  thnn  he  ia  cnlilled  to,  Ihe  other 
narty  Im)  ■>  riichl  iiol  only  lo  pul  him  linek  ua  ninny  piiinta  iia 
n  ri:  »o  aoored,  but  alao  lo  acore  the  anme  number  lo  hia  own 

P'l"' 

;.  If  either  party  touchea  even  hia  own  p-'-ga  uiineceaaarily, 
till'  ii(lvi'riiirv  miiy  aeore  iwii  noiiila  to  hia  ifninr. 

J  If  cillier  parly  Inku  out  liia  from  peg,  he  luuat  place  llio 
(line  liehind  llie  other. 

II,  Kiiher  piirty  arnring  a  leaa  number  of  poiiila  than  nrc  his 
dap.  inciira  no  penalty. 

III.  Kach  player  lia.i  a  rijfht  lopnek  hiaownearda;  and  ahoiil. 
bi'|ilaci' tlieiil  oil  Ihe  pack  ii 'id  omit  aeni'iiiK  liir  lln'iii,  whether 
baiiil  or  crib,  he  must  not  iii.irk  liir  Iheiii  aflerwurda. 

riVE    CARD    CRIBBAOE. 

Proper  cribbngc  is  played  wilh  five  cnrdg,  and  wc  shall 
give  a  description  of  it  in  reference  to  two  persons. 

After  the  dealer  hua  been  determined  by  ciittini;,  as  in 
whist,  they  are  dealt  one  alternately,  to  the  extent  of  five 
for  each  iiidividnal.  The  elder  hand  takes  three  pointa 
on  the  hoard.  Eiich  player  then  proceeds  to  lay  out  two 
of  the  five  cards  for  the  crib,  which  always  belong  to  tho 
Jcaler.  In  doing  tliis,  always  recollect  whose  crib  it  is, 
as  the  cards  which  may  ailvantagc  your  own  are  almost 
invariably  prejudicial  to  your  game  when  given  to  your 
ailvorsary.  Tliis  done,  the  non-dealer  cuts  the  remuiiidcr 
of  the  pack,  and  the  dealer  turns  up  the  uppermost.  This 
card,  whatever  it  may  be,  is  reckoni  d  by  each  party  in 
hand  or  crib,  When  it  happens  to  tic  a  knave,  the  dealer 
icorcs  two  points  to  his  game. 

After  laying  out  and  cutting  as  above  mentioned,  the 
eldest  hand  plays  any  card,  which  the  other  endoavoars 
to  pair,  or  to  find  one,  the  points  of  which,  reckoned  with 
the  first,  will  make  fii\cen  ;  then  the  non-dealer  plays 
another  card,  trying  to  make  a  pair,  or  pair  royal,  and  so 
on  alteriiatcly  till  the  points  of  the  cards  played  moke 
thirty-ono,  or  the  nearest  possible  number  under  that. 

When  the  party  whose  turn  it  may  be  to  play  cannot 
produce  a  card  that  will  make  thirty -one,  or  come  in  un- 
der that  nuinlicr,  he  then  says,  "go,"  to  hir.  antagonist, 
who  thereupon  is  to  [day  any  card  be  has  that  will  come  in 
to  make  thirty-one,  if  he  can,  and  take  two  points,  or  to 
icore  one  for  the  end  hole  ;  and  besides,  the  last  player  has 
often  opportunities  to  take  pairs  or  seiiuences.  Such  cards 
as  remain  at^er  this  are  not  to  be  played ;  but  each  party 
having,  during  the  play,  scored  his  points  gained,  in  the 
manner  as  hereafter  directed,  proceeds,  the  non-dealer 
fimt,  then  the  dealer,  to  count  and  take  for  his  hand  and 
trih  as  follows,  reckoning  the  cirds  every  way  they  pos- 
libiy  can  be  varied,  and  always  including  tho  turned-up 
lard : — 

For  every  fifteen,  two  points ;  for  every  pair,  or  two 
of  I  aoit,  two  points;  for  every  pair  ruyal,  or  throe  of  a 


sort,  six  |K)ints ;  for  every  i!nul>l«  pair  royal,  or  four  of  • 
■iirt,  twi'lvu  pointj) ;  for  every  wipiencu  of  any  iiort,  »■> 
cording  to  tho  niiiiilN'r ;  for  every  (lush,  according  to  tht 
number;  fnr  every  knave  or  iiodily  of  the  annin  suit  ■■ 
wu.t  turned  up,  one  point ;  but  when  turned  up  it  is  nol 
to  Imi  reckoned  again,  nor  is  any  thing  to  be  taken  for  il 
when  played. 

Three  cards  of  the  same  suit  in  hand  entitle  tho  holdei 
t<)  reckon  that  iiniiiber,  and  five  for  the  crib  when  the 
turned-up  card  hitp|)eiis  to  Iw  of  the  same  suit. 

It  IS  always  highly  necriw>ary,  in  laying  out  card*  for 
the  crib,  that  every  player  sliould  consider  not  only  hia 
own  blind,  but  also  whom  the  crib  belongs  to,  and  whtl 
is  the  state  of  Iho  game ;  because  what  might  lie  proper 
in  one  situation  would  be  extremely  imprudent  in  another. 

If  you  should  happen  to  possess  u  pair  royal,  b«  sure 
to  lay  out  Iho  other  two  cards  for  either  your  own  or  your 
adversary's  crib,  except  you  hold  two  fives  with  the  pair 
royal  ;  in  that  case,  it  would  be  extremely  injudicious  to 
lay  them  out  for  your  adversary's  crib,  unless  Ihe  card* 
you  retain  iiMure  your  game,  or  vour  adversary  being  lO 
near  home  that  the  crib  becomes  of  no  importance. 

It  i'*  generally  right  to  fliiah  your  cards  in  hand  when- 
ever you  can,  as  it  may  assist  your  own  crib  or  baulk 
your  opponent's. 

Endeavour  always  to  retain  n  sequence  in  your  hand, 
and  particularly  if  it  is  a  flush. 

Always  lay  out  close  cards,  such  as  a  three  and  four, 
a  five  and  six,  liir  your  own  crib,  unless  it  breaks  your 
hand. 

As  there  is  one  card  more  to  count  in  the  crib  at  five 
card  eribbage  than  there  is  in  hand,  lie  sure  to  pay  great 
utteiition  In  the  crib,  as  tile  probability  of  reckoning  more 
])oints  for  the  crib  than  hand  is  five  to  four. 

For  your  own  crib,  always  lay  out  two  cards  of  tbe 
same  .Huit,  in  preference  to  two  of  dilferent  tuiits,  as  thia 
will  give  you  the  chance  of  u  Hush  in  tho  crib. 

Never  iay  out  cords  of  the  sam*!  suit  for  youi  tdver- 
snry's  crib. 

Endeavour  always  to  baulk  your  opponent's  crib.  The 
liest  cards  for  this  purpose  are  a  king  and  an  ace.  a  six,  a 
seven,  an  eight,  a  nine,  or  a  ten  ;  or  a  ((uern  with  an  ace, 
;i  six,  a  seven,  an  eight,  or  a  nine;  or  any  cards  not  likely 
to  form  u  seijucnce. 

A  king  is  generally  esteemed  the  greater  baulk  ;  aa, 
from  its  being  the  highest  card  in  tho  pack,  no  higher 
one  can  come  in  'o  form  a  sciiuence. 

Never  lay  out  ii  knave  for  your  odversary's  crib,  whoa 
you  can  po.ssildy  avoid  it,  as  it  is  only  three  to  one  but 
the  card  turned  up  is  of  the  same  suit,  by  which  he  will 
obtain  n  point. 

Even  though  you  should  hold  a  pair  royal,  never  lay 
out  for  your  adversary's  crib  a  two  and  three,  a  five  and 
six,  a  seven  and  eight,  or  a  five  and  any  tenth  card. 
Whenever  you  '  old  such  cards  observe  the  state  of  your 
game,  and  particularly  if  it  is  nearly  ended,  whether  your 
adversary  is  nearly  out,  or  within  a  moderate  show,  and 
it  is  your  deal.  When  this  is  the  case  you  must  retain 
such  cards  as  will,  in  playing,  prevent  your  adversary 
from  making  pairs  or  sequences,  &c.,  and  enable  you  to 
win  the  end-hole,  which  will  often  prevent  your  opponent 
from  winning  tho  game. 

THREE   AND   F017R  HAND   CRIBBAOE 

Three  and  fcntr  hand  eribbage  differs  only  from  two 
hand  in  as  far  as  the  parties  only  put  out  oi.e  card  each 
to  the  crib ;  and  when  thirty-one,  or  as  nearly  as  can  be, 
have  been  made,  then  the  next  eldest  hand  leads,  and  the 
players  go  on  again,  in  rotation,  with  any  remaining 
card-,  till  all  are  played  out,  ticfore  they  proceed  to  show 
their  hands  and  crib. 

In  three-hand  eribbage,  a  triangular  board  is  used, 
with  three  lines  of  holes  to  allow  of  each  scoring  hi* 
own  game. 


W4 


INFORMATION    FOR  Tltfc   PKOPI.E. 


■II   CARD   CRIiRAOC. 

Six  rnrd  rribbnuv  Iwani  m  iirciit  ■  rri«'ml<l«nrr  lo  fiv* 
fird,  tliiit  nny  oiii*  |iliiyiii)(  ih'  i»ip  wril  iiiiiat  piny  the 
ollirr  rqimllv  no.  It  coii^i^t"  of  |i«irH,  fllWrw.  wiiui'lici'*, 
flimhru,  he,  mut  thr  (Kilhtit  arc  ri-cknni'il  miil  ninrkrd 
{)ri<i-iM'ly  in  thr  miiiir  iiiunni'r ;  nil  ihi-  ninlii  niii't  lie 
plityrii  nut;  that  i»,  whi'ii  rilhcr  |i«rly  lia'i  iniiilr  tlir  eml 
hdlo.  thr  nMimiiiuiK  I'nrtU  in  liuiiil  niu«t  In-  |iliiyi-il,  *i-iir- 
ini;  for  tlin  |>air«  nr  flfliHiii  ihoy  iniiy  form.  Whon  Iniil 
pUrttr,  you  Hhnuld  I'mlcavoiir  to  ritjin  rlone  rnnU  in 
ii'inil,  «•  tliey  may  enable  you  to  aripiiro  four  poiiita  in 
plnyiriR. 

'rh«Mlenlcr  iaRuppnani  to  hnvn  aomi-  (ritlinK  nilvnntiiKc 

'I'tc  ilruicr  iH  entitlril  to  i'xp<'ct  Iwcniy-livo  poiriln  liy 
h><  hanil,  Till,  unci  nctl  Ininil.  TIuih,  al  lii"  iii'coiiil  cNmI, 
if  Ilia  |i(>K  la  in  thn  twenty-fifth  hole  of  the  liotird.  Iip  hiia 
Ilia  complrmrnt  of  pointa ;  the  mbhio  at  hia  third  deal,  if 
he  i'  within  rlcvrn  polnl«  of  the  unrni'. 

I  lie  nnii-doHlor  liy  hia  firHt  lioml  iillniii  the  pIpvimiIIi 
hole  in  the  l>onrd,  he  will  have  the  Id'hI  of  the  ki>>i>*^< 
fir  ho  ia  rntilled  to  expert  thut  he  ahnll  make  hin  aeconil 
deal  with  hia  front  pen  in  the  thirly-Kulh  hole,  and  by 
vihii'h  he  will  probably  win  the  giimo  by  hia  hand,  rrih, 
ai.d  next  hand. 

If  yon  aro  dealer,  ami  your  advermiry  hna  above  hia 
<iiin|ilement  of  pointa,  you  inu»t  pluy  your  ^aine  iireord- 
liuly.  Thua,  if  you  have  n<iod  earda,  try  to  niiike  na 
U'.iiny  {lointa  a*  powihleby  piiirinn,  fiHeena,  he.  On  the 
contrary,  if  your  ninla  are  indilfereiit,  you  niu«t  pliiv  olf, 
to  prevent  your  advcraary  from  nbtaininu  pointa, 

Ai.L-rovRa. 

Thia  ia  a  (jnmc  at  earda  played  liy  two,  three,  or  four 
pcraona,  with  a  complete  pack  of  eariN.  If  four,  there 
»re  two  piirtiea,  two  in  each.  We  ahull  auppow.'  only 
two  indiviihmlM  arc  pinyinp; :  — 

Alter  the  earda  have  lieen  dealt  by  three  at  a  time,  aix 
to  earli,  the  dealer  turna  up  the  next  card  aa  the  trump. 
If  your  adversary  be  not  aatiafied  with  bin  hand,  hu  aaya, 
«  I  bea[,"  III  thia  ea»e,  if  you  do  not  wish  to  run  the 
riak  of  channuin  the  trump,  you  nay,  "I  give  you  one," 
an>l  you  allow  him  to  arore  one  towarda  hia  game.  If 
vuir  own  hand  be  bad,  you  then  deal  out  three  more 
cnrda  to  earh,  and  turn  up  anothe  trumji,  which  au|ier- 
■edoa  the  former.  The  adveraary  in  >y  propose  to  take 
tl'.e  chanre  of  dealing  thn-e  more  eunls  to  eiich,  but  this 
,  can  l>c  refuHcd  by  the  dealer,  without  any  forfeiture. 

The  earda  are  tlien  played,  the  elder  hand  Icudinft, 
and  the  party  takini{  up  the  tricks  which  he  wins.  You 
must  either  follow  suit  or  trump,  if  you  can. 

Ten  pointa  make  the  f^amc,  and  they  are  produced  by 
Ac'A,  which  ia  the  higheat  trump  dealt;  /(/ir,or  the  lowest 
truinp  dealt ;  jack,  at  knave  of  truinpa ;  ami  jjumc,  the 
auiiiber  of  pipa  on  tlie  counting  curda.  The  counting 
oiirdi  are  aa  followa: — aco,  four;  kini;,  three;  queen, 
t<vo ,  knave,  one ;  and  the  ten,  which  reckons  ten. 
This  counting  appliea  to  all  auita.  If  the  jack  bo  in 
your  hand,  secure  it  aa  quickly  aa  poaaible  ;  aa,  for  in- 
atante,  do  not  loae  an  opportunity  of  trumping  with  it ; 
for  if  it  fall  into  the  adverfcory'a  hand,  ho  reckona  it  to 
his  game. 

Should  the  card  turned  up  be  a  knave,  the  dealer 
■cores  one  point  to  hia  game.  Knave  of  trumps  iu  hand 
doci  not  reckon,  unless  you  make  a  trick  with  it ;  for  if 
your  adversary  takes  it  with  the  ace,  king,  or  queen,  ho 
fcoriis  it 

SPKCUF.ATION. 

This  ia  a  round  game  at  cards,  the  term  ronml  mean- 
inj;  that  it  can  be  played  by  a  large  party  round  a  table. 
The  numtier  moat  auitabic  ia  from  seven  to  thirteen. 

The  princij'le  of  the  game  is  this ;  \  pool  is  formed 
by  the  dcalot  putting  two  counters,  and   every  other 


player  putting  one  counter,  into  •  diah  or  trramry  jn  ||,, 
niidiHe  of  the  table  ;  and  thia  alorn  ia  paid  to  ihi<  Mrion 
who  bolilH  the  bigbent  trninp.  Thua  it  ia  the  olijirt  of 
rveiy  person  lo  get  the  highest  trump,  and  the  rlliirt  la 
do  ao  ia  the  i/itntiilwii,  from  which  ihn  game  tirnvi'a  m 
name. 

After  being  duly  shunied  and  rut,  and  the  ilraUr  iK 
termined,  he  deaU  three  cards  lo  each  |>er>«iii,  iinf,  ,1 , 
'iiiie.  Tliene  cards  must  1m>  placed  la-fore  earli  int^h, 
and  no  one  is  allowed  to  look  at  them  until  al'<i>r  iin 
trump  is  tunieil.  Having  fliiinhed  the  deal,  tin,  1,,,,, 
card  ili'termines  the  trump  ;  this  card  may  Iw  n^ld  rw)^ 
la-fore  or  alter  la-iiig  seen.  When  this  Hpeeuriijnn  ji 
eoiii'liidi-d,  by  amne  person  piinhiiinin  it  wiih  eounirni 
or  the  dealer  ri'taining  it,  if  he  thinks  profa-r,  the  e\,\^^ 
hand  turns  hia  upperiiiosl  card,  ami  if  tlii-t  he  a  auiH-riur 
truiiip  to  the  one  tiiriiiil,  he  may  alao  apei-iilate,  f-).,;!, 
player  does  the  same,  till  all  the  cinls  have  Ix-i-n  d, 
pos(-il,  when  the  pool  ia  given  to  the  jiosaemor  of  \^ 
highest  trump, 

Lofl. 

l,<m  ia  a  game  played  by  five  or  six  pi'ople  ;  ami  a  pool 
is  made  by  the  dealer  pntling  in  live  counters,  ]{,,  ||,,,g 
deals  live  cards  to  each  person,  and  turiis  up  a  trump, 
Whatever  suit  the  trump  may  be,  the  knave  of  duhi, 
called  jiiiiii,  forms  the  chief  Those  who  are  dinHallnlieil 
with  their  liamN  can  throw  up  their  cards,  and  dcminl 
fre-'h  ones  from  the  pack. 

When  the  aco  of  trumps  is  played,  it  is  usual  to  lai, 
"  I'am,  be  civil ;"  the  holder  of  pain  ia  then  cx|M>cti!(li« 
let  the  ace  pass. 

When  any  person  holda  n  flush  of  trumps  with  ptm, 
this  individiiid  can  sweep  the  jiool  luloro  (ilayinif.  Then 
there  is  a  new  deal. 

Tin-  next  bcHt  hand  to  the  above  ia  trumps  nnlv,  ani 
this  sweeps  the  pool,  if  there  Ihi  not  a  pain  IIukIi  ;  ml 
there  ia  also  a  ii>-w  deal, 

Tlie  next  bi- 1  hand  is  that  of  a  flush  of  nhrr  luiii, 
which  sweeps  the  pool ;  and  there  is  also  a  11  w  deal. 

When  any  of  tliese  flushes  occur,  each  iierson,  »• 
cepting  those  who  hold  inferior  flushes  or  puiii,  ia  luKd, 
and  has  to  pay  five  counters  into  thi'  pool. 

When  none  of  these  flushes  occur,  and  those  who 
wish  have  changed  their  cards,  the  game  goe.i  on  u  at 
whist,  the  highest  card  taking  the  trick. 

When  ail  the  cards  are  played  out,  they  will  malwbiil 
Ave  tricks ;  and  all  the  counters  in  the  pool  are  liiviM 
lielween  the  holders  of  these  tricks,  every  other  person 
being  IooimI,  and  obliged  to  pay  five  counters  to  the  pool 
for  next  deal. 

DANCING. 

Dancing,  aa  one  of  the  most  healthful  and  elegant  ig. 
door  amuHeinenta,  cannot  be  too  highly  recoiiimenJi'J, 
.\mong  a  rude  or  dissolute  |H>ople  it  may  degenerate  inlo 
something  worthy  of  condemnation  ;  lint  all  tin- lileiwin;) 
of  Providence  are  aimilarly  liable  to  ahunc,  and  it  wouli! 
be  most  unjust  to  condemn  a  cheerful  dutiiestic  amu)6 
mcnt,  merely  la-cauac  it  has  at  times  been  degraded  into 
immoral  purposes.  By  all  physiciaiiH,  dnneini;,  when 
pursued  in  inodernlion,  is  recommeiidi'd  as  hii;hly  con- 
ducive to  health;  and  it  may  be  truly  said,  that, ullied  with 
music,  nothing  ia  more  calculaled  to  purge  the  mind  of 
melancholy,  and  pnt  the  whole  temper  inlo  good  h* 
mour. 

Dancing  ia  the  poetry  of  motion.  It  muxt  lie  per- 
formed with  ease  and  grace,  and  always  with  a  perfitt  I 
regard  for  propriety  of  movement,  .■\s  an  art,  it  ii 
taught  by  professed  masters ;  and  one  of  the  leadinj 
rulcB  given  to  the  learner  is  to  raise  and  lower  himaelf 
gracefully  on  the  elastic  part  of  his  feet,  that  is,  the  toea 
never  to  leap  or  come  down  on  the  whole  sole  or  lieela 
alao  to  keep  exact  time  to  the  uiuaic.    Dancing  is  titers 


OANCINO. 


•m 


fopic ;  ami  a  pool 
mntcrs.  |||.  thej 
iirim  up  B  irump, 
•<  kiiiivp  of  (luh,, 
ho  nri''(li»Hali»|ifJ 
irilH,  mill  (lomaiij 


dn  t  idnptp  AnA  rlrpimt  irll(llii<t  nn  th«  Inm,  thrap  hf  nil- 
|n(  mnr*  '"  I'**  '■>  niTommiHlHtn  tlin  Uv\m,  nnd  In  |irr- 
wnl  <'*''f.V  'hind  Itkn  ImrKliiifiw  of  nintinn.  'I'lm  lnMly 
ihiiiilil  ><"l  'x*  l^'*'''  ■li'H.v,  «nil  Ihn  hiiiiiU  nUKht  to  Iiiiiik 
,l„wn  i'«"il.v  l>y  ••>«•  "ill"'"- 

IlnnrinK  tiikc*  tlio  tiirm  n(  upvarsl  iliiitinrt  kind*  nr 
irriri  <>l°  mnvi'ini'ntu,  muiik  i|tii>'k  ntnl  iiDiiin  nlow,  mid 
„,m(i  miir«'  c'niii|)l<'X  timii  nthc rn.  Tlir  iiioRt  |K)|iiilnr  of 
ihi-  olil^'atuMiiiliiHl  tiano'x  are  Uirnied 

roiinlry  Ptmrcii. 

fhii  rinm  of  dntirra  tHkcH  il*  iiiinie  from  the  Frrnrh 
»(inl  I'mirr  (nitiiliiNl),  from  liciiiK  iliiru'cd  liy  two  imrllr* 
lumlinn  ill  i>  f'w  "|>|»)Bili'  or  mtuiiiNt  (Muh  nihrr.  'I'hii 
wiiithI  |irin<'l|il«  Ih  fur  vwh  foii|ili'  in  Hiii'<'i"<Niiin  to  ko 
J.iwn  lhc>  iniilille  of  thr  rowN  niiil  np  iiKnin.  wiili  aomit 
nllier  movpiniMila,  till  nil  hiivf  (liiiiciil  down  niiil  inln  llicir 
(irii(inil  pliin'H.  It  In  n  riilo  for  tin-  top  rou|il«'  lo  clanro 
jiiwn  twirr,  llino  Ii'iivIiik  ||ii<  i-ouplc  lliiit  wuh  iIic  mrond 
to  l<r  at  til)-  lop.  'I'liia  fiiiiiihrH  the  iliiiirt'.  If  llit!  pnrty 
ffjah  to  linnet!  nnotlior  diini'i*,  tin*  Hccond  coupli'.  now  nt 
thi'  top.  iH'itins,  nnd  no  on,  'I'Iiuh,  nuh  ronpli-  m  the 
pirtv  hni  tlic  op|iorliinity  of  rhfxminit  any  ptirlirulnr 
il«nrf  or  liini!  they  may  wi.di.  Tht!  clioiro  in  Irll  to  tlio 
liilv.  In  Kfncrnl,  n  party  in  a  I'oinitry  dnnio  do  not  riv 
ninin  up  for  more  than  two  ilaiircn,  when  the  purtiiera 
Iff  chnnnpd,  nnd  new  diincfM  iM'nin. 

A  rountry  dnniM'  Hhonld  not  conidHt  of  more  thnn 
inrlve  or  I'otirtiTn  ron|ili'H,  nit  it  Ih  futii;niiiK  to  dam  r 
«ilh  »  sroiilrr  niimlxr.  In  ntiindiiiR  np.  tho  lady  kIiouIiI 
ilwiivfi  Ih^  on  the  Kentlciimn'n  ri^lit  hand,  if  they  turn 
Ihrir  fiin  H  to  the  top  of  the  room.  This  Ih  a  Kiinple  rule 
to  ilrlvrmiiio  on  which  nide  the  Imlien  and  gentleuieii 
ihiiulcl  ri-»t)i'elively  t'ike  their  plaeex. 

Tlie  piini'ipal  (Inures  in  eoiintry  daneen  are, 

1,  Hiiii(lii(i'r(i.it  :  tlint  in,  the  lop  liidy  taken  the  nerond 
pntlrmiin  hy  the  ric;lit  hand,  nnd  the  top  p;enlleni'.in,  lit 
io  same  time,  takes  the  seeonil  Indy  liy  the  riucht  hand, 
■ml  all  Ko  a  hnll-rirrlu  round ;  then  nil  ehnnije  hundn 
mil  Imrk  ai;ain. 

5.  Uniiils  fimr  round;  the  two  top  couples  join  hunda, 
fonnini?  n  circle;  dnnee  half  round  and  Kick  ni;nin. 

3.  A'lir''/  and  Fr/I. — In  thin  the  top  lady  Rives  her 
risht  hiuid  to  her  partner,  chanjfino;  plncen  with  him  ; 
tlieii  her  left  hand  lo  the  person  Indnw  her,  chnni^ini^ 
places;  lirr  partner  perl'onnn  n  similar  movement,  and 
both  return  to  their  pinces. 

4.  Set  nnd  rhan^r  jk/i  i.^Thc  Indy  tnkea  hold  of  Inith 
llsnJn  of  the  Indy  below  her,  and  netn,  that  is,  dances  fur 
1  short  time  without  ehaiipinn  her  nituation  ;  then  hoth 
Imliei  puss  to  the  afentlemen's  side,  while  the  gentlemen 
piis  at  their  backs  to  the  ladies'  side ;  all  again  aei,  and 
relum  to  their  places. 

5.  Potiset'i: — This  signifies  that  the  two  top  couples 
ffipectively  join  hands,  each  couple  dancing  round  the 
other. 

6.  Down  the  middli: — The  top  couple  go  down  hand  in 
h«nd  anil  return,  stopping  one  couple  lower  thnn  they 
conimeni'ed. 

7.  Catling  off  is  the  Indy  going  down  behind  the 
iiiiies,  nnd  the  Rentleman  behind  the  gentlemen,  nnd  rc- 
lurninR  to  their  places. 

There  are  English.  Irish,  and  Scotch  country  dances ; 
tat  we  know  of  no  distinction  among  Ihein  except  the 
tunes.  All  viirv  less  or  more  in  their  futures.  In  each, 
however,  as  already  observed,  the  plan  is  followed  of  the 
first  nr  top  couple  dancing  with  each  following  couple  in 
•ucoession  to  the  bottom  of  the  mom;  nnd  as  soon  as  a 
suffioient  number  of  couples  are  disengnufed  at  top.  an- 
other couple  commences,  and  so  on  through  the  whole 
parly.  The  following  is  nn  outline  of  the  figures  in  a 
f'w  of  the  more  popuUr  country  dances.  It  will  be 
cisiierst(KHl  that  we  .-ilways  refer  to  what  each  couple 
doM  in  aucccsoion  :— 


Vintltt  pfUM  dnnrrr,  MaiiimoMh.  —  flet  and  chang* 
■idei,  down  the  miilille,  up  again,  nnd  [Hiuivlte. 

Jiihn  nt  I'liim. —  Right  and  left,  down  the  mlddld,  up 
again,  and  |M)unelte. 

('iifiiiiiii  hlrnim:;. — Hands  aeroia,  down  the  middle, 
up  ngain,  ami  hnnda  four  round. 

'I'hf  llonrij-iiiinn. —  Hands  three  round  on  the  Indus' 
aide,  then  on  iho  geiideinen's  side,  down  the  miildle,  up 
again,  poiiselte,  right  and  lell. 

'ilit    Triumph Down   the   middle   and    up   again; 

then  the  lady  down  with  the  next  gentlemnn  ;  hei 
partner  follows:  the  two  gentlemen  now  lead  the  Imly 
up  between  them,  taking  hold  of  her  hands  by  one 
hand,  and  joining  their  other  hand*  over  Iter  head ; 
pnusetle. 

/'f/rcniV/rt. — First  couple  move  to  the  right  Into  tha 
middle,  and  set;  lo  the  right  again,  and  set  at  the 
side  ;  to  the  right  again  and  set  in  the  middle  ;  to  iho 
right  again  to  places ;  down  the  iniddlo,  up  again,  and 
|)ouselte. 

Cii/iir  Fey. — Top  couple  go  down  back*  and  up 
again ;  down  the  middle  and  up  again ;  act,  and  turn 
corners,  and  reel  on  the  sides. 

The  l.iyiiiy. — Hands  three  round  on  the  Indies'  side ; 
then  on  the  gentlemen's  sii' ' ;  down  the  middle  and  up 
again;  set  in  the  middle,  ar   i  turn  with  both  hands. 

Sir  ItdL'fr  (If  ('(rvirliy  i)x  Ihe  llnymiikaii lop  lady 

nnd  the  bottom  gentleman  advance  to  the  centre  of  the 
dunce,  turn  with  both  hands,  and  Irnvk  to  tl,  '<r  places  ; 
Ihe  first  gei'ileman  and  bolto"<  lady  do  tl>e  name  ;  the 
top  Indy  nnd  liottom  gcntlem.iii  ngain  .  vnnee,  lur 
with  the  ric^ht  hiunl.  nnd  buck  to  |ilaeen;  then  the  t'  ,: 
geiitlemni.  -ul  bollom  lady  do  the  same;  top  ladv  aiKii 
bottom  genilemnn  ;i  Ivnnce  nnd  turn  with  lefl  hand  ird 
linek  to  places;  the  top  gentleman  and  lioltoni  Indy  do 
the  same.  The  i  .ji  Inily  and  liottni  .;,  ,'eman  ml- 
Vance,  the  gentleman  liows  and  the  I;  (l_y  en  tsies;  Iho 
top  gentleman  and  bottom  lady  do  Ihr  nme.  The  l.ip 
lady  nnd  botlom  gentli'mnn  advance,  and  pass  back  t  i 
back ;  top  gentleman  and  bottom  lady  do  the  sunn'. 
The  top  couple  turn,  Ihe  Indy  to  ihe  right  and  Ihe  gen- 
tleman to  the  left;  nil  the  ladies  following  the  lody,  aiil 
all  the  gentlemen  following  the  gentleman  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  room,  where  they  meet  their  partners  nnd 
lead  up  Ihe  centre  of  the  room.  The  ;op  coni)le  then 
half  pous<'ite  with  each  couple,  till  they  reach  the  bottom 
of  the  dance. 

Scotch  Reels. 

These  are  rnpid  nnd  rather  fntiguing,  but  not  ungrace- 
ful dnnces.  They  nre  danced  by  three,  four,  five,  or  six 
persons ;  but  four  is  best  nnd  most  common.  The 
foursome  reel  is  danc  '.  very  much  according  to  fancy  ; 
the  two  couples  eomni-  ii.-  ig  by  placing  themselves  o|i- 
posile  each  other,  or  i\  >  :.iie,  with  the  two  Indies  in  Iho 
middle,  back  to  Imck.  In  whichever  wny  the  daiico 
begins,  the  plan  is  for  each  person  to  perform  the  figure 
of  eight  by  winding  round  the  others,  and  setting  to 
partners  nitern  .\\y.  The  music,  of  course,  guides  the 
time  for  the  s  'ling  and  the  moving. 

llii»lilaiiders  ilmce  reels  with  great  agility,  and  are 
fond  of  iiilroiUicing  the  steps  ordinarily  called  the  //ig/i- 
lari<l  flitii',  which  is  of  the  character  of  dancing  on  ench 
foot  niternitely,  and  flinging  the  other  in  front  and  b<> 
hiiiil  the  h'g  wh'ch  is  dancing. 

QuBilri)les. 

'I'hcso  nre  modem  dances  of  French  origin,  compa- 
ratively traiKiuil  in  character,  and  very  suitable  for 
small  domeMic  parties.  They  are  danced  by  four  cou- 
ples nr  eight  persons,  a  cou)  Ic  standing  on  each  side 
of  a  square.  The  lady  is  always  on  the  gcntleman'i 
right. 

There  are  many  acta  of  quadrilles,  the  figures  in  eaca 
3  1/  'i 


79C 


iNFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


rorying  f("jm  the  others ;  but  in  by  far  the  greater  num- 
'  bcr  of  instances  one  set  is  adhered  to,  wliich  is  termed 
Payne's  first  set,  Tliis  set,  of  which  wo  present  an 
outline,  consists  of  four  figures,  and  a  finnlc.  Tlie  cou- 
ples nt  top  uiid  Imttoin  first  perforin  a  figure  ;  then  it  is 
performed  l)>  llie  others;  and  so  on. 

La  I'imtiiloii. — First  right  and  left,  set  and  turn  part- 
ners ;  ladies  chain,  which  is  performed  by  the  two 
ladies  giving  dieir  right  hands  to  ouch  other,  and  chang- 
ing places;  then  their  left  hands  so  the  gentlemen,  and 
turn  round  ;  and  the  same  back  again  to  places.  Now, 
promenade  (each  couple  holding  hands  crossed)  to  the 
opposite  side ;  thi  n  half  right  and  left  back  to  places. 

L'Ete. — The  first  lady  and  opposito  genllemar  ad- 
vance and  retire,  dance  to  tlie  right,  then  to  the  left, .  niss 
over,  lady  and  gentleman  changing  pluc4:8.  Daiic ;  to 
the  right  and  left,  ross  again  to  their  own  plo/ .n,  and 
turn  their  partners.  The  second  laJy  and  first  gentle- 
man do  the  same. 

La  Poulc. — The  first  lady  and  opposite  gentleman 
cross  over,  giving  their  right  hands ;  back  again,  giving 
their  left  and  then  right  to  their  partners,  and  set,  form- 
wig  a  line;  promenade  to  opposite  places.  The  two 
who  begin  advance  and  retire  ;  advnnco  a  seconil  time  ; 
the  lady  curtsies  and  the  gentlemuii  bows,  and  return, 
riie  two  couples  advance  and  retire;  half  right  and  left 
to  their  original  places. 

L<i  Trenitc. — Ladies  chain;  set  and  turn  partners; 
fiist  coupio  advance  and  retire ;    advance   again ;   the 


gentleman  rztuins,  leaving  the  lady  on  the  left  of  ttu 
opposite  gentleman ;  the  two  ladies  pass  or  cross  to  ih 
opposite  side,  changing  to  opposite  corners,  during  wliid 
the  gentleman  passes  between  them,  and  sets.  Tk 
ladies  cross  over  again,  and  pass  to  opposite  corne 
while  the  gentleman  returns  to  his  place,  and  sein! 
The  first  couple  set  and  turn.  During  these  perioral 
anccs,  the  gentleman  at  the  bottom  of  the  dance  slanl 
still.  The  movement  being  finished,  a  similar  figuM  j, 
performed  by  himself  and  partner. 

L(i  Finnic. — All  eight  dance  or  chassc  across,  chan? 
ing  places  with  their  partners,  and  set  at  the  cornets' 
back  again  to  places,  and  set.  After  this,  L'Ele  is  danced' 
concluding  with  chasse  across. 

This  finale  is  danced  in  another  way.  All  eight  pro. 
menade  round  the  room  to  their  own  places.  The  first 
and  second  couple  advance  and  retire ;  advance  auaiii 
the  gentlemen  taking  the  opposite  ladies,  or  exchaiiginj,' 
partners.  Ladies  chain;  advance  and  retire;  ajvanm 
again,  rjclniming  partners,  and  promenude.  'j'liii,  \, 
called  the  galUipade  finale. 

The  preceding  embracis  nearly  all  dances  usually  per. 
formed  in  private  parties  and  balls  of  an  ordinary  kinj 
In  the  highei  class  of  assemblies,  various  foreign  danrcj 
are  introduced,  such  as  waltzes,  mazourkas,  pas  scuij 
minuets,  and  gallopades ;  but  of  these  it  is  uniitcrsjatv 
to  otfer  any  description,  as  they  require  careful  traiunii 
under  a  master. 


FOREIGN  COSTUMES. 


Amoxr  the  many  subjci*"  of  just  and  natural  curio- 
■ity  in  the  history  of  mankind,  there  is  none  more  dis- 
tinctive and  characteristic  of  a  people  than  the  peculiar 
costume  in  which  they  are  attired.  'I'he  various  articles 
of  clothing  have,  from  the  earliest  ages,  formed  the  prin- 
cipal manufactures  of  every  country — skill  and  industry 
"n  which,  carried  to  a  certain  extent,  mark,  beyond  almost 
any  other  circumstance,  the  advance  of  a  people  i.i  arts 
and  civilization.  The  savage  wraps  himself  in  the  skins 
of  the  animals  upon  whose  flesh  he  feeds ;  and  even  the 
most  inhospitable  regions  furnish  not  only  their  natives 
with  such  rude  clothing,  but  alr.n  supply  the  most  civilized 
worlii ;  for  example,  the  Danes  obtain  from  CJreenlanil 
■eal-skins  and  fur,  the  eiderdown  for  the  couch  of  the 
luxurious  noble,  and  whalebone  to  complete  the  wardrobe 
of  the  court  l)eauty.  The  processes  t)y  which  plain  sub- 
atance^  shorn  from  an  animal  or  gathered  from  a  plant 
are  converted  into  magnificent  ro.fs  of  the  most  brilliant 
tints,  involve  some  of  the  most  striking  points  in  the 
history  of  I'.uman  invention.  Hut  the  entire  subject  o!" 
/ostume  is  replete  with  interest,  from  the  rude  skin-cover- 
ings ot  the  nutives  of  the  icy  north  and  south,  to  the 
exipiisitc  fineness  and  beauty  of  the  fibrics  of  the  east, 
and  the  elegani'e  and  economy  of  those  of  the  west. 
IiDjenuity  is  not,  however,  cclusivily  tbr  work  of  civi- 
lization; for  we  find  the  wild  Indians  of  buth  the  .Ame- 
ricas, tiie  Houlh-Sea  islanders,  the  ncKroes  ni'.i  Hottentots 
of  .Africa,  atnl  the  poor  saviigcs  of  the  J'olar  Regions,  all 
acquainted  with  the  art  of  plaiting  wo(«l,  grass,  or  s<'a- 
weed ;  and  some  of  Ihein  [irodui  ing,  nierciy  by  hand, 
t«xture8  which  we,  assisted  by  all  the  aid  of  machinery, 
can  scarcely  rival, 

I'he  earliest  clothing  was  coats  of  skins,  from  which 


the  transition  wus  to  woollen  tissues,  linens,  cotton,  ami 
silk,  ill  the  various  forms  which  liincy  suggested.    Linen 
was   made  at  a  very  early  perioil   in  Egypt,  us  we  see 
from  the  cloth  wrap|mrs  of  muminies,  which  arc  all  linen;  j 
and  early  in   the  present  century,  there  were  fouiij  al 
8akkara  two  Egyptian  tunics,  in  the  form  of  a  shirt,  anj 
supposed  to  be  the  "  linen  ephod"  of  .Scripture.*    Tte 
Egyptians  also  knew  the  art  of  colouring  and  (jrepariiig 
leatl.er,  of  which,  as  well  as  papyrus,  they  made  sandals,  | 
and  subsequently  shot's.     It  is  uncertain  whether  collon 
was  known  to  the  Egyptians;  hut  the  cotton  plant ii 
found  wilil  both  in  the  old  and  new  world.     Horodolui 
mentions  it  as  indigenous  in  India  ;  and  cotton  cloth  has  I 
lieen  found  in  uricii'iit  Peruvian  tombs.     The  country  of 
the  Hindoos  has  always  lieen  distinguishcil  in  the  art  of 
weaving;  and  thence,  through  the   medium  of  £^1,  I 
ancient  Rome  is  staled  to  have  been  supplied  willi  line 
Inili.>  cottons ;  whilst  the   beauty  and  diiraliility  of  tlie  j 
Indian  colours  were  as  celebrated  among  the  (Jrccks  anJ  ] 
Kornnns  as  among  ourselves.     JSilk  also  was  maniilln-' 
tured  in  Imlia  in  very  early  times.     In  faliricntini:  arli- 
ch's  for  ornamciitiiig  the  [k  rson,  the  Egyptians  profcs*rl 
great  skill:  their  gold  mines  were  wurkeil  uiidir  thcoar'y 
Pharaohs;   bends  and  otlicr  oinaments  of  ulass  arcloui.l 
on    many  niumniies;  whilst,   at   a   very   early  dnti',  ',l;e 
rich  ginis  of  the  east  were  e(>ii\ eyed  Ihilhcr,  for  wliiit 
Egypt  gave  in  return  its  inaniilacHircs  of  line  limn,  in 
robes,  and  its  carpi  ts,     !?iiicli  were  the  principal  urlicki 
ofccisluine  in  earliest  use;  and  iilthoiigh  tiw,  tlicy  (Icii'J* 
ciiiivenieiice  and  even  custliiies<  and  munnificciiccinilrea  | 
to  have  characterized  civilization  in  its  remotest  ugct. 


•  Notes  to  ricloriul  Bible,  Samuel,  ch.      vei.18. 


FOREIGN  COSTUMES 


797 


KOROmtAN   COSTUMES. 

The  form  of  dross  throughout  the  civilized  nations  of 
gioden^  Europe  is  generally  far  from  piolurcsqnc,  and 
liU  been  adopted  more  for  personal  convenience  than 
«iternal  effect.  While  in  eastern  countries  tha  garments 
lie  light,  (lowing,  and  graceful,  in  those  of  the  west  they 
irr  stiff  and  formal,  and  generally  composed  of  materials 
irfaicb  are  alike  substantial  and  durable. 

Hortlicnt  Na'.ions. — Commencing  our  survey  at  Lap- 
latiJ,  we  find  that  the  wandering  tribes  of  that  remote 
ind  inclemiiit  region  use  a  dross  either  of  the  skins  of  rein- 
doer,  or  of  tb.'.;k  woollen 
riolh.  The  men  genc- 
fally  wear  a  gray  conical 
cap,  with  eight  seams  co- 
vered witli  strips  of  brown 
cloth,  the  cap  itself  reach- 
ing only  to  the  tips  of  the 
ears;  and  they  rarely  have 
any  thina;  round  their 
necks  except  their  long 
black  hair.  Their  tunic 
or  short  coat  is  mostly  of 
sheep-skill,  with  the  wool 
rnwarils,  next  the  skin, 
and  over  this  is  a  similar 
garment  of  woollen  or 
fkiiis.  with  a  stiff  collar. 
Tbt'ir  pantaloons  arc   of 


The  Laplander. 


woollen,  taperini^  to  their  half-boota ;  they  wear  no  stock- 
ings, but  straw  and  rushes  are  stuffed  into  the  shoe  , 
around  llie  loot  and  ankle;  and  their  gloves  arc  of  skin,  i 
lined  with  cypress-grass.  They  have  no  pockets,  but  a  I 
aniall  bait  him^s  about  breast-high,  and  a  leathern  belt  is  \ 
worn  round  the  waist.  The  Lapland  women  have  a  j 
peculiar  fancy  for  gaudy  colours,  with  which  they  work  1 
their  skin  or  cloth  caps,  and  gowns ;  they  nave  a  girdle  | 
containing  their  needles,  scissors,  and  thread,  hanging  at , 
their  sides,  and  they  wear  small  brass  trinkets,  which 
they  prize  highly. 

The  clothing  of  the  Tiehmlers  is  not  very  dissimilar, 
being  ecpially  substantial  and  homely ;  the  chief  dilVerence  j 
being,  tliat  hats  of  a  peculiar  form  are  used  instead  of  1 
caps,  and  jackets  instead  of  pelisses.     Th,'  ladies  of  Ice-  I 
land  have  also  some  gaudy  trappiir^s.     Many  of  them  i 
wear  about  the  waist  a  silver  massive  girdle,  with  an  or-  | 
nament  above   it,  fastened  in   front  on  a  belt  of  richly- 
worked  velvet.     These  silver  oriKinients,  in  design  and 
jxccution,  are  equal  to  any  thing  of  the  kind  which  a 
jowcllcr  in  En.;huid   could  fabricate,  although  they  are 
llie  work  of  the  peasantry.      But  the  most  distinctive 
portion  of  Icelandic  dress  is  a  kind  of  turban  of  white 
linen,  stiUciied   with    pins   to    nbout   twenty   inches   in  . 
height,  and  sometimes   terminated    with    a   tassel,  and 
faslciied  to  the  head  by  a  dark  silk  kerchief,  which  com- 
pletely hides  'he  hair.     Sometimes,  instead  of  the  above  ' 
head-dn  lis,  the    women    wear   a  closrly-fitliiig   lielmet- 
shajied   worked    cloth-cap,   with   a   snow-white   muslin  i 
temiu'«  ion,  curved  over  in  front.  i 

iu(.v».  I.  -Throughout  Russia  the  dross  of  the  higher; 
ranks  is  now  formed  on  the   Eurojieau  model;  but  the 
burghers,  mf.'hants,  and  peasants,   wear  the   national! 
roslume  of  Asiatic  character.     This  consists  of  a  conical  ' 
or  square  high-crowned  hat  or  cup,  a  lon,y[  coar""  coat  ; 
reaching  to  the  calves  of  the  legs,  and  girdles,  with  a 
sash,  in  which  the  wearer  carries  his  purse,  and  often  his  ^ 
hatchet;   a   wcxilleii   cloth    is  wr.ip|iod   round  the    legs 
insteid  of  stockings,  and  the  boots  or  shoes  are  made  of  I 
the  rind  of  the  young  linden,  plaited  ;  each  pair  is  rarely 
worn  mote  than  live  or  six  days,  so  that  many  millions  | 
of  these  shoes  are  annually  consumed. 

Some  of  the  costu s  of  the   Kussinn  |  r-ijsantry  are  | 

•trikini^ly  picturesque    The  holiday  drusses  of  the  females  i 


are  very  gay,  the  principal  garment  being  a  loose  jactpl 
of  sky-blue  silk,  the  sleeves  lined  with  spotted  fur,  nd 
hanging  loose  from  the  shoulders.  Among  the  Tartar 
population,  the  women  wear  embroidered  velvet  jackcu 
over  showy  petti-oats,  and  the  little  national  tippet  of 
red  or  yellow  siT*,  lined  with  fur ;  gaudy  colours  are  in 
great  request,  and  even  the  poorest  persons  have  their 
kirtles  showily  trimmed.  The  men,  too,  wear  coarse 
cloth  irjore  frequently  than  skitis.  Towards  Tula,  how- 
ever, the  women  wear  the  most  dashing  costume ;  a  flat- 
fronted  head-dress  of  gold  or  silver  embroidery  ;,  the  legs 
are  swathed  in  folds  of  white  worsted,  and  the  feet  are 
lodged  in  sanuuls ;  and  the  principal  robe  is  a  white  east- 
ern tunic,  girdles  round  the  waist,  but  floating  loose 
below,  and  left  open  at  the  bosom,  to  display  the  top  of 
a  short  petticoat  trimmed  with  red;  so  that,  "in  gay 
tiara  and  flaunting  robe,  the  maidens  of  Riazan  strut 
about  with  all  the  dignity  of  tragic  queens."* 

The  costume  of  the  Cossack  is  gay.  At  horn-  the 
Don  Cossack  wears  a  blue  jacket  li'ied  with  silk  and 
edged  with  gold-luce,  silk  vest  and  girdle,  ample  white 
troui'-rs,  and  a  large  cup  of  black  wool,  with  a  red  bag 
floating  behind.  The  women  wear  open  silk  turiics, 
white  trousers,  and  yellow  boots.  The  soldiers  dress  in 
a  short  Polish  jacke',  wide  dark-blue  trousers,  and  a  huga 
sheep-skin  cap. 

The  dress  of  Swales,  Norwegians,  and  Danes,  is  now 
similar  to  the  costume  of  central  Europe,  but  generally 
sober  in  tone  and  precise  in  fashion.  As  everywhere 
else,  the  costume  of  the  humbler  class  of  women  is  much 
gayer  than  that  of  the  men.  This  is  very  observable  at 
StorV  olm,  where  a  variety  is  displayed  very  diflijrent 
fron,  ihe  general  monotony  of  northern  attire.  The  boat- 
women  wear  huge  muslin  caps,  a  bright  scarlet  boddice, 
a  striped  apron  of  blue,  black,  or  red,  over  a  grayish 
petticoat,  thick  stockings  of  flaming  red,  and  "the  largest 
and  most  marvellous  shoes  in  the  world,"  with  bircb- 
wood  soles  several  inches  thick,  heavily  shod  with  iron, 
and  a  round  lump  in  the  middle.  But  the  Sunday  fuU 
dress  of  the  women  is  still  more  gaudy.  A  long  kerchief 
is  rolled  round  the  hair  like  a  turban,  but  with  a  loose 
end,  and  the  long  white  robe,  of  thick  cloth  edged  with 
red,  thrown  open  at  the  girdle,  and  the  lower  corners 
pinned  at  tie  leg  behind  the  petticoat,  also  of  bright 
cohrars  and  ample  dimensions — all  give  the  wearer  bk 
Asiatic  appearance  among  the  blue  skirts  and  homely 
linsey-woolsey  of  the  general  pojiulation.  The  holiday 
costume  of  the  mountain  maids  of  Norway  is  also  pretty, 
'I'liey  wear  short  loose  scarlet  or  green  cloth  spensers, 
embroiilcred  at  the  edges,  and  trimmed  with  shining 
buttons,  and  hanging  over  a  coarse  dork  petticoat :  the 
poorest  women,  however,  w^ar  a  shapeless  gown  or  sack 
of  blue  woollen,  strapped  tight  up  to  the  arm-pits. 

Oeimany, — Advancing  southwards  to  Germany  and 
the  Netherlands,  the  costume  of  the  people  is  generally 
found  to  be  modernized  and  reduced  to  that  condition  in 
which  it  is  found  in  London  and  Paris.  It  is  principally 
among  certain  classes  of  the  fishing  population,  and  tbo 
peasantry,  that  any  striking  peculiurity  of  costume  ex- 
ists. 

In  the  mountainous  territories  of  Austria,  as  in  Styria, 
the  national  dress  is,  however,  very  j)ictures(iue.  The 
women  wear  f  dl  short  petticoats,  with  coloured  boddicea, 
lii;htly  laced,  and  snow-white  sleeves  reaching  to  the 
elbows,  and  straw  hats  lined  with  green  silk,  and  orna- 
mented with  llowers  and  feathers.  The  men  usually 
wear  a  green  hat,  with  a  curious  cockade  of  feathers, 
mixed  with  the  hair  of  the  chamois  and  the  deer,  and 
s«'curcd  ii\  the  centre  with  gold  tinsel,  around  which 
wave  long  red  fcilliers:  "  green  jackets,  black  diamoii 
leather  siiiall-dothes,  edged  with  green  leather,  striped 
stockings,  and  shoes  tied  with  green  ribbon,  and  u  broaj 


•"Excu'sioni  Ti  Russia.* 


)i<8 


INIOUMATION   FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


leathern  belt  en  broidoreil  with  green  silk,  complete  the 
rostume  of  a  gc  mine  mountaineer  of  Styiia."*  Among 
the  peasantry  of  Varniola,  too,  may  lie  seen  some  inte- 
resting primitive  attire ;  as  a  short  roarso  linen  tunic 
(which  also  serves  as  a  shirt),  confined  l)y  an  untanncd 
skin  girdle,  and  sandals  of  the  same  rude  material,  and 
very  wide  smull-clothes  reaching  only  to  the  knee,  but 
neither  stockings  nor  hat 

In  Bohemia,  the  general  poverty  of  the  peasants  is 
apparent  in  their  dress,  which  is  rarely  little  bettor  than 
tatters.  The  market  at  Prague,  however,  presents  some 
picturesque  costume;  as  the  women  wearing  neatly 
trimmed  jiiokct'',  ornamented  boddices,  and  gayly-coloured 
petticoats  and  stockings,  and  head-dresses  of  kerchiefs 
fastened  with  large  pins.  The  men  wear  very  full  small- 
clothes, oniamented  jackets  and  vests,  and  broad-brimmed, 
low-crowned  hats.  The  Moravian  peasants  of  both  sexes 
wear  sheep-skin  ir.antles  in  winter,  but  their  summer 
dresses  are  of  woollen  and  cotton  of  the  gayest  cohmrs, 
the  stockings  and  boddices  licing  red,  and  the  mantles 
blue  or  green ;  and  the  men  wear  a  very  short  tunic, 
belted,  tight  pantaloons,  and  sandaled  IkjoIh  nearly  to  tlie 
knees,  with  a  broad  (lapping  hat.  sometimes  ornamented 
with  bunches  of  gay  ribbons.  The  materials  of  clothing 
are  abundant  in  these  countries;  linen,  including  cam- 
bric, lawn,  and  tape,  Ix-ing  the  staple ;  and  the  woollen 
and  cotton  manufactures  are  very  flourishing.  The 
linens  of  Silesia,  too,  are  the  bt^st  in  the  world. 

Prussiii  has  little  to  distinguish  it  in  the  records  of 
costumes  from  the  other  countries  of  (Jermany.  From 
its  capital,  the  fashionable  embroidery  known  as  VcrU,i- 
work,  dates  from  the  commencement  of  the  present  cen- 
tury ;  but  this  is  mostly  employed  us  oniamental  furni- 
ture. It  may  here  be  mentioned,  tliat  in  needle-work 
(Jermany  stiinds  first,  then  Russia,  England,  France, 
America.  &e.,  the  three  first  names  on  the  list  being  by 
fcr  the  largest  consumers;  and  in  (iermany,  many  Ijilics 
of  rank  add  to  their  pin-money  by  executing  needlc- 
woik  for  the  warehouses. 

Sai'ana  presents  very  beautiful  and  tasteful  costumes. 
In  the  streets  of  Munich,  on  Iiolidays,  a  washerwoman 
may  l)e  seen  wearing  a  silver  tiara,  a  blue  satin  brocaile 
boddice,  and  a  skirt  and  apron  of  worked  muslin;  and  a 
waiting-maid  will  display  a  silver  heiid-dress,  and  a 
gown,  the  whole  of  which,  above  the  ceinture,  is  entirely 
of  silver  and  gold  ;  and  these  brilliant  ornaments  form 
the  distinctive  national  costunie  of  the  pretty  women  of 
Munich.  In  the  environs  of  the  city,  the  men  wear 
round  blue  jackets,  tight  black  breeches,  and  white  stock- 
ings; red  waistioats,  with  silver  snirur-loaf  buttons,  out- 
side which  are  worn  braces  gayly  ernliroidcred,  or  made 
of  painted  velvet:  the  leathern  bells  are  also  embroidered; 
and  in  the  large  round  huts  are  worn  artificial  flowers. 
I'he  woiMcii  no  longer  wear  the  short  petticoat:§  of  the 
mountaineer;  and,  instead  of  the  liroail-brimmed  hat.  is 
worn  a  cap  of  gold  tin*-!,  projecting  in  fant,istie  forms, 
or  a  silver  head-dress,  formiiig  a  liara  in  front;  the  twid- 
dice  is  of  blue,  red,  or  gold  broiade,  the  skirt  of  smart- 
c  iloured  cotton,  and  the  apron  of  flowered  muslin. 
Els<'whcre  in  Havaria,  as  in  ll  tnounlainooH  districts, 
lao  peasants  wear  liroacl-lirijnnicd  lials,  and  coats  of  sylvan 
green.  Hut  the  national  costume  nnist  be  sought  in  the 
provinces,  where  the  .'•'axons  wear  "  the  stilf  old-fashioned 
rostuiues  which  one  still  sees  among  the  most  primitive 
luliahiluuts  of  (Ji  rniuny.  'i'he  wonirn.  like  tlieir  llun- 
guu'iii  ncl<;liliours,  wear  long  bouts  and  thick  woullen 
pi  tliiu)uts.  their  dress  much  re.snnhling  that  which  the 
'  broom-girls' have  maile  fa;ijiliar  to  our  streets — a  full 
rloth  petticoat,  stomacher  bultoni'd  or  laced  in  front,  and 
1  cloiK'ly-filting  cap;  the  unman icil  girls  wearing  a  long 
I'raiil  of  fla;:.'!!  hair  down  the  buck;  with  a  small-crowned 
but  brood-briiumcd  vtraw  hat."-!-     The  men  wear  pic- 


'Ocrmiti.y  and  ilie  tieruwns."         t  ruget'i ''  Hungary." 


turcsque  cocked  hate,  long  antique  cotts,  breeches  anj 
large  buckles  in  their  shoes.  Elsewhere,  as  in  Lusaiia 
the  women,  who  rank  among  the  handsomest  in  the  c,n 
pire,  set  off  their  blond  hair  and  rosy  complexions  with 
lilack  velvet  cajis,  and  wear  blue  aprons  flowered  njil, 
white,  red  stockings,  with  green  cloaks,  and  a  hundroij. 
folded  petticoat  terminating  at  the  knee.  Near  Leipsir 
the  male  I)eu8ants  wear  large  loose  breLc'<»8  and  tich 
jackets;  and  the  women  are  distinguished  by  Ii-t: pointoJ 
caps  terminated  with  a  tassel.  The  chief  peculinritv  in 
the  costume  of  the  peasantry  in  Darmstadt  and  odjoinini! 
districts  on  the  Upper  Rhine,  is  the  wearing  of  cocked  or 
broad-brinuned  hats,  which  give  even  the  youngest  men 
an  air  of  antiquity. 

Small  cloth  caps  are  almost  universally  worn  by  ihj 
men  throughout  the  towns  of  Germany  ;  they  are  xnnit 
of  cloth,  with  low  crowns,  with  small  projections  oier 
the  eyes,  and  have  now  become  the  common  travcllinj 
cap  in  Europe. 

In  Holland  and  Flaiutnii  there  is  now  little  to  remark 
in  the  costume.  The  fashion  of  wearing  voluminous 
garments  is  abandoned,  and  the  ordinary  attire  is  unircr. 
sul.  We  stil  find,  however,  the  fish-women  of  Schcve 
ling  wearing  large  skuttle-shaped  bonnets,  and  the 
women  of  the  middle  classes  in  Brussels  covering  theit 
heads  with  black  silk  scarfs — a  relic,  of  Spanish  manners. 
Throughout  Holland  and  Uelgium,  the  traveller  rarely 
meets  man,  woman,  or  child  in  rags ;  neither  ore  am 
seen  barefooted.  The  shoes  universally  worn  by  chil- 
dren of  the  lower  ranks  are  wooden  nalo'x ;  these 
formed  out  of  a  single  piece  of  wood,  and  pointed  like  a 
canoe,  are  procurable  at  the  easy  charge  of  sijpenc 
per  pair.  At  the  great  annual  fairs  held  in  Hulland,  a 
few  remarkable  costumes  make  their  appearance,  frora 
remote  corners  of  the  count'.y.  The  most  gay  of  these 
is  the  head-dress  of  the  girls  of  North  Friesland,  whicii 
consists  of  a  glittering  phite  of  gold,  bent  and  shajwd  to 
the  head,  and  is  of  great  value ;  th.-y  are  also  all  decorated 
with  fanciful  gold  ear-ringi--.  twisted  like  a  ram's  horn 
and  pointing  outwards  from  the  fi.ce. 

In  Siriltirhiiid  and  the  Tym!,  the  population  is  gene- 
rally dressed  in  plain  apparel ;  but  in  certain  ipiarlers, 
anil  particularly  on  holidays,  a  picturesipieiiess  of  ros- 
tume is  far  from  uncommon  among  females.  In  the  ran- 
ton  of  Deriie,  the  c^l-.■J^'  ioned  and  peculiar  costume  of 
women  is  tasteful.  Au'  iii.l  the  neck,  and  falling  donT 
oil  the  breast,  is  worn  .1  collar  of  black  velvet,  orna- 
mented with  gold  beads,  and  which  is  held  in  its  [ilace 
by  steel  or  silver  chains  passing  beneath  the  arms. 
The  head-diess  consists  of  projecting  pieces  of  black 
lace.  In  the  cantons  of  Vaud  and  Frihurg,  the  lari;e 
chip  bonnets  of  the  women  are  a  striking  feature  in  the 
dress. 

In  the  cantons  of  Thiirgovia  and  .Argovia.  the  male 
costume  is  very  singular,  the  breeches  being  in  the  Turk- 
ish style,  very  large.and  tied  in  just  lulow  ibc  knee;  the 
waistcoat  is  red,  and  reimirkably  long,  as  is  also  the  large 
flap|)cd  coat.  .\t  .\ppenzel,  the  modern  inveiitimi  of 
braces  is  not  yet  adopted;  the  dress  is  a  scanty  jmkot 
and  short  breeches,  with  a  preposterous  inlervid  litween 
the  tw  garments.  The  canton  of  firis>-ons  is  said  to 
derive  its  name  from  the  gray  colour  of  the  men's  dresiies; 
but  at  present  tlieir  coats  and  pantaloons  arc  aluiosl 
universally  blue. 

Ill  the  I'l/ial,  national  costume  appears  to  be  more 
closely  ailhered  to  than  in  any  other  country  of  Euro|ic 
except  Sjiain,  and  perhaps  Hungary.  The  peii.sintry 
strangely  wear  stockings  without  feet  to  them,  tight 
black  breeches,  and  leathern  girdles  with  knives  stuck 
in  them  ;  the  hat  tapers  to  the  crown,  whence  hang  on 
one  side  silk  bands  and  tassels,  generally  green ,  and 
the  blue  smock-fro.'k  is  tastefully  worked,  and  worn  no' 
only  by  the  |ii?asantry,  but  by  gentlemen.  The  men, 
too,  wear  floweri  in  tlieir  breasts,  ai  well  as  in  lU 


FOREIGN   COSTUMES. 


79f 


hi  der  p«rt  of  their  hats.  Th  .•  agrd  womc.  wear  huge 
■bite  or  red  worsted  caps,  oi  sugar-lonf  shape,  and 
neighing  six  or  seven  pounds,  and  their  drosses  appear 
hooped,  from  often  con»iating  of  no  fewer  than  ten  petti- 
coats. The  young  peasant  women  have  round  beaver 
hals  petticoats  of  rainbow  hues,  lace  aprons,  boddices 
wilh  frills  at  the  elbows,  and  figured  blue  and  scarlet 
Borsted  stockings,  which  arc  sometimes  worn  in  such 
enorraous  folds  and  plaits  as  to  render  tlie  ankle  as 
thick  as  the  waist  of  a  Parisian  lady.  The  younger  the 
women  ore,  the  fewer  the  number  of  petticoats  they 
weir.  The  varieties  of  costume  are  best  witnessed  at 
the  fairsi  where  may  be  scon  the  peasantry  of  almost 
ill  the  Tyrolean  valleys :  "  the  ton-pctticonted  women 
(observes  inglis),  with  their  great  tapering  white  and 
led  worsted  caps  :  the  black-breeclied,  white-stockinged, 
and  girdled  peasantry  of  the  inn;  and  the  bare-kneed 
peasant  of  the  niuuiitains ;  the  men  of  Qotzcn,  and  its 
vale,  with  tlieir  broud-l)rimmed  hats  ;  the  women  of  Me- 
raii,  with  their  green  cloth  hats  turned  up  at  one  side  ; 
and  the  peasant  of  the  Italian  Tyrol,  with  his  less 
national  costume  and  darker  countenance." 

Hmgc'ij. — .\mong  the  peasan'ry  of  Hungary  the  cos- 
tumes still  in  use  are  remarkably  picturcsi|ue,  and  trace 
llicir  origin  to  that  period  when  the  country  was  a 
Roman  province.  One  of  the  most  characteristic  articles 
of  Hungarian  costume  is  the  tmnd:i,  or  hairy  cloak,  made 
without  a  collar,  and  of  sheep  skins,  with  the  long  wool 
in  its  natural  state,  the  leathern  or  skin  side  being  orna- 
nientcd  with  cords  and  (lowers  worked  in  coloured  silks, 
and  the  cape  being  a  black  Transylvanian  lamb-skin. 
To  the  Hungarian  shepherd  the  bunda  is  his  house,  his 
bed,  and  all ;  for  he  wears  it  alike  in  all  seasons  and  at 
all  times.  His  under-dress  is  loose  linen  drawers,  short 
shirt,  and  sometimes  a  gayly  embroidered  waistcoat  or 
jacket,  lung  boots  or  sandals,  and  a  v  .y  broad-brimmed 


Ilungurittiig. 

Tarnished  hat,  below  which  hangs  two  wide  plaits  of 
hair.  The  turned-up  brim  serves  for  a  drinking  cup,  and 
around  Im  neck  hangs  a  bug  to  hold  provisions. 

''      (icasants  arc    mostly  gayly  dressed — the  women 

i.i  it  blue   petticoats   deeply   edged   with  red,  and 

neatly  folded  white  handkerchiefs  on  their  heads ;  and 
the  men  in  tight  blue  pantaloons,  embroidered  jackets, 
and  liroad  hats  ornaiueiited  with  artificial  (lowers.  But 
almost  every  village  in  the  mountainous  countries  has 
I'j  peculiar  costume;  a  white  skirt,  red  and  blue  bod- 
Jicc,  and  white  worsted  boots,  are  common  among  the 
females,  all  of  whom  wear  a  little  white  cap  at  the  back 
of  thelu'ail.  The  men  usually  wear  white  cloth  panta- 
liions  embroidered  with  black,  slurt  woollen  boots  slit  at 
the  aides,  and  a  dark  short  cloak  or  coat  with  sleeves, 
BUibroidered  with  red  or  light-green  lai* 

In  the  mining  countries,  the  women  wear  their  short 
iheep-akin  coats  fastened  in  front  with  n  silver  chain  and 
clasp,  and  ornamented  with  large  silver  filigree  huttous, 

Vot  I.— y2 


'  and  hiizh-hcolcd  red,  yellow,  or  black  boots,  reaching  ta 

the  knceii.     Thedrcssof  the  men  is  similarly  ornamente<! 

I  with  silver,  and  in  "  the  good  old  times"  the  heels  of 

their  boots  were  shod  with  silver.     The  peasantry  of 

I  these  districts  wear  thick  white  pantaloons  sandaled  at 

\  the  ankles,  and  a  short-sleeved  cloak  lined  with  fur,  and 

braided  and  fastened  with  a  silver  band ;  and  the  hat  i* 

I  wider  than  any  part  of  the  wearer's  body.* 

Fruiirn  must  be  viewed  as  the  great  fountain  of  Euro- 
pean  costume  both  in  past  and  present  times.  However 
backward  in  many  points,  the  French  people,  along  with 
tlieir  neighbours,  the  Italians,  naturally  jiossess  those 
qualities  which  lead  to  advancement  in  the  fine  arts,  and 
J  the  improvement  of  modes  of  dressing  suitable  to  a  civi 
lized  condition.  England,  the  great  competitor  of 
France,  as  will  be  noticed  at  length  in  a  succeeding 
sheet,  has  done  little  to  alter  or  improve  costume.  In 
I  all  ages  its  fashions  have  been  inoitly  imitations  of  those 
first  adopted  in  Italy  or  Paris.  Hats,  coats,  nether  gar- 
ments, pantaloons,  gloves,  buckles,  periwigs,  stays,  bon- 
nets, &c.,  in  all  their  varying  shapes,  arc  of  French 
origin ;  and  advanced  as  England  is  in  refinement,  till 
this  hour  it  draws  its  fashions  periodically  from  those 
current  in  the  circles  around  the  French  court. 

In  speaking  of  French  costume,  it  is  always  neces- 
sary to  remember  that  the  term  applies  only  to  the 
costume  prevalent  in  Paris,  and  among  the  higher  and 
middle  classes  in  the  country.  Of  that  costume,  the 
s/iecief  of  which  other  modern  costumes  are  but  the 
viirielief,  it  is  unnecessary  here  to  speak,  as  it  will  be 
noticed  in  the  article  BniTisii  Costumes.  What  we 
have  to  remark  upon  on  the  present  occasion,  are  the 
costumes  of  a  peculiar  nature  still  lingering  in  tlie 
F'ench  provinces. 

The  most  striking  provincial  costume  in  France  is 
the  head-dress  of  the  women  in  Normandy.  It  is 
usually  a  kind  of  cap  made  of  starched  muslin,  from 
half  a  yard  to  a  yard  in  height,  ornamented  with  long 

lace  lappets  called  ai- 
i/uiUes ;  the  hair  is 
braided  in  front,  and 
gathered  up  in  a  mass 
behind.  'I'hese  cops 
have  a  very  'pretty 
effect,  and  arc  called 
cuvchoiscs,  marniit'tcg, 
and  picnoti,  accordinij 
to  their  height  and 
form.  The  rest  of  the 
dress  consists  of  a  red, 
blue,  or  black  corset, 
large  wooden  shoes, 
black  stockings,  and 
full  scarlet  woollen  pet- 
ticoat, and  apron  of 
different  hues ;  pockets 

^  .,  ,  are  worn  outside  ;  and 

Women  of  Normandy.  .        ,,        ,,    ' 

occasionally  the  co- 
lour of  the  costume  is  still  further  diversified  by  a 
checkered  haiidkcrehief  and  white  apron.  Even  on 
[Sundays  or  fenst-tlays,  bonnets  are  seldom  to  be  seen  , 
but  round  the  neck  are  susrendcd  largo  silver  or  gilt 
I  ornaments,  usually  crosses  or  hearts,  whilst  long  gold 
j  ear-rings  drop  from  cither  side  of  their  head,  and  their 
shoes  lrec[uently  glitter  with  enormous  paste  buckles.  In 
Lower  Normandy  the  dross  is  nearly  the  same,  with  the 
exception  of  the  cap,  which  is  low  and  flat  in  the  crown. 
In  the  former  costume,  the  lover  of  anticpiarian  research 
will  easily  trace  a  resemblance  to  the  attire  of  the  women 
of  England  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.  la 
the  adjoining  province  of  Picardy,  the  head-dresses  are 
equally  antique.     In  Brittany,  an  old-fashioned  style  a( 


•  rugcl's  "  llungury  and  Truns)  Ivunia,"  vol.  i.,  p.  35*. 


780 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


dress  previils  to  a  large  extent;  the  hair  of  the  penfinnt 
girls  i<(  fine  ami  abutiiiant,  and  is  diuposrd  of  at  fairs  for 
Urge  sums,  to  dealers  who  attend  for  the  purpose. 

In  Bome  parts  of  France,  as  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Jjyons,  the  peasant  women  wear  a  flat,  round  blacli  liat 
of  cloth  or  velvet,  and  not  unlike  that  worn  in  sonic 
p»rta  of  Switzerland  ;  and  a  common  article  of  male 
dross  throiii,'liout  the  country  is  a  htntcr  of  blue  stutT, 
liko  a  wagoner's  frock,  buckled  at  the  waist,  and  cml)roi- 
dered  in  white  at  the  wrists  and  collar. 

The  female  costume  in  La  Vendee  is  thus  noticed  by 
Mr.  Trollnpc  : — "  The  women  were  dressed  in  shorl 
gowns  of  striped  woollen  stu.T  of  various  colours,  clviefly 
red,  yellow,  and  blue,  with  very  hij^h  wai-sLs  and  licjht 
sleeves.  The  gown  ceases  some  inches  above  the  ankle, 
and  pennits  the  exhibition  of  a  pair  of  v.  liitc  ornamented 
linen  stockings,  knitted  by  the  fair  wearer's  own  hands, 
from  flaxen  yarn  of  her  own  spinning.  A  bright- 
coloured  cotton  haiidkerchicf  manufactured  at  the  ncigli- 
bourini;  town  of  Chollet.  in  the  department  of  Mainc- 
et-Loire.  is  spread  over  her  shoulders,  and  its  ends 
secured  in  front  within  the  bosom  of  her  gown,  in  such 
fashion  as  to  leave  no  portion  of  th(?  nei'k  or  bf)som  uii- 
cnvcred.  Ti.e  sabot  is,  in  this  part  of  the  country,  an 
article  of  the  peasant's  costume,  on  which  very  jireat 
care  is  bestowed.  They  ire  small  and  slight,  cut  very 
low  in  the  front,  so  as  to  show  a  great  part  of  the  foot, 
i»nd  shaped  with  as  much  care  as  a  fashionable  London 
artist  cinild  employ  on  the  form  of  a  pair  of  hoots. 
They  are,  moreover,  always  painted  black,  'u  order  th? 
better  to  set  olT  the  white  stocking.  A  pood  deal  of 
lace  is  often  displayed  about  their  caps  ;  and  t!ie  '  barlies' 
of  the  coitfure,  as  they  are  termed,  which  are  long  strips 
of  cotton,  linen,  or  sometimes  muslin,  about  six  inches 
broad,  falling  on  each  side  of  the  face,  upon  the  shoul- 
deri,  are  frequently  trimmed  all  round  with  it.  The 
girls  rarely  hide  their  hair  entirely  here  as  they  do  in 
Brittany.  It  is  for  the  nmst  part  beautifully  black,  and  a 
specitnen  of  it  is  gencraily  seen  in  a  broadband  on  each 
side  of  the  f  .rchead.  This  costume  is  very  gencr.illy 
completed  by  a  short  black  woollen  cloak,  m.ido  to  kcej) 
open  in  front,  and  show  the  neat  striped  cotton  apron 
beneath  it."  ' 

Itily. — Throughout  the  Italian  peninsula  there  is  a 
remarkable  variety  of  costume  pertaining  to  dillerent 
districts  and  prol'essions.  The  garments,  however,  are 
more  iiicturesquc  than  cLanly;  and  rags  and  nakedness 
are  everywhere  conspicuous,  more  particularly  in  the 
Neapolitan  territory.  T!ie  dress  of  the  bandits  who 
Irequent  the  .\pennine8  consists  of  little  more  than  a 
patched  overall,  cloak,  and  slouched  hat ;  but  the  cos- 
tume of  their  chief  is  a  piece  of  studied  coxcombery  : 
upon  the  glossy  curled  hair  is  placed  a  cloth  cap  with 
a  gold  tassel  hangi'ig  to  the  shoulders;  around  the 
throat  is  twisted  a  gaudy  silk  handkerchief,  and  the 
mustachios  are  carefully  trimmed ;  the  jacket  is  short,  of 
eloth,  or  even  velvet,  and  decorated  with  several  rows 
of  gilt  filigree  butions;  the  breeches  arc  tightly  fitted 
and  curiously  braided  ;  and  in  a  broad  particoloured  sash 
are  placed  two  silver-hilled  pistols,  and  a  sheathed  knife 
mounted  in  ivory,  elaborately  carved  ;  whilst  a  sn'all 
carbine  of  handsom.?  workmanship  is  slung  across  the 
•boulder  and  ."omctimes  the  legs  are  sandaled  with  rib- 
b.ms  ;  and  a  highr  rowned  boiivcr  hat,  richly  plumed,  is 
worn  over  the  cloth  cap.  The  hi":id-drcs8  of  the  female 
pe-isantcy  is  very  strikinj.  Sometimes,  upon  a  long 
ta  iseled  cap,  is  placeil  a  little  straw  h:it  decked  with  red 
rililions,  or  the  straw  hat  is  worn  with  a  very  broad  brim. 
In  Tusciinv  the  women  wear  black  beaver  hats  witli  Iiigh 
crowns  an  ;  stilf  black  feathers,  with  streaming  ribbons 
on  holidays.  Hut  more  charac'"islic  is  the  square- 
topped  inushn  head-<lress.  like  a  university  cap,  with 
lU  embroidered  dra]>ery  falling  liehind  gracefully  to  the 
waiaL 


if 


Rome  oflers  a  great  variety  of  costume — in  tne  aui 
sheep-skin  dresses,  .'•liaggy  goat-skin  aprons,  and  ribboniH" 
hats  of  tjie  carters,  and  the  pretty  square  white  mugliu 
head-dress  and  scarlet  boddice,  laced  with  blue  ribbons 
of  the  peasant  girl.  Hut  a  more  finished  spc'lmen  ofi 
Koman  toilette  includes  a  petticoat  of  delicate  blue  silk. 
with  a  brilliant  scarlet  boddice  laced  before  and  behind 
over  a  pure  white  chemisette,  sleeves  of  silver  lissue  fast. 
ened  with  pink  ribbons,  and  a  :;hawl  of  cmbroiJcrcJ 
mnslii.  thrown  over  the  shoulders  :  the  bbick  hair  braided 
and  hung  in  loops,  with  a  silver  bodkin  md  filim, 
flower,  and  over  all  a  square  of  white  nuislin,  trimnei] 
with  fine  lace.  The  clerical  habits  contribute  to  the  va. 
ricty  ;  you  see  the  Franciscan  friar  in  his  brown  or  Bray 
giinnent,  with  a  coid  girdle  and  sandaled  feet;  the  Doini. 
nicane  in  white  garments,  with  black  cowls  and  girdles'  ^fl  /|| 
the  Carmeliies  entirely  in  white,  even  to  their  shoes  and  I  r^k 
bats;  the  Jesuits  all  in  black,  with  shovel  hats;  and 
oilier  fraterniti,'S  in  black  dresses  and  red  'Tosses,  violet 
robes  and  trip.ngular  hats,  and  red  girdles  and  luittonson 
bbick  garments;  besides,  the  priests  in  black,  the  bishori 
in  violet,  and  the  cardinals  entirely  in  fiery  red,  anil  the 
pcnileiits  enveloped  in  sackcloth,  with  onlj  two  lio!<!i 
for  the  eyes. 

In  Tuscany  and  Sardinia,  the  poorest  females  are  ricii 
in  ornaments  of  pearl,  coral,  and  gold  ;  and  the  women 
and  girh^  sit  at  their  doors  making  "  Leghorn  bonni'ls," 
111  Florence,  the  higher  clus.-es  dress  in  the  latest  F.emh 
fishion,  except  during  the  carnival,  .vlicn  the  usual  :il> 
surd  and  varieil  sicne  is  exhibited,  as  in  most  othpr 
Italian  cities.  Part  of  the  true  eostume  of  ,i  Flore'itina 
lioiirinoisr  is,  however,  a  large  broad-brininicd  bluck  nal 
of  heaver  or  straw.  Leghorn,  however,  presents  groale; 
variety  than  the  Tuscan  capital:  here  •' many  wear  Ihe 
oriihlal  dress;  priests,  monks,  anc'  soldiers  aboiiiid;  mui- 
tachios,  whiskers,  and  bc.irds  are  seen  in  every  varitiv 
pretty  female  faces  peep  from  beneath  the  bcwitciiMij 
Dirzziirn  (shawl) ;  the  sunburnt  tar  mingles  in  the  crowd; 
and  the  chained  culprit,  attired  either  in  a  rusty-rej 
blown  or  a  yellow  habit,  sweeps  the  streets,  followiJ  li; 
his  musket-bearing  guard."*  Throughout  Tuscaiiv, 
however,  in  costume  we  find  no  trace  of  the  tiuly  claiic 
taste  of  its  IJtrusean  masteio. 

At  Naples,  the  most  "  open  nir"  city  in  Euiopc,  the 
pour  are  scantily  dressed,  but  with  picturesque  cffecl' 
but  children  arc  sometimes  seen  in  the  streets  with  only 
a  coarse  shirt  on,  or  even  naked.  The  laziuroni  hav« 
gaudy  holiday  dresses,  but  some  of  them  may  be  son 
lying  in  the  sunslii.ie  with  merely  white  drawers,  not 
reaching  to  the  knee,  such  as  arc  also  worn  by  the 
I'isherinen.  The  restless  Neapolitan  cnnvd,  with  iu 
grotesque  po|mlar  exhibitions  (uicluding  the  iialioiul 
Pui.e,i),  its  groups  of  [.reaching,  dancing,  and  »lor\v 
teli.ng,  and  its  artisans  at  work  in  the  open  street,  »i4 
the  market-people  from  the  environs  in  picturcajw  I 
dresses — make  up  a  scene  of  less  inte.cst  for  its  roi-  | 
tunics  thaii  for  its  other  national  characteristics.  Iiillii 
island  of  Procida,  however,  within  a  few  miles  of  N;plti, 
the  females  to  this  day  wear  the  Gieek  costume,  wbici, 
in  that  sequestered  nook,  has  descended  from  their  an- 
cestors. 

Spain. — Nothing  strikes  the  travellc  in  Spain  more  I 
forcibly  than  the  character  and  ili versify  of  coi^luiijt 
ani'jng  the  people.  Every  province  and  class  has  ill  i 
pe<-uliari.ies,  and  so  wiilcly  dillerent  from  each  oihw, 
that  they  alrmst  aj.'pcar  to  he  inhahilania  uf  two  opio 
site  hemispheres.  It  hu':  been  well  observed,  tliat"tlier( 
exists  as  mncli  diiVercHL-''  lielv\-cen  an  inhabiuint  of  .^ii- 
dklusia  and  one  of  Casl'lv  iud  ('atalonia,  as  liotwn'n  an 
Englishmar.  and  a  Uuiiia  i;"  and  in  no  rcsiiecl  is  tliii 
more  evident  than  in  d.',ss. 

Notwithstanding  the  general  diversity  of  costume  ii 


'  Nulca  oi'u  Kuiublv  lie.,  by  u  l.uf  vr  ol  llic  l'icwres<;LH 


FOREIGN    COSTUMES. 


781 


!rsity  cfcostLiaeii 


ol'  iliu  i'lciuresiiim 


tho  provinces  of  Spain,  of  which  the  Catelonian,  the 
Andalusian,  and  the  Galician,  arc  tho  moat  romantic  and 
eflectivo,  yet  the  cloak  is, 
nfler  all,  the  most  nation- 
ai  feature ;  it  is  generally 
worn  everywhere,  and 
universally  in  Castile ; 
and  to  the  Spaniard,  it 
seems  his  only  garment 
for  holiday  and  evjry 
day,  for  rain  and  sun- 
shine, for  winter  and  sum- 
mer ;  the  very  childfiMi 
wear  it ;  and  are  often 
encumbered  with  it  at 
play ;  and  so  attached 
were  the  8p!iniards  in 
past  ages  to  the  cloak, 
that  a  minister  of  Charles 
Spanish  Peasaniry.  III.  was  sacrificed  to  the 

uopiilar  clumnur  for  attempting  to  cut  down  this  article 
ol  tlrc-^s  to  '  .'gal  dimensions. 

Bcii-'ii;'\  the  cloak  is  generally  worn,  in  winter,  a  sheep 
cr  lamli-»kin  jacket,  varying  in  price  from  lour  to  forty 
dcllars :  in  the  summer  this  is  replaced  hy  a  body-jiickct, 
Jecornlt'd  with  rows  of  small  buttons  or  coins,  anil  braided 
in  various  colours;  round  the  waist  is  worn  aji  immense 
bauJuim  or  shuwl  in  the  eastern  fushiun  ;  the  leather  leg- 
gings are  richly  embroidered,  and  the  hat  is  either  higii- 
crowucd  or  oval,  uoeorated  with  black  velvet  buttons,  cr 
Iriuiiiiiiig.  with  points. 

Tin'  grneral  female  costume  of  Spain  consists  chii^fly 
of  a  petticoat  and  a  large  mantilla  or  shawl,  or  a  veil 
conrini,'  tho  upjier  part  of  the  person ;  but  this  is  rarely 
worn  except  at  mass.  The  colour  of  the  mantilla  is 
bl'nk ;  it  is  of  lace  or  silk,  or  uotn,  and  it  is  thrown  over 
it.:  .«uil  so  us  to  display  a  large  and  costly  comb.  Nei- 
ther bonnet  nor  ribbons  are  generally  worn,  although 
loiae  Uiilies  may  be  seen  dressed  in  tho  French  mode. 
The  I'un  is  carried  by  all  females,  from  the  lady  in  her 
carriaijc  to  the  servant  walking  in  the  street;  indeed,  "a 
Spanish  woman  would  be  as  likely  to  go  out  of  doors 
without  her  shoes  as  without  her  fan."  The  neat  stock- 
ing and  small  shoe  are  also  nmch  studied. 

But  tile  varieties  of  costume  are  almost  endless:  the 
Catalan  wears  a  velvet  jacket  with  silver  buttons  and 
long  pantaloons  ;  the  Valencian  loose  bieeches  of  linen, 
aud  a  long  sack  unlike  the  full  cioak;  and  the  Castilian 
a  black  velvet  cap,  a  black  sheep-skin  jacket,  light 
brefclies,  a  girdle,  embroidered  leather  leggings,  and 
stout  nail-shod  shoes.  In  the  north  is  worn  the  red 
iToollen  cap,  hanging  down  tho  back;  in  La  Marudia  the 
nioatcro  cap ;  and  in  the  south  the  low-crowned  hat, 
with  a  wide  brim  turned  up.  Among  the  eccentricities 
of  costume,  is  the  dres.iing  of  the  hangman  in  green, 
frum  an  ultra-(.)atholic  aversion  to  the  saccd  colour  of 
M  iionict. 

The  common  mode  of  dress  in  Portugal  is  similar  to 
that  of  Spain. 

Gnece. — The  dress  of  the  modern  Greeks  is  a  mixture 
of  Turkish  and  Frank  costume,  with  little  to  mark 
the  classical  origin  of  the  people.  The  chief  article  .■. 
etlirc  of  the  poorer  (Jreeks  in  a  capote,  or  large  woollch 
garment,  with  a  hood,  shaany  with  short  threads  of  yarn  ; 
it  is  heavy  when  dry,  but  nearly  iiisupporlable  when 
Wet;  it  is  as  .serviceable  fur  homo  ..m\  bed  to  the  wandering 
Greek  as  tae  i.uwla  is  to  the  Hungarian  shepherd,  and 
ills  a  pcifect  defence  agaiiLst  old  and  dew.  All  but  tlie 
poor  classics  of  Greeks,  however,  dress  sl.owily  ;  and  even 
a  sciviint  will  expend  every  farthing  of  his  wa^es  in 
fiiii!  clothes,  Thu.-i,  a  physician's  janissary  may  be  seen 
in  a  rich  rolw  of  scarlet,  his  vest  of  blue  velvet  trimmed 
Willi  i;iil(l  lace,  aiul  in  his  silk  girdle  a  brace  of  ]>istols 
•mlousod  with  silver ;  turban,  short  petticoats,  and  trou- 


ri'nk. 


sers  of  purest  white,  and  gaiters  or  "  leggings"  of  KuM 
velvet,  embroidered  with 
geld ;  altogether,  a  costume 
that  might  suit  a  prince. 
The  general  dresa  consists 
of  a  short  embroidered 
jacket,  without  collar,  and 
with  sleeves  open  from  the 
elbow ;  an  embroidered  vest, 
a  cotton  shirt,  a  tunic  of  se- 
veral folds,  secured  by  a  sash 
or  shawl  about  tho  waist, 
and  reaching  S>  the  knee ; 
loose  breeches  or  trousers, 
short  socks,  and  slippers  be-  %: 
twcen  sandals  and  shoes. 
In  one  corner  of  the  sash,  tho 
common  people  carry  their 
money,  which  the  rich  put  into  purses,  and  carry ,  with  their 
handkerchiefs,  watches,  and  snuff-boxes,  in  their  bosoms. 
The  head-dress  is  various :  as  the  turban,  a  la  Turque ; 
the  fur-cap,  like  a  mulT;  ihe  fez  or  tasseh^d  cloth  cap 
worn  on  one  siile  ;  the  plain  caps  of  Ihe  peasantry  ;  and 
skull-caps  of  velvet  or  gold,  embroidered  or  tasseled. 
The  young  Greeks  ore  the  handsomest  race  in  Europe ; 
their  long  hair  falls  over  their  shoulders  from  under  the 
cap ;  their  embroidered  jackets,  vests,  and  buskins,  their 
arms  mounted  with  silver,  and  even  jewels,  and  their 
white  kilts,  compose,  on  the  whole,  one  of  the  most 
graceful  and  becoming  costumes  in  the  world. 

The  costume  of  the  Greek  female  more  closely  resem- 
bles that  of  the  Turks.  She  wears  loose  trousers  of 
fine  calico,  embroidered  with  flowers,  a  closely-fitting 
vest,  n  jeweled  zone  about  the  waist,  and  a  long-sleeved 
gown  flowing  off  loosely  behind,  or  a  veil  covering  the 
body ;  and  sometimes  a  rich  pelisse  trimmed  with  fur. 
Jewellery  is  worn  to  excess ;  and  br.icelets  of  gems,  or 
strings  of  gold  coins  round  tho  arm  and  neck,  aero;* 
the  forehead,  and  in  the  hair,  which  the  younger  girls  let 
lull  down  tiifclr  backs  and  over  theii  brows  and  cheeks. 
Little  caps,  similar  to  those  of  tho  men,  are  also  worn  by 
the  females,  studded  with  coins,  but  worn  on  one  side  of 
the  crown,  the  girls  wearing  in  them  flowers,  and  the 
n>itroii»  lieicn-plurr.es  or  jewels.  The  young  women 
ollen  dye  their  hair  auburn,  and  the  olil  ladies  red,  with 
which  colour  the  nails  are  also  tinged.  The  females 
walk  abroad  in  a  robe  of  red  or  blue  cloth  and  an  ample 
muslin  veil. 

Tiirh-y. — Although  belonging  to  Europe,  the  Turks 
are  properly  an  Asiatic  people,  and  their  garments,  when 
their  true  national  costume 
is  preserved,  are  according  to 
an  ea.«tern  or  .\siatic  model. 
The  outward  Turkish  gar- 
ment is  a  Ion:;  and  loose  robe  ; 
uiideriuMith  is  a  wide  ve. 
bound  with  a  sash ;  loose 
drawers,  and  a  wide-sleeved 
shirt  without  wrist-bands. 
Slippers  are  worn  abroad,  but  =[^  » 
are  left  at  the  door  on  enter- 
i  I'.!  a  house.  This,  with  a  W. 
turban,  is  the  us"al  dress,  ~" 
tliouih  many  das;  •  liivc  a 
dillirent  one.  and  an  uti'ice  is  ^ 
often  denoted  by  a  peculiar 
dress.  riic  'I'nrk. 

'J'he  turban  was  long  the  most  characteristic  feature 
of  easleni  dress:  it  was  a  cap  surroiiiuled  by  many  folds 
of  cloth  01  muslin,  its  form  and  ornaments  not  only  dis- 
tin:;ni.shing  llie  rich  from  the  poor,  but  distinguishing 
the  vnri..iis  professions.  The  varieties  of  form  were  i,on- 
siilcr.il'l.',  a  barber  of  Uonstaiiliiiopic  having  been  known 
to  arrange  the  drapery  of  a  turban  in  sixty-six  dilTcrcnt 


•m 


INFORMATION  FOR  THK  PEOPLE. 


fwhiorii.  I'he  yatag«n  or  »abro  is  invariably  worn  by 
tiK'  Turlii, 

The  ilrcds  of  th"  Turkish  fcmilei  ha«  a  goneral  re- 
!.einMaiiro  to  thnt  o.  the  men,  thou|ih  a  stiff  cup  is  worn 
instvad  of  a  turban.  When  abroad,  the  women  are 
closely  veiled,  but  they  nnjiin  n  corner  I'f  the  muslin  to 
ennl'i'  them  to  e;>.  swi  itnieata  nud  sr^i.t.e  the  long 
f^iftuni' or  Turkish  pipe;  their  white  musli'i  turlmns,  too, 
ere  spriKijed  with  gold,  and  decorated  wit'i  red  flowers; 
tlie  hair  is  worn  long.  4nd  plaited  with  cnibro'dered  gauze, 
knobs  of  gold,  nndsprindeswillidiuinondHnnd  other  f^eiiiH. 

A  crowd  in  (^oii.ilantiiiople  was  formerly  a  picturestjuo 
group;  tliere  was  the  graceful  Elfendi  Turk  with  snow- 
white  turban,  jetty  l)eurd,  sparkling  ami  full  eycK..  long 
flowing  eaftiiii,  scarlet  tr  .  jsers,  yellow  booU.  rich  Cash- 
mere shawl  Mund  the  waist,  in  v;hich  slmne  the  gilded 
dagger;  nr>it  was  the  gay  but  cunning-1  "  king  Greek, 
with  short  chin,  binck  turban,  enormous  bi.t  short  trou- 
■crs,  bare  legs,  and  black  shoes  ,  (hen  the  i;ra\e  Arnu- 
ni&n,  with  his  calpac  of  black  n'lt  balloua-likc  upon 
his  head,  his  long  Turkish  robe,  silver  ink-horn, in  his 
girdle,  and  his  feet  in  the  crimson  slipper  or  loot ;  next 
ws<8  the  Jew,  ui!i  his  blue  turban  and  slippen;  ■  and  with 
tliese  were  c«?en  the  high  taper  caljiac  of  the  '!  iirtar, 
the  melon-shaped  licad-pi.'ce  of  the  Ni'/.aiii  Djcl:  ',  the 
Z'>^y  ''"'  conical  cap  of  the  imaum  and  dcfvisii,  aii.l  oc- 
Cj;B!!'nally  the  ungra'-eful  hat  of  the  Frank,  '.villi  the  lie- 
'nittonei  and  moan  luokiiif^  coBtuine  of  Europe.*  li.it- 
teil;'.  the  costuiiic  of  Tuckey  has  b^.-n  greatly  infriojicd 
«j^*i!  0,'  the  inirodi'ct.on  of  the  Fia  kisii  dress. 

■A'-l'Ti';   CoSTl'MKSi. 

Althoiigh  t'le  tr,i.i  ii  Irom  Rurupc  to  Atrt  may  I>e 
iomewba'  moilitied  bv  O'lr  iltwi  !■,•,,  c  j'r;irijiy  .ildl  lying 
in  th'.  Ttifk.ii'h  cii.pin  ,  th  coniiu  t  ■■■f  the  oriental  cos- 
turoo,  but  ir..i«if'c',ly  a()o,"i(  1  ii  oivo  co>:u'r  of  Kurope, 
soon  tictoir.i  V  i.irkiug  on  ei>t.!'i.^  \-jia.  Instead  of  our 
tight  short  (bttlic^  we  sec  !»iig  fli  ;\ti.'i'..'  lObes  wrappi  d 
lv>j«;lj  rouiii;  ;he  IvkIv  ;  the  hat  is  disjilact'd  by  a  light 
Imfwn.aiid  sandii's  arc  worn  instead  of.-^hoes.  Tlieorientid 
costume  is  simpic,  aiiil,  amo.Mg  the  rich,  of  costly  mate- 
rials. India  and  China  furnish  abijiidancc  of  silka  and 
dyc«,  and  (!■  miidiiis  of  the  former  country  arc  'inri- 
vailed,  a.^  ari'  ai  .o  the  A.siaiic  ivonls.  and  the  art  of  in- 
ter\^'eavipg  gobi  ,r  d  silver  with  lliisc  fabrics;  whilst  the 
jewnis  and  prei-ir  :»  stones  of  tb.'ir  coinitry  enable  the 
A.iiatics  to  eclipsu  .ilher  nations  in  splendour  of  persona! 
Ol.iuiiieiits  ;  whilst  all  over  the  east  the  heard  it  .-diowed  to 
),;row  so  as  almost  ti>  be  considered  a  feature  of  costume. 

r.j  notice  the  thousand  varieties  .if  iancifu!  ciistnine 
pi.i^  lilin?  in  this  va.^il  continent,  is  altogelhrr  beyond  our 
limi'''!.  and  all  wc  can  do  is  to-give  a  glance  si  those  :nore 
strictly  national. 

^rah.: — The  general  dress  of  this  interesting  people  iu 
of  a  simple  forn..  Their  ordinary  attire  is  a  piece  of 
linen  over  the  shoulder,  another  round  the  middle,  and 
s  girdle,  with  a  knife;  sandals,  sometiiiies  of  wood, 
merely  covering  the  poles  of  the  feet,  irp.ni  the  coast, 
khc  wh(.li)  dress  consists  of  a  napkin  round  the  loins, 
end  a  kerchief  frinjed  with  silk  on  tne  iiead,  the  re.st  of 
the  bixiy  being  (juitc  naked.  Some  wear  only  drawers 
«r<d  a  shirt.  This,  however,  is  only  the  dress  of  the 
poore it  classes;  th.it  of  the  rich  \\semliles  the  Tnrki.sh 
costume,  being  loose  and  flowing.  .At  Mu«kat.  the  in- 
*i.d)itanlf  wear  a  carpet  skull-cap  and  a  wliite  embroidered 
;u  ban,  a  long  white  ;;arment  reaching  to  the  ankl<-s,  t 
doth  gir<lle,  and  sandals  of  hide,  with  straps;  and  an 
Arab  mutt  lie  poor  indeed  if  ho  has  not  a  sal)rL  hung 
over  Lis  shoulder,  and  a  dagger  by  Lis  side.  The  Miiskat 
soldiers  are  distinguished  by  a  I'ircolir  shield  of  rhinoce- 
ros-hide, a  foot  and  a  half  in  dian  >  loni?  thin  sw.ird, 
•  daggvi'i  aud  a  pike  from  seven        .  <i  feci  in  length. 


A  captain  of  the  Arab  navy  wears  a  blue  check  turouv 
Itordorcd  and  fringed  with  red;  a  dark-green  upiicr  Mii 
ment,  with  wide  slashed  sleeves,  falls  just  below  th« 
knees,  and  beneath  it  is  a  wrapper  of  jiink  silk,  th, 
sleeves  sla.sbcd  with  yellow  satin,  and  secured  about  tht 
waist  with  a  girdle  of  cloth  oi  silver,  over  which  is  wom 
a  sword-neU  and  ornamented  dagger.  From  halfway 
h'low  tbc  knee  the  legs  are  bare ;  the  feet  arc  sandalpj 
the  straps  being  fancifully  ornamented ;  and  the  toc-niik 
as  well  as  those  of  the  fingers,  aft  stained  rcddi«h-ypl|ow 
Such  is  the  costume  of  an  Arab  gentleman  of  the  nrc 
sent  day,  and  it  has  probably  varied  but  Utile  from  tin. 
earliest  times.  Another  picturesque  drens  is  a  laroc 
white  turban,  full  white  breed lo*.  a  iiock  butlonnd  straioht 
upon  the  chest  to  the  throa',  (.>irdrd  BbcTc  the  li.iii.«,  I,,.,, 
ing  half-way  to  the  knc  ;«id  '.o>iped  UjO  on  one  sijf  i:^. 
feet  being  sandaled.  'I 'le  Aiii  ;i»nien  of  the  ii;i;.i|. 
place  (.Muskat)  shroud  tlir  grtnltr  p  irt  ol  th-'ir  faco  siK 
dominoes  or  hooded  do-iLs;  theii-  white  leig-gj, ,,  ,  , 
gown.<  or  robi  -  reach  h:,ii  Aty  be'  .-./  the  .ice?;  :,ii,' 
•'ley  slain  llieii  eyelids  da.k,  and  their  chieks  and  lur.'s 
yell-'W  ;  or  they  i^oar  a  loose  .;auze  robe  over  piiiilalettc^ 
(l.tiiiL'  close  at  >lie  ankles,  v. Inch  are  ornamciitol  as 
anioii);-  'cwish  femu)c.-j  ;<f  old,  with  silver  banf;|os;  the 
feet  ;'.;■  f;ised  in  gay  stocking-i  and  slippers,  or  lliov  .\?e 
bare,  "itn  riiirs  on  the  toes;  tlu  short-sleevnl  .(jij^, 
or  jacket  is  iasd  '  dly  he.,  .niglcd  and  tin.ioled.* 

A  mci.'hunt  o.lJiildii  or  Y.men  weurs  a  caftai, .);  towi; 
of  silk,  and  a  vi  d  scM'f.  and  ur.miid  lli;  r:iist  a  I'^sh. 
mere  shawl,  in  ivhich  !>•  fi;;ed  a  irmg  cui  ■■\:  iav;gir;  ami 
sometiiiics  the  l-'wcr  5/irt  ->f  the  tee  is  niufflcd  up  m  u 
woollen  sfiawl.  The  rich  also  wear  slippr-rs.  The  p.o 
fits  from  the  pilgrimage  enable  tho  people  of  .Vfirra  10 
dress  very  gaily;  and  from  the  Persian  Gulf  they  ohtain 
the  finest  pearls  in  the  world. 

But  the  most  chiiractcristic  portion  of  the  Arab  on* 
tuine  is  the  head-drc--^,  which  is  profusely  ornanicntfd, 
but  has  neither  comfori,  convenience,  nor  any  ailaptatijii 
to  climate.  A  man  of  fashion  will  wear  no  fewer  than 
fifteen  caps  piled  one  I'mve  another,  the  top  one  lieing 
emliroidered  with  gold,  u,-id  with  a  sentence  of  the  Koran 
worked  into  it;  around  the  whole  is  folded  a  mu.slin  tur- 
ban, with  loose  gold  and  silver-fringed  ends.  In  the 
south,  the  turban  is  fornn  li  of  a  bordered  .square  of  silk, 
with  a  piece  of  I  idia  musli.i  coiled  round  it.  Tho  i^recn 
turban,  when  worn  by  the  head  of  an  ancient  tribe,  ilc- 
notes  the  highest  dignity  that  can  exist  in  Arabia.  Tho 
poor  wear  only  two  caps;  i.i.d  the  Dedouins,  or  waiulpr- 
ing  tribes,  wear  no  caps,  hut  only  a  hood  in  their  cloaks, 
which  are  draped  so  as  to  keep  off  the  cold  and  rain. 
Tho  .\rab  sailors  at  MiM'ha  and  other  ports  of  the  Red 
Sea  wear  dark-flowing  robes,  and  |mle  blue  and  rej  tur- 
bans of  pictures<jue  (brin.  .\t  Muskat,  none  excipt  those 
of  royal  lineage  may  wear  the  turban  above  a  prcscriW 
height. 

remiaiif. — The  Persians  are  allowed  to  have  onre 
surpas.sed  in  poiiip  and  show  the  other  oriental  nalinns; 
and  this  magnificence  was  nowhere  more  displayoil  thi\n 
in  the  splenilour  of  their  attire  and  personal  nmar  ,1 
Hut  this  distinction  now  applies  rather  to  the  cnslancts 
of  the  materials  of  dress  than  to  its  colours;  for  howpvrr 
gayly  the  Persians  may  have  dressed  formerly,  their 
present  choice  is  confined  to  dark  tints,  as  brown,  olive, 
green,  and  blue. 

The  Persian  dress  bus  been  considered  effeminate,  and 
not  unreasonably  so.     Tb       len  wer.r  very  wide  trousers, 


*  Frt'ikUnd's  Travel:  to  uiil  iroin  Cuntiiuuinopie. 


and  a  shirt  extending  1" 
a  tight-sleeved  vest  defi 
aud  over  all,  a  long  re' 
tigiit  as  far  as  the  hi)' 
but  flowing  liki^  ,  (»  'o. 
is  of  flowered  m     ■■. 


'.(    IM|is,  over  the  trousers; 

.  so  the  middle  of  the  h',', 

■  i'.iR  to  the  ankles,  littins 

.  .jicn   liuttoned  at  the  siik, 

The  sash  aroun  1  the  waisi 

'  sh  chintz,  the  common  sbaw 


ef  the  country,  or  a 
l-ng  snd  one  yard 
without  which,  and 
rlf  fully  dressed  ;  ai 
M.  Ciro"'  <^'«'"  '" 
a  thick  woiilloii  sock 
with  cloth;  the  slip 

iron  ln-cl  "I'  '"'^•i  " 
haoU  are  likewise  \ 

oil  and  leu*'"  "'  '•'^  " 
nearer  ciiti^rs  a  rooii 
laiTol  character  of 
black  Bhce|)akii!  cap, 
heiijht,  which  was 
with  a  shawl.     The 
pliance  with  which 
loieigncrs,  who   hav 
(heir  cocked  hats  an( 
aiimtion  tc  the  hair 
(haven  cxcejit  a  sma 
Ipcliiad  the  cars;  the  ' 
iiiJ  to  spread  about  t 
Jyc  it  a  rich  glossy  I 
a  fortnight),  and  thei 

AUo;,'cther,  the  Pc 
will  pay  a  l.beral  pri 
manufuctureii  to  tho 
chintzes  ami  broadcio 
for  the  outer  garment 
Ustf  in  colour  variei 
will  be  in  favour,  nex 
are  invariably  high  c 
changed  as  often  as  i 
tlw  British  trade  willi 
have  powerful  compot 

Cimissidit^- — In  C 
rank  and  birth  lead 
clans,  the  varieties  an 


•  Dr.  Haacl) 


or'a  Voyag«  round  the  World. 


Circusa^aii  Lady. 

llmuirli  somewhat  u 
liijhlly  compressing  tl; 
ii-i;  ar.  unseemly  prol 
iv,ilking.  Her  beaut; 
iii^  shaded  from  tho  a 
i!i*-,  her  bauds  by  1 
Ic'ilhcrn  girdle,  fiu.'i- 
lliT  co.i'.uinc  is  .  !-t. 
I.  .  .led  and  ■  -  .i  1 
lili:e  silk,  wi'-  niher 
sliopcd  clu!.!)s;  and  ' 
l("i,«  Turkish  trouseri 
delicate  feet,  which, 
'rnimented  pattens  01 
iMn.  The  roaiden 
voauui  tvcars  a  veil  a 


POREIGN  COSTUMES. 


,f  the  country,  or  a  Cashmere  shawl.  It  is  eight  yards 
l-ni  und  one  yard  broad,  and  in  it  is  atuck  a  dagger, 
without  wliich,  and  a  Habre,  no  PcrHian  coriHlderH  him- 
if  fully  drcimcd  ;  and  ihcse  weapouH  are  profunely  jew- 
fl«d.  fj'f-*^  c'"'"  '*  taken  of  the  feet  atid  Icgg :  in  winter, 
a  thick  woollen  nock  ia  worn,  and  the  legs  are  bandaged 
with  cloth;  the  slipper  turns  up  at  the  toe,  and  has  an 
iron  htcl  an  inch  and  a  half  in  height.  High-heeled 
tiooii  «'"  likt'wiste  worn;  and  it  is  customary  to  take 
oil  »iid  y'*""  "'  '''^  ^'■"^  '^"'  "'■PP'"'*  or  boots  iK'fore  the 
wattr  enters  a  room,  this  being  done  on  account  of  the 
laiTcd  cliaractcr  of  the  carpet.  The  head-dress  i-  a 
black  slieepakiu  cap,  from  a  toot  to  a  foot  and  a  half  in 
heiuht,  wtiith  was  formerly  encircled,  turban  fashion, 
with  a  iihnwi.  They  keep  their  head  covered,  a  com- 
pliance with  which  etiquette  has  been  troublesome  to 
foieignera,  who  have  thus  been  compelled  to  dine  in 
tdcir  cockt'd  hats  and  feathers.  The  Persians  pay  great 
(itcition  tc  the  h:iir  and  beard ;  the  head  is  completely 
gliaven  except  a  small  tuft  on  the  crown,  and  two  locks 
KhinJ  tbo  ears;  the  beard  is  allowed  to  grow  very  large, 
inJ  '0  sprt'aJ  about  the  ears  and  temples;  the  prido  is  to 
ilyc  it  a  rich  glossy  black  (which  must  bo  repeated  once 
g  foitnight),  and  then  to  adorn  it  with  jewels. 

Altoj^etlier,  the  Persians  are  fond  of  fine  clothes,  and 
,nll  nay  a  Kberal  price  for  them.  They  prefer  English 
Dianufucture.i  to  those  of  imy  other  nation.  English 
chintzt'8  mid  broadcloths  are  much  in  demand;  the  latter 
far  the  oiiier  garments  of  most  respectable  persons.  The 
Ustf  in  colour  varies  much ;  one  year  blue  and  brown 
Kill  be  in  favour,  next  yea;  red  and  grey.  The  chintzes 
are  invariably  high  coloured ;  but  the  patterns  must  bo 
changed  as  often  as  in  the  Manchester  market.  Hence 
tlie  British  trade  with  Persia  is  considerable,  although  wo 
lia<e  powerful  competitors  in  the  Kussiuns  and  Americans. 

dmissKiiK In  Circassia,  where  the  distinctions  of 

rank  and  birth  load  the  people  to  associate  in  septs  or 
clans,  the  varieties  and  gradations  of  costume,  as  might 
be  expected,  are  closely  ob- 
served. The  warlike  sjjirit  of 
the  men  likewise  encourages 
this  taste;  their  indulgence  in 
dress  never  degenerates  here, 
as  in  some  other  countries,  into 
luxurious  effeminacy,  but  fos- 
ters their  chivalrous  bearing 
and  personal  gallantry.  The 
exquisite  beauty  of  the  wo- 
men, and,  above  all,  the  active 
part  which  they  take  in  the 
,_  ^.  liusin'Bss  of  life,  also  ensure 
•^J^>5  this  attention  to  costume. 
is-ir-?  A  Circassian  beauty,  whose 
f^ne  form  and  delicate  com- 
plexion liave  almost  exhausted 
K  t.istern  panej^yric,  is  tall  and 
well,  though  lightly  shaped, 
and  carries  herself  very  erect, 
lluiuirh  somewhat  ungracefully,  from  the  practice  of 
lightly  compressing  the  loins  from  infancy,  and  thus  giv- 
ii^  ar.  unseemly  protrusion  to  the  body  and  stilViiess  in 
walking.  Her  beauty  is  tenderly  watched,  her  face  '«- 
iii^  shadeil  from  the  sun,  her  feet  proi'^ct"  1  by  a  wooden 
ill*,  her  builds  by  r  'rs.  iiii\  her  wan  by  a  broad 
I'lthern  girilic,  iokU-i-  ._  M  an  :.ir'.y  aqri  with  clasps. 
IIt  co.i:uine  is  '  -.niiu't  or  skull-cup  of  scarlet  cloth, 
1  .  .led  and  >  "  i  with  broad  silver  lat.  ,  boddice  of 
liicT  nilk,  wi' •  Dilver  studs;  n  girdle  with  silver  shell- 
siuped  cliv!-|i-i ;  and  beneath  a  pi'licoat  of  striped  silk, 
Iotic  Turkish  trousers,  from  which  peep  her  white  and 
Ji'iicate  feet,  which,  in-doors,  are  left  uncovered,  but 
•mamented  pattens  or  moroc,;o  slippers  are  worn  out  of 
d.wrs.  The  i^aiden  ir  -lot  veiled,  whereas  the  married 
«o;ii«n  wears  a  veil  and  a  piece  of  calico  uiuiQed  to  the 


Circassian  Lotly. 


nose.  The  hair  is  worn  in  braided  tresses  iver  the 
shoulders.  Hewing,  embroidery,  and  straw  plaiting,  ar« 
the  occupations  of  all  females  above  the  rank  of  slaves 
The  male  dicss  of  the  Circassian  is  the  well-known 
Caucasiai)  costume;  the  Bhee|>-skin  bonnet  and  collarleat 
frock,  with  loose  banging  sleeves,  fitli'd  closely  to  the 
bixly,  faslcncd  Ir,'  lurtis  in  front.  The  trousers  are  wide 
above,  and  gathered  lightly  over  the  knee  and  calf,  and 
covered  to  the  middle  of  the  leg  with  gayly-gartered  golo- 
ches;  the  shoes  are  remarkably  neat,  of  red  morocco 
trimmed  with  silver,  or  of  black  leather  or  ox-hide,  but 
they  lire  without  soles.  On  each  breast  is  a  row  often 
cartridges;  a  rifle  is  slung  over  the  shoulders,  a  pistol  in 
the  belt  behind,  a  broad  dagger  in  front,  and  a  sabre  at 
the  side.  The  costume  is  uniform  in  its  most  trifling 
details  and  adjustment,  so  as  to  give  a  group  of  men  the 
appearance  of  one  familf,  except  the  calpac  or  bonnet, 
which  is  of  lamb,  shec]),  or  goat-skin,  crisp  and  curly, 
long  and  shaggy,  thick  and  bushy  :  the  cloth  of  the  dresa 
is  coarse,  and  of  gray,  straw,  or  brown  colour.  The 
winter  garments  are  sl.ecp-skin  doublets,  worn  with  th* 
wool  inwards  under  the  tunic ;  a  hood  of  utout  frieze  co- 
vering tho  calpac  and  shoulders;  and  a  large  cloak  of 
thick  brown  felt.* 

The  costume  of  the  mounted  warrior  is  very  picto- 
rcsque  ;  as  a  brown  surtout  silver-laeed,  sometimes  open 
ut  the  breast,  and  displaying  a  gleaming  sliirt  of  mail  ■, 
black  pantaloons,  puce  logi{iiis,  red  shoes,  sabre,  bow, 
and  quiver;  and  a  white  turban,  with  a  red  cap  and  Ion? 
purple  tassel.  These  coats  of  mail  were  doubtless  in- 
troduced by  the  Efiyptian  .Mamelukes,  and  we  shall 
hereafter  find  them  worn  in  the  interior  of  Africa. 

Tiirtitn, — The  wandering  tribes  of  northern  and  mid- 
dle Asia,  consisting  of  Tartars,  have  little  to  boast  of  in 
the  way  of  costly  costume.  The  common  dress  is  a 
cotton  robe  and  drawers,  sometimes  trimmed  with  wool, 
and  red  is  the  favourite  colour.  Garments  of  skins  are 
also  worn ;  and  a  young  Tartar  has  been  knowri  to  have 
the  fresh  hide  of  a  horse  thrown  over  his  naked  body, 
and  cut,  fitted,  and  stitched  into  a  dress  in  an  hour  or 
two,  which  only  wanted  to  be  tanned  by  continual  wcai^ 
ing.  The  Calmucks  have  scarcely  any  clothing  but  a 
strip  of  cloth  about  the  waist.  The  Mongols  wear  sheep- 
skin dresses,  with  tho  wool  inwards,  and  the  better 
classes  furs.  But  the  dress  is  nearly  as  various  as  the 
people.  In  the  northern  countries  furs  arc  much  worn. 
The  warlike  Toorkmaiis  of  the  deserts  between  Balk 
and  the  Aral  are  a  handsome  race ;  they  wear  the  H'fak, 
a  square  or  conical  black  sheep-skin  cap,  which  is  far 
more  becoming  than  a  turban,  'i'hey  are  very  fond  of 
bright-coloured  clothes,  and  choose  the  lightest  red, 
green  and  yellow,  for  their  ffowing  pelisses.  The  head- 
dress of  the  ladies  would  grace  an  English  ball-room;  it 
coLs-isfs  of  a  lofty  white  turban,  over  which  is  thrown  a 
red  or  white  scarf  that  falls  down  to  the  waist;  but  they 
never  veil.  Ornaments  are  sometimes  attached  to  the 
hair,  wliich  hangs  in  tresses.  The  other  part  of  their 
costume  consists  of  a  long  gown  reaching  to  the  ankle, 
and  hiding  both  it  and  the  waist,  which  are  standard 
points  of  btiauty  in  our  country. 

Siticria  and  Kamtschatka  furnish  rich  and  sofl  furs, 
whicli,  however,  are  only  worn  by  the  higher  classes,  or 
exported  for  the  wealthy  of  other  countries.  'J'he  most 
valuable  fur  is  that  of  the  weasel,  called  the  saiU :  and 
next,  the  black  fox.  The  dress  of  the  ])oor  Burettas,  in 
Siberia,  consists  of  a  pelisse  of  dressed  goat  or  sheep- 
skin, with  the  hair  or  wool  worn  inside  or  out-side,  ac- 
(■  /rdiii,,  to  the  season.  It  is  mostly  triinnicd  with  com- 
'•  in  fur,  and  painted  with  black  anu  red  stri)-.  «  about  the 
neck  and  shoulders.  The  hair  is  worn  in  a  long  plait, 
hanging  dov\  ii  the  back  from  beneath  a  peaked  shaggy 
goat-skin  cap.f 

•  Aliridin'il  frim  "  [.ongwonli's  Year  in  Circaasia.'" 
t  IXibuli's  '•  TraveU  i''  Sihuna,"  jcc. 


m 


»»  >< 


734 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLR. 


India.- -The  vant  coiin.ry  of  Hindostan  prrnpntH  in- 
numerable cirrumHtanrpg  favourable  to  tho  rhiiriii-torixlicB 
of  costume;  in  iti  aiiti(|iiity  ai  the  m-at  of  oriental  pomp, 
in  tlie  richni'88  of  itH  produrta,  grcuter  than  thoHp  of  any 
other  country,  ancient  or  mmlern,  and  in  the  variety  of 
races  and  casteH  wliteh  dintini^uish  Its  Horial  ntnte.  'I'hese 
.'Iwcrvationa  applv  only  to  the  natives  of  HindoHtan,  for 
no  "  Christiiiii  of  European  de-tcent,  however  remote,  ever 
Wears  a  n:itive  dress.  Rich  Indu-Uritisli  .  iJ  fh,  nn  the 
other  hand,  attire  themneives  in  the  latest  .ivi  niwest 
fashions  of  London  and  Paris,  greatly  to  their  disailvnn- 
»;ige,  since  the  Hindostaneo  rostunic  is  so  much  more 
beroming  to  the  dark  countenance  and  pliant  figurcH  of 
eastern  In-auties ;"  *  those  of  an  inferior  class  care  less 
about  fashion,  ji-ovided  the  style  be  Euro|)ean,  so  that  i* 
is  not  uncommon  to  see  a  drummer's  wife  in  blue  satin, 
pink  crape,  blonde  lace,  or  silvcl*1ama  dresses,  and  other 
second-hand  European  finery. 

The  general  costume  of  the  Hindoos  is  as  follows  : — 
The  men  have  two  fashions  of  dress,  one  very  ancient, 
tho  other  partly  adopted  ftotn  the  Mohammednns.  T:ie 
ancient  dress  is  in  three  pieces  of  cotton  cloth,  o.io 
bound  round  the  waist  and  falling  to  the  knee,  another 
wrapped  round  the  body,  and  the  third  round  the  heai . 
Tho  other  attire  is  cotton  drawers,  a  long  robe  tied  with 
a  scarf,  and  a  turban  ;  this  is  the  regular  dress  of  tin 
Hindoos;  but  the  poorer  classes  have  often  only  a  piecj 
of  doth  wrapped  around  the  loins.  The  head  is  usually 
ahaved,  except  a  lock  behind,  atid  small  mustachios  are 

worn.  The  dress  o'  the 
females  is  very  ebgnnt ; 
the  close  part  is  a  half- 
sleeved  jiicket,  th'/  remain- 
der is  a  large  pivcc  of  si'k 
or  cotton  wrajjpcd  round 
the  middle,  falling  grace- 
fully below  the  ankle  of 
one  leg,  while  itgraci  .'"v.-lly 
displays  a  part  of  the  oth  t. 
'I'he  uppc'r  end  crosses  t.'ie 
brea'*',  and  is  thrown  for- 
ward r.gain  over  the  liead 
or  shoulder.  The  mate- 
rials arc  generally  cotton, 
bit  In  some  of  tho  higher 
regions,  Ihi!  colder  climate 
renders  general  the  wear- 
ing of  woollen  cloth  and 


Hmdoitoiiee  Woman. 


even  of  furs.  The  clothes  of  the  dilli'rent  classes  dilfer 
miinly  in  degrees  of  fineness,  the  rank  of  the  wearer 
bcmg  indicated  by  a  profusion  of  Jewels,  embroidery,  and 
gilding. 

The  extreme  ugliness  of  the  dress  adopted  by  the  most 
refined  nallona  of  Euro[)e,  is  no.vhere  more  apparent 
than  in  Uriiish  India,  where  il  is  contrasted  with  the 
fljwing  garments  of  the  natives.  The  round  sailor's 
jacket  and  tight  trowsers,  brojght  by  the  early  factors 
from  their  ships,  arc  worn  to  tl  Is  day  in  India ;  and  the 
men  arc  clothed  from  head  to  'oot  In  white  cotton,  in 
w'lich  the  coicomb  can  only  disli-igulsh  himself  by  the 
quantity  of  the  starch.  Tho  ollicers  'f  the  Indian  army, 
when  on  duty,  wear  jackets  of  thin  scarlet  .)r  blue  (.'ttshmere, 
China  crape,  or  China  silk ;  and  young  civliiuns  sometimes 
a[i|M;ar  in  full  dress  swallow-tailed  coats  of  China  crape. 

In  India,  dress  is  rari^ly  varied;  and  accordingly  few 
thin'^^s  surprise  the  natives  more  than  the  changes  in 
European  fashions.  The  dresses  of  the  ladies,  therefore, 
are  plain,  if  not  dowdy,  in  comparison  with  the  gorgeoui 
nhow  of  the  Asiatic  groups;  and  in  warm  weather  bon- 
nets are  dis[)ensed  with,  and  the  hair  is  worn  in  the 
plainest  manner.  There  is  not  k  great  a  variety  of 
oriental   coHtuincs   at  Calcutta  as    might  be   expected; 


some  of  the  Armenians  ap[)ear  in  their  national  At*^.  , 
few  Hindoo  and  Mohammedan  gentlemen  arc  clad  in  n'™ 
pictures<|uii  attire;  and  a  Chinese  physician  may  he  (ttfi 
in  an  old  tumble-down  chariot.  Some  of  the  naliva 
shoes  arc  very  handsome,  but  can  only  lie  wurn  by  f|v 
reign  residents  as  slippers;  the  points  are  [toiiked  ani 
turned  up,  and  tho  shoe  itself  of  cloth  or  velvet  slifftnej 
with  embroidery.  Most  of  tho  Hhoemiiliprn  ol  ('alrulu 
are  (.'hinese,  who  live  in  one  wide  street,  and  !ire  alwavi 
will  dressed  in  the  rich  silk  upin-r  costume  ')f  tbeireounlry 

Ucnarcs  is  celebrated  for  its  rich  displays  of  costiinit. 
\  native  noble  wears  a  velvet  turban,  so  riciily  eiubioL 
dcred  as  lo  resemble  a  cluster  of  precious  stones;  ||), 
•  1.  and  trowH<-rs  are  of  crimson  and  gold  brocajf 
Cashmere  .ihawl  is  wound  round  the  whInI,  n  scronj 
shawl  i.t  thrown  over  tho  shoulder,  and  the  belt  of  hit 
sci-.iilar,  and  the  studs  of  his  robe  sparkle  with  dliimomls. 
The  costly  gold  and  silver  tissues  of  Ueiiares  are  worn 
as  gala-dresses  by  all  the  wealtbv  classes  of  llliKlosian 
as  rolies  or  turbans;  silver  and  unld  lace  are  very  olipap 
here  ;  and  the  trinkets  of  BcnareN,  as  chaitis,  nocklacH, 
ear-rings,  and  bangles,  are  at  once  eUgant  and  iiiasnlvc 
pearls  are  much  worn  by  the  natives,  and  strings  of  i)^ 
size  of  jiigeons'  eggs  are  frequently  displayed  rouiul  ife, 
necks  of  rich  men ;  and  diamonds  are  worn  In  similar 
prolusion.  The  dress  of  tho  naiiich,  or  siiicjliii;  iuid 
dancing  girls,  is  very  picturesque;  it  consisiM  of  ca. 
silk  trousers  embroidered  with  silver;  rich  anklets striini; 
with  small  bells;  the  toes  covered  with  rings,  and  asil. 
ver  chain  across  tho  foot ;  over  the  trousers  is  worn  a 
petticoat  of  rich  stuff,  very  full,  and  deeply  Irlmined  and 
fringed  with  gold  or  sliver ;  tho  vest  is  almost  hlditn  by 
an  immense  veil  of  rich  tissue,  which  cross,.s  the  bosom 
several  times,  and  hangs,  in  broad  end,  at  the  front  jikI 
n!  the  back.  The  hands,  arms,  and  neck,  are  roverd 
with  jewels,  and  in  the  hair  are  worn  silver  ribbons  aal 
bodkins.  The  ears  are  fringed  with  rings,  and  throu^li 
the  nose  is  worn  a  large  gold  wire  ring,  from  which  barj 
a  pearl  and  two  other  precious  gems. 

Bombay,  in  its  mixed  po- 
pulation, presents  several  va- 
rieties of  costume,  as  that  of 
the  wealthy  Parsce,  sho  vn  in 
the  annexed  cut,  with  collar- 
less  white  muslin  frock  over 
scarlet  silk  trousers,  bmg  sharp 
toed  slippers,  and  high  purple 
or  chocolate-colo.ired  cap,  fi- 
gured with  white  flowers.  A 
Parsee  lady  wears  a  tight 
satin  spenser  with  short 
sleeves,  embroidere<l  and 
fringed  with  gold  t>clls,  and  a 
satin  mantle  thrown  round  tho 
body  and  over  the  head, like  tho 
Spanish  mantilla;  large  pearls 
are  worn  in  the  ears,  and 
emeralds  in  rings  on  the  toes. 

Tho  costume  r)f  the  native  islanders  of  (Ceylon  is  altnc. 
tive.  The  Cingalese  women  of  rank  wear,  over  colourfj 
silks  or  satins,  a  white  muslin  rolic  embroldereil  «# 
flowers  and  spangled  with  gold.  The  chemise  has  bc« 
rulllcs  and  trimming;  and  in  the  hair  are  worn  golJ  aiiJ 
tfjrtoise-shell  combs,  and  pins  set  with  gems.  Tlie  mto 
of  the  middle  class  wear  niuslln  waistcoats  and  jarken 
the  women  short  shifts  and  |M'ttieoats  of  printed  cottwi, 
The  poorer  classes  wear  simply  a  thick  told  of  con* 
muslin  wrapj)e(l  round  their  bodies.  The  poor  CaiiJun 
mountaineers  go  almost  naked,  but  the  higher  cias«csirt 
arrayed  in  su|)erb  lis^'<  and  rnibroldcied  muslins,  amil 
square  cap  or  round  tiiiiiaii  c  f'!  the  head.  The  .Mil» 
bars  wear  gold  ear-rings  n'  ,i  '  >ot  in  circuiiili  tci'" 
set  with  large  gems;  but  tlii  i-  ■       •  by  the  women    > 


The  Parsee. 


(diiDd  tho  waist,  hai 

thrown  over  tho  hIk 

Ifui*  tiK'  a"""  '""■" 

turned  up  behind  .in 

The  triiiv,! fad  lire 

materiuls  for  clotliii 

iljainonds  in   the  wo 

Ccvliin,  too,  furnlshe 

liv  the  Hindoos.     Ci 

llifre  worked   into  I 

inu«lin'  is  in;iile  ric 

eincwliere  ;  and  the 

''oroinundcl  are  iinri 

the  ?;iiro(ieHn  markel 

i«  inanufuctnied  in 

lissucs.     I'he  woolle 

bavB  been  already  m 

Chinn. — The  nios 

fStraordiiiary  people 

irenupon  their"  chin 

that  "  i:  is  woiuK'ifu 

fealures."     Here  thi' 

anil  ihey  are  more  co 

in  the  south  of  j\sia. 

The  extl■l'me^  of  h 

cliraute  of  China  at  u 

|f(l  to  a  marked   disi 

nliitor  dross  of  the  bi 

priiiclpiill.v  in  the  ca| 

woven  bamboo,  of  coi 

eill  ball  at  its  [loint,  w 

horso-halr  fringe.     Tl 

anil  a  broad  lirlin,  tur 

ti'lvct  or  fiir ;  at  (ho  ti 

ttlifnce  falls  ju^it  over 

The  changing  of  thesi 

lui|jurtiirice  as  to  be  n 

tniall  iikull-ca{i  is  con: 


•  Mm  Kolieri!»"i  •'  N!oiic»  ariJ  Cucracii-rm.cii  of  ilmilosuiii.'  ,  much  smaller.     Tliey  wear  a  -i   ,  :    ^',ccv  of  muslin  i 


Chinese  Truiltsninn 

or  fur.    The  loose  drei 

where  they  are  fasleiir 

bulliin,  by  its  shapes 

I  wearer.    In  summer  tl 

i  Ifr  a  pair  of  tight  addit 

iilk  or  cotton  stockings 

floih,  satin,  or  velvet. 

1  cerluin   rank.      Or" 

I  ipieiiillilly  embroidered 

I  crimson,  with  various  e 

I  ihc  higher  classi's  are  e 

'  Viulin  is  s;iiil  10  11,.. 

I  iit  '.ipilal  of  .Mr<npo-'u.'.. 

'  •»    nrorUK!  i,'rcale.'^i 
'(•ossmeil  from  (,'uiicii 
'fsce  lliis  c  iMoii  clolh  v 
iSii  moiiilij  ,:i  Lii.iia. 


FOREIGN  COSTUMES. 


VM 


toiinH  ihc  Wttiiit,  lmn«inn  below  the  knee,  and  uracofully 
thrnwti  over  tlio  HlKHiliier,  no  iii  to  cover  the  liixly  ami 
Ifuie  the  Rf""*  '""■"  '<  ""'•  '''"  ''"-'  ^  muroly  comiIm-J  uiid 
turned  u|>  Ixiliiml  :i'i'l  t«-t"ort>. 

The  rriiiv.ifiK'liircH  of  India  furnish  the  most  cotitly 
materlilt  for  clolliiiiff,  and  her  mines  yield  the  finoHt 
iliuinondrt  in  the  world,  nnd  otiijr  Rcnis  in  ulinndaiicn. 
PcvJun.  too,  furniHhes  iH-arU  nnd  ,'hiiiik-Hhelln,  much  worn 
jiv  the  HindooH.  Cotton,  the  native  niiitcriid  of  Imlin,  is 
(kffP  worked  into  the  nuwt  elr^niit  forms :  in  Dacm, 
muilin'  is  ni;"'"  rieher,  softer,  and  mere  durnlde  tliun 
dnewliT"  ;  «nd  the  calii'Dos.-t-  Rinnhanis,  nnd  ehiiit7.cs  of 
'"oroiiiun'lcl  are  unrivalled,  thont;h  ulniosl  cxeluiled  from 
ihc  ?iiiro|)can  market  liy  rlicap  and  close  iniilntions.  fSilk 
\i  iniinufailinc'd  iii  tairetas,  lirocades,  nnd  eniliroideieil 
tissues.  'I'lii'  woollen  fabrics  of  the  northern  provinees 
have  been  already  mentioned. 

(^1,1111,, — The  most  fniniliar  ropresent'ilions  of  these 
exlraordinary  people  and  their (|Unirit  costnmea,  are  lobe 
ii'on  upon  their"  cliinn;"  and  Viscount  .looelynt  remarks, 
that "  i:  is  wonderful  how  correct  they  arc  in  the  ninin 
features."  Here  they  are  shown  to  bo  well  clothed  ; 
and  they  arc  more  completely  so  than  the  other  nations 
ID  the  south  of  ivsia. 

The  extrcme<  of  heat  and  cold  which  characterize  the 
climate  of  China  at  opposite  seasons  of  the  year,  have 
IcJ  to  a  marked  diHiinction  between  the  siirinncr  nnd 
vtiiitcr  dress  of  the  better  classes.  Dut  the  dilference  is 
nfjiidpally  in  ibc  cap,  which  in  summer  is  of  linally- 
Kdvoii  bamboo,  of  conical  shape,  with  a  blue,  white,  i-r 
filt  ball  nt  its  point,  whence  fulls,  all  around,  silk  or  red 
hiirso-h.iir  frinjjc.  The  winter  cap  is  circular-crowned, 
iiiJ  a  hroad  brim,  turned  up  all  round,  and  faced  with 
velvet  or  lur;  at  the  top  of  il'.''  crown  is  likewise  a  ball, 
whence  falls  juist  over  the  dome  a  bunch  of  crimson  silk. 
'I'he  i'hani,'iMi;  of  these  caps  with  the  season  it  of  such 
iiiiportiiiice  as  to  be  notified  in  an  official  jiazctte.  A 
iiiiall  skull-cai)  is  commonly  worn  within  doore  in  cold 
weather.  The  suiniiier.gai- 
meiit  in  a  long  Iimsc  gown 
of  light  silk,  gauzo,  or  linen; 
in  full  dress,  worn  with  a 
silken  girdle,  to  which  are 
fastened  the  fan-case,  to- 
bacco-pouch, bag  for  flint 
and  steel,  and  sometimes  a 
sheathed  knife  and  cho|)- 
sticks.  In  winter  a  larne 
sleeved  spenser  is  worn  to 
the  hi|)s,  over  a  dress  of 
silk  or  crape,  which  reaches 
to  the  ankles.  This  s[mii- 
ser  is  of  fur,  silk,  or  broad- 
cloth, lined  with  skins;  and 
the  neck,  which  is  bare  in 
,.,    ,  summer,  is  in  winter  co- 

vereu  with  a  colhir  ol  silk 
or  fur.  The  loose  dresses  fold  over  to  the  right  breast, 
where  they  are  fastened  by  bultons  nnd  loops;  and  the 
button,  hy  its  stiaiies  nnd  sizes,  denotes  the  rank  of  the 
vwarer.  In  summer  the  breeches  are  loose  ;  and  in  win- 
ter a  pair  of  tight  additional  leggings  are  worn.  Woven 
•ilk  or  cotton  stockings  are  worn  ;  and  in  winter  boots  of 
riolh,  satin,  or  velvet,  with  white  soles,  by  persons  of 
}  certain  rank.  Op  -■  ite  occasions  the  under  dress  is 
I  spleiidiilly  embroidered  in  silk  and  g(dd,  and  the  .'a,  -  are 
crimson,  with  various  coloured  balls.  The  fur  dretwa-t;  of 
the  higher  clas-ses  are  exin      've,  and  desi'end  fri.m  fa' 


'  Muslin  i»  R.'iid  to  111.  <  —1  iinin"d  from  Mosul,  former  ^ 
I  fiie  '.^pitai  of  .Mr;*o|)o'uif.;iL.  <  uuil;'  '^'  .«ti'rn  t>uiikorilieTigi.t , 
'  «tt    ne  ol'lli''.  ijrcaif  SI  eat<-: ,    .soiea    -tm  coinruerce. 

'  >'<0<iameil  froai  (,'ulii-u1,  Ihc  once  pr  nid  capital  of  Ainlabnr, 

■?Rce  this  c  >tioii  rioili  was  liisl  exipcried. 

iSii  Dinaihj  ,:\  Lh.iio. 


to  son.     Little  linon  in  worn,  ".ni  the  body   farment, 
Hometimoa  of  light  silk,  is  very  rarely  chani,ed, 

ISeverthutesH,  the  costumes  of  all  ru'.ks  and  or<]«T« 
about  the  imperial  palace  are  obwrved  it  I'ckiii  with  m 
much  precision  as  in  any  court  of  r]uro|x\  Fashion,  too, 
lets  its  votaries;  a  ('hinesc  fop  Ising  dressed  in  rontly 
crapes  and  silks,  boots  or  shoes  of  black  satin  of  Nankin, 
emliroidered  knee-<'aps,  cap  of  exipiisile  cut,  and  button 
of  neatest  pattern,  an  Giiglinli  gohl  watch,  a  tooth-pick 
attached  to  a  string  of  |)earl.H,  and  a  scented  Nankin  fan  ; 
and  such  a  personage  is  attended  by  servants  in  iiilk 
dresses, 

Tlie  head  of  the  men  is  shaven,  except  at  the  to|^ 
whence  tln^  tail  hangs  after  the  'I'artar  custom;  they 
have  little  beard  ;  but  the  shaving  of  llie  bead  empluyi 
n  great  number  of  barbers ;  in  mourning,  however,  tbs 
hair  i.<  allowed  to  grow. 

The  drcsH  of  the  women  is  modest,  and  of  cxquisius 
silks  and  embroidery,  of  bright  and  permanent  gloss  nn.l 
colour,  i'ink  and  green  are  favourite  colours,  but  they 
arc  never  worn  by  men.  'i'he  ordinary  dre.is  is  a  large- 
sleeved  robe  over  a  longer  garment,  under  which  ar6 
loose  trousers  fastened  at  the  anklo,  and  embroidered 
shoe,  proverbially  small, 
about  four  inches  in 
length  and  two  in 
brc:idib  the  (eet  being 
.larbarously  compressed 
from  infancy.  Unmar- 
ried women  wear  the 
hair  in  long  flowing 
tresses  down  the  back; 
after  marriage  it  is 
twisted  up  towards  the 
back  of  the  head,  and 
ornamented  with  bod- 
kins, flowers,  and  jew- 
els ;  and  at  n  certain 
age,  a  silk  wrapper  is 
worn  round  the  head. 
P^emalesof  all  iigesduub 
their  faces  with  red  an  . 
white  pain'  They  pasj  most  of  thetr  time  a  home  in 
music,  dri.  ..iiig,  or  embroidery  ;  and  the  handson,  crp  ■ 
shawls  taken  to  England  are  entirely  the  work  of  woi.<en 

The  general  niateri.d  of  tli '  mu  sses  of  the  ])casi  .tri; 
is  nankeen,  dved  of  various  colours,  black  nnd  Irlue  being 
the  most  coimnon.  The  men  wear  loose  trousers  tied 
round  the  waist,  underneath  a  smoek-frock.  They  pro- 
tect t;-.e  !  -ad  from  the  sun  by  n  very  broad  umbrella- 
shaped  li  it  of  bamboo  slips,  which  in  winter  is  exchanged 
for  a  telt  cap ;  anil  in  rainy  weather  they  have  a  flax  or 
reed  cloak,  from  whicii  the  water  runs  e^-i  troin  a  pent- 
house.' Shoes  are  .arely  worn  by  the  peasants,  but 
some  protect  the  feet  with  sandals  of  straw.  The  women 
wear  on  the  f(  vehcad  a  velvet  fK'ak,  adorned  with  a  bead, 
and  the  hair  combed  back,  and  kept  together  by  .1  loop  of 
leather,  and  ivory  and  tortoise-shell  bodkin  '.  The  girls 
wear  their  hair  in  long  plaits,  but  after  t  ,  .  .,  it  .-g 
twi.stcd  into  a  hard  knob  at  the  crown,  jHi!  .)>  ...icucd 
with  artiflcial  flowers;  and  even  the  poor  peasant  girls 
pique  themselves  on  their  small  feet,  which  they  deck 
with  embroidery,  whilst  the  rest  of  their  dress  is  poor  and 
mean ;  even  the  poorest  markol-women  of  Canton, 
though  clad  in  rags,  protrude  their  little  bandaged  feet 
into  notice. 

The  uniform  of  the  Chinese  soldiers  is  loose  trousers 
and  jacket,  often  with  "  valour"  inscribed  on  the  back, 
and  a  coloured  cloth  wrapped  round  the  head;  some 
dresfes  are  studded  wiih  brass  knotis,  to  imitate  armour, 
anil  the  cuirasses  and  helmets  are  of  polished  steel,  tno 
latter  I  caring  red  and  brown  plumes  ;  they  appear  •!! 


Chinese  Wrmon. 


'IXvier's  ''ChiiiL'se" 


736 


INFORMATION   FOR  THK   PROPLE. 


•rins — matchl<)ok«,  bows  and  arrows,  Hwnrdii,  Hhiolila,  am! 
qiiiltcil  Iirciiiti|i|iile4 ;  liiit  tho  |>H)M'r  hiiliiirt'',  wmldrd 
RKwns,  (|iiilt('il  |H'ltiroatM,  aiij  rlumiy  Hntiii  hiiuta  of  otiitr 
lroo|>a,  nro  nuwt  uimiilitiiry. 

Thi'  isliiiiilH  upon  lilt'  I'lmit  of  China  oflpr  a  fi'w  p<>- 
ciiliurilioH  worlli  iiolico.  At  Mnciio,  tlie  ('liiiicnc  "orvaiits 
woar  full  ivliltr  lin'CihrHatiil  Icf^Kin^fH,  liUie  Kiirtrrt'il,  aud 
woodrii-Holcd  h\\ih'»  ;  and  llic  portorii  lilu«  Khirt^.  nluirt 
trouiMTH,  atui  slr.iw  or  glazed  liald  lied  midcr  tho  cliiii. 
Tho  Tartar  wotni-n,  who  row  llip  panMnci-iioatM,  wcih-  a 
lonn  tluc  IViiiikin  frock  over  hlark  wuli  rproof  trounirs, 
and  a  luimlkiTi'liirf  in  Imtiiul  iliadnn  dly  over  tho  head, 
■nd  tied  uiulor  tlio  chin.  Tho  ChincMo  pilot  i»  shi'lt('rc<l 
from  the  stortn  liy  a  liroad-hriininod  'mt  ,i  i  '  lyvi  of  (>idin- 
Iraves,  Hoinowhat  like  tho  hiHliaiiftiii  ,1.  I  o  '  '  ,«  icso 
Women  of  Macao  woar  Ioohi'  •',  "ni'd  cthci  )  .  ii«  and 
iicarfn  over  llioir  lioadH  ;  anil  i*  ii  it  takii;  tho  air  in  sedan 
ciiairs,  aro  followed  hy  a  sImvi  hr  irin){  an  uinhrella. 

The  dr(■'^^  of  tho  I.oo  ("liim  JHlaiidors  Ih  Hraeolnl  and 
picturoBijuo ;  it  ciuiMisIs  of  a  Iooho  coloured  rol)0,  (jono- 
rally  of  cotton,  wide  iiml  lonu  <loevod,  with  which  is 
always  worn  round  tho  niiddlo  a  Ml  wroUi;ht  with  »ilk 
and  gold  (lowers;  the  rolx's  of  (;rown  (K-rsonH  aro  nioatly 
jdain,  but  those  of  ihe  chihlron  arc  (]fnudily  printed  wji'i 
flowers.  In  raiiiN  or  cold  weather,  a  sort  of  th  k  blue 
cloth  (jreati'Ortt  is  worn  by  the  chiefs  only,  nnd  buttons 
ill  front  over  tho  ro'oe.  All  ranks  wear  straw-S(dod  and 
banded  sandnls;  the  upper  classes  have  white  cotton 
locks,  buttonii.  (  at  tho  uutsidi',  and  having  a  place  like 
tlic  fini{er  of  .  :ovo  for  the  ^roat  toe.  Tho  hair  is  in- 
variably pulled  ti^'ht  up  all  round  into  a  com[>act  knot 
with  two  niii!.,  so  as  to  conceal  the  crown  of  tho  head, 
which  is.-  .ia\td.  On  stnto  occa.siins  only,  is  worn  a  kind 
of  turban,  inado  by  windinir  a  broad  band  dia'j:onally. 
The  poorer  classes  tie  a  coloured  cloth  or  handkerchn'f 
round  the  head,  and  woar  a  thin  cotton  bmly  dress.  The 
men  wear  no  ornurnents  nor  ure  they  tattooed  ;  they  all 
carry  fans,  to  keep  tho  »u;i  from  striking  hot  upon  ihrir 
■kulla,  and  short  tobacco-pipes  nnd  pouches  in  their 
girdles.  The  women  iw  niucli  negloclcd,  and  oven  ro- 
atricted  from  usin;^  fans.  The  islanders  of  Hainan  and 
Formosa  wear  scarcely  any  clothes;  the  natives  of  tho 
latter  arc  almost  savaso,  and  tattoo  their  skin  like  tho 
fudest  of  the  South-iSoa  Klanders. 

The  nmiiufa'tures  for  elolliinp;  in  China  aro  not  nu- 
merous. Silk  is  the  staple  of  tli  ■  empire,  and  tho  Cluncso 
fabrics  are  stdl  unrivalled  in  richness,  tliough  they  are 
▼ery  little  worn  in  Kuropo  :  it  is,  however,  stated  that  tho 
Chinese  koop  tho  best  silks  for  thctn«elveg.  !<aiikin 
cotton  (which  ifrows  of  the  yellow  colour  we  'ear  is  >  is 
not  80  worn  by  thoChinose,  but  dyed  blue,  black,  and  brown, 
when  it  is  the  general  olothinn;  some  cotton  is,  however, 
Imported.  Woollen  garments  a, iIk-u  to  Ire  onU  worn  by 
persons  of  rank.  'I'he  beautiful  cii'|«'  shawU  have  been 
mentioned.  In  fans,  tortoise-shell,  mother-of-pearl,  and 
adver  tiligrt*  ornami-nts,  the  (Jhinoso  artisans  are  only 
rivalled  by  their  Japanese  noinhlMJurs.  Vura  to  a  u'oat 
amount  are  received  in  China  from  rV  )rth  America  ;  that 
of  the  rod  fox  is  used  for  trinunini;s  and  lininjjs  of  rubes, 
and  is  variegated  with  the  black  fur  of  the  paws. 

Jiipan, — Tho  characteristic  intelliifcnce  of  tho  Japnncso  i 
is  strongly  marked  in  their  dress,  which  they  aim  at  r-^n-  j 
dering   substantial    and  becoming,  instead   of  indo'-    ig  i 
that  passion  for  glitter  and  show  which  is  cvide'  l        'I 
all  the  rest  of'  Asia.     Their  princioal  garment  is  e  ;  .    i  I 
silk  or  cotton  robe,  large  and  loose  like  a  bed-gown,  nnd  [ 
a  girdle.     Within  doors,  socks  are  the  only  covering  of  I 
tl",    r  et ;  abroad  are  worn  shoes,  or  rather  soles,  of  rice  ' 
•liaw,  matting,  or  woo<l,  mainly  kept  on  by  an  upright 
pm  or  button,  held  between  the  two  principal  toes,  which, 
for  Ihia  pur(K)8e,  project  through  the  socks.     The  dilFi- 
eulty  of  lilting  a  foot  thus  shod  in  walking  may  account ; 
fir  the  awkward  guit  ascribed  to  tho  Japanese.     Upon 
entering  any  house,  tlieae  shoes  arc  taken  uiT. 


The  head-dress  ennstilules  tho  chief  difToronro.m  poim 
of  eoHlumo,  between  the  sexes.  TIm;  nicn  shuve  th« 
front  and  crown  of  the  head,  and  draw  the  rest  upwaij. 
»iid  lie  it  in  a  lull  upon  the  bald  skull.  Dui  piirstsiinj 
pbvsicians  shave  oil'  all  their  hair ;  while  surgeom  re. 
tain  all  theirs,  gathered  into  a  knot  at  the  tup  uf  ih> 
head.  Tho  women  arrange  tboir  luxuriant  hnir  iiitoih« 
form  of  a  turban,  and  slick  it  full  of  pieces  „(  |)ne  tor. 
Iiiisc-shell,  so  highly  polished  as  lo  resemlile  gold.  JV, 
jcwellerv  or  trinkets  are  worn.  'J'be  lino  is  paiiiteil  tij 
and  white;  the  lips  pur|i|e,  with  a  guidon  glm/ ;  anilth« 
teeth  of  a  Japanese  married  lady  aro  blackomil,  aiiii  hm 
eyebrows  plucked  out.  .Noitlu-r  men  nor  wonicii  wear 
bats,  except  as  a  protection  .'om  rain,  or  wlinn  on  a 
journey;  a  conical  hat  of  plaited  gniss  or  nileil  paper  ii 
then  tied  with  a  siring  upon  the  lieiiil  ;  and  the  fmher. 
men  generally  wear  those  hats.  Tho  tin  Mirvis  ,i,  , 
guard  from  llio  sun,  "  hI  it  m  In  bo  seen  in  the  hand  nj 
the  girdle  of  every  Japanese  ;  and  .soldier:*  and  prienUuK 
no  more  to  lie  seen  without  their  fans  than  fine  liulicBare, 
The  uses  uf  the  fan  aro  almost  endloHs:  daiiiiics  grg 
handed  i;p<m  it;  tho  In^gijar  holds  out  bis  I'uii  for  altni' 
th"  >'  i<\  !■  it  instead  of  a  switch  ;  tho  scliool-inaslorfnr 
,  .'J  111.'  pre  ■  talion  of  a  fan,  death  is  aiiuuunrfd 
to  die  higli-hnm  criminal,  his  head  being  slnick  olT  iil 
the  moinorii.  that  he  stretches  it  towards  the  fun.  There 
is  ureal  pride  in  wearing  swords,  and  they  are  iiovcr  iHJd 
aside.  Tho  liiu'her  lirdors  woar  two  swords  on  the  tame 
side:  the  next  in  rank  wear  one.* 

Vast  numbers  of  rieo-straw  shoes  are  consumed  by  ill 
classes.  They  cost,  however,  n  more  trifle ;  and  ihe 
pedestrian  supplies  himself  with  new  shoes  as  hcsii-i 
along;  whilst  the  more  |>rovidcnt  iiiun  always  carries  twc 
or  three  pair  with  him  for  use,  throwing  tlioiii  away  u 
they  wear  out.  The  consumption  iiust  tlms  lie  very 
groat ;  for  the  Japanese  travel  in  their  own  country  mow 
than  perhaps  any  other  nation. 

F.iisl  liifliu  Isldiiilrin. — The  dress  of  the  native  pop* 
lation  of  the  East  India  Archipelago  partakes  somonhal 
of  tho  elosc-fitting  Kuroponn  and  tho  loose  flowing 
.Xsialic  costume.  The  principal  lu'  ■■  ure  the  Juvaii(<« 
and  Malays. 

The  poorer  classes  of  the  J'avana  wear  a  handkerchief 
neatly  tied  about  the  head,  tight  drawers  reaching  lo  the 
knee,  and  a  snri>ui(  or  si.sli  of  bright-coloured  calico 
thrown  over  the  shoulder,  or  around  the  hips,  whence il 
falls  like  a  petticoat.  Tho  saroug  is  nut  unlike  Ihe 
Scottish  Highlander's  plaid,  being  a  piece  of  parti. 
enlouri'd  cloth,  six  or  eight  loot  long,  nnd  throe  or  foul 
loot  wide,  sowed  together  at  the  eiid8.-(  In  rainy  weather, 
a  basin-shaped  basket-hat  is  worn ;  but  in  clear  weather, 
I'  is  carried  in  the  hand.  A  loose  jacliel  is  also  worn. 
i'ho  .Mohainn.pdana  woar  u  turban-liUe  cap;  but  Ihe 
.'ilior  inhabitants  have  the  head  naked.  A  Juvan  prinre 
copies  his  dress  from  Ihe  Eiirii|iciiii  settlers;  he  wears « 
dark  cloth  jacket,  with  gold-laced  culls  anil  collar,  a  era- 
vnt  of  the  fashion  of  fitly  years  ago,  the  .iily  native 
tii.to  being  a  haodkendiief  on  his  head,  ami  n  saroun 
lianging  al«>ut  the  lower  limbs.  The  native  court-dri'si 
is,  however,  a  full  rolic  wrapjied  abnut  the  waist,  anj 
falling  over  pantaloons,  the  upjsT  part  of  the  body  en- 
tir  y  naked,  long  flowing  hair,  a  flower-pot  cap,  ami  i 
straight  sword  and  curved  dagger  in  Ihe  waisllmnii.  The 
body  is  smeared  with  yellow,  and  richly  orniimcnted 
wi;  gold  trinkets.  The  war-dress  consists  of  a  long- 
sle.  ed  robe,  pantaloons,  close  cap,  sword,  dagger,  and 
lung  spear. 

Sumatra  has  some  rude  races,  who  tattoo  their  skini, 
and  otherwise  resemble  the  South-Sea  Islanders;  aiiJ 
some  few  wear  no  clothing  at  all.  Yet  in  this  island  iJ 
wrought  gold  and  silver  filigree,  the  only  line  maimfnc' 


•  IVInnnRrs  anil  Cuslonn  of  the  Japsni'sc 

t  De  KuscficiiLicrger's  Voyage  rouiiU  ihe  World 


mt  in  the  Archipcia 
iitires,  iiinko  their  i 
twiinlx;  Slid  their  chii 
iron  or  copper  wire.  ( 
I'nini'iu',  "  licad-liiiiitin 
u.  Iiic  iHipnlation  of  lli 
Jiliun  (if  I'asl  Inilians, 
It  *ill  he  seen  tliiit  .\ 
n|ierli  inateri  lis  of  ilres 
Iwrli4ric  conilition  of  ii 
mil,  anil  the  conseipiei 
rciiilcrs  this  by  far  the  i 
ID  Ihe  characteristics  of 

AFRIC 

Al'rica  presents   few 

allher  of  tlio  other  groi 
Bay  be  ill  conseiiuence 
l!ii!  niiiin,  of  Moors  and 
l!ie  indastiy  of  the  orig 
u.'lo  in  llicir  dress  ;  bn 
ni'^Mos  Ins  c'MisiiJoralil 
astini;  of  lew  ,uid  siiiipl 

the  papuliitioii  of  the 

Ijibi'ii  being  dislinguislio 

iif  cities  as  .\loors. 

Tlv  lu'ttfi  cbtis  of  Ti 

I  Jietn;  the  fonner  worn 

jrcit  I'OL^i  qiii'iice,  and 

cOT^ist.-:  of  a  tJLjIit  waistci: 

I  ,)ver  it  a  gold-laced   wu 

I  koidL-rcd  sleeves;    these 

iiiimense  trousers  of  silli 

I  ^illi  or  L^ohl ;  and  over  th 

I  itevel.'ss  '.vaistcoat.     'i'h 

rjjer  waistcoats,  and  oi 

I  (!!ibroiilcrcd.   Over  both 

1  iDJoum,  are  worn   1)  irno 

I  trilh  gold   lace.     Tlie    t 

I  I'jsh'nero  shawls  aro  the 

Inen^  n  by  the  dc.icoildai 

I  j)nl' '      to  tile  Jews. 

I  I'eo."      ')W  morocco  lei 

I  'Jiecoui..,y.     The  womn 

i<;!k  skirt  of  many  coloui 

I  iriistciiiit   silk    trousers, 

I  juiily  colour,  so  ,)ut  on  n 

1  wr  ill.    bead  and  shoiil 

flpof  I!  lib  of  gold  is  \v 

Ion  the  head;   the  eyelid 

Imoh  rou;;!'  is    used;    ai 

hnrclcts,  of  gold   and  si 

I  Jrtss  of  the  Jewish  worr 

Jtiiiclly  in  showing  both 

litear  only  black  or  yollo 

ItiWicd.  .Altogether,  tiie  all 

.Algiers  presents  a  pictu 

■  of  Moors,  negroes.  Jews,  a 

loostume  of  the  Moors  coi 

lihirt,  large  breeches,  an  e 

IrfJlh,  a  large  white  outer 

Ifiitcr,  slookiiigs.     In   tin 

Iwmcn  arc  veiled,  nnd  Kn 

■Moorfsses  wear  line  lincii 

lis  iounJ  with  blue  silk  rib 

Juik-velvct  jacket,  with  sill 

|io llie  finders,  and  .silk  pai 

lin  cmhroi(!"rod  silk  gown, 

linorocco  slippers,  a  veil,  s! 

Ilfis,  and  a  necklace,  compl 

■(rom  ours  principally  in  i 

Ip-llicoat;  and  the  giiwii  is 

|(4il(!rcn  of  (he  .Moors  are 

Vol.  i— !):i 


FOREIGN   COSTUMKS. 


737 


VorW 


qn  in  thn  Ardiipflaijo.  Tho  Dufiia.  the  licnt-Brmeil 
aili»e«.  '""Ii"  ''"'■'■  """'  K""".  "Jx'nrH,  iIii^kith,  tinil 
word*;  si'il  ''"'■'  cliirl'^  wi-ur  a  clmir  sliirt  of  [iliiitoil 
itoi\  or  c'l'l"'''  "'•'"•  *"  ''''''  'f''»'i  Willi  MiiliiVK,  Jiivann, 
I'niiii''"''  "  li*M'l-l»>"''>«("  Diiynk'*.  and  u  lew  I'iiiro|icunii, 
litiie  |»>I">'"''""  "'  "'"'>><''>  »i»<l<!  lip;  mill  with  lliu  ad- 

i.llM  (it   I''-''  llldillli''.  lllilt  i)f  8iMH;iporp. 

It  will   Ih'HCI'I)   tlllll      Vsill    |l()HHrHHI<K  III!    IlllUllllllllCr  of  IIm' 

luwrli  nmliTi  il^t  of  ilriMn,  which,  coiijoiiird  with  Ihc,  wnu- 
hutlkuii'  i'i'nililii>ii  of  II  (jroiit  |iro|i(>rtiiiii  of  \U  iiihaliit- 
jjitt,  anil  ll'i'  ii)""!'!)"''"!  timli!  for  lihltcriiid;  diKliiatioiw, 
reii.U-r8  ttilii  li.v  fur  tliu  moMt  Hlriking  purtioii  of  tho  earth 
in  ilie  churactcrislii'8  of  coHtuiiic. 

AFRICAN   COSTUMEH. 

Al'ricn  prpsonlH  fowir  dislimiionn  of  roHtume  than 
illiti  of  tliii  other  ({ri'nt  divinioiiH  ol  the  glolio.  Thin 
njy  lie  ill  I'oiiupqili'iiri'  of  itd  popiiliition  conMiHtiiiR,  in  ^ 
ihc  nviiii.  "t  MoorH  iind  IS'i'i;rofn.  The  fortner  iiihoriliiia; 
tiip  iniij^tiy  of  tho  orii^iiinl  Arah  liivudurH,  dinphiy  most 
ii>le  ill  ll^'ir  drrH'*;  hut  tlint  of  tho  guy  iiiiil  hospitiiMe 
nifiocii  li^ix  i">iisideriil>lo  picturesipienvaii,  nUhough  eon- 
siting  of  few  .iiid  siuipli'  mntcriulH, 

'i/rmiji,  .//r>(/i.«,  Ui'iihirn. — These  distinct  classes  form 
the  populiitioii  of  the  Uurlmry  Stutes,  the  wandering 
■jjbi'H  bi'iiii;  ilistinguishrd  us  Arulm,  and  the  inhatiitunts 
,)f  cities  ns  Moors.  j 

Till'  liiltti  cluos  of  Tri|)olines  have  a  long  and  a  short 

Jiew;  till'  former  worn  hy  elderly  men  and  |H!rsons  of 

jrcil  lOi,-'  ipii'iu'e,  and  the  short  worn  generally.     'I'his 

wnfist.-'  of  11  li'j,\\i  waistcoat  resemhliiii^  ii  (iiiernsey  frock ; 

[  ,)¥cr  it  a  iiolil-laced   wuititcoat,  and   a  juckel  witli   em-  ; 

I  hoiJoroil  sleeves;    tlieso   nre  eonfiiicd   at  tho  waist   by 

iiilinen«i'  Iroiiscrs  of  silk  or  clolli,  and   a  broad   belt  of 

I  Nik  or  iV'M ;  and  over  the  jacket  is  woriran  embroidered 

I  i!cevel.'ss  .vaintcoat.     'I'ho  loii)}  dress  consists  of  the  two 

i.jtr  waistcoats,  ami  over  them  a  long-sleeved   gown,  i 

I  «:i!iroii!i'r('d.   Over  both  dresses,  which  arc  of  tlic  gayest 

■nlours,  ;ire  worn   H  iriioiisc  or  woollen  cloaks,  bordered 

I  Kith  gold   lace.     'I'he    turbans    uro    various ;    those    of 

I  iVhicro  shawls  are  tho  most      ilendid  ;  green  can  only  ; 

a' I'     1  by  the  de.sccddiirits  of  ''le  prophet;  and  lilue  is 

I  anf       to  the  Jews.      The  boots,  shoos,  and  slippers, 

ireo.'        iw  moroi!co  leather,  the  staple  manufacture  of 
•Jiccouiu.y.    TIk^  women  dress  magnificently,  wearing 

1  silk  skirt  of  many  colours  in  strijws,  highly  embroidered 
j  iriiilciiii'    silk    trousers,  and    a   lurgo   silk  Frainier   of  ' 
IpilJy  f  lour,  so  ,iut  oil  iis  to  form  a  petticoat,  and  luing  i 
Incr  th.   head  and  shoiiMers,  showing  only  one  eye;  aj 

tip  of  tilth  of  gold  is      Tn  with  many  rich  ornaments  I 
103  the  head;   tho  cyelils  are  stained  with  antimotiy  ; 
Inuch  roil;;''  is    used;   and    the   ear-rings,  anklets,  and 

bracelets,  of  i^old  and  silver,  aro  very  massive.  The 
Itesoftlio  Jewish  women  varies  from  tho  preceding 
Ithicfly  in  showing  both  eyes  instead  of  one;  they  can 
Itoar  only  black  or  yell  )w  slippers,  and  boots  are  pro- 
|Eiited.  Altogether,  the  above  is  a  most  gorgeous  costume. 
Algiers  presents  a  picturesque  variety  in  its  population 
I  of  Moors,  negroes,  Jews,  and  Kabyles,  or  Berel)ers.  The 
Iwtumc  of  the  Moors  consists  of  a  loose  head-dress,  a 
liiirl,  large  breeches,  an  embroidered  jacket  of  coloured 
Idnh,  a  large  white  outer  mantle,  ami  slippers;  and  in 
Iitiitcr,  stockings.  Ill  the  streets,  the  poorer  .Moorish 
pomen  ntc  veiled,  and  look  like  ])hantoms ;  the  richer 
iJIoorfsscs  wear  lino  linen,  bordered  with  silk ;  the  hair 
liiiound  with  blue  silk  ribbon  ;  and  over  an  embroidered 
lulli-velvct  jiiiket,  with  silk  i;u;e  ruffles  from  the  elbows 
llo  the  fmirers,  and  silk  pantaloons  to  the  knees,  is  worn 
lia  cmbroiil'Ted  silk  gown,  like  that  of  a  ?iUrope:in  lady ; 
loorocco  slippers,  a  veil,  shawl,  car-rings,  bracelets,  arm- 
ll'li.and  a  necklace,  comiilete  this  coslumo,  which  differs 
Itom  ours  priiui|ially  in  the  absence  of  stockings  and 
|P*tiico;it;  and  tlie  gown  is  only  worn  occasionally.  The 
Ifhililron  of  the  .Moors  arc  dressed  exactly  liko  their  jw- 
Voi.  l.-ii.1 


reiitu,  tho  littlo  (rirU  WParinR  veil*,  nnil  the  hny«  turhani 
I'lmsibly  the  above  inLiiixture  of  Knropean  'athion  may 
bo  line  uf  the  resiiltH  of  the  coloiiiriitioi  of  .Mgii<rii  by 
the  Kreiieli,  'I'he  JewH  genenilly  dress  ke  Bur(i|ie«ni* 
ih  women  wear  a  gilt  wire  cap,  slunlin  ;  a  yard  buck 
fn  'heir  heads,  giving  them,  a«  Mr.  (JaiiipU'll  lells  iiii, 
"  I.  ,L;)peurance  of  dragon  tlien;"  they  strain  their  hair 
aim  eyebrows  "to  the  frightful  resemblanco  of  a  red 
cow'.H  tail."*  Their  costume  oltcii  pn"<ent»  tho  eilreinc* 
of  poverty  and  wealth;  an  a  pair  ol  rnugeil  umall-rlotllM, 
and  a  crimson-velvet  and  gold  jacket,  and  embroidered 
silk  sash,  The  DerelNirs  ciiver  theiiiKclves  with  a  black 
woollen  garment  like  a  sack,  wliich  is  made  to  last  geno 
rally  a  whole  life,  and  is  never  taken  olf;  and  the  head- 
iliess  is  a  woollen  cap,  like  a  priest's  cowl.  The  women 
dress  iniich  like  the  men;  tliey  tattoo  their  legs  ijnd 
arms,  and  stain  their  hands  ami  nails,  but  never  veil; 
and  they  delight  in  trinkets.  Itoth  sexes  wear  buskinii, 
like  those  of  the  ancient  itom  ins;  and  anyone  who 
repairs  a  cap  v/hich  is  wholly  rc|iudiated  at  Algiers  is 
considered  ii  fop. 

'i'he  general  costume  of  the  Arabs  is  a  large  loose  shirt 
and  cotton  Iroiisi'rs;  saniliils  or  red  leather  half-boots, 
faced ;  a  red  hanging  cap,  with  a  Mue  silk  tassel ;  n  woollen 
wrapper  worn  round  tlie  body,  and  thrown  over  the  head, 
and  hanging  down  the  back  ;  and  the  Hornoiise  mantle. 
The  dress  of  the  females  dillers  but  little  from  that  of  the 
men.  The  poorest  class  have  only  the  wrapper  or  scarf, 
which  is  iiassed  over  the  head  and  fasliMied  at  the  waist, 
others  have  a  woollen  gown  with  short  sleeves.  Tho 
young  women  wear  their  hair  in  tresses,  decorated  with 
beads,  coral,  and  a  silver  crescent,  and  they  wear  a  largo 
blue  woollen  turban  ;  also  silver  ear  and  neck  rings,  and 
charms  against  disorders  and  niisfurtunes.  All  tho  wo- 
uien  tattoo  themselves,  and  stain  their  hands  and  nails, 
but  they  never  dye  their  hair;  they  wear  red  laced  boots, 
like  the  men.  An  Arab  belie  is  almost  covered  with 
tattooed  (lowers,  open  hands,  circles,  the  names  of  gods, 
and  of  her  friends ;  and  she  ollon  wears  two  or  three 
pounds'  weight  of  jewelry. 

The  countries  of  central  Africa,  explored  by  Denham, 
Clapperton,  and  Lander,  present  many  interesting  por- 
traitures of  costume.  Tho  principal  garment  is  the  tobe, 
a  linen  or  cotton  garment  not  unlike  the  surplice  of  an 
English  clergyman  in  shape  and  volume;  it  hangs 
loosely  over  the  person,  and  is  suitable  to  a  climate  in 
which  any  kind  of  tight  garment  would  t)c  oppressive, 

The  costume  of  the  ncgresses  of  Soudan  is  very  re- 
markable, in  the  hair  being  stretched  over  a  high  paiL 
helmet-shaiied,  and  the  head 
bound  with  coral  and  ntlicr 
bead  fillets ;  tho  ncck-laccs 
arc  of  coral  and  gold,  and 
tho  ear-rings  very  largo; 
glass  armlets  and  anklets 
are  worn ;   and   the   upper 

and  under   shirts  are  blue  T   V"'^^'''l3^  /'^ 

and  many-coloured  stripes ;  \_jr^-'^^^w        f 

_.^  If 

pink,  with  blue  waist  and  *  ^  t^-^BIK-.M/S 

wristbands,  and  a  yellow 
close  cap,  bound  with  red, 
make  a  very  elluctive  cos- 
tume upon  tho  dark  negro 
person. 

The  negroes  of  the  Sheikh 
of  Uornou  may  lie  noticed    Arricim  Woman— Kingilom  of 
here:    they   wear  coats  of  Homoa. 

mail  composed  of  iron  chain,  which  cover  them  frotij 
the  throat  to  the  knees;  some  have  helmets  or  skull- 
caps of  tho  same  metal,  with  chin-pieces;  and  their 
horws'  heads  aro  defended  by  plates  of  iron,  brass  oi 

•  Lcllort  from  tlie  South. 

a  aS 


'm 


TM 


INI-OKMATION    von  TIIT.    PKOPLR. 


iilfar,  with  holm  I'or  tlia  «yei.  Thia  iirmnur,  (■■ixrinlly 
lh«  ■kiill-ciip,  in  lil(e  that  o(  llio  Purtliimiii  •■riil|)tiiri'(l  on 
'  Ihfl  TniJBii  coluiiiii,  aritl  «ul>MM|Ui'iitly  ivlopli'il  in  the 
Roman  urmy,  niid  then  iiitro-liirnl  iiilii  Alrica. 

Ki'ururf  iif  W'tttirn  J/rtca. — Tlio  clolliiiiK  and  orna- 
mnnl*  of  llii<wi  |)co|il«  liavo  gn-iit  viiricty ;  (lilli'ii'iit 
trilxii,  ami  |mmi|>I<>  of  tlin  mnio  trilio,  indiiluinK  in  a  di- 
veriily.  'I'lii't  |iaai<ion  lor  dn>m  ia  not  Hur|irii<inK.  it'  w<i 
ncolli-ct  tliitl  tlie  ni^Krooa  Imvo  all  th»  rci|uisili<a  for 
beauty,  oitvit  colour;  and' that  the  ininiTid  ucullli  ol'  tlirir 
eountry  eniildrit  iu  chii'Ta  to  indulxv  in  Ihirlmrir  mriKnili- 
ovni'f,  wliii'li  it  UHtoundinK  to  more  civiiizoil  nutionH, 

Tl\«>  poor  ni<«riMM  ure  ronirnt  vith  n  courMfl  rloth 
wrapimr ;  hot  tho  rich  wcur  rolici  of  iiitl<,  vilvcl,  and 
Indian  chinlt.  Kcd  inuiitlca,  gold  and  HJIvcr  luco,  rib- 
bon*, ami  vfjlit,  uro  much  in  rc(|UfNt  aiiioint  tlii>  wmnrn; 
and  hriii'cli'tn,  riiiK^.  and  hiiIvIcIk,  aru  worn  in  |>ro(iiHioii, 
'J'ho  hair,  or  ruthcr  wool,  ia  aa  cnrctully  drcHBcd  with 
palm-oil  uH  Ihr  flowing  locka  in  tlior  cuiuilricH,  and  ia 
entwined  with  gold ;  ami  piiinting  the  fiicn  and  Inttooing 
arfl  conuni.n.  The  Rcnorul  drosM  in  a  krif-xli'fved  HJiirt 
rnachiiiK  to  tho  kn<H'«;  and  a  hi^h  pointed  cup  Ik  much 
worn.  'I'hp  Kroomcn,  on  tho  Oriiln  C'uaHt,  wcur  roiuid 
then'  wuistH  aliuwla  and  blue  dotha,  which  they  purchase 
■t  8icrm  Fjcoiio. 

The  AxhiintcpH  twhind  the  Gold  Coust,  who  arc  alto- 
gether a  HUpcrior  cIuhh,  droaa  in  hurliuric  Hplciuloiir.  Tho 
Aahunloo  clotha  are  of  cxtravoi^aiit  |)rico.  from  the  contly 
foroiKii  HilkH  which  arc  unraveled  tJi  wenve  them ;  they 
•re  thrown  over  the  Hhouldor  like  tho  Kninun  toi{a;  <i  aiuall 
■ilk  fillut  oncirclcM  tho  temples,  nnd  Blrinijs  of  «nld  liendi", 
co'ns,  and  riii)^  are  worn  round  the  neck,  wriiilM,  arms, 
•nJ  nnklcii;  the  mndaU  ore  of  fine  Rreen,  red,  and  white 
leather.  I.uinpH  of  rock-KoId  hunK  from  the  lell  wrint, 
which  arc  supported  on  the  keadn  of  hovu;  and  wolves' 
•nd  ratTM'  hoaiU,  of  caHt-gold,  as  large  as  life,  hnng  from 
Uie  sword-handles.  Tho  warriors  wear  caps  of  onules' 
fnathvrs,  und  of  pnni^olin  and  leopard  skin,  tho  tails 
hani^ini^  down  l>ohind;  their  corselets  are  of  leopard  skin, 
covoroil  with  roIiI  corkle-shells,  and  stuck  full  of  knives 
nhouthcd  in  gold  and  silver;  and  their  cartouch-hoxes, 
of  elephant  hiile,  are  siniilarly  ornament«ul;  silk  scnrfs 
nnd  horst^a'  tails  stream  from  their  arms  .ind  waiiit-<'loth ; 
iron  chains  and  collars  dignify  the  most  durini;;  and  the 
aides  of  their  faces  and  their  arniK  nrc  curiously  painted 
in  lon(;  white  stripes,  having  the  appenninre  of  armour. 
Even  the  executioner  wears  on  his  lireast  a  massive  gold 
hatchet.  The  splendour  of  all  Ashanteo  pageants  is 
enhanco<l  by  lari;e  umbrellas  or  cano|iics  of  the  most 
■howy  cloths  or  silks,  crowned  with  emblems  in  gold. 

Modern  I'.nyptiaiu. —  llifyj)!  has  Ion;?  hvcn  mainly  oc- 
cupied by  Arabs,  whose  manners  and  customs  are  a  com- 
bination of  those  which  prevail  most  p^onerally  in  the 
towns  of  Arabia,  Syria,  Nortliem  Africa,  and  in  a  great 
degree,  Turkey,  whoso  characteristics  of  costume  have 
already  been  sketched.  Nevertheless,  the  Arob-Egyp- 
tians  "  are  to  be  rogarde*!  as  not  less  genuine  Arabs  than 
the  townspeople  of  Arabia  its4ilf  ;"•  and  although  their 
dress  has  points  of  resemblance  to  tho  costumes  of  all 
the  countries  referred  to  above,  it  will  be  found  to  pos- 
sess great  originality  of  c!iaracter  and  interest. 

The  .ifess  of  the  men  of  the  middle  and  higher  classes 
has  remainnti  olmost  the  same  during  the  lapse  of  cen- 
turies. It  consists  of  a  jmir  of  full  drawers,  of  linen  or 
cotton,  desceniling  a  little  Ik^Iow  tho  knees  or  to  the 
ankles;  a  full-sleeved  shirt  of  linen,  cotton,  or  silk,  over 
which,  in  cool  weather,  is  worn  a  short  vest  of  cloth  or 
•tripcd  coloured  silk  or  cotton,  and  a  long  vest  of  the 
latter  materials  descending  to  the  ankles,  and  having  full 
•iceves  divided  from  or  a  little  above  the  wrist.  A  co- 
llared shawl  or  piece  of  white  figured  muslin  is  worn 


*I.nni>'s  Account  of  iho  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Modem 
Rcvntiuni 


round  thiavett  as  a  ginlle;  and  the  usual  niitsr  roW»,| 

loin;  cloth  coat  with  or  without  slmvss.  Tho  iiirUnui  I 
.<i>tls  of  whiti'  muslin,  or  ■  ('a«(i'  mrr  ihanl  wouiv!  riMaiil 
H  close  red  cloth  cap,  with  a  ilur'^  tilue  silk  ■tt,,,\  ^^  .I 
crown,  beneutli  which  is  worn  *  cIomi  ciiitun  i,,.,^  -I 
head  is  shitved,  except  just '  I  iH''  "rar;.    and  niuntirbj,! 


and   miMJerute  iH'ards  are  cou  r  > 


Hocks  ure  (X( 


<1»|{I0  I 


ally  worn,  but  stockings  are  i.ok  in  use:  the  •hiwatv^l 
red  morocco,  pointed  nnd  turned  up  at  Oie  |(„,,,  i^J 
somelimos  these  are  worn  over  yellow  nionxri)  ihj-l 
In  tho  girdle  is  worn  a  case-knile,  a  duggi  r,  nr  n  nmi 
ink  nnd  ih-uh.  'i'he  pi|>e  is  generally  cunicil;  iiik|  ||u| 
tobacco-pouch  uiid  hun<lkrrchief  ure  crunimcii  Into  | 
biiH'im  of  the  outer  vest. 

The   hunilili'r  cInMses  wear  drawers,  nnd  n  full  ),|^| 
linen,  cotton,  or  brown  woollen  gown,  wlile  "li'i'vcd,  im,|| 
open  from   the   neck   to  tho  wnint,  where  is  ,i,ini,.tininii 
while  or  red  woollen  girdle.   The  turban  iM  uC  wliltr, 
or  yellow  woollen,  cotton,  or  nuislin,  round  a  nhiir  c 
brown  felt  cap.     The  [Miorest  classes  wear  only  thisfu 
and  tho  brown  or  blue  gown,  or  merely  a  few  ni;ii.   |J 
cold  weather,  they  sometimes  we:u   coarse  hluckorj 
riously-Ktriped  woollen  cloaks.     A  Idue  nnd  Hliiio  iiliij 
is  likewise  w-orn  over  tho  shoulders  or  wrii|'i!«l  g] 
tho  body,     'nio  shoes  are  of  red  or  yellow  morocco, 
of  shee|)-skin. 

The  turban  is  tlie  most  dintinctivo  articlo  of  Ei^ytiiji 
dross;  it  is  generally  of  bluck,  blue,  gray,  or  liulii  hrom 
to  distingui.ih  tho  Moslem  wearers  from  the  Coptj  iiJ 
tho  Jews.  The  form  of  turbans  now  worn  in  Em 
d(R'8  not  v»r ,'  much :  the  Turkish  is  elcitaiit,  mj  '(u 
Syrian  is  vit_>  ■.vide.  A  descendant  of  the  prophot  ijomi 
privileged  to  wnr  a  green  turban.  We  may  here  not 
a  few  of  the  tnrbnns  of  Africa  nnd  Asia:  1.  liounJio 
ban,  common  in  .M'ricn:  2.  An  elegant  l'<gy|iliim  lutbuj 
3.  Fez  worn  nt  ('onstnntinople;  4.  iteinl-dnm  of  ih( 
peasantry  of  Lelmrion  ;  5.  Drn|)ery  to  keep  ilf  cold  igj 
rain,  worn  by  tho  Ucdouin  Arabs ;  0.  Loose  Syrian  tui 


Eastern  Ilead-dreascs. 

Tho  women  of  the  middle  and  higher  orders  of  Ejt 
dress   elegantly  ;  under   their   shirt,  which   is  like  I 
men's,  they  wear  very  wide  trousers  of  silk,  cotloiJ 
muslin,  coloured  or  white;  and  over  them  a  lonj'ij 
closely  resembling  that  of  tho  men.     A  shawl  or  ( 
broidercd  handkerchief  is  put  loosely  round  the  i 
as  a  girdle.     Tho  outer  robe  is  of  cloth,  velvet,  or  i 
embroidered  with  gold  or  silk,  and  generally  xcstjn^ 
that  of  tho  men  ;  though,  instead  of  thin  robo,  a  jit 
ia  oflcn  worn.     The  head-dress  consists  of  an  mien 
upper  cap,  round  which  is  tightly  woui.d  a  kcrchitf^ 
printed  or  painted  muslin  or  crape,  and  to  it  is  atu 
a   muslin  veil  embroidered  and  spangled,  and  hu 
from  the  hack  of  the  head  to  the  ground.    The  I 
worn  plaited  or  braided  down  tbc  back,  wi'h  >tu 


I  tit  most  interesting  sp 
jWofU,  enlhusiaatically  t. 
|«f  Raphael  or  Hogarth. 
Itfiordinary  people  is, 


MitKIGN   COSTUMES. 


7M 


ftUrn  oriamcnti;  ann  i<v«  fnll  lot-ki  h«ii||  iluwn  on 
yM'k  •i'lo  "'^  ''"  '*"'''  '^tcM'kiiittii  o'  awki  »n  rari-ly 
tofti,  I'tl'  ill""  *hnr»  i)f  rixl  or  iiiorofco,  •n<l  (>v»r  thpin 
,,l|gw  nliliprri,  with  tUKli  |><>inti-il  lu«i> ;  or  wi.hIoik-Iokii, 
f^,ni  liiur  to  nino  iiirlieii  in  hoiulit,  riclily  orrminrntvd. 
(iiich  it  III*  liwli><)r  ilri'Mi  nf  thn  l-'i{>|iliun  liulica.  Wlirii 
(lirxJ.  thoy  wrnr  uvnr  thiit  ilri-MH  a  InrKii  loime  ailk  K<>wn 
iif  pink,  roM,  or  vidliit  culour ;  n  mirt  of  nilk  rolw  lii'd 
iivrr  tha  ti'B'l  (l>la<'k  fur  th«  nuirrii'il,  mul  wlilto  fur  tliii 
uniniirrii'il),  aiiti  u  loriK  wliitu  immliii  facc-voil,  rimi'hiiiK 
f.iiiii  iinili'r  thi'  eye»  nriirly  to  iho  feut  YpIIhw  innrocro 
ihiirt  l">«f  <"  "iM'ki  nrii  worn  iindnr  the  yi'Huw  «h|>|HTii. 
'j'hii*  ilrewi  rnMmlilrii  iiii  utixii^hlly  diiKiiiiin,  ttioiiKh  it 
Jiipliiy*  tl"  'VOX.  which  arc  ulwuyi  the  innat  beautiful 
tiilurft  of  an  KKJpliim  woman. 

The  |iiK)ri'r  rlana  of  woniun  woar  trouacra,  a  hlue  ahirt, 
iniarii«  Mark  farc-voil,  and  n  diirk  hluo  rnuMlin  or  lini'n 
lira,!  veil.  A  very  lari^it  l>htp,  whitn,  and  rod  pinid  wrii|i- 
wr  ii  aliH)  worn  by  thr  niiilillo  rluHa.  Tho  hcud-drcKa  ia 
I  Muck  ailk  krffhiof,  bordered  ri-d  and  yellow,  and  tied 
ji>i(onolly  in  n  knot  iH'hind.  Thn  i<liuea  aro  of  red  mo- 
Kk'co,  round  toed;  but  in  IJpiH-r  Enypt  ahoea  and  the 
fcre-veil  aro  rarely  acen  ;  ami  ainne  of  the  |)ooreat  women 
ol'  Cairo  never  coneeul  tlieir  firen.  Hut  the  moat  com- 
mon femain  drraa  in  Bi^ypt  ia  merely  a  hlue  ahirt  and 
licaJ.TDil ;  and  in  Jlpix-r  HKvpt,  aonie  of  the  women  en- 
vflo|)e  iheinaelvea  in  a  dark  brown  woollen  wrnppor  and 
bi'ail-vcil,  which,  thoui;h  dull,  ia  picturoai|ue.  Mr.  I,iuie 
telli  lit  that  "  the  wom<'i,  .,.'  K^ypt  doiMu  it  more  incum- 
htnt  upon  them  to  cover  (he  upper  and  buck  part  of  the 
liead  than  the  fare,  and  more  reipiiHite  to  conceal  the  face 
Ihas  itioiit  other  porta  of  tho  pcraon."  lie  adda,  that  hn 
hu  wen  in  thia  country  women  liut  half  covered  with 
miiergble  raga,  and  othura  atill  nearer  a  atate  of  nudity. 

AMERICAN   COSTUMES. 

In  all  thoae  portiona  of  America,  including  Canada 
iiiil  the  United  Htatca,  which  have  been  long  poaaeaaed 
byanEnglixh  race,  the  coatumea  of  Gnq;land  and  France 
["e»ail,  any  diflcrcntea  which  exist  being  only  of  minor 
importarce.  Peculiarity  of  coatumo  on  the  American 
continenl  hna  therefore  to  lie  soui;;lit  for  among  tho  na- 
tive Indian  triboa,  and  among  tlie  dcaccndanta  of  Spanish 
or  Portui^ueao  aottlcra. 

h'orlh  Amerknn  Indians. — Tho  Inilian  aavagea,  or  red 
I  nwn  of  the  foroata  and  prairiea  of  North  America,  occu- 
pying the  vast  region  to  the  west  of  the  Misaouri,  present 


North  American  ladian. 


I  Im  moit  interesting  ipecimena  of  costume  in  the  New 
I  Work),  enthusiastically  described  as  <>  worthy  the  pencils 
I  of  Raphael  or  Hogarth."  The  condition  of  these  ex- 
jmordinaiy  people  is,  indeed,  highly  favourable  tu  the 


diatlnrti4)iis  of  dreas ;  lh«y  ir*  divided  Into  tnliva  (ol 
whom  Kroiit  nnmbera  urn  wiirriora),  which  aru  iniK'h  Ira* 
brcikeii  lliiin  the  feud»li»in  of  lho>Mt  cuuntriea  uf  Kuropi^ 
in  which  coitlumr^  are  niiMt  alron^ly  nmrkrd. 

The  Kciicral  drma  of  tliean  Iriliea  ronaixta  of  a  ikhl 
ahirt,  a  rolie  of  hide,  In  'iiga,  and  mocaaaina,  and  e<|u||>. 
ineiita  and  dcioratinria  ni  grrat  variety.  Thn  fu'thiun  of 
long  hair  ia  alinoNt  univcraiil )  but,  contrary  to  Knropfan 
u>ni{«,  ib«  women  are  not  (H-rmitted  to  indulge  in  this 
liiato.  Tho  lcti|;th  of  thn  hiiir  of  n  chief  (who  received 
Ilia  name  and  ollicn  in  cotiao({uence)  ia  atated  tu  ha«* 
meanureil  ten  feet  six  incheH, 

In  tho  roHtliiieHa  and  elegancn  of  their  roatumes  tlw 
niackfeet  and  the  ('rows  are,  |Htrhnpa,  unrivulleil.  Thn 
muleriula  of  their  <lream>s  are  nearly  the  Name  ;  but  thero 
is  n  iliNlinctivo  modo  in  each  trilai  of  stitching  or  orn» 
nienting  with  porrupine  quilla,  which  are  Iho.  prlnripnl 
dccorntioiiH  of  all  their  (Ino  droHneM.  The  attiro  of  • 
chief  of  tho  Ulackleet  roiiHista  of  a  Khirt  or  tunic  of  deer 
akiriH,  tho  arnma  endiroidercd  with  porcupine  quilla,  and 
fringed  with  the  locka  of  tho  hiiir  of  viclima  alain  by  thfl 
chief  in  battle.  The  leggini;a  are  of  the  H»mo  material 
and  trimming,  oa  are  iiUo  tho  mucaHHina.  Over  all  is 
worn  a  robe  of  young  bulTiilu-Hkin  with  the  hair  on,  tha 
iiiKido  being  giirniiihed  with  pdrcujiine  ipiilla  and  rude 
reprcHentiitioiia  of  buttles.  A  long  pijie,  bow  and  quiver, 
lance  and  shield,  complete  hia  equipments.  He  is  almoat 
nlwuya  on  Ilia  horse's  buck :  und  thus  armed  and 
ecpiipiH-d,  his  nppcurunce  is  very  picliiresi[uc.  A  (/row 
somctimea  weurs  a  mngiiilirent  crest,  or  head-dress, 
mude  of  the  ijuiUs  of  tin'  war-eagle  and  ermine  skins; 
and  his  horse  is  covered  with  a  nmny-coloured  net  tCN 
miiiating  with  a  crupper,  end>oHsed  nnd  fringed  with 
bcuuliful  Hliells  nnd  porcupine  quills.  Necklaces  of 
licurs'  oinwa  nnd  utter-skin,  and  ornnmeiUed  tobacoo 
sucks  nnd  belts,  aro  loo  numernus  to  describe.  The  me- 
dicine bag  is  also  an  important  article  of  co^<tume  ;  it  \a 
formed  of  the  hkiiis  of  animals,  of  birds,  or  of  reptiles, 
variously  decorated,  und  ulwuys  stuffed  with  grass  or 
moss,  and  generally  without  drugs  or  medicines  in  them, 
OB  they  arc  religiously  closed  nnd  sealed,  and  carried  as 
a  sort  of  protection  throughout  life.  The  sculps  (from 
the  crown  or  centre  of  tho  head)  of  enemies  arc  pre- 
Si'rvcd  as  records  of  a  warrior's  prowess,  and  their  locks 
used  08  trimming.  Sometimes  a  war-knife  nnd  bulfalo 
horna  arc  worn  upon  tho  heud,  which  is  shaven  ;  nnd 
the  shield  and  spear  are  decorated  with  feathers,  la 
short,  nothing  cun  exceed  tho  picturesque  variety  of 
these  aboriginal  costumes,  or  tho  vanity  of  their  wearers. 

The  women  wear  long  loose  robes  or  wraiqiers  of  skiP; 
and  carry  their  children  strapped  to  n  kind  of  frame  ar 
their  backs.  The  snow-shoo  must  not  be  forgotten ;  i 
is  about  three  feet  lung  und  one  foot  wide  in  the  brondeat 
part,  and  its  frame  is  filled  with  a  network  of  twisted 
deer-skin,  strengthened  with  sticks  placed  crosswise  j  the 
foot  ia  confined  to  the  shoe  by  skin  airings,  thouijh  to 
walk  well  in  those  shoes  requires  as  much  practice  as  to 
navigate  a  canoe. 

Mexicans. — The  European  dresa  is  common  in  Mex- 
ico, and  has  long  been  worn  by  the  higher  clnseca  tha 
people  are  fond  of  rhnnge  ;  for  it  is  related  that  n  trovei- 
ler  having  left  a  book  of  London  fashions  ot  Xnlnpa  for 
a  few  months,  on  his  return  found  an  entire  revolution 
in  female  dress,  founded  upon  the  English  model.  Still, 
mnny  picturesque  dresses  are  seen  in  Mexico,  in  great 
measure  the  introduction  of  the  Spaniards,  whose  cclft- 
brity  in  the  annuls  of  European  costume  will  doubtless 
be  remembered  by  the  reader. 

The  national  riding-dress  is  of  all  the  most  curious, 
nnd  is  enormously  expensive.  The  bock  and  quortera 
of  the  horse  are  covered  with  stamped  ond  gilt  Icathei. 
fringed  with  tags  of  brass,  iron,  or  silver,  which  jingle  a! 
every  step.  The  saddle,  which  is  large,  ia  superbly  em- 
broidered with  silk,  gold,  and  silver,  and  the   puituna' 


.<^         '.'i 


740 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


mlaid  with  thnso  motals ;  the  briille  has  large  silver  oma- 
Uicnl!i;  and  nn  Arabic  bit.  The  horseman  is  attired 
with  corri'spoiidini}  richness.  His  somhrero,  a  low- 
wowiird  hat,  willi  a  brim  six  inclies  i.ide,  is  broadly 
edged  With  gold  or  silver  lace;  his  jacket,  of  cloth  or 
printed  calico,  is  likewise  embroidered  with  gold  or  silk, 
or  trimmed  ivith  fur;  his  breeches  are  generally  pea- 
green  or  azure,  open  at  the  lince,  and  terminating  in  two 
points  below  it,  and  ihey  are  thickly  studded  down  the 
tiii'e  with  largo  silver  buttons.  Next  is  tho  riding-eloak, 
olten  of  veUet,  and  rmbroidercd  with  gold.  Hut  the 
boots  arc  the  pride  of  a  true  Mexican  caval'er ;  they 
are  formed  of  dccr-skin,  well  tanned  and  soft,  stamped 
with  figures,  and  iiound  round  the  legs  with  coloured 
r  ■'  rs  below  the  knees.  At  the  ankle  commences  the 
-.aoe,  wliich,  at  tiie  top,  sjjroiuls  out  six  inches,  like  a 
scaliop-sliell.  The  spurs,  of  silver,  are  very  heavy,  and 
have  rowels  three  or  four  inches  in  diameter,  and  ofien 
a  bell  attacluJ  to  the  side. 

The  eostiiine  of  a  muleteer  is  likewise  very  striking: 
the  jacket,  of  embossed  russet  leather,  has  silver  buttons; 
the  overalls,  of  the  same  material,  are  cut  so  as  to  be  the 
leiiiftii  of  the  foot,  and  are  sustained  by  a  red  silk  sash 
above  the  '.vuist,  allowing  the  shirt  to  appear  between  it 
and  tlie  jacket ;  a  pair  of  huge  silver  spurs  rattle  at 
the  heels,  a. id  a  long  straight  sword  hangs  from  the 
waist. 

The  ladies  generally  wear  black,  but  on  holidays  the 
colours  are  very  gay ;  shawls  arc  worn  over  the  liead 
like  the  mutiliila  ;  and  the  country  ladies  wear  a  profu- 
sion of  spangles ;  ami  they  are  as  proud  of  a  neat  shoe 
und  a  small  foot  as  the  lemales  of  Spain.  Few  ladies 
apiK-ar  in  public  on  foot,  but  in  enormous  coaches,  in  full 
evening  costume,  smoking  cigars.  The  milliners  of 
Mexico  are  so  many  brawny  iiiustacbiocd  mm,  who 
may  be  seen  in  the  shops  making  flowers  and  dresses 
and  triumiing  capn.  Next  door,  women  may  be  seen 
on  their  knees  grinding  chocolate;  but  in  all  semi-bar- 
barous nations  the  hardest  labour  falls  to  the  women's, 
•hare. 

Colomhia.i'. — The  Colombian  costume  is  chiefly  bor- 
rowed from  tile  mother  country.  The  Sjianisii  mantle, 
or  a  wide  cloak  which  envelojjes  the  whole  {)crson,  is 
the  usual  attire.  But  in  the  streets  of  Bogota  a  female 
may  be  seen  smoking  her  cigar,  and  wearing  a  hand- 
some broad  lieaver  hat,  pearl  necklace,  many  rings,  and 
a  rich  black  mantle,  ornamented  with  bugles,  but  walk- 
ing without  shoes  or  stockings.  The  ladies  of  rank, 
however,  are  proud  of  their  pretty  feet  and  small  ankles, 
which  are  always  ictoflfby  handsome  silk  stockings  and 
very  neat  shoes.  Like  the  women  of  i^pain,  they  walk 
with  grace  and  dignity,  and  arc  equally  coquettish  and 
playful  with  theii  fans.  A  black  or  blue  cloth  mantilla. 
and  a  smalt  conical  black  beaver  hat,  and  black  silk 
gown,  were  formerly  the  walking  dress;  but  large  French 
bonnets,  with  artificial  flowers  and  gay  silk  gowns  and 
neckerchiefs,  are  now  much  worn ;  and  the  walking 
evening  dress  is  a  pietty  straw  hat,  with  artificial  flow- 
ers ;  u  warm  Norwich  shawl,  and  chintz  or  cotton  gowns 
of  British  manufacture.  Pearls,  emeralds  (the  largest 
in  the  world),  gold  chains,  and  crosses,  and  very  large 
pendant  gold  and  pearl-drop  ear-rings,  are  worn  in  pro- 
fusion. The  women  of  the  middle  class  generally  wear 
an  embroidered  scarlet  petticoat,  a  wiiite  boddice,  with 
frills  and  riiibons,  and  a  parti-coloured  cotton  band ;  the 
hair  is  plaited,  and  adi  -ned  wuli  artificial  flowers.  The 
dress  oi  the  men  is  Spanish,  with  jai-k-boots  and  long 
ril.ver  spur-:;  and  a  cloak  made  of  rushes,  a  large  straw 
hat,  fsnd  bark  sandalf,  are  much  worn  in  travelliug. 

Of  the  native  Indian  tribes  of  this  territory,  the  Car- 
riblieos  ire  the  fines!  race ;  the  hfud  is  shaven,  exeejit  a 
tull  on  the  crown;  both  sexes  paint  themselves,  and 
vcar  oii  f  a  band  or  wrapper  of  blue  cloth  ;  they  are  of 
«  rediiih  copper  colour,  and,  with  their  picturcsqui:  dra-  I 


'  pery,  resemble  bronze  statues.     Thf  women  Dm  baron,™ 
ornament  their  infants  by  raising  the  flesh  in  altemaiii 
stripes  from  the  ankle  to  the  hip.     The  Chaymans  an. 
;  other  tribe,  only  wear  clothes  out-of-doors,  and  then 
1  light  cotton  gown. 

I  Pcniviuns.  —  Peru  presents  many  interesting  pec^, 
j  liarities  df  costume,  owing  to  the  various  races  of  ji, 
population.  The  Indians,  or  native  Peruvians,  in  ihfi; 
I  male  dress,  remind  Mr.  Templeton  of  the  pcasnlltr^■  of 
Connaught ;  they  wear  coarse  brown  frieze  bretchej 
'  open  at  the  knees,  a  vest  falling  in  strips  round  the  wjjsi 
where  it  [r,  confined  by  a  cord,  ond  a  sort  of  loose  cloak 
shirts  are  seldom  worn ;  the  legs  are  bare,  with  tt« 
exception  of  low  hide  sandals;  and  the  hat  rescmblpi 
Don  Quixote's  helmet,  without  the  niche  in  it,  'I'ke 
women  wear  a  short  petticoat,  and  a  scarf  rounj  \U 
shoulders,  fastened  with  a  large  silver  pin  or  a  sioon. 
The  Cholas,  of  Indian  and  Sjjanish  descent,  arc  vcrv 
fond  of  dress  and  ornament ;  the  girls  wear  a  (letlicoat 
containing  from  twelve  to  fourteen  yards  of  rich  vclvftoj 
satin,  trimmed  with  ribbons  and  gay  flowers,  a  scarf  o\rr 
the  shoulders,  and  a  narrow-brimmed  black  hat,  likcikii 
of  the  Welsh  women,  or  a  broad  hat,  with  a  littlr  lace 
silk,  or  velvet-festooned  curtain  attached  to  it.  Thev 
wear  gold  and  silver  ornaments  and  jewels  in  pnJ. 
fusion. 

The  women  of  Lima  wear  a  very  unique  coslunw 
consisting  of  a  closely-fitting  petticoat  of  velvet,  saiin 
or  stuff,  with  a  waistband  and  buckle;  fringe,  law 
spangles,  or  flowers  on  the  lower  part,  and  elognnt  silk 
stockings  and  satin  shoes  ;  the  mntito,  or  hood,  of  ihin 
crimped  silk,  is  drawn  round  the  waist,  and  then  tunitii 
over  the  back  of  the  head,  and  enveloping  all  the  upM 
part  of  the  person  except  one  eye,  thus  comploti'lv  dij.  j 
guising  the  wearer.  The  ladies  of  Lima  sit  on  hor* 
back  like  men  ;  the  dress  is  then  European,  withalajsl 
sliawl  over  the  head,  and  a  Manilla  grass  hat  above  jlj 
and  huge  gold  or  sil'cr  spurs  on  their  satin  shoo.«. 

The  Peruvian  Indies  arc  fiist  adopting  the  Frinch  ] 
fashions,  and  many  murrhanrlcs  ihs  moihs  are  estahliiW 
in  the  largo  towns;  but  the  Spanish  fan  is  still  rctaineil; 
the  mantilla  may  also  be  seen,  and  the  long  veil  falling 
down  the  back.  The  hair  is  very  luxuriant,  and  uni' 
vcrsiilly  prized,  so  that  a  poor  peasant  girl  has  Iwi  | 
known  to  refus<;  £7  or  £8  for  her  weaving  t:essc.<,  Tct 
shoe  of  the  Indian  city  dame  strongly  contrasts  mik 
the  hide-sandal  of  the  peasant ;  sometimes  a  pair  roiti 
ten  dollars;  the  heel  spreads  like  a  fan,  an  '  is  aJornd 
with  shreds  of  cloth,  spangles,  and  gold  and  fikeil 
tissue. 

The  Peru\ian  male  costume  has  httle  ivorth  notirc 
and  it  would  be  belter  for  the  men  of  Peru  if  the  wo«t) 
only   took   the   lead    in  dress.     The   Tucumano  wen 
trousers,  and  a  large  figured  shawl  over  his  shirt,  wilhi 
very  broad-brinuned  conical-crowned  hut  tied  iiiiJirlb 
chin.     The   Indian   merchant  has  embroidered  lirwdfi  [ 
and  jacket,  a  rich  fringed  mantle  over  the  left  shoclte, 
and  a  helmet-shaped  ornamented  cap.     But  thpFcruviul 
uentlemen  mostly  J'css  in  the  English  tiisliion,  aiul oa 
goods  are  preferred  to  either  French  or  German  iiiiiii> 
faelures. 

'l"he  elouk  of  the  country,  or  the  pnnrlin,  is  an  oI!vE(| 
squrre  narment,  with  a  hole  in  tho  centre  for  Ihelied;! 
it  is  ;;iade  of  cloth  or  silk  and  riVioui  wool  of  verv  W*\ 
fid  colours;  it  is  worn  constantly  by  the  men, hut  only!* | 
ladies  when  nn  horseback.  Mr.  Temple*  doscriVsi 
pair  of  llfibt  summer  boots  made  without  scam  orf'isAI 
of  the  skin  of  the  hind  legs  of  o  horse,  and  dried  res(ii| 
for  wear  in  a  week — "  easy  as  a  glove." 

('hilidiif.  6f( . — Among  the  chanucs  produfcil  inCUl 
by  free  Iraile,  is  the  general  substitution  of  tiic  EntMl 
for  tho  Spanish- .\merican  costume;   and  the  iinndfil| 

•  Travels  in  Peru  and  Potosi. 


\'i<m;  his  Imt  is  broad 


FOREIGN  COSTUMES. 


741 


goi 


„jj|ijritics  of  costume  remain  among  hunters,  guachos, 
jnJ  other  half-wili'.  denizens  of  tlio  country. 

The  equipment  of  a  rich  guucho  cliief  at  Paraguay 
|j  truly  magnificent :  his  Per-  -ian  poncho  is  8upcrl)ly 
finbroiJered  on  s  white  ground ;  his  juclict  is  of  fine 
InJia  clotli ;  his  waistcoat  cuibroidcred  white  satin,  with 
IJ buttons;  liis  short  collar  and  front  are  of  fine  French 
cambric,  richly  tamboured  his  breeches  are  of  bluck 
tcivct,  with  gold  buttons,  and  open  at  the  knees;  and 
from  under  the  knce-baiuis  are  seen  the  friiiued  and 
wrked  extremities  of  a  pair  of  drawers  of  line  Paraguay 
ciiilh,  and  ample  us  a  Turkoman's  trousers,  and  just 
sliowiiig  a  pair  of  brown  viru.iti  vvoel  Btoikiiifi;^ ;  wbilo 
Ijsskin  boots  fit  the  feet  an(l  ankle  as  a  Fri'iu-h  glove 
.lis  the  hand;  the  tops  are  turned  over  lik'?  buskins,  and 
10  the  heels  are  attached  large  silver  spurs.  Ili.s  large 
hat  is  of  Peruvian  straw,  with  a  black  \elvet  band;  and 
arounil  his  waist  is  a  rich  crimson  silk  sash,  which  servi's 
as  ridi.  "^-hclt,  braces,  and  girdle  for  a  huge  silver-lian<lled 
tnilo  in  a  i.'irocco  sheath.  His  horse  is  alike  gorgeously 
OparisoncJ :  ttiu  ""uddle,  bridle,  and  reins  being  silver 
mounted,  and  the  stirrups  elaborately  wrought  out  of  at 
Ifast  ten  lbs.  of  virgin  silver.*  In  fine,  nothing  more 
ipli'iidiJ  than  this  horse  and  ridei  can  be  found  in  South 
Amorica. 

:\:  'iuenos  Ayrcn  and  Mendoza,  British  manufactures 
arc  much  in  request.  In  the  latter  town  the  men  wear 
iJueand  white  round  jackets;  and  the  women  are  only 
seen  in  ilislnibillc  during  the  day,  but  in  the  evening  they 
promenade  completely  equipped  in  the  CQstumoof  London 
ot  Paris. 

Bra:i'i<ins. — The  vast  region  of  Brazil  presents  a  few 
traces  of  its  original  Indian  barbarism,  the  natives  having 
never  been  incorporated  with  the  European  settler  i,  but 
Living  relire<l  before  them  into  the  depths  of  the  forests. 
Here  some  of  the  tribes  paint  themselves  frightfully,  and 
iv  hanging  pieces  of  wood  to  their  ears,  stretch  Iheiu  till 
tiii'V  hang  down  to  the  shoulders;  and  'Mc  under  lip  is 
aiiiilarly  extended.  A  scanty  portion  uf  clothing  has 
been  borrowed  from  the  Portuguese  colonists,  whose 
costume  was  generally  ado|)ted  in  the  towns,  until,  by 
the  free  intercourse  of  Brazil  with  England,  our  fashions 
nf  dress  were  assumed  by  the  Brazilians,  as  well  as  our 
liimiture  and  domestic  habits.  Within  two  years  from 
llicir  introduction  in  1818,  English  goods  made  their 
itdv,  and  women  might  be  seen  dressed  in  silks,  who,  a 
(tar  previous,  wouhl  have  worn  I,isbon  printed  cottons 
iiiJ  thick  cloths,  and  have  gone  to  church  stockingless 
iiid  slipshod.  The  mineral  wealth  of  Bri'r.il  has  ensured 
i)  ample  a  supply  of  clothing  from  other  countries,  that 
jiaiiufactures  have  made  less  progress  here  tlian  in  any 
jlhcr  of  the  South  American  colonies ;  and  the  only 
iii)|iortant  fabrics  are  gold  and  silver  articles,  which  are 
my  beautifully  wrought. 

liio  Janeiro  1.:  almost  a  European  town  in  dress  as 
well  as  style  of  building,  though  its  crowd  of  half-naked 
blai'ks  and  mulattoes  soon  destroys  the  illusion.  St. 
i<j|vador  is  a  gayer  city ;  and  here  the  French  style  of 
dress  is  much  followed,  but  the  nificial  costume  is  more 
Dilivc.  Thus  we  find  the  Seerctjiry  of  State,  a  half- 
InJian.  mounted  on  a  nude,  and  dressed  in  white  cotton; 
tils  jacket  faced  with  red,  and  leggings  with  ponderous 
spurs;  his  hat  is  broad-brinnned  and  glazed,  and  has  a 
tildlud'-band ;  his  sash  is  yellow  ;  a  gold  epaulellt!  graces 
Jii  right  shoulder,  and  a  h\ige  long  sword  hangs  by  his 
Cue,  wliile  his  dagger  is  fastencil  to  his  right  knee. 

hi  the  phniiK-'K,  sandals  with  loo|is  and  ankle-rings 
wore  the  Hruziliai.  shoes  luiig  after  the  introduction  of 
Eiii;li>;i  inaiuilr.elnres;  and  when  a  native  tocik  lo  wear- 
iiij  a  shirt  iMuI  drawers,  a  long  bi'd-gown  and  slippers,  he 
tkliily  IhoUijht  himself  a  gentleman,  and  entitled  lo  re- 
ipcct  accordingly.     To  this  day  the  arts  of  life  appear  to 


bo  unknown  in  some  villagen,  where  the  natives  are  bara 
fiom  the  waist  upwards,  and  the  children  wear  no  clothei 
whatever.  Even  at  Rio  the  extremes  of  mankind  aro 
collected,  and  the  slave  population  merely  wear  u  waisU 
cloth. 


Itra/ilian. 

At  Pernambuco,  the  benefits  of  its  large  cotton-trade 
are  evident;  white  and  c( loured  muslins  alternate  with 
silks  and  satins ;  and  the  men,  who  formerly  wore  full- 
dress  suits  of  black,  gold  buckles,  and  cocked  hats,  now 
wear  Nankin  pantaloons,  half-boots,  and  round  hats;  and 
even  the  sedan-chairs  and  their  bearers  arc  improved 
The  costume  of  the  S-rtanejos,  the  graziers  of  the  in- 
terior, is  partly  aboriginal ;  his  pantaloons  or  leggings, 
jacket,  and  bat,  are  of  brown  undressed  leather;  a  tanned 
goat-skin  tied  over  his  breast ;  slippers  confined  by  straps, 
and  iron  spurs  upon  his  naked  heels.  He  carries  oit 
horseback  a  change  of  clothes  in  a  piece  of  red  baize, 
with  tinder,  tobacco,  and  pipe,  and  a  knife  in  his  girdle. 
The  Sertanejos  women  merely  wear  a  chemise  and  petti- 
coat within  doors,  and  shoes  af  d  a  white  head-cloth  when 
they  leave  home.  Beferc  ihe  direct  trade  with  England, 
the  coarse  cotton  cloth  of  the  country  was  worn  by  both 
sexes;  and  then  a  dress  of  English  or  Portuguese  com- 
mon printed  cotton  cost  from  two  to  three  guineas ! 

The  preceiliiig  engraving  represents  a  Brazilian  sugar- 
planter.  He  is  well  clothci;  and  armed,  and  his  horse  is 
superbly  caparisoned;  the  meuntings  are  silver;  and 
such  a  saddle  as  is  here  rei)resented,  when  made  of  mo- 
rocco leather  and  green  velvet,  silver-mounted,  sometimea 
costs  oiie  hun.TAl  guineas.  He  travels,  with  his  wife,  in 
rude  state,  the  lady  being  homo  by  negroes  in  an  em- 
broidered hammock,  and  attended  by  a  female  on  foot. 

It  may  he  mentioned,  that  jewels  and  gems  are  worn 
profusely  in  Brazil ;  yet,  although  it  is  the  land  of  tlie 
diamond,  the  splendid  beetles  of  the  country  are  worn  as 
brooi'hes.  The  coronation  attire  is  magnificent.  Tlie 
crown,  except  the  green  velvet  cap  and  the  band  of  gold, 
seems  one  mass  of  diamonds;  therulfis  of  Spanish  lace; 
and  the  green  velvet  robe,  embroidered  with  gold,  has,  in 


place  of  the 


in  other  regal  attire,  a  dress  cape  of 


*  Hulierlsoii'a  Lciurs  ua  I'arinjuuy. 


the  bright  yellow  feathers  of  the  loueau,  which  was  part 
of  the  dress  of  the  ancient  eaeicpies  of  the  country.  Tho 
iin|icrial  under-dress  is  of  white  satin,  endiroidered  with 
gold,  high  military  boots,  gold  spurs,  and  a  iliamond-hiltej 
swor<l.  At  Court  the  nobility  wear  Ihe  eoslnmes  uf  their 
ancestors  centuries  since ;  and  in  the  national  museuiQ 
are  preserved  the  superb  feallier  coronets,  dresses,  and 
ornaments  of  the  aboriginal  chiefs.* 


'       fj| 


•  biewarl's  Vi»!l  lo  the  ^ulli  Si.tt«. 


m 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


AUSTRALASIAN  C0STCME8. 

Tho  cKstumo  of  the  English  settlors  in  the  Australinn 
lontinent  and  islands  is,  as  may  be  supposed,  purely  Eu- 
••opean,  the  London  fashions  being  regularly  transmitted 
Ihither.  The  only  peculiarity  of  costume  is  among  the 
native  trUbes,  who,  placed  at  a  low  condition  in  savage 
life,  are  dressed  in  tlie  most  primitive  and  barbarous 
style. 

The  clothing  of  the  men  of  certain  tribes  consists  of  a 
skin  cloak  worn  like  a  robe  over  the  shoulders,  and  fast- 
ened round  the  neck,  the  fiir  part  being  turni'd  inside  in 
wet  weather.  Around  the  waist  is  worn  a  belt,  not  un- 
like an  otiiccr's  sash,  made  of  opossum  fur;  and  attached 
to  it  are  flaps  of  opossum  skin  cut  in  stripes,  and  worn 
before  and  behind  ;  and  a  skin  purse  and  tobacco  pouch 
are  carried  in  this  belt  The  jet-black  hair  is  worn  long, 
and  well  greased ;  but  some  tribes  tie  it  to  the  top  of  the 
head  with  bunches  of  reeds  and  cockatoo  feathers ;  and 
tiiey  wear  the  beard.  The  skin  is  tattooed  in  stripes, 
more  especially  among  the  natives  of  the  south,  wliich 
renders  them  terrific  in  appearance. 

The  women  also  wear  opossum  skin-cloaks ;  and  they 
have  one  or  two  nets,  in  which  they  carry  at  their  back 
an  infant  child,  and  burdens  generally.  Their  hair  is 
nhorter  and  more  curly  thin  that  of  the  men,  and  is  oc- 
casionally iirnamented  with  kangaroo  teetll,  affixed  to  their 
locks  by  wax,  so  as  to  dangle  all  round  their  heads, 
Both  sexes  are  very  fonil  of  ornament,  for  which  purpose 
they  thickly  coat  their  skin  with  fish-oil,  and  on  hii^h 
oceasions  smear  (heir  faces  with  rod  and  white  earth ;  on 
their  bodies  are  traced  the  forma  of  birds  and  beasts,  and 
the  jaw-bniies  of  lish  and  the  tails  of  dogs  are  favourite 
decorations  ;  and  throush  the  nose  is  often  worn  a  feather 
or  piece  of  bone.  They  carry  sjicars,  clubs,  and  other 
weapons,  in  great  variety. 

Naf  '/.iiilinidrra. — The  natives  of  New  Zealand,  con- 
sidered by  Dr.  Laing  to  lie  of  Asiatic  origin,  arc  physi- 
cally and  intellectually  superior  to  the  New  Hollanders, 
although  they  are  yet  essentially  a  savage  people.  Their 
personal  appearance  is  very  tine  ;  their  mean  complexion 
is  that  of  a  Enroijcan  gipsy ;  hut  their  faces  are  much 
disfigured  by  tattooing.  Their  chiefs  have  line  athletic 
forms;  and  their  mat  cloak  tied  over  the  right  shoulder, 
and  descending  to  the  ankles,  brings  to  the  mind  of  a 
classical  beholder  the  Roman  toga;  whilst  their  towering 
stature  and  perfect  sy  mmetry  give  even  more  than  Roman 
dignity  to  the  illusion.  The  young  women,  too,  are 
graceful,  and  have  expressive  eyes  and  a  profusion  of 
long  silky  hair. 

No  two  {arsons  arc  tattooed  exactly  alike;  it  is  gene- 
rally commenced  on  the  lips,  then  on  tho  cheeks,  and 
proftress  is  maiie  alike  in  enibellishment  and  age.  Tat- 
tooing is  no  sign  of  rank,  for  slaves  get  marked  as  much 
as  chiefs;  but  every  trilie  has  distinctive  insignia.  It  is 
considered  a  mark  of  beauty ;  and  some  of  the  young 
catives  have  their  bodies  marked  over  with  small  dots, 
resembling  the  blue  spots  in  a  Guernsey  frock.  The 
most  vsiued  article  of  dress  is  the  pui,  a  sort  of  cloak 
fcrmtd  ef  the  duns  of  dogs,  the  furs  cut  lengthwise,  and 


sewed  alternately  white,  brown,  tr  Mack,  to  a  iir 
matting.     These  garments  are  sent  to  tho  principal  ch'fc 
as  presents.     The  common  native  mat  is  made  of  fl 
scraped  with  the  mussel-shell.     Another  mat  is  maii/'f 
silken  flax,  interwoven  with  blue,  red,  and  grepn  ba' 
purchased  of  the  Europeans:  it  is  worked  with  BarocI 
like  borders  of  elegant  design.     This  is  a  hanilgol' 
summer  dress ;  but  for  warmth  and  comfort,  the  EmrlJ 
blanket  is  in  universal  repute. 

The  mats  are  worn  over  the  shoulders,  tied  across  tk 
brea-st ;  and  around  the  waist  is  a  similar  mat,  fasten^ 
with  a  belt.     Spear-grass  and  sedgy  cloaks  arc  worn  n 
wet  weather.     The  women  affuct  leas  handsome  anpar  1 1 
than  the  men,  but  they  are  fond  of  ornament.    Red  Hrp 
and  shark-oil  are  tho  cosmetics  used  from  head  to     . 
Both  sexes  wear  in  the  ears  paroquet-skins,  bones  do 
beads,  teeth  of  friends,  enemies,  dogs,  pigs,  &c.,  and  are 
generally  garnished  with  sealing-wax :  armlcLs,  rinelcis  ' 
necklets,  and  anklets,  and  fancy  wood  combs  arc  worn 
and  nose  ornaments  by  the  men.     The  hair  on  gala^Iavi  I 
is  worn  in  a  topknot,  with  sea-fowl  flowers ;  and  varioiu 
paints  are  used. 

English  female  garments  are  already  much  in  roquesi' 
and  the   men  may  be  seen  strutting  about  in  a  cast-oj  I 
cloth  jacket ;  and  this  passion  has  U'cn  indulijcj  k  (jjj  I 
missionaries  and  colonis'.s  from  England.     It  has  bwa 
well  observed — "  True  it  is,  till  their  European  coslome  I 
shall   become  complete  (and   perhaps  even  thcnljhfYl 
will  look  more  noble  in  their   mat-cloaks;  but  no  bar.  [ 
barons  country   was  ever  civilized   till  the  ppople  bd 
ado|)ted  the  costume  of  their  conquerors;  anil  tho  oj. 
pensive  and  complicated  dross  of  rerinement  and  h sfcn  I 
is  the  taste  that  will  lead  the  savage  to  industry  andlhd 
arts  of  peace — not  the   head-dress  of  plastered  hair  aiij  I 
the  garment  made  from  the  cloth-tree."* 


New  Zealand  Family. 

Tho  engraving  represents  a  family  of  New  Zeaiiiri  I 
ers,  two  of  whom  wear  the  fine  coloured  silken  flaj-iu*] 
and  the  tliird  the  blanket  robe. 


'  Murray ■»  KucyclopiiUia  of  (Jeograpliy. 


BRITISH    COSTUMES, 


rict. 


BRITISH  AND  ROMAN  PERIODS. 
Tw  original  inhabitants  of  the  Dritisli  isles  were  of 
Ctltic  descent,  and  are  believed  to  have  brought  with 
(hem  tlie  Thracian  custom  of  lattonbiK  their  bodies,  by 
jQUCezina;  certain  coloured  juices  into  figures  made  with 
the  points  of  needles.  Hcnco  they  must  have  rescinbled 
m  appearance  the  tattooed  islanders  of  the  South  Seas ; 
jnJ  alllioiigh  personal  distinction  may  have  been  the 
leaJing  object  of  this  species  of  ornament,  it  appears  to 
1b»  been  generally  adopted  by  barbarous  half-clad 
tribes.  Among  the  Southern 
or  Belgic  Britons,  at  tlie  time 
when  Julius  Ctesar  landed  in 
the  country  (55  n.  c.),the  arts 
connected  with  clothing  had 
made  some  advance  ;  but  in  the 
more  northern  parts,  the  prac- 
tice of  living  half  naked,  with 
painted  and  tattooed  bodies,  was 
rVt'-T:#JH^=ll  f  common,  and  remained  till  a 
^'^.uJ*\/^  much  latter  period  than  in  the 
r-^liV^  a  ^l  south.  Such  fanciful  decora- 
tions   are    supposed    to    have 

given  name  to  the  nation  of 

?^'1j't£55  Picts,  from  the  Latin  word  pirli 
.r]r^~  (painted) ;  but  other  autho- 
rities refer  the  term  to  dillerent 
origins. 
The  Roman  dress  does  not 
ippcar  to  have  been  adopted  until  towards  the  close  of 
the  first  century,  when  the  better  classes  of  Southern 
uiil  Eastern  Uritaiti  exchanged  the  lirnrctr  for  the  Uoman 
liinic,  reaching;  to  the  knee,  and  the  toga  or  mantle. 

In  the  dress  of  the  women  there  was  but  little  clianso. 
Tiiey  appear  in  two  tunics,  the  one  reaching  to  the 
auklea,  ami  tlic  other  has  short  sleeves,  and  reaches 
sboul  halt-way  down  the  thigh  ;  or  they  resemble  a 
round  fjuwii,  or  bed-gown  and  petticoat,  though  the 
latter,  disf 'net  from  body  and  sleeves,  is  not  considered 
to  be  ancieiit.  This  tunic  was  called  in  British  gicii,  and 
hence  our  word  i^oipn  :  of  which  wc  stili  see  specimens 
ol  sliort  diiiieiisiiins  worn  by  women  of  the  humble 
classes  ill  England,  Scotland,  and  Wales. 

ANOI.O-SAXON   AND   DANISH    PERIODS. 

Whatever  traces  of  costume  may  have  been  left  in 
Drilaiii  by  the  lumiaiis,  they  Jisiippeurcd  soon  after  the 
arrival  of  the  Saxons  in  4'19,  who  introduced  fashions  of 
ap|)arel  iVom  northern  Germany,  which  were  copied  by 
(be  KjJD.uii/.ed  British,  and  continued  with  no  material 
chancfe  for  several  centuries. 

The  eoinmoii  dress  of  the  males  of  the  eighth  cen- 
tury consisted,  as  we  find,  of  linen  shirts;  tunics,  or  a 
kind  of  sare(>at ;  cloaks  fastened  on  the  breast  or  shoul- 
ders witli  brooi'hes ;  short  drawers,  met  liy  hose,  over 
nhirh  were  worn  bands  of  cloth,  linen,  or  leather,  in 
disaional  ( rossini;s.  Leather  sandals  were  worn  by  the 
early  Anglo-Saxons:  but  afterwards  the  shoe  became 
wnimon  ;  il  was  very  simple,  r.nd  well  contrived  for 
fomfurt,  Ihing  open  down  tli-j  instep,  and  there,  by  a 
thong  pas:'ed  through  holes  on  each  side  of  the  slit, 
drawn  linht  round  the  feet  like  a  purse.  A  felt  or  wool- 
len o;ip.  called //if.'  (hence  our  modern  word  hat),  was 
torn  liy  the  hiijlier  classes  of  Anglo-Saxons;  but  it  is 
gener.illy  believed  '.Init  the  aerfs  or  lower  orders  wi'ri^ 
withiiut  any  other  covering  for  the  head  than  what 
nature  had  itiven  them. 

Alilijutilii  Sir  Walter  Scott,  with  the  natural  moJostv 


Gurtli. — Saxon. 


of  genius,  disclaims  pretensions  to  complete  accuiacr  fa 
the  costume  of  the  characters  in  his  historical  romances, 
the  following  povtrait  ol' 
Gurth,  the  Saxon  swine- 
herd, in  "  Ivanhoe,"  is  near- 
ly correct :  "  His  garment 
was  of  the  simplest  form 
imaginable,  "lieing  a  close 
jacket  with  sleeves,  compos- 
ed of  the  tanned  skin  of 
some  animal,  in  which  the 
hair  had  been  originally  left, 
but  which  had  been  worn 
off  in  so  many  places  that 
it  would  have  been  difficult 
to  distinguish  from  tlie 
patches  that  remained  to 
what  crcafure  the  fur  had 
belonged.  This  primeval 
vestment  reached  from  the 
throat  to  the  knee,  and 
served  at  once  all  the 
purposes  of  body-clothing. 
There  was  no  wider  ppening  at  the  collar  than  was 
necessary  to  admit  the  passage  of  the  head,  from  which 
it  may  be  inferred  that  it  was  put  on  by  slipping  it  over 
the  head  and  shoulders  in  the  manner  of  a  modern  shirt 
or  ancient  hauberk.  Sandals,  bound  with  thong-  made 
of  boar's  hirlo,  protected  the  feet ;  and  a  sort  of  roll  of 
thin  leather  was  bound  artilieially  round  the  leijs,  and, 
aseciuliiig  above  the  calf,  eft  the  knees  bare,  like  those 
of  a  Scottish  Highlander.  To  make  the  jacket  sit  more 
closely  to  the  body,  it  was  gathered  at  the  middle  by  a 
broad  leathern  belt,  secured  by  a  brass  buckle,  to  one  side 
of  which  was  attached  a  sort  of  scrip,  and  to  the  other 
a  ram's  horn,  accoutred  with  a  mouth  ])icce  for  the  pur- 
pose of  blowing.  In  the  same  belt  was  stuck  one  of 
those  long,  broad,  sharp-pointed,  and  two-edi;ed  knives 
which  were  fabricated  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  born 
even  at  this  early  period  the  name  of  a  Sheflield  whittle 
The  man  had  no  covering  upon  his  head,  which  wa» 
only  defended  by  his  own  thick  hair  matted  and  twisted 
together.  One  part  of  his  dress  only  remains,  but  it  is 
too  remarkalile  to  be  suppressed  ;  it  was  a  brass  ring  re- 
sembling f".  dog's  collar,  but  without  any  opiMiing,  and 
soldered  fast  around  his  neck ;  so  loose  as  to  form  no 
imi)cdiment  to  his  breathing,  yet  so  tight  as  to  bo  inca> 
pable  of  being  removed,  excepting  by  the  use  of  the  file. 
On  this  singular  goiget  was  engraved  in  Saxon  charac- 
ters— 'Gurlb.  the  son  of  Beowulf,  is  the  born  thrall  of 
Cedric  of  Ho!I;c  rwood.'  " 

The  Anglo-Saxon  reniales  wore  under-tunics,  with 
sleeves;  another  iiiiicr  garment,  the  linen  kirtic  ;  and 
over  these  the  long  full  gown,  with  loose  sleeves. 
The  head-dress  is  a  hood  or  veil,  which,  (ailing  down 
ia fore,  was  wrapped  round  the  neck  and  breast;  and 
this  was  the  only  head-covering  of  the  women  when 
abroad.  The  hair  was  carefully  dressed,  and  golden 
head-bands,  half-eirclcs,  neck-bands,  and  bracelets  were 
worn  ;  with  ear-rings,  necklaces,  crosses,  and  jewelled 
ornaments  too  numerous  to  describe.  The  hose  and 
shoes  resembled  those  worn  by  tho  men.  The  long 
sleeves  of  the  gown  or  the  mantle,  drawn  over  the 
hands,  served  as  gloves,  which  were  not  worn  before  the 
eleventh  century.  All  classes  used  on  their  cheeks  a  red 
cosinei'c,  so  that  the  art  of  painting  the  face  is  not  a 
creature  of  relinement.  TI.e  general  colours  of  the  dresses 
were  red,  blue,  and  gieen,  sometimes  eniliiunieicd  in 
patterns;  and  gold  tissue  and  cloth  ol  gold  were  won 


K 


744 


INFORM ATJON  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


by  prinonssps  and  nuns ;  and  the  luttor  embroidorod 
robes,  Bnnil.ils,  tunics,  vrstB,  cloaks,  nnd  veils  of  onor- 
mou8  cost — tbi  jx-urla  nnd  prcciona  jewels  wrro  intor- 
wrou(;ht  with  the  mnterials,  nnd  Hornctimes  three  years 
were  spent  in  workini?  ine  gnrment;  and  their  dresses 
were  often  lined  with  sablo,  beaver,  and  fox  furs,  or  tho 
skins  of  lambs  or  cats. 

The  Danes  orifjinnlly  wore  the  dredses  of  sailors,  the 
general  rolour  of  which  was  black  ;  but  when  enriched 
by  piracy,  they  soon  l)ccanie  wearers  of  scarlet,  purple, 
and  fine  linen,  nnd  in  Enelnnd  outshone  the  Saxons  ; 
they  were  elTeininntely  gay  in  their  dress,  and  the  leni;;lh 
,ind  beauty  of  their  hair.  'I'ho  Anijlo-Danish  kincrs 
appear  principally  to  have  worn  a  red  hnbil,  embroicliTcd 
with  gold,  and  a  purple  robe;  and  their  luaulles  were 
richly  einbriiidered  with  cold  and  jiearls.  Upon  a  ma. lu- 
^•c^ipt  of  the  reii;u  of  Canute,  he  is,  howeve',  represented 
in  a  Saxon  dnss,  tho  mantle  being  richlv  ornaineiilcil 
with  cords  or  riblioiis,  and  tassels ;  and  he  wears  shoes 
and  8to(kiiV-;s  with  innbroidered  tops.  His  body,  when 
discovered  in  Winchester  Catliedral  in  the  year  ITCil!, 
was  decorated  with  i^old  and  silver  bands,  and  a  richly 
iewellcd  rinf;;  bracelets  were  worn  by  all  persons  of  rank, 
and  invariiibly  buried  with  them,  (^anute's  (pieen  wore 
the  tunic,  mantle,  and  long  veil.  The  materials  of  the 
Danish  dresses  were  cloths,  silks,  or  velvets,  procured 
either  from  f*pain  or  the  Mediterranean,  by  plundering 
the  .Moors. 

From  the  Danish  Invasion  tothe  Norinan  Conquest 
there  were  few  changes  in  eostmne,  if  we  except  the 
imitation  of  \ormaii-French  fashions  in  the  reiun  of  the 
Confessor,  by  shortening  the  tunics,  clipping  the  hair, 
and  shavinc  the  beard,  but  le.iving  the  upper  liii  unshorn. 
Tattooing  wns  [iractised  even  to  this  time,  allhoirxh  it 
had  bj'en  forbidden  by  a  law  passed  in  the  eighth  century. 

BMtVENTH    Tll.r,    FOURTEFINTH    rENTI'RV. 

The  Norman  Compiest  introrliicc<l  a  irreater  degree 
of  taste  aufl  splendour  into  Hritish  costume;  but  the 
dress  of  l!ie  conunoii  order  of  peo)ile  remained  long  of 
a  comparatively  rude  fashion,  parily  from  the  effeci  of 
caste  ami  sumptuary  laws,  which  prevniled  any  decided 
change.  .-Ss  time  advanced,  the  material-  of  dress  im- 
proved, but  the  cut  was  little  ditTerent.  anil,  till  this  day, 
we  have  a  samjile  of  the  .\iiglo-Saxon  tiniio  in  the 
smork-friirk-,  a  species  of  overall  linen  shirt,  very  gene- 
rally worn  by  the  peasantry  of  Einjlaml.  'Hie  lilmi.ie, 
i  linen  shirt  of  blue  instead  of  white,  which  is  now 
•iiiiversiilly  worn  by  workmen  in  France,  Swilzcrliind, 
the  Iiow  Countries,  and  part  of  (iermany,  had  an  eipially 
early  origin. 

In  the  reign  of  Rufus  many  cosily  changes  were 
made  in  dre?* ;  the  tunics  were  lenglheiie  '  and  the 
undergarments  even  trailed  upon  the  ground.  Tlie 
sleeves  were  also  drawn  over  the  whnle  hand,  allhough 
ploves  Were  Aoru.  at  lee.st  by  the  hiu'her  classes.  The 
cloth  mantles  wer."  lined  '.vilh  r:  h  furs;  and  otic  lined 
with  black  sallies  and  white  spots  co>-l  £1(10.  Exlra- 
vagnntly  peaked-toed  boots  and  shoes  were  worn;  atnl 
a  court  coxi'omb,  who  caused  the  points  of  his  shoes  to 
curl  like  a  ram's  horn,  received  the  name  of  l>i  t'miii- 
'>«», orwilh  the  horns.  The  hair,  whiih  had  l«en  slmrn 
I'roni  the  buck  of  the  head  as  well  as  the  face  by  the 
Norniaii-Freiieli,  was  now  a^ain  worn  long;  and  the 
•ourtiei..^  in  i^ii  pin  n's  reign  even  wore  artificial  hair,  so 
that  wins  iniy  iliie  frnni  the  IwelflticeuHiry.  The  long 
Niard  also  reap|ieared  in  the  ri  itrn  of  Henry  I. 

The  oi'MiMiiienlal  eliiuie-  of  Henry  II.  and  his  cpieen 
tllpan.ir.  and  Jlichard  I.  and  his  ipieeii  Hereii^aria,  in 
the  al'lwy  of  Fontevrniiil,  Normandy,  are  nnilnuMed 
'-.VHUiples  of  the  leuiil  costume  of  the  latter  hidf  of  the 
twelftii  eentu'-v.  irii'inurh  as  they  retin-senti  1  the  sove- 
reign, scull. ton  il  in  their  habits,  as  if  they  still  lay  in 
tluto.     'J'lie  rxlies  of  the  two  kings  aro  two  tunics  (the 


upper  called  a  Datmalicn),  with  rich  waist-belti  ni 
over    them    mantles    superbly    embroidered ;    that 
Henry  being  fastened  by  afiMa  or  brooch  on  thr,  ri'4 
shoulder,  nnd  that  of  Richard  fastened  upon  the  bri.  ' 
The  gloves  are  jewelled  on  the  back  of  the  hunj  j  , 
tho   boots  have  spurs  without   rowel.u;   both  moHarcl 
wear  their  crowns,  although  that  of  Henry  is  niuch  mi 
tilaled.     'J'hese  royal  habits  reprersent  also  tho  eoatun' 
of  the  nobles  at  the  same  period.     Henry  introduccj  tU 
fashion  of  indenting  the  borders  of  dresses,  and  the  slioa 
cloak   of  Anjoii.  whence  he  was  called  Ceurt  Mantcan 
(curt  or  short-mantlel.     A  mantle  of  .'^iihard  is  jU 
described  as  nearly  covered  with  .salid  siber  half-moon, 
nnd  orb.s, 

Inthecouise  of  the  thirteenth  century,  the  sumptuous, 
ness  of  a])parel  increased;  rich  silks  woven  with  coM 
einbriiidered  ami  fringed,  ai-d  Trench  velvets,  were  much 
used;  and  a  rich  slulV  manufactured  in  the  t'vdiuU 
was  iii.ade  into  a  dalmatica  or  super-tunic,  called  Cyclas 
which  was  worn  by  both  se.xe.s.  The  fur.^  of  crminca! 
innrlens,  sCfUirrela,  the  vair,  and  the  niinev,iirorininctcr 
were  added  to  the  list  of  furs  for  winter  garnie'its. 

The  general  male  dress  consisted  of  tlie  cyclas  jusi 
mentioned;  nnd  tho  tunic  open  as  high  as  the  waist, Ui 
show  the  drawers;  with  chaussecs  or  stockings.  TL. 
principal  lunelty  is  the  super-totus,  or  over-all,  wnrj 
like  the  mantle  or  cloak,  and  consisting  of  a  kindcf 
Inrge-sUeved  shirt,  with  a  eapuehoii.  Long-toed  shoes nrjj 
boots  were  resumed,  with  embroidery  and  colours.  Tlu 
caps  or  bonnets,  and  hats,  now  resemble  our  niuderntioavoi. 

The  female  costume  d'.tered  in  fashion  and  naim 
rather  than  in  form,  froi-  those  of  the  twelfth  cei  tiirv! 
The  v-  lis  were  of  go|.'  tissue  or  superbly  cmbroidcrij 
silk,  and  over  them  '  as  worn  a  diadem,  ei-rlet,  or  mj. 
land,  or  n  cap-like  coronet,  by  persons  of  rank,  aiidsoint. 
times  n  round  liiit.  The  b.ead-dresses  were  very  numo 
rous :  the  wiiiijile  covered  the  head  and  sliuuldir; 
and  was  fastened  under  the  chin ;  and  the  hair  wy 
worn  in  n  net  or  caul  of  gold  threti  I,  which  conti. 
lined  in  fashion  for  the  next  two  ceiituiies.  A  vervuslj 
kinil  of  wimple  called  the  gorget,  apjieared  in  lie 
thirteenth  century;  it  was  a  neck-covering',  |iokeil  up  by 
pins  above  the  ears.  The  long  rolie  was  also  worn  trait 
ing  on  the  ground;  llie  cloth  stockings  were  eiiiliroiderfil 
with  cold;  and  trinkets  of  gold,  as  buckles,  riiijjs,  c3^ 
rings,  and  cha|ilcls.  and  jewels,  were  much  worn;  anj 
sometimes  flowers,  fresh  from  the  garden  or  licKl.  wta 
entwined  round  the  head  as  a  relief  to  artillciul  iliciia. 
tion.  In  this  century,  too,  we  first  meet  with  the  surcol, 
which  Strutt  calls  n  corset,  boddice.  or  stays,  wurn  over 
the  rest  of  the  dre.sa,  which  enlarged  in  the  .-^kirt,  aiiJ 
spreiid  into  a  train;  it  was  made  high  in  the  neoli  anJ 
had  lung  tiaht  sl"<'ves. 

The  dress  of  the  working-classes  mny  ..e  supposod  It 
liivelieen  im[>roved  about  this  |K'riod  by  the  iiilnxluclwn 
(it  the  worsted  manufacture;  it  is  stated  to  have  Ihch 
brought  to  the  country  by  a  colony  of  Fleniiims,  who.  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  11.  settled  at  W'tisiui.a  village ia 
Norfolk,  and  hence  the  lume  of  the  biliric* 

W'c  now  come  to  the  fourteenth  ci  ntiiry,  in  which 
Fdward  III.  and  his  (lueeii  I'hilippii  led  the  liishioii  in 
n|i(iaiel  .'.s  seen  from  the  elligy  on  his  tuiiib.  llic  r* 
tiime  of  Fdward  is  chariicteri/ed  by  ils  diLMiilicil  urn- 
plieity.  The  dalmatica  is  low  in  the  neek.  f;ills  in  s'raijtlit 
folds  to  the  feet,  and  is  open  in  front  neaily  hall  il>  lici:'hl, 
being  enibroiilcrcd  at  the  ulges  of  the  api'iliirc;  lt.o 
slecNfsof  the  under  tunic  have  at  each  wri-l  a  row  it 
biillniis,  a  fushinii  of  the  reign  of  Heiiiy  III.;  l!ie  inai.tlo, 
embroidercil  at  the  edges,  is  w<orn  over  the  ^h(lllhic^^;lnJ 
ciiidined  by  a  Jewelled  band  acioss  the  breast;  tlie  >li«i 
or  buskins  are  also  embroidered,  and  the  hiiir  iinl  1,  •' 
nre   patriarehni;   the   crown  has  been   n  inuved  or  IksI 


The  cITwy  of  Queer 
„Bal!;'  distinguished 
„d  full,  the  boddi« 
fllled,  and  the  mnntlf 
confined  l>y  a  diagoni 
the  head  is  a  low  cro 
kind  of  ihaiied   orm 
The  costume  of  tho 
fjr  less  simple  than 
the  long  robe  and  I 
garment  (j  ipon)  m\ 
middle  of  the  thigh, 
iplendid  bell;  from  tl 
slips  of  cloth,  called/ 
was  occiisioiially  won 
ajKin  the  right  shou 
estrcine  of  foppery. 
jiid  among  thein  we 
(he  torn;  now  used 
worn ;  hut  'he  great 
the  front  of  the  '•^■^ 
ii(m  of  leaves.  no\ 
The  gay  tournament; 
tion  of  inimy  costly 
cpensive  dress,    hey 
wearer,  was  forbiddei 
aniaincnts  (exceiit  fo 
i«;;th»  royal  family  a 
gtild  and  >ilver  were 
tune;  and  persons  o 
„car  silks,  einbroidi 
Jrcssed  still   more   s 
»hcretlic  gown  tits  eh 
lung  ill  llie  front  as 


Lailj  ui  Hill  ceunry 


*  See  note  to  Hullum'»  llislury  of  the  Midiiie  Age 


•Few  iiincimenis  linv 

ifiopcralioii  more  itelrii 
t  imiMimry  laws.  Iiy  wli 
'J;.;  Ifiiisliiiiirt.'  so  vaiiilv 
jravoiiri'tl  tn  prevent  ll 
lV'  miiiKDi'tlii'ir  iniliisi 
"Then'  is  li:inil>',''  says 
tjji*''  tliai  lire  anw  reel, 
.'ii.ch  lias  not  l.ci  s  deiu 
(nip.-tlUciy.  or  licig  m 
tio'liiiiir  uri'  ni  presem 
ih:ns'  lint  llicre  aro  in. 
p.it  in  'Jk  pillory  Tor  pr 
n^pesiiiry  n  liixiirvl"' 
uary  inv «.  eiiiKMed  'a 
U'fiiih  enitiiry  tiy  iti-'  | 
cniice  c:'  thcr  -Mhj.'els. 
i.oii  wli.cti  .\iltoii  Plinth 
wih  pr:viii.'  cxpencliiiir 
nci  iiii(*(>iilil.illy  mo:;. 
II.  their  ilomni.ciis.  tout 
pajeniiirv.to  t-xei.'e  a  in 
Ly  thi'ir  oriiiii.mces  to  n 
tThe  ol  Uiii  ,1-  the  ■• 
(vtricli  pliiiiit'i  was  loaj^ 
i*i"ni  from  i!i..  hoiiii'-i  a( 
lu:."!  to  ill'.  ■  ^.Tii  assu 
VuL.  1—91 


BRITISH   COSTUMES. 


?'4S 


rhs  cflipy  "^  Queen  PhiHppa,  also  nt  Wi'stminstrr,  is 
j]i„  JistinguishfJ  by  its  simplicity  ;  the  skirt  is  long 
md  full,  the  boiUlice  closely  fitting,  the  waist-lielt  jow- 
.1  J  mul  tlic  mantle  ornamented  on  the  shoulders,  atid 
niniincd  by  a  diagonal  band  across  the  breast ;  and  upon 
(ho  head  is  a  low  crown,  jewelled,  and  from  it  depends  a 
tinci  of  draped  ornament  half  way  down  the  check. 
Tlic  costuuii'  of  the  nobles  in  this  reign  was,  however, 
£  luggjiiiiipli' than  that  of  the  sovereign.  In  place  of 
lie  long  robe  and  tunic  was  worn  a  close-fitting  body- 
imrnient  (j  '1"^")  ^u[)erbly  endiroidcred,  reaching  to  the 
raiJille  of  tlie  thigli,  and  confined  across  the  hii)s  by  a 
uilendiil  belli  from  the  sleeves  of  this  garment  hung  long 
^Ipj  of  clotli,  called  lirijipes  (tippets),  and  over  the  whole 
J  occiiHioiially  worn  a  long  mantle  fastened  by  buttons 
mKin  the  ri^h'  shoulder.  This  dress  was,  however,  the 
rttrcmc  of  foppery.  The  caps  were  of  various  shapes, 
mi  among  them  we  find  the  knight's  rhiipeav,  nearly  in 
ihe  foni;  now  \ised  in  heraldry.  Beaver  hats  are  also 
worn ;  bill  th''  greatest  novelty  was  a  single  feather  in 
llie  front  of  the  cap.  The  golden  chaplets,  by  the  ad- 
Jilion  of  leaves,  now  assumed  the  form  of  coronets. 
The  eay  tournaments  of  this  period  led  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  many  costly  foreign  fashions;  so  that,  in  13()3, 
expensive  dress,  beyond  thu  income  or  rank  of  the 
wearer,  was  forbidden  by  law  ;  furs  of  ermine,  and  pearl 
aniamcnts  (exeeiit  for  head-d.  js),  were  forbidden  to  all 
m;t  tin  -oyal  family  and  the  wealthiest  nobles;  cloths  of 
mid  and  Silver  were  permitted  only  to  the  next  in  for- 
aiid  persons  of  small  income   were  forbidden  to 


But   the   ladies 


tune; 

..car  silks,  cnd)roidery,  or  trinkets.* 
'ifcssed  still  more  sumptuously,  as  in  the  engraving, 
where  the  '.iown  ills  close  in  the  boddice,  and  the  train  is  so 
luag  in  ''"-  front  as  to  be  held  up,  and  thus  dis|)lay  the 
embroidered  under-dress;  the 
sleeveless  jacket  worn  over 
the  gown  is  also  embroi<lered 
and  trimmed  with  fur ;  the 
hair  is  worn  long,  and  the  rap 
is  low,  and  resembles  a  eor'^nct. 
Tippets  from  short  slee.^j, 
and  the  jujion,  were  also  worn 
by  ladies  as  well  as  by  gentle- 
men ;  and  both  sexes  wore  dag- 
gers stuck  througVi  pouches  in 
their  rich  girdles.  The  parti- 
coloured tunics  worn  by  the 
ladies  at  tournaments  were 
likewise  very  striking,  and 
greatly  encourased  the  fop- 
peries of  the  tini".  One  of 
the  additions  to  ilie  military 
costume  of  this  periotl  was 
the  knight's  cap  and  crc8t.f 


Lady  01  Uili  ctiiur>. 


•Fow  I'liuciMuMUs  Imvt'  1 ii  innrr  erroneous  ^ri  principle,  or 

InoperaiioM  ni(,rc  (Ii'lriint'iiMil  lo  nalionai  prosperiiy.  Ihnn  \\w 
#;iii|iumry  laws,  by  wliu'li.  :ii  the  earlier  m;e*  di'  our  hi.-*Uiry. 
Oie  letri*liiture  so  vainly,  aiitl.  it  may  he  aiMnl.  so  nnjnstly  en- 
dravoiireil  to  pn-vint  llje  variiMis  ranks  oi  inep  iVom  I'njoyini! 
uV' I'riiii^  nr"  llieir  imln-Jtry  or  ol' ilieir  paifinnnial  poMsessions. 
"Thore  is  lmnUy."says  .Mr  .M't'ulloeli,  "a  siii);!,'  nriicle  anions 
t,*;i)<'' llmt  are  now  riM'koneil  ninsl  indi-^pensalile  to  oxisience 
,'ii:i'h  has  not  Uei  s  (len(,uneeil.  at  it?  introdiietion.  »)»  a  nseles** 
diipeilluity.  or  heaj;  in  sdiiii' way  injurious.  Few  artieli'S  i<l' 
do'hinfj  are  at  present  corisaiereil  ini.re  inilispensalile  than 
ihirts"  Inn  thi're  are  in..tanet  s  on  reeord  of  OHlivulnals  lieinij 
n.il  in  'Jie  |t;il,)ry  tor  pre-uniiiii;  '  >  wear  so  expensive  ami  nn- 
t^oesiary  a  luxiirv!'  .Mr.  ilahani  nliserv.'s.  iliai  the  sinnp- 
■uiitry  Idv  «,  euaeieil  'ii  Kranre  anil  I'.ni;lanil  iliirin^  ttn^  I'nur- 
It'iMith  ori:iiiry  liy  thj  governments,  to  restrain  the  l^xtrava- 
cinoe  01'  tlie  r  SMle-'cls.  itiay  well  jiistily  the  seven;  iniliirna- 
i.oii  wliiCh  .Vilatn  ^iniili  has  pnuretl  n|>on  all  sni'h  interterenoe 
wlhprivni"  expcmlitiire,  "'I'he  kinusol'  I'ranee  ami  l",n(;Innil 
n«".i  atiiloiilir-illy  more  eufreirimis  speiiilliirii'is  than  any  others  j 
11,  limir  iloiiiiii  ens.  anil  ('(iiitrilinted  far  more.  Iiy  their  love  of 
rssenatry.  lo  exei.e  a  taste  lor  dissipation  in  their  people,  than 
by  their  ordinances  to  reiiress  il."  j 

tTlie  or;){:n  .if  the  •■  I'rinee  of  Wales'  Feathers"  (a  triple 

i»trich  plitaii'i  was  loii;j  relerred  to  tin'  Ulrek  I'rinee  ndoptinj!  ' 

I'l'Mii  rniiii  ih,'  hiiiiet  of  the  kini!  of  Hoheinia:  next,  lliey  wen; 

iu'"'l  1(1 1 II'.     .ei  u  ui^ijuiiioii  ituia  Uiul  inunurch'6  liuinior;  but  i 

VuL.  I— 91 


In  this  reign  mourning  habits  appear  to  have  been  fink 
worn,  the  coloura  being  black  and  brown. 

The  reign  of  Richard  II.  must  have  been  the  high 
carnival  of  coxcombcry.  The  sovereign  himself,  accord" 
ing  to  Holinshed,  had  a  coat  or  robe  which  cost  30,000 
merka.  Particoloured  dresses  were  universally  worn, 
and  even  the  hose  were  of  two  colours,  so  as  to  render 
the  term,  o  pair,  inapplicable:  tho  colours  of  the  king 
and  his  court  were  white  and  red.  Men  and  women 
alike  wore  hoods  set  with  jewels;  and  their  tippets  wero 
jagged,  and  reached  to  the  heels ;  and  tho  long-peaked 
shoos,  called  crackowes  (from  Cracow,  in  Poland),  were 
fastened  to  the  knees  with  gold 
and  silver  chains.  The  engraving 
showt  a  '.entleman  of  this  jxiriod, 
with  shoes  and  ho(iri  all  in  one,  the 
mantle  cut  into  the  shape  of  leaves 
at  the  edges,  a  belt  and  poucll, 
and  a  liiitastically-turbancd  head- 
covering.  Chaucer  h.is  left  us 
the  costume  of  several  ranks  at 
this  period:  his  o.ji 're  wears  a 
short  gown,  "  with  sleeves  lon^j 
and  wide;"  his  yeoman  "a  coat 
and  hood  of  grenc ;"  bis  merchant 
many  colours,  with  a  forked  beard, 
and  a  "  Flaunderish  bever  hat," 
and  clasped  boots;  the  reeve  OT 
steward  a  long  surcoat  and  rusty 
8"/ord,  his  beard  and  head  shaven 
and  shorn ;  the  miller  wore  a  whito 
coat  and  blue  hood,  a  sword  and 
buc!.ler,  and  red  uoth  holiday-hose;  and  the  hats,  caps, 
and  bonnets  of  all  classes  were  very  fantastical.  Knives, 
orni'.mented  with  silver,  and  purses,  were  worn  by  most 
classes  in  their  girdles;  and  shoulder-belts,  with  bells, 
wero  a  mark  of  rank.  Liveries  are  also  now  mentioned 
as  worn  by  substantial  a.iisans  as  well  as  by  menial  se^ 
van;s;  but  the  ])lojghman  appears  only  in  a  tabard  or 
sleeveless  coat,  aid  the  mechanic  in  a  tunic.  The  bait 
was  worn  long  '.nd  curled,  ar.l  the  beard  forked. 

In  the  female  costume  of  'bis  reign  the  fantastic  parti- 
coloured dresses  were  retained,  wiili  the  embroidered 
jupons  and  l.inles,  hip-kirdlcs,  and  long  tippets  from  tlis 
elbow ;  and  the  mircol  or  external  corset,  faced  with  fur, 
and  terminating  in  i  train  sometimes  so  long  as  to  tio 
carried  over  the  arm,  or  shorter,  opened  up  the  side,  and 
bordered  with  ermine.  The  gowns,  mantles,  and  other 
garments,  were  embl.izoned  with  arms,  or  they  bore  sen- 
timental niottoe.i;  :ind  the  royal  badge  of  a  while  hart, 
chained,  was  iiuieli  w,jrn  at  tournaments  and  jousta. 
The  head-dres.s  continued  as  in  the  preceding  reign 
The  atlire  of  the  carpenter's  wife  in  the '•  Canterbury 
Tale:;,"  with  a  silk  g'-dle  and  head-t'ilkt,  and  broochj 
indicates  the  condition  of  this  class  of  females. 


C;eiilleinano4  14th 
Century. 


FIFTEENTH    CE>TURY. 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  tbppery  of  the  thirteentt 
and  fourteenth  centurits,  they  appear  to  have  been  e-t» 
cceded  by  the  absurdities  of  costume  in  the  fil^ecnth 
century,  when  it  was  dil'ieult  by  dress  to  distinguish  one 
sex  from  the  other.  These  fantasies  were  mostly  bo 
rowed  from  France,  whose  fashions  now  began  cxcIhf 
sively  to  guide  the  t.aste  of  the  Ko'^Ii.sh,  and  have  con» 
tinned  to  tlo  so  uiilil  the  present  time. 

The  e(li'j;y  of  Henry  IV.  is  remarkably  splendid,  the 
upper  tunic,  girdle,  anil  mantle  being  embri'idered  at  tli6 
cilges,  and  tiie  latter  connected  by  a  richly-jc'velled  band 
across  the  chest,  besides  cord.^  ami  tassels.  The  Ijcard 
and  mustachios  are  worn,  but  the  poll  is  shaven ;  the 


.,)'i 


there  is  still  prealer  reHnon  to  believe  the  pliiine  to  have  been 
liiit  a  inneifiil  had^'e  eliosen  when  feutJiers  wuro  fimt  uacd  M 
heiald.c  ercms  upoa  heliaets. 

.1  R 


"m^ 


746 


INFORMAnON  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


orcrarii  is  fiu()posci1  to  he  an  imitation  of  tlie  mni^ificent 
«  Harry  (Jrown,"  broken  up  and  pawned  by  Honry  V. 
Early  in  thiH  reii^n,  too,  the  sumptuary  law*  were  re- 
vived not  only  as  to  materials  but  fashions ;  bo  that  gar- 
ments, cut  or  slashed  in  devices,  wore  forl)idden,  but  with 
little  effect.  In  this  roi(?n  appenVed  the  collar  of  88 
^or  Esses),  which  Meyrick  considers  to  have  been  taken 
Irom  the  initial  letter  of  Henry's  motto,  "  Souvernino." 
The  annexed  enKruving  represents  a  Rentlcnian  of  this 
reign  in  shortened  tunic,  buttoned  in  front,  with  girdle, 
large  flappinij;  sleeves,  tight  hose,  f«'aked  shoes,  and  head- 
cloth,  with  ionu;  end  hanging  over  the  lefl  shoulder,  and 
tucked  in  the  girdle.  The  next  cut  shows  a  labourer  of 
the  same  period  in  the  ordinary  woollen  dress,  with  hood 
Olid  tip|)el,  hose,  and  leathei  Ihiots  laced  in  front.  The 
female  costume  in  this  reign  differed  from  that  of  the 
preceding  principally  in  a  kerchief  or  veil  covering  the 
head-dress,  and  assuming  a  square  form. 


GenlleiiPiiii  of  ISih  ciiiiury. 


I.iil)ui:rur  of  ISih  century. 


In  the  short  reign  of  Henry  V.,  there  were  few 
diaiiges  in  the  civil  costume :  cbiaks  of  scarlet  cloth  or 
aimlet,  and  [(ii'ces  of  fur,  are  novel  outer  gHnnents. 
Feathers  v>-ere  worn  ni  the  helmets,  and  the  bascinet  took 
tlie  shape  of  the  head  behind :  for  the  jiipon  or  surcoat 
was  stilHtitutcd  a  skirt  of  horizontal  steel  bands,  and 
large  sleeves  of  cloth  or  silk  were  worn  over  the  armour. 
Bid  the  two-liaiidtil  sword  now  first  appeared. 

The  eonfi-.ied  costume  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  baf- 
fles classil'K-ation,  more  especially  the  iHld-shuped  caps, 
hat.s,  and  bonnets,  in  which  a  single  feather  was  soine- 
tiiues  worn.  The  boots  or  galoclies,  reaching  half  way 
Up  the  thigh,  the  short  boots  or  bu.skins,  and  the  high- 
fronted  shoes,  had  very  long  toes,  which,  in  the  next 
reign,  reiiched  half  a  foot  The  state  roln-s  were  lined 
Mid  trimmed  with  furs  or  had  only  caps  or  collars  of 
ermine,  with  b.irs  according  to  the  rank  of  the  we.irer. 
The  iiiantl';  at  the  Order  of  the  Garter  about  this  pe- 
riod was  firtit  made  of  velvet,  and  lined  with  white 
damask  or  satin.  Silk  was  worn  over  arn'our,  and  the 
tii!ii(l(  or  siiHtl  head-piece,  projecting  behind,  wa.<  intro- 
duced ;  and  the  armour  was  richly  ornamented,  (jowns, 
with  long  and  heavy  trains,  continued  to  lie  worn  by 
ladies,  whose  inor-t  fiiiilastic  change  was  the  heart-shiiped 
uead-dress  of  great  size  ;*  turbans  of  tiie  Turkish  form 
jrere  also  wort. 

Edward  IV,  on  his  seal,  wears  a  tunic,  dalmatica,  and 
manlltdeep  ermine  cape,  and  high-.trc!ied  or  imperial 
crown.  The  civil  costume  was  very  al'surd  ;  and  j.ickel.s 
•lid  dvHibleti  were  worn  so  bliort  as  to  call  (orth  a  law  in 
'  1.63  ordering  tiuni  to  be  lengthened  behind  ;  the  slc^evl's 


•  fi  IS  ri-!iit.c1  tli'i-  T«h'.*IlB  of  Ilsviirin.  qii.'»n  of  Omrl.'S  VI. 
ot  Franc**,  nirr  ed  lii  ■*  iMnliinii  io»in'!i  miext.-nl  as  to  liuvi-  ili"' 
■luor\vii>  1  III  111!.'  (i.ilnrc  of  Viiu'i'»hi-s  aliiMcil  iii  luliii.i  lail  in 
wh'Si  ii  fai:  .Iri--.  luit  wu  ilimli.  wiili  >l.  ri.inrije.  ilnu  ilie 
aJiovf  nil.-. ','.11  •  ,:  niiilH'tiiic,  relates  to  llie  slci-ple  lieud-Jrcnii, 
le  t>e  m<;iiiiunuil  (Hi'.sviiiiy. 


were  slit,  so  as  to  show  the  fine  white  linen  shirt  a.\ 
the  shoulders  were  padded  ;  the  nien  wore  their  hairve 
long,  and  their  bjiinels  either  very  high  or  cccri 
simply  the  crown ;  the  hose  were  tight,  and  mo  bj,? 
and  shoes  of  all  patterns  and  lengths,  (ioid  cliajiu 
were  generally  worn ;  and  even  hoys  strutted  in  vclvei 
silk,  and  satin.  All  this  extravagance  was  atlcniiiioj  t 
bo  checked  by  law,  but  with  little  etfeet    In  ar 


iiiour,  tla 


principal  noveiiy  wu«  tlto 
hallicrt.  In  the  liiiialecos. 
tume,  trains  of  yownswcre 
partially  diseoiiiiimpj  ^^^ 
broad  fur  or  veWri  \nnkn, 
and  the  silk  girdlr^  wi-lcnf,!, 
and  were  more  rirhly  o,„j 
nienled.  'I"hc  binMiccJarfj 
in  front  over  a  Mcr.iachn 
now  first  nppiaiixl.  Qui 
the  greatt.^l  ecti'inricity  was 
the  lofty  sli'q,lc  licnd-Jreis, 
shown  in  the  amiexcd  poN 

trait  ;thisconsi.st",!,)farollo| 
linen  covered  witii  line  |j„'^ 
which  hung  to  the  grounj, 
or  was  mostly  Im  l-ed  miJe, 

.    .  -       the  arm.*     (-un.-i,  with  htin 

Lady  of  ISih  criiuiry.  ,„:„„,   „,    i  ,      ,  - 

'  wings  or   lappiis  on  each 

side,  were  also  much  worn  at  this  period. 

Richard  III.  according  to  his  wurdrober's  liiir.ka,\visa 
riifht  royal  fop,  for  wo  find  him  wearing  a  bli;.'  ilotli.o(. 
gold  doublet  and  stomacher,  "  wrought  with  uoits  and 
pyne-npples,"  and  crimson  .r.d  iiur[)le-velvet  rn!is, cr^ 
broidered  and  furred,  and  cn.',v.,on  satin  hose,  and  tissim 
cloth-of.golil  shoes,  at  Iifs  coronatinn.  The  nobles  in  'liii 
reign  had  their  hose  tied  by  iioints  to  the  dcniliet.  which 
was  .sometime,.!  worn  ojien,  but  laced  like  a  boiliiicc;  and 
over  it  was  w.irn  a  long  or  sliorl  gown,  the  fornierhacj. 
ing  loose,  and  the  latter  plaited  before  and  hiiiind,  anj 
gird'  ll  about  the  waist ;  and  both  gown  and  doufclel 
weie  sla.slied.  The  general  head-dress  was  a  ejostlv 
fitting  cap  or  hniirl  (bonnet),  with  a  single  leather  in  ii; 
and  scarlet  hats  and  hoods  wore  worn.  'I'he  boots  had  veri 
long-pointed  toes,  and  reached  to  the  nii.ldh' of  the  thii 

In  this  reign  pinte-armour  reached  its  lii.;liest  |,iti,o 
tion;  it  was  elaborately  ornamented  and  inlaid  wil!i ;  ;'; 
and.  with  the  arms,  it  bore  religious  and  other  moi 
and  the  ktiee  and  elbow  pit  -^es  were  fiui-sliuped,  aiuK* 
riously  wrought.  Hiehnrd  wore  his  crown  of  ornannij 
in  the  field  of  Uosworth,  as  Henry  V.  had  done  al.\r,> 
court.  The  mode  of  putting  on  a  suit  of  armour  niav;? 
here  descriU-d:  the  kiiiaht  coninienced  with  hisfcfl.arj 
proceeded  thus: — "  1,  His  sabatyns,  or  steel  shoes;  2,  ihe 
greaves,  or  8hin-])ieces;  H,  the  ( nisses,  or  tlii«h-]iicro; 
4,  the  breech  of  mail;  !>,  the  tuiletles,  or  overlaiiiij} 
liieces  under  the  waist ;  fi.  the  cuirass,  oi  breastfiatfi 
7,  the  covers  for  the  arms,  or  vainliraces;  8,  the  reriliraci'Si 
or  covering  for  the  remninihg  part  of  the  urin  or  ^houllie^ 
9,  the  gauntlets;  10,  then  thedaggerwas  |iut  on;  ll.ili 
short  sword;  12,  the  oloak,  which  was  worn  over  lb 
armour;  1.1,  the  bar<inet;  14,  the  long  sword;  l.'i.ibs 
jierinonliel,  held  in  the  left  hand;  IB,  the  shicld.''|  Tt» 
knight  was  then  armed  tnjti'i-jiie. 

In  the   female  eostnme,  the  iliief  novelty  is  ahrjil 
dress  of  embroiilen  d  stuff  or  gold  iiel,  projictinii  frci 
the  back  of  the  head,  and   a  stillened  kerchid'  over  \\  \ 
spreading  out  like  wiims. 

Hitherto,  the  authorities  for  eo.stuine  have  ln-cn  i:;»  I 
minatcd  manu.seripts,  tapestry,  and  monumentiil  ctf:jrr^  I 


•Til  «  i'Xirnor,l;nary  In  uifilrr»»  ri'«cnil'l,'<  t'n'  cinterami  | 
at  th"  pri  ,*«*rit  ititu  in  Syr. a  M  I  'loii-ie  i  iiiisi,1i'i«  in; 
pi-a-inntry  oi'  Nornnnily  ■' io  tins  day  wi-nr  tin- I'IciilJt  iil  r'rfi  I 
cB|';  ■vviiii  the  lr,i:iirll\  wiiik'J.  iloii.  -ii'li  yui."  a^'o.  am  •!,■.!  ,,u  | 
III-:  h.Mid'o!'  ih.'  ;:eii:lr  diiim;*  of  I.oiiiloii  and  rciri*.''  -Hi*1 1 
ll/  7>'rr(n/i  Ciiituiiir.  p   'JOT 

f  Sir  !<aiiiucl  .Meyrick. 


BRITISH  Costumes. 


74T 


n  which  there  in  often  perploxin)?  indlstinrtncsa.  At 
Uiiii  iiorind  painting  comes  to  our  nid  ;  nnd  tlin  portraitn 
L  [{nllii'in  arn  the  hrst  illustrations  of  the  costume  of 
tiic  two  pnrceodin?  rcip;ns,  the  minute  exccutinn  of  this 
_fjt  iii'iiiter  being  well  shown  in  the  emhroidcrcd 
jfcssps  of  his  lime.     Of  Henry  VII.,  however,  we  find 

portrait  of  earlier  date  than  HoU'oin's  time,  from  o 
knulifiil  puintins  on  vellum,  in  which  the  kinp  wrnrs  a 
^fhlvriiilToidered  doublet,  with  a  jewelled  border,  low 
ill  the  neck,  benenth  a  InrRC  m-intle  with  a  fur  cape ;  the 
lolil  neck-fhain  is  massivo  ;  the  hair  is  in  long  ringlets, 
^fi^oiinird  by  a  close  cap,  with  win^-like  projections  at 
tlio  fiilcs.*  The  mule  costume  of  the  wealthier  classes  in 
thisrcii;"  consiBteii  of  a  line  shirt  of  long  lawn,  embroidered 
ifith  silk  round  the  collar  and  wristbands ;  anil  such  a  shirt, 
that  bclcin!»cd  to  the  eldest  born  son  of  Henry  VII.,  is 
In  ibe  possession  of  M.  Gage,  F.  S.  A.  The  sleeves  of 
till'  (loiiiiii  I  were  slashed  at  the  elbow,  as  in  the  reign  of 
EiKviird  IV. ;  or  they  were  in  two  or  more  pieces,  fas- 
1,'i.cil  I't  'he  shoulders  and  elbows  with  laces  tjt  points, 
iJirimgh  which  the  shirt  protruded.  The  doublet  was 
lareil  over  a  stomacher  and  petticoat,  the  male  costume 
thus  resembling  that  of  the  females  in  name  as  well  as 
fnim.  ''"he  outer  garment  was  a  long  coat  or  gown, 
will]  liwe  liaiiging  sleeves,  and  a  broad  turn-over  collar 
of  velvet  iir  fur.  'I'lie  long  hose  were  diOerently  coloured 
in  the  upper  and  lower  portions,  and  in  tlie  fo.mer 
fhuM  or  puffed ;  the  shoes  were  absurdly  long  and 
tiroail-tned,  and  high  hoots  were  worn  lor  riding.  In  the 
hciil  coverings  there  was  great  variety.  The  hoods  were 
ali.iniloiicil  to  official  habits,  and  instciul  were  worn  broad 
ffit  ha!?  or  caps,  iind  bonnets  of  velvet  ir  fur  profusely 
(kkeil  with  ostrich  feathers ;  or  the  larjjc  plumed  cap 
wi«  shin?  at  the  hack,  and  a  smaller  rap  of  velvet  or 
goli!  net  worn  on  the  head  The  knave  of  our  [ilaying 
cmU  Ims  a  cap  prculiiir  to  this  period  :  the  hair  was 
worn  as  lonir  as  in  the  reipin  of  Henry  T. 

.\t  the  latter  part  of  this  century  military  costume  Jiad 
iwched  the  highest  degree  of  splendour  of  which  it  was 
(Ti  aHe ;  and  the  di.suse  of  the  surcoat,  and  the  transfer 
of  its  armorial  emblazonry,  in  relief  or  ensraviiig,  to  the 
ppljshi'il  steel,  had  intnxluced  great  variety  of  decoration. 
f.vrrv  visiter  to  the  Tower  of  London  must  remember 
ll,o  famous  <mt  of  armour  which  un.]Uestionably  lielonged 
lo  Henry  Vlf. ;  and  nothing  can  exceed  its  superb  Ix'uii- 
ly,  covered  as  it  is  with  engraving,  and  aeet'inpanied  by 
» complete  harness  of  steel  for  the  charger  on  which  it 
If  Hinted.  The  puckered  skirls  appear  no  longer  in 
d  lor  velvet  but  in  .■?teel ;  /)« ii/i/nms  of  the  same  ma- 
terial protect  the  shoulders  ;  the  whole  frame  is  impervi- 
ous to  the  lance  point ;  and  the  plumed  helmet  com- 
pletes the  pan,)ply  :  besides  the  long  sword,  the  thin- 
blailfd  danger  of  the  lime  hangs  sheathed  at  the  girdle, 
on  the  right  side.  The  disuse  of  the  sureoat  in  this 
tti^n  was  doubtless  lo  show  the  splendid  armour,  which 
was  not  only  ribbed  and  engraved,  but  Ihited.  The  hal- 
benl  liecame  the  conwnon  wenpoiK  a'-'d  the  hand-gun 
or  cannon,  by  the  addition  of  a  rude  lock  with  a  cock, 
borrowed  from  the  cross-liow,  became  the  arc-a-lxiurhe  or 

In  these  distracted  times  party-eolours  were  worn. 
Thus,  ihe  family  colours  of  the  House  of  Lancaster 
were  white  and  red;  those  of  Voik,  pur]ile  nnd  blue; 
mil  ihose  of  Tudor,  white  nnd  green.  Buttons  nlsobore 
portizan  fiLi-uies;  nnd  in  ISIlH.thi're  were  found,  in  exca- 
vating fir  the  New  HiiMgerford  Market,  in  London,  two 
linked  cioiik-liulloiis  of  silver,  one  be;iriiig  ii  bust  with 
adiuleni,  and  a  bandeau  of  rosc.i.  tiie  robe  fastened  with 
a  riwe  liiooeh  or  jewel,  and  on  each  side  of  the  bust  a 
tone  s]irin.;ing  up  ;  win  nee  these  bultmis  are  presumed 
to  have  been  made  and  worn  in  hiuuiur  of  Kli/abeth  of 


'I'.imravi^l  from  "tlie  Siiilierlninl  (."liireniliii."  iis  ilio  I'roiuii 
jece  10  .M.  I'liuicliii's  "llislory  of  H'llnh  Omtuinc." 


York,  whoae  union  wiu.  'jury  VII.  terminated  th* 
M'ars  of  the  Roaes. 

The  female  costume  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  is  dlt> 
tinguished  by  the  square  cut  of  the  boddice  in  the  neck, 
nnd  embroidered  and  jewelled  stomachers,  btdts,  and  gif 
dies  hanging  in  front  nearly  to  the  feet;  the  sleeves  were 
large  and  full,  and  when  confined  at  the  wrist,  resembled 
"  the  bishops'  sleeves"  imitated  in  England,  from  the 
French,  a  few  years  since.  These  sleeves  were  slashed, 
divided,  and  joined  like  those  of  the  men.  The  head- 
dresses were  close  caps  and  cnuls,  from  beneath  which 
the  hair  hung  down  to  the  waist ;  and  several  kinds  of 
ca])Uchona  were  worn.  In  the  dress  of  the  humbler 
classes  wo  find  mentioned  a  »  furred  flocket  and  gray 
rus.set  rocket,"  "  kirtic  bristow  red,"  "blanket  hose," 
"  Lincoln  green,"  &c. 

At  the  close  of  this  century  the  mourning  habits  had 
become  so  sumptuous  as  to  bo  limited  by  law ;  the  priti* 
ciple  article  h<."ing  a  barb  or  veil,  used  at  funerals,  which 
was  tied  on  above  the  chin  by  dnj-'hesses  and  countesses, 
and  lower  by  all  other  ranks. 

Throughout  the  above  period  the  principal  material  of 
the  clothing  of  the  middle  classes  must  have  been  abund- 
ant; for  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  our  woollen  manu- 
facture almost  rivalled  that  of  the  Flemings,  and  our 
exports  to  the  continent  were  very  large ;  there  appears 
however,  to  have  been  little  or  no  linen  made  at  thij 
period  in  England. 

SIXTEENTH   CENTURY. 

Few  changes  of  costui  .e  occur  in  this  century  until 
after  the-  accession  of  Henry  VIII.,  when  the  petticoat 
was  laid  aside;  and  as  fashion  delights  in  extremes,  there 
was  substituted  the  tight  hose,  or  trouars,  closely  resetn- 
bling  the  IVorman  chaussces.  The  costume  of  Henry 
and  of  the  noblemen  and  gentlemen  of  his  lime,  appears 
to  have  been  a  jacket  or  doublet,  with  full  skirts,  and 
sleeves  to  the  wrist,  with  ruli's  or  ruffles,  and  over  it  a 
short  but  full  coat  or  cloak,  with  large  hanginc  sleeves, 
and  n  wide  fur  collar;  stockings  and  hroad-toed  shoes; 
and  a  liirge-brimmed  cap  edged  wilh  ostrich  fcathei. 
Hi  nry's  wardrobe  comprised  coals  of  every  length,  and 
among  them  occurs  the  raworA-,  of  German  origin,  short 
in  the  waist,  and  reaching  to  the  knee,  having  sleeves  to 
the  elbow,  and  thence  showing  the  shirt:  this  garment 
was  ornamented  wilh  strips  or  borders  of  cloth,  silk  or 
vi'lvet,  of  diflerent  colours,  or  of  gold  lace  or  embroidery, 
and  gold  buttons.  Hall,  the  chronicler,  describes  several 
of  Henry's  sujicrb  dresses,  and  among  them  a  frocke,  or 
coat  of  velvet,  embroidered  all  over  with  gold  of  damask, 
the  sleeves  and  breest  cut  and  lined  with  cloth  of  gold, 
and  tied  together  "  with  great  buttons  of  diamonds, 
rubies,  and  orient  pearls."  The  cloaks  and  mantles  were 
of  corresponiling  magnificence.  The  shirts  were  pinche<l 
or  plaited,  and  embroidered  with  gold,  silver,  or  silk. 
The  term  /iosf  continued  to  be  applied  to  the  entire  vest- 
ment, from  the  w^  ist  to  the  feel,  throughout  this  cen- 
tury :  the  material  i'  more  distinctly  staled,  for  Henry 
wore  knit  silk,  as  well  i,"  cloth  hose  ;  the  precise  jieriod 
of  the  ».r|iaration  of  the  hose  into  breeches  and  slockinga 

1  is  not  so  dear  as  the  derivation  of  the  Intier  term  from  the 
"ttlw'.i/iin:  of  hose,"  ■'that  is,  adiiini;  the  hiwer  jmrt  that 
covered  the  legs  and  feet  lo  thai  wliicli  ivns  fasti-ned  by 
points  to  the  doublet."'  and  was  culled  ihc  s/o  /,•«.  The 
shoes  and  buskins  were  of  the  (lerinnti  fashion,  very 
broad  at  the  toes,  and  of  velvet  and  sulin.  slashed  and 
pnlli  d.  The  bats,  caps,  and  bonnets,  were  of  almost  eniV 
less  forms.  We  liiul  in  Henry's  wardrobe  accounts  hats 
of  green  velvet,  and  ea]i>  of  oranje.  yellow,  and  creen;  his 
favourite  bonnet,  and,  imleed.  that  of  the  time,  is  seen  in 

I  the  portraits  of  Henry,  liy  Holbein.     The  Milan  caps  and 

I  *  riaiiclic's  History  of  Britifli  Cosiiime,  p.  35(1. 


ll 


m  1-  ^ 


li*^ 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE      VOPLE. 


ftonneta,  Ji  rinth  or  volvot,  were  worn  placed  on  the  siilo 
of  the  hpud,  prot'iiwly  ornumeiitril  with  fonthi'm.  Tho 
bonnot  with  nii  ctiilmtth'tl  honlcr  wbm  uIho  worn  ;  hut  tlio 
chaperon  ni  hood  wiir  ahnnst  ronfuu'il  tu  ofl'u'inl  pcrson- 
BRcs.  'J'he  rurihniirg  hat  may  Iw  ninitionod  hi-rts :  it 
was  of  a  ffil  colour,  low,  circular-crowned,  ami  had  a 
much  hroodiT  lirlin  thanux  roproHcntcd  in  Bculpturo. 

Henry  paHHi-d  guuiptuary  lawn,  dircrlinj?  that  cloth  of 
pild  and  tissue  ohoiild  he  ukoiI  only  for  duken  and  niar- 
quissen,  and  that  pur])lc  should  ho  kept  for  tho  royal 
family.  Karln  might  use  cmhroidery,  and  commoners 
of  distinrtion  nilks  and  velvets;  and  it  was  even  thought 
necessary  to  restrict  tho  commonalty  and  st-rviiiff-men  to 
cloth  of  a  certain  price,  and  lumli's  fur,  and  to  forbid 
tliem  wearing  any  ornaments,  or  even  huttonS)  save  the 
hadgc  of  thci'-  lord  or  muster.  'I'he  king  likewise  forbade 
his  courtiers  wearing  lonu;  hair,  according:  to  the  general 
fashion,  and  miido  them  poll  their  heads,  which  led  to  the 
intro<lurtion  of  the  peruke.  This  change  rendered  short 
hair  fashionalile  ;  and  as  the  king  grew  corpulent,  tho 
doublet  and  breeches  were  puffed  out  and  wadded  by  his 
courtiers  and  attendants,  to  make  them  as  bulk'  as  him- 
self. 

One  of  the  principal  events  of  this  reign,  illustrative 
of  costume,  was  the  famous  Tournament  of  the  Field  of 
Cloth  of  Gold,  at  which  Henry  VIII.  and  Francis  I.,  and 
their  similes,  vied  more  in  splendour  of  attire  than  in 
P''jWcss  (if  arms;  and  the  splendour  of  their  dresses  has 
almost  oxbiiusled  the  descriptive  powers  of  Hall,  who  has 
minutely  elirnnicled  this  "  most  magiiifirent  «lH'ctaclc 
that  Euro|M'  ever  beheld."  Its  mighty  artificer  was 
Wolsey,  who  was  most  gorgeously  habited,  his  very 
shoes  cb  iiiiiing  with  diamonds,  and  the  crimson  velvet 
(wddle-i-l»lb  ot  his  horse  glittering  with  burnished  gold. 
The  brilliancy  of  the  armour,  and  tlie  elaborate  beauty 
of  the  costume  of  ilir  (|ueens  and  courtly  dames,  well 
became  this  suiiM't  of  chivalry,  at  wlm-h  even  citizens 
and  city  wives  disported  thi  ir  richest  silks  and  their 
heaviest  chains. 

With  the  temale  costume  of  this  reign  we  are  fami- 
liarized by  the  portraits  of  Henry's  qui'e.is,  who  appear 
t*i  have  been  Kuin|)tously  attired  in  cloth  of  gold,  bro- 
cade, velvet,  «n<l  other  costly  materials  ;  and  they  wore 
diamonds,  gold  neek-chains,  and  girdles,  and  jewelled  or- 
na  iieiits  in  prolusion.  The  gowns  of  the  nobility  were 
open  in  front  to  the  waist,  so  as  to  show  the  |H>ttieoat; 
and  al)ove  was  worn  a  waistcoat  simdar  to  that  of  the 
men.  8U|ieilily  embroideied.  Another  novelty  was  the 
partlet,  c.ivenug  the  neck  and  throat  like  n  liahil  shirt. 
It  wab  maile  o(  lawn,  embroidered  with  gold.  'I'he 
ladies'  sleeves,  like  those  of  the  ii\en's  dresses,  were  distinct 
from  the  gown  or  waistenat,  to  which  they  were  tagged. 
I'hey  were  mostly  of  satin,  quilted  and  variegated  with 
gold,  and  hail  buttons  of  pearls  and  gold  at  the  wrist. 
This  fashion  must  have  added  greatly  to  the  variety  of 
the  costume,  tor  8»"veral  pairs  of  sleeves  might  1h'  worn 
in  turn  with  the  same  Uxly-dress.  The  masques  in  this 
reign  wer<!  very  splendid ;  and  in  the  report  of  the 
dresses  worn  at  one  of  them,  are  mentioned  "demy 
slC'Ves,  niiKeil  down  from  the  elbows,"  which  M.  Planch6 
considers  to  hive  Ix'en  "  the  first  ap|K'arance  of  bare  arms 
since  tho  time  of  the  ancient  Uritons."  tJb/ves  were  not 
inknown,  tor  Henry  left  a  pair  to  one  of  the  executors 
.lir  his  will.  Tbey  were  sometimes  finely  [sTfumed,  end 
'uouirlil  fti)m  .Sjiain  and  Italy  its  presents.  In  this  and 
the  [iiiMiding  reiyn  the  head-dresses  assumed  a  dillerent 
diaracler,  having  long  lapjiets  or  ear-pieces  hanging 
down  tx'low  the  shoulders,  and  "^lier  made  of  velvet 
studded  with  pearls,  jewels,  and  gold,  they  were  truly 
suisrli.  'riirci-eornrred  caps  of  minever  were  also  worn 
thriiOL'tiout  the  reign  ;  and  the  close-lilting  cap  re.ichirig 
to  the  ears,  and  known  as  >•  Mary  tjueen  of  Scots' 
cop,"  was  first  worn  aliout  this  period.  The  ladies' 
huuting-dress  dilF.-reU  hut  little  from  tho  riding-buhit  of 


Man  oad  Woman  of  Iflth 
century. 


tho  present  day ;  across  it  wbj  -'sually  ilung,  /rnm  tk. 
right  shoulder  to  tho  left  'ku ,  .  horn  resciiiblin>  ■ 
hugle. 

In  this  reign  />ia»  were  firsi  brought  from  Frnnro,  aiul 
used  by  Catherino  Howard,  before  which  time  tlic  il'iiff. 
cnt  parts  of  tho  dress  were  kept  together  by  rilihor» 
and  loopholes,  laces  with  points  and  tags,  elasps,  hook* 
ond-eyes,  and  skewers  of  brass,  silver,  and  gulil  •  J|„. 
the  poorer  classes  used  tlio  natural  thorn  for  tlio  abovs 
purpose. 

The  dress  of  tho  middJo  rank*  in  this  reign  mnv  ho 
scon  in  prints  of  tho  time  :  plain  russet  coats,  and  whih 
kersey  sloppes,  or  In '('clipii, 
with  stockings  of  tlic  same 
pieces,  were  the  ordinarj 
suit ;  and  the  liomhm  a|>. 
prentices  wore  liluc  doali 
in  summer,  and  gowns  of 
the  same  colour  in  winto, 
as  badges  of  Ber\  itude  ;  i,, 
this  appears  te  have  licen 
the  age  of  doiiieslic  distino 
tions — the  relics  of  ihc  fou. 
dalisin  of  the  miildlu  aijei 
The  women  wore  »li(cp,m» 
set,  or  long  w'miU.n  gowiu, 
worsted  kirlles  (licrcaflei 
calleil  prlticuiiln),  ami  whilj 
caps  and  apron.< ;  iinil  milk. 
white  underlinen  camo  ina 
general  -.Vt  ar.  The  cnzrafc 
ing  sb  .ws  a  man  and  wo 
man  in  tho  ordinary  dress  of  ties  iJiriod. 

The  principal  novelty  of  the  reigns  of  F.dwnrd  VI,  nnd 
Mary  was  the  Hat  round  bonnet  or  cap,  of  plain  vilvtUij 
cloth,  worn  on  one  side  of  the  head,  and  decoratid  with 
a  jewel  and  single  ostrich  feather.  The  boiirirt  it-clf 
is  preserved  in  Ihc  caps  worn  at  the  present  day  liv  lb 
boys  of  Christ's  Hospital  ;  and  their  blue  coat  and  vet 
low  stockings  arc  such  as  were  worn  by  the  I.iiiKlona|> 
prentices  at  the  dale  of  the  fouadation  of  ibe  lio.«])iial 
by  the  youthful  Edward.  Th;'  gown  of  the  woalthiot 
classes  was  furred  with  sables  in  front  and  nnind  \^ 
broad  sleeves.  I'hilip,  on  his  marriage  with  Marr, 
brought  into  England  a  richer  style  of  dress  for  Ihc  tiicn, 
particularly  the  close  ruff;  the  doublet,  wbiih  llltei) 
exaelly  under  the  chin,  and  the  short  Spanish  cloak—:'.! 
of  which  remained  lor  a  considerable  time  in  fashion 
The  pre[iostcrously  large  stocks,  or  trunk  hose,  roiilimifd 
to  he  worn,  but  the  broad-toed  shoes  were  iliM-arJci 
'i'he  armour  continued  nearly  the  same  as  in  llu'  pro 
ceding  reign.  To  female  costume  the  chief  luWilinnnii 
they'i»(/iiig(i/i',  an  immense  hoojied  petticoat,  iiitroduffil 
from  Spain  o,ider  Queen  Mary.  The  ontitc  dr,  js  «m 
worn  very  close,  so  as  to  conceal  the  person  as  much  a 
jiossible. 

t^ueen  Eli/abeth'a  fondness  for  dress  is  [iroverliial,  and 
she  is  stated  to  have  left  three  thous.jid  difli  rent  hafciu 
in  her  wardrolie.  This  great  number  is  exidiiinod  by 
the  royal  alTectalion  of  wearing  by  turns  the  cosMmeof 
all  the  nations  of  Euro|>e,  which  may  be  traced  to  ihe 
u.se  of  foreign  inatcrials  made  up  by  foreigner^,  Uohcn 
in  his  character  of  ElizaU'th,  tells  us  that  ■'wlicn  she 
appeared  in  (aiblie  she  was  richly  adorned  willi  llio  misl 
valuable  clothes,  set  ofl'aj^iin  with  much  gold  and  jtufi, 
of  inestimable  value ;  and  on  such  occasions  she  cwa 
wore  high  slims,  that  she  might  seem  taller  Iban  imiffc 
she  was.  The  first  day  of  tho  I'arliaiiii'iit  she  wi'ilu 
appear  in  a  robe  eiiib'-;idered  wilh  pearls."  Heiiiiti 
gives  a  lesi'  flallering  portrait  of  the  ipiicn,  in  lirr  t.'lh 
year:  "  Her  fni-e  oblonu',  lair,  but  wrinkled.  She  liailit 
her  ears  two  pearls,  with  ilrips  ;  she  wore  false  liair,  mid 
that  red,  and  upon  her  head  she  had  n  small  rrofia 
She  was  dressed  in  white  silk,  borlered  with  p^afU  d 


the  nil*  "f  besns,  am 
^31  wilh  silver  threai 
gfgil  of  n  chain  she 

)»weM." 

Uut  tho  glory  of  thi 
lume,  a"  well  as  its  n 
^0  niitcentli  century 
amtiric,  which  took  tl 
fiom  the  front  of  tho  i 
10  its  full  height:  fro 
lloinachcr,  on  each  sid 
(iirdiiigidc.  In  this 
went  to  .'^t.  Paul's  Ci 
dofo^it  of  ('no  Spanis! 
nwifnififcnt  rulf,  the  q 
winz-likc  collar,  her  h 
pendant  jewels  on  Ihn 
(rf  pearls  over  tho  cntin 

But  'lie  riilT  must  b 
its  material  been  chano 
brie,  than  a  dilliculty  t 
it,  instend  if  the  cluin.T 
rtickii  of  ivory,  wood,  r 
of  starching  was  hroui 
LojidtHi  for  a  fee  of  fo 
next  lay  in  the  colour  < 
five  varieties.  Stubbs 
rf  nifls,  some  of  which 
otsilk  lace,"  and  "spe 
thfl  moon,  and  the  stai 
ears,  or  hanging  over  ! 
(tiili  The  san'O  wri 
wivol,  ifi«ir''"i",  ta.."' 
changing  with  the  mo 
jraunil,  or  "cast  ovier  f 
Aort  sleci'es  tlpd  with  ' 
Stockings,  which  wo 
In  Ihc  wardrobe,  accou 
VI.,  bfcaine  common  o 
of  EJizaliclh.  In  the  tl 
itookings  made  in  EncI 
wnowas  so  pleased  wit 
iftiT  wear  cloth  hose. 
buU'il  to  Fili/.abetli's  desi 
mre<  by  her  own  exai 
(fl-oifto  her  extreme  i\ 
fulliors  of  dress.  Sooi 
inc  borrowed  a  pair  o 
friini  Mintua,  made  a  f 
to  the  Earl  of  Peinhrok 
docking.'^  known  to  hi 
Ijuwn  of  Scots,  at  her 
irorstcd,  clocked  and  to 
anolhor  pair  of  white 
?en?'ally  consisted  of  : 
y.irn,  thread,  or  cloth, 
ojicn  seams.  &c.  The 
by  Lee,  at  Calverton, 
hive  brought  stockings 
is  Slid  to  have  worked 
Aivi'ii  by  the  jealousy 
rer;  into  France,  when 
end  by  no  means  unci 
The  carters  of  this  pe 
a"  eo!>l  and  silver,  and 
luincd  to  have  been  w 
IMward  II.,  but  tbey  ii 
Ul  hindagci'  of  an  i 
"cooKcii  shoes,  prisni' 
raised  them  two  iiielic! 
were  made  of  black,  ' 
Spanish  and  English 
liivc!  or  silk,  and  sha 
like  the  .\nglo-Saxon 


BRITISH  COSTUMES. 


lh(  mw  "f  I**"'.  ■n<l  ovf  it  a  muntlo  of  black  ailk, 
Ajl  willi  silver  thronds.  Her  train  was  very  lotiif.  In 
^j,I  of  n  cliiiin  iiho  had  an  oMong  collar  of  gold  and 

Out  ill"  dloryoftho  Rlizahethnn  en  of  foina*!  cos- 
lump.  "■'*  *'""  ""  ''"  '"""'  ri'"iarkal)lo  cliaractprisli  i  in 
lliB  (iixt('iM\tli  rontiiry,  was  tlio  ruff  of  pi  litod  linen  u. 
cambrii!,  wliidi  took  thn  pliico  of  the  piirtlet,  and  rosti 
from  the  front  of  thn  shoulders  h<!hind  the  head  nearly 
10  its  full  heii;ht:  from  the  bci«om  deseouded  a  huijo 
(oinnrher,  on  eaeh  side  of  which  projected  the  iiumcuso 
flirdinu'iile.  In  this  characteristic  coHtume  Bli/.aliotli 
went  to  St.  Paul's  CatheilrnI  to  return  thanks  for  the 
dofiMt  of  'Vie  Spa-iish  Armada  j  though,  1  :?sides  the 
i^flUnifii'oiit  rulf,  the  quetn  wore  a  nun;  .  'ha  large 
wini-like  collar,  her  hair  intertwined  with  i  i  .iris,  largo 
pomlaiit  jewels  on  the  neck,  and  a  superb  '  u'.  o-work 
rf pearls  over  the  entire  dress 

Rut  'he  '■'•I'  >'""''  be  further  noticed :  no  sooner  had 
1(3  in;ilrri;d  been  changed  from  Holland  to  lawn  or  cam- 
bric, than  a  dill'ieulty  arose  a^  to  starching  or  stitfening 
it,  instead  if  the  eluin.ty  mixle  of  supporting  it  by  poking- 
ftiok»  of  ivory,  wood,  or  gilt  metal.  At  length  the  art 
of  flarching  was  brought  from  Flanders,  and  taught  in 
Loiul'iii  for  a  fee  of  four  or  fi  ve  pounds.  The  fashion 
llfjt  lav  in  the  colour  of  the  starch,  of  which  there  were 
five  varieties.  Slublis  as4aile(l  these  "spiders'  webbs  " 
rfrulls.  f'i'ini'  of  which  were  "clogged  with  gold,  silver, 
or  silk  lace,"  and  "speckled  and  sparkled  with  the  sun, 
(hfl  monii,  and  the  stars,"  i  1  either  pinned  up  to  the 
ears,  or  hanging  over  'e  shouliler.'?  like  flags  or  wmdmill 
Riijj.  Tlic  saive  w  r  describis  the  gowns  of  silk, 
rolvrt,  c'l'"'"'"'  '"•  ■•  "f  fi'"  cloth;  of  "fashions 
dwnijing  with  the  moon,"  with  sleeves  trailing  on  the 
groiiml,  or  "cast  o»er  the  shoulder  like  cows'  tails,"  or 
iorl  sleeces  tied  witb  "  love  knots"  of  ribbon. 

Slotki'igs,  which  wl-  find  mentioned  as  foreign  rarities 
In  the  wardrobe  accounts  of  Henry  VIII.  and  Edward 
VL  lieraiiie  common  of  home  manufacture  in  the  reign 
ofEJi/ahcih.  In  the  third  year,  a  pair  of  black  knit  silk 
itocking'*  made  in  Kimlunil  was  presented  to  her  majesty, 
wnowas  so  pleased  witb  the  article  that  she  v.'ould  never 
iftor  wear  cloth  hose.  This  resolution  has  been  attri- 
bolod  to  Fili/.abctli's  desire  to  encourage  English  inanufac- 
turos  bv  her  own  example,  and  may  be  taken  as  some 
jfl-olTto  her  extreme  fondness  for  foreign  materials  and 
fisliioi's  of  dress.  .Soon  afier  this,  a  city  apprentice  liav- 
ini;  bdrrowed  a  pair  of  knJt  \Dorsted  stckiniis  brought 
fa  Muitua,  made  a  pair  like  them,  which  he  presented 
In  the  Earl  of  Pembroke;  ami  these  are  the  first  worsted 
tlockin?s  known  to  have  been  knit  in  England.  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots,  at  her  execution,  wore  stockings  of  blue 
worsted,  clocked  and  topped  with  silver,  and  under  tbem 
•notlicr  pair  of  white;  and  the  stockings  of  this  time 
geneally  consisted  of  silk,  jarnsey,  worsted,  crewel,  fine 
yarn,  thread,  or  cloth,  of  all  col.iurs,  and  with  clocks, 
o]ieri  seams,  <fec.  The  invention  of  t!,  ■  stocking-frame, 
by  Lee,  at  Calverton,  near  Nottingham,  in  l.'i99,  nnist 
hwe brought  stockings  into  general  use:  he  or  bis  brotlior 
if  Slid  to  have  worked  for  Queen  Elizabeth;  but  he  was 
divi'ii  by  the  jealousy  of  the  other  stocking  manufactu- 
rer, into  France,  where  be  died  of  a  broken  heart — an 
end  liy  no  means  uncommon  in  the  lives  of  inventors. 
IV  carters  of  this  period  were  very  costly,  sometimes 
a  ffo!  1  and  silver,  and  Li  oc  t\5  a  pair ;  they  are  jire- 
lumi'd  to  have  been  warn  by  ladies  since  the  time  of 
F.!w;ird  If.,  but  tbey  iini«t  not  be  confounded  w'tli  the 
\i:  hiiidagci'  of  aji  earlier  date.  The  ladies  vv(,re 
'cofKi'ii  shoes,  prisnets,  pantofiles,  or  slippers,"'  which 
raised  them  two  inches  or  more  from  the  ground  :  tliey 
were  made  of  black,  white,  green,  or  yellow  velvet,  or 
8|janish  and  English  leather,  embroidered  with  gold, 
lilvc;  or  silk,  and  shajied  at>er  the  right  and  left  foot, 
like  the  .'Vnglo-Saxon    samlal.     The  Elizabethan  head- 


drcssea  were  nch  hoodi,  hau,  caps,  kcrclili  (a,  eaUM 
of  net-wire,  ai  lattice  ra|is,  the  latter,  us  well  oa  an 
ermine  borniel  eing  forbidden  by  law  to  all  but  "gen- 
tlewomen born,  having  arms."  In  Elizalwlh's  jewel-liox 
is  a  long  list  of  wigs,  or  rather  hi'ad-dressis,  among 
which  are  cauls  of  hair  set  with  secd-pcarl  and  gold  but- 
tons. T'  •  hai'  was  curled,  frizzled,  and  crisju'd,  and 
under-pn.  )ped  with  i)ins  and  wires  into  the  most  fantastic 
forms.  The  finger-rings,  ear-rings,  bracelets,  ami  other 
jewelry,  were  very  splendid  :  velvet  masks  and  pocket 
looking-glasses  were  carried  by  fashionables,  with  fans 
of  ostrich  feathers  set  in  gold,  silver,  or  ivory  handles, 
the  latter  introduced  from  Italy,  and  used  by  both  sexes. 

The  male  cosiumo  in  ElizaUHh'g  reign  was  the  largo 
trunk  hose,  long-waistcd  ''ii-ldet,  short-cloak,  hat,  band 
and  feather,  shoes  with  roses,  and  the  largo  rulV:  bul 
the  great  breeches,  "stuflTed  with  hair  like  woolsacks," 
afler  the  separation  of  the  hoso  into  this  garment  and 
stockings,  a[)pear  to  have  been  worn  tliroughout  the 
reign :  they  were  made  of  silk,  velvet,  satin,  and  da- 
mask. The  doublets  were  still  more  costly,  and  quilted 
and  stuffed,  "sla.shed,  jagged,  pinched,  and  laced;"* 
and  over  these  were  worn  coats  and  jerkins  in  as  many 
varieli"s  ns  tlm'"  are  days  in  the  year.  The  cloaks  wero 
of  the  Spi„|,  I  French,  and  Dutch  cuts,  of  cloth,  silk 
velvet,  and  tulleta  of  all  colours,  trimmed  with  gold,iiilvcr 
and  silk-lace  and  glass  bugles,  inside  and  outside  equally 
supcrl  ,  The  sics-kings,  shoes,  slippers,  and  rutls,  resem- 
'Icd  ISO  of  the  ladies.  Nor  mu.>t  the  rapier,  or  tusk, 
bo  forgotten;  and  some  coxcombs,  having  introduced  thii 
long  swo  '  with  a  high  rulT,  approaching  the  royal 
standord,  '  .i  queen  became  jealous,  and  apiminted  offr 
ccrs  to  bre.ak  thone  rapiers  and  clip  those  rulTs  which 
were  beyond  n  certain  length  and  height.  Hats  first 
became  common  in  this  n  igii :  they  were  of  all  shapes, 
but  the  most  cui ions  was  the  steeple-crowned;  others 
were  flat  and  broad,  like  the  battlements  of  a  house  ;  and 
others  wilh  round  crowns,  and  bands  of  all  colours,  and 
ornamented  with  huge  feathers,  and  brooches,  clasps,  and 
jewels  of  great  value.  Those  hats  were  of  velvet,  talfota, 
or  sarsenet,  1  caver  hats  being  then  very  expensive,  and 
"  fetched  T,  ,,,  bc^yond  sea."  Caps  of  wool  were  worn 
not  by  choice  l)ut  compulsion,  by  a  law  ])assed  "  in  Ixs- 
half  cf  t'.ie  trade  of  cappers;"  and  this  led  to  feuda 
amend  the  wearers  of  black  and  blue  caps.  The  nume- 
rous fashions  o.'  wearing  tho  hair  were  assailed  by  Stubbs, 
who,  afler  say;ng  there  arc  no  finer  fellows  under  the 
sun  than  b-  ''ei>-,  speaks  of  tho  French,  >Spanis!i,  Dutch, 
and  Italiai  .  ' .,  new  and  old  cuts,  gtntlcmen's,  con>- 
mon,  court,  .-..A  country  cuts. 

Elizabeth's  _  -sion  for  dress  was  fully  imitated  by 
her  courtic  i,  as  preserved  to  us  in  the  pages  of  histo- 
rians and  on  the  canvas  of  painters.  Tho  best  juirtrait 
of  the  gallant  Raleigh  represents  him  in  a  white  satin 
doublet  embroidered  with  pearls ;  aud  his  dress  in  tho 
Tower  was  a  velvet  cap,  laced,  and  a  rich  gown  and 
trunk-hose.  His  plush  cloak  is  preserved  in  the  well- 
known  an.  'dcte  of  his  throwing  it  olTfor  the  queen  to 
[  walk  on. 

j  In  taking  leave  of  the  British  co.itunie  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  we  .r  y  observe  that  .its  splendour  was  almost 
entirely  borrowed  Iroiu  France,  "  that  country  which  ban 
since  given  laws  in  dress  to  nearly  all  Europe." 

SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY. 

The  chan,,  ?,  of  coslutne  'n  this  century  were  not  so 
much  in  fiirni;-  as  in  fashions  of  hahits,  The  male  dress 
continued   iiearlv  the  same  us  in  the   latter  portion  of 


•This  douMo!  formed  ii  point  in  from,  hanging  ovor  the  Rir- 
dlei  and.  iillowini;  tor  a  \l:<.\>-  cariciilur.-.  "is  to  Uiis  day,''  says 
M.  riaiiolie.  -llie'  In  ly-drcss  of  our  old  and  iiU'»lioial)ie  frion4 
I'lMicli.  wliDsc.  wardmlii-,  of  haliun  orMjiti.  daii's  i\s  neaily  a» 
po^^i'    •  from  tliis   idtm.eal  jiurio<l."— i/isforv  llrilitK  CoilwiH. 

'         '  3h2 


750 


INFORMATK    >.    FOR  THE   PKOPLE. 


Gliu'joUi'i  reli;n.  Under  Jamoi  I.  it  wm  ■omewlint 
more  ilcoidinlly  H|);inii«h,  ntiJ  wnii  cliii'fly  worn  of  bin.  k, 
wilh  liirt(o  trunk  liusu,  !i|>iiiii8h  mpicr,  a  Imt  witli  >  riiiii- 
Oil  cruvvi),  mill  a  Imiul  with  a  jcwt-l,  iIif  lictter  to  ihow 
wliich  ti  iithorii  aocm  to  liavu  beoii  iliwnriluil.  Thii  trunk, 
bruooliox,  mid  iloiililctH,  a|i[Niiir  to  liuvc  Iwon  incrntwd  in 
tilt',  from  till*  timid  dlii|nHitioii  of  the  *oviin>i){ii,  who  had 
hi.4  garmoiitK  adiiitioimily  (|uiltod  for  t'uiir  of  Dtilcttos. 
JamoM,  in  hin  bni-i'irt,  drl'H^«■d  immoderately,  thviiHh 
oiily  ill  kiH>|iiiii(  vvith  the  RUinp'iioug  iityle  of  the  furni- 
ture iiiiii  hourtc-decoration  of  |l  ui>!;  and  in  inn 
antunci'H  ho  warccly  left  hii)  no  !.  ti  ii  menu.)  of  "keep- 
mi  up  np|M'iiraiiceH."  Honry.  I'rinqp  of  Walu*,  inuai 
have  drawn  largely  <  Jin  hiit  fat  or'*  privy  puriu),  for  we 
find  hiM  wardro'iu  pun-haMen  in  one  yt'ar  to  have  been 
thirty-eight  suit^i  of  velvi't  and  Nilin,  rrimHon,  Rriin,  rar- 
liation,  oraii){e,  and  watj-lict,  nsh  iiii  I  liver-<;olonr,  Mark 
and  tawny,  link,  rose,  hair,  and  drer  rolour,  laid  over 
wilh  Nuplet  si'k,  Rold  parch riirnt.  Nil vcr  and  "pollownc" 
lace  ;  the  cost  of  all  whirh  woh  coimidoralily  uliovr  i,'20()0, 
then  no  trifliiig  sum :  he  had  also  tliirti-en  cloaks,  at  the 
rale  of  £50  each;  tjlovcs  wrought  wilh  gold  and  •ilvcr 
•I  £3  a  pair ;  itockingx  at  £3 :  and  every-day  garters  at 
£4,  IOm.  And  we  find  the  wcak-niindcd  Jamen  oncou- 
ra^iiii;  his  hoii's  priMlij^alily  hy  Hfruliii);  to  him  at  Miulrid 
"  the  mirroure  of  France,  the  fellow  of  the  Portugal 
dyainont,"  which  the  kin^  wished  him  to  wear  alone  in 
Wh  hat,  witli  a  little  black  fiMtlior.  'I'o  his  favourite, 
Lieorgu  Villiers,  Duke  of  Uuckiiiijliam,  who  aecompanied 
Prince  Henry  to  Mp.iin,  .lames  also  wnt  ■•  a  faire  table 
dyainont,"  with  a  "faire  pcarle"  hiini;  to  it.  Uucking- 
ham  was  aUo  "  inipriHoned  in  jewels,"  and  worodiaiiionilH 
un  a  n.ililrinan  of  the  last  century  diil  paste  buttons;  he 
bad  also  ili.iniond  hat-li.inds,  cuck.nles,  and  ear-rin|};s; 
lUid  his  Iwt-fcalher,  sword,  nirille,  and  spurs,  were  set 
with  this  precious  nein;  and  one  of  his  court  suits  was 
osliinated  to  lie  worth  XSO,000.  In  these  times,  there- 
fore, the  ciMiiinon  phrase  of  "a  man's  wearing  his  estate 
opon  his  back "  could  scarcely  have  liecii  an  exaggera- 
tion ;  and  there  is  no  poetical  license  in  John  Taylor's 
ounsuro  of  the  prodigals  wli3 


"  Wear  n  farm  in  shoe. 
Airl  ■•piini;!.'!!  tfurun- 
A  host;  fori  iloiitilet  ^ 
A  saacly  cluak  tlir"  ■ 
A  hrnvfr  liiinJ  .M.i  :.■' 
I'ri^ud  at.  'lie  chu;c'::'.- 


'red  with  (fold, 

1  •  tvyi'""i  ■ 

\>i  Isti.p  CO*! : 

I'  price  iiliiioii; 

r  .hi;  h.  U'l. 

Ml!  poor  irLin's  hread." 


InBtcad  of  the  ruff  was  now  sometimes  worn  a  starched 
collar  or  band,  plain,  niid  edged  with  lace.  Late  in  the 
reign  the  jackets  or  doublets  were  shortened,  and  the 
breeches  reduced  in  size,  and  fastened  in  largo  bows  at 
the  knees;  the  well-stockinged  leg  was  admired,  and  the 
bat  worn  low  in  the  crown,  and  with  broad  brim,  as 
seen  in  portraiti,  of  the  date  Kill).  Beards  and  whiskers 
had  become  almost  universal  in  the  reign  of  Elizalicth ; 
but  in  that  of  Jame.s,  the  former  was  soinetimes  worn 
trimmed  to  u  point,  hanging  down  at  the  division  of  the 
ruir. 

In  the  female  costume  there  wos  little  change.  The 
huge  fardiiigale  continued  to  be  worn  by  the  nobility; 
a  strong  passion  for  foreign  lace  was  intriHluced  ;  pearls 
were  the  favourite  jewels,  and  the  riilT  maintained  its 
Bway,  so  as  to  l)c  anathematized  fr.im  the  pulpit;  and  the 
fancies  of  female  costume  were  glanced  at  in  a  sermon 
preached  before  the  king  at  Whitehall  in  IG07-8,  as 
•'her  French,  her  Spaiii.'-li,  and  her  foolish  fashions;  her 
plumes,  her  fannos,  and  a  silken  vizard,  with  a  rulF  like  a 
sail,  yea,  a  ruff  like  a  niinl'Ott;  with  a  feather  in  her  cap 
like  u  Ih^  in  her  top,  to  tell  which  way  the  wind  will 
}  low." 

Exju  riencc  had  scarcely  convinced  the  military  world 
of  the  inelficacy  of  steel  harness  to  resist  the  death-shot 
of  tlif!  arij'.iebuss  and  rau.sket,  when  James  I.  wittily  said 
hr  coulJ  net  but  "  greatly  praise  armour,  as  it  not  only 


protected  the  wearer,  but  aUo  prevented  him  from  injiu. 
ing  any  other  (H'rsoii  'I'm-  warriors  of  bin  inne  how 
ever,  began  to  dim-over  that  it  lacked  the  l,,.,!  ,,„^  ^ 
thes«i  ipialilies.  I'hey  first  laid  aside  il,i,  jniiibei,  i» 
■tetd  lioots,  then  the  shield,  and  next  the  covering  lijfih, 
arm*  Whin  the  cavalry  disused  the  lance,  llu;  ruiiiw 
were  no  longer  worn  to  guard  against  its  lliruHt;  ain] ' 
Bloiit  leathern  or  buff  coat  hung  down  fnmi  ln'maili , 
btxly  armour  to  the  knees,  and  lupplied  the  pliicii  ,j|'|U 
diH<'arded  steel.  In  the  portrait  of  Henry,  I'rinco  uf 
I  Wales,  the  armour  ii  worn  only  to  the  wiiint,  anj  ti,, 
I  trunk  it  eovered  .vith  wide  loone  straps,  thiouijh  which 
app<'ar(  the  rich  silk  ur  ^  ,■>  '. 
I  We  now  a|ipio4chtbr  ^^  -r  .a  of  costume  in  Kiiijiami' 
for  whatever  may  liuvt  iiiH'n  the  merits  of  ceriiim  cm. 
nients  worn  in  previous  reigns,  the  entire  dress  in  ihu 
of  Charles  I.  is  unrivalled  for  picturesiiueness  an  i  ,.||^ 
gani  taste.  .\t  this  we  shall  not  \>c  surprised,  ||'  ^ 
recollect  that  it  was  copie<l  from  the  habit  of  .S|iain,  ihj 
most  liecomiiig  of  u"  Buro^iean  costumes.  Karly  in  thii 
reign,  however,  the  motley  fashion  of  the  tjiie  ol  Jumet 
I.  prevailiil;  and  he  Hovoy  neek-chain,  (be  ruif  anj 
culls  of  Klanders,  the  Naples  hat  with  the  Koiiian  hau 
band  and  Flm  ntine  agate,  the  Milan  swmd,  and  tht 
cloak  of  (leneva  set  with  Urabant  buttons,  glovis  fnim 
Madrid,  &c..,  were  the  characteristics  of  the  U-au  of 
lOS'J.  The  ruff  hud  almost  un^ersally  given  iihicolo 
the  fulling  band;  and  collars  of  rich  point-lace,  lari;!' jiuj 
hanging  down  on  the  shoulders,  held  by  a  cord  iinJta» 
sol  at  the  neck,  and  called  yamlyke,  from  its  hoini;  ihj 
most  sriking  pati  of  the  dress  in  which  Vandyiic  ui  ihu 
time  painted  (lortraits. 

The  principal  habits  were  vests  and  clonks  of  velvet, 
or  silk  damask,  short  trousered  breeches  terminatinij  ja 
stulli'd  rolls  and  fringes  and  points,  and  very  ricli  kjotij 
wilh  large  projecting  lace  toiw.  A  dr<!ss  of  (^'hnries  a 
thus  described:  a  fulling  band,  green  doublet  (I'romtl^ 
ariu-pits  to  the  shoiiMers  wide  and  loose),  zig-^iii^  luniiji 
up  rudles,  long  green  breeches  (like  u  Ihili linian's) 
tied  below  the  knee  with  yellow  ribbons,  red  siocliingi, 
green  shoe-roses,  and  a  short  red  cloak  lined  wilh  blue, 
with  a  star  on  the  shoulder;  the  king  sometimes  worcj 
large  cravat,  and  at  other  times  a  long  fallinu;  Iminl  niili 
t.isscls.  The  cavaliers  were  genuine  succeanors  of  EA 
ward's  knights,  not  less  in  costume  than  in  hiuli  ch-vat 
roils  liearing.  Their  dress  consisted  of  a  diiuli{i>l  of 
velvet,  silk,  or  satin,  with  large  loose  sleeves  slishij  sdiI 
embroidered ;  Vandyke  cvHar  and  hand,  and  Klinrt  iii- 
broidorcd  cloak  worn  on  one  shoulder;  the  long  lirrntict, 

fciiiged  and  pointcil,  niel 
the  rutiled  tops  of  tht 
l)oolJ<;  the  eiiiliroirlfifj 
Bwonl-lielt  was  worn  ovu 
the  rij;ht  sliouldiT,  andiu 
it  was  hung  a  Spanish  r» 
pier ;  and  in  the  lb)>p>nj 
beover  hat  was  woin  s 
plume  of  fcatherti  confined 
by  H  jewel.  A  bull'  fo«l 
or  jerkin  was  olion  worn 
as  a  lietter  detencc  ibao 
the  doublet,  which  iswn» 
times  coveretl.  'J'he  c> 
graving  re|ire«ents  a  nli- 
zeif  of  this  i)criwl  niiw 
pbiinly  ultired.  In  liiS 
reign  the  hair  was  vim 
long,  and  the  niueiailiiiK 


Citiii^ii  in  itie  ijiie  of rimrlos  I. 


and  pointed  Iward  forn;ed  a  triangle  about  the  muuih, 
as  was  witness4!d  not  many  years  since  upon  opeiiiiiclta 
coffin  of  (./"harlcs  1.  at  Windsor,  when  the  severcil  lid 
of  the  king  waa  found  wilh  the  pointed  beard  [wrlirt 
Charles  is  painted  by  Vandyke  with  a  jewel  in  miee* 
only  i  at  Dath  is  preserved  the  pockct-handkcnliief  • 


BR.TISH  COSTUMES. 


781 


nil's  wore  a 

liuml  Kith 

(wors  of  EA 

hitfli  fltnV 

(limMel  ol 

slushi'd  ami 

*liort  ii> 

otiK  liriTchc^ 

i)inli'il,  met 

tops  of  the 

cinbroHfieJ 

lis  worn  ova 

Mir,  aniiin 

S(innish  J» 

lie  lb;>pio) 

was  worn  t 

licrsconfina! 

A  bull'  cojl 

ot'lcn  worj 

Iffcncc  ihaii 

•hiclusren* 

'J'hc  oi> 

cue  Ills  1  ciu- 

jicrioj  molt 

'(i.      In  ilii 

ir  wan  ivom 

iiiuslaihiot 

tlic  mouth, 

opi'iiiiistlK 

sevcTiiil  hfni 

K"uril  [lorial 

A  in  line  til 

keri-'liicf  - 


(if  t:.n  «t  thi  tlino  of  hiH  execution;  it  in  of  vory  fine 
wliitc  !■  iniliri,',  iniirlii'ii  with  tlio  iiiijH^rinl  crnwii  unil  tlio 
liiiliul*  •'•  "•  Oliver  Crcmiwtill  Ih  (liiHcribrd  by  nti  eyo- 
■  '.ni'XK.  '■'  l*'^"'  n*  "very  onliimrily  B|i|mri'llo(l "  in  an 
Ul-riiwle  i>luin  eluth  iiuit ;  Iuh  lim-n  plain,  ami  not  vory 
itlriin,  mill  lii'*  hwddI  atuck  rlot>c  to  IiIh  hIcIc.  At  tlila  time 
ill,'  men  iii^uiilly  wore  loi);^  ventn  anil  cIiiuUh  of  dark  co- 
Uirs.  willi  |iliti<i  collnrH  called  fulling  hnnds  or  turn-ovcrH. 

Charles  ig  lielievod  to  have  gcni-rnlly  iiwd  armour; 
but  the  lieliiiet  wan  de|irivfd  of  itM  vinor;  and  hcforo  the 
uiiilille  of  the  sevciilemtli  century,  iiothlni);  reiniiiiipd  of 
the  mil i'Ot  liarncitH  liul  ilio  open  cap  and  cuiranH;  niul 
tamo  reiiiiiK'iitv  of  cavalry  thui  armed  were  thence  called 
CuirttssierH. 

The  I'einuli!  contiinio  of  thin  period  was  rather  eleijnnt 
Oian  i-i  It'inlid.  (iowiiH  with  clone  liodicH  and  tifilit 
ili.fH«  were  wm".  ihoURh  the  fnrdini»iile  was  retained; 
viiih  a  giiTgvt  rulfKtnndintf  up  aliout  the  neck  like  a  fan. 
pri'iich  IiooJh  were  hIIII  worn,  though  with  little  iliHtin'- 
tion  »*  to  rank.  The  hair  wan  worn  in  Hinall  curl., 
Hill  the  l.ooiU,  of  all  colours,  faNtened  under  the  ehin 
iflih  curious  ellt'ct.  Ear-rinu[H,  necklaccH,  and  hrae.elctd, 
were  iiiiieli  worn  ;  hut  the  Puritaim  forbade  the  feinulcii 
tj  near  luce,  jevvelH,  or  even  braided  hair;  uml  ihey  re- 
taini'il  the  close  hood  and  liiuh-crowned  hat. 

TowartU  the  elose  of  the  rci^n  of  Charles  I.,  the  cum- 
brous l'iir>liii:;alo  ilisa|iiieared,  with  the  yellow  starched 
nilfnnil  liaml.  Yellow  Ktarch  had,  howe<  er,  become  un- 
fchionalile  ^ilK•e  Mrs.  Turner,  the  pln-.ieiaii'n  widow, 
nciil  10  llie  uallowH  with  a  yellow  rulf  rounil  her  neck, 
IjIh!  huiiK  liir  her  share  in  the  poisoning  of  Sir  Thomas 
Overhury  (Mrs.  Turner  havinp;  intriMlueed  yellow  starch 
fiOin  Kraiiee).  'I'hese  tustcless  fashioiia  having  disup- 
n-aroil.  the  lemale  dress  became  very  elegant,  with  its 
r.ch  full  skirt  ni  ;l  sleeves,  and  falling  collar  edged  with 
.rich  laie,  and  llie  hair  worn  in  graceful  ringlets;  but 
Ihfse  viiiiitles  were  eoiidoinncd  by  tlio  Vurit.in  party. 

With  llie  restoration  of  ("harles  II.  camo  certain  tastc- 
li'ss  iniiovali'ius  u[ion  the  elegant  Vandyke  costume  of 
iJie  time  of  t'lmrles  I.,  which  were  the  first  resemblance 
lo  the  coats  and  waistcoats  of  the  present  day.  Thus, 
our  most  ()ictllle^llue  atlirn  lasted  little  more  than  a  quar- 
tj'juf  a  ceiituiy.  Its  deeline  was  gradual,  itj»  chivalric 
character  soon  deuonerated  into  grotes(|ueiicBs,  which  in 
its  turn  eliaii:.'eil  to  stark  meanness.  Early  in  the  reign 
of  Clmrles  II.  the  iloublet  was  much  shortened,  and  worn 
open  ill  I'roiit,  when',  and  at  the  waistband,  the  rich  shirt 
was  sh'uvii ;  and  the  loose  sleeves  and  breeches  were 
dfckeii  with  ribbons  and  points,  and  from  the  knee-bands 
hung  lung  lace  ruffles.  At  the  wrists,  too,  ruffles  weie 
iriirii;  but  the  lace  collar  was  shorn  of  its  points,  desig- 
nated to  this  day  Vandyke.  The  cloak  was  retained 
upon  the  \ei\  sluiuliler,  and  the  high-crowned  and  plumed 
hat  remained  for  a  short  time ;  but  the  crown  of  the  hat 
was  soon  lowered. 

The  petticoat  breeches  were  another  absurdity  ;  al- 
lhoui;h  ornamented  with  ribbons  at  the  sides,  the  lining 
flrangely  appeared  l«'low  tiie  breeches,  and  was  tied  at 
Cic  knees :  to  match  which,  the  sleeves  of  the  doublet 
only  reiic'icd  to  the  elbows,  and  from  under  them  bulged 
ll'.i'  ruffled  sleeves  of  the  shirt,  both  being  oriiament<'d 
with  riWiiins.  Moanwiiile,  the  skirt  of  the  doublet  had 
b"cn  lengthened  from  above  the  waist  nearly  to  the 
I'joos,  and  had  buttons  and  button-holes  in  its  entire 
L'njih,  thus  becoiiiin'^  a  coat,  and  so  named  in  an  inven- 
tory of  ItiTU;  wherein,  also,  are  the  items  of  waistcoat, 
breeches,  pantaloons,  drawers,  and  trousers,  being  the 
cirlicst  mention  of  thesr  articles.  Stockings  of  various 
t.nJs  vvi  re  common  ,  and  •'  the  lower  ends  of  stockings 
arc  uiidersliiod  as  socks.  Instead  of  the  lace  collar  was 
worn  tin  Invj;  sqiii.ri-i'nded  cravat,  of  the  same  material, 
frjin  Brussels  a'ul  rianderg. 

The   female 
laslck'ss  aM.'.i 


of  lli  eh'n  ner  in  Charlci'»  reign  | 
indeed,  from  this  time,"  the  stronger 
sex"  appear  to  have  left  the  art  of 
dress  lo  llie  lii'dies.  The  portraits 
of  the  beauties  of  the  court  of 
(Charles  II.,  in  Windsor  Castle  and 
Hampton  ('ourt  Palace,  are  fami- 
liar ilhiKtralions,  in  which  we  see 
only  a  |n'arl  neekluce  upon  llio  bo- 
som, and  the  hair  falling  in  luxuri- 
ant ringletJi  from  beneath  a  string 
of  pearls,  'i'hc  go^-.s  are  of  llin 
richest  satin,  low  in  the  bosom,  and 
have  long  trains,  'bat  the  wearers 
could  not  "xiirto  the  next  room 
without  a  page  or  two  to  hold  them  * 
up."  The  annexed  engraving  show* 
a  citizen's  wife  [vrforming  this 
offlce  lierwlf 


I 


Cili/i'n's  wii'' 
nine  of  Cluirle 


In  the        -iping  diary  of  Pcpyg  (from  1050  to  16B0) 
wo  ol"  veral   glimpses  of  llie  costuii  e  of  the  early 

part  >->1  III.  '  Pepys  venerated  the     ne  elothcB  of 

either  lex  >  (lerhaps  inherited  I'l  >ni  his  futher'l 

sliop-l'oi'  ktichi's  Char|i's'si|ueeii  I  iokiiij;  "mighty 

pretl)  ite  laccMl  waisteoate  and  a  cninson  short 

petlici   iie,  -.lir  dres.sed  a  la  /nR/ii.'CiKf  ,"    I-ady 

Casih  uaii  ullow  plume  in  her  hat;  and  ^Ir* 

Stewart  "  v  il  rocked,  and  a  red  plume  and  en- 

cellent  taille.  '  lie  tells  lis,  too,  of  his  wife's  jewels,  "ii> 
creased  by  the  ring  she  hath  made  lately  as  my  valen> 
tine's  girt  this  year ;  a  Turkey  stone  set  with  diamonda ; 
and  with  this  and  what  she  had,  she  reckons  that  she 
hath  above  £150  worth  of  jewels  of  one  kinil  i  other." 
His  catalogue  of  coats,  clouk.s,  breeches,  and  htmking*, 
is  curious  lo  the  anti"|iiary.  In  IfifiO-IJl,  casting  bil 
roundhead,  he  aiijM'ared  tor  the  lirsl  time  in  the  dress  of 
a  cavalier,  with  coat  and  sword;  then  a  new  laee-band; 
a  new  scallop,  very  line ;  "  shaggy  purple  gown,  with 
gold  buttons  and  loop-line;  a  black  cloth  suit,  with  white 
linings  under  all,  to  appear  under  tlu'  breeches ;"  and  a 
fine  camlet  cloak.  lj[ion  launching  his  couch,  he  gave 
his  servants  a  serge  livery  of  green,  lined  with  red ;  hit 
wife  was  "extraordinary  fine,  with  her  llowered  taooy 
gown  that  she  had  made  two  years  ago,  now  laced  ex- 
ceeding pretty ;  and  indeed  was  fine  all  over."  He  put 
on  his  new  suit,  and  so  anon  they  wi'iit  through  the  town, 
with  their  "  new  liveries  of  '  rge,  and  the  liors<'s'  mane* 
and  tails  tied  with  red  ribbons,  and  the  standards  then 
gilt  with  varnish,  and  all  clean,  and  green  reiiics,  that 
people  did  look  mightily  upon  us."  Elsewhere,  we  find 
him  thus  generous  to  a  relative :  "  I  did  give  my  wife's 
brother  Ids.  and  a  coat  that  I  hud  by  me,  a  dose-liodieJ, 
light-coloured  cloth  coot,  with  a  gold  edging  in  each 
seam,  that  was  the  lace  of  my  wife's  best  pettycoat  that 
she  had  when  I  married.  He  is  going  into  Holland  to 
seek  his  fortune."  Then  ho  chronicles  a  shepherd's 
"woollen  knit  stockings,  of  two  colours  mixed,"  and  the 
king's  having  no  "  handkerchers,  and  but  three  bunds  to 
his  neck,"  the  grooms  of  the  bedchamber  having  taken 
all  the  royal  linen  for  their  quarter's  fees.  Hut  u  more  in> 
portant  note  is  his  minute  account  of  the  plan  of  Charlet 
II.  to  introduce  a  notionnt  ilrcsf  ucver  lo  lie  (jluii'd,  and 
which  wos  taken  from  that  of  Poland  ;  and  it  was  worn 
cxperimenlally  by  the  king  and  his  courtiers,  and  con» 
sisted  of  "  a  long  cassocke  cloi«e  to  the  body,  of  black 
elolh,  and  pinked  with  white  silk  under  it,  and  a  coal 
over  it,  and  the  legs  ruffled  with  black  riband  like  i> 
pigeon's  leg."  Pepys  thought  this  "  a  very  fine  and 
handsome  garment;  but  the  king  laid  aside  the  pinkinct, 
as  it  made  II,,'  wearers  look  too  much  like  magpies." 
Dryden  says  thest>  long  vests  "did  iH\omc  our  English 
gravity  ;"  but  they  soon  gave  way  before  doublets,  and 

CDstuine,  as   if  to   compensate  for  the    hos",  and  other  importations  of  the  Diikc  of  Grammont. 

,vi  to   that  of  the  men.  retained  much  [  The:,   the  diari»t  ucsoribcs   a  new  pluv.  in  which  tbe 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
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Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WEST  K.nH  STREET 

WEBSTER,  NY    14580 

(716)  872-4503 


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759 


INFORMATION  TOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


que«ns  Elisabeth  and  Mary  appear  dressed  in  the  cos- 
tumes of  the  nge.  He  gives  us  some  curious  accounts 
of  "young  pretty  latiics  dressed  like  men,  in  velvet  coats, 
raps  (hats),  and  ribbons,  with  laced  banuk  •  •  •  the 
ludiea  of  honsur  dressed  in  their  riding  garbs,  with  coats, 
mid  doublets,  and  deep  skirts,  just  for  all  the  world  like 
mine ;  and  doublets  buttoned  up  the  breast,  with  periwigs 
and  with  hats ;  so  that  only  for  a  long  petticoat  dragging 
under  their  men's  coats,  nobody  would  take  them  for 
women."  Evelyn  also  mentions  "thr  queene  in  her 
cavalier  riding-habit,  hat  and  feather,  and'  horseman's 
coat."  Evelyn,  too,  tells  us  that  our  modern  paper  fold- 
ing fans,  much  less  picturesque  than  the  feathered  fans 
of  earlier  date,  were  introduced  by  the  Jesuits  from 
Jap&n  and  China.  Trifling  as  these  notes  may  appear, 
they  illustrate  manners  and  customs,  minute  information 
on  which  will  fruitlessly  be  sought  in  the  broad  path  of 
history. 

Passing  to  the  reigns  of  James  II.  and  William  III., 
we. find  few  noticeable  novelties  in  costume.  The  coats 
were  often  of  velvet,  without  collars,  with  large  hanging 
■leeves,  and  button-holes  of  gold  embroidery.  The  pet- 
ticoat orecches  were  exchanged  for  the  close-fitting  gar- 
ments tied  lielow  the  knee,  and  therefore  called  knee- 
Dreecbes;  the  broad-brimmed  hats  were  turned  up  on 
two  aides,  and  edged  with  feathers  or  ribbons ;  the  fashion 
lay  in  the  rich  long  lace  cravat  and  embroidered  waist- 
coat, the  band  was  now  narrowed,  so  as  to  resemble  that 
worn  at  the  present  time  by  clergymen.  The  periwig 
was  worn  still  longer  than  hitherto,  hanging  down  in 
front,  or  flowing  upon  the  shoulders,  though  the  colour 
was  altered  from  black  to  suit  the  complexion ;  and  coml>- 
ing  these  wigs  was  a  piece  of  gallantry,  for  which  pur- 
pose a  comb  was  carried,  whence  the  origin  of  our  pre- 
sent po<'ket-comb :  and  at  court,  in  the  walks  of  Kensing- 
ton, the  Mall  of  St.  James's,  or  the  boxes  of  the  theatre, 
the  beaux  turned  their  wig  curls  over  their  fingers  whilst 
in  conversation  ;  the  effect  of  these  wigs  flowing  over 
the  cuirass  will  be  seen  in  the  portrait  of  the  great  Duke 
of  Marlborough. 

The  female  costume  was  unchanged  in  the  reign  of 
lames  II. ;  but  if  tiecame  less  luxuriant  anil  more  formal 
in  the  time  of  William  and  Mary,  in  accordance  with 
Dutch  taste.  The  waLsts  were  much  Icngtiiencd  with 
velvet  stomachers,  covered  with  jewels,  so  as  to  conceal 
the  bosom,  hitherto  unsparingly  exposed  ;  the  sleeve  wos 
made  tight,  and  trimmed  with  lace  lappets  or  ruffles,  and 
long  gloves  were  worn,  so  as  entirely  to  cover  the  arm  ; 
hut  the  skirts  were  worn  long,  full,  and  flounced ;  the 
hair,  instead  of  flowing  in  ringlets,  was  gathered  up,  and 
•trained  over  a  toupee  of  silk  or  cotton  wool,  carried  up 
so  high  as  to  be  called  a  tower,  covered  with  a  lace  scarf 
or  veil  that  hung  in  front  below  the  bosom ;  but  this 
head-dress  gradually  shrunk  into  a  caul  with  two  lappets, 
known  as  a  "  mob,"  False  locks  and  curls,  set  on  wires 
tc  make  them  stand  out,  were  also  worn.  Before  the 
devolution,  the  citizens'  wives  dressed  with  l)ecoming 
plainness,  and  gentlewomen  wore  serge  gowns,  which, 
alter  1788,  were  rejected  by  chambermaids.  The  in- 
crease of  rich  clothes  and  jewels  was  great,  and  there 
were  one  hundred  coaches  to  one  kept  formeriy,  all  de- 
noting the  improving  wealth  of  the  country. 

A  few  of  the  fashions  and  peculiarities  of  this  century 
may  be  summed  up  in  conclusion.  From  the  reign  of 
James  I,,  the  ladies  appear  to  have  dressed  their  hair  in 
better  taste  than  previously,  in  curls  on  each  side  of  the 
bee,  and  biaided  in  a  knot  at  the  back  of  the  head, 
where  it  was  often  ornamented  with  jewels  or  pearls,  or 
•  single  feather.  It  was  next  worn  in  long  locks  flow- 
ing below  the  shoulders ;  and  the  love-lock,  ornamented 
with  ribbon  and  twisted  pearls,  was  worn  on  one  side. 
From  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  to  that  of  Queen  Anna, 
lur.g  hair  was  much  {Prized,  and  was  often  sold  by  wo- 
Ben  of  iiilerior  fortum*  to  bo  made  into  periwigs.  About 


this  time  the  fontange  or  top-knot,  so  called  from  MmJ^ 
moiselle  de  Fontange,  who  first  wore  it,  was  driven  oqi 
of  fashion  by  the  fanatical  spirit  of  the  time.  Hnir  po». 
der  was  also  introduced  from  France  in  this  cciitury;  i| 
was  worn  of  various  colours,  an  absurdity  only  discoii. 
tinucd  at  the  close  of  the  last  century.  Of  the  fashion 
of  hats  we  shall  ofterwards  speak. 

Under  the  house  of  Stuart,  the  shoe-rose  yielded  to 
the  shoe-string,  the  beaux  wearing  them  of  silk  tagged 
with  silver,  and  the  humbler  classes  wore  luces  of  plain 
silk,  or  even  leather  thongs — the  latter  still  'o  lie  niei 
with  in  rural  life.  Shoe-buckles,  in  size  and  shape  re- 
sembling  thc^  horse-bean,  were  introduced  at  the  ReNxj 
lution ;  flimsy  Spanish  leather  boots,  with  sjiurs,  ncra 
also  fashionable,  and  beaux  went  in  them  to  balls. 

Ostrich  and  peacock  feathers  were  variously  worn  la 
hats,  and  twigs  of  yew  for  mourning.  Before  the  reigo 
of  Charles  I.,  the  high-crowned  hat  began  to  be  leg) 
worn ;  and  that  monarch,  in  his  escape,  is  described  u 
disguised,  and  wearing  "  a  very  greasy  old  gray  stecpfe. 
crowned  hat,  with  the  brim  turned  up,  without  lining  oi 
hot-band."  The  brim  of  the  hat,  however,  continued  fc 
be  worn  broad,  ai>d  when  much  worn,  was  called 
"  slouched,"  It  was  worn  till  the  end  of  the  century, 
but  with  first  one  flap  turned  up  before  or  behind,  then 
two  flaps ;  and  the  third  flap  lieing  turned  up,  the  cockeil 
hat  was  complete. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  century,  wigs  became  fasiv 
ionable,  together  with  false  hair,  "  a  custom  contrary  to 
our  forefathers,  who  wore  their  own  hair."  Full-b(* 
tomed  wigs  were  worn  by  the  learned  professions,  At(l> 
bishop  Tillolson  was  the  first  prelate  who  wore  a  m^ 
which  resembled  a  natural  heod  of  hnir,  unpowderedi 
the  changes  in  clerical  wigs  ore  shown  in  the  portrait! 
of  successive  archbishops  of  Canterbury  in  the  stat^ 
dining  room  of  Lambeth  Palace, 

EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

The  picturesqueness  of  our  national  costume,  which 
was  perfect  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  and  the  Con> 
monwcalth,  gradually  declined  in  <tho  three  succeeding 
reigns,  and  may  be  said  to  have  become  extinct  in  the 
reigns  of  Queen  Anne  and  George  I.  The  best  period 
of  our  costume  was,  therefore,  that  of  the  school  of  poi. 
trait  painting  in  England,  led  by  Vandyke,  when  tha 
fine  arts  were  highly  esteemed  in  the  English  court,  anu 
a  gooil  taste  began  to  prevail  in  the  nation. 

It  has  already  lieen  seen  how  a  fanciful  fashion  of 
attire  began  to  dwindle  into  the  tameness  of  modern  c» 
tumo  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  a  change  which  ihe 
efforts  of  that  gay  monarch  could  not  avert.  The  rllp^ 
ations  were  of  French  origin.  Louis  XIV.,  whose  gcn& 
ral  taste  was  unimpeachable,  introduced  a  new  and  fm 
from  elegant  fashion  of  dress,  which  the  celebrity  of  hit 
court  and  other  circumstances  caused  to  be  extensively 
copied  in  foreign  countries.  Al)Out 
the  reign  of  Queen  Anno,  this 
new  French  fashion  had  been 
embraced  by  courtiers,  physicians, 
and  other  professional  persona  in 
England,  also  the  higher  order  of 
gentry ;  and  in  the  following  reigns 
of  George  I.  and  II.,  it  became 
universal. 

This  dress  of  the  old  English 
gentleman,  as  it  afterwards  came 
to  be  called,  consisted  at  first,  dur- 
ing Queen  Anne's  reign,  of  a 
[wriwig  in  formal  curls,  partly 
contained  in  a  silk  bag  on  the 
shoulder  ;  a  small  cocked  hat,  full 
bottomed  coat,  short  breeches,  ^^ 
blue  or  scarlet  stockings  drawn  ""^utiemau  of  irM. 


BRITISH  COSTUMES. 


7ftS 


lallcd  from  Mad* 
it,  was  driven  ooi 
time.  Hnir  po«k 
n  this  rciitury:  i| 
rdity  only  discoi. 
Of  the  fmhioi! 

)e-roBc  yielded  In 
em  of  silk  tagged 
irore  luces  of  plain 
er  slill  'o  lie  nicl 
lize  and  Khapg  re. 
uced  at  the  Reix) 

with  s]iurs,  new 
icm  to  balls, 
variously  womtt 
Before  the  reign 

began  to  he  le« 
pc,  is  described  ai 
y  old  grny  stecpfei 
I,  without  lining  oi 
.■ever,  continued  to 
worn,  was  called 
id  of  the  centiirj, 
iro  or  behind,  then 
led  up,  the  cocke(t 

wigs  became  fask 
custom  contrary  to 
1  hair."  Full-tx* 
professions,  AkI> 
!  who  wore  a  wij^ 
hair,  unpowdercdc 
vn  in  the  portrait! 
bury  in  the  etatfr 


jy. 

al  costume,  which 

I.,  and  the  Conv 

0  three  succeeding 

ime  extinct  in  the 

The  host  period 
the  Kchool  of  poF 
andykf,  when  tha 
Knglish  court,  anu 
ntion. 

anciful  fashion  of 
less  jf  modern  co» 
change  which  ihc 
avert.  The  rltp* 
XIV.,  whose  genfr 
ccd  a  new  and  fai 
he  Cflebrity  of  bit 

to  be  cxlcnsivelv 


f,fi  (he  knee  ind  square-toed  shoes,  with  small  buckles 
indhigh  red  heels.  And  this  formal  costume,  relieved 
gnly  by  lace  cufls,  ruflirs,  ond  neckcloth,  and  gold  or 
iiWer  clocks  in  the  stockings,  remained  unmodified 
through  three  quarters  of  the  century.  The  engraving 
nhows  a  gentleman  of  the  year  17.50,  and  reminds  us 
lliatlhe  snuff-box,  first  carried  in  the  reign  of  James  II., 
continued  indispensable  for  the  fine  gentleman. 

The  origin  of  the  cocked-hat  has  been  explained.  In 
the  middle  of  the  century  it  was  considered  a  mark  of 
gentility,  and  a  distinction  from  the  hutnbler  orders,  who 
wore  round  Imts.  But  the  varieties  of  the  native  cocked- 
liat  being  exhausted,  a  larger  one,  named  Kevcnhuller, 
ms  imported  from  Germany ;  and  early  in  the  reign  of 
George  III.  (1762),  huts  were  worn,  upon  an  average, 
fix  inches  and  three-fifths  broail  in  the  brim,  and  cocked 
lieiwecn  Quaker  and  Kevenhuller.  Some  had  their 
hau  open  l)eforc  like  a  church-spout  or  a  tin  flour- 
Kab;some  wore  thera  rather  sharper,  like  the  nose  of 
a  greyhound ;  and  an  account  states — "  We  can  distin- 
ituish  by  the  taste  of  the  hat  the  mode  of  the  wearer's 
mind.  There  is  the  military  cock  and  the  mercantile 
eock ;  and  while  the  beaux  of  St.  James's  wear  their  hats 
under  their  arms,  the  beaux  of  Moorfields  wear  theirs 
diagonally  over  their  left  or  right  eye  ;  sailors  wear  the 
liJcs  of  their  hats  uniformly  tucked  down  to  the  crown, 
and  look  as  if  they  carried  a  triangular  apple  pasty  upon 
iheir  heads.  Some  wear  their  hats  with  the  corners, 
ffhicll  should  come  over  their  foreheads  in  a  direct  line, 
pointed  into  the  air ;  those  are  the  Gawkies.  Others  do 
not  above  half  cover  their  heads,  which  is  owing  to  the 
shallowness  of  their  crowns."*  Cocked-hats,  richly 
trimmed  with  gold-luce  and  ostrich-feathers,  occur  in 
Hogarth's  pictures,  which,  indeed,  will  furnish  a  better 
;Jea  of  the  entire  costume  from  1727  to  1760  than  many 
pages  of  description ;  and  the  portraits  by  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds  will  supply  the  dress  of  the  next  forty  years. 

The  fashions  of  wigs  were  as  various  as  those  of  hats. 
A  peruke  and  a  plaited  and  tied  tail  were  called  a  Ra- 
raillics,  from  the  famous  battle  of  that  name.  The  tie- 
wig  became  the  fashion,  from  the  celebrated  Lord  Boling- 
broko  going  to  court  ^f  ith  his  wig  tied  up,  upon  which 
Ijueen  Mary  observed  that  he  would  "  soon  come  to  court 
in  his  night  cap,"  a  royal  rebuke  which  established  a 
fashion.  In  1764,  wigs  went  out  of  wear,  and  the  wig- 
makers  of  London  petitioned  George  III.  to  compel 
jcntlemcn  to  wear  wigs  by  law,  for  tlie  benefit  of  their 
"aile!  The  fashion  of  wearing  powder  in  the  hair, 
however,  came  to  the  wig-makers'  relief;  and  the  wig  de- 
creaaed  in  size  as  the  century  rolled  onward.  In  the  pre- 
lent  day,  formal  wigs  are  almost  confined  to  the  heads 
of  prelates  and  law  olFicers  ;  and  the  latter,  to  get  rid  of 
ihe  powder  nuisance,  wear  wigs  mad«'  of  other  materials 
than  hair,  as  the  metal  platina.  Wi;;.!  arc ,  however,  m  uch 
worn,  from  the  greater  prevalence  of  baldness  than  for- 
merly ;  but  their  perfection  now  consists  in  bearing  so 
cloae  •  resemblance  to  the  natural  or  living  hair  as  to 
avoid  detection.  The  side  cuvls  were  originally  worn  by 
postilions,  tu  maintain  their  resemblance  to  boys. 

Towards  the  niidille  of  the  reign  of  George  III.,  the 
male  dress  took  the  form  of  the  court  suit  worn  at  the 
present  day;  the  breeches  having,  from  the  year  1760, 
been  worn  over  the  knees,  fastened  by  buckles  or  strings. 
The  coate  of  the  eighteenth  century  were  of  velvet,  silk, 
or  satin,  as  well  as  broadcloth,  and  thei.'  colours  very 
fanciful.  Hogarth's  favourite  colour  was  sky-blue ; 
Reynolds's,  deep  crimson  and  violet ;  and  Goldsmith  re- 
joiced in  plum-colour.  About  1790,  cloth  became  the 
general  wear ;  the  waistcoat  being  of  the  costlier  ma- 
terials, and  embroidered,  and  sometimes  the  breeches. 
Tile  court  dresses  were  of  velvet  or  satin,  with  steel, 


jewel,  or  paste-buttons ;  tho  wig  had  a  silk  bit; ;  and  tha 
jewelled  or  steel-cut  hiltcd  sword  has  been  retainad 
through  the  mutations  of  the 
last  hundred  and  forty  years.* 
Buckles  were  worn  at  tho  knees 
and  in  the  shoes  till  the  close 
of  tho  last  century ;  and  the 
large  square  plaited  bt:cklo  was 
the  Inn  until  1791,  when  shoe- 
strings Imcame  general ;  though 
the  Prince  of  Wales  and  his 
household  endeavoured,  by 
wearing  buckles,  tu  retain  the 
fashion. 

The  female  costume  of  the 
eighteenth  century  was  as  for- 
mal and  tasteless  as  that  of 
the  men.  The  most  odious 
piece  of  attire  introduced  in  the 
early  part  of  the  century  was 
the  large  whalebone  petticoat, 
which  degenerated  into  the  hoop 

petticoat,  and  made  a  lady  to  appear  as  if  standing  in  an 
inverted  tub.  In  the  reigns  of  George  I.  und  II.,  loose 
gowns,  called  sacijue.u  and  hooded  silk  cloaks,  were  worn, 
and  a  very  small  muff,  such  as  have  been  lately  revived. 
This  costume  is  shown  in  the  annexed  portrait  of  a  lady 
of  George  II.'s  time.  Ornamental  aprons  were  also  worn, 
as  at  the  present  day,  with  the  watch,  necklace,  and  tha 
fan,  which  was  sometimes  from  twelve  to  eighteen  incha 
in  length,  and  beautifully  made.     Gay  sings : 


Lady  In  tlic  lime  of 
Giorgo  n. 


•bomloii  ClironiclB, 
.nthe  Arclifrologm. 
Vol.  I—U.'j 


quMed  in  M.  Rcplon'a  paper  on  Hoiti, 


"The  fiin  oliall  flutter  in  all  female  hands, 
And  vnr:oiis  rashions  learn  from  vuriotis  lands. 
For  ihis  shiill  ele|)hnnts  their  ivory  «ht'd. 
And  pol.sh'd  slicks  the  waving  enfrines  spread: 
l!]s  cKiiided  ninil  the  tortoise  shall  resign, 
And  round  the  rivrt  j>fnrly  circles  shine. 
On  this  simll  Indians  nil  iheir  art  employ, 
And  with  briuhl  colours  stain  the  gaudy  toy ; 
Their  pains  sTinll  hero  in  wildest  fancies  How; 
Their  dress,  their  cualoms,  their  religion  show. 
•  »  • 

Gny  France  shall  make  the  fan  her  artists'  care, 
And  with  llie  costly  trinket  arm  the  fair." 

Spanish  broadcloth,  trimmed  with  gold-lace,  was  used  for 
Indies'  dresses  in  the  reign  of  George  I. ;  and  furbelowed 
scarfs  were  worn  from  the  duchess  to  the  peasant. 

The  flowing  coif,  or  rather  veil,  of  the  finest  linen, 
fastened  on  the  head,  and  falling  behind,  prevailed  under 
Queen  Anne,  until  the  towering  head-dress  was  restored ; 
and  this  being  again  dinused,  the  hair  was  worn  in  curls 
down  the  back.  Hoods  of  all  colours  and  fashions  on 
horseback  and  at  the  opera,  were  worn ;  the  projecting 
fontange  again  appears,  pointed  like  a  steeple,  with  long 
crape  streamers,  their  feathers  piled  up  with  flowers  in 
stages ;  and  even  figures  of  four-wheeled  carriages  were 
head  ornaments.  Periwigs  were  also  worn  by  the  ladies ; 
and  the  head  was  sometimes  made  up  of  pins,  paste,  and 
pomatum,  so  as  to  keep  for  a  month.  Queen  Ann  had 
the  gooil  sense  not  to  disfigure  her  chestnut  locks  with 
powder;  but  it  was  generally  worn  till  1793,  when 
Queen  Charlotte  and  the  princesses  discarded  it. 

Caps  may  next  be  noticed :  they  were  at  first  small 
frilled  or  puffed  ;  then  the  French  night-cap  covering  the 
checks ;  the  Ranelagh  mob-cap,  copied  from  the  head- 
kerchiefs  of  market-women  ;  the  Mary  Queen  of  Scots' 
cap,  of  black  gauze,  edged  with  French  beads ;  the  Hy- 
cnp,  like  a  butterfly,  edged  with  garnets,  topazes,  or  bril- 
liants ;  and  Goldsmith's  "  Cousin  Hannah's  cap,"  a  few 
bits  of  cambric  and  flower.'?  ot  painted  paper  stuck  on 
one  side  of  the  head.  Calashes,  like  the  head  of  a  cab- 
riolet, were  next  appended  to  the  head-dress.  A  flat 
straw  or  silk  hat,  of  small  size,  and  trimtgoed  with  ribbons. 


•  The  iMiirqiiis  of  Westminster  occnsioniilly  wears  a  court 
sword,  on  ihi- hilt  of  which  is.  we  believe,  ti.t  the  ee.eliratad 
Nnssuck  dianiond,  sold,  in  1637,  for  £TiOO,  though  originslK 
valued  at  £aO,m). 


eutleman  o; 


7M 


INFORMA'nON   FOR  THE   PEOPIE. 


«rai  worn  upon  the  crown  of  the  hcai' ;  and  a  lurgo 
n>und  jipsy  straw  hat  faHtcnoil  by  rihbona  under  the  chin. 
'J'he  bonnet,  in  eiirly  times  generally  made  of  velvet, 
cloth,  and  silk,  was  in  the  eighteenth  century  changed  to 
Btraw,  Gay  mentions  a  new  straw  hat  lined  with  green, 
about  1724,  l>ut  it  was  then  comparatively  nire  ;  for  the 
Biinple  art  of  plaiting  straws  together  to  make  bonnets 
was  only  practiM'd  to  any  considerable  extent  about  sixty 
years  since ;  it  now  employs  upwards  of  2U0,000  females 
in  England — Dunstable,  in  Bedfordshire  producing  the 
ijcst  plait  In  our  time  English  straw  has  been  super- 
seded by  Leghorn  plait,  which  having  declined  in  fashion, 
our  own  straw,  silk,  and  velvet,  have  been  substituted  as 
inatcriaU  for  bonnets ;  and  our  home  manufactures  must 
ttavo  been  materially  benefited  by  the  change, 

NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

The  formalities  of  the  eighteenth  centiiry  received  a 
terrible  blow  at  the  French  Revolution  ;  and  in  the  ten 
jears  from  1790  to  1800  a  more  complete  change  was 
eflected  in  dress  by  the  spontaneous  action  of  the  people 
than  had  taken  place  at  any  previous  period  in  a  century. 
The  change  began  in  France,  partly  to  mark  a  contempt 
for  old  court  usages,  and  partly  in  imitation  of  certain 
classes  of  persons  in  England,  whose  costume  the  French 
mistiwk  fur  that  of  the  nation  generally.  This  new 
French  dress  was  introduced  by  the  party  who  were  styled 
the  8ans  Culottes.  It  consisted  of  a  round  hat,  a  short 
coat,  u  light  waistcoat,  and  pantaloons  ;  a  handkerchief 
was  tied  loosely  round  the  neck,  with  the  ends  long  and 
hanging  down,  and  showing  the  shirt  collar  above;  the 
huir  was  cut  short,  without  powder,  a  la  Titut,  and  the 
(hoes  were  tied  with  strings. 

The  comparatively  simple  form  of  dress  of  the  Sans 
(culottes  found  many  admirers  in  England,  and  soon  be- 
came common  among  young  men ;  the  change  from  an- 
tique fashions  was  also  greatly  hcl|X!d  by  the  imposition 
of  a  tax  on  the  use  of  hair-powder,  which  was  hence- 
forth generally  abandoned.  Pantaloons  which  fitted 
closely  to  the  leg  remained  in  very  common  use  by  those 
persons  who  had  adopted  them,  till  about  the  year  1814, 
when  the  wearing  of  trousers,  already  introduced  into 
the  army,  became  fashionable.  Still,  many  elderly  per- 
sons held  out  in  knee-breeches  against  all  innovations, 
and  till  the  present  dnv  (1842)  an  aged  gentleman  may 
occasionally  be  see  -ng  to  this  eight<'cnth-century 

piece  of  dress.     Tl  ral  use  of  white  neckcloths  con- 

tinued, notwithstaii.  .  ,  ine  introduction  of  the  standing 
collar,  till  the  reign  of  George  !V.,  when  this  monarch's 
'taste  for  wearing  a  black  silk  kerchief  or  stock,  and  also 
the  use  of  Mark  stocks  in  the  army,  caused  a  remarkably 
quick  abandonment  of  white  neckcloths,  and  the  adop- 
tion of  black  instead.  The  year  1825,  or  thereabouts, 
w  ; 8  the  era  of  this  signal  improvement  in  costume. 

While  these  leading  changes  were  etTecting,  other  al- 
terations of  a  less  conspicuous  nature  were  from  time  to 
time  taking  place.  The  disbanding  of  the  army  aflcr  the 
piece  of  1 8 1 5  led  to  various  transformations  besides  those 
we  have  mentioned.  While  pantaloons  were  the  fashion- 
able dress,  it  hcrame  customary  to  wear  Hessian  boots ; 
tiiese,  which  had  originated  among  the  Hessian  troops, 
were  without  tops,  and  were  worn  with  small  silk  tassels 
dangling  from  a  cut  in  front ;  being  drawn  over  the  lower 
)<art  of  the  pantaloons,  they  had  a  neat  ap|)carance,  but 
liie  keeping  of  them  clean  formed  a  torment  that  pre- 
vented their  universal  use.  When  trousers  were  intro- 
duced from  the  practice  of  the  army,  the  use  of  Welling'.^ 
Ion  lioots  to  go  beneath  them  also  l)eciime  common.* 

Referring  to  the  era  of  1816  to  182.'),  as  that  in  which 
trousers,  Wellington  boots,  and  black  neckcloths  or  stocks 


•  It  i»  proper  lo  mrntinn  that  iroiiKcri  had.  for  the  pri'vioin 
fiAeeii  or  iwi>nlv  vtiiri'.  heeii  used  by  boys,  and  wen-  iierhaps 
fr-tm  ihetn  (uliirtiil  In  llie  nnny.  Pri'vioin  lo  the  Priiicli  Revo- 
iu'Jo:i,  Uiu  diL'SH  )!  boys  wn»  u'liioiii  iliu  isiiic  ua  that  of  men. 


came  into  vogue,  wo  may  place  the  introductijo  of  huI 
surtoiit  in  the  same  period  of  history.     From  the  tK,! 
when  the  collarlcss  and  broad-xkirted  coal  had  'lisappcMl 
about  the  commencement  of  I  tie  ccmtury,  the  fashion  ml 
coats  had  changed  in  various  ways,  till  the  aliovo.inujl 
era,  when  the  loose  frock-coat  or  surtout  was  addtj  i 
the  list  of  garments.     We  remember  of  seeing  fnti 
military  officers,  when  in  undress,  wearing  frock^oi 
as  early  as  181 1 ;  it  is  probable,  therefore,  that  the  i 
dern  surtout  is  only  a  variety  of  the  loose  military  g 
coat  brought  from  the  continent  by  the  British  anoi] 
however  it  originated,  it  may  be  allowed  to  be  one  otil 
greatest  improvements  in  the  style  of  dress  which  1 
yet  occurred  in  the  nineteenth  century. 


WELSH  COSTUME. 

The  Welsh,  as*  a  relic  of  an  ancient  Celtic  i 
possess  remarkably  few  external  traits  of  their  orin. 
They  have,  like  the  Irish,  become  Anglicised  incottm 
and  we  should   in  vain  search  amongst  them  for  i 
hreiiran  or  checkered  clothing  of  their  S'^ytliian  ancMnl 
The  general  material  of  dress  is  home-made,  or  aHetnJ 
common  kind  of  woollen  c'oth,  and  flannel,    Blueiit 
general  colour  of  attire.     The  women  wear  close-Citi 
jackets,  and  dark  brown  or  striped  linscy-wonlscy  p 
coats.     The  most  remarkable  part  of  the  Welsh  cost 
is  the  hat  worn  by  the  women.     All  females,  in  pattij 
the  country  not  modernized,  wear  round  blark  hats,  I 
those  of  men ;  and  this  fashion  is  supported  to  ai^ 
extent  by  ladies  of  the  higher  rank.     This  use  ofll 
hat  is  not  Celtic :  the  fashion  is  derived  from  Eniji 
and  is  only  two  or  three  centuries  old. 


IRISH  coyruMB 

The  Irish  at  an  early  period  wore  the  same  Cdi 
fashion  of  attire  as  was  preserved  till  recent  times ioit 
Scottish  Highlands;  but,  as  in  Wales,  every  thing  of  if 
kind  disappeared  as  the  country  became  AngliciscJ,  j 
primitive  species  of  attire,  including  coloured  mantle 
kirtlcs,  and  other  fanciful  garments,  rer..aini'(!  in  u«8 
the  sixteenth  century,  when  laws  were  passed  by  Hen 
VIII.  enjoining  the  use  of  caps,  cloaks,  coats,  doiiM 
and  hose,  of  English  cut,  but  of  Irish  or  any  other  g 
terials. 

The  general  dress  in  Ireland,  at  the  present  day, n 
varies  from  that  in  England.     There  are,  however,' 
interesting  peculiarities  of  costume  amongst  the  pf 
ry  of  the  soutliern  and  western  counties.     In  Kw 
says  Mr.  Crofton  Crokcr, "  the  inhabitants  of  oneUra 
are  easily  distinguished  by  their  peculiar  dress  bora  ll 
of  anotlicr ;  the  greatcoat  is  there  worn  in  the  fashion^ 
a  mantle,  fastened  by  one  button  under  the  chin, 
sleeves  hanging  down  unoccupied  by  the  a,  nis."   Int 
county  of  Limerick  the  men's  dres.s  is  invariphly? 
produced  by  a  mixture  of  hinck  and  white  wool.witbi 
dyeing.     In  the  eastern  parts  of  the  county  of  Coj^li 
blue  is  predominant ;  in  the  western  parts,  and  is  i 
county  of  Kerry,  light  or  powder  blue  ;  and  nearly  1 
same  peculiarity  extends  to  female  dress.     Inlhef 
baronies  of  the  county  of  Cork  and  county  of  Linita 
cloaks  of  the  brightest  red  arc  seen.     In  the  wid^ 
Kerry  and  Cork,  dark  blue  and  gray  [)revail. 

A  brown  stulVgown  and  green  [)ctticoat  is  thep 
female  costume,  with  stockings  of  the  I>rij;ht''.sl  lilut;! 
stockings  are  seldom  seen,  and  shoes  are  BCirdy  ( 
worn  except  on  the  Sahbath  and  other  holidays, 
buckles  and  cloak  clasps  are  much  priied,aiidarcb!ii 
down  from  mother  to  daughter.  Bonnets  are  quit.' I 
known  ;  but  the  high-cauled  mob  cap  is  sonn'tiinesi 
nnder  the  hood.  The  fmlnkien,  or  little  boi)d.  in' 
favourite  head-dress,  and  U  formed  by  a  kerchief ) 


SCO'lTISH  COSTUMES. 


75« 


■|h  folded  round  the  head,  and  tied  in  a  knot  under  the 

The  general  costume  of  the  male  peasantry  is  well 
mown  for  it"  oddity.  A  round  black  hat  or  ciiubccn, 
loanil  which  perhaps  is  bound  a  rop*  of  straw ;  the  rough 
Jiort  cool;  the  corduroy  small  clothes,  open  at  the  knees, 
iIk  buttons  and  strings  enjoying  a  sinecure  "  for  convay- 
Lenoe;"  the  gray  sto'-kings  most  likely  hanging  loose 
glhelega;  and  the  short  black  pipe  stuck  in  the  side 
I  ii,,  inouth,  which  is  ever  ready  for  a  joke.  Such  is 
Pit  in  ordinary  costume ;  but  frequently  ho  may  be  seen 
Lilli  a  freeze  greatcoat  over  all — and  this  cumbrous  gar- 
Lnt,  like  the  mantle  worn  by  femiilos,  seems  to  be  used 
Uen  there  is  no  plea  for  its  use  on  the  score  of  weather. 
Ur,  and  Mrs.  Hall,  in  their  beautiful  work  on  Ireland, 
(ms  speaks  of  the  female  cloak : — 

uTho  Irish  cloak  forms  very  graceful  drapery;  the 
Lferial  falls  well  and  folds  well.  It  is  usually  large 
jnongh  to  envelop  the  whole  person ;  and  the  hood  is  fre- 
Lcntly  drawn  forward  to  shield  the  face  of  the  wearer 
iom  Bun,  rain,  or  wind.  Yet  we  would  fain  see  its 
.wral  use  dispensed  with.  A  female  in  the  lower  ranks 
f  life  cares  but  little  for  the  other  portions  of  her  dress 
I  has  '  a  good  cloak ;'  and  certainly  her  ordinary 

learance  would  be  more  thought  of,  if  the  huge  '  cover- 
fit' were  not  always  at  hand  to  hide  dilapidations  in  her 
Ihcr  garments.     'Oh,  then,  I'm  not  fit  to  be   seen; 

Kln'l  I  Iwtter  tidy  myself  a  bit  1 — but  aisy !  sure  when 
[throw  on  my  cloak  no  one  will  know  what  I  am,'  is  a 

0 frequent  observation;  and  away  they  go,  shrouded 
joio  head  to  foot  in  this  woollen  hide-all.  It  is  true  that 
le  climate  is  damp,  that  it  is  cold,  and  that  the  cloak 
fcminonly  performs  a  double  oflice,  being  used  as  a 
Janket  by  night  as  well  as  a  covering  by  day.  But 
loollen  retains  the  damp ;  and  this  fact,  together  with 
Icccrtainty  that  it  imbibes  and  retains  all  unwholesome 
Utctions,  and  is  seldom  or  never  washed,  are  serious  ar- 
Inients  against *it,  picturesque  though  it  is.  The  pca- 
Lnt  Irish  have  so  few  comforts,  that  we  would  far  rather 
IM to  than  take  from  their  small  store;  but  we  conceive 
•  CMt  of  a  cloak'  could  be  more  advantageously  laid 

K 

IThe  materials  of  the  dress  of  the  Irish  peasantry  are 
liefly  the  native  wool,  worked  rudely  up  into  frieze  or 
fcsey,  druggets,  and  flannels,  for  they  seldom  can  aflbrd 
I  wear  the  linen  they  f!il)ricate.  Unfortunately,  the 
ilk  of  the  Irish  have  little  idea  of  tidiness  either  in 
luseholds  or  attire.  Taking  things  too  easily,  as  rc- 
(ctsexterior  marks  of  decency,  they  allow  their  clothing 
i  mto  disrepair,  and  finally  ruin ;  consequently,  their 
;  ii  generally  more  picturesque  than  neat,  and  it 
U  seems  a  problem  how  they  get  into  it.  We  are 
i  to  observe,  however,  that  this  heedlessness  is  in 
lutw  of  removal,  and  that  the  dress  is  everywhere 
Woving. 


SCOTTISH  COSTUMES. 
■At  the  present  day,  Scotland  cannot  be  said  to  possess 
J  national  costume  which  distinguishes  the  bulk  of  the 
me  from  their  fellow-subjects  in  South  Britain ;  and 
*evcr  much  the  fact  may  surprise  the  artists  and  dra- 
kista  of  England,  it  is  very  certain  that  tlio  inhabitants 
I  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  other  cities  and  towns  in 
lalland,  are  dressed  in  precisely  the  same  fashion  of 
Iments  as  is  now  seen  in  the  streets  of  London,  Paris, 
pell,  ur  the  capital  of  any  other  civilized  country. 
Thia  general  resemblance  of  Scottish  costume  to  that 
lEngland  has  existed  since  aliout  the  reign  of  James 

,  when  foreign  manners  and  fashions  were  introduced 

long  the  higher  classes  of  society,  and  thence  forced 

way  into  ranks  of  professional  men,  traders,  and 

nitely  the  people  at  large.     Previous  to  the  era  we 


mention,  the  dress  of  the  Scotch,  both  those  of  the  Higb 
lands  and  Lowlands,  was  distinguished  by  parti-colour^ 
woven  in  checks,  according  to  taste  or  ancient  usage.  By 
the  Celtic  race  in  the  Highlands,  this  species  of  variegat- 
ing cloth  with  colours  was  called  Jircacan,  which  signifie* 
spotted,  and  by  the  Teutonic  population  of  the  Lowlamlt 
it  received  the  name  of  Ttirtan,a  word  whose  origin  bo* 
defied  the  researches  of  etymologists,  but  which  it  is  uot 
unlikely  may  have  been  derived  from. the  ancient  Tartar 
races,  who  used  a  similar  kind  of  colouring  in  their  attire. 
Whatever  be  the  origin  of  the  term,  all  doubt  as  to  the 
antiquity  and  almost  universal  use  of  the  thing  meant  ia 
at  an  end. 

<•  When  the  soldiers  of  Catherine  [Empress  of  Russia] 
opened  the  vast  tumuli  which  are  scattered  over  the  great 
desert  between  the  Tobal  and  the  Irtish,  among  other  me- 
morials of  a  high  antiquity  they  discovered  a  small  bronze 
figure  of  a  mounted  Tartar,  apparently  an  image  of  one 
of  those  tutelary  deities  still  in  common  use  among  the 
Culniucs  and  Mongols.  The  head  was  represented  in 
the  small  conical  bonnet  once  universally  worn  from 
Thibet  to  St,  Kilda,  still  continued  in  China  and  Albania, 
and  not  extinct  among  the  Highlanders  until  the  bcgiiH 
ning  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  bod^  was  covered 
by  a  chukcrtd  tuidc,  engraved  in  cross  lines,  evidently 
indicating  a  parti-coloured  garment;  and  the  whole  figure 
mi,i>ht  have  passed  unnoticed  among  the  earliest  Highland 
grave-stones,  or  the  remote  Islesmen  in  the  year  1716. 
By  the  traditions  of  the  surrounding  tribes,  the  tumuli 
where  the  bronze  was  found  are  said  to  cover  the  remains 
of  Tartars  killed  in  the  battles  between  Tamerlane  and 
the  Culinucs,  whose  descendants  at  this  day  wear  vesU 
ments  checkered  in  various  colours,  resembling  the  cha- 
racter of  tartan.  The  Turks,  another  race  of  the  spine 
stock,  are  still  attached  to  the  same  habit ;  and  hence  the 
wandering  Turkish  pedlars  in  England  frequently  wear 
a  gown  of  Highldnd  tartan,  from  its  conformity  to  their 
ancient  taste.  But  not  only  among  the  Calraucs  and 
Walgusians  remains  this  remnant  of  an  earlier  period, 
separated  by  distance  and  by  language ;  it  ia  found  lin- 
gering  in  various  quarters  of  the  world,  and  various 
degrees  of  civilization.  Among  the  Tuscans,  the  Nea- 
politans, the  Albanians,  and  the  Basques,  broad  striped 
stutis  and  silks  retain  the  common  elements  of  its  colour- 
ing. In  Wales,  the  petticoat  of  the  women  still  pre- 
serves a  tradition  of  their  ancient  breacnn :  and  that  of 
the  Mulo-RusBJans  and  Don-Cossacks  exhibit  unciuivocal 
tartan.  It  is  of  checkered  cloth,  in  various  colours,  both 
of  the  ivarp  and  the  u-onf,  generally  red,  green,  and  black, 
and  so  exactly  resembling  the  Scottish  patterns  that  it 
might  be  mistaken  for  the  manufacture  of  a  Scottish 
loom.  These  coincidiinccs  are  strong  evidence  of  an 
ancient  universality,  once  prevalent  through  a  large 
portion  of  mankind,  and  of  which  the  tartan  of  Scotland 
is  only  one  of  the  last  remnants,  preserved  by  the  remote 
solitude  and  the  tenacious  habits  of  an  aboriginal  people, 
secluded  from  the  revolutions  of  the  world  and  the  modi- 
fications of  society."* 

We  do  not  find  that  tartan  cloth,  or. indeed  cloth  of 
any  kind,  had  been  worn  by  the  Lowlanders  of  Saxon  or 
Teutonic  origin  in  the  shape  of  philibegs  or  kilts,  that 
ancient  fashion  of  attire  being  for  ages  previously  con 
fined  to  the  Highland  clans.  That  tartan,  however,  was 
at  one  time  as  much  in  use  for  other  garments  in  the 
Lowlands  as  Highlands,  is  distinctly  proved  by  the  fol- 
lowing extract  from  the  "  Vestiarium  Scoticum"  (1560- 
1570),  already  quoted.  We  slightly  modernize  the  or 
thography,  to  render  the  language  intelligible  to  English 
readers  :— 


•  "  Veotinriuin  Pcoticiim:"  from  the  manuscript  formerly  in 
the  I.il)rary  of  the  Scots  College  at  Doiiay,  with  anInir<Hluciio» 
and  Notes,  l)yJohii  SoliL-iski  Stunrt.  EUiiilnrgh:  Will  urn  Tan, 
IMa.  Tlic  above  extract  is  from  the  leariiei'  ntroilnc'joii  oi  Mf 
muaru 


'  / 


T66 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE, 


"For  sftinnikTfl  m  In  tbir  prcwnt  tymei  heen  wten 
dyverg  unenthe  chnuni^s  in  the  auld  Scottysh  famowi, 
•nd  men  do  now  effect  foreipfn  nnd  strnungo  fnntnnei, 
ndilor  nor  sic  holiotn  use  and  order  as  cumeth  of  their 
■in  nntive  giiisc,  and  has  been  u«t  be  our  forbeira  in 
the  nuld  tyme,  for  nowe  all  do  tak  pryd  to  buslce  them 
In  heich  erounit  hattia,  Frenche  cloukis,  Enirlislic  hudea, 
lang  pykct  achiino,  and  udder  «ic  lyk  uncuthe  braveriea, 
the  whilk  was  unknawen  til!  our  ancestors  of  gude  femen, 
Vtha  was  contcntit  to  gang  with  ane  bonnet  of  Kelshcw- 
Mew,  and  nnc  mantel  or  plaid  lyk  as  affore  tym  was  unit 
be  ther  faderis  begone ;  with  ane  pair  of  rouch  rowlyns 
[buskins]  or  homands  of  hartshyd,  as  was  much  u»it  be 
our  umquhilo  lorde  and  sovcrninc  King  James  of  nobil 
memoryo;  for  he  had  ever  besydes  thae  of  his  awin 
colourifl,  twa  or  three  pinidis  of  divers  kyndes  in  his 
■wardrobe,  whilk  he  usit  in  his  jornayes  when  that  he 
wald  not  be  knawen  oponlye." 

Tartan,  for  clothing,  disappeared  in  the  Lowlands  in 
th«;  course  of  the  seventeeth  century  ;  but  even  as  Inte  as 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  parti-coloured 
plaids  were  pretty  generally  worn ;  and  young  women 
were  in  the  habit  of  using  a  "  tartan  screen,"  that  is,  a 
■mnll  plaid  of  variegated  colours.  In  the  fine  old  Scot- 
tish song,  "  Wat  ye  wha  I  met  yestreen,'  the  trrten  of 
tartan  is  alluded  to  in  the  following  characteristic  man- 
ner:— 

"  Wat  ye  wha  I  met  yemreen, 
romiiiB  doiin  ihe  »ireit,  my  joe, 
Mv  int«!re«8  in  her  tartnn  iterftn, 

^ae  twnnie,  blylhe,  and  sweet,  my  Jo*." 

The  tartan  screen,  which  was  worn  in  the  fashion  of 
•  covering  for  the  head  and  shoulders,  so  as  to  combine 
in  some  measure  the  properties  of  a  modern  bonnet  and 
■hawl,  was  formed  of  costly  materials ;  the  ladies  of  the 
higher  classes  employing  silk,  and  those  of  inferior  sta- 
tion fine  worsted,  the  colours  in  each  case  being  remark- 
ably brilliant.  Being  oilcn  employed  with  a  degree  of 
real  or  affected  modesty  to  conceal  a  part  of  the  features, 
it  may  be  said  to  have  performed  the  office  of  a  veil  to 
Scottish  maidens ;  and  hence  its  appellation  of  screen. 
Against  such  <■  vanities"  the  pulpit  in  these  times  often 
railed,  and,  as  we  suppose,  with  the  usual  results.  The 
plaids  of  the  men  were  of  courser  materials,  and  were 
used  only  as  mantles  as  a  defence  agiiinst  the  weather ; 
yet,  if  wo  are  to  believe  Ramsay,  they  were  not  untaste- 
ful  in  their  colouring :  in  the  "  Gentle  Shephc'd,"  he 
makes  one  of  his  shepherds  speak  of 

"A  tartan  plaid  §pun  o'  pide  haslock  woo, 
Hicarlel  and  green  the  sets,  the  borders  lilue,, 
Wi'  spraings  like  gowd  and  silver  cross'd  w'l'  black." 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  character  of  the  tartan 
employed  for  the  plaids  of  the  Lowlanders,  and  the  ge- 
neral garments,  including  the  philibeg  of  the  Highlanders, 
towards  the  midJIe  of  the  eighteenth  century,  it  was  very 
much  obliterated  in  the  year  1747,  when  all  kinds  of 
tartan,  and  also  the  ancient  costume  of  the  Highlanders, 
were,  with  a  view  to  break  the  spirit  of  the  clans,  for- 
mally proscribed  by  law.  The  following  is  the  provision 
in  the  act  of  Parliament  on  the  subject  :■— 

"That  from  and  after  the  1st  day  of  August,  1747, 
no  man  nor  boy,  within  that  part  of  Great  Britain  called 
Scotland,  other  than  such  as  shall  be  employed  as  officers 
•nd  soldiers  in  his  majesty's  forces,  shall,  on  any  pretence 
whatever,  wear  or  put  on  the  clothes  commonly  called 
Highland  clothes;  that  is  to  say,  the  plaid,  philibeg, 
or  little  kilt,  trowso,  shoulder  belts,  or  any  part  whatso- 
ever of  what  peculiarly  belongs  to  the  Highland  garb ; 
and  that  no  tartan  or  parti-coloured  plaid  or  stuff  shall  be 
used  for  great^coats  or  for  upper  coats ;  and  if  any  such 
person  shall  presume,  affer  the  said  flrst  day,  to  wear  or 
put  on  the  aforesaid  garments,  or  any  part  of  them, 
every  such  person  offending,  being  convicted  by  the  oath 


of  one  or  more  credible  witnesses  before  any  eouii 
justiciary,  <  shall  suffer  imprisonment,  without  btii  d1 
ing  the  space  of  six  months;'  and  being  convicleil'f   J 
second  offence,  shall  be  transported  to  any  of  hii  mii«.t!T 
plantations  beyond  seas,  there  to  remain  the  iniL 
seven  years."  ' 

This  contemptible  law  was  repealed  in  the  year  irsjl 
but  before  that  tiine  the  tartan  and  the  "  gurb  of  ijj 
Gaul"  had  been  generally  abandoned,  except  amoJ 
Highland  regiments,  and  it  is  chiefly  copies  (jom  t|,  j 
attire  that  have  guided  modern  attempts  at  revivint  t 
costume. 

llic;Mand  Coiiumt. — Originally  the  costume  of  i 
Highlanders  resembled  that  of  other  Celtic  triliej  anil 
consisted  of  little  else  than  a  woollen  garment  of  JariJ 
gated  colours  wrapped  round  the  body  and  loins  withl 
portion  hanging  down  to  cover  the  upper  part  of  \l 
legs.  In  progress  of  time  this  ruile  fashion  waa  tupci] 
seded  by  a  distinct  piece  of  cloth  forming  a  philibeit  J 
kilt,  while  another  piece  was  thrown  loosely  as  a  tawM. 
or  plaid  over  the  body  and  shoulders.  In  either  case  ihj 
cloth  was  variegated  in  conformity  with  the  preicribi 
hrenrnn  or  symbol  of  the  clan ;  and  hence  the  tart_ 
was  sometimes  called  calh-ilalh,  or  battle  colours,  in  toke] 
of  forming  a  distinction  of  clans  in  the  Held  of  battle.  T 
,  According  to  the  author  of  the  "  Vestiarium  8cotJ 
cum,"  the  following,  in  the  reign  of  Jnmcs  VI.,  vm  t[ 
list  of  chief  and  subordinate  clans,  each  posseasing  it] 
own  tartan  ;  among  these  chins,  it  will  be  observed,  are  { J 
eluded  certam  Lowland  families  or  houses,  who  had  i 
adopted  the  same  kind  of  cognisance. 

Clan  Stewart — six   colours,  chiefly  red,  checked  wij 

green,  purple,  black,  white,  and  yellow. 
Prince  of  Rothsay — three  colours,  checked  with 

and  white. 
Royal  Stewart — chiefly  white,  checked  with  green,  r 

purple,  and  black.         « 
Macdonald  of  the   Isles — chiefly   green,  checked  wit] 

black,  purple,  red,  and  white. 
Ranald — chiefly  green,  checked  with  black,  purple,  n 

and  white. 
Macgregor— chiefly  red,  checked  with  grern  and  white,! 
Ross — chiefly  red,  checked  with  green  and  purple. 
Macduff — chiefly  red,  checked  with  green,  black,  ii^ 

purple. 
Macpheraon— equal  portions  of  black  and  ixbite,  \ 

small  lines  of  red  and  yellow. 
Graht— chiefly  red,  with  checks  of  green  and  purple,  j 
Monro— chiefly  red,  checked  with  black  and  white. 
Macleod— chiefly  yellow,  checked  with  black  and  rei  | 
Campbell— chiefly  green,  checked  with  black,  putp 

yellow,  and  white. 
Sutherland— chiefly  green,  with  black,  purple,  red,  i 

white. 

Cameron — chiefly  red,  checked  with  g-.eon  and  yello»,j 
Macneil — chiefly  green,  with  purple,  black,  white,  i 

red. 
Marfarlano — very  dark,  being  chiefly  black  checked  ? 

white. 
Maclachlan^-chiefly  yellow,  with  checks  of  brown. 
Gillean  or  Maclean — chiefly  green,  checked  with  bli^ 

and  white. 
Mackenzie — nearly  equal  portions  of  green  and  putp 

checked  with  black,  white,  and  red. 
Frascr— chiefly  red,  checked  with   purple,  green, 

white. 
Menzies^-equal  portions  of  red  and  white. 
Chisholm — chiefly  red,  checked  with  purple,  green,  i 

white. 
Buchanan.— chiefly  red   and  white,  with  small 

stripes. 
Lamont — chiefly  green,  checked  with  black,  purple,  i 

white. 


SCOTTISH  COSTUMES. 


7«7 


black  and  vhite,  wa 


black,  purple,  red,! 


lefly  black  checked  wii 


ll^ngjl— chiefly  red,  checked  with  black,  purple,  and 

rv„tyre— chiefly   green,  chocked  with  purple,  red, 

I  iwi  whitu. 

ItorBon — chiefly  red,  checked  with  purple  and  green. 

I|l^g,t^_chiefly  red,  checked  with  crimson,  greon,  and 

I  blick- 

luirliinnon — chiefly  red,  checked  with  green,  black,  and 

I Mjckintoah— chiefly  rod,  checked  with  green,  black,  and 

I  while. 

Ifiraiiharson— chiefly  green,  with  purple,  black,  red,  and 

vcllow. 
Ill' _^hicfly  green,  checked  with  black  and  red. 
Iljii'arthur — chiefly  green,  checked  with  black  and  yellow. 
I|l^{j.,y_cbit>fly  a  bluish  purple,  with  black  and  red 

checks. 
Iviciiueen — nearly  equal  portions  of  red  and  black,  with 

I  reliow. 

I5j'jj5__chiefly  red,  with  green,  yellow,  and  white. 

iDoudaa— very  dark,  being  equal  checks  of  black  and 

I  ilite  colour. 

Iciaffford— equal  portions  of  red  and  green,  with  white. 

I  Kolbfen— chiefly  red,  with  purple  and  green. 

I  jljjigomery — fchiefly  light  green,  checked  with  purple. 

I  Hamilton— chiefly  red,  with  purple  and  white. 

I  VemyBa— chiefly  red,  checked  with  black,  white,  and 

I  ten— chiefly  red,  with  green,  black,  and  white. 

I  Wair— chiefly  green,  checked  with  black,  purple,  red, 

md  white. 
I Diinbar— chiefly  red,  checked  with  green  and  black. 
I[^||(>_chiefly  red,  checked  with  purple,  black,  and  yellow. 
I  liuJcr— chiefly  green,  with  purple,  black,  and  red. 
I  Cunningham — chiefly  red,  with  black,  purple,  and  white. 

iav — chiefly  red,  with  purple  and  green. 
iHav— i-'hiofly  red,  with  green,  yellow,  white,  and  black. 
I  Dondas— chiefly  green,  with  purple,  black,  ond  red. 
Ojilvio—chiefly  green,  beautifully  checked  with  purple, 

black,  yellow,  and  red. 
lOliphant— eijuol   portions  of  green   and  purple,  with 

Mack  and  white. 
I  ieton— chiefly  red,  with  small  lines  of  green,  black,  pur- 
ple, and  white, 
timaay— chiefly  red,  with  black  squares  checkered  with 

white. 
lErskine— red  and  green. 

I  Wallace— red  and  black,  checkered  with  yellow. 
I  Biodic— chiefly  red,  with  black  and  yellow. 
Barclay— chiefly  light  green  and  purple,  checkered  with 

red. 
iMarraj— chiefly  green,  checkered  with  black,  purple,  and 

red. 
I  Urquhart— chiefly  green,  with  black,  purple,  white,  and 

red. 
I  llo)i>— chiefly  red,  with  small  checks  of  purple,  green 

md  white. 
IColquhoun — green,  purple,  black,  red,  and  white. 
I  Dnimmond— chiefly  red,  with  green  and  dark  red. 
I  Torbe*— chiefly  green,  with  black,  red,  and  yellow. 
I  Scolt— chiefly  red,  with  green,  red,  and  black. 
jArmstrong — chiefly  green,  with  black,  purple,  and  red. 
I  Gordon — chiefly  green,  with  purple,  black,  and  yellow. 
Il'ranstoun — yellowish-green,  with  purple  and  red. 
I  Graham— chiefly  green,  with  black  checks. 
I  Maxwell — chiefly  red,  with  green  and  black. 
I  Home— dark  purple,  with  black,  red,  and  green. 
Ilnhnston — chiefly  green,  with  purple,  black,  and  yellow. 
I  Kei— chiefly  red,  with  black  and  green. 

To  this  list  the  names  of  other  Scottish  families  who 
Ihtve  adopted  a  |)eculiar  set  of  tartan  as  a  cugniKance 
■rid  be  added,  and  probably  the  entire  number  of  tartans 


now  fabricated  for  indiMriminaie  sale  is  not  fewer  than  • 
hundred.  One  of  the  most  commonly  used  patterns  of 
tartan  is  that  adopted  by  the  42d  regiment— dark-green, 
checkered  with  purple.  Some  of  what  are  called  fancy, 
tartans  are  gaudy,  but  not  in  good  harmony  or  contrast 
of  colour. 

As  modernized  and  improved  by  the  Highland  regl> 
monts,  the  <'  belted  plaid,"  worn  as  the  philibeg  or  small 
kilt,  with  a  separate  drapery  depending  from  the  shoulder 
in  imitation  of  the  ancient  garb,  is  one  of  the  most  pic- 
turesque and  graceful  costumes  to  be  seen  in  any  part 
of  the  world ;  and  although  it  leaves  the  leg  bare  at  and 
a  short  way  above  the  kiiro,  we  are  assured  that  it  is  by 
no  means  too  meagre  an  attire  tor  cold  weather.  A  gen- 
tleman in  Edinburgh  informs  us  that  he  never  catches 
cold  when  dressed  in  the  kilt  and  hunting  among  his 
native  Highland  hills  ;  but  that  he  is  always  unwell  aflet 
returning  to  town  and  donning  the  dress  of  the  Low- 
landers.  Ancientiy,  the  Gael  wore  no  shoes  or  garments 
for  the  legs.  The  feet  were  only  on  occasions  covered 
with  pieces  of  hide,  tied  with  a  thong,  called  iroi^),  which, 
though  slender,  were  very  lasting,  and  were  well  suited 
for  walking  or  running  un  heathy  mountains.  The  in- 
troduction of  shoes,  and  also  hose,  formed  from  the  samo 
tartan  cloth  as  the  kilt,  is  comparatively  modem.  The 
hnse  of  the  common  men  in  the  Highland  regiments  ara 
still  not  knitted  or  wove  like  stockings,  but  cut  from  tbo 
web  and  sewed. 

It  appears  that  even  in  ancient  times  the  Celtic  tribes 
did  not  always  wear  the  loose  garments  we  have  described ; 
but  that  they  also,  or  at  least  some  of  them,  wore  tho 
Iriughds  or  trius,  a  species  of  vestment  «  formed  of  tar- 
tan cloth,  nicely  titted  to  the  shape,  and  fringed  down  tho 
leg.  They  were  sometimes  merely  striped,  and  wcro 
fastened  by  a  belt  around  the  loins,  with  a  square  piece 
of  cloth  hanging  down  before.  It  required  consideraMo 
skill  to  make  the  trius.  The  measure  was  a  stick,  in 
length  one  cubit,  divided  into  one  finger  and  a  half. 
There  is  preserved  a  Gaelic  saying  respecting  this  gar- 
ment, by  which  we  are  given  to  understand  that  there 
were  two  full  nails  to  the  small  of  the  leg,  eleven  from 
the  haunch  to  the  heel,  and  three  to  the  breech,  a  mea- 
sure inapplicable  to  few  well  made  men."* 

The  coat  in  which  the  upper  part  of  the  body  and 
arms  of  the  Highlanders  are  now  invested,  is  of  course 
quite  modern,  having  come  into  use  when  the  old  form 
of  tho  plaid  dress  was  laid  aside.  Made,  as  it  usually  is, 
with  short  skirts  and  small  round  buttons,  it  cannot  be 
considered  in  harmony  with  the  rest  of  the  attire ;  but  it 
is  nevertheless  convenient,  and  could  not  well  be  im- 
proved. 

The  bonnet  has  for  ages  been  a  part  of  the  Highland 
costume,  as  it  was  formerly  also  of  the  Lowlanders,  and, 
we  may  add,  the  English  previous  to  the  introduction  of 
felt  hata.  The  haet  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  must  have  been 
little  else  than  a  thick  woollen  cap  or  bonnet.  <<  In  Eng- 
land, it  was  ordained,  in  1571,  that  every  person  above 
seven  years  of  age  should  wear,  on  Sundays  and'  holi- 
days, a  cap  of  wool  knit,  thickened  and  dressed  iu  the 
country  by  cappers,  under  the  penalty  of  3s.  4d.  for 
every  day's  neglect ;  lords,  knights,  gentlemen  of  twenty 
marks'  lands,  such  as  have  borne  offices  of  worship, 
gentlewomen,  ladies,  and  wards  being  excepted."f 

The  English  gave  up  bonnets  sooner  than  the  Scotch; 
and  ultimately  the  cry  that  "  the  blue  bonnets  had  come 
over  the  border,"  was  equivalent  to  saying  that  a  party 
of  Scotch  marauders  had  entered  England  on  one  of 
their  usual  hostile  excursions.  The  Highlanders,  with 
whom  the  bonnet  has  remained  longest  as  a  part  of  ordl> 


•  "The  Scollish  Ouel."    By  James  Logan.    SvflU,    Loniio* 

tsai. 

t  LogBii'i  "  Scottish  Gael." 

3  S 


TM 


•  INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPI-F. 


j^^ 


nnry  drosi,  hnvo  Bdoptcd 
very  many  Rhn|iCH  nnd 
mcHlpi  of  orimiiu-nting 
tlicir  hciul-gpnr.  The 
henvy  plume  of  bliirk 
featlu>ra  uxod  in  tlio  army 
ii  quilp  mojprn,  and  in 
exccpdingly  Imd  tasto, 
bcnidcH  being  (oUlly  un- 
conformalilo  to  the  idea 
of  a  primitive  and  li){lit 
costume.  The  true  bonnet 
of  the  HighlandniHumnll, 
cither  round  or|x<aked  in 
front,  diirli  blue  or  gray 
in  colour,  and  without 
any  tartan  or  checkering. 
In  fancy  drcM,  a»  for  ex- 
ample in  the  adjoining 
cut,  the  bonnet  i»  aomo- 
whnt  larger,  and  occa- 
lionally  has  a  hand  of 
tnrtan.  Highland  chiefs  were  distinguished  by  three 
pinion  feathcra  of  the  native  eagle  stuck  in  the  bonnet; 
•nd  those  who  enjoyed  the  rank  of  gentlemen  were  en- 
titled to  ivonr  a  single  feather.  It  was  customary  also 
for  the  meinlHTg  of  each  clan  to  wear  in  the  bonnet  a 
prculiur  badge  formed  of  some  native  shrub.  Authori- 
ties ditfur  as  to  the  precise  shrulm  worn  for  this  puriiosn. 
According  to  Logan,  the  Buchanans  used  a  sprig  of  bil- 
borrj' ;  the  Oamerons,  crowberry  ;  the  Campbells,  fir-club- 
moss :  the  Forbscs,  broom ;  Frasers,  yew ;  Macleods, 
juniper ;  Rol)ertsons,  fine-leaved  heath,  &c. 

The  full  dress  of  Highland  chiefs  and  gentlemen  has 
•Iways  been  lilwrally  ornamented  with  sword,  baldrick, 
4trk,  large  brooches,  buckles,  shot  pouch,  and  purse. 
The  purse  or  sporan  is  a  most  important  part  of  the 
costume:  it  is  formed  of  the  skin  of  a  wild  animal  with 
the  hair  on,  and  tied  to  the  waist  by  a  band,  hangs  down 
in  front,  so  as  to  fall  easily  upon  the  lap,  and  not  incom- 
mode the  legs  in  walking.  It  is  usually  ornamented 
with  silver  tags  or  tassels,  and  a  flap  covering  the  mouth 
of  the  purse  is  sometimes  decorated  with  the  vizard  of  a 
fox.  "  In  many  cases,"  aays  Logan,  "  the  purse  is  com- 
posed of  leather,  like  d  modern  reticule.  It  is  formed 
into  several  distinct  pockets,  in  which  the  Uael  carried 
their  money,  watch.  Sic,  and  sometimes  also  their  shot ; 
but  anciently  they  bore  a  similar  wallet  or  builg  at  the 
right  side,  for  the  shot,  or  for  a  quantity  of  meal  or  other 
provision.  This  was  termed  dorluch,  and  was  the  knap- 
tack  of  the  Highland  soldier ;  and  small  as  that  of  the 
present  military  is,  among  the  Gael  it  was  still  more  port- 
able. '  Those  of  the  English  who  visited  our  camp,' 
■ays  an  author  quoted  by  Jameson,  <  did  gaze  with  ad- 
miration upon  those  supple  fellows,  the  Highlanders, 
with  their  plaids,  targets  [shields],  and  dorlachs.'  The 
purse  admiti  of  much  ornament,  but  according  to  my 
taste,  when  too  large,  it  hides  the  l)eauty  of  the  kilt" 

After  a  period  of  indifTcrence  to  the  preservation  of 
this  bequtiful  national  costume,  there  has  latterly  sprung 
op  a  better  tone  of  feeling  on  the  subject,  Ixith  among 
Lnwbinders  and  Highlanders.  Encouraged  by  prizes 
liberally  awarded  by  the  Caledonian  Society  of  London, 
•  public  exliibition  takes  place  ttienniully  at  Edinburgh, 
at  which  there  is  a  com|>ctition  of  skill  in  playing  the 
Higlilav.d  bagpi|)cs,  dancing,  &c.,  and  taste  in  dressing 
in  prcj;<r  holiday  costume.  A  hundred  or  more  men 
generally  atti-nd  from  all  parts  of  the  Highlands  in 
their  respective  clan  tartans;  and  the  cxhihition  as  a 
■urviving  relic  of  manners  and  customs  the  most  ancient 
in  the  world,  is  one  ol'  the  most  mteresting  which  can 
be  witnessed.  The  last  exhibition  was  in  the  summer 
of  1H41. 

In  roncliwon,  with  respect  to  the  ancient  Highland 


■X 


dross,  it  is  proper  to  mention  that  it  !*  upon  th«  «), 
little  worn  in  the  present  day  in  the  Highlnndi  L 
which  the  modern  garb  of  jackets  and  trounn  of Vi 
woollen   cloth    has   been  generally   introduced,  |i!j" 
worn  on  all  ordinary  occasions.     In  short,  eicepi » 
fancy  costume,  it  is  seldom  m-en  anywhere  in  HcotU 

Jjiirlaiiil  Coslumr. — As  already  observed,  the  coninn 
of  tho  Lowland  Scotch  is  at  the  present  day  the  name 
that  which  has  for  ages  been  common  in  England  a 
France.     Among  the  peasantry,  however,  in  unnoptij,,; 
cated  districts  of  tho  country,  there  remains  «  few  t,,;, 
of  a  past  state  of  things.     The  Lowland  small  firm, 
of  eiijhty   years   since   was  dressed  in  strong  woollei 
clothing,  perhaps  home-made 
of  a  gray  or  light-blue    co> 
lour,  the  legs  below  tho  knee 
Ix'ing    enveloi)od    in   coarse 
gray  blockings,   Tho  Anglo- 
Haxon  smock  shirt  does  not 
appear   ever   to   have    been 
used  in  Scotland,  where  tho 
garments  both  of  men  and 
women   were   for   the  most 
part   of  woollen  or  ploiden. 
Tho  hat  eighty  years  since 
was    rare.      Tho    class    of 
peasants  wo   allude  to  still 
wore  the  blue  bonnet,  which 
difliTod,  however,  from  tho 
Highland  bonnet  in  shape; 
it  was  flat   like  a  bannock, 
drooping  on    the    neck    or 
projecting  over  the  countenance,  and  wasornamenled 
the  top  with  a  small  tuft  or  cherry  of  red  worsted,  ij 
to  this  huinblo  attire  we  add  a  gray  woollen  plaiJ,  won 
when  the  weather  or  old  ago  required  such  a  moanj 
protection,  and  place  in  the  hand  a  snulT-mii//,  or  boi 
tho  form  of  a  crooked  horn,  we  have  a  complete  pirta 
of  the  Lowland  Scot  in  full  costume,  as  he  cximcd  aboi 
the  year  1 760.     As  late  as  thirty  years  since,  wr  rcmn 
her  of  seeing  many  such;  and  even  yet  they  have  di 
entirely  disappeared. 

While  the  flat  blue  bonnet  hos  generally  given  way 
the  modern  hat,  or  only  survived  in  the  degenerate  fori 
of  a  small  round  Kilmarnock  bonnet  worn  pretty  gti 
rally  by   carters,  ploutdiinen,  and  boys  of  the  humWi 
rank,  the  gray  checked  plaid  has  withstood  all  innoi 
tions.     This  garment,  which  is  still  universally  woi 
by  shepherds  and  other  persons  in  rural  districts  of  tl 
country,  may  be  viewed  as  the  only  relic  of  tho  nncin 
variegated  attire  of  the  Lowland  Scotch.     The  ehecki 
ing   is    very   simple,   consisting    only   of  small  ci 
bars  of   white    nnd    black,   and    the  general  cITfcl 
gray.     Tho  plaid  is  made  longer  than  broad,  to  eniU 
tho  wearer  to  wrap  one  end  round  his  b«ly  and  sh 
ders,  and  allow  the  other  to  hang  gracefully  down 
back.     The  right  arm  is  generally  left  disengaged, 
very  general  use  of  this  simple  kind  of  plaid  has 
frequent  reference  in  the  lyrical  pieces  of  the  Seoltii 
bards  ;  thus  Duma,  in  his  usually  descriptive  languii 
says  in  one  of  his  songs : — 

"I'll  Ink  my  plnlil nni\  mil  I'll  sti-al. 
Ami  owi'r  ilic  hills  lo  NiiiiniiiO." 

The  only  other  variety  of  costume  worthy  of  ncliJ 
in  connection  with  the  Lowlands  of  Scotland,  is  that  oil 
remarkable  community  of  fishers  on  the  coast  of  the  Fiif 
of    Forth,  near  Edinburgh.     At  Newhaven,  a  villi 
westward   from   Leith,  and  at   Fishcrrow,  a  sulmrb  i 
Musselburgh,  these  fishers  hove  from   time  immeinorij 
possessed  a  monopoly  of  iupplyiiig    the  metropoliH 
market  with  their  perishabl.!  wares,  procured  often  all 
small  personal  risk  on  the  bosom  of  the  adjacent  lira 
Tho  dress  of  the  males  dilTirs  little  from  tbtt of i ' 


SPACES  3P  TIME. 


759 


gennrallvi  and  tho  peculiaritioa  wo  have  to  meri' 
ii^ire  coiifiiii'd  uiitiroly  to  tho  women,  nmrrii'd  and  un- 
jifficd,  whose  oxclimive  and  chverfull>'  pfrlbrrniMl  duty  it 
I,  to  lell  the  flxh  in  the  murl(et«  and  atrcntii  of  Cdinhurgh. 
TIkk* ''"'""''"•>  '•  '^"y  •"■*  termed,  nroof  an  exceed- 
ingly roliurtt  I'ramo  uiid 
constitution,  and  uvuully 
carry  loads  of  from  ono 
to  two  hundred  weight 
upon  thuir  baci<a,  in 
creels  or  willow  bns- 
keta,and  evince  a  mnscu- 
line  degree  of  strength 
which  is  not  unaccompa- 
nied by  mannersequiilly 
masculine.  These  sin- 
gular Amazons  dress 
themselves  in  a  style 
which,  if  coarse,  must 
also  not  be  uncostly. 
Thoy  aro  unable  to  wear 
any  head-dress,  except- 
ing a  plain  muslin  cap 
or  mutch,  and  on  the 


I  front  of  this  is  loosely  placed  a  coIoure<1  kf  rehlcf,  to  les»cn 
I  the  presHiirn  of  a  broad  belt  which  crosses  the  forehead  and 
I  must  be  slipped  over  the  head  every  time  they  net  down 
I  their  merchandise.  They  usually  wear  a  voluminous  mass 
I  of  {wtticonts,  with  a  jerkin  of  blue  cloth,  and  several 
fine  niipkins  eucloNing  tho  neck  and  bosom.  Thnir 
numerous  pctticAutH  are  of  different  qualities  and  colours, 
but  gonerully  stri|)cd  rod,  or  yellow,  or  blue  ;  and  it  is 
customary  while  two  or  three  hong  down  to  the  calf  of 
iho  leg,  to  huvo  us  many  more  bundled  up  over  the 
hnunches,  so  as  to  give  a  singularly  bulky  and  sturdy 
appeariinco  to  tho  figure.  Thirty  or  forty  years  ago, 
they  wore  no  nhoes  or  stockings,  but  cannot  now 
be  impeached  with  thiit  defect,  so  often  imputed  to  Scot- 
tish women  by  traveliors.  TI<e  triet  of  the  flxhwivcs  are 
well  known  to  vimters  of  Edinburgh  as  being  musical, 
and  fur  from  unpleuuing.  It  has  been  conjectured  that 
tho  fisher  community  to  which  they  belong,  ond  which 
admits  of  no  mixture  from  other  departments  of 
the  population,  is  descended  from  a  colony  of  settlcra 
from  the  coast  of  tiio  Netherlands ;  but  of  this  thcrn  is 
no  evidence,  and  their  names  nnd  language  do  not  mate- 
rially ditfcr  from  what  are  common  in  other  parts  of 
Mid-Lothian 


TIME-CHRONOLOGY-TIME  MEASURERS. 


SPACKS  OP  TIME 

Time  is  the  general  relation  of  events  and  successive 
nislenccs  to  each  other — a  thing  of  duration,  involving 
Ihe  past,  tho  present,  and  the  future.  It  is  very  obvious 
tliit  for  Iho  measurement  of  time  wo  can  have  no  stnn- 
dard  of  tho  Hanio  tani;iblo  nature  with  a  pound,  a  yard, 
or  a  pint  in'-asurc.  Wo  must  have  recourse  to  the  lapse 
of  time  involved  in  some  continued  or  reiterated  vtn'ioii, 
M  to  which  we  have  all  the  proof  possible  in  the  nature 
of  the  ihimt,  that,  on  the  whole,  it  rri]iiires  the  same 
period  of  time  for  ila  recurrence  on  one  occasion  as  on 
e»ery  other.  S<uch  motions,  as  tho  moasuro  of  periods 
01  portions  of  time  not  less  in  duration  l!'  ■!  ><  single  day, 
in  those  of  the  rotation  of  the  earth  i.  ij  oxis,  the 
revolution  of  the  moon  round  the  earth,  and  .hat  of  the 
Mrth  and  moon  round  the  sun.  Of  such  us  shall  con- 
ntule  the  measure  of  periotls  less  in  duration  than  a 
mgle  day,  or  day  and  night,  there  aro  no  explicit  natural 
itandards ;  and  hcnco  the  utility  and  necessity  of  me- 
chanism of  human  invention,  the  motions  of  which, 
nathematically  adjusted  and  numbered,  shall  measure 
nd  record  such  briefer  ond  more  arbitrary  periods  of 
timn  as  those  we  term  seconds,  minutes,  and  hours. 

Jr.  accordance,  therefore,  with  what  is  the  common 
practice  of  mankind  in  applying  such  a  scale  of  time  to 
Ihe  general  routine  and  purposes  of  life,  especially  in  its 
Bore  civilized  condition,  wo  propose  to  treat  here,  briefly, 
of  ihii  measurement  of  time  by  days,  months,  years,  and 
cjclcii,  considered  with  special  reference  to  their  respec- 
tive latural  and  artificial  subdivisions  and  accumulations. 

DAYS  AND  HOURS. 
The  day  is  that  portion  of  time  which  elapses  while 
the  earth  turns  once  complofoly  round  on  its  axis — each 
half  of  its  circumforenco  passing,  alternately,  through 
Ihe  light  of  the  sun  on  the  one  hand,  and  through  the 
dttkiicis  of  the  starry  heavens  on  the  other — thus  pro- 


ducing, to  those  carried  around  with  it,  the  successior  of 
day  and  night,  and  the  apparent  phenomenon  of  a  di- 
urnal revolution  of  the  sun  from  one  point  in  the 
illuminated  atmosphere  back  again  to  the  same  point,  or 
nearly  so. 

'i'he  succession  of  day  and  night  would  undoubtedly 
constitute  the  first  great  natural  period  reckoned  by  the 
human  race — involving,  as  it  does,  not  only  the  most 
familiar  and  most  strikingly  contrasted  phenomena  within 
the  bounds  of  man's  cxi)crience,  but  phenomena  pecu- 
liarly adapted  to  the  great  necessities  of  his  nature — 
those  of  vigilance  and  sleep.  Yet  tliB  precise  point  at 
which  the  day  should  be  held  to  begin  and  terminate  must 
have  l)cen  a  matter  much  less  easily  settled ;  and  accord- 
ingly wo  find,  that  while  amongst  ancient  nations — the 
Babylonians,  Peroians,  Syrians,  Greeks,  and  almost  all 
the  nations  of  Asia — the  day  began  at  sunrise,  and  was 
held  to  last  throughout  the  whole  of  tho  ensuing  day- 
light and  darkness  (an  arrangement  better  adapted  to 
countries  near  the  tropics  than  elsewhere,  as  the  sun 
there  rises  more  nearly  about  the  same  time  throughout 
the  year) ;  the  Jews,  Turks,  Austrians,  and  others,  with 
some  of  the  Italians  and  Germans,  have  begun  their  day 
about  sunset;  the  Arabians  theirs  at  noon,  as  do  astrono- 
mers and  navigators  of  all  nations ;  the  ancient  Egypt- 
ians, and  most  of  the  modem  Europeans  and  Americans, 
on  the  other  hand,  as  well  as  the  modern  Chinese,  be- 
ginning theirs  at  midnight,  which  is  evidently  the  most 
convenient  plan,  since  it  throws  all  tlie  waking  and  active 
part  of  the  day  under  one  (la». 

The  subdivision  of  the  day  into  morning,  forenoon, 
mid-day,  afternoon,  evening,  and  night,  is  natural,  though 
somcwliat  indefinite,  and  moy  be  conceived  to  have 
always  been  more  or  less  marked  by  man,  even  in  his 
rudest  state,  and  at  all  c  ',nts  the  ancient  Uhaldeahs, 
Syrians,  Persians,  Indians,  Jews,  and  iionians,  divided 
the  day  and  the  night  into  four  parts;   but  there  i» 


7«0 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE 'PEOPLE. 


oothiug  obvioui  in  (ne  nnturil  rhnngr*  or  niotioni  of  the 
«uii,  luuDii,  nirth,  or  iitur«,  wliirli  roiiltl  |H>iiit  out  the 
ilWitiim  of  iluyi  into  hnuni,  huiirii  into  iniiiutoN,  or  inU 
nutflii  into  mu'oimI*.  ThfM!  diviiioni  ore  rnliri'ly  artiflcinl 
uiid  arliitrnry,  umIom,  indood,  wo  conceive  tlic  lu-cond  to 
rcpreM<nt  thiit  niiniitcitl  |iorlion  of  tinio  which,  to  tho 
hninan  niiml,  cunHlitutim  it*  nalurni  unit  ur  rndiniciil,  ni 
|«rtick'ii  coniititui)'  the  unita  of  a  nmiM ;  hut  even  iirconclrt 
linvo  ht-vn  ■iilnhvided  into  thiriU,  mid  utill  it  in  evident 
that,  atUsr  all,  thrM)  arr  no  more  tho  niinnleitt  elements 
of  time  than  are  what  our  chcnuata  term  moleculoa  tho 
niiautoal  elenient«  of  maiwei. 

In  thn  civilized  part  of  tho  world,  it  ia  now  ru'tomary 
to  divide  the  day,  and  reckon  the  minuter  portiona  of 
time,  by  HHtruinenta  to  Imi  ul\erwiird<i  dewrilird,  in 
Hocondn,  liixty  of  which  constitute  n  minute  ;  in  minutcH, 
«ixty  of  which  conxtitulo  an  hour ;  and  in  houm,  twenty- 
four  of  which  conktitule  a  day.  MoHt  nations  hiivo 
theae  iiixtrunu'ntjt  markoil  for  only  twelve  honra,  the  com- 
putation Immuk  twofold,  like  tho  day  itwlf ;  hut  the  Ita- 
lian*, UohcNiiuns,  and  Polea,  run  them  on  from  the  flrHt 
to  the  twenly-l'iiurlli — from  ono  o'clock  to  twenty-four 
o'clock.  'I'he  ChiiiOho,  on  thn  other  hand,  divide  the  duy 
into  twelve  lioutH  only,  each  beinR,  therefore,  twice  the 
length  of  ourH.  In  the  decimal  ayntem  adopted  hy  the 
French,  the  day  wan  divided  into  ton  honra. 

The  len.?lh  of  time  which  olapnes  whilo  any  ffivcn 
(loint  on  the  eurth'a  aurfuce  paaacM  from  a  Himilur  point 
in  tho  Htnrry  firmament  and  return^  to  the  Hnino  point,  in 
jailed  the  HidiTcil  day,  and  ia  foiiiul,  when  moBHured  hy 
the  moliona  of  t!ie  ordinary  inAtrumenta  invented  for  tlio 
puriMMe  of  |Miinliiin  "U'  ''"  aulxliviMiona — namely,  tiine- 
koc|)era — to  r.iiisi»t  of,  or  be  equal  to,  33  hour*,  56  nii- 
hutea,  .3  Heconds,  and  (to  bo  Htill  more  exact,  ax  nHtro:io- 
mora  rojuiro  to  In-)  4  thirda — a  third  lieinu  the  sixtieth 
part  of  II  m'cdikI,  Uut  althuUHh  the  dintuncu  of  any 
flxod  at'ir  in  the  lirn^ament  ia  ao  immenae  that  the  whole 
orbit  of  the  rarlh  ia  but  aa  it  wore  a  point  itHcIf  in  com- 
parison, and  the  motion  of  the  earth  in  that  orbit  there- 
fore cannot  alter  oi  ull'ect  the  lenKth  of  the  aideroal  ilay  to 
any  approciulile  extent,  it  ia  otherwiae  with  the  aolar  or 
natural  >lay,  which  is  that  portion  of  time  elaiwinj^  Ih'- 
twccn  the  arrival  of  the  aun  at  the  meridian,  or  mi<l-day, 
on  two  consecutive  days.  The  main  lent;th  of  this  |M!riod 
of  time  iH  24  houra,  nearly  3  minutes  6li  aoconda  on  the 
average  l»cinK  rcquiriHl,  in  consoi|ucnce  of  tho  earth's 
motion  in  iti^orliil,  to  bring  the  aim  up  tn  the  aamo  nic- 
ridinn  on  every  HuccoKsivo  day.  The  present  inclination 
of  the  piano  of  the  earth's  oijuator  to  the  plane  of  its 
orbit,  however,  which  ia  diminishini;,  tliou);h  with  ex- 
treme alowne^s,  and  tho  unequal  rapidity  of  tho  motion 
of  the  earth  in  its  orbit,  which  ia  also  diminishing  as 
slowly,  with  the  diminution  of  the  eccentricity  of  the  orbit, 
really  cause  the  solar  or  natural  days  to  lie  of  unequal 
leni^h  :  so  that,  though  avcra);ing  t!4  hours  each,  they 
aometiines  fall  short  and  aoinctimes  exceed  that  average. 
It  is  the  former  of  those  causes,  too,  which  uives  riae  to 
the  dift'erence  in  the  relative  length  of  night  and  day, 
according  to  the  aeaaoiu  of  the  year. 

MONTHS    AND    WEEKS. 

Allor  the  day,  the  next  distinct  natural  measure  or 
division  of  time  marked  out  by  the  heavenly  liodies,  in 
their  time-kecpinii  revolutions,  is  tho  month.  The  lunar 
month  is  a  [H-ritHl  durini;  which  tho  moon  revolves  once 
round  the  earth,  and  is  equal  to  3D  days,  13  hours,  44 
iiiinutcs,  3  seconds.  The  solar  month  is  the  [H'riod 
daring  which  the  sun  appears  to  pass  through  a  twelfth 
pirt  of,his  annual  course,  or  throuuh  one  of  the  twelve 
arbitrary  siifns  of  the  zodiac,  and  is  equal  to  30  days,  10 
iKiurs,  .)()  ininutcH:  it  is  not  so  distinctly  pointed  out  by 
liaturr-  as  the  lunar  month.  The  month  came  ultimately 
to  be  disconnccl:  il  from  the  Ibnar  and  terrestrial  revolu- 
<=.jn9.  aa  will  be  alkr  wards  more  particularly  noticed,  and 


• 
civil  or  calendar  months,  acenmmodated  to  the  year  •» 
auhstitutrd;  those  also,  aa  well   aa  the  nainii  irir«ni 
them  in  their  annual  order,  will  fall  to  t*  noticed  mh  l' 
treating  of  the  year  itself  and  its  siilNlivisinns, 

Tho  subdivision  of  the  month  into  weeks  nt  _ 
day*  I*  very  ancient,  having,  from  the  must  rriunli. 
rio<l  of  history,  been  in  use  aiiinii';  llie  iliiiiloos  nnd  oih 
nations  in  the  Rnst,  inclnding  the  I'halileaiis  an,\  jp» 
According  to  an  early  practice,  the  days  of  ihi-  week  i 
various   countries    received    iianies    from    pluii|,|(  ^:,l 
which   they  wore  imagined   to  bo  ronnerted,  or  ttnn 
certain  deities  reverenced  by  I'agiin  nations,     Thui  Iha 
Kivnch,  at  the  present  duy,  lollnwiiig  the  practice  of  ih. 
Knmans,  name  the  days  from   Mercury,  Jupiter,  Vinui 
Ac,  while  the  Knglish  adopt  Saxon  upis-llations  dorivnd 
from  the  doilies  of  northern  Kiiropo,  and  from  the  Nim 
anil  Moon.     Hence  our  Irrni  Humlay  is  from  the  Sun  • 
Monday,  the  Moon;  Tuesday,  Tuesco;  WedncHduy  Wo! 
den;   Thursday,  Thor;    Fridoy,  Friga;   and  bttuniiy 
^icator.     (!See  article  Hui'kiistitioihs.)  ' 

YEAMS    AND    8EA80N8. 

The  year,  properly  so  called,  or  the  solar  or  aitrono. 
micnl  year,  is  that  portion  of  lime  which  i'|ii|w,  ^||||, 
the  sun  piissi's  through  the  twelve  signs  <>{  dm  lojjac  or 
ratlrrr  while  the  earth  revolves  once  cornplctcly  round 
the  sun  in  its  orbit ;  and  while,  from  the  parallelism  of 
the  axis  of  tho  earth's  rotation  to  itself,  cimiliinr,!  ,yj||j 
its  inclination  to  the  axis  of  the  orbit,  each  heieisphcrc  ii 
turned  alternately,  once  toward  and  once  from  thesun' 
thus  constituting,  at  least  in  the  extra-tropical  regiiu, 
the  distinction  lietweon  summer  and  winter. 

It  would  undoubtedly  U'  this  marked  alteriinlinij  li» 
tinction  which  would  first  lead  the  attention  of  evert 
rude  but  progressing  nation  not  inhabiting  tropicnj  couii. 
tries  to  calculate  their  time  by  years,  for  in  tliew)  would 
even  the  most  savage  nation  feel  an  interest  aniil()(;nu»lo 
that  with  which  they  had  come  to  coiiteMi|ilale  the  alter- 
nating distinction  between  day  and  night.  The  uprini 
and  autumn,  too,  would  soon  be  slani|)ed  with  thcimpresi 
of  their  sensibilities  as  natural  periods,  resjieclivelv,  cf 
hojie  and  fruition.  But  it  is  rather  rema^nblc  that  ibe 
only  distinctions  in  the  seasons  made  hy  the  innRt  ancient 
nations  known  were  those  of  summer  and  winter,  m  if 
thei^e  had  lieen  ao  extreme  as  to  absorb  all  other  dii- 
tinclions. 

'I'he  distinction  of  the  seasons  would  soon  Is'  found  to 
de|H'nd  u|M)n  the  alternate  ajiproach  and  depurturc,  or 
elevation  aod  di'pression,  of  the  sun  in  the  Ik -ivcns  at 
stated  and  regularly  recurring  intervals;  but  ,.ic  exicl 
division  of  time  inTb  solar  years  could  not  have  been 
ell'ected  till  astronomy  had  made  some  firngrcss;  when 
it  would  immediately  appear,  in  the  endeavours  at  length 
made  to  measure  tho  year  by  revolutions  of  the  moor, 
that  as  an  exact  number  of  days,  or  tiu'cs  of  the  eanhV 
rotation,  is  not  contained  in  "a  moon,"  or  lunar  month, 
so  an  exact  miinlHT  of  moons,  or  even  of  dnyi*,  is  not 
contained  in  a  year,  or  revolution  of  the  seasons.  Surh 
observations  as  these  led  to  methods  of  acciiiiii'l.iting  Iha 
one  periixl  to  the  other;  or,  in  other  words,  to  the 

ADJUSTMENT  OF  THE    CALENDAR. 

The  ('lu)ldeaiis,  Egyptians,  and  Indians,  and  indiwi 
almost  all  tho  nations  of  antiquity,  orininally  tstimaled 
the  year,  or  tho  [loriodical  return  of  siiiiiiner  anil  winlor, 
by  13  lunations;  a  jH-riisI  eipial  to  .'f.'il  days,  8  hours, 48 
minutes,  'M  seconds.  But  the  solar  year  is  equal  to  3lj,i 
days,  .5  hours,  48  minutes,  49  seconds;  or  10  ilays,  21 
hours,  13  seconds  bmger  than  the  lunar  year,  an  I'lCi^ 
named  the  ijiiirt  .  and  accordingly  the  Keiisons  wort  found 
rapidly  to  deviate  from  the  particular  tnontlis  to  which 
they  at  first  correspond;  so  that, in  34  years, the suramti 
months  would  have  become  the  winter  ones,  hud  not  thn 
cu}rmoiu  aberration  been  corrected  by  the  addition  at 


flierfilnlionofafewi 
,11  th<i  calendar  first 
^,,,,1  to  consist  of  13 
jjui  no  account  wu*  i 
jccumulalio"  forced  tl 
pnniinsli""  to  the  e 
^jde  »l""Jt  4fi  yearn 
Juliu"  Cii'sar,  being  li 
|,i«time,  to  believe  I  In 
in  the  year,  ordaineil 
„,J  occumuhitcd  for 
voulil  ninoiiiit  to  a  d 

„\iti  to  >'*<-'i'y  ''""f''' 

or  rciicatiiig  the  34th  i 
i^oiiro  ariijht,  he  ord  li 
fusioa,"  mnJ"  "P  "f  I 
diyi  whieh   had   beet 
,iiJ  the  ".Iiilian  era' 
practically   us«dul   am 
ujje  of   tiiiie-reckipn 
,„iongst  Christian  nal 
L^io  renewed  accuiimh 
minule»orso,had  aiiio 
of  Christ,  to  10  coiiipl 
lug  on  the  lHh  iiiste 
il  the  time  of  the  coi 
birth  of  Christ.     This 
dislurbaiues,  by  unlix 
Easier,  and  hence  of 
iccordinfjly,   Pope  d'r 
cjloulation,  ordained 
from  tho  yea^  I5S3,  hj 
calendar,  would  have 
the  I5lh  of  October,  1 
of  Italy,  tho  poiio  was 
change  took  plucu  in  I 
dic2l)lh"f  Uecomber 
«u  from  the  1.5th  I 
listed  hy  the   Fmtesla 
year  1700.    The  (Jatli 
(,y(coiilaiiied  liy  tlieii 
Hits  were  iheli  ton  i 
ill  all  its  icl.itions  to 
provemciU   I'roin  suet 
many,  !Swil/.»Tlaiid,  a 
Low  Countries,  at  le 
had  become  necess  iry 
.\  bill  to  this  elfect  hi 
inentof  Kii:lanil   in 
([one  beyond  a  scioiii 
It  was  not  t;il  I7.')l,  a 
iwn  expel  ieiiced  for 
fetencc  of  the  reckonii 
II.,  1751)  for  equali/.i 
I.iland  with  that  used 
naaenaoted,  in  the  lir 
omitted  after  the  3d  o 
luing  day  should  be  t 
act  a  certain  minute 
1800,  19U0,  3100,  23 
year  of  our  Lord  wl 
except  only  every  I 
wliereof  the  year  3l;( 
cnnsidorcd  as  leap  ye 
Hie  same  time  maile  in 
is  now  the  only  count 
an  adherence  which 
i«  thence  addressed  t( 

the  dale  should  be  gii 

it  will  be  observed,  th 
by  ID  as  leap-year,  h 
day  between  old  and 
The  twelve  calenda 

Yuu  I.— ua 


SPACES  OF  TIME. 


terf»l«l'""  "^  '  '*'**  •"'''  '''y*  ''  "'^'^^^  iiitorvali.  Thu» 

the  ralindur  flnt  Hilj\iiiU<il,  iiiul  llio  Kolnr  yrnr  rati- 

IfJ  ui  riiiixi"'  "f  '"  "'""'1"'.  Piini|iri'lii'tiiliiiK  30S  dnyn. 

Nut  no  arcDiiiil  wik  tiikni  uf  tint  mid  lioum,  until  tiK'ir 

^„,uliition  fiirrod  tlii-m  into  iiolirr;  and  a  nriirrr  n|»- 

j,„,li„n   to  tlio  exiict   uiriisurfnicnt  of  n  yrar  w»ii 

u  tlMUt  'Ifi  yi'iirs  U'lbrti  the  hirth  of  Clirint,  wlirn 

Juliui  Cipn:>r,  bointJ  Ifd   I'.V  HnKJucncH,  an  nutrnnonu'r  of 

hijlimc,  to  lit'lit'vr  llioi'rror  to  coniiiHt  of  oxnctly  (I  Iviurn 

.    ,|,j  y,.|ir,  oriliiitird    tliiil   tho»o  Mhoiild  bu  not  ii«iilo, 

j  jccuiniilulcd   for  fonr  joiim,  whi'ii,  of  couru',  llu'y 


BOuM  mnount  to  ii  ilny  of  84  hours,  to  be  iiri-ordinnly 
ijjj  lo  every  fourth  year.   Thin  wb«  done  liy  doubling 
or  rciwatiin  the  'J'lth  of  February  j  and,  in  onler  to  eoui- 
nifiioc  urikjht,  he  ord  lined  the  lirnt  to  bo  a  "year  of  con- 
toion,"  """'"  "P  "'   "^  niontlm,  DO  bh  to  eover  the  Hi) 
jjvs  whirh  had  been   then  loMt.     The  "Julian  titylo" 
iiiJ  the  "Jidiiin  era"  Were  then  commenced;  and   bo 
nrnclicttlly   uwlul   and    coiniiarutivcly  perfect  was   tluH 
nodi'  of   tiine-reekoninR,   that    it    prevailed    generally 
tmongst  I'briHlian  nationn,  and  remained  undiHturbed  till 
Iho  renewed  aieuniuliition  of  tlio  remaining  error,  of  1 1 
iaiiiutc«orKo,had  amounted. in  1682  years  after  the  birth 
of  Christ,  to  10  eouiplelu  days;  the  vernal  ei|uinox   fall- 
ing on  iIh'  U'h   instead  of  the  Slst  of  March,  as  it  did 
,t  the  linii^  of  the  council  of  Nice,  325  yearn  after  the 
birth  of  ("liriht.     Tlii-t  Mliiftinji  of  diiyn  had  canned  i^rcat 
dijturbanccH,  by  uiilixinn  the  titncH  of  the  celebration  of 
Easier,  ami  henco  of  nil  the  other  movable  feasts.    And, 
iccorilinijlv,  I'ope  «i'renory  XIII.,  after  deep  study  and 
cjlcuiatiiin,  ordained  that    10  days  should   be  deducted 
from  tho  viai;  15S2, by  calliuR  what,  accordini;  to  the  <i!d 
calenJiir,  would  liave  been  reckoned  the  ."ith  of  October, 
the  I5lh  of  Cilolier,  15B3.    In  Spain,  Portugal,  and  part 
of  lnlV)  the  po|io  was  exactly  olieyed.     In   France  the 
thangotook  place  in  the  same  year,  by  calling  the  10th 
llieSUlh  of  Uecendier.    In  the  Low  ('ountries  the  chnntje 
wu  from   the  13th   December  to  the  ?.5th,  but  was  re- 
liiltil  by  the  Piotenlant  part  of  the  community  till  tlie 
year  17U0.    The  Catholic  iv.itions  in  general  adojited  the 
i.y/f  ordiiiiird  by  their  sovereign  pontiff,  but  the  Protest- 
uitAwrre  ib'i  too  much  inflamed  ngaiuHt  ('atholicism 
ill  all  its  ivl.ition.'j  to  receive  even  a  purely  s<'ientilic  im- 
provement from  such  hands.     The  Lutherans  of  Ger- 
many, Swilivrlanil,  and,  as  already   mentioned,  of  the 
Low  (Jounlries,  at  lentjth  gave  way  in   1700,  when  it 
had  becoiii''  necessiry  to  omit  cirvcn  instead  of  ten  days. 
.\  bill  to  this  ellci't  had  In-en  brought  before  the  Parlia- 
imntof  Kiialand  in  1.585,  but  does  not  appear  to  have 
gone  beyon<l  u  second  reading  in  the  House  of  Lords. 
ltwMnoti;il  IT.'il,  and  after  great  inconvenience  had 
hocnexpeiiciici'd  for  nearly  two  centuries,  from  the  dif- 
ferenrc  uf  the  reckoning,  that  an  act  was  passi'd  (24  Geo. 
II.,  1751)  lor  eiiuali/ing  the  style  in  Great  Dritain  and 
Wand  with  that  uscil  in  other  countries  of  Europe.     It 
waaenacted,  in  ihv.  first  place,  tliat  eleven  days  should  be 
omitted  alter  the  2d  of  lSepten\bcr,  1752,  so  that  the  en- 
iuinifday  should  be  the  14lh;  and,  in  order  to  counter- 
act a  certain  minute  overplus  of  time,  that  "the  years 
1800, 19U0,  2100,  2200,  2300,  or  any  other  hundredth 
year  of  our  Lord  which  shall  happen  in  time  to  come, 
except  only  every  fourth  hundredth  year  of  our  Lord 
whereof  the  year  2000  shall   be  the  first,  shall  not  he 
oinaidorcd  as  leap  ye;iTs."      A  similar  change  was  about 
tiiesame  lime  made  in  Sweden  and  Tuscany  ;  atid  Rus.sia 
is  now  the  only  country  which  adheres  to  the  utd  slyle ; 
an  adherence  which  renders  it  necessary,  when  a  letter 
ia  thence  addressed  to  a  person  in  another  country,  that 

•      .,  1       .lunr'  M      . 
the  date  should  be  given  thus :— April  ^  or  j^jip— „;   lor 

it  will  bo  observed,  the  year  1800  not  being  considered 
by  u»  18  leap-yeiir,  has  interjected  another  (or  twelfth) 
ilay  between  old  and  new  style. 
The  twelve  calendar  or  civil  montlis  were  so  arranged 

Vud.— ua 


by  Julius  ('»»r,  while  reforming  the  ralrndtr,  that  tlw 
odd  months — the  flrst,  third,  tlfth,  and  so  on,  should  ron< 
tain  31  days,  and  the  <ivnn  nundivrs  30  days,  except  In 
the  case  uf  February,  which  was  to  havu  30  only  In 
what  has  lieen  improperly  termeil  lra|>-year,  whilti  on 
other  years  it  was  aiiigned  2U  days  only  ;  a  nuinb«r 
which  it  retained  till  Augustus  t'lesar  deprived  it  of 
another  day. 

'I'hu  commrncempnt  of  the  yr»*,  til!  a  comparatively 
vi'ry  recent  period   was  the  subj"ct  of  no  general  'ule 
The  .\thenians  commenced  it  in  June,  the   Macedoniaaa 
in  September,  the  liomans  first  in  March,  and  afterwardi 
ill  January,  the  Persians  on  Uth  August,  the  Mexicaui 
on  23d  February,  the  Mohammeilans  in  July,  and  astrono- 
mers at  the  vernal  equinox.  Amongst  Christians,  Christ* 
mas  day,  the  day  of  the  Circumcision,  the  Ist  uf  January, 
the  day  of  the   Conception,  the    l.'^th    of  March,   and 
I'asler  day,  have  all  Ix^en  used  at  various  times,  and  by 
various  nations  as  the  initial  day  of  the  year.     Christmaa 
day  was  the  ecclesiastical  beginning  of  the  year  till  Pop« 
Gregory  XIII.,  on  reforming  the  calendar,  ordered  it,  in 
1582,  to  begin  thenceforward  on  the  1st  of  January.  In 
France  and  England  the  same  practice  commenced  about 
the  same  time  ;  but,  in  the  latter  country,  it  was  not  till 
1752  that  legal  writs  and  instriiiiients  eeascil  to  consider 
the  2.Mh  of  March,  as  the  beginning  of  the  year.     In 
■Scotland,  New  Year's  day  was  alteiird  both  for  historical 
and  legal  purposes,  from  the  25tli  of  March  to  the  lat 
of  January,   by   a  |)roclaniation  of  King  James  VI.,  in 
the  year  1600.     The  English   plan  was  found  exceed- 
ingly inconvenient;  for  when  it  was  necessary  to  expreoa 
a  date  between  the  Ist  of  January,  which  was  the  con»- 
mencement  of  the  historical  ye.ir,  and  the  20th  of  March, 
which  opened  the  legal  one,  error  and  confusion  were 
sure  to  occur,  unless  it  were  given  in  the  following  awk 
ward   fashion — January   30,    1648-9,  or  164,j.     Even 
this  was  apt  to  lead  to  mistakes  ;  and  it  is  perhaps,  even 
lo  this  day,  a  matter  of  doubt  with  some  intelligent  per- 
sons whether  the  execution  of  Charles  I.,  of  which  the 
above  is  the  usual  appearance  of  the  date,  occurred  in 
the  year  1648  or  1649 ;  it  in  reality  occurred  in  the  year 
which,  by  our  present  uniform  mode  of  reckoning,  would 
be  called  1640. 

The  |iresent  mode  of  reckoning  time  has  experienced 
no  interruption,  in  its  leading  features,  for  many  jears, 
except  under  the  French  republic.  In  September,  1793, 
the  French  nation  having  resolved  that  the  foundation 
of  their  III  V  system  of  government  should  form  their 
era,  insteail  of  the  birth  of  Christ,  whose  religion  they 
had  in  a  great  measure  shaken  olV,  resolved  also  that  a 
calendar  should  bo  ado|>ted  on  what  were  termed  phi- 
losophical principles.  The  Convention,  therefore,  having 
decriccd,  on  the  24th  Novemlier,  1793,  that  the  common 
era  should  lie  abolished  in  all  civil  afltiirs,  and  that  the 
new  French  era  should  commence  from  the  foundation 
of  the  republic,  namely,  on  the  22d  S«-pteinber,  1792,  on 
the  day  of  the  true  autumnal  equinox,  ordained  that 
each  year  henceforth  should  begin  at  the  midnight  of  the 
day  on  which  the  true  autumnal  equinox  falls.  Thiayear 
they  divided  into  twelve  months  of  thirty  days  each,  to 
which  they  give  descriptive  names,  as  follow : — from  die 
22d  of  September  to  the  21st  of  October  was  Vend6- 
niiairc  (Vintage  Month)  ;  to  the  20th  November  waa 
Urumaire  (Foggy  Month)  :  to  the  20lh  December  waa 
j  Frimairo  (Sleety  Month  ;)  this  completed  the  autumn 
I  quarter;  to  the  19th  January  was  Nivoso  (Snowj 
'  Month);  to  the  ISth  February  was  Pluviose  (Rain» 
Month)  ;  to  the  20lh  .March  was  Vcntoso  fWinUy 
Month) ;  which  completed  the  winter  quarter^  to  the 
19th  April  was  Germuial  (Budding  Month) ,  'o  the  19th 
May  was  Floreal  (Flowery  Month)  ;  to  the  18th  June 
was  Prairial  (Pasture  Montn\  ;  here  ended  the  spring 
quarter;  to  the  18th  July  was  Messidor  (HarvesI 
Month);  lo  the  17th  August  was  Fervidor  or  Thermi 
'J  8  9 


rm^^^^sm 


INFOriMATION   FOR   THE   PKOPLR. 


ior  (Hoi  Month) ;  lo  Iho  Iflth  of  H^iiti-inlxir  wm  Friir- 
iidor  (Fiuit  Moiitli),  whirh  ttuminsU'il  tlm  |H>ri<Ml  of  miin- 
mrr.  Ill  onliiiary  yi<Hrx  llirrn  are  llvn  nitra  tiaya,  imiiii'ly, 
from  tlio  17tli  ui  Itio  'jl't  o(  our  H«|iU^nili<-r,  incluaive; 
Ihew  tltn  Freiii'li  rulli'il  Joun  ('omiilenuHlniiti,  or 
Santcullnitiltn,  aiiil  lii'M  u  linalivnU ;  the  flrat  bi'iiiK 
d«diratiMl  to  Virluiv  \\w  M-roiul  to  Ooiiiiia,  tho  third  to 
liahoiir,  thu  tlmrth  to  ()|iiiiion,  niiil  thii  tllUi  to  Krwunla, 
At  Xhe  villi  ol'fvrry  four  ycara,  foriiiiiiK  what  they  nihcil 
•  FrniK'iiiih',  iH-riirnil  a  lfii|»-yrttr,  wliioh  giivu  a  aidh 
Com|>li'iiii'iiliiry  <luy,  alyh'd  Lit  Jmir  ilr  In  Htrnlutinn, 
•nd  cin|iloyi>il  in  ri'iirwiiiK  tho  ndlionnl  onth  to  hvo  frvn 
or  die.  'I'ht'  wrek,  thouitli  not  nxcluaivi'ly  a  ('hriatinnor 
Jewiali  (M<ri(Nl  of  time,  Ihry  alao  Blijuri!il.  The  thirty 
daya  of  Ihf  iiionlh  wrri<  diviilcd  into  thri'n  purta  of  trn 
daya  I'Hch,  riiMrd  Dio'ilm  .  of  which  'lie  lirat  iiliii'  (mlli'd 
Primtdi,  Uninli,  Triih,  Ijunrtiih,  (juintiili,  Mextidi,  H«'|i< 
tidi,  Oi'tiili,  .\iiiiiih)  wiTi'  workinif  or  coiniiioii  diiya, 
while  the  tenth,  alyli'd  Diviiili,  wua  ubiwrviHl  on  s  kind  of 
Sabbath.  thoir;h  not  exiirtly  in  the  Jowiah  aoiiM)  of  the 
word.  Till-  Trrnch,  however,  in  indicatiiiK  any  purticu- 
Ur  day,  rithei  by  word  or  writing,  Honcrully  ini'iitioneil 
only  the  nuiiiU-r  of  the  dny  of  the  month.  The  Repnl>- 
lican  (,'iilendiir  wua  lir«t  UHpd  on  the  'JHth  of  Novenila-r, 
17')3,  and  W.IK  diio-iintiiiiied  on  tlio  .Hat  of  UcccinlH-r, 
1803,  when  the  rulendar  uacd  througiiout  the  icat  of 
Europe  wua  rcauuied. 

orotit. 

A  cycle  ia  n  perpetiml  round  or  cirrnlnttng  period  of 
nine,  on  the  coiiipletioii  of  which  rertuin  phenomena 
return  in  the  aaiiie  order,  thu  end  being  thua,  ua  it  were, 
brought  tiii-k  to  the  iH'ginning.  Under  audi  adetiiiition, 
the  coiniiion  pnutiee  of  uccumuluting  yeiira  into  cuntu- 
rica  htia,  of  eourte,  no  title  to  lie  eliiaaed  ;  it  ia  merely  an 
•rithineticnl  rom|iutiition,  like  tho  vi;iiully  coinmoii  mode 
of  counting  by  tena — forming,  indued,  part  of  tlio  aamu 
•yatem. 

The  Svlar  Pyrlr  ia  a  period  of  28  ycara,  during  whieh 
the  diiy  of  the  month,  in  every  auereeding  year,  falla  on 
•  dilFerent  day  of  tho  week  from  tho  firat,  till  the  cycle 
i*  completed ;  when  the  daya  of  tho  month  and  week 
meet  ua  ot  tirnt,  one  cycle  corresponding  to  another,  by 
thia  cycle,  which  h.iH  no  relation  to  tho  aun'a  coiirao,  we 
find  "  the  Dominical  letlera,"  or  thoao  lettera  among  tho 
firat  aeven  in  the  ulphntiet  (uacd  to  repreaent  the  dayg  of 
the  week)  which  jioint  out  tho  duya  of  tho  month  on 
which  the  iSundiiyK  full  during  each  year  of  tho  cycle. 
If  there  were  :)6 1  daya  in  tho  year,  the  Bunduya  would  I 
happen  every  year  on  the  same  daya  of  the  month  ;  if 
365  exactly,  every  7th  year ;  hut  liecauac  tho  additional  ] 
fractional  iieriod  coiituined  in  the  year  makea  un  altera- 
tion of  a  day  in  every  4th  year,  the  cycle  extenda  to  four 
ttjnea  aeven,  or  28  ycara. 

The  first  Koiar  cycle  in  the  Chriatian  era  having  ticgun 
9  yeara  before  the  commencement  of  that  era,  to  diacovcr 
what  year  of  the  cycle  the  year  1842  forma,  we  muat 
•dd  9,  and  divide  thu  aum  1861  by  28,  the  period  of  the 
cycle,  and  the  quotient  66  ia  the  number  of  solar  cycles 
that  have  jmsaed  during  that  era,  the  remaining  3  being 
the  yi  or  of  the  cycle  corresponding  to  1842. 

The  Luitnr  Cycle,  alao  culled  llie  "  ftolden  Number," 
from  it*  having  lieeii  written  in  letters  of  gold  by  t!ie 
Greeks,  and  the  "  .Metonic  Cycle,"  from  its  having  licen 
diM'overed   by   Meton,  an    Athenian    astronomer,   is  a  j 
periiMl  of  ID  yeiirH,  at  the  end  of  which  the  phaHca  of  I 
the  moon  oc<:nr  on  the  Hame  days  of  the  civil  month  a»  , 
in  ft  [irevious  lunar  cycle,  and  within  an  hour  and  a  half  ' 
of  the  waiiic  prcciae  moment  of  time.  | 

Th#  first  lunar  cycle  in  the  Christian  era  having  lie-  , 
gun  one  year  licfore   tho  commencement  of  that  ern,  \ 
to  diacover  what  year  of  the  cycle   1842  forms,  we  must 
add  1,  and  divide  the  sum  I84:i  by  19,  the  |)eriod  of  the 
cycle,  and  the  quotient  97  is  the  number  of  lunar  cycles  , 


thai  hava  iwaaed  during  that  era;  thnrti  nclnij  n(,.»nulii 
dor.  the  golden  number  ia  completed  in  1843)  g,  ikl 
year  forma  the  laat  In  the  cycle.  '" 

'I'he  Ihiinyviin  I'lriml  ia  a  combination  of  tho  aol 
and  lunar  cycica,  forming,  by  the  iiuilli4ilienliMii  of  Jm" 
10,  a  |>oriiNl  of  fl;i2  yeura,  ut  the  explr.iljoii  of  w||i,.[,  ■[ 
ia  again  new  moon  on  tho  aume  daya  of  the  wii||<  „,  i 
month  aa  lieforc  ;  chninological  ovunta  are  coniii«[^  ,.j 
teatnd  by  auch  a  calculntion. 

The  Imlii  hint  may  here  niao  be  notii-ed  ;  tliiiiiuh  wim 
it  not  for  aevering  it  from  the  other  eyclea  wilh  v,\\\r\i  i| 
ia  eonnc'ted  in  the  Julian  iieriod,  it  miuht  iKilhn-  ,„, 
properly  appear  ui;der  the  hnul  ot  epoclis  umi  i,^, 
Thia  waa  a  Koman  periwl  of  1.')  yiara,  Ihofirr,!  nf  whlfi, 
commenced  in  the  year  .'112  irti'r  the  birth  ol  CJiriit.  |i 
waa  up|H)iiiled  merely  for  the  regulation  of  certain  niiv. 
nieiita  by  the  Hulijecla  of  the  eni|iire ;  but  it  Ciuno  to  L 
olwk-rveil  by  the.  (ireek  church  and  the  Vcmliun  MiiaU' 
aa  well  ua  the  court  of  Home.  ' 

The  Jnhiin  I'trtDil  ia  u  eoiiiliiiiation  of  Ih  nojgr  ,,1,1 
lunar  cycica  with  tho  Indiction  ;  ibe  rcs(»'iuv(!  iwri,,,], 
of  28,  19,  and  11)  yenra  being  miilliplicd  h\  inch  ntiior 
and  the  product  7980  years,  being  what  i,  (ii|li.,i  ||,|J 
Julian  IVrii«l,  during  which  there  cannot  lie  two  y,,,,,., 
having  the  aaiiie  iiumlN'ra  for  the  three  cycli»;  liJit  „. 
the. termination  of  thia  perioil  they  return  in  llio  former 
order. 

Tho  year  1842  ia  the  6fl.').')th  of  the  Jiilimi  period. 
hence  it  iH'gaii  ulKiut  700  years  previoun  to  tin.  dute  ,1.1. 
uarly  asainned  to  tho  creation  of  the  world,  uiid  \\m  liocii 
uacd  instead  of  that  era,  to  obviate  the  ilis|]iilci  of  f),,,^ 
nologera,  and  to  reconcile  their  ayf^tems;  for  nil  ngrw  ai 
to  the  year  in  which  the  Julian  period  befiUn. 
I  The  I'lnet^iutt  of  ihe  /'i/k/ikmc.',  on  ilie  srippoiiiiion 
that  the  motion  on  which  itdcpendais  uniform,  iaacvdd 
of  2.'5,  920  yeara,  during  which  the  points  whereat  the 
Bun  croaaea  tho  equator  ot  the  equinoxes  rolrogr.nb 
olong  tho  whole  circle  of  the  ecliptic,  and  return  lo 
their  former  position.  The  present  rate  of  tlijn  molinn, 
which  de|K'nds  on  the  solar  und  lunar  altriidion  of  the 
quantity  of  matter  hea|H'd  up  along  the,  region  of  the 
equator,  ia  60  s<^cunda  of  a  degree  gently,  or  a  wliole 
degree  in  76  years. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton  endeavoured  to  fix  the  period  of 
the  Argonautic  expedition  by  this  cycle,  and  it  ha.'i  pivon 
rise  to  aomu  curious  ond  interesting  s|>pciiliitioii8  re- 
garding tlie  |>criod  when  tho  algns  of  the  zodiac  were 
invented. 

The  F.tUpliciil  Cyile  is  on  unknown  period  of  time 
during  which  the  angle  lietween  Ihe  ecliptic  and  the 
equator,  or  tho  obliipiity  of  tho  ecliptic,  has  coniplitrd 
oil  its  changes.  Tho  present  rate  of  the  diininulio^ 
of  tho  obliquity  is  estimated  ut  about  48  seconds  oft 
degree  every  century.  Tlio  extent  of  this  chanxe  011 
either  hand,  like  the  length  of  the  period  in  which  it  ia 
accomplished,  is  «t  present  unknown,  th.)ii!,'h  ostrono 
mcrs,  founding  on  elcmentH  with  regard  to  whieh  them 
admittedly  exists  "  great  uncertainty,"  suppose  tho  pj. 
tent  of  the  "oscillation"  to  lie  very  limited.  Tho  de- 
grees of  ecliptical  obliquity  at  pre.ient  existing  in  the 
ilifferent  planets,  however,  so  far  na  known,  vary  frnm 
a  state  in  whieh  it  almost  vanishes  in  the  entire  coinci- 
dence of  the  eciipiin  with  the  cijualor,  as  in  Jupiter,  to 
one  in  which  it  ia  almost  "  wide  us  the  poles  asunder,' 
as  in  Uranus.  The  nscertainnient  of  the  extent  of  Ihii 
movement,  in  the  case  of  the  earth,  is  of  ^rciil  practifil 
importance,  especially  in  geological  clironoloKV.  Th« 
changes  of  the  8<'naons  are  occasioin  d  liy  the  oliliquiti 
of  tho  ecliptic,  being  more  or  le.vs  extreme  iicrordiiii^  to 
tho  greater  or  less  deijrec  or  extent  of  that  oliliquityi 
and,  from  certain  recent  discoveiu's  in  st'oligy,  "hifh 
seem  lo  imply  the  former  increase  of  these  extremes, 
coiiK  idently  with  the  former  increase  of  the  olilii|uiiv 
uf  the  ecliptic,  it  appcura  highly  probable  that  the  hifh- 


CHRONOLOGY. 


Ttt 


0^  h  ipi>lMi  prnhirm  of  a  gtnlogical  rhronnln/fy,  In  iti 
nod  mini""''!'*'"''*"  wiiMi,  by  •  "roiivoraion  nf  ailro- 
joiiiKnl  I"'"  ll<'"l"Ri<"«l  ppriodn" — •  proMrin  |iro|inwd  ■ 
Ifm  M'*"  <ini'i<  M  till'  piiiMjpct  of  n  |iri<o  ritmiy  hy  thn 
Riiyiil  !^  'I'ii'ty  of  lioiicloii — will  renrivo  id  r(>iii|ilrtn  milu- 
ilau  from  <h"  innvrmenU  of  thii  great  i'cli|itirnl  pfiiilulum. 


rtinn\ni.ooy. 
I'ht  »Hlijt'Ct  to  wliich  wo  have  h>iro  fuuiid  it  ntlvnn- 
mri.tia  to  limit  lliti  ii»o  of  tho  tiTtii  (MiroimluKy,  n* 
IDorr  or  l<"<«  iiivolvinn  tlio  ocrurrrnro  of  cveiita  in  tlie 
warlil'x  lilitory,  may  be  iliviJod  into  the  two  following 
bfiiiclH'*  :— 

iroTH'    AND   CRA*. 

I'ho  prinripnl  iliiririilly  whiili  niiiat  hiivo  prencntcd 
Itwif  to  iiiitionH  dcHiroi't  of  pri>Mrrvini{  tlin  memory  of 
(vrriti.  ft"  Ihcy  minht  oonir,  in  thrir  sriimlii,  from  iliiy  to 
diy,  from  m  )nth  to  month,  and  from  yrnr  to  ycur, 
ind  for  iioin  pcriiHlii  of  yrar»,  would  bo  to  obtiiin  a 
lUrtin  r  jKiiiit  fnm  whirh  to  number  thcio  dnyn,  monih*, 
jpnrii,  iiiiil  [x-ri^'i  of  yeurM ;  nnd  M  no  very  mnrknd 
(»troiioiiiiri\l  e-i-nt  (unleNH,  porbap*),  orlipnoi))  rould  ron- 
dfr  one  of  tlioi  1  atnrtlnK  point*  prefernble  to  nnothcr, 
luch  atiirlinn  point*  nimo  pntrticuliy  ijiid  Ronrrully  to 
»on«i»i.in  i  irly  timoa,  wlien  niitioiia  hiid  little  mutuid 
|nl»'Courii',  ofMomo  ovent,  importniit  or  known,  porhapa, 
only  to  the  niition  diitinR  from  it.  Thia  event  would 
form  iiri  (/III /i, HO  nnnied  from  n  fJreek  word  aiqnifyinit to 
•to|i.  Till'  eiiuinerntion  un<l  ««'ric8  of  yeura  rompntod 
from  ml  efoeh  ia  enllod  an  era :  nnd  necordinnly  ^ 
(poilw  iiimI  eraa  there  have  lieen  almost  na  miiiiy  aa  th,  n 
have  hefTi  of  niitiona.  Aa  tho  erna  of  ancient  nntiona, 
however,  Imve  beromo  olwoleto,  it  wouli)  li«  useleas,  aa  it 
ii  here  iiiipoHHiblo,  to  enumerato  all  that  we  know  of, 
or  (vcii  liny  Rrent  nninlier  of  them.  But  wc  ahnll  notiee 
»few  of  tlie  moat  important  in  tho  mean  time,  reaorving 
the  iininea  of  all  tho  other  principal  era»  to  be  aftcrwanla 
pre<i'iiti'il  loirethcr  in  a  tabular  form. 

Tlio  Kni  nf  ijie  Olynti>i'uh  ii  tho  first  on  record,  and 
II  alao  lieoaine  tho  moat  relrbratod  of  tho  ancient  methoiU 
of  computing  bmsthened  periods  of  time.  It  took  its 
riie  nmoii«  tho  Greeks,  776  years  Iwfore  the  biith  of 
Chrirtt.  t'liMii-  Rnmiii  had  lieen  instituted  ut  Olympia, a 
dty  ill  KliH,  whieb  t  ok  place  every  fifth  year,  at  tho  re- 
currence of  tlio  full  moon  after  tho  summer  solalire, 
namely,  about  the  beginnini;  of  our  July.  .\»  this  feati- 
»al  miiile  ii  great  impreiiaion  on  the  imblic  mind,  the 
people  lu'unii  to  reckon  by  Olympiads,  ur  n  ■  nrrences  of 
tho  Oiyinpie  Raines,  an  Olympiad  comprising  four  years. 
Tiie  computation  by  Olympiads  ceased  after  tho  364th 
Olympiud  in  the  440lh  year  after  tho  birth  of  Christ,  as 
umwlly  computed,  Ihouijh  the  epoch  of  the  birth  of 
Christ  i»  not  a  point  of  time  exactly  fixed.  Tho  Greeks 
lately  adopted  a  new  era,  called 

The  h'.rn  of  Selt&rilf,  or  tho  Stlrwiita,  somotimos  also 
called  the  era  of  Alexandria.  This  era  commenced 
tw'vo  yenrs  after  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  at 
tlic  Jut  conipicst,  by  Selencus  Nicator,  of  that  part  of 
the  wot  which  afterwards  formed  tho  immense  empire 
)f  Syria.  This  era  has  also  prevailed,  and  still  exists, 
amoni,"<t  the  people  inhabiiiii);  the  Levant.  The  .lews 
tffkoned  by  it  till  the  l.'ith  century  of  the  Christian  era, 
wVn  tliey  substituted  the  supposed  era  of  the  Creation, 
til  b*  afterwards  noticed  ;  and  they  still  be'»in  their  year 
wnrilinn  to  it,  in  the  months  of  September  or  Octotx'r. 

The  Human  Era  wiis  reckoned  by  the  Romans  from 
llie  epoch  ot  ho  tbuiidiition  of  their  famous  city  Kome, 
an  epocn  now  precisely  ascertained  to  have  correxnoiuled 
b)  the  TSnd  year  Ixil'nre  the  birth  of  Christ.  Tho  com- 
putaiion  of  time  by  tho  Roman  era  ceased  in  the  sixth 
nolurv  of  the  Christian  era. 


The  Chritlian  Era,  of  which  w«  tow  llvn  In  th« 
oJKhtnrn  hundred  and  forty-KTond  year,  wna  not  adopted 
■■  a  mixle  of  tiine-reckoiiing  immediale.y  after  the  coilv> 
mencpinenl  of  t.'hriatianily.  'I'hat  rpligiim  eiiatrd  long 
in  a  very  obaeiiro  way ;  and  thf  dale  of  the  birth  of  it* 
founder  did  not,  for  several  ceiituriea,  la'coine  a  aulHclrnt- 
ly  important  ovent  in  the  eyes  of  enliKblened  nations  to 
cauao  them  to  make  it  an  era.  'I'he  era  of  tb«  Olym- 
piiidi,  the  Roman  era,  the  era  of  Heleucua,  and  the  dalM 
uf  eceloaiaalical  cuuneila,  and  other  ev,  nta  then  conaidored 
of  im|xirtaiice,  were  tho  common  modes  of  reekorinK, 
anil  cotiliniird  partially  to  ho  an  till  a  period  less  reiiiota 
than  many  (lenplo  aup|M)ai>.  F<ven  in  Italy  and  ita  celo- 
braled  capital,  Home,  which  la'came  tho  chief  aeat  of 
Chriatianity  at  a  very  ea;ly  periixl,  this  era  waa  not  uaej 
till  tho  aixth  century.  It  waa  intrixlucrd  into  France  in 
tho  seventh,  but  not  fully  ealabliahed  till  tho  eiRhth,  In 
Hpain,  thouRh  occnaionolly  adopted  in  tho  eleventh,  it 
was  not  uniformly  ua<'d  in  pubhc  Inatriimenti  till  ■ftor 
the  middia  of  the  fourleentli,  nor  in  Portugal  till  about 
the  year  I41fl.  Now,  however,  all  nations  professing 
Christianity  have  abandoned  other  eraa,  and  cnnflneji 
themsclvci  to  this;  uaiiiK  the  Latin  wurda  Jlnun  Dmaini, 
"tho  year  of  our  Lord,"  or  their  initial  lettora,  a.  d.,  to 
diatinguiah  it;  whilo  for  all  dates  previous  to  the  gentv 
ral^i  received  epoch  of  tho  era,  tho  words  Anno  antt 
Chmliim,  "the  year  before  ('hriat,"  their  abbreviation, 
A.  A.  v.,  or  even  more  usually  tho  lettora  a.  c,  signifying 
'•  before  Chriat,''  are  uacd. 

The  Era  nf  Ihe  Htf(irn  commences  at  tho  epoch  of  th.. 
flight  of  Mohammed  from  Mecca  to  Medina,  which  tooll 
place  on  tho  Iftth  day  of  July,  a.  n.  622.  The  Moham- 
medan year  ia  regulated  by  this  e'int,  and  hence  it  if 
ua«Mj  by  the  Turks,  Arabs,  and  other  .Moh,iinmedan8,com> 
priaiiiR  a  large  portion  of  the  modern  population  of  tha 
■world. 

'i'he  Mundane  Era,  or  era  of  the  creation  of  the 
world,  haa  been  tho  aubjoct  of  much  controversy.  No 
loss  ihan  .100  difleront  opinions,  acevmlinK  to  Kennedy,  in 
his  "  Scriptural  Chronology,"  have  been  entertained  regard- 
ini{  the  period  which  elapsed  between  the  creation  and 
the  incarnation.  Some  have  made  it  DBIO  years;  other* 
li'lM'l.  From  the  creation  to  the  delui^c,  Ihe  computation 
of  Ihe  Hebrew  text  makes  a  lapse  of  16.56  years;  the 
Hainaritan  version  only  1307;  the  Septuaj?int  2262. 
No  ancient  ohronolo^ist  attempted  to  fix  tho  epoch  of 
the  criMilion ;  some  conceiv»>il  it  impious  to  do  so.  In 
nuHlern  times,  the  impiety  has  been  supposed  to  lie  all 
the  other  way.  Uut  some  enlightened  commentator* 
hayo  been  hold  enough  to  return  to  the  ancient  orthodox 
idea,  so  far,  at  least,  as  to  maintain  that  thu  Scriptural 
epoch  of  the  creation  is  indefinite,  bein(i;  merely  cursorily 
alluded  to  in  the  words,  "In  tho  beginning  God  created 
tho  heavens  and  the  earth."  Geolofpsts,  in  general,  also 
adopt  thia  wide  interpretation.  In  the  authorized  version 
of  the  Bible,  however,  the  chronology  usually  "giver, 
places  the  epoch  of  tho  creation  in  tho  year  4004,  b.  c 
Thus,  A.  II.  1  is  A.  M.  4004 ;  the  letters  a.  m.  being  used 
as  an  abbreviation  of  Anixo  Mundi — "  year  of  the  world." 

Yeara  of  Principal  Eras  CorreapomUnt  to  1813. 


Fra  nf  Creation  (Conaiantinopolitnn  nc- 

eoniol.  -  -  -  - 

I'. II  of  rriiilion  (.^k'xniulrinn  uccoiiiitl. 
t-'iii   of   CrtMiiion  (Jewish    iicuoiint),  7th 

'I'hi'lii'l 

Jllliilll  |irrio(].     .... 
I^ahyiiir  (IlinihH)),  Poos  or  Mar(^iily, 

Km  of  Alirniiiiin.  -till  iiimiih  of 

()l)nip:iiilis  Tth  month  Isl  year  of 

Kill  of  Koine.     .  •  .  . 

I'.rii  of  Niilioiiassar,  Htli  ninnih  of 

Kirypiinn  rrn.    •  -  tilth  t'ohiac. 

I'.rii  .if  Dinth  of  .MexaniliT,        a<l  iiioiilh. 
Spti    isli.  or  (Tii  ot'iiii'  Tii'sars. 
Uioilisinn.  orernof.Mnrtyrs.  •-Mlh  Pohiac, 
Hcffira.  ...  -  7lh  Rrfj-'h. 

Chii.t'iie  year,  30th  year  «f  71  at  c 


YEAR3.       AHHRKV, 

7n.w 

A.  M.  Const 

rm 

A.  AI.  Alex. 

rMn 

A.M. 

I.VM 

J 11..  I'or. 

li)l:i 

Cul. 

•  w-'.v 

,Kr.  Abf. 

■  i..>i 

Oivmp. 

a.'iiit 

A.IJ.O. 

•J'lfKI 

.i:r.i\ab 

•.'.■>"« 

A    -l-R. 

•ji(i.'> 

A.  Alorl.  Wtx 

i«-^i 

A.  Cm  a. 

1, ').-.« 

Vt.  Dod. 

i'j:>7 

A.M. 

ycle  of  60  yean 

764 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


TABULAR    CHRONULOOY. 

Under  this  licad  the  loading  events,  phenomena,  or 
bets,  recorded  in  history,  are  arranged  in  the  order  of 
lime  in  whicli  tiiey  have  occurred— that  is,  in  chronolo- 
gical order. 

BKrOBB  CHBlSr. 

Twiliffhi  of  history  previous  to  B.  c.  3000.  Hut  fabulous  or 
doubtfurUU  iiboiii  IJlMi. or  the  pi^riocl  ol'ilie  Trojuii  wur.  Homer 
lived  nl  nixiiil  IIWKI  n.  r.     Full  of  Assyrmn  empire,  UIHI. 

HOO. — Ciiulileuiin  ill  .M>'sopolnmio — Kvekoiiiii^  by  Olympiads, 
777.  New  Assyrmri  niipire — Koine  fuunded,  'M  (aceoriling  lo 
,  (i',>7)      .I'.ilmip  "lis  'T  K(,'ypt— SyrnciiBe — Knd  of  kiiig- 


-Kjwch  of  era  of 


yrus 
I'ar- 


Newton  

dom  of  Israel — Hahyloiraii  Assyrian  empire 
Nalionussar,  747.     tireeian  colonies  in  Ilaly. 

7U(I.— Urueo  ;n  Allii'n.s—Nebuehailney./ar— Invasion  of  Upper 
Asia  by  Seydiiaiis.  '1:15.     Zoroaster  in  I'ersia. 

600. — llaliylon  nli  ("aptivity.  5S8.    Cyrii.",  king  of  Persio.  con 
quered  tin    .Meibaiis.  .VIG.     I'yllitttroVas  llouriniied,  5.'!fl.     Cyriii 
took   Babylon.  M-i.     Return  of  Jews.  a,JO.      I'iitJar,  518.     I'l 
miiiedes^MeriicltiiiR — Aiiaxa(;oras.  500. 

6(KI.— SopbocUs,  4yj.  'I'ribiiues  and  -IMilcs  at  Rome,  49.1. 
Herodotu.s  born.  4M.  ICiiripldes,  4'<l.  Thucydides.  471.  Athe- 
niati  asceniliincy.  477.  Steratps  born.  40H.  Zeno.  404.  Zeiuv 
nhon  born,  414.  Isocrates  born. 4.10.  iMelonic  cycle  began.  4.'fcJ. 
Velopoiineiiiun  war  hei^an— llipnocrates  floiiri.*lied.  431.  IMaio 
t>orn,  429.  AriMtiipliuiies  floiiriiilied,  4U7.  Diofrenes  born,  413. 
Athe.iS  Iftk.Mi.  4(H.     Kelreat  of  lO.UtK)  (ireeks.  401. 

4110.— Ar  sioile  Ijorii,  iM.  Demosthenes.  3ty.  I.acedremoiii- 
ans  cxpelletl  ("rom  Tliebcs,  379.  Kpainiiiondu.H — 'rholmiis  in 
Orfeec  (till  .HUI.  o71.  I'ni'lors  al  Knine.  ;t(i5.  Alexander  the 
Great  born — Dionysiusexpelli.'d  t'roin  Syracuse  by  Dion — Theo- 
pompus  nourished,  .'i.'id.  .Nlenamler  liorn,  'Mi.  Kpiciirus,  ;t41. 
Muceilonian  ascciidiiiiey,  .tlS.  Thebes  destroyed  by  Ale>an-  j 
der,  :fct>.  Persia  inviiib'd.:{34.  Syria  and  Kp)  pi  conquered.^'W. 
Uettihoi.\le. valid  r—lli«empire divided.  3J:l.  I'tolemy  carried 
lOO.lKK)  .lews  into  I  :i;ypt.  :h>0.  Alexis  nourished.  UK).  Restora- 
tion of 'I'hebrs.  :it.i  Seleiiens  in  l)uh\  Ion — I-lra  of  Seleucus 
oei;an.  :t)2.  Suii-di*ls  in  Koine — Time  divided  into  hours.  :10S. 
Atiieniandeinuerae)  restored.  .'i07  IMoleniy  liKik  lA'bia.  I-'gypt, 
and  ralesi.ii*- ;  t'ltssander  tiwik  Maeeddnia:  I.ysiiiitiehus  took 
Tiirace  and  Ili:h>ii:a:  and  Sdeiicus  took  Syria  with  most  of 
Upper  A:*  a.  all  al.oitt  this  perioil. 

:i(K). — i'lir>' >.ppii--;  born.  *jm.  (Jatils  driven  out  of  invaded 
Cireece  into  Asia — Xeno  of  Citiiim.  Strnio.  and  ICpieuriis  tlou- 
rished. '278.  Silver  tirst  coined  at  Koine.  "JtiU.  First  I'uiiic  war. 
BOo.  Rej:iib,is  put  1(1  death.  •2.')0.  Aiit.oehiis  tlie  (ireat.  kiiij,' of 
Syria — See.ind  I'liiie  war — ilaiinilnil  passed  the  Al[is. 'Jlv.  He 
deteated  the  Koiiians  al  Thrasymeiie,  •J17i  at  I'aiinri!.  2111. 
Archiinedes's  serew  invented---Ari'liinieile»  killed.  '.'!'.'.  I'oly- 
biiis  born.  -iKi.  riiuiliis  lloiinshed.  201.  Ilaiiiiilial  defeated  by 
Scipio  at  Zaiiia.  ati2.     Firsl  .Macedonian  war.  201. 

20(1. — Second  Miie.donttn  war.  172.  Macedonia  a  Roman 
province,  Itl^.  .lews  deliveretl  Iroin  SyriaiM.  100.  Water 
clocks  or  clepsydre  used  in  Rome.  l.i".  Third  I'lniie  war,  140. 
Carttiofje  desiroyeil  — rorinih  destroyed — (ireece  a  Koiiiiin  pro- 
vince. 140.  I.iH'iliiis  tlonnshed.  121.  Koiiians  defeated  by  riin- 
bri  andTeiiioiies  ,  -omm  Romans  killed.  114.  Teiitoiiesdi'fented 
by  .Marius  ;  vtolLisKi  kdled  and  Mi.OOO  taken  prisnn.'rs,  102  Cim- 
bri  detea'i'd  by  Manns  and  Caiulliis:  120.1X10  killed  and  UO.OOO 
taken  prisoners — Julius  (\i'sar  born.  KKI. 

100.— I. ivy  born.O:!.  .Muhridat.e  war,  *«.  Mariiis  look  Rome. 
87.  Salliist  born,  <>.  S\llii.  Roman  dictator,  '■y.  laicretins 
flonrislieil.  07.  *"onspiraey  of  Caiuline — Palestine'  eonf]iiered, 
G'{.  First  .ri.inivirale,  00.'  Ca-sur's  wars  in  *iaul  bepan.  5^. 
His  expedition  to  Hfitan.  55.  .54.  Rome  con'ained  :t20.(KK)  cili- 
leiis.  .W.  • 'a  sar's  wur  with  Pompey  beffun.  4ir  Cn-sur  ileclared 
rather  of  his  roimirv.  I'imperor.  (iiid 'Perpeinal  Dieiaior — Ad- 
justed ihe  I'aleiidar.  ■I.'i.  Was  assass  lulled — D.odorus  Sieulus 
flourished.  44.  S'eoiid  tnurnvirntu.  4.1.  Denili  of  HriMus  and 
Oiiss.us,  12.  Herod,  king  of  Jews,  40.  Death  of  .\nioiiy  and 
Cleopatra.  :I0.  rasnr  .\u(jiisiiis  declared  F.iiipi'ror— Virgil. 
Horace.  Ovid.  (ialliis.  Polio,  Vanns.  Tiluillns.  Propertiiis.  anil 
}'lia-driis  tloiiristied,  27.  I'ornelius  .\c[ios  died — <'oin  first  used 
in  ilrilaiii.  2.>.  V.ctonesof  Driisus  in  fiau!  12.  Seneca  born.  H. 
Dionysius  of  (lal  carnassiis  flourished,  4.  Jesus  Chrisl  born,0; 
lomeliines  held  to  be  four  years  sooner. 

ANNO   noMlM   (YKA«   OF   Ol«    LOBD). 

1. — Death  of  Ainfiistus.  16     friicifixion.  3:1.    Conversion  of 

Pnnl,  :;rt.  Tiner  us  d  ..d.  ;t7.  Name  of  I'hristians  piven  at  An- 
loeli.40  <'alnru!:i  assnssinateil,  41.  I,onilon  built  or  iiniiroved 
by  Koiiiiiiis.  50.  Claudius  died,  and  Nero  siiceeeiled  ium.  .Vl. 
I'liristiaiiity  inirodiiee.l  nio  llrtain  (III.  Koailieea  di'liated  the 
Romans,  and  was  deiciiti'd  by  them.  01.  PI  ny  dieil.  00.  Jeru- 
salem destroyed.  7n,  England  coiii|uered  by  Agm-ola.  7"'.  Her- 
c.laneum  and  Pompeii  destrn\  eil  by  an  eritjii, on  oi  Vesuvius. 
TJ  and  not  rerbsrovered  till  17:W)  \  aleniis  l-^bicciis  (loiirishi'd 
—Apr  cola  dei.nied  the  Cnledoninns  or  Si'nts.  M.  F.pictetns 
the  Sioie  and  Jnveiml  lliiiirislif  d.  IKI.  Perseeiiion  of  I'liristiHiis 
tiiiibr  Doiniiiaii.  !il  T'lciius  and  I'liny  the  Younger  nourished, 
*).     Snel..iriis_Pliiinreli 


■  Hotnans.  207.  SIIK  manniaciurcs  nrsi  liroi:(j|.|f,„_ 
Kiiropo.  274  (occording  lo  other  authorities.  55|) 
ind  Orlrogoths  in  Dacia,  275.  CJerniam  ei|,el|c|i 
by  Probus— Fronks  also  dcl'ealed,  277.     Fpoth  ol 


l!<l -      , - - - 

800  — Tertiillian.  I'hilostraiiis.  F.melius.  ami  Pap  man  flmi- 
rished  2ir2.  Wail  oi'Severnsbuill  m  llritaiii,  200  First  notice 
•f (miiLhis  I'pper  I(li.ne,21X     Heliogabalus, 21a   JuliusAlri- 


canuf,  chronologcr.  220.  Origan.  Dion  Casslut,  He roiban,  la 
Artaxerxes,  king  of  New  Persian  empire,  'ZK.  First  iiniice  qi 
Franks.  Ixiwer  Rhine,  250.  Goths  in  Thessaly,  2.)1.  Vandali 
—Germans  in  Ravenna,  200.  Franks  in  Gaul.  203.  Onihs  r«. 
pellcd  by  Odenalus.kingof  Palmyra,  204.  Scythians  and  (j„||., 
defeated  by  Kotnans.  207.    Silk  manniaciurcs  first  broi:(j|.|f,„_ 

India  into  Kii- '"'  ' '■ —   '"  "■'■■-  "— ' 

Visigoths  and 
from  (iaul  by 
Uioelesjan  era,  2M. 

l;(Ki.— i.'onsmniine  llie  Great  embraced  Christianity,  ndfl.  i,,^. 
Inntius  llonrislied.  •'III.  Sunday  appointed  lo  he  oliserveU  liv 
Christians.  321.  Western  and  eostern  provinces  iiniuil,  ;ai 
Council  of  Nice,  ih.'.5.  Seat  of  empire  Iranslerred  from  R„,||f 
lo  Constantinople.  ;J30.  Jundilicus.  ;)42.  Franks  in  (liml.  ijjij 
In  (freece  and  Asia.  150  cities  destroyed  by  an  eartliqiialie.iBw 
Julian  the  Apostate  killed,  303.  Roman  lawaguinsi  'iiiijrjcianj 
304.    Theodiisius  subdued  llritain,  30.-<. 

400.— Germans  in  Helvetia,  407.  Vaiiduls  in  Spain,  4lK).  Alaric 
plundered  Rome.  410.  Koiiorius  relimiuished  Urilam.  412  Vnn. 
dills  in  Africa,  420.  Atillii  in  Upper  Italy— Foimdai'oiiof  Ve- 
nice,  1.12.  Ilengist.  the  Saxon,  ibunded  the  kingihmi  of  Kent, 
4.57.  Romans  expelled  Irom  Spain  by  Visigoths.  4iH.  Ilel.revj 
points  invented.  475.  Western  lUmian  empire  overiliro\vn.47ii. 
Visigoths  parainoiint  ill  (iaul,  47V.  jl'Ulu  lounded  the  k.iarjQm 
of  Sussex,  400.  Ostrogoths  coni|iiered  Italy,  4UU  Silk-normj 
brought  into  Ihirope — Clovis  baptized,  490. 

5(KI.— Visigoihs  subdued,  and  Franks  established  in  (iiuil  (now 
France)  by  Clovis,  50^.  llcptareliy  in  Fngland.  ,Vj|\  Coliim. 
bus  propagated  Christianity  amoimsl  the  Picts,  .'lOS.  I.oiiiliardy 
n  kingdom.  50"i.  Mahomet  proclaimed  Islomism.  Cnii).  i.,,,;,, 
ceased  lo  be  spoken  in  Italy  about  SmI.  Leovifold.  the  Viij. 
golh.  victorious  in  Spain.  5-5.     St.  Augustine  in  Kiigliiiiil,  597 

000.— Supremacy  of  Pope  fir«l  obtained.  007.  Jeriisolim 
taken  bv  Persians,  who  killudlMI.OOO  persons,  014.  Tlie  lUj.ra, 
022.  Piirishes  in  F.ngland  first  laid  out.  040.  Saracens  inl'tr- 
sia.  051.  (ilass  firs!  Ill  Diigland.  003.  liritoiis  retreuied  liei'uro 
Saxons  into  Wales  and  Cornwall,  Oh5.  Money  first  eoitieiHiy 
Arabians.  005.     Saracens  !n  Carlliuge— Doges  in  Veiiiee,  (ills. 

700.— Arabs  in  Spain.  714.  Pepin,  king  of  France,  7,J2.  Tom. 
poral  dominion  of  the  Popes  begni.  7.5,'i,  Franks  in  I.iiiiil.iinty, 
774;  and  in  Snxonv.  7S5.  Haroun  al  Ruschid,  OSi,  Uanei 
landed  in  I'.iiglund,  "t^. 

MIO— Charlemagne  crowned  Roman  emperor— I.oo  111.. 
Scholastic  philosophy— Arabs  advanced  in  science-Cioelfi 
made  lo  strike  by  the  Arabs,  and  introduced  into  I'.uropc  irom 
the  Fast.  Mil.  Cliarlemairne  coiir|iiered  the  Saxons. -iij:  niiil 
the  Sorbes  and  Vandals.  s(K):  iIied,H|4.  Kcclesiusiics  e.veiiipiej 
from  military  service.  H17.  Kgbert,  kingof  Fngland.  -27.  Scli.sin 
of  Cireek  Church.  (-5:).  Navarre  tounded.  nW.  Feudal  syskm 
introduced  iiiio  France  by  Charles  llie  Hald,  S77.  AM'' mm 
first  ajipoinied.  ^■'i.  Alfred  expelled  the  Danes  troiii  lliislaiiil, 
and  divided  it  into  counlies.  HIO-03.  First  land-lax  m  Kiiglaiid, 
fill.     Rome  taken  by  Ariiol4ib  of  {J'lrmuny.  ^<J0. 

OOO.— Frnn:e  ravaged  by  the  Normans.  OO-'l.  War  w.ih  the 
Danes  in  llnglnnd  for  12  years.  010  Saracens  deteated  m  ^pnin, 
7il.l^K)  kdled.  910.  Hungarians  defeated  in  fiermaiiy.  u.tj.  ]),. 
lile  translated  in'ofiermaii.  0:19.  .\ritlimetical  figures  iii'iodiiced 
into  I'.urope  by  the  -Xrab'ans.  941  (or  0911.  Italy  uiiiuil  ii.Get. 
many  by  Dtho  the  Great.  IHi4.  Ilohemia  subdued  bvOiholl., 
977.  Capet  laiiiily  MHcended  ihe  throne  of  France,  !i-7.  Jnva 
sioii  of  l''.iiL>laiid  liv  the  Normans.  990;  and  by  ihe  lliuies.  Ii9i 
Ihnpire  ol  Gerinuiiy  declared  eleeiivc  by  Oilio  III  ,  Wiii. 

KMKI,— Canute,  king  of  Denmark,  on  throne  of  riigiinid.  Ud4. 
.Moors  in  Spain.  III3H  Fdwanl  the  Conl'i-ssor,  1042  Mmileof 
Hastimrs— William  of  Normandy  concpiered  I'ligliiml— Pro- 
liable  lieginning  of  tournamenis.  lIKiO.  Henry  I V.  iLpuscd  ty 
Pope  Gregory  VII.  (Hildebrande).  1070.  Iloniesduj-Huok  be- 
iriin,  KMi;  finished.  1IH(.  William  the  Coiiiiueicir  iiivad.'d 
I'rance.  Origin  of  Crusades.  1(195.  First  Cru-iide.  liiOii.  Cap- 
ture of  Jeriisali-m— Institution  of  Knights  of  St.  .loliii  \iH). 

IKXI.— Coins  first  made  round  in  Ihiglund.  Illil.  Sunmini'i 
introduced.  1102.  Henry  1.  uniteil  Normandy  to  Fugliiiid.  llmi. 
I.oiiis  VI.  of  France  tosteri'il  corporalions  as  a  secuiiu  auu  iisi 
feudal  lords.  1 IIH.  Order  of  Knichts  Templars  iiisiiiiii,.||,  1119. 
Second  Crusade,  1147.  Plantngenets  ascended  l''iiftli»h  throne, 
11.54  Henry  II  conciiicrs  Ireland,  1172.  Glass  w.mimvs  tirji 
used  in  F.nglnnd  tor  liou^es,  11-<I.  Kingdom  of  leriisal.'in  ds- 
stroved  by  Snindin.  Il>7.  Third  council  under  It.elninl  Ciriir 
de  r.ioii.  Frederick  I  .and  Philip  II..  IIH).  Knights  ol  Teuioui, 
order  inslituied.  KKKI.  Firft  mention  of  mariner's  compiisi 
(exeepi  in  China)— Univeriities  established— Chiminiyj  first 
used  in  F.ngland.  12ii0. 

1200— Towns  and  cities  first  incorporated,  1201.  Foiirh 
Crusaders;  under  Itoiiifacc,  tcsik  Constantinople,  Ijnl  Iiii|iii. 
sition  originaleil  at  I.nngiiedoc.  1204.  fiengis  Kliiiii-Mfijiil 
enipiri:— Pans  nniveisity.  1200.  Roger  Ibieon.  1211.  I' Mh 
Crusade,  1217.  MagTia  Charta.  bosis  of  I'.nglish  cuii^itiii.on 
obtained.  l'-'i5.  First  PaTiiamenl  ill  Knglund.  1210  Sw.i«r- 
land  u  (irovmee  of  the  (iiTinan  empire.  121 '^.  Astrnnoiiiy  uiid 
gi'ograpliy  inirodnc'd  by  the  Mi»irs  into  Kuro|ie.  l',"J(l  Hur.- 
garian  consitiiiion— States  Parbain''iil  of  France— rinvcr".!)! 
of  Salatnaiica.  1222.  Thomas  Aiiuitins  12'24  Si::ili  Irii^ni!", 
122*^.  Coals  discovete  !  at  Newcastle,  12:4.  iMoirulstuok  .\lni- 
cow.  12:10.  (iiii'lphs  atvl  (iibelliiH's  desolated  Ilaly  iiliuiit  Hi) 
Mogul  empire— Sevi'iith  Crusade.  1 21-1.  Magic  lanierii  nveii'el 
by  Roger  llueon.  PJ.52.  Alphonso.  King  of  Casiil,'.  eoii<iriif:d 
his  celebrated  asiroiiomieal  tables.  -I, men  first  iiiude  ,11  \:.:t' 
land.  12.5:1  Caliph  of  Ihigdad  d.-iroyed  by  .Mnmils  liH 
Magnifviinr-glasses  invetiti'd  bv  Roger  Hncoii.  120"  liiuiii? 
born.  1205  (died  1321).  China  subdued  by  Moguls,  I'.iT'l  I'nsli 
firsl  dug  at  N»-wcasite  tmder  charier  (,f  lleiiry  HI..  1-"''.  :*'i"i 
linn  vespers— 10  (KKI  French  massiicn'd.  12-'2  Caiidl,  sii'sl!"* 
first  used  insleud  of  spliiiiets  of  wood,  ubuut  P2VU  iwiii  eaiidiM 


CHRONOLOGY. 


76S 


,^,,1  1.100).  Rnd  nt  Criisados.  1891.  F.dwnrd  of  England 
"™,,,,iS.oiliiiiil.  laiia.    Spi'cmiOes  invonted.  1200. 

I30i  -Hnymnnd  Lully— I'riricun   Royal  of  Kiigland,  eldest) 
„„,, CKiiMil  l'nntJ«  of  Wuli'9,  J301.    Cambridge  University 
fcunili'd.  KXW     "ill»  of  exclmiin«  first  used  ill  F.iigland,  rjtll  I 
\\'ilii«i"  Till— ll>^lvetic  confederation,  l.'WM.     Rhodes  taken  by  | 
rnilflils  o'  Si.  .lolin,  UID.    Templars  siippres^ed,  lUia.     Uallle  [ 
,f  ifjiinof  kbiirn.  1114.     Paper  made  from  linen  rags,  1319.    Uo-  ' 
„rt  Hniee— Si'olbuid  independent,  VJSiH.     (iunpowder  made  by 
Sfliwarl/.afu'riimii.  l.'):)0.     Cloth  weaving  introduced  into  V'ork  i 
hviwn  IJrHliiinl  weavers,  13.)1.    Ulankets  first  made  in  England, 
i;Uli.     IViriircb,    l^Ml.     fiiinpowder  in   France — Fire-arms — 
Cantion!<— C'liiiary  isles  diPCov(!red  by  Genoese,  13-15.    Order  of 
(inrliT  roiinileil,  1340.    Tamerlane  in  I'ersin,  13.W.    Turks  in 
Kuropi?.  l'"'!-     f^ilii's  and  borouRbs  first  represented  in  I'orlia- 
jieiil  in  l'.ni?lnnd.  i:KiO.    John  Wioklilfe.  reformer  in  F.nKland. 
Ijui.    Stewuris  on  Scottish  throne,  1371.     Invasion  of  K.nKland 
by  Frini'li.  1377.     Schism  of  double   Popes,  which   lasted  38 
,;,„r.  I37H.     Wat  Tyler's  insnrreciion,  Ulnl.    (ieoll'rey  tJhau- 
ierdied.  13!Ki. 

HIKI.— .lohii  lliiss.  WicklilTe's  disciple,  in  Bohemia — Death 
(fTnnii'rbiiie.  M(I5.  Oil  painlinff  invented  by  John  Van  Kyek, 
14III.  (iunpowder  made  in  KuKland,  UI3.  Council  of  t'on- 
lisiici"'  1411.  John  Muss  burnt— French  defeated  by  Kniflisli 
si  .^sinCDiirl,  111'),  (fipsies  or  lloheinlans  in  Knrope,  1417. 
Maileira  discovered.  141 H.  Melal  engraving  and  rolling-prpss 
printing  invinied.  i4'J3.  Maid  of  Orleans  burnt.  14.IU.  Azores 
Sucovered  bv  Poringiiese,  1432.     I'hi.ntinc.  in  BUK'hs  ivventkd 

BT  FaI'ST.    Ill":     ANn     IS   TYl'KS,    IIY     JilIIN     Cil'TTENllEllO.    1444. 

WinT-iniib'  lirgun.  14W.  Cape  de  Verd  islands  discovered. 
1444  Firfi  slanibngnrmy  inmoili'rn  ages  esiabli.ihed  in  France 
-Wiirs  of  the  Hoses.  1415.  Iiiundaiions  at  Don:  lOn.lKKI 
persons  drowned.  144d.  Knglisli  evacnaie'd  France.  14.'»3.  (ireal 
(arllii|imki'  al  Naples.  I4ri(l.  (iluss  fir..ii  inaiiuructiired  in  Kng- 
lami.  l-l'''7.  V'Tfl  |)rinied  book.  Viilgaie  ediron  of  ihe  Hible, 
Hti'.'  Frsl  aliiianac.  147(1.  Priming  in  F.iiglniid  by  Caxion,  a 
mercer  in  London,  1471.  Lorenzo  de  IMediei.  1472.  ^^''alches 
moiie  lit  Niireiiiljerg — VioMiis  invenled.  1477.  Iiiipiisilion  esla- 
blislicd  in  Sjurn.  147S.  Union  of  Castile  and  Arragon.  147!l. 
Fall  ofTaniir  dynnsiy  in  Itussia.  \4k\.  Tiidors  ascend  the 
Kiiglish  llirone— Vork  and  Lancaster  imiled.  14-<5.  Cape  of 
(iooii  Hope  discovered,  14~ri.  iMnps  and  sen-charls  first  made 
in  Kncliiiil— Diamonds  polisbi'd  at  Uriiges,  14M).  Cdlumius 
niwovKREt)  .\mkbica.  llTii  OcTDiiKB.  14112.  Diet  of  Worms, 
lv.i5.    Cahoi  discovered  Newioitndland.  14yd.     Americiis  Ves- 

iiccius  landed  on  North  Aiierica.  1407.  The  Poringnese 
readied  the  ICasl  Indies  by  sea.  14US.  Moors  e.xpclled  from 
Casiile.  H'.ill.     Cubol  discovered  Florida,  I.jIIII. 

15(MI.— Sliilliiigs  first  coined  in  Fngland—Dislair  spinning  in- 
Iniluccd  from  Italy  l.WS.  Hrnzils  discovered — Spaniards  in 
Cjlia.  Jainaiea.  Porto  Rico.  ,\CAH.  Haille  of  Flodden,  1513 
I.iillier  llminslied  (born  14H:),  died  154ii)— Turks  In  Syria  and 
iVvpt.  1517.  First  voyage  round  the  world  bv  Magellan.  1.51H- 
1311).  Coiii|iiest  of  .Mexico.  l.Wl.  Conipiest  of  Cliili,  l.')23;  of 
Kru.  15'.'^  llealhol  Ariosio.  htl).  Henry  VIII.  heiulof  Clinreh 
ol'Kiiitliiiid— llible  translated  into  I'.nglish  bv  Tindal  anil  (^over- 
dalf.  15:14:  by  king's  authority.  l.'v'Ki.  Deatli  of  F.rnsmns.  I.'XIH. 
Rilipri'ssMiM  of  religions  houses  in  F.nglnnd  and  Wales.  \C>:Si). 
ioiiii  Ciilvin  — Ueibrniat.on  at  {i"iieva — Variation  of  the  com- 
p4!is  oliserved  by  (>iiboi.  .Mortars  and  iron  cannon  first  made, 
ami  iron  first  cast  in  Fnglaiid — Death  of  Copernicus  (born  147:11. 
I'M  Council  of  Trent — Needles  firsi  mndi'  in  Fiigland.  104.'), 
Or;iiii;e  tries  introilucej  from  China  into  Portugal,  1547.  Te- 
leccopes  'nvented.  l.Mfl. 

155W. — ('rowns  and  half-crowns  first  coined.  1551.  Books  en 
astroiioiiiv  iiinl  geometry  desiro>'ed  in  l^ngland  as  niiigicnl.  l.'ljC 
Driiiliof  Mi'lancthoii(born  14!I7)  — Knox — Scottish  neiiirmaiion, 
Ijiui.  Knives  first  made  in  F.ngland — Potatoes  introduced  from 
Amunea.  \MI.  lielgic  refugees  esiablish  maniilactures  in  Kiig- 
laiul,  151)7,  Massacre  of  Ibirtliohunew.  I.')72,  Portugal  and 
Spiiin  united— Drake  sai'jid  miiiid  the  world— Parochial  regis- 
ters eslnlilished  in  Fiigland — Coaches  first  used  there,  lo-d,  De- 
ciaiation  of  miteiiendence  by  iituled  provinces — (ircgsirinn  ca- 
I'liilar,  l-l'-l.  Tobacco  broiiglit  to  Fnglanil.  1.5-3.  Turks  in 
Cnmi'ii.  15--I,  fJrecnIand  discovered,  l.5%5.  Potatoes  inlrodnceil 
into  Iri'iand.  15'^1,  Mary  CJiieen  of  Scots  pul  to  deiilli,  lSi-7, 
Spanish  Arniaila  destroyed— I'irst  newspaper  pnMislied  in 
Knjlnnil, till  d  ■'  Knglish  Mercury,'' and  now  in  Hritish  .Mnsenin 
litaieil 'jMh  liilvl.  IS-.S  Kdiel  of  Nniiiz — ,Mauritius  discovered, 
1511-     Kast  Iiebli  Compnnv  eslnblished,  llilKI. 

Ifill'l.— Dnieh  F.nsi  India'  Company  I'stablished.  11102.  Uii'on 
3f  Kiiclish  and  Si-oitish  crowns.  1003,  (iunpowder  plot,  100;"), 
rrolisiiiiii  llerinan  slates  united— Satellites  of  Jupiter  and  Sa- 
turn nmi  spots  on  sun  discovered,  lOO'^lO.  Moors,  0(10,000  ba- 
tislinl  out  of  Spain.  1(110,  Itaroueicies  instituted,  101 1,  Napier 
— l/ignnilinis  invented,  IfH4,  A  steam-engine  invented  by  Sn- 
Tary,  till-.  Tberinoineters  invented,  1020.  Fnglisb  in  Harbn- 
(to.'s.  lb  rintidii.  Antigua.  Proviili*nce.  An,?e'iia.  and  West  Iii- 
(^.es.  lfi*-*5,  Hncnn  (burn  fiOO)  died  102(1  Sntiinfs  rinu  disco- 
T'Teil.  ||>:14.  (faitleo  eondeiimetl  by  inoiiisitioii,  103:1,  rtreehl 
l'n!vii«.ii\  'niiihled,  I0:!0,  Portugal  aiul  Spam  ibsiiiiitcil — Ilra- 
^niufl— Long  Parliament  in  Fngland  opened,  1040  Coifee  first 
•js.'il  in  l-'.i!glnnil,  1041.  Toricelli's  barometer  invented,  liMt. 
Tiirtiir  revoliiiHiii  in  China,  Kill,  Air-guns  invented,  1040. 
Chiirl'vs  1.  .rchi-uded— CromwidI— Conimonwealih.  1040. 

PiiO— (JiMkers  in  l-'ngbind,  1051,  Cromwell  Protecior — Mil- 
ton dmrn  100-,  died  10741.  Ki.TH.  Air-pump  >nventi(l.  10.M,  In- 
doiieiiil' ,ice  of  Prussia — lliiygeiis — Saturn  s  4th  stiie!!  le  dis- 
eevered  by  bun,  lO.').!,  Royiil  Society  of  London  established, 
'.W,  Knglish  ill  Ikimhay— Fire-eugiiies  invi'nti'd,  1003.  fireat 
Biai(ue  III  London,  IliO.'i,  (irent  fire  in  I.ondnn,  13  200  liouses  in 
Di*i  s'ri".'!s  Imrned.  KiitO.  Dnvonets  invented  at  Dnvoiine— 
CiSinet  Cdiinril  first  insiitiiteil,  1(170  ifirst  in  Fiigland,  10031. 
IliiriicnC';  and  farthin(r'  first  coined  by  government  in  Kng- 


laiid,  1672.  Sninosa  died,  1077.  TTnbeas  Corpus  Act  pasiedi 
l(i7>4.  Penny  Post  in  London,  1081.  Philadelplua  lour.ded  by 
WiUiara  Penn,  1U82.  l,ord  Kussel  beheaded,  lO-r,  Satuni'l 
Istbnd  2d  satelliteb  discovered  by  Casaini,  10^4,  Kcvoeatlon 
of  Fxlict  of  Naniz— Massacre — .50,000  reformed  quit  France, 
1685.  Newtonian  philosophy  niiblished,  IILSi.  Telegraphs  in- 
venled, ias7.  liuvolution  III  I'.ngland — William  III,,  Prince  of 
Orange,  landed  there — Flight  of  James  II, — Smyrna  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake.  KM.  Tolerulion  act  passed — ICpiscopacy  in 
Scotland  abolished,  lUsO.  White  paper  first  made  ii  I'ngland 
— F.nglish  in  Calcutta— Uallle  of  Boync.  lOOO.  Term  i  iiion  of 
war  111  Ireland,  lOUl.  INIassacre  of  (fleneoe — I'larili()uake  in 
Knglnnd  and  Jamaica,  10U2.  Bunk  uf  Fngland  esiabbshed  and 
incorporalud,  10113, 

1700,— Priissio  a  kingdom,  1701.  Petersburg  founded,  1703. 
F.nglish  in  (iibraliar — .Marlborough — Hatile  of  iilenheim.  1704. 
Parliaments  of  llnglund  and  Scotland  united — llaltleof  RnmiU 
lies,  170(1,  Stereotype  printing  in  Leyden,  1700,  St,  Paul's  re- 
built— Peace  of  Utrechl.  1713.  (ieorge  I.,  F.leetnr  of  Hanover, 
ascended  the  throne  of  (treat  Britain — (iuelpli  dynasty,  1714. 
First  Septemiifd  Parlinmem  in  F.ngland  opened — Inoculation  at 
Oxi'ord — Rebellion  in  Scotland — Unities  of  Sherilfmuir  and  Pres- 
ton— Fahrenheit's  mercurial  thermumetcr  invenled.  1715,  Tri- 
ple alliance  ;  Dritain,  France,  and  llollund— Law's  Mississippi 
scheme — Cireat  I'.arlhipiake  in  China — Siiitli  Sen  Scheme.  1720. 
Peter  the  (ireal  look  the  title  of  Fmperor  of  all  the  Russias, 
1721. 

1725.— Academy  at  Petersburg  founded— ColTce  trees  carried 
to  Ihe  West  Indies.  1720.  Aberrntion  of  fixed  stars  discovered 
by  Bradley,  1727.  Gold  and  diainoiid  mines  ol  Brazil  disco- 
vered—'riiennoineter  improved  by  Reauiniir,  1730,  Portcoui 
mob  in  Kdinbiirgh,  1730,  llcrciiltineiim  and  Pompeii  re-dis- 
covered. 173*  Nadir  Schah— Fall  of  Moguls,  1730,  (War  of 
Austrian  succcsskiu  oil  174-).  Stereotype  practised  at  Edin- 
burgh by  William  (led.  goldsmith,  1710.  Ilebring's  voyage, 
1741.  Anson's  voyage  round  the  world.  1741.  Diiitle  of  Fon- 
tenoy — Prince  Charles  Kdward  landed  in  Scollnnd  ;  is  victori- 
ous at  Pieslonpuns;  and  enters  llngland.  1745.  Defeat  ol 
Prince  Charles  at  Cullnden — I'.leclric  shock  discovered  nt  I.ey- 
dcn — Lima  destroyed  by  an  earthquake.  1740.  Peace  of  Aix 
la-Chapelle,  174^.   Therinomeler  improved  by  Fahrenheit,  1749. 

1750, — Artificial  magnets  invenled  in  Fiigland.  1751.  Light- 
ning rods— Franklin- Identity  of  eleclriciiy  with  lightning — 
new  style  adopted  in  Britain,  1752,  British  iMuseum  established. 
1753,  Powcriul  eruption  of  -Ltiia — Lisbon  and  CJiiiio  destroyed 
by  earthquakes — Fnglish  in  Bengal,  1755.  (Pitt  (Chnlhnm) 
Prime  Minister  of  Kngland  till  1701).  Black  Hole  at  CalcuttOj 
1750.  British  empire  iii  India  firmly  established  by  capiure  oi 
Surnt — CJuebec  and  Ouadaloupe  lukin — Deulli  of  \^■oll'e.  1759. 
Jesiiils  expcdied  from  France — Platinn  discovered— Diving-bell 
improved— Hyder  Ali,  1700.  Peace  of  Paris — France  cetled  to 
Brilnin  Canada.  Cape  lireton,  St.  Vincent,  St.  Domingo,  Toba- 
go, and  the  const  of  Senegal — Pottery  improved  by  Wedge- 
wood.  1703.  Longitude  calciilaied  by  Harrison's  time-piece, 
1704.  Taxes  increased  in  British  America— Oppnsilion,  1704-74. 
Napoleon  Bonaparte  born  at  Ajaccio  in  Cors  eii.  1.5tli  August, 
170-^.  Sleum-englne  improved  by  Watt,  at  (iliisgow,  1770. 
Cook's  first  voyage  round  the  world.  1771.  Firstinuiiion  of  Po- 
Ini'd,  1772.  Congress  of  12  British  provinces  at  Pli.Iailelpliia— 
Bi'iillon  and  "Wnn's  stentn-engiiies.  1774. 

:775.— War  of  Aimrienn  independence— Washington  leader, 
n75.  Failed  Slates  declared  independent  Jlh  July),  1770 
Frame  nllied  to  the  United  Slates — Siege  of  fiibralmr.  when 
red  hot  bullets  were  first  used.  I77S.  firuption  of  Mount  Ve 
suvius,  1770.  Discovery  of  Uranus  by  llerscliel,  17,-<1.  Inde- 
pendence of  '.ho  Uniteil  Stales  acknowledged  by  Drila'n,  .30th 
N'ovei'nber,  '7-2,  Monlgolfier's  l,ialloon — I.nnnrdi's  balloon  in 
I'liglniid — Convicts  first  sent  to  Botany  Bay— Oernian  League 
—  Financial  distress  in  France  at  its  height — Discovery  of '2d 
mil!  4th  satellites  of  Uranus  bv  Ilerschei,  17'-7.  Massaereof 
10,000  Chinese  in  Formosa.  I7t-a  Fbkncii  Rkvoi.'tion— Dis- 
covery of  Oih  and  7lh  satellites  of  Saiurn.  by  Ilerschei,  17b9 
.Stippression  of  nobility,  religious  orders,  monasieries,  tVc.  nnd 
liestruclion  of  P.nstile— Mirabean--lssue  of  000,1-00,000  assig- 
nats,  171)0,  At  CnnstantMiople  .32,000  houses  desiroyed  by  an 
earlliqiinke  ;  shock  at  Lisbon  and  in  Scoilaud*— I-'irsi  census  of 
United  States,  3.02!l,.5:i0  inhabitants,  1701.  French  Republic. 
1702.  Louis  XVI.  of  France  beheaded- Reign  of  Terror— 
Ilobcspierre — (ireal  ilriiain  nnd  the  (ieriimn  empire,  Prussia, 
llollaiiil,  Porlugal.  Spain,  Sardinia,  the  two  Sicilies,  and  the 
Pope,  all  agaiisi  Frfiinci' — Napob'on  Bonaparte  then  a  lienten- 
ant  of  arlilierv— .Mane  .Vntoinelle  beheniled— Ni-w  French  era 
I'sinblislied,  lt!l:i,  Freiieli  victorious  by  land  :  British  by  sea— 
Reimi  (11  T.-rrnr  conlniiiil— Robespierre  dieialor,  nnt'l  rcvoln- 
I'oti  of  0th  Therinidor  l,Iiily  27ib);  put  to  death  July  S^'th- Mo- 
derates in  power  in  France— Revolution  in  Poland- Kosciusko 
— Conqnesi  of  Nether'aiids — Pnnishtneni  of  Miiir,  Palmer, 
Skirving,  f!errold,and  ATarunroI  in  F.ngland  for  retiinn  agitation, 
1704.  Suppression  of  Stadtholdership  in  Low  Coi.iiiries— Gene- 
ral Hoiinparte  victorious  in  Italy — French  in  llolliiiid  and  Sladt- 
liolder  in  F.ngland.  17!).).  National  Iiistiiuic'  of  Paris  ibiinded 
— Hoiiaparie  eriisseil  the  .Mpi*— Atleiiipl  of  French  to  land  in 
Ireland— Balili'  of  I.oili.  .Ve..  17!i(i.  Jeiiner:  vnce.nniion  iiitm- 
diieed— Rebellion  in  Ireland- iNIntitiy  al  ihe  Nori — Bonnpnrie 
vieiorionsover  ihree  Austrian  armies— RevoliUioiioilHih  Frue- 
fdor— Bonaparte  rereived  by  Directory  with  great  distinction 
— Ilnttle  of  St.  Vincent— Suspension  of  specie  pnyni'TIs  in  Bank 
of  Fiigland  wiiliont  serious  eonseqneiices,  1707  French  seizure 
of  British  mereliniiibs.'— Forced  French  loan  of  M),00(),OOC 
francs  lor  descent  cui  Britain — Roman  republic — Itonaparte  ;n 
|.;irypt_lliiiilcof  Nile — llatavinn,  llelv.'tic,  and  other  reptdil  It, 
170-',  Revoliit  on  of  3(lth  Prairial— T'ourlh  .'onslilulion  -Bona- 
parte First  (^iiisiil— ,\cre— Seriiigapntatn  l.ikeii— British  and 
Russians  quit  Holland— Income  tux  imposed  bv  Pitt,  17U9. 


766 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


1800.— Royal  Inat.tution  ofTxindoii  roiindsd — Campaign  of  the 
Rhine— lioiiapanR  victorious  nt  Murciino— Moreau  at  llohen- 
inden — Attuiiipt  to  iiiixassiiiate  first  ronnul  by  an  inl'ernal  ma- 
ehiuB,  1800.  IMiinet  Cores  discovered— I Igypt  evacuated— Nel- 
Jon  at  CopiMiliajfcii— IViice  ot'  I. iineville— Legislative  union  of 
Ireland  with  Britain— I'nul  I.  strangled- Aloxunder  I.  autocrat 
of  Russia.  IHOl.  I'eaceof  Amiens— Uonaparte  consul  for  life — 
rianct  I'allas  discovered— liife-lionts  invented,  ISOi.  New  war 
Itelwcen  Kritain  and  France — f^ouis'nna  purchased  by  United 
States  for  15,()00,(HIO  dollars- Victories  of  Hritish  in  India,  I'OS. 

Sapnieon  emperor  of  France — I'itI  minister  of  Kugland- -Van 
leinen's  Iiand  coloiij/i'd- I'laiiel  Juno  discovered,  \^>^.  Na- 
poleon king  of  Iialv— Third  Coalition  against  France— liatile  of 
Trafalga*- Death  of  Nelson.  1-<I,5. — Coiil'e<leratiou  of  the  Khiiio 
— Ooi'.l.nenlal  system — Dissotulion  of  (lerinuu  Empire — Joseph 
Napoleon  k'ng  of  Naples— Louis  Napoleon  kng  of  llolland — 
I'ilt  and  Fox  died — Knglinh  slave  trade  abolished— Rragan/.a 
raiully  fled  to  Bra/.il — I'oile  Niipoleoii— Honaparte  declared  Bri- 
laiii  in  a  state  of  bloekuil '.  1>0/.  Bourbons  of  Hpain  dethroned 
by  Napoleon — Joseph  Bonaparte  king  of  Spain — .loachiin  Mural 
king  of  Naples.  l-O-i.  War  of  France  with  Austria— I'eace  of 
Vienna — Napoleon  arbitrator  of  Kurope — Swedi.sh  revolution — 
Gustavu*  IV.  and  h  s  b  ■  rs  i-;;cliided — Baltic  of  Corunna — Re- 
treat and  death  of  Sir  John  Moore— llaltle  of  Tnlavera.  IHdO. 

l-ll). — Wellington  Briiish  commander  in  Portugal — Naimleon 
repudiated  Josejiliiiie.  and  inarrieil  .Maria  I.oiiisaof  Austria — 
Moliund  and  north-west  of  Germany  incorporated  with  France 
— Uernadotte  made  Swed  sh  crown  prince — Revolutions  in 
Mexico.  Peru,  Aic,  1-1(1      I'nnceof  Wales  British  regent— Na- 

K Icon's  son,  king  ot  Rome,  jiorii — Mahomined  All  pasha  of 
jypt.  IHll.  Napoleon  at  .Mo«cow  with  500,000  men— .Moscow 
bnnu  7th  S^rpleinber — French  retreat — Saildler  crossed  the  Irish 
Chainiel  in  bis  Imllooii — War  between  fi rent  Britain  and  United 
Slat-'S — Battle  of  Sa'nmanca.  1SI2,  Furnpe  in  arms  to  recover 
its  independence — Many  buttles:  beipsic.  Ac. — Wellington  vic- 
lo.'iouB  in  Spain — French  evacuated  Spain  aiidCSermaiiy — llol- 
luiid  coiiipiered — Siiultbolder  recalled— (Jiiadruple  alliance — 
Allies  entered  I'aris.  31  st  Mnrcli— Napoleon  abdicated.  Uth 
April,  and  retired  to  Flba — Iknirbons  restored — London  visited 
ay  allied  moimrehs — (Congress  at  Vienna- Napoleon  suddenly 
Te'urtied  from  F.lba  and  entered  Paris  in  triumph.  2fllh  -March 
—War  aga'usi  Napoleon— Waterloo  18th  June— .Napoleon 
eilled  by  Itiilish  lo  St.  Helena.  12th  August— Holy  Alliance  be- 
tween Riis.sia.  Aiiatr'H.  anil  Prussia.  'Jtith  September.  1H15. 
Algiers  bombarded  by  Lord  Kxnioiitb — Tntliana  added  to  United 
Btates,  InlO.  Abolition  of  slave  trade  by  France.  Sjiain.  and 
llolland — .Miss.ssiiipi  received  into  Union — Oenth  ot  Princess 
Charlotte.  HI7.  Congress  of  Holy  Alliance  at  Aii-la-Chapclle, 
lsl8.    Castlereagh's  ■'  six  acts"  passed.  1,«19. 

IfX. — tieorge  III.  died — Trial  of  Queen  Caroline — Maine 
•.Idcdto  Uniteil  States.  Napoleon  died  at  St.  Helena,  iith  May 
—Coronation  of  Cieorge  IV. — Death  of  (Jueen  Caroline — George 
IV.  visited  Dublin  ami  Hanover — Florida  ceded  to  United  States 
— .Missouri  udiaitted  into  Union — Mexico  declared  its  indepen- 
dence. I '■'Jl.  I^rd  Bvron  in  Greece;  died  lOlh  April — !x)ui« 
XVIII.  died;  Charles  X.  succeeded.  isa4. 

1825. —  Treaties  of  Britiiiu  with  Rio  de  la  Plata.  Columbia, 
and  Mexico.  K.ast  Indian  ports  of  the  Netherlands  opened 
to  all  nations.  Greece  toiight  protection  from  Britain.  Treaty 
between  Portugal  and  Brazil — Bolivian  republic  of  Upper  Peru 
declared. 

isai). — Burmese  paid  Fa«i  India  Company  .£1.000.000.  and 
lurreiidered  a  great  exieiil  of  territory,  yiili  February.  Heroic 
liet'ence  of  .Missolonghi  ;  Ink'n  by  'furks  'SW  April.  Greece 
distracted  by.  factious.  Don  Pedro  gave  a  charier  to  Portugal, 
and  (3d  .May)  abdicated  in  favour  of  his  daughter  Donnn,.Maria 
de  Gloria,  a  child  seven  years  of  age.  Insurrection  of  Janis- 
saries (Uth  and  iJlh  .Ttiiie'}  at  Coustanlinople,  and  fresh  organ- 
ization of  Ottoman  army  in  consequence.  Biirmans  subdued 
by  the  British. 

I'r'JV. — Duke  of  York  died.  5th  January.  French  fleet  sent 
to  Algiers.  Canning  died  C\h  August.  Captain  Parry  returned 
from  North  Pole  uiisuoeessful.  Persians  ileleatcd  by  Russians. 
The  Greeks  implored  aid  of  Kuropeaii  powers,  fioderirh  nd- 
ininislration.  Bittle  of  \uverino.  'JOlb  October,  when  Egyptian 
fleet  was  destroyed  by  British.  Russinii.  and  French. 

18a><.— Teut  and  Corporation  acts  abolished.  Wellington  ad- 
ministration. National  Assembly  of  (ireece  convoked  by 
■enale.  2d  February.  War  declared  hy  Russia  agamst  Turkey. 
CouvrntiHi  between  Viceroy  of  Egvpt  and  Sir  Fxiward  Cod- 
niigion  loi  evacuation  of  .Moreaby  Eg>'ptinn  troops.  6ih  August. 
Doiiiia  .Muna  received  by  British  in  Iioii.lun  as  Queen  of  Por- 
tugal, litb  October. 


other  French  ministers  tried ;  the  ministers  eoncdmned  !e  im 
pelual  iniprisonment,  and  Pollgnac  to  civil  death.  "^ 

imi.— Cholera  appeored  at  St.  Petersburg.  12lh  Jannint 
Gregory  XVI.  Pope,  9lh  February.  Reform  bill  mtrortuctdvii. 
British  Parliament  by  Lord  John  Russell,  Isi  March;  frustrsl.j 


Itri). — York  Minster  injured  by  fire.  2(1  February.  Pope  Leo 
XII.  died.  IMIi  February,  and  was  succeeded  by  I'iiis  Vlli.  Duel 
between  the  Duk<'  of  Wellington  and  l-'.arl  \V*inchelsen.  Pro- 
tocol of  Britain.  France,  and  Russia,  arranging  government, 
boundaries.  .Ve  .of  (ireece  Catholic  emancipation  bill  carried 
in  House  of  l^rds.  lOth  April. 

IftKI. — French  expeilition  aga'nst  Algiers  set  sa'l  25th  April 
(city  take, I  .'nil  July),  fieorge  IV.  died,  and  William  IV.  pro- 
tlaimed.  2liili  June.  The  three  fatal  oriliuaiiees  issued  nt  Paris 
to  overthrow  the  charier.  25th  July.  A  coup  d'etat  violently  de- 
maiided  bv  lln^  ultras.  Stern  re». stance  of  the  Paris'ons  during 
three  days.  2'<ih.  •£>\\\.  and  :«Uli  July.  Flight  of  Charles  X. :  ab- 
dicated 111  lavour  of  Duke  de  Bonrdeanx.  2d  Aiigust.  Txniis 
I'hdippe.  Duke  of  Orleans,  declared  by  Chamber  of  Deputies 
%ing.  7th  August.  Liverpmd  and  .Manchester  railway  opened, 
15th  September.  Nutonal  guards  re-estnlilished.  Revolution  in 
ftelgiUiH;  Diiteh  rule  overthrown  and  Belgium  declared  inde- 
pendent, 4th  Ociiiber.  firev  ministry  I'ormed.  22d  November. 
Polish  rev.ilrti. on  began  at  NVarsaw.aitli  November.  Rccog- 
Mirtnof  Uelgic  independence  by  allied  powers.    Polifnac  and 


.        frustrated 

Carried  in  new  " 


1  louts 


111  coniinittee. 

of  Commons.  22d  September;  rejected  by  the  Peeis,  Tth  Oc,^ 
her.  Riots  at  Bristol.  Great  meetings  of  refor.  s.  LeonoM 
accepted  the  crown  of  Belgium,    Warsaw  .t  .,jj  ,  "Tj^ 

Russians.    Cholera  appeared  in  England,  -.'i  u\\ki 

1S12.— Cholera  in  Edinburgh,  Oili  Fcbruuu  .iiiiloti  Ifiih. 

Hritish  rel'orm  bill  again  frustrated  in  House'  .imU.  Ho,,', 
nation  of  ministers,  7th  May.  Duke  of  Wtilmgi.),!  aiiemnte/i 
lo  Ibrm  an  administration;  failed.  Earl  Grey  recalled  lat 
May.  Ill  form  bill  ))assed.  Otho  of  Bavaria  king  of  Cirei-ce 
Insurrection  at  I'aris.  Don  Pedro  landed  at  tlporio  Oih  July 
Civil  war  for  possession  of  Portugal.  Cheap  perioibcnl  pi|i,f| 
cationsof  a  respectable  character  began  this  year:  ''|iam()e,,u 
Filinburgh  Jouriml.  Feb.  4;  Penny  Maga/.iiie.  Munh  :li. 

IMl. — First  r'lnrined  Briiish  Parliament.  Bill  passed  in]],: 
tish  Parliament  liir  abolition  of  slavery  in  West  Indies.  Lijhnn 
surrendered  lo  Don  Pedro.  Opeiiiii(f  of  China  Iriiile  in  Briinin 
Donna  Maria  recognised  asqueenol  Portugal  by  Britain.  Death 
of  Ferdinand  VII..  king  of  Spain.  Return  of  Captain  Kossi'rom 
North  Seas,  alter  an  absence  of  four  years. 

lH;t4— Hostilities  in  Spain  between  the  adhi  ren,i  of  Bon 
Carlos  and  those  of  the  Queen.    Earl  Grey  resigmil,  UWi  j,j|,° 


and  was  succeeded  by  Lord  .Melbourne. 


-,,         -,      Uuly. 

Great  (binier  to  Kail 


(irey  nl  Edinburgh.     Ijord   Melbourne  dismissed  I y  Willam 

" rt  Pei  ■     ■ 


I  eel  colleii 


IV..  after  being  five  months  in  olhce.  and  Sir  Robei 
to  the  premiership.    Dissolution  of  British  PariiumeL.. 

1H33. — New  election  and  meetingof  British  Pnrliniiieiit.  ij„, 
tish  ministers  defeated  on  (|uestinn  of  Speakership.  lUtli  Febru. 
ary.  Resignation  of  Sir  Robert  Peel.  Lord  Melbourne  rpcallei 
IHth  April.  English  municipal  reform  act  passed.  *ih  SepieiJ 
ber.  Captain  Back's  return  from  Arctic  land  expoiiitjon. 
First  election  of  English  town  councils  under  reform,  asth 
December. 

183(1.- Ferdinand  Augnslus,  Duke  of  Saxe  Coburg.  marricii 
by  proxy  lo  Donna  Maria,  cpieen  of  Portugal.  Isi  Janunr)' 
Madame  Maria  Lfftilia  Bonaparte,  mother  of  Napoleon,  liied 
al  Rome.  2d  February  (born  iillh  August,  1750).  Revolution  a| 
liisbon  ;  constitution  of  l^'JO  accepted  by  Donna  .Maria.  Par. 
liament  of  Lower  Canada  opened  by  EarlGosford,  anil  di'sobtd 
as  refractory.  Charles  X.  died  al  Goritz,  in  lluiigarv,  Oih  N> 
vember.  Balloon  voyage  from  London  to  Nassau  nil  the  con- 
tinent, in  IH  hours  7th  November.  Prince  Poligiiac  releaKd 
and  exiled.  2iJil  November. 

1S17.— (ieneral  Espartero  successful  in  Spain.  Princess  Vis. 
loria,  on  lhe2Uh  May.  allaincd  the  age  of  IS,  the  period  of  ma- 
jority by  act  of  Parliament.  ^11  llie  American  Lank-s  sun- 
nended  specie  payments;  very  extensive  failur:-s  William 
IV.  died,  aged  7'i.  after  u  memorable  reign  of  7  years.  Queen 
Victoria  proclaimed. '22(1  June.  Duke  of  Curuberlaiid  entered 
Hanover  (27lh  June)  as  king  by  salique  law.  in  place  of  VViiiiam 
IV.  (trand  Junction  railway  from  BiriTiiiigham  to  I.iverriool 
and  .Manchester  railway,  opened  in  July.  Railway  iroin  I'ani 
to  St.  (iermaiu.  opened  2flth  August.  Riots  at  .Montreal.  Caro. 
lina  American  steamer  attacked  and  burnt  by  Canadians  on 
United  States  territory.  '20lh  December. 

iHtH — Sir  Francis  Head  repellei!  Canadian  insiirfcms 'indef 
Dr.  Mackenzie  at  Toronto,  .Sth  January.  Royal  F,.velmn(;i'.  Loo. 
don.  burnt  1 0th  January.  Earl  of  Durham  sent  to  Cnimdn  is 
(iovernor-tieneral  and  High  Commissioner.  Uiih  Januiiry. 
Prince  Tullevrand.  the  celebrated  French  diploinniisi.  di;J 
17th  .May.  The  "  Great  Western"  steainei.  the  first  mat  evei 
crossed  Ihe  Atlantic,  arrived  al  New  York  fron  Bristol  ji  fi.'. 
teen  days,  on  17th  June.  Coronation  of  CJueen  Vittons.  '.'ftii 
June.  Spain  still  distracted  by  civil  war.  The  niinilier  of 
newspapers  put  into  Ihe  London  Post-olKee  on  2d  July  lor  pro- 
vincial circulation  was  17,5.000.  Slavery  abolisheil  mi  KasI  In- 
dies. Railway  from  (ihcnt  to  Oslend.  opened  'id  Se|>ieml":T— 
from  Pans  to  St.  Cloud,  (ith  September.  Kiiiiieror  of  Auntria 
crowned  with  iron  crown  of  Loinbardy.  Oih  September.  I/>n. 
don  and  Birmingbain  railway  oprtied  ihroiighoiii.  ITtli  Sepicrn. 
ber.  Railway  fro'U  Potsdam  lo  Berlin,  opened  '"bh  October. 
Disturbances  in  (^iinadtt  suppressed.  17th  November.  Hritisli 
troops  entered  Alfghanistan.  as  auxiliaries  of  tlie  legiiimals 
king  of  Cabool.  Shah  Soojah,  against  the  usurping  chief,  Dost 
Mannined. 

IKli) — Melbourne  ministry  resigned,  7th  May.  Kailwayirom 
Itondoii  to  Croydon,  opened  1st  June.  Hostilities  between 
Ibrahim  Pasha  lor  Mehemel  All.  viceroy  of  Egypt,  and  the  ?u|. 
Ian.  lOlh  June.  Railway  from  Ijondon  intolhe  eastern  countiei 
opened  to  Romford.  |Hth  June.  Sultan  Mahiunud  II.  died,  and 
his  son  Abdul  .Meiljid  proclaimed,  27th  June.  The  five  powen 
interfered  between  the  Porte  and  Mehemet  Ali.  Pith  July 
(ihi/nee  taken  by  the  British  in  India — Dost  .Mahomed  defeaied. 
and  Shah  S<xijah  enthroned  in  Cabool.  20th  July.  Rnilnaji 
from  Paris  to  Versailles,  opened '2d  August.  Flight  of  Don  far. 
los — Peace  in  Spain.  '25lh  August.  Chartist  attack  nn  Newport; 
Frost,  an  e  x-inagistrate.  and  others,  apprebeniled.ltii  Novtiiiljei 
Queen  Victoria  announced  to  the  Privy-Council  Iter  mteniion 
lo  marry  Pr  nee  Albert  of  Saxe-t^obourgGotha.  '2:id  Nnvfiiilier. 
Frost  and  others  found  guilty  of  high  treason;  sentence  com 
muted  lo  IransrHirlal  on  hir  life.  31si  December. 

HO.— The  Chinese  emperor  issued  an  edict  prohibitini  all 
commerce  with  the  British  •barbarians."  Penny  postage.  Iftll 
January.  Treaty  of  commerce  b'tween  Turkey  and  Sweden, 
'23d  January.  Marriage  of  CJueen  Victoria  to  Prince  .Mben 
solemui/ed.  10th  Febriiarv.  Insurrection  of  Syrian  moua 
laineers  against  Pasha  of  Egypt-  7tli  June.  Oxford,  a  pot-fO)r 
(tiemptcd  to  shoot  Quucit  Victoria,  10th  June.    Prince  UuJ 


TIME-KEEPERS. 


rw 


K,puI<o-i  Inmled  a-  Boulogne  in  a  ateameT  with  40  or  SO  follow 
j^iriovcriiirn  the  French  Kovurnment,  and  was  arrested.  0th 
Aumi"-  ("oiivcnliim  between  Turkey,  Austria,  Prussia,  Rus- 
lit,  and  England,  lor  siMtliMnont  of  Eastern  ijiiestion,  rnllfied 
'iiii  August.  Fortificalioii  of  Paris  by  walls,  &c.,  ordered  by 
ij^vernmeiii.  !i<itli  Auguat.  Louis  Napoleon  sentenced  to  per- 
notual  imnriTOnmeni,  'Ith  October,  voluntary  abdication  of 
kin(  of  llollund.  w'  <  retired  into  private  life,  7th  October. 
^IjJicntior.  rr'Quei'ii  llegeiitof  Simin,  12th  October ;  Gspurtero 
made  Recent,  lilockude  of  nil  Kgyntiun  and  Syrian  sea-ports 
jii'ounced  in  London  (la/eite.  lUtii  October;  suspended  till 
;j||  November.  Another  uiiBuccessful  attempt  to  assassinate 
I.0I1.*  I'liilippe,  I,'!!!  October.  Capture  of  Sidon  and  Acre  by 
lllifd  troops.  November  5  und  0.  Princess  Royal  born  Slat 
fiovi'iaber.  .Vehemet  Ali  ngreed  to  terms  of  allies  ;  namely, 
loe»'ni!Uttle  Syria,  restore  Turkish  fleet,  and  receive  Egypt  as 
herwliiary  ftufof  the  Porte,  a7ih  November.  Total  absiainers 
'torn  spirituous  liquors,  or  tee-toliillers  in  Ireland,  estimated  by 
paiher  Aluihew  at  3.:ilHI.(l(IO.  Remains  of  Napoleon  Ronaparte 
depo^iied  with  great  pomp  in  Hotel  des  Invalides,  Paris,  IStli 
December. 

Is41.— L'liio"  of  CanadttS  proclaimed  at  Montreal,  10th  Feb. 
nrncral  Harrison.  President  of  United  Htates.  died  4th  April, 
igii  succeeded  ,'ith,  by  Mr.  Tyler,  Vice-President.  President. 
Ailaiiiic  sienmer,  iimissing,  llih  ^pril.  and  never  since  heard 
of.  Esparlero  declared,  by  Spe.iish  chambers,  regent  during 
ininoriiv  of  queen,  lath  April.  Sir  Henry  Pottinger  sent  out  lo 
China,  f^aiii"'!  taken,  but  ran.soined  by  Chinese  for  SO.OOU.OOO. 
Great  Weslern  railway  from  London  to  Bristol  opened  throtigh- 
oul.  30lh  Juiio ;  cost  X.'i.OllO.ilOO.  Statue  of  Napoleon  placed  on 
foluinu  of  (irnnde  Arniiii;  at  Iloulogne  ;  files  in  celebration  of 
llic  event,  I'lili  to  18th  August.  Conlerence  of  clergy  at  Man- 
chester tor  repeal  of  corn^aws  :  OoO  ministers  present.  Par- 
lament  re-assembled,  IMth  August.  Dreadful  destitution  in 
Paisley.  Melbourne  ministry  resigned,  HOth  August.  Railway 
from  Cologne  lo  Aix-la-Chapelle,  und  other  continental  lines, 
cpciicil-  Attempt  to  assassinate  a  son  of  Louis  Philippe,  13th 
ft'iiieraber.  London  and  Hrigliton  railway  opened,  21st  Sep- 
lenilier.    Dublin.  25th  October,  Diiuiel  O'Connell  was  elected 

Old  Mayor.    Birth  of  Prince  of  Wales,  0th  November. 


TIME-KEEPERS. 

Refeienco  has  already  been  maile  to  article  Astho- 
.soMT,  for  an  account  of  the  most  primitive  and  natural, 
ss  well  as  the  most  perfect  time-keepers.  Our  attention 
tfre,  therefore,  must  bo  confined  to  those  artificial  ma- 
diines  which  have  been  invented  chiefly  for  the  purpose 
cf  iiWiii!;  to  the  convenience  of  these,  by  dividing  the 
imtof  astronomical  time-keeping,  namely,  the  day,  into 
fraclional  parts,  termed  hours,  minutes,  and  seconds ; 
there  lieins?  no  such  convenient  and  desirable  measure- 
ment obvious  in  nature.  Yet  long  before  the  invention 
of  any  artificial  machine,  the  interval  between  sunrise 
ind  sunset  was  really  divided,  with  no  little  accuracy, 
fver  among  the  rudest  nations,  simply  by  the  shorten- 
ing, turning,  and  Icnythciiing  of  the  shadows  of  trees, 
Dcks  and  mountains  ;  and  it  was  this  primitive  mode  of 
dividini;  the  day  which  no  doubt  naturally  suggested  the 
first  idea  of 

8l'N-DIALS. 
The  most  ancient  nrtiltcial  time-keeper  of  which  we 
have  any  historical  notice  is  the  sun-dial  of  king  Ahaz,  j 
itho  lived  alioiit  742  years  before  the  birth  of  ('hrist.  ; 
The  first  sun-tlial  con.-dructed  on  mathematical  princi- 
ples, however,  was  probably  one  placed  near  the  temple 
of  Quirinus  at  Rome,  b.  c.  203.  The  Romans,  at  this  time, 
were  not  aware  that  a  dial  made  for  Rome  is  not  suited 
toother  places.  The  anrients  useti  hemispherical  dial- 
plates,  and  placed  the  radius  which  throws  the  shade  in 
llie  direction  of  the  north  polar  star.  The  dial-plates 
nr.v  in  usi'  are  flat,  with  the  style  or  gnornon,  the  edge 
of  the  shadow  of  which  determines  the  hour-line,  run- 
nin.,'inthe  plane  of  the  meridian,  and  hence,  also,  due 
north  and  south  ;  while  il.^  sloping  edge  forms  an  angle 
Kilh  the  horizcm  equal  to  the  latitude  of  the  place  in 
wiiioh  the  dial  is  situated,  and  hence  parallel  to  the 
wrlh'«  axis.  Although  a  sun-dial  may  certainly  be  ad- 
justed 80  as  to  point  out  the  time  of  day  within  a  few 
minutes,  it  is  needle.is  here  to  dwell  farther  on  the  details 
01  an  instiunient  now  of  Utile  use.  The  most  perfect 
of  Eun-di.ils  lieinf?  oidy  available  in  sui  shine,  aiul  not  at 
ilUhiousii  iiJ  ui^iil  ^.a  vsliich,  by  llu  way,  mo  ii-diaU 


ore  aometimes  used),  they  were  partly  «iperseJod, 
at  a  very  r  imote  period,  by 


CLEPSrDRJE    ANJ   SAND-OLA88E8. 

It  has  been  thought  that  the  regular  motion  of  tba 
dropping  of  water,  and  the  simpler  forms  of  clepsydra, 
or  water-clocks,  were  used  for  the  measurement  of  time 
even  previous  to  the  invention  of  sun-dials.  They  cer 
tainly  were  known  in  very  rcnjote  antiquity,  and  were 
used  in  various  parts  of  Asia  ind  Europe ;  in  China, 
India,  Chaldea,  Egypt,  Italy,  and  Greece  ;  itito  the  laat 
of  which  countries  they  were  introduced  by  Plato.  Ju- 
lius CiBsar  found  them  even  in  Britain.  It  was  by  them 
that  he  discovered  some  of  the  nights  to  be  shorter  or 
longer  in  this  country  than  in  Italy,  which  is  nearer  the 
equator,  or  lino  of  equal  days  and  nights.  The  Romans 
themselves  had  clepsydras  100  years  before  CiEsar's  in- 
vasion ;  and  it  is  supposed  that  tho  Phoenicians  had 
introduced  them  into  Britain  through  Cornwall,  where 
they  traded  for  tin.  The  clepsydra,  invented  by  Ctesi- 
biu8  of  Alexandria,  b.  c.  145,  consisted  of  a  jar  ontain- 
ing  water,  which  slowly  estmped  by  a  hole  at  the  bj*  tom, 
while  the  oar  of  a  miniature  boat  on  tht  surfact),  as  it 
sank  with  the  fall  of  the  water,  pointed  out  the  hours, 
which  were  marked  on  the  side  of  the  jar.  It  i>  !'?a 
alleged  that  toothed  wheels  were  applied  tt  cepsvart* 
by  Ctesihius.  Such  instruments,  however,  though 
brought  to  great  perfection  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centu- 
ries, and,  indeed,  still  used  in  India,  have  never  cieeu 
made  to  measure  time  with  great  accuracy,  the  water 
always  dropping  more  slowly  as  its  quantity  and  weight 
diminish. 

The  running  of  sand  through  a  tube  was  another  ob- 
vious species  of  regular  motion,  ■  cry  analogous  to  the 
running  or  dropping  of  water ;  and  accordingly  the 
hour  glass,  still  in  use  in  this  and  other  countries,  was 
also  a  very  early  invention.  It  was  known,  if  not  first 
made,  in  Alexandria,  b.  c.  140. 

PLANGTARIUMS  OR  ORRRRIES, 
It  is  rather  a  curious  circumstance,  that,  long  before 
the  invention  of  clocks  or  watches,  artificial  machines, 
imitative  of  the  motions  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets, 
the  jiaturnl  time-keepers,  were  constructed  by  the  ac 
cients. 

Of  the  ptanetariiims  of  modern  times,  the  first  ir 
England  was  one  made  for  Lord  Orrery,  whose  name 
has  since  been  given  to  such  machines.  The  talented 
and  self-taught  astronomer,  Ferguson,  who  was  originally 
a  poor  Scottish  herd-boy,  made  several  orreries,  and  used 
chronometers  to  keep  them  in  motion.  But  though  the 
accuracy  with  which  wheels  and  pinions  can  be  made  to 
represent  different  revolutions  is  beautifully  illustrated 
by  the  licst  of  these  machines,  they  can  give  no  just  con- 
ception of  the  relative  size,  distance,  or  velocity  of  the 
planets,  or  hence  of  the  periods  of  their  revolution ;  and 
in  this  respect,  therefore,  they  are  inere  ))hilosophical 
toys,  as  will  be  at  once  perceived  by  reference  to  article 
AsTuoxoMT,  in  which  an  accurate  representation  of  one 
is  given,  together  with  a  method,  first  suggested  by  the 
celebrated  astronomer,  Sir  John  Herschcl,  of  pointing 
out  the  actual  sizes,  distances,  &c.,  of  the  various  bodies 
in  the  solar  system  in  relation  to  each  other 

CLOCKS. 
The  strong  hold  which  tln^  planetary  motions  appeal 
to  have  taken  on  the  minds  of  our  fcreliithers,  as  the 
great  antitypes  of  all  true  time-keeiiers,  is  also  curiously 
manifested  in  the  fact,  that  even  when  a  more  detailed 
measurement  of  time  became  nece.isary,  in  the  intellec 
tual  progress  of  nations,  these  motions  still  continued  to 
be  represented,  so  that  the  very  first  clock  of  which  we 
have  any  perfectly  authentic  account — that,  namely,  ii^ 
veiileJ  by  VVallinsl'oid,  Abbot  of  St.  .Mbuiis,  la  iaa6 


760 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


^a=^ 


rot  only  showed  the  houra,  but  the  apparent  motion  of 
Uie  nun,  the  changes  of  Ihe  moon,  the  ebb  and  flow  of 
the  tides,  &c.  Tliis,  however,  w«»  by  no  mcnns  the 
flrHt  cloclt  ever  constructed  ;  inRtrument«  with  weights, 
wheels,  pinions,  and  a  balance,  for  the  meaaurcmcnt  of 
time,  hnvinit  been  Ions;  previously  known,  though  by 
whom  invented  appears  to  be  a  subject  of  much  contro- 
versy. Doubtless  tliey  required  more  than  the  intellect 
of  a  single  mind.  Be  this  as  it  may,  llie  most  ancient 
clock  of  which  wo  have'nny  description,  is  that  of  Henry 
Vic  or  De  Wyck,  a  German,  erected  in  the  tower  of  the 
palace  of  Charles  V.,  kinm  of  France,  in  1.379;  and 
nide  and  imperfect  as  it  was,  the  analogy  of  modern 

invention,  especially  in 
watches,  would  lead  us  to 
think  that  it  must  have 
been  the  fruit  of  several 
centuries  of  thought  and 
improvement. 

A  portrait  of  this  pa- 
rent of  modern  time- 
keepers may  Iw  interest- 
ing to  our  readers;  and 
from  its  comparative  sim- 
plicity, will  lie  well  adapt- 
ed as  a  ground-work  lor 
further  explanation  of  tlie 
mechanism  of  clocks  and 
Witches  i^  their  more 
complex  and  intricate 
formn.  It  will,  moreover, 
show  the  frenernl  mode 
of  construction  adopted 
in  the  fourteenth  century, 
including  the  balance 
with   weights    instead  of 


•  pendulum,  by  which  the  motion  was  then  regulated. 
General  Movi'mont  and  Regulation  of  Cloek-work. 

Without  requiring  to  enter  into  any  very  minute  de- 
tail of  the  manner  in  which  motion  in  n  clock  or  watch 
is  successfully  communicated  from  one  toothed  wheel  G 
or  I,  or  pinion  c  or  e,  to  another,  which,  indeed,  would 
in  some  instances  only  tend  to  perplex  the  mind  of  the  ! 
^neral  render,  it  will  be  readily  understooti  that  the 
weight  A  below  the  clock-work,  wound  up  by  a  cord  on 
the  cylinder  B,  in  its  constant  tendency  to  fall  to  the 
ground,  will  cause  the  cylinder  to  turn  round  on  its  axis  ' 
M  it  falls,  and  .is  the  cord  uncoils;  and  thus  one  toothed 
wheel  or  j>inion  wnll  set  another  in  motion,  till  the  move- 
ment be  communicated  to  the  crown  wheel,  escapement 
wheel,  or  wheel  of  rencounter,  I,  the  teeth  of  which  so 
act  on  the  two  small  levers  or  pallets,  ili,  projecting  from  | 
and  formini;  part  of  the  suspended  upright  spinillc  or 
vertical  axis.  KM,  on  which  is  fixed  the  regulator  or  ba- 
lance, I.L,  that  an  alternating  or  vibratory  inslrnd  of  a 
circular  motion  of  the  balance  itwlf  will  bo  Ihe  result. 
The  rotatory  motion  of  the  wheel-work,  in  short,  will  lie 
converted  into  a  vibrator)'  motion  by  the  alternate  catching 
of  the  levers  by  the  teeth  of  the  crown  or  e8ra|)enient 
wheel,  and  their  alternate  escape  or  'soajiemcnt  from 
Ihem:  this,  or  something  always  similar,  is  the  cause  of 
the  constant  ticking  of  a  clock  or  watch.  ! 

Now,  it  will  at  once  appear  manifest  that  a  heavy  ' 
weight,  such  as  that  here  represented,  operating  on  a  few 
wheels  thus  arranged,  unless  it  have  some  counteractive 
Weight  or  other  check  to  modify  and  balance  its  opera- 
tion, will  r;ipidly  run  ilown  even  to  the  ground,  if  t!,'! 
height  of  the  clock-work  and  the  length  of  the  cord  at- 
tached to  the  cylinder  permit  it,  causing  the  wheels  to 
lotate,  the  balance  to  vibrate,  and  the  hands  to  revolve 
on  Ihe  face  of  the  clock,  with  similar  rapidity,  increasing 
•very  moment  till  the  weight  be  fairly  run  down.    It  is  ^ 


this  rapid  motion  of  the  wheel-work  which  beirim 
mnriern  clock  whenever  the  penduUim  is  taken  aw  ' 
while  the  weights  are  still  attached  to  the  cyljndert  •  j''!i 
the  rapid  ticking  then  heard  is  the  uncountcracted'oiw 
ration  of  the  crown  wheel,  moved  by  the  falling  wciehi 
upon  a  piece  of  mechanism  similar  in  purpose  to  (h 
levers  and  spindle  in  the  above  figure.  To  prevent  th' 
rapid  unwinding  of  the  clock-work,  then,  and  to  adjuli 
it  to  the  more  deliberate  measurement  of  time,  wc  hat* 
in  Bj  Wyck's  clock,  the  balance,  Umdiihriili  l\m  Ktia},, ' 
m  m  ;  and  the  farther  these  are  removed  from  the  axL  ' 
spindle,  KM,  the  more  heavily  will  they  rosis;  and  coun 
teract  the  escapement  of  the  levers  and  the  rapidiiy  of" 
the  rotation  of  the  escapement  wheel,  till  the  clock  li« 
broiiijht  to  go  neither  too  quick  nor  too  slow ;  when  of 
course,  it  would  be  improper  to  remove  them  further  to. 
warrls  the  ends  of  the  balance,  as  the  clock  would  then 
go  too  slow  for  correct  time-keeping. 

Pendulum  and  Eacnpcment. 

What  the  balance  and  the  weights  attached  to  it  m 
De  Wyck's  clock  were  to  clocks  of  an  ancient  date  tlig 
pendulum  is.  in  general,  to  modern  clocks;  the  oeciUj. 
tions  of  the  pendulum,  and  the  vibrations  of  the  lialnnoc 
being  (omplctely  analogous  in  purpose  and  effect,  hoth 
l)eing  kept  up  or  sustained  by  the  "  escapement,'' while 
both  require,  or,  as  it  were,  demand,  by  the  law  of  grj. 
vity,  a  certain  time  for  their  performance  ;  ami  thus,  bv 
reaction,  check  and  equalize  the  exercise  of  those  \m 
powers  and  movements  by  which  they  arc  kept  in  pjav 
The  measurement  of  time  Iwing  thus  regiihitrd  by  iljj 
oscillations  of  the  balance  or  the  pendulum,  this  partol 
the  mechanism  of  a  clock,  including  the  esonpomett,  jj 
of  primary  interest  and  importance ;  and  we  shall  find 
this  also  to  be  the  case  in  the  numeroun  contrivances, 
chiefly  by  English  artists,  to  clTect  the  same  olijoct  to  the 
I  licst  advantage  in  the  still  more  delicate  and  ingcniotu 
I  mechanism  of  watches.  We  may  here  also  remark, 
that,  so  invaluable  is  the  princiiile  of  regiilntion,  whether 
by  oscillation  or  rotation,  and  so  genernlly  and  cxtcn. 
sively  useful  in  other  rcsjiects,  that,  from  the  smoke- 
jack  to  the  steam-engine,  has  if,  in  one  form  or  other 
been  called  into  practical  operation. 

Galileo,  the  great  astronomer,  when  a  student  at  V'm 
hapiiened  to  discover,  while  engnged  in  the  cntheJril 
there — not  in  meditating  on  the  imposing  cerenumial  of 
the  Catholic  church,  which  was  tli-n  in  propress,  but  in 
what,  to  many  a  good  Catholic,  would  undoulitfdiy  havj 
seemed  the  vacant,  idle,  and  profane  conteinplnlion  pf 
the  lamps  which  swung  from  the  ronf—that  the  oscilla. 
tions  of  a  jH-ndulum,  whether  gn'st  or  siii^ll.  are  per 
formed  in  equal  times  in  each  pendulum — an  importw.l 
fact,  the  truth  of  which  he  tested,  not  by  the  hentsofhit 
watch  (for  no  such  instninient  then  existed),  l>ii!  by  the 
beat^  of  a  natural  time-keeper  to  which  wc  h^ve  not  yet 
alluded — namely,  the  pulse.  He  nftr.rwinls  diycoverej, 
what  was  ultimately  demonstrated  by  Newton,  that  "the 
shorter  the  pendulum  Ihe  less  is  the  time  of  its  liliij. 
lion ;"  or,  in  other  words,  that  the  numhir  of  oscllldtiow 
performeil  by  a  pendulum  iti  a  given  time  dipcndsoniu 
length,  four  times  the  Irn^'th  pri«lucing  twice  the  number 
of  oscillations.  A  pendulum,  the  Iciiifth  of  which,  troni 
the  point  of  suspension  to  the  centre  of  the  wii?ht  at- 
tached to  its  lower  extremity,  is  39  iinlien  and  2  tenths, 
will  oscillate  once  precisely  every  second  in  t!ie  laliluoe 
of  London;  not  in  any  other  latitude,  however,  as hu 
been  found  by  experience ;  the  nuiiilicr  of  ofldllaiioni 
with  the  some  length  of  pendulum  diiniiiisliii.s  tonarJj 
the  equator,  where  oscillations  equal  in  lei.i,th  lo  8 
minutes  1 6  seconds  a  day  will  be  lout ;  while,  on  tht 
other  hand,  they  will  increase  towards  the  poles,  when 
a  proportional  number  of  oscillations  will  be  gsined 
Thus  the  pendulum  of  a  clock,  made  and  mlju^'ej  K 


^  In  London,  re 
pMter  to  the  polos, 
Miijtor.' 

The  first  use  whi( 

giie  of  his  valuable 

yiJ  variations  of  the 

jjrk  was  an  afterthoi 

uaro  than  suggest  si 

il,0  alleged,  that  at  al 

jflio  execution ;  and  i 

lioii  of  pendulum  do 

Uuygens,  a  learned  E 

IralcJ  philosopher,  in 

thittism  previously  ir 

(imply  to  add  a  new  ' 

diabjc  him  to  place  tl 

hjriJontal  instead  of  i 

lower  arm  of  -the  b;ilr 

Ur,  instead  of  horizon! 

Ik  extended,  as  it  were 

converted  into  a  pendii 

lijuover,  I'rom    the    p 

(piudle,  required  a  li 

ojcillatioii ;  and  the  co 

I  recent  popular  authc 

(Ijck  governed  the  pi 

ought  to  govern  the  ch 

the  celebrated  Dr.  Hoo 

WIS  introduced  by  Ch 

1180,  and  enabled  a  h 

JMvier  pendulum,  whi 

I  irci,  was  less  resisted 

firaied  its  motion  will 

died  the  anchor  esct 

jciherwitli  the  practici 

jij  Ihe  pendulum  by  i 

lard,  which  was  liable 

jn  evil,  however,  |)erl: 

fjaalled  by  the  variiili 

.liilicity  of  the  spriii;" 

iiiJcold.    The  secoiK 

luiD,  with   the   anclioi 

inent,  was  called  the  : 

djlum.    As  this  plan, 

WIS  found  to  cause 

or  retrograde  moveme 

ivbeels,   and    has    hei 

wiled  the  rtcoil  escap 

farther  improvement  w 

die  eighteenth   centiir 

English  artist,  who  in> 

oient 

The  wheels  arc  kept 
ttposc  or  rest  during  tl 
luin,  except  at  the  moi 
from  the  crown-whee 
even  than  before,  the  oi 


•The  discovery  of  this 
iffcrence  oriempeniuir"' 
kiJmmu.'mrethat  the  ea 
llrouuli  the  poles;  and  il 
In  lAuid  or  molten  mass 
ofromioil  :  :/irn.ly,  1101 
1  <phfm:cl  or  oraiifresha 
prorahprnnl  al  Ihe  e(|iiatr 
e«iiln|ieml  aail  ci'iUrihiifa 
ic;mre;wli.Me.!ii  lollov 
rii)rc. or  become  heaver, 
toimidlhallhevnre  rer 
irslyli^bier.  uot'onlv  as 
Klheynpproaeli  und  en 
tralr;fugal  loree,  which  r 
Kittilor.    The  surlaee  of  t 
wu  Urns  proved  i,,  !,„  „ 
lllHr.lhc  pendiilniridesi- 
Ifoicilkiion  ihere  ihaii  i 
aiiiiipil  10  he  necouiiled 
lcw«nl»llie  eiinntor. 

>  JL  I.— <»7 


TIMR-KEEPERS. 


7t>t 


ijgy  111  London,  requires   to  bo   lengthened  if  taken 
^„er  to  the  polos,  or  shortened  if  token  towards  the 

•lattor.* 

The  fl"'  ""*  which  Galileo,  then  a  medical  student, 
-aJe  of  his  valuable  discovery  was  to  a8cert;iin  the  rate 

1  yjriations  of  the  pulse  ;  and  its  opplicntiou  to  clock- 
ork  was  an  nilertliought.  It  is  even  denied  that  lie  did 
more  than  suggest  such  an  application;  or,  as  has  been 
•Uo  alleged,  that  at  all  events  his  son  put  his  suggestion 
inio  oiccution ;  and  accordingly  tho  merit  of  the  invcn- 
lioii  of  pendulum  clocks  is  very  generally  attributed  to 
HuTgons,  a  learned  Dutchman,  about  16(57.  This  cclc- 
talcd  philosopher,  in  adaptitig  tho  pendulum  to  the  mc- 
diamsni  previously  invented,  had  little  more  to  do  than 
■_p|y  to  add  a  new  wheel  to  the  movement,  so  as  to 
tnablc  him  to  place  the  crown  wheel  and  spindle  in  a 
liotijontal  instead  of  a  pc-rpendicular  position,  that  the 
loucr  arm  of  ithe  balance — then,  of  course,  perpeiulicu- 
Ijr,  instead  of  horizontal,  as  in  Dc  W yck's  clock — might 
hu  extended,  as  it  were,  downwards,  and  thus,  in  fact,  be 
miivcrtcd  into  a  pendulum.  The  principle  thus  adopted, 
hjnover,  Irom  the  i)eciiliar  action  of  the  levers  and 
(pludlc,  required  a  light  pendulum  and  great  arcs  of 
oicilUlion ;  and  the  conseiiuence  was,  as  Mr.  Thompson, 
I  recent  popular  author,  tritely  remarks,  that  "  Huygens' 
tijck  governed  the  pendulum,  whereas  tho  pendulum 
ought  to  govern  the  clock."  About  ten  years  atlcrwards, 
Ihe  celebrated  Dr.  Hook  invented  a  better  method,  which 
KB  introduced  by  Clement,  a  London  clockmaker,  in 
IflSO,  and  enabled  a  less  maintainitig  power  to  carry  a 
hetvier  pendulum,  which,  also  making  smaller  swings  or 
irci,  was  less  resisted  by  the  air,  and  therefore  per- 
(jrmed  its  motion  with  greater  regulority.  This  wa« 
tilled  the  anchor  escapement,  and  it  is  still  in  use,  to- 
jtlher  with  the  practice  to  which  it  gave  rise  of  suspend- 
ji;  the  pendulum  by  a  thin  flexible  spring  instead  of  a 
cjrd,  whicii  was  liable  to  change  its  length  by  moisture ; 
jn  evil,  however,  |)erliaps  fully 
MaalleJ  by  the  variali m  of  the 
Jaiticily  of  the  spring  by  heat 
jiiJcold.  Tho  seconds  pendu- 
lum, with  the  anchor  escape- 
ment, was  called  the  royal  pcn- 
ijlum.  As  this  plan,  however, 
WIS  found  to  cause  a  rcaciion 
or  retrograde  movement  of  the 
vbrels,  and  has  hence  been 
oiled  the  remit  escapement,  a 
farther  improvement  wa«  made  about  tho  beginning  of 
llie  eighteenth  century  by  Oeorgo  Graham,  another 
English  artist,  who  invented  tho  repose  or  dead  cscape- 
cient. 

The  wheels  are  kept  by  thi«  escapement  in  a  state  of 
(spoae  or  rest  during  the  whole  oscillation  of  the  pendu- 
lum, eicept  at  the  moment  when  it  receives  its  impulse 
from  the  crown-wheel.  Requiring  smaller  arcs,  too, 
even  than  before,  the  oscillations  are  made  in  more  equal 


•The  diicoverjr  of  this  fact,  when  cienrccl  of  the  cflects  of 
ttrence  oi'ienipfrnturo  on  thi^  leiipih  of  the  ppiuliiliim,  served 
kif/mmu.'rijtelhat  the  earlli  Ih  in  rotation  on  iin  axis  pnssiiis 
ftrooRh  the  poles ;  and  ilini  iis  form  is  ilint  wliieh  must  result 
inaHuidonnalien  mans  from  pr.eisely  such  a  lineand  measure 
ofroiatiou:  r.'Muily.  uoi  n  nerhrt  sphere  or  circular  (tlol)e,  hut 
uphfrnid  or  cnHii^-eshai'^i  uiuss  (Innened  .11  ilie  pnli's  and 
protuliernnl  iit  the  e(|initnr  Tliis  ii  did  on  thi-  Miuuriil  law  of 
Cdiinpelul  mill  oentnuiijal  forces,  or  forco  tendin'^  to  and  from 
icsmrc  ;  whineo  ii  follows,  ihal  liodics  are  attrneled  more  and 
iwrc.  or  lit'come  heav'er.  n-s  they  approarh  Ihe  eentri' of  ntlrac- 
tiKi  and  Ihal  ihcy  are  repelled  more  and  more,  or  lieeome  posi- 
l»;ly  lijlner.  imt  only  as  ihey  recede  from  thai  eenlre.  hnt  also 
iMhfV  npproaeh  anil  enter  inio  ihe  vorti'X  of  rolalion.or  Ihe 
minfuKnl  ibree,  whieh  must  of  rourse  lie  in  the  region  of  the 
HfiiM.  The  surlueeof  the  earili  towards  the  poles,  therefore. 
»«  thus  proved  to  he  nearer  the  centre,  or,  in  oilier  words, 
liner. the  penduluindeseendiit;;  with  inorB  weight  and  rapidity 
Ifoicillation  there  than  eisewhi  re  ;  and  n  surplus  diiTereiice  re- 
uiinfil  to  he  neeounted  for  hy  the  centrifugal  force,  strongest 
Icwanln  llie  eiiuntor. 
^  Ji.  I.— <»7 


times.  A  still  more  perfect  modification  of  the  eicap*- 
mcnt  is  the  free  or  detached,  but  it  is  more  difficult  ^ 
execute.  The  half-dead  escapement,  also,  has  bees 
introduced  as  a  mean  between  the  dead  escapement,  an 
increase  of  power  with  which  causes  a  clock  to  Ioim 
time,  and  the  recoil  escapement,  with  which  a  simihu 
increase  of  power  causes  one  to  gain.  For  the  purpoi^a 
of  ordinary  clocks,  this  mode  of  escapement  has  beea 
found  to  answer  very  well. 

Compensation  Pendulums. 

Pendulum  rods,  which  are  usually  made  of  meUu 
though  sometimes  of  wood,  especially  in  church  clocka, 
were  next  found  to  vary  in  length  by  variations  of  tem. 
perature,  according  to  that  law  of  nature  by  which  every 
body  increases  in  volume  or  in  actual  size  by  heat,  and 
diminishes  or  contracts  by  cold.     The  inevitable  conse- 
quence of  the  influence  of  such  variations  on  the  length 
of  the  pendulum  will  at  once  be  seen,  from  what  baa 
been  already  said,  to  be  an  increase  of  the  number  of  ita 
oscillations  in  a  given  time  while  in  cold  temiieratures, 
and  hence  shorter  than  its  mean  length,  as  in  winter, 
or  even  at  night  or  in  cold  situations;  and  a  diminution 
of  them  while  in  warm  temperatures,  and  hence  longer, 
as  in  summer,  or  even  during  the  day,  or  in  warm  situa- 
tions :  and  a  pendulum  with  a  metal  rod  will  cause  e 
cl(x±  to  vary  several  seconds  in  a  day  from  such  change* 
alone.     To  insure,  therefore,  a  still  greater  accuracy  and 
uniformity  in  the  measurement  of  time  than  had  previ- 
ously  been  obtained,  various  ingenious  but  simple  de- 
vices have  been  put  into  practice,  wherein  the  very  causa 
of  the  inaccuracy  has  been  made  subservient  to  the  end 
desired.     And  here  tho  talent  of  the  artist  Graham  again 
displayed  itself,  and  led  the  way  to  every  other  modifica- 
tion of  the  primitive  idcu,  however  dissimilar  in  detail, 
and  whether  applicable  to  pendulums  or  balances,  to 
clocks  or  watches.     Indeed,  the  first  method  of  "  com- 
pensation" adopted  for  pendulums  has,  with  some  little 
improvement,  ultimately  superseded  all  its  more  recent 
modifications.     This  method  Graham  called  "  the  mer- 
curial compensation,"  and  it  consists  simply  of  a  tube  or 
cylindrical  glass  j;ir  containing  quicksilver  or  mercury, 
and  attached  to  the  lower  end  of  a  steel  rod  in  the  arc 
of  its  oscillation.     As  the  steel  rod  lengthens  by  heat, 
the  mercury  expands  in  volume  and  rises  in  the  tube; 
while,  as  the  rod  shortens  by  cold,  it  contracts,  and  sinks 
or  falls.     Thus  the  arc  of  oscillation  remains  ever  at  the 
same  distance  from  the  point  of  suspension  or  upper  ex- 
tremity of  the  pendulum ;  or,  in  other  words,  the  pendu- 
lum, in  fact,  remains  over  of  the  same  length.     Graham 
also  conceived  the  notion  of  another  compound  pendu- 
lum, comjjosed  of  diflerent  metnis  so  arranged  as  to  com- 
jxjnsate  each  other  by  their  difference  of  expansion  or 
contraction.     'I'bis  modification  of  the  idea  of  a  compen- 
sating pendulum  was  more  fully  developed  by  John  Har- 
rison, another  celebrated  artist,  who  in  1726  invented 
the  gridiron  pendulum,  composed  of  five  rods  of  steel  and 
four  of  brass,  so  arranged  that  the  rmis  which  expand  the 
most  raise  the  weight  at  the  bottom  of  the  pendulum,  as 
much  as  the  rods  which  expand  the  lea.st  ib'prcss  it.    Un- 
fortunately, however,  this  compensation  cliani;es,  as  all 
metals  do,  not    continuously   and   grudtiiilly,  under  the 
intluence  of  be;it  or  cold,  but  by  jerks.     The  mercurial 
pendulum.   Iherefore,   under   certain    improvements   by 
Thomas  lieid.  a  talented  Edinburgh  artist,  and  by  others, 
has  of  late  been   frequently  resumed ;    imd  it  has  been 
tbunil  that  time-keepers  provided  with  this  pciKhdum  and 
n  dead  escapement  do  not  vary,  on  the  avenige,  more 
than  a  quarter  of  a  second  daily — a  degree  of  accuracy 
wonderful,  indeed,  when  contrasted  with  the  fact,  that 
down  to  the  midille  of  the  sixteenth  century  clocks  were 
incapable  of  going  nearer  to  accurate  lime  than  about  4U 
minutes  within  the  24  liours,  and  were  nevertheless  held 
-    3T 


r« 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


10  Je  prccigion  itsolf  compared  with  all  other  methods  of 
■euuriug  tiiuo  tlion  known.* 

Oihcr  Improvemenfi. 
While  improvements  were  eflTccting  in  the  cgrapemont 
and  pendulum  of  rlocks,  the  ingenuity  of  artistH  wan  not 
confined  to  tliosn  ulone.  Till  the  beginning  of  the  1  fith 
century  rlocks  were  et'  great  hulk,  and  only  fit  for  turrets 
or  large  huildinits;  and  although  after  this  period  they 
were  iniide  small  enough  to  be  uitroduced  into  apiirt- 
nionts,  there  could  be  no  such  thing  as  a  really  portable 
clock,  far  less  a  watch,  till  weights  and  pendulums  were 
got  rid  of  allot;olher.  The  substitution  of  a  main-spring 
for  a  we'.ght,  tlicreforc,  constituted  a  great  era  in  horo- 
logy, or  the  science  of  time-keeping;  and  this  took  place 
tbout  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  wag 
•hortly  afterwards  followed  by  the  invention  of  the  fusee, 
a  very  necessary  ap])cndage  to  the  main-spring.  But  as 
these  inventions  conipletoly  altered  the  form  and  princi- 
ples of  horological  machines,  and,  together  with  that  of 
the  spiral  escapement  spring  and  other  improvements, 
which  soon  followed  that  of  the  pendulum,  rather  con- 
atituto  peculiar  features  of  the  watch  than  of  the  clock 
(although  they  were  mostly  applied  at  first  only  to  porta- 
ble time-pieces  of  the  nature  of  clocks,  in  which  they  are, 
indeed,  still  used),  we  shall  reserve  the  explanation  of 
tliese  ingenious  pi.ces  of  mechanism  till  we  come  to  treat 
of  watches.  Meantime,  there  is  another  part  of  the 
works  of  a  clock  which  requires  to  be  here  noticed. 

Mpchnnium  for  Sirikinff  the  Hours. 
It  is  not  known  when  the  alarm  or  when  the  striking 
mechanism  of  the  clock  was  first  applied.  'I'he  alarm 
was  adopted  for  the  use  of  the  Romish  priesthood,  to 
arouse  them  to  their  morning  devotions.  The  first 
striking  clock  prnbably  announced  the  hour  by  a  single 
blow,  as  they  still  do,  to  avoid  noise,  in  most  if  not  all 
of  the  Scottish  churches.  In  De  Wyck's  clock,  the 
wheel  N,  with  its  projecting  pins,  served  to  discharge 
the  striking  part,  which  it  has  not  been  thought  neces- 
sary to  illustrati'.  Like  other  old  clocks,  it  locked 
against  an  interrupted  hoop,  fixed  on  what  was  culled 
the  hoop-whcci;  and  the  11  notches  on  the  edge  of  the 
platc-wheid  di'lormined  the  hours,  or  particular  numlier 
of  blows  which  the  hammer  should  give.  During  the 
•evcnteenth  century,  there  existed  a  great  taste  for 
rtriking   clocks,   and   hence   a   great   voriety   of  them. 


•Before  qiiittini,' tlie  »ubject  of  piMicluliimt,  it  is  wonhy  of 
remark  tlmt  ilic.rintitimt  action  or  iiyrnpHiliy.  while  oKcillniin;r 
near  each  other  on  ttie  same  wall,  »o  Iomk  as  they  are  mutually 
coiiueeie'l  hy  a  rait  or  shelf  eoitiinon  to  linth.  so  toti^  as  the 
cases  nf  the  clocks  to  which  they  helori){  are  either  fixed  to 
each  other  or  sinmlinp  on  the  same  flooring  planlr.  is  n  very 
singular  phenoiiiiiion,  ohserved  l)y  lluyReiiii.  hllicot.  ]><!  I. lie. 
Real,  and  many  other  artists.  One  pendulutn  will  even  slop 
another,  i  •«  «nid.  in  such  cireumslances,  niiil  wiT  nffain  cause 
it  to  resume  its  vibrations  till  it  stop,  alternately,  ilselt'.  It  has 
also  lieen  louad  that  two  clocks  with  pendulums  of  nearly 
equal  length  and  power,  or  wcijfhl.  though  dilferinff  in  their 
measurement  of  time  while  apart,  will  so  vibrate  in  unison 
when  thus  coimeeled.  as  to  keep  time  tO){ether  with  the  most 
sirpnshis  aeiiiracy.  till  they  are  nifn.n  separated,  or  till  the 
filank  e<Huiert  ni;  them  he  sawn  asunder.  This  singular  but 
not  altogether  unneeotintahb*  intliience  ojipears  to  be  tiot  nii- 
like  that  syiiipaili)  of  sound  between  two  luus.eal  instruments 
li.ned  in  unxm  where. n.  wlieii  a  ehord  of  one  is  struck,  the 
other,  placed  in  a  proper  situation,  though  iiu;oitehed.  responds 
or  eehoes  hock  the  sounds  at  first  cnllei"  forth.  And  as  in  the 
comhinatioiis  of  eertain  medical  siibsianees.  or  .n  various  other 
eciinbiiml'ons  the  g.'iieral  result  of  all  the  elenents  ik  obtained 

•  s  a  steady  mean  to  be  depended  on.  without  the  speeinl  Inilure, 
f:i  lit,  or  d  sadvuiitage  of  any  one  ebinciil  in  the  combi'uation, 
aecuiacy  of  line  k.  epmi^  of  a  renniixiibli'  k  iid.  m  glit  readily 
le  obtained  by  this  singular  mode  of  bringing  out.  liy  a  combf- 
ration  of  peuduliiin  clocks,  an  average  rati;  of  motion.  "  It  is 
tlio  opiiroii  Utah  ein  iir;nt  foreign  artst.''  says  Reid,  the  author 
c:*  a  standard  article  on  clock  and  watch-nuikiiig  in  the  new 
eu  tioii  of  the  **  Ijieyelopa-dia  Hritaiinica."  afterwards  en- 
larged and  cepnrniidy  republished,  "  that  a  lew  clocks  jdaced 
ill  this  way  wmuII  ciiiniiiun.cate  the  niolioii  of  their  pen.liiluins 
ki  each  other,  till  ilie\  cami' nil  at  Instlobeat  atthesnine  instant;" 

•  n  opinun  in  wh.ch  Kv  J  luiT«e!f  expresses  h.s  entire  con- 
eu;ielice 


Severn!  of  Tompion's  not  only  struck  th«  q\i;.»«,.^  „  .1 
bells,  but  also  the  hour  after  each  quarter;  at  \2  ^,^\  I 
44  blows  were  struck;  and  between  12  and  1,  tjol  I 
than  113!  Many  struck  the  hour  twice,  llke'that?! 
St.  Clement  Danes,  in  the  Strand,  London,  firjt  j.  I 
largo  boll  and  tlien  on  a  small  one.  Others,  ijij^l 
were  invented  so  as  to  tell  the  hours  with  the  least  poi^l 
blc  noise,  also  by  the  aid  of  two  bells,  etch  blow  on  iJi 
small  one  indicating  5  hours. 

The  striking  part  of  o  clock  i»  rather  a  peculiar  uiil 
intricate  piece  of  mechanism.  In  ordinary  cloclj  th  I 
impelling  power  is  a  weight  similar  to  that  which  moveil 
the  time-measuring  mechanism  itself;  hut  the  nrejjn„l 
of  this  weight  on  the  striking  machinery  is  only  MmuLl 
ted  to  come  into  play  at  the  staled  periods,  in  couneofl 
the  workings  of  the  time-keeping  apparatus,  namelj  |il 
the  completion  of  every  hour ;  when  the  minute-nliL  I 
which  revolves  once  in  an  hour,  and  carries  the  miimt^l 
hand  of  the  clock  along  with  it,  brings  it  into  action  btl 
the  temporary  release  of  a  catch  or  detent,  permitting  t|il 
weight  wound  up  on  the  cylinder  of  the  striking  t[nnA 
rotus  to  run  down  for  a  little,  in  doing  which  thit  han^l 
ilicr  is  forced  into  action,  so  as  to  strike  the  bell,  Whethel 
the  Ntrolces  shall  be  one  or  many,  is  determined  ptincKi 
pally  by  two  pieces  of  mechanism,  one  cslloil  a  miLa 
from  its  form  or  outline,  with  13  steps,  and  the  otheril 
r'ark,  with  18  teeth;  but  the  intric^e  actionof  the  wholil 
it  would  be  in  vain  here  to  attein]it  to  explain.  Sulii(»| 
it  to  say,  that  the  time  during  which  the  striking  ncithtl 
is  nllowtd  to  descend  varies  according  to  the  turning  of  I 
the  12  steps  of  the  snail  on  its  a.iiis,  and  the  position  otI 
the  12  teeth  of  the  rack,  at  diflcrcnt  hours  of  th^daT  I 
being  sometimes  only  long  enough  to  jiermit  one  blowiol 
lie  given  by  the  hammer  on  the  liell,  and  at  anothpr  tiigel 
long  enough  for  12  such  blows.  The  lifting  piece  oil 
the  rack-hook,  in  some  clocks,  may  be  raised  by  pulliiul 
a  string  attached  to  a  smnll  additional  piece  of  mechaiv| 
ism,  and  thus  the  dock  is  made  to  repeat  the  houryl 
struck  at  any  time  required — an  addition  useful  throiiglil 
the  night,  or  to  the  blind.  The  modes,  however,  bjl 
which  clocks  as  well  as  watches  have  lieen  mnilc  repeiul 
ers  hi:vc  been  very  various.  Reiwating-clocks  were  fiii|| 
invented  by  Barlow,  an  English  clergyinnn,  tim!  eietutedl 
by  Tompion  in  1676.  Some  have  been  made  to  rcpeit| 
both  hours  aifd  quarters  at  any  time,  and  to  indicate  tlii| 
time  by  blows  whicli  might  be  felt  but  not  heard.  ThJ 
size  and  weight  of  some  church-liellsarc  enormous.  Tii(| 
great  bell  of  St.  Pauls,  London,  weighs  lietwccn  II.OmI 
and  12,000  pounds.  (Jrcat  Tom  of  Lincoln,  though! 
smaller  than  .St.  Pauls  is  heavier  still,  being  fully  12,OCol 
pounds;  and  Great  Tom  nf  Oxford,  the  larcost  in  Eng-I 
land,  weighs  17,000  pounds.  But  these  urc  all  insigni.! 
ficant  when  compared  with  some  of  the  Russian  belli,! 
which  weigh  from  .50,000  to  even  432,000  iwunils!  A[| 
bells  arc  made  chiefly  of  a  compound  of  copper  and  tin  [ 
cast  in  moulds  in  bell-foundries. 

Curious  Clocks. 

Various  and  ingenious,  as  well  as  often  highly  cnrioin  I 
have  been  the  forms  and  purposes  displayed  in  the  con- 1 
slruction  of  clocks,  even  fioin  their  earlier  epochs dotml 
to  the  present  day.  We  have  already  instanced  snmel 
of  an  ancient  date  which  pointed  out  the  iimtlnns  oflhil 
sun  and  moon,  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tides,  i5cc.  Olhenl 
of  a  more  fanciful  descripllon  followed,  Tiic  faniouil 
cathedral  clock  of  Strasburg  was  formed  previous  ul 
l.'iSO;  and  besides  many  other  curious  details,  had  tbe I 
four  quarters  of  the  hour  struck  by  four  figures,  embltfl 
matical  of  the  distinguishing  periods  of  liuinui 
The  first  was  struck  by  u  child  with  an  apple,  tlic  second  I 
by  a  youth  with  an  arrow,  the  third  by  a  man  with  1 1 
bludgeon  or  staff,  and  the  fourth  by  an  old  man  ttilhil 
crutch;  these  were  followed  up  by  Death  hitiisoll, shtj 
»*-'ick  the  hour  at  last.     Other  ancient  clocks  dispUfi' | 


TIME-KEEPERS. 


771 


fff*" 


...IV   IV^JCai^H 

8  were  fintl 

in,  and  cjccuttdl 
■""'   torepetlj 
indicate  llii| 

cnornmus,  Thtl 

between  ll.OOol 

'linroln,  thougbl 

'ig  fully  12,0001 

-irp-est  in  Eng-I 

lire  all  insigni.! 

Russian  MiM 

)  [Munds!  All 

:appcr  and  lia  f 


(leuuls,  nail  I 
liiuiit's,  emli 

jt'  liuman  lil 

)1)|C,  lIlD  SKOI 

11  man  with 

Did  man  ffitli 

h  himsi'll,«r 

duckb  displiV 

noni  oi  mint*,  with  obcinance  to  the  virgin  and 
£1,  &<!•!  ""^  scarcly  a  town  of  any  importance  wa» 
fiihout  wme  turiosity  of  this  Bort  jwculiHr  to  itiielf. 
Ujny  curious  clocks  were  inventpd  in  the  seventeenth 
nntury.  aini'ng  which  were  a  variety  measuring  time, 
erat  least  moved,  by  baljti  running  down  inclined  planes, 
iwallowcd  up  by  and  traversing  the  hothcs  of  brazen 
•irwnta,  "f  descending  in  metallic  grooves,  to  be  again 
thrown  up  by  Archimedean  screws;  some  were  made  to 
.5  by  their  own  weight,  descending  inclined  planes,  and 
thus  avoiding  the  casuidties  to  which  main-springs  and 
vieight  lines  are  liable ;  others,  by  means  of  springs, 
^re  even  made  to  ascend  such  pbmes.  One  was  simply 
ind  ingeniously  hung  like  a  lamp  from  the  ceiling,  and 
was  kept  going  ''y  it"  " wn  Jescent,  the  winding  up  con- 
tjllng  merely  of  pushing  it  again  towards  the  ceili'ig. 
In  another,  the  dial  formed  the  brim  of  a  plate,  filled 
,iih  water,  in  which  swam  a  tortoise,  turning  marveU 
lojjjy  with  the  hour,  and  ever  pointing  towards  it — by 
ujjnetic  attraction,  as  every  one  would  now  readily  con- 
KJTe;  and  this  favourite  idea  wag  varied  by  many  other 
limple  contrivancei;.  Within  the  lost  few  years,  not  a 
jinle  wonder  of  a  similar  kind,  wo  recollect,  was  excited 
k  a  pualc-i'l'ick,  with  an  hour-hand  proceeding  from 
Ihf  centre  of  a  crystal  dial-plute,  perfectly  transparent, 
md  moving  without  any  visible  connection  with  me- 
chaniim.  In  this  case  n  piece  of  glass  itself,  rotating  in 
the  interior  of  the  dial,  constituted  the  requiHite  median 
ura.  The  illumination  of  clocks  was  a  favourite  idea  in 
Ihe  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries ;  and  little  more 
than  twenty  years  since  this  plan  was  adopted  for  public 
doclis.  It  was  first  applied  in  Glasgow,  where  one  clock 
ii  lighted  (though  very  imperfectly)  from  without,  as 
nta  others  are,  through  translucent  dials,  from  within. 
A  somewhat  better  system  of  lighting  is  adopted  in  Ed- 
inburgh; and  in  London,  the  pure  biilliuncy  of  the  Dude 
t  has  recently  contributed  to  the  improvement  of  this 

I  tfrv  useful  practice.  A  dock  was  made  by  George  III. 
which  registered  the  daily  fluctuations  of  the  barometer 

I  k  means  of  a  pencil  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  mer- 
ary,  and  made  to  traverse  a  circular  card  divided  into 
36.5  parts  by  radii  lines,  and  turned  on  its  centre  by  the 
dock  once  a  year.  The  fluctuations  of  the  wind  were 
pfopated  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren  to  he  .registered  on 
I  similar  principle — an  idea  which  has  been  recently  re- 
tivcd.  A  curiouH  time-keeping  method  of  insuring  the 
presence  and  attention  of  night-wntchmen  has  been  suc- 
cf<!folly  tried   of  late  years   at  Derby,  and  we  believe 

I  (Isewhcre  in  England.  It  consists  of  a  clock  with  pins 
pjojecting  round  the  dial,  which  can  only  be  pushed  in- 
wards at  a  certain  interval,  when  the  watchman's  pre- 

I  lenre  and  attention  are  required  to  unlock  the  case  and 
do  so,  otherwise  his  neglect  and  the  exact  quarter  of  an 
hour  at  which  he  was  absent  is  shown  by  "the  tell- 
tjle,"  Among  other  recent  inventions  is  a  lock-clock, 
to  prevent  bankers'  safes,  &c.,  from  being  opened  except 
It  stated  intervals.     The  greatest  novelty,  however,  in 

I  the  art  of  clock-making,  is  the  electro-magnetic  regula- 
tion of  clocks,  by  which  the  dials  of  all  the  clocks  in  a 
lonn,  or  even  in  dilfcrcnt  towns,  may  be  made  simulta- 
nrously,  and,  as  it  were,  by  sympathy,  to  indicate  the 
nme  moment  of  time. 

WATCHES. 

Clocks  and  watches  arc  certainly  among  the  most 
I  perfect,  as,  in  the  civilized  world,  they  are  the  most  in- 
dispensable, machines  ever  produced  by  human  inge- 
nuity, "  To  ticcome  a  good  watchmaker,"  says  Ber- 
Ihoud,  "it  is  necessary  to  Ihj  an  urithmeticiiin,  in  order  to 
8nd  the  revolution  of  each  wheel ;  a  geometrician,  to 
determine  the  curve  of  thii  teeth ;  a  mechanician,  to  find 
the  forces  that  must  be  applied ;  and  an  artist,  to  be  able 
to  put  iito  execution  the  princi|ilcs  and  rules  which 
then  sciences  prescribe.     He  must  know   how  fluids 


resist  bocfies  in  motion ;  the  effects  of  heat  and  cold  on 
difTerent  metals ;  and,  in  addition  to  these  acquirement*, 
he  must  be  endowed  by  nature  with  a  happy  genius." 
No  one  who  has  not  closely  attended  to  the  matter,  can 
conceive  the  difficulty  which  has  been  experienced  even 
in  dividing  circles  for  the  wheels  of  a  watch  into  th» 
requisite  numl)er  of  rigorously  equal  parta,  and  in 
"pitching"  them  in, or  adjusting  them  one  with  another. 
All  the  resources  of  art  shown  by  Ramsden,  Troughtun, 
and  other  eminent  mathematical  instrument  makers, 
have  been  here  called  into  requisition.  And  as  to  the 
delicacy  of  touch  and  adjustment  necessary  in  the  mere 
regulation  of  the  mechanism,  after  being  thus  accurately 
made  and  "  pitched  in,"  some  slight  idea  may  be  formed 
from  the  fact,  which  wo  give  in  the  words  of  Mr.  Thorn 
son,  that  ••  a  second  (a  mere  pulsation)  is  divided  into 
four  or  five  parts,  marked  by  the  vibrations  of  a  watch- 
bulance,  and  each  of  these  divisions  is  frequently  required 
to  be  lessened  an  exact  2880th  part  of  its  momentary 
duration  I"  England  has  great  honour  in  having  ad- 
vanced the  art  of  watch-making  to  its  present  high  con* 
dition. 

Main-sprinir  and  Fuace. 
The  invention  of  the  main-spring  in  place  of  the 
weight  was  the  first  pre-requisite  in  the  formation  of 
the  watch.  But  although  the  main-spring  was  applied 
as  the  maintaining  power  to  time-pieces  of  a  very  im- 
perfect description,  called  watches,  about  the  middle  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  and  although  the  balance  had, 
in  such  instruments  as  these,  assumed  its  present  form 
of  a  vibrating  ring,  with  the  greatest  weight,  of  course, 
accumulated  round  a  circumference,  it  was  not  until  the 
spiral  hair-spring  was  ajiplied  to  the  balance,  some  time 
after  the  invention  of  the  pendulum,  as  a  substitute  in 
clocks  for  the  balance  itself,  that  a  comparatively  uselesa 
machine  was  converted  into  a  time-measurer  nearly  aa 
accurate,  even  in  its  ordinary  form,  as  the  pendulum 
clock.  Though  the  invention  of  the  balance-spring, 
however,  was  comparatively  an  early  improvement,  and 
the  greatest  the  watch  has  ever  received,  we  must  pass 
it  over,  in  the  mean  time,  till  we  briefly  describe  those 
parts  of  the  mechanism  which  first  rendered  the  exist- 
ence of  the  watch  possible  at  ell. 

The  main-sprmg  consists  of  a  coil  of  thm  elastic  stee! 
ribbon,  enclosed  in  a  miniature  barrel  or  "drum,"  to  the 
inner  side  of  which  the  outer  end  of  the  coil  is  fixed,  white 
the  inner  is  fixed  to  an  axis  at  the  centre  of  the  drum,  and 
round  which  it  may  be  wound  or  twisted,  so  as,  by  its 
elasticity  and  recoil,  to  cause  the  drum  to  make  as  many 
revolutions  as  it  makes  turns  itself  while  it  unwinds. 
Here,  then,  we  have  the  main  power  which  sets  the 
whole  mechanism  of  tlte  watch  in  motion.  But  it  is 
evident  that  this  power,  if  thus  at  once  applied  to  the 
wheels,  would  cause  them  to  move  with  less  and  less 
rapidity  as  it  became  uncoiled,  and  as  its  springing 
power,  ot  course,  became  exhausted ;  so  that,  unless  the 
:  wheels  were  so  constructed  that  only  the  middle  turns 
were  required  to  be  in  action,  and  not  those  in  which  it 
I  is  at  its  greatest  or  its  least  power,  a  force  suf!iciently  equal 
I  even  for  ordinary  purposes  could  not  be  thus  obtained. 
I  French  spring  clocks,  strange  to  say,  are  still  in  general 
made  on  Ihisdefective  principle  ;  but  English  watches  and 
spring-clocks  are  supplied  with  a  "  fusee,"  which  corrects 
the  inequnlities  of  the  main-spring  with  a  simplicity 
only  c([uallcd  by  its  ingenuity. 

The  fusee  is 
a  cone  with  a 
spiral  groove, 
attached  to 
the  side  01 
the  first  wheel 
of  the  wat<;h, 
and  connertsJ 
with  the  barrel  or  drum  lontaining  the  main-spring  oj  « 


in 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


chain,  bookcJ,  at  lU  cni!a,  to  both.  The  figure  to  the  right 
m  thu  above  cut,  is  tho  fuMo ;  that  to  tho  left  ii  the  drum, 
.n  winding  a  watch,  tho  key  ii  placed  on  tho  axis  of 
tl)o  fuKo,  and  tho  cliain  i»  wound  ofT  tho  barrel  on  to 
tlie  cono  of  tlio  fuHce.  When  fully  lo  wound,  the 
spring  \i  at  itn  greatest  power  of  recoil ;  but  tho  chain 
Iwing  then  round  tho  umalleHt  part  of  tlie  cone,  the 
influence  of  tlie  spring  on  the  whccU  is  at  its  least 
amount ;  while,  just  as  tho  power  of  the  spring  relaxes 
and  diminishes,  tho  cone  enlarges,  and  its  lever  influence 
heiico  increases.  Tho  fusee,  in  short,  is  a  variublu  lever, 
worked  by  tlie  main-sprinjt,  with  more  purchase  when  it 
has  less  power,  and  with  Ichs  purchase  when  it  has  more 
power.  It  is  a  very  beautiful  contrivance,  completely 
answering  the  intended  purpose,  when  pro|H-rly  made. 
By  means  of  a  spring  contained  in  tho  interior  of  tho 
fusco-whecl,  the  watch  is  maintained  in  motion,  while 
tho  fusee  itself  is  turned  by  tho  watch-key  in  witiding 
up  the  main-spring.  This  is  called  the  goi'ig  fvaee. 
When  the  watch  or  spring-cluck  hus  no  fusco  at  all 
(and  in  very  flat  watches  no  fusco  can  Ihj  introduced), 
tlie  barrel  is  immediately  attached  to  the  liist  wheel. 
Iti  every  case,  however,  the  jwwer  of  tho  spring  is  con- 
veyed through  the  wheels  by  nearly  tho  same  arrange- 
ment in  all  watches  and  clocks  to 

Tho  Eaopetnent. 
On  the  peculiar  construction  of  this  part  of  the  me- 
ehniiism,  so  as  best  to  keep  up  the  vibrations  of  the 
balancw,  the  superiority  of  one  watch  over  another  prin- 
ripnlly  df|>ends;  though  much,  of  course,  also  depends 
on  the  skill  of  the  workman,  and  the  quality  of  his 
materials,  in  the  construction  of  tvfr]i  part  of  so  delicate 
a  machine.  The  escapement,  however,  according  to  its 
p<H;uliar  form,  is  that  by  which  the  watch  is  chiefly  dis- 
tinguished. 

The  vtrtical  walrh 
is  so  named  from  its 
old  vertical  escape- 
ment. 

'J'his  particular 
mode  of  escapement 
is  still  made  in 
common  watches, 
though  found   not 


This  mode  of  escapement,  which  requires  no  oil, /bra 
a  peculiar  feature  of  the  chronometer  or  marine  tin 
keeper. 

On  the  respective  merits  of  these  difll'rent  kindj  i 
watches  a  few  useful  hints  will  be  aflcrwards  girei 
There  are  mary  other  escapements,  but  those  only  11014 
pointed  out  are  in  general  us«. 

Balance  and  Balance-Spring. 

These  are  the  only  other  parts  of  tho  mechaniima 
tho  watch  of  which  it  is  necessary  hero  to  treat, 

The  balance,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  rcproscntationi 
of  it  in  connection  with  the  difltTcnt  escapements  jaa 
noticed,  is  a 'wheel  finely  poised  on  its  axis;  the  pivot 
holes  in  which  it  turns  being  frequently,  in  chronometti^ 
and  clocks,  as  well  as  in  watches,  jewelled,  or  made  i 
small   rubies,  diamonds,  &c.,  as  thoxo  of  other  of  tl 
wheels  also  are,  fur  the  sake  of  durability.    The  nalurd 
elTect  of  an  impulse  given  to  such  a  wheel  would  be  j 
complete   rotation  on  its  axis.     This,  however,  as  \ 
have  already  seen,  is  convertible,  by  varioua  cscapenicnJ 
into  a  vibratory  motion.     But  as  in  clocks  the  penduliji 
was  found  to  l)c  a  most  invulunhlo  adjunct,  absnrliine.d 
it  were,  in   its  own  more  or  Icks  extended  09cillalioi| 
every  inequality  in  the  rotation  of  the  wheel-work,  or ti 
vibration  of  the  balance,  something  of  precisely  the  s». 
nature  for  wat>'h  escapements  wns  the  great  desideralcd 
when  the  balance-spring  or  hair-ajiring  wus  invejit«ll 
and,  from  this  analogy,  it  even  acquire<l  tho  name  of  l' 
pondulum-spring — improperly  so,  however,  u  Reid  1 
marks,  especially  as  there  is  a  pendulum-spring  oft 
other  description  altogether.* 

•This  liHlp  insirumpnt,  the  hair-spring,  is  no  less  remariiibi 
_._•  ^  ««..j-.   :_  .-t.:.!.   •!>«  :n<n,il>i>  ;.  M»an    *n  (ha     for  the  cxirfino  ili'licttcv  of  iis  I'oiistriiction,  limn  for  iliemj 

•ontot  Mudge,  in  which  the  impulse  is  giveo  to  the  ,  ^^„,  ^^j^^  j,  ,^„^^,  ,^„  possii.iiitv  of  jiving  10  .  ^naf 
Mance  by  a  la*er  attached  ta  anchor  pallets.  [st««l  of  exceedingly  tmall  and  iusignificant  appciranct  t( 


to  produce  a  suflficient  accuracy. 

The  horizontal  or  cylindtr  watch  is  so  named  from 

the  horizontal  escape- 
ment of  Uraham,  intro- 
duced in  tho  lieginning 
of  last  century. 

In  this  mode  of  es- 
capement the  impulse  is 
given  to  a  hollow  cut  in 
the  cylindrical  axis  of 
the  balance,  by  teeth  of  a  peculiar  form  projecting  flrom 
a  horizontal  crown-wheel. 

The  Iner  toateh  is  so  named  from  the  lever  aacape- 


The  duplex  watch  is  so  ramed  from  the  juiihi  «  I 
capement  of  Hoo''  lerfocted  by  Tyrer,  in  whTh  Bui 
impulse  is  given  !  ,  ..    juble  wheel.  '  ' 


The  detached  watch  is  so  named  from  the  dtacliedl 
escui)cment  of  Bcrthoud,  improved  by  Arnold  an  1  Eam,! 
shaw,  in  which  tho  vibrations  of  tho  balance  an  free  J 
detached  from  the  influence  of  the  crown-whcek  unleal 
at  the  instant  when  it  receives  its  impulse  and  un»  ckind 
the  wheels  standing  still  till  then.  '' 


I  ipplieJ  to  all  marine  chr 

IMmial  labour.  Four  thoi 
[Mr-  i!mn  n  sinstle  ounce. 
■Tht  chisel  of  the  jciilptoi 
"nuy  adil  iniincnsi!  vnlui-  1 
IWyhcromi'  of  uri'ni  priri- 
ItffrinoeMimple  wlieriMii 
IMK.'edby  liumaa  tK:ll  1 


TIMEKBEPERS. 


771 


Simple  And  obvioutai  tho  HuggeHtion  of  the  regulative 
I  fluence  of  u  ipring,  Bpplicd  to  the  vibrating  incchoniim 
i  iht  w*'*^'*  balance  in  place  uf  either  weight  or  pcn- 
Julum,  may  ""*  appear,  e«|)ccially  after  the  idea  of  the 
'  ,'pri„g,  ai  a  lubiititutu  tor  the  rouintaiiiing  weight, 
k  d  bci'ii  BUKgciitcd,  thia  hoH  l)cpn  held  to  bo  a  crowning 
vi-nlioii  in   tho  mechanism  of   tho  watch ;    and    the 
I  ,,our  of  iti*  firxt  xuggiMtion  has  been  cluimcd  by  no  Irai 
ihui  lh"'>'  '"""y  otninent  men — by  Dr.  Ilooke,  by  Abbe 
Uii,y,fouiile, a  Frenchman, and liy  HuygonH.lho  Dutch  as- 
tronomer. Itwa»nltiiniitely  proved,  that  although  Huygena 
,  J  i,,,ulied  for  a  patent  at  Paris  in   1074,  Hautcfuuillo 
y  (lone  80  several   years  iK'forc ;  while  Hooke   iiad 
L.je  a  aiinitar  applicntion  in   England  in  165d.     To 
H*)lie.  therefore,  must  bo  attributed  the  first  idea  of  tho 
yaiice-spriiig. 

In  Its  application  to  the  balance  of  a 
watch,  one  of  the  extremities  of  the 
spring  is  fattened  to  a  point  indepen- 
dent of  the  balance,  while  the  other  is 
attached  near  its  axia. 

When  the  balance  is  at  rest,  the 
spring  is  inclined  neither  way,  this 
position  being  called  tho  point  of  rest ; 
I  but  when  the  impulse  is  given  to  the  balance  by  the 
I  gonn-nhcel  of  thu  escapement,  it  is  clear  that  now  a 
1  Blalorv  motion  of  the  balance  cannot  take  place,  even 
llboiiili  there  should  be  nothing  in  tho  form  of  the 
I  (nMDcmcnt  to  prevent  it ;  the  balance  will  now  only 
I  move  round  so  far  as  the  impulse  given  is  able  to  ovcr- 
I  COM  the  elastic  resistance  of  the  spring ;  and  when 
I  tlul  resistance  becomes  equal  to  the  impulse  given,  the 
I  Uiiicc  will  stop  for  a  moment,  ond  then  bo  driven  back 
I  :t  the  clastic  .'ecoil  of  the  spring,  continuing  thus  to 
liliiate  M  Ic/ig  as  the  impulse  is  repeated  or  the  watch 
I  ii  in  motion. 

The  recoil  of  the  spring  is  auflicicnt  to  drive  back  the 
I  Miincc  to  a  distance  nearly  double  tho  length  of  its  first 
I  notion ;  this  is  therefore  called  the  long  arc  of  vibra- 
Iton.  But  when  the  motion  ot  the  balance  is  free,  with 
liccrliiin  length  of  spring,  the  long  arc  of  vibration  is 
I  niiie  in  less  time  than  the  short  one,  to  which  the  im- 
I  poise  i»  given ;  with  u  spring  of  greater  length  the  prin- 
I  dpie  is  reversed ;  whence  it  was  concluded  by  Le  Roy 
linJ  Berthoud,  that  ccjuality  of  time  or  imchronmn,  in 
I  unequal  vibrations,  could  be  more  easily  obtained  by 
I  lengthening  the  spring  than  by  tapering  it.  In  principle, 
I  loo,  the  stronger  and  shorter  the  spring,  the  (|uickcr  will 
I  he  its  vibrations.  Thus,  olTects  of  an  extremely  varied 
I  ieicTiptlon  can  be  produced  on  the  motions  nf  a  watch 
I  br  the  slightest  diflerence  of  length  and  taper  in  a  hair- 
I  ipring.  And  it  is  thus  that  the  correctness  of  the  timt- 
I  keeping  is  essentially  dependent  on  tho  principle  adopted 
I  in  the  formation  of  this  apparently  most  insignificant 
I  Ue  appendage.  So  much  is  this  the  case,  that,  if  the 
IbiiMpring  he  isochronal  in  a  free  or  detached  escape- 
|inent,the  time  shown  will  be  the  same,  notwithstanding 
I  dungoa  in  the  motion  of  the  wheels,  or  even  in  the  power 
of  the  main-spring.  In 
England,  where  time- 
keepers have  been 
brought  to  their  greatest 
perfection,  it  is  consid- 
ered that  isochronism  is 
most  easily  obtainable  by 
using  tlie  cylindrical  he- 
liacal spring,  which  is 
to  nil  marine  chronometers. 

IHMmal  labour.  Four  thousuiiil  Imir-springs  sonrcely  weigh 
Inofillmn  n  sinijle  oiiiicn.  I>iil  rost  ot1i'n  more  ilinii  XKMK). 
^ 'The chisel  of  iIia  tciilptor,"  as  Mr.  Tlioinpnoujusllv  ii-iimrka. 
'■lysilcl  immeiiso  value  lo  a  block  of  iimrlili-,  aiidilir  cuinuo 
jMyhiTomi' of  urcni  price  from  llm  Inlmiir  licsiowcil.  hut  art 
llJermn  example  wherein  llic  ro»l  of  ihe  mnterinl  is  so  greatly 
iMliK.'edby  liiuuan  «k.u  ai  iiiiliu  buluiico-spnuK." 


I  One  of  the  most  recent  improvemrnta  in  watches,  or 
rather  in  chronometers,  has  jeen  invented  and  patnitcd 
by  Mr.  Dent,  of  London,  and  consista  in  coating  thj  b^. 
lance  and  balance-spring  with  gold  by  the  clectro-mrtnN 

:  lurgic  process  (see  article  on  ElictricittV  by  which 
means  tliey  are  secured  from  rust.     Another  invention  of 

I  the  same  gentleman  is  that  of  balance  or  hair-springi 
made  of  nUin,  which,  singular  to  say,  appear  decidedly 
preferable  to  those  of  steel,  their  principal  disadvantage 
being  tho  dilTicuIty  of  making  them  with  certainty  or 
accuracy. 

Compeiitation. 

But  let  a  walfth  bo  ever  so  perfect — in  the  correction 
of  the  ineqtMlilios  of  its  main-spring  by  a  fusee  malho 
matically  adjusted  to  it,  in  the  formation,  and  the  position 
or  pitching  in  of  all  its  wheels  and  pinions,  in  the  prii> 
ciple  and  execution  of  its  escapement,  and  even  in  the 
accuracy  with  which  its  hair-sp.'ng  vibrates  in  equal 
times — still  it  will  vary  in  tho  time  it  indicates  on  n'oy 
change  of  lemptrulurc,  however  slight,  unless  it  be  com- 
pcnsated. 

From  what  we  have  already  stated  in  treating  of  the 
compensation  pendulum  in  clocks,  the  intelligent  reader 
will  readily  appreciate  the  difficulties  to  be  here  overcomo, 
and  will  probably  conclude,  that  us  u  clocks  the  compen- 
sation has  been  eflected  by  means  of  tho  pendulum,  sa 
in  watches  it  must  have  been  ctfecteii  by  means  of  tho 
balance-spring  or  balance  :  such  is  the  fact ;  but  as  there 
was  no  room  here,  and  indeed  no  analogous  opportunity, 
for  tho  introduction  of  mercury,  the  idea  of  compensa- 
tion by  virtue  of  the  difTerent  degrees  of  expansion  ia 
dillbrent  tnetals,  as  in  the  gridiron  pendulum,  was  the 
only  one  that  remained  to  be  entertained ;  and  here  also 
the  ingenuity  of  human  invention  has  indeed  triumpht  >1 ; 
and  the  metbod  of  making  compound  balances  for  watchce 
has  been  juntly  considered  one  of  the  most  curious  of  our 
metalline  manufactures.  When  completed,  tlio  compen- 
sation balance  consists  of  a  double  or  compound  rim  or 
ring,  the  outer  part  of  which  is  of  brass,  and  the  inner  of 
steel,  to  which  the  brass  is  added  while  in  u  ftiolten  state. 
The  opposite  sides  of  this  ring  are  united  by  a  steel  bar, 
the  whole  of  the  steel  part,  indeed,  being  filed  out  of  one 
piece  of  metal.  One  liulf  of  the  ring  is  then  cut  or  filed 
away  at  one  side  of  the  bar,  and  the  other  half  at  tho 
other  side,  as  represented  in  the  figure  last  above  given  ; 
and  the  balance  is  loaded  either  with  small  screws,  as  in 
that  figure,  or  with  sliding  weights  on  each  half  of  the 
ring,  in  order  to  regulate  the  rate  of  the  chronometer  or 
watch.  The  compensation,  then,  is  thus  eflected :  An 
increase  of  temperature  diminishes  the  elastic  force  of  the 
hair-spring,  which  would  cause  the  machine  to  lose  time ; 
but  the  same  degree  ot  heat  expands  the  outer  or  brazen 
part  of  tho  ring  of  the  balance  more  than  it  does  the  inner 
or  steel  part — brass  expanding  more  than  steel  by  heat, 
and  contracting  more  by  cold — and  so,  not  being  able  to 
separate,  a  curvature  of  tho  whole  arm-  of  the  ring  in 
wards  ensues,  which  lessens  the  inertia  or  checking  weight 
of  the  balance  ;  so  that  the  hair-spring  now  requires  ie'» 
force  to  influence  it  to  the  same  degree  as  before ;  a  .J 
thus  its  loss  of  power  is  lonipentaled.  On  the  other  hand, 
cold  incrrases  the  clastic  force  of  the  hair-spring,  which 
would  cause  the  machine  to  gain  time ;  but  the  brass 
contracting  more  than  the  steel,  curves  the  arm  outwards, 
and  increases  the  inertia,  or  resistance  of  tho  balance,  al- 
lowing the  spring  no  more  infiuence  over  it  now  than  it 
had  before.  The  screws  are  turned  in  or  out,  or  the  pl.ice 
of  the  sliding  weights  adjusted,  by  experiments  on  the 
rate  of  the  machine  ;  so  that  if  an  increase  of  tempera- 
ture causes  it  to  gain  time,  or  a  decrease  to  lose,  the 
screws  must  be  turned  outwards,  or  the  wcignts  moved 
farther  from  the  ends  of  the  arms ;  if  the  contrary  be  the 
case,  then  of  course  tiie  contrary  phanges  must  be  made 
I  The  compensation  curb  is  another  inst  umeut  for  cor 
3t3 


Ifti 


INFORMATION   FOR  THK   PKOPI.K. 


Mciins  Tiriitioni  in  thti  rati<  of  Koins  from  Tiriationi  in 
loinpcraturo.  It  liniiU  or  cxhind*  tlie  lutiKth  uf  mnvt>> 
mtni  ill  Itiu  linir-apring  iliicir,  liy  ■>  nfir-inoviiig  action,  al«> 
riunoil  l)y  a  iliirorcnco  in  the  etrrcl  of  cIkuikv  of  t«'inp«ira- 
liire  on  two  liill'crent  inrtuU,  ami  in  called  a  curb,  from  Iho 
name  of  n  hihuII  pioca  of  nifclmniiin  whicli  o|ipriitc«  liini- 
larly  un  Itiu  balunce-nprinK  in  ri<i{uluting  ■  watch  by  liunJ. 

OimutfoMCTKRi. 

The  tttrm  rhronntiieltr  i«,  proporly  aptmkinK,  applirnhln 
to  all  limn-lipepiTi,  but  it  is  now  nioro  uHvmlly  appliud  to 
marine  tiinc-koeiiern  only,  which  nru  niuchiiica  uf  a  siu- 
between  watch<-*  and  clocki.  Homo  wntclin,  however, 
made  like  chronomntem  in  every  mprcl  but  in  lixe,  arc 
called  pocket  chronometcri.  But  neither  of  tlioHO  are 
any  thing  elve  thun  merely  luch  tinie-kecpera  ai  combine 
■II  thoMe  chief  oxcellenciea  in  horoloificnl  invention  juat 
dracrilx'd,  iucludini{  coinpcnsntion  balance,  cylindrical 
■prinK,  di'tache<l  riica|iement,  Ac,  no  an  to  conitituto  the 
inoitt  accurate  timo-meniiurer  poMiiblo  ;  the  purpoRc  of 
marine  chronoinutcra  Wuxg  to  diacover  the  longitude 
at  Hca ;  for  it  in  only  noceil.tary  to  ancertain  the  exact 
diflertMice  in  time  between  two  place*  on  difTercnt 
meridiaiiit,  in  order  to  determine  (heir  diflbrence  of 
longitude,  or  diHtaiice  eastward  or  wentward  of  each  other. 
Kevertini;  to  what  hna  lieen  already  naid  on  this  Niibject 
in  the  firat  article  of  the  prewnt  nerii's,  the  general  reader 
will  at  once  perceive  that,  «o  noon  an  a  time-keeper  could 
be  made  that  would  keep  time  with  perfect  accuracy, 
■uch  an  instrument,  let  to  the  time  of  any  sea-port,  for 
in-Jlance,  in  Uritain — whoM>  preciite  meridian  or  longitude 
waM  known — and  carried  abroad  in  a  vesxel  sailing 
thence,  would  Hlford  the  means  ofasi'ert.'iining  the  longi- 
tude at  sea,  by  simply  observing  the  instant  that  the  sun 
reached  his  meridian  there,  when  of  course  it  would  lie 
mvd-tlay,  or  I'<2  o'clock  noon  ;  and  at  the  same  time  ol>- 
aerving  the  dilfercnce  between  this  time  and  that  shown 
by  the  time-keeper,  which  would  necessarily  be  diflerent 
if  the  longitude  was  dilferrnt — the  amount  of  the  diflbr- 
ence giving  hiia  his  longitude,  on  the  calculation  that  15 
degrees  east  or  west  make  one  hnnr  of  time,  or  1 5  geo- 
graphical miles  oni  minute.  If,  for  example,  the  timc- 
kee|ier  had  Iteen  set  to  time  at  the  meridian  of  Greenwich 
observatory  [where,  in  fact,  chronometers  are  now  usually 
adjusti-d,  and  where  a  signal  hoisted  every  day  on  the  in- 
stant that  12  o'clock  strikes,  or  rather  on  the  instant  that 
the  sun  arrives  at  the  meridian  there,  proclaims  the  true 
lime  of  day,  on  that  meridian,  to  all  the  mariners  in  sight 
of  it,  that  they  may  bo  able,  without  trouble  or  mistake, 
to  adjust  their  chronometers  accordingly],  and  if  it  was 
but  1 1  o'clock  on  the  time-keeper  thus  set,  while  it  was, 
of  course,  12  o'clock  or  mid-day  at  the  time  and  place 
where  the  meridian  was  taken  at  pea,  then  that  place 
raust  have  lieen  in  longitude  15  degrees  wot  of  the  me- 
ridian of  trreenwich  ;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  it  was  one 
o'clock  instead  of  11  at  that  moment,  the  longitude  must 
have  been  15  ilcgrec*  eatt,  imt  west,  uf  the  meridian  of 
Oceenwich.  By  knowing  also  the  time  when  any  parti- 
cular star  passed  the  meridian  at  (ireenwich,  the  naviga- 
tor, in  a  similar  manner,  could  calculate  bis  longitude  by 
•in  observation  of  the  same  star  at  aea.  Lunar  ol>si-rva- 
tions,  eclipses,  or  any  other  of  the  celestial  phenomena, 
might  be  made  use  of  on  similar  principles. 

It  was  a  clear  perception  of  the  fact,  that  the  longitude 
might  thus  be  at  any  time  determined,  couM  time-keepers 
lie  made  to  measure  time  with  accuracy, that  led  Hir  Isaac 
Newton  and  others  to  recommend  to  government  the  oiler 
of  a  public  reward  for  the  accomplishment  of  so  desira- 
ble -111  oliject ;  and  it  was  the  ho|)e  of  reaiiing  the  splen- 
did reward  of  jtJ2(),00(),  which  government  accordingly 
did  olfur,  that  formed  the  very  main-spring  to  all  those 
higi  exertions  of  horological  ingenuity  which  led  to  the 
tinal  success  of  John  Harrison,  at\er  an  unwearied  labour 
•f  forty  yoara — a  success  which,  in  turn,  resulted  in  the 


present  highly  advanced  atnte  of  homlngy,  th«  rK!ff»,ii^j 
of  which,  «•  u  most  scientific  art,  is  |)erliips  onlt  IT? 
lelcti  by  the  |)erfection  of  astronomy  as  a  cognittni'i 
deeply  indebted  to  it,  and  inib'ed  to  which  it  is  ai  iinH,,^  ■ 
sable,  in  almost  every  resja'cl,  to  the  present  contliij„n  jl 
society. 

vafrui,  HINTI. 

For  the  attainment  of  habits  of  punctuality,  f,,,  iiJ 
regulation  of  the  usual  routine  of  buslne.w  and  of  ,.,,_,T 
day  life,  for  tlh    morning's  timely  arousement,  and  iM 
evening's  sullieient  re|H)se,  and  for  other  and  innumfnlij 
purposes  of  convenience,  necessity,  and  pleaturn— niu|.k| 
in  reality,  often  <h-|M'nds  on   the  judicious  "t'lrction  nf  J 
time-keeper.     And  even  the  charaiter  of  a  ynunn  nunl 
has  been  known  to  be  nmch  inlluenced  by  the  luialiiv  ofl 
his  watch,  the  posBcssor  of  an  accurate  tiMif-|;r(M,.r  |^ 
coming  andiitious  to  emulate  its  excellence,  urj(l||ji|„|, 
dually  accpiiring  habits  remarkable  fur  puiictimliiv.   [j 
is  therefore  to  l)c  regretted — even  IhiiiiKh  in  many  riif J 
a  very  iiuliirerent  time-keeper  may  Is-  lli(.ui!lit  nil  t|i,|  j 
reijuired  for  general  purposi's — that  no  elllciciil  imlruo 
tion  can  lie  given  to  the  inex|s>rlenced,  eHpecinllvio«j[jJ 
the  selection  of  n  watch,  as  none  but  a  workman  piu* 
ing  the  highest  knowledge  of  hi<  art  is  capahlc  ol'lonn, 
■ing  a  correct  opinion  of  its  relative  merits.     'IV  hinij 
given  by  a  skilfu!   and  practical  artist  hiiiiKclf,  ImwurJ 
who  has  had  years  of  the   most   attentive  and  connlanl 
experience,  cannot  Imt   be  deemed   invalualilc;  imJ  i 
such,  we  would   eK|H'cially  reconnncnil   a   popular  liliU 
volume,  recently  issued  by  Messrs.  Uoorie  of  .\ow  %nM 
Htreet,  namely,  " 'rhomaon's  Titne  and  'i'inie-K  ■c|Kn,'1 
for  the  useful  as  well  as  pleasing  and  interettine  instnJ 
tion,  to  the  inex|H'rience(l  in  horology,  with  whirli  it  j 
stored.     A  work  such  asthisis  a  novelty, ofs'iiiiia  up ly 
rather  abstrustf  science  of  horcdoBV  lo  the  gencriil  rrailerl 
much   in  the  same  way   in   which  the  liiu'hiy  impiiliT 
works  ol  Professor  Nichol  hav(>  o[>ened  up  the  more suU 
lime  and  still  more  abstruse  science  of  astronomy. 

Among  many  valuable  hints  for  the  proiier  sojoftiti 
of  time-kee|H'rs  contained  in  Mr.  Thomson's  liltjp  volurwl 
we  shall  take  the  liberty  of  brii'lly  instancing  tho  fullonl 
ing;  and  first  of  clocks: — 'i'hese,  in  generni,  nifasiir^ 
time  more  accurately  than  watches,  especially  fighlil^i 
weight  or  long-cl<M'ks,  which  are  also  clicni«'si 
and  heavy  pendulums  are  to  lie  prel'errer!.  T,,r  poiiJaJ 
lum  should  occupy  the  whole  availuMe  leiiitthofftf 
case,  cxcc|)t  in  regulators,  or  in  pendulums  lirai 
seconds.  Alight  pindnlum  shows  a  clock  to  be  In 
constructed,  or  delicient  in  |M)wer.  Steel  rods  nrp  hflKj 
than  brass,  well-seasoned  and  varnished  wood  thun  ttnll 
and  com|)ensal ion-rods  than  either.  The  clock  shoiilJ 
be  steadily  fixe<l  to  the  wall,  or  firmly  plaenl  on  (fej 
feet  suiricienlly  far  apart,  so  that  the  mcchaniiini  miyd 
uninfluenced  by  tho  oscillations  of  the  pendulum.  I'lookl 
are  regulated  by  lengthening  the  pendulum  to  mulirlheii 
lose,  and  by  shortening  it  to  make  them  gain;  ibis  it 
very  generally  done  by  turning  a  nut  or  screw  IdirA 
weight  or  huh  of  the  pendulum,  lo  the  rittht  (ot"in.  ol 
(0  the  left  to  Awe  .  or,  if  the  sjtcw  is  almvi  the  woiihut^ 
rule  is  reivrfcil.  Many  French  clocks,  and  a  Irw  i 
English  ones,  are  liable  to  derangement  in  atrikiii;.  i 
less  the  hands  are  moved  rapidly  fnnn—d.  The  hiiw 
of  English  clocks,  in  general,  may  lie  turned  oillicrsi)! 
without  injury,  and  the  same  with  a  watch,  unless  it  b 
an  alarm.  An  intelligi'iil  careful  man  may  1h'  siltl^ 
trusted  with  the  cicanifig  or  repairing  of  lioiii 
while  a  diversity  of  talent  and  ex|K'rieiice  is  ncccssart'J 
qualify  him  for  the  manipulation  of  watches.  "Vtf 
possessor  of  a  good  pict\irn  would  doubtless  inquire  )r,!( 
the  ability  of  the  artist  before  he  intrusted  him  to  (pK 
it;  and  this  caution  is  equally  necessary  for  awaliiil 
many  of  the  Is-st  construction  have  sustained  iurpn  i 
injury  from  tlio  hands  uf  unskilful  workiucrj.    Evcoik 


^l^|i<^  (which  are  li 

ibK   lid  of   '"■"'■'■    '>"! 

ihern."  A  .'lever  art 
pfrforia  t.deralily  wel 
{Icimd  every  second 
rlioali'd  ones  olleiie 
They  nliouM  be  regul 
hourss  posaMe:  ami 
Heidily  in  the  n  inn,  i 
lhfin«'ivi't.  W'lien  I 
inJ  Iw  pcrli-ctly  at  re! 
be  [lUccil  on  a  soft  su 
iKh(twi«e  the  motion 
pendulous  motion  of 
intinw.  Should  a  vvi 
worn  or  not  worn  in 
lolime;  but  the  regu 
the  ordinary  t<'pn|s^rat 
Hitches,  if  ijroperly  .• 
pen  of  a  year  or  tw 
worth  of  a  watch.  L 
Adupiflx  watch  may 
my  be  very  good,  so 
M  principle.  Many  I 
dght  or  even  ten  hob 
coitly  ones  have  but 
three  sliillings.  "  Tli 
luiiJiomo  exterior,  th 
DCM,  are  clfectivo  bait 
orajmeiLt  forms  but  n 
prices  therefore  will,  i 
livoqualilies  of  tlie  v 
bowa  integrity  and  a 


JtsiMKr  and  Fel 
lo  the  list  of  months  I 
Ponifiliiis,  in  the  yi' 
of  ilio  former  month 
god  of  the  year  of 
the  first  day  was  sai 
ctlelirated  with  riotou- 
We  lourn  from  Ovid's 
DOl  ipciid   the   Kalen 
debauchery :  he  wrou'. 
of  luck  throughout  tl 

1.  L'irrumHsion, — A 
Itom  alhiiit  the  year  4 
lince  Isf'O,  in  honot 
The  naiiks  and  piibli. 
8r«t  day  of  the  year 
modem  (yhrislian  woi 
•ppronohing  or  excee 
Eni;iind,  till  a  period 
lo  usher  in  the  year  b 
Wiiiidil  I'nirl,  socalle 
(Be  healthy),  the  toa: 
torn  without  the  nam 
ak)  customary  on  t! 
originally  with  ^hc  su 
fertuno  for  the  yciir,  a 
promote  good  neighln 
boJ  accepted  presents 


KEY  TO  THR  CALENDAR. 


911 


»i(rli#<  (whl'"''  «"  ''Y  f"'  ''i"  BfatMt  nuinbrr)  reiiuire 
ihi"  till  "•  l"'lti"r  liiimlii  lliiiii  lliimi  which  roiHlrut'toil 
thern."  -^  I'h'vur  lUliMt  iiiiiv  iMiiililii  rvcti  ii  li>i>l  wntoh  to 
Mrform  luliTxI'ly  >*'■"•  VVuliihtw  nhirnld  onliiiurily  he 
Lnid  I'Vi'fy  i«'<'i>"il  or  third  yi'ar ;  miiiill,  Ihit,  or  i-diii- 
rliciiicil  oii'H  ortfiitT.  All  ri'i|iiiro  enrt"  in  hiiiiiliin:;. 
Thty  nhixiM  ho  rrifiiliirly  wotiiiil  iw  lUMrly  nt  thn  xuiiin 
bour  •*  P""  *'''*'  ■  "'"'  wllil'*  iM'iiiK  woiirxl,  hIioiiIiI  Im>  held 
ilriilily  ill  ''i"  "  '""•  *"*  ""  '"  liovx  no  circiilur  iiiotiiui 
ihfiwu'ivi't.  Wlirii  huni{  u|i  lot  llid  wiilc'h  huvti  HU|>|Mirt, 
mil  Iw  jHTfrrtly  iit  runt ;  or  whon  luid  horizDiitiilly,  let  it 
beulm'cd  1)11  Ii  oiift  KuhHt.iiico  fur  inoro  k<miitiiI  *u|i|iiirt, 
Olherwiw  tli<^  iiioliDii  of  tho  hiilikiicn  will  dc^riieniln  n 
ptnilulou-i  iii'Xi'iii  of  tlix  wiitch,  ruuHiiiK  much  viiriutioii 
inlinie'  HhoiiM  »  wuti'h  vitry  hy  hi'at  or  «uld,  a*  whmi 
worn  or  not  worn  in  tiio   pocket,  the  hundN  may  ho  net 

10  lime;  hut  thu  rcKuhitor  hIioiiIiI  nut  ^w  altered,  if  net  to 
ihe  oriliiiiii'y  t(Mn|ieruturt)  of  the  Ruaiion.  Com|K3nsation- 
nlcheH,  if  |)ro|icrly  coiiHtrui'tod.  do  nut  ao  vnry.  A  Irinl 
rtn  of  »  y'*''  '"  '^"  '"  ""  proof  of  the  HuliHtniitial 
worth  )f  a  walch.  Uciilern  themiieivcM  may  he  deceived. 
A  dupiBX  Wfitch  iniiy  he  very  hnd,  while  a  vertical  one 
guy  bo  very  i;ood,  ho  thiit  workniiinHlii|i  iit  n*  importniit 

11  principle.  Miiiiy  low  priced  nnil  Imd  wntchcH  hnvo 
eiiht  or  even  ten  liolefi  jewelled,  while  iniiny  ifood  nnd 
Mttly  oiiC't  lirtve  hilt  four ;  a  hole  can  h«  jowulled  for 
lire*  iiliillin;?t.  "  The  hi«h  HoiindiiiK  doHcription,  the 
luiiilioino  exterior,  the  oH'cred  triul,  iind  eiiliciiiK  chenp- 
oesi,  arc  clfertive  hailH  to  the  Hhort-.tii^htcd."  Extcriiul 
omimeiil  I'orinH  hut  n  mnall  item  of  expen«c,  nnd  the 
pricci  therefore  will,  in  ijencrul,  point  out  the  coinparii- 
tivequalilicH  of  the  work  in  the  Hhop  of  an  artiHt  of 
kaowa  integrity  and  ahility.     The  largo  thick  old  watch 


U  IcH  aliKiird  than  lomo  recently  nade  liitU  nicktf  ' 
half  a  crown  [or  even  much  mnalltr,  na  in  the  latent  •n4 
rarett  iiovi'lty  uiiioiik  the  lieautifi  i  and  in^enioua  Oone- 
veao    watcheM,   one  of  which   re(ftntly   Hem   at  (ieneva 
hy  one  of  the  eilitorn  of  tlii^  preaent  iierieH  of  pupera,  wai 
aliout  the  ni/.e  of  a  aliillinijl.     The  lever  watch  in  caps 
hie  of  ^reiit  ucciiriicy,  anil   ia   preferuhle   to  tho   vertical, 
thoiiKh  the  principle  of  tho  latter  ia  more  gonerally  un 
dcrHtood  and  more  easily  repoired  ;   lever   watchea,  how 
ever,  arc  neither  espcnnive  to  repair  nor  liiililo  to  dcrauKO 
mcnt.      The   hiiri/.oiilal  or   cyliinlor-watch  ia  liahlu    to 
great  teir  and  wear,  hut  |M<rfi>rma  with  coiiHiderahte  ao- 
curacy.     The  duplex  watch,  willi  u  coinpeiirintion  ha- 
lanci',  when  well  couHtructed,  and  trealed  with  ordinary 
care,  will  keep  timu  with  the  k^riMteat  accuracy,  hut  huing 
delicate,  it  docH  not  ntand  violent  exercixt;;  a  had  duptox 
watch  ia  nioHt  expciiHive  to  rep,iir.     The  detached  watch, 
tho  eacapement  of  which  ia  the  only  oiu-  used  in  marine 
chronomelera,  in  the  moat  perfect,  hut  reipiirea  cnro.    lie- 
(MMitera  are  expensive  to  fejuir  aa  well   an   to   purchaae, 
hut   may  Imj   na  accurate   uh  otheia.      Watchea  allowing 
Micondx  are  often  uaeful,  and,   if  well   made,  are  neither 
exjienHive  nor  euaily  deranged.     A  wutch  may  he  hand- 
■ome,  yet  had,  hut  a  goiHl   watcli  ia  aeldoin  unHJghtly. 
The  Hpring  for  ahiitting  tho  ahclls  ia  not  ao  ;;ood   na  the 
Huap ;  it  olten   alloWH  dual  to  penetrate  to  the  worki. 
Tho  covera  of  hunting-watchea  will  not  protect  the  glaaa 
when  the  huntera  are  very  flat.     The  extreme  accuracy 
of  tntrine  ehionotnelera  ia  partly  produced  hy  their  heing 
kept  cuiiatantly  in  a  horizontal  poailion.     They  arc  only 
reipiired  to  ahow  nyitu/  time  ;  whether  they  gain  or  Iom 
ia  of  no  conaeipioncc,  provided  they  urv  regular,  and  keip 
thuir  known  rate. 


KEY  TO  THE  CALENDAR. 


JANVART. 

JixiMKT  nnd  Fehniiiry  are  said  to  hnve  heen  added 
lolhc  liat  of  montliH  hy  the  aecond  !{>  ui;i  king,  Numa 
PoiufiliuH,  in  the  year  hefore  Christ  072.  The  name 
of  iiio  former  month  ia  unqueatlonalily  from  .lanua,  tlic 
|nl  of  the  year  of  the  Homnn  niytholot'y,  to  whom 
the  firat  day  waa  aacrcd,  and  in  whose  honour  it  waa 
ccWirntcd  with  riotom  fenstinga  and  giviiiga  of  prescnta. 
Welcurn  from  Ovid'a  Fasti,  that  a  IJoman  workman  did 
not  ipcml  the  Kalends  or  1st  of  .lanuary  entirely  in 
debauchery:  he  wrought  a  littlo  at  his  trade,  fur  tho  sako 
of  luck  throughout  the  year. 

I,  Cirnimi-ision. — A  festival  of  the  Romish  Church, 
ftora  atniit  tho  year  4^7,  and  of  tho  Church  of  England 
BDce  Is'O,  in  honour  of  the  circumcision  of  Christ. 
The  DRiiks  and  piihlic  olRees  are  shut  on  this  day.  As 
Smt  day  of  the  year,  it  is  eel-hrnted  throughout  tho 
modern  (christian  world  with  festive  rejoicings,  too  often 
ippronohiiig  or  exceeding  the  hounds  of  propriety.  In 
EniflMul,  till  a  period  not  very  remote,  it  was  customary 
lo  usher  in  the  year  hy  lirinking  spiced  liquor  from  the 
Winiiiil  ''oil'.',  socalliil  from  the  .\nglo-Saxon  II' ic.«-/i(/r/ 
(Be  honltliy),  the  toast  used  on  the  occasion.  The  cus- 
tom without  tho  name  still  exists  in  Scotland.  It  was 
lim  customary  on  this  day  to  give  and  receive  gifts, 
orijjiiiiilly  with  'he  superntitious  design  of  accuring  good 
(brtiino  for  the  year,  and  afterwards  for  alTection  and  to 
promote  )»ood  neig'ihourhood.  Even  the  kings  of  Eng- 
UnJ  accepted  presents  from  their  courtiers  on  thia  morn- 


ing. Tho  tat  of  January,  under  tho  name  of  Ia  jour 
lie  ran,  continues  in  F'rancc  to  he  distiiiijuisiied  by  • 
universal  system  of  present-giving,  in  which  tho  royal 
family  partakes.  It  has  heen  cacnlatcd  that  swectmeati 
to  the  value  of  £20,000  are  sold  in  Paris  on  this  day. 

6.  'I'he  FitiphdHij,  n  festival  in  honour  of  the  mani- 
festation of  Ihe  infant  Josus  to  tho  three  wise  men  of  the 
East,  who  came  to  worship  him.  It  hcgan  to  ho  celo- 
hrated  in  813.  This  continues  to  lie  ohserved  as  a  festi- 
val in  the  English  Church,  and  is  marked  hy  the  shutting 
of  many  of  the  puhlic  ofTices.  The  popular  name  for  the 
festival  is  Twelfth  Day,  with  reference  to  its  occurring 
twelve  d.iys  after  Christmas.  Twelfth  Day,  and  more 
particularly  Twelfth  Night,  are  distinguished  hy  joyful 
oh8«!rvances.  It  is  n  tradition  of  the  Koinish  Church, 
that  the  three  wise  men  were  kings,  and  many  sets  of 
names  have  been  furnished  for  them,  Caspar,  .Melchior, 
and  nnlthaziir,  heing  the  sot  best  known :  their  remaina 
were  said  to  have  been  recovereil  in  the  fourth  century 
by  the  empress  Helena,  and  the  skulls  are  still  shown, 
under  circumstances  of  great  pomp  and  ceremony,  in  tho 
great  church  at  Cologne.  Perhaps  it  is  owing  to  thia 
idea  of  the  regal  rank  of  the  wise  men,  that  a  custom 
has  existed  from  early  ages  throiichoul  Europe,  of  chous- 
ing a  person  to  act  as  king  on  Epiphany.  In  England, 
this  custom  has  blossomed  out  n  little.  Both  a  king  ana 
queen  were  chosen.  It  was  done  by  placing  beans  in  • 
large  cuke.  The  cake  was  divi<led  among  the  company 
and  whoever  of  the  male  sex  got  a  be.ni  was  king,  who- 
ever of  the  female  sex  queen.     Latterly,  other  tharact«n 


r>« 


INFORMATION    FOIl   THK   PKOPLB. 


Il«*«  l)«rn  nildpcl.  iinil  thriw  wrrn  «>«|irrm«<il  on  »lip«  of 
(i«|N>r.  Till'  'rwi'lltli  \iuhl  riiko  nmliniH'*  to  Iv  i<«lrn 
hy  iniTry  ooii\|iiiriir«,  niid  thn  i-lmrm'liTii  nf  kinv.  iiuitii, 
Ar,,  In'Jmk  ilriiwii  in  tliiit  UMiinT,  iirr  nuiiportril  uriiiiliit 
'iturh  jih-uliirity  till  nii<tiilKhl.  'I'licni  i»  miMiii  In  iiii|' 
IMwe  thnt  lh(>  riHtii'ii  iil'  i-hoiMJnK  a  kinif  i*  nUo  roniic<'(i'<l 
with  iiriri<Mit  lieiillii'n  riti>*,  ■*  in  Koiiio  n  kini^  of  thi< 
Hilurnitliii  wiia  rliiiMMi  l>y  lienn*.  'I'wiinh  inkr  in  Kiik- 
land  in  it:i<iii'ridly  rovorrd  with  liiirdciinl  wliilit  aiiKor 
mil  n)iiny  lilllc  nrnnMii'tita,  iind  it*  iilinn>liint  ii|i|'iMiriini'i' 
in  thi'  windiiivH  of  liukrrii  iini!  (■nnfi'rtioht'rii  'it  lliix  day 
ni'vcr  fall*  In  iirrcul  tin-  nttrntion  of  «trnnRrrf\  In  Hrol- 
iHiid.  thi'rr  in  not  tlir  loin't  trnro  of  ritlicr  ft  rrligioiiH  or 
|>i)|)id>ir  olniTViinci-  of  Twelfth  Diiy. 

Till  llio  rrinn  of  dcorni"  "1.,  it  wan  rn"tnmnry  nt  court 
on  Twelfth  Ni:{ht  to  hold  a  piililii'  nwu-iiiMy  for  |ilayiii|{ 
the  |(jirni<  of  bauct,  in  whii  h  Ihr  kiiiit  and  royii  family 
look  |Mirt,  lhi<  winninKx  Ix-inif  for  tin'  iM'iii'lit  of  the 
||rooin-|>ortiT,  tin  otlicpr  who  on  thorn-  day*  had  an  cupp- 
rial  charifi'  of  the  '^anii'M  of  rhanco  played  in  Ihc  paluov, 
•I  whii'li  he  Hi'li'd  iiK  ninpin*. 

Tim  il.iy  after  Twelfth  Day  waa  n  popular  ru»tir  fe»- 
jval,  inider  Ihe  looek  name  of  .S^  l>i»hijT'»  or  llmK  Day. 
( Itock  in  the  appt  llilion  of  n  ipmntity  of  lint  pot  ii|ion  u 
distJilT.J  It  Ki'i'int  to  have  Ix'cn  a  aort  of  farewell  to  the 
fMtivitieH  of  ChrtntinaH. 

18.  Sfii/ui'i'r'iniii  Suiiilni/, — [It  in  neeoMnrv  'ipre  to 
inrntion  thai  the  Movnh|p  Feiinu  and  lloly-DayN  of  ''i  ■ 
rhunh  are  nearly  all  regulated  liy  KaHter — that  i«,  a  ' 
long  heforr  or  after  F^axter.  Eauter.  the  K'''' "  fi'^'ival  of 
the  clnireh,  is  itwlf  niovuhle.  Aerorilinit  to  ranonieal 
n<KuliilMn«,  Kaxler-day  ih  ulway*  the  fi'  i  Nimdny  after 
llui  full  moon  nlilch  ha|i|ieni(  upon,  or  next  after,  the 
2lit  day  of  March;  and  if  the  full  moon  happens  upon 
a  Mumlay,  K.i»ti'r  Nuiidny  is  Ihe  Hnnday  after.  The  lirHl 
of  these  niovaMc  feasts  is  Sepluairi-sima  Huiiday,  wluch 
orc'ura  on  Jai  nary  IHlh,  when  Kasler  Sunday  ih  on 
March  "'.id.  In  this  phice,  we  pro|H>se  Mcttim;  down  the 
inovulile  leasts  on  the  enrliesl  .layn  on  whicli  ihey  ever 
occur*  and  Septnau'cmia  Sunday  is  therefore  |)ul  under 
iaiVtary  Hth.  .Ml  the  rest  will  follow  in  order,  tut  in 
111  ■  ca'  'iidar  fnr  a  <  ear  on  which  thev  occur  on  the  ear- 
Iie8t  po.fihle  day.l  ljuadrai;esiina  is  an  ancient  name 
of  Iieiit,  as  meanim;  the  forty  day'w  fast.  The  first 
Hi.iiday  in  ficnt  hence  i^ot  tbi-  name  of  Ijuailraixesiina. 
Early  in  the  tteveiith  century,  Pi)|k>  (irenory  appointed 
three  Hiindiiys  of  preparation  for  fient,  and  assiiiniiin  a 
decimal  reckoninu;  for  convenience,  Ihi-y  were  reH|M'clively 
t'^lied,  reckonini;  h.ickwards,  (4uiiii{ua;;csiina,  Sexai^e- 
aiina,  ami  Sfptua(;esirna. 

SI.  Si.  J^iitt'f  Diiy,  a  loRtival  of  the  church  of  Rome, 
The  annals  of  canniiization  present  no  iniaije  of  uri-iiler 
nweetncsH  smd  purity  than  St.  .\i>nca.  .She  in  descriU'd 
as  a  very  ycMinij  and  sp.)tless  maid,  who  suirercd  martyr- 
.lom  in  the  tenth  per.s<'cution  under  Dioclrsiaii.  in  the 
year  300.  .\  few  days  after  her  death,  her  parents  ({oini{ 
itt  make  the  olteriiiirs  of  ul''  :  n  '  'ler  tnnili,  lieheld  u 
vnion  of  anifels,  aMiidst  whicu  i  .>..■.  ll  ;  i,  ilauuhter,  wilh 
'  (inow-white  Iniiili  hy  her    id.  '         fore  iisiia' 

rep.'eHented  wilh  a  lanih  '  '  In  '  -i'  .ler.  Perhaps 
thin  Uyend  has  heen  parily  Ijuoded  on  the  n'Hcmhlnnce 
of  the  name  .\l;iics  In  .'lamn,  Latin  fnr  ii  liiinh,  P)r  jimjlcs 
ot  sound  ofti'u  led  to  more  iinporlant  iileas  in  tlw  middle 
a^ea.  .\t  U.iine,  on  f^l.  .V^iich's  Day.  diiriin  mass,  and 
while  the  .Vi^iius  is  sayiiia,  Ivvo  lamlm,  as  white  as  snow, 
and  covered  with  I'incry.  are  lirniiuht  in  and  laid  u|K)n 
Uie  altar,  'i'heir  (Icece^  are  aftcrwanls  shorn  ami  con- 
verted into  pall..^,  whii'h  are  hii;hly  valued. 

Throjffhoul  the  ('hrisiinn  world,  and  in  Bni^lnnd  aa 
much  ax  elscwiicre.  it  wa<  customary  for  youiit;  women, 
ini  Sl.  .^I'lies's  I'jve,  to  endeavour  to  divine  who  ahould 
lie  their  hushonds.  Thia  was  called  fatting  St.  .-fifiin'* 
Fii$t.  The  pro()er  ri'e  wa«  to  take  a  row  of.  pins,  and 
pull  thcin  out  one  after  unuther,  aayiii);  a  pater-nooler, 


and  ntlrlilnR  one  pin  In  the  alepYfi.  Then,  foinf  u>  m 
without  foiMl,  their  dreuina  were  p<|iecled  to  iin-HKni  ii. 
iniage  of  Ihe  future  hunlsind.  In  Keatea'a  imem,  ^^^,1^ 
"The  Kve  of  M  Agnei,"  tlio  cuitoni  li  tlius  alhidi-d  to  . 

Tlipy  lolil  hfr  hnw  upon  Hi    A|rM''>'  K»«, 
VniiMir  viriinni  in  vhl  have  via  linn  m  ili'li|iht, 
Anil  Hon  i.itiiriiinK*  from  lli<-ir  jiivi**  rnrtnvf 
I'lmii  the  Ii.iiiiimI  iimlitlr  Ml'  ihi'  MKJit, 
Ir  cfrenttinii'-  ilini  Ihey  <li<t  aritflii ; 
As  «n|*|i)-rti  -n  iti  licil  tlicv  iiiii«i  retirs 

Anil ll  liiipiiH'  llii'ir  liiiiiilii's,  lily-whllo, 

Nor  liKik  lieliiiiil.  nor  «nlr»»y«  Inn  rri|u|r« 

or  heavi'ii  Willi  ii|iw»r>l  n)>»  liir  nil  ilmi  lhi<y  linl^ 

SB. — .Vfj,(iff«imii  Suniliiy  :  einhl  weekn  M,\n'  T,iw\n 
fVniivriiiiM  ii^.SV.  /'km/. — ,\  festival  of  iho  llnmi«h  md 

RiiRlii>h  chiirchea.  and,  in  liondon.  a  holiday  at  thn  hui,. 

lie  ottlces,  exceptinn  the   Kicisi-,  Hlamps,  nnd  ("lutomi 

The  impidace  in  former  time*  thoiiKht  thia  day  proiilwti. 

aa  to  Ihe  weather  of  the  yean— 

If  SI.  I'mil's  liny  he  fair  ami  olrar, 

It  iliiih      iiilt   1  ha|i.  V  )  ear; 

If  Mil"  '  >  Mir   \   nils  ifnlilnw  nl(ii>, 

Tti' M      iiK  #111  iiiiililf  niir  r.alin  f.il  on; 

' nil  '     "I  NUiiw  anil  ram. 

Tl      1.1  <      .11  aiirts  III  Krani. 

Iri  Cicnanv,  when  the  day  proved   foul,  the  .'oinmon 

(wopi e«    •  1  '  an  the  images  of  St.  Paul  and  Ht,  I'rbun 

ill  diaffrare  to   nick  them  in  the  river. 

'0.  7'Ai*  Mitrti,rih)in  iif  Kini  Churlri  I._a.\  holidiy  oi 

'  0  UiiKlish  Church,  in  whoM<  Iwhalf  (Jharlcs  is  hrlj  to 

h^ve  loal  hia  life  ;  oliserved  hy  the  cloNiiiK  of  nil  thn  pul,. 

!  li.;  ortleea,  ex  ept  the  .Stumpa,  Kscise,  and  (,'uilomi,  \ 
motion  in  the  House  of  (Jonimoim  in  I77'.i,  to  rrpnl  ai 
much  ol  the  act  of  13'ii  Cbaiica  II.,  cap.  30,  an  rpliin 
to  the  ordering  of  the  30th  of  .lanuary  to  lie  kept  u  j 

^lay  of  faatiiiK  and  humiliation,  was  lost  hy  IV!.'>  ii^aintt  97, 
The  aheet  in  which  the  head  of  (!harles  was  receifiil 
ujion  the  acatfolil.  |iresentiiiK  larne  hlack  stains  from  hii 
IiIoimI,  together  wilh  his  watch,  are  preservi  d  at  Ashhum- 
ham  Church  in  the  county  of  Sussex,  ha>ini;  been  ijivon 
at  the  time  to  his  friend  Lord  .Ashliurnhain.  Tlip  fm 
of  liiced  satin,  which  ho  wore  on  the  scalliild,  and  whlrli 
he  directed  to  he  sent  to  his  friend  ihe  Lainl  of  (Jgrmj. 
rhael  in  Scntlalid,  pnaseil  thrniiuh  the  haiiils  of  llm 
Kenlli'uian's  ilrKCendanls.  the  Karls  nf  Hyinllonl,  and  ii 
now  the  prn|K>rty  of  Kolwrt  Lu){an,  Esq.,  residing  it 
New  Lanark. 

I  Xilunil  //i«/()ri/_Jaiumry,  in  our  cliiimte,  in  thf 
coldest  month  of  the  year,  on  an  nveraije ;  tiir  in  noun 
years  Kehruary  and  .March   are  Imlh  collier.     'I'he  utori 

I  of  heat  acipiired  in  summer  is  now  completely  ilissipnipd, 

I  and  the  aun  has  not  yet  attained  siifticicnt  power  to  r^ 
place  it.  In  the  central  parts  of  the  Isliind  of  (irral 
Uritain,  the  ijeneral  averiii?e  of  the  thcrinomelet  ihii 
month  ia  37  denrces.  Veifclntion  is  nearly  at  a  stMil 
durim(  January.  Our  ancestors  l^lllugllt  it  noopiwiir; 
that  it  should  he  a  severe  month,  f  the  sake  of  the  reil 
of  the  year.  This  mode  of  juil^im;,  however,  ia  not 
co.ifirmed  !•  nuslern  ex|H'rience  tor  a  iiiild  winter  li 
"I'n  followed  hy  a  warm  auiMiinr.  A  few  (Inwom, u 
ihe  crocua,  merereon,  nnd  polyantliiiH,  are  nnusionallf 
aeen  to  hlossom  in  Ihe  latter  p:irt  of  .l.iiniary;  and  about 
the  same  time  (in  England)  llie  he.iKe-sparrnw,  thruih, 
and  wren,  U'gin  to  pi|Mi. 

I  rCRRL'ARV. 

I  The  cslnhlishinent  of  Felmi  try  i>  the  aecnnd  monlh 
of  the  year  hy  Niiinu  Poinpiln.J  l.ts  ab.^idy  Iscn  inon- 
tinned.     .Vccordim;   to  Ovid   in   i    -.  "  Knsti,"  a  nirioui 

'  record  of  Koman  customs.  nfije.  k  which  were  lhiiui;hl 
to  have  the  efliM-t  of  moral  pur({ali  ni  in  ihc  reiieioui 
ceremonittU  of  that  people  were  called  Kel'riui.  tW 
innnials  of  this  kind  took  place  nl  this  sin  "ii;  hnKt 
the  noino  of  the  month.  The  vatiity  of  Aunurtm  » 
Huid  to  have  heen  Uie  cauiie  of  thia  month  bvuig  so  uiuct 


KEY  TO  THR  CALENDAR. 


Tn 


^irtfncil.  The  irriiti  ri''ii''nt  f>(  JuIIik  ('ii"<iir  ii««fni«  tu 
kjtK  (■iiiit«i'i|il'il<'<l  »'<  .il'i'rn.ilinii  of  iiionth*  of  Itiirty 
0lh  ih'""*  "(  tliiilv-iiiio  iliiya,  Aiii(tiai  wii«  mid  of  lliirly 
jjyi;  but  >vliiMi  Aiii(U'<tii4  Kitvr  it  hi*  nunin,  hn  niiilil 
g,il  »n>liiri'  tliiit  it  kImuIiI  \>e  (>ni<  of  Ih"  •hortnr  <'Ihm, 
^.i(l  thrri-f'Ti'  Kivt'  it  nil  nililltiiiiiiil  ilny,  iit  lln'  rx|M>imi 
I  Pebruiirv.  nlri'iily  imo  of  tliitt  rlmii.  Oiir  Hn%on 
^ciinf  ':>'l<'<l  F''liriiiiry  »/>rnut  k  ilr,  from  llio  ii|iroutiMi{ 
^  the  ciilii  '  '    -''I'  <''<II>mI  kale  in  Hcotknd. 

I.  i^uiMVi' 'C'""" '^  "''/  levcn  weekilwfore  Eii«Uir: 
»(.l(HliU<>l^li'""  Sunday. 

%,  Cait'lliiii  •  I'i'l  or  the  Puriflcatinn  of  :\\t  Virnin,^ 
,  (ftli*»l  "f  '''*  ('hurc-h  iif  R"ini>,  uriil  holiilaiy  in  the 
Pmliih  f'liurch.  It  i.4  KiiicI  t  .  h.ivi  '  ■■'•■n  fouiuli-il  u|mn 
Riiimn  fill'  '"  wliich  ciiinllc^  worr  cam  1  Thr  onrly 
(athf"  of  III''  (^hiiri'h  hi'lil  it  in  rommiMii  irnlion  of  iho 
itiniiUniv  iif  Miiry  in  the  Ti'inplc,  forty  dnyn  <ifter  cliild- 
Milh,  ti»  cntniniinilril  l)y  tin-  luw ;  ami  it  wiih  their  ru»- 
loin  on  lliiit  iliiy  '"  I'l'"'"'  I'limllcn  ;»ih1  diHlrihut'  tllfm 
iinnnn  iho  |n'o|ili',  liy  wlioin  they  wcrn  carried  iii  toleimi 
i,ri)ccii"icm.  Till;  Hiiyiiiu  of  '^inK'oii  ritiipoctinu  ihc  infiint 
Clirirt  in  llio  'ri'inpio,  llmt  hn  ivonid  he  a  li'^lii  to  li(?litcn 
ihc  Oeiilili"*,  I"''>li'dily  aiipidird  an  oxi'imi'  tor  adopluiK 
(he  raililli'-ln  iriiiif  proriMnion  of  tlm  lienlhcn.  whono  v%- 
icrnil  n'li-,ioiii  priuili'crt  Ihc  lonndcr*  ol  tlio  ({oininh 
Chateh  nihil'  ii  pruclici'  of  iiiiilatiiiu;.  in  order  to  tuko 
(Ivantiiitii  Iif  till*  liii'iilH  of  the  jHiiplc.  AppuriMitly,  in 
toii^dUh'iii'o  of  ilii-  reli'linition  of  Miiry'H  purillcnlion  liy 
(inllo'li'iiriiitf,  it  hei'iiinc;  rnntoiniiry  lor  \vi"'vmi  to  rurry 
caiiilleii  with  tliein  when,  nftor  chilil-hirtli,  II  v  w.nilrd  lo 
^rhiiirlinl.  It  WiiM  to  ihiit  eUHloin  thai  William  the 
Ci)nquori)r  rfl'erroil  in  hit  famoiu  reinurk  on  |e»t  of  tho 
im  o(  Fiiince.  'I'lir  latter,  on  hearim?  I  it  Williim 
■Mined  too  fit  mill  unwieldy  to  lake  ttn  'ield,  xaid, 
•  Melhink"  Ihe  kin'4  "f  Kni{land  lies  Ions  'n  ■  lild-bed." 
.Whon  I  am  clinrrheil,"  Hiiiil  William,  •«  there  vill  Im<  ii 
ihjinanil  liirlils  in  Kranee."    And  he  nmde  roikI     is  lioast. 

OamlleaiiH  Day  i"  a  holiday  nt  the  piililie  m  es.  ex- 
(fptin^  ihii  Stimps,  KxcinoM,  and  CuntoinH.  It  nilled 
lOronil  Uay  in  tho  Inns  of  ('onrt,  n  (Jiiudy  Dii\  it  tho 
two  univeixilies,  and  a  (Jollar  Day  at  Hi.  JamesN  lieiiin 
one  of  the  three  are.it  lioJidayH,  dnring  the  tern  -i,  on 
which  :ill  le^'d  nnd  olHi'lal  biuineHg  \»  HUii|H'nded, 

There  is  an  aneient  siiperstitiouM  notion,  univorH  1  in 
Europe,  thai  if  ("aiuilemas  lie  a  Bunshiny  tiny,  the  w  iter 
ii  not  hulf  fmislied,  Tlie  (rermans  say— Tho  tin  rer 
peeps  out  of  his  hole  on  ('andleinan  Day,  and  if  he  I  i<U 
mow  he  walks  aliinad;  if  he  Dees  tho  huh  shining,  he 
drjffx  bark  imain  into  his  hole.  It  is  an  nneient  cnst  ni 
in  Scotlaiul  fir  scholars  on  thii<  day  to  make  prei«<nt!<  i 
Bonoy  to  tlieir  masters,  and  to  enjoy  il  ii«  a  hi)lid«y. 

.1.  St.  Itliiir'H  Dill), — St.  Hhiiso,  who  has  the  honm  ' 
of  a  place  in  the  church  of  EiiKland  oalemLi  .  was 
hifhopof  Hi'haste  in  Armenia,  and  HntFered  mnrU  rdom  i 
316.   He  is  the  patron  saint  of  the  erntV  of  wool.-  imhei 
ami  his  name  was  once  considered  potent  in  ciiniip;  boh 
tliroaln.  At  Ilrailford  there  is  still  a  septennial  processioi, 
of  the  woiil  trade  upon  his  day.     Formerly,  it  was  celo- 
hratcd  extensively  hy  lires   liahted  on   hills,  nnd  this  is 
lull  (lone  ill  Scotland  on  the  previous  evening,  under  the 
name  of  tho  ('iindlemas   lila/.c,  the   resemhiance  of  tho 
name  Blaise  to  lilaze  having  upjiarently  suggested  the 
practice, 

Shrovt  Tiifidaij. — According  to  thn  plan  already  laid 
down,  we  place  tShrove  Tuesilay  ii()on  thin  day  of  the 
month  of  February.  .\s  the  day  before  tlio  commence 
meiit  of  I,ent,  it  has  been  from  an  early  age  celebrated 
throu^ihoul  Christian  Ru.ope  by  feasting  and  merry- 
unking  of  such  an  extravagant  nature,  as  to  appear  de- 
ugiied  tu  impart  a  disgust  with  all  such  indulgenceH, 
in  order  to  make  tho  sulisec|uent  mortifications  loss  felt, 
Il « the  concluding  day  of  the  time  of  Carnival,  which 
m  varioiH  ('  tihulic  cuunlrios  is  gf  greater  ur  less  extent, 

Vol-  I.— 'Jrt 


but  rrlohrati)'*  with  niont  diitinrtinn  at  V»nic«  and 
Roinii.  Carnival  U  obvioualy  a  trrm  from  rarn  and 
vai,  us  meaning  a  farrwrll  to  Aesh,  lhi«  article  of  food 
being  iinUMMl  ilnrltig  Ihe  whole  of  l.enl.  In  theiir  twu 
Italiiin  cities,  nnd  partially  in  innny  others,  thn  Ciirnival 
Is  dIstiiiuMiiihrd  by  «h»w«.  masi|iierndea,  races,  and  a  ¥•• 
rietjr  ol  <ilh*r  wnuwmenia,  Thn  people  may  br  said  lo 
liva  (h»  •tremt  day*  in  public.  The  wealthier  elasoM 
pando  about  in  lh<i>ir  carriages,  from  which  they  prit 
Nah  alhar  wish  vvelmeais.  Whim  and  folly  are  ude> 
ralMi  in  tlMir  iilnioat extini,  so  that  only  there  Ui  nothing 
said  or  dOM  to  tarlesttns  rcclesiustical  dignitaries.  In 
flermwiyi  the  nias(|ueings  and  nniinmingH  of  tho  time 
of  eamfval,  called  there  t'limhiiiKn,  are  said  to  have  given 
I'lrih  tn  llio  drnniiilic  literature  of  the  country. 

The  main  dislniptiou  of  .Shrove  Tuesday,  in  the  early 
limes  of  our  own  b:st«ry,  was  the  eating  of  puncaket 
made   with  eggs  ■<  ■•re.     The  [leople  indulged  in 

uaines  at  football.  .  ^  li  there  wim  generally  much 
license;  also  in  the  tmi  is  spurt  "i  ihrnimnn  nl  mrk§. 

In  the  latter  case,  the  aniin.  'ning  tied  by  a  shn-t  siring 
to  a  |)eg,  men  thri  w  sticks  iii  m  -tticcession,  lill  an  end 
was  put  to  its  I  use  c-i  and  it  ite  at  once,  Cockflitb''* 
were  also  lominun  •  ibis  dn  not  only  amongst  !|i* 
rustics,  but  It  the  publi  ■^•bools,  "  inn-^ers  roiuiem  .-nd* 
ing  to  n'ceine  the  defr  and  •   on  cocks  as  o      rqnk 

ihfiil      iservanccs  of  .shrov* 
-wed;  L.Jl  the  catiiii{  of  p*n» 

l^-S. 

I.ent,  a  holiday  of 
<he   closing  of  all 


site.  The  i^i'stive  and 
Tuesilay  are  *  much 
cakes  or  fritli    ^  still  com. 

4.  .^Ith  It'c'ici^/iiy,  the  li^st  day 
the  (M)urch  ol   Englm»d.  otnscr^sd  b 


Niamps,   Excise,  and 

lir  inches,  consecrated 

,„■  yciir,  were  kept  till 

when  '  icy  were  burnt, 

lists  .1  .d  sprinkled  on 

lie  na  lie  given  to  thfl 

s  pcrfor  lied  with  many 

)ii  this  day,  also,  |iei^ 

.lit  to  open  penance. 

the  saying  of  tha 

liy  which  the  doer* 

i  r«-^i. 

.■.Incs>lay,  Friday, 

died  Ember  Dnya, 

inber  Week,     On 

cud  but  what  was 

under  hot  ashes; 

' '    '  iif  the  year 

yn  after  tha 

.4),  and  SL 


the   public   oflices,  excejdi'i 
(.'ustoins.     The  (tnlms  or  si. 
and   used  on   palm   ><iinda 
the   present  season  of  anoi 
and  their  ashes  hlr»^<il  '  \ 
the  heads  of  the  (leople  ,   hcv.v 
day.     The  sprinkling  of  ashes  • 
ceremonies  and  great  devotion 
sons  convicted  of  notorious  sin  v.. 
In  England  it  .->  still  a  seasn 
"cominination"  m   tho  prayer-  ■ 
of  certain  kinds    .f  wickedness  ai 

8.   Flint  Siiiiil,  .y  III  I.fiit, — Til 
and  Saturday  alWr  this  Bunday  a. 
and  the  week  in  which  they  occn- 
Eiiiber  days,  our  foretathers  ate  ii,. 
baken  in  a  simple  and  primitive  fauhr 
hence  the  name.     The  oilier  Einbei 
lire  the  Wednesdays,  Fridays,  and  N«' 
Feast  of  Pentecost,  Holyrootl   Day  (!~ 
Lucia's  Day  (Dec.  15). 

It.  .SV.  Vnlciiliiif'ii  Diy. — St.  Valentine  was  a  priest 
of  Rnino,  martyred  in  the  third  century,  but  he  seema 
tu  have  had  no  connection  with  the  notions  and  prac- 
tices to  which  his  day  has  since  Utun  given  up.  This,  it  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  say,  is  a  day  thought  to  be  especially 
devoted  to  tho  businesH  of  Cupid  and  Hymen.  Po9» 
•"ibly,  its  being  about  the  season  when  the  birds  choose 
their  tnates  is  the  cause,  .\ntiquaries  have  also  pointed 
out  that  the  Lupercalia,  .'casts  of  ancient  Home  in  ho* 
iiour  of  Pan  and  Juno,  were  held  ut  this  time,  and  that 
iinongst  the  ceremonies  was  a  game  in  which  young 
persons  of  the  opposite  sexes  chose  each  other  jocularly 
I  V  lot. 

St,  Valentine's  Day  is  now  almost  everywhere  a 
ill  cteneratcd  festival,  the  only  observance  of  any  note  con- 
Bi-ling  in  the  sending  anonymous  letters,  by  way  of 
pr  actical  joke,  and  this  confined  very  much  to  the  hum- 
liler  classes.  The  approach  of  the  day  is  heralded  by 
the  ap[iearance  in  the  printsellers'  shop  windows  of 
vast  numbers  of  missives  calculated  for  use  on  this  occa- 
sion, each  generally  consist!  ii;  of  a  single  sheet  of  paper 
oil  the  first  page  of  which  io  seen  &oiuc  ridiculous  coi 


778 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


louml  raricixturp  nf  the  mrilp  or  fomnle  finuro,  with  a 
few  huilrsiiuc  vorsos  b«low.  Moro  ruri-ly,  the  print  is 
?f  a  Beiitimi-ntiil  kimi,  such  an  a  view  of  Hymi-n'n  altar, 
with  a  pair  undprffoiiiR  an  initi^ition  into  wodiliJ  happi- 
nenn  before  it,  wliile  ("iipiil  flutters  altove,  and  hearts 
transfixed  with  hi«  darts  deroratc  the  corners.  These 
•re  paltry  frivolities  compared  with  the  ohservances  of 
St.  Valentine's  day  at  no  remote  period.  Ridiculous 
letters  were  then  unknown ;  and  if  letters  of  any  kind 
were  sent,  they  contained  only  a  courteouH  profesxion  of 
atlachmcr.':  from  some  younn  mini  to  someyonnjj  maiden, 
honied  with  a  few  compliments  to  her  various  perfec- 
tions, and  expressive  of  n  hope  that  his  love  minht  meet 
with  relurii.  But  the  Irne  proper  ceremony  of  St.  Va- 
lentine's Day  was  the  drawint;  of  .1  kind  of  lottery,  fol- 
lowed hy  ceremonies  not  much  unliUe  wliul  is  generally 
called  the  name  of  forfeitw.  Mij^son,  a  learned  traveller 
of  the  early  jmrt  of  the  Inst  centiny,  cives  apparently  a 
correct  account  of  the  principal  ceiemoniul  of  the  day. 
"On  the  eve  of  St.  Valentine's  U.iy,"  he  says,  "the 
younx  folks  in  Enijland  and  Scotland,  I  y  a  very  ancient 
custom,  celoliralo  a  little  festival.  An  eipial  numhcr  of 
Diaids  and  Imchelors  sjet  tocetlier;  each  writes  his  or  her 
true  or  some  li'iirned  name  upon  srparale  I'illets,  which 
they  roll  up,  and  draw  by  way  of  lots,  tlie  nriids  takinj; 
the  men's  hillet.--.  and  the  men  the  niaiils' ;  so  that  each 
of  the  youn^  men  liulits  n[)on  a  nirl  that  he  calls  his 
rn'ci'inr,  and  each  ol  the  L;irls  upon  ayonnj;  man  whom 
she  calls  hers.  Uy  this  means  e.ich  lias  two  valentines; 
but  the  m;in  slicks  taster  to  the  valentine  that  is  fallen  to 
him  than  to  the  valentine  to  whom  he  is  fallen.  Fortune 
havinii  thus  liivided  the  company  into  so  many  couples, 
tlic  vaKnlines  i;ive  halls  and  treats  Uj  their  mistresses, 
wear  their  hillets  several  days  upon  their  liosoms  or 
sleeves,  and  this  littK;  sport  otien  ends  In  love." 

In  the  various  jestii.if  ceremonies  of  the  day,  there  al- 
ways seems  to  have  been  a  (lis|Kisitioii  to  believe  that  the 
person  drawn  as  a  valentine  had  some  considerable  like- 
lihood of  bi'i'oininn  the  associate  of  the  party  in  wedlock. 
At  least,  we  may  suppose  that  this  idea  would  be  fsladly 
and  easily  arrived  at,  when'  the  party  so  drawn  was  at 
ail  eligible  from  other  considerations.  'I'he  eommoii 
people  seem  to  have  imagined  that  an  inlluence  was  in- 
herent in  the  day,  which  rendered  in  some  degree  bind- 
ing the  lot  or  chance  by  which  any  youth  or  maid  was  now 
led  to  fix  att«'rition  on  a  person  of  llie  opposite  s<'X.  It 
was  supp  ised,  for  instance,  that  the  first  uinnarried  |)erson 
of  the  other  sex  whom  oin-  met  on  St.  Valentine's  morn- 
ing in  walking  abroad,  was  a  destined  wife  or  husband. 

15.  Siidiid  Sunitiiy  in  Lent. 

23.  'J'liiril  Suiiihiy  in  lent. 

24.  SI.  Mdlihidf  thf  .1;i(,^ilf.—\  festival  of  the  Church 
of  England.  St.  Matthias  was  chosen  by  lot  atler  the 
Crucifixion,  in  place  of  the  traitor  Judas  (Acts  i.  23). 

Ndlnr'il  llisivrij. — The  popular  voice  allots  a  course 
of  snow,  rain,  and  their  hybrid  sleet,  to  this  month,  anil 
considers  it  necessary  (hat  such  should  be  its  features,  in 
order  that  all  the  powers  of  hiMni<lity  may  be  exhausted 
before  the  commencement  of  .March,  when  an  op|)osite 
kmd  of  vseatlier  is  lookc'd  lor.  It  is  indeed  true  that 
frost  followed  by  regular  thaw,  and  that  succeeiled  by  the 
sliarp  winds  of  March,  bring  the  ground  into  the  most 
favourable  state  \\>t  ploughing. 

The  general  average  of  tlie  thermometer  is  :)9  degrees; 
tlint  of  dil'.Ireiit  years  varies  fri.m  -W  to  I'.!.  The  snow- 
drop and  eroeiiN  are  tlie  (  hief  ornaments  of  our  flower- 
Uirders  at  this  season.  The  primro.se  will  also  flower, 
■nd  the  hepatica  riirne  forth  in  some  strength.  In  Eng- 
land, tlie  raven  and  rook  build  their  nests;  the  house- 
pigi  on  has  young;  the  ringdove  cooes,  the  goliilinch 
tings,  and  tbrnshes  pair.  In  S<'otlaiid,  the  notes  of  the 
titrusli  and  blackbird  give  token  of  the  approach  of 
■i>nng. 


MARCH. 

March,  which  with  the  ancients  ranked  the  first  m.intk 
of  the  year,  was  named  in  honour  of  Mars,  the  aupnosed 
father  of  the  founder  of  Rome.  Our  .'\nglo-Saxon  an. 
cestors  called  it  Lend  Motiath,  that  is,  Lent  or  Si.rino 
Month.  '    ■* 

1.  Mid  lent  Sundiiy. — A  holiday  of  the  Thurcb  of 
Ehgland.  It  was  considered  as  incumbent  upon  ull  trin 
Christians  on  this  day  to  pay  a  visit,  if  possiMo,  to  {hm 
mother  church,  or  church  of  their  native  parish,  and 
there  make  some  small  olTering.  Tlu'  opisijn  for  \U 
day  accordingly  contains  an  ap|iropriate  allusion,  flicro. 
Sdlymii  milir  mniiiuui,  Jeru.salem  the  mother  nfnlWfinl 
iv.  21).  .And  it  was  customary  on  the  saniu  day  fop 
people  to  visit  their  parents,  carrying  with  lliom  sonm 
gift,  and  receiving  file  parental  blessing  in  retura  to'p. 
ther  with  a  mess  of  furmety — that  is,  a  porridge  com. 
posed  of  whole  grains  of  wheat,  boiled  in  milk,  anJ 
sweetened  and  spiced.  This  practice  wascalloil  "  coinir 
a  mothering,"  and  the  day  was  sometimes  called  Mother, 
iiii;  Snnihiy,  The  festival  is  supposed,  with  all  its  ob- 
servances, to  have  taken  its  rise  in  the  biMtlien  fcsliv^l 
of  the  llilarii,  celebrated  by  the  ancient  Koie.anj  in 
honour  of  the  mother  of  the  gods,  on  the  idea  of 
March. 

.S7.  Ddviil's  Diiy — The  interest  attached  to  this  saint 
and  his  day  is  eonrtued  to  the  Welsh,  whose  patron  saint 
St.  David  is  considered.  The  most  nitional  accounts  of 
St.  David  represent  him  as  Anhbisliup  of  .Mcicvv 
(since,  from  him,  called  St.  David's)  in  tl;e  sixth  -iii. 
>iiry.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  illegitini.ile  son  of  a 
prince  of  Cardigan,  and  uncle  of  the  tanmuii,  but  more 
than  half  fabulous,  King  .Arthur.  Learning,  ami  nwro 
particularly  asceticism,  the  great  sources  of  promotion 
in  those  (lays,  raised  hitn  to  high  esteem  and  ecclcsiastj. 
eal  rank,  and  gave  him  the  reputation  of  a  power  to  m. 
form  miracles.  .\t  a  synod  called  at  lirevy  in  Cardigan, 
in  Sli>,  in  couse(|uence  of  the  Pelagian  Heresy,  he  maiie 
an  elnipient  and  convincing  ilis|)lay  against  the  errone- 
ous doctrines,  which  were  therefore  ooiidciniicj.  He 
died  in  .'ilt,  at  an  advanced  age,  and  was  liiiricd  in  liij 
church  of  .St.  Andrew,  but  in  9li2  his  renminii  were 
tran^lirred  to  (ilastonbury  .Abbey. 

While  the  Welsh  venerate  the  memory  of  St.  DaviJ, 
tliey  are  iniaci|nainted  with  our  idea  of  him  as  tlioir 
jiatron  saint,  a  notion  which  has  sprung  np  in  conso 
<]uence  of  the  popular  fiction  of  the  Seven  ('h;ini[iionj 
of  (Miristendom.  They  observe  the  1st  of  March  as 
the  anniversary  of  his  death.  Cn  this  day,  all  true 
Welshiiien,  \"  hether  in  their  own  country  or  I'.ir  rcmonj 
from  it,  make  it  a  point  of  conscience  to  wear  a  Icok  in 
their  hats,  and  this  custom  is  alluded  to  in  writinesof 
considerable  antiipiity.  How  the  leek  has  U'cmiie  oon- 
nected  with  St.  David  and  the  afleciions  of  Welslimon, 
is  not  ascertained.  The  most  prot>able  story  in,  thai  al 
a  great  battle  between  the  Welsh  and  Siix,ins  in  \h 
sixth  century,  the  former,  by  advii  e  of  St.  David,  ailonwi 
their  hats  with  leeks,  for  the  sake  of  distinction  fiom 
their  enemies,  taking  the  herb  from  a  iiciiihho'iriii^ 
field,  where  they  grew  in  abundance.  The  victory  piinrJ 
by  the  Welsh  being  partly  attriliuted  to  this  cause,  Ito 
Icik  was  ever  alh'r  held  in  veneratiun,  and  Hssorisuii 
with  the  imme  of  St.  Daviil.  "  The  most  hoiiourallc 
and  loyal  society  of  Ancient  Uriton;)."  insliiiited  in  I.o 
don  1714,  and  who  support  a  silnxd  in  the  niclropniu 
for  the  support  and  education  of  poor  Welsh  children, 
have  an  annual  procession  on  St.  David's  D  ly,  on  uliich 
occasion  each  member  wears  a  n  pr,.-eii,ation  ot  lie 
leek  in  his  hat,  the  marshals  m  front  I'liiig  deciiratnl  u 
like  manner.  In  the  Inuisehold  expeiis.s  of  the  PrinCwl 
Mary,  in   1544,  is  u  yift  uf  fitkcii  shiUiiixs  among  Itu 


KEY  TO  THE  CALENDAR. 


779 


momen  of  the  Mng's  guard  for  bringing  a  leek  to  her 
paco  on  St.  David's  Day. 

8.  'I'lie  Fiftli  Sumliiy  in  Lent. — It  was  popularly  dis- 
(inguislicd  as  Cure  or  Carling  Swiilay,  terms  which  ap- 
pear to  li>'  o'  a  very  dubious  import.  The  peasantry 
and  yeomanry  used  to  steep  peas  and  aftcnvards  parch 
them,  and  thou,  Crying  them  with  liutter,  made  a  feast 
of  tlieni  on  the  afternoon  of  this  day.  It  is  thought  not 
•jnlikclv  that  tlie  custom  bore  some  reference  to  the 
lumTsiili""'*  nolionn  which  the  ancients  entertained  re- 
lucctinn  l>oana,  as  containing  IliP  souls  of  the  departed. 
The  pi'iis,  as  eaten  in  llie  nortli  of  England,  were  called 
f(i)/i",i:'.  We  may  presume  that  the  rlay  took  its  name 
from  thi-!  word,  cmiins,  being  in  time  softened  into  Care. 
It  figures  in  an  old  rhyme  which  enumerates  the  Sun- 
days of  Lent  by  popular  appellations — 

"Tid.  Mill,  and  Misnrn. 
Curling,  I'alin,  and  good  Pace-day." 

The  three  first  words  are  supposed  to  have  been  derived 
from  llic  lietjinnings  of  certain  psalms — thus,  Te  c/eum, 

Mi  rfciis,  Mtseru-n-.  mei, 

15.  /'■.'/'/(  Siiiiilaij,  called  in  the  English  Prayer-book 
the  Sunday  next  hetbrc  Easter;  also  .*)m('tinies  called 
Passion  Sujiday,  us  iu'ing  the  commencement  of  Passion 
Week,  or  llu"  week  celebrative  of  the  sufiorings  or  pas- 
lion  of  our  Ijord.  It  is  a  festival  of  great  antiquity  and 
a  partly  joyous  character,  as  more  particularly  commemo- 
raling  llie  brilliant  though  short-lived  popularity  of  the 
rccciition  whicii  (^hrist  met  with  on  entering  Jerusalem, 
immtdiatoly  het'oro  bis  passion.  On  this  day,  in  Ca- 
tholic countries,  tlic  priests  bless  branches  of  palm,  or 
or  some  other  tree,  which  are  then  carried  in  procession, 
in  meniiiry  of  tlio.se  strewed  liefore  Christ  at  his  entrance 
into  the  holy  city.  The  procession  is  as  splendid  as  cir- 
cumstances will  admit  of:  and  after  it  is  done,  the  bouijlis 
DBcd  lire  liurnl,  and  their  ashes  preserved,  that  they  may 
be  laid  on  the  heads  of  the  people  next  Ash  Wednesday, 
with  the  jjriest's  blessing. 

After  the  Reformation,  l.'j.ie,  Henry  A'^III.  declared 
the  carrying  of  palms  on  this  day  to  be  one  of  those 
ocremonita  not  to  be  contemned  or  dropped.  The  ens- 
torn  was  kept  up  by  the  clergy  till  the  reign  of  Edward 
VI.,  wluMi  it  was  left  to  the  voluntary  observance  of  the 
]Koplc.  Fuller,  who  wrote  in  the  ensuing  age,  speaks 
of  it  reaped  111  lly,  as  "in  memory  of  the  receiving  of 
Christ  into  llierusalcm  a  little  before  his  death,  and  tbat 
we  may  hive  the  same  desire  to  receive  him  into  our 
hearts."  It  has  ontiiiued  down  to  a  recent  period,  if 
not  to  tlu^  present  day,  to  be  customary  in  many  parts 
of  England  to  go  a  jnitining  on  the  Saturday  before  Palm 
iJmiilay ;  iJiat  is,  young  persons  go  to  the  woods  for  slips 
of  willow,  wliieli  seems  to  bo  the  tree  cliietly  employed 
in  England  as  a  sulnlitute  for  the  palm,  on  which  ac- 
count it  ol'ten  receives  the  latter  name.  They  return 
with  slips  in  their  hats  or  button-holes,  or  a  sprig  in 
their  inniiths,  liearitig  the  branches  in  their  hands.  Not 
a.«ny  years  ago,  one  stall-woman  in  Covmt-Garden 
market  supplied  the  article  to  a  few  customers,  many  of 
whom,  perhaps,  scarcely  knew  what  it  meant.  Slips  of 
the  willow,  with  its  velvety  buds,  are  still  stuck  up  in 
fiiinc  rural  pirish  churches  in  England. 

17.  N'.  I'nin.k'x  l)ii\j,  a  high  festival  of  the  RoiiiiSh 
Church.  The  interest  attached  to  this  saint  and  bis  day 
is,  hcivcvcr,  ebicfly  (i)ii('iiieil  to  the  Irish,  whose  patron 
saint  he  is  eoiisidered  ,  though  that  term,  as  in  the  cise 
cf  St.  Uaiid,  is  of  modern  and  English  origin.  The 
Irish  venerate  S|.  Patrick  as  the  person  who  introduced 
Christiuiiily  into  their  country.  He  is  said  to  have  liecn 
born  ut  Kilpatriik,  in'ar  Dunbarton  in  Scotland,  and  to 
have  lirst  \isili'd  Ireland  as  a  boy  and  a  prisoner.  After- 
wards trav'lliiii;  iiit.i  (iaul  and  [t.ily,  and  growing  up  as 
•  learned  priest,  he  was  eommissioiied  by  Pope  Celestino 


to  convert  the  Irish,  a  task  which  he  immediately  coii»i 
menced,  and  carried  into  effect  with  unexampled  ardoul 
and  perseverance.  Ho  travelled  throughout  the  whoto 
of  Ireland,  preaching  everywhere  to  the  barbarous  peo 
pie,  whom  he  baptized  in  multitudeg.  He  also  ordained 
clergy  to  presido  over  them,  gave  alms  to  the  poor, 
made  presents  to  the  kings,  founded  monasteries,  and,  in 
short,  established  the  Christian  religion  and  a  full  appa- 
ratus for  its  support  in  Ireland.  Monkish  annals  and 
popular  tradition  attribute  to  him  an  immense  number  of 
miracles,  most  of  which  have  probably  no  basis  in 
fact.  He  died  in  432,  at  Down  in  Ulster,  and  was  there 
buried. 

As  the  Welsh  are  solicitous  to  display  the  leek  on  St, 
David's  Day,  so  are  the  Irish  to  show  the  shaminck  on 
that  of  St.  Patrick.  The  shamrock  is  a  bunch  of  trefoil, 
a  species  of  grass.  It  is  associated  with  St.  Patrick  and 
his  day  in  consequence,  as  popular  story  goes,  of  the 
saint  having  made  a  very  adroit  use  of  the  plant  in  hii 
first  preaching  immediately  after  landing.  The  people 
l)eing  staggered  by  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  and  dis- 
posed to  show  some  violence  to  him,  he  took  up  a  tre- 
foil growing  by  his  side,  and  illustrated  fho  point  by 
showing  its  three  blades  growing  on  ont  ii'k;  where- 
upon they  were  immediatidy  convinced,  i,  '  *  ;eame  con- 
verts. In  Dublin,  St.  Patrick's  Day  is,  or  was  lately,  a 
scene  of  festivity  and  mirth  unparalleled.  "  From  the 
highest  to  the  lowest,  all  seem  inspired  by  the  saint'i 
beneficence.  At  day-break,  flags  fly  from  the  steeples, 
and  the  bells  ring  out  incessant  peals  till  miilnight.  The 
rich  bestow  their  benevolence  on  the  poor,  and  the  poor 
bestow  their  blessings  on  the  rich,  on  each  other,  and  on 
the  hiesseil  St.  Patrick.  The  '  green  immortal '  sti!  ai- 
rock  is  in  every  hat.  Sports  of  manly  exercise,  exhibit 
the  capabilities  of  the  celebrated  shilelah.  Priestly  care 
soothes  querulousness ;  laughter  drowns  casualty  ;  lassee 
dance  with  lads ;  old  women  run  about  to  share  cups  of 
consolation  with  each  other ;  and  by  the  union  of  wit, 
humour,  and  frolic,  this  miraculous  day  is  prolonged  till 
after  the  d.awn  of  next  morning."* 

19.  Maundy  Thursiiny,  called  also  Shore  Thursday, 
the  day  before  Good  Friday.  Its  name  of  Shere  Thurs- 
day appears  to  have  arisen  from  the  practice  which  the 
priests  had  of  shearing  their  hair  on  this  day,  to  make 
thi'inselves  as  trim  as  possible  for  Easter.  The  other 
name  is  more  doubtful,  but  seems  most  probably  to  have 
been  derived  from  miunvK  an  old  English  word  for  a 
basket,  in  consequence  of  the  distribution  of  gifts  on  this 
day  in  baskets — the  word  iiiainifhj  used  by  old  authors 
for  alms  or  gifts  being  apparently  derived  in  its  turn 
from  llie  practice  of  this  day.  The  religious  customs  of 
the  day  consisted  in  works  of  hui;iilily  and  in  conferring 
gifts  on  the  poor.  The  oliject  .seems  to  have  been  to 
comineniorate,  or  imitate,  the  humility  of  Christ  in 
washing  the  feet  of  his  disciples — the  itiviiio;  of  maundies 
being  an  additional  good  work.  Carilioil  Wolsey,  at 
Peterborou;,'h  Abbey,  in  lolJO,  "made  liis  maund  in  out 
lady's  chapel,  hiiviiiff  fifty-nine  poor  mm  ivhose  feet  he 
waiflieil  and  kissed ;  and  after  he  had  wiped  them,  he 
gave  every  of  the  said  ]ioor  men  twelve  pence  in  money, 
three  ells  of  good  canvas  to  make  them  shirts,  u  pair  of 
new  shoes,^a  cast  of  red  herriiu^s,  and  three  white  her- 
rings ;  and  one  of  these  had  two  shillings" — the  num- 
ber of  the  poor  men  being  probably  in  correspondenco 
with  the  years  of  his  aye.  Even  royally  condescended 
to  tliis  practice.  The  king  cif  Midland  was  accustomed 
on  Maundy  'i'hursday  to  have  brougbl  before  him  as 
niaiiy  poor  men  as  he  was  years  olil.  whose  feet  he 
washed  with  his  own  bands,  after  whicli  his  majesty '« 
niaumls,  consisting  of  meat,  clothes,  and  nioiify,  were 
distributed  among  them.     Queen  Elizabeth,  witn  in  hei 


U-' 


'  Hone's  r.very-ilay  Hook. 


7S0 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Jhirty-ninth  year,  pprformcd  this  ceremony  at  her  palace 
af  Grrenwicli,  on  which  occasion  slie  was  attended  by 
thirly-ninn  lailicn  and  Rcntlowomen.     Thirty-nino  poor 
persons  lioinii  nssnnlilcd,  their  fcot  were  first  washed  by 
the  yeomen  of  the  laundry  with  warm  water  and  sweet 
herbs,  afterwards  by  the  sub-almoner,  and  finally  by  tho 
qneen  ht-rsclf,  kneeling;  these  various  persons,  tho  yeo- 
men, the  sub-almoner,  and  the  queen,  after  washing  each 
foot,  marked  it  with  tho  sif^  of  the  cross  above  the  toes, 
and  then  kissed  it.     Cloths,  victuals,  and  money,  were 
then  distributed.     This  strange  ceremonial,  in  which  tho 
highest  was  for  a  moment  brought  beneath  the  lowest, 
was  last  performed  in  its  full  extent  by  James  IF.     King 
William  left  the  washing  to  his  almoner ;  ond  such  was 
the  arrangenicnt  for  many  years  afterwards.     "  Thurs- 
day, April  15,  [17.31],  iH'ing  Maundy  Thursday,  there 
was  distributed  iSt-  the  Banqueting  House,  Whitehall,  to 
forty-eight  poor  nien  and  forty-eight  poor  women  (the 
king  [George  II.]'s  age  being  forty-eight),  boiled   lieef  , 
and  shoulders  of  mutton,  and  small  bowls  of  ale,  which 
is  called  dinner  ;  after  that  lorge  wooden  platters  of  fish 
and  loaves,  viz.  undressed,  one  large  old   ling,  and  one 
large   dried  cod ;  twelve   red   herrings  and  twelve  white 
herrings,  and  four  half-quarter  loaves.     Each  person  had 
one  platter  of  this  provision  ;  after  whioh  were  distri- 
buted to  them  shoes,  stockings,  linen  and  woollen  cloth, 
and   leathern  baijs,  with  one  )>enny,  two|)enny,  three-  : 
penny,  and   fourpeuny  pieces  of  silver  and  shillings — to 
each  about  four   pounds  in  value.     His  Grace  the  Lord 
Archbishop  of  York,  Lord  Hinh  Almoner,  jwrformed  the  i 
annual  ceremony  of  washing  the  feet  of  a  certain  number 
of  poor  in  the  Royal  (chapel,  Whitehall,  which  was  for- 
merly  done  by    the   kini;s  themselves,    in   imitation  of 
our  Saviour's  pattern  of  humility."     For  a  ennsiilerable 
niimt)er  of  years,  the  washing  of  the   feet  has  been  en- 
tirely given  up  ;  and  since  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of 
Queen  Victoria,  an   mldilional  sum  of  money  has  been 
given  in  lieu  of  provisions. 

30.  Goml  /•'i/rA/i/. — This  day,  as  the  presumed  anni- 
versary of  the  ("riicillxion,  has  for  aces  been  solemnly 
observed  throuirhont  ('hristi;)ii  Euro|H',  the  only  excep- 
tions being  in  Presl»yterian  countries,  such  as  ScDtland, 
In  Catholic  times,  the  otiscrvanccs  of  the  day  in  England 
were  of  the  same  ciiaracter  with  those  which  arc  still 
maintained  in  many  jjurts  of  the  continent.  It  is  still  a 
solemn  festival  of  the  ('hurch  of  England,  and  tlie  only 
one  besides  'Christmas  which  is  honoureil  by  a  general 
8us|)ension  of  busineis.  Strict  church-of-Engliuid  peopli- 
afistain  from  all  kind  of  animal  food,  even  from  cream 
to  tea;  such,  we  are  infoimed  by  Uoswell,  was  the 
custom  of  L)r.  .lolinson.  The  churches  are  well  at- 
tended, and  it  is  considered  proper  to  appear  there  in 
black  clothes. 

.\mong  the  usages  of  this  day  was  a  strange  cere- 
mony of  creeping  to  the  cross,  which  even  the  king  was 
not  exempt  from  performing.  The  king  also  distrilmted 
rings  at  Westminster  Abbey  fur  the  cure  of  the  cramp. 
Tho  WTcmonious  burying  of  a  crucifix,  as  representing 
the  burial  of  ("lirisi,  is  calculated  to  give  less  snr|»isc. 
It  is  still  in  snrne  measure  kept  up  in  the  service  of  the 
'Iriifhrtr,  perliirMied  in  .St.  Peter's  at  Rome.  It  was  also 
customary  at  great  diurches  to  have  a  small  laiilding  in 
the  form  of  a  tomb,  in  which  the  host  was  this  day  de- 
posited, by  way  o(  repres4'nling  the  buriul  of  Christ.  In 
England,  and  perli^ips  also  in  other  countries,  eu'Bs  and 
bacon  were  ihi'  kinds  of  food  appropriate  to  (ioud  Fri- 
day. 'I'hc  eirus  lalil  on  this  day  were  tliouuht  to  have 
the  power  of  extinuni-bing  any  fire  into  which  they 
might  l>e  thrown.  In  modern  times,  the  only  species  of 
viands  coniieili'il  with  the  day  is  the  well-known  hot 
CToss  bun.  a  small  spiceil  cake,  marked  with  the  figure 
of  a  cro>s,  and  sold  not  only  in  baker's  shops,  but  by 
ficrs'jns  Ira.ersing  the  siri'et*  with  baskets. 

Ill  Loudon,  us  well  as  in  alinoat  cvviy  other  consider- 


able  town  in  England,  tho  first  sound  hpprd  on  the  morn, 
ing  of  Good  Friday  is  the  cry  of  "  Hot  Cross  Bum  •" 
uttered  by  groat  numliers  of  people  of  an  humble  ord(«r 
who  parade  tho  streets  with  baskets  containing  a  nicn! 
tiful  stock  of  tho  article,  wrapped  up  in  flannel  and  [jn^- 
to  keep  it  warm.  The  ciy,  which  is  rather  musical,  ii 
strictly —  ' 

Hot  (loss  l)Uiis — 

Oiii!  k  penny,  bans— two  a  penny,  liims 

One  a  puimy,  two  a  penny — hot  croHs  bum. 

Hucksters  of  all  kinds,  and  many  persons  who  attempt 
no  tratfic  at  any  other  time,  enter  into  the  business  of 
supplying  buns  on  Good  Friday  niornii.g.  'i'hoy  mako 
a  stir  on  tjio  streets,  which  lasts  till  church  time,  ami  it 
is  resumed  in  the  afternoon.  Alwut  a  century  ago,  thcra 
was  a  baker's  shop  at  Chelsea,  so  famous  for  its  manu- 
facture of  excellent  buns  that  crowds  of  wailing  cus. 
tomers  clustered  under  its  porch  during  a  great  part  of 
the  day.  The  buns  were  brought  up  from  the  oven  on 
small  black  tin  trays,  and  so  given  out  to  the  people. 
The  king  himself  had  stop|)cd  ut  the  door  to  purchase 
hot  cross  buns,  and  hence  the  shop  took  the  name  of  the 
Royal  Bun-House.  As  always  hap[)ent  in  London 
when  any  thing  original  and  successful  is  struck  out,  thg 
royal  bun-house  soon  obtained  a  rival,  and  was  obligod 
to  advertise  as  the  Old  Original  Royal  Bun-house.  Tli» 
wars  of  these  two  houses,  like  those  of  York  and  Lan- 
caster, have  long  since  been  hushed  to  rest,  and  we  find 
it  stated  in  a  recent  work*  that  neither  of  them  is  now 
distinguished  for  this  article  above  the  other  bakers'  ahopi 
of  Chelsea. 

In  fdd  times.  Good  Friday  was  distinguished  in  Lirw 
don  by  a  sermon  preached  at  /'dii/'x  ('rnss  (n  wooden 
pulpit  placed  on  stone  steps,  and  surmounted  by  a  cross 
which  stood  till  the  time  of  the  civil  war,  in  the  open 
air,  near  the  north-cast  corner  of  St.  Paul's  ("athedral). 
The  si-rmon  was  generally  on  the  subject  of  ("hrist'i 
passion.  Connected  with  it,  two  or  three  ollicrs  were 
preached  on  Monday.  Tuesday,  and  Wedncsilav,  in 
Easter  week,  at  the  Spital  in  Spitalfields,  where  the  Lord 
Mayor  and  all  the  most  eminent  jicrsons  in  Lomlon  go. 
nerally  attended.  The  "  Spital  sermons"  are  still  kept 
up,  tiut  take  place  in  St.  Bride's  Church. 

'i\.  Easter  I've. — In  Catholic  times,  it  was  customary 
to  put  out  all  fires  on  this  day,  anil  light  tliem  onew  from 
tlint.  The  priest  lilesscd  the  new  fire,  and  a  brand  from 
it  was  thought  to  Ik-  an  eflietual  protection  auiiiiisl  ihuu- 
der-strokrs.  A  large  wax  taper,  called  tlu^  Pasi  lial  Taper, 
was  also  blessed  and  lighted  beside  the  re[iresciitalire 
sepulchre  above-mentioned,  and  there  a  vii»il  was  kept 
till  morning.  The  Uiper  used  on  one  of  these  occa- 
sions in  Westminster  Abla'y  church  was  3(10  pounds  in 
weight. 

'i'i.  Faster  Day,  a  solemn  festival  in  celebration  of 
the  Resurrection.  The  word  used  by  us  is  from  the 
fSaxon  ostrr  (rising).  Eastt-r  is  (ibs«Mvid  willi  much 
ceremonial,  not  only  throughout  Catholic  Europe,  and  in 
the  countries  where  the  (ireek  Church  is  estublLsheJ, 
but  in  Turkey  and  the  Mohammedan  countries  ahftgthe 
coast  of  Africa.  The  festival  is  an  engraflMient  iipdn 
the  Jewish  Passover,  the  name  of  which  (;)'/«/ki)  is  still 
applied  to  it  in  almost  every  I'lmiitry  besides  I'lighnA 
'I'lie  Catholic  oliseivanees  of  Easter  are  of  an  clabor.it* 
character.  .\t  Home,  the  P()|>e  is  carried  in  stale  toper- 
form  high  nuiss  in  .^1.  Peter's,  from  the  balcony  of  whuh 
he  afterwards  blesses  the  pi'ople  assembled  in  the  piazza 
below — fK'rbaps  one  of  the  most  im|)Osing  reliiiimis  s|hv- 
tildes  which  the  world  anywhere  presiiils.  In  Knulaiil, 
before  the  Rel«)rf  nation,  I  lie  Catholic  observances  .if 
Easter  were  as  fully  enacted  as  in  any  other  counlrv, 
Early  in  the  morning,  a  sort  of  theatrical  n'liroscntatioil 
of  tlie  Resurrection  was  jicrformcd  in  the  churchef,  1.  • 


•  Hone's  Every  day  Book,  i.  404. 


KEY  TO  THE  CALENDAR. 


TBI 


priests  coniins;  to  the  littlo  sepulchre  where,  on  Good 
Friday,  thoy  had  deposited  the  host,  which  they  now 
brought  forth  witli  great  rejoicings,  as  emblematical  of 
the  rising  of  the  Saviour.  In  the  course  of  the  day, 
the  clergy  had  a  game  at  ball  in  the  church,  a  custom 
of  which  it  is  now  difficult  to  believe  that  it  ever  could 
have  cxistpil. 

At  present,  in  large  seats  of  population,  Easter  Sun- 
hy  is  ilistinguishcd  by  little  besides  the  few  peculiarities 
of  the  service,  and  the  custom  of  going  to  church  in  at- 
tire as  gay  a*"  possible.  But  in  rural  districts  there  still 
exist  a  few  vestiges  of  old  superstitions  and  customs  con- 
nected with  the  day.  It  was  once  a  general  belief,  and 
iiiobiibly  still  is  so  in  a  few  out-of-the-way  places,  thnt 
on  Easter  morning  the  sun  danced  or  played  immedi- 
jtclv  after  his  rising.  People  rose  early  and  went  into 
the  fields  to  sec  this  supposed  phenomenon. 

The  viands  appropriate  to  Easter  Day  in  the  old  times 
were,  first  and  above  all,  eggs,  then  bacon,  tanscy  pud- 
ding, and  bread  and  cheese.  The  origin  of  the  connec- 
tion of  eggs  with  Easter  is  lost  in  the  mists  of  remote 
antiquity.  They  are  as  rife  nt  this  day  in  Russia  as  in 
England.  There  it  is  customary  to  go  about  with  a 
quantity,  nml  to  give  one  to  each  friend  one  meets,  say- 
ing, "Jesus  Christ  is  risen,"  to  which  the  other  replies, 
» Yes,  he  is  risfn,"  or,  "  It  is  so  of  a  truth."  The  Pope 
formerly  blessed  eggs  to  l)c  distributed  throughout  the 
Ciiristiar.  world  for  use  on  Easter  day.  In  Germany, 
instead  of  the  egg  itself,  the  people  oflTer  a  print  of  it, 
with  some  lines  inscribed.  Formerly,  the  king  of  Eng- 
land liad  hundreds  prepared  to  give  to  his  household  :  in 
a  roll  of  tlie  expenses  of  Edward  I.,  there  occurs,  in  the 
accounts  of  Easter  Sunday,  in  the  eighteenth  year  of 
his  reign,  "  Four  hundred  and  a  half  of  eggs,  eighteen- 
pcncc."  The  custom  is  supposed  to  have  been  originally 
Jewish. 

At  this  day,  the  Easter  eggs  used  in  England  are 
boiled  hard  in  water  containing  a  dye,  so  that  they  come 
out  coloured.  The  boys  take  these  eggs  and  make  a 
kind  of  game,  either  by  throwing  thcin  to  a  distance 
on  the  green  sward — he  who  throws  oflencst  without 
breaking  his  eggs  being  the  victor — or  hitting  them 
asainst  each  other  in  their  respective  hands,  in  which 
case  the  owner  of  the  hardiest  or  last  surviving  egg  gains 
the  day. 

It  was  customary  to  have  a  gammon  of  bacon  on  this 
diy,  and  to  eat  it  all  up,  in  signification  of  abhorrence 
of  .lui'.iiism.  'i"he  tansey  seems  to  have  been  introduced 
iiito  Easter  feasts,  as  a  successor  to  the  bitter  herbs  used 
by  the  Jews  iit  the  Passover.  It  was  usually  presented 
well  sugared. 

It  was  a  custom  in  the  thirteenth  century  to  seize  all 
acclcsiasties  found  walking  abroad  between  Easter  and 
Pentecost,  and  make  them  purchase  their  lilierty  with 
money.  This  was  an  acting  of  the  seizure  of  the  apos- 
tles after  Christ's  passion.  We  have  still  what  appears 
to  be  a  relic  of  this  fashion  in  a  custom  which  exists  in 
rarious  parts  of  England.  A  band  of  young  men  go 
aliroiid,  and  whatever  female  they  meet  they  take  hold 
ii  her,  and  p\ill  olT  her  shoes,  which  arc  only  returned 
to  her  upon  her  paying  some  trilling  forfeit.  In  Dur- 
niin,  it  is  done  by  boys,  who,  on  meeting  any  woman, 
a.Tost  her  with,  "  Pay  for  your  shoes,  if  you  please." 
The  trilling  sums  which  they  thus  collect  are  spent  in  a 
fi'art  at  nit'lit.  .Xt  Ripon,  celebrated  for  its  manufacture 
of  spurs,  travellers  riding  through  the  town  are  stripped 
of  those  iiiiicles.  which  in  like  manner  they  have  to 
ti'ilcem.  On  Ka^^ter  Monday,  the  women  make  a  return 
by  u'oiiiff  alir,iad  in  groups,  and  causing  the  men  to  rc- 
if.nn  llii'ir  slioes. 

"Lifting  at  Eiister"  is  another  old  custom,  which  may 
w  presumed  to  have  originated  in  a  design  of  drama- 
tiiing  lliB  events  connected  with  Christ's  passion.  It 
Mi:.^ted  in  hoisting  individuals  up  into  the  air,  cither  in 


a  chair  or  otherwise,  until  they  relieved  tliemselvcs  by  ■ 
forfeit.  A  curious  record  makes  us  aware  that,  on  Ea» 
ter  Day,  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  Edward 
I.,  seven  ladies  of  the  queen's  household  went  into  th« 
king's  chamber,  and  lifled  Ai»i,  for  which  fourteen  pounda 
appears  to  have  been  disbursed  as  a  forfeit.  Tho  men 
lifted  the  women  on  Easter  Monday,  and  the  women 
claimed  the  privilege  of  lifting  the  men  on  the  ensuing 
day.  Three  hoists  were  always  given,  attended  by  loud 
huzzas. 

23.  Eastfr  Monday. — This  and  the  ensuing  day  ara 
hclidaye  if  fhe  church.  The  week  commencing  with 
Easter,  and  called  thence  Easter  week,  is  a  season  of 
festivity,  and  the  earlier  days  of  it  after  Easter  itselC 
are  in  London  devoted  by  the  working-classes  to  re- 
creation and  amusement,  which  they  chiefly  seek  for 
at  Greenwich  fair,  and  in  excu<°sions  to  taverns  near 
town. 

2.').  The  Jlnnunrintiott  of  our  Lady,  a  festival  of  th« 
Church  of  England.  It  is  commonly  called  in  England 
T.tuly  Day,  as  an  abridgment  of  the  Day  of  our  Blessed 
Lady.  This  festival  is  in  celebialion  of  the  incarnation 
of  Christ,  or  the  announcement  by  the  Holy  Ghost  to 
Mary  that  she  should  bear  the  Son  of  God.  The  An- 
nunciation is  observed  as  a  holiday  at  all  the  pub'ic 
offices,  excepting  the  Stamps,  Excise,  and  Customs  I 
is  a  gaudy  day  in  the  Romish  Church.  In  Catholic 
countries,  the  service  of  this  d.iy  resounds  with  "Hail, 
Mary  !"  uttered  in  a  strain  of  the  highest  enthusie^tiw 
The  25th  of  March  is  held  as  a  quarter-day  for  many 
commercial  purposes  in  England. 

29.  The  first  Sunday  after  Easter,  called  I.oto  Stm- 
day,  because  it  is  Easter  day  repeated,  with  the  church- 
service  somewhat  abridged  or  lowered  in  the  ceremonj 
from  the  pomp  of  the  festival  the  Sunday  before. 

Naturnl  History. — March  is  eminently  a  spring  month, 
and  the  season  more  {)arficularly  devoted  to  sowing.  Ita 
general  character,  as  far  as  the  extreme  uncertainty  of 
our  climate  warrants  us  to  speak,  is  dryness.  The  frosta 
of  winter,  followed  by  the  sharp  dry  winds  of  this  month, 
have  the  efVect  of  pulverizing  the  soil,  and  fitting  it  for 
the  reception  of  the  seed.  The  value  of  the  weather 
appropriate  to  March  is  expressed  in  the  saying,  "A  peck 
of  March  dust  is  worth  a  king's  ransom."  This  month 
is  also  expected  to  tindcrgo  a  change  between  its  begin- 
ning and  its  end.  The  English  say,  "  March  comes  in 
like  a  lion,  and  goes  out  like  a  lamb ;"  the  Scotch  ver- 
sion of  the  same  idea  is,  "  March  comes  in  with  an  ad- 
der's head,  and  goes  out  with  a  peacock's  tail."  The 
general  average  tenii)erature  of  March  (41  degrees)  is  so 
littlo  above  that  of  February,  as  to  make  the  greater 
dryness  appear  to  arise  in  but  a  small  degree  from  heat 
There  is  in  March  a  general  bursting  of  the  trees  into 
leaf,  of  the  meadows  into  flower,  and  partly,  it  may  be 
added,  of  the  birds  into  sofg.  It  is  the  season  for  plant- 
ing gardens  as  well  as  sowmg  the  fields,  although  there 
ore  few  which  may  not  be  defcrreil  for  a  little  longer 
without  disadvantage. 

APRIL. 

The  Romans  gave  this  month  the  name  of  JlpriUs, 
from  npcriii,  because  it  was  the  seastm  when  things  opened 
By  the  Saxons  it  was  called  Ostre  month,  prolnibly  from 
the  same  word  from  which  Easter  is  Mipposed  to  have 
been  derived.  The  Dutch  and  Gernuuis  call  it  GriM 
month. 

1.  .W  Fml's  Day. — From  a  very  early  age,  this  O&j 
has  been  considered  as  one  set  apart  for  the  exercise  of 
all  kinds  of  mirthful  folly  and  practical  joking:  the 
term  given  to  it  we  may  hold  as  a  travestie  of  the  festival 
of  All  Saints'  Day.  The  custom  of  playing  off  little 
tricks  on  this  day,  whereby  ridicule  may  be  fixed  upon 
unguarded  individuals,  appears  to  be  universal  through* 
3U 


•f„,-.r^^* 


782 


INFORMATION    FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


oat  Euro|)e,  Iii  France,  one  thus  imposed  upon  ii  called 
Unpoition  d'Jvnl  (un  April  (ish).  In  England,  such  a 
person  is  called  an  April  fool ;  in  Scotland,  a  Rowk. 
Gowk  is  the  Scotch  for  tlie  cuckoo,  and  also  signifies  a 
foolish  person,  beiuK  in  fact  from  the  same  root  with  the 
English  word  gawky-  'J'he  favourite  jest  in  Britain  is 
to  send  one  ujxjn  au  errand  for  something  grossly  non- 
sensical, as  for  pigeon's  milk,  or  the  history  of  Adam's 
grandfather,  or  to  make  appointments  which  are  not  to 
be  kep*,  or  to  call  to  a  passcr-liy  that  his  latchct  is  un- 
loosed, or  that  there  is  a  spot  of  mud  upon  his  face. 
When  he  falls  into  the  snare,  the  term  April  fool  or 
g^)wk  is  applied  with  a  shout  of  laughter.  It  is  very 
remarkable  that  the  Hindoos  practise  precisely  similar 
tricks  on  the  IMst  of  M>iroh,  when  they  have  what  is 
called  the  Hull  festival. 

«  The  fifteenth  ilay  after  Piaster  is  marked  by  an  old 
English  festival,  to  which  the  inexplicable  term  Horh  Day 
is  applied.  The  custom  peculiar  to  the  day  consisted  in 
the  men  and  women  of  rural  districts  going  out  the  road 
with  ropes,  and  intercepting  passengers  jocularly,  and 
rai-sing  money  from  them,  to  be  bestowed,  it  may  well  be 
presumed,  in  pious  uses. 

S3.  St.  Gfocifc's  Dny  in  the  Romish  calendar.  St. 
George  is  held  as  the  tutelar  or  patron  saint  of  England. 
He  is  said  to  have  l>een  a  native  of  Cappadocia ;  and  it 
is  tolerably  certain  that  he  was  held  in  great  veneration 
by  the  Greeks  in  the  fourth  century.  Throughout  the 
countries  once  conslitutinn  the  Lower  Empire,  in  the 
Crimea,  and  in  Tarlary.  he  has  for  ages  been  worshipped, 
in  the  former  ce'nilrirs,  as  a  saint,  in  the  latter  as  a  deity. 
By  all  he  is  invariably  represented  as  a  man  on  horse- 
back, spearing  a  dragon.  With  a  regard,  apparently,  to 
his  military  character,  our  Edward  III.  adopted  his  name 
»s  his  war-cry,  and  his  figure  as  a  badge  in  connection 
»ith  the  order  of  the  garter;  thus  originated  the  asso- 
eiation  of  St,  George  with  Kngland,  since  in  many  respects 
fo  conspicuous.  It  is  remarkable  that  in  Russia  Wl. 
George  is  as  much  a  favourite  saint  as  he  is  in  England. 
The  sovereigns  of  that  country  have  borne  his  emblem 
from  a  time  previous  to  Edward  III.  The  derivation  of 
Russian  Christianity  from  the  Greek  Church  suggests  a 
ready  explanation  of  this  fact  The  English  do  not 
mark  the  day  of  their  national  saint  with  any  of  those 
olwervances  which  give  St.  David's  and  St.  Patrick's  days 
eo  peculiar  a  character ;  but  it  was  customary  at  no  dis- 
tant period  for  people  of  fashion  to  wear  a  blue  coat  on 
lliis  day,  in  honour  of  St.  (Joorge. 

25.  S!.  Mark  the  f'vdtif^ilist'n  Day,  a  holiday  of  the 
(.'hurch  of  England.  It  was  once  customary  to  bless 
the  fruits  of  the  earth  on  this  day ;  hence,  perhaps,  a 
notion  amongst  the  peasantry,  that  to  plough  or  do  any 
other  work  on  St.  Mark's  day  will  \ie  apt  to  bring  down 
divine  wrath.  The  eve  of  St.  Mark  was  distinguished 
by  some  sujierstitious  ceremonies.  Maidens  met  to 
make  the  rfiiniA  cuki:  'I'his  was  done  by  a  number  not 
exceeding  three,  and  it  was  to  be  done  in  silence.  At 
twelve  o'clock,  the  cake  being  prepared,  each  broke  oflT 
a  piece  and  ate  it ;  then  walkecl  backwards  to  her  sleef)- 
Ing-room.  It  was  thought  that  those  who  were  to  Im! 
married  would  hear  a  noise  as  of  a  man  approaching. 
Those  who  heard  nothing  were  to  remain  uinnarried. 
Watching  tlie  church  porch  was  another  practice  of 
this  eve.  A  man  wiMit  lasiing  and  took  his  station  there 
before  midnight  It  was  th. night  that,  during  the  hour 
between  twelve  and  one,  he  would  see  the  spirits  of  all 
who  were  to  die  in  the  |iarish  during  the  ensuing  year 
walk  into  church,  in  the  order  in  which  they  were  to  die, 
those  who  were  to  [x'ri.sh  by  violence  making  gisticula- 
lions  appropriate  to  tlw;  peculiar  moiles  of  their  death. 
There  were  similar  superstitions  regarding  the  eve  of  St. 
Jshn  (June  24) ;  which  see. 

Sfi.  yii)!,a  ion  Suniiny. — Tlie  Sunday  before  ,\scen«io:i 
h  always  so  called.     Thu  lli.eu  days  iiuuicdiutely  follow- 


ing are  olao  called  Rogation  Days.  The  ArchuiBnoD  ui 
Vienne  in  Dauphin6,  about  the  year  469,  caused  tk. 
litanies  or  supplications  to  be  said  on  those  davs  fonifc 
liveranco  from  earthquakes,  by  which  his  city  had  ))«-, 
much  injured.  The  days  were  thence  called  Rogation 
(that  is,  supplication)  days.  They  were  ilistinguished 
by  great  processions  of  ecclesiastics  lliroughout  the  boundi 
of  their  districts. 

.30.  Aicension  Day,  or  Holy  Thursday,  a  holiday  ol 
the  Church  of  England,  observed  by  the  shutline  of 
most  of  the  public  oHiccs.  This  festival,  which  iinarij. 
biy  occurs  on  the  fortieth  day  after  Easter,  is  designed  » 
celebrate  the  ascension  of  Christ  into  heaven  It  -^^ 
once  distinguished  by  great  festivities.  On  this  day,  also 
there  was  a  custom  of  the  parish  schoolmaster  going  njiij 
his  pupils  round  the  bounds  of  the  parish,  the  pupil, 
carrying  peeled  willow  wands  wherewith  they  struck  the 
boundaries.  This  was  an  expedient  for  keeping  those 
boundaries  in  memory,  in  an  age  when  more  accurate 
means  of  attaining  the  same  end  did  not  exist. 

Natural  History. — Mild  weather,  with  gen'al  showers, 
is  the  character  usually  given  to  April;  hnt  in  modern 
times,  the  weather  is  often  the  rovers*'  of  this,  being  dry 
with  cold  winds.  On  the  average,  indeed,  there  is  nioi* 
north  wind  and  less  rain  this  month  tlnui  in  any  other. 
The  progressive  advance  of  temperature  from  winter 
towards  summer  is  very  apparent  this  nionlh,  the  general 
average  height  of  the  thermometer  k-iiig  46  dpsrce& 
This  month  is  the  usual  seed-time  for  barley.  In  the  gar- 
dens it  is  the  busiest  time  of  the  year  for  seed-sowing, 

MAY. 

Among  tno  Romans,  this  was  the  mensis  mainntm,  oj 
month  dedicated  to  the  elder  persons  of  their  community, 
while  the  next  was  the  mmisis  jioiionim,  or  month  of  the 
younger  people.  Thus,  most  probably,  arose  the  names 
of  May  and  June.  Others  suppose  that  May  would  de- 
rive its  name  from  Mnia,  the  mother  of  Mercury,  who 
was  worship[)ed  on  the  first  day ;  but  it  is  not  impossible 
that  Maia  and  her  day  were  afterthouiihts,  when  the  real 
origin  of  the  name  of  May  was  out  of  mind.  The 
Saxons  are  said  to  have  given  this  month  the  slran?* 
looking  name  of  Trimilchi,  because  they  then  In'gan  ti 
milk  their  cows  three  times  a  day.  The  Romans  b» 
lievcd  it  to  be  unlucky  to  marry  in  .May. 

1.  St.  Philip  anil  St.  James  the  Less,  a  holiday  uf  tha 
Church  of  England. 

As  a  popular  festival,  under  the  nuine  of  May  Daii, 
•!iis  day  has  t)een  celebrated  from  tinie  iMiniomnrial,  The 
celebration  must,  doubtless,  have  been  prninptcd  hv  na- 
ture herself:  the  time  of  the  young  fiowrr  and  Icai,  and 
of  all  the  promise  which  August  fulfils,  conid  not  but 
impress  the  minds  of  the  simplest  iieople.  and  dispose 
them  to  joyful  demonstiations  in  word  and  act.  The 
sun,  as  the  immediate  author  of  the  gloriiM  id"  the  season, 
was  now  worshipjicd  by  the  Celtic  nations  umler  the 
name  of  Baal;  hence  the  festival  of  liUav,  still  faintly 
observed  in  Ireland  and  the  HiL'hhuids  of  Scoljanj, 
Even  in  Ayrshire,  they  kindled  Baal's  fire  in  the  evenins 
of  May-duy,  till  about  the  year  17',)0.  The  Komaii! 
held  games  called  Floralia,  at  which  there  was  sreal 
display  of  flowers,  and  where  women  danced,  if  we  arc 
to  lielieve  Juvenal,  ordy  too  enthusinsti.ally.  The  May- 
day jollities  of  modern  Europe  fcoem  to  he  directly  Je- 
scended  from  the  Floralia. 

Ill  England,  we  have  to  go  hack  a  collide  of  hiimlrcd 
years  for  the  complete  May-day  ;  since  then  it  has  gra- 
dually declined,  and  now  it  is  almost  cMiiict.  When  it 
was  fully  observed,  the  business  of  the  day  bi'miii  «illi 
the  day  itself,  that  is  to  say,  ut  midnijht.  We  have  th« 
authority  of  Shakspeare,  that  with  the  populace  of  Eng- 
land it  was  impossible  to  sleep  on  May  m.  riiinir.  Im 
meUiatelv   alter  twelve  had  struck,  tiav  wcru  all  MW, 


KEY  TO  THE  CALENDAR. 


783 


iriihing  ?"«''  '"""■  *  morry  May,  aci  they  still,  at  the 
Mine  hour  on  the  1st  of  January,  wish  each  other  a 
hnppy  """'  y"""''  ''''"y  ''>*"  wn'  forth,  with  music 
md  the  blowing  of  liornB,  to  some  neighbouring  wood, 
where  they  cinployed  theinselvea  in  breaking  down  and 
(jallwring  hrnncheii  'I'hesa  they  brought  buck  at  an 
early  houfi  "'"'  planted  over  their  doors,  ao  that  by  day- 
liilht  the  whole  village  looked  quite  a  bower.  I'he  citi- 
jen«  of  London  wont  a-Maying  in  this  fashion,  notwitli- 
jlaiiding  their  comparative  distance  from  woods.  Tlicy 
went  marshalled  in  parishes,  or  in  unions  of  two  or  three 
parishes;  tlieir  mayor  and  aldermen  went  also;  and  wo 
rraJ  of  Henry  VlII.  and  Queen  Catherine  riding  from 
(in'onwieh  to  Sluoter's  Hill,  attended  by  lords  and  ladies, 
(n  join  III  the  sport."  In  some  places,  the  Mayors  brought 
home  a  garland  suspended  from  a  pole,  rounil  which  they 
djnccd.  I'l  others,  and  this  was  a  more  general  custom, 
tlicre  was  an  established  May-polo  for  the  village,  which 
It  was  their  business  to  dress  up  with  flowers  and  flags, 
and  danc*)  around  throughout  all  the  latter  part  of  the 
day.  A  May-pole  was  as  tall  as  the  mast  of  a  sloop  of 
fifty  tons,  painted  with  spiral  stripes  of  black  and  white, 
and  projicrly  lixed  in  a  frame  t<i  keep  it  erect.  Here 
lads  and  las.scs  danced  in  a  joyful  ring  for  hours  to  the 
nunds  of  a  viol,  and  masiiuers  personating  Robin  Hootl, 
Little  John,  Maid  Marian,  and  others  of  the  celebrated 
g(i(-v-v)d  company  of  outlaws,  as  well  as  morris-dancers, 
ptTformed  llicir  still  more  merry  pranks.  May-poles,  as 
li'iiJing  to  encourage  levity  of  deportment,  were  con- 
demned by  the  I'uritans  in  Elizabeth's  time  ;  James  I. 
lupported  them  in  his  Hook  of  Sports ;  they  were  alto- 
pctlier  suppressed  during  the  time  of  the  Commonwealth, 
but  got  up  again  at  the  Kestoratioii.  Now,  rhange  of 
maiiacrs  has  done  that  which  ordinances  of  Parliament 
coidd  net  do.  'I'hls  object,  so  interwoven  with  our 
national  poetical  literature,  is  all  but  rooted  out  of  the 
land. 

\  certain  sui)cr8titious  feeling  attached  to  May-day. 
The  dew  of  that  morning  was  considered  as  a  cosmetic 
of  the  hit;!iest  eflicacy  ;  and  women,  especially  young 
wamei.,  who  arc  never  unwilling  to  improve  in  this  re- 
spect, used  to  go  a'.iioad  bifore  sunrise  to  gather  it.  To 
th:silav  there  is  a  resort  of  the  fair  sex  every  May  morn- 
ing to  Arthur's  Seat,  near  Edinburgh,  for  the  purpose  of 
wanhing  tlieir  fu^'es  with  the  dew.  Mr.  I'epys,  in  his 
diary,  gravely  tells  us  of  his  wife  going  to  Woolwich  for 
a  little  air,  and  to  gather  .May-dew,  "which  Mrs.  Turner 
hath  taught  lu^r  is  the  only  thing  in  the  world  to  wash 
her  face  with."  Scolt,  in  his  "  Discovery  of  Witchcraft," 
t;ieaks  of  a  sprig  of  hawthorn  gathered  on  May-<lay,  and 
huns  in  the  entry  to  a  house,  as  a  presumed  preservative 
s,'aiiisl  all  malign  inlluences.  There  was  also  a  practice 
01  making  fools  on  May -day,  similar  to  what  obtaius  on 
the  first  of  the  preceding  month.  The  deluded  were 
called  Muy-'iOilliii;s.  It  was  held  unlucky  to  marry  in 
May,  a  notion  which,  as  already  mentioned,  existed 
among  the  Romans.  It  still  exists  in  Scotland,  where 
verv  few  marriages  take  place  in  .May,  the  higher  classes 
bcini;  equally  superstitious  on  the  subject  with  the  lower. 
In  London,  as  has  been  said,  .May-<lay  was  once  as 
much  obsiMviil  as  it  was  in  any  rural  district.  There 
wore  several  .May-|iolos  throughout  the  city,  particularly 
one  near  the  bottiin  of  Catherine  Street  in  the  Strand, 
which,  rather  od<lly,  bd'anio  in  its  latter  days  a  support 
for  a  large  tcles.>oi>c  at  Waiistead  in  lussex,  the  property 
oftlic  Koval  S(K-icty.  The  milkmaids  were  amongst  the 
list  coiisjiicHous  (I  h'liraters  of  the  day.  They  us»'d  to 
ilress  tluMiisi'lies  in  holiday  guise  on  this  morning,  and 
come  in  bands  with  licMlcs,  whereto  they  danced,  attended 
bv  a  straiui-louking  pyramidal  pile, covered  with  pewter 
plali's,  rililions,  and  stieamcrs,  cither  borne  by  a  man 
cjion  his  head,  or  by  two  men  upon  a  hand-barrow :  this 
was  called  their  aurl mil.  The  young  chiinney-sweep- 
«ii»laomadc  this  a  pi  cuiiar  festival,  coining  fo:t!i  i.;to 


the  streets  in  fantastic  dresses,  and  making  all  sorts  of 
unearthly  noises  with  their  shovels  and  brushes.  The 
benevolent  Mrs.  Montagu,  one  of  the  firs',  of  the  claM 
of  literary  ladies  in  England,  gave  these  hime  slaves  an 
annual  dinner  on  this  day,  in  order,  we  presume,  to  aid 
a  little  in  reconciling  them  to  existence.  In  London, 
May-day  still  remains  the  great  festival  of  the  sweepi,  and 
much  finery  and  many  vagaries  are  exhibited  on  tha 
occasion. 

The  Robin  Hood  games  and  moriis-daneers,  by  which 
this  day  was  distinguished  till  the  Reformation,  appeal, 
from  many  scattered  notices  of  them,  to  have  been  entep- 
tainments  full  of  interest  to  the  common  people.  Robin 
has  been  alternatively  styled  in  at  least  one  document 
as  the  King  of  May,  while  Maid  Marian  seems  to  have 
been  held  as  the  Queen.  The  vajjous  scattered  partici> 
lars  respecting  these  festivities,  which  make  but  dry  read- 
ing by  themselves,  have  been  wrought  up  to  some  ad- 
vantage by  Mr.  Strutt  in  his  "  Queen  Hoo  Hall,"  where 
he  describes  May-day  as  celebrated  by  the  servants  and 
dependants  of  an  English  baron  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

3.  The  Invcitlion  uf  Ihc  Cross,  a  festival  of  the  Romish 
Church,  designed  to  commemorate  the  finding  cf  the 
cross  upon  which  Jesus  had  suft'ered,  by  St.  Helena, 
The  festival  is  shortly  called  Hooi!  Day. 

10.  Whit-Sumliiy,  a  festival  of  the  Church  of  England, 
designed  to  connnemorate  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
upon  the  apostles  on  the  day  of  Pentecost.  In  Catholic 
countries,  on  this  day,  while  the  people  are  assembled  in 
church,  pigeons  are  suspended  above,  and  wafers,  cakes, 
oak  leaves,  and  other  things,  are  made  to  shower  down 
upon  the  altar — all  this  as  a  dramatic  representation  oi 
the  miracle. 

11.  Whit-Monday. — A  festival  of  the  Church  of  En^ 
land,  as  is 

12.  Whit-Tnesdny — These  three  days  together  are 
called  Whitsuntide,  it  forms  a  term,  for  which  the  15th 
of  May  is  fixed.  The  Wednesday,  Friday,  and  Saturday 
of  this  week  are  Ember  Days.  an<i  the  week  is  conse' 
quently  on  Ember  Week.  (See  8  /i  J-\iiruiinj.')  This 
also  was  a  period  of  festivity  among  our  ancestors.  They 
now  had  what  they  called  the  Wliiisiin  Me,  which  con- 
sisted in  a  meeting  of  householders  with  their  families  at 
the  church,  after  service,  to  partake  of  a  feast  provided 
by  the  churchwardens,  at  which  the  young  danced  and 
played  at  games,  while  the  seniors  looked  on.  In  the 
days  before  the  poor  were  snjqiorted  by  rates,  a  tollectioii 
was  made  on  this  occasion,  usually  found  sullicient  to 
provide  for  them.  The  Whitsun  .\le  is  now  degenerated, 
where  it  exists  at  all,  into  a.  merry-making  at  a  barn. 
Whitsunday  and  Martinmas  terms  (May  15  and  No- 
vember 1 1 )  are  those  alone  regorded  for  the  leasing  of  all 
kinds  of  property,  paying  of  rents,  and  engaging  of  ser 
vants,  in  Scotland. 

17.  Trinity  Siinilay.  a  festival  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, which  always  tak>  s  place  eight  weeks  after  Easter. 

21.  Cmpus  Chiifli.  a  festival  of  the  Romish  Church, 
always  held  on  the  Thursday  af^er  Trinity  Sunday.  It 
celebrates  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation.  In  all  Ro- 
man Catholic  countries  it  is  observed  with  music,  lights, 
flowers  strewed  in  the  street,  rich  tapestries  hung  ujion 
the  walls,  and  professions  and  plays  representing  Scrip* 
ture  sulijects. 

29.  lie.s'Drution  Dny.  a  holiday  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land to  celebrate  the  restoration  of  monarchy  in  the  per- 
son of  Charles  II.,  May  29,  IGliO,  atU-r  its  suppression 
for  the  iircceding  twelve  years.  The  po]iulace  at  one 
time  wore  oidi  leaves  in  their  hats  on  this  day,  with 
reference  to  the  concenlmeiit  of  (,'harles  in  the  Royal  Oak, 
while  skulking  after  the  battle  of  Worcester,  1651. 

Aiitural  Hst(>iy.^M-Ay  is  a  month  of  the  best  repu- 
tation— indeed  a  general  favourite  in  imagination;  but 
it  often  balks  the  hopes  of  its  worsliipp<'rs.  In  favour- 
able  seas.iiis,  it  presuits  many  bciiUtiCul  appearances,  ai 


Wf^ 


784 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


herbage  and  fnlinjfc  of  the  l)nffhfp§t  green,  a  profusion  of 
li.itiirul  flowerH.  Hoft  und  goiiinl  skies,  fislies  luuping,  swal- 
lows twitterinir,  Im-oh  luimrnin((,  the  cuckoo  repeating  her 
nolo,  and  the  corn  roiniiiB  into  bliide.  But  theso  ap- 
pearances are  oftiin  prevented  or  much  clouded  by  cold 
east  wind.4,  most  destructive  to  the  fruit  blossom.  The 
ffreatcr  prevalence  of  this  wind  during  Mav  than  in 
any  other,  seems  to  bo  chiclly  the  cause  of  the  well- 
known  injunction,  "  Clinnuo  nut  a  clout  till  May  Ixj  out." 
Tho  general  average  timiperiiture  (s  about  .^1  degrees. 
Wo  ore  now  arrived  at  the  lntest  period  of  sccd-tiinc. 
In  the  most  backward  parts  of  the  country,  barley  is  still 
■own,  and  the  seeds  of  some  of  the  tenderer  garden 
plants  are  coininilteil  to  the  earth.  The  ash,  last-budding 
of  the  trees,  conies  into  leaf  in  thu  latter  part  of  the 
month. 

JUNB. 

The  probable  oriijin  of  the  name  of  tliis  has  been 
explained  at  the  same  time  with  that  of  May. 

U.  St.  Paruahas  the  Jpiintk,  a  holiday  of  the  Church  i 
of  England.     In  the  days  of  old  style,  the  11th  of  .lune  , 
was   the    longest   day  of  the   year — hence    an   ancient 
rhyme — 

narimliy  lirinlit. 

'Die  lougi'si  ilay  anil  llic  shortest  night. 

15,  St.  Vilvs'x  Diiy. — Nt.  Vitus  was  a  Sicilian  martyr. 
Prom  him,  though  for  what  reason  is  unknown,  is  named 
a  well-known  nervous  airectioii  of  the  limbs,  proceeding 
fr»m  a  disordereil  state  of  the  visceral  system.  It  was  a 
popular  belief  that  ruin  on  this  day  indicated  rain  for 
tliirty  days  therealter. 

34.  St.  .Iiihii'f  Din/,  the  Nativity  of  St.  John  tho  Uap- 
tist,  a  holiday  of  the  Church  of  Kiigland.  The  F.rc  nf 
St.  John,  variously  called  Midsiini Die r  I've,  was  formerly 
a  time  of  high  observance  amongst  the  Knglish,  as  it  still 
is  in  Catliolic  countries.  Honlires  were  everywhere 
lighted,  round  whicli  the  peoph'  dniired  with  joyful  de- 
monstrations, occasionally  lea|iiiig  through  tbe  flame. 
A  certain  numl«T  of  citizens  formed  a  watch,  which  (K-r- 
ambulated  the  streets  nil  night.  It  was  also  believed 
that,  on  this  eve,  by  fastini;.  wakiuL',  pulling  certain 
herbs,  and  going  through  certain  ceremonies,  it  was  pos- 
sible to  obtain  an  insight  into  futurity  on  some  import-ant 
p<iinifc.  Fiifiiiii;  St.  John's  Fast  was  a  great  feat  of 
young  women  a  century  or  two  ago.  There  was  also  a 
cusloia  of  holiling  vigil  in  the  cliurcli-porch,  precisely 
the  same  as  <lescrilM>d  under  !St.  Mark's  Day  (April  -.')). 

29.  St.  Pf'rr'f  Dull,  a  hiuh  festival  of  the  Komish 
Church,  and  a  holiday  of  the  Church  of  England.  It 
is  celebrated  at  Koine  with  illuminations  and  magiiili:'ent 
reremonial.-^.  In  Knizlaiid,  till  a  recent  period,  the  bon- 
fires and  watcliiiigs  of  St.  .lohn's  Eve  were  also  cu.stom- 
«ry  on  the  eve  of  this  festival. 

Sdlurat  Hiiit'in).—.\\\  the  central  parts  of  our  island, 
this  is  in  general  a  ilry  coldish  summer  month.  The 
days,  however,  are  at  the  longest ;  anil  though  June 
ranks  only  third  highest  as  to  temperature,  drought  or 
evaporation  reaches  the  extreme  point.  June  hero  re- 
sembles the  .Mav  of  more  southern  climes.  The  foliage 
being  now  quite  fresh  and  fully  expanded,  and  the  ver- 
dure of  the  pastures  and  corn  fields  lieiiig  also  at  the  best, 
the  face  of  nature  appears  to  the  greatest  advantage. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  month  W((  meet  with  a  near 
foinridence  of  four  statres  of  vegetation — the  earing  of 
wheat,  tho  floweriiiL'  of  the  ro^ie,  the  ripening  of  straw- 
oerries,  and  the  commencement  ol  hay  harvest.  The 
general  average  of  the  thermometer  is  .57  degrees.  In 
the  course  of  the  month  we  have  the  flowering  a  great 
number  of  (ine  jierennials  and  shrubs,  so  that  the  gar- 
dens are  usually  in  great  glory.  It  is  also  the  time  when 
•reeds  jive  tho  gardener  the  greatest  trouble. 


JULT. 

This,  being  at  first  tho  fifth  month  of  tl:c  Roman  tju 
wjis  called  (juintilis.  It  liecame  the  stvi.  ih  in  coiu«! 
quenco  of  the  reform  of  the  calendar  by  Julius  Ciesai  in 
whose  honour,  as  ho  was  born  in  it,  Augustus  guj ,, 
the  present  name. 

3.  The  day  fixed  in  the  calendars  as  the  first  of  ih 
Doi-Ditys,  the  last  being  the  1 1th  of  Augu.st.  Thp  doo. 
days  precede  and  follow  the  heliacal  risinpr  of  tho  ji,, 
Hirius  (in  the  constellation  of  the  Greater  \)n^\  in  \\.. 
morning,  which  in  Pliny's  time  was  on  the  IHth  of  Ju|u 
The  extreme  heat  of  this  season  of  the  vear,  althoucih 
to  us  palpobly  the  elli-ct  of  the  cx)ntinued  hi^li  position 
of  the  suu,  was  connected  by  the  ancients  with  the  am 
pearance  of  this  star  in  the  morning.  They  considerej 
the  dog-star  as  raging,  and  gave  the  time  the  appeljaiion 
of  the  Dog-Days.  The  liability  of  dogs  to  rnhics  in  con. 
sequence  of  the  heat  of  the  season  was  coimrcted  with 
the  same  stor,  though  there  was  nothing  'uu  acciilcnijn 
the  collusion  ;  and  they  butchered  these  animals  withoni 
mercy.  At  Argos,  there  was  a  festival  e.\prcK8ly  imti. 
tuted  for  the.  killing  nf  <loi;s  during  this  season,  By  lU 
precession  of  the  equinoxes,  the  heliacal  rising  of  .Siijn. 
in  the  morning  has  l«"en  changed  to  the  latter  end  of 
•August,  and  in  a  few  thousand  years  mure  it  will  lake 
place  in  the  depth  of  winter. 

4.  The  Traiislalion  if  Si.  Martin  T.ullinn,  noticed  u 
a  festival  in  the  Church  of  England  calendar,  thouch 
not  observed.  'J'here  is  an  old  saying,  not  hiivtofore  in 
print,  "  If  the  deer  ri.sc  up  dry  and  lie  down  drj  on  Si 
bullion's  Day,  it  is  a  sign  there  will  be  a  good  gose 
har'st;"  meaning,  apparently,  that  dry  weather  at  thji 
season  is  favourable  to  the  crops. 

.S7.  i'iric'i  I)<iy.—0\\  this  day,  in  ancient  Catholic 
times,  the  people  brought  fish  to  the  altar  to  obtain  thi 
favour  of  St.  Ulric,  and  one  sat  there  selling  the  same 
back  to  the  public  for  tho  lienefil  of  the  (-Ihurch. 

7.  The  Tranalntion  of  St.  'J'honins  a  In-iliii,  noticed  u 
a  festival  in  the  Church  of  England  caleiiJar. 

l.'j.  St.  Sii'i!hiH$  />((i/— remarliiilile  on  account  ofa 
well-known  popular  notion,  that  if  it  rain  on  this  dav 
there  will  lie  n)ore  or  less  rain  for  forty  days  to  come.  Si, 
Swithin  lived  just  a  thousand  yiars  ai-'o.  He  wa«  an 
eminently  |)iou8  and  learned  bisho))  of  VViiuhcstcr,  and 
priest  to  King  Egbert.  He  was  the  deviser  and  origh 
nator  of  tithes  in  England.  The  story  runs  that,  being  I 
buried  by  his  own  request  in  the  churchyard  of  the 
cathedral,  the  priests  a  hundred  years  alter  felt  dcsiroui 

I  of  giving  him  greater  honour,  and  commenced  the  work 
of  translating  his  remains  into  tbe  interior.  This  was  on  | 

I  the  l.'ith  of  July.     They  were  sttqi|>eil  in  their  worliby 
a  heavy  fall  of  rain ;  neither  couhl   lliey  resume  their  | 

!  duty  next  day,  for  the  heavy  rain  still  continued.   In 

j  short,  this  rain  lasted  forty  days,  by  wliiili  lime  tie  | 
priests  became  convinced  that  it  was  desinned  to  i 
thein  in  a  work  which,  though  well  meant  on  their  pail  I 
was  ill  taken  on  that  of  the  saint ;  and  tiny  gave  uptht  I 
point.  Ever  since  then,  it  has  luen  held  as  a  niaiim,  I 
•  that  if  there  be  niin  on  St.  iSwithiii's  Day  (the  loiliofi 
July),  there  will  lie  ruin  for  the  forty  eiisuinir  days,  la 
a  s»ientirtc  work  on  the  climate  of  lioiidcm,  it  is  artnow.  I 
ledged  that,  "  in  a  majoiity  of  our  kuiumi- rs,  a  shoneij  I 
period,  which  with  some  latitude  as  to  tiaie  and  loiill 
circumstances,  may  be  admitted  to  eonsiilule  diiily  rail  I 
for  forty  days,  does  come  on  al>out  tlie  time  iudic.itfJbM 
this  tradition — not  that  any  long  s]iuee  U'luie  isoHeniol 
dry  as  to  mark  distinctly  its  coinmenceineiit." 

30.  St.  Mnri;arel't  ])ay. — This  day  lii;uro«  in  Ihl 
Church  of  England  calendar.  Si.  .Margaret  was  a  holt  I 
Italian  virgin,  martyred  in  278.  She  seems  to  hirti 
been  the  Christian  J.iicina:  formerly,  at  Tu is,  then' wii I 
a  flocking  to  church  on  this  day  of  all  wuiuuii  vvhovMl 


KEY  TO  THE  CALENDAR. 


•m 


,^,nt  w  thought  thoy  might  be  lo  in  the  courw  of  j 

{(  St.  Jamti  the  Jposlle,  a  holiday  of  the  Church  of  i 

fnilUiiJ-    '"  t3«tholio  timos,  it  w»»  customary  for  the 

^iti  on  this  (lay  to  blnss  the  npplca.     On  St.  Jatnex's  [ 

C,  but  accorJins  to  old  stylo  (7tli  August,  now  atylp),  ] 

-lien  appeared  in  London,  and  there  U  a  popular  no- 

/   ^t  tie  who  eats  oysters  on  that  day  will  never  want  ! 

„ey  for  the  rest  of  the  year.  I 

Situr.il  Uiilnry. — July  is  the  warmest  month  of  the  , 

tea  the  general  average  temperature  boinof  61  degrees.  I 

VViih  us  it  insy  '"'  accounted  the  niOHt  important,  as  its  ! 

ifinnernture  in  a  good  mcaHuro  regulates  the  ripening  of 

ilu)  crop,  that  is  to  say,  determines  whether  it  shall  Imi 

firlyor  late;  and  in  our  clim.iti-  this  for  the  most  ))iirt  may 

berecltoncd  a  criterion  of  its  viilue.    Flora  is  in  her  glory 

ihij  month.  The  greatest  display  of  flowers  in  the  whole 

tear  lakes  place  in  the  cour»e  of  July  in  our  climate. 

Th8  iiit  includes  all  the  hardy  annuals  and  a  great  many 

olUrs.  At  the  same  time  all  nur  small  fruit  are  in  al>un- 

ijsnce,  cherries  and  strawberries  in  tlic  beginning  l)eing 

(illowed  l>y  currants,  goostiberries,  and  raspberries,  in  all 

iheit  varieties.     In  the  early  part  of  the  month  barley 

'  J  ggts  come  into  ear,  and  sometimes  in  very  forward 

(oawM  a  little  barley  is  cut  before  the  end  of  July ;  but 

lery  rarely  any  other  kind  of  grain  is  ready  for  the  sickle 

before  ,\uguat.    A  great  part  of  the  produce  of  the  gar- 

I  ili-n  comes  to  pcrfoction,  such  as  early  cabbage,  cauli- 

Jower,  turnips,  peas,  beans,  lettuce,  &c.     Early  potatoes 

iIn  make  their  appearance,  but  are  not  mature  till  next 

I  month, 

AUGUST. 

la  early  Roman  times  this  month  was  called  Sextilis, 
I  u being  the  sixth  of  the  year.  The  Julian  arrangement 
ugjt  it  the  eighth.  It  acquired  the  name  Jugmtw,  in 
honour  nf  the  second  of  the  Ciesars,  to  whom  it  had 
iKsn  a  fortunate  period,  he  having  in  it  assumed  his  first 
ciwulship,  celebrated  three  triumphs,  sulxlued  Egypt, 
itceived  the  oath  of  allegiance  of  the  legions  that  occu- 
I  the  Janiculum,  and  terminated  the  civil  wars  of 
I  Borne.  As  already  mentioned,  being  dissatisfied  with  its 
being  a  month  of  thirty  days,  he  took  a  doy  from  Febrn- 
I  jrv  to  make  it  one  of  the  longer  class,  like  that  of  his 
aiicle  Julius.  At  the  some  time,  Septeml)cr  and  No- 
vemlier  were  each  deprived  of  a  day,  which  was  added 
in  the  one  case  to  October,  and  in  the  other  to  December. 


ogue,  Latinised  it  into  Oula,  which  meaiA  throat 
This,  taken  in  connection  with  its  being  the  day  of  tht 
featival  of  St.  Peter  ad  Vincula  (instituted  in  honour  of 
a  rolic  of  St.  Peter's  chains),  seems  to  have  suggested  ta 
them  to  make  up  a  story  of  the  daughter  of  the  tribune 
Quirinus  having  been  cured  of  a  disorder  in  the  throat 
by  kissing  the  said  relic  on  the  day  of  its  fcstivnl.  And 
the  Celtic  finl  (an  adversary)  has  thus  been  the  remote 
cause  of  a  Christian  festival  being  instituted  to  (Uila  (the 
throat),  and  hold  on  the  day  of  St.  Peter's  Chains. 

15.  The  Ataumplion  nf  the  lilctsed  f'iririn,  a  grand  fes- 
tival of  the  Romish  Church,  and  a  day  noted  in  the 
calendar  of  the  Church  of  England.  It  was  instituted 
in  813,  to  colobrate  the  ascension  of  the  Virgin  into 
hoaven.  In  Catholic  countries,  this  day  is  marked  by 
splendid  ceremonies  and  processions. 

24.  St.  Partlinlmnew'a  Day  a  holiday  of  the  Church 
of  England.  Bartholomew  was  an  apostle,  but  there  ia 
no  Hcriptural  account  of  his  labours  or  death.  I'ho  legend 
of  the  Komish  Church  represents  him  as  preaching  in 
the  Inilies,  and  concluding  his  life  by  being  flayed  alive 
l>y  order  of  a  brother  of  the  king  of  .\rmenia.  In 
memory  of  his  death,  it  was  customary  at  our  monastic 
institntioiiR,  in  the  middle  ages,  to  distribute  small  knive* 
amongst  the  people.  The  day  has  a  horrible  celebrity  in 
connection  with  the  massacre  of  the  Protestants  at  Paria 
in  1572. 

Ndturiil  Ilislory. — The  mean  average  heat  of  thia 
month  (CO  degrees)  approaches  so  near  that  of  July, 
that  a  warm  dry  August  oflen  compensates  for  a  low 
temperature  iu  the  preceding  month.  In  the  beginning 
of  August,  we  have  often  the  heaviest  rain  of  the  whole 
year,  termed  in  Scotland  the  Lammas  Flood.  July  and 
August,  always  our  warmest,  are  oflen  our  wettest  months. 
Southerly  and  westerly  winds  have  now  the  ascendency, 
but  in  the  case  of  very  heavy  rain  the  wind  usually  falls. 
Harvest,  in  the  average,  commences  about  the  middle  of 
this  month,  hut  in  late  seasons  not  till  the  very  end.  The 
order  of  ripening  of  our  cereal  grains  is — barley,  wheat, 
oats.  I'he  earliest  of  our  larger  fruit  begin  to  pipen  thia 
month — apples  and  pears,  but  hardly  plumbs.  The  laU 
ter  and  more  tender  exotic  annuals  now  come  into  flower, 
such  as  the  amaranths,  xeranthemum,  zinnia,  jacobea, 
China  asters,  &c. ;  also  the  gigantic  biennial  shepherd'a 
club,  which  sows  itself,  and  the  also  gigantic  annual 
sunflower.  St.  John's  wort,  monkshood,  flox,  also  flower 
about  this  time. 


I.  Lmtnai  Day,  called  also  the  Gule  of  Mtguit.  It 
!  now  only  remarkable  as  a  day  of  term  for  some  pur- 
I  poaes.  It  was  probably  one  of  the  great  festival  days  of 
I  out  heathen  ancestors ;  and  it  is  worthy  of  observation 
I  Hut  it  occurs  exactly  three  months  after  another  of  these 
-Beltane.  Cromac,  Bishop  of  Cashel  in  the  tenth  cen- 
I  tury,  reconls  that  in  his  time  four  great  fires  were  lighted 
I  op  on  the  four  great  festivals  of  the  Druids,  namely,  in 
Irelmary,  May,  August,  ond  November:  probably  Bel- 
lune  and  Lummas  were  two  of  these.  Lammas  seems 
I  to  hare  been  held  as  a  day  of  thanksgiving  for  the  new 
I  Ihlite  of  the  earth.  It  was  observed  witli  bread  of  new 
Iwhrat;  and  there  was  a  custom  in  some  places  at  no 
I  distant  period  for  tenants  to  be  bound  to  bring  in  wheat 
|i)(  the  new  crop  to  their  lord  on  or  before  this  day.  The 
I  most  rational  explanation  nf  the  word  is  that  which  dc- 
Inies  it  from  the  Saxon  JUnf-Mn^fc  (loaf-mass,  or  the 
IliMf-festival),  the  /  l>cing  in  time  s  iftencd  away  on  ai> 
l:ountof  the  difliculty  of  pronouncing  it  before  m.  Till 
llhe  middle  of  the  last  i-entury,  the  shepherds  in  various 
Ipart3  of  Scotland  were  accustomed  to  hold  festive  meet- 
luigi  on  Lammas  day,  on  the  tops  of  conspicuous  hills, 
Itiirf  lowers  and  benches  having  been  previously  con- 
lltnicled  for  the  purpose.  The  Uule  of  .\ugunt  is  pro- 
IWbi;  from  the  Celtic  VxU  or  Gxd  (a  festive  aimiversary). 
I  The  early  Christian  priesthood,  finding  this  word  in 
Vol.  I.-9a 


SEPTEMBER. 

This  was  the  seventh  month  in  the  Roman  year  be- 
fore the  Julian  reform  of  the  calendar.  The  two  first 
syllables  of  the  name  are  thus  readily  accounted  for ; 
the  last,  which  also  figures  at  the  end  of  the  names  of 
the  three  following  months,  is  an  ancient  particle  oS 
doubtful  signification. 

1.  St.  Giles' »  Day. — This  saint's  day  figures  ir.  the 
Church  of  England  calendar.  A  native  of  Greece,  he 
travelled  into  France  in  715,  and  became  abbot  of 
Nismes.  He  literally  obeyed  the  scriptural  injunction 
by  settling  his  patrimony  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor,  and 
on  one  occasion  gave  his  coat  to  a  sick  mendicant,  who 
was  cured  miraculously  by  putting  it  on.  St.  Giles  has 
thus  become  the  patron  saint  of  beggars  and  cripple*. 
St.  Giles's  Church,  Cripplegatp,  London,  and  the  High 
("Church  in  Kdiiiburgh,  are  dedicated  to  him  ;  and  he  is 
I  the  patron  suiiit  of  the  Scotti.<!h  capital,  as  :t^  as  it  cau 
l>c  said  to  h'.ive  one. 

j  8.  The  Nnlivity  of  the  flesserl  Vir^n,  a  grand  festival 
j  of  the  Romish  Church,  and  still  retained  in  the  Church 
j  of  England  calendar,  I'his  festival  has  been  held  in 
I  honour  of  the  Virgin,  with  matins  masses,  homiliea, 
collects,  prorcssions,  and  other  ceremonies  for  upward* 
af  a  thousand  years.     According  tothe  Catholic  writera. 

au3 


li?''t 


78« 


INFORMATION    FOR   THE   PEOPLE. 


t  roliKinus  conti<mpIativc,  OTcry  year  upon  the  filh  of 
Beptniibrr,  lipurd  iiiniit  swrot  imnic  in  hcnvi-n.  with  Rrnit 
rejoiciiiifg  nf  niii{clii.  Oii<-«  ho  nakrd  oiin  of  them  tiic 
cause,  and  whm  told  that  u|K)n  thnt  diiy  wun  rolcliriitrd  in 
hi^ovcn  the  nativity  of  the  mothrr  of  GihI.  The  liirili- 
day  of  the  Viri^in  bring  thim  mirucnlouily  comniunicutrd 
to  mankind,  Popo  tfervius  inHtituted  a  fuittival  to  hold 
it  in  honour. 

14.  Holy  llrnid  Day,  or  the  dny  of  the  Kxnitation  of 
the  Holy  Crons,  n  fi-stivnl  of  the  Roniinh  (.'huri'h,  Mill 
retained  in  the  ('hurch  of  England  ralcndiir.  It  cele- 
brate* the  ininu'iilouti  ap|>enriinre  of  a  itohb  in  the 
heavens  to  the  emperor  Constnntine.  The  Wednendiiy, 
Friday,  and  H.iturdny  after  Holy  R()0<1  Diiy,  are  Einl«'r 
Days,  iind  the  Week  in  which  they  occur  constHiuenlly 
an  EiuImt  Week. 

21.  SI,  Miillhnn  the  Jpoi;le,  a  fculival  of  the  Church 
nf  EuKlund. 

29.  The  Fotwiil  of  Si.  Mirlmrl  and  all  llir  Holy  .'In- 
(>cU  :  shortly,  Mirhiclmuii  Uny,  a  grand  fcHtival  of  the 
Romish  and  F'li'^lish  churches.  St.  Miehsel  is  siiiKlud 
out  for  parliouiur  mention  as  heini?  the  chief  of  uMKels. 
or  anhungel.  The  theoloijicul  character  of  .Michael  is 
olMcurc.  Suflice  it  hero  to  quote  the  rctnark  of  VVliut- 
ley,  in  his  ex[)(isition  of  the  book  of  Coininnn  I'rnyer, 
that  "the  feast  of  .St.  Michael  ond  uU  Antjels  is  observed, 
tiiat  tile  people  may  know  what  benefits  are  derived  from 
the  ministry  of  amtels." 

Michaclinas.  besides  beini?  one  of  the  quarter  days 
in  England  for  the  payment  of  rents  and  wages,  haslx'en 
distinnuislied  from  an  early  i»Miod  in  that  nnd  other 
countries  as  the  time  for  the  annual  election  of  corpora- 
tiip  ollicors,  niagiitrutes,  nml  other  civil  guanlians  of  the 
|M!acek  It  has  been  suggesteil  that  the  M-ieetion  of  the 
day  for  this  pui|)os»>  mi^lit  arise  from  "  the  old  opinion 
of  tutelar  spiiils,  who  have,  or  are  thought  to  have,  the 
particular  charge  of  certain  bodies  of  men,  or  districts 
of  country,  as  also  that  every  man  had  his  guardian 
angel,  who  attends  bim  from  the  cradle  to  the  grave, 
from  the  moment  of  his  coming  in  to  the  moment  of  his 
goin,?  out  of  life." 

It  is  an  ancient  and  extt-nsively  prevalent  custom  to 
lave  a  goose  f)r  dinner  on  Micliaelmas  day.  tjueen 
£liuil>rth  is  said  to  have  Is'en  eating  her  Michaelmas 
gixjse  when  she  received  intelligi'nee  of  the  defeat  of 
the  Hpanisli  Armadu.  \'ery  curious  and  recondite 
origins  have  lu'en  assigned  to  this  custom,  but  it  seems  to 
liavo  arisen  simply  from  the  goose  Uing  at  its  liest  im- 
mediately oiler  it  has  had  the  rouge  of  the  rea]ied  harvest 
fields. 

Natural  Hin'ory. — This  is  often  the  finest  month  of 
the  year;  yet  as  with  other  portions  of  our  seasons,  it  is 
not  to  Im!  de|H'nded  on.  In  temi)eratnre  (the  general  ave- 
rage is  55  degrees)  it  ranks  Wtween  May  and  June,  yet 
the  first  three  weeks  arc  often  as  warm  as  any  part  of 
the  summer ;  but  there  is  usually  a  sensible  falling  olf 
in  the  latter  part  In  Scotland  the  bui,.  of  the  harvest 
work  of  the  season  is  usually  effeettvl  during  this  month. 
Il  is  likewise  tin'  time  when  large  fruit  conies  to  |>crfec- 
lion.  The  ftower  borders  have  still  a  gay  appearance, 
tiie  latest  exotic  annuals  only  beginning  to  flower  at  this 
lime.  'I'he  lialilia,  a  maiinificenl  flower  of  recent  intro- 
iluction.  appears  in  all  its  grandeur  during  September. 
It  has  lieeu  remarked  tiiut  at  no  oilier  season  is  the  | 
houie-fly  so  numuruuji. 

OCTOBEB. 

As  alrendy  explained,  Oitobcr  has  its  name  from 
having  lieen  the  eighth  moiitii  of  the  Koinun  year 
Is'fore  the  Julian  reform  of  the  calendar.  In  ihc  time 
of  the  emperor  Donutian  it  was  called  Uomitianus,  in 
his  honour;  but  aiter  his  death  thatiianie  was  abandoned 
hv  general  eun.i.iil.  fnun  a  wish  to  sink  the  memory  of 
»j   axecrable    a   tyrunt.      'I'hu    Saxoiuj  ';iillcd    Octot«r 


Wyna'-monat  (wine    monll\),  from  ita  bfin(.  ^  a 
when  wines  were  annually  brought  into  Gernnnv  i       \ 
Iwing  then  made  in  that  country).  ^  ("'*'  I 

2.  The  festival  of  the  Holy  Jngtl  Guardinnt  In  n. 
Romish  (.'hurch.  ^ 

».  The  day  of  W.  Dfiinir,  the  patron  taint  of  Pr,„ 
St.  Dennis  was  put  to  death,  with  some  companion  "" 
the  year  272,  ujion  an  emiiipiice  near  Paris,  since  c  11,!! 
from  that  circumslance  Montmartro  (Mmn  jViir'nr    \ 
According  to  the  legend,  his  head   had  no  unoner  bT 
cut   oir,  than   the  Iiody   rose,  and  taking  np  |||p  l    ," 
walked    with    it    two   miles.     Portraits   of  ,«i,  Dt-'i 
carrying  his  head  in   his  hand,  abound  in  old  pmy'^ 
books.  "^  ■"' 

18.  The  day  of  Si.  J.ukt  the  F^vinienin,  iifeitiy^.i\ 
the  Church  of  England.  This  day  was  nprnintcd  tobel 
St.  Luke's  festival  in  the  twelfth  century. 

St.  Luke  was  usually  represented  in  the  act  nf  wrilinj  I 
with  an  ox  by  his  side,  having  wings  ami  large  homil 
The  natural  habit  of  this  animal  in  runiinnlinir  uiioniiil 
foiKl,  caused  it  to  !)«•  selected  as  an  emblcin  of  mpdiii,! 
tioii,  appropriate  to  this  evangelist.  At  Charlton  il 
village  near  HIackheatb,  about  eight  milcH  t'roin  Loiiiion  I 
a  fair  is  held  on  St.  Luke's  Day,  and  at  this  fair  ihetJ 
was  ke[)t  up  until  a  very  recent  [leriod  a  curioiis  ciiii™! 
originating  evidently  in  the  emblem  of  St,  Lukpl 
People  came  to  this  fair  masked  ;  the  mon  genfrijiil 

I  wore  women's  clothes;  nnd  many  bore  horns  uiiontlieirl 
heads.     It  was  a  B<'eiie  of  wild  riot  and  confnsion.    Thil 

I  booths  had   horns  of  various  animals,  gilt  and  ctherflijel 

I  for  sale,  onil  even  the  gingerbread  was  marked  vith  tlij|'| 

,  figure.  "  Horns  !  Horns  I"  was  the  universal  cry.  Tliel 
gentry  used  to  come  in  multitudes  to  see  the  sports  of  lijil 
occasion.     Some  fragments  of  n  slaincd-glahs  represenu.! 

{  tion  of  St.  Luke  and  his  horned  companion  still  eiiftjgl 

I  a  window  of  the  parish  church. 

I  25.  The  fesliviil  of  St.  Crisfiin  nnd  St.  Cr\>f\m\i 
The  name  of  St.  Crispin  is  in  the  Cluirch  of  Englaniil 

:  calendar.  Crispin  and  (^rispiiiian  are  said  to  havcb«nl 
two  Roman  youths  of  good  birth,  brothers,  who,  inttel 
third  centuiy,  went  as  (Jhrislian  missionaries  to  Fran(«,r 
and  preached  for  some  time  at  Soissons.     In  imitaljoiil 

j  of  St.  Paul,  they  KU|iiMirled  tIu'In^ielves  bv  wiirkini;  i|| 
the  trade  of  the  shoemaker  during  the  night,  while  thni 
preached  during  the  day.  They  were  siico'Nslulincoii.| 
verting  the  people  to  Christianity,  until  arrestwl  in  ihcjrl 

'  course  by  liictius  Varus,  governor  under  the  empcrorl 
Maximiaii    Hcrculeus.     Uiitler,   in   his  "  Lives  of  tliel 

I  Saints,"   says  :  "  They   were  victorious  over  this  nntl 

I  inhuman  ju<lge  by  the  patience  and  eoiisiani-y  Biil|l 
which  they  Isire  the   most   cruel   torments,  and  tiiiisWl 

i  their  course  by  the  sword  about  the  yeiir  2S7." 
two  young  martyrs  were  of  course  canonizod,  and  i 
HplendiJ  church  wns  built  to  their  honour  iit  Soissoni, in| 
the  sixth  century.  I'he  slioeinaker  '-raft  tliroiii;hout  the 
whole  Christian  world  have  from  an  early  period  %| 
garded  (Crispin  an<l  Crispiiiiun  as  their  natron  saint*,  hlT 
particularly  the  first.  They  often  celubralo  the  days 
apart  for  these  saints  in  the  calendar,  wiih  procostioni 
in  which  Crispin,  Crispiiiian,  an  Indian  (irinrc.  hhJhoih 
other  (jersonagea  whom  trailition  has  associated  wilhlkfiij 
history,  are  represeiitt-d  in  splendid  antique  droiscs.  Son*-! 
time*  a  coronation  of  Crispin  is  part  of  this  lordnonjj 
for  there  is  u  i.olion  that  he  w,.h  a  royal  iiernonan.r 
and  hence  we  find  the  .■"hwinakers,  in  Scothind  »t  leaslJ 
assuming  for  tlieir  arms  a  leather  knif«.  sunnountnl  'j;| 
a  crown,  and  styling  themselves  "  the  rnyal  crilt,'l 
Whither  tli'-y  celebrate  the  day  by  procession  or  not 
they  are  sure  to  distinguish  it  by  giving  thomsclreii  gpl 
for  the  time  ti  jollity. 

28.  The  iluy  of  .S7.  Simotx  and  St.  Juik,  a  festival  of  11 
English  Church.     Simon,  usually  surnamcd  the CinunJ 
ite,  remained  with   he  other  apostles  till  after  Pcnlccoil'| 


KEY  TO  THE  CALENDAR. 


ttft 


■  hMbfcl   HurtniRrd  thiit  he  yUitcd  Uritain,  and  there 

firred  inirtvrdoin.     Jude,  othi*rwiiie  called  Thiddcus, 

1  thouf(l>t  to  have  Nion  a  aon  of  Jowph  hy  a  former 

It  i«  (iii'l  '"  '"*''  ■ii'^i^red  martyrdom  in  Pernia. 

On  this  day.  formerly,  it  wbk  conniilnrod  pro|icr  to  iii- 

.     „intpr  veKtmonta.     It  was  alwa>i  expected  (o  In; 

nT.    A  chnractcr  in  an  old   play  called  the  A'corin^ 

Cr/  my*'  "  ^*  ^'"  "'  '  know  'twill  rnin  upon  Himon 

niJude'it  U'>y-"     In  another  production  of  f'        'iza- 

Mhtn  «laff<''   "O'no  one  oxclnimii,  "  Now  a  c.       lUal 

HnKKi  i»»l  Jiide'a   rain   boat   nil  your    fcuthcrH  oa  lint 

l.iwn  »s  iHiiifiil"'''-"     I'^rliiips  there  in  Homo  connection 

hiiwecn  tliii"  notion  and  the  enilitem  iitmiKned  to  the  day 

.     y  caliMidiirM,  niiinely,  a  nliip,  which  Hrenia   to  have 

^on  a(li<|>'<'''  i"  oonnlderatian  of  i^inion  and  Jude  having 

^n  tinhcrmen. 

V,i/«ivi/  lii-ilory- — DnrinR  thin  month,  the  avernire 
tfnineraturc  of  which  ia  49^^  dej^rcoa,  there  arc  UHually 
Jfoiiled  uyniptoms  of  the  oppronch  of  winter;  yet  the 
wMlher  of  the  month  is  often  of  n  atcudy  and  ogrecuhlc 
fharacter.  Bare  harvest  fields,  some  of  which  are  in 
ihc  wuriic  of  being  ploughed  for  winter  wlieat,  form  a 
tonipiciinu"  feature  of  external  nature.  The  foliage  of 
the  tt«o»  l)econio  changed  from  green  into  a  voricty  of 
linti,  which  ifives  the  womis  a  iM'autiful  appearance,  and 
ji  ctncriilly  admired,  although  felt  to  betoken  thot  they 
Iff  noon  to  l>e  stripped  of  their  summer  honours.  The 
mitrntorv  hi"'-'*  u»»emble,  and  commence  their  annual 
jji.ht  to  more  genial  climes — the  swallow  to  the  shores  of 
Afrim.  tlu!  nightingale  to  Lower  f'gypt,  and  the  pulfin 
indwme  others  either  to  Africa  or  to  Spain.  Towards 
llif  emi  of  ''"^  month,  if  high  winds  prevail,  the  trees  are 
ijooJ  dell  hiif'^-  '"  't^"  gardens  less  decline  is  to  be 
remirked.  The  llower-borders  still  have  a  gay  appear- 
infe;  the  hollyhock,  dnhlia,  and  some  other  flowers, 
bcinK  vet  ill  R*^*'  condition.  This  is  the  time  of  the 
bivins  up  of  potatoes.  In  England,  it  was  the  favourite 
time  for  brewing,  on  account  of  the  eauahle  temperature; 
ind  Octoher  is  a  secondary  name  for  Wb  yeoman's  brown 
JKtfnee.  In  this  month  the  gossamer  has  a  striking 
ippearance,  floating  like  an  ueriul  veil  over  the  fields,  and 
BMhing  the  passing  traveller. 

NOVEMnER, 

November  obtained  ita  name  from  In-ing  the  ninth 
Bonlh  ill  the  Koman  year,  before  the  reform  clTcctcd  by 
llasar.  Our  Saxon  ancestors  called  it  wint-numat  (wind 
nijnlh). 

1.  Jll  Sdintf'  Day,  a  festival  of  the  Romish  and 
English  churches — olherwiHo  called  jitl  Hnltmv  Day. 
The  evening  of  the  31st  Octolier  is  called  All  Hallow 
Even,  or  Hallow  E'eii,  as  being  the  vigil  or  eve  of  All 
Hallow  Uiiy.  Hallow-tide  is  a  comprehensive  name  for 
both  (Java,  The  Komish  Church  designed  this  day  to  l)e 
hflJin  iionoiir  of  nil  those  saints  who  had  not  particu- 
lai  (lays  appointed  for  them. 

It  does  not  ap])ettr  that  All   Saints'  Day  or  its  Eve, 
WM  ever  marked  by  very  particular  observance  in  the 
Cilholic  Church.     Nevertheless,  there  is  scarcely   any 
time  more  distinguished  by  the  common  people  through- 
out the  British  islands  than  All   Hallow  Tve  or  Hallow. 
j  e'en.    This  is  probalily  owing  to  the  fact  of  November 
l»t  having  been  one  of  the  four  grea'.  festivals  of  our 
Pajan  ancestors.     The  Ist  of  IVbrunry,  .ho  IslofMay, 
I  mil  the  first  of  .\ugU3t  were  the  other  three  ;  the  an- 
j  (ienl  names  of  the  two  latter  are  still  in  vogue — Beltane 
iiiil  Lammas.     These  four  days  were  ci'lebrated  by  the 
j  kinilling  of  fires  in  concpicuous  places,  and   performing 
j  certain  ceremonies.     The  tires  of  Ueltane  and  Lammas 
iv!»  nlreaJv  licen  spoken  of ;  it  is  probable  that  those  of 
the  February  fislival   are    kept   up  in    the    Canilteiimi 
Wii«,  with  A  slijht  chance  of  day.     Fires  were  kindled 
I  Bi  \V«!e«.  Irt'iand,  the  iSciittis-h  Highlands,  and  even  in 
Englind,  on  the  1st  of  November,  until  a  very  recent 


period ;  and  the  cuitom  may  itill  be  kept  i  p  In  mum  . 
remote  places. 

I'cnrant  states  as  foUowi: — "In  North  Wales  thora 
is  ■  custom  upon  All  Haints'  Eve  of  making  a  great  fir* 
called  Cotl  Cneih,  Every  family,  about  an  hour  in  th* 
night,  makes  a  great  bonflre  in  the  most  conipicuon* 
place  near  tlie  house,  and  when  it  is  almost  extinguishe<l« 
every  one  throws  a  white  stone  into  the  ashes,  having 
first  marked  it ;  then  having  said  their  prayers  turning 
round  the  fire,  they  go  to  bed.  In  the  morning,  as  soon 
as  they  are  up,  they  come  to  search  out  the  stones,  and 
if  any  of  them  are  found  wanting,  they  have  a  notion 
that  the  person  who  threw  it  in  will  die  before  ho  seei 
another  All  Hallow  Eve."  The  Welsh  also  practise 
many  of  those  rites  fur  divining  the  future,  which  ar« 
HO  prevalent  on  Hallowe'en  in  other  parts  of  the  United 
Kingdom.  It  is  mentioned  by  another  writer  that  they 
dance  round  and  jump  through  the  bonlires,  and  at  the 
conclusion  always  run  away  ••  to  escape  the  black  short 
fciiled  sow." 

(ieneral  Vallaneoy  states  that  the  Irish  have  now 
generally  substituted  a  candle  illumination  for  the  fireot 
the  Ist  of  November. 

The  Rev.  Mr.  Shaw,  in  his  "  History  of  Moray," 
written  in  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century,  speaks  of 
the  Hallow  Eve  fire  iH'ing  still  kindled  in  Buclmn.  In 
the  "  .Statistical  Account  of  Scotland,"  published  at  the 
close  of  the  century,  the  same  fire  is  spoken  of  os  kepi 
up  in  various  parts  of  the  Highlands.  In  the  parish  of 
Calleiidar  for  instance,  "  On  All  Saints'  Eve,  they  set 
up  bonlires  in  every  village.  When  the  bonfire  is  con- 
sumed, the  ashes  are  carefully  collected  in  the  form  of  a 
circle.  There  is  a  stone  put  in,  near  the  circumference, 
for  every  person  of  the  several  families  interested  in  the 
bonfire:  and  whatever  stone  is  moved  out  of  its  place, 
or  injured  before  the  next  morning,  the  person  repre- 
sented by  that  stone  is  devoted,  or  fry,  and  is  supposed 
not  to  live  twelve  months  from  that  day."  How  strange 
tlius  to  find  a  superstitious  custom  of  this  nature  exist- 
ing in  a  form  so  nearly  identical  in  Woles  and  Perth- 
shire. 

Several  writers  in  the  Oentleman's  Magazine,  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  last  century,  sjieak  of  Hollow  Eve  fireii 
being  still  kindled  in  various  parts  of  England,  chiefly 
by  persons  of  the  Catholic  persuasion.  The  i)ra(iice 
seems  to  have  lu'cn  to  carry  about  a  quantity  of  burning 
BtulV,  under  the  name  of  linky  or  linille. 

These  ceremonies  appear  to  be  among  the  earliest 
connected  with  the  1st  of  November.  They  are,  or  have 
recently  been,  everywhere  prevalent  throughout  these 
it'lands.  As  they  are  obviously  of  a  Pagan  charac- 
ter, wo  conclude  that  the  notability  of  this  season  is 
of  older  date  thon  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  and 
that  its  character  as  All  Saints'  Day  hos  comparatively 
little  alVeeted  the  po])ular  mind. 

Wo   have  notices  from  both  Perthshire  and  Ireland 

of  the  1st  of  Novendicr  being  partly  regarded  as  the  prcK 

per  time  for  returning  thanks  for  the  realized  fruits  of 

1  the  earth.     The   Irish,  in  this  regard,  called  it  La  Mas 

I  Utih'it,  that  is.  the  day  of  the  apple  fruit,  and  celebrated 

i  it  with  a  drink  or  mess   composed  of  bruised   roasted 

!  apples  among  ale  or  milk.     This  drink  in  time  n'i|Uired 

the  strange  appellation  of  Invib'n  uoni,  a  corruption,  appa- 

'  renlly,  of  the  name  of  the  day  in  the  Celtic  langnapc. 

Hinging  of  Ih'IIs  was  one  of  the  modes  of  celebrating 

Hallowmas  in   England  in  the  days  of  our  tiiivstors. 

It  was  a  Roman  Catholic    practice,  being  designed   in 

some  way  to  favour  the   souls  of  departed  Chiistians. 

For  this  reason  Queen  Elizabeth  prohibited  ii. 

I       It  was   also  a  custom    of  out  Catholic  fof  fartiers  to 

have  0  cake  bakcn  on  this  eve  for  every  member  of  the 

'  fa  mil  V,  as  a  foul   muss  cake  or  imd  caKi",     It  was  cum- 

'  posi'tl  of  oatmeal,  and  seeded;  anu  pasties  and  turm«',y 

1  were   iiieidentul  to  the  tame  evening.     In  faniilits  of 


7N 


INFORMATION    FOR   THK   PKOPI.R. 


§ooA  roti'lillon,  a  qntintity  were  hnken  iiml  »«t  up  nn  • 
hoard,  liko  the  ihcw-hrpuil  in  old  plrturea  in  the  Bilile, 
to  ha  given  to  viiiitrr«,  or  diiitrihutml  ainonR  the  pcmr. 
There  wan  a  ryhme  for  the  lyrmiion — "  A  noul  cake  ! 
•  miul  rnke!  Hnve  mrrry  on  all  ('hristian  iniilii  for  a 
•oul  coke  I "  People  wnnl  from  pariih  to  parinh  (i-<om/- 
iHn,  an  they  called  it,  thnt  ia,  hei;i(ini(  in  a  kind  of  chant 
for  «onl-<-akeii,  or  any  thinif  to  make  them  merry  on  thin 
eve.  It  ia  very  ciirioua  to  find  thiit  a  century  and  a 
h.ilf  aiir" 'Ix*  inhahitiinta  of  Ht.  Kilda,  no  far  removed  from 
all  other  part-i  of  Dritain,  had  a  cimlDm  of  baking  n  larife 
Irianifular  cake,  furrowed  on  the  edgea,  on  All  Haintn' 
Niuht. 

Rmenlially  connected  with  nil  these  cuntomn  are  ihode 
hetler  known  onea  which  HurnH  hn«  »o  well  and  «o 
faithfully  dexcrihed  in  his  poem  of  Hnllmrifn.  All  over 
the  Britiih  ialamla,  the  feHtive  and  fortuiie-teilinfi  [irae- 
lieea  of  thia  cvenini?  ore  very  nearly  the  aamc.  As 
eome  proof  of  this,  panani^es  from  an  Kni^liah,  Irish,  and 
He ottish  poet  may  be  presented  side  by  «idf : — 

Two  lia/L'l-iiuisI  ilirew  into  iho  (lami-, 
And  to  I'sch  nut  I  (pivr  n  swppitipnrt's  pnmc  ; 
This  wilfi  Ihn  lou(lt^:it  tioiinec  inr  iortt  ainn/.ei1. 
That  III  a  lluinu  ol  hriKliliat  colour  IiIk/imI, 
A^  l)Iii/r'(l  tlir  nut,  so  Miriv  ihv  p'lsn on  ^row, 
For'iwaa  thy  niil  llint  iliii  lo  lirighlly  |;lnw. 

rA<  SptU,  by  Oay. 

The«e  irlowing  nuts  are  einbldr:!  true 
Of  whnt  in  huinnn  li.'o  wr  virw  : 
Ths  ill-mnt(-h>-(l  coupin  fri't  ami  I'unij, 
A'lil  Ihua  in  •Iril'u  tiieniaulven  I'mi'iiti"*! 
Or  from  cacli  otlifr  wildly  aturt, 
Anil  With  a  none  lor  fver  |iiiri. 
lint  sra  the  happy,  happy  pair, 
Of  t^fniiinc  lov>>  unil  iniili  sinrere; 
With  mutnnl  fomlness.  whih'  ihoy  burn. 
Still  luearh  oilier  kindly  turn; 
Anil  as  the  vital  upHrka  il(*i>ay, 
Tok'i'ilii'riji'nily  sink  iiwiiy: 
Till  lifu's  ftfrcr  onli'iil  hemff  past. 
Their  ining1<!il  ashes  real  ni  last. 
Nuu-Burninti,  AU  Halloiotve,  by  Charlts  Oraydon. 

Jean  slips  In  twn  wi'  tentle  ee, 

Wha  'tw\s  sli«  wailna  tell 
Bui  this  is  Jo  k    lut  this  is  me, 

She  anvH  I'lio  !ici«cl' ; 
He  hirr/.ed  t)wre  hfr,  mil  she  owre  him, 

As  thny  wart  ne'er  mair  part. 
Till  futr:  he  stiirteil  up  the  luin. 

And  Jean  liail  e'en  n  snir  heart 
To  sce'i  that  niirlil. 

—HaUowtn,  by  Suma. 

Nuti,  besides  being  thus  iiaed  for  divination,  iirc  cracked 
'and  eaten;  and  hence,  in  the  north  of  England,  All 
Hallow  Eve  is  often  called  XiU-mnk  .Vii{/i'.  Apples 
arc  also  extensively  eaten,  thiH  cunsumpt  of  fruit  having 
probably  some  reference  to  the  heathen  cliarhcter  of  the 
day,  u  that  of  thanksgiving  for  (he  produce  of  the  aea- 
•on.  The  fortune-telling  customs  described  by  Buriia, 
beside*  the  above,  are — for  the  girls  lo  ])ull  stalks  from 
a  corn-stalk,  and  ascertain,  from  the  presence  or  alwcnce 
of  the  top  pickle,  an  interesting  ]K)int  in  their  moral 
history — for  a  solitary  female  to  go  to  a  kiln,  and  throw- 
ing a  blue  clue  into  the  pot  to  wind  it,  expecling  that 
■ire  finiahed  it  will  be  held  back,  when,  by  inquiring  who 
llolJs,  a  response  will  be  olitiiiiied  diiK'losing  the  name  of 
the  future  huHbaiid — to  ent  an  apple  at  a  looking-glass, 
expecting  to  see  a  vision  of  the  future  husband  peeping 
over  the  shoulder — to  sow  hemp-seed  in  the  yard,  say- 
ing, "  Hcmi>-«eed,  I  saw  thee,  hein|)-8eed,  I  saw  thee,  and 
her  thit  is  to  be  my  true  lovo  come  after  me  and  draw 
thoe,"  expecting  that,  on  looking  over  the  shoulder,  a 
*i«i  in  will  be  obtained  of  the  future  spouse  in  the  act  of 
pulling  grown  hemp — to  win  three  wechts  o'  nacthing 
in  the  bare,  expecting  to  see  a  like  visinn — to  fathom  a 
barley-stack  thrice,  expecting  at  the  Inst  to  embrace  your 
mistress — to  dip  a  shirt  sleeve  in  ii  rivulet  at  the  meet- 
ing point  of  the  lands  of  three  proprietors,  and  then  hang 
it  by  the  lr«  to  dry,  trusting  to  see  such  a  visionary  per- 
iMi  come  in  and  turn  the  other  lidu — to  pull  stalka  of 


deceased  cabbages,  blindfolded,  without  choice,  no  nnt 
from  their  slraightnesa  or  crookednei\  tha  figure  of  U  ' 
future  spouse,  frmn  the  earth  which  clings  tp  the  ,J? 
the  fortune  she  will  bring,  and  from  the  taste  of  the  heirl! 
her  temper — finally,  to  set  three  dishes  on  the  floor  oi„ 
empty,  one  with  clean,  and  one  with  foul  water  an  I 
cause  the  company  to  approach  them  lilindfoM,.,!  mi] 
dip  in  a  hand ,  when  he  who  dips  in  tlie  empty  onr  Ji 
exi>ected  to  remain  unmarried,  he  who  di|>*  in  tht  fiiul 
one  to  marry  to  a  widow,  and  he  who  dips  ;n  the  rlmn 
one  to  marry  a  female  not  hitherto  married.  The  whols 
of  these  rites  are  as  familiar  to  the  Welsh,  Insh,  mil 
Northumbrian,  as  to  the  ,\yrshire  iieasantry.  Many  of 
them  arc  also  practised  in  England  on  St  John'iEveL 
the  23d  of  June.  ^ 

Iliillowe'en  is  still  observed,  but  the  more  daring  rilci 
are   generally  given   up.     Meetings   of  young  per*,,,, 
lake  place,  and  a  plentiful  store  of  nuts  and  apples  Is'lnn 
provided,  a  few  simple  amusements  are  praetiseil.    Th, 
experiment  of  the  burning  nuts,  to  test  the  iluriitioii  of 
lovo  or  friendship,  is  still  a  favourite.    Ducking  forauiilM 
is  another.     A  tub  lieing  provided,  nearly  full  of  water 
and  the  fruit  thrown  in,  the  young  [H-upIc  endeavour  iii 
H«>i7e   an  apple  with   their  teeth — a  task  of  much  more 
difficulty  than  might  be  supposed,  and  which  grnprnllr 
puts  the  dress  and  tresses  of  fair   ex|H;riim'iilali»t»  into 
considerable  disorder.     The  bnflled  etturts  of  the  varioui 
parties  raise,ofcoune,ihouts  of  laughter.  Or  a  croai  stick 
is  suspended   by  a  string  from  the  ceiling,  with  a  tliott 
burning  candle  on  one  end  and  an  apple  on  the  iiher, 
While  it  swings  lapidly  round,  lads  and  lasses,  with  their 
hands  tied,  endeavour  to  catch  the  apple  with  their  teeth 
but  generally  suirer  a  goixl   deal  from  the  ciinillc  belbrt 
they   succecil  in   their   object.     Here,  also,  failure  is  i 
source  of  infinite  amusement.     It  is  rather  remarkabla 
that  Burns  has  not  introduced  into  his  poem  any  notice 
of  these  H[x>rls,  which,  like  the  others,  arc  prevalent otM 
the  whole  of  her  Majesty's  home  dominions.    It  mij 
not  be  out  of  plnW  here  to  remark,  that  the  jest  of  the 
apple  and  candle  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  quin- 
tain, a  favourite  sport  of  our  ancestors,  commonly  prac- 
tised in  summer.     The  quintain  was  a  heroic  figure  of 
wood,  on  a  vertical  pivot,  used  as  a  bull  for  the  praclji?*  i 
of  tilting.     In  this  case  it  hud  a  cross  board,  one  end  of 
which  was  broad,  while  the  other  was  furnished  with  i 
heavy  bag  of  sand.     The  trick  was,  to  come  tilt  i^m 
the  broad  end,  and  escape  receiving  a  knock-down  bioir  | 
from  the  saiid-bag. 

2.  ^tt-S(tul.i'  Day,  or  the  Coinmemnritlinn  of  Ihi  Fuiit-  I 
ful  Dcptirteil. — A    very  solemn  festival  of  the  Romish 
Church,  which  has  musses  and  ceremonies  appropriale 
to  the  occasion,  designed  in  favour  of  the  souls  of  alllhe  | 
dead.     "  Odillon,  Abbot  of  (^liiny,  in  the  ninth  cptilurr, 
first  enjoined  the  ceremony  of  prayinp  for  the  dead  on ' 
this  day  in  his  own  monastery ;  and  the  like  praclict  I 
was  partially  adopted  by  other  religious  houses  until  lh( 
year  !)98,  when  it  was  eslalilishcd  as  a  general  fcslnjJ 
throughout  the  western  churches.     To  mark  the  pii'- 1 
eminent   importance  of  this  festival,  if  it  happened  onj 
Sunday,  it  was  nut  postponed  to  the  Monday,  as  was  the 
case  with  other  such  solemnitieB,  but  kept  on  the  Satur- 
day, in  order  that  the  chiinh  ni^hl  ihc  Kxnier  aiJtkiuf-l 
/mii-f  simis  :  and  that  the  dead  miclit  have  every  heiiflit 
from  the  pious  exertions  of  the  living,  the  rcinembranrt  I 
of  this  ordinance  was   kept  u|)  by  persons  drinsed  ii  I 
black,  who  went    round  the  ditlerent  towns,  ritiijiiig  1 1 
loud   and  ilismal-toiied  liell  at  the  corner  of  each  stiwt  I 
every  Sunday  evening  during  the   month,  and  callinjl 
upon  the  inhabitants  to  remcnil>er  the  deceased  sulTeriiig  [ 
the  expiatory  flames  of  Purgatory,  and  to  join  in  pi«jw*l 
for  the  repose  of  their  souls."'*  [ 

6.  The  anniversary  of  the  discovery  of  the  Gunpowi«  I 


•  "Drady'i  Clavis  Calendaria." 


flM  in  lAOft,  and  i 
ki  |M^;  observed  ir 
ind  eelehriited  by  tl 
pnysr  with  thanksg 
hrslinn  of  this  day. 
iMut  collecting  mat 
irilh  to  purchase  thr 
t,Vy  rurrioil  with  tin 
nld  suit  of  clothes  si 
Fiwkfi-  They  call 
holders  to"  remeinlie 
rhymes.  In  the  cv 
(!uy  Fiiwkes  ill  the 
mfriimi-nt.  The  fir; 
we  are  glad  to  say. 
ind  wo  trust  the  utiii 
Jirajipe.ir. 

II,  Si.  Mtirtiii'M   I 

of  Eni(hiiid  ealeiidar. 

n^marknlile  days  of  lli 

Whitsimilay  and  Miii 

leiies  and  engagemei 

It  which  the  occiipa 

Formerly,  it  was  a  (\ 

payment  of  corn  at  \ 

Survey.    On  the  con 

has  been  distinguishe 

for  two  reasons,  nami 

ihr  wines  of  the  scasi 

to  be  salted  for  their  m 

these  animals,  prepan 

hecame  the  subject  of 

of  the  meat  was  salted 

al«,  the  goose,  which 

m,is,  was  now  present! 

tininas  for  winter   pri 

northern   Europe,  in 

means  of  keeping  Ihij 

provcMient  of  husband 

has  lecn  given  up,  i 

round.    The  feasting 

rersol.    So  much  was 

that  in  Scotland  a  bee 

mrl  or  miirl.     In  thi 

opously]  to  David  I.  o 

Di'ihours  sail   serve  t 

ilauchter  of  Muirlt." 

llamas  bullock  is  callc 

metrical  treatise  on  h 

Henry  VIII.,  says — 

Wlien  I'-aater  coi 
Tliiit  veal  and  |,i 
And  Martinmas  I 
When  country  Ii 

Bishop  Hall,  in  his  Su 
I.,  mentions 

Dried  llitrhes 

Hanged  on  a  wriih 

It  appears  that  the  ci 
in  Ennlaiid,  were  com 
ind  there  was  an  en 
tliat  '•Mood  nilhout  i 
hirlh  without  fortune 
liieemi  of  the  last  cen 
Ihe  poorest  condition 
tthieh  had  not  a  "kiiV, 
was  the  only  food  of  ll 
iano  such  practice  kiiii 
Martin,  in  whose  h 
itituleil,  is  said  to  hav 
iboutSlfi,  and  lohav 
inumlicr  of  iiiiraculm 
ait  in  the  hoi'  uw  of  i 


T<»  THE  CAI.     SDAR. 


flal  in  ICOIS,  anil  of  the  Umlinn  of  KinK  W  „Mn  III. 
|i,|(IK4;  ohMprved  in  tli<t  Dritiith  ilDininloti-  n  >May, 

ind  celi^hriitTfl  by  the  ('hiirrli  of  Riinlaiul  liy  .rtn  of 
pnytr  with  lhaniiii(nvin(f.  'I'licro  in  alio  a  popular  rcle- 
hrntinn  of  thia  ilay.  Fnirii  iiii  early  hour,  tlin  boyH  ^o 
ihout  eollci'tiiiu  timtoriala  for  a  lioiiflrt',  or  money  wliere- 
«{lh  to  iinrchttno  thorn.  In  Home,  [iprhapa  moiit  plarra, 
l>ifV  rurrioil  with  them  a  frii^litfiil  fin'iro  rornpiwiMl  of  an 
oil!  unit  of  rIolhi'H  HlulliMi  with  utraw,  to  rcprrwiit  (Suy 
Fawlcfi'  They  cnllecl  on  thn  purtM'iiKerH  iinil  hoiine- 
huldfm  to"  remeinlier  fJiiy,"  or  hIiouIuiI  Home  huldenliiHh 
r!iymf«.  In  'he  evening,  the  lioiirtre  in  hi^htol  «vilh 
liuv  Pitwket  ill  the  miilille  of  it,  nmiilst  liiiniilliioim 
jifTiimi'tit.  The  firinij  of  (jmm  in  u  token  of  rejoieinij, 
wi'  «ri!  n'li'l  t"  *'>.V.  i"  now  (lisennliiiued  on  this  day, 
in<lwo  triiHt  the  otlier  ah.iurd  uaagoi  will  soon  likewise 
ji«ii|ipMr. 

11.  Si.  Martini  Jhiy,  or  Mintinnmn,  in  the  Church 
ofEnnl;ind  calendar.  Popularly,  thij  in  ono  of  the  moHt 
romnrknhlf  days  of  the  year,  CHiiecinily  in  Hrotlnnd,  whore 
WhitJiinday  and  Mnrlinmiif  are  the  two  threat  terms  for 
Ifuw  and  enffaxement  of  servants,  tho  latter  lieing  Ihit 
It  which  the  occupation  of  farnin  imunlly  commences. 
Fotmerly,  it  was  a  iiuarlorly  term  day  in  England :  a 
niyinenl  of  corn  at  Martinmas  occurs  in  the  Doomsday 
Survey.  On  the  continent,  from  an  early  ago,  the  day 
hw  lieen  dintingnished  convivially  ;  and  this  apparently 
for  two  reasons,  namely,  that  now  the  people  first  tasted 
the  wines  of  the  season,  and  killed  the  aniiiiaU  re(iuired 
to  be  milted  for  their  winter  provisions.  'I'hc  entniils  of 
thcw  apimala,  prepared  as  sausat^es,  or  l)loo<l-|)uddings, 
liecame  the  suhject  of  an  immediate  (i-ast,  while  the  rest 
of  the  moat  was  salted  and  set  aside.  In  some  countries, 
iIjo,  the  goose,  which  is  elsewhere  enjoyed  at  Michael- 
mn,  was  now  presented.  The  killing  of  heevcs  at  Mar- 
tinmas for  winter  provision  was  formerly  universal  in 
norlhcrn  Europe,  in  consequence  of  there  lieing  no 
means  of  keeping  them  alive  in  winter;  since  tho  im- 
provciiicnt  of  husbandry  in  some  countries,  the  custom 
hii  teen  given  up,  and  fresh  meat  used  all  the  year 
round.  The  feasting  upon  tho  entrails  was  equally  uni- 
teriul.  So  much  was  all  this  associated  with  Martinmas, 
that  in  Scotland  a  heevo  killed  ut  that  time  was  called  a 
Mr(  or  m  lir^  In  the  old  hook  of  laws  attributed  (crro- 
tipously)  to  David  I.  of  Scotland,  it  is  provided  that  "the 
ll.'shours  sail  serve  the  burgesses  all  the  time  of  the 
ilauchter  of  Mnirtt."  In  N'urthumlH-rlund,  also,  a  Mar- 
llninas  buUook  is  called  a  mtirl.  Tusser,  in  his  curious 
metrical  tn'atise  on  husbandry,  written  in  the  time  of 
Henry  VIII.,  says — 

Wlipn  I'.astcr  comi-s.  who  knows  not  than 
Tliiit  vi'nl  and  Imroii  is  tin'  iniiii? 
And  Martinmas  (<«/iloth  liciir  R(x)i1  tack, 
Wlien  cuuntry  tbiks  do  dainliea  lack. 

Riihop  Hull,  in  bis  Satires,  written  in  the  time  of  Jamoa 

I.,  mentions 

Dried  flitches  of  some  smoked  hceve, 

Hanged  on  a  wriilien  w>  thu  since  Martin's  nt. 

It  appears  that  the  contents  of  the  puddings,  as  made 
in  England,  wore  composed  of  blood,  suel,  and  groats ; 
ind  there  was  an  enigmatical  proverb  thence  arising, 
that  "Mood  without  groats  was  nothing,"  meaning  that 
birth  without  fortutie  was  of  little  value.  Down  to  near 
llieend  of  the  last  century  there  was  not  a  family  above 
ihe  poorest  coiulition  in  the  lurnl  districts  of  Scotland 
which  had  not  a  miirl,  or  a  i:ha'  c  in  one,  and  soiled  mtat 
was  the  only  food  of  the  kind  used  in  winter;  now,  tlvrc 
is  no  such  practice  known,  except  os  a  matter  of  trailitiun. 
Martin,  in  whose  honour  this  festival  was  at  first  in- 
•tilutcd,  is  said  to  have  Iwen  born  in  Lower  Hungary 
iboutSlB,  and  to  have  originally  been  a  soldier.  After 
inumlicr  of  miraculous  adventures,  he  settled  as  n  lier- 
Diit  in  the  hol'ow  of  u  ruck  iieur  Tours  in  the  south  of 


Kraii  whMH  hf  w«»  greatly  Tener»»e<t  ,  '  bishop 
ofTt  a  in  397.  ^  hwn  •  few  fin'  Imysu  ,,  i  iIomiI 
tikis         e    of   tho  ',    iJJwy    »•«•      ^iW    ci.    At  rtm't 


83.  W.  rUnu, 
lendar,  ('lemeii 
his  fellow-lttlinur' 
him  with  a  hisi 
have  lieen  thrown  ii 


•jHifcaii  nf 

Monkish  ii. 
^nd  >   maM< 


»«k  of  Rii:  Aodra' 

iit,  Paul  as  one  of 

iiMitJiMi  has  supplied 

I. Ills.     He  is  said  to 


o 'hi'  sMwiii  an  anchor  fixed  about 
his  nei'k.  An  umboi  tlierefuir  iMsjgnod  tu  him  as  an 
emblem :  of  this  the  metropolis  presents  a  ronspicuous 
memorial  in  Ihe  anchor  which  forms  tha  vane  of  the 
churcJi  of  St.  (,'leiiieiit  Danes,  in  the  Strand.  8t.  Cle- 
ment is  held  as  llie  patron  saint  of  the  blacksmiths.  It 
was  foriiierly  customary  for  boys,  and  the  lower  class  of 
people  generally,  to  go  about  on  this  day  liegging  for 
liquor,  wherewith  they  made  a  regale  at  night.  Hence, 
in  a  certain  class  of  old  almanacs,  tho  day  was  signified 
by  the  llgure  of  a  [lot. 

20.  This  is  one  of  the  days  on  which  Jidvmt  may 
commence.  Advent  [lilerally,  the  Coming]  is  a  term 
applied  from  an  early  periisi  of  ecclesiastical  history  to 
the  four  weeks  preceding  ('hristriiiis,  which  'vere  oli- 
served  with  penance  and  devotion,  in  reference  to  tho 
approaching  birth  of  (.'hrist.  There  are  four  Sunday* 
ill  Advent,  the  first  of  which  is  always  tho  nearest  Sun 
day  to  SL  Andrew's  Day  (Novcmlier  30). 

30.  .SV.  JIailrcw'ii  Day. — The  festival  day  of  this  saint 
is  retained  in  the  ('hurch  of  England  calendar.  St. 
Andrew  was  ono  of  the  apostles.  His  history,  as  related 
by  tho  Catholic  writers,  represents  him  as  martyred  in 
the  year  00  at  Patrie  in  Greece,  upon  a  cross  of  the  form 
of  the  letter  X,  which  accordingly  is  still  recognised  as 
St.  Andrew's  Cross.  A  supposed  relic  of  this  croi's, 
carried  to  Brussels  in  the  middle  ages,  caused  its  figure 
to  lie  adopted  as  a  badge  for  the  knights  of  the  Gold>'ii 
Fleece.  Some  relics  of  the  apostle  himself  are  said  to 
have  been  carried  by  a  (treek  devotee  named  St.  R-giv- 
lus,  to  Scotland,  where  they  were  placed  in  a  church 
built  at  a  place  which  subsequently  liccanie  disiingiiished 
by  the  name  of  St.  Andrews.  St.  Andrews  became  tho 
scat  of  the  Scottish  primacy ;  and  from  this  cause  pro. 
bahly  it  was  that  St.  .\ndrew  was  in  time  considered  as 
Ihe  patron  saint  of  Scotland.  In  that  country,  however, 
there  is  scarcely  any  observance  of  this  day  in  any  man- 
ner; it  is  only  when  Scotsmen  are  abroad,  and  have  oc- 
casion to  select  a  day  for  an  annual  convivial  meeting, 
that  St.  Andrew's  Day  comes  into  notice.  There  used 
to  be  a  procession  of  Scotsmen  on  this  day  in  London, 
with  singed  sheeps'  heads  borne  before  them.  It  is  re- 
markable that  St.  Andrew  is  also  a  tutelar  saint  of  the 
Hussiaiis,  probably  in  consequence  of  tho  Greek  locality 
of  his  martyrdom.  There  is  an  ancient  and  widely  pre- 
valent custom  connected  with  St,  Andrew's  day,  to  which 
Luther  has  adverted.  Maidens,  on  the  eve  of  this  day, 
stripped  themselves,  and  sought  to  learn  what  sort  (A 
husbands  they  were  to  have  by  praying  in  these  term*— 
"  I5h,  St.  Andrew,  cause  that  I  obtain  a  good  pious  hu» 
band ;  to-night  show  me  the  figure  of  the  man  who  w  ! 
tiike  ine  to  wife." 

Nalurnl  History. — In  this  month  the  business  of  vege- 
tation experiences  its  death.     Tho  trees  are  now  tho 
roughly  stripped  of  their   foliage.     It   is  reputed  as  a 
gloomy  month ;  but  the  temperature  is  sometimes  agree- 
able in  the  earlier  part  of  it,  and  its  average  for  the  whole 
term  is  43  degrees.     A  considerable   numlier  of  plants 
remain  in  flower  throughout  November.     The  gloom  of 
ihe  month    is  said  to  have  a  depressing  cflect   on  Ihe 
spirits  of  the  English  nation;  let  those  who  arc  liable  to 
such   intlueiices  lay  to  heart  the  following  remarks  of 
Johnson  in  the  "Idler:" — "I'lie  distinction  ofscawins  ia 
I  produced  only  by  imagination  acting  upon  lu.xury.     Tu 
i  teiiiperunce  every  day  is  bright,  and  every  hour  is  pro- 
I  pitious  tu  diligence.     He  that  resolutely  excites  his  facul< 


■-;■■ 

.1. 

,«< 

f1 

^' 

l 

1 

m 

Sufi 

m 

wo 


INFORMATION    FOR  THK   PF.O/'I,B. 


Urn,  iiT  rxf  rti  hi*  viriUM,  will  •nun  inaka  himMlf  ■up«> 
tiiir  ^)  Ihn  wMoiia,  anil  iiiny  ft  ■!  ilrniiiirn  (ha  mnrniiiH 
Iniat  niiil  Itic  rvoiiiiiK  lUiiip,  llii*  liliah  of  tliK  cniil  •ml 
lhi<  rliMidn  III'  tliit  *>iiith.  Iiialruil  i)f  liMikiiig  lor  •|iriiiK 
Willi  •iiiiiiiu  mill  caritiic  iiiiiul,  rnjuy  lliv  pri'M'iit  lUy  ; 
thvrt  mto  |ilt't«urea  even  in  NovrinlHsr." 

DircMnieii. 
80  rallril  •«  IwiiiK  oriKiiiiiliy  thf  ititih  of  thn  Riinian 
ycor.  Our  Ani{l<>-Mu(nn  ■iicolDrK  mili'il  Di'cciiiIht 
UMitii  monal,  lliat  i»  wiiitrr  iiiniilli ;  liut,  atVr  liii  oiii- 
ing  itc-i|uiiiiil(>d  with  ('hriatiuiiily.  thiit  iiamo  wm  chaiiKi'il 
inlii  Ar/l^■/l  mimnl,  or  holy  riioiilh,  with  ri'lcri-iicK  Ip  the 
Oi'h'hratioii  uf  (ho  nativity  uii  iU  (wtfii(y-lil\h  day. 

6.  St,  A'ii /io/(i»'«  Day. — Ki>laiiicil  in  (hi*  Chiin-h  of 
EiikUiiiI  I'alfiKJnr,  Mt,  Nii'lmliiK  wum  Archl)iiili'>|i  of 
Myra,  in  (irrere,  *,  11.  'M't.  H«  i»  ri'){iinli->l  »»  (In- 
patron  Niiiit  of  cliililrrii  mul  of  iimriiiora,  prol'iihly  in 
a»n«"niipnrc  of  hi"  iM'ncnilciit  /.rnl  in  the  priilri'iion  of 
orphiiiiH  ami  alninili'il  wiiiiirn.  Churclipa  linilt  near  tlit^ 
aeii  lire  in  in;iny  iimtaiu'cH  ilt'dicultd  to  Ht.  N'irholiiN.  lie 
IR  aJMi  mid  til  hiivo  iihown  much  kind  intorcitl  in  (he 
fate  of  yountf  wornrn,  Hiimr(iini-M  Hccrrtly  throwinii 
piirxi>4  into  the  rhanilxT-windowii  of  lluiiw'  who  linked 
diiwrii'K.  Hcnro  haa  nriM>n  a  rnxtnni  prrvuli'iit  oNpr  a 
Uri;i<  |iart  of  the  ('hriDlian  world.  On  hi«  cvr,  |iri-ii<Miti« 
arp  hid  in  the  ahoe*  of  thow  to  whom  nny  one  winhi'ii 
toi(ivi<  a  iili'iminu  Huriiriiu' ;  iind  llicm',  \k\uh  found  in  the 
niorniiiK,  lire  jiiruliirly  "aid  to  In'  i;ittM  from  Ht,  Nirholu". 
Mt.  .Nichiiluii  i"  hIho  (■iiii"iilrrpd  int  tin*  Intcliir  Huint  of 
arhnl'ir",  or  rlurk",  nnd  of  roMHTH.  'I'he  fratrrnity  of 
pnriHh-i'li-rk*  have  thoui(ht  tliiMiiiw.'Ki<"  rntilird  \>\  their 
nnmi-  to  udnjit  liiiii  n»  their  |>nlroN.  Ilou  rolilNT"  "hoiild 
have  coiiie  to  In  rnlled  Hu  Nirliolus'H  clerk",  or  !St.  Ni- 
cholaH'"  knii^hta,  it  ia  not  rnxy  to  "ee,  unless  it  were  from 
the  coincidence  of  hia  name  with  one  of  the  Manin  appel- 
lation" of  the  devil. 

Throughout  the  middle  aKC",  there  waa  a  nnivermil 
euiitoni  of  eleclinK  a  kind  of  iniM'k  liislmp  on  Ht.  IVicho 
laii'«  Day.  A  lioy,  |io""ilily  taken  from  anions  the  cho- 
rialet",  wa"  rhoMwi  hy  hi"  aHsocialen  an  lii"hop,  arrayed 
in  auitalile  ventlnenta,  and  endued  with  appropriate 
powers,  which  ho  cnjoye<l  for  Home  day".  The  infant 
prelate  was  led  iilonff  in  a  ifay  proocMHion,  IdeMinK  the  |{rin- 
nini;  multitude  a"  he  went,  and  he  was  even  allowed  to 
•ing  maiw  and  to  mount  the  pulpit  and  preach.  Eilivanl 
I.,  in  hia  way  to  Heolland,  in  12'J'J,  heard  vcnint"  liy  a 
hoy  liiHhop  at  the  cha|H>l  of  Hiton,  near  .Newianlle. 
The  Imy  liiNhop  at  HaliHhury  i"  Maid  to  have  had  the 
jHiwer  of  diapoainK  of  any  prelx-iid"  that  fell  vacant 
during  hia  term  of  ofTice  ;  and  one  who  died  at  that 
lime  had  a  monument  in  the  cathedral,  re[ireM'iitini{  him 
in  hi"  epiHcopHl  rolien.  Mr.  Wharton  ia  of  opinion  that 
we  aee  aome  faint  trace"  of  the  ri"e  of  dramatic  enler- 
tainnienta  in  the  atranitu  niumnicrie"  connected  with  the 
election  of  the  Uoy  UiHhop. 

8.  Thf  ('(iiurpiiiintit'  ike  HUsted  firgin,  in  the  I{omi»h 
•nd  Knitlish  calendar". 

11.  The  fourteen  day"  from  thi«  to  (^hristma"  ?]ve 
were  cuied  the  Unlnjon  Oinjf,  unil  HUppoRed  to  he,  in 
their  cami  and  tranquil  character,  an  exception  from  the 
•raiuin.  'I'he  ti'rin,  which  in  now  a  rei;ular  adjective  in 
uur  lanifiiai^,  ia  derived  from  the  liinl  kinu-lHlier  or 
halcyon,  which,  from  the  days  of  .Xrislotle  at  leiisl,  has 
been  the  "uhject  of  a  ciiriou"  xuperstition.  'i'he  ancients 
aupposed  that  it  huilt  its  nest  on  the  ocean,  and  hrouuht 
forth  it"  youns  at  the  winter  "olnlice.  To  account  for 
Ihe  pn!Nrrvation  of  the  nest  and  youiiK  umidst  the 
aoverity  of  the  aeuaon,  they  imaKined  that  the  liiril  hud 
■  |M>wcr  of  lulling  the  rai;iin;  of  the  wuvea  iluriiii{  the 
|icriix.'.  of  incubation;  and  tliia  power  waa  believed  to 
raaide  in  ita  aairi;. 

>3.  St,  Liuia'i  Pay — Retained  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 


'  l«llJ  calendar.     »t.  I-uria  waa  •  jowg  lady  of  HyrvuM, 
who   ohtuined  a  hinh  char«c(rr  for  a  drwiut  »,|Il  |,| 
table  life,  and  died  in  (he  year  3(»4.     The  la«li.|i|„'f"* 
•erieii  of  Kml>er   Ilnya  coniiiieneva  on  the  VVeUn,,?"' 
folliiwiiiK  (hia  feadval. 
I       Ifi,  0  .v.//)irH/ii/, — Thi"  day  i»  BO  marked  in  th<<  churfk 
calendar,  probably  from  an  nnlhem  auiii;  on  thii  di, 
j  the  Hiimi"h  (Miurch,  beKinnnig,  "O  "Hpienlia  <|u»ai»Jl 

altisaimi  prmlidiNti,"  Ac. 
I      SI,  St,  TlmvMt  Ihr  .IfiKtilf,  n   featival  of  the   Enili  h 
('hnrch,     I(  waa  cuntoinary  in  Kiiirlnnd  for  Wiuurn  In 
o-ifii.../i«<  on  HI,  Thoma"'"  l»«y  ;  lhn(  1»,  (hey  wem  ,|l„''i  I 
la-KifiiiK  money,  and   prewnlinv  in  reivirn  "pri^n  of  .^i- 
and   bnnehea  of  priinroNc*,  probiiMv   with  a  view  to  ilu 
decoration  of  their  house*  ai(ainst  I  urintninn, 

3S,  ('him'iiiiii  Ihiij,  observed  from  an  curly  p«rii)(|  u  1 
the  nativity  of  o.ir  Lord,  and  celebmled  mil  imly  |,y  ,|„ 
reli((iou"  ceremonle*  from  which  the  name  of  \\\f  ,|n  :. 
partly  taken,  but  by  popular  feativitien  of  the  nuMt  j|,yfy| 
kind.     In  Knvlanil,  Cliristniiis  is   held  li- the  cliunhj, 
a  "iilemn  festival,  and  disliimuislied  by  ihc  ciiiiip|,.|f  |.|,^ 
sation   of  liiisim  Hs  —  un   homiui    paid   lo  n<i  nilu'i 
iK'sidcs  (looil   Kriiluy,      Hnt  within    the   j.isi   huini,,,!  I 
years,  the    festivities   once   appropriate   lo  llie  day  hji 
much  fallen  oil',     Tliesi'  at  one   lime  liislnl  uiih  nioif.  ,„  | 
lesa  brilliancy  (ill   Candlemas,  and  wilh  ureal  Kiiirji  |,{| 
Twelfth  Day;  but   now  a  inceliiiK   in  llie  eveniiin,  |i|i|,  ( 
ditrereiil  from  a  common  dinner  parly,  tlnuii^h  mirr  in  !« 
marked  by  a  roast   and   plum-pudiiin;;,  uiid  pn  tly  m n,,, 
rally  followed  by  a  i{anieat  carda,  ia  nil  that  (li»liiigm.h(|  I 
(Jhrisimas  in  must  families. 

In  former  limes,  llie   cililiralion  of  ('liri»liim«  iDgnn 
in   Ihe   latter  part  of  llie   previous  day— ClnislmanKvp, 
The   house   was   first  decked  wilh   holly,  ixy,  uiiil  olhn  I 
evergreens,     ('andlcs  of  an  uncommnn  ni/e  were  ilim  I 
lii{hlrd   under  the  name  of  ('hristnias  < 'luiillei ;  an  ^1,,,, 
mou"   lo«,  called    Ihe  Yule   Clou,   or   Chrisliiian  Dk|| 
was   laiil   npcn   the  fire  :   the    people  mil  rniinil  ri'nlini 
theniselvea  wilh  Iser.      Ill  the  coiirHC  of  Ihe  iiinlil,  »iiu||  I 
parties  of  HoiiKsters  went  about  from  Ikiu^c  In  liou'i' 
Ihrounh  the  slreets,  sinyinij  what  were  c;illeil  ('l)ri>tii,si  I 
Carol" — Biinph-  [lopular  dilticH  full  of  jiiyfnl  allunioni  lo  I 
the  Kreat  ^Ift  from   (iod   lo  man   in  Ihe   Heiln  mrr.   Al 
mass  was  commenced  in  llie  cbun  his  at  iniilnii<lit,d  ru<.  I 
tom  "lill  kept  up  in  llie  Calliolie  Church.     Alone  |icrii,il,  I 
the  [MMiple  had  u  ciisloin  of  wassailini!  the  I'riiil  Irifsojl 
this  evenini;;  that  is,  they  look  a  wassail  bowl,  Ihrtwi I 
toast  from  it  to  the  Iree.  and  sunij  a  hour,  c\|»rlini;  lliml 
to  secure  a  ijood  crop  of  fruit  the  next  ki'inoii.    Itwiil 
thoiiuhl   that,  iliirinij  the  nii;bt,  all  water  was  fur  0  utiorl  I 
time  cliani;ed   into  wine,  and  that  breiiil  biikrd  on  thii  I 
eve   would   never  become   inmildy.     These  nolinns  ire  I 
essenlially  foolish,  but  as  they  are  all  well-Mieaiilnilomtiiiiiil 
of  the   "imple  spirit  of  the  ix'ople,  they  alioulJ  nul  tyl 
hastily  conilemned. 

The  carols  were  more  Rcnerally  aunu  in  the  morninn 
of  Chrislmas  Day.  \  contributor  to  ihe  ••  (lenllfmsni [ 
Maiiaiiiie,"  in  ISl  1,  iles<ribin(?  Ihe  manner  in  whth  I 
Chrislmas  is  celebrated  in  the  North  Hiillnc  of  York, 
ahire,  savs  :  "  .\bont  six  o'clock  on  ChriHiiniis  I1iv  I 
was  awakened  by  a  sweet  HiniMiii;  under  niy  wimion; 
"urprised  at  a  visit  so  early  and  nnexi>ecleil,  I  arow,  mjl 
lookine;  out  of  llie  window,  I  beiield  six  yoiniij  woninl 
and  four  men  wcleomim;,  with  sweet  music,  llioWfs*]! 
morn,"  It  may  scnrcdv  Im-  iniai.'inrd  how  ddichlfn!!;  I 
at  such  a  moment  would  fall  upon  the  hall'iiluinbeniil  | 
ear  such  strains  as  the  following  : — 

Ood  rest  vou,  iiierrv  irentlriiicii, 

I, ft  llMili.iii;  yiiii  il.-iliiiiy. 
I'nr  Ji'Kiis  riiTini  niir  Saviour 

Was  hnrii  ii[kiii  ites  riny. 
To  save  im  nil  fnini  Saiai.'s  powor, 
Wliiii  «!•  were  pone  nsirny. 
C'h  liilinirs  nf  poinfiirl  ami  joy, 
For  Jpsii"  ('hri«t  oiir  Saviear 
Waa  Lorn  011  Chnaiiiius  Day, 


KEY  TO  TUR   CALKNDAR. 


791 


In  H'-ihl'-hrm    n  fi'  vrv 
Till*  l'l*iM>    liitiii-  will  hnrn, 

Jl,'.ll  Iwill  lipiMI  H  miUIKi'f 

I'pnn  ihii  lili'nii  il  iiKirn  i 
Th«  wlikh  hit  nioihrr  Mnry 
Siilhiiitf  dill  liilif  III  ■eiirii. 
Oh  iiJiiiK*,  ke. 

C^lltimM*  rnrnln  nrr  «innn((  thr  ulilfi  I  nf  nn;(li<ih  uniinii, 
♦.  foil"''"'!'!"  "'  'fii'iii  wim  |irtiiii'il  liy  Wynkyii  i\e  Worile 
h  Ift'il.  'I'liry  iirr  "till  priiilril  nil  niiiiflii  kIiitIpi,  which  are 
lolil  hy  rli:i|iin<'ii  or  ilriili-m  in  i'Iumi|i  llli'riiliiri'.  Thrrp 
hilto  iii'iri'  lliiiii  oiii>  iiiiHlc>rii  I'lillt't'lidii  of  tliew  curioua 
milurliiiiii  III'  loriiu'r  iii{i'ii. 

The  ri'liuiiMi"  mTvirr  of  ('hriatmiia  Day  rrrcWca  hut  a 
inmll  •l<'»'>'  "'  ii'li'iitioi)  fniin  njil  writiT*.  In  fart,  tho 
iliy  wn*  I'liii'lly  ilintiiiitniHlii'il  liy  the  pnpiiUr  rrativitira. 
lU  (rami  li'iiliini  wn»  n  frnHt,  iil°  griMit  iiliiiiitlnnrp,  aiitl  at 
nhit'li  a  It'W  |iiirlii'iiliir  iliHhi-M  ri'ifiiliirly  npprnrpil,  ntinvn 
ill,  iiluin-piirrlilt{i'  iiiiil  inlnri'-pif.  In  rvcry  jfrral  hull, 
Khi'lhcr  i>f  »  >iiMii  III'  riiiiU  or  of  a  xri'iit  rorporalioii, 
ibcrc  wiiK  II  lioiir'H  licuil  (ithrrni  in  l>y  minatri-lay.  It 
wM  I'liiiiiinmry  for  llii'  rich  iiml  iioMo  to  Irnit  their  hum- 
bic  ili'p<'ii<l»l>''*i  >"■')  '"  nirrt  with  tlii'iii  on  tcriiia  of  ripm- 
lily,  ai  I'OM^idiTiiiK  tliiit  nil  mkmi  nri*  n'Knrilril  ulikr  liy 
Ihs  rtiliui""  "'  I''"'  whom-  iiiital  diiy  they  wcrn  orloliriit- 
inf.  A  nort  of  liccnao  pii'vailnl.  A  hrnnch  of  the  niia- 
tlrtoc  I'l'inii  hiiiiK  up  in  the  hull  or  over  the  doorwiiy, 
the  yoiilli"  wiTi-  uiiili'rolDiKl  to  hiivc  ii  rinht  to  kin*  any 
Biiiit'ii  whiiiii  they  roiilil  iiiM-igli-  midrr  it.  At  York, 
the  friTduin  of  the  tiinp  wiim  bii  i-jctrcmi',  thiit  there  were 
ri'fniliii  prdi'laniiitioiiH  nllnwinji;  woiiien  of  evil  repute 
uid  piiilileiH  to  loiiie  to  the  eily  nnd  w iilk  iilmnt  openly 
for  u  ri'rl;iiii  nuinlier  of  iIiivn.  It  wan  aNo  euHloinary  to 
fleet  n  pemoii  a«  l.nnl  of  Mimi'li.  who  went  alHiut  takini? 
ihe  load  in  every  kind  of  extrnvaijant  Hport  and  inerri- 
Bii'i)'  whiili  tht^  wit  of  III. in  roiiid  ileviHe,  The  elcetinn 
ind  funiiioiiH  of  thin  pernonaHO  were  [lerhnpH  the  niost 
angular  part  iif  the  festival.  Aeeortlinj?  to  Slow,  "at 
Iht  fi'iixt  iif  (JliriMtiiiaM,  there  wan  in  the  kiiiu'a  hniHe, 
wherever  lie  liid»{ed,  n  Iiord  of  .MiHrule,  or  Mnnter  of 
mer^  DinportH,  and  Ihe  like  had  ye  in  tho  houne  of 
irery  Nolileiiian  of  honour  or  mnn\  worxhip,  were  he 
ipiriluiil  or  temporal.  Tho  .Mayor  of  liondon.  nnd  either 
of  Ihe  SJierilfH,  had  their  Hcveral  l.ordx  of  Misrule,  ever 
coiitrndiiiK,  without  ipinrrel  or  odiiiee,  who  nIiouM  make 
Ihe  rarchl  paKliiiie  todelij^ht  the  hrliolderB.  ThcHc  lord«, 
MBiiiniiitt  their  rule  at  Alllmlloiid  Vap.  eontinued  the 
Mine  lill  tile  morrow  nfler  the  Feast  of  llir  Purification, 
commr.nly  called  CuiidleinuH  Day  :  in  which  Bpacc  there 
were  flnc  iind  !<uhtle  iliHauisinL^H.  in,i»kH,  ami  tnuinnieries, 
wilh  plMvini;  ut  ('ardH  for  Countern,  NaylcH,  ond  Poiiita 
in  every  IIou«e,  more  for  paslimen  than   for  uniiie." 

The  iiiunaijement  of  the  plays  usually  acted  nt  Christ- 
mat  in  the  halls  of  colleires  and  law  societies,  fell  to  the 
Mre  of  Ihe  Iiord  of  .Misrule.  The  particular  functionary 
ejected  in  Ihe  inns  of  court  in  London,  after  exercisinpr 
ill  the  duties  nnd  (?•''"(?  Ihrouth  the  parade  of  royalty 
for  a  fortiiii;ht,  nt  an  expense  of  n  couple  of  thousand 
pounilH,  was  knighted  at  Whit<'hall  hy  the  real  sovereign 
of  the  land.  , 

In  Scotland,  hefore  tho  Reformation,  the  re1ip;ious 
houses  had  a  similar  oMicer  for  the  (/hristmas  revels, 
called  the  Alihut  of  Cimison,  whose  pnrtiruinr  fuiu'tions 
ire  graphically  pourtrnyed  hy  Hcotl  n  his  novel  of  •/  The 
Ahbott."  The  custom  wns  supprcsaed  hy  statute  in 
1555. 

"6.  .*■'.  Slrphen's  Dinj,  ohsiTved  as  B  festivnl  of  the 
Church  of  England.  There  w.is  formerly  n  widely  pre- 
valent diii;ma  that  it  was  (>oo(l  to  hieed  hordes  uhouf  this 
lirae  of  the  year,  and  fSl.  Stephen's  Day  was  that  chosen 
by  most  people  for  this  purpos<".  On  this  day,  also,  hlcss- 
inj^ were  impl jrrd  ipon  pastures. 

!7.  Si.  John  the  h'vuifju'lifl'n  Dny,  oliserved  as  a  festi- 
til  by  the  Church  of  Eni;Iuml.     liecaiisc  John  drunk 


poinon,  without  dyinK  in  eonaequrnrr,  it  wai  auppoao) 
that  thime  who  put  their  Iru*'  4i  him  «>•<•  lufii  from  til 
injury  from  that  cauap. 

2H.  Cliililirmm  or  //"'y  Inini'tni'i  /)i(y,  ohwrvrtl  by 
the  Church  of  Komit  with  mamieH  for  Ihe  ehialren  killrd 
hy  llerisl.  ft  wan  considered  unlucky  to  marry,  or  Ik 
heifiii  any  work,  on  Childermu*  Day.  The  learned  (lra> 
l|ory  snyit,  ••  It  hath  Ih'cii  a  eustoiii,  and  yet  is  elH<'whrro, 
to  whip  up  th«  cliililrrn  U)Min  Innocent's  Day  nioiniiiK 
that  the  memory  of  Herod's  murder  nii|;ht  slick  tho 
closer,  and  in  a  moderalu  proportion  to  act  ovur  the 
•criii-ltie  nn»\»  in  kmde.' " 

III.  The  List  iliiy  of  tho  year  la  enlled  !n  Scotland 
Jlonmiiuny,  a  word  whii  h  lias  fruitli  ssly  uxercisvil  the 
wits  of  Ihe  et\iiioliii(ista.  The  ."^eoilirdi  people,  overlook- 
ing ('hrittinns  in  ohedience  to  the  heliesls  of  iheir  ri  Ij. 
uinus  teachers,  hnve  trunsfirred  the  nirrriii;eiit  of  the 
seamin  to  Minfinanay  nnd  New  Viar's  Day,  which  they 
aecordiiiKly  nhiiiidon  to  all  kinds  of  Ii  nlivily,  IlnniiM'l 
Monday,  or  the  first  Monday  of  the  yenr,  is  ulsu  an  or- 
casion  of  fesliviiy.  On  llo)(iii!inay,  the  children  in  small 
towns  pcniniliulnle  niiiniiK  the  iiiiuhhours  of  Ihe  heller 
class,  cryiiii;  at  their  doors,  <>  HoHinuiiay  !"  or  aumctiinea 
the  followinn  rh^iiie  : — 

ItfiirtiMinMV.  Irollolny. 

Ciir'i  ol  )oiir  wliilu  lirond  aail  none  of  year  Ktuyx 

in  olicdioiicc  to  which  call,  they  are  served  each  with  an 
otilen  cake.  In  the  eveninn,  there  are  merry  mnitiiiKs, 
which  are  nliviiys  prolonged  to  twelve  o'clock,  which  hiia 
no  sooner  struck  Ihnn  all  start  up  excitedly,  and  e  jsh 
enrh  other  a  happy  new  year.  Snmll  venturous  ,iaitie« 
take  n  kettle  with  hot  ale  posset,  culled  »  a  het  pint."  and 
Ko  to  Ihe  houses  of  their  friends,  to  wish  them  aHinpiiy 
iH'w  year,  \^'hoever  comes  tlrst,  is  called  in  that  house 
"  the  First  Fool,"  and  it  U  deemed  necessary  on  sucb 
occasions  to  oiler  the  iiimuti  s  hotli  a  |iiece  of  cake  nnd  % 
sip  from  the  |iosset  kettle,  otherwise  they  would  not  h« 
lucky  tlirinmhout  the  year.  'J'his  is  called  "  Firnt-Foot- 
iiii;."  IS'ext  liny,  nil  |M>ople  po  aliout  uinonn  nil  other 
|ieople's  houses;  presents  are  given  ainoiid  relations; 
nnd  (linner-parlics  close  the  evening.  Formerly,  the 
first  Monday  of  the  year  was  also  much  oliserved  as  a 
li'stive  day,  nnd  ti:nn  fur  giving  prestnts,  from  which 
latter  circumi.tnnce  it  was  called  Ilnmhtl  iMimihiy,  The 
}Iaudsel  Monday,  old  style,  is  still,  in  soine  rural  districts, 
the  chief  feast  dny  of  the  season.  On  Ihe  evenings  of 
Christinas,  Hogmanay,  New  Year's  Day,  and  HunilscI 
Monday,  parties  of  young  men  and  hoys  went  nliout  dis- 
guised in  old  shir.ts  nnd  puper  vi/.ards,  singing  ut  the  va- 
rious houses  for  a  small  guerdon.  'I'liesc  ^'k/kiW*,  as 
they  were  called,  nlso  ncled  a  rustic  kind  of  drama, 
in  which  the  adventures  of  two  rival  knights,  nnd  the 
feats  of  n  doctor,  wore  conspicuous.  Almost  every- 
where in  Scotland  the  festive  and  fiolicsonic  ohservancoa 
of  the  New  Year  tide  hnve  much  declined. 

Niilnrnl  IVmtmy. — Deceintier  i»  the  darkest,  hut  not 
tho  coldest  month,  of  the  yenr :  the  general  average 
t«"niperature  is  40  degrees.  The  deciduous  trees  aio 
now  completely  stripped  of  their  foliage,  and  the  ground 
often  slums  a  snowy  covering,  nlthongh  it  is  rarely  that 
there  is  much  strong  ice  in  Dccemlier.  Amidst  the 
generni  desolation,  the  pines  mid  other  evergreens  form 
an  ngreeahlo  resting-plnco  for  Ihe  eye.  The  rose  also 
continues  to  hlow  during  this  month.  Formerly,  the 
(Jlastoiihury  thorn  was  a  great  wonder  in  England,  bein^ 
Kuppos»'d  to  hlow  legnlnrly  on  Christnins  Dny.  The 
monks  of  the  nhhey  there  rcpri>sented  it  as  the  staft'  of 
Joseph  of  Arimuthea,  which,  hcing  mscrled  by  him  in 
the  ground,  had  miraculously  sprouted  out  into  a  living 
tree.  Hut  it  seems  to  have  been  ovXy  i\  mcmbor  of  a 
certain  species  of  thorn  well  known  in  the  cast  for  '>!oW' 
Lug  ill  the  depth  of  winter. 


VRINTING-ENGRAYING-LITHOGEAPHI 


OKIOIN    AND   HISTORY    OF   PRIKTINO. 

Phi'*ti\o  is  the  art  of  produrint;  imprpRsiono  from 
rharac'ers  or  figrurcs,  movable  and  immovnlde,  on  paper 
or  any  other  siihstancc.  There  are  several  distinct 
hrancnes  of  this  important  art — the  printing  of  books 
witn  movable  types,  the  printiiif^  of  enuraved  ropjier 
and  steel  plates,  and  the  taking;  of  impressions  from 
«tune.  callc<l  lithosp-aphv.  Our  object,  in  the  first  place, 
is  lo  dcscril)e  the  art  of  printinf^  l)ooks  or  sheets  with 
movable  typen.  generally  called  leltcrprm  prinlitm,  and 
which  may  undoubtedly  be  esteeroc<l  the  greatest  of  all 
human  inventions. 

The  art  of  printing  is  of  comparatively  modem  origin  : 
fi)ur  hundred  years  have  not  yet  elapsed  since  the  first 
book  was  iiwui'tl  from  the  press;  yet  we  have  ,/roofs  that 
the  principles  \\\wn  which  it  was  ultimately  develop<'d 
existed  amongst  the  ancient  Chaldean  nations.  Entire 
and  undecuyed  bricks  of  tlie  fnine<l  city  and  tower  of 
Uabylon  have  iH'cn  found  stam[KHl  with  various  syinbo- 
lical  figures  and  hierogly|)liic  characters.  In  this,  how- 
ever, as  in  every  similar  relic  of  antiquity,  the  object 
which  8tain|HHl  ttie  figures  was  in  one  block  or  piece, 
and  therefore  could  be  employed  only  for  one  distinct 
nubject.  'I'his,  though  a  kind  o*"  printing,  was  totally 
useless  for  the  propagation  of  literature,  on  account  both 
of  it<  expensiveness  and  tediousness.  The  (Jhinese  are 
the  only  exinting  people  who  still  pursue  this  rude  mo<le 
of  printing  liy  itur..ping  paiior  with  blocks  of  wood.  The 
work  whfch  Ihey  inlJMid  to  be  printed  is  in  the  first  place 
carefully  written  upim  sheets  of  thin  transparent  paper; 
each  of  thes<'  sheets  is  glued,  with  the  face  downwards, 
upon  a  thin  tablet  of  hard  wckmI;  ami  the  engraver  then, 
with  pr(>[>er  iiislruinents,  cutit  awuy  the  wood  in  all  those 
partii  on  which  nothing  is  traced;  thus  leaving  the  trans- 
cribed charactiTs  \n  r/lnf,  and  ready  for  punting.  In 
tliis  way,  as  many  tablets  arc  necessary  as  there  are 
wtrten  paiii'S.  No  press  is  used ;  hut  when  the  ink  is 
laid  on,  and  the  pa|)er  carefully  pliicnl  above  it,  a  brush 
Ik  pa-ssed  over  with  the  projier  degiee  of  pressure.  'I'he 
Chine*'  chro'iiclcs  stjile  that  the  above  mode  of  printing 
was  discovered  in  t^'hiiiu  about  fitly  years  liefore  the 
Christian  era,  and  (he  art  of  paf>er-iiiakiiig  about  [i!i 
?ear»  afterwards;  [)revious  to  which  |i<'riiMl,  nil  their 
w  riluigs  were  transcrib«'d  or  printed  in  volumes  of  silk 
cut  into  leaves  of  pro|M*r  diinensionH. 

It  if  a  somewhat  curious  circunial.inee,  that  amongst 
the  first  itteinpt.-i  at  printnig  by  means  of  woixl-eiigrav- 
uig.  which  can  be  triured  to  have  been  made  in  FiUro|K', 
••a  the  inakiin;  of  playing-cards  for  the  amnseinent  of 
Jharlea  VI.  ol  |-'ra{ice.  This  was  towards  the  latter  end 
«f  tlM  fouiiiiMilh  century.     ThereaftiT  came  priiita  from 

7»a 


wood-blockf  of  human  figures,  single  or  in  groapa  ■  tni 
earliert  existing  apecimen  of  which  is  in  the  posaewior 
of  Earl  S()cncer,  and  dated  1 483.  It  is  by  un  unknowt 
artist.  These  prints  were  at  first  without  any  tcit  oi 
letterpress,  as  it  is  modernly  termed ;  but  after  the  ground. 
work  of  the  art  had  been  completed,  its  rise  towards 
perfection  was  almost  unparalleled  in  rapidity.  Its  pro. 
feasors  composed  historical  subjects  with  a  text  ot  expU. 
nation  subjoined.  The  pages  were  placed  in  pa.rs  fjc. 
ing  each  otlier ;  and  as  only  one  side  of  the  leaf  was  \m- 
pressed,  the  blank  pages  came  also  opposite  one  another. 
which,  being  pasted  together,  gave  the  whole  the  appear. 
ance  of  a  book  printed  in  the  modern  fashion. 

The  next  step  in  the  science  of  typography  was  that 
of  forming  every  letter  or  character  of  the  alphiiliet  sepa. 
rately,  so  as  to  l)e  capable  of  re-arrangement,  and  form. 
ing  in  succession  the  pages  of  a  work,  thereby  avoiding 
the  interminable  labour  of  cutting  new  blocks  of  tvpej 
for  every  page.  It  is  exceedingly  remarkable,  that  Ihii 
most  important  and  yet  simple  idea  shoukl  not  have  oc- 
curred to  the  Romans ;  and  what  renders  it  the  more 
surprising,  is  the  fact,  which  we  learn  from  Virgil,  tjui 
brands,  with  the  letters  of  the  owner's  name,  were  in 
use  in  his  time  for  the  purpose  of  marking  cattle.  Tin 
credit  of  the  discovery  was  reserved  for  a  lierniiin,  John 
(Juttenberg  (or  Guttemlwrg),  who  aecoinpUshed  lliisim. 
l»ortant  improvement  aliont  the  year  143H.  As  'hi«  min 
was  the  first  great  improver  of  typography,  to  tlie  jtudy 
of  which  he  exclusively  devoted  his  whole  time  and  al. 
tt^ntion,  a  short  sketch  of  his  life  will  only  bo  a  part  of 
the  history  of  the  art  (Juttenla-rg,  who  is  siippostdio 
have  l)oen  born  at  Mayence,  or  MenI?.,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  settle<l  at  Strasbiirg  about  the 
year  1424.  In  M:).*).,  he  entered  into  parliiership  wlih 
.\nilrew  I)ro?.heni<is  (or  Dritzehen),  John  Kill',  and 
.Andrew  Heelinan,  -itizens  of  Strasburg,  binding  hinwelf 
thercliy  to  disclos(>  certitin  iin|)ortaiit  secrets  conneitwi 
with  the  art  of  printing,  by  which  they  would  atlain 
opulence.  The  workshop  was  in  the  house  of  Drilzehen, 
who,  dying  shortly  after  the  work  was  commenced, 
(■nttonlierg  immediately  sc>nt  his  servant,  I.anrenct 
Bieldich,  to  Nicholas,  the  brother  of  the  decenscd,  and 
reipiesled  that  no  |ierson  niiiiht  Im.-  admitted  into  the 
workshop,  lest  the  secret  should  Is'  discovered,  and  the 
foniii'  (or  fastene<l-togpthc'r  typi's)  stolen.  But  they  had 
already  disapfienred  ;  and  this  fraud,  as  well  as  the  claim 
of  Nicholas  I)ril7.ehen  to  succeed  to  his  brother's  sharn, 
prmluced  a  lawsuit  among  the  surviving  partners.  Fin 
witnesses  were  examined;  and  from  the  evidence  of 
Uieldich,  tiutlenla'rg's  servant,  it  was  incontrovertible 
proved  that  (iuttenl)erg  was  the  first  who  practised  tlw 
art  of  printing  with  movable  types,  and   that,  on  Ihl 


r„|i' 


PRINTING. 


tM 


i^lh  of  Andrew  Dritzohen,  ho  had  exprciisly  ordered 
•he  forms  to  be  l)rokcn  >ip,  and  the  rtiaracters  dis- 
■eried,  lest  any  -"le  should  discover  his  secret.  The 
result  ot  this  law.suit,  which  occurred  ir>  1439,  was  a  dis- 
lolulion  of  partnership  j  and  Guttenbcrg,  after  havinf; 
•xhnustod  hi,  means  in  the  ciTDrt,  proceeded,  in  1445-6, 
u  his  native  city  of  Mcntz,  who.  .  he  resumed  his  typo- 
•riphic  labours.  Ueinif  ambitious  of  making  his  extra- 
ordinary invention  known,  and  of  value  to  him^ielf,  but 
deini  at  the  same  time  deficient  in  the  means,  ho  opened 
his  mind  to  a  wealthy  goldsmith  and  worker  in  precious 
mftals,  named  John  Fust  or  Faust,  and  prevailed  on 
him  to  advance  large  sums  of  money  in  order  to  make 
further  and  more  complete  trials  of  the  art.  Guttenbcrg 
being  thus  associated  with  Fust,  the  first  regular  jirint- 
ing  establishment  was  begun,  and  the  business  of  print- 
ing carried  on  in  a  stylo  corresponding  to  the  infancy 
of  the  art  Afler  many  smaller  essays  with  respect  to 
the  CrtPabililies  of  his  press  and  movable  types,  Guttcn- 
\Kt3  had  the  hardihooil  to  attempt  an  edition  of  the 
Bible,  whicb  he  succeeded  in  printing  complete,  between 
the  years  1  If)!)  and  11. '>5.  This  cclebr.-ited  Bible,  which 
ifsj  the  first  important  specimen  of  the  art  of  printing, 
niJ  which,  judging  from  what  it  has  led  to,  we  should  cer- 
Isinly  esteem  as  the  most  extraordinary  and  praiseworthy 
of  human  productions,  was  executed  with  cut-metal 
types,  on  six  hundred  and  thirty-seven  leaves;  and,  from 
lootiv  stil.  in  existence  in  the  Royal  Library  of  Berlin, 
lomo  of  them  a|)|)eiir  to  have  been  printed  on  vellum. 
The  work  was  printed  in  the  Latin  language. 

The  csecution  of  this,  the  first  printed  Bible — which 
has  justly  conferred  undying  honours  un  the  illustrious 
Guttenbcrg,  was,  most  unfortunately,  the  immediate 
cause  of  his  ruin.  The  expenses  incident  to  carrying 
on  a  fatiguing  and  elaborate  process  of  workmanshij), 
for  a  period  of  five  years,  being  much  more  considerable 
than  what  were  originally  contemplated  by  Fust,  he  in- 
stituted a  suit  against  (loor  Guttenticrg,  who,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  decision  against  him,  was  obliged  to  pay 
interest,  and  also  a  part  of  the  capital  that  had  been  ad- 
vanced. 'I'liis  suit  was  followoti  by  a  dissolution  of 
partnership;  and  the  whole  of  Guttenberg's  apparatus 
fell  into  tlie  hands  of  .John  Fust,  who,  from  being  the 
ostensible  agent  in  the  business  of  printing,  and  from 
the  wonder  expressed  by  the  vulgar  in  seeing  printed 
sheets,  soon  ae(iuired  tho  name  of  a  magician,  or  one  in 
compact  with  the  devil,  and  under  this  character,  with 
.he  appellation  of  Dr.  Faustus,  ho  has  for  ages  enjoyed 
ui  evil  notoriety. 

Besides  the  above-mentioned  Bible,  Sofpo  other  speci- 
mens of  the  work  of  Guttenlwrg  have  been  discovered 
to  be  in  existence.  One  in  particular,  which  is  worthy 
of  notice,  was  found  some  years  ago  among  a  bundle  of 
olj  papers  in  the  archives  of  Mayence.  It  is  an  alma- 
nac for  the  year  H")?,  which  served  as  wrapiM>r  for  a 
rcRister  of  accounts  that  year.  This,  says  Hansard, 
would  mpst  likely  be  printed  towards  the  close  of  1456, 
and  may  consequently  In-  deemed  the  most  ancient  spe- 
cimen of  typographic  printing  extant,  with  a  rerlain  date. 
That  Guttenbcrg  was  a  person  of  refined  taste  in  the 
execution  of  bis  works,  is  sufficiently  obvious.  A<lopting 
I  very  ancient  custom,  common  in  tho  written  copies 
of  the  Scriptures  and  the  missals  of  the  church,  he  ust>d 
«  large  ornamental  letter  at  the  commencement  of  books 
and  chapters,  finely  embellished,  and  surrounded  with  a 
Tariety  of  figures  as  in  a  frame.  Tho  initial  letter  of 
the  first  psnlin  thus  forms  a  beautiful  specimen  of  tho 
art  of  printing  in  its  early  progress.  It  is  richly  oina- 
tnentad  with  folinge,  flowers,  a  bird,  and  a  greyh.mnd, 
ind  ia  still  more  beautiful  from  being  printe<i  in  u  pale 
blue  colour,  while  the  embellishments  are  red,  and  of  a 
transparent  appearance.     What  beeamo  of  (Juttenlicrg 

immediately  atler   the   unsuccessful   termination   of  his 

lawsuit  with  h  r<t,  is  not  well  known.     Like  the  illus- 
Vol.  I.— 100 


trious  discoverer  of  the  ijreat  Western  Continent,  i» 
seoms  to  have  retired  almost  broken-hearted  from  tha 
world,  and  'o  have  spent  most  of  the  remainder  of  hi* 
days  in  obscurity.  It  ia  ascertained,  however,  that  in 
the  year  1465  he  received  an  annual  pension  from  the 
Elector  Adolphus,  but  that  he  only  enifycd  this  small 
compensation  for  his  extraordinary  invention  during 
three  years,  and  died  in  the  month  of  February,  1468. 

It  long  formed  a  subject  of  co  itention  amongst  anti- 
quaries and  Bibliomaniacs,  by  what  means  Guttenherg 
formed  his  types,  but  it  is  now  pretty  clearly  ascertained 
that  they  were  at  first  all  individually  cut  by  the  hand. 
Tho  mode  of  castini!;  types  in  moulds  has  been  very  ge- 
nerally, and  seemingly  correctly,  assigned  to  Gultenlxrg's 
successor,  Shceffer.  This  individual  was  an  industrious 
young  man  of  inventive  genius,  an  apprentice  with  Faust, 
who  took  him  into  partnership  immediately  after  his 
rupture  with  Guttenbcrg,  and  who  is  supposed  to  have 
been  initiated  into  the  mysteries  of  tho  art  by  the  latter. 
The  first  joint  publication  of  Faust  and  Schoelli^r  was  a 
beautiful  edition  of  the  Psalms,  which  came  out  only 
about  eighteen  months  after  their  going  into  partnership. 
Along  with  it  appeared  a  declaration  by  them,  claiming 
the  merit  of  inventing  the  cut-metal  types  with  which  it 
was  printed ;  but  this  pretension  was  evidently  false ; 
and,  in  fact,  it  afterwards  appeared  that  the  book  had 
been  four  years  in  the  press,  and  must,  consequently, 
have  been  chiefly  executed  by  Guttenherg.  It  is  worthy 
of  notice  that  tho  above  publication  was  the  very  first 
to  which  the  date,  printer's  name,  and  place  of  publica- 
tion, were  aflixed. 

To  SchflBtTer,  however,  as  said  before,  must  be  awarded 
tho  honour  of  completing  Guttenberg's  invention,  by  dis« 
covering  tho  method  of  casting  the  characters  in  a  matrix. 
In  an  account  of  8chGEfler,  given  by  Jo.  Frid.  Faustui 
of  Aschaffeiiburg,  from  papers  preserved  in  his  family, 
we  are  informed  that  the  artist  privately  prepared  ma- 
trices for  the  whole  alphabet,  and  showed  the  letter* 
cast  from  them  to  his  master  Faust,  who  was  so  well 
pleased  that  he  gave  his  daughter,  Christina,  to  him  in 
marriage.  Faust  and  SchtEffer  concealed  the  new  im- 
provement, by  administering  an  oath  of  secrecy  to  all 
whom  thtey  intrusted,  till  the  year  1462,  when,  by  the 
dispersion  of  their  servants  into  different  countries  at  the 
sacking  of  Meniz,  by  the  Archliishop  Adolphus,  the  in- 
vention was  publicly  divulged,  and  the  art  was  spread 
throughout  Europe. 

EARLY    PROGRESS   OF*   PRINTING. 

Haerlem  and  Strasburgh  were  the  first  places  to  which 
the  art  of  printing  was  transphinted  from  Mentz,  and 
this  at  so  early  a  date,  that  each  of  these  places  has  its 
respective  advocates  as  being  the  birth-place  of  it.  From 
Haerlem,  it  passed  into  Rnnie  in  1466,  where  its  first 
professors  were  Oonnid  Sweinheiinand  Arnold  Pannartx, 
who  introduced  the  present  Roman  type  in  tho  follow- 
ing year,  in  printing  Cicero's  Fpistnlo:  Familiares.  The 
Gothic  character,  from  which  our  own  blark-letter  w»» 
derived,  was  tho  next  which  was  employed  by  the  an- 
cient printers;  after  which,  in  1476,  the  first  set  of  Greek 
characters  was  cast  by  the  Italians — whether  at  Venice, 
Milan,  or  Florence,  is  a  disputed  point.  In  1485,  how- 
ever, a!',  previous  atteiupts  at  the  Greek  character  were 
eclipsed  by  a  splendid  edition  of  Homer's  works,  pub- 
lished at  tho  last-named  place,  in  folio,  and  printed  by 
Demetrius,  a  native  of  (^rete.  'I'he  first  book  in  the  He- 
brew character  was  an  edition  of  the  Pentateuch,  printed 
in  148'2 ;  the  whole  Bible,  including  the  New  Tesiament. 
not  being  executed  till  1488.  This  was  done  at  ^oncino, 
a  small  town  in  the  Duchy  of  Milan. 

In  1467,  printing  was  set  up  in  the  city  of  Tours;  at 

Routhlingen  ami  Venice  in  146!);  and,  it  is  believed,  at 

the  same  time  in  Poris,     This  city  was  tho  tenth  tow« 

in  Europe  in  which  the  iiriniing-press  was  eslabliahedl 

3X 


l^-'f 


794 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


it  WM  sft  up  by  TTlrirh  Gorinor,  a  nntivo  of  the  Canton 
of  Luconie,  in  the  hoiiHe  of  the  Sorlumiie,  nnci  in  the 
year  1469.  This  (lorinp;  hml  l>cen  taught  the  art  liy 
Elian  Helie  von  Lautrt-n,  who  introducrd  it  into  Switzer- 
land, and  he  rotninencnl  the  operations  of  the  Lurernc 
presii,  by  publishini;  Marrhcsini'a  Hil)ncal  Lexicon  Mn- 
motrectus  sivc  Primicnriiia,  in  the  year  1470.  The  fir»t 
worlc  which  issued  from  (icrinft'H  press,  at  the  .Sorlxinne, 
was  the  Epistolm  (iasparini  I'ergamcnsis;  it  was  also  pub- 
lished in  the  year  1470.  (ieritig  continued  his  labours 
until  1508,  and  died  on  the  2:}d  of  .August  1510,  be- 
queathing very  considerable  projiorly  for  the  Ix-nefit  of 
young  scholars  and  the  poor  of  Paris.  fStrasburg  was 
the  next  town  which  had  the  advanta.^e  of  a  press,  and 
■oon  afterwards  Lyons — the  one  in  1471,  the  other  in 
147.S.  It  was  inlrmluced  into  Russia  about  the  year  1560. 
About  the  year  1496,  the  letter  which  we  now  call 
Italic  was  invented  by  Aldus  Manutius,  a  Roman  by 
birth,  who  s«'t  up  the  business  of  »  printer  in  Venice. 
At  first.  Manutius  used  his  Italic,  or  Venetian,  ns  he 
tailed  it,  for  the  printing  of  entire  volumes ;  but  this 
was  not  generally  approved  of  by  typo);ra|)hcrg,  and  after 
a  short  period,  Italic  was  employed  only  for  particular 
words,  prefaces,  and  introductions.  Latterly,  it  has  lieen 
the  practice  to  use  Italic  only  in  very  particular  cases,  as 
its  constant  reipiisilion  indicates  a  poor  style  of  literary 
composition. 

PRINTING    IN    ENGLAND. 

The  early  history  of  printing  in  England  is  obscure. 
The  credit  of  introducing  the  art  into  that  country  was 
long  believed  to  Ix^  due  to  Mr.  Willinni  ('axton,  a  mercer 
and  citizen  of  London,  wlio,  during  his  travels  abroad, 
and  his  residence  for  many  years  in  Holland,  Flanders, 
and  Germany,  had  thoroughly  informed  himself  of  the 
process,  aiul  upon  his  return,  was  induced,  by  the  en- 
coumgcment  of  many  men  of  wealth  and  rank,  to  set  up 
a  press  m  WestminsU^r  Abl)ey,  about  the  year  1471. 
Such  was  the  tradition  amongst  writers,  and  it  is  still 
generally  )<elieved.  Its  groundlessness  was  ascertained 
about  the  time  of  the  Kestoration,  wheti  a  little  book, 
which  previously  had  been  little  thought  of,  fell  under 
the  notice  of  the  curious,  as  bearing  date  ot  Oxford  in 
the  year  1468,  Iwing  three  years  antecedent  to  the  pre- 
aumcd  commencement  of  (^axton's  labours.  This  l)ook, 
copies  of  which  arc  yet  extant,  is  a  small  quarto  of  forty- 
one  leaves,  entitled  "  Exposieio  Sancli  Jeronimi  in  8ym- 
bolum  Apostol'irum  ad  Paiium  Laurcntiiun."  At  the 
same  time  ( 1664),  a  work  was  published  by  a  Mr.  Atkins 
of  London,  entitled  "  Original  and  Growth  of  Printing 
ill  England ;"  in  which  an  account  is  given  of  an  ancient 
chronicle,  said  to  have  been  found  in  the  archbishop's 
palace  at  Lambeth,  containing  the  particulars  attending 
tile  first  intrtxJuction  of  the  art.  By  the  latter,  it  would 
appear  that  it  took  place  during  tlie  reign  of  Henry  VI., 
under  the  auspices  of  T'lomas  Bourchiers,  .Archbishop 
of  Canterbu.y,  who  sent  K.  Tournour,  master  of  the 
robes,  and  William  Oaxton,  merchant,  to  llaerlem,  who 
persuaded  an  under  workman,  name<l  Corsellis,  to  come 
to  England  and  set  up  a  [iress  at  Oxford.  The  manu- 
acript  mentions,  that  the  transaclion  cost  King  Henry 
1500  merks.  But  a  single  pres.y  was  socm  found  insulli- 
uent  for  England  ;  U|Hin  wliich  the  kitig  set  up  another 
at  yi.  Alban's,  and  a  third  at  Westminster ;  the  last 
iieing  placed  under  the  charge  uf  William  Cuxton,  in 
tlie  year  1471. 

It  would  lie  ust'less  for  us  here  to  enter  Into  the  merits 
of  the  question  concerning  the  nullie:itiritv  of  the  above- 
lucntiunvd  chronicle,  which  at  ane  time  dividt-d  the  lite- 
rary worli!  to  a  violent  degree.  We  shall  only  observe, 
that  the  result  of  the  iliKputation  appoarg  to  lie  this:— 
The  existence  of  the  Imok  bel'ore  naiiieil  establishes  lie- 
y<Mid  a  Joulit  that  Inxiks  were  printed  at  Oxford  by  (^or- 
I  acvnral  yeart  befori  Caxton  kct  his  press  to  work  at 


Westminster,  and  therefore  that  that  city  has  the  honoi 
of  having  U'cn  the  first  seot  of  the  art  in  EuHlaiid'  u, 
Caxton  was  the  first  who  introduced  the  primiiii,  wjn 
nvmliieil  metal  lypet,  the  works  by  his  predecessor  havin 
U'cn  executed  merely  with  wooden  ones.     ]t,  jg  \^„    * 
early  writers  not  having  attended  sullieiently  to  tliij  i: 
of  demarcation  between  the  two  stages  of  ilie  jf(  j. 
the   misunderstanding  has,  as   far  as  we  can  judge  alVi 
much  careful  investigation,  solely  ari'^-ii. 

.After  the  art  of  printing  had  lieen  thus  introducfj 
into  Oxford  and  Westminster,  it  spreail  to  St.  Alban,i. 
Cambridge,  Tavistock,  Worc(«ter,  Canterlimy,  IpaRifk 
&c.,  in  almost  all  cases  by  the  cncDuragemcnt  of  the 
churcluiicn  of  these  places,  and  generally  with  the  \-i(» 
of  printing  works  of  piety.  About  the  year  15oo  or 
probably  somewhat  earlier,  Pynson  was,  by  patent  of 
Henry  V!I.,  invested  with  the  otfiee  of  king's  printer 
which  may  lie  regarded  as  the  first  instance  of  an  jJ 
pointmenl  of  this  nature.  At  the  close  of  the  fiftfonth 
and  the  commencement  of  the  sixteenth  century,  Lon. 
don  iHissessed  a  number  of  printers,  but  none  whose 
name  has  lieen  so  celebrated  as  that  of  Wynkcii  Jo 
Wordc,  a  foreigner,  who  had  been  instructed  under 
Caxton,  He  improved  the  art  consideralily,  and  was 
the  first  printer  in  England  who  introduced  the  Roman 
letter — all  previous  printing,  and  much  of  i  later  dale, 
lieing  in  the  black  or  German  letter. 

Although  at  first  countenanced  by  the  clergy,  the  art 
of  printing  was  soon  looked  upon  with  extreme  jealousj 
by  the  church,  which  at  length  discovered  that  this  jn. 
vention  was  but  too  certainly  calculated  to  revolitionize 
the  whole  fabric  of  society.  The  earliest  efliirts  ol'  the 
art,  as  we  have  seen,  were  directed  to  the  niultipljeatiou 
of  the  Bible;  but  for  a  period  of  sixty  or  seventy  yia,, 
from  the  date  of  the  invention,  all  the  copies  of  the 
Scrijitures  which  were  printed  were  in  the  Latin  or  some 
other  classic  language,  not  understood  by  the  peoiile. 
But  now  a  new  era  commenced.  Certain  printers  beean 
to  issue  the  Bible  in  the  English  tongue,  translated  Irom 
the  orisinal,  and  this  gave  mighty  ulFencc  to  the  church, 
or  Koinish  hierarchy. 

In  1526,  Kichnrd  Grafton,  a  gentleman  of  lilicral  cilu. 
cation,  having  adojited  the  professimi  of  printing,  issucJ 
an  edition  of  the  New  Testament  in  the  English  lan- 
guage, which  dr»!W  down  the  wrath  of  the  then  Bishop 
of  London.  A  proclamation  was  issued  by  this  preUie 
prohibiting  its  use.  "  Understanding  (says  this  docu- 
ment) that  many  children  of  iniquitie,  mairilnyners  of 
Luther's  sect,  blynded  through  extream»  vri:iil„.» 
wnndrying  from  the  way  of  truth,  uim  tli»  .■<»..^.,. 
fayth,  craftely  have  translated  the  New  Tistument  into 
our  English  tongue,  extcrmedlying  therewith  maiiv  !>•• 
reticall  articles  and  erroneous  opinions,  pernicious  aivi 
otl'ensive,  sedueying  the  simple  people,  &c.  The  pro 
clamation  goes  on  to  order  all  copies  of  the  said  .New 
Testament  to  be  brought  to  the  bishop's  vicar-general,  to 
lie  burnt,  under  jiain  of  excomniuniealion,  and  incurring 
the  suspicion  of  heresy.  It  does  not  aiqiear  that  the 
fulminations  of  the  bishop  wen-  of  much  effect  The 
New  Testament  having  been  readily  purehaHHl,  it  Wlo 
the  publication,  in  15;i5,  of  the  whole  Bible  in  the  Englisli 
language,  into  which  it  was  translated  by  .Miles  Cover- 
dale.  But  this  noble  undertaking  was  iiccoir.pllshoj 
iibroad.  In  l.'iMO.  England  had  the  honour  of  produrin! 
an  edition  of  the  Bible  in  the  English  tongue,  under  ttw 
auspices  of  I'ranmer  and  Henry  VIII.,  the  work  being 
exeenti'd  by  (Jrafton  and  Edward  Wliitecliurch. 

The  progress  of  the  art  in  England,  after  its  first  rusk 
into  not<iriety,  was  remarkably  slow.  In  the  eiileculli 
century,  it  was  interrupted  by  the  broils  cDtiwquinl  on 
the  Reformation,  and  in  the  seventeenth  century  by  the 
still  greater  hariiBHriients  of  the  civil  wt>r,  and  the  fjloomy 
religious  spirit  which  prevailed  up  till  the  Kestoration 
This  last  event  was  eveu  tinfavourahlc  to  it,  by  iutnxiiv 


PRINTING. 


79S 


|M  «  genera\  licentinusnfiM  and  contempt  for  any  solid 
•nd  n'ljx''"'*'''"  literature.  At  tliis  period  tlicro  was  an 
jfl  oi  iiarliiiiiient  Htill  in  force,  preventing  more  than 
twenty  priiilcra  to  practise  their  art  in  the  kingdom.  "  At 
the  firr  of  London  in  1666,  the  bookHcllcrs  dwelling 
ibout  8t.  Paul's  lost  an  immense  stock  of  books  in  quires, 
luiouiilini?.  according  to  Evelyn,  to  £200,000,  which  they 
sfcro  accii!'tume<l  to  slow  in  the  vaults  in  the  metropolitan 
cathedral,  ami  of  othi-r  neighbouring  churches.  At  that 
time  the  people  were  lieginning  to  read  again,  and  to 
ihir.k;  i"-d  as  new  capital  naturally  rushed  in  to  replace 
the  coniuiiicil  slock  of  books,  there  was  considerable  ac- 
tivity once  more  in  printing.  The  laws  regulating  the 
iiunilicr  of  printers  soon  allcr  fell  into  disuse,  as  they 
bail  long  fallen  into  contempt  Wo  have  btjfore  us  a 
jjlalojTiu"  (Ibe  first  compiled  in  this  country)  of'  all  the 
IxKiks  printed  in  Llni^Und  uince  the  dreadful  fire,  1666, 
t,T  the  end  of  Trinity  term,  1680,'  which  catalogue  is 
aiiiiiiuud  to  Ifisr),  year  by  year.  A  great  many — we 
may  fiidy  say  one-half — of  those  hooks  are  single  ser- 
mons and  tracts. 

"The  whole  number  of  l>ooks  printed  during  the  four- 
Ifcii  years  from  lOlifi  to  1680,  we  ascertain,  by  counting, 
nas  3''>50,  of  which  U'i7  were  divinity,  420  law,  and  153 
physii'— ^w  Ihiit  two-fifths  of  the  whole  were  professional 
books;  2'J7  were  Hchool-book.'. ;  and  353  on  objects  of 
geognipliy  and  naviguti  i,  including  maps.  Taking  the 
tTcruni!  of  these  fourteen  years,  the  total  numlier  of 
works  produced  yearly  was  253 ;  but  deducting  the 
reprints,  pamphlets,  single  sermons,  and  maps,  we  may 
Siiily  nss.Kiic  that  the  yearly  average  of  new  books  was 
much  under  100.  Of  the  number  of  copies  constituting 
iin  edition,  we  have  no  record ;  we  iipproliend  it  must 
have  been  small,  for  the  price  of  a  book,  as  far  as  we 
can  ascertain  it,  was  considerable. 

"  Rou'er  North,  speaking  of  those  booksellers  of  his 
day  who  had  tiie  nack  of  getting  up  volumes  on  tempo- 
rary matters,  says,  -They  crack  their  brains  to  find  out 
Klling  subject.*,  and  keep  hirelings  in  garrets,  on  hard 
meat,  to  write  and  correct  by  the  griite  ;  so  puff  up  an 
cctiivo  to  a  sulTicient  thickness,  and  there  is  six  shillings 
current  tVr  an  hour  and  a  half's  rending.'  In  a  cata- 
logue, with  prices,  printed  twenty-two  years  after  the  one 
we  have  just  noticed,  we  find  that  the  ordinary  cost  of 
an  octavo  was  /fic  fhillimis."* 

Alter  tile  R('voUiti(m  of  1688,  the  business  of  printing 
rapidly  increased,  by  the  demands  for  sheets  of  intelli- 
gence or  news,  as  well  as  for  a  better  class  of  literary 
productions.  In  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  printing  was 
increased  xtill  further  by  tlic  issue  of  the  (iuardian,  Spec- 
tator, and  other  literary  sheets;  and  in  1731,  it  received 
considcr.ilde  impetus  by  the  establishment  of  the  (Jen- 
tleman's  Magazine,  iK'ing  the  first  of  the  class  of  larger 
periodicals. 

Printing  was  introduced  into  Scotland,  and  liegun  in 
Edinburgh,  during  the  year  1507,  only  thirty  years  after 
Caxtun  h:id  brought  it  into  England.  Since  that  period 
it  has  continued  to  be  pursued  with  success  in  the  Scot- 
tinh  metropolis,  ami,  within  the  last  thirty  years,  has 
there  liecome  the  most  distinguished  crall  in  the  city. 
Printing  was  not  known  in  Ireland  till  about  the  year 
IS.^.,  wlii'ti  tt  l)o(ik  in  black-letter  was  issued  from  a  press 
in  iMiUiii;  but  till  the  year  1700,  very  little  printing 
was  executed  in  Ireland,  and  even  since  that  period,  the 
country  liiis  niipiired  no  celebrity  whatever  in  this  de- 
partment of  the  iirts,  although  possessing  some  respecta- 
ble punting  establisbinents. 


PROORKSS    ON    Till':    CONTINENT    AND    IN    AIMGRICA. 

The  iiro^ri'ss  of  printing  on  the  ("onlinent  of  Europe? 


kas  lieen   re  narkubly  slow.      Unless  in   the   free  states 
of  (leruumy,  where  the  iirt  is  pursued  to  an  incalculable 


*  I'ennv  Mafaune. 


extent,  the  profession  of  the  printer  is  almost  everywhera 
under  the  severest  restrictions,  and  little  can  bo  published 
without  coining  first  under  the  scrutiny  of  censors  ap> 
pointed  by  the  governments.  The  art  is  carried  on  in 
Paris  perhaps  with  a  greater  degree  of  freedom  than 
usual  in  other  continental  capitals,  and  from  the  piesse* 
in  that  city  some  exceedingly  elegant  works  havo  been 
issued.  But  at  Paris,  as  everywhere  else,  there  is  a  ge- 
neral inferiority  in  the  mechanism  of  the  printintr-oflicc, 
when  compared  with  that  now  in  use  in  England  and 
Scotland,  except  in  those  cases  in  which  the  presses  cm- 
ployed  have  been  imported  from  Great  Britain. 

While  the  art  of  printing  bus  b(!cn  by  slow  degroci 
creeping  through  the  despoticiilly  governed  states  ot 
Euro|X!,  and  establishing  itself  at  isolated  spots  in  Oriental 
countries,  everywhere  creating  distrust,  and  nowhere 
allowed  to  be  exorcised  with  perfect  freedom,  it  has 
readily  taken  root  and  flourished  among  the  civilized 
inhaliitants  of  North  America.  The  first  printing-press 
established  in  the  American  colonies  was  one  set  up  at 
Cambridge,  in  Massachu.setts,  in  the  year  1G38,  the  era 
of  the  foundation  of  Harvard  College  of  that  place.  It 
was  only  established  by  the  exertions  and  joint  contri- 
butions of  dilTcrcnt  individuals  in  Europe  and  America; 
and  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  niccbanism  and  types 
were  imported  from  England.  The  lirst  work  which 
issued  <'()in  this  press  was  the  Freeman's  Call,  and  the 
secoml  the  Almanack  for  New  England,  lioth  in  1639; 
the  first  book  printed  was  the  New  England  version  of 
the  Psalms,  an  octavo  volume  of  300  pages.  In  1676, 
books  began  to  be  printed  at  Boston;  in  1086,  printing 
liecnine  known  in  Philadelphia;  and,  in  1C93,  in  New 
York.  In  the  year  1700,  there  were  only  four  printing- 
presses  in  the  colonics.  Since  that  period,  and  especially 
since  the  revolution,  which  removed  every  thing  like  a 
censorship  of  the  press,  the  number  of  printing-presses 
has  greatly  increased.  The  mechanism  of  the  press  has 
likewise  been  much  improved  in  tlmt  country ;  and  tlie 
Americans  have  copied  the  patent  steam-press  of  Cowper 
of  London,  and  now  possess  machinet'  uf  this  description. 
In  1800,  the  number  of  presses  had  increased  to  300; 
in  1830,  they  omounted  to  1200;  and  we  leurn  that  they 
arc  still  increasing  in  number  and  extending  their  in- 
fluence. A  few  years  ago,  the  Cherokecs,  one  of  the 
tril>es  of  native  Indians,  set  up  a  jiress,  and  commenced 
a  newspaper — a  circumstance  which  may  be  regarded  as 
nn  extraordinary  proof  of  the  growth  of  knowledge  in 
America. 

\^■e  shall  now  procx'cd  to  a  descrijjtion  of  the  art  in  its 
various  branches,  though  without  entering  into  the  more 
minute,  and  what  would  bo  tiresome,  details  of  the  pro 
fession. 

or  THE   TYPES. 

Printers  in  early  times  made  the  letters  which  they 
used,  but,  in  process  of  time,  tin-  ne<-essily  for  a  division 
of  labour  created  the  distinct  trade  of  a  manufacturer  (jf 
ty(M-s,  and  it  is  only  in  rare  instances  in  the  present  day 
that  printers  supply  their  own  letter.  The  preparation 
of  types  rc()uircs  much  delicacy  and  skill.  The  first 
step  in  the  process  is  the  cuttimj  of  a  punch  or  die, 
resembling  the  required  letter.  'I'hc  punch  is  of  hard- 
ened steel,  with  the  figure  ol  the  Irtter  cut.  the  reverse 
way,  upon  its  point.  On  this  die  being  fniished,  it  is 
struck  into  a  piece  of  copper,  about  an  inch  and  a  quarter 
long,  oni'-eighth  of  an  inch  deep,  and  of  a  width 
proportionate  to  the  size  of  the  ty|)e  to  be  cast.  This 
cojjper,  being  so  impressed  with  the  representation  of  the 
letter,  is  calleil  the  iiiatiix.  The  niatrix  is  now  fixed 
into  ii  small  instrnmiiit  or  frame, cnllcd  the  mould,  which 
is  composed  of  two  parts,  The  exiernal  surface  is  o( 
wood,  the  internal  of  steel.  .Xt  the  lop  is  a  shelving 
orifice,  into  which  the  metal  is  poured.  'I'lio  space  witb- 
in  is  of  tlie  size  of  tlie  required  body  of  the  letter,  and 


lHI 


imi- 


7M 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


It  made  excordingly  (rue.  The  melted  metal,  being 
poured  into  tliiH  apnco,  sinks  down  to  the  bottom  into  the 
matrix,  and  instnntly  cooling,  the  mould  is  made  to  open 
with  the  instantaneous  movement  of  a  spring,  and  the 
type  is  cast  out  by  the  workman.  This  process  of  cast- 
ing types  is  executed  with  great  celerity.  Of  course, 
every  sepurute  lctti>r  in  the  alphabet,  every  figure,  (loint, 
or  mark,  must  hnve  its  own  punch  and  matrix.  In  cast- 
ing typex,  thr  fouiulcr  stands  at  a  table,  and  has  beside 
him  a  small  furnnrn  and  |)Ot  of  hratod  metal,  which  he 
lifts  with  a  Hmiill  ladle.  Typo  metal  is  a  compound  of 
lead  and  ri'guluM  of  antimony,  the  latter  giving  hardness 
to  the  coniposiiion.  The  proper  proportions  of  these 
metals  is  rcKulutcd  by  the  size  of  the  type,  a  greater 
quantity  of  antimony  being  employed  for  small  than 
large  letters. 

When  tlip  type  is  cast  from  the  mould,  it  is  in  a  rough 
state,  and  ns  soon  as  ii  heap  has  accumulated  on  the  cast- 
er's table,  they  are  removed  by  a  boy,  who  breaks  off 
the  8up«'rtlu()us  tas  of  metal  hanging  at  the  end  of  each 
type.  From  the  breakin^-off  Ixjy  the  types  are  removed 
to  another  place,  where  a  Iwy  is  constantly  engaged  in 
rubbing  or  smoiithing  their  edges  upon  a  stone.  Being 
now  tolerably  well  cleaned,  they  are  next  removed  to  a 
table,  and  set  up  in  long  lines  upon  a  frame,  where  they 
are  polished  and  made  ready  for  use.  Whatever  bo  the 
size  of  the  types,  they  are  all  made  of  n  uniform  height, 
and  must  be  |M"rfertly  true  in  their  angles,  otherwise  it 
would  be  quite  impossible  to  lock  them  together.  A  single 
irregular  lypc  would  most  likely  derange  a  whole  p.ige. 
The  heiglitof  a  type  is,  or  ought  to  be.  exactly  one  inch; 
but  founders,  much  to  their  discredit,  do  not  act  with 
uniformity  in  this  pni-ticular,  the  letters  of  some  founders 
being  higher  than  those  of  others.  But  all  the  types  of 
one  class  of  any  founder  are  always  uniform  in  size  and 
height ;  and  to  preser\c  their  individuality,  all  the  letters, 
points,  &c.  lielonging  to  one  class,  are  distinguished  by 
•me  or  more  notches  or  nicks  on  the  Ixxly  of  the  type, 
which  notches  range  evenly  when  the  types  are  set. 
These  nicks,  as  we  shall  immediately  see,  are  also  ex- 
ceedingly useful  in  guiding  the  com[)ositor.  Types  are 
likewise  all  e<iually  grooved  in  the  bottom  to  make  them 
■tand  steadily. 

The  varieties  of  size  of  types  in  the  present  day  amount 
to  fortj  or  fit^y,  enlarging  by  a  progressive  scale  from  the 
minutest  used  in  printing  pocket  Bibles,  to  the  largest 
which  is  seen  in  posting-hills  on  the  streets.  Printers 
bavediKtitici  names  for  each  size  of  letter,  and  use  about 
twelve  sizes  in  different  descriptions  of  book-work  ;  the 
■mallest  is  called  Dinniond,  and  then  follow,  in  gradation 
upwards,  Fc  irl,  llnby,  ynnpiireil,  Minion,  Brrvter  (the 
type  with  which  tins  sheet  ic  printed),  Pnurgeoif,  Imus; 
Primer,  Small  I'mi,  Pii:a,  and  Eiifftiih.  The  larger  sizes 
generally  lake  their  names  thus — Tton-line  Pint,  Tun- 
lint  En^lith,  Four,  Six,  Eight,  or  Ten-line  Pint,  Ac. 
Other  nations  have  adopted  diflerent  designations  for 
their  letters,  principally  from  the  names  of  their  inven- 
tors ;  for  instance,  the  French  entitle  Small  Pica,  /'Ai7o- 
tophit,  from  the  first  maker  of  the  letter.  Some  of  these 
classes  of  letters  have  derived  their  names  from  having 
been  first  employed  in  the  printing  of  the  prayers  in  the 
Romish  church.  Thus,  Pirn,  from  the  service  of  the 
mass,  termed  Picn,  or  Pic,  from  the  glaring  contrast 
between  the  black  and  white  on  the  page — Primrr, 
from  Prlnuirius,  the  biK)k  of  prayers  to  the  Virgin — 
Hrevier,  from  Hrr/'iuiy — Canon,  from  the  canoni  of  the 
wurch,  <Stc. 

All  kinds  of  type  are  sold  by  weight  by  the  foumk-rs, 
the  pric"  varying  in  amount  acrording  to  the  size  of  the 
letter.  The  smallest  size,  Ihdmoml,  costs  obout  1 2s.  \Hfi 
pound;  llrtner,  about  .Is.  6il. ;  Eii^lith,  about  2h. ;  and 
•o  in  ptop.irlioii  for  all  intermediate  sires.  F<x|)ensivpiut 
tjrpea  thus  are,  their  prices  wili  not  apfiear  too  high  con- 
tlderitig  the  immense  outlay  in  cutting  the  punches  and 


the  general  manu&cture.  In  the  Diamond  size,  2800  n 
to  a  single  pound  weight  of  the  letter  i,  and  of  the  thionM 
span  about  6000. 

A  complete  assortment  of  types  is  called  a  founi 
which  may  be  regulated  to  any  extent.  Every  type! 
founder  has  a  scale  showing  the  proportional  qucntiiy  of 
each  letter  required  for  a  fount ;  and  a  peculiar  scale  ii 
required  for  every  language.  For  the  English  language 
the  following  is  a  type-founder's  scale  for  the  Hinall  lej 
ters  of  a  fount  of  types  of  a  particular  size  and  weight;— 


a 

8500 

h 

6400 

0 

8000 

V     1200 

b 

1600 

i 

8000 

P 

1700 

w    2000 

c 

3000 

J 

400 

1 

500 

Jc      400 

d 

4400 

k 

800 

r 

6200 

y    2000 

e 

12000 

1 

4000 

8 

8000 

z       200 

f 

2500 

m 

3000 

t 

9000 

g 

1700 

n 

8000 

U 

3400 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  scale  that  the  letter  e  ig  \xigi 
much  more  frequently  than  any  other  charnctcr. 

Types  are  nowhere  manufactured  so  well  as  in  Gre« 
Britain,  and  for  their  elegance  and  regularity  of  form 
they  have  been  much  indebted  to  the  late  William  Caslon 
letter-founder,  in  London.  Mr.  Caslon  was  originally  an 
engraver  of  ornamental  devices  on  the  barrels  of  fire- 
arms,  and  a  maker  of  Imokbinders'  tools.  The  neatnesi 
with  which  he  executed  his  work  brought  him  into  notice, 
and  he  was  appointed  to  cut  a  fount  of  Arabic  letters  foi 
an  edition  of  the  New  Testament.  This  occurred  about 
the  year  1720,  and  from  this  period  he  entered  on  ii  suc- 
cessful career  as  a  ^^tter-founder.  Hitherto  the  typei  used 
in  England  had  been  mostly  imported  from  Holland;  but 
Caslon's  letters,  by  their  decided  superiority  over  those 
of  all  competitors  at  home  and  abroad,  soon  put  a  stop 
to  the  importation  of  foreigfn  types,  and  were  held  in  such 
estimation,  as  to  l>e  frequently  sent  to  continental  coun- 
tries. From  1720  till  1780,  few  books  were  printed  m 
England  with  the  ty|)es  of  any  other  tlian  this  foundery, 
which  still  continues  in  existence  in  London. 

The  ingenuity  and  success  of  Caslon  meet  with  i 
parallel  in  the  case  of  tlie  late  Mr.  Alexander  Wilson, 
tyjie-founder,  in  Glasgow.  This  person,  by.  a  strong 
ellbrt  of  perseverance  under  difficulties,  bcRun  to  cul 
punches  for  types  at  his  native  town,  tit.  Andrews,  about 
the  year  1740,  and  there  opened  a  letter-l'ouiidery— the 
first  established  in  Scotland — in  company  with  ,ui  equally 
enterprising  individual  named  Bain.  In  1744,  Messrs, 
Wilson  and  Bain  removed  with  their  founilery  to  the 
neighbourhood  of  Glasgow,  where  it  loni;  ttourished. 
The  types  produced  by  Mr.  Wilson  were  cxcecdinijlj 
neat,  and  even  elegant,  and  became  the  real  foundation 
of  the  fame  of  the  Messrs.  Foulis,  printers,  whose  edi- 
tions of  the  (classics  were  printed  from  them.  Branches 
ofthetJlasgowlettcr-foundery  werenfl«'rwnrdsealahlished 
in  the  English  and  Scottish  capitals.  In  Edinburgh, 
besides  the  foundery  of  the  Messrs.  Wilson,  grandsons  of 
the  first  of  the  name,  the  principal  establihhinent  of  ihi 
kind  is  that  of  Messrs.  Miller  and  Company,  whose  types 
we  consider  as  standing  in  the  first  class  in  respect  of 
neatness,  beauty,  and  regularity.  They  are  largely  em- 
ployed in  the  printing  of  Bibles,  newspapers,  and  other 
works  in  which  a  small  type  is  required. 

The  large  letters  used  in  posting  and  hand-bills  m 
manufactured  chiefly  at  Sheffield.  In  this  kind  of  types 
very  great  improvements  have  also  been  made  in  reoent 
times ;  and  the  varieties  arc  becoming  yearly  more  nu- 
merous and  varied  in  character.  The  letter  used  in 
printing  in  North  America  is  made  principally  at  Now 
York  and  Phihidelphia ;  and  the  style  of  Imth  tyjiopa- 
'phy  and  presswork  in  that  country  is  rapidly  improving, 
and  now  coin|ieting  with  the  pro<lucts  of  the  English 
press.  The  typo  uwd  in  this  edition  of  Oiumbesk 
IsFOBMATiox  loH  THE  Pr.opi.B,  was  cast  in  the  foundry 
of  L.  Johnson  Sl  Co.,  Piuladciphia. 


PRINTING. 


797 


COMPOSING. 


AC  itie  typoa  in  use  in  the  printing-oflicc  are  sorted  in 
iiiei,  01"  shiillow  boxes,  with  divisions.     There  are  tw  3 

kinds  of  cases — tlie  upper  and  tower  case  :  the  latter  lying 
pearest  tlic  compositor  upon  the  frame  for  their  support. 
In  the  upper  case  are  placed  all  the  cai>ital8,  small  capi- 
'jlii  accented  letters,  figures,  and  characters  used  ns  re- 
ferences to  noti.'s.  In  the  lower  case  lie  all  the  small  let- 
ters, points,  and  spaces  to  place  between  the  words.  In  the 
lower,  no  alphabetical  arrangement  is  preserved;  each  letter 
Ui  a  larger  or  smaller  box  allotted  to  it,  according  as  it  is 
more  or  less  frequently  required ;  and  all  those  letters 
most  in  request  are  placed  at  the  nearest  convenient  dis- 
tance to  the  compositor.  By  this  ingenious  and  irregu- 
lar division  of  the  lower  case,  much  time  is  saved  to  the 
compositor,  who  requires  no  label  to  direct  him  to  the 
(pot  where  lies  the  particular  letter  ho  wants.  To  a 
rtraiiger  in  a  printing-office,  nothing  appears  so  remark- 
able as  the  vapidity  with  which  the  compositor  does  his 
work;  but  habit  very  soon  leads  the  hand  rapidly  and 
mechanically  to  the  letter  required.  When  Italic  letters 
have  to  be  introduced,  they  are  taken  from  a  separate 
pair  of  cases  of  the  same  fount 

The  process  of  composing  and  forming  types  into 
pages  may  now  be  adverted  to.  Placing  the  copy  or 
manuscript  before  him  on  the  up|)er  cane,  and  standing 
in  ftont  of  the  lower  case,  the  compoiiitor  holds  in  his 
left  hand  what  is  termed  a  composing-stick.  Sometimes 
tliia  instrument  is  of  wood,  with  a  certain  space  cut  in  it 
of  ».  particular  width  ;  but  more  commonly  it  is  made  of 
iroo  or  bras.s,  with  a  movable  side,  which,  by  means  of 
a  screw,  may  be  regulated  to  any  width  of  line.  In 
eiliier  case  the  composing-stick  is  made  perfectly  true 
and  square.  One  by  one  the  compositor  lifts  and  puts 
the  letters  of  each  word  and  sentence,  and  appropriate 
points,  into  hh  stick,  securing  each  with  the  thumb  of 
his  left  haml,  and  placing  them  side  by  side  from  left  to 
right  alons;  the  line.  When  he  places  a  letter  in  the 
stick,  he  (lois  not  require  to  look  v, hother  he  is  placing 
it  with  the  focc  in  its  proper  position.  His  object  is  ac- 
complished by  locking  at  what  is  called  the  nirk,  which 
,  must  be  placed  outwards  in  his  composing-stick. 
(See  adjoining  representation  of  a  type.)  This  is 
I  one  of  those  lieautiful  contrivances  for  saving  la- 
bour which  experience  has  introduced  into  every 
,irt,  and  which  arc  ns  valuable  for  diminishing  the 
cost  of  production  the  more  elaborate  inventions 
I  of  machinery.  V".  n  he  arrives  at  the  end  of  his 
lino,  the  compositor  is  a  task  to  perform  in  which 
the  carefulness  of  the  orkman  is  greatly  exhibited. 
The  first  letter  and  the  last  n,  i-itbc  at  the  extremities  of 
the  line :  there  must  be  no  spaces  left  in  some  instances, 
and  no  crowding  in  others,  as  we  see  in  the  best  manu- 
script. Each  metal  type  is  of  a  constant  thickness,  as 
far  as  regards  that  particular  size  of  letter ;  though  all 
the  letters  are  not  of  the  same  thickness.  The  adjust- 
ments, therefore,  to  complete  the  line  with  a  word,  or  at 
any  ra'e  with  a  syllable,  must  be  made  by  varying  the 
thickness  of  the  spaces  between  each  word.  A  good 
compositor  is  distinguished  by  uniformity  of  spacing :  he 
wil/  ot  allow  the  words  to  be  very  close  together  in  some 
instances,  and  with  a  large  gap  between  them  in  otheKs. 
His  duty  is  to  equalizt:  the  spacing  as  much  ns  he  possi- 
bly can ;  and  this  is  in  some  cases  very  troublesome.  In 
composing  poetry,  or  similar  matter,  where  there  is 
always  a  blank  space  at  one  of  the  ends  of  the  line, 
ipjcing  is  very  easily  accomplished  by  filling  up  the  blardc 
with  larger  spaces,  or  ijuaihalf.  But  whether  prose  or 
poetry,  the  matter  of  each  line  must  be  equally  adjusted 
ind  ^uttiyiei/,  so  as  to  correspond  in  point  of  cotn[)actnes8 
with  the  previously  set  lines.  The  process  of  composing 
B  f^eatly  facilitated  by  the  compositor  using  a  thin  slip 
((  brass,  culled  a  seiting-^uii:,  which  he  place* in  the  «M>n)- 


posing-stick  when  he  begins,  and  which,  on  a  line  being 
complettd,  he  pulls  out  and  places  upon  the  front  of  the 
line  so  completed,  in  order  that  the  types  he  sets  may  not 
come  in  contact  with  the  types  behind  them,  but  glide 
smoothly  into  their  places  to  the  bottom  of  the  composing^ 
stick. 

When  the  workman  has  set  up  as  many  line*  as  hit 
composing-stick  will  conveniently  hold,  he  lifts  them  out 
by  grasping  them  with  the  fingers  of  each  hand,  and  thus 
tjiking  them  up  as  if  they  were  a  solid  piece  of  metal. 
He  then  places  the  mass  in  an  elongated  board,  termed 
a  galley,  which  has  a  ledge  on  one  or  perhaps  both  sides. 
The  facility  with  which  some  compositors  can  lift  what 
is  called  a  handful  of  movable  type  without  deranging 
a  single  letter,  is  very  remarkable.  This  sort  of  skill 
can  only  he  attained  by  practice ;  and  one  of  the  severest 
niortifications  which  the  printer's  apprentice  has  to  en- 
dure, is  to  toil  for  an  hour  in  picking  up  about  a  thou- 
sand letters,  and  then  see  the  fabric  destroyed  by  his  own 
unskilfulness,  leaving  liim  to  mourn  over  his  heap  of 
broken  type,  technically  called  pic. 

Letter  by  letter,  and  word  by  word,  is  the  composing- 
stick  filled  ;  and  by  the  same  progression  the  galley  is 
filled  by  the  contents  of  successive  sticks.  When  the 
compositor  has  set  up  as  many  lines  us  will  fill  a  page, 
he  binds  them  tightly  round  with  cord,  and  remove* 
them  from  the  galley.  The  annexed  cut  is  a  representa- 
tion of  a  small  page  of  types  tied  up,  and  placed  on  a 
board. 


Sometimes,  as  in  the  case  of  ncwMpapcr  and  similai 
work,  the  hawlfuh  of  type  are  accumulated  till  they  fill 
the  galley,  and  are  then  removed  in  long  columns.  After 
the  matter  is  thus  so  far  prepared,  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
pressman  to  take  an  impression  or  firs!  proof  from  the 
types,  in  order  that  the  compositor  may  c-c.-jcct  the  errors 
which  are  sure  to  have  been  made.  Proofs  are  usually 
taken  by  means  of  an  old  large  press  kept  for  the  puiw 
pose.  After  the  galley  matter  is  corrected,  and  re-cor- 
rected by  the  compositor,  it  is  divided  into  pages  of  the 
size  wanted ;  and  head-lines,  or  figures  indicatuig  the 
number  of  the  page,  being  added,  the  pages  arc  arranged 
upon  a  large  firm  table,  and  there  securely  fixed  up  in  an 
iron  frame  or  chaic,  by  means  of  slips  of  wood  and  wedges, 
or  i/t«o(iia. 

This  process,  which  is  called  iV/i/m.sinp,  being  com- 
pleted, and  the  face  of  the  types  being  levelled  by  a 
pliiiner  and  mallet,  the  fmm,  as  it  is  called,  is  proved  and 
prepared  for  press.  Proof-sheets  being  taken,  they  are 
subjected  to  the  scrutiny  both  of  a  reader  employed  in 
this  peculiar  function  in  the  oillcc,  and  of  the  author. 
These  having  made  their  marks  pointing  out  words  and 
letters  to  be  altered  or  corrected,  the  compositor  once 
more  goes  over  the  form,  correcting  the  errors  by  lifting 
out  the  letters  with  a  bodkin,  and  when  revised,  the 
sheet  is  pronounced  ready  for  working.  It  may  lie  ex- 
plained that  the  imposing  table  at  which  all  these  cor- 
rections are  made,  is  usually  composed  of  smooth  stone 
or  marble  on  the  top,  and  requires  to  be  a  substantia' 
fabric. 

It  need  scarcely  be  told  that  the  size  ot  books  greatly 

varies ;    but  the  sizes  are  all  reducible   to  a  standard 

determined  by  the  number  of  leaves  into  which  a  sheet 

of  paper  is  folded.    The  most  common  size  is  octave^ 

3x3 


t(-#fi  t7'' 


798 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


each  sheet  of  which  contains  eictht  loaves,  or  sixteen 
pajms;  the  next  is  (/(((i(/frimi), conlaininc twelve  lenves,  or 
twenty -four  paRea  in  the  nhcct;  and  the  next  ocloikcimn, 
or  eightcpns,  cuntaininu  thirty-Bix  pBftes  in  n  sheet. 
There  are  many  Dtlier  si7.r!».  such  as  the  larj^er  ijunrlo, 
the  smaller  tweiily-funm,  tie.  To  know  how  to  place 
pai;es  of  types  in  a  form  so  as  to  produce,  when  printed, 
a  regular  series  upon  paper,  is  one  of  the  branches  of  the 
art  to  be  aciiuirod  hy  the  young  compositor. 

PROORRSSIVK    IMPROVKMENTS    IN    TYPOORAPHY. 

The  following  particulars  relative  to  the  early  pro- 
ductions of  the  press,  will  show  how  the  style  of  book- 
printing  was  urndunlly  improved  : — "  With  respect  to 
their  forms,  they  were  generally  either  large  or  snull 
fiilios,  or  at  least  qnirtos ;  the  lesser  sizes  were  not  in 
use.  The  leaves  were  without  running  title,  direction 
word,  number  of  pages,  or  divisions  into  paragraphs. 
The  character  itself  was  a  rude  old  Gothic  mixed  with 
Secretary,  designed  on  purpose  to  imitate  the  handwrit- 
ing ot  those  times ;  the  words  were  printed  so  close  to 
one  another,  that  it  was  dilTicult  and  tedious  to  be  read, 
even  by  those  who  were  used  to  manuscripts,  and  to  this 
method  ,  and  often  led  the  inattentive  reader  into  mis- 
takes. Their  orthography  was  various,  and  ofU-n  arbi- 
trary, disrcfiarding  mclho<l.  They  had  very,  frequent 
abbreviations,  which  in  time  grew  so  numerous  and  ditfi- 
C'jlt  to  he  understood  tV.a!  there  was  a  necessity  of  writ- 
ing a  book  to  teach  the  manner  of  reading  them.  Their 
periods  weic  distinguished  by  no  other  points  than  the  I 
double  or  single  one — that  is  the  colon  and  full  point; 
but  they  a  little  after  introduced  an  oblique  stroke, 
thus  / ,  which  answered  the  purpose  of  our  comma. 
They  used  no  capital  letter  to  begin  a  sentence,  or  for 
proper  names  of  men  or  places.  They  left  blanks  for 
the  places  of  titles,  initial  letters,  and  other  ornaments, 
in  order  to  have  them  supplied  by  the  illumitiators,  whose 
in'jenious  art,  though  in  vogue  before,  and  at  that  time, 
did  not  long  survive  the  masterly  improvements  made  by 
the  pnnters  in  this  bramh  of  their  art.  Those  orna- 
ments were  exipiisitely  fine,  and  curiously  variegated 
with  the  most  l)eautiful  colours,  and  even  with  gold  and 
silver;  the  margins,  likewise,  were  frequently  charged 
with  a  variety  of  (ignres  of  saints,  birds,  beastii,  monsters, 
flnmers,  ^c,  which  had  sometimes  relation  to  the  con- 
tent* of  the  page,  though  ofU-n  none  at  all.  These 
c  moellishments  were  very  costly ;  but  for  those  that 
could  not  afliird  a  great  price,  there  were  more  inferior 
ornaments,  which  could  lie  done  ut  a  much  easier  rate. 
The  name  of  the  printer,  place  of  his  residence,  Ac.  &c., 
were  either  wholly  neglected,  or  put  at  the  end  of  the 
book,  not  without  some  pious  ejaculation  or  duxology. 
The  date  was  likewise  omitted,  or  involved  in  some 
crainpt  circumstantial  |M>rio<!,  or  else  printed  cither  at  full 
length,  or  by  numerical  li  tters,  and  sometimes  partly  one 
and  partly  the  other — tlnis,  one  thousand  CCUC  and 
Ixxiiii,  6lc.  ;  but  alt  of  them  at  the  end  of  the  book. 
There  was  no  variety  of  characters,  no  intermixture  of 
Roman  and  lulic  ;  they  are  of  later  invention :  but  their 
pages  were  continued  in  a  fiothic  letter  of  the  same  size 
throughout.  They  printcil  but  few  copies  at  once,  for  200 
or  300  were  then  cstecincd  a  large  impression  ;  though, 
npon  the  encourageinent  reccivi'd  from  the  learned,  they 
Increased  their  nurnlHTs  in  proportion." 

About  1469-70,  alphalietical  tables  of  the  first  words 
of  each  chapter  were  introduced,  as  a  guide  to  the  binder. 
Catch-wonis  (now  grnerally  abolished)  were  first  useil 
at  Venice,  by  Vindclinc  de  Spii^.  Karly  printed  ;>ooks 
bad  no  signatures.  Signalures  arc  those  letters  of  the 
alphal)et  which  arc  ]iut  at  the  bottom  of  the  right  hand 
pages  of  sheets  to  distinguish  their  order.  When  *he 
atphal)ct  is  fininhed,  a  wcon<t  Iwgins  A  a,  or  2  A,  ir,  (eud 
at  a  single  A  ;  anii  A'lieii  that  is  terminated,  A  a  a,  or 
*  A,  t>egiu  the  iliini,  and  so  on      Ir.  order  to  indicate 


more  correctly  the  order  of  each  sheet,  printen  uU 
figures  to  the  initial  letter  on  the  third,  fifth,  and  seventk 
pages  :  the  numlmrs  of  these  figures,  which  do  not  piu 
the  middle  of  the  sheet,  point  out  the  size  of  the  edition. 
Thus  A  2  on  the  third  page,  A  3  on  the  fifth,  and  A  4  on 
the  seventh,  show  a  work  to  be  in  8vo ;  in  the  IJmn 
size,  A  6  on  the  ninth  page,  and  A  6  on  the  eleventh 
page,  &c. ;  but  it  is  now  customary  to  give  signaturei 
only  on  the  first  and  third  pages  of  8vo,  and  on  ilie  fir,( 
third,  and  fifth  pages  of  12mo. 

In  some  modern  French  works,  figures  arc  sulwtiluted 
for  letters,  and  the  other  leaves  are  marked  by  uKierisli. 
The  invention  of  signatures  is  ascribed  by  M.  MarolJM 
to  John  of  Cologne,  who  printed  at  Venice  in  1474,  t),. 
Abbe  Hive  attributce  h  to  John  Koelhof,  a  printer  m 
Cologne,  and  a  conLmporary  with  the  former,  from 
whom  we  have  a  work  dated  in  1472.  It  ia,  however 
of  little  consequence  who  was  the  originator,  for,  on  th« 
whole,  signatures  are  rather  a  clumsy  expedient  merely 
to  direct  the  binder  in  folding  tlie  sheet,  and  arc  genu. 
rally  much  too  conspicuous  upon  the  pai^es. 

One  of  the  chief  improvements  in  the  style  of  typo. 
graphy  has  been  the  dismissal  of  ablirevialions  and 
connected  letters  from  the  founts.  Formerly,  ab'  •  via. 
tiojis  were  very  common  :  the  word  the  was  indici,  '  b? 
the  letter  y  and  a  small  e  above  it ;  the  conjunction  aiid 
was  indicated  by  (f,  which  is  a  contraction  of  ei.  There 
were  many  of  this  species  of  abbreviations  in  printini 
both  the  English  and  Latin  languages,  and  these  were 
not  more  unseemly  than  the  connected  letters;  such 
for  instance,  as  the  junction  of  the  letters  c  and  (  by  a 
curve  stroke  from  the  top  of  one  to  the  other.  In  recent 
times  alt  these  connected  letters  have  been  disused,  with 
tlie  exception  of  ffl  and  fl,  because  the  head  of  the  com- 
mon  /  would  press  against  the  /,  and  be  broken.  Another 
very  great  improvement  has  been  ellected  in  the  liismis. 
sal  of  the  long  «,  in  the  case  of  two  of  this  letter  coming 
together. 

STEBEOTYPINO. 

We  may  now  offer  a  brief  explanation  of  the  process 
of  stereotyping,  which  has  been  of  imnicnsi!  service  to 
literature.  Stereotyping  is  the  manufacturing  of  ficij. 
tious  pages  of  ty|)es,  and  the  invcniion  is  gencraiif 
attributed  to  a  Mr.  William  Ged,  of  Edinlmrgh,  about 
the  year  1726.  When  the  art  was  properly  made  known 
it  was  hailed  with  acclamation  by  the  printing  and  pub- 
lishing world;  hut  as  experience  develoiH>d  its  powerj, 
it  was  found  to  l)c  strictly  applicable  only  to  a  partjculir 
kind  of  work. 

When  a  page  is  iirtended  to  be  s;.>reuiypad.  the  same 
process  of  putting  up  the  types  is  gone  through  that  we 
have  already  described  ;  instead,  however,  of  iK'uig  car- 
ried to  the  press,  the  page  is  pla8t<>red  over  with  liquid 
stucco  to  the  thickness  of  about  half  an  inch,  so  that  i 
level  coke  is  formed  on  the  surface  of  the  tvpes,  Ai 
soon  as  the  stucco  harilcns,  which  it  docs  almost  imme- 
diately, the  cake  is  separated  from  the  tyi»'s,  and  on 
being  fumeil  up,  shows  a  c  <mpiete  hollow  or  nvould-iike 
representation  of  the  faces  of  the  tyiies,  and  every  thing 
else  in  the  page.  There  being  no  longer  any  use  for  the 
ty|)es,  they  arc  carried  of  and  distributed,  ks  for  the 
cake,  it  is  put  into  an  oven,  and  baked  to  a  certain  de- 
gree of  heat  and  hardness,  like  a  piece  of  pottery.  Itii 
next  laid  in  a  sijunre  iron  (ran,  having  a  lid  of  the  same 
metal,  with  holes  at  the  corners.  At  the  bottom  of  thi 
pan  there  is  a  movable  plate,  called  '.he  flontiiig  plale; 
and  u()on  this  plate,  which  has  a  smooth  accurate  surface, 
the  mould  is  placed  with  its  fa(«  downwards.  The  lii! 
being  now  placed  and  held  tightly  on  by  a  screw,  the  pin, 
by  the  assistance  of  a  crane  and  other  mectianitm,  ii 
immersed  in  a  pot  of  m>dten  lead,  and  being  allowed  If 
fill  by  means  of  the  holes,  it  is  at  length  taken  out  ml 
put  aside  to  cool.    Uti  opening  the  |>an  a  curioiu  iy< 


PRINTING. 


7M 


MiftiiM  in  prcHenl'-d.  The  lead  has  run  into  (lie  mould 
g,t(  of  tlie  rakn,  and  firmed  n  lliin  plato  all  over,  cxhi- 
tiling'ln'  pt-tfcct  appearance  of  tho  fares  of  ttin  types  on 
ffhicb  (ho  Mtueco  was  plastered.  Thus  is  procured  a 
plate  or  fictitious  pnfje  of  types,  not  thicker  than  '-he 
litthof  on  inch.  When  the  plate  comes  out  of  the  ^an, 
it  imii  n  """'"what  rude  stpte,  and  has  to  ho  carefully 
pruned  iit  the  edges,  its  little  specks  picked  clean,  and.  if 
iifcesaary.  one  or  more  bad  letters  cut  out,  and  replaced 
by  soldering  in  the  heads  of  movable  types.  The  plate 
isaUo  plani'd  upon  the  back  by  means  of  an  ingenious 
rotatory  cutting  machine  upon  which  it  is  fixed. 

The  8terci)ty|tt!  plates,  so  prepared,  are  next  taken  to 
(he  printiiig-ollicc,  and  made  ready  for  press.  This  is 
done  liy  placing  them  upon  iron  or  wooden  blocks,  so 
that  both  plate  and  block  make  up  the  exact  height  of  a 
iijlfc  of  real  types.  They  arc  fixed  to  the  blocks  by  the 
aid  of  small  metal  catches  at  tho  sides,  head,  and  foot, 
which  catclu'K  arc  held  fast  by  slips  of furnilure  properly 
weilged.  Notwithstanding  the  great  care  taken  in 
makin?  the  plates  level  and  of  a  uniform  tiiickness,  it  is 
seldom  that  they  are  perfect ;  and  to  make  them  as  accu- 
rate as  possible  for  a  fair  impression,  scraps  of  thin 
pasteboard  or  paper  are  placed  between  them  and  the 
blocks  at  the  thiinie..'t  parts.  When  the  impression  is 
.■oinplctfd,  the  plates  arc  unfixed,  packed  up,  and  ' 'id 
isiue  for  future  use.  Now  for  the  specific  utility  of 
stereotyping. 

In  all  cases  of  common  book-work,  it  is  best  to  print 
from  types  to  the  amount  of  the  copies  required,  and 
llicn  distribute  tho  tyjies;  hut  in  most  cases  of  books 
published  in  parts,  sheets,  or  numbers,  stereotyping  be- 
cunies  absolutely  necessary.  It  is  easy  to  perceive  the 
reason  for  this.  When  books  are  published  in  numbers, 
it  often  happens  that  many  more  copies  arc  sold  of  one 
niitniiir  than  of  another ,  and  unless  the  types  be  kept 
up  to  complete  sets  in  the  hands  of  the  publishers,  or  to 
print  copii-s  according  to  the  increased  demand,  a  serious 
lais  is  sustained.  'I'hc  manufacture  of  stereotype  plates, 
is, therefore,  iiin))ly  a  mcansof  keeping  up  fictitious  types 
III  answer  future  demands,  at  an  expense  greatly  inferior 
to  that  of  keeping  the  actual  pages  standing,  or  of  putting 
llie  lyi)C3  up  anew. 

In  the  case  of  Chambers's  Edinburgh  Journal,  a  new 
feature  of  utility  was  for  the  first  time  developed  in  the 
stcreotypiii!;  art.  It  was  desired  to  have  a  separate  im- 
pression cf  that  work  in  London,  and  stereotyping  fuc- 
iiislied  ine  means.  The  types  being  first  set  up  and 
imposed,  are  sent  to  the  foundery ,  where  livo  sets  of  stereo- 
type plati's  are  cast  from  them,  one  to  be  retained  for 
use  in  Edinburgh,  and  the  other  to  lie  sent  to  London, 
and  there  subjeited  to  a  separate  press.  Tho  expense 
of  setting  up  the  types  anew  in  London,  and  the  danger 
of  errors  being  incurred  from  the  want  of  editorial  super- 
vision, arc  thus  avoided.  Had  not  ^he  stereotyping 
process  been  available,  the  arrangement  for  a  separate 
impresaion  of  the  .lournal  might  not  have  been  entered 
upon,  and  the  progn^ss  of  the  work  in  circulation  con- 
ssquently  obstructed  to  an  indefinite  extent.  Advantage 
was  afterwards  taken  of  the  art  to  the  same  purpose  by 
tlie  proprietors  of  other  cheap  i>eriodicals,  particularly 
the  Penny  Magazine,  of  the  cuts  of  which  wc  believe 
upwards  of  a  dozen  sets  of  sterLMtype  copies  are  sent  to 
W printed  in  diirrent  parts  of  the  world. 

PROCESS    or    PniNTlNO, 

The  duties  of  the  compositor  do  not  involve  the  pro- 
cess of  printing.  Wh;n  the  forms  are  duly  prepared  in 
the  composing-room,  they  are  carried  into  the  press- 
room, where  tliey  come  uruler  the  charge  of  the  press- 
men. The  earliest  priiiting-pretises  were  exceedingly 
nide,  and  seem  to  have  resembled  the  common  screw 
fre«,with  a  contrivante  for  running  the  form  under  the 
prnut  of  pressure.      Tlu!>  inu6l  huvo   Uicu  not  oul\   a 


laborious  and  slow  operation,  but  one  exceedingly  it- 
fective,  from  the  dilficulty  of  regulating  the  impreMOB, 
and  the  risk  of  injuiing  tho  faces  of  the  typen.  The 
defects  in  these  original  presses  were  at  length  remedied 
by  an  ingenious  Dutch  mechanic,  William  Janscn  Blaew, 


"^^ 


Jfc^ 


who  carried  on  the  business  of  a  mathematical  instm 
ment  maker  at  Amsterdam.  He  contrived  a  press,  in 
which  the  carriage  holding  the  form  was  wound  below 
tho  point  of  pressure,  which  was  given  by  moving  a 
handle  attached  to  a  screw  hanging  in  a  beam  having  a 
spring,  which  spring  caused  the  screw  to  fly  back  aa 
soon  as  the  impression  was  given.  This  species  of  press, 
which  was  almost  entirely  formed  of  wood,  continued  in 
general  use  in  every  country  in  Euroiie  till  the  begin- 
ning of  the  present  century  With  certain  lever  power* 
attached  to  the  screw  and  handle,  it  is  here  represented. 
In  connection  with  the  representation  of  the  old  com- 
mon press,  the  process  of  printing  may  be  described. 
The  form,  being  laid  on  the  sole  of  the  piess,  is  fixed  at 
the  sides  so  as  to  render  it  immovable  fi-om  its  position. 
There  are  two  men  employed  ;  one  puts  ink  on  the  Ibrm 
either  by  means  of  stuffed  balls  or  by  a  composition 
roller — tho  other  works  the  press.  The  latter  lifts  a 
blank  sheet  from  a  table  at  his  side,  and  places  it  on  what 
is  called  the  tynipa»,  which  is  composed  of  parchment 
and  blanket  stuff,  fitted  in  a  frame,  and  tightened  like 
the  top  of  a  drum  (and  hence  its  nomo),  and  which,  by 
means'of  hinges  connecting  it  with  the  sole,  folds  down 
like  a  lid  over  the  form.  As  the  sheet,  however,  would 
fall  off  in  the  act  of  being  brought  down,  a  skeleton-like 
slender  frame,  called  a  friskel,  is  hinged  to  the  upper 
extremity  of  thetympan,  over  which  it  is  brought  to  hold 
on  the  pa|)c.'.  Thus,  the  frisket  being  first  folded 
down  over  the  tympan  and  the  tympan  next  folded 
down  over  the  form,  the  impression  is  ready  to  be  taken. 
This  is  done  by  the  left  hand  of  the  pressman  winding 
the  carriage  below  the  plallen  or  pressing  surface,  and  the 
impression  is  performed  by  the  right  hand  pulling  the 
handle  attached  to  the  screw  mechanism.  The  carriage 
is  then  wound  back,  the  printed  sheet  lifled  off  and 
another  put  on  *he  tympan,  the  form  again  inked,  and  so 
on  successively.  In  tho  above  engraving  the  press 
appears  with  the  frisket  and  tympan  sloping  upwards, 
ready  to  receive  the  sheet,  the  frisket  being  sustained 
from  falling  backwards  by  a  slip  of  wood  depending  from 
the  ceiling.  One  of  the  greatest  niceties  connected  with 
this  art,  is  the  printing  of  the  sheet  on  the  second  side 
in  such  a  manner  that  each  page,  nay,  each  line,  shall 
fall  exactly  on  the  corresponding  page  and  line  on  the 
side  first  printed.  To  produce  this  desirable  effect,  two 
iron  points  aro  fixed  in  the  middle  of  the  sides  of  the  frame 
of  the  tympan,  which  make  two  small  holes  in  tho  sheet 
during  the  firs,  pres.sure.  When  the  sheet  is  laid  on  to 
receive  an  impression  from  the  second  form,  these  bolee 
aro  placed  on  the  same  points,  so  as  to  cause  the  two 
impressions  to  correspond.  This  is  termed  pro<luoiri|| 
ri^it:.ei- ,  aud  unless  godd  register  is  effected,  the  priatrng- 


800 


INFORMATION   FOR   THE  PEOPLE. 


ha"  •  »ery  indtlTorcnt  nppcnrance.  Expert  workmnn 
purbrat  these  oporutioiio  with  surpriHirig  rqjiidity,  though 
with  canHiderable  laliuur.  Twi)  iitfii  employed  at  prcM 
take  the  procoss  of  pulliri)(  and  inking  for  altornnte 
quantitie*.  After  the  f-itm*  are  wrought  oiF,  they  arc 
washed  in  a  Kolutioii  of  po'aiiii  to  rc'inovu  the  remains  of 
tlic  ink,  which  is  of  a  thick  uIcai^inouH  character,  and 
then  carried  hack  tothocotnposiiiij-room  to  be  (Hslrihutod. 
This  last  oi)eration  ia  very  speedily  |>crfurined  by  the 
coinpoiiitorH. 

To  suit  paper  for  printinc;,  it  is  necessary  to  wet  it 
some  hours  previous  to  its  iw'n\g  used.  This  is  done  by 
dippinf;  alternate  quires  in  water,  and  afterwards  press- 
in;  the  mass  with  a  heavy  weight,  till  the  whole  is  in  u 
half  dry  or  damp  state. 

After  the  sheets  are  printed,  they  ore  hung  up  on 
polos  in  the  printinn-olfu'e  to  be  dried.  On  licing  dried, 
they  are  itidividuully  placed  between  fine  glazed  boards, 
and  in  thisoondition  subjected  in  a  moss  to  the  pressure  of 
a  powerful  press.  On  removal,  the  indentations  of  the 
types  are  found  to  l)e  levelled,  and  the  whole  sheet  to  be 
■mooth  ami  re;idy  for  the  o[)erations  of  the  book-binder. 
Latterly  a  great  improvement  has  been  eflTected  in  the 
•moothing  process,  by  employing  the  hydraulic  or  water 
press,  which  gives  an  enormous  pressure  with  little  aid 
from  manual  labour. 

INK    AND    INKINO-ROI.LRRS. 

Much  of  the  beauty  of  good  printing  depends  on  the 
quality  of  the  ink,  which  it  requites  considerable  skill 
to  manufacture.  The  ink  used  by  the  earliest  printers 
was  of  such  excellent  <)uality,  that  in  many  instancer  it 
remains  intensely  black  to  this  day  ;  but  a  long  |>eriod 
afterwards  elapsed,  during  which  very  bad  ink  was  em- 
ployed. Within  the  present  century,  great  improvc- 
monta  have  taken  place  in  the  composition  of  printing 
ink,  which  is  now  produced  of  a  good  quality  in  London 
by  several  manufacturers ;  it  is,  however,  still  inferior  to 
the  finer  kinds  of  ink  used  in  Paris,  the  French  having 
evidently  surpassed  the  English  in  protlucing  a  pure  and 
intensely  black  ink  which  will  preserve  its  colour. 
Printing  ink  is  composed  of  genuine  linseetl  oil,  boiled 
to  the  consistency  of  a  syrup,  and  then  well-mixed  and 
ground  with  lamp-black.  The  qualities  desired  in  the 
composition  arc  depth  and  durability  of  colour,  and  that 
it  should  be  stiff  without  strop.g  adhesion,  and  keep  soft 
and  mellow,  but  dry  quickly  after  ^>eing  put  U|)on  the 
paper.  It  <8  made  of  dilTcrent  (|U.'ilitie8,  from  Is.  6d.  to 
6s.  ttiid  upwards  per  pound  weighL 

One  of  the  greatest  o,  recent  improvements  in  the  art 
of  printing  is  in  the  n-  )de  of  inking  the  forms.  From 
the  days  of  Guttenbur  {,  this  had  been  d(me  by  stuffed 
cushions,  or  balls  cove.od  with  skins,  by  which  no  recru- 
•arity  coulil  be  preser  .etl,  and  no  speed  acquired.  Eafi 
Htanhope,  when  ho  mvented  his  improvement  on  the 
preas,  attempted  the  plan  of  inking  by  means  of  rollers, 
but  he  couid  not  discover  any  species  of  skin  suitable  for 
the  purpose ;  all  that  this  nobleman  so  anxiously  desired, 
was  at  lengtti  accomplished,  in  consequence  of  a  chance 
olwervatiou  of  a  process  in  ,,he  Staffordshire  potteries, 
where  rollrrs  formed  of  a  composition  were  used.  A  Mr. 
Forster,  employed  at  a  bookwllcr's  printin^-ollicc  at  Wey- 
bridge,  was  tho  first  who  ap,>licd  it  to  letter-press  printing, 
by  g(  eading  it,  in  u  meltexl  slate,  upon  coarse  canvaH ; 
the  inventors  of  printing  ntachiiics  soon  caught  the  idea, 
and,  by  running  the  composition  as  a  coat  upon  wooden 
cylinders,  produced  'he  perfect  inking-rollcra. 

The  composition  is  formed  of  treacle  and  glue,  which, 
bning  heated  and  meited  together,  are  poured  into  long 
iron  moulds,  in  which  the  central  rml  has  previously  heen 
inaerted.  I'he  process  resembles  that  by  which  moulded 
candles  are  made,  the  central  rixl  being  nearly  in  the 
nine  predicament  in  the  one  case  as  the  wick  in  the 
other      When  taken  out  of  I'le  mould  the  roller  is  a 


cylinder  of  soft  and  elastic  matter,  resembling  Ind 
rublwr.  If  required  for  the  hand-press,  it  ia  connected 
with  a  handle  after  the  manner  of  a  garden  roller.  Thi 
ink  being  placed,  in  moderate  quantity,  at  the  back  of  i 
smooth  metal  table,  the  workman,  grasping  the  handle 
draws  tho  roller  backwards  and  forwards  along  the  talilp 
dUtributing  ajittle  ink  equably  all  over  its  surface;  and 
having  thus  diffused  some  ink  all  over  the  roller,  he  an. 
plies  the  same  to  tho  types,  drawing  it  backwards  ond  for. 
wards  over  them,  to  makt  sure  that  all  have  been  inked, 
Uy  this  plan  the  types  are  inked  more  equably  than  hy 
the  balls,  and  in  less  than  half  the  time. 

Within  these  few  years,  a  plan  has  been  deviwd  fur 
moving  the  rollers  over  the  fo.'ms  by  an  apparatus  at- 
tached to  the  press.  Self-inking  presses  are  now  coming 
into  use. 

IMPROVrO    PRINTINO    PRESSES. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  original  printing-prctt  at 
slightly  improved  by  Blacw,  remained  in  general  uie 
throughout  Europe  till  tho  beginning  of  the  present  cen- 
tury. Its  defeetH  were  of  such  a  nature,  th')t  h  seem« 
wonderful  that  no  effor*  was  made,  durhig  so  long  a  time, 
to  remedy  them.  The  surface  communicating  the  in>- 
pvession,  or  flatten  was  generully  only  the  size  of  half  a 
sheet,  and  so  after  one  portion  of  a  form  wau  pressed 
the  carriage  had  to  be  still  farther  wound  in,  and  tlie  rfi. 
maining  portion  pressed.  The  consc(iuence  was,  that 
l)csidcs  losing  time,  the  impressions  upon  a  single  aheet 
were  not  always  uniform,  one  part  being  perhnpa  harder 
pressed  than  the  other. 

At  length,  near  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the 
celebrated  Charles  Earl  of  Stanhope  applied  his  ingcnioui 
though  eccentric  mind  to  the  improvement  of  the  print- 
ing-press. Mis  lordship's  iniprovements  did  not  go  the 
length  of  altering  the  general  former  construction  of  the 
press.  He  left  tho  same  plan  to  be  pu.sucd  of  winding 
the  carriage  below  the  ptalleii  by  a  handle  and  roumt, 
and  of  pulling  the  impression  by  the  application  of  tht 
right  hand  to  the  sent  of  power.  What  ho  cccomplishcd 
was  the  constructing  of  the  press  with  iron  instead  ot 
wood,  and  tb■^t  of  a  size  sufficient  to  print  the  whole  sur- 
face of  u  sheet,  and  of  applying  such  a  con\bincd  action 
of  levers  to  the  screw  as  to  make  the  pull  a  great  deal 
less  laborious  to  the  pressman;  the  mechanism  altoi^ether 
tieing  such  as  to  permit  much  more  rapid  and  etficienl 
working. 

The  Sinnhnpe  prest,  vih'ich  is  here  represented,  coniiijiii 
of  a  massive  frame  of  iron,  cast  in  one  piece.  This  in 
the  boily  of  tho  press,  in  tho  upper  part  of  which  a  nul 
is  fixed  for  the  reception  of  the  great  screw,  and  its  poia 


operates  upon  the  upper  end  of  a  slider  fitted  into  a  dun 
tail  groove  formed  iietwcen  tho  two  vertical  bars  ot  tlu 
frame.  The  slider  has  the  plutten  firmly  attjchcJ  ti>th« 
lower  end  of  it;  and,  being  accurately  tilted  Uttwcen  U» 


PRINTING. 


•tf 


^jtfuidon,  tho  plattcn  miiKt  riMt  and  full  pnrallol  to  itm-lf 
irhen  tl'"  sitcvv  Ih  luriicil.  The  weii^ht  of  tlin  plnltiTi 
1,1,1  glidiT  IH  I'ouiiterbulanrrd  by  ii  heiivy  w<<ip[lit  behind 
iho  press,  /lUHpencli'il  by  ii  lever  which  nc.tH  upon  the  HJider 
to  nil  it  up<  ^>><l  l"'cp  it  always  bearing  ai^niiiMt  the  point 
oi  the  screw. 

There  arc  two  projcotinn  pieces  cast  with  tho  main 
ftime,  to  support  tho  carriage  when  the  pull  'u  made ; 
M  lliese,  rails  arc  screwed,  and  placed  exactly  horizontal 
■  the  carriano  to  run  upon,  when  it  is  carried  under  the 
iiriB  to  receive  tl)o  iiniircssion,  or  drawn  out  to  remove 
ll.f  urinttul  sheet.  The  c»rriai;c  is  moved  by  a  roiince  or 
hiiiJIe,  wilh  leather  fiirths,  very  similar  to  the  wooden 
nri'W.  l'|>ou  tho  axle  of  this  handle  a  wheel  is  fixeil, 
riiuiid  which  leather  belts  are  i)as'<e<l,  one  extcndinff  to 
tlip  hack  of  the  earrinj^e  to  draw  it  in,  and  two  others 
nhiih  pass  round  tho  wheel  in  an  opposite  direction  to 
ilnw  it  out.  l)y  this  means,  when  the  handle  is  turned 
iini:  way,  it  draws  out  tho  carrinije ;  and  by  rever-ins  the 
molioii,  it  is  carried  in.  There  is  likewise  a  check  strap 
«hifh  limits  the  motion  of  the  wheel,  and,  conHe(picntly. 
till'  action  of  the  carriBi;^.  Thp  principal  improvement 
ol  Earl  ISIaiihope's  press  c.nnsisti)  in  the  modi?  of  Kivini; 
molion  to  lh(  main  screw  of  it,  which  is  not  doni'  siiii[ily 
tiv  a  lever  attached  to  the  screw,  but  by  a  second  lever. 
The  main  screw  has  a  short  lever  fixed  on  the  upper 
end  of  it,  and  this  comniuniotes  by  an  iron  bar  or  link 
ID  mother  lever  of  rather  shorter  radius,  which  is  fixed 
tpon  the  upper  end  of  a  second  spindle,  and  to  this  the 
Lmdl«  or  lever  by  which  tho  press  is  worked  is  fixed. 
Now,  when  the  workman  pulls  this  handle,  he  turns 
pninii  the  spindle,  and,  by  the  conmction  of  the  rad,  the 
nuin  screw  turns  with  it,  and  causes  the  platten  to  de- 
»eml  with  it,  and  produce  the  pressure.  But  it  is  not 
rimply  this  alone,  for  the  power  of  the  handle  is  trans- 
milled  to  the  screw  in  a  ratio  proportioned  to  the  elTeet 
[iijuired  at  the  ditferent  parts  of  the  pull ;  thus,  at  first, 
ulien  tht  pressman  takes  the  handle,  it  lies  in  a  direction 
liamllel  to  the  frame,  or  across  the  press ;  and  tho  short 
ii'vcr  (beins  nearly  pcr[)endiciilar  thereto)  is  also  nearly 
il  right  ancjles  to  the  eonneetin);  ick\;  but  the  lever  of 
the  screw  nii>kes  a  considerable  angle  with  the  rod,  which 
j'.erefore  acts  upon  a  shorter  radius  to  turn  the  screw ; 
litause  the  real  power  exerted  hy  any  action  upon  a 
lever  is  not  to  l)e  considerei'  as  acting  with  the  full  length 
i  Ihe  lever  between  its  centres,  but  with  the  distance  in 
d  porpcndicular,  drawn  from  the  line  in  which  the  action 
H  a]ipllcd  to  the  centre  of  the  lever. 

The  obvious  cxecllcncc  of  the  Stanhopian  improve- 
incnt  in  gairuig  power  for  the  handle,  led  a  number  of 
yiriiilers  to  apply  this  species  of  lever  power  to  the  screw 
of  tlic  common  press,  but  we  lielievo  not  with  marked 
iiuccoss.  Tlk!  improvements  of  Lord  Stanhope  were 
ijjei'Jily  followed  by  tho  attempts  of  other  individuals  in 
lireat  Britain  and  America,  to  remedy  the  ancient  defects 
in  printing  mechanism.  So  numerous,  indeed,  have 
Uitse  attenipts  lieen  since  the  beginning  of  the  present 
fcnmry,  that  it  is  quite  out  of  our  power  to  mention 
Cicm  in  detail.  With,  we  believe,  one  or  two  exceptions, 
jllthe  modern  improvers  of  the  printing-press  have  con- 
Ciii'J  their  elforts  chiefly  to  the  process  of  communicating 
I'-iwurc  to  the  platten,  so  as  to  modify  labour,  and  pro- 
cure greater  rapidity  of  working.  In  these  cases  the 
stew  has  l)cen  generally  dismissed,  and  power  procured 
•■raioUmi'S  by  the  action  of  two  or  more  inclined  planes 
»or)iiiig  oetiinst  each  other,  in  other  instances  by  ful- 
Cfuinsand  levers,  and  in  others  by  the  straitjhtening  of  a 
j'linl  The  latter  is  an  exceedingly  simple  and  beautiful 
form  of  power,  and  may  easily  be  comprehended  when 
we  lay,  that  it  resembles  the  bending  and  straii;htening 
of  the  knee-joint :  when  the  knee  of  the  upright  bar  of 
the  proM  is  iH'nt,  the  platten  is  drawn  up ;  and  when  the 
knee  »  forced  hy  a  lever  into  a  pcrjiendicular  position, 
U  plditi  II  sinks,  and  tho  pressure  is  con>.uiunicatcd. 
Vol.  1.— lul 


Thi«  may  he  considered  the  most  efficient  mode  of  ermt' 
pressing  the  platten  yet  discovered,  and  it  would  l>c  difl^- 
cult  to  rival  it  in  the  properties  of  simplicity  and  rapidity 
of  executicm.  Nevertheless,  such  is  the  numlier  and 
variety  of  improved  presses  in  tho  present  day,  that  it 
would  not  he  easy  to  decide  upon  which  has  tho  best 
claims  to  the  notice  of  printers.  Amimg  those  which 
have  gained  a  large  share  of  approbation,  may  be  men- 
tioned the  ro/M/iiftinu  /iresf,  which  is  of  American  inven- 
tion, 'i'his  new  press  was  brought  to  this  country  in 
1818,  by  Mr.  George  Clymcr  of  Philadclpb.a,  and  made 
the  object  of  a  patent,  The  pressing  power  in  this  in- 
stance is  procured  by  a  long  bar  or  handle  acting  upon 
a  eombination  of  excecdinuly  powerful  levers  above  the 
platten,  and  by  many  workmen  this  press  is  greatly  pre- 
ferred to  any  other. 

The  various  improved  presses  which  we  have  noticed, 
are,  in  most  cases,  made  of  at  least  three  sizes,  namely, 
ilrmy,  royiil,  and  super-ri)ynl — that  is,  they  arc  respec- 
tively able  to  print  slicets  of  these  sizes ;  and  they  accord- 
ingly vary  in  price  from  about  £.")()  to  £80  each.  They 
are  nearly  all  manufactured  by  the  patentees  in  London. 
In  the  present  day,  the  old  wooden  piess  of  Blaew  ia 
entirely  discarded  from  use  in  printing,  and  it  is  only  to 
be  seen  occasionally  in  an  obscure  corner  of  the  printing- 
oll'ice,  reduced  to  the  humble  character  of  a  proof-prcac 


The  only  instance  worth  mentioning,  in  which  an  ii^ 
proved  press  was  made  of  quite  a  new  construction,  wai 
in  the  case  of  the  ingenious  invention  of  Mr.  John  Rutb- 
ven  of  Edinburgh.  This  mechanician  contrived  a  presi 
in  which  the  types  stand  upon  a  fixed  frame  or  table, 
while  tho  iiressing  part  or  platten  is  brought  over  the 
form  by  being  hurled  forward  on  wheels.  On  being 
brought  over  the  form,  a  de[>rnding  liook  or  notch  at  each 
end  of  the  phitlen  is  caugiit  and  pulled  down  by  the 
combined  action  of  levers  beneath  the  table,  and  operated 
upon  by  the  left  hand  of  tho  pressman.  This  was  an 
exceedingly  meritorious  invention,  and  many  presses  on 
this  plan  were  manufactured  and  sold,  but  experience 
has  evinced  that  the  contrivance  is  only  valuable  when 
applied  to  small  presses,  not  larger  than  foolscap  size, 
and  chietly  useful  for  executing  jobs.  Mr.  Kuthven 
makes  his  presses  as  small  as  quarto  size;  and  as  tliey 
stand  on  a  table,  and  can  be  easily  wrought  by  any  gen- 
tleman, no  belter  press  could  be  recommended  to  the 
notice  of  the  amateur  printer.  The  above  cut  presenta 
a  correct  representation  of  Mr.  Ruthven's  press,  which  ft 
will  he  perceived  is  of  an  exceedingly  compact  and  port- 
able form. 

THE   CHAPEL. 

It  is  worth  while  to  remark,  that  till  tho  present  day 
tlie  phraseology  used  in  relation  to  the  mechaiii:al  de- 
tails of  the  printer,  possesses  ce^in  traces  of  the  early 


:  :;?« 


INFOKMATION    FOK  TlIK   I'KOPLK 


coiiiKcii-m  o'  tho  art  with  mrn  nf  li*iirniii»{.  A  niiiiilM'r 
of  tliii  trclinicul  trriiin,  >it  iimy  In'  m'imi  (Vhiii  the  iIi'm  ri|>- 
(inn  wc  liMMt  Kivcn,  an;  a  rorriiptioii  ol'  l.uliii  wi>riU. 
Wf  limy  iiiKliiiu'tt  lympaii,  from  t)iii|iiiiiiiiii,  ii  clriiiii,  iiiiil 
>'''•>,  (let  it  «laii(l),  whirli  ii4  uncil  iih  ii  mark  in  cDiiccliiiK 
|>MH)t'-HluM'lH.  'Clio  Iiaiiia  hin'ici,  u|>|ilii'(l  In  ii  ccrluiii  iiizi' 
u(  ty|Ht,  oriKiimlctl,  uh  haii  Ih'PII  iilri'iiily  mriilioiiitd,  in 
lliat  K'tU'r  liciiii{  TirNt  UMiil  in  priiitiiitf  tlir  lirvviiiricii  oi' 
tlui  KdiniNh  clinrcli.  An  oxo'i'iliiiifly  nlil  |iriii'tii'i-  prr- 
VaiU  MiriiiiiK  |iriiili'ra  of  culliiiK  tlii'ir  niriii'  ii  ('Iio/hI,  uikI 
UiiJtT  ttiiH  title  tlif  i-i>m|>OHitiirii,  iircHsmi'ii.  ami  nil  uIIuth 
ciiKii^i'il  in  till'  iiirirn,  liiivt!  Ihtii  in  the  lialiit  of  mrrliiiu 
(»K<'tlu'r,  mill  liiriiiinu;  a  ii|iorii>ri  of  IikIkc,  in  nnler  to  hi'IIIc 
alliiird  cuiinvi  ti'il  willi  the  intfrnul  iirranKi'iiicntii  >if  the 
uirii'i',  or  any  diKiuilcH  wliiili  may  uiciir  »mon)(  incmlii'rH. 
The  i^riuTiil  iiii(irov('int"iit  in  I'vcry  tliint;  coiincctril  witli 
piinliii);  I'HtaliliHiimcntJi,  iinil  tlii>  iiilvanrc  of  manni'r». 
hitvt'  i,(rratly  nitHlifiiMl  tlio  Hpirit  whiili  u.'*i:il  to  |iri'vuil  in 
tiiUKo  cont'idtTaiirH;  ni'vi'ttliclriM,  th(^  ii|i|ii'llalioii  o(  /hi 
ti.djiil  ri'iimmi*,  ami  in  of  truilitionary  iiitercxt.  It  Iiuk 
lioon  HiipiHiHi'il  l)y  many  writiTH  that  tin'  litlo  of  ('liii|«l 
oii|;inut('tl  in  Cixtoii's  cxfrciHiiiK  tliu  |iioti'HMun  of  a 
printor  in  om-  of  thu  clinpt'lH  in  WcHtiniiiMtor  AIiIh'v  ; 
and  it  in  cxrccilingly  prolmlilc  tliat  it  lias  un  origin  of  this 
niture,  for  |>riiitlii|{  wan  at  first  t-arricil  on  in  many  |iI:u'i'n 
ill  England  in  comioction  with  I'l'liu'ioiiH  iiouijcu.  llt'iio', 
in  M'Cri'i'ry's  |H>.'in,  entitled  "Tlic  Tn'SH,"  llic  author 
bai  thu  following  linen : 


^c^o 


\ 


"Our  an  wii»  hmril  frnin  kiiiirilnm<  far  alirnnil, 

Aim  ciit-rt*!!'!}    11  ihf  liaIU>\v'il  Ikhimi*  of  (iou; 
From  whu'li  Wf  It-urn  ilir  l)oniiiu<-  :1  r-'pfivrti. 
And  liiiw  riar  mri'"  il»  lienvi'iily  hrlli  lirlievfd. 
HhcIi  prmU'r  lifiice,  lioweVr  niil)if»l  h.«  wall*, 
•4^a  to  tliiH  (lay  hit  (huu^  a  Cmai'KL  call*." 


LAWS  ArrecTiifo  PRiNTrRs. 
Ttip  proprietors  nnd  printerH  of  newspn|ier«  srp  Hutijeet 

*lo  various  lawx,  enforrini;  tho  miKJe  of  piihlic.ilioii.  the 
CKe  of  utarnp-J,  nnd  payment  of  advertisement  duties; 
h\A  printers  of  hooks,  or  any  common  speeirs  of  work, 
•rp  pracliially  let^  at  lihcrty  to  carry  on  their  husiness  in 
any  manner  or  way  that  seems  suitidile  to  themselves. 
Each  printer,  however,  iiy  the  act  2  V.,  r.  12,  is  retjuired 
1.1  print  ujion  the  front  of  any  fheet,  if  |irinted  on  one 
side  only,  or   upon   thj  first  or  last   leaf  of  every  hook 

■c.insistintf  of  more  than  one  leaf,  his  name,  place  of 
alxxlc,  and  hnsiness;  penalty  for  omission  15,  and  the 
like  penally  for  dispersini;  any  such  pnhlicalion  without 
the  imprint.  Diit  no  actions  for  (M'lialties  fan  Ik>  insti- 
tutod  except  in  the  name  of  the  Attorney  or  Solicitor 
General  for  Emjland,  or  the  (Queen's  .Advocate  in  Scot- 
land. The  i]ueen  enjoys  the  preroffutive  of  printinc;  the 
authorized  versions  of  the  Uihle,  liook  of  Couimon  I'rayer, 
ActA  of  Parliament  and  other  state  papers. 

PRINTING    FY    MXrHINFS. 

After  all  the  ingenuity  of  Lord  Stanho|ie  and  that  <if 
hil  successors  had  heen  luvifihed  on  the  press,  still  the 
process  of  printing  could  not  1h'  exe<  uted  liut  with  con- 
aiderahle  fatigin',  and  at  a  rate  of  s[><eil  seldom  greater 
than  that  of  throwing  off  'if>^^  impressionn,  or  12,5  com- 
plete sheets,  in  an  hour.  It  must  appear  evident  that 
this  was  n  slate  of  thingn  ipille  iiKom|.alil)le  with  the 
advancement  of  kno\vlrdi;e  aiwl  tlK-  necessity  for  pro- 
ducing a  lar^e  ipiantity  of  impressions  in  a  short  sjiace 
r<f  time,  particularly  as  n'garded  iiewspa|)erH.  It  l>e- 
caUKi  apparent  that  an  entire  revolution  was  required  in 
CiC  structure  of  the  press;  that  the  flat  printing  surface 
mould  !«•  discarded,  and  cylinders  hrought  into  use.  We 
have  now  to  descrilie  how  this  great  new  invention,  np- 
|>iiod  Vt  printing-machines,  came  to  lie  adopted. 

In  1790,  Mr.  .Virholson,  the  editor  of  the  I'hi'..  ''ical 
J'lurnal,  procured  a  patent  for  certain  iinprov  .iienis  .n 
p.-inting,  whii  li  patent  imhodies  almost  every  principle 
auKj!  so  succiHsfully  applied  tu  prinliiig-machines;  and 


although  he  did  not  carry  hi*  vidws  into  prarllruj  i.ffp  ■ 
little  has  Iwen  left  for  suliiH'quenI  engineers  to  ,|ii  i  , 
apply,  in  the  iiiohi  jmlicious  muniier,  tlie  prinriui,  h" 
I. lid  down  ill  his  paleiit.  He  may  lliereforc  |«  ;*  V* 
considered  a*  the  originator  of  the  gri'iit  niiNlrrn  ininri'v' 
meiits  in  printing  machinery;  for  with  him  ,„i^|,|„||j 
the  idea  of  taking  the  impressions  from  typeK  liy  |,,, 
of  cyliii  lers,  and  of  inking  the  forms  with  rnllen  in,!,"! 
of  lialls,  which  conslilule  the  two  esaential  puru  u/ 'i 
elFective  mnlern  printing-machines. 

VVhelher   Mr.  iMcliolhon's   ideas  were  known  to  V 
Kiinig,  a  (ierinan,  is  now  uncertain-  hut  to  hl-n  ia  i 
the  distinguished   merit  of  carrying  steam  prinlii^  fi,^ 
into  edi'ct.     Mr.  Konig,  conceiving  it  possihli,  i,,  ,.  , 
steam-power  to  prcKJuce  accelerated  s|N'ed  wilh  du  ,,,,J 
mon    press,  after    various    unavailing   elforls   lo  uliisi 
assislanco   from  the   printers  on  the  {'oiitiiii.ni^  f|,|,||,  . 
England.     Arriving  in  I<ondon  ahout  I'*')-!,  Id,  k|,|,^|,.  , 
his  scheme  to  several  printers  there  with  no  lien,,,  n,, 
cess,  until  inlriKluced  lo  Mr.  lleiisley,  senior  \vli».uiir«.i  I 
liy    Mr.  Kiinig's  plans,  entered   into   arraiigeiiii'niK  wiih 
him.     .-Xfter  persevering  for  some  time  in  variiius  altcniiiu 
to  accelerate  the  H|ioed  of  the  common  press,  unj  a(  lu 
same  time  render  the  attendance  of  llie  man  who  mli 
the  typ'  s  unnecessary,  his  exertions  resulted,  to  xiK  hit 
own  words,  "  in  discovering  that  they  were  onlv  cmiilov 
iiig  a  horse  1 1  do  what  had  Im'cii  iH-lore  done  liy  a  nian" 
He  in  consequence  gave  up  all  idea  of  his  prnji'di-J  ||^ 
proveinents  uf  the  common  press,  aiul  turned  liiii  (i|,, 

tion   to  CvLIMIIIIICAl.    I'lllNI'IM,. 

.\\\vt  continued  exiH'rimentjt  for  some  year*,  nm-' 
machine  was  made,  in  which  the  two  leading  l.-aiu^ 
of  Nicholson's  invention  were  i  mliruced  (llic  cylliiJeii 
and  the  inking-rollers),  which  he  exhiliiled  to  Mr.  Walit- 
proprietor  of  tho  Times  news|iaiH'r;  and  on  showing  what' 
turthrr  improvements  were  contemplated,  an  nijrpcmprii 
wa.s  ente^'d  into  for  the  erection  of  two  niacliintii  for 
printing  that  journal.  .\:  cordingly,  on  the  28th  .\o, 
vemlier,  1814,  the  puhlic  were  apprized  that  Ihp  numlift 
of  the  Times  of  that  date  was  the  tirst  ever  iirinlfd  liy 
machinery,  Hieam-propelled.  At  this  js-riod  hut  fnvpfr. 
Hons  knew  of  any  atlenipls  going  on  for  the  iittainiufnt 
of  this  oliject ;  whilst,  among  those  cinmecli'd  with  rirint. 
ing,  it  hud  often  U'cii  talked  of,  hut  treated  ns  iliiniiriciL 

After  the  utility  of  cylindrical  printin'.?  hm]  iKcn  Ihiii 
proved,  it  was  thought  highly  desiralile  that  Ihc  priiicipji 
should  be  n|jplii-<l  to  printing  tine  hook-work,  whi'tc  ll^ 
curate  registi'r  is  iiidis|pensalile.  'I'his  was,  lo  aitrbin 
extent,  attaiiii>d,  hy  using  two  large  cylinders,  the  slim 
of  paper  heing  conveyed  from  llie  liottom  of  iho  lir^ 
cylinder  (where  it  had  received  the  first  imprcwiion)  br 
means  of  ta|H'B,  leading  in  a  diagonal  direction  to  ilii 
top  of  the  second  cylinder,  rouii.l  which  llie  sheet  wan 
carried  till  the  second  side  was  printed,  'i'lie  fitsi  m- 
chine  of  this  description  was  erected  at  .Mr.  Bfinlev'i 
oflice,  where  it  continued  at  work  for  some  years,  till 
more  modern  machines  superseded  it. 

So  sanguine  were  the  |ialentees  (Mr.  Kiinig,  Mr,  Bfn» 
ley,  and  Mr.  R.  Taylor)  that  no  further  ini|irovrmfDl 
could  Ik!  elli'cted,  that  in  .Marcli.  IH 1 7,  they  i.<siiril  a  pro. 
s|ie(lus,  nUi'riiig  three  kinds  of  maihines  at  hiijh  priffj, 
.iiid  reipiiring  a  eonsideralde  annual  premium;  hulwi 
believe  these  offers  were  not  embraced. 

In  the  course  of  \^\H,  Mr.  Na|iier,  and  Messrs  .A pp^ 
gath  and  Cowfirr,  took  out  patents  liir  iinprim'monlsn 
cylindrical  printing  machinery.  Mr.  Napier's  jnvcnlion 
consi.sted  chiefly  in  using  grip|>ers  instead  of  tipos. isin 
Kunig's,  for  seizing  hold  of  and  lea, ling  the  slipc I  ol  p 
per  round  the  cylinders.  Ingeniously  as  this  inichini 
was  constructed,  the  principles  U|ion  which  it  norkfd 
caused  it  to  give  way  in  general  estimation  lo  Ibosf  rf 
.\ppleguth  and  Cowper.  Thest;  mechanicians'  paltnl 
which  expired  in  1H:12,  referred  principally  to  Ihe  appi 
cation   uf  two  drums  placed  betwixt   the  cyliiiilcn  U 


PRINTING. 


MS 


tntnra  iktuwv  i"  ''  •  rpRi«tM,  over  anil  unil»r  which 

hethect  wnii  ronvoyrd  in  itx  pr')«rr«H  from  on"  rylinilpr 
10  lh«  iilhor,  iiiPiU'nil  of  boinjc  I'lirrinl,  nn  in  K<")ni(('ii  iim- 
fhine,  in  »  ittmiKlil  line  fnirti  tlip  omi  rylimli'r  to  ihn 
ixher;  >»<)  ''«*  ""'"'o  "^  itirttrilmtini^  llid  ink  u^hui  tiil)l('i< 
liiub'iil  "f  '"I'""' — '""  pfiiK'ipl"*  whirh  tiavn  Mocnri'il  lo 
niafhiiii'K  of  lliiM  coliHlriirliDn  ii  ilrciilcd  pri'fprotu'c  for 
Unf  work.  Miicliiiii'n  of  this  I'onhlnwlion  woro  inmlti  l>y 
\|inlrii*lh  »'»'  ("owpiT  for  Ihi-  principal  prinlini;  i^tn- 
yjuhiniMitu  in  l.onilon,  Paris,  Kilinliuri{li,  ur..l  ninny  othiT 
(iti(.«;  ami  it  i«  nearly  npon  the  tnoili'l  of  tlmir  nmchini<a 
that  •'l'""''  ninniifiii'tiircrH  now  roMHlruct  their  itenin* 
pivMon  for  tlio  «'xi<i'iition  of  liook-work. 

PriiiliiiR  •iiHi'hinrx  nrp  now  niiidii  of  vnriouB  kinds, 
KJiinti'd  I"  tho  pcculiiir  dcMcription*  of  work  for  which 
tliiv  are  rc(|uircd.  'fhcHo  dcncriptionH  of  work  may  Ims 
cUmoI  under  two  i'!*tinct  liciidn.  namely,  thi-  printing 
of  nevviipiipvra,  onn  milo  iit  it  timo,  mid  the  prinlinn  of  n 
lifiier  kind  of  Hhi!ct.<,  or  hook-work,  both  nidoH  iit  a  tiiao. 
There  can  \>e  nothini;  moro  raxy  than  to  make  a  i..ai-.hiiia 
canaille  of  first  printing  one  siiln  of  a  shoot  of  paper,  and 
.VrwarJH  the  second,  liy  the  removal  of  ono  form  and 
..e  introdi'ction  of  another;  but  this  procesg  will  not 
produce  reifitler :  the  neeond  Hide  n.ny  or  may  not  lio  on 
ihf  back  of  the  first,  and  the  work  is  therefore  of  a  very 
inferior  appearance,  thouijh  aiiifable  enough  for  iiews- 
p3|ior9,  ill  the  workini?  ofwlii<'h  dc..pat<!li  is  chiefly  re- 
niiirwl.  This  kind  of  press  is  theri.i'.re  the  lie^t  idnpted 
to  i?ain  that  end ;  for  the  first  side  of  the  pajier  mii_'  bo 
printed  delibtirately,  ami  the  h<'Co;  d  side  bo  niade  u|  to 
the  la«t  moment  of  time,  and  then  thrown  otT.  To  pro- 
duce  a  machine  to  print  both  sides  iit  a  time,  and  with 
[XTfect  register,  no  small  dei^rec  of  mathematical  aocu- 
tary.and  no  small  share  of  ingenuity  in  the  mechanician, 
ars  required.  Tho  great  and  inifiortant  object  to  be  at- 
Ijinei!  in  this  kind  of  m.iehine,  is  to  cause  tho  sheet,  after 
i.  bai  leceived  its  first  impression,  to  travel  along  the 
(Idea  of  the  cylinders  and  drums  at  such  a  rate  as  to  meet 
(be  typos  of  the  second  side  at  the  exact  point  which 
will  cause  the  second  side  to  fall  with  |)Orfect  accuracy 
upon  the  back  of  tho  first.  To  accoin|ilish  this  exceed- 
iiigly  desirable  end,  the  cylinders  and  drums  must  revolve 
at  precisely  the  same  speed  as  the  carriage  underneath  ; 
an,!  therefore  any  inaccuracy  in  the  turning  of  the  axles, 
llie  cutting  of  tho  teeth  of  the  wheels,  or  any  other  dc- 
ficieiiev,  however  slight,  will  prixlucn  ill-registered  sheets, 
»iiJ  create  an  enormous  decree  of  vexation  to  the  printer. 
With  these  explanatory  remarks,  we  pass  on  to  a  notice 
of  four  ilitTerent  machines,  calculated  to  produce  register 
and  non-register  sheets,  under  vaiiuus  modifications  and 
ratei  of  speed. 

1.  A  machine  with  one  cylinder,  called  a  single  ma- 
chine, generally  used  for  printing  ncWKpap<'rs ;  it  throws 
off  firom  900  to  1200  an  hour  on  one  side,  reciuiring  two 
hiya,  one  to  lay  on  the  paper,  and  another  to  receive  it 
ithen  printed. 

2.  A  machine  with  two  cylinders,  called  a  double 
machine,  but  only  printing  from  one  form  of  types  at 
the  rate  of  from  1000  to  '2200  an  hour,  requiring  two 
boy«  to  lay  on  the  sheets,  and  two  to  take  them  olT, 
exclusively  used  for  ncwspaiiers.  It  consists  of  two  small 
cylindcrj,  about  ten  irKlies  in  diameter,  placed  about  five 
inches  apart,  and  suspended  from  a  beam  at  each  end. 
A  cainb  or  eccentric  causes  the  beams  to  vibrate,  and 
witli  them  the  cylinders  to  rise  and  fall  about  one  half 
of  an  inch.  The  cylinders  turn  in  opjiosito  directions, 
and  as  the  machine  only  prints  one  forn  t  a  time,  thot 
cylinder  only  whic  h  is  turning  in  '.he  same  direction  as 
the  types  is  permilted  lo  rest  upon  the  form,  and  take 
the  impression,  so  that  a  sheet  is  (.riiited  by  each  cylinder 
iltorMHtely  every  time  the  type-jarriage  got^a  backwards 
ir  fi)rwttr(ls.  Two  boys  feed  the  pajwr  into  the  machine. 
It  two  drums  placed  nbinit  three  I'ei't  above  the  carriage, 
Hid  the  sheet  is  led  down  to  the  cylinders  by  tai)c»,  which 


also  convey  ii,  after  Iwinn  printed,  lo  the  rnd  of  th«  m** 
chine,  where  two  boyt  receive  the  sheet*  and  biy  thrm 
straight  in  a  hen|>,  re.iily  to  bo  again  put  through  tha 
nmi'hine  when  the  seeond  form  is  iilseed  on  the  typ<h 
carriage  to  jirint  the  other  siile.  'i'l."ro  is  n  distinct  and 
complete  apparatus  for  inking  tho  typi'S  ut  each  end, 
similar  in  principle  to  that  which  is  mentioned  in  tha 
account  of  the  book  machine.  Many  of  the  largest 
Mixed  and  iM'st  newspaperH  are  printed  by  machines  of 
this  construction.  'I'bey  are  generilly  moved  l>y  mnnual 
InlHiiir,  two  men  turning  u  winch,  which  o|H'rtttes  u|H)n 
the  mechanism  and  lly-wheel. 

3.  A  machine,  similar  to  that  used  hy  tho  Times,  with 
four  [iriiiting  eylinders,  ri'<piiring  the  attindaiiec  ofrighl 
boys,  and  throwing  olf  about  4000  impreHsiuna  an  hour. 
To  atti  mpt  to  destrilie  this  machine  without  diugrama, 
is  difVicuIr,  but  a  general  idea  may  lio  conveyed  of  ita 
principle,  hy  its  lieing  considered  us  two  double  machinoa 
placed  in  contact.  There  are  four  printing  cylinilcra, 
about  nine  inches  in  diameter  each,  placed  close  fogether 
in  pairs,  but  with  a  space  of  about  seven  inches  between 
the  centre  ones,  in  which  space  there  are  two  inkinf^-' 
rollers.  Each  pair  of  cylinilers  are  secured  to  tho  enda 
of  two  st'ong  iH'ams.  by  mcMins  of  adjustable  connecting 
rods;  to  these  beams  a  slight  vibrating  motion  is  given, 
by  means  of  eambs,  so  as  to  cause  tho  alternate  eylindera 
to  rise  and  fall  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch.  Th.;  iype» 
carriage  and  inkitig-tables  have  a  reciprocating  motion, 
and  the  movements  are  so  adjusted  tiiut  those  two  altera 
iitite  eylinders  shall  bo  deprssed  and  press  upon  tha 
types,  whose  motion  coinciili^  with  the  :tirriage,  and,  of 
course,  the  other  two  alternate  cylinder*  are  by  the  same 
I  means  raised  sufViciently  to  permit  the  typj-s  to  pass  r-e« 
under  them,  till  the  carriage  changes  the  direction  of  iw 
motion,  when  tho  position  :f  tho  cylinders  is  reversed, 
and  the  pair  which  funnel. y  took  the  impression  from 
ihe  types  are  in  their  turn  raised.  Thus,  evjry  time  the 
form  of  ty[H>s  moves  backwards  or  forwaids,  two  sheeta 
of  paper  are  printed.  The  (laper  is  fed  into  the  machine 
over  four  drums,  placed  in  jiairs  over  each  other,  at  a 
considerable  height  above  the  machine,  by  four  boya. 
'i'he  sheets  are  led  ilown  from  the  drums  to  their  re- 
spective cylinders  by  means  of  broat'  tayics,  ond  by  other 
tapes  they  are  coniluctcd  out  to  the  ends  of  the  machine, 
where  tliey  are  received  by  fou'  other  boys,  when  printed, 
ready  to  be  again  passeil  through  the  machine,  to  r^ 
ceive  tho  impression  on  the  sccoi  il  side. 

This  ingenious  niachinc  has  only  two  inking  api>ara 
tuses,  one  situated  at  each  end.  There  aro  three  paira 
of  inking-rollers,  one  pair  at  each  end,  close  to  the  two 
outer  cylinders,  the  remaining  pair  being  placed  bc'.wain 
the  two  centre  cylinders.  The  inking-tahlea  are  ah.  jt 
three  feet  wide,  and  the  motion  of  the  carriage  is  suffi- 
ciently long  to  bring  each  table  not  only  under  its  re- 
Hjiectivc  pair  of  inking-rollers,  but  also  to  enable  each 
table  alternately  to  ink  the  centre  pair.  Thus,  the  form 
is  first  inked  by  ono  of  the  outer  pairs  of  rollers ;  the 
first  cylinder  is  raised  ;  in  passing  under  the  second,  an 
impression  is  given,  and,  of  course,  the  ink  is  taken  from 
the  form,  but  it  immediately  becomes  inked  anew  by  tho 
centre  pair  of  rollers ;  the  third  cylinder  is  raised ;  the 
form  passes  to  the  fourth  cylinder,  where  another  im- 
pression is  taken ;  and  the  motion  of  the  form  being 
continued  n  little  farther,  it  gets  agoin  inked  from  the 
outer  pair  of  rollers  at  the  opposite  end  of  tho  machine 
from  whence  it  started.  In  its  return,  the  two  cylinder* 
which  had  just  taken  the  impression  are  raised ;  ih.e 
other  two  now  print  in  their  turn,  the  mking  prucesa 
going  on  as  liefore ;  and  two  sheets  are  again  thrown  off. 
Machines  of  this  comfilex  description  aro  only  used  whole 
extMordinary  desjiatrli,  in  the  prwluction  of  a  large  num 
her  of  copies,  is  reiiuircd.  Few,  besides  that  employed 
by  the  Times,  and  other  London  daily  papers,  arc  in  use. 
The  only  ono  in  Scotland,  as  far  as  wc  know,  is  that 


•04 


INFORMATION    FOR   THK    F'KOPI.K. 


■•»(l  in  Kdinl>ur»h,  for  prinilnn  the  North  Brilinh  A4- 
▼•rtiwr  of  MuHri.  <Jfiiy,  nnd  whii-h  w««  inaiU  by  Morton 
•nil  >*nn,  inadiinp-nmkfra,  liiilh  Wulk. 

4.  'I'liD  fourth  kiiiil  of  miirliiim  id  i-nllcil  ■  txHik  or 
pfrfiM'iiiif^  nmrliititf,  prinlinK  )><>th  aiili'ii  of  lh<!  nluM't  in 
rp|[ii<ti-r  Iwforn  It  iravr*  tint  nmclniic.  'I'ho  inurliitiK  from 
whii'h  thfi  ■nnrxxil  rtiKriviiiK  i*  talcrn,  i*  oiio  of  ttuN 
<)«>«<-ri|)tion,  and  Iwani  ■  rpMunliliinco  to  tliut  of  A|)|>l<>- 
Rtitli  and  CoMrpar,     It  ia  about  AlXeon  feul  long  liy  live 


brnid,  nnd  roimi^tit  of  a  vory  KtronR  rnst-iron  fr«nii'- 
work,  wrurrd  loucthfr  |iv  two  ondii  :imiI  wvorul  croaii 
bar«.  To  thii  frame  nil  pari*  of  thi<  iniirliinn  are  flit'd. 
In  pxti-rniil  lii^ure,  an  Hocn  in  tiu>  cut,  it  in  a  liirKc  appn- 
ratU't,  of  imponinft  apprarnnro.  On  approarliing  it  wlirii 
at  iviirk,  wc  prrrrivr  two  cylindfrii,  ax  liirK^  an  ho^Mht'iuU, 
rrvolvini(  on  uprik;lit  KupiMjrlii;  two  itiniillcr  rylindom  or 
driiinn  ri*volvin)(  uhovo  lliem ;  and  iM-iiruth,  within  thi- 
friiiiii'work,  a  talilr  on  which  Iip  the  tvjn'K  iit  holh  imkIh, 
Koiiii;  I'onHtiinlly  Imrkwurd  and  forward.  A  Ih'II  from  a 
ati>.nnfnKiiii',  actin!;  upon  a  Hhafl  in  the  friiinr,  Kivt-H 
motion  to  thi>  whole  apparatux.  It  will  further  Ih;  oIi- 
■erved  that  a  Imy  marked  ii  in  the  rut,  in  HtiuidinK  on  the 
top  of  pome  Ktepii  feedinp;  in  HlieetM  of  pii|)«'r,  eaeh  of 
whii'h.  on  licinij  delivered,  in  Hwcpt  rouiui  the  lirHt  rylin- 
d>T  h  (lieini^  heid  on  liy  t^ipea),  k*'''"*  >''*  imprciiHion  Im'Iow 
from  the  ty|M-ii,  ia  rarried  over  and  lictwixt  this  druina 
ahovr,  and  then  hro(i|;ht  round  on  the  Kei'unJ  cylinder  r , 
now  it  gfl»  il.4  aeeond  aide  prinli  d,  and  i»HuinK  into  the 
•pjce  between  the  rylindera,  \»  W'ized  by  the  l)oy  i/,  who 
laya  it  oa  a  tuble  completely  printed.  The  whole  o|N!ra- 
tion  i>  acrompanied  with  a  loud  noise,  from  the  revolving 
of  the  rylindera,  the  workini;  of  the  notched  whoela,  and 
the  driving;  of  the  tabic  to  and  fro  by  a  rack  beneath,  but 
without  any  strain  on  the  mechanism,  or  risk  of  injury 
to  the  attendanta.  On  minutely  vxamiruriK  the  parts, 
we  observe  that  at  each  end  there  is  an  nppiiralus  of 
rollers  takini;  ink  from  n  ductor  or  reservoir  of  that  ma- 
terial, and  placing  it  u|)on  a  portion  of  the  nioviiij;  table 
beneath  ;  here  otiner  rollers  distribute  it.  while  others  lake 
it  off  and  roll  it  upon  the  pages  of  types,  ready  fur  cacii 
impression. 

The  two  printing  cylindera  are  nearly  nine  feet  in 
eircutnterence  earh,  and  are  placed  about  two  feel  ajmrt. 
They  are  accurately  turneiJ,  so  thut  the  surfaces  of  the 
tyiM'-carriages  and  llie  cylinders  may  U-  |)erfectly  parallel. 
The  axis  of  each  cylinder  works  in  brass  iMtariiiKs  in  the 
upri|{ht  l/amework,  where,  by  means  of  screws,  the  de- 
i;rec  of  pressure  with  which  the  cyliiidrrt  are  allowed  to 
rest  upon  the  types  may  lie  reKulutctI  to  any  decree  of 
aiiV'v.  Over  about  two  feet  of  tlw  circumference  of 
each  cylinder  which  forms  the  prinliiig  surfau;,  two  folds 
of  cl.rth,  called  blankets,  are  slrelched  by  means  of  rollers 
pluvd  inside  the  cylinder.  The  lower  lilaiiket  U  seldom 
chaii'jed,  but  the  up|)er  one,  on  the  s«-coiid  cylinder  (which 
standi  in  the  stead  of  what  uie  called  hli|>-Nheets  in  huiid- 
pres'  printing)  must  l>e  shifted  as  soon  as  the  Ink  which 
it  Ui*  ,ibiM>rlied  from  the  printing  on  the  lirst  side  of  the 
rfaeet  Ijei^ns  to  act  oflf,  or  soil  the  paper  when  receiving 
tile  »A^>nd  impression.  'Vhi»  sliifting  is  s|H:edily  etTected, 
by  uniolhug  a  atiilkieut  quintity  uf  the  lUoth  off  one 


roller,  and  winding  it  up  on  the  other,  to  O'esain  •  e\t^ 
portion  to  the  printing  siirfice. 

The  cylinders  have  a  continuous  rnlalnry  moti.in  (<» 
wards  each   other,  i(iveii  by  two    large  lihitlied  «1,„|. 
whilst  the  ty|M--carriuK<''<  move  iNtikwiirds  ami  fi)rw„j, 
under  them.     'I'he  ninvemenls  are  so  coiittivi'il  ihm  ,i 
type-carriages  shall  have  gmie  and  rehiriied  to  ih,,.  .j,,,, 
(Miint  during  the  |ierl<Hl  tliul  the  cyUiulers  hnve  mmli.  m, 
entire  revolution;  coiiiici)ui'iitly,  emh  "in'cesiiiv,.  jm.,, 
aion   is  lukeii  from  the   tyju's   by  the  same   piirt  uf  ,,„  . 
cylinder;  and  thun,  in  order  to  bring  the  iinpremuii,  j,  v,.! 
the  same  fucility  for  patching  or  overlaying    j,  ulliirili.l 
as  III  the  hand-press.     'I'he  two   drums   plucij   hctw,,.., ' 
the  cylinders  are  for  the  piirposi'  of  causinn  iti,,  ii|i,fi  „# 
pa|M'r  to  puss  smiKilhly  and  ncciiralely  from  one  iiniiunii 
cylinder  to  the  other. 

'I'o  pnscrve  the  sheet  in  its  proper  place  nn  the  rylln. 
ders,  and  carry  it  liirward  llinxigh  the  ililVcreiit  iiarlmif 
its  journey  from  the  liund  of  the  one  lh>y  |,i  (hut  uf  tu 
other,  there  is  an  exleiisive  a|ipuratus  of  tu|H's,  minip  of 
which  are  observuMe  in  the  cut,  Thcsi-  tiipeM  ure  half 
an  inch  liroud,  and  are  formed  into  si'rles  uf  ciujlin 
buniN,  arranged  at  certain  distances  apart,  so  as  In  i;,|{ 
iiilo  the  inlerHtices  and  margins  of  the  loriiis,  and  tluTii. 
fote  cscapi-  being  crushed  U'twei'ii  the  tyiK's  unj  cyij^ 
ders.  The  machine  may  lie  stop|M'd  at  any  iiwtum,  by 
turning  the  handle  of  a  lever,  which  shifts  the  lultlruig 
the  fast  to  a  loose  pulley,  wilhmit  stnppini;  ihe  eiiKine. 

To  prmluce  an  impression  with  a  Ibit  snrliicc  from  i 
large  form,  reijulres  a  force  of  about  from  forty  to  lllly 
tons;  and  even  with  a  cylinder,  wherii  a  lino  oiiyu 
impressed  at  a  time,  the  pressure  is  little  HJiori  of  a  ion. 
Hut,  ill  the  machine,  to  prevent  any  undue  prcH,.urii  of 
Ihe  cylinders  upon  the  forms,  there  ore  woihIcii  bcurcn 
of  the  same  height  as  the  ly|S'H,  screwed  upon  the  lidii 
of  Ihe  carriages  under  the  ends  of  the  cylinilers;  ihui 
eircctually  shielding  the  tyjsM  from  the  eiiorinouii  unJ 
injurious  prensure  which  a  cylinder  might,  through  acci. 
dent  or  otherwis*',  be  caused  to  exert. 

Four  macliincH  such  as  has  Is'cn  described  arc  ron. 
slanlly  employed  printing  the  works  of  Messrs.  Cliani- 
bers  at  Edinburgh,  the  whole,  together  with  i  Hat- 
pressure  machine,  IsMiig  moved  by  a 'steam-engine  of 
fuur-liorsc  power.  .At  the  large  printing  establliihni'i 
of   .Messrs.  Clowes  A  Hon,    in    liOndoii,  we   1  ^i 

least  twenty  machines  uf  this  kind  are  to  be  ,  i.  JaJj 
ut  work. 

Desides  lhos<*  various  descriptions  of  ■.'.,.,  ' ^  ^tme 

alluded  to,  as  l)eing  principally  in  uw  iherc  arc  otliiri 
calculated  to  execute  work  of  a  mi-;  pcculiisr  nature, 
I'erhjps  the  most  wonderful  of  iIkih  injicnious  iiiiwj 
of  mechanism  is  a  machine  whi'  h  has  been  made  to 
print  two  colours  by  only  one  inniression — a  lower  form 
charged  with  one  colour  Is'liii;  caused  to  rise  lliiuugb 
and  come  upon  a  level  with  aiuHher  foim,  so  thnt  boU. 
may  be  printed  at  once.  Hitherto  the  work  which  hu 
been  executed  by  this  niiu  liiiic  has  consisted  cliiilly  of 
the  stam|Mluty  marks  for  the  Excise,  and  for  liaiik-nott'«, 
fancy  lal)uls  for  druggists,  and  other  sinillar  jnliK. 

A  niachino  for  (irinting  iiewspa|H!rs  (on  one  siilcati 
time)  has  also  come  intu  use,  constructed  by  Ciirr  and 
Hmi'h  of  tielper,  on  the  pbii  of  an  advancing  and  re- 
tiring cyhnder,  while  Ihe  table  for  Ihe  types  Is  sUtionaiy. 
It  is  more  easily  turned  llian  the  other  kinds  uf  nt»> 
pajHT  .'iiuchiiics,  and  is  .-^aid  to  be  exceedingly  sulLible 
for  printing  newspu|s'rs  of  a  limiled  iiuinlnr  vt  m^h* 
sions,  such  us  arc  issued  in  many  country  towns. 

'i'he  only  other  cylinder  machine  which  we  may  hers 
notice,  is  one  invented  by  .\Ir.  Cowpei,  intended  to  [itinl 
frr.m  convex  8tercoty|ic  plates.  The  plates,  iiisloail  of 
being  fixed  flat  upon  b1o<-ks,  as  will  shortly  be  deKribol, 
are  fastened  U|>on  the  cylinder>i,  so  as  to  give  them  i 
bent  form,  and  the  jirintii  g  is  elTecled  with  llie  luce  of 
the   plate  or  type   surface   downwards;  wherefore  tbi 


RNGRAVINO. 


805 


tiiM  M  pliK*)^!  uniliTMiDiit  iiialend  n(  iip|M>rino«t,  u  In 
ill  othf r  printinil.  Wo  hiivn  iirvrr  liciiril  what  tie  the 
nxuli*'  xlvmidiKei  of  thin  fmirilul  I'ontrivnni'n. 

Vt'e  ltii*«  '>"w  (IniH'rilMMl  tliu  mlviiiitiiKfi  of  rylliiilrr 
nrinliriffi  niiil  it  li  l>ut  |ir<i|H'r  tint  wo  iIkiiiM  liiPiiliim  j 
(crtiiii  ilriwlmck*  to  it«  iiiiivFrMil  iim<,  Tlin  proMmirn  | 
))•  ■  ruiiiiil  or  I'vliiiilrii'ul  NUiliirp  In  Irm  |)crfpct  tliiiii  llint 
^v(n  liy  *ii  >•*•■"  mirtui'i'.  TIli'  cyliiulcr  Inm  tlio  iilVirt 
ol' preMiiiK  piirtly  on  tlio  rduB  of  llii'  typo,  liiilh  in  iiiiii-  j 
ini  up  ''*  I'"'  iiiM'"""'""  '>'"'  i"  l<'i>^i>it(  it;  tlicrot'on-,  tlio  i 
|iiipn'")i'>n<  i"  t<'i'l>i>i<'iil  IniiKiiiitff,  in  not  rli-iin  ;  it  hiw  n 
iji^ht  hliirri'itf,  or  \viiTiti4  tlmt  ili'Krcn  of  xlinrpiu'iiH  uiitl 
Cunir**  lliitt  In  rripiinvl  in  t'liu'  liook-wnrk.  Cyliiiili'r 
|iriritini(<  from  llic  miimk  riiiiso,  wriim  ilnwn  typt''*  nini'h 
p,on>  ipivkly  tliiin  tint  prcKM'N.  A  fully  nicirn  iinporliint 
dflwl  i«  ill''  ti'""  riMniirnl  to  propiir"  ii  Hlici't  iif  typon,  itr 
fiirriiK,  for  tlin  iiuii-liinc.  A  xlit'pt,  audi  M  tlin  prrwnt, 
irlijiiiii  ri'c|tur('«  Ichh  tlnin  thrro  lionr*  to  niiiku  rciiily, 
uiil  1  «li'<'t  of  Hlcrpolypo  pliit«'K  lui  hour  lun^fr.  'I'lic 
nti'Kiiiiri*  of  till'  ryliniliTM  in  ho  m-nrchin^f,  llitit  tlio  mnnlloitt 
Meet  ill  tlio  IfvoliioHit  of  till-  foriim  or  of  tlio  lilankot  iinil 
printing  ittirfui'u,  ii4  olHorvahIo,  ami  niiiHt  Ih<  rciiu'ilioil  liy 
puttinK  piiti'hi!"  Iii'iifiith  thn  outer  hlmikot.  ^o  much 
time  i«  liiii"  ponmiiiioil  in  propariiig  .1  nln'ot  for  the  cylin- 
der miichino,  tliut  it  woiilil  ho  n  poNitivc  Iohm  to  print 
iiiv  ihiiilf  lit  it,  unlcHH  a  ){"'iit  nurnlior  of  copim  were 
wjiiti'd.  In  other  wordu,  cylinder  nmrhinoH  nro  only 
■uiliilile  for  loiiK  iinprexHioim,  and  where  a  mudcrato 
finoni'M  of  work  in  Hnll'icieiit. 

Tlii'iii'  deficieiicien  of  the  cylinder  mnchino  have  led  to 
nuiiierouH  and  expensivo  iittrinpU  to  a|>ply  uleam  power 
to  niiKhinc«  with  (lat  priiitinn  mirl'acos.  The  ihohI  huc- 
awful  nf  llipie  iittoiii|itH  Iuih  lieen  one  liy  an  American, 
mil  miother  hy  a  Kontloinaii  in  liondon,  whime  miiehiiieH 
hive  liccn  working  for  nome  years  in  Mr.  HpottiKWoode'd 
[irintin(»-oirico.  The  hlter  ih  liy  far  the  lient,  and  in  now 
comiiii?  into  neneral  uxo.  It  coiiHint«  of  an  upritfht  fmiiie 
anil  jirititinif  plaltrn,  rcHoinhlint;  the  coiiimon  hand-prcHR, 
willi  a  type  cnrriuifo  at  each  side.  The  tyjio  corriai;ort 
(TO  Ix'low  the  plutleii  alternately ;  ho  that,  in  point  of 
fact,  the  apparutuH  is  tivo  prenw!*  with  one  printiiiR  sur- 
face to  wrve  iMith.  The  inovements  to  and  fro  of  the 
Ivpe  cirriaijeg,  and  the  pull  downwards  of  t^>  plalten, 
ire  ftrocted  liy  machinery  iH'neatli.  The  fori  i-i  are  olso 
inkeii  liy  an  »|ipariitiis  for  tho  purpose.  Thin  machino 
riMuires  a  layer-on  ami  laker-olV  of  sheets  at  each  end, 
bosiilt's  a  su|ieriMtcndeiit,  and  works  alnmi  701)  sides  per 
hour,  or  !i5ll  cumplcte  sheets.* 

By  llic  introduction  of  thn  steam-pressm,  which  wo 
h:ive  now  descrils'd,  the  profession  of  the  printer  has 
witliiii  thc8('  few  years  iiiiderijoiie  a  most  extraordinary 
revululion;  and  allhoui{h,  peihups,  fewer  huml-pressinen 
ii'e  now  employed  thiiii  formerly,  thi  increase  of  oinploy- 
nienl  to  coni|)ositor8,  eiiiiineers,  liuokliinders,  hooksellers, 
Ac,  niUKt  lie  very  gre:\t.  The  principal  advance  in  tho 
profession  has  been  hiiicc  the  year  IHH3,  when  the  print- 
ing of  c'leap  lilcriiry  sheC  ■  -»'  into  im|Kirtanco,  and  hy 
I  fortunate  (•■micidence  r  ,  itents  of  various  machines 
h-iving  iituuit  the  Name  tnnc  expired,  a  new  impulse  was 
given  to  the  trade  Hin  y  a  mnvspa|K'r  is  now  any- 
where j.nnted  wil';  a  liaii  |M'c.''s,  and  few  or  no  |H"riodi- 
cal  jiiililications,  The  iii.iliiiit;  of  |iriiitiiii;-iiiacliiiies  has 
in  itsi'lf  liecoiiie  a  ureal  liiisiness.  One  maker  in  Lon- 
don lately  mentioned  to  us  that  he  proiluced  a  iiiaehuie 
regularly  every  three  weeks  upon  an  averau[e  all  the  year 
round,  each  at  a  price  of  uliout  X  100.  Other  manufac- 
turers  in  London,  and  also  iimv  In  Scotland,  are  simi- 
larly eiip^^ed ;  the  machines  lieiiii^  sent  not  only  to  all 
parts  uf  Kuropo,  hut  to  America,  Australia,  and  India, 
hi  a  few  years  there  will   not   he  a  cl\iliied  couu'ry  of 


•Sn;«the  flxpryofthR  pnlenl.  mnchines  oflhis  kimi  have 
keen  mnJe  ly  J.  Ilniwiinnili'o  .  iiiiriiR-ers.  Kirkaldy.  The  liie- 
tiuuuuii  Tvry  'jrauulul  unit  uilucuve. 


any  rnmwquf  nm  nn  th«  glnlw  which  d<»s  not  pa««rM 
these  powrrfiil  dl»lribulor<)  of  human  knuwIoilKe. 

It  will  readily  lie  siipiKMod,  that  the  iiilriNluclii>n  'if 
a  •tenni-prcsii  such  as  we  have  denrrilied,  has  caused  il 
very  extensive  alteration,  hoth  In  the  d'meiisionsiif  many 
prinliiiK-iiirice*  and  in  their  orKaniialiim.  I'rinting  K 
now  a  muiiufacliire.  The  prinlinK-onien  la  a  In'tury  * 
and  the  interior  of  one  of  these  concern*  usually  preieiita 
a  reninrkalile  siM'ctacIo  of  industry,  animate  and  inani- 
mate, which  to  a  stranger  leuvei  .1  lastiui|  imprewioii  uii 
the  memory. 


F.NflRAVINO. 
In  the  printinv  of  letterpress  or  wooileuts,  a«  haihetn 
idroiidy  nolico'l,  the  im|ireHsions  are  elVected  hy  the  raised 
faces  of  the  letti-rs,  or  marks,  in  tho  manner  of  ■  slitinp. 
Printing  from  eiiKraved  plates  Is  poilomied  on  a  pimci- 
[lie  directly  the  reverse:  in  this  caa<i,  tho  fac.i  of  the  me- 
tal, cleared  of  the  ink  daiilii'd  upon  it,  )(ives  no  repiesen* 
tation — the  printiin;  is  ellected  from  thi^  sunk  liueo- 
While  wooiU'iinraviiiKS  may  lie  printed  aloiiK  uilh  type- 
matter,  ultKraviiiKs  on  plates  of  metal  requiri'  tobopiintetl 
hy  themselves. 

The  discovery  of  the  nrt  of  cnfira^ini{  on  metal,  foi 
tho  purpose  of  makiiiK  impression*  'in  paper,  is  ifoiio- 
rally  userils'd  to  Fiiiinuerra,  a  goldsmith  of  Florencn, 
Ho  excelled  in  an  art  then  much  practised  in  Florence, 
called  fiir//u.  It  was  tho  custom  with  jewellers,  in  thofe 
limes,  to  engrave  the  outlines  of  Hcriptiire  siilijeets  ii|ioii 
the  vessels  which  they  made  for  the  use  of  the  church. 
When  this  eni;ravini{  was  completed,  they  filled  \\;e 
liiii's  with  a  black  substance  composed  of  a  mixture  .if 
lead  and  silver,  in  solution  with  Uirax  and  sulphur;  aiiJ 
impression*  wtro  taken  from  this  in  clay  or  sulphir. 
Tho  black  substance  used  was  called  nielln,  and  henca 
till'  name  of  the  art.  The  same  process  was  also  um  J 
wli.ii  pieces  of  armour,  household  plate,  and  other  a; li- 
dos, were  engraved  for  the  purpose  of  being  inlaid  with 
metals,  wood,  or  ivory. 

(Jerman  writers  claim  the  honour  of  the  invention  for 
a  citi/.on  of  .\nlwerp,  Martin  iSchocngauer,  asacrting  that 
he  practised  the  art  la't'ore  Finiguerra.  It  scums  proba- 
ble that  it  appeared  nearly  simultaneously  in  both  coun- 
tries. The  earliest  diutinguished  engravers,  uller  llio 
iliscovery  of  the  art,  however,  were  Italians. 

It  does  not  npiiear  that  Finiguerra  pursued  hi*  inven- 
tion any  further  than  to  take  impressions  on  paper  in- 
stead of  clay.  A  contemporary,  of  the  same  profession 
and  city,  Baccio  Ualdini,  improved  upon  the  invention 
by  engraving  on  plates  for  the  express  purpose  of  taking 
impressions  on  pujier.  He  wan  greatly  assisted  by  a 
distinguished  painter,  Antonio  Pollajuolo,  who  furnished 
him  with  designs  for  his  engravings,  and  also  hy  anothnr 
artist,  Snndro  Uotticelli,  who  made  a  set  of  drawings, 
from  which  Baldini  engraved  plates  for  an  edition  of 
Dante,  ]iublished  in  I  188,  and  supposed  to  bo  tho  first 
book  ever  embellished  with  cojijK'rplate  engravings; 
thou;;h  this  notion  has  been  proved  false  by  a  Uernian 
writer.  The  works  of  Ualdini  attracted  tho  attention 
of  a  Uoiiian  engraver,  Andrea  Mantegna,  who  had 
already  become  distinguished  as  one  of  the  most  succesi*" 
ful  of  the  iiiellii'ori.  This  artist  not  only  assisted  Baldini 
with  original  designs,  but  also  turned  his  own  etiiirts  to 
the  promotion  of  the  newly  discovered  art,  in  which  he 
soon  became  proficient. 

In  our  notice  of  the  early  days  of  the  art,  wo  must 
not  omit  mentioning  Alliert  Durer,  one  of  the  eariieit 
Dutch  engravers.  Some  knowledge  of  the  art  seema 
to  have  Ih'cii  previously  possessed  in  Holland  by  Marlin 
Schoengaucr,  who  is  thoaght  by  some  (.ierinan  writer*, 
as  we  have  seen,  to  have  invented  it,  and  who  was  cer- 
tainly a  contem|iorary  of  Finiguerra.  The  worii*  of 
Maitin,  and  liis  dibciple  V't'olg'imulh,  inspired  the  ^eiuuf 


80* 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPI  K. 


of  AHi«rt  Durer,  who  did  much  for  the  iinprovement  of 
thfl  art,  excelling  equally  on  copper  and  on  wood.* 
Marc-Antonio  Raimondi,  an  Italian  artist,  having  leen 
Durer's  prints,  improved  upon  them,  and  became  at 
Rome  a  inneter  in  the  art.  Thus  the  profession  was 
spread  simultaneously  over  Holland  and  Italy.  Although 
.here  have  heen  various  improvements  in  the  profession 
•f  the  engraver  since  this  early  period  of  its  history,  the 
mode  of  etching  the  plates  remains  substantially  the  same. 

At  present  there  are  several  kindt,  of  engraving,  each 
effected  in  a  dilTerent  manner,  and  of  these  we  shall  oflbr 
•  short  account. 

Line-Engravinf;, — This  is  the  principal  as  well  as  the 
most  ancient  species  of  engraving ;  it  is  employed  for  all 
elegant  pictorial  embellishments,  and  is  more  expensive 
than  any  other.  This,  as  well  as  every  other  kind  of 
copperplate  engraving,  is  commenced  by  a  process  called 
ttching.  The  plate  is  made  perfectly  clean  on  its  polished 
surface,  and  heated  sufficiently  to  melt  a  eomposition  of 
asphaltum  and  Burgundy  pitch,  called  etching-ground, 
which  is  rubbed  upon  it,  and  rendered  equal  all  over  by 
dabbing  with  a  bitll  of  wool  covered  with  silk.  The 
plate  is  then  held  up  for  the  surface  to  receive  the 
•moke  of  a  wax  taper,  until  it  is  rendered  black  and 
glossy,  into  which  state  it  comes  on  not  being  suffered  to 
cool  (luring  the  process.  'J^hese  preparations  being 
effected,  and  the  plate  becoming  cold,  the  etching-ground, 
•vhich  is  not  thicker  than  a  coat  of  varnish,  is  found  to 
be  of  a  hard  consistence,  and  ready  to  receive  the  tracing 
of  the  subject  intended  to  l>e  etched.  The  previous  pre- 
paration of  the  subject  is  a  very  important  step  in  the 
process.  The  subject  is  drawn  upon  transparent  paper 
with  a  black-lead  pencil,  and  being  laid  with  the  face 
downwards  on  the  etching-ground,  the  lines  or  marks  of 
the  drawing  are  pressed  upon  it  with  such  force  tli>'  - 
they  are  left  on  the  ground  on  removing  the  paper.  This 
if  called  transferring;  and,  of  course,  the  excellence  of 
the  representation  to  be  produced,  depends  on  the  excel- 
lence of  the  drawing.  Engravers,  therefore,  in  copying 
paintings,  require  to  possess  n  degree  of  skill  in  the  art 
of  delineation  hardly  inferior  to  that  of  the  original  artist. 
The  drawing  being  transferred  in  the  manner  described, 
(he  engraver  applies  his  tool,  or  etching  needle,  over  the 
lines,  carefully  removing  the  ground,  at  the  same  time 
pressing  sufficiently  hard  to  scratch  the  surface  of  the 
copper.  A  wall  of  wax  i*  now  placed  round  the  margin 
of  the  plate,  and  into  the  enclosure  so  formed,  aquafortis 
is  poured,  to  the  depth  of  half  an  inch.  This  aquafortis 
decomposes  or  bites  into  the  rop|H'r  where  the  etrhing- 
groiind  has  been  removed.  During  this  process,  globules 
of  air  arise  from  the  decomposition,  and  these  are  care- 
fully removed  with  a  feather,  to  allow  free  scope  to  the 
biting  liquid.  The  length  of  time  employed  in  biting 
tlie  plate  is  regulated  by  the  depth  required,  also  by  the 
■tate  of  the  atmosphere;  in  ordinary  ctises,  the  operation 
may  Iw  performed  in  about  an  hour.  When  it  is  ascer- 
tained that  the  plate  is  properly  acted  u|ion,  the  aqua- 
fortis is  poured  off,  the  wall  of  wax  removed,  and  the 
ground  cleared  with  s^iirits  of  tur|ientine.  'I'he  plate  is 
DOW  said  to  \<e  etched,  and  when  printed  from  in  this 
■tate,  exhibits  the  appearance  of  a  |>en  and  ink  Hkvlrh. 
To  this  stitte  of  etching,  but  regulated  ))y  the  nature  of 
khc  subject,  professional  engravers  bring  the  plates  to  l>e 
finished  in  the  line  manner.  Uilferent  grudationn  nf 
|K>iver  are  given  by  the  aquafortis,  and  inirts  arc  rebitten 
to  the  depth  reipiired;  arter  which,  the  light  pnrls  are 
put  ill  with  a  shnrp  needle.  Other  parts  are  then  cut 
witli  gravers  of  various  sizes  and  furins,  suited  to  the 
lines  which  will  best  express  the  reoimctive  objects.  The 
engraver,  in  thus  finishing  his  work,  rests  the  plate  on  a 
•mall  cushion,  so  tlint  it  may  be  conveniently  turned 
*'aii  tlie   left  iiand,  while  the  inctsions  are  cut  with  the 


graving  tool  by  the  right    These  'ines  are  re-onuirei 


crossed  in  various  directions,  or  cut  in  the 


spapps  bt 


•  Nortli  American  Review. 


tween  the  diagonal  crossings,  until  the  desired  effect  I 
produced.     Landscapes   and  architecture  are  generall 
executed  with  the  needle  and  aquafortis:  portraits  anil 
historical  subjects  are  chiefly  cut  with  the  gtiver. 

Dolliug  is  a  style  of  engraving,  in  which  ilot«  of 
various  sizes  and  depths  in  the  copper,  instead  of  lines 
express  the  form  and  shades  of  the  subject  They  are 
first  carefully  made  in  the  etching-ground:  then  biltert 
and  some  parts  stopped  out,  to  prevent  the  farther  action 
of  the  aquafortis  on  them ;  while  other  parts  receive 
ailditional  bitings,  till  the  subject  has  the  power  requinn] 
After  this,  the  plate  is  cleaned,  dotted  up  with  the  needle' 
stippled  with  the  graver,  or  rebitten,  until  all  the  gradai 
tions  of  force  are  communicated.  This  style  is  gen^ 
rally  used  for  portraits. 

Mezzotinto  eneraving  is  in  a  great  measiure  a  reversal 
of  those  styles  already  described ;  being  the  rcducini;  of 
a  darkened  surface  of  copper  to  one  thot  is  light.  The 
operation  is  generally  commenced  by  grounding  or  punc. 
turing  the  plate  with  a  circular-faced  'tool,  on  the  cdee 
of  which  are  a  number  of  points;  this  instrument  br 
being  rocked  regularly  over  the  surface  of  the  copwrin 
every  direction,  covers  it  so  completely  with  marks  or 
spots,  that,  if  it  were  printed  from,  the  impression  would 
be  jierfectly  black.  On  this  dark  ground  the  subject  Is 
traced,  directing  where  the  various  gradotic.ns  of  light 
and  half-tint  ore  to  lie  scraped  out ;  which  operation  ii 
performed  with  tools  shaped  like  a  surgeon's  .'anoet, 
while  the  highest  lights  are  burnished  with  a  poiished 
steel  instrument,  until  the  proper  effect  is  produced 
This  stylo  of  engraving  is  used  chiefly  for  portraits  and 
historical  subjects.  It  has  a  pleasing  soft  appearance,  butit 
is  understood  that  the  coppt^rsoon  fails  in  producing  strong 
impressions,  and  it  is  therefore  not  well  adapted  lor  sub- 
jects of  which  great  numliers  are  required. 

Jlqualinio  innrurhig  is  on  exceedingly  complicated 
style  of  producing  pictorial  effect ;  but  lieing  executed 
at  a  lower  price  than  that  of  the  kinds  previously  men- 
tioned, it  is  commonly  resorted  to  tor  embellishing  books 
of  travels  or  other  works  requiring  illustrations  ofasim. 
pie  nat'ire.  In  appearance,  it  resembles  tinting  with 
Indian  ink.  and  the  prints  are  susceptible  of  being 
finished  with  water-colours.  In  commencing  the  pro. 
cess  of  aquatint  engraving,  the  plot*;  must  lie  cleanoil 
with  an  oil  rubber,  which  is  a  strip  of  woollen  cloth 
rolled  up  hard,  to  about  two  inches  in  diumeter;  this, 
with  a  little  impalpable  crocus  :i'  1  sweet  oil,  will  gin 
to  the  copperplate,  when  perfectly  cleansed  from  the  oil, 
a  proper  surface  to  receive  the  ground,  which  is  made 
with  pulverized  silted  rosin  and  spirits  of  wine,  incorpo- 
rated by  gentle  heat,  till  it  appears  like  a  varnish.  Thii 
composition  is  pnure<I  over  the  plate  while  placed  in  i 
slanting  position,  so  as  to  permit  the  superfluous  liquid  to 
run  off.  The  o|)<'ration  must  be  so  managed  as  to  pre- 
serve "n  equal  surface.  As  soon  as  the  granulation,  or 
drying  of  the  grain,  appears,  the  plote  must  be  placed 
horizontally,  when  the  spirit  will  eva[»ornte,  and  the  par- 
ticles of  rosin  will  odhere  to  the  copier.  When  dry.  the 
surface  appears  evenly  covered,  oh  with  a  diminulive 
honey-conib,  and  perfectly  smooth.  On  this  the  subjecl 
is  traced,  and  the  highest  lights  painted  out  with  a  mHc 
(M'ticil  in  h  mixture  of  turix-ntiiii'-varnish  and  lamp- 
black, so  08  to  prevent  the  aquafortis  acting  on  those 
ports.  The  margin  is  also  covend,  and  on  it  a  wall  I'l 
wax  is  I'lxed,  with  a  spout  at  one  corner.  The  tcflt 
fortis  is  regulated  in  its  strength  by  the  teni|ieraturc  ol 
the  weather  and  the  hardness  of  the  copper.  Being 
poured  on  the  plate,  it  remains  until  the  first  gradalinn 
of  lint  is  bitten — the  aquafortis  having  acted  on  tie 
co|p|)er  f)etween  the  particles  of  rosin  which  adhered  d 
the  plate.  The  aquafortis  is  then  taken  off,  the  ptes 
dried,  and  this  first  degree  of  lint  slupiwd  out  or  cowi-i 


LrrHOGKAPHY. 


fMT  witn  the  blackened  vnrnish.  When  hard,  the 
gqotforti'  it  again  poured  on,  to  bite  the  second  defj^ree 
of 'int;  and  bo  on  until  all  the  tinta  have  in  succesgion 
been  bitten  in.  The  copper  must  then  he  cleansed,  and 
I  proof  taken  and  compared  with  the  orii^inal.  A  simi- 
lar or  ro-bitini;  grain  must  then  be  laid  on  the  plate  as 
before :  when  rold,  a  composition  of  treacle  and  lamp- 
black, well  mixed,  must  be  used  to  paint  the  projections 
of  foliage  on  lights,  or  other  touches  which  the  masses 
of  tint  may  recjuire.  When  these  are  dry,  the  whole 
of  the  plate  must  be  washed  over  with  a  thin  coat  of 
Tsrnish  reducetl  with  tur|)cntine,  which  will  adhere  to 
Iho  untouched  parts  of  the  work.  The  wall  of  wax 
must  then  l>c  rcpliiccd,  and  clean  water  poured  on  ;  in  a 
(hort  time  the  wutci  will  mix  with  the  treacle  touches, 
»nJ  loi'i'n  tliein.  When  all  appear  to  be  removed,  the 
water  is  l.iken  olV,  and  aquafortis  poured  on.  and  allowed  to 
remain  until  a  suini'icnt  dcurei"  of  power  is  given  to  the 
touches,  and  the  subject  completed-  Ijatterly,  aquatint  en- 
graving bus  licen  in  ni;uiy  cases  sui»eiseilcd  by  litho'j;rnphy. 

Pliilt-I'n'iliiiii. — ('opperplates,  enRnivcd  in  any  of  the 
above  styles,  are  ready  for  pri'ss  as  soon  as  they  are 
finished  by  the  engraver.  The  method  of  prititino; 
from  these  is  very  simple.  Their  enofraved  surface  is 
daubed  over  with  a  thick  nleattinous  ink,  so  that  the  lines 
jre  effectually  filled.  As  liiis  dirties  the  whole  face  of 
the  plate,  it  is  necessary  to  clean  it,  which  is  done  by 
the  workman  wiping  it  first  with  a  piec«  of  canvas 
lad  then  with  the  palms  of  his  hands  rubbed  on  fine 
whitiiif;.  It  may  be  calculated  that  a  hundred  times 
marc  ink  is  thus  removed  than  actually  remains  in  the 
indentations;  however,  such  is  necessary.  'J'lie  plate 
being  thoroughly  cleansed,  it  is  laid  on  a  press,  with  a 
piece  of  damped  paper  over  it,  and  being  wound  beneath 
I  roller  covered  with  blanket  stuff,  it  is  forced  to  yield  an 
impression  on  the  paper.  The  plate  requires  to  be  kept 
tt  a  moderate  warmth  during  the  operation.  The  fre- 
quent rubbing  of  the  plate  with  the  hand  to  clean  it,  as 
niay  be  supposed,  tends  greatly  to  wear  it  down  ;  and 
luch  is  the  wear  chiefly  from  this  cause,  I'  at  few  copper- 
plates will  yield  more  than  a  few  thouswids  of  inipres- 
■ions  in  good  order.  The  earliest,  called  proufs.  are 
always  the  best  and  most  highly  prized.  In  consequence 
of  this  defect  in  copper,  the  practice  of  engraving  steel 
plates,  fur  all  subjects  requiring  long  numbers,  has  now 
become  very  common. 

^ul  Kniiruriiif;. — This  is  a  branch  of  the  profession 
altogether  distinct  from  that  of  the  engraver  of  plates. 
While  the  hardest  metals  arc  susceptible  of  being  cut 
by  a  tool  wielded  by  the  hand  of  the  artist,  the  different 
kinds  of  stone  required  to  be  operated  upon  by  the  seal- 
engraver  are  so  extremely  hard,  that  a  much  more  pow- 
erful instrument  than  the  hand  has  to  be  resorted  to. 
The  cutting  tool  is  fixed  into  a  turning  machine  or 
Itihe,  and  is  made  to  operate  while  in  a  rapid  rotatory 
motion.  The  lathe  is  of  a  light  and  miniature  construc- 
tion,  erected  on  an  elevated  bench  or  table  in  front  of 
the  artist,  and  is  moved  by  a  foot-board  beneath.  The 
engraver  of  metal  plates  sits  while  at  his  work,  but  the 
•eal-engntvfr  in  general  stands,  in  order  to  have  greater 
command  ovef  !da  o|)erations.  He  likewise  requires  to 
be  exceedingly  steady  in  the  hand,  for  the  slightest  error 
would  |>erhaps  he  irremediable  ;  therefore,  with  both  his 
elbows  resting  on  cushions  on  the  bench,  and  the  palm 
ot  his  lcf\  hand  leaning  on  the  top  of  an  erect  roundish- 
Ajiped  l)olt  or  pillar,  his  fingers  of  both  hands  are  busy 
ill  pressing  the  stone  to  the  edge  of  the  whirling  tool, 
or  guiding  it  so  that  it  may  receive  the  appropriiite  inden- 
tations. One  tool,  however,  cannot  execute  all  parts  oi' 
the  device.  The  cutter  possesses  from  one  to  two  hun- 
Ircd  tools,  varying  from  a  large  to  a  small  size.  It  is 
also  necessary  to  explain,  tliut  the  cutting  part  of  each 
tool  Ik  shaped  so  as  to  present  to  the  stone  u  sharp  thin 
•dtic  like  the  rim  of  a  wheel.     (By  sticking  a  small 


wafer  on  the  point  of  m  pin,  and  conteiving  the  e<3ge  of 
the  wafer,  when  turning  round,  to  be  the  cutting  part,  • 
good  idea  may  be  obtained  of  this  curious  instrument.; 
As  the  tool  projects  horizontally,  tho  artist,  by  holding 
the  stone  beneath  it,  with  its  surface  to  lie  cut  uiipermost, 
is  thus  enabled  to  watch  the  progress  of  his  operation 
from  beginning  to  end.  Sharp  as  the  cutting  tools  of 
tho  seal-engraver  are,  they  would  entirely  fail  in  perfo. 
rating  the  gems  to  which  they  are  applied  by  the 
lathe,  unless  they  were  given  an  additional  sharpness, 
by  means  of  a  foreign  material  occasionally  applied  to 
them  while  in  rapid  motion.  This  material  is  diamond 
dust.  The  diamond  is  so  expensive  an  article,  that  the 
particles  used  by  the  seal-engraver  are  those  which  have 
lM!en  rejected  as  waste  by  the  lapidary.  These  being 
placed  in  a  hollow  steel  tube,  having  a  tight-fitting 
rammer  of  the  same  material,  a  few  smart  blows  on  the 
upper  extremity  of  the  rammer  reduce  the  particles  to 
powder.  A  sinnll  portion  of  this  dust  is  then  mixed  with 
a  little  highly  refined  oil,  and  being  held  to  the  tool  in  a 
state  of  motion,  it  is  attached  to  or  forced  into  the  metal. 
If  a  powerful  maijnifying  glass  were  taken  to  examine 
the  tool  after  its  absorption  of  the  dianiond  dust,  its  edge 
would  be  observe<l  to  resemble  a  rasp  or  saw,  the  parti- 
cles being  partly  imbedded  and  fixed  in  the  steel ;  hence, 
properly  speaking,  it  is  not  the  tool,  but  the  diamond 
dust  upon  it,  which  cuts  the  surliice  of  the  stone. 

To  cut  an  elaborate  device,  such  as  a  bust  or  a  coat 
of  arms,  upon  the  surface  of  a  cornelian  or  other  gem, 
a  vast  deal  of  care  is  necessary  on  the  part  of  the 
artist.  The  precise  depth  of  every  turn  and  indenta- 
tion is  matter  of  serious  study,  and  a  momentary  heed- 
lessness might  have  the  effect  of  ruining  the  work  of 
several  days.  The  operator,  however,  exercises  caution 
in  his  ingenious  labour.  The  stone  being  dimmed  by 
friction,  is  drawn  upon  with  a  brass  point  to  show  tha 
subject ;  the  artist  first  trrices  the  outlines  of  his  figures, 
next  opens  them  with  tic  bolder  tools,  and  gradually 
proceeds  to  the  details  wiln  finer  and  finer  instruments, 
frequently  stopping  to  take  impressions  on  wax,  to  see 
the  effect  which  has  been  produced,  before  he  gives  the 
finishing  stroke  to  his  workmanship ;  lastly,  the  surface 
is  repolished,  and  the  seal  completed. 

Engraving,  in  all  its  branches,  is  a  species  of  labour 
which  requires  payment  higher  than  almost  any  other 
department  of  art ;  for  not  only  must  there  be  great 
ability  brought  to  the  task,  but  a  degree  of  patience  and 
perseverance  beyond  what  is  required  in  most  other  wi> 
ployments. 

♦ 

LITHOGRAPHY. 

Lithogra|)hy  (from  lithoi,  a  stone,  in  Greek)  is  the  art 
of  printing  from  a  peculiar  kind  of  stone,  and  generally 
in  a  style  which  resembles  the  more  ordinary  kinds  of 
engravings.  It  was  invented  at  Munich,  in  Davarii^ 
between  the  years  1795  and  1798,  by  Alois  Scnefelder 
a  person  of  literary  ability,  who,  being  too  poor  to  pay 
for  the  printing  of  books  in  the  usual  manner,  endea- 
voured to  fall  on  a  method  of  executing  his  productions 
from  the  surface  of  various  metals  and  abo  of  stone. 
Proceeding  in  his  ingenious  attempts,  he  was  at  length 
successful  in  discovering  that  drawing  made  on  the  sur- 
face of  stone  will  form  a  sufficient  type  to  yield  inked 
impressions  on  paper.  From  Munich,  the  invention 
shoi'tly  spread  over  Germany  ;  it  was  also  introduced  into 
France  and  England;  and  finally,  after  encoimtering 
the  usual  quantity  of  derision,  lithography  took  its  place 
alongside  the  more  ancient  arts  of  letterpress  and  cop- 
per-pbitc  printing. 

The  stone  employed  for  lithography  is  of  a  caJco 
argillaceous  nature  (lime  and  clay),  resembling  in  appear- 
ance a  smooth  yellow  hone,  and  is  found  in  (luariies  in 
Bavaria;  it  »  likewise  found  in  England    but  no  stmicr 


808 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


•re  so  good  im  thone  from  Germany,  and  their  importa- 
tion ijf  a  consi  Icrablo  object  of  commerce.  The  stnnn, 
when  preparet),  usually  varies  in  thirlcness  from  an  inch 
and  a  half  to  two  inches  and  a  half;  those  which  are 
Urge  requiring  the  greatest  thickness,  in  order  to  endure 
the  severe  pressure  to  which  they  are  exposed.  Uf 
whatever  dimensions,  the  stone  requires  to  be  perfectly 
flat,  and  highly  polished  on  the  upper  surface.  The  ink 
to  bo  employed  in  making  the  drawings  for  th<>  stone 
varies  in  composition  according  to  the  precise  nature  of 
the  work,  and  whether  the  drawing  is  made  direct  on  the 
stone  or  transferred  to  it  from  paper.  One  kind,  of  a 
good  quality,  consists  of  dried  tallow  soap,  mantic.  sulv 
carbonate  of  potash,  Cninese  or  table  varnish,  and  lam|i- 
black,  the  varnish  being  the  principal  ingredient,  The 
materials  are  incorporated  in  ■  close  vessel  over  a  fire, 
and  when  prepared  are  cast  into  moulds.  The  substance 
taken  from  the  moulds  forms  a  chalk,  which  may  be 
pointed  like  a  pencil,  or  it  may  be  diitsolvcd  in  water  to 
form  an  ink. 

The  drawing  is  made  on  the  stone  either  by  the  pencil 
or  chalk,  or  by  the  ink  and  a  fine  pen  or  camel-hair 
pencil.  <>  To  render  the  lithographic  process  intelligi- 
ble, let  it  be  supposed  that  the  artist  now  completes  a 
drawing  with  the  chemical  chalk  just  described,  upon  a 
ip'ained  stone.  If,  while  in  lliis  state,  a  sponge  filled 
with  water  were  passed  over  the  face  of  the  stone,  the 
drawing  would  wash  out,  the  chalk  with  which  it  it) 
made  being,  as  we  have  seen,  soluble  in  water,  by  reason 
of  the  soap  which  it  contains.  Before,  therefore,  it  is 
capable  of  yielding  impressions,  a  weak  solution  of 
nitrous  acid  is  poured  over  it,  which  unites  with  and 
neutralizes  the  alkali  or  soap  contained  in  the  chalk,  and 
renders  it  insoluble  in  water.  Afler  this,  the  usual 
course  is  to  flo,it  a  solution  of  gum  over  the  whole  f>\cc 
at  the  stone,  and  when  this  is  removed,  if  a  sponge  and 
water  be  applied  to  its  surface,  as  before  suppo.sed,  the 
drawing  is  found  to  be  no  lunger  removable,  because  the 
chalk  with  which  it  is  executed  is  now  no  longer  soluble 
in  water.    In  this  state  the  work  is  ready  for  the  printer, 


who   obtains  impressions  6y   the  following  proetit- 
Having  thrown  with  the  ends  of  his  lingers  a  few  droM 
of  water  on  the  stone,  and  spread  them  with  a  spon  IT 


80  as  to  wet,  or  rather  damp,  the  whole  surface 


equally 


the  printer  finds  that  the  water  has  been  imbibed  by  tlu 
stone  only  on  those  parts  not  occupied  by  tlie  drawini, 
which,  iHjing  greasy,  reiiels  the  water  and  remains  dry' 
A  roller  properly  covered  with  printing-ink  is  now  pasjpd 
over  the  whole  stone,  which  will  not  even  lie  solid 
where  it  is  wet,  from  the  antipathy  of  oil  and  water 

But  the   '%  occupied  by  the  drawing  being,  ag  ,' 

have  seen,  K/  and  greasy,  have  an  atnnity  for  thepiini. 
ing-ink,  which  therefore  passes  from  the  roller  and  it. 
tuchcs  itself  to  the  drawing.  In  this  state  it  is  said  tobn 
charged,  or  rolled  in.  Damped  paper  is  then  put  over 
it,  and  the  whole  being  passed  through  a  press,  the 
printing-ink  is  transferred  from  the  stone  to  the  paper 
and  this  constitutes  the  impression.  By  reprating  in 
this  manner  the  operotions  of  damping  the  slono  and 
rolling  in  the  drawing,  an  almost  unlimited  number  of 
impressions  may  be  obtained.  No:v,  as  we  have  said 
the  modes  of  lithography  are  various,  but  the  illustra! 
tion  just  given  will  explain  the  principle  of  them  all.  It 
consists  in  the  mutual  antipathy  of  oil  and  water,  and  the 
ntruiity  which  the  stone  has  for  both,  that  is,  iti  its  power 
of  imbibing  citlier  with  equal  avidity." — Pomy  Cuda. 
pa'ha. 

The  art,  in  whicliever  way  pursued,  reciuires  great 
delicacy  and  dexterity.  In  drawing  on  the  stone,  the 
slightest  mark  of  the  hand  will  fasten  on  the  surface  and 
appear  in  the  impi'ession.  T'  execution  of  tht  im. 
pression  in  an  equally  clear  and  dark  manner  is  evidently 
a  matter  of  difficult  accomplishment,  there  being  nothlni 
more  common  thn-  '  see  lithographic  impressions  light 
at  one   part  anJ   ■'\.  he  other.     The  process  of 

printing  dilfcra  froir  '  '  istterpress  or  copper-plates. 
The  stone,  properly  ..ud  with  paper  over  it,  lies  in 

a  box  on  the  table  of  the  press,  covered  by  a  piece  of 
leather,  and  is  drawn  beneath  a  hard  edge  or  scraper,  tht 
mechanism  being  assisted  by  a  lever  power. 


RESOURCES  OF  inT:MANITY-USEFUL  RECEIPTS- 

THE  TOILET. 


RJv*iOlJRCES  OF  IIIJMA.MTY. 
rrnnKR  this  heail  may  lie  appropriately  inclu<lpd  those 
iiiveniions  whi'h  hive  reference  to  the  pre»."rvation  of 
life  Irom  n.ciileiits  by  water,  fire,  and  other  agents  of 
personal  iii|i.ry. 


ESCAPES    FROM    DROWNINO. 

Lifc-lioali. — The  attention  of  the  ]iublic  has  lieon  called 
at  an  early  period  to  the  perils  and  fatalities  of  ship- 
wrecks. Hcverul  iMKits  for  preservini;  lives  in  such  cawf 
were  invented,  and  among  others,  one  by  Mr.  Lukin  in 
178.5.  Hut  an  neriilent  which  occurred  on  the  Herd 
Sands  of  SiHith  f^hields,  in  ScjitemlH-r,  1789,  led  to  ma- 
tirial  iiiiprovemenls  in  the  art  of  constructine  ihese  ve» 
si'Is.  'i"he  Adventure,  a  nierrhant-ship  of  considerable 
bulk,  was  wn'cked  within  three  hundred  yards  of  the 
shore,  ill  pres«'nce  of  an  iiniiii'liNe  iilinilier  of  «|«'ctalors; 
and  .ilniost  every  man  of  the  iinha|ipy  band  of  mariners 
peri'^lied.  without  the  posuiliilily  of  receiving  assistame 
from  the  shore.  The  consequence  was,  that  the  people 
of  8onlh  Shields  met  soon  iifttnwarda,  and  offcri'd  a  re- 
ward to  any  one  who  should  invent  a  Iniat  capable  of 
being  launched  from  the  shore  to  the  aid  of  »llip^'  in  dis- 
tress. Mr.  f-reatliead  gained  the  premium;  an.l  in  1790 
a  life-lviiit,  con«triiiteil  upon  the  plan  profiosed  liy  him, 
was  elTcctually  used  in  saving  the  crew  of  a  vessel 
stranded  under  cireuiiutances  similar  to  those  of  the 
Adventure.  Several  other  trials  of  the  life-boat  proved 
its  utility  so  fully,  that  in  1802  the  Society  of  Arts  pre- 
sented the  inventor  with  t'.eir  gold  modal  and  fifty 
guineas ;  and  rarliameiit  aUo  decreed  to  Mr.  Grcithetii 


RESOURCES  OF  HUMANITY. 


809 


,  nward  of  £1200.  The  Trinity  Hou«e  followed  the 
Miinpic ;  and  'h^  Committee  of  Lloyd's  Jevuted  £8000 
Wlhe  purpose  of  building  boats  on  the  same  principle. 
By  these  and  other  means,  the  dangerous  parts  of  our 
ooasta  have  been  ye'^  ge.  erally  furnished  with  these  life- 
prcicrvers. 

Th'  I'ufm  "f  ^^'  tireatheads  life-boat  is  one  well 
adapted  to  give  it  buoyaMc;y,  and  keep  it  afloat  in  any  sea. 
It  is  usually  "  made  aliout  thirty  feet  in  length,  ten  in 
breadth,  and  three  feet  three  inches  deep  at  inidahips; 
Ijoih  extremities  am  made  precisely  of  the  same  form,  so 
that  it  goe"  through  the  water  with  either  end  foremost ; 
und  its  shape  lengthwise  is  a  curve,  so  formed  that  in  a 
line  drawn  from  the  top  of  uiio  stem  to  that  of  the  other 
would  be  two  font  and  a  halt  above  the  {!;unwaIo  at  mid- 
ihips.  In  this  boat  there  are  five  thwarts,  or  seats  for 
rovrers,  double-banked,  so  thftt  it  must  bo  manned  with 
ten  oars,  it  is  cased  and  lined  with  cork,  which  gives  it 
nich  buoyancy  thut  it  will  float  and  be  serviceable, 
though  so  damagr'l  by  hard  knocks  as  to  be  almost  in 
iiieces ;  and  this  the  softness  and  elasticity  of  the  cork  is 
well  calculated  to  prevent.  The  cork  on  the  outside  is 
four  inches  thick,  and  it  reaches  the  whole  length  of  the 
ihear,  or  side  of  the  b^iat ;  on  the  inside  it  is  thicker, 
ind  the  whole  quantity  in  about  seven  hundred  weight. 
Il  ij  firmly  secured  with  slips  or  plates  of  copper,  and 
fastened  with  copper  nails.  The  advantages  of  this  boat 
jff  stitod  to  be,  that  its  curvature  gives  it  great  facility 
in  turning,  a  sini'lc  stroke  of  the  steering  oars,  of  which 
there  is  one  at  c  ich  en  V  moving  it  as  though  on  a  cen- 
tre; that  the  cov-ring  of  cork,  l)eing  immediately  under 
the  gunwale,  gives  great  liveliness  or  disposition  to  re- 
cover its  balance  after  being  suddenly  canted  aside  by  a 
heavy  wave ;  and  that  its  capability  of  going  with  either 
end  forwards  increases  its  manageability."  A  view  of 
the  life-boat  in  action  is  presented  at  the  head  of  our 
irticle. 

The  life-boat  is  kept  in  a  boat-house,  and  placed  on 
wheels,  in  order  that  it  may  be  moved  at  an  instant's 
notice.  Wtierc  the  roid  to  the  sea  is  smooth,  this  simple 
mode  of  moving  the  boat  does  well  enough  ;  but  it  has 
been  found  liettcr  in  mmy  cases  to  suspend  the  boat 
under  the  axis  of  the  wheels,  so  that  the  shaking  tnay  be 
less  injurions.  At  most  of  the  life-boat  stations,  the  boat 
is  under  the  charge  of  a  committee,  and  twenty  or  twenty- 
four  men,  composing  two  crews,  are  alternately  employed 
in  its  navigation.  A  reward  is  given  to  these  men  in 
cases  of  shipwreck,  and  the  vessel  receiving  aid  is  ex- 
pected to  contribute  to  this  end.  Of  course  the  life-boat 
men  are  picked  [lersons,  of  steady  habits  and  active 
frames;  and  the  individual  in  command  requires  to  possess 
peculiar  skill  and   kiiowledgo  of  the  coasts  and  currents. 

It  has  been  obscrvi'd,  that  the  occupation  of  the  life- 
boat men  gives  a  sort  of  dignity  to  their  character,  and 
elevates  their  tone  of  thought.  Many  noble  actions  have 
been  performed  by  lliem,  which  no  money  could  com- 
penMto.   Of  their  general  usefulness  some  idea  may  be 


discovery,  some  improvements  have  been  made  on  th« 
common  life-boat  of  Mr.  Greathcad ;  but  the  nio^t  iiu 
portant  subsequent  inventions  for  the  humane  end  ol 
saving  lives  at  sea  have  been  those  of  Captain  Manby 
This  philanthropic  gentleman  was  in  the  corps  of  cngW 
neers,  and  hold  the  situation  of  barrack-master  at  Ya> 
mouth,  on  the  Norfolk  coast,  in  the  year  1807.  That 
coast,  it  is  well  known,  is  full  of  shoals,  and  many  vessels 
have  gone  to  pieces  within  a  hundred  yards  of  the  shore, 
in  sight  of  nmltitudes  of  people,  without  any  chance  of 
giving  relief.  Life-boats  could  not  be  stationed  at  all 
points  nf  an  extensive  coast,  and  perhaps  could  not  be 
always  used  if  they  were  present.  The  lamentable  case 
of  the  Snipe,  where  sixty  persons  lost  their  lives  near 
Yarmouth,  made  so  deep  an  impression  on  Captain 
Manby,  that  he  resolved  to  devote  his  mind  and  his  life  to 
the  dig  rovcry  of  some  means  of  relieving  similar  cases  of 
distrciis.  It  appeared  evident  to  him  that  the  desired  end 
was  t/ie  discovery  c.  Jtne  means  of  throicing  a  rope  from 
the  sluire  to  the  thip,  or  from  the  shtp  to  the  shore.  Boats 
with  the  crews  would  obviously  be  thus  drawn  ashore  in 
almost  any  circumstances. 

"The  active  and  philanthropic  mind  of  Captain  Manly 
was  nc.  lardy  in  pointing  out  a  probable  method.  It 
struck  him  that  a  cannon  shot  affixed  *o  a  rope,  and  pro- 
jected from  a  piece  of  ordnance  over  a  stranded  vessel, 
was  a  practicable  mode  of  establishing  the  communic»< 
tion.  But  to  reduce  it  to  practice  was  found  to  be  at- 
tended with  much  greater  dilficulty  thatj  the  simplicity 
of  the  object  seemed  at  first  sight  to  promise.  In  the 
first  place,  the  folding  or  manner  of  laying  the  rope,  so 
as  to  unfold  itself  with  the  rapidity  equal  to  the  flight  of 
a  shell  from  a  mortar,  without  breaking  by  sudden  jerks 
at  each  returning  fold,  and  without  entanglement  from 
the  effect  of  uneven  ground  and  boisterous  winds,  was 
no  easy  task.  But  it  was  at  length  attained  by  adopting; 
what  is  called  a  French  faking,  in  folds  of  the  length  of 
two  yards ;  and  by  laying  the  rope  in  a  flat  basket  always 
kept  ready,  with  the  rope  in  order,  in  a  secure  pkice,  so 
that  it  could  be  transported  at  a  moment's  notice  to  the 
situation  required,  and  laid  upon  rocks  and  uneven 
ground  even  in  the  most  boisterous  weather,  without  fear 
of  disarrangement. 

"  The  next  difficulty  consisted  in  the  mean.4  of  connect" 
irg  the  rope  with  a  shot,  so  as  to  resist  the  inflammation 
of  gi  ipowdcr  in  that  part  of  it  which  must  necessarily 
occupy  the  interior  of  the  mortar.  Chains  in  every  vsh 
riety  of  form  and  strength  universally  broke  from  the 
8udd»-n  jerks  or  play  to  which  they  were  liable,  which 
proved  that  not  only  an  elastic,  but  a  more  connectisd 
luxly  was  necessary.  '  At  length,'  says  Captain  Manby, 
'  some  stout  plaited  hide,  woven  extremely  close  to  the 
eye  of  the  shot,  to  prevent  the  slightest  play,  extending 
about  two  feet  beyond  the  muzzle  of  the  piece,  and  with 
a  loop  at  the  end  to  receive  the  rope,  happily  effected  iu' 

"  This  apparatus,  projected  from  a  small  howitzer  over 
a  vessel  stranded  on  a  lee-shore,  so  light  as  to  be  easily 


gathered  from  the  fact,  that,  lietwecn  the  date  of   Mr.  |  conveyed  from  one  part  of  the  coast  to  another,  affords  a 

certain  means  of  saving  the  lives  of  the  crew  in  the  day- 
time, and  when  from  cold  and  fatigue  they  are  not  dii^ 
abled  from  seizing  and  fastening  the  rope,  and  in  other 
res|iects  joining  their  own  exertions  to  those  of  their 
friends  on  shore.  The  following  extract,  from  an  account 
ot  experiments  made  bet'orc  some  colonels  and  field- 
otficers  of  artillery,  shows  the  celerity  with  which  the 
service  may  he  performed  : — 

" '  A  person  is  completely  equipped  with  every  necessary 

apparatus  to  effect  communication  with  a  vessel  drivi'n 

mounted  on  horseback  was  1 1 


Greathead's  invention  and  1H04,  three  hundred  lives  had 
been  saved  at  the  entrance  of  Tynemouth  haven  alon  •. 
Mr.  Greathead  recoiniiienils  the  life-boat  to  \k  painted 
white  on  the  outside,  as  a  colour  that  most  readily  catches 
the  eye.  He  also  advisi's  the  steersman  to  keep  the  head 
of  the  boat  to  the  sea,  and  to  give  her  an  accelerated 
Telocity  to  meet  tlie  wave.  The  strong  reflux  of  the 
waves  renders  it  necessary  to  approach  a  wreck  wit'li 
great  caution,  and  the  leesido  is  usually  the  safest  of 
accefs.  Of  course  the  first  object  is  to  convey  the 
wrecked  crows  on  the  shore,  which,  if  they  are  numerous, 


on  a  lee-shore.  A  man 
must  he  done  by  degrees.  Many  lives  have  been  lost  by  hibited,  accoutred  with  a  deal  frame,  containing  200 
the  impatience  of  crews,  in  attempting  to  go  on  shore  in  yards  of  log  line  ready  coiled  fur  service,  which  was 
their  cvn  boats.  This  is  alivaya  an  act  of  fdly  where  a  slung  as  a  knapsack,  with  a  brass  howitzer  of  a  threo- 
life-boat  19  on  the  scene.  I  pounder  bore  on  its  carriage,  and  two  rounds  of  aniii  ^ 

Captain  Muihy'i  mvefitiont.— Since  the  date  of  its    nitioii,  the  whole  weighing  sixty-two  pounds,  strappeu  %* 
Vol.  1.— 102  3i» 


^"'S' 


«to 


INFORMATION  FOR  TIIE  PEOPI.B. 


the  foru  part  of  the  HnHdIn.  The  periion  thus  rquipped 
b  lupposed  to  lie  enabled  to  trnvcl  with  expedition  to  tlie 
■id  of  ships  in  danacr  of  licinu  wrrcked  on  parts  of  the 
«oat>t  intermediate  to  the  mortar  stations;  and  with  this 
■mall  apfmratus  the  loR-line  is  to  ho  projected  9ver  the 
T«*sel  in  distrcsis,  from  which  a  rope  should  he  attached 
to  it  to  haul  the  crew  on  shore.  Captain  Manby  caused 
the  howitzer  to  l)e  dismounted  from  the  horse,  and  in  a 
few  r.iinutes  fired  it,  when  the  shot  was  thrown,  with  the 
line  attached,  to  the  distance  of  143  yanis.  At  v  suhs<-- 
quent  tiial,  the  horseman,  fully  equipped,  travelletl  a  mile 
■nd  a  third ;  the  howitzer  was  dismounted,  and  the  line 
projected  153  yards  in  six  minutes.' 

<<  Such  is  the  simple  but  eflicacious  nature  of  Captain 
Manby's  first  invention;  and  a  few  practical  experiments 
■Don  asccrluincti  the  allowance  to  be  made  in  pointing 
the  mortar  to  the  windward  of  the  object  over  which  the 
rope  is  to  fall,  in  order  lo  obviate  the  cflfect  of  a  strong 
wind,  which  would  of  cours,i  carry  it  considerably  to 
leeward.  Experience  also  proved  that  the  mortar  should 
be  laid  at  a  'ow  elevation,  in  order  to  insure  the  certainty 
of  the  rope's  failing  on  the  weathermost  part  of  the 
rigging. 

*  This  orijrinal  invention,  however,  was  obviously  capa- 
ble of  many  improvements.  The  Tirst  of  these  was  to 
afford  assistance  to  vessels  whose  crows,  either  from  their 
being  lashed  to  the  riguinir,  or  from  extreme  cold  and 
fatigue,  are  incapable  of  assisting  to  secure  the  /ope  to 
the  wreck  wheji  projected  over  it  from  the  mortar.  This 
was  attained  by  adding  a  quadruplo  barb  to  the  shot — 
that  is,  making  four  hcx>ks  project  from  the  ball — by 
means  of  which,  when  the  rogie  is  hauled  tight  by  the 
people  on  shore,  one  end  is  firmly  secured  on  some  part 
of  the  ringing  or  wreck,  and  a  boat  can  of  course  1* 
h«i:'ed  to  the  relief  of  the  crew,  without  any  as8i-<tance 
on  thfir  part." 

But  in  order  to  make  this  invention  effective  in  the 
darkest  night  as  we'l  as  by  the  light  of  day,  the  inueni- 
ous  philanthropist  hiul  yet  much  to  do  and  discover.  Ho 
att;uned  his  end,  diflicult  as  the  task  was.  "  The  requi- 
•ite  objects  were — r'irst,  to  devise  the  menus  of  iliscover- 
ing  precisely  where  the  distressed  ves.sel  lies,  when  the 
crew  are  not  able  to  make  their  exact  situation  known 
by  luminous  signals.  Secondly,  to  discover  a  method  of 
laying  the  mortar  for  the  object  with  as  much  accuracy 
■■  in  the  light.  Thirdly,  to  render  the  flight  of  the  rope 
perfectly  <listinguishable  to  those  who  project  it,  and  to 
the  crew  on  hourd  the  vessel,  so  that  they  cannot  fail  of 
■eeing  on  what  part  of  the  rigging  it  lo<]ges,  and  conse- 
quently may  have  no  difficulty  in  securing  it. 

To  attain  the  first  object,  a  fire-ball  is  used,  such  as  is 
often  thrown  up  in  the  attack  and  defence  of  fortified 
places  to  discover  the  situatiim  of  an  enemy  by  night. 
It  consistM  of  a  hollow  ball  of  pa.'.ioooard,  having  a  hole 
■t  top  ciiiitaining  a  fusee,  and  filled  with  about  fitly  lumi- 
nous bulls  of  star  composition,  and  a  s;iff5cie.<t  quantity 
of  gunpowder  '>  hurst  the  ball  and  inflame  the  stars. 
The  fuseo  is  tuated   so  eg  to  set  fire  to  the  bursting 

Dowder  at  the  ..  i'.;ht  of  .300  yards.  On  the  stars  being 
releaseil,  they  continue  their  splendour  while  falling  for 
nsarly  one  minute,  and  strongly  illumine  every  surround- 
ing object:  ample  time  is  therefore  allowed  to  discover 
the  situation  of  the  dislressod  vessel. 

'•  U<jriiig  the  periixl  of  the  liuht,  a  board,  with  two  u|>- 
riglit  sticks  at  each  eml  ((minted  white  to  render  them 
more  discernible  in  the  dark),  is  [minted  towards  the 
vessel,  so  that  the  two  while  sticks  shall  meet  in  a  direct 
lint  with  it.  the  wreck  Immiii;  a  fixed  object.  This  will 
obviously  aflltril  an  uiidcviating  rule  bv  '.vhich  to  Isy  the 
mortar,  making  an  allnwanre,  as  by  (Daylight,  for  wind, 
Ac.     Thus  the  secon<i  object  is  attained 

"  For  the  third,  a  shell  (iii^teail  of  a  shot)  is  nflixed  to 
the  rope,  having  four  holes  in  it  to  receive  fuwes,  and 
br  body  of  the  shell  is  filled  with  the  llercMl  and  moitt  ] 


glaring  comi'osifion,  which,  when  inflamed,  displiy, 
splendid  an  illumination  of  the  ro|)c  that  its  Right  can  * 

Such  are  the  most  prominent  features  in  the  irhr- 
of  Captain  Monby  for  the  relict  of  ships  in  dijtJ 
The  number  of  pe.-sons  saved  by  these  inventions  h 
been  very  great.  '  Imost  immediately  after  turninirh'' 
mind  to  the  subject  Captain  Manby  had  the  gratifi 
tion  of  rescuing  ninety  (>crsons  from  a  grave  in  the  rtn 
The  whole  expense  of  his  apparatus  did  not  exceed  £1(1 
Captain  Manby  was  deemed  worthy  of  a  parliamenia 
reward.  " 

Floats  and  huny». — In  addition  to  such  a  flat  boat  u 
thot  recommended  by  Captain  Manby,  with  rodi  and 
ropes  furnished  with  hooks  for  grappling,  humane  soci. 
eties  usually  possess  floaters,  consisting  of  short  bars  of 
wood,  with  buoys  or  masses  of  cork  at  each  end.  Cm 
of  these  being  thrown  out  with  a  rope,  a  party  in  dan. 
ger  may  grasp  the  l)ar,  and  be  readily  borne  up  till 
pulled  ashore.  Another  provision  of  late  invention  con. 
sists  of  hollow  girdles  of  cloth,  air  and  water-proof 
which  being  sustained  by  strains  from  the  shoulders,  can 
be  filled  with  air  from  the  mouth,  and  when  tho  pipe 
is  closed,  will  sustain  the  wearer  perfectly  in  water. 
-  Siifely  cfipe. — This  is  of  later  invention  than  the  above. 
mentioned  float-l>elt8,  which  it  is  likely  to  supersede  in. 
osmu'h  as  it  combines  an  article  of  dress  with  its  princi. 
pie  of  life  preservation.  It  is  the  invention  of  a  tnjnilwr 
of  tho  Skating  Club  of  Edinburgh,  and  is  furnished  by 
tho  .\lbton  Cloth  Company  of  that  city.  Tlie  mpf 
which  is  suited  to  lie  easily  round  the  neck  und  shouj. 
ders,  is  farmed  of  Macintosh  cloth,  which  may  be  n«r. 
tially  inflated  with  oir  at  pleasure,  by  means  of  a  imall 
mouth-piece  hid  from  extirnal  observation.  The  cm 
we  saw  is  outwardly  a  grayish  serge  (it  may,  however 
be  made  of  any  material),  und  hangs  down  all  round  as 
Iciw  hs  the  elbows.  A  tape  from  the  inner  part  of  (hi 
back,  to  be  tiail  round  the  Iwxly,  keeps  the  capo  down,  in 
the  event  of  immcrsiim  in  water.  When  blown  up,  the 
cape  swells  io  obout  an  ir.  h  in  thickii-jss,  which  pre. 
sents  nothing  unsightly;  however,  it  need  not  he  inflated 
till  the  wearer  goes  into  a  condition  of  danger— into  i 
tioat  on  a  sailing  excursion,  for  instance,  or  upon  unsafs 
ice.  As  a  piece  of  dress,  it  may  be  worn  by  ladies  h 
well  as  gentlemen. 

With  resi-act  to  tho  buoyant  powers  of  the  appaialos, 
they  have  been  tho  subject  of  a  critical  experiment  hy 
the  Edinburgh  and  Leith  Humane  Society,  which  is 
mentioned  in  nearly  the  following  terms  in  the  newspa- 
pers  of  the  day :— "  The  use  of  a  large  cast-iron  laiil 
or  tun  having  Keen  obligingly  placed  at  the  service  of  th« 
directors  by  a  brewer  in  Edinburgli,  it  was  filled  wlti 
warm  water  to  the  depth  of  six  feet  two  inches,  k 
stout  man,  a  sailor,  five  ftet  six  inches  in  height,  snd 
about  ten  to  eleven  stone  weight,  went  into  the  water 
with  his  clothes  on,  wearing  tho  safety-cajie,  and,  to  tiii 
satisfaction  of  all  present,  flor'ed  vertically  M  his  ease, 
with  his  head,  neck,  and  part  of  his  shoriders  above 
water.  Wishing  to  ascertain  what  degree  of  huoyaiicy 
he  hod  to  spare,  «.  iuhts  were  given  to  him,  which  hil 
held  in  his  hanils.  Seven  pouiuls  sank  him  to  the  Ihro*, 
and  four  more  to  the  lip,  provini;  that  he  could  have  to* 
tained  ani>ther  (lerson  in  the  water.  The  man  came  out 
refwatedly.  and  again  plunged  into  the  watt^r,  always  de- 
claring it  ditlicult  to  immerse  liLs  head  even  for  an  in- 
stant. On  this  fact,  the  directors  of  the  society  fnuuJ 
that,  in  the  event  of  the  ice  giving  way  under  a  slialff, 
the  reaction  will  elfcctually  protect  him  till  relieved  froia 
his  |)erilous  situation." 

Alter  this  satisfactory  testimony,  nothing  more  need 
be   said  on  the  subject,     it  is  quite  clciir  to  us,  tint  u 
|>enple  would   but  be   ()erHUttdcd   to    wear  one  of  IJM 
safetv-caiM's,  they  need  be  under  no  (.pprchension  v 
ever  uf  immediate  druwniii);  in  the  case  of  suddea 


RESOURCES  or  HUMANITY. 


811 


Mdion  in  water ;  and  it  is  well  known  that,  except  in 
Ajpwrecks  at  a  gri>at  diRtance  from  land,  a  power  of 
buovanry  'or  only  a  few  minutes  would  save  almost 
—erv  !•'•'•  '^'"'  deplorable  deaths  from  boat  accidents 
(III  rivers,  for  lack  of  seme  such  simple  means  of  pre- 
le-vation,  who  can  either  number  or  sufficiently  la- 

Dmi^em  upon  t'rc. — The  preservation  of  lives  endan- 
-jfjil  liy  tlio  breaking  of  ice  also  arresteil  the  attention 
of  Cnptiii"  Manliy.  In  ordinary  rases,  ropes  and  a  lad- 
der are  iw''  fof  th^  purpose  of  relieving  persons  so  situ- 
ated, but  Co|itain  Manby's  sugi;rstions  have  rcforenr*  to 
ill  nasxiblc  i;irraiustances  of  difficulty  and  danger.  He 
refonimc!ii..a  as  one  instrument  a  rope  with  a  floating 
noosr,  distcndod  by  whalebone,  with  an  egg-shaped  piece 
of  wood  or  cork  at  a  convenient  distance,  to  be  easily 
pjjped  by  the  hand.  The  evident  purpose  of  this  rope 
jj  to  lin  thrown  to  and  g.asped  by  the  person  in  the 
wDtcr,  who  for  a  time  usually  sustains  himself  by  holding 
the  edges  of  the  ice.  Another  machine  for  saving  pcr- 
aona  in  similar  cases,  recommended  by  Captain  Manby, 
ii  a  boat  of  wicker  or  wood,  made  very  flat  and  light, 
md  placed  upon  wheels.  The  wicker  boat  may  be  ren- 
dered buoyant  by  tin  boxes  en<^ losing  air.  Such  a  boat 
it  pushed  over  the  ice  by  means  of  sprits  or  pikes,  with 
iharp  iron  points,  and  may  be  rapidly  taken  to  the  scene 
of  danger  in  almost  every  case.  Where  the  person  in 
peril  lias  sunk,  a  grappling  rod  with  hooks,  two,  three,  or 
four  in  number,  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  raising  him, 
01  dragging  him  from  below  the  ice;  and  the  points  are 
mnrded,  so  that  no  injury  may  be  done  to  the  body. 
Tlio  body  will  always  be  easily  moved  in  the  water.  A 
ladder,  with  a  considerable  balancing  weight  at  one  end, 
forms  another  instrument  of  value,  either  for  approaching 
t  broken  portion  of  weak  ice,  so  that  ropes  may  be 
thrown  to  a  party  in  the  water,  or  for  communicating 
between  the  boat  and  safe  ice,  or  between  the  boat  and 
the  shore. 

ro:it  iircirtmt/. — If  upset  in  a  boat,  or  in  any  other 
way  preripitated  into  the  water  without  being  able  to 
swim,  draw  in  the  breath,  keep  your  mouth  as  well  shut 
as  possible,  and  do  not  throw  aliout  with  your  arms. 
Endeavouring  to  hold  your  head  up,  yic'd  youi'self  to  the 
buoyant  powers  of  the  water,  and  stretch  out  your 
hands but  only  below,  not  above,  the  surface.  Remem- 
ber that  the  less  you  expose  above  the  surface  the  better 
are  you  buoyed  up.  Many  persons  are  drowned  merely 
from  struggling  and  throwing  up  their  hands. 

Treiilment  of  persons  nppiirently  itrnimied. — The  treat- 
ment of  persons  taken  from  the  water  in  an  apparently 
lifeless  condition  is  a  question  of  the  highest  consequence 
!o  humanity.  It  was  formerly  supposed  thai  the  delug- 
ing of  the  lungs  with  water,  was  the  direct  and  immedi- 
ate cause  of  death  in  cases  of  submersion  in  that  ele- 
ment ;  but.  in  reality,  it  has  been  ascertained  that  only  a 
Tery  small  quantity  of  ,vater  enters  the  lungs  in  such 
circumstances.  Tho  deprivation  of  air  is  now  under- 
stood to  be  the  true  cause  of  death.  On  being  sub- 
merged for  the  space  of  three-quarters  of  a  minute,  a 
violent  elfort  is  made  to  inspire  and  expand  the  lungs, 
but  no  air,  of  course,  can  enter.  Air,  however,  is  ex- 
pelled, anil  as  the  same  rlfort  at  inspiration  is  repeated 
ai;ain  and  again,  tiio  expiration  also  is  renewed,  making 
obvious  biilibles  at  the  surface,  until  the  lungs  are  com- 
pietoly  exhausted.  In  the  raoanwhilo,  thj  blix)d,  from 
want  of  oxygeiiatiiiar  air,  iMM-omes  rapidly  changed  from 
its  arterial  nr  re  I  condition  to  a  venous  or  dark  stiitc,  and 
K'ing  then  inupable  of  maintainir.g  the  vita  action  of 
thf  bniin  and  other  organs,  as  well  us  of  sujiporting  the 
animal  heat,  sensation,  viduntary  motion,  and  bodily 
wa.'inih,  arc  gradually  oxtinguishcd,  and  death  ensues. 
A  convulsive  cough  keeps  out  water  from  the  lungs  in  a 
^eat  iiirasuro,  and  the  -small  quantity  that  does  enter  is 
•roudil  up  into  a  sort  of  fi  >th.     Little  water  is  found  to 


enter  oven  the  stomach.  Tl  is  the  cnllnp"e  of  the  lungi 
from  want  of  «i'  which  weighs  down  the  body,  and 
causes  it  to  rest  bcl<  a'  the  surface,  till  the  formation  of 
gases  of  putrefiaction  again  lighten  anrl  raise  it 

The  phenomena  attending  the  extinction  or  cessation 
of  life  by  submersion  in  water,  are  of  importance  u 
regulating  the  attempts  that  may  be  made  to  restore  th« 
vital  spark.  It  is  impossible  to  say  at  what  distance  of 
time  after  submersion  these  attempts;  will  be  Iruitlesa, 
A  person  has  been  found  irrecoverable  after  being  four 
minutes  in  water,  and  many  have  been  restored  after  sub- 
mersion for  twenty  minutes,  and  even  for  half  an  hour. 
Much  depends  o"  the  treatment  applied.  Misled  by  the 
notion  that  the  body  was  in  all  cases  gorged  with  water, 
people  were  wont  to  bold  up  the  drowned  by  tho  heels, 
roll  them  about,  and  use  <nther  means  calculated  only  to 
destroy  all  chances  of  recovery.  This  fatal  error  is  even 
yet  too  often  p'actised.  The  true  remedies  in  such  casea 
are  few  and  simple.  The  first  object  is  the  restoration 
of  the  animal  heat.  Fci  mm,  purpose,  ihe  wet  clothea 
are  to  be  removed  without  delay,  and  the  body,  after 
being  well  dried,  is  to  be  surrounded  with  warm  air,  for 
which  purpose  every  humane  society  should  have  a  port- 
able warm-air  bath.  Tho  heat  should  at  first  be  mode- 
rate, and  gently  increased.  In  absence  of  the  warm-air 
bath,  the  body  should  be  laid  in  a  well  heated  bed  or 
blankets,  and  bottles  of  hot  water  laid  to  the  feet  and 
arm-pits.  A  warming-pan  or  heated  bricks  should  be 
passed  over  the  body,  or  gentle  friction  exercised  with 
other  warm  substances.  Meanwhile,  by  means  of  a  pipe 
or  bellows,  continual  though  gentle  attempts  should  be 
made  to  excite  respiration  artificially  ;  and,  if  the  appa- 
ratus be  at  hand,  slight  shocks  of  electricity  should  be 
kept  up  at  the  same  time.  If  there  bn  any  signs  of  re- 
turning life,  such  as  sighing  or  convulsive  twitching,  a 
vein  may  be  opened.  The  throat  n  /  be  tickled  to 
excite  a  propensity  to  vomit,  and  a  tea-spoonful  of  warm 
water  administered  to  test  the  power  of  swallowing.  If 
it  exist,  a  table-spoonful  of  warm  diluted  wine  or  brandy 
may  be  given. 

Even  if  no  veslige  of  retvrning  miinmlmi  be  disrovertd, 
these  means  of  rcciivcry  shntild  be  persisted  in  for  three  or 
fimr  hmtrs.  fn  a  late  remarkable  case,  mentioned  in  a 
note  below,  a  person  who  had  been  under  water  for 
ten  minutes  was  restored  to  life  at  the  end  of  /our 
hrurs.' 


*  One  of  the  most  exlraoniinary  eiises  of  restoring  animation 
to  u  liumun  heinj;  allor  it  !mil  t)eiMi  sii:Jiiciiilecl  for  nearly  four 
hours,  was  miMittoncd  to  Mr.  Itaktir.  the  eoroner.  at  an  inquest 
lield  liel'ore  llim  geiilleinua,  and  tlie  following  particulars  rela- 
tive to  it  will  not  only  be  read  with  interest,  hut  will  instruct 
and  show  the  necessity,  in  all  ca.ses  of  immersion  in  the  water, 
lor  diliKinee  ami  perseverance  to  In;  used  hy  the  medical  men 
called  on  to  assist : — A  tew  eveuintrs  sinei',  a  young  gentleman, 
named  Henry  Stanhoi)e,  was  amusing  himself  by  angling  in 
one  of  the  Imsiiis  of  the  West  India  Doek.  when,  by  soma 
means,  he  tell  into  the  water,  and  iimiiedinlelv  siinlt.  A  cry 
was  raised  of  "  a  man  overboard.''  and  Ihe  ilraffs  were  soon  in 
re(|iiisilion  ;  but  ton  minutes  elapseil  l)f  lore  the  body  was  reco- 
vered, lite  appearing  quite  extinct  Mr.  Hloonifipid.  of  High 
Street.  I'oplar.  surgeon,  was  fetched  on  the  first  alarm,  and  was 
in  e.IU'ndance  when  the  btwly  was  reeovt.Ted.  lie  itumediately 
tiad  it  conveyed  to  the  receivinir-tioiise  on  the  docks,  and  placed 
iua  warm  bath.  It  was  then  taken  out.  wrapped  ill  blankets,  and 
txiltles  of  hot  water  applied  to  tin:  chest  iicid  soles  of  the  feet 
Si'veral  of  the  dock  labourers  were  tlien  enlled  in.  and  wera 
ordered  to  ml)  the  body.  This  they  did  fur  alinni  a  (|nurter  of 
an  lionr.  when  it  appenred  to  fjft  eolih^r  anil  inort;  livid  about 
':  the  I'aee.  Hy  their  pr-'ssure  and  riibb  ni;  a  trreat  quantity  of 
j  mud  t)ffr;in  lo  ooy.e  tVoin  the  inoiitli.  upon  sei-ing  which  Mr. 
Illooinrndd  nnhri'd  them  t.)  eoniinne  their  e.vertions.  In  half 
j  an  linnr  Ihe  iniiseles  hennii  to  lose  tli.'ir  rijiidity.  and  a  slight 
vibration  of  Ihetn  was  observed.  This  stimulated  them  to  eon- 
iinne iheir  t-xerti';.iis.  and  al'ier  four  hours'  indefntigalile  exer- 
tion, nnimation  was  so  far  re-itor-'tl  that  the  (lerson  was  able  to 
nrticiilaie.  Mr.  liliiomlirld  appiied  a  .lo-en  lei'ehes  to  his  tem- 
ples, am  bur  ho.irs  nl'ter  bled  liini.  Siipeilants  were  after- 
wards I  rdied.  and  hi'  was  restored,  but  remains  in  a  very 
wi'iik  stale.  The  coroner,  after  paymi;  ii  eomplimeut  to  iMr. 
ntoomtielil  tor  his  pra'sewor'hv  exertion,  said  the  case  was  ona 
of  till'  most  extraordinary  he  fiad  ever  known  hut  thought  the 
best  thinjis  to  be  used  in  eases  of  drowning  were  Vapour  bai;a 
-riwiM,  June,  1842. 


W^  i 


•It 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


■BOAPKS   FROM    BURlflNO. 

Prtcmttiom  at  to  Firt. — Houses  are  MlrS  to  take  fire 
«jr  accidents,  liut  these  arridrnts  are  hi  ffcncral  only 
teta  of  carclessnrsii,  and  could  with  a  reasonable  dei;rro 
of  pi'udence  be  avoided.  As  prevention  is  better  than 
cure,  we  otFer  the  following  preniutionary  ailviccs : — 

Never  leave  a  >'niidle  Inirning  at  your  budside,  or  on  a 
table  when  you  i;o  to  Ited,  except  it  be  a  rush,  wax,  or 
floating;^  light,  burning  in  a  ba.^in  at  a  co'isidcntble  dis- 
tance from  tl)c  lied  or  window-curtains.  The  best  place 
for  setting  tlic  li;rht  is  on  the  hearth. 

Never  put  but  cinders  or  ashes  into  a  bucket  to  set 
aside  in  a  closet. 

If  you  light  candles  with  Pieces  of  pupcr,  take  care 
that  the  burning  paper  is  ct  fflpletely  trampled  out  after 
being  used.  It  is  always  safest  ^o  light  candles  and 
lamps  with  a  sjnall  wax  tiijicr,  which  can  be  at  oncr^ 
blown  out.  In  large  manufiietorics,  where  there  are 
many  lamps  or  i;as-hunier8  to  light,  let  the  lighting  ap- 
paratus be  a  sniud  hand-lamp,  which  shall  be  in  charge 
of  a  particular  {)er8on  in  the  premises. 

Never  blow  ga.^  lights  out ;  always  turn  them  ofT;  and 
turn  off  the  gus  at  the  main  stopcock  at  the  door. 
Shouid  the  gas,  from  any  cause,  have  escaped,  and  the 
amell  be  suddenly  and  olfcnsivcly  felt,  at  once  tuin  off 
the  supply  at  the  meter  or  8toi>-cock,  and  open  the  win- 
dows to  allow  the  entrance  of  fresh  air.  Be  careful  not 
to  take  a  lighted  candle  into  the  apartmont  where  the 
escape  has  taken  place. 

Cau!ie  the  chimneys  to  bo  swept  once  in  three  months, 
or  oftener  if  necessary,  so  as  to  prevent  the  accumulnted 
■oot  from  catching  fire.  Sometiries  houses  are  set  on 
fire  from  l>cani8  which  encroach  upon  the  chimneys. 
House  builders  ought  to  be  particularly  cautious  in  pro- 
venting  any  piirt  of  the  woodwork  from  touching  the  flues. 
The  following  are  advices  how  to  act  when  the  catas- 
trophe of  fire  nclually  takes  place : — 

Chimuey  on  fire. — To  extinguish  speedily  the  fire  in 
•  chimney,  it  is  only  necessary  to  hang  over  the  fire- 
place a  piece  of  wet  carpet  or  blanket:  some  handfuls 
of  salt  thrown  into  the  fire  at  the  same  time  will  greatly 
■id  the  extinction.  Unless  to  prevent  the  chance  of 
timbers  in  the  walls  catching  fire,  it  would  be  generally 
preferable  to  allow  the  burning  in  the  chimney  to  ex- 
haust its«lf. 

Clolhct  rali'iins;  jire, — The  moment  you  see  that  your 
:Jothes  are  on  fire,  remain  still  arid  collected ;  do  not,  on 
any  account,  run  away  in  a  fright.  If  there  be  a  loose 
rag.  car|H't,  or  table-oover  at  hand,  snatch  ic  up  and  roll 
it  tightly  about  you.  If  you  can  get  this  done  smartly, 
the  flames  will  immediately  be  extinguished.  Should  no 
doth  of  any  kind  bo  at  hand,  and  no  one  be  present  to 
give  assiniaiire,  lay  yourself  down  on  the  floor,  and  try 
to  extingii  -li  the  dames  by  rolling  yourself  about, 
always  tak  jgcarc  to  keep  the  gannents  as  close  together 
as  poasih!  If  a  man  br  present,  let  him  take  off  his 
ooat  and  u-ap  it  round  you;  and  if  a  woman,  her  shawl 
will  answt  -  the  same  purpose.  By  one  or  other  means, 
fUch  as  are  net!  pointed  out,  the  fire  will  be  stifled,  and 
perhaps  the  only  pt^rsonal  injury  will  lie  some  slight 
jeorching  of  the  hands,  which  must  not  be  regarded  in 
averting  an  infinite'^   sfreater  evil. 

lluute  (m  fire. — In  making  way   through   a  burning 
house,  we  ought  not,  if  it  be  full  of  smoke,  to  walk  u|>-  ' 
right,  for  then  we   shall  run  the  risk  of  suffocat>-)n.     It 
is  best  to  cree)    along  on  liands  and  knees,  thi    freest 
atr  being  to  be  1  ul  close  to  the  floor.     On  l>eing  awak- 
ened by  an  alarm  uf  lire  during  the  night,  it  is  |  irliou- 
tarly  important  to  pres<!rve  presence  of  mind,  and   lot  to  ] 
act  till  a  moment  lias  Imjcu   given  for  reflection.     Pre-  j 
■ervation  m-ty  dc|iend  on  the  choice  we  make  of   ;oing 
«f  or  (luiiti  Htuirs,  or  on   some   selection  of   mov  '  ncr 
•4|uaUy  unimportant  in  ordinary  circumrtancoa.  | 


Fir*  tirapti. — The  eicape  from  a  house  t  ..  ,  _ 
Are  is  sometimea  prevented  by  the  stairs  being  ot  wood. 
ind  either  burning  or  already  destroyed.  In  suchu! 
emergency,  there  are  only  two  means  of  escajx;— •sjuim. 
by  the  sky-ligh*,  and  so  reaching  the  next  houso,  or  tt 
ing  over  the  window.  On  this  account,  every  huug, 
with  wooden  stairs  should  have  a  sky-light,  accesdhU 
from  the  upper  floors,  and  also  some  kind  of  appjratui 
for  getting  safely  from  the  windows  to  the  gronnd,  'flui 
apparatus  which  meets  with  most  general  apj.robatjon  ii 
a  rope-ladder,  and  this  may  be  made  in  diltbrent  forin» 
Captain  Manby  recommends  "  a  rope  with  nooncs  dij. 
tended  by  Hat  vests  for  the  feet  at  convenient  distances 
for  stepping  from  one  to  another.  In  cases  of  danser 
this  might  be  instantly  fastened  by  one  end  to  a  table  or 
bed-post,  while  the  other  is  thrown  out  of  the  window 
thus  furnishing  ii  ready  escape  when  (lerhaps  there  it  no 
other  possible  means  necr  those  who  aro  in  inomenlart 
dread  of  being  burned  to  death."  Such  a  ladder  mp.y 
be  serviceably  kept  by  private  parties ;  and  we  should 
advise  that  at  all  events  every  house  with  wooden  stairs 
ought  to  he  provided  with  one  or  more  pieces  of  knotted 
rope,  aad  these  bo  deposited  in  the  bed-rooms,  for  use 
when  sudf'cniy  required.  Where,  from  carelessness,  no 
fire  escape  of  this  kind  has  been  provided,  two  or  more 
sheets  or  blankets  taken  from  the  bed  may  be  tied  to 
each  other  by  the  corners,  and  thus  a  rope  of  sheet  b« 
formed.  There  is  no  instance  on  record  of  a  person  b^ 
ing  burnt  to  death  in  Edinburgh  by  fires  in  d\vellin» 
houses,  although  the  buildfngc  are  more  than  usualli 
high  ;  the  reason  of  whic%  if,  that  there  the  stairs  ate 
all  of  stone. 

Fvery  fire-establishment  in  iowns,  besides  fire-enginea, 
and  buckets,  should  {hjsscss  several  long  ladders,  reaiiy 
at  all  times  to  bo  applied  to  windows  ;  also  cords,  whkh 
may  he  brought  to  licar  wherever  they  are  required. 

I'unii  and  Scaldf. — When  you  receive  a  bum  cf 
scald,  instantly  plunge  the  part  affected  into  cold  water, 
or  cover  it  with  some  cold  moist  substance.  This  wiij 
prevent  the  skin  from  rising  in  a  blister,  and  the  part 
will  be  easily  healed.  If  you  delay  applying  the  colj 
water  or  cold  substance,  even  for  a  few  seconds,  the  skia 
will  rise,  and  the  application  will  have  no  good  pfleci 
If  stockings  or  other  coverings  are  upon  a  part  at  the 
t'lne  of  itfl  being  burnt,  they  should  be  taken  olf  imn» 
diately,  as  delay  will  only  render  their  removal  nioi« 
difficult.  One  of  the  best  applications  to  a  burnt  part 
that  can  be  used  is  cotton  or  cotton-wad,  an  article  gene- 
rally abundant  in  every  family.  In  many  ca^es  it  is  a[k 
plied  perfectly  dry  to  the  |)art.  and  in  others  it  is  welted, 
on  the  side  next  the  sore,  with  a  mixture  of  lime-water 
and  linseed  oil.  A  rag  wetted  with  some  mixture  maj 
1m!  used,  where  cotton  cannot  be  had. 

Cull. — Almost  any  common  cut  may  be  cured  bj 
sirrply  closing  the  edges  of  the  wound,  and  holding  them 
togethe  '  f  ns  to  keep  the  air  out.  This  may  be  dooe 
by  sticki  .  piece  of  plaster  on  the  closed  wound,  and 
keeping  that  plaster  on  till  the  part  is  completely  well 
The  plaster  has  no  healing  property  in  itself— its  entire 
use  is  to  hold  the  edjes  of  the  cut  together,  A  piece 
of  linen  rag  may  ser\e  the  same  purpose,  butthetving 
of  it  is  apt  to  stop  the  circulation  of  the  bloi>J.  If  an; 
dirt  or  foul  substaiHC  ban  got  into  the  cut,  it  must  it 
carefully  removed,  otherwise  the  wound  will  fester,  awl 
not  heal  till  it  has  been  <lrawn  and  cleaned  by  a  poultico, 

Pre/ervation  iit'diii*/  /i  /I'ui/ig.— When  persons  l]ii[v 
pen  to  Ik!  overtaken  by  a  tlunider-stdrni  in  the  open  air, 
it  is  cust  nary  for  them  to  fly  for  shelter  to  any  tree 
which  :  jy  bo  at  hand.  They  expose  themselves  loiu- 
cres'i  J  danger  by  so  doing,  particularly  if  the  tree  be  i 
P'  .ninent  one  and  standing  alone,  because  itthutbe. 
■imes  a  peculis.'  mark  for  the  electrical  fluid.  Bulitii 
better  to  lie  placed  at  a  short  distance  from  such  a  tree 
or  large  object,  than  to  be  far  from  any  tliiif(  of  tin 


USEFUL    ADVICES    AND    RECEIPTS. 


81S 


Ugi  On  on  open  bare  moor,  a  lingle  hjman  body 
igu  pot  run  any  great  risk,  yet  it  ii  the  most  prominent 
igirk  if  lii^litning  be  nxar  the  »pot ;  whereas  a  large  tree 
il  a  ■h'X't  (JiHtor.ce  would  be  thn  most  attractive  body. 
Tb«  human  person  is  more  8<!cure  when  wet  than  when 
^-Hiiiother  reason  for  refraining  to  seek  the  shelter  of 
(^e(,  All  metallic  bodies  should  be  avoide<l  when  the 
^oaphere  is  charged  with  lightning.  People  in  a 
houK  are  rendere<l  most  secure  by  sitting  quietly  in  the 
centre  of  their  apartmeiita ;  and  il  is  even  important  to 
^eep  tho  mind  as  calm  as  possible. 

Largo  tiuildings  or  establishments  may  be  almost  com- 
lletitly  secured  against  the  eflecls  of  lightning  by  means 
ofmetiillic  rods,  rising  from  the  earth  to  a  height  greater 
than  that  u(  the  edifice  to  be  protected.  The  lightning, 
it'itdoes  alight  on  the  building,  is  conducted  by  the  rod 
to  the  earth,  and  is  there  ditfused  or  dispersed  without 
noil'  or  shock. 

MiaCILLANEOUS. 

FWi/ilo'iun  "nd  fumigation. — It  is  essential  to  health 
that  the  habitations  occupied  by  us  should  be  free  of  im- 
iiure  air  and  all  noxious  vapours.  The  first  step  towards 
this  end  is  to  cflTect  and  maintain  a  liberal  circulation  of 
fteah  air,  either  by  ventilators  or  by  regularly  opening 
tlie  windows  for  stated  daily  periods.  The  kindling  of 
(tea  also  promotes  the  circulation  of  atmospheric  cur- 
rents. Noxious  etHuvia  may  be  most  cflectually  removed 
DV  occoaiuiial  sprinklings  of  a  solution  of  chloride  of 
lime  upon  the  floors  and  walls,  the  windows  being  kept 
open  the  while.  It  is  always  proper,  also,  that  an  in- 
fected house  should  be  white-washed.  We  have  seen 
[ecoinnicndutions  to  purify  the  air  of  rooms  by  closing 
tLzm,  and  burning  salt  and  oil  of  vitriol  in  a  dish  placed 
on  the  flour.  In  unskilful  hands  such  plans  are  highly 
ilingerous ;  and  we  strongly  advise  every  one  to  confine 
the  funiignting  process  \o  sprinkling  with  chloride  of 
lime,  and  to  ventilate  by  opening  all  outlets  to  the  air. 
Lives  arc  sometimes  lost  by  sleeping  in  a  close  room  in 
which  charcoal  is  burning,  the  person  in  this  case  being 
ilifled  with  noxious  gas.  We  advise  that  every  sleeping 
apartment  should  be  airy,  and  that  no  one  should  go  to 
bed  with  charcoal  burning  in  the  grate  or  stove.  Bed- 
rooms are  always  best  without  fires  of  any  kind. 

Uan^imr  uspen$ion  by  the  neck. — In  cases  where 
I  body  is  in  a  suspended  state,  and  life  is  seem- 

ingly extiiKi,  the  chiHf  remedy  cotisists  in  cupping  the 
temples  or  opening  the  jugular  vein,  and  so  relieving 
the  head  of  tho  blood  which  accumulates  in  its  super- 
Icial  veins  in  consequcnf  o  of  the  ligature.  Whore  the 
body  is  cold,  from  haviniz  been  long  suspended,  friction, 
and  the  other  means  used  for  restoring  animal  beat  in 
drowned  persons,  should  be  likewise  resorted  to.  Elec- 
tricity or  galvanism  may  also  be  of  service. 

Poixm. — When  you  have  reason  to  know  that  you 
have  accidentally  swallowed  a  poisonous  substance,  and 
proper  medical  advice  is  not  at  hand,  take  an  emetic. 
This  may  be  done  almost  instantaneously  by  swallowing 
a  capful  of  warm-water  mixed  with  a  teaspoonful  of 
n.U6^id.  If  you  have  not  dry  mustard  in  the  house, 
you  are  almost  sure  to  have  a  mustard-pot,  and  a  quan- 
tit;'  from  that  put  into  the  water  will  very  quickly  empty 
tie  stomach.  As  mustard  may  thus  prove  of  so  much 
use,  it  should  never  bo  wanting  in  any  house ;  but  even 
tliiiuld  there  be  no  mustard  at  hand,  warm  water  by 
iliclf  forms  a  tolerably  cflicacious  emetic. 

CoaiA  aaidenli. — Should  the  horses  run  oflT,  in  defi- 
ance uf  any  restraint,  while  you  are  in  a  coach,  sit  per- 
fectly still,  and  in  anticipation  of  tho  possible  overturn, 
keep  your  legs  and  arms  from  atraggling.  Sit  easily 
and  compactly,  so  that,  when  upset,  you  will  gently  roll 
over  in  lihc  direction  you  are  thrown.  We  have  wen 
ladies  in  these  circumstances  scream  wildly,  and  throw 
Ibeir  arms  out  of  the  windows,  thus  exposing  thoinselvts 


to  the  chance  of  broken  limbs.  If  run  away  with  in  • 
gig,  either  sit  still  coilectedly,  or  drop  out  at  tho  back, 
■o  as  to  fall  on  your  hands.  ?iovor  jump  from  a  rapidly 
moving  vehicle,  unless  (supposing  it  impossible  to  slip 
down  behind)  you  see  a  precipice  in  front,  in  which  caM 
any  risk  of  personal  damage  is  preferable  to  remaining 
still.  The  Duke  of  Orleans  lovt  his  life  by  neglecting 
these  simple  precautions, 

Jlamu  in  chvrchei  and  theatres, — Alarms,  w '  ether 
with  reference  to  fire  or  the  falling  of  galleries,  oilen 
take  place  in  these  and  similar  plac  s  of  resort  In 
general,  they  are  raised  without  duo  cause,  (.ften  from  • 
circumstance  of  *.he  most  trilling  nature,  and  perhaps  oc- 
casionally from  a  deliberate  spirit  of  mischief.  However 
originating,  they  almost  invariably  generate  a  panic, 
and  occasion  much  damige,  which  a  little  refluctioia 
would  have  enabled  those  present  to  avoid.  The  news- 
papers teem  with  accounta  of  incidents  of  this  nature. 
In  most  instances,  the  whole  mischief  is  caused  by  yidil- 
ing  too  much  to  alarm.  We  anxiously  recommend 
every  one  to  cultivate  the  power  of  suppresuing  such 
idlo  emotions.  When  a  cry  of  fire,  or  of  the  falling  of 
galleries,  is  raised  in  church,  sit  slilt,  and  remain  tran- 
quil till  the  assemblage  is  allowed  to  disperse  in  tha 
usual  way.  On  no  account  yield  to  alarm.  Granting 
that  there  is  a  real  cause  of  danger,  you  are  infinitely 
more  safe  sitting  still  than  trying  to  rush  wildly  to  tb« 
door. 

Attarki  of  mndmen.^\  person  in  a  house  may  be 
come  suddenly  insane,  and  make  a  violent  and  deadly 
attack  on  those  within  reach.  The  best  way  to  avert 
any  serious  calamity  in  cases  of  such  attack  is  to  remain 
calm  and  collected,  and,  if  necessary,  humour  the  mad- 
man till  assistance  be  procured.  A  lady  of  our  acquaint- 
ance kept  a  boarding-house;  and  one  day  a  boarder  en 
tered  the  room  in  which  she  was  sitting,  armed  with  a 
carving  knife,  and  with  great  coolness  said  he  had  taken 
S  fancy  to  cut  off  her  head.  The  lady  was  alone.  She 
saw  her  extreme  danger,  but  did  not  scream  or  appeal 
alarmed,  for  that  would  have  precipitated  the  catastrophe. 
She  humoured  the  madman,  and  proposed  that  she 
should  gb  and  fetch  a  cloth  to  lay  on  the  floor,  so  as  to 
prevent  the  blood  from  damaging  the  carpet.  This  bail 
took,  and  she  got  safely  out  of  the  room,  and  into  hei 
l)ed-chamber,  in  which  there  was  a  key  in  the  door  in 
the  inside.  She  instantly  locked  the  door,  and  flying  ts 
the  window,  cried  for  help  to  the  passengers  in  the 
street  The  madman  was  speedily  secured.  This  la.If 
clearly  owed  her  life  to  presence  of  mind. 

We  would  add,  lei  tvety  door  in  <i  house  have  its  key, 
and  let  the  key  remain  in  it  both  night  and  day.  Every 
night,  on  going  to  bed,  isolate  each  room,  by  locking  it, 
and  lock  your  own  door  in  the  inside.  Always  look  be- 
neath tho  bed  and  into  any  cupboards  in  the  room  b^ 
fore  going  to  rest 


USEFUL  ADVICES  AND  RECEIPTS. 

Under  this  head  wo  propose  to  offer  a  few  advice* 
connected  with  housekeeping,  and  certain  operations 
in  reference  to  the  cleaning  of  dwellings,  furniture,  ap- 
parel, extirpation  of  vermin,  removal  of  stains,  &c. 

■0V8B  rURNISHINS  AND  MANAGING. 
Choice  of  a  hoi^se. — There  arc  certain  important  point* 
on  which  you  should  obtain  satisfactory  information  in 
making  choice  of  a  house.  First,  take  care  that  it  is  not 
damp.  Dampness  may  arise  from  siiveral  causes,  but 
imperfect  drainage,  and  a  too  close  contact  of  the  floors 
with  the  ground,  are  (he  principal.  When  a  house  is 
damp  in  any  part,  no  matter  from  what  cause,  we  advise 
you  by  all  means  to  avoid  it,  for  it  may  produce  the  most 
pernicious  effects  on  tho  health  of  your  family.  Second, 
see  that  the  house  has  a  free  open  sxposuro  for  fresh 


I    I 


^'"'! 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


tir,  and,  if  all  otb<  r  rirrum«tnnreii  Ruit,  prefer  that  which 
ha*  an  tx|MsiirH  (o  llu>  xoiitli,  niitl  ])niu>eiimH  the  Ih'iio- 
ficial  infliiciirr  of  ilu'  niin'H  ru)H.  A  houne  with  a  plca- 
••nt  loulhfrn  cxiionuro  cnjoVH  a  climntp  Hovprnl  (It'KrppH 
warmer  than  h  hnuHc  wliirh  in  not  mo  favourohly  Ritiiuled. 
In  Kenprul,  too  hitio  nltrntion  is  pnlil  to  thin  cirrum- 
•tance.  Third,  «*<-i-rtaiii  if  there  he  a  plentiful  Hiipply 
of  good  watiT  in  llio  premiwH,  and  if  there  lie  proju'r 
means  at  hand  for  dryiii};  and  blenching  clothes.  Fourth, 
learn  whether  the  vents  go  well,  and  do  not  smoke.  The 
inquiries  you  may  ninku  in  reference  to  freedom  from 
vermin  and  other  pnrtiimlars  are  toil  to  your  own  judg- 
ment. 

Fumishinf;. — When  you  design  to  furnish  a  house, 
lake  care  to  set  out  on  a  right  principle  in  the  selection 
of  articles.  It  is  cHHeutial.  for  the  sake  of  neatness,  and 
for  pleasing  etfect  to  the  eye,  that  there  should  l)o  i.  har^ 
mony'of  colours,  and  also  n  Niniilarity  of  stylo  in  'he 
main  articles  of  furniture.  Therefore,  if  you  do  not  ex- 
ercise a  little  taNle  and  judgment  in  your /)''«/  selections, 
you  may  find  that  yon  hove  committctl  a  blunder  which 
will  cost  you  much  Kubseijuent  annoyance.  Tor  example, 
let  the  tints  of  the  carpet,  of  the  pa|)er  or  paint  of  the 
walls,  and  of  the  window  curtains,  be  all  in  harmony  in 
e*<'h  room — that  is,  either  possess  a  general  resemblance 
of  colour,  or  various  i-olours  in  pleasing  contrast  and 
hai  '  ony  with  each  other.  If  the  colour  of  your  curtains 
be  scarlet,  and  the  colour  of  your  walls  or  carpet  blue, 
a  most  inharmonious  and  unplcasing  elTect  will  be  pro- 
duced ;  but  brown  and  green,  or  green  and  gold,  will  he 
in  hamiony,  and  may  therefore  Ihj  placed  together. 
Carpets  beini?  the  most  expensive  articles,  it  is  safest  to 
buv  them  lirst,  and  then  to  let  their  colour  lead  the  tone 
and  style  of  curtains,  pa|)or-hanginRS.  chair-covers,  hearth- 
rugs, and  all  other  articles.  It  is  also  a  good  economi- 
cal plan  to  buy  car|K't8  for  the  same  pattern  for  several 
rooms,  liecause,  in  the  event  of  removal  to  a  house  with 
difTerent  sized  apartnicnts,  a  piece  of  one  car|>et  may  bo* 
taken  to  eke  out  another. 

Tabln,  rhaim,  ifr. — When  you  are  bargaining  for 
tables,  chairs,  and  oilier  womlcn  articles  of  a  fine  quality, 
take  care  to  sjs-cify  that  they  must  be  of  a  solid  fabric, 
and  not  vcriccred.  Veneering  is  only  tolerable  in  a  few 
articles  which  are  not  t.>  he  subjectetl  to  mucii  tear  and 
Wear;  neverlhelissii,  a  practice  has  begun  of  veneering 
articles  in  daily  um',  such  as  chairs  and  tables,  and  con- 
apquently  tliey  are  soon  desi'oycd.  This  practice,  we 
are  sorry  to  say,  is  done  in  cases  where  the  highest 
price  is  paid  for  solid  articles,  and  we  mention  the  cir- 
cumstance to  put  you  on  your  guard.  Examine  closely 
the  back  and  seat-frames  of  every  mahogany  chair,  and 
reject  it  if  it  l>e  venoere*!.  In  ordering  sofas,  you  should 
also  take  care  to  bargain  for  genuine  hair  stuffing,  for  in 
many  instances  the  stutling  is  composed  of  what  is  tech- 
nically called  fioh,  or  a  composition  of  tow,  wool,  and  other 
kinds  of  rubbish.  Likewise,  the  hair  should  be  well 
baked  or  prepim-d.  We  have  seen  a  hair  sofa,  for  which 
Ihe  hichi'Nt  price  wss  paid,  swarming  with  a  species  of 
louse,  shortly  alter  l)eing  sent  home  from  the  upholster- 
er's, in  conHe<{uenco  of  the  animal  sultstanc^  about  the 
Iwir  not  having  lieen  properly  dried  by  baking. 

Earlhinuurt  iind  Cliinii In  purchasing  sets  of  earth- 
enware articles  for  the  table,  also  take  care  to  set  out  on 
a  right  plan.  Helect  that  set  which,  in  case  of  breakage, 
can  at  all  times  and  in  M  places  lie  easily  matched.  If 
you  b«y  B  set  of  table  ware  which  is  |N-culiar  or  rare  in 
its  jCT'.l-rn,  and  afterwards  break  stiveral  pieces,  you  may 
be  put  to  u  very  great  degree  of  trouble,  or  even  find 
it  impossible,  lo  restore  them.  Thus,  a  |)0culiar  set  of 
earthenw.ire  or  cliina,  however  beautiful  and  cheap,  may 
nllimutcly  prove  a  source  of  vexation  and  considerable 
•ipense. 

I'liilr. —  Whatever  silver  articles  you  require,  buy  them 
•i  •  Keiimau   kind,  or   o(  st^liag   stiver  plate,  which 


always  keeps  its  value,  however  old  and  worn  u  mar  >» 
come.     Avoid  all  (iluted  goods,  for  the  plaitirii;  in  j,^ i 
in  wearini   off,  and  then  the  article  is  valudpss.    a  t 
nished  plate  fork,  s|HK)n,  or  salver,  has  an  exrcj,iy,|' 
mean  up(>earance.     If  you  find  it  inconvenient  to  nu 
chase  sterling  silver  plate,  your  most  economi.-al  n|«n 
consist-nt  with  elegance  of  apiwarance,  will  he  to  nu 
chase  It  icw  articles  of  German  silver.     This  is  pron..)' ' 
the   metal   called  nvkfl,  ani   closely  resemhlcs  Hteriir 
silver  in  texture  and  colour '  it  is  not  just  so  while 
sterling  silver,  but  the  differei.ce  is  not  noticed  uiilcw 
close  comparison  l)o  made.     In  hardness  and  diiraliijitv 
it  is  much  superior  to  sterling  silver,  and  its  price  j,  | ' 
some  cases  only  about  a  tenth  of  what  giuiuine  pl.t, 
would   cost,     (ierman  silver   is   now  manufnetnrel  to  i 
large  extent  in  England,  and  is  made  into  H|HH>n<),  forli, 
ladles,  tea-pots,  salvers,  dish-covers,  and  all  other  articjei 
for  the  table.     It  is  not  probable'  that  (lermnn  nilver  n||| 
ever  be  purchased  to  a  large  extent  in  order  t»  suppf^j, 
the  sterling  article,  because  it  [hisschsos  no  intrinsie  v«lu. 
like  bullion,  but  it  forms  a  great  stretch  in  r  Ivance  of 
plated  or  Britannia  metal  gomis,  and  is  lik>  ,y  to  rorm 
into  extensive  use.     The    --••"les   in   Urita  inia  metal 
were  once  of  a  durablj  fabric,  but  they  are  f,-  no  longer' 
their  good  choractcr  is  gone,  anrl  they  shouk  an  no  ac^ 
count  bo  purchased  by  an  economical  '.,oiise-wifc,    \ 
tea-pot,  for  instance,  of  that  metal,  fv  common  u«e,  anj 
costing  seven  or  eight  shillings,  ■  /ill  probably  not  Icj^ 
twelve  months,  while  a  tea-pot  of  German  silver,   :,iin. 
about  three  pounds,  will  last  (it  fifty  years,    'Phu»  ihj 
German  silver  article  is  by  fp/  'he  thraper  •  ■■  t.ie  (wo 
independent  of  all  conaideretion*  >is  to  e'<'?>»6;e  of  arJ 
pearance. 

Firr-arnlft, — In  choosing  fine-ptites  or  stovpn  forvoni 
rooms,  do  not  buy  those  which  have  burnished  Hft\ 
fronts,  as  they  require  a  considerable  degree  of  care  in 
cleaning,  and  are  very  liable  to  rust  during  summer  when 
not  in  use.  The  best  and  neatest,  as  well  as  the  cheap. 
est,  grates,  are  those  which  arc  made  of  cast-iron,  and  of 
an  ornamental  pattern.  Let  the  grates  which  you  iielect 
lie  small  or  of  mo<lerate  size  in  the  fireplace.  Wjd* 
open  rrtites,  by  advaitting  cold  air  into  the  chimney,  ai« 
exceedingly  liable  to  smoke. 

Gihlinif. — Order  all  the  gilding  of  your  picture  fraiM» 
and  other  articles  to  he  done  in  oil.  Oil  ;;ildlni;  it  not 
susceptible  of  flatt'ng  and  burnishing  like  Wiiler-cildini!, 
but  it  is  infinitely  more  durable.  You  may  wash  an  oij. 
gilt  frame  without  injuring  it,  whereas  one  tliat  is  wat«> 
gilt  cannot  he  cleaned,  and  is  soon  tarnished.  Wo  never 
knew  a  gilder  who  would  gild  in  oil  unless  it  was  ri- 
pressly  insisted  upon. 

Bnlh  niid  foot  uin-mtri. — Few  houses  posses."  th« 
convenience  of  baths,  but  every  one  may  command  'hs 
use  of  small  movable  bathing  vessels  for  the  liet,  or  for 
infants.  The  best  kind  of  foot  and  i-'g  bath  is » li^p 
wooden  pail ;  those  of  earthenware  ar"  ex.-cfuicjlT 
liable  to  break,  and  besides,  are  very  expensive.  Thert 
are  various  kinds  of  close  vessels  for  holding  warm  water, 
which  are  used  for  producing  warmth  in  lieil.  The  best 
article  of  this  nature  which  we  have  neon  is  a  vessel 
made  of  sheet  tin.  It  measures  twelve  inches  in  length 
and  six  inches  in  diatneter,  being  round  like  a  holtle, 
with  Imliied  out  rounded  ends.  .\t  one  end  there  ij  ■ 
small  brass  s<'rew  cap,  placed  over  an  orifice  at  whjrh 
the  wat  r  is  admhted.  This  cap  being  well  screwed 
down,  and  a  small  leather  washer  lieing  used  to  aiulst  in 
the  tightening,  not  a  drop  of  water  will  oi,7e  nut  when 
the  vessel  is  hud  in  Is-d.  With  this  simple  iij  luralui^ 
tied  in  a  flannel  bag,  the  feet  or  any  part  of  the  Knij 
will  be  etlisctually  warmed,  either  during  illness  or  in  tht 
cold  of  winter. 

Ihuitkrepinf;. — Every  good  housewife  is  expected  b 
keep  a  regular  and  continuous  account  of  her  imoae 
and   ex{iciidilure.     This   is,  indeed,  perbapb  tlu  wt 


USEFUL  ADVICES  ANJ  RECEIPTS. 


Rift 


iMMtUIi 


I  the  routine  of  domcitic  dutica,  and  iha  must 


uMTH  an  ill-refpjlatu.l  mind,  or  havo  had  an  iniufllrirnt 
[jucitlon,  who  nonluoU  it  When  properly  lel  about 
Hid  roelhixlii'Klly  mu:mncd,  there  is  little  or  no  trnublo  in 
ktspinft  ttio  houHoholil  luxoutits.  Some  housewives  hiivo 
one  method,  unil  some  have  another.  Always  prcs\iiiiin|{ 
thit  we  lire  addroaiiin){  young  housewives  in  the  middle 
rsiikrt  of  society,  with  whom  frugality  is  an  obj  ct,  we 
beg  to  "usgcst  the  following  simple  plan  of  keeping  house 
■ccounia: — Procure  u  siiiull  slate-hook — that  is,  a  little 
Kook  roinpoKcd  of  throe  slates,  bound  in  a  plain  cover, 
Tbl)  which  you  write  iipmi  with  a  slate  pencil,  is  your 
iaii-book ,  it  is  always  at  hand  for  you  to  scroll  down  uiiy 
note  of  outlay,  and  will  keep  several  days'  or  a  week's 
accounts  at  a  time.  At  any  leisure  moment,  you  carry 
tJio  entries  of  outlay  from  the  slates  to  a  small  ruled 
paper  book,  which  is  your  ledger.  One  page  of  this  is 
devoted  to  money  received,  ar''  the  opposite  page  to 
money  paid  out.  Uy  djing  this  regularly,  and  compar- 
inirthe  entries  of  sums  received  with  tlie  entries  of  sums 
eipcndi'd,  xo  as  to  see  that  they  square  with  each  other, 
tou  will  lind  that  you  possess  a  complete  record  of  family 
eipcnscs,  satiBlactorily  alike  to  yourself  and  to  your  hus. 
lund,  should  ho  make  any  inquiry  into  the  subject.  The 
keeping  of  un  account  of  receipts  and  disbursements,  in 
tlili  or  any  other  convenient  manner,  is  calculated  to 
hsvo  the  most  salutary  and  agreeable  effects.  The  ten- 
dency to  ()ver-cxi)endituro,  or  living  beyond  the  means, 
It  constantly  checked,  or  at  least  you  are  not  deceived 
upon  the  subject,  and  in  nil  likelihood  much  future  dis- 
\KM  in  circumstances  is  avoided. 

In  referring  to  b  lusi'kccping  accounts,  wo  must  put 
you  on  your  guai  ,  against  the  very  mischievous  practice 
of  huyini^  on  credit,  and  running  up  bills  with  trades- 
men. If  you  can  at  all  avoid  taking  credit,  do  so.  By 
payini?  for  cveiy  article  with  ready  money,  you  will  pos- 
KU two dcriuci;  advantages — you  get  every  thing  c'leaper 
as  you  want  ii,  a«d  yon  tan  go  anywhere  to  seek  out  the 
belt  markets.  Ucusewives  who  run  up  bills  become  the 
ijavcs  of  tradcsiiien,  and  can  possess  no  proper  inde- 
pendence of  priiu  i(ili'  or  self-respect. 

Srrva'ii.'. — The  old  practice  of  hiring  domestic  servants 
for  six  months  at  once  is  rapidly  declining.  Both  mis- 
tioMCB  and  servants  find,  by  cx|X'rience,  that  a  bargain 
for  such  a  length  of  time  very  otlen  produces  disagree- 
mentii.  It  is  t)est  for  all  riarties  that  the  term  hired  for 
■hould  ho  oidy  one  month  at  a  time,  with  one  month's 
notice  for  separation.  l)y  this  plan,  a  servant  can  leave 
a  phicc  which  docs  not  please  her  without  any  lengthened 
delay;  and  in  the  same  way  a  niistresB  can  give  a  ser- 
vant warning  to  quit  at  a  short  notice,  should  it  be  found 
thai  she  is  unsuitable.  In  this  manner  there  is  no  vexa- 
tious obligation  to  !:eep  together,  and  a  separation  can 
always  take  place  amicably.  .\l\  servants  and  miBtrcs8«'s 
nlio  try  this  plan,  lini'  it  so  agreeable  that  they  never 
like  to  chanse  it.  Many  wjrvants  remain  years  in  a  place, 
though  hired  on  the  understanding  that  it  is  only  from 
month  to  month,  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  hired  for  no 
fiieJ  period,  but  just  so  long  as  both  parties  agree ;  and 
that,  in  the  event  of  any  disautistiu'tion,  there  shall  be  a 
week  or  a  month's  warning  given  to  leave.  This  prac- 
tice has  been  long  common  in  London,  and  tho  sooner  it 
U  universal  the  better. 

It  is  a  very  old  remark,  that  good  mistresses  make  good 
lervants;  and  though  not  strictly  correct  in  all  instances, 
tliero  is,  on  tiie  whole,  much  truth  in  it  A  good  mis- 
Ircst  endeavours  to  seek  out  and  attach  a  good  servant  to 
herself.  She  ellects  this  attachment  and  good-will  by 
•imply  laying  before  the  st^rvant  what  is  to  bo  hci  .ino 
of  duties,  or  what  is  ex|H>cted  of  her,  and  then  leaving 
her  undisturbed  to  execute  these  duties  in  a  regular  me- 
thodic manner.  Mo  servant  likes  to  bo  interfered  with 
in  her  work,  or  to  be  called  away  from  one  thing  to  do 
IDOlhti;  ucvcitlielcfcd,  suuie    niistresiics   are  not   happy 


unless  they  are  going  in  and  out  cf  th«  kitchen,  or  I 
ling  up  and  down  the  houms  nrdering  ami  rounter-order* 
ing,  or  in  some  other  way  worrying  the  s<>rvant  out  of 
all  patient  endurance.  Mistresses  of  this  fidgetty  tun 
can  hardly  expect  to  keep  gooti  servants,  sbonld  they  he 
so  fortunate  as  to  procure  them.  We  advise  the  young 
.housewife  to  commence  on  the  wise  plan  of  prescribing 
to  her  servants,  in  simple  plain  terms,  the  duties  which 
she  expects  they  will  daily  and  regularly  execute;  and 
if  the  servants  are  unlit  to  take  advantage  of  this  friendly 
and  lil)eral  arrangement,  and  require  to  Ih-  co<  tinunlly 
urged  and  '<  spokt^n  to,"  it  is  better  fnv  both  that  ther* 
shouhl  be  a  separation.  Where  two  or  more  servant* 
are  engaged,  it  is  olw(dutely  necessary  that  the  precis* 
duties  of  each  should  l)o  expressly  defined,  in  order  to 
prevent  disputes  l)etween  them,  and  that  the  work  of  the 
house  may  ho  duly  {jerfomied. 

* 

CLEANINO 

The  best  way  to  clean  a  house  Is  to  keep  il  elean  by  • 
daily  attention  to  small  thinr,s,  and  not  allow  it  to  gel 
into  such  a  state  of  dirtiness  an<l  disorder  as  to  requin 
great  and  periodical  clenniuKs.  8omc  inistreAses,  and 
also  some  servants,  N*>em  to  have  an  idea  that  a  house 
should  undergo  "reuular  cleanings,"  or  great  washing 
and  scrubbing  matches,  once  every  three  or  six  montha, 
on  which  occasions  (he  house  is  turned  almost  insida 
out,  and  made  most  uncotnfortable.  All  this  is  bad  eco* 
nomy,  and  indicates  general  slovenliness  of  habits. 

U'mxten  fluorr,  if  kept  in  order  by  daily  sweeping  and 
other  small  attentions,  may  be  elTecIually  cleaned  by 
washing  them  with  warm  water  and  soap ;  but  if  spot! 
of  grease  are  to  be  removed,  the  sjiots  must  previously 
\w  taken  out  with  fuller's  earth.  Ink  spots  may  be  di*> 
charged  with  spirits  of  salt  Some  mistresses  make  a 
practice  of  ordering  the  floors  of  bed-rooms  to  be  fre- 
(|ucntly  washed.  We  wish  to  .guard  both  mistresses 
and  sonants  against  this  practice.  It  is  most  dangerous 
to  the  health  of  the  person  who  occupies  the  l)cd-room 
to  wash  or  scour  it,  unletftt  the  weather  be  very  fine  oi 
warm,  in  order  to  allow  the  window  to  be  oi)ened  for 
thoroughly  drying  the  raom  b.?lore  night.  The  utmost 
that  should  he  done,  except  in  luvnurable  circumstances, 
is  to  pass  a  damp  mop  lightly  o'cr  the  floor. 

Corpett. — Ordinary  Kidderm.nstur  carpets  can  only 

lie  cleaned  by  shaking  and  beatiiig ;  if  cleaned  by  means 

of  washing,  they  become  so  soft  us  to  be  speedily  dirtied 

again,  and  their  appearance  is  spoiled.     Brussels  carpels 

may  be  cleaned  as  follows : — Take  them  up  aiid  shake 

and  beat  them,  so  as  to  render  them  perfectly  free  from 

dust     Have  the  floor  thoroughly  scoured  and  dry,  and 

nail  the  carpet  firmly  tlown  upon  it.     Take  a  pailful  of 

clean  cold  spring  water,  and  put  into  it  about  three  gills 

of  oxgall.    Take  another   pail  with   clean   cold  water 

only.     Now,  rub  with  a  soft  scrubbing  brush  some  of 

the  oxgall  water  on  the  carpet,  which  will  raise  a  lather 

When  a  convenient   sized  portion   is  dene,  wash  the 

lather  off  with  a  clean  linen  cloth  dipped  in  the  clean 

water.     Let  this  water  be  changed  frequently.     When 

all  the  lather  has  disnppeareil,  rub  the  part  with  a  clean 

dry  cloth.     After  all  is  done,  open  the  window  to  allow 

the  carpet  to  dry.     A  carpet  treated  in  this  manner  will 

I  be  greatly  refreshed  in  coli.ur,  particularly  the  greens. 

It  is  very  advisable,  in  layii.g  down  carpets  at  first,  to 

cover  tho  floor  bencatli  thcin  with  large  sheets  of  paper, 

so  as  to  prevent  dust  from  rising  between  the  boards.    A 

'  carpet  lasts  longer  by  adopting  this  precaution. 

j       (Hl-Clotht. — Oil  or  painted  cloth  should  be  laid  only 

'  on  dry  flosrs;  if  the  floor  be  in  the  least  degree  damp, 

:  the  cloth  will  soon  mildew  and  rot^     Such  cloths,  laid 

I  even  in  the  diiest  situation,  should  be  welted  as  little  as 

!  possible.     When  to  be  cleaned,  they  should  be  wiped 

I  with  a  wet  clovh.  and  rubbed  gently  till  dry. 

I      XurLle  liCiiiLiu  uud  c,'.itn<i'i/-picicii  may  be  cleaned  a* 


in 


I' 


m 
n 


I 


816 


INFORMATION   FOR  THF  PEOPLE. 


fnllowi: — Mix  n  g\\]  of  ■on|>-l<'<'*>  half  a  gill  of  turpen- 
tina,  and  a  hiillix'k'ii  Kail,  ninl  inRkn  thriii  into  a  |iaiil« 
with  pi|ie-rlay,  wliirli  \»y  u|)<iii  the  iiiarlilr!,  ami  let  it  ru- 
main  a  lUy  or  two,  tlirn  nil>  it  nil',  and  the  itaiiii  Mill 
have  diup|N'  truil,  iitilcHs  tliry  arn  of  lonif  MaiiJinK,  whrn 
the  paitn  muitt  l>c  aKiiiii  upjilii'd,  I'uliiihrd  marlilo  re- 
quiroa  rarol'iil  tmitiiii'iil,  iih  any  arid  will  dpalroy  tli« 
poliih.  In  KcntTnl,  warm  water  and  aoup  will  be  found 
'he  aafcat  thinK  l»r  cli'iininK  (■hiinn''v-pii'rp«. 

W'«//j  of  hiiutff. — Tim  oiiU'r  itiirfuci-a  of  wallii,  formed 
of  brick  or  aaniNtunp,  wimrtirnPM  iinbilx)  moiature  from 
thn  atinotphrru,  and  thi>i  g,\\v»  a  dinnpncait  to  tlip  interior. 
If  it  be  fiiund  iinHuitalilc  to  pliiHtir  and  whitowaHh  the 
outaide,  thi<  diiinp  may  Im<  itrcally  prpvpntn)  liy  paintiiiit 
the  wall*  with  a  aiiiKli<  rout  of  nd-puint,  witirh,  by  bviiiK 
light  in  colour,  will  i^lvo  a  ni'at  jod  clean  cfTt'ct. 

H'nlli  iif  •  lint'. —  WJHMi  wnlU  of  room*  or  alairraaPH 
■re  to  b<i  painted  in  oil,  let  llic  ouint  Iw  of  the  lifiit 
jMcriplion.  It  is  not  uniiHnal  f  inferior  Irudt'Hinpn  to 
uao  whitiuff,  iM!<l<'»d  of  whiu<  li'n>l,  an  a  pigment:  by  IhiK 
deception  tnr  pidnt  will  afterward*  warci-ly  endure  wnnh- 
ing.  Miip|H)!iiiig,  however.  Hint  the  paint  hiM  lieen  of  the 
be<t  kind,  l■(lM^'lderable  cure  will  Im-  reipiircd  in  oleaniriK  it. 
The  aafi'Kt  and  moot  itini|de  |ili>n  in  to  take  a  pail  of  hot 
water  and  put  into  it  an  much  rotnnion  yellow  or  iioft  soap 
an  will  raiM'  a  lather  or  froth.  Now  wuah  the  walla  with 
•  flannel  cloth  dipped  in  thJH  water;  then  waah  thin 
•oapy  water  off  with  clean  llaiiilel  and  clean  warm  water. 
Dry  will  a  clean  linen  cloth.  Do  all  thia  equally,  ao  oa 
not  to  leave  ainear*  or  parts  belter  waahed  or  wi|H'd  than 
other*. 

Paptr-hiinging  should  \ie  first  diiHted,  and  then  cleaned 
by  a  itale  loaf  of  lireud,  with  the  crumb  aurfiirc  cut 
■moothly,  and  gently  rubbed,  tlie  dirty  face  ■>('  the  bread 
being  cut  away  from  time  to  time.  The  imitative  marble- 
paper,  highly  vuriiished,  may  Im;  waahed  with  cold  water 
and  soap.  I'aiiirr-maM,  now  much  unt-d  for  mouldings 
■nd  ornamentM  in  rooina,  may  lie  cleaned  with  aoap  and 
water. 

Pieturr-fratiw'  of  varnished  or  French-pilished  wood 
may  be  washed  with  soap  and  warm  water,  and  H|)onge 
or  flannel.  Aa  already  in<'ntioned,  frames  which  are  gilt 
in  the  ordinary  manner,  or  "  w»ler-gilt."  cannot  endure 
washing  or  rulibing ;  but  if  "  oil-gilt,"  they  may  Im>  waahed 
with  cold  water  and  a  soft  bruNh. 

hory  may  he  restored  to  its  original  whiteness  by 
(leaning  it  with  a  paste  of  burnt  pumice-stone  and  water, 
•nd  then  placing  it  under  Kl>>sHes  in  the  sun's  rays. 

IiTa$$  \ntaui  tmrk  is  U'st  cleaned  aa  follows: — Mix 
tripoli  and  linaettd  oil,  and  dip  into  a  rubber  of  bat,  with 
which  polish  the  work.  If  the  wood  lie  ebony  or  roae- 
wood,  (lolish  it  with  a  little  fniely-powdertxl  elder-ashes ; 
or  make  a  paste  of  rotten-stone,  a  little  starch,  swe*^t-oiI, 
•nd  oxalic  acid,  mixed  with  water.  The  ornuments  of 
a  French  clock  are,  however,  best  cleaned  with  bread- 
crumb, carefully  rubbed,  so  as  not  to  spoil  the  wood-work. 
Ormolu  candlesticks,  lainiw,  and  branches,  may  be  cleaned 
with  soap  and  water.  Tliey  will  bear  more  cleaning 
than  lacquered  articles,  which  are  apoilcd  by  frequent 
rubbing,  or  by  acids,  or  strong  ulkalies. 

U'lnHowt  anil  luokina-Klasntii. —  Dip  a  moistened  rag  or 
flannel  into  indigo,  fuller's  earth,  usht^s,  or  rutten-atonc, 
In  impalpable  powder,  with  which  smear  tlic  gloss,  and 
vfijie  olTwilh  a  dry  soA  ••I.ith.  Powder-blue  or  whiten- 
ing, tied  up  in  muslin,  and  dusted  u[H>n  tlie  glass,  and 
cleaned  otfwith  chamois  leather,  also  givts  glass  a  fine 
polish.  The  spots  in  ll'.e  silvering  of  old  looking-glass<-s 
•re  caused  by  damp  at  the  liack.  'I'he  Vauxhall  pistes 
■re  no  longer  prized,  for  the  glass  made  in  the  present 
day  ia  tehilcr  and  lietter.  \^'indow-paiies  may  bo  made 
to  reaemble  ground  glass  by  daubing  them  with  putty,  or 
■  brush  with  a  little  thin  paste. 

lirntt  and  copper  are  l>est  cleaned  with  sweet  oil  and 
tripoli,  {Kiwdercd  batli-brick,  rotten-stone,  or  red  brick- 


dust,  rulibed  on  with  flannel  and  pi.liahcd  with  \tMium 
A  strong  Biilulion  of  oxalic  acid  in  water  givri  l,f,„ 
fliK'  colour.     Vitriol  and  spirits  of  salta  soon  niaks  br 
and  co(i|ier  very  bright,  but  they  very  soon  liiriiiih,  »i^ 
consequently  require  more  frequent  cleaiiinn.     A  itru 
ley  of  riiche-alum  and  water  will  alao  iinpmve  linm, 

Siitvt-Kraltt  are  cleaned  with  black-leid  iiiinej  ,:,i 
tur|ientine,  or  with  stnle  U-er  and  yellow  aiiiui,  nnj  ^^ 
liatiml  oil'.  The  liner  lead  is  used  dry,  in  luinp  of  now 
drr.  The  bronzed  work  of  stoves  should  lie  only  |||,|  ,1 
brushed.  Kiittenstone,  or  fine  emery  and  swerl  uil  L 
uwd  for  the  bright  work  of  stoves  and  p<ilwlii'ilrno.|,„'n,. 
the  higher  the  latter  are  polished,  the  less  liliily  ire  th  • 
to  rust.  To  prevent  rust  in  articles  not  o|\eii  uhtJ  «,{ 
them  with  sweet  oil,  and  dust  over  them  \\w  |i,pg , 
with  the  following  mixture: — To  a  quart  of  i„|,i  ^,^ 
adil  half  a  |Huind  of  i|uicklime ;  let  it  slaiiil  iiii'il  iIk  |,j^ 
IS  clear,  when  |iourofl"the  liquiil  and  stir  up  with  ilnoini 
olive  oil,  until  it  becomes  of  a  pasty  coiisisti>m  '  whonii 
sh(nild  be  rublicd  on  the  metal  articles  tc  Ih'  iireiirnreil 
To  fill  cracks  in  stove-backs,  make  a  p'lste  of  wvid.,,,!,,,. 
salt  and  watt'r.  To  remove  rusl,  mix  tripoli,  Buluhur 
and  sweet  oil,  and  clean  the  articles  with  it;  or  mix 
JKiileil  soft  soap  with  emery  No.  H,  which  will  also  di» 
charge  the  lire  murks  from  brigiil  bars.  Htcel-work  mat 
also  Im'  kept  from  rusl  by  variiiHiiing  it  with  liiriirijini. 
in  which  is  dissolved  a  small  proportion  of  India  ruhhet 
(cooutchouc).  Polished  fire-ir<ins  may  be  ls>«t  iirejcncJ 
Irom  rust  by  licing  closely  wrapjs'd  up  in  strmig  browa 
pajHT. 

K'llrhtn  vntfli. — The  crust  on  boilers  nnd  lettlN 
arising  from  the  hard  water  boiled  in  them,  may  Iw  pro! 
vented  by  keeping  in  the  ••  essel  a  marlile,  nr  a  potaij 
tied  in  a  piece  of  linen.  Tin  plate  vessels  un  clcanlr 
and  convenient,  but  unless  dried  at\er  washing,  willnoni) 
rust  in  holes.  Iron  coal-Kco|ies  are  liable  to  rust  from tht 
damp  of  the  coals.  The  tiiiiiiiig  of  copptir  saucfpnni 
must  Is-  kept  perfectly  clean  and  dry,  in  which  caiethcv 
may  be  uwd  with  safety,  (.'op|H'r  fians,  if  put  awgr 
dump,  or  a  li(ii|ing-cop|N'r,  if  left  wi't.  will  bcionu' coalrj 
with  poisonous  crust,  or  verdigris.  I'litinncd  ciipporot 
brass  vessels,  even  if  scoured  bright  and  clean, ore  alwan 
tiangorous.  If  made  diahes  be  allowed  to  coul  nnd  utanil 
for  some  time  in  copper  vcssids,  the  articles  will  become 
poisonous.  In  the  year  1837,  a  lady  awl  her  I'amilv,  ri> 
siding  in  Paris,  were  poisoned  by  partaking  of  d  sifw 
which  had  U'en  oUowed  to  stand  and  get  cold  in  a  (op. 
|H-r  pan.  A  (iermaii  saucepan  is  best  for  boiling  inilkiit, 
This  is  an  iron  saucepan,  glazed  with  white  cartlicnware 
instead  of  being  tinned,  the  gluze  preventing  its  triidrnry 
to  burn.  A  stewpan  made  like  it  is  al-^i  prdcrulile  U  a 
cop|ier  pan,  since  simple  wa  :hing  keeps  it  sweet  and 
clean.  A  method  of  glazing  faucepans  with  osrtluih 
ware  has  lately  lieen  the  object  of  a  patent  in  EnglaiiA 
Zinc  sieves  are  more  easily  kept  clean  ;han  tboae  made 
of  hair,  will  last  longer,  and  not  rust. 

Dish-i liven  are  cleaned  with  fine  whitering  ami  kwpoI 
oil,  and  polished  with  dry  whitening  powiler.  Uritannii 
metal  teapots,  Ac,  should  be  rulibed  with  sweet  oil  on 
ilannel,  then  polished  by  the  hand  with  loltciisli  ;.e,  jnd 
next  washetl  with  soap  and  hot  water,  and  lini^hed  with 
wash-leather  and  whitening  [wiwder.  I'ewier  in  scouipd 
with  fine  whiti;  sund  and  a  ley  made  with  wuud-a»hei, 
or  s>xla  and  water. 

Knifes  are  licst  cleaned  by  rubbing  on  a  flat  board,  on 
which  ia  put  finely  [lowdcreil  iirick-iliist.  Some  refom- 
mend  leather  to  l<e  put  on  the  Iniard  ;  this  may  preveol 
the  knives  from  wearing,  but  it  de|irives  tliem  of  an  edge 
fit  for  cutting.  Never  put  knives  in  hot  water,  for  thai 
loosens  the  handles  and  sjioiis  the  tein|ier  of  the  ite^L 
For  simple  cleaning  after  use,  wipe  them  only  witL  1 
damp  and  then  with  a  dry  cloth. 

Liimpr. — When  lamps  are  foul  inside,  they  «hoiild  he 
cleaned  with  hot  water  and  uearl-asltoa,  and  well  noNJ 


iiinn  them  ea 


USEFUL  ADVICES  AND  ItECEIPTS. 


•19 


tti  Mt  hv  ll>*  ^"^  '"  <''y  l^toro  'he  oil  in  aKiin  put  in. 
llMrlt-Uiiil"*  ••'■■">'<l  'i**  '■Neil  with  Kri'Ht  rnri',  Irat  llii> 
Xiti  tul"'  ''"•'  """'  "IiImh  tli«  "piriu  of  wilit"  Imi  purr, 
It  will  ■<<>(  liurii.  Naphlliii,  wliioh  in  liiirnt  In  witiie  iuiii|M, 
j,  10  iiiflni"'""'''"  "*  '"  '"'  'luiiRtToij*  Id  urns. 

Ijimii-il'i""' — 'f  ''"'  lain(>-Kli>M's  lio  Krouiiil,  l)iirnt 
ipuU  ui"iii  'hrin  ciinnot  Iw  reinnxm!,  ••ut  lUry  iiiiiy  Ih' 
cle«ned  I"""  '''<"  ''iK'fU  of  MnuAe  I'y  WMliini^  with  hiiii|i 
^,j  wBliT,  iinil  thru  rulibiiiK  with  a  ilry  cloth.  Thu 
fliMM  kIiouUI  ulwityx  ho  i^rrMiixt  on  th<*  ouIkhIp. 

>,.riii(i(rf. — MslioKuny  hirriMnie  i»ulway»lH"iitcI('iinril 
Kv  coiUi»u»l  riililiinK :  »i>il  no  fMiinury  Htutl'thut  may  !><■ 
•iiplieil  ^i"  <'oin|>t'nMitn  thn  wnnt  of  IhiM  rei|iiiHit)'. 
Some  furniture  in  what  in  cnllcl  "  Krcnrh  polixhi'il ;"  hut 
ihu  Fri'tich  polixh  Ih  tin  iniKiinnI  |k)hk)'k:4|'iI  nml  iipplinl 
(inly  ^^  ciiliim't-iiiiikiTH,  and  riiniiot  readily  l«'  hud  In 
l,,,i„eli(TlMTi<.  In  ordinary  circiiinHtHnirii,  ihi'ri't'nri',  the 
furniture  iiumt  hr  well  riililwd.  and  with  nomn  eii»ily-pro- 
tunblc  iriiiliTJiil.  'I'ho  li'llowinn  »"'  ''"'  inwteiiiiU  we 
mirtiit; — lake  n  n\\l  and  u  half  of  nnhoiled  linsicd  nil. 
one  gi"  "'  liirpenline,  and  a  tcaHpoonful  of  iiouiidi'd 
|o»f-iU(l:<'.  i^hake  all  well  fonether,  and  rnh  a  portion 
on  the  t>irniturt]  with  a  pieeu  of  Huiniel,  and  poliHli  with 
i  linen  ( !  >lli. 

An  uil  fur  darkening  furniture  may  be  miide  «i*  followx ; 
^Mii  in  """  I''"'  "'  linwed  oil  an  ouno«  of  powdered 
roic-piii^'  lowhii'h  liild  one  onnee  of  alkanet  root,  NMiten 
In  1  mcLiI  iiiortiir  ;  let  the  nnxture  Htand  in  a  warm  plare 
lor  8  few  iliVK,  wlien  the  HulmtaneoH  will  Imvo  settled, 
miJ  tiie  nil,  of  a  <leep  rieh  cijour,  may  he  poured  olV  for 
ii<c:  or  mix  one  onnee  of  alkanet  root,  four  ounce-*  of 
(heil-liic  varnish,  two  ounees  of  tur|)ontine,  and  the  same 
iiuantily  of  iieriH)od  In-eH'-wax,  with  a  pint  of  liiiHeed  oil; 
gild  wh'ii  they  i.avc  Htoo<l  a  week,  the  mixture  will  he 
rPMiy  I.T  line. 

Furniture  pante  in  made  hy  seropinff  a  quarter  of  a 
lound  of  lieen'-wax  into  half  ii  pint  of  turpcntilio,  and 
jptling  it  "land  to  liisHoive.  This  will  keep  the  wo.xl 
liiht  If.  however,  a  quarter  if  a  pint  of  linseed  oil  If 
iiW  t"  the  aliove,  the  eoinposilion  will  darken  the  wooil. 
Anothf'  jp.inle,  UHelnl  for  very  liwht  wood,  is  made  as  fnl- 
hvvii: — In  a  ipiart  of  hot  water  dissolve  six  ounces  of 
ifjrl-asli.  add  a  quarter  of  it  |iound  of  wliif4i  wax,  and 
nimmcr  the  whole  for  half  an  hour  in  a  pipkin ;  lake  it 
■)ff  the  lire,  and  when  it  has  eo<ded,  the  wax  will  float 
upon  the  surface,  :hu1  should  U-  workeil  in  a  mort.ir,  with 
a  little  hot  water,  iino  a  soft  paste.  With  this,  furniture 
nisy  tie  highly  (Hilished,  as  may  also  niarhio  ehimney- 
|iiece».  It  is  necessary  to  mention,  that  furniture  cleaned 
with  paste  has  the  disadvuntiiRe  of  receiving  heat-marks 
iiKiii'  reiidily  than  if  polished  with  linscin]  oil,  which, 
however,  requires  more  time  and  lahour.  In  any  corc, 
the  fumitiiro  should  he  cleansed  from  grease  and  stains 
Wore  polishing  i-  attempted ;  and  this  may  be  done  hy 
washing  the  woiki  with  hot  beer,  or  with  soap  and  water. 
The  salVsl  way  to  heat  furnituri^  paste  or  oil  is  to  place 
the  vesw'l  containing  it  in  another  holding  boiling  water 
upon  the  tire. 

A  fine  varnish  for  mahogany  or  other  furniture  may 
be  thus  made  : — Put  into  a  bottle  two  ounces  of  gum-san- 
dmc,  one  ounce  of  shell-lac,  half  an  ounce  of  mastic,  half 
an  ounce  of  uuni-UMijainin,  one  ounce  of  Venice  tur[)en- 
litic,  and  a  pint  of  spirits  of  wine.  Colour  red  with 
ilnijjou's  blixxl,  or  yellow  with  sallroii.  Let  it  stand  in 
■  warm  place  until  the  gums  are  dissolved,  when  strain 
il  lor  use. 

ynrnifliim. — Uefore  new  furniture  is  varnished,  it 
ihouldhavr  a  coat  of  hoileiloil  (if  wished  to  be  darkened) 
orlitinecd  oil,  ami  he  lell  a  day  or  two  to  harden  ;  or  u 
lbi'„  .,ip,  made  from  isinglass  or  gum-tragacanth,  dis- 
lolved  iu  water,  or  very  thin  glue,  is  used  ;  so  that  the 
pores  of  the  wooil  be  I'dlcil  n|),  and  both  varnish  and  tunc 
*<(  thus  saved.     A  good  varuiah  may  be  made  by  disnolv- 

VoL.  I.—103 


iiig  night  nunrei  of  whit*  wax  and  half  an  oune«  of  yal* 
low  rosin  in  a  pint  of  apiritj  of  tur|H<ntine. 

lUuilcf. — (.'lit  a  raw  potato  into  sin,dl  pieces,  and  pul 
them  in  the  liollle  along  with  a  lable-sponnlol  ol  nult,  and 
two  lable-spoonhds  of  water.  Nhiikc  nil  well  together  in 
the  Isitlli*  till  every  mark  is  removed,  and  rinse  with  ch'Mk 
water.  This  will  remove  stains  of  wine,  green  murk*  of 
vegi'laliim,  anil  other  diMiilournlions.  Hani  i'r\iat  in  hot> 
ties  may  lie  cleaned  olf  by  rilieing  with  water  and  humU 
shot.  Take  cure  to  wash  out  ull  the  shot  before  putting 
the  iMittles  aside. 

I'iih. — Articles  of  plate,  uOi'r  ts-ing  used,  should  ha 
washed  in  liol  wnlnr,  or,  if  stained,  they  shonld  he  boiled, 
and  rinserl  and  dried  before  you  attempt  to  clean  'hem. 
'I'hey  should  he  curetully  hundleil,  else  they  may  receive 
deep  scratches,  which  are  very  dilliciilt  to  renhive.  Be- 
xidrx.  the  ohjrct  is  not  merely  to  clean  the  plate,  hut  to 
poli«h  it,  so  that  it  may  np|H>ar  almost  as  brilliant  n«  when 
il  was  received  new  from  the  silversmith  Tor  thia 
purpose  i|iiicksilvcr  was  formerly  much  ii  ud  in  plate- 
powder,  and  it  gives  the  silver  great  Instri ,  which  soon, 
however,  disappeared,  and  the  article  liectme  tarnished 
and  blackened. 

The  best   plate-powder  ronsisls   of  drii  d  and   finely 
sifleil  whiting  or  chalk.     The  greater  part   )f  the  whitjng 
sold  in  the  shops  is  coarse  tranh,  unlit  for    riibiiing  iijioii 
plate,  and  great  care  must  Im>  taken  to  priHUre  the  tincat 
London  whiting,  which  will  not  scratch. 

Brushes,  hard  and  soft,  sponge,  and  w  ish-leathrr,  arn 
requisite  for  cleaning  plate  ;  if  the  powder  he  mixed  with 
spirits  of  wine  laid  on  with  a  sponge,  and  rubbe<l  off  with 
wash-leather,  all  tarnish  will  bo  removed.  t*talt  stains 
(blackish  H|Hits)  and  sulphur  marks  from  eggs  are  more 
ilillicult  to  remove.  It  iit,a  good  plan  to  boil  a  soil  fine 
old  cloth  in  water  with  some  prepared  chalk  dissolved 
in  it,  and  to  dry  the  cloth,  and  use  it  iiur  polishing 
The  sort  brush  is  for  the  same  purpose,  the  hard  hruab 
being  for  chased  work,  edges,  and  crests,  so  that  no  • 
portion  of  dry  powder  may  remain  in  them.  l'lat« 
should  in  all  cases  Im;  flnished  with  i\  fine  dry  waah 
leather. 

I'lated  articles  should  he  carefully  wijied  dry  after 
washing  them,  else  they  will  rust  or  canker  at  the 
edges,  where  the  silver  first  wears  oft';  nnd  on  this  oc- 
count,  also,  they  should  lie  cleaned  as  rarely  as  [himv 
hie.  German  silver  may  be  cleaned  in  the  same  manner 
as  plate. 

i'mliroiihry  and  f[ohl  lace  should  be  cleaned  only  with 
spirits  of  wine,  or  b'ushed  with  finely-powdered  roehcv 
aluin  nnd  chalk.  For  gold  eh  mis,  diasolve  three  ounces 
of  s.il-ammoniac  in  six  oin  ■<  of  water,  in  which  boil 
the  chain;  then  boil  it  in  sou  soap  and  water,  wash  it  in 
cold  water,  ruh  it  dry  with  flannel,  and  shako  it  in  a  bag 
wi'h  very  dry  hran. 

Fliinxil  or  \nmUcn  iirlirltg, — Wash  ihem  quickly  in 
warm  water,  with  soap.  Wring  and  shake  tlieni  well, 
and  hang  tin m  up  to  dry.  Do  not  let  them  lio  wet 
'i'he  more  quickly  they  arc  dried,  the  less  likely  are  they 
to  shrink. 

S,i  .s. — No  silks  look  well  after  washing,  howevei 
carefully  it  be  done,  and  should  therefore  never  be  resorted 
to  but  from  absidmo  necessity.  We  Inive  seen  it  recom- 
mended to  sponge  faded  silks  with  warm  waier  and  soapk 
then  to  ml'  them  with  a  dry  cloth  on  a  flat  hoard,  nrtel 
which  t'l  iron  them  on  the  inside  with  a  smoothing  iron. 
Hponj;:  .,' with  8|iir^'iS  will  nl.so  improve  old  black  silks 
The  ironing  may  he  done  on  the  rii;ht  side,  with  thin 
pajx-r  s|)re;\d  over  them  to  prevent  glaying. 

/  nl Ji  thrrf. —  Put  a  miinngeable  quantity  inloa  pillow 
case  or  bajj;,  whieh  wash  with  warm  water  and  soap 
Wring  lint  the  hither  nnd  rinse  them  in  clean  water 
Wring  llieiii  iisdry  as  |iOBsilile,  and  hang  them  U|i  'o  dry 
Shake  them  frequently  while  drying.  When  quite  dry 
3Z 


INFOHMATION    FOR  THK  PKOPLR. 


bait  llicrn  to  (rm  (hem  fl'nm  any  (limt  Thcv  iiiity  lie 
now  takiMi  I'roin  tlin  Inik,  (iiiI  ttv  marly  for  umi. 

.  l^irv. —  VVItnii  Urn  li:M  li«t  iU  roloiir,  mm\)  it  wpII  ■ml 
pat  it  in  colli  wiit«r,  jiiai  «iiouKh  l»  rovnr  it  If  iiiik'U 
din-olourivi,  rliitiiKi<  lh«i  Water  at  thn  I'lul  of  Iwi'nty-foiir 
liouri.  WhiMi  Htn«pi<d  autniiniitly,  riiian  it  out;  atarch 
it  •  littls;  pick  it  out  a*  avrnly  a*  |H)«ilil«;  roll  it  in  a 
Uitw'j,  and  whi'ii  nearly  dry,  iron  it.  All  kimta  of  lacn 
«mI»  may  In'  treated  in  •  aiiniinr  manner. 

Si-iiil.  I'/iVA. — Pour  ImilinK  water  U|Hm  liran,  alrain  it, 
•lid,  while  hot,  waah  the  rioth  in  it,  and  rinae  with  hot 
water.  •*4oa|i  ahoiild  not  h<<  uacd.  I'urfile  cloth  may  Ihi 
waihotl  in  Imt  vv.iter  and  pure  ley.  Haiony  or  dark  print 
tlrca^'M  xhould  Im  waaheil  in  twoiiillii'ra.  and  in  the  aecond 
■lioiild  Ih>  poUK'd  a  llllle  ox-Kail,  which  will  freahen  rcda, 
blacka,  and  ntffn»;  and  a  handful  of  aalt  adiled  Ut  the 
luat  riliaiiiH-waler  will  prevent  thn  coloura  running. 

(  Irai  tlnnhiitu  i»  priictiait<l  aa  followa: — Kinae  the  nr- 
ticlca  in  three  watcn,  dry  them,  and  dip  thuin  in  a  thii-k 
Btarcli,  previoualy  atraiiied  throuiih  iniialin;  »i|uce7.c  them, 
•hake  them  Kciitly,  and  UHuin  lianK  them  up  to  dry ;  niid 
when  dry,  dip  thcin  twice  or  lhrlcx<  in  clear  water, 
Kiueezi'  ihein,  apreail  thi'in  on  a  linen  cloth,  roll  them 
up  in  it,  and  let  lliein  lie  an  hour  iH'fore  ironing  them, 
iitimn  |Niniona  put  auffar  {nto  the  atarch  to  prevent  i^ 
•lickini{  wlillr  ironing,  and  otiiera  atir  the  atarch  with  a 
cantlle  to  elli-ct  ll.c  aame  end;  we  oliject  to  ihcac  prac- 
ticea  ua  injiirioua  to  the  article  atnrcheil,  or  aa  very  nuu- 
aooua.  Till'  lieat  plan  to  prevent  HlirkiiiK  i'*  '■>  make  the 
■turrh  well,  and  to  have  the  iruna  quite  clean  and  highly 
polialied. 

Sldiin. — .Staiiia  of  fruit  or  wine  iii  iv  he  generally  rc- 
raovej  ffiini  linen  or  cotton  cloth  hy  placing  the  nrticlcN 
over  the  top  of  a  pnil,  and  pouiing  boiling  water  through 
them  till  the  iiiarka  diaup|M'ar. 

Jiik  maiki  or  irun  tnmitil.i  may  lie  removed  l>y  placing 
■  plu'e  (a  |H>wlcr  '1110  ia  the  heal)  on  the  top  of  a  liaain- 
f<il  of  iMiiliiig  water;  then  apread  the  ailic'ea  on  the 
plate ;  wet  the  npot,  and  rub  it  with  a  ama  I  ipiiintity 
uf  the  aaltri  o(  lemon ;  aa  the  article  drioa,  the  Main  will 
diaap|M'ar.  If  thia  fail,  re)H>at  the  operation.  A  amall 
\xyx  of  aalla  uf  lemon  will  bo  found  very  uaeful  in  a 
oonachold. 

I'liiiU  or  grtine  tpoli  may  lie  removetl  from  woollen 
rliAh  by  tur|)oiitine.  Hmith'a  wuuring  dr<>|>H  ia  a  liquid 
•old  ill  amall  liuttlcM,  which  will  alao  lie  found  elFicacious 
ill  removing  oil  or  K^caac  niarka ;  it  ia  more  ex|M:nHivc 
tlian  tui)M'ntine,  but  hiia  a  leaa  otfeiiaive  odour. 

7V)  t.ilrnil  ureatt  from  lilk, — A«  aooii  after  the  diaco 
▼ery  of  the  injury  a*  {loaaible,  hold  the  part  firmly,  and 
with  a  clean  aoll  white  cloth,  or  an  old  cambric  handker- 
chief, rub  the  i|>ot  briakly,  chuiiKiuK  the  |Kirtiona  of  the 
handkerchief  fre<jUMitly,  and  in  a  minute  or  two  the  apot 
will  di>iup|i<'ar.  Un  ailka  which  fray  eoaily,  thia  plan  will 
bo  uiiauilable. 

MiaCCLLAKEOl'8. 

Tortmovr  a  tight  itiififitr. — It  frequently  hap|)oni  that 
the  Htop[ier  of  a  kIiikm  tiuttle  or  decanter  iM'comea  fixed  in 
itH  place  HO  firmly,  that  the  exeilion  of  force  auiruient  to 
withdraw  it  would  endanger  the  vcswl.  In  thin  case,  if 
a  cloth  lie  wetted  with  hot  water,  nnd  applied  to  the  neck 
uf  the  bottle,  the  i^luaii  will  expand,  and  the  nci  k  will  lie 
rnlar);ej,  au  aa  to  allow  the  Htopper  to  be  caaily  with- 
drawn. 

Evonomiral  full, — In  placca  wSicre  coul  is  acaice  and 
dear,  a  tolerably  gou<l  fuel  may  be  made  by  mixini;  tlie 
culm  or  rcfiiae  droaa  of  coal  with  clay,  anil  moiateiiing 
the  whole  with  water — mawiea  in  the  form  of  bricka  or 
balU  may  be  made,  which,  when  dry,  will  burn  with  an 
intcnac  hcut.  Where  (H'at  prcvaila,  that  article  moy  lie 
eiaily  charred  hy  burning  in  a  covered  pit  or  atove;  and 
tlua  i'h:irrcd  \v,-a\  will  be  found  to  |{ive  a  great  heat  when 
cuHjd  ill  ail  o^H^i  IL's.    The  Dutch  mukc  much  uie  of 


their  turf  in  thia    mnnncr.      Another  eciinomifji  (lj 
eaaily  procurable  where  there  are  wmaU  of  Hrotrf  « 
CtinaiaU  of  fit  conea  or  topa,  which  contain  i  irrai  '   "  i 
lity  of  aolid  wo<iilv  matter  in   addition   tn  the  rnl     ^ 
and  are  excellently  adapted  for  domeatic  Area.         ^^  ' 

/'"  /ii,''i^  iiylr*,  clear  the  aahea  from  the  i|raie  |a, 
few  cindera  for  a  foundation,  upon  which  put  ^  nL~,  , 
dry  crumpled  brown  papi'r.  and  lay  on  ■  few  |„„,||  ?^ 
crimawiao,  then  aoino  of  larger  "i»e,  and  on  i|\,.m  t* 
piecca  of  coal,  and  next  the  large  ciinlera;  nnd  wh,-,)!' 
Ilamea  have  caught  the  coal,  add  n  I  oi'kinit  „{  I 
coal  and  cindura.  When  the  lira  hoa  ta'coin,)  |o« 
to.{ether,  but  do  not  turn  the  lari(e  cindera;  rlnr  ul 
front  of  thn  lower  bar  to  admit  air,  and   \>m*  iho  r^\, 


into  the  bottom  of  the  lire  to  clear  it  of  aahd 


"iiil  tlieii 


with  tonga  put  on  a  few  large  piecea  of  coal  IhauI  ik.  I 
front  of  the  fire,  but  not  on   the  liiqwr  bar,  cKc  u,,  u 
will  amoke.     ('mila  ahould  not  lie  thrown  on.  Iim  n»> 
gently  with  a  acoop  or  aliovel ;    and  even   the  iini,||,^ 
aahea  may  lie   burnt  at   tli"  back   of  tbc  (Ire,  if  (},,„  l, 
covered  with   amall  conl.     The  Iwat  and  (piirldni 
of  reatoring  a  neglectetl  fire  ia  to  alir  out  th,.  ml,,,  ,^ 
with  the  tonga  to  fill  up  the  Mpaeea  between  Ihelnmiiih 
cindera.     If  c.irefuUy   done,   it    ia   aiirpriaing  how  non 
thia  proceaa  will  priHince  a  glowing  lire. 

Aahea  and  amall  cimlera  mixed  with  water  inlnimn 
and  put  on  the  back  of  a  fire  with  a  few  coidn,  hum  w«IL  I 
ao  that  aahea  may  thua  Im-  entirely  burnt  up.    |n  itom 
miller  tH)ilerK,  thia  mixture  ia  very  uaeful,  aa  it  laati  loni 
with  little  addition. 

Siw'ky  rliimiuy>, — The  cauaea  of  amnkineaa  in  r|,||j.  I 
lieya  are  vurioua;  hut  all  arc  connected  with  tin  pny 
(lertiea  of  air  and  heat,  for  the  amoke  ia  only  niirtiolfnJ  j 
culm  aaceiiding  through  the  ngeiicy  of  healed  ajr.  T, 
make  a  cliiinney  vent  well,  the  cohiiiiii  of  heaUKi  lii 
from  the  fire  imiat  not  be  entangled  with  cold  air  {jm 
Iw'iieuth,  nor  retarded  by  cold  air  coming  down  Ihtichi*  I 
ney.  To  ellect  tlie»«' objecta,  the  fireiilaic  mini  r,oi  u  I 
much  larger  than  the  grate,  and  the  rliiiiiney  miiat  beof 
a  certain  length  and  tu'iid.  The  great  Iciiilini;  cauie of 
HinokiiieaH  ia  ccdd  air  aomehow  or  other  luixinn  »illilh« 
warm  air  about  the  mouth  or  throat  of  the  chiniiieT,iiui 
ao  cauaing  a  alugglHtincaa  in  tin  aaceiit,  or  no  aicrnt  it 
all.  Therefore,  the  nearer  the  uir  ia  iimde  to  pau  iju 
fire  on  all  aidea,  the  more  rarefied  it  will  Ih>  ;  ami  the  In* 
vacancy  then'  ia  in  the  chimnev-pluce,  it  will  imcend  »iili 
the  greater  rapidity.  A  pro|H'r  contraclioii  of  the  moulh 
of  the  chimney,  at  the  aame  time  iillowing  thelirclol«| 
fed  freely  with  air,  will  lie  found  in  nioKl  iiiMaims  to 
cure  Hinoke.  Of  lute,  certain  contrivances  culled  dimp.  1 
era,  by  which  the  chimney  throat  cnn  be  narrowed,  hm 
been  the  iHcaiis  of  clfecting  draiiglita,  and  so  ciiiiiit 
amoke.  It  ahould  be  noted,  that  in  coiitriietiii|;chimD(; 
throata,  the  contraction  a'lioiild  not  lie  all  at  unro,  bulil 
firat  gradual,  and  then  atraight  0|  wurd,  m  an  uol  k 
allow  a  volume  uf  cold  nir  to  lurk  in  u  hnllow  abovr,  A 
chimney  lieiiig  wide  at  bottom,  and  gruiiually  iiarrowbjg 
towards  the  next  atory,  ullowa  the  coldish  air  to  hiii| 
aliout  the  lower  jmrta,  by  which,  when  a  glut  of  wnd 
coini'a,  the  amoke  ia  driven  back  into  the  room.  Tliii  i 
kind  of  amokineaa  ia  the  inuat  ti-aaing  of  ull  thefornuol 
chimney  diaciiara.  Every  little  pulf  of  "  nj  I  wniii  i 
amuller  or  largi>r  quantity  of  amoke  inl"  llie  aparlnifiil, 
and  often  when  it  ia  leaat  expected.  IVrhups  thii  kial 
of  Kniokiiieaa  ia  not  in  all  cu.-iea  caused  by  wrontcoo- 
atruction,  but  uriaca  from  the  aituation  of  the  houiie;tii4  { 
of  thia  we  aliall  immediately  aay  a  few  words. 

If  a  funnel  of  a  chimney  be  made  too  narrow  loilTotd  I 
an  cuay  piuutage  to  the  top,  the  amoke  will  thru  natuiall; 
be  forced  into  the  room  to  tiiid  Home  other  passii^i  tbil 
defect  is  very  common,  and  the  remedy  truublciinnwuj 
dilFicult.  The  most  efTectuiil  cure,  if  the  HJliiation nil 
I  admit,  ia  to  build  a  amall  additional  Hue,  and  ojicnilioli  j 
i  into  it  from  the  back  of  the  chimney,  near  thelerclof 


U8KPUL   ADVICM   AND   RKOKIPTS. 


8lt 


1^  P,iin(ol-|)i<'<'''.  •InntinK  iiiir  nU  in  an  r«iy  ilirwiluni 
jin  iuui'lci'K'"'*'  '^""  """  '*"  '^■'I'iixl  III  lhi<  lop  »f  thi< 
wiM.nK  •■>  rwivo  Ou"  •iirplun  of  lh«i  arnokn,  atxl  will 
nrote  a  mrtain  i^urti.  If  llie  ailunlioti  will  mil  allow  of 
llii.  (>i|M><li<'i>'- ''■"  fli'l'lx'i  iiioy  Ih<  riiiUriirtiMl  Imlh  in 
MMilih  *imI  IwiRht,  ■  ■iiialirr  grstfl  iiard.  ami  thn  rhiiii- 
M«  hci^lilcMfHl  al  thn  up ;  wliirh  will  i)lilii(r  tlw  air  lo 
M«  i'l»*'  "**'''  ''"  '"'"'  "'"'  <='*''y  f  C  'ha  aiiKikn  with 
i^lrr  rii|iiililv,  for  the  ipiirki-r  llm  diirrnl,  tlir  l«a«  nmin 
'I  ^iiiri-K.  ''^hiiillil  thi>  rtiiiiiiicy  dUII  mmikx.  .1  lilowt-r, 
„  friiiit  pl<<t>'.  to  put  <iii  iiriil  tnk"  nlF  iit  plnaaiirp,  will  Iw 
ofiinf.  Hut  if  none  of  iheiMi  prnwriptioiiN  niiHWur,  then 
^ijpiliiin  iniml  Im'  iliino  to  iinprovo  the  ciirn^nt  of  air 
liwiiriU  till'  rtri'.  Tliii  lirinn*  im  lo  a  coiiaiilnrntion  of 
llie  wiin*.  of  viMililatiiin  in  tlip  room. 

II'  thx  cliiiiiiivy  anil  flmplncx  tio  faiiltleu,  and  yrt 
iitiolti'.  it  >■*  nli'ioot  nrtain  tli.it  thrro  i«  a  wiint  of  vi-nti- 
liiiiim.  In  uriliiiiiry  riri  Lmatnncea,  ta  inui-li  iiir  in  lul- 
Diillril  l>Y  •'l>>»'<'*  ■■>  winilowi  ami  ilmir*  a»  will  feed  a  fire ; 
jjl  jf  till'  room  bo  rrnderml  very  clow  by  t'loMing  aa 
lutny  I'll'")"  »*  (HiMibli),  liow  ia  tbn  lire  to  recrive  airl 
ArconliiDl  to  tlir  plan  on  whirh  hnuiwa  are  K^nrrally 
>ioill  vi-iitilatioii  ia  left  to  b«  a  iniKti-r  of  rliance.  'i'li 
mililal"  "'>  "'''  '"'uae  ia  thi'rrfuro  no  naay  taak.  The 
MIowiiiK  plana  are  worth  cun»  'erinn,  for  thry  have  boi'i 
fouml  loa'iawer: — ('ontrive  briuK  a  aninll  '"'•"  ^""i 
ihecitTiinl  air,  or  from  a  atnircaan  or  lobby,  to  a  [loint 
bfiii'alh  the  urute,  ao  aa  to  rauae  a  free  riirroiit  of  nir  to 
rradi  the  lire.  If  the  mouth  of  the  tiilie  ImiIhw  lie  i;rate 
Ih.  |,i|)|hmI  with  a  ruwl,  the  iiahef.  *ill  ou  pn-  "ited  from 
bAm  '"'"  "•  Wu">"  y«ara  ano,  the  riHim»  i.f  a  puhlir 
olBce  in  Bil'iiburnh  were  completely  cured  of  ainoke  by 
Ihiii  limple  I  irivani-f.  after  all  other  inouiia  h.id  fai!  ' 
Another  plan  conaiata  III  pcrfiiratinif  amull  hoUw  in  ''c 
eoml»'  or  uxif.  fur  tb'-  air  to  ^ain  adiiiiaaio  but,  unfor- 
tunately, unli'HH  caro  «■  taki'n  lo  prtveiil  •  ''  ,  ihe  cure 
it  a|it  t<)  be  worao  than  the  diaoaae. 

Oaitea  are  liy  ii<<  meana  uncommon  ot  iire-placea  i;iv> 
int;out  a  piitTof  amoke  every  time  the  door  of  the  room 
is  ihut.  The  caiiae  of  thia  kind  of  amokiiiran  u  the 
rinl  of  ventilut'on  in  the  room.  In  ahiittiiiK  the  door, 
il  pullx  out  a  ciTtain  quantity  of  air,  which  cannot  lie 
iffiKilnl  to  Im>  JiMi,  or  it  ciiuaea  auch  diatrai-tion  of  the 
current  towarda  the  tiro,  that  the  equilibrium  that  carrien 
op  the  amoke  ia  deatroyed,  and  a  puff  di.wnwiirda — in 
othfr  wnnli,  a  rush  of  air  loiidt'd  with  ainoko  from  the 
rhimiicv — ia  the  coiiaoquence.  It  wilt  lie  remarked,  thut 
this  amiikineaa  orcura  moat  frequently  when  the  door  ia 
en  the  aaiiii)  aide  of  the  room  na  the  fireplace.  Wo 
noulil  therefore  -idviae  hoaac-plann«ra  to  avoid  thia  b.td 
iL-nji'inPiit.  If  poasible,  let  the  door  be  on  a  ditferent 
liile  iMin  that  in  which  the  fire  ia  placed.  Moat  houaes 
innhirh  the  chimney  o  the  miildle  walla  inatoad 

of  the  nablea,  have  th.  '..•':  .ve  mention.  A  remedy  for 
thii  amnkineaa  ia  to  ronira  c  the  mouth  of  the  chimney, 
ind,  if  poaaible,  hci|;hten  the  atalk ;  for  if  the  chimney 
b«  prrlty  long,  the  he^itcd  air  ascondinf;  it  Koea  with  auch 
I  force  that  the  'Jtor  heavy  air  cannot  get  down,  at 
!ea*t  not  lo  ao  g.'cat  an  extent  aa  to  cauae  a  puff  when 
the  door  is  abutting.  In  aonie  caaea,  the  cnuao  of  the 
diipaRe  will  do  found  to  be  nir  ruahinf^  up  behind  the 
grate,  if  a  register,  and  then  coining  down  to  aupply  the 
fire,  the  action  of  the  dooi  diaturliing  the  current  This 
i)  therefore  an  argument  for  nlwaya  taking  care  t«  build 
rtgiateratovea  quite  cloae  behind,  not  leaving  the  amalleat 
crevice  for  air  lo  steal  up  the  chimney  without  firat  going 
Ihrounh  the  fire. 

In  erecting  chimneya,  it  ahould  Iv?  a  rule  to  carry  thera 
«p  a  good  way  in  a  perpendicular  direction,  before  mak- 
ing a  turn,  by  whiih  ineana  the  heated  air  gaina  a  force 
in  its  primary  vcrlical  uacent,  which  carriea  it  over  future 
difficulties.  In  walla  in  which  the  tiroplaco  of  one  story 
i>  iinincdiiitely  liclow  the  fireplace  above,  it  is  impo.saiblo 
W  gri  a  perfect  atraight  for  any  groat  length;  iherefirs 


Ihia  inuat  >i«  left  In  the  Judgment  of  lh«  hnildar.  Il  W 
•lao  ailvaiilagiMiiia  for  all  rhimney*  lo  have  a  bend  ui 
them  liel'orr  reaching  the  top,  mid  a  iiarret  chimney  ahuaU 
have  two  lieiida.  Kor  w,int  of  attention  to  ttiia  lop  band- 
ing,  many  coltugr  and  aninll  villa  chimneya  amok*.  Th« 
uae  of  lienda  ia  obvioiia.  Htrnng,  audilnii,  and  ai:ridantaj 
guata  of  wind  aonieliinna  enter,  and  beat  into  the  top  of 
Iha  chimney  ;  a  liirniiig  or  bend,  therefore,  will  break 
the  force  of  the  win, I,  and  prevent  it  rn|H'lling  the  healed 
air  downwarda.  Hut  if  the  chiinnny  ia  atrnight,  and  llr 
guat  mm>t  Villi  no  iiiterrupti'ii,  it  will  ato|i  tha  paaaan 
of  the  ainoko  fur  a  while,  and  of  ciiurae  force  what  riaar 
from  the  fire  immediately  into  the  chanrtier.  It  ia  tu  lie 
ohaerved,  that  the  farther  the  wind  gria  dovn  the  funnel 
the  greater  alrenglh  will  be  required  to  re^iel  it;  there- 
fore the  nearer  to  the  top  the  Ix-nd  or  winding  ia,  tha 
bettor.  AIho,  if  there  ia  a  atorin  of  wind,  with  heavy 
aho-.vera  of  hail,  anow,  or  ruin,  fulling  perpendicularly  ia 
great  dropa,  the  Aral  liend  of  turning  will,  in  part,  atop 
their  progreaa;  but  if  the  funnel  ia  (lerpendicular  all  tha 
way  down,  (he  groat  drupr  of  hail,  anow,  and  rain,  will 
fall  freely  to  the  bottom,  re|ielling  the  amoke  into  tha 
room ;  and  if  the  funnel  i  i  foul,  great  quiintitiea  of  aool 
will  lie  driven  down.  Theae  reaaona  recommend  a  bend 
in  aoiiio  part  of  the  funnel  aa  ulwulutely  neceaaary. 

(iarret  chimneya  are  more  liable  lo  ainoke  than  any 
other  in  the  house,  owing  to  the  ahortneaa  of  tha  funneli 
for  when  the  compoaition  of  rnroflml  air  and  amoke  haa 
made  its  way  up  a  high  funnel,  it  forma  a  alrong  column, 
and  to  rr|)ii|  it  requiroa  n  pro|iortionably  great  foroa,*  but 
::,  a  garr<  t  chimney  thia  atrong  column  cannot  be  ob« 

ned;  llierel'ore,  what  cannot  he  had  from  nature  muM 
tin  aimed  at  by  art.  'i'he  I'uiilt  in  moat  garret  chimneya 
ia  lieing  carried  up  in  a  atraight  direction  from  bottom  I4> 
top  in  a  k'  venly  manner,  and  with  I'unncla  aa  large  ■■ 
any  in  tli  '  luao ;  whereby  the  little  internal  rarefied  ak 
haa  the  whole  immediatu  preaaurc  of  the  atmoaphora  M 
reaiat,  which,  in  general,  ia  too  powerful  for  it.  Uut  • 
garret  or  cottage  chimney  carried  up  and  executed  in  a 
proper  inunner,  with  due  proportion  in  every  part,  actsord> 
ing  to  the  ai/o  of  the  room,  and  the  funnel  in  an  eaay 
crooked  direction,  wi*l  draw  and  be  aa  clear  from  amoka 
aa  any  other. 

When  amokineaa  ia  produced  by  too  ahort  a  chimney, 
it  will  he  noccMaiiry  to  add  to  ita  length  either  by  building 
the  atalk  higher,  or  inserting  nn  earthenware  pot  or  iron 
tube  at  the  aunimit.  The  building  of  higher  atulka  is  an 
infallible  remedy,  provided  all  be  right  below,  but  it  ii 
attended  with  danger  to  adjoining  roofa.  I'ota  or  cam 
are  useful  both  in  adding  to  height  and  in  causing  a  free 
diaeng8;;emeiit  and  shooting  of  the  amoke  aa  soon  aa  it 
enters  the  outer  otmoaphere. 

Another  very  common  cause  of  amokineaa  is  firea  over- 
powering  one  another.  For  instance,  if  there  be  two 
chimneys  in  one  large  room,  and  you  make  fires  in  both 
of  them,  the  doors  and  windows  close  shut,  you  will  find 
that  the  greater  and  stronger  fire  shall  overpower  ttia 
weaker,  and  draw  air  down  ita  funnel  to  supply  ita  own 
.lemand ;  which  air  descending  in  the  weaker  funnel, 
will  drive  down  ita  srtiokc,  and  force  it  into  the  room, 
If,  instead  of  lieing  in  one  room,  the  two  chimneya  are  in 
two  dill'crent  rooms,  communicating  by  a  door,  the  caaa 
ia  the  same  whenever  that  door  ia  open.  In  a  very 
tight  house,  it  has  lieen  known  that  a  kitchen  chimney 
on  the  lowest  floor,  when  it  had  a  great  fire  in  it,  haa 
overpowered  any  other  chimney  in  the  house,  and  drawn 
air  and  amoke  into  its  room,  as  often  as  the  door  wia 
opened  communicating  with  the  staircase.  The  remedy 
for  this  ia,  to  take  caro  that  every  room  in  a  houae  haa 
the  means  of  supplying  itself  with  what  air  't  requires,  so 
tliat  it  does  not  need  to  burrow  air  from  other  rooma 
Back  ainoko  is  only  cold  air  loaded  with  smoke  coining 
down  into  a  room  from  an  adjoining  chimney-top,  ui 
I  order  to  supply,  in  the  readiest  naiMer,  air  to  thai  rooik 


in*' 


w 


I 


^) 


m 


INFORMATION   FOR   THE   PEOPLE. 


Thii^,  Rtp»  in  tho  lower  pnrt  of  a  house  will  draw  air 
«ven  trom  a  garret  ronin,  niul  this  ^rret  room  will  draw 
air  tn  Hupply  itx  dcticionry,  by  taking  it  in  a  smoky  con- 
dition from  next  house. 

SmokinesH  is  also  produced  when  the  tops  of  chimneys 
•re  commnndod  by  hiijher  buildings,  or  by  a  hill,  so  that 
the  wind  blowing  over  such  einiiiencps  fulls,  like  water 
over  a  dam,  on  the  tops  of  chimneys  that  lie  in  its  way, 
and  boats  down  the  smoke  contained  in  them.  Some- 
times we  have  seen  the  droll  phenomenon — though  it  is 
no  laughing  matti^r — of  every  particle  of  smoke  all  of  a 
sudden  pouring  into  the  room,  in  consequence  of  a  gust 
of  winil  blowing  pertinaciously  for  several  minutes  dnwn 
the  chimney.  Such  a  form  of  smokincss  arises  chiefly 
from  the  situation  of  the  house,  ami  the  want  of  a  l)end 
in  the  chimiicy.  I'he  remedy  to  bo  applied  is  fixing  on 
the  top  of  the  chiniiiey  a  turning  c^ip  or  cowl,  which  acts 
like  a  weather-cock,  and  keeps  itn  closed  side  to  the  wind. 
These  cowl^,  however,  are  creaking,  noisy  things;  and 
being  hence  insuHcrable  near  sleeping  rooms,  are  only  to 
be  resorted  l>  when  more  simple  means  have  failed. 

Prerfrrins  menl. — To  preserve  meat  for  a  few  days 
fre-»h  in  warm  weather,  wash  it  lightly  over  with  a  brush 
or  sponge,  with  a  mixture  com|H)sed  of  two  thirds  pyro- 
ligneous  acid,  and  one  third  water.  The  acid,  which  is  a 
kind  of  vinegar,  gives  it  no  flavnur,  and  the  meat  requires 
no  washing  before  Iwing  cooked. 

.Meat  may  l)e  preserved  fresh  for  any  length  of  time 
by  being  put  in  tin  cases  secluded  from  the  air.  To  do 
this  ert'ectually,  put  the  meat  in  the  case ;  then  soliler  on 
the  top  or  lid.  but  leaving  in  it  a  small  hole  the  size  of  a 
pea ;  now  plunge  the  case  in  a  ve««>l  full  of  steam, 
where  let  it  remain  a  few  minutes,  by  which  the  air  will 
be  exptdled.  The  case  is  now  to  b  taken  out,  and  the 
amall  hole  instantaneously  closed  by  solilering  a  jiiecc  of 
tin  the  hize  of  a  wafer  over  it.  Uy  means  such  as  this. 
meat,  fish,  and  soup,  may  Ix-  preserved  for  years,  and 
when  used,  they  will  lie  foi'.id  ((uite  fresh. 

Salting  and  »f»ioi'i)ig  nient, — The  following  method, 
which  requires  only  forty-eight  hours,  may  be  adopted 
for  saltmg  and  smoking  meat: — A  cpiantity  of  sall|)i'tre. 
equal  to  the  common  sidt  that  would  be  re<iuired  for  the 
meat  in  the  u<ual  way.  must  Is-  dissolved  m  water.  Into 
this  the  meat  to  be  smoked  must  1h'  put,  and  kept  over 
a  slow  fire  till  all  the  water  is  evaporated.  It  imist  then 
be  hung  up  in  a  thick  smoke  for  twenty-four  hours, 
when  it  will  be  found  equal  in  llavour  to  the  Ih-sI  Ham- 
■•  burgh  smoked  meat  that  has  been  kept  several  weeks  in 
•al',  as  red  throughout,  and  ecpmlly  liun. 

To  purify  water,  put  into  a  hogshead  of  it  a  large 
table-spoonful  of  powdered  alum,  stir  it,  and  in  a  few 
hours  the  impurities  will  Ik-  sent  to  the  bottujn.  \  paillul 
of  four  gallons  may  be  purified  by  a  single  leas|)oonful 
of  alum.  Freshly-burnt  charcoal  is  also  an  excellent 
•weetener  of  water. 

To  filter  water. — Put  into  an  earthen  vessel  (such  as 
BUu':ir-bakers  use  t.>  form  the  h>aves  in,  with  a  small  hole 
at  the  bottom  or  pointe<l  end)  some  pieces  of  sponge, 
and  on  them  a  sufficient  number  of  small  clean  pebbles 
to  quarter-fill  the  vessel.  Hang  this  filter  end  down- 
winl,  in  a  barrel  with  the  heail  out,  leaving  a  space  of 
id'out  two  or  three  inches  iMtwwn  the  end  of  the  filter 
Hnd  the  Ixittivn  of  the  barn!.  The  upper  part  of  tin- 
filter  should  be  kept  a  litilr  al>ove  the  top  of  the  barrel, 
which  mwit  always  lie  kept  full  of  water.  'I'he  sediment 
of  the  water  will  remain  at  the  bottom  of  the  barrel,  ninl 
lh»'  pure  water  will  rise  through  tlie  sponge  and  pebbles 
l»  the  vacant  part  of  the  filler.  It  may  lie  hung  In  a 
cisi  :rn,  or  waU'r-bult  if  more  convenienL  'i'he  [Kibbles 
and  t<(ionge  should  Im"  cleatistd  iM'casionally. 

Another  economical  filter  may  Iw  inad;  by  taking  out 
4le  head  of  a  cask,  setting  it  uprlglit,  iiu!  at  a  distance 
M  about  one-thirJ  from  the  luttoni  putir,}  in  a  shelf  or 
^rtiiton   t>ierc«d   with  amalt   holes;    Jtib   shelf   being 


covered  with  pebbles,  upon  which  is  a  layer  of  f  «* 
charcoal  made  from  bones;  and  over  this  lay  finp  i 
to  the  depth  of  an  inch,  covered  with  another  lav  i 
pebbles;  and  upon  this  should  be  placed  another  sh?! 
pierced  with  holes,  to  prevent  the  pt-bbles,  ggnd  i 
charcoal  iH-ing  disturbed  by  the  water  which  i^  pouivl 
runs  in  at  the  top  of  the  cask;  and  atler  passini.  thjo  "i! 
the  filler,  is  drawn  olT  by  a  crane  placed  at  the  bottum  o! 
the  cask. 

Dryin!;  flmivrs  as  sprrimcns. — .\  writer  in  the<i\ 
Monthly  Uelle  Assemblt-e"  recommonds  the  followl 
plan: — "As  pressure  is  necessary  for  drying,  flowers  th' 
first  thing  requisite  is  to  construct  a  press,  which  in  ij' 
instance  is  conipos«?d  of  two  of  the  thickest  mill  i 
iHiards,  each  twenty  inches  in  length  and  fourteen  l 
width  ;  also  two  leather  atrai  ■;  with  buckles,  and  holes 
intervals,  to  allow  for  the  varying  bulk  of  the  press'  th 
procure  two  quiri's  of  coarse  sugar  [laper,  which  tan  h, 
purchased  at  a  grocer's.  After  having  selected  the  most 
jK-rfect  specinu'iis  of  flowers,  with  their  stems,  lowe 
leaves,  and  roots,  when  practicable — and  cnnfnUy  nk. 
serve  that  the  plants  be  free  from  dew  or  moi.sture— !• 
every  portion  out  nicely  on  one  of  the  coarse  Bheets. 
being  careful,  at  the  same  time,  that  one  part  ofthesnc. 
cimen  does  not  interfere  with  another:  the  leaf  should  be 
filled.  Allow  several  sheets  to  intervene  before  anolhc 
sheet  is  occupied  !-y  speiimens.  If  the  flowers  be  deli. 
cate,  their  colour  will  be  better  preserved  by  phicini;  blou 
ting-pa|)er  between  the  folds,  to  absorb  the  aioijiur» 
The  plants  are  now  ready  to  Iw  put  into  the  press,  ilij 
8lra|)s  forming  the  pressure,  which,  however,  mist  notU 
great  at  first.  It  is  necessary  to  remove  the  flowers  every 
day,  and  dry  the  pni)ers  at  the  fire.  When -the  spech 
mens  are  quite  dry,  they  should  Ih'  taken  from  the  prea, 
and  each  jilant  separately  sewed  or  fasleiud  with  gum  on 
to  half  sheets  of  foolsc.ip  (a  very  sullicient  sulistitutc  for 
gum  will  1h!  found  in  the  margins  of  the  penny  stamps, 
when  cut  into  narrow  strips)  ;  they  may  then  be  arranged 
in  their  nafiral  orders,  with  the  Liiniiean  class  and  order 
and  their  place  of  growth,  appended  in  the  lower  coriien 
of  the  paper.  The  sheeii  *.hus  cla.ssi'd  make  up  the  Her- 
barium or  llirtun  Sirnis,  and  are  kept  in  triivs,  Iwxfs,  or 
in  a  cabinet  constructed  for  the  purpose,  in  u  drv  room 
when  they  will  be  ready  for  future  reference,  which  ii 
the  principal  use  to  be  derived  from  making  a  collectica 
of  plants." 

J'lesrn'ini;  floiririi  frefh— In  the  '•  Gardeners' Chro. 
nich'."  the  following  ap|H'ars  on  this  sulijcci :— -•.  h  is 
now  eighteen  years  ago  since  we  first  saw,  in  the  draw- 
ing-room of  a  gentleman,  in  the  hot  dry  weallier  of  the 
dog.<lays,  flowers  [iresi^rved  day  aller  day  In  all  ihfir 
freshness  by  the  following  simple  contrivance  ;— .A  Bai 
dish  of  porcelain  ha<l  water  poured  inlo  it.  In  llic  wain 
a  vase  of  flowers  was  set ;  over  the  whole  a  tiell.glasj 
was  placed  with  its  rim  in  the  water.  This  was  i 
'  Ward's  casi' '  in  principle,  nlthout;li  ililferent  in  its  con. 
struction.  The  air  that  surrounded  the  llmvers,  jjciiig 
confined  beneath  the  bell-glass,  was  e()n.^lanlly  nioiil 
with  the  water  that  rose  inlo  it  in  the  form  ol  vapnnr, 
.\s  fii^t  as  the  water  was  condciiseil,  it  ran  down  !h( 

'  sides  of  the   Ixdl-glass  back  into  the  dish  ;  and  li  moani 

'  had  iMM'n  taken  to  enclose  the  water  on  the  eiitsidooiliK 
Is'll-elass,  so  as  to  preveiit  its  evaporitini,'  inio  llic  air 

I  of  the  sitting-riHifii,  the  utniospliere  around  the  Amir' 
would  have  remained  continually  damp.  What  is  lli« 
expl.inalion  of  this  I  \)u  Ibe  llo.virs  lecil  on  the  view 
less  vapour  that  surronnds  them!  Perha|p!<  ihov  do; 
but  the  great  cause  iit  their  preserving  Iheir  freshiifsiU 
to  be  sought  in  another  fact.      Wlin  llowers  arelwugh' 

I  into  a  silting-room,  they  faile  because  of  the  dryncssol 
the  air.  'i'he  air  of  a  sitting-room  is  usually  somethmj 
drier  than  that  of  the  garden,  and  always  nnich  moreu 
than    that    of   u    good    greenhous*-   or  sieve.    Flowen 

I  wlwi.  gathered,  ur<   cu'.  uir  'V/ti  the  suiiply  of  moiitun 


USEFLL  ADVICES  AND    RECEIPTS. 


8S1 


■nllected  {•^t  '''*'"  ^y  "^''''  '■"o^'  *"'!  *'>*''  mutilated 
itrns  are  fur  from  having  so  ffreat  a  power  of  sucking 


op  fluids  nstlio  roots  have, 


If,  then,  with  diminiuhcd  j 
mwers  of  feeding,  they  are  exposed  to  augmented  per-  i 
mration,  a«  is  Ihe  cnso  in  a  dry  sitting-room,  it  is  evident  [ 
that  the  lialnnce  of  gain  on  the  one  hand  hy  the  roots,  ' 
1  jf  loss  on  the  other  hand  liy  llieir  whole   surface, 
iniiot  he  maintained.     The  result  can  only  he  tlieir  dc- 
iniclion.    Now,  to  place  them  in  a  chimp  atmosphere  is  | 
ig  restore  this  balance ;  hecausc,  if  their  power  of  suck-  | 
.     j,y  tiipir  womuled  ends  is  diminished,  so   is   their  l 
powpr  of  perspiring ;  for  a  damp  atjnosphere  will   rob  ; 
ih'niof  no  water — lieiice  they  maintain  llicir  fri'shncss. 
Tho  only  il'fl''reni'e  between  jplanis  in  a 'Ward's  case' and 
flowers  ill  the  little  nppiiratus  just  descrilicd  is  this — that  i 
ihe  former  is  intended  for  plants  to  grow  in  for  a  consider-  i 
jble  space  of  time,  while  the  latter  is  merely  for  their  pre-  j 
tftvalion  for  a  few  days;  and  that  the  air  whirh  mr-  | 
munils  'he  flowers  is  always  ehargeu  with  tlio   same  , 
nuant'tv  of  vapour,  will  vary  with  the  circumstances,  and 
illhc  will  of  him  who  has  the  nianao;cment  of  it.     We  j 
recommend  those  who  love  to  sen  plenty  of  fresh  flowers  ; 
in  iheir  sitting-rooms  in  dry  weather  to  procure  it.     The 
experiment  can  be  tri(  \  by  inserting  a  tumbler  over  a 
roic-bud  in  a  saucer  of  water." 

DESTROYING    VERMIN. 

The  best  plan  for  preventing  the  att.icks  of  vermin  in 
houses  is  to  keep  the  house  scrupulously  c'.oun;  for 
ivherp  ''  re  is  rloanliness  and  ordinary  precautions,  no 
,enni    -mH  genorale  or  exist. 

/l',l^«  mill  rniir. — These  might  in  most  instances  he 
completely  prevented  from  encroaching  in  dwellings  hy 
.|;j„j,  a  8olid  foundation  to  a  house,  cutting  olV  the  ap- 
proach by  gritini  the  drains,  but  esjKicially  by  fdling  up 
ill  open  spaces  beneath  pavements  and  in  walls  and  par- 
tilioris.  Mice  miaht  be  ellc'ctually  kept  out  by  only  lill- 
uij  up  the  ppuces  lic-hiiid  skirting  lionrds  in  rooms.  These 
recant  spaces  are  invariably  the  habitations  of  mice,  and 
the  first  tiling  «ny  person  should  do  in  entering  into  po«- 
(fssion  of  a  domicile,  is  to  cause  all  the  spaces  behind 
Ihe  skirling-bnards  and  w-iinscot  to  be  filled  with  plas- 
ter. When  mice  and  rats  ii..'.e  gained  a  footing  in  a 
house,  they  should  be  taken  off  by  a  cat  or  trap,  and 
when  one  kind  of  trap  fliils,  another  may  be  tried.  All 
(chcmes  for  poisoning  them  with  arsenic  or  other  ingre- 
dients arc  dangerous,  and  cannot  be  recommended. 

jjiigf 'I'hese  pests  exist  only   in  dirty  houses.     A 

careful  hniisewili'  or  servant  will  sf.on  completely  destroy 
Ihem.  The  surest  method  of  dtstruction  is  to  catch 
them  individually  when  they  attack  the  ()erpon  in  lu'd. 
When  their  bite  is  felt,  instantly  rise  and  light  a  candle 
and  capture  them.  This  may  be  troublesome,  but  if 
there  be-  not  a  great  numl>«;r,  a  few  nights  will  finish 
them.  When  there  is  a  large  number,  and  they  have 
pined  a  lodgment  in  the  timbers,  take  the  bed  in  pieces, 
and  fill  in  all  Ihe  ap<'rtureH  and  joints  with  a  mixture  of 
soft  soap  and  Scotch  anuff.  A  piece  of  wicker-work, 
called  a  bug-trap,  placed  at  the  head  of  the  bed,  forms  a 
receplarle  for  them,  and  then  they  may  be  daily  caught 
till  no  more  are  left.  Fumig  'tions  are  very  dangerous, 
iml  rarely  effectual,  therefore  iilteni|)t  no  such  project. 
Dil-painliiig  a  wall  is  a  sure  inr.ins  of  excluding  and 
deatroying  them. 

Finis. — Thcie  is  no  way  of  ridding  a  bed  or  house  of 
these  vermin  but  excessive  cleanliness.  Keep  the  floors 
well  swept  and  washed,  and  if  you  have  a  dog,  comb 
iiid  'A'ash  it  frec|uently.  Fleas  are  bred  in  the  ground, 
or  among  dust. 

Liii  are  now  almost  unknown  in  England.  Wher- 
e'er Ihey  are  found,  there  i-erlainly  also  is  found  dirli- 
riMJ.  Ignorant  people  imagine  thai  these  nauseous  ver- 
min breed  spontancnuKly  ;  this  is  a  gross  error.  Uy 
ckanliness  the]  are  completely  prevented  ;  and  the  mure 


warm  the  climate,  so  is  the  necessity  fc:n'  cleanlineM 
greater. 

Ihelles,  Cockroachen,  and  Crickets, —  These  may  he 
caught  in  traps,  A  simple  trap  for  them  is  a  glaznd 
basin  or  pie-dish  hulf-flilcd  with  sweetened  beer  or  milk, 
and  to  the  edge  of  which  a  piece  of  wood  is  laid  from 
the  floor  as  a  gangway.  Do  not  attempt  poisoning  or 
fumigation. 

Hies. — It  is  diflicult  to  rid  a  house  of  flies  by  Bny 
other  plan  than  poisoning,  and  that  is  too  dangerous  to 
be  recommended.  A  composition  of  milk,  sugar,  and 
pepper,  will  attract  and  kill  them,  and  so  will  a  decoction 
of  quasia;  but  both  cau.se  them  to  make  offensive  marks 
on  the  walls  and  furniture  before  they  die.  Oilt  frames 
and  chandeliers  should  be  shrouded  in  thin  yellow  gauze 
or  paper,  in  situations  where  the  flies  arc  likely  to  spoil 
them.  Trees  about  a  house  form  a  harbour  for  flies,  as 
well  as  dirt  of  all  kinds.  Cleanliness  and  airiness  are 
.he  best  preventives. 

AIdIIis. — 'I'ho  best  way  to  preserve  furs  or  worsteds 
from  moths  is  to  sew  them  closely  up  in  a  bag  of  new 
unwashed  linen;  if  this  be  not  done,  the  next  best  is  to 
take  the  articles  frequently  out  and  brush  and  air  them. 
The  odour  of  camphor,  shavings  of  Russia  leather, 
lavender,  &c.,  are  much  less  elllcacious  than  they  are 
supposed  to  be.     Kill  every  flying  moth  which  you  see. 

iStiiifs. — Take  a  (luantity  of  cabbage  leaves,  and  cither 
put  them  into  a  warm  oven,  or  hold  them  before  a  fire 
till  they  are  quite  soil ;  then  rub  them  with  unsalted 
butter,  or  any  kind  of  freah  dripping,  and  lay  them  in 
the  places  infested  with  slugs.  In  a  few  hours  the  leaves 
will  be  found  covered  with  snails  and  slugs,  which  may 
then  be  destroyed  in  any  way  you  think  fit. 

SMALL    DOMESTIC    MANUFACTURES. 

The  attempt  to  make  all  sorts  of  articles  for  domcslio 
use  is  now  far  from  economical,  as  the  time  and  exjiense 
bestowed  u|)on  them  are  often  of  greater  amount  than 
what  would  buy  the  things  ready  made  from  the  shops. 
We  therefore  confine  our  directions  to  articles  which  may 
require  to  be  manufactured  in  families  at  a  great  distance 
from  towns,  or  for  the  families  of  emigrants  in  remote 
settlements. 

lihirkinif  for  ilines. — There  arc  many  ways  of  making 
this  article,  the  chief  ingredients  employed  being  ivory- 
bluck,  vinegar  or  sour  beer,  sugar,  a  little  sweet  oil,  aud 
oil  of  vitriol.  A  good  blacking  may  be  made  as  follows: 
— Mix  tliree  ounces  of  ivory-black,  two  ounces  of  treacle, 
a  table-spoonful  of  sweet  oil,  one  ounce  of  vitriol,  ono 
ounce  of  gum-arubic  dissolved  in  water,  and  a  pint  of 
vinegar. 

For  lilitrhinii-hiilb,  mix  one  pound  of  ivory-black,  one 
pound  of  lanij)-black,  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  gum-arabic 
dissolved  in  water,  six  ounces  of  brown  sugar,  half  an 
ounce  of  melted  glue,  and  a  quart  of  water;  and  make 
into  balls.  A  fine  blacking  for  dress-sho<!s  may  be  made 
by  well  beating  two  eggs,  and  adding  a  table-spoonful  of 
spiritjj  of  wine,  a  lump  of  suga.',  and  ivory-black  to 
thicken.  This  blacking  may  also  he  used  for  restoring 
the  black  leather  seats  and  backs  of  chairs,  &c.  It 
slunild  be-  laid  on  and  polished  us  other  blacking,  and 
then  left  a  day  to  harden. 

I  iiiil-liip  litjuiil. — Dissolve  in  a  cjuart  of  water,  one 
ounce  of  oxalic  acid,  unci  the  same  of  while  vitriol ;  with 
which  sponge  the  leather  [ireviously  washed  with  water ; 
then  wash  off  the  composition  with  water,  and  dry. 
'I'his  mixture  is  for  iihi!e  tops.  For  biinrn,  mix  one 
ounce  of  oxalic  acid,  one  ounce  of  spirits  of  salts,  a 
scruple  of  cochineal  bruisttl,  and  a  pint  of  boiling  walcf; 
and  use  as  above.  These  mixtures  should  be  labelled 
"  poison."  For  brown  tiips,  also,  mix  with  a  pint  of 
skiiiimcd  milk,  half  an  ounce  of  spirits  of  salts,  half  an 
ounce  of  oirits  of  red  lavender,  one  ounce  of  gum-araWe 
dissolved  in  water,  and  the  ju.i^e  ol  two  lemons;  keef 
3  z2 


■t^WgWi" 


183 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


the  mixture  closely  corkrd,  sponge  the  tops  when  dry, 
•nd  polish  them  with  a  brush  or  piece  of  flannel. 

Blarkini;  for  hnrnfit, — Melt  two  ounces  of  mutton 
met  with  six  ounces  of  bces'-wax;  add  six  ounces  of 
■Uf^ar-candy,  and  two  ounces  of  soft  soap  dissolved  in 
water,  and  one  ounce  of  indigo  finely  powdered ;  and 
when  melted  am]  well  mixed,  add  a  gill  of  turpentine. 
Lay  it  on  the  harness  with  a  sponge,  and  [>oli8h  ott'  with 
•  brush. 

Ctment. — Various  preparations  are  used  for  mending 
broken  china,  earthenware,  and  glass.  The  most  suc- 
ccsiful  are  as  follow : — Beat  the  white  of  an  egg  with 
quicklime,  in  impalpable  powder,  into  a  paste  ;  to  which 
ii  sometimes  added  a  little  whey,  made  by  mixing  vine- 
gar and  milk.  A  little  isinglaM,  dissolved  in  mastic  var- 
nish, is  another  cement  Nature  supplies  some  cements 
ready  to  our  hands — as  the  juice  of  garlic,  and  the  while 
■lime  of  large  snails ;  and  it  has  been  stated  in  a  respcctnblc 
scientific  journal,  that  a  broken  flint  has  been  joined  so 
eflfectually  with  this  snail  cement,  that  when  do^hed  upon 
a  stone  pavement,  the  flint  broke  elsewhere  than  at  the 
cemented  parts.  In  their  anxiety  to  unite  broken  arti- 
cles, persons  generally  defeat  themselves  by  spreading 
the  cement  too  thickly  upon  tl:c  edges  of  the  article, 
whereas  the  least  possible  quantity  should  be  used,  so  a* 
to  bring  the  edges  almost  close  together  ;  and  this  may 
be  aided  by  heating  the  fragments  to  be  joined. 

Paste  is  useful  in  a  house  for  papering  walls,  cup- 
boards, lK)xes,  luUdling,  Ac.  Dr.  M'Uulloch,  of  Edin- 
burgh, employs  paste  made  of  flour  in  the  usual  way, 
but  rather  thick,  with  a  proportion  of  brown  sugnr,  and 
•  sm:dl  quantity  of  corrosive  sublimate.  The  use  of  the 
sugar  is  to  keep  it  flexiMe,  so  as  to  prevent  its  scaling 
ofT  from  smooth  surfaces ;  and  iliat  of  the  corrosive  sul)- 
limate — independently  of  preserving  it  from  insects — iis 
an  eflectual  check  ai^aiist  iLs  fermentation.  This  salt 
does  not,  however,  prevei;t  the  t'jrmation  of  mouliiiness ; 
but  a  drop  or  two  of  oil  of  lavrnder.  peppermint,  or  ani- 
•eed,  is  a  complete  security  ,if,'ainst  this. 

Waterproof  stuff  for  shod. — In  winter,  or  during  wet 
weather,  shoes  may  be  remlered  durable  by  applying  to 
the  soles  and  seams  a  composition  made  of  the  following 
materials: — H  'i  n  ,)int  of  unboiled  liiisi'ed  oil,  two 
table-spoonfi'.ls  •?  n  nentine,  one  ounce  of  bees'  wax, 
and  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  Burgundy  jiitch.  Melt  the 
whole  together,  and  apply  with  a  brush  before  the  fire. 
Repeat  the  application  fill  the  sok-s  will  alisorb  no  more. 
Keats'-foot  oil.  alone,  will  Iw  found  an  excellent  prcser- 
Tative  of  shoes  in  wet  weather. 

Ink. — An  excellent  ink  suitable  for  writing  with  steel 
j<ens,  which  it  docs  not  corrode,  may  be  made  of  the  fol- 
lowing srticles : — Sixty  grains  of  caustic  soda,  a  pint  of 
water,  and  as  much  Indian  ink  as  you  think  fit  for  mak- 
ing a  proper  blackness. 

Bottle  uar. — A  g<x)d  kind  of  bottle  wax  or  cement 
may  bo  cheaply  made  as  follows: — Put  into  an  iron 
ladle  half  a  pound  of  rosin,  two  ounces  of  bees'  wax, 
and  when  liielted  over  the  fire,  stir  in  Venetian  red, 
lam]>-blark,  or  other  colouring;  and  apply  while  hot. 
If  kept  for  afler  use,  melt  with  a  candle  as  usual  when 
applied. 

I'ulaio-ttiirrh. — Wash  and  peel  a  gallon  of  good  pota- 
toes, grate  them  into  n  pail  of  water,  stir  frequently,  and 
then  let  them  aeltlc.  On  the  following  day  the  starch 
will  .10  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  pail ;  when  [lour  oft' 
the  water,  add  fresh,  stir  as  liefore,  nnd  let  it  subside 
a  second  time ;  when  pour  off  the  water,  and  <lry  the 
tcdifiHiit  in  the  sun  or  a  slow  oven.  .An  excellent 
•larch  may  also  be  made  by  setting  in  a  cool  [ilace  the 
water  in  which  rice  has  (x'en  boiled  (though  not  in  a 
*.liith),  which  will  in  twenty-four  hours  become  a  strong 
starch. 

I'otathet. — Settlers  in  the  backwoixls  of  America,  or 
Other  wotKly  regions,  have  an  oji|)ortunity  of  .nanufac- 


turing  potashes,  an  article  of  great  use  and  cnjnj-. 
able  value.     A  vast  quantity  of  this  substance  is  41, 
ally   made  in  Canada,  and  exported  to  Great  Brit""' 
Potashes  are  made  from  the  ashes  of  burnt  treen.   'l"* 

niivnirir*      tiwnliAV      it\    nlna»       tfia      laii.l         tl>..       _      I  "' 


burning  timl)cr  to  clear  the  land,  the  ashes 


are  carN 


fully  preserved  and  put  in  barrels,  or  other  vessel. 
with  holes  in  the  bottom  ;  and  water  Iwing  poured  0 
them,  a  liquid  or  alkali  is  run  off;  this  ley  beiiiir  [Jy 
in  large  boilers,  the  watery  particles  evaporate,  and 
leave  what  is  called  black  salts,  a  sort  of  rcsidi 
which,  when  heated  to  a  high  degree,  becomes  fu^' 
and  finally,  when  cool,  assumes  the  character  of  rJ 
ash.  f*"" 

By  these  potashes  the  Canadians  make  their  o» 
soap ;  the  ley  of  a  barrel  of  ashes,  boiled  aloiiR  wjti,  J 
pounds  of  tallow,  till  it  is  of  a  proper  consisu'iice 
duces  about  forty  pounds  of  very  good  soft  soan  '  Ic 
related,  that  when  the  land  has  In-en  covered  with  hean 
timlier  of  a  hard  nature,  there  is  such  a  nuanlitv  f 
ashes  produced  that  their  value  will  pay  for  clearinn  th 
land.  ' 

Maple  sustir. — In  the  woody  districts  of  Canada,  ibe 
inhabitants  have  it  in  their  power  to  make  mm  f 
domestic  consumption  as  well  as  for  exportation.    Tl' 
sugar  is  pro<luced   from   the  sap  of  the   maple  tree,  om 
of  the  most  valuable  vegetalile  prodncts  of  the  American 
forests.     An  active  farmer  and  his  wife  may  ninke  Itij 
said,  about  700  lbs.  of  sugar  aiuiually,  not  interior  in 
quality  to  that  of  the  West  Indies,  and  worth  about -til 
per    pound.       'i'he    manisf'Jcture    of    this   native  su"!- 
greatly  tends  to  lower  the    price  of  West  Intia  suga'ri 
which  would  l)c  otherwise  as  high  ns  Is.  fid.  a  jKiuiid 
'i'alliot,  in  his  '<  Five  Years'  Residence  in  the  Canadas" 
writes   with  enthusiasm  of   the   value  aad  use  of  th'ii 
manufacture,  which  it  seems  ia  liir  Irom  being  properli 
attended   to   by   the  settlers.      "  Ma|de  snaar  mii'ht  be  I 
manufactured,"  says  he,  "by  the  rudest  mountaineer  in 
your  country,  as  well  in  the  first  si'uson  afler  his  arrivsl 
here,  as  by  the   most  eminent  sugar-rcliiier  in  Jamaiit 
The   manufacture  is  generally  connnciiced  early  in  ihc 
month   of  April,  when   the   sap  of  the  tree  is  first  put 
into  motion  at  the  return  of  s|)ring,  and  when  no  other 
agricultural   operation  can  be  carried  on  to  good  purpose 
by  the  farmi-r,  on   account  of   the    un|)lcasant  weallio 
which  occurs   at   tliut   jH-riod.     A   part  of  tlio  estate  ii 
selected  which  contains  the  largest  quantity  of  llourisb. 
ing  maple-trees  nearly  continuous  to  each  otlier,  anJi 
temporary  hut  is  erected  for  the  acconiniodaliun  of  tie 
operators,  but  not  more  than  two  or  three  lieine  required 
for  the  management  of  a  hundred  trees,  from  every  one 
of  which  the  sap  is  oozing  out  at  the  same  time.  In 
rainy  weather,  the  tn'cs  yield  their  valnaMc  juice  rather 
tardily  ;  and,  during  the  whole  month  which  is  wn*  I 
times  devoted  to  'his   employment   it  often  happens  ihil 
only  eight  or  nine  days  are  propitious  to  tiiis  part  of  the 
settler's   labours.     The  best  weather  for  the  purpist  li 
tb  1'        which  the  night  is  frosty,  and  the  day  rhoeiiKJlij 
tl.        \s  of  a  warm  sun.     If  the  process  of  hoiJiiiij  wen 
not  continued  both  day  and  night,  the  eap  would  a(f» 
mulate  too   rapiilly   in  the    reservnir,  atid  soon  cdtd 
symptoms  of  vinous   fermentation,  which  would  ehup 
its  quality,  and  render  it  useless  for  tlie  manufacture  of  { 
sugar. 

"  'l'hi>  first  thing  necessary  for  coiiimcncinR  tli:  m»ni> 
f'acture  of  this  article  is  a  metal  iMiiler,  which  (Wl<ill 
I'p|H'r  Canada  about  .L'i  lOs.  sterling.  This  liolih 
nearly  thirty  gallons,  and,  with  a  small  cuokinc-pot,  11 
Hullicicnt,  in  a  proNpemns  siason,  to  boil  down  Mh 
One  hundred  ii'ul  fi(\y  troughs,  eii;ht  rcKOrviiirs,  ami 
four  hand-buckets,  will  be  necessary  for  tlic  rejulii 
supply  of  this  boiler.  The  troiinhs  cost  about  Itiill 
p«'r  hundred ;  the  reservoirs,  which  are  barrels  wilhool 
heails,  about  4s.  each  ;  and  the  bucket!  2s,  l)J.  ttii,  \ 
These  are  the  oidy  utensds  which  an  einigrantvilUeeil 


ftom  a  decoction  u 
with  green  copper 


THE  TOILET. 


893 


Ihe  troughs  may  be  mode  by  himself,  if  ho  has  acquired 
uiv  akill  in  th«  use  of  his  axe  during  the  prcccdinR 
winter.  An  expert  hand  can  make  thirty  or  tliirty-five 
troughs  in  •  day,  wiiich,  though  formed  only  with  the 
jxe,  will  last  for  many  years,  if  carefully  placed  under 
eoycr  during  summer.  That. -es  are  tapped  either  by 
-eans  of  an  incision  made  by  an  axe,  or  the  perforation 
of  an  auger.  But  the  latter  mode  is  considered  the  less 
injurious  to  the  growth  of  the  tree,  and  is  therefore  the 
more  apiiroved  plan.  A  small  shoot  about  nine  inches 
lonK  is  ma<le  the  conductor  of  the  sap  from  each  incision 
to  its  rcsiK'ctive  trough,  from  which,  when  nearly  full,  it 
iicoiivcyod  in  buckcUi  to  the  reservoirs,  and  there  allowed 
to  subside.  When  the  grosser  particles  of  the  sediment 
nave  lici'ti  Icl't  to  Hink  to  the  bottom,  the  sap  is  drawn  olF 
into  the  boilers,  aiiil  reduced  to  molasses  by  the  simple 
nroccss  of  evaporation.  The  liquid  in  this  purer  state 
IS  then  drawn  irom  the  boilers,  and  pliiccd  in  the  reser- 
voirs or  coolers,  until  it  becomes  nearly  cold,  when  it  is 
itraincd  through  a  woollen  cloth  into  u  smaller  boiler, 
and  after  being  clarified  with  eggs,  milk,  or  bullock's 
blood,  is  boiled  down  to  the  consistency  of  siiijar,  and 
pourod  into  moulds  of  the  particular  shape  which  it  is 


mon  quart  bottles ;  and  to  it  adu  one  pound  of  treacle, 
or  more,  according  to  taste.  When  the  treacle  is  dis- 
solved, take  the  pot  from  the  fire,  nvA  let  the  solution 
cool.  When  lukewarm,  put  into  it  half  a  gill  of  yeast. 
As  soon  as  it  h  cold,  bottle  it,  but  do  not  put  in  th* 
corks  till  next  morning,  when  th-.  yeast  will  have 
wrought  over  the  top  of  the  bottles.  Li^t  it  stand  in  ■ 
cool  place  for  two  or  three  days,  when  it  will  be  fit  for 
use.  Unless  care  is  taken  as  to  the  proportion  of  yean 
and  keeping  cool,  also  to  corking  tightly,  the  bottles  may 
burst,  which  is  a  serious  loss  to  a  poor  family. 


THE  TOILET. 

Personal  cleaning  and  decoration  are  the  proper  duty 
at  the  toilet,  which  requires  regular  performance  daily. 
We  shall  speak  first  of  matters  connected  with  the  gen- 
tleman's toilet. 

Sliavini;. — Some  boards  are  more  hard  and  difficult  to 
.shave  than  others.     The   usual  plan  is  to  soften  them 


with  soap  lather,  but  this  is  not  sullicient  with  beards 
intended  to  assume  us  a  sort  of  candy  ;  but  if  to  be  used  j  which  are  somewhat  stubborn.     We   recommend  all  to 


48  soft  sugar,  the  syrup  in  its  last  stage  of  purification  is 
left  in  a  sugar-cask,  which  is  perforated,  to  allow  the 
moisl  iwrticles,  in  the  form  of  molasses,  to  ooze  through 
the  bottom.  Many  people  neither  clear  nor  strain  the 
molasa-s,  and  consequently  make  very  coarse  and  dirty 
luear;  Imt  by  a  strict  adherence  to  the  simple  directions 
which  I  have  given,  the  most  ignorant  novice  in  the 
irl  mi!,'ht  manufacture  sugar  equal  to  any  that  is  im- 
porled  into  England.  Some  of  it,  indeed,  has  what  is 
called  -a  smack,' or  peculiar  taste,  derived  often  from 


llie  kind  of  wo(k1  of  which  the  troughs  are  made,  and    emergency 


try  the  following  plan :  Rub  the  face  or  beard  with  a 
little  soup  and  water  with  the  hand  over  the  basin,  and 
when  preity  well  rubbed  or  softened,  apply  the  lather. 
Haise  till'  lather  from  warm  water,  and  apply  with  a 
brush.  The  best  kind  of  soap  for  shaving  is  Uandana, 
but  Windsor  is  also  generally  liked.  Although  warm 
water  is  most  agreeable  and  suitable  for  shaving  with, 
it  is  advantageous  for  every  one  to  accustom  himself  to 
shaving  with  cold  water,  as  it  will  render  him  inde- 
pendent of  assistance  when  travelling  or  in  cases  of 


wmetiines  from  being  neglected  while  in  the  act  of 
boiling,  and  sutii'rcd  to  burn.  Every  tree,  on  an  ave- 
rage, will  from  a  single  wound  yield  about  twenty  gal- 
lons of  sap,  and  a  projiortionate  quantity  from  any  num- 
ber of  incisions  not  exceeding  four.  Five  gallons  of 
tap  contain  at  least  one  pound  of  sugar." 

Dyes. — The  most  simple  rule  for  dyeing  is  to  put  the 
dye  into  very  hot  water,  and  when  well  mixed,  to  pass 
the  stulT  through  it  until  it  sulRciently  imbilH's  tlic  co- 
lour, but  on  no  account  to  squeeze  it ;  it  should  thin  be 
hung  up,  and  when  cold,  plunged  twice  into  soft  walii, 
and  then  into  hard  water  with  a  littii'  alum  dissolved 
in  it;  the  stuft'  may  then  be  again  hung;  up,  and  when  | 
nearly  dry,  ironed  or  pressed.     Most  colours  are  made  j 
brighter  by  the  addition  of  a  little   cream  of  tartar,  and  | 
darker  by  pearl-ash.     Dyes   may  bo  purchased    ready  j 
prepared.      We   would    recommend    that   all   ordinary  j 
dyeing,  and  particularly  when  fancy  or  delicate  colours  j 

are  required,  should  be  consigned  to  the  hands  of  the  !  sale;  u...!  all,  very  properly,  are  mountei) 
professed  dyer;  and  dyeing  of  a  course  kind  only  be 
done  at  home.  In  such  cases,  hrown  may  be  produced 
from  a  decoction  of  birch  bark ;  and  black  from  logwood 
with  green  copperas.  (See  article  Ciikmistht  ai-i'lieu 
TO  TKE  Abts.) 

Tfmptrnmt  tlrinks. — The  jimplest  beverage  of  a  cool-  >  point  along  the  strop.     Do  not  draw  first  one  way  and 
ing  and  pleasing  quality,  whidi  contains  no  intoxicating    then  push  another.     In  general  one  or  two  turns  will 


It  is  of  no  use  going  to  great  expense  in  purchasing 
razors.  A  razor  of  the  best  kind  may  be  had  for  from 
iive  to  eight  shillings,  and  us  their  tempering  is  very 
much  a  matter  of  chance,  sometimes  a  first-rate  razof 
maybe  had  for  two  or  three  shillings.  Supposing  a 
sharp  and  good  razor  to  be  procured,  it  may  last  a  whole 
lifetime  with  ordinary  care.  We  have  used  one  for 
twenty  years,  and  it  is  still  as  good  as  new.  Soir.e  |X!r- 
sons  prefer  keeping  six  or  seven  razors,  and  changing 
them  daily,  but  in  this  there  is  no  absolute  utility. 
Ila/.ors  become  blunt  more  from  bad  managenu'iit  tb.an 
lair  work  in  shaving.  When  to  be  used,  dip  the  razor 
in  IidI  iviTor,  for  this  adds  keenness  to  the  edge;  and 
before  putting  it  .i>v;iy,  wash  the  razor  gently  to  remove 
all  imiri'rilics.  Do  hut  wipe  it  with  or  upon  paper,  for 
that  s[K)ib-  the  edwe;  wipe  it  only  with  a  fine  rag.  Be- 
f'lrc  puttiii;^  it  away  in  lis  case,  give  it  n  turn  or  two  on 
c.  strop.     Several   kinds  of  strops   arc'         v  rfl'ered  for 

iird  board. 

The  best  we  have  seen  has  several  sides,  rt'iit  de- 

grees of  fineness;  one  being  for  use  in  taki,  ,,  it  small 
bluntnesses  or  ilattenings  on  the  edge,  called  scllinf;,  and 
another  for  simple  stropping.  In  -iny  case,  take  care 
always  to  draw  the  razor  smoothly  and  flatly  from  heel  to 


fluid,  is  lemonmlf ,  this  may  !«  very  easily  mailo  by 
pouring  boiling  water  on  sliced  lemons,  and  sweetening 
with  sugar  to  taste.  Lemons,  however,  are  not  always 
Ic  be  procured,  and  in  such  a  ease,  citric  acid,  or  cteam 
of  tartar,  may  be  employed  instead.  SuiK?rior  lemonade 
ii  made  with  lump  sugar-  il'ntgi'r  Iter  may  be  made  as 
follows: — Take  of  limip  sugar  .3  pounds,  bruised  ginger 
%  ounces,  cream  of  tartar  I  ounce,  one  or  two  lemons 
lliced,  boiling  water  -1  gallons,  ami  yeast  S  ounces.  Let 
the  wliule  stand  to  work  in  a  cask  for  four  days,  and 
then  bottle  olf  for  us<'. 

'I'rracU  liier  is  a  cheap  drink,  which  iii.iy  be  made  as 
bUows: — Uoil  as  much  water  as  will  fill  twelve  com- 


bo enough.  Never  leave  your  razors  in  drawers  or 
cases  which  are  accessible  to  servants  or  children.  By 
locking  ihein  up,  you  will  keep  them  in  better  order  than 
by  all  the  other  means  you  employ. 

.//  itit  in  shaving. — The  bleeding  may  be  at  once  ef- 
fectually stepped  by  placing  on  the  wound  a  small  por- 
tion of  wool  frojn  a  beaver  hat.  We  have  known  cases 
in  which  bleeding  from  very  serious  wounds  have  been 
stopped  by  the  application  of  hat  stuH'when  all  other 
means  faded. 

'yVif  :iilh. — The  cleaning  and  proper  management  of 

the  teeth   is  the    most  dillicult  oiwration  of  the  toilet- 

,  Whether  arising  from  heat  of  the  stomach  or  other  cuu 


i 


834 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


<titutinnnl  causpn,  th^  t#cth  jf  nome  porRons  are  inurh 
more  lialilt*  to  Imcoinc  (Uscolourod  and  deciy  tliiin  others. 
In  grncrnl,  even  in  ihc  (■yorsl  cusps,  iniuh  miijlit  !»!  done 
in  youth  to  pr-.ivont  faturo  deterioration  of  teeth ;  but 
children  are  ignorant,  and  parents  are  lamenliibly  oare- 
Jeiis  on  thin  importiiut  matter  of  personal  economy,  and 
reraedicH  often  reiiuiru  to  be  applied  when  too  lat<'. 
Parents  desirous  of  seeing  their  children  prow  up  with 
good  tt>elh.  should  cause  them  to  he  cleaned  with  soru- 
puloHs  reijul.irity  daily,  though  oidy  with  a  brush  and 
tepid  water.  If  the  locth  appear  crowded,  so  that  there 
is  a  fear  of  one  tooth  diooting  over  nnnlher,  a  deiUist 
ouirhl  by  all  means  to  lie  employed  to  thin  the  row,  and 
allow  all  to  tjrow  straight. 

The  daily  cN;  ming  of  the  teeth  should  take  place  every 
morniiiij  afler  washing  the  face.  Employ  in  preference 
tepid  water  and  a  moderately  hard  brush.  Various  den- 
tifrices or  powderii  are  offered  for  s.ile,  and  which  the 
opulent  have  opportunities  of  testing;  but  we  ki'ow  of 
none  Ix-tler  than  finely-powdered  charcoal,  that  is.  char- 
red wood  well  ijroimd  in  a  mortar,  an<l  kept  in  a  bix 
seciudoil  from  'he  air.  It  may  lie  purchased,  ready  tor 
use,  at  a  small  price  frnm  perfumers.  Hy  ))utling  a  little 
i>f  this  on  the  wet  brush,  and  rubliiug  the  teeth  with  it, 
im|>Uiilics  a'id  discolourations  will  be  removed  witliout 
injuring  the  enamel.  Kinsc  well  afterwards  with  clean  j 
water,  A  .much  more  strong  dentifrice  consists  of  the 
powder  of  burnt  tobacco;  but  it  contains  silica,  or  grilty 
particles  of  sand,  and  cannot  l)e  recoinniended  for  com- 
mon use. 

Thtniiil,''. — !ve|iing  ih.!  nails  of  the  fingers  in  order  I 
i"!  a  projier  duty  of  the  toilet.  They  sluould  lie  brushed 
with  so:iii  and  water  when  washing  'he  hands.  While 
ftill  wet,  or  when  wi|)ing  the  hands  with  the  towel,  push 
back  the  skin  which  is  apt  to  urcw  over  the  nail,  and 
tlius  keep  the  top  of  the  nails  neatly  rounded.  The 
pointsof  the  nails  should  be  reiiularly  pared  oni'c  a  week. 

S/rcj  l.ivs. — Thos«"  sonietinies  grow  in  the  nose  and 
rsm  to  an  uncointiirlable  extent  Remove  them  smartly 
with  a  pair  of  lwee/.crg. 

Piimuinm. — This  is  a  soft  urjuenl  which  is  vi:luable  [ 
hr  softening  the   hands,  and   preventing  them   chi>|)ping  j 
in  colrl  dry  wi-ather,  or  for  moistening  the  hair.     It  was 
originally   named    from    its    conlaminu    a|>ple    (//"»i»m,  j 
Latinl.  and  consisted  of  lar(',  rose-water,  and  th  •  J'ulp 
of  a|)ples.     It  now  consist^   of  [M-rtuined  hog's-lard.  tae 
opple    boil,'    oniitled.      The  faini-d    .<»/  un;   fnimnlum   is  ; 
made  as  I'ollows : — Melt  together   half  a   iioiind  of  iMvf 
sul,  iLi    same  of  In'ur's  grease,  an  ounce  of  white-wax, 
and  two  ounces  of  oiive  oil;  and  add  '.o  it.  tied  up  loi.sely 
in   inusbn,  one  ounce   of  bruised  cloves,  half  an  ounce 
of  cinno  ;ioii.  two  bruised  tonquiis  l>eans,  ai:d  four  grains 
of  musk ;   itiaiu  and  put  into   pots.     Tin-  artii'le   called 
l>ear's  grease,  usually  sold  in  the  shops,  is  lit.ie  else  than 
fK-rfumed   beef-ni arrow ;  and    the    many  oils  olferi-d   for 
restoring  and    M.)flenina   the    hair    aie    chicfiy  olive    or 
almond  oil,  piTfuined  with  iliflerent  scents.     In  general, 
if  the  hair   be  .veil   bru-iu'd.   no   such    applications   are 
Hecessary,  and  in   most  cases  they  creali'  a  scurf  'i\\  the  ' 
aead  which  it  rcipiire'*  consi<leraMe  Irmilile  'o  get  rid  of. 

Poniii'lf  ilivtnr. — This  is  a  soft  and  v.iluable  nrmuent,  ' 
possessing  a  fine  aromatic  odour.  Ur.  Didiloes  recorit- 
n>ends  it  to  !.e  irnde  as  follows: — .'<teep  twelve  ounces 
of  l>eef-niarrow  in  water  ten  ilays  (changing  the  water 
pceasionally),  and  then  steep  it  in  rose-water.  Put  it 
into  a  jar  with  half  ai!  ounce  of  flowerc  of  beiijaniin,  the 
samuoCslorax  anil  orris-root  in  powder,  and  two  draibins 
each   of   ciniiatnun,   nutme);,    and   cloves,   in    [Kiwder.  \ 


Cover  the  jar  closely,  set  it  in  a  vesaci  of  water,  and  nii 
it  on  the  fire;  and  when  the  pomade  is  thus  meltol 
strain  it  for  u.so.  As  a  very  small  cjuantity  is  ever  hr  iI 
at  a  lime,  in  general  it  will  he  .'"oiuid  much  rrore  econ 
mical  to  buy  a  small  bottle  of  it  than  to  prepare  th 
article. 

Ciild  rream. — This  is  n  simple  and  cooling  ointment 
exceedingly  serviceable  for  rough  or  chopped  hands  in 
winter,  or  for  keeping  the  skin  soft.  It  is  very  easil 
made.  Take  half  an  on  ice  of  white  wax,  niiil  put  it  jn, 
a  small  basin,  with  two  ounces  of  almond  oil.  pLj, 
the  besin  by  the  side  of  the  fire  till  the  wax  is  dissnlvui 
in  the  oil.  When  (|uitc  melted,  add  two  ounces  of  roic 
v.'ater.  This  mur.t  be  done  very  slowly,  little  hylitil.. 
and  as  you  pour  it  in.  boat  the  mixture  smartly  wjih 
a  fork  to  make  the  water  incorporate.  When  nil  is  |n. 
corporated,  the  cold  cream  is  complete,  and  you  ni,iv 
pour  it  into  jars  for  future  use.  This  cidd  cream  is  muA 
better  than  that  which  is  usually  sold  in  sliups  anj 
which  is  too  frequently  maili!  of  inferior  ingredients. 

S/icrni'ire'i  o.iit>iiciii. — This  is  a  cooling  am]  |ieQi|„„ 
ointment  for  xvounds.  Take  a  quarter  of  an  oiincpof 
white  wax  aiul  half  an  ounce  of  spermaceti  (whidij, 
a  hard  while  material),  and  put  them  in  a  small  basin 
with  two  ounces  of  almond  oil.  Place  the  liusin  by  llie 
side  of  the  fire  till  the  wax  and  spermaceti  are  dissolvcj 
When  cold,  the  ointment  is  ready  for  use  This  is  an 
article  which  it  is  a'so  much  better  to  make  than  to 
(inri:ha.sc  When  you  make  it  yourself  vou  will  jjnow 
that  it  has  no  irritating  or  inferior  materials  in  it 

Thr  feel — mrn.i. — To  keep  the  feet  in  a  projicr  coniii. 
ti(,n,  they  should  be  frequently  soaked  and  well  washed, 
-Ac  these  times,  the  nnils  of  the  toes  should  lie  piired  and 
prevented  from  growing  into  the  Iksh.  Corns  arc  tfee 
most  tioublesomo  evils  connected  with  the  feot  'fhcy 
are  of  two  kinds — soft  a;id  tvird.  'i"he  soft  corns  are 
those  which  grow  between  the  toes.  They  may  lie  ea.silv 
removed  by  applying  ivy  b'af  .'tceped  in  viiies;iir;  if  the 
corn  lie  very  p.unful,  change  the  piece  of  ivy  leaf  every 
morning.  'J'he  leaf  may  be  st»'c|n'd  for  one  or  twodavs 
before  using.  Hard  corns,  which  grow  on  the  nutsije 
of  the  toes,  are  caused  by  friction  from  the  slioin,  and  wj 
know  of  nothing  ho  likely  to  prevent  them  as  lasv  so;*. 
shoes  and  very  frequ"iit  soaking  of  the  feet  in  warm 
wat:'r.  l]very  methiMl  of  extracting  corns  weins  but 
ti>  iilTord  temporary  relief,  and  never  will  lie  allendej 
with  com|)lete  success  unless  attention  is  paid  to  the 
shoes.  It  is  very  dangerous  to  cut  corns  too  di cp,  on 
iiccount  of  the  multiplicity  of  nervfts  ruiniing  in  cverv 
direction  of  the  toes.  The  Iniiiinn,  or  swellini;  on  ibc 
ball  of  the  great  toe,  is  produced  by  the  same  cause  as 
the  corn — pressure  and  irritation  bv  friction.  The  treat. 
inent  rocoinmended  for  corns  will  succeed  in  ciwaof 
bunions;  but  in  consequence  of  ihe  greater  e,Tlcn«i.i:i  of 
the  di.sease,  the  cure  of  cou--c  is  more  ted^in.  When 
a  liunion  is  comineucing,  it  maybe  elli  ctiiaily  si.  juJ 
by  poulticing,  and  then  opening  with  a  lancet;  but  this 
must  Ik-  committed  to  the  hands  of  a  surgical  ultiiidaaL 

f'lifiniliet. — 'i'hese  consist  of  washes  and  p;isles  for 
im|)roving  the  .skin,  and  are  in  general  highly  objeoliona. 
ble;  for  the  gn-ater  number  conttiii  poi.sonou.s  inuredi- 
enls,  and  wliih'  removing  from  the  iiirl'ace  any  ilis<'o!i)ur>. 
tion,  drive  the  disease  inward,  and  tbereliire  do  much 
more  harm  than  good.  Lotion..!  I'.ii  pimples,  I'reckk 
washes,  milk  of  rosi'.s,  rouge,  and  all  such  trash,  wi:  slu- 
diously  discommend.  The  U'st  purifier  is  water  with  i 
cloth;  the  best  l)eaulifiers  are  healih,  exercise,  iaiaout 

TK.MeKII. 


PROYEKBS  AND  OLD  SAYINGS. 


Ittif  every 
r  two  days 
0  nutsije 
s,  anJ  \T9 
I  iis  ,'asy  !ot> 
i'ct  in  warm 
m  sfciiis  bui 
111'  atlcndoj 
paid  lo  the 
loi)  (Irqi,  on 
in?  in  every 
I'llinu'  on  iht 
iiie  cause  u 
.     Till'  treat- 
in  (Vises  of 
extension  of 
Of.    When 
uaily  sl,.jipej 
<•<'! ;  liul  this 
alliiiddiil. 
\>:\fU->  for 

ly  oliji'fiioiia. 
nous  inaredi- 
ly  (liH<'iiIi)(jra- 
ire  Jo  much 
I's,  frefklti 
rash,  we  slu- 
water  with  i 
H,  aiiil  (1(101 


srmi'TunAi.  PROvKRns. 

A  rAMX  balance  is  nn  nhomination  to  the  Lon) ;  hut  a 

io«t  woi^'ht  i<  his  delight. 
A  too]  iittrrcth  nil  his  iiiiiid  ;  but  a  wise  man  keepoth  it 

■;ll  aftcrwurda. 
A  fo.l's  wrath  is  presently  known  ;  but  a  prudent  man 

(HjveretU  shiimc. 
A  eood  name  is  rather  to  ho  chosen   than  i^rj-at  rirhcs, 

and  lovinft  favour  rather  than  silver  and  gold. 
A  man  that  has  friends  must  show  himself  friendly ;  and 

there  is  a  friend  that  sticketh  closer  than  a  brother. 
A  man  of  uniierstanding  holdith  his  peace. 
A  man's  pride  shidi  hriiiR  him  low;  but  honour  shall 

uphold  the  liumhle  in  npirit. 
A  merry  heart  doeth  good  like  a  me(ricinc ;  Imt  a  broken 

spirit  drioth  the  liones. 
A  righteous  man  rcgatdeth  the  life  of  his  beast ;  hut  the 

tender  mercies  of  the  wicked  are  cruel. 
A  sof.  answer  turncth  away  wrath ;  but  grievous  words 

«ir  up  nnijer. 
A  virtuous  woman  is  a  crown  to  her  husband  ;  but   she 

that  niakcth  ashamed  is  as  rottenness  in  his  lioiies. 
A  wise  son   maketh  a  (»lad   father ;  but  a  foolish  son  is 

the  heaviness  of  his  mother. 
A  word  fitly  spoken  is  like  apples  of  gold  in  pictures  of 

silver. 
A>  a  bird  that  wandereth  from  her  nest,  so  is  a  man  that 

-»<nderelh  fmni  his  place. 
As  «  dog  returneth  to  his  vomit,  so  a  fool   uturneth  to 

his  folly. 
As  a  jewel  of  tjold  on  a  swine's  snout,  so  is  a  fair  woman 

who  is  without  discretion. 
As  a  madman  who  easteth  firebrands,  arrows,  and  death, 

80  is  the  man  that  decciveth  his  neighbour,  and  saith, 

Am  not  I  in  sport  1 
As  the  crackling  of  thorns  under  a  pot,  so  is  the  laugh- 

tet  of  a  fool. 
As  the  whirlwind  passetli,  so  is  the  wicked  no  more;  but 

the  rigtUeous  is  an  everlasting  foundation. 
As  vinegar  to  the   teeth,  and  as  smoke  to  the  eyes,  so  is 

t!\e  sluiruard  lo  tliem  that  send  him. 
Be  thou  dihcjent  to  know  the  slate  of  thy  flocks,  and  look 

well  to  thy  herds ;  for  riches  are  not  for  ever. 
Before  honour  is  hinnility. 
Better  is  a  dry  morsid   and   <|uietness  therewith,  than  a 

house  full  of  sac-rilices  with  strife. 
Metier  is  a  diiinor  of  herbs  ■.      re  love  is,  than  a  stalled 

ox  and  hatred  therewith. 
Itctter  is  a  little  with  righteousnoss,  than  great  revenues 

•ilhout  right. 
Blessings  are   upon   the  head  of  the  just;  hut  violence 

covereth  the  month  of  the  wicked. 
Boast  not  thyself  of  to-morrow ;  for  thou  kn^wcst  not 

what  a  day  may  bring  forth. 
Bv  much  slotldidiic  s  the  building  decnyeth  ;  and  through 

idleness  of  the  '    '  ?  ,  the  house  droppeth  throo'.!*- 
By  pride  cometh  ein'vnlion. 
Cast  thy  bread   upon   the  waters,  for  thou  shall  ''•d  it 

after  many  days. 
Even  a  fool,  when  he  holdeth  his  j)cape, is  counted  wise; 

and  he  that  shutteth  his  lips  is  esteemed  a  man  of  un- 
derstanding. 
Faithful  are  the  wnimds  of  a  friend  ;  but  the  kisses  of  an 

cnem\  are  deceitful. 
Favour  is  defcilful,  and   beauty  is  vain  ;  but  a  woman 

that  feareth  the  Lord  she  shall  hs  praised. 
Fear  tJod,  and  keep  his  conunandmenta  ;  for  tliis  is  the 

whole  duty  of  man 

Vui.  I.— iO't 


For  men  to  search  iheir  own  glory*  Is  not  glory 

Go  from  the  presence  of  a  foolish  man,  when  thou  fiei* 

ceivest  not  in  him  tho  lips  of  knowledge. 
Go  to  the  ant,  thou  sluggard ;  consider  her  ways  and  be 

wise, 
GfKl  hath  made  man  upright,  but  they  have  sought  out 

many  inventions. 
He  becometh  poor  that  dealeth  with  a  slack  hand  ;  but 

the  hand  of  tho  diligent  maketh  rich. 
He  that  observeth  the  wind  shall   not  sow,  and  ho  that 

regardeth  the  clouds  shall  not  reap. 
He  that   pa.sscth  by,  and   meddleth  with  strife  belonging 

not  to  him,  is  like  one  that  taketh  a  dog  by  the  ears. 
He   that  is  slow  to   anger  is  bettor  than  the  mighty,  and 

he  that  rulcth  his  spirit  than  he  that  taketh  a  city. 
He  that  loveth   pleasure  shall  be  a   poor  man :  ho  that 

lovelh  wine  and  oil  shall  not  be  rich. 
He  that  is  greedy  of  gai.i  troubh-th  ilia  own  house ;  but 

he  that  hateth  gifts  shall  live. 
Ke  that  is  of  a  merry  heart  hath  a  continual  feaft. 
He  that  is  first  in  his  own  cause  seemeth  just;  but  tlia 

neighbour  cometh  and  searcheth  him. 
He  that  hath  pity  upon  the  poor  leudelh  unto  the  Lord ; 

and  that  which  he  hatli  given  will  he  pay  him  itgkin. 
He  that  hideth  hatred  with  lying  lips,  and  he  that  uttei^ 

eth  a  slander,  is  a  fool. 
He  that  spnreth  the  rod   hateth   his  son ;  but  he  that 

loveth  him  chaste ^elh  l)elimes. 
He  that  gathereth  in  summer  is  a  wise  son  ;  hut  he  that 

sleepeth  in  harvest  is  a  son  that  causes  shame. 
He  that  walketh  uprightly  walketh  surely  ;  but  he  thai 

pervertelh  his  ways  shall  be  known. 
He  that  is  surety  for  a  stranger,  shall  smart  for  !t;  wtc 

he  that  hateth  suretiship  is  sure. 
He  that  ktepeth  [silent]  his  mouth,  keepcth  his  life;  but 

he  that  openeth  wide  his  lips  shall  have  destruction. 
He  that  troublelh  his  own  house  shall  inherit  the  wind; 

and  the  fool  shall  be  servant  of  the  wise  of  heart. 
Hea\  iness  in  the  heart  of  a  man  maketh  it  stoop  ;  but  a 

good  word  maketh  it  glad. 
Hell  and  destruction  are  never  full ;  so  the  eyes  of  nsan 

arc  never  satisfied. 
His  own  iniijuilies  shall  take  the  wicked  himself,  and  ha 

shall  he  holden  with  the  cords  of  his  own  sins,         / 
Hope  deferred  maketh  the  heart  sick. 
If  sinners  entice  thee,  consent  thou  not. 
If  the  iron  be  blunt,  and  he  do  not  whet  the  edge,  then 

must  lie  ]mt  to  more  strength  ;  but  wisdom  is  profit 

able  to  direet.-j- 
If  thine  enemy  lie  hungry,  give  him  bread  to  eat;  and  it 

he  be  thirsty,  i;ive  him  water  to  drink :  for  thou  shalt 

heap  coals  of  fire  upon  his  head,  and  the  Lord  shall 

reward  thee. 
If  thou  faint  in  the  day  of  adversity,  thy  strengt'   is  smalL 
If  ye  cast  pearls  before  swine,  tl  ■       'II  turn  again  and 

rend  ye. 
In  all  labour  there  is  profit;  but  ih.   i    k  of  the  lips  tend- 

eth  on'y  to  penury. 
Iron  sh;.ii><'netli  iron;  so  a  man  sharpeneth  the  country 

1  anco  of  his  friend. 
'   '    siought,  it  is  nought.  HM'h  ><  'buyer;  but  when  nt 

'■  ;  >ne  his  way,  then  he  'Ki.T;;,  .h. 
It  is  better  to  dwell  in   a  (  ofur  of  the  house-top,  thtD 

with  a  brawling  woman  .i.  n  wide  house. 
Let  another  man  praii^c  tkee,  and  not  thine  own  mouth ; 

a  stranger,  and  not  thine  own  lip.s. 


•  To  talk  of  their  own  iloinirs. 
t  Knowleilije  is  ,.owor. — Bham, 


C^i^VMifU^ 


8S« 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Ij«ve  Lot  Bleep,  lost  thou  come  to  povrrly  :  open  thine 

eyei,  and  thou  slinlt  bo  satigfiod  with  hrea<). 
Much  food  i8  in  the  tiMni;o  of  th«  poor;  but  tliere  i»  !hut 

U  destroyed  for  want  of  jiidftmcnt 
Of  msKing   many  bookM  there  is  no  end  ;  and   much 

■tudy  if)  a  weariness  of  the  flesh. 
Pride  goeth  before  duntruction,  and  a  haughty  spirit  be- 
fore »  fall. 
Remove  not  the  old  land-marli ;  and  enter  not  into  the 

fields  of  the  fatherless. 
Reprove  not  a  scorner  lest  hs  iiuU'  iUee;  rtHMike  a  wise 

man  and  he  will  love  thee. 
Righteousness exalteth  a  piiion;  but  sinbi  a  i<\\mc)i  io 

any  people. 
Say  not  unto  thy  iiclKhbosi-,  Gsi,  ni,(  come  aa^ain,  ic.! 

(O-morrow  I  will  give,  wboii  ihcu  h.^sl  if  by  thee. 
Seest  th  u  a  inai   ;  iliRont  in  .'  i«.  hasinr'.,  .  ho  >     II  sU.i.  , 

'  efore  kings;    ;ri  nhall  not  «;iind  Ix-foro  wmn  mt  '.' 
8eoat  t'loii  a  man  that  is  ht-'  •  in  his  words:  there  is 

l.'.0!6  !i>po  of  a  to.il  than  of  (um. 
Stiive  ■i''   with  a  nan  v,  ihout  cause,  if  ht  have  doni? 

thir  r.-.  t'.irm. 
The  bles-^ing  of  the  Lord,  it  moiielu  rich,  and  l<c  t' 'deth 

no  sorrow  with  i 
The  curse  .:  luseitf^j  shul'  not  t'->rae. 
The  drunkard  am!  the  jf'iitton  shalirni-e  t"  iwerty:  and 

drowsiness  shall  .-loii  <  a  man  with  rni;r 
The  ham!  of  (he   lliec'ii  shall  btirr  rule;  !,i-t  the  sioiii- 

ful  shall  K'  undc.  triddt - 
The  labour  of  the  righicous  tcndcth  to  life,  tlio  fruit  of 

the  wicked  to  sin. 
The  meitiory  of  the  just  in  blessed  ^  but  the  name  of  the 

vricked  sliull  rot, 
TTxe  race  h  not  to  the  'VsifX,  nor  the  battle  to  the  strong. 
The  rich  man  in  wist!  iit  bin  own  conceit ;  but  llio   poor 

that  hiith  iindcrManiliiu  nearcheth  him  out. 
The  riv'h  man's  wealth  is  tiiti  strong  city ;  the  destruction 

of  the  poor  is  their  [K.v.rty. 
Tfce  rich  ruli't!)  over  the  poo'- ;  and  the  borrower  is  serv- 
ant to  the  li'iider. 
The  simple  bdievcth  every  word;  but  the  prudent  man 

lookcth  well  to  !iis  Rointr. 
The  sleep  of  the  labouriiii;  man  is  sweet,  whether  he  eat 
little  or  much  ;  but  the  abundance  of  the  rich  will  not 
aufler  him  to  sleep. 
The  sluggard   will  not  plough  by  reason  of  the  cold ; 

therefore  shall  he  iieg  in  harvest,  and  have  nothing. 
The  slothful  man  g<iith.  There  is  a  hon  without ;  I  shall 

he  slain  in  the  t.treel». 
The  poor  is  hated  even  of  his  neighbour ;  but  the  rich 

hath  many  friends. 
The  profit  of  the  earth  is  fur  all :  the  king  himself  is 

Berve<l  by  the  field. 
The  upright  shall  dwell  in  the  land,  and  the  perfect  shall 
remain  in  iL     liut  the  wiokod  shall  be  cut  olf  from  the 
earth,  and  the  transgressorti  shall  be  rooted  out  o*  It. 
The  wicked  flee  when  no  ratrj  pursueth  ;f  but  the  right- 
eous are  bold  as  a  lion. 
The  wise  shall  inherit  glory  ;  but  shame   shall  be  the 

promotion  of  fools. 
There  it  that  maketh  himself  ri<-h,  yet  hath  nothing ;  there 

ia  that  maketh  himself  poor,  yet  hath  great  riches. 
There  is  that  wattcreth,  iit  .  /ct  incrcseth ;  and  there  ia 


that  withhoKleta  more 

poverty. 
To  all  the  living  ther 

than  a  dead  I'm. 
Trtiii  up  »  chilli 

ia  old  he  will 


.  .  >  meet,  but  it  tondeth  to 

f :  a  living  dog  is  belter 

he  should  go,  anu  when  ho 
.'rom  it. 


•  Anciently,  in  ili     •. 
0mnd  1  the  j)rp»*fii(  -        I.  iii 
"»n  pou.-.try. 

'>M««iat':«  mallei  aowj 


win  Ml  honour  lob"  permitted  lo 
I  ia  to  sit  \)efoi  J  them  in  our 

-.r  >'    -u  all  —SkakiftaTt. 


Treasures  of  wickedness  profit  nothing;  but  rightMok 

noss  delivereth  from  death. 
Wealth  maketh  many  friends  ;  but  the  poor  is  stpiraiej 

from  his  neighbour. 
Whatsoever  thy  hand  findeth  lo  do,  do  it  with  thy  niii>hi 

for  there  is  no  work,  nor  device,  nor  knowledge  « J 

wisdom  in  the  grave,  whither  thou  pocst. 
When  goods  increase,  they  aie  increased  that  eat  llem 

and  what  good  is  there  to  the  owners  thereof,  javini 

the  beholding  of  them  with  their  eyes. 
Whore  no  counsel  is,  the  people  fall;  but  in  the  mulii. 

tude  of  counsellors  thqro  is  safety. 
Where  no  wooil  is,  then  the  fire  goeth  out;  so  where 

there  is  no  tale-bearer,  the  strife  coaseth. 
When   pride  coineth,  then  coincth  shame ;  but  with  tht 

lowly  in  wisdom. 
I'Lo  r.n  find  a  virtuous  woman  1  for  her  price  ig  f« 

above  rubies. 
Whoso  findcih  a  wife  findeth  a  good  thing,  and  obtaineih 

favour  of  the  Lord. 
Wine  is  a  mocker,  Strong  drink  is  raging ;  and  whoe> 

ever  is  deceived  thereby  is  not  wise. 
HMthdraw  thy  foot  from  thy  iieifjbbour's  house,  lest  hi 

he  weary  of  thee,  and  so  hate  thee, 
Withhold  not  good  from  them  to  whom  it  is  due,  when 

it  is  in  the  power  of  thine  liiind  to  do  it. 
Yet  a  little  sleep,  a  little  slumlier,  a  little  folding  of  the 

hands  to  sleep  :  sc  shall  thy  poverty  come  as  one  thit 

travclleth,  and  thy  want  as  an  armed  man. 

ENGLISH  PROVF.RBS. 

A  bad  workman  quarrels  with  his  tools. 

A  bird  in  the  hand  is  wortlutwo  in  a  bush. 

A  happy  heart  makes  a  blooming  visage. 

Absence  cools  moderate  passions,  and  inflames  violeit 

ones. 
A  burden  which  one  chooses  ia  not  felt. 
.\  cat  may  look  at  a  king. 
Aching  teeth  arc  ill  tenants. 
A  chip  of  the  old  block. 
A  clear  conscience  fears  no  accusation. 
A  contented  mind  is  a  continual  feast  , 

A  creaking  door  hangs  long  on  the  hingea. 
A  day  after  the  feast. 
.\  drowning  man  will  catch  at  a  straw. 
Adversity  flattcreth  no  man. 
A  fut  kitchen  makes  a  lean  will. 
.\  fault  confessed  is  half  reilressod, 
A  fool  and  his  money  arc  soon  parted. 
A  fool  can  make  money  ;  it   requires  a  wise  mu  || 

spend  it. 
A  fool  may  give  a  wi.io  man  -ounsol 
A  fool's  holt  ...  8iA>n  .shot. 
AfU-r  death  the  doctor. 

After  dinner  sit  a  while,  after  supper  walk  a  mile. 
A(\cr  meat,  mustard. 
A  friend  in  need  is  a  friend  indeed. 
A  full  purse  never  lacks  friends. 
A  gentleman  without  a  living  is  like  a  pudding  withool 

suet 
A  good  layer-uo  is  a  gnod  layer-out 
A  good  maxim  . .  '..ev  i      it  ftf  ,  iu.4on. 
A  good  name  keepe  'i:   I'  -tre  in  li;i-   ''ifk. 
A  gf  ■■'  8cr>ant    i.         a  p'jikI  master. 
A  good  word  ■■        soon  said  us  an  ill  one. 
A  goose  can, II  ■  gra/.e  after  him 
A  great  dowry  is  a  bed  full  of  troubles. 
Agues  come  on  hor.scbuck,  liut  go  away  on  foot 
A  iruilty  conscience  needs  no    ccuser. 
.\  -lair  of  the  dog  tlpil  Lit  him. 
A  tiandfi.l  of  kooJ  iife  in  ictler  than  »  bushel ut  letniiii| 
A  hungry  man's  an  angry  man. 
A  king's  favour  is  no  inbcritaiice. 
A  libertine's  lif:  is  nut  u  life  of  liberty. 


5yP-;  "*;,' 


PROVERBS  AND  OLD  SAYINGS. 


Mr 


A  lie  hM  no  Ivgi.  ^ut  icandal  has  wingn. 

A  light-hroled  mother  makes  a  heavy-heeled  (laughter. 

A  ligli'  pur""  •'  »  heavy  curse. 

A  little  body  ilotli  often  harbour  a  great  soul. 

A  little  leak  will    ink  a  great  ship. 

A  little  pot  is  soon  hot. 

All  are  not  friend*  that  speak  us  fair. 

All  are  not  hunters  that  blow  the  horn. 

All  are  not  thieves  that  dogs  bark  at. 

All  fi'ot  tread  not  in  one  shoe. 

All  gone  to  sixPH  and  sevens  [confusion  and  ruin]. 

All  is  fi»h  that  comes  to  the  net. 

All  is  not  gain  that  is  got  into  the  purse. 

All  is  not  gold  that  glitters. 

All  lay  load  on  the  willing  horse. 

AH  the  honesty  is  in  the  parting. 

All  the  flit's  in  the  fire. 

All  things  are  soon  prepared  in  a  well-ordered  house. 

All  work  anil  no  play  makes  Jack  a  dull  boy. 

Almost  and  very  nigh,  save  many  a  lie. 

Always  put  the  saddle  on  the  right  horse. 

A  man  forewarned  is  forearmed. 

A  man  may  buy  gold  too  dear. 

A  nian  may  cause  his  own  dog  to  bite  him. 

A  niun  may  hold  his  tongue  in  an  ill  time. 

A  inan  may  lose  his  goods  for  want  of  demanding  them. 

A  man  must  ask  his  wife  leave  to  thrive. 

A  man  never  surfeits  of  too  much  honesty. 

A  man  without  reason  is  a  beast  in  season. 

A  miss  is  an  good  as  a  will. 

An  apple,  an  egg,  and  a  nut,  you  may  eat  after  a  slut. 

An  empty  purse  fills  the  face  with  wrinkles. 

An  evil  los'ion  is  soon  learned. 

Ani;cr  dicth  quickly  with  a  good  man. 

An  honest  man's  word  is  as  gowl  as  his  bond. 

An  hour  in  the  morning  is  worth  two  in  the  afternoon. 

A  nice  wife  and  a  backdoor  often  make  a  rich  man  poor. 

An  idle  brain  is  the  devil's  workshop. 

An  oak  is  not  felled  with  one  blow. 

An  obedient  wife  commands  her  husband. 

A  nixl  from  a  lord  is  a  breakfast  for  a  fool. 

An  old  knave  is  no  babe. 

An  old  sack  askcth  much  patching. 

An  ounce  of  mother-wit  is  %vorth  a  pound  of  clergy. 

Antiquity  is  not  always  a  mark  of  verity. 

An  unlawful  oath  is  better  broke  than  kept. 

Any  thing  for  u  quiet  life. 

A  penny  saved  is  a  penny  earned. 

A  pin  a  day  is  a  groat  a  year. 

A  pitcher  goes  often  to  the  well,  hut  is  broken  at  last. 

A  quiet  conscience  sleeps  in  thunder. 

A  quiet  tongue  shows  a  wise  head. 

A  rolling  stone  gathers  no  moss. 

A  rotten  apple  injures  its  companions. 

A  rottiii  sheep  infects  the  whole  flock. 

A  single  fact  is  worth  a  ship-load  of  argument 

A  small  |mck  becomes  a  small  pedlar. 

A  small  spark  makes  a  great  fire. 

A  smart  reproof  is  better  than  smooth  deceit. 

A  spur  in  the  head  is  worth  two  in  the  heel. 

As  the  l)cll  is,  so  is  the  clapper. 

As  the  crow  is,  the  egg  will  lie. 

As  the  fool  thinks,  the  bell  clinks. 

As  the  (lid  cock  crows,  the  young  cock  learns. 

A  atiich  ill  time  saves  nine. 

rts  welcome  as  llowers  in  Mav. 

As  you  make  your  l^'d,  ao  must  you  lio  an  iU 

As  you  sow,  30  you  shiill  reap. 

A  tree  is  known  by  its  fruit. 

A  waiter  is  a  fool's  argument. 

A  williii  ninn  will  have  iiis  way. 

A  willing  mind  makes  a  light  foot. 

A  word  lieforc  is  worth  two  behind 

Aye  b*"  as  merry  aj  you  can. 


Bachelors'  wives  and   maids*  c^ildron  are  alwaya  < 

taught. 
Deauty  is  a  blossom. 
Beauty  is  no  inheritance. 

Before  thou  roanry,  he  sure  of  a  house  wherein  t?  tturryt 
Beggars  have  no  right  to  be  choosers. 
Be  it  for  better,  or  be  it  for  worse,  bo  ruled  by  him  th.*! 

beareth  the  purse. 
Be  not  too  hasty  to  outbid  another. 
Be  slow  to  promise,  and  quick  to  perform. 
Better  do  it  than  wish  it  done. 
Better  go  about  than  fall  into  the  ditch. 
Better  known  than  trusted. 
Better  late  than  never. 
Better  ride  on  an  ass  that  carries  me,  than  a  hone  that 

throws  me. 
Better  to  bo  alone  than  in  bad  company. 
Better  to  be  beaten  than  to  be  in  bad  company. 
Better  to  bend  than  to  break. 
Better  to  go  to  bed  supperless  than  to  rise  in  debt. 
Between  two  stools  we  come  to  the  ground. 
Birds  of  a  feather  flock  together. 
Birth  is  much,  but  breeding  is  more. 
Borrowed  garments  never  fit  well. 
Brag  is  a  good  dog  but  Holdfast  is  bettor. 
Bread  at  pleasure,  drink  by  measure. 
Brevity  is  the  soul  of  wit. 

Building  and  marrying  of  children  are  great  waateiib 
Burning  the  candle  at  both  ends. 
Business  is  the  salt  of  life. 
Buy  at  a  market,  but  sell  at  home. 
By  others'  faults  wise  men  correct  their  own. 
"  Can  do"  is  easily  carried, 
(/are  killed  a  cat 
(Carrying  coals  to  Newcastle. 
Catch  not  at  the  shadow,  and  lose  the  suhstance- 
(/Btch  the  bear  before  you  sell  his  skin, 
(change  of  fortune  is  the  lot  of  life. 
Charity  begins  at  home,  hut  does  :iot  end  there. 
Cheating  play  never  thrives. 
Children  and  chickens  must  be  alwaj?  picking, 
(children  are  uncertain  comforts. 
Children  suck  the  mother  when  they  are  young,  tund  ta* 

father  when  they  are  old. 
Climb  not  too  high,  lest  the  fall  be  the  greater. 
Confession  of  a  fault  makes  half  amends  for  it. 
Confine  your  tongue,  lest  it  confine  you. 
Conscience  is  never  dilatory  in  her  warnings. 
Conscience  is  the  chamber  of  justice. 
Constant  occupation  prevents  temptation. 
Content  is  the  true  philosophers'  stone. 
Contentment  to  the  mind  is  as  light  to  the  eye. 
Conviviality  should  ever  be  free  from  intemperanc* 
Courtesy  on  one  side  never  lasts  long. 
Covet  not  that  which  belongs  to  others. 
Craft  bringeth  nothing  home. 
Custom  is  a  second  nature. 
Cut  and  come  again. 
Cut  your  coat  according  to  your  cloth. 
Daub  yourself  with  honey,  and  you  will  have  plentj  at 

flies. 
Death  is  deaf  and  hears  no  denial. 
Death  keeps  no  calendar. 
Debt  is  the  worst  kind  of  poverty. 
Deeds  are  fruits,  words  are  but  leaves. 
Deep  rivers  move  with  silent  majesty,  shallow  brooks  at* 

noisy. 
Defer  not  till  the  evening  what  the  morning  may  acooa 

plish. 
Dcbiys  are  dangerous. 
Deliberate  slowly,  execute  promptly. 
Depeml  not  on  fortune,  but  on  conduct 
Deiienilence  is  a  poor  trade  to  follow. 
BeriJe  not  any  man's  infirmities.  "* 


'If 


H 


«M 


INFORMATION    FOR  THE   PEOPLE 


Oeairca  are  nourimhed  by  dolayi. 

PeiierTe  Bucrriw,  and  you  »liall  rommand  it 

Dmpiie  none,  dcupnir  of  noiic, 

DiliiTonre  is  the  miKlri>s»  of  Hurrpmi. 

Diiieasoii  arc  tho  inli-mitt*  jmiil  for  ptpngurea. 

Do  wt  the  most  do.  and  frwost  will  gpcak  evil  of  you.* 

Do  aa  ynii  wniiid  l>e  donn  by. 

Dos[ii  wRi^  thfir  tails  not  «o  much  in  love  to  you  ai  to 
your  hrond. 

Doinft  notliini;  in  d  <ing:  ill. 

Do  not  hum  diiylislit  iir-.in  it. 

Do  not  hnlloo  till  you  am  out  of  tho  wood. 

Do  not  ninkc  fifli  of  oiio  and  tlnh  of  another. 

Do  not  rip  i>',i  old  snrcs. 

Do  not  ipiir  a  froo  horse. 

Do  r,ot  throw  your  opinions  in  everybody's  tooth. 

Don't  lie  all  your  days  trotting  on  a  niMiage  leaf. 

Don't  buy  a  i)iR  in  a  poke. 

Don't  rnoiiMuro  otiior  [H'ople's  corn  by  your  bushel. 

Dc  n't  neglect  to  foatlior  your  nest. 

Doi't  run  away  with  more  than  you  can  carry. 

Doi\'t  value  a  siein  by  what  it  is  set  in. 

Do  vhat  tliou  ou'.'lito^i,  and  come  wl»at  can. 

Dovn  with  tho  dusi    pay  the  money]. 

Dr'jnkenncHs  is  a  pair  of  spectacles  to  see  the  devil  and 
all  his  works. 

TJnmkonnoBs  rcducos  a  man  below  the  standard  of  a  brute. 

Ragles  fly  alono.  but  sheep  flock  together. 
Early  to  bod,  nnd  early  to  rise, 
Makes  a  miin  healthy,  wealthy  and  wise. 

Rat  what  you  like,  but  pocket  nolbini?. 

Eiiipfy  voKsels  make  tho  i?reatost  sound. 

EnouRli  is  as  jTuod  as  a  feast. 

Entertain  honour  with  humility,  and  poverty  with  pa- 
tience. 

t,  'ening  oats  are  good  morning's  fodder. 

E'er  drunk  ever  dry. 

Ever  spare  and  ever  have. 

Every  bean  hnth  its  black> 

Every  dog  has  his  day. 

Everybody's  business  is  nobocy's  businean. 

Every  ooiiplo  is  not  a  pair. 

Every  herring  must  hang  by  its  own  head. 

Every  Jack  has  bis  Jill. 

Every  man  is  the  arobifeot  of  his  own  fortune. 

Every  one  for  himself,  and  (io<l  for  us  all. 

Every  one  puts  his  fault  on  the  times. 

Every  one  to  their  liking,  as  the  old  woman  said  i*hen 

she  kissed  her  oow. 
Every  path  bath  a  puddle.  * 

Every  shoe  fits  not  every  foot. 
Every  thing  hath  an  end.  and  a  pudding  hath  two. 
Every  thing  is  ^ood  in  its  season. 
Every  thing  is  tho  worw  for  wearing. 
3xarnple  teaches  more  than  precept 
Experience  is  the  mother  of  science. 
Eiperienre  teaches  fools. 
Evil  coromunii  alions  corrupt  good  mannera. 
Evil  gotten  evil  spent. 
Faint  henri  never  won  fair  lady. 
Fair  and  softly  go  far  in  a  day. 
Fair  words  make  fools  fain. 
Fall  not  out  with  a  friend  for  a  trifle. 
False  friends  arc  worse  than  ojien  enemies. 
Fancy  may  hM  bran  and  think  it  flour. 
Far-fetched  and  'leiir-bouu:ht  is  good  for  ladiea. 
Pat  paunches  inak<'  loan  pales. 
Fat  sorrow  is  letter  than  b  >..  sorrow. 
Few  take  care  to  live  well,  but  nn.        •  live  long, 
Fiddior's  fare — moat,  drink,  and  .:jiii 
Fine  feathers  make  fine  liirds. 
Fiit*  words  butler  no  parsnip*. 


*  la  most  rates  this  would  be  a  bad  •Hv'm. 


Fire  and  water  are  good  servants,  ><ii|  lia<! ; 

Fire  is  not  to  Imj  ([uenclicd  with  tow 

First  deserve  and  then  desire. 

Fly  pleasure,  nnd  it  will  fidluw  thee. 

Fools  make  toasts,  and  wise  men  eat  thefjo. 

Fools  should  never  sec  half-done  work. 

Fools  tie  knots,  and  wise  men  loose  them. 

Folds  will  l)c  meddling. 

Forbearance  is  no  acquittance. 

Forgive  and  forgot.  , 

Forgive  uny  sooner  than  thyself. 

Fortune  tavonrs  ilio  brave. 

Fortune  has  no  power  over  discretion. 

Fortune  knocks  once  at  b'ast  at  every  man's  gate. 

For  want  of  company,  welcome  trumpery. 

From  fame  to  infamy  is  a  beaten  road. 

Oather  thistles,  except  prickles. 

Gentry  bent  to  market  will  not  buy  one  bushel  of  com. 

Get  thy  spindio  ajid  distalf  reaily,  and  God  will  send  flak 

Give  a  dog  an  ill  name  and  hang  him. 

Give  a  rogue  rojH<  enouKb,  nnd  ho  will  hang  himsoii 

Give  it  plenty  of  elbow  grease  [hard  rubbing]. 

Give  the  devil  his  due. 

God  help  the  rich,  the  jmor  can  beg. 

Go<t  hel|)»  those  who  help  thomsclveh. 

God  send  you  more  wit,  and  me  more  money. 

God  tempers  the  wind  to  the  shorn  lamb« 

Go  farther  ond  fare  worse. 

Goixl  counsel  is  above  all  price. 

Goo<l  harvests  make  men  prodigal,  bad  ones  proyidcol, 

(iood  to  lie  merry  at  mout 

(tor«l  ware  makes  quick  markets. 

Good  wine  needs  no  bush. 

(iood  words  cost  nothing,  but  are  worth  much. 

Goods  are  not  theirs  who  enjoy  them. 

(iossipping  nnd  lying  go  hand  in  hand. 

(■rasp  all,  lose  all. 

(ireut  barkers  are  no  biters. 

Great  cry  and  little  wool. 

( treat  gain  and  little  pain  make  a  man  soon  weary. 

Half  n  loaf  is  l>etler  than  no  bread. 

Handfomo  is  that  handxome  does. 

Happy  is  he  whost-  friends  were  born  before  him. 

Hup|iy  is  he  who  knows  his  follies  in  his  youth, 

Happy  is  the  wooing  that  is  not  long  in  doing. 

Harm  waloh,  harm  catch. 

Hasty  resolutions  seldotn  speed  well. 

Have  not  thy  cloak  to  make  when  it  begins  to  raib 

Hear  twice  l>efore  you  i'p<'ak  once. 

He  dances  well  to  whom  fortune  pipes. 

He  doubles  his  gift  who  gives  in  time. 

He  fights  with  his  own  shado-.v. 

He  giveth  twice  thai  gives  in  a  trice. 

He  has  a  b<>o  in  bis  Ixinnet. 

He  has  brought  his  noble  to  ninepcnc«. 

Ho  has  had  a  bite  upon  his  l)ridle. 

He  is  a  wise  man  who  speaks  little. 

He  is  proper  that  hath  projwr  conditiona. 

He  knows  no',  a  B  from  a  bull's  foot. 

He  knows  not  a  hawk  from  a  hand-siw. 

He  lacks  most  that  longs  most 

Hell  is  paved  with  goiMl  intentions. 

Help  the  lame  dor  over  the  stile. 

He  livoth  long  that  livcth  well. 

He'll  find   some  bole  to  creep  nut  at. 

He  loses  nothing  for  the  nskix'r. 

He  loHcth  his  tliHiiVs  who  i  th  and  delayctlL 

He  loseth  nothing  that  S.    ;  .  li  ^i  for  his  friend. 

He  loves  roast  meat  wi  li  th;  '  li'.ii'  '.'•;  spit 

T'l  !■  ly  well  be  contented  .v  .10  need^iicithcr  borrow  p.n 

flu    -.T. 

He  must  needs  run  whom  the  devil  drive* 
He  must  stoop  that  hath  n  low  door. 
He  plays  well  that  wiv.' 


'i^K*"-:. 


rROVEItBS  AND  OLD  SAYINGS. 


Re'i  «  Jack  ill  office". 

He'u  gone  upon  a  nlocvclegfi  erranil. 

He  thiit  iilwiiy*  complainn  in  never  pi'.ied. 

Ho  tlmt  blows  ill  thf  duHt  fillH  hio  eyes.  * 

Ho  that  fallH  in  an  ovil  cuuic,  (M»  in  the  devil'a  frying* 

pan. 
H '  tlint  goes  8-borrowing  goen  a-aorrowlng. 
Ho  that  ImK  no  nhaine  hiifi  no  conscience. 
He  that  has  no  bilver  in  his  purao  should  have  silver  on 

his  toiiRUo. 
Ht!  that  hath  a  good  harvest  may  ho  content  with  aome 

thistles. 
He  thut  is  ungry  ia  seldom  at  case. 
He  that  ia  wiinn  thinks  all  nrc  so. 
Ho  tlmt  Iciiilcth  loseth  double.     [Losea  both  his  money 

am!  his  Iriciid.] 
Ho  that  lit'ks  honey  from  thorns  pays  too  dear  for  it 
He  that  lies  down  with  dogs,  must  expect  to  rise  with 

fleas. 
He  tiiat  livfia  no'  well  one  year  sorrows  for  it  seven. 
Ho  that  liveth  wickedly  can  liurdly  die  honestly. 
Ho  that  reckons  without  his  host  must  reckon  again. 
He  that  runs  fast  will  not  run  Ions. 
He  that  runs  in  the  night  stumbles. 
iie  li...'  ""ws  not  corn  plants  thistles 
He  that  stays  in  the  valley  will  never  get  over  the  hill. 
Hethaf  will  not  bo  saved  needs  no  (treaehcr. 
He  that  will  not  be  counselled  cannot  he  helped. 
He  that  will  steal  an  efg  will  steal  an  ox. 
He  that  would  thrive  must  rise  at  five,  he  that  has 

thriven  may  lie  till  seven. 
He  was  liorn  with  a  silver  spoon  in  his  mouth. 
He  who  is  hasty  fishes  in  an  empty  pond. 
Ho  who  knows  himself  best  nsteems  himself  least 
He  who  lies  long  in  bed  his  estate  feels  it. 
He  who  marrieth  for  wealth  doth  sell  his  liberty. 
He  who  rises  lute  never  ilocs  n  .,oo(l  day's  work. 
Ho  who  runs  after  a  shadow  has  a  wearisome  race. 
Ho  who  sows  brambles  must  not  i;o  barefoot. 
He  who  ipends  all   le  gets  is  in  the  higbrci '  to  beggary. 
Ho  whr    •»'ims  in  sin  will  sink  in  sorrow. 
He  wl.    would  cateh  fish  mu4  not  mind  geti'ng  wet 
He  who  would  reap  well  must  sow  well. 
Hiders  are  good  finders. 
His  bread  is  buttered  on  both  sidea. 
His  eye  is  bigger  than  his  belly. 
Um  tongue's  no  slander, 
I'iMiii  is  home  though  it  be  ever  ao  homely. 
Hi)    is  a  good  breakfast  but  a  bad  supper. 
Hot  love  is  soon  cold. 
Hot  sup,  hot  swai'viw. 
Humility  is  the  foundation  of  all  virtu'j. 
Huni^er  is  the  best  sauce. 
Hungry  d'".>  .ut  dirty  puddings. 
I  can  see  as  far  into  a  millstone  as  the  picker. 
Iille  folks  have  the  most  labour. 
iille  folks  have  the  least  leisure. 
lilliiness  is  the  greatest  prodigality. 
Mleiiess  is  the  parent  of  want  and  8h<.iiie. 
MIeness  is  the  root  of  all  evil. 
MIeiioss  is  the  sepulchre  of  a  living  man. 
if  every  one  would  mend  one  all  would  be  amended. 
It  the  brain  sowrs  "ot  corn,  it  plants  thistles. 
It  the  cap  fit,  we  r  it. 
If  ilie  mountai  i  will  not  come  to  Mahomet,  Mahomet 

must  go  to  I  le  mountain. 
It  tilings  wcri,  to  be  done  twice  all  would  be  wise. 
If  we  subdue  not  .^i.r  passions  they  will  subdue  us. 
If  wishes  were  harses,  beggi;rs  would  ride. 
1   you  give  an  inch,  he  will  fake  an  ell. 
It  vou  have  too  nio.;iy  irons  in  the  tire,  some  of  them 

will  burn. 
[f  you  would  enjoy  the  fruit,  pluck  not  the  flower. 
(auraiice  ia  the  parent  of  many  injurioa. 


I  have  a  crow  to  pluck  with  him. 

I  have  lived  too  near  a  wood  to  be  frightened  by  owb. 

I  have  other  flsh  to  fry. 

I'll  trust  him  no  farther  than  I  can  fling  him.  \f 

HI  examples  are  like  contagioua  diMasea,  _,-  ^,i' 

HI  gotten  goiMls  seldom  proaper.  •  ,  .  i 

HI  news  travel  apace. 

HI  wedding  and  ill  wintering  tame  both  man  and  beaat 

HI  weeds  grow  apace. 

In  a  culm  sea  every  man  is  a  pilot.  ,     . 

In  at  one  car  and  out  at  Ihe  other. 

In  vain  he  craves  advice  that  wilt  not  follow  it 

Inconstancy  is  the  attendant  of  a  weak  mind. 

It  costs  more  to  revenge  injuries  than  to  bear  them. 

It  cuts  both  ways,  like  a  two-edged  bword. 

It  is  a  bad  horse  that  refuses  to  carry  his  provender. 

It  is  a  long  road  that  bus  no  turning. 

It  is  an  ill  wind  that  blows  nobody  good. 

It  is  better  to  do  well,  than  to  say  well. 

It  is  good  to  begin  well,  but  better  to  end  well. 

It  is  less  painful  to  learn  in  youth  than  to  be  ignorunt  io 

age. 
It  is  never  too  late  to  learn. 
It  is  no  small  conquest  to  overcome  yourself. 
It  is  not  the  cowl  that  niuketh  the  friar. 
It's  a  bad  cause  tlmt  none  dare  speak  ill. 
It's  a  bad  sack  will  abide  no  clouting. 
It's  a  good  horse  that  never  stumbles. 
It's  a  poor  sport  that's  not  worth  the  candle. 
It's  a  sad  heart  that  never  rejoices. 
It's  a  wise  child  that  knows  its  own  father. 
It's  an  ill  proeession  where  the  devil  holds  the  candle 
It's  easy  to  bowl  down  hill. 
It's  ill  healing  an  old  sore. 
It's  ill  shaving  against  the  wool. 
It's  merry  in  Ihe  hall  when  beards  wag  all. 
It's  more  painful  to  do  nothing  than  something. 
It's  not  the  gay  coat  makes  the  gentleman- 
It's  possible  for  a  riini  to  kill  a  butcher. 
It's  wit  to  pick  a  iock  and  steal  a  horse,  but  wiadom  M 

let  them  alone. 
Jack  Nokes  and  Tom  Stiles. 
Jack  of  all  trades  and  master  of  none. 
Jesting  lies  bring  serious  sorrows. 
Judge  not  of  a  siiip  as  she  lies  on  the  stocks. 
Judge  nut  of  men  or  thir  .s  at  first  sight 
Keep  a  thing  seven  years,  and  you  will  find  a  uae  for  IL 
Keep  coui  -el  thyself  first 

Keep  good  men  company,  and  you  s''.  ifthenuraboi'. 

Keep  no  more  cats  than  will  catch  i.r- 
Keep  the  bowels  open,  thi  head  cool,  ^i.  i  mc  feet  warm 

and  a  fig  for  physicians. 
Keep  thy  shop,  and  thy  sliop  will  keep  thee. 
Keep  )rur  tongue  within  your  teeth. 
Kill  two  birds  with  one  stone. 
Kindness  is  lost  upon  an  ungrateful  man. 
Kindnesses,  like  grain,  increase  by  sowing. 
Kissing  goes  .ly  favour. 

Knavery  may  serve  a  turn,  but  honesty  is  best  intheenti 
Land  was  never  lost  for  want  of  an  heir. 
Lazy  folks  take  the  most  pains. 
Least  said  is  soonest  mended. 
Lend  thy  horse  and  thou  inayeiit  have  back  hia  akin. 
Let  every  pedlar  carry  his  own  burden. 
Let  every  tub  stand  on  its  own  bottom. 
Let  not  your  tongue  cut  your  throat. 
Let  sleeping  dogs  he. 
Let  the  cobliler  stick  to  his  last. 
Let  them  .augh  that  win. 
Life  is  half  spent  before  we  know  what  it  ia. 
Life  without  a  friend  is  death  without  a  witnean.  < 

Light  come,  light  go. 
Lips  however  rosy  must  be  fed. 
Little  and  often  fills  the  purse. 
^  4A 


'1^7 


INFORMA'nON    FOR  THE  PKOPLE. 


I.itti*  bo«U  mimt  kei>p  n««i  ihor* 

l.itth  pitrhrr*  hivii  «  ■•nl  rnr*. 

I.itll«  atieki  kiiullo  the  tlrn,  lull  great  onM  put  it  out. 

I.ivd  iin<l  |«t  live. 

l.ivc  not  to  eat,  tmt  rat  to  liv*. 

Lowly  let,  rifhly  worn. 

I.iN-k  the  italilf  ilcH>r  wlicn  the  ateej  ia  atoUa. 

LotiK  tookril-rnr  roriira  at  laaU 

L(H>k  liernrr  Mill  Ich|>. 

L'>ok  to  the  main  rliniire. 

Look  twire  err  yoii  di  formine  onc«k 

Lookera-on  m'v  more  than  playcra 

Loat-ra  are  alway*  in  \\\e  wroHK. 

Love  aaka  faith,  ami  liiith  aaka  finniieaa. 

I.i>*e  me,  Iovp  my  lUtg. 

Lovora  live  hy  lovo  nit  liirka  hy  leeka.     [Ironical.] 

Lucky  men  ncv<l  lilllu  ('<>,,iiael. 

M  ike  a  virtue  of  necPHaity. 

Mnko  huy  while  the  nun  nhinea. 

Make  not  your  will  too  lnri(e  Tor  your  ahipi 

Make  the  beat  of  a  liml  l>art(uin. 

Makii.    ^  '"a  plniBure. 

M  in  'tilth  what  lie  thi  ,  ,.iiil  God  what  be  will 

Man  proiHMoa,  OimI  iliii|H>8ea. 

M'iiin"r«  oftei!  iniike  fortuilea. 

Miiny  a  Hlip  U'twixt  the  rup  and  the  lip. 

M.iny  a  true  wunl  is  afmken  in  jeat. 

Many  can  pack  the  cdriU  that  cannot  play. 

Many  go  out  for  wool  ami  romo  homo  ahom. 

Many  hamli  make  llitht  work. 

Many  worilv  will  nut  till  the  tiuahel. 

Marry  in  haate,  and  rr|>cnt  at  leisure. 

Mjrry  your  autia  when  you  will,  your  daughtera  when 

you  ran. 
Milla  and  wives  are  ever  wanting. 
MiarhielK  come  hy  tlii'  (lound  and  go  away  by  the  ounce. 
Mbfortunea  aeldom  come  alone. 
Ml  ireckoning  in  no  pnynient. 
Modesty  ia  the  handmaid  of  virtue. 
Money  m^tkra  the  mim-  to  go. 
Money  will  i!'^  more  than  my  Lord'a  lettef. 
More  nfraid  than  hurt,  * 

Much  is  exiK'ctwl  where  much  ia  given. 
Much  water  t{«€ii  hy  the  mill  the  miller  knowa  not  of. 
Much  would  have  more  and  loat  all. 
iMuffled  cats  are  bad  mouacra. 
Murder  will  out. 

My  »un  ia  my  aon  till  he  geta  him  a  wife, 
But  my  daui;litcr'H  my  daughter  all  the  day  a  of  her  life. 
NeccKHity  ia  the  mother  of  invention. 
Neither  praiae  nor  dispraiae  thyself;  thine  actiona  aerve 

I       turn. 
Never  carry  two  fuces  under  one  hood. 
Never  fall  out  with  your  bread  and  butter. 
Ne%'er  find  any  thing  bcfoie  it  ia  loat. 
Nev"r  fuh  in  trouhUil  wotera. 
Never  light  your  candle  at  both  enda. 
Never  look  a  g\l\  horw  in  the  mouth. 
Never  make  u  mountain  of  a  mole-hilL 
Neve,  quit  certainty  for  hope. 
Never  ride  a  free  horse  to  death. 
Never  »<)und  the  trum|iet  of  your  own  praiae. 

(ever      lit  againxt  the  grain. 
A>ievcr     ead  on  a  sore  toe. 
Never  tj  uxt  to  a  broken  (tafC 
Never  venture  out  of  your  depth  till  yon  can  awim. 
Never  wado  in  unknown  watcra. 
New  brooms  sweep  clean. 

New  lik'hta  often  coiiio  through  cracki  in  the  tilcing 
New  lorils.  new  laws. 
Next  to  love,  quictneaa. 
No  alchemy  is  ci|uiil  to  saving. 
No  man  mn  serve  two  maMtcm. 
No  man  aiiould  live  like  a  toad  under  •  harrow 


No  mill,  nc  meal. 

None  are  so  deaf  aa  thnae  mat  will  not  heai. 

None  know»  ilio  weight  of  another's  burden. 

^k)n«  so  blind  as  those  who  will  not  see. 

tfh  (Hit  is  so  ugly  as  not  to  And  ■  cover. 

No  receiver,  no  tliief. 

No  ros«»  without  a  ihorn. 

Nothing  ciiinea  out  of  the  sark  but  what  waa  io  it. 

Nothing  dries  siMiner  than  leara. 

Nothing  down,  nothing  up. 

Nothing  is  jin|M>ssiblo  to  a  willing  mind, 

Nolbiiig  venture,  nothing  win. 

Of  all  slutlies,  study  your  prewnt  condition. 

Of  all  the  crafli,  to  Is-  un  honest  man  is  the  master  cralL 

Of  all  prodigality,  that  of  time  ia  the  worat. 

Of  two  evils  ch(H>s«  the  least. 

•'  >ld  beea  yLul  no  honey. 

Old  birds  are  not  to  lie  caught  with  chaff 

Old  frienils  and  old  wines  are  best. 

Old  friends  to  meet,  old  wine  to  drink,  and  old  wood  ta 

burn. 
Old  reckonings  breed  new  d  -putes. 
One  bad  example  spoils  many  good  precepta. 
One  biirb<<r  shaves  not  so  close  but  another  find*  woifc 
One  eye-witness  is  lietter  than  ten  liraraaya. 
O  ,1'  flower  makes  no  garland. 
One  good  turn  deacrvea  another. 
One  half  tin-  world  knows  not  how  the  other  half  livei^ 
One  hour's  sleep  U-fore  midnight  is  worth  two  arter. 
One  ia  not  so  soon  henlerl  aa  hurt. 
One  man  may  steal  a  hurao,  when  another  may  not  look 

over  the  hedge. 
One  mni  's  meat  ia  another's  poison. 
One  nail  drives  out  another. 
One  never  loses  by  doing  a  good  turn. 
One  ounce  of  discretion  is  worth  a  pound  of  wit. 
One  Bi-ablMol  sheep  will  mar  a  flcx-k. 
One  swallow  makes  not  a  spring,  nor  one  woodcock  a 

winter. 
One   111'   is  good  till  another  ia  told. 
Open  r-    like  is  Ix-ttcr  Ibnn  secrvi  hatred. 
Oppor  "   i.y  makea  the  thief. 
Opjwrtu.    I'-s  neglected  are  irrecoverable. 
Our  own  oj'inion  is  nevci  wrong. 
Out  of  ili'l  ^  c.iit  of  danger. 
Out  of  sii^ht,  (lu    of  mind. 
Out  of  111'  fryinir-pan  into  the  fire. 
Passion  i>  n  fever  ihut  Ir  m»«  us  weaker  than  it  findiK 
Pnwiiun  is  ever  the  enei.       if  tnith. 
Patience  an''  lime  run  th;. ugh  the  longest  d-iy. 
Patience  is  a  flower  that  ijrows  not  in  every  one's gardea 
Patience  is  a  plaster  for  all  aorea. 
Pay  as  you  go. 

Penny  wise  and  pound  foolish. 

People  who  live  in  glass  iiousea  should  never  tnrow  noaea 
Perfection  is  the  {>oint  at  which  alt  should  aim. 
Petulcnt  contentions  engender  malice.  ' 

Plain  dealing's  a  jewel. 
Positive  men  are  most  often  in  error. 
Possession  is  nine  points  of  the  law. 
Poverty   miikea   a   man   acquainted   with  itran;*  M 

fellows. 
Poverty  parts  friends. 
Praise  a  fair  day  at  night 
Praise  the  sea  but  keep  on  land. 
Prevention  is  better  than  cure. 
Prettiiicss  dies  ijuickly. 
Pride  of  heart  foreruns  destruction. 
Pride  will  have  a  fall. 
ProcrasiitiHtion  is  the  thief  of  time. 
Promise  little  and  do  much. 
Promiws  are  too  much  like  pieH-ruat. 
Provide  fur  the  worst,  the  liest  will  aave  itaelt 
Pry  not  into  the  afiiiini  of  others 


n. 


»M  in  it 


)  master  crtft. 

It 


il  old  wood  It 


pi*, 
yn. 


ither  half  Html 
1  two  aft«r. 

er  may  not  look 


]  of  wit. 

ne  woodcock  t 


PROVERBS  AND  OLD  SAYINGS. 


than  it  lindi  <k 

»t  (lyy. 

ry  one's  garden. 


rr  tnrow  AotM 
Id  aim. 


;h  rtwnse  M 


itwtf. 


riiU  hiir  and  ha>r,  tnd  ycu'll  mtk*  Um  gmU  UkUL 

I'm  MO  fnith  '"  tiil<'-li<MiriT«. 

Quick  at  ifii-at  ciiiick  hI  work. 

(Jiii>'l4  n'm-ritrnrnla  ari'  oftrn  fatal. 

Quick  rettirnii  miiki;  ricli  iiinrchanti. 

Juit  not  certainty  for  hri(w. 

R.ii'W  no  morn  apiritit  tliiin  you  cm  eonjura  down 

Hiilju  prorniHfa  by  pfrforirianrea. 

Hctt.ly  money  will  away. 

Kn'kleM  youth  makes  rueful  age. 

Remove  nn  old  tree  tiid  it  will  wither. 

jtiiinn  wan  not  hiiill  in  n  day. 

Rule  the  apiH-tito  and  temper  the  tAngu*. 

Hafi'  liiiid.  wift'  find. 

Hiiure  for  the  rooho  iit  wiiire  for  the  gander. 

Having  at  the  iiURot  and  4|H<n<ling  at  the  bung. 

8iiy  no  ill  of  tlio  year  till  it  bo  put 

Haying  and  doimj  urn  two  things. 

Heiirch  otIirrH  for  (hvir  virluea,  thyaetf  for  their  fault* 

Heo  t  bi'UKAr  iind  catch  a  louao. 

Hd'iiig  in  l)eli<-*ing. 

Seek  till  you  Htid,  and  you'll  not  loae  your  labour. 

Si'lilom  iic<'n,  soon  fornotton. 

Sclf-prcwrviition  Ih  the  lirMt  law  of  nature. 

lict  II  thief  to  tiikc  n  thief. 

HhiU'U'ii'iiii  rmvin);  must  hnvo  Hhnmule**  way. 

8liitrp  8toma<'h»  make  Hhort  unices. 

She  nhowB  many  more  nirn  than  ^mce*. 

Show  me  n  liar,  and  I  will  show  you  a  thieC 

Siiort  reckoniiins  inuke  loni?  friends. 

Silence  doc*  seliiom  any  liurin. 

Silka  and  latinM^put  out  the  fire  in  the  kitchen. 

Sit  in  your  place  mid  none  will  make  you  rise. 

Sleep  without  Ruppi'r  mid  wako  without  owing. 

Sloth  i«  the  mother  id'  poverty. 

SolJiera  in  [)eaec  are  liko  chimneys  in  sumraer. 

Soon  ripe,  soon  rott<!ii. 

Hoon  wull,  lon^  ill. 

Sooiar  Maid  than  donn. 

Sorrow  will  piiy  no  debt. 

Sour  grapes,  a*  the  fox  said  when  he  could  not  reach 

thcin. 
Sjiare  well  and  spend  well. 

Spare  when  you  arc  vimiiih,  and  upend  when  you  are  old. 
Speak  tlie  truth  anil  hIuiiiii!  thu  devil. 
Speoch  is  the  gift  of  nil,  but  thought  of  few. 
Slars  are  not  wen  by  Hunnhine. 
Stick  your  opinion*  on  no  {)er9on'a  sleeve. 
Streteh  your  leRs  according  to  your  coverlet 
Strike  while  the  iron  is  hot  ' 
Siudy  to  lie  worthy  of  your  parent*. 
Such  a  welcome,  Huch  a  farewell. 
Such  aa  the  tree  is  auch  i*  the  fruit 
Take  care  of  the  pence,  and  the  pound*  will  take  care  of 

thcmiielvc*. 
Take  heed  of  an  ox  before,  a.i  um  hrhind,  and  a  knave 

on  all  aides. 
Pake  heed  will  surely  speoil. 
Take  the  will  for  the  deed. 
Take  lime  by  the  forelmk. 
Talk  of  the  devil  and  he'll  appear. 
Talking  pays  no  toll. 
I'ell  mc  the  company  you  keep,  and  Pll  tell  you  what 

you  are. 
Temperance  is  the  licst  physic. 
That  is  well  spoken  tdiit  is  well  taken. 
That  penny  ia  well  sp.nt  that  saves  a  greek 
That's  placing  the  c;irt  before  the  horse. 
That  was  laid  on  with  a  trowel. 
The  aWnt  parly  is  still  finlty. 
The  ass  that  brays  most  eats  least  , 

The  best  physician*  are  Dr.  Diet,  Dr.  Quiet,  and  Dr 

Merry  man. 
The  better  day  the  iKtlcr  deed. 


The  blind  man's  wife  needs  no  paintinf. 
The  cobbler'*  wife  ia  the  wont  HJiml. 
Thr  comforter'*  hesil  never  acheii. 
The  covetous  man  i*  hi*  own  tormentor 
The  crow  think*  her  own  bird  the  fairrat. 
The  devil  is  not  a*  black  as  he  is  painted. 

The  devil  was  sick,  the  devil  a  monk  would  b«| 

The  devil  grew  well,  the  devil  a  monk  was  he. 
The  end  of  ■  least  is  tiettcr  thiin  the  beginning  of  a  fraj. 
The  eye  of  the  master  doea  more  work  than  both  hi*  handa. 
The  IhrthcHt  way  about  is  often  the  nearest  niy  home. 
The  faulty  slaiidit  on  hi*  guard. 
The  forinest  dog  catchv*  the  hare. 
The  galled  Jade  will  wince. 

The  gotslness  of  a  pudding  is  known  in  the  eating. 
The  gray  niurn  is  tlie  better  horse. 
The  greatest  burden*  are  not  the  gainftillest 
The  greatest  strokes  make  ttot  the  liest  music. 
The  Kreutest  wealth  is  contentment  with  little. 
The  trroat  is  ill  saved  that  shames  the  master, 
'i'lie  guilty  mind  needs  no  accuser. 
The  handsomest  (lower  is  not  the  *weetc*t. 
The  hiiHty  bund  catehe*  frogs  for  iish. 
The  hastiest  man  that  i*  mu*t  wait  while  hi*  dniUI  li 

drawing. 
The  highway  i«  never  about 
The  highest  branch  i*  not  the  safest  roost 
The  hotter  wiir  the  sooner  peace. 
The  lust   'op  makes  the  cup  run  over. 
The  Inst  suitor  wins  the  maid, 
'i'lie  lion's  skin  is  never  cheap. 
The  longest  day  must  have  an  end. 
'I'he  market  is  the  best  garden. 
The  married  man  must  turn  hi*  stnff  into  a  stakai 
The  mill  cannot  grind  with  the  water  that  i*pa*t 
Tlie  mob  has  many  head*  hut  no  brains. 
'I'he  more  noble  the  more  humble. 
The  more  the  merrier,  the  fewer  the  better  cheer. 
The  more  you  heap,  the  worse  you  cheap. 
The  nearer  the  church  the  farther  from  God. 
The  offender  never  pardon*. 
The  path  of  virtiig  is  the  path  of  pear«. 
The  rat  which  has  but  one  hole  is  soon  caught 
The  receiver  is  as  bad  as  the  thief. 
The  still  sow  sucks  the  most  wash 
The  sweetest  wine  makes  the  sharpest  vinegar. 
There  is  a  tide  in  the  affair*  of  men,  which  taken  at  11  I 

flood  leads  on  to  fortune. 
There  is  luck  in  leisure. 
There  is  reason  in  roasting  eggs. 
There's  a  salve  for  every  sore. 
There's  no  compassion  like  the  penny. 
There's  no  fool  like  an  old  fool. 
There's  no  general  rule  without  an  exception. 
There's  no  joy  without  alloy. 
The  table  robs  more  than  the  thief. 
The  truest  jests  sound  worst  in  guilty  cars. 
The  truth  may  be  blamed  but  not  shamed. 
The  weakest  must  go  to  the  wall. 
The  wearer  best  know*  where  the  shoe  pinches  him. 
'i'hero  would  lie  no  ill  language  if  it  were  not  ill  taken. 
There  would  not  be  great  ones  if  there  were  no  little. 
They  lovo  too  much  that  die  for  love. 
They  must  hunger  in  frost,  that  will  not  work  in  heat. 
They  need  much  whom  nothing  will  content 
Think  of  case,  but  worK  on. 
Those  who  live  longest  will  see  most 
Those  who  play  with  edge  tools  must  expect  to  be  cat 
Threatened  folks  live  long. 
Time  and  tide  stay  for  no  man 
Time  is  a  file  that  wears  and  makes  no  notse. 
Timely  blossom,  timely  fruit 
'Tis  the  second  blow  that  makes  the  fray. 
To  a  child  all  weather  is  cold. 


MS 


INFORMATION  FOR  THE   PKOPLE. 


Til  ■  cmy  nhip  all  wiinli)  urn  rnntniry. 

To  bn  hml  H'llow  well  iimi  with  un»      [In  good  f«now- 

•liip] 
To  b«  III  •  merry  |>in. 

'I'll  illno  with  Dukd  Hiiri)|ihry.     [\' >  ^inUtu  At  dinner.] 
To  i>rr  iM  hiiiiiuii.  tii  I'urKiM'  ilivine< 
To  lliiil  A  in«ri''«  nr*t.     [  I'o  ili*cov<  r  »uiiuill)inf  Blrruily 

well  known. J 
To  givf  mill  ki<'|i  tliiTi'  m  iircd  of  wit. 
To  go  throiitih  thick  knil  thin.     [Mtick  at  nothing  ] 
To  go  to  |Kit. 

To  Imvf  iioiliing  hut  one'*  liihour  for  6nc'a  point. 
To  hav<<  tlio  l.ivv  III  iiiir'n  own  hiiiul. 
To  have  two  KtniiijH  to  iiiii'k  liow. 
To  kill  tMo  hinU  Willi  our  xtoim. 
To  laUKll  ill  olii''»  HJirvi'. 
I'o  leavt'  a  inofM-l  lor  tin'  Duke  of  Ro'Und.     [Thnt  i»— 

to  lt'u\u  it  lor  till'  miki'  of  r/i>iniirr>,   Manncri  boing  the 

family  iiuriiiiiiii'  of  ihc  Puke  of  Kiitluml.] 
Too  iiiaiiy  rooka  ^ikiiI  tin-  liroth. 
Too  niiii'Ji  fiiiiiiliurily  hri'i'ilH  I'untenipt. 
To  |ilay  ilw  iloK  In  ihi'  umiiger.     [Not  to  eat  youriolf  nor 

let  aiiylKxIy  i'l*'.| 
To  put  iiiie'it  no«i>  out  of  Joint 
T(.  roll  IVtfr  to  piiy  I'liil. 
To  acek  II  lu'cilli-  ill  a  Imllli-  of  hay. 
To  ivnil  oiii'  awiiy  wiili  ii  llrit  in  bla  ear.    [In  a  itate  of 

trt>piJ.ition  ninl  iixtoiiiiliiiii'iil.] 
To  <et  up  uiiu'a  atitir  of  ri'*t.    [To  propotM  to  abiJu  in  ■ 

plare.J 
To  Hbinil  in  one'a  nw.i  li^hl. 
To  iilurvt'  in  a  cook-Hliop. 
To  Htriiiii  at  A  i{nat  timl  nwallow  a  camel. 
To  take  a  wroii){  kow  liy  the  ear. 
'J'o  toll  lalp*  out  uf  wliool. 
To  throw  the  helve  alter  the  hutchet.  [Giving  up  a  thing 

in  ilrHpair.] 
To  IwiHt  a  ri)|i<>  of  huiuI. 
I'rado  in  the  iiiothi-r  of  iiioncy. 
Treail  on  u  worm  uiid  it  will  turn. 
Triin-trum — likr  iiihhIit,  like  iiiitn. 
True  pruiHe  t.ikeH  riHit  iiiiil  HpreuJa. 
Truth  hui«  alwiiVM  n  fant  liottoiii. 
Two  hemlii  an-  bt'ller  tliiiii  one. 
Two  of  a  traile  m-liloiii  auree. 
Two  Kwallown  (III  not  make  a  Huminer. 
Unknown,  unmiiHHil. 
rnmiiiJi'il,  uriiiiove'l. 

liH-  the  nicaiiH.  ami  (iotl  will  itive  the  hlcasing. 
\  alour  Ih  worth  little  wiilioiit  diHcretion. 
^'aluar  tliat  jiiirlcyH  is  near  yit'liliiiK. 
Venture  a  amall  fiHh  U)  catcli  n  great  one. 
Venture  not  all  in  one  liuttuin. 
Mar  in  death'*  feiiat. 
AVttHte  not,  want  not. 
Wealth  makeis  wiirKJiip. 
Weleoiiie  in  the  h<-M  elieer. 
We  uiUKt  cut  a  peck  uf  Halt  with  a  man  before  wc  know 

him. 
We  never  know  the  worth  of  water  till  the  well  in  dry. 
What  cannot  lie  cured  inunt  l>e  endured. 
What  II  bred  in  the  boiir  will  not  come  out  of  the  fleah. 
What  ia  gut  over  the  di-vil'H  back  is  «|M'nt  under  his  belly. 
What  the  eye  »ee«  not  the  heart  rues  not 
What  the  g<Kxl  wife  apareii  the  cat  cata. 
When  a  dog  in  drowainn  every  one  ofTcra  him  water. 
When  all  i»  eon«uini'd,  re|H'ntanee  cumna  too  late. 
VV  hen  fortune  amilea  uii  tliee,  take  the  advantage. 
When  many  strike  on  an  anvil,  they  atrike  by  meaauro. 
When  poverty  cornea  in  at  the  dour,  love  fliea  out  at  the 

window 
When  roguei  fall  out,  honcit  men  get  their  own. 
When  aorrow  ia  usiii-p,  A'ake  it  nut 
Wht'U  the  t'ul'a  away  the  mice  play. 


When  the  gnodman's  from  home  the  gon<lwifc'i  ttblf  h 

niHiii  Kpriad. 
When  wiiie'ii  in  wit'a  out 
When  two  .Sumlaya  meet.     [Never.] 
Wlian  you  are  at  Home,  do  a»  thry  do  at  Rom*. 
When  we  have  gold  we  are  in  fear,  whun  we  btvt  nunt 

wii  are  in  ilanger. 
When  drink  entera,  wiatlom  departa. 
Where  iiiurh  aiiioke  ia  there  iiiuat  lie  aoine  Are. 
Wliire  the  carcuaa  ia,  there  the  raveiia  will  colUct  la, 

getlier. 
Where  the  king  ia,  there  ia  the  court. 
When'  the  will  ia  ready  the  feet  are  lihht. 
Where  there  ia  a  will  there  ia  nlwaya  a  way. 
Write  injiiriea  in  dual,  but  kiiiiliieNHeH  in  umrlila. 
While  the  graaa  Krowa  tlin  row  atarvea. 
While  tlure'a  lilin  Iherii'a  lioja-. 
Who  daintiea  love  aiiall  lii'KKara  prove, 
Who  loM'th  Ilia  line  getleth  no  lliaiika. 
Who  |MTihlii'lh  III  nei'ilUaa  daiiKi'r  Ih  the  ilevil'a  mirtvr. 
\\'Ui>  apeniU  more  than  he  nIiouIiI,  ahall  not  liavuloiiumj 

when  he  would. 
Who  Hjiils  aK'iinxt  the  wind  apita  in  hii  own  face, 
Wiiln  will  wear,  but  narrow  will  tear. 
Wilful  waste  inaki'H  wol'ul  want. 
Wis<>  iiinji  rare  not  for  what  they  cannot  have, 
Wisi'ly  and  slow  :   they  atiiiiible  who  run  faat 
Wool  sillriH  know  wool  '  I. ■••':,, 
WonU  m  ty  pasa,  but  lilowa  fill  heavy. 
Wraiiijlers  never  want  wonla. 
Voik — ev.'ry  man  pay  liia  aliare. 
Vou  are  buay  as  a  hen  with  one  rhick. 
Vou  eoiiie  like  n  KiHll'atlier  alh'r  the  chriHteniii^,. 
Villi  I'  III  look  at  teeth  and  not  be  bitten. 
Vou  raii't  S4'i'  ureeii  cheese  but  your  teeth  inuit  witn, 
Vou  i':iiiiiot  catch  old  binla  with  chafT. 
Vou  cannot  cat  Miur  cake  and  have  it  niao. 
Vou  caiiniit  have  bloiiil  out  of  a  stuiie 
Vou  caiinnl  liiile  an  eel  in  a  sack. 
Villi  ciiniiol  kill  a  iliii;  with  u  bone. 
Vou  cannot  make  a  Hilk  piiiae  out  of  a  now  a  ear. 
Vou  cannot  wash  the  bluckamore  white. 
Vou  ni'i'd  not  iircase  a  fat  sow. 
You  taale  the  broth  aoon  aa  the  meat  ia  put  in. 

scois  Pltovi':niis. 

A  liecun  turn  ia  half  ended. 

A  bit  is  ol\i'ii  iH'tler  gi'i'ii  than  eaten. 

A  blati'  c.it  niakea  a  proud  niouae. 

A  black  Inn  lays  a  white  vna. 

A  borriiwcil  liii'  should  i,'ae  laughing  haliie. 

A  tiili;ing  mare  should  be  weel  girded. 

AtVroiit  your  Iririul  in  dairin',  and  tine  him  in  eamnL 

A  fuu  man  ami  a  liniii{ry  horae  aye  inak  haste  liain*. 

A  friend's  iliniier's  soon  diahej. 

Aft  ettli',  whiles  hit. 

Alter  a  slonii  comes  a  calm. 

A  gi'en  horse  s'lonUliia  lie  looked  i'  the  mouth. 

A  gi'cii  piece  is  so'jii  e.iten. 

A  greedy  e'e  iu''<'r  gat  n  nude  |ienny worth. 

A  urcen  Vulc  maks  a  fat  kirk-yurd. 

A  gude  cause  maks  a  stron;;  arm. 

A  haiidfu'  o'  trade  ia  worth  a  gow[)en  o'  gowd. 

A  haiitle  cry  murder,  yet  are  aye  uppcnnoHt 

A  haaty  man  never  wanted  wae. 

A  hunger  and  a  burat. 

A  kisa  and  u  drink  o'  water  mnk  but  a  )X)nr  breaiitM 

A  man's  weel  or  wao  aa  he  thiiika  hiiiisrl  sac. 

Ane  cannot  wive  and  thrive  buitli  in  ac  year. 

Anc  may  be  lo'e  a  hagijis,  that  wadna  hae  the  bag  tlirowi 

in  his  teeth. 
Ane  ne'er  tinea  by  doing  gude. 
An  ilka-day  braw  makes  a  sabbatli-day  daw 
An  ill  ahearcr  never  got  a  gude  hcuk. 


PltOVKRD.S   AND   OIJ)   C\YIN(JS. 


An  in  wifrt  tK'l  "  nrw-kinilM  camlln  ihmilil  hno  their 

hfwli  limhli'ii  'I'lwii. 
An  iix-li  «'  KHili'  I'ortiini'  U  worth  •  fathom  o'  fororMl. 
An  ini-h  «'  *  iiii«  '"  "•n  «'"'"  *•  •  ■I""'- 
A  twKl  o'  lii'ii''"'  I'"'"  '"  •■nDiin^. 
A  noiiml  n'  '"'>''''  '*i'>"i'«  ,    y  «'>  "unca  o'  debt. 
A  roudli  '"'""'  'ni«l*''"  «  •'>"  wniim. 
Ai  ilmli  •'  i»  ^'"'''  "i''l">"«l>*- 
^1  kuiI"!  ""h  i"  ''"'  "''"  ""  "'"'  '"'»'"•  ""'  o't. 
Vi«ilil<'  niiiv  liiii'l  llii<  Hlirriip  na  hn  Ihnt  loiipn  on. 
\  Hcotrh  ini'il  will  wrt  iiri  Kii^lmhrnuii  to  ihu  iikiii. 
A  nillcrli'^''  iTinii  KUiiK«  IkhI  tlirouKh  the  iimrkot 
A  inrMwIii'  liiMirt  iK  iiv<'  ilry. 
A'  Sli>w:irtii  urn  im  »i\>  ii>  lli«  king. 
A  till'  I"'"'''  '''"'•'  '"  ''"'  '''"'iin. 
A  tiirrDwiim  lu'ii  wiih  iii'vcr  fiit, 
A  l<K'lK'rli''<''<  iliKiin  xitn  l;iii;(  ut  hiimn. 
At  npoil  iliHi"  ''''If*  Uii'"  '"''I. 
A  net  iii'Mi'ii  i-iiii  cri'i'ii  iiiiilcr  n  ifttni  corn  «tack> 
A  wri'  lliiiitf  I'lllt  your  lirnrd  in  n  hlci-zo. 
A  wiclit  Mini  iiii'ir  w:iiilnl  ii  wrii|)<in. 
A  wlH'ii'  iNiii  ><li'<i>lil  Im'  unco  wine. 
Aulil  nit'ii  urn  twii'i-  Imirnn. 
AuM  ii|iiirr<i\v4  urn  ill  to  tiiine. 
Aulil  ^iitiiiK»Kif  '""'  \'""'- 

lliilrii'  "pi'ik  ill  tl>''  Ii*'!''  vvhat  they  hear  in  the  ha'. 
HirKnin  !!<  Imrt^iiin. 

111!  II  frioiiil  lo  yoiinM'i.  nrid  olhrm  wilL 
lli'ur  mill  liirlinir  is  ^iiilc  pliiloMopliy. 
HiMir  wimIiIi  writl,  pooitiili  will  l;nir  it«p|. 
Me  live  till'  Miiino  lliiiii;  voii  wonlil  ho  riiM. 
H>)  Imiff  niik  tliut  yi'  iiiuy  Ixs  noon  hiilr. 
llMt  ti)  lie  oir  with  the  old  lovu  befuro  we  bo  on  with  the 

new. 
Ill'  thou  wi'i'l,  In-  thou  wne,  thou  wilt  not  bo  aye  Me. 
Itdtrr  u  i'it  ill  tin'  inoriiini{  thnn  fiixt  a'  Jay. 
llflttT  a  liiiu'iT  oir  tliaii  iiyo  wnKning. 
Drttpr  n  tocher  in  her  tliiiii  on  her. 
Rettor  n  touiii  IioU'M'  tliiiii  lui  ill  tenant. 
Heller  a  wi  e  Innti  thnn   nac  liicld. 

Uttttr  a  wee  lire  lo  wiirin  yon  than  a  bijf  fire  to  bum  you. 
IlrltiT  be  lilltlie  wi'  liiilo  limn  Had  wi'  imothing. 
Rettcr  buy  tliiin  borrow. 
Hotter  IniiU  somelliini;  than  noon  naething. 
Ueller  fikailh  snvrd  lliaii  inenda  made. 
Hettor  sma'  llsli  than  iiiiiie. 
Iletler  to  hand  than  draw. 
Hotter  wear  tihooii  tlinii  wonr  shrrtn. 
Blind  men  shonldim  judne  o'  rolours. 
Dixie  for  n  Bilk  gown  and  ye'll  ^et  a  niecve  o't 
llrokcn  bread  makes  hale  buirns. 
Darning  n  lialfiirmiy  raiidlu  seeking  a  farthing. 
Hurnt  bttirns  dread  the  fire, 
lly  chanc  a  cripfile  may  catch  a  hare. 
Caiiger  navnayo  mind  of  lade  saddles, 
I /'aim,  Btretch,  soon  reach. 
O.rying  saut  to  Dysart. 
'mt  a  bane  in  a  deil'))  teeth. 
(Jaiit  not  a  clout  till  May  bo  out 
(;»<ina  out  the  dowed  water  till  yc  get  the  fresh. 
(/'auld  cools  the  love  that  kiiidlcM  ower  bet 
(IhanRD  your  friend  ore  you  hae  need. 
Uheatery  kythcs. 

Cleanliness  is  nae  pride,  dirt's  nae  honesty. 
Come  unca'd  sits  unserved. 
I^iiiio  wi'  the  wind  and  uaiit;  wi'  the  water. 
I.'onfess  and  lie  hanijed. 
Confess  debt  and  crave  dayn. 
Corn  him  wcel,  he'll  work  the  bettor 
Count  Benin  ia  not  forbidden. 
Count  siller  after  a'  your  kin. 
Courtesy  is  cumbersome  to  him  that  kens  it  na. 
Covetousness  brings  naethini;  hamo. 
Craft  innnn  hae  olaca,  but  truth  gaua  nakod 

VoL.I.-lUi 


CrMlIt  is  tiolirr  than  III  lu«k. 

(Credit  in  bi'tlrr  than  ill-won  gear. 

Credit  keep*  the  crown  o'  llm  c«u«ey. 

('redll  lost  is  like  a  hrokili  h\am. 

DalFin  and  want  o'     .w  .     '■«  uuld  wivn  doriart. 

Dame,  di'etn  waril'  ,  >   '  wn  na  wha  wytcs  younaL 

Daining  and  lavin.  ><  i"    '  mro  ll<hing, 

DiiiiKlilers  iiiiil  li"..  I  I'l ''   .1.    nae  keeping  ware. 

Dawti'd  bairns  dow  lu-nr  little, 

Diiyliuht  will  pee|.  through  a  sma'  hula. 

Di'iil  siiia'  an'  serve  a'. 

licalh  and  inarriaire  break  tnrin-day. 

Death  at  an  door  and   hardship  at  the  other. 

Deil  be  in  tite  house  that  yii're  liuguilod  in. 

Deil  Hlic  k  pride,  liir  my  dog  died  o't. 

Ding  down  the  neat,  and  llin  rooks  will  flee  away 

Diiiiia  cant  iiwa'  the  cog  when  the  cow  flingii. 

Dirt  bodes  luck, 

Dnimi  gut  your  ftsh  till  ye  get  them. 

Do  as  the  lasses  do,  say  Nil,  an'  tal(  it. 

Diius  barl,  as  lliey  are  bred. 

Dous  nil'  bairns  ure  aye  fond  o'  fiH)ls. 

Do  not  iiicil  He  wi'  the  ileil  un'  Ihu  laird's  bairn*. 

Do  not  touch  him  on  the  sair  heel. 

Dial  an'  ill  lile  noon  nink  an  iiiild  wife. 

Double  driiiki  are  ayii  gmle  for  drovvth. 

Do  weel  in'  doubt  iiuo  man,  do  ill  un'  doubt  a'  men. 

Do  weel  an'  hue  weel. 

Diiws  an'  doininios  leave  aye  a  foul  house. 

Do  your  liirii  weel,  an'  iiaiie  will  spcur  what  time  ye  toob 

Drair  he  hoiiljIiI,  but  drink  was  his  errand. 

Dree  out  the  inch  v\'lien  ye  have  tholed  the  span. 

Drink  an' drowth  come  nae  nye  thcgither. 

Drink  little  thai  yc  may  ilrink  lung. 

Drive  a  cow  to  the  liu',  she'll  run  to  the  byte. 

Kiirly  birds  catch  the  worms. 

Karly  niastcr,  soon  knave. 

Kiist  or  west,  humu  is  best. 

Kasy  leariii'd,  soon  fori>oUun. 

I'jasy  leariiini!  the  cat  the  road  to  the  kim. 

Kasy  to  that  thy  ain  heart  wills. 

Easily  working  whe^  will's  at  haine. 

Eiit  in  measure,  an'  defy  the  doctor. 

Rat  |i<"    'vi'  n  prince,  an'  cherries  wi'  a  chapman. 

Rat-i  '    ink-weel's  brithcr. 

E:itiog  <ng  only  require  a  beginning. 

EatiHT  ui     :.:    <  ng  puts  awa  the  stamach. 

£11  1.   ^  ii;il  i      .  lo  merchandise. 

Ei'Tv  1 .  Ml.'  r.,1 ;.    '  the  soul  and  torture  of  the  body. 

T^lvYu  'h-ii.h  <  ,  r-      <  turn  but  when  it  means  an  ill  AM. 

1  V,  u  1-  \   'I  \        it    ,iy  may  you  wear'U 

.•:',vir  l)iiM,-  I'.i       'I  a. 

E  iry   iiH    on      ,'.(>  dyke  where  it's  laighest 
Every    i  ,       os  trad*,  (|uoth  the  browster  to  the  bishop. 
Every  luni    .uiiks  its  oin  nest  best. 
Every  cock  craws  crouscst  on  his  ain  midden  head. 
Every  dir      no  Vule-day— cast  the  cat  a  castock. 
Every  fault  has  its  fore. 
Every  llow  has  its  ebb. 
E]very  inch  of  joy  has  an  ell  ot  annoy. 
Every  man  bows  to  tlio  bush  he  gets  bicld  frae. 
Every  inun  buckles  his  belt  his  nin  cute. 
Every  man  can  ttuidc  an  ill  wife  wcel  but  him  that  hasluft 
Every  man  .an  lout  best  on  his  ain  horn. 
Every  man  has  his  ain  dralT  pock. 
Every  man's  t  ile's  Kiide  till  anitlier's  be  tauld. 
Every  .May-lie  hath  a  May  not  be. 
Every  inillei-  wad  wcise  the  water  to  his  ain  milL 
Every  play  m  inn  be  played,  an'  bomi'  maun  lie  the  playcM 
F  ir  words  break  nap  b mes,  foul  words  monv. 
Fancy  llees  before  the  wind. 
Far-awa  tiiwls  hae  fair  leathers. 
Farther  east  the  shorter  wisi. 
Fausc  folk  should  hae  nionv  ^  iiiio.*:)''. 
4  Ai 


r 


i 
n 


y    i 


eM 


INFORMATION   FOR  THE  PEOPLK. 


FauHchooil  makes  ne'er  a  fair  hindor-end. 

Favour  unuwd  is  favour  abused. 

Pill  fu   an   hand  fu',  that  makes  a  man  stark. 

Flues  an'  a  aiming  wife  are  waukrife  iMjd-fcUows. 

Flee  iie'er  ao  fust,  your  fortune  will  be  at  your  tail. 

Fleeing  a  bird  is  not  the  way  to  grip  iL 

Fling-at-the-uoad  was  ne'er  a  gudo  ox. 

Flitting  o'  firms  muk  mnilens  dear. 

Fools  are  aye  fond  o'  flitiiii'. 

Fools  are  aye  seeing  ferliea. 

I  ool's  haste  is  nne  speed. 

Fools  laugh  at  their  ain  sport. 

Fools  set  far  tryslfl. 

Fools  shouldna  hae  chappin'-sticks. 

For  fashion's  sake,  as  dogs  gang  to  l!;?  market 

f'or  want  of  a  stock  a  shoe  may  be  tint. 

Forbid  II  fool  a  thing,  an'  that  he  will  do. 

Frae  saving  eomes  having. 

Fre^h  fish  and  jwor  friends  grow  soon  ill-faured. 

Friends  are  like  fiddle-strings,  they  maunna  be  screwed 
owor  tight. 

Friends  irrce  best  at  a  distance. 

Friendship  caiina  stand  aye  on  ae  side. 

Fry  slanos  wi'  butter,  and  the  broe  will  bo  gudo. 

Gathering  gear  is  a  pleasant  pain. 

Oaily  wad  be  belter. 

Hear  is  easier  gotten  than  guided. 

Gentle  partaiis  hae  lang  taes. 

Gentle  servants  are  poor  men's  tinsel. 

Get  weel,  keep  weel. 

Gie  a  bairn  its  will  an'  a  whelp  its  fill,  and  neither  will 
do  weel. 

Oie  your  tonizne  mair  holidays  than  your  head. 

Gilf-gatT  maks  (judo  friends. 

ttlass«'s  and  lasses  are  brittle  ware. 

Glowering's  no  iiainsaying. 

<i(xl  iie'rr  sent  the  mouth,  but  he  sent  the  meat  wi'L 

Go<l  send  water  to  that  well  that  folk  think  will  ne'er 

rin  dry. 
(!od  shapes  the  back  for  the  burden. 
Good  wine  makes  a  bad  head  and  a  'ang  story. 
(Jratiliiili'  is  a  heavy  burden, 
(ireiit  <  iiiif)rt  is  like  ready  gold  in  need. 
(i"!i'dy  folks  hae  lang  arms. 
(■'riiMiing  wives  are  aye  greedy. 
Guessed  work's  l)est  if  weel  done, 
(lude  advire  is  ne'er  out  o'  season. 
Gude  ale  needs  nae  wisp, 
(iude  l)airns  are  I'ith  to  lear. 

Gude  breeding  ajid  siller  niak  our  sons  gentlemen. 
Gude  elaes  o|ien  a'  doors. 
Gude  company  on  a  journey  is  worth  a  coach. 
Guile  (gear's  not  to  be  gapped. 
Gude  fishing  in  drumly  water. 
Gude  f  )lk  are  scarce,  tak  care  o'  anc. 
Gude  forecast  fathers  the  wark. 
Gude  health  is  Ix-tter  than  wealth. 
Gude  kail  is  half  meat. 
<>udi'  watch  prevents  hartn. 
tiude  will  ne'er  wants  time  to  show  ilsel. 
(Vadc  will  shouM  lie  ta'en  in  part  payment. 
Gudely  t  .w,  gawsy  calf 
Ksc.  gars  a  deaf  man  hear. 
Haiid-in-use  is  father  o'  lear. 
Hang  a  thief  when  he's  young,  an'  he'll  no  steal  when 

he's  auld. 
Hang  hunger  an'  drown  drouth. 
Hunkirini!  an'  hinging-on  is  a  poor  t'ade. 
Happy  the  wife  that's  married  to  a  nmlherless  son. 
lln  can  hi'le  his  meat  and  seek  mair. 
Hi'  can  say  Jo,  and  think  it  no. 
He  ca>i  sec  an  inch  before  his  nose, 
lie  car's  n;i  wlia's  hiiins  greet  if  his  laugh, 
he  com.  s  ufituer  wi'  the  rake  than  the  .shool. 


He  complains  early  that  complains  of  his  kai.. 

He  doesna  ken  what  end  o'  him's  uppermost 

He  doesna  aye  ride  when  ho  saddles. 

Ho  doesna  like  his  wark  that  says  now  when  its  don 

Ho  cats  the  calf  i'  the  coif's  wame. 

He  gangs  awa  in  an  ill  time  that  ne'er  comes  again, 

Ho  gangs  lang  barefoot  that  wears  dead  men's  shooa 

He  girns  like  a  sheep-head  in  a  i>air  o'  tangs. 

He  has  a  coup  for  a'  corn. 

He  has  a  glide  judgment  that  doesna  lippim  to  his  ai^ 

He  has  a  hearty  hand  for  gieing  a  hungry  incaltith 

He  has  a  slid  grip  that  has  an  eel  by  the  tail. 

He  has  been  rowed  tn  his  mil.ier's  sa-k  tail. 

He  has  bruLTgnt  his  pocket  to  a  braw  market 

Ho  has  come  to  gude  by  misguiding. 

He  has  consten  his  cloak  on  his  ither  shoulder. 

He  has  coU|.'*  the  meiklo  pot  into  the  little. 

He  has  faut  o'  u  "vife  that  marries  mam's  |)et 

He  has  feathered  his  ii'-'t,  he  may  flee  when  he  likM. 

He  has  gotten  the  whip  hand  of  him. 

He  has  Iain  on  his  wrang  side 

Ho  has  licked  the  butter  off  m;   bread. 

He  has  mair  wit  in  his  little  finger  than  ye  hae  in  a  join 

bouk. 
He  has  muckle  prayer  but  little  devotion. 
He  has  some  wit,  but  a  fool  has  tlie  grinding  o't 
He  has  the  best  end  of  the  string. 
He  has  wit  at  will  that  wi'  an  angry  heart  can  sit  (till 
He  has't  o'  kind,  he  coft  it  not 
He  hears  wi'  his  heel,  as  geese  do  in  harvest 
He  kens  his  ain  groats  among  ither  folk's  kail. 
He  kens  whilk  side  his  cake  is  buttered  on. 
Hl^'II  gie  you  the  whistle  o'  your  groat 
He'll  haveeneogh  someday,  when  his  mouth's fu'o'mook 
He'll  mak  an  ill  runner  that  canna  gang. 
He'll  mend  when  he  grows  lietter,  like  sour  i-'einiumiiMi 
He'll  neither  ilance  nor  baud  the  candle. 
He'll  no  gie  an  inch  o'  his  will  for  a  span  o'  his  thrift. 
He'll  no  let  grass  grow  at  his  heels. 
He'll  no  sell  his  hen  on  a  rainy  day. 
He'll  soon  be  a  beggar  that  canna  say  No. 
He'll  tell  it  to  nae  mair  than  he  meets. 
IFe  lo'ed  iMUtton  weel  that  licked  where  the  owe  lay. 
}Ie  lo'es  me  for  little  that  hales  me  for  noii'^lit. 
He  looks  like  the  far  end  of  a  French  liildlc. 
He  maun  be  soon  up  that  cheats  the  tod. 
He  imiiin  hae  leave  to  s|>eak  that  canna  hiinJ  histcigji 
He  may  I'md  tiiiilt  that  canna  mend. 
He  needs  a  lo.ig  spoon  that  sups  wi'  the  deil. 
Ife  ne'er  did  a  gude  darg  that  iraed  grumbling  about  it 
He  reaiN  his  sin  in  his  punishment 
He  rides  sieUer  that  never  fa's. 
He's  a  f  lol  tliiil  Cornets  himsel. 
He's  u  fool   that   marries  at  Vule;  for  when  the  biira' 

to  bear,  the  corn's  to  shear. 
He's  a  hawk  of  a  right  nest. 

He's  a  man  of  u  wise  mind,  that  of  a  foe  can  mak  a  fiicmi 
He's  a  proud  cook  that  maunna  lick  his  ain  fin:;ers. 
He's  a  |ir.uid  fox  that  winna  scrajie  his  ain  hole. 
He's  a  silly  ehiel  that  can  neither  do  nor  say. 
He's  a  worthless  nuidinan  that's  no  miss'd. 
He's  as  welcome  as  water  in  a  riven  ship. 
He's  horn  deaf  on  that  side  o'  the  head. 
He  shoulil  sit  dosi-  thiit  has  riven  breeks. 
He  slei  ps  as  di>u>  do  when  wives  sift  meal. 
He's  liive  n  flae  i'.  a  blanket 
He's  lllie  the  sii.get  cut,  better  than  he's  likely. 
He's  no  the  l>esl  wri^ht  that  easts  maist  sj>aill. 
He's  no  sae  dalt  us  be  lets  on. 
He's  ower  soon  n[)  that's  banged  e'er  noon. 
Hii's  |i<)or  cneuuh  that's  ill  lo'ed. 
He's  sairest  dung  that's  paid  wi'  his  ain  v  jnd. 
He  starts  at  straes,  nnd  Ids  windlins  gue. 
He's  the  gear  that  wiiuia  truik. 


He's  tinco  fu'  in 

his  neighbour 
He'r  weel  wortli 
He's  weel  boden 

icn'. 
He's  wise  that's 
He's  worth  nae 
He  that  blaws  b 
He  that  buys  nu 

buys  naethinf 
He  that  canna  n 
He  that  cheats  i 

twice,  shame 
He  that  counts 

ground. 
Ho  that  deals  in 
He  that  ilocs  yo 
He  that  forecast 
He  that  fa's  a  gi 
He  that  fishes  b. 
He  that  ','cts  fort 
He  tliiit  gets  gca 
He  Ihiit  has  a  in 
He  that  has  but 
H"  th;it  has  iiiic 
He  that  has  nae 
He  that  has  twa 
He  that  keeks  (li 
He  thut  lends  hi 
He  that  looks  to 
He  tliat  riilcs  or  1 
He  til  It's  aught 
He  that's  ill  to  1 
He  thut  seeks  iii 
He  that  shows  h 
He  that  sis-crs  a 
He  that  steals  cu 
He  tliat  tholes  o 
He  that  will  che: 
He  ihiit  will  net 
He  timt  will  to  ( 
He  that  wmna  v 
He  that  would  e 
He  wail  '.raiig  a 
He  Willi  ^aryou  I 
He  Willi  tine  his 
He  was  mair  (\i' 
He  was  'ant  o" 
He  w.as  the  bee 
He  winna  send  ; 
Hi^hliiiilcTs — sli 
I  carnu  sel'  the  i 
I  hue  mair  to  do 
I  ken  liy  my  cot 
If  ae  slicep  |ou| 
If  tlie  il.il  he  lai 
If  the  i!eil  fnul  \ 
If  thv  lift  f;>',  th'i 
If  you  win  at  th 
If  ye  sell  your  f 

the  li.iriraiii. 
Ill  hiiiriiM  are  avi 
III  I'liiriiM  aye  gc 
III  liei'f  ne'er  m^ 
III  comes  upon  > 

III  IMiniM'l  will  ! 
Ill  iloers  are  avc 
111  celling  liet'w 
111  hen. inir  ui.iki^ 
III  herds  null:  f.i 
111  Living  u,,  mil 
111  p.iyers  are  ay 
III  will  ne'er  s|„i 
'Uwou  gear  wii 


PROVERBS  AND   OLD   SAYINGS. 


He'i  unco  fu'  in  his  ain  house  flia(  canim  pick  a  bane  in 

his  nciglil'oiir'8. 
HeV  weel  worthy  o'  sorrow  that  buys  it. 
He's  wccI  boden  tliere  ben,  that  will  neither  borrow  nor 

len'. 
He's  wise  that's  tiinoly  wary. 
He's  worth  iiao  woe!  that  can  bide  nae  wao. 
He  that  Maws  best  let  him  btmt  the  horn. 
He  that  buys  nu<»  l)uys  shells,  but  he  that  buys  gude  ale 

buys  naething  else. 
I'p  that  caiinn  tnak  sport  should  mar  nane. 
He  that  cheats  me  anco,  shame  fa'  him ;  if  ho  cheat  me 

twice,  shame  fu'  me. 
He  that  counts  u'  costs  will  ne'er  put  plough  i'  the 

(p-ouiiil. 
Ho  that  ih'uls  in  dirt  has  aye  foul  finders. 
He  that  does  yiiu  an  ill  turn  will  ne'er  forcjie  you. 
He  that  forenists  a'  perils  will  win  nae  worship. 
He  that  fa's  a  gutter,  the  laiiger  he  lies  the  dirtier  he  ia. 
He  that  fishes  lirfure  the  net,  fishes  lanp  or  he  fish  get 
He  that  gets  forgets,  but  he  that  wants  thinks  on. 
He  tliat  gits  gciir  I  ('fore  he  gels  wit,  will  die  e'er  he  thrive. 
He  llmt  has  a  inickle  nose  thinks  ilk  anc  speaks  o't. 
He  that  has  but  ae  e'e  maun  tent  that  weel. 
H*  thiit  has  inickle  wad  aye  hae  mair. 
He  that  lias  nae  gear  to  tine  nicy  hae  shins  to  pine. 
He  that  has  twa  hoards  will  get  a  third. 
Ho  lliat  keeks  tlirough  a  hole  may  see  what  will  vex  him. 
He  that  lends  bis  ]mt  nir.y  seethe  his  kail  in  his  loof. 
He  that  looks  to  freets,  frcets  will  follow  liim. 
Ho  that  rides  or  he  be  ready,  wants  aye  some  o"  his  graith. 
He  th  it's  auc;ht  the  cow  gangs  nearest  the  tail. 
He  that's  ill  to  hirnsel  will  be  gudo  to  nacbody. 
He  that  socks  iiioles  '/ets  motes. 
He  tliat  shows  his  purse  bribes  the  thief. 
Ho  that  sjH'ers  all  opinions  comes  ill  speed. 
Ho  that  steals  can  liiile  too. 
He  that  llioles  overcomes. 

Ho  that  will  cheat  in  play  winna  be  honest  in  earnest. 
Ho  that  will  ri(!t  inle  maun  flit  mony  a  hole. 
He  that  will  to  (-'upar  maun  to  C^upar. 
He  that  wiiina  when  he  mnv,  shanna  when  he  wad. 
Ho  that  would  eat  the  kirnel  maun  crack  the  nut. 
Ho  wuil  ?aiig  a  mile  to  flit  a  sow. 

Ho  wad  aaryou  tnnv  that  the  moon's  made  o' green  cheese. 
He  wad  tine  his  hiirs  if  they  were  not  tacked  to  him. 
Ho  was  niair  llrynl  than  hurt. 

Ho  was  ■ -ant  o'  news  that  tauld  his  father  was  hanged. 
Ho  was  llie  lice  that  made  ;he  honey. 
Ho  winna  send  you  awn'  wi'  a  sair  heart. 
Hijhliinilcrs — sliiiiiMer  to  ■dinulder. 
I  caina  scf  Ilie  cow  an'  sn|i  the  milk. 
I  hao  mair  to  do  than  a  dish  to  wash. 
r  koii  tiy  my  col'  my  cow's  milked. 
If  ao  slicc|)  jiiiip  the  dyke,  a'  the  rest  will  follow. 
If  the  (Iril  lie  hiird.  ye'll  be  tenant. 
If  llio  ilcil  find  you  idle,  he'll  set  you  to  wark. 
If  thv  lift  f;>',  the  laverocks  will  Iw  smoored. 
If  yoii  will  at  that,  you'll  lose  at  naething. 
If  ye  si'll  your  pnrw"  to  your  wife,  gie  her  your  brccks  to 

the  liariraiii. 
Ill  bairns  are  aye  best  heanl  at  hamc. 
Ill  liairns  ayi'  uct  broken  brows. 
Ill  licof  ne'er  made  gude  broe. 
Ill  CiMiH's  ii|)nn  wair's  liack. 
Ill  cniii-ol  will  i;:ir  a  man  stick  his  nin  marc. 
Ill  cl.u-rs  arc  aye  ill  dreaders. 
Ill  u'clliiig  hot  waler  frae  'neath  eauld  ice. 
Ill  lioaiini;  maks  wranij  rehearsing. 
Ill  liords  iiiah  fit  foxen. 
Ill  iiyiir^  n|.  iiinks  mony  thieves, 
ill  payors  are  ayi^  gude  eraverti. 
Ill  will  lu'cr  s|,,ik  wccl. 
'll'Woii  gear  wiuua  enrich  llie  third  heir. 


Ill  workers  arc  aye  gude  onlookers. 

I'll  ne'er  brew  drink  to  treat  drunkards. 

I'll  ne'er  keep  a  cow  when  I  can  get  milk  sae  cheap. 

I'll  ne'er  keep  a  dog  and  bark  mysel. 

I'll  ne'er  lout  aae  laigh  and  lift  sae  little. 

I'll  ne'er  put  the  rogue  aboon  the  gentleman. 

I'll  rather  strive  wi'the  lang  rigg  than  the  ill  neighbour 

I'll  serve  ye  when  ye  hae  least  to  do. 

I'll  tak  the  best  first,  as  the  priest  did  o'  the  plums 

I  might  bring  a  better  speaker  frae  home  than  you.       - 

I'm  no  every  man's  dog  that  whistles  on  nie. 

I'm  no  obliged  to  Hummer  an'  winter  it  wi'  you. 

I'm  no  sae  blind  as  I'm  bleer-eyed. 

I'm  no  sae  scant  o'  clean  jiijjes  as  to  blaw  wi'  a  brunt  cuitv 

I'm  o'er  auld  a  cat  to  draw  a  strae  before, 

I'm  speaking  o'  hay  and  you  o'  horse  corn. 

I  ne'er  sal  on  your  coat-tail. 

1  think  mair  o'  your  kindness  than  its  a'  worth. 

It  maun  be  true  what  a'  folk  says. 

It's  a  far  cry  to  I.ochnw. 

It's  a  hard  task  to  be  poor  and  leal. 

It's  a  moan  mouse  that  has  but  ae  hole. 

It's  a  naiity  bird  that  files  its  ain  nest. 

It's  a  silly  hen  that  caniui  scrape  for  ae  bird. 

It's  111)  ill  pack  tliat'.i  no  worth  the  custom. 

It's  bettor  to  sup  wi'  a  cutty  than  want  a  spoon. 

It's  by  the  head  that  the  cow  gies  milk. 

It's  far  to  seek  an'  ill  to  find. 

It's  gude  baking  beside  the  meal. 

It's  gude  sleeping  in  n  hale  skin. 

It's  gude  to  be  sib  to  siller. 

It's  giule  gear  that  |)leases  the  merchant. 

It's  gude  to  be  in  your  lime,  ye  kcmia  how  lang  )t  raoy 

last. 
It's  gude  to  dread  the  warst,  the  best  will  be  tlie  wet- 

comer. 
It's  hard  both  to  l.avo  and  want. 
It's  hard  for  a  greedy  e'e  to  hae  a  leal  heart. 
It's  hard  to  sit  in  Roin>'  an'  strive  wi'  the  pope. 
It's  ill  bringing  butt  what's  no  ben. 
It's  ill  s]icaking  between  a  fii'  man  and  a  fasting. 
It's  ill  wared  that  wasters  wuiit. 
It's  kittle  for  the  checks  when  the  hurlbarrow  gaes  o"« 

the  brig  o'  the  no.se. 
It's  kittle  shooting  at  corbies  and  clergy. 
It's  killle  to  waken  f-'.-cjiing  dogs. 
It's  hum  before  the  dii  I  be  found  dead  at  the  dyke-side. 
It's  lang  ere  the  ('eil  dee. 
It's  nai'  laugbinir  'o  eirn  in  a  widdy. 
It's  !i,ie  ]i!ay  when  lui '  laughs  and  anither  greets. 
It's  needless  to  pour  water  on  a  drowned  mouse. 
It's  ii'.'  lost  what  a  friend  gets. 
It'f  not  what  is  she  but  what  has  she. 
It's  ower  far  b«'tween  the  kiiclx'n  an'  the  ha'. 
It's  ower  late  tf  spare  when  the  back's  bare. 
It's  past  jouking  when  the  head's  .ilf. 
It's  stinking  i)raise  eonies  out  o'  aire's  ain  mouth. 
It's  the  best  spoke  in  your  wheel. 
It's  well  that  our  faults  are  not  written  in  our  face. 
It  was  never  for  naething  that  the  glejr  whistled. 
It  will  be  f'athrrcd  out  o'  your  wing. 
It  will  be  la'ii:  ere  ye  wear  to  the  knee  lids. 
I  wad  111!  .scant  o'  claith  to  sole  my  hose  wi'  dockenn. 
1  would  rather  see't  than  hear  tell  o't, 
I  wadiia  be  deaved  wi'  ye're  keckling  for  a'  your  egg*, 
I  wndiia  ea'  the  king  my  cousin. 
I  wish  you  readier  meat  than  a  rinnin  hare, 
.loke  at  leis'ire,  yoii  kciina  wha  may  jibe  yoursci 
.look  and  let  the  ja\»'  gaiiL'  by. 
Kee]i  (lut  o'  his  comi'aiiy  that  cracks  o'  his  cheateiy 
Keep  something  fe.  a  sore  fool. 
Keen  the  feast  till  the  feast  day. 
Keep  the  stalV  in  yo>ir  ain  hand. 
Keep  your  ain  Ash  Kuts  to  your  am  sea-mawa. 


' 


I 


tlU 


INFORMATION   FQR  THE   PEOPLE. 


Keeii  your  breath  to  cool  your  own  porriilg;e. 

Keep  your  mouth  shut  and  your  e'en  open. 

Ken  when  to  spend  and  when  to  spare,  and  ye  nnednn 

be  busy,  and  ye'll  ne'er  ho  bare. 
Kon  yourscl,  and  your  neighbour  winna  miakcn  you. 
Kend  folk's  nae  company. 
Kings  and  bears  aft  worry  their  keepers. 
Kings'  chatF's  worth  other  folk's  corn. 
Kings'  cheese  gacs  half  awny  in  parings. 
Kings  hae  lang  hands. 

Kindle  a  can<lle  at  baith  ends,  it  will  soon  be  done. 
Kindness  coini's  o'  will,  it  canna  be  coft. 
Kindness  will  i-rcep  where  it  ranna  gang. 
Kiss  a  carle  and  clap  a  carle,  that's  tlio  way  to  tino  a  carle. 
Kythe  in  your  ain  colours,  that  folk  may  ken  you. 
J.aith  to  bed  and  laith  to  rise. 
Lang  fasting  gathers  wind. 
Lang  fasting  hains  nae  moat. 

Lang  standing  and  little  otfering  maks  a  poor  priest. 
Lang  straes  are  nae  motes. 
Laugh  at  leisure,  ye  may  greet  ere  night. 
Law's  costly,  tak  a  pint  and  gree. 
Law  makers  shouldna  N'  law  breakers. 
J<ay  the  head  o'  the  sow  to  the  tail  of  the  grice. 
Lay  your  wame  to  your  winning. 
Leal  heart  never  lied. 
Learn  the  cat  the  road  to  the  kirn,  and  she'll  aye  be 

lickin. 
Ijearu  you  to  an  ill  habit,  and  yo'll  ca't  custom. 
Learn  young,  learn  fair. 
Let  a'  trades  live,  quoth  the  wife,  when  she  brunt  her 

besom. 
Let  alane.  maks  mony  a  loon. 
•  Let  byganes  \tc  bygani's. 
I,et  him  cool  in  the  skin  he  hot  in. 
Let  him  tak  a  8|)ring  on  his  ain  tiddlo. 
IjOt  his  a'n  wand  ditig  him. 
Let  ilka  ane  soop  before  their  ain  door. 
Let  ilka  sheep  hang  by  it.-!  ain  simnk. 
Let  na  the  plough  stand  to  kill  a  mouse. 
Let  the  horns  gang  wi'  the  hiile. 
Let  the  niirkle  horse  get  (he  inieklc  windlin. 
I.et  the  tow  gang  wi'  the  bucket. 
I,et  them  care  that  come  lieliiiid. 
iM  your  meat  dil  your  moiilli. 
Light  burdens  lireak  nae  bancs. 
Like  a  cow  on  an  unco  loan. 
I, ike  a  sow  playing  on  u  trump. 
]  ike  butt<r  in  tlie  lilack  dog's  hause. 
]  Ike  hens,  ye  rin  aye  to  the  heap. 

Ijike  the  bairns  o'  Falkirk,  ye  mind  nafthiiig  but  mischief. 
Like  the  cat,  fain  fish  wad  ye  eat,  but  ye  are  laith  to 

weet  your  feet. 
Like  the  wife  that  aye  took  what  she  had,  and  never 

wanted. 
Like  the  wife  that  ne'er  cries  for  the  ladle  till  the  pot 

rins  o'er. 
Like  the   wife  wi'  the  mony  daughters,  the  best  comes 

hindmost. 
I, ike's  an  ill  mark. 
Lip|ien  to  rne,  but  look  to  yoursel. 
I  i«t  to  meat's  gude  kitchen.* 
I  ittic  dogs  hae  lang  tails. 
r  ittle  I'olk  are  soon  an'.;ry. 
Little  .liK'k  gets  the  little  dish,  a.'id  that  bauds  him  lang 

littliv 
I  ittle  kennel,  the  less  cared  fur. 
I  Idle  metldlinir  maks  fair  [larting. 

Little  wats  the  ill-willy  wife  what  a  diiuer  may  baud  in. 
little  wit  in  the  head  maks  miikle  travtl  to  the  feet. 
I  ittle  mense  to  the  cheeks  to  bite  alf  tUi  nose. 
iiring  at  iMck  and  manger. 


*  Hunger  is  thr  belt  lauce. 


Lock  your  door,  that  you  may  keep  you:  neiglboan 

honest. 
Lo'e  me  little,  an'  lo'o  me  lang. 
Love  and  lairdships  like  nae  marrows  [equals], 
liOve  is  as  warm  among  cottars  as  courtiers. 
Love  overlooks  mony  faults. 
Maidens  should  bo  mild  and  meek,  quick  to  hoar  and 

slow  to  speak. 
Mair  by  luck  than  good  guiding. 
Mnir  haste  the  waur  speed,  quoth  the  tailor  to  the  lain 

thread.  ' 

Mair  than  enough  is  ower  micklo. 
Mak  a  kirk  an'  a  mill  o't. 
Mak  nae  toom  rust-. 
Malice  is  aye  mindfii'. 
Marrislge  and  hann:ing  go  by  destiny. 
Marry  a  licggar,  and  get  a  louse  for  your  tocher. 
Marry  aboon  your  mutch,  and  get  a  muster. 
Marry  for  love,  and  work  for  siller. 
Master's  will  is  gude  wark. 
Mastery  maws  the  meadows  down. 
Mnun-do  is  a  fell  fallow. 
May-be's  are  no  aye  honey-bees. 
Measure  twice,  cut  but  ance. 
Meat  feeds,  claith  deads,  but  manners  mak  the  man, 
Mi<kle  musing  mars  the  memory. 
Mickle  j)ower  miiks  mony  faes. 
Mickic  about  ane,  quoth  the  deil  to  the  collier. 
Mickle  gifts  mak  In^ggars  bauld. 
Micklo  head,  little  wit. 
Mickle  maun  a  gude  heart  thole. 
Mickle  meat,  mony  maladies. 
Mess  and  meat  ne'er  hinder'd  wark. 
Mettle's  dangerous  in  a  blind  mare. 
.Money  is  like  the  muck  midden,  it  does  nae  gude  till  it 

1)0  spread. 
Money  is  welcome  any  way. 
Money  maks  a  man  free  ilka  where. 
Mony  an  honest  man  needs  help  that  hasna  the  ftce  o 

seek  it. 
Mony  ane  Kisses  the  bairn  for  love  o'  the  nurse. 
Mony  ane  lacks  what  they  would  fain  hue  in  tlitir  pact 
Mony  ane  serves  a  thankless  master. 
Mony  ane  speers  the  gate  they  ken  In'  wcel. 
Miiny  ane's  gear  is  mony  ane's  death. 
Mony  gude-niL'his  is  lailh  away. 
Mony  kinsfolk,  but  few  friends. 
Mony  littles  niiik  a  mickle. 
Moiiv  purses  hand  friends  I.Tiit;  thejither. 
Mony  ways  to  kill  a  iloy,  though  ye  diiuia  hang  him. 
M.my  wyle  their  wile  for  their  ain  thriftless  life. 
!Vae  lleeing  without  wings. 

Nae  man  can  live  launer  in  peiM«)  than  his  niiglibouri  like 
\ae  man  can  niak  his  ain  luu- 
\ae  man  has  a  i;)k  o'  his  life. 
\ae  wonder  to  see  wasters  want. 
.\aetliiiig  but  till  and  fetch  mair. 
Niiething  is  a  man's  truly  but  what  he  coincs  by  liuly 
Maelhiiig  is  got  without  pains  but  dirt  and  lang  iiulU 
Naetbing  is  sae  dilhiult  but  we  may  overcome  liv  ncrse 

verance. 
Naetliing  sa  bauld  as  a  blind  tnaro 
N'aething  to  be  done  in  baste  but  irripping  (lues. 
.\aethin,;  to  do  but  draw  in  your  stool  and  sit  diwn. 
Nunc  are  sue  weel  but  tliey  hope  to  lie  better. 
Nunc  can  plav  the  I'ikjI  sae  weel  as  a  wise  man. 
Need  maks  greed. 

Need  will  gar  an  auld  wife  trot,  and  a  naked  nun  tia 
Ne'er  draw  your  dirk  when  a  <lunt  will  do. 
.Ne'er  fash,  your  lliooin. 
iVe'er  let  on,  but  laugh  in  your  ain  sleeve. 
Ne'er   lip|Kn   owre  mickle  to  a   new  Irii ml  or  an  luli 

enemy. 
No'er  luarry  a  widow  unless  her  first  man  was  haiigei 


PROVERBS   AND   OLD   SAYINGS. 


837 


Pfo'»r  owro  auW  to  learn. 

Ne'er  put  a  sword  in  a  madman's  hand. 

Ne'er  put  the  plough  before  the  owson. 

Ne'er  put  your  hand  farther  out  than  your  sleeve  will 

reach. 
Ne'er  rax  aboon  your  reach. 
Ne'er  sca'd  your  lips  in  ither  folk's  kale. 
IVe'cr  seek  a  wife  till  yc  ken  what  to  do  wi'  her. 
Ne'er  shaw  me  the  meat  but  the  man. 
Ne'er  shaw  your  teeth  unless  ye  can  bite. 
Ne'er  speak  ill  o'  them  wliaso  bread  yo  eat. 
Ne'er  strive  against  tho  stream. 
Ne'er  tak  a  forehainnier  to  break  an  egg. 
Ne'er  toll  your  fao  when  your  foot  sleeps. 
Neither  to  baud  nor  to  bind. 

Neither  mo  sinfu'  as  to  sink  nor  sao  haly  as  to  swim. 
Next  to  nan  wife,  a  Rude  wife  is  the  best. 
Nobility  without  ability  is  like  a  pudding  without  suet. 
0'  a'  sorrow,  a  fu'  sorrow's  the  l)est. 
Owro  braw  a  purse  to  put  a  plack  in. 
Owrc  reckli'ss  may  repent. 
Owrc  sicker,  owre  loose. 
Owre  strong  meat  for  your  weak  stamach. 
Of  a'  (latterors,  self-love  is  the  greatest. 
Of  ae  ill  coiiics  mony. 
Of  ill  debtors  men  get  aiths. 
Onv  thing  fir  you  about  an  honest  man's  house  but  a 

day's  wark. 
Open  confession  is  gude  for  the  soul. 
Our  sins  and  debts  arc  often  niair  than  we  think. 
Out  o'  tiie  peat  pot  into  the  gutter. 
()wre  msnv  grieves  only  hinder  the  wark. 
Pav  him  in  liis  ain  coin. 
Plarks  and  liawhees  grow  pounds. 
I'lay's  good  while  it's  play. 

Plc'ise  your  kimmer,  and  you'll  easily  guide  your  gosaip. 
Plenty  muk-*  diiinty. 
Poor  Iblk's  friends  soon  miskon  them. 
Poverty  is  llie  mother  o'  a'  arts. 
Pride  luid  ^'laoe  ne'er  dwell  in  ac  place. 
Pride  fiMils  line  cauld. 

Pride  ne'er  liMves  its  master  till  he  get  a  fa'. 
Pride  that  dines  wi'  vanity  sups  wi'  contcmpL 
Pro'-i.-iioii  ill  season  makes  a  bien  house. 
Put  a  coward  to  his  metal  and  he'll  fight  tho  dci!. 
Put  on  your  spurs  and  l)e  at  your  sjieed. 
Put  twi  pennies  in  i  jt:i     '  and  they'll  keep  thcgithcr. 
Put  your  ruitcer  in  llio<ire,  and  say  it  was  your  fortune. 
Put  yuur  band  twice  to  your  bonnet  for  anco  to  your 

pouch. 
Quality  witliout  iiuantity  is  little  thought  of. 
tjiioy  calves  an'  d<'ar  veal, 
tiuiek,  foi  you'll  ne'er  be  cleanly. 
yuietiici;s  1 .  best. 

IlalluT  spoil  your  joke  than  tine  your  friend. 
l!aw  duds  iiiak  fat  lads. 
Raw  lenlliei  raxes  wecl. 
lu'okon  up  your  winning  at  your  Ixd-stock. 
Ked  WD./i!  maks  good  spindles, 
licpulati.m  is  often   got  without  merit  and  lost  without 

crime. 
Rich  folk  liao  routh  o'  friends. 
Kich  tnixtiire  maks  gude  mortar. 

Hiclies  are  got  wi'  |)ain,  kejit  wi'  care,  and  tint  wi'  grief. 
Hide  fair  and  jap  nane. 
Kii^ht  wraiigs  nae  man. 
Rob  Hill's  ecmtraet — stark  love  and  kindness. 
I'.oow^  the  fiir  day  at  e'en. 
Hue  and  lliyine  grow  baith  in  ae  garden. 
Rule  youth  werl,  fur  eilil  will  rule  itsel. 
Haut,  quoth  the  soutor,  when  he  had  eaten  a  crw  a'  but 

'.he  tail, 
faw  thin,  shrar  thin. 
H«y  siill  N  \  and  yc'll  ne'or  be  married. 


Scanty  cheeks  niak  a  lang  nou. 

Scart-fhe-cog  wad  sup  mair. 

Send  your  gentle  bluid  to  the  market,  and  see  what  it 

will  buy. 
Servo  yoursel  till  your  bairns  come  of  age.  '    ' 

Set  a  stout  heart  to  a  stey  brae. 
Shame  fa'  them  that  think  shame  to  do  themselves  a 

gude  turn. 
She  brak  her  elbow  at  the  kirk  door. 
She  hauds  up  her  head  like  a  hen  drinking  water. 
She  looks  as  if  butter  wadna  melt  in  her  mouth 
She  looks  like  a  lady  in  a  landward  kirk. 
She  that  gangs  to  the  well  wi'  an  ill  will,  either  the  pig 

breaks  or  the  water  will  spill. 
She'll  keep  her  ain  side  o'  the  house,  and  gang  up  and 

down  yours. 
She'll  wear  like  a  horse-shoe,  aye  the  langer  the  clearer. 
She's  better  than  she's  bonny. 
Show  me  the  man,  and  I'll  show  you  the  law. 
Sic  as  ye  gie,  sic  will  ye  get. 
Silence  grips  the  mouse. 
Slander  leaves  a  sair  behind. 
Smooth  waters  run  deep. 
Soon  eneugh  if  weel  enough. 

Soon  enough  to  cc)  Chuck,  when  it's  out  o'  the  ahelL 
Sorrow  and  ill  weather  come  unsent  for. 
Sorrow  is  soon  eneugh  wlien  it  comes. 
Speak  good  of  pipers,  your  father  was  a  fiddler. 
Spilt  ale  is  waur  than  water. 

Stay  nae' langer  in  a  friend's  house  than  you're  welconut 
Stiilling  hauds  out  storming. 
Tak  a  man  by  his  word  and  a  cow  by  her  horn. 
Tak  the  bit  and  the  buH'et  wi't, 
'J'ak  time  ere  time  bo  tint. 
Tak  wit  wi'  your  ang-.r. 
Tak  your  ain  will,  and  ye'll  no  die  o'  the  pet. 
'I'ak  your  thanks  to  feed  your  cat. 
'J'ak  your  veiitnic,  as  mony  a  gude  ship  has  done. 
That's  Halkerston's  cow,' 
The  blai'k  ox  ne'er  trod  on  his  foot.')' 
The  bock  o'  nuiybcs  is  very  liraid. 
'I'lie  cost  owcrgaiigs  tho  profit. 
The  ilcil  aye  drives  his  hogs  to  an  ill  market 
The  deil  docsna  aye  show  his  cloven  cloots. 
'I'lic  diil  gaes  awa  when  he  finds  the  door  steckit  againiil 

him. 
The  deil's  bairns  have  aye  their  daddy's  luck. 
'I'lie  deil's  live  niidv  to  his  kin. 
'I'll!'  d«'irs  gaiie  owrr  Jock  VVabstcr.t 
The  deil  will  tak  little  eie  he  want  a'. 
'J'be  deil's  aye  busy  wi'  his  ain. 
The  first  fiif  o'  a  I'at  hagnis  is  tho  bauldcsU 
The  foot  at  the  cradle  and  the  hand  at  tlie  reel,  is  a  sign 

that  a  WDinan  means  to  M  wool. 
The  grace  o'  a  gray  bannock 'a  in  the  baking  o't. 
The  head  for  the  washing. 
Tlie  higher  the  hill  the  laigher  the  grass. 
Tlie  hurt  man  writes  wi'  steel  on  marble  stane. 
'I'lie  kins  may  come  in  the  cadger's  gate, 
'i'lie  kirk's  iniekle,  Imt  you  may  say  mass  in  the  end  o't 
The  laird  m  ly  be  laird,  and  yet  need  his  hind's  help. 
The  master's  fiol's  the  best  measure. 
The  o'ercome  only  fashes  I'olk  to  keep. 
There  is  an  act  in  tho   Laird  o'  Cirant's  court,  that  no 

aboon  eleven  speak  at  ancc. 
There  was  a  wile  that  kept  her  supper  for  her  breakfast, 

and  she  was  dead  ere  day. 
There  was   ne'er  a  gude  town  but  there  was  a  dub  itt 

the  end  o't. 
There  was  never  a  silly  Jocky  but  there  was  as  silly  « 

Jenny. 

•  A  siiiry  mill  the  reverse  of'.hi;  real  oecurreneei 
t  llemli  luvi'rf^avu  liim  sorrow. 
)  All  llii  1^9  arc  ijoiic  wroni;. 
4  A  '^ 


n 


8S8 


INFORMATION    FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


Thnrc  wan  noVr  n  thrifty  wifo  wi'  a  ahcet  about  her  head. 

There's  a  ilub  before  every  door. 

There "h  a  tough  «inew  in  an  aiil.d  wife's  heel. 

There's  a  whaiip  i'  tiie  raip.* 

There's  aye  Home  water  where  the  stirkie  drowns. 

I'here's  lirild  iiiicth  an  nuid  man's  beard. 

There's  steel  in  the  needle  point,  though  little  o'L 

There's  the  end  o'  an  auld  sang. 

1'he  si^nple  man's  the  beggar's  brither. 

The  sniitli's  maro  and  the  souter's  wife  arc  aye  the  warst 

shod. 
The  tod  ne'er  sped  Ix'tter  than  when  he  gaed  hisain  errand. 
The  thing  that  iiivt  nu  in  your  gAtr  breaks  na  your  shins. 
The  thrift  o'  you  and  the  woo  o'  a  dog  wud  mak  a  braw 

web. 
1'he  worth  o'  a  tliinit  i»  host  kenned  by  ihe  want  o't. 
The  wjfe'st  aye  welconit-  that  comes  wi'  a  crooked  oxter.f 
They'll  gree  better  when  they  gang  in  by  dillc'ent  kirk 

doors. 
They  taat  board  wi'  cats  mnun  count  upon  scarts. 
They  that  burn  you  for  a  witch  lose  a'  their  coals. 
They  that  nie  you  hnider  you  to  l)Uy. 
They  that  lie  d.iwii  for  love   should  rise  up  for  hunger. 
'J'hey  that  Inve  maist  hpeak  least. 
They  were  scant  o'  bairns  that  brou;;ht  you  up. 
They  are  sad  roMs  Ihat  come  in  wi"  tears. 
Tlwy  hae   need  o'  a  canny  cook  Ihat  hae  but  ae  egg  to 

tlieir  dinner. 
They  may  ken   by  your  Ixsard  'hat  has  been  on  your 

board. 
Th«>f  ne'er    aw  a;reat  daintir  ,  that  think  a  haaijis  a  feast. 
Tiicy  shoiilcl  l^issllle  i;uidw.;i>  that  wad  win  the  umidman. 
They  spiak  o"  my  drinkiiic,  but  ne'er  tliink  o' my  ilroulli. 
They  that  ttet  i  won!  o'  soon  risini;  may  lie  a'  dav. 
Thi'j'  that  see  mhj  a'  day  wiiuia  break  tlie  house  for  you 

at  niiiht. 
Three  can  keep  a  secret  when  twa  are  away. 
Thrift  is  a  ku  le  revenue. 
Time  tint  is  in'cr  to  be  found. 
Time  and  thiiikni;^  lame  the  strongest  grief. 
Time  tries  a'. 
I'ine  heart  and  a's  irane. 
Tine  tlii.iililr.  tine  thrift. 
Tit  for  lal's  lair  play. 

To  him  tliat  wills,  ways  are  seldom  wanting. 
Toom  stalls  mak  bitinir  horses. 
Truth  will  aye  stand  without  a  prop. 
Try  your  frieini  ere  you  need  him. 
'Twa  Words  maun  gang  to  that  bargain. 
Virtue  never  urows  auld. 
Waes  lln'  wile  that  »•  mis  the  tongue,  but  weel's  tlie 

man  lliat  irets  her. 
Want  ri'  wit  i*  waur  llian  want  o'  wealth. 
War  niaks  thieves,  and  |H>ace  hangs  them. 
We  are  aye  In  li-  irii  as  lang  as  we  live. 
We  are  bouml  to  be  bonest  and  no  to  be  rich. 
Wealth  liaK  made  mair  men  covetous  than  covctousness 

has  made  men  wealthy. 
Wealth  maks  wit  waver. 
Weans  maun  c  h  .'p  ere  they  gang. 
We  canna  l-ailh  sun  and  hiaw. 

Wedding  and  ill  winliring  tame  baith  man  ami  beast 
Wed   kens  the   mouse  when  the  cut's  out  o'  Ihe  house. 
Wrel  is  that  weel  does. 

W.''ll  m  vrr  ken  Ihe  worth  o'  wator  till  Ihe  well  ijae  dry. 
We  maun  live  by  lh<'  living  anil  no  by  the  deau. 
Wlia  laii  linud  what  will  be  away. 
Wha  'Mn  Indi)  lni^Ulrk. 
VN'li.i  ran  liel|)  sji  knrss,  quoth  tho  wifo,  when  she  lay  in 

the  guiler. 
Wlia  I'lmeH  iil'ti'niT  and  brings  you  less. 
Wha  daur  bell  the  cat. 


Wha  invited  you  to  the  feast. 

Wha  wad  misca'  a  Gordon  on  the  raws  of  Strathho™ 

What  l)etter'8  the  house  when  the  daw  rises  soon, 

What  may  be  done  at  ony  time  will  be  done  at  n»e  tiimv 

What  put  that  i'  your  head,  Ihat  didna  put  the  sturdy  wi'i 

What's  my  ease  the  day  may  be  yours  tho  morn. 

What's  waur  than  ill  luck. 

What  we  first  learn  we  best  ken. 

What  winna  di  by  mitiht  do  by  llight. 

What  ye  do  when  your  drunk  ye  may  pay  for  when 

your  dry. 
What  ye  want  up  and  down  ye  hae  hither  and  yont 
When  a'  men  speak,  ntie  man  hears. 
When  ae  door  sleeks,  anilher  nne  opens. 
When  friends  meet,  hearts  warm. 
When  he  dies  of  age  ye  may  quake  for  fenr. 
When  ilka  ane  uets  his  ain,  the  thief  will  n^ei  the  widai 
When  my  head's  down  my  house  is  theiked. 
When  petticoats  woo,  breeks  come  speed. 
When  the  barn's  fu'  ye  may  thresh  before  the  door 
When  the  cap's  fu',  carry 't  even. 
When  Ihe  cow's  in  the  clont  she  soon  runs  out. 
When  the  guidman  drinks  to  the  guidwife,  a'  wad  nt 

weel. 
When  the  guidwife  diinks  lo  the     uidmun  a's  weel, 
When  the  heart's  fu'  o'  lust,  Ihe  mmilh's  fu'  o'  leasing, 
When  the  tod  preaches,  tak  tent  o    Ihe  lambs. 
M'hen  the  tod  wins  to  the  wood,  ho  carcsnu  huw  monr 

kei '   at  his  tail. 
WI    n  the  wame's  fu',  the  banes  wad  be  at  rest. 
W!;en  ;he  well's  fu'  it  will  rin  owre. 
When  wino  sinks,  words  swim. 
When  ye're  gaun  an'  <  ..rnin'  the  gale's  no  toora. 
When  ye  are  weel,  baud  yoursel  sae. 
When  ye  win  al  that,  ye  may  lick  ntfa  hot  uirdla. 
When  you're  served,  a'  the  ireese  are  watered. 
V\  lien  drums  beat,  laws  are  dumb. 
Where  ihe  buck's  hound  there  he  maun  blect. 
Wrani;  has  nae  warrant. 
Yi''re  like  auld  maiilens,  ye  look  .sae  hi'^h. 
Ye're  like  gude  niai'l,  ye're  lang  o'  coming. 
Ye're  like  Mncfarlane's  geese,  ye  hae  mair  mind  o'  vojr 

play  than  your  meat. 
Ye're  like  the  chapman,  ye're  aye  to  handsel. 
Ye're  like  the  miller's  dog,  ye  lick  your  lips  ere  the  f  oc» 

be  opened. 
Ye're  like  the  cow's  tail,  ye  grow  backward. 
Ye're  like  Ihe  tod,  ye  urow  gray  befoic  ye  urnw  i>oil«. 
Ye  fund  it  where  the  Hij^hlandnian  find  the  lail'^'. 
Ye  hai   fasled  '.,.iig  and  worried  on  a  midge. 
Ye  hae  gniten  the  chapman's  drowth.* 
Ye  hae  golten  a  raviUcl  ln'sp  o't. 
Ye  hae  ower  foul  feel  to  come  sae  far  hen. 
Ye  hae  put  a  toom  sjiooii  in  my  movilh. 
Ye  Ime  stayed  lang  ami  lirouuht  little  wi'  ye. 
Ye  hae  taen  Ihe  measure  ■>'  his  foot. 
Ye  hae  tint  the  tongue  o'  the  trump. 
Ye'II  get  nae  mitir  o'  the  cat  hut  the  skin. 
Ye  11  h  ;e  baith  your  meat  eml  yonr  mense.| 
Ye'II  sit  till  ye  sweat,  and  work  till  ye  freeze. 
Ye'il  worry  i'  the  hand,  like  M'Kwan's  call". 
Ye  look  as  sharp  as  u  IjOelmbar  a  e  new  come  fraf  Uw 

;;rin(Islane. 
Ye  look  like  I.r!-rne-be. 
I  Yelping  curs  will  raise  mastifTs, 
i  Ye  maun  have  it  simmered  r.nii  wintered. 
I  Ye're  a  gude  seeker,  but  in  ill  finder. 
I  ^'e're  best  when  ye're  sleeping. 
^'e're   bonny  enouuh  to  thcin   that  U'e  ye,  and  own 

bonny  to  them  that  lo'e  ye  and  cam  a  Kct  ye 
Ye're  busy  si'ckiiig  the  thing  Ihat's  no  Iml. 


•  Suim-ih.iij;  Hiie^s. 

t  lifMiKiux  MuiK-ihing  undcrlier  brm. 


•  ll""(?er. 

t  Oilir  a  pcftiii  H  Ihini,'.  mill  iis  he  will  nut  tske  il,  >oil  wa 
at  Icual  aave  Uie  cikJ.i  oi'  liuving  iiiuiic  llie  ulRr. 


PROVKRBS  AND   OLD   SAYINGS. 


899 


Ye're  come  o'  Muiil,  nnd  sac'a  a  pudding 

i'er  oen'tt  ycr  merchant. 

i'e're  *b8red  for  the  day  yc  never  saw. 

Yn're  gear  will  ne'er  owergang  ye. 

V'e're  never  pleased,  fu'  nor  fastingf. 

Ye're  of  sae  tnony  ininds,  ye'll  never  bo  married. 

Ve're  sair  fashed  haudins  nacthing  thcgither. 

Yc're  teeth's  langer  tlian  ycr  beard. 

yo  Hhnpo  shoon  l)y  ynur  ain  shachled  feet 

Ye  wad  lie  a  gudo  piper's  dog,  for  Hineiling  out  bridals. 

Ye  wad  lie  Rude  to  fetch  the  doil  a  drink. 

Ye  wanta  where  a  1  less: n;,'  may  light. 

Yc  are  a  sweet  nut,  it  ye  were  wccl  cracked. 

Young  fulk  mny  ^Vv^,  and  uuld  folk  maun  die. 

Yo'.ir  head  will  never  fill  your  father's  bonnet. 

You.-  purse  was  steekit  when  that  was  paid  for. 

Ycur  tongue  rins  aye  before  your  wit 


LATIN  PROVTIRBS  AND  PHRASKS. 

Ab  initio.     From  the  lieginning. 

Ab  uno  disce  omnes.     From  a  single  instance  you  may 

infer  the  whole. 
Ad  captiindum  viilijus.     To  catch  the  rabble. 
AJ  liiiem  esto  fiilelis.     Be  faithful  to  tlie  end. 
Ad  Gr.Tcas  kalendas.     Never. 
A(!  infinitum.     To  infioity. 
A  fortiori      With  stronger  reason. 
Alios.     Otlicrwise  ;  as,  .\llan  alias  Thompson. 
Alilii.     Elsewhere. 
Alma  mater.     A  bcnic[n  mother;  applied  generally  to 

lilt!  university. 
A  raensa  et  thoro.     Divorced  from  bed  and  board. 
Amor  patrlf .     The  love  of  our  country. 
Aiiimus  cjnacius  so  remordet     A  guilty  mind  punishes 

Itself 
Anno  Jomini  (A.n.).     In  the  year  of  our  Lord. 
Anno  Miiuili  (*•>'•)•     In  the  year  of  the  world. 
A  posteriori.     Fpmi  the  efTeet  to  the  cause. 
A  priori.     Fmi'.  the  cause  to  tde  ellect 
Arbiter  elcij^iiitiaiuni.     Master  of  the  ceremonies. 
.■\ri,'umonlum  ad  luininirin.     .\n  argument  to  the  man. 
Ars  est  cclare  artein.     The  perfection  of  art  is  to  conceal 

art. 
A  uli  alteran  partem.     Hear  tlie  other  party. 
Audito  multa,  si.-d  Impiere  pauca.     Hear  much,  but  say 

lilllc. 
Auri  sacra  fames.     The  nccurscd  appetite  for  t^old. 
Ai'l  ('.'Bsar  aut  nullus.     Ho  will  cither  l>c  Ca;sar  or  no- 
hod  y. 
Pasis  virimis  conslanlm.     Constancy  is  the  foundation 

of  virtue. 
Bcatus  ille  qui  procul  nei,'otii8.     Blessed  are  they  who 

retire  from  toil. 
Bona  fide.     In  irood  faith;  in  reality. 
Drutum  fuhuen.     A  harmless  thunderbolt. 
Cacoethes.   An  evil  custom.  Thus,  MciH'thes  loquendi — 

Bcritendi.     A  rage  fur  talking — scritibling. 
Causus  Ivlli.     The  cause  or  nason  for  war. 
(I;i;iut  mortuum,     The  worthless  remains. 
("oile  Deo.     Huhniil  to  (Joil. 
C'-de  ma'^nis.     {livo  way  to  the  powerful. 
('filant  arma  tonai.     Let  arms  yield  to  eloquence, 
tlcrtum  pete  fiiiem.     .\im  at  a  sure  end. 
(loinnuuii.i  proprie  dicere.     To  express  common  things 

with  propriety. 
CoiniMw  nicnlis.     In  a  state  of  sane  mind. 
Concordia  res  parva;  cre.-^cunt.     Small  things  increase  by 

union, 
i-onfide  recto  !i);enB.     Fear  not  while  acting  justly. 
Contra  lioiios  mores.      .Airainst  i;oim1  morals. 
Corjius  dclii:ti.     Tlic  bu^lj-  tji  Ijic  crime. 


i 


Credat  Judicua  apella.    Let  the  circumcised  Jew  belieM  f 

that. 
Cui  bond     Towhatgoodi 
Curronte  calamo.     With  a  running  pen. 
Data.     Things  given  or  granted. 
De  facto — de  jure.     From  the  fact — from  the  law. 
Delcctando  pariterque  monondo.     By  imparting  at  onc6 

pleasure  and  mstruction. 
Dclenda  est  Cartliai^o.     Carthage   must  be  destroyed. 

(The  words  of  Cato.) 
De  mortuis  nil  nisi  bonum.     Lot  nothing  !«  said  of  tLa 

dead  but  what  is  favourable. 
Deo  faventc — juvante — volente.     With  God's  favour- 
help — will. 
Desideratum.     The  thinf,  desired. 
Desipere  in  loco      To  play  the  fool  at  the  right  time. 
Desunt  cnjlcra.     The  remainder  is  wanting. 
Dcum  cole,  regem  scrva.     Worship  God,  serve  the  king 
Deus  protector  nocter.     God  is  our  protector. 
Diligc  amieos.     Lovo  your  friends. 
Divide  ct  impcra.     Divide  and  govern. 
Dulcc  et  decorum  est  pro  pafria   mori.     It  is  sweet  and 

glorious  to  dio  for  one's  country. 
Dum  vivimus  vivumus.     Let  us  live  while  we  live. 
Est  modus  in  rebus.     There  is  a  medium  in  all  tbinga. 
Esto  perpetua.     Bo  thou  perpetual. 
Esto  quod  vidcris.     Bo  what  you  .seem  to  be. 
Ex  cathedra.     From  the  chair  ;  authoritatively. 
Exempli  gratia  (E.  g.  and  Ex.  gr.)     By  the  way  of  ex- 

nmi)le. 
Ex  nihilo  nihil  fit.     Nothing  produces  nothing. 
Ex  officio.     By  virtue  of  his  office. 
Ex  parte.     On  one  part. 
Ex  pede  Hercidem.     Judge  of  the  size  ot  the  statue  of 

Hercules  by  the  foot. 
Experto  credo.     Believe  an  experienced  man. 
Extempore.     Without  premeditation. 
Fac  simile.     Do  the  like :  an  engraved  resemblance  o/ 

handwriting. 
Fnma  semper  virct.     A  good  name  will  shine  for  evei 
Familias  firmat  pietas.     Devotion  strenufthens  faniilieil. 
Fas  est  et  ab  lioste  doceri.     It  is  allowable  to  derive  ih 

struction  even  from  an  enemy. 
Felo  de  sc.     A  suicide. 
Fiat  justitia,  ruat  cadum.     Let  justice  be  done,  thouj^ 

the  heavens  sliould  fall. 
Fortuua  favet  forlihus.     Fortune  favours  the  bold. 
Frngos  consumere  nati.     Men  born  only  to  conaiuw  txxL 
Haud  passihus  a'quis.     With  unetjual  step,j. 
lliiic  illa>  lachryiniB.     Hence  proceed  these  tears. 
Id  est  (i.  e.)     That  is. 

Id  gen^s  omnc.     All  persons  of  that  description. 
Imprimatur.     Let  it  be  printed. 
Impromptu.     Without  study. 
In  forma  pauperis.     In  the  form  of  a  poor  man. 
In  propria  persona.     In  person. 
In  re.     In  the  matter  of. 
Ill  terrorem.     In  terror. 
In  transitu.     In  passing. 
Ipse  dixit.     He  hiin.self  said  it :  dogmatism. 
Judex  damnatur  cum  nocens  ahsolvitur.     Guilt  attachet 

to  a  judge  when  the  guilty  are  sullered  to  escape. 
Jure  divino — luimaiui.     By  divine — by  human  law. 
Labor  omnia  vincit.     Labour  coiuiuers  every  thing. 
Lapsus  liiiijuaj.     .\  slip  of  the  toni^ue. 
Lex  talionis.     The  law  of  retaliation. 
Locum  teiiens.     A  deputy  or  substitute. 
Mnuna  est  Veritas,  et  prnivalcbit.     The  truth  is  powerful, 

and  will  iillimately  prevail. 
Matenem  supeiahat  opus.     The  workmanship  surpassed 

the  materials. 
Medio  tutissiinus  ibis.  A  medium  cour.se  will  be  the  sateiti 
Memcnti>  mori.     Kemember  death. 
.Mens  >i'hi  f.ijn>ciiX  recti.     A  iiiiud  conecious  of  rectitude 


MO 


INFORMA'nON  FOR  THE  PKOPLE. 


Mirabilr  ilictu.     Wonderful  to  (elL^  f  ;*nt'.'''*'  S  '  • 

Miiltum  in  parvo.     Much  in  little. 
MntntiR  iniitiindiH.     After  making  th«  neceMtry  changei. 
NeceMitaa  non  habet  leges.     Necesoity  has  no  law. 

Nem.  con.     An   abbreviation   of  »iem»ti«  contradlcente. 
Without  dissent  or  opposition.  • 

Ne  plus  ultra.     Nothing  beyond — the  utmost  point 

Ni>  quid  nimis.    Too  much  of  one  thing  is  good  tor  no- 
thing. 

Ne  sutor  ultra  oropidom.     Lot  not  the  shoemaker  go  be- 
yond his  la.st. 

Nixi  Doiuinns  frustm.     Unless  the  Lord  assist  you,  all 
your  pfTorts  arc  in  vain. 

Noscitu'  ex  sociis.     Ho  is  known  by  his  companions. 

Nota  Bene  (N.  B.)     Mark  well.      . 

Obiter  dictum.     A  thins  ""'''  ^y  the  way  or  in  passing. 

Onus  proliandi.     The  weight  of  pioof ;  ihe  burden  of 
proving. 

O  si  sic  omnit!     Oh  that  he  had  always  done,  or  spoken 
thus ! 

O  tompora,  O  mores !     Oh  the  times,  oh  the  manners  ! 

Otiuni  cum  dii^nitate.     Ease  with  dii^nity. 

Pal  ma  in  (]ui  meruit  I'erat     Let  him  who  has  won  bear 
the  pnlra. 

Pari  passu.     By  a  similar  gradation. 

P".r  nobile  fratruiii.     A  noble  iwir  of  brothers. 

Piirtio»ps  crimi'  is.     An  accomplice. 

Piissim.     Evirywhere. 

Per  fas  ot  nefus.     Through  rij^bt  and  wrong. 

Per  se.     By  itself. 

Piwta  noscitur  non  fit.    Nature,  not  study,  must  form  a 
port. 

Primi  facie.     On  the  first  view,  or  appearance. 

PrimiB  via).     The   first  passages  :  the  upper  part  of  the 
intestinal  canal. 

Primum  mobile.     The  main  spring  ;  the  first  impulse. 

Principiis  obsta.     Oppose  the  first  appearaiicc  of  evil. 

Pro  aris  ct  focis.     For  our  altars  and  firesi  Jea. 

Pro  bono  publico.     For  the  public  good. 

Pro  et  con.     For  and  aijainst. 

Pro  re  nata.     For  a  sjieeial  business. 

Pro  tempore.     For  the  time. 

^uiJ  nunc '     ^Vhat  now  ? — applied  to  a  news-hunter. 


Quid  pro  quo.     What  for  what ;  tit  for  tat  '°  '*'>' , 

Quoad  hoc.     To  this  extent. 

Quod  orat  doiaonstrandum.     Which  was  meant  to  m 

shown. 
Kara  avis  in  terris,  nigroque  simillima  cygno.    A  rara 

bird  in  the  earth — very  like  a  black  swan. 
Reductio  ad  absurdura.     A  reducing  to  an  absurdity. 
Re  infecta.     Without  attaining  his  end. 
Requioscat  in  pace.     May  he  rest  in  peace. 
Res  angnsta  donii.     Narrow  circumstahces  at  home 
Respice  flnom.     Look  to  the  end. 
Sbrintim.     In  order.  , 

Sic  itur  ad  astra.     Such  is  the  way  to  iramortality. ' 
Sic  passim.     So  everywhere. 
Sic  transit  "loria  mundi.    Thus  the  glory  of  the  world 

passes  away. 
Sine  die.     To  an  indefinite  time.         .  '  -    .i,'' 

Sine  qua  non.     An  indispensable  condition. 
Status  quo  ante  bellum.     The  state  in  which  both  pa*. 

tics  were  l)efore  the  war. 
Suaviter  in  modo,  fortitei  in  re.    Gentle  in  the  luanntr, 

but  vigorous  in  the  de<;d. 
Sub  silcntio.     In  silence. 
Summum  bonum.     I'he  chief  good. 
Suum  cuiquo.     Let  every  man  have  his  own. 
Tabula  rasa.     A  smoothed  tablet, 
Torai)ora  mutantur,  et  nos  mutauiur  in  illis.    The  tiniM 

change,  and  we  change  with  them. 
Toties  quoties,     .\s  often  as. 
Ubi  supra.     Where  above  mentioned. 
Vade  mecum.     Go  with  me :    a   constant  companiMi> 

(Usually  applied  to  a  pocket-book.) 
Veluti  in  speculum.     As  if  in  a  mirror, 
Veni,  vidi,  vici.     I  came,  I  sow,  I  conquered. 
Vis  inertias.     Force  or  proi)crty  of  inanimate  matter. 
Versus  (v.)     Against 

Vice  versa.     The  terms  or  cases  being  changed. 
Vi  et  armis.     By  main  force. 
Viva  voce.     By  or  with  the  living  or  loud  voice. 
Viz.  (videlicet.)     Namely. 
Vox  ct  [)raterea  nihil.     .\  voice  and  nothing  more. 
Vox  populi.  vox  Dei.    The  voice  of  the  people  is  tlw 

voice  of  God. 


END  OP  THE  FIRST  VOLUXIB. 


lat        ■  ■■  '•-;, 

IS  mesnt  to  m 

cygno.    A  ran 

an. 

n  absurdity. 

:e. 

es  at  home 

I 
iniortality. 

ry  of  the  worW 

)n. 

^hith  both  path 

in  the  manner, 

>wn. 

if».    The  timM 

r 

nt  companion 

reil. 

late  .-natter. 

anged, 


ng  more, 
people  ii  tiM 


